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BIOLOQT  LIBS. 


Y^ 

LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OP 
V      CAIIFORNIA/ 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


NINTH    EDITION 


THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BEITANNICA 


OF 


ARTS,   SCIENCES,   AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE 


NINTH    EDITION 


VOLUME    XX 


NEW    YORK:    CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

MDCCCLXXXVI 

[  All  Eights  reserved.  ] 


Add'l 


GIFT 


BIOLOGY 
UBRARV 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA. 


PKU-PEU 


PRUDENTIUS,  ATJRELIUS  CLEMENS,  a  Christian  verse- 
writer,  apparently  a  native  of  Spain,  who  flourished 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  4th  century  and  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  5th.  According  to  the  meagre  and  vague  auto- 
biographical notices  given  by  himself  in  the  preface  to  his 
poems  he  was  born  in  the  year  348,  and,  after  receiving  a 
liberal  education,  practised  at  the  bar  and  subsequently 
held  judicial  office  in  two  important  cities.  At  the  time 
of  the  publication  of  his  poems  in  405  he  held  from  the 
emperor  a  high  military  appointment  at  court.  Of  his 
subsequent  history  nothing  is  known. 

His  extant  works,  besides  the  preface  already  referred  to  and  an 
epilogue,  are  the  following: — (1)  Cathemerinon  Liber,  a  series  of 
twelve  hymns  (KaOrj/j-epiViov  vfu>un>)  in  various  metres  to  be  repeated 
or  sung  at  particular  periods  of  the  day  or  seasons  of  the  year  ;  (2) 
Apotheosis,  a  poem  of  1085  hexameter  verses  on  the  divinity  of 
Christ ;  (3)  Hnmartigenia  (967  hexameter  verses)  on  the  origin  of 
evil  and  sin  ;  (4)  Psychomachin,  or  the  conflict  between  virtue  and 
vice  for  the  soul  (915  hexameter  verses)  ;  (5)  Contra  Symmachum, 
two  books,  of  658  and  1131  hexameter  verses  respectively,  directed 
against  the  petition  of  Symmachus  to  the  emperor  for  the  restora- 
tion of  the  altar  and  statue  of  Victory  which  Gratian  had  cast 
down  ;  (6)  Peristephanon  Liber,  fourteen  poems  in  various  metres, 
in  honour  of  certain  saints  who  had  won  the  crown  of  martyrdom 
(hence  the  name,  irepl  <jTt<$>y.vuv},—  these,  which  are  often  vigorous 
and  graphic,  are  generally  considered  to  show  Prudentius  at  his 
best ;  (7)  Diptychon  or  Dittochseon,  a  series  of  forty-nine  hexameter 
tetrastichs  on  various  events  and  characters  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
The  editio  princeps  appeared  at  Deventer  in  1472  ;  among  modern 
editions  may  be  named  those  of  Faustus  Arevalus  (2  vols.,  Rome, 
1788-89),  Obbarius  (Tubingen,  1845),  and  Dressel  (Leipsic,  1860). 

PRUD'HON,  PIERRE  (1758-1823),  French  painter,  born 
at  Cluny  on  the  4th  of  April  1758,  was  the  thfrd  son  of  a 
mason.  The  monks  of  the  abbey  undertook  his  education. 
The  paintings  which  decorated  the  monastery  excited  his 
emulation,  and  by  the  aid  of  Moreau,  bishop  of  Macon,  he 
was  placed  with  Devosges,  director  of  the  art  school  at 
Dijon.  In  1778  Prud'hon  went  to  Paris  armed  with  a 
letter  to  Wille,  the  celebrated  engraver,  and  three  years 
later  he  obtained  the  triennial  prize  of  the  states  of 
Burgundy,  which  enabled  him  to  go  to  Rome,  where  he 
became  intimate  with  Canova.  He  returned  to  Paris  in 
1787,  and  led  for  some  time  a  precarious  existence,  paint- 
ing portraits  and  making  designs  for  booksellers.  The 
illustrations  which  he  executed  for  the  Daphnis  and  CMoe 
published  by  Didot  brought  him  into  notice,  and  his 
reputation  was  extended  by  the  success  of  his  decorations 

108 


in  the  Hotel  de  Landry  (now  Rothschild),  his  ceiling  paint- 
ing of  Truth  and  Wisdom  for  Versailles  (Louvre),  and  of 
Diana  and  Jupiter  for  the  Gallery  of  Antiquities  in  the 
Louvre.  In  1808  he  exhibited  Crime  pursued -by  Venge- 
ance and  Justice  (Louvre,  engraved  by  Royer),  which  had 
been  commissioned  for  the  assize  courts,  and  Psyche  carried 
off  by  Zephyrs  (engraved  by  Massard).  These  two  remark- 
able compositions  brought  Prud'hon  the  Legion  of  Honour ; 
his  merit  was  widely  recognized  ;  he  received  innumerable 
orders,  and  in  1816  entered  the  Institute.  Easy  as  to 
fortune,  and  consoled  for  the  misery  of  his  marriage  by 
the  devoted  care  of  his  excellent  and  charming  pupil, 
Mademoiselle  Mayer,  Prud'hon's  situation  seemed  enviable ; 
but  Mademoiselle  Mayer's  tragical  suicide  on  26th  May 
1821  brought  ruin  to  his  home,  and  two  years  later  (16th 
February  1823)  Prud'hon  followed  her  to  the  grave.  The 
classic  revival  which  set  in  towards  the  close  of  the  18th 
century,  and  of  which  Louis  David  was  the  academic  chief, 
found  in  Prud'hon  an  interpreter  whose  gifts  of  grace  and 
naivete  tempered  by  seriousness  atoned  by  the  personal 
charm  which  they  imparted  to  all  he  did  for  the  want  of 
severity  and  correctness  in  his  execution.  Mademoiselle 
Mayer  (1778-1821)  was  his  ablest  pupil.  Her  Aban- 
doned Mother  and  Happy  Mother  are  in  the  Louvre. 

Voiart,  Notice  historique  de  la  vie  et  ceuvres  de  P.  Prud'hon ; 
Arch,  de  Tart  franqais  ;  Qu.  de  Quincy,  Discours  prononce  sur  la 
tombe  de  Prud'hon,  Fev.  1823 ;  Eugene  Delacroix,  Rev.  des  Deux 
Mondcs,  1846  ;  Charles  Blanc,  Hist,  des  peintrcs  franqais. 

PRUSSIA  (Ger.,  Preussen  •  Lat.,  £orussia),  a  kingdom  Plate  I. 
of  northern  Europe  and  by  far  the  most  important  mem- 
ber of  the  German  empire,  occupies  almost  the  whole  of 
northern  Germany,  between  5°  52'  and  22°  53'  E.  long, 
and  49°  7'  and  55°  53'  N.  lat.  It  now  forms  a  tolerably 
compact  mass  of  territory,  with  its  longest  axis  from  south- 
west to  north-east ;  but  within  the  limits  just  indicated  lie 
the  "enclaves"  Oldenburg,  Mecklenburg,  Brunswick,  and 
other  small  German  states,  while  beyond  them  it  possesses 
Hohenzollern,  in  the  south  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  other 
"  exclaves  "  of  minor  importance.  On  the  N.  Prussia  is 
bounded  by  the  North  Sea,  Denmark,  and  the  Baltic ;  on 
the  E.  by  Russia  and  Poland;  on  the  S.  by  Austrian 
Silesia,  Moravia,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  the  Thuringian  states, 
Bavaria,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  and 
Lorraine ;  and  on  the  W.  by  Luxemburg,  Belgium,  and 

XX.  —  i 


PRUSSIA 


HISTORY. 


the  Netherlands.  With  the  exception  of  the  sea  on  the 
north  and  the  mountain -barrier  on  the  south-east,  the 
frontiers  are  political  rather  than  geographical,  a  fact  that 
has  always  been  characteristic  of  Prussia's  limits  and  that 
has  had  considerable  influence  in  determining  its  history. 
The  Prussian  monarchy,  with  an  area  of  134,490  square 
miles,  comprises  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  entire  extent  of 
the  German  empire.  Its  kernel  is  the  Mark  of  Branden- 
burg, round  which  the  rest  of  the  state  has  been  built  up 
gradually,  not  without  costly  and  exhausting  wars.  The 
territory  ruled  over  by  the  first  Hohenzollern  elector 
(1415-40)  did  not  exceed  11,400  square  miles,  an  area 
that  had  been  quadrupled  before  the  death  of  the  first  king 
in  1713.  Frederick  the  Great  left  behind  him  a  realm  of 
75,000  square  miles,  and  the  following  two  monarchs,  by 
their  Polish  and  Westphalian  acquisitions,  brought  it  to  a 
size  not  far  short  of  its  present  extent  (122,000  square 
miles  in  1803).  After  the  disastrous  war  of  1806  Prussia 
shrank  to  something  smaller  than  the  kingdom  of  Frederick 
the  Great  (61,000  square  miles),  and  the  readjustment 
of  Europe  in  1815  still  left  it  short  by  14,000  square 
miles  of  its  extent  in  1803.  Fully  one-fifth  of  its  present 
area  is  due  to  the  war  of  1866,  which  added  Hanover, 
Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-Nassau,  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  the 
city  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main  to  the  Prussian  dominions. 

HISTORY. 

The  claims  which  Prussian  history  makes  upon  our 
attention  are  based  neither  upon  venerable  antiquity  nor 
upon  uniformity  of  origin.  The  territorial  and  political 
development  of  the  country  has  taken  place  wholly  within 
the  last  thousand  years ;  and  the  materials  out  of  which  it 
has  been  built  up — marquisates  and  duchies,  ecclesiastical 
principalities  and  free  imperial  cities — are  of  the  most 
heterogeneous  description.  The  history  of  Prussia  acquires 
its  primary  significance  from  the  fact  that  this  state  was 
the  instrument  by  which  the  political  regeneration  of 
Germany  was  ultimately  effected  from  within,  and  the 
unity  and  coherence  of  the  narrative  are  best  observed 
when  we  consider  it  as  a  record  of  the  training  that  fitted 
the  country  for  this  task.  This  role  was  forced  upon 
Prussia  rather  by  the  exigencies  of  its  geographical  position 
than  by  its  title  to  be  racially  the  most  representative 
German  state.  The  people  who  have  established  the  power 
of  Germany  cannot  rank  in  purity  of  Teutonic  blood  with 
the  inhabitants  of  the  central,  western,  and  southern  parts 
of  the  empire.  The  conquest  of  the  Slavonic  regions  that 
form  so  great  a  part  of  modern  Prussia  did  not  occur 
without  a  considerable  intermingling  of  race,  and  Prussia 
may  perhaps  be  added  to  the  list  of  great  nations  that 
seem  to  owe  their  pre-eminence  to  the  happy  blending  of 
their  composite  parts.  It  is  perhaps  also  worthy  of  remark 
that  this  state,  like  its  great  rival,  was  developed  from 
a  marchland  of  the  German  empire, — Prussia  arising  from 
the  North  Mark  erected  against  the  Wends,  and  Austria 
from  the  East  Mark  erected  against  the  Hungarians. 

In  tracing  the  early  development  of  Prussia  three  main 
currents  have  to  be  noticed,  even  in  a  short  sketch  like  the 
present,  which  do  not  completely  unite  until  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century;  indeed  many  writers  begin  the  history 
of  modern  Prussia  with  the  accession  of  the  Great  Elector 
in  1640.  We  have  (1)  the  history  of  the  Mark  of  Bran- 
denburg, the  true  political  kernel  of  the  modern  state; 

(2)  the  history  of  the  district  of   Preussen  or  Prussia, 
which  gave  name  and  regal  title  to  the  monarchy;  and 

(3)  the  history  of  the  family  of  Hohenzollern,  from  which 
sprang  the  line  of  vigorous  rulers  who  practically  deter- 
mined the  fortunes  of  the  country. 

Mark  of  Brandenburg. — Whether  Teutons  or  Slavs  were 
the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  district  extending  from  the 


Elbe  on  the  west  to  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula  on  the  east 
is  a  question  mainly  of  antiquarian  interest  and  one  upon 
which  authorities  are  not  wholly  agreed.  In  the  open- 
ing centuries  of  the  Christian  era  we  find  it  occupied  by 
Slavonic  tribes,  whose  boundaries  reach  even  to  the  west 
of  the  Elbe,  and  the  conquest  and  absorption  of  these  by 
the  growing  German  power  form  the  subject  of  the  early 
history  of  Brandenburg.  Hand  in  hand  with  the  territorial 
extension  of  the  Germans  went  the  spread  of  Christianity, 
which,  indeed,  often  preceded  the  arms  of  the  conquering 
race.  The  Slavs  to  the  east  of  the  Elbe  were  left  un- 
molested down  to  the  foundation  of  the  German  monarchy, 
established  by  the  successors  of  Charlemagne  about  the 
middle  of  the  9th  century.  Then  ensued  the  period  of 
formation  of  the  German  "marks"  or  marches,  which  served 
at  once  as  bulwarks  against  the  encroachments  of  external 
enemies  and  as  nuclei  of  further  conquest.  The  North  Estab- 
Mark  of  Saxony,  corresponding  roughly  to  the  northern  lishment 
part  of  the  present  province  of  Saxony,  to  the  west  of  the  °f  ^ 
Elbe,  was  established  by  the  emperor  Henry  I.  about  the  Mart, 
year  930,  and  formed  the  beginning  of  the  Prussian  state. 
The  same  energetic  monarch  extended  his  career  of  con- 
quest considerably  to  the  east  of  the  Elbe,  obtaining  more 
or  less  firm  possession  of  Priegnitz,  Ruppin,  and  the  district 
round  the  sources  of  the  Havel,  and  even  carried  his 
arms  to  the  banks  of  the  Oder.  His  son  Otho  I.  (936- 
973)  followed  in  his  father's  footsteps  and  founded  the 
bishoprics  of  Havelberg  and  Brandenburg,  the  latter  taking 
its  name  from  the  important  Wendish  fortress  of  Bran- 
nibor.  Towards  the  end  of  the  10th  century,  however, 
the  Wendish  flood  again  swept  over  the  whole  territory 
to  the  east  of  the  Elbe,  and  the  Germans  were  confined  to 
the  original  limits  of  the  North  Mark.  Christianity  was 
rooted  out  and  the  bishop  of  Brandenburg  reduced  to  an 
episcopus  in  partibm.  The  history  of  the  next  century  and 
a  half  is  simply  a  record  of  a  series  of  desultory  struggles 
between  the  margraves  of  the  North  Mark  and  the  encom- 
passing Wends,  in  which  the  Germans  did  no  more  than 
hold  their  own  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe. 

Things  begin  to  grow  a  little  clearer  in  1134,  when  the  Albert 
emperor  Lothair  rewarded  the  services  of  Albert  the  the  Bear 
Bear,  a  member  of  the  house  of  Anhalt  and  one  of  the 
most  powerful  princes  of  the  empire,  by  investing  him 
with  the  North  Mark.  Albert  seems  to  have  been  a  man 
of  great  vigour  and  considerable  administrative  talent, 
and  by  a  mixture  of  hard  fighting  and  skilful  policy  he  ex- 
tended his  power  over  the  long-lost  territories  of  Priegnitz, 
Ruppin,  the  Havelland,  and  the  Zauche.  He  also  shifted 
the  centre  of  power  to  the  marshy  district  last-mentioned 
and  changed  his  title  to  margrave  of  Brandenburg.  The 
North  Mark  henceforth  began  to  be  known  as  the  Altmark, 
or  Old  Mark,  while  the  territory  round  Brandenburg 
was  for  a  short  time  called  the  New  Mark,  but  more  per- 
manently the  Mittelmark,  or  Middle  Mark.  The  soil  of 
Albert's  new  possessions  was  for  the  most  part  poor  and 
unpromising,  but  he  peopled  it  with  industrious  colonists 
from  Holland  and  elsewhere,  and  began  that  system  of 
painstaking  husbandry  and  drainage  which  has  gradually 
converted  the  sandy  plains  and  marshes  of  Brandenburg 
into  agricultural  land  of  comparative  fertility.  The  clergy 
were  among  his  most  able  assistants  in  reclaiming  waste 
land  and  spreading  cultivation,  and  through  them  Christ- 
ianity was  firmly  established  among  the  conquered  and 
Germanized  Slavs.  Albert's  descendants,  generally  known  Ascani 
as  the  Ascanian  line  from  the  Latinized  form  of  the  name  >ine- 
of  their  ancestral  castle  of  Aschersleben,  ruled  in  Branden- 
burg for  nearly  two  hundred  years  ;  but  none  of  them  seem 
to  have  been  on  a  par  with  him  in  energy  or  ability.  On 
the  whole,  however,  they  were  able  to  continue  in  the  course 
marked  out  by  him,  and,  in  spite  of  the  pernicious  practice 


VOL . XX 


PRUSSIA 


PLATE   1 


KIWCHDOM  OJF  PRUSSIA 

I8f6,  **»»*»< 


rNC'r;;iOP-4D!A  BRITANNICA.  NINTH 


HISTORY.] 


PRUSSIA 


3 


of  dividing  the  territory  among  the  various  scions  of  the 
reigning  house,  the  Mark  grew  steadily  in  size  and  import- 
ance. Before  the  end  of  the  1 2th  century  the  margrave  was 
created  arch-chamberlain  of  the  German  empire,  an  office 
that  eventually  brought  in  its  train  the  privilege  of  belong- 
ing to  the  electoral  college.  Berlin  became  a  fortified  post 
of  the  margraves  in  1 240  and  soon  began  to  take  the  place 
of  Brandenburg  as  the  political  centre  of  the  margraviate. 
Under  Waldemar,  who  succeeded  in  1309,  the  scattered 
possessions  of  the  house  were  again  gathered  into  one  hand. 
His  sway  extended  over  the  Altmark ;  Priegnitz,  or  the 
Vormark ;  the  Middle  Mark,  now  extending  to  the  Oder ; 
the  lands  of  Krpssen  and  Sternberg  beyond  the  Oder; 
the  Ukermark,  to  the  north  ;  Upper  and  Lower  Lusatia  ; 
and  part  of  Pomerania,  with  a  feudal  superiority  over  the 
rest.  No  other  German  prince  of  the  time  had  a  more  ex- 
tensive territory  or  one  less  exposed  to  imperial  interference. 
With  Waldemar's  death  in  1319  the  Ascanian  line  be- 
came extinct  and  a  period  of  anarchy  began,  which  lasted 
for  a  century  and  brought  the  once  flourishing  country 
to  the  verge  of  annihilation.  Its  neighbours  took  advan- 
tage of  its  masterless  condition  to  help  themselves  to  the 
outlying  portions  of  its  territory,  and  its  resources  were 
further  wasted  by  intestine  conflicts.  In  1320  the  emperor 
Bavarian  Louis  the  Bavarian  took  possession  of  the  Mark  as  a  lapsed 
mar~  fief,  and  conferred  it  upon  his  son  Louis,  at  that  time  a 
ves'  mere  child.  But  this  connexion  with  the  imperial  house 
proved  more  of  a  curse  than  of  a  blessing :  the  younger 
Louis  turned  out  a  very  incompetent  ruler,  and  Branden- 
burg became  involved  in  the  evils  brought  upon  the 
Bavarian  house  by  its  conflict  with  the  pope.  To  crown 
all,  a  pretender  to  the  name  of  Waldemar  appeared,  whose 
claims  to  Brandenburg  were  supported  by  the  new  emperor, 
Charles  IV. ;  and  in  1351  Louis,  wearied  of  his  profitless 
sovereignty,  resigned  the  margraviate  to  his  brothers, 
Louis  the  Roman  and  Otho.  The  first  of  these  died  in 
1365,  and  Otho  soon  became  embroiled  with  Charles  IV. 
But  he  was  no  match  for  the  astute  emperor,  who  in- 
vaded the  Mark,  and  finally  compelled  the  margrave  to 
resign  his  territory  for  a  sum  of  ready  money  and  the 
Luxem-  promise  of  an  annuity.  The  ambition  of  Charles  was 
burg  directed  towards  the  establishment  of  a  great  east  German 
monarchy,  embracing  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  Lusatia, 
and  Brandenburg,  and  he  had  the  sagacity  to  recognize 
the  commercial  importance  of  the  last-named  as  offering 
an  outlet  by  the  Baltic  Sea.  Charles,  however,  died  in 
1378,  and  with  him  perished  his  far-reaching  plans.  He 
was  succeeded  in  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg — for  as 
such  it  had  been  formally  recognized  in  the  Golden  Bull 
of  1356 — by  his  second  son  Sigismund.  This  prince  was 
too  greatly  hampered  by  his  other  schemes  to  bestow  much 
attention  on  Brandenburg,  and  in  1388  his  pecuniary 
embarrassments  were  so  great  that  he  gave  the  electorate 
in  pawn  to  his  cousin  Jobst  or  Jodocus  of  Moravia.  The 
unfortunate  country  seemed  now  to  have  reached  the  lowest 
point  consistent  with  its  further  independent  existence. 
Jobst  looked  upon  it  merely  as  a  source  of  income  and 
made  little  or  no  attempt  at  government.  Internal  order 
completely  disappeared,  and  the  nobles  made  war  on  each 
other  or  plundered  the  more  peaceful  citizens  without  let 
or  hindrance.  Powerful  neighbours  again  took  the  op- 
portunity of  appropriating  such  parts  of  Brandenburg  as 
lay  most  convenient  to  their  own  borders,  and  the  final 
dissolution  of  the  electorate  seemed  imminent.  Jobst  died 
in  1411  ;  and  Sigismund,  who  succeeded  to  the  imperial 
throne  mainly  through  the  help  of  Frederick  VI.,  burgrave 
of  Nuremberg,  conferred  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg  on 
this  stout  supporter,  partly  in  gratitude  for  services  rendered 
and  partly  as  a  mortgage  for  money  advanced.  Sigismund 
also  may  possibly  have  recognized  in  Frederick  the  fitting 


mar- 
graves 


ruler  to  checkmate  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Polish- 
Lithuanian  power,  which  had  just  overthrown  the  Teutonic 
Order  (see  p.  6),  to  push  forward  the  Slavonic  settlements 
to  their  old  frontier  on  the  Elbe.  At  first  Frederick  was 
merely  appointed  administrator  of  Brandenburg;  but  in 
1415  he  was  declared  the  actual  feudal  superior  of  the 
land,  and  two  years  later  formally  installed  as  elector. 

The  Brandenburg  to  which  Frederick  succeeded  was  con-  Interna 
siderably  smaller  than  it  had  been  in  the  best  days  of  the  c°n~ 
Ascanians,  consisting  merely  of  the  Altmark,  Priegnitz,  g^tl0^  *j 
the  Mittelmark,  part  of  the  Ukermark,  and  the  territory  of  ^urg, 
Sternberg.  Including  his  family  possessions  of  Ansbach  nth  to 
and  Baireuth,  he  ruled  over  a  territory  of  about  11,400  14th  cei 
square  miles  in  extent.  The  internal  condition  of  Branden- turjr' 
burg  had  declined  as  much  as  its  territorial  extension  had 
decreased.  The  central  power  had  become  weakened  and 
the  whole  inner  organization  relaxed,  while  the  electorate 
had  also  lost  most  of  the  advantages  that  once  favourably 
distinguished  it  from  other  imperial  fiefs.  Under  the  first 
margraves  the  official  side  of  their  position  had  been  pro- 
minent, and  it  was  not  forgotten  that  technically  they 
were  little  more  than  the  representatives  of  the  emperor. 
In  the  13th  century  this  feeling  began  to  disappear,  and 
Brandenburg  enjoyed  an  independent  importance  and 
carried  out  an  independent  policy  in  a  way  not  paralleled 
in  any  other  German  mark.  The  emperor  was  still,  of 
course,  the  suzerain  of  the  country,  but  his  relations  with 
it  had  so  little  influence  on  the  course  of  its  development 
that  they  may  be  practically  ignored.  Within  the  Mark 
the  power  of  the  margraves  was  at  first  almost  unlimited. 
This  arose  in  part  from  the  fact  that  few  great  nobles  had 
followed  Albert  the  Bear  in  his  crusade  against  the  Wends, 
and  that  consequently  there  were  few  large  feudal  manors 
or  lordships  with  their  crowds  of  dependent  vassals.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  knights,  the  towns,  and  the  rural  com- 
munes held  their  lands  and  derived  their  rights  directly 
from  the  margraves,  who  thus  stood  in  more  or  less  im- 
mediate contact  with  all  classes  of  their  subjects.  The 
towns  and  villages  were  generally  laid  out  by  contractors 
(locatores),  not  necessarily  of  noble  birth,  who  were  installed 
as  hereditary  chief  magistrates  of  the  community  and  re- 
ceived numerous  encouragements  to  reclaim  waste  lands. 
This  mode  of  colonization  was  especially  favourable  to  the 
peasantry,  who  seem  in  Brandenburg  to  have  retained  the 
disposal  of  their  persons  and  property  at  a  time  when 
villainage  or  serfdom  was  the  ordinary  state  of  their  class 
in  feudal  Europe.  The  dues  paid  by  these  contractors  in 
return  for  their  concessions  formed  the  principal  revenue  of 
the  margraves.  As  the  expenses  of  the  latter  increased, 
chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  calls  of  war,  lavish  donations 
to  the  clergy,  and  the  attempt  to  maintain  court  establish- 
ments for  all  the  members  of  the  reigning  house,  they  were 
frequently  driven  to  pawn  these  dues  for  sums  of  ready 
money.  This  gave  the  knights  or  barons  an  opportunity 
to  buy  out  the  village  magistrates  and  replace  them  with 
creatures  of  their  own ;  and  the  axe  was  laid  at  the  root 
of  the  freedom  of  the  peasants  when  Louis  the  Bavarian 
formally  recognized  the  patrimonial  or  manorial  juris- 
diction of  the  noblesse.  Henceforth  the  power  of  the 
nobles  steadily  increased  at  the  expense  of  the  peasants, 
who  were  gradually  reduced  to  a  state  of  feudal  servitude. 
Instead  of  communicating  directly  with  the  margrave 
through  his  burgraves  and  vogts  (bailiffs),  the  village  com- 
munities came  to  be  represented  solely  by  the  knights  who 
had  obtained  feudal  possession  of  their  lands.  Many  of 
the  towns  followed  in  their  wake.  Others  were  enabled 
to  maintain  their  independence,  and  also  made  use  of  the 
pecuniary  needs  of  the  margraves,  until  many  of  them 
practically  became  municipal  republics.  Their  strength, 
however,  was  perhaps  more  usefully  shown  in  their  ability 


PRUSSIA 


[HISTORY. 


to  resist  the  barons,  which  saved  industry  and  commerce 
from  extinction  at  a  time  of  unbridled  laAvlessness,  when 
the  central  power  could  do  nothing  for  their  aid.  In  the 
pecuniary  embarrassments  of  the  margraves  also  originated 
the  power  of  the  Stande,  or  estates,  consisting  of  the 
noblesse,  the  clergy,  and  the  towns.  The  first  recorded 
instance  of  a  diet  co-operating  with  the  ruler  occurs  in 
1 170,  and  in  1280  we  find  the  margraves  solemnly  binding 
themselves  not  to  raise  a  "  bede  "  or  special  voluntary  con- 
tribution (like  the  English  "  benevolence ")  without  the 
consent  of  their  estates.  By  1355  the  estates  had  secured 
the  appointment  of  a  permanent  councillor,  without  whose 
concurrence  the  decrees  of  the  margraves  were  invalid. 
In  the  century  that  followed  the  extinction  of  the  Ascanians 
liberty  degenerated  into  licence,  and  the  land  was  given 
over  to  an  almost  total  anarchy.  Only  the  most  powerful 
towns  were  able  to  maintain  their  independence,  and  many 
of  them  and  of  the  clergy  paid  regular  black-mail  to  the 
nearest  nobles.  Thus  rotten  within,  it  is  no  wonder  that 
the  electorate  completely  lost  its  independent  political 
importance. 

The  The  Hohenzollenis. — The  new  ruler  who  had  to  face  this 

Hohen-  state  of  affairs  was  a  member  of  an  old  Swabian  family, 
'  which  took  its  name  of  Hohenzollern  from  the  ancestral 
castle  in  the  Swabian  Alb.  Recent  investigation  has 
traced  back  the  line  to  Hunfrid,  duke  of  Rhsetia  and  Istria 
at  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century,  a  member  of  the 
widely-spread  family  of  the  Burkardingians,  while  it  finds 
the  actual  progenitors  of  the  Swabian  branch  of  the  family 
in  two  Alemannian  dukes  of  the  10th  century.  At  a  later 
period  the  Hohenzollerns  were  conspicuous  for  their  loyal 
services  to  the  Hohenstauffen  emperors,  under  whom  they 
acquired  extensive  possessions  in  Franconia  and  Moravia, 
and  also  the  office  of  burgrave  of  Nuremberg  (1191).  They 
were  ultimately  recognized  as  among  the  most  powerful 
princes  of  the  empire,  and,  though  they  never  attained  to 
the  electoral  dignity,  they  frequently  exercised  considerable 
influence  in  the  transference  of  the  imperial  crown.  Rudolf 
of  Hapsburg  owed  his  succession  in  1273  to  the  exertions 
of  one  Hohenzollern  burgrave,  and  Louis  the  Bavarian 
owed  the  victory  of  Miihldorf  (1322)  to  another.  The  two 
sons  of  the  first  burgrave,  Conrad  and  Frederick,  divided 
their  inheritance  between  them,  the  former  retaining  the 
Franconian  estates  and  the  dignity  of  burgrave,  the  latter 
the  ancestral  possessions  in  Swabia.  From  the  first  of 
these  descended  the  rulers  of  Prussia,  while  the  other  line 
also  still  exists  in  the  person  of  the  mediatized  prince  of 
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. 

Elector  Frederick  (1415-1440),  who  as  elector  of  Brandenburg 
Freder-  assumed  the  style  of  Frederick  I.,  showed  himself  equal  to 
the  troublesome  task  before  him,  and  would  have  been  still 
more  successful  had  his  interests  been  limited  to  the  elec- 
torate. By  a  prudent  mixture  of  lenity  and  firmness,  which 
did  not  shrink  from  actual  fighting,  he  controlled  the  law- 
lessness of  the  Quitzows  and  other  robber  barons,  restored 
a  fair  degree  of  internal  order,  and  made  his  subjects  feel 
that  the  central  power  was  a  fact  that  could  not  be  ignored. 
While  thus  regulating  the  affairs  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick 
was  also  a  conspicuous  figure  in  imperial  politics,  especially 
in  the  Hussite  wars.  His  candidature  for  the  imperial 
throne  in  1438  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  occasion  on 
which  the  houses  of  Hohenzollern  and  Hapsburg  came  into 
Freder-  competition.  Frederick  was  succeeded  in  Brandenburg  by 
ick  II.  his  son  Frederick  II.  (1440-1470),  and  in  his  Franconian 
possessions  by  his  son  Albert.  The  former  followed  in  his 
father's  footsteps  by  taking  energetic  measures  to  consoli- 
date his  power  and  restore  the  electorate  to  its  former 
extent.  His  chief  struggle  was  with  the  large  towns, 
which  had  cordially  welcomed  the  Hohenzollerns  as  cham- 
pions against  the  freebooting  barons,  but  were  unwilling 


to  allow  any  intervention  in  their  own  affairs.  Frederick 
subdued  the  resistance  of  Berlin,  among  other  towns,  and 
by  a  somewhat  unwarrantable  stretch  of  his  prerogative 
erected  a  royal  castle  within  its  walls.  He  also  regained 
possession  of  the  Neumark,  which  had  been  given  in 
pledge  to  the  Teutonic  Order  in  1402,  and  would  have 
added  Lusatia  and  Pomerania  to  his  domains  if  the  emperor 
had  not  placed  obstacles  in  his  way.  A  long-standing 
feud  with  the  archbishop  of  Magdeburg  was  also  finally 
settled  in  this  reign.  Under  his  brother  and  successor 
Albert  (1470-1486),  surnamed  "Achilles  "  from  his  chival-  Albert 
rous  valour  and  military  talent,  the  Franconian  lands  were  (Achilles; 
again  united  with  Brandenburg.  Albert  allowed  his  devo- 
tion to  the  emperor  to  interfere  to  some  extent  with  his 
own  interests,  but  he  carried  on  successful  wars  with 
Mecklenburg  and  Pomerania,  and  effectually  resisted  the 
attempts  of  the  Teutonic  knights  to  repossess  themselves 
of  the  Neumark.  His  name  is  best  remembered  by  the 
Dispositio  Achillea,  a  family  ordinance  providing  for  the 
future  separation  of  Brandenburg  and  Ansbach-Baireuth, 
and  establishing  the  custom  of  primogeniture  in  each. 
According  to  Hallam,  this  was  the  first  instance  of  the 
legal  establishment  of  primogeniture,  and,  when  we  con- 
sider the  effect  it  had  in  keeping  the  Brandenburg  posses- 
sions together,  while  those  of  Saxony  (for  instance)  were 
frittered  away  among  younger  sons  and  their  descendants, 
we  shall  not  fail  to  discern  its  importance  in  determining 
Prussia's  future.  With  the  accession  of  John  (1486-1499),  John 
surnamed  "  Cicero  "  on  account  of  his  eloquence  or  of  his  (Cicero), 
knowledge  of  Latin,  begins  a  short  period  in  which  the 
rulers  of  Brandenburg  take  little  share  in  imperial  politics. 
At  home  John  found  his  hands  full  in  repressing  the  dis- 
orders that  had  arisen  through  Albert's  long  absence  from 
the  electorate,  and  he  acted  with  such  vigour  and  address 
that  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  towns  an  import- 
ant excise  on  beer,  frequently  refused  to  his  father.  The 
old  claim  to  feudal  supremacy  over  Pomerania,  dating 
from  the  days  of  the  Ascanians,  was  compromised  in  1493 
for  an  assurance  of  eventual  succession  on  the  extinction 
of  the  Pomeranian  dukes.  The  next  elector,  Joachim  I.  Joachim 
(1499-1535),  acquired  the  surname  of  "Nestor"  from  his1-  (Nes- 
encouragement  of  learning,  which  he  showed  inter  alia  by  '' 
the  foundation  of  a  university  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder. 
He  also  effected  an  important  internal  reform  by  the  intro- 
duction of  Roman  law,  looking  upon  this  as  an  easier  way 
of  securing  uniformity  of  procedure  than  by  a  codification 
of  the  heterogeneous  common  law  of  his  dominions.  The 
inconvenience  arising  from  the  fact  that  the  supreme  court 
followed  the  sovereign  from  place  to  place  was  now  re- 
moved in  Brandenburg,  as  a  short  time  before  in  England, 
by  the  establishment  of  a  fixed  and  central  court  of  final 
jurisdiction  (Kammergerichfy.  This  court  had  its  seat  at 
Berlin,  which  had  recently  become  the  capital  and  resi- 
dence of  the  electors.  In  curbing  the  lawlessness  of  the 
nobles,  who  were  yet  far  from  being  perfectly  disciplined, 
Joachim  showed  as  strong  a  hand  as  his  predecessors.  He 
adhered  strenuously  to  his  Roman  Catholic  belief  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  Protestantism  had  been  embraced  by  his 
own  family  and  by  most  of  his  subjects,  and  he  regarded 
with  abhorrence  the  attitude  of  the  Protestant  princes 
towards  the  emperor.  In  violation  of  the  family  law, 
Joachim  I.  bequeathed  the  Neumark  to  his  younger  son 
John,  and  thus  Joachim  II.  (1535-1571)  succeeded  to  only  Joachim 
a  part  of  the  paternal  possessions.  John  seems  to  have  H- 
been  the  more  vigorous  and  decided  of  the  two  brothers, 
and  led  the  way  in  announcing  his  transition  to  the  Pro- 
testant faith,  followed  by  Joachim  in  1539.  John  also 
joined  the  Schmalkald  League,  but  was  induced  to  retire 
from  it  by  his  brother,  who  succeeded  in  conjoining  an 
adoption  of  the  Reformation  in  his  own  dominions  with 


HISTORY. 


PRUSSIA 


a  careful  avoidance  of  conflict  with  the  emperor  and 
Roman  Catholic  party.  The  church  ordinance  which 
he  framed  for  Brandenburg  was  drawn  up  in  such  a 
way  that  the  head  of  the  state  became  likewise  the  head 
of  the  state  church,  and  henceforth  he  regarded  him- 
self, like  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  as  standing  towards 
his  own  country  in  the  place  of  the  pope.  The  public 
introduction  of  the  new  faith  was  accomplished  without 
difficulty,  and  the  clergy  witnessed  the  secularization  of 
their  property  with  much  equanimity.  The  funds  thus 
acquired  by  Joachim,  a  prince  of  magnificent  ideas  and  of 
lavish  expenditure,  were  of  great  service  to  him  ;  but  part 
of  them  he  devoted  to  the  encouragement  of  science  and 
art.  A  compact  of  mutual  right  of  eventual  inheritance 
made  in  1537  with  the  duke  of  Liegnitz  and  Brieg  was  of 
great  ultimate  importance  as  affording  Frederick  II.  a 
pretext  for  his  claims  to  Silesia.  A  still  more  useful 
arrangement  of  a  similar  kind  was  carried  out  by  Joachim 
in  1569,  when  he  secured  the  right  of  succession  to  the 
duchy  of  Prussia. 

Branden-  Between  the  accession  of  the  Hohenzollern  dynasty  and 
burg  the  period  at  which  we  have  now  arrived  the  area  of 
iTl^  t  Brandenburg  had  been  increased  to  nearly  15,000  square 
1571.  miles,  and  its  material  prosperity  had  grown  in  at  least  an 
equal  ratio.  It  was  still,  however,  far  from  being  a  com- 
pact or  united  state,  nor  had  it  as  yet  any  pretension  to 
an  independent  part  on  the  European  stage.  Perhaps  the 
most  marked  internal  change  was  the  increase  in  the  power 
of  the  estates,  resulting  in  great  measure  from  the  financial 
needs  of  the  electors.  Their  gradual  progress  towards  com- 
plete recognition  as  a  co-ordinate  branch  of  government 
may  be  said  to  have  culminated  in  the  formal  declaration 
of  Joachim  II.,  that  he  would  never  undertake  any  action 
of  importance  affecting  the  welfare  of  his  subjects  without 
first  consulting  the  estates.  Yet  alongside  of  this  growth 
of  the  estates  there  were  other  causes  at  work  paving  the 
way  for  the  future  absolutism  of  the  rulers.  Thus  the 
new  ecclesiastical  constitution  brought  the  elector,  as  head 
of  the  church,  into  immediate  relation  with  all  classes  of 
the  people,  and  the  abolition  of  the  distinction  between 
mediate  and  immediate  subjects  in  the  religious  sphere 
prepared  the  way  for  a  similar  position  in  secular  matters. 
So  too  the  introduction  of  Roman  law  accustomed  the 
mind  to  dwell  on  the  central  authority  and  administration, 
and  its  very  terminology  promoted  the  conception  of  the 
elector  as  a  "royal"  ruler.  A  more  important  cause, 
however,  than  either  of  these  was  the  gradual  decline  of 
the  power  of  the  towns,  with  the  accompanying  revival  of 
that  of  the  nobles.  The  practical  independence  and  com- 
parative wealth  of  the  towns  had  been  followed  by  intestine 
feuds,  in  which  the  patricians  were  arrayed  against  the 
guilds,  and  these  not  only  weakened  the  towns  directly, 
but  also  gave  the  electors  frequent  pretexts  to  interfere 
and  curtail  their  privileges.  At  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Joachim  II.  the  elector  and  the  diet,  the  noblesse  and  the 
municipalities,  were  still  in  a  state  of  comparative  and 
promising  equilibrium.  But  it  was  evident  that  the  power 
.  of  the  diet  was  now  almost  wholly  confined  to  its  command 
of  the  purse,  and  that  an  elector  who  could  make  himself 
independent  of  its  subsidies  would  be  in  a  position  to  defy 
its  claims ;  while  it  was  equally  evident  that  the  growing 
weakness  of  the  towns  was  incapacitating  them  for  any 
effectual  resistance  to  an  ambitious  prince,  who  might 
utilize  the  congenial  support  of  the  noblesse  as  a  stepping- 
stone  to  arbitrary  power.  The  short-sighted  and  selfish 
neglect  of  general  questions  now  making  way  among  the 
separate  sections  of  the  diet,  and  their  increasing  tendency 
to  appear  at  those  sittings  only  in  which  their  own  peculiar 
interests  were  under  discussion,  also  helped  to  free  the 
hands  of  the  electors.  The  condition  of  the  peasantry 


had  been  steadily  deteriorating,  and  their  personal  rights 
were  already  seriously  encroached  upon. 

Under  Joachim's  son,  John  George  (1571-1598),  who  John 
permanently  reunited  the  Neumark  with  Brandenburg,  the  George, 
tendencies  just  noticed  received  emphatic  expression.  All 
vacant  official  positions  were  filled  with  members  of  the 
noblesse,  who  also  received  the  right  of  exacting  compul- 
sory service  from  the  peasants  and  other  similar  privileges. 
The  elector,  who  acquired  the  name  of  "Oekonom"  or 
steward  from  his  admirable  financial  management,  soon 
reduced  the  large  debt  left  by  his  father,  and,  leaning  on 
the  support  he  had  earned  from  the  barons,  was  able  to 
act  with  great  independence  towards  the  other  elements 
of  the  diet.  During  his  undisturbed  reign  the  material 
prosperity  of  Brandenburg  advanced  considerably,  and  the 
population  was  increased  by  numerous  Protestant  refugees 
from  France  and  Holland.  Joachim  Frederick  (1598-  Joachim 
1608)  had  the  good  sense  and  resolution  to  oppose  the  Frederic 
testament  of  his  father,  which  had  assigned  the  Neumark 
to  his  younger  brother,  and  in  the  Gera  Bond  executed  a 
solemn  ratification  of  the  Dispositio  Achillea.  Ansbach  and 
Baireuth  were  formally  relinquished  to  the  younger  line, 
and  have  never  since,  except  from  1791  to  1806,  formed 
part  of  the  Prussian  dominions.  This  reign  is  memorable 
for  the  establishment  of  a  state  council  (Staatsrath),  which 
served  in  some  degree  as  a  ministerial  cabinet,  and  may  be 
characterized  as  the  nucleus  of  the  bureaucracy  of  modern 
Prussia.  John  Sigismund  (1608-1619)  does  not  seem  to  John 
have  been  a  man  of  marked  personal  character,  but  his8'^8' 
reign  is  of  great  importance  in  the  history  of  Brandenburg  mund< 
on  account  of  the  extensive  territorial  enlargement  that 
fell  to  its  lot.  The  contingency  which  had  been  contem- 
plated in  the  treaty  with  Prussia  in  1569  was  realized  on 
the  death  of  Duke  Albert  in  1618 ;  and  John  Sigismund, 
whose  title  was  strengthened  by  his  marriage  with  the  late 
duke's  daughter,  inherited  the  duchy.  His  marriage  also 
brought  him  a  claim  to  the  duchies  of  Cleves  and  Jiilich 
and  other  lands  near  the  Rhine,  but  this  title  was  disputed 
by  the  count  palatine  of  Neuburg.  The  count  was  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  his  contest  with  the  elector  soon 
became  a  mere  incident  in  the  great  conflict  that  now  broke 
out  between  the  two  religions.  The  disputed  territories 
were  occupied  by  Spanish  and  Dutch  troops,  and  neither 
claimant  derived  much  advantage  from  them  till  after  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  For  a  time,  however,  the  outlying 
possessions  of  John  Sigismund  touched  on  both  sides  the 
limits  of  modern  Prussia.  In  1613  the  elector,  either  from 
pure  conviction  or  from  a  desire  to  conciliate  the  Reformed 
diet  of  Cleves,  announced  his  adoption  of  the  Reformed 
(Calvinistic)  type  of  Protestantism,  an  action  that  gave 
great  offence  in  his  older  dominions.  He  made,  however, 
no  attempt  to  induce  his  subjects  to  follow  his  example, 
and  may  be  said  to  have  inaugurated  the  policy  of  religious 
toleration  that  has  since  been  characteristic  of  Prussian 
rulers.  During  his  reign  his  territories  were  more  than 
doubled  in  extent,  covering  at  his  death  an  area  of  31,000 
square  miles ;  but  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  could  not 
yet  claim  to  rank  above  those  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony. 

Ducky  of  Prussia, — The  duchy  of  Prussia,  thus  ac- Duchy  o 
quired  by  the  elector,  formed  the  eastern  half  of  the  ter- 
ritory  bearing  the  name  of  Preussen,  and  stretched  along 
the  Baltic  Sea  from  the  Vistula  to  the  Memel.  It  still 
remained  a  Polish  fief,  and  was  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  electoral  dominions  by  West  Prussia,  which  the 
Teutonic  Order  had  been  forced  to  resign  to  Poland  a 
century  and  a  half  before.  The  native  Prussians  were  of 
a  race  akin  to  the  Letts  and  Lithuanians,  and  their  name 
(Pruzi,  Prutheni)  was  probably  derived  from  a  Lettish 
root  meaning  "  intelligence." l  Towards  the  end  of  the 

1  The  traditionary  connexion  of  the  name  with  the  proximity  of 


PRUSSIA 


[HISTORY. 


first  century  of  the  Christian  era  we  find  authentic  accounts  ' 
of  the  importation  by  the  Romans  of  amber  from  the 
Baltic  coast,  but  the  first  mention  of  the  Pruzi  by  name 
occurs  in  a  document  of  the  9th  century.  Their  first 
appearance  in  German  history  is  connected  with  the  attempt 
made  in  997  by  Adalbert,  bishop  of  Prague,  to  convert 
them  to  Christianity.  But  his  efforts,  as  well  as  those  of 
his  successor  Bruno,  met  with  little  success,  and  each  of 
these  pious  missionaries  found  a  martyr's  grave  on  the  shore 
of  the  Baltic.  The  obstinate  adherence  of  the  natives  to 
their  paganism  was  strengthened  by  their  natural  suspicion 
of  a  political  aim  under  covet  of  missionary  enterprise,  and 
they  felt  that  they  were  fighting  for  their  land  as  well  as  for 
their  religion.  The  next  serious  attempt  at  their  conversion 
was  made  two  hundred  years  later  by  a  Cistercian  monk 
named  Christian,  who  at  the  outset  had  some  success  and 
was  appointed  first  bishop  of  Prussia.  The  Prussians, 
however,  soon  expelled  Christian  and  his  supporters,  and 
even  invaded  Polish  territory,  plundering  and  exacting 
tribute.  In  this  extremity  Christian  and  Conrad,  duke  of 
Teutonic  Masovia,  applied  for  aid  to  the  knights  of  the  TEUTONIC 
Order.  ORDER  (q.v.),  who  gladly  embarked  on  this  new  crusade. 
The  Prussians  made  a  desperate  resistance ;  but  the  military 
discipline  and  strength  of  the  Teutonic  knights  were  not  in 
the  long  run  to  be  withstood,  reinforced,  as  they  were,  by 
crowds  of  crusaders  and  adventurers  anxious  to  share  in 
the  pious  work,  and  assisted  on  two  occasions  by  the  troops 
of  Ottocar  of  Bohemia.  The  knights  entered  Prussia  in 
1230,  and  after  half  a  century  of  hard  fighting  found  them- 
selves masters  of  the  entire  country.  They  had  previously 
taken  care  to  procure  from  the  emperor  and  the  pope  a 
grant  of  all  the  lands  they  should  conquer,  as  well  as  of 
those  offered  to  them  by  Conrad  of  Masovia.  At  first  the 
government  of  the  Order,  though  arbitrary,  was  not  un- 
favourable to  the  welfare  of  the  land.  The  few  native 
nobles  who  adopted  Christianity  were  allowed  to  retain 
their  privileged  position,  and  the  ranks  of  the  noblesse 
were  recruited  by  grants  to  German  knights.  Numerous 
towns  and  villages  were  built ;  the  place  of  the  greatly 
thinned  Prussians  was  taken  by  industrious  German 
colonists ;  agriculture  and  commerce  were  carried  on  with 
energy  and  success ;  and  all  aggression  from  without  was 
vigorously  repelled.  The  general  plan  of  colonization  was 
similar  to  that  in  Brandenburg,  except  that  the  place  of 
the  margrave  was  taken  by  a  class  of  privileged  nobles, 
who  divided  the  power  of  government  among  them.  In 
1309  Pomerelia,  to  the  west  of  the  Vistula,  was  subdued, 
and  the  headquarters  of  the  Order  were  removed  from 
Venice  to  the  fortress  of  Marienburg  on  the  Vistula ;  and 
before  the  end  of  the  century  the  "  Ordensland  "  of  Prussia 
is  said  to  have  contained  about  fifty  walled  towns,  still 
more  numerous  castles,  and  several  hundred  villages 
and  hamlets,  while  it  extended  from  Pomerania  to  the 
western  frontier  of  Lithuania.  The  active  trade  which 
now  flourished  was  carried  on  mainly  with  England  and 
the  Hanseatic  towns.  As  time  went  on,  however,  the 
knights  allowed  their  vows  of  temperance  and  chastity  to 
sink  into  abeyance  and  became  enervated  by  luxury  and 
excess.  Their  old  military  skill  declined,  and  they  had 
sunk  to  such  a  state  of  weakness  that  the  single  battle 
of  Tannenberg  (1410),  in  which  they  were  defeated  by 
the  Poles,  shook  their  power  to  its  foundations.  Their 
arbitrary  and  exclusive  rule  now  began  to  reap  its  reward  : 
the  Prussians  took  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  Order 
to  claim  a  larger  share  in  the  government,  and,  as  their 
burdens  continued  to  grow  more  oppressive,  finally  formed 
an  alliance  with  its  arch-enemy  Poland.  Attacked  from 


Russia  seems  unfounded,  and  the  form  Borussia  or  Porussia,  which 
has  been  adopted  as  the  Latin  appellation  of  the  country,  is  used  for 
the  first  time  by  a  chronicler  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


without  and  weakened  by  dissension  within,  the  Order  was 
at  length  compelled  to  succumb  ;  and  a  war  begun  in  1454 
ended  thirteen  years  later  with  the  cession  of  West  Prussia 
to  Poland  and  an  acknowledgment  of  the  latter's  feudal 
superiority  over  the  remaining  territories  of  the  Order. 
The  knights  turned  to  Germany  for  help,  and  endeavoured 
to  persuade  powerful  German  princes  to  undertake  the  office 
of  grand  master.  In  1511  their  choice  fell  on  Albert,  a 
member  of  the  Franconian  branch  of  the  Hohenzollerns, 
who  undertook  the  task  of  reorganization  with  vigour  and 
attempted  to  dispense  with  the  oath  of  fealty  to  Poland. 
But,  failing  to  receive  any  adequate  support  from  the 
emperor,  he  at  length,  acting  on  the  advice  of  Luther, 
determined  to  embrace  Protestantism  and  convert  the 
Ordensland  into  a  secular  and  hereditary  duchy.  This 
momentous  transformation  was  carried  out  in  1525  with- 
out interference  from  either  the  empire  or  Poland,  and 
Albert  continued  to  be  a  vassal  of  the  latter  state  as  duke 
of  Prussia.  The  people  of  Prussia,  many  of  whom  had 
already  gone  over  to  the  new  faith,  hailed  the  reform  with 
great  satisfaction,  and  most  of  the  knights  contentedly 
changed  their  life-rents  for  feudal  holdings,  married,  and 
became  hereditary  nobles.  When  it  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  Prussia  thus  consisted  of  a 
compact  secular  duchy,  owing  fealty  to  Poland,  and  pos- 
sessing the  two  well-defined  estates  of  nobles  and  burghers, 
the  first  of  which  held  the  reins  of  power. 

John  Sigismund  died  in  1619,  a  year  after  his  acquisi-  George 
tion  of  Prussia,  and  left  his  territories  to  his  son  George  William. 
William  (1619-1640).  This  unfortunate  prince  may  per- 
haps be  described  as  the  first  utterly  incompetent  ruler 
of  his  line,  though  due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the 
extreme  difficulty  of  his  position.  Succeeding  to  power 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  great  struggle  between  Catholicism 
and  Protestantism,  he  neglected  the  opportunity  of  joining 
with  Saxony  in  the  formation  of  a  strong  league  of  German 
Protestant  princes,  and  by  his  temporizing  policy  converted 
his  electorate  into  the  common  battle-ground.  In  the 
language  of  Carlyle,  "where  the  Titans  were  bowling 
rocks  at  each  other,  George  William  hoped  by  dexterous 
skipping  to  escape  share  of  the  game."  His  own  irresolu- 
tion was  aided  by  the  fact  that  his  chancellor  and  chief 
adviser,  Schwarzenberg,  was  a  Roman  Catholic  and  of 
strong  imperialist  sympathies,  while  the  great  bulk  of  his 
subjects  dreaded  an  increase  of  the  power  of  Calvinism 
almost  more  than  that  of  Roman  Catholicism.  Branden- 
burg was  overrun  in  turn  by  Mansfeld,  Tilly,  and  Wallen- 
stein,  and  suffered  as  much  as  if  it  had  taken  an  active 
part  in  the  war.  The  Restitution  Edict  of  1628,  however, 
gave  the  elector  serious  cause  of  alarm,  and  the  appearance 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus  before  Berlin  in  1631  confirmed 
his  faltering  decision  and  made  him  for  a  time  throw  in 
his  lot  with  the  Protestant  cause.  After  the  death  of 
Gustavus,  Brandenburg  followed  the  example  of  Saxony 
in  negotiating  a  separate  peace  with  the  emperor  (1635). 
But  this  apostasy  brought  little  relief,  as  the  emperor  gave 
no  aid  in  expelling  the  Swedes  from  Brandenburg  and 
Pomerania,  which  they  continued  to  -occupy  for  several 
years.  In  1639  the  elector  removed  his  court  to  Konigs- 
berg  in  Prussia,  the  only  part  of  his  realms  in  which  he 
was  sure  of  comparative  tranquillity,  and  there  he  died  in 
1 640,  leaving  a  land  devastated  in  great  part  by  fire  and 
sword  and  at  the  lowest  ebb  of  dignity  and  power. 

Frederick  William  (1640-1688),  whom  both  his  con- Great 
temporaries  and  after  ages  have  agreed  to  dignify  with  Elector, 
the  title  of  the  "  Great  Elector,"  was  only  twenty  years 
old  when  he  succeeded  to  the  throne,  but  he  at  once  began 
to  manifest  a  decided  and  vigorous  character  very  different 
from  that  of  his  father.     He  emancipated  himself  without 
delay  from  the  guidance  of  Schwarzenberg,  and,  in  spite  of 


HISTORY.] 


PRUSSIA 


the  emperor's  displeasure,  concluded  a  peace  with  Sweden, 
which  provided  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  Swedish  troops 
from  the  electorate.  During  the  following  years  of  war 
Frederick  William  preserved  a  strict  neutrality  and  utilized 
the  opportunity  to  restore  the  material  resources  of  his 
country  and  reorganize  and  strengthen  his  army.  The 
fruits  of  this  line  of  action  were  seen  at  the  peace  of 
Westphalia  (1648),  when  Frederick  William,  as  lord  of 
an  efficient  army  of  25,000  men,  was  able  to  secure  a 
ready  hearing  for  his  claims  to  territorial  extension.  He 
established  his  right  to  the  whole  of  Pomerania,  but,  as  the 
Swedes  refused  to  give  up  Western  or  Hither  Pomerania 
(Vorpommern),  he  received  as  compensation  the  rich 
ecclesiastical  principalities  of  Magdeburg,  Halberstadt,  and 
Minden,  in  central  Germany.  In  the  second  Swedish  and 
Polish  war,  which  broke  out  in  1655,  he  used  his  inter- 
mediate position  with  great  skill  and  unscrupulousness, 
allying  himself  first  with  one  and  then  with  the  other  of 
the  belligerents,  as  seemed  likely  to  be  most  profitable. 
Thus  the  troops  of  Brandenburg  took  a  prominent  share  in 
the  defeat  of  the  Poles  at  the  three  days'  battle  of  Warsaw 
(1656),  in  return  for  which  service  Sweden  undertook  to 
recognize  the  elector  as  independent  sovereign  of  the  duchy 
of  Prussia.  Scarcely,  however,  did  the  scale  of  victory 
begin  to  turn  than  the  elector  deserted  his  former  ally, 
and  in  the  treaty  of  Wehlau  (1657)  received  his  reward 
in  the  formal  relinquishment  by  Poland  of  its  feudal  rights 
over  Prussia.  This  important  step,  which  added  the 
electorate  to  the  independent  states  of  Europe  and  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  growth  of  a  great  north  German 
power,  was  ratified  three  years  later  at  the  general  peace  of 
Oliva.  In  1666  the  long-vexed  question  of  the  inheritance 
to  the  Rhenish  duchies  was  settled  by  an  amicable  parti- 
tion, according  to  which  Cleves,  Mark,  and  Ravensberg 
fell  to  the  share  of  Prussia.  When  Louis  XIV.  attacked 
Holland  in  1672  Frederick  William  was  at  first  the  only 
German  prince  to  suspect  danger  in  the  ambitious  designs 
of  the  French  monarch.  In  spite  of  tempting  offers  from 
France,  he  concluded  an  alliance  with  Holland,  and  at  the 
head  of  Austrian  and  Brandenburgian  troops  joined  the 
Dutch  in  an  ineffectual  campaign  on  the  Rhine.  In  1673 
he  was  forced,  through  lack  of  sufficient  support  from  the 
emperor,  to  make  peace  with  France ;  but  he  joined  the 
triple  alliance  of  Holland,  Spain,  and  the  empire  in  the 
following  year  and  took  part  in  an  indecisive  campaign  in 
Alsace.  There  he  received  intelligence  that  the  Swedes, 
at  the  instigation  of  France,  had  broken  into  Brandenburg. 
Hastening  back  to  his  own  country  without  delay,  he  took 
the  enemy  by  surprise,  and  at  the  head  of  about  6000 
men  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  twice  that  number 
of  Swedish  troops  at  Fehrbellin  (1675),  a  small  town  to 
the  north-west  of  Berlin.  This  success  over  the  hitherto 
invincible  Swedes  lent  great  prestige  to  the  elector's  arms, 
and  he  followed  it  up  by  a  series  of  vigorous  campaigns, 
in  which,  with  the  aid  of  Denmark,  he  swept  Branden- 
burg and  Pomerania  clear  of  the  invaders,  capturing  Stettin 
in  1677  and  Stralsund  in  1678.  The  invasion  of  Prussia 
from  Livonia,  which  formed  the  last  effort  of  the  Swedes, 
was  also  triumphantly  repelled,  the  most  memorable  inci- 
dent of  the  short  struggle  being  the  elector's  forced  march 
over  the  frozen  surface  of  the  Frische  Haff.  At  the  peace 
of  St  Germain  (1679),  however,  owing  to  the  influence 
of  France  and  the  lukewarm  support  of  the  emperor, 
Frederick  William  saw  himself  forced  to  restore  Hither 
Pomerania  to  Sweden.  The  policy  of  the  last  years  of  the 
Great  Elector  may  be  described  as  an  endeavour  to  hold 
the  balance  between  France  and  the  emperor.  At  first 
he  joined  in  a  somewhat  unnatural  alliance  with  Louis 
XIV.,  but  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
(1685)  he  drew  nearer  to  Austria  and  covered  the  emperor's 


rear  in  his  war  with  the  Turks.  At  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1688,  he  was  engaged  in  helping  the  prince  of 
Orange  to  prepare  for  his  descent  on  England. 

The  reign  of  the  Great  Elector  forms  one  of  the  most  Branden- 
signal  instances  in  history  of  the  conquest  of  adverse  cir- 
cumstances  by  personal  energy  and  merit ;  and  it  is  with 
reason  that  Prussian  historians  describe  him  as  the  second  Elector, 
founder  of  the  state.  At  his  accession  the  greater  part  of 
his  territory  was  in  the  occupation  of  strangers  and  de- 
vastated by  war,  and  in  European  politics  Brandenburg 
was  regarded  as  merely  an  appendage  of  the  empire.  Its 
army  was  of  little  value;  its  soil  was  poor;  and  its  revenue 
was  insignificant.  To  other  sources  of  weakness  were 
added  the  scattered  nature  of  the  electoral  possessions, 
their  mutual  jealousies,  and  their  separate  interests.  At 
Frederick  William's  death  the  new  north  German  state  of 
Brandenburg-Prussia  was  a  power  that  had  to  be  reckoned 
with  in  all  European  combinations.  Inferior  to  Austria 
alone  among  the  states  of  the  empire,  it  was  regarded  as 
the  head  and  patron  of  German  Protestantism ;  while  the 
fact  that  one-third  of  its  territory  lay  outside  the  empire 
added  to  its  independent  importance.  Its  area  had  been 
raised  to  43,000  square  miles ;  its  revenue  had  multiplied 
fivefold ;  and  its  small  army  was  nowhere  surpassed  in 
efficiency.  The  elector  had  overthrown  Sweden  and  in- 
herited her  position  on  the  Baltic,  and  he  had  offered  a 
steady  and  not  ineffectual  resistance  to  the  ambition  of 
France. 

While  thus  winning  for  himself  a  position  in  the  councils 
of  Europe,  the  elector  was  not  less  active  in  strengthening 
the  central  authority  within  his  dominions,  and  the  trans^ 
formation  effected  during  his  reign  in  the  internal  govern- 
ment of  the  state  was  not  less  striking  than  that  in  its 
external  importance.  Frederick  William  found  Branden- 
burg a  constitutional  state,  in  which  the  legislative  power 
was  shared  between  the  elector  and  the  diet ;  he  left  it  to 
his  successor  as  in  substance  an  absolute  monarchy.  Many 
circumstances  helped  him  in  effecting  this  change,  among 
the  chief  of  which  were  the  want  of  harmonious  action  on 
the  part  of  the  estates  and  the  accelerated  decline  of  the 
political  power  of  the  towns.  The  substitution  of  a  perma- 
nent excise  for  the  subsidies  granted  from  time  to  time  by 
the  estates  also  tended  to  increase  the  elector's  independ- 
ence, and  the  Government  officials  (Steuerrathe)  appointed 
to  collect  this  tax  in  the  towns  gradually  absorbed  many 
of  the  administrative  functions  of  the  local  authorities. 
The  nobles  and  prelates  generally  preferred  to  raise  their 
quota  according  to  the  old  method  of  bede  or  "  contri- 
bution," and  this  weakened  the  last  bond  of  common 
interest  between  them  and  the  estate  of  the  burghers.  In 
Brandenburg  the  elector  met  with  little  opposition  in 
establishing  his  personal  sovereignty,  and  after  1653  no 
general  diet  of  Brandenburg  was  held.  In  Cleves  and  Mark 
he  gained  his  end  simply  by  an  overwhelming  display  of 
force ;  but  in  Prussia,  where  the  spirit  of  independence 
was  fostered  by  its  history  and  by  its  distance  from  the 
seat  of  power,  he  found  much  greater  difficulty.  His 
emancipation  from  the  suzerainty  of  Poland  gave  him 
a  great  advantage  in  the  struggle,  though  the  estates 
on  their  side  averred  that  their  relation  with  Poland  was 
one  that  could  not  be  dissolved  except  by  common  consent. 
It  was  not  until  the  elector  had  occupied  Konigsberg  with 
an  armed  force,  and  imprisoned  the  one  (Burgomaster 
Roth)  and  executed  the  other  (Baron  Kalkstein)  of  the 
principal  champions  of  independence,  that  he  was  able  to 
bend  the  estates  to  his  will.  Arbitrary  and  unconstitu- 
tional as  this  conduct  seems  to  us,  we  must  not  forget  that 
Frederick  William's  idea  of  the  functions  of  an  absolute 
prince  was  very  superior  to  the  unqualified  egotism  of  the 
French  monarchs,  and  that,  while  he  insisted  upon  being 


8 


PRUSSIA 


[HISTORY. 


master  in  his  own  house,  it  was  that  he  might  at  the  same 
time  be  the  first  servant  of  the  state.  In  his  eyes  an 
absolute  government  was  the  best  guarantee  of  the  common 
welfare,  and  was  not  sought  merely  for  the  sake  of  personal 
aggrandizement.  It  is  not  without  significance  in  con- 
nexion with  this  that  beyond  his  own  territories  he  twice 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  people  against  an  absolute  ruler, 
first  in  opposing  Louis  XIV.,  and  again  in  aiding  William 
of  Orange. 

In  matters  of  general  administration  Frederick  William 
showed  himself  a  prudent  and  careful  ruler,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  future  greatness  of  Prussia  in  almost 
every  department.  The  military  and  bureaucratic  systems 
of  the  country  both  received  their  first  important  impulse 
in  this  reign.  The  wounds  inflicted  by  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  were  in  a  great  measure  healed,  and  the  finances  and 
credit  of  the  state  were  established  on  a  firm  basis.  Agri- 
culture and  commerce  were  improved  and  encouraged  by 
a  variety  of  useful  measures,  and  education  was  not 
neglected.  The  elector  even  established  Prussian  colonies 
in  Africa,  and  formed  a  small  but  efficient  navy.  In 
matters  of  religion  Brandenburg  stands  out  prominently 
as  the  only  country  of  the  time  in  which  all  Christian 
confessions  were  not  only  tolerated  but  placed  upon  an 
equal  footing.  The  condition  of  the  peasantry,  however, 
reached  almost  its  lowest  ebb,  and  the  "  recess  "  or  charter 
of  1653  practically  recognizes  the  existence  of  villainage. 
While  the  barons  had  been  losing  power  on  the  one  side 
as  opposed  to  the  elector,  they  had  been  increasing  it  on 
the  other  at  the  expense  of  the  peasants.  The  Thirty 
Years'  War  afforded  them  frequent  opportunities  of  replac- 
ing the  village  "  Schulzen  "  with  manorial  courts ;  and  the 
fact  that  their  quota  of  taxation  was  wholly  wrung  from 
the  holdings  of  the  peasants  made  the  burden  of  the  latter 
four  or  five  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  towns.  The  state 
of  public  morals  also  still  left  much  to  be  desired,  while 
the  clergy  were  too  much  occupied  with  squabbles  over 
Lutheranism  and  Calvinism  to  be  an  effective  instrument 
of  reform. 

King  The  Great  Elector's  son  Frederick  I.  ( 1 688-1 7 1 3)  was  an 

Frederick  ostentatious  and  somewhat  frivolous  prince,  who  hazarded 
the  acquisitions  of  his  father  by  looking  on  his  position  as 
assured  and  by  aiming  rather  at  external  tokens  of  his 
dignity  than  at  a  further  consolidation  of  the  basis  on 
which  it  rested.  The  Brandenburg  troops  showed  all  their 
wonted  prowess  in  the  war  of  the  second  coalition  against 
Louis  XIV.  and  in  that  of  the  Spanish  Succession ;  but 
Frederick's  interests  were  only  mediately  concerned,  and 
neither  the  peace  of  Ryswick  (1697)  nor  that  of  Utrecht 
(1713)  brought  him  any  very  tangible  advantage.  Bran- 
denburg soldiers  also  helped  the  emperor  in  his  wars  with 
the  Turks,  and  English  readers  should  not  forget  that 
Frederick's  action  in  covering  the  Dutch  frontier  with 
6000  troops  left  William  of  Orange  free  scope  in  his 
expedition  to  England.  The  most  notable  incident  in 
Frederick's  reign  was,  however,  his  acquisition  of  the  title 
of  king  of  Prussia,  which  long  formed  the  principal  object 
of  his  policy,  and  which  led  him  to  make  important  con- 
cessions to  all  whose  co-operation  was  necessary.  The 
emperor's  consent  was  finally  purchased  by  the  promise  of 
a  contingent  of  8000  men  to  aid  him  in  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  and  on  18th  January  1701  Frederick 
crowned  himself  at  Konigsberg  with  accompanying  cere- 
monies of  somewhat  inflated  grandeur.  Elector  Frederick 
III.  of  Brandenburg  became  henceforth  King  Frederick  I. 
of  Prussia,1  the  title  being  taken  from  that  part  of  his 

1  Strictly  speaking,  the  title  assumed  was  "king  in  Prussia"  (Konig  in 
Preussen),  this  apparently  being  meant  to  indicate  that  there  was  still 
a  Prussia  (West  Prussia)  of  which  he  was  not  king,  though  it  has  also 
been  otherwise  explained. 


territories  in  which  he  had  no  suzerain  to  acknowledge. 
Superficial  as  this  incident  may  at  first  sight  appear,  it 
added  considerably  to  the  moral  and  political  moment- 
um of  the  country,  and  its  advantages  were  reaped  by 
Frederick's  two  vigorous  successors.  About  the  same 
time  (1697)  the  elector  of  Saxony  also  acquired  the  kingly 
dignity  by  his  election  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  but  in 
doing  so  he  had  to  become  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  thus 
left  the  Hohenzollerns  without  a  rival  among  the  Protest- 
ant dynasties  of  Germany.  Frederick  was  an  extravagant 
ruler,  who  lavished  large  sums  in  maintaining  his  personal 
state ;  but  his  expenditure  was  not  wholly  of  this  profitless 
nature,  since  he  founded  the  university  of  Halle  as  a  school 
of  liberal  theology,  established  academies  of  art  and  science 
at  Berlin,  and  patronized  men  of  literary  eminence.  In 
this  he  was  perhaps  mainly  inspired  by  his  talented  wife 
Sophia  Charlotte,  a  sister  of  George  I.  of  England. 

The  court  of  Vienna  had  consoled  itself  for  the  growing 
power  of  Prussia  under  the  Great  Elector  by  the  reflexion 
that  it  was  probably  of  a  temporary  nature  and  due  mainly 
to  the  vigorous  individuality  of  that  prince.  The  events 
of  Frederick  I.'s  reign  seemed  to  justify  this  view.  At  his 
accession  Prussia  might  fairly  claim  to  rank  as  the  second 
state  of  Germany  and  possessed  considerable  influence  as  a 
European  power  of  all  but  the  first  order.  This,  however, 
had  been  changed  before  the  death  of  Frederick.  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  and  Hanover  had  all  raised  themselves  to  at  least 
a  level  with  Prussia,  which  now  sank  back  into  the  posi- 
tion of  a  merely  German  state  and  loyal  supporter  of  the 
empire.  Frederick's  preoccupation  in  the  western  wars 
had  allowed  Sweden  to  reassert  her  pre-eminence  in 
northern  Europe,  and  it  was  Russia  and  not  Prussia  that 
now  impeded  her  progress.  The  internal  soundness  of  the 
country  had  also  suffered  :  the  finances  were  in  a  state  of 
complete  disorganization,  and  the  burden  of  taxation  was 
almost  insupportable.  If  Frederick's  successor  had  not 
been  a  man  of  vigorous  character  the  downhill  progress 
might  have  continued  until  it  had  removed  Prussia  alto- 
gether from  the  list  of  important  states.  Perhaps  the 
general  estimate  of  Frederick's  character  is  unduly  low 
owing  to  the  fact  that  he  was  followed  as  well  as  preceded 
by  a  ruler  of  unusual  capacity. 

His  son  Frederick  William  I.  (1713-1740)  possessed  Frederick 
administrative  talents  of  no  mean  order  and  was  singularly  William 
painstaking,  industrious,  and  determined  in  carrying  out  ' 
his  plans.  Though  marked  by  no  great  external  achieve- 
ments or  exciting  events,  his  reign  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance in  the  Prussian  annals  from  having  checked  the 
threatened  downfall  of  Prussia  and  paved  the  way  for 
Frederick  the  Great.  By  carefully  husbanding  his  finances 
Frederick  William  filled  his  treasury  and  was  able  to  keep 
on  foot  one  of  the  largest  and  best  disciplined  armies  in 
Europe,  thereby  securing  for  Prussia  an  influence  in  Euro- 
pean councils  altogether  disproportionate  to  its  size  and 
population.  In  internal  management  he  made  Prussia  the 
model  state  of  Europe,  though  his  administration  was  of  a 
purely  arbitrary  type,  in  which  the  estates  were  never  con- 
sulted and  his  ministers  were  merely  clerks  to  register  his 
decrees.  The  first  act  of  the  young  king,  who  was  as 
economical  as  his  father  was  extravagant,  was  to  institute 
a  salutary  reform  in  the  expensive  institutions  of  the  court ; 
and  some  idea  of  the  drastic  nature  of  this  change  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  annual  allowance  for  the 
salaries  and  pensions  of  the  chief  court  officials  and  civil 
servants  was  at  once  reduced  from  276,000  to  55,000 
thalers.  The  peace  of  Utrecht  (1713),  which  added 
Guelders  to  the  Prussian  territories,  left  Frederick  William 
free  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  northern  war  then  raging 
between  Sweden  on  the  one  side  and  Russia,  Poland,  and 
Denmark  on  the  other.  Though  at  first  disposed  to  be 


HISTORY.] 


PRUSSIA 


friendly  to  Sweden,  lie  was  forced  by  circumstances  to 
take  up  arms  against  it.  In  September  1713  Stettin  was 
captured  by  the  allies  and  handed  over  to  the  custody  of 
Frederick  William,  who  paid  the  expenses  of  the  siege  and 
undertook  to  retain  possession  of  the  town  until  the  end 
of  the  war.  But  Charles  XII.  refused  to  recognize  this 
arrangement  and  returned  from  his  exile  in  Turkey  to 
demand  the  immediate  restitution  of  the  town.  With  this 
demand  the  Prussian  monarch  naturally  declined  to  comply, 
unless  the  money  he  had  advanced  was  reimbursed,  and  the 
upshot  was  the  outbreak  of  the  only  war  in  which  Frederick 
William  ever  engaged.  The  struggle  was  of  short  dura- 
tion and  was  practically  ended  in  1715  by  the  capture  of 
Stralsund  by  the  united  Prussians,  Saxons,  and  Danes 
under  the  command  of  the  king  of  Prussia.  The  Swedes 
were  driven  from  Pomerania,  and  at  the  peace  of  1720 
Frederick  William  received  the  greater  part  of  Vorpom- 
mern,  including  the  important  seaport  of  Stettin.  Sweden 
now  disappeared  from  the  ranks  of  the  great  powers,  and 
Prussia  was  left  without  a  rival  in  northern  Germany. 

A  detailed  history  of  Frederick  William's  reign  would 
necessitate  the  recital  of  a  long  and  tedious  series  of 
diplomatic  proceedings,  centring  in  the  question  of  the 
succession  to  the  duchies  of  Jiilichand  Berg.  In  1725  we 
find  the  king  trusting  for  support  to  an  alliance  with 
England,  while  the  queen  has  set  her  heart  on  a  double 
marriage  between  her  eldest  son  and  daughter  and  an 
English  princess  and  prince.  The  treaty  of  Wusterhausen 
between  Austria  and  Prussia  was  concluded  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  was  confirmed  with  some  modifications  by 
the  treaty  of  Berlin  in  1728.  Frederick  William  engaged 
to  recognize  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  while  the  emperor  on 
his  side  undertook  to  support  Prussia's  claims  to  Jiilich 
and  Berg.  The  policy  of  the  latter,  however,  was  far  from 
straightforward,  as  he  had  already  entered  into  a  similar 
compact  with  the  count  palatine  of  Sulzbach,  the  rival 
claimant  to  the  succession,  who  was  a  Roman  Catholic  and 
therefore  a  more  sympathetic  ally.  Frederick  William's 
intervention  in  the  matter  of  the  succession  to  the  throne 
of  Poland,  rendered  vacant  by  the  death  of  Augustus  II. 
in  1733,  proved  barren  of  advantage  to  Prussia  and  failed 
to  secure  the  hoped-for  reversion  of  the  duchy  of  Cour- 
land.  A  Prussian  contingent  took  part  none  the  less  in 
the  ensuing  war  between  Austria  and  France,  but  Austria 
concluded  peace  in  1735  without  consulting  her  ally.  In 
1737  the  king  was  resolute  enough  to  withstand  the 
pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  him  by  England,  France, 
Holland,  and  Austria  in  order  to  induce  him  to  submit  to 
their  settlement  of  the  Jiilich-Berg  question ;  and  in  1739, 
convinced  at  last  of  the  confirmed  duplicity  of  the  emperor, 
he  turned  to  his  hereditary  enemy  for  help  and  concluded 
a  defensive  alliance  with  France.  This  action  may  be 
looked  upon  as  marking  the  end  of  that  phase  in  the  rela- 
tions of  the  houses  of  Hapsburg  and  Hohenzollern  in 
which  the  latter  regarded  the  former  with  simple  loyalty 
as  its  natural  suzerain;  the  rivalry  between  Austria  and 
Prussia  had  begun,  and  for  the  rest  of  the  century  formed 
the  pivot  on  which  the  politics  of  Europe  mainly  turned. 
Frederick  William  died  in  1740,  conscious  of  his  diplo- 
matic failures,  but  confident  that  his  son  would  repair 
his  errors. 

If  the  external  history  of  Frederick  William's  reign  is 
not  especially  glorious,  and  if  in  diplomacy  he  was  worsted 
lliam  ky  the  emperor,  the  country  at  least  enjoyed  the  benefits 
of  a  twenty-five  years'  peace  and  those  of  a  well-meaning, 
though  somewhat  too  patriarchal,  government.  During 
this  reign  the  revenues  of  Prussia  were  doubled,  and  the 
king  left  at  his  death  a  well-filled  treasury  and  an  army 
of  85,000  men.  Though  not  ranking  higher  than  twelfth 
among  the  European  states  in  extent  and  population, 


ler 


Prussia  occupied  the  fourth  place  in  point  of  military 
power.  The  king  himself  took  the  greatest  interest  in  the 
management  of  his  army,  in  which  the  discipline  was  of 
the  strictest ;  and  he  carried  the  habits  of  the  military 
martinet  into  all  departments  of  the  administration.  His 
untiring  industry  occupied  itself  with  the  minutest  details 
of  government,  and  his  downright  blunt  character  showed 
there  to  greater  advantage  than  in  diplomatic  circles. 
His  chief  innovation  was  the  abolition  of  the  distinction 
between  the  military  and  civil  funds,  and  the  assignment 
of  the  entire  financial  management  of  the  country  to  a 
general  directory  of  finance,  war,  and  domains.  Hitherto 
the  proceeds  of  the  excise  and  contribution  had  been  paid 
into  the  military  chest,  while  those  of  the  royal  monopolies 
and  domains  belonged  to  the  civil  service,  deficiencies  in 
one  department  being  made  good  by  the  surplus  of  the 
other.  Now,  however,  the  directory  was  instructed  to  pay 
for  everything  out  of  a  common  fund,  and  so  to  regulate 
the  expenditure  that  there  should  invariably  be  a  surplus 
at  the  end  of  the  year.  As  the  army  absorbed  five-sevenths 
of  the  revenue,  the  civil  administration  had  to  be  conducted 
with  the  greatest  economy.  The  king  himself  set  the  ex- 
ample of  the  frugality  which  he  expected  from  his  officials, 
and  contented  himself  with  a  civil  list  of  52,000  thalers 
(£7800).  The  domains  were  now  managed  so  as  to  yield 
a  greater  income  than  ever  before,  and  important  reforms 
were  made  in  the  system  of  taxation.  By  the  substitution 
of  a  payment  in  money  for  the  obsolete  military  tenure 
the  nobles  were  deprived  of  their  practical  exemption 
from  taxation,  and  they  were  also  required  to  pay  taxes 
for  all  the  peasant  holdings  they  had  absorbed.  Attempts 
were  made  to  better  the  condition  of  the  peasants,  and 
the  worst  features  of  villainage  were  abolished  in  the 
crown  domains.  The  military  system  of  cantonment, 
according  to  which  each  regiment  was  allotted  a  district 
in  which  to  recruit,  was  of  constitutional  as  well  as 
military  importance,  since  it  brought  the  peasants  into 
direct  contact  with  the  royal  officials.  The  collection  of 
the  taxes  of  the  peasantry  was  removed  from  the  hands  of 
the  landowners.  The  duties  of  the  state  officials  were 
laid  down  with  great  detail,  and  their  performance  was 
exacted  with  great  severity.  Official  corruption  was 
punished  with  extreme  rigour.  Justice  seems  to  have 
been  administered  in  an  upright  if  somewhat  Draconian 
manner,  though  the  frequent  and  often  arbitrary  inflic- 
tion of  the  penalty  of  death  by  the  king  strikes  us  with 
astonishment.  The  agricultural  and  industrial  interests 
of  the  country  were  fostered  with  great  zeal.  The  most 
important  industrial  undertaking  was  the  introduction  of 
the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth,  the  royal  factory  at 
Berlin  supplying  uniforms  for  the  entire  army.  The  com- 
mercial regulations,  conceived  in  a  spirit  of  rigid  pro- 
tection, were  less  successful.  In  the  ecclesiastical  sphere 
the  king  was  able  to  secure  toleration  for  the  Protestants 
in  other  parts  of  Germany  by  reprisals  on  his  own  Roman 
Catholic  subjects,  and  he  also  gave  welcome  to  numerous 
Protestant  refugees,  including  18,000  exiled  peasants  from. 
Salzburg.  For  art,  science,  and  the  higher  culture  he  had 
no  respect,  but  he  has  the  credit  of  founding  the  common- 
school  system  of  Prussia  and  of  making  elementary  educa- 
tion compulsory. 

After- the  accession  of  Frederick  the  Great  (1740-1786)  Frederick 
the  external  history  of  Prussia  coincides  to  such  an  extent n- 
with  that  of  the  German  empire  that  it  has  already  been 
treated  with  considerable  detail  in  the  article  GERMANY 
(vol.  x.  pp.  503-4  ;  see  also  FREDERICK  II.).     The  outline 
of  Frederick's  foreign  policy  was  probably  determined  in 
some  degree  by  the  events  of  the  later  years  of  his  father's 
reign,  and  Austrian  duplicity  in  the  matter  of  Jiilich  gave 
him  a  colourable  pretext  for  his  hostile  attitude  in  reviving 

XX.   —    2 


10 


PRUSSIA 


[HISTORY. 


the  long  dormant  claims  of  Prussia  to  the  Silesian  duchies. 
Within  a  year  of  his  accession  he  had  embarked  on  the 
first  Silesian  War,  and  this  was  closely  followed  by  the 
second,  which  ended  in  1745,  leaving  Frederick  in  undis- 
puted possession  of  almost  the  whole  of  Silesia,  with  the 
frontier  that  still  exists.  East  Friesland,  the  Prussian  claim 
to  which  dated  from  the  time  of  the  Great  Elector,  was 
absorbed  in  1744  on  the  death  without  issue  of  the  last 
duke.  The  two  Silesian  wars  completely  exhausted  the 
stores  left  by  Frederick  William,  both  of  grenadiers  and 
thalers,  and  Frederick  gladly  welcomed  the  interval  of 
peace  to  amass  new  treasures  and  allow  his  subjects  time 
to  recover  from  their  exertions.  The  measures  he  took 
were  so  successful  that  when  the  Seven  Years'  War  broke 
out  in  1756  he  had  an  army  of  150,000  men  at  his  com- 
mand, representing  about  one-seventh  of  the  available  male 
population  of  his  little  kingdom.  He  had  also  a  fund  of 
eleven  million  thalers  in  his  treasury,  though  this  would 
have  gone  but  a  small  way  in  defraying  the  expenses  of 
the  protracted  struggle  had  he  not  been  assisted  by  the 
subsidies  of  England  and  able  to  make  the  fertile  plains 
of  Saxony  his  chief  basis  of  supply.  The  succession  of 
brilliant  campaigns  in  which  Frederick  maintained  himself 
against  a  coalition  embracing  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe 
has  been  narrated  in  the  article  AUSTRIA  (vol.  iii.  p.  127  sq.). 
As  Macaulay  points  out  in  a  somewhat  highly -coloured 
passage,  Frederick  ruled  over  a  population  of  less  than 
five  million  souls,  while  his  adversaries  could  draw  their 
armies  from  a  joint  population  of  a  hundred  millions. 
The  disproportion  in  wealth  was  at  least  as  great.  Nor 
was  the  small  size  of  Frederick's  land  made  up  for  by 
its  strong  patriotism  and  loyalty;  on  the  contrary,  the 
affections  of  his  subjects  had  been  partially  alienated  by 
the  severity  of  his  rule  and  the  weight  of  taxation. 
Prussia  had  no  strong  natural  bulwarks  on  its  frontiers, 
but  lay  exposed  to  every  foe.  Yet  Frederick's  brilliant 
military  genius  was  able  to  counteract  all  these  dis- 
advantages and  carry  on  the  contest  in  spite  of  all  odds. 
Prussia  Though  without  gain  in  extent  or  population,  Prussia 
under  emerged  from  the  war  as  an  undoubted  power  of  the  first 
rank,  and  henceforth  completely  eclipsed  Saxony,  Bavaria, 
and  Hanover,  while  it  was  plain  that  Austria  Avould  no 
longer  stand  without  a  rival  for  the  hegemony  of  the  Ger- 
man empire.  The  glorious  victories  over  the  French  and 
Kussians  also  awakened  a  spirit  of  German  patriotism  that 
had  hitherto  been  almost  unknown.  But  the  price  paid 
for  these  results  was  enormous.  Of  the  850,000  soldiers 
who,  as  is  estimated,  perished  during  the  war  about 
180,000  fell  in  the  service  of  Prussia,  and  the  gross  popu- 
lation of  the  kingdom  had  decreased  in  seven  years  to  the 
extent  of  half  a  million  souls.  The  misery  and  poverty 
indirectly  attendant  on  the  war  were  incalculable.  Numer- 
ous Prussian  towns  and  villages  were  destroyed  or  made 
tenantless ;  large  tracts  were  left  uncultivated  for  want  of 
labourers  ;  and  famine  reigned  to  such  an  extent  that  even 
the  seed-corn  was  converted  into  bread.  The  development 
of  the  country  was  thrown  back  for  many  years,  which 
were  almost  a  repetition  of  the  period  succeeding  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  But,  while  nearly  a  century  elapsed 
before  the  traces  of  that  struggle  disappeared,  Frederick, 
who  showed  himself  great  in  peace  as  in  war,  repaired  most 
of  the  ravages  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  a  tenth  of  the 
time.  By  great  dexterity  in  the  management  of  his  finances 
he  had  kept  clear  of  debt,  and  was  soon  able  to  advance 
large  sums  to  the  most  impoverished  districts.  Foreign 
colonists  were  invited  to  repeople  the  deserted  villages ; 
taxes  were  in  several  instances  remitted  for  a  series  of 
years ;  the  horses  of  the  army  were  employed  in  farm 
labour;  and  individual  effort  in  every  department  was 
liberally  supported  by  the  Government.  By  1770  nearly 


Frederick 
II. 


all  the  ruined  villages  had  been  rebuilt ;  the  ground  was 
again  under  cultivation ;  order  had  been  restored ;  the 
vacant  offices  had  been  filled ;  and  the  debased  currency 
had  been  called  in.  Throughout  the  kingdom  agriculture 
was  encouraged  by  the  drainage  of  marshy  districts;  in- 
dustry was  extended  by  the  introduction  of  new  manu- 
factures, by  bounties,  and  by  monopolies;  and  commerce 
was  fostered  by  a  series  of  well-meant,  if  economically 
unsound,  measures  of  protection.  Frederick's  methods  of 
administration  did  not  greatly  differ  from  those  of  his  pre- 
decessor, though  the  unrelenting  severity  of  Frederick 
William  was  relaxed  and  the  peculiarities  of  his  system 
toned  down.  Frederick's  industry  and  activity  were  a.s 
great  as  those  of  his  father,  his  insight  keener,  and  his 
views  more  liberal.  His  rule  was  quite  as  personal  and 
absolute,  and  the  despotism  was  altered  only  in  so  far  as 
the  character  of  the  despot  was  different.  His  own  personal 
supervision  extended  to  every  department,  and  his  idea  of 
his  position  and  duties  made  him  his  own  first  minister 
in  the  widest  and  most  exacting  sense  of  the  term.  He 
endeavoured  to  spare  his  subjects  as  far  as  was  compatible 
with  the  immense  army  he  maintained,  and  sought  to  raise 
the  necessary  revenues  rather  by  improving  the  resources 
of  the  country  than  by  additional  taxation.  He  kept  the 
charges  of  the  civil  administration  down  to  the  lowest  point 
consistent  with  efficiency,  and  the  court  establishment  was 
very  economical,  though  it  avoided  the  extreme  of  shabbi- 
ness  witnessed  under  Frederick  William.  His  efforts  to 
improve  the  administration  and  the  bureaucracy  were  un- 
ceasing, and  he  succeeded  in  training  a  body  of  admirable 
public  servants.  One  of  his  most  sweeping  reforms  was  in 
the  department  of  law,  where,  with  the  able  aid  of  Cocceji, 
he  carried  out  a  complete  revolution  both  in  procedure  and 
personnel.  The  expenses  of  justice  were  greatly  lightened, 
and  no  suit  was  allowed  to  drag  on  for  more  than  a  year. 
A  complete  divorce  was  effected  between  the  departments 
of  justice  and  provincial  administration,  a  change  that 
greatly  strengthened  the  position  of  the  private  citizen  in 
any  contest  with  the  officials  of  Government.  One  of  the 
king's  first  acts  was  to  abolish  legal  torture,  and  he  rarely 
sanctioned  capital  punishment  except  in  cases  of  murder. 
The  application  of  the  jirivilegium  de  non  appellando  (1746) 
freed  Prussia  from  all  relations  with  the  imperial  courts 
and  paved  the  way  for  a  codification  of  the  common  law 
of  the  land,  Avhich  was  begun  under  Frederick  but  not 
completed  till  the  end  of  the  century.  In  matters  of  reli- 
gion Frederick  not  only  exercised  the  greatest  toleration, 
remarking  that  each  of  his  subjects  might  go  to  heaven 
after  his  own  fashion,  but  distinctly  disclaimed  the  con- 
nexion of  the  state  with  any  one  confession.  Equal  liberty 
was  granted  in  speaking  and  writing.  Though  his  finances 
did  not  allow  him  to  do  much  directly  for  education,  his 
example  and  his  patronage  of  men  of  letters  exercised  a 
most  salutary  effect.  The  old  system  of  rigid  social  privi- 
lege was,  however,  still  maintained,  and  unsurmountable 
barriers  separated  the  noble  from  the  citizen  and  the 
citizen  from  the  peasant.  The  position  of  the  last  was 
very  deplorable  ;  villainage  still  to  a  great  extent  existed, 
and  the  mental  attitude  of  the  rural  population  was  servile 
in  the  extreme.1  The  paramount  defect  of  Frederick's  ad- 
ministration, as  future  events  proved,  was  the  neglect  of 
any  effort  to  encourage  independence  and  power  of  self- 
government  among  the  people.  Every  measure  emanated 
from  the  king  himself,  and  the  country  learned  to  rely  on 
him  alone  for  help  in  every  emergency.  Public  opinion 
on  political  matters  could  not  be  said  to  exist ;  and  the 
provincial  diets  met  simply  to  receive  the  instructions  of 
the  royal  agents. 

1  One  illustration  of  this  is  afforded  by  the  fact  that  the  private 
soldiers  felt  no  resentment  at  being  struck  by  their  officers. 


HISTORY.] 


PRUSSIA 


11 


In  1772  Prussia  and  Austria,  in  order  to  prevent  an 
overweening  growth  of  Russia,  joined  in  the  first  partition 
of  Poland.  Frederick's  share  consisted  of  West  Prussia 
and  the  Netze  district,  a  most  welcome  addition,  filling  up 
the  gap  between  the  great  mass  of  his  territories  and  the 
isolated  district  of  East  Prussia.  It  had  also  this  advan- 
tage over  later  acquisitions  at  Poland's  expense,  that  it 
was  a  thoroughly  German  land,  having  formed  part  of  the 
colonizations  of  the  Teutonic  Order.  In  1778  Prussia 
found  herself  once  more  in  opposition  to  Austria  on  the 
question  of  the  Bavarian  succession,  but  the  war  that 
ensued  was  almost  entirely  nominal,  and  the  difficulty  was 
adjusted  without  much  bloodshed.  The  same  question 
elicited  the  last  action  of  importance  in  which  Frederick 
engaged, — the  formation  of  a  "  Fiirstenbund,"  or  league  of 
German  princes  under  Prussian  supremacy,  to  resist  the 
encroachments  of  Austria.  The  importance  of  this  union 
was  soon  obscured  by  the  momentous  events  of  the  French 
Revolution,  but  it  was  a  significant  foreshadowing  of  the 
duel  of  Austria  and  Prussia  for  the  pre-eminence  in  Ger- 
many. Frederick  died  on  17th  August  1786,  having  in- 
creased his  territories  to  an  area  of  75,000  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  five  and  a  half  millions.  The  revenue 
also  had  immensely  increased  and  now  amounted  to  about 
twenty  million  thalers  annually,  of  which,  however,  thirteen 
were  spent  on  the  army.  The  treasury  contained  a  fund  of 
sixty  million  thalers,  and  the  land  was  free  of  debt, 
rederick  A  continuation  of  the  personal  despotism  under  which 
rilliam  Prussia  had  now  existed  for  seventy  years,  as  well  as  of  its 
disproportionate  influence  in  Europe,  would  have  required  a 
ruler  with  something  of  the  iron  will  and  ability  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  Unfortunately  Frederick's  nephew  and  suc- 
cessor, Frederick  William  II.  (1786-1797),  had  neither  the 
energy  nor  the  insight  that  his  position  demanded.  He 
was  too  undecided  to  grasp  the  opportunity  of  adding  to 
Prussia's  power  by  adhering  to  the  vigorous  external  policy 
of  his  predecessor,  nor  did  he  on  the  other  hand  make  any 
attempt  to  meet  the  growing  discontent  of  his  subjects 
under  their  heavy  burdens  by  putting  himself  at  the  head 
of  an  internal  movement  of  liberal  reform.  The  rule  of 
absolutism  continued,  though  the  power  now  lay  more  in 
the  hands  of  a  "  camarilla  "  or  cabinet  than  in  those  of  the 
monarch ;  and  the  statesmen  who  now  came  to  the  front 
were  singularly  short-sighted  and  inefficient.  The  freedom 
of  religion  and  the  press  left  by  Frederick  the  Great  was 
abrogated  in  1788  by  royal  ordinance.  In  1787  the  army 
engaged  in  an  expensive  and  useless  campaign  against 
Holland.  The  abandonment  of  Frederick's  policy  was 
shown  in  a  tendency  to  follow  the  lead  of  Austria,  which 
culminated  in  an  alliance  with  that  power  against  revolu- 
tionary France.  But  in  1795  Prussia,  suspicious  of  the 
Polish  plans  of  Russia  and  Austria,  concluded  the  separate 
peace  of  Basel,  almost  the  only  redeeming  feature  of 
which  was  the  stipulation  that  all  north  German  states 
beyond  a  certain  line  of  demarcation  should  participate 
in  its  benefits.  This  practically  divided  Germany  into 
two  camps  and  inflicted  a  severe  blow  on  the  imperial 
system.  The  indifference  with  which  Prussia  relinquished 
to  France  German  lands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
compared  with  her  eagerness  to  increase  her  Slavonic  terri- 
tories on  the  east,  was  certainly  one  of  the  great  blunders 
of  the  reign.  Prussia's  share  in  the  second  and  third 
partitions  of  Poland  (1793  and  1795)  nearly  doubled  her 
extent,  but  added  little  or  nothing  to  her  real  power.  The 
twelve  years  following  the  peace  of  Basel  form  one  of 
the  most  sombre  periods  of  the  history  of  Prussia.  Her 
prestige  was  lost  by  her  persistent  and  ill-timed  neutrality 
in  the  struggle  with  France ;  the  old  virtues  of  economy, 
order,  and  justice  disappeared  from  the  bureaucracy  ;  the 
army  was  gradually  losing  its  excellence  and  was  weakened 


rather  than  strengthened  by  the  hordes  of  disaffected  Polish 
recruits  ;  the  treasury  was  exhausted  and  a  large  debt  in- 
curred ;  the  newly-awakened  feeling  of  German  patriotism 
had  died  away,  especially  among  the  upper  classes. 

Frederick  William  III.  (1797-1840)  possessed  many  Frederick 
virtues  that  did  him  credit  in  his  private  capacity,  but  he  William 
lacked  the  vigour  that  was  at  this  juncture  imperatively 
required  from  a  ruler  of  Prussia,  while  he  was  unfortu- 
nately surrounded  by  counsellors  who  had  as  little  concep- 
tion as  himself  of  Prussia's  proper  role.  He  continued  to 
adhere  closely  to  a  policy  of  timid  neutrality  and  seemed 
content  to  let  Prussia  slip  back  into  the  position  of  a 
second-rate  state,  the  attitude  of  which  in  the  great  Euro- 
pean struggle  could  be  of  no  special  importance.  Not  even 
the  high-handed  occupation  of  Hanover  by  the  French  in 
1803  could  arouse  him ;  and  the  last  shred  of  self-respect 
seemed  to  have  been  parted  with  in  1805  when  Prussia 
consented  to  receive  Hanover,  the  property  of  its  ally 
England,  from  the  hands  of  France.  The  formation  of 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1806  and  the  intelligence 
that  France  had  agreed  to  restore  Hanover  to  England  at 
last  convinced  Frederick  William  of  what  he  had  to  fear 
from  Napoleon;  while  Napoleon  on  his  side,  being  now 
free  of  his  other  antagonists,  was  only  too  glad  of  an 
opportunity  to  destroy  his  tool.  Prussia  declared  war  on 
9th  October  1806  ;  and  the  short  campaign  that  ensued 
showed  that  the  army  of  Frederick  the  Great  had  lost  its 
virtue,  and  that  Prussia,  single-handed,  was  no  match 
for  the  great  French  commander.  On  14th  October  the 
Prussian  armies  were  overthrown  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt, 
and  a  total  collapse  set  in.  Disgraceful  capitulations  of 
troops  and  fortresses  without  a  struggle  followed  one 
another  in  rapid  succession ;  the  court  fled  to  East  Prussia ; 
and  Napoleon  entered  Berlin  in  triumph.  At  the  peace 
of  Tilsit  (9th  July  1807)  Frederick  William  lost  half  his 
kingdom,  including  all  that  had  been  acquired  at  the 
second  and  third  partitions  of  Poland  and  the  whole  of 
the  territory  to  the  west  of  the  Elbe.  An  enormous  war 
indemnity  was  also  demanded,  and  the  Prussian  fortresses 
were  occupied  by  the  French  until  this  should  be  paid. 
Prussia  now  paid  heavily  for  its  past  remissness  and 
drained  the  cup  of  humiliation  to  the  dregs. 

The  next  half-dozen  years  form  a  period  of  the  greatest 
significance  in  the  history  of  Prussia,  embracing,  as  they 
do,  the  turning-point  in  the  moral  regeneration  of  the 
country.  The  disasters  of  1806  elicited  a  strong  spirit  of 
devoted  patriotism,  which  was  fanned  by  the  exertions  of 
the  "  Tugendbund,"  or  League  of  Virtue,  and  by  the  writ- 
ings of  men  like  Fichte  and  Arndt.  This  was  accompanied 
by  a  wonderful  revelation  of  vitality  and  recuperative 
power.  The  credit  of  the  reformation  belongs  mainly  to  Stein's 
the  great  minister  Stein,  and  in  the  second  place  to  the  reforms 
chancellor  Hardenberg.  The  condition  on  which  Stein 
based  his  acceptance  of  office  was  itself  of  immense  import- 
ance ;  he  insisted  that  the  system  of  governing  through 
irresponsible  cabinet  councillors,  which  had  gradually  be- 
come customary,  should  cease,  and  that  the  responsible 
ministers  of  departments  should  be  at  once  the  confidential 
advisers  and  the  executive  agents  of  the  king.  Stein's 
designs  and  wishes  extended  to  the  establishment  of  a 
regular  system  of  parliamentary  and  local  government  like 
that  of  England,  but  he  had  not  an  opportunity  to  do 
much  more  than  begin  the  work.  His  edict  of  1807 
abolished  serfdom  and  obliterated  the  legal  distinction  of 
classes  by  establishing  freedom  of  exchange  in  land  and 
free  choice  of  occupation.1  The  "  Stadteordnung  "  of  1808 

1  Previous  to  this  measure  the  distinction  between  "noble,' 
"burgher,"  and  "peasant"  laud  and  occupations  was  strictly  observed, 
and  no  transition  of  property  or  employment  from  one  class  to  another 
was  possible. 


PRUSSIA 


[HISTORY. 


reformed  the  municipalities  and  granted  them  important 
rights  of  self-government.  His  administrative  reforms 
amounted  to  a  complete  reconstruction  of  the  ministerial 
departments  and  the  machinery  of  provincial  government, 
and  practically  established  the  system  now  in  force.  In 
1810  Hardenberg,  with  a  precipitancy  which  Stein  would 
scarcely  have  approved,  continued  the  reform  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  peasants  by  making  them  absolute  owners  of 
part  of  their  holdings,  the  landlords  obtaining  the  rest  as 
an  indemnity  for  their  lost  dues.1  The  revolution  thus 
effected  in  Prussia  has  been  aptly  compared  in  its  results 
to  the  great  revolution  in  France ;  but,  while  there  the 
reforms  were  exacted  by  a  people  in  arms,  here  they  were 
rather  forced  upon  the  people  by  the  crown.  The  army 
was  also  reorganized  by  Scharnhorst  and  Gneisenau,  while 
the  condition  imposed  by  Napoleon  that  it  should  not 
exceed  42,000  men  was  practically  evaded  by  replacing 
each  body  of  men  by  another  as  soon  as  it  was  fairly  versed 
in  military  exercises.  The  educational  reforms  of  William 
von  Humboldt  established  the  school  system  of  Prussia  on 
its  present  basis,  and  the  university  of  Berlin  was  founded 
in  1809. 

Frederick  William  hesitated  to  take  part  in  the  Austrian 
rising  of  1809,  but  his  opportunity  came  in  1813,  when 
Napoleon  fled  from  Russia,  denuded  of  his  troops.  General 
York,  commander  of  the  corps  that  Prussia  had  been  obliged 
to  contribute  to  the  French  expedition,  anticipated  the 
formal  declaration  of  war  by  joining  the  Russians  with 
his  troops  on  his  own  responsibility  (30th  December  1812). 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the  people  rose  en  masse  and 
with  the  utmost  enthusiasm.  The  regular  army  was  sup- 
ported by  hosts  of  "  Landwehr,"  or  militia,  eager  to  share 
in  the  emancipation  of  their  country.  A  treaty  of  alliance 
between  Russia  and  Prussia  was  concluded  at  Kalisch,  and 
Austria,  after  some  hesitation,  also  joined  the  league 
against  Napoleon.  In  the  struggle  that  followed  (see 
AUSTRIA,  vol.  iii.  pp.  134-135)  Prussia  played  one  of  the 
most  prominent  parts,  and  her  general  Bliicher  ranks  high 
among  the  heroes  of  the  war.  Between  1813  and  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  Prussia  lost  140,000  men,  and  strained 
her  financial  resources  to  the  utmost.  As  compensation 
she  received  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  the  northern  half 
of  Saxony,  her  old  possessions  to  the  west  of  the  Elbe, 
Swedish  Pomerania,  the  duchies  of  Berg  and  Jiilich,  and 
other  districts  in  Westphalia  and  on  the  Rhine.  The 
acquisitions  of  the  last  partition  of  Poland,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  grand-duchy  of  Posen,  were  resigned  to  Russia, 
Friesland  went  to  Hanover,  and  Bavaria  was  allowed  to 
retain  Baireuth  and  Ansbach,  which  had  come  into  her 
hands  in  1806.  This  rearrangement  of  the  map  did  not 
wholly  restore  Prussia  to  its  former  extent,  as  its  area  was 
now  only  108,000  square  miles  compared  with  122,000 
square  miles  at  the  beginning  of  1806,  but  the  substitu- 
tion of  German  for  Slavonic  territory  and  the  shifting  of 
the  centre  of  gravity  towards  the  west  more  than  made  up 
for  any  slight  loss  in  mere  size.  Hanover  still  formed  a 
huge  wedge  splitting  Prussia  completely  in  two,  and  the 
western  frontier  was  very  ragged.  Prussia's  position  re- 
quired caution,  but  forced  upon  it  a  national  German 
policy,  and  the  situation  of  the  new  lands  was  vastly  more 
effectual  in  determining  the  future  leader  of  Germany  than 
was  Austria's  aggrandizement  in  Italy.  The  work  of  incor- 
porating the  new  provinces  was  accomplished  with  as  little 
friction  as  possible,  and  the  Prussian  statesmen  had  the 
good  sense  to  leave  the  Rhenish  districts  in  the  full  enjoy- 
ment of  the  institutions  they  had  been  used  to  under  the 
French  regime. 

The  remainder  of  Frederick  William  III.'s  reign,  though 

1  The  patrimonial  jurisdiction  of  the  landowners  was  not  taken 
away  till  1848. 


marked  by  much  material  and  social  progress,  was  in  the 
political  sphere  a  period  of  the  most  deplorable  reaction. 
At  first  the  king  seemed  disposed  to  fulfil  his  promise  of 
1815  and  grant  the  country  a  constitution,  but  ultimately 
both  he  and  his  minister  Hardenberg  suffered  themselves 
to  be  dragged  in  the  wake  of  the  retrogressive  policy  of 
Metternich.  The  only  concession  made  to  the  popular 
demand  was  the  utterly  inadequate  patent  of  1823,  appoint- 
ing triennial  provincial  diets  with  a  merely  consultative- 
function.  The  king  also  allowed  himself  to  be  alarmed 
by  the  ultra- liberal  movement  at  the  universities,  and 
joined  in  the  notorious  Carlsbad  decrees  (1819)  and  in 
the  senseless  prosecutions  of  demagogues  that  formed  the 
sequel.  Many  of  Prussia's  noblest  and  most  patriotic  sons 
now  suffered  unmerited  punishment,  and  the  Government 
showed  a  total  incapacity  to  understand  the  real  state  of 
affairs.  Respect  for  the  aged  king,  however,  prevented 
an  outburst  during  his  reign.  After  1830  Prussia  began 
to  shake  herself  clear  of  the  Austrian  leading-strings,  and 
the  establishment  of  the  "  Zollverein,"  or  customs  union  of 
the  German  states  under  Prussian  supremacy,  was  a  decided 
step  towards  a  policy  of  independence.  In  ecclesiastical 
matters  this  reign  is  memorable  for  the  union  forced  by 
the  crown  upon  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  and  for  the 
preliminary  symptoms  of  the  "  Culturkampf." 

Frederick  William  IV.  (1840-1861),  a  man  of  character  Frederic 
and  intelligence,  began  his  reign  promisingly  by  an  amnesty  Wil 
for  political  offenders  and  by  well-meant  concessions  to  the 
dissatisfied  Ultramontanes ;  but  it  soon  became  evident 
that  he  held  too  exalted  an  idea  of  the  divine  right  of 
kings  willingly  to  grant  such  a  constitution  as  was  required. 
Then  followed  the  contest  between  the  crown  and  the 
people,  the  various  steps  of  which  have  been  chronicled  in 
the  article  GERMANY.  At  last  the  king  had  to  give  way 
and  grant  a  constitution  based  upon  democratic  principles, 
and  substituting  a  representative  parliament  for  the  old 
Prussian  system  of  estates.  This  constitution  was  pro- 
mulgated on  31st  January  1850,  and  Prussia  therewith 
formally  entered  the  ranks  of  modern  and  constitutional 
states.  But  in  the  following  years  the  king  maintained 
as  reactionary  a  policy  as  was  in  any  way  compatible  with 
the  constitution,  receiving  his  chief  support  in  this  line  of 
action  from  the  Prussian  "  Junkerthum,"  or  squirearchy.  In 
external  politics  the  chief  feature  of  the  reign  is  Prussia's 
neglect  of  the  opportunity  to  take  up  a  strong  position  as 
the  political  and  military  leader  of  northern  and  central 
Germany  :  the  king  refused  the  imperial  crown  offered  to 
him  by  the  Frankfort  Parliament  in  1849,  and  allowed 
Prussia  to  play  a  subordinate  role  at  Olmiitz  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  the  Prussian 
Government  was  distrusted  at  home  and  discredited  abroad. 

In  1858  William,  prince  of  Prussia,  became  regent  in  Williat 
consequence  of  the  mental  illness  of  his  brother,  and  in 
1861  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  as  William  I.  His  acces- 
sion was  hailed  as  likely  to  increase  both  the  liberalism  of 
Prussia's  internal  institutions  and  the  vigour  of  its  external 
policy ;  and  the  second  at  least  of  these  expectations  was 
not  disappointed.  But  at  an  early  period  of  his  reign 
the  king  became  involved  in  a  constitutional  dispute  with 
the  House  of  Representatives,  which  declined  to  grant 
the  supplies  necessary  for  an  extensive  system  of  military 
reorganization.  Bismarck,  who  became  prime  minister  in 
1862,  refused  to  allow  the  crown  to  be  hampered  by  parlia- 
mentary restrictions  and  raised  the  funds  required  in  defi- 
ance of  the  attitude  of  the  lower  house.  This  internal 
conflict  may  have  had  its  influence  in  forcing  upon  the 
ministry  the  necessity  of  a  strong  foreign  policy,  especially 
in  its  dealings  with  Austria,  though  the  party  of  reform 
believed  that  the  hegemony  of  Germany  might  have  been 
secured  by  Prussia  without  war  if  she  had  simply  placed 


GEOGRAPHY.] 


PRUSSIA 


13 


herself  at  the  head  of  the  liberal  movement.  Prussia's 
neutral  attitude  in  the  Austro-Italian  War  was  the  first 
sign  of  the  coming  storm ;  and  then  followed  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  episode,  culminating  in  the  war  of  1866  (see 
AUSTRIA),  the  successful  issue  of  which  expelled  Austria 
from  Germany  and  left  its  rival  in  undisputed  possession. 
The  territorial  acquisitions  which  Prussia  now  made,  con- 
sisting of  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-Nassau,  Frankfort, 
and  Schleswig-Holstein,  increased  its  extent  by  about  a 
fifth  and  for  the  first  time  gave  a  satisfactory  rounding-off 
to  its  form.  The  Prussian  landtag,  carried  away  by  success, 
granted  Bismarck,  by  a  large  majority,  the  indemnity  he 
had  the  grace  to  ask  for  in  regard  to  his  previous  unconsti- 
tutional proceeding's  in  the  financial  dispute. 

The  war  of  1866  gave  the  deathblow  to  the  Germanic 
Confederation  of  1815,  and  in  its  place  appeared  the  North 
German  Confederation  under  the  lead  of  Prussia.  The 
transformation  was  completed  five  years  later,  after  the 
successful  war  with  France,  when  the  south  German  states 
also  joined  the  union  and  the  king  of  Prussia  became  the 
German  emperor.  The  united  Germany  that  Frederick 
the  Great  had  sought  in  the  Fiirstenbund,  that  Frederick 
William  III.  had  tried  to  organize  in  1806  in  opposition 
to  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  that  Frederick  William 
IV.  had  hoped  to  achieve  in  1850,  was  at  length  an 
accomplished  fact.  In  entering  this  union  Prussia  may  in 
a  sense  be  said  to  have  abdicated  her  position  as  a  great 
power  in  favour  of  Germany,  but  her  influence  within  the 
empire,  practically  comprising  that  of  all  the  small  north 
German  states,  is  so  overwhelming  that  her  identity  is  not 
likely  ever  to  be  wholly  lost.  Any  measure  increasing  the 
power  of  the  empire  at  the  expense  of  the  individual  states 
is  tantamount  to  an  increase  of  the  power  of  Prussia. 

Since  the  Franco- German  War  the  history  of  Prussia 
has  been  for  the  outside  world  practically  identical  with 
that  of  Germany  and  has  centred  in  the  figure  of  Prince 
Bismarck.  The  policy  of  the  imperial  chancellor  and 
Prussian  premier  is  essentially  autocratic  in  its  nature, 
and  seems  to  have  for  its  keynote  the  necessity  of  main- 
taining at  any  price  a  strong  central  Government  to  cope 
with  external  emergencies.  He  identifies  himself  with 
no  party,  but  generally  manages  by  timely  concessions  to 
form  such  temporary  parliamentary  combinations  as  are 
necessary  to  carry  the  measures  he  has  most  at  heart.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  does  not  hesitate  freely  to  call  into 
requisition  the  royal  veto  on  resolutions  of  parliament  of 
which  he  does  not  approve.  His  reversion  to  a  strong 
protectionist  policy,  which  became  marked  in  1879,  the 
date  to  which  the  history  is  brought  down  in  the  article 
GERMANY,  has  so  far  proved  permanent,  and  numerous 
protective  measures  have  been  passed,  though  his  favourite 
scheme  of  a  Government  monopoly  of  tobacco  has  been 
decisively  rejected  both  by  the  imperial  and  the  Prussian 
chambers.  As  a  pendant  to  these  measures  may  be  men- 
tioned the  laws  intended  to  improve  the  position  of  the 
working  classes,  most  of  which  are  inspired  by  a  spirit  of 
state  socialism.  The  alienation  of  the  National  Liberals, 
occasioned  by  the  change  in  Bismarck's  economic  policy, 
has  compelled  him  to  seek  his  later  majorities  in  a  com- 
bination of  Conservatives  and  Ultramontanes,  the  benefit 
of  which  has  been  mainly  reaped  by  the  latter.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  some  conciliatory  advances  were 
made  by  Rome  and  Prussia;  in  1881  diplomatic  relations 
were  reopened  with  the  Vatican,  and  several  important 
concessions  were  made  by  a  measure  passed  in  1883.  The 
May  laws  have  not  been  repealed,  but  they  have  latterly 
been  put  in  force  with  much  less  stringency,  and  a  great 
many  of  the  vacant  bishoprics  and  pastorates  have  been  at 
least  temporarily  filled.  The  Ultramontanes  continue  to 
form  one  of  the  largest  "  fractions  "  both  in  the  reichstag 


and  in  the  Prussian  landtag.  In  spite  of  the  continued 
existence  of  the  special  law  passed  against  the  socialists, 
which  has  been  prolonged  from  time  to  time,  their  numbers 
have  grown  steadily,  and  in  the  autumnal  election  of  1884 
they  returned  no  fewer  than  twenty-four  of  their  candidates 
to  the  reichstag,  polling  550,000  votes,  or  about  ten  per 
cent,  of  the  total  number  recorded.  Their  success  was 
especially  marked  in  Berlin,  where  they  returned  two 
members  and  polled  70,000  votes.  The  same  election  was 
also  remarkable  for  the  diminution  of  the  German  Liberal- 
ists  (Deutsch- Freisinnige),  a  party  formed  by  the  fusion  of 
the  Progressists  and  Secessionists. 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  event  in  the  recent  history 
of  Germany  has  been  her  entrance  into  the  ranks  of  the 
colonial  powers  by  the  annexation  in  1884  of  several  dis- 
tricts on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  among  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  this  step  Prince  Bismarck  has 
revived  a  policy  that  has  slumbered  since  the  time  of  the 
Great  Elector  (see  p.  8),  but  there  seems  little  reason  to 
doubt  that  this  new  scheme  of  colonization  will  prove  of 
more  permanent  importance  than  that  of  the  17th  century. 

CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  CHIEF  EVENTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  PRUSSIA. 

930.  Foundation  of  the  North  Mark,  the  nucleus  of  Brandenburg.  1134. 
Albert  the  Bear  is  invested  with  the  North  Mark,  and  founds  the  Ascanian 
line  of  margraves.  1230-83.  Conquest  of  Preussen  by  the  Teutonic  Order. 
1324-66.  Margraves  of  the  Bavarian  line.  1356.  Brandenburg  definitely  re- 
cognized as  an  electorate.  1373-1413.  Luxemburg  line  of  electors.  1415. 
Frederick  of  Hohenzollern  becomes  elector  of  Brandenburg.  1539.  Reforma- 
tion proclaimed  by  Joachim  II.  1618.  Duchy  of  Prussia  inherited  by  Elector 
John  Sigismund.  1640.  Accession  of  Frederick  William,  the  Great  Elector. 
1648.  Brandenburg-Prussia  receives  Farther  Pomerania,  Magdeburg,  Halber- 
stadt,  and  Minden  at  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  1657.  Independence  of  the  duchy 
of  Prussia  recognized.  1675.  Victory  over  the  Swedes  at  Fehrbellin.  1701. 
Elector  Frederick  assumes  the  title  of  "king  of  Prussia."  1720.  Acquisition 
of  Hither  Pomerania.  1740.  Accession  of  Frederick  the  Great.  1742.  Acquisi- 
tion of  Silesia  at  the  close  of  the  first  Silesian  War.  1744-45.  Second  Silesian 
War. 
Ros 
Au 

1772.  First  partition  of  Poland  ;  acquisition'of  West  Prussia.     17927  War  with 


War  declared  against  Napoleon  ;  defeats  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt ;  Prussia 
conquered  by  the  French.  1807.  Peace  of  Tilsit  and  dismemberment  of  the 
kingdom.  1808.  Beginning  of  Stein's  constitutional  reforms.  1813.  War  of 
liberation;  battle  of  Leipsic  (16th  to  19th  October).  1814-15.  Congress  of 
Vienna  ;  Prussia  rehabilitated  ;  establishment  of  the  Germanic  Confederation. 
1815.  Battle  of  Waterloo.  1850.  Promulgation  of  the  Prussian  constitution. 


1871.  The  king  of  Prussia  proclaimed  German  emperor. 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  STATISTICS. 

Physical  Features.1 — Fully  three-fifths  of  Prussia  belong  to  the  Physical 
great  north  European  plain  and  may  be  generally  characterized  as  features, 
lowlands.  The  plain  is  much  wider  on  the  east,  where  only  the 
southern  margin  of  Prussia  is  mountainous,  than  on  the  west, 
where  the  Hanoverian  hills  approach  to  within  less  than  100  miles 
of  the  sea.  A  line  drawn  from  Diisseldorf  through  Halle  to  Breslau 
would,  roughly  speaking,  divide  the  flat  part  of  the  country  from 
the  hilly  districts.  In  the  south-east  Prussia  is  separated  from 
Austria  and  Bohemia  by  the  Sudetic  chain,  which  begins  at  the 
valley  of  the  Oder  and  extends  thence  towards  the  north-west. 
This  chain  includes  the  Riesen  Gebirge,  with  the  highest  mountain 
in  Prussia  (Schneekoppe,  5266  feet),  and  subsides  gradually  in  the 
hills  of  Lusatia.  The  Harz  Mountains,  however,  beyond  the  Saxon 
plain,  follow  the  same  general  direction  and  may  be  regarded  as  a 
detached  continuation  of  the  system.  To  the  south  of  the  Harz 
the  Prussian  frontier  intersects  the  northern  part  of  the  Thuringian 
Forest,  which  is  also  prolonged  towards  the  north-west  by  the 
Weser  Hills  and  the  Teutoburgian  Forest.  The  south-west  of 
Prussia  is  occupied  by  the  plateau  of  the  lower  'Rhine,  including 
on  the  left  bank  the  Hundsriick  and  the  Eifel,  and  on  the  right  the 
Taunus,  the  Westerwald,  and  the  Sauerland.  Between  the  lower 
Rhenish  and  Thuringian  systems  are  interposed  the  Vogelsberg, 
the  Rhb'n,  and  other  hills  belonging  to  the  Triassic  system  of  the 
upper  Rhine.  The  Silesian  mountains  are  composed  chiefly  of 
granite,  gneiss,  and  schists,  while  the  Harz  and  the  lower  Rhenish 
plateau  are  mainly  of  Devonian  and  Silurian  formation.  To  the 
north  of  the  Sauerland  is  the  important  Carboniferous  system  of  the 

1  The  physical  features  of  Prussia  have  been  already  so  fully  de- 
scribed under  GERMANY  that  it  has  been  deemed  unnecessary  to  give 
here  more  than  the  briefest  recapitulation.  For  other  points  which 
the  reader  may  here  miss  he  is  also  referred  to  that  article. 


14 


PRUSSIA 


[SOIL  AND  PRODUCTS. 


Ruhr,  and  there  are  also  extensive  coal-fields  in  Silesia.  "With  the 
exception  of  the  Danube  Prussia  is  traversed  by  all  the  chief  rivers 
of  Germany,  comprising  almost  the  entire  course  of  the  Oder  and 
the  Weser.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  German  coast-line  belongs  to 
Prussia,  and  it  possesses  all  the  important  seaports  except  the  two 
most  important  of  all,  Hamburg  and  Bremen. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Prussia  is  rendered  more  uniform  than 
it  would  otherwise  be  by  the  fact  that  the  average  elevation  in- 
creases from  north  to  south.  The  greatest  extremes  of  temperature 
are  found  between  the  east  and  west,  the  mean  annual  warmth  in 
the  bleak  and  exposed  provinces  of  the  north-east  being  about  44° 
Fahr.,  while  that  of  the  sheltered  valley  of  the  Rhine  is  6°  higher. 
The  difference  is  greatest  in  winter,  when  the  respective  means  are 
26°  and  35°  ;  in  summer  the  difference  is  not  above  2°  to  4°.  In 
Prussia  as  a  whole  the  thermometer  ranges  from  1 00°  to  -  30°,  but 
these  extremes  are  rarely  reached.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is 
about  21  inches  ;  it  is  highest  in  the  hilly  district  on  the  west  (34 
inches)  and  on  the  north-west  coast  (30  to  32  inches),  and  lowest  (16 
inches)  in  the  inland  parts  of  the  eastern  provinces. 

Soil. — According  to  the  most  recent  official  returns,  about  29  per 
cent,  of  the  soil  of  Prussia  consists  of  good  loam  or  clay,  32  per 
cent,  is  mediocre  or  of  loam  and  sand  mixed,  31  per  cent,  is  pre- 
dominantly sandy,  and  6  per  cent,  is  occupied  by  bogs  and  marshes. 
The  north-eastern  provinces  contain  a  high  proportion  of  poor  soil, 
and  in  the  north-west  occur  large  tracts  of  heath  and  moor.  The 
reclaimed  marshlands  in  both  districts,  as  well  as  the  soil  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  rivers,  are  usually  very  fertile, 
and  admirable  tracts  of  fruitful  ground  are  found  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Rhine  and  its  affluents  and  in  the  plain  around  Magdeburg. 
Patient  and  long- con  tinned  effort  has,  however,  done  much  to 
equalize  production,  and  large  crops  are  now  grown  in  some  of  the 
most  unpromising  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Prussia  contains  a  greater 
proportion  of  tilled  land  than  any  of  the  countries  of  south  Germany, 
while  it  is  surpassed  in  this  respect  by  Saxony,  Hesse-Dannstadt, 
and  the  Thuringiau  states.  The  most  fertile  Prussian  province  is 
Saxony,  while  the  least  productive  are  East  and  West  Prussia. 
The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of  the  cultivable  area  in 
the  different  provinces  and  in  the  country  as  a  whole  : — 


Province. 

Area. 

Arable  Land, 
50  per  cent. 

Meadow  and 
Pasture, 
20  '4  per  cent. 

Forests, 
23  '3  per  cent. 

Sq.  miles. 
14,280 

Acres. 
4,709,295 

Acres. 
2  127,317 

Acres. 
1,681  057 

West  Prussia  
Brandenburg    
Pomerania  

9,850 
15,410 
11,620 

3,455,000 
4,586,360 
4,152,002 

1,124,885 
1,487,872 
1,408,882 

1,349,392 
3,205,635 
1,480,990 

Posen  

11,180 

4,452,360 

934,450 

1,464,442 

Silesia   ... 

15,560 

5,588,090 

1,055  487 

2,907  570 

Saxony    

9,750 

3,836,192 

826  352 

1  269  920 

Schleswig-Holstein  .  . 
Hanover  

7,280 
14,810 

2,712,575 
3,126,182 

1,357,905 
4,365,115 

287,917 
1,512,567 

Westphalia  

7,800 

2,121,745 

1  262,530 

1,411,085 

Hesse-Nassau    
Rhenish  Prussia  
Hohenzollern    

6,060 
10,420 
440 

1,561,552 
3,134,190 
130,967 

623,872 
1,158,065 
50,212 

1,572,492 
2.073,580 
94,652 

Total.... 

134,490 

43,566,510 

17,782,944 

20,311,299 

Prussia  contains  a  greater  proportion  of  woodland  than  any  other 
large  country  in  the  south  or  west  of  Europe  (France  17  per  cent., 
Italy  12  per  cent.,  Great  Britain  3  per  cent.),  though  not  so  large 
a  proportion  as  Russia,  Austria,  and  some  of  the  minor  German 
states.  The  most  extensive  forests  are  in  East  and  West  Prussia, 
Siles;a,  and  Brandenburg,  where  coniferous  trees  prevail,  and  in 
the  Rhenish  and  Hessian  districts,  where  oaks  and  oeeches  are  the 
most  prominent  growths.  The  north-west  is  almost  entirely  desti- 
tute of  timber,  and  peat  is  there  used  universally  as  fuel.  The 
Government  forests  cover  about  6, 000, 000  acres,  or  upwards  of  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole,  and  are  admirably  managed,  bringing  in  an 
annual  revenue  of  1  j  millions  sterling.  The  state  also  controls  the 
management  of  forests  in  private  possession,  and  exerts  itself  to 
secure  the  planting  of  waste  lands. 

Products.  Products. — The  principal  crop  in  Prussia  is  rye,  of  which  the 
ordinary  bread  of  the  country  is  made  ;  it  grows  in  all  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  especially  in  the  north  and  east,  and  occupies  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole  tilled  surface.  Oats  occupy  an  area  equal  to 
about  half  that  devoted  to  rye,  and  are  also  grown  most  extensively 
in  the  north-eastern  districts.  Wheat,  which  is  chiefly  cultivated 
in  the  south  and  west,  does  not  cover  more  than  a  fourth  as  much 
ground  as  rye.  Barley  is  most  largely  grown  in  Saxony  and  Silesia. 
Other  grain  crops  are  spelt  (chiefly  on  the  Rhine),  buckwheat 
(Hanover  and  Scnleswig-Holstein),  and  millet ;  maize  is  grown  for 
fodder  in  some  districts.  The  produce  of  grain  scarcely  covers  the 
consumption  and  is  supplemented  by  imports  of  rye  and  other 
cereals  from  Russia  and  Holland.  Potatoes,  used  both  as  food  and 
for  the  distillation  of  spirits,  are  cultivated  over  nearly  as  large  an 
area  as  rye  and  are  especially  predominant  in  the  eastern  provinces. 
The  common  beet  is  extensively  grown  for  the  production  of  sugar 
in  Saxony,  Hanover,  Silesia,  Pomerania,  and  Brandenburg.  Flax 
and  hemp  occupy  considerable  areas  in  East  Pmssia,  Silesia,  and 


Hanover,  while  hops  arc  raised  chiefly  in  Posen  and  Saxony.  Tho 
cultivation  of  rape-seed  for  oil  has  fallen  off  since  the  use  of  petro- 
leum has  become  general.  The  tobacco  of  Silesia,  llraiidciiburg, 
Hanover,  and  the  Rhine  province  is  inferior  to  that  of  southern 
Germany;  the  annual  value  of  Prussian -grown  tobacco  is  about 
£500,000,  or  one-fourth  of  the  total  produce  of  the  empire.  Only 
a  comparatively  small  part  of  the  Rhenish  wine  district  falls  within 
Prussia,  which  does  not  claim  more  than  a  sixth  (200,000,000 
gallons,  value  £400,000)  of  the  annual  produce  of  Germany;  but 
this  includes  many  of  the  choicest  varieties,  such  as  Steinberger, 
Johannisberger,  and  Riidesheimer.  The  best  vineyards  of  the 
Moselle  also  belong  to  Prussia,  and  inferior  kinds  of  wine  are  pro- 
duced in  Saxony  and  Lower  Silesia.  Great  quantities  of  apples, 
cherries,  and  plums  are  raised  on  the  Rhine,  in  Saxony,  and  other 
districts,  while  market-gardening  on  an  extensive  scale  is  pnnti-.  ,L 
near  Erfurt  and  some  other  large  towns.  The  hay-meadows  of  the 
eastern  provinces  are  the  largest,  but  those  in  the  west  bear  heavier 
crops.  The  richest  pasture  is  afforded  by  the  marshlands  along  the 
North  Sea  and  by  the  plain  of  the  lower  Rhine,  while  the  large 
moors  of  Westphalia  ami  Hanover  are  of  comparatively  little  value 
in  this  respect.  The  accompanying  table  shows  the  yield  in  tons 
of  the  principal  crops  in  1883,  in  which  year,  however,  the  returns 
were  rather  below  the  average  : — 


Province. 

Rye. 

Wheat. 

Barley. 

Oats. 

Potatoes. 

Hay. 

East  Prussia  .... 
West  Prussia  .  . 
Brandenburg  .  . 
Poinerania  

330,565 
269,030 
499,957 
310,789 
866,707 

88,585 
83,608 
55,963 
64,406 
82,999 

71,987 
69,600 
74,330 
59,554 
71,156 

211,139 
119,710 
140,382 
183,554 
93,670 

58(5,640 
838,953 
2,555,660 
1,240,691 
1,377,857 

600,231 
320,984 
699,751 
578,290 
435,534 

Silesia  

481,706 

177,981 

174  671 

330,810 

1,929,859 

703,269 

377,259 

197,223 

278,237 

224,808 

1,744,984 

424,477 

Schleswig- 
Holstein 

181,793 
459,780 

75,049 
130  438 

60,775 
44,053 

196,731 
177,401 

224,869 
1,003,765 

375,469 
715  734 

Westphalia  .... 
Hesse-Nassau  .  . 
Rhenish  Prussia 
Hohenzollern  .  . 

264,358 
ii7,ii:-is 
237,883 
85-2 

88,153 
60,110 
151,309 
1,894 

27,976 
28,156 
43,078 
6,403 

116,435 
96,642 
224,720 
9,433 

714,486 
642,360 
1,383,132 
19,955 

333,833 
3.S6.781 
478,575 
48,197 

Total.... 

3,898,617 

1,257,718 

1,010,036 

2,125,435 

14,263,211 

6,101,125 

About  one-half  of  the  cultivable  soil  is  in  the  possession  of  owners 
with  properties  exceeding  180  acres  in  extent  and  averaging  860 
acres,  while  one -half  of  the  total  number  of  owners  occupy  only 
one-fortieth  of  the  entire  area.  The  manner  of  distribution  varies 
greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  large  properties  prevailing 
in  the  less  fertile  regions  in  the  east  and  peasant-holdings  in  the 
west.  In  the  district  of  Stralsund  the  average  number  of  land- 
owners for  each  German  square  mile  is  100,  while  in  the  district 
of  Wiesbaden  it  is  ten  times  as  high.  In  Silesia  and  Posen  lati- 
fundia  occupy  nearly  half  the  total  area,  though  this  disproportion 
is  gradually  disappearing  there  as  elsewhere.  As  a  general  rule  the 
best  crops  seem  to  be  raised  on  the  holdings  of  intermediate  size. 

Live  Stock. — According  to  an  enumeration  made  in  1883,  Prussia  Livn 
contains  2,417,641  horses,  8,737,367  cattle,  14,752,328  sheep,  stock. 
5,819,136  pigs,  and  1,680,686  goats.  The  province  of  East  Prussia, 
with  the  principal  Government  stud  of  Trakehnen,  is  the  head- 
quarters of  horse -rearing,  and  contains  the  greatest  number  of 
horses  both  relatively  (1  per  5  inhabitants)  and  absolutely  (383,555). 
The  horses  bred  there  are  generally  suitable  for  the  lighter  kind  of 
work  only,  and  are  in  great  request  for  military  purposes.  Horses 
of  a  stouter  type  are  bred  in  Schleswig-Holstein  and  on  the  Rhine, 
but  heavy  draught  horses  have  to  be  imported  from  France,  Holland, 
Belgium,  and  Denmark.  The  best  cattle  are  reared  in  the  maritime 
provinces,  and  the  highest  proportion  (65  per  100  inhabitants)  is 
found  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  whence,  as  well  as  from  the  marshy 
lowlands  of  Hanover,  large  numbers  are  exported  to  England. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  south  German  states  are  richer  in  cattle 
than  Prussia.  Prussia  is  one  of  the  leading  sheep-breeding  countries 
of  Europe,  and  much  has  been  done  to  improve  the  race  and  increase 
the  value  of  the  flesh  and  wool.  In  Pomerania  there  are  170  sheep 
for  every  100  inhabitants,  and  West  Prussia  and  Posen  also  contain 
a  high  proportion.  The  total  number  of  sheep  in  Prussia  is,  how- 
ever, diminishing  owing  to  the  spread  of  agriculture  and  the  in- 
creased importation  of  wool ;  in  1861  it  was  nearly  21  millions. 
Swine  abound  in  the  central  provinces,  and  hams  and  sausages  are 
largely  exported  from  Westphalia,  Hanover,  and  Saxony.  Hugo 
flocks  of  geese  are  reared  in  Pomerania,  and  bee-keeping  is  a  profit- 
able industry  in  Hanover,  East  and  West  Prussia,  and  the  province  . 
of  the  Rhine. 

Fislwrics, — The  fishery  on  the  Baltic  Sea  and  its  haffs  employs  Fisheries 
about  15,000  men,  and  that  on  the  North  Sea  about  2000  more. 
In  the  former  the  take  consists  mainly  of  herrings,  flat  fish,  salmon, 
mackerel,  and  eels,  while  the  chief  objects  of  the  latter  are  cod  and 
oysters.  Inland  fishery  has  been  encouraged  by  the  foundation  of 
numerous  piscicultural  establishments  and  by  the  enactment  of 
close-time  laws.  Carp,  perch,  pike,  and  salmon,  the  latter  especi- 
ally in  the  Rhine,  are  the  principal  varieties  ;  sturgeon  are  taken 
in  the  Elbe  and  Oder,  and  the  lakes  of  East  Pmssia  swarm  with 


INDUSTRIES.] 


P  R  U  S  S  I  A 


15 


bream  and  lampreys.  Game  of  various  kinds  abounds  in  different 
parts  of  Prussia,  and  the  lakes  are  frequented  by  large  flocks  of 
water-fowl. 

aerals.  Minerals. — Although  it  is  obvious  that  the  recent  formations 
of  the  north  German  plain  can  boast  of  little  or  no  mineral  wealth, 
Prussia  still  takes  rank  among  the  great  mining  states.  Its  produce 
of  coal  and  iron  exceeds  that  of  any  country  in  Europe,  except  Great 
Britain  ;  in  the  production  of  zinc  it  is  the  foremost  country  in  the 
world ;  and  its  stores  of  salt  are  very  considerable.  In  1882  the 
total  value  of  the  mineral  produce  of  Prussia  was  about  17£  millions 
sterling.  About  370,000  persons  are  employed  in  its  mines,  the 
larger  part  of  whom  are  engaged  in  the  production  of  coal.  For 
purposes  of  administration  and  supervision  the  entire  country  is 
divided  into  five  mining  districts  (Oberberyamtsbezirke),  the  head- 
quarters of  which  are  Breslau,  Halle,  Klausthal  (in  the  Harz),  Dort- 
mund, and  Bonn. 

The  two  great  deposits  of  coal  are  in  the  basin  of  the  Ruhr  on 
the  west,  where  about  20  million  tons  are  raised  annually,  and  in 
Upper  Silesia,  where  the  beds  are  still  more  extensive  but  the  coal 
of  a  somewhat  inferior  quality.  The  greater  part  of  the  smaller 
but  valuable  coal-field  of  the  Saar  also  belongs  to  Prussia,  and  other 
important  beds  occur  in  Lower  Silesia,  near  Halle,  and  near  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  In  1882  Prussia  produced  upwards  of  47  million  tons 
of  coal,  equal  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  yield  of  Germany,  and 
double  the  output  of  1869.  Nearly  three-fourths  of  this  amount 
came  from  the  western  coal-fields  and  upwards  of  one-fourth  from 
the  coal-measures  of  Silesia.  The  total  value  was  £11,636,250. 
Brown  coal  or  lignite  is  found  throughout  the  whole  of  Prussia, 
except  in  the  extreme  north-east  and  north-west,  but  occurs  most 
plentifully  in  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and  north  Silesia.  In  1882 
the  produce  was  nearly  11  million  tons,  value  li  millions  sterling. 
Peat  is  cut  in  large  quantities  in  Hanover,  where  15  per  cent,  of 
the  surface  consists  of  moorland.  Iron  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
Prussia,  occurring  in  the  form  of  bog-iron  ore  even  in  the  northern 
lowlands.  The  richest  districts  are  those  of  Coblentz  in  the  province 
of  the  Rhine,  Arnsberg  in  Westphalia,  Oppeln  in  Silesia,  and 
Wiesbaden.  A  valuable  bed  of  magnetic  -  iron  ore  occurs  in  the 
Harz.  In  1882  fully  4,000,000  tons  of  iron  ore  were  raised  in 
Prussia,  valued  at  £1,415,950  and  forming  70  per  cent,  of  the  total 
yield  of  Germany.  The  quantity  of  pig-iron  smelted  from  these 
and  from  imported  ores  was  2,467,500  tons  and  its  value  £7,490,000. 
Prussia  produces  nearly  the  whole  of  the  zinc  of  Germany,  and 
Silesia  three-fourths  of  that  of  Prussia  ;  in  1882  the  amount  was 
113,300  tons,  valued  at  £1,795,000.  The  produce  of  lead  in  the 
same  year  was  88,300  tons,  valued  at  £1,200,000  and  found  mainly 
in  the  valley  of  the  Lahn  near  Coblentz,  in  Silesia,  in  the  Harz,  and 
in  Hesse-Nassau.  Copper  was  produced  to  the  extent  of  15,400 
tons  and  the  value  of  £1,025,000  ;  five-sevenths  were  raised  in 
Saxony,  which  includes  some  of  the  productive  mines  of  the  Harz. 
Silver  and  gold  are  extracted  from  the  copper  ore  of  Mansfeld  in 
Saxony,  and  silver  also  from  the  lead  ores  of  Silesia,  Aix-la- 
Cbapelle,  Wiesbaden,  and  Arnsberg.  In  1882  the  value  of  the 
silver  smelted  out  was  £1,214,700,  of  gold  only  £9050.  Salt  also 
ranks  high  in  importance  among  the  mineral  treasures  of  Prussia. 
In  18S2  the  total  yield  included  252,300  tons  of  boiled  salt,  210,100 
tons  of  rock-salt,  and  85,400  tons  of  other  salts,  with  a  total  value 
of  £719,600.  Brine  springs  occur  throughout  almost  the  whole 
kingdom,  but  by  far  the  most  productive  provinces  are  Saxony 
and  Hanover.  Rock-salt  is  mined  at  Stassfurt  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  and  in  Posen.  Chloride  of  potash  and  potassium  salts  are 
also  extensively  found  in  Saxony.  The  other  mineral  products 
include  manganese,  nickel,  pyrites,  cobalt,  quicksilver,  alum, 
gypsum,  and  sulphuric  acid.  Good  building-stone  is  common 
throughout  the  country,  marble  is  found  in  Silesia,  and  roofing 
slates  in  the  Devonian  formations  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Harz. 
Chalk  pits  and  cliffs  abound  in  the  Island  of  Riigen.  The  amber 
of  the  Baltic  coast  is  picked  up  on  the  beach  after  a  storm,  and  is 
also  found  by  digging  and  dredging.  About  3000  persons  are  em- 
ployed in  the  search,  and  in  favourable  seasons  3000  to  4000  cwts. 
are  collected.  Mineral  springs  are  numerous  among  the  mountains 
of  Silesia,  the  Taunus  and  the  Eifel.  The  most  generally  known 
are  those  in  the  district:  of  Wiesbaden,  including  Wiesbaden  itself, 
Ems,  Homburg,  Schlangenbad,  and  Schwalbach. 

as-  Industries.  —  Prussia  now  takes  a  high  place  among  the  manufac- 
5.  turing  states  of  Europe,  though  the  foundation  of  its  industrial  im- 
portance cannot  be  dated  farther  back  than  the  reign  of  the  Great 
Elector  (1640-88),  As  a  general  rule,  apart  from  a  few  of  the  larger 
towns,  the  busiest  manufacturing  centres  are  found  on  the  lower 
slopes  and  outskirts  of  the  mountainous  districts,  such  as  the 
Rhenish  val'eys,  Lusatia,  and  the  vicinity  of  the  Silesian  coal- 
fields. About  35  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  supported  by 
industrial  pursuits.  The  district  of  Diisseldorf  is  the  busiest  in 
Prussia,  and  Berlin  and  Elberfeld-Barmen  are  among  the  chief 
hives  of  industry  on  the  Continent.  The  principal  manufactured 
products  are  woollen,  linen,  cotton,  silk,  and  iron  goods. 

The  metallic  industries,  as  might  be  expected,  flourish  chiefly  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  coal-fields  and  have  reached  their  highest 


development  in  the  district  of  the  Ruhr.  Steel  is  made  most  ex- 
tensively in  the  districts  of  Arnsberg  (Westphalia)  and  Diisseldorf ; 
at  Essen  in  the  latter  is  Krupp's  celebrated  cannon-foundry,  with 
20,000  workmen.  Small  iron  and  steel  goods  also  come  chiefly 
from  the  Westphalian  and  Rhenish  districts ;  and  the  cutlery  of 
Solingen,  the  tools  of  Remscheid,  and  the  needles  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  enjoy  a  widespread  reputation.  Berlin  is  the  chief  seat 
of  the  manufacture  of  machinery  and  locomotives.  Small  arms  are 
made  at  Suhl,  Spandau,  Potsdam,  and  Sommerda  (Erfurt).  Articles 
in  bronze,  brass,  and  electro-plate  are  largely  made  at  and  exported 
from  Berlin,  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Iserlohn,  and  Altena,  while 
gold  and  silver  goods  are  produced  chiefly  at  Berlin  and  Hanau. 

The  textile  industries  of  Prussia  are  also  important,  employing 
400,000  workpeople,  though  they  do  not  rank  in  extent  with  those 
of  Great  Britain.  Until  recently  the  chief  textile  manufacture 
was  linen,  which  was  largely  made  by  hand  in  Silesia,  Westphalia, 
and  Saxony.  The  domestic  mode  of  manufacture  has  now  to  a 
great  extent  disappeared,  but  Westphalian  and  Silesian  linens  still 
maintain  their  reputation.  The  manufacture  covers  the  home 
demand,  but  about  one-third  of  the  necessary  flax  and  hemp  has 
to  be  imported.  Jute  is  made  at  Bielefeld  and  Bonn.  The  manu- 
facture of  cotton  has  of  late  made  great  progress,  though  it  is  not 
so  important  in  Prussia  as  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  and  in 
Alsace.  The  chief  centres  of  this  branch  of  industry  are  Diissel- 
dorf, Minister,  Elberfeld-Barmen,  Hanover,  Breslau,  and  Liegnitz. 
About  65  per  cent,  of  the  woollen  yarn  of  Germany  is  made  in 
Prussia,  and  woollen  cloth  of  good  quality  is  produced  in  the  pro- 
vince of  the  Rhine,  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Saxony.  The 
spinning  and  weaving  of  worsted  and  woollen  cloth  are  also  still 
carried  on  throughout  the  country  as  domestic  industries,  but  not 
to  such  an  extent  as  formerly.  Wool  and  worsted  yarn  are  imported 
from  England  and  other  countries,  but  the  cloth  manufactured  is 
much  in  excess  of  the  home  demand  and  forms  an  important  article 
of  export.  Carpets  are  made  at  Berlin  and  at  Diiren  in  the  Khine 
province.  Silk  is  manufactured  at  Crefeld,  Elberfeld-Barmen,  and 
other  placr s  near  the  Ehine.  Though  hardly  reaching  the  high 
standard  of  that  of  Lyons,  Rhenish  silk  commands  a  good  price, 
and  is  exported  to  England,  America,  Russia,  and  Austria. 

Tobacco  and  cigars  are  largely  manufactured  at  Berlin  and 
numerous  other  towns,  and  to  some  extent  wherever  the  tobacco 
plant  is  cultivated.  The  annual  consumption  of  tobacco  amounts 
to  about  4  lb  per  head  of  population,  or  nearly  thrice  as  much  as 
in  Great  Britain  ;  but  the  revenue  derived  from  the  tobacco  excise, 
owing  to  the  small  impost  on  home-made  tobacco,  is  not  more  than 
6d.  a  head  as  compared  with  5s.  per  head  in  England.  A  com- 
paratively modern  but  very  important  branch  of  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  common  beet.  The  great  centre  of 
this  industry  is  the  province  of  Saxony,  which  in  1882-83  contained 
nearly  half  the  280  sugar-works  in  the  kingdom,  the  remainder 
being  chiefly  in  Hanover  and  Silesia.  Upwards  of  600,000  tons  of 
raw  sugar  and  160,000  tons  of  molasses  are  produced  annually.1 
About  320  million  gallons  of  beer  are  brewed  in  Prussia  per  annum 
and  about  35  million  more  are  imported  from  Bavaria  and  Bohemia  ; 
the  consumption  per  head,  amounting  from  65  to  70  quarts,  is 
about  half  of  the  English  and  one -fourth  of  the  Bavarian  rate. 
Wine-making,  as  already  mentioned,  is  an  important  industry  on 
the  Rhine,  and  large  quantities  of  spirits  are  distilled  from  potatoes 
in  Brandenburg  and  the  eastern  provinces.  The  remaining  indus- 
trial products  of  Prussia  include  chemicals,  chiefly  made  in  Saxony, 
Silesia,  and  the  Rhenish  province  ;  dyes,  at  Elberfeld-Barmen  ami 
Crefeld  ;  paper,  in  the  districts  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Arnsberg,  and 
Liegnitz;  glass  ("Bohemian  glass"),  in  Silesia;  pianos,  at  Berlin, 
Breslau,  Cassel,  and  Erfurt ;  and  scientific  instruments,  at  Berlin 
and  Halle.  The  artistic  furniture  and  porcelain  of  Berlin  are  char- 
acteristic specialities.  In  nearly  every  department  there  has  been 
in  recent  years  a  steady  advance  both  in  quantity  and  quality. 

Trade. — The  commerce  of  Prussia  isgreatly  facilitated  by  its  central  Trade, 
position,  which  enables  it  to  carry  on  a  veiy  extensive  transit  trade  ; 
but,  as  the  returns  are  not  separated  from  those  of  the  other  members 
of  the  Zollverein,  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  guess  at  its 
annual  value.  According  to  the  Almanack  de  Gotha,  the  total  value 
of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  German  Customs  Union  in  1883 
amounted  to  upwards  of  £330,000,000;  and,  to  judge  from  the 
customs  receipts,  about  three-fifths  of  this  amount  must  be  credited 
to  Prussia.  The  chief  imports  are  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  and  other 
colonial  products,  grain,  wine,  textile  fabrics,  fruit,  petroleum,  and 
manufactured  articles  of  various  kinds.  Among  the  principal  ex- 
ports are  grain,  cattle,  wine,  potatoes,  woollen  and  linen  goods, 
hides  and  leather,  chemicals,  iron  and  steel  wares,  lead,  and  zinc. 
The  export  of  grain  to  France  and  England  has  fallen  off  greatly 
of  recent  years,  owing  to  the  increasing  demand  at  home.  The 
inland  trade  is  fostered  by  numerous  fairs,  the  most  important  of 
which  take  place  at  the  two  Frankforts,  Breslau,  and  Magdeburg. 
The  money-markets  of  Berlin  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main  are  among 
the  most  influential  in  Europe. 


1  Over-production,  stimulated  by  over-protection  and  the  high  bounty  on 
exportation,  produced  a  serious  crisis  in  this  industry  in  1884. 


16 


PRUSSIA 


[POPULATION. 


Com- 


tion. 


In  1883  Prussia  possessed  upwards  of  three-fifths  of  the  merchant 
ships  of  Germany,  including  2586  sailing  vessels  and  229  steamers, 
manned  by  17,315  men.  Their  burden,  however,  amounting  to 
449,391  tons,  was  little  more  than  one-third  of  the  whole,  and  was 
exceeded  by  that  of  Bremen  and  Hamburg  taken  together.  None 
of  the  Prussian  seaports  vies  with  either  Hamburg  or  Bremen  ;  the 
largest  is  Stettin,  which  possesses  a  fleet  of  40  steamers  and  280 
sailing  ships.  In  1881  the  Prussian  harbours  were  entered  by 
38,054  vessels  of  3,483,545  tons  burden,  and  cleared  by  38,005  of 
3,518,098  tons  burden.  The  best  seamen  are  furnished  by  the 
fishing  population  of  Friesland  or  Frisia. 

Communication. — With  most  internal  means  of  communication 
munica-  Prussia  is  well  provided.  Almost  none  of  its  excellent  highroads 
existed  in  the  time  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  many  of  them  date 
from  the  Napoleonic  era.  The  first  Prussian  railway  was  laid  in 
1838,  but  the  railway  system  did  not  receive  its  full  development 
until  the  events  of  1866  removed  the  obstacles  placed  in  the  way 
by  Hanover.  Most  of  the  lines  were  easy  of  construction,  and 
absorbed  comparatively  little  capital.  The  great  majority  were 
laid  by  private  companies,  and  the  Government  confined  itself  to 
establishing  lines  in  districts  not  likely  to  attract  private  capital. 
In  1879,  however,  a  measure  was  passed  authorizing  the  acquisi- 
tion by  the  state  of  the  private  railways,  and  in  1884  nine-tenths 
of  the  13,800  miles  of  railway  in  Prussia  were  in  the  hands  of 
Government.  The  proportion  of  railway  mileage  in  Prussia  (5 
miles  per  10,000  inhabitants)  is  nearly  as  high  as  in  Great  Britain, 
but  the  traffic  is  much  less.  Thus  in  1880-81  the  Prussian  rail- 
ways carried  only  124  million  passengers,  while  the  British  lines 
conveyed  622  millions.  The  expenses  swallowed  up  56  per  cent,  of 
the  gross  receipts,  or  4  per  cent,  more  than  those  of  England  in  the 
same  year  ;  but  in  the  matter  of  railway  accidents  the  comparison 
is  more  favourable  to  the  Prussian  railways,  on  which  only  235 
persons  lost  their  lives  as  compared  with  about  four  times  as  many 
in  Great  Britain.  The  passenger  traffic  has  not  increased  in  pro- 
portion to  the  extension  of  the  railway  system  and  the  growth  of 
population,  but  the  goods  traffic  has  steadily  advanced.  The  canal 
system  of  Prussia  is  little  beyond  its  infancy,  the  total  length  of  all 
the  canals  in  the  kingdom  being  only  1200  miles,  a  very  small 
number  as  compared  with  either  England  or  France.  Among  the 
most  important  are  those  uniting  the  Pregel  with  the  Memel,  and 
the  Vistula  with  the  Oder  (via  the  Netze),  and  those  bringing  the 
Spree  and  Havel  into  communication  with  the  Elbe  on  the  one 
side  and  the  Oder  on  the  other.  Canals  uniting  the  Ems  and  the 
Rhine,  the  Ems  and  the  Weser,  and  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe  are 
still  desiderata.  On  the  other  hand,  Prussia  has  a  large  supply  of 
navigable  rivers. 

Population. — The  last  census  of  Pmssia  was  taken  in  1880,  and 
the  accompanying  table  summarizes  the  principal  results  then  ascer- 
tained. The  total  population  amounts  to  about  60  per  cent,  of  that 
of  the  German  empire. 


Popula- 
tion 


Provinces. 

Popula- 
tion. 

£  _o 

a.c 
$.3 

Protest- 
ante. 

Roman 
Catho- 
lics. 

Other 
Chris- 
tian 
Sects. 

Jews. 

Others. 

East  Prussia  
West  Prussia  
Brandenburg  .... 
Pomerania  

1,933,956 
1,405,898 
3,389,155 
1,540,034 
1,703,397 
4,007,925 
2,312,007 
1,127,149 

2,120,168 
2,043,442 
1,554,376 
4,074,000 
67,624 

135 
142 
220 
132 
152 
257 
237 
154 

142 
262 
256 
390 
153 

1,654,510 
672,402 
3,182,486 
1,498,930 
532,499 
1,867,470 
2,154,655 
1,111,252 

1,842,136 
949,644 
1,087,901 
1,077,173 
2,221 

250,462 
693,719 
131,781 
23,877 
1,112,020 
2,082,084 
145,518 
8,903 

258,824 
1,070,212 
420,206 
2,944,18(5 
64,491 

7,483 
12,390 
6,087 
1,962 
451 
3,328 
3,394 
1,687 

2,738 
2,614 
3,073 
7,015 
3 

18,218 
26,547 
66,245 
13,886 
56,609 
52,682 
6,700 
3,522 

14,790 
18,810 
41,316 
43,694 
771 

3,263 
840 
2,556 
1,379 
1,818 
2,361 
1,740 
1,785 

1,680 
2,162 
1,880 
1,932 
138 

Silesia  

Saxony  

Schleswig-Hol- 
stein 
Hanover  

Westphalia  
Hesse-Nassau    .  . 
Rhineland  
Hohenzollern  — 

27,279,111 

202 

17,633,279 

9,206,283 

52,225 

363,790 

23,534 

The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  the  population  since  the 
death  of  Frederick,  the  first  king  of  Prussia.  The  first  trustworthy 
census  of  Prussia  was  taken  in  1816  ;  the  earlier  figures  are  only 
more  or  less  reasonable  estimates. 


Date. 

Population. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Average  per 
square  mile. 

1713 

1,731,000 

43,425 

39 

1740 

2,486,000 

45,900 

54 

1786 

5,430,000 

75,220 

72 

1797 

8,700,000 

118,000 

73 

1816 

10,349,031 

108,100 

05 

1831 

13,038,070 

108,100 

120 

1864 

19,254,649 

108,430 

177 

1880 

27,279,111 

134,490 

202-8 

Between  1816  and  1831  the  increase  of  the  population  of  Prussia 
was  about  30  per  cent.,  and  between  1831  and  1864  it  was  46  per 
cent.  Some  districts  have  more  than  doubled  their  population  since 
1816,  but  the  annual  increment  since  1866  has  not  exceeded  1  per 
cent.,  a  fact  due  to  the  less  rapid  multiplication  in  the  new  pro- 


vinces and  the  losses  in  the  Franco-German  War.  The  rate  of 
increase  in  the  latter  part  of  the  period  1867-84  has,  however,  been 
considerably  more  rapid  than  in  the  first  half.  The  increase  is 
entirely  due  to  the  surplus  of  births  over  deaths,  as  emigration  is 
very  much  in  excess  of  immigration.  With  the  exception  of  Saxony 
and  some  of  the  smallest  states,  Prussia  is  increasing  more  rapidly 
in  population  than  any  other  member  of  the  German  empire.  Its 
rate  of  increase  is  fully  twice  that  of  France  and  about  the  same 
as  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  highest  rate  of  increase  in 
1875-80  took  place  in  Berlin  (2 '92  per  annum)  ami  Westphalia 
(1-39),  the  lowest  in  Hohenzollern  (0'35)  and  East  Prussia  (0'82). 
The  birth-rate,  which  for  the  entire  country  is  40  per  1000,  is 
highest  in  West  Prussia,  Posen,  and  Westphalia  and  lowest  in 
Schleswig-Holstein,  Hanover,  and  Hesse-Nassau.  The  death-rate 
for  the  whole  monarchy  is  about  27  per  1000,  considerably  higher 
than  that  of  Great  Britain,  which  is  about  20  per  1 000.  Pomerania 
is  remarkable  for  its  low  death-rate,  West  Prussia  and  Silesia  for  a 
high  one.  Both  the  birth-rate  and  the  death-rate  show  a  tendency 
to  diminish.  Of  the  births  in  1882  8*11  per  cent,  were  illegitimate, 
the  proportion  varying  from  2 '92  per  cent,  in  Westphalia  to  11  per 
cent,  in  Pomerania,  and  nearly  15  per  cent,  in  Berlin.  Between 
1872  and  1880  the  number  of  marriages  diminished  with  almost 
unvarying  steadiness ;  since  1880  it  has  risen  again  and  now 
amounts  to  about  8  per  1000  inhabitants.  An  interesting  feature 
is  the  large  proportion  of  mixed  confessional  marriages,  amounting 
as  a  rule  to  about  7  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  Between  1871  and 
1881  the  annual  emigration  from  Prussia  amounted  to  1*8  per  1000 
inhabitants  ;  in  1882  no  fewer  than  129,894,  and  in  1883  104,167 
emigrants  left  the  country  by  the  German  ports  and  Antwerp. 
The  highest  proportion  of  emigrants  comes  from  Pomerania  (5'6) 
and  Posen  (4 '3),  the  lowest  from  Silesia,  the  Rhineland,  and  Saxony. 
A  study  of  the  figures  in  the  table  given  above  will  show  that  as  a 
rule  the  density  of  population  increases  from  north  to  south  and  from 
east  to  west.  As  might  be  expected,  the  thickest  population  is 
found  in  the  mining  and  manufacturing  district  of  the  Rhine,  which 
is  closely  followed  by  the  coal-regions  of  Silesia  and  parts  of  Saxony 
and  Westphalia.  The  proportion  for  the  whole  kingdom  is  about 
200  per  square  mile,  but  in  the  district  of  Diisseldorf  this  figure 
rises  to  750  and  in  the  moorlands  of  Hanover  it  sinks  to  less  than 
50.  According  to  the  census  of  1880,  57 '4  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion is  rural,  and  42 '6  per  cent,  urban,  i.e.,  lives  in  communities 
of  more  than  2000  inhabitants.  The  relative  proportions  vary 
greatly  in  the  different  provinces,  as  much  as  62  per  cent,  of  the 
population  living  in  towns  in  the  Rhineland,  and  as  little  as  23  or 
24  per  cent,  in  East  Prussia  and  Posen.  About  17  per  cent,  of  the 
population  is  absorbed  by  towns  each  with  20,000  inhabitants  and 
upwards,  while  in  Great  Britain  half  the  population  is  massed  in 
the  large  towns  and  from  65  to  70  per  cent,  is  urban.  In  Prussia 
also  there  is  observable  a  strong  movement  towards  concentration 
in  towns,  the  annual  rate  of  increase  in  the  urban  population  being 
six  times  as  great  as  that  in  the  rural  communities.  In  1880 
Prussia  contained  24  towns  each  with  upwards  of  50,000  inhabit- 
ants, and  7  with  upwards  of  100,000  inhabitants,  the  correspond- 
ing numbers  in  Great  Britain  being  59  and  26.  The  following  arc 
the  towns  with  upwards  of  100,000  inhabitants  each  : — 


Berlin   1,122,330 

Brcslan     272,912 

Hanover 145,227 

Cologne    144,772 


Konigsberg     140,909 

Frankfort-on-the-Main   . .  130,819 
Dantsic    108,551 


Elberfeld  and  Barmen  practically  form  one  town  with  a  popula- 
tion of  189,479  ;  and  Magdeburg,  Diisseldorf,  Stettin,  and  Altona 
are  all  above  90,000.  The  annual  rate  of  suicides  in  Prussia  is 
18  to  20  per  100,000  inhabitants,  a  proportion  seldom  exceeded 
among  European  states.  Divided  according  to  nationalities,  the 
present  (1885)  population  of  Prussia  consists  roughly  of  24,000,000 
Germans,  2,800,000  Poles  in  the  eastern  provinces,  150,000  Lithu- 
anians in  the  north-east,  180,000  Danes  in  Schleswig-Holstein, 
90,000  Wends  in  Brandenburg  and  Silesia,  60,000  Czechs  in  Silesia, 
and  12,000  Walloons  near  the  Belgian  frontier.  In  the  rural  dis- 
tricts of  Posen  and  in  parts  of  Silesia  the  PoLes  form  the  predominant 
element  of  the  population. 

In  1882  a  census  of  occupations  was  taken  in  the  German  empire, 
the  main  results  of  which,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  Prussia,  are 
summarized  in  the  following  table.  The  figures  include  the  wives, 
families,  and  other  dependants  of  those  actually  engaged  in  the 
several  occupations.  The  actual  workers  are  about  11  millions  in 
number  and  their  dependants  16  millions. 


Occupations. 

Number  of  per- 
sons supported. 

Percentage 
of  total 
population. 

11,904,407 
9,393,750 
2,725,344 
690,892 
1,305,657 
1,267,810 

43 
35 
10 
2-4 
5 
4-6 

3  Trade                                  

4.  Domestic  servants  (and  general  labourers) 
5.  Official,  military,  and  professional  classes 
6.  Persons  not  returned  under  any  occupation 

EDUCATION.] 


PRUSSIA 


17 


jgion.  RcJigious  Statistics. — According  to  the  census  returns  of  1880  (see 
table,  p.  16),  64 '64  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  Prussia  were  Pro- 
testants, 34  percent.  Roman  Catholics,  and  1  '33  Jews.  A  glance 
at  a  confessional  map  of  Prussia  shows  that  the  centre  of  the  king- 
dom is  solidly  Protestant,  the  proportion  of  Roman  Catholics  increas- 
ing as  the  eye  travels  east  or  west  and  reaching  its  maximum  on  the 
Rhine  and  in  the  Slavonic  provinces.  East  Prussia,  however,  with 
the  exception  of  Ermland,  is  Protestant.  The  Roman  Catholics  out- 
number the  Protestants  in  the  provinces  of  the  Rhine  (3  to  1), 
Posen,  Silesia,  and  West  Prussia.  All  religious  bodies  are  granted 
freedom  of  worship,  and  civil  rights  are  not  conditional  upon 
religious  confession. 

The  Evangelical  or  Protestant  State  Church  of  Prussia  consists  as 
it  now  stands  of  a  union  of  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  effected 
under  royal  pressure  iii  1817.  According  to  the  king  this  was  not 
a  fusion  of  two  faiths  but  an  external  union  for  mutual  admission 
to  the  Eucharist  and  for.the  convenience  of  using  the  same  liturgy, 
prepared  under  the  royal  superintendence.  Those  who  were  unable 
from  conscientious  scruples  to  join  the  union  became  Separatist  or 
Old  Lutherans  and  Old  Calvinists,  but  their  numbers  were  and  are 
insignificant.  The  king  is  ' '  summus  episcopus, "  or  supreme  pontiff 
of  the  church,  and  is  represented  in  the  exercise  of  his  ecclesiastical 
functions  by  the  minister  of  public  worship  and  instruction.  The 
highest  authority  for  the  ordinary  management  of  the  church  is  the 
"Oberkirchenrath,"  or  supreme  church  council  at  Berlin,  which 
acts  through  provincial  consistories  and  superintendents  appointed 
by  the  crown.  Recent  legislation  has  made  an  effort  to  encourage 
self-government  and  give  a  congregational  character  to  the  church 
by  the  granting  of  a  presbyterial  constitution,  with  parish,  diocesan, 
provincial,  and  general  synods.  The  clergy,  of  whom  there  were 
9146  in  1880,  are  appointed  by  the  crown,  by  the  consistories,  by 
private  or  municipal  patronage,  or  by  congregational  election. 

The  hierarchy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Prussia  consists 
of  two  archbishops  (Cologne,  Gnesen  -  Posen)  and  ten  bishops. 
The  prince-bishop  of  Breslau  and  the  bishops  of  Ermland,  Hildes- 
lieim,  and  Osnabriick  are  directly  under  the  pope,  and  the  bishop- 
rics of  Fulda  and  Limburg  are  in  the  archiepiscopal  diocese  of 
Freiburg  in  Baden.  The  higher  ecclesiastics  receive  payment  from 
the  state,  and  the  annual  appropriation  appearing  in  the  budget  for 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  as  high  as  that  made  for  the  State 
Church.  All  the  Roman  Catholic  religious  orders  in  Prussia  have 
been  suppressed  except  those  mainly  or  wholly  occupied  with  attend- 
ance on  the  sick. 

The  relations  of  the-  state  with  the  dissenting  Christian  sects, 
such  as  the  Baptists,  Mennonites,  and  Moravian  Brethren,  are  prac- 
tically confined  to  granting  them  charters  of  incorporation  which 
ensure  them  toleration.  The  Mennonites  were  formerly  allowed  to 
pay  an  extra  tax  in  lieu  of  military  service,  which  is  inconsistent 
with  their  belief,  but  this  privilege  has  been  withdrawn.  The  Old 
Catholics  number  about  30,000,  but  do  not  seem  to  be  increasing. 

The  Jews  belong  mainly  to  the  urban  population  and  form  20  to 
30  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  in  some  of  the  towns  in  the  Slavonic 
provinces.  They  are  especially  prominent  in  commerce,  finance, 
and  on  the  stage,  and  also  exercise  great  influence  on  the  press. 
Perhaps  the  actual  majority  of  newspaper  editors  and  proprietors  are 
of  Jewish  blood.  The  wave  of  social  persecution  to  which  they  were 
subjected  from  1876  onwards,  especially  in  Berlin  and  Pomerania, 
has,  to  some  extent  at  least,  subsided. 

uca-  Education. — In  Prussia  education  is  looked  upon  as  the  province 
11.  of  the  state,  and  the  general  level  attained  is  very  high.  All 
schools,  public  and  private,  are  under  state  supervision,  and  no  one 
is  allowed  to  exercise  the  profession  of  teacher  until  he  has  given 
satisfactory  proof  of  his  qualifications.  At  the  head  of  the  admi- 
nistration stands  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  to  whom  the 
universities  are  directly  subordinate.  The  secondary  schools  are 
supervised  by  provincial  "Schulcollegia,"  or  school-boards,  ap- 
pointed by  Government,  while  the  management  of  the  elementary 
and  private  schools  falls  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary 
"Regierungen,"  or  department  officials.  This  they  carry  out 
through  qualified  school-inspectors,  frequently  chosen  from  among 
the  clergy.  All  children  must  attend  school  from  their  sixth  to 
their  fourteenth  year. 

The  expenses  of  the  primary  schools  ( Volksschulcn]  are  borne  by 
the  communes  (Gcmcinden,  see  infra),  aided  when  necessary  by 
subsidies  from  the  state.  The  subjects  of  instruction  are  theology, 
reading,  writing,  spelling,  arithmetic,  the  elements  of  geometry, 
history,  geography,  and  natural  science,  singing,  drawing,  sewing, 
and  gymnastics.  The  fees  are  extremely  small,  amounting  in  the 
rural  districts  to  about  Id.  per  week,  and  in  Berlin  and  some  other 
towns  they  have  been  entirely  done  away  with.  In  1882  Prussia 
contained  33,040  primary  schools  with  59,917  teachers  and  4,339,729 
pupils.  This  shows  an  average  of  159  children  attending  school 
out  of  every  1000  inhabitants,  the  proportion  varying  from  120  to 
130  in  the  north-eastern  provinces  to  175  to  180  in  AVestphalia  and 
Rhenish  Prussia.  The  number  of  illiterate  recruits  among  those 
called  upon  each  year  to  serve  in  the  army  affords  a  good  test  of  the 
universality  of  elementary  education.  In  1882-83  the  proportion  of 


"  Analphabteti,"  or  men  unable  to  read  or  write,  among  the  recruits 
levied  was  only  2  per  cent.,  the  rate  varying  from  9 "75  per  cent, 
in  Posen  to  0'03  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  where  there  was  only  one 
illiterate  recruit  among  3662.  The  teachers  for  the  elementary 
schools  are  trained  in  normal  seminaries  or  colleges  established 
and  supervised  by  the  state,  and  much  has  been  done  of  late  years 
to  improve  their  position.  In  most  of  the  larger  towns  the  ele- 
mentary schools  are  supplemented  by  middle  schools  (Bilrgcrschulen, 
Stadtschulen),  which  carry  on  the  pupil  to  a  somewhat  more  advanced 
stage,  and  are  partly  intended  to  draw  off  the  unsuitable  elements 
from  the  higher  schools. 

The  secondary  schools  of  Prussia  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
classical  and  modern,  though  there  are  comparatively  few  in  which 
Latin  is  quite  omitted.  The  classical  schools  proper  consist  of 
Gymnasia  and  Progymnasia,  the  latter  being  simply  gymnasia 
wanting  the  higher  classes.  In  these  boys  are  prepared  for  the 
universities  and  the  learned  professions,  and  the  full  course  lasts 
for  nine  years.  In  the  modern  schools,  which  are  divided  in  the 
same  way  into  Realgymnasia  and  Realprogymnasia,  and  also  have 
a  nine  years'  course,  Latin  is  taught,  but  not  Greek,  and  greater 
stress  is  laid  upon  modern  languages,  mathematics,  and  natural 
science.  The  three  lower  classes  are  practically  identical  with 
those  of  the  gymnasia,  while  in  the  upper  classes  the  thoroughness 
of  training  is  assimilated  as  closely  as  possible  to  that  of  the  classical 
schools,  though  the  subjects  are  somewhat  altered.  Ranking  with 
the  realgymnasia  are  the  Oberrcalschulcn,  which  differ  only  in  the 
fact  that  Latin  is  entirely  omitted,  and  the  time  thus  gained  de- 
voted to  modern  languages.  The  Hohere  (or  upper)  Burgcrschulen, 
in  which  the  course  is  six  years,  rank  with  the  middle  schools 
above  mentioned,  and  are  intended  mainly  for  those  boys  who 
wish  to  enter  business  life  immediately  on  leaving  school.  All 
these  secondary  schools  possess  the  right  of  granting  certificates 
entitling  the  holders,  who  must  have  attained  a  certain  standing 
in  the  school,  to  serve  in  the  army  as  one-year  volunteers.  The 
gymnasial  "  certificate  of  ripeness  "  (Maturitatszeugniss),  indicating 
that  the  holder  has  passed  satisfactorily  through  the  highest  class, 
enables  a  student  to  enroll  himself  in  any  faculty  at  the  university, 
but  that  of  the  realgymnasium  qualifies  only  for  the  general  or 
"  philosophical "  faculty,  and  does  not  open  the  way  to  medicine, 
the  church,  or  the  bar.  Considerable  efforts  are,  however,  now 
being  made  to  have  the  realgymnasium  certificate  recognized  as  a 
sufficient  qualification  for  the  study  of  medicine  at  least.  At  any 
of  these  schools  a  thoroughly  good  education  may  be  obtained  at 
a  cost  seldom  exceeding,  in  the  highest  classes,  £5  per  annum. 
The  teachers  are  men  of  scholarship  and  ability,  who  have  passed 
stringent  Government  examinations  and  been  submitted  to  a  year 
of  probation.  The  great  majority  of  the  secondary  schools  have 
been  established  and  endowed  by  municipal  corporations.  In  1881 
Prussia  contained  251  gymnasia,  64  progymnasia,  88  realgymnasia, 
15  oberrealschulen,  27  realschulen,  47  hbhere  biirgerschulen,  and 
276  HoJiere  Tochterschulen,  or  higher  schools  for  girls.  Besides 
these  there  are,  of  course,  numerous  commercial,  technical,  indus- 
trial, and  other  special  schools. 

Prussia  possesses  ten  of  the  twenty  German  universities,  attended 
by  12,800  students,  or  at  the  rate  of  one  student  for  2125  inhabitants. 
The  largest  Prussian  university  is  that  of  Berlin,  attended  by  more 
than  4000  students,  while  Breslau,  Bonn,  Gb'ttingen,  and  Halle  have 
each  upwards  of  1000.  The  oldest  is  the  university  of  Greifswald, 
founded  in  1456.  Like  the  schools  the  universities  are  state  insti- 
tutions, and  the  professors  are  appointed  and  paid  by  Government, 
which  also  makes  liberal  annual  grants  for  apparatus  and  equipment. 
The  full  obligatory  course  of  study  extends  over  three,  and  in  the 
case  of  medicine  four  years.  It  is,  however,  not  unusual  for  non- 
medical  students  also  to  spend  four  years  at  the  university,  and 
there  is  an  agitation  to  make  this  compulsory.  Students  qualifying 
for  a  Prussian  Government  appointment  are  required  to  spend  at 
least  three  terms  or  half-years  (Semester)  at  a  Prussian  university. 

Ranking  with  the  universities  are  the  large  polytechnic  colleges 
at  Berlin,  Hanover,  and  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  mining  academies  of 
Berlin  and  Klausthal,  and  the  academies  of  forestry  at  Eberswalde 
and  Miinden.  Departments  Tor  the  study  of  agriculture  are  attached 
to  many  of  the  universities.  Music  is  taught  at  several  conservatoria, 
the  best  known  of  which  are  at  Berlin  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

The  science  and  art  of  Prussia  find  their  most  conspicuoiis  ex- 
ternal expression  in  the  academies  of  science  and  art  at  Berlin, 
both  founded  by  Frederick  I.  ;  and  each  town  of  any  size  throughout 
the  kingdom  has  its  antiquarian,  artistic,  and  scientific  societies. 
Recognized  schools  of  painting  exist  at  Berlin  and  Diisseldorf,  and 
both  these  towns,  as  well  as  Cassel,  contain  excellent  picture 
galleries.  The  scientific  and  archaeological  collections  of  Berlin 
are  also  of  great  importance.  Besides  the  university  collections, 
there  are  numerous  large  public  libraries,  the  chief  of  which  is  the 
royal  library  at  Berlin  (1,000,000  vols.). 

Constitution. —  The  present  form  of  the  government  of  Prussia,  Consti- 
consisting  of  an  hereditary  monarchy  with  two  houses  of  parlia-  tutiou. 
ment,  is  based  upon  a  fundamental  law  promulgated  in  1850,  and 
subsequently   somewhat   modified   by  various   enactments.      The 

XX.  —  3 


18 


PRUSSIA 


[CONSTITUTION. 


constitution  affirms  the  legal  equality  of  all  citizens  in  the  eye  of 
the  law,  provides  for  univei-sal  military  service,  and  guarantees  the 
personal  liberty  of  the  subject,  the  security  of  property,  immunity 
from  domiciliary  visits,  the  inviolability  of  letters,  toleration  of 
religious  sects,  freedom  of  the  press,  the  right  of  association  and 
public  meetings,  and  liberty  of  migration. 

The  monarchy  is  hereditary  in  the  male  line  of  the  house  of 
Hohenzollern,  and  follows  the  custom  of  primogeniture.  The  king 
alone  exercises  the  executive  power,  but  snares  the  legislative  power 
with  his  parliament  He  appoints  and  discharges  the  ministers 
and  other  officials  of  the  crown,  summons  and  dissolves  parliament, 
possesses  the  right  of  pardon  and  mitigation  of  punishment,  declares 
war  and  concludes  peace,  and  grants  orders  and  titles.  He  is  held 
to  be  irresponsible  for  his  public  actions,  and  his  decrees  require 
the  countersign  of  a  minister,  -whose  responsibility,  however,  is 
not  very  clearly  denned.  The  national  tradition  and  feeling  lend 
the  crown  considerable  power  not  formulated  in  the  constitution, 
and  the  king  is  permitted  to  bring  his  personal  influence  to  bear 
upon  parliament  in  a  way  quite  at  variance  with  the  English  con- 
ception of  a  constitutional  monarch.  The  annual  civil  list  of  the 
king  of  Prussia  amounts  to  £600,000. 

The  legislative  assembly  consists  of  two  chambers,  which  are 
convoked  annually  at  the  same  time  but  meet  separately.  The 
right  of  proposing  new  measures  belongs  equally  to  the  king  and 
each  of  tne  chambers,  but  the  consent  of  all  three  estates  is  neces- 
sary before  a  measure  can  pass  into  law.  The  chambers  have  con- 
trol of  the  finances  and  possess  the  right  of  voting  or  refusing  taxes. 
Financial  questions  are  first  discussed  in  the  lower  house,  and  the 
upper  house  can  accept  or  reject  the  annual  budget  only  en  bloc. 
All  measures  are  passed  by  an  absolute  majority,  but  those  affect- 
ing the  constitution  must  be  submitted  to  a  second  vote  after  an 
interval  of  at  least  twenty-one  days.  Members  may  not  be  called 
to  account  for  their  parliamentary  utterances  except  by  the  chamber 
in  which  they  sit.  No  one  may  at  the  same  time  be  a  member 
of  both  chambers.  The  ministers  of  the  crown  have  access  to 
both  chambers  and  may  speak  at  any  time,  but  they  do  not  vote 
unless  they  are  actually  members.  The  general  scheme  of  govern- 
ment, though  constitutional,  is  not  exactly  "  parliamentary "  in 
the  English  sense  of  the  word,  as  the  ministers  are  independent  of 
party  and  need  not  necessarily  represent  the  opinions  of  the  par- 
liamentary majority.  The  Herrenhaus,  or  house  of  peers,  contains 
two  classes  of  members,  the  hereditary  and  non-hereditary.  The 
former  consists  of  the  adult  princes  of  the  house  of  Hohenzollern, 
the  mediatized  princes  and  counts  of  the  old  imperial  nobility,  anil 
the  heads  of  the  great  territorial  nobility.  Tne  non  -  hereditary 
members  comprise  life  peers  chosen  by  the  king  from  the  ranks  of 
the  rich  landowners,  manufacturers,  and  men  of  general  eminence, 
and  representatives  "presented"  for  the  king's  approval  by  the 
landowners  of  the  nine  old  provinces,  by  the  larger  towns,  and  by 
the  universities.  The  Abgeordnetenhaus,  or  chamber  of  deputies, 
consists  of  433  members,  elected  for  periods  of  three  years  by 
indirect  suffrage,  exercised  by  all  male  citizens  who  have  reached 
the  age  of  twenty-five  and  have  not  forfeited  their  communal  rights. 
The  original  electors  are  arranged  in  three  classes,  according  to  the 
rate  of  taxes  paid  by  them,  in  such  a  way  that  the  gross  amount  of 
taxation  is  equal  in  each  class.  The  country  is  accordingly  divided 
into  electoral  districts,  with  the  electors  grouped  in  three  cate- 
gories, each  of  which  selects  a  Wahlmann  or  electoral  proxy,  who 
exercises  the  direct  suffrage.  Members  of  the  lower  house  must 
be  thirty  years  old  and  in  full  possession  of  their  civic  rights. 
They  receive  a  daily  allowance  (Diateri)  during  the  sitting  of  the 
house. 

The  king  exercises  his  executive  functions  through  an  irrespons- 
ible Staatsrath,  or  privy  council,  revived  in  1884  after  thirty  years 
of  inactivity,  and  by  a  nominally  responsible  cabinet  or  council  of 
ministers  (Staats-Ministerium).  The  latter  consists  at  present  of 
the  minister-president  and  of  the  ministers  of  foreign  affairs,  war, 
justice,  finance,  the  interior,  public  worship  and  instruction,  in- 
dustry and  commerce,  public  works,  agriculture,  domains,  and 
forests.  Ministers  conduct  the  affairs  of  their  special  departments 
independently,  but  meet  in  council  for  the  discussion  of  general 
questions.  They  represent  the  executive  in  the  houses  of  parlia- 
ment and  introduce  the  measures  proposed  by  the  crown,  but  do 
not  need  to  belong  to  either  chamber.  The  affairs  of  the  royal 
household  and  privy  purse  are  entrusted  to  a  special  minister,  who 
is  not  a  member  of  the  cabinet 

The  Prussian  governmental  system  is  somewhat  complicated  by 
its  relation  to  that  of  the  empire.  The  king  of  Prussia  is  at  the 
same  time  German  emperor,  and  his  prime  minister  is  also  the 
imperial  chancellor.  The  ministries  of  war  and  foreign  affairs 
practically  coincide  with  those  of  the  empire,  and  the  customs-dues 
and  the  postal  and  telegraph  service  have  also  been  transferred  to 
the  imperial  Government.  Prussia  has  only  seventeen  votes  in  the 
federal  council,  or  less  than  a  third  of  the  total  number,  but  its 
influence  is  practically  assured  by  the  fact  that  the  small  northern 
states  almost  invariably  vote  with  it.  To  the  reichstag  Prussia 
sends  more  than  half  the  members.  The  double  parliamentary 


system  works  in  some  respects  inconveniently,  as  the  reichstag  and 
Prussian  landtag  are  often  in  session  at  the  same  time  and  many 
persons  are  members  of  both.  Where  imperial  and  Prussian  legisla- 
tion come  into  conflict  the  latter  must  give  way. 

For  administrative  purposes  Prussia  is  divided  into  Provinzrn  or 
provinces,  Regierungsbezirke  or  governmental  departments,  Krcisc 
or  circles,  and  Gemeinden  or  communes.  The  city  of  Berlin  and 
the  district  of  Hohenzollern  are  not  included  in  any  province,  and 
the  larger  towns  usually  form  at  once  a  commune  and  a  circle 
(Stadtkreis).  Recent  legislation  has  aimed  at  the  encouragement 
of  local  government  and  the  decentralization  of  administrative 
authority  by  admitting  lay  or  popularly  elected  members  to  a  share 
in  the  administration  alongside  of  the  Government  officials.  Certain 
branches  of  administration,  such  as  the  care  of  roads  and  the  poor, 
have  been  handed  over  entirely  to  local  authorities,  while  a  share 
is  allowed  them  in  all.  As  a  general  result  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  Prussian  administrative  system  intervenes  between  the  strongly 
centralized  government  of  France  and  the  liberty  of  local  govern- 
ment enjoyed  in  England.  In  the  province  the  Government  is 
represented  by  the  Obcrprdsident,  whose  jurisdiction  extends  over 
all  matters  affecting  more  than  one  department.  He  is  assisted 
by  a  council  (Provinzialrath),  consisting,  besides  himself  as  chair- 
man, of  one  member  appointed  by  Government  and  five  members 
elected  by  the  provincial  committee  (Prminzialausschuss).  The 
latter  forms  the  permanent  executive  of  the  provincial  diet  (Pro- 
vinzial- Landtag),  which  consists  of  deputies  elected  by  the  kreiso 
or  circles,  and  forms  the  chief  provincial  organ  of  local  government. 
The  regierungsbezirk  is  solely  a  Government  division  and  is  only 
indirectly  represented  in  the  scheme  of  local  administration.  The 
Government  authorities  are  the  Rcgicrungs-Prasident,  who  is  at 
the  head  of  the  general  internal  administration  of  the  department, 
and  the  Regierung,  or  Government  board,  which  supervises  ecclesi- 
astical and  educational  affairs  and  exercises  the  function  of  the 
state  in  regard  to  the  direct  taxes  and  the  domains  and  forests. 
The  departmental  president  is  also  assisted  by  a  Eezirksrath  or 
district  council,  consisting  of  one  official  member  and  four  others 
selected  from  inhabitants  of  the  department  by  the  provincial  com- 
mittee. The  governmental  official  in  the  kreis  (county,  circle)  is 
the  Landrath,  an  office  which  existed  in  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg 
as  early  as  the  16th  century.  He  is  aided  by  the  Kreissausschuss, 
or  executive  committee  of  the  Kreistag  (the  diet  of  the  circle),  the 
members  of  which  are  elected  by  the  rural  and  urban  communes. 
The  kreis  is  the  smallest  state  division  ;  the  communes,  divided 
into  urban  and  rural,  are  left  almost  entirely  to  local  government, 
though  the  chief  officials  must  obtain  the  sanction  of  the  central 
authority.  In  the  rural  communes  the  head  magistrate,  called  a 
Schulze  or  Dorfrichtcr,  is  elected  for  six  years  and  is  assisted  by 
assessors  called  Schoffcn.  The  regulations  for  the  government  of 
towns  still  rest  in  great  measure  on  the  liberal  reforms  effected  by 
Stein  at  the  beginning  of  the  centuiy.  The  chief  power  rests  in 
the  hands  of  the  Stadtrath,  which  consists  of  Stadtverordncten,  or 
town  deputies  elected  by  the  citizens  for  six  years.  The  practical 
executive  is  entrusted  to  the  magistracy  (Magistral),  which  usually 
consists  of  a  burgomaster,  a  deputy  burgomaster  (both  paid  officials), 
several  unpaid  members,  and,  where  necessary,  a  few  other  paid 
members.  The  unpaid  members  hold  office  for  six  years  ;  the  paid 
members  are  elected  for  twelve  years,  and  their  election  requires 
ratification  from  the  state.  The  administrative  system  above  de- 
scribed applies  as  yet  in  its  full  extent  to  about  three-fourths  of  the 
frovinces  only,  but  is  to  be  extended  to  the  others  in  due  course, 
hough  in  some  respects  rather  cumbrous  in  its  machinery,  the 
system  is  on  the  whole  found  to  work  well  and  with  economy. 

In  the  seven  eastern  provinces,  Westphalia,  and  part  of  the 
Rhenish  province  the  common  law  of  Prussia  (Landrccht),  codified 
in  1794,  is  in  force,  while  the  common  law  of  the  German  empire, 
formed  by  an  amalgamation  of  Roman,  canon,  and  German  law, 
prevails  in  the  three  new  provinces  and  part  of  Pomerania.  The 
Code  Napoleon,  however,  still  exists  in  the  greater  part  of  the  Rhine 
district,  and  the  commercial  law  has  been  consolidated  in  the 
German  commercial  code  of  1861.  A  new  penal  code,  promulgated 
in  1850,  did  away  with  the  old  patrimonial  or  seigniorial  juris- 
diction, and  the  administration  of  justice  is  now  wholly  in  the 
hands  of  Government.  The  courts  of  lowest  instance  are  the  Amts- 
gcrichte,  in  which  sits  a  single  judge,  accompanied  in  penal  cases 
by  two  Schoffcn  or  lay  assessors  (a  kind  of  jurymen,  who  vote  with 
the  judge).  Cases  of  more  importance  are  decided  by  the  Land- 
gerichte  or  county  courts,  in  which  the  usual  number  of  judges  is 
three,  while  in  important  criminal  cases  a  jury  of  twelve  persons  is 
generally  empanelled.  From  the  landgerichte  appeals  may  be  made 
to  the  Oberlandcsgcrichte  or  provincial  courts.  The  oberlandesgericht 
at  Berlin  is  named  the  Kammergcricht  and  forms  the  final  instance 
for  summary  convictions  in  Prussia,  while  all  other  cases  may  be 
taken  to  the  supreme  imperial  court  at  Leipsic.  The  judges 
(Richter)  are  appointed  and  paid  by  the  state,  and  hold  office  for 
life.  After  finishing  his  university  career  the  student  of  law  who 
wishes  to  become  a  judge  or  to  practise  as  qualified  counsel  (Rechtsan- 
walt,  barrister  and  solicitor  in  one)  passes  a  Government  examina- 


FINANCES.] 


PRUSSIA 


19 


tion  and  becomes  a  Refer endarius.  He  then  spends  at  least  four 
years  in  the  practical  work  of  his  profession,  after  which  lie  passes 
a  second  examination,  and,  if  he  has  chosen  the  bench  instead  of 
the  bar,  becomes  an  Assessor  and  is  eligible  for  the  position  of  judge. 
A  lawyer  who  has  passed  the  necessary  examinations  may  at  any 
time  quit  the  bar  for  the  bench,  and  a  judge  is  also  at  liberty  to 
resign  his  position  and  enter  upon  private  practice.  In  all  criminal 
cases  the  prosecution  is  undertaken  by  Government,  which  acts 
through  Staatsanwaltc,  or  directors  of  prosecutions,  in  the  pay  of 
the  state. 

lances.  Finances.  — The  finances  of  the  Prussian  Government  are  well 
managed,  and  a  deficit  is  now  a  rare  occurrence.  The  expenditure 
has  been  considerably  relieved  by  the  transference  of  the  cost  of  the 
army  and  navy  to  the  imperial  treasury,  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  customs-dues  and  several  excise  duties  have  been  relinquished  to 
the  empire  and  an  annual  "matricular"  contribution  paid  towards 
its  expenses.  The  budget  is  voted  annually  by  the  abgeordneten- 
haus  ;  the  following  table  is  an  abstract  of  that  for  1884-85  : — 

Expenditure. 

Expenses  of  collection  and 
management £28,234,532 


Revenue. 

Direct  taxes      £7,296,286 

Indirect  taxes  4,586,510 

State  lottery     201,700 

Marine  institute  and  mint       128,225 

Domains  and  forests 3,805,857 

Mines  and  salt-works     ..    6,120,752 

State  railways 28,798,867 

General  financial  adminis- 
tration        5,582,368 

Administrative  revenues     1,160,253 


Total....   £56,680,818 


Civil  list 225,000 

Interest  and  management 
of  public  debt  

Houses  of  parliament..  .. 

Apanages,  annuities,  and 
indemnities    3.262,017 

Matricular     contribution 
to  the  German  empire          2,038,460 

Administrative  expenditure  12,632,930 

Justice    - 2,017,020 

Education 1,644,670 

Religion 590,333 

Ministry  of  the  interior        2,077,510 

Occasional     and     extra- 
ordinary expenses    2,341,881 

Total....    £56,680,818 


Perhaps  the  only  item  requiring  explanation  in  the  above  sum 
niary  is  the  general  financial  administration  under  the  head  of 
revenue  ;  this  includes  advances  from  the  surplus  in  the  treasury, 
Prussia's  proportion  of  the  profits  of  the  imperial  customs  and 
excises,  repayments,  interest,  and  other  miscellaneous  sources  of 
revenue.  The  extraordinary  expenses  included  upwards  of  £450, 000 
for  railways  and  £750,000  for  public  works.  The  total  expenditure 
is  rather  more  than  £2  per  head  of  population,  while  in  the  United 
Kingdom  it  is  about  £2,  10s.  Between  1821  and  1844  the  rate  in 
Prussia  was  11s.  6d.  per  head,  and  even  in  1858  it  was  only  21s.  8d. 
The  incidence  of  direct  taxation  in  Prussia  is  also  less  than  in 
Great  Britain,  the  respective  figures  being  5s.  3d.  and  7s.  per  head. 
The  principal  direct  imposts  are  the  income-tax,  which  brings  in 
40  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  the  land-tax  producing  37  per  cent.,  and 
the  house-tax  producing  19  per  cent.  The  proceeds  of  the  income- 
tax  amount  to  about  Is.  2d.  per  head,  as  compared  with  6s.  per 
head  in  Great  Britain  (in  1881).  The  comparative  insignificance 
of  the  sum  raised  by  indirect  taxation  is  mainly  due  to  the  above- 
noted  fact  that  the  customs-dues  and  the  most  important  excise 
duties  have  been  made  over  to  the  imperial  exchequer.  In  the 
preliminary  estimates  for  1885-86  the  receipts  and  expenditure  are 
balanced  at  £62,886,250. 

Local  taxation  in  Prussia  is  often  very  high.  The  state  income- 
tax  is  limited  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  assessed  income,  but  the  com- 
munes and  towns  are  allowed  to  make  an  arbitrary  addition  for  local 
purposes,  sometimes  amounting  to  twice  or  thrice  the  sum  paid  to 
the  state.  This  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  state  reserved 
for  itself  all  taxation  on  real  property,  while  imposing  on  the  com- 
munes the  principal  share  in  maintaining  the  expensive  system 
of  public  schools.  Incomes  below  £45  (900  marks)  are  not  now 
taxed,  but  this  exemption  is  of  very  recent  origin.  A  few  facts 
from  the  statistics  of  taxation  and  allied  subjects  may  be  of  interest 
as  affording  some  slight  index  to  Prussia's  growth  in  prosperity. 
Between  1864  and  1878  the  entire  capital  subject  to  income-tax 
increased  from  24  to  48  marks  per  head  of  population,  while  the 
proportionate  number  of  those  liable  to  the  tax  had  increased  by 
about  76  per  cent.  It  has  also  been  computed  that  the  average 
income  per  head  increased  between  1872  and  1881  by  15  marks, 
equivalent  to  a  rise  of  5  per  cent.  ;  that  of  Great  Britain  increased 
in  the  same  period  by  88s.,  or  15  per  cent.  Of  all  the  payers  of 
income-tax  in  1872-81  only  O'lO  per  cent,  had  incomes  of  or  above 
£1000,  while  43  per  cent,  had  not  more  than  £25  and  52  per  cent, 
between  £25  and  £100.  Between  1867  and  1880  the  proceeds  of 
the  house-tax  increased  by  over  100  per  cent.  It  now  averages  Is. 
per  head,  varying  from  6d.  in  country  districts  up  to  5s.  or  5s.  6d. 
m  Berlin,  Frankfort -on -the -Main,  and  Cologne.  In  1875  the 
number  of  depositors  in  savings  banks  was  86  per  1000  inhabitants, 
and  by  1880  the  number  had  risen  to  107.  The  sum  deposited 
amounted  to  £79, 643, 400,  equivalent  to  58s.  per  head  of  population. 
At  the  same  date  Austria  alone  of  European  powers  had  a  higher 
proportion  (67s.),  while  in  Great  Britain  the  sum  was  44s.  and  in 
France  27s. 

The  public  debt  of  Prussia  in  1884  amounted  to  3,345,097,438 


marks,  or  £167,254,872.  This  is  equivalent  to  about  £6  per  head 
of  population,  as  compared  with  three  and  a  half  times  as  much  in 
England.  The  annual  charge  for  interest  on  the  debt  is  5s.  Sd.  per 
head  in  Prussia  and  16s.  2d.  in  England.  Between  the  end  of 
the  struggle  with  Napoleon  and  1848  the  debt  was  considerably 
reduced  ;  since  1848  it  has  steadily  increased.  It  is,  however, 
admirably  secured,  and  a  great  part  of  it  was  incurred  in  the  con- 
struction and  acquisition  of  railways,  the  clear  income  from  which 
covers  the  annual  charges  on  the  entire  debt.  The  various  branches 
of  the  debt  are  being  gradually  united  in  a  consolidated  fund, 
bearing  interest  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent. 

Army  and  Navy. — The  Prussian  army  now  forms  about  75  per  Array 
cent,  of  that  of  the  German  empire,  of  which  it  also  furnished  the  and 
model.     (See  GERMANY.)     The  first  attempt  at  the  foundation  of  a  navy. 
Prussian  navy  was  made  by  the  Great  Elector,  who  established  a 
small  fleet  of  eight  or  ten  vessels.     This,  however,  was  completely 
neglected  by  his  successors,  and  the  present  marine  establishment 
is  of  quite  recent  origin.     The  present  imperial  navy  is  simply  the 
Prussian  navy  under  a  different  name.     (See  GERMANY.  ) 

Bibliography. — The  statistical  facts  in  the  foregoing  article  have  been  mainly 
drawn  from  the  Jahrbuch  fur  die  amtliche  Statistik  des  preiissischen  Staats,  the 
Statistisches  Jahrbuch  fur  das  deutsche  lleich,  and  other  publications  of  the 
statistical  offices  of  Prussia  and  Germany.  Good  general  accounts  of  the  natural, 
social,  and  political  features  of  the  country  are  given  in  Eiselen's  Der  preussische 
Staat  (Berlin,  1862)  and  in  Daniel's  Handbuch  der  Geographie  (5th  ed.,  1881  sq.). 
The  Prussian  constitution  and  administrative  system  are  concisely  described  in 
the  Handbuch  der  Ver/assung  und  Vencaltung  in  Preussen,  by  Graf  Hue  de  Grais, 
and  are  treated  at  length  in  Von  Ronne's  Staatsrecht  der  preussischen  Monarchie 
(4th  ed.,  1881-84),  For  English  readers  the  most  interesting  introduction  to 
Prussian  history  is  perhaps  still  to  be  found  in  the  first  part  of  Carlyle's 
Frederick  the  Great,  the  not  invariably  unprejudiced  views  of  which  may  be 
corrected  by  Professor  Tuttle's  History  of  Prussia  to  the  Accession  of  Frederick 
the  Great  (Boston,  1884).  The  latter  admirable  little  work  is,  indeed,  almost 
indispensable  to  every  English  student  of  Prussian  constitutional  history. 
Professor  Seeley's  Life  of  Stein  (London,  1879)  contains  an  excellent  account  of 
Prussia  in  the  Napoleonic  period,  especially  with  regard  to  the  important  in- 
ternal reforms  carried  out  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  Among  the 
numerous  German  histories  of  Prussia  two  of  the  best  are  Droysen  s  Geschichte 
der  preussischen  Politik  and  Ranke's  Zwolf  Bucher  preussischer  Geschichte ;  the 
former  is  authoritative  from  the  writer's  copious  use  of  the  Prussian  archives, 
but  the  latter  is  less  diffuse  and  more  interesting.  Other  standard  works  are 
those  of  Stenzel,  Pauli,  Riedel,  and  Lancizolle,  while  among  shorter  histories 
may  be  mentioned  the  manual  of  F.  Voigt.  Fix's  Territorial-Geschichte  des 
brandenburgisch-preussischen  Staates,  with  ten  historical  maps,  is  a  convenient 
sketch  of  the  territorial  growth  of  Prussia.  The  period  since  the  death  of 
Frederick  the  Great  is  treated  in  Forster's  Neuere  und  neueste  preussische  Gesch- 
ichte and  in  Reimann's  Neuere  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Staats  (1882  sq.).  The 
history  of  the  present  century  is  perhaps  most  fully  given  in  Treitschke's 
Deutsche  Geschichte  im  neunzehnten  Jahrhundert  (1S79  sq.).  Until  recently  the 
standard  work  on  the  history  of  Prussia  proper  was  that  of  Johannes  Voigt, 
but  this  is  now  being  superseded  by  Lohmeyer's  Geschichte  von  Ost  u.  West 
Preussen  (1881  sq.).  The  latter  forms  one  of  an  admirable  series  of  provincial 
histories  in  course  of  publication  by  Perthes  of  Gotha.  The  development  of 
the  Prussian  bureaucracy  is  traced  in  Isaacsohn's  Geschichte  des  preussischen 
Beamtenthums  (1870-84).  Several  points  are  most  satisfactorily  handled  in  the 
numerous  monographs  on  special  periods,  the  lives  of  kings  and  statesmen, 
and  the  like.  (J.  F.  M.) 

PRUSSIA,  in  the  original  and  narrower  sense  of  the 
word,  is  a  district  in  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  modern 
kingdom  of  the  same  name,  stretching  along  the  Baltic 
coast  for  about  220  miles,  and  occupying  an  area  of  up- 
wards of  24,000  square  miles.  The  eastern  part  of  this 
territory  formed  the  duchy  of  Prussia,  which  was  acquired 
by  the  electors  of  Brandenburg  in  1618,  and  furnished 
them  with  their  regal  title.  The  western  part,  which  had 
been  severed  from  the  eastern  half  and  assigned  to  Poland 
in  1466,  was  not  annexed  to  Prussia  until  the  partition  of 
Poland  in  1772,  while  the  towns  of  Dantsic  and  Thorn 
remained  Polish  down  to  1793.  In  spite  of  the  contrast 
between  the  political  and  social  conditions  of  the  two 
districts,  arising  from  the  difference  of  their  history,  they 
were  united  in  1824  to  form  a  single  province.  But,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  the  union  did  not  work  well, 
and  it  was  dissolved  in  1878,  giving  place  to  the  modern 
provinces  of  East  and  West  Prussia.  The  early  history 
of  the  whole  district  is  related  under  the  kingdom  of 
PRUSSIA  (above)  and  TEUTONIC  ORDER,  while  the  former 
article  also  gives  (p.  14)  some  statistics  as  to  the  produce 
of  the  two  provinces.1 

EAST  PRUSSIA  (Ostpreussen),  the  larger  of  the  two  provinces,  has 
an  area  of  14,280  square  miles,  and  is  bounded  by  the  Baltic  Sea, 
Russia,  and  West  Prussia.  It  shares  in  the  general  characteristics 
of  the  great  north  German  plain,  but,  though  low,  its  surface  is  by 
no  means  absolutely  flat,  as  the  southern  half  is  traversed  by  a  low 
ridge  or  plateau  (comp.  GERMANY),  which  attains  a  height  of  1025 
feet  at  a  point  near  the  western  boundary  of  the  province.  This 
plateau,  here  named  the  Prussian  Seenplatte,  is  thickly  sprinkled 
with  small  lakes,  among  which  is  the  Spirding  See,  46  square  miles 
in  extent  and  the  largest  inland  lake  in  the  Prussian  monarchy. 


1  Compare  Lohmeyer's  Geschichte  von  Ost  u.  West  Preussen  (1881,  sq.). 


20 


PRUSSIA 


The  coast  is  lined  with  low  dunes  or  sandhills,  in  front  of  which 
lie  the  large  littoral  lakes  or  lagoons  named  the  Frische  Had'  and 
the  Kuriscne  Hafl'.  (See  GERMANY.  )  The  first  of  these  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Nogat  and  the  Pregel,  and  the  other  those  of  the 
Memel  or  Niemen.  East  Prussia  is  the  coldest  part  of  Germany, 
its  mean  annual  temperature  being  about  44°  Fahr.,  while  the 
mean  January  temperature  of  Tilsit  is  only  25°.  The  rainfall  is  24 
inches  per  annum.  About  half  the  province  is  under  cultivation  ; 
18  per  cent,  is  occupied  by  forests,  and  23  per  cent,  by  meadows 
and  pastures.  The  most  fertile  soil  is  found  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Pregel  and  the  Memel,  but  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Baltic  plateau 
and  the  district  to  the  north  of  the  Memel  consist  in  great  part  of 
sterile  moor,  sand,  and  bog.  The  chief  crops  are  rye,  oats,  and 
potatoes,  while  flax  is  cultivated  in  the  district  of  Ermland,  between 
the  Passarge  and  the  upper  Alle.  East  Prussia  is  the  headquarters 
of  the  horse-breeding  of  the  country  and  contains  the  principal 
Government  stud  of  Trakehnen  ;  numerous  cattle  are  also  fattened 
on  the  rich  pastures  of  the  river-valleys.  The  extensive  woods  in 
the  south  part  of  the  province  harbour  a  few  wolves  and  lynxes, 
and  the  elk  is  still  preserved  in  the  forest  of  Ibenhorst,  near  the 
Kurische  Haff.  The  fisheries  in  the  lakes  and  haffs  are  of  some 
importance  ;  but  the  only  mineral  product  of  note  is  amber,  which 
is  found  in  the  peninsula  of  Samland  in  greater  abundance  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  world.  Manufactures  are  almost  confined  to 
the  principal  towns,  though  linen-weaving  is  practised  as  a  domestic 
industry.  Commerce  is  facilitated  by  canals  connecting  the  Memel 
and  Pregel  and  also  the  principal  lakes,  but  is  somewhat  hampered 
by  the  heavy  dues  exacted  at  the  Russian  frontier.  A  brisk  foreign 
trade  is  carried  on  through  the  seaports  of  Kouigsberg  (140,909), 
the  capital  of  the  province,  and  Memel  (19,660),  the  exports  con- 
sisting mainly  of  timber  and  grain.  In  1880  the  population  of 
East  Prussia  was  1,9-33,936,  including  1,654,510  Protestants,  250,462 
Roman  Catholics,  and  18,218  Jews.  The  Roman  Catholics  are 
mainly  confined  to  the  district  of  Ermland,  in  which  the  ordinary 
proportions  of  the  confessions  are  completely  reversed.  The  bulk 
of  the  inhabitants  are  of  German  blood,  but  there  are  400,000 
Protestant  Poles  (Masurians  or  Masovians)  in  the  south  part  of  the 
province,  and  150,000  Lithuanians  in  the  north.  As  in  other 
provinces  where  the  Polish  element  is  strong,  East  Prussia  is  below 
the  general  average  of  the  kingdom  in  education  ;  in  1883  fully  5£ 
per  cent,  of  its  recruits  were  unable  to  read  or  write.  There  is  a 
university  at  Konigsberg. 

WEST  PRUSSIA  (  Wcstprcusscn),  with  an  area  of  9850  square  miles, 
is  bounded  by  the  Baltic,  East  Prussia,  Poland,  Posen,  Brandenburg, 
and  Pomerania.  It  resembles  East  Prussia  in  its  physical  character- 
istics, but  its  fertility  is  somewhat  greater  and  its  climate  not  quite 
so  harsh.  The  Baltic  plateau  traverses  the  province  from  east  to 
west,  reaching  its  culminating  point  in  the  Thurmberg  (1090  feet), 
near  Dantsic.  Near  the  middle  of  the  province  the  range  is  in- 
terrupted by  the  valley  of  the  Vistula,  beyond  which  it  trends  to 
the  north  and  approaches  the  coast.  The  lakes  of  West  Prussia 
are  nearly  as  numerous  but  not  so  large  as  those  of  the  sister  pro- 
vince. The  natural  products  arc  similar,  and  the  manufactures 
are  also  almost  confined  to  the  large  towns.  The  cultivation  of 
the  common  beet,  for  the  production  of  sugar,  has  been  introduced, 
and  several  sugar  refineries  have  been  erected.  The  valley  of  the 
Vistula,  particularly  the  rich  lowlands  ( JVerder)  of  the  delta,  are 
very  fertile,  producing  good  crops  of  wheat  and  pasturing  large 
herds  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  The  population  in  1880  was 
1,405,898,  consisting  in  almost  equal  proportions  of  Roman 
Catholics  and  Protestants;  there  were  26,547  Jews  and  490,000 
Poles.  The  percentage  of  illiterate  recruits  in  1882  was  still  higher 
than  in  East  Prussia  (7 '97),  but  not  so  high  as  in  Posen  (9'75). 
The  capital  and  principal  town  is  Dantsic  (108,551),  while  Elbing 
(35,842)  and  Thorn  (20,617)  also  carry  on  a  considerable  trade. 

PRUSSIA,  RHENISH  (German,  Rheinjyremsen,  Rhein- 
provinz,  Rheinland),  the  most  westerly  province  of  the 
kingdom  of  Prussia,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Holland,  on 
the  E.  by  Westphalia,  Hesse-Nassau,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
on  the  S.E.  by  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  on  the  S.  and  S.W. 
by  Lorraine,  and  on  the  W.  by  Luxemburg,  Belgium,  and 
Holland.  The  small  district  of  Wetzlar  in  the  midst  of 
the  province  of  Hesse  also  belongs  to  Rhenish  Prussia, 
which,  on  the  other  hand,  surrounds  the  Oldenburg 
principality  of  Birkenfeld.  The  extent  of  the  province  is 
10,420  square  miles,  or  nearly  twice  that  of  the  kingdom 
of  Saxony;  its  extreme  length,  from  north  to  south,  is 
nearly  200  miles  and  its  greatest  breadth  is  just  under 
90.  It  includes  about  200  miles  of  the  course  of  the 
Rhine,  which  forms  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  province 
from  Bingen  to  Coblentz  and  then  flows  through  it  in  a 
north-westerly  direction. 


The  southern  and  larger  half  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  belong- 
ing geologically  to  the  Devonian  formations  of  the  lower 
Rhine,  is  hilly.  On  the  left  bank  are  the  elevated  plateaus 
of  the  Hundsriick  and  the  Eifel,  separated  from  each  other 
by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Moselle,  while  on  the  right  bank 
are  the  spurs  of  the  Westerwald  and  the  Sauerland,  the 
former  reaching  the  river  in  the  picturesque  group  known 
as  the  Seven  Mountains.  The  highest  hill  in  the  province 
is  the  Walderbeskopf  (2670  feet)  in  the  Hochwald,  and 
there  are  several  other  summits  above  2000  feet  on  the 
left  bank,  while  on  the  right  there  are  few  which  attain 
a  height  of  1600  feet.  Most  of  the  hills  are  covered  with 
trees,  but  the  Eifel  is  a  barren  and  bleak  plateau,  with 
numerous  traces  of  volcanic  agency,  and  is  continued  to- 
wards the  north-west  by  the  moorlands  of  the  Hohe  Venn. 
To  the  north  of  a  line  drawn  from  Aix-la-Chapelle  to 
Bonn  the  province  is  flat,  and  marshy  districts  occur  near 
the  Dutch  frontier.  The  climate  varies  considerably  with 
the  configuration  of  the  surface.  That  of  the  northern 
lowlands  and  of  the  sheltered  valleys  is  the  mildest  and 
most  equable  in  Prussia,  with  a  mean  annual  temperature 
of  50°  Fahr.,  while  on  the  hills  of  the  Eifel  the  mean 
does  not  exceed  44°.  The  annual  rainfall  varies  in  the 
different  districts  from  18  to  32  inches.  Almost  the 
whole  province  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  but  a 
small  district  in  the  north-west  is  drained  by  affluents  of 
the  Meuse.  Of  the  numerous  tributaries  which  join  the 
Rhine  within  the  province,  the  most  important  are  the 
Nahe,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Ahr  on  the  left  bank,  and  the 
Sieg,  the  Wupper,  the  Ruhr,  and  the  Lippe  on  the  right. 
The  only  lake  of  any  size  is  the  Laacher  See,  the  largest 
of  the  "  maare  "  or  extinct  crater  lakes  of  the  Eifel. 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  Rhenish  province  about  46 '5 
per  cent,  is  occupied  by  arable  land,  1 7  per  cent,  by  mea- 
dows and  pastures,  and  31  per  cent,  by  forests.  Little 
except  oats  and  potatoes  can  be  raised  on  the  high-lying 
plateaus  in  the  south  of  the  province,  but  the  river-valleys 
and  the  northern  lowlands  are  extremely  fertile.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  soil  is  in  the  hands  of  small  proprietors, 
and  this  is  alleged  to  have  had  the  effect  of  somewhat 
retarding  the  progress  of  scientific  agriculture.  The  usual 
cereal  crops  are,  however,  all  grown  with  success,  and 
tobacco,  hops,  flax,  rape,  hemp,  and  beetroot  (for  sugar) 
are  cultivated  for  commercial  purposes.  Large  quantities 
of  fruit  are  also  produced.  The  vine-culture  occupies  a 
space  of  30,000  acres,  about  half  of  which  are  in  the  valley 
of  the  Moselle,  a  third  in  that  of  the  Rhine  itself,  and  the 
rest  mainly  on  the  Nahe  and  the  Ahr.  The  choicest 
varieties  of  Rhine  wine,  however,  such  as  Johannisberger 
and  Steinberger,  are  produced  higher  up  the  river,  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  Rhenish  province.  In  the  hilly  districts 
more  than  half  the  surface  is  sometimes  occupied  by  forests, 
and  large  plantations  of  oak  are  formed  for  the  use  of  the 
bark  in  tanning.  Considerable  herds  of  cattle  are  reared 
on  the  rich  pastures  of  the  lower  Rhine,  but  the  number 
of  sheep  in  the  province  is  comparatively  small,  and  is, 
indeed,  not  greatly  in  excess  of  that  of  the  goats.  The 
wooded  hills  are  well  stocked  with  deer,  and  a  stray  wolf 
occasionally  finds  its  way  from  the  forests  of  the  Ardennes 
into  those  of  the  Hundsriick.  The  salmon  fishery  of  the 
Rhine  is  very  productive  and  trout  abound  in  the  moun- 
tain streams.  (Compare  the  agricultural  tables  under 
PRUSSIA,  p.  14  suj>ra.} 

The  great  mineral  wealth  of  the  Rhenish  province 
probably  furnishes  its  most  substantial  claim  to  the  title 
of  the  "richest  jewel  in  the  crown  of  Prussia."  Besides 
parts  of  the  Carboniferous  measures  of  the  Saar  and  the 
Ruhr,  it  also  contains  important  deposits  of  coal  near 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  Iron  occurs  abundantly  near  Coblentz, 
the  Bleiberg  in  the  Eifel  possesses  an  apparently  inex- 


U  — P  R  U 


haustible  supply  of  lead,  and  zinc  is  found  near  Cologne 
and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The  mineral  products  of  the  district 
also  include  lignite,  copper,  manganese,  vitriol,  lime,  gyp- 
sum, volcanic  stones  (used  for  mill-stones),  and  slates. 
In  1882  the  total  value  of  the  minerals  raised  in  the  pro- 
vince was  £5,460,000,  or  nearly  one-third  of  the  produce 
of  Prussia ;  by  far  the  most  important  item  is  coal,  the 
output  of  which  was  upwards  of  15,000,000  tons,  valued 
at  ,£4,400,000.  Of  the  numerous  mineral  springs  the 
best  known  are  those  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Kreuznach. 

The  mineral  resources  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  coupled  with 
its  favourable  situation  and  the  facilities  of  transit  afforded 
by  its  great  waterway,  have  made  it  the  most  important 
manufacturing  district  in  Germany.  The  industry  is  mainly 
concentrated  round  two  chief  centres,  Aix-la-Chapelle  and 
Diisseldorf  (with  the  valley  of  the  Wupper),  while  there  are 
naturally  few  manufactures  in  the  hilly  districts  of  the 
south  or  the  marshy  flats  of  the  north.  In  the  forefront 
stand  the  metallic  industries,  the  total  produce  of  which 
was  valued  in  1882  at  £5,200,000.  The  foundries  pro- 
duced upwards  of  a  million  tons  of  iron,  besides  zinc,  lead, 
copper,  and  other  metals.  The  largest  iron  and  steel 
works  are  at  Essen  (including  Krupp's  cannon -foundry), 
Oberhausen,  Duisburg,  Diisseldorf,  and  Cologne,  while 
cutlery  and  other  small  metallic  wares  are  extensively 
made  at  Solingen,  Remscheid,  and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The 
cloth  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  the  silk  of  Crefeld  form  im- 
portant articles  of  export.  The  chief  industries  of  Elber- 
feld-Barmen  and  the  valley  of  the  Wupper  are  cotton- 
weaving,  calico-printing,  and  the  manufacture  of  turkey 
red  and  other  dyes.  Linen  is  largely  made  at  Gladbach, 
leather  at  Malmedy,  glass  in  the  Saar  district,  and  beet- 
root sugar  near  Cologne.  Though  the  Rhineland  is  par 
excellence  the  country  of  the  vine,  no  less  than  52,000,000 
gallons  of  beer  were  brewed  in  the  province  in  1882-83, 
equivalent  to  an  annual  consumption  of  fifty -one  quarts 
per  head  of  population ;  distilleries  are  also  numerous, 
and  large  quantities  of  sparkling  Moselle  are  made  at 
Coblentz,  chiefly  for  exportation  to  England.  Commerce 
is  greatly  aided  by  the  navigable  rivers,  a  very  extensive 
network  of  railways,  and  the  excellent  roads  constructed 
during  the  French  regime.  The  imports  consist  mainly 
of  raw  material  for  working  up  in  the  factories  of  the  dis- 
trict, while  the  principal  exports  are  coal,  fruit,  wine,  dyes, 
cloth,  silk,  and  other  manufactured  articles  of  various 
descriptions. 

The  population  of  Rhenish  Prussia  in  1 880  was  4,074,000, 
including  2,944,186  Roman  Catholics,  1,077,173  Protest- 
ants, and  43,694  Jews.  The  Roman  Catholics  muster 
strongest  on  the  left  bank,  while  on  the  right  bank  about 
half  the  population  is  Protestant.  The  distribution  of  the 
confessions  is,  however,  somewhat  sporadic,  owing  to  the 
varied  histories  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the  province. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  population  is  of  Teutonic  stock, 
and  about  a  quarter  of  a  million  are  of  Flemish  blood. 
On  the  north-west  frontier  reside  about  12,000  Walloons, 
who  speak  French  or  Walloon  as  their  native  tongue. 
The  Rhine  province  is  the  most  thickly  populated  part  of 
Prussia,  the  general  average  being  390  persons  per  square 
mile,  while  in  the  government  district  of  D\isseldorf  the 
proportion  rises  to  754.  The  province  contains  a  greater 
number  of  large  towns  than  any  other  province  in  Prussia, 
and  6 2 '5  of  the  population  is  returned  as  urban.  Upwards 
of  half  the  population  are  supported  by  industrial  and 
commercial  pursuits,  and  barely  a  quarter  by  agriculture. 
There  is  a  university  of  good  standing  at  Bonn,  and  the 
success  of  the  elementary  education  is  borne  witness  to  by 
the  fact  that  in  1883  only  0'19  per  cent,  of  the  Rhenish 
recruits  were  unable  to  read  and  write.  For  purposes  of 
administration  the  province  is  divided  into  the  five  districts 


of  Coblentz,  Diisseldorf,  Cologne,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and 
Treves ;  Coblentz  is  the  official  capital,  though  Cologne  is 
the  largest  and  most  important  town.  In  the  greater  part 
of  the  province  the  Code  Napoleon,  introduced  under  the 
French  regime,  is  still  in  force.  Being  a  frontier  province 
the  Rhineland  is  strongly  garrisoned,  and  the  Rhine  is 
guarded  by  the  four  strong  fortresses  of  Cologne  with 
Deutz,  Coblentz  with  Ehrenbreitstein,  Wesel,  and  Saar- 
louis.  In  the  Prussian  parliament  the  province  of  the 
Rhine  is  represented  by  twenty -seven  members  in  the 
upper  house  and  eighty-two  in  the  lower. 

History.  — The  present  province  of  Rhenish  Prussia  was  formed 
in  1815  out  of  the  duchies  of  Cleves,  Berg,  Upper  Guelders,  and 
Jiilich,  the  ecclesiastical  principalities  of  Treves  and  Cologne,  the 
free  cities  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Cologne,  and  nearly  a  hundred 
small  independent  lordships,  knightships,  and  abbeys.  It  is  there- 
fore manifestly  impracticable  to  give  more  than  a  broad  general 
sketch  of  the  historical  development  of  a  region  of  which  the  com- 
ponent parts  have  had  so  little  of  their  past  in  common.  At  the 
earliest  historical  period  we  find  the  territories  between  the  Ardennes 
and  the  Rhine  occupied  by  the  Treviri,  Eburones,  and  other  Celtic 
tribes,  who,  however,  were  all  more  or  less  modified  and  influenced 
by  their  Teutonic  neighbours.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
between  the  Main  and  the  Lahn,  were  the  settlements  of  the 
Mattiaci,  a  branch  of  the  Germanic  Chatti,  while  farther  to  the 
north  were  the  Usipetes  and  Tencteri.  Julius  Cresar  conquered 
the  tribes  on  the  left  bank  and  Augustus  established  numerous 
fortified  posts  on  the  Rhine,  but  the  Romans  never  succeeded  in 
gaining  a  firm  footing  on  the  right  bank.  Under  the  Romans  the 
distiicts  to  the  west  of  the  Rhine,  forming  parts  of  the  provinces 
of  Belgica  Prima,  Germania  Superior,  and  Germania  Inferior,  en- 
joyed great  prosperity  and  reached  a  high  degree  of  civilization. 
Several  Roman  emperors  resided  and  issued  their  edicts  at  Treves, 
the  capital  of  Belgica  Prima,  and  the  important  Roman  remains  in 
this  city  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  province  give  an  idea  of 
the  material  benefits  the  territory  derived  from  their  dominion. 
As  the  power  of  the  Roman  empire  declined  the  Franks  pushed 
forward  along  both  banks  of  the  Rhine,  and  by  the  end  of  the  5th 
century  had  regained  all  the  lands  that  had  formerly  been  under 
Teutonic  influence.  The  German  conquerors  of  the  Rhenish  dis- 
tricts were  singularly  little  affected  by  the  culture  of  the  provincials 
they  subdued,  and  all  traces  of  Roman  civilization  were  submerged 
in  a  new  flood  of  paganism.  By  the  8th  century  the  Frankish 
dominion  was  firmly  established  in  central  Germany  and  northern 
Gaul ;  and  under  the  Carlovingian  monarchs  the  Rhineland,  and 
especially  Aix-la-Chapelle,  plays  a  role  of  considerable  prominence. 
On  the  division  of  the  Carlovingian  realm  the  part  of  the  Rhenish 
province  to  the  east  of  the  river  fell  to  the  share  of  Germany,  while 
that  to  the  west  remained  with  the  evanescent  middle  kingdom  of 
Lotharingia.  By  the  time  of  Otho  I.  (936-973)  both  banks  of  the 
Rhine  had  become  German,  and  the  Rhenish  territory  was  divided 
between  the  duchies  of  Upper  and  Lower  Lorraine,  the  one  on  the 
Moselle  and  the  other  on  the  Meuse.  Subsequently,  as  the  central 
power  of  the  German  sovereign  became  weakened,  the  Rhineland 
followed  the  general  tendency  and  split  up  into  numerous  small 
independent  principalities,  each  with  its  separate  vicissitudes  and 
special  chronicles.  The  old  Lotharingian  divisions  passed  wholly 
out  of  use,  and  the  name  of  Lorraine  became  restricted  to  the  dis- 
trict that  still  bears  it.  In  spite  of  its  dismembered  condition, 
and  the  sufferings  it  underwent  at  the  hands  of  its  French  neigh- 
bours in  various  periods  of  warfare,  the  Rhenish  territory  prospered 
greatly  and  stood  in  the  foremost  rank  of  German  culture  and  pro- 
gress. Aix-la-Chapelle  was  fixed  upon  as  the  place  of  coronation 
of  the  German  emperors,  and  the  ecclesiastical  principalities  of  the 
Rhine  bulk  largely  in  German  history.  Prussia  first  set  foot  on  the 
Rhine  in  1609,  when  it  acquired  the  duchy  of  Cleves  ;  and  about  a 
century  later  Upper  Guelders  and  Miirs  also  became  Prussian.  At 
the  peace  of  Basel  in  1795  the  whole  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine 
was  resigned  to  France,  and  in  1806  the  Rhenish  princes  all  joined 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  The  congress  of  Vienna  assigned 
the  whole  of  the  lower  Rhenish  districts  to  Prussia,  which  had  the 
tact  to  leave  them  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  liberal  institu- 
tions they  had  become  accustomed  to  under  the  republican  rule  of 
the  French.  (Compare  RHINE.  )  (J.  F.  M.) 

PRUSSIAN  BLUE.     See  PRTJSSIC  ACID  (p.  24  infra). 

PRUSSIC  ACID,  the  familiar  name  for  a  dangerously 
poisonous,  though  chemically  feeble,  acid,  known  scienti- 
fically as  "  hydrocyanic  acid,"  or  "  cyanide  of  hydrogen,"  is 
here  taken  as  a  convenient  heading  under  which  to  treat  of 
cyanides  generally.  This  generic  term  (from  KVOLVOS,  blue) 
is  not  meant  to  hint  at  any  generic  property ;  it  is  due 
simply  to  the  fact  that  all  cyanides,  in  an  historical  sense, 


22 


PRUSSIC      ACID 


are  derivatives  of  a  blue  pigment  which  was  discovered 
accidentally  by  Diesbach,  a  Berlin  colourmaker,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century. 

The  foundations  of  our  present  knowledge  of  cyanides 
were  laid  by  Scheele  (1783),  whose  discoveries  were  subse- 
quently (from  1811)  confirmed  and  supplemented,  chiefly 
in  the  sense  of  quantitative  determinations,  by  Gay-Lussac. 
Although  we  have  no  space  for  further  historical  notes,  we 
must  not  omit  to  state  that  Gay-Lussac,  as  one  result  of  his 
work,  conceived  and  introduced  into  chemistry  the  notion 
of  the  "compound  radical,"  having  shown  that  prussic 
acid  and  its  salts  are  related  to  "the  group  NO  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  chlorides  are  to  chlorine,  or  sulphides  to 
sulphur.  This  idea,  in  his  own  eyes  and  in  those  of  his 
contemporaries,  was  greatly  fortified  by  his  success  in  even 
isolating  his  "  cyanogene  "  as  a  substance. 

IH  preparing  cyanogen  or  cyanides  in  the  laboratory  the 
operator  now  always  starts  from  prussiate  of  potash,  with 
which,  accordingly,  we  begin. 

Prussiate  of  Potash,  (NC)6Fe.K4  +  3H.,0  (syn.  ferrocyanide  of 
potassium  ;  Germ.  Blutlaugensalz). — This  salt  is  being  produced 
industrially  from  animal  refuse  (hide  and  horn  clippings,  old  shoes, 
blood  solids,  &c.),  carbonate  of  potash,  and  iron  filings  or  borings 
as  raw  materials.  The  carbonate  of  potash  is  fused  at  a  red  heat 
in  an  iron  pear-shaped  vessel  suspended  within  a  furnace,  or  on  the 
cupel-shaped  sole  of  a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  the  animal  matter, 
which  should  be  as  dry  as  possible,  is  then  introduced  in  instal- 
ments along  with  the  iron.  The  fusion  is  continued  as  long  as 
inflammable  gases  are  going  off;  then  the  still  fluid  mass  is  ladled 
out  and  allowed  to  cool,  when  it  hardens  into  a  black  stone-like 
body  known  to  the  manufacturer  as  "metal."  When  the  broken- 
up  metal  is  digested  with  water  in  an  iron  vessel  prussiate  of  potash 
passes  into  solution,  while  a  black  residue  of  charcoal,  metallic 
iron,  sulphide  of  iron,  &c.,  remains.  The  clarified  solution,  after 
sufficient  concentration  in  the  heat,  deposits  on  cooling  part  of 
its  prussiate  in  lemon -yellow  quadratic  crystals  (generally  trun- 
cated octahedra),  which  are  purified  by  recrystallization.  The  last 
mother-liquors  furnish  an  impure  green  salt,  which  is  added  to  a 
fresh  fuse  and  so  utilized. 

In  former  times  it  was  believed  that  the  prussiate  was  produced 
during  the  fusion  process,  and  in  the  subsequent  process  of  lixivia- 
tion  simply  passed  into  solution,  until  Liebig  showed  that  this  view 
was  untenable.  The  fuse  cannot  contain  ready-formed  prussiate, 
because  this  salt  at  a  red  heat  breaks  up  with  formation  of  a  residue 
of  carbide  of  iron  and  cyanide  of  potassium.  The  metal  in  fact 
when  treated  with  dilute  alcohol  gives  up  to  it  plain  cyanide  of 
potassium,  and  the  fully  exhausted  residue  yields  no  prussiate  on 
treatment  with  water.  The  prussiate  accordingly  must  be  produced 
during  the  process  of  lixiviation  by  the  action  of  the  cyanide  of 
potassium  on  some  ferrous  compound  in  the  metal.  Liebig  thought 
that  it  was  partly  the  metallic  iron,  partly  the  sulphide  of  iron 
present  in  the  metal,  which  effected  the  conversion.  According  to 
more  recent  researches  a  double  sulphide,  K^S  +  Fe.^,  which  is 
always  produced  during  the  fusion  (from  the  reagents  proper  and 
the  sulphur  of  the  organic  matter  and  that  of  the  sulphate  of  potash 
present  in  the  carbonate  as  an  impurity),  plays  this  important  part. 
The  double  sulphide  by  the  action  of  water  breaks  up  into  alka- 
line sulphide,  sulphide  of  iron  (FeS),  and  sulphur.  This  sulphide 
of  iron  is  of  a  peculiar  kind  ;  it  does  what  ordinary  FeS  does  not 
effect,  readily  at  least :  it  converts  the  cyanide  into  prussiate,  thus, 
6NC.K  +  FeS  =  K.3S-l-(NC)aFe.K4,  while  the  eliminated  sulphur 
of  the  original  Fe^S.,  unites  with  another  part  of  the  cyanide  of 
potassium  into  sulphocyanate,  S  +  NCK  =  SNC.K,  which  latter 
salt  is  thus  unavoidably  produced  as  a  (rather  inconvenient)  bye- 
product.  Pure  prussiate  of  potash  has  the  specific  gravity  1  '83  ;  it 
is  permanent  in  the  air.  It  loses  its  water,  part  at  60°  C.,  the  rest 
nt  100°  C.,  but  very  slowly.  The  anhydrous  salt  is  a  white  powder. 
The  crystals  dissolve  in  four  parts  of  cold  and  in  two  parts  of 
boiling  water.  It  is  insoluble  in,  and  not  dehydrated  by,  alcohol. 

Prussiate  of  potash  has  the  composition  of  a  double  salt, 
Fe(NC)2  +  4KNC,  but  the  idea  that  it  contains  these  two  binary 
cyanides  is  entirely  at  variance  with  its  reactions.  Cyanide  of 
potassium  is  readily  decomposed  by  even  the  feeblest  acids,  and 
to  some  extent  even  by  water,  with  elimination  of  hydrocyanic 
acid,  and  on  this  account  perhaps  is  intensely  poisonous.  A  solu- 
tion of  the  prussiate  remains  absolutely  unchanged  on  evaporation, 
and  the  action  on  it  even  of  strong  acids  in  the  cold  results  in  the 
formation  of  the  hydrogen  salt,  (NC)8FeH4,  which  is  decomposed,  it 
i.s  true,  but  only  when  the  mixture  is  heated,  with  evolution  of 
hydrocyanic  acid.  It  is  not  poisonous.  Its  solution  when  mixed 
with  nitrate  of  silver  does  not  give  a  precipitate  of  cyanide  of  silver, 
NC.  Ag,  and  a  solution  of  the  two  nitrates,  but  yields  a  unitary  pre- 


cipitate of  the  composition  (NC)6Fe.Ag4,  which  contains  all  the 
iron  ;  only  nitrate  of  potassium  passes  into  solution.  Other  heavy 
metallic  salts  behave  similarly.  On  the  strength  of  these  con- 
siderations chemists,  following  the  lead  of  Liebig,  view  prussiato 
as  a  binary  compound  of  potassium,  K4,  with  a  complex  radical, 
N6C6Fe,  ' '  ferrocyanogen. " 

Hydrocyanic  Acid,  NC.H. — This  acid  is  prepared  most  con- 
veniently from  prussiate  of  potash.  Wbhler  recommends  the 
following  method.  Ten  parts  of  powdered  prussiate  are  placed  in  a 
retort,  the  neck  of  which  is  turned  upwards,  and  a  (cooled  down) 
mixture  of  seven  parts  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  fourteen  parts  of  water  is 
then  added.  If  the  aqueous  acid  is  wanted,  the  exit-end  of  the  retort 
is  joined  on  direct  to  a  Liebig's  condenser,  which  must  be  kept  very 
cool  by  a  current  of  cold  water.  If  the  anhydrous  acid  is  desired, 
two  wide-necked  bottles  (or  two  large  U -tubes)  charged  with  fused 
chloride  of  calcium  and  kept  at  30°  C.  by  immersion  in  a  water 
bath  of  this  temperature,  must  be  inserted  between  the  retort  and 
condenser.  In  this  case  more  particularly  it  is  indispensable  to 
provide  for  a  most  efficient  condensation  of  the  vapours  ;  the  exit- 
end  of  the  condenser  should  be  provided  with  an  adapter  going 
down  to  near  the  bottom  of  the  receiver,  which  must  be  surrounded 
by  a  freezing  mixture.  The  temperature  of  the  latter,  of  course, 
must  not  be  allowed  to  fall  to  the  freezing-point  of  the  distillate. 
The  retort  is  heated  by  means  of  a  sand  bath  and  a  brisk  distilla- 
tion maintained  until  the  residue  begins  to  dry  up.  The  result  of 
the  reaction  is  in  accordance  with  the  assumption  that  the  dilute 
vitriol,  in  the  first  instance,  converts  the  prussiate,  one-half  into 
(NC)6Fe.H4,  the  other  into  (NC)6Fe.K2H2,  and  that  through  the 
effect  of  the  heat  these  two  bodies  decompose  each  other  into 
{(NC)6Fe)  K2Fe,  which  remains  in  the  residue  as  a  precipitate, 
and  (NC)6H6=6NCH,  which  distils  over.  Heal  NCH  is  a  colour- 
less liquid  of  0'6967  specific  gravity  at  18°  C.,  which  freezes  at 
-15°  C.  (Gay-Lussac)  into  a  white  fibrous  solid.  According  to 
Schulz  the  acid,  if  really  pure,  remains  liquid  at  -  37°  C.  It  boils 
at  26°'5  C. ;  at  4°'5  its  vapour-tension  already  amounts  to  half  an 
atmosphere.  The  vapour  is  inflammable  and  burns  into  carbonic 
acid,  water,  and  nitrogen.  The  acid  mixes  with  water  in  all 
proportions,  with  contraction  and  yet  absorption  of  heat.  The 
solution  behaves  on  distillation  like  a  mere  mechanical  mixture  of 
its  two  components.  Prussic  acid  has  a  very  peculiar  powerful 
smell ;  more  characteristic  still  is  a  kind  of  choking  action  which 
even  the  highly  attenuated  vapour  exerts  on  the  larynx.  Prussic 
acid  is  fearfully  poisonous  ;  a  few  drops  of  even  the  ordinary 

Eharmaceutical  preparation  (of  2  per  cent.)  are  sufficient  to  kill  a 
irge  dog.     It  acts  with  characteristic  promptitude,  especially  when 
inhaled  as  a  vapour.     Even  a  relatively  large  dose,  if  it  has  once 
found  its  way  into  the  stomach  without  producing  a  fatal  effect,  is 
said  to  do  relatively  little  harm  there.1 

Prussic  acid  is  characteristically  prone  to  suffer  "spontaneous 
decomposition."  Whether  the  pure  anhydrous  acid  really  is,  in 
the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  still  requires  to  be  found  out ;  the 
ordinary  preparation,  when  kept  in  a  close  bottle,  soon  turns  brown 
and  turbid  from  "azulmic"  acid,  a  substance  of  complex  constitu- 
tion. Other  things  are  formed  at  the  same  time.  The  pure  aqueous 
acid  is  liable  to  similar  changes  ;  in  its  case  formiate  of  ammonia 
always  forms  the  predominant  product.  This  change  is  easily 
understood — 

NC .  H  +  2H20  =  NH?  +  H .  COOH. 

Ammonia.    Formic  acid. 

A  strong  aqueous  prussic  acid,  wlien  mixed  with  fuming  hydro- 
chloric acid,  is  soon  converted  into  a  magma  of  crystals  of  sal- 
ammoniac,  with  formation  of  formic  acid,  which  remains  dissolved. 
And  yet,  most  singularly,  the  addition  to  the  preparation  of  a  small 
proportion  of  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid  is  the  best  means  for 
preventing,  or  at  least  greatly  retarding,  its  spontaneous  change 
in  the  very  same  direction.  Aqueous  prussic  acid  acts  only  very 
feebly  (if  at  all)  on  blue  litmus  ;  it  combines  with  aqueous  caustic 
alkalis  but  does  not  decompose  their  carbonates  ;  nor  does  it  act 
upon  the  generality  of  insoluble  basic  metallic  oxides  or  hydrates  ; 
mercuric  oxide  and  oxide  of  silver  form  noteworthy  exceptions  to 
this  rule. 

Cyanogen,  (NC)2. — When  dry  mercuric  cyanide  is  heated  it 
breaks  up,  below  redness,  into  mercury  and  cyanogen  gas  ;  part  of 
the  latter,  however,  always  suffers  polymerization  into  a  solid  called 
".paracyanogen,"  and  presumed  to  consist  of  molecules  (NC).,. 
Cyanogen  gas  is  colourless  ;  it  has  the  specific  gravity  demanded  by 
its  formula.  It  possesses  a  peculiar  odour  and  has  a  characteristic 

1  The  British  Pharmacopoeia  prescribes  for  the  medicinal  acid  a 
strength  of  2  per  cent,  of  real  NCH.  The  two  medicinal  prepara- 
tions known  as  aqua  amygdalarum  amararum  and  as  aqua  laurocerasi 
respectively  contain  prussic  acid  iu  combination  with  hydride  of  ben- 
zoyl,  C8HS.COH.  In  neither  case  does  the  prussic  acid  pre-exist  in 
the  vegetable  materials,  but  is  produced  during  the  mashing  process 
which  precedes  the  distillation,  by  a  fermentative  decomposition  of  the 
amygdalin  which  they  contain.  (See  FOMENTATION,  vol.  ix.  p.  96.) 


PRUSSIC      ACID 


23 


irritating  effect  on  the  eyes  and  mucous  membranes  of  the  nose. 
It  is  poisonous.  By  strong  pressure  it  is  condensible  into  a  liquid 
which  freezes  at  -34° "4  C.,  and  has  the  following  vapour-tensions 
P  at  the  temperatures  t  stated — 

t=          -20°  7         -10°         0°        +10°         +20°C. 
P=  I  1-85         27        3'8  5atmos. 

At  ordinary  temperatures  water  dissolves  about  4-5  times,  alcohol 
about  23  times  its  volume  of  the  gas.  The  solutions  are  liable  to 
(very  complex)  spontaneous  decomposition.  The  list  of  products 
includes  oxalate  of  ammonia  and  urea.  Cyanogen  burns  with  a 
characteristically  beautiful  peach-blossom  coloured  flame  into  car- 
bonic acid  and  nitrogen.  This  gas  cyanogen,  as  already  stated,  is 
to  cyanides  what  chlorine  gas  C12  is  to  chlorides,  but  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  the  analogy,  though  perfect  in  regard  to  the  corre- 
sponding formulae,  does  not,  as  a  rule,  extend  to  the  conditions  of 
formation  of  the  bodies  represented.  Thus  cyanogen  does  not  unite 
with  hydrogen  into  pnlssic  acid,  nor  does  it  combine  with  ordinary 
metals  in  the  chlorine  fashion.  When  passed  over  heated  potas- 
sium, it  is  true,  it  combines  with  it  into  cyanide  ;  and  caustic 
potash -ley  absorbs  it  with  formation  of  cyanide  and  cyanate 
(NCO.  K),  just  as  chlorine  yields  chloride  and  hypochlorite  KC10  ; 
but  this  is  about  the  sum -total  of  the  analogies  in  action.  Yet 
metallic  cyanides  of  all  kinds  can  be  produced  indirectly. 

Cyanide  of  Potassium,  NC.K.—  An  aqueous  mixture  of  the  quan- 
tities NCH  and  KHO  no  doubt  contains  this  salt,  but  it  smells  of 
the  acid,  and  on  evaporation  behaves  more  like  a  mixture  of  the 
two  congeners  than  in  any  other  way.  An  exhaustive  union  can 
be  brought  about  by  passing  NCH  vapour  into  an  alcoholic  solution 
of  KHO  ;  the  salt  NC.K  then  comes  down  as  a  crystalline  precipi- 
tate, which  must  be  washed  with  alcohol  and  dried,  cold,  over 
vitriol.  A  more  convenient  method  is  to  dehydrate  yellow  prussi- 
ate  and  then  decompose  it  by  heating  it  to  redness  in  an  iron 
crucible.  The  Fe(NC)2  part  of  the  salt  breaks  up  into  cyanogen 
and  nitrogen,  which  go  off,  and  a  carboniferous  finely-divided  iron, 
which  remains,  with  cyanide  of  potassium,  which  at  that  temperature 
is  a  thin  fluid.  Yet  the  iron  sometimes  refuses  to  settle  with  suffi- 
cient promptitude  to  enable  one  to  decant  off  the  bulk  even  of  the 
fused  cyanide.  According  to  private  information  received  by  the 
writer  a  French  manufacturer  uses  a  certain  kind  of  very  porous 
fireclay  as  an  efficient  filtering  medium. 

The  ordinary  "cyanide  of  potassium"  of  trade  is  not  strictly 
that  at  all,  but  at  best  a  mixture  of  the  real  salt  with  cyanate.  It 
is  produced  by  fusing  a  mixture  of  eight  parts  of  anhydrous  prussiate 
and  three  parts  of  anhydrous  carbonate  of  potash,  allowing  the 
reaction 

(NC)6Fe .  K4  +  K2C03  =  C02  +  Fe  +  5NCK  +  K .  NCO 

Cyanate 

to  complete  itself  and  the  iron  to  settle,  and  decanting  off  the  clear 
fuse.  The  product  goes  by  the  name  of  "Liebig's  cyanide,"  but 
the  process  was  really  invented  by  Rodgers. 

Fused  cyanide  of  potassium  assumes  on  cooling  the  form  of  a 
milky  white  stone-like  solid.  It  fuses  readily  at  a  red  heat,  and 
at  a  white  heat  volatilizes  without  decomposition,  provided  that 
it  is  under  the  influence  of  heat  alone  ;  in  the  presence  of  air 
it  gradually  passes  into  cyanate  ;  when  heated  in  steam  it  is 
converted  into  carbonate  of  potash  with  evolution  of  ammonia, 
carbonic  oxide,  and  hydrogen.  When  heated  to  redness  with  any 
of  the  more  easily  reducible  metallic  oxides  it  reduces  them  to  the 
metallic  state,  while  it  passes  itself  into  cyanate.  It  also  reduces 
the  corresponding  sulphides  with  formation  of  sulphocyanate  ;  for 
example,  Pb(S  or  0)+NCK  =  Pb  +  NC(0  or  S)K.  Hence  its  fre- 
quent application  in  blowpipe  analysis.  When  heated  with  chlor- 
ates or  nitrates  it  reduces  them  with  violent  explosion.  The  aqueous 
solution  of  the  salt  has  a  strongly  alkaline  reaction  ;  it  smells  of 
hydrocyanic  acid  and  is  readily  decomposed  by  even  such  feeble 
acids  as  acetic  or  carbonic.  It  readily  dissolves  precipitated  chlor- 
ide, bromide,  and  iodide  of  silver  ;  this  is  the  basis  of  its  application 
in  photography.  Large  quantities  of  the  salt  are  used  in  electro- 
plating. 

Other  Binary  Cyanides. — Of  these  only  a  few  can  be  noticed  here. 
(1)  Cyanide  of  sodium  is  very  similar  to  the  potassium  salt.  The 
same  remark,  in  a  more  limited  sense,  holds  for  the  cyanides 
of  barium,  strontium,  and  calcium.  (2)  Cyanide  of  ammonium 
(NC-NH4)  forms  crystals  volatile  at  36°  C.  and  smelling  of  ammonia 
and  hydrocyanic  acid.  The  solution  in  water  decomposes  spon- 
taneously, pretty  much  like  that  of  the  free  acid.  But  the  anhy- 
drous vapour  by  itself  stands  a  high  temperature,  as  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  it  is  produced  largely  when  ammonia  is  passed  over 
red-hot  charcoal,  C  +  2NH3=  H2  +  NCH . NH:j.  (3)  Mercuric  cyanide, 
Hg(NC).j,  forms  very  readily  when  mercuric  oxide  is  dissolved  in 
aqueous  prussic  acid.  The  solution  on  evaporation  and  cooling 
deposits  crystals  soluble  in  eight  parts  of  cold  water.  This  salt  is 
not  at  all  decomposed,  even  when  heated,  by  water,  nor  appreci- 
ably by  dilute  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid ;  boiling  hydrochloric  acid 
eliminates  the  NC  as  hydrocyanic  acid ;  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
acts  similarly  in  the  cold,  ft  gives  no  precipitate  with  nitrate 
of  silver,  nor  is  it  changed  visibly  by  caustic  alkalis.  It  readily 


unites  not  only  with  other  cyanides  but  also  with  a  multitude  of 
other  salts  into  crystallizable  double  salts.  Mercurous  cyanide, 
Hg2(NC)2,  seems  to  have  no  existence.  When  it  is  attempted  to 
produce  it  by  double  decompositions,  the  mixture  Hg  +  (NC).,Hg 
comes  forth  instead  of  the  compound  Hg^NC)^  (4)  Heavy  metallic 
cyanides  are  mostly  insoluble  in  water,  and  the  general  method 
for  their  preparation  is  to  decompose  a  solution  of  the  respective 
sulphate,  chloride,  &c.,  with  one  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  The 
most  important  general  property  of  these  bodies  is  that  they 
readily  dissolve  in  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium  with  formation 
of  double  cyanides,  which  in  their  capacity  as  double  salts  all 
exhibit,  in  a  higher  or  lower  degree,  those  anomalies  which  were 
fully  explained  above  (see  "  prussiate  of  potash  ").  These  "  metallo- 
cyanides, "  as  we  will  call  them,  being  all,  unlike  plain  cyanide 
of  potassium,  very  stable  in  opposition  to  water  and  aqueous  alkalis, 
are  readily  produced  from  almost  any  compound  of  the  respective 
metallic  radical — some  from  the  metal  itself— by  treatment  with 
solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  In  all  we  have  said  "potassium" 
may  be  taken  as  including  sodium  and  in  a  limited  sense  am- 
monium, but  the  potassium  compounds  are  best  known,  and  we 
accordingly  in  the  following  section  confine  ourselves  to  these. 

Metallo-cyanides. — (1)  Silver. — Cyanide  of  silver,  Ag.NC,  is  pro- 
duced as  a  precipitate  by  addition  of  hydrocyanic  acid  or  cyanide  of 
potassium  to  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  The  precipitate  is  similar 
in  appearance  to  chloride  of  silver  and,  like  it,  insoluble  in  cold  dilute 
mineral  acids,  but  soluble  in  ammonia.  At  a  red  heat  it  is  decom- 
posed with  formation  of  a  residue  of  carboniferous  metallic  silver. 
Precipitated  cyanide  of  silver,  though  insoluble  in  hydrocyanic  acid, 
dissolves  readily  in  cyanide  of  potassium  with  formation  of  argento- 
cyanide,  AgK .  (NC)2,  which  is  easily  obtained  in  crystals,  perma- 
nent in  the  air  and  soluble  in  eight  parts  of  cold  water.  Chloride 
of  silver  dissolves  in  cyanide  of  potassium  solution  as  readily  as 
the  cyanide  does  and  with  formation  of  the  same  double  salt — 
AgCl  +  2KNC  =  KC1  +  AgK(NC)2.  This  salt  is  used  very  largely  in 
electro-plating.  (2)  Lead. — From  a  solution  of  the  acetate  cyanide 
of  lead  is  precipitated  by  addition  of  hydrocyanic  acid  or  cyanide 
of  potassium.  The  precipitate,  Pb(NC)2,  has  the  exceptional  pro- 
perty of  being  insoluble  in  cyanide  of  potassium.  (3)  Zinc. — 
Cyanide  of  zinc,  Zn(NC)2,  is  obtained  by  addition  of  hydrocyanic 
acid  to  a  solution  of  the  acetate,  as  a  white  precipitate  readily 
soluble  in  cyanide  of  potassium  with  formation  of  a  double  salt, 
ZnK2(NC)4,  which  forms  well-defined  crystals.  (4)  Nickel. — The 
cyanide,  Ni(NC)2,  is  an  apple-green  precipitate,  which  is  obtained  by 
methods  similar  to  those  given  under  ' '  zinc. "  It  readily  dissolves 
in  cyanide  of  potassium  with  formation  of  a  crystallizable  salt, 
NiK2(NC)4  +  H20,  the  solution  of  which  is  stable  in  air  and  not 
convertible  into  one  of  a  nickelic  (Ni'")  compound  by  chlorine  (com- 
pare "cobalt"  infra).  The  potassio-cyanides  of  silver,  zinc,  and 
nickel  as  solutions  are  not  changed  visibly  by  caustic  alkalis,  but 
their  heavy  metals  can  be  precipitated  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
or  sulphide  of  ammonium,  as  from  solutions  of,  for  instance,  the 
chlorides.  Aqueous  mineral  acids  (in  the  heat  at  least)  decompose 
them  exhaustively  with  elimination  of  all  the  NC  as  NCH.  (5) 
Copper.  — When  cyanide  of  potassium  solution  is  added  to  one  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  a  yellow  precipitate  of  cupric  cyanide,  Cu(NC)2, 
comes  down ;  but  on  boiling  this  precipitate  loses  cyanogen  and 
is  converted  into  a  white  precipitate  of  the  cuprous  salt  Cu(NC). 
This  white  precipitate  dissolves  in  cyanide  of  potassium  with  for- 
mation chiefly  of  two  crystalline  double  salts,  viz.,  CuNC  +  6NCK, 
easily  soluble  in  water,  and  CuNC  +  NCK.  The  latter  is  decom- 
posed by  water  with  elimination  of  Cu.NC.  The  solution  of  the 
6NC.  K  salt  is  not  precipitated  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Solu- 
tions of  potassio-cyanides  of  cuprosum  are  used  in  electro-plating. 
(6)  Gold. — Metallic  gold  dissolves  in  cyanide  of  potassium  solution 
in  the  presence  of  air,  thus — 

Au+ 2KNC-HO  =  £K20  +  AuK.  (NC)2. 

This  auro-cyanide  of  potassium  is  used  largely  for  electro-gilding, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  conveniently  prepared  as  follows.  Six  parts 
of  gold  are  dissolved  in  aqua  regia  and  the  solution  is  precipitated 
by  ammonia.  The  precipitate  (an  explosive  compound  known  as 
"  fulminating  gold  ")  is  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  six  parts  of  cyanide 
of  potassium,  when  the  double  salt  is  formed  with  evolution  of 
ammonia.  The  salt  crystallizes  in  rhombic  octahedra,  soluble  in 
seven  parts  of  cold  water. 

In  the  following  potassio  •  cyanides  the  heavy  metals  cannot  be 
detected  by  means  of  their  ordinary  precipitants  ;  these  salts  all 
behave  like  the  potassium  salts  of  complex  radicals  composed  of  the 
heavy  metal  and  all  the  cyanogen.  (7)  Cobalt. — Cyanide  of  potas- 
sium when  added  to  a  solution  of  a  cobaltous  salt  (CoCl2,  &c. )  gives 
a  precipitate  soluble  in  excess  of  reagent.  The  solution  presumably 
contains  a  cobalto-cyanide,  Co(NC)2.a:KNC,  but  on  exposure  to  air 
eagerly  absorbs  oxygen  with  formation  of  cobalti-cyanide,  thus — 

Co(NC),  t-  4KNC  +  ^0  =  £K20  +  Co'"(NC)3 .  3KNC. 
Chlorine  (Cl  instead  of  £0)  acts  more  promptly  with  a  similar  effect 
If  the  alkaline  solution  is  acidified  and  boiled,  the  same  cobalti 
cyanide  is  produced  with  evolution  of  hydrogen — 

Co(NC)2  +  4KNC  +  HC1  =  KC1  +  £H2  +  Co'"(NC)3 .  3KNC. 


24 

Cobalti-cyanide  of  potassium,  (NC)6Co'".K3,  forms  yellow  crystals 
isomorphous  with  those  of  red  prussiate  (see  infra).  It  is  a  re- 
markably stable  salt.  In  its  behaviour  to  reagents  it  exhibits 
none  of  the  characters  of  a  cobalt  salt  or  of  a  simple  cyanide.  Aque- 
ous mineral  acids  convert  it  into  the  hydrogen  salt  (NC)6Co'"H3, 
which  remains  undecomposed  on  boiling.  Heavy  metallic  salts  pro- 
duce precipitates  of  cobalti-cyanides  ;  for  example,  (NC)8Co'".Ag3. 
(8)  Ferrosum. — See  "  prussiate  of  potash  "  above.  (9)  Ferricum. — 
Ferric  hydrate  and  ferric  compounds  generally  do  not  act  upon 
cyanide  of  potassium  in  a  manner  analogous  to  that  of  ferrous  com- 
pounds ;  but  a  ferri-cyanide  analogous  to  the  cobalti-salt  referred 
to  in  (7)  is  readily  produced  by  passing  chlorine  into  a  cold  solution 
of  ordinary  prussiate,  (NG)6Fe  .  K4  +  Cl  -  KC1  +  (NC)6fe'".  K3. 1  I n 
preparing  the  salt  an  excess  of  chlorine  and  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture must  be  avoided,  or  else  part  of  the  salt  is  decomposed  with 
formation  of  a  green  precipitate.  The  solution  on  evaporation  and 
cooling  yields  splendid  dark  red  crystals,  soluble  in  2  "54  parts  of 
water  of  15° '6  C.  (Wallace),  forming  a  most  intensely  yellow 
solution.  (Ordinary  prussiate  solution  is  only  pale  yellow  even 
when  saturated  in  the  cold. )  This  salt  (discovered  by  L.  Gmelin 
in  1822)  is  now  being  manufactured  industrially  and  is  known  in 
commerce  as  "red  prussiate."  In  its  reactions  it  is  analogous  to 
ordinary  yellow  prussiate.  The  same  group,  (NC)6Fe,  which  in 
the  latter  acts  as  a  four-valent,  in  the  red  salt  plays  the  part  of  a 
tri-valent  radical,  (NC)6fe.  But  the  radical  thus  modified  has 
a  great  tendency  to  assume  the  four-valent  form;  hence  an 
alkaline  solution  of  red  prussiate  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent, 
(NC)6fe.K3  +  KHO  =  (NC)6Fe.  K4  +  HO.  The  HO  goes  to  the  reduc- 
ing agent.  Like  the  yellow  salt,  red  prussiate  is  not  poisonous,  at 
least  when  pure. 

Ferro-  aiid  Ferri-cyanides  of  Iron. — The  two  prussiates  are  con- 
stantly being  used  in  the  laboratory  as  very  delicate  reagents  for 
the  detection  of  iron  salt,  and  for  the  discrimination  of  ferrous  and 
ferric  compounds  in  solutions, — (1)  ferro-cyanide  and  ferrous  salt, 
white  precipitate  ;  (2)  ferri-cyanide  and  ferric  salt,  intensely  brown 
coloration ;  (3)  ferro-cyanide  and  ferric  salt,  blue  precipitate ; 
(4)  ferri-cyanide  and  ferrous  salt,  blue  precipitate.  These  blue 
precipitates  are  being  produced  industrially  and  used  as  pigments, 
under  the  names  of  "prussian  blue"  and  "Turnbull's  blue"  for 
(3)  and  (4)  respectively.  The  latter  has  been  thus  known  for 
now  half  a  century  ;  yet  the  constitution  of  the  precipitates  and 
the  true  rationale  of  their  formation  have  been  fully  cleared  up 
only  during  the  last  few  years.  The  main  results  of  the  researches 
referred  to  are  included  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

(1)  Ferro-cyanide  of  Hydrogen,  (NC)6Fe.H4,  is  obtained  as  a  white 
crystalline  precipitate  when  air-free  concentrated  solution  of  yellow 
precipitate  is  mixed  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  ether.     It  is  easily 
soluble  iii  water  and  in  alcohol.     An  aqueous  solution  of  it  is  pre- 
pared for  technical  purposes  by  mixing  a  strong  solution  of  yellow 
prussiate  with  enough  tartaric  acid  to  bring  down  the  potassium 
as  cream  of  tartar.     When  the  solution  of  this  ferro-hydrocyanic 
acid  is  boiled  half  the  cyanogen  goes  off  as  NCH,  while  the  other 

remains  as  part  of  a  white,  rather  unstable,  precipitate,  (NC)6Fe  .  j^e. 

When  the  solution  is  exposed  to  the  air,  especially  at  higher 
temperatures,  part  of  the  cyanogen  goes  off  as  NCH,  another  part 
suffers  oxidation  into  H.,0  +  NC,  and  this  latter  combines  with  the 
Fe(NC)2  of  the  original  compound  into  blue  bodies  similar  in  their 
general  properties  to  prussian  blue.  This  latter  change  is  utilized 
in  calico-printing  for  producing  patterns  of,  or  dyeing  with,  prus- 
sian blue.  The  white  precipitate  (NC)6Fe.Tr  may  be  looked  upon 
as  an  acid  of  which  -,  8 

(2)  Everett's  Salt,  (NC)6Fe .  g,  is  the  potash  salt.     This  salt  is 

produced  in  the  ordinary  process  for  making  prussic  acid  (see  above). 
It  is  probably  identical  with  the  white  precipitate  produced  when 
ferrous  salt  is  decomposed  by  prussiate  of  potash.  Everett's  salt 
when  exposed  to  the  air  quickly  absorbs  oxygen  and  becomes  blue  ; 
the  reaction,  as  Williamson  showed,  assumes  a  simple  form  when 
the  precipitate  is  boiled  with  nitric  acid.  One-half  of  the  potassium 
is  then  oxidized  away,  and  a  blue  double  ferri-cyanide  of  potassium 
and  ferrosum  takes  the  place  of  the  original  precipitate : — 

(NC)6Fe .  KoFe^KjjO  as  nitrate)  +  {(NC)6fe)  "'Fe"K'. 

Williamson's  blue. 

This  blue  when  boiled  with  ferro-cyanide  of  potassium  is  reconverted 
into  the  original  Everett's  salt  with  formation  of  a  solution  of  red 
prussiate — 

(NC)6fe.KFe»  +  K2*K2.  Fe(NC)6  =  (NC)6fe.  K3  +  Fe(NC)6.  FeK* 

Red  prussiate.        Everett's  salt. 
the  asterisked  radicals  changing  places. 

(3)  Soluble  Prussian  Blue  is  isomeric  with  Williamson's  blue.     It 
is  produced  by  mixing  a  solution  of  ferric  salt  with  excess  of  yellow 
prussiate,  which,  however,  is  an  old  process  ;  what  has  been  aseer- 


1  Here  we  use  the  symbol  "  fe  "  as  designating  56  parts  of  ferric  iron,—"  Fe  " 
meaning  the  same  quantity  of  ferrosum. 


tained  lately  is  that  the  very  same  precipitate  is  produced  by  addi- 
tion to  a  ferrous  salt  of  an  excess  of  red  prussiate. 


II.  (NC)6Fe.K4  +  feCl3  =  3KCl  +  (NC)6Fe.  Kfe  =  B". 
B'  and  B"  in  the  formulae  look  different,  but  the  difference  is  only 
apparent  ;  in  either  case  the  group  (NC)6  is  combined  with  IFe  and 
Ife  and  IK  ;  the  bodies  are  identical  (Skraup  ;  Reindel).  The 
precipitate  B,  though  insoluble  in  salt  solutions,  is  soluble  in  pure 
water,  forming  an  intensely  blue  solution  ;  hence  the  name. 

Now  the  potassium  in  soluble  prussian  blue  can  be  displaced  by 
iron  in  two  ways,  namely,  by  digestion  with  solutions  of  ferrous  or 
ferric  salts.  In  the  former  case  (NC)6feFeK  becomes  (NC)6feFen,  or 

empirically  (NC)12Fe5  ;  this  is  Gmelin's  ("Turnbull's")  blue.  In  the 
latter  case  (NC)6FefeK  becomes  (NC)6Fefe«,  or  empirically  (NC)18Fe-  ; 

this  is  prussian  blue  as  discovered  by  Diesbach.  Contrasting  this 
latter  formula  with  that  of  Gmelin's  blue  (NC)18Fe7j,  we  see  that 
the  latter  needs  only  lose  ^Fe  to  become  prussian  blue  ;  this  sur- 
plus iron  in  fact  can  be  withdrawn  by  means  of  nitric  acid. 

In  the  manufacture  of  prussian  blue  the  general  process  is  to 
first  precipitate  ferrous  sulphate  with  yellow  prussiate  and  then  to 
fully  oxidize  the  precipitate  by  means  of  nitric  acid  or  chlorine  as 
far  as  the  oxygen  of  the  air  does  not  do  it.  The  following  receipt 
is  recommended  amongst  others.  Six  parts  each  of  green  vitriol 
and  yellow  prussiate  are  dissolved  separately,  each  in  fifteen  parts 
of  water,  and  the  solutions  mixed.  One  part  of  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  and  twenty-four  parts  of  fuming  muriatic  acid  are  then 
added,  and  after  standing  some  hours  also  a  solution  of  bleaching 
powder  in  instalments  until  the  blue  colour  is  fully  developed. 
"  Turnbull's  "  blue  is  made  by  precipitating  red  prussiate  of  potash 
with  excess  of  ferrous  salt  ;  but  it  is  easily  seen  from  what  was 
said  above  that  the  use  of  this  relatively  expensive  double  cyanide 
might  be  dispensed  with.  The  properties  of  the  two  pigments  are 
pretty  much  the  same.  They  are  sold  in  the  form  of  solid  cakes  or 
lumps,  which,  in  addition  to  their  blue  colour,  present  a  coppery 
lustre  on  fracture.  They  are  stable  against  acids,  but  sensibly 
affected  (bleached)  on  prolonged  exposure  to  sunlight  ;  and,  although 
they  stand  neutral  soap  fairly  well,  they  are  decomposed  promptly 
by  solutions  of  even  the  carbonates  of  the  alkalis  with  formation 
of  hydrated  oxides  of  iron.  The  cheaper  commercial  varieties  are 
more  or  less  largely  diluted  with  clay,  sulphate  of  baryta,  &c.  Pure 
prussian  blue  dissolves  readily  in  a  dilute  solution  of  oxalic  acid  ; 
the  intensely  blue  solution  used  to  serve  as  a  blue  ink,  but  has 
come  to  be  superseded  by  the  several  more  brilliant  blues  of  the 
coal-tar  series.  These  tar-blues  have  displaced  prussian  blue  also 
in  other  applications,  and  as  a  commercial  pigment  it  has  besides 
to  straggle  against  ultramarine.  In  short,  it  has  gone  very  much 
out  of  use,  and  as  a  consequence  the  manufacture  of  yellow  prussiate 
is  no  longer  so  remunerative  as  it  used  to  be. 

Analysis  of  Cyanides.  —  As  hydrocyanic  acid  and  cyanide  of 
potassium  are  dangerously  poisonous,  and  the  latter  at  least  is  easily 
procured  in  commerce,  the  detection  of  cyanogen  in  this  state  of 
combination  is  one  of  the  problems  of  forensic  chemistry.  To 
detect  such  cyanogen  in,  say,  the  contents  of  a  stomach  the  first 
step  is  to  distil  the  mass  after  acidification  with  tartaric  acid, 
which  decomposes  cyanide  of  potassium  but  does  not  liberate  prussic 
acid  from  prussian  blue  (or  even  prussiate  of  potash  ?).  If  the  dis- 
tillate gives  no  precipitate  with  nitrate  of  silver  hydrocyanic  acid 
is  absent,  if  it  does  the  precipitate  may  have  been  produced  by 
hydrochloric  acid,  which  may  then  be  eliminated  by  redistillation 
with  borax  or  sulphate  of  soda,  neither  of  which  affects  NCH.  But 
even  in  the  presence  of  chlorides  the  following  two  tests  give  perfect 
certainty.  (1)  A  solution  of  hydrocyanic  acid,  when  Blkalinized 
with  caustic  potash  and  then  mixed  with,  first  ferroso-ferric  salt 
and  then  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid,  gives  a  precipitate,  or  at  least 
a  green  suspension,  of  prussiau  blue.  (2)  A  solution  of  NCH,  when 
mixed  with  ammonia  and  yellow  sulphide  of  ammonium,  is  changed 
into  one  of  sulphocyanate  of  ammonium,  which,  after  removal  of  the 
excess  of  reagents  by  evaporation  at  a  gentle  heat,  strikes  an  intense 
and  very  characteristic  red  colour  with  ferric  salts,  which  colour  does 
not  vanish  (as  that  of  ferric  acetate  does)  on  even  strong  acidification 
with  mineral  acid  (Liebig's  test).  The  quantitative  determination 
of  cyanogen  given  as  an  aqueous  solution  of  hydrocyanic  acid  or 
cyanide  of  potassium  can  (if  haloids  are  absent)  be  effected  by  adding 
excess  of  nitrate  of  silver,  then  acidifying,  if  necessary,  with  nitric 
acid,  filtering  off,  washing,  drying,  and  weighing  the  cyanide  of  silver 
produced.  AgNC=  134  corresponds  to  NCH  =  27  parts.  A  more  ex- 
peditious method  lias  been  invented  by  Liebig.  A  known  quantity 
of  the  given  prussic  acid  is  alkalinized  strongly  with  caustic  potash 
and  then  diluted  freely  with  water.  The  caustic  alkali  usually 
contains  plenty  of  chloride  as  an  impurity,  else  a  little  alkaline 
chloride  must  be  added.  A  standard  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
(conveniently  adjusted  so  as  to  contain  6  '30  grammes  of  fused  ni- 
trate per  1000  cubic  centimetres,  equivalent  to  2  grammes  of  NCH) 
is  now  dropped  in  from  a  burette  until  the  cloud  of  chloride  of 
silver  which  appears  locally  from  the  first  just  fails  to  disappear  on 
stirring,  i.e.,  until  the  reaction  2KNC  -t-  AgN03  =  KAg.(NC)2  +  KN03 


P  R  Y  —  P  R  Y 


25 


has  just  been  completed.  One  cub.  cent,  of  silver  solution  used 
indicates  2  milligrammes  of  NCH.  Liebig's  method  lends  itself 
particularly  well  for  the  assay  ing  of  the  medicinal  acid  and  of 
cyanide  of  potassium.  The  two  tests  for  hydrocyanic  acid  given 
above  apply  as  they  stand  to  solutions  of  the  cyanides  of  alkali 
and  alkaline-earth  metals,  but  not  to  mercuric  cyanide.  In  regard 
to  all  other  cyanides  we  have  only  space  to  say  that  from  a  certain 
set  (which  includes  the  cobalti-cyanides  and  the  platinum  cyanides) 
cyanogen  cannot  be  extracted  at  all  as  NCH  (or  AgNC)  by  any 
known  methods.  Such  bodies  must  be  identified  by  their  own 
specific  reactions  or  by  elementary  analysis.  All  cyanides  are  de- 
composed by  hot  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  ;  the  carbon  goes  off 
as  CO,  the  nitrogen  remains  as  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  the  metals 
as  sulphates,  which  brings  them  within  the  range  of  the  routine 
methods  of  analysis. 

Cyanates. — These  were  discovered  by  Wb'hler.  The  potassium 
salt  NCO.  K  is  produced  by  the  oxidation  of  fused  cyanide,  for  pre- 
parative purposes  most  conveniently  by  Wohler's  method.  An 
intimate  mixture  of  two  parts  of  absolutely  anhydrous  prussiate  of 
potash  and  one  part  of  equally  dry  binoxide  of  manganese  is  heated 
on  an  iron  tray  until  the  mass  has  become  brownish  black  and  just 
begun  to  fuse.  It  is  now  allowed  to  cool  and  exhausted  by  boiling 
80  per  cent,  alcohol.  The  filtrate  on  cooling  deposits  crystals  of 
the  salt  NCO.K.  If  only  an  aqueous  solution  of  this  salt  is  wanted 
for  immediate  use,  the  fuse  may  be  extracted  by  cold  water.  From 
this  solution  the  cyanate  of  silver,  NCO.Ag,  or  lead,  (NCO)2Pb, 
can  be  prepared  by  precipitation  with  solutions  of  the  respective 
nitrates  or  acetates.  Hot  water  decomposes  cyanate  of  potash 
promptly  with  formation  of  carbonates  of  potash  and  ammonia, 
KNCO  +  2H20  =  NH3  +  KHO  +  C02.  On  addition  of  mineral  acid 
to  even  the  cold  solution  only  a  very  little  of  the  cyanic  acid  is 
liberated  as  such  ;  the  bulk  breaks  up  at  once  with  effervescence, 
thus,  NCO .  H  +  2H20  =  NH3  +  C02  +  H.,0.  Very  interesting  is  the 
action  of  the  solution  of  cyanate  of  potash  on  sulphate  of  ammonia ; 
its  direct  effect  is  the  formation  of  cyanate  of  ammonia,  NCO.NH4, 
but  this  salt  almost  immediately  passes  spontaneously  into  its 
isomer  urea,  which  is  not  a  cyanate  at  all  but  the  amide  of  carbonic 

acid,  i.e.,  CO(OH)2-2(OH)  +  2NH2=C0^22.     This  reaction  was 

discovered  by  Wohler,  who  thus  for  the  first  time  produced  an 
organic  substance  from  inorganic  materials,  or  virtually  from  its 
elements.  Singularly,  it  is  this  pseudo-cyauate  urea  which  serves 
as  a  material  for  making  cyanic  acid.  When  hydrochlorate  of  urea, 
HC1.  CON.,H4,  is  heated  to  145°  C.  the  latter  behaves  as  if  it  were 
cyanate  of  ammonia :  the  ammonia  unites  with  the  hydrochloric 
acid  into  sal-ammoniac  and  the  cyanic  acid  is  set  free,  but  imme- 
diately suffers  polymerization  into  cyanuric  acid,  a  solid  tri- basic 
acid  of  the  composition  N3C303H3,  which,  being  difficultly  soluble, 
can  be  freed  from  the  sal-ammoniac  by  being  washed  with  cold 
water.  If  perfectly  anhydrous  cyanuric  acid  be  subjected  to  dry 
distillation  it  furnishes  a  distillate  of  (liquid)  cyanic  acid  NCO.  H, 
which  must  be  condensed  in  a  vessel  surrounded  by  a  freezing 
mixture. 

Cyanic  acid  has  a  very  appreciable  vapour-tension  even  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures,  and  the  least  trace  of  its  vapour  makes  itself  felt 
by  a  characteristically  violent  and  dangerous  action  on  the  respira- 
tory organs.  With  dry  ammonia  gas  it  unites  into  true  cyanate  of 
ammonia.  We  do  not  know  much  of  its  own  properties,  because 
as  soon  as  it  comes  out  of  the  freezing  mixture  it  begins  to  suffer 
polymerization  into  "cyamelid"  with  great  evolution  of  heat. 
This  cyamelid  is  a  porcelain-like  mass,  insoluble  in  all  ordinary 
solvents  and  devoid  of  acid  properties.  Dry  distillation  reconverts 
it  into  cyanic  acid. 

Thiocyanates. — This  term  means  bodies  like  cyanates,  but 
containing  sulphur  instead  of  the  oxygen  of  the  latter.  Thio- 
cyanates are  better  known,  however,  as  sulphocyanates  or  sulpho- 
cyanides.  (1)  The  potassium  salt  NCS.K  is  formed  when  cyanide 
of  potassium  is  fused  with  sulphur  or  certain  metallic  sulphides, 
e.g.,  PbS.  The  usual  method  of  preparation  is  to  fuse  together 
forty-six  parts  of  dehydrated  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  seventeen 
of  dry  carbonate  of  potash,  and  thirty- two  of  sulphur.  The  fuse 
is  exhausted  with  boiling  alcohol  and  the  filtered  solution  allowed 
to  cool,  when  crystals  of  the  salt  separate  out.  The  salt  is  very 
soluble  in  water  with  characteristically  large  absorption  of  heat. 
(2)  The  ammonium  salt  NCS .  NH4  can  be  prepared  by  allowing  a 
mixture  of  alcohol,  strong  aqueous  ammonia,  and  bisulphide  of 
carbon  to  stand  for  a  time  and  then  warming  it.  Thiocarbonate 
of  ammonium,  CS2.(NH4)2S,  is  produced  first,  but  subsequently 
it  gives  up  2H.,S  to  the  ammonia  and  becomes  NCS .  NH4,  which 
is  easily  obtained  in  crystals.  The  tar  water  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  coal-gas  sometimes  contains  sufficient  quantities  of 
this  salt  to  make  it  worth  while  to  recover  it.  Both  the  potassium 
and  the  ammonium  salt  are  much  used  as  reagents,  and  more  especi- 
ally as  precipitants  for  copper  and  silver.  Solutions  of  cupric  salt 
when  mixed  with  sulphocyanate  assume  the  dark-brown  colour  of 
the  cupric  salt  Cu(NCS).,,  but  on  addition  of  sulphurous  acid  the 
colour  disappears  and  a  white  precipitate  of  cuprous  sulphocyanide, 


NCS .  Cu,  comes  down,  which,  if  enough  of  reagent  was  used,  con- 
tains all  the  copper.  If  sulphocyanate  is  added  to  nitrate  of  silver, 
all  the  silver  is  precipitated  as  Ag.  NCS,  similar  in  appearance  to 
the  chloride  and,  like  it,  insoluble  in  water  and  in  nitric  acid. 
Upon  this  and  the  fact  that  sulphocyanates  strike  a  deep  red  colour 
with  ferric  salts  Volhard  lias  based  an  excellent  titrimetric  method 
for  the  determination  of  silver.  (See  SILVER.) 

Syntheses  of  Cyanogen  Compounds. — Synthetical  organic  chemistry 
dates  from  Wb'hler's  discovery  of  the  artificial  formation  of  urea, 
and  in  the  further  development  of  this  branch  of  the  science  cyano- 
gen has  played  a  prominent  part.  (For  illustrations  we  may  refer 
to  certain  passages  in  the  present  article  and  in  those  on  METHYL 
and  on  NITIIOGEX.)  Hence  it  is  worth  while  to  enumerate  briefly 
the  synthetical  method  for  the  making  of  cyanogen  itself.  (1) 
Hydrocyanic  acid  is  produced  when  a  current  of  electric  sparks  is 
made  to  cross  a  mixture  of  acetylene,  C2H2,  and  nitrogen.  (2) 
Cyanide  of  ammonium  is  formed  when  ammonia  is  passed  over 
red-hot  charcoal  (see  supra).  (3)  Metallic  cyanides  are  produced 
when  diy  nitrogen  gas  is  passed  over  a  dry  mixture  of  carbonate  of 
potash  or  baryta  and  charcoal  at  a  white  heat.  A  similar  reaction 
goes  on  spontaneously  in  the  iron-smelting  furnaces  and  gives  rise 
to  the  formation  of  vapour  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  (4)  Sulpho- 
cyanide of  ammonium  is  produced  from  bisulphide  of  carbon  and 
ammonia,  as  explained  above.  (W.  D. ) 

PRYNNE,  WILLIAM  (1600-1669),  was  born  at  Swains- 
wick  near  Bath  in  1600.  He  was  educated  at  Bath 
grammar-school,  and  became  a  commoner  of  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  in  1616,  taking  his  B.A.  in  1621  ;  he  was  ad- 
mitted a  student  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  the  same  year,  and 
in  due  time  became  a  barrister.  His  studies  led  him  deeply 
into  legal  and  constitutional  lore,  and  no  less  deeply  into 
ecclesiastical  antiquities.  He  was  Puritan  to  the  core, 
with  a  tenacious  memory,  a  strength  of  will  bordering 
upon  obstinacy,  and  a  want  of  sympathy  with  human 
nature  in  its  manifold  variety.  His  first  book,  The  Per- 
petuity of  a  Regenerate  Man's  Estate,  1627,  was  devoted 
to  a  defence  of  one  of  the  main  Calvinistic  positions,  and 
The  Unloveliness  of  Love-locks  and  Health's  Sickness,  1628, 
were  devoted  to  attacks  upon  prevailing  fashions,  con- 
ducted without  any  sense  of  proportion,  and  treating  follies 
on  the  same  footing  as  scandalous  vices. 

After  the  dissolution  of  parliament  in  1629  Prynne 
came  forward  as  the  assailant  of  Arminianism  in  doctrine 
and  of  ceremonialism  in  practice,  and  thus  drew  down 
upon  himself  the  anger  of  Laud.  Histrio-mastijc,  published 
in  1633,  was  a  violent  attack,  not  upon  the  special  im- 
moralities of  the  stage  of  Prynne's  day  but  upon  stage- 
plays  in  general,  in  Avhich  the  author  laid  himself  open  to 
the  charge  of  assailing  persons  in  high  position,  in  the  first 
place  by  pointing  out  that  kings  and  emperors  who  had 
favoured  the  drama  had  been  carried  off  by  violent  deaths, 
which  assertion  might  easily  be  interpreted  as  a  warning 
to  the  king,  and  in  the  second  place  by  applying  a  dis- 
graceful epithet  to  actresses,  which,  as  Henrietta  Maria 
was  taking  part  in  the  rehearsal  of  a  ballet  just  as  the 
sheet  containing  the  offensive  words  was  passing  through 
the  press,  was  supposed  to  apply  to  the  queen.  On  17th 
February  1634  Prynne  was  sentenced  by  the  Star  Chamber 
to  be  imprisoned  and  also  to  be  fined  £5000,  expelled  from 
Lincoln's  Inn,  rendered  incapable  of  returning  to  his  pro- 
fession, degraded  from  his  degree  in  the  university  of 
Oxford,  and  set  in  the  pillory,  where  he  was  to  lose  both 
his  ears.  On  7th  May  Prynne  was  placed  in  the  pillory 
and  lost  his  ears.  The  rest  of  the  sentence,  with  the 
exception  of  the  clause  relating  to  the  payment  of  the  fine, 
was  carried  out.  A  sharp  letter  written  by  him  to  Laud 
criticizing  his  arguments  at  the  trial  was  made  the  founda- 
tion of  a  fresh  charge.  Prynne,  however,  got  the  letter 
into  his  hands  and  tore  it  up.  Though  he  was  again 
brought  before  the  Star  Chamber,  on  llth  June,  no  addi 
tional  penalty  was  inflicted  on  him.  There  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  his  punishment  was  unpopular.  In  1637 
he  was  once  more  in  the  Star  Chamber,  together  with 
Bastwick  and  Burton.  In  A  Divine  Tragedy  lately  acted 

XX.  —  4 


26 


P  R  Y  N  N  E 


he  had  attacked  the  Declaration  of  Sports,  and  in  News 
from  Ipswich  he  had  attacked  Wren  and  the  bishops 
generally.  On  30th  June  a  fresh  sentence,  that  had  been 
delivered  on  the  14th,  was  executed.  The  stumps  of 
Prynne's  ears  were  shorn  off  in  the  pillory.  When  on  27th 
July  he  was  sent  to  what  was  intended  to  be  perpetual 
imprisonment  at  Lancaster  his  journey  was  a  triumphal 
progress, — the  imposition  of  ship-money  and  the  metro- 
political  visitation  having  rendered  the  minds  of  English- 
men far  more  hostile  to  the  Government  than  they  had 
been  in  1634.  Before  long  Prynne  was  removed  to  Mont 
Orgeuil  Castle  in  Jersey,  where  it  was  hoped  that  he  could 
be  so  entirely  isolated  that  no  word  of  his  would  reach  the 
outer  world  again. 

Immediately  upon  the  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament 
in  1640  Prynne  was  liberated.  On  28th  November  he 
entered  London  in  triumph,  and  on  2d  March  1641  repara- 
tion was  voted  by  the  Commons,  to  be  made  to  him  at  the 
expense  of  his  persecutors.  As  might  have  been  expected, 
Prynne  after  his  release  took  the  side  of  the  Parliament 
strongly  against  the  king,  especially  attacking  in  his  writ- 
ings his  old  enemies  the  bishops,  and  accusing  Charles  of 
showing  undue  favour  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  He  com- 
mented on  the  words  of  Psalm  cv.,  "  Touch  not  mine 
anointed,"  by  arguing  that  they  inhibited  kings  from 
injuring  God's  servants  who  happened  to  be  their  subjects, 
and  in  a  lengthy  work  entitled  The  Sovereign  Power  of 
Parliaments  and  Kingdoms  he  maintained  that  the  taking 
arms  by  parliament  in  a  necessarily  defensive  war  was  no 
treason  either  in  law  or  in  conscience. 

Prynne's  sufferings  had  not  served  to  render  him  com- 
passionate to  others.  In  1643  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  proceedings  against  Nathaniel  Fiennes  for  the  surrender 
of  Bristol.  During  this  and  the  following  year,  however, 
his  chief  energies  as  a  prosecutor  were  directed  against 
Archbishop  Laud.  The  cessation  of  hostilities  with  the 
Irish  insurgents  agreed  to  on  15th  September  1643  brought 
Charles's  relations  with  the  Catholics  into  increased  dis- 
repute, and  Prynne  attacked  Laud  as  the  soul  of  a  great 
Popish  plot  by  publishing  both  before  and  after  his  execu- 
•  tion  various  collections  of  documents,  one  of  which  at  least 
was  garbled  to  render  it  more  telling.  Even  before  the 
execution  of  Laud  Prynne  found  a  new  enemy  in  the  In- 
dependents. In  1644  he  published  Twelve  Considerable 
Serious  Questions  touching  Church  Government,  in  which  he 
upheld  the  right  of  the  state  to  form  a  national  church  in 
accordance  with  the  word  of  God,  and  reviled  the  Inde- 
pendents, partly  as  advocating  an  unscriptural  discipline, 
partly  as  introducing  heresy  and  division,  and  maintaining 
that  all  religions  ought  to  be  tolerated.  To  the  principle 
of  individual  liberty  Prynne  was  from  the  beginning  to 
the  end  irreconcilably  hostile.  For  some  time  to  come  he 
poured  forth  pamphlet  after  pamphlet  in  vindication  of 
his  assertions.  Flowing  out  of  this  controversy  came 
another,  beginning  in  1645  with  Four  Short  Questions, 
privately  circulated,  and  followed  by  A  Vindication  of  Four 
Serious  Questions  of  Great  Importance,  in  which  he  denied 
the  right  of  the  clergy  to  excommunicate  or  to  suspend 
from  the  reception  of  the  sacrament  otherwise  than  by 
law.  Prynne,  in  short,  maintained  the  supremacy  of  the 
state  over  the  church,  whilst  he  argued  that  the  state 
ought  to  protect  the  church  from  the  rivalry  of  sectarian 
associations. 

Early  in  1648  Prynne  broke  new  ground.  The  Levellers 
Levelled  was  directed  against  the  dangerous  opinion  that 
the  Lords  should  be  brought  down  into  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, there  to  sit  and  vote.  As  usual,  he  argued  his  case 
on  purely  antiquarian  and  technical  grounds,  without  any 
intellectual  grasp  of  his  subject. 

On  7th  November  1648  Prynne  at  last  obtained  a  seat 


in  the  House  of  Commons.  He  at  once  took  part  against 
those  who  called  for  the  king's  execution,  and  on  5th 
December  delivered  a  speech  of  enormous  length  in  favour 
of  conciliating  the  king,  who  had  inflicted  the  most  griev- 
ous injuries  upon  him  and  whose  misgovernment  he  had 
bitterly  denounced.  The  result  was  his  inclusion  in 
Pride's  "  purge  "  on  the  morning  of  the  6th,  when,  having 
attempted  resistance  to  military  violence,  he  was  subjected 
to  imprisonment.  A  fresh  protest,  published  on  1st  January 
1649  under  the  title  of  A  Brief  Memento  to  the  Present 
Unparliamentary  Junto,  coupled  with  his  contemptuous 
refusal  to  avow  his  authorship,  brought  about  a  fresh  order 
of  imprisonment  on  10th  January  from  the  House  of 
Commons  itself,  which,  hoAvever,  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  carried  out.  After  recovering  his  liberty  Prynne 
retired  to  Swainswick.  On  7th  June  1649  he  was  assessed 
to  the  monthly  contribution  laid  on  the  country  by  Parlia- 
ment. He  not  only  refused  to  pay  but  published  A  Legal 
Vindication  of  the  Liberties  of  England  on  the  ground  that 
no  tax  could  be  raised  without  the  consent  of  the  two 
Houses.  In  the  same  year  he  commenced  a  long  histori- 
cal account  of  ancient  parliaments,  which  was  evidently 
intended  to  reflect  on  the  one  in  existence.  In  1650  his 
labours  were  cut  short  by  a  warrant  from  President  Brad- 
shaw,  dated  1st  July,  and  ordering  his  arrest.  For  the 
remainder  of  the  year  he  was  imprisoned  in  Dunster  Castle, 
whence  he  was  removed  in  January  1651  to  Taunton,  and 
in  July  to  Pendennis  Castle.  On  1st  February  1652  the 
council  of  state  ordered  his  discharge  on  giving  a  bond  of 
£1000  to  do  nothing  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Common- 
wealth. On  his  resolute  refusal  to  accept  the  condition 
an  absolute  order  for  his  release  was  given  on  18th  Febru- 
ary. From  his  release  till  the  death  of  Cromwell  Prynne 
refrained  from  making  any  further  assault  on  the  existing 
Government.  His  strong  conservatism,  however,  found 
expression  in  an  argument  in  defence  of  advowsons  and 
patronages  and  an  attack  on  the  Quakers,  both  published 
in  the  same  year,  as  well  as  in  an  argument  against  the 
admission  of  the  Jews  to  England  issued  in  the  beginning 
of  1655. 

It  was  not  until  the  restoration  of  the  Rump  Parliament 
by  the  army  on  7th  May  1659  that  Prynne  again  came 
into  prominent  notice,  though  he  had  in  the  previous  year 
issued  A  Plea  for  the  Lords  and  House  of  Peers  and  A  New 
Discovery,  viz.,  that  Quakers  were  Jesuits  in  disguise.  On 
that  day,  in  addition  to  the  Rump,  fourteen  of  the  secluded 
members,  with  Prynne  among  them,  claimed  admittance. 
The  claim  was  of  course  refused,  but  on  a  second  attempt 
on  the  9th,  through  the  inadvertence  of  the  doorkeepers, 
Prynne,  Annesly,  and  Hungerford  succeeded  in  taking 
their  seats.  When  they  were  observed,  however,  no  busi- 
ness was  done,  and  the  House  purposely  adjourned  for 
dinner.  At  the  return  of  members  in  the  afternoon  the 
doors  were  found  guarded;  the  secluded  members  were  not 
permitted  to  pass,  and  a  vote  was  at  once  taken  that  they 
should  not  again  be  allowed  to  enter  the  House.  Wrath- 
ful at  the  failure  of  his  protest  and  at  the  continuance  of 
the  republican  form  of  government,  Prynne  attacked  his 
adversaries  fiercely  in  print.  In  England 's  Confusion,  pub- 
lished 30th  May  1659,  in  the  True  and  Full  Narrative,  and 
in  The  Brief  Necessary  Vindication  he  gave  long  accounts 
of  the  attempt  to  enter  the  House  and  of  his  ejection, 
while  in  the  Curtaine  Drawne  he  held  up  the  claims  of  the 
Rump  to  derision.  In  Mola  Asinaria  the  ruling  powers 
are  described  as  "  a  new-fangled  Government,  compacted 
of  Treason,  Usurpation,  Tyranny,  Theft,  and  Murder." 
Wood,  however,  denies  that  this  was  by  Prynne.  In 
Shuffling,  Cutting,  and  Dealing,  26th  May,  he  rejoiced  at 
the  quarrels  which  he  sees  arising,  for  "  if  you  all  complain 
I  hope  I  shall  win  at  last."  Concordia  Discors  pointed  out 


P  R  Y  N  N  E 


the  absurdity  of  the  constant  tendency  to  multiply  oaths, 
while  "remonstrances,"  "narratives,"  "queries,"  "prescrip- 
tions," "vindications,"  "declarations,"  and  "statements" 
were  scattered  broadcast.  Upon  the  cry  of  the  "  good  old 
cause  "  he  is  especially  sarcastic  and  severe  in  The  True 
Good  Old  Cause  rightly  stated  and  other  pamphlets. 
Loyalty  Banished  explains  itself.  His  activity  and  fear- 
lessness in  attacking  those  in  power  during  this  eventful 
year  were  remarkable,  and  an  ironical  petition  was  circu- 
lated in  Westminster  Hall  and  the  London  streets  com- 
plaining of  his  indefatigable  scribbling.  On  1 2th  October 
the  Rump  was  again  expelled  by  Lambert,  and  on  24th 
December  once  more  restored.  On  26th  December  Prynne 
made  another  fruitless  attempt  to  take  his  seat.  In  obedi- 
ence to  the  popular  voice,  however,  the  ejected  members 
of  1648,  with  Prynne  among  them,  wearing  a  basket-hilt 
sword,  re-entered  the  House  and  resumed  their  old  seats  on 
21st  February  1660.  He  boldly  declared  that  if  Charles 
was  to  come  back  it  were  best  done  by  the  votes  of  those 
who  had  made  war  on  his  father,  and  was  admonished  for 
his  language  by  Monk  and  the  privy  council.  This  parlia- 
ment recalled  Charles  and  dissolved  itself  immediately, — 
Prynne  bringing  in  the  Bill  for  the  dissolution  on  24th 
February.  On  13th  March  he  appears  as  one  of  three 
appointed  to  carry  out  the  resolution  of  the  House  expung- 
ing the  Engagement. 

The  Convention  Parliament,  which  met  on  25th  April 
1660,  contained  a  large  number  of  Presbyterians.  Prynne, 
who  was  returned  for  two  places,  Ludgershall  and  Bath, 
elected  to  sit  for  the  latter,  and  on  16th  June  presented  to 
the  king  an  address  from  the  corporation,  evidently  drawn 
up  by  himself,  under  the  title  of  Bathonia  Rediviva.  On 
1st  May  he  Avas  nominated  on  the  committee  appointed  "to 
peruse  the  Journals  and  Records,  and  to  examine  what  pre- 
tended Acts  or  orders  have  passed,  inconsistent  with  the 
government  by  King,  Lords,  and  Commons,  and  report 
them,  with  their  opinion  thereon,  to  this  House,"  and  to 
secure  the  steady  administration  of  the  law,  and  the  con- 
firmation of  the  legal  judgments  of  the  past  years.  On  9th 
May  he  went  to  the  Lords  with  various  loyal  votes  of  the 
Commons,  and  again  on  18th  May  and  on  9th  June.  On 
3d  June  he  "  fell  upon"  Ashley  Cooper  for  putting  his  hand 
to  the  "  instrument "  to  settle  the  Protector  in  power.  On 
the  1 3th  he  moved  that  Colonel  Fleetwood,  Richard  Crom- 
well, John  Goodwin,  Thorpe,  and  Whitelock  should  be 
excepted  from  the  Act  of  general  pardon  and  oblivion,  the 
speedy  passing  of  which  he  strongly  urged  upon  the  House. 
It  is  said  that  at  the  Restoration  he  applied  to  be  made  one 
of  the  barons  of  the  exchequer,  and  that  it  was  in  default 
of  this,  and  to  keep  so  active  a  man  in  good  temper,  that 
he  was  appointed  chief  keeper  of  the  records  in  the  Tower 
with  a  salary  of  £500  a  year  by  Charles,  "of  his  owne 
meere  motion  for  my  services  and  sufferings  for  him  under 
the  late  usurpers,  and  strenuous  endeavours  by  printing 
and  otherwise  to  restore' His  Majesty."  On  2d  July  he 
supported  a  proposal  that  all  officers  who  had  served 
during  the  Protectorate  should  now  refund  their  salaries, 
and  declared  that  he  knew  that  those  persons  had  received 
above  £250,000  for  their  iniquitous  doings  and  to  keep 
out  the  king,  a  charge  he  had  previously  made  on  12th 
May.  In  all  the  debates  he  was  for  severity  upon  any 
one  who  had  held  office  under  Cromwell.  On  9th  July  he 
spoke  "  very  honestly  and  passionately  "  from  the  Presby- 
terian point  of  view  in  the  first  great  debate  on  religion, 
and  on  the  16th  declared  he  "would  not  be  for  bishops 
unless  they  would  derive  their  power  from  the  king  and 
not  vaunt  themselves  to  be  jure  divino."  In  the  debate 
of  the  27th  upon  the  Lords'  delay  in  passing  the  Act  of 
Indemnity  Prynne  found  an  opportunity  for  expressing 
his  hatred  of  priests  and  Jesuits ;  and  on  the  30th,  in  the 


debate  on  the  Ministers'  Bill,  he  urged  a  settlement  on 
the  principle  that  the  ministers  should  be  compelled  to 
take  the  oath,  but  that  "  all  presentations  should  be  good 
throughout,  though  not  by  the  right  patrons,  in  time  of 
trouble."  On  17th  August  he  spoke  passionately  against 
any  leniency  whatsoever  being  extended  to  any  of  the 
king's  judges.  It  is  curious,  however,  to  find  that  the 
House  appointed  him  to  carry  the  petition  to  the  king  in 
favour  of  Lambert  or  Vane.  When  the  question  of  dis- 
banding came  up,  for  the  carrying  out  of  which  he  was  in 
October  made  one  of  the  commissioners,  Prynne  moved 
that  no  arrears  should  be  paid  to  those  who  had  acted 
with  Lambert  and  did  not  submit.  On  7th  November  he 
supported  the  Bill  for  the  attainder  of  Cromwell  and  others 
who  had  participated  in  the  king's  execution,  and  were 
since  dead,  and  particularly  desired  that  the  House  would 
take  the  first  and  second  reading  at  the  same  sitting,  as 
was  done  in  the  case  of  the  king's  trial.  At  some  time  in 
this  year  (1660)  he  wrote  a  letter  on  the  evil  custom  of 
drinking  healths,  a  subject  discussed  in  the  House  on 
10th  November.  There  was  indeed  scarcely  any  debate  in 
which  Prynne's  voice  was  not  heard ;  he  spoke  against 
laying  the  cost  of  the  abolition  of  the  court  of  wards 
upon  the  excise,  having  been  in  August  appointed  on 
the  commission  for  appeals  and  regulating  the  excise, 
and  in  favour  of  Bills  against  the  profanation  of  the 
Lord's  Day  (in  which  his  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  con- 
troversy again  appeared)  and  against  swearing.  He  ap- 
pears at  this  time  to  have  been  officially  connected  with 
the  Admiralty.  He  supported  on  27th  November  the 
abortive  attempt  to  turn  the  king's  declaration  concern- 
ing ecclesiastical  affairs  into  a  Bill,  and  moved  against 
the  payment  of  the  debts  of  the  attainted  regicides.  In 
December  he  wrote  against  the  bishops  to  the  king,  thus 
"  blemishing  his  late  services."  During  this  year  was  pub- 
lished A  Seasonable  Vindication  of  the  Supream  Authority 
and  Jurisdiction  of  Christian  Kings,  Lords,  Parliaments, 
as  well  over  the  Possessions  as  Persons  of  Delinquents,  Pre- 
lates, and  Churchmen. 

At  the  elections  for  the  Pensionary  Parliament,  which  met 
on  8th  May  1661,  Prynne  was  again  returned  as  member 
for  Bath  in  spite  of  the  vehement  efforts  of  the  Royalists 
headed  by  Sir  T.  Bridge.  This  parliament  was  bent  upon 
the  humiliation  of  the  Presbyterians,  and  Prynne  appears  in 
his  familiar  character  of  protester.  On  30th  May,  when 
the  members  took  the  sacrament  together  at  St  Margaret's, 
"  Mr  Prynne  and  some  few  others  refused  to  take  it  kneel- 
ing. The  parson  with  the  bread  passed  on  and  refused  to 
give  it,  but  he  with  the  wine,  not  noticing,  gave  the  wine." 
With  Secretary  Morris  Prynne  opposed  the  motion  that 
Dr  Gunning  should  receive  the  thanks  of  the  House  and  be 
desired  to  print  his  sermon.  On  the  1 8th  of  this  month  he 
had  moved  that  the  Engagement,  with  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant,  should  be  burned  by  the  hangman.  On 
13th  July  he  was  the  subject  of  attack,  as  being  in  a  way 
the  representative  of  Presbyterianism  ;  the  House  in  its 
vehement  Anglicanism  declared  that  his  paper  lately  pub- 
lished, Sundry  Reasons  against  the  new  intended  Bill  for 
governing  and  reforming  Corporations,  was  illegal,  false, 
scandalous,  and  seditious.  Prynne  was  censured,  and  so 
strong  was  the  feeling  that  he  deemed  it  best  to  express 
his  sorrow,  upon  which  the  offence  was  remitted.  The 
continued  attacks  upon  the  Presbyterians  led  him  to  pub- 
lish his  Short,  Sober,  Pacific  Examination  of  Exuberances  in 
the  Common  Prayer,  as  well  as  the  Apology  for  Tender 
Consciences  touching  Not  Bowing  at  the  Name  of  Jesus.  In 
1662  there  appeared  also  the  Brevia  Parliamentaria 
Rediviva,  possibly  a  portion  of  the  Register  of  Parlia- 
mentary Writs,  of  which  the  fourth  and  concluding  volume 
was  published  in  1664.  During  1663  he  served  constantly 


P  R  Y  — P  S  A 


on  committees,  and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of 
supply  in  July,  and  again  in  April  1664. 

In  the  third  session  Prynne  was  once  more,  13th  May 
1664,  censured  for  altering  the  draft  of  a  Bill  relating  to 
public-houses  after  commitment,  but  the  House  again,  upon 
his  submission,  while  taking  severe  notice  of  an  irregu- 
larity committed  by  "so  ancient  and  knowing  a  member," 
remitted  the  offence,  and  he  again  appears  on  the  com- 
mittee of  privileges  in  November  and  afterwards.  In  1665 
and  1666  he  published  the  second  and  first  volumes 
respectively  of  the  Exact  Chronological  Vindication  and 
Historical  Demonstration  of  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction exercised  by  the  English  kings  from  the  original 
planting  of  Christianity  to  the  death  of  Richard  I.  In 
the  latter  year  especially  he  was  very  busy  with  his  pen 
against  the  Jesuits.  In  January  1667  he  was  one  of  three 
appointed  to  manage  the  evidence  at  the  hearing  of  the 
impeachment  of  Lord  Mordaunt,  and  in  November  of  the 
same  year  spoke  in  defence  of  Clarendon,  so  far  as  the 
sale  of  Dunkirk  was  concerned ;  and  this  appears  to  have 
been  the  last  time  that  he  addressed  the  House.  In  1668 
was  published  his  Aurum  Reginx  or  Records  concerning 
Queen-gold,  the  Brief  Animadversions  on  Coke's  Institutes 
in  1669,  and  the  History  of  King  John,  Henry  III.,  and 
Edward  I.,  in  which  the  power  of  the  crown  over  ecclesi- 
astics was  maintained,  in  1670.  The  date  of  the  Abridg- 
ment of  the  Records  of  the  Tower  of  London  is  doubtful, 
though  the  preface  is  dated  1656/57.  Prynne  died  in  his 
lodgings  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  24th  October  1669,  and  was 
buried  in  the  walk  under  the  chapel  there,  which  stands 
upon  pillars.  His  will,  by  which  he  gave  one  portion  of 
his  books  to  Lincoln's  Inn  and  another  to  Oriel  College, 
is  dated  llth  August  1669.  Prynne  was  never  married. 

The  following  curious  account  of  his  habits  is  given  by  Wood. 
"His  custom  when  he  studied  was  to  put  on  a  long  quilted  cap 
which  came  an  inch  over  his  eyes,  serving  as  an  umbrella  to  defend 
them  from  too  much  light ;  and,  seldom  eating  a  dinner,  would 
every  three  hours  or  more  be  munching  a  roll  of  bread,  and  now 
and  then  refresh  his  exhausted  spirits  with  ale  brought  to  him  by 
his  servant."  There  is  a  portrait  of  him  in  Oriel  College,  Oxford, 
and  Wood  mentions  one  by  Hollar,  and  an  engraving  by  Stent,  as 
the  best  extant.  (S.  R.  G.— 0.  A.) 

PRYTANIS  (pi.  prytaneis)  was  the  title  of  certain 
officials  in  Greek  states.  They  appear  to  have  succeeded 
the  kings  at  the  time  when  the  monarchical  form  of 
government  was  abolished  throughout  Greece.  At  Rhodes 
they  continued  to  be  the  chief  magistrates  as  late  as  the 
1st  century  B.C.,  but  in  other  states  their  functions  dwindled. 
Though  they  were  not  priests,  they  had  the  charge  of  certain 
public  sacrifices.  Their  headquarters  were  in  the  "  pryta- 
neum"  or  town-hall,  the  central  point  of  a  Greek  state,  where 
a  fire  was  kept  perpetually  burning  on  the  public  hearth. 
When  a  colony  was  founded  the  fire  in  the  prytaneum  of 
the  new  city  was  kindled  from  the  fire  in  the  prytaneum 
of  the  mother-city,  and  if  this  colonial  fire  ever  happened 
to  be  extinguished  it  was  rekindled  from  the  same  source. 
At  Athens  in  classical  times  the  prytaneis  were  those  fifty 
members  of  the  council  of  five  hundred  who  presided  at 
the  council  meetings  as  well  as  at  the  popular  assemblies. 
They  consisted  of  the  fifty  members  who  represented  one 
of  the  ten  tribes  on  the  council.  The  office  was  held  for 
a  tenth  of  a  year  and  passed  in  rotation  to  the  representa- 
tives of  each  of  the  ten  tribes.  During  their  term  of  office 
the  prytaneis  were  maintained  at  the  public  expense  in 
the  tholos  or  rotunda  (not,  as  is  sometimes  stated,  in  the 
prytaneum).  As  the  highest  mark  of  honour,  distinguished 
citizens  and  their  descendants  were  sometimes  maintained 
for  life  in  the  prytaneum.  Here,  too,  ambassadors  were 
entertained.  There  was  further  a  court  of  justice  at  Athens 
called  the  "court  in  the  prytaneum";  it  tried  murderers 
who  were  not  to  be  found,  and  also  lifeless  instruments 


which  had  been  the  cause  of  death, — an  institution  prob- 
ably existing  from  a  very  remote  antiquity. 

PRZEMYSL,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  Galicia, 
Austria,  and  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  and  of  a  Greek 
bishop,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  river  San,  about 
140  miles  to  the  east  of  Cracow.  It  contains  several 
churches,  of  which  the  two  cathedrals  are  the  most  inter- 
esting, and  numerous  convents,  schools,  and  seminaries. 
Among  its  manufactures  are  wooden  wares,  linen,  leather, 
and  liqueur,  and  a  brisk  trade  is  carried  on  in  these  articles 
and  in  agricultural  produce.  The  trade  is  mostly  in  the 
hands  of  Jews,  who  form  fully  a  third  of  the  population. 
On  the  hill  above  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Casimir  the  Great.  Since 
1874  Przemysl  has  been  strongly  fortified.  The  population 
of  the  town  proper  in  1880  was  9244,  of  the  commune 
20,040. 

Przemysl,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Galicia,  claims  to  have  been 
founded  in  the  8th  century,  and  was  at  one  time  capital  of  a  large 
independent  principality.  Casimir  the  Great  ami  other  Polish 
princes  endowed  it  with  privileges  similar  to  those  of  Cracow,  and  it 
attained  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  In  the  17th  century  its  im- 
portance was  destroyed  by  inroads  of  Tatars,  Cossacks,  and  Swedes. 

PSALMANAZAR,  GEORGE  (c.  1679-1763),  the  assumed 
name  of  a  pretended  native  of  Formosa,  who  was  in  reality 
a  Frenchman,  and  was  born  about  1679,  probably  in 
Languedoc.  According  to  his  own  account  he  was  sent  in 
his  seventh  year  to  a  free  school  taught  by  two  Franciscan 
monks,  after  which  he  was  educated  in  a  Jesuit  college 
"in  an  archiepiscopal  city."  On  leaving  college  he  was 
recommended  as  tutor  to  a  young  gentleman,  but  soon 
fell  into  a  lazy  and  idle  life  and  became  involved  in 
pecuniary  difficulties.  This  induced  him  to  assume  various 
personations  in  order  to  obtain  a  supply  of  ready  money, 
his  first  being  that  of  a  pilgrim  on  the  journey  to  Rome. 
Afterwards  he  travelled  through  Germany,  Brabant,  and 
Flanders  in  the  character  of  a  Japanese  convert.  At 
Liege  he  enlisted  in  the  Dutch  service,  shortly  after  which 
he  altered  his  character  to  that  of  an  unconverted  Japanese. 
At  Sluys  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  Scotch  chaplain, 
by  whom  he  was  brought  over  to  England  and  introduced 
to  the  bishop  of  London.  Having  undergone  conversion 
to  Christianity,  he  was  employed  by  the  bishop  to  translate 
the  church  catechism  into  what  was  supposed  to  be  the 
Formosan  language.  In  1704  he  published  a  fictitious 
Historical  and  Geographical  Description  of  Formosa,  and 
was  shortly  afterwards  sent  to  complete  his  studies  at  the 
university  of  Oxford.  The  work  of  course  was  founded 
on  previous  publications,  but  the  compilation  was  done 
with  great  cleverness,  in  addition  to  which  he  printed  a 
so-called  Formosan  alphabet,  and  specimens  of  the  language 
accompanied  with  translations.  In  1707  he  published 
Dialogue  between  a  Japanese  and  a  Formosan.  There  also 
appeared  without  date  An  Inquiry  into  the  Objections 
against  George  Psalmanazar  of  Formosa,  with  George 
Psalmanazar's  Ansiver.  To  add  to  his  income  he  also 
joined  another  person  in  promoting  the  sale  of  a  sort  of 
white  japan,  the  art  of  painting  which  he  professed  to 
have  brought  from  Formosa.  His  pretensions  Avere  from 
the  beginning  doubted  by  many,  and  when  exposure  was 
inevitable  he  made  a  full  confession  of  his  guilt.  Through- 
out the  rest  of  his  life  he  not  only  exhibited  a  seemingly 
conscientious  regard  for  truth  but  according  to  Dr  Samuel 
Johnson,  as  reported  by  Mrs  Piozzi,  "a  piety,  penitence,  and 
virtue  exceeding  almost  what  we  read  as  wonderful  in  the 
lives  of  the  saints."  Dr  Johnson  used  to  discuss  theo- 
logical and  literary  matters  with  him  in  an  alehouse  in 
the  city,  and  cherished  so  high  an  opinion  of  his  character 
and  talents  that  he  asserted  he  would  "  as  soon  think  of 
contradicting  a  bishop."  Psalmanazar  obtained  a  comfort- 
able living  by  writing  for  the  booksellers.  He  published 


P  S  A  — P  S  A 


29 


Essays  on  Scriptural  Subjects  (1753),  contributed  various 
articles  to  the  Ancient  Universal  History,  and  completed 
Palmer's  History  of  Printing.  He  died  in  Ironmonger 
Row,  Old  Street,  London,  3d  May  1763.  His  memoirs 
appeared  in  1764  under  the  title  Memoirs  of  *  *  * 
commonly  knoim  by  the  Name  of  George  Psalmanazar,  but 
do  not  disclose  his  real  name  or  the  place  of  his  birth. 

PSALMS,  BOOK  OF,  or  PSALTER,  the  first  book  of  the 
Hagiographa  in  the  Hebrew  Bible. 

Title  and  Traditional  Authorship. — The  Hebrew  title 
of  the  book  is  D^nijl,  tehilllm,  or  D^fi  "IDD,  "the  book 
of  hymns  "  or  rather  "  songs  of  praise." x  The  singular 
n?nn  is  properly  the  infinitive  or  nomen  verbi  of  ??!"!, 
a  verb  employed  in  the  technical  language  of  the  temple 
service  for  the  execution  of  a  jubilant  song  of  praise  to  the 
accompaniment  of  music  and  the  blare  of  the  priestly 
trumpets  (1  Chron.  xvi.  4  sq.,  xxv.  3 ;  2  Chron.  v.  12  sq.). 
The  name  is  not  therefore  equally  applicable  to  all  psalms, 
and  in  the  later  Jewish  ritual  the  synonym  hallel  specially 
designates  two  series  of  psalms,  cxiii.-cxviii.  and  cxlv.-cl., 
of  which  the  former  was  sung  at  the  three  great  feasts,  the 
encaenia,  and  the  new  moon,  and  the  latter  at  the  daily 
morning  prayer.  That  the  whole  book  is  named  "  praises  " 
is  clearly  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  the  manual  of  the 
temple  service  of  song,  in  which  praise  was  the  leading 
feature.  But  for  an  individual  psalm  the  usual  name  is 
"liDtp  (in  the  Bible  only  in  titles  of  psalms),  which  is  applic- 
able to  any  piece  designed  to  be  sung  to  a  musical  accom- 
paniment. Of  this  word  ^aA/xd?,  "psalm,"  is  a  translation, 
and  in  the  Greek  Bible  the  whole  book  is  called  ^aA/zoi  or 
if/aXrt'ipior.-  The  title  \^aXfj.oi  or  /3i/3Aos  if/aX/j.wi'  is  used 
in  the  New  Testament  (Luke  xx.  42,  xxiv.  44  ;  Acts  i.  20), 
but  in  Heb.  iv.  7  we  find  another  title,  namely  "David." 
Hippolytus  tells  us  that  in  his  time  most  Christians  said 
"the  Psalms  of  David,"  and  believed  the  whole  book  to 
be  his ;  but  this  title  and  belief  are  both  of  Jewish  origin, 
for  in  2  Mac.  ii.  13  TO,  rov  Aavt'8  means  the  Psalter,  and 
the  title  of  the  apocryphal  "  Psalter  of  Solomon  "  implies 
that  the  previously  existing  Psalter  was  ascribed  to  David. 
Jewish  tradition  does  not  make  David  the  author  of  all 
the  psalms ;  but  as  he  was  regarded  as  the  founder  and 
legislator  of  the  temple  psalmody  (1  Chron.,  ut  sup. ;  Ezra 
iii.  10;  Neh.  xii.  36,  45  sq. ;  Ecclus.  xlvii.  8  sq.),  so  also 
he  was  held  to  have  completed  and  arranged  the  whole 
book,  though  according  to  Talmudic  tradition 3  he  incor- 
porated psalms  by  ten  other  authors,  Adam,  Melchizedek, 
Abraham,  Moses,  Heman,  Jeduthun,  Asaph,  and  the  three 
sons  of  Korah.  With  this  it  agrees  that  the  titles  of  the 
psalms  name  no  one  later  than  Solomon,  and  even  he  is  not 
recognized  as  a  psalmodist  by  the  most  ancient  tradition, 
that  of  the  LXX.,  which  omits  him  from  the  title  of  Ps. 
cxxvii.  and  makes  Ps.  Ixxii.  be  written  not  by  but  of  him. 
The  details  of  the  tradition  of  authorship  show  consider- 
able variation ;  according  to  the  Talmudic  view  Adam  is 
author  of  the  Sabbath  psalm,  xcii.,  and  Melchizedek  of  Ps. 
ex.,  while  Abraham  is  identified  with  Ethan  the  Ezrahite 
(Ps.  Ixxxix.).  But,  according  to  older  Jewish  tradition 
attested  by  Origen,4  Ps.  xcii.  is  by  Moses,  to  whom  are 
assigned  Pss.  xc.-c.  inclusive,  according  to  a  general  rule 
that  all  anonymous  pieces  are  by  the  same  hand  with  the 
nearest  preceding  psalm  whose  author  is  named ;  and  Ps. 
ex.,  which  by  its  title  is  Davidic,  seems  to  have  been  given 
to  Melchizedek  to  avoid  the  dilemma  of  Matt.  xxii.  41  sq. 


1  Hippol.,  ed.   Lag.,  p.   188;  Euseb.,  II.  E.,  vi.  25,   2;   Epiph., 
Mens.  et  Pond. ,  §  23 ;  Jerome's  preface  to  Psalt.  juxta  Hebrasos. 

2  Similarly  in  the  Syriac  Bible  the  title  is  "mazmore. " 

3  The  passages  are  collected  in  Kimhi's  preface  to  his  commentary 
on  the  Psalms,  ed.  Schiller-Szinessy,  Cambridge,  1883. 

4  Opp.,  ii.  514  sq.,  ed.  Rue  ;  cp.  Hippol.,  ut  supra;  Jerome,  Ep. 
CXL.  (ad  Cypr.),  and  Praef.  in  Mol. 


Origen's  rule  accounts  for  all  the  psalms  except  i.  and  ii., 
which  were  sometimes  reckoned  as  one  poem  (Acts  xiii. 
33  in  the  Western  text ;  Origen ;  B.  Berakhoth,  f .  9b),  and 
appear  to  have  been  ascribed  to  David  (Acts  iv.  25). 

The  opinion  of  Jerome  (Prsef.  in  Ps.  Heb.}  and  other 
Christian  writers  that  the  collector  of  the  Psalter  was  Ezra 
does  not  seem  to  rest  on  Jewish  tradition. 

Nature  and  Origin  of  the  Collection. — Whatever  may  be 
the  value  of  the  titles  to  individual  psalms,  there  can  be 
no  question  that  the  tradition  that  the  Psalter  was  col- 
lected by  David  is  not  historical ;  for  no  one  doubts  that 
some  of  the  psalms  date  from  after  the  Babylonian  exile. 
The  truth  that  underlies  the  tradition  is  that  the  collection 
is  essentially  the  hymn-book  of  the  second  temple,  and  it 
was  therefore  ascribed  to  David,  because  it  was  assumed, 
as  we  see  clearly  from  Chronicles,  that  the  order  of  worship 
in  the  second  temple  was  the  same  as  in  the  first,  and  had 
David  as  its  father  :  as  Moses  completed  the  law  of  Israel 
for  all  time  before  the  people  entered  Canaan,  so  David 
completed  the  theory  and  contents  of  the  temple  psalmody 
before  the  temple  itself  was  built.  When  we  thus  under- 
stand its  origin,  the  tradition  becomes  really  instructive, 
and  may  be  translated  into  a  statement  which  throws  light 
on  a  number  of  points  connected  with  the  book,  namely, 
that  the  Psalter  was  (finally,  at  least)  collected  with  a 
liturgical  purpose.  Thus,  though  the  Psalms  represent  a 
great  range  of  individual  religious  experience,  they  avoid 
such  situations  and  expressions  as  are  too  unique  to  be 
used  in  acts  of  public  devotion.  Many  of  the  psalms  are 
doxologies  or  the  like,  expressly  written  for  the  temple ; 
others  are  made  up  of  extracts  from  older  poems  in  a  way 
perfectly  natural  in  a  hymn-book,  but  otherwise  hardly  in- 
telligible. Such  ancient  hymns  as  Exod.  xv.  1  sq.,  Judges 
v.,  1  Sam.  ii.  1  sq.,  are  not  included  in  the  collection,  though 
motives  borrowed  from  them  are  embodied  in  more  modem 
psalms ;  the  interest  of  the  collector,  we  see,  was  not  his- 
torical but  liturgical.  Again,  the  temple,  Zion,  the  solemn 
feasts,  are  constantly  kept  in  the  foreground.  All  these 
points  go  to  show  that  the  collection  was  not  only  used 
but  actually  formed  for  use  in  the  temple. 

The  question  now  arises,  Was  the  collection  a  single 
act  or  is  the  Psalter  made  up  of  several  older  collections  1 
And  here  we  have  first  to  observe  that  in  the  Hebrew  text 
the  Psalter  is  divided  into  five  books,  each  of  which  closes 
with  a  doxology.  The  scheme  of  the  whole  is  as  follows  : — 

Book  I. ,  Pss.  i.  -xli. :  all  these  are  ascribed  to  David  except  i. ,  ii. , 
x.  (which  is  really  part  of  ix.),  xxxiii.  (ascribed  to  David  in  LXX.) ; 
doxology,  xli.  13.  Book  II.,  Pss.  xlii. -Ixxii. :  of  these  xlii. -xlix.  are 
ascribed  to  the  Korahites  (xliii.  being  part  of  xlii.),  1.  to  Asaph, 
li.-lxxi.  to  David  (except  Ixvi.,  Ixvii.,  Ixxi.  anonymous;  in  LXX. 
the  last  two  bear  David's  name),  Ixxii.  to  Solomon  ;  doxology,  Ixxii. 
18,  19  followed  by  the  subscription  "The  prayers  of  David  the  son 
of  Jesse  are  ended."  Book  III.,  Pss.  Ixxiii. -Ixxxix.  :  here  Ixxiii.- 
Ixxxiii.  bear  the  name  of  Asaph,  Ixxxiv.,  Ixxxv. ,  Ixxxvii. ,  Ixxxviii. 
that  of  the  Korahites,  Ixxxvi.  of  David,  Ixxxviii.  of  Heman,  Ixxxix. 
of  Ethan  ;  doxology,  Ixxxix.  52.  Book  IV.,  Pss.  xc.-cvi. :  all  are 
anonymous  except  xc.  (Moses),  ci.,  ciii.  (David), — LXX.  gives  also 
civ.  to  David  ;  here  the  doxology  is  peculiar,  "  Blessed  be  Jehovah 
God  of  Israel  from  everlasting  and  to  everlasting.  And  let  all  the 
people  say  Amen,  Hallelujah."  Book  V.,  Pss.  cvii.-cl.  :  of  these 
cviii.-cx.,  cxxii.,  cxxiv.,  cxxxi.,cxxxiii.,  cxxxviii.  -  cxlv.  are  ascribed 
to  David,  and  cxxvii.  to  Solomon,  and  cxx.-cxxxiv.  are  pilgrimage 
psalms ;  LXX.  varies  considerably  from  the  Hebrew  as  to  the 
psalms  to  be  ascribed  to  David  ;  the  book  closes  with  a  group  of 
doxological  psalms. 

The  division  into  five  books  was  known  to  Hippolytus,  but 
a  closer  examination  of  the  doxologies  shows  that  it  does 
not  represent  the  original  scheme  of  the  Psalter;  for,  while 
the  doxologies  to  the  first  three  books  are  no  part  of  the 
psalms  to  which  they  are  attached,  but  really  mark  the  end 
of  a  book  in  a  pious  fashion  not  uncommon  in  Eastern  litera- 
ture, that  to  book  iv.  with  its  rubric  addressed  to  the  people 
plainly  belongs  to  the  psalm,  or  rather  to  its  liturgical  exe- 
cution, and  does  not  therefore  really  mark  the  close  of  a 


30 


PSALMS 


collection  once  separate.  In  point  of  fact  books  iv.  and  v. 
have  so  many  common  characters  that  there  is  every  reason 
to  regard  them  as  a  single  great  group.  Again,  the  main 
part  of  books  ii.  and  iii.  (Pss.  xlii.-lxxxiii.)  is  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  the  Psalter  by  habitually  avoiding  the 
name  Jehovah  (the  Lord)  and  using  Elohim  (God)  instead, 
even  in  cases  like  Ps.  1.  7,  where  "  I  am  Jehovah  thy  God  " 
of  Exod.  xx.  2  is  quoted  but  changed  very  awkwardly  to 
"  I  am  God  thy  God."  This  is  not  due  to  the  authors  of 
the  individual  psalms,  but  to  an  editor ;  for  Ps.  liii.  is  only 
another  recension  of  Ps.  xiv.,  and  Ps.  Ixx.  repeats  part  of 
Ps.  xl.,  and  here  Jehovah  is  six  times  changed  to  Elohim, 
while  the  opposite  change  happens  but  once.  The  Elohim 
psalms,  then,  have  undergone  a  common  editorial  treatment 
distinguishing  them  from  the  rest  of  the  Psalter.  And 
they  make  up  the  mass  of  books  ii.  and  iii.,  the  remaining 
psalms,  Ixxxiv.-lxxxix.,  appearing  to  be  a  sort  of  appendix. 
But  when  we  look  at  the  Elohim  psalms  more  nearly  we 
see  that  they  contain  two  distinct  elements,  Davidic  psalms 
and  psalms  ascribed  to  the  Levitical  choirs  (sons  of  Korah, 
Asaph).  The  Davidic  collection  as  we  have  it  splits  the 
Levitical  psalms  into  two  groups  and  actually  divides  the 
Asaphic  Ps.  1.  from  the  main  Asaphic  collection,  Ixxiii.- 
Ixxxiii.  This  order  can  hardly  be  original,  especially  as  the 
Davidic  Elohim  psalms  have  a  separate  subscription  (Ps. 
Ixxii.  20).  But  if  we  remove  them  we  get  a  continuous 
body  of  Levitical  Elohim  psalms,  or  rather  two  collections, 
the  first  Korahitic  and  the  second  Asaphic,  to  which  there 
have  been  added  by  way  of  appendix  by  a  non-Elohistic 
editor  a  supplementary  group  of  Korahite  psalms  and  one 
psalm  (certainly  late)  ascribed  to  David.  The  formation 
of  books  iv.  and  v.  is  certainly  later  than  the  Elohistic  re- 
daction of  books  ii.  and  iii.,  for  Ps.  cviii.  is  made  up  of  two 
Elohim  psalms  (Ivii.  7-11,  Ix.  5-12)  in  the  Elohistic  form, 
though  the  last  two  books  of  the  Psalter  are  generally 
Jehovistic.  We  can  thus  distinguish  the  following  steps 
in  the  redaction : — (a)  the  formation  of  a  Davidic  collection 
(book  i.)  with  a  closing  doxology;  (6)  a  second  Davidic 
collection  (li.-lxii.)  with  doxology  and  subscription;  (c)  a 
twofold  Levitical  collection  (xlii.-xlix. ;  1.,  Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.) ; 

(d)  an  Elohistic  redaction  and  combination  of  (6)  and  (c) ; 

(e)  the  addition  of  a  non-Elohistic  supplement  to  (d)  with 
a  doxology ;  (/)  a  collection  later  than  (d),  consisting  of 
books  iv.,  v.     And  finally  the  anonymous  psalms  i.,  ii., 
which  as  anonymous  were  hardly  an  original  part  of  book 
i.,  may  have  been  prefixed  after  the  whole  Psalter  was 
completed.     We  see  too  that  it  is  only  in  the  latest  collec- 
tion (books  iv.,  v.)  that  anonymity  is  the  rule,  and  titles, 
especially  titles  with  names,  occur  only  sporadically.    Else- 
where the  titles  run  in  series  and  correspond  to  the  limits 
of  older  collections. 

Date  of  the  Collection. — A  process  of  collection  which 
involves  so  many  stages  must  plainly  have  taken  a  con- 
siderable time,  and  the  question  arises  whether  we  can  fix 
a  limit  for  its  beginning  and  end  or  even  assign  a  date 
for  any  one  stage  of  the  process.  An  inferior  limit  for  the 
final  collection  is  given  by  the  Septuagint  translation. 
But  this  translation  itself  was  not  written  all  at  once, 
and  its  history  is  obscure ;  we  only  know  from  the  pro- 
logue to  Ecclesiasticus  that  the  Hagiographa,  and  doubt- 
less therefore  the  Psalter,  were  read  in  Greek  in  Egypt 
about  130  B.C.  or  somewhat  later.1  And  the  Greek  Psalter, 
though  it  contains  one  apocryphal  psalm  at  the  close,  is 
essentially  the  same  as  the  Hebrew ;  there  is  nothing  to 
suggest  that  the  Greek  was  first  translated  from  a  less 
complete  Psalter  and  afterwards  extended  to  agree  with 

1  The  text  of  the  passage  is  obscure  and  in  part  corrupt,  but  the 
Latin  "cum  multum  temporis  ibi  fuissem"  probably  expresses  the 
author's  meaning.  A  friend  has  suggested  to  the  writer  that  for 
we  ought  perhaps  to  read  cvxv 


the  extant  Hebrew.  It  is  therefore  reasonable  to  hold 
that  the  Hebrew  Psalter  was  completed  and  recognized  as 
an  authoritative  collection  long  enough  before  130  B.C.  to 
allow  of  its  passing  to  the  Greek-speaking  Jews  in  Alex- 
andria. Beyond  this  the  external  evidence  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  collection  does  not  carry  us.  It  appears 
indeed  from  1  Chron.  xvi.,  2  Chrou.  vi.  41,  42,  that  various 
psalms  belonging  to  books  iv.  and  v.  were  current  in  the 
time  of  the  Chronicler, — that  is,  towards  the  close  of  the 
Persian  or  more  probably  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  Greek 
period.  But  it  is  not  certain  that  the  psalms  he  quotes 
(xcvi.,  cv.,  cvi.,  cxxxii.)  already  existed  in  their  place  in 
our  Psalter,  or  that  Ps.  cvi.  even  existed  in  its  present  form. 
Turning  now  to  internal  evidence,  we  find  the  surest  start- 
ing-point in  the  Levitical  psalms  of  the  Elohistic  collection. 
These,  as  we  hare  seen,  form  two  groups,  referred  to  the 
sons  of  Korah  and  to  Asaph.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Greek  period  or  somewhat  later  Asaph  was  taken  to  be  a 
contemporary  of  David  and  chief  of  the  singers  of  his  time 
(Neh.  xii.  46),  or  one  of  the  three  chief  singers  belonging 
to  the  three  great  Levitical  houses  (1  Chron.  xxv.  1  sq.). 
But  the  older  history  knows  nothing  of  an  individual 
Asaph ;  at  the  time  of  the  return  from  Babylon  the  guild 
of  singers  as  a  whole  was  called  Bne  Asaph  (Ezra  ii.  41), 
and  so  apparently  it  was  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
xi.  22,  Heb.).2  The  singers  or  Asaphites  are  at  this  time 
still  distinguished  from  the  Levites ;  the  oldest  attempt 
to  incorporate  them  with  that  tribe  appears  in  Exod.  vi. 
24,  where  Abiasaph — that  is,  the  eponym  of  the  guild  of 
Asaphites- — is  made  one  of  the  three  sons  of  Korah.  But 
when  singers  and  Levites  were  fused  the  Asaphites  ceased 
to  be  the  only  singers,  and  ultimately,  as  we  see  in  Chron- 
icles, they  were  distinguished  from  the  Korahites  and 
reckoned  to  Gershom  (1  Chron.  vi.),  while  the  head  of  the 
Korahites  is  Heman,  as  in  the  title  of  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  It 
is  only  in  the  appendix  to  the  Elohistic  psalm-book  that 
we  find  Heman  and  Ethan  side  by  side  with  Asaph,  as  in 
the  Chronicles,  but  the  body  of  the  collection  distinguishes 
between  two  guilds  of  singers,  Korahites  and  Asaphites,  and 
is  therefore  as  a  collection  younger  than  Nehemiah,  but 
presumably  older  than  Chronicles  with  its  three  guilds. 

The  contents  of  the  Korahite  and  Asaphic  psalms  give  no 
reason  to  doubt  that  they  really  were  collected  by  or  for 
these  two  guilds.  Both  groups  are  remarkable  by  the 
fact  that  they  hardly  contain  any  recognition  of  present 
sin  on  the  part  of  the  community  of  Jewish  faith — though 
they  do  confess  the  sin  of  Israel  in  the  past — but  are 
exercised  with  the  observation  that  prosperity  does  not 
follow  righteousness  either  in  the  case  of  the  individual 
(xlix.,  Ixxiii.)  or  in  that  of  the  nation,  which  suffers  not- 
withstanding its  loyalty  to  God,  or  even  on  account  thereof 
(xliv.,  Ixxix.).  Now  the  rise  of  the  problems  of  individual 
faith  is  the  mark  of  the  age  that  followed  Jeremiah,  while 
the  confident  assertion  of  national  righteousness  under 
misfortune  is  a  characteristic  mark  of  pious  Judaism  after 
Ezra,  in  the  period  of  the  law  but  not  earlier.  Malachi, 
Ezra,  and  Nehemiah,  like  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  are  still 
very  far  from  holding  that  the  sin  of  Israel  lies  all  in  the 
past.  Again,  a  considerable  number  of  these  psalms  (xliv., 
Ixxiv.,  Ixxix.,  Ixxx.)  point  to  an  historical  situation  which 
can  be  very  definitely  realized.  They  are  post -exile  in 
their  whole  tone  and  belong  to  a  time  when  prophecy  had 
ceased  and  the  synagogue  worship  was  fully  established 
(Ixxiv.  8,  9).  But  the  Jews  are  no  longer  the  obedient 


2  The  threefold  division  of  the  singers  appears  in  the  same  list 
according  to  the  Hebrew  text  of  ver.  17,  but  the  occurrence  of  Jedu- 
tlmn  as  a  proper  name  instead  of  a  musical  note  is  suspicious,  and 
makes  the  text  of  LXX.  preferable.  The  first  clear  trace  of  the  triple 
choir  is  therefore  in  Neh.  xii.  24,  i.e.,  not  earlier  than  Alexander  the 
Great,  with  whom  Jaddua  (ver.  22)  was  contemporary. 


PSALMS 


31 


slaves  of  Persia ;  there  has  been  a  national  rising  and  armies 
have  gone  forth  to  battle.  Yet  God  has  not  gone  forth 
with  them  :  the  heathen  have  been  victorious,  blood  has 
flowed  like  water  round  Jerusalem,  the  temple  has  been 
defiled,  and  these  disasters  assume  the  character  of  a  reli- 
gious persecution.  These  details  would  fit  the  time  of  re- 
ligious persecution  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  to  which 
indeed  Ps.  Ixxiv.  is  referred  (as  a  prophecy)  in  1  Mac. 
vii.  16.  But  against  this  reference  there  is  the  objection 
that  these  psalms  are  written  in  a  time  of  the  deepest  de- 
jection and  yet  are  psalms  of  the  temple  choirs.  Now 
when  the  temple  was  reopened  for  worship  after  its  pro- 
fanation by  Antiochus  the  Jews  were  victorious  and  a 
much  more  joyous  tone  was  appropriate.  Besides,  if  the 
psalms  are  of  the  Maccabee  period,  they  can  have  been  no 
original  part  of  the  Elohistic  psalm-book,  which  certainly 
was  not  collected  so  late.  But  there  is  one  and  only  one 
time  in  the  Persian  period  to  which  they  can  be  referred, 
viz.,  that  of  the  great  civil  wars  under  Artaxerxes  III. 
Ochus  (middle  of  4th  century  B.C.).  See  PERSIA,  vol.  xviii. 
p.  580,  and  PHCENICIA,  ib.  p.  809.  The  Jews  were  involved 
in  these  and  were  severely  chastised,  and  we  know  from 
Josephus  that  the  temple  was  defiled  by  the  Persians  and 
humiliating  conditions  attached  to  the  worship  there.  It 
would  appear  that  to  the  Jews  the  struggle  took  a  theo- 
cratic aspect,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  hopeful 
beginnings  of  a  national  movement,  which  proved  in  the 
issue  so  disastrous,  are  reflected  in  some  of  the  other  pieces 
of  the  collection.1  All  this  carries  the  collection  of  the 
Elohistic  psalm-book  down  to  quite  the  last  years  of  the 
Persian  period  at  the  earliest,  and  with  this  it  agrees — to 
name  but  one  other  point — that  the  view  of  Israel's  past 
history  taken  in  Ps.  Ixxviii.,  where  the  final  rejection 
of  the  house  of  Joseph  is  co-ordinated  with  the  fall  of 
Shiloh  and  the  rise  of  Zion  and  the  Davidic  kingdom,  indi- 
cates a  standpoint  very  near  to  that  of  Chronicles.  The 
fusion  of  the  separate  Korahite  and  Asaphic  psalm-books 
in  a  single  collection  along  with  the  second  group  of 
Davidic  psalms  may  very  probably  be  connected  with  the 
remodelling  of  the  singers  in  three  choirs  which  Chronicles 
presupposes. 

Now  books  iv.  and  v.  are,  as  we  have  seen,  later  than 
the  Elohistic  redaction  of  books  ii.  and  iii.,  so  that  the 
collection  of  the  last  part  of  the  Psalter  must,  if  our  argu- 
ment up  to  this  point  is  sound,  be  thrown  into  the  Greek 
period,  and  probably  not  the  earliest  part  thereof.  And 
this  conclusion  is  borne  out  by  a  variety  of  indications. 
First  of  all,  the  language  of  some  of  these  psalms  clearly 
points  to  a  very  late  date  indeed.2  The  Jews  had  even  in 
the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xiii.  24)  been  in  danger  of 
forgetting  their  own  tongue  and  adopting  a  jargon  com- 
pounded with  neighbouring  idioms ;  but  the  restorers  of 
the  law  fought  against  this  tendency  with  vigour  and  with 
so  much  success  that  very  tolerable  Hebrew  was  written 
for  at  least  a  century  longer.  But  in  such  a  psalm  as 
cxxxix.  the  language  is  a  real  jargon,  a  mixture  of  Hebrew 
and  Aramaic,  which,  in  a  hymn  accepted  for  use  in  the 
temple,  shows  the  Hebrew  speech  to  have  reached  the  last 

1  Ps.  Ixxxiii. ,  in  which  Judah  is  threatened  by  the  neighbouring 
states  acting  with  the  support  rather  than  under  the  guidance  of 
Asshur  (the  satrap  of  Syria?)   is  also  much  more  easily  understood 
under  the  loose  rule  of  Persia  than  under  the  Greeks,  and  the  associa- 
tion of  Tyre  with  Philistia  (as  in  Ixxxvii.  4)  agrees  with  Pseudo-Scylax 
(see  vol.  xviii.  p.  809).      If  this  psalm  has  a  definite  historical  back- 
ground, which  many  critics  doubt,  it  must  be  later  than  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sidon  by  Ochus.     That  it  is  not  of  the  Assyrian  age  is  obvious 
from  the  mention  of  Arab  tribes. 

2  For  details  as  to  the  linguistic  phenomena  of  the  Psalms,  see 
especially  Giesebrecht  in  Stade's  Zeitschr.,  1881,  p.  276  sq.    The  objec- 
tions of  Driver  (Journ.  of  Phil.,  xi.  233)  do  not  touch  the  argument 
that  such  psalms  as  cxxxix.  belong  to  the  very  latest  stage  of  Biblical 
Hebrew. 


stage  of  decay.  Again,  though  no  part  of  the  Psalter 
shows  clearer  marks  of  a  liturgical  purpose,  we  find  that 
in  books  iv.  and  v.  the  musical  titles  have  entirely  disap- 
peared. The  technical  terms,  that  is,  of  the  temple  music 
which  are  still  recognized  by  the  Chronicler  have  gone  out 
of  use,  presumably  because  they  were  already  become  un- 
intelligible, as  they  were  when  the  Septuagint  version  was 
made.  This  implies  a  revolution  in  the  national  music 
which  we  can  hardly  explain  in  any  other  way  than  by  the 
influence  of  that  Hellenic  culture  which,  from  the  time  of 
the  Macedonian  conquest,  began  to  work  such  changes  on 
the  whole  civilization  and  art  of  the  East.  Once  more 
the  general  tone  of  large  parts  of  this  collection  is  much 
more  cheerful  than  that  of  the  Elohistic  psalm-book.  It 
begins  with  a  psalm  (xc.)  ascribed  in  the  title  to  Moses, 
and  seemingly  designed  to  express  feelings  appropriate  to 
a  situation  analogous  to  that  of  the  Israelites  when,  after 
the  weary  march  through  the  wilderness,  they  stood  on  the 
borders  of  the  promised  land.  It  looks  back  on  a  time  of 
great  trouble  and  forward  to  a  brighter  future.  In  some 
of  the  following  psalms  there  are  still  references  to  deeds 
of  oppression  and  violence,  but  more  generally  Israel  ap- 
pears as  happy  under  the  law  with  such  a  happiness  as  it 
did  enjoy  under  the  Ptolemies  during  the  3d  century  B.C. 
The  problems  of  divine  justice  are  no  longer  burning  ques- 
tions; the  righteousness  of  God  is  seen  in  the  peaceful 
felicity  of  the  pious  (xci.,  xcii.,  &c.).  Israel,  indeed,  is  still 
scattered  and  not  triumphant  over  the  heathen,  but  even  in 
the  dispersion  the  Jews  are  under  a  mild  rule  (cvi.  46),  and 
the  commercial  activity  of  the  nation  has  begun  to  develop 
beyond  the  seas  (cvii.  26  sq.).  The  whole  situation  and 
vein  of  piety  here  are  strikingly  parallel  to  those  shown  in 
Ecclesiasticus,  which  dates  from  the  close  of  the  Ptolemaic 
sovereignty  in  Palestine.  But  some  of  the  psalms  carry 
us  beyond  this  peaceful  period  to  a  time  of  struggle  and 
victory.  In  Ps.  cxviii.  Israel,  led  by  the  house  of  Aaron — 
this  is  a  notable  point — has  emerged  triumphant  from  a 
desperate  conflict  and  celebrates  at  the  temple  a  great  day 
of  rejoicing  for  the  unhoped-for  victory ;  in  Ps.  cxlix.  the 
saints  are  pictured  with  the  praises  of  God  in  their  throat 
and  a  sharp  sword  in  their  hands  to  take  vengeance  on  the 
heathen,  to  bind  their  kings  and  nobles,  and  exercise 
against  them  the  judgment  written  in  prophecy.  Such 
an  enthusiasm  of  militant  piety,  plainly  based  on  actual 
successes  of  Israel  and  the  house  of  Aaron,  can  only  be 
referred  to  the  first  victories  of  the  Maccabees,  culminating 
in  the  purification  of  the  temple  in  165  B.C.  This  restora- 
tion of  the  worship  of  the  national  sanctuary  under  cir- 
cumstances that  inspired  religious  feelings  very  different 
from  those  of  any  other  generation  since  the  return  from 
Babylon  might  most  naturally  be  followed  by  an  extension 
of  the  temple  psalmody ;  it  certainly  was  followed  by  some 
liturgical  innovations,  for  the  solemn  service  of  dedication 
on  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  Chisleu  was  made  the  pattern 
of  a  new  annual  feast  (that  mentioned  in  John  x.  22). 
Now  in  1  Mac.  iv.  54  we  learn  that  the  dedication  was 
celebrated  with  hymns  and  music.  In  later  times  the 
psalms  for  the  encaenia  or  feast  of  dedication  embraced 
Ps.  xxx.  and  the  hallel  Pss.  cxiii.- cxviii.  There  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  these  were  the  very  psalms  sung  in  165  B.C., 
for  in  the  title  of  Ps.  xxx.  the  words  "  the  song  for  the 
dedication  of  the  house,"  which  are  a  somewhat  awkward 
insertion  in  the  original  title,  are  found  also  in  the  LXX., 
and  therefore  are  probable  evidence  of  the  liturgical  use 
of  the  psalm  in  the  very  first  years  of  the  feast.  But  no 
collection  of  old  psalms  could  fully  suffice  for  such  an 
occasion,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  think  that  the  hallel, 
which  especially  in  its  closing  part  contains  allusions  that 
fit  no  other  time  so  well,  was  first  arranged  for  the  same 
ceremony.  The  course  of  the  subsequent  history  makes 


PSALMS 


it  very  intelligible  that  the  Psalter  was  finally  closed,  as 
we  have  seen  from  the  date  of  the  Greek  version  that  it 
must  have  been,  within  a  few  years  at  most  after  this  great 
event.1  From  the  time  of  Hyrcanus  downwards  the  ideal 
of  the  princely  high  priests  became  more  and  more  diver- 
gent from  the  ideal  of  the  pious  in  Israel,  and  in  the  Psalter 
of  Solomon  we  see  religious  poetry  turned  against  the 
lords  of  the  temple  and  its  worship.  (See  MESSIAH.  ) 

Ail  this  does  not,  of  course,  imply  that  there  are  not 
in  books  iv.  and  v.  any  pieces  older  than  the  completion  of 
books  ii.  and  iii.,  for  the  composition  of  a  poem  and  its 
acceptance  as  part  of  the  Levitical  liturgy  are  not  neces- 
sarily coincident  in  date,  except  in  psalms  written  with  a 
direct  liturgical  purpose.  In  the  fifteen  "songs  of  degrees" 
(Pss.  cxx.-cxxxiv.)  we  have  a  case  in  point.  According 
to  the  Mishna  (Middoth,  ii.  5)  and  other  Jewish  traditions, 
these  psalms  were  sung  by  the  Levites  at  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  on  the  fifteen  steps  or  degrees  that  led  from 
the  women's  to  the  men's  court.  But  when  we  look  at  the 
psalms  themselves  we  see  that  they  must  originally  have 
been  a  hymn-book,  not  for  the  Levites,  but  for  the  laity 
who  came  up  to  Jerusalem  at  the  great  pilgrimage  feasts ; 
and  the  title  of  this  hymn-book  (which  can  be  restored 
from  the  titles  derived  from  it  that  were  prefixed  to  each 
song  when  they  were  taken  into  the  Levitical  connexion) 
was  simply  "Pilgrimage  Songs."2  All  these  songs  are 
plainly  later  than  the  exile ;  but  some  of  them  cannot  well 
be  so  late  as  the  formation  of  the  Elohistic  psalm-book, 
and  the  simple  reason  why  they  are  not  included  in  it  is 
that  they  were  hymns  of  the  laity,  describing  with  much 
beauty  and  depth  of  feeling  the  emotions  of  the  pilgrim 
when  his  feet  stood  within  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  when 
he  looked  forth  on  the  encircling  hills,  when  he  felt  how 
good  it  was  to  be  camping  side  by  side  with  his  brethren 
on  the  slopes  of  Zion  (cxxxiii.),  when  a  sense  of  Jehovah's 
forgiving  grace  and  the  certainty  of  the  redemption  of 
Israel  triumphed  over  all  the  evils  of  the  present  and  filled 
his  soul  with  humble  and  patient  hope. 

The  titles  which  ascribe  four  of  the  pilgrimage  songs  to 
David  and  one  to  Solomon  are  lacking  in  the  true  LXX., 
and  inconsistent  with  the  contents  of  the  psalms.  Better 
attested,  because  found  in  the  LXX.  as  well  as  in  the  Hebrew, 
and  therefore  probably  as  old  as  the  collection  itself,  are  the 
name  of  Moses  in  Ps.  xc.  and  that  of  David  in  Pss.  ci.,  cii., 
cviii.-cx.,  cxxxviii.-cxlv.  But  where  did  the  last  collectors 
of  the  Psalms  find  such  very  ancient  pieces  which  had  been 
passed  by  by  all  previous  collectors,  and  what  criterion 
was  there  to  establish  their  genuineness  ?  No  canon  of 
literary  criticism  can  treat  as  valuable  external  evidence  an 
attestation  which  first  appears  so  many  centuries  after  the 
supposed  date  of  the  poems,  especially  when  it  is  confronted 
by  facts  so  conclusive  as  that  Ps.  cviii.  is  made  up  of 
extracts  from  Pss.  Ivii.  and  Ix.  and  that  Ps.  cxxxix.  is 
marked  by  its  language  as  one  of  the  latest  pieces  in  the 
book.  The  only  possible  question  for  the  critic  is  whether 
the  ascription  of  these  psalms  to  David  was  due  to  the 
idea  that  he  was  the  psalmist  par  excellence,  to  whom  any 
poem  of  unknown  origin  was  naturally  ascribed,  or  whether 
we  have  in  some  at  least  of  these  titles  an  example  of  the 
habit  so  common  in  later  Jewish  literature  of  writing  in 
the  name  of  ancient  worthies.  In  the  case  of  Ps.  xc.  it 
can  hardly  be  doubted  that  this  is  the  real  explanation, 
and  the  same  account  must  be  given  of  the  title  in  Ps.  cxlv., 
if,  as  seems  probable,  it  is  meant  to  cover  the  whole  of 
the  great  kallel  or  tehilla,  (Ps.  cxlv.-cl.),  which  must,  from 

1  Possibly  under  Simon;  compare  the  other  Judld  (Ps.  cxlv.-cl.) 
with  1  Mac.  xiii.  50  sq. 

2  TTlPyon  "VB>  (r6jJD  as  in  Ezra  vii.  9  seems  to  be  properly  a 
plural  like  ITDNn  JV3). 


the  allusions  in  Ps.  cxlix.,  as  well  as  from  its  place,  be 
almost  if  not  quite  the  latest  thing  in  the  Psalter. 

Davidic  Psalms. — For  the  later  stages  of  the  history  of 
the  Psalter  we  have,  as  has  been  seen,  a  fair  amount  of 
circumstantial  evidence  pointing  to  conclusions  of  a  pretty 
definite  kind.  The  approximate  dates  which  their  con- 
tents suggest  for  the  collection  of  the  Elohistic  psalm- 
book  and  of  books  iv.  and  v.  confirm  one  another  and 
are  in  harmony  with  such  indications  as  we  obtain  from 
external  sources.  But,  in  order  to  advance  from  the  con- 
clusions already  reached  to  a  view  of  the  history  of  the 
Psalter  as  a  whole,  we  have  still  to  consider  the  two  great 
groups  of  psalms  ascribed  to  David  in  books  i.  and  ii. 
Both  these  groups  appear  once  to  have  formed  separate 
collections  and  in  their  separate  form  to  have  been  ascribed 
to  David;  for  in  book  i.  every  psalm,  except  the  introduc- 
tory poems  i.  and  ii.  and  the  late  Ps.  xxxiii.,  which  may 
have  been  added  as  a  liturgical  sequel  to  Ps.  xxxii.,  bears 
the  title  "of  David,"  and  in  like  manner  the  group  Pss. 
li.-lxxii.,  though  it  contains  a  few  anonymous  pieces  and 
one  psalm  which  is  either  "of"  or  rather  according  to  the 
oldest  tradition  "for  Solomon,"  is  essentially  a  Davidic 
hymn-book,  which  has  been  taken  over  as  a  whole  into 
the  Elohistic  Psalter,  even  the  subscription  Ixxii.  20  not 
being  omitted.  Moreover,  the  collectors  of  books  i.-iii. 
knew  of  no  Davidic  psalms  outside  of  these  two  collec- 
tions, for  Ps.  Ixxxvi.  in  the  appendix  to  the  Elohistic 
collection  is  merely  a  cento  of  quotations  from  Davidic 
pieces  with  a  verse  or  two  from  Exodus  and  Jeremiah. 
These  two  groups,  therefore,  represented  to  the  collectors 
the  oldest  tradition  of  Hebrew  psalmody ;  they  are  either 
really  Davidic  or  they  passed  as  such.  This  fact  is  im- 
portant ;  but  its  weight  may  readily  be  over-estimated,  for 
the  Levitical  psalms  comprise  poems  of  the  last  half-cen- 
tury of  the  Persian  empire,  and  the  final  collection  of 
books  ii.  and  iii.  may  fall  a  good  deal  later.  Thus  the 
tradition  that  David  is  the  author  of  these  two  collections 
comes  to  us,  not  exactly  from  the  time  of  the  Chronicler, 
but  certainly  from  the  time  when  the  view  of  Hebrew 
history  which  he  expresses  was  in  the  course  of  forma- 
tion. And  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  that  view — 
which  to  some  extent  appears  in  the  historical  psalms  of 
the  Elohistic  Psalter— implies  absolute  incapacity  to  \inder- 
stand  the  difference  between  old  Israel  and  later  Juda- 
ism and  makes  almost  anything  possible  in  the  way  of 
the  ascription  of  comparatively  modern  pieces  to  ancient 
authors.  Nor  will  it  avail  to  say  that  this  uncritical  age 
did  not  ascribe  the  Psalms  to  David  but  accepted  them  on 
the  ground  of  older  titles,  for  it  is  hardly  likely  that  each 
psalm  in  the  Davidic  collections  had  a  title  before  it  was 
transferred  to  the  larger  Psalter ;  and  in  any  case  the  titles 
are  manifestly  the  product  of  the  same  uncritical  spirit  as 
we  have  just  been  speaking  of,  for  not  only  are  many  of 
the  titles  certainly  wrong  but  they  are  wrong  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prove  that  they  date  from  an  age  to  which  David  was 
merely  the  abstract  psalmist,  and  which  had  no  idea  what- 
ever of  the  historical  conditions  of  his  age.  For  example, 
Pss.  xx.,  xxi.  are  not  spoken  by  a  king  but  addressed  to  a 
king  by  his  people ;  Pss.  v.,  xxvii.  allude  to  the  temple 
(which  did  not  exist  in  David's  time),  and  the  author  of  the 
latter  psalm  desires  to  live  there  continually.  Even  in  the 
older  Davidic  psalm-book  there  is  a  whole  series  of  hymns 
in  which  the  writer  identifies  himself  with  the  poor  and 
needy,  the  righteous  people  of  God  suffering  in  silence  at  the 
hands  of  the  wicked,  without  other  hope  than  patiently  to 
wait  for  the  interposition  of  Jehovah  (Pss.  xii.,  xxv.,  xxxvii., 
xxxviii.,  &c.).  Nothing  can  be  farther  removed  than  this 
from  any  possible  situation  in  the  life  of  the  David  of  the 
books  of  Samuel,  and  the  case  is  still  worse  in  the  second 
Davidic  collection,  especially  where  we  have  in  the  titles 


PSALMS 


33 


definite  notes  as  to  the  historical  occasion  on  which  the 
poems  are  supposed  to  have  been  written.  To  refer  Ps. 
liii.  to  Doeg,  Ps.  liv.  to  the  Ziphites,  Ps.  lix.  to  David  when 
watched  in  his  house  by  Saul,  implies  an  absolute  lack  of 
the  very  elements  of  historical  judgment.  Even  the  bare 
names  of  the  old  history  were  no  longer  correctly  known 
when  Abimelech  (the  Philistine  king  in  the  stories  of 
Abraham  and  Isaac)  could  be  substituted  in  the  title  of 
Ps.  xxxiv.  for  Achish,  king  of  Gath.  In  a  word,  the  ascrip- 
tion of  these  two  collections  to  David  has  none  of  the 
characters  of  a  genuine  historical  tradition. 

At  the  same  time  it  is  clear  that  the  two  collections  do 
not  stand  on  quite  the  same  footing.  The  Elohistic  redac- 
tion— the  change  in  the  names  of  God — extends  only  to 
the  second.  Now  the  formation  of  the  Elohistic  Psalter 
must  have  been  an  official  act  directed  to  the  consolidation 
of  the  liturgical  material  of  the  temple,  and  if  it  left 
one  of  the  so-called  Davidic  collections  untouched  the 
reason  must  have  been  that  this  collection  had  already  a 
fixed  liturgical  position.  In  other  words,  book  i.  is  the 
oldest  extant  liturgy  of  the  second  temple,  while  there  is 
no  evidence  that  the  Davidic  psalms  of  book  ii.  had  a  fixed 
liturgical  place  till  at  least  the  close  of  the  Persian  period. 

And  now  the  question  arises  :  May  we  suppose  that  the 
oldest  liturgy  of  the  second  temple  was  also  the  liturgy  of 
the  temple  of  Solomon  1  We  have  it  in  evidence  that 
music  and  song  accompanied  the  worship  of  the  great 
sanctuaries  of  northern  Israel  in  the  8th  century  B.C.  (Amos 
v.  23),  but  from  the  context  it  appears  probable  that  the 
musicians  were  not  officers  of  the  temple  but  rather  the 
worshippers  at  large  (compare  Amos  vi.  5).  So  it  cer- 
tainly was  in  the  days  of  David  (2  Sam.  vi.  5)  and  even  of 
Isaiah  (xxx.  29);  the  same  thing  is  implied  in  the  song  of 
Hezekiah  (Isa.  xxxviii.  20),  and  in  Lam.  ii.  7  the  noise 
within  the  sanctuary  on  a  feast-day  which  affords  a  simile 
for  the  shouts  of  the  victorious  Chaldseans  suggests  rather 
the  untrained  efforts  of  the  congregation  than  the  disci- 
plined music  of  a  temple  choir.  The  allusion  to  "chambers 
of  singers  "  in  Ezek.  xl.  44  is  not  found  in  the  Septuagint 
text,  which  is  justified  by  the  context,  and  the  first  certain 
allusion  to  a  class  of  singers  belonging  to  the  sacred  min- 
isters is  at  the  return  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  41).  The 
way  in  which  these  singers,  the  sons  of  Asaph,  are  spoken 
of  may  be  taken  as  evidence  that  there  was  a  guild  of 
temple  singers  before  the  exile ;  but  they  cannot  have  been 
very  conspicuous  or  we  should  have  heard  more  of  them. 
The  historical  books,  as  edited  in  the  captivity,  are  fond  of 
varying  the  narrative  by  the  insertion  of  lyrical  pieces, 
and  one  or  two  of  these— the  "  passover  song  "  (Exod.  xv.) 
and  perhaps  the  song  from  the  book  of  Jashar  ascribed  to 
Solomon  (see  vol.  xi.  p.  598) — look  as  if  they  were  sung  in 
the  first  temple ;  but  they  are  not  found  in  the  Psalter,  and, 
conversely,  no  piece  from  the  Psalter  is  used  to  illustrate 
the  life  of  David  except  Ps.  xviii.,  and  it  occurs  in  a  section 
which  can  be  shown  to  be  an  interpolation  in  the  original 
form  of  2  Samuel.  These  facts  seem  to  indicate  that  even 
book  i.  of  the  Psalter  did  not  exist  when  the  editing  of 
the  historical  books  was  completed,  and  that  in  music  as 
in  other  matters  the  ritual  of  the  second'  temple  was  com- 
pletely reconstructed.  Indeed  the  radical  change  in  the 
religious  life  of  the  nation  caused  by  the  captivity  could 
not  fail  to  influence  the  psalmody  of  the  sanctuary  more 
than  any  other  part  of  the  worship  ;  the  book  of  Lamenta- 
tions marks  an  era  of  profound  importance  in  the  religious 
poetry  of  Israel,  and  no  collection  formed  before  these 
dirges  were  first  sung  could  have  been  an  adequate  hymn- 
book  for  the  second  temple.  In  point  of  fact  the  notes 
struck  in  the  Lamentations  and  in  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.  meet  our 
ears  again  in  not  a  few  psalms  of  book  i.,  e.g.,  Pss.  xxii.,  xxv., 
where  the  closing  prayer  for  the  redemption  of  Israel  in  a 


verse  additional  to  the  acrostic  perhaps  gives,  as  Lagarde 
suggests,  the  characteristic  post -exile  name  Pedaiah  as 
that  of  the  author ;  Ps.  xxxi.,  with  many  points  of  resem- 
blance to  Jeremiah ;  Pss.  xxxiv.,  xxxv.,  where  the  "  servant 
of  Jehovah"  is  the  same  collective  idea  as  in  Deutero- 
Isaiah ;  and  Pss.  xxxviii.,  xli.  The  key  to  many  of  these 
psalms  is  that  the  singer  is  not  an  individual  but,  as  in 
Lam.  iii.,  the  true  people  of  God  represented  as  one  per- 
son ;  and  only  in  this  way  can  we  do  justice  to  expressions 
which  have  always  been  a  stumbling-block  to  those  who 
regard  David  as  the  author.  But,  at  the  same  time,  other 
psalms  of  the  collection  treat  the  problems  of  individual 
religion  in  the  line  of  thought  first  opened  by  Jeremiah. 
Such  a  psalm  is  xxxix.,  and  above  all  Ps.  xvi.  Other 
pieces,  indeed,  may  well  be  earlier.  When  we  compare 
Ps.  viii.  with  Job  vii.  17,  18,  we  can  hardly  doubt  that 
the  psalm  lay  before  the  writer  who  gave  its  expressions 
so  bitter  a  turn  in  the  anguish  of  his  soul,  and  Pss.  xx., 
xxi.  plainly  belong  to  the  old  kingdom.  But  on  the 
whole  it  is  not  the  pre-exilic  pieces  that  give  the  tone  to 
the  collection ;  whatever  the  date  of  this  or  that  indivi- 
dual poem,  the  collection  as  a  whole — whether  by  selec- 
tion or  authorship — is  adapted  to  express  a  religious  life 
of  which  the  exile  is  the  presupposition.  Only  in  this 
way  can  we  understand  the  conflict  and  triumph  of  spirit- 
ual faith,  habitually  represented  as  the  faith  of  a  poor 
and  struggling  band  living  in  the  midst  of  oppressors  and 
with  no  strength  or  help  save  the  consciousness  of  loyalty 
to  Jehovah,  which  is  the  fundamental  note  of  the  whole 
book. 

Whether  any  of  the  older  poems  really  are  David's  is  a 
question  more  curious  than  important,  as,  at  least,  there 
is  none  which  we  can  fit  with  certainty  into  any  part  of 
his  life.  If  we  were  sure  that  2  Sam.  xxii.  was  in  any 
sense  part  of  the  old  tradition  of  David's  life,  there  would 
be  every  reason  to  answer  the  question  in  the  affirmative, 
as  has  been  done  by  Ewald  (see  DAVID)  ;  but  the  grave 
doubts  that  exist  on  this  point  throw  the  whole  question 
into  the  region  of  mere  conjecture. 

The  contents  of  book  i.  make  it  little  probable  that  it 
was  originally  collected  by  the  temple  ministers,  whose 
hymn-book  it  ultimately  became.  The  singers  and  Levites 
were  ill  provided  for,  and  consequently  irregular  in  their 
attendance  at  the  temple,  till  the  time  of  Nehemiah,  who 
made  it  his  business  to  settle  the  revenues  of  the  clergy 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  regular  service  possible.  With 
regular  service  a  regular  liturgy  would  be  required,  and 
in  the  absence  of  direct  evidence  it  may  be  conjectured 
that  the  adoption  of  the  first  part  of  the  Psalter  for  this 
purpose  took  place  in  connexion  with  the  other  far-reaching 
reforms  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  which  first  gave  a  stable 
character  to  the  community  of  the  second  temple.  In  any 
case  these  psalms,  full  as  they  are  of  spiritual  elements 
which  can  never  cease  to  be  the  model  of  true  worship, 
are  the  necessary  complement  of  the  law  as  published  by 
Ezra,  and  must  be  always  taken  along  with  it  by  those 
who  would  understand  what  Judaism  in  its  early  days 
really  was,  and  how  it  prepared  the  way  for  the  gospel. 

The  second  Davidic  collection,  which  begins  with  a  psalm 
of  the  exile  (Ps.  Ii. ;  see  the  last  two  verses),  contains  some 
pieces  which  carry  us  down  to  a  date  decidedly  later  than 
that  of  Nehemiah.  Thus  Ps.  Ixviii.  27  represents  the  wor- 
shipping congregation  as  drawn  partly  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Jerusalem  and  partly  from  the  colony  of  Galilee. 
In  several  psalms  of  this  collection,  as  in  the  Levitical 
psalms  with  which  it  is  coupled,  we  see  that  the  Jews 
have  again  begun  to  feel  themselves  a  nation  and  not  a 
mere  municipality,  though  they  are  still  passing  through 
bitter  struggles ;  and  side  by  side  with  this  there  is  a  de- 
velopment of  Messianic  hope,  which  in  Ps.  Ixxii.  takes  a 

XX.  —  s 


34 


P  S  A  — P  S  A 


wide  sweep,  based  on  the  vision  of  Deutero-Isaiah.  All 
these  marks  carry  us  down  for  this  as  for  the  other  collec- 
tions of  the  Elohistic  Psalter  to  the  time  when  passive 
obedience  to  the  Achaemenians  was  interrupted.  Several 
points  indicate  that  the  collection  was  not  originally  formed 
as  part  of  the  temple  liturgy.  The  title,  as  preserved 
in  the  subscription  to  Ps.  Ixxii.  20,  was  not  "Psalms" 
but  "Prayers  of  David."  Again,  while  the  Levitical 
psalms  were  sung  in  the  name  of  righteous  Israel,  of  which, 
according  to  the  theory  of  the  second  temple,  the  priestly 
and  Levitical  circles  were  the  special  holy  representatives, 
these  Davidic  psalms  contain  touching  expressions  of  con- 
trition' and  confession  (li.,  Ixv.).  And,  while  there  are 
direct  references  to  the  temple  service,  these  are  often 
made  from  the  standpoint,  not  of  the  ministers  of  the 
temple,  but  of  the  laity  who  come  up  to  join  in  the  solemn 
feasts  or  appear  before  the  altar  to  fulfil  their  vows  (Pss. 
liv.  6,  Iv.  14,  Ixiii.,  Ixvi.  13,  &c.).  Moreover,  the  didactic 
element  so  prominent  in  the  Levitical  psalms  is  not  found 
here. 

Such  is  the  fragmentary  and  conjectural  outline  which 
it  seems  possible  to  supply  of  the  history  of  the  two  Davidic 
collections,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  name  of  David 
which  they  bear  is  at  least  so  far  appropriate  as  it  marks 
the  generally  non-clerical  origin  of  these  poems.  But  the 
positive  origin  of  this  title  must  be  sought  in  another 
direction  and  in  connexion  with  book  i.  From  the  days 
of  Amos,  and  in  full  accordance  with  the  older  history, 
the  name  of  David  had  been  connected  with  musical  skill 
and  even  the  invention  of  musical  instruments  (Amos  vi. 
5).  In  the  days  of  Nehemiah,  though  we  do  not  hear  of 
psalms  of  David,1  we  do  learn  that  instruments  of  the 
singers  were  designated  as  Davidic,  and  the  epithet  "  man 
of  God "  (Nell.  xii.  36)  probably  implies  that  agreeably 
with  this  David  was  already  regarded  as  having  furnished 
psalms  as  well  as  instruments.  But  it  was  because  the 
temple  music  was  ascribed  to  him  that  the  oldest  liturgy 
came  to  be  known  in  its  totality  as  "Psalms  of  David," 
and  the  same  name  was  extended  to  the  lay  collection  of 
"  Prayers  of  David,"  while  the  psalms  whose  origin  was 
known  because  they  had  always  been  temple  psalms  were 
simply  named  from  the  Levitical  choirs,  or  at  a  later  date 
had  no  title. 

Musical  Execution  and  Place  of  tJie  Psalms  in  the  Temple  Service. 
— The  musical  notes  found  in  the  titles  of  the  psalms  and  occasion- 
ally also  in  the  text  (Selah,  Higgaion)  are  so  obscure  that  it  seems 
unnecessary  to  enter  here  upon  the  various  conjectures  that  have 
been  made  about  them.  The  clearest  point  is  that  a  number  of 
the  psalms  were  set  to  melodies  named  after  songs,2  and  that  one 

of  these  songs,  beginning  nPlKTT/X  (Al-taschith  in  E.V.,  Ps.  Ivii. 
sq. ),  may  be  probably  identified  with  the  vintage  song,  Isa.  Ixv.  8. 
The  temple  music  was  therefore  apparently  based  on  popular 
melodies.  A  good  deal  is  said  about  the  musical  services  of  the 
Levites  in  Chronicles,  both  in  the  account  given  of  David's  ordi- 
nances and  in  the  descriptions  of  particular  festival  occasions. 
But  unfortunately  it  has  not  been  found  possible  to  get  from  these 
accounts  any  clear  picture  of  the  ritual  or  any  certainty  as  to  the 
technical  terms  used.  By  the  time  of  the  Septuagint  these  terms 
were  no  longer  understood  ;  it  is  not  quite  clear  whether  even  the 
Chronicler  understood  them  fully. 

The  music  of  the  temple  attracted  the  attention  of  Theophrastus 
(ap.  Porph.,  De  Abst.,  ii.  26),  who  was  perhaps  the  first  of  the 
Greeks  to  make  observations  on  the  Jews.  His  description  of  the 
temple  ritual  is  not  strictly  accurate,  but  he  speaks  of  the  wor- 
shippers as  passing  the  night  in  gazing  at  the  stars  and  calling  on 
God  in  prayer ;  his  words,  if  they  do  not  exactly  fit  anything  in 
the  later  ritual,  are  well  fitted  to  illustrate  the  original  liturgical 
use  of  Pss.  viii.,  cxxxiv.  Some  of  the  Jewish  traditions  as  to  the 
use  of  particular  psalms  have  been  already  cited  ;  it  may  be  added 
that  the  Mishna  ( Tamld)  assigns  to  the  service  of  the  continual 

1  I.e.,  not  in  the  parts  of  the  book  of  Nehemiah  which  are  by 
Nehemiah  himself. 

2  Compare  the  similar  way  of  citing  melodies  with  the  prep,  'al  or 
oZ  kala,  &c.,  in  Syriac  (Land,  Anecd.,  iv.  ;  Ephr.  Syr.,  Hymni,  ed. 
Lamy). 


burnt-offering  the  following  weekly  cycle  of  psalms, — (1)  xxiv.,  (2) 
xlviii.,  (3)  Ixxxii.,  (4)  xciv.,  (5)  Ixxxi.,  (6)  xciii.,  (Sabbath)  xi-ii., 
as  in  the  title.  Many  other  details  are  given  in  the  treatise  Sii/'f-rini, 
but  these  for  the  most  part  refer  primarily  to  the  synagogue  service 
after  the  destruction  of  the  temple.  For  details  on  the  liturgical 
use  of  the  Psalter  in  Christendom  the  reader  may  refer  to  Smith's 
Diet.  Chr.  Ant.,  s.v.  "Psalmody." 

Ancient  Versions.— A.  The  oldest  version,  the  LXX.,  follows  a  text  generally 
closely  corresponding  to  the  Massoretic  Hebrew,  the  main  variations  being  in 
the  titles  and  in  the  addition  (lacking  in  some  MSS.)  of  an  apocryphal  psalm 
ascribed  to  David  when  he  fought  with  Goliath.  Pss.  ix.  and  x.  are  rightly 
taken  as  one  psalm,  but  conversely  Ps.  cxlvii.  is  divided  into  two.  The  LXX. 
text  has  many  "daughters,"  of  which  may  be  noticed  (a)  the  Memphitic  (ed. 
Lagarde,  1875)  ;  (ft)  the  old  Latin,  which  as  revised  by  Jerome  in  383  after  the 
current  Greek  text  forms  the  Psalterium  Ronutnnm,  long  read  in  the  Roman 
Church  and  still  used  in  St  Peter's  ;  (c)  various  Arabic  versions,  including  that 
printed  in  the  polyglotts  of  Le  Jay  and  Walton,  and  two  others  of  the  four  ex- 
hibited together  in  Lagarde's  Psalterium,  lob,  Proverbia,  Arabice,  1876  ;  on  the 
relations  and  history  of  these  versions,  see  G.  Hoffmann,  in  Jenaer  Literatim., 
1876,  art.  539 ;  the  fourth  of  Lagarde's  versions  is  from  the  Peshito.  The 
Hexaplar  text  of  the  LXX.,  as  reduced  by  Origen  into  greater  conformity  with 
the  Hebrew  by  the  aid  of  subsequent  Greek  versions,3  was  further  the  mother 
(ii)  of  the  Psalterium  Gallicanum, — that  is,  of  Jerome's  second  revision  of  the 
Psalter  (385)  by  the  aid  ef  the  Hexaplar  text ;  this  edition  became  current  in 
Gaul  and  ultimately  was  taken  into  the  Vulgate  (e)  of  the  Syro-Hexaplar  ver- 
sion (published  by  Bugati,  1820,  and  in  facsimile  from  the  famous  Ambrosian 
MS.  l.yCeriani,  Milan,  1874).  B.  The  Christian  Aramaic  version  or  Peshito 
(P'shltta)  is  largely  influenced  by  the  LXX. ;  compare  Baethgen,  Untersuchungen 
ilber  die  Psalmen  nach  der  Peschita,  Kiel,  1878  (unfinished).  This  version  has 
peculiar  titles  taken  from  Eusebius  and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (see  Nestle, 
in  Theol.  Literaturz.,  1876,  p.  283).  C.  The  Jewish  Aramaic  version  or  Targum 
is  probably  a  late  work.  The  most  convenient  edition  is  in  Lagarde,  Hagiographa 
Chaldaice,  1873.  D.  The  best  of  all  the  old  versions  is  that  made  by  Jerome 
after  the  Hebrew  in  405.  It  did  not,  however,  obtain  ecclesiastical  currency — 
the  old  versions  holding  their  ground,  just  as  English  churchmen  still  read 
the  Psalms  in  the  version  of  the  "Great  Bible"  printed  in  their  Prayer  Book. 
This  important  version  was  first  published  in  a  good  text  by  Lagarde,  Psal- 
terium iuxta  Hebrieos  Hieronymi,  Leipsic,  1874. 

Exegetical  Works.— While  some  works  of  patristic  writers  are  still  of  value  for 
text  criticism  and  for  the  history  of  early  exeg'etical  tradition,  the  treatment  of 
the  Psalms  by  ancient  and  mediaeval  Christian  writers  is  as  a  whole  such  as  to 
throw  light  on  the  ideas  of  the  commentators  and  their  times  rather  than  on 
the  sense  of  a  text  which  most  of  them  knew  only  through  translations.  For 
the  Psalms  as  for  the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament  the  scholars  of  the 
period  of  the  revival  of  Hebrew  studies  about  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
were  mainly  dependent  on  the  ancient  versions  and  on  the  Jewish  scholars  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  latter  class  Kimhi  stands  pre-eminent ;  to  the  editions 
of  his  commentary  on  the  Psalms  enumerated  in  the  article  KIMHI  must  now 
be  added  the  admirable  edition  of  Dr  Schiller-Szinessy  (Cambridge,  1883),  con- 
taining unfortunately  only  the  first  book  of  his  longer  commentary.  Among  the 
works  of  older  Christian  scholars  since  the  revival  of  letters,  the  commentary 
of  Calvin  (1557) — full  of  religious  insight  and  sound  thought — and  the  laborious 
work  of  M.  Geier  (1668,  1681  et  saspius)  may  still  be  consulted  with  advantage, 
but  for  most  purposes  Rosenmiiller's  Scholia  in  Pss.  (2d  ed.,  1821-22)  supersedes 
the  necessity  of  frequent  reference  to  the  predecessors  of  that  industrious  com- 
piler. Of  more  recent  works  the  freshest  and  most  indispensable  are  Ew  aid's, 
in  the  first  two  half  volumes  of  his  Dichter  des  alien  Bundes  (2d  ed.,  Gottingen, 
1866  ;  Eng.  tr.,  1880),  and  Olshausen's  (1853).  To  these  may  be  added  (excluding 
general  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament)  the  two  acute  but  wayward  com- 
mentaries of  Hitzig  (1836,  1863-65),  that  of  Delitzsch  (1859-60,  then  in  shorter 
form  in  several  editions  since  1867  ;  Eng.  tr.,  1871),  and  that  of  Hupfeld  (2d  ed. 
by  Riehm,  1867,  2  vols.).  The  last-named  work,  though  lacking  in  original 
power  and  clearness  of  judgment,  is  extremely  convenient  and  useful,  and  has 
had  an  influence  perhaps  disproportionate  to  its  real  exegetical  merits.  The 
question  of  the  text  was  first  properly  raised  by  Olshausen,  and  has  since 
received  special  attention  from,  among  others,  Lagarde  (Prophetee  ChaM.,  1872, 
p.  xlvi.  sq.),  Dyserinck  (in  the  "  scholia"  to  his  Dutch  translation  of  the  Psalms, 
Theol.  Tijdschr.,  1878,  p.  279  sq.),  and  Bickell  (Carmina  V.  T.  metrice,  &c., 
Innsbruck,  1882),  whose  critical  services  are  not  to  be  judged  merely  by  the 
measure  of  assent  which  his  metrical  theories  may  command.  In  English  we 
have,  among  others,  the  useful  work  of  Perowne  (5th  ed.,  1883),  that  of  Lov  e 
and  Jennings  (2d  ed.,  1885),  and  the  valuable  translation  of  Cheyne  (1884).  The 
mass  of  literature  on  the  Psalms  is  so  enormous  that  no  full  list  even  of  recent 
commentaries  can  be  here  attempted,  much  less  an  enumeration  of  treatises 
on  individual  psalms  and  special  critical  questions.  For  the  latter  Kuenen's 
Onderzoek,  vol.  iii.,  is,  up  to  its  date  (1865),  the  most  complete,  and  the  new 
edition  now  in  preparation  will  doubtless  prove  the  standard  work  of  reference. 
As  regards  the  dates  and  historical  interpretation  of  the  Psalms,  all  older  dis- 
cussions, even  those  of  Ewald,  are  in  great  measure  antiquated  by  recent  pro- 
gress in  Pentateuch  criticism  and  the  history  of  the  canon,  and  an  entirely 
fresh  treatment  of  the  Psalter  by  a  sober  critical  commentator  is  urgently 
needed.  (W.  R.  S.) 

PSALTERY.  For  the  mediaeval  instrument  of  this 
name  ("sautrie"  or  "cembalo"),  see  PIANOFORTE  (vol. 
xix.  p.  65).  The  Hebrew  ;Q3,  rendered  if'aXrijpLov,*  i/a/fAa, 
^aA//.os  (Ps.  Ixxi.  22),  KiOdpa  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  2),  opyavov  (Am. 
v.  23,  vi.  5),  in  the  LXX.,  and  "  psaltery "  or  "  viol "  in 
the  A.V.  (also  "  lute "  in  the  Prayer-Book  version  of  the 
Psalms),  appears  to  have  been  a  small  stringed  instrument, 
harp  or  lyre,  the  strings  of  which  were  touched  with  the 
player's  fingers.  The  statement  of  Josephus  (Ant.,  vii.  12, 
3),  that  the  Kivvpa  (1133)  had  ten  strings  and  was  struck 
with  the  plectrum,  while  the  va/SAa  had  twelve  and  was 
played  with  the  hand,  is  the  earliest  definition  having  any 
authority  to  be  met  with  of  these  obscure  instruments. 
The  Kivvpa,  if  not  a  smaller  lyre  with  tighter  strings  re- 


8  See  Field,  Origenis  Hexnpla,  where  the  fragments  of  these  ver- 
sions are  collected.     That  of  Symmachus  is  esteemed  the  best. 
4  This  word  reappears  in  the  p^riJDQ  of  Dan.  iii.  5,  &c. 


P  S  A  — P  S  K 


35 


quiring  a  plectrum,  may,  as  some  suppose,  have  been  a 
kind  of  guitar,  rather  a  tamboura,  the  most  extensively 
known  Eastern  stringed  instrument,  which,  in  principle, 
is  found  represented  in  the  oldest  Egyptian  monuments. 
The  paucity  of  strings  in  the  latter  is,  however,  against 
this  attribution.  Nothing  being  more  variable  than  the 
number  of  strings  attached  to  the  various  stringed  instru- 
ments at  different  times  and  in  different  places,  eight,  nine, 
or  ten  strings  to  the  Kivvpa,  or  ten  (see  Ps.  xxxiii.  2,  cxliv. 
9,  Heb.)  or  twelve  to  the  vd/3X.a,  are  probably  immaterial 
variations.  The  musical  instruments  of  the  Bible  are  the 
most  difficult  subject  in  musical  archaeology,  about  which 
the  translators  of  the  A.V.  or  the  Prayer-Book  Psalms  did 
not  trouble  themselves,  but  named  the  instruments  from 
those  in  use  around  them. 

PSAMMETICHUS.     See  EGYPT,  vol.  vii.  p.  743. 

PSELLUS,  the  name  of  several  By/an  tine  writers,  of 
whom  the  following  were  the  most  important. 

1 .  MICHAEL  PSELLUS  the  elder,  a  native  of  Andros  and 
a  pupil  of  Photius.     He  flourished  in  the  second  half  of 
the  9th  century,  and  strove  to  stein  the  rising  tide  of  bar- 
barism by  his  devotion  to  letters  and  philosophy.     His 
study  of  the  Alexandrine  theology,  as  well  as  of  profane 
literature,  brought  him  under  the  suspicions  of  the  ortho- 
dox, and  a  former  pupil  of  his,   by  name   Constantine, 
accused  him  in  an   elegiac  poem  of  having  abandoned 
Christianity.     In  order  to  perfect  his  knowledge  of  Christ- 
ian doctrine,  Psellus  had  recourse  to  the  instructions  of 
Photius,  and  then  replied  to  his  adversary  in  a  long  iambic 
poem,  in  which  he  maintained  his  orthodoxy.     It  has  been 
conjectured   by  Allatius,  Cave,  and  others  that  some  of 
the   books  commonly  attributed   to  the  younger  Psellus 
are  the  works  of  the  elder,  e.g.,  the  Dialogue  on  Operations 
of  Demons,  and  the  short  treatises  On  the  Virtues  of  Stones 
and  On  Demons.     Their  reasons,  however,  resting  on  the 
inferiority  of   literary  style  and  mode  of  treatment,  are 
inconclusive. 

2.  MICHAEL  CONSTANTINE  PSELLUS  the  younger  was 
born  at  Constantinople  in  1020,  of  a  consular  and  patrician 
family.     He  studied  at  Athens,  and  by  his  talents  and 
vast  industry  made  himself  master  of  all  the  learning  of 
the  age,  including  theology,   law,  physics,  mathematics, 
philosophy,  and  history.      At  Constantinople  he  taught 
philosophy,  rhetoric,  and  dialectic  with  the  greatest  suc- 
cess,  and  was   honoured   with    the    title   of    "  Prince  of 
Philosophers "  by  the  emperors,   who  sometimes   sought 
his  advice  and  employed  his  services.     But  in  1078,  when 
his  pupil,  the  emperor  Michael  Ducas,  was  deposed,  Psellus 
shared  his  downfall,  being  compelled  by  the  new  emperor, 
Nicephorus  Botanias,  to  retire  to  a  monastery.     On  his 
accession  to  the  empire  in  1081  Alexius  Comnenus  de- 
prived Psellus  of  his  title  of  "  Prince  of  Philosophers  "  and 
transferred  it  to  his  less  talented  rival  John  the  Italian. 
He  appears  to  have  been  still  alive  in  1105  and  perhaps 
in  1110. 

Of  his  works,  which  are  very  numerous,  many  have  not  yet  been 
printed.  Even  of  those  which  have  been  printed  there  is  no  com- 
plete edition.  Of  his  published  works  we  may  mention  —  (1)  his 
mathematical  Opus  in  quatuor  Mathematicas  Disciplinas,  Arith- 
meticam,  Musicam,  Gcometriam,  et  Astronomiam,  published  at 
Venice  in  1532,  and  several  times  reprinted,  as  at  Basel  in  1556 
with  the  notes  of  Xylarider ;  (2)  a  Paraphrase  of  Aristotle's  Uepl 
^p/xijm'as,  published  in  Greek  by  Aldus  at  Venice  in  1503  ;  (3) 
Synopsis  legum,  in  iambic  verse,  edited  with  a  Latin  translation  and 
notes  by  Franciscus  Bosquetus,  Paris,  1632  ;  (4)  De  Vitiis  et  Virtu- 
tibus,  et  Allegoric,  in  iambic  verse,  published  by  Arsenius  at  Rome 
(no  date),  and  reprinted  at  Basel,  1544  ;  (5)  Ilepl  evepyeias  8ain6vui> 
didXoyos  (De  operatione  dsemonum  dialor/us),  translated  into  Latin 
by  Petrus  Morellus  and  published  at  Paris  in  1577  ;  (6)  De  lapidum 
virtutibus,  published  in  Greek  and  Latin  at  Toulouse  in  1615  (for 
5  and  6  see  MICHAEL  PSELLTJS  above). 

PSEUDONYMOUS  LITERATURE.  See  BIBLIO- 
GRAPHY, vol.  iii.  pp.  657-658. 


PSKOFF,  a  government  of  the  lake -region  of  north- 
west Russia,  which  extends  from  Lake  Peipus  to  the  source 
of  the  Dwina,  having  St  Petersburg  on  the  N.,  Novgorod, 
Tver,  and  Smolensk  on  the  E.,  Vitebsk  on  the  S.,  and 
Livonia  on  the  W.  It  has  an  area  of  16,678  square  miles. 
In  the  south-east  it  extends  partly  over  the  Alaun  heights 
— a  broad  ridge  800  to  1000  feet  above  the  sea,  deeply  in- 
dented with  numerous  valleys  and  ravines,  thickly  covered 
with  forests,  and  dotted  with  small  lakes  and  ponds.  In 
the  district  of  Toropets  these  heights  take  the  name  of 
Vorobiovy  Hills ;  extending  westwards  into  Vitebsk,  they 
send  to  the  north  a  series  of  irregular  ranges,  separated  by 
broad  valleys,  which  occupy  the  north-western  parts  of 
Pskoff  and  give  rise  to  the  rivers  flowing  into  Lakes  Peipus 
and  Ilmeii.  A  depression  120  miles  long  and  35  miles 
broad,  watered  by  the  Lovat  and  Polist,  occupies  the  inter- 
val between  the  two  hilly  tracts ;  it  is  covered  throughout 
with  forests  and  thickly  studded  with  marshes  overgrown 
with  rank  vegetation,  the  only  tracts  suitable  for  human 
occupation  being  narrow  isolated  strips  of  land  on  the 
banks  of  rivers,  or  between  the  marshes,  and  no  communi- 
cation is  possible  except  along  the  watercourses.  These 
marshy  tracts,  which  extend  westwards  into  Vitebsk  and 
north-eastwards  towards  St  Petersburg,  were  even  more 
impassable  ten  centuries  ago,  and,  encircling  the  old 
Russian  city  of  Pskoff,  formed  its  best  protection  against 
the  repeated  attacks  of  its  neighbours. 

With  the  exception  of  the  south-eastern  corner,  where 
Carboniferous  rocks  make  their  appearance,  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  government  consists  of  Devonian  deposits 
of  great  thickness, — the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  with  sub- 
ordinate layers  of  various  sandstones,  and  clays  containing 
brown  iron  ore ;  and  the  White  Limestone,  which  contains 
layers  of  dolomite,  marls,  clays  with  deposits  of  gypsum, 
and  white  sandstone,  which  is  extensively  quarried  for 
building  purposes.  As  regards  the  fauna  the  Devonian 
deposits  of  Pskoff  are  intermediate  between  those  of 
Belgium,  the  Eifel,  and  Poland  and  those  of  middle  Russia. 
The  whole  is  covered  with  very  thick  sheets  of  boulder 
clay  and  bears  unmistakable  traces  of  glacial  action ;  the 
bottom  moraine  of  the  Scandinavian  and  Finnish  ice-sheet 
formerly  extended  over  the  whole  of  this  region,  which 
often  takes  the  shape  of  ridges  (kames  or  eskers),  the  upper 
parts  consisting  of  Glacial  sands  and  post -Glacial  clays, 
sands,  and  peat-bogs.  The  soil  is  thus  not  only  infertile 
on  the  whole,  but  also  badly  drained,  on  account  of  the 
impermeable  nature  of  the  boulder  clay  and  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  depressions  having  no  distinct  outlets  to 
the  rivers.  Only  those  parts  of  the  territory  which  are 
covered  with  thicker  strata  of  post -Glacial  deposits  are 
suitable  for  agriculture. 

The  rivers  are  numerous  and  belong  to  three  separate 
basins — to  Lakes  Peipus  and  Pskoff  the  rivers  in  the  north- 
west, to  Lake  Ilmen  those  in  the  middle,  and  to  that  of 
the  Dwina  the  rivers  in  the  south-east.  A  great  number 
of  small  streams  pour  into  Lake  Pskoff,  the  chief  being 
the  Velikaya,  which  flows  from  south  to  north  and  receives 
mimerous  tributaries,  which  are  used  for  floating  rafts, 
a  wide  region  being  thus  brought  into  communication  with 
Lake  Peipus  and  thence  with  the  Narova.  The  Velikaya, 
which  is  now  navigable  for  only  25  »miles  from  Lake 
Pskoff,  was  formerly  deeper.  The  Lovat  and  Shelon,  belong- 
ing to  the  basin  of  Lake  Ilmeii,  are  both  navigable,  and  a 
lively  traffic  is  carried  on  on  both ;  while  the  Dwina  flows 
for  100  miles  on  the  borders  of  the  government  or  within 
it,  and  is  used  only  for  floating  timber.  There  are  no  less 
than  850  lakes  in  Pskoff,  with  a  total  area  of  391  square 
miles.  The  largest  is  Lake  Pskoff,  which  is  50  miles  long 
and  13  broad,  and  covers  312  square  miles,  having  a  depth 
of  from  3  to  18  feet;  it  is  connected  by  a  channel,  40  miles 


36 


P  S  K  0  F  F 


long  and  3  to  10  wide,  with  Lake  Peipus.  Its  islands, 
numbering  nearly  fifty,  have  an  aggregate  population  of 
2000  persons.  The  marshes  on  the  banks  of  the  Polist 
are  nearly  1250  square  miles  in  extent ;  one  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Lake  Dviniye  is  27  miles  long  and  17  broad, 
and  another  on  the  Toropa  extends  for  17  miles,  while 
many  elongated  marshes,  15,  20,  and  30  miles  long  and 
from  2  to  3  broad,  run  parallel  to  one  another  in  the 
broad  depression  of  the  Lovat.  Forests  occupy  nearly 
one-half  (about  45  per  cent.)  of  the  entire  area,  and  in 
some  districts  (Cholm,  Toropets,  Porkhoff)  as  much  as  two- 
thirds  of  the  surface.  Large  pine  forests  are  met  with  in 
the  north ;  in  other  parts  the  birch  and  aspen  prevail ; 
but  almost  one-quarter  of  the  forest  area  is  covered  with 
low  brushwood. 

The  climate  is  very  moist  and  changeable.  The  average  temper- 
ature is  41°  Fahr.  (170<1  in  January  and  640>8  in  July). 

The  population  of  the  government,  which  was  895,710  in  1881 
(718,910  in  1863),  consists  almost  exclusively  of  Great  Russians, 
there  being  only  8000  Esthonians  (in  the  district  of  Pskoff),  about 
500  Letts,  and  less  than  1500  Jews.  Many  German  traders  live  at 
Pskoff.  The  Russians  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Esthonians 
belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  or  are  Nonconformists  (upwards  of 
12,000  in  1866,  according  to  official  figures).  Of  the  total  number 
of  inhabitants  only  58,900  live  in  towns,  the  remainder  being 
distributed  over  no  fewer  than  15,000  small  villages. 

Notwithstanding  the  infertility  of  the  soil  the  chief  occupation 
is  agriculture — rye,  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes  being  grown  every- 
where ;  but  though  corn  is  exported  by  the  larger  landowners  to 
the  average  annual  amount  of  nearly  1,600,000  bushels  the  amount 
imported  is  much  greater  (9,600,000  bushels).  The  annual  export 
of  flax  is  estimated  at  530,000  cwts.,  Pskoff,  Ostroff,  Opotchka, 
Porkhoff,  and  Soltsy  being  important  centres  for  the  trade.  The 
average  annual  crops  during  1870-77  were  28,972,800  bushels  of 
corn  and  5,984,000  bushels  of  potatoes.  The  limited  area  of  pasture 
lands  is  unfavourable  for  cattle-breeding,  and  in  1881  there  were  only 
171,000  horses,  304,000  head  of  cattle,  and  166,000  sheep ;  mur- 
rains are  very  frequent.  Fishing  is  a  considerable  source  of  wealth 
on  the  shores  of  the  larger  lakes,  small  salted  or  frozen  fish  (snyctki) 
being  annually  exported  to  the  value  of  £25,000  or  £35,000.  The 
timber  trade  is  steadily  increasing,  the  exports  being  estimated  at 
present  at  nearly  £50,000  ;  wood  for  fuel  is,  however,  at  the  same 
time  imported  from  the  government  of  St  Petersburg.  The  popu- 
lation engage  also  in  the  preparation  of  lime,  in  stone-quarrying,  in 
the  transport  of  merchandise,  and  in  some  domestic  trades.  The 
manufactures  are  insignificant;  their  aggregate  production  in  1879 
reached  £518,800,  and  gave  occupation  to  only  2350  persons.  The 
total  amount  of  merchandise  loaded  and  discharged  on  the  rivers 
within  the  government  in  1880  was  1,761,000  cwts. 

Pskoff  is  divided  into  eight  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which 
are— Pskoff  (21,170  inhabitants),  Cholm  (5550),  Novorjeff  (1915), 
Opotchka  (4075),  Ostroff  (4200),  Porkhoff  (3925),  Toropets  (5760), 
Velikiya  Luki  (6600).  Alexandrovskii  Posad  (2920)  and  Soltsy 
(5825,  an  important  shipping  place  on  the  Shelon  river)  have  also 
municipal  institutions. 

PSKOFF,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  pictur- 
esquely situated  on  both  banks  of  the  broad  Velikaya  river, 
9  miles  from  Lake  Pskoff  and  171  miles  by  rail  south-west 
of  St  Petersburg.  The  chief  part  of  the  town,  with  its 
kremlin  on  a  hill  and  several  suburbs,  occupies  the  right 
bank  of  the  river,  to  which  the  ruins  of  its  old  walls 
descend;  the  Zapskovie,  consisting  of  several  suburbs, 
stretches  along  the  same  bank  of  the  Velikaya  below  its 
confluence  with  the  Pskova ;  and  the  Zavelitchie  occupies 
the  left  bank  of  the  Velikaya, — all  three  keeping  their 
old  historical  names.  The  cathedral  in  the  kremlin  has 
been  four  times  rebuilt  since  the  1 2th  century  and  contains 
some  very  old  shrines,  as  also  the  graves  of  the  bishops  of 
Pskoff  and  of  several  princes,  including  those  of  Dovmont 
and  Vsevolod.  The  church  of  Dmitrii  Solunskii  also  dates 
originally  from  the  1 2th  century ;  there  are  others  belong- 
ing to  the  14th  and  15th.  The  Spaso-Mirojskii  monastery, 
founded  in  1156,  has  many  remarkable  antiquities.  The 
ruins  of  numerous  rich  and  populous  monasteries  in  or 
near  the  town  attest  its  former  wealth  and  greatness.  The 
present  town  is  ill  built,  chiefly  of  wood,  and  shows  traces 
of  decay.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  live  by  agriculture 


or  gardening ;  the  remainder  are  engaged  in  loading  and 
unloading  merchandise  on  the  Velikaya  and  at  the  rail- 
way station,  in  combing  flax,  fishing,  and  domestic  trades. 
The  manufactures  are  unimportant.  Since  the  completion 
of  the  St  Petersburg  and  Warsaw  railway  the  trade  of 
Pskoff  has  increased.  In  1880  the  exports  reached  99,000 
cwts.  on  the  Velikaya  and  463,000  cwts.  by  rail ;  the 
imports  were  125,700  cwts.  on  the  Velikaya  and  591,600 
cwts.  by  rail.  Pskoff  has  regular  steam  communication 
with  Dorpat.  The  population  in  1882  was  21,170  (15,086 
in  1866). 

History. — Pskoff,  formerly  the  sister  republic  of  Novgorod,  and 
one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Russia,  maintained  its  independence  and 
its  free  institutions  until  the  16th  century,  being  thus  the  last 
to  be  brought  under  the  rule  of  Moscow.  Its  annals,  unquestion- 
ably the  fullest  and  liveliest  of  any  in  Russia,  affirm  that  it  already 
existed  in  the  time  of  Rurik  ;  and  Nestor  mentions  under  the  year 
914  that  Igor's  wife,  Olga,  was  brought  from  Pleskoff  (i.e.,  Pskoff). 
It  was  quite  natural  that  a  Russian  fortified  town  should  rise  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Velikaya  valley  within  the  earliest  period  of  the 
Russian  colonization  of  that  region  ;  the  river  had  from  a  remote 
antiquity  been  a  channel  for  the  trade  of  the  south  with  the  north 
Baltic  coast.  Pskoff  being  an  important  strategic  point,  its  pos- 
session was  obstinately  disputed  between  the  Russians  and  the 
Germans  and  Lithuanians,  and  throughout  the  llth  and  12th 
centuries  numerous  battles  were  fought.  At  that  time  the  place 
had  its  own  independent  institutions  ;  but,  attacked  as  it  was  from 
the  west,  it  became  in  the  12th  century  a  "prigorod  "  of  the  Nov- 
gorod republic, — that  is  (so  far  as  can  be  judged  from  the  incom- 
plete testimony  of  historical  documents),  a  city  having  its  own  free 
institutions,  but  included  in  certain  respects  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  metropolis,  and  compelled  in  time  of  war  to  march 
against  the  common  enemy.  Pskoff  had,  however,  its  own  prince 
(defensor  municipii) ;  and  in  the  second  half  of  the  13th  century 
Prince  (Timotheus)  Dovmont  fortified  it  so  strongly,  and  was  so 
successful  in  repelling  its  enemies,  that  the  town  acquired  much 
importance  and  asserted  its  independence  of  Novgorod,  with  which 
in  1348  it  concluded  a  treaty  wherein  the  two  republics  were  recog- 
nized as  equals.  The  institutions  of  Pskoff  resembled  those  of 
Novgorod ;  it,  in  its  turn,  had  several  prigorods,  and  its  rule  ex- 
tended over  the  territory  which  now  forms  the  districts  of  Pskoff, 
Ostroff,  Opotchka,  and  Gdoff.  Within  this  territory  the  "vyetche  " 
or  "  forum  "  of  Pskoff  was  sovereign,  the  vyetches  of  the  subordinate 
towns  being  supreme  in  their  own  municipal  affairs.  The  city  of 
Pskoff  was  divided  into  several  sections  or  "kontsy,"  according 
to  the  prevalent  occupations  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  kontsy 
were  divided  into  "ulitsy"  (streets),  which  enjoyed  extensive 
powers  of  self-government.  The  vyetche  was  supreme  in  all  affairs 
of  general  interest,  as  well  as  a  supreme  court  of  justice,  and  the 
princes  were  elected  by  it ;  these  last  had  to  defend  the  city  and 
levied  the  taxes,  which  were  assessed  by  twelve  citizens,  who  com- 
bined to  some  extent  the  functions  of  jiidges  with  those  of  a  jury. 
Pskoff  differed  widely,  however,  from  Novgorod  in  the  more  demo- 
cratic character  of  its  institutions  ;  and,  while  the  latter  con- 
stantly showed  a  tendency  to  become  an  oligarchy  of  the  wealthier 
merchants,  the  former  figured  as  a  republic  where  the  influence  of 
the  poorer  classes  prevailed.  Its  trading  associations,  supported 
by  those  of  the  labourers,  checked  the  influence  of  the  wealthier 
merchants. 

This  struggle  (of  which  the  annals  give  a  lively  picture)  con- 
tinued throughout  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  resulting  sometimes 
in  armed  riots.  Notwithstanding  these  conflicts  Pskoff  was  a  very 
wealthy  city.  Its  strong  walls,  whose  ruins  are  still  to  be  seen,  its 
forty-two  large  and  wealthy  churches,  built  during  this  period,  as  also 
its  numerous  monasteries  and  its  extensive  trade,  bear  testimony 
to  the  wealth  of  the  inhabitants,  who  then  numbered  about  60,000. 
The  "  dyetinets"  or  fort,  enclosed  by  a  stone  wall  erected  by  Dov- 
mont, stood  on  a  hill  between  the  Pskova  and  the  Velikaya,  having 
within  its  walls  the  cathedral  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  Another  stone 
wall  enclosed  the  commercial  part,  the  Kromy  (kremlin)  or  middle 
town.  In  1465  the  suburb  Polonische  became  so  prosperous  that 
it  also  was  enclosed  by  a  wall,  and  included  within  the  circuit  of  the 
town  proper.  Even  the  Zapskovie  was  enclosed  by  a  wooden  palisade 
in  the  15th  century  and  later  on  by  a  stone  wall ;  while  the  Zave- 
litchie was  a  busy  centre  of  foreign  trade.  As  early  as  the  13th 
century  Pskoff  had  become  an  important  station  for  the  trade 
between  Novgorod  and  Riga.  A  century  later  it  entered  the 
Hanseatic  League.  Its  merchants  and  trading  associations  had 
factories  at  Narva,  Revel,  Riga,  and  exported  flax,  corn,  tallow, 
skins,  tar,  pitch,  honey,  and  timber  for  shipbuilding,  which  were 
transported  or  shipped  via  Lake  Peipus,  the  Narova,  and  the 
Embach  to  the  ports  on  the  Baltic  and  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland. 
Silks,  woollen  stuffs,  and  all  kinds  of  manufactured  wares  were 
brought  back  in  exchange  and  sold  throughout  northern  Russia. 


P  S  Y  — P  S  Y 


37 


Nevertheless,  the  continuous  struggle  between  the  "  black  "  and 
"  white "  people  (the  patricians  and  the  plebeians)  offered  many 
opportunities  to  Moscow  for  interference  in  the  internal  affairs  of 
1'skofF,  especially  with  regard  to  the  election  of  the  princes,  which 
was  often  the  occasion  of  severe  conflicts.  In  1399  the  prince  of 
Moscow  arrogated  the  privilege  of  confirming  the  elected  prince  of 
Pskoff  in  his  rights  ;  and  though,  fifty  years  later,  Pskoff  and  Nov- 
gorod concluded  several  defensive  treaties  against  Moscow  the  fall 
of  both  republics  was  inevitable,  the  poorer  classes  continuing  to 
seek  at  Moscow  a  protection  against  the  oppression  of  the  richer 
citizens.  After  the  fall  of  Novgorod  (1475)  Pskoff  could  no  longer 
maintain  its  independence,  and  in  1510  it  was  taken  by  Vasilii 
Joannovitch.  The  vyetche  was  abolished  and  its  bell  taken  away, 
and  a  waywode  was  nominated  by  Moscow  to  govern  the  city. 
Moscow  merchants  were  settled  at  Pskoff,  and  put  in  possession  of 
the  fortunes  of  the  former  citizens.  The  conquered  territory  still 
maintained  to  some  extent  its  self-government,  especially  with  re- 


gard to  trade,  but  the  struggle  between  rich  and  poor  was  aggravated 
by  the  intervention  of  foreigners.  The  "  lutschiye  ludi "  (wealthier 
merchants)  prohibited  the  "  malomotchnyie "  (poorer  merchants) 
from  entering  into  direct  trade  relations  with  foreigners,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  sell  their  wares  to  themselves  or  to  become  their 
agents.  These  disputes  furnished  Moscow  at  the  end  of  the  17th 
century  with  a  pretext  for  abolishing  the  last  vestiges  of  self-govern- 
ment at  Pskoff,  and  for  placing  all  affairs  of  local  administration  in 
the  hands  of  the  Moscow  waywodes.  Thenceforward  Pskoff  fell 
into  rapid  decay.  It  became  a  stronghold  of  Russia  against  Poland 
and  was  besieged  for  seven  months  by  Stephan  Bathory  during  the 
Livonian  War,  and  later  on  by  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Under  Pete?  I. 
it  became  a  fortified  camp,  and  its  walls  were  protected  by  earth- 
works. But  it  never  recovered  its  former  importance,  and  is  now 
one  of  the  poorer  cities  of  the  empire.  (P.  A.  K. ) 

PSYCHE.     See  CUPID. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


The  Standpoint  of  Psychology. 

IN  the  several  natural  sciences  the  scope  and  subject- 
matter  of  each  are  so  evident  that  little  preliminary 
discussion  on  this  score  is  called  for.  It  is  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish the  facts  dealt  with  in  a  treatise  on  light  from 
those  that  belong  to  one  on  sound ;  and  even  when  the 
need  arises  to  compare  the  results  of  two  such  sciences — 
as  in  the  case,  say,  of  light  and  electricity — there  is  still 
no  difficulty, — apart,  of  course,  from  any  which  the  im- 
perfect state  of  the  sciences  themselves  may  occasion. 
Theoretically,  a  standpoint  is  attainable  from  which  this 
comparison  can  be  made,  in  so  far,  say,  as  the  facts  of 
both  sciences  can  be  expressed  in  terms  of  matter  and 
motion.  But  with  psychology,  however  much  it  is  freed 
from  metaphysics,  all  this  is  different.  It  is  indeed  ordi- 
narily assumed  that  its  subject-matter  can  be  at  once 
denned:  "It  is  what  you  can  perceive  by  consciousness 
or  reflexion  or  the  internal  sense,"  says  one,  "just  as  the 
subject-matter  of  optics  is  what  you  can  perceive  by 
sight."  Or,  "psychology  is  the  science  of  the  phenomena 
of  mind,"  we  are  told  again,  "and  is  thus  marked  off  from 
the  physical  sciences,  which  treat  only  of  the  phenomena 
of  matter."  But,  whereas  nothing  is  simpler  than  to  dis- 
tinguish between  seeing  and  hearing,  or  between  the 
phenomena  of  heat  and  the  phenomena  of  gravitation,  a 
very  little  reflexion  may  convince  us  that  we  cannot  in 
the  same  fashion  distinguish  internal  from  external  sense, 
or  make  clear  to  ourselves  what  we  mean  by  phenomena 
of  mind  as  distinct  from  phenomena  of  matter, 
.ternal  Let  us  begin  with  the  supposed  differentia  of  internal  and  ex- 
id  ex-  ternal ;  and  first  of  all  what  are  we  to  understand  by  an  inner 
rnal.  sense  ?  To  every  sense  there  corresponds  a  sense-organ  ;  the  several 
senses  are  distinct  and  independent,  so  that  no  one  sense  can  add 
to  or  alter  the  materials  of  another  ;  and  each  is  sui  generis  as 
regards  quality, — the  possession  of  five  senses,  e.g.,  furnishing  no 
data  as  to  the  character  of  a  possible  sixth.  Moreover,  sense-im- 
pressions are  passively  received  and  occur  in  the  first  instance  with- 
out regard  to  the  feeling  or  volition  of  the  recipient  and  without 
any  manner  of  relation  to  the  ' '  contents  of  consciousness  "  at  the 
moment.  Now  such  a  description  will  apply  but  very  partially  to 
the  so-called  "internal  sense."  We  can  imagine  consciousness 
without  self-consciousness,  still  more  without  introspection,  much 
as  we  can  imagine  sight  without  taste  or  smell.  But  this  does  not 
entitle  us  to  speak  of  self-consciousness  as  a  sense.  For  we  do  not 
by  means  of  it  passively  receive  impressions  differing  from  all 
previous  presentations,  as  the  sensations  of  colour  for  one  couched 
differ  from  all  he  has  experienced  before  :  the  new  facts  consist 
rather  in  the  recognition  of  certain  relations  among  pre-existing 
presentations,  i.e.,  are  due  to  our  mental  activity  and  not  to  a 
special  mode  of  what  has  been  called  our  sensitivity.  For  when 
•we  taste  we  cannot  hear  that  we  taste,  when  we  see  we  cannot  smell 
that  we  see  ;  but  when  we  taste  we  may  be  conscious  that  we  taste, 
•when  we  hear  we  may  be  conscious  that  we  hear.  In  this  way  all 
the  objects  of  the  external  senses  are  recognized  as  having  new 
relations  by  the  miscalled  "internal  sense."  Moreover,  the  facts  so 
ascertained  are  never  independent  of  feeling  and  volition  and  of 
the  contents  of  consciousness  at  the  time,  as  true  sensations  are. 
Also  if  we  consult  the  physiologist  we  learn  that  there  is  no  evidence 
of  any  organ  or  "  centre  "  that  could  be  regarded  as  the  "  physical 


basis  "  of  this  inner  sense ;  and,  if  self-consciousness  alone  is  tempo- 
rarily in  abeyance  and  a  man  merely  "  beside  himself, "  such  state  of 
delirium  has  little  analogy  to  the  functional  blindness  or  deafness 
that  constitutes  the  temporary  suspension  of  sight  or  hearing. 

To  the  conception  of  an  internal  perception  or  observation  the 
preceding  objections  do  not  necessarily  apply, — that  is  to  say,  this 
conception  may  be  so  defined  that  they  need  not.  But  then  in 
proportion  as  we  escape  the  charge  of  assuming  a  special  sense 
which  furnishes  the  material  for  such  perception  or  observation, 
in  that  same  proportion  are  we  compelled  to  seek  for  some  other 
mode  of  distinguishing  its  subject-matter.  For,  so  far  as  the  mere 
mental  activity  of  perceiving  or  observing  is  concerned,  it  is  not 
easy  to  see  any  essential  difference  in  the  process  whether  what 
is  observed  be  psychical  or  physical.  It  is  quite  true  that  the 
so-called  psychological  observation  is  more  difficult,  because  the 
facts  observed  are  often  less  definite  and  less  persistent,  and  admit 
less  of  actual  isolation  than  physical  facts  do  ;  but  the  process  of 
recognizing  similarities  or  differences,  the  dangers  of  mal-observa- 
tion  or  non-observation,  are  not  materially  altered  on  that  account. 
It  may  be  further  allowed  that  there  is  one  difficulty  peculiarly 
felt  in  psychological  observation,  the  one  most  inaccurately  ex- 
pressed by  saying  that  here  the  observer  and  the  observed  are  one. 
But  this  difficulty  is  surely  in  the  first  instance  due  to  the  very 
obvious  fact  that  our  powers  of  attention  are  limited,  so  that  we 
cannot  alter  the  distribution  of  attention  at  any  moment  without 
altering  the  contents  of  consciousness  at  that  moment.  Accord- 
ingly, where  there  are  no  other  ways  of  surmounting  this  difficulty, 
the  psychological  observer  must  either  trust  to  representations  at 
a  later  time,  or  he  must  acquire  the  power  of  taking  momentary 
glances  at  the  psychological  aspects  of  the  phase  of  consciousness 
in  question.  And  this  one  with  any  aptitude  for  such  studies 
can  do  with  so  slight  a  diversion  of  attention  as  not  to  disturb 
very  seriously  either  the  given  state  or  that  which  immediately 
succeeds  it.  But  very  similar  difficulties  have  to  be  similarly  met 
by  physical  observers  in  certain  special  cases,  as,  e.g.,  in  observing 
and  registering  the  phenomena  of  solar  eclipse  j  and  similar  apti- 
tudes in  the  distribution  of  attention  have  to  be  acquired,  say,  by 
extempore  orators  or  skilful  surgeons.  Just  as  little,  then,  as  there 
is  anything  that  we  can  with  propriety  call  an  inner  sense,  just 
so  little  can  we  find  in  the  process  of  inner  perception  any  satis- 
factory characteristic  of  the  subject-matter  of  psychology.  The 
question  still  is  :  What  is  it  that  is  perceived  or  observed  ?  and  the 
readiest  answer  of  course  is  :  Internal  experience  as  distinguished 
from  external,  what  takes  place  in  the  mind  as  distinct  from  Avhat 
takes  place  without. 

This  answer,  it  must  be  at  once  allowed,  is  adequate  for  most 
purposes,  and  a  great  deal  of  excellent  psychological  work  has  been 
done  without  ever  calling  it  in  question.  But  the  distinction  be- 
tween internal  and  external  experience  is  not  one  that  can  be  drawn 
from  the  standpoint  of  psychology,  at  least  not  at  the  outset. 
From  this  standpoint  it  appears  to  be  either  (1)  inaccurate  or  (2) 
not  extra  -  psychological.  As  to  (1),  the  boundary  between  the 
internal  and  the  external  was,  no  doubt,  originally  the  surface  of 
the  body,  with  which  the  subject  or  self  was  identified  ;  and  in 
this  sense  the  terms  are  of  course  correctly  used.  For  a  thing  may, 
in  the  same  sense  of  the  word,  be  in  one  space  and  therefore  not  in 
— i.e.,  out  of — another  ;  but  we  express  no  intelligible  relation  if  we 
speak  of  two  things  as  being  one  in  a  given  room  and  the  other  in 
last  week.  Any  one  is  at  liberty  to  say  if  he  choose  that  a  certain 
thing  is  "in  his  mind";  but  if  in  this  way  he  distinguishes  it 
from  something  else  not  in  his  mind,  then  to  be  intelligible  this 
must  imply  one  of  two  statements, — either  that  the  something  else 
is  actually  or  possibly  in  some  other  mind,  or,  his  own  mind  being 
alone  considered,  that  at  the  time  the  something  else  does  not 
exist  at  all.  Yet,  evident  as  it  seems  that  the  correlatives  in 
and  not-in  must  both  apply  to  the  same  category,  whether  space, 


38 


PSYCHOLOGY 


Mental 

ind 

material 


Stand- 
?oint  of 


ogy- 


time,  presentation  (or  non-presentation)  to  a  given  subject,  and 
so  forth,  we  still  find  psychologists  more  or  less  consciously  con- 
fused between  "internal,"  meaning  "  presented"  in  the  psychological 
sense,  and  "external,"  meaning  not  "not-presented"  but  corporeal 
or  oftener  extra  -  corporeal.  But  (2),  when  used  to  distinguish 
between  presentations  (some  of  which,  or  some  relations  of  which 
with  respect  to  others,  are  called  "internal,"  and  others  or  other 
relations,  "  extemal "),  these  terms  are  at  all  events  accurate  ;  only 
then  they  cease  to  mark  off  the  psychological  from  the  extra- 
psychological,  inasmuch  as  psychology  has  to  analyse  this  distinc- 
tion and  to  exhibit  the  steps  by  which  it  has  come  about.  But 
we  have  still  to  examine  whether  the  distinction  of  phenomena  of 
Matter  and  phenomena  of  Mind  furnishes  a  better  dividing  line 
than  the  distinction  of  internal  and  external. 

A  phenomenon,  as  commonly  understood,  is  what  is  manifest, 
sensible,  evident,  the  implication  being  that  there  are  eyes  to  see, 
ears  to  hear,  and  so  forth, — in  other  words,  that  there  is  presenta- 
tion to  a  subject ;  and  wherever  there  is  presentation  to  a  subject 
it  will  be  allowed  that  we  are  in  the  domain  of  psychology.  But  in 
talking  of  physical  phenomena  we,  in  a  way,  abstract  from  this  fact 
of  presentation.  Though  consciousness  should  cease,  the  physicist 
would  consider  the  sum  total  of  objects  to  remain  the  same  :  the 
orange  would  still  be  round,  yellow,  and  fragrant  as  before.  For 
the  physicist — whether  aware  of  it  or  not — has  taken  up  a  position 
which  for  the  present  may  be  described  by  saying  that  phenomenon 
with  him  means  appearance  or  manifestation,  or — as  we  had  better 
say — object,  not  for  a  concrete  individual,  but  rather  for  what  Kant 
called  Beicusstsein  ilberhaupt,  or,  as  some  render  it,  the  objective 
consciousness,  i.e.,  for  an  imaginary  subject  freed  from  all  the 
limitations  of  actual  subjects  save  that  of  depending  on  "sensi- 
bility "  for  the  material  of  experience.  However,  this  is  not  all,  for, 
as  we  shall  see  presently,  the  psychologist  also  occupies  this  posi- 
tion ;  at  least  if  he  does  not,  his  is  not  a  true  science.  But  further, 
the  physicist  leaves  out  of  sight  altogether  the  facts  of  attention, 
feeling,  and  so  forth,  all  which  actual  presentation  entails.  From 
the  psychological  point  of  view,  on  the  other  hand,  the  removal  of 
the  subject  removes  not  only  all  such  facts  as  attention  and  feeling, 
but  all  presentation  or  possibility  of  presentation  whatever.  Surely, 
then,  to  call  a  certain  object,  when  we  abstract  from  its  presentation, 
a  material  phenomenon,  and  to  call  the  actual  presentation  of  this 
object  a  mental  phenomenon,,  is  a  clumsy  and  confusing  way  of 
representing  the  difference  between  the  two  points  of  view.  For 
the  terms  "material"  and  "mental"  seem  to  imply  that  the  two 
so-called  phenomena  have  nothing  in  common,  whereas  the  same 
object  is  involved  in  both,  while  the  term  "  phenomenon  "  implies 
that  the  point  of  view  is  in  each  case  the  same,  when  in  truth 
what  is  emphasized  by  the  one  the  other  ignores. 

Paradoxical  though  it  may  be,  we  must  then  conclude 
that  psychology  cannot  be  defined  by  reference  to  a  special 
subject-matter  as  such  concrete  sciences,  for  example,  as 
mineralogy  and  botany  can ;  and,  since  it  deals  in  some 
sort  with  the  whole  of  experience,  it  is  obviously  not  an 
abstract  science,  in  any  ordinary  sense  of  that  term.  To 
be  characterized  at  all,  therefore,  apart  from  metaphysical 
assumptions,  it  must  be  characterized  by  the  standpoint 
from  which  this  experience  is  viewed.  It  is  by  way  of 
expressing  this  that  widely  different  schools  of  psychology 
define  it  as  subjective,  all  other  positive  sciences  being 
distinguished  as  objective.  But  this  seems  scarcely  more 
than  a  first  approximation  to  the  truth,  and,  as  we  have 
seen  incidentally,  is  apt  to  be  misleading.  The  distinction 
rather  is  that  the  standpoint  of  psychology  is  what  is  some- 
times termed  "  individualistic,"  that  of  the  so-called  object- 
sciences  being  "  universalistic,"  both  alike  being  objective 
in  the  sense  of  being  true  for  all,  consisting  of  what  Kant 
would  call  judgments  of  experience.  For  psychology  is 
not  a  biography  in  any  sense,  still  less  a  biography  deal- 
ing with  idiosyncrasies,  and  in  an  idiom  having  an  interest 
and  a  meaning  for  one  subject  only,  and  incommunicable 
to  any  other.  Locke,  Berkeley,  and  Hume  have  been  of 
late  severely  handled  because  they  regarded  the  critical 
investigation  of  knowledge  as  a  psychological  problem, 
and  set  to  work  to  study  the  individual  mind  simply  for 
the  sake  of  this  problem.  But  none  the  less  their  stand- 
point was  the  proper  one  for  the  science  of  psychology 
itself;  and,  however  surely  their  philosophy  was  fore- 
doomed to  a  collapse,  there  is  no  denying  a  steady  psycho- 
logical advance  as  we  pass  from  Locke  to  Hume  and  his 
modern  representatives.  By  "idea"  Locke  tells  us  he 


means  "whatsoever  is  the  object  of  the  understanding 
when  a  man  thinks  "  (i.e.,  is  conscious),  and  having,  as  it 
were,  shut  himself  within  such  a  circle  of  ideas  he  finds 
himself  powerless  to  explain  his  knowledge  of  a  world  that 
is  independent  of  it ;  but  he  is  able  to  give  a  very  good 
account  of  some  of  these  ideas  themselves.  He  cannot 
justify  his  belief  in  the  world  of  things  whence  certain  of 
his  simple  ideas  "were  conveyed"  anymore  than  Robinson 
Crusoe  could  have  explored  the  continents  whose  products 
were  drifted  to  his  desert  island,  though  he  might  perhaps 
survey  the  island  itself  well  enough.  Berkeley  accord- 
ingly, as  Professor  Fraser  happily  puts  it,  abolished  Locke's 
hypothetical  outer  circle.  Thereby  he  made  the  psycho- 
logical standpoint  clearer  than  ever — hence  the  truth  of 
Hume's  remark,  that  Berkeley's  arguments  "  admit  of  n<? 
answer " ;  at  the  same  time  the  epistemological  problem 
was  as  hopeless  as  before — hence  again  the  truth  of  Hume's 
remark  that  those  arguments  "produced  no  conviction." 
Of  all  the  facts  with  which  he  deals,  the  psychologist  may 
truly  say  that  their  esse  is  percipi,  inasmuch  as  all  his  facts 
are  facts  of  presentation,  are  ideas  in  Locke's  sense,  or 
objects  which  imply  a  subject.  Before  we  became  con- 
scious there  was  no  world  for  us  ;  should  our  consciousness 
cease,  the  world  for  us  ceases  too ;  had  we  been  born  blind, 
the  world  would  for  us  have  had  no  colour ;  if  deaf,  it 
would  have  had  no  sounds ;  if  idiotic,  it  would  have  had 
no  meaning.  Psychology,  then,  never  transcends  the 
limits  of  the  individual ;  even  the  knowledge  that  there 
is  a  real  world,  as  common-sense  assumes,  is,  when  psycho- 
logically regarded,  an  individual's  knowledge,  which  had 
a  beginning  and  a  growth,  and  can  have  an  end.  In 
fact,  for  the  psychologist  it  is  not  essentially  knowledge, 
but  presentations,  partly  possible,  partly  actual,  in  the 
mind  of  A,  B,  or  C ;  just  as  this  page  is  for  the  printer 
essentially  "  copy,"  and  only  for  the  reader  essentially 
"discourse."  But  what  the  psychologist  has  to  say  about 
knowledge  is,  of  course,  itself  knowledge,  i.e.,  assuming 
it  to  be  correct ;  the  knowledge  about  which  he  knows  is, 
however,  for  him  not  primarily  knowledge,  but  "  states  of 
consciousness." 

But  now,  though  this  Berkeleyan  standpoint  is  the 
standpoint  of  psychology — as  we  find  it  occupied,  say,  by 
J.  S.  Mill  and  Dr  Bain — psychology  is  not  pledged  to  the 
method  employed  by  Berkeley  and  by  Locke.  Psycho- 
logy may  be  individualistic  without  being  confined  ex- 
clusively to  the  introspective  method.  There  is  nothing 
to  hinder  the  psychologist  from  employing  materials  fur- 
nished by  his  observations  of  other  men,  of  infants,  of  the 
lower  animals,  or  of  the  insane;  nothing  to  hinder  him 
taking  counsel  with  the  philologist  or  even  the  physiologist, 
provided  always  he  can  show  the  psychological  bearings  of 
those  facts  which  are  not  directly  psychological.  Nor,  again, 
are  we  bound,  because  we  take  the  individualistic  stand- 
point as  psychologists,  to  accept  the  philosophical  conclu- 
sions that  have  been  reached  from  it,  unless,  indeed,  we 
hold  that  it  is  the  right  point  of  view  for  philosophical 
speculation.  A  psychologist  may  be  an  idealist  in  Berkeley's 
sense  or  in  Fichte's,  but  he  need  not ;  he  is  just  as  free,  if 
he  see  reason,  to  call  himself,  after  Hamilton,  a  natural  real- 
ist; only  psychology  will  afford  him  no  safe  warrant  for 
the  realism  part  of  it.  The  standpoint  of  psychology,  then, 
is  individualistic;  by  whatever  methods,  from  whatever 
sources  its  facts  are  ascertained,  they  must — to  have  a 
psychological  import — be  regarded  as  having  place  in,  or 
as  being  part  of,  some  one's  consciousness.  In  this  sense, 
i.e.,  as  presented  to  an  individual,  "  the  whole  choir  of 
heaven  and  furniture  of  earth  "  may  belong  to  psychology, 
but  otherwise  they  are  psychological  nonentities.  The 
problem  of  psychology,  in  dealing  with  this  complex  sub- 
ject-matter, is  in  general — first,  to  ascertain  its  constituent 


PSYCHOLOGY 


39 


elements,  and  secondly,  to  ascertain  and  explain  the  laws 
of  their  combination  and  interaction. 

General  Analysis  of  Mind ;  its  Ultimate  Constituents. 

nsti-  As  to  the  first,  there  is  in  the  main  substantial  agree- 
int  ment :  the  elementary  facts  of  mind  cannot,  it  is  held,  be 
mind3  exPressed  in  less  than  three  propositions, — I  feel  somehow, 
I  know  something,  I  do  something.  But  here  at  once 
there  arises  an  important  question,  viz.,  What  are  we  to 
understand  by  the  subject  of  these  propositions?  Nobody 
nowadays  would  understand  it  to  imply  that  every  psychi- 
cal fact  must  be  ascertained  or  verified  by  personal  intro- 
spection ;  perhaps  no  modern  writer  ever  did  understand 
this  ;  at  any  rate  to  do  so  is  to  confound  the  personal  with 
the  psychological.  We  are  no  more  confined  to  our  own 
immediate  observations  here  than  elsewhere  ;  but  the  point 
is  that,  whether  seeking  to  analyse  one's  own  consciousness 
or  to  infer  that  of  a  lobster,  whether  discussing  the  asso- 
ciation of  ideas  or  the  expression  of  emotions,  there  is 
always  an  individual  mind  or  self  or  subject  in  question. 
It  is  not  enough  to  talk  of  feelings  or  volitions  :  what  we 
mean  is  that  some  individual,  man  or  worm,  feels,  wills, 
acts — thus  or  thus.  Obvious  as  this  may  seem,  it  has  been 
frequently  either  forgotten  or  gainsaid.  It  has  been  for- 
gotten among  details  or  through  the  assumption  of  a  medley 
of  faculties,  each  treated  as  an  individual  in  turn,  and 
among  which  the  real  individual  was  lost.  Or  it  has  been 
gainsaid,  because  to  admit  that  all  psychological  facts  per- 
tain to  a  psychological  subject  seemed  to  carry  with  it  the 
admission  that  they  pertained  to  a  particular  spiritual 
substance,  which  was  simple,  indestructible,  and  so  forth ; 
and  it  was  manifestly  desirable  to  exclude  such  assump- 
tions from  psychology,  i.e.,  from  a  science  which  aims  only 
at  a  scientific  exposition  of  what  can  be  known  and  verified 
bj'ect  by  observation.  But,  however  much  assailed  or  disowned, 
Eg°-  the  conception  of  a  mind  or  conscious  subject  is  to  be 
found  implicitly  or  explicitly  in  all  psychological  writers 
whatever,— not  more  in  Berkeley,  who  accepts  it  as  a  fact, 
than  in  Hume,  who  accepts  it  as  a  fiction.  This  being  so, 
we  are  far  more  likely  to  reach  the  truth  eventually  if  we 
openly  acknowledge  this  inexpugnable  assumption,  if  such 
it  prove,  instead  of  resorting  to  all  sorts  of  devious  peri- 
phrases to  hide  it.  Now  wherever  the  word  Subject,  or 
its  derivatives,  occurs  in  psychology  we  might  substitute 
the  word  Ego  and  analogous  derivatives,  did  such  exist. 
But  Subject  is  almost  always  the  preferable  term ;  its  im- 
personal form  is  an  advantage,  and  it  readily  recalls  its 
modern  correlative  Object.  Moreover,  Ego  has  two  senses, 
distinguished  by  Kant  as  pure  and  empirical,  the  latter  of 
which  is,  of  course,  an  object,  while  the  former  is  subject 
always.  By  pure  Ego  or  Subject  it  is  proposed  to  denote 
the  simple  fact  that  everything  mental  is  referred  to  a  Self. 
This  psychological  conception  of  a  self  or  subject,  then,  is 
after  all  by  no  means  identical  with  the  metaphysical 
conceptions  of  a  soul  or  mind-atom,  or  of  mind-stuff  not 
atomic  ;  it  may  be  kept  as  free  from  metaphysical  implica- 
tions as  the  conception  of  the  biological  individual  or 
organism  with  which  it  is  so  intimately  connected, 
tempts  The  attempt,  indeed,  has  frequently  been  made  to  resolve  the 
ex-  former  into  the  latter,  and  so  to  find  in  mind  only  such  an  indivi- 
ide  the  duality  as  has  an  obvious  counterpart  in  this  individuality  of  the 
;o.  organism,  i.e.,  what  we  may  call  an  objective  individuality.  But 
such  procedure  owes  all  its  plausibility  to  the  fact  that  it  leaves 
out  of  sight  the  difference  between  the  biological  and  the  psycho- 
logical standpoints.  All  that  the  biologist  means  by  a  dog  is  "  the 
sum  of  the  phenomena  which  make  up  its  corporeal  existence."1 
And,  inasmuch  as  its  presentation  to  any  one  in  particular  is  a 
point  of  no  importance,  the  fact,  of  presentation  at  all  may  be  very 
well  dropped  out  of  account.  Let  us  now  turn  to  mind :  Why 
should  we  not  take  this  word  or  "the  word  'soul'  simply  as  a 
name  for  the  series  of  mental  phenomena  which  make  up  an  indi- 

1  Professor  Huxley,  Hume  (English  Men  of  Letters  series),  p.  171. 


vidual  mind  ? "  2  Surely  the  moment  we  try  distinctly  to  under- 
stand this  question  we  realize  that  the  cases  are  different.  "Series 
of  mental  phenomena"  for  whom?  For  any  passer-by  such  as 
might  take  stock  of  our  biological  dog  ?  No,  obviously  only  for 
that  individual  mind  itself ;  yet  that  is  supposed  to  be  made  up  of, 
to  be  nothing  different  from,  the  series  of  phenomena.  Are  we, 
then,  (1)  quoting  J.  S.  Mill's  words,  "to  accept  the  paradox  that 
something  which  ex  hypothesi  is  but  a  series  of  feelings,  can  be 
aware  of  itself  as  a  series  ? "  3  Or  (2)  shall  we  say  that  the  several 
parts  of  the  series  are  mutually  phenomenal,  much  as  A  may  look 
at  B,  who  was  just  now  looking  at  A  ?  Or  (3)  finally,  shall  we  say 
that  a  large  part  of  the  so-called  series,  in  fact  every  term  but  one, 
is  phenomenal  for  the  rest — for  that  one  ? 

As  to  the  first  alternative,  paradox  is  too  mild  a  word  for  it ; 
even  contradiction  will  hardly  suffice.  It  is  as  impossible  to  express 
"being  aware  of"  by  one  term  as  it  is  to  express  an  equation  or 
any  other  relation  by  one  term  :  what  knows  can  no  more  be  iden- 
tical with  what  is  known  than  a  weight  with  what  it  weighs.  If  a 
series  of  feelings  is  what  is  known  or  presented,  then  what  knows, 
what  it  is  presented  to,  cannot  be  that  series  of  feelings,  and  this 
without  regard  to  the  point  Mill  mentions,  viz.,  that  the  infinitely 
greater  part  of  the  series  is  either  past  or  future.  The  question  is 
not  in  the  first  instance  one  of  time  or  substance  at  all,  but  simply 
turns  upon  the  fact  that  knowledge  or  consciousness  is  unmeaning 
except  as  it  implies  something  knowing  or  conscious  of  something. 
But  it  maybe  replied  : — Granted  that  the  formula  for  consciousness 
is  something  doing  something,  to  put  it  generally  ;  still,  if  the  two 
somethings  are  the  same  when  I  touch  myself  or  when  I  see  myself, 
why  may  not  agent  and  patient  be  the  same  when  the  action  is 
knowing  or  being  aware  of ;  why  may  I  not  know  myself — in  fact, 
do  I  not  know  myself?  Certainly  not ;  agent  and  patient  never  are 
the  same  in  the  same  act ;  the  conceptions  of  self-caused,  self- 
moved,  self-known,  et  id  genus  omne,  either  connote  the  incompre- 
hensible or  are  abbreviated  expressions — such,  e.g.,  as  touching 
oneself  when  one's  right  hand  touched  one's  left. 

And  so  we  come  to  the  second  alternative  : — As  one  hand  washes 
the  other,  may  not  different  members  of  the  series  of  feelings  be  sub- 
ject and  object  in  turn  ?  Compare,  for  example,  the  state  of  mind 
of  a  man  succumbing  to  temptation  (as  he  pictures  himself  enjoying 
the  coveted  good  and  impatiently  repudiates  scruples  of  conscience 
or  dictates  of  prudence)  with  his  state  when,  filled  with  remorse, 
he  sides  with  conscience  and  condemns  this  "former  self," — the 
"  better  self"  having  meanwhile  become  supreme.  Here  the  cluster 
of  presentations  and  their  associated  sentiments  and  motives,  which 
together  play  the  role  of  self  in  the  one  field  of  consciousness,  have 
— only  momentarily  it  is  true,  but  still  have — for  a  time  the  place 
of  not-self ;  and  under  abnormal  circumstances  this  partial  alterna- 
tion may  become  complete  alienation,  as  in  what  is  called  ' '  double 
consciousness."  Or  again,  the  development  of  self-consciousness 
might  be  loosely  described  as  taking  the  subject  or  self  of  one  stage 
as  an  object  in  the  next, — self  being,  e.g.,  first  identified  with  the 
body  and  afterwards  distinguished  from  it.  But  all  this,  however 
true,  is  beside  the  mark  ;  and  it  is  really  a  very  serious  misnomer, 
— though  the  vagueness  of  our  psychological  terminology  seems  to 
allow  it — to  do,  as  e.g. ,  Mr  Spencer  does — represent  the  develop- 
ment of  self-consciousness  as  a  "differentiation  of  subject  and 
object."  It  is,  if  anything,  a  differentiation  of  object  and  object, 
i.e.,  in  plainer  words,  it  is  a  differentiation  among  presentations — 
a  differentiation  every  step  of  which  implies  just  that  relation  to  a 
subject  which  it  is  supposed  to  supersede. 

There  still  remains  an  alternative,  which,  like  the  first,  may  be 
expressed  in  the  words  of  J.  S.  Mill,  viz.,  "  the  alternative  of  believ- 
ing that  the  Mind  or  Ego  is  something  different  from  any  series  of 
feelings  or  possibilities  of  them."  To  admit  this,  of  course,  is  to 
admit  the  necessity  of  distinguishing  between  Mind  or  Ego,  mean- 
ing the  unity  or  continuity  of  consciousness  as  a  complex  of  pre- 
sentations, and  Mind  or  Ego  as  the  subject  to  which  this  complex 
is  presented.  In  dealing  with  the  body  from  the  ordinary  biological 
standpoint  no  such  necessity  arises.  But,  whereas  there  the  indi- 
vidual organism  is  spoken  of  unequivocally,  in  psychology,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  individual  mind  may  mean  either  (i.)  the  series  of 
feelings  or  ' '  mental  phenomena "  above  referred  to  ;  or  (ii. )  the 
subject  of  these  feelings  for  whom  they  are  phenomena ;  or  (iii.) 
the  subject  of  these  feelings  or  phenomena  +  the  series  of  feelings  or 
phenomena  themselves,  the  two  being  in  that  relation  to  each 
other  in  which  alone  the  one  is  subject  and  the  other  a  series  of 
feelings,  phenomena,  or  objects.  It  is  in  this  last  sense  that  Mind 
is  used  in  empirical  psychology,  its  exclusive  use  in  the  first  sense 
being  favoured  only  by  those  who  shrink  from  the  speculative 
associations  connected  with  its  exclusive  use  in  the  second.  But 
psychology  is  not  called  upon  to  transcend  the  relation  of  subject 
to  object  or,  as  we  may  call  it,  the  fact  of  presentation.  On  the 
other  hand,  as  has  been  said,  the  attempt  to  ignore  one  term  of 
the  relation  is  hopeless  ;  and  equally  hopeless,  even  futile,  is  the 

2  Professor  Huxley,  op.  cit.,  p.  172. 

3  Examination  of  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  Philosophy,  ch.  xii.  fin. 


40 


PSYCHOLOGY 


attempt,  by  means  of  phrases  such  as  consciousness  or  the  unity  of 
consciousness,  to  dispense  with  the  recognition  of  a  conscious 
subject. 

Feeling.       We  might  now  proceed  to  inquire  more  closely  into  the 
character  and  relations  of  the  three  states,  modes,  or  acts1 
of  this  subject,  which  are  commonly  held  to  be  the  invari- 
able constituents  of  psychical  life  and  broadly  distinguished 
as  cognitions,  feelings,  and  conations.    But  we  should  be  at 
once  confronted  by  a  doctrine  much  in  vogue  at  present, 
which,  strictly  taken,  amounts  almost  to  a  denial  of  this 
tripartite  classification  of  the  facts  of  mind — the  doctrine, 
viz.,  that  feeling  alone  is  primordial,  and  invariably  present 
wherever  there  is  consciousness  at  all.     Every  living  crea- 
ture, it  is  said,  feels,  though  it  may  never  do  any  more ; 
only  the  higher  animals,  and  these  only  after  a  time,  learn 
to  discriminate  and  identify  and  to  act  with  a  purpose. 
This  doctrine,  as  might  be  expected,  derives  its  plausibility 
partly  from  the  vagueness  of  psychological  terminology, 
and  partly  from  the  intimate  connexion  that  undoubtedly 
exists  between  feeling  and  cognition  on  the  one  hand  and 
feeling  and  volition  on  the  other.     As  to  the  meaning  of 
the  term,  it  is  plain  that  further  definition  is  requisite  for 
a  word  that  may  mean  (a)  a  touch,  as  feeling  of  roughness; 
(6)  an  organic  sensation,  as  feeling  of  hunger ;  (c)  an  emo- 
tion, as  feeling  of  anger ;  (d)  feeling  proper,  as  _  pleasure 
or  pain.     But,  even  taking  feeling  in  the  last,  its  strict 
sense,  it  has  been  maintained  that  all  the  more  complex 
forms  of  consciousness  are  resolvable  into,  or  at  least  have 
been  developed  from,  feelings  of  pleasure  and  pain.     The 
only  proof  of  such  position,  since  we  cannot  directly  observe 
the  beginnings  of  conscious  life,  must  consist  of  considera- 
tions such  as  the  following.     So  far  as  we  can  judge,  we 
find  feeling  everywhere ;  but,  as  we  work  downwards  from 
higher  to  lower  forms  of  life,  the  possible  variety  and  the 
definiteness  of  sense -impressions  both  steadily  diminish. 
Moreover,  we  can  directly  observe  in  our  own  organic  sensa- 
tions, which  seem  to  come  nearest  to  the  whole  content 
of  infantile  and  molluscous  experience,  an  almost  entire 
absence  of  any  assignable  quale.     Finally,  in  our  sense- 
experience  generally,  we  find  the  element  of  feeling  at  a 
maximum  in  the  lower  senses  and  the  intellectual  element 
at  a  maximum  in  the  higher.     But  the  so-called  intellectual 
senses  are  the  most  used,  and  use  we  know  blunts  feeling 
and  favours  intellection,  as  we  see  in  chemists,  who  sort  the 
most  filthy  mixtures  by  smell  and  taste  without  discomfort. 
If,  then,  feeling  predominates  more  and  more  as  we  approach 
the  beginning  of  consciousness,  may  we  not  say  that  it  is 
the  only  sine  qua  non  of  consciousness  1     Considerations 
of  this  kind,  however  impressive  when  exhibited  at  length, 
are  always  liable  to  be  overturned  by  some  apparently  un- 
important fact  which  may  easily  be  overlooked.    Two  lines, 
e.g.,  may  get  nearer  and  nearer  and  yet  will  never  meet,  if 
the  rate  of  approach  is  simply  proportional  to  the  distance. 
A  triangle  may  be  diminished  indefinitely  and  yet  we  can- 
not "infer  that  it  becomes  eventually  all  angles,  though  the 
angles  get  no  less  and  the  sides  do.    Now,  before  we  decide 
that  pleasure  or  pain  alone  may  constitute  a  complete  state 
of  mind,  it  may  be  well  to  inquire  :  What  is  the  connexion 
between  feelings  of  pleasure  and  pain  and  the  two  remain- 
ing  possible   constituents   of   consciousness,    as   we   can 
observe  them  now?     And  this  is  an  inquiry  which  will 
help  us  towards  an  answer  to  our  main  question,  namely, 
that  concerning  the  nature  and  connexions  of  what  are 
commonly  regarded  as  the  three  ultimate  facts  of  mind. 
Kelation      Broadly  speaking,  in  any  state  of  mind  that  we  can 
of  feeling  directly  observe,  what  we  find  is  (1)  that  we  are  aware  of 
tion°and~  a  certain  change  in  our  sensations,  thoughts,  or  circum- 


conation. 


1  It  is  useless  at  this  point  attempting  to  decide  on  the  comparative 
appropriateness  of  these  and  similar  terms,  such  as  "faculties," 
"capacities,"  "functions,"  &c. 


stances,  (2)  that  we  are  pleased  or  pained  with  the  change, 
and  (3)  that  we  act  accordingly.  We  never  find  that 
feeling  directly  alters — i.e.,  without  the  intervention  of 
the  action  to  which  it  prompts — either  our  sensations  or 
situation,  but  that  regularly  these  latter  with  remarkable 
promptness  and  certainty  alter  it.  We  have  not  first  a 
change  of  feeling,  and  then  a  change  in  our  sensations, 
perceptions,  and  ideas;  but,  these  changing,  change  of  feel- 
ing follows.  In  short,  feeling  appears  frequently  to  be  an 
effect,  which  therefore  cannot  exist  without  its  cause, 
though  in  different  circumstances  the  same  cause  may  pro- 
duce a  different  amount  or  even  a  different  state  of  feeling. 
Turning  from  what  we  may  call  the  receptive  phase  of  con- 
sciousness to  the  active  or  appetitive  phase,  we  find  in  like 
manner  that  feeling  is  certainly  not,  in  such  cases  as  we  can 
clearly  observe,  the  whole  of  consciousness  at  any  moment. 
True,  in  common  speech  we  talk  of  liking  pleasure  and 
disliking  pain ;  but  this  is  either  tautology,  equivalent  to 
saying,  we  are  pleased  when  we  are  pleased  and  pained 
when  we  are  pained,  or  else  it  is  an  allowable  abbrevia- 
tion, and  means  that  we  like  pleasurable  objects  and  dislike 
painful  objects,  as  when  we  say,  we  like  feeling  warm  and 
dislike  feeling  hungry.  And  feeling  warm  or  feeling 
hungry,  we  must  remember,  is  not  pure  feeling  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word.  Such  states  admit,  if  not  of 
description,  yet  at  least  of  identification  and  distinction 
as  truly  as  colours  and  sounds  do.  Within  the  limits  of 
our  observation,  then,  we  find  that  feeling  accompanies 
some  more  or  less  definite  presentation  which  for  the  sake 
of  it  becomes  the  object  of  appetite  or  aversion  ;  in  other 
words,  feeling  implies  a  relation  to  a  pleasurable  or  pain- 
ful presentation,  that,  as  cause  of  feeling  and  end  of  the 
action  to  which  feeling  prompts,  is  doubly  distinguished 
from  it.  Thus  the  very  facts  that  lead  us  to  distinguish 
feeling  from  cognition  and  conation  make  against  the 
hypothesis  that  consciousness  can  ever  be  all  feeling. 

But,  as  already  said,  the  plausibility  of  this  hypothesis  Feeling 
is  in  good  part  due  to  a  laxity  in  the  use  of  terms.  Most  and 
psychologists  before  Kant,  and  English  psychologists  even 
to  the  present  day,  speak  of  pleasure  and  pain  as  sensa- 
tions. But  it  is  plain  that  pleasure  and  pain  are  not 
simple  ideas,  as  Locke  called  them,  in  the  sense  in  which 
touches  and  tastes  are, — that  is  to  say,  they  are  never  like 
these  localized  or  projected,  nor  elaborated  in  conjunction 
with  other  sensations  and  movements  into  percepts  or  intui- 
tions of  the  external.  This  confusion  of  feeling  with  sensa- 
tions is  largely  consequent  on  the  use  of  one  word  pain  for 
certain  organic  sensations  and  for  the  purely  subjective 
state.  But,  to  say  nothing  of  the  fact  that  such  pains  are 
always  more  or  less  definitely  localized, — which  of  itself  is 
so  far  cognition, — they  are  also  distinguished  as  shooting, 
burning,  gnawing,  &c.  &c.,  all  which  symptoms  indicate 
a  certain  objective  quality.  Accordingly  all  the  more 
recent  psychologists  have  been  driven  by  one  means  or 
another  to  recognize  two  "aspects  "  (Bain),  or  "properties" 
(Wundt),  in  what  they  call  a  sensation,  the  one  a  "  sensible 
or  intellectual"  or  "qualitative,"  the  other  an  "affective" 
or  "emotive,"  aspect  or  property.  The  term  "aspect" 
is  figurative  and  obviously  inaccurate ;  even  to  describe 
pleasure  and  pain  as  properties  of  sensation  is  a  matter 
open  to  much  question.  But  the  point  which  at  present 
concerns  us  is  simply  that  when  feeling  is  said  to  be  the 
primordial  element  in  consciousness  more  is  usually  in- 
cluded under  feeling  than  pure  pleasure  and  pain,  viz., 
some  characteristic  or  quality  by  which  one  pleasurable  or 
painful  sensation  is  distinguishable  from  another.  No 
doubt,  as  we  go  downwards  in  the  chain  of  life  the  quali- 
tative or  objective  elements  in  the  so-called  sensations 
become  less  and  less  definite ;  and  at  the  same  time  organ- 
isms with  well-developed  sense-organs  give  place  to  others 


PSYCHOLOGY 


41 


without  any  clearly  differentiated  organs  at  all.  But  there 
is  no  ground  for  supposing  even  the  amoeba  itself  to  be 
affected  in  all  respects  the  same  whether  by  changes  of 
temperature  or  of  pressure  or  by  changes  in  its  internal 
fluids,  albeit  all  of  these  changes  will  further  or  hinder  its 
life  and  so  presumably  be  in  some  sort  pleasurable  or  pain- 
ful. On  the  whole,  then,  there  are  grounds  for  saying 
that  the  endeavour  to  represent  all  the  various  facts  of 
consciousness  as  evolved  out  of  feeling  is  due  to  a  hasty 
striving  after  simplicity,  and  has  been  favoured  by  the 
ambiguity  of  the  term  feeling  itself.  If  by  feeling  we 
mean  a  certain  subjective  state  varying  continuously  in 
intensity  and  passing  from  time  to  time  from  its  positive 
phase  (pleasure)  to  its  negative  phase  (pain),  then  this 
purely  pathic  state  implies  an  agreeing  or  disagreeing 
something  which  psychologically  determines  it.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  let  feeling  stand  for  both  this  state  and  the 
cause  of  it,  then,  perhaps,  a  succession  of  such  "  feelings  " 
may  make  up  a  consciousness ;  but  then  we  are  including 
two  of  our  elementary  facts  under  the  name  of  one  of  them. 
The  simplest  form  of  psychical  life,  therefore,  involves  not  only 
a  subject  feeling  but  a  subject  having  qualitatively  distinguish- 
able presentations  which  are  the  occasion  of  its  feeling. 
senta-  We  may  now  try  to  ascertain  what  is  meant  by  cogni- 
tion as  an  essential  element  in  this  life,  or,  more  exactly, 
what  we  are  to  understand  by  the  term  presentation.  It 
was  an  important  step  onwards  for  psychology  when  Locke 
introduced  that  "  new  way  of  ideas "  which  Stillingfleet 
found  alternately  so  amusing  and  so  dangerous.  By  idea 
Locke  tells  us  he  meant  true  appearances  in  men's  minds, 
or  "  whatsoever  is  the  immediate  object  of  perception, 
thought,  or  understanding " ;  and  it  was  so  far  a  retro- 
grade step  when  Hume  restricted  the  term  to  certain  only 
of  these  appearances  or  objects,  or  rather  to  these  appear- 
ances or  objects  in  a  certain  state,  viz.,  as  reproduced  ideas 
or  images.  And,  indeed,  the  history  of  psychology  seems 
to  show  that  its  most  important  advances  have  been  made 
by  those  who  have  kept  closely  to  this  way  of  ideas  ;  the 
establishment  of  the  laws  of  association  and  their  many 
fruitful  applications  and  the  whole  Herbartian  psychology 
may  suffice  as  instances  (see  HERBART).  The  truth  is  that 
the  use  of  such  a  term  is  itself  a  mark  of  an  important 
generalization,  one  which  helps  to  free  us  from  the  mytho- 
logy and  verbiage  of  the  "faculty -psychologists."  All 
that  variety  of  mental  facts  which  we  speak  of  as  sensa- 
tions, perceptions,  images,  intuitions,  concepts,  notions, 
have  two  characteristics  in  common: — (1)  they  admit  of 
being  more  or  less  attended  to,  and  (2)  can  be  reproduced 
and  associated  together.  It  is  here  proposed  to  use  the 
term  presentation  to  connote  such  a  mental  fact,  and  as 
the  best  English  equivalent  for  what  Locke  meant  by  idea 
and  what  Kant  and  Herbart  called  a  Vorstellung. 

A  presentation  has  then  a  twofold  relation, — first, 
directly  to  the  subject,  and  secondly,  to  other  presenta- 
tions. By  the  first  is  meant  the  fact  that  the  presentation 
is  attended  to,  that  the  subject  is  more  or  less  conscious  of 
it :  it  is  "  in  his  mind  "  or  presented.  As  presented  to  a 
subject  a  presentation  might  with  advantage  be  called  an 
object,  or  perhaps  a  psychical  object,  to  distinguish  it  from 
what  are  called  objects  apart  from  presentation,  i.e.,  con- 
ceived as  independent  of  any  particular  subject.  Locke, 
as  we  have  seen,  did  so  call  it ;  still,  to  avoid  possible  con- 
fusion, it  may  turn  out  best  to  dispense  with  the  frequent 
use  of  object  in  this  sense.  But  on  one  account,  at  least, 
it  is  desirable  not  to  lose  sight  altogether  of  this  which 
is  after  all  the  stricter  as  well  as  the  older  signification  of 
object,  namely,  because  it  enables  us  to  express  definitely, 
without  implicating  any  ontological  theory,  what  we  have 
so  far  seen  reason  to  think  is  the  fundamental  fact  in 
psychology.  Instead  of  depending  mainly  on  that  vague 


and  treacherous  word  "consciousness,"  or  committing  our- 
selves to  the  position  that  ideas  are  modifications  of  a 
certain  mental  substance  and  identical  with  the  subject  to 
which  they  are  presented,  we  may  leave  all  this  on  one 
side,  and  say  that  ideas  are  objects,  and  the  relation  of 
objects  to  subjects — that  whereby  the  one  is  object  and 
the  other  subject — is  presentation.  And  it  is  because 
only  objects  sustain  this  relation  that  they  may  be  spoken 
of  simply  as  presentations. 

It  will  be  convenient  here  to  digress  for  a  moment  to  take  account  Sensa- 
of  an  objection  that  is  sure  to  be  urged,  viz. ,  that  sensations  at  all  tions  not 
events  ought  not  to  be  called  objects,  that  they  are  "states  of  the  psycho- 
subject"  and  that  this  is  a  deliverance  of  common  sense,  if  anything  logically 
is.  Now  if  by  this  be  meant  (i. )  that  sensations  are  metaphysically  subject- 
subjective  modifications  in  an  idealistic  sense,  there  is  no  need  at  ive. 
this  stage  either  to  assert  or  deny  that.  But  if  the  meaning  be  (ii.) 
that  sensations  are  presented  as  modes  of  the  subject,  such  a  position 
is  due  to  a  confusion  between  the  subject  proper  or  pure  Ego  and 
that  complex  presentation  or  object,  the  empirical,  or  as  we  might 
call  it  the  biotic,  Ego.  A  self-conscious  subject  may  not  only  have  a 
sensation  but  may  recognize  it  as  its  own, — recognize  a  certain  con- 
nexion, that  is  to  say,  between  the  sensation  and  that  presentation 
of  the  empirical  self  which  self- consciousness  implies.  But  such 
reference  only  renders  more  obvious  the  objective  nature  of  a  sensa- 
tion, in  the  psychological  sense  of  the  term  objective.  Or,  again,  the 
meaning  may  be  (iii. )  that  a  subject  whose  presentations  were  all 
sensations  would  know  nothing  of  the  difference  between  subject 
and  object.  In  this  objection  there  is  a  lurking  confusion  between 
the  standpoint  of  a  given  experience  and  the  standpoint  of  its 
exposition.  The  true  way,  surely,  to  represent  the  bare  fact  of 
sensation  is  not  to  attempt  to  reproduce  an  experience  as  yet  con- 
fined to  sensations,  but  to  describe  such  experience  as  a  scientific 
psychologist  would  do  if  we  could  imagine  him  a  spectator  of  it. 
The  infant  who  is  delighted  by  a  bright  colour  does  not  of  course 
conceive  himself  as  face  to  face  with  an  object ;  but  neither  does  he 
conceive  the  colour  as  a  subjective  affection.  We  are  bound  to 
describe  his  state  of  mind  truthfully,  but  that  is  no  reason  for 
abandoning  terms  which  have  no  counterpart  in  his  consciousness, 
when  these  terms  are  only  used  to  depict  that  consciousness  to  us. 
As  to  the  objection  (iv.)  that,  when  all  is  said  and  done,  sensations 
are  conceived'  by  common  sense  as  modifications  of  self,  whether  so 
presented  or  not,  it  may  be  granted  that  it  appears  so  at  first  blush, 
but  not  when  common  sense  is  more  closely  examined.  The  fact 
is  we  are  here  upon  what  has  been  called  "the  margin  of  psycho- 
logy," where  our  ordinary  thinking  brings  into  one  view  what 
science  has  to  be  at  great  pains  to  keep  distinct.  Though  it  is 
scientifically  a  long  way  round  from  a  fact  of  mind  to  the  corre- 
sponding fact  of  body,  yet  it  is  only  on  careful  reflexion  that  we 
can  distinguish  the  two  in  those  cases  in  which  our  practical 
interests  have  closely  associated  them.  Such  a  case  is  that  of 
sensation.  The  ordinary  conception  of  a  sensation  coincides,  no 
doubt,  with  the  definition  given  by  Hamilton  and  Mansel : — 
"Sensation  proper  is  the  consciousness  of  certain  affections  of  our 
body  as  an  animated  organism  "  ;  and  it  is  because  in  ordinary 
thinking  we  reckon  the  body  as  part  of  self  that  we  come  to  think 
of  sensations  as  subjective  modifications.  But,  when  considerations 
of  method  compel  us  to  eliminate  physiological  implications  from 
the  ordinary  conception  of  a  sensation,  we  are  able  here  to  dis- 
tinguish the  conscious  subject  and  the  "affections"  of  which  it  is 
conscious  as  clearly  as  we  can  distinguish  subject  and  object  in 
other  cases  of  presentation.  On  the  whole,  then,  we  may  conclude 
that  there  is  nothing  either  in  the  facts  or  in  our  necessary  concep- 
tions of  them  to  prevent  us  from  representing  whatever  admits  of 
psychical  reproduction  and  association,  no  matter  how  simple  it  be, 
as  an  object  presented  to  a  subject. 

As  to  the  subjective  relation  of  objects,  the  relation  of  Atten- 
presentation  itself,  we  have  merely  to  note  that  on  the  ti°n' 
side  of  the  subject  it  implies  what,  for  want  of  a  better 
word,  may  be  called  attention,  extending  the  denotation 
of  this  term  so  as  to  include  even  what  we  ordinarily  call 
inattention.  Attention  so  used  will  thus  cover  part  of 
what  is  meant  by  consciousness, — so  much  of  it,  that  is,  as 
answers  to  being  mentally  active,  active  enough  at  least 
to  "receive  impressions."  Attention  on  the  side  of  the 
subject  implies  intensity  on  the  side  of  the  object :  we 
might  indeed  almost  call  intensity  the  matter  of  a  pre- 
sentation, without  which  it  is  a  nonentity.1  As  to  the 
connexion  between  these  two,  subjective  attention  and 

1  Compare  Kant's  Principle  of  the  Anticipations  of  Perception  :— 
"  In  all  phenomena  the  real  which  is  the  object  of  sensation  has  in- 
tensive magnitude." 

XX.  —  6 


42 


PSYCHOLOGY 


objective  intensity — in  that  higher  form  of  attention  called 
voluntary  we  are  aware  (1)  that  concentration  of  atten- 
tion increases  or  its  abstraction  diminishes  the  intensity 
of  a  presentation  in  circumstances  where  physically  and 
physiologically  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  intensity  of 
the  presentation  from  continuing  uniform.  Again,  (2)  in 
circumstances  when  psychologically  we  are  aware  of  no 
previous  change  in  the  distribution  of  attention,  we  find 
the  intensity  of  a  presentation  increased  or  diminished  if 
certain  physical  concomitants  of  the  presentation  (e.g., 
stimulus,  nervous  process,  &c.)  are  increased  or  diminished. 
Thus,  though  this  is  a  point  we  .could  hardly  establish 
without  the  aid  of  psychophysics,  we  may  conclude  that 
the  intensity  of  a  presentation  may  be  altered  from  two 
sides ;  that  it  depends,  in  other  words,  partly  upon  what 
we  may  perhaps  call  its  physical  intensity  and  partly  on 
the  amount  of  attention  it  receives. 

Some  further  exposition  of  the  connexion  between  subjective 
attention  and  objective  intensity  is  perhaps  desirable  here,  where 
we  are  seeking  to  get  a  general  view  of  the  essential  facts  of  mind 
and  their  relations,  rather  than  later  on,  when  we  shall  be  more 
concerned  with  details.  We  are  aware  in  ordinary  life  that  the 
intensity  of  any  given  sensation  depends  upon  certain  physical 
quantities,  varying  directly  in  some  proportion  as  these  vary. 
Hence,  since  our  habitual  standpoint  is  the  physical  not  the  psy- 
chological, we  conceive  sensory  objects  as  having  an  intensity  per  se 
apart  from  the  attention  that  their  presentation  secures.  From  the 
physical  standpoint  indeed  it  is  manifest  that  no  other  conception 
is  compatible  with  a  scientific  treatment  of  phenomena.  Subjective 
sources  of  variation  are  supposed  to  be  eliminated  :  the  general 
mind  to  which,  according  to  the  physicist's  conception  of  a  pheno- 
menon, that  phenomenon  is  implicitly  supposed  to  be  presented  is 
a  mind  in  which  there  is  no  feeling  to  produce  variations  of  atten- 
tion, or  to  favour  aesthetic  combinations  of  objects.  Attention  is 
thus  assumed  to  be  constant,  and  all  variations  in  intensity  to  be 
objectively  determined.  But  psychologically  we  cannot  assume 
this.  In  any  given  presentation  there  is,  it  must  be  admitted,  no 
immediate  evidence  that  the  intensity  of  the  object  is  a  function  of 
two  variables, — (1)  what  we  have  called  its  physical  or  absolute 
intensity  and  (2)  the  intensity  of  attention.  Still  there  are  facts 
which  justify  this  conclusion.  That  the  intensity  of  the  presenta- 
tion varies  with  the  absolute  intensity  of  the  object,  attention 
remaining  constant,  is  a  proposition  not  likely  to  be  challenged. 
"What  has  to  be  shown  is  that  the  intensity  of  presentations  varies 
with  the  attention,  all  else  remaining  constant.  Assuming  that 
voluntary  and  non-voluntary  attention  are  fundamentally  the  same, 
this  amounts  to  showing  (1)  that  concentration  of  attention  upon 
some  objects  diminishes  the  intensity  of  presentation  of  others  in 
the  same  field,  whether  the  concentration  be  voluntary  or  non- 
voluntary,  i.e.,  due  to  a  shock  ;  and  (2)  that,  even  though  only 
within  narrow  limits,  increasing  attention  voluntarily  has  the  same 
effect  on  the  presentation  as  increasing  the  objective  intensity  from 
the  physical  side.  The  narrowness  of  these  limits — practically  an 
all-important  fact — is  theoretically  no  objection.  It  would  not  be 
difficult  psychologically  to  account  for  our  inability  to  concentrate 
attention  indefinitely  :  that  we  can  concentrate  it  at  all  is  enough 
to  show  that  there  is  a  subjective  as  well  as  an  objective  factor  in 
the  intensity  of  a  presentation.  Any  fuller  consideration  of  the 
connexion  between  attention  and  presentations  may  be  deferred. 

The  inter-objective  relations  of  presentations,  on  which 
their  second  characteristic,  that  of  revivability  and  asso- 
ciability  depends,  though  of  the  first  importance  in  them- 
selves, hardly  call  for  examination  in  a  general  analysis 
like  the  present.  But  there  is  one  point  still  more  funda- 
mental that  we  cannot  wholly  pass  by  :  it  is — in  part  at 
any  rate — what  is  commonly  termed  the  unity  or  con- 
tinuity of  consciousness.  From  the  physical  standpoint 
and  in  ordinary  life  we  can  talk  of  objects  that  are  isolated 
and  independent  and  in  all  respects  distinct  individuals. 
The  screech  of  the  owl,  for  example,  has  physically  nothing 
to  do  with  the  brightness  of  the  moon  :  either  may  come 
or  go  without  changing  the  order  of  things  to  which  the 
other  belongs.  But  psychologically,  for  the  individual 
percipient,  they  are  parts  of  one  whole :  special  attention 
to  one  diminishes  the  intensity  of  presentation  of  the 
other  and  the  recurrence  of  the  one  will  afterwards  entail 
the  re-presentation  of  the  other  also.  Not  only  are  they 
still  parts  of  one  whole,  but  such  distinctness  as  they  have 


at  present  is  the  result  of  a  gradual  differentiation.  It  is 
quite  impossible  for  us  now  to  imagine  the  effects  of  years 
of  experience  removed,  or  to  picture  the  character  of  our 
infantile  presentations  before  our  interests  had  led  us 
habitually  to  concentrate  attention  on  some,  and  to  ignore 
others,  whose  intensity  thus  diminished  as  that  of  the 
former  increased.  In  place  of  the  many  things  which  we 
can  now  see  and  hear,  not  merely  would  there  then  be  a 
confused  presentation  of  the  whole  field  of  vision  and  of  a 
mass  of  undistinguished  sounds,  but  even  the  difference 
between  sights  and  sounds  themselves  would  be  without 
its  present  distinctness.  Thus  the  further  we  go  back 
the  nearer  we  approach  to  a  total  presentation  having  the 
character  of  one  general  continuum  in  which  differences 
are  latent.  There  is,  then,  in  psychology,  as  in  biology, 
what  may  be  called  a  principle  of  "  progressive  differen- 
tiation or  specialization  " ;  and  this,  as  well  as  the  facts  of 
reproduction  and  association,  forcibly  suggests  the  con- 
ception of  a  certain  objective  continuum  forming  the 
background  or  basis  to  the  several  relatively  distinct  pre- 
sentations that  are  elaborated  out  of  it — the  equivalent, 
in  fact,  of  that  unity  and  continuity  of  consciousness 
which  has  been  supposed  to  supersede  the  need  for  a 
conscious  subject. 

There  is  one  class  of  objects  of  special  interest  even  in  Motor 
a  general  survey,  viz.,  movements  or  motor  presentations,  presenta- 
These,  like  sensory  presentations,  admit  of  association  and toons, 
reproduction,  and  seem  to  attain  to  such  distinctness  as 
they  possess  in  adult  human  experience  by  a  gradual  differ- 
entiation out  of  an  original  diffused  mobility  which  is  little 
besides  emotional  expression.  Of  this,  however,  more 
presently.  It  is  primarily  to  such  dependence  upon  feel- 
ing that  movements  owe  their  distinctive  character,  the 
possession,  that  is,  under  normal  circumstances,  of  definite 
and  assignable  psychical  antecedents,  in  contrast  to  sensory 
presentations,  which  enter  the  field  of  consciousness  ex 
abrupto.  We  cannot  psychologically  explain  the  order  in 
which  particular  sights  and  sounds  occur ;  but  the  move- 
ments that  follow  them,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  ade- 
quately explained  only  by  psychology.  The  twilight  that 
sends  the  hens  to  roost  sets  the  fox  to  prowl,  and  the  lion's 
roar  which  gathers  the  jackals  scatters  the  sheep.  Such  Subjec 
diversity  in  the  movements,  although  the  sensory  presenta-  iye  se 
tions  are  similar,  is  due,  in  fact,  to  what  we  might  call  the  Ion' 
principle  of  "  subjective  or  hedonic  selection  " — that,  out  of 
all  the  manifold  changes  of  sensory  presentation  which  a 
given  individual  experiences,  only  a  few  are  the  occasion 
of  such  decided  feeling  as  to  become  objects  of  possible 
appetite  (or  aversion).  The  representation  of  what  in- 
terests us  comes  to  be  associated  with  the  representation 
of  such  movements  as  will  secure  its  realization,  so  that — 
although  no  concentration  of  attention  will  secure  the 
requisite  intensity  to  a  pleasurable  object  present  only  in 
idea — we  can  by  what  is  strangely  like  a  concentration 
of  attention  convert  the  idea  of  a  movement  into  the 
fact,  and  by  means  of  the  movement  attain  the  coveted 
reality. 

And  this  has  brought  us  round  naturally  to  what  is  per-  Cor 
haps  the  easiest  way  of  approaching  the  question  :  What  toon- 
is  a  conation  or  actionl  In  ordinary  voluntary  move- 
ment we  have  first  of  all  an  idea  or  re-presentation  of  the 
movement,  and  last  of  all  the  actual  movement  itself, — a 
new  presentation  which  may  for  the  present  be  described 
as  the  filling  out  of  the  re-presentation,1  which  thereby 
attains  that  intensity,  distinctness,  and  embodiment  we 
call  reality.  How  does  this  change  come  about  ?  The 
attempt  has  often  been  made  to  explain  it  by  a  reference 
to  the  more  uniform,  and  apparently  simpler,  case  of  reflex 

1  On  the  connexion  of  presentations  and  re-presentations,  see  p.  59 
below. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


43 


action,  including  under  this  term  \vhat  are  called  sensori- 
motor  and  ideo-motor  actions.  In  all  these  the  movement 
seems  to  be  the  result  of  a  mere  transference  of  intensity 
from  the  associated  sensation  or  idea  that  sets  on  the 
movement.  But,  when  by  some  chance  or  mischance  the 
same  sensory  presentation  excites  two  alternative  and  con- 
flicting motor  ideas,  a  temporary  block,  it  is  said,  occurs ; 
and,  when  at  length  one  of  these  nascent  motor  changes 
finally  prevails  and  becomes  real,  then  we  have  the  state 
of  mind  called  volition.1  But  this  assumption  that  sen- 
sory and  motor  ideas  are  associated  before  volition,  and 
that  the  volition  begins  where  automatic  or  reflex  action 
ends,  is  due  to  that  inveterate  habit  of  confounding  the 
psychical  and  the  physical  which  is  the  bane  of  modern 
psychology.  How  did  these  particular  sensory  and  motor 
presentations  ever  come  to  be  associated  ?  It  is  wholly 
beside  the  mark  to  answer  that  they  are  "  organically  de- 
termined psychical  changes."  In  one  respect  all  psychical 
changes  alike  are  organically  determined,  inasmuch  as  all 
alike — so  far,  at  least,  as  we  at  all  know  or  surmise — -have 
organic  concomitants.  In  another  respect  no  psychical 
changes  are  organically  determined,  inasmuch  as  physical 
events  and  psychical  events  have  no  common  factors. 
Now  the  only  psychological  evidence  we  have  of  any  very 
intimate  connexion  between  sensory  and  motor  representa- 
tions is  that  furnished  by  our  acquired  dexterities,  i.e.,  by 
such  movements  as  Hartley  styled  secondary  automatic. 
But  then  all  these  have  been  preceded  by  volition  :  as 
Mr  Spencer  says,  "  the  child  learning  to  walk  wills  each 
movement  before  walking  it."  Surely,  then,  a  psycho- 
logist should  take  this  as  his  typical  case  and  prefer  to 
assume  that  all  automatic  actions  that  come  within  his 
ken  at  all  are  in  this  sense  secondarily  automatic,  i.e.,  to 
say  that  either  in  the  experience  of  the  individual  or  of  his 
ancestors  volition,  or  something  analogous  to  it,  preceded 
habit. 

But,  if  we  are  thus  compelled  by  a  sound  method  to 
regard  sensori- motor  actions  as  degraded  or  mechanical 
forms  of  voluntary  actions,  instead  of  regarding  voluntary 
actions  as  gradually  differentiated  out  of  something  physi- 
cal, we  have  not  to  ask  :  What  happens  when  one  of  two 
alternative  movements  is  executed  1  but  the  more  general 
question  :  What  happens  when  any  movement  is  made  in 
consequence  of  feeling  ?  It  is  obvious  that  on  this  view 
the  simplest  definitely  purposive  movement  must  have  been 
preceded  by  some  movement  simpler  still.  For  any  dis- 
tinct movement  purposely  made  presupposes  the  ideal  pre- 
sentation, before  the  actual  realization,  of  the  movement. 
But  such  ideal  presentation,  being  a  re-presentation,  equally 
presupposes  a  previous  actual  movement  of  which  it  is  the 
so-called  mental  residuum.  There  is  then,  it  would  seem, 
but  one  way  left,  viz.,  to  regard  those  movements  which 
are  immediately  expressive  of  pleasure  or  pain  as  prim- 
ordial, and  to  regard  the  so-called  voluntary  movements 
as  elaborated  out  of  these.  The  vague  and  diffusive  char- 
acter of  these  primitive  emotional  manifestations  is  really 
a  point  in  favour  of  this  position.  For  such  "  diffusion  " 
is  evidence  of  an  underlying  continuity  of  motor  presenta- 
tions parallel  to  that  already  discussed  in  connexion  with 
sensory  presentations,  a  continuity  which,  in  each  case, 
becomes  differentiated  in  the  course  of  experience  into 
comparatively  distinct  and  discrete  movements  and  sensa- 
tions respectively.2 

1  Compare  Spencer's  Principles  of  Psychology,  i.  496. 

2  It  maybe  well  to  call  to  mind  here  that  Dr  Bain  also  has  regarded 
emotional  expression  as  a  possible  commencement  of  action,  but  only 
to  reject  it  in  favour  of  his  own  peculiar  doctrine  of  "spontaneity," 
which,   however,   is  open  to   the  objection  that  it  makes  movement 
precede  feeling  instead  of  following  it — an  objection  that  would  be 
serious  even  if  the  arguments  advanced  to  support  his  hypothesis  were 
as  cogent  as  only  Dr  Bain  takes  them  to  be.     Against  the  position 


But,  whereas  we  can  only  infer,  and  that  in  a  very 
roundabout  fashion,  that  our  sensations  are  not  absolutely 
distinct  but  are  parts  of  one  massive  sensation,  as  it  were, 
we  are  still  liable  under  the  influence  of  strong  emotion 
directly  to  experience  the  corresponding  continuity  in  the 
case  of  movement.  Such  motor-continuum  we  may  sup- 
pose is  the  psychical  counterpart  of  that  permanent  readi- 
ness to  act,  or  rather  that  continual  nascent  acting,  which 
among  the  older  physiologists  was  spoken  of  as  "tonic 
action";  and  as  this  is  now  known  to  be  intimately  de- 
pendent on  afferent  excitations  so  is  our  motor  conscious- 
ness on  our  sensory.  Still,  since  we  cannot  imagine  the 
beginning  of  life  but  only  life  begun,  the  simplest  picture 
we  can  form  of  a  concrete  state  of  mind  is  not  one  in 
which  there  are  movements  before  there  are  any  sensations 
or  sensations  before  there  are  any  movements,  but  one 
in  which  change  of  sensation  is  followed  by  change  of 
movement,  the  link  between  the  two  being  a  change 
of  feeling. 

Having  thus  simplified  the  question,  we  may  now  ask  Depend- 
again  :  How  is  this  change  of  movement  through  feeling  ence  of 
brought  about  1  The  answer,  as  already  hinted,  appears  \^™ OI 
to  be :  By  a  change  of  attention.  We  learn  from  such 
observations  as  psychologists  describe  under  the  head  of 
fascination,  imitation,  hypnotism,  &c.,  that  the  mere  con- 
centration of  attention  upon  a  movement  is  often  enough 
to  bring  the  movement  to  pass.  But,  of  course,  in  such 
cases  there  is  neither  emotional  experience  nor  volition  in 
question ;  such  facts  are  only  cited  to  show  the  connexion 
between  attention  and  movements.  Everybody  too  has 
often  observed  how  the  execution  of  any  but  mechanical 
movements  arrests  attention  to  thoughts  or  sensations,  and 
vice  versa.  Let  us  suppose,  then,  that  we  have  at  any 
given  moment  a  certain  distribution  of  attention  between 
sensory  and  motor  presentations ;  a  change  in  that  dis- 
tribution means  a  change  in  the  intensity  of  some  or  all  of 
these,  and  change  of  intensity  in  motor  presentations 
means  change  of  movement.  Such  changes  are,  however, 
quite  minimal  in  amount  so  long  as  the  given  presentations 
are  not  conspicuously  agreeable  or  disagreeable.  As  soon 
as  they  are,  we  find  pleasure  to  lead  at  once  to  concentra- 
tion of  attention  on  the  pleasurable  object ;  so  that  pleasure 
is  not  at  all  so  certainly  followed  by  movement  as  we  find 
pain  to  be,  save  of  course  when  movements  are  themselves 
the  pleasurable  objects  and  are  executed,  as  we  say,  for 
their  own  sakes.  In  fact,  pleasure  would  seem  rather  to 
repress  movement,  except  so  far  as  it  is  coincident  either 
with  a  more  economic  distribution,  or  with  a  positive 
augmentation,  of  the  available  attention ;  and  either  of 
these,  on  the  view  supposed,  would  lead  to  increased  but 
indefinite  (i.e.,  playful)  movement.  Pain,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  much  more  closely  connected  with  movement, 
and  movement  too  which  for  obvious  reasons  much  sooner 
acquires  a  purposive  character.  Instead  of  voluntary  con- 
centration of  attention  upon  a  painful  presentation  we  find 
attention  to  such  an  object  always  involuntary ;  in  other 
words,  attention  is,  as  it  were,  excentrated,  dispersed,  or 
withdrawn.  If,  therefore,  the  painful  presentation  is  a 
movement,  it  is  suspended ;  if  it  is  a  sensation,  movements 
are  set  up  which  further  distract  attention,  and  some  of 
which  may  effect  the  removal  of  the  physical  source  of 
the  sensation. 

maintained  above  he  objects  that  "  the  emotional  wave  almost  invari- 
ably affects  a  whole  group  of  movements,"  and  therefore  does  not 
furnish  the  "isolated  promptings  that  are  desiderated  in  the  case  of 
the  will "  (Mental  and  Moral  Science,  p.  323).  But  to  make  this 
objection  is  to  let  heredity  count  for  nothing.  In  fact,  wherever  a 
variety  of  isolated  movements  is  physically  possible,  there  also  we 
always  find  corresponding  instincts,  '  that  untaught  ability  to  perform 
actions,"  to  use  Dr  Bain's  own  language,  which  a  minimum  of  prac- 
tice suffices  to  perfect. 


44 


PSYCHOLOGY 


"We  are  now  at  the  end  of  our  analysis,  and  the  results 
may  perhaps  be  most  conveniently  summarized  by  first 
throwing  them  into  a  tabular  form  and  then  appending  a 
few  remarks  by  way  of  indicating  the  main  purport  of  the 
table.  Taking  no  account  of  the  specific  difference  between 
one  concrete  state  of  mind  and  another,  and  supposing  that 
we  are  dealing  with  presentations  in  their  simplest  form, 
i.e.,  as  sensations  and  movements,  we  have  : — 
(1)  non-voluntarily  at- 
tending to  changes 
in  the  sensory-con- 
tinuum 1 ; 
[Cognition] 


A  SUBJECT- 


=  Presentation 
of  sensory 


(2)    being,   .in     conse- 
quence, either  pleased 
or  pained  ; 
[Feeling] 


OBJECTS. 


and   (3)   by   voluntary  \ 

attention  or  "inner-  I    _  Presentation 
vation"      producing  V          of  motor 
changes  in  the  motor-  I 
continuum.1  J 

[Conation] 

Of  the  three  phases,  thus  logically  distinguishable,  the  first 
and  the  third  correspond  in  the  main  with  the  receptive 
and  active  states  or  powers  of  the  older  psychologists. 
The  second  phase,  being  more  difficult  to  isolate,  was  long 
overlooked ;  or,  at  all  events,  its  essential  characteristics 
were  not  distinctly  marked  :  it  was  either  confounded  with 
(1),  which  is  its  cause,  or  with  (3),  its  effect.  But  per- 
haps the  most  important  of  all  psychological  distinctions 
is  that  which  traverses  both  the  old  bipartite  and  the 
prevailing  tripartite  classification,  viz.,  that  between  the 
subject,  on  the  one  hand,  as  acting  and  feeling,  and  the 
objects  of  this  activity  on  the  other.  Such  distinction 
lurks  indeed  under  such  terms  as  faculty,  power,  conscious- 
ness, but  they  tend  to  keep  it  out  of  sight.  With  this 
distinction  clearly  before  us — instead  of  crediting  the  sub- 
ject with  an  indefinite  number  of  faculties  or  capacities, 
we  must  seek  to  explain  not  only  reproduction,  association, 
agreement,  difference,  <fcc.,  but  all  varieties  of  thinking  and 
acting  by  the  laws  pertaining  to  ideas  or  presentations, 
leaving  to  the  subject  only  the  one  power  of  variously 
distributing  that  attention  upon  which  the  intensity  of  a 
presentation  in  part  depends.  Of  this  single  subjective 
activity  what  we  call  activity  in  the  narrower  sense  (as, 
e.g.,  purposive  movement  and  intellection)  is  but  a  special 
case,  although  a  very  important  one. 

According  to  this  view,  then,  presentations,  attention, 
feeling,  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  three  co-ordinate  genera, 
each  a  distinguishable  "  state  of  mind  or  consciousness," 
i.e.,  as  being  all  alike  included  under  this  one  supreme 
category.  There  is,  as  Berkeley  long  ago  urged,  no  resem- 
blance between  activity  and  an  idea ;  nor  is  it  easy  to  see 
anything  common  to  pure  feeling  and  an  idea,  unless  it  be 
that  both  possess  intensity.  Classification  seems,  in  fact, 
to  be  here  out  of  place.  Instead,  therefore,  of  the  one 
summum  genus,  state  of  mind  or  consciousness,  with  its 
three  co-ordinate  subdivisions — cognition,  emotion,  cona- 
tion— our  analysis  seems  to  lead  us  to  recognize  three  dis- 
tinct and  irreducible  facts — attention,  feeling,  and  objects 
or  presentations — as  together,  in  a  certain  connexion,  con- 
stituting one  concrete  state  of  mind  or  psychosis.  Of  such 
concrete  states  of  mind  we  may  then  say  there  are  two 
forms,  more  or  less  distinct,  corresponding  to  the  two  ways 
in  which  attention  may  be  determined  and  the  two  classes 
of  objects  attended  to  in  each,  viz.,  (1)  the  sensory  or 
receptive  state,  when  attention  is  non-voluntarily  deter- 
mined, i.e.,  where  feeling  follows  the  act  of  attention  ;  anc 


1  To  cover  more  complex  cases,  we  might  here  add  the  words  "  or 
trains  of  ideas. " 


2)  the  motor  or  active  state,  where  feeling  precedes  the  act 
of  attention,  which  is  thus  determined  voluntarily. 

To  say  that  feeling  and  attention  are  not  presentations  will  seem 
;o  many  an  extravagant  paradox.  If  all  knowledge  consists  of 
presentations,  it  will  be  said,  how  come  we  to  know  anything  of 
Feeling  and  attention  if  they  are  not  presented  ?  We  know  of  them 
.ndirectly  through  their  effects,  not  directly  in  themselves.  This 
is,  perhaps,  but  a  more  concrete  statement  of  what  philosophers 
bave  very  widely  acknowledged  in  a  more  abstract  form  since  the 
days  of  Kant 2 — the  impossibility  of  the  subjective  qua  subjective 
being  presented.  It  is  in  the  main  clearly  put  in  the  following 
passage  from  Hamilton,  who,  however,  has  not  had  the  strength 
of  his  convictions  in  all  cases: — "The  peculiarity  of  feeling, 
therefore,  is  that  there  is  nothing  but  what  is  subjectively  sub- 
jective ;  there  is  no  object  different  from  self, — no  objectification 
of  any  mode  of  self.  We  are,  indeed,  able  to  constitute  our  states 
of  pain  and  pleasure  into  objects  of  reflexion,  but,  in  so  far  as  they 
are  objects  of  reflexion,  they  are  not  feelings  but  only  reflex  cogni- 
tions of  feelings."3  But  this  last  sentence  is  not,  perhaps,  alto- 
gether satisfactory.  The  meaning  seems  to  be  that  feeling  "  can 
only  be  studied  through  its  reminiscence,"  which  is  what  Hamilton 
has  said  elsewhere  of  the  "  phenomena  of  consciousness  "  generally. 
But  this  is  a  position  hard  to  reconcile  with  the  other,  viz.,  that 
feeling  and  cognition  are  generically  distinct.  How  can  that  which 
was  not  originally  a  cognition  become  such  by  being  reproduced  ? 
The  statements  that  feeling  is  "subjectively  subjective,"  that  in  it 
"there  is  no  object  different  from  self,"  are  surely  tantamount  to 
saying  that  it  is  not  presented  ;  and  what  is  not  presented  cannot, 
of  course,  be  re-presented.  Instead,  therefore,  of  the  position  that 
feeling  and  attention  are  known  by  being  made  objects  of  reflexion, 
it  would  seem  we  can  only  maintain  that  we  know  of  them  by  their 
effects,  by  the  changes,  i.e.,  which  they  produce  in  the  character 
and  succession  of  our  presentations.4  We  ought  also  to  bear  in 
mind  that  the  effects  of  attention  and  feeling  cannot  be  known 
without  attention  and  feeling:  to  whatever  stage  we  advance,  there- 
fore, we  have  always  in  any  given  "state  of  mind"  attention  and 
feeling  on  the  one  side,  and  on  the  other  a  presentation  of  objects. 
Attention  and  feeling  seem  thus  to  be  ever  present,  and  not  to 
admit  of  the  continuous  differentiation  into  parts  which  gives  to 
presentations  a  certain  individuality,  and  makes  their  association 
and  reproduction  possible. 

Theory  of  Presentations. 

Having  now  ascertained  what  seem  to  be  the  essential 
elements  in  any  state  of  mind,  we  may  next  proceed  to 
examine  these  several  elements  separately  in  more  detail. 
It  will  be  best  to  begin  with  that  which  is  both  the 
clearest  in  itself  and  helps  us  the  most  to  understand  the 
rest,  viz.,  the  objects  of  attention  or  consciousness,  i.e., 
presentations.  And  this  exposition  will  be  simplified  if 
we  start  with  a  supposition  that  will  enable  us  to  leave 
aside,  at  least  for  the  present,  the  difficult  question  of 
heredity. 

We  know  that  in  the  course  of  each  individual's  life  As 
there   is   more   or  less   of   progressive   differentiation  ortlonj 
development ;  we  know  too  that  the  same  holds  broadly  £ 
of  a  race ;  and  it  is  believed  to  hold  in  like  manner  of  the  ir 
evolution  of  the  animal  kingdom  generally.    It  is  believed  v: 
that  there  has  existed  a  series  of   sentient    individuals 
beginning  with  the  lowest  form  of  life  and  advancing  con- 
tinuously up  to  man.    Some  traces  of  the  advance  already 
made  may  be  reproduced  in  the  growth  of  each  human 
being  now,  but  for  the  most  part  such  traces  have  been 
obliterated.     What  was  experience  in  the  past  has  become 
instinct  in  the  present.     The  descendant  has  no  conscious- 
ness of  his  ancestors'  failures  when  performing  by  "an 


2  Compare  "  Gefiihle  der  Lust  und  Unlust  und  der  Wille  ...  die 
gar  uicht  Erkenntnisse  sind"  (Kritik  der  reinen  Vernunft,  Harten- 
stein's  ed.,  p.  76). 

3  Lectures  on  Metaphysics,  ii.  p.  432. 

4  But,  while  we  cannot  say  that  we  know  what  attention  and  feeling 
are,  inasmuch  as  they  are  not  presented,  neither  can  we  with  any 
propriety  maintain  that  we  are  ignorant  of  them,  inasmuch  as  they 
are  by  their  very  nature  unpresentable.     As  Ferrier  contends,  "we 
can  be  ignorant  only  of  what  can  possibly  be  known ;  in  other  words, 
there  can  be  ignorance  only  of  that  of  which  there  can  be  knowledge  " 
(Institutes  of  Metaphysics,  §  II.,  Agnoiology,   prop.    iii.  sq.}.     The 
antithesis  between  the  objective  and  the  subjective  factors  in  presenta- 
tion is  wider  than  that  between  knowledge  and  ignorance,  which  is  an 
antithesis  pertaining  to  the  objective  side  alone. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


45 


untaught  ability "  what  they  slowly  and  painfully  found 
out.  But  if  we  are  to  attempt  to  follow  the  genesis  of 
mind  from  its  earliest  dawn  it  is  the  primary  experience 
rather  than  the  eventual  instinct  that  we  have  first  of  all 
to  keep  in  view.  To  this  end,  then,  it  is  proposed  to 
assume  that  we  are  dealing  with  one  individual  which  has 
continuously  advanced  from  the  beginning  of  psychical 
life,  and  not  with  a  series  of  individuals  of  which  all  save 
the  first  have  inherited  certain  capacities  from  its  pro- 
genitors. The  life -history  of  such  an  imaginary  indi- 
vidual, that  is  to  say,  would  correspond  with  all  that  was 
new,  all  that  could  be  called  evolution  or  development, 
in  a  certain  typical  series  of  individuals  each  of  whom 
advanced  a  certain  stage  in  mental  differentiation.  On 
the  other  hand,  from  this  history  would  be  omitted  that 
inherited  reproduction  of  ancestral  experience,  or  tendency 
to  its  reproduction,  by  which  alone,  under  the  actual  con- 
ditions of  existence,  progress  is  possible. 

If  an  assumption  of  this  kind  had  been  explicitly 
avowed  by  the  psychologists  who  have  discussed  the 
growth  of  experience  in  accordance  with  the  evolution 
hypothesis,  not  a  few  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  that 
hypothesis  might  have  been  removed.  That  individual 
minds  make  some  advance  in  the  complexity  and  distinct- 
ness of  their  presentations  between  birth  and  maturity 
is  an  obvious  fact ;  heredity,  though  a  less  obvious  fact, 
is  also  beyond  question.  Using  Locke's  analogy  of  a 
writing-tablet — or  let  us  say  an  etching-tablet — by  way 
of  illustration,  we  may  be  sure  that  every  individual 
started  with  some  features  of  the  picture  completely  pre- 
formed, however  latent,  others  more  or  less  clearly  out- 
lined, and  others  again  barely  indicated,  while  of  others 
there  is  as  yet  absolutely  no  trace.  But  the  process  of 
reproducing  the  old  might  differ  as  widely  from  that  of 
producing  the  new  as  electro  typing  does  from  engraving. 
However,  as  psychologists  we  know  nothing  directly  about 
it ;  neither  can  we  distinguish  precisely  at  any  link  in  the 
chain  of  life  what  is  old  and  inherited — original  in  the 
sense  of  Locke  and  Leibnitz — from  what  is  new  or  acquired 
— original  in  the  modern  sense.  But  we  are  bound  as  a 
matter  of  method  to  suppose  all  complexity  and  differentia- 
tion among  presentations  to  have  been  originated,  i.e., 
experimentally  acquired,  at  some  time  or  other.  So  long, 
then,  as  we  are  concerned  primarily  with  the  progress  of 
this  differentiation  we  may  disregard  the  fact  that  it  has 
not  actually  been,  as  it  were,  the  product  of  one  hand 
dealing  with  one  tabula  rasa  but  of  many  hands,  each  of 
which,  starting  with  a  reproduction  of  what  had  been 
wrought  on  the  preceding  tabulae,  put  in  more  or  fewer 
new  touches  before  devising  the  whole  to  a  successor  who 
would  proceed  in  like  manner. 

re-      What  is  implied  in  this  process  of  differentiation  or 
mental  growth  and  what  is  it  that  grows  or  becomes 

n"  differentiated  1 — these  are  the  questions  to  which  we  must 
now  attend.  Psychologists  have  usually  represented  mental 
advance  as  consisting  fundamentally  in  the  combination  and 
recombination  of  various  elementary  units,  the  so-called 
sensations  and  primitive  movements,  or,  in  other  words,  in 
a  species  of  "  mental  chemistry."  If  we  are  to  resort  to 
physical  analogies  at  all — a  matter  of  very  doubtful  pro- 
priety— we  shall  find  in  the  growth  of  a  seed  or  an  embryo 
far  better  illustrations  of  the  unfolding  of  the  contents  of 
consciousness  than  in  the  building  up  of  molecules  :  the 
process  seems  much  more  a  segmentation  of  what  is  origin- 
ally continuous  than  an  aggregation  of  elements  at  first 
independent  and  distinct.  Comparing  higher  minds  or 
stages  of  mental  development  with  lower — by  what  means 
such  comparison  is  possible  we  need  not  now  consider — 
we  find  in  the  higher  conspicuous  differences  between  pre- 
sentations which  in  the  lower  are  indistinguishable  or  ab- 


sent altogether.  The  worm  is  aware  only  of  the  difference 
between  light  and  dark.  The  steel -worker  sees  half  a 
dozen  tints  where  others  see  only  a  uniform  glow.  To 
the  child,  it  is  said,  all  faces  are  alike ;  and  throughout 
life  we  are  apt  to  note  the  general,  the  points  of  resem- 
blance, before  the  special,  the  poin*.;  of  difference.1  But, 
even  when  most  definite,  what  we  call  a  presentation  is 
still  part  of  a  larger  whole.  It  is  not  separated  from  other 
presentations,  whether  simultaneous  or  successive,  by  some- 
thing which  is  not  of  the  nature  of  presentation,  as  one 
island  is  separated  from  another  by  the  intervening  sea,  or 
one  note  in  a  melody  from  the  next  by  an  interval  of 
silence.  In  our  search  for  a  theory  of  presentations,  then, 
it  is  from  this  "  unity  of  consciousness  "  that  we  must  take 
our  start.  Working  backwards  from  this  as  we  find  it 
now,  we  are  led  alike  by  particular  facts  and  general  con- 
siderations to  the  conception  of  a  totum  objectivum  or 
objective  continuum  which  is  gradually  differentiated, 
thereby  becoming  what  we  call  distinct  presentations,  just 
as  with  mental  growth  some  particular  presentation,  clear 
as  a  whole,  as  Leibnitz  would  say,  becomes  a  complex 
of  distinguishable  parts.  Of  the  very  beginning  of  this 
continuum  we  can  say  nothing :  absolute  beginnings  are 
beyond  the  pale  of  science.  Actual  presentation  consists 
in  this  continuum  being  differentiated ;  and  every  dif- 
ferentiation constitutes  a  new  presentation.  Hence  the 
commonplace  of  psychologists  : — We  are  only  conscious  as 
we  are  conscious  of  change. 

But  "change  of  consciousness"  is  too  loose  an  expression  Gradual 
to  take  the  place  of  the  unwieldy  phrase  differentiation  diflferen- 
of  a  presentation-continuum,  to  which  we  have  been  driven,  ^genta- 
For  not  only  does  the  term  "  consciousness  "  confuse  what  tkm-con- 
exactness  requires  us  to  keep  distinct,  an  activity  and  its  tinuum. 
object,  but  also  the  term  "change"  fails  to  express  the 
characteristics  which  distinguish  presentations  from  other 
changes.  Differentiation  implies  that  the  simple  becomes 
complex  or  the  complex  more  complex;  it  implies  also 
that  this  increased  complexity  is  due  to  the  persistence  of 
former  changes ;  we  may  even  say  such  persistence  is  essen- 
tial to  the  very  idea  of  development  or  growth.  In  trying, 
then,  to  conceive  our  psychological  individual  in  the  earliest 
stages  of  development  we  must  not  picture  it  as  experienc- 
ing a  succession  of  absolutely  new  sensations,  which,  com- 
ing out  of  nothingness,  admit  of  being  strung  upon  the 
"thread  of  consciousness"  like  beads  picked  up  at  random, 
or  cemented  into  a  mass  like  the  bits  of  stick  and  sand 
with  which  the  young  caddis  covers  its  nakedness.  The 
notion,  which  Kant  has  done  much  to  encourage,  that 
psychical  life  begins  with  a  confused  manifold  of  sensa- 
tions not  only  without  logical  but  without  psychological 
unity  is  one  that  becomes  more  inconceivable  the  more 
closely  we  consider  it.  An  absolutely  new  presentation, 
having  no  sort  of  connexion  with  former  presentations  till 
the  subject  has  synthesized  it  with  them,  is  a  conception 
for  which  it  would  be  hard  to  find  a  warrant  either  by 
direct  observation,  by  inference  from  biology,  or  in  con- 
siderations of  an  a  priori  kind.  At  any  given  moment 
we  have  a  certain  whole  of  presentations,  a  "  field  of  con- 
sciousness "  psychologically  one  and  continuous ;  at  the 
next  we  have  not  an  entirely  new  field  but  a  partial 
change  within  this  field.  Many  who  would  allow  this  in 
the  case  of  representations,  i.e.,  where  idea  succeeds  idea 
by  the  workings  of  association,  would  demur  to  it  in  the 
case  of  primary  presentations  or  sensations.  "  For,"  they 
would  say,  "may  not  silence  be  broken  by  a  clap  of 
thunder,  and  have  not  the  blind  been  made  to  see  T'  To 

1  This  last  statement  is  apt  to  mislead  by  implying  an  active  com- 
parison of  several  objects  ;  but  that  absence  or  confusion  of  differences 
which  hides  the  many  is  really  very  different  from  the  detection  of 
resemblances  which  makes  the  many  one. 


46 


PSYCHOLOGY 


urge  such  objections  is  to  miss  the  drift  of  our  discussion, 
and  to  answer  them  may  serve  to  make  it  clearer.  Where 
silence  can  be  broken  there  are  representations  of  preced- 
ing .sounds  and  in  all  probability  even  subjective  pre- 
sentations of  sound  as  well ;  silence  as  experienced  by  one 
who  has  heard  is  very  different  from  the  silence  of  Con- 
dillac's  statue  before  it  had  ever  heard.  The  question  is 
rather  whether  such  a  conception  as  that  of  Condillac's  is 
possible ;  supposing  a  sound  to  be,  qualitatively,  entirely 
distinct  from  a  smell,  could  a  field  of  consciousness  consist- 
ing of  smells  be  followed  at  once  by  one  in  which  sounds 
had  part  1  And,  as  regards  the  blind  coming  to  see,  we 
must  remember  not  only  that  the  "blind  have  eyes  but  that 
they  are  descended  from  ancestors  who  could  see.  What 
nascent  presentations  of  sight  are  thus  involved  it  would 
be  hard  to  say ;  and  the  problem  of  heredity  is  one  that 
we  have  for  the  present  left  aside. 

The  view  here  taken  is  (1)  that  at  its  first  appearance 
in  psychical  life  a  new  sensation  or  so-called  elementary 
presentation  is  really  a  partial  modification  of  some  pre- 
existing presentation,  which  thereby  becomes  as  a  whole 
more  complex  than  it  was  before ;  and  (2)  that  this  com- 
plexity and  differentiation  of  parts  never  become  a  plural- 
ity of  discontinuous  presentations,  having  a  distinctness 
and  individuality  such  as  the  atoms  or  elementary  particles 
of  the  physical  world  are  supposed  to  have.  Beginners  in 
psychology,  and  some  who  are  not  beginners,  are  apt  to 
be  led  astray  by  expositions  which  begin  with  the  sensa- 
tions of  the  special  senses,  as  if  these  furnished  us  with  the 
type  of  an  elementary  presentation.  The  fact  is  we  never 
experience  a  mere  sensation  of  colour,  sound,  touch,  and 
the  like ;  and  what  the  young  student  mistakes  for  such 
is  really  a  perception,  a  sensory  presentation  combined 
with  various  sensory  and  motor  presentations  and  with 
representations — and  having  thus  a  definiteness  and  com- 
pleteness only  possible  to  complex  presentations.  More- 
over, if  we  could  attend  to  a  pure  sensation  of  sound  or 
colour  by  itself,  there  is  much  to  justify  the  suspicion 
that  even  this  is  complex  and  not  simple,  and  owes  to 
such  complexity  its  clearly  marked  specific  quality.  In 
certain  of  our  vaguest  and  most  diffused  organic  sensa- 
tions, in  which  we  can  distinguish  little  besides  variations 
in  intensity  and  massiveness,  there  is  probably  a  much 
nearer  approach  to  the  character  of  the  really  primitive 
presentations. 

Diffusion  The  importance  of  getting  a  firm  grasp  of  this  concep- 
and  re-  tjon  of  a  presentation-continuum  as  fundamental  to  the 
lon*  whole  doctrine  of  presentations  will  justify  us  in  ignoring 
a  little  longer  the  details  of  actual  mental  development 
and  regarding  it  first  from  this  more  general  point  of 
view.  In  a  given  sensation,  more  particularly  in  our 
organic  sensations,  we  can  distinguish  three  variations, 
viz.,  variations  of  quality,  of  intensity,  and  of  what  Dr 
Bain  has  called  massiveness,  or,  as  we  will  say,  extensity. 
This  last  characteristic,  which  everybody  knows  who  knows 
the  difference  between  the  ache  of  a  big  bruise  and  the 
ache  of  a  little  one,  between  total  and  partial  immersion 
in  a  bath,  is,  as  we  shall  see  later  on,  an  essential  element 
in  our  perception  of  space.  But  it  is  certainly  not  the 
whole  of  it,  for  in  this  experience  of  massive  sensation 
alone  it  is  impossible  to  find  other  elements  which  an 
analysis  of  spatial  intuition  unmistakably  yields.  Exten- 
sity and  extension,  then,  are  not  to  be  confounded.  Now 
we  find,  even  at  our  level  of  mental  evolution,  that  an 
increase  in  the  intensity  of  a  sensation  is  apt  to  entail  an 
increase  in  its  extensity  too ;  this  is  still  more  apparent  in 
the  case  of  movements,  and  especially  in  the  movements 
of  the  young.  In  like  manner  we  observe  a  greater  extent 
of  movement  in  emotional  expression  when  the  intensity 
of  the  emotion  increases.  Even  the  higher  region  of  ima- 


gination is  no  exception,  as  is  shown  by  the  whirl  and 
confusion  of  ideas  incident  to  delirium,  and,  indeed,  to  all 
strong  excitement.  But  this  "  diffusion  "  or  "  radiation," 
as  it  has  been  called,  diminishes  as  we  pass  from  the  class 
of  organic  sensations  to  the  sensations  of  the  five  senses, 
from  movements  expressive  of  feeling  to  movements  de- 
finitely purposive,  and  from  the  tumult  of  ideas  excited  by 
passion  to  the  steadier  sequences  determined  by  efforts  to 
think.  Increased  differentiation  seems,  then,  to  be  inti- 
mately connected  with  increased  "  restriction."  The  causal 
relations  of  the  two  must  be  largely  matter  of  conjecture 
and  cannot  be  fully  discussed  here.  Probably  there  may 
be  found  certain  initial  differentiations  which  for  psycho- 
logy are  ultimate  facts  that  it  cannot  explain.  But,  such 
differentiations  being  given,  then  it  may  be  safely  said 
that,  in  accordance  with  what  we  have  called  the  principle 
of  subjective  selection  (see  p.  42),  attention  would  be 
voluntarily  concentrated  upon  some  of  them  and  voluntary 
movements  specially  connected  with  these.  To  such 
subjectively  initiated  modifications  of  the  presentation- 
continuum,  moreover,  we  may  reasonably  suppose  "  re- 
striction" to  be  in  large  measure  due.  But  increased 
restriction  would  render  further  differentiation  of  the 
given  presentation  possible  and  so  the  two  processes 
might  supplement  each  other.  But,  be  their  interaction 
what  it  may,  these  processes  have  now  proceeded  so  far 
that  at  the  level  of  human  consciousness  we  find  it  hard 
to  form  any  tolerably  clear  conception  of  a  field  of  con- 
sciousness in  which  an  intense  sensation,  no  matter  what, 
might  diffuse  over  the  whole.  Colours,  e.g.,  are  with  us 
so  distinct  from  sounds  that — except  as  regards  the  drain 
upon  attention — there  is  nothing  in  the  intensest  colour 
to  affect  the  simultaneous  presentation  of  a  sound.  But 
at  the  beginning  whatever  we  regard  as  the  earliest  differ- 
entiation of  sound  might  have  been  incopresentable  with 
the  earliest  differentiation  of  colour,  if  sufficiently  diffused, 
just  as  now  a  field  of  sight  all  blue  is  incopresentable  with 
one  all  red.  Or,  if  the  stimuli  appropriate  to  both  were 
active  together,  the  resulting  sensation  might  have  been 
what  we  should  describe  as  a  blending  of  the  two,  as 
purple  is  a  blending  of  red  and  violet.  Now,  on  the  other 
hand,  colours  and  sounds  are  necessarily  so  far  localized 
that  we  are  directly  aware  that  the  eye  is  concerned  with 
the  one  and  the  ear  with  the  other.  This  brings  to  our  Inco- 
notice  a  fact  so  ridiculously  obvious  that  it  has  never  been  P™ 
deemed  worthy  of  mention,  and  yet  it  has  undeniably  im- 
portant  bearings — the  fact,  viz.,  that  certain  sensations  or 
movements  are  an  absolute  bar  to  the  simultaneous  pre- 
sentation of  other  sensations  or  movements.  We  cannot 
see  an  orange  as  at  once  yellow  and  green,  though  we  can 
feel  it  at  once  as  both  smooth  and  cold ;  we  cannot  open 
and  close  the  same  hand  at  the  same  moment,  but  we  can 
open  one  hand  while  closing  the  other.  Such  incopresent- 
ability  or  contrariety  is  thus  more  than  mere  difference, 
and  occurs  only  between  presentations  belonging  to  the 
same  sense  or  to  the  same  group  of  movements.  Strictly 
speaking,  it  does  not  always  occur  even  then ;  for  red  and 
yellow,  hot  and  cold,  are  presentable  together  provided 
they  have  certain  other  differences  which  we  shall  meet 
again  presently  as  differences  of  local  sign. 

In  the  preceding  paragraphs  we  have  had  occasion  to  Reten 
distinguish  between  the  presentation-continuum  or  whole  tiveM 
field  of  consciousness,  as  we  may  for  the  present  call  it, 
and  those  several  modifications  within  this  field  which  are 
ordinarily  spoken  of  as  presentations,  and  to  which — now 
that  their  true  character  as  parts  is  clear — we  too  may 
confine  the  term.  But  it  will  be  well  in  the  next  place, 
before  inquiring  more  closely  into  their  characteristics,  to 
consider  for  a  moment  that  persistence  of  preceding  modi- 
fications which  the  differentiation  of  the  presentation- 


PSYCHOLOGY 


47 


continuum  implies.  This  persistence  is  best  spoken  of  as 
retentiveness ;  it  is  sometimes  confounded  with  memory, 
though  this  is  something  much  more  complex  and  special. 
Retentiveness  is  both  a  biological  and  a  psychological 
fact;  memory  is  exclusively  the  latter.  In  memory  there 
is  necessarily  some  contrast  of  past  and  present,  in  re- 
tentiveness nothing  but  the  persistence  of  the  old.  If 
psychologists  have  erred  in  regarding  the  presentations  in 
consciousness  together  as  a  plurality  of  units,  they  have 
erred  in  like  manner  concerning  the  persisting  residua  of 
such  presentations.  As  we  see  a  certain  colour  or  a  cer- 
tain object  again  and  again,  we  do  not  go  on  accumulating 
images  or  representations  of  it,  which  are  somewhere 
crowded  together  like  shades  on  the  banks  of  the  Styx  ; 
nor  is  such  colour,  or  whatever  it  be,  the  same  at  the 
hundredth  time  of  presentation  as  at  the  first,  as  the 
hundredth  impression  of  a  seal  on  wax  would  be.  There 
is  no  such  constancy  or  uniformity  in  mind.  Obvious  as 
this  must  appear  when  we  pause  to  think  of  it,  yet  the 
explanations  of  perception  most  in  vogue  seem  wholly  to 
ignore  it.  Such  explanations  are  far  too  mechanical  and, 
so  to  say,  atomistic;  but  we  must  fall  back  upon  the 
unity  and  continuity  of  our  presentation-continuum  if  we 
are  to  get  a  better.  Suppose  that  in  the  course  of  a  few 
minutes  we  take  half  a  dozen  glances  at  a  strange  and 
curious  flower.  We  have  not  as  many  complex  presenta- 
tions which  we  might  symbolize  as  Flt  F2,  F3.  But  rather, 
at  first  only  the  general  outline  is  noted,  next  the  disposi- 
tion of  petals,  stamens,  &c.,  then  the  attachment  of  the 
anthers,  form  of  the  ovary,  and  so  on ;  that  is  to  say, 
symbolizing  the  whole  flower  as  [p1  (a  b)  s'  (c  d)  o'  (f  g}\ 
we  first  apprehend  say  [p  . .  / . .  o'],  then  [p  (a  b)  s' .  .  o'.j, 
or  [/>'  (a  .  .)  s  (c  .  .)  o'  (/ .  .)],  and  so  forth.  It  is  because 
the  earlier  apprehensions  persist  that  the  later  are  an 
advance  upon  them  and  an  addition  to  them.  There  is 
nothing  in  this  process  properly  answering  to  the  repro- 
duction and  association  of  ideas  :  in  the  last  and  complete 
apprehension  as  much  as  in  the  first  vague  and  inchoate 
one  the  flower  is  there  as  a  primary  presentation.  There 
is  a  limit,  of  course,  to  such  a  procedure,  but  the  instance 
taken,  we  may  safely  say,  is  not  such  as  to  exceed  the 
bounds  of  a  simultaneous  field  of  consciousness.  Now  the 
question  is  :  Ought  we  not  to  assume  that  such  increase 
of  differentiation  through  the  persistence  of  preceding 
differentiations  holds  of  the  contents  of  consciousness  as  a 
whole?  Here,  again,  we  shall  find  limitations, — limitations 
too  of  great  practical  importance ;  for,  if  presentations  did 
not  pale  as  well  as  persist,  and  if  the  simpler  presentations 
admitted  of  indefinite  differentiation,  mental  advance — 
unless  the  field  of  consciousness,  i.e.,  the  number  of  pre- 
sentations to  which  we  could  attend  together,  increased 
without  limit — would  be  impossible.  But,  allowing  all 
this,  it  is  still  probably  the  more  correct  and  fundamental 
view  to  suppose  that,  in  those  circumstances  in  which  we 
now  have  a  sensation  of,  say,  red  or  sweet,  there  was  in  the 
primitive  consciousness  nothing  but  a  vague  modification, 
which  persisted ;  and  that  on  a  repetition  of  the  circum- 
stances this  persisting  modification  was  again  further 
modified.  The  whole  field  of  consciousness  would  thus, 
like  a  continually  growing  picture,  increase  indefinitely  in 
complexity  of  pattern,  the  earlier  presentations  not  disap- 
pearing, like  the  waves  of  yesterday  in  the  calm  of  to-day, 
but  rather  lasting  on,  like  old  scars  that  show  beneath  new 
ones. 

There  is  yet  one  more  topic  of  a  general  kind  calling 
for  attention  before  we  turn  to  the  consideration  of  parti- 
cular presentations — the  hypothesis  of  unconscious  mental 
modifications,  as  it  has  been  unfortunately  termed, — the 
hypothesis  of  subconsciousness,  as  we  may  style  it  to 
avoid  this  contradiction  in  terms.  It  is  a  fact  easily 


verified,  that  we  do  not  distinguish  or  attend  separately  to 
presentations  of  less  than  a  certain  assignable  intensity. 
On  attaining  this  intensity  presentations  are  said  to  pass 
over  the  threshold  of  consciousness,  to  use  Herbart's  now 
classic  phrase.  What  are  we  to  say  of  them  before  they 
have  attained  it  1  After  they  have  attained  it,  any  further 
increase  in  their  intensity  is  certainly  gradual ;  are  we 
then  to  suppose  that  before  this  their  intensity  changed 
instantly  from  zero  to  a  finite  quantity,  and  not  rather 
that  there  was  also  a  subliminal  stage  where  too  it  only 
changed  continuously  ?  The  latter  alternative  constitutes 
the  hypothesis  of  subconsciousness.  According  to  this 
hypothesis,  a  presentation  does  not  cease  to  be  so  long  as 
it  has  any  intensity,  no  matter  how  little.  We  can  directly 
observe  that  an  increase  in  the  intensity  of  many  complex 
presentations  brings  to  light  details  and  differences  before 
imperceptible ;  since  these  details  are  themselves  presenta- 
tions, they  have  been  brought  by  this  increase  from  the 
subconscious  stage  into  the  field  of  consciousness.  Simi- 
larly, presentations  not  separately  distinguishable,  because 
of  too  close  a  proximity  in  time,  become  distinguishable 
when  the  interval  between  them  is  such  as  to  allow  of  a 
separate  concentration  of  attention  upon  each.  Again,  we 
find  that  presentations  "revived"  or  re-presented  after 
their  disappearance  from  the  field  of  consciousness  appear 
fainter  and  less  distinct  the  longer  the  time  that  has  elapsed 
between  their  exits  and  their  re-entrances.  Nobody  hesi- 
tates to  regard  such  obliviscence  as  a  psychological  fact ; 
why,  then,  should  we  hesitate  to  suppose  that  presenta- 
tions, even  when  no  longer  intense  enough  directly  to 
influence  attention,  continue  to  be  presented,  though  with 
ever  lessening  intensity  1 

On  the  whole  we  seem  justified  in  assuming  three  grades 
of  consciousness  thus  widely  understood — (1)  a  centre  or 
focus  of  consciousness  within  (2)  a  wider  field,  any  part 
of  which  may  at  once  become  the  focus.  Just  as  in  sight, 
surrounding  the  limited  area  of  distinct  vision  on  which 
the  visual  axes  are  directed,  there  is  a  wider  region  of 
indirect  vision  to  any  part  of  which  those  axes  may  be 
turned  either  voluntarily  or  by  a  reflex  set  up  by  the  part 
itself,  as  happens,  e.g.,  with  moving  objects  quite  on  the 
margin  of  vision.  But  in  describing  (3)  subconscious- 
ness  as  the  third  grade,  this  simile,  due  to  Wundt,  more  or 
less  forsakes  us.  Presentations  in  subconsciousness  have 
not  the  power  to  divert  attention,  nor  can  we  voluntarily 
concentrate  attention  upon  them.  Before  either  can 
happen  the  subconscious  presentations  must  cross  the 
threshold  of  consciousness,  and  so  cease  to  be  subconscious  ; 
and  this,  of  course,  is  far  from  being  always  possible. 
Now  in  the  case  of  sight  an  object  may  fail  to  catch  the 
eye,  either  because,  though  within  the  field  of  sight,  it  is 
too  far  away  to  make  a  distinct  impression  or  because  it  is 
outside  the  field  altogether.  But  we  cannot  conveniently 
interpret  "  threshold  of  consciousness "  in  keeping  with 
the  latter  alternative ;  mere  accretion  from  without  is  a 
conception  as  alien  to  psychology  as  it  is  to  biology.  We 
must  make  the  best  we  can  of  a  totum  objectivum  differen- 
tiated within  itself,  and  so  are  confined  to  the  first 
alternative.  Our  threshold  must  be  compared  to  the  sur- 
face of  a  lake  and  subconsciousness  to  the  depths  beneath 
it,  and  all  the  current  terminology  of  presentations  rising 
and  sinking  implies  this  or  some  similar  figure. 

This  hypothesis  of  subconsciousness  has  been  strangely  mis- 
understood, and  it  would  be  hard  to  say  at  whose  hands  it  has 
suffered  most,  those  of  its  exponents  or  those  of  its  opponents.  In 
the  main  it  is  nothing  more  than  the  application  to  the  facts  of 
presentation  of  the  law  of  continuity,  its  introduction  into  psycho- 
logy being  due  to  Leibnitz,  who  first  formulated  that  law.  Half 
the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  its  acceptance  are  due  to  the  manifold 
ambiguities  of  the  word  consciousness.  With  Leibnitz  consciousness 
was  not  coextensive  with  all  psychical  life,  but  only  with  certain 


48 


PSYCHOLOGY 


higher  phases J  of  it.  Of  late,  however,  the  tendency  has  been  to 
make  consciousness  cover  all  stages  of  mental  development  and  all 
grades  of  presentation,  so  that  a  presentation  of  which  there  is  no 
consciousness  resolves  itself  into  the  manifest  contradiction  of  an 
unpresented  presentation — a  contradiction  not  involved  in  Leibnitz's 
"  unapperceived  perception."  Moreover,  the  active  form  of  the 
word  "conscious"  almost  unavoidably  suggests  that  an  "uncon- 
scious mental  modification  "  must  be  one  in  which  that  subjective 
activity,  variously  called  consciousness,  attention,  or  thinking,  has 
no  part.  But  such  is  not  the  meaning  intended  when  it  is  said, 
for  example,  that  a  soldier  in  battle  is  often  unconscious  of  his 
wounds  or  a  scholar  unconscious  at  any  one  time  of  most  of  the 
knowledge  "hidden  in  the  obscure  recesses  of  his  mind."  There 
would  be  no  point  in  saying  a  subject  is  not  conscious  of  objects 
that  are  not  presented  at  all ;  but  to^say  that  what  is  presented 
lacks  the  intensity  requisite  in  the  given  distribution  of  attention 
to  change  that  distribution  appreciably  is  pertinent  enough.  Sub- 
conscious presentations  may  tell  on  conscious  life — as  sunshine  or 
mist  tells  on  a  landscape  or  the  underlying  writing  on  a  palimpsest 
— although  lacking  either  the  differences  of  intensity  or  the  indivi- 
dual distinctness  requisite  to  make  them  definite  features.  Even 
if  there  were  no  facts  to  warrant  this  conception  of  a  subliminal 
presentation  of  impressions  and  ideas  it  might  still  claim  an  a  priori 
justification.  For  to  assume  that  there  can  be  no  presentations 
save  such  as  pertain  to  the  complete  and  perfect  consciousness  of 
a  human  being  is  as  arbitrary  and  as  improbable  as  it  would  be 
to  suppose — in  the  absence  of  evidence  to  the  contrary — that  there 
was  no  vision  or  audition  save  such  as  is  mediated  by  human  eyes 
and  ears.  Psychological  magnification  is  not  more  absurd  than 
physical,  although  the  processes  in  the  two  cases  must  be  materially 
different ;  but  of  course  in  no  case  is  magnification  possible  with- 
out limit.  The  point  is  that,  while  we  cannot  fix  the  limit  at 
which  the  subconscious  becomes  the  absolutely  unconscious,  it  is 
only  reasonable  to  expect  beforehand  that  this  limit  is  not  just  where 
our  powers  of  discrimination  cease. 

Over  and  above  hindrances  to  its  acceptance  which  may  be  set 
down  to  the  paradoxical  and  inaccurate  use  of  the  word  uncon- 
sciousness, there  are  two  material  difficulties  which  prevent  this 
hypothesis  from  finding  favour.  First,  the  prevailingly  objective 
implications  of  language  are  apt  to  make  us  assume  that,  as  a  tree 
remains  the  same  tiling  whether  it  is  in  the  foreground  of  a  land- 
scape or  is  lost  in  the  grey  distance,  so  a  presentation  must  be  a 
something  which  is  in  itself  the  same  whether  above  the  threshold 
of  consciousness  or  below,  if  it  exist,  that  is,  in  this  lower  degree 
at  all.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  we  are  not  now  dealing 
with  physical  things  but  with  presentations,  and  that  to  these 
the  Berkeleyan  dictum  applies  that  their  esse  is  percipi,  provided, 
of  course,  we  give  to  percipi  the  wide  meaning  now  assigned  to 
consciousness.  The  qualitative  differences  of  all  presentations  and 
the  distinctness  of  structure  of  such  as  are  complex  both  diminish 
with  a  diminution  of  intensity.  In  this  sense  much  is  latent  or 
"involved"  in  presentations  lying  below  the  threshold  of  con- 
sciousness that  becomes  patent  or  "evolved"  as  they  rise  above 
it.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hypothesis  of  subconsciousness 
does  not  commit  us  to  the  assumption  that  all  presentations  are  by 
their  very  nature  imperishable  :  while  many  modifications  of  con- 
sciousness sink  only  into  obliviscence,  many,  we  may  well  suppose, 
lapse  into  complete  oblivion  and  from  that  there  is  no  recall. 
Secondly,  to  any  one  addicted  to  the  atomistic  view  of  presenta- 
tions just  now  referred  to  it  may  well  seem  incredible  that  all  the 
incidents  of  a  long  lifetime  and  all  the  items  of  knowledge  of  a 
well-stored  mind  that  may  possibly  recur — "  the  infinitely  greater 
part  of  our  spiritual  treasures,"  as  Hamilton  says — can  be  in  any 
sense  present  continuously.  The  brunt  of  such  an  objection  is 
effectually  met  by  the  fact  that  the  same  presentation  may  figure 
in  very  various  connexions,  as  may  the  same  letter,  for  example, 
in  many  words,  the  same  word  in  many  sentences.  We  cannot 
measure  the  literature  of  a  language  by  its  vocabulary,  nor  may 
we  equate  the  extent  of  our  spiritual  treasures  as  successively 
unfolded  with  the  psychical  apparatus,  so  to  say,  into  which  they 
resolve.2 

The  attempt  has  more  than  once  been  made  to  avoid  the  diffi- 
culties besetting  subconsciousness  by  falling  back  on  the  concep- 
tions of  faculties,  capacities,  or  dispositions.  Stored-up  knowledge, 
says  J.  S.  Mill,  "  is  not  a  mental  state  but  a  capability  of  being  put 
into  a  mental  state"  ;  similarly  of  the  cases  which  Hamilton  records, 
"  in  which  the  extinct  memory  [?]  of  whole  languages  was  suddenly 
restored,"  he  says,  "  it  is  not  the  mental  impressions  that  are  latent 


1  The  following  brief  passage  from  his  Principe*  de  la  Nature  et  de  la  Grace 
(§  4)  shows  his  meaning  : — "  II  est  bon  de  faire  distinction  entre  la  Perception, 
qui  est  1'etat  interieur  de  la  Monade  representant  les  choses  externes,  et  V  Ap- 
perception, qui  est  la  Conscience,  ou  la  connoissancc  reflexive  de  cet  etat  interieur, 
laquelle  n'est  point  dpnne'e  4  toutes  les  ames,  ni  toujours  a  la  mfme  &me.    Et 

Jipte 

2  Much  light  may  be  thrown  on  this  matter  and  on  many  others  by  such 
inquiries  as  those  undertaken  by  Mr  Francis  Gallon,  and  described  in  his 
Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty,  pp.  1S2-203. 


but  the  power  of  reproducing  them."  But  surely  the  capability  of 
being  put  into  a  mental  state  is  itself  a  mental  state  and  something 
actual,  and  is,  moreover,  a  different  something  when  the  state  to 
be  reproduced  is  different.  If  not,  how  is  such  capability  ever 
exerted  ?  Even  where  the  capability  cannot  be  consciously  exerted, 
must  there  not  still  be  something  actual  to  justify  the  phrase  latent 
power  ?  The  "  exaltation  "  of  delirium  may  account  for  the  intensi- 
fication but  not  for  the  contents  of  the  "extinct  memories"  which 
its  unwonted  glow  reveals.  It  seems  extraordinary  that  Mill  of 
all  men,  and  in  psychology  of  all  subjects,  should  have  supposed 
such  merely  formal  conveniences  as  these  conceptions  of  faculties 
and  powers  could  ever  dispense  us  from  further  inquiry.  It  might 
be  urged  in  Mill's  defence  that  he  Juis  investigated  further  and 
concludes  that  the  only  distinct  meaning  he  can  attach  to  uncon- 
scious mental  modification  is  that  of  unconscious  modification  of 
the  nerves — a  modification  of  the  nerves,  that  is  to  say,  without 
any  psychical  accompaniment.  But,  while  we  can  frequently  under- 
stand a  psychical  fact  better  if  we  can  understand  its  physical 
counterpart,  a  physiological  explanation  can  never  take  the  place 
of  a  psychological  explanation.  If  all  we  have  to  deal  with  are 
nervous  modifications  which  have  no  psychical  concomitants,  then 
so  far  there  is  nothing  psychological  to  explain  ;  but,  if  there  really 
is  anything  calling  for  psychological  explanation— and  this  Mill 
does  not  deny — then  physical  accompaniments  must  admit  of 
psychical  interpretation  if  they  are  to  be  of  any  avail.  And  in 
fact,  although  Mill  professes  to  recognize  only  unconscious  modi- 
fications of  nerves,  he  finds  a  psychological  meaning  for  these  by 
means  of  his  "mental  chemistry," — a  doctrine  which  has  done  its 
work  and  which  we  need  not  here  discuss. 

The  exposition  of  subconsciousness  given  by  Wundt  is  in  the 
main  an  advance  on  that  of  Mill  and  calls  for  brief  notice.  Pre- 
sentations, says  Wundt,3  are  not  substances  but  functions,  whose 
physiological  counterparts  in  like  manner  are  functional  activities, 
viz. ,  of  certain  arrangements  of  nerve-cells.  Consciousness  of  the 
presentation  and  the  nervous  activity  cease  together,  but  the 
latter  leaves  behind  it  a  molecular  modification  of  the  nervous 
structure  which  becomes  more  and  more  permanent  with  exercise, 
and  is  such  as  to  facilitate  the  recurrence  of  the  same  functional 
activity.  A  more  precise  account  of  these  after-effects  of  exercise 
is  for  the  present  unattainable  ;  nevertheless  Wundt  regards  it  as 
obvious  that  they  are  no  more  to  be  compared  to  the  activity  to 
which  they  predispose  than  the  molecular  arrangement  of  chlorine 
and  nitrogen  in  nitric  chloride  is  to  be  compared  to  the  explosive 
decomposition  that  ensues  if  the  chloride  is  slightly  disturbed. 
Mutatis  mutandis,  on  the  psychological  side  the  only  actual  pre- 
sentations are  those  which  we  are  conscious  of  as  such  ;  but  pre- 
sentations that  vanish  out  of  consciousness  leave  behind  psychical 
dispositions  tending  to  renew  them.  The  essential  difference  is 
that,  whereas  we  may  some  day  know  the  nature  of  the  physical 
disposition,  that  of  the  psychical  disposition  must  of  necessity  be 
for  ever  unknown,  for  the  threshold  of  consciousness  is  also  the 
limit  of  internal  experience.  The  theory  thus  briefly  summarized 
seems  in  some  respects  arbitrary,  in  some  respects  ambiguous.  It 
is  questionable,  for  instance,  whether  the  extremely  meagre  in- 
formation that  physiologists  at  present  possess  at  all  compels  us 
to  assume  that  the  "  physical  disposition  "  of  Wuudt  cannot  con- 
sist in  a  continuous  but  much  fainter  discharge  of  function.  At 
all  events  it  is  quite  beside  the  mark  to  urge,  as  he  does,  that  the 
effect  of  training  a  group  of  muscles  is  not  shown  in  the  persist- 
ence of  slight  movements  during  intervals  of  apparent  rest.4  The 
absence  of  molar  motions  is  no  evidence  of  the  absence  of  molecular 
motions.  And  it  is  certain  that  psychologically  we  can  be  conscious 
of  the  idea  of  a  movement  without  the  movement  actually  ensuing, 
yet  only  iu  such  wise  that  the  idea  is  more  apt  to  pass  over  into 
action  the  intenser  it  is,  and  often  actually  passes  over  in  spite  of 
us.  Surely  there  must  be  some  functional  activity  answering  to 
this  conscious  presentation,  and  if  this  amount  of  activity  is  possible 
without  movement  why  may  not  a  much  less  amount  be  conceived 
possible  too  ?  Again,  what  meaning  can  possibly  be  attached  to  a 
psychical  disposition  which  is  the  counterpart,  not  of  physical 
changes,  but  of  an  arrangement  of  molecules  ?  Compared  with  such 
an  inconceivable  unknown,  the  perfectly  conceivable  hypothesis  of 
infinitesimal  presentations  so  faint  as  to  elude  discrimination  is 
every  way  preferable.  In  fact,  if  conceivability  is  to  count  for  any- 
thing, we  have,  according  to  Wundt,  no  choice,  for  "we  can  never 
think  of  a  presentation  that  has  disappeared  from  consciousness 
except  as  retaining  the  properties  it  had  when  in  consciousness." 
None  the  less  he  holds  it  to  be  an  error  "  to  apply  to  presentations 
themselves  a  style  of  conception  that  has  resulted  from  our  being  of 
necessity  confined  to  consciousness."  Verily,  this  is  phenomenalism 
with  a  vengeance,  as  if  presentations  themselves  were  not  also 
confined  to  consciousness  ! 


3  Physiologisfhe  Psychologic,  p.  203  sq. 

<  J.  8.  Mill  adopts  substantially  the  same  line  of  argument :  "  I  have  the 
power  to  walk  across  the  room,  though  I  am  sitting  in  my  chair ;  but  we 
should  hardly  call  this  power  a  latent  act  of  walking  "  (Examination  of  Sir  W. 
Hamilton's  Philosophy,  3d  ed.,  p.  329). 


PSYCHOLOGY 


49 


This  will  be  the  most  convenient  place  to  take  note  of 
certain  psychological  doctrines  which,  though  differing  in 
some  material  respects,  are  usually  included  under  the  term 
Law  of  Relativity. 

1.  Hobbes's  Idem  semper  sentire  et  non  sentire  ad  idem 
recidunt  is  often  cited  as  one  of  the  first  formulations  of  this 
law ;  and  if  we  take  it  to  apply  to  the  whole  field  of  con- 
sciousness it  becomes  at  once  true  and  trite :  a  field  of 
consciousness  unaltered  either  by  change  of  impression  or 
of  ideas  would  certainly  be  a  blank  and  a  contradiction. 
Understood  in  this  sense  the  Law  of  Relativity  amounts  to 
what  Hamilton  called  the  Law  of  Variety  (Reid's  Works, 
p.  932).     But,  though  consciousness  involves  change,  it  is 
still  possible  that  particular  presentations  in  the  field  of 
consciousness  may  continue  unchanged  indefinitely.    When 
it  is  said  that  "a  constant  impression  is  the  same  as  a 
blank,"  what    is  meant  turns  out  to  be  something   not 
psychological  at  all,  as,  e.g.,  our  insensibility  to  the  motion 
of  the  earth  or  to  the  pressure  of  the  air — cases  in  which 
there  is  obviously  no  presentation,  nor  even  any  evidence 
of  nervous  change.     Or  else  this  paradox  proves  to  be 
but  an  awkward  way  of  expressing  what  we  may  call 
accommodation,  whether   physiological  or   psychological. 
Thus  the  skin  soon  adapts  itself  to  certain  seasonal  altera- 
tions of  temperature,  so  that  heat  or  cold  ceases  to  be 
felt :  the  sensation  ceases  because  the  nervous  change,  its 
proximate  physical  counterpart,  has  ceased.     Again,  there 
is  what  James  Mill  calls  "an  acquired  incapacity  of  atten- 
tion," such  that  a  constant  noise,  for  example,  in  which 
we  have  no  interest  is  soon  inaudible.    As  attention  moves 
away  from  a  presentation  its  intensity  diminishes,  and 
when  the  presentation  is  below  the  threshold  of  conscious- 
ness its  intensity  is  then  subliminal,  whatever  that  of  the 
physical  stimulus  may  be.    In  such  a  case  of  psychological 
accommodation  we  should  expect  also  to  find  on  the  phy- 
siological side  some  form  of  central  reflexion  or  isolation 
more  or  less  complete.     As  a  rule,  no  doubt,  impressions 
do  not  continue  constant  for  more  than  a  very  short  time ; 
still  there  are  sad   instances  enough  in   the  history  of 
disease,  bodily  and  mental,  to  show  that  such  a  thing  can 
quite  well  happen,   and  that  such  constant  impressions 
(and   "  fixed  ideas,"  which  are  in  effect   tantamount  to 
them),  instead  of   becoming  blanks,  may  dominate   the 
entire  consciousness,  colouring  or  bewildering  everything. 

2.  From  the  fact  that  the  field  of  consciousness  is  con- 
tinually changing  it  has  been  supposed  to  follow,  not  only 
that  a  constant  presentation  is  impossible,  but  as  a  further 
consequence  that  every  presentation  is  essentially  nothing 
but  a  transition  or  difference.      "  All  feeling,"  says  Dr  Bain, 
the  leading  exponent  of  this  view,  "  is  two-sided.  .  .  .  We 
may  attend  more  to  one  member  of  the  couple  than  to  the 
other. ....  We  are  more  conscious  of  heat  when  passing 
to  a  higher  temperature,  and  of  cold  when  passing  to  a 
lower.     The  state  we  have  passed  to  is  our  explicit  con- 
sciousness, the  state  we  have  passed  from  is  our  implicit 
consciousness."     But  the  transition  need  not  be  from  heat 
to  cold,  or  vice  versa  :  it  can  equally  well  take  place  from 
a  neutral  state,  which  is  indeed  the  normal  state,  of  neither 
heat  nor  cold ;  a  new-born  mammal,  e.g.,  must  experience 
cold,  having  never  experienced  heat.     Again,  suppose  a 
sailor  becalmed,  gazing  for  a  whole  morning  upon  a  stretch 
of  sea  and  sky,  what  sensations  are  implicit  here  1     Shall 
we  say  yellow  as  the  greatest  contrast  to  blue,  or  darkness 
as  the  contrary  of  light,  or  both?     What,  again,  is  the 
implicit  consciousness  when  the  explicit  is  sweet ;   is  it 
bitter  or  sour,  and  from  what  is  the  transition  in  such  a 
case? 

It  is  difficult  to  avoid  suspecting  a  certain  confusion  here 
between  the  transition  of  attention  from  one  presentation 
to  another  and  the  qualitative  differences  among  presenta- 


tions themselves.  It  is  strange  that  the  psychologist  who  has 
laid  such  stress  on  neutral  states  of  surprise  as  being  akin 
to  feeling,  and  so  distinct  from  special  presentations,  should 
in  any  way  confound  the  two.  The  mistake,  if  mistake 
indeed  it  be,  is  perhaps  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Dr 
Bain,  in  common  with  the  rest  of  his  school,  nowhere  dis- 
tinguishes between  attention  and  the  presentations  that  are 
attended  to.  To  be  conscious  or  mentally  alive  we  must 
have  a  succession  of  shocks  or  surprises,  new  objects  calling 
off  attention  from  old  ones ;  but,  over  and  above  these 
movements  of  attention  from  presentation  to  presentation, 
do  we  find  that  each  presentation  is  also  itself  but  a  transi- 
tion or  difference?  "We  do  not  know  any  one  thing  of 
itself  but  only  the  difference  between  it  and  another  thing," 
says  Dr  Bain.  But  it  is  plain  we  cannot  speak  of  con- 
trast or  difference  between  two  states  or  things  as  a  contrast 
or  difference  if  the  states  or  things  are  not  themselves 
presented,  else  the  so-called  contrast  or  difference  would 
itself  be  a  single  presentation,  and  its  supposed  "relativity" 
but  an  inference.  Difference  is  not  more  necessary  to  the 
presentation  of  two  objects  than  two  objects  to  the  presenta- 
tion of  difference.  And,  what  is  more,  a  difference  between 
presentations  is  not  at  all  the  same  thing  as  the  presenta- 
tion of  that  difference.  The  former  must  precede  the 
latter ;  the  latter,  which  requires  active  comparison,  need 
not  follow.  There  is  an  ambiguity  in  the  words  "know," 
"  knowledge,"  which  Dr  Bain  seems  not  to  have  considered  : 
"  to  know  "  may  mean  either  to  perceive  or  apprehend,  or  it 
may  mean  to  understand  or  comprehend.1  Knowledge  in 
the  first  sense  is  only  what  we  shall  have  presently  to  dis- 
cuss as  the  recognition  or  assimilation  of  an  impression  (see 
below,  p.  53) ;  knowledge  in  the  latter  sense  is  the  result 
of  intellectual  comparison  and  is  embodied  in  a  proposition. 
Thus  a  blind  man  who  cannot  know  light  in  the  first  sense 
can  know  about  light  in  the  second  if  he  studies  a  treatise 
on  optics.  Now  in  simple  perception  or  recognition  we 
cannot  with  any  exactness  say  that  two  things  are  per- 
ceived :  straight  is  a  thing,  i.e.,  a  definite  object  presented ; 
not  so  not-straight,  which  may  be  qualitatively  obscure  or 
intensively  feeble  to  any  degree.  Only  when  we  rise  to 
intellectual  knowledge  is  it  true  to  say,  "No  one  could 
understand  the  meaning  of  a  straight  line  without  being 
shown  a  line  not  straight,  a  bent  or  crooked  line."2  Two 
distinct  presentations  are  necessary  to  the  comparison  that 
is  here  implied ;  but  we  cannot  begin  with  such  definitional 
differentiation  :  we  must  first  recognize  our  objects  before 
we  can  compare  them.  We  need,  then,  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  comparativity  of  intellectual  knowledge,  which 
we  must  admit — for  it  rests  at  bottom  on  a  purely  ana- 
lytical proposition — and  the  "differential  theory  of  pre- 
sentations," which,  however  plausible  at  first  sight,  must 
be  wrong  somewhere  since  it  commits  us  to  absurdities. 
Thus,  if  we  cannot  have  a  presentation  X  but  only  the 
presentation  of  the  difference  between  Y  and  Z,  it  would 
seem  that  in  like  manner  we  cannot  have  the  presentation 
of  T  or  Z,  nor  therefore  of  their  difference  X,  till  we  have 
had  the  presentation  of  A  and  B  say,  which  differ  by  Y, 
and  of  G  and  D,  which  we  may  suppose  differ  by  Z.  The 
lurking  error  in  this  doctrine,  that  all  presentations  are 
but  differences,  may  perhaps  emerge  if  we  examine  more 
closely  what  may  be  meant  by  difference.  We  may  speak 
of  (a)  differences  in  intensity  between  sensations  supposed 


1  Other  languages  give  more  prominence  to  this  distinction ;  compare 
yvuvai  and  eldtvai,  noscere  and  scire,  kennen  and  wissen,  connaitre 
and  savoir.     On  this  subject  there  are  some  acute  remarks  in  a  little- 
known   book,  the   Exploratlo   Philosophica,  of  Professor  J.   Grote. 
Hobbes  too  was  well  awake  to  this  difference,  as,  e.g.,  when  he  says, 
"There  are  two  kinds  of  knowledge;  the  one,  sense  or  knowledge 
original  and  remembrance  of  the  same  ;  the  other,  science  or  know- 
ledge of  the  truth  of  propositions,  derived  from  understanding. " 

2  Bain,  Logic,  vol.  i.  p.  3. 

XX.  —  7 


50 


PSYCHOLOGY 


to  be  qualitatively  identical,  or  of  (6)  differences  in  quality 
in  the  same  continuum  or  class  of  presentations,  or  of  (c) 
differences  between  sensations  of  different  classes  or  con- 
tinua.  Now,  as  regards  (a)  and  (6),  it  will  be  found  that 
the  difference  between  two  intensities  of  the  same  quality, 
or  between  two  qualities  of  the  same  continuum,  may  be 
itself  a  distinct  presentation.  But  nothing  of  this  kind 
holds  of  (c).1  In  passing  from  a  load  of  10  ft  to  one  of 
20  Ib,  or  from  the  sound  of  a  note  to  that  of  its  octave, 
it  is  possible  to  make  the  change  continuously,  and  to  esti- 
mate it  as  one  might  the  distance  between  two  places  on 
the  same  road.  But  in  passing  from  the  scent  of  a  rose 
to  the  sound  of  a  gong  or  a  sting  from  a  bee  we  have  no 
such  means  of  bringing  the  two  into  relation — scarcely 
more  than  we  might  have  of  measuring  the  length  of  a 
journey  made  partly  on  the  common  earth  and  partly 
through  the  looking-glass.  In  (c),  then,  we  have  only  a 
change,  a  difference  of  presentation,  but  not  a  presentation 
of  difference ;  and  we  only  have  more  than  this  in  (a)  or 
(6)  provided  the  selected  presentations  occur  together. 
If  red  follows  green  we  may  be  aware  of  a  greater  differ- 
ence than  we  could  if  red  followed  orange ;  and  we  should 
ordinarily  call  a  10-Bb  load  heavy  after  one  of  5  R>  and 
light  after  one  of  20  Bb.  Facts  like  these  it  is  which  make 
the  differential  theory  of  presentations  plausible. 

3.  On  the  strength  of  such  facts  Wundt  has  formulated 
a  law  of  relativity,  free,  apparently,  from  the  objections 
just  urged  against  Dr  Bain's  doctrine,  which  runs  thus  : 
— "  Our  sensations  afford  no  absolute  but  only  a  relative 
measure  of  external  impressions.  The  intensities  of  stimuli, 
the  pitch  of  tones,  the  qualities  of  light,  we  apprehend 
(empfinden)  in  general  only  according  to  their  mutual  rela- 
tion, not  according  to  any  unalterably  fixed  unit  given 
along  with  or  before  the  impression  itself."  2  We  are  not 
now  concerned  with  so  much  of  this  statement  as  relates 
to  the  physical  antecedents  of  sensation ;  but  that  what  is 
of  psychological  account  in  it  requires  very  substantial 
qualification  is  evident  at  once  from  a  single  consideration, 
viz.,  that  if  true  this  law  would  make  it  quite  immaterial 
what  the  impressions  themselves  were :  provided  the  rela- 
tion continued  the  same,  the  sensation  would  be  the  same 
too,  just  as  the  ratio  of  2  to  1  is  the  same  whether  our 
unit  be  miles  or  millimetres.  In  the  case  of  intensities, 
e.g.,  there  is  a  minimum  sensibile  and  a  maximum  sensibile. 
The  existence  of  such  extremes  is  alone  sufficient  to  turn 
the  flank  of  the  thoroughgoing  relativists ;  but  there  are 
instances  enough  of  intermediate  intensities  that  are 
directly  recognized.  A  letter -sorter,  for  example,  who 
identifies  an  ounce  or  two  ounces  with  remarkable  exact- 
ness identifies  each  for  itself  and  not  the  first  as  half  the 
second ;  of  an  ounce  and  a  half  or  of  three  ounces  he  may 
have  a  comparatively  vague  idea.  And  so  generally  within 
certain  limits  of  error,  indirectly  ascertained,  we  can 
identify  intensities,  each  for  itself,  neither  referring  to  a 
common  standard  nor  to  one  that  varies  from  time  to  time 
— to  any  intensity,  that  is  to  say,  that  chances  to  be  simul- 
taneously presented;  just  as  an  enlisting  sergeant  will 
recognize  a  man  fit  for  the  Guards  without  a  yard  measure 
and  whether  the  man's  comrades  are  tall  or  short.  Of 
course  such  identification  is  only  possible  through  the  re- 
production of  past  impressions,  but  then  such  reproduction 
itself  is  only  possible  because  the  several  impressions  con- 
cerned have  all  along  had  a  certain  independence  of  related 
impressions,  and  a  certain  identity  among  themselves.  As 

1  Common  language  seems  to  recognize  some  connexion  even  here, 
or  we  should  not  speak  of  harsh  tastes  and  harsh  sounds,  or  of  dull 
sounds  and  dull  colours,  and  so  forth.  All  this  is,  however,  super- 
added  to  the  sensation,  probably  on  the  ground  of  similarities  in  the 
accompanying  organic  sensations. 

3  Physiologische  Psychologic,  1st  ed.,  p.  421 ;  the  doctrine  re- 
appears in  the  2d  ed.,  but  no  equally  general  statement  of  it  is  given. 


regards  the  qualities  of  sensations  the  outlook  of  the  rela- 
tivists is,  if  anything,  worse.  In  what  is  called  Meyer's 
experiment,  e.g.  (described  under  EYE,  vol.  viii.  p.  825), 
what  appears  greenish  on  a  red  ground  will  appear  of  an 
orange  tint  on  a  ground  of  blue ;  but  this  contrast  is  only 
possible  within  certain  very  narrow  limits.  In  fact,  the 
phenomena  of  colour -contrast,  so  far  from  proving,  dis- 
tinctly disprove  that  we  apprehend  the  qualities  of  light 
only  according  to  their  mutual  relation.  In  the  case  of 
tones  it  is  very  questionable  whether  such  contrasts  exist 
at  all.  Summing  up  on  the  particular  doctrine  of  relativity 
of  which  Wundt  is  the  most  distinguished  adherent,  the 
truth  seems  to  be  that,  in  some  cases  where  two  presenta- 
tions whose  difference  is  itself  presentable  occur  in  close 
connexion,  this  difference — as  we  indirectly  learn — exerts 
a  certain  bias  on  the  assimilation  or  identification  of  one 
or  both  of  the  presentations.  There  is  no  "  unalterably 
fixed  unit "  certainly,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  "  the  mutual 
relations  of  impressions"  are  not  everything.3 

Sensation  and  Movement. 

One  of  the  first  questions  to  arise  concerning  our  simplest  Qu; 
presentations  or  sensations 4  is  to  account  for  their  differ-  t^ti 
ences  of  quality.  In  some  respects  it  may  well  seem  an 
idle  question,  for  at  some  stage  or  other  we  must  acknow- 
ledge final  or  irresolvable  differences.  Still,  differences  can 
be  frequently  shown  to  be  due  to  variety  in  the  number, 
arrangement,  and  intensity  of  parts  severally  the  same, — 
these  several  parts  being  either  simultaneously  presented 
or  succeeding  each  other  with  varying  intervals.  It  is  a 
sound  scientific  instinct  which  has  led  writers  like  G.  H. 
Lewes  and  Mr  Spencer  to  look  out  for  evidence  of  some 
simple  primordial  presentation — the  psychical  counterpart, 
they  supposed,  of  a  single  nerve-shock  or  neural  tremor — 
out  of  which  by  various  grouping  existing  sensations  have 
arisen.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  but  little  of 
such  evidence  is  at  present  forthcoming ;  and  further,  if 
we  look  at  the  question  for  a  moment  from  the  physiological 
standpoint  which  these  writers  are  too  apt  to  affect,  what 
we  find  seems  on  the  whole  to  make  against  this  assump- 
tion. Protoplasm  in  its  simplest  state  is  readily  irritated 
either  by  light,  heat,  electricity,  or  mechanical  shock.  Till 
the  physiological  characteristics  of  these  various  stimuli 
are  better  known,  it  is  fruitless  to  speculate  as  to  the 
nature  of  primitive  sensation.  But  we  have  certainly  no 
warrant  for  supposing  that  any  existing  class  of  sensations 
is  entitled  to  rank  as  original.  Touch,  as  we  experience 
it  now,  is  probably  quite  as  complex  as  any  of  our  special 
sensations.  If  a  supposition  must  be  ventured  at  all,  it  is 
perhaps  most  in  keeping  with  what  we  know  to  suppose 
that  the  sensations  answering  to  the  five  senses  in  their 
earliest  form  were  only  slightly  differing  variations  of  the 
more  or  less  massive  organic  sensation  which  constituted 
the  primitive  presentation-continuum.  We  may  suppose, 
in  other  words,  that  at  the  outset  these  sensations  corre- 
sponded more  completely  with  what  we  might  call  the 
general  physiological  action  of  light,  heat,  &c.,  as  distinct 
from  the  action  of  these  stimulants  on  specially  differen- 
tiated end-organs.  But,  short  of  resolving  such  sensations 
into  combinations  of  one  primordial  modification  of  con- 
sciousness, if  we  could  conceive  such,  there  are  many 
interesting  facts  which  point  clearly  to  a  complexity  that 
we  can  seldom  directly  detect.  Many  of  our  supposed 
sensations  of  taste,  e.g.,  are  complicated  with  sensations  of 


3  Those  who,  like  Helmholtz,  explain  the  phenomena  of  contrast 
and  the  like  as  illusions  of  judgment,  must  class  them  as  cases  of 
comparativity ;  those  who,  like  Hering,  explain  them  physiologically, 
would  see  in  them  nothing  but  physiological  adaptation. 

4  For  a  detailed  account  of  the  various  sensations  and  perceptions 
pertaining  to  the  several  senses  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles 
EYE,  EAR,  TOUCH,  TASTE,  SMELL,  &c. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


51 


touch  and  smell :  thus  the  pungency  of  pepper  and  the 
dryness  of  wine  are  tactual  sensations,  and  their  spicy 
flavours  are  really  smells.  How  largely  smells  mingle 
with  what  we  ordinarily  take  to  be  simply  tastes  is  best 
brought  home  to  us  by  a  severe  cold  in  the  head,  as  this 
temporarily  prevents  the  access  of  exhalations  to  the  olfac- 
tory surfaces.  The  difference  between  the  smooth  feel 
of  a  polished  surface  and  the  roughness  of  one  that  is 
unpolished,  though  to  direct  introspection  an  irresolvable 
difference  of  quality,  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
several  nerve-terminations  are  excited  in  each  case  :  where 
the  sensation  is  one  of  smoothness  all  are  stimulated 
equally ;  where  it  is  one  of  roughness  the  ridges  compress 
the  nerve-ends  more,  and  the  hollows  compress  them  less, 
than  the  level  parts  do.  The  most  striking  instance  in 
point,  however,  is  furnished  by  musical  timbre  (see  EAR, 
vol.  vii.  p.  593). 

We  find  other  evidence  of  the  complexity  of  our  existing 
sensations  in  the  variations  in  quality  that  accompany 
variations  in  intensity,  extensity,  and  duration.  With  the 
exception  of  spectral  red  all  colours  give  place,  sooner  or 
later,  to  a  mere  colourless  grey  as  the  intensity  of  the 
light  diminishes,  and  all  in  like  manner  become  indis- 
tinguishably  white  after  a  certain  increase  of  intensity. 
A  longer  time  is  also  in  most  cases  necessary  to  produce  a 
sensation  of  colour  than  to  produce  a  sensation  merely 
of  light  or  brightness :  the  solar  spectrum  seen  for  a 
moment  appears  not  of  seven  colours  but  of  two  only — 
faintly  red  towards  the  left  side  and  blue  towards  the  right. 
Very  small  objects,  again,  such  as  coloured  specks  on  a 
white  ground,  though  still  distinctly  seen,  appear  as  colour- 
less if  of  less  than  a  certain  size,  the  relation  between  their 
intensity  and  extensity  being  such  that  within  certain 
limits  the  brighter  they  are  the  smaller  they  may  be  with- 
out losing  colour,  and  the  larger  they  are  the  fainter  in 
like  manner.  Similar  facts  are  observable  in  the  case  of 
other  senses,  so  that  generally  we  seem  justified  in  regard- 
ing what  we  now  distinguish  as  a  sensation  as  probably  com- 
plicated in  several  respects.  In  other  words,  if  psychical 
magnification  were  possible,  we  might  be  directly  aware 
that  sensations  which  we  now  suppose  to  be  both  single 
and  simple  were  both  compound  and  complex — that  they 
consisted,  that  is,  of  two  or  more  sensational  elements  or 
changes,  alike  or  different  in  quality,  of  uniform  or  variable 
intensity,  and  occurring  either  simultaneously  or  in  regular 
or  irregular  succession. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  all  possible  sensations  of 
colour,  of  tone,  and  of  temperature  constitute  as  many 
groups  of  qualitative  continua.  By  continuum  is  here 
meant  a  series  of  presentations  changing  gradually  in 
quality,  i.e.,  so  that  any  two  differ  less  the  more  they 
approximate  in  the  series.  We  may  represent  this  rela- 
tion among  presentations  spatially,  so  long  as  the  differences 
do  not  exceed  three.  In  this  way  our  normal  colour-sensa- 
tions have  been  compared  to  a  sphere,  in  which  (a)  the 
maximum  of  luminosity  is  at  one  pole  and  the  minimum 
at  the  other ;  (6)  the  series  of  colours  proper  (red  to  violet 
and  through  purple  back  to  red),  constituting  a  closed  line, 
are  placed  round  the  equator  or  in  zones  parallel  to  it, 
according  to  shade ;  and  (c)  the  amount  of  saturation  (or 
absence  of  white)  for  any  given  zone  of  illumination  in- 
creases with  distance  from  the  axis.  The  several  musical 
tones,  again,  have  been  compared  to  an  ascending  spiral, 
a  given  tone  and  its  octaves  lying  in  the  same  perpen- 
dicular. Temperatures  similarly  might  be  represented  as 
ranging  in  opposite  directions,  i.e.,  through  heat  or  through 
cold,  between  a  zero  of  no  sensation  and  the  organic  sensa- 
tions that  accompany  the  destructive  action  of  heat  and 
cold  alike.  As  we  frequently  experience  a  continuous 
range  of  intensity  of  varying  amount,  so  we  may  experience 


continuous  variations  in  quality,  as  in  looking  at  the  rain- 
bow, for  example.  Still  it  is  not  to  be-  supposed  that 
colours  or  notes  are  necessarily  presented  as  continua : 
that  they  are  such  is  matter  of  after-observation. 

The  groups  of  sensations  known  as  touches,  smells,  tastes, 
on  the  other  hand,  do  not  constitute  continua  :  bitter  tastes, 
for  instance,  will  not  shade  off  into  acid  or  sweet  tastes, 
except,  of  course,  through  a  gradual  diminution  of  inten- 
sity rendering  the  one  quality  subliminal  followed  by  a 
gradual  increase  from  zero  in  the  intensity  of  the  other. 
This  want  of  continuity  might  be  explained  if  there  were 
grounds  for  regarding  these  groups  as  more  complex  than 
the  rest, — in  so  far  as  tertiary  colours  or  vowel -sounds, 
say,  are  complex  and  comparatively  discontinuous.  But 
it  might  equally  well  be  argued  that  they  are  simpler  than 
the  rest  and,  as  simple  and  different,  are  necessarily  dis- 
parate, while  the  continuity  of  colours  or  tones  is  due  to 
a  gradual  change  of  components. 

Our  motor  presentations  contrast  with  the  sensory  by 
their  want  of  striking  qualitative  differences.  We  may 
divide  them  into  two  groups,  (a)  motor  presentations  proper 
and  (6)  auxilio-motor  presentations.  The  former  answer  to 
our  "  feelings  of  muscular  effort "  or  "  feelings  of  innerva- 
tion."  The  latter  are  those  presentations  due  to  the  strain- 
ing of  tendons,  stretching  and  flexing  of  the  skin,  and  the 
like,  by  which  the  healthy  man  knows  that  his  efforts  to 
move  are  followed  by  movement,  and  so  knows  the  position 
of  his  body  and  limbs.  It  is  owing  to  the  absence  of  these 
presentations  that  the  anaesthetic  patient  cannot  directly 
tell  whether  his  efforts  are  effectual  or  not,  nor  in  what 
position  his  limbs  have  been  placed  by  movements  from 
without.  Thus  under  normal  circumstances  motor  pre- 
sentations are  always  accompanied  by  auxilio-motor ;  but 
in  disease  and  in  passive  movements  they  are  separated 
and  their  distinctness  thus  made  manifest.  Originally 
we  may  suppose  auxilio-motor  objects  to  form  one  imper- 
fectly differentiated  continuum,  but  now,  as  with  sensa- 
tions, movements  have  become  a  collection  of  special 
continua,  viz.,  the  groups  of  movements  possible  to  each 
limb  and  certain  combinations  of  these. 

Perception. 

In  treating  apart  of  the  differentiation  of  our  sensory  Mental 
and  motor  continua,  as  resulting  merely  in  a  number  of  synthesis 
distinguishable  sensations  and  movements,  we  have  been  or  V?te~ 
compelled  by  the  exigencies  of  exposition  to  leave  out  of 
sight  another  process  which  really  advances  pari  passu 
with  this  differentiation,  viz.,  the  integration  or  synthesis 
of  these  proximately  elementary  presentations  into  those 
complex  presentations  which  are  called  perceptions,  in- 
tuitions, sensori-motor  reactions,  and  the  like.  It  is,  of 
course,  not  to  be  supposed  that  in  the  evolution  of  mind  any 
creature  attained  to  such  variety  of  distinct  sensations  and 
movements  as  a  human  being  possesses  without  making  even 
the  first  step  towards  building  up  this  material  into  the 
most  rudimentary  knowledge  and  action.  On  the  contrary, 
there  is  every  reason  to  think,  as  has  been  said  already 
incidentally,  that  further  differentiation  was  helped  by 
previous  integration,  that  perception  prepared  the  way 
for  distincter  sensations,  and  purposive  action  for  more 
various  movements.  This  process  of  synthesis,  which  is 
in  the  truest  sense  a  psychical  process,  deserves  some 
general  consideration  before  we  proceed  to  the  several 
complexes  that  result  from  it.  Most  complexes,  certainly 
the  most  important,  are  consequences  of  that  principle  of 
subjective  selection  whereby  interesting  sensations  lead 
through  the  intervention  of  feeling  to  movements  ;  and  the 
movements  that  turn  out  to  subserve  such  interest  come 
to  have  a  share  in  it.  In  this  way — which  we  need  not 
stay  to  examine  more  closely  now — it  happens  that,  in  the 


52 


PSYCHOLOGY 


alternation  of  sensory  and  motor  phases  which  is  common 
to  all  psychical  life,  a  certain  sensation,  comparatively  in- 
tense, and  a  certain  movement,  definite  enough  to  control 
that  sensation,  engage  attention  in  immediate  succession,  to 
the  more  or  less  complete  exclusion  from  attention  of  the 
other  less  intense  sensations  and  more  diffused  movements 
that  accompany  them.  Apart  from  this  intervention  of 
controlling  movements,  the  presentation-continuum,  how- 
ever much  differentiated,  would  be  for  all  purposes  of  know- 
ledge little  better  than  the  disconnected  manifold  for  which 
Kant  took  it.  At  the  same  time  it  is  to  be  remembered 
that  the  subject  obtains  command  of  particular  movements 
out  of  all  the  mass  involved  in  emotional  expression  only 
because  such  movements  prove  on  occurrence  adapted  to 
control  certain  sensations.  Before  experience,  and  apart 
from  heredity,  there  seems  not  only  no  scientific  warrant 
for  assuming  any  sort  of  practical  prescience  but  also  none 
for  the  hypothesis  of  a  priori  forms  of  knowledge.  Of  a 
pre-established  harmony  between  the  active  and  passive 
phases  of  consciousness  we  need  none,  or — it  may  be  safer 
to  say — at  least  indefinitely  little.  A  sentient  creature 
moves  first  of  all  because  it  feels,  not  because  it  intends. 
A  long  process,  in  which  natural  selection  probably  played 
the  chief  part  at  the  outset — subjective  selection  becoming 
more  prominent  as  the  process  advanced — must  have  been 
necessary  to  secure  as  much  purposive  movement  as  even 
a  lobster  displays.  It  seems  impossible  to  except  from 
this  process  the  movements  of  the  special  sense-organs 
which  are  essential  to  our  perception  of  external  things. 
Here  too  subjective  interest  will  explain,  so  far  as  psycho- 
logical explanation  is  possible,  those  syntheses  of  motor 
and  sensory  presentations  which  we  call  spatial  perceptions 
and  intuitions  of  material  things.  For  example,  some  of 
the  earliest  lessons  of  this  kind  seem  to  be  acquired,  as  we 
may  presently  see,  in  the  process  of  exploring  the  body  by 
means  of  the  limbs, — a  process  for  which  grounds  in  sub- 
jective interest  can  obviously  never  be  wanting. 

The  mere  process  of  "  association  " — whereby  we  may 
suppose  the  synthesis  of  presentations  to  be  effected  so  that 
presentations  originally  in  no  way  connected  tend  to  move 
in  consciousness  together — will  confront  us  with  its  own 
problems  later  on.  We  need  for  the  present  only  to  bear 
in  mind  that  the  conjunction  or  continuity  upon  which 
the  association  primarily  depends  is  one  determined  by 
the  movements  of  attention,  which  movements  in  turn 
depend  very  largely  upon  the  pleasure  or  pain  that  pre- 
sentations occasion.  To  some  extent,  however,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  attention  may  pass  non-voluntarily  from  one 
indifferent  presentation  to  another,  each  being  sufficiently 
intense  to  give  what  has  been  called  a  "shock  of  surprise," 
but  not  so  intense  as  to  awaken  feeling  to  move  for  their  de- 
tention or  dismissal.  But  throughout  the  process  of  mental 
development,  where  we  are  concerned  with  what  is  new, 
the  range  of  such  indifference  is  probably  small :  indifferent 
presentations  there  will  be,  but  that  does  not  matter  while 
there  are  others  that  are  interesting  to  take  the  lead. 
Meaning  Perception  as  a  psychological  term  has  received  various, 
of  per-  though  related,  meanings  for  different  writers.  It  is 
ception.  gometimes  used  for  the  recognition  of  a  sensation  or  move- 
ment as  distinct  from  its  mere  presentation,  and  thus  is 
said  to  imply  the  more  or  less  definite  revival  of  certain 
residua  or  re-presentations  of  past  experience  which  re- 
sembled the  present.  More  frequently  it  is  used  as  the 
equivalent  of  what  has  been  otherwise  called  the  "  localiza- 
tion and  projection  "  of  sensations, — that  is  to  say,  a  sensa- 
tion presented  either  as  an  affection  of  some  part  of  our  own 
body  regarded  as  extended  or  as  a  state  of  some  foreign 
body  beyond  it.  According  to  the  former  usage,  strictly 
taken,  there  might  be  perception  without  any  spatial  pre- 
sentation at  all :  a  sensation  that  had  been  attended  to  a 


few  times  might  be  perceived  as  familiar.     Such  percept 
being  a  "  presentative-  representative  "  complex,  and  wholly 
sensory,   we  might  symbolize  it,  details  apart,  as  S  +  s, 
using  S  for  the  present  sensation,  and  s  for  a  former  S  re- 
presented.   According  to  the  latter  usage,  an  entirely  new 
sensation,  provided  it  were  complicated  with  motor  experi- 
ences in  the  way  required  for  its  localization  or  projection, 
would  become  a  perception.    Such  a  perception  might  be 
roughly  symbolized  as  X  +  (M+  m),  or  as  X  +  m  simply,  M 
standing  for  actual  movements,  as  in  ocular  adjustment, 
which  in  some  cases  might  be  only  former  movements  re- 
presented or  m.     But  as  a  matter  of  fact  actual  perception 
probably  invariably  includes  both  cases  :  impressions  which 
we  recognize  we  also  localize  or  project,  and  impressions 
which  are  localized  or  projected  are  never  entirely  new, — 
they  are,  at  least,  perceived  as  sounds  or  colours  or  aches, 
&c.     It  will,  however,  frequently  happen  that  we  are  speci- 
ally concerned  with  only  one  side  of  the  whole  process,  as 
is  the  case  with  a  tea- taster  or  a  colour-mixer  on  the  one 
hand,  or,  on  the  other,  with  the  patient  who  is  perplexed 
to  decide  whether  what  he  sees  and  hears  is  "  subjective," 
or  whether  it  is  "  real."     Usually  we  have  more  trouble 
to  discriminate  the  quality  of  an  impression  than  to  fix 
it  spatially ;    indeed  this   latter   process  was   taken   for 
granted  by  most  psychologists  till  recently.     But,  however 
little  the  two  sides  are  actually  separated,  it  is  important 
to  mark  their  logical  distinctness,  and  it  would  be  well  if 
we  had  a  precise  name  for  each.     In  any  other  science 
save  psychology  such  names  would  be  at  once  forthcoming ; 
but  it  seems  the  fate  of  this  science  to  be  restricted  in  its 
terminology  to  the  ill -defined  and  well-worn  currency  of 
common  speech,  with  which  every  psychologist  feels  at 
liberty  to  do  what  is  right  in  his  own  eyes,  at  least  within 
the  wide  range  which  a  loose  connotation  allows.     If  there 
were  any  hope  of  their  general  acceptance  we  might  pro- 
pose to  call  the  first-mentioned  process  the  assimilation  or 
recognition  of  an  impression,  and  might  apply  the  term 
localization  to  its  spatial  fixation,  without  distinguishing 
between  the  body  and  space  beyond, — a  matter  of  the  less 
importance   as   projection   hardly   enters   into   primitive 
spatial  experience.     But  there  is  still  a  distinction  called 
for :   perception  as  we   now  know   it   involves  not  only 
localization,    or    "spatial  reference,"   as   it   is   not   very 
happily  termed,  but  "  objective  reference  "  as  well.     We 
may  perceive  sound  or  light  without  any  presentation  of 
that  which  sounds  or  shines ;  but  none  the  less  we  do  not 
regard  such  sound  or  light  as  merely  the  object  of  our 
attention,  as  having  only  immanent  existence,  but  as  the 
quality  or  change  or  state  of  a  thing,  an  object  distinct  not 
only  from  the  subject  attending  but  from  all  presentations 
whatever  to  which  it   attends.     Here   again   the   actual 
separation  is  impossible,  because  this  factor  in  perception 
has  been  so  intertwined  throughout  our  mental  develop- 
ment with  the  other  two.    Still  a  careful  psychological  ana- 
lysis will  show  that  such  "  reification,"  as  we  might  almost 
call  it,  has  depended  on  special  circumstances,  which  we  can 
at  any  rate  conceive  absent.     These  special  circumstances 
are  briefly  the  constant  conjunctions  and  successions  of 
impressions,  for  which  psychology  can  give  no  reason,  and 
the  constant  movements  to  which  they  prompt.     Thus  we 
receive  together,  e.g.,  those  impressions  we  now  recognize 
as  severally  the  scent,  colour,  and  "  feel "  of  the  rose  we 
pluck  and  handle.     We  might  call  each  a  "  percept,"  and 
the  whole  a  "complex  percept."     But  there  is  more  in 
such  a  complex  than  a  sum  of  partial  percepts ;  there  is 
the  apprehension  or  intuition  of  the  rose  as  a  thing  having 
this  scent,  colour,    and   texture.     We  have,  then,  under 
perception  to  consider  (i.)  the  assimilation  and  (ii.)  the 
localization  of  impressions,  and  (iii.)  the  intuition  of  things. 
The  range  of  the  terms  assimilation  or  recognition  of 


PSYCHOLO-GY 


53 


Assimi-  impressions  is  wide  :  between  the  simplest  mental  process 
lation  of  they  may  be  supposed  to  denote  and  the  most  complex 
there  is  a  great  difference.  The  penguin  that  watched 
unmoved  the  first  landing  of  man  upon  its  lonely  rock 
becomes  as  wild  and  wary  as  more  civilized  fowl  after 
two  or  three  visits  from  its  molester  :  it  then  recognizes 
that  featherless  biped.  His  friends  at  home  also  recognize 
him  though  altered  by  years  of  peril  and  exposure.  In  the 
latter  case  some  trick  of  his  voice  or  manner,  some  "  strik- 
ing "  feature,  calls  up  and  sustains  a  crowd  of  memories 
of  the  traveller  in  the  past, — events  leading  on  to  the 
present  scene.  The  two  recognitions  are  widely  different, 
and  it  is  from  state's  of  mind  more  like  the  latter  than  the 
former  that  psychologists  have  usually  drawn  their  descrip- 
tion of  perception.  At  the  outset,  they  say,  we  have  a 
primary  presentation  or  impression  P,  and  after  sundry 
repetitions  there  remains  a  mass  or  a  series  of  P  residua, 
2hP'2Ps  •  •  '  ')  perception  ensues  when,  sooner  or  later,  Pn 
"  calls  up  "  and  associates  itself  with  these  re-presentations 
or  ideas.  Much  of  our  later  perception,  and  especially 
Avhen  we  are  at  all  interested,  awakens,  no  doubt,  both 
distinct  memories  and  distinct  expectations ;  but,  since 
these  imply  previous  perceptions,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
earliest  form  of  recognition,  or,  as  we  might  better  call  it, 
assimilation,  must  be  free  from  such  complications,  can 
have  nothing  in  it  answering  to  the  overt  judgment,  Pn  is 
a  P.  Assimilation  involves  retentiveness  and  differentia- 
tion, as  we  have  seen,  and  prepares  the  way  for  re-presenta- 
tion ;  but  in  itself  there  is  no  confronting  the  new  with 
the  old,  no  determination  of  likeness,  and  no  subsequent 
classification.  The  pure  sensation  we  may  regard  as  a 
psychological  myth  ;  and  the  simple  image,  or  such  sensa- 
tion revived,  seems  equally  mythical,  as  we  may  see  later 
on.  The  nth  sensation  is  not  like  the  first :  it  is  a  change 
in  a  presentation-continuum  that  has  itself  been  changed 
by  those  preceding ;  and  it  cannot  with  any  propriety  be 
said  to  reproduce  these  past  sensations,  for  they  never  had 
the  individuality  which  such  reproduction  implies.  Nor 
does  it  associate  with  images  like  itself,  since  where  there 
is  association  there  must  first  have  been  distinctness,  and 
what  can  be  associated  can  also,  for  some  good  time  at 
least,  be  dissociated. 

;ocaliza-  To  treat  of  the  localization  of  impressions  is  really  to  give 
ion  of  an  account  of  the  steps  by  which  the  psychological  indi- 
vidual comes  to  a  knowledge  of  space.  At  the  outset  of 
such  an  inquiry  it  seems  desirable  first  of  all  to  make  plain 
what  lies  within  our  purview,  and  what  does  not,  lest  we 
disturb  the  peace  of  those  who,  confounding  philosophy  and 
psychology,  are  ever  eager  to  fight  for  or  against  the  a 
priori  character  of  this  element  of  knowledge.  That  space 
is  a  priori  in  the  epistemological  sense  it  is  no  concern  of 
the  psychologist  either  to  assert  or  to  deny.  Psychologically 
a  priori  or  original  in  such  sense  that  it  has  been  either 
actually  or  potentially  an  element  in  all  presentation  from 
the  very  beginning  it  certainly  is  not.  It  will  help  to  make 
this  matter  clearer  if  we  distinguish  what  philosophers 
frequently  confuse,  viz.,  the  concrete  spatial  experiences, 
constituting  actual  localization  for  the  individual,  and 
the  abstract  conception  of  space,  generalized  from  what 
is  found  to  be  common  in  such  experiences.  A  gannet's 
mind  "possessed  of"  a  philosopher,  if  such  a  conceit  may 
be  allowed,  would  certainly  afford  its  tenant  very  different 
spatial  experiences  from  those  he  might  share  if  he  took 
up  bis  quarters  in  a  mole.  So,  any  one  who  has  revisited 
in  after  years  a  place  from  which  he  had  been  absent  since 
childhood  knows  how  largely  a  "  personal  equation,"  as  it 
were,  enters  into  his  spatial  perceptions.  Or  the  same 
truth  may  be  brought  home  to  him  if,  walking  with  a 
friend  more  athletic  than  himself,  they  come  upon  a  ditch, 
which  both  know  to  be  twelve  feet  wide,  but  which  the  one 


feels  he  can  clear  by  a  jump  and  the  other  feels  he  cannot. 
In  the  concrete  "  up  "  is  much  more  than  a  different  direc- 
tion from  "along."  The  hen-harrier,  which  cannot  soar,  is 
indifferent  to  a  quarry  a  hundred  feet  above  it — to  which 
the  peregrine,  built  for  soaring,  would  at  once  give  chase — 
but  is  on  the  alert  as  soon  as  it  descries  prey  of  the  same 
apparent  magnitude,  but  upon  the  ground.  Similarly,  in  the 
concrete,  the  body  is  the  origin  or  datum  to  which  all  posi- 
tions are  referred,  and  such  positions  differ  not  merely 
quantitatively  but  qualitatively.  Moreover,  our  various 
bodily  movements  and  their  combinations  constitute  a  net- 
work of  co-ordinates,  qualitatively  distinguishable  but  geo- 
metrically, so  to  put  it,  both  redundant  and  incomplete. 
It  is  a  long  way  from  these  facts  of  perception,  which  the 
brutes  share  with  us,  to  that  scientific  conception  of  space 
as  having  three  dimensions  and  no  qualitative  differences 
which  we  have  elaborated  by  the  aid  of  thought  and  lan- 
guage, and  which  reason  may  see  to  be  the  logical  presup- 
position of  what  in  the  order  of  mental  development  has 
chronologically  preceded  it.  That  the  experience  of  space 
is  not  psychologically  original  seems  obvious — quite  apart 
from  any  successful  explanation  of  its  origin — from  the 
mere  consideration  of  its  complexity.  Thus  we  must  have 
a  plurality  of  objects — A  out  of  B,  B  beside  C,  distant  from 
D,  and  so  on ;  and  these  relations  of  externality,  juxtapo- 
sition, and  size  or  distance  imply  further  specialization ; 
for  with  a  mere  plurality  of  objects  we  have  not  straight- 
way spatial  differences.  Juxtaposition,  e.g.,  is  only  possible 
when  the  related  objects  form  a  continuum ;  but,  again, 
not  any  continuity  is  extensive.  Now  how  has  this  com- 
plexity come  about  1 

The  first  condition  of  spatial  experience  seems  to  lie  Exten- 
in  what  has  been  noted  above  (p.  46)  as  the  extensity  of 
sensation.  This  much  we  may  allow  is  original ;  for  the 
longer  we  reflect  the  more  clearly  we  see  that  no  combina- 
tion or  association  of  sensations  varying  only  in  intensity 
and  quality,  not  even  if  motor  presentations  are  added, 
will  account  for  the  space-element  in  our  perceptions.  A 
series  of  touches  a,  b,  c,  d  may  be  combined  with  a  series 
of  movements  mv  m2,  mz,  ra4 ;  both  series  may  be  reversed ; 
and  finally  the  touches  may  be  presented  simultaneously. 
In  this  way  we  can  attain  the  knowledge  of  the  coexistence 
of  objects  that  have  a  certain  quasi-distance  between  them, 
and  such  experience  is  an  important  element  in  our  per- 
ception of  space ;  but  it  is  not  the  whole  of  it.  For,  as 
has  been  already  remarked  by  critics  of  the  associationist 
psychology,  we  have  an  experience  very  similar  to  this  in 
singing  and  hearing  musical  notes  or  the  chromatic  scale. 
The  most  elaborate  attempt  to  get  extensity  out  of  succes- 
sion and  coexistence  is  that  of  Mr  Herbert  Spencer.  He 
has  done,  perhaps,  all  that  can  be  done,  and  only  to  make 
it  the  more  plain  that  the  entire  procedure  is  a  va-repov 
TrpoTfpov.  We  do  not  first  experience  a  succession  of 
touches  or  of  retinal  excitations  by  means  of  movements, 
and  then,  when  these  impressions  are  simultaneously  pre- 
sented, regard  them  as  extensive,  because  they  are  asso- 
ciated with  or  symbolize  the  original  series  of  movements ; 
but,  before  and  apart  from  movement  altogether,  we  ex- 
perience that  massiveness  or  extensity  of  impressions  in 
which  movements  enable  us  to  find  positions,  and  also  to 
measure.1  But  it  will  be  objected,  perhaps  not  without 

1  We  are  ever  in  danger  of  exaggerating  the  competence  of  a  new 
discovery ;  and  the  associationists  seem  to  have  fallen  into  this 
mistake,  not  only  in  the  use  they  have  made  of  the  conception  of  asso- 
ciation in  psychology  in  general,  but  in  the  stress  they  have  laid 
upon  the  fact  of  movement  when  explaining  our  space-perceptions  in 
particular.  Indeed,  both  ideas  have  here  conspired  against  them, — 
association  in  keeping  up  the  notion  that  we  have  only  to  deal  with 
a  plurality  of  discrete  impressions,  and  movement  in  keeping  to  the 
front  the  idea  of  sequence.  Mill's  Examination  of  Hamilton  (3d  ed., 
p.  266  sq.)  surely  ought  to  convince  us  that,  unless  we  are  prepared  to 


54 


PSYCHOLOGY 


impatience,  that  this  amounts  to  the  monstrous  absurdity 
of  making  the  contents  of  consciousness  extended.  The 
edge  of  this  objection  will  be  best  turned  by  rendering 
the  conception  of  extensity  more  precise.  Thus,  suppose 
a  postage  stamp  pasted  on  the  back  of  the  hand ;  we  have 
in  consequence  a  certain  sensation.  If  another  be  added 
beside  it,  the  new  experience  would  not  be  adequately 
described  by  merely  saying  we  have  a  greater  quantity  of 
sensation,  for  intensity  involves  quantity,  and  increased 
intensity  is  not  what  is  meant.  For  a  sensation  of  a  certain 
intensity,  say  a  sensation  of  red,  cannot  be  changed  into 
one  having  two  qualities,  red  and  blue,  leaving  the  inten- 
sity unchanged  ;  but  with  extensity  this  change  is  possible. 
For  one  of  the  postage  stamps  a  piece  of  wet  cloth  of  the 
same  size  might  be  substituted  and  the  massiveness  of  the 
compound  sensation  remain  very  much  the  same.  Inten- 
sity belongs  to  what  may  be  called  graded  quantity :  it 
admits  of  increment  or  decrement,  but  is  not  a  sum  of 
parts.  Extensity,  on  the  other  hand,  does  imply  plurality  : 
we  might  call  it  latent  or  merged  plurality  or  a  "  ground  " 
of  plurality,  inasmuch  as  to  say  that  a  single  presentation 
has  massiveness  is  to  say  that  a  portion  of  the  presentation- 
continuum  at  the  moment  undifferentiated  is  capable  of 
Local  differentiation.  Attributing  this  property  of  extensity  to 
signs.  the  presentation-continuum  as  a  whole,  we  may  call  the 
relation  of  any  particular  sensation  to  this  larger  whole 
its  local  sign,  and  can  see  that,  so  long  as  the  extensity 
of  a  presentation  admits  of  diminution  without  the  pre- 
sentation becoming  nil,  such  presentation  has  two  or 
more  local  signs, — its  parts,  taken  separately,  though 
identical  in  quality  and  intensity,  having  a  different  rela- 
tion to  the  whole.  Such  difference  of  relation  must  be 
regarded  fundamentally  as  a  ground  or  possibility  of 
distinctness  of  sign — whether  as  being  the  ground  or  pos- 
sibility of  different  complexes  or  otherwise — rather  than  as 
being  from  the  beginning  such  an  overt  difference  as  the 
term  "  local  sign,"  when  used  by  Lotze,  is  meant  to  imply.1 
From  this  point  of  view  we  may  say  that  more  partial 
presentations  are  concerned  in  the  sensation  caused  by  two 
stamps  than  in  that  caused  by  one.  The  fact  that  these 
partial  presentations,  though  identical  in  quality  and 
intensity,  on  the  one  hand  are  not  wholly  identical,  and 
on  the  other  are  presented  only  as  a  quantity  and  not  as 
a  plurality,  is  explained  by  the  distinctness  along  with  the 
continuity  of  their  local  signs.  Assuming  that  to  every 
distinguishable  part  of  the  body  there  corresponds  a  local 
sign,  we  may  allow  that  at  any  moment  only  a  certain 
portion  of  this  continuum  is  definitely  within  the  field  of 
consciousness ;  but  no  one  will  maintain  that  a  part  of  one 
hand  is  ever  felt  as  continuous  with  part  of  the  other  or 
with  part  of  the  face.  This  we  can  only  represent  by 
saying  that  the  local  signs  have  an  invariable  relation  to 
each  other :  two  continuous  signs  are  not  one  day  coin- 
cident and  the  next  widely  separate.2  This  last  fact  is 


say,  as  Mill  seems  to  do,  "  that  the  idea  of  space  is  at  bottom  one  of 
time  "  (p.  276),  we  must  admit  the  inadequacy  of  our  experience  of 
movement  to  explain  the  origin  of  it. 

1  To  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  different  complexes  it  will  be 
enough  to  refer  to  the  psychological  implications  of  the  fact  that 
scarcely  two  portions  of  the  sensitive  surface  of  the  human  body  are 
anatomically  alike.  Not  only  in  the  distribution  and  character  of  the 
nerve-endings  but  in  the  variety  of  the  underlying  parts — in  one  place 
bone,  in  another  fatty  tissue,  in  others  tendons  or  muscles  variously 
arranged — we  find  ample  ground  for  diversity  in  "the  local  colour- 
ing" of  sensations.  And  comparative  zoology  helps  us  to  see  how 
such  diversity  has  been  developed  as  external  impressions  and  the 
answering  movements  have  gradually  differentiated  an  organism  origin- 
ally almost  homogeneous  and  symmetrical.  Between  one  point  and 
another  on  the  surface  of  a  sphere  there  is  no  ground  of  difference ;  but 
this  is  no  longer  true  if  the  sphere  revolves  round  a  fixed  axis,  still 
less  if  it  also  runs  in  one  direction  along  its  axis. 

8  The  improvements  in  the  sensibility  of  our  "spatial  sense"  con- 
sequent on  its  variations  under  practice,  the  action  of  drugs,  &c.,  are 


hardly  perhaps  implied  in  the  mere  massiveness  of  a  sensa- 
tion, but  it  will  be  convenient  to  include  it  when  speaking 
of  the  continuum  of  local  signs  as  extensive.  We  have, 
then,  a  plurality  of  presentations  constituting  a  continuum, 
presented  simultaneously  as  impressions  and  having  certain 
fixed  and  invariable  relations  to  each  other.  Of  such 
experience  the  typical  case  is  that  of  passive  touch,  though 
the  other  senses  exemplify  it.  It  must  be  allowed  that 
our  conception  of  space  in  like  manner  involves  a  fixed 
continuity  of  positions ;  but  then  it  involves,  further,  the 
possibility  of  movement.  Now  in  the  continuum  of  local 
signs  there  is  nothing  whatever  of  this  ;  we  might  call  this 
continuum  an  implicit  plenum.  It  only  becomes  the  pre- 
sentation of  occupied  space  after  its  several  local  signs  are 
complicated  or  "  associated  "  in  an  orderly  way  with  active 
touches,  when  in  fact  we  have  experienced  the  contrast 
of  movements  with  contact  and  movements  without,  i.e., 
in  vacuo.  It  is  quite  true  that  we  cannot  now  think  of 
this  plenum  except  as  a  space,  because  we  cannot  divest 
ourselves  of  these  motor  experiences  by  which  we  have 
explored  it.  We  can,  however,  form  some  idea  of  the 
difference  between  the  perception  of  space  and  this  one 
element  in  the  perception  by  contrasting  massive  internal 
sensations  with  massive  superficial  ones,  or  the  general 
sensation  of  the  body  as  "an  animated  organism "  with 
our  perception  of  it  as  extended. 

It  must  seem  strange,  if  this  conception  of  extensity  is 
essential  to  a  psychological  theory  of  space,  that  it  has 
escaped  notice  so  long.  The  reason  may  be  that  in  investi- 
gations into  the  origin  of  our  knowledge  of  space  it  was 
always  the  conception  of  space  and  not  our  concrete  space 
perceptions  that  came  up  for  examination.  Now  in  space 
as  we  conceive  it  one  position  is  distinguishable  from 
another  solely  by  its  co-ordinates,  i.e.,  by  the  magnitude 
and  signs  of  certain  lines  and  angles,  as  referred  to  a 
certain  datum  position,  or  origin ;  and  these  elements 
our  motor  experiences  seem  fully  to  explain.  But  on  re- 
flexion we  ought,  surely,  to  be  puzzled  by  the  question, 
how  these  coexistent  positions  could  be  known  before  those 
movements  were  made  which  constitute  them  different 
positions.  The  link  we  thus  suspect  to  be  missing  is  supplied 
by  the  more  concrete  experiences  we  obtain  from  our  own 
body,  in  which  two  positions  have  a  qualitative  difference 
or  "  local  colour  "  independently  of  movement.  True,  such 
positions  would  not  be  known  as  spatial  without  move- 
ment ;  but  neither  would  the  movement  be  known  as 
spatial  had  those  positions  no  other  difference  than  such 
as  arises  from  movement. 

We  may  now  consider  the  part  which  movement  plays  Mo-v 
in  elaborating  the  presentations  of  this  dimensionless men 
continuum  into  perceptions  of  space.  In  so  doing  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  this  continuum  implies  the  inco- 
presentability  of  two  impressions  having  the  same  local 
sign,  but  allows  not  only  of  the  presentation  of  impressions 
of  varying  massiveness  but  of  several  distinct  impressions 
at  the  same  time.  As  regards  the  motor  element  itself, 
the  first  point  of  importance  is  the  incopresentability  and 
invariability  of  a  series  of  auxilio- motor  presentations, 
P^P2,PS,P^.  Pj  cannot  be  presented  along  with  P2,  and 
from  P4  it  is  impossible  to  reach  Pl  again  save  through  Ps 
and  P2.  Such  a  series,  taken  alone,  could  afford  us,  it 
is  evident,  nothing  but  the  knowledge  of  an  invariable 
sequence  of  impressions  which  it  was  in  our  own  power  to 
produce.  Its  psychological  interest  would  lie  solely  in  the 
fact  that,  whereas  other  impressions  depend  on  an  object- 
ive initiative,  these  depend  on  a  subjective.  But  in  the 
course  of  the  movements  necessary  to  the  exploration  of 

obviously  no  real  contradiction  to  this  ;  on  the  contrary,  such  facts  are 
all  in  favour  of  making  extensity  a  distinct  factor  in  our  space  experi- 
ence and  one  more  fundamental  than  that  of  movement. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


the  body  —  probably  our  earliest  lesson  in  spatial  perception 
—  these  auxilio-motor  presentations  receive  a  new  signifi- 
cance from  the  active  and  passive  touches  that  accompany 
them,  just  as  they  impart  to  these  last  a  significance  they 
could  never  have  alone. 

It  is  only  in  the  resulting  complex  that  we  have  the 
presentations  of  position  and  of  spatial  magnitude.  For 
space,  though  conceived  as  a  coexistent  continuum,  excludes 
the  notion  of  omnipresence  or  ubiquity  ;  two  positions  )  'd 
and  lg  must  coexist,  but  they  are  not  strictly  distinct 
positions  so  long  as  we  conceive  ourselves  present  in  the 
same  sense  in  both.  But,  if  Fd  and  Fg  are,  e.g.,  two 
impressions  produced  by  compass  -points  touching  two 
different  spots  as  I  and  lg  on  the  hand  or  arm,  and  we  place 
a  finger  upon  ld  and  move  it  to  ly,  experiencing  thereby 
the  series  P^P^P^P^  this  series  constitutes  ld  and  lg  into 
positions  and  also  invests  Fd  and  Fg  with  a  relation  not 
of  mere  distinctness  but  of  definite  distance.  The  resulting 
complex  perhaps  admits  of  symbolization  as  follows  :  — 


T  t  t  t 


Here  the  first  line  represents  a  portion  of  the  tactual 
continuum,  Fd  and  Fg  being  distinct  "  feels,"  if  we  may  so 
say,  or  passive  touches  presented  along  with  the  fainter 
sensations  of  the  continuum  as  a  whole  ;  T  stands  for  the 
active  touch  of  the  exploring  finger  and  Pl  for  the  corre- 
sponding auxilio-motor  object  ;  the  rest  of  the  succession, 
as  not  actually  present  at  this  stage  but  capable  of  re- 
vival from  past  explorations,  is  symbolized  by  the  ttt  and 
PiPsPv  When  the  series  of  movements  is  accompanied 
by  active  touches  without  passive  there  arises  the  distinc- 
tion between  one's  own  body  and  foreign  bodies  ;  when  the 
initial  movement  of  a  series  is  accompanied  by  both  active 
and  passive  touches,  the  final  movement  by  active  touches 
only,  and  the  intermediate  movements  are  unaccompanied 
by  either,  we  get  the  further  presentation  of  empty  space 
lying  between  us  and  them,  —  but  only  when  by  frequent 
experience  of  contacts  along  with  those  intermediate  move- 
ments we  have  come  to  know  all  movement  as  not  only 
succession  but  change  of  position.  Thus  active  touches 
come  at  length  to  be  projected,  passive  touches  alone  being 
localized  in  the  stricter  sense.  But  in  actual  fact,  of  course, 
the  localization  of  one  impression  is  not  perfected  before 
that  of  another  is  begun,  and  we  must  take  care  lest  our 
necessarily  meagre  exposition  give  rise  to  the  mistaken 
notion  that  localizing  an  impression  consists  wholly  and 
solely  in  performing  or  imaging  the  particular  movements 
necessary  to  add  active  touches  to  a  group  of  passive  im- 
pressions. That  this  cannot  suffice  is  evident  merely  from 
the  consideration  that  a  single  position  out  of  relation  to 
all  other  positions  is  a  contradiction.  Localization,  though 
it  depends  on  many  special  experiences  of  the  kind  de- 
scribed, is  not  like  an  artificial  product  which  is  completed 
a  part  at  a  time,  but  is  essentially  a  growth,  its  several 
constituent^ocalizations  advancing  together  in  definiteness 
and  interconnexion.  So  far  has  this  development  advanced 
that  we  do  not  even  imagine  the  special  movements  which 
the  localization  of  an  impression  implies,  that  is  to  say,  they 
are  no  longer  distinctly  represented  as  they  would  be  if  we 
definitely  intended  to  make  them  :  the  past  experiences  are 
"  retained,"  but  too  much  blended  in  the  mere  perception 
to  be  appropriately  spoken  of  as  remembered  or  imaged. 

Apropos  of  this  almost  instinctive  character  of  even  our  earliest 
spatial  perceptions  it  will  be  appropriate  to  animadvert  on  a  mis- 
leading implication  in  the  current  use  of  such  terms  as  "localization," 
"projection,''  "bodily  reference,"  "spatial  reference,"  and  the  like. 
The  implication  is  that  external  space,  or  the  body  as  extended,  is 
in  some  sort  presented  or  supposed  apart  from  the  localization, 
projection,  or  reference  of  impressions  to  such  space.  That  it  may 
be  possible  to  put  a  book  in  its  place  on  a  shelf  there  must  be  (1) 
the  book,  and  (2),  distinct  and  apart  from  it,  the  place  on  the  shelf. 


But  in  the  evolution  of  our  spatial  experience  impressions  and 
positions  are  not  thus  presented  apart.  We  can  have,  or  at  least 
we  can  suppose,  an  impression  which  is  recognized  without  being 
localized  ;  but  if  it  is  localized  this  means  that  a  more  complex 
presentation  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  new  elements,  not  that  a 
second  distinct  object  is  presented  and  some  indescribable  connexion 
established  between  the  impression  and  it,  still  less  that  the  im- 
pression is  referred  to  something  not  strictly  presented  at  all.  The 
truth  is  that  the  body  as  extended  is  from  the  psychological  point 
of  view  not  perceived  at  all  apart  from  localized  impressions.  In 
like  manner  impressions  projected  (or  the  absence  of  impressions 
projected)  constitute  all  that  is  perceived  as  the  occupied  (or  un- 
occupied) space  beyond.  It  is  not  till  a  much  later  stage,  after 
many  varying  experiences  of  different  impressions  similarly  local- 
ized or  projected,  that  even  the  mere  materials  are  present  for  the 
formation  of  such  an  abstract  conception  of  space  as  "spatial 
reference  "  implies.  Psychologists,  being  themselves  at  this  later 
stage,  are  apt  to  commit  the  oversight  of  introducing  it  into  the 
earlier  stage  which  they  have  to  expound. 

In  a  complex  presentation,  such  as  that  of  an  orange  or  Intuition 
a  piece  of  wax,  may  be  distinguished  the  following  pointsoftflings- 
concerning  which  psychology  may  be  expected  to  give  an 
account : — (a)  its  reality,  (6)  its  solidity  or  occupation  of 
space,  (c)  its  permanence,  or  rather  its  continuity  in  time, 
(d)  its  unity  and  complexity,  and  (e)  its  substantiality  and 
the  connexion  of  its  attributes  and  powers.     Though,  in 
fact,  these  items  are  most  intimately  blended,  our  exposi- 
tion will  be  clearer  if  we  consider  each  for  a  moment  apart. 

(a)  The  terms  actuality  and  reality  have  each  moreActual- 
than  one  meaning.  Thus  what  is  real,  in  the  sense  of  ily  or 
material,  is  opposed  to  what  is  mental ;  as  the  existent  or  rea"tv< 
actual  it  is  opposed  to  the  non-existent ;  and  again,  what  is 
actual  is  distinguished  from  what  is  possible  or  necessary. 
But  here  both  terms,  with  a  certain  shade  of  difference,  in 
so  far  as  actual  is  more  appropriate  to  movements  and 
events,  are  used,  in  antithesis  to  whatever  is  ideal  or  repre- 
sented, for  what  is  sense-given  or  presented.  This  seems 
at  least  their  primary  psychological  meaning ;  and  it  is 
the  one  most  in  vogue  in  English  philosophy  at  any  rate, 
over-tinged  as  that  is  with  psychology.1  Any  examination 
of  this  characteristic  will  be  best  deferred  till  we  come  to 
deal  with  ideation  generally  (see  p.  58  below).  Meanwhile 
it  may  suffice  to  remark  that  reality  or  actuality  is  not  a 
single  distinct  element  added  to  the  others  which  enter 
into  the  complex  presentation  we  call  a  thing,  as  colour 
or  solidity  may  be.  Neither  is  it  a  special  relation  among 
these  elements,  like  that  of  substance  and  attribute,  for 
example.  In  these  respects  the  real  and  the  ideal,  the 
actual  and  the  possible,  are  alike ;  all  the  elements  or 
qualities  within  the  complex,  and  all  the  relations  of  those 
elements  to  each  other,  are  the  same  in  the  rose  repre- 
sented as  in  the  presented  rose.  The  difference  turns  not 
upon  what  these  elements  are,  regarded  as  qualities  or 
relations  presented  or  represented,  but  upon  whatever  it  is 
that  distinguishes  the  presentation  from  the  representation 
of  any  given  qualities  or  relations.  Now  this,  as  we  shall 
see,  turns  partly  upon  the  relation  of  such  complex  pre- 
sentation to  other  presentations  in  consciousness  with  it, 
partly  upon  its  relation  as  a  presentation  to  the  subject 
whose  presentation  it  is.  In  this  respect  we  find  a  differ- 
ence, not  only  between  the  simple  qualities,  such  as  cold, 
hard,  red,  and  sweet  in  strawberry  ice,  e.g.,  as  presented 
and  as  represented,  but  also,  though  less  conspicuously,  in 
the  spatial,  and  even  the  temporal,  relations  which  enter 
into  our  intuition  as  distinct  from  our  imagination  of  it. 
Where  no  such  difference  exists  we  have  passed  beyond 


1  Thus  Locke  says,  "Our  simple  ideas  [i.e.,  presentations  or  im- 
pressions, as  we  should  now  say]  are  all  real  .  .  .  and  not  fictions  at 
pleasure ;  for  the  mind  .  .  .  can  make  to  itself  no  simple  idea  more 
than  what  it  has  received  "  (Essay,  ii.  30,  2).  And  Berkeley  says,  "The 
ideas  imprinted  on  the  senses  by  the  Author  of  Nature  are  called  real 
things  ;  and  those  excited  in  the  imagination,  being  less  regular,  vivid, 
and  constant,  are  more  properly  termed  ideas  or  images  of  things, 
which  they  copy  or  represent"  (Prin.  of  Hum.  Know.,  part  i.  §  33). 


56 


PSYCHOLOGY 


the  distinction  of  percept  and  image  to  the  higher  level  of 
conception  and  thought.  So,  then,  reality  or  actuality  is 
not  strictly  an  item  by  itself,  but  a  characteristic  of  all 
the  items  that  follow. 

Impene-  (6)  Here  our  properly  motor  presentations  or  "  feelings 
trability.  Of  effort  or  innervation  "  come  specially  into  play.  They 
are  not  entirely  absent  in  those  movements  of  exploration 
by  which  we  attain  a  knowledge  of  space ;  but  it  is  when 
these  movements  are  definitely  resisted,  or  are  only  pos- 
sible by  increased  effort,  that  we  reach  the  full  meaning  of 
body  as  that  which  occupies  space.  Heat  and  cold,  light 
and  sound,  the  natural  man  regards  as  real,  and  by  and  by 
perhaps  as  due  to  the  powers  of  things  known  or  unknown, 
but  not  as  themselves  things.  At  the  outset  things  are  all 
corporeal  like  his  own  body,  the  first  and  archetypal  thing, 
that  is  to  say  :  things  are  intuited  only  when  touch  is 
accompanied  by  pressure ;  and,  though  at  a  later  stage  pass- 
ive touch  without  pressure  may  suffice,  this  is  only  because 
pressures  depending  on  a  subjective  initiative,  i.e.,  on 
voluntary  muscular  exertion,  have  been  previously  experi- 
enced. It  is  of  more  than  psychological  interest  to  remark 
how  the  primordial  factor  in  materiality  is  thus  due  to  the 
projection  of  a  subjectively  determined  reaction  to  that 
action  of  a  not-self  on  which  sense-impressions  depend, — 
an  action  of  the  not-self  which,  of  course,  is  not  known 
as  such  till  this  projection  of  the  subjective  reaction  has 
taken  place.  Still  we  must  remember  that  accompany- 
ing sense -impressions  are  a  condition  of  its  projection : 
muscular  effort  without  simultaneous  sensations  of  contact 
would  not  yield  the  distinct  presentation  of  the  resistant 
occupying  the  space  into  which  we  have  moved  and  would 
move  again.  Nay  more,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  an 
essential  circumstance  in  this  experience  that  muscular 
effort,  though  subjectively  initiated,  is  still  only  possible 
when  there  is  contact  with  something  that,  as  it  seems,  is 
making  an  effort  the  counterpart  of  our  own.  But  this 
something  is  so  far  no  more  than  thing -stuff;  without 
the  elements  next  to  be  considered  our  psychological  in- 
dividual would  fall  short  of  the  complete  intuition  of  dis- 
tinct things. 

Unity  (c)  The  remaining  important  factors  in  the  psychologi- 
and  com-  ^j  constitution  of  things  might  be  described  in  general 
P exi  ^'  terms  as  the  time-relations  of  their  components.  Such 
relations  are  themselves  in  no  way  psychologically  deter- 
mined ;  impressions  recur  with  a  certain  order  or  want  of 
order  quite  independently  of  the  subject's  interest  or  of 
any  psychological  principles  of  synthesis  or  association 
whatever.  It  is  essential  that  impressions  should  recur, 
and  recur  as  they  have  previously  occurred,  if  knowledge 
is  ever  to  begin ;  out  of  a  continual  chaos  of  sensation,  all 
matter  and  no  form,  such  as  some  philosophers  describe, 
nothing  but  chaos  could  result.  But  a  flux  of  impressions 
having  this  real  or  sense-given  order  will  not  suffice ;  there 
must  be  also  attention  to  and  retention  of  the  order,  and 
these  indispensable  processes  at  least  are  psychological. 
Still  they  need  not  be  further  emphasized  here,  nor  would 
it  have  been  necessary  at  this  point  to  call  them  to  mind  at 
all  had  not  British  empirical  philosophers  brought  psycho- 
logy into  disrepute  by  overlooking  them  altogether. 

But  for  its  familiarity  we  should  marvel  at  the  fact  that 
out  of  the  variety  of  impressions  simultaneously  presented 
we  do  not  instantly  group  together  all  the  sounds  and  all 
the  colours,  all  the  touches  and  all  the  smells,  but,  divid- 
ing what  is  given  together,  single  out  a  certain  sound  or 
smell  as  belonging  with  a  certain  colour  and  feel,  similarly 
singled  out  from  the  rest,  to  what  we  call  one  thing.  We 
might  wonder,  too — those  at  least  who  have  made  so  much 
of  association  by  similarity  ought  to  wonder — that,  say,  the 
white  of  snow  calls  up  directly,  not  other  shades  of  white  or 
other  colours,  but  the  expectation  of  cold  or  of  powdery  soft- 


ness. The  first  step  in  this  process  has  been  the  simultane- 
ous projection  into  the  same  occupied  space  of  the  several 
impressions  which  we  thus  come  to  regard  as  the  qualities  of 
the  body  filling  it.  Yet  such  simultaneous  and  coincident 
projection  would  avail  but  little  unless  the  constituent  im- 
pressions were  again  and  again  repeated  in  like  order  so  as 
to  prompt  anew  the  same  grouping,  and  unless,  further, 
this  constancy  in  the  one  group  was  present  along  with 
changes  in  other  groups  and  in  the  general  field.  There 
is  nothing  in  its  first  experience  to  tell  the  infant  that  the 
song  of  the  bird  does  not  inhere  in  the  hawthorn  whence 
the  notes  proceed,  but  that  the  fragrance  of  the  may-flower 
does.  It  is  only  where  a  group,  as  a  whole,  has  been 
found  to  change  its  position  relatively  to  other  groups,  and 
— apart  from  causal  relations — to  be  independent  of  changes 
of  position  among  them,  that  such  complexes  can  become 
distinct  unities  and  yield  a  world  of  things.  Again,  be- 
cause things  are  so  often  a  world  within  themselves,  their 
several  parts  or  members  not  only  having  distinguishing 
qualities  but  moving  and  changing  with  more  or  less  inde- 
pendence of  the  rest,  it  comes  about  that  what  is  from 
one  point  of  view  one  thing  becomes  from  another  point 
of  view  several, — like  a  tree  with  its  separable  branches 
and  fruits,  for  example.  Wherein,  then,  more  precisely, 
does  the  unity  of  a  thing  consist  1  This  question,  so  far 
as  it  here  admits  of  answer,  carries  us  over  to  temporal 
continuity. 

(d)  Amidst  all  the  change  above  described  there  is  one  Tern 
thing  comparatively  fixed  :  our  own  body  is  both  constant  ™1 c 
as  a  group  and  a  constant  item  in  every  field  of  groups  ; tinu' 
and  not  only  so,  but  it  is  beyond  all  other  things  an  object 
of  constant  and  peculiar  interest,  inasmuch  as  our  earliest 
pleasures  and  pains  depend  solely  upon  it  and  what  affects 
it.  The  body  becomes,  in  fact,  the  earliest  form  of  self, 
the  first  datum  for  our  later  conceptions  of  permanence 
and  individuality.  A  continuity  like  that  of  self  is  then 
transferred  to  other  bodies  which  resemble  our  own,  so 
far  as  our  direct  experience  goes,  in  passing  continuously 
from  place  to  place  and  undergoing  only  partial  and 
gradual  changes  of  form  and  quality.  As  we  have  ex- 
isted— or,  more  exactly,  as  the  body  has  been  continuously 
presented — during  the  interval  between  two  encounters 
with  some  other  recognized  body,  so  this  is  regarded  as 
having  continuously  existed  during  its  absence  from  us. 
However  permanent  we  suppose  the  conscious  subject  to 
be,  it  is  "hard  to  see  how,  without  the  continuous  presenta- 
tion to  it  of  such  a  group  as  the  bodily  self,  we  should 
ever  be  prompted  to  resolve  the  discontinuous  presenta- 
tions of  external  things  into  a  continuity  of  existence.  It 
might  be  said  :  "  Since  the  second  presentation  of  a  par- 
ticular group  would,  by  the  mere  workings  of  psychical 
laws,  coalesce  or  become  identical  with  the  image  of  the 
first,  this  coalescence  suffices  to  '  generate '  the  conception 
of  continued  existence."  But  such  assimilation  is  only  the 
ground  of  an  intellectual  identification  and  furnishes  no 
motive,  one  way  or  the  other,  for  resolving  two  like  things 
into  the  same  thing  :  between  a  second  presentation  of  A 
and  the  presentation  at  different  times  of  two  A's  there 
is  so  far  no  difference.  Real  identity  no  more  involves 
exact  similarity  than  exact  similarity  involves  sameness  of 
things ;  on  the  contrary,  we  are  wont  to  find  the  same  thing 
alter  with  time,  so  that  exact  similarity  after  an  interval,  so 
far  from  suggesting  one  thing,  is  often  the  surest  proof  that 
there  are  two  concerned.  Of  such  real  identity,  then,  it 
would  seem  we  must  have  direct  experience ;  and  we  have 
it  in  the  continuous  presentation  of  the  bodily  self ;  apart 
from  this  it  could  not  be  "  generated "  by  association 
among  changing  presentations.  Other  bodies  being  in 
the  first  instance  personified,  that  then  is  regarded  as  one 
thing — from  whatever  point  of  view  we  look  at  it,  whether 


PSYCHOLOGY 


57 


as  part  of  a  larger  thing  or  as  itself  compounded  of  such 
parts — which  has  had  one  beginning  in  time.  But  what 
is  it  that  has  thus  a  beginning  and  continues  indefinitely  ? 
This  leads  to  our  last  point. 

Jubstau-  (e^  go  far  we  have  been  concerned  only  with  the  com- 
iality.  bination  of  sensory  and  motor  presentations  into  groups 
and  with  the  differentiation  of  group  from  group;  the 
relations  to  each  other  of  the  constituents  of  each  group 
still  for  the  most  part  remain.  To  these  relations  in  the 
main  must  be  referred  the  correlative  conceptions  of  sub- 
stance and  attribute,  the  distinction  in  substances  of 
qualities  and  powers,  of  primary  qualities  and  secondary, 
and  the  like.1 

Of  all  the  constituents  of  things  only  one  is  universally 
present,  that  above  described  as  physical  solidity,  which 
presents  itself  according  to  circumstances  as  impenetrability, 
resistance,  or  weight.  Things  differing  in  temperature, 
colour,  taste,  and  smell  agree  in  resisting  compression,  in 
filling  space.  Because  of  this  quality  we  regard  the  wind 
as  a  thing,  though  it  has  neither  shape  nor  colour,  while 
a  shadow,  though  it  has  both  but  not  resistance,  is  the 
very  type  of  nothingness.  This  constituent  is  invariable, 
while  other  qualities  are  either  absent  or  change, — form 
altering,  colour  disappearing  with  light,  sound  and  smells 
intermitting.  Many  of  the  other  qualities — colour,  tem- 
perature, sound,  smell — increase  in  intensity  until  we  reach 
and  touch  a  body  occupying  space ;  with  the  same  move- 
ment too  its  visual  magnitude  varies.  At  the  moment  of 
contact  an  unvarying  tactual  magnitude  is  ascertained, 
while  the  other  qualities  and  the  visual  magnitude  reach 
a  fixed  maximum ;  then  first  it  becomes  possible  by  effort 
to  change  or  attempt  to  change  the  position  and  form  of 
what  we  apprehend.  This  tangible  plenum  we  thence- 
forth regard  as  the  seat  and  source  of  all  the  qualities  we 
project  into  it.  In  other  words,  that  which  occupies  space 
is  psychologically  the  substantial ;  the  other  real  consti- 
tuents are  but  its  properties  or  attributes,  the  marks  or 
manifestations  which  lead  us  to  expect  its  presence. 

Imagination  or  Ideation. 

npres-  Before  the  intuition  of  things  has  reached  a  stage  so 
°"s  complete  and  definite  as  that  just  described,  imagination 
leag  or  ideation  as  distinct  from  perception  has  well  begun. 
In  passing  to  the  consideration  of  this  higher  form  of 
mental  life  we  have  to  note  the  distinction  between  im- 
pressions and  images  or  ideas,  to  which  Hume  first  gave 
general  currency.  Hume  did  not  think  it  "  necessary  to 
employ  many  words  in  explaining  this  distinction.  Every 
one  of  himself  will  readily  perceive  the  difference  .  .  . ; 
though  it  is  not  impossible  but  in  particular  instances 
they  may  very  nearly  approach  to  each  other.  Thus  in 
sleep,  in  a  fever,  in  madness,  or  in  any  very  violent  emotions 
of  soul,  our  ideas  may  approach  to  our  impressions ;  as, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  sometimes  happens  our  impressions 
are  so  faint  and  low  that  we  cannot  distinguish  them  from 
our  ideas." 2  In  most  cases,  no  doubt,  the  obvious  differ- 
ence in  intensity,  or,  as  Hume  puts  it,  "in  the  force  or 
liveliness  with  which  they  strike  upon  the  mind,"  is  a 
sufficient  characteristic,  but  we  must  examine  a  good  deal 
further  and  pay  more  attention  to  his  uncertain  cases  if 
this  important  distinction  is  ever  to  be  in  any  sense 
psychologically  "  explained." 

To  begin  with,  it  is  very  questionable  whether  Hume 
was  right  in  applying  Locke's  distinction  of  simple  and 
complex  to  ideas  in  the  narrower  sense  as  well  as  to  im- 

1  The  distinction  between  the  thing  and  its  properties,  like  all  the 
foregoing  distinctions,  is  one  that  might  be  more  fully  treated  under  the 
head  of  "Thought  and  Conception."  Still,  inasmuch  as  the  material 
warrant  for  these  concepts  is  contained  more  or  less  implicitly  in  our 
percepts,  some  consideration  of  it  is  in  place  here. 

3  Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  book  i.  part  i.  §  1. 


pressions.  "That  idea  of  red,"  says  Hume,  "which  we 
form  in  the  dark  and  that  impression  which  strikes  our 
eyes  in  the  sunshine  differ  only  in  degree,  not  in  nature."3 
But  what  he  seems  to  overlook  is  that,  whereas  there  can 
be  a  mere  sensation  red — and  such  a  presentation  may 
for  present  purposes  be  regarded  as  simple — we  can  only 
have  an  image  or  representation  of  a  red  thing  or  a  red 
form,  i.e.,  of  red  in  some  way  ideally  projected  or  intuited. 
In  other  words,  there  are  no  ideas  answering  to  simple 
or  isolated  impressions  :  what  are  revived  in  memory  and 
imagination  are  percepts,  not  unlocalized  sensations  and 
movements.  It  is  not  only  that  we  cannot  now  directly 
observe  such  representations, — because,  for  that  matter, 
we  can  no  longer  directly  observe  even  the  original  pre- 
sentations as  merely  elementary  impressions;  the  point 
rather  is  that  ideas  as  such  are  from  the  first  complex, 
and  do  not  begin  to  appear  in  consciousness  apart  from 
the  impressions  which  they  are  said  to  reproduce  till  after 
these  impressions  have  been  frequently  attended  to  together, 
and  have  been  more  or  less  firmly  synthesized  into  percepts 
or  intuitions. 

The  effects  of  even  the  earliest  of  these  syntheses  or  "associations  " 
of  impressions  must  of  course  in  some  way  persist,  or  progress  in 
perception  would  be  impossible.  On  this  account  it  has  been  usual 
to  say  that  "  perception  "  implies  both  "  memory  "  and  "  imagina- 
tion" ;  but  such  a  statement  can  be  allowed  only  so  long  as  these 
terms  are  vaguely  used.  The  dog's  mouth  waters  only  at  the  sight 
of  food,  but  the  gourmand's  mouth  will  also  water  at  the  thought 
of  it.  We  recognize  the  smell  of  violets  as  certainly  as  we  recog- 
nize the  colour  when  the  spring  brings  them  round  again  ;  but  few 
persons,  if  any,  ca.i  recall  the  scent  when  the  flower  has  gone, 
so  as  to  say  with  Shelley — 

"  Odours,  when  sweet  violets  sicken, 
Live  within  the  sense  they  quicken  " — 

though  most  can  recall  the  colour  with  tolerable  clearness.  In 
like  manner  everybody  can  perform  innumerable  complex  voluntary 
movements  which  only  a  few  can  mentally  rehearse  or  describe 
without  the  prompting  of  actual  execution.  And  not  only  does 
such  reproduction  as  suffices  for  perception  fall  short  of  that  in- 
volved in  reminiscence  or  memory  in  the  narrower  sense,  but  the 
manner  in  which  the  constituent  elements  in  a  perception  are  com- 
bined differs  materially  from  what  is  strictly  to  be  called  the  asso- 
ciation of  ideas.  To  realize  this  difference  we  need  only  to  observe 
first  how  the  sight  of  a  suit  of  polished  armour,  for  example, 
instantly  reinstates  and  steadily  maintains  all  that  we  retain  of 
former  sensations  of  its  hardness  and  smoothness  and  coldness, 
and  then  to  observe  how  this  same  sight  gradually  calls  up  ideas 
now  of  tournaments,  now  of  crusades,  and  so  through  all  the 
changing  imagery  of  romance.  Though  tlie  percept  is  complex, 
it  is  but  a  single  whole,  and  the  act  of  perception  is  single  too  ; 
but,  where,  as  is  the  case  in  memory  and  imagination,  attention 
passes,  whether  voluntarily  or  non  -  voluntarily,  from  one  repre- 
sentation to  another,  it  is  obvious  that  these  several  objects  of 
attention  are  still  distinct  and  tbat  it  is  directed  in  turn  to  each. 
The  term  "  association  "  seems  only  appropriate  to  the  latter.  To 
the  connexion  of  the  partial  presentations  in  a  complex,  whether 
perception  or  idea,  it  would  be  better  to  apply  the  term  "  complica- 
tion," which  was  used  in  this  sense  by  Herbart,  and  has  been  so 
used  by  many  psychologists  since.  When  we  perceive  an  orange 
by  sight  we  may  say  that  its  taste  or  feel  is  represented,  when  we 
perceive  it  by  touch  we  may  in  like  manner  say  that  its  colour  is 
represented,  symbolizing  the  whole  complex  in  the  first  case 
sufficiently  for  our  present  purpose  as  Ctf,  in  the  second  as  Fct. 
We  might  also  symbolize  the  idea  of  an  orange  as  seen  by  c'^/and 
the  idea  of  an  orange  as  felt  by  /'  c  t,  using  the  accented  letter  to 
signify  that  different  constituents  are  dominant  in  the  two  cases. 
What  we  have,  then,  to  observe  is  briefly  (1)  that  the  processes 
by  which  the  whole  complex  c'tforfct  is  brought  into  conscious- 
ness differ  importantly  from  the  process  by  which  C  or  F  rein- 
states and  maintains  tf  or  c  t,  and  (2)  that  c,  t,  and/ never  have 
that  distinct  existence  as  representations  which  they  had  as  pre- 
sentations or  impressions. 

The  mental  synthesis  which  has  taken  place  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  percept  can  only  partially  fail  in  the  idea,  and 
never  so  far  as  to  leave  us  with  a  chaotic  "  manifold  "  of 
mere  sensational  remnants.  On  the  contrary,  we  find  that 
in  "  constructive  imagination  "  a  new  kind  of  effort  is  often 
requisite  in  order  to  dissociate  these  representational  com- 


3  Ibid. 


XX.  — 


58 


PSYCHOLOGY 


plexes  as  a  preliminary  to  new  combinations.  But  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  results  of  such  an  analysis  are  ever 
the  ultimate  elements  of  the  percept,  that  is,  merely  isolated 
impressions  in  a  fainter  form.  We  may  now  try  to  ascertain 
further  the  characteristic  marks  which  distinguish  what  is 
imaged  from  what  is  perceived. 
Charac-  The  most  obvious,  if  not  the  most  invariable,  difference 
teristics  js  that  which,  as  we  have  seen,  Hume  calls  the  superior 
ideas.  force  or  liveliness  of  primary  presentations  as  compared 
with  secondary  presentations.  But  what  exactly  are  we 
to  understand  by  this  somewhat  figurative  language  ?  A 
simple  difference  of  intensity  cannqt  be  all  that  is  meant, 
for,  though  we  may  be  momentarily  confused,  we  can  per- 
fectly well  distinguish  the  faintest  impression  from  an 
image,  and  yet  can  hardly  suppose  the  faintest  impression 
to  be  intenser  than  the  most  lively  image.  Moreover,  we 
can  reproduce  such  faintest  impressions  in  idea,  so  that,  if 
everything  depended  on  intensity,  we  should  be  committed 
to  the  gratuitous  supposition  that  secondary  presentations 
can  secure  attention  with  a  less  intensity  than  is  required 
for  primary  presentations.  The  whole  subject  of  the  in- 
tensity of  representations  awaits  investigation.  Between 
moonlight  and  sunlight  or  between  midday  and  dawn  we 
could  discriminate  many  grades  of  intensity ;  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  there  is  any  corresponding  variation  of 
intensity  between  them  when  they  are  not  seen  but  ima- 
gined. Many  persons  suppose  they  can  imagine  a  waxing 
or  a  waning  sound  or  the  gradual  abatement  of  an  intense 
pain ;  but  what  really  happens  in  such  cases  is  probably 
not  a  rise  and  fall  in  the  intensity  of  a  single  representa- 
tion, but  a  change  in  the  complex  represented.  In  the 
primary  presentation  there  has  been  a  change  of  quality 
along  with  change  of  intensity,  and  not  only  so,  but  most 
frequently  a  change  in  the  muscular  adaptations  of  the 
sense-organs  too,  to  say  nothing  of  organic  sensations 
accompanying  these  changes.  A  representation  of  some 
or  all  of  these  attendants  is  perhaps  what  takes  place  when 
variations  of  intensity  are  supposed  to  be  reproduced. 
Again,  hallucinations  are  often  described  as  abnormally 
intense  images  which  simply,  by  reason  of  their  intensity, 
are  mistaken  for  percepts.  But  such  statement,  though 
supported  by  very  high  authority,  is  almost  certainly  false, 
and  would  probably  never  have  been  made  if  physiological 
and  epistemological  considerations  had  been  excluded  as 
they  ought  to  have  been.  Hallucinations,  when  carefully 
examined,  seem  just  as  much  as  percepts  to  contain  among 
their  constituents  some  primary  presentation — either  a  so- 
called  subjective  sensation  of  sight  and  hearing  or  some 
organic  sensation  due  to  deranged  circulation  or  secretion. 
Now  we  have  noticed  already  incidentally  in  a  preced- 
ing paragraph  that  primary  presentations  reinstate  and 
maintain  the  representational  constituents  of  a  percept  in  a 
manner  very  different  from  that  in  which  what  are  unmis- 
takably ideas  reproduce  each  other.  The  intensity  and 
steadiness  of  the  impressional  elements  are,  as  it  were, 
shared  by  the  ideational  elements  in  a  complex  containing 
both.  Intensity  alone,  then,  will  not  suffice  to  discrimi- 
nate, neither  will  extremes  of  intensity  alone  lead  us  to 
confuse,  impressions  and  images. 

The  superior  steadiness  just  mentioned  is  perhaps  a 
more  constant  and  not  less  striking  characteristic  of  per- 
cepts. Ideas  are  not  only  in  a  continual  flux,  but  even 
when  we  attempt  forcibly  to  detain  one  it  varies  continu- 
ally in  clearness  and  completeness,  reminding  one  of 
nothing  so  much  as  of  the  illuminated  devices  made  of 
gas  jets,  common  at  fetes,  when  the  wind  sweeps  across 
them,  momentarily  obliterating  one  part  and  at  the  same 
time  intensifying  another.  There  is  not  this  perpetual 
flow  and  flicker  in  what  we  perceive  ;  for  this,  unlike  the 
train  of  ideas,  has  at  the  outset  neither  a  logical  nor  a 


psychological  continuity.  The  impressions  entering  con- 
sciousness at  any  one  moment  are  psychologically  inde- 
pendent of  each  other ;  they  are  equally  independent  of 
the  impressions  and  images  presented  the  moment  before 
— independent,  i.e,,  as  regards  their  order  and  character, 
not,  of  course,  as  regards  the  share  of  attention  they  secure. 
Attention  to  be  concentrated  in  one  direction  must  be 
withdrawn  from  another,  and  images  may  absorb  it  to  the 
exclusion  of  impressions  as  readily  as  a  first  impression  to 
the  exclusion  of  a  second.  But,  when  attention  is  secured, 
a  faint  impression  has  a  fixity  and  definiteness  lacking  in 
the  case  of  even  vivid  ideas.  One  ground  for  this  definite- 
ness  and  independence  lies  in  the  localization  or  projec- 
tion which  accompanies  all  perception.  But  why,  if  so, 
it  might  be  asked,  do  we  not  confound  percept  and  image 
when  what  we  imagine  is  imagined  as  definitely  localized 
and  projected?  Because  we  have  a  contrary  percept  to 
give  the  image  the  lie ;  where  this  fails,  as  in  dreams,  or 
where,  as  in  hallucination,  the  image  obtains  in  other 
ways  the  fixity  characteristic  of  impressions,  such  con- 
fusion does  in  fact  result.  But  in  normal  waking  life  we 
have  the  whole  presentation-continuum,  as  it  were,  occu- 
pied and  in  operation :  we  are  distinctly  conscious  of  being 
embodied  and  having  our  senses  about  us. 

This  contrariety  between  impression  and  image  suggests, 
however,  a  deeper  question  :  we  may  ask,  not  how  it  is 
resolved,  but  IIOAV  it  is  possible.  With  eyes  wide  open, 
and  while  clearly  aware  of  the  actual  field  of  sight  and  its 
filling,  one  can  recall  or  imagine  a  wholly  different  scene  : 
lying  warm  in  bed  one  can  imagine  oneself  out  walking 
in  the  cold.  It  is  useless  to  say  the  terms  are  different, 
that  what  is  perceived  is  present  and  what  is  imaged  is 
past  or  future.1  The  images,  it  is  true,  have  certain 
temporal  marks — of  which  more  presently — by  which  they 
may  be  referred  to  past  or  future ;  but  as  imaged  they  are 
present,  and,  as  we  have  just  observed,  are  regarded  as 
both  actual  and  present  in  the  absence  of  correcting  im- 
pressions. We  cannot  at  once  see  the  sky  red  and  blue ; 
how  is  it  we  can  imagine  it  the  one  while  perceiving  it  to 
be  the  other1?  When  we  attempt  to  make  the  field  of 
sight  at  once  red  and  blue,  as  in  looking  through  red  glass 
with  one  eye  and  through  blue  glass  with  the  other,  either 
the  colours  merge  and  we  see  a  purple  sky  or  we  see  the 
sky  first  of  the  one  colour  and  then  of  the  other  in  irregular 
alternation.  That  this  does  not  happen  between  impres- 
sion and  image  shows  that,  whatever  their  connexion, 
images  altogether  are  distinct  from  the  presentation-con- 
tinuum and  cannot  with  strict  propriety  be  spoken  of  as 
revived  or  reproduced  impressions.  This  difference  is 
manifest  in  another  respect,  viz.,  when  we  compare  the 
effects  of  diffusion  in  the  two  cases.  An  increase  in  the 
intensity  of  a  sensation  of  touch  entails  an  increase  in  the 
extensity ;  an  increase  of  muscular  innervation  entails 
irradiation  to  adjacent  muscles ;  but  when  a  particular 
idea  becomes  clearer  and  more  distinct  there  rises  into 
consciousness  an  associated  idea  qualitatively  related  prob- 
ably to  impressions  of  quite  another  class,  as  when  the 
smell  of  tar  calls  up  memories  of  the  sea-beach  and  fish- 
ing-boats. Since  images  are  thus  distinct  from  impres- 
sions, and  yet  so  far  continuous  with  each  other  as  to  form 
a  train  in  itself  unbroken,  we  should  be  justified,  if  it  were 
convenient,  in  speaking  of  images  as  changes  in  a  repre- 
sentation- or  memory-continuum ;  and  later  on  we  may  see 
that  this  is  convenient. 

Impressions,  then,  have  no  associates  to  whose  presence 
their  own  is  accommodated  and  on  whose  intensity  their 
own  depends.  Each  bids  independently  for  attention,  so 


1  Moreover,  as  we  shall  see,  the  distinction  between  present  and  past 
or  future  psychologically  presupposes  the  contrast  of  impression  and 
image. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


59 


xion  of 
Ipres- 
|>ns 

1,1 
iages. 


that  often  a  state  of  distraction  ensues,  such  as  the  train 
of  ideas  left  to  itself  never  occasions.  The  better  to  hear 
we  listen ;  the  better  to  see  we  look ;  to  smell  better  we 
dilate  the  nostrils  and  sniff ;  and  so  with  all  the  special 
senses :  each  sensory  impression  sets  up  nascent  movements 
for  its  better  reception.1  In  like  manner  there  is  also  an 
adjustment  for  images  which  can  be  distinguished  from 
sensory  adjustments  almost  as  readily  as  these  are  distin- 
guished from  each  other.  We  become  most  aware  of  this, 
as,  mutatis  mutandis,  we  do  of  them,  when  we  voluntarily 
concentrate  attention  upon  particular  ideas  instead  of 
remaining  mere  passive  spectators,  as  it  were,  of  the 
general  procession.  'To  this  ideational  adjustment  may  be 
referred  most  of  the  strain  and  "head-splitting"  connected 
with  recollecting,  reflecting,  and  all  that  people  call  head- 
work  ;  and  the  "absent  look"  of  one  intently  thinking  or 
absorbed  in  reverie  seems  directly  due  to  the  absence  of 
sensory  adjustment  that  accompanies  the  concentration  of 
attention  upon  ideas. 

But,  distinct  as  they  are,  impressions  and  images  are 
still  closely  connected.  In  the  first  place,  there  are  two 
or  three  well-marked  intermediate  stages,  so  that,  though 
we  cannot  observe  it,  we  seem  justified  in  assuming  a 
steady  transition  from  the  one  to  the  other.  As  the  first 
of  such  intermediate  stages,  it  is  usual  to  reckon  what  are 
often,  and — so  far  as  psychology  goes — inaccurately,  styled 
after-images.  They  would  be  better  described  as  after- 
sensations,  except  perhaps  when  the  sense  of  sight  is  speci- 
ally in  question,  inasmuch  as  they  are  due  either  (1)  to 
the  persistence  of  the  original  peripheral  excitation  after 
the  stimulus  is  withdrawn,  or  (2)  to  the  effects  of  the 
exhaustion  or  the  repair  that  immediately  follows  this 
excitation.  In  the  former  case  they  are  qualitatively 
identical  with  the  original  sensation  and  are  called  "  posi- 
tive," in  the  latter  they  are  complementary  to  it  and  are 
called  "  negative  "  (see  EYE,  vol.  viii.  p.  823).  These  last, 
then,  of  which  we  have  clear  instances  only  in  connexion 
with  sight,  are  obviously  in  no  sort  re-presentations  of  the 
original  impression,  but  a  sequent  presentation  of  dia- 
metrically opposite  quality ;  while  positive  after-sensations 
are,  psychologically  regarded,  nothing  but  the  original 
sensations  in  a  state  of  evanescence.  It  is  this  continu- 
ance and  gradual  waning  after  the  physical  stimulus  has 
completely  ceased  that  give  after -sensations  their  chief 
title  to  a  place  in  the  transition  from  impression  to  image. 
There  is,  however,  another  point  of  resemblance :  after- 
sensations  are  less  affected  by  movement.  If  we  turn 
away  our  eyes  we  cease  to  see  the  flame  at  which  we  have 
been  looking,  but  the  after-image  remains  and  is  projected 
upon  the  wall,  and  continues  still  localized  in  the  dark  field 
of  sight  even  if  we  close  our  eyes  altogether.  But  the 
fact  that  movement  affects  their  localization,  though  it 
does  not  exclude  them,  and  the  fact  also  that  we  are  dis- 
tinctly aware  of  our  sense-organs  being  .concerned  in  their 
presentation,  both  serve  to  mark  them  off  as  primary  and 
not  secondary  presentations.  The  after- sensation  is  in 
reality  more  elementary  than  either  the  preceding  percept 
or  its  image.  In  both  these,  in  the  case  of  sight,  objects 
appear  in  space  of  three  dimensions,  i.e.,  with  all  the  marks 
of  solidity  and  perspective  ; 2  but  the  so-called  after-image 

1  Organic  sensations,  though  distinguishable  from  images  by  their 
definite  though  often  anatomically  inaccurate  localization,  furnish  no 
clear  evidence  of  such  adaptations.     But  in  another  respect  they  are 
still  more  clearly  marked  off  from  images,  viz.,  by  the  pleasure  or  pain 
they  directly  occasion. 

2  The  following  scant  quotation  from  Fechner,  one  of  the  best 
observers  in  this  department,  must  suffice  in  illustration.     "  Lying 
awake  in  the  early  morning  after  daybreak,  with  my  eyes  motionless 
though  open,  there  usually  appears,  when  I  chance  to  close  them  for 
a  moment,  the  black  after-image  of  the  white  bed  immediately  before 
me  and  the  white  after-image  of  the  black  stove-pipe  some  distance 
away  against  the  opposite  wall.  .   .  .  Both  [after-images]  appear  as 


lacks  all  these.  Still  further  removed  from  normal  sensa- 
tions (i.e.,  sensations  determined  by  the  stimuli  appropri- 
ate to  the  sense-organ)  are  the  "  recurrent  sensations  "  often 
unnoticed  but  probably  experienced  more  or  less  frequently 
by  everybody — cases,  that  is,  in  which  sights  or  sounds, 
usually  such  as  at  the  time  were  engrossing  and  impressive, 
suddenly  reappear  several  hours  or  even  days  after  the  phy- 
sical stimuli,  as  well  as  their  effects  on  the  terminal  sense- 
organ,  seem  entirely  to  have  ceased.  Thus  workers  with 
the  microscope  often  see  objects  which  they  have  examined 
during  the  day  stand  out  clearly  before  them  in  the  dark ; 
it  was  indeed  precisely  such  an  experience  that  led  the 
anatomist  Henle  first  to  call  attention  to  these  facts.  But 
he  and  others  have  wrongly  referred  them  to  what  he 
called  a  "  sense-memory  " ;  all  that  we  know  is  against  the 
supposition  that  the  eye  or  the  ear  has  any  power  to 
retain  and  reproduce  percepts.  "Recurrent  sensations" 
have  all  the  marks  of  percepts  which  after-images  lack ; 
they  only  differ  from  what  are  more  strictly  called  "  hallu- 
cinations" in  being,  as  regards  form  and  quality,  exact 
reproductions  of  the  original  impression  and  in  being 
independent  of  all  subjective  suggestion  determined  by 
emotion  or  mental  derangement. 

In  what  Fechner  has  called  the  "  memory-after-image,"  or 
primary  memory-image,  as  it  is  better  termed,  we  have 
the  ordinary  image  in  its  earliest  form.  As  an  instance 
of  what  is  meant  may  be  cited  the  familiar  experience  that 
a  knock  at  the  door,  the  hour  struck  on  the  clock,  the  face 
of  a  friend  whom  we  have  passed  unnoticed,  may  sometimes 
be  recognized  a  few  moments  later  by  means  of  the  persist- 
ing image,  although  the  actual  impression  was  entirely 
disregarded.  But  the  primary  memory-image  can  always 
be  obtained,  and  is  obtained  to  most  advantage,  by  looking 
intently  at  some  object  for  an  instant  and  then  closing  the 
eyes  or  turning  them  away.  The  object  is  then  imaged 
for  a  mom«t  very  vividly  and  distinctly,  and  can  be  so 
recovered  several  times  in  succession  by  an  effort  of  atten- 
tion. Such  reinstatement  is  materially  helped  by  rapidly 
opening  and  closing  the  eyes,  or  by  suddenly  moving  them 
in  any  way.  In  this  respect  a  primary  memory-image  re- 
sembles an  after-sensation,  which  can  be  repeatedly  revived 
in  this  manner  when  it  would  otherwise  have  disappeared. 
But  in  other  respects  the  two  are  very  different :  the  after- 
sensation  is  necessarily  presented  if  the  intensity  and 
direction  of  the  original  excitation  suffice  for  its  production, 
and  cannot  be  presented,  however  much  we  attend,  if  they 
do  not.  Moreover,  the  after-sensation  is  only  for  a  moment 
positive,  and  then  passes  into  the  negative  or  complement- 
ary phase,  when,  so  far  from  even  contributing  towards 
the  continuance  of  the  original  percept,  it  directly  hinders 
it.  Primary  memory-images,  on  the  other  hand,  and 
indeed  all  images,  depend  mainly  upon  the  attention  given 
to  the  impression  ;  provided  that  was  sufficient  the  faintest 
impression  may  be  long  retained,  and  without  it  very  in- 
tense ones  will  soon  leave  no  trace.  The  primary  memory- 
image  retains  so  much  of  its  original  definiteness  and 
intensity  as  to  make  it  possible  with  great  accuracy  to- 
compare  two  physical  phenomena,  one  of  which  is  in  this 
way  remembered  while  the  other  is  really  present ;  for 
the  most  part  this  is  indeed  a  more  accurate  procedure 
than  that  of  dealing  with  both  together.  But  this  is  only 
possible  for  a  very  short  time.  From  "Weber's  experiment* 
with  weights  and  lines3  it  would  appear  that  even  after 

if  they  were  in  juxtaposition  in  the  same  plane  ;  and,  though — when 
my  eyes  are  open — I  seem  to  see  the  white  bed  in  its  entire  length,  the 
after-image — when  my  eyes  are  shut — presents  instead  only  a  narrow 
black  stripe  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  bed  is  seen  considerably  fore- 
shortened. But  the  memory -image  on  the  other  hand  completely 
reproduces  the  pictorial  illusion  as  it  appears  when  the  eyes  are  open  '* 
(Elemtnie  der  Psychophysik,  ii.  p.  473). 
3  Die  Lehre  vom  Tastsinne,  &c.,  p.  86  sq. 


60 


PSYCHOLOGY 


10  seconds  a  considerable  waning  has  taken  place,  and 
after  100  seconds  all  that  is  distinctive  of  the  primary 
image  has  probably  ceased. 

On  the  whole,  then,  it  appears  that  the  ordinary  memory- 
image  is  a  joint  effect;  it  is  not  the  mere  residuum  of 
changes  in  the  presentation -continuum,  but  an  effect  of 
these  only  when  there  has  been  some  concentration  of 
attention  upon  them.     It  has  the  form  of  a  percept,  but  is 
not  constituted  of  "  revived  impressions,"  for  the  essential 
marks  of  impressions  are  absent ;  there  is  no  localization  or 
projection,  neither  is  there  the  motor  adaptation,  nor  the 
tone  of  feeling,  incident  to  the  reception  of  impressions. 
Ideas  do  not  reproduce  the  intensity  of  these  original  con- 
stituents, but  only  their  quality  and  complication.     What 
we  call  the  vividness  of  an  idea  is  of  the  nature  of  inten- 
sity, but  it  is  an  intensity  very  partially  and  indirectly 
determined  by  that  of  the  original  impression ;  it  depends 
much  more  upon  the  state  of  the  memory-continuum  and 
the  attention  the  idea  receives.     The  range  of  vividness 
in  ideas  is  probably  comparatively  small ;  what  are  called 
variations  in  vividness  are  often  really  variations  in  dis- 
tinctness and  completeness.1     Where  we  have  great  in- 
tensity, as  in  hallucinations,  primary  presentations  may  be 
reasonably  supposed  to  enter  into  the  complex. 

It  is  manifest  that  the  memory-continuum  has  been  in 
some  way  formed  out  of  or  differentiated  from  the  pre- 
sentation-continuum by  the  movements  of  attention,  but 
the  precise  connexion  of  the  two  continua  is  still  very 
difficult  to  determine.     We  see  perhaps  the  first  distinct 
step   of   this  evolution  in  the  primary  memory- image : 
here  there  has  been  no  cessation  in  presentation  and  yet 
the  characteristic  marks  of  the  impression  are  gone,  so 
much   so,   indeed,   that    superposition  without   "fusion" 
with  an  exactly  similar  impression  is  possible.     In  this 
manner  we .  seem  to  have  several  primary  images  in  the 
field  of  consciousness  together,  as  when  we  cB»Unt  up  the 
strokes  of  the  clock  after  it  has  ceased  striking.     But, 
though  the  image  thus  first  arises  in  the  field  of  conscious- 
ness as  a  sort  of  ajroppoia.  or  emanation  from  the  presenta- 
tion-continuum, its  return  (at  which  stage  it  first  becomes 
a  proper  re-presentation)  is  never  determined  directly  and 
solely  by  a  second  presentation  like  that  which  first  gave 
it  being.     Its  "revival"  is  not  another  birth.     With  a 
second  impression  exactly  like  the  first  we  should  have 
assimilation  or  simple  recognition — an  identity  of  the  in- 
discernible which   precludes   the   individual   distinctness 
required  in  representation.     But  how,  then,  was  this  dis- 
tinctness in  the  first  instance  possible  in  the  series  of 
primary  images  just  referred  to  as  being  due  to  the  re- 
petition of  the  same  presentation  1     Seemingly  to  differ- 
ences in  the  rest  of  that  field  of  consciousness  in  which 
each  in  turn  occurred  and  to  some  persistence  of  these 
differences.     If  the  whole  field  which  the  second  impres- 
sion entered  had  been  just  like  the  field  of  the  first  it  is 
hard  to  see  what  ground  for  distinctness  there  would  have 
been.     When  such  second  impression  does  not  occur  till 
after  the  primary  memory-image  has  ceased,  a  representa- 
tion is   still  possible  provided   the  new  impression  can 
reinstate  sufficient  of  the  mental  framing  of  the  old  to 
give  the  image  individual   distinctness.      This  is  really 
what  happens  in  what  is  ordinarily  called  "  association  by 
similarity,"— similarity,   that  is,   in  the  midst   of   some 
diversity.     Our  inquiry  into  the  connexion  between  pre- 
sentations and  representations  has  thus  brought  us  to  the 
general  consideration  of  mental  association. 


As  we  have  seen  that  there  is  a  steady  transition  from  percept  to 
image,  so,  if  space  allowed,  the  study  of  hallucinations  might  make 
clear  an  opposite  and  abnormal  process — the  passage,  that  is  to  say, 
of  images  into  percepts,  for  such,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  are 
hallucinations  of  perception,  psychologically  regarded. 


Mental  Association  and  the  Memory-continuum. 
Only  a  very  brief  treatment  of  this  important  subject  Ass 
is  permissible  here,  as  it  has  already  been  handled  at  length  ti(» 
under  ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS  (q.v.).     Great  confusion  has sini 
been  occasioned,  as  we  have  seen  incidentally,  by  the  lax  JUn 
use  of  the  term  "association";  this  confusion  has  been  in- me) 
creased  by  a  further  laxity  in  the  use  of  the  term  "  associa- 
tion by  similarity."     In  so  far  as  the  similarity  amounts 
to  identity,  as  in  assimilation,  we  have  a  process  which 
is  more  fundamental  than  association  by  contiguity,  but 
then  it  is  not  a  process  of  association.     Yet,  when  the  re- 
viving presentation  is  only  partially  similar  to  the  pre- 
sentation revived,  the  nature  of  the  association  does  not 
appear  to  differ  from  that  operative  when  one  "contiguous" 
presentation  revives  another.     In  the  one  case  we  have, 
say,  a  b  x  recalling  a  b  y  and  in  the  other  a  b  c  recalling 
def.  ^  Now  anybody  who  will  reflect  must  surely  see  that 
the  similarity  between  a  b  x  and  a  b  y,  as  distinct  from 
the  identity  of  their  partial  constituent  a  b,  cannot  be  the 
means  of  recall;  for  this  similarity  is  nothing  but  the 
state  of  mind — to  be  studied  presently — which  results 
when  a  b  x  and  a  b  y,  having  been  recalled,  are  in  con- 
sciousness together  and  then  compared.     But,  if  a  b,  having 
concurred  with  y  before  and  being  now  present  in  a  b  x, 
again  revives  y,  the  association,  so  far  as  that  goes,  is 
manifestly  one  of  contiguity,  albeit  the  state  of  mind  im- 
mediately incident  as  soon  as  the  revival  is  complete  be 
what  Dr  Bain  loves  to  style  "the  flash  of  similarity."     So 
far  as  the  mere  revival  itself  goes,  there  is  no  more  simi- 
larity in  this  case  than  there  is  when  a  b  c  revives  def. 
For  the  very  a  b  c  that  now  operates  as  the  reviving  pre- 
sentation was  obviously  never  in  time  contiguous  with  the 
def  that  is  revived;  if  all  traces  of  previous  experiences  of 
a  b  c  were  obliterated  there  would  be  no  revival.    In  other 
words,  the  a  b  c  now  present  must  be  "automatically  asso- 
ciated," or,  as  we  prefer  to  say,  must  be  assimilated  to 
those  residua  of  a  b  c  which  were  "  contiguous  "  with  d  ef, 
before  its  representation  can  occur.    And  this,  and  nothing 
more  than  this,  we  have  seen,  is  all  the  "  similarity  "  that 
could  be  at  work  when  a  b  x  "  brought  up  "  a  b  y. 

On   the  whole,  then,  we  may  assume   that   the   onlyconti 
principle  of  association  we  have  to  examine  is  the  so-called  guity 
"association  by  contiguity, "which,  as  ordinarily  formulated,  exPlf' 
runs  : — Any  presentations  whatever,  which  are  in  conscious- 
ness  together  or  in  close  succession,  cohere  in  such  a  way  that 
when  one  recurs  it  tends  to  revive  the  rest,  such  tendency 
increasing  with  the  frequency  of   the  conjunction.     But 
such  a  statement   is  liable  to  all  the  objections  already 
urged  against  what  we  may  call  atomistic  psychology.    Pre- 
sentations do  not  really  crowd  into  Mansoul  by  the  avenues 
of  Eyegate,  Eargate,  &c.,  there  to  form  bonds  and  unions 
as  in  Bunyan's  famous  allegory.     It  has  been  often  con- 
tended that  any  investigation  into  the  nature  of  association 
must  be  fruitless.2     But,  if  association  is  thus  a  first  princi- 
ple, it  ought  at  least  to  admit  of  such  a  statement  as  shall 
remove  the  necessity  for  inquiry.     So  long,  however,  as 
we  are  asked  to  conceive  presentations  originally  distinct 
and  isolated  becoming  eventually  linked  together,  we  shall 
naturally  feel  the  need  of  some  explanation  of  the  process, 
for  neither  the  isolation  nor  the  links  are  clear, — not  the 
isolation,  for  we  can  only  conceive  two  presentations  sepa- 
rated by  other  presentations  intervening ;  nor  the  links, 
unless  these  are  also  presentations,  and  then  the  difficulty 
recurs.     But,  if  for  contiguity  we  substitute  continuity  and 
regard  the  associated  presentations  as  parts  of  a  new  con- 
tinuum, the  only  important  inquiry  is  how  this  new  whole 
was  first  of  all  integrated. 

3  So   Hume,  Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  pt.  i.  §  4  (Green  and 
Grose's  ed.,  p.  321);  also  Lotze,  Metaphysik,  1st  ed.,  p.  526. 


To  ascertain  this  point  we  must  examine  each  of  the  two 
leading  divisions  of  contiguous  association — that  of  simul- 
'  taneous  presentations  and  that  of  presentations  occurring 
in  close  succession.  The  last,  being  the  clearer,  may  be 
taken  first.  In  a  series  of  associated  presentations,  A  B 
C  D  E,  such  as  the  movements  made  in  writing,  the  words 
of  a  poem  learned  by  heart,  or  the  simple  letters  of  the 
alphabet  themselves,  we  find  that  each  member  recalls  its 
successor  but  not  its  predecessor.  Familiar  as  this  fact  is, 
it  is  not  perhaps  easy  to  explain  it  satisfactorily.  Since 
C  is  associated  both  with  B  and  D,  and  apparently  as  in- 
timately with  the  one  as  with  the  other,  why  does  it  revive 
the  later  only  and  not  the  earlier  1  B  recalls  C ;  why  does 
not  C  recall  B 1  We  have  seen  that  any  reproduction  at  all 
of  A  or  B  or  C  depends  primarily  upon  its  having  been 
the  object  of  special  attention  so  as  to  occupy  at  least 
momentarily  the  focus  of  consciousness.  Now  we  can  in 
the  first  instance  only  surmise  that  the  order  in  which 
they  are  reproduced  is  determined  by  the  order  in  which 
they  were  thus  attended  to  when  first  presented.  The 
next  question  is  whether  the  association  of  objects  simul- 
taneously presented  can  be  resolved  into  an  association  of 
objects  successively  attended  to.  Whenever  we  try  to 
recall  a  scene  we  saw  but  for  a  moment  there  are  always 
a  few  traits  that  recur,  the  rest  being  blurred  and  vague, 
instead  of  the  whole  being  revived  in  equal  distinctness 
or  indistinctness.  On  seeing  the  same  scene  a  second 
time  our  attention  is  apt  to  be  caught  by  something  un- 
noticed before,  as  this  has  the  advantage  of  novelty ; 
and  so  on,  till  we  have  "  lived  ourselves  into "  the 
whole,  which  may  then  admit  of  simultaneous  recall. 
Dr  Bain,  who  is  rightly  held  to  have  given  the  best  ex- 
position of  the  laws  of  association,  admits  something 
very  like  this  in  saying  that  "  coexistence  is  an  artificial 
growth  formed  from  a  certain  peculiar  class  of  mental 
successions."  But,  while  it  is  easy  to  think  of  instances 
in  which  the  associated  objects  were  attended  to  suc- 
cessively, and  we  are  all  perfectly  aware  that  the  surest 
— not  to  say  the  only — way  to  fix  the  association  of  a 
number  of  objects  is  by  thus  concentrating  attention 
on  each  in  turn,  it  seems  hardly  possible  to  mention 
a  case  in  which  attention  to  the  associated  objects  could 
not  have  been  successive.  In  fact,  an  aggregate  of  objects 
on  which  attention  could  be  focused  at  once  would  be 
already  associated. 

The  only  case,  then,  that  now  remains  to  be  considered 
is  that — to  take  it  in  its  simplest  form — of  two  primary 
presentations  A  and  X,  parts  of  different  special  continua 
or  distinct — i.e.,  non-adjacent — parts  of  the  same,  and 
occupying  the  focus  of  consciousness  in  immediate  succes- 
sion. This  constitutes  their  integration ;  for  the  result 
of  this  occupation  may  be  regarded  as  a  new  continuum 
in  which  A  and  X  become  adjacent  parts.  For  it  is 
characteristic  of  a  continuum  that  an  increase  in  the 
intensity  of  any  part  leads  to  the  intenser  presentation 
of  adjacent  parts  ;  and  in  this  sense  A  and  X,  which  were 
not  originally  continuous,  have  come  to  be  so.  We  have 
here,  then,  some  justification  for  the  term  secondary  or 
memory-continuum  when  applied  to  this  continuous  series 
of  representations  to  distinguish  it  from  the  primary  or 
presentation -continuum  from  which  its  constituents  are 
derived.  The  most  important  peculiarity  of  this  con- 
tinuum, therefore,  is  that  it  is  a  series  of  representations 
integrated  by  means  of  the  movements  of  attention  out 
of  the  differentiations  of  the  primary  or  presentation- 
continuum,  or  rather  out  of  so  much  of  these  differentia- 
tions as  pertain  to  what  we  know  as  the  primary  memory- 
image.  These  movements  of  attention,  if  the  phrase  may 
be  allowed,  come  in  the  end  to  depend  mainly  upon  in- 
terest, but  at  first  appear  to  be  determined  entirely  by 


61 

mere  intensity.1  To  them  it  is  proposed  to  look  for  that 
continuity  which  images  lose  in  so  far  as  they  part  with 
the  local  signs  they  had  as  impressions  and  cease  to  be 
either  localized  or  projected.  Inasmuch  as  it  is  assumed 
that  these  movements  form  the  connexion  between  one  re- 
presentation and  another  in  the  memory-train  they  may 
be  called  "temporal  signs."2  The  evidence  for  their  ex- 
istence can  be  more  conveniently  adduced  presently;  it 
must  suffice  to  remark  here  that  it  consists  almost  wholly 
of  facts  connected  with  voluntary  attention  and  the  volun- 
tary control  of  the  flow  of  ideas,  so  that  temporal  signs, 
unlike  local  signs,  are  fundamentally  motor  and  not 
sensory.  And,  unlike  impressions,  representations  can 
have  each  but  a  single  sign,3  the  continuum  of  which, 
in  contrast  to  that  of  local  signs,  is  not  rounded  and  com- 
plete but  continuously  advancing. 

But  in  saying  this  we  are  assuming  for  a  moment  that 
the  memory-continuum  forms  a  perfectly  single  and  un- 
broken train.  If  it  ever  actually  became  so,  then,  in  the 
absence  of  any  repetition  of  old  impressions  and  apart  from 
voluntary  interference  with  the  train,  consciousness,  till  it 
ceased  entirely,  would  consist  of  a  fixed  and  mechanical 
round  of  images.  Some  approximation  to  such  a  state  is 
often  found  in  uncultured  persons  who  lead  uneventful 
lives,  and  still  more  in  idiots,  who  can  scarcely  think  at  all. 

In  actual  fact,  however,  the  memory-train  is  liable  to  Oblivis- 
change  in  two  respects,  which  considerably  modify  itscence- 
structure,  viz.,  (1)  through  the  evanescence  of  some  parts, 
and  (2)  through  the  partial  recurrence  of  like  impressions, 
which  produces  reduplications  of  varying  amount  and 
extent  in  other  parts.  As  regards  the  first,  we  may  infer 
that  the  waning  or  sinking  towards  the  threshold  of  con- 
sciousness which  we  can  observe  in  the  primary  mental 
image  continues  in  subconsciousness  after  the  threshold  is 
past.  For  the  longer  the  time  that  elapses  before  their 
revival  the  fainter,  the  less  distinct,  and  the  less  complete 
are  the  images  when  revived,  and  the  more  slowly  they 
rise.  All  the  elements  of  a  complex  are  not  equally 
revivable,  as  we  have  seen  already :  tastes,  smells,  and 
organic  sensations,  though  powerful  as  impressions  to 
revive  other  images,  have  little  capacity  for  ideal  repro- 
duction themselves,  while  muscular  movements,  though 
perhaps  of  all  presentations  the  most  readily  revived,  do 
not  so  readily  revive  other  presentations.  Idiosyncrasies 
are,  however,  frequent ;  thus  we  find  one  person  has  an 
exceptional  memory  for  sounds,  another  for  colours,  another 
for  forms.  Still  it  is  in  general  true  that  the  most  intense, 
the  most  impressive,  and  the  most  interesting  presentations 
persist  the  longest.  But  the  evanescence,  which  is  in  all 
cases  comparatively  rapid  at  first,  deepens  sooner  or  later 
into  real  or  apparent  oblivion.  In  this  manner  it  comes 
about  that  parts  of  the  memory-continuum  lose  all  distinct- 
ness of  feature  and,  being  without  recognizable  content, 


1  This  connexion  of  association  with  continuous  movements  of  atten- 
tion makes  it  easier  to  understand  the  difficulty  above  referred  to,  viz. 
that  in  a  series  A  B  C  D  .  .  .  B  revives  C  but  not  A ,  and  so  on — a  diffi- 
culty that  the  analogy  of  adhesiveness  or  links  leaves  unaccountable. 
To  ignore  the  part  played  by  attention  in  association,  to  represent  the 
memory-continuum  as  due  solely  to  the  concurrence  of  presentations, 
is  perhaps  the  chief  defect  of  the  associationist  psychology,  both  Eng- 
lish and  German.     Mr  Spencer's  endeavour  to  show  "that  psychical 
life  is  distinguished  from  physical  life  by  consisting  of  successive 
changes  only  instead  of  successive  and  simultaneous  changes"  (Prin- 
ciples of  Psychology,  pt.  iv.  ch.  ii.,  in  particular  pp.  403,  406)  is  really 
nothing  but  so  much  testimony  to  the  work  of  attention  in  forming 
the  memory  -  continuum,  especially  when,  as  there  is  good  reason  to 
do,  we  reject  his  assumption  that  this  growing  seriality  is  physically 
determined. 

2  A  term  borrowed  from  Lotze  (Meiaphysik,  1st  ed.,  p.  295),  but 
the  present  writer  is  alone  responsible  for  the  sense  here  given  to  it 
and  the  hypothesis  in  which  it  is  used. 

3  Apart,  that  is  to  say,  of  course,  from  the  reduplications  of  the 
memory-train  spoken  of  below. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


shrivel  up  to  a  dim  and  meagre  representation  of  life  that 
has  lapsed — a  representation  that  just  suffices,  for  example, 
to  show  us  that  "our  earliest  recollections"  are  not  of 
our  first  experiences,  or  to  save  them  from  being  not  only 
isolated  but  discontinuous.  Such  discontinuity  can,  of 
course,  never  be  absolute ;  we  must  have  something  repre- 
sented even  to  mark  the  gap.  Oblivion  and  the  absence 
of  all  representation  are  thus  the  same,  and  the  absence 
of  all  representation  cannot  psychologically  constitute  a 
break.  The  terms  "  evolution  "  and  "  involution  "  have  in 
this  respect  been  happily  applied  to  the  rising  and  falling 
of  representations.  When  we  recall  a  particular  period  of 
our  past  life  or  what  has  long  ceased  to  be  a  familiar 
scene,  events  and  features  gradually  unfold  and,  as  it  were, 
spread  out  as  we  keep  on  attending.  A  precisely  opposite 
process  may  then  be  supposed  to  take  place  when  they 
are  left  in  undisturbed  forgetfulness ;  with  loss  of  distinct- 
ness in  the  several  members  of  a  whole  or  series,  there  is 
a  loss  of  individuality  and  of  individual  differences.  And 
such  loss  is  not  a  mere  latency,  as  some  psychologists,  on 
metaphysical  grounds l  or  from  a  mistaken  use  of  physical 
analogies,  have  been  led  to  suppose.  There  is  no  real 
resemblance  between  the  action,  or  rather  inaction,  of  a 
particle  obedient  to  the  first  law  of  motion  and  the  per- 
sistence of  a  presentation,2  which  is  not  even  the  psychical 
equivalent  of  an  atom. 

Repeti-  More  important  changes  are  produced  by  the  repetition 
tion.  of  parts  of  the  memory -train.  The  effect  of  this  is  not 
merely  to  prevent  the  evanescence  of  the  particular  image 
or  series  of  images,  but  by  partial  and  more  or  less 
frequent  reduplications  of  the  train  upon  itself  to  convert 
it  into  a  partially  new  continuum,  which  we  might  perhaps 
call  the  "ideational  continuum."  The  reduplicated  por- 
tions of  the  train  are  strengthened,  while  at  the  points  of 
divergence  it  becomes  comparatively  weakened,  and  this 
apart  from  the  effects  of  obliviscence.  One  who  had  seen 
the  queen  but  once  would  scarcely  be  likely  to  think  of 
her  without  finding  the  attendant  circumstances  recur  as 
well ;  this  could  not  happen  after  seeing  her  in  a  hundred 
Generic  different  scenes.  The  central  representation  of  the  whole 
images-  complex  would  have  become  more  distinct,  whereas  the 
several  diverging  lines  would  tend  to  dissipate  attention 
and,  by  involving  opposing  representations,  to  neutralize 
each  other,  so  that  probably  no  definite  background  would 
be  reinstated.  Even  this  central  representation  would  be 
more  or  less  generalized.  It  has  been  often  remarked 
that  one's  most  familiar  friends  are  apt  to  be  mentally 
pictured  less  concretely  and  vividly  than  persons  seen 
more  seldom  and  then  in  similar  attitudes  and  moods ;  in 
the  former  case  a  "  generic  image  "  has  grown  out  of  such 
more  specific  representations  as  the  latter  affords.  Still 
further  removed  from  memory-images  are  the  images  that 
result  from  such  familiar  percepts  as  those  of  horses, 
houses,  trees,  <kc. 

Train  of  Thus  as  the  joint  effect  of  obliviscence  and  reduplication 
ideas.  we  are  provided  with  a  flow  of  ideas  distinct  from  the 
memory-train  and  thereby  with  the  material,  already  more 
or  less  organized,  for  intellectual  and  volitional  manipu- 
lation. We  do  not  experience  this  flow — save  very 
momentarily  and  occasionally — altogether  undisturbed  ; 
even  in  dreams  and  reverie  it  is  continually  interrupted 
and  diverted.  Nevertheless  it  is  not  difficult  to  ascertain 
that,  so  far  as  it  is  left  to  itself,  it  takes  a  very  different 
course  from  that  which  we  should  have  to  retrace  if  bent 
on  reminiscence  and  able  to  recollect  perfectly.  The  readi- 
ness and  steadiness  of  this  flow  are  shown  by  the  extremely 
small  effort  necessary  in  order  to  follow  it.  Nevertheless 


1  So,  e.g.,  Hamilton  (following  H.  Schmid),  Led.  on  Met.,  ii.  p. 
211  sq. 

2  Cf.  Lotze,  Metaphyeik,  p.  518. 


from  its  very  nature  it  is  liable,  though  not  to  positive 
breaches  of  continuity  from  its  own  working,  yet  to 
occasional  blocks  or  impediments  to  the  smooth  succession 
of  images  at  points  where  reduplications  diverge,  and 
either  permanently  or  at  the  particular  time  neutralize 
each  other.3 

The  flow  of  ideas  is,  however,  exposed  to  positive  interruptions  Confl 
from  two  distinct  sides, — by  the  intrusion  of  new  presentations  and  of  pr 
by  voluntary  interference.  The  only  result  of  such  interruptions  senta 
which  we  need  here  consider  is  the  conflict  of  presentations  that  may  tioiis 
ensue.  Herbart  and  his  followers  have  gone  so  far  as  to  elaborate 
a  complete  system  of  psychical  statics  and  dynamics,  based  on  the 
conception  of  presentations  as  forces  and  on  certain  more  or  less 
improbable  assumptions  as  to  the  modes  in  which  such  forces 
interact.  Since  our  power  of  attention  is  limited,  it  continually 
happens  that  attention  is  drawn  off  by  new  presentations  at  the 
expense  of  old  ones.  But,  even  if  we  regard  this  non-voluntary 
redistribution  of  attention  as  implying  a  struggle  between  pre- 
sentations, still  such  conflict  to  secure  a  place  in  consciousness  is 
very  different  from  a  conflict  between  presentations  that  are  already 
there.  Either  may  be  experienced  to  any  degree  possible  without 
the  other  appearing  at  all ;  as,  absorbed  in  watching  a  starry  sky, 
one  might  be  unaware  of  the  chilliness  of  the  air,  though  recog- 
nizing at  once,  as  soon  as  the  cold  is  felt,  that,  so  far  from  being 
incompatible,  the  clearness  and  the  coldness  are  causally  connected. 
This  difference  between  a  conflict  of  presentations  to  enter  con- 
sciousness, if  we  allow  for  a  moment  the  propriety  of  the  expression, 
and  that  opposition  or  incompatibility  of  presentations  which  is 
only  possible  when  they  are  in  consciousness  has  been  strangely 
confused  by  the  Herbartians.  In  the  former  the  intensity  of  the 
presentation  is  primarily  alone  of  account ;  in  the  latter,  on  the 
contrary,  quality  and  content  are  mainly  concerned.  Only  the  last 
requires  any  notice  here,  since  such  opposition  arises  when  the 
ideational  continuum  is  interrupted  in  the  ways  just  mentioned, 
and  apparently  arises  in  no  other  way.  Certainly  there  is  no  such 
opposition  between  primary  presentations  :  there  we  have  the  law 
of  incopresentability  preventing  the  presentation  of  opposites  with 
the  same  local  sign  ;  and  their  presentation  with  different  local 
signs  involves,  on  this  level  at  all  events,  no  conflict.  But  what 
has  never  been  presented  could  hardly  be  represented,  if  the  idea- 
tional process  were  undisturbed  :  even  in  our  dreams  white  negroes 
or  round  squares,  for  instance,  never  appear.  In  fact,  absurd  and 
bizarre  as  dream-imagery  is,  it  never  at  any  moment  entails  overt 
contradictions,  though  contradiction  may  be  implicit. 

But  between  ideas  and  percepts  actual  incompatibility  is  frequent. 
In  the  perplexity  of  Isaac,  e.g. — "  The  voice  is  Jacob's  voice,  but  the 
hands  are  the  hands  of  Esau  " — we  have  such  a  case  in  a  familiar 
form.  There  is  here  not  merely  mental  arrest  but  actual  conflict : 
the  vpice  perceived  identifies  Jacob,  at  the  same  time  the  hands 
identify  Esau.  The  images  of  Esau  and  Jacob  by  themselves  are 
different,  but  do  not  conflict ;  neither  is  there  any  strain,  quite  the 
contrary,  in  recognizing  a  person  partly  like  Jacob  and  partly  like 
Esau.  For  there  is  no  direct  incompatibility  between  smooth  and 
rough,  so  long  as  one  pertains  only  to  voice  and  the  other  only  to 
hands,  but  the  same  hands  and  voice  cannot  be  both  smooth  and 
rough.  Similar  incompatibilities  may  arise  without  the  intrusion 
of  percepts,  as  when,  in  trying  to  guess  a  riddle  or  to  solve  a  problem, 
or  generally  to  eliminate  intellectual  differences,  we  have  images 
which  in  themselves  are  only  logically  opposite,  psychologically 
opposed,  or  in  conflict,  because  each  strives  to  enter  the  same  com- 
plex. In  all  such  conflicts  alike  we  find,  in  fact,  a  relation  of 
presentations  the  exact  converse  of  that  which  constitutes  similarity. 
In  the  latter  we  have  two  complete  presentations,  abx  and  aby,a.s 
similar,  each  including  the  common  part  ab;  in  the  former  we  have 
two  partial  presentations,  x  and  y,  as  contraries,  each  excluding  the 
other  from  the  incomplete  a b — .  And  this  ab,  it  is  to  be  noted,  is 
not  more  essential  to  the  similarity  than  to  the  conflict.  But  in 
the  one  case  it  is  a  generic  image  (and  can  logically  be  predicated 
of  two  subjects) ;  in  the  other  it  is  a  partially  determined  individual 
(and  cannot  be  subject  to  opposing  predicates).  Except  as  thus 
supplementing  ab,  a;  and  y  do  not  conflict;  black  and  white  are 
not  incompatible  save  as  attributes  of  the  same  thing.  The  possi- 
bility of  most  of  these  conflicts — of  all,  indeed,  that  have  any  logical 
interest — lies  in  that  reduplication  of  the  memory-continuum  which 
gives  rise  to  these  new  complexes,  generic  images,  or  general  ideas. 

Having  thus  attempted  to  ascertain  the  formation  of  Imaj 

the  ideational  continuum  out  of  the  memory -train,  thetlon 

. ± mem 

3  It  is  a  mark  of  the  looseness  of  much  of  our  psychological  termino- 
logy that  facts  of  this  kind  are  commonly  described  as  cases  of  associa- 
tion. Dr  Bain  calls  them  "obstructive  association,"  which  is  about  on 
a  par  with  "  progress  backwards" ;  Mr  Sully's  "  divergent  association  " 
is  better.  But  it  is  plain  that  what  we  really  have  is  an  arrest  or 
inhibition  consequent  on  association,  and  nothing  that  is  either  itself 
association  or  that  leads  to  association. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


63 


question  arises  :  How  now  are  we  to  distinguish  between 
imagining  and  remembering,  and  again,  between  imagining 
and  expecting  ?  It  is  plainly  absurd  to  make  the  difference 
depend  on  the  presence  of  belief  in  memory  and  expecta- 
tion and  on  its  absence  in  mere  imagination  ;  for  the  belief 
itself  depends  on  the  difference  instead  of  constituting  it. 
One  real  and  obvious  distinction,  however,  which  Hume 
pointed  out  as  regards  memory,  is  the  fixed  order  and  posi- 
tion of  the  ideas  of  what  is  remembered  or  expected  as 
contrasted  with  "  the  liberty  "  of  the  imagination  to  trans- 
pose and  change  its  ideas.  This  order  and  position  in 
the  case  of  memory  are,  of  course,  normally  those  of  the 
original  impressions,  but  it  seems  rather  naive  of  Hume 
to  tell  us  that  memory  "  is  tied  down  to  these  without 
any  power  of  variation,"  while  imagination  has  liberty  to 
transpose  as  it  pleases,  as  if  the  originals  sat  to  memory 
for  their  portraits,  while  to  imagination  they  were  but 
studies.  Such  correspondence  being  out  of  the  question — 
as  Hume  takes  care  to  state  as  soon  as  it  suits  him — all  we 
have,  so  far,  is  this  fixity  and  definiteness  as  contrasted 
with  the  kaleidoscopic  instability  of  ideation.  In  this 
respect  what  is  remembered  or  expected  resembles  what  is 
perceived  :  the  grouping  not  only  does  not  change  caprici- 
ously and  spontaneously,  but  resists  any  mental  efforts  to 
change  it.  But,  provided  these  characteristics  are  there, 
we  should  be  apt  to  believe  that  we  are  remembering,  just 
as,  mutatis  mutandis,  with  like  characteristics  we  might 
believe  that  we  were  perceiving  :  hallucination  is  possible 
in  either  case. 

This  fixity  of  order  and  position  is,  however,  not  suffi- 
cient to  constitute  a  typical  remembrance  where  the  term 
is  exactly  used.  But  remembering  is  often  regarded  as 
equivalent  to  knowing  and  recognizing,  as  when  on  revisit- 
ing some  once  familiar  place  one  remarks,  "  How  well  I 
remember  it ! "  What  is  meant  is  that  the  place  is  re- 
cognized, and  that  its  recognition  awakens  memories. 
Memory  includes  recognition ;  recognition  as  such  does 
not  include  memory.  In  human  consciousness,  as  we 
directly  observe  it,  there  is,  perhaps,  no  pure  recognition  : 
here  the  new  presentation  is  not  only  assimilated  to  the 
old,  but  the  former  framing  of  circumstance  is  reinstated, 
and  so  perforce  distinguished  from  the  present.  It  may 
be  there  is  no  warrant  for  supposing  that  such  redinte- 
gration of  a  preceding  field  is  ever  absolutely  nil,  still 
we  are  justified  in  regarding  it  as  extremely  vague  and 
meagre,  both  where  mental  evolution  is  but  slightly 
advanced  and  where  frequent  repetition  in  varying  and 
irrelevant  circumstances  has  produced  a  blurred  and 
neutral  zone.  The  last  is  the  case  with  a  great  part  of 
our  knowledge ;  the  writer  happens  to  know  that  bos  is 
the  Latin  for  "ox"  and  bufo  the  Latin  for  "toad,"  and 
may  be  said  to  remember  both  items  of  knowledge,  if 
"remember"  is  only  to  be  synonymous  with  "retain." 
But  if  he  came  across  bos  in  reading  he  would  think  of 
an  ox  and  nothing  more ;  bufo  would  immediately  call 
up  not  only  "  toad  "  but  Virgil's  Georgics,  the  only  place 
in  which  he  has  seen  the  word,  and  which  he  never  read 
but  once.  In  the  former  there  is  so  far  nothing  but  re- 
cognition (which,  however,  of  course  rests  upon  retentive- 
ness)  ;  in  the  latter  there  is  also  remembrance  of  the  time 
and  circumstances  in  which  that  piece  of  knowledge  was 
acquired.  Of  course  in  so  far  as  we  are  aware  that  we 
recognize  we  also  think  that  remembrance  is  at  any  rate 
possible,  since  what  we  know  we  must  previously  have 
learned, — recognition  excluding  novelty.  But  the  point 
here  urged  is  that  there  is  an  actual  remembrance  only 
when  the  recognition  is  accompanied  by  a  reinstatement  of 
portions  of  the  memory-train  continuous  with  the  previous 
presentation  of  what  is  now  recognized.  Summarily  stated, 
we  may  say  that  between  knowing  and  remembering  on 


the  one  hand  and  imagining  on  the  other  the  difference 
primarily  turns  on  the  fixity  and  completeness  of  the 
grouping  in  the  former ;  in  the  latter  there  is  a  shifting 
play  of  images  more  or  less  "generic,"  reminding  one  of 
"  dissolving  views."  Hence  the  first  two  approximate  in 
character  to  perception,  and  are  rightly  called  recogni- 
tions. Between  them,  again,  the  difference  turns  primarily 
on  the  presence  or  absence  of  temporal  signs.  In  what  is 
remembered  these  are  still  intact  enough  to  ensure  a 
localization  in  the  past  of  what  is  recognized ;  in  what  is 
known  merely  such  localization  is  prevented,  either  because 
of  the  obliviscence  of  temporal  connexions  or  because  the 
reduplications  of  the  memory-train  that  have  consolidated 
the  central  group  have  entailed  their  suppression.  There 
is  further  the  difference  first  mentioned,  which  is  often 
only  a  difference  of  degree,  viz.,  that  remembrances  have 
more  circumstantiality,  so  to  say,  than  mere  recognitions 
have :  more  of  the  collateral  constituents  of  the  original 
concrete  field  of  consciousness  are  reinstated.  But  of  the 
two  characteristics  of  memory  proper — (a)  concreteness 
or  circumstantiality,  and  (6)  localization  in  the  past — the 
latter  is  the  more  essential.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
we  have  the  one  with  little  or  nothing  of  the  other.  For 
example,  we  may  have  but  a  faint  and  meagre  representa- 
tion of  a  scene,  yet  if  it  falls  into  and  retains  a  fixed 
place  in  the  memory-train  we  have  no  doubt  that  seme 
such  experience  was  once  actually  ours.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  in  certain  so-called  illusions  of  memory,  we  may 
suddenly  find  ourselves  reminded  by  what  is  happening 
at  the  moment  of  a  preceding  experience  exactly  like  it — 
some  even  feel  that  they  know  from  what  is  thus  recalled 
what  will  happen  next ;  and  yet,  because  we  are  wholly 
unable  to  assign  such  representation  a  place  in  the  past, 
instead  of  a  belief  that  it  happened,  there  arises  a  most 
distressing  sense  of  bewilderment,  as  if  one  were  haunted 
and  had  lost  one's  personal  bearings.1  It  has  been  held 
by  some  psychologists 2  that  memory  proper  includes  the 
representation  of  one's  past  self  as  agent  or  patient  in  the 
event  or  situation  recalled.  And  this  is  true  as  regards 
all  but  the  earliest  human  experience,  at  any  rate ;  still, 
whereas  it  is  easy  to  see  that  memory  is  essential  to  any 
development  of  self-consciousness,  the  converse  is  not  at 
all  clear,  and  would  involve  us  in  a  needless  circle. 

Intimately  connected  with  memory  is  expectation.  We  Expecta- 
may  as  the  result  of  reasoning  conclude  that  a  certain  tion. 
event  will  happen ;  we  may  also,  in  like  manner,  conclude 
that  a  certain  other  event  has  happened.  But  as  we 
should  not  call  the  latter  memory,  so  it  is  desirable  to 
distinguish  such  indirect  anticipation  as  the  former  from 
that  expectation  which  is  directly  due  to  the  interaction 
of  ideas.  Any  man  knows  that  he  will  die,  and  may  make 
a  variety  of  arrangements  in  anticipation  of  death,  but  he 
cannot  with  propriety  be  said  to  be  expecting  it  unless 
he  has  actually  present  to  his  mind  a  series  of  ideas 
ending  in  that  of  death,  such  series  being  due  to  previous 
associations,  and  unless,  further,  this  series  owes  its  re- 
presentation at  this  moment  to  the  actual  recurrence  of 
some  experience  to  which  that  series  succeeded  before. 
And  as  familiarity  with  an  object  or  event  in  very  various 
settings  may  be  a  bar  to  recollection,  so  it  may  be  to 
expectation  :  the  average  Englishman,  e.g.,  is  continually 
surprised  without  his  umbrella,  though  only  too  familiar 
with  rain,  since  in  his  climate  one  not  specially  attentive  to 
the  weather  obtains  no  clear  representation  of  its  successive 
phases.  But  after  a  series  of  events  A  B  C  D  E  .  .  .  has 
been  once  experienced  we  instinctively  expect  the  recurrence 

1  Any  full  discussion  of  these  very  interesting  states  of  mind  belongs 
to  mental  pathology. 

2  As,  e.g. ,  James  Mill  (Analysis  of  the  Human  Mind,  ch.  x.),  who 
treats  this  difficult  subject  with  great  acuteuess  and  thoroughness. 


64 


PSYCHOLOGY 


. 


of  BC  ...  on  the  recurrence  of  A,  i.e.,  provided  the 
memory-train  continues  so  far  intact.  Such  expectation, 
at  first  perhaps  slight  —  a  mere  tendency  easily  overborne  — 
becomes  strengthened  by  every  repetition  of  the  series  in 
the  old  order,  till  eventually,  if  often  fulfilled  and  never 
falsified,  it  becomes  certain  and,  as  we  commonly  say, 
irresistible.  To  have  a  clear  case  of  expectation,  then,  it 
is  not  necessary  that  we  should  distinctly  remember  any 
previous  experience  like  it,  but  only  that  we  should  have 
actually  present  some  earlier  member  of  a  series  which  has 
been  firmly  associated  by  such  previous  experiences,  the 
remaining  members,  or  at  least  the  next,  if  they  continue 
serial,  being  revived  through  that  which  is  once  again 
realized.  This  expectation  may  be  instantly  checked  by 
reflexion,  just  as  it  may  of  course  be  disappointed  in  fact  ; 
but  these  are  matters  which  do  not  concern  the  inquiry  as 
to  the  nature  of  expectation  while  expectation  lasts. 
Present,  We  shall  continue  this  inquiry  to  most  advantage  by 
past.  now  widening  it  into  an  examination  of  the  distinction 
of  present,  past,  and  future.  To  a  being  whose  presenta- 
tions never  passed  through  the  transitions  which  ours 
undergo  —  -first  divested  of  the  strength  and  vividness  of 
impressions,  again  reinvested  with  them  and  brought  back 
from  the  faint  world  of  ideas  —  the  sharp  contrasts  of  "now" 
and  "  then,"  and  all  the  manifold  emotions  they  occasion, 
would  be  quite  unknown.  Even  we,  so  far  as  we  confine 
our  activity  and  attention  to  ideas,  are  almost  without  them. 
Time  -order,  succession,  antecedence  and  consequence,  of 
course,  there  might  be  still,  but  in  that  sense  of  events  as 
"  past  and  gone  for  ever,"  which  is  one  of  the  melancholy 
factors  in  our  life  ;  and  in  the  obligation  to  wait  and  work 
in  hope  or  dread  of  what  is  "  still  to  come  "  there  is  much 
more  than  time  -order.  It  is  to  presentations  in  their 
primary  stage,  to  impressions,  that  we  owe  what  real  differ- 
ence we  find  between  now  and  then,  whether  prospective 
or  retrospective,  as  it  is  to  them  also  that  we  directly  owe 
our  sense  of  the  real,  of  what  is  and  exists  as  opposed  to 
the  non-existent  that  is  not.  But  the  present  alone  and  life 
in  a  succession  of  presents,  or,  in  other  words,  continuous 
occupation  with  impressions,  give  us  no  knowledge  of  the 
present  as  present.  This  we  first  obtain  when  our  present 
consciousness  consists  partly  of  memories  or  partly  of  ex- 
pectations as  well.  An  event  expected  differs  from  a  like 
event  remembered  chiefly  in  two  ways  —  in  its  relation  to 
present  impressions  and  images  and  in  the  active  attitude  to 
which  it  leads.  The  diverse  feelings  that  accompany  our 
intuitions  of  time  and  contribute  so  largely  to  their  colour- 
ing are  mainly  consequences  of  these  differences.  Let  us 
take  a  series  of  simple  and  familiar  events  ABCDE,  re- 
presenting ideas  by  small  letters  and  perceptions  by  capitals 
whenever  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  them.  Such  series 
may  be  present  in  consciousness  in  such  wise  that  abed  are 
imaged  while  jE"is  perceived  anew,  i.e.,  the  whole  symbolized 
as  proposed  would  be  abcdE;  such  would  be,  e.g.,  the  state 
of  a  dog  which  had  just  finished  his  daily  meal.  Again, 
there  may  be  a  fresh  impression  of  A  which  revives  bcde; 
we  should  have  then  (1)  A  bcde  —  the  state  of  our  dog  when 
he  next  day  gets  sight  of  the  dish  in  which  his  food  is 
brought  to  him.  A  little  later  we  may  have  (2)  abC  de, 
Here  a  b  are  either  after-sensations  or  primary  memory- 
images,  or  have  at  any  rate  the  increased  intensity  due  to 
recent  impression  ;  but  this  increased  intensity  will  be 
rapidly  on  the  wane  even  while  C  lasts,  and  a  b  will  pale 
still  further  when  C  gives  place  to  D,  and  we  have  (3) 
abcDe.  But,  returning  to  (2),  we  should  find  de  to  be  in- 
creasing in  intensity  and  definiteness,  as  compared  with 
their  state  in  (1),  now  that  C,  instead  of  A,  is  the  present 
impression.  For,  when  A  occupied  this  position,  not  only 
was  e  raised  less  prominently  above  the  threshold  of  con- 
sciousness by  reason  of  its  greater  distance  from  A  in  the 


memory-continuum,  but,  owing  to  the  reduplications  of 
this  continuum,  more  lines  of  possible  revival  were  opened 
up,  to  be  successively  negatived  as  B  succeeded  to  A  and 
C  to  B ;  even  dogs  know  that  "there  is  many  a  slip  'twixt 
the  cup  and  the  lip."  But,  where  A  B  C  D  E  is  a  series  of 
percepts  such  as  we  have  here  supposed — and  a  series  of 
simpler  states  would  hardly  afford  much  ground  for  the 
distinctions  of  past,  present,  and  future — there  would  be  a 
varying  amount  of  active  adjustment  of  sense-organs  and 
other  movements  supplementary  to  full  sensation.  In  (2), 
the  point  at  which  we  have  ab  C  de,  for  instance,  such 
adjustments  and  movements  as  were  appropriate  to  b  would 
cease  as  B  lapsed  and  be  replaced  by  those  appropriate  to 
C.  Again,  as  C  succeeded  to  B,  and  d  in  consequence 
increased  in  intensity  and  definiteness,  the  movements 
adapted  to  the  reception  of  D  would  become  nascent,  and 
so  on.  Thus,  psychologically  regarded,  the  distinction  of 
past  and  future  and  what  we  might  call  the  oneness  of 
direction  of  time  depend,  as  just  described,  (1)  upon  the 
continuous  sinking  of  the  primary  memory -images  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  continuous  rising  of  the  ordinary  images 
on  the  other  side,  of  that  member  of  a  series  of  percepts 
then  repeating  which  is  actual  at  the  moment ;  and  (2)  on 
the  prevenient  adjustments  of  attention,  to  which  such 
words  as  "expect,"  "await,"  "anticipate,"  all  testify  by 
their  etymology.  These  conditions  in  turn  will  be  found 
to  depend  upon  all  that  is  implied  in  the  formation  of 
the  memory-train  and  upon  that  recurrence  of  like  series 
of  impressions  which  we  attribute  to  the  "  uniformity  of 
nature."  If  we  never  had  the  same  series  of  impressions 
twice,  knowledge  of  time  would  be  impossible,  as  indeed 
would  knowledge  of  any  scrt. 

This  is  perhaps  the  fittest  point  at  which  to  inquire  into  Sue 
the  character  and  origin  of  our  knowledge  of  succession  sio1 
and  duration,  so  far,  that  is,  as  such  an  inquiry  belongs 
to  psychology.  We  have  not  to  ask  how  time  itself  comes 
to  be ;  but,  assuming  it  to  be,  we  ask  how  the  individual 
comes  to  know  it.  Time  is  often  figuratively  represented 
as  a  line,  and  we  may  perhaps  utilize  this  figure  to  make 
clear  the  relation  of  our  intuition  of  time  to  what  we  call 
time  itself.  Time,  then,  we  say,  stretches  backwards  and 
forwards  from  the  present  moment.  But  the  present, 
though  a  point  of  time,  is  still  such  that  we  can  and  do  in 
that  moment  attend  to  a  plurality  of  presentations  to 
which  we  might  otherwise  have  attended  severally  in  suc- 
cessive moments.  Granting  this  implication  of  simul- 
taneity and  succession,  we  may,  if  we  represent  succession 
as  a  line,  represent  simultaneity  as  a  second  line  at  right 
angles  to  the  first ;  empty  time — or  time-length  without 
time-breadth,  we  may  say — is  a  mere  abstraction.  Now 
it  is  with  the  former  line  that  we  have  to  do  in  treating 
of  time  as  it  is,  and  with  the  latter  in  treating  of  our 
intuition  of  time,  where,  just  as  in  a  perspective  repre- 
sentation of  distance,  we  are  confined  to  lines  in  a  plane 
at  right  angles  to  the  actual  line  of  depth.  In  a  succession 
of  events,  say  of  sense-impressions,  ABCDE.  .  .  the 
presence  of  B  means  the  absence  of  A  and  of  (7,  but  the 
presentation  of  this  succession  involves  the  simultaneous 
presence,  in  some  mode  or  other,  of  two  or  more  of  the 
presentations  A  BC  D.  In  presentation,  as  we  have  seen, 
all  that  corresponds  to  the  differences  of  past,  present, 
and  future  is  in  consciousness  simultaneously.  This  truism 
— or  paradox — that  all  we  know  of  succession  is  but 
an  interpretation  of  what  is  really  simultaneous  or  co- 
existent, we  may  then  concisely  express  by  saying  that  we 
are  aware  of  time  only  through  time -perspective,  and 
experience  shows  that  it  is  a  long  step  from  a  succession 
of  presentations  to  such  presentation  of  succession.  The 
first  condition  is  that  we  should  have  represented  together 
presentations  that  were  in  the  first  instance  attended  to 


PSYCHOLOGY 


65 


successively,  and  this  we  have  both  in  the  persistence  of 
primary  memory-images  and  in  the  simultaneous  reproduc- 
tion of  longer  or  shorter  portions  of  the  memory -train. 
In  a  series  thus  secured  there  may  be  time-marks,  though 
no  time,  and  by  these  marks  the  series  must  be  distin- 
guished from  other  simultaneous  series.  To  ask  which  is 
first  among  a  number  of  simultaneous  presentations  is 
unmeaning;  one  might  be  logically  prior  to  another, 
but  in  time  they  are  together  and  priority  is  excluded. 
Nevertheless  after  each  distinct  representation  a,  b,  c,  d 
there  probably  follows,  as  we  have  supposed,  some  trace 
of  that  movement  of  attention  of  which  we  are  aware  in 
passing  from  one  presentation  to  another.  In  our  present 
reminiscences  we  have,  it  must  be  allowed,  little  direct 
proof  of  this  interposition,  though  there  is  strong  indirect 
evidence  of  it  in  the  tendency  of  the  flow  to  follow  the 
order  in  which  the  presentations  were  first  attended  to. 
With  the  movements  themselves  we  are  familiar  enough, 
though  the  residua  of  such  movements  are  not  ordinarily 
conspicuous.  These  residua,  then,  are  our  temporal  signs, 
and,  together  with  the  representations  connected  by  them, 
constitute  the  memory-continuum.  But  temporal  signs 
alone  will  not  furnish  all  the  pictorial  exactness  of  the 
time-perspective.  They  give  us  only  a  fixed  series ;  but 
the  working  of  obliviscence,  by  insuring  a  progressive 
variation  in  intensity  and  distinctness  as  we  pass  from  one 
member  of  the  series  to  the  other,  yields  the  effect  which 
we  call  time -distance.  By  themselves  such  variations 
would  leave  us  liable  to  confound  more  vivid  repre- 
sentations in  the  distance  with  fainter  ones  nearer  the 
present,  but  from  this  mistake  the  temporal  signs  save 
us ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  where  the  memory-train  is 
imperfect  such  mistakes  continually  occur.  On  the  other 
hand,  where  these  variations  are  slight  and  imperceptible, 
though  the  memory -continuum  preserves  the  order  of 
events  intact,  we  have  still  no  such  distinct  appreciation 
of  comparative  distance  in  time  as  we  have  nearer  the 
present  where  these  perspective  effects  are  considerable. 
Bration,  When  in  retrospect  we  note  that  a  particular  presenta- 
tion X  has  had  a  place  in  the  field  of  consciousness,  while 
a  series  of  objects  ABC  D  .  .  .  have  succeeded  each  other, 
then  we  may  be  said  in  observing  this  relation  of  the  two 
to  perceive  the  duration  of  X.  And  it  is  in  this  way  that 
we  do  subjectively  estimate  longer  periods  of  time.  But 
first,  it  is  evident  that  we  cannot  apply  this  method  to 
indefinitely  short  periods  without  passing  beyond  the 
region  of  distinct  presentation ;  and,  since  the  knowledge  of 
duration  implies  a  relation  between  distinguishable  pre- 
sentations A  B  C  D  and  X,  the  case  is  one  in  which  the 
hypothesis  of  subconsciousness  can  hardly  help  any  but 
those  who  confound  the  fact  of  time  with  the  knowledge 
of  it.  -  Secondly,  if  we  are  to  compare  different  durations 
at  all,  it  is  not  enough  that  one  of  them  should  last  out  a 
series  A  B  C  D,  and  another  a  series  L  M  N  0  ;  we  also 
want  some  sort  of  common  measure  of  those  series.  Locke 
was  awake  to  this  point,  though  he  expresses  himself 
vaguely  (Essay,  ii.  14,  §§  9-12).  He  speaks  of  our  ideas 
succeeding  each  other  "at  certain  distances  not  much 
unlike  the  images  in  the  inside  of  a  lantern  turned  round 
by  the  heat  of  a  candle,"  and  "guesses"  that  "this  appear- 
ance of  theirs  in  train  varies  not  very  much  in  a  waking 
man."  Now  what  is  this  "distance"  that  separates  A 
from  B,  B  from  C,  and  so  on,  and  what  means  have  we 
of  knowing  that  it  is  tolerably  constant  in  waking  life  ? 
It  is  probably  that  the  residuum  of  which  we  have  called 
a  temporal  sign ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  the  movement  of 
attention  from  A  to  B.  But  we  must  endeavour  here  to 
get  a  more  exact  notion  of  this  movement.  Everybody 
knows  what  it  is  to  be  distracted  by  a  rapid  succession  of 
varied  impressions,  and  equally  what  it  is  to  be  wearied 


by  the  slow  and  monotonous  recurrence  of  the  same  im- 
pressions. Now  these  "feelings"  of  distraction  and  tedium 
owe  their  characteristic  qualities  to  movements  of  atten- 
tion. In  the  first,  attention  is  kept  incessantly  on  the 
move  :  before  it  is  accommodated  to  A,  it  is  disturbed  by 
the  suddenness,  intensity,  or  novelty  of  B;  in  the  second, 
it  is  kept  all  but  stationary  by  the  repeated  presentation 
of  the  same  impression.  Such  excess  and  defect  of  sur- 
prises make  one  realize  a  fact  which  in  ordinary  life  is  so 
obscure  as  to  escape  notice.  But  recent  experiments  have 
set  this  fact  in  a  more  striking  light,  and  made  clear  what 
Locke  had  dimly  before  his  mind  in  talking  of  a  certain 
distance  between  the  presentations  of  a  waking  man.  In 
estimating  very  short  periods  of  time,  of  a  second  or  less, 
indicated  say  by  the  beats  of  a  metronome,  it  is  found 
that  there  is  a  certain  period  for  which  the  mean  of  a 
number  of  estimates  is  correct,  while  shorter  periods  are 
on  the  whole  overestimated,  and  longer  periods  under- 
estimated. This  we  may  perhaps  take  to  be  evidence  of 
the  time  occupied  in  accommodating  or  fixing  attention. 
Whether  the  "  point  of  indifference  "  is  determined  by  the 
rate  of  usual  bodily  movement,  as  Spencer  asserts  and 
Wundt  conjectures,  or  conversely,  is  a  question  we  need 
not  discuss  just  now.  But,  though  the  fixation  of  atten- 
tion does  of  course  really  occupy  time,  it  is  probably  not 
in  the  first  instance  perceived  as  time,  i.e.,  as  continuous 
"  protensity,"  to  use  a  term  of  Hamilton's,  but  as  intensity. 
Thus,  if  this  supposition  be  true,  there  is  an  element  in 
our  concrete  time-perceptions  which  has  no  place  in  our 
abstract  conception  of  time.  In  time  conceived  as  physical 
there  is  no  trace  of  intensity ;  in  time  psychically  experi- 
enced duration  is  primarily  an  intensive  magnitude,  witness 
the  comparison  of  times  when  we  are  "  bored  "  with  others 
when  we  are  amused.  It  must  have  struck  every  one  as 
strange  who  has  reflected  upon  it  that  a  period  of  time 
which  seems  long  in  retrospect — such  as  an  eventful  ex- 
cursion— should  have  appeared  short  in  passing ;  while  a 
period,  on  the  contrary,  which  in  memory  has  dwindled  to 
a  wretched  span  seemed  everlasting  till  it  was  gone.  But, 
if  we  consider  that  in  retrospect  length  of  time  is  repre- 
sented primarily  and  chiefly  by  impressions  that  have  sur- 
vived, we  have  an  explanation  of  one-half ;  and  in  the 
intensity  of  the  movements  of  attention  we  shall  perhaps 
find  an  explanation  of  the  other.  What  tells  in  retrospect 
is  the  series  abode,  &c. ;  what  tells  in  the  present  is  the 
intervening  t^tztz,  &c.,  or  rather  the  original  accommoda- 
tion of  which  these  temporal  signs  are  the  residuum.  For, 
as  we  have  seen  elsewhere,  the  intensity  of  a  presentation 
does  not  persist,  so  that  in  memory  the  residuum  of  the 
most  intense  feeling  of  tedium  may  only  be  so  many  t's 
in  a  memory-continuum  whose  surviving  members  are  few 
and  uninteresting.  But  in  the  actual  experience,  say,  of 
a  wearisome  sermon,  when  the  expectation  of  release  is 
continually  balked  and  attention  forced  back  upon  a 
monotonous  dribble  of  platitudes,  the  one  impressive  fact 
is  the  hearer's  impatience.  On  the  other  hand,  so  long  as 
we  are  entertained,  attention  is  never  involuntary,  and 
there  is  no  continually  deferred  expectation.  Just  as  we 
are  said  to  walk  with  least  effort  when  our  pace  accords 
with  the  rate  of  swing  of  our  legs  regarded  as  pendulums, 
so  in  pastimes  impressions  succeed  each  other  at  the  rate 
at  which  attention  can  be  most  easily  accommodated,  and 
are  such  that  we  attend  willingly.  We  are  absorbed  in 
the  present  without  being  unwillingly  confined  to  it ;  not 
only  is  there  no  motive  for  retrospect  or  expectation,  but 
there  is  no  feeling  that  the  present  endures.  Each  im- 
pression lasts  as  long  as  it  is  interesting,  but  does  not  con- 
tinue to  monopolize  the  focus  of  consciousness  till  attention 
to  it  is  fatiguing,  because  uninteresting.  In  such  facts,  then, 
we  seem  to  have  proof  that  our  perception  of  duration  rests 

XX.  —  9 


66 


PSYCHOLOGY 


ultimately  upon  quasi-motor  objects  of  varying  intensity, 
the  duration  of  which  we  do  not  directly  experience  as 
duration  at  all.  They  do  endure  and  their  intensity  is  a 
function  of  their  duration ;  but  the  intensity  is  all  that  we 
directly  perceive.  In  other  words,  it  is  here  contended 
that  what  Locke  called  an  instant  or  moment — "the  time 
of  one  idea  in  our  minds  without  the  succession  of  another, 
wherein  therefore  we  perceive  no  succession  at  all" — is 
psychologically  not  "a  part  in  duration"  in  that  sense  in 
which,  as  he  says,  "we  cannot  conceive  any  duration  with- 
out succession"  (Essay,  ii.  16,  12). 

How  do  we  know  that  the  distance  between  our  ideas 
cannot  vary  beyond  certain  bounds  1  This  is  not  altogether 
a  psychological  question ;  but  we  are  perhaps  entitled  to 
note  some  interesting  facts  bearing  upon  it  which  may 
also  serve  to  connect  the  perceptions  of  duration  and  suc- 
cession. If  we  make  a  Savart's  wheel  with  a  single  tooth 
revolve  slowly,  say  in  three-quarters  of  a  second,  it  will 
be  found  that  in  the  long-run  we  estimate  this  interval 
correctly, — slight  overestimates  and  slight  underestimates 
occurring  indifferently.  If  we  next  place  a  second  tooth 
opposite  the  first,  letting  the  wheel  revolve  as  before,  so 
as  to  divide  the  three-quarters  of  a  second  into  two  inter- 
vals, we  shall  on  the  average  overestimate  it,  and  must 
increase  the  whole  period  to  reach  a  new  point  of  indiffer- 
ence. With  two  other  teeth  at  right  angles  to  the  first 
two,  the  three-quarters  of  a  second  will  appear  longer  still, 
and  the  time  of  a  revolution  must  be  still  more  increased 
before  we  shall  cease  to  overestimate  it.  If  we  next  employ, 
say,  six  teeth,  60°  apart,  the  wheel  revolving  as  at  first, 
we  shall  detect  ourselves  attending  to  the  alternate  strokes, 
say  to  the  first,  third,  and  fifth,  or  perhaps  to  the  third 
and  the  sixth ;  in  this  way,  though  we  continue  to  over- 
estimate the  total  period,  we  can  note  the  number  and 
regularity  of  the  subdivisions.  If  these,  however,  be  yet 
further  increased,  we  can  no  longer  reproduce  them,  though 
still  aware  that  the  whole  period  is  divided  into  parts. 
But  by  the  time  we  have  introduced  about  fifteen  equi- 
distant teeth,  although  there  is  physically  an  alternation 
of  noise  and  silence  as  before,  we  perceive  only  a  continu- 
ous hum,  which  steadily  changes  in  quality  as  the  number 
of  teeth  is  further  increased.  Facts  like  these  not  only 
show  that  we  estimate  duration  primarily  by  the  effects  of 
attention,  but  also  make  it  probable  that  such  estimate  is 
fairly  constant,  since  it  is  always  approximately  the  same 
physical  interval  that  becomes  blurred.  Further,  we  see 
that,  where  the  distance  between  successive  presentations 
is  too  short  for  a  separate  fixation  of  attention  upon  each, 
we  proceed  to  take  them  in  groups.  This  procedure  is 
facilitated  by  differences  in  the  quality  and  intensity  of 
the  objects  as  well  as  by  differences  in  the  intervals  be- 
tween them ;  hence  among  other  things  the  aesthetic  pro- 
perties of  modulation  and  rhythm. 

Is  time  But,  if  our  experience  of  time  depends  primarily  upon  acts  of 
discrete  attention  to  a  succession  of  distinct  objects,  it  would  seem  that 
or  con-  time,  subjectively  regarded,  must  be  discrete  and  not  continuous. 
tinu»us?  This,  which  is  the  view  steadily  maintained  by  the  psychologists 
of  Herbart's  school,  was  implied  if  not  stated  by  Locke,  Berkeley, 
and  Hume.  Locke  hopelessly  confuses  time  as  perceived  and  time 
as  conceived,  and  can  only  save  himself  from  pressing  objections 
by  the  retort,  "It  is  very  common  to  observe  intelligible  dis- 
courses spoiled  by  too  much  subtlety  in  nice  divisions."  But  Ber- 
keley and  Hume  with  the  mathematical  discoveries  of  Newton  and 
Leibnitz  before  them  could  only  protest  that  there  was  nothing 
answering  to  mathematical  continuity  in  our  experience.  And, 
whereas  Locke  had  tried  to  combine  with  his  general  psychological 
account  the  inconsistent  position  that  ' '  none  of  the  distinct  ideas 
we  have  of  either  [space  or  time]  is  without  all  manner  of  com- 
position," Berkeley  declares,  "For  my  own  part,  whenever  I  attempt 
to  frame  a  simple  idea  of  time,  abstracted  from  the  succession  of 
ideas  in  my  mind,  which  flows  uniformly  and  is  participated  by  all 
beings,  I  am  lost  and  embrangled  in  inextricable  difficulties.  I 
have  no  notion  of  it  at  all,  only  I  hear  others  say  it  is  infinitely 
divisible,  and  speak  of  it  in  such  a  manner  as  leads  me  to  harbour 


odd  thoughts  of  my  existence.  .  .  .  Time  therefore  being  nothing, 
abstracted  from  the  succession  of  ideas  in  our  minds,  it  follows  that 
the  duration  of  any  finite  spirit  must  be  estimated  by  the  number  of 
ideas  or  actions  succeeding  each  other  in  that  same  spirit  or  mind  " 
(Principles  of  Knowledge,  i.  §  98).  Hume,  again,  is  at  still  greater 
pains  to  show  that  "the  idea  which  we  form  of  any  finite  quality  is 
not  infinitely  divisible,  but  that  by  proper  distinctions  and  separa- 
tions we  may  run  this  idea  up  to  inferior  ones,  which  will  be  perfectly 
simple  and  indivisible  .  .  .  that  the  imagination  reaches  a  mini- 
mum, and  may  raise  up  to  itself  an  idea  of  which  it  cannot  conceive 
any  subdivision,  and  which  cannot  be  diminished  without  a  total 
annihilation"  (Human  Nature,  pt.  ii.  §  1,  Green's  ed.,  p.  335). 

At  the  first  blush  we  are  perhaps  disposed  to  accept  this  account 
of  our  time-perception,  as  Wundt,  e.g.,  does,  and  to  regard  the  attri- 
bution of  continuity  as  wholly  the  result  of  after-reflexion.1  But 
it  may  be  doubted  if  this  is  really  an  exact  analysis  of  the  case. 
Granted  that  the  impressions  to  which  we  chiefly  attend  are  dis- 
tinct and  discontinuous  in  their  occupation  of  the  focus  of  con- 
sciousness, and  that,  so  far,  the  most  vivid  element  in  our  time- 
experience  is  discrete  ;  granted  further  that  in  •  recollection  and 
expectation  such  objects  are  still  distinct — all  which  seems  to  imply 
that  time  is  a  mere  plurality  —  yet  there  is  more  behind.  The 
whole  field  of  consciousness  is  not  occupied  by  distinct  objects, 
neither  are  the  changes  in  this  field  discontinuous.  The  experi- 
mental facts  above-mentioned  illustrate  the  transition  from  a 
succession  the  members  of  which  are  distinctly  attended  to  to 
one  in  which  they  are  indistinctly  attended  to,  i.e.,  are  not  dis- 
continuous enough  to  be  separately  distinguished.  Attention  does 
not  move  by  hops  from  one  definite  spot  to  another,  but,  as  Wundt 
himself  allows,  by  alternate  diffusion  and  concentration,  like  the 
foot  of  a  snail,  which  never  leaves  the  surface  it  is  traversing.  We 
have  a  clear  presentation  discerned  as  A  or  B  when  attention  is 
gathered  up ;  and,  when  attention  spreads  out,  we  have  confused 
presentations  not  admitting  of  recognition.  But,  though  not 
recognizable,  such  confused  presentations  are  represented,  and  so 
serve  to  bridge  over  the  comparatively  empty  interval  during  which 
attention  is  unfocused.  Thus  our  perception  of  a  period  of  time 
is  not  comparable  to  so  many  terms  in  a  series  of  finite  units  any 
more  than  it  is  to  a  series  of  infinitesimals.  When  attention  is 
concentrated  in  expectation  of  some  single  impression,  then,  no 
doubt,  it  is  brought  to  a  very  fine  point  ( "  zugespitzt, "  as  Herbart 
would  say) ;  and  a  succession  of  such  impressions  would  be  repre- 
sented as  relatively  discrete  compared  with  the  representation  of 
the  scenery  of  a  day-dream.  But  absolutely  discrete  it  is  not  and 
cannot  be.  In  this  respect  the  truth  is  rather  with  Herbert 
Spencer,  who,  treating  of  this  subject  from  another  point  of  view, 
remarks,  "When  the  facts  are  contemplated  objectively,  it  becomes 
manifest  that,  though  the  changes  constituting  intelligence  ap- 
proach to  a  single  succession,  they  do  not  absolutely  form  one  " 
(Psychology,  i.  §  180,  p.  403). 

On  the  whole,  then,  we  may  conclude  that  our  concrete 
time-experiences  are  due  to  the  simultaneous  representa- 
tion of  a  series  of  definite  presentations  both  accompanied 
and  separated  by  more  or  fewer  indefinite  presentations 
more  or  less  confused ;  that,  further,  the  definite  presenta- 
tions have  certain  marks  or  temporal  signs  due  to  the 
movements  of  attention;  that  the  rate  of  these  movements 
or  accommodations  is  approximately  constant ;  and  that 
each  movement  itself  is  primarily  experienced  as  an 
intensity. 

Feeling. 

Such  summary  survey  as  these  limits  allow  of  the  more 
elementary  facts  of  cognition  is  here  at  an  end ;  so  far  the 
most  conspicuous  factors  at  work  have  been  those  of  what 
might  be  termed  our  ideational  mechanism.  In  the  higher 
processes  of  thought  we  have  to  take  more  account  of 
mental  activity  and  of  the  part  played  by  language.  But 
it  seems  preferable,  before  entering  upon  this,  to  explore 
also  the  emotional  and  active  constituents  of  mind  in  their 
more  elementary  phases. 

In  our  preliminary  survey  we  have  seen  that  psychical  life  consists 
in  the  main  of  a  continuous  alternation  of  receptive  and  reactive 
consciousness,  i.e.,  in  its  earliest  form,  of  alternations  of  sensation 
and  movement.  At  a  later  stage  we  find  that  in  the  receptive  phase 
ideation  is  added  to  sensation,  and  that  in  the  active  phase  thought 
and  fancy,  or  the  voluntary  manipulation  and  control  of  the  idea- 
tional trains,  are  added  to  the  voluntary  manipulation  and  control 
of  the  muscles.  At  this  higher  level  also  it  is  possible  that  either 
form  of  receptive  consciousness  may  lead  to  either  form  of  active  : 
sensations  may  lead  to  thought  rather  than  to  action  in  the  restricted 


1  Comp.  Wundt,  Logik,  vol.  i.  p.  432. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


67 


sense,  and  ideas  apart  from  sensations  may  prompt  to  muscular 
exertion.  There  is  a  further  complication  still :  not  only  may  either 
sensations  or  ideas  lead  to  either  muscular  or  mental  movements, 
but  movements  themselves,  whether  of  mind  or  limb,  may  as  mere 
presentations  determine  other  movements  of  either  kind.  In  this 
respect,  however,  movements  and  thoughts  either  in  themselves  or 
through  their  sensational  and  ideational  accompaniments  may  be 
regarded  as  pertaining  to  the  receptive  side  of  consciousness.  With 
these  provisos,  then,  the  broad  generalization  may  hold  that  re- 
ceptive states  lead  through  feeling  to  active  states,  and  that 
presentations  that  give  neither  pleasure  nor  pain  meet  with  no 
responsive  action.  But  first  the  objection  must  be  met  that  presenta- 
tions that  are  in  themselves  purely  indifferent  lead  continually  to 
very  energetic  action,  often  the  promptest  and  most  definite  action. 
To  this  there  are  two  answers.  First,  on  the  higher  levels  of 
psychical  life  presentations  in  themselves  indifferent  are  often  in- 
directly interesting  as  signs  of,  or  as  means  to,  other  presentations 
that  are  more  directly  interesting.  It  is  enough  for  the  present, 
therefore,  if  it  be  admitted  that  all  such  indifferent  presentations 
are  without  effect  as  often  as  they  are  not  instrumental  in  furthering 
the  realization  of  some  desirable  end.  Secondly,  a  large  class  of 
movements,  such  as  those  called  sensori-motor  and  ideo-motor,  are 
initiated  by  presentations  that  are  frequently,  it  must  be  allowed, 
neither  pleasurable  nor  painful.  In  all  such  cases,  however,  there 
is  probably  only  an  apparent  exception  to  the  principle  of  subjective 
selection.  They  may  all  be  regarded  as  instances  of  another  im- 
portant psychological  principle  which  we  have  to  deal  with  more 
fully  by  and  by,  viz.,  that  voluntary  actions,  and  especially  those 
that  either  only  avert  pain  or  are  merely  subsidiary  to  pleasure- 
giving  actions,  tend  at  length,  as  the  effect  of  habit  in  the  individual 
and  of  heredity  in  the  race,  to  become  "  secondarily  automatic, " 
as  it  has  been  called.  Such  mechanical  or  instinctive  dexterities 
make  possible  a  more  efficient  use  of  present  energies  in  securing 
pleasurable  and  interesting  experiences,  and,  like  the  rings  of  former 
growths  in  a  tree,  afford  a  basis  for  further  advance,  as  old  interests 
pall  and  new  ones  present  themselves.  Here,  again,  it  suffices  for 
our  present  purpose  if  it  be  granted  that  there  is  a  fair  presumption 
in  favour  of  supposing  all  such  movements  to  have  been  originally 
initiated  by  feeling,  as  certainly  very  many  of  them  were. 

Of  the  feeling  itself  that  intervenes  between  these 
sensory  and  motor  presentations  there  is  but  little  to  be 
said.  The  chief  points  have  been  already  insisted  upon, 
viz.,  that  it  is  not  itself  a  presentation,  but  a  purely  sub- 
jective state,  at  once  the  effect  of  a  change  in  receptive 
consciousness  and  the  cause  of  a  change  in  motor  conscious- 
ness ;  hence  its  continual  confusion  either  with  the  move- 
ments, whether  ideational  or  muscular,  that  are  its  expres- 
sion, or  with  the  sensations  or  ideas  that  are  its  cause. 
For  feeling  as  such  is,  so  to  put  it,  matter  of  being  rather 
than  of  direct  knowledge  ;  and  all  that  we  know  about  it  we 
know  from  its  antecedents  or  consequents  in  presentation. 

Pure  feeling,  then,  ranging  solely  between  the  opposite 
extremes  of  pleasure  and  pain,  we  are  naturally  led  to  in- 
EELING.  qujre  whether  there  is  any  corresponding  contrast  in  the 
causes  of  feeling  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  in  its 
manifestations  and  effects.  To  begin  with  the  first  ques- 
tion, which  we  may  thus  formulate :  What,  if  any,  are 
the  invariable  differences  characteristic  of  the  presentations 
or  states  of  mind  we  respectively  like  and  dislike ;  or,  taking 
account  of  the  diverse  sources  of  feeling — sensuous,  aesthetic, 
intellectual,  active — is  there  anything  that  we  can  predicate 
alike  of  all  that  are  pleasurable  and  deny  of  all  that  are 
painful,  and  vice  versa  ?  It  is  at  once  evident  that  at  least 
in  presentations  objectively  regarded  no  such  common 
characters  will  be  found;  if  we  find  them  anywhere  it 
must  be  in  some  relation  to  the  conscious  subject,  i.e.,  in 
the  fact  of  presentation  itself.  There  is  one  important 
truth  concerning  pleasures  and  pains  that  may  occur  at 
once  as  an  answer  to  our  inquiry,  and  that  is  often  ad- 
vanced as  such,  viz.,  that  whatever  is  pleasurable  tends  to 
further  and  perfect  life,  and  whatever  is  painful  to  disturb 
or  destroy  it.  The  many  seeming  exceptions  to  this  law 
of  self -conservation,  as  it  has  been  called,  probably  all 
admit  of  explanation  in  conformity  with  it,  so  as  to  leave 
its  substantial  truth  unimpeached.1  But  this  law,  however 

1  See  Spencer,  Data  of  Ethics,  chaps,  i.-iv. ;  G.  H.  Schneider,  Freud 
und  Leid  des  Menschengeschlechts,  chap.  i. 


stated,  is  too  teleological  to  serve  as  a  purely  psychological 
principle,  and,  as  generally  formulated  and  illustrated,  it 
takes  account  of  matters  quite  outside  the  psychologist's 
ken.  We  are  not  now  concerned  to  know  why  a  bitter 
taste,  e.g.,  is  painful  or  the  gratification  of  an  appetite 
pleasant,  but  what  marks  distinctive  of  all  painful  presenta- 
tions the  one  has  and  the  other  lacks.  From  a  biological 
standpoint  it  may  be  true  enough  that  the  final  cause  of 
sexual  and  parental  feelings  is  the  perpetuation  of  the 
species;  but  this  does  not  help  us  to  ascertain  what 
common  character  they  have  as  actual  sources  of  feeling 
for  the  individual.  From  the  biological  standpoint  even 
the  senile  decadence  and  death  of  the  individual  may  be 
shown  to  be  advantageous  to  the  race ;  but  it  would  cer- 
tainly be  odd  to  describe  this  as  advantageous  to  the 
individual,  so  different  are  the  two  points  of  view.  What 
we  are  in  search  of,  although  a  generalization,  has  reference 
to  something  much  more  concrete  than  conceptions  like 
race  or  life,  and  does  not  require  us  to  go  beyond  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  moment  to  such  ulterior  facts  as  they 
imply. 

Were  it  possible  it  would  be  quite  unnecessary  to  examine 
in  detail  every  variety  of  pleasurable  and  painful  con- 
sciousness in  connexion  with  a  general  inquiry  of  this  sort. 
It  will  be  best  to  enumerate  at  the  outset  the  only  cases 
that  specially  call  for  investigation.  Feeling  may  arise 
mainly  from  (1)  single  sensations  or  movements,  including 
in  these  what  recent  psychologists  call  their  tone  ;  or  it  may 
be  chiefly  determined  by  (2)  some  combination  or  arrange- 
ment of  these  primary  presentations, — hence  what  might 
be  styled  the  lower  aesthetic  feelings.  We  have  thus 
among  primary  presentations  a  more  material  and  a  more 
formal  cause  or  ground  of  feeling.  The  mere  representa- 
tion of  these  sources  of  feeling  involves  nothing  of  moment : 
the  idea  of  a  bright  colour  or  a  bitter  taste  has  not  definite- 
ness  or  intensity  enough  to  produce  feeling ;  and  the  ideal 
presentation  of  a  harmonious  arrangement  of  sounds  or 
colours  does  not  in  itself  differ  essentially  as  regards  the 
feeling  it  occasions  from  the  actual  presentation.  When 
we  advance  to  the  level  at  which  there  occur  ideas  more 
complex  and  more  highly  representative — or  re-representa- 
tive, as  Mr  Spencer  would  say — than  any  we  have  yet  con- 
sidered we  can  again  distinguish  between  material  and 
formal  grounds  of  feeling.  To  the  first  we  might  refer, 
e.g.,  (3)  the  egoistic,  sympathetic,  and  religious  feelings ; 
this  class  will  probably  require  but  brief  notice.  The 
second,  consisting  of  (4)  the  intellectual  and  (5)  the  higher 
aesthetic  feelings,  is  more  important.  There  is  a  special 
class  of  feelings,  which  might  be  distinguished  from  all 
the  preceding  as  reflex,  since  they  arise  from  the  memory 
or  expectation  of  feelings ;  but  in  fact  these  are  largely 
involved  in  all  the  higher  feelings,  and  this  brief  reference 
to  them  will  suffice;  of  such  hope,  fear,  regret,  are  examples. 

1.  The  quality  and  intensity  as  well  as  the  duration  Sensa- 
and  frequency  of  a  sensation  or  movement  all  have  to  tions  and 
do  with  determining  to  what  feeling  it  gives  rise.  itmove- 
will  be  best  to  leave  the  last  two  out  of  account  for  a  time. 
Apart  from  these,  the  pleasantness  or  painfulness  of  a 
movement  appears  to  depend  solely  upon  its  intensity, 
that  is  to  say,  upon  the  amount  of  effort  necessary  to  effect 
it,  in  such  wise  that  a  certain  amount  of  exertion  is  agree- 
able and  any  excess  disagreeable.  Some  sensations  also, 
such  as  light  and  sound,  are  agreeable  if  not  too  intense, 
their  pleasantness  increasing  with  their  intensity  up  to  a 
certain  point,  on  nearing  which  the  feeling  rapidly  changes 
and  becomes  disagreeable  or  even  painful.  Other  sensa- 
tions, as  bitter  tastes,  e.g.,  are  naturally  unpleasant,  how- 
ever faint, — though  we  must  allow  the  possibility  of  an 
acquired  liking  for  moderately  bitter  or  pungent  flavours. 
But  in  every  case  such  sensations  produce  unmistakable 


ments. 


68 


PSYCHOLOGY 


manifestations  of  disgust,  if  at  all  intense.  Sweet  tastes, 
on  the  other  hand,  however  intense,  are  pleasant  to  an 
unspoiled  palate,  though  apt  before  long  to  become 
mawkish,  like  "sweetest  honey,  loathsome  in  his  own 
deliciousness,"  as  confectioners'  apprentices  are  said  soon 
to  find.  The  painfulness  of  all  painful  sensations  or 
movements  increases  with  their  intensity  without  any 
assignable  maximum  being  reached. 

A  comparison  of  examples  of  this  kind,  which  it  would 
be  tedious  to  describe  more  fully  and  which  are  indeed  too 
familiar  to  need  much  description,  seems  to  show  (1)  that, 
so  far  as  feeling  is  determined  by  the  intensity  of  a  pre- 
sentation, there  is  pleasure  so  long  as  attention  can  be 
adapted  or  accommodated  to  the  presentation,  and  pain  so 
soon  as  the  intensity  is  too  great  for  this ;  and  (2)  that, 
so  far  as  feeling  is  determined  by  the  quality  of  a  presenta- 
tion, those  that  are  pleasurable  enlarge  the  field  of  con- 
sciousness and  introduce  or  agreeably  increase  in  intensity 
certain  organic  sensations,  while  those  that  are  painful 
contract  the  field  of  consciousness  and  introduce  or  disagree- 
ably increase  in  intensity  certain  organic  sensations.  There 
are  certain  other  hedonic  effects  due  to  quality  the  exa- 
mination of  which  we  must  for  the  present  defer.  Mean- 
while as  to  the  first  point  it  may  be  suggested,  as  at  any  rate 
a  working  hypothesis,  that  in  itself  any  and  every  simple 
sensation  or  movement  is  pleasurable  if  there  is  attention 
forthcoming  adequate  to  its  intensity.  In  the  earliest 
and  simplest  phases  of  life,  in  which  the  presentation- 
continuum  is  but  little  differentiated,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  variation  in  the  intensity  of  presentation 
preponderates  over  changes  in  the  quality  of  presentation, 
and  that  to  the  same  extent  feeling  is  determined  by  the 
former  and  not  by  the  latter.  And,  whereas  this  depend- 
ence on  intensity  is  invariable,  there  is  no  ground  for 
supposing  the  quality  of  any  primary  presentation,  when 
not  of  excessive  intensity,  to  be  invariably  disagreeable ; 
the  changes  above-mentioned  in  the  hedonic  effects  of  bitter 
tastes,  sweet  tastes,  or  the  like  tend  rather  to  prove  the 
contrary.  This  brings  us  to  the  second  point,  and  it  requires 
some  elucidation.  We  need  here  to  call  to  mind  the  con- 
tinuity of  our  presentations  and  especially  the  existence  of 
a  background  of  organic  sensations  or  somatic  conscious- 
ness, as  it  is  variously  termed.  By  the  time  that  qualita- 
tively distinct  presentations  have  been  differentiated  from 
this  common  basis  it  becomes  possible  for  any  of  these, 
without  having  the  intensity  requisite  to  affect  feeling 
directly,  to  change  it  indirectly  by  means  of  the  systemic 
sensations  accompanying  them,  or,  in  other  words,  by  their 
tone.  The  physiological  concomitants  of  these  changes  of 
somatic  tone  are  largely  reflex  movements  or  equivalents 
of  movements,  such  as  alterations  in  circulatory,  respira- 
tory, and  excretory  processes.  Such  movements  are  psy- 
chologically movements  no  longer,  and  are  rightly  regarded 
as  pertaining  wholly  to  the  sensory  division  of  presenta- 
tions. But  originally  it  may  have  been  otherwise.  To 
us  now,  these  organic  reflexes  seem  but  part  and  parcel  of 
the  special  sensation  whose  tone  they  form,  and  which 
they  accompany  even  when  that  sensation,  so  far  as  its 
mere  intensity  goes,  might  be  deemed  indifferent.  But 
perhaps  at  first  the  special  qualities  that  are  now  through- 
out unpleasant  may  have  been  always  presented  with  an 
excessive  intensity  that  would  be  painful  on  this  score 
alone,  and  the  reflexes  that  at  present  pertain  to  them 
may  then  have  been  psychologically  the  expression  of  this 
pain.1  At  any  rate  it  is  manifestly  unfair  to  refuse  either 

1  In  the  lowly  organisms  that  absorb  food  directly  through  the  skin 
such  bitter  juices  as  exist  naturally  might  at  once  produce  very  violent 
effects, — comparable,  say,  to  scalding;  and  the  reflexes  then  established 
may  have  been  continued  by  natural  selection  so  as  to  save  from 
poisoning  the  higher  organisms,  whose  absorbent  surfaces  are  internal 
and  only  guarded  in  this  way  by  the  organ  of  taste.  Some  light  is 


to  seek  out  the  primitive  effects  of  the  sensations  in  ques- 
tion and  allow  for  the  workings  of  heredity,  or  to  reckon 
this  accompanying  systemic  feeling  as  part  of  them.  The 
latter  seems  the  readier  and  perhaps,  too,  the  preferable 
course.  A  word  will  now  suffice  to  explain  what  is  meant 
by  enlarging  and  contracting  the  field  of  consciousness 
and  agreeably  increasing  or  decreasing  certain  elements 
therein. 

The  difference  in  point  is  manifest  on  comparing  the  flow 
of  spirits,  buoyancy,  and  animation  which  result  from  a 
certain  duration  of  pleasurable  sensations  with  the  lowness 
or  depression  of  spirits,  the  gloom  and  heaviness  of  heart, 
apt  to  ensue  from  prolonged  physical  pain.  Common 
language,  in  fact,  leaves  us  no  choice  but  to  describe  these 
contrasted  states  by  figures  which  clearly  imply  that  they 
differ  in  the  range  and  variety  of  the  presentations  that 
make  up  consciousness,  and  in  the  quickness  with  which 
these  succeed  each  other.2  It  is  not  merely  that  in  hilarity 
as  contrasted  with  dejection  the  train  of  ideas  takes  a 
wider  sweep  and  shows  greater  liveliness,  but  as  it  were  at 
the  back  of  this,  on  the  lower  level  of  purely  sensory  ex- 
perience, certain  organic  sensations  which  are  ordinarily 
indifferent  acquire  a  gentle  intensity,  which  seems  by  flow- 
ing over  to  quicken  and  expand  the  ideational  stream,  as 
we  see,  for  instance,  in  the  effects  of  mountain  air  and 
sunshine.  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  these  sensations  become 
so  violently  intense  as  to  drain  off  and  ingulf  all  available 
energy  in  one  monotonous  corroding  care,  an  oppressive 
weight  which  leaves  no  place  for  free  movement,  no  life 
or  leisure  to  respond  to  what  are  wont  to  be  pleasurable 
solicitations.3 

As  regards  the  duration  and  the  frequency  of  presenta- 
tion, it  is  in  general  true  that  the  hedonic  effect  soon 
attains  its  maximum,  and  then,  if  pleasant,  rapidly  de- 
clines, or  even  changes  to  its  opposite.  Pains  in  like  manner 
decline,  but  more  slowly,  and  without  in  the  same  sense 
changing  to  pleasures.  The  like  holds  of  too  frequent  repe- 
tition. Physiological  explanation  of  these  facts,  good  as 
far  as  it  goes,  is,  of  course,  at  once  forthcoming  :  sensibility 
is  blunted,  time  is  required  for  restoration,  and  so  forth ; 
but  at  least  we  want  the  psychological  equivalent  of  all 
this.  In  one  respect  we  find  nothing  materially  new ;  so 
far  as  continued  presentation  entails  diminished  intensity 
we  have  nothing  but  diminished  feeling  as  a  consequence ; 
so  far  as  its  continued  presentation  entails  satiety  the  train 
of  agreeable  accompaniments  ceases  in  which  the  pleasur- 
able tone  consisted.  But  in  another  way  long  duration 
and  frequent  repetition  produce  indirectly  certain  charac- 


thrown  on  questions  of  this  kind  by  the  very  interesting  experiments 
of  Dr  Romanes  ;  for  a  general  account  of  these  see  his  Jelly-fish, 
Star-fish,  and  Sea-urchins,  chap.  ix. 

2  This  is  one  among  many  cases  in  which  the  study  of  a  vocabulary 
is  full  of  instruction  to  the  psychologist.     The  reader  who  will  be  at 
the  trouble  to  compare  the  parallel  columns  under  the  heading  "  Passive 
Affections,"  in  Roget's  Thesaurus  of  English  Words  and  Phrases,  will 
find  ample  proof  both  of  this  general  statement  and  of  what  is  said 
above  in  the  text. 

3  Observation  and  experiment  show  that  the  physical  signs  of  pain  in 
the  higher  animals  consist  in  such  changes  as  a  lowered  and  weaker 
pulse,  reduction  of 'the  surface  temperature,  quickened  respiration, 
dilatation  of  the  iris,  and  the  like.     And  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained 
these  effects  are  not  altogether  the  emotional  reaction  to  pain  but  in 
large  measure  its  actual  accompaniments,  the  physical  side  of  what 
we  have  called  its  tone.     The  following  is  a  good  description  of  these 
general  characteristics  of  feeling  : — "  En  meme  temps,  il  se  fait  une 
serie  de  mouvements  g&n£raux  de  flexion,  comme  si  1'animal  voulait 
se  rendre  plus  petit,  et  offrir  moins  de  surface  a  la  douleur.     II  est 
interessant  de  remarquer  que,  pour  I'homme  comme  pour  tous  les 
animaux,  on  retrouve  ces  memes  mouvements  g<5neVaux  de  flexion  et 
d'extension  repondaut  aux  sentiments  differents  de  plaisir  et  de  la 
douleur.      Le  plaisir  repond  a  un  mouvement  d'epanouissement,  de 
dilatation,  d'extension.    Au  contraire,  dans  la  douleur,  on  se  rapetisse, 
on  se  referme  sur  soi ;  c'est  un  mouvemeiit  general  de  flexion "  (C. 
Richet,  L'/Ionime  et  I  Intelligence :  La  Douleur,  p.  9). 


PSYCHOLOGY 


69 


teristic  effects  on  feeling  in  consequence  of  habituation 
and  accommodation.  We  may  get  used  to  a  painful  pre- 
sentation in  such  wise  that  we  cease  to  be  conscious  of  it 
as  positively  disagreeable,  though  its  cessation  is  at  once 
a  source  of  pleasure ;  in  like  manner  we  come  to  require 
things  simply  because  it  is  painful  to  be  without  them, 
although  their  possession  has  long  ceased  to  be  a  ground 
of  positive  enjoyment.  This  loss  (or  gain)  consequent  on 
accommodation  l  has  a  most  important  effect  in  changing 
the  sources  of  feeling  :  it  helps  to  transfer  attention  from 
mere  sensations  to  what  we  may  distinguish  as  interests. 
Combin-  2.  Certain  sensations  or  movements  not  separately  un- 
atious  of  pleasant  become  so-  when  presented  together  or  in  imme- 
sensa-  diate  succession  ;  and  contrariwise,  some  combinations  of 
of  move-  sensations  or  of  movements  may  be  such  as  to  afford  plea- 
ments.  sure  distinct  from,  and  often  greater  than,  any  that  they 
separately  yield.  Here  again  we  find  that  in  some  cases 
the  effect  seems  mainly  to  depend  on  intensity,  in  others 
mainly  on  quality,  (i.)  As  instances  of  the  former  may  be 
mentioned  the  pleasurableness  of  a  rhythmic  succession 
of  sounds  or  movements,  of  symmetrical  forms  and  curved 
outlines,  of  gentle  crescendos  and  diminuendos  in  sound,  and 
of  gradual  variations  of  shade  in  colour,  and  the  painfulness 
of  flickering  lights,  "  beats "  in  musical  notes,  false  time, 
false  steps,  false  quantities,  and  the  like.  In  all  these, 
whenever  the  result  is  pleasurable,  attention  can  be  readily 
accommodated, — is,  so  to  say,  economically  meted  out ; 
and,  whenever  the  result  is  painful,  attention  is  surprised, 
balked,  wasted.  Thus  we  can  make  more  movements  and 
with  less  expenditure  of  energy  when  they  are  rhythmic 
than  when  they  are  not,  as  the  performances  of  a  ball- 
room or  of  troops  marching  to  music  amply  testify.  Of 
this  economy  we  have  also  a  striking  proof  in  the  ease  with 
which  rhythmic  language  is  retained,  (ii.)  As  instances 
of  the  latter  may  be  cited  those  arrangements  of  musical 
tones  and  of  colours  that  are  called  harmonious  or  the 
opposite.  Harmony,  however,  must  be  taken  to  have  a 
different  meaning  in  the  two  cases.  When  two  or  three 
tones  harmonize  there  results,  as  is  well  known,  a  distinct 
pleasure  over  and  above  any  pleasure  due  to  the  tones 
themselves.  On  the  other  hand,  tones  that  are  discordant 
are  unpleasant  in  spite  of  any  pleasantness  they  may  have 
singly.  Besides  the  negative  condition  of  absence  of 
beats,  a  musical  interval  to  be  pleasant  must  fulfil  certain 
positive  conditions,  sufficiently  expressed  for  our  purpose 
by  saying  that  two  tones  are  pleasant  when  they  give  rise 
to  few  combination-tones,  and  when  among  these  there 
are  several  that  coincide,  and  that  they  are  unpleasant 
when  they  give  rise  to  many  combination-tones,  and  when 
among  these  there  are  few  or  none  that  coincide.  Too 
many  tones  together  prevent  any  from  being  distinct.  But 
where  tones  coincide  the  number  of  tones  actually  present 
is  less  than  the  number  of  possible  tones,  and  there  is  a 
proportionate  simplification,  so  to  put  it :  more  is  com- 
manded and  with  less  effort.  A  recent  writer 2  on  harmony, 
in  fact,  compares  the  confusion  of  a  discord  to  that  of 
"  trying  to  reckon  up  a  sum  in  one's  head  and  failing 
because  the  numbers  are  too  high."  A  different  explana- 
tion must  be  given  of  the  so-called  harmonies  of  colour. 
The  pleasurable  effect  of  graduations  of  colour  or  shade — to 
which,  as  Ruskin  tells  us,  the  rose  owes  its  victorious  beauty 
when  compared  with  other  flowers — has  been  already  men- 
tioned :  it  is  rather  a  quantitative  than  a  qualitative  effect. 
What  we  are  now  concerned  with  are  the  pleasurable  or 

1  It  has  been  definitely  formulated,  but  in  physiological  language, 
by  Dr  Bain  as  the  Law  of  Novelty  :  "  No  second  occurrence  of  any 
great  shock  or  stimulus,  whether  pleasure,  pain,  or  mere  excitement, 
is  ever  fully  equal  to  the  first,  notwithstanding  that  full  time  has  been 
given  for  the  nerves  to  recover  from  their  exhaustion  "  (Mind  and 
Body,  p.  51).     Comp.  also  his  Emotions  and  Will,  3d  ed.,  p.  83. 

2  Preyer.  Akustische  Untersuchungen,  p.  59. 


painful  combinations  of  different  ungraduated  colours.  A 
comparison  of  these  seems  to  justify  the  general  statement 
that  those  colours  yield  good  combinations  that  are  far 
apart  in  the  colour  circle,  while  those  near  together  are 
apt  to  be  discordant.  The  explanation  given,  viz.,  that 
the  one  arrangement  secures  and  the  other  prevents  perfect 
retinal  activity,  seems  on  the  whole  satisfactory, — especially 
if  we  acknowledge  the  tendency  of  all  recent  investigations 
and  distinguish  sensibility  to  colour  and  sensibility  to  mere 
light  as  both  psychologically  and  physiologically  two 
separate  facts.  Thus,  when  red  and  green  are  juxtaposed, 
the  red  increases  the  saturation  of  the  green  and  the  green 
that  of  the  red,  so  that  both  colours  are  heightened  in 
brilliance.  But  such  an  effect  is  only  pleasing  to  the  child 
and  the  savage ;  for  civilized  men  the  contrast  is  excessive, 
and  colours  less  completely  opposed,  as  red  and  blue,  are 
preferred,  each  being  a  rest  from  the  other,  so  that  as  the 
eye  wanders  to  and  fro  over  their  border  different  elements 
are  active  by  turns.  Red  and  orange,  again,  are  bad,  in 
that  both  exhaust  in  a  similar  manner  and  leave  the  re- 
maining factors  out  of  play. 

3.  The  more  or  less  spontaneous  workings  of  imagina-  Ideatior 
tion,  as  well  as  that  direct  control  of  this  working  necessary  and  in- 
to  thinking  in  the  stricter  sense,  are  always  productive*, 
of  pain  or  pleasure  in  varying  degrees.  Though  the  ex- 
position of  the  higher  intellectual  processes  has  not  yet 
been  reached,  there  will  be  no  inconvenience  in  at  once 
taking  account  of  their  effects  on  feeling,  since  these  are 
fairly  obvious  and  largely  independent  of  any  analysis  of 
the  processes  themselves.  It  will  also  be  convenient  to 
include  under  the  one  term  "intellectual  feelings,"  not 
only  the  feelings  connected  with  certainty,  doubt,  per- 
plexity, comprehension,  and  so  forth,  but  also  what  the 
Herbartian  psychologists — whose  work  in  this  department 
of  psychology  is  classical — have  called  par  excellence  the 
formal  feelings, — that  is  to  say,  feelings  which  they  regard 
as  entirely  determined  by  the  form  of  the  flow  of  ideas, 
and  not  by  the  ideas  themselves.  Thus,  be  the  ideas 
what  they  may,  when  their  onward  movement  is  checked 
by  divergent  or  obstructing  lines  of  association,  and  especi- 
ally when  in  this  manner  we  are  hindered,  say,  from  re- 
collecting a  name  or  a  quotation  (as  if,  e.g.,  the  names  of 
Archimedes,  Anaximenes,  and  Anaximander  each  arrested 
the  clear  revival  of  the  other),  we  are  conscious  of  a  certain 
strain  and  oppressiveness,  which  give  way  to  momentary 
relief  when  at  length  what  is  wanted  rises  into  distinct 
consciousness  and  our  ideas  resume  their  flow.  Here 
again,  too,  as  in  muscular  movements,  we  have  the  con- 
trast of  exertion  and  facility,  when  "thoughts  refuse  to 
flow"  and  we  work  "invita  Minerva,"  or  when  the  appro- 
priate ideas  seem  to  unfold  and  display  themselves  before 
us  like  a  vision  before  one  inspired.  To  be  confronted 
with  propositions  we  cannot  reconcile — i.e.,  with  what  is 
or  appears  inconsistent,  false,  contradictory — is  apt  to  be 
painful ;  the  recognition  of  truth  or  logical  coherence,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  pleasurable.  The  feeling  in  either  case 
is,  no  doubt,  greater  the  greater  our  interest  in  the  subject- 
matter  ;  but  the  mere  conflict  of  ideas  as  such  is  in  itself 
depressing,  and  the  discernment  of  agreement,  of  the  one 
in  the  many,  in  like  manner  a  distinct  satisfaction.  Now 
in  the  one  case  we  are  conscious  of  futile  efforts  to  com- 
prehend as  one  ideas  which  the  more  distinctly  we  appre- 
hend them  for  the  purpose  only  prove  to  be  the  more 
completely  and  diametrically  opposed ;  we  can  only  affirm 
and  mentally  envisage  the  one  by  denying  and  suppressing 
the  representation  of  the  other,  and  yet  we  have  to  strive 
to  predicate  both  and  to  embody  them  together  in  the 
same  mental  image.  Attention  is  like  a  house  divided 
against  itself :  there  is  effort  but  it  is  not  effective,  for 
the  field  of  consciousness  is  narrowed  and  the  flow  of  ideas 


70 


PSYCHOLOGY 


arrested.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  we  discern  a  common 
principle  among  diverse  and  apparently  disconnected  par- 
ticulars, instead  of  all  the  attention  we  can  command  being 
taxed  in  the  separate  apprehension  of  these  "disjecta  mem- 
bra," they  become  as  one,  and  we  seem  at  once  to  have  at 
our  disposal  resources  for  the  command  of  an  enlarged 
field  and  the  detection  of  new  resemblances. 

Higher  4.  Closely  related  to  these  formal  intellectual  feelings 
aesthetic  are  certain  of  the  higher  aesthetic  feelings.  A  reference 
feelings.  to  some  of  the  commonplaces  of  aesthetical  writers  may 
be  sufficient  briefly  to  exhibit  the  leading  characteristics 
of  these  feelings.  There  is  a  wide  agreement  among  men 
in  general  as  to  what  is  beautiful  and  "what  is  not,  and  it 
is  the  business  of  a  treatise  on  empirical  aesthetics  from 
an  analysis  of  these  matters  of  fact  to  generalize  the 
principles  of  taste, — to  do,  in  fact,  for  one  source  of  pleasure 
and  pain  what  we  are  here  attempting  in  a  meagre  fashion 
for  all.  And  these  principles  are  the  more  important  in 
their  bearing  upon  the  larger  psychological  question,  be- 
cause among  aesthetic  effects  are  reckoned  only  such  as  are 
pleasing  or  otherwise  in  themselves,  apart  from  all  recog- 
nition of  utility,  of  possession,  or  of  ulterior  gratification  of 
any  kind  whatever.  Thus,  if  it  should  be  objected  that 
the  intellectual  satisfaction  of  consistency  is  really  due  to 
its  utility,  to  the  fact  that  what  is  incompatible  and  incom- 
prehensible is  of  no  avail  for  practical  guidance,  at  least 
this  objection  will  not  hold  against  the  aesthetic  principle 
of  unity  in  variety.  In  accordance  with  this  primary  maxim 
of  art  criticism,  at  the  one  extreme  art  productions  are  con- 
demned for  monotony,  as  incapable  of  sustaining  interest 
because  "empty,"  "bald,"  and  "poor";  at  the  other  ex- 
treme they  are  condemned  as  too  incoherent  and  discon- 
nected to  furnish  a  centre  of  interest.  And  those  are  held 
as  so  far  praiseworthy  in  which  a  variety  of  elements,  be 
they  movements,  forms,  colours,  or  incidents,  instead  of 
conflicting,  all  unite  to  enhance  each  other  and  to  form  not 
merely  a  mass  but  a  whole.  Another  principle  that  serves 
to  throw  light  on  our  inquiry  is  that  which  has  been  called 
the  principle  of  economy,1  viz.,  that  an  effect  is  pleasing  in 
proportion  as  it  is  attained  by  little  effort  and  simple 
means.  The  brothers  Weber  in  their  classic  work  on  human 
locomotion  discovered  that  those  movements  that  are 
aesthetically  beautiful  are  also  physiologically  correct ;  grace 
and  ease,  in  fact,  are  wellnigh  synonymous,  as  Herbert 
Spencer  points  out,  and  illustrates  by  apt  instances  of 
graceful  attitudes,  motions,  and  forms.  The  same  writer,2 
again,  in  seeking  for  a  more  general  law  underlying  the 
current  maxims  of  writers  on  composition  and  rhetoric 
is  led  to  a  special  formulation  of  this  principle  as  applied 
to  style,  viz.,  that  "economy  of  the  recipient's  attention 
is  the  secret  of  effect." 

Perhaps  of  all  aesthetical  principles  the  most  wide- 
reaching,  as  well  as  practically  the  most  important,  is  that 
which  explains  aesthetic  effects  by  association.  Thus,  to 
take  one  example  where  so  many  are  possible,  the  croak- 
ing of  frogs  and  the  monotonous  ditty  of  the  cuckoo  owe 
their  pleasantness,  not  directly  to  what  they  are  in  them- 
selves, but  entirely  to  their  intimate  association  with 
spring-time  and  its  gladness.  At  first  it  might  seem, 
therefore,  that  there  is  nothing  fresh  in  this  principle 
relevant  to  our  present  inquiry,  since  a  pleasure  that  is 
only  due  to  association  at  once  carries  back  the  question 
to  its  sources,  so  that  in  asking  why  the  spring,  for  ex- 
ample, is  pleasant  we  should  be  returning  to  old  ground. 
But  this  is  not  altogether  true  ;  aesthetic  effects  call  up  not 

1  Compare  Fechner,  Vorschule  der  Aesthetik,  ii.  p.  263.  Fechner's 
full  style  for  it  is  "  Princip  der  b'konomischen  Verwendung  der  Mittel 
oder  des  kleinsten  Kraftmasses. " 

a  Essays,  Scientific,  Political,  and  Speculative,  vol.  ii.,  Ess.  I.  and 
VIII. 


merely  ideas  but  ideals.  A  great  work  of  art  improves 
upon  the  real  in  two  respects  :  it  intensifies  and  it  trans- 
figures. It  is  for  art  to  gather  into  one  focus,  cleared 
from  dross  and  commonplace,  the  genial  memories  of  a 
lifetime,  the  instinctive  memories  of  a  race  ;  and,  where 
theory  can  only  classify  and  arrange  what  it  receives,  art — 
in  a  measure  free  from  "the  literal  unities  of  time  and 
place  " — creates  and  glorifies.  Still  art  eschews  the  abstract 
and  speculative ;  however  plastic  in  its  hands,  the  material 
wrought  is  always  that  of  sense.  We  have  already  noticed 
more  than  once  the  power  which  primary  presentations 
have  to  sustain  vivid  re-presentations,  and  the  bearing  of 
this  on  the  aesthetic  effects  of  works  of  art  must  be  straight- 
way obvious.  The  notes  and  colours,  rhymes  and  rhythms, 
forms  and  movements,  which  produce  the  lower  aesthetic 
feelings  also  serve  as  the  means  of  bringing  into  view, 
and  maintaining  at  a  higher  level  of  vividness,  a  wider 
range  and  flow  of  pleasing  ideas  than  we  can  ordinarily 
command. 

5.  When  we  reach  the  level  at  which  there  is  distinct  Egoistic 
self-consciousness  (comp.  p.  84),  we  have  an  important  class  an^ 
of  feelings  determined  by  the  relation  of  the  presentation  ?oc.la 
of  self  to  the  other  contents  of  consciousness.  And  as  feeiings, 
the  knowledge  of  other  selves  advances  pari  passu  with 
that  of  one's  own  self,  so  along  with  the  egoistic  feelings 
appear  certain  social  or  altruistic  feelings.  The  two  have 
much  in  common ;  in  pride  and  shame,  for  example, 
account  is  taken  of  the  estimate  other  persons  form  of  us 
and  of  our  regard  for  them;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
when  we  admire  or  despise,  congratulate  or  pity  another, 
we  have  always  present  to  our  mind  a  more  or  less  definite 
conception  of  self  in  like  circumstances.  It  will  therefore 
amply  serve  all  the  ends  of  our  present  inquiry  if  we 
briefly  survey  the  leading  characteristics  of  some  contrasted 
egoistic  feelings,  such  as  self-complacency  and  disappoint- 
ment. When  a  man  is  pleased  with  himself,  his  achieve- 
ments, possessions,  or  circumstances,  such  pleasure  is  the 
result  of  a  comparison  of  his  present  position  in  this 
respect  with  some  former  position  or  with  the  position  of 
some  one  else.  Without  descending  to  details,  we  may 
say  that  two  prospects  are  before  him,  and  the  larger  and 
fairer  is  recognized  as  his  own.  Under  disappointment 
or  reverse  the  same  two  pictures  may  be  present  to  his 
mind,  but  accompanied  by  the  certainty  that  the  better 
is  not  his  or  is  his  no  more.  So  far,  then,  it  might  be 
said  that  the  contents  of  his  consciousness  are  in  each  case 
the  same,  the  whole  difference  lying  in  the  different 
relationship  to  self.  But  this  makes  all  the  difference 
even  to  the  contents  of  his  consciousness,  as  we  shall  at 
once  see  if  we  consider  its  active  side.  Even  the  idlest 
and  most  thoughtless  mind  teems  with  intentions  and 
expectations,  and  in  its  prosperity,  like  the  fool  in  the 
parable,  thinks  to  pull  down  its  barns  and  build  greater, 
to  take  its  ease,  eat,  drink,  and  be  merry.  The  support 
of  all  this  pleasing  show  and  these  far-reaching  aims  is, 
not  the  bare  knowledge  of  what  abundance  will  do,  but 
the  reflexion — These  many  goods  are  mine.  In  mind 
alone  final  causes  have  a  place,  and  the  end  can  produce 
the  beginning ;  the  prospect  of  a  summer  makes  the  pre- 
sent into  spring.  But  action  is  paralysed  or  impossible 
when  the  means  evade  us — 

"  Now  drops  at  once  the  pride  of  awful  state, 
The  golden  canopy,  the  glittering  plate," 

and  a  bleak  and  wintry  barrenness  is  filled  with  the 
emptiness  of  despair.  In  so  far  as  a  man's  life  consists 
in  the  abundance  of  the  things  he  possesseth,  we  see  then 
why  it  dwindles  with  these.  The  like  holds  where  self- 
complacency  or  displicency  rests  on  a  sense  of  personal 
worth  or  on  the  honour  or  affection  of  others. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


71 


um-  We  are  now  at  the  end  of  our  survey  of  certain  typical 

mryand  pleasurable  and  painful  states.  The  answer  to  our  in- 
3sult-  quiry  which  it  seems  to  suggest  is  that  there  is  pleasure 
in  proportion  as  a  maximum  of  attention  is  effectively 
exercised,  and  pain  in  proportion  as  such  effective  atten- 
tion is  frustrated  by  distractions,  shocks,  or  incomplete 
and  faulty  adaptations,  or  fails  of  exercise,  owing  to  the 
narrowness  of  the  field  of  consciousness  and  the  slowness 
and  smallness  of  its  changes.  Something  must  be  said  in 
explication  of  this  formula,  and  certain  objections  that 
might  be  made  to  it  must  be  considered.  First  of  all,  it 
implies  that  feeling  is  determined  partly  by  quantitative, 
or,  as  we  might  sayr  material,  conditions,  and  partly  by 
conditions  that  are  formal  or  qualitative.  As  regards  the 
former,  both  the  intensity  or  concentration  of  attention 
and  its  diffusion  or  the  extent  of  the  field  of  consciousness 
have  to  be  taken  into  account.  Attention,  whatever  else 
it  is,  is  a  limited  quantity — 

Pluribus  inteutus  minor  est  ad  singula  sensus — 
to  quote  Hamilton's  pet  adage.  Moreover,  as  we  have 
seen,  attention  requires  time.  If,  then,  attention  be  dis- 
tributed over  too  wide  a  field,  there  is  a  corresponding  loss 
of  intensity,  and  so  of  distinctness :  we  tend  towards  a 
succession  of  indistinguishables — indistinguishable,  there- 
fore, from  no  succession.  We  must  not  have  more  pre- 
sentations in  the  field  of  consciousness  than  will  alloAv  of 
some  concentration  of  attention :  a  maximum  diffusion 
will  not  do.  A  maximum  concentration,  in  like  manner — 
even  if  there  were  no  other  objection  to  it — would  seem 
to  conflict  with  the  general  conditions  of  consciousness, 
inasmuch  as  a  single  simple  presentation,  however  intense, 
would  admit  of  no  differentiation,  and  any  complex  pre- 
sentation is  in  some  sort  a  plurality.  The  most  effective 
attention,  then,  as  regards  its  quantitative  conditions, 
must  lie  somewhere  between  the  two  zeros  of  complete 
indifference  and  complete  absorption.  If  there  be  an 
excess  of  diffusion,  effective  attention  will  increase  up  to 
a  certain  point  as  concentration  increases,  but  beyond  that 
point  will  decrease  if  this  intensification  continues  to  in- 
crease ;  and  vice  versa,  if  there  be  an  excess  of  concentra- 
tion. But,  inasmuch  as  these  quantitative  conditions 
involve  a  plurality  of  distinguishable  presentations  or 
changes  in  consciousness,  the  way  is  open  for  formal  con- 
ditions as  well.  Since  different  presentations  consort 
differently  when  above  the  threshold  of  consciousness 
together,  one  field  may  be  wider  and  yet  as  intense  as 
another,  or  intenser  and  yet  as  wide,  owing  to  a  more 
advantageous  arrangement  of  its  constituents.1 
Dative  The  doctrine  here  developed,  viz.,  that  feeling  depends 
on  efficiency,  is  in  the  main  as  old  as  Aristotle ;  all  that 
has  been  done  is  to  give  it  a  more  accurately  psychological 
expression,  and  to  free  it  from  the  implications  of  the 
faculty  theory,-in  which  form  it  was  expounded  by  Hamil- 
ton. Of  possible  objections  there  are  at  least  two  that 
we  must  anticipate,  and  the  consideration  of  which  will 

1  As  it  is  impossible  to  say  that  any  distinguishable  presentation  is 
absolutely  simple,  the  hypothesis  of  subconsciousness  would  leave  us 
free  to  assume  that  any  pleasantness  or  unpleasantness  that  cannot  be 
explained  on  the  score  of  intensity  is  due  to  some  obscure  harmony  or 
discord,  compatibility  or  incompatibility,  of  elements  not  separately 
discernible.  But  this,  though  tempting,  is  not  really  a  very  scientific 
procedure.  If  a  particular  presentation  is  pleasurable  or  painful  in 
such  wise  as  to  lead  to  a  redistribution  of  attention,  it  is  reasonable  to 
look  for  an  explanation  primarily  in  its  connexion  with  the  rest  of  the 
field  of  consciousness.  Moreover,  it  is  obvious  —  since  what  takes 
place  in  subconsciousness  can  only  be  explained  in  analogy  with  what 
takes  place  in  consciousness — that,  if  we  have  an  inexplicable  in  the  one, 
we  must  have  a  corresponding  inexplicable  in  the  other.  If  the  feeling 
produced  by  what  comports  itself  as  a  simple  presentation  cannot  be 
explained  by  what  is  in  consciousness,  we  should  be  forced  to  admit 
that  some  presentations  are  unpleasant  simply  because  they  are  un- 
pleasant— an  inexplicability  which  the  hypothesis  of  subconsciousness 
might  push  farther  back  but  would  not  remove. 


help  to  make  the  general  view  clearer.  First,  it  may  be 
urged  that,  according  to  this  view,  it  ought  to  be  one  con- 
tinuous pain  to  fall  asleep,  since  in  this  state  consciousness 
is  rapidly  restricted  both  as  to  intensity  and  range.  This 
statement  is  entirely  true  as  regards  the  intensity  and 
substantially  true  as  regards  the  range,  at  least  of  the 
higher  consciousness :  certain  massive  and  agreeable  organic 
sensations  pertain  to  falling  asleep,  but  the  variety  of 
presentations  at  all  events  grows  less.  But  then  the 
capacity  to  attend  is  also  rapidly  declining  :  even  a  slight 
intruding  sensation  entails  an  acute  sense  of  strain  in  one 
sense,  in  place  of  the  massive  pleasure  of  repose  throughout; 
and  any  voluntary  concentration  either  in  order  to  move 
or  to  think  involves  a  like  organic  conflict,  futile  effort, 
and  arrest  of  balmy  ease.  There  is  as  regards  the  more 
definite  constituents  of  the  field  of  consciousness  a  close 
resemblance  between  natural  sleepiness  and  the  state  of 
monotonous  humdrum  we  call  tedium  or  ennui ;  and  yet 
the  very  same  excitement  that  would  relieve  the  one  by 
dissipating  the  weariness  of  inaction  would  disturb  the 
other  by  renewing  the  weariness  of  action  :  the  one  is 
commensurate  with  the  resources  of  the  moment,  the  other 
is  not.  Thus  the  maximum  of  effective  attention  in  question 
is,  as  Aristotle  would  say,  a  maximum  "  relative  to  us." 
It  is  possible,  therefore,  that  a  change  from  a  wider  to 
a  narrower  field  of  consciousness  may  be  a  pleasurable 
change,  if  attention  is  more  effectively  engaged.  Strictly 
speaking,  however,  the  so-called  negative  pleasures  of  rest 
do  not  consist  in  a  mere  narrowing  of  the  field  of  conscious- 
ness so  much  as  in  a  change  in  the  amount  of  concentration. 
Massive  organic  sensations  connected  with  restoration  take 
the  place  of  the  comparatively  acute  sensations  of  jaded 
powers  forced  to  work.  We  have,  then,  in  all  cases  to 
bear  in  mind  this  subjective  relativity  of  all  pleasurable 
or  painful  states  of  consciousness. 

But  there  is  still  another  and  more  serious  difficulty  to  Do  plea- 
face.  It  has  long  been  a  burning  question  with  theoretical  Sl}res 
moralists  whether  pleasures  differ  only  quantitatively  or  v^ 
differ  qualitatively  as  well,  whether  psychological  analysis  tively  ? 
will  justify  the  common  distinction  of  higher  and  lower 
pleasures  or  force  us  to  recognize  nothing  but  differences 
of  degree,  of  duration,  and  so  forth, — as  expounded,  e.g., 
by  Bentham,  whose  cynical  mot,  "  Pushpin  is  as  good  as 
poetry  provided  it  be  as  pleasant,"  was  long  a  stumbling- 
block  in  the  way  of  utilitarianism.  The  entire  issue  here 
is  confused  by  an  ambiguity  in  terms  that  has  been  already 
noticed  :  pleasure  and  pleasures  have  not  the  same  conno- 
tation. By  a  pleasure  or  pleasures  we  mean  some  assign- 
able presentation  or  presentations  which  are  pleasant, — i.e., 
afford  pleasure ;  by  pleasure  simply  is  meant  this  subject- 
ive state  of  feeling  itself.  The  former,  like  other  objects 
of  knowledge,  admit  of  classification  and  comparison  :  we 
may  distinguish  them  as  coarse  or  as  noble,  or,  if  we  will, 
as  cheap  and  wholesome.  But,  while  the  causes  of  feeling 
are  manifold,  the  feeling  itself  is  a  subjective  state,  varying 
only  in  intensity  and  duration.  The  best  evidence  of  this 
lies  in  the  general  character  of  the  actions  that  ensue 
through  feeling, — the  matter  which  has  next  to  engage  us. 
Whatever  be  the  variety  in  the  sources  of  pleasure,  what- 
ever be  the  moral  or  conventional  estimate  of  their  worthi- 
ness, if  a  given  state  of  consciousness  is  pleasant  we  seek 
to  retain  it,  if  painful  to  be  rid  of  it :  we  prefer  greater 
pleasure  before  less,  less  pain  before  greater.  This  is, 
in  fact,  the  whole  meaning  of  preference  as  a  psychological 
term.  Wisdom  and  folly  prefer  each  the  course  which  the 
other  rejects.  Both  courses  cannot,  indeed,  be  objectively 
preferable ;  that,  however,  is  not  a  matter  for  psychology. 
But,  as  soon  as  reflexion  begins,  exceptions  to  this  primary 
principle  of  action  seem  to  arise  continually,  even  though 
we  regard  the  individual  as  a  law  to  himself.  Such  excep- 


PSYCHOLOGY 


tions,  however,  we  may  presently  find  to  be  apparent  only. 
At  any  rate  the  principle  is  obviously  true  before  reflexion 
begins, — true  so  long  as  we  are  dealing  with  actually 
present  sources  of  feeling,  and  not  with  their  re-presenta- 
tions. But  to  admit  this  is  psychologically  to  admit 
everything,  at  least  if  mind  is  to  be  genetically  explained. 
Assuming,  then,  that  we  start  with  only  quantitative 
variations  of  feeling,  we  have  to  attempt  to  explain  the 
development  of  formal  and  qualitative  differences  in  the 
grounds  of  feeling.  But,  if  aversions  and  pursuits  result 
from  incommensurable  states  of  pain  and  pleasure,  there 
seems  no  other  way  of  saving  the  unity  and  continuity  of 
the  subject  except  by  a  speculative  assumption, — the  doc- 
trine known  as  the  freedom  of  the  will.  The  one  position 
involves  the  other,  and  the  more  scientific  course  is  to 
avoid  both  as  far  as  we  can. 

The  question,  then,  is :  How,  if  action  depends  in  the 
last  resort  on  a  merely  quantitative  difference,  could  it 
ever  come  about  that  what  we  call  the  higher  sources  of 
feeling  should  supersede  the  lower  ?    If  it  is  only  quantity 
that  turns  the  scales,  where  does  quality  come  in,  for  we 
cannot  say,  e.g.,  that  the  astronomer  experiences  a  greater 
thrill  of   delight  when  a  new  planet  rewards  his  search 
than  the  hungry  savage  in  finding  a  clump  of  pig-nuts  ? 
Tempora  mutantur,  nos  et  mutamur  in  illis  contains  the 
answer  in  brief.     We  shall  understand  this  answer  better 
if  we  look  at  a  parallel  case,  or  what  is  really  our  own 
from  another  point  of  view.      We  distinguish  between 
higher  and  lower  forms  of  life:  we  might  say  there  is 
more  life  in  a  large  oyster  than  in  a  small  one,  other  things 
being  equal,  but  we  should  regard  a  crab  as  possessing  not 
necessarily  more  life — as  measured  by  waste  of  tissue — 
but  certainly  as  manifesting  life  in  a  higher  form.     How, 
in  the  evolution  of  the  animal  kingdom,  do  we  suppose 
this  advance  to  1  ave  been  made?     The  tendency  at  any 
one  moment  is  simply  towards  more  life,  simply  growth ; 
but  this  process   of  self-preservation  imperceptibly  but 
steadily  modifies  the  self  that  is  preserved.     The  creature 
is  bent  only  on  filling  its  skin ;  but  in  doing  this  as  easily 
as  may  be  it  gets  a  better  skin  to  fill,  and  accordingly 
seeks  to  fill  it  differently.     Though  cabbage  and  honey 
are  what  they  were  before,  they  have  changed  relatively 
to  the  grub  now  it  has  become  a  butterfly.     So,  while 
we  are  all  along  preferring  a  more  pleasurable  state  of 
consciousness  before  a  less,  the  content  of  our  conscious- 
ness is  continually  changing;  the  greater  pleasure  still 
outweighs  the  less,  but  the  pleasures  to  be  weighed  are 
either  wholly  different,  or  at  least  are  the  same  for  us  no 
more.      What  we  require,  then,  is  not  that  the  higher 
pleasures  shall  always  afford  greater  pleasure  than  the 
lower  did,  but  that  to  advance  to  the  level  of  life  on 
which  pleasure  is  derived  from  higher   objects  shall  on 
the  whole  be  more  pleasurable  and  less  painful  than  to 
remain  behind.      And  this  condition  seems  provided  in 
the  fact  of  accommodation  above  referred  to  (p.  69)  and 
in  the  important  fact  that  attention  can  be  more  effect- 
ively expended  by  what  we  may  therefore  call  improve 
ments  in  the  form  of  the  field  of  consciousness.     But  when 
all  is  said  and  done  a  certain  repugnance  is  apt  to  arise 
against   any  association  of  the  differences   between  the 
higher  and  lower  feelings  with  differences  of  quantity 
Yet  such  repugnance  is  but  another  outcome  of  the  com 
mon  mistake  of  supposing  that  the  real  is  obtained  bj 
pulling  to  pieces  rather  than  by  building  up. 

"  Do  not  all  charms  fly 
At  the  mere  touch  of  cold  philosophy  ? " 

But  no  logical  analysis — nay,  further,  no  logical  synthesi 
— is  adequate  to  the  fulness  of  things.  For  the  rest,  sucl 
aversion  is  wholly  emotional,  and  has  no  more  an  intel 


:ctual  element  in  it  than  has  the  disgust  we  feel  on  first 
vitnessing  anatomical  dissections.1 

Emotional  and  Conative  Action. 

We  turn  now  from  the  causes  of  feeling  to  its  manifesta-  EFFECT 
ions  or  effects,  and  have  here  in  like  manner  to  inquire  °y  FEK 
vhether  there  is  in  these  also  any  contrast  corresponding IN 
o  the  opposing  extremes  of  pleasure  and  pain.  We  have 
lready  seen  reasons  for  dismissing  reflex  movements  or 
movements  not  determined  by  feeling  as  psychologically 
secondary,  the  effects  of  habit  and  heredity,  and  for  re- 
garding those  diffusive  movements  that  are  immediately 
expressive  of  feeling  as  primordial, — such  movements  as 
are  strictly  purposive  being  gradually  selected  or  elaborated 
rom  them.  But  some  distinction  is  called  for  among  the 
various  movements  expressive  of  emotion;  for  there  is 
more  in  these  than  the  direct  effect  of  feeling  regarded  as 
merely  pleasure  or  pain.  It  has  been  usual  with  psycho- 
ogists  to  confound  emotions  with  feeling,  because  intense 
'eeling  is  essential  to  emotion.  But,  strictly  speaking,  a 
state  of  emotion  is  a  complete  state  of  mind,  a  psychosis, 
and  not  a  psychical  element,  if  we  may  so  say.  Thus  in 
anger  we  have  over  and  above  pain  a  more  or  less  definite 
object  as  its  cause,  and  a  certain  characteristic  reactive 
display — frowns,  compressed  lips,  erect  head,  clenched 
ists,  in  a  word,  the  combative  attitude — as  its  effect,  and 
similarly  of  other  emotions ;  so  that  generally  in  the  par- 
ticular movements  indicative  of  particular  emotions  the 
primary  and  primitive  effects  of  feeling  are  overlaid  by 
what  Darwin  has  called  serviceable  associated  habits. 
The  purposive  actions  of  an  earlier  stage  of  development 
become,  though  somewhat  atrophied  as  it  were,  the  emo- 
tive outlet  of  a  later  stage  :  in  the  circumstances  in  which 
our  ancestors  worried  their  enemies  we  only  show  our 
teeth.  We  must,  therefore,  leave  aside  the  more  complex 
emotional  manifestations  and  look  only  to  the  simplest 
effects  of  pleasure  and  of  pain,  if  we  are  to  discover  any 
fundamental  contrast  between  them.2 

Joy  finds  expression  in  dancing,  clapping  the  hands,  Emo- 
and  meaningless  laughter,  and  these  actions  are  not  only  t 
pleasurable  in  themselves  but  such  as  increase  the  existing  Jg 
pleasure.  Attention  is  not  drafted  off  or  diverted ;  but 
rather  the  available  resources  seem  reinforced,  so  that  the 
old  expenditure  is  supported  as  well  as  the  new.  To  the 
pleasure  on  the  receptive  side  is  added  pleasure  on  the 
active  side.  The  violent  contortions  due  to  pain,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  painful  in  themselves,  though  less  intense 
than  the  pains  from  which  they  withdraw  attention  :  they 
are  but  counter-irritants  that  arrest  or  inhibit  still  more 
painful  thoughts  or  sensations.  Thus,  according  to  Darwin, 
"sailors  who  are  going  to  be  flogged  sometimes  take  a 
piece  of  lead  into  their  mouths  in  order  to  bite  it  with 
their  utmost  force,  and  thus  to  bear  the  pain."  When  in 
this  way  we  take  account  of  the  immediate  effects  as  well 


1  "To  look  at  anything  in  its  elements  makes  it  appear  inferior  to 
what  it  seems  as  a  whole.     Resolve  the  statue  or  the  building  into 
stone  and  the  laws  of  proportion,  and  no  worthy  causes  of  the  former 
beautiful  result  seem  now  left  behind.     So,  also,  resolve  a  virtuous 
act  into  the  passions  and  some  quantitative  law,  and  it  seems  to  be 
rather  destroyed  than  analysed,  though  after  all  what  was  there  else 
it  could  be  resolved  into?"     Sir  A.  Grant,  Aristotle's  Ethics,  Essay 
IV.,  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  vol.  i.  p.  210  (2d  ed.)- 

2  Of  the  three  principles  Darwin  advances  in  explanation  of  emo- 
tional expression  that  which  he  places  last— perhaps  because  it  admits 
of  less  definite  illustration  —  seems  both  psychologically  and  physio- 
logically more  fundamental  than  the  more  striking  principle  of  service- 
able associated  habits  which  he  places  first ;  indeed  the  following,  which 
is  his  statement  of  it,  implies  as  much  :  "  Certain  actions  which  we 
recognize  as  expressive  of  certain  states  of  mind  are  the  direct  result 
of  the  constitution  of  the  nervous  system,  and  have  been  from  the  first 
independent  of  the  will,  and  to  a  large  extent  of  habit  "  (Expression  of 
the  Emotions,  p.  66).     It  is  in  illustration  of  this  principle  too  that 
Darwin  describes  the  movements  expressive  of  joy  and  grief,  emotions 
which  in  some  form  or  other  are  surely  the  most  primitive  of  any. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


73 


as  of  the  causes  of  feeling,  we  find  it  still  more  strikingly 
true  that  only  in  pleasurable  states  is  there  an  efficient 
expenditure  of  attention.  It  is  needless  now  to  dwell  upon 
this  point,  although  any  earlier  mention  of  it  would  hardly 
have  been  in  place.  But  we  should  fail  to  realize  the  con- 
trast between  the  motor  effects  of  pleasure  and  of  pain  if 
we  merely  regarded  them  as  cases  of  diffusion.  The  in- 
tenser  the  feeling  the  intenser  the  reaction,  no  doubt, 
whether  it  be  smiles  or  tears,  jumping  for  joy,  or  writhing 
in  agony ;  but  in  the  movements  consequent  on  pleasure 
the  diffusion  is  the  result  of  mere  exuberance,  an  overflow 
of  good  spirits,  as  we  sometimes  say,  and  these  movements, 
as  already  remarked,  are  always  comparatively  purposeless 
or  playful.  Even  the  earliest  expressions  of  pain,  on  the 
contrary,  seem  but  so  many  efforts  to  escape  from  the  cause 
of  it ;  in  them  there  is  at  least  the  blind  purpose  to  flee 
from  a  definite  ill,  but  in  pleasure  only  the  enjoyment  of 
present  fortune. 

From  Plato  downwards  psychologists  and  moralists  have  been 
fond  of  discussing  the  relation  of  pleasure  and  pain.  It  has  been 
maintained  that  pain  is  the  first  and  more  fundamental  fact,  and 
pleasure  nothing  but  relief  from  pain  ;  and,  again,  on  the  other 
side,  that  pleasure  is  prior  and  positive,  and  pain  only  the  negation 
of  pleasure.  So  far  as  the  mere  change  goes,  it  is  obviously  true 
that  the  diminution  of  pain  is  pro  tanto  pleasant,  and  the  diminu- 
tion of  pleasure  pro  tanto  unpleasant ;  and  if  relativity  had  the 
unlimited  range  sometimes  assigned  to  it  this  would  be  all  we 
could  say.  But  we  must  sooner  or  later  recognize  the  existence 
of  a  comparatively  fixed  neutral  state,  deviations  from  which,  of 
comparatively  short  duration  and  of  sufficient  intensity,  consti- 
tute distinct  states  of  pleasure  or  pain.  Such  states,  if  not  of 
liminal  intensity,  may  then  be  further  diminished  without  reversing 
their  pleasurable  or  painful  character.  The  turning-point  here 
implied  may,  of  course,  gradually  change  too, — as  a  result,  in  fact, 
of  the  law  of  accommodation.  Thus  a  long  run  of  pleasure  would 
raise  "the  hedonistic  zero,"  while — to  the  small  extent  to  which 
accommodation  to  pain  is  possible — a  continuance  of  pain  would 
lower  it.  But  such  admission  makes  no  material  difference  where 
the  actual  feeling  of  the  moment  is  alone  concerned  and  retrospect 
out  of  the  question.  On  the  whole  it  seems,  therefore,  most 
reasonable  to  regard  pleasure  and  pain  as  emerging  out  of  a  neutral 
state,  which  is  prior  to  and  distinct  from  both, — not  a  state  of 
absolute  indifference,  but  of  simple  contentment,  marked  by  no 
special  active  display.  But  it  is  by  reference  to  such  state  of  equi- 
librium or  aira.6ia  that  we  see  most  clearly  the  superior  volitional 
efficacy  of  pain  upon  which  pessimists  love  to  descant.  "  Nobody," 
says  Von  Hartmann,  "  who  had  to  choose  between  no  taste  at  all 
for  ten  minutes  or  five  minutes  of  a  pleasant  taste  and  then  five 
minutes  of  an  unpleasant  taste,  would  prefer  the  last."  Most  men 
and  all  the  lower  animals  are  content  "to  let  well  alone." 

To  ascertain  the  origin  and  progress  of  purposive  action 
it  seems,  then,  that  we  must  look  to  the  effects  of  pain 
rather  than  to  those  of  pleasure.     Necessity  is  the  mother 
of  invention,  and  all  things  are  full  of  labour.     It  is  true 
that  psychologists  not  unfrequently  describe  the  earliest 
purposive  movements  as  appetitive ;  or  at  least  they  treat 
appetitive   and   aversive   movements  as  co-ordinate   and 
equally  primitive,   pleasures  being  supposed  to  lead  to 
actions  for  their  continuance  as  much  as  pains  to  actions 
for  their  removal.     No  doubt,  as  soon  as  the  connexion 
between  a  pleasurable  sensation  and  the  appropriate  action 
is  completely  established,  as  in  the  case  of  imbibing  food, 
the  whole  process  is  then  self-sustaining  till  satiety  begins. 
But  the  point  is  that  such  facility  was  first  acquired  under 
the  teaching  of  pain, — the  pain  of  unsatisfied  hunger.    The 
term  "  appetite  "  is  apt  both  by  its  etymology  and  its  later 
associations  to  be  misleading.     What  are  properly  called 
the  "  instinctive  "  appetites  are — when  regarded  from  their 
active  side — movements  determined  by  some  existing  un- 
easy sensation.     So  far  as  their  earliest  manifestation  in  a 
particular    individual   is   concerned,   this   urgency  seems 
almost  entirely  of  the  nature  of  a  vis  a  tergo ;  and  the 
movements  are  only  more  definite  than  those  simply  ex- 
pressive of  pain  because  of  inherited  pre-adaptation,  on 
which  account,  of  course,  they  are  called  "instinctive." 
But  what  one  inherits  another  must  have  acquired,  and 


we  have  agreed  here  to  leave  heredity  on  one  side  and 
consider  only  the  original  evolution. 

But  if  none  but  psychological  causes  were  at  work  this 
evolution  would  be  very  long  and  in  its  early  stages  very 
uncertain.  At  first,  when  only  random  movements  ensue, 
we  may  fairly  suppose  both  that  the  chance  of  at  once 
making  a  happy  hit  would  be  small  and  that  the  number 
of  chances,  the  space  for  repentance,  would  also  be  small. 
Under  such  circumstances  natural  selection  would  have 
to  do  almost  everything  and  subjective  selection  almost 
nothing.  So  far  as  natural  selection  worked,  we  should 
have,  not  the  individual  subject  making  a  series  of  tries 
and  perfecting  itself  by  practice,  as  in  learning  to  dance 
or  swim,  but  we  should  have  those  individuals  whose  stuff 
or  structure  happened  to  vary  for  the  better  surviving, 
increasing,  and  displacing  the  rest.  How  much  natural 
selection,  apparently  unaided,  can  accomplish  in  the  way 
of  complicated  adjustment  we  see  in  the  adaptation  of  the 
form  and  colour  of  plants  and  animals  to  their  environ- 
ment. Both  factors,  in  reality,  operate  at  once,  and  it 
would  be  hard  to  fix  a  limit  to  either,  though  to  our 
minds  natural  selection  seems  to  lose  in  comparative  im- 
portance as  we  advance  towards  the  higher  stages  of  life. 

But  psychologically  we  have  primarily  to  consider  sub- 
jective selection,  i.e.,  first  of  all,  the  association  of  parti- 
cular movements  with  particular  sensations  through  the 
mediation  of  feeling.     The  sensations  here  concerned  are 
mainly  painful  excitations  from  the  environment,  the  re- 
curring pains  of  innutrition,  weariness,  &c.,  and  pleasur- 
able sensations  due  to  the  satisfaction  of  these  organic 
wants — pleasures  which,  although  not  a  mere  "  filling  up," 
as  Plato  at  one  time  contended,  are  still  preceded  by  pain, 
but  imply  over  and  above  the  removal  of  this  a  certain 
surplus  of  positive  good.     There  seem  only  a  few  points 
to  notice,     (a)  When  the  movements  that  ensue  through 
pleasure   are  themselves  pleasurable  there   is  ordinarily 
no  ground  for  singling  out  any  one;   such  movements 
simply  enhance  the  general  enjoyment,  which  is  complete 
in  itself  and  so  far  contains  no  hint  of  anything  beyond. 
(6)  Should  one  of  these  spontaneous  movements  of  pleasure 
chance  to  cause  pain,  no  doubt  such  movement  is  speedily 
arrested.     Probably  the  most  immediate  connexion  possible 
between  feeling  and  purposive  action  is  that  in  which  a 
painful  movement  leads  through  pain  to  its  own  suppres- 
sion.    But  such  connexion  is  not  very  fruitful  of  conse- 
quences, inasmuch  as  it  only  secures  what  we  may  call 
internal  training  and  does  little  to  extend  the  relation 
of    the   individual    to  its  environment,     (c)  Out   of   the 
irregular,   often  conflicting  movements  which    indirectly 
relieve  pain  some  one  may  chance  to  remove  the  cause  of 
it  altogether.     Upon  this  movement,  the  last  of  a  tentative 
series,  attention,  released  from  the  pain,  is  concentrated ; 
and  in  this  way  the  evil  and  the  remedy  become  so  far 
associated  that  on  a  recurrence  of  the  former  the  many 
diffused  movements  become  less,  and  the  one  purposive 
movement  more,  pronounced ;  the  one  effectual  way  is  at 
length  established  and  the  others,  which,  were  but  pallia- 
tives, disappear,     (d)  When  things  have  advanced  so  far 
that  some  one  definite  movement  is  definitely  represented 
along  with  the  painful  sensation  it  remedies,  it  is  not  long 
before  a  still  further  advance  is  possible  and  we  have  pre- 
ventive movements.     Thanks  to  the  orderliness  of  things, 
dangers  have  their  premonitions.     After  a  time,  therefore, 
the  occurrence  of  some  signal  sensation  revives  the  image 
of  the  harm  that  has  previously  followed  in  its  wake,  and 
a  movement — either  like  the  first,  or  another  that  has  to 
be  selected  from  the  random  tries  of  fear — occurs  in  time 
to  avert  the  impending  ill.     (e)  In  like  manner,  provided 
the  cravings  of  appetite  are  felt,  any  signs  of  the  presence 
of  pleasurable  objects  prompt  to  movements  for  their  enjoy- 

XX.  —  10 


74 


PSYCHOLOGY 


ment  or  appropriation.  In  these  last  cases  we  have  action 
determined  by  perceptions.  The  cases  in  which  the  sub- 
ject is  incited  to  action  by  ideas  as  distinct  from  percep- 
tions require  a  more  detailed  consideration ;  such  are  the 
facts  mainly  covered  by  the  term  "  desire." 

Desire.  By  the  time  that  ideas  are  sufficiently  self-sustaining  to 
form  trains  that  are  not  wholly  shaped  by  the  circum- 
stances of  the  present,  entirely  new  possibilities  of  action 
are  opened  up.  We  can  desire  to  live  again  through  ex- 
periences of  which  there  is  nothing  actually  present  to 
remind  us,  and  we  can  desire  a  new  experience  which  as 
yet  we  only  imagine.  We  often,  no  doubt,  apply  the 
term  to  the  simpler  states  mentioned  under  (e)  in  the  last 
]>aragraph  :  the  fox  in  the  fable  is  said  to  have  desired 
the  grapes  he  vilified  because  out  of  his  reach.  Again, 
at  the  other  extreme  it  is  usual  to  speak  of  a  desire  for 
honour,  or  for  wealth,  and  the  like ;  but  such  are  not  so 
much  single  states  of  mind  as  inclinations  or  habitual 
desires.  Moreover,  abstractions  of  this  kind  belong  to  a 
more  advanced  stage  of  development  than  that  at  which 
desire  begins,  and  of  necessity  imply  more  complicated 
grounds  of  action  than  we  can  at  present  examine.  The 
essential  characteristics  of  desire  will  be  more  apparent  if 
we  suppose  a  case  somewhere  between  these  extremes.  A 
busy  man  reads  a  novel  at  the  close  of  the  day,  and  finds 
himself  led  off  by  a  reference  to  angling  or  tropical  scenery 
to  picture  himself  with  his  rods  packed  en  route  for  Scot- 
land, or  booked  by  the  next  steamer  for  the  fairyland  of 
the  West  Indies.  Presently,  while  the  ideas  of  Jamaica 
or  fishing  are  at  least  as  vividly  imagined  as  before,  the 
fancied  preparations  receive  a  rude  shock  as  the  thought 
of  his  work  recurs.  Some  such  case  we  may  take  as  typical 
and  attempt  to  analyse  it. 

First  of  all  it  is  obviously  true,  at  least  of  such  more 
concrete  desires,  that  what  awakens  desire  at  one  time  fails 
to  do  so  at  another,  and  that  we  are  often  so  absorbed  or 
content  with  the  present  as  not  to  be  amenable  to  (new) 
desires  at  all.  A  given  X  or  Y  cannot,  then,  be  called 
desirable  per  se,  it  is  only  desirable  by  relation  to  the  con- 
tents of  consciousness  at  the  moment.  Of  what  nature  is 
this  relation?  (1)  At  the  level  of  psychical  life  that  we 
have  now  reached  very  close  and  complete  connexions  have 
been  formed  between  ideas  and  the  movements  necessary  for 
their  realization,  so  that  when  the  idea  is  vividly  present 
these  movements  are  apt  to  be  nascent.  This  association 
is  the  result  of  subjective  selection — i.e.,  of  feeling — but, 
being  once  established,  it  persists  like  other  associations 
independently  of  it.  (2)  Those  movements  are  especially 
apt  to  become  nascent  which  have  not  been  recently  exe- 
cuted, which  are  therefore  fresh  and  accompanied  by  the 
organic  sensations  of  freshness,  but  also  those  which  are 
frequently  executed,  and  so  from  habit  readily  aroused. 
The  latter  fact,  which  chiefly  concerns  habitual  desires,  may 
be  left  aside  for  a  time.  (3)  At  times,  then,  when  there 
is  a  lack  of  present  interests,  or  when  these  have  begun  to 
wane,  or  when  there  is  positive  pain,  attention  is  ready  to 
fasten  on  any  new  suggestion  that  calls  for  more  activity, 
requires  a  change  of  active  attitude,  or  promises  relief. 
Such  spontaneous  concentration  of  attention  ensures  greater 
vividness  to  the  new  idea,  whatever  it  be,  and  to  its  be- 
longings. In  some  cases  this  greater  vividness  may  suffice. 
This  is  most  likely  to  happen  when  the  new  idea  affords 
intellectual  occupation,  and  this  is  at  the  time  congenial, 
or  with  indolent  and  imaginative  persons  who  prefer 
dreaming  to  doing.  (4)  But  when  the  new  idea  does  not 
lead  off  the  pent-up  stream  of  action  by  opening  out  fresh 
channels,  when,  instead  of  this,  it  is  one  that  keeps  them 
intent  upon  itself  in  an  attitude  comparable  to  expectation, 
then  we  have  desire.  In  such  a  state  the  intensity  of  the 
re-presentation  is  not  adequate  to  the  intensity  of  the 


incipient  actions  it  has  aroused.  This  is  most  obvious 
when  the  latter  are  directed  towards  sensations  or  percepts, 
and  the  former  remains  only  an  idea.  If  it  were  possible 
by  concentrating  attention  to  convert  ideas  into  percepts, 
there  would  be  an  end  of  most  desires :  "if  wishes  were 
horses  beggars  would  ride."  (5)  But  our  voluntary  power 
over  movements  is  in  general  of  this  kind  :  here  the  fiat 
may  become  fact.  When  we  cannot  hear  we  can  at  least 
listen,  and,  though  there  be  nothing  to  fill  them,  we  can  at 
least  hold  out  our  hands.  It  would  seem,  then,  that  the 
source  of  desire  lies  essentially  in  this  excess  of  the  active 
reaction  above  the  intensity  of  the  re-presentation  (the  one 
constituting  the  "impulse,"  the  other  the  "object"  of 
desire,  or  the  desideratum),  and  that  this  disparity  rests 
ultimately  on  the  fact  that  movements  have,  and  sensations 
have  not,  a  subjective  initiative.  (6)  The  impulse  or 
striving  to  act  will,  as  already  hinted,  be  stronger  the 
greater  the  available  energy,  the  fewer  the  present  outlets, 
and,  habits  apart,  the  fresher  the  new  opening  for  activity. 
(7)  Finally,  it  is  to  be  noted  that,  when  such  inchoate 
action  can  be  at  once  consummated,  desire  ends  where  it 
begins  :  to  constitute  a  definite  state  of  desire  there  must 
be  not  only  an  obstacle  to  the  realization  of  the  desider- 
atum— if  this  were  all  we  should  rather  call  the  state  one 
of  wishing — but  an  obstacle  to  its  realization  by  means  of 
the  actions  its  representation  has  aroused. 

However  the  desire  may  have  been  called  forth,  its  Eelat 
intensity  is  primarily  identical  with  the  strength  of  this  of  dei 
impulse  to  action,  and  has  no  definite  or  constant  relation  *°  fee 
to  the  amount  of  pleasure  that  may  result  from  its  satisfac-  m 
tion.     The  feeling  directly  consequent  on  desire  as  a  state 
of  want  and  restraint  is  one  of  pain,  and  the  reaction  which 
this  pain  sets  up  may  either  suppress  the  desire  or  prompt 
to  efforts  to  avoid  or  overcome  the  obstacles  in  its  way. 
To  inquire  into  these  alternatives  would  lead  us  into  the 
higher  phases  of  voluntary  action ;  but  we  must  first  con- 
sider the  relation  of  desire  to  feeling  more  closely. 

Instances  are  by  no  means  wanting  of  very  imperious 
desires  accompanied  by  the  clear  knowledge  that  their 
gratification  will  be  positively  distasteful.1  On  the  other 
hand  it  is  possible  to  recollect  or  picture  circumstances 
known  or  believed  to  be  intensely  pleasurable  without  any 
desire  for  them  being  awakened  at  all :  we  can  regret  or 
admire  without  desiring.  Yet  there  are  many  psycho- 
logists who  maintain  that  desire  is  excited  only  by  the 
prospect  of  the  pleasure  that  may  arise  through  its  grati- 
fication, and  that  the  strength  of  the  desire  is  propor- 
tional to  the  intensity  of  the  pleasure  thus  anticipated. 
Quidquid  petitur,  petitur  sub  specie  boni  is  their  main 
formula.  The  plausibility  of  this  doctrine  rests  partly 
upon  a  seemingly  imperfect  analysis  of  what  strictly  per- 
tains to  desire  and  partly  on  the  fact  that  it  is  substantially 
true  both  of  what  we  may  call  "  presentation-prompted  " 
action,  which  belongs  to  an  earlier  stage  than  desire,  and 
of  the  more  or  less  rational  action  that  comes  later.  In 
the  very  moment  of  enjoyment  it  may  be  fairly  supposed 
that  action  is  sustained  solely  by  the  pleasure  received  and 
is  proportional  to  the  intensity  of  that  pleasure.  But 
there  is  here  no  re-presentation  and  no  seeking ;  the  con- 
ditions essential  to  desire,  therefore,  do  not  apply.  Again, 
in  rational  action,  where  both  are  present,  it  may  be  true 
— to  quote  the  words  of  an  able  advocate  of  the  view  here 
controverted— that  "  our  character  as  rational  beings  is  to 
desire  everything  exactly  according  to  its  pleasure  value."  2 
But  consider  what  such  conceptions  as  the  good,  pleasure 
value,  and  rational  action  involve.  Here  we  have  foresight 
and  calculation,  regard  for  self  as  an  object  of  permanent 


1  As  such  an  instance  may  be  cited  Plato's  story  of  Leontius,  the 
son  of  Aglaeon,  in  Rep.,  iv.  439,/Jn. 

2  Bain,  Emotions  and  Will,  3d  ed.,  p.  438. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


75 


interest, — Butler's  cool  self-love;  but  desire  as  such  is 
blind,  without  either  the  present  certainty  of  sense  or  the 
assured  prevision  of  reason.  Pleasure  in  the  past,  no 
doubt,  has  usually  brought  about  the  association  between 
the  representation  of  the  desired  object  and  the  movement 
for  its  realization;  but  neither  the  recollection  of  this 
pleasure  nor  its  anticipation  is  necessary  to  desire,  and 
even  when  present  they  do  not  determine  what  urgency  it 
will  have.  The  best  proof  of  this  lies  in  certain  habitual 
desires.  Pleasures  are  diminished  by  repetition,  whilst 
habits  are  strengthened  by  it ;  if  the  intensity  of  desire, 
therefore,  were  proportioned  to  the  "pleasure  value"  of 
its  gratification,  the  desire  for  renewed  gratification  should 
diminish  as  this  pleasure  grows  less ;  but,  if  the  present 
pain  of  restraint  from  action  determines  the  intensity  of 
desire,  this  should  increase  as  the  action  becomes  habitual. 
And  observation  seems  to  show  that,  unless  prudence  sug- 
gest the  forcible  suppression  of  belated  desires  or  the  active 
energies  themselves  fail,  desires  do  in  fact  become  more 
imperious,  although  less  productive  of  positive  pleasure, 
as  time  goes  on. 

In  this  there  is,  of  course,  no  exception  to  the  general 
principle  that  action  is  consequent  on  feeling, — a  greater 
pleasure  being  preferred  before  a  less,  a  less  pain  before 
a  greater ;  for,  though  the  feeling  that  follows  upon  its 
satisfaction  be  less  or  even  change  entirely,  still  the  pain 
of  the  unsatisfied  desire  increases  as  the  desire  hardens 
into  habit.  It  is  also  a  point  in  favour  of  the  position 
here  taken  that  appetites,  which  may  be  compared  to 
inherited  desires,  certainly  prompt  to  action  by  present 
pain  rather  than  by  prospective  pleasure. 

Intellection. 

Desire  naturally  prompts  to  the  search  for  the  means 
to  its  satisfaction  and  frequently  to  a  mental  rehearsal  of 
various  possible  courses  of  action,  their  advantages  and 
disadvantages.  Thus,  by  the  time  the  ideational  continu- 
um has  become,  mainly  by  the  comparatively  passive  work- 
ing of  association,  sufficiently  developed  to  furnish  thinking 
material,  motives  are  forthcoming  for  thinking  to  begin. 
It  is  obviously  impossible  to  assign  any  precise  time  for 
this  advance ;  like  all  others,  it  is  gradual.  Fitfully,  in 
strange  circumstances  and  under  strong  excitement,  the 
lower  animals  give  unmistakable  signs  that  they  can  under- 
stand and  reason.  But  thought  as  a  permanent  activity 
may  be  fairly  said  to  originate  in  and  even  to  depend  upon 
the  acquisition  of  speech.  This  indispensable  instrument, 
which  more  than  anything  else  enables  our  psychological 
individual  to  advance  to  the  distinctly  human  or  rational 
stage,  consists  of  gestures  and  vocal  utterances,  which 
were  originally— and  indeed  are  still  to  a  large  extent — 
emotional  expressions.1  It  is  a  question  of  the  highest 


1  It  must  here  be  noted  that,  though  we  still  retain  our  psychological 
standpoint,  the  higher  development  of  the  individual  is  only  possible 
through  intercourse  with  other  individuals,  that  is  to  say,  through  society. 
Without  language  we  should  be  mutually  exclusive  and  impenetrable, 
like  so  many  physical  atoms  ;  with  it  each  several  mind  may  transcend 
its  own  limits  and  share  the  minds  of  others.  As  a  herd  of  individuals 
mankind  would  have  a  natural  history  as  other  animals  have  ;  but 
personality  can  only  emerge  out  of  intercourse  with  persons,  and  of 
such  intercourse  language  is  the  means.  But,  important  as  is  this 
addition  of  a  transparent  and  responsive  world  of  minds  to  the  dead 
opaqueness  of  external  things,  the  development  of  our  psychological 
individual  still  remains  a  purely  individual  development.  The  only 
new  point  is — -and  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  keep  it  in  sight — 
that  the  materials  of  this  development  no  longer  consist  of  nothing 
but  presentations  elaborated  by  a  single  mind  in  accordance  with 
psychical  laws.  But  that  combination  of  individual  experiences  that 
converts  subjective  idiosyncrasy  and  isolation  into  the  objectivity  and 
solidarity  of  Universal  Mind  only  affects  the  individual  in  accordance 
with  psychical  laws,  and  we  have  no  need  therefore  to  overstep  our 
proper  domain  in  studying  the  advance  from  the  non-rational  phase 
to  the  phase  of  reason. 


interest  to  ascertain  the  general  mode  of  its  elaboration ; 
but  as  to  this  the  reader  must  consult  the  article  PHILOLOGY 
(vol.  xviii.  p.  766  sq.}.  Our  space  will  only  allow  us  to 
note  in  what  way  language,  when  it  already  exists,  is  instru- 
mental in  the  development  as  distinct  from  the  communi 
cation  of  thought.  But,  first  of  all,  what  in  general  is 
thinking,  of  which  language  is  the  instrument  ? 

In  entering  upon  this  inquiry  we  are  really  passing  one  of  the  Distinc- 
hardest  and  fastest  lines  of  the  old  psychology,— that  between  sense  tion  be- 
and  understanding.  So  long  as  it  was  the  fashion  to  assume  atween 
multiplicity  of  faculties  the  need  was  less  felt  for  a  clear  exposition  sense 
of  their  connexion.  A  man  had  senses  and  intellect  much  as  he  and  un- 
had  eyes  and  ears  ;  the  heterogeneity  in  the  one  case  was  no  more  derstaud- 
puzzling  than  in  the  other.  But  for  psychologists  who  do  not  cut  ing. 
the  knot  in  this  fashion  it  is  confessedly  a  hard  matter  to  explain 
the  relation  of  the  two.  The  contrast  of  receptivity  and  activity 
hardly  avails,  for  all  presentation  involves  activity  and  essentially 
the  same  activity,  that  of  attention.  Nor  can  we  well  maintain 
that  the  presentations  attended  to  differ  in  kind,  albeit  such  a  view 
has  been  held  from  Plato  downwards.  Nihil  est  in  intellcctu  qicod 
non  fuerit  prius  in  sensu  :  the  blind  and  deaf  are  necessarily  with- 
out some  concepts  that  we  possess.  If  pure  being  is  pure  nothing, 
pure  thought  is  equally  empty.  Thought  consists  of  a  certain 
elaboration  of  sensory  and  motor  presentations  and  has  no  content 
apart  from  these.  We  cannot  even  say  that  the  forms  of  this  ela- 
boration are  psychologically  a  priori  ;  on  the  contrary,  what  is 
epistemologically  the  most  fundamental  is  the  last  to  be  psycho- 
logically realized.  This  is  not  only  true  as  a  fact ;  it  is  also  true 
of  necessity,  in  so  far  as  the  formation  of  more  concrete  concepts 
is  an  essential  preliminary  to  the  formation  of  others  more  abstract, 
— those  most  abstract,  like  the  Kantian  categories,  &c.,  being  thus 
the  last  of  all  to  be  thought  out  or  understood.  And  though  this 
formative  work  is  substantially  voluntary,  yet,  if  we  enter  upon  it, 
the  form  at  each  step  is  determined  by  the  so-called  matter,  and 
not  by  us;  in  this  respect  "the  spontaneity  of  thought"  is  not 
really  freer  than  the  receptivity  of  sense.2  It  is  sometimes  said 
that  thought  is  synthetic,  and  this  is  true ;  but  imagination  is 
synthetic  also  ;  and  the  processes  which  yield  the  ideational  train 
are  the  only  processes  at  work  in  intellectual  synthesis.  Moreover, 
it  would  be  arbitrary  to  say  at  what  point  the  mere  generic  image 
ceases  and  the  true  concept  begins, — so  continuous  are  the  two. 
No  wonder,  therefore,  that  English  psychology  has  been  prone  to 
regard  thought  as  only  a  special  kind  of  perception — perceiving 
the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  ideas — and  the  ideas  themselves 
as  mainly  the  products  of  association.  Yet  this  is  much  like  con- 
founding observation  with  experiment  or  invention, — the  act  of 
a  cave-man  in  betaking  himself  to  a  drifting  tree  with  that  of  Noah 
in  building  himself  an  ark.  In  reverie,  and  even  in  understanding 
the  communications  of  others,  we  are  comparatively  passive  spec- 
tators of  ideational  movements,  non-voluntarily  determined.  But 
in  thinking  or  "intellection,"  as  it  has  been  conveniently  termed, 
there  is  always  a  search  for  something  more  or  less  "vaguely  con- 
ceived, for  a  clue  which  will  be  known  when  it  occurs  by  seeming 
to  satisfy  certain  conditions.  Thinking  may  be  broadly  described 
as  solving  a  problem, — finding  an  AX  that  is  B.  In  so  doing  we 
start  from  a  comparatively  fixed  central  idea  or  intuition  and  work 
along  the  several  diverging  lines  of  ideas  associated  with  it, — hence 
far  the  aptest  and  in  fact  the  oldest  description  of  thought  is  that 
it  is  discursive.  Emotional  excitement — and  at  the  outset  the 
natural  man  does  not  think  much  in  cold  blood — quickens  the  flow 
of  ideas  :  what  seems  relevant  is  at  once  contemplated  more  closely, 
while  what  seems  irrelevant  awakens  little  interest  and  receives 
little  attention.  At  first  the  control  acquired  is  but  very  imperfect ; 
the  actual  course  of  thought  of  even  a  disciplined  mind  falls  far 
short  of  the  clearness,  distinctness,  and  coherence  of  the  logician's 
ideal.  Familiar  associations  hurry  attention  away  from  the  proper 
topic,  and  thought  becomes  not  only  discursive  but  wandering ; 
in  place  of  concepts  of  fixed  and  crystalline  completeness,  such  as 
logic  describes,  we  may  find  a  congeries  of  ideas  but  imperfectly 
compacted  into  one  generic  idea,  subject  to  continual  transforma- 
tion and  implicating  much  that  is  irrelevant  and  confusing. 

Thus,  while  it  is  possible  for  thought  to  begin  without  Thought 
language,  just  as  arts  may  begin  without  tools,  yet  language  and  lan- 
enables  us  to  carry  the  same  process  enormously  farther. 
In  the  first  place  it  gives  us  an  increased  command  of  even 
such  comparatively  concrete  generic  images  as  can  be 

2  Locke,  so  often  misrepresented,  expressed  this  truth  according  to 
his  lights  in  the  following  : — "  The  earth  will  not  appear  painted  with 
flowers  nor  the  fields  covered  with  verdure  whenever  we  have  a  mind  to 
it.  ...  Just  thus  is  it  with  our  understanding :  all  that  is  voluntary 
in  our  knowledge  is  the  employing  or  withholding  any  of  our  faculties 
from  this  or  that  sort  of  objects  and  a  more  or  less  accurate  survey  of 
them"  (Essay,  iv.  13,  2). 


76 


PSYCHOLOGY 


formed  without  it.  The  name  of  a  thing  or  action  becomes 
for  one  who  knows  the  name  as  much  an  objective  mark 
or  attribute  as  any  quality  whatever  can  be.  The  form 
and  colour  of  what  we  call  an  "  orange  "  are  perhaps  even 
more  intimately  combined  with  the  sound  and  utterance 
of  this  word  than  with  the  taste  and  fragrance  which  we 
regard  as  strictly  essential  to  the  thing.  But,  whereas  its 
essential  attributes  often  evade  us,  we  can  always  com- 
mand its  nominal  attribute,  in  so  far  as  this  depends  upon 
movements  of  articulation.  By  uttering  the  name  (or 
hearing  it  uttered)  we  have  secured  to  us,  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  that  superior  vividness*  and  definiteness  that 
pertain  to  images  reinstated  by  impressions  :  our  idea 
approximates  to  the  fixity  and  independence  of  a  percept 
(comp.  p.  57  above).  With  young  children  and  uncultured 
minds — who,  by  the  way,  commonly  "  think  aloud  " — the 
gain  in  this  respect  is  probably  more  striking  than  those 
not  confined  to  their  mother-tongue  or  those  used  to  an 
analytical  handling  of  language  at  all  realize.1  When 
things  are  thus  made  ours  by  receiving  names  from  us  and 
we  can  freely  manipulate  them  in  idea,  it  becomes  easier 
mentally  to  bring  together  facts  that  logically  belong 
together,  and  so  to  classify  and  generalize.  For  names 
set  us  free  from  the  cumbersome  tangibility  and  particu- 
larity of  perception,  which  is  confined  to  just  what  is  pre- 
sented here  and  now.  But  as  ideas  increase  in  generality 
they  diminish  in  definiteness  and  unity ;  they  not  only 
become  less  pictorial  and  more  schematic,  but  they  become 
vague  and  unsteady  as  well,  because  formed  from  a  num- 
ber of  concrete  images  only  related  as  regards  one  or  two 
constituents,  and  not  assimilated  as  the  several  images  of 
the  same  thing  may  be.  The  mental  picture  answering 
to  the  word  "horse"  has,  so  to  say,  body  enough  to 
remain  a  steady  object  when  under  attention  from  time 
to  time;  but  that  answering  to  the  word  "animal"  is 
perhaps  scarcely  twice  alike.  The  relations  of  things  could 
thus  never  be  readily  recalled  or  steadily  controlled  if  the 
names  of  those  relations,  which  as  words  always  remain 
concrete,  did  not  give  us  a  definite  hold  upon  them, — 
make  them  comprehensible.  Once  these  "  airy  nothings  " 
have  a  name,  we  reap  again  the  advantages  a  concrete 
constituent  affords  :  by  its  means  that  which  is  relevant 
becomes  more  closely  associated,  and  that  which  is  irrele- 
vant— abstracted  from — falls  off.  When  what  answers  to 
the  logical  connotation  or  meaning  of  a  concept  is  in  this 
way  linked  with  the  name,  it  is  no  longer  necessary  that 
such  "  matter  or  content "  should  be  distinctly  present  in 
consciousness.  It  takes  time  for  an  image  to  raise  its 
associates  above  the  threshold ;  and,  when  all  are  there, 
there  is  more  demand  upon  attention  in  proportion. 
There  is  thus  a  manifest  economy  in  what  Leibnitz  happily 
styled  "  symbolic,"  in  contrast  to  "  intuitive "  thinking. 
Our  power  of  efficient  attention  is  limited,  and  with  words 
for  counters  we  can,  as  Leibnitz  remarks,  readily  perform 
operations  involving  very  complex  presentations,  and  wait 
till  these  operations  are  concluded  before  realizing  and 
spreading  out  the  net  result  in  sterling  coin. 

Thought  But  this  simile  must  not  mislead  us.  In  actual  thinking 
and  idea-  there  never  is  any  complete  separation  between  the  symbol 
and  the  ideas  symbolized  :  the  movements  of  the  one  are 
never  entirely  suspended  till  those  of  the  other  are  com- 
plete. "Thus,"  says  Hume,  "if,  instead  of  saying,  that 
in  war  the  weaker  have  always  recourse  to  negotiation, 
we  should  say,  that  they  have  always  recourse  to  conquest, 
the  custom  which  we  have  acquired  of  attributing  certain 
relations  to  ideas  still  follows  the  words  and  makes  us 

1  Raskin,  in  his  Pars  Clavigera,  relates  that  the  sight  of  the  word 
"  crocodile  "  used  to  frighten  him  as  a  child  so  much  that  he  could 
not  feel  at  ease  again  till  he  had  turned  over  the  page  on  which  it 
occurred. 


tion. 


immediately  perceive  the  absurdity  of  that  proposition."  2 
How  intimately  the  two  are  connected  is  shown  by  the 
surprises  that  give  what  point  there  is  to  puns,  and  by  the 
small  confusion  that  results  from  the  existence  of  homo- 
nymous  terms.  The  question  thus  arises — What  are  the 
properly  ideational  elements  concerned  in  thought?  Over 
this  question  psychologists  long  waged  fight  as  either 
nominalists  or  conceptualists.  The  former  maintain  that 
what  is  imaged  in  connexion  with  a  general  concept,  such 
as  triangle,  is  some  individual  triangle  "  taken  in  a  certain 
light,"3  while  the  latter  maintain  that  an  "abstract  idea" 
is  formed  embodying  such  constituents  of  the  several  par- 
ticulars as  the  concept  connotes,  but  dissociated  from  the 
specific  or  accidental  variations  that  distinguish  one  par- 
ticular from  another.  As  often  happens  in  such  contro- 
versies, each  party  saw  the  weak  point  in  the  other. 
The  nominalists  easily  showed  that  there  was  no  distinct 
abstract  idea  representable  apart  from  particulars;  and 
the  conceptualists  could  as  easily  show  that  a  particular 
presentation  "  considered  in  a  certain  light "  is  no  longer 
merely  a  particular  presentation  nor  yet  a  mere  crowd  of 
presentations.  The  very  thing  to  ascertain  is  what  this 
consideration  in  a  certain  light  implies.  Perhaps  a  speedier 
end  might  have  been  put  to  this  controversy  if  either  party 
had  been  driven  to  define  more  exactly  what  was  to  be 
understood  by  image  or  idea.  Such  ideas  as  are  possible 
to  us  apart  from  abstraction  are,  as  we  have  seen,  revived 
percepts,  not  revived  sensations,  are  complex  total  re-pre- 
sentations made  up  of  partial  re-presentations  (comp.  p. 
57).  Reproductive  imagination  is  so  far  but  a  faint 
rehearsal  of  actual  perceptions,  and  constructive  imagina- 
tion but  a  faint  anticipation  of  possible  perceptions.  In 
either  case  we  are  busied  with  elementary  presentations 
complicated  or  synthesized  to  what  are  tantamount  to 
intuitions,  in  so  far  as  the  forms  of  intuition  remain  in  the 
idea,  though  the  fact,  as  tested  by  movement,  &c.,  is 
absent.  The  several  partial  re -presentations,  however, 
which  make  up  an  idea  might  also  be  called  ideas,  not 
merely  in  the  wide  sense  in  which  every  mental  object 
may  be  so  called,  but  also  in  the  narrower  sense  as  second- 
ary presentations,  i.e.,  as  distinguished  from  primary  pre- 
sentations or  impressions.  But  such  isolated  images  of 
an  impression,  even  if  possible,  would  no  more  be  intuitions 
than  the  mere  impression  itself  would  be  one  :  taken  alone 
the  one  would  be  as  free  of  space  and  time  as  is  the  other. 
Till  it  is  settled,  therefore,  whether  the  ideational  elements 
concerned  in  conception  are  intuitive  complexes  or  some- 
thing answering  to  the  ultimate  elements  of  these,  nothing 
further  can  be  done. 

In  the  case  of  what  are  specially  called  "  concrete  "  as 
distinct  from  "  abstract "  conceptions — if  this  rough-and- 
ready,  but  unscientific,  distinction  maybe  allowed — the  idea 
answering  to  the  concept  differs  little  from  an  intuition, 
and  we  have  already  remarked  that  the  generic  image 
(Gemeinhild  of  German  psychologists)  constitutes  the  con- 
necting link  between  imagination  and  conception.  But 
even  concerning  these  it  is  useless  to  ask  what  does  one 
imagine  in  thinking,  e.g.,  of  triangle  or  man  or  colour. 
We  never — except  for  the  sake  of  this  very  inquiry — 
attempt  to  fix  our  minds  in  this  manner  upon  some  isolated 
conception  ;  in  actual  thinking  ideas  are  not  in  conscious- 
ness alone  and  disjointedly  but  as  part  of  a  context. 
When  the  idea  "  man "  is  present,  it  is  present  in  some 
proposition  or  question,  as — Man  is  the  paragon  of  animals ; 
In  man  there  is  nothing  great  but  mind ;  and  so  on.  It 
is  quite  clear  that  in  understanding  or  mentally  verifying 
such  statements  very  different  constituents  out  of  the 


2   Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  pt.  i.  §  vii.  (Green  and  Grose's  ed.) 
p.  331.  8  So  Hume,  op.  cit.,  p.  456. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


77 


whole  complex  "  man  "  are  prominent  in  each.  Further, 
what  is  present  to  consciousness  when  a  general  term  is 
imderstood  will  differ,  not  only  with  a  different  context, 
but  also  the  longer  we  dwell  upon  it :  we  may  either  ana- 
lyse its  connotation  or  muster  its  denotation,  as  the  con- 
text or  the  cast  of  our  minds  may  determine.  Thus  what 
is  relevant  is  alone  prominent,  and  the  more  summary  the 
attention  we  bestow  the  less  the  full  extent  and  intent  of 
the  concept  are  displayed.  To  the  nominalist's  objection, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  imagine  a  man  without  imagining 
him  as  either  tall  or  short,  young  or  old,  dark  or  light, 
and  so  forth,  the  conceptualist  might  reply  that  at  all 
events  percepts  may  be  clear  without  being  distinct,  that 
we  can  recognize  a  tree  without  recognizing  what  kind  of 
tree  it  is,  and  that,  moreover,  the  objection  proves  too 
much  :  for,  if  our  image  is  to  answer  exactly  to  fact,  we 
must  represent  not  only  a  tall  or  a  short  man  but  a  man 
of  definite  nature, — one  not  merely  either  light  or  dark, 
but  of  a  certain  precise  complexion.  But  the  true  answer 
rather  is  that  in  conceiving  as  such  we  do  not  necessarily 
imagine  a  man  or  a  tree  at  all,  any  more  than — if  such 
an  illustration  may  serve — in  writing  the  equation  to  the 
parabola  we  necessarily  draw  a  parabola  as  well. 

The  individuality  of  a  concept  is  thus  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  sensible  concreteness  of  an  intuition 
either  distinct  or  indistinct,  and  "  the  pains  and  skill " 
which  Locke  felt  were  required  in  order  to  frame  what  he 
called  an  abstract  idea  are  not  comparable  to  the  pains 
and  skill  that  may  be  necessary  to  discriminate  or  decipher 
what  is  faint  or  fleeting.  The  material  "  framed  "  consists 
no  doubt  of  ideas,  if  by  this  is  meant  that  in  thinking  we 
work  ultimately  with  the  ideational  continuum,  but  what 
results  is  never  a  mere  intuitive  complex  nor  yet  a  mere 
group  of  such.  The  concept  or  "  abstract  idea "  only 
emerges  when  a  certain  intelligible  relation  is  established 
among  the  members  of  such  a  group  ;  and  the  very  same 
intuition  may  furnish  the  material  for  different  concepts 
as  often  as  a  different  geistiges  Band  is  drawn  between 
them.  The  stuff  of  this  bond,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the 
word,  and  this  brings  into  the  foreground  of  consciousness 
when  necessary  those  elements — whether  they  form  an 
,  intuition  or  not — which  are  relevant  to  the  concept.  Con- 
|  ception,  then,  is  not  identical  with  imagination,  although 
i  the  two  terms  are  still  often,  and  were  once  generally, 
regarded  as  synonymous.  The  same  ultimate  materials 
occur  in  each ;  but  in  the  one  they  start  with  and  retain 
a  sensible  form,  in  the  other  they  are  elaborated  into  the 
form  which  is  called  "  intelligible." 

ieil        The  distinctive  character  of  this  intellectual  synthesis 
roer  lies,  we  have  seen,  in  the  fact  that  it  is  determined  entirely 
,    by  what  is  synthesized,  whether  that  be  the  elementary 
j*    constituents  of  intuitions  or  general  relations  of  whatever 
:io    kind  among  these.     It  differs,  therefore,  in  being  selective 
!    from  the  synthesis  of  ideation,  which  rests  upon  contiguity 
and  unites  together  whatever  occurs  together.     It  differs 
:    also  from  any  synthesis,  though  equally  voluntary  in  its 
•    initiation,   which  is   determined   by  a  purely  subjective 
preference,   in  that   intellection    depends  upon  objective 
.    relations  alone.     Owing  to  the  influence  of  logic,  which 
has  long  been  in  a  much  more  forward  state  than  psycho- 
logy, it  has  been  usual  to  resolve  intellection  into  compari- 
son,  abstraction,    and    classification,    after   this   fashion : 
ABCM  and  ABCN  are  compared,  their  differences  M  and 
N  left   out  of  sight,  and   the  class  notion  ABC  formed 
;    including  both  ;  the  same  process  repeated  with  ABC  and 
ABD  yields  a  higher  class  notion  AB ;  and  so  on.     But 
our  ideational  continuum  is  not  a  mere  string  of  ideas  of 
'    concrete  things,  least  of  all  such  concrete  things  as  this 
[    view  implies.     Not  till  our  daily  life  resembles  that  of  a 
museum  porter  receiving  specimens  will  our  higher  mental 


activity  be  comparable  to  that  of  the  savant  who  sorts 
such  specimens  into  cases  and  compartments.  What  we 
perceive  is  a  world  of  things  in  continual  motion,  waxing, 
waning,  the  centres  of  manifold  changes,  affecting  us  and 
apparently  affected  by  each  other,  amenable  to  our  action 
and,  as  it  seems,  continually  interacting  among  themselves. 
Even  the  individual  thing,  as  our  brief  analysis  of  percep- 
tion attempts  to  show  (comp.  pp.  55,  56),  is  not  a  mere  sum 
of  properties  which  can  be  taken  to  pieces  and  distributed 
like  type,  but  a  whole  combined  of  parts  very  variously 
related.  To  understand  intellection  we  must  look  at  its 
actual  development  under  the  impetus  of  practical  needs, 
rather  than  to  logical  ideals  of  what  it  ought  to  be.  Like 
other  forms  of  purposive  activity,  thinking  is  primarily 
undertaken  as  a  means  to  an  end,  and  especially  the  end 
of  economy.  It  is  often  easier  and  always  quicker  to 
manipulate  ideas  than  to  manipulate  real  things ;  to  the 
common  mind  the  thoughtful  man  is  one  who  "  uses  his 
head  to  save  his  heels."  In  all  the  arts  of  life,  in  the 
growth  of  language  and  institutions,  in  scientific  explana- 
tion, and  even  in  the  speculations  of  philosophy,  we  may 
remark  a  steady  simplification  in  the  steps  to  a  given  end 
or  conclusion,  or — what  is  for  our  present  inquiry  the 
same  thing — the  attainment  of  better  results  with  the 
same  means.  The  earliest  machines  are  the  most  cum- 
brous and  clumsy,  the  earliest  speculations  the  most  fanci- 
ful and  anthropomorphic.  Gradually  imitation  yields  to 
invention,  the  natural  fallacy  of  post  hoc,  ergo  propter  hoc 
to  methodical  induction,  till  what  is  essential  and  effective 
is  realized  and  appreciated  and  what  is  accidental  and 
inert  is  discarded  and  falls  out  of  sight.  In  this  way 
man  advances  in  the  construction  of  a  complete  mental 
clue  or  master-key  to  the  intricacies  of  the  real  world,  but 
this  key  is  still  the  counterpart  of  the  world  it  enables  us 
to  control  and  explain. 

To  describe  the  process  by  which  such  insight  is  attained 
as  a  mere  matter  of  abstraction  deserves  the  stigma  of 
"soulless  blunder"  which  Hegel  applied  to  it.  Of  course 
if  attention  is  concentrated  on  X  it  must  pro  tanto  be 
abstracted  from  Y,  and  such  command  of  attention  may 
require  "some  pains  and  skill."  But  to  see  in  this 
invariable  accompaniment  of  thinking  its  essential  feature 
is  much  like  the  schoolboy's  saying  that  engraving  consists 
in  cutting  fine  shavings  out  of  a  hard  block.  The  great 
thing  is  to  find  out  what  are  the  light-bearing  and  fruit- 
bearing  combinations.  Moreover,  thinking  does  not  begin 
with  a  conscious  abstraction  of  attention  from  recognized 
differences  in  the  way  logicians  describe.  The  actual 
process  of  generalization,  for  the  most  part  at  all  events, 
is  much  simpler.  The  same  name  is  applied  to  different 
things  or  events  because  only  their  more  salient  features 
are  perceived  at  all.  Their  differences,  so  far  from  being 
consciously  and  with  effort  left  out  of  account,  often  can- 
not be  observed  when  attention  is  directed  to  them  :  to 
the  inexperienced  all  is  gold  that  glitters.  Thus,  and  as 
an  instance  of  the  principle  of  progressive  differentiation 
already  noted  (p.  42),  we  find  genera  recognized  before 
species,  and  the  species  obtained  by  adding  on  differences, 
not  the  genus  by  abstracting  from  them.  Of  course  such 
vague  and  indefinite  concepts  are  not  at  first  logically 
general :  they  only  become  so  when  certain  common  ele- 
ments are  consciously  noted  as  pertaining  to  presentations 
in  other  respects  qualitatively  different,  as  well  as  numer- 
ically distinct.  But  actually  thinking  starts  from  such 
more  potential  generality  as  is  secured  by  the  association 
of  a  generic  image  with  a  name.  So  far  the  material  of 
thought  is  always  general, — is  freed,  that  is,  from  the 
local  and  temporal  and  other  defining  marks  of  percepts. 

The  process  of  thinking  itself  is  psychologically  much 
better  described  as  (1)  an  analysis  and  (2)  a  re-synthesis  of 


78 


PSYCHOLOGY 


lytic. 


this  material  already  furnished  by  the  ideational  trains. 
Thought  The  logical  resolution  of  thought  into  hierarchies  of  con- 
as  ana-  cepts  arranged  like  Porphyry's  tree,  into  judgments  uniting 
such  concepts  by  means  of  a  logical  copula,  &c ,  is  the  out- 
come of  later  reflexion — mainly  for  technical  purposes — 
upon  thought  as  a  completed  product,  and  entirely  pre- 
supposes all  that  psychology  has  to  explain.  The  logical 
theory  of  the  formation  of  concepts  by  generalization  (or 
abstraction)  and  by  determination  (or  concretion) — i.e.,  by 
the  removal  or  addition  of  defining  marks — assumes  the 
previous  existence  of  the  very  things  to  be  formed,  for 
these  marks  or  attributes — X's  and  xY's,  A's  and  B's—  are 
themselves  already  concepts.  Moreover,  the  act  of  gener- 
alizing or  determining  is  really  an  act  of  judgment,  so  that 
the  logician's  account  of  conception  presupposes  judgment, 
while  at  the  same  time  his  account  of  judgment  presup- 
poses conception.  But  this  is  no  evil ;  for  logic  does  not 
essay  to  exhibit  the  actual  genesis  of  thought  but  only  an 
ideal  for  future  thinking.  Psychologically — that  is  to  say, 
chronologically — the  judgment  is  first.  The  growing  mind, 
we  may  suppose,  passes  beyond  simple  perception  when 
some  striking  difference  in  what  is  at  the  moment  perceived 
is  the  occasion  of  a  conflict  of  presentations  (comp.  p.  62). 
The  stalking  hunter  is  not  instantly  recognized  as  the  de- 
stroying biped,  because  he  crawls  on  all  fours;  or  the  scare- 
crow looks  like  him,  and  yet  not  like  him ;  for,  though  it 
stands  on  two  legs,  it  never  moves.  There  is  no  immedi- 
ate assimilation  :  percept  and  idea  remain  distinct  till,  on 
being  severally  attended  to  and  compared,  what  is  there 
is  known  in  spite  of  the  differences.  Recognition  under 
such  circumstances  is  in  itself  a  judgment ;  but  of  more 
account  is  the  further  judgment  involved  in  it  or  accom- 
panying it — that  which  connects  the  new  fact  with  the 
old  idea.  Though  actually  complex,  as  the  result  of  a 
combination  of  impressions,  generic  images  are  not  neces- 
sarily known  as  complexes  when  they  first  enter  into 
judgments ;  as  the  subjects  of  such  judgments  they  are 
but  starting-points  for  predication, — It  crawls;  It  does 
not  move;  and  the  like.  Such  impersonal  judgments, 
according  to  most  philologists,  are  in  fact  the  earliest; 
and  we  may  reasonably  suppose  that  by  means  of  them 
our  generic  images  have  been  partially  analysed,  and  have 
attained  to  something  of  the  distinctness  and  constancy  of 
logical  concepts.  But  the  analysis  is  rarely  complete :  a 
certain  confused  and  fluctuating  residuum  remains  behind. 
The  psychological  concept  merges  at  sundry  points  into 
those  cognate  with  it, — in  other  words,  the  continuity  of 
the  underlying  memory-train  still  operates ;  only  the  ideal 
concepts  of  logic  are  in  all  respects  totus,  teres,  atque  rotun- 
dus.  Evidence  of  this,  if  it  seem  to  any  to  require  proof, 
is  obtainable  on  all  sides,  and,  if  we  could  recover  the 
first  vestiges  of  thinking,  would  be  more  abundant  still. 

Logical  But,  if  we  agree  that  it  is  through  acts  of  judgment  which  sue- 
bias  in  cessively  resolve  composite  presentations  into  elements  that  con- 
psycho-  cepts  first  arise,  it  is  still  very  necessary  to  inquire  more  carefully 
what  these  elements  are.  On  the  one  side  we  have  seen  logicians 
comparing  them  to  so  many  letters,  and  on  the  other  psychologists 
enumerating  the  several  sensible  properties  of  gold  or  wax — their 
colour,  weight,  texture,  &c.  —as  instances  of  such  elements.  In  this 
way  formal  logic  and  sensationalist  psychology  have  been  but  blind 
leaders  of  the  blind.  Language,  which  has  enabled  thought  to  ad- 
vance to  the  level  at  which  reflexion  about  thought  can  begin,  is 
now  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a  thorough  analysis  of  it.  A  child  or 
savage  would  speak  only  of  "  red  "  and  "  hot,"  but  we  of  "  redness  " 
and  "  heat."  They  would  probably  say,  "  Swallows  come  when  the 
days  are  lengthening  and  snipe  when  they  are  shortening "  ;  we 
say,  "Swallows  are  spring  and  snipe  are  winter  migrants."  In- 
stead of  "The  sun  shines  and  plants  grow,"  we  should  say,  "Sun- 
light is  the  cause  of  vegetation."  In  short,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  resolve  all  concepts  into  substantive  concepts ;  and  the  reason 
of  this  is  not  far  to  seek.  Whether  the  subject  or  starting-point 
of  our  discursive  thinking  be  actually  what  we  perceive  as  a  thing, 
or  whether  it  be  a  quality,  an  action,  an  effectuation  (i.e.,  a  transi- 
tive action),  a  concrete  spatial  or  temporal  relation,  or  finally,  a 


logy. 


resemblance  or  difference  in  these  or  in  other  respects,  it  becomes 
by  the  very  fact  of  being  the  central  object  of  thought  pro  tanto  a 
unity,  and  all  that  can  be  affirmed  concerning  it  may  so  far  be  re- 
garded as  its  property  or  attribute.  It  is,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
characteristic  of  every  completed  concept  to  be  a  fixed  and  inde- 
pendent whole,  as  it  were,  crystallized  out  of  the  still-fluent  matrix 
of  ideas.  Moreover,  the  earliest  objects  of  thought  and  the  earliest 
concepts  must  naturally  be  those  of  the  things  that  live  and  move 
about  us  ;  hence,  then — to  seek  no  deeper  reason  for  the  present — 
this  natural  tendency,  which  language  by  providing  distinct  names 
powerfully  seconds,  to  reify  or  personify  not  only  things  but  every 
element  and  relation  of  things  which  we  can  single  out,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  concrete  our  abstracts.1  It  is  when  things  have 
reached  this  stage  that  logic  begins.  But  ordinary,  so-called  for- 
mal, logic,  which  intends  to  concern  itself  not  with  thinking  but 
only  with  the  most  general  structure  of  thought,  is  debarred  from 
recognizing  any  difference  between  concepts  that  does  not  affect 
their  relations  as  terms  in  a  proposition.  As  a  consequence  it  drifts 
inevitably  into  that  compartmental  logic  or  logic  of  extension 
which  knows  nothing  of  categories  or  predicables,  but  only  of  the 
one  relation  of  whole  and  part  qualitatively  considered.  It  thus 
pushes  this  reduction  to  a  common  denomination  to  the  utmost : 
its  terms,  grammatically  regarded,  are  always  names  and  symbolize 
classes  or  compartments  of  things.  From  this  point  of  view  all  dis- 
parity among  concepts,  save  that  of  contradictory  exclusion,  and 
all  connexion,  save  that  of  partial  coincidence,  are  at  an  end. 

Of  a  piece  with  this  are  the  logical  formula  for  a  simple  judgment, 
X  is  Y,  and  the  corresponding  definitions  of  judgment  as  the  com- 
parison of  two  concepts  and  the  recognition  of  their  agreement  or 
disagreement.2  It  certainly  is  possible  to  represent  every  judg- 
ment as  a  comparison,  although  the  term  is  strictly  adequate  to 
only  one  kind  and  is  often  a  very  artificial  description  of  what 
actually  happens.  But  for  a  logic  mainly  concerned  with  inference — 
i.e.,  with  explicating  what  is  implicated  in  any  given  statements 
concerning  classes — there  is  nothing  more  to  be  done  but  to  ascertain 
agreements  or  disagreements  ;  and  the  existence  of  these,  if  not 
necessarily,  is  at  least  most  evidently  represented  by  spatial  rela- 
tions. Such  representation  obviously  implies  a  single  ground  of 
comparison  only  and  therefore  leaves  no  room  for  differences  of 
category.  The  resolution  of  all  concepts  into  class  concepts  and 
that  of  all  judgments  into  comparisons  thus  go  together.  On  this 
view  if  a  concept  is  complex  it  can  only  be  so  as  a  class  combination  ; 
and,  if  the  mode  of  its  synthesis  could  be  taken  account  of  at  all, 
this  could  only  be  by  treating  it  as  an  element  in  the  combination 
like  the  rest : — iron  is  a  substance,  &c.,  virtue  a  quality,  &c.,  distance 
a  relation,  &c.,  and  so  on.  There  is  much  of  directly  psychological 
interest  in  this  thoroughgoing  reduction  of  thought  to  a  form  which 
makes  its  consistency  and  logical  concatenation  conspicuously  evi- 
dent. But  of  the  so-called  matter  of  thought  it  tells  us  nothing. 
And,  as  said,  there  are  many  forms  in  that  matter  of  at  least  equal 
moment,  both  for  psychology  and  for  epistemology  ;  these  formal 
logic  has  tended  to  keep  out  of  sight. 

It  has  generally  been  under  the  bias  of  such  a  formal  or  com- 
putational logic  that  psychologists,  and  especially  English  psycho- 
logists, have  entered  upon  the  study  of  mind.  They  have  brought 
with  them  an  analytic  scheme  which  affords  a  ready  place  for 
sensations  or  "simple  ideas  "as  the  elements  of  thought,  but  none  for 
any  differences  in  the  combinations  of  these  elements.  Sensations 
being  in  their  very  nature  concrete,  all  generality  becomes  an  affair 
of  names  ;  and,  as  Sigwart  has  acutely  remarked,  sensationalism 
and  nominalism  always  go  together.  History  would  have  borne 
him  out  if  he  had  added  that  a  purely  formal  logic  tends  in  like 
manner  to  be  nominalistic  (see  LOGIC,  vol.  xiv.  p.  791). 

If  we  are  still  to  speak  of  the  elements  of  thought,  we  Foi 
must  extend  this  term  so  as  to  include  not  only  the  sensory  sy1 
elements  we  are  said  to  receive  but  three  distinct  ways  in 
which  this  pure  matter  is  combined  : — (1)  the  forms  of 
intuition,3' — Time  and  Space ;  (2)  the  real  categories, — 
Substance,  Attribute,  State,  Act,  Effect,  End  or  Purpose, 
<fec. — the  exact  determination  of  which  is  not  here  in  place; 
and  (3)  certain  formal  (logical  and  mathematical)  categories, 
— as  Unity,  Difference,  Identity,  Likeness.  These  can  no 
more  be  obtained  by  such  a  process  of  abstraction  and 
generalization  as  logicians  and  psychologists  alike  have 
been  wont  to  describe  than  the  melody  could  be  obtained 


1  See  Wundt,  Logik,  i.  p.  107  sq.,  where  this  process  is  happily  styled 
"  die  kategoriale  Verschiebung  der  Begriffe. " 

8  Comp.  Hamilton:  "To  judge  (icptveiv,  judicare)  is  to  recognize 
the  relation  of  congruence  or  of  confliction  in  which  two  concepts, 
two  individual  things,  or  a  concept  and  an  individual,  compared  to- 
gether, stand  to  each  other"  (Lectures  on  Logic,  i.  p.  225). 

3  As  to  these  it  must  suffice  to  refer  to  what  has  been  already  said  ; 
comp.  pp.  53  and  64  sq. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


79 


by  suppressing  all  the  several  notes  in  a  tune.  They  are 
not  primarily  concepts  more  general  than  all  others  in  the 
sense  in  which  animal  is  more  general  than  man,  but  rather 
distinct  methods  of  relating  or  synthesizing  presentations. 
Kant,  though  he  accepted  almost  unquestioned  the  logic 
and  psychology  current  in  his  day,  has  yet  been  the  occa- 
sion, in  spite  of  himself,  of  materially  advancing  both,  and 
chiefly  by  the  distinction  he  was  led  to  make  between  formal 
and  transcendental  logic.  In  his  exposition  of  the  latter 
he  brings  to  light  the  difference  between  the  "  functions  of 
the  understanding  "  in  synthesizing — or,  as  we  might  say, 
organizing — percepts  into  concepts  and  the  merely  analytic 
subsumption  of  abc  and  abd  under  ab, — a,  6,  c,  and  d  being 
what  they  may.  Unlike  other  concepts,  categories  as  such 
do  not  in  the  first  instance  signify  objects  of  thought  how- 
ever general,  but  these  functions  of  the  understanding  in 
constituting  objects.  In  fine,  they  all  imply  some  special 
process,  and  into  these  processes  it  is  the  business  of 
psychology  to  inquire.  But  only  the  briefest  attempt  at 
such  inquiry  is  here  possible. 

To  begin  with  what  are  par  excellence  formal  categories, 
and  among  these  with  that  which  is  the  most  fundamental 
and  formal  of  all — How  do  we  come  by  the  conception  of 
unity  1  "  Amongst  all  the  ideas  we  have,"  says  Locke,  "  as 
there  is  none  suggested  to  the  mind  by  more  ways,  so  there 
is  none  more  simple  than  that  of  unity,  or  one.  It  has  no 
shadow  of  variety  or  composition  in  it ;  every  object  our 
senses  are  employed  about,  every  idea  in  our  understand- 
ings, every  thought  of  our  minds,  brings  this  idea  along 
with  it."1  And  the  like  with  painful  iteration  has  been 
said  by  almost  all  English  psychologists  since.  Such  con- 
sensus notwithstanding,  to  assign  a  sensible  origin  to  unity 
is  certainly  a  mistake,  —one  of  a  class  of  mistakes  already 
more  than  once  referred  to,  which  consist  in  transferring 
to  the  data  of  sense  all  that  is  implied  in  the  language 
necessarily  used  in  speaking  of  them.  The  term  "a  sensa- 
tion "  no  doubt  carries  along  with  it  the  idea  of  unity,  but 
the  bare  sensation  as  received  brings  along  with  it  nothing 
but  itself.  And,  if  we  consider  sensory  consciousness 
merely,  we  do  not  receive  a  sensation,  and  then  another 
sensation,  and  so  on  seriatim ;  but  we  have  always  a  con- 
tinuous diversity  of  sensations  even  when  these  are  quali- 
tatively sharply  differentiated.  Moreover,  if  unity  were 
an  impression  of  sense  and  passively  received,  it  would, 
in  common  with  other  impressions,  be  unamenable  to 
change.  We  cannot  see  red  as  blue,  but  we  can  resolve 
many  (parts)  into  one  (whole),  and  vice  versa?  Unity, 
then,  is  the  result  of  an  act  the  occasions  for  which,  no 
doubt,  are  at  first  non- voluntarily  determined ;  but  the  act 
is  still  as  distinct  from  them  as  is  attention  from  the  objects 
attended  to.  It  is  to  that  movement  of  attention  already 
described  in  dealing  with  ideation  (p.  61)  that  we  must 
look  as  the  source  of  this  category.  This  same  movement, 
in  like  manner,  yields  us  temporal  signs  ;  and  the  complex 
unity  formed  by  a  combination  of  these  is  what  we  call 
number.  When  there  is  little  or  no  difference  between  the 
field  and  the  focus  of  attention,  unifying  is  an  impossibility, 
whatever  the  impressions  received  may  be.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  voluntary  acts  of  concentration  become  more  fre- 
quent and  distinct  the  variegated  continuum  of  sense  is 
shaped  into  intuitions  of  definite  things  and  events.  Also, 
as  soon  as  words  facilitate  the  control  of  ideas,  it  becomes 
possible  to  single  out  special  aspects  and  relations  of 

1  Essay  concerning  Human  Understanding,  II.  xvi.  §  1. 

2  "  Wir  konnen  eines  der  hier  gedruckten  Wdrter  als  Eins  ansehen, 
indem  wir  eine  Mannigfaltigkeit  von  Buchstaben  doch  in  einem  ab- 
schliessenden  Acte  zu  eiueni  Bilde  vereinigen  und  es  von  den  benach- 
barten  Bildern  trennen  ;  wir  konnen  es  als  Vielheit  ansehen,  wenn  wir 
auf  den  Uebergang  von  einem  Buchstaben  zum  andern,  jeden  Schritt 
absetzend,  achten  "  (Sigwart,  Logik,  ii.  p.  41). 


things  as  the  subjects  or  starting-points  of  our  dis- 
cursive thinking.  Thus  the  forms  of  unity  are  manifold: 
every  act  of  intuition  or  thought,  whatever  else  it  is,  is  an 
act  of  unifying. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  whole  field  of  consciousness  at  any 
moment  can  never  be  actually  embraced  as  one.  What  is 
unified  becomes  thereby  the  focus  of  consciousness  and  so 
leaves  an  outlying  field ;  so  far  unity  may  be  held  to  imply 
plurality.  But  it  cannot  with  propriety  be  said  that  in  a 
simple  act  of  attention  the  field  of  consciousness  is  analysed 
into  two  distinct  parts,  i.e.,  two  unities, — this  (now  attended 
to)  and  the  other  or  the  rest  (abstracted  from).  For  the 
not-this  is  but  the  rest  of  a  continuum  and  not  itself  a 
whole ;  it  is  left  out  but  not  determined,  as  the  bounding 
space  is  left  out  when  a  figure  is  drawn.  To  know  two 
unities  we  must  connect  both  together ;  and  herein  comes 
to  light  the  difference  between  the  unity  which  is  the  form 
of  the  concept  or  subject  of  discourse  and  the  unity  of  a 
judgment.  The  latter  is  of  necessity  complex ;  the  former 
may  or  may  not  be.  But  in  any  case  the  complexity  of 
the  two  is  different.  If  the  subject  of  thought  is  not  only 
clear  but  distinct — i.e.,  not  merely  defined  as  a  whole  but 
having  its  constituents  likewise  more  or  less  defined — such 
distinctness  is  due  to  previous  judgments.  At  any  future 
time  these  may  of  course  be  repeated ;  such  are  the  ana- 
lytical or  explicative  judgments  of  logic.  As  the  mere 
subject  of  discourse  it  is,  however,  a  single  unity  simul- 
taneously apprehended ;  the  relation  ascertained  between 
it  and  its  predicate  constitutes  the  unity  of  judgment,  a 
unity  which  is  comprehended  only  when  its  parts  are 
successively  apprehended. 

But,  though  a  judgment  is  always  a  complex  unity,  the  Law  of 
extent  of  this  complexity  seems  at  first  sight  to  vary  as 
the  form  of  synthesis  varies.  Formal  logic,  as  we 
seen,  by  throwing  the  form  of  synthesis  into  the  predicate 
has  no  difficulty  in  reducing  every  judgment  to  an  S  is  P. 
But,  if  we  at  all  regard  the  matter  thought,  it  is  certain, 
for  example,  that  "  It  is  an  explosion "  is  less  complex 
than  "  The  enemy  explodes  the  mine."  The  first  answers 
one  question ;  the  second  answers  three.  But  as  regards 
the  more  complex  judgment  both  the  process  of  ascertaining 
the  fact  and  the  language  in  which  it  is  expressed  show 
that  the  three  elements  concerned  in  it  are  not  synthesized 
at  once.  Suppose  we  start  from  the  explosion, — and  changes 
or  movements  are  not  only  apt  to  attract  attention  first, 
but,  when  recognized  as  events  and  not  as  abstracts  per- 
sonified, they  call  for  some  supplementing  beyond  them- 
selves— then  in  this  case  we  may  search  for  the  agent  at 
work  or  for  the  object  affected,  but  not  for  both  at  once. 
Moreover,  if  we  find  either,  a  complete  judgment  at  once 
ensues :  "  The  enemy  explodes,"  or  "  The  mine  is  exploded." 
The  original  judgment  is  really  due  to  a  synthesis  of  these 
two.  But,  when  the  results  of  former  judgments  are  in 
this  manner  taken  up  into  a  new  judgment,  a  certain 
"  condensation  of  thought "  ensues.  Of  this  condensation 
the  grammatical  structure  of  language  is  evidence,  though 
logical  manipulation — with  great  pains — obliterates  it. 
Thus  our  more  complex  judgment  would  take  the  form — 
"The  enemy  is  now  mine -exploding"  or  "The  mine  is 
enemy-exploded,"  according  as  one  or  other  of  the  simpler 
judgments  was  made  first.  An  examination  of  other  cases 
would  in  like  manner  tend  to  show  that  intellectual  synthesis 
is  always — in  itself  and  apart  from  implications — a  binary 
synthesis.  Wundt,  to  whom  belongs  the  merit  of  first 
explicitly  stating  this  "law  of  dichotomy  or  duality"3  as 
the  cardinal  principle  of  discursive  thinking,  contrasts  it 
with  synthesis  by  mere  association.  This,  as  running  on 
continuously,  he  represents  thus — A~B~C~D~  .  .  .  ;  the 

3  Wundt,  Logik :  eine  Untersuchung  der  Principien  der  Erkenntniss, 
i.  p.  53  sq. 


80 


PSYCHOLOGY 


synthesis  of  thought,  on  the  other  hand,  he  symbolizes  by 
forms  such  as  the  following  : — 


AB       AB   CD      AB  C 


&c. 


In  explanation  of  this  law  as  a  law  of  intellection  it  is 
hardly  sufficient  to  rest  it  ultimately  on  the  fact  "  that  in 
a  given  moment  of  time  only  a  single  act  of  apperception 
is  possible."  l  This  applies  to  all  syntheses  alike.  ^  The 
point  surely  is  that  the  one  thing  attended  to  in  an  intel- 
lective act  is  the  synthesis  of  two  things,  and  of  two  things 
only,  because,  as  only  one  movement  of  attention  is  possible 
at  a  time,  only  two  things  at  a  time  can  be  synthesized. 
In  that  merely  associative  synthesis  by  which  the  memory- 
continuum  is  produced  attention  moves  from  A  to  B  and 
thence  to  C  without  any  relation  between  A  and  B  being 
attended  to  at  all,  although  they  must  have  relations, 
that  of  sequence,  e.g.,  at  least.  The  intellective  synthesis 
which  follows  upon  this  first  resolves  the  A~B  into  its 
elements,  and  then,  if  there  be  any  ground  for  so  doing, 
re-synthesizes  them  with  a  consciousness  of  what  the  syn- 
thesis means.2 

Formal  Passing  now  to  the  remaining  formal  categories  —  Differ- 
cate-  ence,  Likeness,  Identity  —  all  of  which  come  under  the  law 
gories.  Qf  Duality  so  far  as  they  imply  not  a  single  presentation 
but  some  relation  between  two  presentations,  we  have  to 
seek  out  the  characteristics  of  the  states  of  mind  in  which 
these  relations  become  objects  of  consciousness.  The  so- 
called  fundamentum  relationis,  of  course,  can  be  nothing 
but  the  two  presentations  concerned.  Just  as  certain, 
however,  is  it  that  the  relation  itself  involves  something 
more  than  these.  Two  equal  triangles  may  be  made  to 
coincide,  but  are  not  necessarily  coincident  :  Dromio  of 
Ephesus  might  be  mistaken  for  Dromio  of  Syracuse,  but 
at  least  they  never  mistook  each  other.  And  this  brings 
us  to  the  point.  As  Lotze  puts  it,  "  Two  impressions  a 
and  b  are  never  to  be  regarded  as  more  than  stimuli  which, 
by  affecting  the  conscious  subject  —  in  its  very  nature  in- 
dividual and  sui  generis  —  incite  to  reaction  that  activity 
by  means  of  which  there  arise  the  new  presentations,  such 
as  similarity,  equality,  contrast,  &c."  3  The  activity  thus 
stimulated  is  what  in  other  words  we  call  the  voluntary 
concentration  of  attention  ;  to  ascertain,  then,  what  these 
"  new  presentations  "  of  difference,  likeness,  and  so  forth 
are,  we  must  analyse  carefully  what  takes  place  when  two 
impressions  a  and  6  are  expressly  compared. 

Differ-  "  Difference,"  says  Hume,  "  I  consider  rather  as  a  nega- 
ence  tion  of  relation  than  as  anything  real  or  positive.  Differ- 
ence  ^  Q£  tw()  km(jSj  ^  OppOSed  either  to  identity  [unity?] 
or  resemblance.  The  first  is  called  a  difference  of  number, 
the  other  of  kind."  The  truth  seems  rather  to  be  that 
difference  in  the  sense  of  numerical  difference  is  so  far  an 
element  in  all  relations  as  all  imply  distinct  correlatives. 
To  this  extent  even  identity  —  or  at  least  the  recognition 
of  it  —  rests  on  difference,  that  form  of  difference,  viz., 
which  is  essential  to  plurality.  But  absolute  difference  of 
kind  may  be  considered  tantamount  not,  indeed,  to  the 
negation,  but  at  least  to  the  absence,  of  all  formal  relation. 
That  this  absolute  difference  —  or  disparateness,  as  we  may 
call  it  —  affords  no  ground  for  relations  becomes  evident 
when  we  consider  (1)  that,  if  we  had  only  a  plurality  of 
absolutely  different  presentations,  we  should  have  no  con- 
sciousness at  all  (comp.  p.  45)  ;  and  (2)  that  we  never  com- 
pare —  although  we  distinguish,  i.e.,  recognize,  numerical 


andlike- 


1  Wundt,  op.  cU.,  i.  p.  58. 

3  It  need  not,  of  course,  be  maintained  that  in  every  act  of  thought, 
no  matter  how  abstract,  the  ideas  related  have  been  previously  con- 
nected by  association.  But  certainly  at  the  outset  this  is  the  case,  in 
such  wise  that  all  the  forms  of  intellectual  synthesis  are  prefigured  in 
the  connexions  of  the  ideational  train  or  its  reduplications. 

3  Qrundziige  der  Psychologic,  p.  24. 


difference — where  presentations  seem  absolutely  or  totally 
different,  as  are,  e.g.,  a  thunderclap  and  the  taste  of  sugar, 
or  the  notion  of  free  trade  and  that  of  the  Greek  accusative. 
All  actual  comparison  of  what  is  qualitatively  different  rests 
upon  opposition  or  contrariety,  i.e.,  upon  at  least  partial 
likeness  (comp.  p.  46).  This  being  understood,  it  is  note- 
worthy that  the  recognition  of  such  unlikeness  is,  if  any- 
thing, more  "  real  or  positive  "  than  that  of  likeness,  and 
is  certainly  the  simpler  of  the  two.  In  the  comparison  of 
sensible  impressions — as  of  two  colours,  two  sounds,  the 
lengths  or  the  directions  of  two  lines,  &c. — we  find  it  easier 
in  some  cases  to  have  the  two  impressions  that  are  com- 
pared presented  together,  in  others  to  have  first  one  pre- 
sented and  then  the  other.  But  either  way  the  essential 
matter  is  to  secure  the  most  effective  presentation  of  their 
difference,  which  in  every  case  is  something  positive  and, 
like  any  other  impression,  may  vary  in  amount  from  bare 
perceptibility  to  the  extremest  distance  that  the  continuum 
to  which  it  belongs  will  admit.  Where  no  difference  or 
distance  at  all  is  perceptible,  there  we  say  there  is  likeness 
or  equality.  Is  the  only  outcome,  then,  that  when  we  pass 
from  ab  to  ac  there  is  a  change  in  consciousness,  and  that 
when  ab  persists  there  is  none  ?  To  say  this  is  to  take  no 
account  of  the  operations  (we  may  symbolize  them  as  etc  - 
ab  —  cb,  ab  —  ab  =  0)  by  which  the  difference  or  the  equality 
results.  The  change  of  presentation  (be)  and  absence  of 
change  (0)  are  not  here  what  they  are  when  merely  passive 
occurrences,  so  to  put  it.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  the  former  is  but  a  single  presentation  and  the  latter 
no  presentation  at  all.  The  relation  of  unlikeness,  then, 
is  distinguished  from  the  mere  "position"  of  change  by 
(1)  the  voluntary  concentration  of  attention  upon  ab  and 
ac  with  a  view  to  the  detection  of  this  change  as  their 
difference,  and  by  (2)  the  act,  relating  them  through  it,  in 
that  they  are  judged  unlike  to  that  extent.  The  type  of 
comparison  is  such  superposition  of  geometrical  lines  or 
figures  (as,  e.g.,  in  Euclid  I.  iv.) :  if  they  coincide  we  have 
concrete  equality ;  if  they  do  not  their  difference  is  a  line 
or  figure.  All  sensible  comparisons  conform  essentially  to 
this  type.  In  comparing  two  shades  we  place  them  side 
by  side,  and  passing  from  one  to  the  other  seek  to  determine 
not  the  absolute  shade  of  the  second  but  its  shade  relative 
to  the  first, — in  other  words,  we  look  out  for  contrast.  We 
do  not  say  of  one  "  It  is  dark,"  for  in  the  scale  of  shades 
it  may  be  light,  but  "It  is  darker  ";  or  vice  versa.  Where 
there  is  no  distance  or  contrast  we  simply  have  not  two 
impressions,  and,  as  said — if  we  consider  the  difference  by 
itself — no  impression  at  all.  Two  coincident  triangles 
must  be  perceived  as  one.  The  distinction  between  the 
one  triangle  thus  formed  by  two  coinciding  and  the  single 
triangle  rests  upon  something  extraneous  to  this  bare  pre- 
sentation of  a  triangle  that  is  one  and  the  same  in  both 
cases.  The  marks  of  this  numerical  distinctness  may  be 
various :  they  may  be  different  temporal  signs,  as  in  re- 
duplications of  the  memory-continuum ;  or  they  may  be 
constituents  peculiar  to  each,  from  which  attention  is  for 
the  moment  abstracted,  any  one  of  which  suffices  to  give 
the  common  or  identical  constituent  a  new  setting.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  (1)  that  the  numerical  distinctness  of 
the  related  terms  is  secured  in  the  absence  of  all  qualita- 
tive difference  solely  by  the  intellectual  act  which  has  so 
unified  each  as  to  retain  what  may  serve  as  an  individual 
mark ;  and  (2)  that  they  become  related  as  "  like  "  either 
in  virtue  of  the  active  adjustment  to  a  change  of  impres- 
sion which  their  partial  assimilation  defeats,  or  in  virtue 
of  an  anticipated  continuance  of  the  impression  which  this 
assimilation  confirms. 

It  is  in  keeping  with  this  analysis  that  we  say  in  common  Idenl 
speech  that  two  things  in  any  respect  similar  are  so  far 
the  same ;  that,  e.g.,  the  two  Dromios — 


PSYCHOLOGY 


81 


Jlerial 
icltity. 


al 
idltity 


"The  one  so  like  the  other 
As  could  not  be  distinguished  but  by  names  "  — 

had  the  same  complexion  and  the  same  stature  just  as  we 
say  they  had  the  same  mother.  This  ambiguity  in  the 
word  "  same,"  whereby  it  means  either  individual  identity 
or  indistinguishable  resemblance,  has  been  often  noticed, 
and  from  a  logical  or  objective  point  of  view  justly  com- 
plained of  as  "  engendering  fallacies  in  otherwise  enlight- 
ened understandings."  But  apparently  no  one  has  in- 
quired into  its  psychological  basis,  although  more  than 
one  writer  has  admitted  that  the  ambiguity  is  one  "in 
itself  not  always  to  be  avoided."1  It  is  not  enough  to 
trace  the  confusion  to  jthe  existence  of  common  names  and 
to  cite  the  forgotten  controversies  of  scholastic  realism. 
We  are  not  now  concerned  with  the  conformity  of  thought 
to  things  or  with  logical  analysis,  but  with  the  analysis  of 
a  psychological  process.  The  tendency  to  treat  presenta- 
tions as  if  they  were  copies  of  things — the  objective  bias, 
as  we  may  call  it — is  the  one  grand  obstacle  to  psycho- 
logical observation.  Some  only  realize  with  an  effort  that 
the  idea  of  extension  is  not  extended ;  no  wonder,  then,  if  it 
should  seem  "  unnatural "  to  maintain  that  the  idea  of  two 
like  things  does  not  consist  of  two  like  ideas.  But,  assum- 
ing that  both  meanings  of  identity  have  a  psychological 
justification,  it  will  be  well  to  distinguish  them  and  to  ex- 
amine their  connexion.  Perhaps  we  might  term  the  one 
"material  identity"  and  the  other  "  individual  identity," — 
following  the  analogy  of  expressions  such  as  "  different 
things  but  all  made  of  the  same  stuff,"  "  the  same  person 
but  entirely  changed."  Thus  there  is  unity  and  plurality 
concerned  in  both,  and  herein  identity  or  sameness  differs 
from  singularity  or  mere  oneness,  which  entails  no  relation. 
But  the  unity  and  the  plurality  are  different  in  each,  and 
each  is  in  some  sort  the  converse  of  the  other.  In  the 
one,  two  different  individuals  partially  coincide ;  in  the 
other,  one  individual  is  partially  different ;  the  unity  in 
the  one  case  is  an  individual  presentation,  in  the  other  is 
the  presentation  of  an  individual. 

In  material  identity  the  unity  is  that  of  a  single  pre- 
sentation, whether  simple  or  complex,  which  enters  as  a 
common  constituent  into  two  or  more  others.  It  may  be 
possible  of  course  to  individualize  it,  but  as  it  emerges  in 
a  comparison  it  is  a  single  presentation  and  nothing  more. 
On  account  of  this  absence  of  individual  marks  this  single 
presentation  is  what  logicians  call  "abstract";  but  this  is 
not  psychologically  essential.  It  may  be  a  generic  image 
which  has  resulted  from  the  neutralization  of  individual 
marks,  but  it  may  equally  well  be  a  simple  presentation, 
like  red,  to  which  such  marks  never  belonged.  We  come 
here  from  a  new  side  upon  a  truth  which  has  been  already 
expounded  at  length,  viz.,  that  presentations  are  not  given 
to  us  as  individuals  but  as  changes  in  a  continuum.  Time 
and  space — the  instruments,  as  it  were,  of  individualiza- 
tion,  which  are  presupposed  in  the  objective  sciences — are 
psychologically  later  than  this  mere  differentiation. 

The  many  vexed  questions  that  arise  concerning  indi- 
vidual identity  are  metaphysical  rather  than  psychological. 
But  it  will  serve  to  bring  out  the  difference  between  the 
two  forms  of  identity  to  note  that  an  identification  cannot 
be  established  solely  by  qualitative  comparison ;  an  alibi  or 
a  breach  of  temporal  continuity  will  turn  the  flank  of  the 
strongest  argument  from  resemblance.  Moreover,  resem- 
blance itself  may  be  fatal  to  identification  when  the  law 
of  being  is  change.  But,  while  temporal  and  spatial  de- 
terminations are  essential  to  individual  identity,  they  have, 
strictly  speaking,  no  individual  identity  of  their  own. 
When  we  speak  of  two  impressions  occurring  at  the  same 


1  Comp.  J.  S.  Mill,  Logic,  bk.  i.  ch.  iii.  §  11,  and  Examination  of 
Hamilton,,^  ed.,cli.  xiv.  p.  306, note;  also  Meinong,  "Hume-Studien  " 
II.,  Wiener  Sitzungberichte  (Phil.  Hist.  CL),  vol.  ci.  p.  709. 


time,  or  localize  or  project  them  into  the  same  place,  a 
careful  analysis  shows  only  that  we  detect  no  difference  of • 
temporal  and  local  signs  respectively, — in  other  words, 
have  only  special  cases  of  comparison. 

As  regards  the  real  categories,  it  may  be  said  generally  Real 
that  these  owe  their  origin  in  large  measure  to  the  an- cat?- 
thropomorphic  or  mythical  tendency  of  human  thought, —  §ones- 
TO  o/xoiov  T<j)  6/xoiw  yiKiKr/cetr^ai.  Into  the  formation  of 
these  conceptions  two  very  distinct  factors  enter — (1)  the 
facts  of  what  in  the  stricter  sense  we  call  "  self -conscious- 
ness," and  (2)  certain  spatial  and  temporal  relations  among 
our  presentations  themselves.  On  the  one  hand,  it  has  to 
be  noted  that  these  spatial  and  temporal  relations  are  but 
the  occasion  or  motive — and  ultimately  perhaps,  we  may 
say,  the  warrant — for  the  analogical  attribution  to  things 
of  selfness,  efficiency,  and  design,  but  are  not  directly  the 
source  of  the  forms  of  thought  that  tius  arise.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  to  be  noted  also  that  such  forms,  although 
they  have  an  independent  source,  would  never  apart  from 
suitable  material  come  into  actual  existence.  If  the 
followers  of  Hume  err  in  their  exclusive  reliance  upon 
"  associations  naturally  and  even  necessarily  generated  by 
the  order  of  our  sensations "  (J.  S.  Mill),  the  disciple  of 
Kant  errs  also  who  relies  exclusively  on  "the  synthetic 
unity  of  apperception."  The  truth  is  that  we  are  on  the 
verge  of  error  in  thus  sharply  distinguishing  the  two  at 
all ;  if  we  do  so  momentarily  for  the  purpose  of  exposition 
it  behoves  us  here  again  to  remember  that  mind  grows 
and  is  not  made.  The  use  of  terms  like  "  innate,"  "  a 
priori,"  "  necessary,"  "  formal,"  &c.,  without  further  quali- 
fication leads  only  too  easily  to  the  mistaken  notion  that 
all  the  mental  facts  so  named  are  alike  underived  and 
original,  independent  not  only  of  experience  but  of  each 
other ;  whereas  but  for  the  forms  of  intuition  the  forms 
of  thought  would  be  impossible, — that  is  to  say,  we  should 
never  have  a  self-consciousness  at  all  if  we  had  not  pre- 
viously learnt  to  distinguish  occupied  and  unoccupied  space, 
past  and  present  in  time,  and  the  like.  But,  again,  it  is 
equally  true  that,  if  we  could  not  feel  and  move  as  well 
as  receive  impressions,  and  if  experience  did  not  repeat  it- 
self, we  should  never  attain  even  to  this  level  of  spatial  and 
temporal  intuition.  Kant  shows  a  very  lame  and  halting 
recognition  of  this  dependence  of  the  higher  forms  on  the 
lower  both  in  his  schematism  of  the  categories,  and  again  in 
correcting  in  his  Analytic  the  opposition  of  sense  and  under- 
standing as  respectively  receptive  and  active  with  which 
he  set  out  in  his  ^Esthetic.  Still,  although  what  are  called 
the  subjective  and  objective  factors  of  real  knowledge  ad- 
vance together,  the  former  is  in  a  sense  always  a  step  ahead. 
We  find  again  without  us  the  permanence,  individuality, 
efficiency,  and  adaptation  we  have  found  first  of  all  within 
(comp.  p.  56,  b  and  d).  But  such  primitive  imputation 
of  personality,  though  it  facilitates  a  first  understanding, 
soon  proves  itself  faulty  and  begets  the  contradictions 
which  have  been  one  chief  motive  to  philosophy.  We 
smile  at  the  savage  who  thinks  a  magnet  must  need  food 
and  is  puzzled  that  the  horses  in  a  picture  remain  for  ever 
still ;  but  few  consider  that  underlying  all  common-sense 
thinking  there  lurks  the  same  natural  precipitancy.  We 
attribute  to  extended  things  a  unity  which  we  know  only 
as  the  unity  of  an  unextended  subject ;  we  attribute  to 
changes  among  these  extended  things  what  we  know  only 
when  we  act  and  suffer  ourselves ;  and  we  attribute  further 
both  to  them  and  their  changes  a  striving  for  ends  which 
we  know  only  because  we  feel.  In  asking  what  they  are, 
how  they  act,  and  why  they  are  thus  and  thus,  we  assimi- 
late them  to  ourselves,  in  spite  of  the  differences  which 
lead  us  by  and  by  to  see  a  gulf  between  mind  and  matter. 
Such  instinctive  analogies  have,  like  other  analogies,  to  be 
confirmed,  refuted,  or  modified  by  further  knowledge,  t.f., 

XX.  —  ii 


82 


PSYCHOLOGY 


by  the  very  insight  into  things  which  these  analogies  have 
themselves  made  possible.  That  in  their  first  form  they 
were  mythical,  and  that  they  could  never  have  been  at  all 
unless  originated  in  this  way,  are  considerations  that  make 
no  difference  to  their  validity,— assuming,  that  is,  that  they 
admit,  now  or  hereafter,  of  a  logical  transformation  which 
renders  them  objectively  valid.  This  legitimation  is  of 
course  the  business  of  philosophy ;  we  are  concerned  only 
with  the  psychological  analysis  and  origin  of  the  concep- 
tions themselves. 

Causal-        As  it  must  here  suffice  to  examine  one  of  these  categories,  let  us 
itv  take  that  which  is  the  most  important  and,  central  of  the  three, 

viz.,  causality  or  the  relation  of  cause  and  eftect,  as  that  will 
necessarily  throw  some  light  upon  the  constitution  of  the  others. 
To  begin,  we  must  distinguish  three  things,  which,  though  very 
different,  are  very  liable  to  be  confused.  (1)  Perceiving  in  a  de- 
finite case,  e.g.,  that  on  the  sun  shining  a  stone  becomes  warm,  we 
may  say  the  sun  makes  the  stone  warm.  This  is  a  concrete  in- 
stance of  predicating  the  causal  relation.  In  this  there  is,  explicitly 
at  all  events,  no  statement  of  a  general  law  or  axiom,  such  as  we 
have  when  we  say  (2)  "Every  event  must  have  a  cause,  —a  statement 
commonly  known  as  the  principle  of  causality.  This  again  is  dis- 
tinct from  what  is  on  all  hands  allowed  to  be  an  empirical  general- 
ization, viz.,  (3)  that  such  and  such  particular  causes  have  invariably 
such  and  such  particular  effects.  With  these  last  psychology  is  not 
directly  concerned  at  all :  it  has  only  to  analyse  and  trace  to  its 
origin  the  bare  conception  of  causation  as  expressed  in  (I)  and 
involved  in  both  these  generalizations.  Whether  only  some  things 
have  causes,  as  the  notion  of  chance  implies,  whether  all  causes  are 
uniform  in  their  action  or  some  capricious  and  arbitrary,  as  the 
unreflecting  suppose,— all  this  is  beside  the  question  for  us. 

One  point  in  the  analysis  of  the  causal  relation  Hume  may  be 
said  to  have  settled  once  for  all:  it  does  not  rest  upon  or  contain 
any  immediate  intuition  of  a  causal  nexus.  The  two  relations  that 
Hume  allowed  to  be  perceived  (or  "  presumed  to  exist  ),  viz.,  con- 
ti<niity  in  space  of  the  objects  causally  related  and  priority  in  time 
of°the  cause  before  the  effect,  are  the  only  relations  directly  dis- 
cernible. We  say  indeed  "The  sun  warms  the  stone  as  readily  as 
we  say  "The  sun  rises  and  sets,"  as  if  both  were  matters  of  direct 
observation  then  and  there.  But  that  this  is  not  so  is.  evident  from 
the  fact  that  only  in  some  cases  when  one  change  follows  upon 
another  do  we  regard  it  as  following  from  the  other:  casual  coin- 
cidence is  at  least  as  common  as  causal  connexion.  Whence  the 
difference,  then,  if  not  from  perception  ?  Hume's  answer,  'repeated 
in  the  main  by  English  psychologists  since,  is,  as  all  the  worJ 
knows,  that  the  difference  is  the  result  of  association,  that  when  a 
chan^  B  in  an  object  B  has  been  frequently  observed  to  succeed  a 
change  a  in  another  object  A,  the  frequent  repetition  determines 
the  mind  to  a  transition  from  the  one  to  the  other.  It  is  this 
determination,  which  could  not  be  present  at  first,  that  constitutes 
"the  third  relation  betwixt  these  objects."  This  "internal  i 


lilt  -        LI1UU.       ICiai/lUlA       W^UTT  *Al>        Wi*v>  v^jww ^      f 

pression  "  generated  by  association  is  then  projected  ;  tor  tis  a 
common  observation  that^the  mind  has  a  great  propensity  to  spread 
itself  on  external  objects." 

The  subjective  origin  and  the  after-projection  we  must  admit, 
but  all  else  in  Hume?s  famous  doctrine  seems  glaringly  at  variance 
with  facts.     In  one  respect  it  proves  too  much,  for  all  constant 
sequences  are  not  regarded  as  causal,  as  according  to  his  analysis 
they  ought  to  be  ;  again,  in  another  respect  it  proves  too  little,  for 
causal  connexion  is  continually  predicated  on  a  first  occurrence. 
The  natural  man  has  always  distinguished  between  causes  and  signs 
or  portents ;   but  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  he  produced  an 
effect  many  times  before  regarding  himself  as  the  cause  of  it.    J.  fc>. 
Mill  has  indeed  obviated  the  first  objection  epistemplogically  by 
addin^  to  constant  conjunction  the  further  characteristic  of  "uncon- 
ditionality."     But  this  is  a  conception  that  cannot  be  psychologi- 
cally explained  from  Hume's  premisses,  unless  perhaps  by  resolving 
it  into  the  qualification  that  the  invariability  must  be  complete  and 
not  partial,  whereupon  the  second  objection  applies.       '  Uncondi- 
tional "  is  a  word  for  which  we  can  find  no  meaning  as  long  as  we 
confine  our  attention  to  temporal  succession.     It  will  not  do  to  say 
both  that  an  invariable  succession  generates  the  idea,  and  that  such 
invariable  succession  must  be  not  only  invariable  but  also  uncondi- 
tional in  order  to  generate  it.     We  may  here  turn   the  master 
against  the  disciple :   "the  same  principle,"  says  Hume,  "cannot 
be  both  the  cause  and  the  effect  of  another,  and  this  is  perhaps  the 
only  proposition  concerning  that  relation  which  is  either  intui- 
tively or  demonstratively  certain  "  (op.  cit.,  p.  391).    Uncondition- 
ally is  then  part  of  the  causal  relation  and  yet  not  the  product  of 
invariable  repetition. 

Perhaps  the  source  of  this  element  in  the  relation  will  become 
clear  if  we  examine  more  closely  the  internal  impression  of  the 


mind  which  according  to  Hume  constitutes  the  whole  of  our  idea 
of  power  or  efficacy.     To  illustrate  the  nature  of  this  impression 
Hume  cites  the  instant  passage  of  the  imagination  to  a  particular 
idea  on  hearing  the  word  commonly  annexed  to  it,  when  "'twill 
scarce  be  possible  for  the  mind  by  its  utmost  efforts  to  prevent 
that  transition"  (op.  cit.,  p.  393).       It  is  this  determination,  then, 
which  is  felt  internally,  not  perceived  externally,   that  we  mis- 
takenly transfer  to  objects  and  regard  as  an  intelligible  connexion 
between  them.    But,  if  Hume  admits  this,  must  he  not  admit  more  ? 
Can  it  be  pretended  that  it  is  through  the  workings  of  association 
among  our  ideas  that  we  first  feel  a  determination  which  our  utmost 
efforts  can  scarce  resist,  or  that  we  feel  such  determination  under 
no  other  circumstances  ?     If  it  be  allowed  that  the  natural  man  is 
irresistibly  determined  to  imagine  an  apple  when  he  hears  its  name 
or  to  expect  thunder  when  he  sees  lightning,  must  it  not  also  be 
allowed  that  he  is  irresistibly  determined  much  earlier  and  in  a 
much  more  impressive  way  when  overmastered  by  the  elements  or 
by  his  enemies?     But  further,  such  instances  bring  to  light  what 
Hume's  "determination"  also  implies,  viz.,  its  necessary  correla- 
tive, effort  or  action.     Even  irresistible  association  can'  only  be 
known  as  such  by  efforts  to  resist  it.     Hume  allows  this  when  he 
says  that  his  principles  of  association  "are  not  infallible  causes  ; 
for  one  may  fix  his  attention  during  some  time  on  any  one  object 
without  looking  farther"  (op.  cit.,  p.  393).    But  the  fact  is,  we  know 
both  what  it  is  to  act  and  what  it  is  to  suffer,  to  go  where  we  would 
and  to  be  carried  where  we  would  not,  quite  apart  from  the  work- 
ings of  association.     And,  had  Hume  not  confused  the  two  differ- 
ent inquiries,  that  concerning  the  origin  of  the  idea  of  causation  and 
that  concerning  the  ground  of  causal  inference  or  law  of  causation, 
it  could  never  have  occurred  to  him  to  offer  such  an  analysis  of  the 
former  as  he  does. 

Keeping  to  the  former  and  simpler  question,  it  would  seem  that 
when  in  ordinary  thinking  we  say  A  causes  this  or  that  in  B  we 
project  or  analogically  attribute  to  A  what  we  experience  in  acting, 
and  to  B  what  we  experience  in  being  acted  on  ;  and  the  structure  of 
language  shows  that  such  projection  was  made  long  before  it  was 
suspected  that  what  A  once  did  and  B  once  suffered  must  happen  in 
like  manner  again.     The  occasions  suitable  for  this  projection  are 
determined  by  the  temporal  and  spatial  relations  of  the   objects 
concerned,  which  relations  are  matter  of  intuition.     These  are  of 
no  very  special  interest  from  a  psychological  point  of  view,  but  the 
subjective  elements  we  shall  do  well  to  consider  further.     First  of 
all,  we  must  note  the  distinction  of  immanent  action  and  transitive 
action  ;  the  former  is  what  we  call  action  simply,  and  implies  only 
a  single  thing,  the  agent ;  the  latter,  which  we  might_with  adyan- 
ta»e  call  effectuation,  implies  two  things,  i.e.,  a  patient  distinct 
from  the  agent.    In  scientific  language  the  agent  in  an  intransitive 
act  is  called  a  causa  immanens  and  so  distinguished  from  the  agent 
in  effectuation  or  causa  traiisieiis.    Common  thought,  however,  does 
not  regard  mere  action  as  caused  at  all  ;  and  we  shall  find  it,  in  fact, 
impossible  to  resolve  action  into  effectuation.    But,  since  the  things 
with  which  we  ordinarily  deal  are  complex,  have  many  parts,  pro- 
perties, members,  phases,  and  in  consequence  of  the  analytic  pro- 
cedure of  thought,  there  ensues,  indeed,  a  continual  shifting  of  the 
point  of  view  from  which  we  regard  any  given  thing,  so  that  what 
is  in  one  aspect  one  thing,  is  in  another  many  (comp.  p.  56  c). 
So  it  conies  about  that,  when  regarding  himself  as  one,  the  natural 
man  speaks  of  himself  as  walking,  shouting,  &c. ;  but,  when  dis- 
tinguishing between  himself  and  his  members,  he  speaks  of  raising 
his  voice,  moving  his  legs,  and  so  forth.     Thus  no  sooner  do  we  re- 
solve any  given  action  into  an  effectuation,  by  analytically  d 
tinguishing  within  the  original  agent  an  agent  and  a  patient,  than 
a  new   action  appears.      Action  is   thus  a   simpler  notion   than 
causation  and  inexplicable  by  means  of  it.     It  is  certainly  no  easy 
problem  in  philosophy  to  determine  where  the  resolution  of  the 
complex  is  to  cease,  at  what  point  we  must  stop,  because  in  the 
presence  of  an  individual  thing  and  a  simple  activity.    At  any  rate, 
we  reach  such  a  point  psychologically  in  the  conscious  subject,  and 
that  energy  in  consciousness  we  call  attention.      If  this  be  allowed, 
Hume's  critique  of  the  notion  of  efficacy  is  really  wide  of  the  mark. 
"Some,"2  he  says,  "have  asserted  that  we  feel  an  energy  or  power 
in  our  own  mind ;   and  that,  having  in  this  manner  acquir  d  the 
idea  of  power,  we  transfer  that  quality  to  matter,  where  we  are  not 
able  immediately  to  discover   it.  ...   But  to  convince  us  how 
fallacious  this  reasoning  is,  we  need  only  consider  that  the  will, 
being  here  consider'd  as  a  cause,  has  no  more  a  discoverabl 
nexion  with  its  effects  than  any  material  cause  has  with  its  proper 
effect       .  .  The  effect  is  there  [too]  distinguishable  and  separable 
from  the  cause,  and  cou'd  not  be  foreseen  without  the  experience  of 
their  constant  conjunction  "  (op.  cit.,  p.  4.15).    This  is  logical  analysis, 
not  psychological ;  the  point  is  that  the  will  is  not  considered  as  a 
cause  and  distinguished  from  its  effects,  nor  in  fact  consider 


Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  pt.  iii.,  §  xiv.,  "Of  the  idea  of  necessary 
connexion. " 


2  Hume  here  has  Locke  and  Berkeley  specially  in  view.  Locke  as 
a  patient  and  acute  inquirer  was  incomparably  better  as  a  psychologist 
than  a  man  addicted  to  literary  foppery  like  Hume,  for  all  his  genius, 
could  possibly  be.  On  the  particular  question,  see  Locke,  u.  21,  6- 


PSYCHOLOGY 


83 


(ject- 
ity  of 
taught. 


alL  It  is  not  a  case  of  sequence  between  two  separable  impressions ; 
for  we  cannot  really  make  the  indefinite  regress  that  such  logical 
distinctions  as  that  between  the  conscious  subject  and  its  acts  im- 
plies. Moreover,  our  activity  as  such  is  not  directly  presented  at 
all :  we  are,  being  active  ;  and  further  than  this  psychological 
analysis  will  not  go.  There  are,  as  we  have  seen,  two  ways  in  which 
this  activity  is  manifested,  the  receptive  or  passive  and  the  motor 
or  active  in  the  stricter  sense — (comp.  p.  44)  and  our  experience  of 
these  we  project  in  predicating  the  causal  relation.  But  two  halves 
do  not  make  a  whole  ;  so  we  have  no  complete  experience  of  effectua- 
tion, for  the  simple  reason  that  we  cannot  be  two  things  at  once. 
We  are  guided  in  piecing  it  together  by  the  temporal  and  spatial 
relations  of  the  things  concerned.  Hence,  perhaps,  some  of  the 
antinomies  that  beset  this  conception.  In  its  earliest  form,  then, 
the  so-called  necessary  connexion  of  cause  and  effect  is  perhaps 
nothing  more  than  that  of  physical  constraint.  To  this,  no  doubt, 
is  added  the  strength  of  expectation — as  Hume  supposed — when 
the  same  effect  has  been  found  invariably  to  follow  the  same  cause. 
Finally,  when  upon  a  basis  of  associated  uniformities  of  sequence  a 
definite  intellectual  elaboration  of  such  material  ensues,  the  logical 
necessity  of  reason  and  consequent  finds  a  place,  and  so  far  as  deduc- 
tion is  applicable  cause  and  reason  become  interchangeable  ideas.1 

The  mention  of  logical  necessity  brings  up  a  topic  already  inci- 
dentally noticed,  viz.,  the  objectivity  of  thought  and  cognition  gen- 
erally (comp.  pp.  55,  77).  The  psychological  treatment  of  this  topic 
is  tantamount  to  an  inquiry  into  the  characteristics  of  the  states  of 
mind  we  call  certainty,  doubt,  belief — all  of  which  centre  round 
the  one  fact  of  evidence.  Between  the  certainty  that  a  proposition 
is  true  and  the  certainty  that  it  is  not  there  may  intervene  continu- 
ous grades  of  uncertainty.  We  may  know  that  A  is  sometimes  B, 
or  sometimes  not ;  or  that  some  at  least  of  the  conditions  of  B  are 
present  or  absent ;  or  the  presentation  of  A  may  be  too  confused 
for  distinct  analysis.  This  is  the  region  of  probability,  possibility, 
more  or  less  obscurity.  Leaving  this  aside,  it  will  be  enough  to 
notice  those  cases  in  which  certainty  may  be  complete.  With  that 
certainty  which  is  absolutely  objective,  i.e.,  with  knowledge,  psycho- 
logy has  no  direct  concern ;  it  is  for  logic  to  furnish  the  criteria  by 
which  knowledge  is  ascertained. 

Emotion  and  desire  are  frequent  indirect  causes  of  subjective 
certainty,  in  so  far  as  they  determine  the  constituents  and  the 
grouping  of  the  field  of  consciousness  at  the  moment — "pack  the 
jury"  or  "suborn  the  witnesses,"  as  it  were.  But  the  ground  of 
certainty  is  in  all  cases  some  quality  or  some  relation  of  these  pre- 
sentations inter  se.  In  a  sense,  therefore,  the  ground  of  all  certainty 
is  objective — in  the  sense,  that  is,  of  being  something  at  least  directly 
and  immediately  determined  for  the  subject  and  not  by  it.  But, 
though  objective,  this  ground  is  not  itself — at  least  is  not  ultimately 
— an  object  or  presentation.  Where  certainty  is  mediate,  one  judg- 
ment is  often  spoken  of  as  the  ground  of  another ;  but  a  syllogism  is 
still  psychologically  a  single,  though  not  a  simple,  judgment,  and 
the  certainty  of  it  as  a  whole  is  immediate.  Between  the  judgment 
A  is  B  and  the  question  Is  A  B  ?  the  difference  is  not  one  of  content 
nor  scarcely  one  of  form  :  it  is  a  difference  which  depends  upon  the 
effect  of  the  proposition  on  the  subject  judging,  (i.)  We  have  this 
effect  before  us  most  clearly  if  we  consider  what  is  by  common  con- 
sent regarded  as  the  type  of  certainty  and  evidence,  the  certainty  of 
present  sense-impressions  whence  it  is  said,  "Seeing  is  believing." 
The  evident  is  here  the  actual,  and  the  "feeling  or  consciousness  " 
of  certainty  is  in  this  case  nothing  but  the  sense  of  being  taken 
fast  hold  of  and  forced  to  apprehend  what  is  there,  (ii. )  The  like 
is  true  of  memory  and  expectation  :  in  these  also  there  is  a  sense 
of  being  tied  down  to  what  is  given,  whereas  in  mere  imagination, 
however  lively,  this  non-voluntary  determination  is  absent  (comp. 
p.  63).  Hume  saw  this  at  times  clearly  enough,  as,  e.g.,  when  he 
says,  "An  idea  assented  to  feels  different  from  a  fictitious  idea 
that  the  fancy  alone  presents  to  us. "  But  unfortunately  he  not 
only  made  this  difference  a  mere  difference  of  intensity,  but  spoke 
of  belief  itself  as  "an  operation  of  the  mind"  or  "manner  of 
conception  that  bestowed  on  our  ideas  this  additional  force  or 
vivacity."  2  In  short,  Hume  confounded  one  of  the  indirect  causes 
of  belief  with  the  ground  of  it,  and  again,  in  describing  this  ground 
committed  the  irvrepov  Trp&repov  of  making  the  mind  determine  the 
ideas  instead  of  the  ideas  determine  the  mind.  (iii. )  In  speaking 
of  intellection  he  is  clearer:  "The  answer  is  easy  with  regard  to 
propositions  that  are  prov'd  by  intuition  or  demonstration.  In 
that  case,  the  person  who  assents  not  only  conceives  the  ideas 
according  to  the  proposition,  but  is  necessarily  determin'd  to  con- 
ceive them  in  that  particular  manner"  (op.  cit.,  p.  395).  It  has  been 
often  urged — as  by  J.  S.  Mill,  for  example — that  belief  is  something 
"ultimate  and  primordial."  No  doubt  it  is  ;  but  so  is  the  distinc- 
tion between  activity  and  passivity,  and  it  is  not  here  maintained 
that  certainty  can  be  analysed  into  something  simpler,  but  only 
that  it  is  identical  with  what  is  of  the  nature  of  passivity — 


1  Comp.  Wuiidt,  Logik — "  Das  Causal-Gesetz  und  Satz  vom  Grunde," 
vol.  i.  p.  544. 

2  Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  Green  and  Grose's  ed.,  i.  p.  396. 


objective  determination.  As  Dr  Bain  puts  it,  "  The  leading  fact 
in  belief  ...  is  our  primitive  credulity.  We  begin  by  believing 
everything :  whatever  is  is  true  "  (Emotions  and  Will,  3d  ed.,  p. 
511).  But  the  point  is  that  in  this  primitive  state  there  is  no  act 
answering  to  "  believe  "  distinct  from  the  non-voluntary  attention 
answering  to  "perceive,"  and  no  reflexion  such  as  a  modal  terra 
like  "true"  implies.  With  eyes  open  in  the  broad  day  no  man 
says,  "  I  am  certain  there  is  light "  :  he  simply  sees.  He  may  by 
and  by  come  absolutely  to  disbelieve  much  that  he  sees— e.g.,  that 
things  are  nearer  when  viewed  through  a  telescope — just  as  he  will 
come  to  disbelieve  his  dreams,  though  while  they  last  he  is  certain 
in  these  too.  The  limits  of  this  article  forbid  any  attempt  to  deal 
specially  with  the  intellectual  aspects  of  such  conflicts  of  presenta- 
tions (comp.  p.  62)  or  with  their  resolution  and  what  is  meant  by 
saying  that  reason  turns  out  superior  to  sense.  The  consistency 
we  find  it  possible  to  establish  among  certain  of  our  ideas  becomes 
an  ideal,  to  which  we  expect  to  find  all  our  experience  conform. 
Still  the  intuitive  evidence  of  logical  and  mathematical  axioms  is 
psychologically  but  a  new  form  of  the  actual ;  we  are  only  certain 
that  two  and  two  make  four  and  we  are  not  less  certain  that  we  see 
things  nearer  through  a  telescope.3 

Presentation  of  Self,  Self -Consciousness,  and  Conduct. 

The  conception  of  self  we  have  just  seen  underlying  and 
to  a  great  extent  shaping  the  rest  of  our  intellectual  furni- 
ture ;  on  this  account  it  is  at  once  desirable  and  difficult 
to  analyse  it  and  ascertain  the  conditions  of  its  develop- 
ment.4 In  attempting  this  we  must  carefully  distinguish 
between  the  bare  presentation  of  self  and  that  reference 
of  other  presentations  to  it  which  is  often  called  specially 
self-consciousness,  "inner  sense,"  or  internal  perception. 
Concerning  all  presentations  whatever — that  of  self  no  less 
than  the  rest — it  is  possible  to  reflect,  "  This  presentation 
is  mine ;  it  is  my  object ;  I  am  the  subject  attending  to 
it."  Self,  then,  is  one  presentation  among  others,  the 
result,  like  them,  of  the  differentiation  of  the  original 
continuum.  But  it  is  obvious  that  this  presentation  must 
be  in  existence  first  before  other  presentations  can  be  re- 
lated to  it.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  only  in  and  by  means 
of  such  relations  that  the  conception  of  self  is  completed. 
We  begin,  therefore,  with  self  simply  as  an  object,  and 
end  with  the  conception  of  that  object  as  the  subject  or 
"  myself  "  that  knows  itself.  Self  has,  in  contradistinction 
from  all  other  presentations,  first  of  all  (a)  a  unique  in- 
terest and  (b}  a  certain  inwardness ;  (c)  it  is  an  individual 
that  (tZ)  persists,  (e)  is  active,  and  finally  (/)  knows  itself. 
These  several  characteristics  of  self  are  intimately  involved ; 
so  far  as  they  appear  at  all  they  advance  in  definiteness 
from  the  lowest  level  of  mere  sentience  to  those  moments 
of  highest  self-consciousness  in  which  conscience  approves 
or  condemns  volition. 

The  earliest  and  to  the  last  the  most  important  element  in  self —  Self  and 
what  we  might  perhaps  term  its  root  or  material  element — is  that  the  body, 
variously  styled  the  organic  sensations,  vital  sense,  ccena;sthesis,  or 
somatic  consciousness.      This  largely  determines  the  tone  of  the 


3  See  BELIEF,  vol.  iii.  p.  532. 

4  A  large,  though  certainly  diminishing,  school  of  thinkers  would 
entirely  demur  to  such  a  proposal.      "This  personality,"  says  one, 
"  like  all  other  simple  and  immediate  presentations,  is  indefinable  .  .  . 
it  can  be  analysed  into  no  simpler  elements  ;  for  it  is  revealed  to  us 
in  all  the  clearness  of  an  original  intuition  "  (Mansel,  Metaphysics,  p. 
182).     Such  an  objection  arises  from  that  confusion  between  psycho- 
logy and  epistemology  which  we  have  met  already  several  times  before 
(as,  e.g.,  in  the  case  of  space,  p.  53,  and  of  unity,  p.  79).     The  fact 
is  that  a  conception  that  is  logically  "  simple  and  immediate,"  in  such 
wise  as  to  be  underivable  from  others,  and  therefore  indefinable,  may 
be — we  might  almost  say  will  be — psychologically  the  result  of  a  long 
process  of  development ;  for  the  more  abstract  a  concept  is,  i.e.,  the 
more  fundamental  in  epistemological   structure,   the  more  thinking 
there  has  been  to  elaborate  it.     The  most  complex  integrations  of 
experience  are  needed  to  furnish  the  ideas  of  its  ultimate  elements. 
Such  ideas  when  reached  have  intellectually  all  the  clearness  of  an 
original  intuition,  no  doubt ;  but  they  are  not  therefore  to  be  con- 
founded with  what  is  psychologically  a  simple  and  immediate  presenta- 
tion.    It  was  in  this  last  sense  that  idealists  like  Berkeley  and  Kant 
denied  any  presentation  of  self  as  much  as  sceptics  like  Hume.     Self 
is  psychologically  a  product  of  thought,  not  a  datum  of  sense  ;  hence, 
while  Berkeley  called  it  a   "notion"  and  Kant  an    "idea  of  the 
reason, "  Hume  treated  it  as  a  philosophical  fiction. 


84 


PSYCHOLOGY 


special  sensations  and  enters,  though  little  suspected,  into  all  our 
higher  feelings.  If,  as  sometimes  happens  in  serious  nervous 
affections,  the  whole  body  or  any  part  of  it  should  lose  common 
sensibility,  the  whole  body  or  that  part  is  at  once  regarded  as 
strange  and  even  as  hostile.  In  some  forms  of  hypochondria,  in 
which  this  extreme  somatic  insensibility  and  absence  of  zest  leave 
the  intellect  and  memory  unaffected,  the  individual  doubts  his 
own  existence  or  denies  it  altogether.  Ribot  cites  the  case  of  such 
a  patient  who,  declaring  that  he  had  been  dead  for  two  years, 
thus  expressed  his  perplexity: — "J'existe,  mais  en  dehors  de  la 
vie  reelle,  materielle,  et,  malgre  moi,  rien  ne  m'ayant  donne  la 
mort.  Tout  est  mecanique  chez  moi  et  se  fait  inconsciemment.  'n 
It  is  not  because  they  accompany  physiological  functions  essential 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  organism  as  an  organism,  but  simply 
because  they  are  the  most  immediate  and  most  constant  sources  of 
feeling,  that  these  massive  but  ill-defined  organic  sensations  are 
from  the  first  the  objects  of  the  directest  and  most  unreflecting 
interest.  Other  objects  have  at  the  outset  but  a  mediate  interest 
through  subjective  selection  in  relation  to  these,  and  never  become 
so  instinctively  and  inseparably  identified  with  self,  never  have  the 
same  inwardness.  This  brings  iis  to  a  new  point.  As  soon  as 
definite  perception  begins,  the  body  as  an  extended  thing  is  dis- 
tinguished from  other  bodies,  and  such  organic  sensations  as  can  be 
localized  at  all  are  localized  within  it.  At  the  same  time  the 
actions  of  other  bodies  upon  it  are  accompanied  by  pleasures  and 
pains,  while  their  action  upon  each  other  is  not.  The  body  also  is 
the  only  thing  directly  set  in  motion  by  the  reactions  of  these 
feelings,  the  purpose  of  such  movements  being  to  bring  near  to  it 
the  things  for  which  there  is  appetite  and  to  remove  from  it  those 
towards  which  there  is  aversion.  It  is  thus  not  merely  the  type  of 
occupied  space  and  the  centre  from  which  all  positions  are  reckoned, 
but  it  affords  us  an  unfailing  and  ever-present  intuition  of  the  actu- 
ally felt  and  living  self,  to  which  all  other  things  are  external,  more 
or  less  distant,  and  at  times  absent  altogether.  The  body  then  first 
of  all  gives  to  self  a  certain  measure  of  individuality,  permanence, 
and  inwardness. 

But  with  the  development  of  ideation  there  arises  within  this 
what  we  may  call  an  inner  zone  of  self,  having  still  more  unity 
and  permanence.  We  have  at  this  stage  not  only  an  intuition  of 
the  bodily  self  doing  or  suffering  here  and  now,  but  also  memories 
of  what  it  has  been  and  done  under  varied  circumstances  in  the 
past.  External  impressions  have  by  this  time  lost  in  novelty  and 
become  less  absorbing,  while  the  train  of  ideas,  largely  increased  in 
number,  distinctness,  and  mobility,  diverts  attention  and  often  shuts 
out  the  things  of  sense  altogether.  In  all  such  reminiscence  or 
reverie  a  generic  image  of  self  is  the  centre,  and  every  new  image 
as  it  arises  derives  all  its  interest  from  relation  to  this ;  and  so 
apart  from  bodily  appetites  new  desires  may  be  quickened  and  old 
emotions  stirred  again  when  all  that  is  actually  present  is  dull  and 
unexciting.  But  desires  and  emotions,  it  must  be  remembered, 
though  awakened  by  what  is  only  imaginary,  invariably  entail  actual 
organic  perturbations,  and  with  these  the  generic  image  of  self  comes 
to  be  intimately  combined.  Hence  arises  a  contrast  between  the 
inner  self,  which  the  natural  man  locates  in  his  breast  or  <f>p>fy>t  the 
chief  seat  of  these  emotional  disturbances,  and  the  whole  visible 
and  tangible  body  besides.  Although  from  their  nature  they  do 
not  admit  of  much  ideal  representation,  yet,  when  actually  present, 
these  organic  sensations  exert  a  powerful  and  often  irresistible  in- 
fluence over  other  ideas  ;  they  have  each  their  appropriate  train, 
and  so  heighten  in  the  very  complex  and  loosely  compacted  idea 
of  self  those  traits  they  originally  wrought  into  it,  suppressing  to 
an  equal  extent  all  the  rest.  Normally  there  is  a  certain  equilibrium 
to  which  they  return,  and  which,  we  may  suppose,  determines  the 
so-called  temperament,  natural,  or  disposition,  thus  securing  some 
tolerable  uniformity  and  continuity  in  the  presentation  of  self. 
But  even  within  the  limits  of  sanity  great  and  sudden  changes  of 
mood  are  possible,  as,  e.g.,  in  hysterical  persons  or  those  of  a 
"mercurial  temperament,"  or  among  the  lower  animals  at  the 
onset  of  parental  or  migratory  instincts.  Beyond  those  limits — as 
the  concomitant  apparently  of  serious  visceral  derangements  or  the 
altered  nutrition  01  parts  of  the  nervous  system  itself — complete 
"  alienation  "  may  ensue.  A  new  self  may  arise,  not  only  distinct 
from  the  old  and  devoid  of  all  save  the  most  elementary  know- 
ledge and  skill  that  the  old  possessed,  but  diametrically  opposed 
to  it  in  tastes  and  disposition, — obscenity,  it  may  be,  taking  the 
place  of  modesty  and  cupidity  or  cowardice  succeeding  to  generosity 
or  courage.  The  most  convincing  illustrations  of  the  psycho- 
logical growth  and  structure  of  the  presentation  of  self  on  the  lower 
levels  of  sensation  and  ideation  are  furnished  by  these  melancholy 
spectacles  of  minds  diseased  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  refer  to  them 
in  detail  here. 

Passing  to  the  higher  level  of  intellection,  we  come  at  length 
upon  the  concept  which  every  intelligent  being  more  or  less  dis- 
tinctly forms  of  himself  as  a  person,  M.  or  N.,  having  such  and  such 
a  character,  tastes,  and  convictions,  such  and  such  a  history,  and 


"Bases  affectives  de  la  Personnalite,"  in  Revue philosophique,  xviii.  p.  149. 


such  and  such  an  aim  in  life.  The  main  instrument  in  the  forma- 
tion of  this  concept,  as  of  others,  is  language,  and  especially  the 
social  intercourse  that  language  makes  possible.  Up  to  this  point 
the  presentation  of  self  has  shaped  that  of  not-self, — that  is  to  say, 
external  things  have  been  comprehended  by  the  projection  of  its 
characteristics.  But  now  the  order  is  in  a  sense  reversed  :  the  indi- 
vidual advances  to  a  fuller  self-knowledge  by  comparing  the  self 
within  with  what  is  first  discernible  in  other  persons  witliout.  So 
far  avant  I'homme  cst  la  socitM  ;  it  is  through  the  "  us  "  that  we  learn 
of  the  "  me  "  (comp.  p.  75  note  1 ).  Collective  action  for  common  ends 
is  of  the  essence  of  society,  and  in  taking  counsel  together  for  the 
good  of  his  tribe  each  one  learns  also  to  take  counsel  with  himself 
for  his  own  good  on  the  whole  ;  with  the  idea  of  the  common  weal 
arises  the  idea  of  happiness  as  distinct  from  momentary  gratification. 
The  extra-regarding  impulses  are  now  confronted  by  a  reasonable 
self-love,  and  in  the  deliberations  that  thus  ensue  activity  attains 
to  its  highest  forms,  those  of  thought  and  volition.  In  the  first 
we  have  a  distinctly  active  manipulation  of  ideas  as  compared 
with  the  more  passive  spectacle  of  memory  and  imagination. 
Thereby  emerges  a  contrast  between  the  thinker  and  these  objects 
of  his  thought,  including  among  them  the  mere  generic  image  of 
self,  from  which  is  now  formed  this  conception  of  self  as  a  person. 
A  similar,  even  sharper,  contrast  also  accompanies  the  exercise  of 
what  is  very  misleadingly  termed  "self-control,"  i.e.,  control  by  this 
personal  self  of  "the  various  natural  affections,"  to  use  Butler's 
phrase,  which  often  hinder  it  as  external  objects  hindered  them.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  reasoning,  regulating  self  is  commonly 
regarded  as  definitely  localized.  The  effort  of  thinking  and  concen- 
trating attention  upon  ideas  is  no  doubt  referred  to  the  brain,  but 
this  is  only  comparable  with  the  localization  of  other  efforts  in  the 
limbs  ;  when  we  think  we  commonly  feel  also,  and  the  emotional 
basis  is  of  all  the  most  subjective  and  inalienable.  If  we  speak  of 
this  latest  phase  of  self  as  par  excellence  "the  inner  self"  such 
language  is  then  mainly  figurative,  inasmuch  as  the  contrasts  just 
described  are  contrasts  into  which  spatial  relations  do  not  enter. 

The  term  "reflexion"  or  internal  perception  is  applied  to  that  state  Self-c 
of  mind  in  which  some  particular  presentation  or  group  of  presenta-  scions 
tions  (x  or  y)  is  not  simply  in  the  field  of  consciousness  but  there  as  ness, 
consciously  related  to  self,  which  is  also  presented  at  the  same  time. 
Self  here  may  be  symbolized  by  M,  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  it  is 
in  like  manner  an  object  in  the  field  of  consciousness.    The  relation 
of  the  two  is  commonly  expressed  by  saying,  "  This  (x  or  y)  is  my 
(M's)  percept,  idea,  or  volition  ;  I  (M)  it  is  that  perceive,  think,  will 
it."    Self-consciousness,  in  the  narrowest  sense,  as  when  we  say,  "  I 
know  myself,  I  am  conscious  that  I  am,"  &c.,  is  but  a  special,  though 
the  most  important,  instance  of  this  internal  perception  :  here  self 
(M)  is  presented  in  relation  to  self  (with  a  difference,  M') ;   the 
subject  itself — at  least  so  we  say — is  or  appears  as  its  own  object. 

It  has  been  often  maintained  that  the  difference  between  con- 
sciousness and  reflexion  is  not  a  real  difference,  that  to  know  and 
to  know  that  you  know  are  "  the  same  tlimg  considered  in  different 
aspects."2  But  different  aspects  of  "iiie  same  thing  are  not  the 
same  thing,  for  psychology  at  least.  Not  only  is  it  not  the  same 
thing  to  feel  and  to  know  that  you  feel ;  but  it  might  even  be  held 
to  be  a  different  thing  still  to  know  that  you  feel  and  to  know  that 
you  know  that  you  feel, — such  being  the  difference  perhaps  between 
ordinary  reflexion  and  psychological  introspection.^  The  difficulty 
of  apprehending  these  facts  and  keeping  them  distinct  seems  obvi- 
ously due  to  the  necessaiy  presence  of  the  earlier  along  with  the 
later  ;  that  is  to  say,  we  can  never  know  that  we  feel  without  feel- 
ing. But  the  converse  need  not  be  true.  How  distinct  the  two 
states  are  is  shown  in  one  way  by  their  notorious  incompatibility, 
the  direct  consequence  of  the  limitation  of  attention  :  whatever 
we  have  to  do  that  is  not  altogether  mechanical  is  ill  done  unless 
we  lose  ourselves  in  the  doing  of  it.  This  mutual  exclusiveness 
receives  a  further  explanation  from  the  fact  so  often  used  to  dis- 
credit psychology,  viz.,  that  the  so-called  introspection  and  indeed 
all  reflexion  are  really  retrospective.  It  is  not  while  we  are  angry 
or  lost  in  reverie  that  we  take  note  of  such  states,  but  afterwards,  or 
by  momentary  side  glances  intercepting  the  main  interest,  if  this 
be  not  too  absorbing. 

But  we  require  an  exacter  analysis  of  the  essential  fact  in  this 
retrospect — the  relation  of  the  presentation  x  or  y  to  that  of  self 
or  M.  What  we  have  to  deal  with,  it  will  be  observed,  is,  implicitly 
at  least,  a  judgment.  First  of  all,  then,  it  is  noteworthy  that  we 
are  never  prompted  to  such  judgments  by  every-day  occurrences  or 
acts  of  routine,  but  only  by  matters  of  interest,  and,  as  said,  gener- 


2  So— misled  possibly  by  the  confusions  incident  to  a  special  faculty  of 
reflexion,  which  they  controvert — James  Mill,  Analysis,  i.  p.  224  sq.  (corrected, 
however,  by  both  his  editors,  pp.  227  and  230),  and  also  Hamilton,  Lect.,  i.  p. 
192. 

3  It  has  been  thought  a  fatal  objection  to  this  view  that  it  implies  the  possi- 
bility of  an  indefinite  regress  ;  but  why  should  it  not?    We  reach  the  limit  of 
our  experience  in  reflexion  or  at  most  in  deliberate  introspection,  just  as  in 
space  of  three  dimensions  we  reach  the  limit  of  our  experience  in  another 
respect.    But  there  is  no  absurdity  in  supposing  a  consciousness  more  evolved 
and  explicit  than  our  self-consciousness  and  advancing  on  it  as  it  advances  on 
that  of  the  unreflecting  brutes. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


85 


ally  when  these  are  over  or  have  ceased  to  be  all-engrossing.  Now 
in  such  cases  it  will  be  found  that  some  effect  of  the  preceding  state 
of  objective  absorption  persists,  like  wounds  received  in  battle  un- 
noticed till  the  fight  is  over, — such,  e.g.,  as  the  weariness  of  muscular 
exertion  or  of  long  concentration  of  attention  ;  some  pleasurable  or 
painful  after- sensation  passively  experienced,  or  an  emotional  wave 
subsiding  but  not  yet  spent ;  "the  jar  of  interrupted  expectation," 
or  the  relief  of  sudden  attainment  after  arduous  striving,  making 
prominent  the  contrast  of  contentment  and  want  in  that  particular  ; 
or,  finally,  the  quiet  retrospect  and  mental  rumination  in  which  we 
note  what  time  has  wrought  upon  us  and  either  regret  or  approve 
what  we  were  and  did.  All  such  presentations  are  of  the  class  out 
of  which,  as  we  have  seen,  the  presentation  of  self  is  built  up,  and 
so  form  in  each  case  the  concrete  bond  connecting  the  generic 
image  of  self  with  its  object.1  In  this  way  and  in  this  respect  each 
is  a  concrete  instance  of  what  we  call  a  state,  act,  affection,  &c.,  and 
the  judgments  in  which  such  relations  to  the  standing  presentation 
of  self  are  recognized  are  the  original  and  the  type  of  all  real  pre- 
dications (comp.  p.  81).  The  opportunities  for  reflexion  are  at 
first  few,  the  materials  being  as  it  were  thrust  upon  attention,  and 
the  resulting  "  percepts  "  are  but  vague.  By  the  time,  however,  that 
a  clear  conception  of  self  has  been  attained  the  exigencies  of  life 
make  it  a  frequent  object  of  contemplation,  and  as  the  abstract  of 
a  series  of  instances  of  such  definite  self-consciousness  we  reach  the 
purely  formal  notion  of  a  subject  or  pure  ego.  For  empirical 
psychology  this  notion  is  ultimate  ;  its  speculative  treatment  falls 
altogether — usually  under  the  heading  "rational  psychology" — to 
metaphysics. 

The  growth  of  intellection  and  self-consciousness  reacts  power- 
fully upon  the  emotional  and  active  side  of  mind.  To  describe  the 
various  sources  of  feeling  and  of  desire  that  thus  arise — festhetic, 
social  and  religious  sentiments,  pride,  ambition,  selfishness,  sym- 
pathy, &c. — is  beyond  the  scope  of  systematic  psychology  and 
certainly  quite  beyond  the  limits  of  an  article  like  the  present. 2 
But  at  least  a  general  resume  of  the  characteristics  of  activity  on 
this  highest  or  rational  level  is  indispensable.  If  we  are  to  gain 
any  oversight  in  a  matter  of  such  complexity  it  is  of  the  first  im- 
portance to  keep  steadily  in  view,  as  a  fundamental  principle,  that 
as  the  causes  of  feeling  become  more  complex,  internal,  and  repre- 
sentative the  consequent  actions  change  in  like  manner.  We  have 
noted  this  connexion  already  in  the  case  of  the  emergence  of  desires, 
and  seen  that  desire  in  prompting  to  the  search  for  means  to  its 
end  is  the  primum  movcns  of  intellection  (pp.  73-75).  But  intellect 
does  much  more  than  devise  and  contrive  in  unquestioning  sub- 
servience to  the  impulse  of  the  moment,  like  some  demon  of  Eastern 
fable  ;  even  the  brutes,  whose  cunning  is  on  the  whole  of  this  sort, 
are  not  without  traces  of  self-control.  As  motives  conflict  and  the 
evils  of  hasty  action  recur  to  mind,  deliberation  succeeds  to  mere 
invention  and  design.  In  moments  of  leisure,  the  more  imperious 
cravings  being  stilled,  besides  the  rehearsal  of  failures  or  successes 
in  the  past,  come  longer  and  longer  flights  of  imagination  into  the 
future.  Both  furnish  material  for  intellectual  rumination,  and  so 
we  have  at  length  (1)  conceptions  of  general  and  distant  ends,  as 
wealth,  power,  knowledge,  and — self-consciousness  having  arisen — 
the  conception  also  of  the  happiness  or  perfection  of  self,  and  (2) 
maxims  or  practical  generalizations  as  to  the  best  means  to  these 
ends.  Instead  of  actions  determined  by  the  vis  a  tergo  of  blind 
passion  we  have  conduct  shaped  by  what  is  literally  prudence  or 
foresight,  the  pursuit  of  ends  that  are  not  esteemed  desirable  till 
they  are  judged  to  be  good.  The  good,  it  is  truly  urged,  is  not  to 
be  identified  with  the  pleasant,  for  the  one  implies  a  standard  and 
a  judgment  and  the  other  nothing  but  a  bare  fact  of  feeling  ;  thus 
the  good  is  often  not  pleasant  and  the  pleasant  not  good  ;  in  talk- 
ing of  the  good,  in  short,  we  are  passing  out  of  the  region  of  nature 
into  that  of  character.  It  is  so,  and  yet  this  progress  is  itself  so 
far  natural  as  to  admit  of  psychological  explication.  As  already 
urged  (p.  72),  the  causes  of  feeling  change  as  the  constituents  of  con- 
sciousness change  and  depend  more  upon  the  form  of  that  conscious- 
ness as  that  increases  in  complexity.  When  we  can  deliberately 
range  to  and  fro  in  time  and  circumstances,  the  good  that  is  not 
directly  pleasant  may  indeed  be  preferred  to  what  is  only  pleasant 
while  attention  is  confined  to  the  seen  and  sensible  ;  but  then  the 
choice  of  such  good  is  itself  pleasant, — pleasanter  than  its  rejection 
would  have  been.  Freedom  of  will  in  the  sense  of  absolute  arbi- 
trariness or  "causeless  volition,"  then,  is  at  least  without  support 
from  experience.  The  immediate  affirmation  of  self-consciousness 

1  They  have  thus  a  certain  analogy  to  the  presentative  element  in  external 
perception,  the  re-presentative  elements  being  furnished  by  the  rest  of  the 
generic  image  of  self.     But,  as  this  generic  image  is  combined  with  and  prim- 
arily sustained  by  a  continuous  stream  of  organic  sensations,  the  analogy  is 
not  very  exact. 

2  The  psychology  of  a  century  or  so  ago,  like  the  biology  of  the  same  period, 
was  largely  of  the  "natural  history"  type  and  was  much  occupied  with  such 
descriptions  ;  writers  like  Dugald  Stewart,  Brown,  and  Abercrotnbie,  e.g.,  draw 
freely  from  biography  (and  even  from  fiction)  illustrations  of  the  popularly 
received  mental  faculties  and  affections.     A  very  complete  and  competent 
handling  of  the  various  emotions  and  springs  of  action  will  be  found  in  Bain, 
The  Emotions  and  the  Will;  Nahlowsky,   Das  Gefiihlsleben,  2d  ed.,   1884,   is 
also  good. 


that  in  the  moment  of  action  we  are  free  must  be  admitted  indeed, 
but  it  does  not  prove  what  it  is  supposed  to  prove — the  existence 
of  a  liberum  arbitrium  indifferentix — but  only  that  the  relation  of 
the  end  approved  to  the  empirical  self  as  then  presented  was  the 
determining  motive.  This  freedom  of  this  empirical  self  is  in  all 
cases  a  relative  freedom  ;  hence  at  a  later  time  we  often  come  to 
see  that  in  some  past  act  of  choice  we  were  not  our  true  selves, 
not  really  free.  Or  perhaps  we  hold  that  we  were  free  and  could 
have  acted  otherwise  ;  and  this  also  is  true  if  we  suppose  the  place 
of  the  purely  formal  and  abstract  conception  of  self  had  been 
occupied  by  some  other  mood  of  that  empirical  self  which  is  con- 
tinuously, but  at  no  one  moment  completely,  presented.  It  must, 
however,  be  admitted  that  psychological  analysis  in  such  cases  is 
not  only  actually  incomplete  but  in  one  respect  must  necessarily 
always  remain  so  ;  and  that  for  the  simple  reason  that  all  we  discern 
by  reflexion  must  ever  be  less  than  all  we  are.  That  empirical  self 
that  the  subject  sees  and  even  fashions  is  after  all  only  its  object 
and  workmanship,  not  itself.  If  this  be  so,  the  indeterminist  posi- 
tion, that  particular  acts  are  not  fully  determined  by  aught  in  con- 
sciousness, can  neither  be  certainly  established  nor  finally  overthrown 
on  scientific  grounds  ;  but  the  presumption  is  against  it.  In  another 
sense,  however,  it  may  be  allowed  that  freedom  is  possible,  if  not 
actual,  viz. ,  as  synonymous  with  self-rule  or  autonomy.  Freedom 
applies  not  to  the  ultimate  source  of  an  activity  but  to  execution  ; 
that  man  is  free  "externally"  who  can  do  what  he  pleases,  and 
when  we  talk  of  internal  freedom  the  same  meaning  holds.3 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A.  Historical. — There  are  few  good  works  on 
the  history  of  psychology  ;  the  only  one  in  English  (R.  Blakey, 
History  of  the  Philosophy  of  Mind  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the 
Present  Time,  London,  1848)  is  said  to  be  worthless.  F.  A.  Carus's 
Geschichte  der  Psychologie  (Leipsic,  1808)  is  at  least  useful  for  refer- 
ence. A  work  bearing  the  same  title  by  H.  Siebeck,  of  which  only 
the  first  part  has  yet  appeared  (consisting  of  two  divisions — (i. ) 
Die  Psychologie  von  Aristoteles,  (ii.)  Die  Psychologie  von  Aristoteles 
bis  zu  Thomas  von  Aquino,  Gotha,  1880  and  1884)  is  thoroughly  and 
carefully  done.  Die  Philosophie  in  ihrer  Geschichte  (I.  Psychologie}, 
by  the  late  Professor  Harms  (Berlin,  1878),  is  also  good.  Ribot's 
La  Psychologie  Anglaise  contemporaine  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1875)  and  La 
Psychologie  Allemande  contemporaine  (Paris,  1879)  are  lucid  and 
concise  in  style,  though  the  latter  work  in  places  is  superficial  and 
inaccurate. 

B.  Positive. — The  most  useful  and  complete  work  as  an  intro- 
duction, and  for  the  English  reader,  is  Mr  Sully's  well-arranged 
and  well-written  Outlines  of  Psychology  (2d  ed.,  London,  1885). 
Of  more  advanced  text-books  the  late  Professor  Volkmann's  Lehr- 
buch  der  Psychologie  (2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  Kbthen,  1885,  edited  by 
Cornelius)  is  a  monument  worthy  the  lifelong  labours  it  entailed. 
Written  in  the  main  from  a  Herbartian  standpoint,  it  is  still  the 
work  of  one  who  not  only  had  read  and  thought  over  all  that  was 
worth  reading  by  psychologists  of  every  school  but  was  unusually 
gifted  with  the  qualities  that  make  a  good  investigator  and  a  good 
expositor.  The  importance  of  the  Herbartian  psychology  to  English 
students  has  been  too  long  overlooked  ;  while  it  has  much  in 
common  with  the  English  preference  for  empirical  methods,  it  is 
in  aim,  if  not  in  attainment,  greatly  in  advance  of  English  writers 
in  exactness  and  system.  Other  excellent  works  of  the  same  school 
are  M.  W.  H.  Drobisch's  Empirische  Psychologie  (Leipsic,  1842), 
T.  Waitz's  Lehrbuch  der  Psychologie  als  Naturwissenschaft  (Bruns- 
wick, 1849),  and  Steinthal's  Einleitung  in  die  Psychologie  und 
Sprachwissenschaft  (Berlin,  1871).  To  the  honoured  name  of  Lotze 
belongs  a  distinguished  place  in  any  enumeration  of  recent  produc- 
tions in  philosophy  ;  his  Medicinische  Psychologie  (Gbttingen,  1852) 
is  still  valuable  ;  but  it  is  out  of  print  and  scarce.  A  large  part 
of  his  Mikrokosmos  (3  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1876-80  ;  translated  into 
English,  2  vols.,  1885)  and  one  book  of  his  Metaphysik  (2d  ed., 
1884 ;  also  translated  into  English)  are,  however,  devoted  to  psycho- 
logy. The  close  connexion  between  the  study  of  mind  and  the 
study  of  the  organism  has  been  more  and  more  recognized  as  the 
present  century  has  advanced,  and  the  doctrine  of  evolution  in 
particular  has  been  as  fruitful  in  this  study  as  in  other  sciences  that 
deal  with  life.  In  this  respect  Mr  Herbert  Spencer's  Principles  of 
Psychology  (2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1870)  and  Data  of  Ethics  (1879)  occupy 
a  foremost  place.  Dr  Bain's  standard  volumes,  The  Senses  and  the 
Intellect  (3d  ed.,  1873)  and  The  Emotions  and  the  Will  (3d  ed.,  1875), 
contain  a  good  deal  of  "  physiological  psychology,"  but  no  adequate 
recognition  of  the  importance  of  the  modern  theory  of  development ; 
still,  with  the  exception  of  Locke,  perhaps  no  English  writer  has 
made  equally  important  contributions  to  the  science  of  mind.  It 
is  very  questionable  whether  the  time  has  yet  come  for  a  systematic 
treatment  of  the  connexions  of  mind  and  body.  Wundt's  Physio- 
logische  Psychologie  (2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1880)  is  rather  a  physiology 
added  to  a  psychology  than  an  attempt  at  such  a  systematic  treat- 
ment. It  is,  however,  a  thoroughly  able  work  by  one  who  is  both 
a  good  psychologist  and  a  good  physiologist.  (J.  W*.) 

PSYCHOPHYSICS.     See  WEBER'S  LAW. 

3  See  ETHICS,  to  which  these  questions  more  fitly  belong. 


86 


P  T  A  — P  T  E 


PTARMIGAN.     See  GROUSE,  vol.  xi.  p.  222. 

PTERODACTYLE.  The  extinct  flying  reptiles  known 
as  "  pterodactyles  "  are  among  the  most  aberrant  forms  of 
animals,  either  living  or  extinct.  Since  the  beginning  of 
this  century,  when  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier  first  described 
the  remains  of  these  curious  creatures,  they  have  occupied 
the  attention  of  naturalists,  and  various  opinions  have  been 
expressed  as  to  their  natural  affinities.  The  general  pro- 
portions of  their  bodies  (excepting  the  larger  head  and  neck) 
and  the  modification  of  the  forelimb,  to  support  a  mem- 
brane for  flight,  remind  one  strongly  of,  the  bats,  but  the 
resemblance  is  only  superficial ;  a  closer  inspection  shows 
that  their  affinities  are  rather  with  reptiles  and  birds. 

In  all  pterodactyles  the  head,  neck,  and  forelimb  are 
large  in  proportion  to  the  other  parts  of  the  body  (fig.  1). 
The  skull  is  remarkably  avian,  and  even  the  teeth,  which 


Fio.  1. — Pterodactylus  tpectabilis,  Von  Meyer,  natural  size,  from  the  lithographic 
slate.  A.,  humerus  ;  ru,  radius  and  ulna  ;  me,  metacarpals  ;  ptt  pteroid  bone  ; 
2,  3,  4,  digits  with  claws  ;  5,  elongated  digit  for  support  of  wing  membrane  : 
st,  sternum,  crest  not  shown  ;  is,  ischium  ;  pp,  prepubis.  The  teeth  are  not 
shown. 

most  of  them  possess,  and  which  seem  so  unbird-like, 
are  paralleled  in  the  Cretaceous  toothed  birds  of  North 
America.  Judging  from  the  form  of  the  skull,  the  brain 
was  small,  but  rounded  and  more  like  that  of  a  bird  than 
that  of  a  reptile.  The  position  of  the  occipital  condyle, 
beneath  and  not  at  the  back  of  the  skull,  is  another  char- 
acter pointing  in  the  same  direction.  The  nasal  opening 
is  not  far  in  advance  of  the  large  orbit,  and  in  some  forms 
there  is  a  lachry mo-nasal  fossa  between  them.  The  pre- 
maxillse  are  large,  while  the  maxillse  are  slender.  In 
certain  species  the  extremities  of  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws  seem  to  have  been  covered  with  horn,  and  some 
forms  at  least  had  bony  plates  around  the  eye.  The  union 
of  the  post-frontal  bone  with  the  squamosal  to  form  a 
supra- temporal  fossa  is  a  reptilian  character.  Both  jaws 
are  usually  provided  with  long  slender  teeth,  but  they  are 
not  always  present.  The  vertebral  column  may  be  divided 
into  cervical,  dorsal,  sacral,  and  caudal  regions.  The  centra 
of  the  vertebrae  are  procoelous, — that  is,  the  front  of  each 
centrum  is  cup -like  and  receives  the  ball -like  hinder  ex- 


tremity of  the  vertebra  next  in  front  of  it.  The  eight  or 
nine  cervical  vertebrae  are  always  large,  and  are  succeeded 
by  about  fourteen  or  sixteen  which  bear  ribs.  Probably 
there  are  no  vertebras  which  can  be  called  lumbar.  The 
sacrum  consists  of  from  three  to  six  vertebrae.  The  tail  is 
short  in  some  genera  and  very  long  in  others.  The  sternum 
has  a  distinct  median  crest,  and  the  scapula  and  coracoid 
are  also  much  like  those  of  carinate  birds.  The  humerus 
has  a  strong  ridge  for  the  attachment  of  the  pectoral 
muscle,  and  the  radius  and  ulna  are  separate  bones.  There 
are  four  distinct  metacarpals ;  passing  from  the  inner  or 
radial  side,  the  first  three  of  these  bear  respectively  two, 
three,  and  four  phalanges,  the  terminal  ones  having  had 


Fro.  2. — KJunnphorhynchus  phylluntf,  Marsh,  from  the  Solenhofen  slates,  one- 
fourth  natural  size,  with  the  greater  part  of  the  wing  membranes  preserved. 
x,  caudal  membrane ;  st,  sternum ;  h,  humerus ;  sc,  scapula  and  coracoid ; 
tern,  wing  membrane. 

claws.  The  phalanges  of  the  outermost  digit  are  much 
elongated,  and  except  in  one  doubtful  form  are  always  four 
in  number.  It  is  the  extreme  elongation  of  this  outer 
digit,  for  the  support  of  the  patagium,  which  is  the  most 
characteristic  feature  of  the  pterodactyle's  organization. 
A  slender  bone  called  the  "pteroid"  is  sometimes  seen 
extending  from  the  carpal  region  in  the  direction  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  humerus.  Some  naturalists  look  upon 
the  pteroid  merely  as  an  ossification  of  a  tendon,  corre- 
sponding with  one  which  is  found  in  this  position  in  birds, 
while  others  are  inclined  to  regard  it  rather  as  a  rudiment- 
ary first  digit,  modified  to  support  the  edge  of  the  patagium. 
The  pelvis  is  small.  In  form  the  ilia  resemble  rather  the 
ornithic  than  the  reptilian  type  ;  but  the  other  portions  of 
the  pelvis  are  more  like  those  of  the  crocodiles.  The  hind 


P  T  O  — P  T  O 


87 


limb  is  small,  and  the  fibula  seems  to  have  been  feebly 
developed  and  fixed  to  the  tibia.  The  hind  foot  has  five 
digits  in.  some  forms,  but  only  four  in  others.  In  the 
latter  case  the  number  of  phalanges  to  each  digit,  counting 
from  the  tibial  side,  is  two,  three,  four,  five  respectively. 
The  long  bones  and  vertebrae,  as  well  as  some  parts  of  the 
skull,  contained  large  pneumatic  cavities  similar  to  those 
found  in  birds.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  ptero- 
dactyles  had  the  power  of  sustained  flight.  The  large  size 
of  the  sternal  crest  indicates  a  similar  development  of  the 
pectoral  muscles  and  a  corresponding  strength  in  the  arms. 
The  form  of  the  forelimb,  especially  its  outer  digit,  indi- 
cates in  no  uncertain 'manner  that  it  supported  a  flying 
membrane ;  but  within  the  last  few  years  this  has  been 
more  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  discovery  of  a  specimen 
in  the  Solenhofen  slates  with  the  membrane  preserved 
(fig.  2).  The  occurrence  of  pterodactyle  remains  in  marine 
deposits  would  seem  to  indicate  that  they  frequented  the 
seashore  ;  and  it  is  tolerably  certain  that  those  forms  with 
long  and  slender  teeth  were,  in  part  at  least,  fish-eaters. 
Seeing,  however,  that  the  armature  of  the  jaws  varies 
considerably  in  the  different  genera,  it  is  most  likely  that 
their  diet  varied  accordingly. 

Pterodactyles  present  so  many  avian  peculiarities  that  it  has  been 
proposed  to  place  them  in  a  special  group,  to  be  called  Ornithosauria, 
which  would  hold  a  position  intermediate  between  Aves  and  Reptilia. 
On  the  other  hand,  pterodactyles  are  thought  by  most  authorities 
to  have  a  closer  relationship  with  the  reptiles,  and  the  different 
genera  are  placed  in  a  separate  order  of  the  Reptilia  called  Ptero- 
sauria.  The  most  important  genera  are  five.  (1)  Pterodactylus;  these 
have  the  jaws  pointed  and  toothed  to  their  extremities,  and  the  tail 
very  short.  (2)  Rhamphorhynchus  (fig.  2) ;  this  genus  has  the  jaws 
provided  with  slender  teeth,  but  the  extremities  of  both  mandible 
and  upper  jaw  are  produced  into  toothless  beaks,  which  were  prob- 
ably covered  with  horn  ;  the  tail  is  extremely  long.  (3)  Dimor- 
pkodon ;  in  this  form  the  anterior  teeth  in  both  upper  and  lower 
jaws  are  long,  but  those  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  jaws  are  short ; 
the  tail  is  extremely  long.  (4)  Pteranodon  ;  similar  in  most  respects 
to  Pterodactylus,  but  the  jaws  are  devoid  of  teeth.  In  these  four 
genera  the  outer  digit  of  the  manus  has  four  phalanges.  (5)  Orni- 
thoptcrus ;  this  form  is  said  to  have  only  two  phalanges  in  the  outer 
digit  of  the  manus  ;  the  genus,  however,  is  very  imperfectly  known, 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  may  perhaps  be  a  true,  bird. 

The  Pterosauria  are  only  known  to  have  lived  during  the  Meso- 
zoic  period.  They  are  first  met  with  in  the  Lower  Lias,  the  Dimor- 
phodon  macronyx  from  Lyme  Regis  being  perhaps  the  earliest 
known  species.  The  Jurassic  slates  of  Solenhofen  have  yielded  a 
large  number  of  beautifully  preserved  examples  of  Pterodactylus 
and  PJiampJiorhynchus,  and  remains  of  the  same  genera  have  been 
found  in  England  in  the  Stonesfield  slate.  Bones  of  pterodactyles 
have  also  been  obtained  in  some  abundance  from  the  Cretaceous 
phosphatic  deposits  near  Cambridge  ;  and  their  remains  have  been 
met  with  occasionally  in  the  Wealdeu  and  Chalk  of  Kent.  The 
genus  Pteranodon  is  only  known  from  the  Upper  Cretaceous  rocks 
of  North  America.  The  Pterosauria  were  for  the  most  part  of 
moderate  or  small  size  (see  fig.  1),  but  some  attained  to  very  con- 
siderable dimensions ;  for  instance,  Rhamphorhynchus  Bucklandi 
from  the  Stonesfield  slate  probably  measured  7  feet  between  the 
wing-tips.  But  the  largest  forms  existed  apparently  towards  the 
close  of  the  Mesozoic  period,  the  pterodactyles  of  the  British 
Cretaceous  rocks  and  the  American  Pteranodon  being  of  still  larger 
size  :  some  of  them,  it  is  calculated,  must  have  had  wings  at  least 
20  feet  in  extent. 

See  Buckland,  Bridge-water  Treatise,  1836  ;  Cuvier,  Ossements  fossiles,  vol.  v. 
pt.  2,  p.  359(1824);  Huxley,  " On  Rhamphorhynchus  Bucklandi,"  in  Quart.  Journ. 
Geol.  Soc.,  vol.  xv.  p.  658  (1859),  and  Anatomy  of  Vertebrated  Animals  (1871), 
p.  266  ;  Marsh,  "  Notice  of  New  Sub-order  of  Pterosauria  (Pteranodon),"  Amer. 
Journ.  Sci.  and  Art,  vol.  xi.  p.  507  (1876),  and  on  the  "Wings  of  Pterodac- 
tyles," in  Amer.  Journ.  Science,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  251  (1882) ;  Owen,  Palxonto- 
graphical  Society  (1851,  1859,  1860) ;  Seeley,  Ornithosauria  (1870) ;  Von  Meyer, 
Reptilien  aits  dem  lithograph.  Schiefer  [Fauna  der  Voruxlt]  (1859),  and  Palssonto- 
grapUca,  vol.  x.  p.  1  (1861).  (E.  T.  N.) 

PTOLEMIES,  the  Macedonian  dynasty  of  sovereigns  of 
Egypt.  See  EGYPT,  vol.  vii.  pp.  745-748,  and  MACE- 
DONIAN EMPIRE,  vol.  xv.  p.  144. 

PTOLEMY  (CLAUDIUS  PTOLEM^US),  celebrated  as  a 
mathematician,  astronomer,  and  geographer.  He  was  a 
native  of  Egypt,  but  there  is  an  uncertainty  as  to  the  place 
of  his  birth ;  some  ancient  manuscripts  of  his  works  describe 
him  as  of  Pelusium,  but  Theodorus  Meliteniota,  a  Greek 
writer  on  astronomy  of  the  12th  century,  says  that  he  was 


born  at  Ptolemais  Hermii,  a  Grecian  city  of  the  Thebaid. 
It  is  certain  that  he  observed  at  Alexandria  during  the 
reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius,  and  that  he  sur- 
vived Antoninus.  Olympiodorus,  a  philosopher  of  the 
Neoplatonic  school  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Justinian,  relates  in  his  scholia  on  the  Phxdo  of  Plato 
that  Ptolemy  devoted  his  life  to  astronomy  and  lived  for 
forty  years  in  the  so-called  Hrepa.  rov  KavwfBov,  probably 
elevated  terraces  of  the  temple  of  Serapis  at  Canopus  near 
Alexandria,  where  they  raised  pillars  with  the  results  of 
his  astronomical  discoveries  engraved  upon  them.  This 
statement  is  probably  correct ;  we  have  indeed  the  direct 
evidence  of  Ptolemy  himself  that  he  made  astronomical  ob- 
servations during  a  long  series  of  years ;  his  first  recorded 
observation  was  made  in  the  eleventh  year  of  Hadrian, 
127  A.D.,1  and  his  last  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  Antoninus, 
151  A.D.  Ptolemy,  moreover,  says,  "We  make  our  obser- 
vations in  the  parallel  of  Alexandria."  St  Isidore  of  Seville 
asserts  that  he  was  of  the  royal  race  of  the  Ptolemies,  and 
even  calls  him  king  of  Alexandria ;  this  assertion  has  been 
followed  by  others,  but  there  is  no  ground  for  their  opinion. 
Indeed  Fabricius  shows  by  numerous  instances  that  the 
name  Ptolemy  was  common  in  Egypt.  Weidler,  from 
whom  this  is  taken,  also  tells  us  that  according  to  Arabian 
tradition  Ptolemy  lived  to  the  age  of  seventy-eight  years  ; 
from  the  same  source  some  description  of  his  personal 
appearance  has  been  handed  down,  which  is  generally 
considered  as  not  trustworthy,  but  which  may  be  seen  in 
Weidler,  Historia  Astronomic,  p.  177,  or  in  the  preface  to 
Halma's  edition  of  the  Almagest,  p.  Ixi.  Ptolemy's  work  as 
a  geographer  is  treated  of  below  (p.  91  sq.\  and  an  account 
of  the  discoveries  in  astronomy  of  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy 
has  been  given  in  the  article  ASTRONOMY.  Their  contribu- 
tions to  pure  mathematics  have  not  yet  been  noticed  in 
the  present  work.  Of  these  the  chief  is  the  foundation  of 
trigonometry,  plane  and  spherical,  including  the  formation 
of  a  table  of  chords,  which  served  the  same  purpose  as  our 
table  of  sines.  This  branch  of  mathematics  was  created 
by  Hipparchus  for  the  use  of  astronomers,  and  its  exposi- 
tion was  given  by  Ptolemy  in  a  form  so  perfect  that  for 
1400  years  it  was  not  surpassed.  In  this  respect  it  may 
be  compared  with  the  doctrine  as  to  the  motion  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  so  well  known  as  the  Ptolemaic  system, 
which  was  paramount  for  about  the  same  period  of  time. 
There  is,  however,  this  difference,  that,  whereas  the  Ptole- 
maic system  was  then  overthrown,  the  theorems  of  Hip- 
parchus and  Ptolemy,  on  the  other  hand,  will  be,  as 
Delambre  says,  for  ever  the  basis  of  trigonometry.  The 
astronomical  and  trigonometrical  systems  are  contained  in 
the  great  work  of  Ptolemy  'H  /j.adrjfj.ariKr)  O-WTU^I?,  or,  as 
Fabricius  after  Syncellus  writes  it,  MeyaA^  o-uvra^ts  TTJS 
dcrr/oovo/Aias;  and  in  like  manner  Suidas  says  OVTOS  [II-ToA.] 
eypa^e  rov  p.eyav  dcrrpovofwv  -tjroi  crvvra£iv.  The  Syntaxis 
of  Ptolemy  was  called  CO  /ttyas  acrr/Dovd/xos  to  distinguish 
it  from  another  collection  called  '0  /ii/c/aos  do-r/>ovo/zo?,  also 
highly  esteemed  by  the  Alexandrian  school,  which  con- 
tained some  works  of  Autolycus,  Euclid,  Aristarchus,  Theo- 
dosius  of  Tripolis,  Hypsicles,  and  Menelaus.  To  designate 
the  great  work  of  Ptolemy  the  Arabs  used  the  superlative 
fj.eyia-Tf),  from  which,  the  article  cd  being  prefixed,  the 
hybrid  name  Almagest,  by  which  it  is  now  universally 
known,  is  derived. 

We  proceed  now  to  consider  the  trigonometrical  work  of  Hippar- 
chus and  Ptolemy.  In  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  book  of  the 
Almagest  Ptolemy  shows  how  to  form  a  table  of  chords.  He  sup- 
poses the  circumference  divided  into  360  equal  parts  (r/j.rifj.ara),  and 
then  bisects  each  of  these  parts.  Further,  he  divides  the  diameter 


1  Weidler  and  Halma  give  the  ninth  year ;  in  the  account  of  the 
eclipse  of  the  moon  in  that  year  Ptolemy,  however,  does  not  say,  as 
in  other  similar  cases,  he  had  observed,  but  it  had  been  observed 
(Almagest,  iv.  9). 


PTOLEMY 


into  120  equal  parts,  and  then  for  the  subdivisions  of  these  he  em- 
ploys the  sexagesimal  method  as  most  convenient  in  practice,  i.e.,  he 
divides  each  of  the  sixty  parts  of  the  radius  into  sixty  equal  parts, 
and  each  of  these  parts  he  further  subdivides  into  sixty  equal  parts. 
In  the  Latin  translation  these  subdivisions  become  "  partes  minute 
primae"  and  "partes  minute  secundse,"  whence  our  "minutes"  and 
"  seconds  "  have  arisen.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  these 
sexagesimal  divisions  are  due  to  Ptolemy  ;  they  must  have  been 
familiar  to  his  predecessors,  and  were  handed  down  from  the  Chal- 
dseans.  Nor  did  the  formation  of  the  table  of  chords  originate  with 
Ptolemy  ;  indeed,  Theou  of  Alexandria,  the  father  of  Hypatia,  who 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius,  in  his  commentary  on  the  Almagest 
says  expressly  that  Hipparchus  had  already  given  the  doctrine  of 
chords  inscribed  in  a  circle  in  twelve  books,  and  that  Menelaus 
had  done  the  same  in  six  books,  but,  he  continues,  every  one  must 
be  astonished  at  the  ease  with  which  Ptolemy,  by  means  of  a  few 
simple  theorems,  has  found  their  values  ;  hence  it  is  inferred  that 
the  method  of  calculation  in  the  Almagest  is  Ptolemy's  own. 

As  starting-point  the  values  of  certain  chords  in  terms  of  the 
diameter  were  already  known,  or  could  be  easily  found  by  means  of 
the  Elements  of  Euclid.  Thus  the  side  of  the  hexagon,  or  the  chord 
of  60°,  is  equal  to  the  radius,  and  therefore  contains  sixty  parts. 
The  side  of  the  decagon,  or  the  chord  of  36°,  is  the  greater  segment 
of  the  radius  cut  in  extreme  and  mean  ratio,  and  therefore  contains 
approximately  37»  4'  55"  parts,  of  which  the  diameter  contains  120 
parts.  Further,  the  square  on  the  side  of  the  regular  pentagon  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  the  sides  of  the  regular  hexagon 
and  of  the  regular  decagon,  all  being  inscribed  in  the  same  circle 
(Eucl.  XIII.  10) ;  the  chord  of  72°  can  therefore  be  calculated,  and 
contains  approximately  70?  32'  3".  In  like  manner,  the  square  on 
the  chord  of  90°,  which  is  the  side  of  the  inscribed  square,  is  twice 
the  square  on  the  radius  ;  and  the  square  on  the  chord  of  120°,  or 
the  side  of  the  equilateral  triangle,  is  three  times  the  square  on 
the  radius  ;  these  chords  can  thus  be  calculated  approximately. 
Further,  from  the  values  of  all  these  chords  we  can  calculate  at 
once  the  chords  of  the  arcs  which  are  their  supplements. 

This  being  laid  down,  we  now  proceed  to  give  Ptolemy's  exposition 
of  the  mode  of  obtaining  his  table  of  chords,  which  is  a  piece  of 
geometry  of  great  elegance,  and  is  indeed,  as  De  Morgan  says,  "  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Greek  writers." 

He  takes  as  basis  and  sets  forth  as  a  lemma  the  well-known 
theorem,  which  is  called  after  him,  concerning  a  quadrilateral  in- 
scribed in  a  circle  :  The  rectangle  under  the  diagonals  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  rectangles  under  the  opposite  sides.     By  means  of 
this  theorem  the  chord  of  the  sum  or  of  the  difference  of  two  arcs 
whose  chords  are  given  can  be  easily  found,  for  we  have  only  to 
draw  a  diameter  from  the  common  vertex  of  the  two  arcs  the  chord 
of  whose  sum  or  difference  is  required,  and  complete  the  quadri- 
lateral ;  in  one  case  a  diagonal,  in  the  other  one  of  the  sides  is  a 
diameter  of  the  circle.     The  relations  thus  obtained  are  equivalent 
to  the  fundamental  formulae  of  our  trigonometry — 
sin  (A  +  B)  =  sin  A  cos  B  +  cos  A  sin  B, 
sin  (A  -  B)  =  sin  A  cos  B  -  cos  A  sin  B, 
which  can  therefore  be  established  in  this  simple  way. 

Ptolemy  then  gives  a  geometrical  construction  for  finding  the 
chord  of  half  an  arc  from  the  chord  of  the  arc  itself.  By  means  of 
the  foregoing  theorems,  since  we  know  the  chords  of  72°  and  of  60°, 
we  can  find  the  chord  of  12°  ;  we  can  then  find  the  chords  of  6°, 
3°,  1£°,  and  three-fourths  of  1°,  and  lastly,  the  chords  of  4^°,  7^°, 
9°,  10^°,  &c., — all  those  arcs,  namely,  as  Ptolemy  says,  which  being 
doubled  are  divisible  by  3.  Performing  the  calculations,  he  finds 
that  the  chord  of  1J°  contains  approximately  IP  34'  55",  and  the 
chord  of  three-fourths  of  1°  contains  OP  47'  8".  A  table  of  chords 
of  arcs  increasing  by  1^°  can  thus  be  formed  ;  but  this  is  not  suffi- 
cient for  Ptolemy's  purpose,  which  was  to  frame  a  table  of  chords 
increasing  by  half  a  degree.  This  could  be  effected  if  he  knew 
the  chord  of  one-half  of  1° ;  but,  since  this  chord  cannot  be  found 
geometrically  from  the  chord  of  1^°,  inasmuch  as  that  would  come 
to  the  trisection  of  an  angle,  he  proceeds  to  seek  in  the  first  place 
the  chord  of  1°,  which  he  finds  approximately  by  means  of  a  lemma 
of  great  elegance,  due  probably  to  Apollonius.  It  is  as  follows  : 
If  two  unequal  chords  be  inscribed  in  a  circle,  the  greater  will  be 
to  the  less  in  a  less  ratio  than  the  arc  described  on  the  greater  will 
be  to  the  arc  described  on  the  less.  Having  proved  this  theorem, 
he  proceeds  to  employ  it  in  order  to  find  approximately  the  chord 
of  1°,  which  he  does  in  the  following  manner — 
chord  60'  60  .  4  ,  „„  .  4 


45'1'  «"*  3'  •'•Ch°rd      <  3  ch°rd  45'  ' 


again — 


chord  90' 


90  . 
-:^,i.e.t 
60'      ' 


3  ,  ,  ,  „  2  ,  ,  .  rt, 
—,  .'.chord  1  >-=  chord  90. 
2'  3 


chord  60' 

For  brevity  we  use  modern  notation.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
chord  of  45'  is  OP  47'  8"  q.p.,  and  the  chord  of  90'  is  IP  34'  15"  q.p.  ; 
hence  it  follows  that  approximately 

chord  1°  <1P  2'  50"  40'"  and  >  IP  2'  50*. 
Since  these  values  agree  as  far  as  the  seconds,  Ptolemy  takes  IP  2'  50" 


as  the  approximate  value  of  the  chord  of  1°.  The  chord  of  1" 
being  thus  known,  he  finds  the  chord  of  one-half  of  a  degree,  the 
approximate  value  of  which  is  OP  31'  25",  and  he  is  at  once  in  a 
position  to  complete  his  table  of  chords  for  arcs  increasing  by  half 
a  degree.  Ptolemy  then  gives  his  table  of  chords,  which  is  arranged 
in  three  columns  ;  in  the  first  he  has  entered  the  arcs,  increasing 
by  half-degrees,  from  0°  to  180°  ;  in  the  second  he  gives  the  values 
of  the  chords  of  these  arcs  in  parts  of  which  the  diameter  contains 
120,  the  subdivisions  being  sexagesimal  ;  and  in  the  third  he  has 
inserted  the  thirtieth  parts  of  the  differences  of  these  chords  for  each 
half-degree,  in  order  that  the  chords  of  the  intermediate  arcs,  which 
do  not  occur  in  the  table,  may  be  calculated,  it  being  assumed  that 
the  increment  of  the  chords  of  arcs  within  the  table  for  each  interval 
of  30'  is  proportional  to  the  increment  of  the  arc.1 

Trigonometry,  we  have  seen,  was  created  by  Hipparchus  for  the 
use  of  astronomers.  Now,  since  spherical  trigonometry  is  directly 
applicable  to  astronomy,  it  is  not  surprising  that  its  development 
was  prior  to  that  of  plane  trigonometry.  It  is  the  subject-matter 
of  the  eleventh  chapter  of  the  Almagest,  whilst  the  solution  of  piano 
triangles  is  not  treated  separately  in  that  work. 

To  resolve  a  plane  triangle  the  Greeks  supposed  it  to  be  inscribed 
in  a  circle  ;  they  must  therefore  have  known  the  theorem  —  which 
is  the  basis  of  this  branch  of  trigonometry  —  The  sides  of  a  triangle 
are  proportional  to  the  chords  of  the  double  arcs  which  measure 
the  angles  opposite  to  those  sides.  In  the  case  of  a  right-angled 
triangle  this  theorem,  together  with  Eucl.  I.  32  and  47,  gives  the 
complete  solution.  Other  triangles  were  resolved  into  right- 
angled  triangles  by  drawing  the  perpendicular  from  a  vertex  on 
the  opposite  side.  In  one  place  (Aim.,  vi.  c.  7  ;  vol.  i.  p.  422,  ed. 
Halma)  Ptolemy  solves  a  triangle  in  which  the  three  sides  arc 
given  by  finding  the  segments  of  a  side  made  by  the  perpendicular 
on  it  from  the  opposite  vertex.  It  should  be  noticed  also  that  the 
eleventh  chapter  of  the  first  book  of  the  Almagest  contains  inci- 
dentally some  theorems  and  problems  in  plane  trigonometry.  The 
problems  which  are  met  with  correspond  to  the  following  :  Divide 
a  given  arc  into  two  parts  so  that  the  chords  of  the  doubles  of  those 
arcs  shall  have  a  given  ratio  ;  the  same  problem  for  external  sec- 
tion. Lastly,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  Ptolemy  (Aim.,  vi.  7  ;  vol.  i. 

8         30 
p.  421,  ed.  Halma)  takes  SP  8'  30",  i.e.,  3  +  -^  +  ^^  =3'1416,   as 


the  value  of  the  ratio  of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter  of  a 
circle,  and  adds  that,  as  had  been  shown  by  Archimedes,  it  lies 
between  3f  and  3f  £. 

The  foundation  of  spherical  trigonometry  is  laid  in  chapter  xi. 
on  a  few  simple  and  useful  lemmas.  The  starting-point  is  the  well- 
known  theorem  of  plane  geometry  concerning  the  segments  of  the 
sides  of  a  triangle  made  by  a  transversal  :  The  segments  of  any 
side  are  in  a  ratio  compounded  of  the  ratios  of  the  segments  of  the 
other  two  sides.  This  theorem,  as  well  as  that  concerning  the 
inscribed  quadrilateral,  was  called  after  Ptolemy  —  naturally,  indeed, 
since  no  reference  to  its  source  occurs  in  the  Almagest.  This  error 
was  corrected  by  Mersenne,  who  showed  that  it  was  known  to 
Menelaus,  an  astronomer  and  geometer  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
the  emperor  Trajan.  The  theorem  now  bears  the  name  of  Menelaus, 
though  most  probably  it  came  down  from  Hipparchus  ;  Chasles, 
indeed,  thinks  that  Hipparchus  deduced  the  property  of  the  spheri- 
cal triangle  from  that  of  the  plane  triangle,  but  throws  the  origin 
of  the  latter  further  back  and  attributes  it  to  Euclid,  suggesting 
that  it  was  given  in  his  Porisms.2  Carnot  made  this  theorem  the 
basis  of  his  theory  of  transversals  in  his  essay  on  that  subject.  It 
should  be  noticed  that  the  theorem  is  not  given  in  the  Almagest 
in  the  general  manner  stated  above  ;  Ptolemy  considers  two  cases 
only  of  the  theorem,  and  Theon,  in  his  commentary  on  the  Almagest, 
has  added  two  more  cases.  The  proofs,  however,  are  general. 
Ptolemy  then  lays  down  two  lemmas  :  If  the  chord  of  an  arc  of  a 
circle  be  cut  in  any  ratio  and  a  diameter  be  drawn  through  the 
point  of  section,  the  diameter  will  cut  the  arc  into  two  parts  the 
chords  of  whose  doubles  are  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  segments  of 
the  chord  ;  and  a  similar  theorem  in  the  case  when  the  chord  is 
cut  externally  in  any  ratio.  By  means  of  these  two  lemmas  Ptolemy 
deduces  in  an  ingenious  manner  —  easy  to  follow,  but  difficult  to 
discover  —  from  the  theorem  of  Menelaus  for  a  plane  triangle  the 
corresponding  theorem  for  a  spherical  triangle  :  If  the  sides  of  a 
spherical  triangle  be  cut  by  an  arc  of  a  great  circle,  the  chords  of 
the  doubles  of  the  segments  of  any  one  side  will  be  to  each  other 
in  a  ratio  compounded  of  the  ratios  of  the  chords  of  the  doubles  of 
the  segments  of  the  other  two  sides.  Here,  too,  the  theorem  is  not 
stated  generally  ;  two  cases  only  are  considered,  corresponding  to 
the  two  cases  given  in  piano.  Theon  has  added  two  cases.  The 
proofs  are  general.  By  means  of  this  theorem  four  of  Napier's  for- 
mulae for  the  solution  of  right-angled  spherical  triangles  can  be  easily 

i  Ideler  has  examined  the  degree  of  accuracy  of  the  numbers  in  these  tables 
and  finds  that  they  are  correct  to  five  places  of  decimals. 

a  On  the  theorem  of  Menelaus  and  the  rule  of  six  quantities,  see  Chasles, 
Aperyu  Historique  sur  I'Origine  et  Developpement  des  Methods  en  Giometrie,  note 
vi.  p.  291. 


PTOLEMY 


89 


established.  Ptolemy  does  not  give  them,  hut  in  each  case  when 
required  applies  the  theorem  of  Menelaus  for  spherics  directly.  This 
greatly  increases  the  length  of  his  demonstrations,  which  the  modern 
reader  finds  still  more  cumbrous,  inasmuch  as  in  each  case  it  was 
necessary  to  express  the  relation  in  terms  of  chords — the  equivalents 
of  sines — only,  cosines  and  tangents  being  of  later  invention. 

Such,  then,  was  the  trigonometry  of  the  Greeks.  Mathe- 
matics, indeed,  has  ever  been,  as  it  were,  the  handmaid 
of  astronomy,  and  many  important  methods  of  the  former 
arose  from  the  needs  of  the  latter.  Moreover,  by  the  found- 
ation of  trigonometry,  astronomy  attained  its  final  general 
constitution,  in  which  calculations  took  the  place  of  dia- 
grams, as  these  latter  had  been  at  an  earlier  period  sub- 
stituted for  mechanical  apparatus  in  solving  the  ordinary 
problems.1  Further,  we  find  in  the  application  of  trigon- 
ometry to  astronomy  frequent  examples  and  even  a  sys^ 
tematic  use  of  the  method  of  approximations, — the  basis, 
in  fact,  of  all  application  of  mathematics  to  practical 
questions.  There  was  a  disinclination  on  the  part  of  the 
Greek  geometer  to  be  satisfied  with  a  mere  approximation, 
were  it  ever  so  close ;  and  the  unscientific  agrimensor 
shirked  the  labour  involved  in  acquiring  the  knowledge 
which  was  indispensable  for  learning  trigonometrical  cal- 
culations. Thus  the  development  of  the  calculus  of 
approximations  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  astronomer,  who  was 
both  scientific  and  practical.2 

We  now  proceed  to  notice  briefly  the  contents  of  the  Almagest. 
It  is  divided  into  thirteen  books.  The  first  book,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  introductory  to  the  whole  work,  opens  with  a  short 
preface,  in  which  Ptolemy,  after  some  observations  on  the  distinc- 
tion between  theory  and  practice,  gives  Aristotle's  division  of  the 
sciences  and  remarks  on  the  certainty  of  mathematical  knowledge, 
"  inasmuch  as  the  demonstrations  in  it  proceed  by  the  incontrovert- 
ible ways  of  arithmetic  and  geometry."  He  concludes  his  preface 
with  the  statement  that  he  will  make  use  of  the  discoveries  of  his 
predecessors,  and  relate  briefly  all  that  has  been  sufficiently  explained 
by  the  ancients,  but  that  he  will  treat  with  more  care  and  develop- 
ment whatever  has  not  been  well  understood  or  fully  treated. 
Ptolemy  unfortunately  does  not  always  bear  this  in  mind,  and  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  what  is  due  to  him  from  that 
which  he  has  borrowed  from  his  predecessors. 

Ptolemy  then,  in  the  first  chapter,  presupposing  some  preliminary 
notions  on  the  part  of  the  reader,  announces  that  he  will  treat  in 
order — what  is  the  relation  of  the  earth  to  the  heavens,  what  is  the 
position  of  the  oblique  circle  (the  ecliptic),  and  the  situation  of  the 
inhabited  parts  of  the  earth  ;  that  he  will  point  out  the  differences 
of  climates  ;  that  he  will  then  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  the 
motion  of  the  sun  and  moon,  without  which  one  cannot  have  a 
just  theory  of  the  stars  ;  lastly,  that  he  will  consider  the  sphere  of 
the  fixed  stars  and  then  the  theory  of  the  five  stars  called  "  planets." 
All  these  things — i.e.,  the  phenomena  of  the  heavenly  bodies — he 
says  he  will  endeavour  to  explain  in  taking  for  principle  that  which 
is  evident,  real,  and  certain,  in  resting  everywhere  on  the  surest 
observations  and  applying  geometrical  methods.  He  then  enters 
on  a  summary  exposition  of  the  general  principles  on  which  his 
Syntaxis  is  based,  and  adduces  arguments  to  show  that  the  heaven 
is  of  a  spherical  form  and  that  it  moves  after  the  manner  of  a 
sphere,  that  the  earth  also  is  of  a  form  which  is  sensibly  spherical, 
that  the  earth  is  in  the  centre  of  the  heavens,  that  it  is  but  a  point 
in  comparison  with  the  distances  of  the  stars,  and  that  it  has  not 
any  motion  of  translation.  With  respect  to  the  revolution  of  the 
earth  round  its  axis,  which  he  says  some  have  held,  Ptolemy,  while 
admitting  that  this  supposition  renders  the  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  of  the  heavens  much  more  simple,  yet  regards  it  as 
altogether  ridiculous.  Lastly,  he  lays  down  that  there  are  two 
principal  and  different  motions  in  the  heavens — one  by  which  all 
the  stars  are  carried  from  east  to  west  uniformly  about  the  poles  of 
the  equator  ;  the  other,  which  is  peculiar  to  some  of  the  stars,  is  in 
a  contrary  direction  to  the  former  motion  and  takes  place  round 
different  poles.  These  preliminary  notions,  which  are  all  older  than 
Ptolemy,  form  the  subjects  of  the  second  and  following  chapters. 
He  next  proceeds  to  the  construction  of  his  table  of  chords,  of 
which  we  have  given  an  account,  and  which  is  indispensable  to 
practical  astronomy.  The  employment  of  this  table  presupposes 
the  evaluation  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the  knowledge  of 
which  is  indeed  the  foundation  of  all  astronomical  science.  Ptolemy 
in  the  next  chapter  indicates  two  means  of  determining  this  angle 
by  observation,  describes  the  instruments  he  employed  for  that 
purpose,  and  finds  the  same  value  which  had  already  been  found 

1  Comte,  Systeme  de  Politique  Positive,  iii.  324. 

2  Cantor,  Vorlesungen  iiber  Geschichte  der  Mathematik,  p.  356. 


by  Eratosthenes  and  used  by  Hipparchus.  This  "is  followed  by 
spherical  geometry  and  trigonometry  enough  for  the  determination 
of  the  connexion  between  the  sun's  right  ascension,  declination, 
and  longitude,  and  for  the  formation  of  a  table  of  declinations  to 
each  degree  of  longitude.  Delambre  says  he  found  both  this  and 
the  table  of  chords  very  exact."3 

In  book  ii. ,  after  some  remarks  on  the  situation  of  the  habitable 
parts  of  the  earth,  Ptolemy  proceeds  to  make  deductions  from  the 
principles  established  in  the  preceding  book,  which  he  does  by 
means  of  the  theorem  of  Menelaus.  The  length  of  the  longest 
day  being  given,  he  shows  how  to  determine  the  arcs  of  the  horizon 
intercepted  between  the  equator  and  the  ecliptic — the  amplitude 
of  the  eastern  point  of  the  ecliptic  at  the  solstice — for  different 
degrees  of  obliquity  of  the  sphere  ;  hence  he  finds  the  height  of  the 
pole  and  reciprocally.  From  the  same  data  he  shows  how  to  find 
at  what  places  and  times  the  sun  becomes  vertical  and  how  to 
calculate  the  ratios  of  gnomons  to  their  equinoctial  and  solstitial 
shadows  at  noon  and  conversely,  pointing  out,  however,  that  the 
latter  method  is  wanting  in  precision.  All  these  matters  he  con- 
siders fully  and  works  out  in  detail  for  the  parallel  of  Rhodes. 
Theon  gives  us  three  reasons  for  the  selection  of  that  parallel  by 
Ptolemy  :  the  first  is  that  the  height  of  the  pole  at  Rhodes  is  36°, 
a  whole  number,  whereas  at  Alexandria  he  believed  it  to  be  30°  58'; 
the  second  is  that  Hipparchus  had  made  at  Rhodes  many  observa- 
tions ;  the  third  is  that  the  climate  of  Rhodes  holds  the  mean  place 
of  the  seven  climates  subsequently  described.  Delambre  suspects 
a  fourth  reason,  which  he  thinks  is  the  true  one,  that  Ptolemy  had 
taken  his  examples  from  the  works  of  Hipparchus,  who  observed  at 
Rhodes  and  had  made  these  calculations  for  the  place  where  he  lived. 
In  chapter  vi.  Ptolemy  gives  an  exposition  of  the  most  important 
properties  of  each  parallel,  commencing  with  the  equator,  which  he 
considers  as  the  southern  limit  of  the  habitable  quarter  of  the 
earth.  For  each  parallel  or  climate,  which  is  determined  by  the 
length  of  the  longest  day,  he  gives  the  latitude,  a  principal  place 
on  the  parallel,  and  the  lengths  of  the  shadows  of  the  gnomon  at 
the  solstices  and  equinox.  In  the  next  chapter  he  enters  into  par- 
ticulars and  inquires  what  are  the  arcs  of  the  equator  which  cross 
the  horizon  at  the  same  time  as  given  arcs  of  the  ecliptic,  or,  which 
comes  to  the  same  thing,  the  time  which  a  given  arc  of  the  ecliptic 
takes  to  cross  the  horizon  of  a  given  place.  He  arrives  at  a  formula 
for  calculating  ascensional  differences  and  gives  tables  of  ascensions 
arranged  by  10°  of  longitude  for  the  different  climates  from  the 
equator  to  that  where  the  longest  day  is  seventeen  hours.  He 
then  shows  the  use  of  these  tables  in  the  investigation  of  the  length 
of  the  day  for  a  given  climate,  of  the  manner  of  reducing  temporal 4 
to  equinoctial  hours  and  vice  versa,  and  of  the  nonagesimal  point 
and  the  point  of  orientation  of  the  ecliptic.  In  the  following 
chapters  of  this  book  he  determines  the  angles  formed  by  the  inter- 
sections of  the  ecliptic — first  with  the  meridian,  then  with  the 
horizon,  and  lastly  with  the  vertical  circle — and  concludes  by  giving 
tables  of  the  angles  and  arcs  formed  by  the  intersection  of  these 
circles,  for  the  seven  climates,  from  the  parallel  of  Meroe  (thirteen 
hours)  to  that  of  the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes  (sixteen  hours). 
These  tables,  he  adds,  should  be  completed  by  the  situation  of  the 
chief  towns  in  all  countries  according  to  their  latitudes  and  longi- 
tudes ;  this  he  promises  to  do  in  a  separate  treatise  and  has  in  fact 
done  in  his  Geography. 

Book  iii.  treats  of  the  motion  of  the  sun  and  of  the  length  of  the 
year.  In  order  to  understand  the  difficulties  of  this  question 
Ptolemy  says  one  should  read  the  books  of  the  ancients,  and  especi- 
ally those  of  Hipparchus,  whom  he  praises  "as  a  lover  of  labour 
and  a  lover  of  truth"  (avopi  <pi\oir6v<f>  re  ofiov  Kal  <f>i\a\-r)0ei).  He 
begins  by  telling  us  how  Hipparchus  was  led  to  discover  the  pre- 
cession of  the  equinoxes ;  he  relates  the  observations  which  led 
Hipparchus  to  his  second  great  discovery,  that  of  the  eccentricity 
of  the  solar  orbit,  and  gives  the  hypothesis  of  the  eccentric  by 
which  he  explained  the  inequality  of  the  sun's  motion.  Ptolemy 
concludes  this  book  by  giving  a  clear  exposition  of  the  circum- 
stances on  which  the  equation  of  time  depends.  All  this  the 
reader  will  find  in  the  article  ASTRONOMY  (vol.  ii.  p.  750).  Ptolemy, 
moreover,  applies  Apollonius's  hypothesis  of  the  epicycle  to  explain 
the  inequality  of  the  sun's  motion,  and  shows  that  it  leads  to  the 
same  results  as  the  hypothesis  of  the  eccentric.  He  prefers  the 
latter  hypothesis  as  more  simple,  requiring  only  one  and  not  two 
motions,  and  as  equally  fit  to  clear  up  the  difficulties.  In  the 
second  chapter  there  are  some  general  remarks  to  which  attention 
should  be  directed.  We  find  the  principle  laid  down  that  for  the 
explanation  of  phenomena  one  should  adopt  the  simplest  hypothesis 
that  it  is  possible  to  establish,  provided  that  it  is  not  contradicted 
by  the  observations  in  any  important  respect.5  This  fine  principle, 


3  De  Morgan,  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography, 
s.v.  "Ptolemacus,  Claudius." 

4  KaipiKal,  temporal  or  variable.    These  hours  varied  in  length  with 
the  seasons  ;    they  were  used  in  ancient  times  and  arose  from  the 
division  of  the  natural  day  (from  sunrise  to  sunset)  into  twelve  parts. 

6  Aim.,  ed.  Halma,  i.  159. 

XX.  —  12 


90 


P  T  0  L  E  M  Y 


•which  is  of  universal  application,  may,  we  think — regard  being  paid 
to  its  place  in  the  Almagest — be  justly  attributed  to  Hipparchus. 
It  is  the  first  law  of  the  "  philosophia  prima  "  of  Comte.1  We  find  in 
the  same  page  another  principle,  or  rather  practical  injunction,  that 
in  investigations  founded  on  observations  where  great  delicacy  is 
required  we  should  select  those  made  at  considerable  intervals  of 
time  in  order  that  the  errors  arising  from  the  imperfection  which  is 
inherent  in  all  observations,  even  in  those  made  with  the  greatest 
care,  may  be  lessened  by  being  distributed  over  a  large  number  of 
years.  In  the  same  chapter  we  find  also  the  principle  laid  down 
that  the  object  of  mathematicians  ought  to  be  to  represent  all  the 
celestial  phenomena  by  uniform  and  circular  motions.  This  prin- 
ciple is  stated  by  Ptolemy  in  the  manner  which  is  unfortunately 
too  common  with  him, — that  is  to  say,  he  does  not  give  the  least 
indication  whence  he  derived  it.  We  know;  however,  from  Sim- 
plicius,  on  the  authority  of  Sosigenes,2  that  Plato  is  said  to  have 
proposed  the  following  problem  to  astronomers  :  "  What  regular 
and  determined  motions  being  assumed  would  fully  account  for 
the  phenomena  of  the  motions  of  the  planetary  bodies  ?"  We  know, 
too,  from  the  same  source  that  Eudemus  says  in  the  second  book  of 
his  History  of  Astronomy  that  "  Eudoxus  of  Cnidus  was  the  first 
of  the  Greeks  to  take  in  hand  hypotheses  of  this  kind,"3  that  ho 
was  in  fact  the  first  Greek  astronomer  who  proposed  a  geometrical 
hypothesis  for  explaining  the  periodic  motions  of  the  planets — the 
famous  system  of  concentric  spheres.  It  thus  appears  that  the 
principle  laid  down  here  by  Ptolemy  can  be  traced  to  Eudoxus  and 
Plato  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  they  derived  it  from  the  same  source, 
namely,  Archytas  and  the  Pythagoreans.  We  have  indeed  the 
direct  testimony  of  Geminus  of  Rhodes  that  the  Pythagoreans 
endeavoured  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  by  uniform 
and  circular  motions.4 

Books  iv.,  v.  are  devoted  to  the  motions  of  the  moon,  which  are 
very  complicated  ;  the  moon  in  fact,  though  the  nearest  to  us  of 
all  the  heavenly  bodies,  has  always  been  the  one  which  has  given 
the  greatest  trouble  to  astronomers.8  Book  iv.,  in  which  Ptolemy 
follows  Hipparchus,  treats  of  the  first  and  principal  inequality  of 
the  moon,  which  quite  corresponds  to  the  inequality  of  the  sun 
treated  of  in  the  third  book.  As  to  the  observations  which  should 
be  employed  for  the  investigation  of  the  motion  of  the  moon, 
Ptolemy  tells  us  that  lunar  eclipses  should  be  preferred,  inasmuch 
as  they  give  the  moon's  place  without  any  error  on  the  score  of 
parallax.  The  first  thing  to  be  determined  is  the  time  of  the 
moon's  revolution  ;  Hipparchus,  by  comparing  the  observations  of 
the  Chaldaeans  with  his  own,  discovered  that  the  shortest  period 
in  which  the  lunar  eclipses  return  in  the  same  order  was  126,007 
days  and  1  hour.  In  this  period  he  finds  4267  lunations,  4573 
restitutions  of  anomaly,  and  4612  tropical  revolutions  of  the  moon 
less  7^°  q.p.  ;  this  quantity  (7£°)  is  also  wanting  to  complete  the 
345  revolutions  which  the  sun  makes  in  the  same  time  with  respect 
to  the  fixed  stars.  He  concluded  from  this  that  the  lunar  month 
contains  29  days  and  31'  50"  8'"  20""  of  a  day,  very  nearly,  or  29 
days  12  hours  44'  3"  20'".  These  results  are  of  the  highest  import- 
ance. (See  ASTRONOMY.)  In  order  to  explain  this  inequality,  or 
the  equation  of  the  centre,  Ptolemy  makes  use  of  the  hypothesis  of 
an  epicycle,  which  he  prefers  to  that  of  the  eccentric.  The  fifth 
book  commences  with  the  descriptipn  of  the  astrolabe  of  Hip- 
parchus, which  Ptolemy  made  use  of  in  following  up  the  observa- 
tions of  that  astronomer,  and  by  means  of  which  he  made  his  most 
important  discovery,  that  of  the  second  inequality  in  the  moon's 
motion,  now  known  by  the  name  of  the  "evection."  In  order 
to  explain  this  inequality  he  supposed  the  moon  to  move  on  an 
epicycle,  which  was  carried  by  an  eccentric  whose  centre  turned 
about  the  earth  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  of  the  motion  of 
the  epicycle.  This  is  the  first  instance  in  which  we  find  the  two 
hypotheses  of  eccentric  and  epicycle  combined.  The  fifth  book 
treats  also  of  the  parallaxes  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  gives  a 
description  of  an  instrument — called  later  by  Theon  the  "parallactic 
rods  " — devised  by  Ptolemy  for  observing  meridian  altitudes  with 
greater  accuracy. 

The  subject  of  parallaxes  is  continued  in  the  sixth  book  of  the 
Almagest,  and  the  method  of  calculating  eclipses  is  there  given. 
The  author  says  nothing  in  it  which  was  not  known  before  his  time. 

Books  vii. ,  viii.  treat  of  the  fixed  stars.  Ptolemy  verified  the 
fixity  of  their  relative  positions  and  confirmed  the  observations  of 
Hipparchus  with  regard  to  their  motion  in  longitude,  or  the  pre- 
cession of  the  equinoxes.  (See  ASTRONOMY.  )  The  seventh  book 
concludes  with  the  catalogue  of  the  stars  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, in  which  are  entered  their  longitudes,  latitudes,  and  magni- 


1  Systkme  de  Politique  Positive,  iv.  173. 

9  This  Sosigenes,  as  Th.  H.  Martin  has  shown,  was  not  the  astronomer  of  that 
name  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Julius  Caesar,  but  a  Peripatetic  philosopher 
who  lived  at  the  end  of  the  2d  century  A.D. 

I  Brandis,  Schol.  in  Ariftot.  edidit  Acad.  Beg.  Bomtssica  (Berlin,  1836),  p.  498. 

*  Eiffayuyrj   efc  rd  <f>aii>6/j.fva,  c.  i.  in  Halma's  edition  of  the  works  of 
Ptolemy,  vol.  iii.  ("  Introduction  aux  Phenomenes  Celestes,  traduite  du  Grec 
de  Geminus,"  p.  9),  Paris,  1819. 

*  This  has  been  noticed  by  Pliny,  who  says,  "  Multiform!  hsec  (luna)  ambage 
torsit  ingenia  contemplantium,  et  proximum  ignorari  maxima  sidus  indignau- 
tium  "  (If.  a.,  ii.  9). 


tudes,  arranged  according  to  their  constellations  ;  and  the  eighth 
book  commences  with  a  similar  catalogue  of  the  stars  in  the  con- 
stellations of  the  southern  hemisphere.  This  catalogue  has  been 
the  subject  of  keen  controversy  amongst  modern  astronomers. 
Some,  as  Flamsteed  and  Lalande,  maintain  that  it  was  the  same 
catalogue  which  Hipparchus  had  drawn  up  265  years  before  Ptolemy, 
whereas  others,  of  whom  Laplace  is  one,  think  that  it  is  the  work 
of  Ptolemy  himself.  The  probability  is  that  in  the  main  the 
catalogue  is  really  that  of  Hipparchus  altered  to  suit  Ptolemy's 
own  time,  but  that  in  making  the  changes  which  were  necessary 
a  wrong  precession  was  assumed.  This  is  Delambre's  opinion  ; 
he  says,  "Whoever  may  have  been  the  true  author,  the  catalogue 
is  unique,  and  does  not  suit  the  age  when  Ptolemy  lived  ;  by  sub- 
tracting 2°  40'  from  all  the  longitudes  it  would  suit  the  age  of 
Hipparchus;  this  is  all  that  is  certain."6  It  has  been  remarked 
that  Ptolemy,  living  at  Alexandria,  at  which  city  the  altitude  of 
the  pole  is  5°  less  than  at  Rhodes,  where  Hipparchus  observed, 
could  have  seen  stars  which  are  not  visible  at  Rhodes  ;  none  of 
these  stars,  however,  are  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue.  The  eighth  book 
contains,  moreover,  a  description  of  the  milky  way  and  the  manner 
of  constructing  a  celestial  globe  ;  it  also  treats  of  the  configura- 
tion of  the  stars,  first  with  regard  to  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets, 
and  then  with  regard  to  the  horizon,  and  likewise  of  the  different 
aspects  of  the  stars  and  of  their  rising,  culmination,  and  setting 
simultaneously  with  the  sun. 

The  remainder  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  the  planets.  The  ninth 
book  commences  with  what  concerns  them  all  in  general.  The 
planets  are  much  nearer  to  the  earth  than  the  fixed  stars  and 
more  distant  than  the  moon.  Saturn  is  the  most  distant  of  all, 
then  Jupiter  and  then  Mars.  These  three  planets  are  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  earth  than  the  sun.7  So  far  all  astronomers  are 
agreed.  This  is  not  the  case,  he  says,  with  respect  to  the  two 
remaining  planets,  Mercury  and  Venus,  which  the  old  astronomers 
placed  between  the  sun  and  earth,  whereas  more  recent  writers8 
have  placed  them  beyond  the  sun,  because  they  were  never  seen  on 
the  sun.9  He  shows  that  this  reasoning  is  not  sound,  for  they 
might  be  nearer  to  us  than  the  sun  and  not  in  the  same  plane,  and 
consequently  never  seen  on  the  sun.  He  decides  in  favour  of  the 
former  opinion,  which  was  indeed  that  of  most  mathematicians. 
The  ground  of  the  arrangement  of  the  planets  in  order  of  distance 
was  the  relative  length  of  their  periodic  times  ;  the  greater  the 
circle,  the  greater,  it  was  thought,  would  be  the  time  required  for 
its  description.  Hence  we  see  the  origin  of  the  difficulty  and  the 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  arrangement  of  the  sun,  Mercury, 
and  Venus,  since  the  times  in  which,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  they 
appear  to  complete  the  circuit  of  the  zodiac  are  nearly  the  same — 
a  year.10  Delambre  thinks  it  strange  that  Ptolemy  did  not  see  that 
these  contrary  opinions  could  be  reconciled  by  supposing  that  the 
two  planets  moved  in  epicycles  about  the  sun ;  this  would  be 
stranger  still,  he  adds,  if  it  is  true  tlvat  this  idea,  which  is  older 
than  Ptolemy,  since  it  is  referred  to  by  Cicero,11  had  been  that  of  tho 
Egyptians.12  It  may  be  added,  as  strangest  of  all,  that  this  doctrine 
was  held  by  Theon  of  Smyrna,13  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Ptolemy 
or  somewhat  senior  to  him.  From  this  system  to  that  of  Tycho 
Brahe  there  is,  as  Delambre  observes,  only  a  single  step. 

We  have  seen  that  the  problem  which  presented  itself  to  the 
astronomers  of  the  Alexandrian  epoch  was  the  following :  it  was 
required  to  find  such  a  system  of  equable  circular  motions  as  would 
represent  the  inequalities  in  the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun,  tho 
moon,  and  the  planets.  Ptolemy  now  takes  up  this  question  for 
the  planets  ;  he  says  that  ' '  this  perfection  is  of  the  essence  of 
celestial  things,  which  admit  of  neither  disorder  nor  inequality," 
that  this  planetary  theory  is  one  of  extreme  difficulty,  and  that 
no  one  had  yet  completely  succeeded  in  it.  He  adds  that  it  was 
owing  to  these  difficulties  that  Hipparchus — who  loved  truth  above 
all  things,  and  who,  moreover,  had  not  received  from  his  prede- 
cessors observations  either  so  numerous  or  so  precise  as  those  that 
he  has  left — had  succeeded,  as  far  as  possible,  in  representing  tho 
motions  of  the  sun  and  moon  by  circles,  but  had  not  even  com- 
menced the  theory  of  the  five  planets.  He  was  content,  Ptolemy 

6  Delambre,  Histoire  de  T Astrnnomie  Ancienne,  ii.  264. 

7  This  is  true  of  their  mean  distances  ;  but  we  know  that  Mars  at  opposition 
is  nearer  to  us  than  the  sun. 

8  Eratosthenes,  for  example,  as  we  learn  from  Theon  of  Smyrna. 

9  Transits  of  Mercury  and  Veuus'over  the  sun's  disk,  therefore,  had  not  been 
observed. 

1(1  This  was  known  to  Eudoxus.  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis  (An  Historical 
Surrey  of  the  Astronomy  of  the  Ancients,  p.  155),  confusing  the  geocentric  revolu- 
tions assigned  by  Eudoxus  to  these  two  planets  with  the  heliocentric  revolu- 
tions in  the  Copernican  system,  which  are  of  course  quite  different,  says  that 
"  the  error  with  respect  to  Mercury  and  Venus  is  considerable  ";  this,  however, 
is  an  error  not  of  Eudoxus  but  of  Cornewall  Lewis,  as  Scliiaparelli  has  remarked. 
11 " Hunc  [solem]  ut  comites consequuntur  Veneris alter,  alter  Mercin ii  cursus " 
(Somnium  Scipionis,  De  Rep.,  vi.  17).  This  hypothesis  is  alluded  to  by  Pliny, 
N.  H.,  ii.  17,  and  is  more  explicitly  stated  by  Vitruvius,  Arch.,  ix.  4. 

12  Macrobius,  CommfnUirius  ex  Cicerone  in  Somnium  Scipionis,  i.  19. 

!3  Theon  (Smyrnseus  Platonicus),  Liber  de  Astronomia,  ed.Th.  H.  Martin  (Paris, 
1849),  pp.  174,  294,  296.  Martin  thinks  that  Theon,  the  mathematician,  four  ot 
whose  observations  are  used  by  Ptolemy  (Aim.,  ii.  176,  193,  104,  195,  196,  ed. 
Halma),  is  not  the  same  as  Theon  of  Smyrna,  on  the  ground  chiefly  that  the 
latter  was  not  UH  observer. 


PTOLEMY 


91 


continues,  to  arrange  the  observations  which  had  been  made  on 
them  in  a  methodic  order  and  to  show  thence  that  the  phenomena 
did  not  agree  with  the  hypotheses  of  mathematicians  at  that  time. 
He  showed  that  in  fact  each  planet  had  two  inequalities,  which 
are  different  for  each,  that  the  retrogradations  are  also  different, 
whilst  other  astronomers  admitted  only  a  single  inequality  and 
the  same  retrogradation  ;  he  showed  further  that  their  motions 
cannot  be  explained  by  eccentrics  nor  by  epicycles  carried  along 
concentrics,  but  that  it  was  necessary  to  combine  both  hypotheses. 
After  these  preliminary  notions  he  gives  from  Hipparchus  the 
periodic  motions  of  the  five  planets,  together  with  the  shortest 
times  of  restitutions,  in  which,  moreover,  he  has  made  some  slight 
corrections.  He  then  gives  tables  of  the  mean  motions  in  longitude 
and  of  anomaly  of  each  of  the  five  planets,1  and  shows  how  the 
motions  in  longitude  of  the  planets  can  be  represented  in  a  general 
manner  by  means  of  the  hypothesis  of  the  eccentric  combined  with 
that  of  the  epicycle.  He  next  applies  his  theory  to  each  planet 
and  concludes  the  ninth  book  by  the  explanation  of  the  various 
phenomena  of  the  planet  Mercury.  In  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
books  he  treats,  in  like  manner,  of  the  various  phenomena  of  the 
planets  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn. 

Book  xii.  treats  of  the  stationary  and  retrograde  appearances  of 
each  of  the  planets  and  of  the  greatest  elongations  of  Mercury  and 
Venus.  The  author  tells  us  that  some  mathematicians,  and  amongst 
them  Apollonius  of  Perga,  employed  the  hypothesis  of  the  epicycle 
to  explain  the  stations  and  retrogradations  of  the  planets.  Ptolemy 
goes  into  this  theory,  but  does  not  change  in  the  least  the  theorems 
of  Apollonius  ;  he  only  promises  simpler  and  clearer  demonstra- 
tions of  them.  Delambre  remarks  that  those  of  Apollonius  must 
have  been  very  obscure,  since,  in  order  to  make  the  demonstrations 
in  the  Almagest  intelligible,  he  (Delambre)  was  obliged  to  recast 
them.  This  statement  of  Ptolemy  is  important,  as  it  shows  that 
the  mathematical  theory  of  the  planetary  motions  was  in  a  toler- 
ably forward  state  long  before  his  time.  Finally,  book  xiii.  treats 
of  the  motions  of  the  planets  in  latitude,  also  of  the  inclinations  of 
their  orbits  and  of  the  magnitude  of  these  inclinations. 

Those  who  wish  to  go  into  details  and  learn  the  mathematical  explanation  of 
this  celebrated  system  of  "eccentrics"  and  "epicycles"  are  referred  to  the 
Almagest  itself,  which  can  be  most  conveniently  studied  in  Halma's  edition,2  to 
Delambre's  Histoiredel'Astronomie  Ancienne,  the  second  volume  of  which  is  for 
the  most  part  devoted  to  the  Almagest,^  or  to  Narrien's  History  of  Astronomy,* 
in  which  the  subject  is  treated  with  great  clearness. 

Ptolemy  concludes  his  great  work  by  saying  that  he  has  included  in  it  every- 
thing of  practical  utility  which  in  his  judgment  should  find  a  place  in  a 
treatise  on  astronomy  at  the  time  it  was  written,  with  relation  as  well  to  dis- 
coveries as  to  methods.  His  work  was  justly  called  by  him  M.a0rj/naTiK7] 
2  (Wafts,  for  it  was  in  fact  the  mathematical  form  of  the  work  which  caused 
it  to  be  preferred  to  all  others  which  treated  of  the  same  science,  but  not  by 
"the  sure  methods  of  geometry  and  calculation."  Accordingly,  it  soon  spread 
from  Alexandria  to  all  places  where  astronomy  was  cultivated ;  numerous  copies 
were  made  of  it,  and  it  became  the  object  of  serious  study  on  the  part  of  both 
teachers  and  pupils.  Amongst  its  numerous  commentators  may  be  mentioned 
Pappus  and  Theon  of  Alexandria  in  the  4th  century  and  Proclus  in  the  5th. 
It  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Boetius,  but  this  translation  has  not  come 
down  to  us.  The  Syntaxis  was  translated  into  Arabic  at  Baghdad  by  order  of 
the  enlightened  caliph  Al-Mamun,  who  was  himself  an  astronomer,  about  827 
A.D.,  and  the  Arabic  translation  was  revised  in  the  following  century  by 
Thabit  ibn  Korra.  The  emperor  Frederick  II.  caused  the  Almagest  to  be  trans- 
lated from  the  Arabic  into  Latin  at  Naples  about  1230.  In  the  15th  century  it 
was  translated  from  a  Greek  manuscript  in  the  Vatican  by  George  of  Trebizond. 
In  the  same  century  an  epitome  of  the  Almagest  was  commenced  by  Purbach 
(died  1461)  and  completed  by  his  pupil  and  successor  in  the  professorship  of 
astronomy  in  the  university  of  Vienna,  Regiomontanus.  The  earliest  edition 
of  this  epitome  is  that  of  Venice,  1496,  and  this  was  the  first  appearance  of 
the  Almagest  in  print.  The  first  complete  edition  of  the  Almagest  is  that  of  P. 
Liechtenstein  (Venice,  1515), — a  Latin  version  from  the  Arabic.  The  Latin 
translation  of  George  of  Trebizond  was  first  printed  in  1528,  at  Venice.  The 
Greek  text,  which  was  not  known  in  Europe  until  the  15th  century,  was  first 
published  in  the  16th  by  Simon  Grynseus,  who  was  also  the  first  editor  of  the 
Greek  text  of  Euclid,  at  Basel,  1538.  This  edition  was  from  a  manuscript  in 
the  library  of  Nuremberg— where  it  is  no  longer  to  be  found — which  had  been 
presented  by  Regiomontanus,  to  whom  it  was  given  by  Cardinal  Bessarion. 
The  last  edition  of  the  Almagest  is  that  of  Halma,  Greek  with  French  translation, 
in  two  vols.,  Paris,  1813-16.  On  the  manuscripts  of  the  Almagest  and  its  biblio- 
graphical history,  see  Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  Graeca,  ed.  Harles,  vol.  v.  p.  280, 
and  Halma's  preface.  An  excellent  summary  of  the  bibliographical  history  is 
given  by  De  Morgan  in  his  article  on  Ptolemy  already  quoted. 

Other  works  of  Ptolemy,  which  we  now  proceed  to  notice  very  briefly,  are 
as  follows.  (1)  Qdfffis  a.ir\a.v<j}v  affrlpuv  Kal  ffvvayuyij  ^TrioTj/iao'itDj'.,  On 
the  Apparitions  of  the  Fixed  Stars  antl  a  Collection  of  Prognostics.  It  is  a  calendar 
of  a  kind  common  amongst  the  Greeks  under  the  name  of  irapdirrryfj.^  or  a 
collection  of  the  risings  and  settings  of  the  stars  in  the  morning  or  evening 
twilight,  which  were  so  many  visible  signs  of  the  seasons,  with  prognostics  of 
the  principal  changes  of  temperature  with  relation  to  each  climate,  after  the 
observations  of  the  best  meteorologists,  as,  for  example,  Meton,  Democritus, 
Eudoxus,  Hipparchus,  <fcc.  Ptolemy,  in  order  to  make  his  Parapegma  useful 
to  all  the  Greeks  scattered  over  the  enlightened  world  of  his  time,  gives  the 
apparitions  of  the  stars  not  for  one  parallel  only  but  for  each  of  the  five  parallels 

1  Delambre  compares  these  mean  motions  with  those  of  our  modern  tables 
and  finds  them  tolerably  correct.     By  "  motion  in  longitude  "  must  be  under- 
stood the  motion  of  the  centre  of  the  epicycle  about  the  eccentric,  and  by 
"anomaly"  the  motion  of  the  star  on  its  epicycle. 

2  In  this  edition   the  Greek  text  and  the  French  translation  are  given  in 
parallel  columns  ;  the  latter,  however,  should  not  be  read  without  reference  to 
the  former. 

3  Delambre  begins  his  analysis  of  the  Almagest  thus—"  L' Astronomic  des 
Grecs  est  toute  entiere  dans  la  Syntaxe  mathematique  de  Ptolemee." 

4  Narrien,  An  Historical  Account  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Astronomy, 
London,  1833. 


in  which  the  length  of  the  longest  day  varies  from  13J  hours  to  15J  hours, — 
that  is,  from  the  latitude  of  Syene  to  that  of  the  middle  of  the  Euxine.  This 
work  has  been  printed  by  Petavius  in  his  Uranologium,  Paris,  1630,  and  by 
Halma  in  his  edition  of  the  works  of  Ptolemy,  vol.  iii.,  Paris,  1819.  (2) 
'fTroOtcreis  TUV  irXavtiifj^vuv  1)  ru>v  oupaviuv  KVK\UV  /civTjcreis,  On  the 
Planetary  Hypothesis.  This  is  a  summary  of  a  portion  of  the  Almagest,  and  con- 
tains a  brief  statement  of  the  principal  hypotheses  for  the  explanation  of  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  was  first  published  (Gr.,  Lat.)by  Bainl.ridge, 
the  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford,  with  the  Sphere  of  Proclus  and 
the  Kavwv  J3affi\tiwv,  London,  1620,  and  afterwards  by  Halma,  vol.  iv.,  Paris, 
1820.  (3)  K.avwv  /3ct(7i\«uJ»' ,  A  Table  of  Reigns.  This  is  a  chronological  table 
of  Assyrian,  Persian,  Greek,  and  Roman  sovereigns,  with  the  length  of  their 
reigns,  from  Nabonasar  to  Antoninus  Pius.  This  table  (comp.  G.  Syncellus, 
Chronogr.,  ed.  Dind.,  i.  388  sq.)  has  been  printed  by  Scaliger,  Calvisius,  Petavius, 
Bainbridge  (as  above  noted),  and  by  Halma,  vol.  iii.,  Paris,  1819.  (4)  'Apfj.ovi- 
K&V  |3i/3\ta  y.  This  Treatise  on  Music  was  published  in  Greek  and  Latin  by 
Wallis  at  Oxford,  1682.  It  was  afterwards  reprinted  with  Porphyry's  com- 
mentary in  the  third  volume  of  Wallis's  works,  Oxford,  1699.  (5)  Ter/xl/3i^3Xos 
criVrafts,  Tetrabiblon  or  Quadripartitum.  This  work  is  astrological,  as  is  also 
the  small  collection  of  aphorisms,  called  Ka/>7r<5s  or  Centiloquium,  by  which  it 
is  followed.  It  is  doubtful  whether  these  works  are  genuine,  but  the  doubt 
merely  arises  from  the  feeling  that  they  are  unworthy  of  Ptolemy.  They  were 
both  published  in  Greek  and  Latin  by  Camerarius,  Nuremberg,  1535,  and  by 
Melanchthon,  Basel,  1553.  (6)  De  Analemmate.  The  original  of  this  work  of 
Ptolemy  is  lost.  It  was  translated  from  the  Arabic  and  published  by  Com- 
mandine,  Rome,  1562.  The  Analemma  is  the  description  of  the  sphere  on  a 
plane.  We  find  in  it  the  sections  of  the  different  circles,  as  the  diurnal  parallels, 
and  everything  which  can  facilitate  the  intelligence  ofgnomonics.  This  de- 
scription is  made  by  perpendiculars  let  fall  on  the  plane  ;  whence  it  has  been 
called  by  the  moderns  "orthographic  projection."  (7)  Planisphierium,  The 
Planisphere.  The  Greek  text  of  this  work  also  is  lost,  and  we  have  only  a 
Latin  translation  of  it  from  the  Arabic.  The  "planisphere"  is  a  projection 
of  the  sphere  on  the  equator,  the  eye  being  at  the  pole,— in  fact  what  is  now 
called  "  stereographic  "  projection.  The  best  edition  of  this  work  is  that  of 
Commandine,  Venice,  1558.  (8)  Optics.  This  work  is  known  to  us  only  by 
imperfect  manuscripts  in  Paris  and  Oxford,  which  are  Latin  translations  from 
the  Arabic  ;  some  extracts  from  them  have  been  recently  published.  The  Optics 
consists  of  five  books,  of  which  the  fifth  presents  most  interest :  it  treats  of 
the  refraction  of  luminous  rays  in  their  passage  through  media  of  different 
densities,  and  also  of  astronomical  refractions,  on  which  subject  the  theory  is 
more  complete  than  that  of  any  astronomer  before  the  time  of  Cassini.  De 
Morgan  doubts  whether  this  work  is  genuine  on  account  of  the  absence  of 
allusion  to  the  Almagest  or  to  the  subject  of  refraction  in  the  Almagest  itself; 
but  his  chief  reason  for  doubting  its  authenticity  is  that  the  author  of  the  Optics 
was  a  poor  geometer.  (G.  J.  A.) 

Geography. 

Ptolemy  is  hardly  less  celebrated  as  a  geographer  than 
as  an  astronomer,  and  his  great  work  on  geography  exer- 
cised as  great  an  influence  on  the  progress  of  that  science 
as  did  his  Almagest  on  that  of  astronomy.  It  became 
indeed  the  paramount  authority  on  all  geographical  ques- 
tions for  a  period  of  many  centuries,  and  was  only  gradu- 
ally superseded  by  the  progress  of  maritime  discovery  in 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries.  This  exceptional  position 
was  due  in  a  great  measure  to  its  scientific  form,  which 
rendered  it  very  convenient  and  easy  of  reference ;  but, 
apart  from  this  consideration,  it  was  really  the  first  attempt 
ever  made  to  place  the  study  of  geography  on  a  truly 
scientific  basis.  The  great  astronomer  Hipparchus  had 
indeed  pointed  out,  three  centuries  before  the  time  of 
Ptolemy,  that  the  only  way  to  construct  a  really  trust- 
worthy map  of  the  Inhabited  World  would  be  by  observa- 
tions of  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  all  the  principal 
points  on  its  surface,  and  laying  down  a  map  in  accordance 
with  the  positions  thus  determined.  But  the  materials 
for  such  a  course  of  proceeding  were  almost  wholly  wanting, 
and,  though  Hipparchus  made  some  approach  to  a  correct 
division  of  the  known  world  into  zones  of  latitude,  or 
"  climata,"  as  he  termed  them,  trustworthy  observations 
even  of  this  character  were  in  his  time  very  few  in  number, 
while  the  means  of  determining  longitudes  could  hardly 
be  said  to  exist.  Hence  probably  it  arose  that  no  attempt 
was  made  by  succeeding  geographers  to  follow  up  the  im- 
portant suggestion  of  Hipparchus.  Marinus  of  Tyre,  who 
lived  shortly  before  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  and  whose  work 
is  known  to  us  only  through  that  writer,  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  to  resume  the  problem  thus  proposed,  and 
lay  down  the  map  of  the  known  world  in  accordance  with 
the  precepts  of  Hipparchus.  His  materials  for  the  execu- 
tion of  such  a  design  were  indeed  miserably  inadequate, 
and  he  was  forced  to  content  himself  for  the  most  part 
with  determinations  derived  not  from  astronomical  obser- 
vations but  from  the  calculation  of  distances  from  itineraries 
and  other  rough  methods,  such  as  still  continue  to  be  em- 
ployed even  by  modern  geographers  where  more  accurate 


92 


PTOLEMY 


means  of  determination  are  not  available.  The  greater  part 
of  the  treatise  of  Marinus  was  occupied  with  the  discussion  of 
these  authorities,  and  it  is  impossible  for  us,  in  the  absence 
of  the  original  work,  to  determine  how  far  he  had  succeeded 
in  giving  a  scientific  form  to  the  results  of  his  labours ; 
but  we  are  told  by  Ptolemy  himself  that  he  considered 
them,  on  the  whole,  so  satisfactory  that  he  had  made  the 
work  of  his  predecessor  the  basis  of  his  own  in  regard  to 
all  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  a  term 
which  would  comprise  to  the  ancient  geographer  almost 
all  those  regions  of  which  he  had  really  any  definite  know- 
ledge. With  respect  to  the  more  remote  regions  of  the 
world,  Ptolemy  availed  himself  of  the  information  imparted 
by  Marinus,  but  not  without  reserve,  and  has  himself  ex- 
plained to  us  the  reasons  that  induced  him  in  some  instances 
to  depart  from  the  conclusions  of  his  predecessor.  It  is 
very  unjust  to  term  Ptolemy  a  plagiarist  from  Marinus,  as 
has  been  done  by  some  modern  authors,  as  he  himself 
acknowledges  in  the  fullest  manner  his  obligations  to 
that  writer,  from  whom  he  derived  the  whole  mass  of  his 
materials,  which  he  undertook  to  arrange  and  present  to 
his  readers  in  a  scientific  form.  It  is  this  form  and  ar- 
rangement that  constitute  the  great  merit  of  Ptolemy's 
work  and  that  have  stamped  it  with  a  character  wholly 
distinct  from  all  previous  treatises  on  geography.  But 
at  the  same  time  it  possesses  much  interest,  as  showing 
the  greatly  increased  knowledge  of  the  more  remote  por- 
tions of  Asia  and  Africa  which  had  been  acquired  by  geo- 
graphers since  the  time  of  Strabo  and  Pliny. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  consider  separately  the  two 
different  branches  of  the  subject, — (1)  the  mathematical 
portion,  which  constitutes  his  geographical  system,  properly 
so  termed ;  and  (2)  his  contributions  to  the  progress  of 
positive  knowledge  with  respect  to  the  Inhabited  World. 
See  Plate      1.  Mathematical  Geography. — As  a  great  astronomer,   Ptolemy 
VII.,  vol.  was  of  course  infinitely  better  qualified  to  comprehend  and  explain 
xv.  the  mathematical  conditions  of  the  earth  and  its  relations  to  the 

celestial  bodies  that  surround  it  than  any  preceding  writers  on 
the  special  subject  of  geography.  But  his  general  views,  except 
oil  a  few  points,  did  not  differ  from  those  of  his  most  eminent 
precursors  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo.  In  common  with  them,  he 
assumed  that  the  earth  was  a  globe,  the  surface  of  which  was 
divided  by  certain  great  circles — the  equator  and  the  tropics — 
parallel  to  one  another,  and  dividing  the  earth  into  five  great 
zones,  the  relations  of  which  with  astronomical  phenomena  were 
of  course  clear  to  his  mind  as  a  matter  of  theory,  though  in  regard 
to  the  regions  bordering  on  the  equator,  as  well  as  to  those  ad- 
joining the  polar  circle,  he  could  have  had  no  confirmation  of  his 
conclusions  from  actual  observation.  He  adopted  also  from  Hip- 
parchus  the  division  of  the  equator  and  other  great  circles  into 
360  parts  or  "  degrees  "  (as  they  were  subsequently  called,  though 
the  word  does  not  occur  in  this  sense  in  Ptolemy),  and  supposed 
other  circles  to  be  drawn  through  these,  from  the  equator  to  the 
pole,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  "meridians."  He  thus  conceived 
the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  (as  is  done  by  modern  geographers) 
to  be  covered  with  a  complete  network  of  "parallels  of  latitude"  and 
"meridians  of  longitude,"  terms  which  he  himself  was  the  first  ex- 
tant writer  to  employ  in  this  technical  sense.  Within  the  network 
thus  constructed  it  was  the  task  of  the  scientific  geographer  to 
place  the  outline  of  the  world,  so  far  as  it  was  then  known  by 
experience  and  observation. 

Unfortunately  at  the  very  outset  of  his  attempt  to  realize  this 
conception  he  fell  into  an  error  which  had  the  effect  of  vitiating 
all  his  subsequent  conclusions.  Eratosthenes  was  the  first  writer 
who  had  attempted  in  a  scientific  manner  to  determine  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  earth,  and  the  result  at  which  he  arrived,  that 
it  amounted  to  250,000  stadia  or  25,000  geographical  miles,  was 
generally  adopted  by  subsequent  geographers,  including  Strabo. 
Posidonius,  however,  who  wrote  about  a  century  after  Eratosthenes, 
had  made  an  independent  calculation,  by  which  he  reduced  the 
circumference  of  the  globe  to  180,000  stadia,  or  less  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  result  obtained  by  Eratosthenes,  and  this  computa- 
tion, on  what  grounds  we  know  not,  was  unfortunately  adopted  by 
Marinus  Tyrius,  and  from  him  by  Ptolemy.  The  consequence  of 
this  error  was  of  course  to  make  every  degree  of  latitude  or  longi- 
tude (measured  at  the  equator)  equal  to  only  500  stadia  (50  geo- 
graphical miles),  instead  of  its  true  equivalent  of  600  stadia.  Its 
effects  would  indeed  have  been  in  some  measure  neutralized  had 
there  existed  a  sufficient  number  of  points  of  which  the  position 


was  determined  by  actual  observation  ;  but  we  learn  from  Ptolemy 
himself  that  this  was  not  the  case,  and  that  such  observations  for 
latitude  were  very  few  in  number,  while  the  means  of  determining 
longitudes  were  almost  wholly  wanting. l  Hence  the  positions  laid 
down  by  him  were  really,  with  very  few  exceptions,  the  result  of 
computations  of  distances  from  itineraries  and  the  statements  of 
travellers,  estimates  which  were  liable  to  much  greater  error  in 
ancient  times  than  at  the  present  day,  from  the  want  of  any  accurate 
mode  of  observing  bearings,  or  portable  instruments  for  the  measure- 
ment of  time,  while  they  had  no  means  at  all  of  determining  dis- 
tances at  sea,  except  by  the  rough  estimate  of  the  time  employed 
in  sailing  from  point  to  point.  The  use  of  the  log,  simple  as  it 
appears  to  us,  was  unknown  to  the  ancients.  But,  great  as  would 
naturally  be  the  errors  resulting  from  such  imperfect  means  of  cal- 
culation, they  were  in  most  cases  increased  by  the  permanent  error 
arising  from  the  erroneous  system  of  graduation  adopted  by  Ptolemy 
in  laying  them  down  upon  his  map.  Thus,  if  he  had  arrived  at 
the  conclusion  from  itineraries  that  two  places  were  5000  stadia 
from  one  another,  he  would  place  them  at  a  distance  of  10°  apart, 
and  thus  in  fact  separate  them  by  an  interval  of  6000  stadia. 

Another  source  of  permanent  error  (though  one  of  much  less  im- 
portance) which  affected  all  his  longitudes  arose  from  the  errone- 
ous assumption  of  his  prime  meridian.  In  this  respect  also  he 
followed  Marinus,  who,  having  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
Fortunate  Islands  (the  Canaries)  were  situated  farther  west  than 
any  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  had  taken  the  meridian 
through  the  outermost  of  this  group  as  his  prime  meridian,  from 
whence  he  calculated  all  his  longitudes  eastwards  to  the  Indian 
Ocean.  But,  as  both  Marinus  and  Ptolemy  were  very  imperfectly 
acquainted  with  the  position  and  arrangements  of  the  islands  in 
question,  the  line  thus  assumed  was  in  reality  a  purely  imaginary 
one,  being  drawn  through  the  supposed  position  of  the  outer  island, 
which  they  placed  2^°  west  of  the  Sacred  Promontory  (Cape  St 
Vincent),  which  was  regarded  by  Marinus  and  Ptolemy,  as  it  had 
been  by  all  previous  geographers,  as  the  westernmost  point  of  the 
continent  of  Europe, — while  the  real  difference  between  the  two  is 
not  less  than  9°  20'.  Hence  all  Ptolemy's  longitudes,  reckoned  east- 
wards from  this  assumed  line,  were  in  fact  about  7°  less  than  they 
would  have  been  if  really  measured  from  the  meridian  of  Ferro, 
which  continued  so  long  in  use  among  geographers  in  modern, 
times.  The  error  iu  this  instance  was  the  more  unfortunate  as  the 
longitude  could  not  of  course  be  really  measured,  or  even  calculated, 
from  this  imaginary  line,  but  was  in  reality  calculated  in  both 
directions  from  Alexandria,  westwards  as  well  as  eastwards  (as 
Ptolemy  himself  has  done  in  his  eighth  book)  and  afterwards  re- 
versed, so  as  to  suit  the  supposed  method  of  computation. 

It  must  be  observed  also  that  the  equator  was  in  like  manner 
placed  by  Ptolemy  at  a  considerable  distance  from  its  true  geo- 
graphical position.  The  place  of  the  equinoctial  line  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  globe  was  of  course  well  known  to  him  as  a  matter  of 
theory,  but  as  no  observations  could  have  been  made  in  those 
remote  regions  he  could  only  calculate  its  place  from  that  of  the 
tropic,  which  he  supposed  to  pass  through  Syene.  And  as  he  here, 
as  elsewhere,  reckoned  a  degree  of  latitude  as  equivalent  to  500 
stadia,  he  inevitably  made  the  interval  between  the  tropic  and  the 
equator  too  small  by  one-sixth  ;  and  the  place  of  the  former  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth  being  fixed  by  observation  he  necessarily  carried 
up  the  supposed  place  of  the  equator  too  high  by  more  than  230 
geographical  miles.  But  as  he  had  practically  no  geographical 
acquaintance  with  the  equinoctial  regions  of  the  earth  this  error 
was  of  little  importance. 

With  Marinus  and  Ptolemy,  as  with  all  preceding  Greek  geo- 
graphers, the  most  important  line  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  for 
all  practical  purposes  was  the  parallel  of  36°  of  latitude,  which 
passes  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  at  one  end  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  through  the  Island  of  Rhodes  and  the  Gulf  of  Issus  at 
the  other.  It  was  thus  regarded  by  Dicsearchus  and  almost  all  his 
successors  as  dividing  the  regions  around  the  inland  sea  into  two 
portions,  and  as  being  continued  in  theory  along  the  chain  of  Mount 
Taurus  till  it  joined  the  great  mountain  range  north  of  India ;  and 
from  thence  to  the  Eastern  Ocean  it  was  regarded  as  constituting 
the  dividing  line  of  the  Inhabited  World,  along  which  its  length 
must  be  measured.  But  it  sufficiently  shows  how  inaccurate  were 
the  observations  and  how  imperfect  the  materials  at  his  command, 
even  in  regard  to  the  best  known  portions  of  the  earth,  that  Ptolemy, 
following  Marinus,  describes  this  parallel  as  passing  through  Caralis 
in  Sardinia  and  Lilybseum  in  Sicily,  the  one  being  really  in  39° 
12'  lat.,  the  other  in  37°  50'.  It  is  still  more  strange  that  he  places 
so  important  and  well  known  a  city  as  Carthage  1°  20'  south  of  the 
dividing  parallel,  while  it  really  lies  nearly  1°  to  the  north  of  it. 


1  Hipparchus  had  indeed  pointed  out  long  before  the  mode  of  de- 
termining longitudes  by  observations  of  eclipses,  but  the  instance  to 
which  he  referred  of  the  celebrated  eclipse  before  the  battle  of  Arbela, 
which  was  seen  also  at  Carthage,  was  a  mere  matter  of  popular  obser- 
vation, of  no  scientific  value.  Yet  Ptolemy  seems  to  have  known  of 
no  other.  - 


PTOLEMY 


93 


The  great  problem  that  had  attracted  the  attention  and  exercised 
the  ingenuity  of  all  geographers  from  the  time  of  Dicsearchus  to 
that  of  Ptolemy  was  to  determine  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
Inhabited  World,  which  they  justly  regarded  as  the  chief  subject  of 
the  geographer's  consideration.  This  question  had  been  very  fully 
discussed  by  Marinus,  who  had  arrived  at  conclusions  widely  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  his  predecessors.  Towards  the  north  indeed 
there  was  no  great  difference  of  opinion,  the  latitude  of  Thule  being 
generally  recognized  as  that  of  the  highest  northern  land,  and  this 
was  placed  both  by  Marinus  and  Ptolemy  in  63°  lat,  not  very  far 
beyond  the  true  position  of  the  Shetland  Islands,  which  had  come 
in  their  time  to  be  generally  identified  with  the  mysterious  Thule 
of  Pytheas.  The  western  extremity,  as  already  mentioned,  had  been 
in  like  manner  determined  by  the  prime  meridian  drawn  through 
the  supposed  position  of  the  Fortunate  Islands.  But  towards  the 
south  and  east  Marinus  gave  an  enormous  extension  to  the  con- 
tinents of  Africa  and  Asia,  beyond  what  had  been  known  to  or 
suspected  by  the  earlier  geographers,  and,  though  Ptolemy  greatly 
reduced  his  calculations,  he  still  retained  a  very  exaggerated  esti- 
mate of  their  results. 

The  additions  thus  made  to  the  estimated  dimensions  of  the 
known  world  were  indeed  in  both  directions  based  upon  a  real  exten- 
sion of  knowledge,  derived  from  recent  information  ;  but  unfortu- 
nately the  original  statements  were  so  perverted  by  misinterpretation 
in  applying  them  to  the  construction  of  a  map  as  to  give  results 
differing  widely  from  the  truth.  The  southern  limit  of  the  world 
as  known  to  Eratosthenes,  and  even  to  Strabo  (who  had  in  this 
respect  no  further  knowledge  than  his  predecessor  more  than  two 
centuries  before),  had  been  fixed  by  them  at  the  parallel  which 
passed  through  the  eastern  extremity  of  Africa  (Cape  Guardafui),  or 
the  Land  of  Cinnamon  as  they  termed  it,  and  that  of  the  Sembritse 
(corresponding  to  Sennaar)  in  the  interior  of  the  same  continent. 
This  parallel,  which  would  correspond  nearly  to  that  of  10°  of  true 
latitude,  they  supposed  to  be  situated  at  a  distance  of  3400  stadia 
(340  geographical  miles)  from  that  of  Meroe  (the  position  of  which 
was  accurately  known),  and  13,400  to  the  south  of  Alexandria  ; 
while  they  conceived  it  as  passing,  when  prolonged  to  the  eastward, 
through  the  island  of  Taprobane  (Ceylon),  which  was  universally 
recognized  as  the  southernmost  land  of  Asia.  Both  these  geo- 
graphers were  wholly  ignorant  of  the  vast  extension  of  Africa  to 
the  south  of  this  line  and  even  of  the  equator,  and  conceived  it  as 
trending  away  to  the  west  from  the  Land  of  Cinnamon  and  then 
to  the  north-west  to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  Marinus  had,  how- 
ever, learned  from  itineraries  both  by  land  and  sea  the  fact  of  this 
great  extension,  of  which  he  had  indeed  conceived  so  exaggerated 
an  idea  that  even  after  Ptolemy  had  reduced  it  by  more  than  a  half 
it  was  still  materially  in  excess  of  the  truth.  The  eastern  coast  of 
Africa  was  indeed  tolerably  well  known,  being  frequented  by  Greek 
and  Roman  traders,  as  far  as  a  place  called  Rhapta,  opposite  to 
Zanzibar,  and  this  is  placed  by  Ptolemy  not  far  from  its  true  posi- 
tion in  7°  S.  lat.  But  he  added  to  this  a  bay  of  great  extent  as  far 
as  a  promontory  called  Prasum  (perhaps  Cape  Delgado),  which  he 
placed  in  15^°  S.  lat.  At  the  same  time  he  assumed  the  position 
in  about  the  same  parallel  of  a  region  called  Agisymba,  which  was 
supposed  to  have  been  discovered  by  a  Roman  general,  whose 
itinerary  was  employed  by  Marinus.  Taking,  therefore,  this  parallel 
as  the  limit  of  knowledge  to  the  south,  while  he  retained  that  of 
Thule  to  the  north,  he  assigned  to  the  inhabited  world  a  breadth  of 
nearly  80°,  instead  of  less  than  60°,  which  it  had  occupied  on  the 
maps  of  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo. 

It  had  been  a  fixed  belief  with  all  the  Greek  geographers  from 
the  earliest  attempts  at  scientific  geography  not  only  that  the 
length  of  the  Inhabited  World  greatly  exceeded  its  breadth,  but 
that  it  was  more  than  twice  as  great, — a  wholly  unfounded  assump- 
tion, but  to  which  their  successors  seem  to  have  felt  themselves 
bound  to  conform.  Thus  Marinus,  while  giving  an  undue  extension 
to  Africa  towards  the  south,  fell  into  a  similar  error,  but  to  a  far 
greater  degree,  in  regard  to  the  extension  of  Asia  towards  the  east. 
Here  also  he  really  possessed  a  great  advance  in  knowledge  over  all 
his  predecessors,  the  increased  trade  with  China  for  silk  having  led 
to  an  acquaintance,  though  of  course  of  a  very  vague  and  general 
kind,  with  the  vast  regions  in  Central  Asia  that  lay  to  the  east  of 
the  Pamir  range,  which  had  formed  the  limit  of  the  Asiatic  nations 
previously  known  to  the  Greeks.  But  Marinus  had  learned  that 
traders  proceeding  eastward  from  the  Stone  Tower — a  station  at  the 
foot  of  this  range — to  Sera,  the  capital  city  of  the  Seres,  occupied 
seven  months  on  the  journey,  and  from  thence  he  arrived  at  the 
enormous  result  that  the  distance  between  the  two  points  was  not 
less  than  36,200  stadia,  or  3620  geographical  miles.  Ptolemy,  while 
he  justly  points  out  the  absurdity  of  this  conclusion  and  the  errone- 
ous mode  of  computation  on  which  it  was  founded,  had  no  means  of 
correcting  it  by  any  real  authority,  and  hence  reduced  it  summarily 
by  one  half.  The  effect  of  this  was  to  place  Sera,  the  easternmost 
point  on  his  map  of  Asia,  at  a  distance  of  45^°  from  the  Stone 
Tower,  which  again  he  fixed,  on  the  authority  of  itineraries  cited  by 
Marinus,  at  24,000  stadia  or  60°  of  longitude  from  the  Euphrates, 
reckoning  in  both  cases  a  degree  of  longitude  as  equivalent  to  400 


stadia,  in  accordance  with  his  uniform  system  of  allowing  500 
stadia  to  1°  of  latitude.  Both  distances  were  greatly  in  excess  of 
the  truth,  independently  of  the  error  arising  from  this  mistaken 
system  of  graduation.  The  distances  west  of  the  Euphrates  were 
of  course  comparatively  well  known,  nor  did  Ptolemy's  calculation 
of  the  length  of  the  Mediterranean  differ  very  materially  from  those 
of  previous  Greek  geographers,  though  still  greatly  exceeding  the 
truth,  after  allowing  for  the  permanent  error  of  graduation.  The 
effect  of  this  last  cause,  it  must  be  remembered,  would  unfortunately 
be  cumulative,  in  consequence  of  the  longitudes  being  computed 
from  a  fixed  point  in  the  west,  instead  of  being  reckoned  east  and 
west  from  Alexandria,  which  was  undoubtedly  the  mode  in  which 
they  were  really  calculated.  The  result  of  these  combined  causes 
of  error  was  to  lead  him  to  assign  no  less  than  180°,  or  12  hours,  of 
longitude  to  the  interval  between  the  meridian  of  the  Fortunate 
Islands  and  that  of  Sera,  which  really  amounts  to  about  130°. 

But  in  thus  estimating  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  known 
world  Ptolemy  attached  a  very  different  sense  to  these  terms  from 
that  which  they  had  generally  borne  with  preceding  writers.  All 
former  Greek  geographers,  with  the  single  exception  of  Hipparchus, 
had  agreed  in  supposing  the  Inhabited  World  to  be  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  sea,  and  to  form  in  fact  a  vast  island  in  the  midst  of 
a  circumfluous  ocean.  This  notion,  which  was  probably  derived 
originally  from  the  Homeric  fiction  of  an  ocean  stream,  and  was 
certainly  not  based  upon  direct  observation,  was  nevertheless  of 
course  in  accordance  with  the  truth,  great  as  was  the  misconception 
it  involved  of  the  extent  and  magnitude  of  the  continents  included 
within  this  assumed  boundary.  Hence  it  was  unfortunate  that 
Ptolemy  should  in  this  respect  have  gone  back  to  the  views  of 
Hipparchus,  and  have  assumed  that  the  land  extended  indefinitely 
to  the  north  in  the  case  of  Europe  and  Scythia,  to  the  east  in  that 
of  Asia,  and  to  the  south  in  that  of  Africa.  His  boundary-line  was 
in  each  of  these  cases  an  arbitrary  limit,  beyond  which  lay  the 
Unknown  Land,  as  he  calls  it.  But  in  the  last  case  he  was  not 
content  with  giving  to  Africa  an  indefinite  extension  to  the  south : 
he  assumed  the  existence  of  a  vast  prolongation  of  the  land  to  the 
east  from  its  southernmost  known  point,  so  as  to  form  a  connexion 
with  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  Asia,  of  the  extent  and  position 
of  which  he  had  a  wholly  erroneous  idea. 

In  this  last  case  Marinus  had  derived  from  the  voyages  of  recent 
navigators  in  the  Indian  Seas  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  there 
lay  in  that  direction  extensive  lands  which  had  been  totally  un- 
known to  previous  geographers,  and  Ptolemy  had  acquired  still 
more  extensive  information  in  this  quarter.  But  unfortunately  he 
had  formed  a  totally  false  conception  of  the  bearings  of  the  coasts 
thus  made  known,  and  consequently  of  the  position  of  the  lands  to 
which  they  belonged,  and,  instead  of  carrying  the  line  of  coast 
northwards  from  the  Golden  Chersonese  (the  Malay  Peninsula)  to 
China  or  the  land  of  the  Sinse,  he  brought  it  down  again  towards 
the  south  after  forming  a  great  bay,  so  that  he  placed  Cattigara — 
the  principal  emporium  in  this  part  of  Asia,  and  the  farthest  point 
known  to  him — on  a  supposed  line  of  coast,  of  unknown  extent, 
but  with  a  direction  from  north  to  south.  The  hypothesis  that 
this  land  was  continuous  with  the  most  southern  part  of  Africa, 
so  that  the  two  enclosed  one  vast  gulf,  though  a  mere  assumption, 
is  stated  by  him  as  definitely  as  if  it  was  based  upon  positive  in- 
formation ;  and  it  was  long  received  by  mediaeval  geographers  as  an 
unquestioned  fact.  This  circumstance  undoubtedly  contributed 
to  perpetuate  the  error  of  supposing  that  Africa  could  not  be  cir- 
cumnavigated, in  opposition  to  the  more  correct  views  of  Strabo 
and  other  earlier  geographers.  On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  undue  extension  of  Asia  towards  the  east,  so  as  to 
diminish  by  50°  of  longitude  the  interval  between  that  continent 
and  the  western  coasts  of  Europe,  had  a  material  influence  in  foster- 
ing the  belief  of  Columbus  and  others  that  it  was  possible  to  reach 
the  Land  of  Spices  (as  the  East  Indian  islands  were  then  called) 
by  direct  navigation  towards  the  west. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  Ptolemy  should  have  fallen  into  con- 
siderable errors  respecting  the  more  distant  quarters  of  the  world  ; 
but  even  in  regard  to  the  Mediterranean  and  its  dependencies,  as 
well  as  the  regions  that  surrounded  them,  with  which  he  was  in  a 
certain  sense  well  acquainted,  the  imperfection  of  his  geographical 
knowledge  is  strikingly  apparent.  Here  he  had  indeed  some 
well-established  data  for  his  guidance,  as  far  as  latitudes  were  con- 
cerned. That  of  Massilia  had  been  determined  many  years  before 
by  Pytheas  within  a  few  miles  of  its  true  position,  and  the  latitude 
of  Rome,  as  might  be  expected,  was  known  with  approximate 
accuracy.  Those  of  Alexandria  and  Rhodes  also  were  well  known, 
having  been  the  place  of  observation  of  distinguished  astronomers, 
and  the  fortunate  accident  that  the  Island  of  Rhodes  lay  on  the 
same  parallel  of  latitude  with  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  at  the  other 
end  of  the  sea  enabled  him  to  connect  the  two  by  drawing  the 
parallel  direct  from  the  one  to  the  other.  The  importance  attached 
to  this  line  (36°  N.  lat.)  by  all  preceding  geographers  has  been 
already  mentioned.  Unfortunately  Ptolemy,  like  his  predecessors, 
supposed  its  course  to  lie  almost  uniformly  through  the  open  sea, 
wholly  ignoring  the  great  projection  of  the  African  coast  towards 


94 


PTOLEMY 


the  north  from  Carthage  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  straits.  The 
erroneous  position  assigned  to  the  former  city  has  been  already 
adverted  to,  and,  being  supposed  to  rest  upon  astronomical  observa- 
tion, doubtless  determined  that  of  all  the  north  coast  of  Africa. 
The  result  was  that  he  assigned  to  the  width  of  the  Mediterranean 
from  Massilia  to  the  opposite  point  of  the  African  coast  an  extent 
of  more  than  11°  of  latitude,  while  it  does  not  really  exceed  6^°. 

At  the  same  time  he  was  still  more  at  a  loss  in  respect  of  longi- 
tudes, for  which  he  had  absolutely  no  trustworthy  observations  to 
guide  him  ;  but  he  nevertheless  managed  to  arrive  at  a  result  con- 
siderably nearer  the  truth  than  had  been  attained  by  previous  geo- 
graphers, all  of  whom  had  greatly  exaggerated  the  length  of  the 
Inland  Sea.  Their  calculations,  like  those  of  Marinus  and  Ptolemy, 
could  only  be  founded  on  the  imperfect  estimates  of  mariners  ;  but 
unfortunately  Ptolemy,  in  translating  the  conclusions  thus  arrived 
at  into  a  scientific  form,  vitiated  all  his  results  by  his  erroneous 
system  of  graduation,  and,  while  the  calculation  of  Marlnus  gave  a 
distance  of  24, 800  stadia  as  the  length  of  the  Mediterranean  from 
the  straits  to  the  Gulf  of  Issus,  this  was  converted  by  Ptolemy  in 
preparing  his  tables  to  an  interval  of  62°,  or  just  about  20°  beyond 
the  truth.  Even  after  correcting  the  error  due  to  his  erroneous 
computation  of  500  stadia  to  a  degree,  there  remains  an  excess  of 
nearly  500  geographical  miles,  which  was  doubtless  owing  to  the 
exaggerated  estimates  of  distances  almost  always  made  by  navi- 
gators who  had  no  real  means  of  measuring  them. 

Another  unfortunate  error  which  disfigured  the  eastern  portion 
of  his  map  of  the  Mediterranean  was  the  position  assigned  to  By- 
zantium, which  Ptolemy  (misled  in  this  instance  by  the  authority 
of  Hipparchus)  placed  in  the  same  latitude  with  Massilia  (43°  5'), 
thus  carrying  it  up  more  than  2°  above  its  true  position.  This  had 
the  inevitable  effect  of  transferring  the  whole  of  the  Euxine  Sea — 
with  the  general  form  and  dimensions  of  which  he  was  fairly  well 
acquainted — too  far  to  the  north  by  the  same  amount ;  but  in  addi- 
tion to  this  he  enormously  exaggerated  the  extent  of  the  Palus 
Mseotis  (the  Sea  of  Azof!),  which  he  at  the  same  time  represented 
as  having  its  direction  from  south  to  north,  so  that  by  the  com- 
bined effect  of  these  two  errors  he  carried  up  its  northern  extremity 
(with  the  mouth  of  the  Tanais  and  the  city  of  that  name)  as  high 
as  54°  30',  or  on  the  true  parallel  of  the  south  shore  of  the  Baltic. 
Yet,  while  he  fell  into  this  strange  misconception  with  regard  to 
the  great  river  which  was  universally  considered  by  the  ancients  as 
the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia,  he  was  the  first  writer  of 
antiquity  who  showed  a  clear  conception  of  the  true  relations  be- 
tween the  Tanais  and  the  Rha  or  Volga,  which  he  correctly  described 
as  flowing  into  the  Caspian  Sea.  With  respect  to  this  last  also  he 
was  the  first  geographer  after  the  time  of  Alexander  to  return  to  the 
correct  view  (already  found  in  Herodotus)  that  it  was  an  inland 
sea,  without  any  communication  with  the  Northern  Ocean. 

With  regard  to  the  north  of  Europe  his  views  were  still  very 
vague  and  imperfect.  He  had  indeed  considerably  more  acquaint- 
ance with  the  British  Islands  than  any  previous  geographer,  and 
even  showed  a  tolerably  accurate  knowledge  of  some  portions  of 
their  shores.  But  his  map  was,  in  this  instance,  disfigured  by  two 
unfortunate  errors, — the  one,  that  he  placed  Ireland  (which  he  calls 
Ivernia)  altogether  too  far  to  the  north,  so  that  its  southernmost 
portion  was  brought  actually  to  a  latitude  beyond  that  of  North 
Wales  ;  the  other,  which  was  probably  connected  with  it,  that  the 
whole  of  Scotland  is  twisted  round,  so  as  to  bring  its  general  exten- 
sion into  a  direction  from  west  to  east,  instead  of  from  south  to 
north,  and  place  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island  on  the  same 
parallel  with  the  promontory  of  Galloway.  He  appears  to  have 
been  embarrassed  in  this  part  of  his  map  by  his  having  adopted 
the  conclusion  of  Marinus — based  upon  what  arguments  we  know 
not — that  Thule  was  situated  in  63°,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
regarded  it,  in  conformity  with  the  received  view  of  all  earlier 
geographers,  as  the  most  northern  of  all  known  lands.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  same  assumption  Ptolemy  supposed  the  northern 
coast  of  Germany,  which  he  believed  to  be  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Great  Ocean,  to  have  a  general  direction  from  west  to  east,  while 
he  placed  it  not  very  far  from  the  true  position  of  that  of  the  Baltic, 
of  the  existence  of  which  as  an  inland  sea  he  was  wholly  ignorant, 
as  well  as  of  the  vast  peninsula  of  Scandinavia  beyond  it,  and  only 
inserted  the  name  of  Scandia  as  that  of  an  island  of  inconsiderable 
dimensions.  At  the  same  time  he  supposed  the  coast  of  Sarmatia 
from  the  Vistula  eastwards  to  trend  away  to  the  north  as  far  as 
the  parallel  of  Thule  ;  nor  did  he  conceive  this  as  an  actual  limit, 
but  believed  the  Unknown  Land  to  extend  indefinitely  in  this 
direction,  as  also  to  the  north  of  Asiatic  Scythia. 

The  enormous  extent  assigned  by  him  to  the  latter  region  has 
been  already  adverted  to ;  but  vague  and  erroneous  as  were  his 
views  concerning  it,  it  is  certain  that  they  show  a  much  greater 
approximation  to  the  troth  than  those  of  earlier  geographers,  who 
possessed  hardly  a  suspicion  of  the  vast  tracts  in  question,  which 
stretch  across  Central  Asia  from  the  borders  of  Sarmatia  to  those 
of  China.  Ptolemy  was  also  the  first  who  had  anything  like  a 
clear  idea  of  the  chain  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Imaus,  and 
correctly  regarded  as  having  a  direction  across  Scythia  from  south 


to  north,  so  as  to  divide  that  great  region  into  two  distinct  portions 
which  he  termed  Scythia  intra  Imaum  and  Scythia  extra  Imaum, 
corresponding  in  some  degree  with  those  recognized  in  modern 
maps  as  Independent  and  Chinese  Tartary.  The  Imaus  of  Ptolemy 
corresponds  clearly  to  the  range  known  in  modern  days  as  the  Bolor 
or  Pamir,  which  has  only  been  fully  explored  in  quite  recent  times. 
It  was,  however,  enormously  misplaced,  being  transferred  to  140"  E. 
long.,  or  80°  east  of  Alexandria,  the  real  interval  between  the  two 
being  little  more  than  40°. 

It  is  in  respect  of  the  southern  shores  of  Asia  that  Ptolemy's 
geography  is  especially  faulty,  and  his  errors  are  here  the  more 
unfortunate  as  they  were  associated  with  greatly  increased  know- 
ledge in  a  general  way  of  the  regions  in  question.  For  more  than 
a  century  before  his  time,  indeed,  the  commercial  relations  between 
Alexandria,  as  the  great  emporium  of  the  Roman  empire,  and 
India  had  assumed  a  far  more  important  character  than  at  any 
former  period,  and  the  natural  consequence  was  a  greatly  increased 
geographical  knowledge  of  the  Indian  peninsula.  The  little  tract 
called  the  Periplus  of  the  Erythraean  Sea,  about  80  A.D.,  contains 
sailing  directions  for  merchants  to  the  western  ports  of  that 
country,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  the  coast  of  Malabar, 
and  correctly  indicates  that  the  coast  from  Barygaza  southwards 
had  a  general  direction  from  north  to  south  as  far  as  the  extremity 
of  the  peninsula  (Cape  Comorin).  We  are  utterly  ignorant  of  the 
reasons  which  induced  Marinus,  followed  in  this  instance  as  in  so 
many  others  by  Ptolemy,  to  depart  from  this  correct  view,  and, 
while  giving  to  the  coast  of  India,  from  the  mouths  of  the  Indus 
to  those  of  the  Ganges,  an  undue  extension  in  longitude,  to  curtail 
its  extension  towards  the  south  to  such  an  amount  as  to  place  Cape 
Cory  (the  southernmost  point  of  the  peninsula)  only  4°  of  latitude 
south  of  Barygaza,  the  real  intervals  being  more  than  800  geo- 
graphical miles,  or,  according  to  Ptolemy's  system  of  graduation, 
16°  of  latitude  !  This  enormous  error,  which  lias  the  effect  of  dis- 
torting the  whole  appearance  of  the  south  coast  of  Asia,  is  associated 
with  another  equally  extraordinary,  but  of  an  opposite  tendency, 
in  regard  to  the  neighbouring  island  of  Taprobane  or  Ceylon,  the 
dimensions  of  which  had  been  exaggerated  by  most  of  the  earlier 
Greek  geographers  ;  but  to  such  an  extent  was  this  carried  by 
Ptolemy  as  to  extend  it  through  not  less  than  15°  of  latitude  and 
12°  of  longitude,  so  as  to  make  it  about  fourteen  times  as  large 
as  the  reality,  and  bring  down  its  southern  extremity  more  than  2° 
to  the  south  of  the  equator. 

We  have  much  less  reason  to  be  surprised  at  finding  similar 
distortions  in  respect  to  the  regions  beyond  the  Ganges,  concern- 
ing which  he  is  our  only  ancient  authority.  During  the  interval 
which  elapsed  between  the  date  of  the  Periplus  and  that  of 
Marinus  it  is  certain  that  some  adventurous  Greek  mariners  had 
not  only  crossed  the  great  Gangetic  Gulf  and  visited  the  land  on 
the  opposite  side,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  the  Golden 
Chersonese,  but  they  had  pushed  their  explorations  considerably 
farther  to  the  east,  as  far  as  Cattigara.  It  was  not  to  bo  expected 
that  these  commercial  ventures  should  have  brought  back  any 
accurate  geographical  information,  and  accordingly  we  find  the  con- 
ception entertained  by  Ptolemy  of  these  newly  discovered  regions 
to  be  very  different  from  the  reality.  Not  only  had  the  distances, 
as  was  usually  the  case  with  ancient  navigators  in  remote  quarters, 
been  greatly  exaggerated,  but  the  want  of  accurate  observations 
of  bearings  was  peculiarly  unfortunate  in  a  case  where  the  real 
features  of  the  coast  and  the  adjoining  islands  were  so  intricate 
and  exceptional.  A  glance  at  the  map  appended  to  the  article 
MAP  (vol.  xv.  Plate  VII.)  will  at  once  show  the  entire  discrepancy 
between  the  configuration  of  this  part  of  Asia  as  conceived  by 
Ptolemy  and  its  true  formation.  Yet  with  the  materials  at  his 
command  we  can  hardly  wonder  at  his  not  having  arrived  at  a 
nearer  approximation  to  the  truth.  The  most  unfortunate  error 
was  his  idea  that  after  passing  the  Great  Gulf,  which  lay  beyond 
the  Golden  Chersonese,  the  coast  trended  away  to  the  south, 
instead  of  towards  the  north,  and  he  thus  placed  Cattigara  (which 
was  probably  one  of  the  ports  in  the  south  of  China)  not  less 
than  8^°  south  of  the  equator.  It  is  probable  that  in  this  instance 
he  was  misled  by  his  own  theoretical  conclusions,  and  carried 
this  remotest  part  of  the  Asiatic  continent  so  far  to  the  south 
with  the  view  of  connecting  it  with  his  assumed  eastward  pro- 
longation of  that  of  Africa. 

Notwithstanding  this  last  theoretical  assumption  Ptolemy's  map 
of  Africa  presents  a  marked  improvement  upon  those  of  Erato- 
sthenes and  Strabo.  But  his  knowledge  of  the  west  coast,  which 
he  conceived  as  having  its  direction  nearly  on  a  meridional  line 
from  north  to  south,  was  very  imperfect,  and  his  latitudes  utterly 
erroneous.  Even  in  regard  to  the  Fortunate  Islands,  the  position 
of  which  was  so  important  to  his  system  in  connexion  with  his 
prime  meridian,  he  was  entirely  misinformed  as  to  their  character 
and  arrangement,  and  extended  the  group  through  a  space  of  more 
than  5°  of  latitude,  so  as  to  bring  down  the  most  southerly  of  them 
to  the  real  parallel  of  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands. 

In  regard  to  the  mathematical  construction,  or,  to  use  the 
modern  phrase,  the  projection  of  his  maps,  not  only  was  Ptolemy 


PTOLEMY 


95 


greatly  in  advance  of  all  his  predecessors,  but  his  theoretical  skill 
was  altogether  beyond  the  nature  of  the  materials  to  which  he 
applied  it.  The  methods  by  which  he  obviated  the  difficulty  of 
transferring  the  delineation  of  different  countries  from  the  spherical 
surface  of  the  globe  to  the  plane  surface  of  an  ordinary  map  differed 
indeed  but  little  from  those  in  use  at  the  present  day,  and  the 
errors  arising  from  this  cause  (apart  from  those  produced  by  his 
fundamental  error  of  graduation)  were  really  of  little  consequence 
compared  with  the  defective  character  of  his  information  arid  the 
want  of  anything  approaching  to  a  survey  of  the  countries  deline- 
ated. He  himself  was  well  aware  of  his  deficiencies  in  this  respect, 
and,  while  giving  full  directions  for  the  scientific  construction  of  a 
general  map,  he  contents  himself  for  the  special  maps  of  different 
countries  with  the  simple  method  employed  by  Marinus  of  drawing 
the  parallels  of  latitude  and  meridians  of  longitude  as  straight  lines, 
assuming  in  each  case  the. proportion  between  the  two,  as  it  really 
stood  with  respect  to  some  one  parallel  towards  the  middle  of  the 
map,  and  neglecting  the  inclination  of  the  meridians  to  one  another. 
Such  a  course,  as  he  himself  repeatedly  affirms,  will  not  make  any 
material  difference  within  the  limits  of  each  special  map. 

Ptolemy's  geographical  work  was  devoted  almost  exclusively  to 
the  mathematical  branch  of  his  subject,  and  its  peculiar  arrange- 
ment, in  which  his  results  are  presented  in  a  tabular  form,  instead 
of  being  at  once  embodied  in  a  map,  was  undoubtedly  designed  to 
enable  the  geographical  student  to  construct  his  maps  for  himself, 
instead  of  depending  upon  those  constructed  ready  to  his  hand. 
This  purpose  it  has  abundantly  served,  and  there  is  little  doubt 
that  we  owe  to  the  peculiar  form  thus  given  to  his  results  their 
transmission  in  a  comparatively  perfect  condition  to  the  present 
day.  Unfortunately  the  specious  appearance  of  the  results  thus 
presented  to  us  has  led  to  a  very  erroneous  estimate  of  their  accu- 
racy, and  it  has  been  too  often  supposed  that  what  was  stated  in  so 
scientific  a  form  must  necessarily  be  based  upon  scientific  observa- 
tions. Though  Ptolemy  himself  has  distinctly  pointed  out  in  his 
first  book  the  defective  nature  of  his  materials  and  the  true  char- 
acter of  the  data  furnished  by  his  tables,  few  readers  studied  this 
portion  of  his  work,  and  his  statements  were  generally  received 
with  the  same  undoubting  faith  as  was  justly  attached  to  his 
astronomical  observations.  It  is  only  in  quite  recent  times  that 
his  conclusions  have  been  estimated  at  their  just  value,  and  the 
apparently  scientific  character  of  his  work  shown  to  be  in  most 
cases  a  specious  edifice  resting  upon  no  adequate  foundations. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  work  of  Ptolemy  was  from  the 
time  of  its  first  publication  accompanied  with  maps,  which  are 
regularly  referred  to  in  the  eighth  book.  But  how  far  those  which 
are  now  extant  represent  the  original  series  is  a  disputed  point. 
In  two  of  the  most  ancient  MSS.  it  is  expressly  stated  that  the 
maps  which  accompany  them  are  the  work  of  one  Agathodfemon  of 
Alexandria,  who  "  drew  them  according  to  the  eight  books  of 
Claudius  Ptolemy. "  This  expression  might  equally  apply  to  the 
work  of  a  contemporary  draughtsman  under  the  eyes  of  Ptolemy 
himself,  or  to  that  of  a  skilful  geographer  at  a  later  period,  and 
nothing  is  known  from  any  other  source  concerning  this  Agatho- 
daemon.  The  attempt  to  identify  him  with  a  grammarian  of  the 
same  name  who  lived  in  the  5th  century  is  wholly  without  founda- 
tion. But  it  appears,  on  the  whole,  most  probable  that  the  maps 
appended  to  the  MSS.  still  extant  have  been  transmitted  by  unin- 
terrupted tradition  from  the  time  of  Ptolemy. 

2.  Progress  of  Geographical  Knowledge. — The  above  examination 
of  the  methods  pursued  by  Ptolemy  in  framing  hio  general  map  of 
the  world,  or  according  to  the  phrase  universally  employed  by  the 
ancients,  the  Inhabited  World  (^  OIKOI^P??),  has  already  drawn 
attention  to  the  principal  extensions  of  geographical  knowledge 
since. the  time  of  Strabo. 

While  anything  like  an  accurate  acquaintance  was  still  confined 
to  the  limits  of  the  Roman  empire  and  the  regions  that  immediately 
adjoined  it,  with  the  addition  of  the  portions  of  Asia  that  had  been 
long  known  to  the  Greeks,  the  geographical  horizon  had  been 
greatly  widened  towards  the  east  by  commercial  enterprise,  and 
towards  the  south  by  the  same  cause,  combined  with  expeditions 
of  a  military  character,  but  which  would  appear  to  have  been 
dictated  by  a  spirit  of  discovery.  Two  expeditions  of  this  kind 
had  been  carried  out  by  Roman  generals  before  the  time  of  Marinus, 
which,  starting  from  Fezzan,  had  penetrated  the  heart  of  the  African 
continent  due  south  as  far  as  a  tract  called  Agisymba,  "which 
was  inhabited  by  Ethiopians  and  swarmed  with  rhinoceroses." 
These  statements  point  clearly  to  the  expeditions  having  traversed 
the  great  desert  and  arrived  at  the  Soudan  or  Negroland.  But  the 
actual  position  of  Agisymba  cannot  be  determined  except  by  mere 
conjecture.  The  absurdly  exaggerated  view  taken  by  Marinus  has 
been  already  noticed  ;  but,  even  after  his  estimate  had  been  reduced 
by  Ptolemy  by  more  than  one-half,  the  position  assigned  by  that 
author  to  Agisymba  was  doubtless  far  in  excess  towards  the  south. 
But,  while  this  name  was  the  only  result  that  we  know  to  have 
been  derived  from  these  memorable  expeditions,  Ptolemy  found 
himself  in  possession  of  a  considerable  amount  of  information  con- 
cerning the  interior  of  northern  Africa  (from  whence  derived  we 


know  not),  to  which  nothing  similar  is  found  in  any  earlier  writer. 
Unfortunately  this  new  information  was  of  so  crude  and  vague  a 
character,  and  is  presented  to  us  in  so  embarrassing  a  form,  as  to 
perplex  rather  than  assist  the  geographical  student,  and  the  state- 
ments of  Ptolemy  concerning  the  rivers  Gir  and  Nigir,  and  the 
lakes  and  mountains  with  which  they  were  connected,  have  exer- 
cised the  ingenuity  and  bafiied  the  sagacity  of  successive  generations 
of  geographers  in  modern  times  to  interpret  or  explain  them.  It 
may  safely  be  said  that  they  present  no  resemblance  to  the  real 
features  of  the  country  as  known  to  us  by  modern  explorations, 
and  cannot  be  reconciled  with  them  except  by  the  most  arbitrary 
conjectures. 

It  is  otherwise  in  the  case  of  the  Nile.  To  discover  the  source 
of  that  river  had  been  long  an  object  of  curiosity  both  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  an  expedition  sent  out  for  that  purpose  by 
the  emperor  Nero  had  undoubtedly  penetrated  as  far  as  the  marshes 
of  the  White  Nile  ;  but  we  are  wholly  ignorant  of  the  sources  from 
whence  Ptolemy  derived  his  information.  But  his  statement  that 
the  mighty  river  derived  its  waters  from  the  confluence  of  two 
streams,  which  took  their  rise  in  two  lakes  a  little  to  the  south  of 
the  equator,  was  undoubtedly  a  nearer  approach  to  the  truth  than 
any  of  the  theories  concocted  in  modern  times  before  the  discovery 
in  our  own  days  of  the  two  great  lakes  now  known  as  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Nyanza.  He  at  the  same  time  notices  the  other  arm 
of  the  river  (the  Blue  Nile)  under  the  name  of  the  Astapus,  which 
he  correctly  describes  as  rising  in  another  lake.  In  connexion  with 
this  subject  he  introduces  a  range  of  mountains  running  from  east 
to  west,  which  he  calls  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  and  which  have 
proved  a  sad  stumbling-block  to  geographers  in  modern  times,  but 
may  now  be  safely  affirmed  to  represent  the  real  fact  of  the  exist- 
ence of  snow-covered  mountains  (Kilimanjaro  and  Keuia)  in  these 
equatorial  regions. 

Much  the  same  remarks  apply  to  Ptolemy's  geography  of  Asia  as 
to  that  of  Africa.  In  this  case  also  he  had  obtained,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  a  vague  knowledge  of  extensive  regions,  wholly  un- 
known to  the  earlier  geographers,  and  resting  to  a  certain  extent 
on  authentic  information,  though  much  exaggerated  and  misunder- 
stood. But,  while  these  informants  had  really  brought  home  some 
definite  statements  concerning  Serica  or  the  Land  of  Silk,  and  its 
capital  of  Sera,  there  lay  a  vast  region  towards  the  north  of  the 
line  of  route  leading  to  this  far  eastern  land  (supposed  by  Ptolemy 
to  be  nearly  coincident  with  the  parallel  of  40°)  of  which  appa- 
rently he  knew  nothing,  but  which  he  vaguely  assumed  to  extend 
indefinitely  northwards  as  far  as  the  limits  of  the  Unknown 
Land.  The  Jaxartes,  which  ever  since  the  time  of  Alexander  had 
been  the  boundary  of  Greek  geography  in  this  direction,  still  con- 
tinued in  that  of  Ptolemy  to  be  the  northern  limit  of  all  that  was 
really  known  of  Central  Asia.  Beyond  that  he  places  a  mass  of 
names  of  tribes,  to  which  he  could  assign  no  definite  locality,  and 
mountain  ranges  which  he  could  only  place  at  haphazard.  The 
character  of  his  information  concerning  the  south-east  of  Asia  has 
been  already  adverted  to.  But,  strangely  as  he  misplaced  Catti- 
gara  and  the  metropolis  of  Sinse  connected  with  it,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  we  recognize  in  this  name  (variously  written  Thinae 
and  Sinse)  the  now  familiar  name  of  China  ;  and  it  is  important  to 
observe  that  he  places  the  land  of  the  Sinse  immediately  south  of 
that  of  the  Seres,  showing  that  he  was  aware  of  the  connexion  be- 
tween the  two,  though  the  one  was  known  only  by  land  explora- 
tions and  the  other  by  maritime  voyages. 

In  regard  to  the  better  known  regions  of  the  world,  and  especially 
those  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  Ptolemy  according  to  his 
own  account  followed  for  the  most  part  the  guidance  of  Marinus. 
The  latter  seems  to  have  relied  to  a  great  extent  on  the  work  of 
Timosthenes  (who  flourished  more  than  two  centuries  before)  in 
respect  to  the  coasts  and  maritime  distances.  Ptolemy,  however, 
introduced  many  changes,  some  of  which  he  has  pointed  out  to  us, 
though  there  are  doubtless  many  others  which  we  have  no  means 
of  detecting.  For  the  interior  of  the  different  countries  the  Roman 
roads  and  itineraries  must  have  furnished  him  with  a  mass  of 
valuable  materials  which  had  not  been  available  to  earlier  geo- 
graphers. But  neither  Marinus  nor  Ptolemy  seems  to  have  taken 
advantage  of  this  last  resource  to  the  extent  that  we  should  have 
expected,  and  the  tables  of  the  Alexandrian  geographer  abound  with 
mistakes — even  in  countries  so  well  known  as  Gaul  and  Spain — 
which  might  easily  have  been  obviated  by  a  more  judicious  use  of 
such  Roman  authorities. 

Great  as  are  undoubtedly  the  merits  of  Ptolemy's  geographical 
work,  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  having  any  claim  to  be  a  complete 
or  satisfactory  treatise  upon  this  vast  subject.  It  was  the  work  of 
an  astronomer  rather  than  a  geographer,  in  the  highest  sense  of 
the  term.  Not  only  did  its  plan  exclude  all  description  of  the 
countries  with  which  it  dealt,  their  climate,  natural  productions, 
inhabitants,  and  peculiar  features,  all  of  which  are  included  in  the 
domain  of  the  modern  geographer,  but  even  its  physical  geography 
strictly  so  called  is  treated  in  the  most  irregular  and  perfunctory 
manner.  While  Strabo  was  fully  alive  to  the  importance  of  the 
great  rivers  and  mountain  chains  which  (to  use  his  own  expressive 


96 


P  U  B  — P  U  B 


phrase)  "geographize  "  a  country,  Ptolemy  deals  with  this  part  of  his 
subject  in  so  careless  a  manner  as  to  be  often  worse  than  useless. 
Even  in  the  case  of  a  country  so  well  known  as  Gaul  the  few  notices 
that  he  gives  of  the  great  rivers  that  play  so  important  a  part  in 
its  geography  are  disfigured  by  some  astounding  errors  ;  while  he 
does  not  notice  any  of  the  great  tributaries  of  the  Rhine,  though 
mentioning  an  obscure  streamlet,  otherwise  unknown,  because  it 
happened  to  be  the  boundary  between  two  Roman  provinces. 

The  revival  of  the  study  of  Ptolemy's  work  after  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 
influence  it  exercised  upon  the  progress  of  geography  have  been  described  in 
the  article  MAP  (vol.  xv.  p.  520).  His  Geographia  was  printed  for  the  first 
time  in  a  Latin  translation,  accompanied  with  maps,  in  1478,  and  numerous 
other  editions  followed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  and  earlier  half  of  the 
16th  century,  but  the  Greek  text  did  not  make  its  appearance  till  1533,  when 
it  was  published  at  Basel  in  4to,  edited  by  the  celebrated  Erasmus.  All  these 
early  editions,  however,  swarm  with  textual  errors,  ^nd  are  wholly  worthless 
for  critical  purposes.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  edition  of  Bertius  (Gr.  and 
Lat.,  Leyden,  1618,  typ.  Elzevir),  which  was  long  the  standard  library  edition 
of  the  work.  It  contains  a  new  set  of  maps  drawn  by  Mercator,  as  well  as  a 
fresh  series  (not  intended  to  illustrate  Ptolemy)  by  Ortelius,  the  Roman  Itiner- 
aries, including  the  Tabula  Peutingeriana,  and  much  other  miscellaneous 
matter.  The  first  attempt  at  a  really  critical  edition  was  made  by  Wilberg 
and  Grashof  (4to,  Essen,  1842),  but  this  unfortunately  was  never  completed. 
The  edition  of  Nobbe  (3  vols.  18mo,  Leipsic,  1843)  presents  the  best  Greek 
text  of  the  whole  work  as  yet  available  and  has  a  useful  index.  But  by  far 
the  best  edition,  so  far  as  completed,  is  that  published  in  Didot's  Bibliotheca 
Classicorum  Grsecorum  (Paris,  1883),  edited  by  Dr  C.  Miiller,  with  a  Latin  trans- 
lation and  a  copious  commentary,  geographical  as  well  as  critical.  The  first 
part,  which  is  all  that  has  yet  appeared,  contains  only  the  first  three  books, 
without  the  Prolegomena,  which  will  be  anxiously  expected  by  all  students  of 
Ptolemy.  (E.  H.  B.) 

PUBLIC  HEALTH.  State  medicine  as  an  organized 
department  of  administration  is  entirely  of  modern  growth. 
By  the  common  law  of  England  the  only  remedy  for  any 
act  or  omission  dangerous  to  health  was  an  action  for 
damages  or  an  indictment  for  nuisance.  (See  NUISANCE.) 
At  the  same  time  the  jurisdiction  of  the  commissioners  of 
sewers  acted  to  a  certain  extent  as  a  preventive  means. 
Commissions  of  sewers  were  granted  by  the  crown,  at 
first  in  virtue  of  the  general  prerogative,  afterwards  under 
the  provisions  of  numerous  statutes,  the  earliest  dating 
from  1427  (6  Hen.  VI.  c.  5).  The  powers  of  the  com- 
missioners included  the  removal  of  obstructions  in  rivers, 
the  making  of  fosses  and  drains,  <fcc.  Their  jurisdiction, 
where  still  existing,  is  expressly  preserved  in  the  modern 
Public  Health  Acts.  The  indictment  for  nuisance  still  lies 
for  many  offences  which  are  now  punishable  in  a  summary 
manner  under  the  powers  of  recent  legislation.  But  for  a 
long  time  it  was  the  only,  not  as  now  a  concurrent,  remedy. 
Its  obvious  defect  is  that  proceedings  can  only  be  taken 
after  the  mischief  has  been  done.  Old  examples  of 
nuisances  dangerous  to  health  and  punishable  at  common 
law  are  the  keeping  of  swine  in  a  town,  the  dividing  of  a 
house  in  a  town  so  that  by  reason  of  overcrowding  it  would 
be  more  dangerous  in  time  of  sickness  or  plague,  and  the 
carrying  on  of  offensive  trades,  such  as  the  melting  of 
tallow.  The  court  leet  seems  to  have  had  some  jurisdic- 
tion in  sanitary  matters,  confined  to  the  prevention  of 
nuisances  and  the  determination  of  the  quality  of  provi- 
sions within  its  local  limits.  At  a  comparatively  early 
date  statutes  were  passed  dealing  with  matters  for  which 
the  common  law  had  provided  too  cumbrous  a  remedy 
The  attention  of  parliament,  though  but  to  a  slight  extent, 
was  directed  to  the  health  of  London  as  early  as  the  Statute 
of  the  City  of  London  in  1285  (13  Edw.  I.  st.  5).  The 
earliest  legislative  enactment  affecting  the  public  health 
generally  appears  to  be  12  Ric.  II.  c.  13,  1388,  forbid- 
ding the  deposit  of  offensive  matter  in  rivers  and  other 
waters,  as  well  in  the  city  of  London  as  in  other  cities. 
Acts  of  a  similar  character  were  from  time  to  time  passed 
to  meet  particular  offences,  such  as  4  and  5  Hen.  VII. 
c.  3,  by  which  no  butcher  was  to  slaughter  cattle  in 
London  or  other  walled  towns.  The  plague  called  forth 
the  Act  of  1  Jac.  I.  c.  31,  which  made  it  a  capital  offence 
for  an  infected  person  to  go  abroad  after  being  commanded 
by  the  proper  authority  to  keep  his  house.  The  Act  for 
the  rebuilding  of  London  after  the  great  fire,  19  Car.  II. 
c.  3,  contained  various  provisions  as  to  the  height  of 
houses,  breadth  of  streets,  construction  of  sewers,  and  pro- 
hibition of  noisome  trades.  In  1832  the  fear  of  cholera 


led  to  2  Will.  IV.  c.  10,  empowering  the  privy  council  to 
take  certain  preventive  measures  against  the  spread  of  the 
disease.  Numerous  local  Acts  gave  the  authorities  of  the 
more  important  towns  power  over  the  public  health.  To 
this  day  London  is  governed  by  separate  legislation.  The 
Towns  Improvement  Act,  1847,  contained  provisions  of  a 
sanitary  kind  for  incorporation  in  local  Acts.  But  it  was 
not  until  as  recently  as  1848  that  a  general  Public  Health 
Act,  embracing  the  whole  of  England  (except  the  metro- 
polis), was  passed.  The  Public  Health  Act,  1848,  created 
a  general  board  of  health  as  the  supreme  authority  in 
sanitary  matters.  The  Local  Government  Act,  1858, 
amended  the  Act  of  1848,  chiefly  in  the  direction  of 
greater  local  sanitary  control.  By  an  Act  immediately 
preceding  the  Act  of  1858  the  general  board  of  health 
was  superseded  partly  by  the  home  office,  partly  by  the 
privy  council.  The  Local  Government  Board,  the  present 
central  authority,  was  created  in  1871  by  34  and  35  Viet, 
c.  70.  The  president  of  the  Local  Government  Board  is 
usually  a  member  of  the  cabinet.  Numerous  other  Acts 
dealing  with  public  health  were  passed  from  1849  to  1874. 
Finally  in  1875  the  existing  law  was  digested  into  the 
Public  Health  Act,  1875  (38  and  39  Viet.  c.  55).1 

The  tendency  of  sanitary  legislation  has  been  to  place  local  sani- 
tary regulations  in  the  hands  of  the  local  authorities,  subject  to  a 
general  superintendence  by  a  Government  department.  The  Act 
of  1875,  which  registers  the  results  of  this  tendency,  is  a  con- 
solidating not  an  amending  Act,  and  did  not  materially  alter  the 
law.  It  is  impossible  in  this  place  to  do  more  than  give  a  short 
notice  of  its  comprehensive  provisions.  For  the  purposes  of  the 
Act  England,  except  the  metropolis,  is  divided  into  urban  and  rural 
sanitary  districts,  subject  respectively  to  the  jurisdiction  of  urban 
and  rural  sanitary  authorities.  The  urban  authority  is  either  the 
corporation  of  a  borough,  improvement  commissioners,  or  a  local 
board,  according  to  circumstances.  A  district  becomes  subject  to  a 
local  board  at  the  instance  of  either  the  Local  Government  Board 
or  the  owners  and  ratepayers  of  the  district.  The  local  board  is 
elected  by  the  owners  and  ratepayers.  It  must  be  elected  before 
15th  April  in  every  year.  The  members  hold  office  for  three  years, 
one-third  retiring  every  year.  The  Oxford  local  board  is  governed 
by  regulations  peculiar  to  itself,  giving  the  university  a  large  pro- 
portion of  members.  Rural  districts  are  conterminous  with  poor- 
law  unions,  exclusive  of  any  urban  district.  The  guardians  of  the 
poor  form  the  rural  authority.  There  is  a  port  sanitary  authority 
in  seaport  towns.  (See  QUARANTINE.)  The  jurisdiction  of  a  local 
authority  is  both  preventive  and  remedial.  The  matters  falling 
under  this  jurisdiction  include  (1)  sewers,  with  certain  exceptions, 
among  which  come  sewers  under  the  authority  of  commissioners  of 
sewers,  (2)  scavenging  and  cleansing  streets,  (3)  water-supply,  (4) 
cellar-dwellings  and  lodging-houses,  (5)  nuisances,2  (6)  offensive 


1  For  the  history  of  sanitary  legislation  in  England,  see  the  Report 
of  the  Royal  Sanitary  Commission,   1869  ;  M.  D.  Chalmers,  Local 
Government,  ch.  vii. ;   Stephen,  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  bk.  iv.  pt.  iii. 
ch.  ix.  ;  G.  A.  F..  Fitzgerald,  The  Public  Health  Act,  1875,  Introd. 

2  The  list  of  nuisances  which  may  be  dealt  with  summarily  under 
the  Act  is  as  follows  : — "  (1)  any  premises  in  such  a  state  as  to  be  a 
nuisance  or  injurious  to  health ;  (2)  any  pool,  ditch,  gutter,  water- 
course, privy,  urinal,  cesspool,  drain,  or  ashpit  so  foul  or  in  such  a 
state  as  to  be  a  nuisance  or  injurious  to  health  ;  (3)  any  animal  so  kept 
as  to  be  a  nuisance  or  injurious  to  health  ;  (4)  any  accumulation  or 
deposit  which  is  a  nuisance  or  injurious  to  health  ;  (5)  any  house  or 
part  of  a  house  so  overcrowded  as  to  be  dangerous  or  injurious  to  the 
health  of  the  inmates,  whether  or  not  members  of  the  same  family ; 
(6)  any  factory,  workshop,  or  bakeshop  (not  already  under  the  opera- 
tion of  any  general  Act  for  the  regulation  of  factories  or  bakehouses) 
not  kept  in  a  cleanly  state,  or  not  ventilated  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
render  harmless  as  far  as  practicable  any  gases,  vapours,  dust,  or  other 
impurities  generated  in  the  course  of  the  work  carried  on  therein,  that 
are  a  nuisance  or  injurious  to  health,  or  so  overcrowded  while  work  is 
carried  on  as  to  be  dangerous  or  injurious  to  the  health  of  those 
employed  therein  ;  (7)  any  fireplace  or  furnace  which  does  not,  as  far 
as  practicable,  consume  the  smoke  arising  from  the  combustibles  used 
therein,  and  which  is  used  for  working  engines  by  steam,  or  in  any 
mill,  factory,  dyehouse,  brewery,  bakehouse,  or  gaswork,   or  in  any 
manufacturing  or  trade  process  whatsoever  ;    (8)  any  chimney  (not 
being  the  chimney  of  a  private  dwelling-house)  sending  forth  black 
smoke  in  such  quantity  as  to  be  a  nuisance."     In  relation  to  these 
statutory  nuisances  it  is  provided  that  no  penalty  is  to  be  inflicted  in 
respect  of  any  accumulation  or  deposit  if  it  is  necessary  for  business 
purposes  and  if  effectual  means  have  been  taken  for  preventing  injury 
therefrom  to  the  public  health,  or  in  respect  of  a  nuisance  from  uncon- 


P  U  B  — P  U  B 


97 


trades,  (7)  unsound  meat,  (8)  infectious  diseases  and  hospitals,  (9) 
prevention  of  epidemic  diseases,  (10)  mortuaries  and  (by  the  Public 
Health  Act,  1879)  cemeteries,  (11)  highways,  (12)  streets,  (13) 
buildings,  (14)  lighting,  (15)  public  pleasure-grounds,  (16)  markets 
and  slaughter-houses,  (17)  licensing  of  hackney  carriages,  horses, 
and  boats.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  jurisdiction  in  some  of  these 
cases  is  confined  to  an  urban  authority.  Contracts  made  by  an 
urban  authority,  whereof  the  value  or  amount  exceeds  £50,  must 
be  in  writing,  and  sealed  with  the  common  seal  of  the  authority. 
Where  the  contract  is  of  the  value  or  amount  of  £100  or  upwards 
tenders  for  its  execution  must  be  invited.  A  local  authority  has 
power,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Local  Government  Board,  to 
make  bye-laws  and  impose  penalties  for  their  breach.  The  authority 
must  appoint  a  medical  officer  and  an  inspector  of  nuisances  ;  if  an 
urban  authority,  it  must  in  addition  appoint  a  surveyor,  clerk,  and 
treasurer.  Officers  may  not  contract  with  a  local  authority.  An 
urban  authority  has  power  to  levy  a  general  district  rate,  a  private 
improvement  rate  (an  additional  rate  levied  in  return  for  some 
special  advantage  beyond  that  obtained  by  the  inhabitants  in 
general),  and  (in  certain  cases)  a  highway  rate.  The  expenses  of  a 
rural  authority  are  either  general  or  special,  the  latter  being  chiefly 
the  expenses  arising  from  sewerage  and  water-supply.  General 
expenses  are  defrayed  out  of  a  common  fund  raised  out  of  the  poor 
rate.  Special  expenses  are  a  charge  upon  the  contributory  places 
benefited.  A  local  authority  may,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Local 
Government  Board,  raise  loans  for  the  purposes  of  the  Act.  The 
loans  arc  charged  upon  the  general  district  rate.  Legal  proceed- 
ings under  the  Act  are  generally  summary.  Where  proceedings 
are  by  action,  one  month's  notice  of  action  must  be  given  where 
the  cause  of  action  is  anything  done,  or  intended  to  be  done,  or 
omitted  to  be  done  under  the  provisions  of  the  Act.  The  action 
must  be  brought  within  six  months  after  the  accruing  of  the  cause 
of  action.  The  local  authority  and  its  officers  are  protected  from 
personal  liability  for  matters  done  in  pursuance  of  the  Act.  An 
appeal  from  a  court  of  summary  jurisdiction  lies  to  quarter  sessions. 
In  cases  where  the  local  authority  decides  a  question  as  to  liability 
to  expenses,  an  appeal  lies  to  the  Local  Government  Board.  The 
Local  Government  Board  has  power  to  alter  areas  and  unite  dis- 
tricts, to  direct  inquiries  in  relation  to  any  matters  concerning  the 
public  health  in  any  place,  to  make  provisional  orders,  and  to 
enforce  performance  of  duty  by  a  defaulting  local  authority. 

In  addition  to  the  Public  Health  Act,  1875,  there  are 
various  Acts  incorporated  with  that  Act  under  the  name 
of  the  "Sanitary  Acts,"  dealing  with  similar  subjects. 
These  are  the  Bakehouse  Regulation  Act  (1863),  the 
Artisans  and  Labourers  Dwellings  Act  (1868),  the  Baths 
and  Washhouses  Acts,  the  Labouring  Classes  Lodging- 
House  Acts  (1851,  1866,  1867).  Since  1875  numerous 
Acts  amending  and  extending  the  Public  Health  Act  have 
been  passed,  dealing  with  (among  other  matters)  river- 
pollution,  water -supply,  hospitals  for  infectious  diseases, 
nuisance  arising  from  alkali- works,  and  lodging  of  fruit- 
pickers.  There  is  besides  a  mass  of  legislation  which  in 
fact,  if  not  in  name,  has  for  its  object  the  sanitary  welfare 
of  the  people.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention  the  Vaccination 
Acts,  the  Factory  Acts,  the  Artisans  and  Labourers  Dwell- 
ings Acts  subsequent  to  1868,  the  Merchant  Shipping  Acts 
(insuring  the  carrying  of  medicines  and  antiscorbutics  on 
board  ships,  the  provision  of  sleeping  space  for  seamen, 
and  the  inspection  of  seamen's  lodging-houses),  the  Adul- 
teration Acts,  and  the  numerous  Burial  Acts.  In  many 
local  Acts  notification  of  infectious  disease  by  the  medical 
man  in  attendance  to  the  local  authority  is  made  com- 
pulsory, but  the  legislature  has  not  as  yet  adopted  any 
general  provision  of  the  kind. 

The  scientific  aspect  of  public  health  does  not  fall  within 
the  scope  of  the  present  article ;  it  has  been  treated  under 
the  title  HYGIENK.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that  the 
effect  of  the  attention  which  of  late  years  has  been  given 
to  the  subject  is  seen  in  the  reduction  of  the  death-rate 
from  22-23  per  thousand  in  the  years  1841-51  to  21'27 
for  the  years  1871-81. 

London. — The  metropolis  is  governed  by  a  series  of  statutes, 
some  peculiar  to  itself,  others  general  Acts,  repealed  as  to  the  rest 
of  England,  but  specially  preserved  as  to  the  metropolis  by  the 
Public  Health  Act,  1875.  The  limits  of  the  metropolis  for  the 

sumed  smoke  if  it  be  proved  to  the  court  that  the  smoke  has  been 
consumed  as  far  as  practicable  and  that  the  fire  has  been  carefully 
attended  to. 


purposes  of  public  health  depend  primarily  upon  the  Metropolis 
Management  Act,  1855  (18  and  19  Viet.  c.  120,  s.  250,  schedules  A 
and  B).  The  local  authorities  are  the  metropolitan  board  of  works, 
the  vestries  and  district  boards,  and  (in  the  city  of  London)  the 
commissioners  of  sewers.  Asylums  and  hospitals  are  administered 
by  the  metropolitan  asylums  board.  The  water-supply  is  regulated 
by  the  Metropolis  Water  Acts,  1852  and  1871,  gas  by  the  Metro- 
politan Gas  Act,  1860. 

Scotland. — Sanitary  legislation  occurs  as  early  as  the  reign  of 
Alexander  III.  The  Statvita  Gilde,  c.  19,  forbn*!o  the  deposit  of 
dung  or  ashes  in  the  street,  market,  or  on  the  banks  of  the  Tweed 
at  Berwick  under  a  penalty  of  eight  shillings.  At  a  later  date  the 
Act  of  1540,  c.  20,  enacted  that  no  flesh  was  to  be  slain  in  Edinburgh 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Leith  Wynd  ;  that  of  1621,  c.  29,  fixed  the 
locality  of  fleshers  and  candlemakers.  The  existing  law  of  public 
health  is  contained  in  the  Public  Health  (Scotland)  Act,  1867  (30 
and  31  Viet.  c.  101).  The  local  authority  is  the  town  council,  the 
police  commissioners  or  trustees,  or  the  parochial  board,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  There  is  no  distinction  of  urban  and  rural 
authority.  The  central  authority  is  the  board  of  supervision  con- 
stituted by  8  and  9  Viet.  c.  83.  Proceedings  by  a  local  authority 
in  cases  of  nuisance  are  by  summary  petition  to  a  sheriff'  or  a  justice 
(in  soma  cases  only  to  a  sheriff)  upon  requisition  in  writing  under 
the  hands  of  ten  inhabitants.  An  appeal  lies  in  cases  of  sufficient 
value  from  the  sheriff-substitute  to  the  sheriff  and  from  the  sheriff' 
to  the  Court  of  Session.  The  list  of  nuisances  in  the  Act  differs, 
but  not  materially,  from  that  in  the  English  Act.  The  powers  of 
local  authorities  in  England  and  Scotland  are  very  similar.  There 
are  no  provisions  as  to  contracts  by  local  authorities  corresponding 
to  those  in  the  English  Act. 

Ireland.' — Several  Acts  of  the  Irish  parliament  dealt  with  specific, 
nuisances,  e.g.,  5  Geo.  III.  c.  15,  forbidding  the  laying  of  filth  in 
the  streets  of  cities  or  county  towns,  and  making  regulations  as  to 
sweeping  and  scavenging.  There  were  also  numerous  private  Acts 
dealing  with  water-supply  and  the  obstruction  of  watercourses. 
In  1878  the  existing  legislation  was  consolidated  by  the  Public 
Health  (Ireland)  Act,  1878  (41  and  42  Viet.  c.  52),  a  close  copy 
of  the  English  Act  of  1875.  The  list  of  statutory  nuisances  is 
the  same  in  both  Acts.  The  urban  authority  is  the  corporation, 
the  commissioners,  the  municipal  commissioners,  or  the  town  com- 
missioners, according  to  circumstances.  Ireland  has  its  own  local 
government  board. 

United  States. — After  the  Civil  War  boards  of  health  were  estab- 
lished in  the  chief  cities.  Public  health  is  under  the  control  of  the 
local  authorities  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  England.  By  the  Act  of 
Congress  of  25th  February  1799  officers  of  the  United  States  are  bound 
to  observe  the  health  laws  of  the  States.  A  national  board  of  health 
was  created  by  the  Act  of  3d  March  1879,  c.  202.  Its  main  duties 
are  to  give  advice  to  local  authorities  and  to  cany  on  investigations 
in  sanitary  matters.  It  has  certain  jurisdiction  in  quarantine  and 
in  epidemics  of  a  peculiarly  dangerous  nature.  (J.  Wf. ) 

PUBLIC  RECORDS.     See  RECORDS,  PUBLIC. 

PUBLILIUS  (less  correctly  written  PUBLIUS)  SYRUS, 
a  Latin  writer  of  farces  (mimi\  flourished  in  the  1st  cen- 
tury B.C.  He  was  a  native  of  Syria  and  was  brought  as  a 
slave  to  Italy,  but  by  his  wit  and  talent  he  won  the  favour 
of  his  master,  who  freed  and  educated  him.  His  farces, 
in  which  he  acted  himself,  had  a  great  success  in  the 
provincial  towns  of  Italy  and  at  the  games  given  by  Caesar 
in  46  B.C.  Publilius  appeared  on  the  stage  at  Rome  and 
received  from  Caesar  himself  the  prize  for  a  histrionic  con- 
test in  which  the  actor  vanquished  all  his  competitors, 
including  the  celebrated  Laberius.  For  the  rest,  we  learn 
from  Jerome  that  in  43  Publilius  still  enthralled  the 
Roman  playgoers.  Cicero  witnessed  with  pleasure  the 
exhibition  of  his  plays,  and  Seneca  was  a  warm  admirer 
of  his  wise  and  witty  sayings.  All  that  remains  of  his 
works  is  a  collection  of  Sentences  (sententisz),  a  series  of 
moral  maxims  in  iambic  and  trochaic  verse.  This  collection 
must  have  been  made  at  a  very  early  date,  since  it  was 
known  to  Aulus  Gellius  in  the  2d  century  A.D.  Each 
maxim  is  comprised  in  a  single  verse,  and  the  verses  are 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order  according  to  their  initial 
letters.  In  course  of  time  the  collection  was  interpolated 
with  sentences  drawn  from  other  writers,  especially  from 
apocryphal  writings  of  Seneca ;  the  number  of  genuine 
verses  is  about  700.  They  include  many  pithy  sayings, 
such  as  the  famous  "judex  damnatur  ubi  nocens  absolvitur." 
The  best  editions  of  the  Sentences  are  those  of  E.  Wolfflin 
(Teubner,  1869)  and  W.  Meyer  (Teubner,  1880). 

XX.  —  13 


98 


P  U  C  — P  U  E 


PliCKLEK-MUSKAU,  HERMANN  LUDWIG  HEINRICH, 
PRINCE  OF  (1785-1871),  a  German  author,  was  born  at 
Muskau  in  Lusatia  on  30th  October  1785.  He  served  for 
some  time  in  the  body-guard  at  Dresden,  and  afterwards 
travelled  in  France  and  Italy.  In  1811,  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  he  inherited  the  barony  of  Muskau  and  a 
considerable  fortune.  As  an  officer  under  the  duke  of 
Saxe -Weimar  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  of 
liberation  and  was  made  military  and  civil  governor  of 
Bruges.  After  the  war  he  retired  from  tlie  army  and 
visited  England,  where  he  remained  about  a  year.  In 
1822,  in  compensation  for  certain  privileges  which  he  re- 
signed, he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  prince  by  the  king  of 
Prussia.  Some  years  earlier  he  had  married  the  countess 
of  Pappenheim,  daughter  of  Prince  Hardenberg ;  but  he 
separated  from  her  in  1826.  He  again  visited  England 
and  travelled  in  America  and  Asia  Minor,  living  after  his 
return  at  Muskau,  which  he  spent  much  time  in  cultivating 
and  adorning.  In  1845  he  sold  this  estate,  and,  although 
he  afterwards  lived  from  time  to  time  at  various  places  in 
Germany  and  Italy,  his  principal  residence  was  the  castle 
of  Branitz  in  the  district  of  Kottbus,  where  he  formed 
splendid  gardens  as  he  had  already  done  at  Muskau.  In 
1863  he  was  made  an  hereditary  member  of  the  Prussian 
Herrenhaus,  and  in  1866  he  attended  the  Prussian  general 
staff  in  the  war  with  Austria.  He  died  at  Branitz  on  4th 
February  1871,  and,  in  accordance  with  instructions  in  his 
will,  his  body  was  burned.  As  a  writer  of  books  of  travel 
he  held  a  high  position,  his  power  of  observation  being 
keen  and  his  style  lucid  and  animated.  His  first  work 
was  Brief e  eines  Verstorbenen  (1830-31),  in  which  he  ex- 
pressed many  independent  judgments  about  England  and 
other  countries  he  had  visited  and  about  prominent  persons 
whom  he  had  met.  Among  his  later  books  of  travel  were 
Semilasso's  vorletzter  Weltgang  (1835),  Semilasso  in  Afrika 
(1836),  Aus  Mehemed-Ali's  Reich  (1844),  and  Die  Ruck- 
kehr  (1846-48).  He  was  also  the  author  of  Andeutungen 
uber  Landschaftsgartnerei  (1834). 

See  Piickler  -  Muskau's  Briefwechsel  und  Tagcbucher  ;  Ludmilla 
Assing,  Fiirst  Hermann  von  Piickler- Muskau  ;  and  Petzold,  Filrst 
Hermann  von  Piickler -Muskau  in  seiner  JBedeutungfiir  die  bildende 
Gartenkunst, 

PUDSEY,  a  township  of  the  West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire, 
is  situated  on  an  acclivity  rising  above  the  valley  of  the 
Aire  and  on  the  Great  Northern  Kailway,  4  miles  east  of 
Bradford  and  6  south-west  of  Leeds.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  church  of  St  Lawrence  in  the  Gothic  style, 
erected  in  1821  and  lately  improved,  and  the  mechanics' 
institute,  a  fine  building,  comprising  class-rooms,  a  library, 
a  public  hall,  and  a  lecture  hall.  The  town  has  an  import- 
ant woollen  trade  and  possesses  dyeing  and  fulling  mills. 
Pudsey  appears  in  Domesday  as  "  Podechesaie."  It  was 
sold  by  Edward  II.  to  the  Calverley  family,  from  whom  it 
passed  to  an  ancestor  of  the  Milners.  By  the  Bradford 
Water  and  Improvement  Act  of  1881  part  (37  acres)  of  the 
urban  sanitary  district  of  Pudsey  was  amalgamated  with 
that  of  Bradford.  The  population  of  the  diminished  district 
(2409  acres)  in  1871  was  12,173,  and  in  1881  it  was  12,314. 

PUEBLA,  or  in  full  LA  PUEBLA  DE  LOS  ANGELES,  a 
city  of  Mexico,  formerly  capital  of  the  province  of  Tlaxcala, 
now  of  the  state  of  Puebla,  lies  76  miles  south-east  of 
Mexico,  in  19°  N.  lat.  and  98°  2'  W.  long.,  at  a  height  of 
7220  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  admirably  situated  on  a 
spacious  and  fertile  plateau,  which,  while  almost  destitute 
of  trees,  is,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city, 
clothed  with  gardens  and  fields.  To  the  south-west  rises 
the  summit  of  Popocatepetl,  and  Orizaba  and  Iztaccihuatl 
are  also  within  the  horizon.  By  Humboldt  Puebla  was 
ranked  as  the  most  important  city  of  Spanish  America 
after  Mexico,  Guanajuato,  and  Havana,  and  in  the  matter 


of  population  it  still  stands  third  among  the  state  capitals. 
Its  spacious  streets  run  exactly  east-west  and  north-south, 
and  its  houses,  often  of  three  stories,  are  solidly  built  of 
stone  and  in  Spanish  style.  The  cathedral,  dedicated  to 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  was  commenced  in  1552 
after  the  designs  of  Juan  Gomez  de  Mora,  but  it  was  not 
completed  until  1649,  after  Bishop  Juan  de  Palafox  y 
Mendoza  had  devoted  eight  years  of  strenuous  effort  to 
the  enterprise.  It  is  rather  more  than  320  feet  kxng  and 
165  wide,  and  consists  of  a  nave  80  feet  high,  with  side 
aisles  and  a  dome,  the  upper  portion  of  which  is  con- 
structed of  pumice-stone  for  the  sake  of  lightness.  The 
main  front,  like  the  columns  of  the  interior,  is  in  the  Doric 
style,  but  its  two  side  towers  are  Ionic.  In  one  is  a  great 
bell  cast  in  1637  and  weighing  upwards  of  8  tons.  Apart 
from  the  cathedral  Puebla  was  famous  for  the  number,  and 
more  especially  for  the  lavish  decoration  of  its  churches, 
monasteries,  and  colleges.  Several  of  these  (such  as  the 
church  and  convent  of  Santo  Domingo  and  the  church  of 
S.  Felipe  Neri)  are  still  of  note,  and  the  city  also  contains 
a  museum,  a  theatre,  &c.  Puebla  has  long  been  one  of  the 
great  trading  and  manufacturing  centres  of  the  country, 
and  it  has  recently  become  an  important  point  in  the 
rapidly -developing  railway  system,  having  in  1884  lines 
to  Apizaco  on  the  railway  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico  (28 
miles),  to  Villa  de  Libres  (58  miles),  to  San  Martin  (24 
miles),  to  Matamoros  Izucar  (31  miles),  and  to  San  Juan  de 
los  Llanos.  Cotton  and  woollen  goods,  leather,  earthen- 
ware, soap,  and  glass  are  the  leading  manufactures.  The 
population,  which  was  about  80,000  in  1746  and  52,717 
in  1793,  and  which  greatly  decreased  during  the  revolu- 
tionary period,  is  now  (1885)  stated  at  75,000. 

Puebla  was  founded  in  1533-34  by  Sebastian  Ramirez  de  Fuenleal, 
archbishop  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  the  Franciscan  friar  Toribio 
Motolinia.  In  1550  it  became  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  which  had 
originally  been  founded  in  1526  at  Tlaxcala.  The  epithet  "de  los 
Angeles,"  which  is  now  practically  dropped,  was  in  the  17th  and 
18th  centuiies  the  chief  part  of  the  name,  which  often  appears 
simply  as  Angeles.  It  is  associated  with  a  popular  belief  that 
during  the  building  of  the  cathedral  two  angels  every  night  added 
as  much  to  the  height  of  the  walls  as  the  workmen  had  managed 
to  add  in  the  preceding  day.  In  1845  Santa  Anna  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  capture  the  city.  On  18th  March  1863  it  was 
invested  by  the  French  under  Forey,  and  on  17th  May  taken  by 
storm. 

See  Buschman's  history  of  the  city  and  cathedral  in  Ztschr.  f.  allgcm.  Erd- 
kunde,  1863,  vol.  xv.  pp.  195-212,  and  xvi.  pp.  338-345. 

PUERPERAL  FEVER.     See  SEPTICAEMIA. 

PUERTO  CABELLO,  a  town  and  seaport  in  the  South 
American  republic  of  Venezuela,  in  the  province  of  Cara- 
bobo,  used  to  rank  next  to  Cartagena,  and  possesses  one 
of  the  finest  natural  harbours  in  that  part  of  the  world. 
It  is  backed  at  the  distance  of  about  5  miles  by  a  range  of 
mountains  3000  feet  high,  across  which  pass,  at  a  height 
of  1800  feet,  the  road  (36  miles)  and  the  railway  now 
(1885)  in  course  of  construction  to  Valencia,  the  capital 
of  the  province.  The  old  town  used  to  lie  on  an  island 
(originally  a  coral  bank)  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a 
bridge;  but  since  about  1850  the  narrow  channel  between 
the  town  and  the  more  extensive  suburbs  on  shore  has 
been  filled  up  and  covered  with  blocks  of  building,  so  that 
now  Puerto  Cabello  occupies  a  kind  of  headland  projecting 
into  the  bay.  Formerly  the  lowness  of  its  site  and  the 
mangrove  swamps  which  fringed  the  whole  coast  rendered 
it  appallingly  unhealthy  :  at  the  time  of  Humboldt's  visit, 
for  example,  the  surgeon  of  the  hospital  reported  that  in 
seven  years  he  had  8000  cases  of  yellow  fever,  and  there 
were  instances  of  the  authorities  having  to  take  possession 
of  vessels  in  the  harbour  because  the  entire  crew  had  per- 
ished (Eastwick).  But  yellow  fever  has  not  been  known 
at  Puerto  Cabello  since  about  1868,  and  the  general  death- 
rate  of  the  place  is  quite  normal.  A  good  supply  of  water 
is  obtained  from  the  Rio  Esteban  by  me^ns  of  an  aqueduct 


P  U  E  — P  U  F 


99 


3  miles  long.  The  harbour,  about  2  miles  long  and  from 
one-fourth  of  a  mile  to  a  mile  in  breadth,  is  formed  by  a 
narrow  spit  of  land  or  coral  ledge  running  out  for  about  2 
miles  from  the  coast  in  a  northerly  and  westerly  direction. 
The  entrance,  about  90  feet  deep,  is  so  clear  that  no  pilot 
is  required;  and  in  the  outer  bay  (100  to  300  feet  deep) 
there  is  safe  anchorage.  On  a  high  rock  to  the  south- 
east of  the  town  is  the  Mirador  of  Solano,  or  castle  of 
Puerto  Cabello,  which  has  often  proved  an  obstacle  to 
enemies  advancing  from  the  interior.  In  1883  the  muni- 
cipality, with  a  population  of  12,000,  contained  a  tannery, 
a  foundry  and  machine-shop,  a  coffee-mill,  two  soap  and 
candle  factories,  and  about  fourteen  wholesale  warehouses. 
The  exports  consist  of  coffee,  cocoa,  hides,  goat  and  deer 
skins,  bark,  woods,  indigo,  and  cotton,  but  only  the  first 
in  large  quantities.  Germany  and  the  United  States  are 
the  chief  recipients.  Within  6  miles  of  the  town  there  are 
four  villages  of  from  200  to  1500  inhabitants. 

See  Jiilfs  and  Balleer,  Scehdfen  der  Erde,  Oldenburg,  1878  ;  and 
U.S.  Consular  Reports,  Nos,  24,  26,  30,  &c. 

PUERTO  DE  SANTA  MARIA,  probably  the  "  Mene- 
sthei  Portus "  of  Ptolemy,  commonly  called  EL  PUERTO 
("The  Port"),  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cadiz, 
7  miles  to  the  north-east  of  that  city  (21^  miles  by  rail; 
see  sketch  map,  vol.  iv.  p.  627),  near  the  mouth  and  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Guadalete,  which  is  here  crossed  by 
a  suspension  bridge.  It  is  a  pleasant  and  well-built  though 
somewhat  dull  town,  in  a  fertile  country,  and  its  houses 
resemble  those  of  Cadiz,  though  they  are  often  larger 
and  profusely  decorated  with  painting.  Calle  Larga,  the 
principal  street,  is  handsome  and  well-paved ;  there  are 
several  "  alamedas "  or  public  promenades,  that  of  La 
Victoria  being  the  finest.  The  place  is  famous  for  its 
bull-fights,  that  given  here  in  honour  of  Wellington  being 
the  subject  of  the  considerably  idealized  description  in 
Byron's  Childe  Harold.  Among  the  public  buildings  is 
a  large  Jesuit  college,  recently  established.  Puerto  is 
chiefly  important  as  a  wine-exporting  place;  the  "bodegas" 
or  wine -stores  are  large  and  lofty,  but  hardly  equal  to 
those  of  Xerez.  The  harbour  is  formed  by  the  river ;  its 
mouth  is  considerably  obstructed  by  a  bar.  There  is 
regular  steam  communication  with  Cadiz.  Timber  and 
iron  are  the  chief  imports.  The  population  of  the  munici- 
pality in  December  1877  was  22,125. 

PUERTO  PRINCIPE,  or  now  more  correctly  CIUDAD 
DEL  PRINCIPE,  a  city  at  the  head  of  the  central  department 
of  the  island  of  Cuba.  When  first  founded  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  16th  century  by  Velazquez,  it  was,  as  its  more 
familiar  name  implies,  on  the  sea-coast ;  but  it  has  been 
more  than  once  shifted  southward  and  inland,  and  is  now 
nearly  as  far  from  the  north  as  from  the  south  side  of  the 
island.  Though  for  some  time  after  the  surrender  of  San 
Domingo  to  France  in  1800  Principe  was  the  seat  of  the 
central  government  and  supreme  courts  of  the  Spanish 
West  Indies,  it  is  no  longer  a  place  of  much  importance. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  31,000.  Since  1840  the 
city  has  been  connected  by  a  railway  with  its  port,  which 
is  sometimes  called  by  its  own  name  and  sometimes  by 
that  of  a  smaller  town  on  the  bay  about  11  miles  from  its 
entrance,  San  Fernando  de  Nuevitas.  The  harbour  or  bay 
is  large,  completely  sheltered,  and  capable  of  admitting 

.  vessels  of  the  largest  draught ;  but  it  is  entered  by  a 
narrow  crooked  passage  6  miles  long,  which,  though  there 
are  no  hidden  dangers,  makes  the  assistance  of  a  pilot 

i  desirable. 

PUERTO  RICO.     See  PORTO  Rico. 
PUFENDORF,    SAMUEL   (1632-1694),   was    born   at 
Chemnitz,  Saxony,  on  the  8th  of  January  1632,  the  same 

•  year  which  also  saw  the  birth  of  three  other  illustrious 

«  political  and   philosophical  writers — Locke,  Cumberland, 


and  Spinoza.  He  belonged  to  an  ecclesiastical  family; 
his  father  was  a  Lutheran  pastor,  and  he  himself  was 
destined  for  the  ministry.  Having  completed  his  pre- 
liminary studies  at  the  celebrated  school  of  Grimma,  he 
was  sent  to  study  theology  at  the  university  of  Leipsic, 
at  that  time  the  citadel  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy.  Its 
narrow  and  dogmatic  teaching  was  profoundly  repugnant 
to  the  liberal  nature  of  the  young  student,  who  was  not 
long  in  bidding  adieu  to  the  professors  of  theology  and 
throwing  himself  passionately  into  the  study  of  public  law. 
He  soon  went  so  far  as  to  quit  Leipsic  altogether,  and 
betook  himself  to  Jena,  where  he  formed  an  intimate 
friendship  with  Erhard  Weigel  the  mathematician,  a  man 
of  great  distinction.  Weigel  was  imbued  with  the  Cartesian 
philosophy ;  and  it  was  to  his  teaching  and  to  the  impetus 
he  gave  to  the  application  of  the  mathematical  method 
that  Pufendorf  owes  the  exact  and  ordered  mind,  and  the 
precision,  frequently  approaching  almost  to  dryness,  which 
characterize  his  writings.  It  was  also  under  Weigel's  in- 
fluence that  he  developed  that  independence  of  character 
which  never  bent  before  other  writers,  however  high 
their  position,  and  which  showed  itself  in  his  profound 
disdain  for  "  ipsedixitism,"  to  use  the  piquant  phrase  of 
Bentham. 

Pufendorf  was  twenty-five  years  old  when  he  quitted 
Jena.  He  hoped  to  find  a  career  in  some  of  the  adminis- 
trative offices  which  were  so  frequently  the  refuge  of  the 
learned  in  the  small  states  of  ancient  Germany  ;  but  in  this 
he  was  unsuccessful.  In  1658,  thanks  to  his  eldest  brother 
Isaiah,  who  had  given  up  university  teaching  to  enter  the 
Swedish  service,  he  went,  in  the  capacity  of  tutor,  into 
the  family  of  Petrus  Julius  Coyet,  one  of  the  resident 
ministers  of  Charles  Gustavus,  king  of  Sweden,  at  Copen- 
hagen. At  this  time  Charles  Gustavus  was  endeavouring 
to  impose  upon  Denmark  a  burdensome  alliance,  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  negotiations  he  brutally  opened  hostilities. 
The  anger  of  the  Danes  was  turned  against  the  envoys 
of  the  Swedish  sovereign ;  Coyet,  it  is  true,  succeeded  in 
escaping,  but  the  second  minister,  Steno  Bjelke,  and  the 
whole  suite  were  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison.  Pufen- 
dorf shared  this  misfortune,  and  the  future  successor  of 
Grotius  was  subjected  to  a  strict  captivity  of  eight  months' 
duration.  Like  Grotius,  he  too  had  his  Loevestein.  The 
young  tutor,  deprived  of  books,  occupied  himself  during 
his  captivity  in  meditating  upon  what  he  bad  read  in  the 
works  of  Grotius  and  Hobbes.  He  mentally  constructed 
a  system  of  universal  law ;  and,  when,  at  the  end  of  his 
captivity,  he  accompanied  his  pupils,  the  sons  of  Coyet, 
to  the  university  of  Leyden,  he  was  enabled  to  publish 
the  fruits  of  his  reflexions  under  the  title  of  Elementa 
jurisprudentix  tiniversalis,  libri  duo.  The  work  was  de- 
dicated to  Charles  Louis,  elector  palatine,  an  enlightened 
prince  and  patron  of  science,  who  offered  Pufendorf  a 
chair  of  Roman  law  at  Heidelberg,  and  when  this  was 
declined  he  created  a  new  chair,  that  of  the  law  of  nature 
and  nations,  the  first  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  Pufen- 
dorf accepted  it,  and  was  thus  in  1661,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-nine,  placed  in  the  most  enviable  of  positions.  He 
showed  himself  equal  to  his  task,  and  by  his  science  and 
eloquence  proved  himself  to  be  an  honour  and  an  orna- 
ment to  the  university. 

The  keenly  sarcastic  tract  De  statu  imperil  germanici, 
liber  unus,  dates  from  this  period  of  his  life.  Small  in 
bulk,  it  is  great  in  significance,  and  is  one  of  Pufen- 
dorf's  most  important  works.  Written  with  the  assent  of 
the  elector  palatine,  but  published  under  the  cover  of  a 
pseudonym  at  Geneva  in  1667,  it  was  supposed  to  be 
addressed  by  a  gentleman  of  Verona,  Severinus  de  Mon- 
zambano,  to  his  brother  Laelius.  The  pamphlet  made  a 
great  sensation.  Its  author  arraigned  directly  the  organi 


100 


PUFENDORF 


zation  of  the  holy  empire  and  exposed  its  feebleness, 
denounced  in  no  measured  terms  the  faults  of  the  house 
of  Austria,  and  attacked  with  remarkable  vigour  the 
politics  of  the  ecclesiastical  princes.  But  he  did  not  thus 
describe  the  evil  without  at  the  same  time  suggesting  the 
remedy.  Thinking  that  Germany  could  not  attain  to  a 
true  monarchy  without  a  great  revolution,  he  proposed 
to  call  together  a  confederation,  with  a  perpetual  council 
representing  all  the  members  and  occupying  itself  with 
external  affairs.  Before  Pufendorf,  Philipp  Bogislaw  von 
Chemnitz,  publicist  and  soldier,  had  written,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  "  Hippolytus  a  Lapide,"  De  ratione  status  in 
imperio  nostro  Homano-Germanico.  Inimical,  like  Pufen- 
dorf, to  the  house  of  Austria,  Chemnitz  had  gone  so  far 
as  to  make  an  appeal  to  France  and  Sweden.  Pufendorf, 
on  the  contrary,  rejected  all  idea  of  foreign  intervention. 
But  in  his  plan,  in  which  national  initiative  was  all  in 
all,  were  propounded  the  ideas  of  an  army  supported  at 
the  general  expense,  the  secularization  of  the  ecclesiastical 
principalities,  the  abolition  of  convents,  and  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits.  His  little  book  is  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant that  was  produced  in  relation  to  the  public  law 
and  politics  of  Germany,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  he 
reveals  himself  as  a  consummate  statesman,  having  a 
broad  comprehension  of  the  present  and  a  clear  insight 
into  the  future.  Subsequent  events  proved  the  justice  of 
his  conclusions. 

In  1670  Pufendorf  was  called  to  the  university  of  Lund. 
The  influence  of  his  brother  Isaiah,  as  also  some  disagree- 
ments which  he  had  had  with  his  colleagues  at  Heidelberg, 
influenced  his  decision  to  accept  the  call;  but  by  this 
acceptance  he  did  not  break  with  German  culture,  for  in 
Scandinavia  that  culture  was  predominant.  The  sojourn 
at  Lund  was  fruitful.  In  1672  appeared  the  De  jure 
naturae,  et  gentium,  libri  octo,  and  in  1675  a  resume"  of  it 
under  the  title  of  De  offido  hominis  et  civis.  The  treatise 
Dejure  nature  et  gentium  is  the  first  systematic  work  on 
the  subject  Grotius,  whom  Pufendorf  has  been  accused  of 
having  too  servilely  followed,  had  more  especially  treated 
of  international  relations ;  and  on  the  other  hand  Olden- 
dorp,  Hemming,  and  Winkler  treated  of  the  rudimentary 
part  of  the  subject.  Pufendorf  took  up  in  great  measure 
the  theories  of  Grotius  and  sought  to  complete  them  by 
means  of  the  doctrines  of  Hobbes  and  of  his  own  ideas. 
Judging  of  the  work  of  Pufendorf  as  a  whole,  Mr  Lorimer 
has  felt  justified  in  saying  that  "his  conception  was  a 
magnificent  one,  and  in  the  effort  which  he  made  to  realize 
it  he  has  left  behind  him  a  work  which,  notwithstanding 
the  unpardonable  amount  of  commonplace  which  it  con- 
tains and  its  consequent  dulness,  is  entitled  to  the  respect 
of  all  future  jurists.  It  was  nothing  less  than  an  attempt 
to  evolve  from  the  study  of  human  nature  a  system  of 
jurisprudence  which  should  be  of  universal  and  permanent 
applicability."  The  author  derived  law  from  reason,  from 
the  civil  law,  and  from  divine  revelation,  and  established 
thus  three  "  disciplines  " — natural  law,  civil  law,  and  moral 
theology.  Natural  law  is  all  that  is  commanded  to  us  by 
pure  reason,  and  hence  resulted  the  first  important  pcint 
in  Pufendorf 's  theory,  viz.,  that  natural  law  does  not  ex- 
tend beyond  the  limits  of  this  life  and  that  it  confines 
itself  to  regulating  external  acts.  Pufendorf  combats 
Hobbes's  conception  of  the  state  of  nature,  and  concludes 
that  the  state  of  nature  is  not  one  of  war  but  of  peace. 
But  this  peace  is  feeble  and  insecure,  and  if  something 
•else  does  not  come  to  its  aid  it  can  do  very  little  for  the 
preservation  of  mankind.  As  regards  public  law  Pufen- 
dorf, while  recognizing  in  the  state  (civitas)  a  moral  person 
(persona  moralis),  teaches  that  the  will  of  the  state  is  but 
the  sum  of  the  individual  wills  that  constitute  it,  and  that 
this  association  explains  the  state.  In  this  a  priori  con- 


ception, in  which  he  scarcely  gives  proof  of  historical 
insight,  he  shows  himself  as  one  of  the  precursors  of 
J.  J.  Rousseau  and  of  the  Contrat  social.  On  the  subject 
of  international  law,  with  which  he  occupies  himself  in- 
cidentally, it  is  to  be  noted  that  Pufendorf  belongs  to  the 
philosophical  school,  and  also  that  he  powerfully  defends 
the  idea  that  international  law  is  not  restricted  to  Christen- 
dom, but  constitutes  a  common  bond  between  all  nations 
because  all  nations  form  part  of  humanity.  As  was  to 
be  expected,  the  work  made  a  sensation :  it  provoked 
enthusiastic  admiration  as  well  as  anger  and  indignation ; 
the  author  was  praised  to  the  skies  on  the  one  hand,  and 
accused  of  irreligion  and  atheism  on  the  other.  The 
universities  of  Lund  and  Leipsic,  above  all,  furnished 
adversaries  and  critics.  Being  passionately  attacked,  he 
defended  himself  with  passion,  and  he  may  be  held  to 
have  come  victorious  out  of  these  conflicts  in  which  his 
combative  and  sarcastic  soul  delighted,  for  Pufendorf 
dearly  loved  a  fray. 

In  1677  he  was  called  to  Stockholm  in  the  capacity  of 
historiographer-royal.  To  this  new  period  belong  among 
others  the  work  On  the  Spiritual  Monarchy  of  the  Pope, 
which  was  afterwards  inserted  in  his  Introduction  to  the 
History  of  the  principal  States  in  Europe  at  the  present 
Day,  also  the  great  Commentariorum  de  rebus  Suecicis,  libri 
XXVI.,  ah  expeditione  Gustavi  Adolphi  regis  in  German- 
iam  ad  abdicationem  usque  Christinas,  and  a  History  of 
Charles  Gustavus.  In  his  historical  works  Pufendorf  is 
hopelessly  dry ;  but  he  professes  a  great  respect  for  truth 
and  generally  draws  from  archives.  The  treatise  On  the 
Spiritual  Monarchy  of  the  Pope  alone  recalls  Severinus 
de  Monzambano.  There  we  find  the  same  vigour  and  the 
same  passion,  and  all  through  its  pages  we  feel  the  indig- 
nation of  the  Protestant  who  sees  the  noble  cause  of  reli- 
gious liberty  menaced  by  the  papacy  and  by  its  two  allies 
Louis  XIV.  and  James  II.  Of  the  same  nature  is  another 
work  of  this  period,  De  habitu  religionis  christianx  ad  vitam 
civilem,  in  which  he  undertakes  to  trace  the  limits  between 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  power,  and  where  he  expounds  for 
the  first  time  completely  the  theory  known  under  the 
name  of  "  Kollegial  System  "  or  "  Kollegialismus,"  which 
was  actually  applied  later  in  Prussia.  This  work  is  dated 
1687.  In  1688  Pufendorf  was  called  to  the  service  of 
Frederick  William,  elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  accepted 
the  call ;  but  he  had  no  sooner  arrived  than  the  elector 
died.  His  son  Frederick  III.  fulfilled  the  promises  of  his 
father,  and  Pufendorf,  historiographer  and  privy  coun- 
cillor, was  instructed  to  write  The  Histoi'y  of  the  Elector 
William  the  Great.  The  king  of  Sweden  did  not  on  this 
account  cease  to  testify  his  goodwill  towards  Pufendorf, 
and  in  1694  he  created  him  a  baron.  In  the  same  year, 
on  the  26th  of  October,  Pufendorf  died  at  Berlin  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  St  Nicholas,  where  an  inscription 
to  his  memory  is  still  to  be  seen. 

The  value  of  the  man  whose  life  has  been  thus  briefly  sketched 
was  great ;  he  was  at  once  philosopher,  lawyer,  economist,  historian, 
we  may  even  add  statesman.  His  influence  also  was  considerable, 
and  he  has  left  a  profound  impression  on  thought,  and  not  on  that 
of  Germany  alone.  Posterity  nas,  however,  done  him  scant  justice, 
and  has  not  acknowledged  what  it  really  owes  to  him.  Much  of 
the  responsibility  for  this  injustice  rests  with  Leibnitz,  who  would 
never  recognize  the  incontestable  greatness  of  one  who  was  con- 
stantly his  adversary.  Everybody  knows  the  bitter  criticism  which 
he  made  OH  Pufendorf,  "  vir  parum  jurisconsultus  et  miuime  philo- 
sophus."  This  is  only  the  condensed  expression  of  a  multitude  of 
judgments  passed  by  him  on  the  author  of  the  Dejure  naturx,  et 
gentium.  It  was  on  the  subject  of  the  pamphlet  of  Soverinus  do 
Monzambano  that  the  quarrel  began.  The  conservative  and  timid 
Leibnitz  was  beaten  on  the  battlefield  of  politics  and  public  law, 
and  the  aggressive  spirit  of  Pufendorf  aggravated  yet  more  the  dis- 
pute, and  so  widened  the  division.  From  that  time  the  two  writers 
could  never  meet  on  a  common  subject  without  attacking  e<odi 
other.  The  combat  was  almost  always  decided  in  favour  of  Pufen- 
dorf, but  the  irony  of  fate  has  ratified  the  words  of  his  adversary, 


P  U  F  —  P  U  F 


101 


and  the  future  has  accepted  an  estimate  dictated  by  anger  and 
spite. 

See  H.  von  Treitschke, ' '  Samuel  von  Pufendorf,"  Preitssische  Jahrbiicher,  1875, 
vol.  xxxv.  p.  614,  and  vol.  xxxvi.  p.  61 ;  Bluutschli,  Deutsches  Stoats-Worter- 
buck,  vol.  viii.  p.  424,  and  Geschichte  des  allgemeinen  Statsrechts  und  der  Politik, 
p.  108 ;  Lorimer,  The  Institutes  of  the  Law  of  Nations,  vol.  i.  p.  74 ;  Droysen, 
"  Zur  Kritik  Pufendorf' s,"  in  his  Abhandlungen  zur  neueren  Geschichte  ; 
Roscher,  Geschichte  der  National-Oekonomik  in  Deutschland,  p.  304;  Franklin, 
Das  deutsche  Reich  nach  Severinus  von  Monzambano.  (E.  N.) 

PUFF-ADDER.     See  VIPER. 

PUFF-BIRD,  the  name  first  given,  according  to  Swain- 
son  (Zool.  Illustrations,  ser.  1,  ii.,  text  to  pi.  99),  by 
English  residents  in  Brazil  to  a  group  of  Birds  known  to 
ornithologists  as  forming  the  restricted  Family  Bucconidse, 
but  for  a  long  time  confounded,  under  the  general  name 
of  Barbets,  with  the  Capitonidx  of  modern  systematists, 
who  regard  the  two  Families  as  differing  very  considerably 
from  one  another.  Some  authors  have  used  the  generic 
name  Capita  in  a  sense  precisely  opposite  to  that  which  is 
now  usually  accorded  to  it,  and  the  natural  result  has  been 
to  produce  one  of  the  most  complex  of  the  many  nomen- 
clatural  puzzles  that  beset  Ornithology.  Fortunately  there 
is  no  need  here  to  enter  upon  this  matter,  for  each  group 
has  formed  the  subject  of-  an  -elaborate  work — the  Capi- 
tonidse  being  treated  by  the  Messrs  Marshall,1  and  the 
Bucconidx  by  Mr  Sclater2 — in  each  of  which  volumes  the 
origin  of  the  confusion  has  been  explained,  and  to  either  of 
them  the  more  curious  reader  may  be  confidently  referred. 
The  Bucconidse  are  zygodactylous  Birds  belonging  to  the 
large  heterogeneous  assemblage  in  the  present  work  gener- 
ally looked  upon  as  forming  the  "Order"  Picarisz  (see 
ORNITHOLOGY,  vol.  xviii.  p.  41),  and  commonly  considered 
nowadays  to  be  most  nearly  allied  to  the  Galbulidas 
(JACAMAR.  vol.  xiii.  p.  531),  and  like  them  confined  to  the 
Neotropical  Region,  in  the  middle  parts  of  which,  and 
especially  in  its  Sub -Andean  Sub -region,  the  Puff -birds 
are,  as  regards  species,  abundant ;  while  only  two  seem  to 
reach  Guatemala  and  but  one  Paraguay.  As  with  most 
South-American  Birds,  the  habits  and  natural  history  of  the 
Bucconidse  have  been  but  little  studied,  and  of  only  one 
species,  which  happens  to  belong  to  a  rather  abnormal 
genus,  has  the  nidification  been  described.  This  'is  the 
Chelidoptera  tenebrosa,  which  is  said  to  breed  in  holes  in 
banks,  and  to  lay  white  eggs  much  like  those  of  the  King- 
fisher and  consequently  those  of  the  Jacamars.  From  his 
own  observation  Swainson  writes  (loc.  cit.)  that  Puff-birds 
are  very  grotesque  in  appearance.  They  will  sit  nearly 
motionless  for  hours  on  the  dead  bough  of  a  tree,  and  while 
so  sitting  "  the  disproportionate  size  of  the  head  is  rendered 
more  conspicuous  by  the  bird  raising  its  feathers  so  as  to 
appear  not  unlike  a  puff  ball.  .  .  .  When  frightened  their 
form  is  suddenly  changed  by  the  feathers  lying  quite  flat." 
They  are  very  confiding  birds  and  will  often  station  them- 
selves a  few  yards  only  from  a  window.  The  Bucconidse. 
almost  without  exception  are  very  plainly-coloured,  and 
the  majority  have  a  spotted  or  mottled  plumage  suggestive 
of  immaturity.  The  first  Puff-bird  known  to  Europeans 
seems  to  have  been  that  described  by  Marcgrave  under 
the  name  of  "  Tamatia"  by  which  it  is  said  to  have  been 
called  in  Brazil,  and  there  is  good  reason  to  think  that  his 
description  and  figure — the  last,  comic  as  it  is  in  outline 
and  expression,  having  been  copied  by  Willughby  and 
many  of  the  older  authors — apply  to  the  Bucco  maculatus 
of  modern  Ornithology — a  bird  placed  by  Brisson  (Orni- 
thologie,  iv.  p.  524)  among  the  Kingfishers.  But  if  so, 
Marcgrave  described  and  figured  the  same  species  twice, 
since  his  "  Matuitui"  is  also  Brisson's  "  Martin-pescheur 
tachete  du  Bresil" 

Mr  Sclater  in  his  Monograph  divides  the  Family  into  7 

1  A  Monograph  of  the  Capitonidse  or  Scansorial  Barbets,  by  C.  H. 
T.  and  G.  F.  L.  Marshall,  London,  1870-71,  4to. 

2  A  Monograph  of  the  Jacamars  and  Puff-birds,  or  Families  Gal- 
bulidse  and  Bucconidae,  by  P.  L.  Sclater,  London,  1879-82,  4to. 


genera,  of  which  Bucco  is  the  largest  and  contains  20 
species.  The  others  are  Malacoptila  and  Monacha  each 
with  7,  Nonnula  with  5,  Chelidoptera  with  2,  and  Micro- 
monacha  and  Hapaloptila  with  1  species  each.  The 
most  showy  Puff- birds  are  those  of  the  genus  Monacha 
with  an  inky-black  plumage,  usually  diversified  by  white 
about  the  head,  and  a  red  or  yellow  bill.  The  rest  call 
for  no  particular  remark.  (A.  N.) 

PUFFIN,  the  common  English  name  of  a  sea-bird,  the 
Fratercula  arctica  of  most  ornithologists,  known  however 
on  various  parts  of  the  British  coasts  as  the  Bottlenose, 
Coulterneb,  Pope,  Sea-Parrot,  and  Tammy-Norie,  to  say 
nothing  of  other  still  more  local  designations,  some  (as 
Marrott  and  Willock)  shared  also  with  allied  species  of 
Alddse,  to  which  Family  it  has,  until  very  lately,  been 
invariably  deemed  to  belong.  Of  old  time  Puffins  were 
a  valuable  commodity  to  the  owners  of  their  breeding- 
places,  for  the  young  were  taken  from  the  holes  in  which 
they  were  hatched,  and  "  being  exceeding  fat,"  as  Carew 
wrote  in  1602  (Survey  of  Cornwall,  fol.  35),  were  "kept 
salted,  and  reputed  for  fish,  as  coming  neerest  thereto  in 
their  taste."  In  1345,  according  to  a  document  from 
which  an  extract  is  given  in  Heath's  Islands  of  Scilly 
(p.  190),  those  islands  were  held  of  the  crown  at  a  yearly 
rent  of  300  Puffins3  or  6s.  8d.,  being  one -sixth  of 
their  estimated  annual  value.  A  few  years  later  (1484), 
either  through  the  birds  having  grown  scarcer  or  money 
cheaper,  only  50  Puffins  are  said  (op.  cit.,  p.  196)  to  have 
been  demanded.  It  is  stated  by  both  Gesner  and  Caius 
that  they  were  allowed  to  be  eaten  in  Lent.  Ligon,  who 
in  1673  published  a  History  of  the  Island  of  Barbadoes, 
speaks  (p.  37)  of  the  ill  taste  of  Puffins  "  which  we  have 
from  the  isles  of  Scilly,"  and  adds  "  this  kind  of  food  is 
only  for  servants."  Puffins  used  to  resort  in  vast  numbers 
to  certain  stations  on  the  coast,  and  are  still  plentiful  on 
some,  reaching  them  in  spring  with  remarkable  punctuality 
on  a  certain  day,  which  naturally  varies  with  the  locality, 
and  after  passing  the  summer  there,  leaving  their  homes 
with  similar  precision.  They  differ  from  most  other  Alcidss 
in  laying  their  single  egg  (which  is  white  with  a  few  grey 
markings  when  first  produced,  but  speedily  begrimed  by  the 
soil)  in  a  shallow  burrow,  which  they  either  dig  for  them- 
selves or  appropriate  from  a  rabbit,  for  on  most  of  their 
haunts  rabbits  have  been  introduced.  Their  plumage  is 
of  a  glossy  black  above — the  cheeks  grey,  encircled  by  a 
black  band — and  pure  white  beneath ;  their  feet  are  of  a 
bright  reddish  orange,  but  the  most  remarkable  feature  of 
these  birds,  and  one  that  gives  them  a  very  comical  ex- 
pression, is  their  huge  bill.  This  is  very  deep  and  laterally 
flattened,  so  as  indeed  to  resemble  a  coulter,  as  one  of  the 
bird's  common  names  expresses ;  but  moreover  it  is  parti- 
coloured— blue,  yellow,  and  red — curiously  grooved  and 
still  more  curiously  embossed  in  places,  that  is  to  say 
during  the  breeding -season,  when  the  birds  are  most 
frequently  seen.  But  it  had  long  been  known  to  some 
observers  that  such  Puffins  as  occasionally  occur  in  winter 
(most  often  washed  up  on  the  shore  and  dead)  presented 
a  beak  very  different  in  shape  and  size,  and  to  account  for 
the  difference  was  a  standing  puzzle.  Many  years  ago- 
Bingley  (North  Wales,  i.  p.  354)  stated  that  Puffins  "  are 
said  to  change  their  bills  annually."  The  remark  seeing 


3  There  can  not  be  much  doubt  that  the  name  Puffin  given  to  these 
young  birds,  salted  and  dried,  was  applied  on  account  of  their  downy 
clothing,  for  an  English  informant  of  Gesner's  described  one  to  him 
(Hist.  Avium,  p.  110)  as  wanting  true  feathers,  and  being  covered 
only  with  a  sort  of  woolly  black  plumage.  It  is  right,  however,  to 
state  that  Caius  expressly  declares  (Rarior.  animal.  libeUus,  fol.  21) 
that  the  name  is  derived  "a  naturali  voce  pupin."  Prof.  Skeat  states 
that  the  word  is  a  diminutive,  which  favours  the  view  that  it  v.  MS 
originally  used  as  a  name  for  these  young  birds.  The  parents  were 
probably  known  by  one  or  other  of  their  many  local  appellations. 


102 


P  U  G  — P  U  G 


to  have  been  generally  overlooked ;  but  it  has  proved  to 
be  very  near  the  truth,  for  after  investigations  carefully 
pursued  during  some  years  by  Dr  Bureau  of  Nantes  he 
was  in  1877  enabled  to  shew  (Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  ii. 
pp.  377-399)  *  that  the  Puffin's  bill  undergoes  what  may 
be  called  an  annual  moult,  some  of  its  most  remarkable 
appendages,  as  well  as  certain  horny  outgrowths  above  and 
beneath  the  eyes,  dropping  off  at  the  end  of  the  breeding- 
season,  and  being  reproduced  the  following  year.  Not 
long  after  the  same  naturalist  announced  (op.  cit.,  iv.  pp. 
1-68)  that  he  had  followed  the  similar  changes  which  he 
found  to  take  place,  not  only  in  other  species  of  Puffins,  as 
the  Fratercula  comiculata  and  F.  cirrhata  of  the  Northern 
Pacific,  but  in  several  birds  of  the  kindred  genera  Cera- 
torhina  and  Simorhynchus  inhabiting  the  same  waters, 
and  consequently  proposed  to  regard  all  of  them  as  forming 
a  Family  distinct  from  the  Alddx — a  view  which  has 
since  found  favour  with  Dr  Dybowski  (op.  cit.,  vii.  pp. 
270-300  and  viii.  pp.  348-350),  though  there  is  apparently 
insufficient  reason  for  accepting  it. 

The  name  Puffin  has  also  been  given  in  books  to  one 
of  the  Shearwaters,  and  its  Latinized  form  Puffinus  is 
still  used  in  that  sense  in  scientific  nomenclature.  This 
fact  seems  to  have  arisen  from  a  mistake  of  Ray's,  who, 
seeing  in  Tradescant's  Museum  and  that  of  the  Royal 
Society  some  young  Shearwaters  from  the  Isle  of  Man, 
prepared  in  like  manner  to  young  Puffins,  thought  they 
were  the  birds  mentioned  by  Gesner  (loc.  cit.),  as  the 
remarks  inserted  in  Willughby's  Omithologia  (p.  251) 
prove ;  for  the  specimens  described  by  Ray  were  as  clearly 
Shearwaters  as  Gesner's  were  Puffins.  (A.  N.) 

PUGET,  PIERRE  (1622-1694),  born  at  Marseilles  on  31st 
October  1622,  painter,  sculptor,  architect,  and  engineer,  is 
a  rare  instance  of  precocious  genius  and  mature  power. 
At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  carved  the  ornaments  of  the 
galleys  built  in  the  port  of  his  native  city,  and  at  sixteen 
the  decoration  and  construction  of  a  ship  were  entrusted  to 
him.  Soon  after  he  went  to  Italy  on  foot,  and  was  well 
received  at  Rome  by  Pietro  di  Cortona,  who  employed 
him  on  the  ceilings  of  the  Barberini  palace  and  on  those 
of  the  Pitti  at  Florence.  In  1643  he  returned  to  Mar- 
seilles, where  he  painted  portraits  and  carved  the  colossal 
figure-heads  of  men-of-war.  After  a  second  journey  to 
Italy  he  painted  also  a  great  number  of  pictures  for  Aix, 
Toulon,  Cuers,  and  La  Ciotat,  and  sculptured  a  large 
marble  group  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  for  the  church  of 
Lorgues.  A  serious  illness  in  1665  brought  Puget  a  pro- 
hibition from  the  doctors  which  caused  him  wholly  to 
put  aside  the  brush.  He  now  sculptured  the  caryatides 
of  the  town-hall  of  Toulon  (Louvre),  went  to  Normandy, 
where  he  executed  a  statue  of  Hercules  and  a  group  of 
Janus  and  Cybele  for  the  marquis  of  Vaudreuil,  and  visit- 
ing Paris  made  the  acquaintance  of  Le  Pautre  and  Fou- 
quet,  who  determined  to  employ  him  at  Vaux  and  sent 
him  to  Italy  to  choose  marbles  for  his  work.  The  fall  of 
Fouquet  found  Puget  at  Genoa,  where  he  remained  em- 
ployed by  the  nobles  of  the  town.  There  he  executed  for 
Sublet  des  Noyers  his  French  Hercules  (Louvre),  the 
statues  of  St  Sebastian  and  of  Alexandre  'Sauli  in  the 
church  of  Carignano,  and  much  other  work.  The  Doria 
family  gave  him  a  church  to  build ;  the  senate  proposed 
that  he  should  paint  their  council-chamber.  But  Colbert 
bade  Puget  return  to  France,  and  in  1669  he  again  took 
up  his  old  work  in  the  dockyards  of  Toulon.  The  arsenal 
which  he  had  there  undertaken  to  construct  under  the 

1  A  translated  abstract  of  this  paper — containing  an  account  of  what 
is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  discovery  of  the  kind  made  in  ornithology 
for  many  years — is  given  in  the  Zoologist  for  1878  (pp.  233-240)  and 
another  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Nuttatt  Ornithological  Club  for  the  same 
year  (iii.  pp.  87-91). 


orders  of  the  duke  of  Beaufort  was  destroyed  by  fire,  and 
Puget,  disheartened,  took  leave  of  Toulon.  In  1685  he 
went  back  to  Marseilles,  where  he  continued  the  long  series 
of  works  of  sculpture  on  which  he  had  been  employed  by 
Colbert.  His  statue  of  Milo  (Louvre)  had  been  completed 
in  1681,  Perseus  and  Andromeda  (Louvre)  in  1683,  and 
Alexander  and  Diogenes  (bas-relief,  Louvre)  in  1685  ;  but, 
in  spite  of  the  personal  favour  which  he  enjoyed,  Puget, 
on  coming  to  Paris  in  1688  to  push  forward  the  execu- 
tion of  an  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XIV.,  found  court 
intrigues  too  much  for  him.  He  was  forced  to  abandon 
his  project  and  retire  to  Marseilles,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death  in  1694.  His  last  work,  abas-relief  of  the 
Plague  of  Milan,  which  remained  unfinished,  was  placed 
in  the  council-chamber  of  the  town-hall. 

Puget  was  the  most  vigorous  representative  of  French  sculpture 
in  the  18th  century  ;  in  spite  of  his  visits  to  Paris  and  Rome  his 
work  never  lost  its  local  character  :  his  Hercules  is  fresh  from  the 
galleys  of  Toulon  ;  his  saints  and  virgins  are  men  and  women  who 
speak  Provei^al.  His  best  work,  the  St  Sebastian  at  Genoa,  though 
a  little  heavy  in  parts,  shows  admirable  energy  and  life,  as  well  as 
great  skill  in  contrasting  the  decorative  accessories  with  the  simple 
surface  of  the  nude. 

Cicognara,  Sioria  dclla  scultura  ;  Lenoir,  Musee  dcs  Mon.  Fran- 
fais ;  Lagrange,  Vie  de  Pierre  Puget ;  Barbet  de  Jouy,  Sculptures 
mod.  au  Louvre. 

PUGIN,  AUGUSTUS  WELBY  NORTHMORE  (1812-1852), 
architect,  was  the  son  of  Augustus  Pugin,  a  native  of 
France,  who  practised  as  an  architect  in  London.  He  was 
born  in  Store  Street,  Bedford  Square,  on  1st  March  1812. 
After  completing  the  ordinary  course  of  education  at 
Christ's  Hospital  (blue-coat  school),  he  entered  his  father's 
office,  where  he  displayed  a  remarkable  talent  for  drawing. 
When  he  had  mastered  the  elements  of  his  profession  he 
devoted  a  large  portion  of  his  time  to  the  sketching  of 
public  buildings ;  he  also  accompanied  his  father  on  several 
professional  tours  in  France.  While  still  very  young  he 
was  employed  by  his  father  to  design  furniture  in  the 
mediaeval  style  for  Windsor  Castle,  and  in  1831  he  de- 
signed the  scenery  for  the  new  opera  of  Kenilworth  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre.  Shortly  afterwards  he  involved  him- 
self deeply  in  money  difficulties  by  an  attempt  to  establish 
a  manufactory  of  stained  glass,  metal  work,  and  furniture 
at  Hart  Street,  Covent  Garden.  From  the  time,  however, 
that  he  devoted  himself  steadily  to  his  profession  as  an 
architect  he  never  failed  to  find  full  employment.  Shortly 
after  his  secession  from  the  Church  of  England  to  that  of 
Rome  he  published  Contrasts ;  or  a  Parallel  betiveen  the 
Architecture  of  the  15th  and  19th  Centuries  (1836),  in  which 
he  severely  criticized  the  architecture  of  Protestantism. 
His  other  principal  works  are  True  Principles  of  Christian 
Architecture  (1841),  a  Glossary  of  Ecclesiastical  Ornament 
(1844),  and  a  Treatise  on  Chancel  Screens  and  Rood  Lofts 
(1851).  Pugin  was  the  designer  of  a  large  number  of  im- 
portant Roman  Catholic  buildings,  and  also  assisted  Sir 
Charles  Barry  in  the  preparation  of  the  designs  for  the  new 
Houses  of  Parliament,  Westminster.  Early  in  1852  he 
was  attacked  by  insanity,  which  caused  his  death  on  14th 
September  of  the  same  year. 

Future  historians  who  may  write  the  architectural  history  of  the 
19th  century  will  probably  describe  as  its  leading  characteristic 
that  enthusiastic  revival  of  the  Gothic  style  which  took  place  in 
the  second  quarter  of  the  century  and  continued  with  unabated 
vigour  for  more  than  thirty  years.  Among  the  many  able  archi- 
tects who  during  this  period  contributed  to  cover  England  with 
churches  and  other  buildings,  designed  in  a  style  which  for  three 
centuries  had  been  rejected  as  barbarous,  the  name  of  Pugin  deserves 
to  be  the  most  conspicuous.  No  man  so  thoroughly  mastered  the 
true  principles  of  the  Gothic  style  in  its  various  stages,  both  in  its 
leading  lines  and  in  the  minutest  details  of  its  mouldings  and  carved 
enrichments,  and  that  too  at  a  time  when  illustrated  works  on 
Gothic  architecture,  such  as  have  since  been  produced  in  enormous 
quantities,2  had  scarcely  begun  to  exist ;  thus  young  Pugin  had 


2  These  numerous  illustrated  works,  with  every  detail  sliowu  to  a 
workable  scale,  by  doing  away  with  the  necessity  for  studying  the 


P  U  L  — P  U  L 


103 


to  learn  the  alphabet  of  his  chosen  style  by  careful  and  laborious 
study  of  the  glorious  examples  of  Gothic,  botli  ecclesiastical  and 
domestic,  in  which  England  was  then  (far  more  than  now)  so  extra- 
ordinarily rich.  His  i'ather  was  for  many  years  engaged  in  prepar- 
ing a  large  series  of  works  on  the  Gothic  buildings  of  England, 
almost,  if  not  quite,  the  first  which  were  illustrated  with  accurate 
drawings  of  mediaeval  buildings  ;  the  early  youth  of  A.  W.  Pugin 
was  mostly  occupied  in  making  minute  measured  drawings  for  his 
father's  books,  and  in  this  way  his  enthusiasm  for  Gothic  art  was 
first  aroused.  All  through  his  life,  both  in  England  and  during 
many  visits  to  Germany  and  France,  he  continued  to  make,  for  his 
own  instruction  and  pleasure,  great  numbers  of  drawings  and 
sketches,  especially  in  pen  and  ink,  and  with  sepia  monochrome. 
These  are  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  architectural  sketches  that 
have  ever  been  produced,  perfect  in  their  delicacy  and  precision  of 
touch,  and  masterpieces  of  skilful  treatment  of  light  and  shade. 
They  are  mostly  minute  in  scale,  some  almost  microscopic  in  detail. 
Many  of  the  Continental  street  scenes  and  interiors  of  cathedrals 
are  of  especial  beauty  from  their  contrasts  of  brilliant  light  and 
transparent  shadow,1  treated  with  Rembrandt-like  vigour.  At  a 
very  early  age  his  wonderful  mastery  of  Gothic  detail  was  shown 
by  the  valuable  aid  he  rendered  to  Sir  Charles  Barry  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament  in  1836  and  1837. 2  For 
some  time  he  worked  as  a  paid  clerk  to  Barry,  and  to  Pugin  is 
mainly  due  the  very  remarkable  excellence  of  all  the  details  in  this 
great  building,  executed,  it  must  be  remembered,  at  a  time  when 
hitherto  all  examples  of  the  revived  Gothic  were  of  the  most  ignor- 
ant and  tasteless  description.  Pugin  not  only  designed  and  even 
modelled  a  great  part  of  the  sculpture  and  other  decorations  of  the 
building,  but  had  actually  to  train  a  school  of  masons  and  carvers 
to  carry  out  his  designs  with  spirit  and  accuracy.3 

While  still  young  Pugin  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  this,  if 
possible,  increased  his  intense  zeal  and  enthusiasm  for  Gothic,  or, 
as  he  preferred  to  call  it,  Christian  architecture.  His  profession 
became  to  him  a  sort  of  religion,  and  his  study  of  mediaeval  build- 
ings was  closely  associated  with  his  love  for  the  mystic  symbolism 
and  the  highly  aesthetic  outward  form  of  the  old  faith.  The  result 
of  this  was  that  he  was  almost  wholly  employed  by  adherents  of  the 
Catholic  religion.  In  one  way  this  was  a  fortunate  circumstance, 
for  it  saved  him  from  the  temptation  of  assisting  in  that  great  wave 
of  falsification  and  vulgarization  which,  under  the  name  of  "restor- 
ation," has  devastated  the  principal  mediaeval  buildings  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  In  another  way  it  was  unfortunate,  for  his 
Catholic  employers  were  mostly  much  pinched  for  money,  and  at 
the  same  time  so  devoid  of  all  sympathy  for  the  principles  of  which 
he  was  the  chief  exponent,  that  they  almost  always  insisted  on  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  display  being  made  in  the  cheapest 
possible  manner.  On  account  of  this  it  is  unfair  to  judge  of  Pugin's 
genius  from  a  critical  examination  of  his  executed  works.  In 
almost  every  case  his  design  was  seriously  injured,  both  by  cutting 
down  its  carefully  considered  proportions  and  by  introducing  shams 
(above  all  things  hateful  to  Pugin),  such  as  plaster  groining  and 
even  cast-iron  carving.  The  cathedral  of  St  George  at  Southwark, 
and  even  the  church  of  the  Jesuits  in  Farm  Street,  Berkeley  Square, 
London,  are  melancholy  instances  of  this.  Thus  his  life  was  one 
series  of  disappointments  ;  no  pecuniary  success  compensated  him 
for  the  destruction  of  his  best  designs,  as  in  him  the  man  of  busi- 
ness was  thoroughly  subordinate  to  the  artist.  He  himself  used  to 
say  that  the  only  church  he  had  ever  executed  with  unalloyed 
satisfaction  was  the  one  at  Ramsgate,  which  he  not  only  designed 
but  paid  for.  Pugin  was  very  broad  in  his  love  for  the  mediaeval 
styles,  but  on  the  whole  preferred  what  is  really  the  most  suited 
to  modern  requirements,  namely,  the  Perpendicular  of  the  15th 
century,  and  this  he  employed  in  its  simpler  domestic  form  with 
much  success  both  in  his  own  house  at  Ramsgate  and  in  the  stately 
Adare  Hall  in  Ireland,  built  for  Lord  Dunraven.  The  cathedral  of 
Killarney  and  the  chapel  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Douai 
were  perhaps  the  ecclesiastic  buildings  which  were  carried  out  with 
least  deviation  from  Pugin's  original  conception. 

He  was  a  skilful  etcher  and  produced  a  number  of  works  illus- 
trated in  this  way  by  his  own  hand,  and  written  with  much  elo- 

buildings  themselves,  and  being  used  simply  like  "  cribs "  to  an  un- 
known language,  are  partly  accountable  for  numberless  recent  build- 
ings, which,  while  they  are  Gothic  in  forri,  are  utterly  devoid  of  the 
refinement,  fitness,  and  true  taste  displayed  in  the  buildings  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

1  Three  volumes  of  photographs  of  these  sketches  have  been  pub- 
lished in  a  square  octavo  form,  but  have  suffered  from  reduction  in 
size. 

2  A  comparison  of  the  decorations  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  with 
other  contemporary  and  even  later  Gothic  buildings  shows  in  a  very 
striking  way  the  remarkable  talent  and  industry  displayed  by  Pugin 
in  the  work. 

3  A  few  years  ago  very  ill-judged  attempts  were  made  to  claim  for 
Pugin  the  main  credit  of  Barry's  design — claims  which  he  himself 
would  have  been  the  last  to  raise. 


qnence,  antiquarian  knowledge,  and  even  brilliant  humour.  This 
last  gift  is  exemplified  in  a  series  of  etched  plates  in  his  Contrasts : 
on  one  side  is  some  noble  structure  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  on  the 
other  an  example  of  the  same  building  as  erected  in  the  19th 
century.4  His  works  on  Chancel  Screens  and  on  The  True  Prin- 
ciples of  Christian  Architecture  are  very  ably  written  and  exquisitely 
illustrated. 

Pugin's  melancholy  and  premature  end  was  to  a  great  extent 
caused  by  the  embittering  influence  of  the  constant  frustration  of 
his  noblest  artistic  struggles  and  conceptions. 

See  Ben.  Ferrey,  Recollections  of  A.  Welby  Pugin  and  his  Father,  London, 
1861. 

PULCI,  LUIGI,  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Florence  on 
3d  December  1431  and  died  in  1487.  The  first  edition 
of  his  Morgante  Maggiore  appeared  at  Venice  in  1481. 
(See  ITALY,  vol.  xiii.  p.  507  sq.) 

PULGAR,  FERNANDO  DE,  Spanish  prose-writer  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  15th  century,  born  probably  at  Pulgar 
near  Toledo,  was  brought  up  at  the  court  of  John  II. 
Henry  IV.  made  him  one  of  his  secretaries,  and  under 
Isabella  he  became  a  councillor  of  state,  was  charged  with 
at  least  one  mission  to  France,  and  in  1482  was  appointed 
historiographer-royal.  His  official  Chronicle  of  the  reign 
of  the  Catholic  sovereigns  for  the  period  previous  to  his 
appointment  is  loose  and  inaccurate ;  but  in  the  later 
portion,  where  he  had  the  advantage  of  personal  know- 
ledge, he  is  always  precise  and  often  graphic.  It  is  not 
brought  down  beyond  the  year  1492.  It  was  first  printed 
at  Valladolid  in  1565  under  the  name  of  Antonio  de 
Lebrija.  Pulgar's  Claros  Varones  de  Castillo,,  a  series 
of  sketches  of  forty-six  of  the  most  celebrated  men  of  the 
reign  and  court  of  Henry  IV.,  is  of  considerable  interest 
both  for  its  matter  and  for  its  style.  He  wrote,  besides,  a 
commentary  on  the  ancient  Coplas  de  Mingo  Revulgo  ;  and 
thirty-two  of  his  Letters  written  to  various  persons  of  emi- 
nence, including  some  to  the  queen,  are  also  extant.  The 
first  edition  of  the  Claros  Varones  was  that  of  Seville 
(1500) ;  some  of  the  letters  did  not  appear  until  1528. 

PULKOWA.     See  OBSERVATORY,  vol.  xvii.  p.  714. 

PULLEY.     See  MECHANICS  and  BLOCK  MACHINERY. 

PULTENEY,  WILLIAM,  EARL  OF  BATH  (1684-1764),  a 
politician  elevated  by  a  living  historian  5  into  the  import- 
ant position  in  history  of  the  first  leader  of  the  opposition, 
was  descended  from  an  ancient  family  with  a  pedigree  duly 
recorded  in  Nichols's  History  of  Leicestershire  (iv.  320). 
His  father,  William  Pulteney,  died  in  1715,  and  the  future 
statesman  was  the  offspring  of  his  first  wife,  Mary  Floyd, 
and  was  born  in  1684.  As  his  grandfather  had  been  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  city  of  Westminster,  the  boy  was 
sent  to  Westminster  school  and  from  it  proceeded  to  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  acquiring  in  these  institutions  that  deep 
classical  knowledge  which  adorned  his  own  speeches  and 
enabled  him  to  correct  his  great  antagonist  when  he  blun- 
dered in  a  quotation.  On  leaving  Oxford  he  made  the 
usual  tour  on  the  Continent.  In  1705  he  was  brought 
into  parliament  by  Henry  Guy  for  the  Yorkshire  borough 
of  Hedon,  and  at  the  death  of  that  gentleman  (a  politician 
who  had  at  one  time  held  the  office  of  secretary  of  the 
treasury)  Pulteney  inherited  an  estate  of  £500  a  year  and 
£40,000  in  cash.  This  seat  was  held  by  him  without  a 
break  until  1734,  and  though  the  family  was  then  dispos- 
sessed for  a  time  the  supremacy  was  regained  in  the  return 
of  another  Pulteney  in  1739.  Throughout  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne  William  Pulteney  played  a  prominent  part 
in  the  struggles  of  the  Whigs,  and  on  the  prosecution  of 
Sacheverell  he  exerted  himself  with  great  zeal  against  that 
violent  divine.  When  the  victorious  Tories  sent  his  friend 

4  Pugin's  sense  of  humour  was  keener  than  is  altogether  convenient 
for  a  man  of  business  ;  on  one  occasion  when  a  certain  Catholic  bishop 
wrote  asking  him  to  design  a  handsome  church,  which  was  to  cost  an 
absurdly  small  sum  of  money,  he  replied,  "  My  lord,  say  thirty  shillings 
more  and  have  a  tower  and  spire." 

5  Justin  M'Carthy,  History  of  the  Four  Georges,  vol.  i.  (1884). 


104 


P  IT  L  —  P  U  M 


Robert  Walpole  to  the  Tower  in  1712,  Pulteney  championed 
his  cause  in  the  House  of  Commons  and  joined  with  the 
leading  Whigs  in  visiting  him  in  his  prison-chamber.  For 
these  acts  he  was  duly  rewarded  on  the  accession  of  George 
I.  In  the  first  ministry  of  the  new  king  he  held  the  post 
of  secretary  of  war,  a  post  which  in  the  previous  reign  had 
been  conferred  upon  St  John,  Walpole,  and  Granville  suc- 
cessively, and  when  the  committee  of  secrecy  on  the  Utrecht 
treaty  was  formed  the  list  included  the  name  of  William 
Pulteney.  Two  years  later  (6th  July  1716)  he  became 
one  of  the  privy  council.  In  the  following  year  the  Whig 
ministry  was  rent  in  twain  by  internal  dissension.  On 
the  proposition  of  the  Government  for  granting  a  supply 
against  Sweden  the  friends  of  Lord  Townshend  and  Sir 
Robert  Walpole  voted  against  the  administration,  which 
only  escaped  defeat  by  a  majority  of  four.  Townshend 
was  immediately  dismissed  from  his  post  of  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  and  Walpole  at  once  resigned  his  places,  and 
amongst  the  Whigs  who  followed  him  in  his  retirement  was 
Pulteney.  Devotion  like  this  merited  some  signal  mark  of 
favour  on  the  return  to  power  of  the  displaced  ministers ; 
yet,  when  the  crash  of  the  South  Sea  Company  restored 
Walpole  to  the  highest  position  of  authority,  all  that  he 
offered  to  Pulteney  was  a  peerage,  a  distinction  which 
entailed  the  misfortune  of  banishment  from  the  House 
where  his  faculties  found  their  highest  opportunities  for 
display.  The  offer  was  rejected,  but  in  1723  Pulteney 
stooped  to  accept  the  lucrative  but  insignificant  post  of 
cofferer  of  the  household.  In  this  obscure  position  he  was 
content  for  some  time  to  await  the  future ;  but  when  he 
found  himself  neglected  he  broke  out  into  sarcasms  on  the 
civil  list  and  in  1725  was  dismissed  from  his  sinecure. 
From  the  day  of  his  dismissal  to  that  of  his  ultimate  tri- 
umph Pulteney  remained  in  opposition,  and,  although  Sir 
Robert  Walpole  attempted  on  his  quarrel  with  Townshend 
to  conciliate  him,  all  his  overtures  were  spurned.  Pul- 
teney's  resentment  was  not  confined  to  his  speeches  in 
parliament.  With  Bolingbroke  he  set  on  foot  the  well- 
known  periodical  called  The  Craftsman,  and  in  its  pages 
the  minister  was  incessantly  denounced  for  many  years. 
The  war  of  pamphlets  raged  without  ceasing.  Lord  Hervey 
published  an  attack  on  the  Craftsman,  and  Pulteney,  either 
openly  or  behind  the  person  of  Amhurst,  defended  its  strict- 
ures of  the  minister.  Whether  the  question  at  issue  was 
the  civil  list,  the  excise,  the  income  of  the  prince  of  Wales, 
or  the  state  of  domestic  affairs  Pulteney  was  ready  with  a 
pamphlet,  and  the  minister  or  one  of  his  friends  came  out 
with  a  reply.  For  one  of  these  efforts  he  was  challenged 
to  a  duel  by  Lord  Hervey ;  for  another  he  was  struck  off 
the  roll  of  privy  councillors  and  dismissed  from  the  com- 
mission of  the  peace  in  several  counties.  In  print  Pulteney 
was  inferior  to  Bolingbroke  alone  among  the  antagonists  of 
Walpole,  but  in  parliament,  from  which  St  John  was  ex- 
cluded, he  excelled  all  his  comrades.  When  the  sinking 
fund  was  appropriated  his  voice  was  the  foremost  in 
denunciation;  when  the  excise  scheme  was  stirring  popular 
feeling  to  its  lowest  depths  the  passion  of  the  multitude 
broke  out  in  his  oratory.  Through  Walpole's  prudent 
withdrawal  of  the  latter  measure  the  fall  of  his  ministry 
was  averted,  and  dismay  fell  on  the  opposition  leaders. 
Bolingbroke  withdrew  to  France  and  Pulteney  sought  con- 
solation in  foreign  travel. 

From  the  general  election  of  1734  until  his  elevation 
to  the  peerage  Pulteney  sat  for  Middlesex.  For  some 
years  after  this  election  the  minister's  assailants  made 
little  progress  in  their  attack,  but  in  1738  the  troubles 
with  Spain  supplied  them  with  the  opportunity  which 
they  desired.  Walpole  long  argued  for  peace,  but  he  was 
feebly  supported  in  his  own  cabinet,  and  the  frenzy  of  the 
people  for  war  knew  no  bounds.  In  an  evil  moment  for 


his  own  reputation  he  consented  to  remain  in  office  and 
to  gratify  popular  passion  with  a  war  against  Spain.  His 
downfall  was  not  long  deferred.  War  was  declared  in 
1739  ;  a  new  parliament  was  summoned  in  the  summer  of 
1741,  and  over  the  division  on  the  election  petitions  the 
ministry  of  Walpole  fell  to  pieces.  The  task  of  forming 
the  new  administration  was  after  some  delay  entrusted 
to  his  principal  antagonist,  whereupon  Pulteney  offered 
the  post  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury  to  that  harmless  poli- 
tician the  earl  of  Wilmington,  being  content  himself,  as 
he  had  often  declared  his  disdain  for  office,  with  a  seat  in 
the  cabinet  coupled  with  a  peerage.  At  this  act  popular 
feeling  broke  out  into  open  indignation.  Exclamations 
that  the  country  was  betrayed  were  heard  on  all  sides, 
and  from  the  moment  of  his  elevation  to  the  Upper  House 
Pulteney's  influence  dwindled  to  nothing.  Horace  Walpole 
asserts  that  when  Pulteney  wished  to  recall  his  desire  for 
a  peerage  it  was  forced  upon  him  through  the  ex-minister's 
advice  by  the  king,  and  another  chronicler  of  the  times 
records  that  when  victor  and  vanquished  met  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  the  one  as  Lord  Orford,  the  other  as  the  earl  of 
Bath,  the  remark  was  made  by  the  exulting  Orford : 
"  Here  we  are,  my  lord,  the  two  most  insignificant  fellows 
in  England."  On  14th  July  1742  Pulteney  was  created 
baron  Pulteney  of  Hedon,  county  York,  viscount  Pulteney 
of  Wrington,  county  Somerset,  and  earl  of  Bath,  and  a  few 
months  previously  he  had  been  restored  to  his  rank  in  the 
privy  council.  On  Wilmington's  death  in  1743  he  made 
application  to  the  king  for  the  post  of  first  lord  of  the 
treasury,  only  to  find  that  it  had  been  conferred  on  Henry 
Pelham.  For  two  days  in  1746  he  was  at  the  head  of  a 
ministry,  but  in  "  48  hours,  three  quarters,  seven  minutes, 
and  eleven  seconds"  this  short-lived  ministry  collapsed. 
An  occasional  pamphlet  and  an  unfrequent  speech  were 
afterwards  the  sole  fruits  of  Lord  Bath's  talents.  His 
praises  whilst  in  retirement  have  been  sung  by  two  prelates 
of  the  established  church  of  England,  Bishops  Pearce  and 
Newton.  He  died  on  7th  July  1764,  and  was  buried  on 
17th  July  in  his  own  vault  in  Islip  chapel,  Westminster 
Abbey. 

Pulteney's  eloquence  was  keen  and  incisive,  sparkling  with  viva- 
city and  with  allusions  drawn  from  the  literature  of  his  own  country 
and  of  Rome.  Of  business  he  was  never  fond,  and  the  loss  in  1734 
of  his  trusted  friend  John  Merrill,  who  had  supplied  the  qualities 
which  he  lacked,  was  feelingly  lamented  by  him  in  a  letter  to  Swift. 
His  chief  weakness  was  a  passion  for  money,  which  was  born  with 
him  and  grew  as  he  grew.  As  he  left  no  surviving  issue l  his  vast 
fortune  went  to  William  Johnstone  of  Dumfries  (the  third  son  of 
Sir  James  Johnstone),  who  had  married  Frances,  the  daughter  and 
heiress  of  his  cousin  Daniel  Fulteney,  and  had  taken  the  name  of 
Pulteney.  "  Lord  Bath  has  left  no  trace  of  the  possession  of  prac- 
tical statesmanship,  but  for  nearly  twenty  years  he  led  the  opposi- 
tion in  the  House  of  Commons  to  the  greatest  minister  of  the 
age,  and  had  at  last  the  triumph  of  driving  his  adversary  from 
office.  (W.  P.  C.) 

PULTOWA.     See  POLTAVA. 

PUMA,  a  name,  probably  of  native  origin,  introduced 
into  European  literature  by  the  early  Spanish  writers  on 
South  America  (as  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega  and  Hernandez) 
for  one  of  the  largest  feline  animals  of  the  New  World. 
It  is  generally  called  "  cougouar  "  by  the  French,  "  Icon  " 
by  the  Spanish  Americans,  and  "  panther  "  by  the  Anglo- 
American  hunters  of  the  United  States.  It  is  the  Felis 
concolor  of  Linnaeus  r.nd  all  subsequent  systematic  zoo- 
logical authors.  In  general  and  anatomical  characters, 
teeth,  &c.,  it  is  a  typical  member  of  the  genus  Felis.  (See 
MAMMALIA,  vol.  xv.  p.  434.)  Though  often  spoken  of  as 
the  American  lion,  chiefly  on  account  of  its  colour,  it  rather 
resembles  the  leopard  of  the  Old  World  in  size  and  habits. 
It  usually  measures  from  nose  to  root  of  tail  about  40 

1  His  wife,  Anna  Maria  Gumley,  daughter  of  John  Gumley  of  Isle- 
worth,  usually  styled  "  a  wealthy  glass  manufacturer  and  army  con- 
tractor," died  on  14th  September  1758,  aged  sixty-four. 


P  U  M  — P  U  N 


105 


inches,  the  tail  being  rather  more  than  half  that  length. 
The  head  is  rather  small  compared  with  that  of  other  cats 
and  has  no  mane.  The  ears  are  large  and  rounded.  The 
tail  is  cylindrical,  with  some  bushy  elongation  of  the  hairs 
near  the  end,  but  not  forming  a  distinct  tuft  as  in  the 
lion.  The  general  colour  of  all  the  upper  parts  and  sides 


Puma. 


of  the  adult  is  a  tawny  yellowish  brown,  sometimes  having 
a  grey  or  silvery  shade,  but  in  some  individuals  dark  or 
inclining  to  red.  The  lower  parts  of  the  body,  inner  sur- 
face of  the  limbs,  the  throat,  chin,  and  upper  lip  are  dirty 
white ;  the  outside  of  the  ears,  particularly  at  their  base, 
and  a  patch  on  each  side  of  the  muzzle  black ;  the  end  of 
the  tail  dusky.  The  young,  as  is  the  case  with  the  other 
plain-coloured  Felidx,  are,  when  born,  spotted  with  dusky 
brown  and  the  tail  ringed.  These  markings  gradually  fade, 
and  quite  disappear  before  the  animal  becomes  full-grown. 

The  puma  has  an  exceedingly  wide  range  of  geographical 
distribution,  extending  over  a  hundred  degrees  of  latitude, 
from  Canada  in  the  north  to  Patagonia  in  the  south,  and 
was  formerly  pretty  generally  diffused  in  suitable  localities 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  but  the  advances 
of  civilization  have  in  recent  years  considerably  curtailed 
the  extent  of  the  districts  which  it  inhabits.  In  Central 
America  it  is  still  common  in  the  dense  forests  which 
clothe  the  mountain  ranges  as  high  as  8000  or  9000  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  where  the  hideous  sound  of  its  howl- 
ing is  said  to  be  almost  continuously  heard  at  night  dur- 
ing the  breeding  season.  Though  an  expert  climber,  it  is 
by  no  means  confined  to  wooded  districts,  being  frequently 
found  in  scrub  and  reeds  along  the  banks  of  rivers,  and 
even  in  the  open  pampas  and  prairies.  Its  habits  much 
resemble  those  of  the  rest  of  the  group  to  which  it  be- 
longs ;  and,  like  the  leopard,  when  it  happens  to  come 
within  reach  of  an  abundant  and  easy  prey,  as  the  sheep 
or  calves  of  an  outlying  fanning  station,  it  kills  far  more 
than  it  can  eat,  either  for  the  sake  of  the  blood  only  or 
to  gratify  its  propensity  for  destruction.  It  rarely  attacks 
man,  and,  when  pursued,  escapes  if  possible  by  ascending 
lofty  trees.  Several  instances  have  occurred  of  pumas 
becoming  tame  in  captivity.  Edmund  Kean,  the  celebrated 
actor,  had  one  which  followed  him  about  like  a  dog.  When 
caressed  they  express  their  pleasure  by  purring  like  a 
domestic  cat. 

PUMICE,  a  highly  porous  light  mineral  substance  of 
volcanic  origin,  resulting  from  the  solidification  of  foam  or 
scum  formed  by  the  escape  of  steam  or  gas  on  the  surface 
of  molten  lava.  It  is  principally  found  of  a  whitish  or  clear 


grey  colour,  more  rarely  of  a  slaty  blue  or  reddish  tint. 
In  composition  it  is  allied  to  the  obsidians,  containing  in 
every  100  parts  about  72  of  silica,  17  of  alumina,  2  of 
iron  oxide,  and  9  of  soda  and  potash  ;  and  under  the  blow- 
pipe it  fuses  to  a  white  enamel.  Its  porosity  renders  it  so 
exceedingly  light  that  in  the  dry  condition  it  floats  readily 
on  the  surface  of  water,  sinking  only  when  thoroughly 
saturated.  Owing  to  this  property  it  is  found  very  widely 
diffused  over  the  ocean-bed,  even  at  points  far  removed  from 
volcanic  vents,  considerable  blocks  having  been  brought  up 
in  the  dredgings  of  the  "  Challenger  "  at  all  the  points  of 
its  sea-bottom  exploration.  It  is  obtained  for  industrial 
purposes  in  the  regions  of  recent  volcanoes — the  Lipari 
Islands,  Iceland,  Auvergne,  Teneriffe,  &c. — and  is  highly 
valued  as  a  smoothing  and  polishing  material  for  the  metals, 
marble,  horn,  wood,  bone,  ivory,  and  leather.  For  some 
purposes  it  is  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  fine  powder, 
and  used  either  direct  or  spread  upon  paper  or  linen,  as 
glass  or  emery-paper.  A  toilet  soap  is  prepared  contain- 
ing a  proportion  of  powdered  pumice.  An  artificial  pumice 
is  made  from  a  mixture  of  calcined  and  pulverized  quartz 
and  alumina  baked  in  the  form  of  a  porous  brick. 

PUMP.  See  MINING,  vol.  xvi.  pp.  458, 459 ;  PNEUMATICS, 
vol.  xix.  p.  246;  and  HYDROMECHANICS,  vol.  xii.  p.  533  sr/. 

PUMPKIN.  See  GOURD,  vol.  xi.  p.  4,  and  HORTI- 
CULTURE, vol.  xii.  p.  283. 

PUNCHINELLO  (It.  Policindla,  Pulcinella),  the  most 
popular  of  the  puppets,  is  of  Italian  origin,  though  its 
history  is  by  no  means  free  from  obscurity.  The  earlier 
etymologists  sought  to  trace  the  name  to  various  mythical 
individuals,  by  whom,  it  was  alleged,  the  type  was  first 
furnished.  Galiani  adopts  the  theory  Avhich  derives  it 
from  the  name  of  Puccio  d'Aniello,  a  vintager  of  Acerra 
near  Naples,  who,  having  by  his  wit  and  grotesque  appear- 
ance vanquished  some  strolling  comedians  in  their  own 
sphere,  was  induced  to  join  the  troop,  and  whose  place, 
by  reason  of  his  popularity,  was  supplied  after  his  death 
by  a  masked  actor  who  imitated  his  dress  and  manner. 
The  claims  of  other  individuals — Paolo  Cinella,  Polliceno, 
and  Pulcinella,  a  Neapolitan  dealer  in  fowls— -have  also 
found  supporters,  and  the  derivation  of  the  name  and 
character  from  some  old  mystery  representing  Pontius 
(O.E.  Pownce  ;  Fr.  Ponce)  Pilate  and  Judas,  or  the  Jews, 
was  formerly  popular.  It  has  even  been  suggested  that 
the  title  is  a  modification  of  iroXv  /aveto  as  expressive  of 
the  restlessness  which  is  characteristic  of  the  puppet ;  and 
the  assumption  that  the  character  was  invariably  of 
diminutive  size  has  given  rise  to  its  reference  to  the  word 
pollice,  the  thumb  (cf.  Daumling,  Tom  Thumb).  The 
most  plausible  theory,  however,  regards  the  name  in  its 
Italian  form  as  a  diminutive  of  puldno,  fern,  pulcina,  a 
chicken.  It  is  sometimes  stated  that,  in  consequence  of 
the  habit  of  using  the  word  "chicken"  as  a  term  of 
endearment,  it  came  to  mean  "a  little  child,"  and  hence 
"  a  puppet "  (Skeat).  But  this  again  involves  the 
assumption  that  the  application  of  the  name  to  the  char- 
acter was  in  some  measure  determined  by  the  size  of  the 
puppets,  whereas  it  would  appear  to  have  been  trans- 
ferred from  the  comic  stage  to  the  puppet  show,  and  the 
Pulcinella  of  the  stage  was  not  necessarily  a  dwarf.  The 
choice,  therefore,  seems  to  lie  between  the  theory  of 
Quadrio,  that  it  was  applied  on  account  of  the  resemblance 
of  the  hooked  nose  to  a  beak,  and  that  of  Baretti,  which 
ascribes  its  employment  to  the  nasal  squeak  and  timorous 
impotence  of  the  original  character.  With  respect  to  the 
development  of  the  modern  type,  it  has  been  assumed  that 
the  whole  family  of  Italian  maschere  ( Arlecchino,  Brighetta, 
and  the  like)  are  modified  survivals  of  the  principal  Oscan 
characters  of  the  Atellanae,  and  that  Punchinello  is  the 
representative  of  Maccus,  the  fool  or  clown.  In  proof  of 

XX.  —  14 


106 


P  U  N  — P  U  N 


this  it  is  urged  that  Acerra,  the  supposed  residence  of 
Puccio  d'Aniello  and  the  traditional  source  of  the  char- 
acter, is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Aversa,  the  old  Atella ; 
and  reference  is  also  made  to  a  bronze  statue  of  Maccus, 
discovered  at  Rome  in  1727,  an  engraving  of  which  has 
been  preserved  in  Ficoroni's  Le  Masckere  Sceniche  e  le 
Figure  Comiche  cCAntichi  Romani.  But  the  resemblance 
of  the  statue  to  the  puppet  is  scarcely  to  be  termed  a 
striking  one,  and  the  large  nose  and  deformed  figure  are 
somewhat  hazardous  ground  on  which  to  base  a  theory, — 
especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  such  points  of  likeness 
as  there  are  in  it  to  the  northern  Punch -are  not  to  be 
found  in  the  Neapolitan  Pulcinella.  It  is  possible  that 
some  relic  of  the  old  Ludi  Osci,  transmitted  through  the 
Vice  of  the  mystery  plays,  is  to  be  found  in  the  character; 
but  any  direct  descent  from  the  Maccus  of  the  Atellante 
seems  precluded  by  the  fact  that,  while  there  are  traces  of 
the  gradual  development  of  the  northern  Punch  from  the 
Neapolitan  Pulcinella,  the  latter  with  its  grey  hat,  white 
smock  and  trousers,  masked  face,  and  undistorted  body  is 
widely  different  from  its  alleged  prototype.  It  seems 
necessary,  therefore,  to  regard  the  Pulcinella  as  in  large 
part  a  distinct  creation  of  comparatively  modern  date. 
Prior  to  the  17th  century  there  is  no  indication  in  the 
Italian  burlesque  poets  of  the  existence  of  Pulcinella, 
though  Riccoboni  places  the  creation  of  the  part  before 
1600. 

Andrea  Perrucci  (1699)  and  Gimma  assert  with  some 
show  of  authority  that  Silvio  Fiorillo,  a  comedian  named 
after  his  principal  part  Captain  Matamoros  (the  Italian 
Miles  Gloriosus),  invented  the  Neapolitan  Pulcinella.  It 
was  afterwards  improved  by  Andrea  Calcese,  surnamed 
Ciuccio,  who  died  of  the  plague  in  1656,  and  who,  accord- 
ing to  Gimma,  imitated  in  the  character  the  peasants  of 
Acerra.  This  would  place  the  origin  of  the  Italian  Pulcin- 
ella somewhere  about  the  commencement  of  the  17th 
century,  the  original  character  appearing  to  have  been  that 
of  a  country  clown,  hook-nosed,  shrill-voiced,  cowardly, 
boastful,  and  often  stupid,  yet  given  at. times  to  knavish 
tricks  and  shrewd  sayings.  In  thorough  accordance  with 
this  date,  we  find  that  the  earliest  known  appearance  of 
Polichinelle  in  France  is  at  the  commencement  of  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.,  in  the  show  of  the  puppet-playing  dentist 
Jean  Brioche.  It  might  have  been  expected  that  the 
shrewder  and  wittier  side  of  the  character  would  most  com- 
mend itself  to  the  French  mind,  and  there  is  good  reason 
to  believe  that  the  Polichinelle  of  Brioche^  was  neither  a 
blunderer  nor  a  fool.  The  puppet  was  almost  immediately 
seized  upon  as  the  medium  of  political  satire  of  the  kind 
exemplified  in  the  Letter  of  Polichinelle  to  Cardinal  Mazarin 
(1649),  and  it  is  described  in  the  Combat  de  Cyrano  de 
Bergerac  as  a  "petit  Esope  de  bois,  remuant,  tournant, 
virant,  dansant,  riant,  parlant,  petant "  and  as  "  cet  hetero- 
clite  marmouset,  disons  mieux,  ce  drolifique  bossu."  In 
this  there  appear  signs  of  transformation,  whether  the  im- 
portation to  France  took  place  before  or  after  the  alleged 
improvements  of  Calcese.  The  hunchback  had  been  long 
associated  in  France  with  wit  and  laughter,  and  there  are, 
therefore,  some  grounds  for  Magnin's  theory  that  the 
northern  Punch  is  of  French  origin,  a  Gallic  type  under 
an  Italian  name,  though  there  does  not  seem  to  be  suffi- 
cient reason  for  adopting  his  suggestion  that  Polichinelle 
was  a  burlesque  portrait  of  Bearnais.  The  date  of  its  in- 
troduction into  England  has  been  disputed,  Payne  Collier 
being  of  opinion  that  Punch  and  King  William  came 
together,  a  second  theory  suggesting  an  earlier  origin 
with  the  Huguenot  refugees.  In  view  of  its  popularity 
in  France  prior  to  the  Restoration,  however,  it  would  be 
strange  if  its  migration  had  been  so  long  delayed,  and  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  it  crossed  the  Channel  in  the 


wake  of  the  Royalists.  Apart  from  the  general  references 
by  Pepys  (1662)  and  by  Evelyn  (1667)  to  an  Italian 
puppet-show  at  Covent  Garden,  the  former  makes  men- 
tion (1669)  of  some  poor  people  who  called  their  fat  child 
Punch,  "  that  word  being  become  a  word  of  common  use 
for  all  that  is  thick  and  short."  An  allusion  to  "  Punch- 
inellos "  is  also  to  be  found  in  Butler's  satire  on  English 
imitation  of  the  French,  and  Aubrey  speaks  of  "  a  Punch- 
inello holding  a  dial"  as  one  of  the  ornaments  of  Sir 
Samuel  Lely's  house  at  Whitehall.  But,  though  the  puppet 
did  not  travel  in  the  train  of  William  of  Orange,  allusions 
to  it  become  far  more  frequent  after  the  Revolution  of  1688, 
and  the  skill  of  the  Dutch  in  their  treatment  of  puppet 
mechanism  may  have  enhanced  its  attractiveness.  In  1703 
it  was  introduced  at  Bartholomew  Fair  into  a  puppet  play 
of  the  creation  of  the  world;  in  1709  (Tatler,  No.  16)  it 
was  to  be  found  in  a  representation  of  the  Deluge,  though 
in  a  different  part  from  that  of  the  Momus  Polichinelle  of 
~PirorisArlequin-Deucalion(l72'2);  and  in  1710  (Spectator, 
No.  14)  it  is  mentioned  as  a  leading  figure  in  Powell's 
puppet-show  at  Covent  Garden.  The  alleged  satire  on 
Robert  Walpole,  entitled  A  Second  Tale  of  a  Tub,  or  the 
History  of  Robert  Poivel,  the  Puppet- Showman  (1715), 
furnishes  some  details  of  Punch  performances,  and  has  an 
interesting  frontispiece  representing  Powell  with  Punch 
and  his  wife.  The  Judy  (or  Joan,  as  she  appears  to  have 
been  sometimes  called)  is  not  of  a  specially  grotesque 
order,  but  the  Punch  is  easily  recognizable  in  all  but  the 
features,  which  are  of  the  normal  puppet  type.  Other 
allusions  are  to  be  found  in  Gay's  Shepherds  Week — 
Saturday  (1714)  and  Swift's  Dialogue  between  Mad  Mnlli- 
nix  and  Timothy  (1728).  The  older  Punchinello  was  far 
less  restricted  in  his  actions  and  circumstances  than  his 
modern  successor.  He  fought  with  allegorical  figures 
representing  want  and  weariness  as  well  as  with  his  wife 
and  with  the  police,  was  on  intimate  terms  with  the 
patriarchs  and  the  seven  champions  of  Christendom,  sat 
on  the  lap  of  the  queen  of  Sheba,  had  kings  and  dukes 
for  his  companions,  and  cheated  the  Inquisition  as  well  as 
the  common  hangman.  Powell  seems  to  have  introduced  a 
trained  pig  which  danced  a  minuet  with  Punch,  and  the 
French  have  occasionally  employed  a  cat  in  place  of  the 
dog  Toby,  whose  origin  is  somewhat  uncertain.  A  typical 
version  of  the  modern  play,  with  illustrations,  was  published 
by  Payne  Collier  and  Cruikshank  in  1828.  (R.  M.  w.) 

PUNCTUATION.  See  PALEOGRAPHY,  vol.  xviii.  p. 
163. 

PUNJAB,1  the  most  northern  province  of  British  India. 
Geographically  the  region  called  by  this  name  is  the  tri- 
angular tract  of  country  of  which  the  Indus  and  the  Sutlej 
(Satlaj)  to  their  confluence  form  two  of  the  sides,  the  third 
being  the  lower  Himalaya  hills  between  these  two  rivers. 
The  British  province  now  includes  a  large  extent  of  country 
outside  these  boundaries,  on  all  three  sides — beyond  the 
Indus  to  the  range  of  hills  running  parallel  to  it  on  the 
west ;  beyond  the  Sutlej  eastward  to  the  Jumna  (Jamna) 
and  southward  to  a  distance  of  60  miles  below  Delhi ; 
within  the  hills,  a  large  highland  tract  on  the  east  and 
another  on  the  west,  with  the  Kashmir  and  Chamba  terri- 
tories between.  The  British  province  stretches  north  and 
south  from  35°  10'  N.  lat.  at  the  head  of  the  hill  district 
of  Hazara  to  27°  40'  at  the  south  end  of  the  Gurgaon  dis- 
trict, and  east  and  west  from  69°  36'  E.  long,  on  the  Dera 
Ghazl  Khan  and  Sind  frontier  to  78°  55'  on  the  Jumna. 
The  length  of  the  central  line  of  communication  across  the 
province  from  Delhi  to  Peshawar  by  rail  is  645  miles. 

The  name  Punjab  signifies  "  [country  of]  five  rivers,"  Riv« 


1  Panjab,  according  to  received  modern  spelling ;  but,  as  in  other 
cases  of  important  and  familiar  names,  the  old  form  is  commonly 
retained. 


PUNJAB 


107 


the  five  rivers  being  the  great  tributaries  of  the  INDUS 
(q.v.),  namely,  the  Jhelum,  Chinab,  Ravi,  Bias,  and  Sutlej.1 
These  are  all  rivers  of  large  volume,  but,  on  account  of 
the  great  width  of  sandy  channel  in  their  passage  through 
the  plains,  their  changing  courses,  and  shifting  shoals,  they 
are  of  very  moderate  value  for  steam  navigation,  though 
they  all  support  a  considerable  boat -traffic.  The  Induj 
has  a  course  of  about  550  miles  through  the  Punjab.  The 
Jhelum  enters  the  plains  a  little  above  the  town  of  Jhelum. 
Thence  it  flows  south-west  about  200  miles  to  join  the 
Chinab.  The  Chinab  (called  Chandrabhaga  in  the  hills, 
being  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Chandra  and  the  Bhaga, 
both  from  the  Bdva  Lacha 
Hills)  enters  the  Punjab 
about  15  miles  north  of 
Sialk6t.  About  200  miles 
lower  down  it  receives  the 
Jhelum  on  the  right,  and 
about  60  miles  farther  the 
Ravi  on  the  left.  After 
a  further  course  of  about 
120  miles  it  joins  the  Sut- 
lej. The  Ravi,  after  reach- 
ing the  plains,  follows  a 
very  winding  course  to  its 
junction  with  the  Chinab. 
A  deserted  channel  runs 
generally  parallel  to  the 
present  river  through  part 
of  the  district  of  Mont- 
gomery. The  Bias  enters 
the  Punjab  in  the  Gur- 
daspur  district,  and  has  a 
course  in  the  plains  of 
nearly  100  miles  to  its 
junction  with  the  Sutlej 
near  Hari-ki-Patan.  The 
Sutlej  flows  nearly  500 
miles  through  the  plains 
before  it  unites  with  the 
Chinab,  which  is  the  junc- 
tion of  the  five  tributaries. 
Thence  the  united  rivers 
(sometimes  called  Panj-nad 
or  "  the  five  streams  ")  flow 
in  one  channel  about  50 
miles  to  the  Indus. 

Whilst  the  general  name  Punjab  is  applied  to  the  whole 
country  of  the  five  rivers,  there  are  distinct  names  for  each 
of  the  "doabs"  (do,  two ;  db,  water)  or  tracts  between  two 

1  The  name  first  given  by  the  Aryans  after  their  immigration  was 
Saftta  Sindhii,  "[land  of]  seven  rivers,"  these  being  the  five  rivers  of 
the  modern  Punjab  with  the  addition  of  the  Indus  on  the  one  side  and 
of  the  Saraswati  on  the  other.  In  the  Vedic  poems  they  are  severally 
addressed  as  Sindhu,  the  Indus  (the  river)  ;  Vitasta,  the  Jhelum  ; 
Asikni,  Chiuab  ;  Airavati  and  Marudwidha,  Ravi  ;  Vipdsa,  Bias  ; 
Sutudri,  Sutlej  ;  and  Saraswati,  Sarsuti.  It  may  be  remarked  that 
Sindhii  itself  means  "river,"  and  Saraswati,  "having  running  water," 
and  that  each  is  applied  as  an  epithet  to  other  great  rivers.  The 
Saraswati,  alone  of  the  seven,  is  not  now  great.  It  is  represented  by 
a  channel  or  channels,  occupying  the  position  assigned  to  the  ancient 
much-praised  stream,  but  now  nearly  dry  for  a  great  part  of  the  year ; 
for,  unlike  the  others,  it  comes  only  from  the  lower  hills,  not  from 
perpetual  snows.  The  large  body  of  water  which  it  carries  for  a  time 
in  the  rainy  season  never  reaches  the  Indus,  towards  which  it  directs 
its  course,  but  is  lost  in  the  desert  lands  of  northern  Rajputana  and 
Bahawalpur.  In  writings  of  the  6th  or  7th  century  B.  c.  the  Saraswati 
is  said  to  disappear  and  pass  underground  to  join  the  Ganges  and  Jumna 
at  Prag  (Allahabad),  which  triple  confluence  received  therefore  the 
name  Tribeni.  The  Saraswati  dropped  out  of  the  enumeration  of  the 
rivers  of  the  early  Aryan  settlement ;  and,  when  in  later  days  the  Indus, 
which  receives  all  the  others,  ceased  to  be  reckoned  along  with  them, 
the  country  took  its  name  PancJianada,  and  afterwards,  in  Persian 
form,  Panjab. 


adjoining  rivers.  The  country  between  the  Sutlej  and  the 
Bias  is  called  the  Jalandar  Doab ;  it  includes  the  districts 
Jalandar  and  Hushiarpur.  The  long  strip  between  the 
Bias-Sutlej  and  the  Ravi,  containing  the  greater  part  of 
the  Gurdaspur,  Amritsar,  Lahore,  Montgomery,  and  Multan 
districts,  is  called  the  Barf  Doab.  And  Rechna  Doab  is 
the  tract  between  the  Ravi  and  the  Chinab,  embracing 
the  Sialk6t  and  Gujranwala  districts  with  the  trans-Ravi 
portions  of  the  districts  of  the  Bar!  Doab.  Chaj  or  Jach 
is  the  doab  between  the  Chinab  and  the  Jhelum  (Gujrat 
and  Shahpur  districts  and  part  of  Jhang),  and  Sind  Sagar 
(Indus  Sea)  is  the  name  of  the  large  doab  between  the 


Map  of  Punjab. 

Jhelum  and  the  Indus,  including  the  Rawal  Pindi,  Jhelum, 
and  MuzafFargarh  districts,  with  parts  of  Shahpur,  Bannu, 
Dera  Ismail  Khan.  The  higher  and  drier  parts  of  the 
doabs  are  called  "  bar."  They  are  waste  but  not  barren, 
scantily  covered  with  low  shrubs,  capable,  when  watered, 
of  being  well  cultivated.  The  bar  is  the  great  camel- 
grazing  land.  Large  areas  of  the  Muzaffargarh  and  Multan 
districts  are  "thai,"  barren  tracts  of  shifting  sand.  The 
middle  part  of  the  Barf  Doab,  in  the  Amritsar  district, 
bears  the  distinctive  name  of  Manjha  (middle)  as  the 
centre  and  headquarters  of  the  Sikh  nation,  containing 
their  two  sacred  tanks  of  Amritsar  and  Taran  Taran,  and 
a  dense  and  fine  population  of  Jats,  Rajputs,  and  Gujars. 
The  Malwa  Sikhs,  again,  are  those  of  the  cis-Sutlej  country. 

Besides  the  great  rivers,  the  distinguishing  feature  of  Mim 
the  Punjab,  there  are  some  others   deserving  of  notice,  river 
The   Cabul   river  joins   the   Indus    above    Attock   after 
receiving,   about   12  miles  north-east   of   Peshawar,   the 
Swat  river,  which  enters  British  territory  at  Abazai.     The 
Kunhar,  from  the  Kashmir  hills,  flows  down  the  Kaghan 
valley  (the  upper  part  of  the  Hazara  district)  and  joins 
the  Jhelum  at  Muzaffarabcad.     The  Siran  and  the  D6r  in 
Hazara  unite  and  near  Torbela  run  into  the  Indus,  which 


108 


PUNJAB 


below  Attock  also  receives  the  Harro  from  Hazdra.  The 
Kurrain,  rising  in  Afghanistan  and  flowing  through  the 
Bannu  district,  falls  into  the  Indus  near  Isa  Khil,  and 
the  Sohdn,  from  the  lower  hills  of  Kashmir,  joins  it  .above 
Kdlabagh.  The  Bimbar,  from  the  Kashmir  Hills,  below 
the  Pir  Panjdl  Pass,  runs  into  the  Chindb  near  Wazirdbdd. 
The  Deg,  from  the  Jarnrnu  Hills,  joins  the  Rdvi  near 
Gugaira.  South  of  the  Sutlej  the  Markanda,  the  Saras- 
wati,  the  Gaggar,  and  the  Chitang,  from  the  lower  hills 
of  Sirmur,  which  are  violent  torrents  during  the  rainy 
season  but  nearly  dry  at  other  times,  flow  towards  the 
Indus,  but  never  reach  it,  being  lost  in  the  Sands  of  the 
Bikanir  and  Bahdwalpur  desert. 

Irea  The  area  of  the  Punjab  proper,  the  triangular  tract  of 

country  between  the  Indus  and  the  Sutlej,  is  about  62,000 
square  miles ;  the  whole  area  of  the  British  province  is 
106,632,  and  of  the  feudatory  states  35,817,  making  a 
total  of  142,449  square  miles.  This  area  is  for  the  most 
Jhysical  part  a  great  alluvial  plain.  The  north-east  side  of  the 
features  province  is  a  belt  of  hill-country,  the  outer  margin  of  the 
Himdlayas,  on  which  are  the  valuable  hill-stations  of  Murree, 
Dalhousie,  Dharmsala,  Kassauli,  Sabathii,  Dagshai,  and 
Simla.  In  the  Delhi  and  Gurgdon  districts  is  the  north 
end  of  the  Aravali  range.  A  part  of  the  extremity  of 
these  hills  became  well  known  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of 
Delhi  in  1857  under  the  name  of  the  "  Ridge,"  which  was 
held  by  the  British  troops.  Between  the  Jhelum  and  the 
Indus  is  the  hilly  region  known  by  the  general  name  of 
the  Salt  Range,  containing  the  inexhaustible  stores  of  rock- 
salt  which  have  been  worked  for  many  centuries.  The 
salt  is  dug  from  enormous  caverns  entered  by  narrow 
tunnels.  The  salt-hills  are  continued  west  of  the  Indus, 
where  the  salt  is  dug  from  open  quarries.  A  double  range 
of  low  hills  runs  south-westward  from  the  Indus  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Kurram.  The  part  near  the  south  end  called 
Sheikh  Budln  (Sheikh  Shahdb-uddfn)  is  a  useful  sana- 
torium, though  of  no  great  height  or  great  extent.  The 
western  boundary  of  the  province  is  the  fine  range  of  the 
Sulimdn  Mountains,  dividing  the  Punjab  from  Afghan- 
istan. The  British  possessions  do  not  extend  beyond  the 
base  of  the  hills,  which  are  occupied  by  very  independent 
tribes.  It  is  only  within  a  short  time  past  that  any  exact 
knowledge  has  been  obtained  of  the  interior  of  these  hills, 
beyond  the  parts  visited  in  the  course  of  the  numerous 
frontier  expeditions  for  the  punishment  of  inroads  into 
British  territory.  A  survey  was  made  for  the  first  time 
in  1883  of  the  fine  mountain  mass  containing  the  snowy 
peak  Takht-i- Sulimdn  (Solomon's  throne)  and  its  sur- 
roundings. 

Mineral  Besides  the  rock-salt  the  mineral  products  of  the  Punjab 
products.  are  not  many  Limestone,  good  for  building,  is  obtained 
at  Chani6t  on  the  Chindb  and  at  a  few  other  places. 
There  are  extensive  alum-beds  at  Kdldbdgh  on  the  Indus. 
A  small  quantity  of  coal  is  found  in  the  Salt  Range  in 
disconnected  beds,  mostly  at  a  considerable  height  above 
the  plain,  and  not  very  accessible,  the  beds  thinning  out 
westwards  from  the  Jhelum  to  the  Indus.  Petroleum  is 
found  in  small  quantities  at  a  number  of  places  in  the 
Rdwal  Pindi,  Kohdt,  and  Bannii  districts,  being  gathered 
from  the  surface  of  pools  or  collected  in  shallow  pits.  It 
is  used  for  making  gas  for  the  station  of  Rdwal  Pindi. 
In  almost  all  parts  of  the  Punjab  there  is  "kankar," 
rough  nodular  limestone,  commonly  found  in  thick  beds, 
a  few  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  used  for  road 
metalling  and  burned  for  lime. 

Crops,  As  in  other  parts  of  India,  there  are  commonly  two  har- 
vests in  the  year.  The  spring  crops  are  wheat,  barley, 
gram,  various  vegetables,  oil -seeds,  tobacco,  and  a  little 
opium ;  the  autumn  crops,  rice,  millets,  maize,  pulses, 
cotton,  indigo,  and  sugar-cane.  Tea  is  now  extensively 


cultivated  in  the  Kangra  district.  Flax  has  been  pro- 
duced successfully,  but  the  cultivation  has  not  been  ex- 
tended. Hops  have  been  grown  experimentally,  for  the 
Murree  brewery,  on  neighbouring  hills ;  the  cultivation  in 
Kashmir  has  been  more  encouraging.  Potatoes  are  grown 
extensively  on  cleared  areas  on  the  hills.  The  Punjab 
produces  freely  many  of  the  Indian  fruits,  but  none  of 
special  excellence  except  the  peaches  of  Peshawar.  Grapes 
are  grown  in  many  of  the  Himalayan  valleys,  where  the 
rain  is  not  excessive,  also  at  Peshawar ;  but  they  are  in- 
ferior to  those  brought  from  Cabul. 

The  forest  area  of  the  Punjab  consists  of  4694  square  Forests 
miles  reserved,  under  the  management  of  the  forest  depart- 
ment, and  13,000  square  miles  under  the  district  officers. 
The  demarcation  of  protected  and  reserved  forests  is  being 
extended.  The  wasteful  destruction  of  trees  is  checked 
in  the  hill  forests  rented  from  native  states  by  the  British 
Government.  The  principal  reserved  forests  are  the  deodar 
(Cedrus  Deodara)  and  chil  (Pinus  longifolia)  tracts  in  the 
hills,  the  plantations  of  shisham  (Dalbergia  Sissu)  and  sal 
(Shorea  robusta)  in  the  plains,  and  the  fuel  rakhs  or  pre- 
serves (Acacia,  Prosopis,  «tc.).  The  average  nett  surplus 
of  forest  income  for  the  ten  years  1875-85  was  Rs.161,800. 

The  rainfall  in  the  Punjab  varies  greatly  in  different  Climat 
parts  and  from  year  to  year.  The  maximum  (126'55 
inches  in  the  year)  is  at  Dharmsala,  on  the  face  of  the  high 
north  wall  of  the  Kangra  valley ;  the  minimum  (5'96)  is 
in  the  Muzaffargarh  district.  In  a  country  so  open  and  so 
far  from  the  sea  there  are  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  A 
temperature  of  128°  Fahr.  in  the  shade  has  been  recorded, 
and  a  winter  temperature  of  25°  at  sunrise  is  not  in- 
frequent. At  Lahore,  on  the  grass,  the  thermometer  has 
been  known  to  fall  to  17°. 

Of  the  whole  area  of  British  Punjab  (106,632  square  Cultivi 
miles)  36,755  square  miles  are  cultivated  and  64,263  un-tion. 
cultivated,  the  remaining  5614  being  reckoned  uncultivable. 
An  area  of  75,434  square  miles  (48,377,760  acres)  is  held 
by  33,020  village  communities,  formed  of  small  proprietors 
having  joint  interests  and  joint  responsibility  for  the  land 
revenue,  but  cultivating  each  his  own  land.  Among  the 
Pathans  of  the  trans-Indus  districts  the  tribe  and  not  the 
village  community  is  in  some  cases  the  jointly  responsible 
body.  There  are  3406  estates  of  larger  proprietors,  with 
a  total  area  of  4,531,415  acres;  and  there  are  10,216,872 
acres  of  waste  land,  the  property  of  the  Government,  of 
which  less  than  one-half  is  capable  of  cultivation.  The 
total  area  under  wheat  is  seven  millions  of  acres.  There 
is  an  increasing  export  of  wheat,  gram,  rice,  and  oil- 
seeds. 

Irrigation  for  large  areas  is  from  canals  and  from  reser-  irriga- 
voirs,  and  for  smaller  areas  from  wells.  The  canals  are  of  tion- 
two  kinds,  those  carrying  a  permanent  stream  throughout 
the  year,  and  those  which  fill  only  on  the  periodical  rising 
of  the  rivers,  the  latter  commonly  known  as  "  inundation 
canals."  There  are  only  a  few  parts  of  the  country  pre- 
senting facilities  for  forming  reservoirs,  by  closing  the 
narrow  outlets  of  small  valleys  and  storing  the  accumulated 
rainfall.  The  old  canals  made  by  the  Mohammedan  rulers, 
of  which  the  principal  are  Firoz's  Canal  from  the  Jumna 
and  the  Hasli  Canal  from  the  Rdvi,  have  been  improved 
or  reconstructed  by  the  British  Government.  The  principal 
new  canals  are  the  Sirhind,  drawn  from  the  Sutlej  near 
Riipar,  and  irrigating  parts  of  the  native  states  of  Patidla 
and  Nabha  as  well  as  British  territory ;  the  Bdrf  Doab  Canal 
from  the  Ravi ;  the  Swat  Canal,  drawn  from  the  Swat  river 
at  Abazai ;  and  inundation  canals  in  the  districts  of  Fir6z- 
pur,  Shahpur,  Multan,  and  the  De"rajat,  from  the  Sutlej, 
the  Jhelum,  the  Chinab,  and  the  Indus.  Water  was 
admitted  into  the  Sirhind  Canal  on  1st  July  1882.  Its 
branches  are  still  under  construction. 


PUNJAB 


109 


Popula-        The   population    of   the    British  province   in   1881   numbered 
tion.         18,_850,437,  of  the  feudatory  states  3,861,683  ;  total,  22,712,120. 
This  total  number  consists  of : — 


British 
Territory. 

Native 
States. 

Total. 

Mohammedans    

10  525  150 

1  137,284 

11,662,434 

7  130  528 

2  121  767 

9,252,295 

1  121  004 

595,110 

1,716,114 

35  820 

6,852 

42,678 

33  420 

279 

33  699 

2  864 

387 

3,251 

462 

3 

465 

Others    

1,183 

1 

1,184 

18,850,437 

3,861,683 

22,712,120 

The  Christians  are  thus  distri- 
buted :— 
European,  British  subjects  .... 
Other  European  and  American 

10,761 
17,015 
1  821 

159 
8 
23 

10,920 
17,023 
1  844 

Native    

3  823 

89 

3  912 

33,420 

279 

33,699 

The  Punjab  has  one-fourth  of  the  Mohammedan  inhabitants  of 
India,  one-twentieth  of  the  Hindus,  and  eleven-twelfths  of  the 
Sikhs.  Of  the  Hindus  the  classes  most  largely  represented  are 
Jats  (4, 432, 720)  and  Rajputs  (1,677, 569).  There  are  in  the  Punjab 
certain  criminal  tribes,  always  under  surveillance,  of  which  the 
population  is  at  present  13,957. 

The  tribes  of  the  western  hill  frontier  are  Mohammedans  and 
Pathans  in  the  north  and  Baluchis  in  the  south  (with  one  Pathan 
tribe  among  them).  There  are  sixteen  principal  Pathan  tribes,  of 
which  the  most  important  are  the  Momand,  Afridi,  and  Orakzai 
on  the  Peshawar  border,  and  the  Waziri  adjoining  Bannu  and  the 
Derajat ;  and  seven  Baluch  tribes  on  the  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  border, 
the  chief  of  which  are  the  Bozdar,  Marri,  and  Bugti. 

Adminis-  The  British  province  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into 
trative  thirty-one  districts,  each  under  a  deputy  commissioner,  grouped  in 
divisions,  six  divisions,  each  under  a  commissioner. 


Division. 

District. 

Area. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Division. 

District. 

Area. 

Popula- 
tion. 

so.  m. 

sq.  m. 

Delhi   .. 

Delhi....  1,276 

643,515 

Rawal 

Rawal 

Gurgaon    !  1,938 

641,848 

Pindi 

Pindi  .  . 

4,861 

820,512 

Rohtak  ..1,811 

553,609 

Jhelum  .  . 

3,910 

589,373 

Hissar  1  .  .  5,042 

630,820 

Shahpur 

4,691 

421,508 

Karnal  ..  2,396 

622,621 

Gujrat   .  . 

1,973 

689,115 

Ambala  ..  2,570 

1,067,2(33 

Gujran- 

Simla  .... 

18 

42,945 

wala   .  . 

2,587 

616,892 

Jalandar 

Ludiana    1,375 

618,835 

Sialkot  .. 

1,958 

1,012,148 

Firozpur1  4,254 

777,156 

Derajat 

Muzaffar- 

Jalandar   1,322 

789,555 

garh    .. 

3,139 

338,605 

Hushiar- 

Dera 

pur  2,180 

901,381 

Ghazi 

K:tngra  .  .  ;9,069 

730,845 

Khan  .  . 

4,517 

363,346 

Lahore 

Gurdas- 

Dera 

pur..   .  ;1,822 

823,695 

Ismail 

Amritsar  '1,574 

893,266 

Khan  .  . 

9,296 

441,649 

Lahore  .  .  3,648 

924,106 

Bannu    .  . 

3,868 

332,577 

Jhang    .  .  5,702 

395,296 

Pesha- 

Peshawar 

2,504 

592,674 

Mont- 

war 

Hazara  .  . 

3,039 

407,075 

gomery  5,574 

426,529 

Kohat    .. 

2,838 

181,540 

Multan  .  .  5,880 

551,964 

Khyber 
Pass 

8,173 

106,632 

18,850,437 

Native 
states. 


Lan- 
guages. 


The  native  states  in  feudal  subordination  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment and  in  connexion  with  the  Punjab  are  thirty-six  in  number, 
thirty-one  Hindu  and  five  Mohammedan.  Of  these  many  are  very 
insignificant,  the  rulers  being  petty  Rajput  chiefs  of  old  family  and 
small  means.  The  highest  chief  in  rank  and  importance  is  the 
maharaja  of  Kashmir  and  Jammu,  a  Dogra  Rajput  (see  vol.  xiv.  p. 
12).  The  next  is  the  maharaja  of  P  ATI  ALA  (q.v.).  The  Moham- 
medan state  of  Bah;iwalpur  on  the  Sutlej  is  next,  with  a  popula- 
tion under  half  a  million  and  a  revenue  of  about  20  lakhs.  Next 
in  order  are  the  rajas  of  Jmd  and  NABHA  (q.  v. ),  cis- Sutlej  states. 
They  are  Jats,  like  the  maharaja  of  Patiala,  of  the  Phulkian  clan 
(named  from  Phul,  the  founder  of  these  three  houses,  in  the  middle 
of  last  century).  Next  comes  the  raja  of  KAPURTHALA  (q.v.)  in 
the  fertile  Jalandar  Doab,  of  the  Ahluwalia  family.  Of  the  rest 
the  most  important  in  point  of  revenue  are  the  states  of  Mandi  in 
the  hill  country  west  of  the  Sutlej,  and  Sarmur  in  the  hills  east 
of  that  river,  under  Rajput  rulers,  and  Faridkot  and  Maler  Kotla 
in  the  plains,  cis-Sutlej,  the  former  Hindu,  the  latter  Mohammedan. 

Of  the  22,700,000  people  in  the  Punjab,  in  British  territory  and 
the  native  states,  about  14,000,000  speak  the  provincial  language, 
Panjabi,  which  varies  in  character  in  different  parts  of  the  pro- 
vince. About  4,250,000  speak  HINDUSTANI  (q.v.),  this  number 
including  those  whose  ordinary  vernacular  is  Hindi,  but  who 


1  The  figures  for  the  Hissar  and  Firozpnr  districts  are  only  approximate, 
but  the  sum  of  the  two  together  is  correct.  In  the  redistribution  which  is 
now  (1S85)  being  carried  out  the  former  district  of  Sirsa  has  been  abolished  ; 
the  eastern  part  is  added  to  Hissav  and  the  western  to  Firozpur.  In  the  above 
statement  half  of  the  area  and  population  has  been  assigned  to  each. 


understand  and  are  gradually  adopting  the  more  comprehensive 
Hindustani.  These  two  languages  are  the  most  generally  used 
throughout  the  province,  but  not  equally  in  all  parts.  The  other 
languages  in  use  are  more  or  less  local.  Jatki,  spoken  by  about 
1, 500,000,  belongs  chiefly  to  the  south-east  districts.  The  language 
of  the  eastern  hill  country  is  a  form  of  Hindi,  spoken  by  about 
1,500,000.  Dogri  is  the  language  of  the  northern  hills,  and  Kashmiri 
of  a  few  large  bodies  of  Kashmir  workpeople  at  Ludiana,  Nurpur, 
Amritsar,  and  some  other  places.  The  language  of  the  Pathans  of 
the  northern  part  of  the  trans-Indus  frontier  is  Pushtu  (see  vol.  i. 
p.  238).  Baluchi  is  spoken  on  the  same  frontier,  farther  south,  ad- 
jacent to  Baluchistan,  Sindi  at  the  extreme  south,  next  to  Sind, 
and  Bagri,  a  variety  of  Hindi,  in  the  cis-Sutlej  district  bordering 
on  Bikam'r.  There  are  also  some  minor  local  dialects,  and  a  few 
people  speaking  languages  not  of  the  Punjab, — Persian,  Bengali, 
Mahrathi,  Turki,  Tibetan,  Nipalese.  Hindustani  is  the  language 
of  the  law  courts  and  of  all  ordinary  official  and  other  communica- 
tions with  chiefs  and  people. 

Many  books,  periodicals,  and  newspapers  are  published  in  some  of 
these  spoken  languages,  the  greatest  number  in  Hindustani,  others 
in  Hindi,  Panjabi,  Pushtu,  and  Persian,  also  some  in  Sanskrit  and 
classical  Arabic,  which  are  not  spoken.  During  the  last  quarter  of 
which  the  details  are  published  360  books  were  registered,  161 
Hindustani,  135  Hindi,  36  English,  16  Arabic,  the  rest  bilingual. 
There  are  7  English  and  23  vernacular  periodicals,  monthly  and 
fortnightly,  and  28  vernacular  newspapers  are  published  in  the 
British  province  and  3  in  native  states. 

The  number  of  children  under  instruction  in  schools  in  the  Pun-  Educa 
jab  is  184,000  (9000  girls).  There  are  1559  primary  schools  for  tion. 
boys,  206  middle  schools,  25  high  schools,  and  3  industrial  schools, 
also  a  training  college  and  4  normal  schools.  For  girls  there  are 
321  primary  schools,  4  middle,  1  high,  1  industrial,  and  4  normal 
schools.  The  higher  and  special  educational  institutions  are  the 
Lahore  Government  College,  the  Cambridge  University  Mission 
College  at  Delhi,  the  Oriental  College  of  the  Punjab  University, 
the  Medical  School,  and  the  Mayo  School  of  Art,  the  last  three  at 
Lahore.  A  ward's  school,  for  the  orphans  of  Sikh  chiefs,  estab- 
lished at  Ambala  in  1867,  is  about  to  be  extended  to  receive  other 
upper-class  students.  The  Government  department  of  public  in- 
struction was  established  in  1856.  In  1868  the  first  proposal  of  a 
university  for  the  Punjab  was  made,  chiefly  at  the  instance  of  the 
literary  society  called  the  Anjuman-i-Punjab,  with  the  support  of 
the  native  chiefs.  The  institution  took  the  form  in  1870  of  the 
Punjab  University  College,  and  it  was  raised  in  November  1882 
to  the  status  of  a  university.  There  are  several  other  literary 
societies  in  the  Punjab  besides  the  Anjnman  at  Lahore. 

The  police  force  numbers  19,827  men,  with  580  officers,  68  of 
whom  are  Europeans.  There  is  in  addition  a  special  frontier  police. 

The  military  force  in  occupation  of  the  Punjab  consists  of  (1)  Army, 
British  troops  (of  which  it  has  a  larger  proportion  than  any  other 
province)  ;  (2)  native  troops  of  the  regular  Indian  army  ;  (3)  the 
Punjab  frontier  force,  a  local  body  of  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery, 
ordinarily  employed  only  on  the  military  duties  of  the  western 
frontier  ;  and  (4)  the  frontier  militia,  composed  of  men  of  the  border 
tribes,  both  within  and  without  British  territory,  employed  as 
auxiliary  to  the  regular  troops,  to  garrison  certain  of  the  smaller 
fortified  posts  along  the  frontier.  There  is  also  a  volunteer  rifle 
corps  of  Europeans  at  the  large  stations  and  on  the  lines  of  railway. 
The  total  military  force,  including  police,  of  the  native  states  in 
connexion  with  the  Punjab  is  21,500. 

Most  of  the  native  manufactures  of  the  Punjab  are  those  common  Manu 
to  other  parts  of  India,  such  as  the  ordinary  cotton  fabrics,  plain  factur 
woollen  blankets,  unglazed  pottery,  ropes  and  cord,  grass  matting, 
paper,  leather-work,  brass  vessels,  simple  agricultural  implements, 
and  the  tools  used  in  trades.2  Other  manufactures,  not  so  general, 
yet  not  peculiar  to  the  Punjab,  are  woollen  fabrics,  carpets  and 
shawls,  silk  cloths  and  embroidery,  jewellery  and  ornamental 
metal-work,  wood  and  ivory  carving,  turned  and  lacquered  wood- 
work, glazed  pottery,  arms  and  armour,  and  musical  instruments. 
But  some  of  these  classes  of  manufacture  are  represented  by  work 
of  special  kinds  or  special  excellence  in  particular  parts  of  the 
Punjab,  notably  the  silk  fabrics  of  Multan  and  of  Bahawalpur,  the 
capital  of  the  native  state ;  the  carpets  of  Lahore,  Peshawar,  &c. ;  the 
"kashi"  (see  KASHI)  or  glazed  tile-work  (an  ancient  art  still 
practised  in  a  few  places);  "koft-kari,"  inlaid  metal-work  (gold 
wire  on  steel),  chiefly  made  at  Gujrat  and  Sialkot ;  shawls  and 
other  fine  woollen  fabrics,  made  by  Kashmiri  workpeople  at  Ludiana 
and  Nurpur,  as  well  as  in  Kashmir;  "lungis,"  waist  and  turban 
scarfs,  made  at  Peshawar,  Banmi,  &c.  ;  silk  embroidery  for  shawls, 
scarfs,  and  turbans,  at  Delhi,  Lahore,  and  Multan  ;  embroidery  on 
cloth  for  elephant-trappings,  bed  and  table  covers,  &c.,  at  Lahore 
and  Multan  ;  enamelled  ornaments,  in  Kangra  and  Multan  ;  quill 
embroidery  on  leather,  in  Kangra  and  Simla ;  lacquered  wood- 

2  The  India  Museum  at  South  Kensington  has  an  excellent  series  of  repre- 
sentation* of  native  artisans  and  their  mode  of  working,  from  the  pencil  of  the 
present  director  of  the  Lahore  School  of  Art,  Mr  J.  L.  Kipling,  formerly  of  the 
School  of  Art  at  Bombay. 


110 


PUNJAB 


work,  P.ik  Pattan.  At  Koliat  there  is  a  special  manufactory  of 
gun-barrels  made  of  twisted  iron  straps.  There  is  much  excellent 
carved  wood-work  on  houses  and  on  boats.  Among  the  Punjab 
arts  should  be  mentioned  the  artificial  nose-making  practised  by  a 
special  class  of  surgeons  at  Kangra.  Injury  has  been  done  to  some 
oT  the  native  arts  of  the  Punjab,  as  of  other  parts  of  India,  by 
unwise  copying  of  European  patterns.  The  Lahore  School  of  Art 
is  expected  to  correct  this  and  promote  the  study  and  execution  of 
native  forms  and  designs.  The  Lahore  Museum  contains  illustra- 
tions of  the  arts  and  manufactures,  as  well  as  raw  products,  of  the 
Punjab,  and  a  large  collection  of  the  sculptures,  mostly  Buddhist, 
and  many  of  Greek  workmanship,  found  in  the  north-west  of  the 
province,  chiefly  trans-Indus.  Upwards  of  200  Gneco- Buddhist 
sculptures  were  excavated  in  Yusufzai  in  1883  and  1884.  The 
numoer  of  visitors  to  the  Lahore  Museum  during  the  year  1884 
was  upwards  of  251,000.  The  value  of  the  imports  into  the  Punjab 
during  the  same  year  was  £981,167,  and  of  the  exports  £1,083,919. 
The  chief  lines  of  export  and  import  traffic,  apart  from  the  trade 
with  the  immediately  adjoining  countries,  are  on  the  one  side  the 
railway  to  Delhi  and  the  North-West  Provinces,  and  on  the  other 
the  Indus  River  and  Indus  Valley  Railway  to  Sind  and  the  sea. 
The  Punjab  exports  wheat,  tea,  rock-salt,  sugar,  and  other  pro- 
ducts, and  articles  of  local  manufacture.  English  piece-goods, 
cutlery  and  other  metal-work,  fruits  (especially  from  Afghanistan 
and  Kashmir),  rice,  drugs,  and  spices  are  among  the  chief  imports. 
The  most  important  trade  -  centres  are  Delhi,  Peshawar,  Multan, 
and  Amritsar.  There  is  a  large  amount  of  both  export  and  import 
trade  with  the  countries  on  the  north-west  frontier.  Efforts  were 
made  for  some  time  by  the  Government  to  promote  trade  between 
the  Punjab  and  Kashgar,  but  without  much  result.  The  endeavour 
is  now  being  carried  on  by  private  enterprise.  There  are  great 
difficulties  in  the  hill  country  between,  where  the  goods  have  to  be 
carried  on  mules  and  ponies. 

finance.  The  revenue  of  the  British  province  is  £3,232,349.  Of  this  sum 
£1,605,243  (consisting  of  land  revenue  £1,220,880,  and  minor 
items  £384,363)  goes  to  the  imperial  treasury;  £1,410,379  is 
provincial,  raised  and  expended  in  the  province  in  addition  to  an 
imperial  grant ;  and  £216,727  is  derived  from  local  rates  and  mis- 
cellaneous income,  and  is  locally  expended. 

!om-  The  total  length  of  railways  in  the  province  now  (1885)  open  for 

iunica-  traffic  is  1205  miles.  The  main  central  line  from  Delhi  to  Pesha- 
ion.  war  is  645  miles  in  length,  of  which  125  are  east  of  the  Jumna  in 
the  North-West  Provinces,  and  520  in  the  Punjab.  Other  lines  now 
open  are — Lahore  to  Multan  208  miles,  and  10  to  Shir-Shah,  the 
port  of  Multan  on  the  Chinab,  Multan  to  Bahawalpur  63,  Delhi 
to  Riwari  52,  Riwari  to  Hissar  89,  Hissar  to  Firozpur  130,  Amritsar 
to  Pathankot  67,  Wazirabad  to  Sialkot  27,  Lala  Miisa  (near 
Gujrat)  to  Find  Dadan  Khan  and  the  Salt  Mines  62,  Rawal  Pindi 
to  Khushhalgarh  77.  Other  lines  are  under  construction.  There 
are  1467  miles  of  metalled  road,  23,156  unmetalled,  and  2676  miles 
of  navigable  river.  In  this  country  of  great  rivers,  crossing  lines 
of  road,  the  value  of  boat-bridges  is  very  great.  During  the  five 
years  following  the  construction  of  the  bridge  of  boats  over  the 
Indus  at  Dera  Ismail  Khan  the  annual  camel  traffic  between 
Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab  by  the  Gumal  Pass,  through  the  hills 
on  the  west,  increased  from  50,000  to  80,000,  with  corresponding 
increase  of  the  "  tirni"  or  grazing- tax  paid  by  the  Povinda  camel- 
drivers.  This  trade-route  and  this  class  of  carriers  are  of  some  im- 
portance. For  a  long  time  to  come  they  are  not  likely  to  make 
way  for  other  means  of  transport  by  road  or  railroad,  though  the 
trade  will  grow.  The  Povinua  are  a  travelling  tribe  belonging  to 
the  Ghilzai  country  in  Afghanistan.  They  make  annual  trade 
journeys  into  India  by  this  route,  which  is  an  easy  and  good  one, 
capable  of  being  tunied  to  more  account.  The  Sikhs  imposed 
heavy  duties  on  the  goods  they  brought.  The  remission  of  these 
duties  by  the  British  Government  greatly  encouraged  the  trade, 
which  is  now  further  helped  by  the  boat-bridge  across  the  Indus. 
There  are  many  passes  through  the  hills  between  British  India  and 
Afghanistan,  of  which  the  principal  are — the  Khyber  in  the  north, 
close  to  Peshawar,  the  nearest  way  to  Cabul ;  "the  Bolan  in  the 
south,  approached  from  Shikarpur  and  Jacobabad  in  Sind,  the  way 
to  Quetta  and  Candahar  ;  and  between  them  three  others  looking 
towards  Ghazni,  namely,  Gumal  Pass,  the  valley  of  the  united 
Gumal  and  Zhob  rivers  opposite  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  and  the  Kurram 
and  Dawar  routes  opposite  BannvL 

While  the  amount  of  railway  and  other  traffic  has  been  steadily 
increasing  with  the  facilities  afforded,  the  demands  on  the  post- 
office  and  telegraph  have  likewise  been  growing  rapidly.  The 
annual  number  of  letters  and  post-cards,  now  about  twenty  millions, 
has  nearly  doubled  in  ten  years.  The  telegraph  has  had  a  fluctuat- 
ing increase  in  the  number  of  messages,  which  during  the  year 
1884  was  upwards  of  142,000. 

listory.  History. — For  the  early  history  of  the  Punjab  from  the  Aryan 
immigration  to  the  rise  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  the  reader  may 
consult  the  article  INDIA  (vol.  xii.  p.  779  sq.).  It  deserves,  how- 
ever, to  be  specially  noted  here  with  reference  to  that  period  that 
from  the  time  of  Alexander  onwards  Greek  settlers  remained  in 


the  Punjab,  and  that  Greek  artists  gave  their  services  for  Buddhist 
work  and  introduced  features  of  their  own  architecture  in  Indian 
as  well  as  Grecian  buildings.  Besides  the  bases  and  capitals  of 
large  Greek  columns  at  Shah-deri  (Taxila)  and  elsewhere,  numerous 
sculptures  of  Greek  workmanship  have  been  found  at  various  places. 
These  are  single  statues  (probably  portraits),  also  figures  of  Buddha, 
and  representations  of  scenes  in  his  legendary  history,  and  other 
subjects.  They  are  obtained  from  ruins  of  monasteries  and  other 
buildings,  from  mounds,  and  the  remains  of  villages  or  monumental 
topes.  Of  Buddhist  buildings  now  remaining  the  most  conspicuous 
as  well  as  distinctive  in  character  are  the  topes  (sthupa),  in  shape 
a  plain  hemisphere,  raised  on  a  platform  of  two  or  more  stages. 
One  of  the  largest  of  these  is  at  Manikyala,  1 4  miles  east  of  Rawal 
Pindi.  These  Buddhist  buildings  and  sculptures  are  all  probably 
the  work  of  the  two  centuries  before  and  the  three  or  four  after 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The  character  of  the  sculptures 
is  now  well  known  from  the  specimens  in  the  India  Museum,  South 
Kensington,  and  both  originals  and  casts  of  others  in  the  Lahore 
Museum.  Unfortunately  they  have  no  names  or  inscriptions,  which 
give  so  much  value  to  the  sculptures  of  the  Bharhut  tope. 

The  several  bodies  of  settlers  in  the  Punjab  from  the  earliest  Tribes 
times  have  formed  groups  of  families  or  clans  (not  identical  with  and 
Indian  castes,  but  in  many  cases  joining  them),  which  have  gener-  clans, 
ally  preserved  distinct  characteristics  and  followed  certain  classes 
of  occupation  in  particular  parts  of  the  country.  Some  of  the 
existing  tribes  in  the  Punjab  are  believed  to  be  traceable  to  the 
early  Aryan  settlers,  as  the  Bhatti  tribe,  whose  special  region  is 
Bhattiana  south  of  the  Sutlej,  and  who  have  also  in  the  village 
of  Pindi  Bhattian  a  record  of  their  early  occupation  of  a  tract  of 
country  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Chinab,  Avest  of  Lahore.  The 
Dogra,  another  Aryan  clan,  belong  to  a  tract  of  the  lower  hills 
between  the  Chinab  and  the  Ravi.  Others  similarly  have  their 
special  ancient  localities.  To  the  earlier  settlers — the  dark  race 
(Dasyu)  whom  the  Aryans  found  in  the  country,  and  who  are 
commonly  spoken  of  as  aborigines — belonged,  as  is  supjwsed,  the 
old  tribe  called  Takka,  whose  name  is  found  in  Taksha-sila  or 
Taxila.  And  from  the  later  foreigners  again,  the  Indo  Scythians, 
are  probably  descended  the  great  Jat  tribe  of  cultivators,  also  the 
Gujars,  a  pastoral  people  and  traders,  and  others.  Some  of  the 
tribes  or  sections  of  them,  having  received  the  Hindu  faith  and 
the  system  of  caste,  have  afterwards  given  large  bodies  of  converts 
to  Mohammedanism,  so  that  there  are  now  Hindus  and  Moham- 
medans of  the  same  tribe  continuing  to  bear  the  same  name. 
There  are  Mohammedan  Rajputs,  and  there  are  both  Hindu  and 
Mohammedan  Jats,  and  so  with  others. 

It  was  during  the  events  which  brought  Babar,  the  first  of  the  Sikh 
Mogul  dynasty,  to  the  throne  that  the  sect  of  the  Sikhs  arose,  sect. 
Nanak,  the  founder,  derived  his  first  ideas  of  the  movement  he  was 
to  lead  from  Kabir  of  Banaras,  a  Mohammedan  by  birth  (it  is 
believed),  who  joined  himself  to  a  sect  of  Hindus  and  strove  to 
give  to  their  religion  a  new  form  and  spirit  free  from  idolatry.  And 
the  Sikh  religion  of  the  Punjab,  founded  on  this  model,  was  a 
reformed  and  monotheistic  Hinduism.  Nanak  was  born  in  1469 
at  Talwandi  on  the  Ravi,  and  lived  to  the  age  of  seventy,  leaving 
a  large  number  of  followers  at  his  death.  The  name  Sikh  means 
"  disciple,"  and  the  strength  of  the  movement  lay  in  the  relation  of 
the  disciple  to  the  "guru"  or  spiritual  guide.  In  the  time  of  Babar's 
successor,  Humayun  (who  was  only  in  the  Punjab  during  the  tem- 
porary success  of  his  rival,  Shir  Khan  Sur),  the  Sikhs  were  under 
the  direction  of  the  second  of  their  gurus,  Angad  (1539-1552),  and 
of  the  third,  Amar  Das  (1552-1574).  During  the  long  reign  of 
Akbar  (1556-1605)  the  Sikhs  increased  in  number  and  power  under 
the  mild  and  liberal  rule  of  a  Mohammedan  emperor  who  was 
more  than  tolerant  in  all  matters  of  religion.  He  nimself  sought 
diligently  for  knowledge  of  other  faiths,  and  Amar  Das,  the  Sikh 
guru,  was  one  of  those  who  had  conferences  with  him.  Ram  Das, 
son-in-law  of  Amar  Das,  succeeded  him  in  1574.  He  received  from 
Akbar  a  gift  of  a  piece  of  land,  on  which  he  dug  the  large  square 
tank  afterwards  called  Amritsar  ("the  pool  of  immortality").  In 
the  last  year  of  this  guru's  life  the  Punjab  was  visited,  on  Akbar's 
invitation,  by  several  Jesuit  fathers  from  Goa,  who  were  received 
with  great  favour.  To  them  the  emperor  gave  a  site  for  a  church 
in  the  city  of  Lahore,  and  the  church  was  built  at  his  expense.  In 
1581  Ram  Das  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Arjun  Mai,  a  man  of  note. 
In  the  middle  of  his  father's  tank  at  Amritsar  he  built  the  temple, 
which  was  called  at  first  Hari  Mandar,  and  afterwards  Darbar 
Sahib,  the  name  by  which  it  is  now  known.  The  town  which 
began  to  rise  round  the  tank  and  temple  was  made  the  headquarters 
of  the  Sikhs.  Arjun  gave  further  coherence  to  the  body  of  his 
followers  by  levying  a  regular  tax  in  place  of  the  free  and  varied 
offerings  they  used  to  give  ;  and  he  was  the  compiler  of  the  sacred 
book  called  the  Adi  Granth,  the  materials  for  which  he  had 
received  unarranged  from  his  father.  Akbar  lived  much  in  the 
Punjab.  In  1586  he  directed  a  campaign  against  the  Afghans  of 
the  Peshawar  valley,  which  was  attended  with  no  important  results 
except  the  death  of  his  able  minister  Bir  Bal.  In  the  next  year  he 
conquered  Kashmir.  On  his  visit  to  this  new  acquisition  he  was 


PUNJAB 


111 


accompanied  by  one  of  the  Portuguese  Jesuits,  Jerome  Xavier 
(nephew  of  the  celebrated  Francis),  who  was  a  special  friend  of  the 
emperor  and  was  with  him  at  the  time  of  his  death  at  Agra  in 
1605.  Arjun's  power  and  prosperity  lasted  only  during  Akbar's 
lifetime.  Jahangi'r  was  equally  favourable  to  the  Christian  mis- 
sionaries ;  but  the  Sikh  guru  incurred  his  displeasure.  Believed 
to  be  a  partisan  of  the  emperor's  rebellious  son  Khusru,  Arjun  was 
imprisoned  in  1606  and  died  soon  after.  His  successor,  Har 
Govind,  was  only  twelve  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  Arjun's  death, 
and  as  he  grew  up  his  relation  to  the  Sikhs  became  that  of  com- 
mander more  than  guru.  The  promulgation  of  the  Granth  for 
instruction  of  the  people  had  made  a  way  for  this  change  in  the 
character  of  the  leadership.  The  work  of  the  teacher  was  now  in 
great  measure  transferred  to  the  guardians  of  the  sacred  volume, 
who  read  it  in  the  ears  of  the  people.  The  guru  thenceforth  was 
the  organizing  head  more  than  the  religious  guide.  As  a  young 
man  Har  Govind  accompanied  the  emperor  to  Kashmir.  Jahangi'r, 
on  his  way  back  from  this  favourite  summer  resort,  died  at  Rajaori 
in  1627,  and  was  buried  at  Shah-dera  on  the  Ravi,  opposite  Lahore. 
His  widow,  Nur  Jahan,  erected  a  beautiful  monument  over  him, 
and  was  herself  buried  at  the  same  place. 

The  reign  of  Shah  Jahan  (1627-1658)  added  much  to  the  pros- 
perity of  the  Punjab.  The  emperor's  large  views  found  a  fitting 
agent  in  Ali  Mardan  Khan,  his  minister  and  director  of  works. 
Under  his  orders  the  canal  from  the  Ravi  near  the  foot  of  the  hills 
to  Lahore  was  made,  and  the  Jumna  Canal,  which  had  been  con- 
structed in  the  14th  century  by  Firoz  Shah,  was  restored  and  im- 
proved. Ali  Mardan  Khan  also  built  the  magnificent  "  sarais  "  or 
rest-houses  for  travellers  on  the  high  road  to  Kashmir,  and  other 
works  of  utility  in  the  Punjab.  In  the  contests  between  the  two 
sons  of  Shah  Jahan  the  Punjab  favoured  the  elder,  Dara  Shiko, 
whose  intelligent  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  country,  joined  to 
literary  tastes  and  liberal  views,  commended  him  to  all  classes  of 
the  people.  His  name  is  preserved  in  the  town  of  Shiko-pura,  18 
miles  west  of  Lahore,  Dara-nagar,  and  other  places.  The  present 
military  station  of  Lahore  bears  the  name  of  Dara's  religious  in- 
structor, Mian  Mir,  near  whose  tomb,  erected  by  his  royal  pupil, 
the  British  cantonment  is  built. 

Har  Govind,  the  sixth  Sikh  guru,  died  in  1645.  Har  Rai,  who 
succeeded  him,  gave  his  support  to  Dara  Shiko.  Dara  was  not 
successful  in  maintaining  his  rights  against  his  younger  brother 
Alamgir  (called  Aurangzib),  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1658. 
Bernier,  who  was  visiting  India  at  this  time,  was  a  companion  of 
the  elder  brother  when  in  misfortune  and  of  the  younger  when  in 
power.  Like  his  three  predecessors,  Aurangzib  was  fond  of  visiting 
Kashmir,  and  his  journey  through  the  Punjab  on  one  of  these 
occasions  (1663-64)  furnishes  one  of  the  most  lively  pictures  of 
Bernier's  Indian  experiences.  Har  Rai  died  in  1661,  and  his 
successor,  Har  Kishan,  a  boy,  held  the  nominal  leadership  of  the 
Sikhs  only  three  years,  being  followed  in  1664  by  Tegh  Bahadur, 
a  son  of  Har  Govind.  When,  on  his  return  to  the  Punjab  from 
a  visit  to  Bengal,  he  was  thought  to  be  exercising  authority  in- 
consistent with  loyalty  to  the  emperor,  he  was  put  to  death  by 
Aurangzib  in  1675.  This  roused  the  Sikhs  to  greater  zeal  in  the 
adoption  of  a  military  constitution.  The  next  guru,  Govind  Rai, 
son  of  Tegh  Bahadur,  after  passing  some  years  in  retirement  and 
study,  came  forth  a  vigorous  and  enthusiastic  leader,  with  high 
aims.  He  set  himself  to  the  task  of  organizing  the  Sikhs  of  the 
Punjab,  now  becoming  formidable  from  their  number,  their  phy- 
sique, and  their  warlike  propensities.  The  first  adherents  of  Nanak, 
the  founder  of  the  sect,  had  been  mostly  Jats  and  Khattris.  Many 
were  men  of  great  stature  and  powerful  frame.  As  Sikhs  they 
acquired  a  distinctive  appearance  by  giving  up  the  Hindu  prac- 
tice of  shaving  the  head  and  face.  They  were  forbidden  the  use 
of  tobacco  ;  and  their  discipline  in  other  things  prepared  them 
for  being  indeed  the  soldiers  they  looked.  Govind  Rai  adopted 
the  designation  "  Singh "  (lion),  and  this  became  the  distinctive 
addition  to  the  names  of  all  Sikhs.  He  called  the  whole  body  the 
"  khalsa "  or  free,  and  he  devised  a  rite  of  initiation  called  the 
"pahal."  He  compiled  a  supplement  to  the  Granth,  containing 
instruction  suited  to  the  altered  condition  of  the  Sikh  people. 
After  the  death  of  Aurangzib  in  1707  he  accepted  the  invitation  of 
Bahadur  Shah  to  join  him  in  a  campaign  against  the  Mahrattas. 
At  Nader,  on  the  Godavari,  he  was  murdered  in  1708.  His  prin- 
cipal associate,  Banda,  led  the  Sikhs  back  to  the  Punjab  and  turned 
his  arms  against  the  Government.  After  a  long  series  of  fights 
with  the  Mogul's  troops,  during  the  reigns  of  Bahadur  Shah  and 
Farrukh  Siyar,  Banda  was  at  length  taken  in  1716  and  put  to  death. 

Mohammed  Shah  was  on  the  throne  of  Delhi,  much  occupied  in 
contests  with  the  Mahrattas,  when  Nadir  Shah  invaded  India. 
Nadir's  march  through  the  Punjab  in  the  beginning  of  1739  met 
•  with  no  great  opposition  ;  but  the  Sikhs  kept  up  a  system  of 
desultory  plunder  both  of  the  invaders  and  of  the  people  fleeing 
from  them.  Lahore  submitted  and  was  spared  ;  and  it  escaped 
again,  on  Nadir's  return,  after  the  defeat  of  Mohammed  Shah  at 
Karnal  and  the  massacre  at  Delhi,  by  having  a  large  sxim  of  money 
ready  to  meet  the  expected  demand.  The  Punjab  offered  no  more 


effective  resistance  to  the  invasion  in  1747  of  Ahmad  Shah 
Abdali,  who  kept  possession  of  Afghanistan  after  Nadir's  death. 
He  began  by  claiming  the  revenues  of  the  parts  of  the  Punjab  and 
Sind  which  had  been  ceded  to  Nadir.  On  his  third  invasion 
(1752)  he  obtained  possession  of  Lahore  and  Multau.  The  king 
of  Delhi  was  now  also  an  Ahmad  Shah,  and  the  invader  was,  for 
distinction,  called  in  India  Ahmad  Khan  Afghan.  His  son  Timur, 
whom  he  made  governor  of  Lahore,  was  driven  out  by  the  Mahrattas. 
Ahmad  found  frequent  visits  to  the  Punjab  necessary,  and  only 
after  the  total  defeat  of  the  Mahrattas  at  Panipat  in  1761  did  he 
retire  finally  to  Cabul. 

For  a  time  the  Sikhs  seemed  to  have  the  prospect  of  holding  the  Period 
Punjab  for  themselves.  Their  number  and  power  had  greatly  of  inde- 
increased.  They  had  grouped  themselves  in  associations  of  kindred  pendeuce 
and  neighbourhood  called  "  misls,"  with  distinctive  names.  Power- 
ful members  of  certain  of  these  clans,  representing  the  aristocracy  of 
the  Sikh  families,  acquired  the  chiefship  of  large  tracts  of  country 
on  both  sides  of  the  Sutlej,  some  of  which  became  nearly  independ- 
ent states.  Then  there  were  certain  members  of  the  Sikh  con- 
federation, not  enrolling  themselves  in  any  clan  nor  owning  any 
master,  who  assumed  the  role  of  religious  enthusiasts  and  warriors, 
and  the  name  "Akali"  or  immortal.  They  were  the  ghazis  of 
Sikhism.  They  dressed  in  blue  and  wore  a  high-pointed  turban  on 
which  they  carried  several  chakras  of  different  sizes,  their  own 
special  weapon.  The  chakr  or  chakra  is  a  thin  knife-edged  ring  of 
flat  steel,  a  severe  missile  in  skilled  hands,  but  not  much  used.  The 
Sikhs  south  of  the  Sutlej  enlarged  their  possessions  and  made 
marauding  excursions  across  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges  even  as 
far  as  to  Rohilkand.  The  capital  was  held  by  three  leading  Sikh 
chiefs,  when,  in  1797  and  the  following  year,  Zaman  Shah,  grand- 
son of  Ahmad,  brought  an  army  with  the  view  of  recovering  the 
Punjab,  but  was  recalled  both  times  by  troubles  at  home.  He 
secured  Lahore  without  opposition,  and  on  leaving  in  1798  he 
made  it  over  to  a  young  Sikh  who  had  attracted  his  attention  and 
done  him  good  service.  This  was  Ranji't  Singh,  son  of  Maha  Singh,  Ranjit 
a  Jat  Sikh  who  had  risen  to  considerable  power,  and  Avho  died  Singh, 
in  1792.  The  young  ruler  of  Lahore  was  soon  to  make  himself 
master  of  the  whole  Punjab,  while  heavy  misfortune  was  awaiting 
Zaman  Shah  himself,  who  was  to  find  shelter  in  the  Punjab.  The 
dethroned  and  blinded  king  was  met  in  1808  at  Rawal  Pindi  by 
Mountstuart  Elphinstone  when  returning  from  his  mission  to  Shah 
Shuja  at  Peshawar.  When  Ranjit  Singh  was  beginning  his  career 
at  Lahore  the  English  adventurer  George  Thomas  was  trying, 
with  the  army  he  had  raised,  to  carve  out  a  little  principality  for 
himself  in  the  Sikh  states  south  of  the  Sutlej.  Ranjit  was  a  man 
of  strong  will  and  immense  energy,  of  no  education  but  of  great 
acuteness  in  acquiring  the  knowledge  that  would  be  of  use  to  him. 
He  soon  began  to  bring  all  the  separate  bodies  of  Sikhs  under  his 
control,  and  to  acquire  authority  over  others  besides  the  Sikhs. 
When  he  endeavoured  to  include  the  Sikh  states  south  of  the 
Sutlej  within  his  jurisdiction,  the  heads  of  these  states — chiefs  of 
Sirhind  and  Malwa,  as  they  were  called — sought  and  obtained  in 
1808  the  protection  of  the  British,  whose  territories  had  now 
extended  to  their  neighbourhood.  The  Engli.  h  were  at  this  time 
desirous  of  alliance  with  Lahore  as  well  as  with  Cabul,  for  protec- 
tion against  supposed  French  designs  on  India.  A  British  envoy, 
Mr  Charles  Metcalfe,  was  received  by  Ranjit  at  Kasur  in  1809  and 
the  alliance  was  formed.  Ranjit  steadily  strengthened  himself  and 
extended  his  dominions.  In  1809  he  obtained  possession  of  Kangra, 
which  the  Nepalese  were  besieging.  In  1813  he  acquired  the  fort 
of  Attock  on  the  other  side  of  the  Punjab  ;  and  the  same  year  he 
obtained  from  Shah  Shuja,  now  in  his  turn  a  refugee  in  Lahore, 
what  he  coveted  as  much  as  territory,  the  celebrated  Koh-i-nur 
diamond,  which  had  been  carried  off  by  Nadir  Shah  from  Delhi. 
In  1818,  after  some  failures  in  previous  years,  he  captured  Multan. 
Kashmir,  which  had  successfully  opposed  him  several  times,  was 
annexed  the  following  year,  and  likewise  the  southern  part  of 
the  country  between  the  Indus  and  the  hills.  The  Peshawar 
valley  he  succeeded  in  adding  four  years  later,  but  he  found  it  best 
to  leave  an  Afghan  governor  in  charge  of  that  troublesome  district. 
These  trans-Indus  and  other  outlying  tracts  were  left  very  much 
to  themselves,  and  only  received  a  military  visit  when  revenue  was 
wanted.  Peshawar  was  never  really  ruled  till  General  Avitabile 
was  sent  there  in  later  years.  When  he  was  gradually  raising  his 
large  and  powerful  army  Ranjit  received  into  his  service  certain 
French  and  other  officers,  who  drilled  his  troops  and  greatly 
improved  his  artillery.  He  valued  these  European  officers  highly, 
and  exerted  himself  much  to  retain  them.  One  of  them,  M. 
Allard,  used  to  say  that,  if  it  was  sometimes  difficult  to  get  into 
Ranjit's  service,  it  was  more  difficult  to  get  out  of  it.  Whilst  he 
relied  on  these  foreigners  for  military  and  sometimes  also  for 
administrative  services,  he  drew  around  him  a  body  of  native 
ministers  of  great  ability,  of  whom  the  brothers  Gulab  Singh 
and  Dhian  Singh  of  Jammu  were  the  most  influential.  (They  had 
another  brother,  Suchet  Singh,  less  prominent  and  less  at  court.) 
Ranjit  maintained  friendly  relations  with  the  English  Government 
till  his  death.  This  was  of  much  importance  when,  immediately 


112 


P  U  P  — P  U  R 


after  his  death  in  1839,  the  British  were  putting  Shah  Shuja  back 
on  the  throne  of  Cabul.  Ranjit  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son 
Kharrak  Singh.  He  left  two  reputed  sons,  Shir  Singh  and  Dhah'p 
Singh,  and  two  adopted  sons,  Kashmira  Singh  and  Peshaura  Singh, 
named  from  expeditions  on  which  Ranjit  was  engaged  at  the  time 
Years  of  they  were  taken  into  his  family.  When  Kharrak  Singh  made  Cheit 
disorder.  Singh  his  chief  minister  in  place  of  the  Jamnu'i  brothers,  Dhian 
Sin^h  killed  the  new  minister.  And  now  for  a  time  the  history  of 
the  Punjab  became  a  history  of  intrigues  and  deeds  of  violence,  and  of 
contests  for  power  which,  when  gained,  could  not  be  kept.  Kharrak 
Singh's  successor,  Nau  Nihal  Singh,  was  killed  by  the  fall  of  a 
beam  from  the  Roshnai  gateway  of  the  Huzuri  Bagh  at  Lahore  as 
he  was  returning  from  the  deceased  king's  funeral.  Shir  Singh 
succeeded,  a  man  addicted,  like  Ranjit,  to  intemperance,  and  he  was 
soon  put  out  of  the  way  by  Ajit  Singh  Sindhanwala.  His  son 
Partab  Singh  was  murdered  by  Lena  Singh  Majithia.  Ranji't's 
adopted  sons,  Peshaura  and  Kashmara  Singh,  were  also  killed.  Then 
came  the  turn  of  the  ex-minister  Dhian  Singh,  who  was  slain  by 
the  same  hand  that  had  put  Shir  Singh  to  death,  and  which  now 
placed  the  young  Dhah'p  Singh  on  the  throne.  Other  assassinations 
accompanied  these  chief  ones.  The  leading  Sindhanwalas  were 
now  all  murdered,  and  with  the  accession  of  Dhalip  Singh  the 
friends  of  his  mother,  the  rani,  came  into  power,  some  of  the  wise 
old  servants  of  Ranjit  also  continuing  to  hold  important  offices. 
First  Raujit  had  left  an  army  of  92,000  infantry,  31,800  cavalry,  with 

Sikh  171  garrison  guns  and  384  field-pieces.  It  was  a  force  which  could 
war.  not  be  held  in  the  feebler  grasp  of  his  successors.  When  one  after 
another  of  those  in  nominal  power  had  been  assassinated  and  the 
treasury  plundered,  the  army,  unpaid  and  unmanageable,  demanded 
to  be  led  into  British  territory,  and  had  their  way.  They  crossed 
the  Sutlej  in  December  1845.  The  battles  of  Mudki,  Firoz-shahr, 
Badduwal,  and  Aliwal  were  followed  by  the  rout  of  the  Sikh  army 
at  Sobraon  on  10th  February  1846,  when  they  were  driven  back 
into  the  Sutlej  with  heavy  loss,  and  the  British  army  advanced  to 
Lahore.  Of  the  Sikh  guns  256  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British 
in  these  actions  on  the  Sutlej.  A  treaty  was  made  at  Lahore  on 
9th  March  with  the  Sikh  darbar,  the  chiefs  and  ministry  who  were 
to  hold  the  government  on  behalf  of  the  young  maharaja,  Dhalip 
Singh.  By  this  treaty  the  Jalandar  Doab  and  the  hill  district 
of  Kangra  were  ceded  to  the  British,  also  the  possessions  of  the 
maharaja  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej.  In  addition  the  British 
demanded  a  money  payment  of  £1,500,000.  The  services  of  Gulab 
Singh,  raja  of  Jammu,  to  the  Lahore  state,  in  procuring  the  restora- 
tion of  friendly  relations  with  the  British,  were  specially  recognized. 
His  independent  sovereignty  in  such  lands  as  might  be  made  over  to 
him  was  granted.  The  Sikh  Government,  unable  to  pay  the  whole 
of  the  money  demand,  further  ceded,  as  equivalent  for  £1,000,000, 
the  hill  country  between  the  Bias  and  the  Indus,  including  Kashmir 
and  Hazara.  Gulab  Singh  was  prepared  to  give  the  amount  in  place 
of  which  Kashmir  was  to  have  become  British,  and  by  a  separate 
treaty  with  him,  16th  March  1846,  this  was  arranged.  The  pay- 
ment was  seventy-five  lakhs  of  Nauakshahi  rupees,  and  Kashmir 
was  added  to  Gulab  Singh's  territory.  At  the  urgent  request  of 
the  darbar  a  Britis1  force  was  left  at  Lahore  for  the  protection  of 
the  maharaja  and  the  preservation  of  peace.  To  restore  order  and 
introduce  a  settled  administration  a  British  resident  was  appointed, 
who  was  to  guide  and  control  the  council  of  regency,  and  assistants 
to  the  resident  were  stationed  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Peace  was  not  long  preserved.  The  governor  of  Multan,  Diwan 
Mulraj,  desired  to  resign.  Two  English  officers  sent  by  the  resident 
to  take  over  charge  of  the  fort  were  murdered,  19th  April  1848,  and 
their  escort  went  over  to  the  diwan.  Another  of  the  assistants  to 
the  resident,  Lieutenant  Herbert  Edwardes,  then  in  the  Derajat, 
west  of  the  Indus,  hearing  of  the  attack  on  the  two  officers,  hastened 
to  their  assistance.  On  hearing  of  their  fate  he  collected  a  force 
with  which  to  attack  the  Multan  army  while  the  insurrection  was 
yet  local.  This  he  did  with  signal  success.  But  Multan  could 
not  fall  before  such  means  as  he  possessed.  The  movement  spread, 
the  operations  widened,  and  the  Sikh  and  English  forces  were  in 
the  field  again.  Multan  was  taken.  The  severe  battle  of  Chilian- 
wala  on  13th  January  1849  left  the  Sikhs  as  persistent  as  after  the 
two  terrible  days  of  Firoz-shahr  in  the  previous  campaign.  And 
it  needed  the  crushing  defeat  of  Gujrat,  21st  February  1849,  like 
Sobraon  in  1846,  to  bring  the  war  to  a  conclusion,  and  this  time 
to  give  the  Punjab  to  England.  It  was  annexed  on  2d  April  1849. 
For  the  government  of  the  new  province,  including  the  Jalaudar 
Doab,  previously  annexed,  and  the  cis-Sutlej  states,  a  board  of 
administration  was  appointed  consisting  of  three  members.  In 
place  of  this  board  a  chief  commissioner  was  appointed  in  1853, 
aided  by  a  judicial  commissioner  and  a  financial  commissioner. 
British  troops,  European  and  native,  of  the  regular  army  were 
stationed  at  the  chief  cities  and  other  places  east  of  the  Indus  and 
at  Peshawar.  For  the  rest  of  the  trans- Indus  territory  there  was 
a  special  body  of  native  troops  called  the  Punjab  frontier  force, 
under  the  orders  of  the  chief  commissioner.  During  the  Mutiny 
campaign  of  1857  the  Punjab,  under  Sir  John  Lawrence  as  chief 
commissioner,  was  able  to  send  important  aid  to  the  force  engaged  in 


the  siege  of  Delhi,  while  suppressing  the  disturbances  which  arose, 
and  meeting  the  dangers  which  threatened,  within  the  Punjab  itselt 
In  1858  the  Delhi  territory,  as  it  was  called,  west  of  the  Jumna, 
was  transferred  from  the  North -West  Provinces  to  the  Punjab. 
The  enlarged  province  was  raised  in  rank,  and  on  1st  January  1859 
the  chief  commissioner  became  lieutenant-governor.  In  place  of 
the  judicial  commissioner  a  chief  court  was  constituted  in  1866. 
The  number  of  judges,  at  first  two,  was  increased  to  three  in  1869. 
The  number  is  now  (1885)  three  permanent  and  two  temporary. 
The  form  and  manner  of  government  are  for  the  most  part  like  those 
of  other  British  provinces  in  India,  except  that  the  employment, 
as  in  the  earlier  days,  of  military  officers  as  well  as  civilians  in  the 
civil  administration  is  continued  to  the  present  time. 

Soon  after  the  annexation  of  the  Punjab  Christian  missions  were 
begun  in  the  new  province  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society  ami 
the  American  Presbyterian  Board.  In  connexion  with  the  English 
society  there  are  twenty-four  ordained  English  missionaries,  four 
medical  and  two  lay  missionaries,  and  ten  native  clergy.  At  Delhi 
there  is  a  mission  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
and  the  Cambridge  University  Mission.  Also  a  large  number  of 
English  ladies  are  engaged  in  teaching  native  ladies,  who  by  the 
customs  of  the  country  are  obliged  to  remain  at  home.  The  number 
of  native  Christians  in  the  Punjab  is  nearly  4000.  In  1879  a  new 
diocese,  that  of  Lahore,  was  constituted,  embracing  the  provinces 
of  Punjab  and  Sind. 

Authorities.— D.  Ibbetson,  Report  on  the  Punjab  Census  of  1SS1 ;  L.  H.  Griffin, 
Punjaub  Chiefs  and  Rajas  of  the  Punjaub  ;  B.  H.  Baden  Powell,  Punjab  Products 
and  Punjab  Manufactures  ;  A.  Cunningham,  Ancient  Geography  offf.  India  ;  J. 
D.Cunningham,  History  of  the  Sikhs;  H.  Elliot,  Hittor  ians  of  India  (\>y  Dowson); 
Martin  Honigberger,  Thirty-Jive  Years  in  the  East ;  M.  Elphinstone,  Caubul ; 
Prinsep,  History  of  the  Punjab;  H.  Lawrence,  The  Adventurer  in  the  P-unjnh; 
Bosworth  Smith,  Life  of  Lord  Lawrence;  H.  Edwardes,  A  Year  on,  the  Punjab 
Frontier;  C.  Hiigel,  Travels  in  Kashmir  and  the  Punjab;  Victor  Jacquemont, 
Journey  in  India;  George  Foster,  Journey  from  Bengal  to  England;  Stanislas 
Julien,  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Hiouen  Thsang  and  Hiouen  Thsang,  Memoire  sur 
les  Contrees  Occidentales ;  F.  Bernier,  Voyages;  G.  St  P.  Lawrence,  Reminisccmrs 
of  Forty-five  Years  in  India;  D'Anville,  Antiquite  Geographiyue  de  I'Inde;  V. 
de  St  Martin,  Geographie  du  Veda;  Lassen,  Pentapotamia  Indica;  R.  Clark, 
Thirty  Years  of  Missionary  Work  in  the  Punjab;  Calcutta  Jievieu',  vols.  i. 
and  ii.  ;  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal ;  Punjab  Notes  and  Queries, 
&c.  (B.  M'L*.) 

PUPPETS.     See  MARIONETTES. 

PURCELL,  HENRY  (1658-1695),  English  musical  com- 
poser, was  born  in  1658  in  St  Ann's  Lane,  Old  Pye  Street, 
Westminster.  His  father,  Henry  Purcell,  was  a  gentle- 
man of  the  chapel-royal,  and  in  that  capacity  sang  at  the 
coronation  of  Charles  II.  After  his  father's  death  in 
1664  the  boy  was  placed  under  the  guardianship  of  his 
uncle,  Thomas  Purce'll,  a  man  of  extraordinary  probity 
and  kindness.  Through  the  interest  of  this  affectionate 
guardian,  who  was  himself  a  gentleman  of  His  Majesty's 
chapel,  Henry  was  admitted  to  the  chapel -royal  as  a 
chorister,  and  studied  first  under  Captain  Henry  Cooke, 
"  master  of  the  children,"  and  afterwards  under  Pelham 
Humfrey.  He  is  said  to  have  composed  well  at  nine 
years  old  ;  but  the  earliest  work  that  can  be  certainly 
identified  as  his  is  an  ode  for  the  king's  birthday,  written 
in  1670.  After  Humfrey's  early  death  in  1674  he  con- 
tinued his  studies  under  Dr  Blow.  In  1676  he  was  ap- 
pointed copyist  at  Westminster  Abbey — not  organist,  as 
has  sometimes  been  erroneously  stated — and  in  the  same 
year  he  composed  the  music  to  Dryden's  Aurenge-Zebe, 
and  Shadwell's  Epsom  Wells  and  The  Libertine?-  These 
were  followed  in  1677  by  the  music  to  Mrs  Behn's  tragedy, 
Abdelazor,  and  in  1678  by  an  overture  and  masque  for 
Shadwell's  new  version  of  Shakespeare's  Timon  of  Athens. 
The  excellence  of  these  compositions  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  they  contain  songs  and  choruses  which  never  fail  to 
please,  even  at  the  present  day.  The  masque  in  Timon 
of  Athens  is  a  masterpiece,  and  the  chorus  "In  these 
delightful  pleasant  groves  "  in  The  Libertine  is  constantly 
sung  with  applause  by  English  choral  societies.  In  1679 
he  wrote  some  songs  for  Playford's  Choice  Ayres,  Songs, 
and  Dialogues,  and  also  an  anthem,  the  name  of  which 
is  not  known,  for  the  chapel-royal.  From  a  letter  written 
by  Thomas  Purcell,  and  still  extant,  we  learn  that  this 
anthem  was  composed  for  the  exceptionally  fine  voice  of 
the  Rev.  John  Gostling,  then  at  Canterbury,  but  after- 

1  The  Libertine  was  suggested  by  Tirso  de  Molina's  tale,  El  Bur- 
lador  de  Sevilla,  afterwards  dramatically  treated  by  Moliere  and 
chosen  by  Da  Ponte  a8  the  foundation  of  Mozart's  Don  Giovanni. 


P  U  R  C  E  L  L 


113 


wards  a  gentleman  of  His  Majesty's  chapel.  Purcell  wrote 
several  anthems  at  different  times  for  this  extraordinary 
voice,  a  basso  pro/undo,  the  compass  of  which  is  known 
to  have  comprised  at  least  two  full  octaves,  from  D  below 
the  stave  to  D  above  it.  The  dates  of  very  few  of  these 
sacred  compositions  are  known ;  but  one,  "  They  that  go 
down  to  the  sea  in  ships,"  though  certainly  not  written 
until  some  time  after  this  period,  will  be  best  mentioned 
here.  In  thankfulness  for  a  providential  escape  of  the 
king  from  shipwreck  Gostling,  who  had  been  of  the  royal 
party,  put  together  some  verses  from  the  Psalms  in  the 
form  of  an  anthem,  and  requested  Purcell  to  set  them  to 
music.  The  work  is  'a  very  fine  one  but  very  difficult, 
and  contains  a  passage  which  traverses  the  full  extent  of 
Gostling's  voice,  beginning  on  the  upper  D  and  descending 
two  octaves  to  the  lower. 

In  1680  Dr  Blow,  who  had  been  appointed  organist  of 
Westminster  Abbey  in  1669,  resigned  his  office  in  favour 
of  his  pupil ;  and  Purcell,  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  was 
placed  in  one  of  the  most  honourable  positions  an  English 
artist  could  occupy.  He  now  devoted  himself  almost 
entirely  to  the  composition  of  sacred  music,  and  for  six 
years  entirely  severed  his  connexion  with  the  theatre. 
But  during  the  early  part  of  the  year,  and  in  all  prob- 
ability before  entering  upon  the  duties  of  his  new  office, 
he  had  produced  two  important  works  for  the  stage,  the 
music  for  Lee's  Theodos^^ts  and  D'Urfey's  Virtuous  Wife. 
There  is  also  strong  evidence  that  it  was  in  1680 — not, 
as  has  been  generally  represented,  in  1675 — that  he  com- 
posed his  opera  Dido  and  jEneas,  a  work  of  far  greater 
significance  in  the  development  of  art  than  has  generally 
been  supposed,  since  it  forms  a  very  important  landmark 
in  the  history  of  English  dramatic  music.  It  was  written, 
to  a  libretto  furnished  by  Nahum  Tate,  at  the  request  of 
Josiah  Priest,  a  professor  of  dancing,  who  also  kept  a 
boarding-school  for  young  gentlewomen,  first  in  Leicester 
Fields  and  afterwards  at  Chelsea.  At  the  time  of  its  pro- 
duction 1  the  condition  of  dramatic  music  in  England  was 
very  rudimentary  indeed, — so  much  so  that  the  opera, 
properly  so  called,  cannot  fairly  be  said  to  have  existed 
even  in  embryo,  though  it  had  long  flourished  brilliantly 
in  Italy,  and  was  beginning  to  take  firm  root  in  France. 
No  English  composer  had  as  yet  soared  above  the  songs 
and  choruses  introduced  into  the  masques,  the  comedies, 
and  the  tragedies  of  the  period,  for  the  purpose  of  enliven- 
ing the  performance, — music  always  of  a  purely  incidental 
character,  and  always  quite  unconnected  with  the  pro- 
gressive action  of  the  piece.  Very  different  was  the 
mixed  form  of  entertainment  thus  produced  from  the  true 
musical  drama,  the  invention  of  which  in  Italy  dated  as 
far  back  as  the  closing  years  of  the  16th  century.  At  that 
period  a  number  of  literary  and  artistic  savants — among 
them  Vincenzo  Galilei,  the  father  of  the  astronomer, 
Jacopo  Peri,  Giulio  Carcini,  and  the  poet  Rinuccini — were 
accustomed  to  meet  in  Florence  for  purposes  of  discussion 
at  the  house  of  Giovanni  Bardi,  count  of  Vernio.  Deeply 
imbued  with  the  principles  of  the  Renaissance,  these  heated 
enthusiasts  were  determined  to  carry  them  from  the  domain 
of  literature  into  that  of  music ;  and  their  first  dream  was 
the  revival  of  the  method  of  recitation  practised  by  the 
early  Greeks  in  the  tragedies  of  vEschylus  and  Sophocles. 
This,  however,  was,  if  only  for  technical  reasons,  absolutely 
impossible.  The  art  was  lost  for  ever ;  but  in  seeking 
to  resuscitate  it  they  invented  something  much  more 
precious — dramatic  recitative.  With  this  at  command 
the  construction  of  the  veritable  "  dramma  per  la  musica  " 
was  no  difficult  matter;  and  in  fact  Peri  actually  pro- 


1  The  difficulty  in  fixing  the  exact  date  of  its  composition  arises 
from  a  doubt  as  to  whether  or  not  it  was  performed  in  Leicester  Fields 
before  it  was  played  in  the  new  boarding-school  at  Chelsea. 


duced  a  true  opera,  Euridice,  which  in  1600  was  per- 
formed at  Florence  in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  Maria  de" 
Medici  with  Henry  IV.  of  France.  Purcell,  who  had  never 
been  in  Italy,  confesses  himself,  in  the  preface  to  his  sonatas, 
"  unskilful  in  the  Italian  language,"  and  could  never  by  any 
chance  have  heard  an  Italian  opera;  but  he  knew  very  well 
what  Italian  music  was,  and  had  not  neglected  to  study  it 
deeply.  Yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  all  Italy  could  at  that 
moment  have  produced  a  work  so  full  of  inborn  genius  as 
Dido  and  JEneas?  It  is  a  musical  drama  in  the  strictest 
sense  of  the  term,  a  genuine  opera,  in  which  the  action  is 
entirely  carried  on  in  recitative,  without  a  word  of  spoken 
dialogue  from  beginning  to  end ;  and  the  music  is  of  the 
most  genial  character — a  veritable  inspiration,  overflowing 
with  spontaneous  melody,  and  in  every  respect  immensely 
in  advance  of  its  age.  It  never  found  its  way  to  the  theatre, 
though  it  appears  to  have  been  very  popular  among  private 
circles.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  extensively  copied, 
but  one  song  only  was  printed  by  Purcell's  widow  in 
Orpheus  Britannicus,  and  the  complete  work  remained  in 
manuscript  until  1840,  when  it  was  printed  by  the  Musical 
Antiquarian  Society,  under  the  editorship  of  Sir  George 
Macfarren.  There  is  a  tradition  that  the  part  of  Anna 
(erroneously  called  Belinda),  written  for  an  alto  voice,  was 
sung  by  the  composer  himself.  Should  this  story  be  veri- 
fied, it  will  tell  strongly  in  favour  of  the  opinion  that 
Purcell  really  did  compose  Dido  and  jEneas  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  i.e.,  in  1675  ;  for  it  is  certain  that  at  the  corona- 
tion of  James  II.  he  sang  bass. 

In  1682  Purcell  was  appointed  organist  of  the  chapel- 
royal,  vice  Edmund  Lowe  deceased,  an  office  which  he 
was  able  to  hold  conjointly  with  his  appointment  at  West- 
minster Abbey.  For  some  years  after  this  his  pen  was 
busily  employed  in  the  production  of  sacred  music,  odes 
addressed  to  the  king  and  royal  family,  and  other  similar 
works.  In  1685  he  wrote  two  of  his  finest  anthems,  "I 
was  glad  "  and  "  My  heart  is  inditing,"  for  the  coronation 
of  James  II.  In  1687  he  resumed  his  connexion  with  the 
theatre  by  furnishing  the  music  for  Dryden's  tragedy 
Tyrannic  Love.  It  is  probable  that  the  public  were  not  at 
this  time  prepared  for  works  of  so  advanced  a  character  as 
Dido  and  ^Eneas ;  for,  though  the  young  composer's  pen 
was  constantly  employed  in  the  production  of  incidental 
music,  overtures,  and  act  tunes  for  pieces  of  the  period,  we 
find  him  attempting  no  more  operas  based  upon  the  true 
principles  so  cordially  accepted  on  the  Continent.  In  this 
year  also  Purcell  composed  a  march  and  quick-step,  which 
became  so  popular  that  Lord  Wharton  adapted  the  latter 
to  the  fatal  verses  of  Lillibulero ;  and  in  January  1688  he 
composed  his  anthem  "Blessed  are  they  that  fear  the 
Lord,"  by  express  command  of  the  king.  A  few  months 
later  he  wrote  the  music  for  D'Urfey's  play,  The  Fool's 
Preferment.  In  1690  he  wrote  the  songs  for  Dryden's 
version  of  Shakespeare's  Tempest,  including  "  Full  fathom 
five  "  and  "  Come  unto  these  yellow  sands,"  and  the  music 
for  Betterton's  Prophetess  (afterwards  called  Dioclesian) 
and  Dryden's  Amphitryon;  and  in  1691  he  produced  his 
dramatic  masterpiece,  King  Arthur,  also  written  by  Dryden, 
and  first  published  by  the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society  in 
1843. 

But  Purcell's  greatest  work  is  undoubtedly  his  Te 
Deum  and  Jubilate,  written  for  St  Cecilia's  Day,  1694, 
the  first  English  Te  Deum  ever  composed  with  orchestral 
accompaniments.  In  this  he  pressed  forward  so  far  in 
advance  of  the  age  that  the  work  was  annually  performed 
at  St  Paul's  Cathedral  till  1712,  after  which  it  was  per- 
formed alternately  with  Handel's  Utrecht  Te  Deum  and 
Jubilate  until  1743,  when  it  finally  gave  place  to  Handel's 

2  Alessandro  Scarlatti  was  one  year  younger  than  Purcell,  and  pro- 
duced his  first  opera,  L'Onestd  nell'  amore,  in  1680. 

YY     -_ic 


114 


P  U  R  — P  U  R 


Dettingen  Te  Deum.  Purcell  did  not  long  survive  the 
production  of  this  great  work.  He  died  at  his  house  in 
Dean's  Yard,  Westminster,  on  21st  November  1695,  leaving 
a  widow  and  three  children,  the  former  of  whom  soon  after- 
wards published  a  number  of  his  works,  including  the  now 
famous  collection  called  Orpheus  Britannicus. 

Besides  the  operas  we  have  already  mentioned,  he  wrote  Don 
Quixote,  JSonduca,  The  Indian  Queen,  The  Fairy  Queen,  and  others, 
a  vast  quantity  of  sacred  music,  and  numerous  odes,  cantatas,  and 
other  miscellaneous  pieces.  (W.  S.  R. ) 

PURCHAS,  SAMUEL  (1577-1626),  compiler  of  works  on 
travel  and  discovery,  was  born  at  Thaxted,  Essex,  in  1577. 
He  was  educated  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  graduated  M.A.  in  1600,  and  some  time  afterwards 
B.D.,  with  which  degree  he  was  also  admitted  at  Oxford 
in  1615.  In  1604  he  was  presented  by  James  I.  to  the 
vicarage  of  Eastwood,  Essex,  and  in  1615  was  collated  to 
the  rectory  of  St  Martin's,  Ludgate,  London.  He  was 
also  chaplain  to  Abbot,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Some 
years  before  his  ecclesiastical  duties  called  him  to  London 
Purchas  had  given  over  the  care  of  his  vicarage  to  his 
brother,  and  spent  most  of  his  time  in  the  metropolis  in  the 
compilation  of  his  geographical  works.  In  1613  he  pub- 
lished Purchas,  his  Pilgrimage  or  Relations  of  the  World, 
and  the  Religions  observed  in  all  Ages,  which  reached  a 
fourth  edition,  much  enlarged,  in  1626 ;  in  1619  Purchas, 
his  Pilgrim  or  Microcosmus,  or  the  Historic  of  Man  ;  relat- 
ing the  wonders  of  his  Generation,  varieties  in  his  Degenera- 
tion, and  necessity  of  his  Regeneration ;  and  in  1625,  in  four 
volumes,  Purchas,  his  Pilgrimes  ;  or  Relation  of  the  World 
in  Sea  Voyages  and  Lande  Travels,  by  Englishmen  and 
others.  This  last  work  was  intended  as  a  continuation  of 
Hakluyt's  Voyages,  and  was  partly  founded  on  MSS.  left 
him  by  Hakluyt.  The  fourth  edition  of  the  Pilgrimage 
is  usually  catalogued  as  vol.  v.  of  the  Pilgrimes,  but  the 
two  works  are  quite  distinct,  and  essentially  different  in 
character,  as  is  indeed  indicated  in  the  names,  the  differ- 
ence being  thus  explained  by  Purchas  himself  :  in  the  Pil- 
grimage he  makes  use  of  his  own  matter  though  borrowed, 
while  in  the  Pilgrimes  the  authors  themselves  act  their  own 
parts  in  their  own  words.  He  was  also  the  author  of  the 
King's  Tower  and  Triumphal  Arch  of  London,  a  sermon 
on  2  Sam.  xxii.  51,  published  in  1623.  He  died  in  Sep- 
tember 1626,  according  to  some  in  a  debtor's  prison,  and 
although  Anthony  Wood  affirms  that  he  died  in  his  own 
house  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  publication  of  his 
books  had  involved  him  in  serious  money  difficulties. 

PURGATORY  (Purgatorium).  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  no  more  than  two  declarations  of  supreme 
authority  on  the  subject  of  its  distinctive  doctrine  of 
purgatory.  The  first  is  that  of  the  council  of  Ferrara- 
Florence,  in  which  it  was  defined,  as  regards  the  truly 
penitent  who  have  departed  this  life  in  the  love  of  God 
before  they  have  made  satisfaction  for  their  sins  of  com- 
mission and  omission  by  fruits  meet  for  repentance,  that 
their  souls  are  cleansed  by  purgatorial  pains  after  death, 
and  for  their  relief  from  these  the  suffrages  of  the  living 
— the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  prayers,  alms,  and  other  offices 
of  piety — are  helpful.  The  second  is  that  of  the  council  of 
Trent,  which  runs  as  follows : — "Since  the  Catholic  Church, 
instructed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  from  the  sacred  writings  and 
the  ancient  tradition  of  the  fathers,  hath  taught  in  holy 
councils,  and  lastly  in  this  oecumenical  council,  that  there 
is  a  purgatory,  and  that  the  souls  detained  there  are  assisted 
by  the  suffrages  of  the  faithful,  but  especially  by  the  most 
acceptable  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  this  holy  council  commands 
all  bishops  to  have  a  diligent  care  that  the  sound  doctrine 
of  purgatory  delivered  to  us  by  venerable  fathers  and 
sacred  councils  be  believed,  maintained,  taught,  and  every- 
where preached."  This  decree  is  to  be  read  in  the  light 


of  an  earlier  canon  of  the  same  council,  by  which  it  is  con- 
demned as  heretical  to  say  that  after  the  reception  of  the 
grace  of  justification  the  guilt  of  the  penitent  sinner  is  so 
remitted,  and  the  penalty  of  eternal  punishment  so  annulled, 
that  no  penalty  of  temporal  punishment  remains  to  be 
paid  either  in  this  world  or  in  the  future  in  purgatory 
before  the  kingdom  of  heaven  can  be  opened.  Thus  the 
essential  point  of  the  doctrine  is  that  Christian  souls 
having  any  sin  upon  them  at  the  moment  of  death  pass 
into  a  state  of  expiatory  suffering,  in  which  they  can  be 
helped  by  the  prayers  and  other  good  works  of  living  be- 
lievers. And  this  is  all  that  modern  Catholic  theologians 
regard  as  being  de  fide,.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that 
the  doctrine  as  popularly  held  and  currently  taught  is 
generally  much  more  detailed  and  explicit.  In  view  of 
some  of  these  developments,  there  is  on  all  hands  admitted 
to  exist  abundant  room  for  the  admonition  of  the  council 
of  Trent,  when  it  proceeded  to  warn  the  clergy  to  exclude 
from  popular  addresses  all  the  more  difficult  and  subtle 
questions  relating  to  the  subject,  and  such  as  do  not  tend 
to  edification  or  make  for  piety.  "They  must  not  allow 
uncertainties  or  things  which  have  the  appearance  of  falsity 
to  be  given  forth  or  handled,  and  they  are  to  prohibit  as 
scandalous  and  offensive  such  things  as  minister  to  curiosity 
or  superstition  or  savour  of  filthy  lucre.  Let  the  bishops 
see  to  it  that  the  prayers  of  the  living — to  wit,  the  sacri- 
fices, prayers,  alms,  and  other  works  of  piety  which  have 
been  wont  to  be  rendered  by  believers  for  the  departed — are 
done  piously  and  devoutly,  according  to  the  institutions  of 
the  church,  and  that  those  which  are  due  by  the  wills  of 
testators  or  otherwise  be  not  rendered  in  a  perfunctory 
manner  but  diligently  and  punctually,  by  priests  and  other 
ministers  of  the  church  who  are  bound  to  this  service." 

Among  the  details  of  the  doctrine,  which  have  been  the 
subject  of  much  speculation  among  Catholics,  may  be 
specified  the  questions  relating  to  the  locality  of  purgatory 
and  the  nature  and  duration  of  its  sufferings.  On  none 
of  these  points  has  anything  authoritative  been  delivered. 
It  is  of  course  conceived  of  as  having  some  position  in 
space,  and  as  being  distinct  from  heaven,  the  place  of  eternal 
blessedness,  on  the  one  hand,  and  from  hell,  the  place  of 
eternal  woe,  on  the  other.  But  any  theory  as  to  its  exact 
latitude  and  longitude  (such,  for  example,  as  underlies 
Dante's  description)  must  be  regarded  as  the  effort  merely 
of  the  individual  imagination.  As  regards  the  nature  of 
its  pains,  there  has  been  a  constant  disposition  to  interpret 
with  strict  literality  the  expressions  of  Scripture  as  to  the 
cleansing  efficacy  of  fire,  but  the  possibility  of  interpreting 
them  metaphorically  has  never  been  wholly  lost  sight  of. 
With  respect  to  their  duration,  it  must  be  inferred  from 
the  whole  praxis  of  indulgences  as  at  present  authorized 
by  the  church  that  the  pains  of  purgatory  are  measurable 
by  years  and  days ;  but  here  also  everything  is  left  vague. 

The  thesis  of  all  Protestants,  as  against  the  Roman 
Catholic  doctrine  of  purgatory,  is  that  "  the  souls  of  be- 
lievers are  at  their  death  made  perfect  in  holiness  and  do 
immediately  pass  into  glory."  Scripture  authority  is 
claimed  on  both  sides,  but  the  argument,  which  is  a  some- 
what complicated  one  and  depends  mainly  on  the  view 
arrived  at  as  to  the  Scriptural  doctrine  of  sin  and  satis- 
faction, cannot  be  entered  upon  here.  When  the  two 
doctrines  are  compared  in  the  light  of  ecclesiastical  tra- 
dition it  will  be  found  that  neither  fully  coincides  with 
the  opinions  somewhat  vaguely  held  by  the  early  fathers, 
whose  view  of  the  intermediate  state  between  death  and 
the  resurrection  was  largely  affected  by  the  pre-Christian 
doctrine  of  Hades  or  Sheol.  On  the  one  hand,  Irenseus 
(Hxr.,  v.  31)  regards  as  heretical  the  opinion  that  the 
souls  of  the  departed  do  immediately  pass  into  glory ;  he 
argues  that,  as  Christ  tarried  for  three  days  "in  the  lower 


P  U  R  —  P  U  R 


115 


parts  of  the  earth,"  so  must  the  souls  of  His  disciples  also 
go  away  into  the  invisible  place  allotted  them  by  God, 
and  there  remain  until  the  resurrection,  when,  receiving 
their  bodies  and  rising  as  their  Lord  arose,  they  shall 
come  into  heaven  and  into  the  presence  of  God.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  impossible  to  point  out  in  any  writing  of 
the  first  four  centuries  any  passage  which  describes  the 
state  of  any  of  the  faithful  departed  as  one  of  acute  suffer- 
ing, although  Tertullian's  belief  that  martyrs  had  the 
exceptional  privilege  of  being  taken  to  "  paradise  "  at  once 
clearly  shows  that  for  ordinary  Christians  the  state  after 
death  was  regarded  rather  as  one  of  expectancy  than 
of  enjoyment.  Still  less  would  it  be  possible  to  show  that 
the  intermediate  state  was  regarded  by  them  as  one  in 
which  satisfaction  was  made  for  sin.  Origen's  doctrine  of 
Trvp  Kaddpo-iov  is  intimately  connected  with  his  doctrine  of 
apokatastasis ;  in  his  view  the  application  of  purgatorial 
fire  was  not  to  take  place  until  the  last  judgment,  nor  was 
its  efficacy  to  be  limited  to  those  who  had  closed  their  life 
on  earth  as  believers  in  Christ.  In  a  different  connexion 
Augustine,  expounding  1  Cor.  iii.  15  as  referring  more 
immediately  to  the  purification  of  Christians  by  means  of 
the  trials  of  the  present  life,  goes  on  to  speak  of  it  as  a 
supposable  thing  that  the  process  might  be  continued  after 
death,  but  without  committing  himself  to  the  belief 
("incredibile  non  est,  et  utrum  ita  sit  quperi  potest"). 
Gregory  the  Great  was  the  first  to  formulate  in  express 
terms  the  doctrine  which  afterwards  became  that  of  the 
whole  Roman  obedience  "  de  quibusdam  levibus  culpis 
esse  ante  judicium  purgatorius  ignis  credendus  est."  Such 
utterances  as  this  were  never  accepted  by  the  Greek 
Church,  which  in  its  doctrine  of  the  intermediate  state 
still  occupies  as  nearly  as  possible  the  standpoint  of  the 
ante-Nicene  fathers. 

PURI  or  POOREE,  a  district  of  British  India  in  the  Orissa 
division  of  the  lieu  tenant -governorship  of  Bengal,  lying 
between  19°  28'  and  20°  16'  N.  lat.  and  85°  0'  and  86°  28' 
E.  long.,  with  an  area  of  2472  square  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  native  states  of  Banki  and  Athgarh,  on 
the  E.  and  N.E.  by  Cuttack  district,  on  the  S.  by  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Ganjam  district  of  the 
Madras  presidency  and  by  the  tributary  state  of  Rampur. 
For  the  most  part  the  country  is  flat,  the  only  mountains 
being  a  low  range  which,  rising  in  the  west,  runs  south-east 
in  an  irregular  line  towards  the  Chilka  Lake,  and  forms  a 
water-parting  between  the  district  and  the  valley  of  the 
Mahanadi.  The  middle  and  eastern  divisions  of  the  dis- 
trict, forming  the  south-western  part  of  the  Mahanadi  delta, 
consist  entirely  of  alluvial  plains,  watered  by  a  network 
of  channels  through  which  the  most  southerly  branch  of 
that  river,  the  Koyakhai,  finds  its  way  into  the  sea.  The 
principal  rivers  in  Puri  are  the  Bhargavi,  the  Daya,  and 
the  Nun,  all  of  which  flow  into  the  Chilka  Lake  and  are 
navigable  by  large  boats  during  the  rainy  season,  when  the 
waters  come  down  in  tremendous  floods,  bursting  the  banks 
and  carrying  everything  before  them.  The  chief  lakes  are 
the  Sar  and  the  Chilka,  the  former,  a  backwater  of  the 
Bhargavi,  being  4  miles  long  by  2  broad.  The  Chilka 
Lake  is  one  of  the  largest  in  India;  its  length  is  44  miles, 
and  its  breadth  in  some  parts  20  miles.  It  is  separated 
from  the  sea  only  by  a  narrow  strip  of  sand.  The  lake  is 
saline  and  everywhere  very  shallow,  its  mean  depth  ranging 
from  3  to  5  feet.  Puri  district  is  rich  in  historical  remains, 
from  the  primitive  rock-hewn  caves  of  Buddhism — the 
earliest  relics  of  Indian  architecture — to  the  mediaeval  sun 
temple  at  Kanarak  and  the  world -renowned  shrine  of 
Jagannath.  The  chief  roads  in  the  district  are  the  Cal- 
cutta and  Madras  trunk  road  and  the  pilgrim  road  from 
Cuttack  to  Puri.  The  climate  of  Puri  is  dry  and  healthy, 
and  the  average  rainfall  is  55 '80  inches. 


The  census  of  1881  returned  the  population  of  Puri  district  at 
888,487  (446,609  males  and  441,878  females).  By  religion  873,664 
were  returned  as  Hindus,  14,003  as  Mohammedans,  and  819  as 
Christians.  The  only  town  with  a  population  exceeding  5000  is 
PURI  (q.v. ).  Puri  is  strictly  a  rice-growing  tract,  but  pulses,  jute, 
hemp,  flax,  and  oil-seeds  are  also  produced,  while  among  its  mis- 
cellaneous crops  are  tobacco,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  turmeric.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  salt,  earthenware,  and  brass  and  bell- 
metal  utensils  and  ornaments.  In  1882-83  the  total  revenue  of  the 
district  amounted  to  £79,493,  towards  which  the  land-tax  contri- 
buted £60,255. 

Puri  first  came  under  British  administration  in  1803.  The  only 
political  events  in  its  history  since  that  date  have  been  the  rebel- 
lion of  the  maharaja  of  Khurda  in  1804  and  the  rising  of  the  paiks 
or  peasant  militia  in  1817-18.  Since  then  the  country  has  been 
gradually  restored  to  order  and  tranquillity. 

PURI  or  POOREE,  chief  town  of  the  above  district,  and 
commonly  known  as  Jagannath,  is  situated  on  the  Orissa 
coast  in  19°  48'  N.  lat.  and  85  51'  E.  long.  Its  chief 
interest  is  centred  in  the  sacred  shrine  of  Jagannath,  a 
temple  which  dates  from  the  12th  century,  and  which  lies 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  town.  In  1881  the  popu- 
lation of  Puri  was  22,095  (males  11,769,  females  10,326), 
of  whom  21,913  were  Mohammedans. 

PURIM  (D"nQ),  a  feast  of  the  later  Jews,  celebrated  in 
honour  of  the  deliverance  of  the  nation  from  the  schemes 
of  Haman  recorded  in  the  book  of  Esther.  The  historical 
value  of  this  record  has  been  discussed  in  the  article  ESTHER, 
where  also  mention  is  made  of  the  now  very  prevalent 
opinion  that  the  feast  is  an  adaptation  of  a  Persian  festival. 
The  derivation  of  the  name  "  Purim,"  as  well  as  the  thing, 
from  the  Persian  Furdigan  (Pordigan,  Pordiyan)  has  been 
raised  above  the  level  of  a  mere  guess  by  Lagarde,  who 
has  shown  that  the  readings  <f>ovpfj.aia  and  (jtovp&ia  in  one 
of  the  Greek  recensions  of  Esther  point  with  great  prob- 
ability to  a  form  <j>ovp8aia  (tOTtta)'  instead  of  Purim, 
exactly  corresponding  with  the  Persian  word  (Ges.  Abk.,  p. 
164 ;  Armen.  Stud.,  §  1339).  The  feast  falls  on  the  14th 
and  15th  of  Adar,  and  is,  in  accordance  with  Esther  ix.  22, 
of  a  joyous  character,  but  quite  secular  in  tone,  with  a 
great  deal  of  hard  drinking,  the  only  quasi-religious  features 
being  the  reading  in  the  synagogue  of  the  book  of  Esther 
and  the  section  about  Amalek,  Exod.  xvii.  8  sq.  This  cele- 
bration appears  to  have  made  its  way  among  the  Jews 
only  gradually ;  according  to  Josephus,  however,  it  was 
generally  observed  in  his  day  in  all  parts  of  the  Jewish 
world.  On  the  other  hand,  the  preparatory  fast  on  the 
13th  of  Adar,  which  is  based  on  Esther  ix.  31,  cannot  have 
been  observed  in  Palestine  till  a  later  date,  for  in  the 
Megillath  Ta'anith  (after  the  death  of  Trajan),  Adar  13, 
"  the  day  of  Nicanor,"  is  still  one  of  the  days  on  which 
fasting  is  forbidden. 

PURITANS.  See  ENGLAND,  CHURCH  OF,  vol.  viii.  p. 
376  sq.;  INDEPENDENTS,  vol.  xii.  p.  726  sq. ;  and  PRESBY- 

TERIANISM. 

PURNIAH,  a  district  of  British  India  in  the  Bhagalpur 
division  of  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal,  occupy- 
ing an  area  of  4956  square  miles,  is  situated  between  25° 
15'  and  26°  37'  N.  lat.  and  87°  and  88°  33'  E.  long.  On 
the  N.  it  is  bounded  by  the  state  of  Nepal  and  the 
district  of  Darjiling,  on  the  E.  by  the  Jalpaiguri,  Dinaj- 
pur,  and  Maldah  districts,  on  the  W.  by  Bhagalpur,  and 
on  the  S.  by  the  Ganges,  which  separates  it  from  the 
districts  of  Bhagalpur  and  the  Santal  Parganas.  Purniah 
is  a  level  depressed  tract  of  country,  but  for  the  most  part 
of  a  rich  loamy  soil  of  alluvial  formation  ;  it  is  traversed  by 
several  streams,  which  flow  from  the  Himalayas  lying  to  the 
north  and  afford  great  advantages  of  irrigation  and  water 
carriage,  and  is  well  cultivated ;  but  in  the  west  the  soil 
is  thickly  covered  with  sand  deposited  by  the  Kusi  river, 
which  rises  in  the  Nepal  mountains  and  flows  southwards 
to  the  Ganges.  The  country  is  destitute  of  anything  that 
can  be  called  forest,  but  much  scrub  jungle  is  found  in  the 


116 


P  U  R  — P  U  S 


neighbourhood  of  the  more  swampy  tracts.  Among  other 
rivers  of  the  district  is  the  Mahananda,  which  rises  in  the 
mountains  of  Sikkim  and  flows  through  the  east  of  Purniah 
into  Maldah,  Wild  animals  are  not  so  numerous  as  in  the 
neighbouring  districts,  but  the  tiger  is  found  in  all  parts 
of  Purniah,  particularly  along  the  banks  and  among  the 
sandy  islands  of  the  Kusi,  and  also  in  the  scrub  jungle 
that  runs  along  the  north  of  the  district.  The  climate  of 
Purniah  is  of  an  intermediate  character ;  the  average  rain- 
fall is  67  inches,  and  the  mean  temperature  is  about  76°'8. 

The  staple  product  of  Purniah  is  rice,  but  jute  and  tobacco  are 
also  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent.  Its  manufactures  include 
indigo,  cottons,  •woollens,  and  silks,  but  the  chief  is  that  of 
indigo,  which  is  mostly  carried  on  in  the  south  of  the  district.  In 
1882-83  the  gross  revenue  amounted  to  £179,750,  nearly  two-thirds 
(£120,541)  being  derived  from  the  land.  By  the  census  of  1881  the 
population  numbered  1,848,687  (937,080  males,  911,607  females). 
The  majority  of  the  people  are  Hindus  (1,076,539  in  1881) ; 
of  Mohammedans  in  the  same  year  there  were  771,130,  and  of 
Christians  only  327.  PURNIAH,  the  capital,  is  the  only  town  in 
the  district  with  a  population  exceeding  10,000. 

This  district  was  conquered  by  the  Mohammedans  in  the  13th 
century,  but  it  was  not  until  four  centuries  later  that  its  value  was 
realized.  During  the  17th  century  the  frontier  was  considerably 
extended  ;  the  country,  however,  remained  in  a  state  of  anarchy 
until  1770,  when  it  was  governed  by  an  English  official  with  the 
title  of  "superintendent."  Of  late  years  the  district  has  made 
considerable  progress,  and  under  all  departments  of  local  adminis- 
tration there  lias  been  steady  improvement. 

PURNIAH,  chief  town  and  administrative  headquarters 
of  the  above  district,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
river  Saura,  in  25°  46'  N.  lat.  and  87°  30'  E.  long.  It 
contains  a  population,  according  to  the  census  of  1881,  of 
15,016.  The  town  is  neat  and  well-built,  but  very  un- 
healthy ;  it  is  distant  283  miles  north-west  of  Calcutta. 

PURPLE  (irop<f>vpa),  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to 
a  dye  derived  from  various  species  of  Murex  and  Purpura. 
(See  MOLLUSCA,  vol.  xvi.  p.  648  sq. ;  DYEING,  vol.  vii.  p. 
571 ;  and  PHOENICIA,  vol.  xviii.  p.  804.)  For  the  modern 
sources  of  the  various  shades  of  this  colour,  see  DYEING, 
vol.  vii.  p.  579. 

PURPURA,  a  disease  characterized  by  the  occurrence 
of  purple -coloured  spots  upon  the  surface  of  the  body, 
due  to  extravasations  of  blood  in  the  skin,  accompanied 
occasionally  with  haemorrhages  from  mucous  membranes. 
Difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed  among  physicians  as 
to  whether  these  symptoms  are  to  be  regarded  as  con- 
stituting a  disease  per  se,  since  they  are  frequently  seen 
in  connexion  with  various  morbid  conditions.  Thus  in 
persons  suffering  from  such  diseases  as  rheumatism, 
phthisis,  heart  disease,  cancer,  Bright's  disease,  jaundice, 
as  well  as  from  certain  of  the  infectious  fevers,  extravasa- 
tions of  the  kind  above-mentioned  are  not  unfrequently 
present.  But  the  term  "purpura"  is,  strictly  speaking, 
applicable  only  to  those  instances  where  the  symptoms 
exist  apart  from  any  antecedent  disease.  In  such  cases 
the  complaint  is  usually  ushered  in  by  lassitude  and 
feverishness.  This  is  soon  followed  by  the  appearance  on 
the  surface  of  the  body  of  the  characteristic  spots  in  the 
form  of  small  red  points  scattered  over  the  skin  of  the 
limbs  and  trunk.  They  are  not  raised  above  the  surface, 
and  they  do  not  disappear  on  pressure.  Their  colour  soon 
becomes  deep  purple  or  nearly  black ;  but  after  a  few  days 
they  undergo  the  changes  which  are  observed  in  the  case 
of  an  ordinary  bruise,  passing  to  a  green  and  yellow  hue 
and  finally  disappearing.  When  of  minute  size  they  are 
termed  "  petechise  "  or  "  stigmata,"  when  somewhat  larger 
"  vibices,"  and  when  in  patches  of  considerable  size 
"  ecchymoses."  They  may  come  out  in  fresh  crops  over 
a  lengthened  period. 

The  form  of  the  disease  above  described  is  that  known  as 
"  purpura  simplex."  A  more  serious  form  of  the  malady  is 
that  to  which  the  term  "  purpura  htemorrhagica  "  is  applied. 


Here,  in  addition  to  the  phenomena  already  mentioned  as 
affecting  the  skin,  there  is  a  tendency  to  the  occurrence 
of  haemorrhage  from  mucous  surfaces,  especially  from  the 
nose,  but  also  from  the  mouth,  lungs,  stomach,  bowels, 
kidneys,  <fcc.,  sometimes  in  large  and  dangerous  amount. 
Great  physical  prostration  is  apt  to  attend  this  form  of 
the  disease,  and  a  fatal  result  sometimes  follows  the  suc- 
cessive haemorrhages,  or  is  suddenly  precipitated  by  the 
occurrence  of  an  extravasation  of  blood  into  the  brain. 

The  causes  of  purpura  are  not  well  understood.  The 
condition  of  the  blood  has  been  frequently  investigated, 
but  no  alteration  in  its  composition  detected.  The  view 
most  commonly  held  is  that  the  disease  depends  on  an 
abnormal  fragility  of  the  minute  blood-vessels  owing  to 
their  mal-nutrition.  It  would  seem  sometimes  to  arise  in 
persons  enjoying  perfect  health  ;  but  in  a  large  proportion 
of  instances  it  shows  itself  among  those  who  have  been 
exposed  to  privation  or  insanitary  conditions,  or  whose 
health  has  become  lowered.  Young  persons  suffer  more 
frequently  than  adults,  and  repeated  attacks  may  occur. 
Purpura  has  some  points  of  resemblance  to  scurvy,  but  a 
clear  distinction  both  as  to  causation  and  symptoms  can 
be  established  between  the  two  diseases. 

The  treatment  will  bear  reference  to  any  causes  which 
may  be  discovered  as  associated  with  the  onset  of  the 
disease,  such  as  unfavourable  hygienic  conditions,  and 
nutritive  defects  should  be  rectified  by  suitable  diet.  The 
various  preparations  of  iron  seem  to  be  the  best  medicinal 
remedies  in  this  ailment,  while  more  direct  astringents,  sucli 
as  gallic  acid,  ergot  of  rye,  turpentine,  or  acetate  of  lead, 
will  in  addition  be  called  for  in  severe  cases  and  especially 
when  haemorrhage  occurs. 

PURSLANE,  the  vernacular  equivalent  of  the  botanical 
genus  Portulaca.  The  species  are  fleshy  annuals  of  small 
dimensions,  with  prostrate  stems  and  entire  leaves ;  the 
flowers  are  small  and  inconspicuous,  or  in  some  species 
brilliantly  coloured,  regular,  with  two  sepals,  five  petals, 
seven  to  twenty  stamens,  an  inferior  ovary,  with  a  style 
divided  into  from  three  to  eight  branches  and  ripening  into 
a  pod  which  opens  by  a  transverse  chink.  P.  oleracea  is  a 
native  of  India,  which  has  been  introduced  into  Europe  as 
a  salad  plant,  and  in  some  countries  has  spread  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  become  a  noxious  weed.  This  is  the  case  in 
certain  parts  of  the  United  States,  where  the  evil  qualities 
of  "  pussly "  have  become  proverbial.  Like  many  other 
succulent  plants,  its  juice  is  cooling  and  is  used  in  tropical 
countries  as  a  refrigerant  in  fever,  while  the  bruised  leaves 
are  employed  as  an  application  in  cases  of  local  inflamma- 
tion. Some  of  the  species,  such  as  P.  grandiflora  and  its 
varieties,  are  grown  in  gardens  on  rock-work  owing  to  the 
great  beauty  and  deep  colouring  of  their  flowers,  the  short 
duration  of  individual  blossoms  being  compensated  for  by 
the  abundance  with  which  they  are  produced. 

PUSEY,  EDWAED  BOUVERIE  (1800-1882),  originally 
Edward  Bouverie,  was  born  near  Oxford  in  1800.  His 
family,  which  was  of  Huguenot  origin,  became  through  a 
marriage  connexion  lords  of  the  manor  of  Pusey,  a  small 
Berkshire  village  near  Oxford,  and  from  it  took  their  name 
a  few  years  after  Edward  Bouverie's  birth.  In  1818  he 
became  a  commoner  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  after 
gaining  high  university  distinctions  was  elected  in  1824  to 
a  fellowship  at  Oriel  College.  He  thus  became  a  member 
of  a-  society  which  already  contained  some  of  the  ablest 
of  his  contemporaries, — among  them  J.  H.  Newman  and 
John  Keble.  But  for  several  years  his  intercourse  with 
them  seems  to  have  been  slight.  He  divided  his  time 
between  his  country  home  and  Germany,  and  occupied 
himself  with  the  study  of  Oriental  languages  and  of  German 
theology.  His  first  work,  published  in  1828,  was  a  vindi- 
cation of  the  latter  from  a  strong  attack  which  had  been 


P  U  S  E  Y 


117 


made  upon  it  by  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  nascent  High- 
Church  party,  H.  J.  Rose.  His  work,  which  is  entitled 
An  Historical  Enquiry  into  the  probable  Caiises  of  the 
Rational  Character  lately  predominant  in  the  Theology  of 
Germany,  is  an  impartial  and  clear  summary  of  the  history 
of  German  theology  since  the  Reformation.  In  the  same 
year  (1828)  the  duke  of  Wellington  appointed  him  to  the 
regius  professorship  of  Hebrew  with  the  attached  canonry 
of  Christ  Church,  which  he  held  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
Mr  Rose's  somewhat  intemperate  reply  to  him  led  to  the 
publication  in  1830  of  a  second  part  of  his  Historical 
Enquiry,  which  is  not  less  liberal  in  its  tone  than  the  pre- 
vious part.  But  in  the  years  which  immediately  followed 
the  current  of  his  thoughts  began  to  set  in  another  direc- 
tion. The  revolt  against  individualism  had  begun,  and 
he  was  attracted  to  its  standard.  By  the  end  of  1833 
"  he  showed  a  disposition  to  make  common  cause "  with 
those  who  had  already  begun  to  issue  the  Tracts  for  the 
Times.  "He  was  not,  however,  fully  associated  in  the 
movement  till  1835  and  1836,  when  he  published  his 
tract  on  baptism  and  started'the  Library  of  the  Fathers  " 
(Cardinal  Newman's  Apologia,  p.  136).  The  real  work  of 
his  life  then  began.  He  became  a  close  student  of  the 
fathers  and  of  that  school  of  Anglican  divines  who  had 
continued,  or  revived,  in  the  17th  century  the  main  tradi- 
tions of  pre-Reformation  teaching.  In  ten  years  after  his 
first  adhesion  to  the  movement  he  had  become,  with  his 
almost  boundless  capacity  for  accumulating  information, 
saturated  with  patristic  and  "Anglo-Catholic"  divinity; 
and  a  sermon  which  he  preached  before  the  university  in 
1843,  The  Holy  Eucharist  a  Comfort  to  the  Penitent,  so 
startled  the  authorities  by  the  re-statement  of  doctrines 
which,  though  well  known  to  ecclesiastical  antiquaries, 
had  faded  from  the  common  view,  that  by  the  exercise 
of  an  authority  which,  however  legitimate,  was  almost 
obsolete  he  was  suspended  for  three  years  from  the  func- 
tion of  preaching.  The  immediate  effect  of  his  suspension 
was  the  sale  of  18,000  copies  of  the  condemned  sermon  ; 
its  permanent  effect  was  to  make  Pusey  for  the  next 
quarter  of  a  century  the  most  influential  person  in  the 
Church  of  England.  The  movement,  in  the  origination 
of  which  he  had  had  no  share,  came  to  bear  his  name  :  it 
was  popularly  known  as  Puseyism  and  its  adherents  as 
Puseyites.  His  activity,  both  public  and  private,  as  leader 
of  the  movement  was  enormous.  He  was  not  only  on 
the  stage  but  also  behind  the  scenes  of  every  important 
controversy,  whether  theological  or  academical.  In  the 
Gorham  controversy  of  1850,  in  the  question  of  Oxford 
reform  in  1854,  in  the  prosecution  of  some  of  the  writers 
of  Essays  and  Reviews,  especially  of  Professor  Jowett,  in 
1863,  in  the  question  as  to  the  reform  of  the  marriage 
lavs  from  1849  to  the  end  of  his  life,  in  the  revived  con- 
troversy as  to  the  meaning  of  everlasting  punishment  in 
1877,  he  was  always  busy  with  articles,  letters,  treatises, 
and  sermons.  The  occasions  on  which,  in  his  turn,  he 
preached  before  his  university  were  all  memorable ;  and 
some  of  the  sermons  were  manifestoes  which  mark  distinct 
stages  in  the  history  of  the  party  of  which  he  was  the 
leader.  The  practice  of  confession  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land practically  dates  from  his  two  sermons  on  The  Entire 
Absolution  of  the  Penitent,  in  1846,  in  which  the  revival 
of  high  sacramental  doctrine  is  complemented  by  the 
advocacy  of  a  revival  of  the  penitential  system  which 
mediaeval  theologians  had  appended  to  it.  The  sermon  on 
The  Rule  of  Faith  as  maintained  by  the  Fathers  and  by  the 
Church  of  England,  in  1851,  stemmed  the  current  of 
secessions  to  Rome  after  the  Gorham  judgment,  which  had 
seemed  to  show  that  on  an  important  point  of  dogmatic 
theology  the  Church  of  England  had  no  definite  doctrine. 
The  sermon  on  The  Presence  of  Christ  in  the  Holy  Eucharist, 


in  1853,  first  formulated  the  doctrine  round  which  almost 
all  the  subsequent  theology  of  his  followers  has  revolved, 
and  which  has  revolutionized  the  current  practices  of 
Anglican  worship.  And  the  last  university  sermon  which 
he  composed,  and  which  he  was  too  ill  to  deliver  himself, 
Unscience,  not  Science,  adverse  to  Faith,  in  1878,  rendered 
not  only  to  his  party  but  to  religion  in  general  the  signal 
service  of  abandoning  the  old  quarrel  between  theology 
and  science,  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  world  was 
created,  by  admitting  the  possibility  of  evolution.  Of  his 
larger  works  the  most  important  are  his  two  books  on  the 
Eucharist — The  Doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence  (consisting  of 
notes  on  his  university  sermon  of  1853),  published  in  1855, 
and  The  Real  Presence  .  .  .  the  Doctrine  of  the  English 
Church,  published  in  1857  ;  Daniel  the  Prophet,  in  which 
he  endeavours  with  great  skill  to  maintain  the  traditional 
date  of  that  book  ;  The  Minor  Prophets,  with  Commentary, 
which  forms  his  chief  contribution  to  the  study  of  which 
he  was  the  professor;  and  the  Eirenicon,  in  which  he 
endeavoured  to  find,  for  those  who  accepted  his  premises, 
a  basis  of  union  between  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
Church  of  Rome.  In  1836  he  joined  Newman,  Keble, 
and  Marriott  in  editing  a  series  of  translations  from  the 
fathers  entitled  A  Library  of  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Catholic 
Church  anterior  to  the  Division  of  East  and  West,  and 
contributed  to  it  a  revised  translation  of  St  Augustine's 
Confessions  and  several  valuable  prefaces ;  the  series  was 
accompanied  by  a  translation  of  the  Catena  Aurea  of 
Thomas  Aquinas,  and  was  followed  by  an  edition  of  some 
of  the  texts  which  had  been  translated.  He  also  edited, 
with  suitable  omissions,  several  books  of  devotion  by 
Roman  Catholic  writers,  such  as  Avrillon  and  Scupoli. 

In  private  life  his  habits  were  simple  almost  to  austerity. 
He  had  few  personal  friends,  and  rarely  mingled  in  gen- 
eral society ;  though  bitter  to  opponents,  he  was  gentle 
to  those  who  knew  him,  and  his  munificent  charities  gave 
him  a  warm  place  in  the  hearts  of  many  to  whom  he  was 
personally  unknown.  In  his  domestic  life  he  had  some 
severe  trials  :  his  wife  died,  after  eleven  years  of  married 
life,  in  1839  ;  his  only  son,  who  was  a  scholar  like-minded 
with  himself,  who  had  shared  many  of  his  literary  labours, 
and  who  had  edited  an  excellent  edition  of  St  Cyril's  com- 
mentary on  the  minor  prophets,  died  in  1880,  after  many 
years  of  great  bodily  affliction.  From  that  time  Pusey 
was  seen  by  only  a  few  persons.  His  own  bodily  infirmi- 
ties increased,  and  on  16th  September  1882,  after  a  short 
illness,  he  died  a  painless  death.  He  was  buried  at 
Oxford  in  the  cathedral  of  which  he  had  been  for  fifty- 
four  years  a  canon.  His  friends  devised  for  him  after  his 
death  a  singular  memorial :  they  purchased  his  library, 
and  bought  for  it  a  house  in  Oxford  which  they  endowed 
with  sufficient  funds  to  maintain  three  librarians,  who 
were  charged  with  the  duty  of  endeavouring  to  perpetuate 
in  the  university  the  memory  of  the  principles  which  he 
taught. 

His  name  will  be  chiefly  remembered  as  the  representative  of  a 
great  religious  movement  which,  whatever  may  be  its  ultimate  issue, 
has  carried  with  it  no  small  part  of  the  religious  life  of  England  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  19th  century.  His  chief  characteristic  was 
an  almost  unbounded  capacity  for  taking  pains.  His  chief  influence 
was  that  of  a  preacher  and  a  spiritual  adviser.  His  Parish  Sermons 
reproduce  the  substance  of  patristic  homilies  in  the  massive  style 
of  the  Caroline  divines.  His  correspondence  as  a  spiritual  adviser 
was  enormous  ;  his  deserved  reputation  for  piety  and  for  solidity 
of  character  made  him  the  chosen  confessor  to  whom  large  numbers 
of  men  and  women  unburdened  their  doubts  and  their  sins.  Exit 
if  he  be  estimated  apart  from  his  position  as  the  head  of  a  great 
party,  it  must  be  considered  that  he  was  more  a  theological  antiquary 
than  a  theologian.  He  exhumed  many  forgotten  theories  and  sup- 
ported them  by  a  large  number  of  quotations  from  ancient  writers ; 
but  the  heterogeneous  masses  of  information  which  he  accumulated 
require  a  sifting  which  often  leaves  but  a  scanty  residuum,  and, 
however  valuable  to  advanced  scholars,  cannot  safely  be  commended 


118 


P  U  S  — P  U  Y 


to  learners.  Whatever  he  wrote  was  relative  to  the  controversies 
of  his  time,  and  as  a  controversialist  he  holds  a  place  which  is 
unique  among  his  contemporaries.  He  had  an  almost  unrivalled 
power  of  massing  his  evidence,  of  selecting  from  an  author  just  so 
much  as  was  pertinent  to  the  point  under  discussion,  and  of  ignor- 
ing or  depreciating  statements  which  were  at  variance  with  the 
views  which  he  advocated.  As  a  party  leader  he  combined  great 
enthusiasm  with  indefatigable  energy  and  tenacity  of  purpose  ;  he 
chose  his  positions  beforehand  with  great  skill,  and  never  after- 
wards abandoned  them.  But  he  does  not  seem  to  have  had  any 
great  logical  power  :  he  builds  elaborate  arguments  upon  words  of 
shifting  connotation,  such  as  "  faith "  and  "  church,  '  and  slides 
unconsciously  from  one  meaning  to  another.  Nor  is  there  any 
evidence  that  he  ever  faced  the  historical  difficulties  which  the 
position  of  the  Church  of  England  presents  from  tlfe  Catholic  point 
of  view,  and  which  ultimately  led  to  Newman's  secession.  He  lived 
in  Christian  antiquity,  and  his  arguments  seldom  touched  any  but 
sympathetic  natures.  Unlike  Newman,  who  appealed  to  the  cul- 
tured intellect  of  his  time,  he  never  caught  the  modern  spirit. 
The  result  was  that  after  Newman's  departure  the  party  of  which 
Pusey  was  the  head  never  made  a  single  convert  of  mark.  The 
intellect  of  Oxford  and  of  England  drifted  away  from  it ;  and,  in 
spite  of  the  eloquence  of  some  of  its  advocates,  "  Pusey  ism  "  does 
not  now  number  among  its  adherents  any  one  who  exercises  an 
appreciable  influence  upon  the  intellectual  life  of  England. 

In  fact  Pusey  survived  the  system  which  had  borne  his  name. 
His  followers  went  beyond  him,  or  away  from  him,  in  two  direc- 
tions. On  the  one  hand,  his  revival  of  the  mediaeval  doctrine  of 
the  Real  Presence,  coinciding  as  it  did  with  the  revival  of  a  taste 
for  mediaeval  art,  naturally  led  to  a  revival  of  the  mediaeval  cere- 
monial of  worship.  With  this  revival  of  ceremonial  Pusey  had  little 
sympathy  :  he  at  first  protested  against  it  (in  a  university  sermon 
in  1859)  ;  and,  though  he  came  to  defend  those  who  were  accused 
of  breaking  the  law  in  their  practice  of  it,  he  did  so  on  the  express 
ground  that  their  practice  was  alien  to  his  own.  But  this  revival 
of  ceremonial  in  its  various  degrees  is  now  the  chief  external 
characteristic  of  the  movement  of  which  he  was  the  leader ;  and 
"Ritualist"  has  thrust  "Puseyite"  aside  as  the  designation  of 
those  who  hold  the  doctrines  for  which  he  mainly  contended.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  pivot  of  his  teaching  was  the  appeal  to  primitive 
antiquity.  It  was  an  appeal  which  had  considerable  force  as 
against  the  vapid  theology  of  the  early  part  of  the  century,  and 
as  a  criterion  of  the  claims  of  Catholicism.  But  it  lost  its  force, 
and  his  followers  came  to  substitute  for  it  an  appeal  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  an  a  priori  philosophy,  some  of  which  were  borrowed 
from  Thomism  and  some,  though  at  second  hand,  from  Hegelian- 
ism.  Nor  is  it  probable  that  Puseyism  will  revive  again.  On  the 
one  hand,  an  appeal  to  primitive  times  which  is  divorced,  as  was 
Pusey 's  appeal,  from  the  history  of  those  times  must  necessarily 
fail  in  an  age  in  which  the  spirit  of  historical  inquiry  is  abroad  ; 
on  the  other  hand,  however  excellent  the  maxim  may  be  which 
Pusey  put  in  the  forefront  of  his  arguments,  Quod  semper,  quod 
ubique,  quod  ab  omnibus,  yet,  when  limited,  as  Pusey  limited  it, 
to  the  statements  of  particular  writers  and  the  current  beliefs  of 
particular  ages,  it  becomes  a  mere  paradox  and  ceases  to  afford  a 
logical  basis  for  any  system  of  doctrine.  (E.  HA.) 

PUSHKIN.     See  POUSHKIN. 

PUSHTU.     See  AFGHANISTAN,  vol.  i.  p.  238. 

PUSTULE,  MALIGNANT,  a  contagious  disease  com- 
municated to  man  from  certain  animals  (especially  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses)  suffering  from  splenic  fever.  This 
malady  will  be  referred  to  under  WOOLSORTER'S  DISEASE, 
of  which  it  forms  a  variety. 

PUTEOLI.     See  POZZUOLI. 

PUTNEY,  a  suburb  of  London  in  the  county  of  Surrey, 
is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  about  8  miles 
above  London  Bridge  by  the  river  and  4£  miles  west  of 
Hyde  Park  Corner  by  road.  The  picturesque  old  timber 
bridge  connecting  it  with  Fulham  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river,  and  erected  in  1729,  is  superseded  by  a  structure 
of  iron  and  granite.  Putney  is  the  headquarters  of 
London  rowing  and  the  starting-point  for  most  important 
boat-races.  It  consists  chiefly  of  the  old-fashioned  High 
Street  leading  to  Putney  Common,  and  various  streets  of 
villas  and  houses  inhabited  by  the  middle  classes.  The 
church  of  St  Mary  near  the  bridge  was  rebuilt  in  1836, 
with  the  exception  of  the  picturesque  old  tower.  Among 
the  benevolent  institutions  are  the  almshouses  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  founded  by  Sir  Abraham  Dawes  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II. ;  the  waterman's  school,  founded  in  1684,  for 


the  education  of  watermen's  sons ;  and  the  royal  hospital 
for  incurables.  To  the  south-west  of  the  town  is  Putney 
Heath,  400  acres  in  extent,  formerly  a  great  resort  of 
highwaymen  and  duellists.  Putney  is  included  within  the 
metropolitan  area.  The  population  of  the  registration 
sub-district  (area,  2235  acres)  in  1871  was  9439,  and  in 
1881  it  was  13,235. 

Putney  occurs  in  Domesday  as  "Putelei,"  and  subsequently 
appears  as  "  Puttenheth  "  and  "Pottenheth,"  gradually  contracted 
into  "Putney."  The  ferry  was  in  early  times  of  considerable 
importance.  During  the  Parliamentary  wars  the  heath  was  fre- 
quently occupied  by  troops,  the  headquarters  of  the  generals  being 
in  the  village.  Putney  was  the  birthplace  of  Thomas  Cromwell, 
earl  of  Essex,  and  of  Gibbon  the  historian. 

PUTREFACTION.  See  FERMENTATION,  vol.  ix.  pp. 
97,  98. 

PUTTY  is  a  kind  of  cement  composed  of  fine  powdered 
chalk  intimately  mixed  with  linseed  oil,  either  boiled  or 
raw,  to  the  consistency  of  a  tough  dough.  It  is  principally 
used  by  glaziers  for  bedding  and  fixing  sheets  of  glass  in 
windows  and  other  frames,  by  joiners  and  painters  for 
filling  up  nail-holes  and  other  inequalities  in  the  surface 
of  wood-work,  and  by  masons  for  bedding  ashlar-work. 
The  oxidation  of  the  oil  gradually  hardens  putty  into  a 
very  dense  adherent  mass.  When  putty  is  required  to 
dry  quickly,  boiled  oil  and  sometimes  litharge  and  other 
driers  are  used.  "  Putty  powder  "  or  "  polisher's  putty  "  is 
oxide  of  tin  in  a  state  of  fine  division  used  for  the  polishing 
of  glass,  hard  metals,  granite,  and  similar  substances. 

PUY,  LE,  or  more  precisely  LE  PUY  EN  VELAY,  chief 
town  of  the  department  of  Haute-Loire,  France,  352  miles 
from  Paris  by  rail  and  270  in  a  direct  line,  rises  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre  at  a  height  of  2050  feet  above 
sea-level  upon  Mont  Anis,  the  hill  that  divides  the  left 
bank  of  the  Dolezon  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Borne  (a 
rapid  stream  which  joins  the  Loire  3  miles  below).  From 
the  new  town,  which  lies  east  and  west  in  the  valley  of 
the  Dolezon,  the  traveller  ascends  the  old  feudal  and 
ecclesiastical  town  through  narrow  steep  streets,  paved 
with  slippery  pebbles  of  lava,  to  the  cathedral  commanded 
by  the  fantastic  pinnacle  of  Mont  Corneille.  Mont  Cor- 
neille,  which  is  433  feet  above  the  Place  de  Breuil  (in  the 
lower  town),  is  a  steep  rock  of  volcanic  breccia,  sur- 
mounted by  a  colossal  iron  statue  of  the  Virgin  (53  feet 
high,  standing  on  a  pedestal  23  feet  high),  cast  after  a 
model  by  Bonassieux  out  of  213  guns  taken  at  Sebastopol. 
The  monument  is  composed  of  eighty  parts  fitted  together 
and  weighs  98|  tons.  Another  statue,  that  of  a  bishop 
of  Puy,  also  sculptured  by  Bonassieux,  faces  that  of  the 
Virgin.  From  the  platform  of  Mont  Corneille  a  mag- 
nificent panoramic  view  is  obtained  of  the  town,  and  of 
the  volcanic  mountains,  which  make  this  region  one  of 
the  most  interesting  parts  of  France.  The  Romanesque 
cathedral  (Notre  Dame),  dating  from  the  6th  to  the  12th 
century,  has  a  particoloured  facade  of  white  sandstone  and 
black  volcanic  breccia,  which  is  reached  by  a  flight  of  sixty 
steps,  and  consists  of  three  tiers,  the  lowest  composed  of 
three  high  arcades  opening  into  the  porch  beneath  the  nave 
of  the  church;  above  are  three  windows  lighting  the  nave  ; 
and  these  in  turn  are  surmounted  by  three  gables,  two  of 
which,  those  to  the  right  and  the  left,  are  of  open  work. 
Two  side  porches  lead  to  the  cathedral  by  the  transept 
The  bell-tower  (184  feet),  which  rises  behind  the  choir  in 
seven  stories,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  examples  of  the 
Romanesque  transition  period.  The  bays  of  the  nave  are 
covered  in  by  octagonal  cupolas  ;  the  central  cupola  forms 
a  lantern.  The  choir  and  transepts  are  barrel -vaulted. 
The  cathedral  has  mural  paintings  of  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries,  an  open-work  Romanesque  screen  surrounding 
the  sanctuary,  and  a  manuscript  Bible  belonging  to  the  9th 
century.  The  cloister,  to  the  north  of  the  choir,  is  striking 


P  U  Y  — P  U  Y 


119 


owing  to  its  variously-coloured  materials  and  elegant  shafts ; 
Yiollet  le  Due  considers  one  of  its  galleries  to  belong  to 
the  oldest  known  type  of  cathedral  cloister  (8th  and  9th 
centuries).  Connected  with  the  cloister  are  remains  of 
fortifications  of  the  13th  century,  by  which  it  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  city.  Near  the  cathedral  the 
baptistery  of  St  John  (4th  century),  built  on  the  founda- 
tions of  a  Roman  building,  is  surrounded  by  walls  and 
numerous  remains  of  the  period,  partly  uncovered  by  recent 
excavations.  The  church  of  St  Lawrence  (14th  century) 
contains  the  remains  of  Du  Guesclin.  Le  Puy  possesses 
fragmentary  remains  of  its  old  line  of  fortifications,  among 
them  a  machicolated  tower,  which  has  been  restored,  and 
a  few  curious  old  houses  dating  from  the  1 2th  to  the  1 7th 
century.  Of  the  modern  monuments  the  statue  of  La 
Fayette  and  a  fountain  in  the  Place  de  Breuil,  executed 
in  marble,  bronze,  and  syenite,  may  be  specially  mentioned. 
The  museum,  named  after  Crozatier,  a  native  metal-worker 
to  whose  munificence  it  principally  owes  its  existence,  con- 
tains antiquities,  engravings,  a  collection  of  lace,  and  ethno- 
graphical and  natural  history  collections.  Among  the 
curiosities  of  Puy  should  be  noted  the  church  of  St  Michel 
d' Aiguille,  beside  the  gate  of  the  town,  perched  on  an 
Isolated  rock  like  Mont  Corneille,  the  top  of  which  is 
reached  by  a  staircase  of  271  steps.  The  church  dates 
from  the  end  of  the  10th  century  and  its  chancel  is  still 
older.  The  steeple  is  of  the  same  type  as  that  of  the  cathe- 
dral. Three  miles  from  Puy  are  the  ruins  of  the  Chateau 
de  Polignac,  one  of  the  most  important  feudal  strongholds 
of  France.  The  population  of  Puy  in  1881  was  18,567. 
The  trade  is  chiefly  in  cattle,  woollens,  grains,  and  vege- 
tables. The  principal  manufacture  is  that  of  laces  and 
blondes  (in  woollen,  linen,  cotton,  silk,  gold,  and  silver 
threads),  which  is  carried  on  by  130,000  workwomen  in 
the  neighbourhood,  the  yearly  turnover  being  £1,000,000. 
The  town  is  connected  by  rail  with  St  Etienne  and  Lyons, 
and  also  with  Brioude  on  the  line  from  Clermont-Ferrand 
to  Nimes. 

It  is  not  known  whether  Le  Puy  existed  previously  to  the  Roman 
invasion.  Towards  the  end  of  the  4th  or  beginning  of  the  5th 
century  it  became  the  capital  of  the  country  of  the  Vellavi,  at  which 
period  the  bishopric,  originally  at  Revession,  now  St  Paulien,  was 
transferred  hither.  Gregory  of  Tours  speaks  of  it  by  the  name  of 
Anicium,  because  a  chapel  "  ad  Deum "  had  been  built  on  the 
mountain,  whence  the  name  of  Mont  Adidon  or  Ani,  which  it  still 
retains.  In  the  10th  century  it  was  called  Podium  Sanctse  Mai-ire, 
whence  Le  Puy.  In  the  Middle  Ages  there  was  a  double  enclosure, 
one  for  the  cloister,  the  other  for  the  town.  The  sanctuary  of 
Notre  Dame  was  much  frequented  by  pilgrims,  and  the  city  grew 
famous  and  populous.  Rivalries  between  the  bishops  (who  held 
directly  of  the  see  of  Rome)  and  the  lords  of  Polignac,  revolts  of 
the  town  against  the  royal  authority,  and  the  encroachments  of  the 
feudal  superiors  on  municipal  prerogatives  often  disturbed  the  quiet 
of  the  town.  The  Saracens  in  the  8th  century,  the  Routiers  in  the 
12th,  the  English  in  the  14th,  the  Burgundians  in  the  15th,  suc- 
cessively ravaged  the  neighbourhood.  Le  Puy  sent  the  flower  of 
its  chivalry  to  the  crusades  in  1096,  and  Raymond  d*  Aiguille,  called 
d'Agiles,  one  of  its  sons,  was  their  historian.  Many  councils  and 
various  assemblies  of  the  states  of  Languedoc  met  within  its  walls  ; 
popes  and  sovereigns,  among  the  latter  Charlemagne  and  Francis 
I.,  visited  its  sanctuary.  Pestilence  and  the  religious  wars  put  an 
end  to  its  prosperity.  Long  occupied  by  the  Leaguers,  it  did  not 
submit  to  Henry  IV.  until  many  years  after  his  accession. 

PUY  DE  DOME,  a  department  of  central  France,  four- 
fifths  of  which  belonged  to  Basse-Auvergne,  one-sixth  to 
Bourbonnais,  and  the  remainder  to  Forez  (Lyonnais),  lies 
between  45°  17'  and  46°  16'  N.  lat.  and  2°  23'  and  4°  E. 
long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Allier,  on  the  E.  by 
Loire,  on  the  S.  by  Haute-Loire  and  Cantal,  and  on  the 
W.  by  Correze  and  Creuse.  The  chief  town,  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  is  217  miles  south  of  Paris  in  a  direct  line;  and 
the  department  tak,es  its  name  from  a  volcanic  cone  (4800 
feet)  which  overlooks  it.  A  meteorological  observatory 
lias  stood  on  the  summit,  on  the  site  of  an  old  Roman 
temple,  since  1876.  The  highest  point  of  the  department, 


the  Puy  de  Sancy  (6188  feet),  is  also  the  most  elevated 
peak  of  central  France ;  it  commands  the  group  of  the  vol- 
canic Monts  Dore,  so  remarkable  for  their  rocky  corries, 
their  erosion  valleys,  their  trap  dykes  and  argues  of  basalt, 
their  lakes  sleeping  in  the  depths  of  ancient  craters  or 
confined  in  the  valleys  by  streams  of  lava,  and  their  wide 
plains  of  pasture-land.  The  Puy  de  Sancy,  forming  part 
of  the  watershed,  gives  rise  on  its  northern  slope  to  the 
Dordogne,  and  on  the  east  to  the  Couze,  a  sub-tributary  of 
the  Loire,  through  the  Allier.  The  Monts  Dore  are  joined 
to  the  mountains  of  Cantal  by  the  non-volcanic  group  of 
the  Cezallier,  of  which  the  highest  peak,  the  Luguet  (5101 
feet),  rises  on  the  confines  of  Puy  de  Dome  and  Cantal. 
On  the  north  the  Monts  Dore  are  continued  by  a  plateau 
of  the  mean  height  of  from  3000  to  3500  feet,  upon  which 
are  seen  sixty  cones  raised  by  volcanic  outbursts  in  former 
times.  These  are  the  Monts  Dome,  which  extend  from 
south  to  north  as  far  as  Riom,  the  most  remarkable  being 
the  Puy  de  Dome  and  the  Puy  de  Pariou,  the  latter  having 
a  crater  more  than  300  feet  in  depth.  To  the  east  of  the 
department,  along  the  confines  of  Loire,  are  the  Monts  du 
Forez,  rising  to  5380  feet  and  still  in  part  crowned  with 
forests.  Between  these  mountains  and  the  Domes  extends 
the  fertile  plain  of  Limagne.  The  drainage  of  Puy  de 
Dome  is  divided  between  the  Loire,  by  its  affluents  the 
Allier  and  the  Cher,  and  the  Gironde,  by  the  Dordogne. 
The  Allier  traverses  the  department  from  south  to  north, 
receiving  on  its  right  the  Dore,  which  falls  into  the  Allier 
at  the  northern  boundary  and  lowest  level  of  the  depart- 
ment (879  feet) ;  on  its  left  are  the  Alagnon  from  the 
Cantal,  the  two  Couzes  from  the  Luguet  and  the  Monts 
Dore,  and  the  Sioule,  the  most  important  of  all,  which 
drains  the  north-west  slopes  of  the  Monts  Dore  and  Dome, 
and  joins  the  Allier  beyond  the  limits  of  the  department. 
The  Cher  forms  for  a  short  space  the  boundary  between  the 
departments  of  Puy  de  Dome  and  Creuse,  close  to  that  of 
Allier.  The  Dordogne,  while  still  scarcely  formed,  flows 
past  Mont-Dore-les-Bains  and  La  Bourboule  and  is  lost  in 
a  deep  valley  which  divides  this  department  from  that  of 
Correze.  None  of  these  streams  are  navigable,  but  boats 
can  be  used  on  the  Allier  during  floods.  The  climate  of 
Puy  de  D6me  is  usually  very  severe,  owing  to  its  high  level 
and  its  distance  from  the  sea ;  the  mildest  air  is  found  in 
the  northern  valleys,  where  the  elevation  is  least.  During 
summer  the  hills  about  Clermont-Ferrand,  exposed  to  the 
sun,  become  all  the  hotter  because  their  black  volcanic  soil 
absorbs  its  rays.  On  the  mountains  from  24  to  36  inches 
of  rain  fall  in  the  year,  but  only  half  this  amount  (18 
inches)  in  Limagne,  around  which  the  mountains  arrest 
the  clouds.  Nevertheless  the  soil  of  this  plain,  consisting 
of  alluvial  deposits  of  volcanic  origin,  and  watered  by 
torrents  and  streams  from  the  mountains,  makes  it  one  of 
the  richest  regions  of  France. 

Of  a  total  area  of  1,964,685  acres  925,146  are  arable,  266,226 
meadow  and  grass  land,  232,210  under  wood,  78,006  under  vines, 
while  397,663  are  moorland  or  coarse  pasturage.  Out  of  a  total 
of  566,064  inhabitants  392,177  are  engaged  in  agriculture.  Puy 
de  Dome  possesses  18,500  horses,  1600  mules,  4850  asses,  16,100 
oxen  or  bulls,  174,000  cows  or  heifers,  60,500  calves,  309,900  sheep, 
90,500  pigs,  22,550  goats,  and  25,900  beehives,  which  in  1881  pro- 
duced 95  tons  of  honey  and  33  tons  of  wax.  In  1882  there  were 
produced  369,313  quarters  of  wheat,  493,134  of  rye,  197,241  of 
barley,  320,138  of  oats,  25,172  of  buckwheat,  5,172,408  bushels  of 
potatoes,  and  in  1881  234,504  bushels  of  dried  vegetables,  1,986,208 
bushels  of  beetroot,  33  tons  of  tobacco,  1625  tons  of  hemp,  21  tons 
of  flax,  26,176  bushels  of  rape-seed,  a  great  quantity  of  colza  oil, 
and  13,054,052  gallons  of  wine.  The  Limagne  produces  fruits  of 
all  kinds — apricots,  cherries,  pears,  apples,  and  walnuts,  and  there 
are  also  plantations  of  mulberry  trees.  The  department  possesses 
numerous  mineral  treasures.  The  coal-mines,  occupying  a  surface- 
area  of  7660  acres,  employ  1381  men,  and  in  1882  produced  188,234 
tons.  The  most  important,  at  Brassac  on  the  Allier,  on  the  borders 
of  Haute-Loire,  employ  1200  or  1500  men  (in  the  two  departments). 
Next  come  those  of  St  Eloi  near  the  department  of  Allier,  and  of 


120 


P  Y  ^E  —  P  Y  M 


Bourg-Lastic  and  Messeix  on  the  borders  of  Correze.  The  depart- 
ment also  works  peat,  asphalt,  and  bituminous  schists.  Mines 
of  argentiferous  lead  employ  640  men  and  produce  33,695  tons  of 
lead  or  silver,  worth  £45,600.  The  most  important  mines  and 
foundries  are  at  Pontgibaud  on  the  Sioule.  Copper,  arsenic,  iron, 
antimony,  barium  sulphate,  alum,  manganese,  white  lead,  sulphur, 
sulphuretted  zinc,  loadstone,  and  (of  precious  stones)  amethysts, 
jacinths,  rubies,  agates,  chalcedonies,  opals,  are  also  found  in  the 
department.  Quarries  of  porphyry  and  lava  are  worked  (Volvic 
with  900  men),  as  well  as  marl,  limestone,  and  gypsum.  The  hot 
springs  of  Mont  Dore,  known  in  the  days  of  the  Romans,  contain  a 
mixture  of  arsenic  and  iron  bicarbonates,  and  are  used  especially 
for  affections  of  the  respiratory  organs.  The  waters  of  La  Bour- 
boule,  containing  sodium  chlorides  and  bicarbonates,  are  particularly 
rich  in  arsenic,  and  efficacious  against  affections  ofthe  lymphatic 
glands,  scrofula,  diseases  of  the  skin  and  air-passages,  and  rheuma- 
tism. The  springs  of  St  Nectaire,  containing  sodium  and  iron 
chlorides  and  bicarbonates,  are  efficacious  in  liver  complaints, 
rheumatism,  and  gravel.  Some  of  them  are  petrifying,  as  the 
spring  of  St  Allyre  at  Clermont-Ferrand.  The  waters  of  Royat, 
in  use  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  containing  sodium  and  iron 
chlorides  and  bicarbonates,  sparkling  and  rich  in  lithia,  are  used 
in  cases  of  ansmia,  rheumatism,  gout,  diabetes,  and  gravel.  The 
waters  of  Chateauneuf  (on  the  Sioule),  also  known  to  the  Romans, 
contain  iron  bicarbonates  and  are  resorted  to  for  skin  diseases. 
Those  of  Chatelguyon,  like  the  waters  of  Carlsbad  and  Marienbad, 
are  used  for  disorders  of  the  digestive  organs,  congestions  of  the 
liver,  rheumatism,  &c.  The  waters  of  Chateldon  are  used  for  the 
table.  There  are  other  chalybeate  waters  at  St  Martial,  Beaulieu, 
Pontgibaud,  St  Myon,  St  Maurice,  Arlanc,  and  many  other  mineral 
springs  of  varied  character.  Manufactures  are  for  the  most  part 
grouped  around  Thiers,  which  produces  a  large  amount  of  cheap 
cutlery,  pasteboards  (especially  adapted  for  stamps  or  playing- 
cards),  and  leather  ;  20,000  workmen  are  thus  employed,  and  the 
annual  turn -over  amounts  to  £1,200,000.  The  department  con- 
tains important  paper-mills,  factories  for  lace  and  braid  (in  the 
mountains),  for  buntings,  and  camlets.  Those  for  wool,  cotton,  and 
hemp  contain  3500  spindles  and  more  than  400  looms.  There  are 
wool-carding  works  and  factories  for  linens,  cloths,  and  counter- 
panes,— also  silk-mills,  tanneries,  manufactories  for  chamois  and 
other  leathers,  for  caoutchouc,  important  sugar-works,  starch-works, 
manufactures  of  edible  pastes  with  a  reputation  as  high  as  those  of 
Italy,  and  manufactures  of  fruit-preserves.  The  saw-mills  and  the 
cheese  industry  in  the  mountains  complete  the  list,  which  includes 
201  establishments  employing  75,553  persons.  The  department 
exports  grain,  fruits,  cattle,  wines,  cheese,  wood,  and  mineral 
waters.  Traffic  is  carried  on  over  294  miles  of  Government  roads, 
9591  miles  of  other  roads,  and  178  miles  of  railway.  The  depart- 
ment is  crossed  from  north  to  south  by  the  railway  from  Paris  to 
Nimes,  and  that  of  Vichy  to  Thiers  ;  from  west  to  east  by  that 
from  Bordeaux  to  Lyons  by  Tulle,  Clermont-Ferrand,  and  Thiers, 
with  branches  from  Eygurande  to  Largnac  and  from  Vertaison  to 
Billom.  It  is  skirted  on  the  north-west  by  the  line  from  Montlucon 
to  Gannat,  with  a  branch  line  for  goods  to  the  mines  of  St  Eloi. 
Twenty  thousand  inhabitants  of  the  department,  belonging  chiefly 
to  the  district  of  Ambert,  leave  it  during  winter  and  find  work 
elsewhere  as  navvies,  chimney-sweeps,  pit-sawyers,  &c.  The  de- 
partment in  1881  contained  566,064  inhabitants  and  includes  five 
arrondissements — CLERMONT-FERRAND  (q.v.\  Ambert  (town,  3940 
inhabitants),  Issoire  (6137),  Riom  (9590).  Thiers  (10,583)— 50  can- 
tons, and  467  communes.  It  is  attached  to  the  bishopric  of  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand and  to  the  13th  Army  Corps  in  the  same  town  ; 
the  superior  court  is  at  Riom.  (G.  ME. ) 

PYAEMIA.  See  PATHOLOGY  (vol.  xviii.  p.  401)  and 
SURGERY. 

PYATIGORSK,  a  district  town  and  watering-place  of 
Caucasus,  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Terek,  124  miles 
by  rail  to  the  north-west  of  Vladikavkaz.  It  owes  its 
origin  to  its  mineral  waters,  which  had  long  been  known 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Caucasus,  and  even  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century  attracted  many  Russians,  who 
used  to  stay  at  the  Konstantinogorsk  fort,  2  miles  off. 
The  first  buildings  at  the  mineral  springs  were  erected, 
however,  in  1812,  and  in  1830  the  name  of  Pyatigorsk 
("town  of  the  five  mountains"),  referring  to  the  five 
summits  of  the  Beshtau,  was  given  to  the  new  settlement. 
Its  subsequent  rapid  increase  was  greatly  stimulated  by 
the  completion  of  its  railway  connexion  with  Rostoff,  and 
it  has  now  nearly  14,000  inhabitants  (13,670  in  1882). 
The  town  is  charmingly  situated  on  a  small  plateau  on 
the  south-western  slopes  of  the  Mashuka  mountain,  by 
which  and  the  Beshtau  it  is  protected  on  the  north.  The 


snow- covered  summits   of   the  Elburz  are  seen  on   the 
south. 

The  sulphur  springs,  about  fifteen  in  number,  come  from  a  great 
depth,  from  trachytic  rocks,  and  vary  in  temperature  from  72°  to 
115°  Fahr. ;  they  are  used  both  for  drinking  and  for  bathing.  Before 
the  opening  of  the  railway  the  summer  patients  already  numbered 
thousands  and  have  become  more  numerous  since  ;  but  defective 
accommodation  and  high  prices  tend  to  prevent  their  further  in- 
crease, notwithstanding  the  very  high  esteem  in  which  these 
mineral  waters  are  held  by  medical  authorities,  both  Russian  and 
West  European.  The  industries  of  Pyatigorsk  are  insignificant,  but 
its  trade  has  always  had  some  importance,  and  it  is  still  visited 
during  its  fairs  by  a  few  Persian  merchants. 

PYGMALION  is  the  Greek  form  of  a  Phoenician  name 
probably  derived  from  the  name  of  a  god,  DJ?D  (C.I.S., 
par.  i.  t.  i.  p.  133).  Pygmalion  or,  as  Josephus  writes, 
Phygmalion,  brother  of  Dido  (Elissa),  has  been  spoken  of 
in  PHOENICIA  (vol.  xviii.  p.  807).  Another  Pygmalion, 
son  of  Cilix  and  grandson  of  Agenor,  king  of  Cyprus,  is  the 
subject  of  a  famous  story.  He  fell  in  love  with  an  ivory 
statue  he  had  made  ;  Aphrodite  granted  life  to  the  image, 
and  Pygmalion  married  the  miraculously  born  virgin  (Ovid, 
Metam.,  x.  243  sq.). 

PYGMIES.  The  name  "  pygmy  "  (Greek  Trvy/mios,  from 
Trvy/^)  means  one  whose  height  is  measured  by  the  distance 
between  the  elbow  and  the  knuckles  of  an  ordinary  man, 
or  rather  less  than  an  ell.  The  pygmies  appear  in  Homer 
(II.,  iii.  6)  as  a  tiny  folk  who  dwelt  by  the  streams  of  Ocean 
in  the  far  southern  land  whither  the  cranes  fly  at  the 
approach  of  our  northern  winter.  The  cranes  made  war 
on  them  and  slaughtered  them.  These  battles  between 
the  pygmies  and  the  cranes  are  often  mentioned  by  later 
writers  and  are  frequently  represented  on  vases.  Philo- 
stratus  describes  a  picture  of  the  sleeping  Hercules  beset  by 
swarms  of  pygmies,  as  Gulliver  was  by  the  Lilliputians. 
Aristotle  held  that  the  pygmies  were  a  race  of  little  men 
inhabiting  the  marshes  out  of  which  he  supposed  the  Nile 
to  flow.  Other  writers  localized  them  in  various  parts  of 
the  world.  Ctesias  describes  at  some  length  a  race  of 
pygmies  in  the  heart  of  India.  They  were  black  and  ugly ; 
the  tallest  of  them  were  only  two  ells  high  ;  their  hair  and 
beards  were  so  long  that  they  served  them  as  garments ; 
they  were  excellent  bowmen,  and  hunted  hares  and  foxes 
with  hawks,  ravens,  and  eagles ;  their  language  and  customs 
were  those  of  the  rest  of  the  Indians,  and  they  were  very 
honest ;  their  cattle  were  small  in  proportion.  Pygmies 
are  also  mentioned  in  Thrace  (where  they  were  called 
Catizi  by  the  natives,  according  to  Pliny)  and  in  Caria. 
Eustathius  speaks  of  pygmies  in  the  far  north,  near  Thule. 
Strabo  was  inclined  to  regard  them  as  fabulous ;  no  trust- 
worthy person,  he  says,  had  seen  them.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  story  in  Herodotus  which  would  seem  to  show  that 
the  belief  in  the  pygmies  originated  in  well-founded 
reports  of  a  race  of  undersized  men  in  the  heart  of  Africa. 
According  to  Herodotus  (ii.  32),  five  men  of  the  Nasamon- 
ians  (a  Libyan  people  near  the  Greater  Syrtis)  journeyed 
westward  through  the  desert  for  many  days  till  they  came 
to  a  tribe  of  little  black  men  of  a  strange  speech,  by  whose 
city  ran  a  great  river  flowing  from  west  to  east,  and  in  it 
there  were  crocodiles ;  moreover,  there  were  fruit-bearing 
trees  in  that  country  and  great  marshes.  This  story  is  not 
improbable ;  the  river  may  have  been  the  Niger  ( Joliba  or 
Quorra)  and  the  people  may  have  been  allied  to  the  Akka, 
an  undersized  race  discovered  within  recent  years  near  the 
equator  by  Schweinfurth,  who  thinks  that  they,  as  well  as 
the  Bushmen  of  South  Africa,  are  remnants  of  an  abori- 
ginal population  of  Africa  now  becoming  extinct. 

PYM,  JOHN  (1584-1643),  was  born  at  Brymore  in  Somer- 
set in  1584.  In  1599  he  entered  Broadgates  Hall,  now 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  as  a  gentleman  commoner.  He 
is  said  by  Clarendon  to  have  held  at  a  later  date  an  office 
in  the  exchequer,  in  which  he  no  doubt  acquired  that 


P  Y  M 


121 


familiarity  with  financial  business  which  afterwards  dis- 
tinguished him.  His  wife,  Anna  Hooker,  died  in  1620, 
and  in  the  following  year  he  entered  parliament  for  the 
first  time  as  member  for  Calne,  the  statement  that  he  sat 
in  the  Addled  Parliament  being  now  known  to  have  been 
erroneous.  To  the  patronage  of  the  earl  of  Bedford  no 
doubt  Pym  owed  the  position  which  he  thus  acquired.  The 
use  which  he  made  of  it  was  all  his  own.  He  had  none  of 
the  fire  of  Eliot's  genius,  but  he  early  showed  himself  to  be 
possessed  of  the  two  qualities  which  in  combination  make 
a  leader  of  men,  a  thorough  and  honest  sympathy  with 
the  ideas  of  the  time  and  a  moderation  in  their  applica- 
tion. There  was  more  of  measured  force  in  him  than 
there  was  in  Eliot.  His  powers  as  a  party  leader  were  as 
yet  unsuspected. 

Pym's  name  was  first  prominently  brought  forward  by 
his  speech  of  8th  November  1621,  directed  against  the 
Catholics.  He  strove  to  distinguish  between  an  attempt  "to 
punish  them  for  believing  and  thinking"  what  they  did  and 
the  disabling  of  them  from  doing  "  that  which  they  think 
and  believe  they  ought  to  do."  His  remedy  was  an  oath 
of  association  to  be  taken  by  all  loyal  Protestants.  Those 
who  object  to  Pym's  counsel  as  divisive  must  nevertheless 
acknowledge  that  there  was  a  singular  consistency  in  his 
advocacy  of  it.  By  organizing  the  resistance  of  the 
majority  of  Englishmen,  he  wished  to  baffle  parties  which 
might  be  dangerous  by  their  organization  or  by  the  assist- 
ance which  they  might  receive  from  abroad. 

After  the  dissolution  Pym  was  confined  for  three  months 
in  his  house  in  London.  In  the  following  parliament 
he  pleaded  for  the  execution  of  the  penal  laws  against 
recusants  and  for  the  restoration  of  the  silenced  Puritan 
clergy.  In  1626  he  was  one  of  the  managers  of  Bucking- 
ham's impeachment.  In  1628  he  was  equally  prominent 
in  advocating  the  Petition  of  Right  and  in  carrying  on  the 
impeachment  of  Mainwaring.  The  political  question  and 
the  religious  question  were  in  Pym's  mind  fused  into  one. 
His  intellect  was  intensely  conservative,  not  easily  admit- 
ting new  ideas  or  projecting  itself  into  the  future  to  deal 
with  growing  changes  in  society,  but  seeking  to  rest  on 
the  conservatism  of  existing  society  rather  than  on  the 
maintenance  of  artificial  forces.  He  looked  for  support  to 
the  nation  itself,  and  he  found  it  hard  to  believe  that  the 
national  judgment  could  much  differ  from  his  own.  In 
1629  he  found  himself  differing  from  those  with  whom  he 
usually  acted.  Eliot  carried  the  House  with  him  in  turn- 
ing the  dispute  with  the  king  on  the  question  of  tonnage 
and  poundage  into  one  of  parliamentary  privilege,  whilst 
Pym  thought  that  the  main  question  of  the  king's  right  to 
levy  the  duties  without  a  parliamentary  grant  should  be 
first  attacked.  He  was  beaten  at  the  time,  but  his  defeat 
was  full  of  promise  for  the  future.  It  is  much  in  a  man's 
favour  that  he  is  ready  to  look  a  difficulty  fully  in  the  face. 
It  is  characteristic  of  Pym  that  nothing  is  heard  of  him 
either  during  the  riotous  proceedings  in  which  this  parlia- 
ment closed  or  during  the  eleven  years  which  passed  with- 
out a  parliament  at  all.  He  had  neither  the  virtues  nor 
the  failings  which  accompany  excitability  of  temperament. 

With  the  Short  Parliament  Pym's  three  and  a  half  years 
of  authority  begin.  His  speech  of  17th  April  1640  on 
grievances  lasted  for  two  hours,  a  length  of  time  without 
precedent  in  the  parliaments  of  those  days.  It  was  not 
eloquent  in  the  sense  in  which  Eliot's  speeches  were 
eloquent,  but  it  summed  up  in  a  telling  manner  the  griev- 
ances under  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  vast  majority 
of  thinking  Englishmen,  the  commonwealth  laboured. 
Before  the  session  closed  he  showed  his  powers  as  a 
parliamentary  tactician  by  proposing  to  bring  forward  the 
Scottish  grievances  and  to  make  a  peace  with  the  Scots 
the  condition  of  the  grant  of  supplies.  This  proposal  led 


to  a  hasty  dissolution  of  parliament,  but  it  laid  down  the 
basis  of  a  policy  which  afterwards  stood  Pym  in  good 
stead.  That  policy  was  precisely  what  had  been  fore- 
shadowed in  his  speech  of  1621,  the  association  of  the 
majority  who  thought  alike  in  civic  union  against  official 
authority;  but  that  which  in  1621  was  to  be  a  union  of 
Englishmen  alone  in  1640  included  Scots  as  well. 

With  the  dissolution  of  the  Short  Parliament  Pym  once 
more  sinks  out  of  sight.  There  is,  however,  good  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  summer  months  of  1640  were  for 
him  a  time  of  unusual  activity,  and  that  he  was  a  leading 
spirit  in  those  negotiations  with  the  Scots  the  exact 
nature  of  which  cannot  now  be  traced.  At  all  events  in 
the  end  of  August  he  was  in  close  communication  with 
the  leaders  of  the  opposition,  and  he  then  drew  up,  in 
co-operation  with  St  John,  the  petition  in  which  twelve 
peers  demanded  the  redress  of  grievances  and  the  summon- 
ing of  parliament.  The  rout  of  Newburn  gave  emphasis  to 
the  language  of  the  peers,  and  on  3d  November  1640 
the  Long  Parliament  met. 

Pym's  leadership  of  the  Commons  rested  on  his  sympathy 
with  the  feelings  of  the  House  combined  with  his  skill 
in  directing  those  feelings  into  a  practical  course.  He 
expressed  the  general  sentiment  in  the  impeachment  of 
Strafford  and  Laud,  and  in  the  passing  of  the  Triennial 
Act,  which  was  to  make  the  long  intermission  of  parlia- 
ments impossible  for  the  future.  In  the  trial  of  Strafford 
he  showed  himself  resolute.  Being  determined  to  give  to 
an  act  of  state  policy  the  character  of  a  vindication  of  the 
law,  Pym  had  to  contend  against  the  impatience  of  his 
followers  and  against  the  efforts  of  Charles,  and  still  more 
of  Henrietta  Maria,  to  save  Strafford  by  force.  Over- 
whelmed for  a  moment  by  the  impatience  of  the  House, 
which  converted  the  impeachment  into  a  bill  of  attainder, 
he  yet  carried  his  point  that  the  change  should  be  no 
more  than  nominal,  and  that  the  legal  arguments  should 
proceed  just  as  if  the  impeachment  had  been  continued. 

The  struggle  within  the  House  itself  was  the  least  part 
of  Pym's  labours.  In  meeting  the  army  plot  and  the 
other  intrigues  of  the  court  he  had  to  develop  the  powers 
of  a  commissioner  of  police,  to  be  as  ready  in  collecting 
and  sifting  information  as  he  was  prompt  in  counteracting 
the  danger  which  he  feared.  In  the  protestation  which 
was  adopted  by  the  Commons  on  3d  May  he  fell  back  on 
his  old  remedy,  banding  together  the  majority  in  resistance 
to  an  unscrupulous  minority.  By  the  legislation  which 
followed  on  the  death  of  Strafford — the  abolition  of  the 
special  courts  which  had  been  erected  to  defend  the  Tudor 
monarchy,  and  the  abandonment  by  the  crown  of  its  claim 
to  levy  customs  without  a  parliamentary  grant — he  brought 
the  king  under  the  obligation  to  govern  according  to  law. 
Much,  however,  remained  to  be  done.  Pym  had  to  provide 
against  the  breach  by  force  or  fraud  of  the  compact  made, 
and  also  to  provide  for  the  harmonious  working  of  the  exe- 
cutive and  legislative  bodies.  He  proposed  to  attain  these 
ends  by  demanding  that  the  king's  ministers  should  be 
responsible  to  parliament.  To  effect  this  it  was  necessary 
that  parliament  should  be  united,  and  to  obtain  this  end  it 
was  necessary  to  solve  the  religious  difficulty.  In  the 
autumn  of  1641  it  appeared  that  a  majority  of  the  Peers 
and  a  large  minority  of  the  Commons  wished  to  maintain 
the  worship  of  the  Prayer  Book  very  nearly  intact,  whilst 
a  minority  of  the  Peers  and  a  majority  of  the  Commons 
wished  to  make  very  considerable  alterations  in  it.  To 
bind  these  two  parties  together  against  the  king  needed 
constructive  statesmanship  of  the  highest  order,  and  this 
neither  Pym  nor  any  one  else  in  the  House  showed  signs 
of  possessing.  In  the  Grand  Remonstrance,  instead  of  in- 
dicating terms  of  compromise,  he  proposed  to  throw  the 
regulation  of  the  church  on  an  assembly  of  divines  to  be 

XX.  —  16 


122 


P  Y  R  — P  Y  R 


chosen  by  parliament, — that  is  to  say,  he  combined  the 
terrors  of  a  vague  threat  of  impending  change  with  the 
entire  absence  of  any  security  that  those  changes  would 
be  moderate.  From  that  moment  there  were  two  parties 
in  the  state  neither  of  which  would  give  way  to  the  other. 
Charles's  attempt  to  arrest  Pym  and  four  other  members 
on  4th  January  1642  embittered  but  did  not  produce  the 
conflict.  For  some  months  there  was  much  fencing  be- 
tween the  two  parties,  and  the  Civil  War  was  not  begun 
till  Charles  raised  his  standard  at  Nottingham. 

During  the  remaining  months  of  Pym's  life  he  was  the 
most  prominent  leader  of  the  war  party  in  the.  House  of 
Commons.  Peace  may  be  made  in  two  ways,  by  one  side 
capitulating  to  the  other,  or  by  the  discovery  of  a  com- 
promise which  may  give  effect  to  the  better  aims  of  both 
sides.  Pym  was  resolutely  set  against  a  capitulation,  and 
he  did  not  rise  to  the  height  of  a  mediator.  His  adver- 
saries of  the  peace  party,  led  by  Holies  and  Maynard,  had 
as  little  idea  of  a  compromise  as  he  had,  and  they  were 
foolish  enough  to  suppose  it  possible  to  obtain  the  assent 
of  Charles  and  his  supporters  to  the  establishment  of  a 
Puritan  Church. 

Pym's  policy  was  at  least  coherent  with  itself.  In  1621, 
on  his  first  prominent  appearance  in  political  life,  he  had 
advocated  the  formation  of  an  association  against  popery. 
The  protestation  of  1641  was  an  attempt  to  carry  this  plan 
into  practice  and  to  make  it  at  the  same  time  available 
against  Royalist  intrigues.  The  Parliamentary  covenant 
promulgated  after  the  discovery  of  Waller's  plot  in  June 
1643  was  an  enlargement  of  the  same  project,  and  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant  in  September  1643  embraced 
the  three  kingdoms.  As  long  as  he  lived  Pym  was  the 
soul  of  the  Parliamentary  resistance  to  the  king,  but  it  is 
in  the  covenants  and  associations  which  he  brought  into 
existence  that  his  permanent  contribution  to  English 
political  development  is  to  be  found.  Eliot  hoped  to 
rally  parliament  and  the  constituencies  as  a  whole  to  the 
cause  which  he  maintained  to  be  just.  Straff ord  hoped 
to  rouse  the  devotion  of  the  nation  as  a  whole  to  the  king 
whose  crown  was  supported  by  his  own  masterful  intellect. 
Pym  was  the  founder  of  party  government  in  England. 
He  recognized  from  the  first  that  there  were  differences 
of  religious  opinion  amongst  his  fellow-countrymen,  and 
he  hoped  to  rally  round  a  common  purpose  those  who  on 
the  whole  felt  as  he  did  himself,  with  such  liberty  of 
opinion  as  was  possible  under  such  conditions.  If  the 
enterprise  failed  it  was  partly  because  he  was  assailed  by 
intrigue  as  well  as  by  fair  opposition,  and  in  his  fierce 
struggle  against  intrigue  learned  to  cling  to  doctrines 
which  were  not  sufficiently  expansive  for  the  government 
of  a  nation,  partly  because  the  limitations  of  government 
itself  and  the  insufficiency  of  force  to  solve  a  complicated 
religious  and  political  problem  were  in  his  time  very  im- 
perfectly understood.  At  least  Pym  prepared  the  way 
for  the  immediate  victory  of  his  party  by  summoning 
the  Scots  and  by  the  financial  measures  which  made  the 
campaigns  of  1644  and  1645  possible. 

He  did  not,  however,  live  to  reap  the  harvest  which 
was  due  to  his  efforts.  Worn  out  by  the  strain  of  con- 
stant and  agitating  work,  his  health  broke  down,  and  on 
8th  December  1643  he  died.  His  body  was  followed  by 
both  Houses  when  it  was  carried  to  be  interred  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  (s.  R,  o.) 

PYRAMID.  This  name  for  a  class  of  buildings,  though 
first  taken  from  a  part  of  the  structure,1  and  mistakenly 
applied  to  the  whole  of  it  by  the  Greeks,  has  now  so  far 

1  The  vertical  height  was  named  by  the  Egyptians  pir-em-us  (see 
E.  Revillout,  Rev.  Eg.,  2d  year,  305-309),  hence  the  Greek  form 
pyramis,  pi.  pyramides  (Herod.),  used  unaltered  in  the  English  of 
Sandys  (1615),  from  which  the  singular  pyramid  was  formed. 


acquired  a  more  definite  meaning  in  its  geometrical  sense 
that  it  is  desirable  to  employ  it  in  that  sense  alone.  A 
pyramid  therefore  should  be  understood  as  meaning  a 
building  bounded  by  a  polygonal  base  and  plane  triangular 
sides  which  meet  in  an  apex.  Such  a  form  of  architecture 
is  only  known  in  Middle  Egypt,  and  there  only  during  the 
period  from  the  IVth  to  the  XHth  Dynasty  (before  2000 
B.C.) — having  square  bases  and  angles  of  about  50°.  In 
other  countries  various  modifications  of  the  tumulus, 
barrow,  or  burial -heap  have  arisen  which  have  come  near 
to  this  type ;  but  these  when  formed  of  earth  are  usually 
circular,  or,  if  square,  have  a  flat  top,  and  when  built  of 
stone  are  always  in  steps  or  terraces.  The  imitations  of 
the  true  Egyptian  pyramid  at  Abydos,  Meroe,  and  else- 
where are  puny  hybrids,  being  merely  chambers  with  a 
pyramidal  outside  and  porticos  attached ;  and  the  struc- 
tures found  at  Cenchreae,  or  the  monument  of  Caius  Sestius 
at  Rome,  are  isolated  and  barren  trials  of  a  type  which 
never  could  be  revived  :  it  had  run  its  course  in  a  country 
and  a  civilization  to  which  alone  it  was  suitable. 

In  the  earliest  monuments  of  Egypt  there  are  three 
types,  which  were  ruled  by  the  external  shape.  For  the 
temples  (such  as  those  of  the  kings  of  the  IVth  Dynasty 
at  Gizeh)  varied  in  shape  according  to  their  arrangements; 
but  the  pyramid,  the  obelisk,  and  the  mastaba2  are  designs 
whose  importance  was  outward ;  and  these  types,  which 
started  apparently  at  the  same  epoch  (the  earliest  actually 
dated  examples  of  each  being  all  within  the  two  reigns  of 
Seneferu  and  Khufu),  only  lasted  during  the  life  of  that 
archaic  system  to  which  they  belonged.  The  pyramid 
type  faded  out  in  the  middle  kingdom  (XHth  Dynasty) ; 
the  obelisk  was  adapted  in  later  times  to  a  different  purpose, 
as  a  member  of  bilateral  temple  decoration,  instead  of  a 
solitary  monument  complete  in  itself  and  surrounded  by  an 
enclosure,  as  it  was  in  the  old  kingdom ;  and  the  mastaba 
gave  way  to  the  rock-hewn  chapel  or  the  bastard  pyramid. 

In  considering  the  origin  of  the  pyramid  type  there 
are  three  theories  to  be  dealt  with — (1)  that  it  is  merely 
a  higher  and  refined  form  of  the  tumulus ;  (2)  that  it 
was  derived  from  the  mastaba ;  (3)  that  it  was  a  fresh 
idea,  an  invention  de  novo.  The  objection  to  the  first 
view  is  that  there  is  no  graduated  series  of  examples  of 
lesser  sizes  before  the  large  ones,  possibly  not  any  before 
the  very  largest,  and  that  tumulus  or  mound  burial  is 
unknown  in  Egypt,  ancient  or  modern ;  and  to  accept  this 
view  we  must  suppose  that  all  the  earlier  stages  were 
wrought  in  another  land,  and  that  the  pyramid-builders 
migrated  into  Egypt  when  at  the  height  of  their  architec- 
tural power.  But  their  history  does  not  agree  to  this,  and 
in  no  other  land  can  we  find  their  training-ground.  The 
second  view  is  strongly  suggested  by  the  facts  before  us 
in  Egypt.  The  only  buildings  that  have  been  reasonably 
supposed  to  be  earlier  than  the  great  pyramid  are  the  two 
so-called  pyramids  of  Sakkara  and  Medum.  These  struc- 
tures are  not  and  never  were  true  pyramids;  they  are 
mastabas  added  to  by  successive  accretions  at  various 
times,  again  and  again  finished  off  with  a  polished  casing, 
only  to  be  afresh  enlarged  by  coats  of  rough  masonry  and 
another  fine  casing  on  the  outside,  until  they  have  been 
extended  upwards  and  around  into  a  great  stepped  mass  of 
masonry  (Petrie,  Pyramids,  <£c.,  p.  147),  the  successive 
faces  of  which  rise  at  the  characteristic  mastaba  angle  of 
75°  (or  4  on  1).  These  buildings  then  present  the  outline 
of  a  pyramidal  pile,  broken  by  successive  steps,  and  it  is 
but  one  stage  further  to  build  in  one  smooth  slope  from 
base  to  top ;  such  a  form  would  readily  be  designed  when 
once  it  was  intended  to  build  a  large  mass  complete  at 

2  An  oblong  building  with  sloping  sides  and  flat  top,  which  con- 
tained usually  the  funeral  chapel  and  place  of  offerings,  and  covered 
over  the  mouth  of  the  sepulchral  pit. 


PYRAMID 


123 


once  on  one  uniform  plan,  as  certainly  was  the  case  for 
the  largest  pyramids.  The  third  view  has  some  support 
in  the  absence  of  any  datable  pyramids  before  the  largest 
and  the  second  largest  that  ever  existed,  and  in  the  steady 
deterioration  of  work  that  is  known  to  have  taken  place. 
Remembering  also  what  bold  steps  architecture  has  taken 
occasionally  in  later  times  (as  in  the  Pantheon  and  St 
Sophia)  without  a  series  of  graduated  examples,  we  should 
not  condemn  this  view  too  readily  by  a  priori  reasoning. 

It  is  certain  that  the  pyramids  were  each  begun  with  a 
definite  design  of  their  size  and  arrangement ;  at  least 
this  is  plainly  seen  in  the  two  largest,  where  continuous 
accretion  (such  as  Xepsius  and  his  followers  propound) 
would  be  most  likely  to  be  met  with.  On  looking  at  any 
section  of  these  buildings  it  will  be  seen  how  impossible  it 
would  have  been  for  the  passages  to  have  belonged  to  a 
smaller  structure  (Petrie,  165).  The  supposition  that  the 
designs  were  enlarged  so  long  as  the  builder's  life  permitted 
was  drawn  from  the  compound  mastabas  of  Sakkara  and 
Medum ;  these  are,  however,  quite  distinct  architecturally 
from  true  pyramids,  and  appear  to  have  been  enlarged  at 
long  intervals,  being  elaborately  finished  with  fine  casing 
at  the  close  of  each  addition. 

Around  many  of  the  pyramids  peribolus  walls  may  be 
seen,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  enclosure  originally  ex- 
isted around  each  of  them.  At  the  pyramids  of  Gizeh  the 
temples  attached  to  these  mausolea  may  be  still  seen. 
As  in  the  private  tomb,  the  false  door  which  represented 
the  exit  of  the  deceased  person  from  this  world,  and  to- 
wards which  the  offerings  were  made,  was  always  on  the 
west  wall  in  the  chamber,  so  the  pyramid  was  placed  on 
the  west  of  the  temple  in  which  the  deceased  king  was 
worshipped.  The  temple  being  entered  from  the  east  (as 
in  the  Jewish  temples),  the  worshippers  faced  the  west, 
looking  toward  the  pyramid  in  which  the  king  was  buried. 
Priests  of  the  various  pyramids  are  continually  mentioned 
during  the  old  kingdom,  and  the  religious  endowments  of 
many  of  the  priesthoods  of  the  early  kings  were  revived 
under  the  Egyptian  renaissance  of  the  XXVIth  Dynasty 
and  continued  during  Ptolemaic  times.  A  list  of  the 
hieroglyphic  names  of  nineteen  of  the  pyramids  which 
have  been  found  mentioned  on  monuments  (mostly  in 
tombs  of  the  priests)  is  given  in  Lieblein's  Chronology,  p. 
32.  The  pyramid  was  never  a  family  monument,  but  be- 
longed— like  all  other  Egyptian  tombs — to  one  person, 
members  of  the  royal  family  having  sometimes  lesser 
pyramids  adjoining  the  king's  (as  at  Khufu's) ;  the  essen- 
tial idea  of  the  sole  use  of  a  tomb  was  so  strong  that  the 
hill  of  Gizeh  is  riddled  with  deep  tomb-shafts  for  separate 
burials,  often  running  side  by  side  60  or  80  feet  deep 
with  only  a  thin  wall  of  rock  between ;  and  in  one  place 
a  previous  shaft  has  been  partially  blocked  with  masonry, 
so  that  a  later  shaft  could  be  cut  partly  into  it,  macled 
with  it  like  a  twin-crystal. 

Turning  now  to  the  architecture  of  the  buildings,  their 
usual  construction  is  a  mass  of  masonry  composed  of 
horizontal  layers  of  rough -hewn  blocks,  with  a  small 
amount  of  mortar ;  and  this  mass  in  the  later  forms 
became  more  and  more  rubbly,  until  in  the  Vlth  Dynasty 
it  was  merely  a  cellular  system  of  retaining  walls  of  rough 
stones  and  mud,  filled  up  with  loose  chips,  and  in  the 
Xllth  Dynasty  the  bulk  was  of  mud  bricks.  Whatever 
was  the  hidden  material,  however,  there  was  always  on 
the  outside  a  casing  of  fine  stone,  elaborately  finished,  and 
very  well  jointed ;  and  the  inner  chambers  were  of  simi- 
larly good  work.  Indeed  the  construction  was  in  all  cases 
so  far  sound  that,  had  it  not  been  for  the  spite  of  enemies 
and  the  greed  of  later  builders,  it  is  probable  that  every 
pyramid  would  have  been  standing  in  good  order  at  this 
day.  The  casings  were  not  a  mere  "  veneer  "  or  "  film," 


as  they  have  been  called,  but  were  of  massive  blocks, 
usually  greater  in  thickness  than  in  height,  and  in  some 
cases  (as  at  South  Dahshur)  reminding  the  observer  of 
horizontal  leaves  with  sloping  edges. 

Inside  of  each  pyramid,  always  low  down,  and  usually 
below  the  ground  level,  was  built  a  sepulchral  chamber ; 
this  was  reached  in  all  cases  by  a  passage  from  the  north, 
sometimes  beginning  in  the  pyramid  face,  sometimes  de- 
scending into  the  rock  on  which  the  pyramid  was  built 
in  front  of  the  north  side.  This  chamber,  if  not  cut  in 
the  rock  altogether  (as  in  Menkaura's),  or  a  pit  in  the 
rock  roofed  with  stone  (as  in  Khafra's),  was  built  between 
two  immense  walls  which  served  for  the  east  and  west 
sides,  and  between  which  the  north  and  south  sides  and 
roofing  stood  merely  in  contact,  but  unbonded.  The 
gable  roofing  of  the  chambers  was  formed  by  great  sloping 
cantilevers  of  stone,  projecting  from  the  north  and  south 
walls,  on  which  they  rested  without  pressing  on  each  other 
along  the  central  ridge ;  thus  there  was  no  thrust,  nor 
were  there  any  forces  to  disturb  the  building ;  and  it  was 
only  after  the  most  brutal  treatment,  by  which  these  great 
masses  of  stone  were  cracked  asunder,  that  the  principle 
of  thrust  came  into  play,  though  it  had  been  provided  for 
in  the  sloping  form  of  the  roof,  so  as  to  delay  as  long  as 
possible  the  collapse  of  the  chamber.  This  is  best  seen 
in  the  pyramid  of  Pepi  (Petrie),  opened  from  the  top  right 
through  the  roof.  See  also  the  Abusir  pyramids  (Howard 
Vyse)  and  the  king's  and  queen's  chambers  of  the  great 
pyramid  (Howard  Vyse,  Piazzi  Smyth,  Petrie).  The  roof- 
ing is  sometimes,  perhaps  usually,  of  more  than  one  layer ; 
in  Pepi's  pyramid  it  is  of  three  layers  of  stone  beams,  each 
deeper  than  their  breadth,  resting  one  on  another,  the 
thirty  stones  weighing  more  than  30  tons  each.  In  the 
king's  chamber  (Gizeh)  successive  horizontal  roofs  were  in- 
terposed between  the  chamber  and  the  final  gable  roof,  and 
such  may  have  been  the  case  at  Abu  Roash  (Howard  Vyse). 

The  passages  which  led  into  the  central  chambers  have 
usually  some  lesser  chamber  in  their  course,  and  are 
blocked  once  or  oftener  with  massive  stone  portcullises. 
In  all  cases  some  part,  and  generally  the  greater  part,  of 
the  passages  slopes  downwards,  usually  at  an  angle  of 
about  26°,  or  1  on  2.  These  passages  appear  to  have  been 
closed  externally  with  stone  doors  turning  on  a  horizontal 
pivot,  as  may  be  seen  at  South  Dahshur,  and  as  is  de- 
scribed by  Strabo  and  others  (Petrie).  This  suggests  that 
the  interiors  of  the  pyramids  were  accessible  to  the  priests, 
probably  for  making  offerings ;  the  fact  of  many  of  them 
having  been  forcibly  entered  otherwise  does  not  show  that 
no  practicable  entrance  existed,  but  merely  that  it  was 
unknown,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  pyramids  of  Khufu  and 
Khafra,  both  of  which  were  regularly  entered  in  classical 
times,  but  were  forced  by  the  ignorant  Arabs. 

The  pyramids  of  nearly  all  the  kings  of  the  IVth,  Vth,  and  Vlth 
Dynasties  are  mentioned  in  inscriptions,  and  also  a  few  of  later 
times.  The  first  which  can  be  definitely  attributed  is  that  of 
Khufu  (or  Cheops),  called  "the  glorious,"  the  great  pyramid  of 
Gizeh.  Ratatef,  who  appears  next  to  Khufu  in  the  lists,  is  unknown 
in  other  monuments  ;  he  is  perhaps  the  same  as  Khnumu-Khufu, 
apparently  a  co-regent  of  Khufu,  who  may  have  been  buried  in  the 
so-called  queen's  chamber  of  the  great  pyramid.  Khafra  rested  in 
the  great  pyramid,  now  known  as  the  second  pyramid  of  Gizeh. 
Menkaura's  pyramid  was  called  "the  upper,"  being  at  the  highest 
level  on  the  hill  of  Gizeh.  The  lesser  pyramids  of  Gizeh,  near  the 
great  and  third  pyramids,  belong  respectively  to  the  families  of 
Khufu  and  Khafra  (Howard  Vyse).  The  pyramid  of  a  Men(ka?)ra 
at  Abu  Roash  is  probably  also  of  this  period.  The  pyramid  of 
Aseskaf,  called  "  the  cool,"  is  unknown,  so  also  is  that  of  Userkaf  of 
the  Vth  Dynasty,  called  the  "holiest  of  buildings."  Sahura's 
pyramid,  the  north  one  of  Abusir,  was  named  "the  rising  soul," 
much  as  Neferkara's  (of  unknown  site)  was  named  "  of  the  soul. " 
Raenuser's  pyramid,  "  the  firmest  of  buildings,"  is  the  middle  pyra- 
mid of  Abusir.  The  pyramid 'of  Menkauhor,  called  "the  most 
divine  building,"  is  somewhere  at  Sakkara.  Assa's  pyramid  is 
unidentified;  it  was  "the  beautiful."  Unas  not  only  built  the 


P  Y  R  — P  Y  R 


mastaba  Fanin,  long  supposed  to  be  his  pyramid,  but  had  a  pyra- 
mid called  "  the  most  beautiful  of  buildings "  at  Sakkara,  which 
was  opened  in  1881  (see  Recueil  des  Travaux,  by  M.  Maspero,  iii., 
for  those  opened  at  Sakkara).  In  the  Vlth  Dynasty  the  "  pyramid 
of  souls, "  built  by  Ati  (Rauserka),  is  unknown.  That  of  Teta,  "  the 
most  stable  of  buildings,"  was  opened  at  Sakkara  in  1881,  as  well 
as  that  of  Pepi  (Ranieri),  "  the  firm  and  beautiful. "  The  pyramids 
of  Rameren,  "the  beautiful  rising,"  and  of  Neferkara,  "the  firm 
life,"  are  unknown.  Haremsafs  pyramid  was  opened  at  Sakkara 
in  1881.  Of  the  last  two  kings  of  the  Vlth  Dynasty  we  know  of 
no  pyramids.  In  the  Vllth  or  VHIth  Dynasty  most  probably  the 
brick  pyramids  of  Dahshur  were  erected.  In  the  Xlth  Dynasty 
the  pyramid,  "the  most  glorious  building,"  of  Mentuhotep  II.  is 
mentioned,  and  the  mud  pyramid  of  one  of  the  Antef  kings  is  known 
at  Thebes.  In  the  Xllth  Dynasty  the  pyramids,  the- "  lofty  and 
beautiful"  of  Amenemhat  I.  and  "the  bright"  of  Usertesen  II. 
are  known  in  inscriptions,  while  the  brick  pyramid  jut  Howara 
may  be  most  probably  assigned  to  Amenemhat  III.,  who  appears 
to  have  built  the  adjoining  temple. 

Of  the  architectural  peculiarities  of  some  particular  pyramids 
some  notice  must  now  be  given.  The  great  pyramid  of  Gizeh 
(Khufu's)  is  very  different  in  its  internal  arrangements  from  any 
other  known  (see  vol.  ii.  p.  385  sq.  and  vol.  vii.  p.  771  sq.}.  The 
greater  number  of  passages  and  chambers,  the  high  finish  of  parts 
of  the  work,  and  the  accuracy  of  construction  all  distinguish  it. 
The  chamber  which  is  most  normal  in  its  situation  is  the  subter- 
ranean chamber ;  but  this  is  quite  unfinished,  hardly  more  than 
begun.  The  upper  chambers,  called  the  "king's"  and  "queen's," 
were  completely  hidden,  the  ascending  passage  to  them  having 
been  closed  by  plugging  blocks,  which  concealed  the  point  where 
it  branched  upwards  out  of  the  roof  of  the  long  descending  passage. 
Another  passage,  which  in  its  turn  branches  from  the  ascending 
passage  to  the  queen's  chamber,  was  also  completely  blocked  up. 
The  object  of  having  two  highly  -  finished  chambers  in  the  mass 
may  have  been  to  receive  the  king  and  his  co-regent  (of  whom 
there  is  some  historical  evidence);  and  there  is  very  credible  testi- 
mony to  a  sarcophagus  having  existed  in  the  queen's  chamber,  as 
well  as  in  the  king's  chamber.  On  the  details  of  construction  in 
the  great  pyramid  it  is  needless  to  enter  here  ;  but  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  accuracy  of  work  is  such  that  the  four  sides  of  the 
base  have  only  a  mean  error  of  six-tenths  of  an  inch  in  length  and 
12  seconds  in  angle  from  a  perfect  square.1 

The  second  pyramid  of  Gizeh  has  two  separate  entrances  (one  in 
the  side,  the  other  in  the  pavement)  and  two  chambers  (one  roofed 
with  slabs,  the  other  all  rock-hewn)  ;  these  chambers,  however, 
do  not  run  into  the  masonry,  the  whole  bulk  of  which  is  solid  so 
far  as  is  known.  This  pyramid  has  a  part  of  the  original  casing 
on  the  top  ;  and  it  is  also  interesting  as  having  the  workmen's 
barracks  still  remaining  at  a  short  distance  on  the  west  side,  long 
chambers  capable  of  housing  about  4000  men.  The  great  bulk  of 
the  rubbish  from  the  work  is  laid  on  the  south  side,  forming  a  flat 
terrace  level  with  the  base,  and  covering  a  steep  rock  escarpment 
which  existed  there.  The  waste  heaps  from  the  great  pyramid 
were  similarly  tipped  out  over  the  cliff  on  its  northern  side.  Thus 
the  rubbish  added  to  the  broad  platform  which  set  off  the  appear- 
ance of  the  pyramids ;  and  it  has  remained  undisturbed  in  all 
ages,  as  there  was  nothing  to  be  got  out  of  it.  The  third  pyramid 
was  cased  around  the  base  with  red  granite  for  the  sixteen  lowest 
courses.  The  design  of  it  has  been  enlarged  at  one  bound  from  a 
small  pyramid  (such  as  those  of  the  family  of  Khufu)  to  one  eight 
times  the  size,  as  it  is  at  present ;  the  passages  needed  therefore  to 
be  altered.  But  there  is  no  sign  of  gradual  steps  of  enlargement : 
the  change  was  sudden,  from  a  comparatively  small  design  to  a  large 
one.  The  basalt  sarcophagus  of  this  pyramid  was  ornamented  with 
the  panel  decoration  found  on  early  tombs,  unlike  the  granite 
sarcophagi  of  the  two  previous  pyramids,  which  are  plain.  Un- 
happily it  was  lost  at  sea  in  1838. 

Farther  south  are  the  pyramids  of  Abusir,  the  most  complete 
account  of  which  is  in  the  work  of  Colonel  Howard  Vyse.  Next 
come  those  of  Sakkara.  The  construction  of  the  step-pyramid  or 
cumulative  mastaba  has  been  noticed  above  ;  its  passages  are  very 
peculiar  and  intricate,  winding  around  the  principal  chamber,  which 
is  in  the  centre,  cut  in  the  rock,  very  high,  and  with  a  tomb- 
chamber  built  in  the  bottom  of  it,  which  is  closed  with  a  great 
plug  of  red  granite,  a  circular  stopper  fitting  into  a  neck  in  the 
chamber  roof.  A  doorway  faced  with  glazed  tiles  bearing  a  king's 
standard  existed  here  ;  the  tiles  were  taken  to  Berlin  by  Lepsius. 
The  other  pyramids  of  Sakkara  are  of  the  Vlth  Dynasty,  of  Unas, 
Pepi,  Haremsaf,  &c.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  introduction 
of  very  long  religious  texts,  covering  the  whole  inside  of  the 
chambers  and  passages  ;  these  are  carefully  carved  in  small  hiero- 
glyphics, painted  bright  green,  in  the  white  limestone.  Beyond 


1  With  respect  to  the  construction  of  this  and  other  pyramids,  see 
Howard  Vyse ;  on  .measurements  of  the  inside  of  the  great  pyramid 
and  descriptions,  see  Piazzi  Smyth  ;  and  on  measurements  in  general, 
mechanical  means,  and  theories,  see  Petrie. 


these  come  the  pyramids  of  Dahshur,  which  are  in  a  simple  and 
massive  style,  much  like  those  of  Gizeh.  The  north  pyramid  of 
Dahshur  has  chambers  roofed  like  the  gallery  in  the  great  pyramid 
by  successive  overlappings  of  stone,  the  roof  rising  to  a  great 
height  with  no  less  than  eleven  projections  on  each  side.  The 
south  pyramid  of  Dahshur  has  still  the  greater  part  of  its  casing 
remaining,  and  is  remarkable  for  being  built  at  two  different  angles, 
the  lower  part  being  at  the  usual  pyramid  angle,  while  the  upper 
part  is  but  43°.  This  pyramid  is  also  remarkable  for  having  a 
western  passage  to  the  chambers,  which  was  carefully  closed  up. 
Beyond  the  Memphitic  group  are  the  scattered  pyramids  of  Lisht, 
Illahun,  and  Howara,  and  the  cumulative  mastaba  of  Medum. 
Illahun  is  built  with  a  framework  of  stone  filled  up  with  mud 
bricks,  and  Howara  is  built  entirely  of  mud  bricks,  though  doubtless 
cased  with  fine  stone  like  the  other  pyramids. 

Beyond  these  there  are  no  true  pyramids,  but  we  will  briefly 
notice  those  later  forms  derived  from  the  pyramid.  At  Abydos  a 
large  cemetery  is  covered  with  more  than  a  hundred  mud-brick 
chambers,  the  outsides  of  which  are  sloped  to  the  form  of  an 
acute  pyramid,  and  which  have  a  door  (or  in  later  forms  a  large 
chamber)  projecting  on  one  side.  These  differ  from  true  pyramids 
in  (1)  having  an  attachment  more  or  less  large  on  one  face,  (2) 
being  always  built  on  a  square  plinth,  (3)  having  the  principal 
face  generally  south,  and  but  rarely  to  the  north,  (4)  not  being 
oriented,  and  (5)  having  the  chambers  occupying  the  greater  part  of 
the  structure.  The  sizes  are  about  18  feet  wide  and  24  high,  with 
a  chamber  11  feet  wide  and  13  high,  and  in  the  later  and  less 
acute  forms  20  feet  base  and  21  in  height  (see  Mariette,  Abydos, 
Description  des  Fouilles,  ii.  43).  At  Thebes  are  also  some  similar 
structures  belonging  to  the  kings  of  the  Xlth  Dynasty ;  the 
tomb-chamber  is,  however,  in  the  rock  below.  The  size  is  not  so 
insignificant,  but  is  under  50  feet  square.  These,  like  those  at 
Abydos,  are  not  oriented,  and  have  a  horizontal  entrance,  quite 
unlike  the  narrow  pipe-like  passages  sloping  down  into  the  regular 
pyramids  (see  Mariette,  in  Sib.  Arch.  Trans.,  iv.  193).  In  Ethiopia, 
at  Gebel  Barkal,  are  other  so-called  pyramids  of  a  very  late  date. 
They  nearly  all  have  porches ;  their  simplicity  is  lost  amid  very 
dubious  decorations  ;  and  they  are  not  oriented.  They  are  all 
very  acute,  and  have  flat  tops  as  if  to  support  some  ornament. 
The  sizes  are  but  small,  varying  from  23  to  88  feet  square  at 
Gebel  Barkal  and  17  to  63  feet  square  at  Meroe.  The  interior 
is  solid  throughout,  the  windows  which  appear  on  the  sides  being 
useless  architectural  members  (see  Hoskin's  Ethiopia,  148,  &c. ). 
The  structures  sometimes  called  pyramids  at  Biahmu  in  the  Fayum 
seem  to  have  no  possible  claim  to  such  a  name,  though  they  are 
certainly  of  early  work.  Judging  by  the  account  of  Herodotus 
(which  seems  intended  to  apply  to  them),  by  the  present  name 
(Pharaoh's  thrones),  and  the  actual  remains,  it  appears  that  they 
were  two  great  enclosed  courts  with  sloping  sides,  in  the  centres  of 
which  were  two  seated  statues  raised  on  pedestals  high  enough  to 
be  seen  over  the  walls  of  the  courts.  This  form  would  appear  like 
a  pyramid  with  a  statue  on  the  top  ;  and  a  rather  similar  case  in 
early  construction  is  shown  on  the  sculptures  of  the  old  kingdom. 
Obelisks  then  were  single  monuments  (not  in  pairs)  and  stood  in 
the  midst  of  a  great  courtyard  with  sides  sloping  like  a  mastaba  ; 
such  open  courtyards  on  a  small  scale  are  found  in  the  mastabas 
at  Gizeh,  and  are  probably  copied  from  the  domestic  architecture 
of  the  time. 

On  the  vexed  question  of  inscriptions  on  the  pyramids  it  will 
suffice  to  say  that  not  one  fragment  of  early  inscription  is  known 
on  the  casing  of  any  pyramid,  either  in  situ,  or  broken  in  pieces. 
Large  quantities  of  travellers'  "graffiti"  doubtless  existed,  and  some 
have  been  found  on  the  casing  of  the  great  pyramid  ;  these  probably 
gave  rise  to  the  accounts  of  inscriptions,  which  are  expressly  said 
to  have  been  in  many  different  languages. 

The  mechanical  means  employed  by  the  pyramid-builders  have 
been  partly  ascertained.  The  hard  stones,  granite,  diorite,  and 
basalt  were  in  all  fine  work  sawn  into  shape  by  bronze  saws  set 
with  jewels  (either  corundum  or  diamond),  hollows  were  made  (as 
in  sarcophagi)  by  tubular  drilling  with  tools  like  our  modern 
diamond  rock-drills  (which  are  but  reinvented  from  ancient  sources, 
see  Engineering,  xxxvii.  282),  and  small  articles  were  turned  in 
lathes  fitted  with  mechanical  tool -rests  and  jewel -pointed  tools. 
The  details  of  the  questions  of  transport  and  management  of  the 
large  stones  remain  still  to  be  explained. 

Works  referred  to  above.— Colonel  Howard  Vyse,  Operations  at  the  Pyramids, 
1840;  Professor  C.  Piazzi  Smyth,  Life  and  Work  at  the  Great  Pyramid,  1867; 
W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  Pyramids  and  Temples  of  Gizeh,  1883.  (W.  M.  F.  P.) 

PYKENEES,  a  range  of  mountains  stretching  \vith  a 
general  trend  18°  to  the  north  of  west  between  France 
and  Spain,  from  Cape  Creus,  or  more  properly  Cape 
Cerbera,  on  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  The 
length  of  the  range  is  about  240  miles,  the  greatest 
breadth  little  more  than  50  miles  (exclusive  of  the  lower 
parallel  ranges  on  the  Spanish  side),  and  the  area  covered 


PYRENEES 


125 


by  it  about  13,000  square  miles.  For  the  most  part  the 
crest  of  the  main  chain  constitutes  the  Franco-Spanish 
frontier;  the  principal  exception  to  this  rule  is  formed 
by  the  valley  of  Aran,  which,  belonging  orographically 
to  France  but  politically  to  Spain,  is  closed  at  the  head  by 
a  transverse  ridge  running  north  and  south  and  connecting 
the  eastern  and  western  halves  of  the  chain. 

The  whole  range  is  remarkable  for  its  regularity.  The 
main  chain  is  on  the  whole  easy  to  trace ;  its  continuity 
is  unbroken,  and  the  variations  in  its  height  are  mostly 
confined  within  narrow  limits.  The  same  regularity  is 
seen  in  the  arrangement  of  the  valleys.  Except  that  of 
Aran,  all  the  principal  valleys  are  given  off  at  right  angles, 
or  nearly  so,  like  the  pinnae  of  a  fern-frond,  on  both  sides 
of  the  chain,  and  they  are  again  subdivided  by  similar 
minor  valleys  at  right  angles  to  them.  In  all  these  re- 
spects the  Pyrenees  contrast  in  a  very  marked  manner 
with  the  Alps.  They  have  none  of  the  great  longitudinal 
valleys  so  characteristic  of  the  latter  range,  none  of  the 
great  lakes  by  which  such  valleys  are  occupied,  and  but 
few  passes  like  those  which  are  found  in  plenty  leading 
across  the  great  chains  of  the  Alps  at  a  level  much  below 
that  of  the  adjoining  peaks.  In  this  last  particular,  in- 
deed, the  Pyrenees  are  conspicuously  deficient.  Between 
the  two  extremities  of  the  range,  where  the  principal 
highroads  and  the  only  railways  run  between  France  and 
Spain,  there  are  only  two  passes  practicable  for  carriages, — 
the  Col  de  la  Perche  between  the  valley  of  the  Tet  and  the 
valley  of  the  Segre,  and  the  Col  de  Somport  or  Port  de 
Canfranc  (where  it  is  now  proposed  to  pierce  the  range  by 
a  railway  tunnel)  on  the  old  Roman  road  from  Saragossa 
to  Oloron. 

This  latter  pass  marks  the  western  extremity  of  what 
are  known  as  the  Central  Pyrenees,  which  extend  east- 
wards to  the  valley  of  Aran  and  include  the  highest  sum- 
mits of  the  whole  range — Pic  de  Nethou  or  Maladetta 
(11,165  feet),  Posets  (11,047  feet),  Mont  Perdu  (10,994 
feet,  Reclus;  other  authorities,  11,430  feet).  In  the 
Atlantic  Pyrenees  to  the  west  of  that  pass  the  average 
height  gradually  but  steadily  diminishes  till  we  come  to 
the  Mediterranean,  while  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  with 
the  exception  of  one  break  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Pyrenees  Ariegeoises,  the  mean  elevation  is  maintained 
with  remarkable  uniformity,  till  at  last  a  rather  sudden 
decline  occurs  in  the  portion  of  the  chain  known  as  the 
Alberes. 

Narrow  as  the  range  is,  the  inclination  of  a  straight 
line  drawn  from  the  base  to  the  crest  on  the  French  side 
is  not  more  than  3°,  or  a  rise  of  about  6  in  100.  On  the 
Spanish  side  it  is  said  to  be  somewhat  steeper,  but  this 
has  not  been  definitely  ascertained.  This  fact,  however, 
gives  no  idea  of  the  general  character  of  the  Pyrenean 
slopes.  The  descent  from  the  crest  to  the  plains  is  marked 
by  a  succession  of  terraces  terminating  in  abrupt  precipices. 
On  the  French  side  a  long  cliff  marks  the  northern  limit 
of  the  chain  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length,  and  this 
feature  is  particularly  well  defined  in  the  department  of 
Aude,  where  a  steep  precipice  marks  the  division  between 
the  true  Pyrenees  and  the  Corbieres,  a  minor  chain  re- 
markable for  the  complexity  of  its  geological  structure, 
stretching  in  that  department  from  south-west  to  north-east. 

Besides  these  longitudinal  precipices  marking  the  steps 
in  the  descent  from  the  summit -line  to  the  plains,  the 
transverse  valleys  almost  everywhere  form  profound 
ravines,  at  the  bottom  of  which  brawl  the  innumerable 
mountain -torrents  ("gaves,"  as  they  are  locally  called) 
that  form  the  principal  feature  in  the  hydrography  of  the 
range.  Frequently  they  form  lofty  cascades,  surpassed 
in  Europe  only  by  those  of  Scandinavia.  The  highest  is 
that  of  Gavarnie  at  the  head  of  the  Gave  de  Pau,  1515 


feet  high.  The  wildness  which  thus  in  general  marks  the 
scenery  of  the  Pyrenees  is  even  greater  on  the  Spanish 
than  on  the  French  side. 

A  peculiar  and  very  striking  feature  in  the  Pyrenean 
valleys  is  the  frequency  with  which  their  upper  end  assumes 
the  form  of  a  semicircle  of  precipitous  cliffs.  Such  basins 
are  called  "  cirques,"  and  the  most  noted  is  that  at  the  head 
of  the  valley  just  mentioned,  the  Cirque  de  Gavarnie.  The 
origin  of  this  form  of  valley  is  still  a  matter  of  discussion 
among  geologists.  Geologically  the  Pyrenees  consist,  like 
the  Alps,  of  a  core  of  granite  overlaid  by  sedimentary  strata 
of  various  age  down  to  the  Tertiary  period.  The  granite 
is  exposed  chiefly  in  the  east  and  centre,  and  appears  in 
the  west  only  in  comparatively  small  isolated  patches. 
Above  the  granitic  core  Cambro- Silurian  rocks  are  very 
extensively  developed,  especially  in  the  west,  and  it  would 
appear  that  the  first  upheaval  on  the  site  of  the  present 
Pyrenees  took  place  after  the  deposition  of  the  rocks  of 
this  age,  since  those  of  the  next  epochs  in  geological  history, 
the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  the  Carboniferous,  and  probably 
also  the  Permian,  are  almost  entirely  unrepresented.  The 
Secondary  rocks  down  to  the  Lower  Cretaceous  were  de- 
posited perfectly  conformably  upon  one  another,  probably 
against  the  slopes  of  a  gentle  ridge  rising  out  of  the  water. 
Among  these,  Triassic  rocks  occupy  a  considerable  area  in 
the  west  on  both  slopes  of  the  mountains;  those  of  Jurassic 
age  are  likewise  found  on  both  slopes,  but  at  different 
points;  while  the  Lower  Cretaceous  form  an  almost  continu- 
ous band  on  the  north  and  one  quite  continuous  on  the 
south.  After  the  deposition  of  the  last-mentioned  strata 
a  second  upheaval  took  place,  and  then  another  period  of 
quiet  deposition,  during  which  the  Upper  Cretaceous  and 
Eocene  beds  were  laid  down,  was  brought  to  a  conclusion 
by  the  grand  upheaval  which  elevated  the  Pyrenees  into 
one  of  the  great  mountain-chains  of  Europe  and  imparted 
to  them  the  general  outline  of  their  present  relief.  The 
last  deposits  of  the  Eocene  sea  in  this  quarter,  represented 
on  the  French  side  by  the  conglomerates  of  Palusson,  have 
been  raised  by  this  upheaval  up  the  slopes  of  the  mountains, 
and  are  succeeded  by  the  Miocene  lacustrine  molasse,  which 
lies  perfectly  horizontally  at  their  base.  The  next  and 
last  upheaval  was  one  that  did  not  affect  the  Pyrenees 
separately,  but  raised  the  whole  area  on  which  they  stand, 
causing  the  emergence  from  beneath  the  sea  of  the  region 
of  the  Landes  and  draining  the  lake  that,  washed  the  foot 
of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  east,  thus  establishing  the  present 
land  connexion  between  France  and  the  Iberian  Peninsula. 

The  later  rocks  of  the  Pyrenees  are  to  a  large  extent 
limestones,  among  which  are  conspicuous  the  characteristic 
hippuritic  limestone  of  the  southern  Chalk  and  the  nummu- 
litic  limestone  of  the  southern  Eocene.  For  the  most  part 
the  highest  peaks  belong  to  the  granitic  core  of  the  moun- 
tains. But  this  is  not  always  the  case.  In  some  instances 
limestone  rocks  have  been  carried  up  to  the  very  crest  of 
the  mountains,  as  in  Mont  Perdu  and  in  Marbore;  the 
name  of  the  latter,  meaning  "marble,"  indicates  the 
nature  of  its  constituent  rock.  Such  limestone  summits 
have  a  characteristic  square  massive  form,  very  different 
from  the  sharp  peaks  of  the  granite  and  the  schists.  As 
in  other  limestone  regions,  caves  are  numerous  in  the 
Pyrenees,  and  several  of  these  are  of  great  interest  to 
geologists  and  anthropologists  on  account  of  the  traces  of 
recent  geological  changes  observable  in  them,  and  the 
remains  of  early  man,  both  Palaeolithic  and  Neolithic, 
which  they  have  yielded. 

The  metallic  ores  of  the  Pyrenees  are  not  in  general  of  much 
importance,  though  there  are  considerable  iron  mines  at  Vic  de  Sos 
in  Ariege  and  at  the  foot  of  Canigou  in  Pyrenees  Orientales.  Coal- 
deposits  capable  of  being  profitably  worked  are  situated  chiefly  on  the 
Spanish  slopes,  but  the  French  side  has  numerous  beds  of  lignite. 
Mineral  springs  are  abundant  and  very  remarkable,  and  specially 


126 


P  Y  R  — P  Y  R 


noteworthy  are  the  hot  springs,  in  which  the  Alps,  on  the  contrary, 
are  very  deficient.  The  latter,  among  which  those  of  Bagneres  dc 
Luchon  and  Eaux-Chaudes  may  be  mentioned,  are  sulphurous  and 
mostly  situated  high,  near  the  contact  of  the  granite  with  the 
stratified  rocks.  The  lower  springs,  such  as  those  of  Bagneres  de 
Bigorre  (Hautes- Pyrenees),  Rennes  (Aude),  and  Campagne  (Aude), 
are  mostly  selenitic  and  not  very  warm. 

The  amount  of  the  precipitation,  including  rain  and  snow,  is 
much  greater  in  the  Western  than  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  which 
leads  to  a  marked  contrast  between  the  two  halves  of  the  chain  in 
more  than  one  respect  In  the  first  place,  the  Eastern  Pyrenees 
are  without  glaciers,  the  quantity  of  snow  falling  there  being 
insufficient  to  lead  to  their  development.  The  glaciers  are  confined 
to  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Central  Pyrenees,  and  do  not  descend, 
like  those  of  the  Alps,  far  down  in  the  valleys,  but  have  their 
greatest  length  in  the  direction  of  the  mountain-chain.  They  form 
in  fact  a  narrow  zone  near  the  crest  of  the  highest  mountains. 
Here,  as  in  the  other  great  mountain  ranges  of  central  Europe, 
there  are  evidences  of  a  much  wider  extension  of  the  glaciers  dur- 
ing the  Ice  age.  The  case  of  the  glacier  in  the  valley  of  Argeles 
in  the  department  of  Hautes-Pyrenees  is  the  best-known  instance. 
The  snow-line  is  stated  to  lie  in  different  parts  of  the  Pyrenees  at 
from  8800  to  9200  feet  above  sea-level. 

A  still  more  marked  effect  of  the  preponderance  of  rainfall  in  the 
western  half  of  the  chain  is  seen  in  the  aspect  of  the  vegetation. 
The  lower  mountains  in  the  extreme  west  are  very  well  wooded, 
but  the  extent  of  forest  declines  as  we  go  eastwards,  and  the  Eastern 
Pyrenees  are  peculiarly  wild  and  naked,  all  the  more  since  it  is  in 
this  part  of  the  chain  that  granitic  masses  prevail.  There  is  a 
change,  moreover,  in  the  composition  of  the  flora  in  passing  from 
west  to  east.  In  the  west  the  flora,  at  least  in  the  north,  resembles 
that  of  central  Europe,  while  in  the  east,  though  the  difference  of 
latitude  is  only  about  1°,  on  both  sides  of  the  chain  from  the  centre 
whence  the  Corbieres  stretch  north-eastwards  towards  the  central 
plateau  of  France  it  is  distinctly  Mediterranean  in  character.  The 
Pyrenees  are  relatively  as  rich  in  endemic  species  as  the  Alps,  and 
among  the  most  remarkable  instances  of  that  endemism  is  the 
occurrence  of  the. sole  European  species  of  Dioscorca  (yam),  the 
D.  pyrenaica,  on  a  single  high  station  in  the  Central  Pyrenees,  and 
that  of  the  monotypic  genus  Xatardia,  only  on  a  high  alpine  pass 
between  the  Val  d'Eynes  and  Catalonia.  The  genus  most  abun- 
dantly represented  in  the  range  is  that  of  the  saxifrages,  several 
species  of  which  are  here  endemic. 

In  their  fauna  also  the  Pyrenees  present  some  striking  instances  of 
endemism.  There  is  a  distinct  species  of  ibex  (Capra pyrenaica)  con- 
fined to  the  range,  while  the  Pyrenean  desman  or  water-mole  (Mygale 
pyrenaica)  is  found  only  in  some  of  the  streams  of  the  northern  slopes 
of  these  mountains,  the  only  other  member  of  this  genus  being  con- 
fined to  the  rivers  of  southern  Russia.  Among  the  other  peculiarities 
of  the  Pyrenean  fauna  are  blind  insects  in  the  caverns  of  Ariege,  the 
principal  genera  of  which  are  Anophthalmus  and  Adelops. 

See  Murray's  Handbook  of  France ;  A.  Leymerie,  Description  geologique  et 
paleontologique  des  Pyrenees  de  la  Haute  Garonne  (to  which  a  general  account  of 
the  chain  is  prefixed),  Toulouse,  1881 ;  De  Chausenque,  Les  Pyrenees,  1854  ;  for 
the  vegetation,  Benthani,  Catalogue  des  Plantes  indigenes  des  Pyrenees  et  de  Bas- 
iMnguedoc,  Paris,  1826,  and  Grisebach,  Vegetation  der  Erde,  Leipsic,  1872 ;  and 
for  an  account  of  the  caverns,  Geikie,  Prehistoric  Kurope,  and  the  authorities 
there  cited.  For  the  French  side  of  the  Pyrenees  the  best  map  is  that  of  the 
Government  survey  on  the  scale  of  sn|Un  (about  an  inch  to  the  mile).  The  first 
sheet  of  a  map  by  Fr.  Schrader  of  the  Spanish  slopes  on  the  scale  of  TBIA,,,n  has 
been  published  under  the  title  Pyrenees  Centrales  avec  les  grands  Massifs  du 
Versant  espagnol ;  and  a  sketch  map  of  the  whole  of  the  Spanish  slopes  based 
on  the  tracings  of  MM.  Schrader,  Wallon.  and  Saint-Sand  was  published  in  vol. 
vii.  (1880)  of  the  Annuaire  du  Club  alpin  francais,  and  also  separately.  See 
also  the  maps  in  Murray's  Handbook.  (G.  G.  C.) 

PYRENEES,  the  name  of  three  departments  in  the 
south  of  France. 

1.  BASSES -PYRENEES,  a  department  of  south-western 
France,  at  the  angle  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  was  formed 
in  1790,  two- thirds  of  it  from  Beam  and  the  rest  from 
three  districts  of  Gascony — Navarre,  Soule,  and  Labourd 
— which  together  constitute  the  Basque  region  of  France. 
The  department  lies  between  42°  46'  and  43°  36'  N. 
lat.  and  between  0°  6'  E.  and  1°  47'  W.  long.,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Landes  and  Gers,  on  the  E.  by 
Hautes-Pyrenees  (which  has  two  enclaves,  forming  five 
communes,  within  this  department),  on  the  S.  by  Spain, 
and  on  the  W.'  by  the  ocean.  The  name  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  peaks  of  the  Pyrenees  on  its  southern  frontier  are 
lower  than  in  the  neighbouring  department.  Their  height 
increases  gradually  from  west  to  east.  The  peak  of  the 
Rhune,  to  the  south  of  St  Jean  de  Luz,  rises  only  to  2950 
feet ;  and  on  the  border  of  the  Basque  country,  which 
occupies  the  western  half  of  the  department,  the  mean 
height  of  the  summits  is  not  much  greater.  The  peak  of 


Orhy  alone,  in  the  south  of  the  valley  of  Mauleon,  reaches 
6618  feet.  But  beyond  that  of  Anie  (8215  feet),  on  the 
meridian  of  Orthez,  which  marks  the  boundary  of  Beam, 
much  loftier  elevations  appear, — Mourrous  (9760  feet),  on 
the  border  of  Hautes-Pyrenees,  and  the  southern  peak  of 
Ossau  (9465  feet).  The  frontier  between  France  and 
Spain  follows  the  crest-line  of  the  main  range,  except  in  a 
few  cases  mentioned  below.  The  general  direction  of  the 
rivers  of  the  department  is  towards  the  north-west,  through 
a  hilly  country  for  the  most  part  wooded  or  vine-clad, 
except  on  the  higher  slopes,  which  are  grassy.  The 
northern  half  of  the  department  is  covered  with  bracken 
or  heath,  indicating  the  proximity  of  the  "  landes."  The 
streams  almost  all  meet  in  the  Adour  through  the  Gave  de 
Pau,  the  Bidouze,  and  the  Nive.  In  the  north-east  the 
two  Luys  flow  directly  to  the  Adour,  which  they  join  in 
Landes.  In  the  south-west  the  Nivelle  and  the  Bidassoa 
flow  directly  into  the  sea.  The  lower  course  of  the  Adour 
forms  the  boundary  between  Basses-Pyrenees  and  Landes; 
it  enters  the  sea  a  short  distance  below  Bayonne  over  a 
shifting  bar,  which  has  often  altered  the  position  of  its 
mouth.  The  Gave  de  Pau,  a  larger  stream  than  the  Adour, 
passes  Pau  and  Orthez,  but  its  current  is  so  swift  that  it 
is  only  navigable  for  a  few  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Adour.  On  the  left  it  receives  the  Gave  d'Oloron, 
formed  by  the  Gave  d'Ossau,  descending  from  the  Pic  du 
Midi,  and  the  Gave  d'Aspe,  which  rises  in  Spain.  The 
second  important  aifluent  of  the  Gave  de  Pau,  the  Saison 
or  Gave  de  Mauleon,  descends  from  the  Pic  d'Orhy. 
From  the  Pic  des  Escaliers,  which  rises  above  the  forest 
of  Iraty,  the  Bidouze  descends  northwards ;  while  the 
forest,  though  situated  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  chain, 
forms  a  part  of  French  territory.  The  Nive,  a  pretty 
river  of  the  Basque  country,  takes  its  rise  in  Spain ;  after 
flowing  past  St  Jean  Pied  de  Port,  it  joins  the  Adour  at 
Bayonne.  The  Nivelle  also  belongs  only  partly  to  France 
and  ends  its  course  at  St  Jean  de  Luz.  The  Bidassoa, 
which  is  only  important  as  forming  part  of  the  frontier, 
contains  the  lie  des  Faisans,  where  the  treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees  was  concluded  (1659),  and  debouches  between 
Hendaye  (France)  and  Fontarabia  (Spain). 

The  climate  of  the  department  is  essentially  that  of  the 
Gironde  in  the  valleys, — mild  and  damp.  The  spring  is 
rainy ;  the  best  seasons  are  summer  and  autumn,  the  heat 
of  summer  being  moderated  by  the  sea.  The  winters  are 
mild.  The  very  calm  air  of  Pau  (see  PAU)  agrees  with 
invalids  and  delicate  constitutions.  St  Jean  de  Luz  and 
Biarritz  are  much  frequented  by  winter  visitors. 

The  department  is  mainly  agricultural,  287,719  of  its  inhabitants 
being  dependent  on  this  industry  (Reclus).  In  1881,  of  a  total 
area  of  1,883,667  acres  129,132  were  under  wheat  and  produced 
217,412  quarters  ;  the  other  figures  were — barley,  4188  acres,  7137 
quarters ;  buckwheat,  455  acres,  761  quarters  ;  oats,  12,800  acres, 
22,327  quarters;  maize,  161,736  acres,  354,055  quarters;  meslin, 
2600  acres,  3987  ;  rye,  2308  acres,  3536 ;  flax,  13,399  acres,  9348 
quarters  ;  potatoes,  7067  acres,  158,592  bushels  ;  vineyards,  63,511 
acres,  4,019,466  gallons  of  wine  (the  most  highly  esteemed  vintage 
being  that  of  Jurancon).  From  25,205  acres  were  produced  642,760 
bushels  of  dried  vegetables,  and  18,781  acres  of  chestnut  trees 
yielded  314,480  bushels  of  chestnuts.  There  are  163,613  acres  of 
pastures  and  grazing  -  lands,  132,342  of  permanent  meadows  and 
orchards,  28,595  under  green  crops,  and  612,000  acres  of  waste 
lands.  The  live  stock  numbered  27,845  horses,  9110  mules,  15,409 
asses,  139,818  horned  cattle,  434,130  sheep  (giving  300  tons  of 
wool,  worth  £18,000),  78,310  pigs,  150,608  goats,  and  there  were 
16,000  hives  of  bees  (producing  63  tons  of  honey  and  16  of  wax). 
One-half  of  the  386,000  acres  of  forest  belongs  to  private  persons, 
the  other  almost  wholly  to  the  communes  or  the  department, 
scarcely  any  woods  belonging  to  the  Government.  Forest  manage- 
ment receives  careful  attention.  The  number  of  inhabitants  cm- 
ployed  in  manufactures  was  67,455.  There  are  mines  of  anthracite, 
copper,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  silver,  and  kaolin  in  small  quantity.  The 
salt  produced  amounted  to  9663  tons  and  is  used  partly  for  the 
famous  Bayonne  hams  (so  called,  but  really  prepared  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Orthez).  The  department  has  valuable  mineral  springs. 


PYRENEES 


127 


The  Eaux-Bonnes,  hot  and  cold,  containing  sodium  and  sulphur, 
are  employed  especially  for  disorders  of  the  chest  and  respiratory 
organs.  The  Eaux-Chaudes,  of  like  composition,  are  efficacious  in 
catarrh,  rheumatism,  and  skin  diseases.  Those  of  Cambo  on  the 
Nive,  some  hot  and  sulphurous,  some  chalybeate  and  cold,  are 
much  frequented  by  the  Basques  on  the  eve  of  St  John.  The 
waters  of  St  Christau,  near  Oloron,  containing  copper,  are  effica- 
cious in  skin  diseases.  The  manufactures  of  the  department  in- 
clude woollen  caps  and  sashes,  the  fez  worn  by  the  people  of  the 
district,  nets,  Beam  linen,  cord  slippers,  chocolate,  and  there  are 
also  tanneries  and  flour-mills.  The  only  shipping  port  is  Bayonne, 
which  town  is  also  the  meeting-place  of  the  roads  to  St  Sebastian 
and  Pamplona  in  Spain.  Within  the  department  there  are  258 
miles  of  Government  roads  and  7460  of  departmental  or  parish 
roads.  There  are  also  142  miles  of  railroad,  connecting  Bayonue 
with  Toulouse,  Dax  with  Puyoo  (for  Pau),  Bayonne  with  Biarritz, 
Puyoo  with  St  Palais,  and  Pau  with  Laruns  (Eaux-Bonnes).  The 
population  in  1881  was  434,366  (57  per  square  kilometre),  almost 
entirely  Catholic.  There  are  five  arrondissemeuts — Pau,  Bayonne, 
Oloron,  Orthez  (population  of  town,  4657),  and  Mauleon  (2038), 
divided  into  40  cantons  and  558  communes.  Basses  -  Pyrenees 
constitutes  the  diocese  of  Bayonne,  and  is  attached  to  the  superior 
court  of  Pau  and  belongs  to  the  district  of  the  18th  Army  Corps 
(Bordeaux). 

2.  HAUTES-PYRENEES,  a  department  of  southern  France, 
on  the  Spanish  frontier,  was  formed  in  1790,  half  of  it 
being  taken  from  Bigorre  and  the  remainder  from  Armag- 
nac,  Nebouzan,  Astarac,  and  Quatre  Vallees,  districts  which 
all  belonged  to  the  province  of  Gascony.  It  lies  between 
42°  40'  and  43°  37'  N.  lat.  and  between  19'  W.  and  39' 
E.  long.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by  Spain,  on  the  W. 
by  Basses-Pyrenees,  on  the  N.W.  by  Landes,  on  the  N.E. 
by  Gers,  and  on  the  E.  by  Haute -Garonne.  Except  on 
the  south  its  boundaries  are  conventional.  Some  of  the 
Pyrenean  peaks  in  this  department  reach  or  exceed  the 
height  of  10,000  feet,  the  Vignemale  (10,820  feet)  being 
the  highest  in  French  territory.  The  imposing  corries, 
with  their  glaciers  and  waterfalls,  and  the  pleasant  valleys 
attract  a  large  number  of  tourists,  the  most  noted  point 
being  the  famous  .Gavarnie.  The  northern  portion  of  the 
department  consists  of  plains,  or  rather  fertile  valleys, 
clothed  with  corn-fields,  vineyards,  and  meadows.  To 
the  north-east,  however,  the  cold  and  wind-swept  plateau 
of  Lannemezan  (about  2000  feet),  the  watershed  of  the 
streams  that  come  down  on  the  French  side  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, presents  in  its  bleakness  and  barrenness  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  plain  that  lies  below.  The  department  is 
drained  by  three  principal  streams,  the  Gave  de  Pau,  the 
Adour,  and  the  Neste,  an  affluent  of  the  Garonne.  The 
sources  of  the  first  and  third  lie  close  together  in  the 
Cirque  of  Gavarnie  and  on  the  slopes  of  Troumouse, 
whence  they  flow  respectively  to  the  north-west  and  north- 
east. An  important  spur  of  the  Pyrenees,  which  carries 
the  Pic  de  Neouvielle  and  the  Pic  du  Midi  de  Bigorre,  pro- 
jects to  the  northward  between  these  two  valleys.  From 
the  Pic  du  Midi  the  Adour  descends,  which,  after  watering 
the  pleasant  valley  of  Campan,  leaves  the  mountains  at 
Bagneres  and  then  divides  into  a  multitude  of  channels, 
which  irrigate  the  rich  plain  of  Tarbes.  Beyond  Hautes- 
Pyrenees  it  receives  on  the  right  the  Arros,  which  flows 
through  the  department  from  south  to  north-north-west ; 
on  the  left  it  receives  the  Gave  de  Pau.  This  latter 
stream,  rising  in  Gavarnie,  is  joined  at  Luz  by  the  Gave 
de  Bastan  from  Neouvielle,  and  at  Pierrefitte  by  the  Gave 
de  Cauterets,  fed  by  streams  from  the  Vignemale.  The 
Gave  de  Pau,  after  passing  Argeles  and  the  grotto  of 
Lourdes  on  its  left  and  the  chateau  of  Lourdes  on  its 
right,  leaves  the  mountains  and  turns  sharply  from  north 
to  north -north -west ;  it  has  a  greater  volume  of  water 
than  the  Adour,  but,  being  more  of  a  mountain  torrent,  is 
regarded  as  a  tributary  of  the  Adour,  which  is  navigable 
in  the  latter  part  of  its  course.  The  Neste  d'Aure,  de- 
scending from  the  peaks  of  Neouvielle  and  Troumouse,  re- 
ceives the  Neste  de  Louron  from  the  pass  of  Clarabide  at 


Arreau  and  flows  northwards  through  a  beautiful  valley  as 
far  as  Labarthe,  where  it  turns  to  the  north-east;  it  is 
important  as  furnishing  the  plateau  of  Lannemezan  with 
a  feeding  canal,  the  waters  of  which  are  partly  used  for 
irrigation  and  partly  for  supplying  the  streams  that  rise 
there  and  are  dried  up  in  summer, — the  Gers  and  the 
Baise,  affluents  of  the  Garonne.  This  latter  only  touches 
the  department.  The  climate  of  Hautes-Pyr6nees,  though 
very  cold  on  the  highlands,  is  warm  and  moist  in  the 
plains,  where  there  are  hot  summers,  fine  autumns,  mild 
winters,  and  rainy  springs.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
is  68°  Fahr.  On  the  plateau  of  Lannemezan,  while  the 
summers  are  dry  and  scorching,  the  winters  are  very 
severe.  A  meteorological  observatory  has  been  built  on 
the  Pic  du  Midi. 

Of  the  total  area  of  1,119,292  acres  259,334  are  arable,  214,782 
under  wood,  160,624  pastures  and  grazing-lands,  76,015  permanent 
meadows  and  orchards,  and  39,135  vineyards.  The  mountain  slopes 
are  covered  with  pasture  to  a  height  of  more  than  6600  feet.  In 

1881  the  live  stock  included  114,900  horned  cattle  (the  milch  cows 
of  Lourdes  and  the  oxen  of  Tarbes  being  the  most  esteemed),  18,000 
horses  (mostly  of  the  Tarbes  breed  crossed  with  Arab  blood),  11,830 
asses,  3200  mules  (part  of  which  are  bred  for  Spain),  222,300  sheep, 
74,800  pigs,   and   8718  goats.     The  more  important  cereals  are 
successively,  as  the  elevation  increases,  maize,  wheat,  and  rye ;  in 
the  mountain  districts  oats,  barley,  and  buckwheat  are  grown.     In 

1882  the  harvest  yielded  158,620  quarters  of  wheat,  197,931  of 
maize,  70,690  of  rye,  47,586  of  oats,  15,069  of  barley,  27,586  of 
buckwheat,  61,241  of  meslin,  and  1,793,104  bushels  of  potatoes. 
The  formerly  extensive  forests  have  suffered  considerably  from  the 
weather  and  other  causes.     Vines,  trained  upon  trees  as  in  Italy, 
yield  on  an  average  2,464,000  gallons  of  wine  annually.     On  the 
lower  slopes  chestnut  trees  and  fruit  trees  take  the  place  of  the 
vines.     There  are  various  quarries  of  fine  marbles,  which  are  sawn 
and  worked  at  Bagneres,  and  numerous  slate  quarries.     The  mines 
of  iron,  nickel,  lead,  cobalt,  manganese,  and  zinc  are  worked  only 
irregularly.     There  is  no  coal,  but  a  few  hundred  tons  of  peat  are 
annually  extracted.      The  mineral  waters  of  Hautes- Pyrenees  are 
numerous  and  much  resorted  to.     The  principal  in  the  valley  of 
the  Gave  de  Pau  are  Cauterets  (twenty-four  hot  springs  containing 
sulphur  and  sodium),  St  Sauveur  (two  springs  with  sulphur  anil 
sodium),  and  Bareges  (twelve  hot  springs  with  sulphur  and  sodium), 
and  in  the  valley  of  the  Adour  Bagneres  (fifty-two  hot  or  cold 
springs    containing    calcium   sulphates,    iron,   and    arsenic)   and 
Capvern  near  Lannemezan  (two  springs  containing  calcium  sul- 
phates).   There  are  2  paper-mills  employing  101  workmen,  28  spin- 
ning or  weaving  factories  employing  908  workmen  (4000  spindles 
and  750  looms,  of  which  220  are  power-looms).     The  light  woollen 
materials  known  under  the  name  of  "bareges"  and  the  knitted 
work  of  the  department  are  widely  known  beyond  its  limits.     A 
company  has  been  formed  for  establishing  cheese  -  factories  in  the 
mountains,  as  in  Switzerland.    There  are  also  saw-mills,  flour-mills, 
tanneries,  and  at  Tarbes  very  important  artillery  establishments 
and  a  bell-foundry. 

The  passes  (ports)  into  Spain  rise  more  than  6500  feet ;  none  of 
them  are  accessible  to  carriages,  and  only  three — Gavarnie,  Our-. 
dissetou,  and  Plan — to  beasts  of  burden.  Within  the  department 
there  are  222  miles  of  Government  roads,  2837  miles  of  other  roads, 
and  129  miles  of  railroad.  It  is  traversed  from  west  to  east  by  the 
line  from  Bayonne  to  Toulouse,  which  has  branches  from  Lourdes 
to  Pierrefitte  for  Cauterets,  from  Tarbes  to  Bagneres  de  Bigorre, 
and  from  Montrejeau  to  Bagneres  de  Luchon.  It  is  crossed  also 
by  lines  from  Tarbes  to  Bordeaux  and  from  Tarbes  to  Agen,  which 
separate  at  Vic  de  Bigorre.  The  population  in  1881  was  236,474. 
There  are  three  arrondissements,  those  of  Tarbes  (chief  town), 
Argeles  (town,  1682  inhabitants),  and  Bagneres  de  Bigorre  (7634 
inhabitants),  26  cantons,  480  communes.  Hautes  -  Pyrenees  con- 
stitutes the  diocese  of  Tarbes,  and  is  attached  to  the  superior  court 
of  Pau  and  to  the  18th  Army  Corps  (Bordeaux). 

3.  PYRENEES -ORIENT  ALES,  a  department  of  southern 
France,  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Spanish 
frontier,  was  formed  in  1790  out  of  the  old  province  of 
Roussillon  and  to  some  slight  extent  out  of  small  portions 
of  Languedoc.  It  lies  between  42°  20'  and  42°  56'  N.  lat. 
and  1°  43'  and  3°  10'  E.  long.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  Ariege  and  Aude,  on  the  E.  by  the  Mediterranean, 
on  the  S.  by  Catalonia,  and  on  the  W.  by  Ariege.  Its 
boundaries  are  almost  all  natural  and  on  the  north  follow 
the  line  of  the  Corbieres  (from  2500  to  3000  feet  high), 
on  the  north-west  and  south-west  that  of  branches  of  the 


128 


P  Y  R  — P  Y  R 


Pyrenees  (from  8000  to  10,000  feet),  and  on  the  south-east 
that  of  the  Alberes  (from  4000  to  5000  feet),  which  end  in 
the  sea  at  Cape  Cerbera.  Deep  and  sheltered  bays  in  this 
vicinity  are  succeeded  farther  north  by  flat  sandy  beaches, 
along  which  lie  lagoons  separated  from  the  sea  by  belts  of 
sand.  The  lagoon  of  St  Nazaire  is  5400  acres  in  extent, 
and  that  of 'Leucate  on  the  borders  of  Aude  is  20,000 
acres.  Mont  Canigou  (9137  feet),  though  not  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  department,  is  the  most  remarkable,  since 
it  stands  out  to  almost  its  full  height  above  the  plain,  and 
exhibits  with  great  distinctness  the  succession  of  zones  of 
vegetation.  From  the  base  to  a  height  of  1400  feet  are 
found  the  orange,  the  aloe,  the  oleander,  the  pomegranate, 
and  the  olive ;  the  vine  grows  to  the  height  of  1 800  feet ; 
next  come  the  chestnut  (2625  feet),  the  rhododendron  (from 
4330  to  8330  feet),  pine  (6400),  and  birch  (6560) ;  while 
stunted  junipers  grow  quite  to  the  summit.  The  drainage 
of  the  department  is  shared  by  the  Tet,  Tech,  and  Agly, 
which  flow  direct  into  the  Mediterranean.  The  Aude,  the 
Ariege  (an  affluent  of  the  Garonne),  and  the  Segre  (an  afflu- 
ent of  the  Ebro)  also  take  their  rise  within  the  department 
and  include  a  small  part  of  it  in  their  respective  basins. 
The  Tet  rises  9430  feet  above  the  sea  and  descends  rapidly 
into  a  very  narrow  valley  before  it  debouches  at  Ille 
(between  Prades  and  Perpignan)  upon  a  large  plain,  where 
it  flows  over  a  wide  pebbly  bed  and  supplies  numerous 
canals  for  irrigation.  It  is  nowhere  navigable,  and  its 
supply  of  water  varies  much  with  the  seasons,  all  the  more 
that  it  is  not  fed  by  any  glacier.  The  Agly,  which  passes 
Puvesaltes  (famous  for  its  wines),  rises  in  the  Corbieres, 
and  serves  almost  exclusively  for  irrigation,  though  admit- 
ting of  navigation  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course.  The 
Tech,  which  after  the  Tet  is  the  most  important  river 
of  the  department,  flows  through  Vallespir  ( Vallis  (upera), 
which,  notwithstanding  its  name,  is  a  green  valley,  clothed 
with  wood  and  alive  with  industry;  in  its  course  the 
river  passes  Prats  de  Mollo  and  Amelie-les-Bains,  before 
reaching  Aries  and  Ce"ret.  In  the  lowlands  the  climate  is 
entirely  that  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  productions 
are  the  same  as  those  of  Corsica  or  Sicily ;  Ame"lie-les- 
Bains  is  much  frequented  on  account  of  its  mild  climate 
and  sheltered  position.  The  thermometer  ranges  from  85° 
to  95°  Fahr.  in  summer,  and  in  winter  only  occasionally 
falls  as  low  as  26°  or  27°.  The  average  number  of  rainy 
days  in  the  year  is  70 ;  the  mean  amount  of  the  rainfall 
is  27  inches  on  the  coast,  but  increases  towards  the  hills. 
The  most  common  wind  is  the  "  tramontane  "  from  north- 
north-west,  as  violent  as  the  mistral  of  Provence  and 
extremely  parching.  The  "  marinada "  blows  from  the 
south-south-east. 

Of  a  total  area  of  1,018,632  acres  211,960  are  arable,  172,980 
under  vines,  167,740  under  wood,  193,367  pasture-land,  27,305 
meadow-land,  and  148,270  barren  moors  (garrigues).  In  1881  the 
live  stock  numbered  7287  horses,  6261  asses,  4373  mules,  17,768 
horned  cattle,  121,016  sheep  (125  tons  of  wool  in  1878),  12,864 
goats,  23, 838  pigs,  and  fowls  and  game  in  abundance ;  there  were 
also  6163  beehives,  yielding  24  tons  of  wax  and  19  tons  of  honey 
known  as  "miel  de  Narbonne."  Thirty  tons  of  cocoons  (silk)  were 
produced  in  the  same  year.  The  main  source  of  wealth  to  the  de- 
partment is  its  wine,  of  which  48,840,000  gallons  were  produced 
in  1881 ;  some  kinds  are  strongly  alcoholic  and  others  are  in  request 
as  liqueur  wines  (Rivesaltes,  Banyuls).  The  harvest  of  1881  yielded 
26,551  quarters  of  wheat,  3793  of  meslin,  37,930  of  rye,  6896  of 
barley,  3448  of  buckwheat,  34,480  of  oats,  55, 172  of  maize,  1,655,168 
bushels  of  potatoes,  67,448  of  dried  vegetables,  22,640  of  chestnuts, 
110,336  of  beetroot,  39  tons  of  hemp,  39  of  flax,  and  23,000  of  olives. 
Market-gardening  (artichoke,  asparagus,  tomatoes,  melons)  and 
fruit  culture  (peaches,  apricots,  plums,  pears,  quinces,  pomegran- 
ates, almonds,  apples,  cherries,  walnuts,  chestnuts)  yield  abundant 
returns.  The  woods  produce  timber  for  the  cabinetmaker,  cork, 
and  bark  for  tanning.  In  iron  Pyrenees-Orientales  is  one  of  the 
richest  departments  in  France.  The  greater  part  of  the  ore  is 
transported  to  Aveyron,  Card,  or  AllierT  but  25,000  tons  are  smelted 
in  blast-furnaces  and  1800  in  Catalonian  forges  within  the  depart- 


ment. In  1881  12,100  tons  of  pig-iron  were  produced.  The 
mineral  resources  of  the  department  also  include  a  bed  of  bismuth 
and  mines  of  copper  and  stiver,  while  both  the  Tet  and  the  Tech 
are  to  some  extent  auriferous.  A  small  amount  of  lignite  is  ob- 
tained (1639  tons),  and  various  fine  marbles  are  abundant.  Granite, 
slate,  gypsum,  and  limestone  are  quarried.  The  mineral  waters 
are  much  resorted  to.  Amelie-les-Bains  has  twelve  hot  springs, 
chalybeate  or  sulphurous.  In  the  arrondissement  of  Ceret  there 
are  also  the  establishments  of  La-Preste-les-Bains,  near  Prats  de 
Mollo,  with  hot  sulphurous  springs,  and  of  Boulou,  the  Vichy  of 
the  Pyrenees.  Near  Prades  are  the  hot  sulphurous  springs  of 
Molitz,  and  a  little  north  of  Mont  Canigou  are  the  hot  springs  of 
Vernet,  containing  sodium  and  sulphur.  In  the  valley  of  the  Tet 
the  sulphuros  and  alkaline  springs  of  Olette  reach  a  temperature 
of  172°  Fahr.  The  baths  of  Escaldas  near  Montlouis  are  hot, 
sulphurous,  and  alkaline.  There  are  numerous  tanneries,  oil- works, 
distilleries,  and  saw-mills,  and  the  manufactures  of  the  department 
include  the  making  of  corks,  cigarette-paper,  barrels,  bricks,  woollen 
and  other  cloths,  and  "  espadrilles  "  (a  land  of  shoe  made  of  coarse 
cloth  with  esparto  soles).  The  ports  of  the  department  are  Collioure, 
Port  Vendres,  and  Banyuls,  with  371  vessels  and  a  total  tonnage 
of  3638  in  1882.  Port  Vendres  alone  has  any  importance  ;  in  1882 
the  ships  entered  numbered  380  (104,572  tons),  those  which  cleared 
368  (95,931  tons).  There  are  67  miles  of  railway,  consisting  of  a 
portion  of  the  line  from  Narbonne  to  Barcelona  (Spain)  by  Per- 
pignan, with  its  branches  from  Perpignan  to  Prades ;  there  are  208 
miles  of  Government  roads  and  2107  miles  of  other  roads.  The 
chief  routes  across  the  Pyrenees  are  from  Perpignan  and  Montlouis 
to  Puycerda  (Puigcerda)  in  the  Spanish  province  of  Gerona,  through 
the  pass  of  La  Perche,  skirting  in  the  French  department  an 
enclave  of  Spanish  territory.  Three  other  roads  run  from  Perpignan 
to  Figueiras  (Figueras)  through  the  passes  of  Perthus,  Banyuls, 
and  Balistres.  In  1881  the  population  of  Pyrenees  -  Orientales 
amounted  to  208,855,  the  majority  of  whom  were  Catalans  in 
speech  and  the  rest  Provengal.  The  chief  towns  of  the  three 
arrondissements  are  PERPIGNAN  (q.v.),  Ceret  (3104  inhabitants), 
and  Prades  (3687)  ;  there  are  17  cantons  and  231  communes.  The 
department  constitutes  the  diocese  of  Perpignan  and  is  attached 
to  the  superior  court  and  army  corps  of  Montpellier.  (G.  ME.) 

PYRITES  (from  -n-vp,  fire),  a  name  applied  to  the  native 
bisulphide  of  iron,  which  occurs  as  a  yellow  metallic 
mineral,  sufficiently  hard  to  emit  sparks  when  struck  with 
either  flint  or  steel.  Nodules  of  pyrites  are  common  in 
the  lower  beds  of  Chalk,  and  fragments  of  these  nodules 
have  occasionally  been  found  on  prehistoric  sites  under 
circumstances  which  suggest  that  the  mineral  was  used  as 
a  fire-producing  medium  at  a  very  early  period  of  human 
culture.  Even  in  late  historic  time  it  was  often  employed 
instead  of  flint,  as  in  some  of  the  old  wheel-lock  guns, 
whence  it  came  to  be  known  in  France  as  "pierre  d'arque- 
buse."  It  was  afterwards  found  that  pyrites  might  be 
made  available  as  a  source  of  sulphur,  oil  of  vitriol,  and 
other  chemical  products ;  and  the  mineral  thus  acquired 
such  importance  that  in  1725  it  was  made  the  subject  of 
a  special  treatise  by  Dr  J.  F.  Henckel,  of  Freiberg  in 
Saxony.  In  1757  an  English  translation  of  this  work 
appeared  under  the  title  of  Pyritologia ;  or  a  History  of 
the  Pyrites,  the  Principal  Body  in  the  Mineral  Kingdom. 

By  modern  mineralogists  the  term  "  pyrites  "  has  been 
extended  to  a  number  of  metallic  sulphides,  and  it  is  there- 
fore now  used  rather  as  a  group-name  than  as  the  specific 
designation  of  a  mineral.  Hence  the  typical  pyrites  is 
often  distinguished  as  "  iron  pyrites,"  while  other  members 
of  the  group  are  known  as  "copper  pyrites,"  "cobalt 
pyrites,"  "arsenical  pyrites,"  &c.  When,  however,  the 
term  "  pyrites "  is  used  without  any  qualifying  prefix  it 
invariably  denotes  the  original  iron  pyrites,  a  mineral 
which  is  often  known  to  miners  as  "mundic,"  and  to 
mineralogists  as  "pyrite,"  the  final  letter  of  the  original 
word  being  omitted  to  bring  the  spelling  into  harmony 
with  that  of  the  names  of  many  other  minerals. 

Iron  pyrites,  though  containing  nearly  half  its  weight  of 
iron,  is  of  no  importance  as  an  ore  of  that  metal ;  but  the 
mineral  is  extensively  worked  for  the  sake  of  the  sulphur 
which  it  contains,  whence  it  is  sometimes  known  as  "sulphur 
ore."  Large  quantities  of  this  ore  have  been  worked  in  the 
vale  of  Avoca,  in  county  Wicklow,  Ireland.  But  by  far  the 


P  Y  R  — P  Y  R 


129 


most  important  variety  of  the  mineral  is  a  "  cupreous  iron 
pyrites,"  which  for  many  years  past  has  been  wrought  on 
an  enormous  scale  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  This  ore  seems 
to  be  an  intimate  mixture  of  iron  pyrites  with  a  small 
quantity  of  copper  pyrites,  the  proportion  of  metallic  copper 
being  generally  less  than  3  per  cent.  Notwithstanding 
the  poorness  of  the  ore,  the  copper  is  profitably  extracted 
by  wet  processes.  There  is  also  present  a  small  quantity  of 
silver  (20  to  35  dwt.  per  ton),  with  a  trace  of  gold.  The 
deposits  of  this  cupreous  pyrites  are  of  enormous  magni- 
tude, and  occur  at  the  junction  of  porphyritic  rocks  with 
clay-slate  of  Devonian  age.  The  principal  Spanish  mines 
are  those  of  Rio  Tinto,  Tharsis,  and  Calanas  in  the  province 
of  Huelva ;  whilst  the  most  important  of  the  Portuguese 
mines  is  that  of  San  Domingos  in  the  province  of  Alemtejo. 
There  is  ample  proof  that  some  of  these  pyritic  deposits 
were  worked  by  the  ancient  Romans. 

The  quantity  of  cupreous  and  other  iron  pyrites  imported 
into  Great  Britain  during  the  year  1883 — principally  from 
Spain  and  Portugal,  but  partly  from  Norway  and  elsewhere 
—was  601,288  tons,  of  the  declared  value  of  £1,356,083. 
But  this  quantity  had  been  exceeded  in  several  previous 
years,  notably  in  1880  and  1877.  The  quantity  of  iron 
pyrites  raised  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1883  amounted 
to  27,672  tons,  of  the  value  (at  the  mine)  of  £17,467. 

See  IROX,  vol.  xiii.  pp.  280,  288  ;  COPPER,  vol.  vi.  p.  347  ;  MAR- 
CASITE,  vol.  xv.  p.  532  ;  and  MINERALOGY,  vol.  xvi.  pp.  390,  393. 
For  details  of  the  Rio  Tinto  pyrites,  see  A  Treatise  on  Ore-Deposits, 
by  J.  Arthur  Phillips,  1884. 

PYRMONT.     See  WALDECK. 

PYROMETER,  an  instrument  for  measuring  high 
temperatures.  As  long  ago  as  1701,  in  a  paper l  published 
anonymously  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  Newton 
gave  the  results  of  attempts  to  estimate  the  temperature 
of  red-hot  iron  by  noting  the  time  it  took  to  cool  to  an 
observed  temperature,  assuming  what  has  since  been  called 
Newton's  Law  of  Cooling.  The  numerical  results  are 
given  in  terms  of  the  degrees  of  a  linseed-oil  thermometer 
constructed  by  Newton.  Its  zero  was  the  temperature  of 
melting  ice  and  its  second  fixed  point  the  normal  temper- 
ature of  the  human  body,  denoted  by  12°.  About  the  same 
time  Guillaume  Amonton  in  Paris  made  somewhat  similar 
attempts  to  determine  the  temperature  of  the  red-hot  end 
of  an  iron  bar,  using  for  reference  a  rudimentary  air-thermo- 
meter— the  first  of  its  kind  in  which  the  variation  of 
atmospheric  pressure  was  allowed  for.  Since  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  the  different  methods  and  instruments 
suggested  for  measuring  high  temperatures  have  been  very 
numerous, — in  fact  the  variation  of  almost  every  physical 
property  of  substances  which  alter  with  change  of  temper- 
ature has  been  utilized  for  this  purpose.  Measurements 
of  the  increase  of  pressure  produced  in  a  quantity  of  gas 
while  its  volume  remains  constant  or  of  the  increase  of 
volume  at  constant  pressure,'  of  the  heat  given  out  by  a 
mass  of  metal  in  cooling  to  an  observed  temperature,  of 
the  expansion  of  a  metal  or  graphite  bar  or  of  a  mass  of 
clay  are  those  which  have  been  most  frequently  employed ; 
but,  besides  these,  the  change  in  the  electrical  resistance 
of  a  wire,  the  saturation-pressure  of  the  steam  of  various 
liquids,  the  pressure  of  gas  dissociated  from  various  solids, 
the  electromotive  force  of  a  thermo-electric  couple,  the 
density  of  the  vapour  of  a  liquid,  the  change  of  shape  of 
a  compound  spiral  of  different  metals,  have  been  used,— 
even  the  alteration  in  the  wave-length  of  a  note  of  given 
pitch  has  been  suggested  as  capable  of  being  made  use 
of  for  pyrometric  purposes.  For  reasons  which  will  be 
given  below,  the  numerical  results  obtained  by  one  or 
other  of  the  numerous  forms  of  the  gas-thermometer  have 
a  more  definitely  intelligible  value.  The  gas-thermometer 

1  "Scala  GraJuum  Caloris,"in  Phil.  Trans.,  xxii.  p.  824. 


method  and  the  calorimetric  method  were  both  employed 
by  Pouillet  for  the  accurate  measurement  of  high  temper- 
atures before  1836. 

§  2.  The  indications  obtained  by  any  of  the  numerous 
methods  which  have  been  suggested  are,  as  a  rule,  expressed 
in  terms  of  Centigrade  or  Fahrenheit  degrees.  This  assign- 
ment of  numbers  presupposes  not  only  a  definition  of  tem- 
perature by  which  the  size  of  the  degree  is  determined  but 
also  a  physical  law  which  gives  the  relation  between  the 
measured  interval  of  temperature  and  the  standard  degree. 
The  various  definitions  of  the  standard  degree  that  might 
be  employed  will  be  found  in  the  article  HEAT,  sees.  12, 
24,  25,  30,  31,  32 ;  and  in  sec.  35  of  the  same  article  the 
definition  of  the  absolute  thermodynamic  scale  of  temper- 
atures is  given.  In  the  same  article  (sec.  38)  it  is  shown 
that  the  "absolute  temperature"  of  a  liquid  in  thermal 
equilibrium  with  its  own  vapour  under  a  pressure  p  may 
be  obtained  from  the  formula 


'p(l-ff)dp 

JpK         I 


where  p  is  the  density  of  the  vapour,  per  that  of  the  liquid, 
K  the  latent  heat  per  unit-mass  of  the  vapour  corresponding 
to  the  saturation -pressure  p.  The  dynamical  equivalent 
of  heat  is  represented  by  J.  We  have  therefore  the  com- 
plete theory  of  what  may  soon  become  a  practical  method 
of  expressing  temperatures  in  the  thermodynamic  scale. 
Sir  W.  Thomson,  in  the  article  mentioned  (sees.  39-45), 
has  described  arrangements  for  measuring  the  pressure  of 
the  saturated  vapours  of  various  liquids  which  will  give 
that  measurement  in  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  manner  up 
to,  at  any  rate,  some  600°  C.  For  the  higher  tempera- 
tures mercury  is  the  liquid  employed.  There  are,  however, 
some  experimental  data  still  wanting  before  the  formula 
quoted  above  can  be  applied  to  the  numerical  calculation 
of  the  temperature.  These  are  (1)  the  density  p  of  the 
saturated  vapour  corresponding  to  the  series  of  pressures, 
and  (2)  the  corresponding  latent  heat  K  of  vaporization. 
These  constants  have  not  yet  been  actually  observed. 
Instruments  such  as  those  figured  in  the  article  cited 
can,  however,  be  employed  with  convenience  and  accuracy 
as  continuous  intrinsic  thermoscopes,  whose  indications 
can  supply  a  numerical  measure  of  temperature  after  an 
empirical  graduation.  When  used  thus  they  possess  the 
enormous  advantage  that  the  pressure  of  the  saturated 
vapour  at  a  definite  temperature  is  perfectly  definite,  so 
that  a  single  observation  of  the  pressure  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  determine  the  temperature,  and  the  instru- 
ment can  be  easily  arranged,  so  that  this  observation  is 
practically  a  very  simple  one.  The  pressure  of  mercury 
vapour  has  already  been  determined  by  Regnault  for 
temperatures  up  to  550°.  A  thermoscopic  method  of 
pyrometry  which  is  very  similar  to  the  above  was  sug- 
gested by  Lamy.2  He  proposed  to  measure  the  pressure 
of  carbonic -acid  gas  dissociated  from  calcium  carbonate. 
There  is  experimental  evidence  to  show  that  the  pressure 
of  the  dissociated  gas  is  definite  at  a  definite  tempera- 
ture. The  recombination  of  the  dissociated  gas  with  the 
solid  is,  however,  a  slow  process,  and  the  method  has 
been  pronounced  by  Weinhold  3  to  be  practically  unsatis- 
factory. 

§  3.  G as  Pyrometry.  Measurement  of  High  Tempera- 
tures by  the  Expansion  of  Air  and  other  Gases  and  Vapours. 
— Temperatures  may  be  expressed  in  the  absolute  thermo- 
dynamic scale  by  the  method  of  the  gas -thermometer, 
which  is  available  for  practical  purposes  even  at  very  high 
temperatures.  It  has  been  shown4  that  the  indications 


2  Comptes  Rendus,  Ixix.  p.  347. 

3  " Pyrometrische  Versuche,"  Pojg.  Ann.,  cxlix.  p.  186. 

4  See  HEAT,  sees.  46-67. 

XX.  —   17 


130 


PYROMETER 


of  a  nitrogen  or  hydrogen  gas-thermometer,  whether  it  is 
arranged  to  show  the  increase  of  pressure  at  constant 
volume  or  the  increase  of  volume  at  constant  pressure,  give 
for  the  temperature  numerical  results  which  are  practically 
identical  with  the  corresponding  numbers  on  the  absolute 
scale.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  any  two  gas  -thermo- 
meters, if  similarly  graduated,  would  give  identical  indica- 
tions for  the  same  temperature,  no  matter  whether  or  not 
they  are  filled  with  the  same  kind  of  gas  and  whether  or 
not  the  quantities  of  the  gases  are  such  that  the  pressure  in 
the  two  thermometers  is  the  same  at  any  one  temperature. 
This  important  property  of  gas  -thermometers  has  been 
experimentally  verified  by  Regnault  l  by  direct  comparison 
up  to  350°  C.  of  instruments  filled  with  different  gases  and 
at  different  pressures.  For  these  reasons  the  readings  of 
a  properly  arranged  gas-thermometer  have  justly  come  to 
be  regarded  as  furnishing  the  standard  of  temperature,  at 
any  rate  outside  the  limits  of  the  freezing  and  boiling 
points,  and  indeed  may  now  be  regarded  as  the  tempera- 
ture standard  for  scientific  purposes  throughout  the  whole 
range.  The  Kew  standards  are  calibrated  mercury-in-glass 
thermometers  whose  fixed  points  are  repeatedly  redeter- 
mined.  Such  instruments  will  not  agree  exactly  with  the 
gas-thermometer  except  at  the  freezing-point  and  boiling- 
point.  Comparisons  have  been  made  between  various 
mercury-thermometers  and  air-thermometers  by  Regnault  2 
and  many  others.  The  results  obtained  by  different  ob- 
servers are  not  entirely  concordant  ;  but  it  is  needless 
here  to  discuss  them,  for,  whatever  may  be  the  divergence 
between  the  mercury  and  air  thermometers  in  the  freezing- 
point  and  boiling-point,  the  method  of  measuring  higher 
temperatures  by  continuing  the  scale  of  a  mercury-thermo- 
meter beyond  those  limits  is  altogether  untrustworthy  in 
consequence  of  the  very  wide  divergence  between  different 
mercury-thermometers  at  the  same  temperature,  amount- 
ing sometimes  to  10°  or  more3  at  a  temperature  of  300°. 
The  air-thermometer  readings  must  therefore  be  regarded 
as  the  standard  at  any  rate  for  temperatures  beyond  the 
boiling-point. 

The  general  principle  employed  in  the  use  of  the  gas- 
thermometer  is  as  follows.  Let  pQ  be  the  pressure  of  a 
mass  of  gas  at  0°  C.,  ploo  the  pressure  of  the  same  mass  of 
gas  at  100°  C.,  the  volume  being  the  same,  pt  the  observed 
pressure  of  the  same  mass  of  gas  at  some  unknown  tem- 
perature t,  the  volume  still  remaining  the  same,  then 

/IN 


Pw-Po    100" 

We  require,  therefore,  three  observations  of  the  pressure, 
two  4  to  graduate  the  instrument  and  the  third  to  measure 
the  temperature.  If  the  thermometer  has  been  filled  with 
gas  of  a  perfectly  definite  kind  —  e.g.,  properly  dried  and 
purified  air,  nitrogen,  or  hydrogen  —  and  the  containing 
vessel  has  been  previously  thoroughly  dried,  the  value  of 
;>100  may  be  obtained  from  tables,  since  pm  =p0(l  +  lOOa), 
where  a  is  the  tabulated  coefficient  of  expansion  of  the 
gas  at  constant  volume.  It  is  practically  impossible  to 
keep  the  volume  of  the  gas  constant  in  consequence  of  the 
expansion  of  the  envelope.  A  correction  must  be  applied 
on  this  account,  the  value  of  which  is  derived  from  inde- 
pendent observations  of  the  expansion  of  the  material  of 
the  envelope.  If  the  pressure  of  the  gas  be  maintained 
constant,  and  the  volumes  vt,  v100,  v0  be  observed  for  the 
three  temperatures  t°,  100°,  0°,  we  have  — 


1 


1  "De  la  Mesure  des  Temperatures,"  Mem.  de  VInst.,  xxi.  p.  168. 

2  Mem.  de  VInst.,  xxi.  p.  191.  3  See  HEAT,  sec.  26. 

4  The  two  known  temperatures  at  which  the  pressure  is  measured 
need  not  necessarily  be  0°  and  100°,  though  these  are  often  the  most 
convenient.  The  formula  requires  only  slight  modification  to  make 
it  applicable  when  any  two  other  known  temperatures  are  adopted. 


In  like  manner  vm  -  v0  may  be  taken  from  a  table  of  the 
coefficients  of  expansion  of  gases.  The  different  methods 
which  have  been  suggested  for  the  employment  of  this 
property  of  gases  to  measure  high  temperatures  are  very 
numerous.  We  give  details  of  a  few  of  them. 

(1)  The  Constant  -  Pressure  Method. — The  following  is  a  very 
simple  and  practical  plan  of  employing  the  method  for  obtaining  a 
reading  of  the  temperature.  A  glass  or  porcelain  bulb,  provided 
with  a  fine  neck,  is  very  carefully  dried  and  filled  with  perfectly 
dry  air  ;  it  is  then  exposed  to  the  source  of  the  heat  whose  temper- 
ature is  to  be  investigated  in  such  a  manner  that  the  point  of  the 
neck  just  projects  from  the  furnace.  When  the  equilibrium  of 
temperature  is  reached,  the  neck  is  hermetically  sealed  by  a  blow- 
pipe or  oxy-hydrogen  flame,  and  the  bulb  is  withdrawn  and  allowed 
to  cool,  and  weighed.  The  neck  is  then  immersed  in  water  or 
mercury  and  the  point  broken  off.  In  consequence  of  the  previous 
expansion  of  the  air  the  pressure  in  the  interior  is  much  less  than 
the  atmospheric  pressure,  and  the  liquid  consequently  enters  the 
bulb.  When  so  much  has  entered  that  the  pressure  is  the  same 
inside  and  out  (the  difficulty  of  the  comparative  opacity  of  the 
porcelain  is  not  insurmountable),  the  end  is  closed  by  a  small 
piece  of  wax,  and  the  bulb  removed  and  weighed,  with  the  liquid 
it  contains.  The  bulb  is  then  completely  filled  with  the  liquid, 
and  weighed  a  third  time.  The  difference  between  the  third  and 
first  weighings  gives  a  value  vt  of  formula  (2),  which  only  requires 
correction  for  the  expansion  of  the  envelope,  while  the  difference 
between  the  second  and  first  weighings  gives  a  value  of  the  volume 
from  which  VQ  and  vm  can  be  calculated,  using  the  known  co-efficient 
of  expansion  of  air,  and  thus  all  the  requisite  data  for  the  deter- 
mination of  t  are  obtained.  This  method  was  used  by  Regnault 5 
to  determine  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  air,  and  has  since  been 
described  as  "a  new  pyrometer." 

In  the  process  just  described  the  volume  of  the  residual  gas  is 
measured  ;  its  pressure,  after  cooling,  may  be  measured  instead,  by 
an  arrangement  which  was  suggested  by  Regnault.  The  bulb  is 
provided  with  a  long  fine  neck,  to  the  end  of  which  a  tap  is  fitted 
and  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  easily  connected  with  a  manometer. 
The  bulb  is  exposed  to  the  high  temperature,  the  tap  being  left 
open,  and  when  the  final  temperature  is  reached  the  tap  is  closed 
and  the  bulb  allowed 
to  cool ;  it  is  then 
connected  with  the 
manometer,  and,  if 
the  tap  be  a  three- 
way  tap,  drilled  as 
shown  in  fig.  1,  it  is 
easy  to  expel  all  the 
air  from  the  bulb  side 
of  the  manometer, 
between  the  mercury 
surface  and  the  tap. 
The  residual  pressure 
is  then  measured  by 
the  manometer.  A 
correction  is  required 
for  the  expansion  of 


Fig.  1. 


the  bulb  and  for  the  part  of  the  connecting  tube  not  exposed  to  the 
high  temperature.  Instead  of  measuring  the  volume  of  the  residual 
gas  in  the  manner  thus  described,  Deville  and  Troost6  have  pumped 
the  hot  air  out  of  the  porcelain  bulb  by  means  of  a  Sprcngel  pump, 
and  measured  the  volume  of  air  delivered  by  the  pump.  On  this 
plan  a  series  of  observations  can  be  made  at  the  same  temperature, 
a  three-way  tube  with  suitable  taps  serving  to  put  the  bulb  alter- 
nately in  connexion  with  a  vessel  to  supply  dry  air  and  with  the 
pump.  Crafts  and  Meier7  have  obtained  results  by  sweeping  out 
the  air  with  a  current  of  hydrochloric-acid  gas,  which  was  separated 
from  the  air  it  carried  by  being  passed  through  water. 

An  instrument  for  observing  the  continuous  variation  of  volume 
of  a  gas  at  constant  pressure  is  figured  and  described  by  Sir  W. 
Thomson  in  HEAT  (sec.  65).  Arrangements  have  also  been  sug- 
gested by  which  the  density8  of  the  gas  at  the  high  temperature 
can  be  directly  measured.  Regnault*  has  described  a  hydrogen 
pyrometer  based  on  this  principle  suitable  for  measuring  the 
temperature  of  a  porcelain  furnace.  A  wrought-iron  tube  of  known 
capacity  is  permanently  fixed  in  the  furnace  ;  it  is  filled  with  pure 
dry  hydrogen  by  passing  a  current  of  the  gas  through  it  for  some 
time.  The  current  of  gas  is  then  stopped,  and  after  the  gas  has 
attained  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  it  is  swept  out  by  a  current 
of  dry  air  and  passed  over  red-hot  copper  oxide.  The  water  thus 

5  Mem.  de  VInst.,  xxi.  6  Comples  Rendus,  xc.  727,  773. 

7  C.  R.,  xc.  606. 

8  Throughout  this  article  the  term  "  density  "  is  used  whenever  the 
mass  of  a  unit  of  volume  of  a  substance  is  referred  to. 

0  Ann.  de  Chim.,  [3],  Ixiii.  p.  39. 


PYROMETER 


131 


formed  is  collected  in  sulphuric  acid  tubes  and  its  amount  deter- 
mined by  their  increase  in  weight,  and  from  this  observation  the 
density  of  the  hydrogen  in  the  wrought-iron  tube  is  calculated. 
An  arrangement  of  taps  makes  the  observation  a  very  easy  one 
when  the  apparatus  is  once  set  up.  The  formula  (2)  requires  in 
this  case  to  be  slightly  modified.  Thus  let  dt,  dm,  d0  be  the  den- 
sities of  the  hydrogen  at  the  temperatures  t°,  100°,  and  0°  respect- 
ively, then  for  the  same  mass  of  gas  in  we  have — 

vt  dt  =  vm  dm=v0  dQ  =  m. 
The  formula  therefore  becomes — 


AT.4? 

d0  -  d\ 


d 


100  _    ^ 
dt      100' 


.(3). 


(2)  The  formula  shows  how  the  temperature  of  air  in  any  experi- 
ment may  be  determined  when  its  density  at  that  temperature  is 
observed.  It  is  sometimes  more  convenient  to  determine  instead 
the  density  of  some  vapour  which  at  ordinary  temperatures  would 
be  a  solid  or  a  liquid,  and  to  deduce  from  that  observation  the 
density  of  air  at  the  corresponding  temperature.  Thus,  suppose 
that  the  density  dt  (expressed  in  grammes  per  cc.)  of  the  vapour  of 
any  given  liquid  or  solid  is  observed,  and  that  independent  observa- 
tions show  that  the  specific  gravity  of  the  vapour,  referred  to  air 
at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure,  is  ff,  then  we  have  dt=8t/<r, 
and,  since  dti  and  dloo  can  be  taken  from  tables,  all  the  necessary 
quantities  in  equation  (3)  are  obtained.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
value  of  IT,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  vapour,  is  to  be  derived  from 
independent  observations.  Apart  from  direct  experimental  evi- 
dence in  any  particular  case,  there  is  the  generally  accepted  theory, 
based  on  the  law  of  Avogadro,  that  the  specific  gravity  of  a  gas  or 
vapour  referred  to  hydrogen  at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure 
is  represented  by  half  the  number  expressing  the  molecular  weight 
of  the  substance  of  which  the  vapour  is  composed.  For  elements, 
with  few  exceptions  (of  which  mercury  is  one),  the  ratio  of  the 
atomic  weights  gives  the  specific  gravity  referred  to  hydrogen  at 
the  same  temperature  and  pressure.  At  any  rate,  if  there  are  suffi- 
cient data  for  us  to  regard  cr  as  known,  we  may  evidently  deduce 
the  value  of  dt,  and  thus  by  formula  (3)  the  temperature,  from  an 
observation  of  St. 

Mercury  Vapour. — Regnault1  suggested  the  direct  observation 
of  the  density  of  mercury  vapour  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
temperature.  The  process  is  as  follows.  A  quantity  of  mercury 
is  placed  in  a  wrought-iron  flask  provided  with  a  perforated  lid  as 
shown  in  fig.  2,  No.  1.  The  flask  is  then  exposed  to  the  temper- 
ature to  be  measured,  and  when  thermal  equilibrium  is  attained  the 
small  lid  is  slid  along  so  that  the  neck  is  closed.  The  flask  is  then 
taken  out  and  allowed  to  cool.  The  mercury  is  collected  and 
weighed ;  the  volume  of  the  flask  is  determined 
and  corrected  for  the  expansion  of  the  iron  ; 
and  these  two  observations  determine  the  den- 
sity of  mercury  (in  grammes  per  cc.)  at  the 
temperature  in  question.  The  specific  gravity2 
of  mercury  vapour  referred  to  air  at  the  same 
temperature  and  pressure  is  known  to  be  6 '92. 
A  porcelain  flask  with  a  ball  stopper,  shown  in 
fig.  2,  No.  2,  may  be  used  instead  of  the  iron  flask. 

Iodine  Vapour.  Deville  and  Troost' s  Pyrometer. — Some  of  the 
best-known  determinations  of  very  high  boiling-points  have  been 
made  by  Deville  and  Troost,3  who  employed  iodine  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  in  which  Regnault  employed  mercury.  Some  iodine 
was  contained  in  a  porcelain  flask  of  about  300  cc.  capacity,  with 
a  fine  neck,  which  just  protruded  from  the  source  of  heat  and  was 
loosely  closed  by  means  of  a  stopper ;  when  the  temperature  was 
reached  and  the  iodine  completely  volatilized,  the  stopper  was  fused 
on  to  the  nozzle  by  means  of  an  oxy- hydrogen  blowpipe.  The 
niass  of  the  iodine  remaining  in  the  flask  was  determined  by  weigh- 
ing, after  it  had  cooled  ;  the  volume  of  the  flask  had  been  pre- 
viously determined  ;  thus  the  density  of  the  iodine  vapour  could 
be  found.  A  correction  of  the  volume  of  the  flask  was  necessary 
in  consequence  of  the  expansion  of  the  Bayeux  porcelain  of  which 
it  was  composed.  This  was  obtained  from  independent  observa- 
tions of  the  linear  elongation  of  a  rod  of  porcelain  for  temperatures 
up  to  1500° ;  their  results  gave  a  coefficient  of  cubical  expansion  of 
0-0000108  between  0°  and  the  boiling-point  of  cadmium  (856°), 
0-0000108  between  0°  and  the  melting-point  of  silver  (1000°),  from 
0-000016  to  0-000017  between  1000°  and  1400°,  reaching  -000020 
towards  1500°.  The  specific  gravity  of  iodine  vapour  was  taken  to 
be  8'716,  referred  to  air  at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure; 
this  assumption  was  justified  by  additional  observations  with  air 
and  by  using  the  number  in  a  determination  of  the  density  of 
steam  at  the  boiling-point  of  mercury. 

(3)  The  Manomclric  Gas-thcrmomctcr. — In  the  constant-pressure 
methods  of  measuring  temperature  which  have  just  been  described 
one  experiment  gives  only  a  single  observation  of  the  temperature. 

1  Ann  de  Chimie,  [3],  Ixiii.  p.  39. 

2  Mean  of  results  of  Von  Meyer,  Dumas,  Mitscherlich,  and  Bineau. 

3  Ann.  de  Chimie,  [3],  Iviii.  p.  207. 


No.  1.  No.  2. 

Fig.  2. 


The  continuous  variation  of  temperature  can  be  better  observed 
by  the  constant-volume  method.  This  method  as  used  for  tem- 
peratures up  to  that  at  which  glass  softens  (about  550°  C.)  was 
thoroughly  investigated  by  Regnault,4  whose  normal  instrument 
is  discussed  under  HEAT,  sec.  24.  The  difference  of  pressure  between 
the  gas  contained  in  the  bulb  and  the  atmosphere  is  measured  by 
an  open  mercury-manometer.  The  barometric  pressure  must  also 
be  observed  in  order  to  obtain  the  values  pt,  pm,  and  p0  respectively 
of  formula  (1).  Various  forms  have  been  given  to  the  mauometric 
apparatus  in  order  that  the  mercury  may  be  brought  at  each 
observation  to  the  fiducial  mark  in  the  limb  in  connexion  with  the 
bulb.  Balfour  Stewart's5  has  a  screw  adjustment.  An  instru- 
ment described  by  Codazza 6  is  provided  with  an  air-compression 
manometer,  and  thus  the  necessity  of  a  separate  observation  of  the 
barometric  height  is  dispensed  with.  Various  other  suggestions 
have  been  made  for  securing  the  same  object. 

The  most  convenient  form  of  the  instrument  for  general  use  is 
Jolly's  (described  in  Poggendorff  s  Jubelband,  p.  82, 1874),  and  repre- 
sented in  fig.  3.  The  two  vertical  tubes  of  the 
manometer  are  connected  by  an  india-rubber 
tube  properly  strengthened  by  a  cotton  cover- 
ing, and  they  can  be  made  to  slide  vertically 
up  and  down  a  wooden  pillar  which  supports 
them  ;  they  are  provided  with  clamps  for  fixing 
them  in  any  position  and  a  tangent  screw  for 
fine  adjustment.  The  connexion  between  the 
bulb  and  the  manometer  is  made  by  means  of 
the  convenient  three-way  tap  described  above. 
The  scale  of  the  instrument  is  engraved  on  the 
back  of  a  strip  of  plane  mirror  before  silvering, 
and  the  divisions  are  carried  sufficiently  far( 
across  the  scale  for  the  reflexions  of  the  two 
surfaces  of  the  mercury  to  be  visible  behind 
the  scale.  Parallax  can  thus  be  avoided  and 
an  accurate  reading  obtained  without  the  ne- 
cessity of  using  a  kathetometer.  In  order  to 
allow  for  the  expansion  of  the  glass  of  the 
reservoir  a  weight -thermometer  bulb  is  sup- 
plied with  the  instrument,  made  from  another 
specimen  of  the  same  kind  of  glass,  and  the 
relative  expansion  of  the  mercury  and  the  glass 
can  thus  be  determined  by  the  observer  him- 
self. The  volume  of  the  air-bulb  and  that  of 
the  capillary  tube  and  the  small  portion  of  Flg-  3. 

the  manometer  tube  above  the  small  beak  of  glass,  the  point  of 
which  serves  as  the  fiducial  mark,  arc  determined  by  the  instru- 
ment-makers. The  formula  of  reduction  is — 

t  =  aH0-3pJl\  1  +  v  '  IT0  •  T+^t')' 

where  H  is  the  pressure  at  the  high  temperature  t,  H0  the  pressure 
at  the  temperature  of  the  air  t',  v'/v  the  ratio  of  the  volume  of  the 
connecting  tube,  &c.,  to  the  volume  of  the  bulb,  a  the  coefficient 
of  expansion  of  the  air,  and  3/3  the  coefficient  of  cubical  expansion 
of  the  glass.  A  similar  instrument  with  a  bulb  which  will  resist 
higher  temperatures  may  be  used  beyond  the  softening -point  of 
glass.  Pouillet  in  his  classical  research  on  high  temperatures  7  used 
a  platinum  bulb  and  connecting  tube.  He  employed  the  constant- 
pressure  method  and  measured  in  the  manometer  tube  the  variation 
of  volume.  Regnault8  mentions  a  platinum  air -pyrometer  and 
gives  instructions  for  drawing  the  platinum  connecting  tube ;  but  no 
results  of  measurements  obtained  with  it  are  given.  E.  Becquerel a 
published  an  account  of  results  obtained  with  a  platinum  reservoir 
air-thermometer,  which  were  objected  to  by  Deville  and  Troost  on 
the  ground  that  platinum  becomes  porous  at  high  temperatures, 
and  their  objection  is  supported  by  an  experiment  described  by 
them  in  the  Repertoire  de  Chimie  Appliquee,  1863,  p.  237,  and 
Fortschritte  der  Physik,  1863,  p.  84.  Weinhold10  used  a  Jolly's 
thermometer  fitted  with  a  porcelain  bulb  and  connecting  tube,  and 
Deville  and  Troost  are  of  opinion  that  porcelain  forms  the  only 
suitable  material  for  gas  -  thermometer  bulbs  for  very  high  tempera- 
tures.11 For  use  at  high  temperatures  the  gas-thermometer  should 
be  filled  with  gas  at  a  low  pressure,  so  that  when  heated  there  may 
be  no  great  difference  of  pressure  between  the  interior  and  the 
external  air.  It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  here  to  insist  upon  the 
necessity  for  the  complete  desiccation  of  the  interior  of  the  bulb 
and  of  the  gas  employed. 

(4)  The  last  modification  of  the  gas -thermometer  to  which  it  is 
necessary  to  call  attention  is  that  designed  and  used  by  Berthelot,1 ' 
intended  for  reading  high  temperatures  rapidly  to  an  accuracy  of 
within  two  or  three  degrees.  It  consists  of  a  small  cylindrical  bulb 


'  Mem  de  I'Inst.,  xxi.  5  pui  Trans.,  cliii.  p.  425. 

1  Dingler's  Journal,  ccx.  p.  255.  7  Comptes  Rendus,  iii.  (1836),  p.  782. 

I  Mem  de  I'Inst.,  xxi.  p.  263.  9  Ann.  de  Chimie,  Ixviii.  p.  49. 
lu  Fogg.  Ann.,  cxlix. 

11  See  Deville  and  Troost  on  glass  and  other  envelopes  for  high-temperature 
instruments,  Ann.  de  Chimie,  [3],  Iviii.  p.  265. 
!2  Ann.  de  Chimie,  [4],  xiii.  p.  144. 


132 


PYROMETER 


of  glass  or  silver  of  4  cc.  capacity  connected  with  a  vertical  stem  of 
thermometer  tubing  of  0'2  mm.  diameter.  This  stem  terminates 
in  an  open  vessel  o?  mercury,  and  thus  the  pressure  of  the  gas  can 
be  measured.  Berthelot's  instrument  is  graduated  by  reference  to 
four  fixed  points,  namely,  the  freezing-point  and  boiling-point  of 
water,  and  the  boiling-points  of  mercury  and  sulphur,  lu  order 
that  the  mercury  index  may  move  easily  in  the  tube,  extreme  care 
must  be  taken  in  drying  the  tube,  and  only  perfectly  pure  mercury 
cau  be  used. 

§  4.  The  results  obtained  by  any  of  the  air-pyrometric 
methods  just  described  maybe  employed  to  express  directly 
the  temperature  of  the  pyrometer  in  numbers  agreeing 
closely  with  the  thennodynamic  scale.  The  other  instru- 
ments to  which  we  now  turn  our  attention  can  only  be 
regarded  as  intrinsic  thermoscopes,  which,  in  order  to  give 
intelligible  numerical  results,  must  be  graduated  by  direct 
comparison  with  an  air-thermometer.  Some  of  them  may 
indeed  be  used  by  extrapolation  to  give  a  numerical 
measure  of  temperatures  outside  the  practical  range  of 
the  air-thermometer,  employing  for  that  purpose  a  formula 
verified  for  temperatures  within  the  range.  A  case  in 
point  is  the  determination  of  the  temperature  of  fusion  of 
platinum  by  the  calorimetric  method  described  below. 
These  intrinsic  thermoscopes  are  frequently  much  more 
convenient  in  practice  than  any  of  the  modifications  of 
the  air-pyrometer. 

§  5.  Discontinuous  Intrinsic  Thermoscopes. — The  best  ex- 
ample of  the  measurement  of  temperature  by  a  discontinu- 
ous intrinsic  thermoscope  is  that  suggested  by  Prinsep.1 
He  formed  a  series  of  definite  percentage  alloys  of  silver 
and  gold  and  of  gold  and  platinum.  The  melting-points 
of  these  alloys  give  a  series  of  fixed  temperatures  lying  be- 
tween the  melting-points  of  silver  and  gold  and  of  gold 
and  platinum  respectively.  An  observation  is  taken  by 
exposing  in  the  furnace,  upon  a  small  cupel,  a  set  of  small 
flattened  specimens  of  the  alloys,  not  necessarily  larger 
than  pin  heads,  and  noticing  which  of  them  are  fused. 

The  temperatures  of  fusion  of  these  alloys  have  been  determined 
by  Erhard  and  Shertel 2 ;  their  results  are  given  in  the  following 
table,  taken  from  Landolt  and  Bbrnstein's  Physikalisch-chemischa 
Tabellen 

Table  I. — The  Fusing-Points  of  Prinsep' s  Alloys. 


1.  SILVER  AND  GOLD. 

Per  cent 
of  silver. 

Per  cent, 
of  gold. 

Fusing- 
point' 

Per  cent, 
of  silver. 

Per  cent, 
of  gold. 

Fusing- 
point. 

].',.! 

954° 

40 

60 

1020° 

80 

20 

975° 

20 

80 

1045° 

60 

40 

995° 

100 

1075° 

2.  GOLD  AND  PLATINUM. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent  of 

Fusing- 

Per  cent 

Per  cent,  of 

Fusing- 

of  gold. 

platinum. 

point.3 

of  gold. 

platinum. 

point 

100 

1075° 

45 

55 

1420° 

95 

5 

1100° 

40 

60 

1460° 

90 

10 

1130° 

85                   65 

1495° 

85 

15 

1160° 

30                   70 

1535° 

80 

20 

1190° 

25 

75 

1570° 

75 

25 

1220° 

20 

80 

1610° 

70 

SO 

1255° 

15 

85 

1650° 

65 

35 

1285° 

10 

90 

1690° 

60 

40 

1320° 

5 

95 

1730° 

65 

45 

1350° 

100 

1775° 

50 

50 

1385° 

It  is  said,  however,  that  some  difficulty  is  met  with  in  the  use 
of  Prinsep's  alloys  in  consequence  of  the  property  possessed  by 
silver  of  taking  up  oxygen  when  melted  and  ejecting  it  on  solidify- 
ing and  of  molecular  changes  in  the  alloys  which  make  it  unadvis- 
able  to  use  the  same  specimen  more  than  once.  A  similar  method 
lias  recently  been  employed  by  Carnelley  and  Carleton  Williams,4 
in  which  metallic  salts  with  high  fusing- points  were  employed 
instead  of  alloys,  the  fusing-points  being  initially  determined  by  a 
calorimetric  method.  These  methods  recall  an  old  empirical  method 
sometimes  employed  in  porcelain  manufacture  for  estimating  the 

1  Phil.  Trans.,  1828,  p.  79. 

2  Jahrb.  fur  das  Berg-  und  Hiltten-Wesen  in  Sachsen,  1879. 

3  Determinations  of  temperature  by  a  porcelain  air-thermometer. 
Errors  in  general  less  than  20°. 

4  See  Chem.  Soc.  Jour.,  1876,  i.  489  ;  1877,  i.  365  ;  1878. 


temperature  of  a  furnace.  Certain  "pyrometrical  beads"  or  "trials" 
—  i.e.,  small  hoops  or  gallipots  of  clay  —  indicated  the  temperature 
by  their  tint  much  iti  the  same  way  as  the  proper  temperature  is 
indicated  by  the  colour  of  steel  in  tempering. 

§  6.  The  Calorimetric  Method.  —  This  is  a  very  conveni- 
ent method  and  is  often  practically  employed  for  measur- 
ing the  temperature  of  furnaces.  The  observation  consists 
in  determining  the  amount  of  heat  given  out  by  a  mass 
of  platinum,  copper,  or  wrought-iron  on  cooling  in  water 
from  the  high  temperature.  The  theory  is  simple.  Let 
m  be  the  capacity  for  heat  of  the  calorimeter  and  of  the 
water  contained  in  it,  M  the  mass  of  metal,  T  the  tem- 
perature required,  t  the  initial  temperature  of  the  water  in 
the  calorimeter,  6  the  final  temperature  of  the  water  after 
the  introduction  of  the  metal,  and  K  the  mean  specific  heat 
of  the  metal  between  the  temperatures  6  and  T.  Then 


M  '  .  K 

The  value  of  K,  the  mean  specific  heat  of  the  metal  between  the 
temperatures  occurring  in  the  experiment,  must  be  determined  by 
precisely  similar  calorimetric  experiments,  in  which  the  high  tem- 
perature T  is  determined  by  the  application  of  one  of  the  air-pyro- 
meter methods.  The  following  table  (II.)  gives  the  best-known 
determinations  of  the  mean  specific  heat  of  platinum  for  different 
ranges  of  temperature. 

Table  II.  —  Mean  Specific  Heat  of  Platinum. 


Pouillet.s  by   platinum    \Veinhold,8  by  porcelain 
reservoir  air-thermo-  j     reservoir   air  -thermo- 

Violle,7 by  porcelain  re- 
servoir    air  -  thermo- 

meter.                           1     meter. 

meter. 

Range  of 

Mean     '       Range  of 

Mean 

Range  of 

Mean 

temp. 

spec.  heat. 

temp. 

spec.  heat. 

temp. 

spec.  heat. 

0°-  100" 

0-03350 

10°-2  -  99°  -1 

0-03287 

0°-100° 

0-0323 

200° 

0-03392 

16°  -49-238°  -5 

0-03270 

300° 

0-03434 

16°'9  -246°-4 

0-03520 

400° 

0-03476 

17°'2  -256°-8 

0-03411 

500° 

0-03518 

23°  -5  -476° 

0-03188 

600° 

0-03560 

24'  '6  -478° 

0-03230 

700° 
800° 

0-03602 
0-03644 

25°'4  -507° 
20°  -7  -705° 

0-03253 
0-03333 

0°-7S4° 

0-0365 

900° 

003686    j!  23°  -6  -766° 

0-03381 

1000° 

0-03728 

22°  -3  -934° 

0-03396 

0°-1000° 

00377 

1100° 

0-03770 

17°  '3  -952° 

0-03333 

0°-1177° 

0-0388 

Violle's  results  give,  if  c0'  be  the  mean  specific  heat  between 
0°  and  t°,  c0'= 0-0317 +  -000006^.  Assuming  this  formula  to  hold 
beyond  the  verified  limits,  he  obtains  by  calorimetric  observations 
1779°  C.  as  the  temperature  of  the  melting-point  of  platinum. 
The  tine  specific  heat  of  wrought-iron  at  temperature  t  is  accord- 
ing to  Weinhold  (I.e.)  given  by  the  formula  ct  =  c0  +  at  +  pP,  where 
c0  =  0-105907,  0  =  0-00006538,  /3  =  0-00000006647 7,  and  the^  total 
heat  obtained  from  unit-mass  of  wrought-irou  cooling  from  t£  to  t° 
is  thereforey72(co  +  at  +  P$)dt.  The  specific  heat  of  copper  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  accurately  determined  for  high  temperatures. 
The  determinations  by  Bede,  quoted  by  Landolt  and  Bornstein 
(op.  cit.,  p.  178)  are — 

15°-100°  mean  specific  heat  0-09331 ; 

16°-172°          „  „         0-09483; 

17°-247°          „  „          0-09680. 

There  are  two  obvious  sources  of  error  of  considerable  amount  in 
the  use  of  the  calorimeter  for  pyrometrical  purposes,  viz.,  (1)  the 
liability  of  the  metal  to  lose  heat  during  its  passage  from  the  fur- 
nace to  the  calorimeter,  and  (2)  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the 
calorimeter.  With  the  small  mass  of  platinum  generally  used, 
the  former  source  of  error  is  likely  to  be  very  important,  for  the 
temperature  of  a  mass  of  50  grammes  of  mercury  at  100"  C.  may 
fall  a  full  degree  in  being  carried  to  a  calorimeter  3  feet  away.  It 
does  not  appear  that  any  estimates  of  the  amount  of  loss  which  may 
be  so  produced  in  calorimetric  determinations  have  been  published  ; 
but  in  order  to  reduce  the  loss  Salleron8  suggests  the  employment 
of  a  platinum  or  copper  carrier  in  which  to  heat  the  mass  of  metal, 
and  J.  C.  Hoadly"  uses  a  graphite  crucible  for  that  purpose.  The 
second  source  of  loss  is  more  easily  disposed  of.  Weinhold  (I.e.) 
uses  a  calorimeter  closed  by  a  lid  and  quite  filled  with  water.  This 
is  provided  with  a  broad  tube  passing  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the 
calorimeter,  and  the  latter  is  tilted  while  the  platinum  mass  is 
being  introduced  ;  whereas  Violle 10  gets  over  the  same  difficulty  by 
the  use  of  a  calorimeter  provided  with  a  platinum  "  eprouvette, " 
so  that  the  heat  is  imparted  more  slowly  to  the  water.  In  a  calori- 
metric pyrometer  for  technical  purposes,  made  by  Messrs  Siemens 

6  C.  R.,  iii.  p.  786  (1836).  6  Pogg.  Ann.,  cxlix. 

7  Phil.  Mag.,  [5],  iv.  p.  318.  8  Chem.  News,  xxvii.  77. 
9  Jour,  of  Franklin  Inst.,  xciv.  p.  252. 

10  Phil.  Mag.,  [5],  iv.  p.  318. 


PYROMETER 


133 


Brothers,  the  mass  of  metal  employed  is  a  copper  cylinder.  For 
a  sketch  and  description  of  the  instrument,  see  IRON,  vol.  xiii.  p. 
304  (fig.  21). 

§  7.  Continuous  Intrinsic  Thermoscopes. — The  other  pyro- 
metric  methods  to  which  we  have  space  to  refer  are  those 
which  depend  on  the  continuous  variation  of  some  property 
of  a  body  with  variation  of  temperature.  Each  instru- 
ment of  this  kind  requires  graduation  by  direct  or  indirect 
comparison  with  an  air-thermometer.  The  methods  may 
be  grouped  under  three  heads, — (1)  the  expansion  of  a  rod 
of  metal  or  earthenware ;  (2)  the  variation  of  electrical 
resistance  of  a  wire ;  (3)  the  electromotive  force  of  a  thermo- 
electric junction. 

(1)  Expansion  of  Metals  and  Earthenware. — The  necessity  for  the 
measurement  of  high  temperatures  has  been  most  felt  perhaps  in 
pottery  manufacture,  and  in  consequence  many  attempts  have  been 
made  by  potters  to  establish  a  system  of  pyrometry  based  on  the 
permanent  contraction  which  clay  undergoes  when  exposed  to  a 
high  temperature.     The  action  of  Wedgwood's  pyrometer  described 
in  the  Phil.  Trans.,  1782,  1784,  and  1786,  depends  on  this  property 
of  clay.     The  linear  contraction  of  a  clay  cylinder  was  measured 
by  means  of  a  metal  groove  with  plane  sides  inclined  to  each  other 
at  a  small  angle,  and  the  temperature  was  estimated  numerically 
by  comparing  the  contraction  with  that  produced  by  a  known  dif- 
ference of  temperature.     The  results  were  not  very  satisfactory, 
since  the  clay  would  contract  the  same  amount  by  long-continued 
heating  at  a  lower  temperature  as  by  a  short  exposure  to  a  higher 
one.      Wedgwood's  estimate  of  the  melting-point  of  cast  iron  was 
20,577°  Fahr. 

The  measurement  of  temperature  by  the  expansion  of  a  metal 
rod  has  been  very  frequently  attempted.  The  first  instrument  to 
which  the  name  of  "pyrometer"  was  given  was  of  this  kind,  and 
was  devised  by  Muschenbroek,  and  others  were  devised  in  the  early 
part  of  the  century  by  Des  Aguliers,  Ellicot,  Graham,  Smeaton, 
Ferguson,  Brogniart,  Laplace,  and  Lavoisier,  and  later  by  Pouillet. 
We  may  say  here  that  the  only  acccurate  methods  of  measuring  the 
extremely  minute  elongations  of  metal  rods  are  those  in  which  the 
expansion  is  referred  by  some  optical  arrangement  to  a  scale  kept 
quite  uninfluenced  by  the  source  of  heat  which  causes  the  expansion. 
In  this  respect  Pouillet's  method  of  employing  the  expansion  of  a 
rod  is  superior  to  those  previously  employed. 

The  relative  expansion  of  a  metal  in  an  earthenware  socket  was 
employed  by  Daniell  in  his  well-known  pyrometer.  The  relative 
expansion  was  indicated  by  an  index  of  porcelain  which  was  pushed 
forward  when  the  bar  expanded  and  left  behind  when  it  contracted, 
so  that  after  the  apparatus  had  cooled  the  expansion  could  be 
measured  at  leisure  by  the  scale  provided  ;  due  allowance  was  made 
for  the  expansion  of  the  index  itself.  Quite  recently  the  expansion 
of  graphite  has  been  employed  for  pyrometry  by  Steinle  and 
Harting.1  As  the  result  of  his  experience,  however,  Weinhold '- 
states  that  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  trustworthy  measurements 
of  temperature  from  an  instrument  depending  on  the  relative  expan- 
sion of  solid  bodies. 

An  ingenious  application  of  the  relative  expansion  of  gold,  silver, 
and  platinum  was  introduced  by  Breguet.  Very  narrow  strips  of 
the  three  metals  are  fastened  together  to  form  a  compound  ribbon- 
spiral,  and  to  the  end  of  the  spiral  is  attached  a  needle,  which,  as 
the  temperature  changes,  moves  over  a  graduated  circle.  The  in- 
strument, of  course,  requires  empirical  graduation.  A  modification 
of  it  is  sometimes  used  to  measure  the  temperature  of  the  hot  blast 
of  an  iron  furnace. 

(2)  Variation  of  Electrical  Resistance. — A  pyrometric  method 
founded  on  the  variation  of  the  electrical  resistance  of  a  platinum 
wire  has  been  practically  carried  out  by  Siemens,  and  was  de- 
scribed by  him  in  the  Bakerian  lecture  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  1871). 
"  Assuming  a  dynamical  law,  according  to  which  the  electrical  re- 
sistance increases  according  to  the  velocity  with  which  the  atoms 
are  moved  by  heat,  a  parabolic  ratio  of  increase  of  resistance  with 
increase  of  temperature  follows,  and  in  adding  to  this  the  coeffi- 
cients (representing  linear  expansion  and  an  ultimate  minimum 
resistance)  the  resistance  r  for  any  temperature  is  expressed  by  the 
general  formula  r  =  aT*+pT+y,   which   is   found  to  agree  very 
closely  both  with  the  experimental  data  at  low  temperatures  sup- 
plied by  Dr  Matthiessen  and  with  the  experimental  results  varying 
up  to  1000°  C."     The  details  of  the  experimental  verification  are 
not  given  in  the  abstract  of  the  lecture,  nor  are  the  numerical 
values  of  the  constants  for  platinum.     But  Weinhold  gives  the 
information,  obtained  by  letter  from  the  lecturer,  that  T  is  the 
absolute  temperature,  and  the  numerical  values  of  the  constants — 
a  =  0'039369,  /3  =  0 "00216407,  7=  -0'24127. 

The  experimental  arrangement  for  practical  purposes  of  the  in- 

1  See  Beckert,  Zeitschr.  f.  anal.  Chem.,  xxi.  p.  248,  1882. 

2  Pocjy.  Ann.,  cxlix.  p.  206. 


strument  as  supplied  by  Messrs  Siemens  Brothers  is  exceedingly 
convenient.  It  is  shown  in  fig.  4.  P  is  the  coil  of  platinum-wire 
wound  on  a  'cy- 
linder of  fireclay, 
and  connected  by 
stout  platinum 
wires  X,  X,  G 
with  three  bind- 
ing screws  at  the 
end  of  a  stout 
iron  tube  6  feet 
long,  and  thereby 
with  an  arrange- 
ment for  compar- 
ing its  resistance 
with  that  of  a 
standard  coil  X, 
by  means  of  dif- 
ferential volta- 
meters V,  V.  A 
current  from  six 
Leclanche  cells 
is  divided  into 
two  parts,  one 
going  through 
the  standard  coil 
X,  the  volta- 
meter V,  and  an 
additional  pla- 
tinum wire,  also 
marked  X,  join- 
ing the  other 
branch  again  at 
the  end  of  the 
platinum  coil, 
while  the  other 
branch  includes 
the  voltameter 
V~,  the  connect- 
ing wire  X,  and  /  -„ 
the  coil  P.  The 

wire   C  is    com-  _. 

mon  to  both  cir-  ^ 

cuits.  The  amount  of  gas  generated  in  the  voltameters  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  resistances  of  the  respective  branch  circuits. 
Thus,  if  V  and  V  be  the  volumes  of  gas  in  the  two  voltameters 
respectively, 

V  _  Resistance  of  P  and  its  connexions 
V  ~  Resistance  of  X  and  its  connexions 

The  leading  wires  from  the  screws  of  the  iron  tube  to  the  com- 
mutator BBC  are  bound  together  in  one  cable,  so  that  they  have  the 
same  resistance  ;  thus  the  observed  variation  in  the  ratio  of  the 
resistances  may  be  regarded  as  entirely  due  to  the  variation  in  the 
resistance  of  P.  The  height  of  the  liquids  in  the  two  voltameters 
can  be  adjiisted  by  the  short  glass  tubes  S,  S'  sliding  vertically  on 
the  wooden  support  to  which  the  voltameters  are  attached.  They 
are  connected  by  means  of  india-rubber  tubing  with  the  voltameters. 
The  commutator  BBC  is  used  to  reverse  the  direction  of  the  current 
every  ten  seconds  during  the  observation,  which  lasts  long  enough 
to  give  a  sufficient  supply  of  gas  in  the  voltameter  tubes.  By 
this  artifice  the  error  due  to  variation  in  the  polarization  of  the 
electrodes  is  avoided. 

The  voltametric  arrangement  for  comparing  the  resistances 
simplifies  very  greatly  the  apparatus  required.  In  a  laboratory  the 
resistances  may  be,  of  course,  more  accurately  compared  by  means  of 
resistance -coils  and  a  galvanometer.  For  technical  purposes  the 
temperatures  up  to  1400°  are  reduced  from  the  observations  by  means 
of  a  very  convenient  slide  rule.  For  temperatures  beyond  1400° 
the  calculation  has  to  be  gone  through.  The  experimental  data 
upon  which  the  verification  of  the  formula  and  the  determination  of 
the  constants  rest  are  not  very  numerous.  Besides  the  measurements 
of  Siemens  referred  to  above,  there  is  an  experimental  comparison 
by  Weinhold  of  the  results  obtained  from  the  instrument  and  those 
of  an  air-thermometer.  For  these  observations  the  iron  cover  of 
the  coil  was  removed.  The  results  up  to  500°,  which  in  each  case 
are  the  mean  of  from  five  to  ten  observations,  show  an  agreement 
within  9°  ;  those  between  500°  and  1000°,  comprising  one  observa- 
tion at  each  of  six  temperatures,  three  of  these  between  531°  and 
553°  and  three  between  933°  and  992°,  show  differences  of  about 
+  26°  at  the  lower  limit  and  -  53°  at  the  upper.  The  arrangement 
for  comparing  the  resistances  was  found  to  be  satisfactory  and 
sufficiently  sensitive.  Specimens  of  this  instrument  were  also  sub- 
mitted to  experiment  by  a  committee  of  the  British  Association 
(Report,  1874),  but  their  attention  was  confined  to  the  resolution 
of  the  question  whether  the  platinum  coil  gave  the  same  resist- 
ance after  being  repeatedly  heated  and  cooled.  It  was  found  that 


134 


P  Y  R  — P  Y  R 


this  was  not  the  case  unless  the  coil  was  carefully  protected  by  a 
platinum  sheath. 

(8)  Thermo-electric  Methods. — The  measurement  of 'high  temper- 
atures by  means  of  a  thermo-electric  junction  has  been  attempted 
many  times.  A  platinum-iron  element  was  employed  by  Rosetti  to 
measure  the  temperature  of  flames.1  E.  Becquerel-  used  a  platinum- 
palladium  element.  The  best-known  results  on  the  variation  of 
the  electro-motive  force  with  temperature  are  those  of  Tait,3  in 
the  Edin.  Phil.  Traits. ,  xxvii.  ;  but  full  details  of  the  measurement 
of  temperature  in  his  experiments  are  not  given.  It  would  appear, 
however,  from  Regnault's  observations,4  and  from  the  well-known 
effect  of  slight  differences  in  the  physical  state  or  composition  of 
the  metals  used,  that  it  is  in  every  case  necessary  for  the  observer 
with  a  thermo-j  unction  to  conduct  his  own  comparison  with  an 
air-thermometer  or  other  standard  method. 

§  8.  The  application  of  the  variation  in  the  wave-length 
of  sound  to  the  measurement  of  the  density  of  air  and  con- 
sequent determination  of  the  temperature  has  been  sug- 
gested by  Cagnard  de  Latour,  Damon-Ferrand,  Mayer,  and 
Chautard.  The  method  is  liable  to  difficulties  which  need 
not  be  detailed  here,  but  which  are  obviously  sufficient  to 
cause  the  experiments  to  be  regarded  rather  as  scientific 
curiosities  than  as  pyrometric  measurements. 

§  9.  Hitherto  we  have  confined  our  attention  to  the  ques- 
tion whether  any  instrument  described  is  capable  of  giving 
trustworthy  indications  of  the  temperature  of  the  instru- 
ment itself ;  in  order  to  be  satisfied  as  to  whether  they 
fulfil  their  object,  we  have  still  to  consider  whether  they 
can  be  easily  made  to  take  up  the  temperature  of  the  body 
or  enclosure  under  investigation.  This  is  a  very  difficult 
question,  and  it  seems  doubtful  whether  with  such  an 
instrument  as  Siemens's  electrical  pyrometer,  of  which  the 
coil  is  contained  in  a  massive  sheath  of  iron  connected  to 
about  6  feet  of  stout  iron  tube,  thermal  equilibrium 
between  the  coil  and  the  enclosure  is  possible.  We  have 
not  space  to  discuss  the  matter,  but  it  seems  not  unlikely 
that  the  differences  which  still  exist  between  the  results  of 
different  observers  may  be  due  to  the  method  of  exposure 
of  the  pyrometer.  In  connexion  with  this  the  researches 
of  Regnault 5  with  reference  to  the  determination  of  the 
boiling-point  of  mercury  and  sulphur  are  very  important. 
He  observed  that  his  thermometers,  when  exposed  directly 
to  the  steam,  indicated  too  high  a  temperature,  and  that 
it  was  therefore  necessary  for  the  socket  enclosing  the  ther- 
mometer to  dip  into  the  liquid  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  was  above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the 
thermometer  bulb.  Whether  or  not  this  may  account  for 
some  of  the  differences  between  the  results  obtained  for 
the  boiling-point  of  zinc  by  Deville  and  Troost  and  by 
E.  Becquerel  and  Violle  it  is  difficult  to  say. 

The  following  table  (III.)  will  show  the  divergence 
among  the  best  of  the  high-temperature  measurements. 

Table  ITT. — Determinations  of  the  Soiling-Point  of  Zinc. 


Pressure. 

Temp. 

Method. 

Observer. 

Reference. 

759-54  mm. 

1039° 

Iodine  vapour  pyro- 

Deville and  Troost, 

§  3,  (2) 

meter 

1859 

761-2      „ 

1040° 

932* 

Platinum    reservoir 

E.  Becquerel''  1863 

§  3,'  (3) 

air-thermometer 

891° 

Porcelain   reservoir 

air-thermometer 

718-9      „ 

1035° 

Porcelain   reservoir 

Weinhold,  1873  .... 

§  3,  (3) 

air-thermometer 

929'-954« 

Air-thermometer    .  . 

Deville  and  Troost, 

§  3,  (1) 

1880 

9160-925" 

Hydrogen  -  thermo- 

»         it 

tj 

meter 

760 

930' 

Porcelain    reservoir 

Violle,  1882  

§  3,  (3) 

air-thermometer 

§  10.  Perhaps  the  most  important  modern  attempts  at 
the  development  of  pyrometry  are  those  connected  with 
the  identification  of  the  law  connecting  the  temperature 
of  a  body  with  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  energy  which 


1  Ann.  de  Chim.,  1878. 

2  Ann.  de  Chim.,  Ixviii.  p.  49. 
4  Mem.  de  I'Inst.,  xxi.  p.  241. 


3  See  ELECTRICITY. 

5  Mem.  de  I'Inst.,  xxvi.  p.  513. 


it  radiates.  On  such  attempts  depends  the  possibility  of 
measuring  the  temperature  of  a  hot  body  by  means  of  the 
light  it  emits.  This  is  evidently  a  most  desirable  object, 
since,  if  that  were  possible,  one  of  the  great  difficulties  of 
pyrometry — the  bringing  of  the  measuring  instrument  to 
the  temperature  of  the  body  under  investigation — would 
immediately  disappear.  At  present,  however,  there  is  no 
general  agreement  among  scientific  men  as  to  the  form 
the  relation  takes.  We  cannot  here  do  more  than  refer  to 
the  "Report  on  Spectrum  Analysis,"  in  the  British  Asso- 
ciation's Reports  for  1881  and  1884,  for  references  to  the 
literature  of  the  subject.  See  RADIATION.  (w.  N.  s.) 

PYROTECHNY  is  the  art  of  producing  pleasing  scenic 
effects  by  means  of  fire.  It  is  not  held  to  include  the 
manufacture  of  inflammable  and  explosive  substances  for 
other  purposes.  The  use  of  fireworks  for  purposes  of 
display  is  not  a  modern  invention,  for  it  appears  to  have 
existed  in  China  in  very  ancient  times ;  but  the  secret  of 
constructing  them  remained  unknown  in  Europe  till  about 
the  13th  century,  when  the  knowledge  of  GUNPOWDER 
(q.v.)  crept  in  from  the  East.  In  modern  times  the  art 
has  been  gradually  improved  by  the  work  of  specialists, 
who  have  had  the  advantage  of  being  guided  by  scientific 
knowledge.  The  value  of  such  knowledge  to  the  pyro- 
technist is  extremely  great ;  for  he  must  be  governed  by 
the  principles  of  chemistry  in  the  selection  of  his  materials, 
and  his  various  contrivances  for  turning  them  to  the  best 
account  are  subject  to  the  laws  of  mechanics.  As  in  all 
such  cases,  however,  science  is  useless  without  the  aid  of 
practical  experience  and  acquired  manual  dexterity. 

Many  substances  have  a  strong  tendency  to  combine 
with  oxygen,  and  will  do  so,  in  certain  circumstances,  so 
energetically  as  to  render  the  products  of  the  combination 
(which  may  be  solid  matter  or  gas)  intensely  hot  and 
luminous.  This  is  the  general  cause  of  the  phenomenon 
known  as  fire.  Its  special  character  depends  chiefly  on 
the  nature  of  the  substances  burned  and  on  the  manner 
in  which  the  oxygen  is  supplied  to  them.  As  is  well 
known,  our  atmosphere  contains  oxygen  gas  diluted  with 
about  four  times  its  volume  of  nitrogen ;  and  it  is  this 
oxygen  which  supports  the  combustion  of  our  coal  and 
candles.  But  it  is  not  often  that  the  pyrotechnist  depends 
wholly  upon  atmospheric  oxygen  for  his  purposes ;  for  the 
phenomena  of  combustion  in  it  are  too  familiar,  and  too 
little  capable  of  variation,  to  strike  with  wonder.  Two 
cases,  however,  where  he  does  so  may  be  instanced,  viz., 
the  burning  of  magnesium  powder  and  of  lycopodium, 
both  of  which  are  used  for  the  imitation  of  lightning  in 
theatres.  Nor  does  the  pyrotechnist  resort  much  to  the 
use  of  pure  oxygen,  although  very  brilliant  effects  may 
be  produced  by  burning  various  substances  in  glass  jars 
filled  with  the  gas.  Indeed,  the  art  could  never  have 
existed  in  anything  like  its  present  form  had  not  certain 
solid  substances  become  known  which,  containing  oxygen 
in  combination  with  other  elements,  are  capable  of  being 
made  to  evolve  large  volumes  of  it  at  the  moment  it  is 
required.  The  best  examples  of  these  solid  oxidizing 
agents  are  nitrate  of  potash  (nitre  or  saltpetre)  and  chlor- 
ate of  potash ;  and  these  are  of  the  first  importance  in  the 
manufacture  of  fireworks.  If  a  portion  of  one  of  these 
salts  be  thoroughly  powdered  and  mixed  with  the  correct 
quantity  of  some  suitable  combustible  body,  also  reduced 
to  powder,  the  resulting  mixture  is  capable  of  burning 
with  more  or  less  energy  without  any  aid  from  atmo- 
spheric oxygen,  since  each  small  piece  of  fuel  is  in  close 
juxtaposition  to  an  available  and  sufficient  store  of  the 
gas.  All  that  is  required  is  that  the  liberation  of  the 
oxygen  from  the  solid  particles  which  contain  it  shall  be 
started  by  the  application  of  heat  from  without,  and  the 
action  then  goes  on  unaided.  This,  then,  is  the  funda- 


PYROTECHNY 


135 


mental  fact  of  pyrotechny, — that,  with  proper  attention 
to  the  chemical  nature  of  the  substances  employed,  solid 
mixtures  (compositions  or  fuses}  may  be  prepared  which 
contain  within  themselves  all  that  is  essential  for  the  pro- 
duction of  fire. 

If  nitre  and  chlorate  of  potash,  with  other  salts  of 
nitric  and  chloric  acids  and  a  few  similar  compounds,  be 
grouped  together  as  oxidizing  agents,  most  of  the  other 
materials  used  in  making  firework  compositions  may  be 
classed  as  oxidizable  substances.  Every  composition  must 
contain  at  least  one  sample  of  each  class :  usually  there 
are  present  more  than  one  oxidizable  substance,  and  very 
often  more  than  one  oxidizing  agent.  In  all  cases  the 
proportions  by  weight  which  the  ingredients  of  a  mixture 
bear  to  one  another  is  a  matter  of  much  importance,  for 
it  greatly  affects  the  manner  and  rate  of  combustion. 
The  most  important  oxidizable  substances  employed  are 
charcoal  and  sulphur.  These  two,  it  is  well  known,  when 
properly  mixed  in  certain  proportions  with  the  oxidizing 
agent  nitre,  constitute  gunpowder ;  and  gunpowder  plays 
an  important  part  in  the  construction  of  most  fireworks. 
It  is  sometimes  employed  alone,  when  a  strong  explosion 
is  required ;  but  more  commonly  it  is  mixed  with  one  or 
more  of  its  own  ingredients  and  with  other  matters.  In 
addition  to  charcoal  and  sulphur,  the  following  oxidizable 
substances  are  more  or  less  employed  : — many  compounds 
of  carbon,  such  as  sugar,  starch,  resins,  &c. ;  certain 
metallic  compounds  of  sulphur,  such  as  the  sulphides  of 
arsenic  and  antimony ;  a  few  of  the  metals  themselves, 
such  as  iron,  zinc,  magnesium,  antimony,  copper.  Of 
these  metals  iron  (cast-iron  and  steel)  is  more  used  than 
any  of  the  others.  They  are  all  employed  in  the  form  of 
powder  or  small  filings.  They  do  not  contribute  much  to 
the  burning  power  of  the  composition;  but  when  it  is 
ignited  they  become  intensely  heated  and  are  discharged 
into  the  air,  where  they  oxidize  more  or  less  completely 
and  cause  brilliant  sparks  and  scintillations. 

Sand,  sulphate  of  potash,  calomel,  and  some  other  sub- 
stances, which  neither  combine  with  oxygen  nor  supply  it, 
are  sometimes  employed  as  ingredients  of  the  compositions 
in  order  to  influence  the  character  of  the  fire.  This  may 
be  modified  in  many  ways.  Thus  the  rate  of  combustion 
may  be  altered  so  as  to  give  anything  from  an  instantane- 
ous explosion  to  a  slow  fire  lasting  many  minutes.  The 
flame  may  be  clear,  smoky,  or  charged  with  glowing 
sparks.  But  the  most  important  characteristic  of  a  fire 
— one  to  which  great  attention  is  paid  by  pyrotechnists — 
is  its  colour,  which  may  be  varied  through  the  different 
shades  and  combinations  of  yellow,  red,  green,  and  blue. 
These  colours  are  imparted  to  the  flame  by  the  presence 
in  it  of  the  heated  vapours  of  certain  metals,  of  which 
the  following  are  the  most  important: — sodium,  which 
gives  a  yellow  colour ;  calcium,  red ;  strontium,  crimson ; 
barium,  green;  copper,  green  or  blue,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. Suitable  salts  of  these  metals  are  much 
used  as  ingredients  of  fire  mixtures ;  and  they  are  decom- 
posed and  volatilized  during  the  process  of  combustion. 
Very  often  the  chlorates  and  nitrates  are  employed,  as 
they  serve  the  double  purpose  of  supplying  oxygen  and 
of  imparting  colour  to  the  flame. 

The  number  of  fire  mixtures  actually  employed  is  very 
great ;  for  the  requirements  of  each  variety  of  firework, 
and  of  almost  each  size  of  each  variety,  are  different. 
Moreover,  every  pyrotechnist  has  his  own  taste  in  the 
matter  of  compositions.  They  are  capable,  however,  of 
being  classified  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  to 
which  they  are  suited.  Thus  there  are  rocket-fuses,  gerbe- 
fuses,  squib-fuses,  star-compositions,  &c. ;  and,  in  addition, 
there  are  a  few  which  are  essential  in  the  construction  of 
most  fireworks,  whatever  the  main  composition  may  be. 


Such  are  the  starting-powder,  which  first  catches  the  fire, 
the  bursting-powder,  which  causes  the  final  explosion,  and 
the  quick-match  (cotton-wick,  dried  after  being  saturated 
with  a  paste  of  gunpowder  and  starch),  employed  for  con- 
necting parts  of  the  more  complicated  works  and  carrying 
the  fire  from  one  to  another.  Of  the  general  nature  of 
fuses  an  idea  may  be  had  from  the  following  two  examples, 
which  are  selected  at  hazard  from  among  the  numerous 
recipes  for  making,  respectively,  tourbillion  fire  and  green 
stars  :  — 


Tourbillion. 
Meal  gunpowder  ......  24  parts. 


Nitre 10 

Sulphur    7 

Charcoal  4 

Steel  filings 8 


Green  Stars. 
Chlorate  of  potash  ...16  parts. 


Nitrate  of  baryta    ...  48 
Sulphur    ...............  12 

Charcoal  ...............  1 

Shellac  ..................  5 

Calomel    ...............  8 

Sulphide  of  copper...  2 

Although  the  making  of  compositions  is  of  the  first 
importance,  it  is  not  the  only  operation  with  which  the 
pyrotechnist  has  to  do  ;  for  the  construction  of  the  cases 
in  which  they  are  to  be  packed,  and  the  actual  processes 
of  packing  and  finishing,  require  much  care  and  dexterity. 
These  cases  are  made  of  paper  or  pasteboard,  and  are 
generally  of  a  cylindrical  shape.  In  size  they  vary  greatly, 
according  to  the  effect  which  it  is  desired  to  produce. 
The  relations  of  length  to  thickness,  of  internal  to  external 
diameter,  and  of  these  to  the  size  of  the  openings  for 
discharge,  are  matters  of  extreme  importance,  and  must 
always  be  attended  to  with  almost  mathematical  exactness 
and  considered  in  connexion  with  the  nature  of  the  com- 
position which  is  to  be  used. 

There  is  one  very  important  property  of  fireworks  that 
is  due  more  to  the  mechanical  structure  of  the  cases  and 
the  manner  in  which  they  are  filled  than  to  the  precise 
chemical  character  of  the  composition,  i.e.,  their  power  of 
motion.  Some  are  so  constructed  that  the  piece  is  kept 
at  rest  and  the  only  motion  possible  is  that  of  the  flame 
and  sparks  which  escape  during  combustion  from  the 
mouth  of  the  case.  Others,  also  fixed,  contain,  alternately 
with  layers  of  some  more  ordinary  composition,  balls  or 
blocks  of  a  special  mixture  cemented  by  some  kind  of 
varnish  ;  and  these  stars,  as  they  are  called,  shot  into  the 
air,  one  by  one,  like  bullets  from  a  gun,  blaze  and  burst 
there  with  striking  effect.  But  in  many  instances  motion 
is  imparted  to  the  firework  as  a  whole,  —  to  the  case  as 
well  as  to  its  contents.  This  motion,  various  as  it  is  in 
detail,  is  almost  entirely  one  of  two  kinds,  —  rotatory 
motion  round  a  fixed  point,  which  may  be  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  a  single  piece  or  that  of  a  whole  system  of 
pieces,  and  free  ascending  motion  through  the  air.  In  all 
cases  the  cause  of  motion  is  the  same,  viz.,  that  large 
quantities  of  gaseous  matter  are  formed  by  the  combus- 
tion, that  these  can  escape  only  at  certain  apertures,  and 
that  a  backward  pressure  is  necessarily  exerted  at  the 
point  opposite  to  them.  When  a  large  gun  is  discharged, 
it  recoils  a  few  feet.  Movable  fireworks  may  be  regarded 
as  very  light  guns  loaded  with  heavy  charges;  and  in 
them  the  recoil  is  therefore  so  much  greater  as  to  be  the 
most  noticeable  feature  of  the  discharge;  and  it  only 
requires  proper  contrivances  to  make  the  piece  fly  through 
the  air  like  a  sky-rocket  or  revolve  round  a  central  axis 
like  a  Catherine  wheel.  Beauty  of  motion  is  hardly  less 
important  in  pyrotechny  than  brilliancy  of  fire  and  variety 
of  colour. 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  some  of  the  forms  of  fire- 
work most  employed  :  — 

Fixed  Fires.  —  Theatre  fires  consist  of  a  slow  composition  which 
may  be  heaped  in  a  conical  pile  on  a  tile  or  a  flagstone  and  lit  at 
the  apex.  They  require  no  cases.  Usually  the  fire  is  coloured,  — 
green,  red,  or  blue  ;  and  beautiful  effects  are  obtained  by  illumin- 
ating buildings  with  it.  It  is  also  used  on  the  stage  ;  but,  in  that 


136 


P  Y  R  — P  Y  R 


case,  the  composition  must  be  such  as  to  give  no  suffocating  or 
poisonous  fumes.  Bengal  lights  are  very  similar,  but  are  piled  in 
saucers,  covered  with  gummed  paper,  and  lit  by  means  of  pieces  of 
match.  Marroons  are  small  boxes  wrapped  round  several  times 
with  lind  cord  and  filled  with  a  strong  composition  which  explodes 
with  a  loud  report  They  are  generally  used  in  batteries,  or  in 
combination  with  some  other  form  of  firework.  Squibs  are  straight 
cylindrical  cases  about  6  inches  long,  firmly  closed  at  one  end,  tightly 
packed  with  a  strong  composition,  and  capped  with  touch -paper. 
Usually  a  little  bursting-powder  is  put  in  before  the  ordinary  com- 
position, so  that  the  fire  is  finished  by  an  explosion.  The  character 
of  the  fire  is,  of  course,  susceptible  of  great  variation  in  colour,  &c. 
Crackers  are  characterized  by  the  cases  being  doubled  backwards 
and  forwards  several  times,  the  folds  being  pressed  close  and  secured 
by  twine.  One  end  is  primed  ;  and  when  this  is  lit  the  cracker 
burns  with  a  hissing  noise,  and  a  loud  report  occurs  every  time  the 
fire  reaches  a  bend.  If  the  cracker  is  placed  on  the  ground,  it  will 
give  a  jump  at  each  report ;  so  that  it  cannot  quite  fairly  be  classed 
among  the  fixed  fireworks.  Roman  candles  are  straight  cylindrical 
cases  filled  with  layers  of  composition  and  stars  alternately.  These 
stars  are  simply  balls  of  some  special  composition,  usually  containing 
metallic  filings,  made  up  with  gum  and  spirits  of  wine,  cut  to  the 
required  size  and  shape,  dusted  with  gunpowder,  and  dried.  They 
are  discharged  like  blazing  bullets  several  feet  into  the  air,  and 
produce  a  beautiful  effect,  which  may  be  enhanced  by  packing  stars 
of  differently  coloured  fire  in  one  case.  Gerbes  are  choked  cases, 
not  unlike  Roman  candles,  but  often  of  much  larger  size.  Their 
fire  spreads  like  a  sheaf  of  wheat.  They  may  be  packed  with  vari- 
ously coloured  stars,  which  will  rise  30  feet  or  more.  Lances 
are  small  straight  cases  charged  with  compositions  like  those  used 
for  making  stars.  They  are  mostly  used  in  complex  devices,  for 
which  purpose  they  are  fixed  with  wires  on  suitable  wooden  frames. 
They  are  connected  by  leaders,  i.e.,  by  quick -match  enclosed  in 
paper  tubes,  so  that  they  can  be  regulated  to  take  fire  all  at  the 
same  time,  singly,  or  in  detachments,  as  may  be  desired.  The  de- 
vices constructed  in  this  way  are  often  of  an  extremely  elaborate 
character  ;  and  they  include  all  the  varieties  of  lettered  designs,  of 
fixed  suns,  fountains,  palm-trees,  waterfalls,  mosaic  work,  High- 
land tartan,  &c. 

Rotating  Fireworks. — Pin  or  Catherine  wheels  are  long  paper 
cases  filled  with  a  composition  by  means  of  a  funnel  and  packing- 
wire  and  afterwards  wound  round  a  disk  of  wood.  This  is  fixed  by 
a  pin,  sometimes  vertically  and  sometimes  horizontally ;  and  the 
outer  primed  end  of  the  spiral  is  lit.  As  the  fire  escapes  the  recoil 
causes  the  wheel  to  revolve  in  an  opposite  direction  and  often  with 
considerable  velocity.  Pastiles  are  very  similar  in  principle  and 
construction.  Instead  of  the  case  being  wound  in  a  spiral  and 
made  to  revolve  round  its  own  centre  point,  it  may  be  used  as  the 
engine  to  drive  a  wheel  or  other  form  of  framework  round  in  a 
circle.  Many  varied  effects  are  thus  produced,  of  which  the  fire- 
wheel  is  the  simplest.  Straight  cases,  filled  with  some  fire-com- 
position, are  attached  to  the  end  of  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  or  other 
mechanism  capable  of  being  rotated.  They  are  all  pointed  in  the 
same  direction  at  an  angle  to  the  spokes,  and  they  are  connected 
together  by  leaders,  so  that  each,  as  it  burns  out,  fires  the  one  next 
it.  The  pieces  may  be  so  chosen  that  brilliant  effects  of  changing 
colour  are  produced  ;  or  various  fire-wheels  of  different  colours  may 
be  combined,  revolving  in  different  planes  and  different  directions 
— some  fast  and  some  slowly.  Bisecting  wheels,  plural  wheels, 
caprice  wheels,  spiral  wheels,  are  all  more  or  less  complicated  forms  ; 
and  it  is  possible  to  produce,  by  mechanism  of  this  nature,  a  model 
in  fire  of  the  solar  system. 

Ascending  Fireioorks. — Tourbillions  are  fireworks  so  constructed 
as  to  ascend  in  the  air  and  rotate  at  the  same  time,  forming  beauti- 
ful spiral  curves  of  fire.  The  straight  cylindrical  case  is  closed 
at  the  centre  and  at  the  two  ends  with  plugs  of  plaster  of  Paris, 
the  composition  occupying  the  intermediate  parts.  The  fire  finds 
vent  by  six  holes  pierced  in  the  case.  Two  of  these  are  placed  close 
to  the  ends,  but  at  opposite  sides,  so  that  one  end  discharges  to 
the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left ;  and  it  is  this  which  imparts 
the  rotatory  motion.  The  other  holes  are  placed  along  the  middle 
line  of  what  is  the  under-surface  of  the  case  when  it  is  laid  horizon- 
tally on  the  ground ;  and  these,  discharging  downwards,  impart  an 
upward  motion  to  the  whole.  A  cross  piece  of  wood  balances  the 
tourbillion  ;  and  the  quick-match  and  touch-paper  are  so  arranged 
that  combustion  begins  at  the  two  ends  simultaneously  and  does 
not  reach  the  holes  of  ascension  till  after  the  rotation  is  fairly 
begun.  The  sky-rocket  is  generally  considered  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  fireworks;  and  it  certainly  is  the  one  that  requires  most 
skill  and  science  in  its  construction.  It  consists  essentially  of 
two  parts, — the  body  and  the  head.  The  body  is  a  straight  cylinder 
of  strong  pasted  paper  and  is  choked  at  the  lower  end,  so  as  to  pre- 
sent only  a  narrow  opening  for  the  escape  of  the  fire.  The  com- 
position does  not  fill  up  the  case  entirely,  for  a  central  hollow 
conical  bore  extends  from  the  choked  mouth  up  the  body  for  three 
quarters  of  its  length.  This  is  an  essential  feature  of  the  rocket. 
It  allows  of  nearly  the  whole  composition  being  fired  at  once  ;  the 


result  of  which  is  that  an  enormous  quantity  of  heated  gases  collects 
in  the  hollow  bore  and  the  gases,  forcing  their  way  downwards 
through  the  narrow  opening,  urge  the  rocket  up  through  the  air. 
The  top  of  the  case  is  closed  by  a  plaster-of- Paris  plug.  A  hole  passes 
through  this  and  is  filled  with  a  fuse,  which  serves  to  communicate 
the  fire  to  the  head  after  the  body  is  burned  out.  This  head,  which 
is  made  separately  and  fastened  on  after  the  body  is  packed,  consists 
of  a  short  cylindrical  paper  chamber  with  a  conical  top.  It  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  cutting  a  way  through  the  air  and  of  holding 
the  garniture  of  stars,  sparks,  crackers,  serpents,  gold  and  silver 
rain,  &c.,  which  are  scattered  by  bursting  fire  as  soon  as  the  rocket 
reaches  the  highest  point  of  its  path.  A  great  variety  of  beautiful 
effects  may  be  obtained  by  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  in  the  choice 
and  construction  of  this  garniture.  Many  of  the  best  results  have 
been  obtained  by  unpublished  methods  which  must  be  regarded 
as  the  secrets  of  the  trade.  The  stick  of  the  sky-rocket  serves  the 
purpose  of  guiding  and  balancing  it  in  its  flight ;  and  its  size  must 
be  accurately  adapted  to  the  dimensions  of  the  case.  In  winged 
rockets  the  stick  is  replaced  by  cardboard  wings,  which  act  like 
the  feathers  of  an  arrow.  A  girandole  is  the  simultaneous  discharge 
of  a  large  number  of  rockets  (often  from  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred),  which  either  spread  like  a  peacock's  tail  or  pierce  the 
sky  in  all  directions  with  rushing  lines  of  fire.  This  is  usually  the 
final  feat  of  a  great  pyrotechnic  display. 

For  a  description  of  rockets  used  in  war,  see  AMMUNITION. 

See  Chertier,  Sur  Us  Feux  d' Artifice  (Paris,  1841 ;  2d  ed.  1854) ;  Mortimer, 
Manual  of  Pyrotechny  (London,  1856);  Tessier,  Chimie  pyrotechnique,  ou  Tmitr. 
pratique  des  Feux  Colores  (Paris,  1858) ;  Richardson  and  Watts,  Chemical  Tech- 
nology, s.v.  "Pyrotechny"  (London,  1863-67);  Thomas  Kentish,  The  Pyro- 
technist's Treasury  (London,  1S78);  Websky,  Luflfeuem-erkkunst  (Leipsic, 
1878).  (O.  M.) 

PYRRHO.     See  SCEPTICISM. 

PYRRHUS.  The  name  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus, 
owes  its  chief  fame  in  history  to  the  fact  that  with  his 
invasion  of  Italy  in  the  early  part  of  the  3d  century  B.C. 
Greece  and  Rome  for  the  first  time  came  definitely  into 
contact.  Born  about  the  year  318,  and  claiming  descent 
from  Pyrrhus,  the  son  of  Achilles,  connected  also  with  the 
royal  family  of  Macedonia  through  Olympias,  the  mother 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  he  became  when  a  mere  stripling 
king  of  the  wild  mountain  tribes  of  Epirus,  and  learned 
how  to  fight  battles  in  the  school  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
(the  Besieger)  and  of  his  father  Antigonus.  He  fought 
by  their  side  in  his  seventeenth  year  at  the  memorable 
battle  of  Ipsus  in  Phrygia,  in  which  they  were  decisively 
defeated  by  the  combined  armies  of  Seleucus  and  Lysi- 
machus.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  sent  to  the  court  of 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt  at  Alexandria  as  a  pledge  for  the  faith- 
ful carrying  out  of  a  treaty  of  alliance  between  Ptolemy 
and  Demetrius,  as  his  sister  Deidamia  was  the  wife  of  the 
latter.  Through  Ptolemy,  whose  step-daughter  Antigone 
he  married,  he  was  enabled  to  establish  himself  firmly  on 
the  throne  of  Epirus,  and  he  became  a  formidable  opponent 
to  Demetrius,  who  was  now  king  of  Macedonia  and  the 
leading  man  in  the  Greek  world.  He  won  a  victory  over 
one  of  Demetrius's  generals  in  JEtolia,  invaded  Macedonia, 
and  forced  Demetrius  to  conclude  a  truce  with  him.  For 
a  brief  space  of  about  seven  months  he  had  possession  of 
a  large  part  of  Macedonia,  Demetrius  finding  it  convenient 
to  make  this  surrender  on  condition  that  Pyrrhus  did  not 
meddle  with  the  affairs  of  the  Peloponnesus.  But  in  286 
he  was  defeated  by  Lysimachus  at  Edessa,  driven  out  of 
Macedonia,  and  compelled  to  fall  back  on  his  little  king- 
dom of  Epirus.  In  280  came  the  great  opportunity  of 
his  life,  the  embassy  from  the  famous  Greek  city  Taren- 
tum  in  southern  Italy  with  a  request  for  aid  against 
Rome,  whose  hostility  the  Tarentines  had  recklessly  pro- 
voked. Pyrrhus  had  a  trusted  friend  and  adviser  in  Cineas 
of  Thessaly,  a  persuasive  speaker  and  a  clever  diplomatist, 
and  he  at  once  sent  him  over  with  3000  men  to  Tarentum 
with  a  view  to  prepare  matters.  He  himself  soon  fol- 
lowed, after  a  disastrous  passage  across  the  Adriatic,  with  a 
miscellaneous  force,  furnished  him  partly  by  the  assistance 
of  Ptolemy,  of  about  25,000  men,  with  some  elephants, 
his  best  troops  being  some  Macedonian  infantry  and 
Thessalian  cavalry.  He  had  counted  on  an  army  of  Italian 
mercenaries,  but  the  Tarentines  and  the  Italian  Greeks 


P  Y  T  — P  Y  T 


137 


generally  shrank  from  anything  like  serious  effort  and 
resented  his  calling  upon  them  for  men  and  money.  Rome 
meantime  raised  a  special  war  contribution,  called  on  her 
subjects  and  allies  for  their  full  contingent  of  troops,  and 
posted  strong  garrisons  in  all  towns  of  doubtful  fidelity. 
She  was  now  quite  the  dominant  power  in  Italy,  but  her 
position  was  critical,  as  in  the  north  she  had  had  trouble 
with  the  Etruscans  and  Gauls,  while  in  the  south  the 
Lucanians  and  Bruttians  were  making  common  cause  with 
Tarentum  and  the  Greek  cities.  In  fact  there  was  the 
possibility  of  a  most  formidable  coalition  of  the  Italian 
peoples  both  in  the  north  and  in  the  south  against  Rome, 
and  so  Pyrrhus  had  a  good  deal  on  which  to  build  his 
hopes  of  success.  For  the  first  time  in  history  Greeks 
and  Romans  met  in  battle  at  Heraclea  near  the  shores  of 
the  Gulf  of  Tarentum,  and  the  cavalry  and  elephants  of 
Pyrrhus  secured  for  him  a  complete  victory,  though  at  so 
heavy  a  loss  as  to  convince  him  of  the  great  uncertainty 
of  final  success.  Although  he  now  had  the  Samnites  as 
well  as  the  Lucanians  and  Bruttians  and  all  the  Greek 
cities  of  southern  Italy  with  him,  he  found  every  city 
closed  against  him  as  he  advanced  on  Rome  through 
Latium,  and  his  dexterous  minister  Cineas  utterly  failed 
to  negotiate  a  peace,  the  old  blind  Appius  Claudius 
declaring  in  the  senate  that  Rome  never  negotiated  with 
a  foreign  enemy  on  Italian  ground.  In  the  second  year 
of  the  war,  279,  Pyrrhus  again  defeated  a  Roman  army  at 
Asculum  (Ascoli)  in  Apulia,  but  he  was  no  nearer  decisive 
success,  as  Rome  still  had  armies  in  the  field  and  her 
Italian  confederation  was  not  broken  up.  For  a  while 
he  quitted  Italy  for  Sicily  with  the  view  of  making  himself 
the  head  of  the  Sicilian  Greeks  and  driving  the  Cartha- 
ginians out  of  the  island.  In  his  military  operations  he 
was  on  the  whole  successful,  and  Rome  and  Carthage  in 
face  of  the  common  danger  concluded  an  offensive  and 
defensive  alliance  against  him.  He  passed  three  years  in 
Sicily,  but  through  want  of  political  tact  he  gave  offence  to 
the  Greek  cities,  which  he  treated  rather  too  much  in  the 
fashion  of  a  despot,  not  paying  any  respect  to  their  local 
constitutions  or  sufficiently  humouring  their  republican 
tastes  and  love  of  independence.  He  thus  lost  a  good 
opportunity  of  uniting  both  the  Italian  and  Sicilian  Greeks 
against  Rome.  On  his  return  to  Italy  in  276  he  had 
neither  men  nor  money  adequately  supplied  him,  as  Taren- 
tum and  the  other  Greek  cities  had  no  confidence  in  him. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  thoroughly  disheartened,  and  was 
haunted  by  mysterious  dreams  and  forebodings  which 
followed  on  an  act  which  he  imagined  had  involved  him 
in  the  guilt  of  sacrilege.  He  made  indeed  one  more  effort, 
and  engaged  a  Roman  army  at  Beneventum  in  the  Samnite 
country,  but  his  arrangements  for  the  battle  miscarried, 
and  he  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  his  camp  and  the 
greater  part  of  his  army.  He  had  made  a  fair  trial  of  the 
strength  of  Rome  and  had  been  utterly  baffled.  Nothing 
remained  but  to  go  back  to  his  allies  at  Tarentum.  He 
left  a  garrison  in  the  city  and  returned  the  following 
year  to  his  home  in  Epirus  after  a  six  years'  absence. 
The  brief  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed  in  camps  and 
battles,  without,  however,  any  glorious  result.  He  won  a 
victory  over  Antigonus  Gonatas,  king  of  Macedonia,  on 
Macedonian  ground.  In  273  he  was  invited  into  the 
Peloponnesus  to  settle  at  the  sword's  point  a  dispute  about 
the  royal  succession  at  Sparta.  He  besieged  the  city,  but 
was  repulsed  with  great  loss.  Next  he  went  to  Argos  at 
the  invitation  of  a  political  faction,  and  here  in  the  con- 
fusion of  a  fight  by  night  in  the  streets  he  met  his  death 
in  his  forty-sixth  year  from  the  hand  of  a  woman,  who 
hurled  a  ponderous  roof-tile  upon  his  head  just  at  the 
moment,  it  is  said,  when  he  was  striking  a  blow  at  her  son. 
Pyrrhus  was  no  doubt  a  brilliant  and  dashing  soldier, 


but  he  was  aptly  compared  "  to  a  gambler  who  made  many 
good  throws  with  the  dice,  but  could  not  make  the  proper 
use  of  the  game."  There  was  something  chivalrous  about 
him  which  seems  to  have  made  him  a  general  favourite. 
After  his  death  Macedonia  had  for  a  time  at  least  nothing 
to  fear,  and  the  liberty  of  Greece  was  quite  at  the  mercy 
of  that  power. 

For  Pyrrhus,  English  readers  will  do  well  to  consult  Thirlwall, 
Greece,  vols.  vii.,  viii.  ;  Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  ii.  7  ;  Niebuhr, 
Lectures  on  Roman  History,  lects.  1. ,  li.  Plutarch's  Life  of  Pyrrhus 
is  the  fullest  of  our  original  sources  of  information,  and  there  is 
frequent  mention  of  him  in  Polybius. 

PYTHAGORAS  AND  PYTHAGOREANS.  Pythagoras 
is  one  of  those  figures  which  have  so  impressed  the  imagina- 
tion of  succeeding  times  that  their  historical  lineaments  are 
difficult  to  discern  through  the  mythical  haze  that  envelops 
them.  Animated,  as  it  would  appear,  not  merely  by  the 
philosophic  thirst  for  knowledge  but  also  by  the  enthusiasm 
of  an  ethico-religious  reformer,  he  became,  centuries  after 
his  death,  the  ideal  hero  or  saint  of  those  who  grafted  a 
mystical  religious  asceticism  on  the  doctrines  of  Plato. 
Writings  were  forged  in  his  name.  Lives  of  him  were 
written  which  gather  up  in  his  person  all  the  traits  of 
the  philosophic  wise  man,  and  surround  him  besides  with 
the  nimbus  of  the  prophet  and  wonder-worker.  He  is 
described  by  his  Neoplatonic  biographers  as  the  favourite 
and  even  the  son  of  Apollo,  from  whom  he  received  his 
doctrines  by  the  mouth  of  the  Delphic  priestess.  We 
read  that  he  had  a  golden  thigh,  which  he  displayed  to 
the  assembled  Greeks  at  Olympia,  and  that  on  another 
occasion  he  was  seen  in  Crotona  and  Metapontum  at  one 
and  the  same  time.  He  is  said  to  have  tamed  wild  beasts 
by  a  word  and  to  have  foretold  the  future,  while  many 
stories  turn  upon  the  knowledge  he  was  reported  to  retain 
of  his  personality  and  deeds  in  former  states  of  existence. 
Thus,  as  Zeller  truly  remarks,  the  information  respecting 
Pythagoreanism  and  its  founder  grows  fuller  and  fuller 
the  farther  removed  in  time  it  is  from  its  subject.  The 
authentic  details  of  Pythagoras's  career,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  meagre  enough  and  merely  approximate  in  character. 
He  was  a  native  of  Samos,  and  the  first  part  of  his  life 
may  therefore  be  said  to  belong  to  that  Ionian  seaboard 
which  had  already  witnessed  the  first  development  of 
philosophic  thought  in  Greece.  The  exact  year  of  his 
birth  has  been  variously  placed  between  586  and  569 
B.C.,  but  582  may  be  taken  as  the  most  probable  date. 
Some  of  the  accounts  make  him  the  pupil  of  Anaximander ; 
but  such  an  assertion  lies  so  ready  to  hand  in  the  circum- 
stances of  time  and  place  that  we  cannot  build  with  any 
assurance  upon  the  suggested  connexion  with  the  Ionic 
school.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  Pythagoras  was 
aware  of  their  speculations,  seeing  that  he  left  behind 
him  in  Ionia  the  reputation  of  a  learned  and  universally 
informed  man.  "  Of  all  men  Pythagoras,  the  son  of 
Mnesarchus,  was  the  most  assiduous  inquirer,"  says  Hera- 
clitus,  and  then  proceeds  in  his  contemptuous  fashion 
to  brand  his  predecessor's  wisdom  as  only  eclectically 
compiled  information  or  polymathy  (TroXv^adia).  This 
accumulated  wisdom,  as  well  as  most  of  the  tenets  of  the 
Pythagorean  school,  was  attributed  in  antiquity  to  the 
extensive  travels  of  Pythagoras,  which  brought  him  in 
contact  (so  it  was  said)  not  only  with  the  Egyptians,  the 
Phoenicians,  the  Chaldaeans,  the  Jews,  and  the  Arabians, 
but  also  with  the  Druids  of  Gaul,  the  Persian  Magi,  and 
the  Brahmans.  But  these  tales  are  told  of  too  many  of 
the  early  philosophers  to  be  received  implicitly ;  they 
represent  rather  the  tendency  of  a  later  age  to  connect 
the  beginnings  of  Greek  speculation  with  the  hoary  re- 
ligions and  priesthoods  of  the  East.  There  is  no  intrinsic 
improbability,  however,  in  the  statement  that  Pythagoras 
visited  Egypt  and  other  countries  of  the  Mediterranean, 

XX.  —  1 8 


138 


PYTHAGORAS 


for  travel  was  then  one  of  the  few  ways  of  gathering 
knowledge.  Some  of  the  accounts  represent  Pythagoras 
as  deriving  much  of  his  mathematical  knowledge  from  an 
Egyptian  source.  Herodotus  traces  the  doctrine  of  metem- 
psychosis to  Egypt,  as  well  as  the  practice  of  burying  the 
dead  exclusively  in  linen  garments,  but  he  does  not  men- 
tion any  visit  of  Pythagoras  to  that  country.  There  is 
thus  little  more  than  conjecture  to  fill  out  the  first  half 
of  the  philosopher's  life.  The  historically  important  part 
of  his  career  begins  with  his  emigration  to  Crotona,  one 
of  the  Dorian  colonies  in  the  south  of  Italy.  Nothing 
is  known  with  certainty  of  the  reasons  that  led  to  this 
step,  which  he  appears  to  have  taken  about  the  year  529 ; 
perhaps  the  ethical  temper  which  can  be  traced  in  the 
Pythagorean  school  attracted  the  founder  towards  the 
sterner  Dorian  character.  At  Crotona  Pythagoras  speedily 
became  the  centre  of  a  widespread  and  influential  organiza- 
tion, which  seems  to  have  resembled  a  religious  brother- 
hood or  an  association  for  the  moral  reformation  of  society 
much  more  than  a  philosophic  school.  Pythagoras  appears, 
indeed,  in  all  the  accounts  more  as  a  moral  reformer  than 
as  a  speculative  thinker  or  scientific  teacher;  and  it  is 
noteworthy  that  the  only  one  of  the  doctrines  of  the  school 
which  is  definitely  traceable  to  Pythagoras  himself  is  the 
ethico-mystical  doctrine  of  transmigration.  The  aim  of 
the  brotherhood  was  the  moral  education  and  purification 
of  the  community;  and  it  seems  to  have  been  largely  based 
upon  a  revival  of  the  Dorian  ideal  of  abstinence  and  hardi- 
hood along  with  certain  other  traits  of  a  more  definitely 
religious  character,  which  were  probably  due  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  mysteries.  But  many  details  of  life  and  ritual, 
such  as  abstinence  from  animal  food  and  from  beans, 
celibacy,  and  even  community  of  goods,  have  been  fathered 
by  the  organized  asceticism  of  a  later  period  upon  the 
original  followers  of  Pythagoras.  Ethics,  according  to  the 
Greek  and  especially  according  to  the  Dorian  conception, 
being  inseparably  bound  up  with  the  general  health  of  the 
state,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  the  Pythagoreans  repre- 
sented as  a  political  league ;  nor  is  it  wonderful  that  their 
following  was  among  the  aristocracy,  and  that  they  formed 
the  staunchest  supporters  of  the  old  Dorian  constitutions. 
It  is  unfair,  however,  to  speak  of  the  league  as  primarily 
a  political  organization,  wide  though  its  political  ramifica- 
tions must  latterly  have  become.  Its  entanglement  with 
politics  was  in  the  end  fatal  to  its  existence.  The  authori- 
ties differ  hopelessly  in  chronology,  but  ^  according  to  the 
balance  of  evidence  the  first  reaction  against  the  Pytha- 
goreans took  place  in  the  lifetime  of  Pythagoras  himself 
after  the  victory  gained  by  Crotona  over  Sybaris  in  the 
year  510.  Dissensions  seem  to  have  arisen  about  the 
allotment  of  the  conquered  territory,  and  an  adverse  party 
was  formed  in  Crotona  under  the  leadership  of  Cylon. 
This  was  probably  the  cause  of  Pythagoras's  withdrawal 
to  Metapontum,  which  an  almost  unanimous  tradition 
assigns  as  the  place  of  his  death  in  the  end  of  the  6th  or 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century.  The  league  appears  to 
have  continued  powerful  in  Magna  Graecia  till  the  middle 
of  the  5th  century,  when  it  was  violently  trampled  out 
by  the  successful  democrats.  The  meeting-houses  of  the 
Pythagoreans  were  everywhere  sacked  and  burned ;  men- 
tion is  made  in  particular  of  ".the  house  of  Milo "  in 
Crotona,  where  fifty  or  sixty  of  the  leading  Pythagoreans 
were  surprised  and  slain.  The  persecution  to  which  the 
brotherhood  was  subjected  throughout  Magna  Grsecia  was 
the  immediate  cause  of  the  spread  of  the  Pythagorean 
philosophy  in  Greece  proper.  Philolaus,  who  resided  at 
Thebes  in  the  end  of  the  5th  century  (cf.  Plato,  P/iaedo, 
6 ID),  was  the  author  of  the  first  written  exposition  of 
the  system.  Lysis,  the  instructor  of  Epaminondas,  was 
another  of  these  refugees.  This  Theban  Pythagoreanism 


was  not  without  an  important  influence  upon  Plato,  and 
Philolaus  had  also  disciples  in  the  stricter  sense.  But  as 
a  philosophic  school  Pythagoreanism  became  extinct  in 
Greece  about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century.  In  Italy — 
where,  after  a  temporary  suppression,  it  attained  a  new 
importance  in  the  person  of  Archytas,  ruler  of  Tarentum — 
the  school  finally  disappeared  about  the  same  time. 

Pythagorean  Philosophy. 

The  central  thought  of  the  Pythagorean  philosophy  is  the  idea 
of  number,  the  recognition  of  the  numerical  and  mathematical 
relations  of  things.  In  the  naive  speculation  of  an  early  age  the 
abstract  consideration  of  these  relations  was  tantamount  to  assert- 
ing their  essential  existence  as  the  causes  of  phenomena.  Hence 
the  Pythagorean  thought  crystallized  into  the  formula  that  all 
things  are  number,  or  that  number  is  the  essence  of  everything. 
"The  Pythagoreans  seem,"  says  Aristotle,  "to  have  looked  upon 
number  as  the  principle  and,  so  to  speak,  the  matter  of  which 
existences  consist";  and  again,  "they  supposed  the  elements  of 
numbers  to  be  the  elements  of  existence,  and  pronounced  the  whole 
heaven  to  be  harmony  and  number."  "Number,"  says  Philolaus, 
' '  is  great  and  perfect  and  omnipotent,  and  the  principle  and  guide 
of  divine  and  human  life."  Fantastical  as  such  a  proposition 
sounds,  we  may  still  recognize  the  underlying  truth  that  prompted 
it  if  we  reflect  that  it  is  number  or  definite  mathematical  relation 
that  separates  one  thing  from  another  and  so  in  a  sense  makes  them 
things.  Without  number  and  the  limitation  which  number  brings 
there  would  be  only  chaos  and  the  illimitable,  a  thought  abhorrent 
to  the  Greek  mind.  Number,  then,  is  the  principle  of  order,  the 
principle  by  which  a  cosmos  or  ordered  world  subsists.  So  we  may 
perhaps  render  the  thought  that  is  crudely  and  sensuously  expressed 
in  the  utterances  of  the  school.  They  found  the  chief  illustrations, 
or  rather  grounds,  of  their  position  in  the  regular  movements  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  and  in  the  harmony  of  musical  sounds,  the 
dependence  of  which  on  regular  mathematical  intervals  they  were 
apparently  the  first  to  discover.  The  famous  theory  of  the  harmony 
of  the  spheres  combines  both  ideas  :  the  seven  planets  are  the  seven 
golden  chords  of  the  heavenly  heptachord. 

Immediately  connected  with  their  central  doctrine  is  the  theory 
of  opposites  held  by  the  Pythagoreans.  Numbers  are  divided  into 
odd  and  even,  and  from  the  combination  of  odd  and  even  the 
numbers  themselves  (and  therefore  all  things)  seem  to  result.  The 
odd  number  was  identified  with  the  limited,  the  even  with  the  un- 
limited, because  even  numbers  may  be  perpetually  halved,  whereas 
the  odd  numbers  (at  least  the  earlier  ones),  being  without  factors, 
seem  to  stand  in  solid  singleness.  All  things,  accordingly,  were 
derived  by  the  Pythagoreans  from  the  combination  of  the  limited 
and  the  unlimited  ;  and  it  is  in  harmony  with  the  Greek  spirit 
that  the  place  of  honour  is  accorded  to  the  odd  or  the  limited. 
Following  out  the  same  thought,  they  developed  a  list  of  ten  funda- 
mental oppositions,  which  roughly  resembles  the  tables  of  categories 
framed  by  later  philosophers  : — (1)  limited  and  unlimited  ;  (2)  odd 
and  even  ;  (3)  one  and  many  ;  (4)  right  and  left ;  (5)  masculine 
and  feminine  ;  (6)  rest  and  motion  ;  (7)  straight  and  crooked  ;  (8) 
light  and  darkness  ;  (9)  good  and  evil ;  (10)  square  and  oblong. 
The  arbitrariness  of  the  list  and  the  mingling  of  mathematical, 
physical,  and  ethical  contrasts  are  characteristic  of  the  infancy  of 
speculation.  The  union  of  opposites  in  which  consists  the  exist- 
ence of  things  is  harmony  ;  hence  the  expression  already  quoted 
that  the  whole  heaven  or  the  whole  universe  is  harmony.  But  it 
is  to  be  noted  that  interpretations  of  Pythagoreanism  which  repre- 
sent the  whole  system  as  founded  on  the  opposition  of  unity  and 
duality,  and  suppose  this  to  have  been  explicitly  identified  with 
the  opposition  of  form  and  matter,  of  divine  activity  and  passive 
material,  must  be  unhesitatingly  rejected  as  betraying  on  the  sur- 
face their  post-Platonic  origin.  Still  more  is  this  the  case  when 
in  Neoplatonic  fashion  they  go  on  to  derive  this  original  opposition 
from  the  supreme  Unity  or  God.  The  further  speculations  of  the 
Pythagoreans  on  the  subject  of  number  rest  mainly  on  analogies, 
which  often  become  capricious  and  tend  to  lose  themselves  at  last 
in  a  barren  symbolism.  The  decade,  as  the  basis  of  the  numerical 
system,  appeared  to  them  to  comprehend  all  other  numbers  in 
itself,  and  to  it  are  applied,  therefore,  the  epithets  quoted  above 
of  number  in  general.  Similar  language  is  held  of  the  number 
"  four,"  because  it  is  the  first  square  number  and  is  also  the  poten- 
tial decade  (1  +  2  +  3  +  4  =  10) ;  Pythagoras  is  celebrated  as  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  holy  rerpaKr^,  "  the  fountain  and  root  of  ever-living 
nature."  "Seven"  is  called  irap6tvos  and  'AB-fiv-rj,  because  within 
the  decade  it  has  neither  factors  nor  product.  "Five,"  on  the 
other  hand,  signifies  marriage,  because  it  is  the  union  of  the  first 
masculine  with  the  first  feminine  number  (3  +  2,  unity  being  con- 
sidered as  a  number  apart).  The  thought  already  becomes  more 
fanciful  when  "one"  is  identified  with  reason,  because  it  is  un- 
changeable ;  "two"  with  opinion,  because  it  is  unlimited  and 
indeterminate  ;  "four"  with  justice,  because  it  is  the  first  square 


PYTHAGORAS 


139 


number,  the  product  of  equals.  More  legitimate  is  their  application 
of  number  to  geometry,  according  to  which  "one"  was  identified 
with  the  point,  "two"  with  the  line,  "three"  with  the  surface, 
and  "four"  with  the  cube.  In  the  history  of  music  the  Pytha- 
gorean school  is  also  of  considerable  importance  from  the  develop- 
ment which  the  theory  of  the  octave  owes  to  its  members ;  according 
to  some  accounts  the  discovery  of  the  harmonic  system  is  due  to 
Pythagoras  himself. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
formed  for  the  Pythagoreans  an  illustration  on  a  grand  scale  of  the 
truth  of  their  theory.  Their  cosmological  system  is  also  interest- 
ing on  account  of  peculiarities  which  mark  it  out  from  the  current 
conceptions  of  antiquity  and  bring  it  curiously  near  to  the  modern 
theory.  Conceiving  the  universe,  like  many  early  thinkers,  as  a 
sphere,  they  placed  in  the  heart  of  it  the  central  fire,  to  which  they 
gave  the  name  of  Hestia,  the  hearth  or  altar  of  the  universe,  the 
citadel  or  throne  of  Zeus.  Around  this  move  the  ten  heavenly 
bodies — farthest  off  the  heaven  of  the  fixed  stars,  then  the  five 
planets  known  to  antiquity,  then  the  sun,  the  moon,  the  earth, 
and  lastly  the  counter-earth  (avrixOui1),  which  revolves  between 
the  earth  and  the  central  fire  and  thus  completes  the  sacred  decade. 
Revolving  along  with  the  earth,  the  last-mentioned  body  is  always 
interposed  as  a  shield  between  us  and  the  direct  rays  of  the  central 
fire.  Our  light  and  heat  come  to  us  indirectly  by  way  of  reflexion 
from  the  sun.  When  the  earth  is  on  the  same  side  of  the  central 
fire  as  the  sun,  we  have  day  ;  when  it  is  on  the  other  side,  night. 
This  attribution  of  the  changes  of  day  and  night  to  the  earth's  own 
motion  led  up  directly  to  the  true  theory,  as  soon  as  the  machinery 
of  the  central  fire  and  the  counter-earth  was  dispensed  with.  The 
counter-earth  became  the  western  hemisphere,  and  the  earth  re- 
volved on  its  own  axis  instead  of  round  an  imaginary  centre.  But, 
as  appears  from  the  above,  the  Pythagorean  astronomy  is  also 
remarkable  as  having  attributed  a  planetary  motion  to  the  earth 
instead  of  making  our  globe  the  centre  of  the  universe.  Long  after- 
wards, when  the  church  condemned  the  theory  of  Copernicus,  the 
indictment  that  lay  against  it  was  its  heathen  and  "  Pythagorean  " 
character. 

The  doctrine  which  the  memory  of  mankind  associates  most 
closely  with  Pythagoras's  name  is  that  of  the  transmigration  of 
souls — METEMPSYCHOSIS  (q.v.).  Though  evidently  of  great  import- 
ance for  Pythagoras  himself,  it  does  not  stand  in  any  very  obvious 
connexion  with  his  philosophy  proper.  He  seems  to  have  adopted 
the  idea  from  the  Orphic  Mysteries.  The  bodily  life  of  the  soul, 
according  to  this  doctrine,  is  an  imprisonment  suffered  for  sins 
committed  in  a  former  state  of  existence.  At  death  the  soul  reaps 
what  it  has  sown  in  the  present  life.  The  reward  of  the  best  is  to 
enter  the  cosmos,  or  the  higher  and  purer  regions  of  the  universe, 
while  the  direst  crimes  receive  their  punishment  in  Tartarus.  But 
the  general  lot  is  to  live  afresh  in  a  series  of  human  or  animal  forms, 
the  nature  of  the  bodily  prison  being  determined  in  each  case  by 
the  deeds  done  in  the  life  just  ended.  This  is  the  same  doctrine 
of  retribution  and  purificatory  wandering  which  meets  us  in  Plato's 
mythical  descriptions  of  a  future  life.  They  are  borrowed  by  him 
in  their  substance  from  the  Pythagoreans  or  from  a  common  source 
in  the  Mysteries.  In  accordance  with  this  religious  view  of  life  as 
a  stage  of  probation  were  the  ethical  precepts  of  the  school,  inculcat- 
ing reverence  towards  the  gods  and  to  parents,  justice,  gentleness, 
temperance,  purity  of  life,  prayer,  regular  self-examination,  and 
the  observance  of  various  ritual  requirements. 

Connecting  its  ethics  in  this  way  with  religion  and  the  idea  of  a 
future  life,  the  Pythagorean  societies  had  in  them  from  the  be- 
ginning a  germ  of  asceticism  and  contemplative  mysticism  which 
it  was  left  for  a  later  age  fully  to  develop.  The  Pythagorean  life 
was  destined  to  survive  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  Pythagorean 
philosophy  and  to  be  grafted  on  later  philosophic  ideas.  The 
asceticism  which  characterized  it  appears  in  the  4th  century  B.C. 
in  close  connexion  with  the  Orphic  Mysteries  ;  and  the  "  Pytha- 
goreans "  of  that  time  are  frequently  the  butts  of  the  New  Athenian 
Comedy.  In  the  Alexandrian  period  the  Pythagorean  tradition 
struck  deeper  roots ;  in  Alexandria  and  elsewhere  schools  of  men 
arose  calling  themselves  Pythagoreans,  but  more  accurately  dis- 
tinguished by  modern  criticism  as  Neopythagoreans,  seeing  that 
their  philosophical  doctrines  are  evidently  derived  in  varying  pro- 
portions from  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  the  Stoics.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  they  develop  the  mystic  side  of  the  Platonic  doctrine  ; 
and  only  so  far  as  this  is  connected  with  the  similar  speculations 
of  Pythagoras  can  they  claim  to  be  followers  of  the  latter.  Hence 
men  like  Plutarch,  who  personally  prefer  to  call  themselves 
Platonists,  may  also  be  considered  as  within  the  scope  of  this 
Pythagorean  revival.  The  link  that  really  connects  these  Neo- 
pythogoreans  with  the  Samian  philosopher  and  distinguishes  them 
from  the  other  schools  of  their  time  is  their  ascetic  ideal  of  life  and 
their  preoccupation  with  religion.  In  religious  speculation  they 
paved  the  way  for  the  Neoplatonic  conception  of  God  as  immeasur- 
ably transcending  the  world  ;  and  in  their  thirst  for  prophecies, 
oracles,  and  signs  they  gave  expression  to  the  prevalent  longing 
for  a  supernatural  revelation  of  the  divine  nature  and  will.  The 


asceticism  of  the  Jewish  sect  of  the  Essenes  seems,  as  Zeller  con- 
tends, to  be  due  to  a  strong  infusion  of  Neopythagorean  elements. 
At  a  still  later  period  Neopythagoreanism  set  up  Pythagoras  and 
Apollonius  of  Tyana  not  only  as  ideals  of  the  philosophic  life  but 
also  as  prophets  and  wonder-workers  in  immediate  communication 
with  another  world,  and  in  the  details  of  their  "lives"  it  is  easy 
to  read  the  desire  to  emulate  the  narrative  of  the  Gospels.  The 
Life  of  Apollonius  by  Philostratus,  which  is  for  the  most  part  an 
historical  romance,  belongs  to  the  3d  Christian  century. 

Zeller's  discussion  of  Pythagoreanism,  in  his  Philosophic  d.  Griechen,  book  i. , 
is  very  full ;  he  also  deals  at  considerable  length  in  the  last  volume  of  the 
work  with  the  Neopythagoreans,  considered  as  the  precursors  of  Neoplatonism 
ami  the  probable  origin  of  the  Essenes.  The  numerous  monographs  dealing 
with  special  parts  of  the  subject  are  there  examined  and  sifted.  (A.  SE.) 

Pythagorean  Geometry. 

As  the  introduction  of  geometry  into  Greece  is  by 
common  consent  attributed  to  Thales,  so  all  are  agreed  that 
to  Pythagoras  is  due  the  honour  of  having  raised  mathe- 
matics to  the  rank  of  a  science.  We  know  that  the  early 
Pythagoreans  published  nothing,  and  that,  moreover,  they 
referred  all  their  discoveries  back  to  their  master.  (See 
PHILOLAUS.)  Hence  it  is  not  possible  to  separate  his  work 
from  that  of  his  early  disciples,  and  we  must  therefore  treat 
the  geometry  of  the  early  Pythagorean  school  as  a  whole. 
We  know  that  Pythagoras  made  numbers  the  basis  of  his 
philosophical  system,  as  well  physical  as  metaphysical, 
and  that  he  united  the  study  of  geometry  with  that  of 
arithmetic. 

The  following  statements  have  been  handed  down  to 
us.  (a)  Aristotle  (Met.,  i.  5,  985)  says  "the  Pythagoreans 
first  applied  themselves  to  mathematics,  a  science  which 
they  improved ;  and,  penetrated  with  it,  they  fancied  that 
the  principles  of  mathematics  were  the  principles  of  all 
things."  (b)  Eudemus  informs  us  that  "Pythagoras  changed 
geometry  into  the  form  of  a  liberal  science,  regarding  its 
principles  in  a  purely  abstract  manner,  and  investigated 
its  theorems  from  the  immaterial  and  intellectual  point  of 
view  (avAws  KCU  vocpws)." l  (c)  Diogenes  Laertius  (viii. 
11)  relates  that  "it  was  Pythagoras  who  carried  geometry 
to  perfection,  after  Mreris'2  had  first  found  out  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  elements  of  that  science,  as  Anticlides  tells  us 
in  the  second  book  of  his  History  of  Alexander  •  and  the 
part  of  the  science  to  which  Pythagoras  applied  himself 
above  all  others  was  arithmetic."  (d)  According  to  Aris- 
toxenus,  the  musician,  Pythagoras  seems  to  have  esteemed 
arithmetic  above  everything,  and  to  have  advanced  it  by 
diverting  it  from  the  service  of  commerce  and  by  likening 
all  things  to  numbers.3  (e)  Diogenes  Laertius  (viii.  13) 
reports  on  the  same  authority  that  Pythagoras  was  the 
first  person  who  introduced  measures  and  weights  among 
the  Greeks.  (/)  He  discovered  the  numerical  relations  of 
the  musical  scale  (Diog.  Laert.,  viii.  11).  (g)  Proclus4 
says  that  "the  word  'mathematics'  originated  with  the 
Pythagoreans."  (h)  We  learn  also  from  the  same  author- 
ity5 that  the  Pythagoreans  made  a  fourfold  division  of 
mathematical  science,  attributing  one  of  its  parts  to  the 
"  how  many"  (TO  TTOO-OV)  and  the  other  to  the  "how  much" 
(TO  Tn/Aucov) ;  and  they  assigned  to  each  of  these  parts  a 
twofold  division.  They  said  that  discrete  quantity  or  the 
"how  many  "  is  either  absolute  or  relative,  and  that  con- 
tinued quantity  or  the  "how  much"  is  either  stable  or  in 
motion.  Hence  they  laid  down  that  arithmetic  contem- 
plates that  discrete  quantity  which  subsists  by  itself,  but 
music  that  which  is  related  to  another;  and  that  geometry 
considers  continued  quantity  so  far  as  it  is  immovable, 


1  Proclus    Diadochus,   In  primum   Euclidis  Elementorum  librum 
Commentarii,  ed.  Friedlein,  p.  65. 

2  Mosris  was  a  king  of  Egypt  who,  Herodotus  tells  us,  lived  900  years 
before  his  visit  to  that  country. 

3  Aristox.,  Fragm.,  ap.  Stob.,  Eclog.  Phys.,  i.  2,  6. 

4  Prod.,  op.  cit.,  p.  45. 

5  Op.  cit.,  p.  35. 


140 


PYTHAGORAS 


but  that  astronomy  (17  (r^xupiKTj)  contemplates  continued 
quantity  so  far  as  it  is  of  a  self -motive  nature,  (i)  Diogenes 
Laertius  (viii.  25)  states,  on  the  authority  of  Favorinus, 
that  Pythagoras  "employed  definitions  in  the  mathema- 
tical subjects  to  which  he  applied  himself." 

The  following  notices  of  the  geometrical  work  of  Pytha- 
goras and  the  early  Pythagoreans  are  also  preserved.  (1) 
The  Pythagoreans  define  a  point  as  "unity  having  position" 
(Procl.,  op.  cit.,  p.  95).  (2)  They  considered  a  point  as 
analogous  to  the  monad,  a  line  to  the  duad,  a  superficies 
to  the  triad,  and  a  body  to  the  tetrad  (ib.,  p.  97).  (3) 
They  showed  that  the  plane  around  a  point  is  completely 
filled  by  six  equilateral  triangles,  four  squares,  or  three 
regular  hexagons  (ib.,  p.  305).  (4)  Eudemus  ascribes  to 
them  the  discovery  of  the  theorem  that  the  interior  angles 
of  a  triangle  are  equal  to  two  right  angles,  and  gives  their 
proof,  which  was  substantially  the  same  as  that  in  Euclid  I. 
32  l  (ib.,  p.  379).  (5)  Proclus  informs  us  in  his  comment- 
ary on  Euclid  I.  44  that  Eudemus  says  that  the  problems 
concerning  the  application  of  areas — where  the  term 
"application"  is  not  to  be  taken  in  its  restricted  sense 
(Tra.pa.(3o\fy,  in  which  it  is  used  in  this  proposition,  but 
also  in  its  wider  signification,  embracing  virfp/BoX^  and 
lAAei^is,  in  which  it  is  used  in  Book  VI.  Props.  28,  29 
— are  old,  and  inventions  of  the  Pythagoreans 2  (ib.,  p. 
419).  (6)  This  is  confirmed  by  Plutarch,3  who  says,  after 
Apollodorus,  that  Pythagoras  sacrificed  an  ox  on  finding 
the  geometrical  diagram,  either  the  one  relating  to  the 
hypotenuse,  namely,  that  the  square  on  it  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  squares  on  the  sides,  or  that  relating  to  the 
problem  concerning  the  application  of  an  area.4  (7) 
Plutarch  5  also  ascribes  to  Pythagoras  the  solution  of  the 
problem,  To  construct  a  figure  equal  to  one  and  similar  to 
another  given  figure.  (8)  Eudemus  states  that  Pythagoras 
discovered  the  construction  of  the  regular  solids  (Procl., 
op.  cit.,  p.  65).  (9)  Hippasus,  the  Pythagorean,  is  said 
to  have  perished  in  the  sea  on  account  of  his  impiety, 
inasmuch  as  he  boasted  that  he  first  divulged  the  know- 
ledge of  the  sphere  with  the  twelve  pentagons  (the  in- 
scribed ordinate  dodecahedron):  Hippasus  assumed  the 
glory  of  the  discovery  to  himself,  whereas  everything  be- 
longed to  Him — "  for  thus  they  designate  Pythagoras,  and 
do  not  call  him  by  name."6  (10)  The  triple  interwoven 
triangle  or  pentagram — star -shaped  regular  pentagon — 
was  used  as  a  symbol  or  sign  of  recognition  by  the  Pytha- 


1  We  learn,  however,  from  a  fragment  of  Geininus,  which  has  been 
handed  down  by  Eutocius  in  his  commentary  on  the  Conies  of  Apol- 
lonius  (Apoll.,  C'onica,  ed.  Halleius,  p.  9),  that  the  ancient  geometers 
observed  two  right  angles  in  each  species  of  triangle,  in  the  equilateral 
first,  then  in  the  isosceles,  and  lastly  in  the  scalene,  whereas  later 
writers  proved  the  theorem  generally  thus — "  The  three  internal  angles 
of  every  triangle  are  equal  to  two  right  angles." 

2  The  words  of  Proclus  are  interesting.     "  According  to  Eudemus 
the  inventions  respecting  the  application,  excess,  and  defect  of  areas  are 
ancient,  and  are  due  to  the  Pythagoreans.     Moderns,  borrowing  these 
names,  transferred  them  to  the  so-called  conic  lines,  the  parabola, 
the  hyperbola,  the  ellipse,  as  the  older  school,  in  their  nomenclature 
concerning  the  description  of  areas  in  piano  on  a  finite  right  line,  re- 
garded the  terms  thus  : — An  area  is  said  to  be  applied  (irapa^d\\eLv) 
to  a  given  right  line  when  an  area  equal  in  content  to  some  given  one 
is  described  thereon  ;  but  when  the  base  of  the  area  is  greater  than 
the  given  line,  then  the  area  is  said  to  be  in  excess  (vwfpj3<i\\eiv)  ;  but 
when  the  base  is  less,  so  that  some  part  of  the  given  line  lies  without 
the  described  area,  then  the  area  is  said  to  be  in  defect  (AXehre(i'). 
Euclid  uses  in  this  way  in  his  sixth  book  the  terms  excess  and  defect. 
.  .  .  The  term  application  (irapa.pd\\eit>),  which  we  owe  to  the  Pytha- 
goreans, has  this  signification." 

3  J.VOTI  posse  suaviter  vivi  sec.  JEpicurum,  c.  xi. 

4  Efre  Trp6^\rifjM  wepl  rou  xupt°v  T^s  Tapa/3o\?)j.      Some  authors, 
rendering  the  last  five  words  "concerning  the  area  of  the  parabola," 
have  ascribed  to  Pythagoras  the  quadrature  of  the  parabola,  which  was 
one  of  the  great  discoveries  of  Archimedes. 

5  Symp.  viii.,  Quaest.  2,  c.  4. 

6  lamblichus,  De  Vit.  Pyth.,  c.  18,  s.  88. 


goreans  and  was  called  by  them  "health"  (vyieia).7  (11) 
The  discovery  of  the  law  of  the  three  squares  (Euclid  I. 
47),  commonly  called  the  "theorem  of  Pythagoras,"  is 
attributed  to  him  by  many  authorities,  of  whom  the  oldest 
is  Vitruvius.8  (12)  One  of  the  methods  of  finding  right- 
angled  triangles  whose  sides  can  be  expressed  in  numbers 
(Pythagorean  triangles) — that  setting  out  from  the  odd 
numbers — is  referred  to  Pythagoras  by  Heron  of  Alex- 
andria and  Proclus.9  (13)  The  discovery  of  irrational 
quantities  is  ascribed  to  Pythagoras  by  Eudemus  (Procl., 
op.  cit.,  p.  65).  (14)  The  three  proportions — arithmetical, 
geometrical,  and  harmonica  I — were  known  to  Pythagoras.10 
(15)  lamblichus11  says,  "Formerly,  in  the  time  of  Pytha- 
goras and  the  mathematicians  under  him,  there  were  three 
means  only — the  arithmetical,  the  geometrical,  and  the 
third  in  order  which  was  known  by  the  name  sub-contrary 
(vTTfvavTia),  but  which  Archytas  and  Hippasus  designated 
the  harmonical,  since  it  appeared  to  include  the  ratios 
concerning  harmony  and  melody."  (16)  The  so-called 
most  perfect  or  musical  proportion,  e.g.,  6  :  8  : :  9  : 12, 
which  comprehends  in  it  all  the  former  ratios,  according 
to  lamblichus,12  is  said  to  be  an  invention  of  the  Baby- 
lonians and  to  have  been  first  brought  into  Greece  by 
Pythagoras.  (17)  Arithmetical  progressions  were  treated 
by  the  Pythagoreans,  and  it  appears  from  a  passage  in 
Lucian  that  Pythagoras  himself  had  considered  the  special 
case  of  triangular  numbers  :  Pythagoras  asks  some  one, 
"  How  do  you  count  ? "  he  replies,  "  One,  two,  three,  four." 
Pythagoras,  interrupting,  says,  "  Do  you  see  1  what  you 
take  to  be  four,  that  is  ten  and  a  perfect  triangle  and  our 
oath."13  (18)  The  odd  numbers  were  called  by  the  Pytha- 
goreans "gnomons,"14  and  were  regarded  as  generating,  in- 


7  Lucian,  Pro  Lapsu  in  Salut.,  s.  5 ;  also  schol.  on  Aristoph.,  Nub., 
611.      That   the   Pythagoreans   used   such  symbols   we   learn   from 
lamblichus  (De  Vit.  Pyth.,  c.  33,  ss.  237  and  238).     This  figure  is 
referred  to  Pythagoras  himself,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  called 
Pythagorse  figura  ;  even  so  late  as  Paracelsus  it  was  regarded  by  him 
as  a  symbol  of  health.     It  is  said  to  have  obtained  its  special  name 
from  the  letters  v,  y,  i,  6  (  =  «)>  a  having  been  written  at  its  prominent 
vertices. 

8  De  Arch.,  ix.,  Pnef.,  5,   6,  7.     Amongst  other  authorities  are 
Diogenes  Laertius  (viii.  11),  Proclus  (op.  cit.,  p.  426),  and  Plutarch 
(ut  sup.,  6).    Plutarch,  however,  attributes  to  the  Egyptians  the  know- 
ledge of  this  theorem  in  the  particular  case  where  the  sides  are  3,  4, 
and  5  (De  Is.  et  Osir. ,  c.  56). 

9  Heron  Alex.,   Geom.  et  Stereom.   Rel.,  ed.  F.  Hultsch,  pp.  56, 
146;   Procl.,    op.   cit.,   p.    428.     The  method  of  Pythagoras   is  as 
follows  : — he  took  an  odd  number  as  the  lesser  side  ;  then,  having 
squared  this  number  and  diminished  the  square  by  unity,  he  took 
half  the  remainder  as  the  greater  side,  and  by  adding  unity  to  this 
number  he  obtained  the  hypotenuse,  e.g.,  3,  4,  5  ;  5,  12,  13. 

10  Nicom.  Ger.,  Introd.  Ar.,  c.  xxii. 

11  In  Nicomachi  Arithmeticam,  ed.  S.  Tennulius,  p.  141. 

12  Op.  cit.,  p.  168.     As  an  example  of  this  proportion  Nicomachus 
and,  after  him,  lamblichus  give  the  numbers  6,  8,  9, 12,  the  harmonical 
and  arithmetical   means  between  two  numbers  forming  a  geometric 

proportion  with  the  numbers  themselves  ( a : r : :  -jr— :  b  \ .  lam- 
blichus further  relates  (I.e.)  that  many  Pythagoreans  made  use  of  this 
proportion,  as  Aristaeus  of  Crotona,  Timaeus  of  Locri,  Philolaus  and 
Archytas  of  Tarentnm,  and  many  others,  and  after  them  Plato  in  his 
Timeeus  (see  Nicom.,  Inst.  Arithm.,  ed.  Ast,  p.  153,  and  Animad- 
versiones,  pp.  327-329  ;  and  Iambi.,  op.  cit.,  p.  172  sq.). 

13  Tttwv  irpcicris,  4,  vol.  i.  p.  317,  ed.  C.  Jacobitz. 

14  TvufjLuv  means  that  by  which  anything  is  known,  or  "criterion  ";  its 
oldest  concrete  signification  seems  to  be  the  carpenter's  square  (norma) 
by  which  a  right  angle  is  known.     Hence  it  came  to  denote  a  per- 
pendicular, of  which,  indeed,  it  was  the  archaic  name  (Proclus,  op.  cit., 
p.  283).     Gnomon  is  also  an  instrument  for  measuring  altitudes,  by 
means  of  which  the  meridian  can  be  found ;  it  denotes,  further,  the 
index  or  style  of  a  sun-dial,  the  shadow  of  which  points  out  the  hours. 
In  geometry  it  means  the  square  or  rectangle  about  the  diagonal  of  a 
square  or  rectangle,  together  with  the  two  complements,  on  account 
of  the  resemblance  of  the  figure  to  a  carpenter's  square ;  and  then, 
more  generally,  the  similar  figure  with  regard  to  any  parallelogram, 
as  defined  by  Euclid  II.    Def.    2.     Again,   in  a  still   more  general 
signification,  it  means  the  figure  which,  being  added  to  any  figure, 
preserves  the  original  form.     See  Heron,  Definitiones  (59).     When 


PYTHAGORAS 


141 


asmuch  as  by  the  addition  of  successive  gnomons — consist- 
ing each  of  an  odd  number  of  unit  squares — to  the  original 
square  unit  or  monad  the  square  form  was  preserved.  (19) 
In  like  manner,  if  the  simplest  oblong  (erf/oo'^/ces),  consist- 
ing of  two  unit  squares  or  monads  in  juxtaposition,  be  taken 
and  four  unit  squares  be  placed  about  it  after  the  manner 
of  a  gnomon,  and  then  in  like  manner  six,  eight  .  .  .  unit 
squares  be  placed  in  succession,  the  oblong  form  will  be 
preserved.  (20)  Another  of  his  doctrines  was,  that  of  all 
solid  figures  the  sphere  was  the  most  beautiful,  and  of  all 
plane  figures  the  circle.1  (21)  According  to  lamblichus 
the  Pythagoreans  are  said  to  have  found  the  quadrature  of 
the  circle.2 

On  examining  the  purely  geometrical  work  of  Pythagoras  and 
his  early  disciples,  as  given  in  the  preceding  extracts,  we  observe 
that  it  is  much  concerned  with  the  geometry  of  areas,  and  we  are 
indeed  struck  with  its  Egyptian  character.  This  appears  in  the 
theorem  (3)  concerning  the  filling  up  a  plane  with  regular  figures — 
for  floors  or  walls  covered  with  tiles  of  various  colours  were  common 
in  Egypt ;  in  the  construction  of  the  regular  solids  (8),  for  some 
of  them  are  found  in  Egyptian  architecture  ;  in  the  problems  con- 
cerning the  application  of  areas  (5) ;  and  lastly,  in  the  theorem  of 
Pythagoras  (11),  coupled  with  his  rule  for  the  construction  of  right- 
angled  triangles  in  numbers  (12).  We  learn  from  Plutarch  that 
the  Egyptians  were  acquainted  with  the  geometrical  fact  that  a 
triangle  whose  sides  contain  three,  four,  and  five  parts  is  right- 
angled,  and  that  the  square  of  the  greatest  side  is  equal  to  the 
squares  of  the  sides  containing  the  right  angle.  It  is  probable  too 
that  this  theorem  was  known  to  them  in  the  simple  case  where  the 
right-angled  triangle  is  isosceles,  inasmuch  as  it  would  be  at  once 
suggested  by  the  contemplation  of  a  floor  covered  with  square  tiles 
— the  square  on  the  diagonal  and  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  the 
sides  contain  each  four  of  the  right-angled  triangles  into  which 
one  of  the  squares  is  divided  by  its  diagonal.  It  is  easy  now  to 
see  how  the  problem  to  construct  a  square  which  shall  be  equal  to 
the  sum  of  two  squares  could,  in  some  cases,  be  solved  numerically. 
From  the  observation  of  a  chequered  board  it  would  be  perceived 
that  the  element  in  the  successive  formation  of  squares  is  the 
gnomon  or  carpenter's  square.  Each  gnomon  consists  of  an  odd 
number  of  squares,  and  the  successive  gnomons  correspond  to  the 
successive  odd  numbers,  and  include,  therefore,  all  odd  squares. 
Suppose,  now,  two  squares  are  given,  one  consisting  of  sixteen  and 
the  other  of  nine  unit  squares,  and  that  it  is  proposed  to  form  from 
them  another  square.  It  is  evident  that  the  square  consisting  of 
nine  unit  squares  can  take  the  form  of  the  fourth  gnomon,  which, 
being  placed  round  the  former  square,  will  generate  a  new  square 
containing  twenty-five  unit  squares.  Similarly  it  may  have  been 
observed  that  the  twelfth  gnomon,  consisting  of  twenty-five  unit 
squares,  could  be  transformed  into  a  square  each  of  whose  sides 
contains  five  units,  and  thus  it  may  have  been  seen  conversely  that 
the  latter  square,  by  taking  the  gnomonic  or  generating  form  with 
respect  to  the  square  on  twelve  units  as  base,  would  produce  the 
square  of  thirteen  units,  and  so  on.  This  method  required  only  to 
be  generalized  in  order  to  enable  Pythagoras  to  arrive  at  his  rule 
for  finding  right-angled  triangles  whose  sides  can  be  expressed 
in  numbers,  which,  we  are  told,  sets  out  from  the  odd  numbers. 
The  nth  square  together  with  the  nth  gnomon  forms  the  (?i  +  l)th 
square  ;  if  the  ?ith  gnomon  contains  m2  unit  squares,  m  being  an 

wi2  —  1 
odd  number,  we  have  2?H-l  =  m2,  .-,  n=  -    -- ,  which  gives  the 

m 

rule  of  Pythagoras. 

The  general  proof  of  Euclid  I.  47  is  attributed  to  Pythagoras, 
but  we  have  the  express  statement  of  Proclus  (op.  cit. ,  p.  426)  that 
this  theorem  was  not  proved  in  the  first  instance  as  it  is  in  the 
Elements.  The  following  simple  and  natural  way  of  arriving  at 
the  theorem  is  suggested  by  Bretschneider  after  Camerer.8  A 
square  can  be  dissected  into  the  sum  of  two  squares  and  two  equal 
rectangles,  as  in  Euclid  II.  4  ;  these  two  rectangles  can,  by  draw- 
ing their  diagonals,  be  decomposed  into  four  equal  right-angled 
triangles,  the  sum  of  the  sides  of  each  being  equal  to  the  side  of 
the  square  ;  again,  these  four  right-angled  triangles  can  be  placed 
so  that  a  vertex  of  each  shall  be  in  one  of  the  corners  of  the  square 
in  such  a  way  that  a  greater  and  less  side  are  in  continuation. 

gnomons  are  added  successively  in  this  manner  to  a  square  monad, 
the  first  gnomon  may  be  regarded  as  that  consisting  of  three  square 
monads,  and  is  indeed  the  constituent  of  a  simple  Greek  fret ;  the 
second  of  five  square  monads,  &c.  ;  hence  we  have  the  gnomonic 
.lumbers. 
1  Diog.  Laert.,  De  Vit.  Pyth.,  viii.  19. 

Simplicius,  In  Aristotelis  Pnysicorum  libros  quattuor  priores  Com- 
meniaria,  ed.  H.  Diels,  p.  60. 

_ 3  See  Bretsch.,  Die  Geom.  vor  Euklides,  p.  82  ;  Camerer,  Eudidis 
Elem.,  vol.  i.  p.  444,  and  the  references  given  there. 


The  original  square  is  thus  dissected  into  the  four  triangles  as 
before  and  the  figure  within,  which  is  the  square  on  the  hypotenuse. 
This  square,  therefore,  must  be  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on 
the  sides  of  the  right-angled  triangle. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Pythagoreans  were  much  occupied 
with  the  construction  of  regular  polygons  and  solids,  which  in 
their  cosmology  played  an  essential  part  as  the  fundamental  forms 
of  the  elements  of  the  universe.  We  can  trace  the  origin  of  these 
mathematical  speculations  in  the  theorem  (3)  that  "the  plane 
around  a  point  is  completely  filled  by  six  equilateral  triangles, 
four  squares,  or  three  regular  hexagons."  Plato  also  makes  the 
Pythagorean  Timseus  explain — "  Each  straight-lined  figure  consists 
of  triangles,  but  all  triangles  can  be  dissected  into  rectangular 
ones  which  are  either  isosceles  or  scalene.  Among  the  latter  the 
most  beautiful  is  that  out  of  the  doubling  of  which  an  equilateral 
arises,  or  in  which  the  square  of  the  greater  perpendicular  is  three 
times  that  of  the  smaller,  or  in  which  the  smaller  perpendicular 
is  half  the  hypotenuse.  But  two  or  four  right-angled  isosceles 
triangles,  properly  put  together,  form  the  square  ;  two  or  six  of 
the  most  beautiful  scalene  right-angled  triangles  form  the  equi- 
lateral triangle  ;  and  out  of  these  two  figures  arise  the  solids  which 
correspond  with  the  four  elements  of  the  real  world,  the  tetra- 
hedron, octahedron,  icosahedron,  and  the  cube"4  (Timseiis,  53, 
54,  55).  The  construction  of  the  regular  solids  is  distinctly 
ascribed  to  Pythagoras  himself  by  Eudemus  (8).  Of  these  five 
solids  three — the  tetrahedron,  the  cube,  and  the  octahedron — were 
known  to  the  Egyptians  and  are  to  be  found  in  their  architecture. 
Let  us  now  examine  what  is  required  for  the  construction  of  the 
other  two  solids — the  icosahedron  and  the  dodecahedron.  In  the 
formation  of  the  tetrahedron  three,  and  in  that  of  the  octahedron 
four,  equal  equilateral  triangles  had  been  placed  with  a  common 
vertex  and  adjacent  sides  coincident ;  and  it  was  known  that  if  six 
such  triangles  were  placed  round  a  common  vertex  with  their 
adjacent  sides  coincident,  they  would  lie  in  a  plane,  and  that, 
therefore,  no  solid  could  be  formed  in  that  manner  from  them.  It 
remained,  then,  to  try  whether  five  such  equilateral  triangles  could 
be  placed  at  a  common  vertex  in  like  manner ;  on  trial  it  would 
be  found  that  they  could  be  so  placed,  and  that  their  bases  would 
form  a  regular  pentagon.  The  existence  of  a  regular  pentagon 
would  thus  become  known.  It  was  also  known  from  the  formation 
of  the  cube  that  three  squares  could  be  placed  in  a  similar  way 
with  a  common  vertex ;  and  that,  further,  if  three  equal  and 
regular  hexagons  were  placed  round  a  point  as  common  vertex 
with  adjacent  sides  coincident,  they  would  form  a  plane.  It  re- 
mained in  this  case  too  only  to  try  whether  three  equal  regular 
pentagons  could  be  placed  with  a  common  vertex  and  in  a  similar 
way  ;  this  on  trial  would  be  found  possible  and  would  lead  to  the 
construction  of  the  regular  dodecahedron,  which  was  the  regular 
solid  last  arrived  at. 

We  see  that  the  construction  of  the  regular  pentagon  is  reqiiired 
for  the  formation  of  each  of  these  two  regular  solids,  and  that, 
therefore,  it  must  have  been  a  discoveiy  of  Pythagoras.  If  we 
examine  now  what  knowledge  of  geometry  was  required  for  the 
solution  of  this  problem,  we  shall  see  that  it  depends  on  Euclid  IV. 
10,  which  is  reduced  to  Euclid  II.  11,  which  problem  is  reduced  to 
the  following  :  To  produce  a  given  straight  line  so  that  the  rect- 
angle under  the  whole  line  thus  produced  and  the  produced  part 
shall  be  equal  to  the  square  on  the  given  line,  or,  in  the  language 
of  the  ancients,  To  apply  to  a  given  straight  line  a  rectangle  which 
shall  be  equal  to  a  given  area — in  this  case  the  square  on  the  given 
line — and  which  shall  be  excessive  by  a  square.  Now  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  the  problem  is  solved  in  this  manner  by  Euclid  (VI. 
30,  1st  method),  and  that  we  know  on  the  authority  of  Eudemus 
that  the  problems  concerning  the  application  of  areas  and  their 
excess  and  defect  are  old,  and  inventions  of  the  Pythagoreans  (5). 
Hence  the  statements  of  lamb'lichus  concerning  Hippasus  (9) — 
that  he  divulged  the  sphere  with  the  twelve  pentagons — and  of 
Lucian  and  the  scholiast  on  Aristophanes  (10) — that  the  penta- 
gram was  used  as  a  symbol  of  recognition  amongst  the  Pythagoreans 
— become  of  greater  importance. 

Further,  the  discovery  of  irrational  magnitudes  is  ascribed  to 
Pythagoras  by  Eudemus  (13),  and  this  discovery  has  been  ever 
regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  antiquity.  It  is  commonly 
assumed  that  Pythagoras  was  led  to  this  theory  from  the  considera- 
tion of  the  isosceles  right-angled  triangle.  It  seems  to  the  present 
writer,  however,  more  probable  that  the  discovery  of  incommen- 
surable magnitudes  was  rather  owing  to  the  problem  :  To  cut  a 
line  in  extreme  and  mean  ratio.  From  the  solution  of  this  problem 
it  follows  at  once  that,  if  on  the  greater  segment  of  a  line  so  cut 
a  part  be  taken  equal  to  the  less,  the  greater  segment,  regarded 
as  a  new  line,  will  be  cut  in  a  similar  manner  ;  and  this  process 
can  be  continued  without  end.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  similar 
method  be  adopted  in  the  case  of  any  two  lines  which  can  be  re- 
presented numerically,  the  process  would  end.  Hence  would  arise 

4  The  dodecahedron  was  assigned  to  the  fifth  element,  quinta  pars, 
aether,  or,  as  some  think,  to  the  universe.  (See  PHILOLADS.) 


142 


P  Y  T  — P  Y  T 


the  distinction  between  commensurable  and  incommensurable 
quantities.  A  reference  to  Euclid  X.  2  will  show  that  the  method 
above  is  the  one  used  to  prove  that  two  magnitudes  are  incommen- 
surable ;  and  in  Euclid  X.  3  it  will  be  seen  that  the  greatest 
common  measure  of  two  commensurable  magnitudes  is  found  by 
this  process  of  continued  subtraction.  It  seems  probable  that 
Pythagoras,  to  whom  is  attributed  one  of  the  rules  for  representing 
the  sides  of  right-angled  triangles  in  numbers,  tried  to  find  the 
sides  of  an  isosceles  right-angled  triangle  numerically,  and  that, 
failing  in  the  attempt,  he  suspected  that  the  hypotenuse  and  a 
side  had  no  common  measure.  He  may  have  demonstrated  the 
incommensurability  of  the  side  of  a  square  and  its  diagonal.  The 
nature  of  the  old  proof — which  consisted  of  a  reductio  ad  absurd- 
urn,  showing  that,  if  the  diagonal  be  commensurable  with  the 
side,  it  would  follow  that  the  same  number  would  be  odd  and 
even 1 — makes  it  more  probable,  however,  that  this  was  accom- 
plished by  his  successors.  The  existence  of  the  irrational  as 
well  as  that  of  the  regular  dodecahedron  appears  to  have  been 
regarded  by  the  school  as  one  of  their  chief  discoveries,  and  to 
have  been  preserved  as  a  secret ;  it  is  remarkable,  too,  that  a  story 
similar  to  that  told  by  lamblichus  of  Hippasus  is  narrated  of  the 
person  who  first  published  the  idea  of  the  irrational,  namely,  that 
he  suffered  shipwreck,  &c.2 

Eudemus  ascribes  the  problems  concerning  the  application  of 
figures  to  the  Pythagoreans.  The  simplest  cases  of  the  problems, 
Euclid  VI.  28,  29 — those,  namely,  in  which  the  given  parallelogram 
is  a  square — correspond  to  the  problem :  To  cut  a  given  straight 
line  internally  or  externally  so  that  the  rectangle  under  the 
segments  shall  be  equal  to  a  given  rectilineal  figure.  The  solution 
of  this  problem — in  which  the  solution  of  a  quadratic  equation  is 
implicitly  contained — depends  on  the  problem,  Euclid  II.  14,  and 
the  theorems,  Euclid  II.  5  and  6,  together  with  the  theorem  of 
Pythagoras.  It  is  probable  that  the  finding  of  a  mean  proportional 
between  two  given  lines,  or  the  construction  of  a  square  which 
shall  be  equal  to  a  given  rectangle,  is  due  to  Pythagoras  himself. 
The  solution  of  the  more  general  problem,  Euclid  VI.  25,  is  also 
attributed  to  him  by  Plutarch  (7).  The  solution  of  this  problem 
depends  on  that  of  the  particular  case  and  on  the  application  of 
areas  ;  it  requires,  moreover,  a  knowledge  of  the  theorems  :  Similar 
rectilineal  figures  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  on  their  homo- 
logous sides  (Euclid  VI.  20) ;  and,  If  three  lines  are  in  geometrical 
proportion,  the  first  is  to  the  third  as  the  square  on  the  first  is 
to  the  square  on  the  second.  Now  Hippocrates  of  Chios,  about 
440  B.C.,  who  was  instructed  in  geometry  by  the  Pythagoreans, 
possessed  this  knowledge.  We  are  justified,  therefore,  in  ascrib- 
ing the  solution  of  the  general  problem,  if  not  (with  Plutarch)  to 
Pythagoras,  at  least  to  his  early  successors. 

The  theorem  that  similar  polygons  are  to  each  other  in  the 
duplicate  ratio  of  their  homologous  sides  involves  a  first  sketch,  at 
least,  of  the  doctrine  of  proportion  and  the  similarity  of  figures.3 
That  we  owe  the  foundation  and  development  of  the  doctrine  of 
proportion  to  Pythagoras  and  his  school  is  confirmed  by  the  testi- 
mony of  Nicomachus  (14)  and  lamblichus  (15  and  16).  From  these 
passages  it  appears  that  the  early  Pythagoreans  were  acquainted, 
not  only  with  the  arithmetical  and  geometrical  means  between 
two  magnitudes,  but  also  with  their  harmonical  mean,  which  was 
then  called  "  subcontrary."  The  Pythagoreans  were  much  occupied 
with  the  representation  of  numbers  by  geometrical  figures.  These 
speculations  originated  with  Pythagoras,  who  was  acquainted  with 
the  summation  of  the  natural  numbers,  the  odd  numbers,  and  the 
even  numbers,  all  of  which  are  capable  of  geometrical  representa- 
tion. See  the  passage  in  Lucian  (17)  and  the  rule  for  finding 
Pythagorean  triangles  (12)  and  the  observations  thereon  supra. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  evidence  to  support  the  statement 
of  Montucla  that  Pythagoras  laid  the  foundation  of  the  doctrine  of 
isoperimetry,  by  proving  that  of  all  figures  having  the  same  peri- 
meter the  circle  is  the  greatest,  and  that  of  all  solids  having  the 

1  For  this  proof,  see  Euclid  X.  117  ;  see  also  Aristot.,  Analyt.  Pr., 
i.  c.  23  and  c.  44. 

2  Knoche,    Untersuchungen  \»her  die  neu  aufgefundenen  Scholien 
des  Prokliis  Diadochus  zu  Euclid's  Elementen,  pp.  20  and  23,  Herford, 
1865. 

3  It  is  agreed  on  all  hands  that  these  two  theories  were  treated  at 
length  by  Pythagoras  and  his  school.     It  is  almost  certain,  however, 
that  the  theorems  arrived  at  were^  proved  for  commensurable  magni- 
tudes only,  and  were  assumed  to  hold  good  for  all.     The  Pythagoreans 
themselves  seem  to  have  been  aware  that  their  proofs  were  not  rigor- 
ous, and  were  open  to  serious  objection ;  in  this  we  may  have  the 
explanation  of  the  secrecy  which  was  attached  by  them  to  the  idea  of 
the  incommensurable  and  to  the  pentagram  which  involved,  and  indeed 
represented,  that  idea.     Now  it  is  remarkable  that  the  doctrine  of 
proportion  is  twice  treated  in  the  Elements  of  Euclid — first,  in  a  general 
manner,  so  as  to  include  incommensurables,  in  Book  V.,  which  tradition 
ascribes  to  Eudoxus,  and  then  arithmetically  in  Book  VII.,  which,  as 
Hankel  has  supposed,  contains  the  treatment  of  the  subject  by  the 
older  Pythagoreans. 


same  surface  the  sphere  js  the  greatest.  We  must  also  deny  to 
Pythagoras  and  his  school  a  knowledge  of  the  conic  sections,  "ami 
in  particular  of  the  quadrature  of  the  parabola,  attributed  to  him 
by  some  authors  ;  and  we  have  noticed  the  misconception  which 
gave  rise  to  this  erroneous  inference. 

Let  us  now  see  what  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from 
the  foregoing  examination  of  the  mathematical  work  of 
Pythagoras  and  his  school,  and  thus  form  an  estimate  of 
the  state  of  geometry  about  480  B.C.  First,  as  to  matter. 
It  forms  the  bulk  of  the  first  two  books  of  Euclid,  and 
includes  a  sketch  of  the  doctrine  of  proportion — which 
was  probably  limited  to  commensurable  magnitudes — 
together  with  some  of  the  contents  of  the  sixth  book.  It 
contains  too  the  discovery  of  the  irrational  (dAoyov)  and 
the  construction  of  the  regular  solids,  the  latter  requiring 
the  description  of  certain  regular  polygons — the  founda- 
tion, in  fact,  of  the  fourth  book  of  Euclid.  Secondly,  as 
to  form.  The  Pythagoreans  first  severed  geometry  from 
the  needs  of  practical  life,  and  treated  it  as  a  liberal 
science,  giving  definitions  and  introducing  the  manner  of 
proof  which  has  ever  since  been  in  use.  Further,  they 
distinguished  between  discrete  and  continuous  quantities, 
and  regarded  geometry  as  a  branch  of  mathematics,  of 
which  they  made  the  fourfold  division  that  lasted  to  the 
Middle  Ages — the  quadrivium  (fourfold  way  to  knowledge) 
of  Boetius  and  the  scholastic  philosophy.  And  it  may  be 
observed  that  the  name  of  "mathematics,"  as  well  as 
that  of  "philosophy,"  is  ascribed  to  them.  Thirdly,  as  to 
method.  One  chief  characteristic  of  the  mathematical 
work  of  Pythagoras  was  the  combination  of  arithmetic 
with  geometry.  The  notions  of  an  equation  and  a  propor- 
tion— which  are  common  to  both,  and  contain  the  first 
germ  of  algebra — were  introduced  among  the  Greeks  by 
Thales.  These  notions,  especially  the  latter,  were  elabo- 
rated by  Pythagoras  and  his  school,  so  that  they  reached 
the  rank  of  a  true  scientific  method  in  their  theory  of 
proportion.4  To  Pythagoras,  then,  is  due  the  honour  of 
having  supplied  a  method  which  is  common  to  all  branches 
of  mathematics,  and  in  this  respect  he  is  fully  comparable 
to  Descartes,  to  whom  we  owe  the  decisive  combination  of 
algebra  with  geometry. 

See  C.  A.  Bretschneider,  Die  Geometric  u.  die  Geometer  vor  Eu- 
klides  (Leipsic,  1870) ;  H.  Hankel,  Zur  Gcschichte  dcr  Mathcmatik 
(Leipsic,  1874)  ;  F.  Hoefer,  Histoire  des  Mathematiqucs  (Paris, 
1874);  G.  J.  Allman,  "Greek  Geometry  from  Thales  to  Euclid," 
in  Hermathena,  Nos.  v. ,  vii. ,  and  x.  (Dublin,  1877,  1881,  and 
1884) ;  M.  Cantor,  Vorlesungen  iibcr  Gcschichte  der  Mathematik 
(Leipsic,  1880).  The  recently  published  Short  History  of  Greek 
Mathematics  by  James  Gow  (Cambridge,  1884)  will  be  found  a 
convenient  compilation.  (G.  J.  A. ) 

PYTHEAS  of  Massilia  was  a  celebrated  Greek  navi- 
gator and  geographer,  to  whom  the  Greeks  appear  to  have 
been  indebted  for  the  earliest  information  they  possessed, 
of  at  all  a  definite  character,  concerning  the  western  regions 
of  Europe,  and  especially  the  British  Islands.  The  period 
at  which  he  lived  cannot  be  accurately  determined  ;  but  it 
is  certain  that  he  wrote,  not  only  before  Eratosthenes,  who 
relied  much  upon  his  authority,  but  before  Dicaearchus, 
who  was  a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  and  died  about  285  B.C. 
Hence  he  may  probably  be  regarded  as  about  contem- 
porary with  Alexander  the  Great.  His  work  is  now 
wholly  lost,  and  appears  to  have  been  consulted  in  the 
original  by  comparatively  few  ancient  writers,  most  of  the 


4  Proportion  was  not  regarded  by  the  ancients  merely  as  a  branch 
of  arithmetic.  We  learn  from  Proclus  that  "Eratosthenes  looked  on 
proportion  as  the  bond  of  mathematics"  (op.  cit.,  p.  43).  We  are 
also  told  in  an  anonymous  scholium  on  the  Elements  of  Eucli<l,  which 
Knoche  attributes  to  Proclus,  that  the  fifth  book,  which  treats  of  pro- 
portion, is  common  to  geometry,  arithmetic,  music,  and,  in  a  wonl, 
to  all  mathematical  science.  And  Kepler,  who  lived  near  enough  to 
the  ancients  to  reflect  the  spirit  of  their  methods,  says  that  one  part  of 
geometry  is  concerned  with  the  comparison  of  figures  and  quantities, 
whence  proportion  arises.  He  also  adds  that  arithmetic  and  geometry 
afford  mutual  aid  to  each  other,  and  that  they  cannot  be  separated. 


P  Y  T  H  E  A  S 


143 


statements  cited  from  it  being  confined  to  detached  points, 
which  may  easily  have  been  derived  at  second  or  even 
third  hand.  We  are  hence  left  almost  wholly  in  the  dark 
as  to  the  form  and  character  of  the  work  itself,  but  the 
various  titles  under  which  it  is  cited  by  later  writers  poinl 
rather  to  a  geographical  treatise,  in  which  he  had  embodied 
the  results  of  his  observations,  than  to  a  continuous  narra- 
tive of  his  voyage  like  that  of  a  modern  navigator. 

Some  modern  writers  have  supposed  Pytheas  to  have 
been  sent  out  at  the  public  expense,  in  command  of  an 
expedition  organized  by  the  republic  of  Massilia;  bul 
there  is  no  ancient  authority  for  this,  and  the  statement 
of  Polybius,  who  had  unquestionably  seen  the  origina 
work,  is  express,  that  he  had  undertaken  the  voyage  in 
a  private  capacity  and  with  limited  means.  All  that  we 
know  concerning  the  voyage  of  Pytheas  (apart  from  such 
detached  notices  as  those  already  referred  to)  is  contained 
in  a  brief  passage  of  Polybius,  cited  by  Strabo,  in  which 
he  tells  us  that  Pytheas,  according  to  his  own  statement, 
had  not  only  visited  Britain  but  had  personally  explored 
a  large  part  of  it,  and  stated  its  circumference  at  more  than 
40,000  stadia  (4000  geographical  miles).  To  this  he 
added  the  account  of  Thule  (which  he  placed  six  days 
voyage  to  the  north  of  Britain)  and  the  adjoining  regions, 
in  which  there  was  no  longer  any  distinction  between  the 
air  and  earth  and  sea,  but  a  kind  of  mixture  of  all  three, 
forming  a  substance  resembling  the  gelatinous  mollusc 
known  as  the  Pulmo  marinus,  which  rendered  all  naviga- 
tion and  progress  in  any  other  mode  alike  impossible. 
This  substance  he  had  himself  seen,  but  the  other  state- 
ments he  derived  from  hearsay.  Returning  from  thence 
he  visited  the  whole  of  the  coasts  of  Europe  bordering 
on  the  ocean  as  far  as  the  Tanais  (Polyb.  ap.  Strab.,  ii. 
p.  104).  This  last  sentence  has  led  some  modern  writers 
to  suppose  that  he  made  two  different  voyages ;  but  this 
is  highly  improbable,  and  the  expressions  of  Polybius 
certainly  imply  that  his  explorations  in  both  directions, 
first  towards  the  north  and  afterwards  towards  the  east, 
formed  part  of  one  and  the  same  voyage. 

The  circumstance  that  the  countries  visited,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  explored,  by  Pytheas  were  not  only  pre- 
viously unknown  to  the  Greeks — except  perhaps  by  vague 
hearsay  accounts  received  through  the  Phoenicians — but 
were  not  visited  by  any  subsequent  authority  during  a 
period  of  more  than  two  centuries  led  some  of  the  later 
Greek  geographers  altogether  to  disregard  his  statements, 
and  even  to  treat  the  whole  story  of  his  voyage  as  a  fiction. 
Eratosthenes,  indeed,  who  wrote  about  a  century  after  his 
time,  was  disposed  to  attach  great  value  to  his  authority, 
though  doubting  some  of  his  statements ;  but  Polybius, 
about  half  a  century  later,  involved  the  whole  in  one 
sweeping  condemnation,  treating  the  work  of  Pytheas  as 
a  mere  tissue  of  fables,  like  that  of  Euhemerus  concerning 
Panchtea ;  and  even  Strabo,  in  whose  time  the  western 
regions  of  Europe  were  comparatively  well  known,  adopted 
to  a  great  extent  the  same  view  with  Polybius. 

In  modern  times  a  more  critical  examination  has  arrived 
at  a  more  favourable  judgment,  and,  though  Gossellin  in 
his  JRecherckes  sur  la  Geographic  des  Anciens  (vol.  iv.  pp. 
168-180)  and  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis  in  his  History  of  Ancient 
Astronomy  (pp.  466-481)  revived  the  sceptical  view,  the 
tendency  of  modern  critics  has  been  rather  to  exaggerate 
than  to  depreciate  the  value  of  what  was  really  added  by 
Pytheas  to  geographical  knowledge.  The  fact  is  that  our 
information  concerning  him  is  so  imperfect,  and  the  scanty 
notices  preserved  to  us  from  his  work  at  once  so  meagre 
and  discordant,  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  arrive  at  anything 
like  a  sound  conclusion.  It  may,  however,  be  considered 
as  fairly  established  that  Pytheas  really  made  a  voyage 
round  the  western  coasts  of  Europe,  proceeding  from  Gades, 


the  great  Phoenician  emporium,  and  probably  the  farthest 
point  familiar  to  the  Greeks,  round  Spain  and  Gaul  to 
the  British  Islands,  and  that  he  followed  the  eastern  coast 
of  Britain  for  a  considerable  distance  to  the  north,  obtain- 
ing information  as  to  its  farther  extension  in  that  direction 
which  led  him  greatly  to  exaggerate  its  size.  At  the  same 
time  he  heard  vaguely  of  the  existence  of  a  large  island  to 
the  north  of  it — probably  derived  from  the  fact  of  the 
groups  of  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands  being  really  found 
in  that  position — to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Thule. 
No  ancient  writer  (except  a  late  astronomer,  who  merely 
refers  to  it  in  a  passing  notice  and  obviously  at  second 
hand)  asserts  that  Pytheas  had  himself  visited  Thule ;  his 
account  of  the  Sluggish  Sea  beyond  it  was,  as  stated  by 
Polybius  himself  in  the  passage  already  cited,  derived 
merely  from  hearsay. 

But  the  most  important  statement  made  by  Pytheas  in 
regard  to  this  unknown  land  of  Thule,  and  which  has  given 
rise  to  most  controversy  in  modern  times,  was  that  connected 
with  the  astronomical  phenomena  affecting  the  duration 
of  day  and  night  in  these  remote  arctic  regions.  Un- 
fortunately the  reports  transmitted  to  us  at  second  hand 
in  our  existing  authorities  differ  so  widely  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  determine  what  Pytheas  himself  really  stated. 
It  is,  however,  probable  that  the  version  given  in  one 
passage  by  Pliny  (H.N.,  iv.  16,  104)  correctly  represents 
his  authority.  According  to  this  he  reported  as  a  fact 
that  at  the  summer  solstice  the  days  were  twenty-four 
hours  in  length,  and  conversely  at  the  winter  solstice  the 
nights  were  of  equal  duration.  Of  course  this  would  be 
strictly  true  had  Thule  really  been  situated  under  the  arctic 
circle,  which  Pytheas  evidently  considered  it  to  be,  and 
his  skill  as  an  astronomer  would  thus  lead  him  to  accept 
readily  as  a  fact  what  he  knew  (as  a  voyager  proceeded 
onwards  towards  the  north)  must  be  true  at  some  point. 
But  this  statement  certainly  affords  no  evidence  that  he 
had  himself  actually  visited  the  mysterious  land  to  which 
it  refers.  (See  THULE.) 

Still  more  difficult  is  it  to  determine  the  extent  and 
character  of  Pytheas's  explorations  towards  the  east.     The 
statement  of  Polybius  that  he  proceeded  along  the  whole 
of  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe  as  far  as  the  Tanais  is 
evidently  based  upon  the  supposition  that  this  would  be  a 
simple  and  direct  course  along  the  coast  of  Germany  and 
Scythia, — Polybius  himself,  in  common  with  theother  Greek 
geographers  till  a  much  later  period,  being  wholly  ignorant 
of  the  vast  projection  of  the  Cimbric  peninsula,  and  the 
long  circumnavigation  that  it  involved, — of  all  which  no 
trace  is  found  in  the  extant  notices  of  Pytheas.     Notwith- 
standing this,  some  modern  writers  have  supposed  him  to 
have  entered  the  Baltic  and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  mouth 
of  the  Vistula,  which  he  erroneously  supposed  to  be  the 
Tanais.    The  only  foundation  for  this  highly  improbable  as- 
sumption is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  in  a  passage  cited  by 
Pliny  (H.N.,  xxxvii.  2,  35)  Pytheas  is  represented  as  stating 
that  amber  was  brought  from  an  island  called  Abalus, 
distant  a  day's  voyage  from  the  land  of  the  Guttones,  a 
German  nation  who  dwelt  on  an  estuary  of  the  ocean  called 
Mentonomus,  6000  stadia  in  extent.     It  was  a  production 
thrown  up  by  the  waves  of  the  sea,  and  was  used  by  the 
inhabitants  to  burn  instead  of  wood.     It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  "  estuary "  here  mentioned  really  refers  to  the 
Baltic,  the  existence  of  which  as  a  separate  sea  was  un- 
known to  all  ancient  geographers  ;  but  the  obscure  manner 
in  Avhich  it  is  indicated,  as  well  as  the  inaccuracy  of  the 
statements  concerning  the  place  from  whence  the  amber 
was  actually  derived,  both  point  to  the  sort  of  hearsay 
accounts  which  Pytheas  might  readily  have  picked  up  on 
the  shores  of  the  German  Ocean,  without  proceeding  farther 
than  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  Avhich  is  supposed  by  Ukert 


144 


p  y  T  — P  Y  X 


to  have  been  the  limit  of  his  voyage  in  this  direction.  It 
must  be  observed  also  that  amber  is  found  on  the  western 
coasts  of  Germany,  as  well  as  in  the  Baltic,  though  not  in 
equal  abundance. 

It  is  a  very  singular  fact  that  no  mention  is  found  in 
any  ancient  writer,  in  connexion  with  the  voyage  of  Pytheas, 
of  the  Cassiterides  or  Tin  Islands,  the  exploration  of  which 
might  naturally  have  been  supposed  to  have  been  one  of 
the  chief  objects  of  his  voyage.  It  is  indeed  not  im- 
possible that  the  statements  on  this  subject  preserved  to 
us  from  Timseus,  who  wrote  less  than  a  century  after  him, 
were  derived  from  Pytheas,  though  there  is  no  proof  of  this. 
The  trade  with  those  islands  was  probably  at  this  period 
exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  Phoenicians,  but  we  know 
that  at  a  later  time  a  considerable  portion  of  the  supply 
was  carried  overland  through  Gaul  to  Massilia.  Whether 
the  voyage  of  Pytheas  had  any  effect  in  contributing  to 
bring  about  the  diversion  of  this  lucrative  trade  we  have 
unfortunately  no  information. 

Whatever  uncertainty  still  hangs  around  all  that  has  been  trans- 
mitted to  us  concerning  the  actual  explorations  of  Pytheas.  it  is 
certain  that  he  had  one  merit  which  distinguished  him  from  almost 
all  his  contemporaries  :  he  was  a  good  astronomer,  and  was  one  of 
the  first  who  made  observations  for  the  determination  of  latitudes, 
among  others  that  of  his  native  place  Massilia,  which  he  fixed  with 
remarkable  accuracy,  so  that  his  result,  which  was  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  truth,  was  adopted  by  Ptolemy,  and  became  the  basis 
of  his  map  of  the  Western  Mediterranean.  Pytheas  was  also  the 
first  among  the  Greeks  who  arrived  at  any  correct  notion  of  the 
tides,  and  not  only  indicated  their  connexion  with  the  moon  but 
pointed  out  their  periodical  fluctuations  in  accordance  with  the 
phases  of  that  luminary.  Other  observations  concerning  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants  of  these  remote  regions 
are  ascribed  to  him  that  are  undoubtedly  correct  and  tend  strongly 
to  prove  that  he  had  himself  really  visited  them.  Among  these 
are  the  gradual  disappearance  of  various  kinds  of  grain  as  one 
advanced  towards  the  north  ;  the  use  of  fermented  liquors  made 
from  corn  and  honey  ;  and  the  habit  of  threshing  out  their  corn  in 
large  covered  barns,  instead  of  on  open  threshing-floors  as  in  Greece 
and  Italy,  on  account  of  the  want  of  sun  and  abundance  of  rain. 

The  fragments  of  Pytheas  have  been  collected  by  Arvedson  (Upsala,  1824) 
and  by  Fuhr  (De  Pythea  Massiliensi,  Darmstadt,  1835).  Of  the  numerous 
treatises  and  dissertations  on  the  subject  see  for  those  of  earlier  date  Ukert's 
"  Bemerkungen  iiber  Pytheas "  (in  vol.  i.  of  his  Geog.  d.  Griechen  u.  Homer, 
pp.  298-309),  which  contains  an  ^excellent  summary  of  all  that  is  known  con- 
cerning tke  author  and  his  work.  The  question  has  been  also  discussed  by 
Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  in  his  Historical  Survey  of  the  Astronomy  of  tke  Ancients  (pp. 
466-480,  London,  1862),  by  Mr  Bunbury,  in  his  History  of  Ancient  Geography 
(vol.  i.  chap.  xv.  sect.  2),  and  by  Mr  Elton,  in  his  Origins  of  English  History 
(London,  1882).  A  very  elaborate  but  prolix  and  somewhat  confused  investiga- 
tion of  the  whole  subject  will  be  found  in  Miillenhoff's  Deutsche  Alterthums- 
kicnde  (vol.  i.  pp.  211-497,  Berlin,  1870).  (E.  H.  B.) 

PYTHON,  a  genus  of  gigantic  snakes  inhabiting  the 
tropical  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia,  and  known  in  some  parts 
of  the  British  possessions  by  the  name  of  "  rock-snakes." 
On  account  of  their  general  appearance,  beautifully-marked 
skin,  large  size,  and  similarity  of  habits  they  are  frequently 
confounded  with  the  true  boas  of  the  New  World  and 
misnamed  "  boa  -constrictors."  They  differ  from  them, 
however,  by  having  a  double  row  of  scutes  under  the  tail, 
pits  in  the  shields  round  the  margins  of  the  upper  and 
lower  jaws,  and  teeth  in  the  intermaxillary  bone. 

Africa  is  inhabited  by  three  species  (Python  sebae,  P.  regius, 
and  P.  natolensis),  and  Asia  by  two  (Python  molurus  and 
P.  retieulatus),  the  former  of  these  two  species  being  found 
on  the  continent  of  India  and  in  Ceylon,  the  latter  in  the 
large  islands  of  the  Archipelago  and  in  the  Malayan  Pen- 
insula. In  Australasia  and  New  Guinea  similar  snakes 
occur,  but  they  are  of  much  smaller  size  and  differ  in 
essential  structural  characters  from  the  rock-snakes.  These 
latter  are  among  the  largest  of  living  reptiles ;  although 
their  dimensions  and  strength  have  been  much  exaggerated, 
specimens  of  18  and  20  feet  have  been  brought  to  Europe, 
and  reliable  statements  of  the  occurrence  of  individuals 
which  measured  30  feet  are  on  record.  Snakes  of  this 
size  will  easily  overpower  and  kill  one  of  the  small  species 
of  deer  or  antelopes  which  abound  in  their  native  haunts, 
a  sheep,  or  a  good-sized  dog ;  but  the  width  of  their  mouth 


would  not  permit  them  to  swallow  an  animal  larger  than 
a  half-grown  sheep.  The  way  in  which  they  seize  and 
kill  their  prey  does  not  differ  from  that  observed  in  num- 


Python  retieulatus  (India). 

erous  other  non- venomous  snakes :  after  having  seized 
their  victim,  they  smother  it  by  constriction,  throwing 
several  coils  of  the  body  over  and  round  it.  In  swallowing 
they  always  commence  with  the  head ;  and,  as  they  prey 
exclusively  on  mammals  and  birds,  the  hairs  and  feathers 
offer  a  considerable  impediment  to  the  passage  through 
the  narrow  but  distensible  throat.  The  process  of  deglu- 
tition is  therefore  slow,  although  facilitated  by  the  great 
quantity  of  saliva  discharged  over  the  body  of  the  victim. 
During  the  time  of  digestion  the  snake  is  very  lazy,  and 
unwilling  to  move  and  to  defend  itself  when  attacked. 
At  other  times  these  animals  are  fierce  enough,  although 
always  harmless  to  man  if  left  unmolested.  In  captivity 
they  seem  to  become  used  to  those  who  attend  upon  them, 
but  their  apparent  tameness  is§  due  rather  to  the  depress- 
ing influence  of  a  colder  climate  than  to  a  change  of  their 
naturally  excitable  temper.  Rock-snakes  are  mostly  arbo- 
real, and  prefer  localities  in  the  vicinity  of  water  to  which 
animals  resort  for  the  purpose  of  drinking.  They  move, 
climb,  and  swim  with  equal  facility.  It  has  now  been  well 
established  by  observations  on  specimens  in  a  state  of 
nature  as  well  as  in  captivity  that  the  female  rock-snake 
incubates  her  eggs  for  about  two  months,  at  the  end  of 
which  period  the  young  are  hatched,  and  probably  remain 
under  the  protection  of  the  mother  for  a  few  weeks  longer. 
The  snake  collects  the  eggs  into  a  conical  heap,  round 
which  she  coils  herself,  entirely  covering  them  so  that 
her  head  rests  in  the  centre  on  the  top  of  the  cone.  In 
this  position  the  animal  remains  without  food  throughout 
the  whole  period  of  incubation,  and  an  increase  of  the 
temperature  between  the  coils  of  the  snake  has  been  ob- 
served in  every  case. 

PYX.     See  MINT,  vol.  xvi.  p.  483. 


145 


Q 


Qwas  written  in  Greek  with  the  straight  stroke  verti- 
cal, ? ,  as  in  the  Phoenician  alphabet  from  which  it 
was  borrowed,  and  was  called  koppa,  the  equivalent  of  the 
Hebrew  koph.  It  is  found  sparingly  on  some  old  inscrip- 
tions of  Rhodes,  of  some  of  the  ^Egean  islands,  of  Corinth 
and  of  Syracuse,  and  most  frequently  in  the  Chalcidian 
colonies  of  Sicily  'and  Italy.  But  it  was  soon  supplanted 
by  kappa,  and  survived  only  in  numeration  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  number  90.  It  went  to  Home  with  the 
Chalcidian  alphabet  of  Cumae,  and  was  written  at  first 
with  the  vertical  line ;  but  the  stroke  soon  became  slant, 
so  that  the  symbol  got  the  form  it  still  retains  (Q). 

There  is  a  slight  but  real  distinction  of  sound  between 
the  so-called  palatal  and  velar  k.  The  first  is  the  ordinary 
k,  for  which  the  back  of  the  tongue  is  raised  against  the 
back  part  of  the  hard  palate.  The  second  is  produced  by 
raising  the  tongue  against  the  soft  palate  or  velum  palati, 
that  is,  rather  farther  back  in  the  mouth.  This  sound 
has  a  tendency  to  be  accompanied  by  a  slight  rounding  of 
the  lips ;  this  causes  an  equally  slight  w  sound  after  the  k. 
It  is  probable  that  the  velar  k  with  this  parasitic  w  was  in 
use  for  a  time  in  Greece,  and  that  it  was  represented  by 
the  koppa ;  the  symbol  would  otherwise  have  been  totally 
unnecessary;  also  the  koppa  is  generally  followed  by  u 
or  o,  which,  on  this  view,  is  natural.  We  know  that  in 
Greece  kw  must  have  been  an  intermediate  sound  between 
k  and  p  in  words  where  k  was  labialized,  such  as  CTTO/IOI 
from  root  sak  (see  under  K).  But  this  intermediate 
sound  was  not  retained  in  the  language  :  either  the  w  was 
dropped  and  the  sound  reverted  to  k,  or  p  was  produced 
by  the  assimilating  force  of  the  w ;  therefore  all  need  for 
a  symbol  koppa  vanished.  But  in  Latin  the  middle  step 
remained,  as  in  sequor ;  therefore  the  symbol  was  needed. 
But  the  parasitic  sound  became  a  complete  w  ;  and  to 
denote  this  v  was  regularly  written  after  the  q.  There- 
fore even  in  Latin  the  symbol  was  really  otiose,  for  kv 
would  have  been  quite  sufficient,  and  did  actually  suffice 
for  the  Umbrian  and  Oscan,  which  never  possessed  the  q. 
In  old  inscriptions  we  find  q  alone  when  the  following 
vowel  is  «,  as  in  Mirqurios,  pequnia.  In  later  times, 
when  o  passed  by  weakening  into  u,  a  preceding  qu  was 
written  c ;  thus  quom  became  cum,  to  avoid  the  double  u 
of  quv.m.  The  qu  of  the  Latin  naturally  passed  on  into 
the  Romanic  languages.  It  passed  into  the  Teutonic 
languages  in  borrowed  words,  such  as  quart,  but  made  its 
way  into  Teutonic  words  also ;  thus,  in  English,  cwen, 
cvjdlan  are  now  spelt  queen,  quell. 

QL'ADRILATERAL,  a  military  term  applied  to  any 
combination  of  four  fortresses  mutually  supporting  each 
other,  but  especially  to  that  of  the  four  fortified  towns  of 
Mantua,  Peschiera,  Verona,  and  Legnago,  the  two  former 
of  which  are  situated  on  the  Mincio  and  the  two  latter 
on  the  Adige.  The  real  value  of  the  Quadrilateral,  which 
gave  Austria  such  a  firm  hold  on  Lombardy,  lay  in  the 
extraordinary  natural  strength  of  Mantua  and  in  the 
readiness  with  which  troops  and  supplies  could  be  poured 
into  Verona  from  the  north. 

See  "The  Quadrilateral,"  in  the  Cornhill  Magazine,  1862;  and 
Professor  Malfatti,  U  Quadrilatero,  Milan,  1866. 

QUADRUMANA.  See  MAMMALIA,  voL  xv.  p.  444, 
and  APE,  vol.  ii.  p.  148. 

QUAESTOR  was  the  title  of  a  Roman  magistrate  whose 
functions,  at  least  in  the  later  times  of  the  republic,  were 
mainly  financial.  The  origin  of  the  quaestorship  is  some- 
what obscure,  but  on  the  whole  it  was  probably  instituted 


simultaneously  with  the  consulship  in  509  B.C.1  The 
number  of  the  quaestors  was  originally  two,  but  this  was 
successively  increased  to  four  (in  421  B.C.),  eight  (in  267 
or  241  B.C.),  and  by  Sulla  (in  81  B.C.)  to  twenty.  Caesar 
raised  the  number  to  forty  (in  45  B.C.),  but  Augustus 
reduced  it  again  to  twenty,  which  remained  the  regular 
number  under  the  empire.  When  the  number  was  raised 
from  two  to  four  in  421  B.C.  the  office  was  thrown  open 
to  the  plebeians,  and  it  was  the  first  office  that  was  so 
opened.  It  was  the  lowest  of  the  great  offices  of  state, 
and  hence  it  was  regularly  the  first  sought  by  aspirants 
to  a  political  career.  Towards  the  close  of  the  republic, 
if  not  earlier,  the  successful  candidate  was  bound  to 
have  completed  his  thirtieth  year  before  he  entered  on 
office,  but  Augustus  lowered  the  age  to  twenty-five. 
Originally  the  quaestors  seem  to  have  been  nominated 
by  the  consuls  independently,  but  later,  perhaps  from 
the  fall  of  the  decemvirs  (449  B.C.),  they  were  elected  by 
the  people  assembled  in  tribes  (comitia  tributa)  and  pre- 
sided over  by  a  consul  or  another  of  the  higher  magistrates. 
The  quaestors  held  office  for  one  year,  but,  like  the  consuls 
and  praetors,  they  were  often  continued  in  office  with  the 
title  of  proquaestor.  Indeed  it  was  a  regular  rule  that  the 
quaestor  attached  to  a  higher  magistrate  should  hold  office 
as  long  as  his  superior;  hence,  when  a  consul  regularly 
presided  over  the  city  for  one  year,  and  afterwards  as 
proconsul  governed  a  province  for  another  year,  his 
quaestor  also  regularly  held  office  for  two  years.  Before 
the  election  of  the  quaestors  the  senate  decided  the  duties 
to  be  undertaken  by  them,  and  after  election  these  duties 
were  distributed  amongst  the  new  quaestors  either  by  lot  or 
by  the  choice  of  the  higher  magistrates  to  whom  a  quaestor 
was  assigned.  A  peculiar  burden  laid  on  the  quaestors, 
not  so  much  as  an  official  duty,  but  rather  as  a  sort  of 
fee  exacted  from  all  who  entered  on  the  political  career, 
was  the  paving  of  the  high  roads,  for  which  Claudius 
substituted  the  exhibition  of  gladiatorial  games.  Various 
classes  of  quaestors  may  be  distinguished  according  to  the 
duties  they  had  respectively  to  discharge.  Up  to  421  B.C. 
there  were  only  two  quaestors,  and  when  fresh  ones  were 
added  the  two  original  quaestors  were  distinguished  by  the 
appellation  of  urban  quaestors  (qu&stores  urbani),  doubtless 
because  they  were  bound  to  remain  in  Rome  during  their 
term  of  office. 

1.  The  Urban  QusRstors. — Originally  the  duties  of  the  quaestors, 
like  those  of  the  consuls,  were  of  a  general  and  undefined  nature  ; 
specialization  of  function  had  not  yet  arisen — the  consuls  were 
simply  the  superior,  the  qujestors  simply  the  inferior  magistrates 
of  the  republic.  From  a  very  early  time,  however,  the  quaestors 
possessed  criminal  to  the  exclusion  of  civil  jurisdiction.  The  very 
name  "  quwstor  "  (from  quasrere,  "  to  search  out ")  means  "  inves- 
tigator," "inquisitor."  In  the  code  of  the  Twelve  Tables  they 
are  designated  qu&stores  parricidii,  "  inquisitors  of  parricide  or 
murder  ;2  and  perhaps  originally  this  was  their  full  title,  which  was 
afterwards  abbreviated  into  quaestors  when  their  functions  as  crim- 
inal judges  fell  into  the  background.  In  addition  to  parricide  or 
murder  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  all  other  crimes  fell  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  quaestors ;  political  crimes  only  seem  to  have 
been  excepted.  The  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the  quaestors  appears 


1  Plutarch  (Popl.,  12)  states  that  the  office  was  instituted  by  the  first 
consul.     Tacitus,  on  the  other  hand  (Ann.,  xi.  22),  says  that  it  dated 
from  the  time  of  the  kings,  but  his  ground  is  merely  that  they  were 
mentioned  in  the  Lex  Curiata  of  the  consul  Brutus,  which  Tacitus 
assumes  to  have  been  identical  with  that  of  the  kings. 

2  The  etymology  and  original  meaning  of  parricidium  are  doubtfnL 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  word  we  have,  of  course,  the  same  root  as  in 
casdere,  "to  kill,"  but  whether  or  not  the  former  part  is  from  pater,  "  a 
father,"  or  from  the  same  root  that  we  have  in per-peram,  per-jurium, 
is  a  moot  point.     Mommsen  takes  the  latter  view. 

XX. —  19 


146 


Q  U  A  —  Q  U  A 


only  to  have  terminated  when  towards  the  close  of  the  republic 
trial  by  permanent  courts  (qmestiones  pcrpetuee)  was  extended  to 
criminal  cases.1 

The  quaestors  had  also  charge  of  the  public  treasury  (aerarium) 
in  the  temple  of  Saturn,  and  this  was  in  the  later  times  of  the 
republic  their  most  important  function.  They  kept  the  keys  of 
the  treasury  and  had  charge  of  its  contents,  including  not  only 
coin  and  bullion  but  also  the  military  standards  and  a  large 
number  of  public  documents,  which  in  later  times  comprised  all 
the  laws  as  well  as  the  decrees  of  the  senate.  Their  functions  as 
keepers  of  the  treasury  were  withdrawn  from  the  urban  quaestors 
by  Augustus  and  transferred  to  other  magistrates,  but  the  office 
itself  continued  to  exist  into  the  3d  century,  though  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  duties  attached  to  it  we  have  little  or  no  information. 

2.  The  Military  Qutestors. — These  were  instituted  in  421  B.C., 
when  two  new  quaestors  were  added  to   the  original  two.     They 
never  had  a  distinctive  appellation  like  that  of  the  urban  quaestors, 
from  whom,  however,  they  were  clearly  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that,  while  the  urban  quaestors  did  not  stand  in  a  special  relation 
of  subordination  to  any  particular  magistrate,  a  non-urban  quaestor 
was  regularly  assigned  as  an  indispensable  assistant  or  adjutant  to 
every  general  in  command,  whose  name  or  title  the  quaestor  usually 
added  to  his  own.2    Originally  they  were  the  adjutants  of  the 
consuls  only,  afterwards  of  the  provincial  praetors,  and  still  later 
of  the  proconsuls  and  propraetors.      The   dictator  alone  among 
military  commanders   had  no  quaestor,  because  a  quaestor  would 
have  been  a  limitation  to  his  powers.     The  governor  of  Sicily  had 
two  quaestors  ;  all  other  governors  and  commanders  had  but  one. 
Between  the  quaestor  and  his  superior  a  close  personal  relation, 
analogous  to  that  between  a  son  and  his  father,  existed,  and  was 
not  severed  when  their  official  connexion  ceased.     Not  till  the 
close  of  the  republic  do  cases  occur  of  a  quaestor  being  sent  to  a 
province  invested  with  prsetorial  and  even  consular  powers  ;  in  one 
case  at  least  the  quaestor  so  sent  had  a  second   quaestor  placed 
under  him.     The  duties  of  the  military  quaestor,  like  those  of  the 
treasury  quaestor,  were    primarily  financial.     Moneys    due    to  a 
provincial  governor  from   the  state   treasury  were  often,  perhaps 
regularly,  received  and  disbursed  by  the  quaestor;  the  magazines 
seem  to  have  been  under  his  charge ;  he  coined  money,  on  which 
not  unfrequently  his  name  appears  alone.     The  booty  taken  in  war 
was  not  necessarily  under  the  control  of  the  quaestor,  but  was 
dealt  with,   especially  in  later  times,  by  inferior  officers  called 
prsefecti  fabrum.     But,  though  his  duties  were  primarily  financial, 
the  quaestor  was  after  all  the  chief  assistant  or  adjutant  of  his 
superior  in  command,  and  as  such  he  was  invested  with  a  certain 
degree  of  military  power ;  under  the  republic  his  military  rank 
was  superior  to  that  of  the  legates,  though   under  the  empire 
this  relation  was  reversed.     When  the  general  left  his  province 
before  the  arrival  of  his  successor  he  usually  committed  it  to  the 
care  of  his  quaestor,  and,  if  he  died  or  was  incapacitated  from 
naming  his   successor,  the  quaestor  acted  as  his   representative. 
Unlike  the  urban  quaestor,  the  military  quaestor  possessed  not  a 
criminal  but  a  civil  jurisdiction  corresponding  to  that  of  the  aediles 
at  Rome. 

3.  The  Italian  Qu&stors. — The  subjugation  of  Italy  occasioned 
the  institution  (in  267  B.C.)  of  four  new  quaestors,  who  appear  to 
have  been  called  qu&stores  classici  because  they  were  originally 
intended  to  superintend  the  building  of  the  fleet  (dassis) ;  their 
functions,    however,    are  very  imperfectly  known.      Though  no 
doubt  intended  to  assist  the  consuls,  they  were  not  subordinated 
(like    the  military  quaestors)  to  a  special   consul.      They  were 
stationed  at  Ostia,  at  Gales  in  Campania,  and  in  Gaul  about  the 
Padus  (Po).     The  station  of  the  fourth  is  not  mentioned  ;  perhaps 
it  was  Lilybaeum  in  Sicily. 

QUAGGA,  or  COUAGGA,  an  animal  of  the  genus  Equus 
(see  HORSE,  vol.  xii.  p.  175),  nearly  allied  to  the  zebra, 
which  formerly  was  met  with  in  vast  herds  on  the  great 
plains  of  South  Africa  between  the  Cape  Colony  and  the 
Vaal  river,  but  now,  in  common  with  most  of  the  larger 
wild  animals  of  that  region,  becoming  extremely  scarce, 
owing  to  the  encroachments  of  European  civilization.  In 
length  of  ears  and  character  of  tail  it  more  resembles  the 
horse  than  it  does  the  ass,  although  it  agrees  with  the 
latter  in  wanting  the  small  bare  callosity  in  the  inner  side 
of  the  hind  leg,  just  below  the  hock,  characteristic  of  the 
horse.  The  colour  of  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  parts  of 

1  It  is  often  supposed  that  the  qusestores  parricidii  were  an  old 
magistracy   quite  distinct    from   the    ordinary  quaestors.     For    the 
identification  of  the  two,  see  Mommsen,  Jiiimisches  Staatsrecht,  ii., 
pt.  1,  p.  506. 

2  Thus  Cicero  speaks  of  the  provincia  consvlaris  of  the  quaestor,  and 
we  find  quaestor  Cn.  Pompei,  &c. 


the  body  is  reddish-brown,  irregularly  banded  and  marked 
with  dark  brown  stripes,  stronger  on  the  head  and  neck 
and  gradually  becoming  fainter  until  lost  behind  the 
shoulder.  There  is  a  broad  dark  median  dorsal  stripe. 
The  under  surface  of  the  body,  the  legs,  and  tail  are  nearly 
white,  without  stripes.  The  crest  is  very  high,  surmounted 
by  a  standing  mane,  banded  alternately  brown  and  white. 
Though  never  really  domesticated,  quaggas  have  occasion- 
ally been  trained  to  harness.  The  accompanying  figure  is 


Quagga. 

reduced  from  a  painting  made  from  one  of  a  pair  which 
were  driven  in  Hyde  Park  by  Mr  Sheriff  Parkins  in  the 
early  part  of  the  present  century.  The  name  is  an  imita- 
tion of  the  shrill  barking  neigh  of  the  animal,  "  ouag-ga, 
ouag-ga,"  the  last  syllable  very  much  prolonged.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  in  reading  books  of  African 
travel  that  the  same  word  is  very  commonly  applied  by 
hunters  to  another  and  more  completely  striped  species, 
called  by  zoologists  Burchell's  zebra. 

QUAIL  (Old  French  Quaille,  Mod.  French  Cattle, 
Italian  Quaglia,  Low  Latin  Quaquila,  Dutch  Kwdkkel,  and 
Kwartel,  German  Wachtel,  Danish  Vagtel),  a  very  well- 
known  bird  throughout  almost  all  countries  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa, — in  modern  ornithology  the  Cotumix 
communis  or  C.  dactylisonans.  This  last  epithet  was  given 
from  the  peculiar  three- syllabled  call-note  of  the  cock,  which 
has  been  grotesquely  rendered  in  several  European  lan- 
guages, and  in  some  parts  of  Great  Britain  the  species  is 
popularly  known  by  the  nickname  of  "  Wet-my-lips "  or 
"  Wet-my-feet."  The  Quail  varies  somewhat  in  colour,  and 
the  variation  is  rather  individual  than  attributable  to  local 
causes;  but  generally  the  plumage  may  be  described  as 
reddish-brown  above,  almost  each  feather  being  trans- 
versely patched  with  dark  brown  interrupted  by  a  longitu- 
dinal stripe  of  light  buff;  the  head  is  dark  brown  above, 
with  three  longitudinal  streaks  of  ochreous- white ;  the  sides 
of  the  breast  and  flanks  are  reddish-brown,  distinctly  striped 
with  ochreous- white ;  the  rest  of  the  lower  parts  are  pale 
buff,  clouded  with  a  darker  shade,  and  passing  into  white  on 
the  belly.  The  cock,  besides  being  generally  brighter  in 
tint,  not  unfrequently  has  the  chin  and  a  double-throat 
band  of  reddish  or  blackish-brown,  which  marks  are  want- 
ing in  the  hen,  whose  breast  is  usually  spotted.  Quails 
breed  on  the  ground,  as  all  gallinaceous  birds  commonly 
do,  and  lay  from  nine  to  fifteen  eggs  of  a  yellowish-white, 
blotched  and  spotted  with  dark  brown.  Though  essenti- 
ally migratory  by  nature,  not  a  few  Quails  pass  the  winter 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  and  even  in  Britain,  and  many 
more  in  southern  Europe.  In  March  and  April  they  cross  the 
Mediterranean  from  the  south  on  the  way  to  their  breed- 


Q  U  A  — Q  U  A 


147 


ing  homes  in  large  bands,  but  these  are  said  to  be  as 
nothing  compared  with  the  enormous  flights  that  emigrate 
from  Europe  towards  the  end  of  September.  During  both 
migrations  immense  numbers  are  netted  for  the  market, 
since  they  are  almost  universally  esteemed  as  delicate 
meat.  On  capture  they  are  placed  in  long  narrow  and  low 
cages,  darkened  to  prevent  the  prisoners  from  fighting,  and, 
though  they  are  often  so  much  crowded  as  to  be  hardly  able 
to  stir,  the  loss  by  death  that  ensues  is  but  trifling.  Food, 
usually  millet  or  hempseed,  and  water  are  supplied  in 
troughs  hung  in  front,  and  thus  these  little  birds  are  trans- 
ported by  tens  of  thousands  from  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  for  consumption  in  the  most  opulent  and 
populous  cities  of  Europe.  The  flesh  of  Quails  caught  in 
spring  commonly  proves  dry  and  indifferent,  but  that  of 
those  taken  in  autumn,  especially  when  they  have  been 
kept  long  enough  to  grow  fat,  as  they  quickly  do,  is 
excellent.  In  no  part  of  the  British  Islands  at  present  do 
Quails  exist  in  sufficient  numbers  to  be  the  especial  object 
of  sport,  though  there  are  many  places  in  which  a  few,  and 
in  some  seasons  more  than  a  few,  yearly  fall  to  the  gun. 
When  made  to  take  wing,  which  is  not  always  easily  done, 
they  rise  with  great  speed,  but  on  such  occasions  they 
seldom  fly  far,  and  no  one  seeing  them  only  thus  would  be 
inclined  to  credit  them  with  the  power  of  extensive  migra- 
tion that  they  possess,  though  this  is  often  overtaxed,  and 
the  birds  in  their  transmarine  voyages  frequently  drop 
exhausted  into  the  sea  or  on  any  vessel  that  may  be  in 
their  way.  In  old  days  they  were  taken  in  England  in  a 
net,  attracted  thereto  by  means  of  a  Quail-call, — a  simple 
instrument,1  the  use  of  which  is  now  wholly  neglected, — on 
which  their  notes  are  easily  imitated. 

Five  or  six  other  species  of  the  restricted  genus  Coturnix 
are  now  recognized ;  but  the  subject  of  the  preceding 
remarks  is  generally  admitted  to  be  that  intended  by  the 
author  of  the  book  of  Exodus  (xvi.  13)  as  having  supplied 
food  to  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  though  a  few 
ornithological  writers  have  thought  that  bird  to  have  been 
a  SAND-GROUSE  (q.v.).  In  South  Africa  and  India  allied 
species,  C.  delegorguii  and  C.  coromandelica,  the  latter 
known  as  the  Rain-Quail,  respectively  occur,  as  well  as  the 
commoner  one,  which  in  Australia  and  Tasmania  is  wholly 
replaced  by  C.  pectoralis,  the  Stubble- Quail  of  the  colonists. 
In  New  Zealand  another  species,  C.  novaz-zelandix,  was 
formerly  very  abundant  in  some  districts,  but  is  considered 
to  have  been  nearly  if  not  quite  extirpated  within  the  last 
twenty  years  by  bush- fires.  Some  fifteen  or  perhaps  more 
species  of  Quails,  inhabiting  the  Indian  and  Australian 
Regions,  have  been  separated,  perhaps  unnecessarily,  to 
form  the  genera  Synoecus,  Perdicula,  Excalphatoria,  and  so 
forth ;  but  they  call  for  no  particular  remark. 

America  has  some  fifty  or  sixty  species  of  birds  which 
are  commonly  deemed  Quails,  though  by  some  authors 
placed  in  a  distinct  Family  or  Sub-family  Odontophorinse.2 
The  best  known  is  the  Virginian  Quail,  or  Colin,  as  it  is 
frequently  called- — that  being,  according  to  Hernandez,  its 
old  Mexican  name.  It  is  the  Ortyx  virginianus  of  modern 
ornithology,  and  has  a  wide  distribution  in  North  America, 
in  some  parts  of  which  it  is  known  as  the  "  Partridge,"  as 
well  as  by  the  nickname  of  "Bob-White,"  aptly  bestowed 
upon  it  from  the  call-note  of  the  cock.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  introduce  this  bird  to  England  (as 
indeed  similar  trials  have  been  made  in  the  United  States 
with  Quails  from  Europe)  ;  but,  though  it  has  been  turned 
out  by  hundreds,  and  has  been  frequently  known  to  breed 
after  liberation,  its  numbers  rapidly  diminish  until  it 
wholly  disappears.  The  beautiful  tufted  Quail  of  Cali- 

1  One  is  figured  in  Rowley's  Ornithological  Miscellany  (ii.  p.  363). 

2  They  form  the  subject  of  a  monograph  in  folio  by  Gould,  published 
between  1844  and  1850. 


fornia,  Lophortyx  califomica,  has  also  been  tried  in 
Europe  without  success.  All  these  American  Quails  or 
Colins  seem  to  have  the  habit  of  perching  on  trees,  which 
none  of  the  Old- World  forms  possess. 

Interesting  from  many  points  of  view  as  is  the  group  of 
Birds  last  mentioned,  there  is  another  which,  containing  a 
score  of  species  (or  perhaps  more)  often  termed  Quails  or 
Button-Quails,  is  of  still  greater  importance  in  the  eyes  of 
the  systematist.  This  is  that  comprehended  by  the  genus 
Turnix,  or  Hemipodius  of  some  authors,  the  anatomical 
structure  of  which  removes  it  far  from  the  genera  Coturnix, 
Ortyx,  and  their  allies,  and  even  from  any  of  the  normal 
Gallinse.  Prof.  Huxley,  as  already  stated  (ORNITHOLOGY, 
vol.  xviii.  p.  36),  would  regard  it  as  the  representative  of  a 
generalized  stock  from  which  the  Charadriomorphae  and 
Alectoromorphse,  to  say  nothing  of  other  groups,  have 
sprung.  Want  of  space  prevents  our  here  dwelling  upon 
these  curious  birds.  One  species,  T.  sylvatica,  inhabits 
Barbary  and  southern  Spain,  and  under  the  name  of 
Andalucian  Hemipode  has  been  included  (though  on 
evidence  not  wholly  satisfactory)  among  British  Birds  as  a 
reputed  straggler.  The  rest  are  natives  of  various  parts 
of  the  Ethiopian,  Indian,  and  Australian  Regions.  It  is 
characteristic  of  the  genus  Turnix  to  want  the  hind  toe; 
but  the  African  Ortyxelus  and  the  Australian  Pedionomus 
which  have  been  referred  to  its  neighbourhood  have  four 
toes  on  each  foot,  and,  since  nothing  is  known  of  the 
anatomy  or  habits  of  the  first  and  but  little  of  those  of 
the  second,3  their  position  must  at  present  be  considered 
doubtful.  (A.  N.) 

QUAKERS.  The  Quakers,  or,  as  they  call  themselves, 
the  Society  of  Friends,  are  a  body  of  Christians  small  in 
number  but  presenting  several  features  of  interest.  To  the 
student  of  ecclesiastical  history  they  are  curious  as  exhibit- 
ing a  form  of  Christianity  widely  aberrant  from  the  preva- 
lent types,  and  as  a  body  of  worshippers  without  a  creed, 
a  liturgy,  a  priesthood,  or  a  sacrament ;  to  the  student  of 
social  science  they  are  interesting  as  having  given  to 
women  an  almost  equal  place  with  men  in  their  church 
organization,  and  as  having  attempted  to  eliminate  war, 
oaths,  and  litigation  from  their  midst.  The  student  of 
English  constitutional  history  will  observe  the  success  with 
which  they  have,  by  the  mere  force  of  passive  resistance, 
obtained  from  the  legislature  and  the  courts  indulgence 
for  all  their  scruples  and  a  recognition  of  the  legal  validity 
of  their  customs ;  whilst  to  the  student  of  American 
history  the  Quakers  will  ever  be  remarkable  for  the  pro- 
minent part  they  played  in  the  colonization  of  New  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania. 

History. — The  history  of  Quakerism  in  England  may 
conveniently  be  divided  into  four  periods: — (1)  from  the 
first  preaching  of  Fox  in  1648  to  the  establishing  of  a 
church  organization  in  1666;  (2)  from  that  date  to  the 
Revolution  of  1688;  (3)  from  the  Revolution  to  1835; 
and  (4)  from  1835  to  the  present  time. 

1.  George  Fox  (q.v.),  the  son  of  a  weaver  of  Drayton  in 
Leicestershire,  was  the  founder  of  the  Quakers.  He  began 
to  preach  in  1648,  and  in  a  few  years  gathered  around 
him  a  great  body  of  followers  and  a  considerable  number 
of  itinerant  preachers  like  himself,  who  zealously  promul- 
gated his  doctrines.  Amongst  these  Edward  Burrough  was 
one  of  the  most  remarkable.  In  1655  these  preachers  num- 
bered seventy-three.  Fox  and  his  fellow-preachers  spoke 
whenever  opportunity  offered  —  sometimes  in  churches, 

3  Col.  Legge's  observations  on  the  habits  of  Pedionomus  in  the 
Zoological  Society's  Proceedings  (1869,  pp.  236-238)  would  seem  to 
shew  a  Limicoline  affinity.  Garrod  in  the  same  work  (1873,  p.  34) 
figured  the  skull  as  that  of  a  Turnicine,  in  which  view  Forbes 
acquiesced  (Ibis,  1882,  pp.  389,  431) ;  but  against  it  Col.  Legge  im- 
mediately protested  (torn,  cit.,  p.  610). 


148 


QUAKERS 


sometimes  in  barns,  sometimes  at  market-crosses.  There 
is  some  evidence  to  show  that  the  arrangement  of  this  mis- 
sion, as  it  would  now  be  called,  rested  mainly  with  Fox, 
and  that  the  expenses  of  it  and  of  the  foreign  missions 
were  borne  out  of  a  common  fund.  Margaret  Fell,  the 
wife  and  afterwards  the  widow  of  Judge  Fell — who  sub- 
sequently married  George  Fox — opened  her  house  at 
Swarthmore  Hall,  near  Ulverston,  to  these  preachers,  and 
probably  contributed  largely  to  the  common  fund  from 
which  the  expenses  were  paid.  Fox's  teaching  was 
primarily  a  preaching  of  repentance ;  and  he  and  his 
friends  addressed  vast  congregations  much  as  Wesley 
and  Whitefield  did  at  a  later  date.  But  his  teaching  had 
certain  marked  peculiarities — especially  his  insistence  on 
the  universality  and  sufficiency  of  the  light  of  God's  Spirit. 
He  regarded  the  work  in  which  he  was  engaged  as  in  no 
wise  the  founding  of  a  new  sect  or  society,  but,  to  use  his 
own  words,  as  "  the  appearance  of  the  Lord's  everlasting 
truth,  and  breaking  forth  again  in  His  eternal  power  in 
this  our  day  and  age  in  England."  Such  teaching  and 
such  views  necessarily  brought  Fox  and  his  friends  into 
direct  conflict  with  all  the  religious  bodies  of  England, 
and  they  were  continually  engaged  in  strife  with  the  Pres- 
byterian ministers  who  then  filled  the  pulpits  of  English 
churches,  with  the  Independents,  with  the  Baptists,  with 
the  Episcopal  Church,  and  with  the  wilder  sectaries,  like 
the  Fifth  Monarchy  men,  the  Ranters,  the  Seekers,  and  the 
Muggletonians.  This  strife  was  conducted  on  both  sides 
with  a  zeal  and  an  acerbity  of  language  not  consonant 
with  our  present  notions  of  decorum.  The  movement  was 
accompanied,  too,  by  most  of  those  physical  symptoms 
which  usually  go  with  vehement  appeals  to  the  conscience 
and  the  emotions  of  a  rude  multitude.  The  trembling 
amongst  the  listening  crowd  caused  or  confirmed  the  name 
of  Quakers  given  to  the  body:  men  and  women  some- 
times fell  down  and  lay  grovelling  on  the  earth  and 
struggling  as  if  for  life.  But  the  Quaker  preachers  seem 
not  to  have  encouraged  these  manifestations,  but  rather 
to  have  sought  to  assuage  them  by  such  reasonable  means 
as  carrying  the  affected  to  bed  or  administering  a  cordial 
or  medicine. 

Some  of  the  early  Quakers  indulged  in  eccentricities 
and  extravagances  of  no  measured  kind.  Some  travelled 
and  preached  naked  or  barefoot  or  dressed  in  sackcloth ; 
others  imitated  the  Hebrew  prophets  in  the  performance 
of  symbolical  acts  of  denunciation  or  warning ;  even  the 
women  in  some  cases  distinguished  themselves  by  the 
impropriety  and  folly  of  their  conduct.  In  some  cases 
religious  excitement  seems  to  have  produced  or  been 
attended  by  insanity,  and  the  aberrations  of  Naylor  and 
Ibbit  can  only  be  attributed  to  that  cause.  For,  though  not 
altogether  free  from  acts  of  fanaticism,  the  Quaker  leaders 
discouraged  and  disowned  the  grosser  acts  of  enthusiasm. 

The  activity  and  zeal  of  the  early  Quakers  were  not  con- 
fined to  England ;  they  passed  into  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
Fox  and  others  travelled  to  America  and  the  West  Indian 
Islands ;  another  reached  Jerusalem,  and  testified  against 
the  superstition  of  the  monks ;  Mary  Fisher,  "  a  religious 
maiden,"  visited  Smyrna,  the  Morea,  and  the  court  of 
Mohammed  IV.  at  Adrianople ;  others  made  their  way  to 
Rome;  two  women  suffered  imprisonment  from  the  In- 
quisition in  Malta;  two  men  passed  into  Austria  and 
Hungary ;  and  William  Penn,  George  Fox,  and  others 
preached  Quakerism  in  Holland  and  Germany. 

As  early  as  1652  meetings  of  the  followers  of  Fox, 
calling  themselves  at  first  the  Children  of  Light,  gathered 
together  in  various  places  in  England,  and  were  soon 
established  in  considerable  numbers.  The  meetings  at 
Bristol  were  often  attended  by  from  three  to  four  thousand 
people. 


2.  The  second  period  in  the  history  of  Quakerism  is 
marked  by  the  introduction  into  the  body,  hitherto  unor- 
ganized, of  an  organization  and  a  discipline  principally  due 
to  the  mind  and  energy  of  Fox,  by  a  more  scholarly  and 
learned  air  given  to  the  Quaker  productions  by  the  writings 
of  William  Penn  and  Robert  Barclay,  and  by  the  part 
which  the  Quakers  played  in  the  colonization  of  New 
Jersey  and  of  Pennsylvania.  It  is  not  wonderful  that  the 
introduction  of  an  organization  and  a  discipline  met  with 
great  opposition  amongst  a  people  taught  to  believe  that 
the  inward  light  of  each  individual  man  was  the  only  true 
guide  for  his  conduct.  The  project  met  with  some  oppo- 
sition at  the  time,  and  at  a  later  period  (1683),  from 
persons  of  considerable  reputation  in  the  body.  Wilkin- 
son, Rogers,  Story,  and  others  raised  a  party  against  Fox 
as  regards  the  management  of  the  affairs  of  the  society, 
and  asserted  that  the  meetings  for  discipline  which  had 
been  established  were  useless,  and  that  every  man  ought 
to  be  guided  by  the  Spirit  of  God  in  his  own  mind,  and  not 
to  be  governed  by  rules  of  man.  They  drew  a  consider- 
able following  away  with  them,  but  the  greater  number 
adhered  to  their  original  leader. 

Robert  BARCLAY  (q.v.),  a  Scotsman  of  family,  who  had 
received  a  polite  education,  principally  in  France,  joined  the 
Quakers  about  1666,  and  William  PENN  (q.v.)  joined  the 
body  about  two  years  later.  The  Quakers  had  always 
been  active  controversialists,  and  a  great  body  of  tracts 
and  papers  was  issued  by  them ;  but  hitherto  they  had 
not  been  of  much  account  in  a  literary  point  of  view. 
Now  the  writings  of  Barclay,  especially  his  celebrated 
Apology  for  the  True  Christian  Divinity  (1675),  published 
by  him  in  Latin  and  English,  and  the  works  of  William 
Penn  /amongst  which  his  No  Cross  no  Crown  was  one  of 
the  best  known)  gave  to  the  Quaker  literature  a  more 
logical  and  a  more  scholarly  aspect. 

One  peculiarity  of  the  conduct  of  the  Friends  down  to 
the  Revolution  of  1688,  and  more  or  less  down  to  the 
present  time,  must  not  be  overlooked.  They  were  essenti- 
ally non-political.  They  opposed  the  most  dogged  per- 
sonal and  individual  resistance  to  what  they  thought 
wrong ;  but  they  never  attempted  by  combination  or 
otherwise  to  exert  political  influence.  "  Keep  out  of  the 
powers  of  the  earth"  was  Fox's  exhortation  j  and,  when 
in  1688  a  discussion  was  introduced  into  the  yearly 
gathering  of  the  body  on  the  choice  of  parliament  men, 
Fox  strenuously  opposed  the  introduction  of  politics  into 
the  meetings  of  his  followers. 

During  the  whole  time  between  the  rise  of  the  Quakers  and  the 
passing  of  the  Toleration  Act  they  were  the  objects  of  an  almost 
continuous  persecution,  which  they  endured  with  extraordinary 
constancy  and  patience.  In  1656  Fox  computed  that  there  were 
seldom  less  than  a  thousand  in  prison,  and  it  has  been  asserted 
that  between  1661  and  1697  13,562  Quakers  were  imprisoned,  152 
were  transported,  and  338  died  in  prison  or  of  their  wounds. 
Having  come  into  being  after  the  death  of  Charles  I.,  the  Quakers 
first  endured  persecution  under  the  Parliament  and  then  under 
Cromwell.  In  1645  an  ordinance  of  the  Parliament  had  made  the 
directory  of  the  Westminster  divines  obligatory  ;  and  ordinances 
of  the  years  1646  and  1648  were  passed  for  the  preventing  of 
blasphemies  and  heresies,  which  comprehended  under  these  hard 
names  some  doctrines  afterwards  promulgated  by  the  Quakers,  as 
that  the  two  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  are  not 
commanded  by  the  word  of  God,  and  that  the  use  of  arms  for 
defence,  be  the  cause  ever  so  just,  is  unlawful.  Furthermore 
these  or  other  ordinances  of  the  Parliament  placed  the  decision  of 
questions  as  to  tithes  in  the  hands  of  the  justices  of  the  peace. 
The  instrument  of  government  under  which  Cromwell  assumed 
power  as  the  Lord  Protector  had  held  out  a  promise  of  protection 
in  the  exercise  of  their  religion  to  "  such  as  professed  faith  in 
God  by  Jesus  Christ "  (art.  37)  ;  and  the  Protector  himself,  in  a 
speech  addressed  to  Parliament  on  the  12th  September  1654,  had 
declared  liberty  of  conscience  to  be  a  natural  right ;  nevertheless 
the  Quakers  found  that  they  were  still  the  subjects  of  bitter  per- 
secution. They  were  sometimes  dealt  with  under  the  ordinances 
already  referred  to,  sometimes  as  Sabbath-breakers  because  they 


Q  U  A  K  E  K  S 


149 


travelled  to  their  meetings  for  worship,  sometimes  as  disturbers  of 
the  clergy  in  their  office  because  they  spoke  in  churches,  sometimes 
as  guilty  of  breaches  of  the  peace  because  they  preached  in  streets 
or  markets,  sometimes  for  refusing  to  pay  tithes,  sometimes  for 
refusing  to  take  off  their  hats,  sometimes  for  refusing  to  swear. 
So  matters  remained  till  the  Restoration  of  Charles  II.,  when  the 
publication  from  Breda  of  his  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience 
again  raised  hopes  of  ease  in  the  hearts  of  the  Friends.  But  these 
hopes  were  again  destined  to  disappointment.  The  laws  under 
which  the  Quakers  were  persecuted  during  the  revived  Stuart 
period  were  (1)  the  common  law,  (2)  the  old  legislation  in  ecclesi- 
astical matters  which .  was  revived  on  Charles's  accession,  (3)  the 
special  legislation  of  the  period,  and  (4)  the  ecclesiastical  laws  as 
administered  by  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  In  the  first  class  was 
the  general  law  as  to  breakers  of  the  peace  ;  in  the  second  class 
may  be  mentioned  the  statute  of  6  Hen.  VIII.  by  which  im- 
prisonment was  appointed  as  a  punishment  for  non-payment 
of  tithes,  the  statute  of  Elizabeth  imposing  the  oath  of  supremacy, 
the  Act  of  Uniformity  passed  in  the  first  year  of  Elizabeth,  the 
Acts  of  the  23rd  and  29th  years  of  the  same  queen  which  im- 
posed fines  and  penalties  for  non-attendance  of  church  and  the 
statute  of  the  35th  year  of  Elizabeth  by  which  an  obstinate 
offender  in  that  matter  was  made  a  felon  without  benefit  of  clergy, 
and,  lastly,  the  statute  of  3  James  I.  imposing  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance. (3)  The  special  legislation  during  this  period  under  which 
the  Quakers  suffered  included  (a)  a  statute  13  &  14  Car.  II.  c.  1, 
especially  directed  against  them  and  punishing  their  refusal  to 
take  an  oath,  or  the  taking  part  in  assemblies  for  worship,  with 
fine,  and  a  second  conviction  with  an  obligation  to  abjure  the 
realm,  or  transportation  to  any  of  the  king's  plantations  ;  (b)  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  (13  &  14  Car.  II.  c.  4),  more  stringent  than 
that  of  Elizabeth  ;  (c)  the  Five-Mile  Act  passed  in  1665  (17  Car. 
II.  c.  4)  ;  and,  lastly,  the  Conventicle  Act  of  1670  (22  Car.  II. 
c.  1).  (4)  The  ecclesiastical  courts,  on  the  return  of  the  Stuarts, 
were  restored  to  their  former  vigour,  and  Quakers  were  continually 
proceeded  against  in  them  for  non-payment  of  tithes,  oblations, 
and  other  church  claims,  and  also  for  non-attendance  at  the  parish 
churches,  and  for  contempt  of  the  discipline  and  censures  of  the 
church.  Many  of  their  body  were  accordingly  excommunicated, 
and  under  the  writ  de  excommunicato  capiendo  confined  to  prison. 

The  passing  of  the  Conventicle  Act  gave  fresh  vigour 
to  the  persecution  of  Dissenters.  But,  on  loth  March 
1671-72,  King  Charles  II.  issued  his  declaration  for 
suspending  the  penal  laws  in  matters  ecclesiastical,  and 
shortly  afterwards  by  pardon  under  the  great  seal  released 
above  four  hundred  Quakers  from  prison,  remitted  their 
fines,  and  released  such  of  their  estates  as  were  forfeited 
by  prasmunire.  The  dissatisfaction  which  this  exercise  of 
the  royal  prerogative  created  induced  the  king  in  the 
following  year  to  recall  his  proclamation,  and  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  Quakers  revived ;  and,  notwithstanding  repre- 
sentations and  appeals  to  King  Charles  II.,  the  persecution 
continued  throughout  his  reign.  On  the  accession  of 
James  II.,  the  Quakers  addressed  him  with  some  hope 
from  his  known  friendship  for  William  Penn,  and  pre- 
sented to  him  a  list  of  the  numbers  of  their  members 
undergoing  imprisonment  in  each  county,  amounting  in 
all  to  fourteen  hundred  and  sixty.  King  James  not  long 
afterwards  directed  a  stay  of  proceedings  in  all  matters 
pending  in  the  Exchequer  against  Quakers  on  the  ground 
of  non-attendance  on  national  worship.  In  1687  came 
the  king's  celebrated  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience, 
and  in  the  following  year  the  Revolution,  which  put  an  end 
to  all  persecution  of  the  Quakers,  though  they  remained 
for  many  years  liable  to  imprisonment  for  non-payment  of 
tithes,  and  though  they  long  laboured  together  with  other 
Dissenters  under  various  disabilities — the  gradual  removal 
of  which  is  part  of  the  general  history  of  England. 

The  Toleration  Act  was  by  no  means  the  only  legisla- 
tion of  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary  which  brought  ease 
to  the  Quakers.  The  legislature  early  had  regard  to  their 
refusal  to  take  oaths;  and  from  1689  to  a  very  recent 
date  numerous  enactments  have  respected  the  peculiar 
scruples  of  the  Friends.  This  special  legislation  may  be 
conveniently  studied  in  Davis's  Digest  of  Legislative  Enact- 
ments relating  to  Friends  (Bristol,  1820). 

3.   With    the    cessation   of    persecution    in    1689    the 


zeal  of  the  Quaker  body  abated.  Foreign  missions  had 
no  existence  except  in  the  occasional  travels  of  some 
wandering  minister.  The  notion  that  the  whole  Christian 
church  would  be  absorbed  in  Quakerism,  and  that  the 
Quakers  were  in  fact  the  church,  passed  away ;  and  in  its 
place  grew  up  the  conception  that  they  were  "  a  peculiar 
people  "  to  whom  had  been  given  a  clearer  insight  into 
the  truths  of  God  than  to  the  professing  Christian  world 
around  them,  and  that  this  sacred  deposit  was  to  be 
guarded  with  jealous  care.  Hence  the  Quakerism  of  this 
period  was  mainly  of  a  traditional  kind:  it  dwelt  with 
increasing  emphasis  on  the  peculiarities  of  dress  and  lan- 
guage which  tended  to  shut  Quakers  off  socially  from  their 
fellow-men;  it  rested  much  upon  discipline,  which  developed 
and  hardened  into  rigorous  forms ;  and  the  correction  or 
exclusion  of  its  members  was  a  larger  part  of  the  business 
of  the  body  than  the  winning  of  converts  either  to  Christi- 
anity or  to  Quakerism. 

Excluded  from  political  life  by  the  constitution  of  the 
country,  excluding  themselves  not  only  from  the  frivolous 
pursuits  of  pleasure  but  from  music  and  art  in  general, 
with  no  high  average  of  literary  education  (though  they 
produced  some  men  of  eminence  in  medicine  and  science, 
as  Dr  Fothergill  and  Dr  Dalton),  the  Quakers  occupied 
themselves  largely  with  trade,  the  business  of  their  society, 
and  the  calls  of  philanthropy.  In  the  middle  and  latter 
part  of  last  century  they  founded  several  institutions  for 
the  more  thorough  education  of  their  children,  and 
entered  upon  many  philanthropic  labours. 

During  this  period  Quakerism  was  sketched  from  the 
outside  by  two  very  different  men.  Voltaire  (Dictionnaire 
Philosophique,  s.vv.  "  Quaker,"  "  Toleration")  has  described 
the  body,  which  attracted  his  curiosity,  his  sympathy,  and 
his  sneers,  with  all  his  brilliance.  Clarkson  (Portraiture 
of  Quakerism)  has  given  an  elaborate  and  sympathetic  ac- 
count of  the  Quakers  as  he  knew  them  when  he  travelled 
amongst  them  from  house  to  house  on  his  crusade  against 
the  slave  trade. 

4.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  theology  of  Quakerism 
had  become  somewhat  mystic  and  quietist  during  the 
long  period  we  have  just  considered.  About  the  year  1826 
an  American  Quaker  named  HICKS  (q.v.)  openly  denied 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  depreciated  the  value  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  recognized  no  other  Saviour  than  the  inward 
light.  A  large  body  of  the  American  Quakers  followed 
him,  and  still  maintain  a  separate  existence.  It  was  this 
movement  which  led  to  a  counter  movement  in  England, 
known  in  the  Quaker  body  as  the  Beacon  controversy, 
from  the  name  of  a  book  published  in  1835,  advocating 
views  more  nearly  akin  to  those  known  as  evangelical  than 
were  held  by  many  Quakers.  A  considerable  discussion 
ensued,  and  a  certain  number  of  the  Friends  holding  these 
more  evangelical  doctrines  departed  from  the  parent  stock, 
leaving,  however,  behind  them  many  influential  members 
of  the  society  who  strove  to  give  a  more  evangelical  tone 
to  the  Quaker  theology.  Joseph  John  Gurney,  by  his 
various  writings  (some  published  before  1835),  was  the 
most  prominent  actor  in  this  movement.  This  period  has 
also  been  marked,  especially  within  the  last  few  years,  by 
some  revival  of  aggressive  action,  and  Quakers  have  taken 
far  more  part  in  the  teaching  in  Sunday  schools,  in  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel  to  the  poor,  and  in  the  establish- 
ment of  foreign  missions  than  in  the  period  immediately 
preceding.  In  1847  an  association  was  established  to 
promote  Sunday  schools  in  the  body;  in  1859  a  Friends' 
foreign  mission  was  established;  and  the  Quakers  have  now 
a  few  regular  labourers  in  Madagascar,  India,  Syria,  and 
Constantinople. 

Other  causes  have  been  at  work  modifying  the  Quaker 
body.  The  repeal  of  the  Test  Act,  the  admission  of 


150 


QUAKERS 


Quakers  to  parliament,  the  establishment  of  the  university 
of  London,  and  more  recently  still  the  opening  to  Dis- 
senters of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  have  all  operated  on  the 
body.  It  has  almost  entirely  abandoned  its  peculiarities 
of  dress  and  language ;  the  cultivation  of  music  and  the 
other  arts  is  no  longer  discouraged  except  by  a  very  few ; 
and  literary  and  scientific  tastes  have  been  cultivated  all 
the  more  because  their  attention  was  not  preoccupied  with 
the  love  of  field  sports  or  of  dancing.  In  fact  a  number 
of  men  either  Quakers  or  of  Quaker  origin  and  proclivi- 
ties, large  in  proportion  to  the  small  body  with  which  they 
are  connected,  occupy  positions  of  influence  in  English 
society,  and  carry  with  them,  not  the  full  body  of  Quaker 
doctrine,  but  some  leaven  of  Quaker  habits  and  thoughts 
and  feelings. 

Doctrine. — It  is  not  easy  to  state  with  certainty  the 
doctrines  of  a  body  which  has  never  adopted  any  creed, 
and  whose  views  have  undoubtedly  undergone  from  time 
to  time  changes  more  or  less  definite.  But  the  accepted 
writings  of  its  members  and  the  statements  as  to  doctrine 
contained  in  the  Book  of  Christidh  Discipline  of  the 
society  furnish  materials. 

The  most  characteristic  doctrine  of  Quakerism  is  un- 
doubtedly this — that  there  is  an  immediate  revelation  of 
the  Spirit  of  God  to  each  individual  soul,  that  this  light  is 
universal  and  comes  both  to  the  heathen  and  the  Chris- 
tian, and  thereby  the  love  and  grace  of  God  towards  man- 
kind are  universal.  It  is  almost  needless  to  call  attention 
to  the  direct  antithesis  between  this  doctrine  of  the 
Quakers  and  the  various  doctrines  of  election  held  by  the 
Puritans,  so  that,  if  Quakerism  be  called  the  climax  of 
Puritanism,  it  is  so  only  as  the  rebound  is  the  climax 
of  the  wave.  From  the  doctrine  of  the  sufficiency  of  the 
inward  light  proceed  several  other  of  the  peculiar  views  of 
Quakers.  They  have  denied  the  necessity  and  abstained 
from  the  practice  of  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  supper.  The  one  baptism,  says  Barclay  (12th  pro- 
position), "  is  a  pure  and  spiritual  thing,  to  wit,  the  baptism 

of  the  spirit  and  fire of  which  the  baptism  of 

John  was  a  figure  which  was  commanded  for  a  time,  and 
not  to  continue  for  ever."  "  The  communion  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ,"  says  the  same  author  (13th  proposi- 
tion), "  is  inward  and  spiritual,  which  is  the  participation 
of  his  flesh  and  blood  by  which  the  inward  man  is  daily 
nourished  in  the  hearts  of  those  in  whom  Christ  dwells, 
of  which  things  the  breaking  of  bread  by  Christ  with  his 
disciples  was  a  figure." 

But  not  merely  do  the  Quakers  dispense  with  the  sacra- 
ments ;  they  exist  without  any  priesthood  or  regular  or 
ordained  ministry ;  they  allow  the  liberty  of  unlicensed 
preaching  and  prayer  to  every  member  of  their  society  in 
their  assemblies,  and  those  in  whom  the  body  recognizes 
the  true  gifts  are  publicly  acknowledged  as  ministers. 
But  by  this  act  they  attain  to  no  greater  power  in  the 
society  than  they  possessed  before.  By  the  strength  and 
power  of  the  light  of  God,  says  Barclay  in  his  10th  pro- 
position, "  every  true  minister  of  the  gospel  is  ordained, 
prepared,  and  supplied  in  the  work  of  the  ministry ;  and 
by  the  leading,  moving,  and  drawing  thereof  ought  every 
evangelist  and  Christian  pastor  to  be  led  and  ordered  in 
his  labour  and  work  of  the  gospel  both  as  to  the  place 
where,  the  persons  to  whom,  and  as  to  the  times  when  he 
is  to  minister." 

The  Quakers  not  only  have  no  stated  ministry,  but 
they  hold  that  no  form  of  worship  is  so  good  as  a  patient 
waiting  upon  God  in  silence  "  by  such  as  find  no  outward 
ceremony,  no  observations,  no  words,  yea  not  the  best  and 
purest  words,  even  the  words  of  Scripture,  able  to  satisfy 
their  weary  and  afflicted  souls."  Hence,  although  per- 
mitting addresses  from  their  members,  they  sit  frequently 


silent  both  in  family  worship  and  in  their  meetings.  Of 
late  years,  however,  in  some  places  passages  from  the  Bible 
are  read  in  their  meetings  for  worship.  Furthermore  the 
Quakers  maintain  the  equal  right  of  women  with  men  to 
preach  and  pray  in  their  assemblies;  and  they  cite  the  four 
daughters  of  Philip  who  prophesied,  and  other  women 
who  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  as  having 
laboured  much  in  the  Lord,  as  showing  that  their  practice 
is  in  accord  with  that  of  the  early  church. 

Refusing  to  acknowledge  the  ministry  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  and  holding  that  they  could  thus  best 
testify  to  "  the  spiritual  reign  and  government  of  Christ," 
the  Quakers  refused  to  pay  all  church  rates,  tithes,  and 
other  ecclesiastical  demands.  To  the  year  1875  they 
maintained  the  same  objection  against  tithe-rent  charge, 
and  then  abandoned  it. 

The  Quakers  deny  the  lawfulness  for  a  Christian  of  all 
war,  defensive  or  otherwise,  and  have  always  refused, 
often  at  the  expense  of  much  suffering,  to  take  any  part 
in  military  matters ;  they  equally  deny  the  lawfulness  for 
a  Christian  man  to  take  any  oath,  even  in  a  court  of 
justice,  and  the  law  of  England  has  long  recognized  their 
affirmations  as  giving  validity  to  their  evidence ;  they 
have  denied  themselves  the  cultivation  of  music,  attend- 
ance at  the  theatres,  and  hunting,  shooting,  and  field 
sports  generally  as  vain  amusements  inconsistent  with 
the  gravity  and  seriousness  of  Christian  life ;  they  have 
insisted  on  the  duty  of  using  language  not  only  free  from 
that  profanity  which  was  so  common  until  lately  but 
stripped  of  all  flattery  and  purged  of  all  dross  of  heathen- 
ism ;  they  enforced  the  duty  of  plainness  of  dress  and  of 
excluding  from  it,  and  from  the  modes  of  salutation  and 
address,  everything  calculated  to  satisfy  vanity. 

The  result  of  these  doctrines  on  Quaker  manners  was 
notorious,  and  proved  a  continual  source  of  objection  to 
them  on  the  part  of  their  fellow-men,  and  frequently  led 
to  persecutions.  They  adopted  the  singular  number  in 
addressing  a  single  individual,  however  exalted ;  and  the 
"  thou"  and  "thee"  used  to  a  magistrate  or  a  judge  was 
often  a  cause  of  great  irritation.  They  refused  to  say 
"  good  night,"  "  good  morrow,"  or  "  good  speed" ;  they 
adopted  a  numerical  nomenclature  for  the  months  of  the 
year  and  the  days  of  the  week.  They  refused  to  bow  or 
to  remove  their  hats,  and  for  this  they  suffered  much.1 
They  forbore  the  drinking  of  healths,  not  merely  as  a  vanity, 
but  as  "  a  provocation  to  drink  more  than  did  people 
good."  They  adopted  a  remarkable  simplicity  in  their 
marriages  and  their  funerals.  They  used  also  great  plain- 
ness in  their  houses  and  furniture  and  in  their  dress ;  and, 
by  their  tenaciously  adhering  to  forms  of  attire  which  had 
fallen  into  disuse,  their  dress  both  for  men  and  women 
became  antique  and  peculiar,  and  Quakers  were  easily  re- 
cognized as  such  by  the  garments  they  wore.  Further- 
more they  discarded  the  usual  symbols  of  grief  on  the 
death  of  their  relations. 

One  point  of  morality  on  which  the  Friends  have  long 
insisted  deserves  notice.  They  require  their  members 
who  may  have  been  released  from  their  debts  by  bank- 
ruptcy or  composition,  when  able  to  pay  their  debts  in  full, 
to  do  so  notwithstanding  their  legal  discharge. 

In  the  great  doctrines  of  Christianity  embodied  in  the 
apostles'  creed  the  Quakers  are  in  accord  with  their  fellow- 
Christians  :  they  believe  in  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Spirit,  in  the  atonement  by  Christ,  and  in  sanctification 
by  the  Spirit ;  they  receive  and  believe  the  Scriptures  as 
proceeding  from  the  Spirit  of  God.  A  letter  addressed 
by  George  Fox  and  others  to  the  governor  of  Barbados  in 
1671  (Journal,  1st  ed.,  p.  358),  and  the  "  General  Advices" 

1  See  Thomas  Ellwood's  Journal  for  an  account  of  his  sufferings  in 
this  matter,  at  once  pathetic  and  ludicrous. 


QUAKERS 


151 


in  the  Book  of  Discipline,  may  usefully  be  consulted  on 
this  point. 

Organization  and  Discipline. — The  duty  of  watching 
over  one  another  for  good  was  insisted  on  by  the  early 
Friends,  and  has  been  embodied  in  a  system  of  discipline. 
Its  objects  embrace  (a)  exhortation  and  admonition  to 
those  who  walk  contrary  to  the  standard  of  Quaker 
ethics,  and  the  exclusion  of  obstinate  or  gross  offenders 
from  the  body,  and  as  incident  to  this  the  hearing  of 
appeals  from  individuals  or  meetings  considering  them- 
selves aggrieved ;  (b)  the  care  and  maintenance  of  the 
poor  and  provision  for  the  Christian  education  of  their 
children,  for  which  purpose  the  society  has  established 
numerous  boarding  schools  in  different  parts  of  the 
country;  (c]  the  amicable  settlement  of  "all  differences 
about  outward  things,"  either  by  the  parties  in  contro- 
versy or  by  the  submission  of  the  dispute  to  arbitration, 
and  the  restraint  of  all  proceedings  at  law  between 
members  except  by  leave ;  (d)  the  recognition  of  ministers 
as  such ;  (e)  the  cognizance  of  all  steps  preceding  marriage 
according  to  Quaker  forms ;  (/)  the  registration  of  births, 
deaths,  and  marriages;  (g)  the  issuing  of  certificates  or 
letters  of  approval  granted  to  ministers  travelling  away 
from  their  homes,  or  to  members  removing  from  one 
meeting  to  another ;  and  (h)  the  management  of  the  pro- 
perty belonging  to  the  society.  The  present  organization 
of  the  Quaker  church  is  essentially  democratic — it  has 
not  and  never  had  any  president  or  head ;  and  in  theory 
every  person  born  of  Quaker  parents  is  a  Quaker  and 
entitled  to  take  part  in  all  the  general  assemblies  of  the 
body.  The  members  are  grouped  together  in  a  series  of 
subordinated  meetings  which  recall  to  the  mind  the  Pres- 
byterian model.  The  unit  is  known  as  a  "  particular 
meeting";  next  in  order  comes  "  the  monthly  meeting," 
usually  embracing  several  particular  meetings  called  to- 
gether, as  its  name  indicates,  monthly;  then  "  the  quarterly 
meeting,"  embracing  several  monthly  meetings;  and  lastly 
"  the  yearly  meeting,"  embracing  the  whole  of  Great 
Britain.  Representatives  are  sent  from  each  inferior  to 
each  superior  meeting ;  but  all  Quakers  may  attend  and 
take  part  in  any  of  these  meetings.  This  system  is 
double,  each  meeting  of  "men  Friends"  having  its 
counterpart  in  a  meeting  of  "women  Friends";  and  they 
usually  meet  at  the  same  time,  and  join  together  in  the 
devotional  gatherings  which  take  place  before  or  after  the 
meetings  for  discipline.  The  mode  of  conducting  these 
meetings  is  noteworthy.  There  is  no  president,  but  only 
a  secretary  or  clerk ;  there  are  no  formal  resolutions ;  and 
there  is  no  voting.  The  clerk  ascertains  what  he  con- 
siders to  be  the  judgment  of  the  assembly,  and  records  it 
in  a  minute. 

The  offices  known  to  the  Quaker  body  are — (1)  that  of 
minister ;  (2)  of  elder,  whose  duty  it  is  "  to  encourage 
and  help  young  ministers,  and  advise  others  as  they  in 
the  wisdom  of  God  see  occasion " ;  and  (3)  overseers  to 
Avhom  is  especially  entrusted  that  duty  of  Christian  care 
for  and  interest  in  one  another  which  Quakers  recognize 
as  obligatory  in  all  the  members  of  a  church.  These 
officers  hold  from  time  to  time  meetings  separate  from  the 
general  assemblies  of  the  members. 

This  present  form  both  of  organization  and  discipline 
has  been  reached  only  by  a  process  of  development.  The 
quarterly  or  general  meetings  seem  to  have  been  the  first 
union  of  separate  congregations.  In  1666  Fox  established 
monthly  meetings.  In  1672  was  held  the  first  yearly 
meeting  in  London.  In  1675  certain  "canons  and  institu- 
tions" were  issued  to  the  quarterly  meetings.  In  1727 
elders  were  first  appointed.  In  1752  overseers  were 
added  ;  and  in  1737  the  right  of  children  of  Quakers  to 
be  considered  as  Quakers  was  fully  recognized.  From 


these  dates  it  is  obvious  that  the  last  century  saw  a  vigor- 
ous development  of  the  disciplinary  element  in  Quaker- 
ism ;  it  was  probably  the  time  of  greatest  rigour  as 
regards  external  matters  and  of  the  greatest  severity  in 
punishing  so-called  delinquencies.  In  Aberdeen  the  meet- 
ing entered  on  their  minutes  an  elaborate  description  of 
what  was  and  what  was  not  to  be  endured  in  the  dress  of 
men  and  women ;  and  York  quarterly  meeting  was  so 
disturbed  at  the  presence  of  young  women  in  long  cloaks 
and  bonnets  that  they  were  ordered  to  take  advice  before 
coming  to  York,  and  one  monthly  meeting  directed  that 
those  young  women  who  intended  to  go  to  York  were  to 
appear  before  their  own  meeting  "in  their  clothes  that 
they  intend  to  have  on  at  York." 

Of  late  years  the  stringency  of  the  Quaker  discipline 
has  been  relaxed  :  the  peculiarities  of  dress  and  language 
have  been  abandoned ;  marriage  with  an  outsider  has 
ceased  to  be  a  certain  ground  for  exclusion  from  the 
body ;  and,  above  all,  many  of  its  members  have  come  to 
"  the  conviction,  which  is  not  new,  but  old,  that  the  virtues 
which  can  be  rewarded  and  the  vices  which  can  be 
punished  by  external  discipline  are  not  as  a  rule  the 
virtues  and  the  vices  that  make  or  mar  the  soul"  (Hatch, 
Bampton  Lectures,  81). 

The  Quakers  maintain  that  their  system  of  church 
government  and  of  discipline  is  in  close  accordance  with 
that  of  the  early  church.  That  it  has  some  great  differ- 
ences cannot  be  denied,  especially  when  we  think  of 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper ;  that  it  has  some  import- 
ant points  of  likeness,  especially  in  the  care  of  each 
member  for  the  others  and  in  the  maintenance  of  the 
poor,  is  equally  certain.  The  portraiture  of  the  early 
Christian  church  recently  drawn  by  Dr  Hatch  in  his 
Bampton  Lectures  is  in  many  respects  likely  to  recall  the 
lineaments  of  Quakerism. 

Philanthropic  Interests. — A  genuine  vein  of  philan- 
thropy has  always  existed  in  the  Quaker  body.  In 
nothing  has  this  been  more  conspicuous  than  in  the  matter 
of  slavery.  George  Fox  and  William  Penn  laboured  to 
secure  the  religious  teaching  of  slaves.  As  early  as  1676 
the  assembly  of  Barbados  passed  "An  Act  to  prevent 
the  people  called  Quakers  from  bringing  negroes  to 
their  meetings."  John  Woolman1  laboured  amongst  the 
Quakers  of  America  for  the  liberation  of  the  slaves  with 
the  most  winning  tenderness.  The  Quakers  were  the 
first  Christian  body  that  purged  themselves  of  the  stain 
of  dealing  in  slaves.  As  early  as  1780  not  a  slave  was 
owned  by  any  Friend  in  England  or  America  with  the 
knowledge  and  consent  of  the  society.  In  1783  the  first 
petition  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  abolition  of  the 
slave  trade  and  slavery  went  up  from  the  Quakers ;  and 
throughout  the  long  agitations  which  ensued  before  that 
prayer  was  granted  the  society  took  an  active  and  pro- 
minent part. 

In  1798  Lancaster  opened  his  first  school  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  poor ;  and  the  cause  of  unsectarian  religious 
education  found  in  the  Quakers  steady  support.  They 
have  taken  also  an  active  part  in  Sir  Samuel  Romilly's 
efforts  to  ameliorate  the  penal  code;  in  prison  reformation 
(1813),  with  which  the  name  of  Elizabeth  Fry  is  especially 
connected ;  in  the  efforts  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of 
lunatics  in  England  (the  Friends'  Retreat  at  York,  founded 
in  1792,  having  been  remarkable  as  an  early  example  of 
kindly  treatment  of  the  insane) ;  and  in  many  other  phil- 
anthropic movements. 

One  thing  is  noteworthy  in  Quaker  efforts  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  poor  and  philanthropy  in  general:  whilst 

1  Woolman's  Journal  and  Works  are  remarkable.  He  had  a  vision 
of  a  political  economy  to  be  based  not  on  selfishness  but  on  love,  not 
on  desire  but  on  self-denial. 


152 


QUAKERS 


they  have  always  been  Christian  in  character,  they  have 
not  to  any  considerable  extent  been  used  as  a  means  of 
bringing  proselytes  within  the  body. 

Quakerism  in  Scotland. — Quakerism  was  preached  in 
Scotland  very  soon  after  its  rise  in  England ;  but  in  the 
north  and  south  of  Scotland  there  existed  independently 
of  and  before  this  preaching  groups  of  persons  who  were 
dissatisfied  with  the  national  form  of  worship  and  met 
together  in  silence  for  devotion.  They  naturally  fell  into 
this  society.  In  Aberdeen  the  Quakers  took  considerable 
hold,  and  were  there  joined  by  some  persons  of  influence, 
and  position,  especially  Alexander  Jaffray,  some  time  pro- 
vost of  Aberdeen,  and  Colonel  David  Barclay  of  Ury  and 
his  son  Robert,  the  author  of  the  Apology.  Much  light 
has  been  thrown  on  the  history  of  the  Quakers  in  Aber- 
deenshire  by  the  discovery  in  1826  at  Ury  of  a  MS.  Diary 
of  Jaffray,  since  published  with  elucidations  (2nd  ed., 
London,  1836). 

Ireland. — The  father  of  Quakerism  in  Ireland  was 
William  Edmondson ;  his  preachings  began  in  1653-54. 
The  History  of  the  Quakers  in  Ireland  (from  1653  to  1752), 
by  Wright  and  Rutty,  may  be  consulted- 

America. — The  earliest  appearance  of  Quakers  in  America 
is  a  remarkable  one.  In  July  1656  two  women  Quakers, 
Mary  Fisher  and  Ann  Austin,  arrived  at  Boston.  Under 
the  general  law  against  heresy  their  books  were  burnt  by 
the  hangman,  they  were  searched  for  signs  of  witchcraft, 
they  were  imprisoned  for  five  weeks  and  then  sent  away. 
During  the  same  year  eight  others  were  sent  back  to 
England. 

In  1657  and  1658  laws  were  passed  to  prevent  the 
introduction  of  Quakers  into  Massachusetts,  and  it  was 
enacted  that  on  the  first  conviction  one  ear  should  be  cut 
off,  on  the  second  the  remaining  ear,  and  that  on  the  third 
conviction  the  tongue  should  be  bored  with  a  hot  iron. 
Fines  were  laid  upon  all  who  entertained  Quakers  or  were 
present  at  their  meetings.  Thereupon  the  Quakers,  who 
were  perhaps  not  without  the  obstinacy  of  which  Marcus 
Antoninus  complained  in  the  early  Christians,  rushed  to 
Massachusetts  as  if  invited,  and  the  result  was  that  the 
general  court  of  the  colony  banished  them  on  pain  of 
death,  and  four  Quakers,  three  men  and  one  woman,  were 
hanged  for  refusing  to  depart  from  the  jurisdiction  or 
obstinately  returning  within  it.  That  the  Quakers  were 
irritating  cannot  be  denied  :  some  of  them  appear  to  have 
publicly  mocked  the  institutions  and  the  rulers  of  the 
colony  and  to  have  interrupted  public  worship ;  and  some 
of  their  men  and  women  too  acted  with  fanaticism 
and  disorder.  But  even  such  conduct  furnishes  but  a 
poor  apology  for  inflicting  stripes  and  death  on  men  and 
women.  The  particulars  of  the  proceedings  of  Governor 
Endicott  and  the  magistrates  of  New  England  as  given 
in  Besse  are  startling  to  read.  On  the  Restoration  of 
Charles  II.  a  memorial  was  presented  to  him  by  the 
Quakers  in  England  stating  the  persecutions  which  their 
fellow-members  had  undergone  in  New. England.  Even 
the  careless  Charles  was  moved  to  issue  an  order  to  the 
colony  which  effectually  stopped  the  hanging  of  Quakers 
for  their  religion,  though  it  by  no  means  put  an  end  to 
the  persecution  of  the  body  in  New  England. 

It  is  not  wonderful  that  the  Quakers,  persecuted  and 
oppressed  at  home  and  in  New  England,  should  turn  their 
eyes  to  the  unoccupied  parts  of  America,  and  nourish  the 
hope  of  founding  amidst  their  woods  some  refuge  from 
oppression  and  some  likeness  of  a  city  of  God  upon  earth. 
In  1671-73  George  Fox  had  visited  the  American  planta- 
tions from  Carolina  to  Rhode  Island  and  had  preached 
alike  to  Indians  and  to  settlers  ;  and  in  1674  a  moiety  of 
New  Jersey  was  sold  by  Lord  Berkeley  to  John  Fenwick 
in  trust  for  Edward  Byllinge.  Both  these  men  were 


Quakers,  and  in  1678  Fenwick  with  a  large  company  of 
his  co-religionists  crossed  the  Atlantic,  sailed  up  the  Dela- 
ware, and  landed  at  a  fertile  spot  which  he  called  Salem. 
Byllinge,  having  become  embarrassed  in  his  circumstances, 
placed  his  interest  in  the  State  in  the  hands  of  Penn  and 
others  as  trustees  for  his  creditors,  and  they  invited  buyers, 
and  companies  of  Quakers  in  Yorkshire  and  London  were 
amongst  the  largest  purchasers.  In  1677-78  five  vessels 
with  eight  hundred  emigrants,  chiefly  Quakers,  arrived  in 
the  colony  (now  separated  from  the  rest  of  New  Jersey 
under  the  name  of  West  New  Jersey),  and  the  town  of 
Burlington  was  established.  In  1677  the  fundamental 
laws  of  West  New  Jersey  were  published,  and  recognized 
in  a  most  absolute  form  the  principles  of  democratic 
equality  and  perfect  freedom  of  conscience.  Notwith- 
standing certain  troubles  from  claims  of  the  governor  of 
New  York  and  of  the  duke  of  York,  the  colony  prospered, 
and  in  1681  the  first  legislative  assembly  of  the  colony, 
consisting  mainly  of  Quakers,  was  held.  They  agreed  to 
raise  an  annual  sum  of  £200  for  the  expenses  of  their 
commonwealth ;  they  assigned  their  governor  a  salary  of 
£20 ;  they  prohibited  the  sale  of  ardent  spirits  to  the 
Indians,  and  forbade  imprisonment  for  debt. 

But  beyond  question  the  most  interesting  event  in  con- 
nexion with  Quakerism  in  America  is  the  foundation  by 
William  PENN  (q.v.)  of  the  colony  of  Pennsylvania,  where 
he  hoped  to  carry  into  effect  the  principles  of  his  sect — to 
found  and  govern  a  colony  without  armies  or  military 
power,  to  reduce  the  Indians  by  justice  and  kindness  to 
civilization  and  Christianity,  to  administer  justice  without 
oaths,  and  to  extend  an  equal  toleration  to  all  persons 
professing  theism.  Such  was  "  the  holy  experiment,"  as 
Penn  called  it,  which  he  tried,  and  which  seemed  as  if  it 
was  destined  to  put  Quakerism  to  practical  proof.  In 
1681  he  obtained  a  grant  of  the  colony  from  Charles  II., 
and  in  the  following  year  settled  the  frame  of  government 
for  the  State  and  sailed  for  America.  Here  he  entered 
into  his  celebrated  treaty  of  unity  with  the  Indians,  "  le 
seul  trait6  entre  ces  peuples  et  les  Chretiens  qui  n'est  point 
e"te  jure  et  qui  n'est  point  e"te  rompu."  What  was  the 
result  of  this  attempt  to  realize  Quaker  principles  in  a  new 
country  and  on  a  virgin  soil  1  The  answer  is  in  some  respects 
indecisive.  During  the  time  that  the  Quaker  influence 
was  predominant,  and  for  seventy  years  after  the  founda- 
tion of  Pennsylvania,  the  Indians  are  said  never  to  have 
taken  the  life  of  a  white  man  ;  and  once  when  five  hundred 
Indians  were  assembled  to  concert  a  massacre  they  were 
turned  from  their  purpose  by  six  unarmed  Friends.  From 
England  and  Wales,  from  Scotland  and  Ireland,  from  the 
Low  Countries  and  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  where  Penn's 
missionary  visit  had  made  a  deep  impression,  emigrants 
crowded  to  Pennsylvania ;  in  two  years  Philadelphia  had 
risen  to  be  a  town  of  six  hundred  houses,  and  in  three 
years  from  its  foundation  that  city  had  increased  more 
than  New  York  in  fifty  years ;  and  the  first  century  of  the 
life  of  the  colony  exhibited  in  an  unusual  degree  a  scene 
of  happiness  and  peace.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  little 
progress  was  made  in  winning  the  Indians  to  Christianity, 
and  the  annals  of  the  infant  State  were  full  of  petty 
quarrels  and  jealousies.  Penn  was  a  feudal  sovereign, 
having  over  him  a  Stuart  king  as  his  lord  paramount  at 
home,  and  the  absolute  democracy  which  he  had  estab- 
lished as  his  immediate  dependents  beneath  him.  In  such 
relations  there  were  necessarily  elements  of  difficulty,  and 
soon  dissensions  broke  out  between  the  governor  and  the 
colonists  ;  a  popular  party  was  headed  by  members  of  the 
Quaker  body  and  opposed  the  founder,  and  the  influx  of 
members  of  other  religious  persuasions  led  to  dissensions 
in  the  assembly.  The  officials  of  the  Court  of  Admiralty 
set  up  claims  at  variance  with  Penn's  notions ;  differences 


Q  U  A  —  Q  U  A 


153 


broke  out  between  the  province  properly  so-called  and  the 
territories  which  afterwards  became  the  State  of  Delaware. 
Penn  was  engaged  in  protracted  quarrels  as  to  the  bound- 
aries of  his  State ;  the  English  crown  made  requisitions 
on  the  colonists  for  men  and  money  to  support  the  war  in 
America  against  France.  Penn  was  during  some  years 
suspended  by  the  crown  from  his  rights  as  governor ;  his 
son  and  one  of  the  deputy  governors  whom  he  sent  out 
disgraced  themselves  by  their  licentious  conduct ;  the 
colony  gradually  passed  away  from  under  the  influence 
of  Quakerism;  and  Penn's  "Civitas  Dei"  faded  into  an 
American  republic.  For  many  years  large  numbers  of 
Quakers  emigrated  from  England  to  America.  The  most 
noteworthy  incidents  in  their  history  are  the  part  which 
they  have  taken  in  that  movement  which  has  ended  in  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United  States  and  the  interest 
which  they  have  exhibited  in  the  native  Indians. 

France. — The  origin  of  the  few  Quaker  congregations  which  exist 
in  France  is  curious.  It  seems  that  amongst  the  Camisarda  were 
found  a  few  who  disapproved  of  the  military  operations  by  which 
their  friends  resisted  the  persecution  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  believed 
in  a  spiritual  light,  who  met  for  silent  worship,  and  in  other 
respects  were  like  Quakers.  Certain  it  is  that  towards  the  end  of 
last  century  a  small  body  of  persons  holding  these  views  and  these 
practices  existed  at  Congenies  and  other  villages  at  the  foot  of  the 
Cevennes.  During  the  war  between  England  and  France  conse- 
quent on  the  American  struggle  for  independence  a  Quaker  was 
part  owner  in  two  luggers,  which,  against  his  protests,  were  employed 
as  privateers  and  captured  two  valuable  prizes  ;  he  took  his  share  of 
the  spoil,  invested  and  accumulated  it,  and  on  the  conclusion  of 
peace  in  1783  advertised  in  the  Gazette  de  France  for  the  owners  of 
the  captured  ships.  This  advertisement  came  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  little  body  at  Congenies,  and  hence  a  communication  was  estab- 
lished between  the  French  and  English  Quakers.  Probably  about 
the  same  time  certain  American  Quakers,  on  the  invitation  of  the 
French  Government,  migrated  from  Nantucket  to  Dunkirk,  for  the 
purpose  of  extending  the  fisheries.  A  curious  episode  in  Quaker 
history  is  the  presentation,  on  10th  February  1791,  to  the  National 
Assembly  of  a  petition  from  these  two  bodies  of  French  Quakers,  and 
the  reply  of  the  president.  The  petition  and  answer  were  printed 
by  Baudoin,  printer  to  the  Assembly. 

Germany  and  Nonvay.—\\\  both  these  countries  exist  small  bodies 
of  persons  who  have  adopted  the  views  and  practices  of  the  Quakers. 
These  bodies  date  from  early  in  the  present  century. 

Statistics  of  Quakerism. — The  number  of  Quakers  in  England  and 
Wales  in  1680  was  probably  about  40,000,  and  in  1806  about 
32,000.  In  1883  the  total  number  of  members  in  England,  Wales, 
and  Scotland  was  returned  as  15,219  (193  were  in  Scotland),  an 
increase  of  106  on  the  previous  year,  and  the  number  of  habitual 
attendcrs  of  meetings  of  the  body,  not  members,  was  5380,  an  in- 
crease of  150.  In  Ireland  there  were,  in  1883,  2812  Quakers. 
The  Quakers  in  America  number  probably  (including  all  bodies 
which  claim  to  be  Friends)  from  50,000  to  60,000  or  upwards. 
Besides  these  there  are  in  Norway  about  200,  in  France  from  70  to 
80,  in  Germany  from  50  to  60,  and  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
from  500  to  600  Quakers. 

Bibliography. — The  writings  of  the  early  Quakers  are  numerous;  the  most 
noteworthy  are  the  Journal  of  George  Fox  and  the  Life  of  Thomas  Ellwood,  both 
autobiographies,  the  Apology  of  Robert  Barclay,  and  the  works  of  Penn  and 
Penington.  The  History  of  the  Quakers  by  William  Sewel,  a  Dutch  Quaker, 
was  translated  into  English,  and  has  gone  through  several  editions;  a  History  of 
the  Quakers  by  Gough  may  also  be  consulted.  The  Sufferings  of  the  Quakers,  by 
Besse  (London,  1753),  is  the  chief  authority  as  to  the  persecutions  they  endured. 
The  Peculiarities  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  the  other  writings  of  Joseph  John 
Gurney,  exhibit  the  modern  Evangelical  Quakerism.  The  Book  of  Discipline  of  the 
Society,  in  its  successive  editions  from  1782  to  1883,  is  the  only  authoritative 
statement  of  the  views  of  the  Society  on  Christian  practice  and  church  govern- 
ment, and  a  comparison  of  the  different  editions  would  throw  light  on  the  changes 
of  sentiment  in  the  body.  The  Inner  Life  of  the  Religious  Societies  of  the 
Commonwealth  (London,  1876),  by  Robert  Barclay,  a  descendant  of  the  apologist, 
contains  much  curious  information  about  the  Quakers.  Smith's  Descriptive 
Catalogue  of  Friends'  Books  (London,  1867)  gives  the  information  which  its  title 
promises.  Bancroft's  History  of  the  Colonization  of  the  United  States  may  be 
consulted  for  the  American  history  of  Quakers.  The  periodicals  now  issued  by 
members  of  the  Quaker  body  in  Gre;it  Britain  are  The  Friend,  T/ie  British  Friend, 
Friends'  Quarterly  Examiner,  and  Friends'  Review.  (E.  F.) 

QUANTAMPOH,  or  KUNTAMPOH,  a  town  of  the  Gold 
Coast  region  of  western  Africa,  situated  about  80  miles 
north-east  of  Coomassie,  in  7°  36'  N.  lat.  and  1°  4'  W. 
long.  According  to  Captain  Brandon  Kirby,  who  was 
the  first  white  man  to  reach  the  place,  it  had  in  1881  a 
resident  population  of  15,000,  and  traders  passed  through 
it  to  the  number  of  about  25,000.  Formerly  it  was  one 
of  the  great  ivory-marts  of  this  part  of  Africa,  and  it  is 
still  a  centre  of  the  cola-nut  trade,  the  slave  trade,  &c. 


QUARANTINE  (Fr.  quarantame,  a  period  of  forty 
days)  is,  in  the  original  sense  of  the  term,  a  thing  of  the 
past  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  in  several  of  the  other 
states  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  America.  Its  interest  is 
therefore  largely  historical,  and  a  sketch  of  the  history 
will  be  given  at  the  end  of  this  article.  But,  in  common 
usage,  the  same  word  is  applied  to  the  modern  substitutes 
for  quarantine,  although  these  are  a  complete  departure  in 
principle  or  theory  from  the  indiscriminate  system  of 
detention  of  ships  and  men,  unlading  of  cargo  in  lazarets, 
fumigation  of  susceptible  articles,  and  the  like,  which  used 
to  be  carried  to  great  lengths  on  account  of  the  plague  and 
in  connexion  with  the  Levantine  trade. 

Substitute  for  Quarantine  in  the  United  Kingdom. — The 
modern  practice  is  to  detain  or  refuse  "pratique"  to  no 
ship  unless  there  be  a  communicable  form  of  sickness  on 
board,  or  there  had  been  such  during  the  voyage.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  officers  of  customs  to  question  the  captain 
as  to  the  existence  of  any  catching  disease  among  the  pas- 
sengers or  ship's  company ;  if  there  be  any  evidence  or 
suspicion  of  communicable  infection,  the  officers  of  cus- 
toms report  the  same  to  the  port  sanitary  authorities,  who 
have  power  to  deal  with  the  case  under  the  Public  Health 
Act,  and  according  to  an  order  of  the  Local  Government 
Board  first  issued  in  1873.  The  medical  officer  of  health 
proceeds  at  once  to  make  an  inspection,  detaining  the  ship 
and  all  on  board  only  until  such  time  as  the  inspection  can 
be  satisfactorily  made,  the  sick  removed  to  hospital,  and 
disinfectants  applied.  This  practice  was  adopted  with 
success  in  the  case  of  several  arrivals  from  Baltic  and 
North  Sea  ports  with  cholera  on  board  in  1873,  no  exten- 
sion of  the  disease  on  shore  ensuing,  and  again  in  1884  in 
the  case  of  a  troopship  arrived  at  Portsmouth  direct  from 
Bombay,  and  of  at  least  two  arrivals  (at  Liverpool  and 
Cardiff)  from  Marseilles,  with  cholera  on  board.  It  is  also 
adopted  from  time  to  time  on  account  of  small-pox  cases, 
and  of  other  catching  importations  at  the  discretion  of  the 
port  sanitary  authority. 

The  last  importation  of  yellow  fever  into  the  United 
Kingdom  was  at  Swansea  in  September  1865,  by  a  wooden 
vessel  with  copper  ore  from  St  Jago  de  Cuba.  There  had 
been  cases  of  yellow  fever  on  board  during  the  voyage ; 
but  at  Swansea  (as  in  many  other  instances)  the  infection 
spread  rather  from  the  ship's  hull  and  the  unladed  cargo 
than  from  the  crew  or  their  effects,  and  some  fifteen  deaths 
ensued.  If  such  a  case  were  to  occur  again,  it  would  be 
dealt  with,  like  any  other  communicable  disease,  by  the 
port  sanitary  authority  under  the  Public  Health  Act  The 
yellow-fever  incident  of  1865  at  Swansea  is  the  last  oc- 
casion on  which  the  sanction  of  the  Quarantine  Acts  has 
been  appealed  to.  The  privy  council  merely  directed  the 
board  of  customs  to  warn  the  parties  implicated  of  their 
liability  to  prosecution,  although  no  prosecution  would  be 
instituted.  The  Quarantine  Acts  are  still  unrepealed,  but 
they  may  be  said  to  have  become  practically  obsolete 
during  the  past  twenty  years. 

Quarantine  or  its  Substitutes  in  other  European  Countries. 
— The  principle  of  inspection,  and  of  isolation  of  the  sick, 
as  stated  above  for  the  United  Kingdom,  was  accepted  with 
small  reservation  by  the  sanitary  conference  of  Vienna  in 
1874,  and  it  is  now  more  or  less  consistently  acted  upon 
by  all  the  larger  European  maritime  states  except  Spain 
and  Portugal.  In  times  of  cholera  panic,  quarantine  of  the 
original  kind  has  been  imposed  against  all  arrivals  from  an 
"  infected  country  "  by  ports  of  the  Levant  and  Black  Sea, 
and  by  several  Mediterranean  states  besides  Spain.  But  it 
is  only  in  the  ports  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  that  the  old 
quarantine  traditions  remain  in  force  from  year  to  year;  and 
it  is  only  for  them  that  any  special  account  need  be  given. 

The  principal  occupation  of  the  quarantine  establish- 

XX.  —  20 


154 


QUARANTINE 


ment  at  Lisbon  all  the  year  round  is  with  arrivals  from 
Brazil,  where  yellow  fever  is  endemic.  The  lazaretto 
of  Lisbon,  which  is  probably  the  largest  and  in  ordinary 
times  the  busiest  in  the  world,  is  situated  on  a  hill  opposite 
the  Belem  Tower,  4  miles  below  the  city.  The  present 
establishment  was  erected  by  the  Portuguese  Government 
at  a  cost  of  over  .£200,000.  It  consists  of  seven  perfectly 
distinct  pavilions  standing  radially  in  a  semicircle  with 
the  convexity  to  the  river.  It  is  managed  by  an  inspector 
who  is  under  the  minister  of  the  interior.  Public  tenders 
are  invited  every  year,  or  every  two  years,  for  boarding  and 
lodging  the  passengers  according  to  their  classes  on  board 
ship  (1st,  2d,  and  3d),  the  contract  being  given  to  the 
lowest  bidder.  The  present  prices  for  board  and  lodging 
•per  diem  are  about  5s.  6d.  1st  class,  3s.  2nd  class,  and 
Is.  6d.  steerage.  The  establishment  is  carried  on  at  a 
loss  to  the  Government.  Quarantine  is  imposed,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  on  all  ships,  passengers,  luggage,  and  cargo 
coming  from  the  Brazils.  The  term  varies  from  five  days 
to  seven  days,  according  as  the  Brazilian  port  is  considered 
infected  or  suspected.  A  bill  of  health  is  issued  to  the 
captain  by  the  Portugese  consul  at  the  port  of  sailing, 
which  usually  bears  on  it  that  so  many  deaths  from  yellow 
fever  had  occurred  during  the  previous  eight  or  ten  days. 
If  clean  bills  of  health  were  issued,  the  quarantine  would 
be  raised ;  and  this  has  happened  for  short  periods  at 
rare  intervals.  During  the  winter  months  (December, 
January,  February),  when  the  cold  makes  a  development 
of  the  yellow  fever  virus  at  Lisbon  improbable,  if  not 
impossible,  the  baggage  and  cargo  only  are  subject  to 
quarantine,  the  passengers  being  allowed  to  go  ashore  at 
once  with  their  hand  baggage.  Throughout  the  rest  of  the 
year  all  passengers  from  the  Brazils  have  to  go  to  the 
lazaretto  and  stay  there  the  alloted  time,  their  effects 
being  aired,  fumigated,  or  disinfected.  If  Lisbon  be  the 
port  of  discharge,  the  cargo  from  an  infected  ship  will  be 
landed  at  the  lazaret  for  purification  if  so  directed.  There 
is  a  schedule  of  "  susceptible  articles,"  which  includes 
cotton,  hair,  hemp,  letters,  parcels,  and  other  correspond- 
ence, hides,  fresh  meat,  wool  and  linen,  skin,  feathers,  and 
silk.  These  articles  are  fumigated  with  chlorine ;  the  in- 
side of  the  ship  is  washed  with  chloride  of  lime  or  other 
disinfectant.  In  the  case  of  a  mail  steamer  on  her  way 
to  England,  the  passengers  and  effects  for  Lisbon  are 
landed  at  the  quarantine  grounds,  and  the  vessel  proceeds 
to  her  destination  (Liverpool  or  Southampton)  "  in  quaran- 
tine," which  means  nothing  as  regards  the  English  ports. 

This  rigorous  routine  is  a  concession  to  the  popular 
recollection  of  the  terrible  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  in  the 
hot  summer  of  1857,  when  there  were  19,000  cases  in  and 
around  Lisbon,  with  about  6000  deaths,  a  large  proportion 
being  among  the  well-to-do.  The  importation  was  traced 
to  a  tainted  ship  and  cargo  from  Kio.  For  many  years, 
no  cases  of  yellow  fever  have  developed  among  the 
suspected  passengers  landed  ;  and  in  only  two  or  three 
instances  have  there  been  cases  among  the  employe's  of  the 
establishment  who  are  occupied  with  the  baggage  and 
merchandise.  The  Lisbon  chamber  of  commerce  is  now 
in  favour  of  a  modification  of  the  quarantine  law,  and  of 
regulations  in  conformity  with  the  prominent  facts  of 
experience — namely,  that  the  fever  is  not  started  on  shore 
through  personal  contact,  but  solely  by  emanations  from  a 
ship's  hull,  ballast,  cargo,  or  passengers'  effects,  and  that 
high-class  iron  steamships  are  not,  in  the  nature  of  things, 
under  the  same  suspicion  as  old  wooden  sailing  vessels. 

The  quarantine  practices  of  Lisbon  are  copied  faithfully 
at  the  Azores,  Madeira,  and  the  Cape  Verd  Islands. 

For  Spain  there  are  two  chief  quarantine  stations  or 
"foul  lazarets,"  one  for  the  Atlantic  seaboard  at  Vigo,  and 
another  for  the  Mediterranean  coast  at  Port  Mahon, 


Minorca.  Vessels  arriving  at  Spanish  ports  with  foul 
bills  of  health  (from  Havana,  &c.,  in  ordinary  times,  and 
from  various  ports  in  cholera  times)  must  proceed  to  one 
or  other  of  these  appointed  stations  to  perform  their  quaran- 
tine. A  "  quarantine  of  observation,"  which  is  usually  for 
six  or  three  days,  and  is  imposed  on  vessels  with  clean 
bills,  may  be  performed  at  any  port.  It  is  a  routine 
maxim  of  the  Madrid  board  of  health  that  any  country, 
such  as  the  United  Kingdom,  which  does  not  practise 
quarantine,  is  ipso  facto  suspected  when  a  foreign  epidemic 
is  in  any  part  of  Europe  to  which  its  vessels  trade ;  and 
all  arrivals  from  its  ports  may  be  subjected  to  a  quaran- 
tine of  observation.  This  abstract  doctrine,  which  can 
hardly  be  approved  by  responsible  medical  authority,  was 
acted  on  for  a  short  time  as  recently  as  1883  and  1884, 
when  cholera  was  in  Egypt  and  in  Provence. 

Next  to  Spain  and  Portugal,  Turkey  and  Greece  are  the 
countries  in  Europe  where  the  old  quarantine  traditions 
have  most  vitality,  owing  doubtless  to  their  nearness  to 
former  seats  of  plague  in  the  Levant.  The  lazarets 
at  the  Piraeus  and  in  the  Dardanelles  are  considerable 
establishments,  mostly  used  now  in  times  of  cholera. 
Ships  bound  inwards  for  Turkish  ports  take  health- 
guards  on  board  in  the  Dardanelles.  There  are  many 
other  lazarets  at  Mediterranean,  Adriatic,  and  Levantine 
ports,  including  Malta  and  Gibraltar,  surviving  from  the 
days  of  the  plague,  whose  machinery  is  furbished  up  from 
time  to  time  when  cholera  breaks  out.1  For  the  whole 
of  northern  Europe,  including  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of 
France,  quarantine  is  now  practically  obsolete;  by  Holland 
it  was  never  seriously  practised  even  for  the  plague,  and 
by  the  states  bordering  on  the  Baltic  it  was  given  up 
about  the  same  time  as  it  fell  into  disuse  in  Great  Britain.2 
In  Norwegian  ports  subsequent  to  1866  there  were  3128 
arrivals  from  countries  infected  with  cholera,  on  board 
which  25  cases  of  cholera  were  found  and  29  cases  of 
cholerine ;  but  the  malady  obtained  no  footing  on  shore 
although  quarantine  was  not  enforced.  In  1873,  when 
cholera  was  prevalent  in  several  ports  of  the  Baltic  and 
North  Seas,  there  were  550  arrivals  at  Norwegian  ports 
from  infected  countries,  among  which  were  12  cases  of 
cholera ;  but  importation  of  the  epidemic  to  the  shore 
was  prevented  simply  by  inspection  and  isolation  of  the 
sick.  In  Italian  ports,  again,  800  vessels  were  quaran- 
tined in  1872,  in  not  one  of  which  was  any  case  of  cholera 
found.  The  immunity  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1873 
and  1884,  notwithstanding  the  arrival  of  ships  with 
cholera  on  board,  and  even  (in  1873)  the  unobserved  land- 
ing of  cholera  cases,  has  been  mentioned  already. 

Land  Quarantine. — A  land  quarantine  on  a  frontier  is 
still  enforced  on  account  of  cholera  from  time  to  time  in 
southern  Europe,  e.g.,  in  1884  by  Italy  against  France  at 
Ventimiglia  and  Modena  and  by  Spain  against  France  in 
the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  in  1885  by  Portugal  against 
Spain.  The  experiment  occasionally  succeeds.  A  "sanitary 
cordon  "  is  the  rigorous  isolation  (by  troops)  of  a  pestilence- 
stricken  place  from  the  country  around.  It  is  a  survival 
from  the  times  of  the  plague,  and  is  of  no  use  in  cholera. 

Quarantine  or  its  Substitutes  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
— Apart  from  the  visitations  of  cholera  now  and  then,  the 

1  Sir  William  Pym,  the  superintendent-general  of  quarantine,  who 
visited  most  of  them  officially  in  1844,  narrates  a  case  at  Messina 
which  illustrates  the  abuses  that  these  establishments  might  be  put  to  : 
"  it  is  only  very  lately  that  the  board  of  health  at  Messina  placed  a 
vessel  (the  'Rapid')  from  England  under  quarantine,  because  a  report 
had  appeared  in  the  papers  of  a  fever  having  prevailed  at  Glasgow,  and 
subjected  her  to  a  charge  of  about  3  per  cent,  upon  the  value  of  her 
cargo  for  quarantine  fees  "  (Correspondence  respecting  the  Quarantine 
Laws,  Parl.  Paper,  1846,  p.  16). 

2  The  lazaret  for  all  the  Baltic  states  was  on  the  Swedish  island  of 
Kanso  at  the  entrance  of  the  C'attegat  opposite  Gothenburg. 


QUAKANTINE 


155 


chief  occasion  of  quarantine  on  the  American  continent 
and  adjacent  islands  is  the  endemic  existence  of  yellow 
fever  in  Brazilian  and  West  Indian  harbours,  particularly 
Havana  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  (and,  since  1853,  in  Callao  and 
other  Peruvian  ports).  During  the  yellow-fever  season  from 
April  to  November,  the  ports  of  the  United  States  are  on 
the  outlook,  under  the  quarantine  laws  of  each  State,  to  de- 
tain vessels  with  yellow  fever  on  board  arriving  from  Gulf 
ports  or  from  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil.  In  like  manner 
the  ports  of  the  River  Plate  would  protect  themselves 
against  foul  arrivals  from  Brazil ;  and  some  of  the  Mexican 
Gulf  and  West  Indian  harbours  Avill  even  practise  quaran- 
tine against  each  other  according  as  the  fever  happens  to 
be  epidemic  here  or  there.  The  practice  at  New  York, 
Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  other  United  States 
ports  is  to  detain  only  the  sick,  or  those  who  are  reasonably 
suspected,  the  lazaret  (usually  on  an  island  in  the  harbour) 
being  practically  a  hospital  for  sailors,  immigrants,  and 
other  newly-arrived  persons  suffering  from  communicable 
disease.  In  some  years  the  cases  of  yellow  fever  arriving 
at  New  York  have  been  numerous,  and  an  epidemic  has 
now  and  again  arisen  among  the  residents  near  the  lazaret. 
Experience  has  shown  that  the  ship's  hull,  foul  ballast, 
and  the  like  have  been  the  real  sources  of  infection,  cases 
occurring  at  New  York  every  year  among  the  labourers  on 
infected  ships.  It  is  only  occasionally  that  the  unlading 
of  the  cargo  of  a  yellow-fever  ship  into  the  quarantine 
barges  has  been  insisted  on.  The  classification  of  ships 
according  as  they  carry  clean  or  foul  bills  of  health  has 
been  found  to  be  practically  unworkable  in  the  United 
States,  a  foul  bill  being  a  rare  thing.  The  severity  of  the 
quarantine  is  left,  accordingly,  very  much  to  the  discretion 
of  the  medical  officer  of  the  port.  According  to  the  de- 
finition of  the  National  Board  of  Health,  quarantine  is 
"  the  administration  employed  to  determine  the  presence 
or  absence  of  the  causes  of  contagious  or  infectious  diseases, 
and  to  secure  the  removal  or  destruction  of  such  causes ;" 
and  it  does  not  imply  detention  for  any  specified  time,  nor 
for  more  time  than  is  necessary  for  the  above  purposes. 
Notwithstanding  the  creation  of  a  National  Board  of 
Health  for  the  Federal  Union,  quarantine  is  still  an  affair 
of  the  States  acting  independently.  The  detection  and 
isolation  of  small-pox  cases  is  one  of  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  quarantine  officers  at  United  States  ports. 

As  regards  the  introduction  of  cholera  into  the  United 
States,  Billings  says  : — "  The  present  quarantine  systems  of 
the  United  States  are  now  probably  unable  to  prevent  the 
introduction  of  this  disease,  as  they  have  been  heretofore. 
Unless  the  disease  had  actually  occurred  on  board  ship, 
very  little  precaution  would  be  taken,  and  very  few  of  our 
ports  have  the  necessary  facilities  for  properly  dealing  with 
a  large  passenger  ship  having  cholera  on  board,  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  obtain  a  reasonable  amount  of  security 
without  causing  unreasonable  delay,  involving  unnecessary 
suffering  and  danger  on  the  part  of  those  not  actually  sick  " 
(Trans.  Internal.  Med.  Congress,  London,  1881,  iv.  416). 

In  several  instances,  when  cholera  has  broken  out 
among  emigrants  in  a  transatlantic  steamship,  the  vessel 
has  put  into  Halifax,  N.  S.,  where  there  are  facilities  for 
quarantining  passengers  ;  and  more  than  once  the  epidemic, 
although  of  the  most  threatening  kind,  has  gone  no  farther. 
New  Orleans  has  proved  itself  a  more  likely  port  of  entry 
for  cholera  than  any  of  the  Atlantic  ports. 

In  the  ports  of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies  the 
quarantine  practice  is  variable  and  empirical.  Sometimes 
an  absolute  cordon  has  been  established,  as  in  the  instance 
of  Dominica  against  Guadeloupe  in  1865-66  during  the 
cholera.  The  smaller  and  healthier  the  community  the 
more  severe  is  the  quarantine  likely  to  be.  In  the  West 
Indies,  the  Bermudas,  (fee.,  the  very  remarkable  disease  of 


dengue  (probably  a  modern  hybrid  form)  is  considered  to 
be  an  importable  infection  which  quarantine  can  keep  out. 

Quarantine  in  the  Red  Sea  and  at  Suez. — Cholera  having 
come  to  Europe  in  1865  by  a  new  route,  by  the  pilgrim 
traffic  to  Mecca,  the  conference  of  Constantinople  in  1866 
took  into  consideration  the  question  of  a  quarantine  at  the 
Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  Since  that  time  such  a  quaran- 
tine has  been  instituted  for  pilgrim  ships  at  the  island  of 
Xamaran  on  the  Arabian  side  of  the  Red  Sea,  some  200 
miles  within  the  straits.  Since  the  severe  outbreak  of 
cholera  at  Mecca  in  the  end  of  1881,  the  quarantine  for 
pilgrim  ships  at  Xamaran  has  become  more  stringent. 
The  slight  outbreak  at  Mecca  in  1882  is  said,  without 
good  reason,  to  have  arisen  owing  to  three  English  steam- 
ships with  pilgrims  having  evaded  that  quarantine.  All 
pilgrim  ships  whatsoever  are  required  to  stop  at  Xamaran,1 
and  the  pilgrims  from  cholera-stricken  countries  in  the 
East  are  disembarked  and  kept  under  observation  in  the 
lazarets  on  the  island  for  ten  or  fifteen  days.2 

On  the  dispersal  of  the  hajj  at  Mecca,  another  quaran- 
tine is  performed  by  the  pilgrims  returning  by  way  of 
Suez,  who  are  usually  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  whole 
assemblage.  They  are  disembarked  either  at  Wejh  on  the 
Arabian  coast  half  way  between  Jeddah  and  Suez,  or  at 
Tor  on  the  Sinaitic  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  sometimes 
even  at  both  places.  After  the  epidemic  at  Mecca  from 
September  to  December  1881,  it  was  not  until  the  19th 
February  1882  that  the  last  company  of  pilgrims  was 
allowed  to  re-embark  at  Wejh  for  Suez,  by  the  authority 
of  an  inspecting  sanitary  commission  from  Egypt.  If  no 
suspicious  cases  occur,  the  detention  is  for  fourteen  days; 
but  a  single  case  subjects  the  whole  group  in  which  it  had 
appeared  to  a  further  term  of  quarantine.  Pilgrims  bound 
for  Smyrna,  Beyrout,  or  other  ports  in  the  Levant  are 
subjected  to  another  term  of  quarantine  in  the  lazaret 
of  the  port  of  arrival.  Those  proceeding  landwards  to 
Damascus  undergo  a  quarantine  at  Moses'  Wells. 

The  usefulness  of  this  control  over  the  movements  of  the 
Mecca  pilgrims  has  been  much  debated.  Regarding  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  quarantine  after  the  breaking  up  of  the  hajj 
there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  positive  evidence  since  1865  ; 
but  the  detention  at  Xamaran  is  a  much  more  questionable 
affair.  In  a  great  assemblage  at  Mecca,  such  as  that  of 
1881,  there  are  all  the  conditions  for  the  fresh  breeding  of 
a  choleraic  form  of  sickness,  which  shall  be  communicable 
to  others,  just  as  there  have  often  been  (in  the  common- 


1  The  working  of  the  quarantine  at  Xamaran  will  be  best  understood 
from  a  particular  instance.     The  steamship    "  Hesperia "    sailed  in 
July  1882  from  Bombay  for  Jeddah  with  498  pilgrims,  who  had  been 
inspected  xmder  the  Native  Passengers  Act.     She  arrived  on  the  26th 
July  at  Aden,  where  she  was  quarantined  for  ten  days  owing  to  the 
death  of  one  of  the  firemen  from  cholera.     Xamaran  was  reached  on 
the  8th  of  August,  and  the  pilgrims  landed  for  a  ten  days'  quarantine. 
Deaths  having  occurred  among  the  pilgrims  on  shore,  a  second  quaran- 
tine of  ten  days  was  imposed  ;  and  towards  the  expiry  of  that  time 
the  health  officer  again  placed  the  ship  in  quarantine  for  ten  days  owing 
to  more  deaths  on  shore.      On  September  8,  when  the  vessel  was  still 
in  quarantine,  it  became  necessary  to  proceed  to  Aden  for  coals,  steam 
having  been  kept  up  continually  owing  to  the  dangerous  nature  of  the 
quarantine  moorings.     In  leaving  Xamaran  the  ship  broke  her  quaran- 
tine, and  only  escaped  the  threatened  fire  of  the  Turkish  gunboat  by 
her  speed.      She  returned  from  Aden  on  the  19th  September,  and  re- 
embarked  her  passengers  for  Jeddah  on  the  23d,  two  of  them  dying  in 
the  boats  during  the  embarkation.     The  drinking-water  of  the  quaran- 
tine camp  at  Xamaran  was  credibly  stated  to  be  in  a  fetid  condition, 
causing  vomiting  and  purging,  and  the  food  insufficient  and  inferior. 
Each  pilgrim  had  to  pay  10  rupees,  and  the  ship  12,000  piastres  of  sani- 
tary dues.     After  landing  her  passengers  at  Jeddah,  the  "  Hesperia" 
proceeded  on  her  voyage  to  Liverpool,  undergoing  a  twenty-four  hours' 
quarantine  of  observation  at  Suez. — Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1882,  ii.  952. 

2  The  international  sanitary  conference  of   Rome  (1885)  has  pro- 
posed a  relaxation   of   the  rule  :    each  ship  with   more  than  thirty 
pilgrims  to  carry  a  doctor,  and  no  ship  to  be  detained  more  than  24 
hours,  nor  the   pilgrims  disembarked,  unless  there  be  or  has  been 
cholera  on  board. 


156 


QUARANTINE 


sense  view)  the  elements  of  its  de  novo  origin  under  pre- 
cisely similar  circumstances  among  a  multitude  of  Hindus 
at  Hurdwar,  or  other  religious  places  of  resort  in  India ;  and 
the  excessive  pains  taken  to  exclude  hypothetical  cases  of 
the  communicable  disease  coming  from  India,  Java,  or  other 
endemic  centre  are  disproportionate  so  long  as  there  is  no 
assurance  that  the  soil  of  Mecca  is  not  itself  about  to 
become  a  breeding-place  of  the  poison  de  novo.  On  the 
other  hand  the  dispersal  from  Mecca  is  obviously  an  occa- 
sion for  sanitary  precautions. 

For  the  general  traffic  from  the  East  a  quarantine  of 
observation  of  twenty-four  hours  is  imposed  on  arrivals  at 
Suez  from  time  to  time  when  cholera  is  formally  declared 
to  be  epidemic  in  Bombay  or  other  Eastern  port.  Under 
such  circumstances,  ships  pass  through  the  canal  in 
quarantine,  having  their  canal  pilots  either  on  board  the 
ship  "  in  quarantine,"  or,  under  an  older  and  more  cum- 
brous arrangement,  navigating  the  vessel  from  a  steam- 
launch.  In  like  manner,  the  coaling  at  Port  Said  is  done 
in  quarantine,  and  the  mails  and  passengers  landed  at 
Brindisi  under  the  same  restrictions  and  formalities. 
The  question  of  a  more  searching  quarantine  at  Suez 
for  the  general  Eastern  traffic  has  been  much  discussed 
in  the  French  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  has  been 
taken  up  more  recently  at  Berlin ;  but  the  weight  of 
opinion  (led  by  M.  de  Lesseps)  is  against  any  such  inter- 
ference with  the  quick  despatch  of  vessels,  as  at  once  futile 
and  impracticable.1  During  all  the  years  that  the  canal 
has  been  open,  cholera  has  become  epidemic  in  Europe 
only  once  owing  to  direct  importation  from  the  East, 
namely  in  1884,  when  the  vehicle  was  a  transport  returned 
from  Saigon ;  and  the  circumstances  in  that  case  Avere  such 
that  a  quarantine  at  Suez,  unless  it  had  included  the  ship's 
hull  and  the  personal  effects  on  board,  would  have  made 
no  real  difference.  On  the  other  hand,  transports  with 
recognized  cholera  on  board  have  on  two  or  three  pre- 
vious occasions  been  passed  through  the  canal  with  all 
despatch,  and  no  harm  done  on  shore  either  in  the  isthmus 
of  Suez  or  at  the  port  of  arrival  (Portsmouth,  Toulon). 

PRINCIPLES  OF  QUARANTINE. — Plague,  yellow  fever,  and  Asiatic 
cholera  are  the  three  great  spreading  diseases  which  have  been 
successively  the  subject  of  quarantine  restrictions. 

Plague.  For  many  years  plague  has  ceased  to  have  any  practical  interest 
in  this  connexion  ;  the  last  occasion  of  alarm  in  the  Mediterranean 
ports  was  the  outbreak  of  1859,  at  Benghazi,  in  Tripoli ;  and  at 
the  present  date  the  sole  concern  is  about  the  land  quarantine 
along  the  Turko-Persian  and  Russo-Persian  frontiers.  It  is  for 
yellow  fever  and  Asiatic  cholera,  therefore,  that  the  principles  of 
quarantine  have  chiefly  to  be  discussed,  the  epidemic! ogical  prin- 
ciples being  somewhat  different  in  the  two  cases.  But  one  or  two 
remarks  have  to  be  made  about  the  theory  of  preventing  the  intro- 
duction of  other  communicable  diseases. 

In  the  draft  of  an  international  bill  of  health  which  was  adopted 
by  the  international  sanitary  congress  at  Washington  in  1881 
small-pox  and  typhus  are  scheduled  along  with  plague,  yellow 

Small-     fever,  and  cholera.     Although  there  are  few  countries  where  small- 

pox.  pox  has  not  obtained  a  footing,  yet  every  seaport  finds  it  advisable 
to  prevent  the  free  entrance  of  fresh  cases.  Thus  Denmark,  in 
1884,  took  precautions  against  the  importation  of  small-pox  from  the 
Thames.  It  is  mostly  in  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  Cape,  and 
other  colonies  that  quarantine  against  small-pox  is  rigorously  carried 
out.  Except  for  a  limited  outbreak  in  Sydney  in  1884,  that  disease 
has  been  absolutely  excluded  from  the  Australasian  colonies,  thanks 
to  their  admirable  quarantine  establishments.  The  case  is  very 
different  at  the  Cape,  owing  to  the  existence  of  a  virulent  native 
centre  of  variolous  disease  at  no  great  distance  in  the  interior. 

Typhus.  As  regards  typhus,  the  principles  of  prevention  are  entirely 
different  from  those  that  apply  to  small-pox.  When  the  Irish 
emigration  by  sailing  ships  was  brisk  forty  years  ago,  typhus  often 
came  with  the  new  arrivals  to  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
Quebec,  and  Montreal ;  and  a  similar  state  of  things  now  goes  on  in 

1  A  large  majority  of  the  medical  delegates  to  the  conference  of 
Rome  (1885)  voted  in  favour  of  detaining  at  Suez  for  at  least  five  days 
such  vessels  as  might  be  judged  by  an  officer  of  the  International 
Sanitary  Commission  to  be  suspect, — the  passengers  to  be  disembarked 
and  isolated  in  groups. 


connexion  with  the  Italian  and  other  European  emigration  to  Brazil 
and  the  River  Plate.  Filth,  overcrowding,  and  want  are  the  causes 
of  such  outbreaks  ;  and  it  is  only  where  those  conditions  obtain 
on  shore  that  the  imported  disease  spreads.  A  period  of  detention 
amidst  clean  and  wholesome  surroundings  after  landing  has  much  to 
recommend  it,  the  best  argument  for  such  general  precaution  being 
the  fact  that  the  disease  in  some  instances  had  not  occurred  during 
the  voyage,  but  only  after  the  emigrants  had  landed  in  the  new 
country.  Another  illustration  of  the  need  of  quite  special  rules 
for  typhus,  and  of  the  need  of  freedom  from  dogmatic  bias  about 
pre-existing  disease  germs,  is  the  remarkable  outbreak  at  Liverpool 
in  1859.  The  epidemic  was  clearly  traced  to  an  Egyptian  frigate 
with  four  hundred  souls  on  board,  many  of  them  convicts  in  chains. 
Tin:  vessel  arrived  in  the  Mersey  from  Alexandria  in  an  indescrib- 
able state  of  filth  ;  about  one  hundred  of  the  crew  and  others  were 
on  the  sick  list  from  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  the  like  ;  but  none 
of  the  cases  were  typhus,  nor  was  there  a  single  case  of  that  disease 
among  the  ship's  company  from  first  to  last.  The  typhus  occurred 
in  the  pilot  and  others  who  went  on  board  in  the  river,  among  the 
attendants  at  a  bath  to  which  the  filthy  crew  were  sent  to  be 
washed,  and  among  the  patients  of  the  Southern  Hospital,  into 
which  some  of  the  Arabs  and  Nubians  were  admitted  for  common 
complaints.  To  make  quarantine  effective  against  typhus,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  in  mind  that  the  specific  fever  may  be  vicarious 
to  a  common  condition  of  filth  and  general  misery.  It  is  a  modified 
form  of  the  same  principle  of  vicarious  infection  that,  in  the  his- 
torical retrospect,  gives  us  the  key  to  the  much  more  important 
problem  of  yellow  fever,  a  disease  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
special  form  of  typhus. 

Principles  of  Quarantine  against  Yellow  Fever.  — The  first  Yellow 
requirement  in  the  quarantine  doctrine  of  yellow  fever  is  to  know  fever, 
where  the  disease  is  endemic,  that  is  to  say,  where  its  poison  exists 
in  such  a  form  that  it  may  rise  in  exhalations  from  the  harbour 
mud,  alluvial  foreshores,  or  wharves  and  shipping  quarters  in 
general,  or  may  enter  the  bilges  of  ships  with  the  water.  There 
is  a  natural  reluctance  on  the  part  of  seafaring  communities  in  the 
western  hemisphere  to  admit  that  they  harbour  the  seeds  of  yellow 
fever ;  but  some  of  the  endemic  foci  of  the  disease  are  beyond 
dispute.  The  principal  are  Havana  and  Rio  de  Janeiro.  But  if 
we  take  the  whole  historical  period  of  yellow  fever  into  our  view, 
from  1640  onwards,  we  shall  find  that  there  is  hardly  a  single  great 
slave  port  in  the  New  World  that  has  not  been  at  one  time  or 
another  a  native  seat  and  source  of  the  miasmatic  virus  of  yellow 
fever.  Some  of  these  have  long  since  got  rid  of  the  poisonous 
exhalations,  such  as  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore  ;  others,  such  as 
Norfolk,  Charleston,  and  Savannah,  have  in  all  probability  seen  the 
worst  days  of  the  fever,  and  are  now  practically  free  from  the  taint 
in  their  harbours  and  their  soil ;  but  there  are  other  United  States 
ports,  such  as  New  Orleans,  for  which  the  like  assurance  cannot  as 
yet  be  given.  In  the  West  Indies  the  ports  of  the  Spanish  An- 
tilles are  the  worst  primary  breeding-places  of  the  poison  at  the 
present  day  ;  although  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  Bridgetown 
(Barbados),  English  Harbour  (Antigua),  Fort  Royal  (Martinique), 
and  Basse  Terre  (Guadeloupe)  were  poisonous  to  the  crews  of  tliu 
stationary  men-of-war  to  an  almost  incredible  extent.  On  the  main- 
land, Georgetown,  Demerara,  is  in  the  same  rank  ;  and  the  Brazilian 
ports  (particularly  Rio)  have  been  so  since  1849.  Besides  these 
harbours,  all  of  them  among  the  principal  slave-ports  at  one  time 
or  another,  there  are  others,  such  as  Vera  Cruz,  Tampico,  Chagres, 
and  Porto  Bello,  which  would  seem  to  have  lurking  in  their  soil 
or  shore-mud  the  specifically  noxious  thing  that  produces  yellow 
fever  ;  but  it  is  a  question  whether  these  have  not  got  the  virus  at 
second-hand  from  other  centres  in  the  Gulf.  Again,  it  is  probable 
that  the  occasional  outbreaks  at  Monte  Video  had  been  caused  by 
material  quantities  of  the  specifically  noxious  filth  carried  thither 
in  trading  bottoms.  The  great  epidemics  in  the  ports  of  Spain  in 
the  first  quarter  of  this  century  were  certainly  due  either  to  reship- 
ment  of  the  virus  from  the  West  Indies  in  the  bilges  of  merchant- 
men, or  to  an  original  deposition  of  it  from  contraband  slave-ships 
making  the  return  voyage  to  Europe  with  cargoes  of  produce  (see 
an  article  by  the  writer  in  the  North  American  Review,  Oct.  1884). 
The  rare  outbreaks  in  Europe  within  the  last  fifty  years  have  been 
due  to  foul  arrivals  from  slave-ports  like  Havana  and  Rio. 

Wherever  the  line  be  drawn  between  endemic  and  non-endemic 
ports  of  yellow  fever,  it  is  only  the  latter  that  can  in  reason  seek 
to  impose  quarantine  against  the  disease.  Of  such  are  now  the 
ports  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  United  States,  the  ports 
of  the  River  Plate,  and  the  whole  European  seaboard;  for  these 
the  history  is  full  of  instances  of  true  importations  traceable  to 
particular  vessels,  and  from  such  instances  the  principles  of  an 
efficacious  quarantine  may  be  deduced.  It  is  not  a  passenger 
steamship  arriving  at  Nc,w  York  or  Lisbon  with  a  case  or  cases  of 
yellow  fever  on  board  that  calls  for  quarantine  (as  distinguished 
from  isolation  and  care  of  the  sick) ;  no  real  epidemic  can  be  shown 
to  have  ever  arisen  from  purely  personal  importation  of  that  kind. 
The,  great  epidemics  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  the  more  recent 
and  smaller  outbreaks  in  New  York  and  in  some  ports  of  northern 


QUARANTINE 


157 


Europe,  have  been  traced  to  other  sources  than  the  persons  of  the 
sick.  Even  a  ship  with  a  fever-stricken  crew  is  dangerous,  not  so 
much  because  of  the  fever  among  the  crew,  but  on  account  of  those 
lurking  causes  of  yellow  fever  in  the  ship  through  which  the  crew 
themselves  were  infected.  There  is  an  overwhelming  mass  of  testi- 
mony that  the  real  risk  of  importing  the  yellow-fever  virus  is 
always  in  the  foul  bilges  of  wooden  ships,  which  had  been  lying 
in  one  of  the  endemic  yellow-fever  harbours.  The  poison  is  sucked 
in  through  the  ship's  seams  ;  it  ferments  or  multiplies  in  her  bilges, 
rises  as  miasmata  to  infect  the  hold  or  'tween  decks,  sometimes 
clinging  to  cargo,  and  perhaps  making  no  sign  until  the  cargo  is  all 
out.  Again,  in  temperate  latitudes,  the  virus  may  be  imported 
and  do  no  harm,  unless  it  meet  with  a  tract  of  exceptionally  hot 
weather,  such  as  happened  at  Swansea  in  1865.  According  to  this 
principle,  all  iron  ships,  which  have  little  or  no  bilge-water,  and 
all  clean  ships  whatsoever,  are  practically  free  from  the  risk  of 
importing  an  epidemic  of  yellow  fever,  even  although  one  or  more 
of  their  passengers  or  crew  may  have  developed  the  malady  on  the 
voyage,  having  come  on  board  in  the  stage  of  its  incubation.  The 
only  question  of  practical  consequence  in  the  case  of  iron  steam- 
ships arises  in  connexion  with  the  modern  practice  of  carrying 
water-ballast  in  tanks  or  compartments  of  the  ship's  bottom. 
On  the  other  hand  a  wooden  ship  from  a  yellow-fever  port,  espe- 
cially if  she  have  open  seams  and  had  lain  long  in  the  harbour  or 
"  careenage,"  is  not  above  suspicion  on  arriving  during  hot  weather, 
even  if  no  cases  of  yellow  fever  had  occurred  on  board  during  the 
voyage.  Such  vessels  have  often  carried  the  yellow-fever  poison  in 
their  bilges  ;  in  some  cases  they  had  not  been  suspected  until  it 
was  too  late,  and  in  other  cases  of  mysterious  outbreaks  they  have 
never  been  suspected  at  all  because  they  had  no  actual  cases  on 
board.  The  grand  lesson  of  experience  in  yellow  fever  is  that  the 
ship's  hull  is  infinitely  more  dangerous  than  the  persons  of  yellow- 
fever  patients  ;  and  a  ship's  hull  is  dangerous  only  because  there 
is  a  material  quantity  of  specifically  poisonous  filth  fermenting  in 
the  recesses  of  the  hold.  All  high-class  iron  ships,  and  clean  ships 
in  general,  are,  for  common-sense  purposes,  above  suspicion.  The 
persons  of  the  sick  are  little  likely  to  introduce  the  fever  ;  but  foul 
linen,  bedding,  and  clothes  are  a  source  of  danger,  especially  if 
they  have  been  in  a  box  or  bundle  for  some  time  (witness  the 
slight  outbreak  at  Madrid  in  1878  on  the  unpacking  of  soldiers' 
baggage  brought  via  Santander  from  Cuba). 

3ra.  Principles  of  Quarantine  against  Cholera. — The  peculiar  dangers 
of  cholera  diffusion  arise  from  the  vomited  and  purged  matters 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  common  type  of  the  malady.  Under 
certain  circumstances  the  discharges  of  the  sick  are  infective  ;  they 
are  probably  not  infective  as  they  come  from  the  body  ;  but  even 
minute  quantities  of  the  choleraic  matters,  if  they  have  fermented 
in  the  ground,  or  in  boxes  and  bundles  of  foul  linen,  bedding,  or 
clothes,  may  exhale  a  virus  which  is  often  suddenly  prostrating 
in  its  action.  Thus  every  person  with  cholera,  or  even  with 
choleraic  diarrhoea  in  times  of  epidemic,  is  a  source  whence  many 
more  may  be  poisoned.  When  the  choleraic  matters  percolate  into 
wells  or  reservoirs  the  poisoning  may  be  on  a  great  scale.  Cholera 
with  such  infective  properties  is  an  exotic  to  the  soil  of  Europe  and 
probably  of  all  countries  except  south-eastern  Asia ;  and,  if  the  in- 
fective discharges  of  cholera  patients  from  the  East  were  kept  out 
of  Western  soil,  no  choleraic  disease  would  be  likely  to  become 
epidemic  on  the  latter.  Such  exclusion  has  been  more  or  less  the 
endeavour  of  all  Western  states  from  the  time  of  the  first  invasion 
through  Central  Asia  in  1831.  The  only  question  is  whether,  by 
attempting  too  much,  they  have  not  lost  the  opportunity  of  con- 
trolling the  spread  of  the  disease  by  less  drastic  means.  The 
instances  where  cholera  has  been  kept  out  by  a  rigid  cordon,  or  the 
strictest  form  of  quarantine,  are  few :  it  is  probable  that  Spain 
owed  her  immunity  in  1849,  when  all  the  rest  of  Europe  suffered, 
to  her  policy  of  exclusion ;  there  was  a  strikingly  successful  instance 
of  the  same  in  the  case  of  Dominica  in  1865,  during  a  frightful 
cholera  mortality  in  Guadeloupe,  only  22  miles  distant ;  and  it  has 
happened  more  than  once  for  Portugal  to  keep  out  the  epidemic 
and  for  Sicily  to  protect  herself  for  a  time  against  the  mainland 
of  Italy.  But  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  the  quarantines 
against  cholera  have  been  "elaborate  illustrations  of  leakiness." 
Island  communities  have  the  best  chances  of  succeeding;  but  in 
the  case  of  the  British  Islands  the  attempt  has  been  abandoned 
as  impracticable.  The  British  policy  of  attempting  a  good  deal 
less  was  justified  by  success  in  1873,  when  the  Baltic  and  North 
Sea  trade  went  on  uninterruptedly,  notwithstanding  the  presence 
of  cholera  at  various  ports  across  the  water.  In  1874  the  inter- 
national sanitary  conference  of  Vienna  adopted  an  abstract 
resolution  by  a  large  majority  approximately  in  favour  of  the 
British  practice,  though  the  conference  of  Rome  in  1885  was 
slightly  reactionary.  According  to  this  practice  a  case  of  cholera 
is  received  into  the  country  with  much  the  same  sort  of  assurance  as 
a  case  of  typhoid  fever  would  be.  There  is  much  reason  to  believe 
that  in  both  cases  the  agency  of  the  soil  or  other  tertium  quid  is 
needed  to  give  potency  to  the  poison,  and  that  the  diffusion  of  both 
diseases  can  be  limited  by  disposing  of  the  discharges  of  the  sick  in 


such  a  way  that  they  shall  neither  taint  the  soil  or  the  water, 
nor  ferment  on  unwashed  linen  or  bedding.  Wherever  a  filth- 
sodden  soil  receives  the  choleraic  matters,  poisonous  miasmata  will 
rise  from  it;  and  such  miasmata  will  also  arise  even  in  houses  or 
on  board  ship,  or  from  bundles  and  boxes  of  effects,  if  cleanliness 
be  thoroughly  overpowered  by  the  stress  of  events.  In  India  such 
cholera-soils  exist  from  year  to  year,  or  are  capable  of  being  made 
on  occasion,  as  at  great  religious  fairs  ;  and  in  that  respect  some 
Indian  soils  are  to  cholera  what  certain  of  the  harbours  and  fore- 
shores of  the  western  hemisphere  are  to  yellow  fever.  Both  dis- 
eases in  their  native  seats  are  primarily  caused  by  specific  miasmata 
from  the  tainted  soil.  But  in  Europe  the  spreading  power  of  cholera 
is  infinitely  greater  than  that  of  yellow  fever  because  the  choleraic 
matters  are  more  copious,  and  more  likely  to  ferment  under  all 
circumstances  of  climate,  locality  (coast  and  interior),  states  of 
weather,  and  differences  of  race.  But  there  is  still  a  reasonable 
prospect  of  finding  a  good  substitute  for  quarantine  against  cholera 
in  the  fact  that  its  power  of  spreading  is  certainly  made  subject  to 
conditions.  The  maxim  for  cholera  is — Take  care  of  the  conditions, 
and  the  disease  will  take  care  of  itself.  Cholera  is  what  Pettenkofer 
calls  an  "  exogenous  "  infection :  the  infective  matter  acquires  its 
virulence,  not  in  or  upon  the  body,  as  in  a  case  of  small-pox,  but 
outside  the  body,  amidst  filth  or  other  sanitary  neglect.  The  reason 
why  cholera  is  more  difficult  to  manage  than  typhoid  fever  is  that 
it  is  peculiarly  a  disease  of  the  poor ;  "  poverty  has  always  been  the 
true  quartermaster  of  cholera.  The  virus  is  transported  (in  the 
West  at  least)  from  place  to  place  largely  by  emigrants,  religious 
pilgrims  (as  in  Russia),  fugitives,  tramps,  or  others  hard  pressed 
by  circumstances  ;  one  of  the  most  remarkable  instances  of  that 
kind  is  its  alleged  transmission,  in  1833,  from  Kansas  across  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  by  parties  of  Indians  successively 
infected.  The  danger  from  the  wandering  poor  is  all  the  greater 
that  they  would  be  naturally  unwilling  under  any  circumstances 
to  sacrifice  their  small  belongings  of  clothes,  bedding,  and  the  like, 
which  are  often  the  real  media  of  infection.  It  is  not  to  be  denied 
that  the  old-fashioned  detention  for  a  week  or  more  in  a  lazaret  has 
still  something  to  recommend  it  for  such  poor  classes  of  travellers  ; 
but  the  detention  will  be  more  likely  to  give  vitality  to  any  lurk- 
ing virus  of  the  disease  than  to  extinguish  it,  unless  the  lazaret  be 
particularly  well  found  in  all  the  conveniences  of  living. 

HISTORY  OF  QUARANTINE. — The  first  lazarets  in  Europe  were  con- 
structed for  the  plague  ;  and  that  disease  was  the  only  one  for 
which  quarantine  was  practised  (not  to  mention  the  earlier  isolation 
of  lepers,  and  the  attempts  to  check  the  invasion  of  syphilis  in 
northern  Europe  about  1490)  down  to  the  advent  of  yellow  fever 
in  Spain  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  and  the  arrival  of 
Asiatic  cholera  in  1831.  Venice  took  the  lead  in  measures  to 
check  the  spread  of  plague,  having  appointed  three  guardians  of 
the  public  health  in  the  first  years  of  the  Black  Death  (1348).  The 
next  record  of  preventive  measures  comes  from  Reggio  in  Modena 
in  1374.  The  first  lazaret  was  founded  by  Venice  in  1403,  on 
a  small  island  adjoining  the  city;  in  1467  Genoa  followed  the 
example  of  Venice  ;  and  in  1476  the  old  leper  hospital  of  Marseilles 
was  converted  into  a  plague  hospital,  the  great  lazaret  of  that  city, 
perhaps  the  most  complete  of  its  kind,  having  been  founded  in  1526 
on  the  island  of  Pomegue. 

The  practice  at  all  the  Mediterranean  lazarets  was  not  different 
from  the  English  procedure  in  the  Levantine  and  North-African 
trade,  to  which  the  rest  of  this  sketch  will  be  confined.  On  the 
approach  of  cholera  in  1831  some  new  lazarets  were  set  up  at 
Western  ports,  notably  a  very  extensive  establishment  near 
Bordeaux,  afterwards  turned  to  another  use. 

The  plague  had  disappeared  from  England,  never  to  return,  for 
more  than  thirty  years  before  the  practice  of  quarantine  against  it 
was  definitely  established  by  an  Act  of  Parliament  of  Queen  Anne's 
reign  (1710).  The  first  Act  was  called  for,  owing  to  an  alarm 
lest  plague  should  be  imported  from  Poland  and  the  Baltic;  the 
second  Act  of  1721  was  due  to  the  disastrous  prevalence  of  plague 
at  Marseilles  and  other  places  in  Provence ;  it  was  renewed  in  1733 
owing  to  a  fresh  outbreak  of  the  malady  on  the  Continent,  and 
again  in  1743  owing  to  the  disastrous  epidemic  at  Messina.  In 
1752  a  rigorous  quarantine  clause  was  introduced  into  an  Act 
regulating  the  Levantine  trade  ;  and  various  arbitrary  orders  were 
issued  during  the  next  twenty  years  to  meet  the  supposed  danger 
of  infection  from  the  Baltic.  Although  no  plague  cases  ever 
came  to  England  all  those  years,  the  restrictions  on  traffic  became 
more  and  more  stringent  (following  the  movements  of  medical 
dogma),  and  in  1788  a  very  oppressive  Quarantine  Act  was  passed, 
with  provisions  affecting  cargoes  in  particular.  The  first  year  of 
this  century  marks  the  turning  point  in  quarantine  legislation ;  a 
parliamentary  committee  sat  on  the  practice,  and  a  more  reasonable 
Act  arose  on  their  report.  In  1805  there  was  another  new  Act, 
and  in  1823-24  again  an  elaborate  inquiry  followed  by  an  Act  mak- 
ing the  quarantine  only  at  discretion  of  the  privy  council,  and  at 
the  same  time  recognizing  yellow  fever  "  or  other  highly  infectious 
disorder"  as  calling  for  quarantine  measures  along  with  plague. 
The  steady  approach  of  cholera  in  1831  was  the  last  occasion  in 


158 


Q  U  A  — Q  U  A 


England  of  a  thorough-going  resort  to  quarantine  restrictions. 
The  pestilence  invaded  every  country  of  Europe  despite  all  efforts 
to  keep  it  out.  In  England  the  experiment  of  hermetically  sealing 
the  ports  was  not  seriously  tried  when  cholera  returned  in  1849, 
1853,  and  1865-66.  In  1847  the  Privy  Council  ordered  all  arrivals 
with  clean  bills  from  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Levant  to  be  admitted 
to  free  pratique,  provided  there  had  been  no  case  of  plague  during 
the  voyage ;  and  therewith  the  last  remnant  of  the  once  formidable 
quarantine  practice  against  plague  may  be  said  to  have  disappeared. 
The  quarantine  establishment  fell  gradually  into  disuse,  and  is  now 
represented  by  a  hulk  at  the  Motherbank  (Portsmouth),  which  is 
kept  up  solely  for  formal  reasons. 

For  a  number  of  years  after  the  passing  of  the  first  Quarantine 
Act  (1710)  the  protective  practices  were  of  the  most  haphazard 
and  arbitrary  kind.  In  1721  two  vessels  laden  with  cotton  goods, 
&.C.,  from  Cyprus,  then  a  seat  of  plague,  were  ordered  to  be  burned 
with  their  cargoes,  the  owners  receiving  £23,935  as  indemnity. 
By  the  clause  in  the  Levant  Trade  Act  of  1752  vessels  for  the 
United  Kingdom  with  a  foul  bill  (i.  c. ,  coming  from  a  country  where 

S'ague  existed)  had  to  repair  to  the  lazaretto  of  Malta,  Venice, 
essina,  Leghorn,  Genoa,  or  Marseilles,  to  perform  their  quarantine 
or  to  have  their  cargoes  "  sufficiently  opened  and  aired. "  Since  1741 
Stangate  Creek  (on  the  Medway)  had  been  made  the  quarantine 
station  at  home ;  but  it  would  appear  from  the  above  clause  that  it 
was  available  only  for  vessels  with  clean  bills.  In  1755  lazarets  in 
the  form  of  floating  hulks  were  established  in  England  for  the 
first  time,  the  cleansing  of  cargo  (particularly  by  exposure  to  dews) 
having  been  done  previously  on  the  ship's  deck.  There  was  no 
medical  inspection  employed,  but  the  whole  routine  left  to  the 
officers  of  customs  and  quarantine.  In  1780,  when  plague  was  in 
Poland,  even  vessels  with  grain  from  the  Baltic  had  to  lie  forty 
days  in  quarantine,  and  unpack  and  air  the  sacks ;  but  owing  to 
remonstrances,  which  came  chiefly  from  Edinburgh  and  Leith, 
grain  was  from  that  date  declared  to  be  a  "  non-susceptible  article." 
About  1788  an  order  of  council  required  every  ship  liable  to  quar- 
antine, in  case  of  meeting  any  vessel  at  sea,  or  within  four  leagues 
of  the  coast  of  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  to  hoist  a  yellow  flag  in 
the  day  time  and  show  a  light  at  the  maintopmast  head  at  night, 
under  a  penalty  of  £200.  After  1800  ships  from  plague-countries 
(or  with  foul  bills)  were  enabled  to  perform  their  quarantine  on 
arrival  in  the  Medway  instead  of  taking  a  Mediterranean  port  on 
the  way  for  that  purpose  ;  and  about  the  same  time  an  extensive 
lazaret  was  built  on  Chetney  Hill  near  Chatham  at  an  expense  of 
£170,000,  which  was  almost  at  once  condemned  owing  to  its  marshy 
foundations,  and  the  materials  sold  for  £15,000.  The  use  of  float- 
ing hulks  as  lazarets  continued  as  before.  In  1800  two  ships  with 
hides  from  Mogador  (Morocco)  were  ordered  to  be  sunk  with  their 
cargoes  at  the  Nore,  the  owners  receiving  £15,000.  About  this 
period  it  was  merchandise  that  was  chiefly  suspected :  there  was 
a  long  schedule  of  "susceptible  articles,"  and  these  were  first 
exposed  on  the  ship's  deck  for  twenty-one  days  or  less  (six  days  for 
each  instalment  of  the  cargo),  and  then  transported  to  the  lazaret, 
where  they  were  opened  and  aired  forty  days  more.  The  whole 
detention  of  the  vessel  was  from  sixty  to  sixty-five  days,  including 
the  time  for  reshipment  of  her  cargo.  Pilots  had  to  pass  fifteen 
days  on  board  a  "convalescent  ship."  The  expenses  may  be  esti- 
mated from  one  or  t\vo  examples.  In  1820  the  "Asia,"  763  tons, 
arrived  in  the  Medway  with  a  foul  bill  from  Alexandria,  laden 
with  linseed ;  her  freight  was  £1475  and  her  quarantine  dues 
£610.  The  same  year  the  "Pilato,"  495  tons,  making  the  same 
voyage,  paid  £200  quarantine  dues  on  a  freight  of  £1060.  In 
1823  the  "William  Parker"  from  Alexandria  paid  £188,  or  5£ 
per  cent,  on  the  value  of  her  cargo.  In  1823  the  expenses  of  the 
quarantine  service  (at  various  ports)  were  £26,090,  and  the  dues 
paid  by  shipping  (nearly  all  with  clean  bills)  £22,000  ;  in  1824  the 
figures  were  respectively  £23,704  and  £14,419.  A  parliamentary 
return  moved  for  by  Mr  Forster  showed  the  expenses  of  the  quaran- 
tine establishments  at  Rochester,  Portsmouth,  Bristol,  Milford, 
Liverpool,  and  Bo'ness  for  the  year  ending  6th  January  1846 
to  be  £15,590.  A  return  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  colonies 
moved  for  by  Mr  Joseph  Hume  in  1849  showed,  among  other 
details,  that  the  expenses  of  the  lazaret  at  Malta  for  ten  years 
from  1839  to  1848  had  been  £53,553.  Under  the  direction  of 
Sir  W.  Pym,  the  superintendent-general  of  quarantine,  the  home 
establishments  were  gradually  reduced  from  1846  onwards  ;  and 
the  reports  of  the  Board  of  Health  (signed  by  Chadwick,  South- 
wood  Smith,  and  others)  in  1849  and  1852,  which  argued  against 
quarantine,  although  not  always  on  sound  epidemiological  prin- 
ciples, gave  a  further  impetus  in  the  same  direction.  The  most 
recent  appeal  to  the  quarantine  law  (at  Swansea  in  1865)  has  been 
referred  to  above. 

Literature. — The  moat  considerable  treatise  on  quarantine  is  the  article  (pp. 
166)  by  Le"on  Colin  in  the  Diet.  Encyl.  (let  Sc.  Afed.,  3d  section,  vol.  I.,  Paris,  1874 
(with  a  bibliography).  There  is  also  a  general  article  by  Reincke  in  Eulenburg's 
Handbuch  de»  Getundheitstresen.  A  quarantine  committee  of  the  Social  Science 
Association  collected,  in  1860-61,  valuable  consular  returns  on  the  practice  of 
quarantine  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  these  were  edited  by  Milroy  and  ordered  to 
be  printed  (with  the  report  and  summary)  as  three  parliamentary  papers  com- 
municated to  the  board  of  trade.  The  third  paper  (6th  August  1861,  No.  544) 


contains,  in  an  appendix,  an  Historical  Sketch  of  Quarantine  Legislation  and 
Practice  in  Great  Britain,  by  Dr  Milroy,  from  which  the  above  historical 
notes  have  been  largely  taken.  See  also  Sheraton  Baker,  Law  of  Quarantine, 
I  .on. i.,  1873.  Russell's  Treatise  of  the  Plague  (4to,  London,  1791)  contains 
"remarks  on  quarantines,  lazarcttoes,  <kc.,"  and  an  account  of  the  mode  of 
"shutting  up"  practised  by  households  in  Aleppo  on  the  outbreak  of  plague  in 
the  town.  On  plague-quarantines,  see  also  Hirsch,  in  the  Vierteljahrstchrfur 
Oeffentl.  Gesundheitspftege,  1880,  xii.  6.  The  inexpediency  of  quarantine  in  the 
United  Kingdom  is  discussed  by  John  Simon  in  the  eighth  Report  of  the  Medical 
Officer  of  the  Privy  Council  for  1865,  p.  35.  The  fifth  Report  (new  series),  1876, 
contains  an  abstract  by  Seaton  of  Proceedings  of  the  International  Sanitary  Con- 
ference at  Vienna,  1874.  (C.  C.) 

QUARANTINE,  CATTLE.  The  importation  of  foreign 
cattle  into  England  was  forbidden  at  a  comparatively 
early  period.  Thus  18  Car.  II.  c.  2  made  such  importa- 
tion a- common  nuisance.  In  1869  previous  legislation  was 
consolidated  by  the  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals)  Act, 
1869,  which  applied  to  the  United  Kingdom.  In  1878 
this  Act  was  repealed  and  new  provisions  made  by  the 
Contagious  Diseases  (Animals)  Act,  1878,  amended  by 
two  Acts  passed  in  1884.  By  this  Act  the  privy  council 
is  empowered  to  make  from  time  to  time  such  general  or 
special  orders  as  they  think  fit  for  prohibiting  the  landing 
of  animals  brought  from  a  foreign  country.  Foreign 
animals  can  be  landed  only  at  certain  ports  named  by  the 
privy  council,  and  must  be  slaughtered  on  landing,  unless 
they  are  intended  for  exhibition  or  other  exceptional 
purposes,  in  which  case  they  are  subject  to  the  quarantine 
rules  given  in  the  fifth  schedule  of  the  Act.  In  the 
United  States  the  importation  of  neat  cattle  is  forbidden 
by  the  Act  of  1883,  c.  121,  except  as  allowed  by  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury.  The  appropriation  Acts  since 
1881  have  made  annual  grants  of  sums  of  $50,000  to 
enable  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  cooperate  with 
State  and  municipal  authorities  in  making  regulations  for 
the  establishment  of  cattle  quarantine  stations.  The 
cattle  quarantine  system  of  Canada  is  said  to  be  one  of  the 
most  perfect  existing.  In  1876  a  quarantine  of  eight 
days  was  established,  raised  to  ninety  days  in  1879. 
The  chief  Canadian  Act  is  42  Viet.  c.  23.  The  effect  of 
the  Canadian  precautions  has  been  that  English  orders  in 
council  have  allowed  Canadian  cattle  to  be  imported  into 
the  United  Kingdom  for  breeding  and  exhibition  purposes. 

QUARANTINE,  WIDOW'S,  is  the  right  of  a  widow  to 
remain  in  the  principal  house  belonging  to  her  husband 
for  forty  days  after  his  death.  It  is  specially  recognized 
in  Magna  Carta  and  in  some  of  the  State  laws  in  the 
United  States. 

QUARE  IMPEDIT,  in  English  law,  is  a  form  of  action 
by  which  the  right  of  presentation  to  a  benefice  is  tried. 
It  is  so  called  from  the  words  of  the  writ  formerly  in  use 
which  directed  the  sheriff  to  command  the  person  disturb- 
ing the  possession  to  permit  the  plaintiff  to  present  a  fit 
person,  or  to  show  cause  "  why  he  hinders  "  the  plaintiff  in 
his  right.  The  action  is  one  of  the  few  surviving  real 
actions  preserved  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  27.  As  a  real 
action  it  could  before  the  Judicature  Acts  have  been 
brought  only  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  The  effect 
of  recent  legislation  has  been  to  assimilate  proceedings  in 
quare  impedit  as  far  as. possible  to  those  in  an  ordinary 
action.  It  is  now  usually  brought  against  a  bishop  to  try 
the  legality  of  his  refusal  to  institute  a  particular  clerk. 
The  bishop  must  fully  state  upon  the  pleadings  the 
grounds  on  which  he  refuses.  Quare  impedit  is  peculiarly 
the  remedy  of  the  patron ;  the  remedy  of  the  clerk  is  the 
proceeding  called  duplex  querela  in  the  ecclesiastical  court. 
At  common  law  no  damages  or  costs  were  recoverable  in 
quare  impedit ;  13  Edw.  I.  st.  1,  c.  5,  provided  for  damages 
up  to  two  years'  value  of  the  benefice,  and  4  &  5  Will.  IV. 
c.  39  for  costs.  The  action  is  not  barred  till  the  expira- 
tion of  sixty  years,  or  of  three  successive  incumbencies 
adverse  to  the  plaintiff's  right,  whichever  period  be  the 
longer  (3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  27,  §  29).  Where  the  patron  of 
a  benefice  is  a  Roman  Catholic,  one  of  the  universities 


Q  U  A  — Q  U  A 


159 


presents  in  his  place  (1  Will,  and  Mary,  sess.  1,  c.  26). 
By  13  Anne  c.  13  during  the  pendency  of  a  quare  impedit 
to  which  either  of  the  universities  is  a  party  in  right  of 
the  patron  being  a  Roman  Catholic  the  court  has  power 
to  administer  an  oath  for  the  discovery  of  any  secret  trust, 
and  to  order  the  cestui  que  trust  to  repeat-  and  subscribe  a 
declaration  against  transubstantiation. 

QUARLES,  FRANCIS  (1592-1644),  a  sacred  poet  of  the 
17th  century,  enjoyed  considerable  celebrity  in  his  own 
day,  and  some  of  hia  works  have  shared  in  the  recent 
revival  of  interest  in  our  older  literature.  The  work  by 
which  he  is  best  known,  his  Emblemes,  was  originally  pub- 
lished in  1635,  with  grotesque  illustrations,  engraved  by 
Marshall,  and  borrowed  from  the  Pia  Desideria  of 
Hermann  Hugo.  The  poems,  which  are  diffuse  medita- 
tions upon  Scriptural  texts,  seem,  in  modern  phrase,  to 
have  been  "  written  up  "  to  the  illustrations,  and  are  quite 
in  keeping  with  their  quaint  mixture  of  sublime  and 
familiar  thoughts.  An  edition  of  the  Emblems,  with  new 
illustrations  by  C.  H.  Bennett,  was  published  in  Edinburgh 
in  1857,  and  these  illustrations  are  reproduced  in  Mr 
Grosart's  complete  edition  in  the  Chertsey  Worthies 
Library.  The  incongruous  oddities  of  Quarles's  verse  are 
more  obvious  than  the  higher  qualities  that  recent  admirers 
claim  for  him.  The  following  stanza,  in  a  paraphrase  of 
Job  xiv.  13,  has  often  been  referred  to  as  the  supreme 
example  of  his  occasional  sublimity  of  thought : — 

"  Tis  vain  to  flee  ;  till  gentle  Mercy  show 
Her  better  eye,  the  farther  off  we  go 
The  swing  of  Justice  deals  the  mightier  blow." 

Quarles  would  seem  to  have  been  a  man  of  good  family, 
and  he  boasts  of  his  "  long-lived  genealogy."  He  was  bom 
at  Romford  in  Essex  in  1592,  and,  after  a  regular  education 
at  school,  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and  Lincoln's  Inn, 
had  influence  enough  at  court  to  get  the  office  of  cup- 
bearer to  the  queen  of  Bohemia.  He  was  afterwards 
(about  1621)  appointed  secretary  to  Ussher,  the  primate 
of  Ireland,  and  later  on,  returning  at  an  uncertain  date  to 
England,  obtained  (in  1639)  the  post  of  city  chronologer, 
which  had  been  held  before  him  by  Middleton  and  Ben 
Jonson.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  wrote 
on  the  Royalist  side,  and  died  in  1644,  in  consequence, 
his  widow  suggests,  of  his  harsh  treatment  by  the  king's 
enemies.  Quarles's  first  publication,  with  the  suggestive 
title  of  The  Feast  of  Wormes,  appeared  in  1620,  and  from 
that  date  till  his  death  he  was  a  busy  and  prolific  writer 
of  verse  and  prose.  His  Divine  Poems,  collected  in  1630, 
were  published  separately  at  intervals  in  the  course  of  the 
preceding  ten  years.  Divine  Fancies  followed  in  1632; 
then  the  Emblems,  which  might  well  come  under  that 
general  designation.  The  earlier  poem  of  Argalus  and 
Parthenia  (1622)  was  in  a  different  vein  :  the  substance 
was  imitated  from  Sidney's  Arcadia,  and  the  verse  from 
Marlowe's  Hero  and  Leander.  The  speeches  are  spun  out 
to  a  most  tedious  length,  but  the  poem  contains  more  fine 
lines  and  fewer  incongruous  fancies  than  any  other  of  the 
author's  productions.  Quarles  also  published  many  Elegies, 
in  the  fashion  of  memorial  verses  of  which  Milton's  Lycidas 
was  the  contemporary  masterpiece.  His  Hieroglyphics, 
in  the  same  vein  as  his  Emblems,  appeared  first  in  1638. 
His  principal  prose  work  was  the  Enchiridion  (1640),  a 
collection  of  four  "  centuries  "  of  miscellaneous  aphorisms. 
This  was  followed  two  years  later  by  more  "  observations  " 
of  the  same  kind  "  concerning  princes  and  states."  Lovers 
of  commonplace  wisdom  dressed  in  a  garb  always  studi- 
ously quaint  and  sometimes  happily  epigrammatic,  may 
turn  to  Quarles  with  every  prospect  of  enjoyment. 

QUARTER  SESSIONS  (in  full,  GENERAL  QUARTER 
SESSIONS  OF  THE  PEACE)  is  the  name  given  to  a  local  court 
with  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction.  In  England  the 


court  consists  in  counties  of  two  or  more  justices  of  the 
peace,  one  of  whom  must  be  of  the  quorum  (see  JUSTICE 
OF  THE  PEACE),  in  cities  and  boroughs  of  the  recorder 
alone.  The  quarter  sessions  are  a  court  of  record.  The 
records  in  a  county  are  nominally  in  the  custody  of  the 
custos  rotulorum,  the  highest  civil  officer  in  the  county, 
practically  in  that  of  the  clerk  of  the  peace,  who  is  nomin- 
ated by  the  custos  and  removable  by  the  quarter  sessions. 
In  a  city  or  borough  he  is  appointed  by  the  council  and 
removable  by  the  recorder.  The  original  jurisdiction  of 
quarter  sessions  seems  to  have  been  confined  to  cognizance 
of  breaches  of  the  peace.  By  a  series  of  statutes  passed 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  the  time  of  the  holding  of  the 
sessions  was  fixed,  and  their  jurisdiction  extended  to  the 
trial  of  felonies  and  trespasses.  The  jurisdiction  now 
depends  upon  a  mass  of  legislation  reaching  from  1344  to 
the  present  time.  The  dates  at  which  the  county  sessions 
must  meet  are  fixed,  by  2  Geo.  IV.  and  1  Will.  IV.  c.  70, 
to  be  the  first  weeks  after  the  llth  of  October,  the  28th 
of  December,  the  31st  of  March,  and  the  24th  of  June. 
Quarter  sessions  in  a  city  or  borough  depend  upon  the 
Municipal  Corporations  Act,  1882,  45  &  46  Viet.,  c.  50. 
A  grant  of  quarter  sessions  to  a  city  or  borough  is  made 
by  the  crown  in  council  on  petition  of  the  town  council. 
The  main  points  in  which  borough  differ  from  county 
quarter  sessions  are  these  : — (1)  the  recorder,  a  barrister 
of  five  years'  standing,  is  sole  judge  in  place  of  a  body  of 
laymen;  (2)  the  recorder  has  a  discretion  to  fix  his  own 
dates  for  the  holding  of  a  court,  as  long  as  he  holds  it  once 
every  quarter  of  a  year ;  it  may  be  held  more  frequently 
if  the  recorder  think  fit  or  a  secretary  of  state  so  direct ; 
(3)  the  recorder  has  no  power  to  levy  a  borough  rate  or 
to  grant  a  licence  for  the  sale  of  exciseable  liquors  by 
retail.  In  some  few  boroughs  the  recorder  is  judge  of  the 
borough  civil  court.  Quarter  sessions  in  the  counties  of 
Middlesex,  Kent,  and  Lancaster,  as  also  in  London  and 
the  Cinque  Ports,  are  governed  by  special  legislation. 

The  jurisdiction  of  quarter  sessions  is  either  original  or  appellate. 

Original  Jurisdiction. — Civil. — This  includes  the  levying  of  a 
county  rate  and  its  application,  the  appointment  of  a  county 
licensing  committee,  and  of  public  officers,  such  as  the  county 
treasurer,  the  public  analyst,  and  the  inspectors  of  weights  and 
measures,  the  confirmation  of  bye-laws  made  by  local  authorities, 
the  increase  or  alteration  of  polling  places  and  petty  sessional 
divisions,  the  regulation  of  police,  and  powers  under  various  Acts 
of  Parliament,  such  as  the  Highway  Acts,  and  the  Contagious 
Diseases  (Animals)  Act.  The  quarter  sessions  of  the  metropolitan 
counties  have  by  25  Geo.  II.  c.  36  the  power  of  licensing  music-halls, 
&c.,  within  20  miles  of  London. 

Criminal. — Apart  from  statute,  the  commissions  of  justices  of 
the  peace  provide  that  they  shall  reserve  the  graver  felonies  for 
trial  at  assizes.  They  are  now  forbidden  by  several  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment to  try  a  prisoner  for  treason  or  murder,  or  for  any  felony 
punishable  without  a  previous  conviction  by  penal  servitude  for  life 
(such  as  burglary  and  rape),  or  for  any  of  the  offences  enumerated 
in  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  38,  the  most  practically  important  of  which  are 
perjury,  forgery,  bigamy,  abduction,  concealment  of  birth,  libel, 
bribery,  and  conspiracy.  The  procedure  is  by  indictment,  as  at 
assizes,  and  the  trial  of  offences  by  jury.  In  the  case  of  incorrigible 
rogues  and  of  sureties  of  the  peace  the  quarter  sessions  exercise  a 
quasi-criminal  jurisdiction  without  a  jury.  They  may  also  estreat 
recognizances  entered  into  for  appearance  in  a  court  of  summary 
jurisdiction,  but  this  part  of  their  jurisdiction  may  be  considered 
practically  obsolete,  as  the  Summary  Jurisdiction  Act,  1879,  gives 
the  court  of  summary  jurisdiction  power  to  estreat  the  recognizances 
itself. 

Appellate  Jurisdiction. — Civil. — The  principal  cases  in  which  this 
jurisdiction  is  exercised  are  in  appeals  from  orders  of  a  court  of 
summary  jurisdiction  as  to  the  assessment  of  the  poor-rate  and  the 
removal  and  settlement  of  paupers,  and  orders  made  under  the 
Highway,  Licensing,  and  Bastardy  Acts. 

Criminal. — An  appeal  lies  to  quarter  sessions  from  a  court  of 
summary  jurisdiction  only  where  such  an  appeal  is  expressly 
given  by  statute.  The  appellate  jurisdiction  has  been  considerably 
increased  by  the  Summary  Jurisdiction  Act,  1879  (42  &  43  Viet, 
c.  49),  which  allows  an  appeal  (with  certain  exceptions)  from  every 
conviction  or  order  of  a  court  of  summary  jurisdiction  inflicting 
imprisonment  without  the  option  of  a  i'mc.  The  appeal  may  be 


160 


Q  U  A  — Q  U  A 


brought  in  accordance  with  either  the  Act  giving  the  appeal  or 
the  Summary  Jurisdiction  Act. 

There  is  no  appeal  from  quarter  sessions  on  the  facts,  but  their 
decision  may  be  reviewed  by  the  High  Court  of  Justice  by  means 
of  ccrtiorari,  mandamus,  prohibition,  or  a  case  stated  under 
12  &  13  Viet.  c.  45,  §11.  A  case  may  be  stated  for  the  opinion 
of  the  court  of  criminal  appeal  under  11  &  12  Viet.  c.  78,  §  1. 

Ireland. — In  Ireland  the  chairman  of  quarter  sessions  is  a 
salaried  professional  lawyer,  and  has  important  civil  jurisdiction 
corresponding  very  much  to  that  of  a  county  court  judge  in  Eng- 
land. His  jurisdiction  depends  chiefly  upon  14  &  15  Viet.  c. 
57.  The  recorders  of  Dublin  and  Cork  are  judges  of  the  civil  bill 
courts  in  those  cities. 

Scotland. — In  Scotland  quarter  sessions  were  established  by  the 
Act  1661,  c.  338,  under  which  justices  were  to  meet  on  the  first 
Tuesday  of  March,  May,  and  August,  and  the  last  Tuesday  of 
October  to  "administrate  justice  to  the  people  in  things  that  are 
within  their  jurisdiction  and  punish  the  guilty  for  faults  and 
crimes  done  and  committed  in  the  preceding  quarter."  The 
jurisdiction  of  quarter  sessions  in  Scotland  is  more  limited  than  in 
England,  much  of  what  would  be  quarter-sessions  work  in  Eng- 
land being  done  by  the  sheriff  or  the  commissioners  of  supply. 
Quarter  sessions  have  appellate  jurisdiction  in  poaching,  revenue, 
and  licensing  cases,  and  under  the  Pawnbrokers  and  other  Acts. 
All  appeals  from  proceedings  under  the  Summary  Jurisdiction 
Acts  are  taken  to  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary  at  Edinburgh  or 
on  circuit  (44  &  45  Viet.  c.  33).  The  original  jurisdiction  of 
quarter  sessions  is  very  limited,  and  almost  entirely  civil.  Thus 
they  have  power  to  divide  a  county  and  to  make  rules  for  carrying 
into  effect  the  provisions  of  the  Small  Debts  Act,  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  48. 
The  decision  of  quarter  sessions  may  be  reviewed  by  advocation, 
suspension,  or  appeal. 

United  States. — In  the  United  States  courts  of  quarter  sessions 
exist  in  many  of  the  States  ;  their  jurisdiction  is  determined  by 
State  legislation,  and  extends  as  a  rule  only  to  the  less  grave 
crimes.  They  are  in  some  States  constituted  of  professional  judges. 

QUARTZ,  the  name  of  a  mineralogical  species  which 
includes  nearly  all  the  native  forms  of  silica.  It  thus 
embraces  a  great  number  of  distinct  minerals,  several  of 
which  are  cut  as  ornamental  stones  or  otherwise  used  in 
the  arts.  For  a  general  description  of  the  species,  see 
MINERALOGY,  vol.  xvi.  p.  389 ;  and  for  its  chief  varieties, 
see  AGATE,  vol.  i.  p.  277 ;  AMETHYST,  vol.  i.  p.  736 ; 
FLINT,  vol.  ix.  p.  325 ;  and  JASPER,  vol.  xiii.  p.  596. 
The  crystallography  of  quartz  has  been  fully  investigated 
by  Des  Cloizeaux  in  his  classical  Memoire  sur  la  cristal- 
lisation  et  la  structure  interieure  du  Quartz,  Paris,  1855. 

QUASSIA,  the  generic  name  given  by  Linnaeus  to  a 
small  tree  of  Surinam  in  honour  of  the  negro  Quassi  or 
Coissi,  who  employed  the  intensely  bitter  bark  of  the  tree 
as  a  remedy  for  fever.  This  bark  was  introduced  into 
European  medicine  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
and  was  officially  recognized  in  the  London  Pharmacopoeia 
of  1788.  In  1809  it  was  replaced  by  the  bitter  wood  or 
bitter  ash  of  Jamaica,  Picrsena  excelsa,  Lindl.,  which  was 
found  to  possess  similar  properties  and  could  be  obtained 
in  pieces  of  much  larger  size.  Since  that  date  this  wood 
has  continued  in  use  in  Britain  under  the  name  of  quassia 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  Surinam  quassia,  which,  however, 
is  still  employed  in  France  and  Germany.  Picr&na  ex- 
celsa, Lindl.  (Quassia  excelsa,  Swartz)  is  a  tree  50  to  60 
feet  in  height,  and  resembles  the  common  ash  in  appear- 
ance. It  has  imparipinnate  leaves  composed  of  four  or 
five  pairs  of  short-stalked,  oblong,  blunt,  leathery  leaflets, 
and  inconspicuous  green  flowers.  The  fruit  consists  of 
shining  drupes  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  It  is  found  also 
in  Antigua  and  St  Vincent.  Quassia  amara,  L.,  is  a 
shrub  or  small  tree  belonging  to  the  same  natural  order  as 
Picrxna,  viz.,  Simarubacex,  but  is  readily  distinguished 
by  its  large  handsome  red  flowers  arranged  in  terminal 
clusters.  It  is  a  native  of  Panama,  Venezuela,  Guiana, 
and  northern  Brazil  Jamaica  quassia  is  imported  into 
England  in  logs  several  feet  in  length  and  often  nearly 
one  foot  in  thickness,  consisting  of  pieces  of  the  trunk 
and  larger  branches.  The  thin  greyish  bark  is  usually 
removed.  The  wood  is  nearly  white,  or  of  a  yellowish 
tint,  but  sometimes  exhibits  blackish  markings  due  to  the 


mycelium  of  a  fungus.  The  wood  has  a  pure  bitter  taste, 
and  is  without  odour  or  aroma.  It  is  usually  to  be  met 
with  in  the  form  of  turnings  or  raspings,  the  former  being 
obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  the  "  bitter  cups  "  which 
are  made  of  this  wood.  The  medicinal  properties  are  due 
to  the  presence  of  quassiin  (first  obtained  by  Winckler  in 
1835),  which  exists  in  the  wood  to  the  extent  of  T\jth  Per 
cent.  It  is  a  neutral  crystalline  substance,  soluble  in  hot 
dilute  alcohol  and  chloroform  and  in  200  parts  of  water. 
It  is  also  readily  soluble  in  alkalies,  and  is  reprecipitated 
by  acids.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  ether,  and  forms  an 
insoluble  compound  with  tannin. 

Quassia  is  used  in  medicine  in  the  form  of  infusion  and  tincture 
as  a  pure  bitter  tonic  and  febrifuge,  and  in  consequence  of  contain- 
ing no  tannin  is  often  prescribed  in  combination  with  iron.  An 
infusion  of  the  wood  sweetened  with  sugar  is  also  used  as  a  fly 
poison,  and  forms  an  effectual  injection  for  destroying  thread 
worms.  Quassia  also  forms  a  principal  ingredient  of  several  "  hop 
substitutes,"  for  which  use  it  was  employed  as  long  ago  as  1791, 
when  John  Lindsay,  a  medical  practitioner  in  Jamaica,  wrote  that 
the  bark  was  exported  to  England  ' '  in  considerable  quantities  for 
the  purposes  of  brewers  of  ale  and  porter." 

QUATERNIONS.  The  word  quaternion  properly 
means  "a  set  of  four."  In  employing  such  a  word  to 
denote  a  new  mathematical  method,  Sir  W.  R.  HAMILTON 
(q.v.)  was  probably  influenced  by  the  recollection  of  its 
Greek  equivalent,  the  Pythagorean  Tetractys,  the  mystic 
source  of  all  things. 

Quaternions  (as  a  mathematical  method)  is  an  exten- 
sion, or  improvement,  of  Cartesian  geometry,  in  which 
the  artifices  of  coordinate  axes,  &c.,  are  got  rid  of,  all 
directions  in  space  being  treated  on  precisely  the  same 
terms.  It  is  therefore,  except  in  some  of  its  degraded 
forms,  possessed  of  the  perfect  isotropy  of  Euclidian  space. 

From  the  purely  geometrical  point  of  view,  a  quater- 
nion may  be  regarded  as  the  quotient  of  two  directed  lines 
in  space — or,  what  comes  to  the  same  thing,  as  the  factor, 
or  operator,  which  changes  one  directed  line  into  another. 
Its  analytical  definition  cannot  be  given  for  the  moment ; 
it  will  appear  in  the  course  of  the  article. 

History  of  the  Method. — The  evolution  of  quaternions 
belongs  in  part  to  each  of  two  weighty  branches  of  mathe- 
matical history — the  interpretation  of  the  imaginary  (or 
impossible)  quantity  of  common  algebra,  and  the  Cartesian 
application  of  algebra  to  geometry.  Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton 
was  led  to  his  great  invention  by  keeping  geometrical 
applications  constantly  before  him  while  he  endeavoured 
to  give  a  real  significance  to  ^/  -  1.  We  will  therefore 
confine  ourselves,  so  far  as  his  predecessors  are  concerned, 
to  attempts  at  interpretation  which  had  geometrical  appli- 
cations in  view. 

One  geometrical  interpretation  of  the  negative  sign  of 
algebra  was  early  seen  to  be  mere  reversal  of  direction 
along  a  line.  Thus,  when  an  image  is  formed  by  a  plane 
mirror,  the  distance  of  any  point  in  it  from  the  mirror  is 
simply  the  negative  of  that  of  the  corresponding  point  of 
the  object.  Or  if  motion  in  one  direction  along  a  line  be 
treated  as  positive,  motion  in  the  opposite  direction  along 
the  same -line  is  negative.  In  the  case  of  time,  measured 
from  the  Christian  era,  this  distinction  is  at  once  given 
by  the  letters  A.D.  or  B.C.,  prefixed  to  the  date.  And  to 
find  the  position,  in  time,  of  one  event  relatively  to 
another,  we  have  only  to  subtract  the  date  of  the  second 
(taking  account  of  its  sign)  from  that  of  the  first.  Thus 
to  find  the  interval  between  the  battles  of  Marathon 
(490  B.C.)  and  Waterloo  (1815  A.D.)  we  have 
+ 1815  -  ( -  490)  -  2305  years. 

And  it  is  obvious  that  the  same  process  applies  in  all 
cases  in  which  we  deal  with  quantities  which  may  be 
regarded  as  of  one  directed  dimension  only,  such  as  dis- 
tances along  a  line,  rotations  about  an  axis,  &c.  But  it 


QUATEBNIONS 


161 


is  essential  to  notice  that  this  is  by  no  means  necessarily 
true  of  operators.  To  turn  a  line  through  a  certain  angle 
in  a  given  plane,  a  certain  operator  is  required ;  but  when 
we  wish  to  turn  it  through  an  equal  negative  angle  we 
must  not,  in  general,  employ  the  negative  of  the  former 
operator.  For  the  negative  of  the  operator  which  turns 
a  line  through  a  given  angle  in  a  given  plane  will  in  all 
cases  produce  the  negative  of  the  original  result,  which  is 
not  the  result  of  the  reverse  operator,  unless  the  angle 
involved  be  an  odd  multiple  of  a  right  angle.  This  is,  of 
course,  on  the  usual  assumption  that  the  sign  of  a  product 
is  changed  when  that  of  any  one  of  its  factors  is  changed, 
— which  merely  means  that  -  1  is  commutative  with  all 
other  quantities. 

The  celebrated  Wallis  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to 
push  this  idea  further.  In  his  Treatise  of  Algebra  (1685) 
he  distinctly  proposes  to  construct  the  imaginary  roots  of 
a  quadratic  equation  by  going  out  of  the  line  on  which 
the  roots,  if  real,  would  have  been  constructed. 

In  1804  the  Abbe"  Buee,1  apparently  without  any  know- 
ledge of  Wallis's  work,  developed  this  idea  so  far  as  to 
make  it  useful  in  geometrical  applications.  He  gave,  in 
fact,  the  theory  of  what  in  Hamilton's  system  is  called 
Composition  of  Vectors  in  one  plane — i.e.,  the  combination, 
by  +  and  - ,  of  complanar  directed  lines.  His  construc- 
tions are  based  on  the  idea  that  the  imaginaries  ±  */  -  1 
represent  a  unit  line,  and  its  reverse,  perpendicular  to  the 
line  on  which  the  real  units  ±  1  are  measured.  In  this 
sense  the  imaginary  expression  a  +  b  *J  —  1  is  constructed 
by  measuring  a  length  a  along  the  fundamental  line  (for 
real  quantities),  and  from  its  extremity  a  line  of  length  b 
in  some  direction  perpendicular  to  the  fundamental  line. 
But  he  did  not  attack  the  question  of  the  representation 
of  products  or  quotients  of  directed  lines.  The  step  he 
took  is  really  nothing  more  than  the  kinematical  principle 
of  the  composition  of  linear  velocities,  but  expressed  in 
terms  of  the  algebraic  imaginary. 

In  1806  (the  year  of  publication  of  Bute's  paper) 
Argand  published  a  pamphlet2  in  which  precisely  the 
same  ideas  are  developed,  but  to  a  considerably  greater 
extent.  For  an  interpretation  is  assigned  to  the  product 
of  two  directed  lines  in  one  plane,  when  each  is  expressed 
as  the  sum  of  a  real  and  an  imaginary  part.  This  product 
is  interpreted  as  another  directed  line,  forming  the  fourth 
term  of  a  proportion,  of  which  the  first  term  is  the  real 
(positive)  unit-line,  and  the  other  two  are  the  factor-lines. 
Argand's  work  remained  unnoticed  until  the  question  was 
again  raised  in  Gergonne's  Annales,  1813,  by  Fran^ais. 
This  writer  stated  that  he  had  found  the  germ  of  his 
remarks  among  the  papers  of  Mr:  deceased  brother,  and 
that  they  had  come  from  Legendre,  who  had  himself 
received  them  from  some  one  unnamed.  This  led  to  a 
letter  from  Argand,  in  which  he  stated  his  communica- 
tions with  Legendre,  and  gave  c,  resume  of  the  contents 
of  his  pamphlet.  In  a  further  communication  to  the 
Annales,  Argand  pushed  on  the  applications  of  his  theory. 
He  has  given  by  means  of  it  a  simple  proof  of  the  exist- 
ence of  n  roots,  and  no  more,  in  every  rational  algebraic 
equation  of  the  nth  order  with  real  coefficients.  About 
1828  Warren  in  England,  and  Mourey  in  France,  inde- 
pendently of  one  another  and  of  Argand,  reinvented  these 
modes  of  interpretation  ;  and  still  later,  in  the  writings  of 

1  Phil.  Trans.,  1806. 

2  Essai  sur  une  maniere  de  representer  les  Quantites  Imaginaires 
dans  les  Constructions  Geometriques.     A  second  edition  was  published 
by  Hoiiel  (Paris,   1874).     There  is  added  an  important  Appendix, 
consisting  of  the  papers  from  Gergonne's  Annales  which  are  referred 
to  in  the  text  above.     Almost  nothing  can,  it  seems,  be  learned  of 
Argand's  private  life,  except  that  in  all  probability  lie  was  born  at 
Geneva  in  1768. 


Cauchy,  Gauss,  and  others,  the  properties  of  the  expression 
a  +  1  j  _  1  Were  developed  into  the  immense  and  most 
important  subject  now  called  the  theory  of  complex  numbers 
(see  NUMBERS,  THEORY  OP).  From  the  more  purely  sym- 
bolical view  it  was  developed  by  Peacock,  De  Morgan,  <fec., 
as  double  algebra. 

Argand's  method  may  be  put,  for  reference,  in  the  following 
form.  The  directed  line  whose  length  is  a,  and  which  makes  au 
angle  0  with  the  real  (positive)  unit  line,  is  expressed  by 


where  i  is  regarded  as  +  V  -  1.  The  sum  of  two  such  lines  (formed 
by  adding  together  the  real  and  the  imaginary  parts  of  two  such 
expressions)  can,  of  course,  be  expressed  as  a  third  directed  line  — 
the  diagonal  of  the  parallelogram  of  which  they  are  conterminous 
sides.  The  product,  P,  of  two  such  lines  is,  as  we  have  seen,  given 
by  1  '  ' 

or 


Its  length  is,  therefore,  the  product  of  the  lengths  of  the  factors, 
and  its  inclination  to  the  real  unit  is  the  sum  of  those  of  the 
factors.  If  we  write  the  expressions  for  the  two  lines  in  the  form 
A  +  Bi,  A'  +  B'i,  the  product  is  A  A'  -  BB'  +  i(  AB'  +  B  A')  ;  and  the 
fact  that  the  length  of  the  product  line  is  the  product  of  those  of 
the  factors  is  seen  in  the  form 

(A2  +  B2)(A'2  +  B'2)  =  (AA'  -  BB')2  +  (AB'  +  B  A')3  . 
In  the  modern  theory  of  complex  numbers  this  is  expressed  by 
saying  that  the  Norm  of  a  product  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the 
norms  of  the  factors. 

Argand's  attempts  to  extend  his  method  to  space  gene- 
rally were  fruitless.  The  reasons  will  be  obvious  later  ; 
but  we  mention  them  just  now  because  they  called  forth 
from  Servois  (Gergonne's  Annales,  1813)  a  very  remark- 
able comment,  in  which  was  contained  the  only  yet 
discovered  trace  of  an  anticipation  of  the  method  of 
Hamilton.  Argand  had  been  led  to  deny  that  such  an 
expression  as  il  could  be  expressed  in  the  form  A  +  Bi,  — 
although,  as  is  well  known,  Euler  showed  that  one  of  its 
values  is  a  real  quantity,  the  exponential  function  of  -  ir/2  . 
Servois  says,  with  reference  to  the  general  representation 
of  a  directed  line  in  space  :  — 

"L'analogie  semblerait  exiger  que  le  trinome  fut  de  la  forme 
jpcosa  +  geos/J  +  rcosy;  a,  &,  7  etaut  les  angles  d'une  droite  avec 
trois  axes  rectangulaires  ;  et  qu'on  cut 


=  l.     Les  valeurs  de  p,  q,  r,  p',  q',  r'  qiii 

satisferaieut  &  cette  condition  seraient  absurdcs  ;  mais  scraient-ellcs 
imaginaires,  reductibles  a  la  forme  generale  A  +  B\/  -  1  ?  Voila 
une  question  d'analyse  fort  singuliere  que  je  soumets  a  vos  lumieres. 
La  simple  proposition  que  je  vous  en  fais  suffit  pour  vous  faire  voir 
que  je  ne  crois  point  que  toute  fonctionjinalytique  non  reelle  soit 
vraiinent  reductible  a  la  forme  A  +  B\/-  1." 
As  will  be  seen  later,  the  fundamental  *,  j,  Tc  of  quater- 
nions, with  their  reciprocals,  furnish  a  set  of  six  quantities 
which  satisfy  the  conditions  imposed  by  Servois.  And  it 
is  quite  certain  that  they  cannot  be  represented  by  ordin- 
ary imaginaries. 

Something  far  more  closely  analogous  to  quaternions 
than  anything  in  Argand's  work  ought  to  have  been 
suggested  by  De  Moivre's  theorem  J1730).  Instead  of 
regarding,  as  Buee  and  Argand  had  done,  the  expression 
a  (cos  0  +  i  sin  6)  as  a  directed  line,  let  us  suppose  it  to 
represent  the  operator  which,  when  applied  to  any  line  in 
the  plane  in  which  0  is  measured,  turns  it  in  that  plane 
through  the  angle  6,  and  at  the  same  time  increases  its 
length  in  the  ratio  a  :  1.  From  the  new  point  of  view  we 
see  at  once,  as  it  were,  why  it  is  true  that 
(cos  0  +  isin  0)m=cosmO  +  isinmd. 

For  this  equation  merely  states  that  m  turnings  of  a  line 
through  successive  equal  angles,  in  one  plane,  give  the  same 
result  as  a  single  turning  through  m  times  the  common 
angle.  To  make  this  process  applicable  to  any  plane  in 
space,  it  is  clear  that  we  must  have  a  special  value  of  i  for 
each  such  plane.  In  other  words,  a  unit  line,  drawn  in  any 
direction  whatever,  must  have  -  1  for  its  square.  In  such 

XX.  —  21 


162 


QUATERNIONS 


a  system  there  will  be  no  line  in  space  specially  distin- 
guished as  the  real  unit  line  :  all  will  be  alike  imaginary, 
or  rather  alike  real.  We  may  state,  in  passing,  that  every 
quaternion  can  be  represented  as  a(cos0  +  *s-sin$),  —  where 
a  is  a  real  number,  6  a  real  angle,  and  -a  a  directed  unit 
line  whose  square  is  -  1.  Hamilton  took  this  grand  step, 
but,  as  we  have  already  said,  without  any  help  from  the 
previous  work  of  De  Moivrc.  The  course  of  his  investiga- 
tions is  minutely  described  in  the  preface  to  his  first  great 
work1  on  the  subject.  Hamilton,  like  most  of  the  many 
inquirers  who  endeavoured  to  give  a  real  interpretation  to 
the  imaginary  of  common  algebra,  found  that  at  least  two 
kinds,  orders,  or  ranks  of  quantities  were  necessary  for 
the  purpose.  But,  instead  of  dealing  with  points  on  a 
line,  and  then  wandering  out  at  right  angles  to  it,  as  Bue"e 
and  Argand  had  done,  he  chose  to  look  on  algebra  as  the 
science  of  pure,  time,2  and  to  investigate  the  properties  of 
"  sets  "  of  time-steps.  In  its  essential  nature  a  set  is  a 
linear  function  of  any  number  of  distinct  units  of  the 
same  species.  Hence  the  simplest  form  of  a  set  is  a 
couple  ;  and  it  was  to  the  possible  laws  of  combination  of 
couples  that  Hamilton  first  directed  his  attention.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  way  in  which  the  two  separate  time-steps 
are  involved  in  the  couple  will  determine  these  laws  of 
combination.  But  Hamilton's  special  object  required  that 
these  laws  should  be  such  as  to  lead  to  certain  assumed 
results  ;  and  he  therefore  commenced  by  assuming  these, 
and  from  the  assumption  determined  how  the  separate 
time-steps  must  be  involved  in  the  couple.  If  we  use 
Roman  letters  for  mere  numbers,  capitals  for  instants  of 
time,  Greek  letters  for  time-steps,  and  a  parenthesis  to 
denote  a  couple,  the  laws  assumed  by  Hamilton  as  the 
basis  of  a  system  were  as  follows  :  — 

(B17  B2)-(Alf  A2)  =  (B1-A1,  B2-A2)  = 
(a,  b)(a,  /3)  =  (aa-b 


To  show  how  we  give,  by  such  assumptions,  a  real  inter- 
pretation to  the  ordinary  algebraic  imaginary,  take  the 
simple  case  a  =  0,  b  =  l,  and  the  second  of  the  above  for- 
mulae gives 

(0,l)(a,  £)  =  (-/),  a). 

Multiply  once  more  by  the  number-couple  (0,1),  and  we 
have 

(0,  1)(0,  l)(a,  /5)  =  (0,  l)(-/3,  a)  =  (-a,-/3) 
=  (-l,0)(a,  0)--(a,/3). 

Thus  the  number-couple  (0,1),  when  twice  applied  to  a 
step-couple,  simply  changes  its  sign.  That  we  have  here 
a  perfectly  real  and  intelligible  interpretation  of  the  ordin- 
ary algebraic  imaginary  is  easily  seen  by  an  illustration, 
even  if  it  be  a  somewhat  extravagant  one.  Some  Eastern 
potentate,  possessed  of  absolute  power,  covets  the  vast 
possessions  of  his  vizier  and  of  his  barber.  He  determines 
to  rob  them  both  (an  operation  which  may  be  very  satis- 
i  factorily  expressed  by  -  1)  ;  but,  being  a  wag,  he  chooses 
his  own  way  of  doing  it.  He  degrades  his  vizier  to  the 
office  of  barber,  taking  all  his  goods  in  the  process  ;  and 
makes  the  barber  his  vizier.  Next  day  he  repeats  the  opera- 
tion. Each  of  the  victims  has  been  restored  to  his  former 
rank,  but  the  operator  -  1  has  been  applied  to  both. 

Hamilton,  still  keeping  prominently  before  him  as  his 
great  object  the  invention  of  a  method  applicable  to  space 
of  three  dimensions,  proceeded  to  study  the  properties  of 
triplets  of  the  form  x  +  iy  +jz,  by  which  he  proposed  to 
represent  the  directed  line  in  space  whose  projections  on 

1  Lectures  on  Quaternions,  Dublin,  1853. 

8  Theory  of  Conjugate  Functions,  or  Algebraic  Couples,  -with  a  Pre- 
liminary and  Elementary  Essay  on  Algebra  as  the  Science  of  Pure 
Time,  read  in  1833  and  1835,  and  published  in  Trans.  R.  I.  A., 
xvii.  ii.  (1835). 

3  Compare  these  with  the  long-subsequent  ideas  of  Grassmann, 
presently  to  be  described. 


the  coordinate  axes  are  x,  y,  z.  The  composition  of  two 
such  lines  by  the  algebraic  addition  of  their  several  pro- 
jections agreed  with  the  assumption  of  Bue"e  and  Argand 
for  the  case  of  coplanar  lines.  But,  assuming  the  dis- 
tributive principle,  the  product  of  two  lines  appeared  to 
give  the  expression 

xx1 -yy1-  zz'  +  i(yx'  +  xy')  +j(xz'  +  zx1}  +  ij(yz"  4-  zy') . 
For  the  square  of./,  like  that  of  '/,  was  assumed  to  be 
negative  unity.  But  the  interpretation  of  ij  presented  a 
difficulty, — in  fact  the  main  difficulty  of  the  whole  investi- 
gation,— and  it  is  specially  interesting  to  see  how  Hamilton 
attacked  it.  He  saw  that  he  could  get  a  hint  from  the 
simpler  case,  already  thoroughly  discussed,  provided  the 
two  factor  lines  were  in  one  plane  through  the  real  unit 
line.  This  requires  merely  that 

y:  z  ::y':  z' ;  or  yz' - zy1  =  0  ; 

but  then  the  product  should  be  of  the  same  form  as  the 
separate  factors.  Thus,  in  this  special  case,  the  term  in 
ij  ought  to  vanish.  But  the  numerical  factor  appears  to 
be  yz  +  zy,  while  it  is  the  quantity  yz  —  zy  which  really 
vanishes.  Hence  Hamilton  was  at  first  inclined  to  think 
that  ij  must  be  treated  as  nil.  But  he  soon  saw  that  "  a 
less  harsh  supposition  "  would  suit  the  simple  case.  For 
his  speculations  on  sets  had  already  familiarized  him  with 
the  idea  that  multiplication  might  in  certain  cases  not  be 
commutative ;  so  that,  as  the  last  term  in  the  above  pro- 
duct is  made  up  of  the  two  separate  terms  ijyz'  andjizy', 
the  term  would  vanish  of  itself  when  the  factor-lines  are 
coplanar  provided  ij—  -ji,  for  it  would  then  assume  the 
form  ij  (yz  —  zy').  He  had  now  the  following  expression 
for  the  product  of  any  two  directed  lines 

**'  -  yy'  - zz> + i(yd + xy')  +j(xz' + zx") + y  (vz>  -  zv")  • 

But  his  result  had  to  be  submitted  to  another  test,  the 
Law  of  the  Norms.  As  soon  as  he  found,  by  trial,  that 
this  law  was  satisfied,  he  took  the  final  step.  "  This  led 
me,"  he  says,  "  to  conceive  that  perhaps,  instead  of  seeking 

to  confine  ourselves  to  triplets, we  ought  to  regard 

these  as  only  imperfect  forms  of  Quaternions, 

and  that  thus  my  old  conception  of  sets  might  receive  a 
new  and  useful  application."  In  a  very  short  time  he 
settled  his  fundamental  assumptions.  He  had  now  three 
distinct  space-units  i,j,  k ;  and  the  following  conditions 
regulated  their  combination  by  multiplication  : — 

7>2=y2  =  £2=  _  j^     „_  _ji==].^j]f.=  _]cj  =  l)  £j  =  -iJc=j.* 

And  noiv  the  product  of  two  quaternions  could  be  at 
once  expressed  as  a  third  quaternion,  thus — 

(a  +  ib  +jc  +  Tcd)(a'  +  ib'  +jc  +  kd')  =  A  +  iB  +JC  +  £D , 
where 

A  =  act'  -  bb'  -  cc'  -  dd', 
B  =  ab'  +  ba'  +  cd'  -  dc1, 
C  =  ac'  +  ca'  +  db'  -  bd', 
D  =  ad'  +  da'  +  be'  -  cb'. 

Hamilton  at  once  found  that  the  Law  of  the  Norms  holds, — 
not  being  aware  that  Euler  had  long  before  decomposed 
the  product  of  two  sums  of  four  squares  into  this  very  set 
of  four  squares.  And  now  a  directed  line  in  space  came 
to  be  represented  as  ix+jy  +  kz,  while  the  product  of 
two  lines  is  the  quaternion 

-  (xx1  +  yy'+zz')  +  i(yz'  -  zy')  +j(zxt  -xz')+  k(xy'  -yx'). 
To  any  one  acquainted,  even  to  a  slight  extent,  with  the 
elements  of  Cartesian  geometry  of  three  dimensions,  a 
glance  at  the  extremely  suggestive  constituents  of  this 
expression  shows  how  justly  Hamilton  was  entitled  to  say 
— "  When  the  conception  ....  had  been  so  far  unfolded 
and  fixed  in  my  mind,  I  felt  that  the  new  instrument  for 
applying  calculation  to  geometry,  for  which  I  had  so  long 

4  It  will  be  easy  to  see  that,  instead  of  the  last  three  of  these,  we 
may  write  the  single  one  ijk=  -  1. 


QUATERNIONS 


163 


sought,  was  now,  at  least  in  part,  attained."     The  date  of 
this  memorable  discovery  is  October  16,  1843. 

We  can  devote  but  a  few  lines  to  the  consideration  of 
the  expression  above.  Suppose,  for  simplicity,  the  factor- 
lines  to  be  each  of  unit  length.  Then  x,  y,  z,  x',  y ',  z  express 
their  direction-cosines.  Also,  if  0  be  the  angle  between 
them,  and  x",  y",  z'  the  direction-cosines  of  a  line  perpendi- 
cular to  each  of  them,  we  have  xx'  +  yy'  +  zz  =  cos  0, 
yz'  —  zy'  '  —  x" smO,  &c.,  so  that  the  product  of  two  unit  lines 
is  now  expressed  as  -  cos6  +  (ix"  +jy"  +  kz")sind.  Thus, 
when  the  factors  are  parallel,  or  0  =  0,  the  product,  which 
is  now  the  square  of  any  (unit)  line,  is— I.  And  when 
the  two  factor  lines  are  at  right  angles  to  one  another, 
or  6  =  7r/2,  the  product  is  simply  ix"+jy"+kz",  the  unit 
line  perpendicular  to  both.  Hence,  and  in  this  lies 
the  main  element  of  the  symmetry  and  simplicity  of 
the  quaternion  calculus,  all  systems  of  three  mutually 
rectangular  unit  lines  in  space  have  the  same  properties  as 
the  fundamental  system  i,  j,  k.  In  other  words,  if  the 
system  (considered  as  rigid)  be  made  to  turn  about  till 
the  first  factor  coincides  with  i  and  the  second  with  j, 
the  product  will  coincide  with  L  This  fundamental 
system,  therefore,  becomes  unnecessary ;  and  the  quater- 
nion method,  in  every  case,  takes  its  reference  lines  solely 
from  the  problem  to  which  it  is  applied.  It  has  therefore, 
as  it  were,  a  unique  internal  character  of  its  own. 

Hamilton,  having  gone  thus  far,  proceeded  to  evolve 
these  results  from  a  train  of  a  priori  or  metaphysical 
reasoning,  which  is  so  interesting  in  itself,  and  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  man,  that  we  briefly  sketch  its  nature. 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  the  product  of  two  directed 
lines  is  something  which  has  quantity;  i.e.,  it  may  be  halved, 
or  doubled,  for  instance.  Also  let  us  assume  (a)  space  to 
have  the  same  properties  in  all  directions,  and  make  the 
convention  (b)  that  to  change  the  sign  of  any  one  factor 
changes  the  sign  of  a  product.  Then  the  product  of  two 
lines  which  have  the  same  direction  cannot  be,  even  in 
part,  a  directed  quantity.  For,  if  the  directed  part  have 
the  same  direction  as  the  factors,  (b)  shows  that  it  will  be 
reversed  by  reversing  either,  and  therefore  will  recover  its 
original  direction  when  both  are  reversed.  But  this  would 
obviously  be  inconsistent  with  (a).  If  it  be  perpendicular  to 
the  factor  lines,  (a)  shows  that  it  must  have  simultaneously 
every  such  direction.  Hence  it  must  be  a  mere  number. 

Again,  the  product  of  two  lines  at  right  angles  to  one 
another  cannot,  even  in  part,  be  a  number.  For  the 
reversal  of  either  factor  must,  by  (b),  change  its  sign. 
But,  if  we  look  at  the  two  factors  in  their  new  position 
by  the  light  of  (a),  we  see  that  the  sign  must  not  change. 
But  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  its  being  represented  by  a 
directed  line  if,  as  farther  applications  of  (a)  and  (b)  show 
we  must  do,  we  take  it  perpendicular  to  each  of  the 
factor  lines.  Hamilton  seems  never  to  have  been  quite 
satisfied  with  the  apparent  heterogeneity  of  a  quaternion, 
depending  as  it  does  on  a  numerical  and  a  directed  part. 
He  indulged  in  a  great  deal  of  speculation  as  to  the  exist- 
ence of  an  extra-spatial  unit,  which  was  to  furnish  the 
raison  d'etre  of  the  numerical  part,  and  render  the  quater- 
nion homogeneous  as  well  as  linear.  But,  for  this,  we 
must  refer  to  his  own  works. 

Hamilton  was  not  the  only  worker  at  the  theory  of  sets.  The 
year  after  the  first  publication  of  the  quaternion  method,  there 
appeared  a  work  of  great  originality,  by  Grassmann,1  in  which 
results  closely  analogous  to  some  of  those  of  Hamilton  were  given. 
In  particular  two  species  of  multiplication  ("  inner  "  and  "outer") 
of  directed  lines  in  one  plane  were  given.  The  results  of  these  two 

1  Die  Ausdehnunrjslehre,  Leipsic,  1844;  2d  ed.,  "  vollstiindig  und 
in  strenger  Form  bearbeitet,"  Berlin,  1862.  See  also  the  collected 
works  of  Mobius,  and  those  of  Clifford,  for  a  general  explanation  of 
Grassmann's  method. 


kinds  of  multiplication  correspond  respectively  to  the  numerical 
and  the  directed  parts  of  Hamilton's  quaternion  product.  But 
Grassmann  distinctly  states  in  his  preface  that  he  had  not  had 
leisure  to  extend  his  method  to  angles  in  space.  Hamilton  and  Grass- 
mann, while  their  earlier  work  had  much  in  common,  had  very  dif- 
ferent objects  in  view.  Hamilton,  as  we  have  seen,  had  geometrical 
application  as  his  main  object;  when  he  realized  the  quaternion 
system,  he  felt  that  his  object  was  gained,  and  thenceforth  con- 
fined himself  to  the  development  of  his  method.  Grassmann's 
object  seems  to  have  been,  all  along,  of  a  much  more  ambitious 
character,  viz.,  to  discover,  if  possible,  a  system  or  systems  in 
which  every  conceivable  mode  of  dealing  with  sets  should  be 
included.  That  he  made  very  great  advances  towards  the  attain- 
ment of  this  object  all  will  allow ;  that  his  method,  even  as  com- 
pleted in  1862,  fully  attains  it  is  not  so  certain.  But  his  claims, 
however  great  they  may  be,  can  in  no  way  conflict  with  those  of 
Hamilton,  whose  mode  of  multiplying  couples  (in  which  the 
"  inner  "  and  "  outer  "  multiplication  are  essentially  involved)  was 
produced  in  1833,  and  whose  quaternion  system  was  completed 
and  published  before  Grassmann  had  elaborated  for  press  even  the 
rudimentary  portions  of  his  own  system,  in  which  the  veritable  diffi- 
culty of  the  whole  subject,  the  application  to  angles  in  space,  had  not 
even  been  attacked.  Grassmann  made  in  1854  a  somewhat  savage 
onslaught  on  Cauchy  and  De  St  Venant,  the  former  of  whom  had 
invented,  while  the  latter  had  exemplified  in  application,  the 
system  of  "clefs  algebriques,"  which  is  almost  precisely  that  of 
Grassmann.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  Grassmann,  though  he 
virtually  accused  Cauchy  of  plagiarism,  does  not  appear  to  have 
preferred  any  such  charge  against  Hamilton.  He  does  not  allude 
to  Hamilton  in  the  second  edition  of  his  work.  But  in  1877,  in 
the  Mathematische  Annalcn,  xii.,  he  gave  a  paper  "  On  the  Place  of 
Quaternions  in  the  Ausdehnungslehre"  in  which  he  condemns,  as 
far  as  he  can,  the  nomenclature  and  methods  of  Hamilton.  There 
are  many  other  systems,  based  on  various  principles,  which  have 
been  given  for  application  to  geometry  of  directed  lines,  but  those 
which  deal  with  products  of  lines  are  all  of  such  complexity  as  to 
be  practically  useless  in  application.  Others,  such  as  the  JBary- 
centrische  Calcul  of  Mobius,  and  the  Methode  des  fiquipollences  of 
Bellavitis,  give  elegant  modes  of  treating  space  problems,  so  long 
as  we  confine  ourselves  to  protective  geometry  and  matters  of  that 
order ;  but  they  are  limited  in  their  field,  and  therefore  need  not 
be  discussed  here.  More  general  systems,  having  close  analogies  to 
quaternions,  have  been  given  since  Hamilton's  discovery  was  pub- 
lished. As  instances  we  may  take  Goodwin's  and  O'Brien's  papers 
in  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1849. 

delations  to  other  Branches  of  Science. — Even  the  above 
brief  narrative  shows  how  close  is  the  connexion  between 
quaternions  and  the  ordinary  Cartesian  space-geometry. 
Were  this  all,  the  gain  by  their  introduction  would  consist 
mainly  in  a  clearer  insight  into  the  mechanism  of  coordin- 
ate systems,  rectangular  or  not — a  very  important  addition 
to  theory,  but  little  advance  so  far  as  practical  applica- 
tion is  concerned.  But  we  have  now  to  consider  that,  as 
yet,  we  have  not  taken  advantage  of  the  perfect  symmetry 
of  the  method.  When  that  is  done,  the  full  value  of 
Hamilton's  grand  step  becomes  evident,  and  the  gain  is 
quite  as  extensive  from  the  practical  as  from  the  theoreti- 
cal point  of  view.  Hamilton,  in  fact,  remarks,2  "  I  regard 
it  as  an  inelegance  and  imperfection  in  this  calculus,  or 
rather  in  the  state  to  which  it  has  hitherto  been  unfolded, 
whenever  it  becomes,  or  seems  to  become,  necessary  to 

have   recourse to   the   resources   of   ordinary 

algebra,  for  the  solution  of  equations  in  quaternions"  This 
refers  to  the  use  of  the  x,  y,  z  coordinates, — associated,  of 
course,  with  i,  j,  k.  But  when,  instead  of  the  highly  arti- 
ficial expression  ix+jy  +  kz,  to  denote  a  finite  directed 
line,  we  employ  a  single  letter,  a  (Hamilton  uses  the 
Greek  alphabet  for  this  purpose),  and  find  that  we  are 
permitted  to  deal  with  it  exactly  as  we  should  have  dealt 
with  the  more  complex  expression,  the  immense  gain  is 
at  least  in  part  obvious.  Any  quaternion  may  now  be 
expressed  in  numerous  simple  forms.  Thus  we  may 
regard  it  as  the  sum  of  a  number  and  a  line,  a  +  o,  or 
as  the  product,  /2y,  or  the  quotient,  oV1,  of  two  directed 
lines,  &c.,  while,  in  many  cases,  we  may  represent  it,  so  far 
as  it  is  required,  by  a  single  letter  such  as  q,  rt  &c. 


2  Lectures  on  Quaternions,  §  513. 


104 


Q  U  A  — Q  U  A 


Perhaps  to  the  student  there  is  no  paxt  of  elementary 
mathematics  so  repulsive  as  is  spherical  trigonometry.  Also, 
everything  relating  to  change  of  systems  of  axes,  as  for 
instance  in  the  kinematics  of  a  rigid  system,  where  we 
have  constantly  to  consider  one  set  of  rotations  with 
regard  to  axes  fixed  in  space,  and  another  set  with  re- 
gard to  axes  fixed  in  the  system,  is  a  matter  of  trouble- 
some complexity  by  the  usual  methods.  But  every 
quaternion  formula  is  a  proposition  in  spherical  (some- 
times degrading  to  plane)  trigonometry,  and  has  the  full 
advantage  of  the  symmetry  of  the  method.  And  one  of 
Hamilton's  earliest  advances  in  the  study  of  his  system 
(an  advance  independently  made,  only  a  few  months  later, 
by  Cayley)  was  the  interpretation  of  the  singular  operator 
?(  )?~S  where  q  is  a  quaternion.  Applied  to  any  directed 
line,  this  operator  at  once  turns  it,  conically,  through  a 
definite  angle,  about  a  definite  axis.  Thus  rotation  is 
now  expressed  in  symbols  at  least  as  simply  as  it  can  be 
exhibited  by  means  of  a  model.  Had  quaternions  effected 
nothing  more  than  this,  they  would  still  have  inaugurated 
one  of  the  most  necessary,  and  apparently  impracticable, 
of  reforms. 

The  physical  properties  of  a  heterogeneous  body  (pro- 
vided they  vary  continuously  from  point  to  point)  are 
known  to  depend,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  any  one  point 
of  the  body,  on  a  quadric  function  of  the  coordinates  with 
reference  to  that  point.  The  same  is  true  of  physical 
quantities  such  as  potential,  temperature,  &c.,  throughout 
small  regions  in  which  their  variations  are  continuous  ; 
and  also,  without  restriction  of  dimensions,  of  moments 
of  inertia,  &c.  Hence,  in  addition  to  its  geometrical 
applications  to  surfaces  of  the  second  order,  the  theory  of 
quadric  functions  of  position  is  of  fundamental  importance 
in  physics.  Here  the  symmetry  points  at  once  to  the 
selection  of  the  three  principal  axes  as  the  directions  for  i, 
y,  k  ;  and  it  would  appear  at  first  sight  as  if  quaternions 
could  not  simplify,  though  they  might  improve  in  ele- 
gance, the  solution  of  questions  of  this  kind.  But  it  is  not 
so.  Even  in  Hamilton's  earlier  work  it  was  shown  that 
all  such  questions  were  reducible  to  the  solution  of  linear 
equations  in  quaternions  ;  and  he  proved  that  this,  in  turn, 
depended  on  the  determination  of  a  certain  operator, 
which  could  be  represented  for  purposes  of  calculation  by 
a  single  symbol.  The  method  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  developed,  under  the  name  of  "matrices"  by  Cayley  in 
1858  ;  but  it  has  the  peculiar  advantage  of  the  simplicity 
which  is  the  natural  consequence  of  entire  freedom  from 
conventional  reference  lines. 

Sufficient  has  already  been  said  to  show  the  close  con- 
nexion between  quaternions  and  the  theory  of  numbers. 
But  one  most  important  connexion  with  modern  physics 
must  be  pointed  out,  as  it  is  probably  destined  to  be  of 
great  service  in  the  immediate  future.  In  the  theory  of 
surfaces,  in  hydrbkinetics,  heat-conduction,  potentials,  &c., 
we  constantly  meet  with  what  is  called  Laplace's  operator, 

d?      d?     d? 
viz.,  jT2+J~2+T~2-    We  know  that  this  is  an  invariant  ; 

i.e.,  it  is  independent  of  the  particular,  directions  chosen 
for  the  rectangular  coordinate  axes.  Here,  then,  is  a  case 
specially  adapted  to  the  isotropy  of  the  quaternion  system  ; 

and  Hamilton  easily  saw  that  the  expression  i  jr+Jj~+^J 


could  be,  like  ix  +jy  +  Jcz,  effectively  expressed  by  a  single 
letter.  He  chose  for  this  purpose  V-  And  we  now  see 
that  the  square  of  y  is  tne  negative  of  Laplace's  operator  ; 
while  v  itself,  when  applied  to  any  numerical  quantity 
conceived  as  having  a  definite  value  at  each  point  of  space, 
gives  the  direction  and  the  rate  of  most  rapid  change  of  that 
quantity.  Thus,  applied  to  a  potential,  it  gives  the  direc- 
tion and  magnitude  of  the  force;  to  a  distribution  of 


temperature  in  a  conducting  solid,  it  gives  (when  mul- 
tiplied by  the  conductivity)  the  (lux  of  heat,  ttc.  No 
better  testimony  to  the  value  of  the  quaternion,  method 
could  be  desired  than  the  constant  use  made  of  its  notation 
by  mathematicians  like  Clifford  (in  his  Kinematic)  and  by 
physicists  like  Clerk-Maxwell  (in  his  Electricity  and  J/<n/- 
netisni).  Neither  of  these  men  professed  to  employ  the 
calculus  itself,  but  they  recognized  fully  the  extraordinary 
clearness  of  insight  which  is  gained  even  by  merely  trans- 
lating the  unwieldy  Cartesian  expressions  met  with  in 
hydrokinetics  and  in  electrodynamics  into  the  pregnant 
language  of  quaternions. 

Works  on  the  Subject.  — Of  course  the  great  works  on  this  sub- 
ject are  the  two  immense  treatises  by  Hamilton  himself.  Of 
these  the  second  (Elements  of  Quaternions,  London,  1866)  was 
posthumous — incomplete  in  one  short  part  of  the  original  plan 
only,  but  that  a  most  important  part,  the  theory  and  applications 
of  V.  These  two  works,  along  with  Hamilton's  other  papers  on 
quaternions  (in  the  Dublin  Proceedings  ami  Transactions,  the  Philo- 
sophical Magazine,  &c. ),  are  storehouses  of  information,  of  which 
but  a  small  portion  has  yet  been  extracted.  A  German  translation 
of  Hamilton's  Elements  has  recently  been  published  by  Glan. 

Other  works  on  the  subject,  in  order  of  date,  are  Allegret,  Essai 
sur  le  Calcul  dcs  Quaternions  (Paris,  1862);  Tait,  An  Elementary 
Treatise  on  Quaternions  (Oxford  1867,  2d  ed.  1873  ;  German 
translation  by  v.  Scherif,  1880,  and  French  by  Plarr,  1882-84) ; 
Kelland  and  Tait,  Introduction  to  Quaternions  (London,  1873,  2d 
ed.  1882);  Hoiiel,  Elements  de  la  Tlieorie  des  Quaternions  (Paris, 
1874);  Unverzagt,  Tlieorie  der  Quuternionen  (Wiesbaden,  1876); 
Laisant,  Introduction  a  la  Methode  des  Quaternions  (Paris,  1881) ; 
Graefe,  Vorlesungen  uber  die  Theorie  der  Quaternionen  (Leipsic, 
1884). 

An  excellent  article  on  the  "  Principles  "  of  the  science,  by  Dillner, 
will  be  found  in  the  Mathernatische  Annalen,  vol.  xi.,  1877.  And 
a  very  valuable  article  on  the  general  question,  Linear  Associated 
Algebra,  by  the  late  Prof.  Peirce,  was  unfortunately  lithographed  for 
private  circulation  only.  Sylvester  and  others  have  recently  pub- 
lished extensive  contributions  to  the  subject,  including  quaternions 
under  the  general  class  matrix,  and  have  developed  much  farther 
than  Hamilton  lived  to  do  the  solution  of  equations  in  quaternions. 
Several  of  the  works  named  above  are  little  more  than  compilations, 
and  some  of  the  French  ones  are  painfully  disfigured  by  an  attempt 
to  introduce  an  improvement  of  Hamilton's  notation  ;  but  the  mere 
fact  that  so  many  have  already  appeared  shows  the  sure  progress 
which  the  method  is  now  making.  (P.  G.  T.) 

QUATREMERE,  ETIENNE  MARC  (1782-1857),  one  of 
the  most  learned  of  modern  Orientalists,  came  of  an  eminent 
family  of  Parisian  merchants.  His  father  was  a  victim  of 
the  Revolution,  his  mother  a  pious  woman  devoted  to  works 
of  charity  and  venerated  after  her  death  almost  as  a  saint. 
The  son  retained  much  of  what  was  best  in  the  old  spirit 
of  the  Parisian  bourgeoisie — its  industry,  sobriety,  and 
independence  of  character,  along  with  a  certain  narrowness 
of  view.  He  was  sincerely  religious,  with  strong  Jansenist 
and  Gallican  tendencies,  a  touch  of  rationalism,  and  a  great 
dislike  of  modern  growths  of  Catholicism.  His  whole  life 
was  spent  alone  among  his  books,  and  his  works  always 
display  the  most  extensive  and  accurate  erudition — in  which 
indeed,  and  not  in  criticism  or  original  ideas,  his  strength 
lay.  Employed  in  1807  in  the  manuscript  department  of 
the  imperial  library,  he  passed  to  the  chair  of  Greek  in 
Rouen  in  1809,  entered  the  academy  of  inscriptions  in 
1815,  taught  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  in  the  College  de  France 
from  1819,  and  finally  in  1827  became  professor  of  Persian 
in  the  School  of  Living  Oriental  Languages. 

Quatremere's  first  work  was  Recherches  sur  la  langue  et  la  littera- 
ture  de  I'Egypte  (1808),  showing  that  the  language  of  ancient  Egypt 
must  be  sought  in  Coptic.  His  Mem.  sur  les  Nabateens  (1835) 
has  been  mentioned  under  NABAT^EANS,  and  his  translation  of 
MAKIU'ZI'S  history  of  the  Mameluke  sultans  in  the  article  on  that 
author.  The  valuable  notes  to  the  latter  book  show  his  erudition 
at  the  best.  He  published  also  among  other  works  a  translation 
of  Rashid  al-Din's  Hist,  des  Mongols  de  la  Perse  (1836) ;  Mem.  geog. 
et  hist,  sur  VEgypte  (1810) ;  the  text  of  Ibn  Khaldun's  Prolegomena  ; 
and  a  vast  number  of  useful  memoirs  in  the  Jour.  As.  His 
numerous  reviews  in  the  Jour,  des  Savants  should  also  be  men- 
tioned. Quatremere  made  great  lexicographic  collections  in  Ori- 
ental languages,  fragments  of  which  appear  in  the  notes  to  his 


VOL.  XX 


QU 


ENCYCLOP/CDIA    B    I 


EC. 


PLATE  II 


•A,    NINTH    EDITION 


Q  U  E  — Q  U  E 


165 


various  works.  His  MS.  material  for  Syriac  has  been  utilized  in 
Payne  Smith's  Thesaurus  ;  of  the  slips  he  collected  for  a  projected 
Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish  lexicon  soine  account  is  given  in  the 
prefac-e  to  Dozy,  Supp.  aux  Dictt.  Arabes.  They  are  now  in  the 
Munich  library. 

ate  II.  QUEBEC,  a  province  of  Canada  in  British  North 
America,  lying  between  52°  30'  and  45°  N.  lat.,  and  be- 
tween 57°  7'  and  79°  33'  20"  W.  long.,  and  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Labrador  and  Hudson's  Bay,  on  the  E.  by  Labrador 
and  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  on  the  S.  by  the  Bay  of 
Chaleurs,  New  Brunswick,  and  the  States  of  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  New  York,  and  on  the  S.W. 
and  W.  by  the  river  Ottawa  and  the  province  of  Ontario. 
Its  length,  from  Lake  Temiscamingue  to  Anse  au  Sablon  in 
the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  is  nearly  1000  miles  on  a  due  east 
and  west  course,  and  from  Lake  Temiscamingue  to  Cape 
Gaspe"  it  is  700  miles ;  its  breadth  is  300  miles,  and  the 
area  188,694  square  miles  (120,764,651  acres).  The  sur- 
face of  the  country  is  exceedingly  varied  and  picturesque, 
embracing  several  ridges  of  mountains  and  lofty  hills, 

-mn-     diversified  by  numerous  rivers,  lakes,  and  forests.    There  are 

ns-  many  islands  of  great  fertility  and  beauty,  cascades  and  falls 
of  considerable  height,  and  extensive  tracts  of  cultivable 
land,  rendering  the  scenery  everywhere  bold  and  striking. 
Mountain  ranges  extend  from  south-west  to  north-east 
and  run  parallel  to  each  other.  The  Notre  Dame  or  Green 
Mountains,  which  are  a  continuation  of  the  Appalachian 
range,  extend  along  nearly  the  whole  of  the  south  side  of 
the  St  Lawrence,  terminating  at  the  gulf  of  the  same 
name,  between  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs  and  Gaspe  Point, 
where  they  form  an  elevated  table-land  1500  feet  high. 
Their  chief  summits  are  Mount  Logan  and  Mount  Murray, 
very  nearly  4000  feet  high.  In  the  eastern  townships  the 
mountains  of  this  range  are  capable  of  cultivation.  The 
Laurentian  range  (called  by  Garneau  the  Laurentides)  skirts 
the  northern  bank  of  the  St  Lawrence,  forming  undulat- 
ing ridges  of  1000  feet  in  elevation,  and  extending  from 
Labrador  to  the  vicinity  of  Quebec,  where  it  leaves 
the  river.  Keeping  nearly  parallel  with  it  until  within 
30  miles  west  of  Montreal,  it  rounds  the  Ottawa  for 
100  miles,  crosses  it,  and  curves  in  the  direction  of 
Kingston.  From  this  point  the  range  extends  north- 
westward to  the  shores  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior. 
The  Mealy  Mountains,  stretching  from  75°  W.  lat.  to 
Sandwich  Bay,  are  always  covered  with  snow,  and  are 
about  1500  feet  high.  There  are  many  rocky  masses 
connected  with  the  mountain  chains  lining  the  St  Lawrence 
which  form  precipitous  cliffs,  often  rising  to  a  considerable 
height.  Some  of  the  hills  of  the  Laurentian  range  are 
1300  feet  high,  and  below  the  city  of  Quebec  their 
altitude  is  3000  feet.  They  enclose  numberless  small 
lakes,  many  of  which  are  still  unexplored. 

Irers.  The  whole  country  is  exceptionally  well  watered,  and 
abounds  in  numerous  large  rivers,  bays,  and  lakes.  The 
principal  river  is  the  ST  LAWRENCE  (q.v.),  which  flows 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  province.  A  short  dis- 
tance above  Montreal  it  receives  from  the  north-west  the 
Ottawa,  an  interesting  and  beautiful  stream  over  600  miles 
in  length,  with  its  tributaries  the  Gatineau,  the  Lievre, 
and  the  Rouge.  The  St  Lawrence  is  navigable  for  ships 
of  the  line  as  far  as  Quebec,  and  for  steamships  of  over 
5000  tons  to  Montreal.  Between  Montreal  and  Lake 
Ontario  the  navigation  is  interrupted  by  rapids,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  Cedar  and  Lachine  Rapids,  the 
latter  about  9  miles  above  Montreal.  The  total  elevation 
between  tide  water  and  Lake  Ontario  is  about  230  feet. 
This  is  overcome  by  eight  canals,  varying  from  |-  mile  to 
11^  miles  in  length,  in  the  aggregate  only  41  miles  of 
canals,  with  locks  200  feet  long  between  the  gates,  and 
45  feet  wide.  The  St  Maurice,  rising  in  Lake  Oskelaneo 
near  the  Hudson's  Bay  Territory,  and  flowing  into  the  St 


Lawrence  at  Three  Rivers,  is  over  400  miles  long.  It  has 
many  tributaries,  and  drains  an  area  of  21,000  square 
miles.  Twenty-four  miles  above  Three  Rivers  is  the  fall  of 
Shawenegan,  150  feet  high.  The  Batiscan  river  enters 
the  St  Lawrence  at  Batiscan.  Jacques  Cartier,  Ste  Anne, 
and  Montmorency  are  all  on  the  northern  side  of  the  St 
Lawrence.  The  Montmorency  is  famous  for  its  falls — 
situated  about  8  miles  from  Quebec  city,  250  feet  high 
— and  the  natural  steps  on  its  rocky  bank,  1£  miles  above 
the  cataract.  Near  the  falls  is  Haldimand  House,  once  the 
residence  of  the  duke  of  Kent,  father  of  Queen  Victoria. 
The  Saguenay,  sometimes  called  the  River  of  Death,  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  bodies  of  water  in  the  world.1 
It  rises  in  Lake  St  John,  and  discharges  into  the  St  Law- 
rence at  Tadousac,  after  a  course  of  100  miles.  At  its 
mouth  the  Saguenay  is  2|  miles  wide,  and  the  depth  ex- 
ceeds 100  fathoms.  The  depth  in  other  parts  varies  from 
100  to  1000  feet.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  river  are  many 
pretty  falls  and  rapids.  The  Saguenay  is  navigable  for 
large  vessels  as  far  as  Chicoutimi,  98  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  river.  Fifteen  miles  south  of  Chicoutimi  there  re- 
cedes from  the  Saguenay  Ha  Ha  Bay,  at  the  head  of  which 
is  the  village  of  St  Alphonse.  On  the  south  side  of  the  St 
Lawrence  is  the  Richelieu  river,  which  drains  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  and  enters  Lake  St  Peter  at  Sorel,  and  flows  in  a 
northerly  direction  for  75  miles.  Champlain  sailed  up 
this  river  in  1609.  Other  important  streams  are  the  St 
Francis,  rising  in  Lake  Memphremagog ;  the  Chaudiere,  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Megantic,  with  its  beautiful  falls,  125  feet 
high,  and  situated  10  miles  above  Quebec;  the  Chateau- 
guay,  Yamaska,  Etchemin,  Loup,  Assumption,  Becancour, 
and  North.  All  these  rivers  are  navigable,  and  contain 
fish.  Besides  the  rapids  mentioned,  there  are  situated  a 
short  distance  above  Rigaud  on  the  Ottawa  the  Carillon 
Falls,  a  series  12  miles  in  length.  Near  Ottawa  city  are 
the  Chaudiere  Falls,  or  "  boiling  pot,"  less  than  40  feet  in 
height,  and  extending  over  6  miles.  Les  Chats,  a  series 
of  rapids  30  miles  further  up  the  Ottawa,  are  striking  and 
grand.  At  Calumet  there  is  another  rapid.  The  Falls  of 
Ste  Anne  are  on  the  north  shore  of  the  St  Lawrence,  22 
miles  below  Quebec ;  the  Falls  of  St  Fereol,  the  Long  Sault, 
Cedars,  and  Lachine  Rapids  by  no  means  complete  the  list. 

The  principal  lakes  are  Lake  St  John,  which  possesses  Lakes, 
an  area  of  360  square  miles,  Lake  Temiscamingue,  126 
miles,  St  Peter,  Metapedia,  Kempt,  Megantic,  Memphrema- 
gog, Pipmuakan,  the  northern  part  of  Lake  Champlain, 
Manouan,  Grand  Wayagamack,  Asturagamicook,  Piscaton- 
que,  Kakebonga,  Mijizowaja,  Keepawa,  Papimonagace, 
Edward,  Matawin,  St  Louis,  Massawipi,  Pamouscachiou, 
Graves,  Grand,  St  Francis,  and  hundreds  of  others  of  lesser 
note,  and  all  stocked  with  fish.  The  chief  bays  along  the 
coasts  are  Chaleurs  (in  part),  with  its  bold  and  precipitous 
cliffs,  Malbaie,  Mille  Vaches,  Ha  Ha,  &c.  Quebec's  prin- 
cipal islands  are  Anticosti,  sterile  and  almost  uninhabited, 
Bonaventure,  an  important  fishing  station  to  the  east  of 
Gaspe",  and  the  Magdalen  Islands,  situated  in  the  Gulf  of 
St  Lawrence,  about  50  miles  north  of  Prince  Edward 
Island.  This  group  is  inhabited  by  about  3200  persons, 
mostly  French  fishermen.  Other  islands  are  the  island  of 
Montreal,  St  Helen's,  Jesus,  the  island  of  Orleans,  22 
miles  long,  below  Quebec,  Grosse  Isle,  Isle  aux  Coudres, 
Hare,  Bic  Island, — all  in  the  St  Lawrence  ;  and  the  islands 
of  Calumet  and  Allumette  in  the  Ottawa  river. 

1  Bayard  Taylor  says  it  is  "  not  properly  a  river.  It  is  a  tremen- 
dous chasm,  like  that  of  the  Jordan  Valley  and  the  Dead  Sea,  cleft 
for  60  miles  through  the  heart  of  a  mountainous  wilderness.  Every- 
thing is  hard,  naked,  stern,  silent.  Dark  grey  cliffs  of  granite  gneiss 
rise  from  the  pitch-black  water;  firs  of  gloomy-green  are  rooted  in 
their  crevices  and  fringe  their  summits ;  loftier  ranges  of  a  dull  indigo 
hue  show  themselves  in  the  background ;  and  over  all  bends  a  pale, 
cold,  northern  sky. " 


166 


QUEBEC 


>logy  Beginning  with  the  oldest  rocks,  the  more  northern 
part  of  the  province  of  Quebec  is  based  on  the  Laurentian 
a  s'  system  of  Sir  William  Logan.  This  includes  both  the 
Laurentian  proper  and  an  overlying  formation  largely  com- 
posed of  Labrador  and  anorthite  felspars,  to  which  Sir 
William  Logan  gave  the  name  Upper  Laurentian,  though 
it  is  now  more  usually  known  by  the  name  Norian,  applied 
to  similar  rocks  in  Scandinavia.  This  Upper  Laurentian 
formation  occupies  but  limited  areas,  one  of  which  is  near 
Lake  St  John,  and  another  to  the  east  of  St  Jerome,  not  far 
from  Montreal.  The  Lower  Laurentian  of  Logan,  on  the 
other  hand,  including  the  Ottawa  or  Trembling  Mountain 
group  and  the  Grenville  series,  extends  from  the  Straits  of 
Belle  Isle  to  the  Ottawa  river  in  a  continuous  belt.  It 
consists  largely  of  gneiss  and  crystalline  schists,  and  holds 
thick  beds  of  limestone  and  beds  of  iron  ore  and  veins  of 
apatite.  It  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  iron  and  phosphate 
mining  industries,  and  contains  also  the  principal  deposits 
of  graphite  or  plumbago.  It  is  on  this  formation  that  the 
remarkable  forms,  discovered  by  Dr  Dawson  (now  Sir 
William),  known  as  Eozoon  canadense,  and  supposed  to  be 
the  earliest  form  of  animal  life,  occur. 

The  Laurentian  formation  is  succeeded  in  the  western 
part  of  the  province  by  the  Potsdam  sandstone,  a  probable 
equivalent  in  age  of  the  Upper  Cambrian  of  Britain.  On 
this  rests  a  dolomitic  limestone — the  Calciferous  formation, 
— and  on  this  the  great  and  richly  fossiliferous  limestones 
of  the  Lower  Silurian  (Ordovician)  age  known  as  the  Chazy 
and  Trenton  groups.  These  limestones  afford  the  best 
building-stone  of  the  province,  while  the  Potsdam  sand- 
stone also  affords  a  good  stone  of  construction.  Above 
the  Trenton  is  the  Utica  shale,  a  dark-coloured  argilla- 
ceous deposit,  rich  in  graptolites  and  trilobites,  and  on  this 
is  the  Hudson  River  group,  consisting  largely  of  sandstones 
and  calcareous  beds. 

To  the  south-west  of  these  rocks  lie  Upper  Silurian  and 
Devonian  beds,  the  latter  holding  fossil  plants  and  fishes, 
and  at  the  extreme  south-eastern  part  of  the  province,  on 
the  Bay  of  Chaleurs,  is  the  outlier  of  the  Lower  Carboni- 
ferous area  of  New  Brunswick.  It  is  not  likely  that  any 
true  coal  occurs  in  the  province,  though  veins  of  hardened 
bitumen  are  found  locally  in  the  beds  next  to  be  noticed. 

From  Quebec  eastward  along  the  St  Lawrence  occurs 
a  great  series  of  argillaceous  and  arenaceous  beds,  the 
equivalents  of  the  Upper  Cambrian  and  Lower  Silurian  of 
the  interior  districts,  but  deposited  under  different  con- 
ditions, and  abounding  in  some  peculiar  forms  of  trilobites 
and  graptolites.  In  their  extension  to  the  southward  they 
pass  into  the  United  States.  Near  the  boundary  they 
begin  to  be  associated  with  various  crystalline  rocks. 
These  were  regarded  by  Sir  William  Logan  as  altered 
Silurian  beds  of  the  Quebec  group;  but  later  observers 
(MacFarlane,  Selwyn,  and  Hunt)  have  maintained  that 
they  are,  in  part  at  least,  of  greater  age.  They  contain 
several  important  economic  minerals — gold,  copper,  and 
iron  ores,  chrysolite  used  as  asbestos,  chromic  iron,  and 
serpentine ;  marble  and  roofing  slates  are  found  in  asso- 
ciated beds  believed  to  be  of  Silurian  age. 

A  large  part  of  the  country,  more  especially  on  the 
lower  levels,  is  covered  with  Pleistocene  deposits  of  the  so- 
called  Glacial  age.  The  lower  part  of  these  beds  consists 
of  tile  or  boulder-clay  with  local  and  Laurentian  boulders, 
and  in  some  places  a  few  marine  shells  of  northern  species. 
On  this  rests  a  finer  blue  clay,  in  some  places  rich  in  fossil 
shells,  and  known  as  the  Leda  clay.  It  affords  a  good 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  bricks  and  tiles.  Above 
the  Leda  clay  are  sands  and  gravels,  often  with  travelled 
boulders,  and  named  the  Saxicava  sand,  from  a  shell  found 
very  abundantly  in  some  portions  of  their  lower  part. 
These  superficial  deposits  appear  to  imply  submergence 


and  driftage  of  thick  ice-fields  with  local  glaciers  descend- 
ing from  the  mountains.  The  prevalent  directions  of 
glacial  striations  is  north-east  and  south-west  or  parallel 
to  the  course  of  the  St  Lawrence  valley. 

In  certain  alluvial  deposits  in  the  vicinity  of  the  St 
Maurice  river  there  occur  workable  deposits  of  bog  iron 
ore,  which  have  been  worked  for  many  years. 

The  climate  of  Quebec  is  variable.  In  winter  the  cold  Climate 
is  generally  steady,  and  the  atmosphere  is  clear  and  bracing. 
The  thermometer  often  registers  20°  below  zero.  Snow 
lies  on  the  ground  from  the  end  of  November  until  the 
middle  of  April,  affording  good  sleighing  for  five  months 
of  the  year.  The  inhabitants  enjoy  with  zest  and  spirit  all 
the  out-door  sports  common  to  the  country,  such  as  skating, 
curling,  tobogganing,  snow-shoeing,  coasting,  and  sliding. 
In  Montreal  winter  carnivals  are  held  which  attract  from  all 
parts  of  Canada  and  the  United  States  thousands  of  spec- 
tators. Snow  falls  to  a  very  great  depth,  and  though  the 
winds  are  often  sharp  they  are  not  often  raw  or  damp,  nor 
is  there  any  fog.  The  summer  is  warm  and  pleasant,  and 
the  extreme  heat  is  indicated  at  90°.  The  finest  season  of 
the  year  is  the  autumn,  which  lasts  about  six  or  eight  weeks. 

Vegetation  develops  rapidly  in  Quebec.  Much  of  the 
country  is  well  adapted  for  agricultural  purposes,  the  soil 
being  rich  and  loamy,  and  well  suited  for  the  growth  of 
cereals,  hay,  and  fruit  crops,  all  of  which  ripen  perfectly, 
Wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  flax,  pulse,  buckwheat,  maize, 
potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  beets,  parsnips,  celery,  and  the 
various  roots  thrive  well.  The  principal  fruits  are  plums, 
apples,  melons,  grapes,  strawberries,  raspberries,  blueberries, 
gooseberries,  cranberries,  currants,  and  cherries.  Hay  has 
always  been  considered  a  leading  crop,  and  much  of  it  is 
exported  to  the  United  States,  where  it  finds  a  ready 
market.  Farming  is  carried  on  extensively  in  the  eastern 
townships,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  country  agriculture  is 
prosecuted  with  more  or  less  activity. 

The  amount  of  land  under  crops  in  1881  was  4,147,984  acres,  and 
in  pasture,  2,207,422  acres.  The  crops  raised  were — spring  wheat, 
1,999,815  bushels;  winter  wheat,  19,189;  barley,  1,751,539;  oats, 
19,990,205  ;  rye,  430,242  ;  pease  and  beans,  4,170,456  ;  buck- 
wheat, 2,041,670;  maize,  888,169;  potatoes,  14,873,287;  turnips, 
1,572,476;  other  roots,  2,050,904  bushels;  hay,  1,614,906  tons; 
grass  and  clover  seeds,  119,306  bushels.  The  number  of  horses 
in  1881  was  273,852  ;  of  working  oxen,  "49,237;  of  milch  cows, 
490,977;  of  other- cattle,  490,119;  of  sheep,  889,833;  of  swine, 
329,199.  In  1881  2,730,546  lb  of  wool  and  559,024  ft  of  honey 
were  produced. 

Dense  forests  cover  enormous  tracts  of  territory,  and  afford  a  Forest 
principal  means  of  revenue  to  the  province,  as  well  as  a  source  of 
industry  for  the  people.  The  chief  trees  are  white  and  red  pine, 
spruce,  ash,  elm,  beech,  birch,  maple,  butternut,  black  walnut, 
fir,  poplar,  cedar,  oak,  cherry,  hickory,  basswood,  &c.  Upwards 
of  fourteen  hundred  varieties  of  plants  may  be  found,  of  which 
two  hundred  possess  medicinal  virtues.  Lumbering  is  extensively 
carried  on,  and  large  quantities  of  dressed  lumber  and  square  timber 
are  annually  shipped  to  England. 

The  total  value  of  the  forest  products  exported  in  1882-83  was  Expor 
$11,050,002;  of  the  fisheries,  $719,799;  of  the  mines,  $516,837  ;  of  and  in 
animals  and  their  produce,  $11,714,674  ;  of  agricultural  products,  ports. 
$7,795,427  ;  of  manufactures,  $1,437,254.     The  grand  total  value 
of  the  exports  was  $41,591,939,  whereof  produce  of  the  province, 
$33,339,549.     Of  late  years  an  active  trade  has  sprung  up  in  the 
exportation  of  beef  and  cattle  to  England.     The  imports  in  the 
same  year  amounted  to  $42,166,729  dutiable  goods,  and$13,743,142 
free  goods ;  total  $55,909,871. 

Shipbuilding,  once  a  leading  industry  of  the  province,  has  Indus 
fallen  off  considerably,  steamships  and  iron  vessels  having  super-  tries, 
sedcd  wooden  ships  in  the  carrying  trade.  The  number  of  vessels 
built  in  Quebec  during  1883  was  42,  tonnage  6594:  On  the  31st 
of  December  1883,  the  vessels  registered  in  the  province,  and 
remaining  on  the  registry  books  of  the  several  ports,  were  1733, 
tonnage  216,577.  There  were  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade, 
including  steamers  and  sailing  vessels,  6943  craft,  representing  a 
tonnage  of  1,648,550.  The  number  of  saw  and  grist  mills  in  the 
province  in  1881  was  1729,  employing  12,461  hands.  There  were 
also  419  tanneries,  employing  2968  hands.  Other  industries  are 
shingle-making,  manufactures  of  wool  and  cloth,  cheese  and  butter 
making,  iron-working,  sash,  door,  and  blind  factories,  sugar- 


QUEBEC 


167 


refining,  boat-building,  brewing  and  distilling,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  edge  tools,  india-rubber  goods,  and  boots  and  shoes.  In 
1871  the  amount  invested  in  industries  in  the  province  was 
$28,071,868;  in  1881  it  reached  $59,216,992,  when  85,673  men, 
women,  and  children  were  employed  in  the  various  industries, 
$18,333,162  were  paid  out  in  wages,  raw  material  to  the  value  of 
$62,563,967  was  consumed,  and  the  value  of  the  articles  produced 
was  $104,662,258. 

;h-  Quebec  derives  great  importance  from  its  fisheries,  which  are  ex- 

js.  tensive  and  valuable,  particularly  those  of  the  St  Lawrence,  which 
consist  principally  of  cod,  haddock,  holibut,  salmon,  mackerel, 
shad,  white  fish,  herrings,  lobsters,  and  seals.  In  the  lakes  and 
rivers  there  are  salmon,  trout,  and  bass,  and  the  sporting  streams 
are  among  the  best  in  the  world.  The  right  of  fishing  in  inland 
waters  belongs  to  the  owners  of  the  lands  in  front  of  or  through 
which  such  waters  flow.  The  provincial  government  holds  a  large 
number  of  ungranted  lands  bordering  on  rivers  and  lakes,  and 
derives  an  income  from  the  leasing  of  fishing  privileges.  A  fish- 
breeding  establishment  is  maintained  by  the  Dominion  Govern- 
ment at  Tadousac,  from  which  there  are  encouraging  results.  In 
1881  there  were  110  vessels  and  801  men  and  4779  boats  and  6929 
men  engaged  in  the  fisheries.  The  product  netted  in  1882  was 
$1,976,515  ;  in  1883  it  was  $2,138,997. 

•ne.  Game  is  plentiful  in  Quebec  (wild  duck,  teal,  wild  geese,  part- 
tridges,  woodcocks,  snipe,  pigeons,  plover,  &c.).  About  295  dif- 
ferent birds  exist.  Of  wild  animals  the  principal  are  bears,  wolves, 
cariboo,  deer,  lynxes,  foxes,  musk  rats,  minks,  martens,  squirrels, 
beavers,  and  hares. 

leral  Gold,  iron,  and  copper  ores  abound  in  notable  quantities.  The 
former  is  found  chiefly  on  the  banks  of  the  Chaudiere  in  the  county 
e.  of  Beauce.  In  1881  the  quantity  produced  was  3411  oz. ;  in  1883 
the  product  was  7902  oz.,  realizing  $140,262.  Copper  is  obtained 
in  the  eastern  townships,  and  iron  of  superior  quality  abounds 
almost  everywhere  throughout  the  province.  In  1881  the  yield  of 
this  ore  was  11,326  tons  ;  of  iron,  92,001  ;  pyrites,  2300  ;  peat, 
14,597  ;  plumbago,  270  ;  mica,  4000  tons  ;  building  stone  for  dress- 
ing, 1,674,362  cubic  feet;  roofing  slate,  4593  squares.  In  some 
sections  small  quantities  of  lead  are  found. 

a-  Good  waggon  roads  intersect  the  province  wherever  there  is  a 

lica-  settlement.  In  1883  the  amount  expended  on  colonization  roads 
i.  by  the  local  government  was  $71,392.  Telegraphic  lines  are 
established  throughout  the  province,  each  line  of  railway,  besides 
the  great  roads,  having  special  wires.  The  postal  facilities  are 
excellent,  and  regular  mails  penetrate  every  part.  Railway  com- 
munication is  ample  and  extensive,  the  chief  lines  being  the  Grand 
Trunk,  the  Canadian  Pacific,  and  the  Intercolonial.  In  1884 
Quebec  had  1942  miles  of  railways  in  operation,  while  other  lines 
are  under  construction  and  projected.  The  canal  system  is  very 
complete,  and  commerce  is  greatly  helped  by  the  several  water- 
ways in  operation.  These  are  the  Lachine  Canal  extending  from 
Montreal  to  Lake  St  Louis  ;  the  Beauharnois  Canal,  uniting  Lakes 
St  Francis  and  St  Louis  ;  the  Chambly  Canal  uniting  Lake  Cham- 
plain  with  the  Eichelieu  river ;  and  the  Carillon  and  Grenville 
Canal. 

>ula-  The  province  is  divided  into  sixty-three  counties,  with  a  total 
i.  area  of  120,764,651  acres.  Up  to  the  30th  of  June  1883  the  total 
superficies  of  disposable  lands  surveyed  and  subdivided  into  farm 
lots  was  6,539,160  acres.  The  population  was  1,191,516  in  1871 ; 
in  1881  it  was  1,359,027  (678,175  males  and  680,852  females).  The 
prevailing  religion  is  that  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  of  which 
there  are  seven  dioceses,  viz.,  the  archdiocese  of  Quebec,  and  the 
dioceses  of  Montreal,  Three  Rivers,  St  Hyacinthe,  Sherbrooke, 
Rimouski,  and  Chicoutimi.  The  Protestant  dioceses  are  two  in 
number — Quebec  and  Montreal.  According  to  the  census  of  1881 
the  religious  denominations  in  the  province  were  as  follows  : — 


Church  of  Rome 1,170,718 

Church  of  England 68,797 

Presbyterians 50,287 

Methodists 39,220 

Baptists 8,853 

Conffregationalists 5,244 

UniversaKsts 2,021 


Aclventists 4,210 

Other  denominations 5,647 

Of  no  religion 432 

No  creed  stated 2,609 

Jews 989 


Total 1,359,027 

The  greater  portion  of  the  population  is  composed  of  French- 
speaking  people,  natives  of  the  soil.  There  are  also  a  good  many 
Scotch,  English,  and  Irish,  and  their  descendants.  The  Indians, 
mostly  of  the  Algonquin,  Iroquois,  Huron,  Abenakis,  and  Micmac 
tribes,  number  7515,  scattered  in  various  parts  of  the  province  on 
reservations  which  they  cultivate  with  more  or  less  assiduity.  They 
are  peaceably  disposed,  and  live  in  harmony. 

ninis-  The  affairs  of  the  province  are  administered  by  a  lieutenant  - 
ion.  governor  and  an  executive  council  composed  of  six  members  with 
portfolios,  assisted  by  a  legislative  assembly  of  sixty-five  members, 
and  a  legislative  council  of  twenty-four  councillors.  The  latter  hold 
their  appointments  for  life,  and  the  former  are  elected  by  the  people 
every  five  years.  The  lieutenant-governor  is  appointed  by  the 
governor-general  in  council.  Quebec  returns  to  the  Dominion  House 
of  Commons  sixty-five  representatives,  and  twenty -four  appointees 
to  the  Dominion  Senate. 


The  public  revenue  in  188.3  amounted  to  $4,655,757,  and  the  Finance, 
expenditure  was  $3,962,015.  The  principal  source  of  revenue  is  the 
annual  subsidy  granted  to  the  province,  under  the  terms  of  the 
B.N.A.  Act  of  1867,  by  the  Dominion  Government.  This  subsidy 
in  1883  amounted  to  $959,252,  and  interest  on  trust  funds  in  the 
hands  of  the  Dominion  Government,  $55,459.  The  remainder  of 
the  revenue  is  derived  from  the  crown  domain  and  timber  limits, 
licences,  stamps  on  law  and  registration  documents,  and  other  mis- 
cellaneous receipts.  The  administration  of  justice  cost  in  1883  the 
sum  of  $372,400. 

The  judiciary  consists  of  a  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  with  a  chief 
justice  and  five  assistants  ;  a  superior  court,  with  a  chief  justice  and 
twenty-eight  assistants  ;  a  court  of  review,  with  three  judges  forming 
a  quorum  ;  a  court  of  vice-admiralty  ;  courts  of  quarter  sessions  ; 
and  courts  for  the  summary  trial  of  petty  causes.  The  provincial 
legislature  meets  at  Quebec. 

The  militia  (military  districts  Nos.  5,  6,  and  7,  operating  under  Militia, 
the  Canada  Militia  Act  of  1883)  consists  of  an  active  force  by  arms 
of  the  following  : — cavalry,  officers  and  men,  448  ;  field  artillery, 
321  ;  garrison  artillery,  593  ;  engineers,  87  ;  infantry,  9885  ;  rifles, 
924;  total,  12,258.  The  number  of  iictive  militia  men  authorized 
for  annual  drill  during  1883  was  7965.  Schools  of  cavalry  and 
gunnery,  situated  at  Quebec,  and  one  of  infantry  at  St  John's,  have 
been  established  for  the  purpose  of  training  officers  and  non-com- 
missioned officers  of  the  militia. 

Education  in  Quebec  is  under  the  control  of  a  superintendent  Educa- 
and  a  council  of  public  instruction  appointed  by  the  Government,  tion. 
The  council  is  divided  into  two  sections,  called  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  committees,  who  act  independently,  and,  through  the 
superintendent,  control  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  institu- 
tions respectively.  The  province  is  divided  into  school  municipali- 
ties containing  from  one  to  twenty-five  schools  each,  under  five 
commissioners  elected  by  the  people.  As  the  school  system  includes 
religious  instruction,  the  religious  minority  (Catholic  or  Protestant) 
in  any  municipality  may  separate  from  the  majority,  and  organize 
schools  of  their  own,  under  three  trustees,  and  receive  their  proper 
share  of  the  Government  grant.  Every  citizen  pays  a  tax  which  is 
levied  on  his  property  for  the  support  of  primary  schools.  In 
Montreal,  Quebec,  and  Sherbrooke  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants are  entirely  separate  for  educational  purposes.  Thirty-six 
inspectors  visit  the  schools  twice  a  year,  and  report  to  the  Govern- 
ment, by  whom  they  are  appointed  and  paid.  In  1883  there  were 
in  the  province  1071  municipalities,  including  4404  elementary 
schools,  333  model  schools,  246  academies,  31  colleges,  18  special 
schools,  3  normal  schools,  and  3  universities,  making  a  total  of  5038 
institutions,  attended  by  245,225  pupils,  under  6871  teachers.  In 
support  of  these  schools,  the  local  contributions  amounted  to 
$2,809,739,  and  the  Government  grant  to  $352,677.  The  two  Pro- 
testant universities  are  M'Gill  University  at  Montreal,  founded  in 
1821,  and  Bishops  College  at  Lennoxville,  founded  in  1843.  The 
Roman  Catholic  university  (Laval)  was  founded  by  the  Quebec 
seminary  in  1852.  It  has  a  succursale  at  Montreal. 

The  public  charitable  institutions  receiving  aid  from  the  Govern-  Charities, 
ment  are  Beauport,  St  Ferdinand  de  Halifax,  and  St  Jean  de  Dieu 
lunatic  asylums.     Grants  are  annually  made  to  about  ninety  other 
institutions,  including  industrial  schools  and  reformatories,  the  total 
amount  reaching  in  1883  $301.121. 

The  capital  is  QUEBEC  (q.v.).  The  largest  and  most  important  Towns, 
city  is  MONTREAL  (q.v.}.  Other  chief  towns  are  Three  Rivers, 
population  8670,  so-called  from  the  St  Maurice,  which  here  joins 
the  St  Lawrence  by  three  mouths  (it  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities, 
and  the  seat  of  a  large  lumber  and  iron  trade)  ;  St  Hyacinthe, 
5321 ;  Levis,  7597,  where  the  quarantine  for  cattle  is  situated  ; 
Sorel,  5791;  St  John's,  4314;  St  Francois,  Beauce,  4181;  Sher- 
brooke, 7227  ;  Valley  Field,  3906  ;  Malbaie,  3014  ;  Baie  St  Paul, 
3794  ;  St  Henri,  6415  ;  Hull,  6890  ;  St  Jean  Baptiste,  5874. 

The  quarantine  station  is  at  Grosse  Isle,  an  island  in  the  river 
St  Lawrence,  31J  miles  below  Quebec.  It  is  2^  miles  long  by  1 
mile  in  width. 

History. — Quebec  was  first  visited  by  the  French,  under  Jacques 
Cartier,  in  1535,  and  a  second  time  in  1536,  though  it  is  said  that 
Sebastian  Cabot  discovered  the  country  in  1497.  The  regular 
settlement  of  the  province,  however,  was  not  made  until  1608, 
when  Samuel  de  Champlain  landed  at  the  site  now  occupied  by 
Quebec  city.  Here  he  established  military  and  trading  posts,  and 
it  was  not  long  before  the  new  possession  became  the  seat  of  the 
Recollet  and  Jesuit  missions,  which  were  zealously  carried  on  under 
the  most  trying  circumstances  for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half. 
The  early  settlers  endured  countless  hardships  from  the  incursions 
of  the  Indians,  and  the  frequent  wars  in  which  they  were  forced 
to  engage  with  the  English  and  Dutch.  In  1759  the  marquis  of 
Montcalm  was  defeated  at  Quebec  by  an  English  army  under 
General  Wolfe.  A  year  later  the  French  surrendered  all  their 
important  ports,  and  the  colony  passed  under  English  rule.  In 
1763  the  treaty  of  Paris  was  signed,  by  the  terms  of  which,  and 
the  conditions  laid  down  a  few  years  later  in  the  memorable 
Quebec  Act  of  1774,  the  French  were  guaranteed  by  England  their 


168 


QUEBEC 


laws,  language,  and  religion.  In  1791  the  province  was  divided 
into  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  hut  in  1841,  after  a  series  of  internal 
dissensions,  including  the  rebellion  of  1837,  and  several  political 
quarrels,  the  country  was  again  united.  In  1867  the  provinces  of 
old  Canada,  under  the  names  of  Ontario  nnd  Quebec,  were  erected 
with  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  into  the  Dominion  of 
Canada.  (G.  ST.) 

QUEBEC,  the  ancient  capital  of  Canada,  and  present 
capital  of  the  province  of  Quebec,  is  situated  on  the  north- 
west bank  of  the  river  St  Lawrence  at  its  junction  with  the 
St  Charles,  about  .300  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence 
and  180  miles  below  Montreal,  in  46°  49'  6"  N.  lat.  and 
71°  13'  45"  W.  long.  It  is  the  most  picturesque  and  most 
strongly  fortified  city  on  the  continent.  Quebec  is  built 
on  the  northern  extremity 
of  an  elevated  table-land 
which  forms  the  left  bank 
of  the  St  Lawrence  for  a 
distance  of  8  miles.  The 
highest  part  of  the  headland 
is  Cape  Diamond,  333  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  water, 
and  crowned  by  the  citadel, 
which  covers  an  area  of 
forty  acres,  and  presents  a 
bold  and  precipitous  front 
on  the  south-east  side,  while 
towards  the  north  and  west 


Environs  of  Quebec. 


the  declivity  is  more  sloping  and  gradual.  The  harbour 
of  Quebec  is  spacious  and  capable  of  accommodating  ships 
of  the  largest  tonnage,  and  its  docks  and  tidal  basin, 
when  completed,  will  rank  among  the  most  perfect  works 
of  the  kind  in  the  world.  They  are  constructed  of  lime- 
stone and  iron,  and,  including  the  graving  dock  on  the 
Levis  side  of  the  river,  will  cost  very  nearly  three  millions 
of  dollars.  The  harbour  is  protected  towards  the  north- 
east by  the  island  of  Orleans,  on  either  side  of  which 
there  is  an  approach.  The  spring  tides  rise  and  fall  about 
18  feet.  Quebec  is  divided  into  upper  and  lower  town, — 
access  to  the  former  being  obtained  by  a  steep  and  winding 
street,  several  nights  of  narrow  steps,  and  an  elevator. 
In  the  lower  town  are  situated  the  principal  banks, 
merchants'  offices,  and  wholesale  and  retail  stores.  The 
streets,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  are  narrow  and 
irregular.  In  the  upper  town,  where  the  streets  are  wider 
and  well-paved,  are  the  better  class  of  dwelling  houses, 
the  public  buildings,  most  of  the  churches,  the  public  walks 
and  gardens,  retail  stores  and  small  shops.  To  the  west 
are  the  suburbs  of  St  John,  St  Louis,  and  St  Roche.  The 
latter  occupies  the  lower  plain,  and  is  rapidly  becoming  a 
place  of  commercial  importance.  The  other  two  suburbs 
are  on  the  same  level  with  the  upper  town.  South-west 
of  St  John  stretch  the  historic  Plains  of  Abraham.  On 
this  battle-ground  a  column  40  feet  high  has  been  erected 
to  mark  the  spot  where  General  Wolfe  in  1759  died 
victorious.  In  the  governor's  garden,  which  overlooks  the 
St  Lawrence,  is  a  stately  monument  65  feet  in  height, 
which  is  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  Wolfe  and  Montcalm. 
An  iron  pillar  surmounted  by  a  bronze  statue,  the  gift 
of  Prince  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  stands  on  St  Foye  road, 
and  commemorates  the  achievements  of  the  British  and 
French  troops  in  1760.  Four  martello  towers  occupy 
commanding  positions.  A  point  of  interest  in  the  upper 
town  is  Dufferin  Terrace,  a  magnificent  promenade  1400 
feet  long  and  200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river. 
Part  of  this  terrace  occupies  the  site  of  the  old  Chateau 
St  Louis,  which  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1834.  The  view 
from  the  platform  is  very  striking  and  beautiful.  The 
Grand  Battery  also  affords  a  fine  prospect.  Quebec  was 
once  the  walled  city  of  the  north,  but  several  of  its  ancient 
fortifications  have  been  dismantled,  and  the  old  gates 


taken  down.  There  are  three  gates  now,  instead  of  five  as 
in  former  years,  viz.,  St  Louis,  Kent,  and  St  John's,  each  of 
which  is  very  handsome  and  massive.  Among  the  principal 
edifices  are  the  parliamentary  and  departmental  buildings, 
— a  stately  pile  situated  on  Grande  Alice, — the  new  court 
house  now  building,  the  post  office,  custom-house,  city 
hall,  masonic  hall,  the  Basilica,  or  Roman  Catholic  cathedral 
(an  irregular  cut-stone  building  216  feet  long  by  180  feet 
wide,  and  containing  many  fine  oil  paintings),  the  archi- 
episcopal  palace,  the  Anglican  cathedral  (a  plain  structure 
in  the  Roman  style),  the  skating  rink,  and  the  hall  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association ;  four  large  markets 
supply  •the  people  with  meat  and  country  produce.  There 
are  eight  Roman  Catholic  churches,  five  Church  of  England, 
two  Presbyterian,  one  Methodist,  one  Baptist,  one  Lutheran, 
one  Congregational,  one  Scandinavian,  one  French  Pro- 
testant, and  a  Jewish  synagogue,  which  is  situated  in  the 


Plan  of  Quebec. 

Masonic  Hall.  Laval  University,  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  first  bishop  of  Quebec,  who  founded  in  1663  the 
seminary  for  the  training  of  priests,  is  the  principal 
educational  establishment  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  It 
was  instituted  in  1852  by  a  royal  charter  from  Queen 
Victoria  and  a  charter  from  Pope  Pius  IX.  The  building 
is  large  and  spacious,  and  the  university,  which  is  held  in 
high  esteem,  is  well  equipped  with  apparatus,  a  library  of 
over  85,000  volumes,  a  museum,  geological  specimens,  and 
a  picture  gallery.  Laval  has  a  strong  staff  of  professors, 
lay  and  clerical,  'and  the  faculties  are  theology,  law, 
medicine,  and  arts.  In  connexion  with  this  institution 
are  the  grand  seminary  founded  in  1663,  where  theology 
is  taught,  and  the  minor  seminary  for  literature  and 
philosophy.  Laval  Normal  and  Model  School,  the  Ursuline 
Convent,- — a  very  large  establishment  for  the  education  of 
young  ladies,  founded  in  1641, — the  Convent  of  the  Good 
Shepherd,  and  several  nunneries  complete  the  list  of 


Q  U  E  — Q  U  E 


169 


Roman  Catholic  educational  institutions.  Morrin  College 
(Presbyterian)  was  founded  by  Dr  Morrin,  and  is  affiliated 
with  M'Gill  University.  Other  Protestant  schools  are  the 
boys'  high  school,  the  girls'  high  school,  a  number  of 
academies,  and  public  and  private  schools,  all  in  a  state  of 
efficiency.  In  1881  the  number  of  children  attending  the 
various  schools  in  Quebec  was  9889,  of  whom  half  were 
girls.  There  is  no  free  public  library  in  the  city,  but  the 
Literary  and  Historical  Society, — the  oldest  chartered 
institution  of  the  kind  in  Canada,  founded  by  Lord 
Dalhousie  in  1824, — the  Canadian  Institute,  the  Geo- 
graphical Society,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
the  Advocates'  Library,  and  the  Parliamentary  Library  have 
valuable  collections  of  books.  The  principal  benevolent 
institutions  are  the  marine  hospital,  the  Hotel  Dieu, 
founded  in  1639  by  the  duchess  of  Aiguillon,  the  general 
hospital  (1693),  the  Finlay  Asylum,  the  Jeffrey  Hale 
Hospital,  the  Church  of  England  Female  Orphans'  Asylum, 
the  Ladies'  Protestant  Home,  St  Bridget's  Asylum,  Grey 
Nunnery,  and  the  lunatic  asylum  at  Beauport.  Nine 
daily  newspapers  are  published  at  Quebec,  six  of  which 
are  in  the  French  language.  A  good  supply  of  water  is 
afforded  from  Lake  St  Charles,  but  the  city  has  suffered 
so  severely  from  devastating  fires  in  the  past  that  in  1883 
the  common  council  ordered  an  additional  pipe  to  be  laid 
at  a  cost  of  half  a  million  of  dollars.  Quebec  is  well 
lighted  with  gas  and  the  electric  light.  Connexion  is  had 
with  all  parts  of  Canada  and  the  United  States  by  several 
railway  lines,  and  the  city  is  at  the  head  of  ocean  steam- 
ship navigation  to  Europe.  There  are  two  lines  of  street 
cars.  The  head  offices  of  three  banks  are  situated  in 
Quebec,  viz.,  the  Quebec  Bank,  the  Union  Bank  of  Lower 
Canada,  and  La  Banque  Nationale.  Besides  these  there 
are  two  savings  banks,  the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank,  and 
the  agencies  of  the  Bank  of  Montreal,  the  Bank  of  British 
North  America,  and  the  Merchants'  Bank.  The  population 
of  the  city  in  1871  was  59,699  ;  in  1881,  62,446  (28,923 
males  and  33,523  females), — 6200  being  Protestants. 

Shipbuilding  was  formerly  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  Quebec, 
but  of  late  years  very  few  wooden  ships  have  been  built.  In  1883 
.the  number  was  twenty-five,  representing  a  total  tonnage  of  4596 
tons.  Manufacturing  is  carried  on  to  some  extent,  the  principal 
manufactures  being  iron  castings,  machinery,  cutlery,  nails,  leather, 
musical  instruments,  boots  and  shoes,  paper,  india-rubber  goods, 
ropes,  tobacco,  steel,  &c. 

Quebec's  staple  export  is  timber,  the  greater  portion  of  the  ship- 
ments reaching  town  from  the  Ottawa  and  St  Maurice  districts. 
The  rafts  floating  down  the  river  are  collected  in  the  coves,  and 
fastened  by  booms  are  moored  along  the  banks.  These  coves 
extend  along  the  river  for  upwards  of  6  miles  above  the  city.  On 
the  right  bank  of  the  stream,  not  far  from  Quebec,  are  extensive 
sawmills.  The  port  is  one  of  the  leading  emporiums  of  the  export 
trade  between  Canada  and  Great  Britain.  The  number,  tonnage, 
and  crews  of  the  vessels  entered  and  cleared  at  Quebec  for  several 
years  is  as  follows  : — 


Entered. 

Cleared. 

No. 

Tons. 

Crews. 

No. 

Tons. 

Crews. 

1880 
1881 

657 
783 

675.634 
802,186 

17,221 

19,888 

611 
851 

572,562 
847,615 

14,587 
20,225 

1882 

642 

670,327 

17,fi75 

680 

681,235 

17,162 

1883 

682 

787,058 

18,687 

653 

631,213 

15,652 

1884 

693 

767,395 

19,35.1 

698 

fiS6,790 

16,408 

Large  quantities  of  timber — especially  white  pine  (10, 427,000  feet 
in  1883),  oak,  and  red  pine — are  exported  from  Quebec.  The  total 
value  of  exports  in  1883  was  $9,268,983;  of  imports  $4,976,713, 
and  of  import  duty  received  $823,213-63.  The  value  of  the  real 
estate  is  set  down  at  $24,000,000. 

The  city  returns  three  members  to  the  Canadian  House  of 
Commons,  and  three  to  the  provincial  House  of  Assembly.  It  is 
governed  by  a  mayor,  eight  alderfnen,  and  sixteen  councillors,  who 
hold  their  offices  for  two  years.  Quebec  is  the  seat  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop,  and"  the  see  of  the  bishop  of  the  Church  of 
England. 

Quebec  was  first  visited  by  the  French  navigator  Jacques  Cartier 
in  1535,  -when  it  consisted  of  a  sparsely-settled  Indian  village  called 


Stadacona.  In  July  1608  the. city  was  founded  by  Champlain,  who 
bestowed  on  it  its  present  name.  Its  growth  was  slow,  and  the 
numerous  wars  with  the  Indians  and  the  English  rendered  the 
work  of  colonization  and  settlement  precarious  and  difficult.  In 
1629  the  English  captured  it,  but  three  years  later  it  was  restored 
to  the  French.  In  1663  the  colony  was  created  a  royal  govern- 
ment, and  Quebec  became  the  capital.  In  1690  Sir  William  Phips 
with  a  numerous  fleet  attempted  to  reconquer  it,  but  the  French 
governor,  Count  de  Frontenac,  destroyed  many  of  his  vessels  and 
forced  the  English  to  fly.  The  French  held  possession  until  1759, 
when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British  under  Wolfe,  and  it  was 
finally  ceded  to  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1763.  In  1775 
General  Montgomery  with  an  American  force  attacked  the  city, 
but  he  perished  before  its  walls  and  his  troops  were  dispersed. 
Since  then  its  capture  has  not  been  again  attempted.  (G.  ST. ) 

QUEDAH  or  KEDAH.  See  MALAY  PENINSULA,  voL 
xv.  p.  322. 

QUEDLINBURG,  an  ancient  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
in  the  district  of  Magdeburg,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
Bode,  near  the  north-west  base  of  the  Harz  Mountains. 
It  is  still  partly  surrounded  by  a  turreted  wall.  On  the 
west  it  is  commanded  by  the  old  chateau  of  the  imperial 
abbesses  of  Quedlinburg,  with  the  interesting  abbey 
church,  the  body  of  which  was  erected  in  the  llth  century. 
In  the  crypt,  dating  from  the  10th  century,  are  interred 
Henry  the  Fowler  and  his  wife  Matilda.  The  Late  Gothic 
town-house,  with  additions  of  the  18th  century,  contains  a 
good  collection  of  local  antiquities.  The  town  also  pos- 
sesses several  other  churches  and  numerous  schools  and 
charitable  foundations.  Quedlinburg  is  famous  for  its 
nurseries  and  market-gardens,  and  exports  vegetable  and 
flower  seeds  to  all  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  It  sup- 
plies most  of  the  seed  used  for  the  cultivation  of  beet- 
root for  sugar  in  Silesia,  Austria,  and  Poland.  It  also 
carries  on  manufactures  of  cloth,  iron,  and  chemicals,  and 
a  trade  in  grain  and  cattle.  The  poet  Klopstock  was  a 
native  of  Quedlinburg.  The  population  in  1880  was 
18,437,  almost  all  Protestants. 

The  town  of  Quedlinburg,  which  was  founded  by  Henry  the 
Fowler  about  the  year  930,  on  the  site  of  the  old  village  of  Quit- 
lingen,  became  a  favourite  residence  of  the  Saxon  emperors,  and 
was  the  scene  of  several  diets  and  assemblies  of  princes.  It  after- 
wards joined  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  attained  its  greatest  pro- 
sperity in  the  13th  or  14th  century.  The  convent  was  established 
a  few  years  after  the  town,  and  was  also  richly  endowed  with  lands 
and  privileges.  The  abbesses,  who  were  frequently  members  of 
the  imperial  house,  ranked  among  the  independent  princes  of  the 
German  empire  and  had  no  ecclesiastical  superior  except  the  pope. 
The  town  at  first  strove  zealously  to  maintain  its  independence 
against  the  abbess,  and  to  this  end  called  in  the  aid  of  the  bishops 
of  Halberstadt.  In  1477,  however,  the  abbess  Hedwig,  aided  by 
her  brothers  Ernest  and  Albert  of  Saxony,  forced  the  bishops  to 
renounce  their  claims  ;  and  for  the  next  two  centuries  both  town 
and  abbey  remained  under  the  protection  of  the  electors  of  Saxony. 
In  1539  the  Reformation  was  embraced,  and  the  nunnery  was 
converted  into  a  Protestant  sisterhood.  In  1697  the  elector  of 
Saxony  sold  his  rights  over  Quedlinbwg  to  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, whose  troops  forthwith  entered  the  town.  The  abbesses 
retained  their  right  of  private  jurisdiction,  and  the  disputes 
between  them  and  the  Prussian  Government  were  not  finally  settled 
till  the  secularization  of  the  abbey  in  1803.  The  last  two  abbesses 
were  the  Princess  Anna  Amelia  (1755-1787),  sister  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  and  the  Princess  Sophia  Albertina,  daughter  of  King 
Adolphus  Frederick  of  Sweden. 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY  is  the  name  applied  to  a 
perpetual  fund  of  first-fruits  and  tenths  granted  by  a 
charter  of  Queen  Anne,  and  confirmed  by  statute  in  1703 
(2  &  3  Anne,  c.  11),  for  the  augmentation  of  the  livings 
of  the  poorer  Anglican  clergy.  First-fruits  (annates)  and 
tenths  (decimse)  formed  originally  part  of  the  revenue  paid 
by  the  clergy  to  the  papal  exchequer.  The  former  consist 
of  the  first  whole  year's  profit  of  all  spiritual  preferments, 
the  latter  of  one-tenth  of  their  annual  profits  after  the 
first  year.  Benefices  under  the  annual  value  of  £50  are 
now  exempt  from  the  tax.  The  income  derived  from 
first-fruits  and  tenths  was  annexed  to  the  revenue  of  the 
crown  in  1535  (26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3),  and  so  continued 

XX.  —  22 


170 


Q  U  E  —  Q  U  E 


until  1703.  Since  that  date  there  has  been  a  large  mass 
of  legislation  dealing  with  Queen  Anne's  Bounty,  the  effect 
of  which  it  is  impossible  to  deal  with  fully  in  this  place. 
The  governors  consist  of  the  archbishops  and  bishops, 
some  of  the  principal  officers  of  the  Government,  and  the 
chief  legal  and  judicial  authorities.  The  augmentation 
proceeds  on  the  principle  of  assisting  the  smallest  benefices 
first.  All  the  cures  not  exceeding  £10  per  annum  must 
have  received  .£200  before  the  governors  can  proceed  to 
assist  those  not  exceeding  £20  per  annum.  In  order  to 
encourage  benefactions,  the  governors  may  give  £200  to 
cures  not  exceeding  £45  a  year,  where  any  person  will  give 
the  same  or  a  greater  sum.  The  average  income  from 
first-fruits  and  tenths  is  a  little  more  than  £14,000  a  year. 
In  1883  the  trust  funds  in  the  hands  of  the  governors 
amounted  to  £4,306,717.  The  grants  in  1883  amounted 
to  £15,400,  the  benefactions  to  £20,195.  The  accounts 
are  laid  annually  before  the  queen  in  council  and  the 
Houses  of  Parliament.  The  duties  of  the  governors  are 
not  confined  to  the  augmentation  of  benefices.  They  may 
in  addition  lend  money  for  the  repair  and  rebuilding  of 
residences  and  for  the  execution  of  works  required  by  the 
Ecclesiastical  Dilapidations  Acts,  and  may  receive  and 
apply  compensation  money  in  respect  of  the  enfranchise- 
ment of  copyholds  on  any  benefice.  The  governors  are 
unpaid ;  the  treasurer  and  secretary  receives  a  salary  of 
£1000  a  year.  He  is  appointed  by  patent  under  the  great 
seal,  and  holds  office  during  the  pleasure  of  the  crown. 

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands 
lying  off  the  west  coast  of  British  Columbia,  to  which 
they  belong.  They  were  so  called  by  Captain  Dixon, 
who  visited  them  in  the  "Queen  Charlotte"  in  1787,  and 
spent  more  than  a  month  on  their  coasts.  They  are  com- 
posed of  two  chief  islands,  Graham  Island  to  the  north 
and  Moresby  Island  to  the  south,  separated  by  a  very 
narrow  channel ;  but  around  these,  especially  in  the  south, 
are  innumerable  smaller  islands.  The  whole  group  has 
the  form  of  a  wedge  with  the  point  towards  the  south. 
The  extreme  length  is  about  180  miles,  and  the  greatest 
breadth  60  miles.  The  total  area  cannot  be  determined,  as 
the  longitude  of  the  west  coast  has  not  yet  been  definitely 
ascertained.  See  vol.  iv.  PI.  XXXV. 

The  islands  are  mountainous,  and  appear  to  be  a  parti- 
ally submerged  continuation  of  the  mountain  chain  tra- 
versing Vancouver's  Island,  which  lies  to  the  south,  separ- 
ated from  the  group  by  Queen  Charlotte  Sound.  The 
mountains  are  situated  more  particularly  in  the  southern 
island,  which  is  little  more  than  a  skeleton  of  mountains 
washed  at  their  base  by  the  waters  of  numerous  inlets. 
Many  summits  here  rise  above  5000  feet  in  height.  The 
larger  island  to  the  north,  which  has  a  length  of  about  77 
miles  and  a  breadth  equal  to  the  maximum  breadth  of 
the  group,  is  in  general  lower,  though  here  also  there  are 
hills  rising  to  between  2000  and  3000  feet.  Both  the 
mountains  and  lowlands  are  well  wooded,  but  in  general 
the  timber  is  not  found  in  accessible  spots  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  encourage  attempts  to  develop  the  lumber 
trade.  At  present  the  principal  commercial  resources  of 
the  islands  are  derived  from  the  fish  that  frequent  these 
shores.  Immense  shoals  of  dog-fish  visit  the  north  and 
north-east,  and  they  are  utilized  for  their  oil  by  a  com- 
pany established  on  Skidegate  Inlet  on  the  east  side  of 
Moresby  Island.  Holibut,  herring,  salmon,  cod,  and  coal- 
fish  or  "  skil  "  (this  last  also  rich  in  oil  and  a  valuable 
food-fish)  are  likewise  abundant.  The  climate  is  extremely 
moist,  especially  on  the  west  side  of  the  watershed. 

Geologically  the  group  appears  to  be  composed  mainly 
of  Triassic,  Cretaceous,  and  Tertiary  strata,  with  intrusive 
masses  here  and  there  of  granite  and  other  igneous  rocks. 
The  Triassic  deposits  occupy  almost  the  whole  of  the 


southern  part  of  the  group,  and  it  is  uncertain  whether 
some  Palaeozoic  rocks  may  not  be  exposed  at  certain  points, 
as  they  are  in  corresponding  situations  on  the  mainland  of 
British  Columbia.  The  Cretaceous  deposits  lie  uncon- 
formably  on  those  of  Triassic  age  on  both  sides  of  Skide- 
gate Inlet  and  Channel  (in  the  south  of  Graham  Island 
and  north-east  of  Moresby  Island),  and  are  interesting 
geologically  from  containing  a  bed  of  anthracitic  coal. 
These  deposits  are  again  unconformably  overlaid  by  those 
of  Tertiary  age  extending  over  the  greater  part  of  Graham 
Island  ;  and  the  unconformity  in  this  case  is  accompanied 
by  evidence  of  great  disturbance,  indicating  that  this  was 
the  chief  period  of  mountain-making  in  the  group. 

The  islands  are  inhabited  by  an  interesting  race  of 
Indians  called  the  Haidas,  who  are  chiefly  found  on  the 
coasts,  where  they  support  themselves  by  fishing,  partly 
also  by  the  cultivation  of  the  potato,  which  was  probably 
introduced  among  them  by  some  of  the  early  voyagers. 
They  tattoo  their  bodies,  sometimes  paint  their  faces,  and 
have  many  singular  customs ;  but  their  greatest  peculi- 
arity consists  in  their  habit  of  erecting  great  numbers  of 
carved  posts  as  ornaments  in  front  of  their  dwellings. 
Their  number  is  rapidly  decreasing,  and  in  the  last  official 
report  on  the  exploration  of  this  group  (Victoria,  1884), 
it  is  estimated  at  only  eight  hundred. 

The  fullest  account  of  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  and  their 
inhabitants  is  to  be  found  in  the  report  of  George  M.  Dawson  in  the 
Report  oj  Progress  for  1878-79  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada. 

QUEENSBERRY,  JAMES  DOUGLAS,  SECOND  DUKE  OF 
(1662-1711),  was  the  eldest  son  of  William,  third  earl 
and  first  duke,  high  treasurer  of  Scotland,  and  Isabel 
Douglas,  sixth  daughter  of  William,  first  marquis  of 
Douglas.  He  was  born  at  Sanquhar  Castle  18th  Decem- 
ber 1662,  and  educated  at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  after 
which  he  spent  some  time  in  foreign  travel.  He  sided 
with  the  prince  of  Orange  at  the  Revolution,  and  was 
appointed  a  privy  councillor,  and  colonel  of  the  Scotch 
troop  of  horse  guards.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1695  he  succeeded  him  as  extraordinary  lord  of  session, 
and  was  also  appointed  keeper  of  the  privy  seal.  In  1702 
and  1703  he  was  appointed  by  Queen  Anne  secretary  of 
state,  and  commissioner  to  the  parliament  of  Scotland, 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices,  but  he 
was  again  restored  in  1705,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
constituted  high  commissioner  on  the  part  of  Scotland  for 
carrying  out  the  Treaty  of  Union  between  the  two  king- 
doms, which,  chiefly  owing  to  his  influence  and  skill,  was 
completed  in  1707.  In  recognition  of  his  services  he 
received  a  pension  of  £3000  per  annum,  and  on  the  26th 
May  1708  was  created  a  British  peer  by  the  title  of  duke 
of  Dover.  On  9th  February  1709  he  was  appointed  third 
secretary  of  state.  He  died  6th  July  1711. 

QUEEN'S  COUNTY,  an  inland  county  in  the  province 
of  Leinster,  Ireland,  is  bounded  N.W.  and  N.  by  King's 
County,  E.  by  Kildare  and  a  detached  portion  of  King's 
County,  S.  by  Carlow  and  Kilkenny,  and  W.  by  Tipperary. 
Its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  35  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  from  north  to  south  about  30 
miles.  The  area  is  424,854  acres,  or  about  663  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  level  or  gently 
undulating,  but  in  the  north-west  rises  into  the  elevations 
of  the  Slieve  Bloom  Mountains,  the  highest  summit  being 
Ardern,  1733  feet.  Like  the  level  country,  they  belong 
to  the  limestone  formation,  but  are  wrapped  round  with 
folds  of  Old  Red  Sandstone.  In  the  central  part  of  the 
county  there  is  a  large  extent  of  bog.  The  south-east 
portion  is  included  in  the  Leinster  coal-field.  Iron  ore, 
copper,  and  manganese  are  found  in  small  quantities. 
Potter's  clay  is  plentiful ;  and  slate,  sandstone,  and  marble 
are  quarried  in  some  places.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the 


VOL.  XX. 


CARPENTARIA 


'-    S, 


English  Mil.-s 


Reference  to   Counties 
In  J'ort  Curtis  Dist*?  i     In  Moreton  I 
NV1  Murcliison        i  N?  1  Cavendish 

2  Liebi£  2  Stanley 

3  Ijivingstom 

4  Packingtor 

5  Deas 

6  Haflan 

7  Pelham 


3  Churchill 


r 


.X?    ^ 

.    ,  -  '^ithau  Rnf  ,,nj  , 
Trnirvftrlf 


ENCYCLOP/tDIA    BRITANNICA.  NINTH    EDITION 


Q  U  E  — Q  U  E 


171 


county  is  drained  either  by  the  Barrow,  which  has  its 
source  in  the  Slieve  Bloom  Mountains,  and  forms  at  various 
points  the  boundary  with  King's  County,  Kildare,  and 
Carlow,  or  by  the  Nore,  which  enters  the  county  from 
Tipperary  near  Borris-in-Ossory,  and  flows  east  and  then 
south  till  it  reaches  Kilkenny.  The  lakes  are  few  and 
small,  the  largest  being  Lough  Anaghmore  on  the  north- 
western boundary.  The  Grand  Canal  enters  the  county 
at  Portarlington,  and  runs  southwards  to  the  Barrow  in 
Kildare,  a  branch  passing  westwards  12  miles  to  Mount- 
mellick. 

Agriculture. — The  climate  is  dry  and  salubrious.  Originally  a 
great  extent  of  the  surface  was  occupied  with  bog,  but  by  draining 
much  of  it  has  been  converted  into  good  land.  For  the  most  part 
it  is  very  fertile  except  in  the  hilly  districts  towards  the  north, 
and  there  is  some  remarkably  rich  land  in  the  south-east.  The 
total  extent  under  crops  in  1884  was  129,617  acres,  of  which  73,536 
acres  were  under  tillage  and  56,081  acres  under  meadow  and  clover. 
Of  the  42,755  acres  under  corn  crops  639  acres  were  under  wheat, 
24,467  acres  under  oats  and  17,639  acres  under  barley.  Of  the 
30,601  acres  under  green  crops,  15,888  were  under  potatoes,  and 
12,077  under  turnips.  Dairy  farming  is  extensively  carried  on. 
The  total  number  of  cattle  in  1883  was  78,496,  of  which  20,421 
were  milch  cows.  There  were  70,530  sheep,  33,834  pigs,  5433 
goats,  and  249,619  poultry.  Horses  and  mules  numbered  14,494, 
and  asses  5742. 

Agriculture  forms  the  chief  occupation,  but  the  manufacture  of 
woollen  and  cotton  goods  is  carried  on  to  a  small  extent. 

Railways. — The  Great  Southern  and  Western  Railway  crosses  the 
country  from  north-east  to  south-west  with  stations  at  Portarling- 
ton, Maryborough,  Mountrath,  and  Ballybrophy.  At  Portarlington 
a  branch  passes  westward  to  Mountmellick  ;  there  is  also  a  branch 
passing  southward  from  Maryborough,  and  another  passing  west- 
ward from  Ballybrophy. 

Administration. — The  county  is  divided  into  eleven  baronies,  and 
contains  53  parishes  and  1156  townlands.  Ecclesiastically  it  is  in 
the  dioceses  of  Leighlin  and  Ossory,  with  portions  in  those  of  Kil- 
dare, Killaloe,  and  Dublin.  Judicially  it  is  in  the  home  circuit. 
Assizes  are  held  at  Maryborough,  the  county  town,  and  quarter 
sessions  at  Abbeyleix,  Borris-in-Ossory,  Carlow-Graigue,  Mary- 
borough, Mountmellick,  and  Stradbally.  There  are  fifteen  petty 
sessions  districts.  The  poor-law  unions  of  Abbeyleix  and  Donagh- 
more  are  wholly  within  the  county,  and  portions  of  those  of  Athy, 
Carlow,  Mountmellick,  and  lloscrea.  The  county  is  included  in 
the  Dublin  military  district,  and  there  is  a  barrack  station  at 
Maryborough. 

Population. — Within  the  last  forty  years  the  population  has 
diminished  by  more  than  one-half.  In  1841  it  numbered  153,930, 
which  in  1871  had  diminished  to  79,765,  and  in  1881  to  73,121. 
The  following  were  the  largest  towns  :— Mountmellick(  3126),  Mary- 
borough (2872),  Portarlington  (partly  in  King's  County)  (2357),  and 
Mountrath  (1865). 

History. — Anciently  the  territory  now  included  in  Queen's  County 
was  divided  between  the  districts  of  Leix,  Offaly,  Clamnaliere,  and 
Ossory.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  and  Mary,  it  was  made  shire 
ground  under  the  name  of  Queen's  County,  in  honour  of  the 
sovereign,  the  place  chosen  for  the  county  town  being  named 
Maryborough.  Three  miles  south  of  Stradbally  is  Dun  of  Clopook, 
an  ancient  dun  or  fort  occupying  the  whole  extent  of  the  hill,  and 
there  is  another  large  fort  at  Lugacurren,  Aghaboe,  where  there 
are  the  ruins  of  the  abbey,  was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  bishopric 
of  Ossory.  There  are  no  remains  of  the  Abbey  of  Timahoe  founded 
by  St  Mochua  in  the  6th  century,  but  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
site  there  is  a  fine  round  tower.  Among  the  principal  old  castles 
are  the  fortress  of  the  O'Moores  in  ruins  occupying  the  precipitous 
rock  of  Dunamase,  three  miles  east  of  Maryborough,  Borris-in- 
Ossory  on  the  Nore,  and  Lea  castle  on  the  Barrow,  2  miles  below 
Portarlington,  erected  by  the  Fitzgeraldsinl260,  burnt  by  Edward 
Bruce  in  1315,  again  rebuilt,  and  in  1650  laid  in  ruins  by  the 
soldiers  of  Cromwell. 

IIL  QUEENSLAND,  a  British  colony,  the  north-eastern 
portion  of  Australia,  is  situated  between  New  South  Wales 
and  Torres  Strait,  and  between  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the 
Northern  Territory  of  South  Australia.  Its  southern 
boundary  is  about  29°  S.  lat. ;  its  western  is  141°  E.  long, 
from  29°  to  26°  S.  lat,  and  138°  E.  thence  to  the  Gulf 
of  Carpentaria ;  its  northern  is  about  9°  S.  including  the 
Torres  Straits  islands.  In  extreme  length  it  is  1400  miles; 
in  breadth,  1000.  Its  area  is  669,520  square  miles,  or 
about  5 \  times  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  popula- 
tion is  under  300,000. 


With  a  seaboard  of  over  2500  miles,  it  is  well  favoured 
with  ports  on  the  Pacific  side.  Moreton  Bay  receives  the 
Brisbane  river,  on  whose  banks  Brisbane,  the  capital, 
stands.  Maryborough  port  is  on  the  Mary,  which  flows 
into  Wide  Bay;  Bundaberg,  on  the  Burnett ;  Gladstone, 
on  Port  Curtis ;  Rockhampton,  up  the  Fitzroy  (Keppel 
Bay)  ;  Mackay,  on  the  Pioneer ;  Bowen,  on  Port  Denison ; 
Townsville,  on  Cleveland  Bay.  Cairns  and  Port  Douglas 
are  near  Trinity  Bay ;  Card  well  is  on  Rockingham  Bay; 
Cooktown,  on  the  Endeavour;  Thursday  Island  port, 
near  Cape  York ;  and  Normanton,  near  the  Gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria. The  new  gulf  port  is  at  Point  Parker.  The 
quiet  Inner  Passage,  between  the  shore  and  the  Great 
Barrier  Reef,  1200  miles  long,  favours  the  north-eastern 
Queensland  ports.  Ipswich,  Toowoomba,  Oxley,  Been- 
leigh,  Maryborough,  and  Mackay  are  farming  centres; 
Warwick,  Roma,  Clermont,  Blackall,  Aramac,  Hughenden, 
and  Mitchell  are  pastoral  ones.  Gympie,  Charters  Towers, 
Ravenswood,  and  Palmerville  are  gold-mining  towns; 
while  Stanthorpe  and  Herberton  have  tin  mines.  Town- 
ships are  laid  out  by  Government  as  occasion  requires. 
There  are  fifteen  large  districts,  viz.,  Moreton,  Darling 
Downs,  Wide  Bay,  Burnett,  Maranoa,  Warrego,  and  South 
Gregory,  southward ;  Port  Curtis,  Leichhardt,  South 
Kennedy,  Mitchell,  and  North  Gregory,  central ;  North 
Kennedy,  Burke,  and  Cook,  northward.  Cape  York 
Peninsula  is  the  northern  limit.  A  few  persons  were 
sent  to  the  Brisbane  in  1826;  but  the  Moreton  Bay  dis- 
trict of  New  South  Wales  was  thrown  open  to  coloniza- 
tion in  1842.  It  was  named  "  Queensland  "  on  its  separa- 
tion from  the  mother  colony  in  1859.  A  natural  but 
unfounded  prejudice  against  its  supposed  warmer  position 
retarded  its  progress,  or  confined  its  few  inhabitants  to 
pastoral  pursuits.  The  discovery  of  abundant  wealth  in 
minerals  and  sugar-lands,  with  the  growing  conviction  of 
its  singular  salubrity,  greatly  advanced  the  immigration 
prospects  of  the  colony.  A  broad  plateau,  of  from  2000 
to  5000  feet  in  height,  extends  from  north  to  south,  at 
from  20  to  100  miles  from  the  coast,  forming  the  Main 
Range.  This  region  is  the  seat  of  mining,  and  will  be 
of  agriculture.  The  Coast  Range  is  less  elevated.  A 
plateau  goes  westward  from  the  Great  Dividing  Range, 
throwing  most  of  its  waters  northward  to  the  gulf.  The 
Main  Range  sends  numerous  but  short  streams  to  the 
Pacific,  and  a  few  long  ones  south-westward,  lost  in  earth 
or  shallow  lakes,  unless  feeding  the  river  Darling.  Going 
northward,  the  leading  rivers,  in  order,  are  the  Logan, 
Brisbane,  Mary,  Burnett,  Fitzroy,  Burdekin,  Herbert, 
Johnstone,  and  Endeavour.  The  Fitzroy  receives  the 
Mackenzie  and  Dawson ;  the  Burdekin  is  supplied  by  the 
Cape,  Belyando,  and  Suttor.  The  chief  gulf  streams  are 
the  Mitchell,  Flinders,  Leichhardt,  and  Albert.  The  great 
dry  western  plains  have  the  Barcoo,  Diamantina,  Georgina, 
Warrego,  Maranoa,  and  Condamine.  There  are  few  lakes. 
A  succession  of  elevated  and  nearly  treeless  downs  of 
remarkable  fertility  contrasts  with  the  heavily  timbered 
country  favoured  by  the  rains.  Cape  York  Peninsula  is  an 
epitome  of  Queensland.  There  is  good  land  alternating 
with  bad.  The  hills  are  rich  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin, 
and  coal.  The  forests  are  valuable,  and  the  scrub  is 
dense.  Flats  near  the  mouths  of  the  many  streams  are 
admirable  for  sugar-cane  and  rice,  while  rising  slopes  suit 
coffee  trees.  West  of  the  range  dividing  the  gulf  waters 
from  the  Pacific  is  a  sandy  grassless  region  where  the  only 
vegetation  is  a  poisonous  pea.  Suddenly  the  traveller 
passes  from  this  desert  to  the  glorious  downs  around 
Hughenden,  a  garden-land  beside  the  Flinders.  Farther 
north-west  is  the  charming  Leichhardt  river  district,  and 
the  marvellous  mineral  Cloncurry  highland.  Southward 
of  that  again  is  the  country  of  the  Diamantina  and 


172 

Georgina,  with  little  rain,  but  having  vast  tracts  of  good 
black  soil  threaded  by  slight  ridges  of  barren  sandstone. 
Droughts  are  there  followed  by  floods  from  thunder 
showers.  The  south-western  portion  is  inferior  to  all, 
having  heavy  sand-rises  between  the  grassy  belts.  Still 
the  pastoral  settlers  are  taking  up  areas  there.  All  that 
dry  warm  west  is  remarkably  healthy  for  man  and  beast. 
The  productive  and  better-watered  part  between  the  Main 
Range  and  the  Pacific  has  the  principal  population. 

Climate. — The  coast-lands,  with  an  annual  rainfall  of 
from  40  to  130  inches,  are  favoured  by  the  south-east 
trade-winds  and  the  summer  north-west  monsoons.  Dur- 
ing 1882  there  fell  at  Johnstone  river,  17°  S.,  nearly  160 
inches  on  one  hundred  and  ninety-seven  days.  Northern 
Queensland,  up  to  the  ranges,  is  well  watered.  Central 
and  southern  districts  are  not  so  aided  by  the  monsoons. 
The  highlands  have  on  their  eastern  side  from  30  to  70 
inches,  but  on  their  western  only  from  15  to  30.  The 
gulf  region  has  from  30  to  60.  The  southern  hills  have 
far  less  rain  than  the  northern  ones.  The  arid  western 
area  depends  on  occasional  thunderstorms,  though  nature 
provides  a  grass  that  long  resists  the  drought.  The  low 
south-west  basin,  trending  to  the  depressed  lake  region  of 
South  Australia,  has  repeatedly  seasons  of  intense  dryness. 
In  temperature,  Brisbane  has  a  mean  of  69° — between  34° 
and  105°.  The  hilly  districts,  even  in  the  tropics,  have 
slight  frosts  in  winter,  but  a  high  barometer  in  the  dry 
warm  weather.  North  Queensland  has  less  heat  than  its 
latitude  would  seem  to  threaten.  Tropical  ports  show  a 
lower  summer  thermometer  than  may  sometimes  be  seen 
in  Sydney,  Adelaide,  and  Melbourne.  The  western  heat 
is  stimulating  in  its  dryness  and  electrical  condition.  The 
oppression  on  the  northern  coast  is  felt  during  the  rainy 
season,  though  the  showers  cool  the  air.  The  prevalence 
of  south-east  winds  off  the  sea  mitigates  the  trials  of 
summer.  The  dreaded  "hot  wind,"  brought  southward 
by  the  usual  course  from  central  Australian  deserts, 
descends  upon  the  southern  colonies,  avoiding  Queensland. 
Still  the  ordinary  western  breeze,  passing  over  so  great 
an  expanse  of  land,  while  positively  cold  on  winter  nights, 
is  sufficiently  hot  during  the  summer. 

In  a  recent  year  the  colonial  registrar-general  gave  the 
death-rate  of  Brisbane  municipality  at  13  in  the  thousand, 
Toowoomba  17,  and  Rockhampton  15.  In  the  tropics  it 
was  12  at  Charters  Towers  and  Cooktown,  15  at  Towns- 
ville,  but  29  at  Mackay,  where  the  sickly  Polynesians 
abound.  The  prevalent  diseases  are  rather  from  disordered 
liver  and  bowels  than  lungs  and  throat.  Low  fevers, 
seldom  fatal,  continue  for  a  time  in  all  newly  opened-up 
country  throughout  Australia,  as  in  America.  Female 
mortality,  even  in  the  tropical  ports,  is  considerably  less 
than  that  of  males.  Infants,  as  a  rule,  thrive  better  in 
the  colony,  according  to  numbers,  than  in  England. 
Cooktown,  in  lat.  16°  S.,  is  regarded  by  some  as  the  sana- 
torium of  the  future.  Queensland  can  give  invalids  any 
climate  they  may  desire — moist  and  equable,  dry  and 
exhilarating,  warm  days  and  cool  nights,  soft  coast  airs 
for  bronchial  affections,  and  more  bracing  ones  for  other 
consumptives. 

Geology. — Queensland  is  geologically  connected  with 
New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  by  the  great  chain  of  hills 
continued  through  the  eastern  portion  of  Australia,  from 
Cape  York  to  Bass's  Strait.  That  immense  range  consists 
largely  of  Palaeozoic  formations  with  igneous  rocks.  The 
granites,  porphyries,  and  basalts  have  greatly  tilted  and 
metamorphosed  the  sedimentary  deposits  of  Silurian, 
Devonian,  Carboniferous,  and  Oolitic  ages.  The  width  of 
this  elevated  and  mineral  part  of  the  colony  varies  from 
50  to  400  miles.  Ancient  formations,  however,  rise  in  the 
broad  western  plains,  and  everywhere  indicate  metallic 


treasures.  Nearer  the  eastern  coast  granite  and  porpliy- 
ritic  rocks  appear  in  greater  force  than  in  the  Dividing 
Range,  and  the  voyager  rarely  loses  sight  of  them  all  the 
way  from  Moreton  Bay  to  Cape  York.  They  add  much 
to  the  attractiveness  of  the  scenery,  especially  in  Whit- 
sunday Passage.  The  old  sedimentary  strata  consist  of 
sandstones,  limestones,  conglomerates,  and  slates  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  The  Carboniferous  beds  are  of  great  extent, 
occupying  thousands  of  square  miles  (perhaps  as  many  as 
100,000),  on  the  highlands,  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Main 
Chain.  It  is  in  north  and  central  Queensland  that  the 
mineral  is  found  of  the  true  Palaeozoic  character,  bearing 
the  distinctive  floral  features  of  the  English  and  New 
South  Wales  Newcastle  formation.  The  Jurassic  and 
Liassic  rocks  of  the  southern  hilly  districts  are  rich  in 
cannel  coal.  The  Wollumbilla  beds  are  similar  to  the 
Upper  Wiannamatta  ones  of  New  South  Wales.  The 
Mesozoic  or  Secondary  formations  prevail  largely  to  the 
westward.  Ammonites,  belemnites,  and  ichthyosauri  de- 
clare the  same  condition  of  things  as  once  existed  in  the 
English  midlands.  The  Cretaceous  and  Oolitic  series  on 
the  western  plains  occupy  nearly  a  third  of  Queensland, 
and  their  grassy  surface  is  being  rapidly  covered  with 
flocks  of  sheep.  A  descent  below  the  ocean  level  produced 
the  Tertiary  beds.  The  so-called  "desert  sandstone" 
may  have  once  covered  nearly  the  whole  of  the  colony, 
though  suffering  great  denudation  afterwards,  to  the 
decided  satisfaction  of  settlers.  It  still  stretches  over 
much  of  the  extensive  plateau  and  both  slopes.  In  some 
places  it  is  hundreds  of  feet  thick.  The  favourite  Downs 
have  got  free  from  this  arid  incubus.  Tertiary  fresh- 
water beds,  not  marine  ones,  are  seen  towards  the  coast. 
The  volcanic  element  is  very  distinguishable,  and  is  a 
source  of  the  large  area  of  fertile  soil.  Throughout  the 
ranges,  and  over  many  of  the  downs,  basalts  and  lavas 
abound.  Though  no  eruptive  cone  appears,  there  are 
hundreds  of  well-defined  extinct  craters,  some  being  4000 
feet  above  sea-level,  surrounded  by  sheets  of  lava  and 
masses  of  volcanic  ashes.  The  Great  Barrier  Reef,  fol- 
lowing the  line  of  the  north-east  coast  for  1200  miles, 
preserves  the  memory  of  an  ancient  shore ;  the  coral 
animalculse  built  on  the  gradually  sinking  cliffs.  The 
reefs  approach  the  coast-line  within  five  miles  northward 
and  one  hundred  southward,  having  an  area  of  30,000 
square  miles,  and  protecting  eastern  Queensland  from  the 
violence  of  Pacific  storms.  A  narrow  deep  trough  in  the 
sea-bottom  extends  from  Moreton  Bay  to  Fiji.  Within 
100  miles  of  Cape  Moreton  the  water  is  16,000  feet  in 
depth.  While  the  alluvial  gold  and  tin-workings  are 
among  the  Tertiary  and  post-Tertiary  formations,  the 
veins  and  lodes  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  and  other 
metals  are  in  the  solid  granite,  or  in  the  ancient  sediment- 
ary rocks,  particularly  in  association  with  dioritic  and 
other  igneous  intrusions.  Greenstone  has  there  some  of 
the  richest  of  copper  lodes.  The  celebrated  tin  mines  of 
Tinaroo  are  in  granite  mountains  3000  feet  high,  where 
Englishmen  work  without  discomfort  within  the  tropics. 
Some  of  the  tropical  coal-fields  are  also  at  a  considerable 
elevation,  though  nowhere  are  they  situated  in  an  insalu- 
brious locality.  The  more  southern  coal  seams  are  in 
districts  as  healthful  as  they  are  beautiful.  The  Queens- 
land fossils  greatly  resemble  those  of  other  parts  of  the 
world.  Those,  however,  of  the  more  recent  Tertiary  times 
indicate  the  presence  of  animals  akin  to  existing  marsu- 
pials, though  some  of  the  kangaroo  order  stood  a  dozen 
feet  in  height,  and  had  the  bulk  of  a  hippopotamus.  The 
diprotodon,  16  feet  in  length,  may  have  pulled  down 
branches  or  young  trees  for  its  support.  The  rise  of  land 
would  have  diminished  water-supply  in  the  interior,  and 
caused  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  gigantic  marsu- 


QUEENSLAND 


173 


pials.  A  monster  bird,  like  the  New  Zealand  moa,  twice 
as  large  as  the  existing  emu,  once  strode  over  Queensland 
plains.  An  ichthyosaurus,  computed  nearly  thirty  feet  in 
length,  was  found  on  the  surface  of  the  Flinders  river 
downs.  The  Secondary  fossils  have  less  resemblance 
than  those  of  Western  Australia  to  the  European  species. 
Near  the  Condamine  a  fossil  monitor  twenty  feet  long 
was  unearthed.  The  northern  coal-fields  display  the  Glos- 
sopteris,  Siyillaria,  and  Lepidodendroii.  The  northern  beds 
exhibit  the  mesozoic  Thinnfeldia  odontopterodes,  Aletho- 
pteris  australis,  and  Podozomites  distans.  Some  existing 
Queensland  fish,  as  the  ceratodus,  are  allied  to  those  of 
the  Carboniferous  age  in  Great  Britain. 

Minerals. — Gold  is  found  iu  alluvial  deposits  and  iu  quartz 
veins.  The  most  important  of  the  former  were  near  the  northern 
Palmer  river,  but  auriferous  quartz  now  almost  monopolizes  the 
digger's  attention.  The  recognized  gold  workings  are  over  7000 
square  miles.  While  there  were  3454  Europeans,  early  in  1883, 
engaged  iu  quartz  mining,  only  280  were  on  alluvial  ground  ;  in 
the  same  year  2046  Chinese  worked  alluvial  claims.  Charters 
Towers  in  the  north  and  Gympie  in  the  south  are  the  chief  gold 
centres  ;  but  Mount  Morgan,  south  of  Rockhampton,  is  the  richest 
mine  yet  discovered.  The  gold  export  realized  £1,498,433  in 
1875,  but  only  £829, 655  in  1882.  The  decrease  is  owing  to  the 
greater  dependence  of  the  miners  on  blasting  rock.1 

Gold  is  often  found  mixed  with  silver,  copper,  or  lead.  One 
lode  had  to  the  ton  75  to  120  ounces  of  silver  and  from  4  oz.  to 
4^  oz.  of  gold.  Silver  ore  is  being  worked  to  great  advantage  now 
near  Raveiiswood,  Star  river,  and  Sellheim  river.  Copper  has 
been  long  so  low-priced  in  England  that  its  extraction  in  the 
colony,  with  high-rated  labour,  has  been  seriously  checked.  The 
cupriferous  area  is  very  large  there.  Mount  Perry,  Peak  Downs, 
Herberton,  and  Cloncurry  are  the  leading  copper  sites.  The  "  Aus- 
tralian" mine  of  Cloncurry,  200  miles  south  of  the  gulf,  is  very 
rich.  In  one  place  a  lode,  80  to  120  feet  wide,  showed  30  per  cent, 
of  bismuth  and  40  of  copper  to  the  ton.  Tin  streams  were  first 
opened  at  Stanthorpe,  near  the  southern  border.  Tin  lodes  of 
astonishing  richness  exist  in  the  "Wild  river  district  about  19°  S. 
lat.  There  are  single  claims  of  tin  stream,  or  on  tin  lodes,  besides 
tin  land  leases,  at  Tate  river,  Wild  river,  and  other  localities.  The 
Tinaroo  yield  in  the  five  years  lias  been  £383,350.  Called  the 
Cornwall  of  Australia,  this  tin  district  shows  gold,  silver,  copper, 
and  antimony.  The  tin  export  of  the  colony  during  1883  was 
£298,845.  Iron  ores  abound,  but  with  no  present  prospect  of  being 
utilized.  Bismuth,  graphite,  antimony,  nickel,  cinnabar,  and 
other  metals  are  known.  Precious  stones  are  gathered  from  gold  and 
tin  workings.  Building  stones  are  plentiful  in  variety,  and  good 
in  quality.  Granite,  porphyry,  basalt,  sandstone,  and  marbles  are 
wrought.  The  coal  is,  after  all,  the  most  important  and  useful 
of  the  minerals.  Already  steamers,  foundries,  and  railways  are 
being  supplied  from  Queensland  pits.  Several  beds  are  known 
near  Moreton  Bay.  About  Ipswich  and  Darling  Downs  the  coal 
is  clean  to  the  touch.  Some  specimens  cake,  others  do  not.  All 
are  good  for  gas  and  steam  purposes.  The  Darling  Downs  beds 
are  in  an  ancient  lake,  and  are  valuable  for  fuel  and  oil.  On 
100  lb  of  that  coal  being  burnt,  529  lb  of  water  were  evaporated 
to  505  from  Newcastle  coal,  leaving  16  lb  of  ash  to  7  for  the 
other.  That  cannel  is  of  Lias  age.  Much  rests  under  the  Eolian 
sandstone  and  basalt  of  the  west.  The  Burrutn  mineral,  between 
Maryborough  and  Bundaberg,  is  true  coal,  yielding,  at  the  first 
opening,  3000  tons  a  month.  One  seam  would  give  5,000,000 
tons.  The  Dawson,  Bowen,  and  Mackenzie  river  basins,  of  vast 
extent,  are  Palaeozoic,  as  in  the  Drummond  range,  and  westward 
over  the  main  chain.  Coal  is  found  in  the  York  peninsula.  On 
the  coal  of  Queensland  the  distinguished  Australian  geologist,  the 
Rev.  J.  Tenison  Woods,  expresses  himself  thus  : — "  The  fact  that 
the  coal  formations  cover  so  vast  an  extent  of  the  territory,  and  so 
many  valuable  coal-fields  having  been  discovered,  makes  me  con- 
fident in  predicting  that  its  resources  in  coal  are  enormous,  are 
equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  other  colony,  and  will  raise  her 
shores  to  be  in  the  end  the  grand  coal  emporium  of  the  southern 
hemisphere. " 

Agriculture. — Until  the  last  few  years  little  cultivation  was  to 
be  seen,  and  only  180,000  acres  yet  receive  such  attention.  Labour 
was  supposed  to  pay  better  in  other  employments.  Still  there  can 
be  grown  in  Queensland  corn  of  all  varieties,  hay,  English  vege- 

1  As  an  illustration  of  success  the  Day  Dawn  mine  of  Charters 
Towers  may  be  cited.  Some  Germans  long  struggled  in  vain,  and  with 
difficulty  got  enough  gold  to  supply  them  with  food.  Suddenly  they 
struck  a  rich  reef.  After  considerable  gains  they  formed  a  company 
to  work  the  ground.  Upon  a  paid-up  capital  of  £12,000,  the  share- 
holders' dividends  in  four  years  came  to  £138,399.  Gympie  affords 
even  more  remarkable  instances  of  good  fortune. 


tables,  sweet  potatoes,  melons,  cassava,  cocoa,  indigo,  arrowroot, 
ginger,  coffee,  rice,  tobacco,  cotton,  spices,  cinchona,  cocoa-nut, 
bread-fruit,  and  sugar-cane,  with  the  fruits  of  England,  India,  and 
China.  Lucerne  is  much  grown  for  stud  stock,  where  winter  food 
is  needed.  Bananas,  oranges,  grapes,  pine-apples,  mangoes,  guavas, 
tamarinds,  and  dates  thrive  well.  Coii'ee  is  being  extensively  pro- 
duced. Many  Ceylon  planters  have  recently  settled  in  the  colony. 
Cotton  pods,  tended  mostly  in  Moreton  district,  are  now  a  paying 
crop.  The  mulberry  success  is  paving  the  way  for  silk  culture. 
The  Roma  grapes  and  oranges  are  much  esteemed.  Bananas  grow 
on  any  coast-lauds.  Arrowroot  and  tobacco  are  profitable.  Sweet 
potatoes  are  extensively  used.  Rice  will  be  a  crop  of  the  future. 
Fanners  in  the  southern  hills  raise  corn  and  English  fruits.  Dairy 
farming  belongs  more  to  a  cooler  latitude.  Wheat  can  be  success- 
fully produced,  when  labour  is  cheaper,  over  an  area  of  60,000  square 
miles.  Stanthorpe  wheat  gave  67  lb  to  the  bushel.  Maize  is  a 
more  certain  crop.  But  sugar-cane  is  now  the  Queensland  farmer's 
chief  resource.  From  the  southern  border  up  to  Cape  York,  if  near 
the  coast,  it  can  be  raised.  All  round  Moreton  Bay,  and  in  the 
Maryborough  and  BunJaberg  neighbourhood,  it  does  well ;  but 
in  the  more  northern  parts,  as  at  the  Mackay,  Cairns,  Burdekiu, 
Johnstoue,  and  Herbert  fields,  the  yield  is  greater,  and  the  plant 
comes  earlier  to  maturity.  In  the  Mackay  sugar  district,  doring 
1884,  there  were  22,000  acres  in  cane.  Coast  Queensland  has  not 
only  warmth,  and  rich  alluvial  or  scrub  soil,  but  abundance  of  rain 
when  growth  requires  it,  with  fine  weather  at  cane  ripening  for 
manufacturing  sugar.  Some  planters  have  their  own  appliances 
for  the  extraction  of  juice  and  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  but  the 
small  farmers  combine  to  have  machinery  in  their  district,  or  else 
dispose  of  cane  or  juice  for  cash  to  the  neighbouring  sugar-maker. 
Polynesians  or  Kanakas  have  been  used  for  the  sugar-house,  though 
Europeans  do  all  the  work  of  growth  and  manufacture  in  South 
Queensland.  Chinese  merchants  are  establishing  cane  grounds, 
worked  by  their  own  countrymen  ;  and  Germans  and  Scandinavians 
have  extensively  embarked  in  this  industry. 

Pastoral  farming  is  still  the  leading  industry  of  the  colony,  and 
is  rapidly  extending  over  all  districts.  An  occasional  check  to  its 
prosperity  comes  by  drought  in  the  dry  Avestern  interior.  But  a  few 
good  seasons,  in  that  healthy  wilderness,  enable  the  sheepmaster  to 
recoup  himself, — especially  as,  in  the  remoter  parts,  he  has  a  securer 
tenure  and  a  very  small  rental.  In  "settled  districts,"  and  within 
30  miles  of  the  coast,  a  "  run  "  is  subject  to  resumption  by  the  state, 
at  six  months'  notice,  should  any  part  be  required  to  be  cut  up  for 
farms.  In  the  more  distant  "  unsettled  district "  a  lease  of  twenty- 
one  years  is  fairly  secure.  The  rent  advances  every  seven  years  of 
the  term  from  about  half  a  farthing  to  a  penny  an  acre.  In  the 
dry  parts,  where  grass  is  insufficient,  cattle  and  sheep  thrive  well  on 
the  salt  bush  and  other  shrubs.  The  only  really  unavailable  pas- 
toral region  is  that  portion  of  the  north-western  slope  of  the  Main 
Range  already  referred  to.  The  spear-grass  sometimes  sends  its 
barbed  tufts  into  the  flesh  of  sheep.  Wild  dogs,  floods,  and 
droughts  have  to  be  encountered,  though  the  animals  to  be  tended 
are  unaffected  by  ailments  plaguing  flocks  and  herds  in  Britain. 
The  western  plains,  dry  but  fertile,  are  best  for  sheep  ;  the  hills  and 
moist  coast-lands  for  cattle  and  horses.  The  merino  sheep  yields 
excellent  wool  on  tropical  pastures,  contrary  to  former  expectations. 
The  sheep  had  increased  from  3,000,000  to  12,000,000  between  I860 
and  1883  ;  and  cattle,  from  430,000  to  4,320,000.  To  meet  future 
droughts,  subterranean  streams  have  beeu  found  by  artesian  wells 
in  the  most  arid  wastes,  and  the  storage  of  water  after  floods  will 
furnish  a  supply  in  dry  weather. 

Flora. — The  Queensland  flora  comprehends  most  of  the  forms 
peculiar  to  Australia,  with  the  addition  of  about  five  hundred  species 
belonging  to  the  Indian  and  Malayan  regions.  The  eastern  por- 
tion of  New  Holland  may  have  a  vegetation  of  a  somewhat  different 
type  from  that  of  the  western,  but  both  have  older  representatives 
than  those  found  in  the  central  zone  from  the  gulf  to  the  Southern 
Ocean.  The  palms  in  the  north-east  of  Queensland  include  the 
Cycas  and  the  screw  or  Pandanus.  The  pines  take  an  important 
position  in  the  colony, — as  the  Moreton  Bay  pine  (Araucaria 
Cunninghamii),  the  Burnett  bunya  bunya  (Araucaria  Bidwelli), 
the  kauri  or  dundathu  (Dammara  robusta),  and  the  she  pine 
(Podocarpus  data).  The  Callitris  or  cypress  family  like  poor  soil. 
The  cedar  forests  are  buried  in  scrub  towards  the  mouths  of  eastern 
rivers.  Coast-lands  are  crowded  with  trees,  though  brigalow-scrub, 
with  the  silver-leaved  tops,  prevails  far  inland.  There  are  trees 
rising  above  300  feet.  One  monster,  near  the  Johnstoue  river, 
was  seen  88  feet  in  girth  at  55  feet  from,  the  ground,  and  150  at  the 
base.  The  Moretou  Bay  fig-tree  has  immense  wall-like  abutments. 
The  bottle  or  gouty  stem  tree  of  the  north,  Dclabcchia  Gregori,  is 
allied  to  the  African  baobab.  Flowers  are  numerous,  yielding 
often  a  powerful  fragrance,  though  most  commonly  exhibited  on 
shrubs.  Queensland  is  notably  a  timber  region,  having  both  hard 
and  soft  woods.  Above  three  hundred  useful  woods,  many  taking 
a  fine  polish,  were  sent  to  a  recent  exhibition.  An  active  export 
of  some,  particularly  cedar  and  pine,  is  conducted  at  Maryborough 
j  and  Port  Curtis.  Woods  there  are  in  use  for  building  purposes, 


174 


QUEENSLAND 


furniture,  dyeing,  shipbuilding,  coachbuilding,  hoops  and  staves, 
turnery,  gunstocks,  veneering,  &c.  Among  the  Eucalypti  are  those 
known  as  Moreton  Bay  ash,  mahogany,  yellow  box,  blackbutt, 
ironbark,  turpentine,  bloodwood,  messmate,  with  the  blue,  red, 
grey,  forest,  swamp,  scented,  and  spotted  gum  trees.  The  iromvood, 
brigalow,  and  myall  are  of  the  Acacia  genera.  Among  the  Casu- 
arinss  are  the  he,  she,  swamp,  forest,  and  river  oaks.  Names  are 
found  oddly  given  by  colonists.  Their  red  cedar  is  the  Cedrela 
Goona  ;  white  cedar,  the  Mclia  composita  ;  pencil  cedar,  the  Dysoxy- 
lon  Muelleri ;  white  wood,  the  Alstonia  ;  light  yellow  wood,  the 
FHndersia  orleyana ;  dark  yellow  wood,  the  Jihus ;  beech,  the 
Gmelina  Leichhardtii ;  coachwood,  the  Ceratopctalum ;  ebony,  the 
Malba  ;  musk,  the  Marlea  ;  Leichhardt's  tree,  the  Sarcoccphalus 
cordatus ;  mahogany,  the  Tristania ;  tulip,  the  Stenocarpus  sinuatus ; 
honeysuckle,  the  Banksia ;  pea-tree,  the  Melaleuca  ;  bottlebrush, 
the  Callistemon  lanceolalus  ;  beefwood,  the  Banksia  ;  satinwood, 
the  Xanthoxylum  brachyacanthum ;  coral  tree,  the  JErythrina ; 
apple,  the  Angophora  subvelutina ;  teak,  the  Dissilaria  balo- 
ghioides ;  feverbark,  the  Alstonia  constricta ;  sandalwood,  the 
Eremophila  Mitclwlli ;  lignum  vita,  the  Vitex ;  silky  oak,  the 
Grevillea  robusta.  Among  the  so-called  native  fruits,  the  plum 
and  apple  are  the  Oivenia  ;  orange  and  lime  are  the  Citrus ;  cum- 
quatis  is  the  Atalantia  ;  cherry,  the  Exocarpus  ;  pomegranate,  the 
Capparis  nobilis  ;  olive,  the  Olea  ;  chestnut,  the  Cantharospermum 
australe  ;  pear,  the  Xylomelumpyriforme;  quandong,  iheFusanus; 
nut,  the  Macadamia  ternifolia;  tamarind,  the Diploglottis  Cunning- 
hamii.  The  nonda,  a  native  fruit,  grows  up  to  60  feet.  The  nut 
of  the  bunya  bunya,  so  prized  by  the  blacks,  is  reserved  over  a 
district  30  miles  by  12.  Other  trees  are  also  protected  by  Govern- 
ment. The  native  grasses  are  nearly  a  hundred  in  number.  The 
desert  drought-resisting  Mitchell  grass  is  Dantlionia  pectinata  ;  the 
weeping  Polly  is  Poa  csespitosa  ;  the  dogtooth,  Chloris  divaricata  ; 
the  blue  star,  Chloris  ventricosa ;  the  barcoo  or  Landesborough, 
Anthistiria  membranacea ;  the  kangaroo,  Anthistiria  australis ; 
another  kangaroo,  Andropogon  refractus  ;  the  rat-tail,  Andropogon 
nervosus ;  the  oat,  Anthistiria  venacea  ;  another  perennial  oat, 
Microlsena  stipoides  ;  the  umbrella,  Aristida  cramosa  and  Panicum 
virgatum.  The  native  carrot  is  Daucus  brachiatus  ;  the  native 
plantain,  Plantago  varia  ;  the  sorghum  or  rice,  Aryza  saliva  ;  and 
the  bamboo,  Stipa  ramosissima.  The  salt-bush  (Atriplex,  Rhago- 
dia,  Chenopodium,  &c.)  is  found  useful  in  the  absence  of  grasses. 
The  danthonia  and  sporobolus  strike  deep  roots.  The  Burdekin 
cane  is  relished  by  stock.  The  seeds  of  Panicum  l&vinode  are  used 
as  food  by  the  natives.  Among  plants  poisonous  to  animals  are  the 
poison  pea,  fuchsia,  scab-lily,  indigo,  thorn-apple,  box,  mistletoe, 
and  nutgrass.  Many  English  and  foreign  varieties  of  fodder  are 
being  now  introduced.  Useful  fibres  are  of  a  number  of  kinds. 
Ferns  are  plentiful  on  the  eastern  side.  Climbing  ferns  abound. 
Grammitis  ampla  has  leaves  a  yard  long.  A  Rockingham  Bay 
fern,  one  foot  high,  has  the  habit  of  a  tree  fern.  The  epiphytes, 
growing  on  trees,  are  often  very  beautiful  in  tropical  scrubs.  Elk's 
horn,  Platycerium  alcicorne,  as  well  as  the  large  stag's  horn,  are  in 
much  esteem.  Forest  ferns  are  similar  to  those  in  neighbouring 
colonies,  excepting  some  tufted  Lindsxa.  The  Australian  bracken 
is  peculiar  to  the  southern  hemisphere.  Rock  ferns  are  very  grace- 
ful. The  North  Queensland  Asplenium  laserpitiifolium  is  greatly 
admired.  A  tropical  Aspidium,  with  leaves  6  feet  long,  throws  out 
runners.  The  Grammitis  Muelleri,  with  scaly  hairs,  is  peculiar  to 
North  Queensland.  Swamp  ferns  are  mostly  seen  to  the  north- 
east. Tree  ferns  attain  magnificent  proportions,  rising  20  and  30  feet. 

Fauna.  — The  Queensland  fauna  is  much  like  that  described  under 
NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  But  forms  are  now  living  there  whose  allies 
are  elsewhere  recognized  as  Tertiary  Fossils.  The  marsupials  consti- 
tute a  prominent  family.  The  platypus  or  water  mole  is  duck-billed 
and  web-footed.  The  dingo  is  a  howling,  nocturnal  dog.  Queens- 
land birds  are  very  beautiful.  One  is  something  like  the  New 
Guinea  bird  of  paradise.  Other  species  of  the  feathered  order  are 
kindred  to  some  in  the  Asiatic  islands.  Bower  birds  have  a  satin 
plumage,  and  indulge  in  play-bowers,  adorned  with  shells  and 
stones.  The  regent  bird  and  rifle  bird  are  peculiarly  attractive  in 
colours.  Mound  builders  lay  their  eggs  in  sand  heaps.  The  wild 
turkey  and  other  game  may  be  easily  obtained.  North  Queensland 
has  a  fine  cassowary.  Reptiles  consist  of  alligators,  lizards,  and 
snakes  ;  few  of  the  last,  particularly  of  larger  species,  are  hurtful 
to  man. 

Fisheries. — The  sperm  whale  has  become  rare  of  late  in  North 
Australian  seas.  Deep-sea  fishing  is  unknown  in  Queensland. 
About  the  coasts  are  the  usual  edible  Australian  forms,  as  whiting, 
rock  cod,  bream,  flathead,  schnapper,  guardfish,  &c.  Sharks  and 
alligators  are  there.  The  shell-grinder,  Cestracion,  is  similar  to  a 
shark  found  as  fossil  in  Europe.  Sword  fish  grow  to  a  great  size. 
Some  Queensland  fish  resemble  varieties  in  Indian  seas.  The 
Chinese  are  the  best  fishermen  in  Australian  waters.  The  huge 
dugong,  or  sea  cow,  feeding  on  bay  grasses,  has  a  delicate  flesh,  of 
the  flavour  of  veal,  and  furnishes  an  oil  with  the  qualities  of  cod- 
liver  oil.  The  fishery  of  the  trepang,  beche-de-mer,  or  sea  slug 
employs  a  considerable  number  of  boats  about  the  coral  reefs. 


Boiled,  smoke-dried,  and  packed  in  bags,  the  trepang  sells  for 
exportation  to  China,  though  its  agreeable  and  most  nourishing 
soup  is  relished  by  Australian  invalids.  At  Cooktown  and  Port 
Douglas  more  than  £100  per  ton  may  be  had  for  the  produce.  The 
pearl  fishery  is  a  prosperous  and  progressive  one  in  or  near  Torres 
Straits.  A  licence  is  paid,  and  the  traffic  is  under  Government 
supervision.  Thursday  Island  is  the  chief  seat  of  this  industry. 
The  shells  are  procured  by  diving,  and  fetch  from  £120  to  £200  a 
ton.  Mother-  of  -pearl  and  tortoiseshell  constitute  important  exports 
of  the  colony,  capable  of  great  expansion.  Oysters  are  as  fine  fla- 
voured as  they  are  abundant.  Turtles  are  caught  to  the  northward. 

Commerce. — So  extensive  a  coast-line,  and  so  much  of  that  pro- 
tected by  the  Barrier  Reef,  cannot  but  be  favourable  to  commerce. 
The  Torres  Strait  mail  service  has  opened  up  increased  opportunities 
for  trade  with  China,  India,  Java,  &c.  Contiguity  to  New  Cale- 
donia and  Jhe  Pacific  Isles  will  conduce  to  mercantile  relations. 
There  are  several  lines  of  coasting  steamers.  The  great  develop- 
ment of  the  mining,  pastoral,  and  sugar  industries,  the  rapid 
growth  of  railways,  an  easy  tariff,  and  the  settlements  of  York 
Peninsula  are  giving  a  great  impetus  to  commerce.  The  exports 
for  1882  were  £3,534,452;  of  which  wool  brought  £1,329,019; 
gold  £829,655  ;  tin  £269,904  ;  stock  £280,466  ;  sugar  £153,188; 
tallow  £129,549  ;  preserved  meats  £119,343  ;  pearls  £105,869  ; 
hides  £88,359  ;  beche-de-mer  £25,032.  The  imports  for  that  year 
were  £6,318,463.  Among  these  imports  some  items  may  be  cited: 
— for  manufactured  cotton,  silk,  and  woollen  goods  £839,352,  un- 
manufactured £194,489  ;  for  metal  goods  and  hardware  £910,029  ; 
flour  and  grain,  £453,307;  oilman's  stores,  £376,987;  spirits, 
wines,  and  beer,  £320,925  ;  books  and  stationery,  £113,798;  tea, 
£109,286.  Few  of  these  articles  are  yet  re-exported.  The  ex- 
ports for  1883  advanced  to  £4,652,880,  to  which  wool  contributed 
£2,277,878,  and  sugar  £538,785.  The  shipping  exceeds  1,500,000 
tons.  Dock  conveniences,  ships,  and  colonial-made  steam  dredgers 
exercise  the  state  care.  The  development  of  coal  mines  is  aiding 
both  shipping  and  railway  extension.  With  the  establishment  of 
British  rule  in  New  Guinea,  a  serious  danger  to  Queensland  interests 
will  be  averted,  and  a  happy  opportunity  offered  for  the  enlarge- 
ment of  its  commerce. 

Manufactures. — The  colony  is  too  young,  its  population  too 
scattered,  its  resources  in  raw  material  too  extensive,  for  any  great 
advance  at  present  in  the  industrial  stage.  Yet  already  large 
foundries  are  established,  in  which  agricultural  instruments,  mining 
machinery,  sugar  appliances,  steam  engines,  and  locomotives  are 
constructed.  Tanneries,  breweries,  sugar-mills,  distilleries,  tobacco- 
factories,  cotton-gin ning,  woollen  factories,  wine-making,  meat- 
preserving,  boot-factories,  &c.,  are  being  carried  on.  The  sawmills 
near  Maryborough  are,  perhaps,  equal  to  anything  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  relays  of  men  working  at  night  by  electric  light. 

Roads  and  Railways. — Nearly  ninety  divisional  boards,  through- 
out the  colony,  raise  means  by  rates  for  highway  improvements, 
Government  supplementing  their  revenue,  as  in  the  case  of  muni- 
cipalities, by  special  grants  in  aid.  Coaches  travel  inland  700  mile 
from  the  capital.  At  the  end  of  1884,  besides  several  hundreds  of 
miles  of  railway  in  process  of  construction,  the  lines  opened  to  traffic 
were  1201  miles.  The  western  line  is  from  Brisbane,  over  Darling 
Downs,  through  Roma.  The  south-west  will  be  reached  by  Cun- 
namnulla.  From  Rockhampton  westward  the  railway  has  gone 
350  miles  on  towards  the  downs  of  the  Barcoo.  The  line  from 
Townsville,  parallel  to  the  last,  after  passing  Charters  Towers,  will 
go  on  to  Hughenden  and  the  Flinders  river  region.  The  three 
great  lines  will  be  hereafter  connected,  and  the  Cloncurry  and  gul 
country  united  with  the  western  ports.  Maryborough  is  thus  con- 
nected with  Gympie  and  Burrum,  Bundaberg  with  Mount  Perry, 
Brisbane  with  Warwick,  and  Brisbane  with  several  suburbs.  The 
heavy  loans  of  the  colony  are  mainly  devoted  to  the  construction 
of  railways. 

Administration. — The  governor  is  appointed  by  the  Queen. 
The  executive  council  has  8  members,  the  legislative  council  33, 
and  the  assembly  55.  The  term  of  parliament  is  five  years. 
There  were  in  January  1884  42  electorates,  18  municipalities,  4 
boroughs,  85  divisional  boards,  49  police  districts.  Excepting  very 
occasional  difficulties  with  blacks  in  remote  and  scrubby  districts, 
order  is  thoroughly  observed.  Numerous  religious  and  temperance 
organizations  are  of  assistance  in  securing  respect  for  law.  Among 
official  departments  are  those  of  the  colonial  secretary,  treasurer, 
auditor-general,  public  works  and  mines,  public  lands,  customs, 
administration  of  justice,  post  office,  police,  immigration,  ami 
medical  board. 

Revenue.—  Of  a  revenue  of  £2,102,095  in  1881-2,  £806,719  came 
from  taxation.  For  the  vear  ending  June  30,  1884,  the  total  was 
£2,566,358.  Of  this,  thecustoms  gave  £866,475  ;  excise,  £34,441  ; 
land  sales,  £365,536 ;  pastoral  rents,  £246,103  ;  railways,  £581,642  ; 
post  and  telegraph,  £155,996.  The  expenditure  was  £2,317,674. 
In  the  settled  districts,  during  1883,  304  runs  had  an  area  of  11,162 
square  miles.,  at  a  rental  of  £21,419.  In  the  unsettled  districts 
8939  runs  had  475,601  square  miles,  paying  £216,638,  averaging 
less  than  a  farthing  an  acre.  Expired  and  renewed  leases  realize  in- 


Q  U  E  — Q  U  E 


175 


creasing  rates.  The  absolute  public  debt  in  1884  was  £16,570,850. 
Of  that  amount  the  outlay  on  railways  was  about  12  millions  ; 
immigration,  2  ;  harbours,  l£.  Roads  and  telegraph  lines  took 
other  sums. 

Education. — Queensland  led  the  way  among  the  Australian  colo- 
nies, in  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  public  instruction  free, 
unsectarian,  and  compulsory.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the 
parliament  declined  to  grant  further  state  aid  to  the  clergy  and 
religious  edifices  of  Protestant  Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  Wes- 
leyans,  and  Roman  Catholics,  formerly  drawing  from  the  treasury. 
State  or  provisional  schools  aro  formed  wherever  there  is  a  suffi- 
cient gathering  of  children.  The  annual  public  cost  was  £2,  17s. 
per  scholar.  There  are,  however,  self-supporting  private  schools. 
Masters  and  mistresses  of  state  schools  are  paid  by  the  Government 
according  to  their  own  educational  status,  the  number  of  children, 
and  the  proficiency  of  instruction.  Excellent  training  schools  for 
teachers  are  established.  Five  superior  grammar  schools  are  partly 
supported  by  the  state  ;  the  municipal  councils  have  voluntarily 
aided  those  institutions,  and  offered  scholarships  to  their  pupils. 
The  Government  gives  free  education  in  grammar  schools  to  suc- 
cessful scholars  in  state  schools,  besides  three  years'  exhibitions  to 
universities  to  a  certain  number  passing  a  high  examination.  State 
aid  is  also  rendered  to  schools  of  art,  schools  of  design,  free  libraries, 
and  technical  schools. 

Population. — The  estimated  population  in  January  1884  was 
290,000,  of  whom  three-fifths  were  males.  Polynesian  labourers, 
imported  for  three  years,  are  about  8000.  The  Chinese,  now  re- 
stricted by  a  heavy  poll  tax,  may  be  18,000.  The  Aborigines,  very 
fast  dying  out,  mainly  by  contact  with  civilization,  may  be  from 
10,000  to  12,000. 

History. — The  Portuguese  may  have  known  the  northern  shore 
nearly  a  century  before  Torres,  in  1605,  sailed  through  the  strait 
since  called  after  him,  or  before  the  Dutch  landed  in  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria.  Captain  Cook  passed  along  the  eastern  coast  in  1770, 
taking  possession  of  the  country  as  New  South  Wales.  Flinders 
visited  Moreton  Bay  in  1802.  Oxley  was  on  the  Brisbane  in  1823, 
and  Allan  Cunningham  on  Darling  Downs  in  1827.  Sir  T.  L. 
Mitchell  in  1846-7  made  known  the  Maranoa,  Warrego,  and  Barcoo 
districts.  Leichhardt  in  1845-47  traversed  the  coast  country,  going 
round  the  gulf  to  Port  Essington,  but  was  lost  in  his  third  great 
journey.  Kennedy  followed  down  the  Barcoo,  but  was  killed  by  the 
blacks  while  exploring  York  Peninsula.  Burke  and  Wills  crossed 
western  Queensland  in  1860.  Landesborough,  Walker,  M'Kinlay, 
Hann,  Jack,  Hodgkinson,  and  Favence  continued  the  researches. 
Squatters  and  miners  have  opened  new  regions.  Before  its  separa- 
tion in  1859  the  country  was  known  as  the  Moreton  Bay  district  of 
New  South  Wales.  A  desire  to  form  fresh  penal  depots  led  to  the 
discovery  of  Brisbane  river  in  December  1823,  and  the  proclamation 
of  a  penal  settlement  there  in  August  1826.  The  convict  popula- 
tion was  gradually  withdrawn  again  to  Sydney,  and  the  place  was 
declared  open  to  free  persons  only  in  1842.  The  first  land  sale  in 
Brisbane  was  on  August  9,  1843.  An  attempt  was  made  in  1846, 
under  the  ministry  of  Sir  James  Graham  and  Mr  Gladstone,  to 
establish  at  Gladstone  on  Port  Curtis  the  colony  of  North  Australia 
for  ticket-of-leave  men  from  Britain  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Earl 
Grey's  Government  under  strong  colonial  appeals  arrested  this 
policy,  and  broke  up  the  convict  settlement.  In  1841  there  were 
176  males  and  24  females;  in  1844,  540  in  all;  in  1846,  1867. 
In  1834  the  governor  and  the  English  rulers  thought  it  necessary 
to  abandon  Moreton  Bay  altogether,  but  the  order  was  withheld. 
The  first  stock  belonged  wholly  to  the  colonial  Government,  but 
flocks  and  herds  of  settlers  came  on  the  Darling  Downs  in  1841. 
In  1844  there  were  17  squatting  stations  round  Moreton  Bay  and 
26  in  Darling  Downs,  having  13,295  cattle  and  184,651  sheep.  In 
1849  there  were  2812  horses,  72,096  cattle,  and  1,077,983  sheep. 
But  there  were  few  persons  in  Brisbane  and  Ipswich.  The  Rev. 
Dr  Lang  then  began  his  agitation  in  England  on  behalf  of  this 
northern  district.  Some  settlers,  who  sought  a  separation  from 
New  South  Wales,  offered  to  accept  British  convicts  if  the  ministry 
granted  independence.  In  answer  to  their  memorial  a  shipload  of 
ticket-of-leave  men  was  sent  in  1850.  In  spite  of  the  objection  of 
Sydney,  the  Moreton  Bay  district  was  proclaimed  the  colony  of 
Queensland  on  December  10,  1859.  The  population  was  then 
about  20,000,  and  the  revenue  £6475.  Little  trade,  no  manu- 
factures, wretched  roads,  defective  wharfage,  struggling  townships, 
and  poor  schools  marked  that  epoch.  Political  liberty  occasioned 
a  general  advance.  The  first  parliament,  with  the  ministry  of 
Mr  (now  Sir  R.  G.  W.)  Herbert,  organized  a  good  school  system, 
carried  an  effective  land  bill,  and  established  real  religious  equality. 
While  the  pastoral  interest  rapidly  grew,  the  agricultural  and  trad- 
ing classes  got  firm  footing.  The  revelation  of  gold  and  copper 
treasures  increased  the  prosperity.  But  a  reaction  followed  ;  wool 
prices  fell,  cotton-growing  ceased,  early  sugar-cane  efforts  failed, 
and  trouble  succeeded  excessive  speculation  in  land  and  mines.  A 
steady  application  to  legitimate  pursuits,  however,  soon  restored 
confidence  ;  and  the  colony,  as  its  resources  have  gradually  de- 
veloped, has  continued  to  advance  and  prosper.  (J.  BO. ) 


QUEENSTOWN,  formerly  COVE  OF  CORK,  a  market 
town  and  seaport  in  the  county  of  Cork,  Ireland,  is 
picturesquely  situated,  13  miles  east  south-east  of  Cork, 
on  the  south  side  of  Great  Island,  on  the  slope  of  an 
eminence  rising  somewhat  abruptly  above  the  inner  Cork 
harbour.  It  consists  chiefly  of  terraces,  rising  above  each 
other,  and  inhabited  by  the  wealthier  classes.  On  account 
of  the  mildness  of  the  climate  it  is  much  frequented 
by  valetudinarians  in  winter.  Previous  to  the  American 
War  the  Cove  of  Cork  was  a  very  small  fishing  village,  but 
within  the  last  fifty  years  it  has  rapidly  increased.  It 
received  its  present  name  on  the  occasion  of  the  visit  of 
Queen  Victoria  in  1849.  The  harbour,  which  is  4  miles 
long  by  2  broad,  and  is  defended  by  the  Carlisle  and 
Carnden  Forts  at  its  entrance,  and  by  Fort  Westmoreland 
on  Spike  Island,  can  afford  shelter  to  a  very  large  fleet  of 
vessels.  The  port  is  the  calling  station  for  the  American 
mail  steamers.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  new 
Catholic  cathedral  for  the  diocese  of  Cloyne,  and  the  Pro- 
testant Episcopal  church  for  the  united  parishes  of  Clonmel 
and  Temple  Robin.  A  fine  promenade,  over  a  mile  in 
length,  connects  Queenstown  with  Rushbrook,  a  favourite 
watering-place.  The  population  of  Queenstown  in  1871 
was  10,334,  and  in  1881  it  was  9755. 

QUERCITRON  is  a  yellow  dye-stuff  obtained  from 
the  bark  of  the  quercitron  oak,  Quercus  tinctoria  (see  vol. 
xvii.  p.  693).  The  tree  is  a  native  of  the  United  States, 
but  is  now  also  cultivated  in  France  and  South  Germany. 
The  dye-stuff  is  prepared  by  grinding  the  bark  in  mills 
after  it  has  been  freed  from  its  black  epidermal  layer,  and 
sifting  the  product  to  separate  the  fibrous  matter,  the  fine 
yellow  powder  which  remains  forming  the  quercitron  of 
commerce.  The  ruddy-orange  decoction  of  quercitron 
contains  quercitannic  acid  (vol.  xvii.  p.  692)  and  an  active 
dyeing  principle,  quercitrin,  C33H30Oir.  The  latter  sub- 
stance is  a  glucoside,  and  in  aqueous  solution  under  the 
influence  of  sulphuric  acid  it  splits  up  into  a  rich  tinctorial 
principle,  quercetin,  C2rH18O12,  and  a  variety  of  sugar  called 
isodulcite,  C6H14O6.  The  reaction  may  be  thus  formu- 
lated 

CssH3oOir  +  H20  =  C27H18012  +  C6HUO6. 
Quercetin  precipitates  in  the  form  of  a  crystalline  powder 
of  a  brilliant  citron  yellow  colour,  entirely  insoluble  in 
cold  and  dissolving  only  sparingly  in  hot  water,  but  quite 
soluble  in  alcohol.  Either  by  itself  or  in  some  form  of 
its  glucoside  quercitrin,  quercetin  is  found  in  several 
vegetable  substances,  among  others  in  cutch,  in  Persian 
berries  (Rhamnus  catharticus),  buckwheat  leaves  (Poly- 
gonum  Fagopyrum),  Zante  fustic  wood  (Rhus  Cotinus),  and 
in  rose  petals,  &c.  Quercitron  was  first  introduced  as  a 
yellow  dye  in  1775.  For  many  years  it  has  been  Used 
principally  in  the  form  of  FLAVIN  (q.v.).  Flavin  is  pre- 
pared by  boiling  quercitron  in  water  and  precipitating  the 
tinctorial  principle  by  sulphuric  acid.  By  one  method 
soda  crystals  are  added  in  preparing  the  solution.  The 
yellow  precipitate  is  washed  to  free  it  from  acid,  pressed, 
and  dried.  From  100  parts  of  quercitron  about  85  of 
flavin  are  obtained,  having  a  tinctorial  power  more  than 
twice  that  of  the  original  bark.  Quercitron  and  its  in- 
dustrial derivatives  are  principally  employed  in  calico- 
printing.  With  alumina  (red  liquor  mordant)  they  yield 
a  bright  canary  colour,  with  tin  salt  a  fine  clear  yellow, 
with  iron  liquor  grey,  olive,  or  black  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  mordant,  and  with  mixed  alumina  and  iron 
liquor  an  orange  tint. 

QUERETARO,  a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the  state 
of  the  same  name,  lies  on  a  plateau  5900  feet  above  the 
sea,  152J  miles,  north-west  of  Mexico  by  the  Central 
Mexican  Railway.  It  is  a  well-built  place  with  a  beautiful 
tree-planted  alameda,  a  cathedral,  and  several  handsome 


176 


Q  U  E  — Q  U  E 


churches  and  convents  (Santa  Clara,  worthy  of  special 
note),  a  hospital,  and  other  public  buildings  ;  and  it  is  sup- 
plied with  excellent  water  from  the  mountains  by  a  great 
stone  aqueduct  erected  at  the  expense  of  the  Marquis  do 
Villar  del  Aquila  whose  statue  adorns  one  of  the  squares. 
In  manufactures  it  occupies  a  high  place,  producing 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  leather,  soap,  and  wood-carv- 
ings. The  great  Hercules  cotton-factory,  about  2  miles 
by  rail  from  the  town,  is  enclosed  by  a  high  loop-holed 
wall  and  defended  by  a  small  company  of  soldiers ;  in 
this  way  the  proprietors  have  maintained  their  position 
since  1840  in  spite  of  all  the  revolutions  that  have  swept 
over  the  country.  About  1400  operatives  (all  Mexicans) 
are  employed,  and  work  is  carried  on  both  day  and  night. 
Unbleached  cotton  is  the  staple  product.  The  population 
of  the  city  was  stated  at  38,000  in  1882. 

Queretaro  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards  in  1536,  and  made  a 
city  in  1655.  In  1848  it  was  the  seat  of  a  congress  by  which  peace 
between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  was  ratified,  and  in  1867 
the  emperor  Maximilian,  unable  to  hold  it  against  the  republicans 
tuider  Escobedo,  was  made  prisoner  and  shot  on  the  Cerro  de  las 
Campauas  to  the  north  of  the  town. 

QUERN.     See  FLOUR,  vol.  ix.  p.  343-4. 

QUESNAY,  FRANCOIS  (1694-1774),  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  economists  of  the  18th  century.  He  was 
born  at  Merey,  near  the  village  of  Montfort  1'Amaury,  about 
28  miles  from  Paris,  on  the  4th  of  June,  1694,  a  year  memor- 
able also  for  the  birth  of  Voltaire.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
worthy  advocate,  who  had  the  reputation  of  ruining  his  own 
practice  by  reconciling  the  parties  who  came  to  consult  him 
about  their  suits.  The  modest  resources  of  the  family  were 
derived  principally  from  the  cultivation  of  a  small  landed 
estate,  Quesnay's  mother  in  particular  busying  herself 
much  with  the  details  of  its  management,  which  she 
thoroughly  understood.  His  boyish  years  were  thus  spent 
amidst  country  scenes  and  the  occupations  of  the  farm, 
and  he  retained  to  the  end  a  strong  predilection  for  rural 
life  and  a  special  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  agricultural 
population.  Little  attention  was  given  to  his  early 
literary  instruction;  it  is  said  that  he  could  not  read  till 
he  was  eleven  years  of  age,  when  he  was  taught  partly  by 
the  family  gardener,  who  used  as  the  text  book  the  Maison 
Rustique  of  Jean  Liebault,  a  work  "  wherein  "  (to  quote  the 
words  of  its  old  English  translator,  Richard  Surflet,  1606) 
"is  conteined  whatever  can  be  required  for  the  building 
or  good  ordering  of  a  husbandman's  house  or  countrey 
farme."  This  book  Quesnay  is  said  to  have  studied  with 
such  assiduity  as  to  have  almost  known  it  by  heart.  He 
learned  Greek  and  Latin  and  the  elements  of  several 
sciences  with  scarcely  any  aid  from  masters.  He  was 
possessed  with  an  ardent  and  untiring  desire  for  know- 
ledge, and  we  are  told  that  more  than  once  he  walked  to 
Paris  for  a  book,  which  he  read  on  his  way  back  the  same 
day,  thus  travelling  twenty  leagues  on  foot. 

At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  became  apprentice  to  a  surgeon 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Merey,  who  was  not  able  to  teach 
him  much,  and  he  soon  went  to  Paris  to  continue  his 
professional  education.  He  there  devoted  himself  with 
great  ardour  for  five  or  six  years  to  the  study  of  medicine 
and  surgery,  diligently  attending  the  hospitals,  and 
following  the  courses  of  anatomy,  chemistry,  and  botany ; 
he  also  learned  drawing  and  engraving,  in  which  he 
acquired  considerable  skill,  and  gave  some  attention  to 
metaphysics,  to  which  he  had  been  attracted  by  the 
reading  of  Malebranche's  Recherche  de  la  Verite.  About 
1718  he  established  himself  at  Mantes,  and  soon  obtained 
a  distinguished  clientele.  He  became  known  to  the 
Marechal  de  Noailles,  who  conceived  a  high  esteem  for 
him,  and  persuaded  the  queen,  whenever  she  came  to 
Maintenon,  which  was  not  very  far  from  Mantes,  to 
consult  no  physician  but  Quesnay.  A  celebrated  practi- 


tioner of  the  time,  named  Silva,  having  published  a 
treatise  on  bleeding,  which,  though  of  little  merit,  was 
loudly  applauded  by  his  friends,  Qucsuay  wrote  a  refuta- 
tion of  it,  founded  on  the  principles  of  hydrostatics,  which 
brought  his  name  much  into  notice.  When  La  Peyronnie 
had  procured  about  1730  the  foundation  of  an  academy  of 
surgery  with  the  view  of  elevating  that  profession,  he 
selected  Quesnay  for  the  post  of  perpetual  secretary. 
Coming  to  Paris  to  fill  it,  he  obtained  through  La  Pey- 
ronnie's  influence  the  office  of  surgeon  in  ordinary  to  the 
king.  He  was  the  author  of  the  remarkable  preface  which 
was  prefixed  to  the  first  volume  01  the  Mcmoires  of  the 
academy.  He  was  for  a  long  time  much  occupied  with 
the  controversies  between  the  faculty  of  medicine  and  the 
college  of  surgery  concerning  the  respective  limits  of  the 
two  professions,  and  wrote  most  of  the  pieces  in  which 
the  claims  of  the  latter  were  asserted.  Finding  that 
frequent  attacks  of  the  gout  were  rendering  him  incapable 
of  performing  manual  operations,  he  procured  in  1744  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  from  the  university  of  Pont- 
a-Mousson ;  but,  though  thus  changing  the  nature  of  his 
practice,  he  continued  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  surgical 
profession.  He  soon  after  purchased  the  reversion  to  the 
office  of  physician  in  ordinary  to  the  king,  and  afterwards 
became  his  first  consulting  physician  ;  in  this  capacity  he 
was  installed  in  the  palace  of  Versailles,  occupying  apart- 
ments near  those  of  Madame  de  Pompadour.  Louis  XV. 
esteemed  Quesnay  much,  and  used  to  call  him  his  thinker ; 
when  he  ennobled  him,  he  gave  him  for  arms  three  flowers 
of  the  pansy  (pensee),  with  the  motto  Propter  excogitationem 
mentis. 

He  now  devoted  himself  principally  to  economic  studies, 
taking  no  part  in  the  court  intrigues  which  were  perpetu- 
ally going  on  around  him.  About  the  year  1750  he 
became  acquainted  with  M.  de  Gournay,  who  was  also  an 
earnest  inquirer  in  the  economic  field;  and  round  these 
two  distinguished  men  was  gradually  formed  the  philo- 
sophic sect  of  the  Economistes,  or,  as  for  distinction's  sake 
they  were  afterwards  called,  the  Physiocrates.  The  most 
remarkable  men  in  this  group  of  disciples  were  the  elder 
Mirabeau  (author  of  L'Ami  des  Homines,  1756-60,  and 
Philosophic  Rurale,  1763),  the  Abbe  Baudeau  (Introduction 
a  la  Philosophic  Economique,  1771),  Le  Trosne  (De  VOrdre 
Social,  1777),  Morellet  (best  known  by  his  controversy 
with  Galiani  on  the  freedom  of  the  corn  trade),  Mercier 
Lariviere,  and  Dupont  de  Nemours.  Of  the  writings  of  the 
last  two,  as  well  as  of  the  general  doctrine  of  the  physio- 
crats, some  account  has  been  given  in  the  article  POLITICAL 
ECONOMY  (see  vol.  xix.  pp.  359  sq.).  The  principal  econo- 
mic work  of  Quesnay  himself  was  the  Tableau  Economiqut, 
which  Laharpe  called  V Alcoran  des  Economistes.  A  small 
edition  de  luxe  of  this  work,  with  other  pieces,  was 
printed  in  1758  in  the  palace  of  Versailles  under  the  king's 
immediate  supervision,  some  of  the  sheets,  it  is  said,  having 
been  pulled  by  the  royal  hand.  Already  in  1767  the  book 
had  disappeared  from  circulation,  and  no  copy  of  it  is  now 
procurable ;  but  the  substance  of  it  is  has  been  preserved 
in  the  Ami  des  Homines  of  Mirabeau,  and  the  Physiocrat* 
of  Dupont  de  Nemours.  In  Quesnay's  Maximes  General^ 
du  Gouvernement  Economique  d'un  Royaume  Agricole,  which 
was  put  forward  as  an  Extrait  des  Economies  Royales  de 
Sully,  and  was  printed  along  with  the  Tableau  in  1758, 
besides  stating  his  economic  doctrines,  he  expresses  his 
opinion  in  favour  of  a  legal  despotism  as  the  best  form  of 
government.  "  Let  the  sovereign  authority  be  single,  and 
superior  to  all  the  individuals  of  society  and  all  the  unjust 

enterprises   of    private   interest The   system   of 

counter-forces  in  a  government  is  a  harmful  one,  which 
produces  only  discord  among  the  great  and  the  oppression 
of  the  weak."  He  had  contributed  to  the  Encyclopedic  in 


Q  U  E  —  Q  U  E 


177 


1756  the  articles  "Fermiers"  and  "Grains,"  which  con- 
tained the  earliest  announcement  of  his  principles  through 
the  press ;  and  he  published  a  number  of  minor  pieces  in 
the  Journal  de  V Agriculture,  du  Commerce,  et  des  Finances, 
and  in  the  Epkemerides  du  Citoyen.  His  Droit  Naturel, 
which  was  included  in  the  Physiocratie  of  Dupont  de 
Nemours,  is  especially  noteworthy  as  showing  the  philo- 
sophic foundation  of  his  economic  system  in  the  theory  of 
the  jus  naturae. 

Interesting  notices  of  Quesnay's  character  and  habits 
have  been  preserved  to  us  in  the  Memoires  of  Marmontel 
and  those  of  Mme.  du  Hausset,  femme  de  chambre  to  Mme. 
de  Pompadour.1  His  probity  and  disinterested  zeal  for 
the  public  good  did  not  suffer  from  the  atmosphere  of  the 
court ;  he  never  abused  his  credit  with  the  sovereign  or 
the  favourite  for  any  selfish  end.  To  raise  the  national 
agriculture  from  the  decay  into  which  it  had  fallen  and 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  working  population  were 
the  great  aims  he  kept  steadily  in  view.  His  conversation 
was  piquant,  humorous,  and  suggestive,  often  taking  the 
form  of  moral  and  political  apologues.  Some  of  his 
weighty  sayings  are  quoted  by  contemporary  writers. 
Here  is  one  of  them.  Having  met  in  Madame  de 
Pompadour's  salon  an  official  person  who,  in  recommend- 
ing violent  measures  for  the  purpose  of  terminating  the 
vexatious  disputes  between  the  clergy  and  the  parliament, 
used  the  words,  "  C'est  la  hallebarde  qui  mene  un 
royaume,"  Quesnay  replied,  "  Et  qu'est  ce  qui  mene  la 
hallebarde?"  adding,  after  a  pause,  "C'est  1'opinion ; 
c'est  done  sur  1'opinion  qu'il  faut  travailler."  Diderot, 
D'Alembert,  Duclos,  Helvetius,  Buffon,  Turgot,  Marmontel, 
used  to  meet  in  his  rooms  in  the  palace,  and  also  several 
of  the  physiocrats  above  named;  and  Madame  de  Pom- 
padour, who  affected  the  patronage  of  philosophy  and 
science,  sometimes  came  to  join  them  and  converse  with 
them.  Amongst  them,  when  they  were  alone,  subjects 
were  sometimes  discussed  in  a  tone  which  would  not  have 
pleased  the  royal  ear.  Thus,  one  day,  Mirabeau  having 
said,  "  The  nation  is  in  a  deplorable  state,"  Lariviere 
replied  in  prophetic  words,  "  It  can  only  be  regenerated 
by  a  conquest  like  that  of  China,  or  by  some  great  internal 
convulsion  ;  but  woe  to  those  who  live  to  see  that !  The 
French  people  do  not  do  things  by  halves  !  "  Adam  Smith, 
during  his  stay  on  the  Continent  with  the  young  duke  of 
Buccleuch  in  1764-66,  spent  some  time  in  Paris,  where 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Quesnay  and  some  of  his 
followers ;  he  paid  a  high  tribute  to  their  scientific  services 
in  his  Wealth  of  Nations,  and  would  have  dedicated  that 
work  to  Quesnay,  had  the  latter  been  alive  at  the  time  of 
its  publication. 

At  the  age  of  seventy  Quesnay  went  back  to  the  study 
of  mathematics.  He  thought,  we  are  told,  that  he  had 
discovered  the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  and  was  not  pre- 
vented by  the  remonstrances  of  his  friends  from  printing 
his  supposed  solution  of  the  problem.  He  died  in  1774, 
having  lived  long  enough  to  see  his  great  pupil,  Turgot,  in 
office  as  minister  of  finance.  Quesnay  had  married  in 
1718,  and  had  a  son  and  a  daughter ;  his  grandson  by  the 
former  was  a  member  of  the  first  Legislative  Assembly. 

The  economic  writings  of  Quesnay  are  collected  in  the  2d  vol. 
of  the  Principaux  ficonomistes,  published  by  Guillaumin,  with 
preface  and  notes  by  Eugene  Daire.  His  writings  on  medicine  and 
surgery  have  now  only  an  historic  interest.  They  were  as  follows  : — 
1.  Observations  sur  Us  effcts  de  la  saignee,  1730  and  1750  ;  2.  Essai 
physique  sur  I' economic  animate  avec  I' art  de  guerir  par  la  saignee, 
1736  and  1747  ;  3.  Recherches  critiques  et  historiques  sur  I'origine, 

1  These  Memoires  were  first  printed  by  Quintin  Craufurd  in  his 
Melanges  d'Histoire  et  de  Litter  ature,  1806,  and  again  in  1817  ;  they 
have  since  been  published  in  the  Collection  des  Memoires  relatifs  d  la 
devolution  Frangaise,  1824,  and  also  in  the  Bibliotheque  des  Memoires 
relatifs  d  I'liistoire  de  France -pendant  le  lSme  Siecle. 


les  divers  etats,  et  les  pi-ogres  de  la  chirurgie  en  France  (said  to  have 
been  the  joint  work  of  Quesnay  and  Louis),  1744,  and,  with  slightly  - 
altered  title,  1749;  4.  Traite'dc  la  suppuration,  1749  ;  5.  Traite  de 
la  gangrene,  1749;  6.  Traite  des  fievres  continues,  1753  ;  7.  Obser- 
vations sur  la  conservation  de  la  vie  (said  to  have  been  printed  at 
Versailles  along  with  the  Tableau  ficonomique),  1758.  His  other 
writings  were  the  article  "  Evidence  "  in  the  Encyclopedic,  and 
Recherches  sur  Vimdence  des  verites  ge'omelriques,  with  a  Projet  de 
nouveaux  elements  de  geometric,  1773.  Quesnay's  filoge  was  pro- 
nounced in  the  Academy  of  Sciences  by  Grandjean  de  Fouchy  (see 
the  Recueil  of  that  Academy,  1774,  p.  134).  There  is  a  good  por- 
trait of  him,  engraved  by  J.  Ch.  Francois,  which  is  reproduced  in 
the  Dictionnaire  d'ficonomie  Politique  of  Coquelin  and  Guillau- 
min. (<!•  K.  I.) 

QUESNEL,  PASQUIER  (1634-1719),  Roman  Catholic 
theologian,  was  born  in  Paris  on  July  14,  1634,  and,  after 
graduating  in  the  Sorbonne  with  distinction  in  1653, 
joined  the  Congregation  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Oratory  in 
1657,  receiving  priest's  orders  in  1659.  In  1675  he  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  works  of  Leo  the  Great,  in  the 
notes  to  which  the  Gallican  liberties  were  defended.  The 
work  was  consequently  put  upon  the  Index  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  QuesnePs  relations  with  his  ecclesiastical 
superiors  became  so  strained  that  in  1681  he  had  to  retire 
to  Orleans.  Four  years  later,  finding  himself  unable  to 
sign  a  document  imposed  on  all  members  of  the  Oratory  in 
condemnation  of  Jansenism,  he  fled  to  Brussels,  where 
he  was  intimately  associated  with  Arnauld,  and  where, 
encouraged  by  him,  he  published  in  1694-95  a  complete 
edition  of  the  Reflexions  Morales  sur  le  Nouveau  Testa- 
ment, a  work  of  edification  on  which  he  had  first  begun  to 
engage  himself  shortly  after  joining  the  Oratory,  and  a 
part  of  which  had  appeared  as  early  as  about  1671.  The 
nature  of  its  contents,  and  still  more  the  known  sympa- 
thies of  its  author,  made  the  book  an  object  of  unwearying 
Jesuit  hostility ;  Quesnel  was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time 
in  the  palace  of  the  archbishop  of  Mechlin  in  1703,  but 
happily  succeeded  in  escaping  into  Holland ;  his  papers, 
however  (compromising,  it  is  said,  to  many  persons),  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  long  were  to  the  Pere  La 
Chaise  his  "  pot  au  noir "  (as  he  called  it)  by  means  of 
which  he  was  able  to  darken  the  prospects  of  his  adver- 
saries as  he  chose.  The  bull  Unigenitus,  in  which  no 
fewer  than  101  sentences  from  the  Reflexions  Morales  were 
condemned  as  heretical,  was  obtained  from  Clement  IX. 
in  September  8,  1713  (see  vol.  xiii.  p.  567).  Quesnel  died 
at  Amsterdam  on  December  2,  1719,  A  complete  list  of 
his  works  is  given  by  Moreri. 

QUETELET,  LAMBERT  ADOLPHE  JACQUES  (1796-1874), 
astronomer,  meteorologist,  and  statistician,  was  born  at 
Ghent,  February  22,  1796,  and  educated  at  the  lyceum  of 
that  town.  In  1819  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  athenaeum  of  Brussels;  in  1828  he  became 
lecturer  at  the  newly  created  museum  of  science  and 
literature,  and  he  continued  to  hold  that  post  until  the 
museum  was  absorbed  in  the  free  university  in  1834.  In 
1828  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  new  royal  observa- 
tory which  it  had  been  decided  to  found,  chiefly  at  his 
instigation.  The  building  was  finished  in  1832,  and  the 
instruments  were  ready  for  work  in  1835,  from  which  date 
the  observations  were  published  in  4to  volumes  (Annales 
de  I'Observatoire  Royal  de  Bruxelles),  but  Quetelet  chiefly 
devoted  himself  to  meteorology  and  statistics.  From 
1834  he  was  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Brussels  Academy, 
and  published  a  vast  number  of  articles  in  its  Bulletin,  as 
also  in  his  journal  Correspondance  Mathematique  et  Phys- 
ique (11  vols.,  1825-39).  He  died  on  February  17,  1874.2 

Quetelet's  astronomical  papers  refer  chiefly  to  shooting  stars 
and  similar  phenomena.  He  organized  extensive  magnetical  and 

2  His  son  EIINEST  QUETELET  (1825-78)  was  from  1856  attached 
to  the  observatory  and  made  a  great  number  of  observations  of  stars 
with  proper  motion,  from  which  a  large  catalogue  of  stars  is  now 
(1885)  being  published. 

XX.  —  23 


178 


Q  U  E  — Q  U  E 


meteorological  observations,  and  in  1839  he  started  regular  observa- 
tions of  the  periodical  phenomena  of  vegetation,  especially  the 
flowering  of  plants.  The  results  are  given  in  various  memoirs 
published  by  the  Brussels  Academy  and  in  his  works  Sur  Ic  Climat 
de  la  Belgique  and  Sur  la  Physique  du  Globe  (the  latter  forms  vol. 
xiii.  of  the  Annales,  1861).  He  is,  however,  chiefly  known  by  the 
statistical  investigations  which  occupied  him  from  1823  onward.  In 
1835  he  published  his  principal  work,  Sur  I'Homme  et  le  Developpe- 
ment  de  ses  Facultis,  ou  Essai  de  Physique  Sociale  (2d  ed.  1869), 
containing  a  resume  of  his  statistical  researches  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  physical  and  intellectual  qualities  of  man,  and  on  the 
"average  man,"  both  physically  and  intellectually  considered.  In 
1846  he  brought  out  his  Lettres  d  S.  A.  R.  le  Due  rfynant  de  Saxe- 
Coburg  et  Gotha  sur  la  the'orie  des  probabilites  appliqute  aux  sciences 
morales  et  politiqucs  (of  which  Sir  J.  Herschel  wrote  a  full  account 
in  the  Edinburgh  Review),  and  in  1848  Du  Systime  Social  et  des  Lois 
qui  le  rtgissent  (dedicated  to  the  prince  consort).  In  these  works 
he  shows  how  the  numbers  representing  the  individual  qualities  of 
man  are  grouped  round  the  numbers  referring  to  the  "average 
man  "  in  a  manner  exactly  corresponding  to  that  in  which  single 
results  of  observation  are  grouped  round  the  mean  result,  so  that 
the  principles  of  the  theory  of  probabilities  may  be  applied  to 
statistical  researches  on  the  subjects.  These  ideas  are  further 
developed  in  various  papers  in  the  Bulletin  and  in  his  L'Antliropo- 
mitrie,  ou  Mcsure  des  differences  Facultis  de  I'Homme  (1871),  in  which 
he  lays  great  stress  on  the  universal  applicability  of  the  binomial 
law, — according  to  which  the  number  of  cases  in  which,  for  instance, 
a  certain  height  occurs  among  a  large  number  of  individuals  is  repre- 
sented by  an  ordinate  of  a  curve  (the  binomial) .  symmetrically 
situated  with  regard  to  the  ordinate  representing  the  mean  result 
(average  height). 

A  detailed  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  Jes  Travaux  de  L.A.J.  Quetelet,  by  his  pupil  and 
assistant  K.  Mailly,  was  published  at  Brussels  in  1875. 

QUETTA,  a  valley  in  Baluchistan,  and  the  most 
northern  district  in  the  province.  It  embraces  an  area  of 
about  90  square  miles,  and  is  situated  near  the  Afghan 
frontier  between  30°  2'  and  30°  14'  N.  lat.  and  between 
66°  55'  and  67°  E.  long.  The  general  aspect  of  the 
country  is  hilly,  rocky,  and  sterile,  particularly  towards 
the  north ;  but  in  many  parts  the  soil  is  rich  and  good, 
yielding  wheat,  rice,  madder,  tobacco,  and  lucerne,  besides 
numerous  grasses.  The  district  has  abundant  orchards, 
furnishing  grapes,  apples,  pears,  pomegranates,  figs,  <fec. ; 
melons  and  all  kinds  of  English  vegetables  are  also  largely 
cultivated.  The  valley  is  watered  by  the  Lora  stream. 
Wild  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs  abound  in  the  hills  of  the 
district.  The  climate  appears  to  be  healthy  and  the  tem- 
perature moderate,  ranging  from  30°  Fahr.  in  the  winter 
to  about  80°  in  the  summer.  Since  1876  Quetta  has 
been  the  seat  of  a  British  political  officer.  Its  occupation 
secures  the  Pishin  valley,  holds  in  check  border  tribes,  and 
keeps  open  the  roads  of  the  Kojak  and  Gwaja  passes  over 
the  Khwaja  Amran  range  leading  to  Kandahar.  During 
the  Afghan  compaigns  of  1878-80  Quetta  formed  the  base 
of  operations  of  the  southern  column.  In  1879  a  railway 
was  commenced  to  Quetta,  with  a  view  to  its  being  pushed 
on  to  Kandahar.  The  line  starts  from  the  Sind  railway 
system  at  Sukkur  and  runs  via  Jacobabad  to  Sibi,  and  is 
now  in  course  of  construction  to  Quetta ;  it  is  to  be  termed 
the  Sind-Pishin  railway.  Quetta  (or  Shal,  meaning  "  the 
fort "  or  "  kot "),  the  capital,  is  situated  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  valley,  near  the  head  of  the  Bolan  Pass 
and  close  to  the  Pishin  valley,  at  an  elevation  of  5900  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  a 
mud  wall ;  in  its  centre,  on  an  artificial  mound,  is  a  fort 
which  commands  a  very  fine  and  extensive  view  of  the 
neighbouring  valley. 

QUEVEDO  VILLEGAS,  FRANCISCO  (1580-1645),  the 
greatest  satiric  writer  of  Spain,  was  born  in  1580  at  Madrid, 
where  his  father,  who  came  from  the  mountains  of  Burgos, 
was  secretary  to  Anne  of  Austria,  fourth  wife  of  Philip  II. 
Early  left  an  orphan  and  without  other  protection  than 
that  of  his  guardian,  D.  Agustin  de  Villanueva,  protonotary 
of  Aragon,  the  young  man  educated  himself  and  chose 
his  own  career.  Full  of  zeal  to  conquer  all  knowledge,  he 
betook  himself  to  Alcala,  the  nearest  university  to  Madrid, 


where  in  a  few  years  he  covered  a  vast  field  of  study, 
acquiring  a  knowledge  of  classical  and  modern  tongues — of 
Italian  and  French,  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  of  philosophy  (or 
what  passed  by  that  name),  theology,  civil  law,  and 
economics.  His  masters  were  astounded  at  his  erudition, 
and  his  fame  reached  beyond  Spain ;  at  twenty-one  he 
was  in  correspondence  with  Justus  Lipsius  on  questions  of 
Greek  and  Latin  literature,  and  the  great  scholar  loaded 
him  with  praises  and  treated  him  as  an  equal.  These 
years  of  study  left  a  great  and  permanent  influence  on 
Quevedo's  style ;  to  them  are  due  the  pedantic  traits  and 
mania  for  quotations  which  strike  and  offend  us  in  most 
of  his  works. 

The  licentiate  of  Alcala  next  betook  himself  to  the  court 
and  mingled  with  the  corrupt  society  that  surrounded 
Philip  III.,  or  rather  the  duke  of  Lerma,  then  the  real 
ruler  of  Spain.  The  cynical  greed  of  the  ministers,  the 
meanness  of  their  flatterers,  the  corruption  of  all  the  royal 
officers,  the  financial  scandals,  the  shamelessness  of  the 
women,  brutalized  by  the  low  place  given  to  them  in 
family  life  and  by  the  practices  of  a  purely  formalist 
religion,  formed  a  spectacle  which  soon  awoke  in  Quevedo 
his  talent  as  a  painter  of  manners.  At  Madrid  or  at 
Valladolid,  where  the  court  resided  from  1601  to  1605,  he 
mingled  freely  with  these  intrigues  and  disorders,  and  soon 
lost  the  purity  of  his  morals,  but  not  his  independence, 
his  uprightness  and  integrity.  From  this  period  date  his 
first  Dreams  (Sueilos),  satirical  fantasies  in  which  the  spirit 
and  manner  of  Lucian  and  Dante  are  combined.  "  Dream 
of  Skulls,"  "The  Possessed  Alguazil,"  "The  Stables  of 
Pluto,"  "The  Madhouse  of  Love,"  such  are  the  titles  of 
these  earliest  writings  composed  in  1607-8,  which  in  some 
degree  recall  the  "  Dances  of  Death  "  of  the  later  Middle 
Ages  ;  the  author  is  transported  in  sleep  to  hell,  where  he 
assists  at  the  long  and  lamentable  procession  of  men  of  all 
conditions,  professions,  and  trades  who  move  toward  their 
punishment,  clad  in  their  most  characteristic  vices  and 
absurdities.  The  series  was  continued  from  1612  to  1622 
by  "  The  World  as  it  is  "  and  the  "  Review  of  Witticisms." 
With  the  Dreams  may  be  associated  certain  works  of  similar 
scope  and  tone,  e.g.,  To  every  one  according  to  his  Works,  and 
Fortune  made  Reasonable,  where  Jupiter  in  concert  with 
Fortune,  whom  he  has  caused  to  stop  her  wheel,  orders  all 
kinds  of  men  instantly  to  resume  their  true  nature  and  the 
condition  they  deserve :  thus  the  physician  becomes  a 
hangman,  the  accused  a  judge,  the  painted  lady  a  duenna 
and  witch,  and  so  forth. 

In  1609  Quevedo  entered  into  relations  with  the  famo 
D.  Pedro  Tellez  Giron,    duke  of  Osuna,  with  whom  hi 
fortunes  were  linked  for  more  than  ten  years.     The  duke, 
celebrated   for  his   bold  enterprises   of   war  against   th 
Queen  of  the  Adriatic,  for  his  share  in  the  conspiracy  o 
Venice  in  1618,  for  the  luxurious  splendour  of  his  vicere; 
rule  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  and  finally  for  his  terrible  di 
grace,  recognized  Quevedo's  unusual  merits  and  made  hi 
his  secretary.     Thus  between  1611  and  1620  he  learn 
politics, — the  one  science  which  he  had  perhaps  till  the 
neglected, — initiated    himself    into    the    questions    tha 
divided  Europe,  and  penetrated  the  designs  and  ambition 
of  the  neighbours  of  Spain  as  well  as  the  secret  history  o: 
the  guilty  intriguers  protected  by  the  favour  of  Philip  III. 
The   result   was   that  he  wrote   several  political    works, 
particularly  a   lengthy  treatise,   The   Policy  of  God  and 
the   Government   of  Christ,  in   which   he   lays  down  the 
duties  of  kings   by  displaying  to  them  how  Christ   has 
governed  His  church.     The  disgrace  of  the  duke  of  Osuna 
(1620)  reached  Quevedo,  who  was  arrested  and  exiled  to 
La  Torre  de  Juan  Abad  in  New  Castile,  where  he  possessed 
lands    and    of    which   he    afterwards   became   seignior. 
Quevedo,    though    involved  in  the   process    against   the 


Q  U  E  — Q  U  E 


179 


duke,  remained  faithful  to  him  in  his  misfortunes,  and 
bore  exile  and  prison  with  resignation.  On  the  death  of 
Philip  III.  (31st  March  1621),  he  recommended  himself 
to  the  first  minister  of  the  new  king  by  celebrating  his 
accession  to  power  and  saluting  him  as  the  vindicator  of 
public  morality  in  an  elegant  epistle,  in  the  style  of 
Juvenal,  on  The  Present  Habits  of  the  Spaniards.  Olivares 
recalled  him  from  his  exile  and  gave  him  a  charge  in  the 
palace,  and  from  this  time  Quevedo  resided  almost  con- 
stantly at  court,  where  he  acquired  a  position  of  great 
weight,  only  comparable  to  that  of  Voltaire  in  the  France  of 
last  century.  Like  Voltaire,  he  became  a  sort  of  oracle,  and 
exercised  in  Spain  a  kind  of  political  and  literary  jurisdic- 
tion due  to  his  varied  relations  and  knowledge,  but  especi- 
ally to  his  biting  and  unbridled  wit,  which  had  no  respect 
of  persons  and  laid  bare  every  sore.  General  politics,  social 
economy,  war,  finance,  literary  and  religious  questions,  all 
fell  under  his  dissecting  knife,  and  he  had  a  dissertation, 
a  pamphlet,  or  a  song  for  everything.  One  day  he  is  de- 
fending St  James,  the  sole  patron  of  Spain,  against  a 
powerful  coterie  that  wished  to  associate  St  Teresa  with 
him,  and  meeting  these  antagonists  with  the  vehemence  of 
a  warm  patriot  and  the  learning  of  a  professional  theo- 
logian ;  next  day  he  is  writing  against  the  duke  of  Savoy, 
the  hidden  enemy  of  Spain,  or  against  the  measures  taken 
to  change  the  value  of  the  currency ;  or  once  more  he  is 
engaged  with  the  literary  school  of  Gongora,  whose  affecta- 
tions and  designed  obscurity  of  style  seem  to  him  to  sin 
against  the  genius  of  the  Castilian  tongue.  And  in  the 
midst  of  this  incessant  controversy  on  every  possible 
subject  he  finds  time  to  compose  a  comic  romance,  Don 
Pablo  of  Segovia  (1626), — a  masterpiece  of  sparkling  verve 
and  fun,  which  admirably  continues  the  series  of  Lazarillo 
de  Tonnes  and  Guzman  de  Alfarache, — to  pen  a  dissertation 
on  The  Constancy  and  Patience  of  Job  (1631),  to  translate 
St  Francis  de  Sales  and  Seneca,  to  compose  thousands  of 
verses,  and  to  correspond  with  Spanish  and  foreign  scholars. 
But  Quevedo  was  not  to  maintain  unscathed  the  high 
position  won  by  his  knowledge,  talent,  and  biting  wit. 
The  government  of  Olivares,  which  he  had  welcomed  as 
the  dawn  of  a  political  and  social  regeneration,  made  things 
worse  instead  of  better,  committed  fault  upon  fault,  and 
led  the  country  to  ruin.  Quevedo  saw  this  and  could  not 
hold  his  peace.  An  anonymous  petition  in  verse  enumerat- 
ing to  the  king  in  strong  terms  the  grievances  of  his  sub- 
jects was  found  in  the  early  part  of  December  1639  under 
the  very  napkin  of  Philip  IV.  It  was  shown  to  Olivares, 
who  exclaimed,  "I  am  ruined";  but  before  his  fall  he 
sought  vengeance  on  the  libeller.  His  suspicions  fell  on 
Quevedo,  who  had  enemies  glad  to  confirm  them.  Quevedo 
was  arrested  on  December  7,  and  carried  under  a  strong 
escort  to  the  neighbouring  convent  of  Leon,  where  he  was 
kept  in  rigorous  confinement  till  the  fall  of  the  minister 
(23d  January  1643)  restored  him  to  light  and  freedom, 
but  not  to  the  health  which  he  had  lost  in  his  dungeon. 
He  had  little  more  than  two  years  to  live,  and  these  were 
spent  in  inactive  retreat,  first  at  La  Torre  de  Juan  Abad, 
and  then  at  the  neighbouring  Villanueva  de  los  Infantes, 
where  he  died  September  8,  1645. 

Quevedo  was  of  middle  height,  with  black,  somewhat  crisp  hair, 
a  very  fair  complexion,  a  broad  forehead,  and  very  sharp  eyes 
always  furnished  with  spectacles.  The  upper  part  of  his  body  was 
well  built  but  the  lower  part  deformed  :  he  limped,  and  his  feet 
turned  inwards.  Though  of  very  dissolute  manners,  he  loved  study 
most,  and  lived  surrounded  by  books.  He  had  a  table  on  wheels 
for  reading  in  bed  and  a  stand  that  enabled  him  to  read  at  table. 
His  conversation,  as  one  might  guess  from  his  books,  was  sparkling, 
full  of  unexpected  turns  and  slyness,  and  many  bon-mots  are 
ascribed  to  him.  A  few  days  before  his  death,  as  he  was  about  to 
dictate  his  last  will,  the  curate  who  attested  it  invited  him  to  assign 
a  sum  for  music  at  his  funeral.  "  Music ! "  said  the  dying  man;  "  let 
those  who  hear  it  pay  for  that." 


As  a  satirist  and  humorist  Quevedo  stands  in  the  first  rank  of 
Spanish  writers  ;  his  other  literary  work  does  not  count  for  much. 
I.  I.  Chifflet,  in  a  letter  of  February  2,  1629,  calls  him  "  a  very 
learned  man  to  be  a  Spaniard,"  and  indeed  his  erudition  was  of  a 
solid  kind,  but  he  merits  attention  not  as  a  humanist,  philosopher, 
and  moralist,  but  as  the  keen  polemic  writer,  the  pitiless  mocker, 
the  profound  observer  of  all  that  is  wicked  and  absurd  in  human 
nature,  and  at  the  same  time  as  a  finished  master  of  style  and  of 
all  the  secrets  of  the  Spanish  tongue.  His  style  indeed  is  not 
absolutely  pure,  and  already  belongs  to  the  period  of  decadence. 
Quevedo,  who  ridiculed  so  well  the  bad  taste  of  "cultism,"  fell  him- 
self into  another  fault  and  created  the  style  called  "  conceptism, " 
which  hunts  after  ambiguous  expressions  and  "double  entendres." 
But,  though  involved  and  overcharged  with  ideas,  his  style  is  of 
singular  force  and  originality  ;  after  Cervantes  he  is  the  greatest 
Spanish  writer  of  the  17th  century. 

There  is  an  excellent  collected  edition  of  Quevedo's  prose  works  with  a  good 
life  of  the  author  by  D.  Aureliano  Fernandez-Guerra  (Bibl.  Ribadeneyra,  vols. 
xxiii.  and  xlviii.)  ;  his  poetical  works  in  vol.  Ixix  of  the  same  collection  are  badly 
edited  by  D.  Florenzio  laner.  (A.  M.-F.) 

QUEZAL,  or  QTJESAL,  the  Spanish-American  name  for 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  birds,  abbreviated  from  the 
Aztec  or  Maya  Quetzal-tototl,  the  last  part  of  the  com- 
pound word  meaning  fowl,  and  the  first,  also  written 
Cuetzal,  the  long  feathers  of  rich  green  with  which  it  is 
adorned.1  The  Quezal  is  one  of  the  TKOGONS  (q.v.),  and 
was  originally  described  by  Hernandez  (Historia,  p.  13), 
whose  account  was  faithfully  copied  by  Willughby.  Yet  the 
bird  remained  practically  unknown  to  ornithologists  until 
figured  in  1825,  from  a  specimen  belonging  to  Leadbeater,2 
by  Temminck  (PI.  col.,  372)  who,  however,  mistakenly 
thought  it  was  the  same  as  the  Trogon  pavoninus,  a  con- 
generic but  quite  distinct  species  from  Brazil,  that  had  just 
been  described  by  Spix.  The  scientific  determination  of 
the  Quetzal-bird  of  Central  America  seems  to  have  been 
first  made  by  Bonaparte  in  1826,  as  Trogon  paradiseus, 
according  to  his  statement  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Pro- 
ceedings for  1837  (p.  101);  but  it  is  not  known  whether  the 
fact  was  ever  published.  In  1832  the  Begistro  Trimestre,  a 
literary  and  scientific  journal  printed  at  Mexico,  of  which 
few  copies  can  exist  in  Europe,  contained  a  communication 
by  Dr  Pablo  de  la  Llave,  describing  this  species  (with 
which  he  first  became  acquainted  prior  to  1810,  from 
examining  more  than  a  dozen  specimens  obtained  by  the 
natural-history  expedition  to  New  Spain  and  kept  in  the 
palace  of  the  Retiro  near  Madrid)  under  the  name  by  which 
it  is  now  commonly  known,  Pharomacnis  mocino.3  These 
facts,  however,  being  almost  unknown  to  the  rest  of  the 
world,  Gould,  in  the  Zoological  Proceedings  for  1835  (p.  29), 
while  pointing  out  Temminck's  error,  gave  the  species  the 
name  of  Trogon  resplendens,  which  it  bore  for  some  time. 
Yet  little  or  nothing  was  generally  known  about  the  bird 
until  Delattre  sent  an  account  of  his  meeting  with  it  to  the 
Echo  dit  Monde  Savant  for  1843,  which  was  reprinted  in 
the  Revue  Zoologique  for  that  year  (pp.  163-165).  In  1860 
the  nidification  of  the  species,  about  which  strange  stories 
had  been  told  to  the  naturalist  last  named,  was  deter- 
mined, and  its  eggs,  of  a  pale  bluish-green,  were  procured 


1  The  Mexican  deity  Quetzal-coatl  had  his  name,  generally  trans- 
lated "  Feathered  Snake,"  from  the  quetzal,  feather  or  bird,  and  coatl, 
snake,  as  also  certain  kings  or  chiefs,  and  many  places,  e.g.,  Quetzal- 
apan,  Quetzaltepec,  and  Quezaltenango,  though  perhaps  some  of  the 
last  were  named  directly  from  the  personages  (cf.  Bancroft,  Native 
Races  of  the  Pacific  States,  vol.  v.,  Index).     Quetzal-itzli  is  said  to  be 
the  emerald. 

2  This  specimen  had  been  given  to  Mr  Canning  (a  tribute,  perhaps, 
to  the  statesman  who  boasted  that  he  had  "  called  a  New  World  into 
existence  to  redress  the  balance  of  the  Old")  by  Mr  Schenley,  a  diplo- 
matist, and  was  then  thought  to  be  unique  in  Europe  ;  but,  apart  from 
those  which  had  reached  Spain,  where  they  lay  neglected  and  uude- 
scribed,  James  Wilson  says  (Illustr.  Zoology,  pi.  vi.,  text)  that  others 
were  brought  with  it,  and  that  one  of  them  was  given  to  the  Edinburgh 
Museum.     On  the  21st  day  of  the  sale  of  Bullock's  Museum  in  1819, 
Lot  38  is  entered  in  the  Catalogue  as  "  The  Tail  F«ather  of  a  magni- 
ficent undescribed  Trogon  "  and  probably  belonged  to  this  species. 

3  De  la  Llave's  very  rare  and  interesting  memoir  was  reprinted  by 
M.  Salle  in  the  Revue  et  Magazin  de  Zoologie  for  1861  (pp.  23-33). 


180 


Q  U  E  —  Q  U  I 


by  Mr  Robert  Owen  (P.  Z.  S.,  1860,  p.  374;  Ibis,  1861, 
p.  66,  pi.  ii.  fig.  1);  while  further  and  fuller  details  of  its 
habits  (of  which  want  of  space  forbids  even  an  abstract 
here)  were  made  known  by  Mr  Salvin  (Ibis,  1861,  pp. 
138-149)  from  his  own  observation  of  this  very  local  and 
remarkable  species.  Its  chief  home  is  in  the  mountains 
near  Coban  in  Vera  Paz,  but  it  also  inhabits  forests  in 
other  parts  of  Guatemala  at  an  elevation  of  from  6000  to 
9000  feet. 

The  Quezal  is  hardly  so  big  as   a   Turtle-Dove.     The 


Quezal,  male  and  female. 

cock  has  a  fine  yellow  bill  and  a  head  bearing  a  rounded 
crest  of  filamentous  feathers ;  lanceolate  scapulars  over- 
hang the  wings,  and  from  the  rump  spring  the  long  flowing 
plumes  which  are  so  characteristic  of  the  species,  and  were 
so  highly  prized  by  the  natives  prior  to  the  Spanish  con- 
quest that  no  one  was  allowed  to  kill  the  bird  when  taken, 
but  only  to  divest  it  of  its  feathers,  which  were  to  be  worn 
by  the  chiefs  alone.  These  plumes,  the  middle  and  longest 
of  which  may  measure  from  three  feet  to  three  feet  and  a 


half,  with  the  upper  surface,  the  throat,  and  chest,  are  of  a 
resplendent  golden-green,1  while  the  lower  parts  are  of  a 
vivid  scarlet.  The  middle  feathers  of  the  tail,  ordinarily 
concealed,  as  are  those  of  the  Peacock,  by  the  uropygials, 
are  black,  and  the  outer  white  with  a  black  base.  In  the 
hen  the  bill  is  black,  the  crest  more  round  and  not  fila- 
mentous, the  uropygials  scarcely  elongated,  and  the  vent 
only  scarlet.  The  eyes  are  of  a  yellowish-brown.  Southern 
examples  from  Costa  Rica  and  Veragua  have  the  tail-coverts 
much  narrower,  and  have  been  needlessly  considered  to 
form  a  distinct  species  under  the  name  of  P.  costaricemie. 
There  are,  however,  some  good  congeneric  species,  P.  anti- 
sianus,  P^-fulgidus,  P.  auriceps,  and  P.  pavoninus,  from 
various  parts  of  South  America,  and,  though  all  are  beauti- 
ful birds,  none  possess  the  wonderful  singularity  of  the 
Quezal.  (A.  N.) 

QUEZALTENANGO,  a  city  of  Guatemala,  capital  of 
the  province  of  its  own  name,  lies  on  the  Siguila  in  a 
fertile  district  about  25  or  30  miles  to  the  west  of  Lake 
Atitlan,  on  the  high  road  between  the  city  of  Guatemala 
and  the  Mexican  province  of  Chiapas.  It  has  a  cathedral 
and  other  public  buildings,  carries  on  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  and  wool,  and  contains  from  20,000  to  30,000 
inhabitants,  mostly  Indians.  In  the  days  of  the  Quich6 
power  Quezaltenango,  or,  as  it  was  then  called,  Xelahuh, 
was  one  of  the  largest  and  most  flourishing  cities  in  the 
country.  The  Spanish  city  was  founded  by  Alvarado  in 
1524. 

QUIETISM,  a  peculiar  form  of  MYSTICISM  (q.v.)  within 
the  modern  Catholic  Church,  mainly  associated  with  the 
names  of  Madame  GUYON  and  MIGUEL  DE  MOLINOS  (qq.v.} 
See  also  FENELON. 

QUILIMANE,  or  KILIMANE  (the  former  being  the 
Portuguese  spelling),  a  Portuguese  town  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa,  at  the  head  of  a  district  of  the  province  of 
Mozambique,  lies  12  miles  inland  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Quilimane  or  Qua  Qua,  which,  an  independent 
stream  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  during  the  rainy  season 
becomes  a  deltaic  branch  of  the  Zambesi,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  Mutu,  a  cross  channel  or  ditch.  The  town 
lies  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  at  a  point  where  it  is 
still  about  a  mile  broad,  and  as  many  as  fifty  coasting 
vessels  may  be  seen  at  a  time  in  the  harbour.  Large 
steamers  are  obliged  to  lie  off  the  river  mouth  till  high 
tide.  Almost  all  the  European  merchants  live  in  one  long 
acacia-shaded  street  or  boulevard  skirting  the  river,  while 
the  Indian  merchants  or  Banyans  occupy  another  street  run- 
ning at  right  angles.  The  natives  have  their  hut-clusters 
hid  among  the  tropical  vegetation  which  begins  at  the  very 
end  of  the  street  and  rapidly  passes  off  into  the  uninvaded 
swamp-forest.  The  whole  site  is  low  and  unhealthy,  and 
the  Portuguese  have  done  next  to  nothing  to  improve  it. 
The  total  population  is  between  6000  and  7000.  Quili- 
mane, at  one  time  the  capital  of  the  Arab  kingdom  of 
Angoza,  was  seized  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  16th  century, 
and  became  in  the  18th  and  the  early  part  of  the  19th  the 
chief  slave  mart  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa.  In  modern 
times  it  has  been  the  starting  point  of  several  exploring 
expeditions — notably  of  Livingstone's  up  the  Zambesi  to 
Lake  Nyassa  in  1861. 

QUILL.     See  FEATHERS  and  PEN. 

QUILLOTA,  a  town  of  Chili,  at  the  head  of  a  district 
in  the  province  of  Valparaiso,  lies  30  miles  by  rail  north- 
east of  Valparaiso,  on  the  south  or  left  bank  of  the 
Aconcagua,  about  20  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  one  of 
the  oldest  towns  in  the  country,  and  since  the  opening  of 
the  railway  in  1863  it  has  grown  so  that  in  population 

1  Preserved  specimens,  if  exposed  to  the  light,  lose  much  of  their 
beauty  in  a  few  years,  the  original  glorious  colour  becoming  a  clingy 
greenish-blue. 


Q  U  I  —  Q  U  I 


181 


(11,369  in  1875)  it  is  exceeded  only  by  the  capital  and 
six  other  towns.  It  is  famous  for  the  quality  of  its  chiri- 
moyas  (Anona  Cherimolia)  and  lucumas  ;  and  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood there  are  rich  copper  mines.  In  1822  and  1851 
it  suffered  from  earthquakes. 

QUILON,  a  seaport  town  in  Quilon  district,  Travancore 
state,  Madras  presidency,  India,  between  the  towns  of 
Trevandrum  and  Aleppi,  in  8°  54'  N.  lat,  and  76°  37'  E. 
long.  It  is  a  healthy  town,  and  contained  in  1881  a  popu- 
lation of  13,588.  It  enjoys  great  facilities  of  water  com- 
munication, and  has  an  active  export  trade  in  timber, 
cocoa-nuts,  ginger,  pepper,  &c.  The  outer  point  of  the 
town  (Tangacheri)  is  slightly  elevated  above  the  adjoining 
ground,  and  contains  high  cocoa-nut  trees.  Besides  being 
a  very  projecting  point,  Quilon  is  rendered  still  more 
unsafe  to  approach  by  the  bank  of  hard  ground  called  the 
Tangacheri  reef  which  extends  some  distance  to  the  south- 
west and  west  of  the  point  and  along  the  coast  to  the 
northward.  There  is,  however,  good  anchorage  in  a  bight 
about  3  miles  from  the  fort.  Quilon  is  one  of  the  oldest 
towns  on  the  Malabar  coast,  and  continued  to  be  a  place  of 
considerable  importance  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century.  It  was  garrisoned  by  a  strong  British  force  from 
1803  to  1830;  but  the  subsidiary  force  has  since  been 
reduced  to  one  native  regiment,  whose  cantonments  lie  to 
the  east  of  the  town.  The  town  is  385  miles  south-west  of 
Madras. 

QUIMPER,  or  QUIMPER-CORENTIN,  a  town  of  France, 
formerly  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Cornouailles,  and 
now  the  chief  town  of  the  department  of  Finistere,  is  situ- 
ated 158  miles  north-west  of  Nantes  and  68  miles  south- 
east of  Brest  on  the  railway  between  those  towns.  The 
delightful  valley  in  which  it  lies  is  surrounded  by  high 
hills  and  traversed  by  the  Steir  and  the  Odet,  which, 
meeting  above  the  town,  form  a  navigable  channel  for 
vessels  of  150  tons  during  the  rest  of  their  journey  to 
the  sea  (11  miles).  With  its  communal  population  of 
15,288,  Quimper  ranks  in  Finistere  next  to  Brest  and 
Morlaix.  The  only  articles  in  which  it  has  any  consider- 
able trade  are  fish  and  marine  manures ;  and  in  1882  the 
total  movement  of  the  port  was  31  vessels  (2976  tons) 
entering  and  36  vessels  (3352  tons)  clearing.  The  real 
interest  of  the  town  lies  in  its  old  churches  and  its  historic 
associations.  Of  the  old  town-walls  a  few  portions  are  still 
preserved  in  the  terrace  of  the  episcopal  palace  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  college.  Quimper  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop  belonging  to  the  province  of  Rennes.  The  cathedral, 
dedicated  to  the  patron  .saint  St  Corentin  and  erected 
between  1239  and  1515,  has  a  fine  fa9ade,  the  pediment 
of  which  is  crowned  by  an  equestrian  statue  of  King 
Grallon,  and  adorned  (like  several  other  external  parts  of 
the  building)  with  heraldic  devices  cut  in  granite.  Two 
lateral  towers  with  modern  spires  (1854-56)  and  turrets 
reach  a  height  of  247  feet.  The  total  length  of  the  build- 
ing is  303  feet  and  its  width  52,  the  length  of  the  transept 
118  feet  and  the  height  66.  The  nave  and  the  transept 
are  in  the  style  of  the  15th  century,  and  the  central  boss 
bears  the  arms  of  Anne  of  Brittany  (1476-1514).  The 
terminal  chapel  of  the  apse  dates  from  the  13th  century. 
In  the  side  chapels  are  the  tombs  of  several  early  bishops. 
The  high  altar,  tabernacle,  and  ciborium  are  costly  works 
of  contemporary  art.  The  pulpit  panels  represent  episodes 
in  the  life  of  St  Corentin.  Of  the  other  churches  may  be 
mentioned  St  Matthieu,  rebuilt  at  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century,  with  a  fine  belfry;  the  church  of  Locmaria, 
dating  from  the  llth  century;  and  the  college  chapel,  in 
the  "Jesuit"  style.  The  old  seminary  is  now  used  as  a 
poorhouse,  and  there  is  also  a  lunatic  asylum  in  the  town. 
The  public  library  in  the  town-hall  possesses  25,000 
volumes.  The  museum  built  in  1869-70  contains  archae- 


ological collections  and  about  1300  paintings  and  draw- 
ings.    In  1868  a  bronze  statue  of  Laennec  the  inventor  of- 
the  stethoscope  (born  at  Quimper  in  1781)  was  erected  in 
Place  St  Corentin. 

Quimper,  or  at  least  its  suburb  Locmaria  (which  lies  below  the 
town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Odet),  was  occupied  in  the  time 
of  the  Romans,  and  numerous  traces  of  the  ancient  foundations 
still  exist.  At  a  later  period  Quimper  became  the  capital  of 
Cornouailles  and  the  residence  of  its  kings  or  hereditary  counts.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  Grallon  Meur  (i.e.,  the  Great)  who  brought 
the  name  of  Cornouailles  from  Great  Britain  and  founded  the 
bishopric,  which  was  first  held  by  St  Corentin  about  495.  Ho  el, 
count  of  Cornouailles,  marrying  the  sister  and  heiress  of  Duke 
Conan  in  1066,  united  the  countship  with  the  duchy  of  Brittany. 
Quimper  was  surrounded  by  walls  in  the  course  of  the  13th 
century.  It  suffered  greatly  in  the  local  wars  of  succession.  In 
1344  it  was  savagely  sacked  by  Charles  of  Blois.  Monfort  did 
not  succeed  in  his  attempt  to  take  the  town  by  storm  on  August 
11,  1345,  but  it  opened  its  gates  to  his  son  John  IV.  in  1364 
after  the  victory  at  Auray.  At  a  later  period  it  sided  with  the 
League.  Besides  Laeunec,  already  mentioned,  it  has  given  birth  to 
Kerguelen  the  navigator,  Freron  the  critic,  Hardouin  the  anti- 
quary, and  Count  Louis  de  Carne.  Doubtless  on  account  of  its  dis- 
tance from  the  capital,  Quimper,  like  Carpentras  and  Landerneau, 
has  undeservedly  been  made  a  frequent  butt  of  French  popular  wit. 

QUINAULT,  PHILIPPE  (1635-1688),  a  dramatist  of 
merit,  and  the  only  European  writer  who  has  made  the 
opera  libretto  a  work  of  literature  (so  much  so  that  the 
popularity  of  opera  may  be  said  to  be  not  a  little  due 
to  him),  was  born  at  Paris  on  June  3,  1635.  He  was 
educated  by  the  liberality  of  Tristan,  the  author  of 
Marianne.  His  first  play  was  produced  at  the  Hotel  de 
Bourgogne  in  1653  when  Quinault  was  only  eighteen. 
It  is  said  that  it  was  the  occasion  of  an  important  innova- 
tion in  dramatic  history.  Tristan  had  offered  it  and  it 
had  been  accepted  as  his  own  at  the  price  of  a  hundred 
crowns,  which,  though  little  enough,  was  twice  the  regular 
price  of  a  few  years  before.  When  Tristan  told  the  actors 
that  it  was  the  work  of  a  novice  they  wished  to  throw  up 
their  bargain  and  only  held  to  it  on  the  terms  of  a  ninth 
part  of  the  receipts.  The  piece  succeeded  and  Quinault 
followed  it  up,  but  he  also  read  for  the  bar ;  and  in  1660, 
when  he  married  a  widow  with  money,  he  bought  himself 
a  place  in  the  Cour  des  Comptes.  Then  he  tried  tragedies 
(Agrippa,  &c.)  with  more  success  than  desert.  He  re- 
ceived one  of  the  literary  pensions  then  recently  established, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1670. 

Up  to  this  time  he  had  written  some  sixteen  or  seven- 
teen comedies,  tragedies,  and  tragi-comedies,  of  which  the 
tragedies  were  mostly  of  very  small  value  and  the  tragi- 
comedies not  of  much  more.  But  his  comedies — especially 
his  first  piece  Les  Rivales,  L'Amant  Indiscret  (1654) 
(which  has  some  likeness  to  Moliere's  jZtourdi,  and  was 
with  it  used  to  make  up  Newcastle's  and  Dryden's  Sir 
Martin  Mar-all),  Le  Fantume  Amoureux  (1659),  and  La 
Mere  Coquette  (1665),  perhaps  the  best — are  much  better. 
None  of  these  styles,  however,  made  Quinault  worthy  of 
a  place  here.  In  1671  he  contributed  to  the  singular 
miscellany  of  Psyche,  in  Avhich  Corneille  and  Moliere  also 
had  a  hand,  and  which  was  set  to  the  music  of  Lulli. 
Here  he  showed  a  remarkable  faculty  for  lyrical  drama, 
and  from  this  time  till  just  before  his  death  he  confined 
himself  to  composing  libretti  for  Lulli's  work.  This  was 
not  only  very  profitable  (for  he  is  said  to  have  received 
four  thousand  livres  for  each,  which  was  much  more  than 
was  usually  paid  even  for  tragedy),  but  it  established 
Quinault's  reputation  as  the  master  of  a  new  style, — so 
much  so  that  even  Boileau,  who  had  previously  attacked 
and  satirized  his  dramatic  work,  was  converted,  less  to  the 
opera,  which  he  did  not  like,  than  to  Quinault's  remarkably 
ingenious  and  artist-like  work  in  it.  His  libretti  are 
among  the  very  few  which  are  readable  without  the  music, 
and  which  are  yet  carefully  adapted  to  it.  They  certainly 
do  not  contain  very  exalted  poetry  or  very  perfect  drama. 


182 


Q  U  I  — Q  U  I 


But  they  are  quite  free  from  the  ludicrous  doggerel  which 
(not  merely  in  English)  has  made  the  name  libretto  a  by- 
word, and  at  the  same  time  they  have  quite  enough  dra- 
matic merit  to  carry  the  reader,  much  more  the  spectator, 
along  with  them.  It  is  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that 
Quinault,  coming  at  the  exact  time  when  opera  became 
fashionable  out  of  Italy,  had  very  much  to  do  with  estab- 
lishing it  as  a  permanent  European  genre.  His  first 
piece  after  Psyche  was  a  kind  of  classical  masque,  The  Feast 
of  Love  and  Bacchus  (1672).  Then  came  Cadmus  (1674), 
then  in  the  same  year  and  the  three  following  Alceste, 
Thesee,  Atys  (one  of  his  best-liked  pieces),  and  Isis.  All 
these,  it  may  be  observed,  were  classical  in  subject,  and  so 
was  Proserpine  (1680),  which  was  superior  to  any  of  them. 
The  Triumph  of  Love  (1681)  is  a  mere  ballet,  but  in  Persee 
and  Phaeton  Quinault  returned  to  the  classical  opera. 
Then  he  finally  deserted  it  for  romantic  subjects,  in  which 
he  was  even  more  successful.  Amadis  (1684),  Roland 
(1685),  and  Armide  (1686)  are  his  masterpieces,  the  last 
being  the  most  famous  and  the  best  of  all.  It  should 
perhaps  be  observed  that  the  very  artificiality  of  the 
French  lyric  of  the  later  17th  century  and  its  resemblance 
to  alexandrines  cut  into  lengths  were  aids  to  Quinault  in 
arranging  lyrical  dialogue.  Lulli  died  in  1687,  and 
Quinault,  his  occupation  gone  (for  the  two  had  now 
worked  together  for  more  than  fifteen  years,  and  it  would 
probably  have  been  difficult  to  find  another  composer 
equally  well  suited  to  his  librettist)  became  devout,  began 
a  poem  called  the  "  Destruction  of  Heresy,"  and  died  on 
November  26,  1688.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is 
that  of  1739  (Paris,  5  vols.). 

QUINCE.  Among  botanists  there  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  whether  or  not  the  quince  is  entitled  to  take  rank 
as  a  distinct  genus  or  as  a  section  of  the  genus  Pyrus.  It 
is  not  a  matter  of  much  importance  whether  we  call  the 
quince  Pyrus  Cydonia  or  Cydonia  vulgaris.  For  practical 
purposes  it  is  perhaps  better  to  consider  it  as  distinct 
from  Pyrus,  differing  from  that  genus  in  the  twisted 
manner  in  which  the  petals  are  arranged  in  the  bud,  and 
in  the  many-celled  ovary,  in  which  the  numerous  ovules 
are  disposed  horizontally,  not  vertically  as  in  the  pears. 
The  quinces  are  much-branched  shrubs  or  small  trees  with 
entire  leaves,  small  stipules,  large  solitary  white  or  pink 
flowers  like  those  of  a  pear  or  apple,  but  with  leafy  calyx- 
lobes,  and  a  many-celled  ovary,  in  each  cell  of  which  are 
numerous  horizontal  ovules.  The  common  quince  is  a 
native  of  Persia  and  Anatolia,  and  perhaps  also  of  Greece 
and  the  Crimea,  but  in  these  latter  localities  it  is  doubtful 
whether  or  not  the  plant  is  not  a  relic  of  former  cultivation. 
By  Franchet  and  Savatier  P.  Cydonia  is  given  as  a  native 
of  Japan  with  the  native  name  of  "maroumerou."  It  is 
certain  that  the  Greeks  knew  a  common  variety  upon  which 
they  engrafted  scions  of  a  better  variety  which  they  called 
Kvoutviov,  from  Cydon  in  Crete,  whence  it  was  obtained, 
and  from  which  the  names  Cydonia,  Codogno  (Italian), 
Coudougner  and  Coing  (French),  Quitte  (German),  and 
Quince  have  been  derived.  Pliny  (//.  N.,  xv.  11.)  men- 
tions that  the  fruit  of  the  quince,  Malum  cotoneum,  warded 
off  the  influence  of  the  evil  eye ;  and  other  legends  connect 
it  with  ancient  Greek  mythology,  as  exemplified  by  statues 
in  which  the  fruit  is  represented,  as  well  as  by  represent- 
ations on  the  walls  of  Pompeii.  The  fragrance  and 
astringency  of  the  fruit  of  the  quince  are  well  known,  and 
the  seeds  are  used  medicinally  for  the  sake  of  the  mucilage 
they  yield  when  soaked  in  water,  a  peculiarity  which  is 
not  met  with  in  pears.  This  mucilage  is  analogous  to, 
and  has  the  same  properties  as,  that  which  is  formed  from 
the  seeds  of  linseed.  In  English  gardens  three  varieties 
are  cultivated — the  apple-shaped  quince,  the  pear-shaped 
quince,  and  the  Portugal  quince;  the  last-named  has  larger 


fruits  than  the  other  two  (4  inches  in  length,  3-3^  in 
width),  of  a  rich  yellow  colour  when  ripe  and  with  less 
astringency,  hence  it  is  better  suited  for  culinary  and  con- 
fectionary purposes  than  the  other  two,  but  is  said  to  be 
somewhat  more  tender.  The  common  quince  and  its 
varieties  are  very  largely  used  as  "  dwarfing  "  stocks  on 
which  choice  pears  are  engrafted.  The  effect  is  to  restrain 
the  growth  of  the  pear,  increase  and  hasten  its  fruitful- 
ness,  and  enable  it  to  withstand  the  effects  of  cold  (see 
HORTICULTURE,  vol.  xii.  p.  213).  The  common  Japan 
quince,  Pyrus  or  Cydonia  japonica,  is  grown  in  gardens 
for  the  sake  of  its  flowers,  which  vary  in  colour  from 
creamy  white  to  rich  red,  and  are  produced  during  the 
winter  and  early  spring  months.  C.  Maulei,  a  recently 
introduced  shrub  from  Japan,  bears  a  profusion  of  equally 
beautiful  orange-red  flowers,  which  are  followed  by  fruit  of 
a  yellow  colour  and  agreeable  fragrance,  so  that,  when 
cooked  with  sugar,  it  forms  an  agreeable  conserve,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  ordinary  quince.  The  fruit  of  the  ordinary 
Japan  quince  is  quite  uneatable. 

QUINCY,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  county  seat 
of  Adams  county,  Illinois,  occupies  a  limestone  bluff  125 
feet  above  low-water  mark  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi at  the  extreme  western  point  of  the  State.  The  river 
is  crossed  here  by  the  great  bridge  of  the  Hannibal  and 
St  Joseph  Railroad.  Quincy  Bay,  an  arm  of  the  river,  is 
the  finest  natural  harbour  for  steamboats  on  the  upper 
Mississippi.  By  water  Quincy  is  160  miles  above  St  Louis, 
and  by  rail  263  miles  south-west  of  Chicago  via  Galesburg. 
Commanding  an  extensive  view,  being  well  built,  having 
excellent  waterworks,  and  forming  an  important  centre  in 
the  railway  system  of  the  region,  Quincy  is  both  an  attrac- 
tive and  a  prosperous  place,  with  very  miscellaneous  in- 
dustries. Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  court-houses, 
St  John's  cathedral  (1877),  a  medical  college  (1873),  a  city 
library,  and  several  hospitals  and  asylums.  The  population 
in  1860  was  13,718;  in  1870,  24,052  (1073  coloured); 
and  in  1880,  27,268  (1508  coloured).  Laid  out  in  1825 
or  about  three  years  after  the  arrival  of  the  first  white 
settler,  Quincy  was  made  a  town  in  1834,  and  a  city  in 
,1839. 

QUINCY,  a  township  and  seaport  of  the  United  States, 
in  Norfolk  county,  Massachusetts,  on  a  small  bay  of  its 
own  name  in  the  south  of  Massachusetts  Bay  and  7  miles 
south-south-east  of  Boston  by  rail.  It  is  best  known  for 
its  great  granite  quarries,  in  connexion  with  which  was 
constructed  in  1827  the  first  (horse)  railway  in  the  United 
States,  and  as  the  birthplace  of  Governor  John  Hancock 
and  Presidents  John  Adams  and  John  Quincy  Adams. 
Among  the  principal  buildings — chiefly  situated  in  the 
village,  which  lies  on  an  elevated  plain  near  the  centre  of 
the  township — are  the  granite  town-house,  the  so-called 
Adams  Temple  (a  church  erected  in  1828),  beneath  the 
portico  of  which  are  the  tombs  of  the  two  Presidents  Adams, 
the  Adams  Academy,  a  home  for  infirm  sailors,  a  public 
library,  and  the  mansions  of  the  Quincy  and  Adams  families, 
whose  estates  occupied  the  greater  portion  of  the  township. 
Quincy,  which  till  1792  formed  part  of  Braintree,  had  5017 
inhabitants  in  1850,  6779  in  1860,  7442  in  1870  and 
10,570  in  1880. 

QUINCY,  JOSIAH,  JR.  (1744-1775),  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  1744,  is  the  most  eminent  of  a  well-known  family 
whose  founder  emigrated  to  New  England  in  1633.  At 
the  time  of  his  death,  at  the  age  of  thirty-one,  he  had  won 
distinction  as  a  lawyer,  and  his  place  was  secured  in  history 
as  among  the  most  eloquent,  the  most  clear-sighted,  and 
the  most  devoted  of  the  men  who  led  the  American  colo- 
nists in  the  measures  preliminary  to  the  revolution  In 
1767  he  entered  upon  the  public  discussion  of  political 
questions,  maintaining  with  great  ability  and  courage  the 


Q  U  I  — Q  U  I 


183 


duty  of  his  countrymen  to  resist  any  encroachments  upon 
their  right  to  self-government.  In  1770  he  wrote  A n 
Address  of  the  Merchants,  Traders,  and  freeholders  of  Boston 
in  favour  of  a  non-importation  Act,  asserting,  about  the 
same  time,  in  a  newspaper  article  that  Americans  would 
"  know,  resume,  assert,  and  defend  their  rights  "  by  the 
"  arts  of  war  "  if  "  the  arts  of  policy  "  should  fail.  In 
December  1773  he  took  an  active  and  leading  part  in  the 
town-meeting  which  virtually  ordered  the  destruction  of 
the  cargoes  of  the  tea-ships  in  Boston  harbour.  The  appeal 
to  the  other  towns  for  help  to  sustain  Boston  against  the 
enforcement  of  the  consequent  Acts  of  Parliament  was 
written  by  him ;  and  soon  after  there  appeared  under  his 
own  name  Observations  on  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  with  Thoughts 
on  Civil  Society  and  Standing  Armies,  his  longest  and  most 
important  political  paper,  which  made  him  a  marked  man 
both  in  England  and  America.  He  sailed  a  few  months 
afterwards  for  England  with  the  approval  of  the  leading 
revolutionists,  to  present,  though  unofficially,  to  the  ministry 
and  other  public  men  the  grievances  and  the  determination 
of  the  colonists.  After  six  months  failing  health — he  had 
long  been  threatened  with  consumption — compelled  him 
to  return  home,  and  he  died  on  shipboard  as  the  vessel 
was  entering  the  harbour  of  Gloucester,  Massachusetts, 
April  26,  1775. 

A  memoir  written  by  his  only  son,  JOSIAH  QUINCY  (1772-1864), 
containing  his  life,  correspondence,  and  the  Observations  on  the 
Boston  Port  Bill,  was  published  in  1825  (2<1  cd.  1874).  This  only 
son  of  Josiah  Quincy,  jun.,  born  in  Boston  in  February  1772,  lived 
to  be  three  times  the  age  of  his  father,  and  filled  public  stations 
for  more  years  than  his  father  lived  ;  he  was  a  member  of  Congress 
during  the  eventful  period  from  1805  to  1813  ;  as  the  second  mayor 
of  Boston  his  sagacity  and  energy  insured  the  future  prosperity  of 
that  city  ;  in  Congress  he  maintained  at  the  head  of  the  Federal 
party  the  struggle  with  the  disastrous  foreign  policy  of  the  adminis- 
trations of  Jefferson  and  Madison,  and  the  dangerous  growth  of  the 
slave-power,  which  he  never  ceased  to  oppose  ;  as  president  of  Har- 
vard College  for  sixteen  years  (1829-45)  he  increased  the  usefulness 
and  added  to  the  influence  of  that  seat  of  learning.  He  wrote  a 
history  of  the  college  for  two  hundred  years,  which  was  also  largely 
a  history  of  Massachusetts.  He  died  in  June  1864  in  the  ninety- 
third  year  of  his  age.  A  life  of  him,  by  his  youngest  sou  Edmund 
Quincy,  an  accomplished  scholar  and  well-known  author,  was  pub- 
lished in  1867. 

QUINET,  EDGAR  (1803-1875),  was  born  at  Bourg-en- 
Bresse,  in  the  department  of  the  Ain,  France,  on  February 
17,  1803.  His  father,  Jerome  Quinet,  had  been  a  com- 
missary in  the  army,  but  being  a  strong  republican  and 
disgusted  with  Napoleon's  usurpation,  he  gave  up  his  post 
and  resided  either  at  Bourg  or  at  a  country  house  which  he 
possessed  in  the  neighbourhood,  devoting  himself  to  scien- 
tific and  mathematical  study.  Edgar,  who  was  an  only 
child,  was  much  alone,  but  his  mother  (whose  name  was 
Eugenie  Rozat  Lagis,  and  who  was  a  person  of  education 
and  strong  though  somewhat  unorthodox  religious  views) 
exercised  great  influence  over  him.  He  was  sent  to  school 
first  at  Bourg  and  then  at  Lyons,  where  he  took  no  part 
in  a  celebrated  barring  out  which  led  to  the  expulsion  of 
his  schoolfellow  Jules  Janin.  On  leaving  school  his  father 
wished  him  to  go  into  the  army  and  then  suggested  busi- 
ness. But  Quinet  was  determined  upon  literature,  and 
after  a  time  got  his  Avay.  His  first  publication,  the  Tab- 
lettes  du  Juif  Errant,  appeared  in  1823.  Being  struck 
with  Herder's  Philosophic  der  Geschichte,  he  undertook  to 
translate  it,  learnt  German  for  the  purpose,  published  his 
work  in  1827,  and  obtained  by  it  considerable  credit.  At 
this  time  he  was  introduced  to  Cousin  and  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Michelet.  He  had  visited  Germany  and 
England  before  the  appearance  of  his  book.  Cousin  pro- 
cured him  a  post  on  a  Government  mission  to  the  Morea 
in  1829,  and  on  his  return  he  published  in  1830  a  book 
on  La  Crece  Moderne.  Some  hopes  of  employment  which 
he  had  after  the  revolution  of  February  were  frustrated 


by  the  reputation  of  speculative  republicanism  which  he 
had  acquired.  But  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes,  and  for  some  years  contributed  to  it  numer- 
ous essays,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  was  that  on 
"Les  Epopees  Fra^aises  du  Xllerae  Sie"cle,"  an  early 
though  not  by  any  means  the  earliest  appreciation  of  the 
long-neglected  chansons  de  geste.  Ahasverus,  his  first  ori- 
ginal work  of  consequence,  appeared  in  1833.  This  is  a 
singular  prose  poem  in  language  sometimes  rather  bom- 
bastic but  often  beautiful.  Shortly  afterwards  he  married 
Minna  Mor6,  a  German  girl  with  whom  he  had  fallen  in 
love  some  years  before.  Then  he  visited  Italy,  and,  besides 
writing  many  essays,  produced  two  poems,  Napoleon  and 
Promethee  (1833),  which  being  written  in  verse  (of  which 
he  was  not  a  master)  are  inferior  to  Ahasverus.  In  1838 
he  published  a  vigorous  reply  to  Strauss's  Life  of  Jesus, 
and  in  that  year  he  received  the  Legion  of  Honour, 
In  1839  he  was  appointed  professor  of  foreign  literature 
at  Lyons,  where  he  began  the  brilliant  course  of  lectures 
afterwards  embodied  in  the  Genie  des  Religions.  Two 
years  later  he  was  transferred  to  the  College  de  France 
and  the  Genie  des  Religions  itself  appeared  (1842). 

Quinet's  Parisian  professorship  was  more  notorious  than 
fortunate,  owing,  it  must  be  said,  to  his  own  fault.  His 
chair  was  one  of  Southern  Literature,  but,  neglecting  his 
proper  subject,  he  chose,  in  conjunction  with  Michelet,  to 
engage  in  a  violent  polemic  with  the  Jesuits  and  with 
Ultramontanism.  Two  books  bearing  exactly  these  titles 
appeared  in  1843  and  1844,  and  contained,  as  was  usual 
with  Quinet,  the  substance  of  his  lectures.  These  excited 
so  much  disturbance  and  the  author  so  obstinately  refused 
to  confine  himself  to  literature  proper  that  in  1846  the 
Government  put  an  end  to  them — a  course  which  was  not 
disapproved  by  the  majority  of  his  colleagues.  By  this 
time  Quinet  was  a  pronounced  republican  and  something 
of  a  revolutionist.  He  appeared  in  arms  during  the  dis- 
turbances which  overthrew  Louis  Philippe,  and  was  elected 
by  the  department  of  the  Ain  to  the  Constituent  and  then 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  where  he  figured  among  the 
extreme  Radical  party.  He  had  published  in  1848  Les 
Revolutions  d' Italic,  one  of  his  principal  though  not  one 
of  his  best  works.  He  wrote  numerous  pamphlets  dur- 
ing the  short-lived  second  republic,  attacked  the  Roman 
expedition  with  all  his  strength,  and  was  from  the  first  an 
uncompromising  opponent  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon.  He 
was  banished  from  France  after  the  coup  d'etat,  and  estab- 
lished himself  at  Brussels.  His  wife  had  died  some  time 
previously,  and  he  now  married  Mademoiselle  Assaki,  the 
daughter  of  a  Roumanian  poet.  At  Brussels  he  lived  for 
some  seven  years,  during  which  he  published  Les  Esclaves 
(1853),  a  dramatic  poem,  Marnix  de  Ste  Aldegonde  (1854), 
a  study  of  that  Reformer  in  which  he  very  greatly  exagger- 
ates Sainte  Aldegonde's  literary  merit,  and  some  other 
books.  He  then  moved  to  Veytaux  on  the  shore  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  where  he  continued  to  reside  till  the  fall 
of  the  empire.  Here  his  pen  was  busier  than  ever.  In 
1860  appeared  a  singular  book  somewhat  after  the  fashion 
of  Ahasverus  entitled  Merlin  VEnchanteur,  in  1862  a 
Histoire  de  la  Campagne  de  1815,  in  1865  an  elaborate 
book  on  the  French  Revolution,  in  which  the  author, 
republican  as  he  was,  blamed  the  acts  of  the  revolutionists 
unsparingly,  and  by  that  means  drew  down  on  himself 
much  wrath  from  more  thoroughgoing  partisans.  Many 
pamphlets  date  from  this  period,  as  does  La  Creation 
(1870),  a  third  book  of  the  class  of  Ahasverus  and  Merlin, 
but  even  vaguer,  dealing  not  with  history,  legend,  or 
philosophy,  but  with  physical  science  for  the  most  part. 

Quinet  had  refused  to  return  to  France  to  join  the 
Liberal  opposition  against  Napoleon  III.,  but  immediately 
after  Sedan  he  returned.  He  was  then  restored  to  his  pro- 


184 


Q  U  I-Q  U  I 


fessorahip,  and  during  the  siege  wrote  vehemently  against 
the  Germans.  He  was  elected  deputy  by  the  department 
of  the  Seine  in  1871,  and  was  one  of  the  most  obstinate 
opponents  of  the  terms  of  peace  between  France  and 
Germany.  He  continued  to  write  till  his  death,  which 
occurred  at  Versailles  on  the  27th  March  1875.  Le  Siege 
de  Paris  et  la  Defense  Nationale  appeared  in  1871,  La 
Republique  in  1872,  Le  Livre  de  VExile  in  the  year  of  its 
author's  death  and  after  it.  This  has  been  followed  by 
three  volumes  of  letters  and  some  other  work.  Quinet  had 
already  in  1858  published  a  semi-biographic  book  called 
Histoire  de  mes  Idees.  The  whole  of  his  very  numerous 
works,  the  chief  of  which  have  been  already  named,  have 
appeared  in  a  uniform  edition  of  which  some  thirty  volumes 
are  now  published.  His  second  wife,  in  1870,  published 
certain  Memoires  dExil.  There  is  in  English  an  elaborate 
Early  Life  and  Writings  of  Edgar  Quinet,  by  R.  Heath 
(London,  1881),  but  it  does  not  go  beyond  the  year  1842. 

Quinet's  character  was  extremely  amiable,  and  his  letters  to  liis 
mother,  his  accounts  of  liis  early  life,  and  so  forth  are  likely  always 
to  make  him  interesting.  He  was  also  a  man  of  great  moral  con- 
scientiousness, and  as  far  as  intention  went  perfectly  disinterested, 
though  it  may  perhaps  be  questioned  whether  the  disappointment 
which  he  met  with  for  years  after  the  revolution  of  February  had 
not  an  insensible  influence  in  determining  his  republicanism.  But 
he  never  temporized,  and,  as  has  been  said  above,  hesitated  not  to 
criticize  his  own  party  as  severely  as  his  opponents.  He  had,  how- 
ever, as  a  writer,  a  thinker,  and  a  politician,  drawbacks  which  pre- 
vented him  from  taking  the  first  rank,  and  which  will  probably  make 
his  works,  except  those  which  are  purely  personal,  less  and  less  read 
in  the  future.  As  a  writer  his  chief  fault  is  want  of  concentration, 
as  a  thinker  and  politician  vagueness  and  want  of  practical  deter- 
mination. His  work  is  very  extensive  and  abounds  in  passages  of 
great  beauty.  But  no  single  book  of  his  can  be  called  a  master- 
piece, and  none  is  of  such  a  kind  that  the  reader  feels  the  subject 
to  have  been  thoroughly  treated  in  accordance  with  a  definite  and 
consistent  principle  or  series  of  principles.  Of  verse  he  had  but 
little  command,  and  his  abundance  in  a  certain  kind  of  effusive 
prose  wants  chastisement  and  criticism.  The  singular  rhapsodies, 
of  which  in  the  three  books  Ahasverus,  Merlin,  and  La  Creation  he 
has  left  great  store,  are  too  diffuse,  too  inorganic,  and  too  devoid  of 
coherent  and  positive  intention  to  rank  very  high.  They  are  more 
like  recorded  dreams  than  anything  else.  His  historical  and  philo- 
sophical works  on  the  other  hand,  though  showing  much  reading, 
fertile  thought,  abundant  facility  of  expression,  and  occasionally, 
where  prejudice  does  not  come  in,  acute  judgment,  are  rather  (as 
not  a  few  of  them  were  in  fact)  reported  lectures  than  formal 
treatises.  His  rhetorical  power  was  altogether  superior  to  his 
logical  power,  and  the  natural  consequence  is  that  his  work  is  full 
of  contradictious.  These  contradictions  were,  moreover,  due  not 
merely  to  an  incapacity  or  an  unwillingness  to  argue  strictly,  but 
also  to  the  presence  in  his  mind  of  a  large  number  of  inconsistent 
tastes  and  prejudices  which  he  either  could  not  or  would  not  co- 
ordinate into  an  intelligible  creed.  Thus  he  has  the  strongest 
attraction  for  the  picturesque  side  of  medievalism  and  catholicity, 
the  strongest  repulsion  for  the  restrictions  which  mediaeval  and 
Catholic  institutions  imposed  on  individual  liberty.  He  refused  to 
submit  himself  to  any  form  of  positive  orthodoxy,  yet  when  a  man 
like  Strauss  pushed  unorthouoxy  to  its  extreme  limits  Quinet 
revolted.  As  a  politician  he  acted  with  the  extreme  Radicals,  yet 
universal  suffrage,  the  cardinal  doctrine  of  Radicalism,  disgusted  h"im 
as  unreasonable  in  its  principle  and  dangerous  in  its  results.  His 
pervading  characteristic,  therefore,  is  that  of  an  eloquent  vagueness, 
very  stimulating  and  touching  at  times,  but  as  deficient  in  coercive 
force  of  matter  as  it  is  in  lasting  precision  and  elegance  of  form. 
Heia  less  inaccurate  in  fact  than  Michelet,  but  he  is  also  much  less 
one-ideaed,  and  the  result  is  that  he  seldom  attains  to  the  vivid 
representation  of  which  Michelet  was  a  master.  (G.  SA.) 

QUININE,  the  most  important  of  the  active  principles 
contained  in  cinchona  bark  (see  CINCHONA,  vol.  v.  p.  780). 
Although  the  value  of  this  bark  in  the  treatment  of 
intermittent  fevers  became  widely  known  in  1638  through 
the  cure  of  the  countess  of  Chinchon,  it  was  not  until 
1810  that  any  attempt  was  made  to  determine  definitely 
the  active  principles  to  which  its  properties  were  due.  In 
that  year  Gomez  of  Lisbon  obtained  a  mixture  of  alkaloids 
by  treating  an  alcoholic  extract  of  the  bark  with  water 
and  then  adding  a  solution  of  caustic  potash.  To  this  he 
gave  the  name  of  cinchonino.  In  1820  two  French 


chemists,  Pelletier  and  Caventou,  proved  that  the  cin- 
chonino of  Gomez  contained  two  alkaloids  which  they 
named  quinine  and  cinchonine.  Some  years  afterwards 
quinidine  and  cinchouidine  were  discovered,  and  subse- 
quently several  other  alkaloids,  but  in  smaller  quantity,  in 
different  varieties  of  the  bark. 

Chemistry. — The  alkaloids  appear  to  exist  in  cinchona 
bark  chiefly  in  combination  with  cinchotannic  and  quinic 
acids,  since  solvents  of  the  alkaloids  in  the  free  state  do 
not  dissolve  out  any  from  the  powdered  bark.  The 
cinchotannic  acid  apparently  becomes  altered  by  atmo- 
spheric oxidation  into  a  red-colouring  matter,  known  as 
cinchono-fulvijc  acid  or  cinchona  red,  which  is  very 
abundant  in  "some  species,  as  in  C.  succirubra.  For  this 
reason  those  barks  which,  like  C.  Calisaya,  C.  offici>i< ///'.<, 
and  C.  Ledgeriana,  contain  but  little  colouring  matter  are 
preferred  by  manufacturers,  the  quinine  being  more  easily 
extracted  from  them  in  a  colourless  form.  The  value  of 
cinchona  bark  for  the  manufacture  of  quinine  depends  on 
the  amount  of  quinine  sulphate  that  can  be  prepared  from 
it  in  the  crystalline  form.  The  exact  mode  of  extraction 
adopted  by  manufacturers  is  kept  a  profound  secret. 
That  hitherto  adopted  by  the  Indian  Government  for  the 
preparation  of  the  cinchona  febrifuge  (see  below)  has  the 
merit  of  simplicity,  but  the  whole  of  the  alkaloid  present 
in  the  bark  is  not  obtained  by  it.  This  method  is  to 
exhaust  the  powdered  bark  as  far  as  possible  by  means  of 
water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  then  to  pre- 
cipitate the  mixed  alkaloids  by  caustic  soda.  Another 
method  which  is  said  to  give  better  results  consists  in 
mixing  the  powdered  bark  with  milk  of  lime,  drying  the 
mass  slowly  with  frequent  stirring,  exhausting  the  powder 
with  boiling  alcohol,  removing  the  excess  of  alcohol  by 
distillation,  adding  sufficient  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  dis- 
solve the  alkaloid  and  throw  down  colouring  matter  and 
traces  of  lime,  &c.,  filtering,  and  allowing  the  neutralized 
liquid  to  deposit  crystals.  The  sulphates  of  the  alkaloids 
thus  obtained  are  not  equally  soluble  in  water,  and  the 
sulphate  of  quinine  can  consequently  be  separated  by 
fractional  crystallization,  since,  being  less  soluble  in  water 
than  the  other  sulphates,  it  crystallizes  out  first. 

The  quinine  of  commerce  is  the  neutral  sulphate, 
containing  7£  molecules  of  water  of  crystallization,  and 
having  the  formula  (C20H24N2O2)2 .  H2SO4  +  y  H2O.  When 
crystallized  from  alcohol,  or  when  dried  over  sulphuric  acid, 
it  contains  only  2  molecules.  Cownley  has  shown  that 
the  salt  containing  2  molecules  of  water  is  the  most  per- 
manent one,  for  when  the  commercial  sulphate  containing 
7£  molecules  is  dried  at  100°  C.  it  becomes  anhydrous, 
and  when  subsequently  exposed  freely  to  the  air  it  rapidly 
absorbs  2  molecules  of  water ;  and  that  the  commercial 
salt,  if  exposed  to  the  air,  effloresces  until  only  2  mole- 
cules of  water  are  retained.1 

Two  other  sulphates  are  known.  The  one  contains  a 
single  equivalent  of  acid,  and  in  commerce  bears  the  name 
of  acid  sulphate  or  soluble  sulphate  of  quinine ;  it  is 
soluble  in  11  parts  of  water,  but  with  considerable  diffi- 
culty in  absolute  alcohol.  The  other  sulphate  contains  2 
equivalents  of  sulphuric  acid,  is  very  soluble  in  cold  water, 
but  quite  insoluble  in  ether;  it  is  not  an  article  of  commerce. 
Both  these  sulphates  crystallize  with  7  molecules  of  water. 
The  neutral  sulphate  of  quinine  occurs  in  commerce  in 
the  form  of  slender  white  acicular  crystals,  which  are  very 
light  and  bulky.  It  is  soluble  in  about  740  parts  of  cold 
water,  but  in  30  of  boiling  water,  GO  of  rectified  spirits  of 
wine  (sp.  gr.  0'85),  and  40  of  glycerin.  Its  solubility  in 
water  is  lessened  by  the  presence  of  sodium  or  magnesium 
sulphate,  but  is  increased  by  nitrate  of  potassium, 


1  Pharm.  Jour.,  [3],  vol.  vii.  p.  189. 


QUININE 


185 


chloride  of  ammonium,  and  most  acids.  It  is  not 
soluble  in  fixed  oils  or  in  ether,  although  the  pure 
alkaloid  is  soluble  in  both.  It  becomes  phosphorescent 
on  trituration.  When  prescribed  it  is  generally  rendered 
more  soluble  in  water  by  the  addition  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  or  of  citric  acid,  one  drop  of  the  former  or  fths  of  a 
grain  of  the  latter  being  used  for  each  grain  of  the 
sulphate  of  quinine. 

When  a  solution  of  quinine  is  exposed  to  sunlight  it 
assumes  a  yellowish  or  brown  colour  due  to  the  formation 
of  "  quinirctin,"  a  body  which  is  isomeric  with  quinine  but 
has  not  an  alkaline  reaction,  is  not  precipitated  by  tannin, 
and  has  an  aromatic  as  well  as  a  bitter  taste.  Quinine  is 
precipitated  from  its  solution  by  alkalies  and  their 
carbonates.  It  is  very  soluble  in  solution  of  ammonia, 
and  also  slightly  soluble  in  lime  water. 

The  acid  solution  of  sulphate  of  quinine  is  fluorescent, 
especially  when  dilute ;  it  is  levogyrate ;  and  when  a 
solution  of  chlorine  is  first  added  and  then  ammonia  an 
emerald  green  colour,  due  to  the  formation  of  thalleoquin, 
is  developed.  This  test  answers  with  a  solution  contain- 
ing only  1  part  of  quinine  in  5000,  or  in  a  solution 
containing  not  more  than  ^TJ-^^  part  if  bromine  be  used 
instead  of  chlorine.  The  fluorescence  is  visible  in  an  acid 
solution  containing  one  part  in  200,000  of  water. 

Quinine  forms  with  sulphuric  acid  and  iodine  a  com- 
pound known  as  herapathite,  4C20H24N2O2.3SO4H2.6I 
+  3H0O,  which  possesses  optical  properties  similar  to  those 
of  tourmaline;  it  is  soluble  in  1000  parts  of  boiling  water; 
and  its  sparing  solubility  in  cold  alcohol  has  been  utilized 
for  estimating  quinine  quantitatively.  The  other  alkaloids 
are  distinguished  from  quinine  thus: — quinidine  resembles 
quinine,  but  is  dextrogyrate,  and  the  iodide  is  very  in- 
soluble in  water ;  the  solution  of  cinchonidine,  which  is 
levogyrate,  does  not  give  the  thalleoquin  test,  nor  fluor- 
escence ;  cinchonine  resembles  cinchonidine  in  these 
respects,  but  is  dextrogyrate. 

Commercial  sulphate  of  quinine  frequently  contains 
from  1  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  sulphate  of  cinchonidine 
owing  to  the  use  of  barks  containing  it.  The  sulphate  of 
cinchonidine  is  more  soluble  than  that  of  quinine ;  and, 
when  1  part  of  quinine  sulphate  suspected  to  contain  it  is 
nearly  dissolved  in  24  parts  of  boiling  water,  the  sulphate  > 
of  quinine  crystallizes  out  on  cooling,  and  the  cinchonidine  j 
is  found  in  the  clear  mother  liquor,  from  which  it  can  be 
precipitated  by  a  solution  of  tartrate  of  potassium  and 
sodium.  Samples  of  quinine  in  which  cinchonidine  is 
present  usually  contain,  according  to  Hesse,  a  smaller  per- 
centage of  water  than  the  pure  sulphate,  the  cinchonidine 
salt  exercising  a  reducing  influence  on  the  quinine  salt  in 
this  respect.  Traces  of  quinidine  are  also  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  found  in  commercial  quinine,  but,  since 
quinidine  is  even  more  valuable  as  a  medicine  than  quinine, 
its  presence  does  not  detract  in  a  medicinal  point  of  view 
from  the  value  of  the  latter. 

Owing  to  its  voluminous  character,  as  much  as  18  per 
cent,  of  water  may  remain  present  in  apparently  dry 
samples  of  sulphate  of  quinine.  If  it  loses  more  than 
14'6  per  cent,  of  water  when  dried  at  100°  C.  it  contains 
an  excessive  amount  of  moisture.  Owing  to  its  variability 
in  this  respect  the  hydrochlorate  of  quinine  has  been 
recommended  as  a  more  constant  salt ;  it  also  possesses 
advantages  from  a  therapeutical  point  of  view. 

Sulphate  of  quinine  manufactured  from  cuprea  bark 
(Remijia  pedunculatcC)  is  liable  to  contain  from  '10  to 
'90  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  homoquinine,  which  almost 
coincides  in  solubility  with  sulphate  of  quinine.  Homo- 
quinine  has  been  shown  by  Paul  and  Cownley  to  be 
decomposed  on  treatment  with  caustic  soda  into  quinine 
and  a  new  alkaloid,  cupreine,  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  3. 


They  have  also  shown  that  cupreine  is  soluble  in  a  solu- 
tion of  caustic  soda  (differing  in  this  respect  from  quinine), 
and  that  therefore  it  is  easy  to  prepare  sulphate  of  quinine 
perfectly  free  from  either  homoquinine  or  cupreine.  So 
far  as  the  medicinal  properties  of  cupreine  and  homo- 
quinine  are  at  present  known  they  appear  to  be  of  no 
practical  importance.1 

In  consequence  of  the  high  price  of  the  alkaloid  an 
attempt  was  made  a  few  years  since  by  the  Government 
of  India  to  manufacture  from  cinchona  bark  a  cheap 
febrifuge  which  should  represent  the  alkaloids  contained 
in  the  bark  and  form  a  substitute  for  quinine.  This 
enterprise  met  with  such  success  that  in  1884  as  much  as 
8714  Bb  of  the  febrifuge  were  prepared;  and  during  the 
previous  year  9144  Bb  were  distributed,  of  which  4880  ft 
were  supplied  to  the  Government  institutions  at  a  cost  of 
little  more  than  a  rupee  per  ounce. 

This  mixture  is  known  as  cinchona  febrifuge,  and  is 
prepared  chiefly  from  C.  succirubra,  which  succeeds  better 
in  India  than  the  other  species  in  cultivation,  and  grows 
at  a  lower  elevation,  being  consequently  procurable  in 
large  quantities  at  a  comparatively  low  price.  A  mixture 
of  the  cinchona  alkaloids,  consisting  principally  of  cinchoni- 
dine sulphate,  with  smaller  quantities  of  the  sulphates  of- 
quinine  and  cinchonine,  is  sold  under  the  name  of  "  quine- 
tum"  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  quinine. 

In  1870  the  Indian  Government  purchased  no  less  than 
81,600  ounces  of  sulphate  of  quinine,  besides  8832  ounces 
of  the  sulphates  of  cinchonine,  cinchonidine,  and  quinidine ; 
but  at  the  present  date  it  is  able  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  its  establishments  almost  entirely  by  the  cinchona 
febrifuge  prepared  at  the  Government  plantations  in 
India. 

Although  quinine  is  manufactured  in  the  United  States, 
a  large  quantity  has  been  imported  from  Europe  since  the 
high  duty  levied  on  its  manufacture  has  been  removed. 
There  is  considerable  difficulty  in  obtaining  trustworthy 
statistics  as  to  the  extent  of  the  manufacture  of  quinine. 
The  largest  sale  that  has  taken  place  in  America  appears 
to  have  been  in  1883,  when  1|-  tons  were  put  up  to  auction, 
and  in  the  same  year  16,000  ounces  were  sold  in  London 
and  a  similar  quantity  at  Berlin. 

Physiological  Action. — Quinine  arrests  the  movements 
of  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  rendering  them  round 
and  darkly  granulate,  and,  by  preventing  them  from  making 
their  exit  from  the  blood-vessels,  diminishes  or  arrests 
the  formation  of  pus  in  inflammation  and  causes  contrac- 
tion of  the  spleen  when  that  organ  is  enlarged.  It  acts 
upon  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system,  giving  rise  to 
headache  and  a  sense  of  tension  in  the  brain ;  these 
symptoms  may  be  removed  by  the  addition  of  hydrobromic 
acid  or  prevented  by  the  use  of  the  hydrobromide  of 
quinine.  It  acts  through  the  sympathetic  nervous  system 
on  the  heart,  and  is  thus  capable  of  restraining  all  the 
animal  processes  which  develop  heat,  organic  changes,  or 
muscular  action.  It  is  antagonistic  to  atropine  in  its 
physiological  action. 

The  use  of  quinine  in  medicine  dates  from  its  discovery 
in  1820.  Its  chief  value  is  as  an  antiperiodic,  especially  in 
intermittent  fevers,  but  also  in  other  diseases  when  they 
assume  a  periodic  character,  such  as  neuralgia,  asthma, 
hooping  cough,  <tc.  In  blood  poisoning,  whether  arising 
from  natural  or  traumatic  causes,  it  has  been  found  of 
great  utility.  Its  curative  powers  in  sunstroke  have  been 
repeatedly  proved  in  the  East  Indies,  and  a  dose  of 
quinine  will  often  cut  short  an  attack  of  catarrh  if  taken 
in  the  early  stage.  In  malarial  districts  persons  have 

1  Pharm.  Jour,  and  Trans.,  [3],  vol.  xii.  p.  497,  and  vol.  xv.  p. 
729. 

XX.  —  24 


186 


Q  U  I  — Q  U  I 


been  exposed  to  miasmatic  influence  without  danger  after 
taking  a  dose  or  two  of  five  grains  of  quinine  once  or  twice 
a  day.  In  the  smallest  medicinal  doses  it  is  purely  tonic, 
in  larger  ones  stimulant ;  but  it  differs  from  other  medicines 
of  the  same  class  in  the  stimulant  action  being  longer  sus- 
tained. In  large  doses  it  acts  as  a  sedative,  and  in  exces- 
sive doses  it  is  poisonous.  In  some  individuals  it  pro- 
duces an  erythematous  eruption,  and  it  is  also  known  to 
act  as  an  oxytocic.  Large  doses  also  sometimes  produce 
deafness,  and  act  injuriously  in  all  inflammatory  states  of 
the  mucous  membrane. 

The  other  alkaloids  of  cinchona  bark — quinidine,  cincho- 
nidine,  and  cinchonine — also  possess  similar  properties, 
quinidine  being  even  more  effectual  than  quinine ;  but 
cinchonine  appears  to  produce  nausea  and  gastric  disturb- 
ance. This  is  also  the  case  with  the  cinchona  febrifuge 
prepared  from  C.  succirubra. 

Until  the  year  1867  English  manufacturers  of  quinine  were 
entirely  dependent  upon  South  America  for  their  supplies  of 
cinchona  bark,  which  were  obtained  exclusively  from  uncultivated 
trees,  growing  chiefly  in  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Ecuador,  the  prin- 
cipal species  which  were  used  for  the  purpose  being  Cinchona 
Calisaya,  Wedd.  ;  C.  officinalis,  Hook.  ;  C.  macrocalyx,  var.  Paltcm, 
How.  ;  C.  Pitayensis,  Wedd.  ;  C.  micrantha,  R.  and  P.  ;  and  C. 
lancifolia,  Mutis.  Since  the  cultivation  of  cinchona  trees  was  com- 
menced in  Java,  India,  Ceylon,  and  Jamaica,  several  other  species, 
as  well  as  varieties  and  hybrids  cultivated  in  those  countries,  have 
been  used.1  Recently  C.  lancifolia,  var.  Calisaya,  Wedd.,  known 
as  the  calisaya  of  Santa  Fe,  has  been  strongly  recommended  for 
cultivation,  because  the  shoots  of  felled  trees  afford  bark  containing 
a  considerable  amount  of  quinine  ;  C.  Pitayensis  has  also  been  lately 
introduced  into  the  Indian  plantations  on  account  of  yielding  the 
valuable  alkaloid  quinidine,  as  well  as  quinine,  but  the  last  two 
species  have  not  as  yet  been  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  to  afford 
marketable  bark. 

The  first  importation  from  India  took  place  in  1867,  since  which 
time  the  cultivated  bark  has  arrived  in  Europe  in  constantly 
increasing  quantities,  London  being  the  chief  market  for  the 
Indian  barks  and  Amsterdam  for  those  of  Java.  The  principal 
sales  take  place  in  May.  In  1876,  when  Indian  calisaya  bark  first 
came  into  the  European  market,  the  imports  into  London  were  the 
following  -.—Cinchona  succirubra,  45,000  lb  ;  C.  officinalis,  20,000 
Ib  ;  C.  Calisaya,  1000  lb.  During  the  last  few  years  Cinchona  Call- 
saya  has  also  been  cultivated  extensively  in  Bolivia  and  in  Tolima, 
United  States  of  Colombia,  and  this  bark,  which  had  almost  dis- 
appeared from  commerce,  is  likely  in  a  few  years  to  again  become 
an  available  source  of  quinine. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  cultivated  bark  as  economically  as  possible, 
experiments  were  made  some  years  ago  ..by  M'lvor  and  others 
which  resulted  in  the  discovery  that,  if  the  bark  were  removed  from 
the  trunks  in  alternate  strips  so  as  not  to  injure  the  cambium,  or 
actively  growing  zone,  a  new  layer  of  bark  was  formed  in  one  year 
which  was  richer  in  quinine  than  the  original  bark  and  equal  in 
thickness  to  that  of  two  or  three  years'  ordinary  growth.  This  is 
known  in  commerce  as  renewed  bark.  The  process  has  been  found 
to  be  most  conveniently  practised  when  the  trees  are  eight  years 
old,  at  which  age  the  bark  separates  most  easily.  The  yield  of 
quinine  has  been  ascertained  to  increase  annually  until  the  e'leventh 
year,  at  which  it  seems  to  reach  its  maximum.  The  portion  of  the 
trunk  from  which  the  bark  has  been  removed  is  sometimes  pro- 
tected by  moss,  and  the  new  bark  which  forms  is  then  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  mossed  bark.  The  species  which  yield  the 
largest  amount  of  quinine  are  by  no  means  the  easiest  to  cultivate, 
ana  experiments  have  consequently  been  made  in  cross-fertilization 
and  grafting  with  the  view  of  giving  vigour  of  growth  to  delicate 
trees  yielding  a  large  amount  of  alkaloid  or  of  increasing  the  yield 

1  In  Java,  C.  Calisaya,  vara.  anglica,  javanica,  Jfasskar liana,  and 
Ledyeriana ;  C.  officinalis,  var.  anyustifolia ;  C.  lancifolia ;  C. 
caloptera,  Miq. ;  C.  micrantha  and  C.  succirubra,  How.  In  India, 
C.  succirubra,  C.  officinalis,  vars.  angustifolia,  crispa,  Uritusinga, 
and  Bonplandiana,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  C.  Calisaya,  vars.  Boliviana 
and  microcarpa  ;  C.  micrantha,  C.  Peruviana,  How.,  and  C.  nitida, 
R.  and  P.,  form  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  plantations.  Since 
Mr  J.  E.  Howard,  the  eminent  quinologist,  pointed  out  that  C.  Pahu- 
diana,  How.,  and  C.  Calisaya,  vars.  javanica,  Hasskarliana,  and 
anglica,  were  likely  to  lead  to  disappointment  as  quinine-yielding 
species,  these  have  been  replaced  in  the  plantations  as  rapidly  as 
possible  by  the  more  valuable  species,  of  which  C.  Ledgeriana,  yield- 
ing from  5  to  10  per  cent,  or  even  more  of  quinine,  C.  officinalis,  and 
a  hybrid  between  C.  officinalis  and  C.  succirubra  which  has  been 
named  C.  robusta,  Trinien,  are  the  most  important. 


in  strong  growing  trees  affording  but  little  quinine.  Grafting,  how- 
ever, has  not  been  found  to  answer  the  purpose,  since  the  stock  and 
the  graft  have  been  found  to  retain  their  respective  alkaloids  in  the 
natural  proportion  just  as  if  growing  separately.  Hybridization 
also  is  very  uncertain,  and  is  very  difficult  to  carry  out  effectually; 
hence  the  method  of  propagating  the  best  varieties  by  cuttings  has 
been  adopted  except  in  the  case  of  those  which  do  not  strike 
readily,  as  in  C.  Ledgeriana,  in  which  the  plants  are  grown  from 
the  shoots  of  felled  trees. 

A  few  years  ago  it  was  discovered  that  a  bark  imported  from 
the  United  States  of  Colombia  under  the  name  of  cuprea  bark,  and 
derived  from  Remijia  pcdunculata,  Triana,  and  other  species,  con- 
tained quinine  to  the  extent  of  £  to  2£  per  cent.,  and  in  1881  this 
bark  was  exported  in  enormous  quantities  from  Santander,  exceed- 
ing in  amount  the  united  importations'  of  all  the  other  cinchona 
barks ;  and  by  reason  of  its  cheapness  this  has  since  that  date  been 
largely  used  for  the  manufacture  of  quinine. 

The  imports  of  cinchona  bark  into  London  in  1884,  including 
cuprea  bark,  are  stated  to  have  been  59,287  bales,  into  France 
9271  bales,  and  into  New  York  8150  bales. 

Cinchona  bark  as  imported  is  never  uniform  in  quality.  The 
South-American  kinds  contain  a  variable  admixture  of  inferior 
barks,  and  the  cultivated  Indian  barks  comprise,  under  the  respec- 
tive names  of  yellow,  pale,  and  red  barks,  a  number  of  varieties  of 
unequal  value.  For  this  reason  a  sample  from  every  b.ale  is 
analysed  before  the  importations  are  offered  for  sale. 

The  alkaloids  are  contained,  according  to  Howard,  chiefly  in  the 
cellular  tissue  next  to  the  liber.  No  definite  knowledge  has  as  yet 
been  attained  of  the  exact  steps  by  which  quinine  is  formed  in 
nature  in  the  tissues  of  the  bark,  nor  have  the  numerous  endeavours 
that  have  been  made  to  build  up  quinine  artificially  or  to  obtain 
some  idea  of  its  constitution  by  splitting  it  up  into  its  component 
parts  been  more  successful.  Nearly  all  that  is  known  at  present 
has  resulted  from  analyses  of  the  leaves,  bark,  and  root.  From 
these  it  appears  that  quinine  is  present  only  in  small  quantities  in 
the  leaves,  in  larger  quantity  in  the  stem  bark,  and  increasing  in 
proportion  as  it  approaches  the  root,  where  quinine  appears  to 
decrease  and  eiuchonine  to  increase  in  amount,  although  the  root 
bark  is  generally  richer  in  alkaloids  than  that  of  the  stem.  The 
altitude  at  which  the  trees  are  grown  seems  to  affect  the  production 
of  quinine,  since  it  has  been  proved  that  the  yield  of  quinine  in 
C.  officinalis  is  less  when  the  trees  are  grown  below  6000  feet  than 
above  that  elevation,  and  that  cinchonidine,  quinidine,  and  resin 
are  at  the  same  time  increased  in  amount.  It  has  also  been  shown 
by  Broughton  that  C.  pcruviana,  which  yields  cinchonine  but  no 
quinine  at  a  height  of  6000  feet,  when  grown  at  7800  feet  gives 
nearly  as  much  crystallized  sulphate  of  quinine,  and  almost  as 
readily,  as  C.  officinalis.  Karsten  also  ascertained  by  experiments 
made  at  Bogota  on  C.  lancifolia  that  the  barks  of  one  district  were 
sometimes  devoid  of  quinine,  while  those  of  the  same  species  from 
a  neighbouring  locality  yielded  3£  to  44  per  cent,  of  the  sulphate  ; 
moreover,  Dr  De  Vrij  found  that  the  bark  of  C.  officinalis  cultivated 
at  Utakamand  varied  in  the  yield  of  quinine  from  1  to  9  per  cent. 
In  these  cases  the  variation  may  have  been  due  to  altitude.  Free 
access  of  air  to  the  tissues  also  seems  to  increase  the  yield  of  quinine, 
for  the  renewed  bark  is  found  to  contain  more  quinine  than  the 
original  bark. 


QUINSY.     See  TONSILITIS. 

QUINTANA,  MANUEL  JOSE  (1772-1857),  Spanish  poet 
and  man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Madrid  on  April  11, 
1772,  and  after  completing  his  studies  at  Salamanca  was 
called  to  the  bar.  In  1-801  he  produced  an  unsuccessful 
tragedy  El  Duque  de  Viseo;  his  Pelayo  (1805),  appeal- 
ing as  it  did  to  the  spirit  of  resistance  to  foreign  oppression, 
was  much  more  successful.  The  first  volume  of  his  some- 
what rhetorical  and  superficial  Vidas  de  Espaiioles  Celebres, 
in  1807,  containing  lives  of  Spaniards  who  had  success- 
fully opposed  the  enemies  of  their  country,  was  similar  in 
motive,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1808 
Quintana,  as  journalist  (Variedades,  and  Semanario 
patriotico),  as  secretary  to  the  cortes  and  the  regency,  and 
also  as  "the  Spanish  Tyrtteus"  (Odas  d  Espaiia  libre, 
1808),  rendered  important  services  to  the  patriotic  cause. 
On  the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  1814  he  shared  the 
fate  of  other  "  liberals  "  or  "  constitutionalists,"  and  had  to 
endure  six  years'  imprisonment  in  Pamplona,  obtaining  his 
release  only  in  1820,  when  he  was  named  president  of  the 
department  of  public  instruction  under  the  new  Govern- 


Q  U  I  — Q  U  I 


187 


ment.  The  counter-revolution  of  1823  again  drove  him 
from  office,  to  which  he  was  once  more  restored  after  the 
death  of  the  king  in  1833.  In  1835  he  was  made  a 
senator  and  peer;  and  in  1855,  at  a  meeting  of  the  cortes, 
a  laurel  crown  was  placed  on  his  head  by  Queen  Isabella 
II.,  whose  "governor"  he  had  been  during  her  minority. 
He  died  at  Madrid  on  March  11,  1857. 

The  works  of  Quintana  form  the  19th  volume  in  Ribadaneyra's 
Biblioleca  de  Autores  Espanolcs  (1852).  The  third  and  last  volume 
of  the  Vidas  appeared  in  1833.  The  biographies  of  ISTufiez  de 
Bilboa,  Pizarro,  The  Cid,  Guzman  el  Bueno,  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova, 
and  one  or  two  others  have  been  translated  into  English. 

QUINTILIAN  (M.  FABIUS  QUINTILIANUS)  was  born  in 
the  obscure  Spanish  town  of  Calagurris  (Calahorra),  on  the 
Ebro,  in  the  country  of  the  Vascones,  not  later  than  35  A.D. 
Concerning  his  family  and  his  life  but  few  facts  remain. 
His  father  taught  rhetoric,  with  no  great  success,  at  Rome, 
and  Quintilian  must  have  come  there  at  an  early  age  to 
reside,  and  must  have  there  grown  up  to  manhood.  The 
years  from  61  to  68  he  spent  in  Spain,  probably  attached 
in  some  capacity  to  the  retinue  of  the  future  emperor 
Galba,  with  whom  he  returned  to  the  capital.  Quintilian 
must  have  brought  back  with  him  a  considerable  reputation 
as  a  rhetorician.  For  at  least  twenty  years  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Galba  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  foremost 
school  of  oratory  in  Rome,  and  may  fairly  be  called  the 
Isocrates  of  his  time.  He  also  gained  some  but  not  a 
great  repute  as  a  pleader  in  the  courts.  His  greatest 
speech  appears  to  have  been  a  defence  of  the  queen 
Berenice,  on  what  charge  is  not  known.  For  a  member 
of  a  learned  profession  his  circumstances  were  easy ;  but 
the  question  of  Juvenal,  "  How  is  it  that  Quintilian  owns 
so  many  estates? "  ought  perhaps  not  to  be  accepted  as 
evidence  of  great  wealth.  Vespasian  created  for  him  a 
professorial  chair  of  rhetoric,  liberally  endowed  with  public 
money,  and  from  this  time  he  was  unquestionably,  as 
Martial  calls  him,  "  the  supreme  controller  of  the  restless 
youth."  About  the  year  88  Quintilian  retired  from  teach- 
ing and  from  pleading,  to  compose  his  great  work  on 
the  training  of  the  orator  (Institutio  Oratorio).  After  two 
years'  retirement  he  was  entrusted  by  Domitian  with  the 
education  of  two  grand-nephews,  whom  he  destined  as  suc- 
cessors to  his  throne.  Quintilian  gained  the  titular  rank 
of  consul,  and  probably  died  not  long  before  the  accession 
of  Nerva  (96  A.D.).  A  good  many  years  earlier  his  wife 
had  died  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  leaving  him  two  sons,  one 
of  whom  died  when  seven  years  old,  the  other  in  his 
eleventh  year,  while  the  father  was  engaged  upon  his  great 
work. 

Such  is  the  scanty  record  that  remains  of  Quintilian's 
uneventful  life.  But  it  is  possible  to  determine  with  some 
accuracy  his  relation  to  the  literature  and  culture  of  his 
time,  which  he  powerfully  influenced.  His  career  brings 
home  to  us  the  vast  change  which  in  a  few  generations  had 
passed  over  Roman  taste,  feeling,  and  society.  In  the 
days  of  Cicero  rhetorical  teaching  had  been  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  Greeks.  Even  Cicero,  when  he  wrote  his 
rhetorical  works,  was  driven  to  plead  that  it  could  not 
be  disgraceful  to  teach  what  it  was  not  disgraceful  to 
learn.  The  Greek  language,  too,  was  in  the  main  the 
vehicle  of  instruction  in  rhetoric.  The  first  attempt  to 
open  a  Latin  rhetorical  school,  in  94  B.C.,  was  crushed  by 
authority,  and  not  until  the  time  of  Augustus  was  there  any 
professor  of  the  art  who  had  been  born  to  the  full  privileges 
of  a  Roman  citizen.  The  appointment  of  Quintilian  as 
professor  by  the  chief  of  the  state  marks  the  last  stage  in 
the  emancipation  of  rhetorical  teaching  from  the  old 
Roman  prejudices. 

During  the  hundred  years  or  more  which  elapsed 
between  the  death  of  Cicero  and  the  birth  of  Quintilian 
education  all  over  the  Roman  empire  had  spread  enor- 


mously, and  the  education  of  the  time  found  its  end  and 
climax  in  rhetoric.  Mental  culture  was  for  the  most  part 
acquired,  not  for  its  own  sake,  but  as  a  discipline  to- 
develop  skill  in  speaking,  the  paramount  qualification  for 
a  public  career.  Rome,  Italy,  and  the  provinces  alike 
resounded  with  rhetorical  exercitations,  which  were  pro- 
moted on  all  sides  by  professorships,  first  of  Greek,  later 
also  of  Latin  rhetoric,  endowed  from  municipal  funds. 
The  mock  contests  of  the  future  orators  roused  a  vast 
amount  of  popular  interest.  In  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Africa 
these  pursuits  were  carried  on  with  even  greater  energy 
than  at  Rome.  The  seeds  of  the  existing  culture,  such  as 
it  was,  bore  richer  fruit  on  the  fresh  soil  of  the  Western 
provinces  than  in  the  exhausted  lands  of  Italy  and  the 
East.  While  Quintilian  lived,  men  born  in  Spain  domin- 
ated the  Latin  schools  and  the  Latin  literature,  and  he 
died  just  too  soon  to  see  the  first  provincial,  also  of 
Spanish  origin,  ascend  the  imperial  throne. 

As  an  orator,  a  teacher,  and  an  author,  Quintilian  set 
himself  to  stem  the  current  of  popular  taste  which  found 
its  expression  in  what  we  are  wont  to  call  silver  Latin. 
In  his  youth  the  influence  of  the  younger  Seneca  was 
dominant.  But  the  teacher  of  Quintilian  was  a  man  of 
another  type,  one  whom  he  ventures  to  class  with  the  old 
orators  of  Rome.  This  was  Domitius  Afer,  a  rhetorician 
of  Nimes,  who  rose  to  the  consulship.  Quintilian,  however, 
owed  more  to  the  dead  than  to  the  living.  His  great  model 
was  Cicero,  of  whom  he  speaks  at  all  times  with  unbounded 
eulogy,  and  whose  faults  he  could  scarce  bring  himself  to 
mention;  nor  could  he  well  tolerate  to  hear  them  mentioned 
by  others.  The  reaction  against  the  Ciceronian  oratory 
which  had  begun  in  Cicero's  own  lifetime  had  acquired 
overwhelming  strength  after  his  death.  Quintilian  failed 
to  check  it,  as  another  teacher  of  rhetoric,  equally  an 
admirer  of  Cicero,  had  failed — the  historian  Livy.  Seneca 
the  elder,  a  clear-sighted  man  who  could  see  in  Cicero 
much  to  praise,  and  was  not  blind  to  the  faults  of  his  own 
age,  condemned  the  old  style  as  lacking  in  power,  while 
Tacitus,  in  his  Dialogue  on  Orators,  includes  Cicero  among 
the  men  of  rude  and  "  unkempt "  antiquity.  The  great 
movement  for  the  poetization  of  Latin  prose  which  was 
begun  by  Sallust  ran  its  course  till  it  culminated  in  the 
monstrous  style  of  Fronto.  In  the  courts  judges,  juries, 
and  audiences  alike  demanded  what  was  startling,  quaint, 
or  epigrammatic,  and  the  speakers  practised  a  thousand 
tricks  to  satisfy  the  demand.  Oratory  became  above  all 
things  an  art  whose  last  thought  was  to  conceal  itself. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  Quintilian's  forensic  efforts  won 
for  him  no  great  reputation. 

The  Institutio  Oratorifi  is  one  long  protest  against  the 
tastes  of  the  age.  Starting  with  the  maxim  of  Cato  the 
Censor  that  the  orator  is  "  the  good  man  who  is  skilled  in 
speaking,"  Quintilian  takes  his  future  orator  at  birth  and 
shows  how  this  goodness  of  character  and  skill  in  speaking 
may  be  best  produced.  No  detail  of  training  in  infancy, 
boyhood,  or  youth  is  too  petty  for  his  attention.  The  parts 
of  the  work  which  relate  to  general  education  are  of 
great  interest  and  importance.  Quintilian  postulates  the 
widest  culture ;  there  is  no  form  of  knowledge  from  which 
something  may  not  be  extracted  for  his  purpose ;  and  he 
is  fully  alive  to  the  importance  of  method  in  education. 
He  ridicules  the  fashion  of  the  day,  which  hurried  over 
preliminary  cultivation,  and  allowed  men  to  grow  grey 
while  declaiming  in  the  schools,  where  nature  and  reality 
were  forgotten.  Yet  he  develops  all  the  technicalities 
of  rhetoric  with  a  fulness  to  which  we  find  no  parallel  in 
ancient  literature.  Even  in  this  portion  of  the  work  the 
illustrations  are  so  apposite  and  the  style  so  dignified  and 
yet  sweet  that  the  modern  reader,  whose  initial  interest 
in  rhetoric  is  of  necessity  faint,  is  carried  along  with  much 


188 


Q  U  I--Q  U  I 


less  fatigue  than  is  necessary  to  master  most  parts  of  the 
rhetorical  writings  of  Aristotle  and  Cicero.  At  all  times 
the  student  feels  that  he  is  in  the  company  of  a  high-toned 
gentleman  who,  so  far  as  he  could  do  so  without  ceasing  to 
be  a  Roman,  has  taken  up  into  his  nature  the  best  results 
of  ancient  culture  in  all  its  forms.  His  literary  sympathies 
are  extraordinarily  wide.  When  obliged  to  condemn,  as 
in  the  case  of  Seneca,  he  bestows  generous  and  even 
extravagant  praise  on  such  merit  as  he  can  find.  He  can 
cordially  admire  even  Sallust,  the  true  fountain-head  of 
the  style  which  he  combats,  while  he  will  not  suffer 
Lucilius  to  lie  under  the  aspersions  of  Horace.  The 
passages  in  which  Quintilian  reviews  the  literature  of 
Greece  and  Rome  are  justly  celebrated.  The  judgments 
which  he  passes  may  be  in  many  instances  traditional, 
but,  looking  to  all  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  it  seems 
remarkable  that  there  should  then  have  lived  at  Rome  a 
single  man  who  could  make  them  his  own  and  give  them 
expression.  The  form  in  which  these  judgments  are 
rendered  is  admirable.  The  gentle  justness  of  the  senti- 
ments is  accompanied  by  a  curious  felicity  of  phrase. 
Who  can  forget  "the  immortal  swiftness  of  Sallust,"  or 
"  the  milky  richness  of  Livy,"  or  how  "  Horace  soars  now 
and  then,  and  is  full  of  sweetness  and  grace,  and  in  his 
varied  forms  and  phrases  is  most  fortunately  bold "  ? 
Ancient  literary  criticism  perhaps  touched  its  highest 
point  in  the  hands  of  Quintilian. 

To  comprehensive  sympathy  and  clear  intellectual 
vision  Quintilian  added  refined  tenderness  and  freedom 
from  self-assertion.  Taking  him  all  in  all,  we  may  say 
that  his  personality  must  have  been  the  most  attractive  of 
his  time — more  winning  and  at  the  same  time  more  lofty 
than  that  of  the  younger  Pliny,  his  pupil,  into  whom  no 
small  portion  of  the  master's  spirit,  and  even  some  tincture 
of  the  master's  literary  taste,  was  instilled.  It  does 
not  surprise  us  to  hear  that  Quintilian  attributed  any 
success  he  won  as  a  pleader  to  his  command  of  pathos, 
a  quality  in  which  his  great  guide  Cicero  excelled.  In 
spite  of  some  extravagances  of  phrase,  Quintilian's  lament 
(in  his  sixth  book)  for  his  girl-wife  and  his  boy  of  great 
promise  is  the  most  pathetic  of  all  the  lamentations  for 
bereavement  in  which  Latin  literature  is  so  rich.  In  his 
precepts  about  early  education  Quintilian  continually 
shows  his  shrinking  from  cruelty  and  oppression.  The 
educational  method  of  "  Orbilius,  abounding  in  blows," 
has  never  been  more  earnestly  rebuked. 

Quintilian  for  the  most  part  avoids  passing  opinions  on 
the  problems  of  philosophy,  religion,  and  politics.  The 
professed  philosopher  he  disliked  almost  as  much  as  did 
Isocrates.  He  deemed  that  ethics  formed  the  only  valuable 
part  of  philosophy  and  that  ethical  teaching  ought  to  be 
in  the  hands  of  the  rhetoricians.  In  the  divine  govern- 
ment of  the  universe  he  seems  to  have  had  a  more  than 
ornamental  faith,  though  he  doubted  the  immortality  of 
the  soul.  As  to  politics  Quintilian,  like  others  of  his 
time,  felt  free  to  eulogize  the  great  anti-Caesarean  leaders 
of  the  dying  republic,  but  only  because  the  assumption 
was  universal  that  the  system  they  had  championed  was 
gone  for  ever.  But  Quintilian  did  not  trouble  himself, 
as  Statius  did,  to  fling  stones  at  the  emperors  Caligula 
and  Nero,  who  had  missed  their  deification.  He  makes 
no  remark,  laudatory  or  otherwise,  on  the  government  of 
any  emperor  before  Domitian.  No  character  figured  more 
largely  in  the  rhetorical  controversies  of  the  schools  than 
the  ideal  despot,  but  no  word  ever  betrayed  a  conscious- 
ness that  the  actual  occupant  of  the  Palatine  might 
exemplify  the  themes.  Quintilian  has  often  been  re- 
proached with  his  flattery  of  Domitian.  No  doubt  it  was 
fulsome.  But  it  is  confined  to  two  or  three  passages,  not 
thrust  continually  upon  the  reader,  as  by  Statius  and 


Martial.  To  refuse  the  charge  of  Domitian's  expected 
successors  would  have  been  perilous,  and  equally  perilous 
would  it  have  been  to  omit  from  the  Institutio  Oratorio,  all 
mention  of  the  emperor.  And  there  was  at  the  time  only 
one  dialect  in  which  a  man  of  letters  could  speak  who  set 
any  value  on  his  personal  safety.  There  was  a  choice 
between  extinction  and  the  writing  of  a  few  sentences  in 
the  loathsome  court  language,  which  might  serve  as  an 
official  test  of  loyalty.  So  Quintilian,  man  of  honour 
though  he  was,  swallowed  the  test  as  best  he  might,  even 
as  two  generations  ago  in  England  unbelievers  took  the 
sacrament  to  avoid  exclusion  from  municipal  affairs. 

The  Latin  of 'Quintilian  is  not  always  free  from  the  faults  of 
style  which  he  condemns  in  others.  It  also  exhibits  many  of  the 
usages  and  constructions  which  are  characteristic  of  the  silver 
Latin.  But  no  writer  of  the  decadence  departs  less  widely  from 
the  best  models  of  the  late  republican  period.  The  language  is  on 
the  whole  clear  mid  simple,  and  varied  without  resort  to  rhetorical 
devices  and  poetical  conceits.  Besides  the  Institutio  Oratorio,, 
there  have  come  down  to  us  under  Quintilian's  name  19  longer 
and  145  shorter  Dcdamationes,  or  school  exercitations  on  themes 
like  those  in  the  Controversies  of  Seneca.  The  longer  pieces  are 
certainly  not  Quintilian's.  The  shorter  were  probably  published, 
if  not  by  himself,  at  least  from  notes  taken  at  his  lessons.  It  is 
strange  that  they  could  ever  have  been  supposed  to  belong  to  a 
later  century  ;  the  style  proclaims  them  to  be  of  Quintilian's  school 
and  time.  The  works  of  Quintilian  have  often  been  edited.  Of 
the  editions  of  the  whole  works  the  chief  is  that  by  Burmann 
(1720)  ;  of  the  Institutio  Oratorio,  that  by  Spalding,  completed  by 
Zumpt  and  Bonnell  (1798-1834,  the  last  volume  containing  a 
lexicon),  and  that  by  Halm  (1868).  The  tenth  book  of  the  Insti- 
tutio Oratorio,  has  often  been  separately  edited,  as  by  Krueger, 
Bonnell,  Mayor  (unfinished),  and  others.  There  is  a  critical  edition 
of  the  145  Dcdamationes  by  C.  Hitter  (1885).  (J.  S.  R.) 

QUINTUS  SMYRN^EUS,  a  late  epic  poet  of  Greece, 
sometimes  called  Quintus  Calaber  because  his  poem  was 
discovered  at  Otranto  in  Calabria.  Next  to  nothing  is 
known  of  him.  He  appears  to  have  lived  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  4th  century,  shortly  before  Nonnus.  He 
speaks  of  himself  as  having  tended  sheep  in  his  youth  at 
Smyrna  (bk.  xii.  308  sq.).  His  epic  in  fourteen  books, 
known  as  TO.  ^ff  "0/j.rjpov  or  the  Posthomerica,  takes  up 
the  tale  of  Troy  at  the  point  where  Homer's  Iliad  breaks 
off,  i.e.,  after  the  death  of  Hector,  and  carries  it  down  to 
the  capture  of  the  city  by  the  Greeks.  It  describes  the 
doughty  deeds  and  death's  of  Penthesilea  the  Amazon 
(bk.  i.),  Memnon,  son  of  the  Morning  (bk.  ii.),  and  Achilles 
(bk.  iii.) ;  the  funeral  games  in  honour  of  Achilles  (bk. 
iv.);  the  contest  for  the  arms  of  Achilles  and  the  death  of 
Ajax  (bk.  v.) ;  the  exploits  of  Neoptolemus  and  Deiphobus, 
the  deaths  of  Paris  and  CEnone,  the  capture  of  Troy  by 
means  of  the  wooden  horse,  the  sacrifice  of  Polyxena  at  the 
grave  of  Achilles,  the  departure  of  the  Greeks,  and  their 
dispersal  by  the  storm  (bks.  vi.-xiv.).  The  poet  has  no 
originality ;  in  conception  and  style  his  work  is  closely 
modelled  on  Homer.  His  materials  are  borrowed  from 
the  cyclic  poems  from  which  Virgil  also  drew,  in  particular 
the  JEtliiopis  of  Arctinus  and  the  Little  Iliad  of  Lesches. 
The  style  is  clear,  but  the  poem  is  flat  and  tedious,  in 
spite  of  the  abundance  of  similes  with  which  the  poet 
seeks  to  relieve  its  dulness. 

The  first  edition  of  Quintus  Smyrnteus  was  published  by  Aldus 
Manutius  in  1504  or  1505  ;  in  this  century  there  have  been  editions 
by  Tychsen,  1807,  Lehrs  in  the  Didot  edition  of  Hesiod,  &c.,  1841, 
and  two  editions  by  Kb'chley  in  1850  (Weidmann)  and  1853 
(Teubner).  Sainte-Beuve  has  an  essay  on  him. 

QUITO,  the  capital  of  the  republic  of  Ecuador,  South 
America,  an  archbishopric,  and  the  chief  town  of  a  depart- 
ment, lies  14'  of  latitude  south  of  the  equator,  and  in 
79°  45'  W.  long.,  at  a  height  of  9520  feet  above  the 
sea.  In  ancient  times  it  was  connected  with  Cuzco  by  a 
paved  highway,  portions  of  which  still  exist;  but  under 
Spanish  rule  it  was  allowed  to  relapse  almost  into  the 
natural  isolation  of  its  position.  Since  1870,  however, 


Q  U  O  — Q  U  O 


189 


two  carriage  roads  have  been  constructed  from  Quito  to 
Milagro  on  the  Guayaquil  river  and  to  the  province  of 
Manabi  respectively.  The  railway  projected  between  the 
city  of  Guayaquil  and  Quito  has  as  yet  advanced  inland 
only  to  Chimbo  bridge  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  so  that 
the  really  difficult  part  of  the  enterprise  remains  un- 
touched ;  a  telegraph  line,  however,  has  been  opened.  The 
distance  between  these  two  leading  cities  of  the  republic 
is  200  miles  by  road,  and  the  transit  of  goods  takes  fourteen 
days  and  costs  from  10  to  14  dollars  per  cargo  of  250  Ib. 
Though  built  on  the  eastern  skirts  of  the  magnificent 
volcano  of  Pichincha  (15,827  feet)  and  within  5  miles  of 
its  crater,  Quito  is  not  within  sight  of  the  summit,  a 
secondary  eminence  known  to  the  Incas  as  Yavira,  and 
now  as  Panecillo,  rising  between.  The  site  is  an  irregular 
plain  traversed  by  two  ravines  running  down  from  the 
mountain,  one  of  which  is  arched  over  so  as  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  alignment  of  the  streets.  Though  the 
streams  flow  east  at  first,  they  really  belong  to  the  system 
of  the  Perucho  which  discharges  into  the  Pacific  near 
Esmeraldas.  The  houses,  mostly  of  sun-dried  brick,  are 
usually  low  and  squat,  and  not  a  chimney  is  to  be  seen. 
The  public  buildings  are  also  of  a  massive  and  heavy- 
looking  Spanish  type.  In  the  principal  square  are  the 
cathedral,  with  a  fine  marble  porch,  the  Government  house, 
with  a  colonnade  running  the  whole  length  of  the  faqade, 
and  the  palace  of  the  nuncio.  But  the  finest  building  in 
Quito  is  the  college  of  the  Jesuits,  part  of  which  is  occupied 
by  the  university,  an  institution  long  rendered  interesting 
to  Englishmen  by  the  presence  of  the  venerable  botanist 
Dr  William  Jameson.  There  is  a  public  library  in  the 
city  of  20,000  volumes,  and  a  polytechnic  school  was 
instituted  in  1872.  The  local  manufactures  are  confined 
to  coarse  cotton  and  woollen  stuffs,  thread,  lace,  hosiery, 
silk,  and  a  certain  amount  of  jewellery.  About  1870  the 
population  was  estimated  by  Dr  Jameson  at  between 
30,000  and  40,000  ;  the  Almanack  de  Gotha  for  1885  states 
it  as  80,000. 

Quito  (the  city  of  the  Quitus,  a  race  akin  to  the  Quichuas  of 
Peru)  was  peacefully  conquered  by  the  Spanish  captain  Sebastian 
Benalcazar  in  1533.  It  received  the  rank  of  a  Spanish  city  in 
1541  from  Charles  V.,  and  became  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Quito  in  the  viceroyalty  of  New  Granada.  More  than  once  it  has 
suffered  severely  from  earthquakes  :  in  1797,  for  example,  40,000 
of  its  inhabitants  were  thus  destroyed  ;  and  in  March  22,  1859, 
property  was  damaged  to  the  value  of  $3,000,000. 

QUOITS.  This  pastime  resembles  the  ancient  discus- 
throwing  which  formed  one  of  the  five  games  of  the  Greek 
pentathlon  (see  Discus,  vol.  vii.  p.  258).  The  modern 
quoit,  however,  is  a  far  lighter  missile, -and  consists  of  a 
circular  iron  ring  to  be  thrown  or  pitched  in  play  at  a  fixed 
object.  This  ring  is  flattened,  having  a  thick  inner  edge 
and  thin  outer  one.  The  latter  is  slightly  indented  at  a 
given  spot  to  receive  the  tip  of  the  player's  forefinger  with- 
out cutting  it.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  weight  of  a  quoit, 
but  this  should  be  specified  before  commencing  a  match. 
The  diameter  is  restricted  to  8  inches  over  all.  Two  iron 
pins,  called  "  hobs,"  are  driven  into  the  ground  at  a  certain 
distance  apart,  generally  19  yards.  There  may  be  one  or 
more  players  a  side,  and  each  has  two  quoits.  These  he 
may  throw  successively ;  or  else  each  player  throws  one 
only  at  a  time  and  a  second  round  follows  in  the  same 
order,  as  may  have  been  agreed  on.  "  The  throwing  takes 
place  the  reverse  way  after  each  round.  A  player  grasps 
the  quoit  with  his  forefinger  along  the  outer  edge  and  the 
tip  in  the  dent,  holding  the  two  surfaces  between  the 
thumb  and  the  other  fingers.  In  pitching,  a  slight  rotary 
motion  is  imparted  by  the  wrist,  in  order  that  the  quoit 
may  pass  smoothly  and  horizontally  through  the  air,  and 
alight  flat.  Each  player  attempts  to  make  his  quoit  pitch 
on  the  hob  or  pin  so  that  the  head  of  the  latter  passes 


through  the  circular  opening  in  the  centre  of  the  missile. 
Such  a  success  is  termed  a  "ringer,"  and  two  is  scored. 
Quoits  of  opposite  sides  alighting  equidistant  from  the  pin 
do  not  score  at  all.  If  a  player  has  both  his  quoits  nearer 
the  pin  than  any  of  his  opponents  he  scores  two ;  while  if 
only  one  be  nearer  he  is  entitled  to  count  one  to  his  credit. 
The  game  is  popular  in  many  country  towns  and  villages  of 
England  and  in  the  mining  districts  of  the  Midlands  and 
Lancashire.  The  rules  were  drawn  up  as  follows  in  1 869 : — 
1.  That  the  distance  from  pin  to  pin  be  19  yards,  and  that  the 
player  stand  level  with  the  pin,  and  deliver  his  quoit  with  the  first 
step.  2.  That  no  quoit  be  allowed  which  measures  more  than  8 
inches  external  diameter,  but  the  weight  may  be  unlimited.  3. 
That  the  pins  be  1  inch  above  the  clay.  4.  That  all  measurements 
be  taken  from  any  visible  part  of  the  pin  to  the  nearest  visible  part 
of  the  quoit.  No  clay  or  quoit  to  be  disturbed.  5.  That  no  quoit 
count  unless  fairly  delivered  in  the  clay  free  from  the  outer  rim, 
and  that  no  quoit  on  its  back  count  unless  it  holds  clay  or  is 
knocked  out  by  another  quoit.  That  no  quoit  rolling  on  the  clay 
count  unless  it  first  strikes  another  quoit  or  the  pin.  6.  That  each 
player  deliver  his  quoits  in  succession,  his  opponent  then  following. 
7.  That  an  umpire  be  appointed,  and  in  all  cases  of  dispute  his 
decision  be  final. 

QUO  WARRANTO,  in  English  law,  is  the  name  given 
to  an  ancient  prerogative  writ  calling  upon  any  person 
usurping  any  office,  franchise,  liberty,  or  privilege  belonging 
to  the  crown  to  show  "  by  what  warrant "  he  maintained  his 
claim.  It  lay  also  for  non-user  or  misuser  of  an  office,  &c. 
If  the  crown  succeeded,  judgment  of  forfeiture  or  ouster 
was  given  against  the  defendant.  The  procedure  was 
regulated  by  statute  as  early  as  1278  (the  statute  of  Quo 
Warranto,  6  Edw.  I.  c.  1).  After  a  time  the  cumbrous- 
ness  and  inconvenience  of  the  ancient  practice  led  to  its 
being  superseded  by  the  modern  form  of  an  information  in 
the  nature  of  a  quo  warranto,  exhibited  in  the  Queen's 
Bench  Division  either  by  the  attorney  general  ex  officio 
or  by  the  queen's  coroner  and  attorney  at  the  instance  of 
a  private  person  called  the  relator.  The  information  will 
not  be  issued  except  by  leave  of  the  court  on  proper  cause 
being  shown.  It  does  not  lie  where  there  has  been  no 
user  or  where  the  office  has  determined.  Nor  does  it  lie 
for  the  usurpation  of  every  kind  of  office.  But  it  lies 
where  the  office  is  of  a  public  nature  and  created  by 
statute,  even  though  it  is  not  an  encroachment  upon  the 
prerogative  of  the  crown.  Where  the  usurpation  is  of  a 
municipal  office  the  information  is  regulated  by  9  Anne  c. 
20,  under  which  the  defendant  may  be  fined  and  judgment 
of  ouster  given  against  him,  and  costs  may  be  granted  for 
or  against  the  relator.  Such  an  information  must,  in  the 
case  of  boroughs  within  the  Municipal  Corporations  Act, 
1882,  be  brought  within  twelve  months  after  disqualifi- 
cation (45  &  46  Viet.  c.  50,  §  225) ;  in  the  case  of  other 
boroughs,  within  six  years  after  the  defendant  first  took 
upon  himself  the  office  (32  Geo.  III.  c.  58,  §  2).  The 
information  in  the  nature  of  a  quo  warranto,  though  nomin- 
ally a  criminal,  has  long  been  really  a  civil  proceeding,  and 
has  recently  been  expressly  declared  to  be  so  (47  &  48 
Viet.  c.  61,  §  15).  In  cases  not  falling  within  9  Anne  c. 
20,  judgment  of  ouster  is  not  usually  given.  The  most 
famous  historical  instance  of  quo  warranto  was  the  action 
taken  against  the  corporation  of  London  by  Charles  II.  in 
1684.  The  Queen's  Bench  adjudged  the  charter  and 
franchises  of  the  city  of  London  to  be  forfeited  to  the 
crown  (State  Trials,  vol.  viii.,  1039).  This  judgment  was 
reversed  by  2  Will.  &  Mary,  sess.  1,  c.  8;  and  it  was 
further  enacted,  in  limitation  of  the  prerogative,  that  the 
franchises  of  the  city  should  never  be  seized  or  forejudged 
on  pretence  of  any  forfeiture  or  misdemeanor. 

In  the  United  States  the  right  to  a  public  office  is  tried  by  quo 
'warranto  or  analogous  procedure,  regulated  by  the  State  laws. 
Proceedings  by  quo  warranto  lie  in  a  United  States  court  for  the 
removal  of  persons  holding  office  contrary  to  Art.  xiv.  §  3  of  the 
Amendments  to  the  Constitution,  Act  of  May  31,  1870,  c.  14. 


190 


E 


Ewas  written  in  Greek  originally  as  P,  following  the 
Phoenician  form ;  sometimes,  however,  a  triangle  takes 
the  place  of  the  semicircle  ;  not  unfrequently  also  a  short 
stroke  appears  where  we  have  the  lower  limb  on  the  right 
hand ;  the  reason  of  this  addition  is  not  plain :  it  can  hardly 
have  been  a  diacritical  mark  to  distinguish  R  from  P  (as 
G  from  C  at  Rome)  because  the  latter  symbol  in  Greece 
always  kept  its  two  vertical  lines  (f),  the  curved  line 
(P)  appearing  first  in  the  Roman  alphabet. 

The  sounds  denoted  by  the  same  symbol  r  differ  con- 
siderably. First,  there  is  the  true  consonantal  1 — our 
English  r  in  reed,  &c. — produced  by  raising  the  tip  only 
of  the  tongue  towards  the  front  palate ;  the  voice  escapes 
by  this  aperture,  the  side  passages  between  the  tongue  and 
the  palate  being  closed  ;  the  mechanism,  therefore,  is  just 
the  opposite  to  that  which  produces  I  (see  letter  L). 
Secondly,  there  is  the  vowel  r ;  this  is  due  to  the  space 
between  the  tip  of  the  tongue  and  the  palate  being  suffi- 
ciently great  to  allow  the  voice  to  escape  without  any 
friction ;  the  difference  between  this  and  consonantal  r  is 
parallel  to  that  between  u  and  w,  or  between  i  and  y.  This 
vowel -sound,  though  not  heard  regularly  in  any  modern 
language,  is  not  unfrequent  in  several  in  certain  combina- 
tions ;  for  example,  it  is  quite  possible  to  articulate  "father" 
as  "fath-r,"  where  the  r  alone  forms  a  syllable  and  is  there- 
fore vocalic.  This  vowel-sound  was  a  regular  sound  in  Sans- 
krit, and  was  probably  also  heard  in  the  parent  language ; 
but  in  the  derived  languages  (except  Sanskrit)  it  became 
consonantal  r  with  an  independent  vowel  preceding  or 
following;  thus  a  presumed  original  "krd"  (  =  heart), 
where  r  denotes  the  vocalic  r,  gave  in  Sanskrit  "  hrd,"  in 
Greek  KpaS-irj,  in  Latin  "  cor(d)."  Thirdly,  r  may  denote 
a  trill, — that  is  to  say,  a  sound  produced  by  the  vibration 
of  the  tongue  when  laid  loosely  against  the  palate  and  set 
in  motion  by  a  strong  current  of  breath  or  voice.  When 
the  point  of  the  tongue  is  laid  loosely  in  this  way  against 
the  palate  just  behind  the  gums  and  made  to  trill  as  voice 
passes  over  it,  we  hear  the  Scotch  and  the  French  r,  each 
of  which  is  a  trill,  not  a  consonantal  r.  The  same  sound, 
but  unvoiced,  is  heard  in  the  French  "  theatre,"  &c.,  and  is 
also  the  Welsh  rh.  A  similar  trill  at  the  back  part  of  the 
palate  gives  the  Northumbrian  "  burr." 

RAAB  (Hungarian  Gyor),  the  capital  of  a  Hungarian 
province  of  the  same  name,  lies  at  the  influx  of  the  Raab 
into  a  branch  of  the  Danube,  70  miles  to  the  south-east 
of  Vienna.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  a  pleasant  pro- 
menade laid  out  on  the  site  of  the  old  fortifications, 
and  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  The  cathe- 
dral dates  from  the  12th  century,  but  has  recently  been 
modernized  ;  the  bishop's  palace  is  an  imposing  castellated 
edifice,  with  dungeons  constructed  by  the  Turks.  The 
town  possesses  several  other  churches,  two  of  which  belong 
to  the  Protestants  and  one  to  the  Greek  Church,  besides 
convents,  schools,  and  an  academy  of  jurisprudence.  The 
theatre,  on  an  island  formed  by  the  Danube  and  the  Raab, 
is  also  a  handsome  building.  The  inhabitants,  who  num- 
bered 20,980  in  1880,  manufacture  cloth  and  tobacco  and 
carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  grain  and  horses. 

Raab  occupies  the  site  of  the  Roman  Arabona,  and  by  the  10th  cen- 
tury had  become  a  place  of  some  importance.  In  1594  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Turks,  who,  however,  retained  possession  of  it 
for  four  years  only.  In  1809  the  forces  of  the  insurgent  Hunga- 
rian noblesse  were  easily  defeated  here  by  Napoleon's  veterans ;  and 
the  attempts  made  to  maintain  the  town  against  the  Austrians  in 
1848-49  were  also  fruitless.  About  10  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Raab 
is  St  Martinsberg,  the  oldest  and  wealthiest  abbey  in  Hungary. 


RAB,  RABBI,  RABBAN,  RABBONI,  RABBENU, 
Jewish  titles  of  honour.  Rob  (31),  "lord,"  "master," 
"  teacher,"  is  the  title  prefixed  to  the  name  of  such  a  Baby- 
lonian teacher  of  the  Law  or  expounder  of  the  Mishnah  as, 
though  authorized  to  "judge  "  and  to  decide  other  religious 
questions,  has  not  been  ordained,  or  fully  ordained,  in 
Palestine.1  Rabbi  ('3~i,  paftftei,  Matt,  xxiii.  7,  £c.),  "  my 
teacher,"  is  the  title  of  a  teacher  fully  ordained  in  Pales- 
tine. Rabbdn,  "our  teacher"  or  "our  lord,"  but  also 
"  their,"  i.e.,  all  Israel's,  teacher  (Jin,  later  form  of  Din), 
was  the  title  of  the  prince  (president  of  the  synedrium) 
from  the  time  of  Gamliel  I.  (the  Gamaliel  of  St  Paul)  and 
onward.  If  a  prince-president  sprang  from  any  other  house 
than  HillePs,  who  was  a  descendant  of  David  through  the 
female  line  (as,  for  example,  R.  El'azar  b.  'Azaryah),  he  was 
not  called  by  this  highest  title  of  honour.  The  only  ex- 
ception to  this  rule  was  Rabban  Yohanan  b.  Zakkai,  to 
whom  Jewish  traditional  lore  owes  so  much, — nay,  its  very 
existence.  For  he  not  merely  had  a  distinguished  circle  of 
pupils  of  his  own  (Aboth,  ii.  8,  9),  but  he  saved  the  lives  of 
the  members  of  the  synedrium  and  secured  its  free  activity. 
Vespasian,  who  knew  him  to  have  been  friendly  to  the  cause 
of  Rome,  granted  him  "  Yamnia  and  its  sages"  at  his  request 
(T.  B.,  Gittin,  56b).  In  Babylonia,  again,  Rabbana  (Rab- 
bono)  was  the  title  of  the  Resh  Galutha,  or  "  head  of  the 
captivity."  He  who  bore  it  was  always  the  reigning  de- 
scendant of  the  house  of  David  in  the  male  line.  The  only 
person  on  whom  this  title  was  bestowed,  though  he  was  not 
Resh  Galutha,  was  Rab  Ashe  (T.  B.,  Kethuboth,  22a),  the 
principal  editor  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  who  is  reported 
to  have  united  in  his  person  riches,  learning,  and  virtues 
such  as  no  man  had  possessed  since  the  time  of  "  Rabbi," 
the  principal  editor  of  the  Mishnah  (T.  B.,  Gittin,  59a). 

RAB,  when  the  title  is  not  followed  by  an  individual 
name,  denotes  par  excellence  Abba  Arekha  (Arikha),  so 
called  either  from  the  place  Arekha  in  Babylonia,  or  be- 
cause of  his  high  stature,  or  his  eminence  as  a  man  and 
scholar.  Abba  Arekha  was  the  most  successful  teacher  of 
the  Law  and  interpreter  of  the  Mishnah  in  Babylonia, 
having  brought  the  latter  with  him  from  Palestine,  where 
he  had  received  it  orally  and  directly  from  Rabbi  Yehudah 
Hannasi;  he  taught  it  to  more  than  1200  pupils,  whom 
he  is  related  to  have  housed,  fed,  and  clothed  (T.  B., 
Kethuboth,  106a).  He  introduced  many  religious  and 
moral  reforms,  notably  in  connexion  with  marriage,  which 
are  law  among  the  Jews  of  all  countries  to  this  day.  His 
Hebrew  prose  approaches  the  sublimity  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment poetry,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  tripartite  "  addi- 
tional service "  recited  by  all  Rabbinic  Jews  on  the  two 
days  of  the  "  New  Year."  He  is  also  in  Babylonia  the  sole 
representative  of  the  sublime  Palestinian  Agadoth,  which  so 
closely  resemble  the  words  of  the  Founder  of  Christianity. 
In  patience  with  others,  and  especially  with  his  shrewish 
wife,  he  surpassed  Job  himself.  He  died  as  the  first  head 
of  the  academy  of  Sura  (somewhat  later  identified  with 
Matha  Mehasya)  in  247  A.D.,  more  than  eighty  years  old. 
RABBI,  when  the  title  is  not  followed  by  a  proper  name, 
denotes  par  excellence  Rabbi  Yehudah  Hannasi,  the  prin- 
cipal editor  of  the  Mishnah  (see  vol.  xvi.  p.  504). 


1  An  old  pronunciation  of  this  title  is  Rib,  as  in  Biribbi  ("O^l  T3), 
of  which  the  only  true  explanation  is  "  son  of  the  greatest  doctor  of 
the  age,"  applied  to  B.  Yose  b.  Halaphta  (T.  B.,  Pesahim,  lOOa),  R. 
Shime'on,  son  of  the  editor  of  the  Mishnah  (Babd  Bathra,  16b),  and 
others.  Hence  the  Talmudic  explanation  of  Exod.  xxiii.  2,  "thou  shalt 
not  gainsay  a  scholar  greater  than  thyself"  (T.  B,,  Synhedrin,  18b). 


R  A  E  — R  A  B 


191 


The  Hellenistic  RABBONI  (pa/BfSowei,  John  xx.  16)  is  the 
Aramaic  ribboni  used  by  a  slave  of  his  master,  a  son  of  his 
father,  a  wife  of  her  husband,  a  worshipper  of  his  God.  (Com- 
pare the  similar  variation  of  the  vowel  in  pisho  =  Trac^a.) 

RABBENTT  signifies  "  our  teacher "  par  excellence,  and 
means  in  Palestine  R.  Yehudah  Hannasi,  and  in  Baby- 
lonia Rab  (i.e.,  Abba  Arekha). 

Kabbah  (TGI),  also  Rubbo  and  Rubboh,  a  title  placed  in  the 
Palestinian  Talmud  and  Midrashim  after  the  names  of  certain 
teachers  (T.  Y. ,  Berakhoth,  i.  1 ;  Kilayim,  ix.  3,  and  elsewhere), 

corresponds  to  the  Hebrew  THUn  in  the  same  connexion  in  the 
Babylonian  Talmud  (Berakhoth,  6a,  and  elsewhere),  and  does  not, 
as  has  hitherto  been  supposed,  mean  "the  great"  but  simply 
"the  elder."  Thus  many  questionable  Talmudic  magnitudes 
disappear^  (S.  M.  S.-S.)  _ 

RABA  (RoBo) — i.e.,  RAB  ABA  B.  YOSEPH  B.  KAMA 
(Homo) — was,  like  his  teacher  Rabbah  and  his  fellow-pupil 
Abayye,  a  scion  of  the  house  of  Eli,  on  whom  rested  the 
double  curse  of  poverty  and  that  none  of  them  should 
reach  old  age  (1  Sam.  ii.  31-36).  According  to  T.  B., 
JRosh  Hasshanah,  ISa,1  he  sought  to  remove  this  curse,  if 
not  by  sacrifices  and  offering  then  by  the  study  of  the 
Law,  while  Abayye  also  practised  works  of  charity.  Raba 
was  rabbi  and  judge  of  the  congregation  and  head  of  the 
school  (methibta)  of  Mahuza.  He  lived  in  the  middle  of 
the  4th  Christian  century,  and  became  on  the  death  of  his 
fellow-pupil  Abayye  head  of  the  famous  academy  of  Pum- 
baditha,  which  was  only  closed  in  1040.  He  was  noted, 
like  his  predecessor,  for  his  genius ;  and  the  discussions 
between  them  (and  similar  ones  of  others)  are  known  in 
the  Babylonian  Talmud  as  the  Havayoth  de-Abayye  ve-Rdbd 
(SuJckah,  28a).  Raba  was  also  noted  for  the  liberality 
of  his  religious  decisions  (T.  B.,  Berakhoth,  22b ;  Pesahim, 
30a,  and  elsewhere).  Being  a  man  of  considerable  wealth, 
he  showed,  in  accordance  with  Scriptural  truth  (Prov. 
xviii.  23),  his  independence  in  every  way.  Thus  he  hesi- 
tated not  to  include  the  exquisites  of  the  congregation  of 
Mahuza,  who  were  noted  for  their  luxurious  style  of  living, 
among  the  candidates  for  Gehenna,  whose  faces  would  one 
day  become  as  dark  as  the  sides  and  the  bottom  of  a  sauce- 
pan (T.  B.,  Rosh  Hasshanah,  17a),  whilst  he  most  un gal- 
lantly applied  to  their  idle  wives  the  passage  of  Amos  iv.  1 
(T.  B.,  Shabbath,  32b).  Raba  was  in  fact  the  Abraham  a 
Sancta  Clara  of  his  day,  minus  the  cloister  life  of  the  latter. 
He  was  married  to  one  of  the  beautiful,  accomplished, 
and  amiable  daughters  of  his  teacher,  R.  Hisda,  whom  he 
so  dearly  loved  that  he  was  ready  to  forgive  Bar  Hadya 
(an  interpreter  of  dreams  who  had  much  vexed  him  by  his 
adverse  interpretations)  everything  except  the  interpreta- 
tion of  a  dream  foreboding  her  death.  Raba,  relying  on 
Gen.  xli.  12,  13,  believed  that  the  fulfilment  of  dreams 
within  certain  limits  was  influenced  by  the  interpretation 
given  to  them  (T.  B.,  Berakhoth,  55b).  (s.  M.  s.-s.) 

RAB  AD  (T2&n).  Under  this  abbreviation  five  Jewish 
scholars  are  known,  all  of  whom,  singularly  enough,  lived 
during  the  12th  century. 

I.  RAB  AB-BETH-DIN,  i.e.,  the  chief  rabbi  par  cxceJlcnce.  His 
real  name  was  R.  Abraham  b.  Yishak  of  Narbonne.  He  was  the 
teacher  of  the  most  distinguished  rabbis  of  Provence,  including  his 
famous  son-in-law  (Rabacl  III.)  and  Rabbenu  Zerahyah  Hallevi, 
the  author  of  the  Maor.  It  has  always  been  known  that  a  great 
deal  of  literature  on  the  Talmud  belonging  to  him  is  mixed  up  with 
the  works  of  others,  notably  with  those  of  Rabad  (see  III.  below). 

1  See   Rashi,   catchword  K311  "UN  ;    Hullin,    133a,  catchwords 

P  p*O  and  KrDDD  "6  "'ST.  The  Tosaphoth  and  printed  editions 
(II. cc. )  put  RABBAH  (q.v. )  for  Raba;  but  Rashi's  traditional  reading 
(TiyDt?  n3)  must  be  right.  For,  in  the  first  place,  it  would  have  been 
on  the  part  of  the  Talmud  superfluous  to  state  that  Rabbah  and 
Abayye  were  of  the  house  of  Eli,  seeing  that  the  latter  was  the  sou 
of  the  brother  of  the  former.  And  secondly,  the  story  goes  (Rosh 
Hasshanah,  I.  c. )  that  he  who  only  studied  the  Law  died  at  the  age  of 
forty  (Abayye  living  to  sixty),  whereas  the  synchronisms  of  Rabbah's 
life  show  that  he  must  have  lived  to  a  much  greater  age. 


In  1867-69,  however,  Dr  B.  H.  Auerbach,  rabbi  of  Halberstadt, 
edited  for  the  first  time  Rabad's  chief  work,  The  Eshkol,  in  three 
parts,  4to. 

II.  R.  ABRAHAM  B.  DAVID  (Baud,  118*1)  HALLEVI  of  Toledo,  the 
historiographer,  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  1180.     His  chief  work 
has  been  printed  innumerable  times,  and  repeatedly  with  historical 
additions  from  earlier  sources.     Some  of  the  parts  of  this  "  Tradi- 
tion" and  of  these  additions  have  been  translated  into   Latin, 

English,  and  German.  (1)  His  historical  work,  r6apn  "ISO,  is  a 
chronicle  down  to  1161,  preceded  by  Seder  'Olam  and  Megillath 
Ta'anith  (Mantua,  1513,  4to) ;  cheap  editions  are  to  be  got  in 
Poland.  (2)  His  philosophico-theological  work  (composed  in  Arabic, 
translated  into  Hebrew  by  R.  Shelomoh  Ibn  Labi — 14th  century — 
and  into  German  by  Weil)  came  out  at  Frankfort  in  1852,  8vo. 

III.  R.  ABRAHAM  B.  DAVID,  disciple  and  son-in-law  of  Rabad  I. 
This  is  the  "great  Rabbi  of  Posquieres."  the  only  opponent  whom 
Maimonides  thought  a  match  for  himself.     He  died  in  1198.     His 
works  are: — (1)  Commentary  on  the  Mishnic  treatise  'Eduyyoth 
(see  MISHNAH,  vol.  xvi.  p.  506),  which  accompanies  some  early  and 
all  later  editions  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  (that  on  Tumid,  as- 
cribed to  him,  is  not  his).     (2)  Commentary  on  Siphro  (see  vol. 
xvi.  p.  507).     (3)  Much  of  Temim  Dc'im,  part  of  the  collection 
Tummath  Yesharim,  on  various  Rabbinic  matters,  Venice,  1622, 
fol.     (4)  Ba'ale  Hannephesh,  on  laws  relating  to  women  (first  inde- 
pendent edition,  Prague,  1811,  4to).     (5)  Hassagoth,  or  Strictures 
on  the  Mishnch  Torah  of  MAIMONIDES  (q.v.}.     These  accompany 
most  early  and  all  later  editions  of  the  Mislmeli  Torah. 

IV.  R.  ABRAHAM  B.  DAVID,  author  of  the  commentary  on  the 
Sepher  Yesirah.2     His  commentary  has  been  printed  innumerable 
times  with  the  work  itself,  the  editio  princeps  at  Mantua  in  1562, 
4to.     Part  of  its  preface  was  done  in  Latin  by  Rittangelius  (Am- 
sterdam, 1642,  4to). 

V.  R.  ABRAHAM  B.  DAVID.     He  wrote  Strictures  (Hassagoth)  on 
Rashi  on  the  Pentateuch.     This  little  and  most  interesting  book  was 
either  written  by  a  Sepharadi  or  Provencal,  and  lies  in  MS.  (Add. , 
377,  3,  1)  in  the  Cambridge  University  Library.     No  other  copy  is 
known.  (S.  M.  S.-S.) 

RABAN  (p&O) — i-e.,  RABBENTJ  ELI'EZER  B.  NATHAN  of 
Mainz — was  one  of  the  most  famous  Halakhic  teachers  of 
the  12th  century.  He  lived  at  Mainz  and  corresponded 
with  Rashi's  son-in-law,  Rabbenu  Meir  b.  Shemuel,  and 
his  three  distinguished  sons,  RASHBAM  (q.v.),  Ribam  (R. 
Yishak  b.  Melr,  who  died  young  and  left  seven  orphans), 
and  Rabbenu  Tham  (R.  Ya'akob).  His  great  Halakhic 
work,  n3J?2  rusv,  or  "ityn  px,  is  commonly  called  by  the 
combination  of  the  author's  initials  which  heads  this  article, 
the  Book  of  Raban,  and  was  printed  at  Prague  in  1610 
fol.3  Other  Halakhic  literature  by  him  is  to  be  found 
in  Kol  Bo,  §  123  (without  place  or  date,  but  probably 
Naples,  towards  the  end  of  the  15th  century),  and  its 
reprints.  More  lies  in  MS.  in  libraries ;  thus  the  Eben 
Haroshah,  of  which  no  other  copy  is  known,  is  preserved 
in  the  Cambridge  University  Library  (Add.,  498).  R. 
Eli'ezer  was  also  a  fine  liturgical  poet,  vying  both  in  senti- 
ment and  elegance  with  the  poets  of  the  Sepharadic  school, 
as  appears,  for  example,  from  the  Ophan  and  other  pieces 
designed  for  a  Sabbath  when  there  is  a  circumcision. 
Rabbenu  Eli'ezer  died  in  the  12th  century.  The  date 
5007  (  =  1247)  which  appears  in  the  formulas  of  a  bill 
of  divorcement  and  a  deed  of  manumission  of  a  slave 
is  most  assuredly  due  to  a  scribe  of  the  13th  century, 
who  in  transcribing  Raban's  book  conformed  the  date 
to  his  own  time — a  practice  often  to  be  met  with. 

Dr  A.  Jellinek  of  Vienna  has  published  a  History  of  the  First 
Crusade  (V'3nn  ITDM  D1D31p,  Leipsic,  1854,  8vo)— a  little  book 
interesting  in  more  than  one  way — which  bears  the  name  of  Raban. 
It  cannot,  however,  be  by  the  subject  of  this  article,  as  one  can  see 
by  comparing  with  his  genuine  work  the  questionable  poetic  stuff 
which  forms  part  of  the  Konteres.  The  author  is  no  doubt  Raban 

of  Cologne.     Nor  does  the  commentary  on  DTPS?  ?N  (for  Pentecost 

eve)  under  the  title  of  Pat^H  "IOXE,  which  has  been  often  printed, 
and  of  which  the  Cambridge  Library  has  an  old  MS.  (Add.,  493,  1), 


2  The  idea  that  R.  Yoseph  Arukh — Ma/c/ws  (a  Greek)  or  Lotigus  (a 
Roman) — was  the  author  of  this  commentary  must  be  given  up.    On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  not  quite  impossible  that  this  commentator  and  the 
writer  of  the  Strictures  on  Rashi  are  one  and  the  same  person. 

3  The  thanks  of  the  writer  of  these  lines  are  due  to  the  curators  and 
librarian  of  the  Bodleian  for  the  loan  of  this  book. 


192 


R  A  B  — R  A  B 


belong  to  this  Raban,  though  it  has  been  ascribed  to  him  for  600 
years.  Its  writer  was  undoubtedly  a  Prove^al.  (S.  M.  S.-S.) 

RABANUS  MAURUS.     See  HRABANUS  MAURUS. 

RABAT  (RIBAT),  RBAT,  or  ARBAT,  also  known  as  NEW 
SALLEE,  a  city  of  Morocco,  on  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic, 
130  miles  south  of  Cape  Spartel  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Bu  Rakrak,  which  separates  it  from  Sallee  proper  on  the 
northern  bank.  It  is  a  commercial  town  of  about  26,000 
to  30,000  inhabitants,  occupying  a  rocky  plateau  and  sur- 
rounded by  massive  but  dilapidated  walls,  strengthened 
by  three  forts  on  the  seaward  side.  The  old  citadel,  over- 
hanging the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  still,  though  partially  in 
ruins,  an  imposing  building,  with  huge  arched  gateways, 
square  towers,  and  masses  of  rich  red-brown  masonry ;  and 
to  the  south  of  the  town  lies  a  modern  palace  defended  by 
earthworks  after  the  European  fashion.  The  conspicuous 
feature  in  the  view  from  the  sea  is  the  Hasan  tower,  a 
beautiful  square-built  minaret  180  feet  high,  which  stands 
at  an  elevation  of  about  65  feet  above  the  sea  to  the  west 
of  the  walled  town,  and  in  the  midst  of  gardens  and  or- 
chards whose  vegetation  partly  hides  the  ruined  columns 
of  the  ancient  mosque  to  which  it  was  attached.  It  is 
constructed  of  soft  reddish-brown  stone,  and  each  side  is 
adorned  with  a  different  design.  At  one  time  the  Bu 
Rakrak  afforded  a  much  better  harbour  than  it  does  now  : 
the  roadstead  is  quite  unprotected,  and  there  is  a  danger- 
ous bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Rabat  trades  with  Fez 
and  the  interior  of  Morocco,  with  the  neighbouring  coast- 
towns  and  Gibraltar,  and  with  Marseilles,  Manchester, 
and  London.  The  principal  articles  of  export  are  wool, 
hides,  and  wax,  and  the  products  of  that  local  manu- 
facture of  leather,  carpets,  mats,  woollen  and  cotton  stuffs, 
pottery,  and  circular  brass  trays  which  makes  Rabdt  the 
greatest  industrial  centre  in  Morocco.  Cotton  goods  and 
loaf-sugar  are  first  among  the  imports.  The  average  value 
of  the  exports  in  the  ten  years  1872  to  1881  was  £47,236, 
and  of  the  imports  £73,945.  In  1883  the  figures  were 
£39,596  and  £50,222  respectively. 

Sallee  (Sala),  on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  is  also 
enclosed  with  walls.  Much  of  the  interior,  however,  is 
vacant  and  the  houses  are  mean ;  and,  unlike  their  neigh- 
bours of  Rab&t,  the  inhabitants  (about  30,000)  down  to 
quite  recent  times  distinguished  themselves  by  particular 
hostility  to  Christians,  who  were  thus  prevented  from 
entering  their  gates.  To  the  north  a  ruined  aqueduct 
extends  for  miles. 

Rabat  was  founded  by  Yak'ub  al-Mansur  (ob.  1306) ;  but  Sallee 
was  then  an  ancient  city,  and  on  the  scarped  hills  to  the  west  of 
Rabat  stand  the  ruins  of  Sala,  a  Roman  colony.  Sheila,  as  the 
place  is  now  called,  was  the  seat  of  the  mausoleum  of  the  Bem- 
Merin  dynasty. 

RABBA,  a  town  of  Nupi  or  Nufi,  on  the  bank  of  the 
Kworra  (Niger),  opposite  the  island  of  Zagozhi,  in  9°  6' 
N.  lat.,  and  200  miles  above  the  confluence  of  the  Kworra 
and  the  Binue.  At  the  time  of  Lander's  visit  in  1830  it 
was  a  place  of  40,000  inhabitants  and  one  of  the  most 
important  markets  in  the  country.  In  1851  Dr  Earth 
reported  it  "in  ruins,"  and  in  1867  Rohlfs  found  it  with 
only  500  inhabitants.  A  mission  station,  established  there 
in  1857  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  was  afterwards 
withdrawn.  The  town  has  latterly  somewhat  recovered 
its  position. 

RABBAH — i.e.,  RAB  ABBAH  BAR  NAHMANI — was  of 
the  house  of  Eli,  on  whom  the  curse  rested  that  none 
of  them  should  reach  a  high  age  (1  Sam.  ii.  33).  Like 
Raba,  he  tried  to  remove  this  curse  (T.  B.,  Rosh  Has- 
shanah,  18a;  see  RABA).  He  was  twenty-two  years  head 
of  the  academy  of  Pumbaditha,  from  which  he  fled  in 
the  year  330,  pursued  by  a  troop  of  the  Persian  king 
(Shapiir  II.),  and  perished  miserably  in  a  jungle  (T.  B., 
Bobo  MetSio,  leaf  86a). 


Rabbah,  owing  to  his  great  dialectic  powers,  to  which  no  diffi- 
culty seemed  difficult,  was  called  'Oker  Harim,  "uprootur  of 
mountains."1  This  title  was  applied  to  him  when  the  selection 
as  "  head  "  lay  between  him  and  his  friend,  fellow-pupil,  and  suc- 
cessor, Rab  Yoseph,  "the  Blind,"  to  whom  is  commonly,  but  by 
mistake,  ascribed  the  authorship  of  certain  Targumini.  This  latter 
doctor  was,  owing  to  his  vast  but  mere  reproductive  powers,  called 
Sinai,  the  mountain  from  which  the  letter  of  the  Law  was  given 
(T.  B.,  Berakhoth,  64a).  (S.  M.  S  -S  ) 

RABBI.     See  RAB. 

RABBIT.  This  animal,  one  of  the  best  known  and 
most  frequently  seen  of  all  wild  British  mammals,  is,  with 
the  hare,  a  member  of  the  Rodent  genus  Lepus,  which 
contains  about  twenty-five  other  species  spread  over  the 
greater  part  at  the  world,  and  whose  more  important 
characters  have  already  been  referred  to  (see  HARK,  vol. 
xi.  p.  476,  and  MAMMALIA,  vol.  xv.  p.  421). 

The  rabbit  (Lepus  cuniculus),  speaking  for  the  present 
of  the  wild  race  only,  is  distinguished  from  the  hare 
externally  by  its  smaller  size,  shorter  ears  and  feet,  by 
the  absence  or  reduction  of  the  black  patch  at  the  tip  of 
the  ears  so  characteristic  of  the  hare,  and  by  its  greyer 
colour.  The  skull  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  hare  (see 
MAMMALIA,  fig.  99),  but  is  smaller  and  lighter,  and  has 
a  slenderer  muzzle  and  a  longer  and  narrower  palate. 
Besides  these  characters,  however,  the  rabbit  is  sharply 


.;? 


llabbit. 


separated  from  the  hare  by  the  fact  that  it  brings  forth 
its  young  naked,  blind,  and  helpless ;  to  compensate  for 
this,  it  digs  a  deep  burrow  in  the  earth  in  which  they  are 
born  and  reared,  while  the  young  of  the  hare  are  born 
fully  clothed  with  fur,  and  able  to  take  care  of  themselves 
in  the  mere  shallow  depression  or  "  form  "  in  which  they 
are  born.  The  weight  of  the  rabbit  is  from  2£  to  3  fl>, 
although  individuals  perfectly  wild  have  been  recorded 
lip  to  more  than  5.  Its  general  habits  are  too  well  known 
to  need  a  detailed  description  here.  It  breeds  from  four 
to  eight  times  a  year,  bringing  forth  each  time  from  three 
to  eight  young.  Its  period  of  gestation  is  about  thirty 
days,  and  it  is  able  to  bear  when  six  months  old.  It 
attains  to  an  age  of  about  seven  or  eight  years. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  rabbit  presents 
many  most  interesting  peculiarities.  It  is  believed  to 
be  originally  a  native  of  the  western  half  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean basin  only,  and  still  abounds  in  Spain,  Sardinia, 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  Greece,  Tunis,  and  Algeria ; 
and  many  of  the  islands  adjoining  these  countries  are 
quite  overrun  with  it.  Thence  it  has  spread,  partly  by 
man's  agency,  northwards  throughout  temperate  western 
Europe,  increasing  rapidly  wherever  it  gains  a  footing ; 
and  this  extension  is  still  going  on,  as  is  shown  by  the 


1  See  for  a  similar  expressiou  Matt.  xvii.  20. 


R  A  B  — R  A  B 


193 


case  of  Scotland,  in  which  sixty  years  ago  rabbits  were 
little  known,  while  they  are  now  found  in  all  suitable 
localities  up  to  the  extreme  north.  It  has  also  gained 
admittance  into  Ireland,  and  now  abounds  there  as  much 
as  in  England.  Out  of  Europe  the  same  extension  of 
range  has  been  going  on.  In  New  Zealand  and  Australia 
rabbits,  introduced  either  for  profit  or  sport,  have  increased 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  form  one  of  the  most  serious  pests 
that  the  farmers  have  to  contend  against,  as  the  climate 
and  soil  seem  to  suit  them  perfectly  and  their  natural 
enemies  are  too  few  and  too  lowly  organized  to  keep 
their  numbers  within  reasonable  bounds.  In  other  cases 
rabbits  introduced  into  islands  have  become  or  remained 
more  or  less  distinct  from  their  parent  stock ;  thus  the 
rabbits  both  of  the  Falkland  Islands  and  of  Jamaica  still 
show  traces  of  their  descent  from  domesticated  varieties, 
and  have  never  reverted  to  the  ordinary  brownish -grey 
type.  And  again,  as  was  pointed  out  by  Mr  Darwin,1 
the  rabbits  in  the  island  of  Porto  Santo,  near  Madeira, 
whose  ancestors  were  introduced  from  Spain  in  1418  or 
1419,  have  formed  quite  a  distinct  diminutive  race,  barely 
half  the  bulk  or  weight  of  English  rabbits,  and  differing 
in  certain  slight  details  of  colour  and  habits. 

The  rabbit  has  been  domesticated  by  man  from  a  very  early 
period.  No  doubt  exists  amongst  naturalists  that  all  the  varieties 
of  the  domestic  animal  are  descended  from  the  Lcpus  cuniculus. 
The  variations  which  have  been  perpetuated  and  intensified  by 
artificial  selection  are,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  dog, 
greater  than  have  been  induced  in  any  other  species  of  mammal. 
For  not  only  has  the  weight  been  more  than  quadrupled  in  some 
of  the  larger  breeds,  and  the  structure  of  the  skull  and  other  parts 
of  the  skeleton  greatly  altered,  but  the  proportionate  size  of  the 
brain  has  been  considerably  reduced  and  the  colour  and  texture  of 
the  fur  altered  in  the  most  remarkable  manner.  The  establish- 
ment of  these  extreme  variations  is  dependent  on  the  highly  arti- 
ficial conditions  under  which  the  animals  are  kept,  their  great  pro- 
lificacy, and  the  rapidity  with  which  the  generations  succeed  each 
other,  which  enable  the  process  of  artificial  selection  by  the  preserva- 
tion of  those  most  suited  to  the  purposes  of  the  breeder  to  be  carried 
into  effect  with  facility. 

The  Lop-eared  breed  is  the  oldest  English  fancy  variety  ;  it  has 
been  cultivated  carefully  for  about  a  century,  the  aim  of  the  breeder 
being  chiefly  directed  to  the  development  of  the  size  of  the  ears, 
and  with  such  success  that  they  sometimes  measure  more  than 
23  inches  from  tip  to  tip  and  exceed  6  inches  in  width.  This 
development,  which  is  accompanied  by  great  changes  in  the  structure 
of  the  skull,  that  have  been  carefully  described  by  Darwin  in  his 
Variation  of  Animals,  &c.,  depends  on  breeding  the  animals  in 
warm  damp  hutches,  without  which  the  best  developed  parents  fail 
to  produce  the  desired  offspring.  In  colour  the  lop-eared  rabbits 
vary  greatly. 

The  Belgian  hare  is  a  large  variety  of  a  hardy  and  prolific  char- 
acter, which  closely  resembles  the  common  hare  in  colour,  and  is 
not  unlike  it  in  form.  Some  few  years  since  many  of  these  animals 
were  sold  as  leporides  or  hybrids,  produced  by  the  union  of  the 
hare  and  the  rabbit;  but  the  most  careful  experimenters  have  failed  to 
obtain  any  such  hybrid,  and  the  naked  immature  condition  in  which 
young  rabbits  are  born  as  compared  with  the  clothed  and  highly 
developed  young  hares  renders  it  exceedingly  unlikely  that  hybrids 
could  be  produced.  Nor  does  the  flesh  of  the  Belgian  rabbit  resemble 
that  of  the  hare  in  colour  or  flavour.  A  closely  allied  variety,  though 
of  even  larger  size,  is  known  by  the  absurd  name  of  Patagonian 
rabbit ;  it  has  no  relation  to  the  country  after  which  it  is  called. 

The  Angora  rabbit  is  characterized  by  the  extreme  elongation 
and  fineness  of  the  fur,  which  in  good  specimens  reaches  6  or  7 
inches  in  length,  requiring  great  care  and  frequent  combing  to 
prevent  it  from  becoming  matted.  The  Angoras  most  valued  are 
albinos,  with  pure  white  fur  and  pink  eyes  ;  in  some  parts  of  the 
Continent  they  are  kept  by  the  peasants  and  clipped  regularly. 

Amongst  the  breeds  which  are  valued  for  the  distribution  of 
colour  on  the  fur  are  the  Himalayan  and  the  Dutch.  The  former 
is  white,  but  the  whole  of  the  extremities — viz. ,  the  nose,  the  ears, 
tail,  and  feet — are  black  or  very  dark  in  colour.  This  very  pretty 
breed  has  no  connexion  with  the  mountain  chain  from  whence  it 
has  taken  its  name,  but  is  a  variety  produced  by  careful  breeding 
and  selection  as  fully  described  by  Darwin  (op.  cit.).  Though  but 
recently  produced  by  crossing,  it  now  generally  breeds  true  to  colour, 
at  times  throwing  back,  however,  to  the  silver  greys  from  which  it 
was  derived.  The  rabbits  known  in  Great  Britain  as  Dutch  are  of 
small  size,  and  are  valued  for  the  disposition  of  the  colour  and 

1    Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants,  2d  ed. ,  i.  p.  119. 


markings.  The  entire  body  behind  the  shoulder-blades  is  uniformly 
coloured,  with  the  exception  of  the  feet ;  the  anterior  part  of  the 
body,  including  the  fore  legs,  neck,  and  jaws,  is  white,  the  cheeks 
and  ears  being  coloured.  In  some  strains  the  coloured  portion 
extends  in  front  of  the  fore  legs,  leaving  only  a  ring  of  white  round 
the  neck.  The  more  accurately  the  coloured  portion  is  defined  the 
higher  is  the  animal  esteemed. 

The  Silver  grey  is  a  uniform  coloured  variety,  the  fur  of  which  is 
a  rich  chinchilla  grey,  varying  in  depth  of  colour  in  the  different 
strains.  .  From  the  greater  value  of  the  fur  silver  greys  have  been 
frequently  employed  to  stock  warrens,  as  they  breed  true  to  colour 
in  the  open  if  the  ordinary  wild  rabbits  are  rigorously  excluded. 
Other  colours  known,  as  Silver  cream  and  Silver  brown,  are  closely 
allied  varieties. 

As  an  article  of  food  the  domesticated  rabbit  is  of  considerable 
importance.  From  100  to  200  tons  are  imported  into  London  from 
Ostend  every  week  during  the  colder  months  of  the  year,  having 
been  reared  in  hutches  by  the  Belgian  peasants.  They  are  for- 
warded without  their  skins,  which  are  half  the  value  of  the  flesh. 
A  plan  has  been  recently  devised  by  Major  Morant,  which  is 
known  as  "hutch-farming  in  the  open."  The  animals  are  kept  in 
large  hutches  with  projecting  roofs,  floored  with  coarse  galvanized 
iron  netting,  through  which  the  grass  projects  to  be  eaten  by  the 
rabbits.  The  hutches  are  shifted  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  so  that 
the  animals  are  constantly  on  clean  ground  and  have  fresh  food. 
The  young,  when  old  enough  to  leave  the  mother,  are  reared  in 
somewhat  larger  hutches  of  a  similar  description  and  killed  for 
market  under  three  months  of  age. 

EABELAIS,  FRANCOIS  (c.  1490- 1553),  the  greatest  of 
French  humourists  and  one  of  the  few  great  humourists  of 
the  world,  was  born  at  Chinon  on  the  Vienne  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Touraine.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  wholly  uncer- 
tain :  it  has  been  put  by  tradition  and  by  authorities  long 
subsequent  to  his  death  as  1483,  1490,  and  1495.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  positive  facts  of  his  life  which  would  not  suit 
tolerably  well  with  any  of  these  dates ;  most  17th-century 
authorities  give  the  earliest,  and  this  also  accords  best  with 
the  age  of  the  eldest  of  the  Du  Bellay  brothers,  with  whom 
Rabelais  was  at  school.  In  favour  of  the  latest  it  is  urged 
that  if  Rabelais  was  born  in  1483  he  must  have  been  forty- 
seven  when  he  entered  at  Montpellier,  and  proportionately 
and  unexpectedly  old  at  other  known  periods  of  his  life. 
In  favour  of  the  middle  date,  which  has,  as  far  as  recent 
authorities  are  concerned,  the  weight  of  consent  in  its 
favour,  the  testimony  of  Guy  Patin,  a  witness  of  some 
merit  and  not  too  far  removed  in  point  of  time,  is  invoked, 
though  perhaps  the  fact  of  its  being  a  via  media  has  really 
had  most  to  do  with  the  adoption.  The  only  contribution 
which  need  be  made  here  to  the  controversy  is  to  point 
out  that  if  Rabelais  was  born  in  1483  he  must  have  been 
an  old  man  when  he  died,  and  that  scarcely  even  tradition 
speaks  of  him  as  such.  And  since  this  tradition  is  men- 
tioned it  may  as  well  be  observed  at  once  that  all  the 
anecdotes  of  Rabelais  without  exception,  and  most  of  the 
accounts  of  the  facts  of  his  life,  date  from  a  period  long 
posterior  to  his  death  and  are  utterly  unworthy  of  cre- 
dence. Colletet  nearly  a  hundred  years  later,  Antoine 
Leroy  a  full  hundred,  and  Bernier  nearly  a  hundred  and 
fifty  collected  or  invented  stories  which,  as  far  as  any  actual 
authority  goes,  must  be  regarded  as  worthless.  Bishop 
Huet's  researches  were  made  nearly  as  late  as  Bernier's. 
Throughout  this  article,  therefore,  when  tradition  or  any 
similar  word  is  used  without  further  precision  it  will  be 
understood  that  the  statements  have  in  themselves  only 
conjectural  validity. 

With  regard  to  his  birth,  parentage,  youth,  and  educa- 
tion everything  depends  upon  tradition,  and  it  is  not 
until  he  was  according  to  one  extreme  hypothesis  thirty- 
six,  according  to  the  other  extreme  twenty-four,  that  we 
have  solid  testimony  respecting  him.  In  the  year  1519,  on 
the  5th  of  April,  the  Frangois  Rabelais  of  history  emerges. 
The  monks  of  Fontenay  le  Comte  bought  some  property 
(half  an  inn  in  the  town),  and  among  their  signatures  to 
the  deed  of  purchase  is  that  of  Francois  Rabelais.  Before 
this  all  is  cloudland.  It  is  said  that  he  had  four  brothers 

XX.  —  25 


194 


EABELAIS 


and  no  sisters,  that  his  father  had  a  country  property 
called  La  Deviniere,  and  was  either  an  apothecary  or  a 
tavern-keeper.  Half  a  century  after  his  death  De  Thou 
mentions  that  the  house  in  which  he  was  born  had  become 
a  tavern.  It  still  stands  at  the  corner  of  a  street  called 
the  Rue  de  la  Lamproie,  and  the  tradition  may  be  correct. 
An  indistinct  allusion  of  his  own  has  been  taken  to  mean 
that  he  was  tonsured  in  childhood  at  seven  or  nine  years 
old;  and  tradition  says  that  he  was  sent  to  the  convent  of 
Seuilly,  though  of  course  he  could  then  have  taken  no 
definite  vows,  and  there  is  no  evidence  whatever  that  the 
passage  in  question,  which  simply  condemns  the  practice 
referred  to,  has  any  personal  reference.  From  Seuilly  at 
an  unknown  date  tradition  takes  him  either  to  the  univer- 
sity of  Angers  or  to  the  convent  school  of  La  Baumette 
or  La  Basmette,  founded  by  good  King  Ren6  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Angevin  capital.  Here  he  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  at  school  with  the  brothers  Du  Bellay, 
with  Geoffroy  d'Estissac  and  others.  The  next  stage  in 
this  (as  far  as  evidence  goes,  purely  imaginary)  career  is 
the  monastery  of  Fontenay  le  Comte,  where,  as  has  been 
seen,  he  is  certainly  found  in  1519  holding  a  position 
sufficiently  senior  to  sign  deeds  for  the  community,  where 
he,  as  will  be  seen,  certainly,  though  at  an  unknown  date, 
took  priest's  orders,  and  where  he  also  pursued,  again  cer- 
tainly, the  study  of  letters,  and  especially  of  Greek,  with 
ardour.  From  this  date,  therefore,  he  becomes  historically 
visible.  The  next  certain  intelligence  which  we  have  of 
Rabelais  is  somewhat  more  directly  biographical  than  this 
bare  entry  of  his  name.  The  letters  of  the  well-known 
Greek  scholar  Budseus,  two  of  which  are  addressed  to 
Rabelais  himself  and  several  more  to  his  friend  and  fellow- 
monk  Pierre  Amy,  together  with  some  notices  by  Andre 
Tiraqueau,  a  learned  jurist,  to  whom  Rabelais  rather  than 
his  own  learning  has  secured  immortality,  show  beyond 
doubt  what  manner  of  life  the  future  author  of  Gargantua 
led  in  his  convent.  These  letters  are  partly  written  in 
Greek  and  partly  in  Latin.  In  Tiraqueau's  book  De  Legibus 
Connubialibus,  which  excited  a  controversy  with  another 
jurist  of  the  west,  Bouchard,  also  a  friend  of  Rabelais, 
the  latter  is  described  as  "a  man  most  learned  in  both 
languages  and  all  kinds  of  scholarship  above  his  age,  and 
beyond  the  wont  and,  if  I  may  say  so,  the  excessive 
scrupulousness  of  his  order."  The  excessive  scrupulousness 
of  the  order  showed  itself  before  long  in  reference  to  Amy 
and  Rabelais,  the  latter  of  whom  had,  as  this  sentence  of 
Tiraqueau's  also  informs  us,  translated  the  first  book  of 
Herodotus.  The  letters  of  Budaeus  show  that  an  attempt 
was  made  by  the  heads  of  the  convent  or  the  order  to 
check  the  studious  ardour  of  these  Franciscans;  but  it 
failed,  and  there  is  no  positive  evidence  of  anything  like 
actual  persecution,  the  phrases  in  the  letters  of  Budseus 
being  merely  the  usual  exaggerated  Ciceronianism  of  the 
Renaissance.  Some  books  and  papers  were  seized  as  sus- 
picious, then  given  back  as  innocent ;  but  Rabelais  was  in 
all  probability  disgusted  with  the  cloister, — indeed  his  great 
work  shows  this  beyond  doubt.  In  1524,  the  year  of  the 
publication  of  Tiraqueau's  book  above  cited,  his  friend 
Geoffroy  d'Estissac  procured  from  Clement  VII.  an  indult, 
licensing  a  change  of  order  and  of  abode  for  Rabelais. 
From  a  Franciscan  he  became  a  Benedictine,  and  from 
Fontenay  he  moved  to  Maillezais,  of  which  Geoffroy 
d'Estissac  was  bishop.  He  seems  indeed  to  have  been 
constantly  in  the  company  of  the  bishop  and  to  have  made 
many  new  literary  acquaintances,  notably  Jean  Bouchet, 
the  poet.  To  him  he  wrote  an  epistle  in  French  verse, 
still  extant,  which  proves  that  Rabelais,  much  more  truly 
than  Swift,  never  could  have  been  a  poet.  The  title  of 
this  epistle  is,  however,  noteworthy,  inasmuch  as  the  author 
is  described  in  the  original  (a  collection  of  Bouchet's  works 


published  in  1545)  as  a  man  of  great  literary  knowledge 
in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  as  a  great  orator  in  Greek,  Latin, 
and  French.  But  even  this  learned  and  hospitable  retreat 
did  not  apparently  satisfy  Rabelais.  In  of  before  1530 
he  left  Maillezais,  abandoned  his  Benedictine  garb  for 
that  of  a  secular  priest,  and,  as  he  himself  puts  it  in  his 
subsequent  Supplicatio  pro  Apostasia  to  Pope  Paul  III., 
"  per  seculum  diu  vagatus  fuit."  He  is  met  at  Montpellier 
in  the  year  just  mentioned.  He  entered  the  faculty  of 
medicine  there  on  the  16th  of  September  and  became 
bachelor  on  the  1st  of  November,  a  remarkably  short  in- 
terval, which  shows  what  was  thought  of  his  acquirements. 
Early  in  1531  he  lectured  publicly  on  Galen  and  Hippo- 
crates, while  his  more  serious  pursuits  seem  to  have  been 
chequered  by  acting  in  a  morale  comedie,  then  a  very  fre- 
quent university  amusement.  Visits  to  the  lies  d'Hieres, 
and  the  composition  of  a  fish  sauce  in  imitation  of  the 
ancient  garum,  which  he  sent  to  his  friend  Dolet,  are 
associated,  not  very  certainly,  with  his  stay  at  Montpellier, 
which,  lasting  rather  more  than  a  year  at  first,  was  renewed 
at  intervals  for  several  years. 

In  1532,  however,  and  probably  rather  early  than  late  in 
that  year,  he  had  moved  from  Montpellier  to  Lyons.  Here 
he  plunged  into  manifold  work,  literary  and  professional. 
He  was  appointed  before  the  beginning  of  November  phy- 
sician to  the  hotel  dieu,  with  a  salary  of  forty  livres  per 
annum.  He  edited  for  Sebastian  Gryphius,  in  the  single 
year  1532,  the  medical  Epistles  of  Giovanni  Manardi,  the 
Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates,  with  the  Ars  Parva  of  Galen, 
and  an  edition  of  two  supposed  Latin  documents,  which, 
however,  happened  unluckily  to  be  forgeries.  These  three 
works  were  dedicated  in  order  to  his  three  chief  friends 
of  Touraine  and  Poitou,  Andr6  Tiraqueau,  the  bishop  of 
Maillezais,  and  Bouchard.  We  also  have  a  Latin  letter 
written  on  1st  December  1532  to  a  certain  Bernard  de 
Salignac,  otherwise  unknown. 

It  is  certain  that  at  this  time  Lyons  was  the  centre 
and  to  a  great  extent  the  headquarters  of  an  unusually 
enlightened  society,  and  indirectly  it  is  clear  that  Rabelais 
became  intimate  with  this  society.  A  manuscript  distich, 
which  was  found  in  the  Toulouse  library,  on  the  death  of 
an  infant  named  Theodule,  whose  country  was  Lyons  and 
his  father  Rabelais,  would  seem  to  show  that  he  here 
entered  into  other  connexions  than  those  of  friendship. 
Absolutely  nothing,  however,  is  known  about  the  child 
and  its  mother ;  it  is  enough  to  say  that  the  existence  of 
the  former  would  have  been  by  the  manners  and  morals 
of  the  time  very  easily  condoned.  But  what  makes  the 
Lyons  sojourn  of  the  greatest  real  importance  is  that  at 
this  time  probably  appeared  the  beginnings  of  the  work 
which  was  to  make  Rabelais  immortal.  It  is  necessary  to 
say  "probably,"  because  the  strange  uncertainty  which 
rests  on  so  much  of  his  life  and  writings  exists  here  also. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  both  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel 
were  popular  names  of  giants  in  the  Middle  Ages,  though, 
curiously  enough,  no  mention  of  the  former  in  French 
literature  much  before  Rabelais's  time  has  been  traced. 
In  1526,  however,  Charles  de  Bordigne,  in  a  satiric  work 
of  no  great  merit,  entitled  La  Legende  de,  Pierre  Faifeu,  has 
the  name  Gargantua  with  an  allusion,  and  in  1532  (if  not 
earlier)  there  appeared  at  Lyons  Les  Grandes  et  Inestimables 
Chroniques  du  Grand  et  JSnorme  Geant  Gargantua.  This 
is  a  short  book  on  the  plan  of  the  later  burlesques  and 
romances  of  the  Round  Table.  Arthur  and  Merlin  appear 
with  Grantgosier,  as  he  is  here  spelt,  Galemelle  (Gargalelle), 
Gargantua  himself,  and  the  terrible  mare.  But  there  is 
no  trace  of  the  action  or  other  characters  of  Gargantua 
that  was  to  be,  nor  is  the  manner  of  the  piece  in  the  least 
worthy  of  Rabelais.  No  one  supposes  that  he  wrote  it, 
though  it  has  been  supposed  that  he  edited  it  and  that  in 


RABELAIS 


195 


reality  it  is  older  than  1532,  and  may  be  the  direct  subject 
of  Bordign6's  allusion  six  years  earlier.  What  does,  how- 
ever, seem  probable  is  that  the  first  book  of  Pantagruel 
(the  second  of  the  whole  work)  was  composed  with  a 
definite  view  to  this  chap  book  and  not  to  the  existing 
first  book  of  Gargantua,  which  was  written  afterwards 
when  Rabelais  discovered  the  popularity  of  his  work  and 
felt  that  it  ought  to  have  some  worthier  starting-point  than 
the  Grandes  Chroniques.  The  earliest  known  and  dated 
edition  of  Pantagruel  is  of  1533,  of  Gargantua  1535, 
though  this  would  not  be  of  itself  conclusive,  especially  as 
we  actually  possess  editions  of  both  which,  though  un- 
dated, seem  to  be  earlier.  But  the  definite  description  of 
Gargantua  in  the  title  as  "  Pere  de  Pantagruel,"  the  omis- 
sion of  the  words  "  second  livre  "  in  the  title  of  the  first 
book  of  Pantagruel  while  the  second  and  third  are  duly 
entitled  "tiers"  and  "quart,"  the  remarkable  fact  that 
one  of  the  most  important  personages,  Friar  John,  is  absent 
from  book  ii.,  the  first  of  Pantagruel,  though  he  appears 
in  book  i.  (Gargantua),  and  many  other  proofs  show  the 
order  of  publication  clearly  enough.  There  is  also  in 
existence  a  letter  of  Calvin,  dated  1533,  in  which  he  speaks 
of  Pantagruel,  but  not  of  Gargantua,  as  having  been 
condemned  as  an  obscene  book.  Besides  this,  1533  saw  the 
publication  of  an  almanac,  the  first  of  a  long  series  which 
exists  only  in  titles  and  fragments,  and  of  the  amusing 
Prognostication  Pantagrueline  (still,  be  it  observed,  Panta- 
grueline,  not  Gargantuine).  Both  this  and  Pantagruel 
itself  were  published  under  the  anagrammatic  pseudonym 
of  "Alcofribas  Nasier,"  shortened  to  the  first  word  only 
in  the  case  of  the  Prognostication. 

This  busy  and  interesting  period  of  Rabelais's  life  was 
brought  to  a  close  apparently  by  his  introduction  or  rein- 
troduction  to  Jean  du  Bellay.  They  had  been,  it  has  been 
said,  schoolfellows,  but  Bellay  does  not  appear  among  the 
list  of  Rabelais's  friends  in  the  first  years  of  his  emancipa- 
tion. From  1534,  however,  he  and  the  other  members  of 
his  family  appear  as  Rabelais's  chief  and  constant  patrons 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  It  was  just  before  Christ- 
mas that  Jean  du  Bellay,  passing  through  Lyons  on  an 
embassy  to  Rome,  engaged  Rabelais  as  physician.  The 
visit  did  not  last  very  long,  but  it  left  literary  results  in 
an  edition  of  a  description  of  Rome  by  Marliani,  which 
Rabelais  published  in  September  1534.  It  is  also  thought 
that  the  first  edition  of  Gargantua  may  have  appeared 
this  year. 

In  the  spring  t>f  1535  the  authorities  of  the  Lyons 
hospital,  considering  that  Rabelais  had  twice  absented 
himself  without  leave,  elected  Pierre  de  Castel  in  his 
room ;  but  the  documents  which  exist  do  not  seem  to 
infer  that  any  blame  was  thought  due  to  him,  and  the 
appointment  of  his  successor  was  once  definitely  postponed 
in  case  he  should  return.  An  epigram  of  Dolet  shows 
that  at  least  once  and  probably  about  this  time  he  per- 
formed a  public  dissection.  At  the  end  of  1535  Rabelais 
once  more  accompanied  Jean  du  Bellay,  now  a  cardinal, 
to  Rome  and  stayed  there  till  April  in  the  next  year.  This 
stay  furnishes  some  biographical  documents  of  importance 
in  the  shape  of  letters  to  Geoffroy  d'Estissac,  of  the  already- 
mentioned  Supplicatio  pro  Apostasia,  and  of  the  bull  of 
absolution  which  was  the  reply  to  it.  This  bull  not  only 
freed  Rabelais  from  ecclesiastical  censure  but  gave  him  the 
right  to  return  to  the  order  of  St  Benedict  when  he  chose, 
and  to  practise  medicine.  He  took  advantage  of  this  bull 
and  became  a  canon  of  St  Maur.  The  monastery  having 
but  recently  become  collegiate,  there  seems  to  have  been 
some  technical  difficulty  which  necessitated  a  new  suppli- 
cation. In  the  next  year  (1537)  we  find  Rabelais  present 
at  a  dinner  where  the  friends  of  Etienne  Dolet  met  to 
congratulate  him  on  his  pardon  for  the  homicide  of 


Compaing.  The  luckless  printer  has  left  a  poem  on  the 
occasion,  and  two  other  writers,  Salmon  Macrin  and 
Nicholas  Bourbon,  have  also  left  poems  of  this  date  ex- 
pressing the  regard  in  which  Rabelais  was  generally  held. 
Now,  too,  he  took  his  doctor's  degree  at  Montpellier, 
lectured  on  the  Greek  text  of  Hippocrates,  and  next  year 
made  a  public  anatomical  demonstration.  During  these 
two  years  he  seems  to  have  resided  either  at  Montpellier 
or  at  Lyons.  But  in  1539  he  entered  the  service  of 
Guillaume  du  Bellay-Langey,  elder  brother  of  Jean,  and 
would  appear  to  have  been  with  him  (he  was  governor  of 
Piedmont)  till  his  death  on  9th  January  1543.  Rabelais 
wrote  a  panegyrical  memoir  of  Guillaume,  which  is  lost, 
and  the  year  before  saw  the  publication  of  an  edition  of 
Gargantua  and  Pantagruel,  book  i.,  together  (both  had 
been  repeatedly  reprinted  separately),  in  which  some 
dangerous  expressions  were  cut  away.  Nothing  at  all  is 
known  of  his  life,  whereabouts,  or  occupations  till  the 
publication  of  the  third  book,  which  appeared  in  1546, 
"  avec  privilege  du  roi,"  which  had  been  given  in  Septem- 
ber 1545. 

Up  to  this  time  Rabelais,  despite  the  condemnation  of 
the  Sorbonne  referred  to  above,  had  experienced  nothing 
like  persecution  or  difficulty.  Even  the  spiteful  or  treacher- 
ous act  of  Dolet,  who  in  1542  reprinted  the  earlier  form 
of  the  books  which  Rabelais  had  just  slightly  modified, 
seems  to  have  done  him  no  harm.  But  the  storm  of  persecu- 
tion which  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  was 
fatal  to  Dolet  himself  and  to  Desperiers,  while  it  exiled 
and  virtually  killed  Marot,  did  not  leave  Rabelais  scatheless. 
There  is  no  positive  evidence  of  any  measures  taken  or 
threatened  against  him ;  but  it  is  certain  that  he  passed 
nearly  the  whole  of  1546  and  part  of  1547  at  Metz  in 
Lorraine  as  physician  to  the  town  at  the  salary  of  120 
livres,  that  Sturm  speaks  of  him  as  having  been  "  cast 
out  of  France  by  the  times  "  (with  the  exclamation  4>fv  TWV 
X/oovwv)  in  a  contemporary  letter,  and  that  he  himself  in  a 
letter,  also  contemporary,  though  it  is  not  clear  whether  it 
is  of  1546  or  the  next  year,  gives  a  doleful  account  of  his 
pecuniary  affairs  and  asks  for  assistance.  At  Francis's 
death  on  31st  March  1547  Du  Bellay  went  to  Rome,  and 
at  some  time  not  certain  Rabelais  joined  him.  He  was 
certainly  there  in  February  1549,  when  he  dates  from  Du 
Bellay's  palace  a  little  account  of  the  festivals  given  at 
Rome  to  celebrate  the  birth  of  the  second  son  of  Henry  II. 
and  Catherine  de'  Medici.  This  account,  the  Sciomachie 
as  it  is  called,  is  extant.  In  the  same  year  a  monk  of 
Fontevrault,  Gabriel  du  Puits-Herbault,  made  in  a  book 
called  Theotimus  the  first  of  the  many  attacks  on  Rabelais. 
It  is,  however,  as  vague  as  it  is  violent,  and  it  does  not 
seem  to  have  had  any  effect.  Rabelais  had  indeed  again 
made  for  himself  protectors  whom  no  clerical  or  Sorbonist 
jealousy  could  touch.  The  Sciomachie  was  written  to  the 
cardinal  of  Guise,  whose  family  were  all-powerful  at  court, 
and  Rabelais  dedicated  his  next  book  to  Odet  de  Chatillon, 
afterwards  cardinal,  a  man  of  great  influence.  Thus  Rabelais 
was  able  to  return  to  France,  and  was  presented  to  the 
livings  of  Meudon  and  St  Christophe  de  Jambet.  It  may, 
however,  surprise  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  hear 
him  spoken  of  as  "  cure"  de  Meudon  "  and  who  have  read 
lives  of  him  founded  on  legend  to  find  that  there  is  very 
little  ground  for  believing  that  he  ever  officiated  or  resided 
there.  He  certainly  held  the  living  but  two  years,  resign- 
ing it  in  January  1552  along  with  his  other  benefice,  and 
it  is  noteworthy  that  at  the  episcopal  visitation  of  1551 
he  was  not  present.  To  this  supposed  residence  at  Meudon 
and  to  the  previous  stay  at  Rome,  however,  are  attached 
two  of  the  most  mischievous  items  of  the  legend,  though 
fortunately  two  of  the  most  easily  refutable.  It  is  said  that 
Rabelais  met  and  quarrelled  with  Joachim  du  Bellay  the 


196 


RABELAIS 


poet  at  Rome,  and  with  Ronsard  at  Meudon  and  elsewhere, 
that  this  caused  a  breach  between  him  and  the  Pleiade, 
that  he  satirized  its  classicizing  tendencies  in  the  episode 
of  the  Limousin  scholar,  and  that  Ronsard  after  his  death 
avenged  himself  by  a  libellous  epitaph.  The  facts  are 
these.  Nothing  is  heard  of  the  quarrel  with  Du  Bellay  or 
of  any  meeting  with  him,  nothing  of  the  meetings  and 
bickerings  with  Ronsard,  till  1699,  when  Bernier  tells  the 
story  without  any  authority.  The  supposed  allusions  to  the 
Pleiade  date  from  a  time  when  Ronsard  was  a  small  boy, 
and  are  mainly  borrowed  from  an  earlier  writer  still, 
Geoffroy  Tory.  Lastly,  the  epitaph  read  impartially  is  not 
libellous  at  all  but  simply  takes  up  the  vein  of  the  opening 
scenes  of  Gargantua  in  reference  to  Gargantua's  author. 
There  is  indeed  no  reason  to  suppose  that  either  Ronsard 
or  Du  Bellay  was  a  fervent  admirer  of  Rabelais,  for  they 
belonged  to  a  very  different  literary  school ;  but  there  is 
absolutely  no  evidence  of  any  enmity  between  them  or 
even  of  any  acquaintanceship  which  could  have  given  rise 
to  enmity. 

Some  chapters  of  Rabelais's  fourth  book  had  been  pub- 
lished in  1548,  but  the  whole  did  not  appear  till  1552. 
The  Sorbonne  censured  it  and  the  parliament  suspended 
the  sale,  taking  advantage  of  the  king's  absence  from  Paris. 
But  it  was  soon  relieved  of  the  suspension.  This  is  the  last 
fact  we  know  about  Rabelais.  It  is  supposed  that  he  died 
in  1553,  but  actual  history  is  quite  silent,  and  the  legends 
about  his  deathbed  utterances — "La  farce  est  jouee,"  "  Je 
vais  chercher  un  grand  peut-etre,"  &c. — are  altogether 
apocryphal.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  numerous 
silly  stories  told  of  his  life,  such  as  that  of  his  procuring 
a  free  passage  to  Paris  by  inscribing  packets  "Poison 
for  the  king,"  and  so  forth. 

Ten  years  after  the  publication  of  the  fourth  book  and 
nine  after  the  supposed  date  of  the  author's  death  there 
appeared  at  Lyons  sixteen  chapters  entitled  L'lle  Sonnante 
par  Maistre  Francois  Rabelais,  and  two  years  later  the 
entire  fifth  book  was  printed  as  such.  In  1567  it  took 
place  with  the  others,  and  has  ever  since  appeared  with 
them.  But  from  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  there 
have  never  been  wanting  disbelievers  in  its  authenticity. 
The  controversy  is  one  of  some  intricacy,  but  as  it  is  also 
one  of  capital  importance  in  literary  history  the  heads  of 
it  at  least  must  be  given  here.  The  opponents  of  the  book 
rely  (1)  on  the  testimony  of  a  certain  Louis  Guyon,  who 
in  1604  declared  that  the  fifth  book  was  made  long  after 
Rabelais's  death  by  an  author  whom  he  knew,  and  who 
was  not  a  doctor,  and  on  the  assertion  of  the  bibliographer 
Du  Verdier,  about  the  same  time,  that  it  was  written  by 
an  "  6colier  de  Valence " ;  (2)  on  the  fact  that  the  anti- 
monastic  and  even  anti- Catholic  polemic  is  much  more 
accentuated  in  it ;  (3)  that  parts  are  apparently  replicas 
or  rough  drafts  of  passages  already  appearing  in  the  four 
earlier  books;  (4)  that  some  allusions  are  manifestly 
l>osterior  to  even  the  farthest  date  which  can  be  assigned 
for  the  reputed  author's  decease.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  urged  that,  though  Guyon  and  Du  Verdier  were  in  a 
sense  contemporaries,  they  wrote  long  after  the  events, 
and  that  the  testimony  of  the  former  is  vitiated,  not 
merely  by  its  extreme  vagueness  but  by  the  fact  that 
it  occurs  in  a  plaidoyer,  tending  to  exculpate  physicians 
from  the  charge  of  unorthodoxy;  that  Du  Verdier  in 
another  place  assigns  the  Pantaarueline  Prognostication  to 
this  same  unknown  student  of  Valence,  and  had  therefore 
probably  confused  and  hearsay  notions  on  the  subject; 
that  the  rasher  and  fiercer  tone,  as  well  as  the  apparent 
repetitions,  are  sufficiently  accounted  for  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  Rabelais  never  finally  revised  the  book,  which 
indeed  dates  show  that  he  could  not  have  done,  as  the 
fourth  was  not  finally  settled  till  just  before  his  death ; 


and  that  it  is  perfectly  probable,  and  indeed  almost  certain, 
that  it  was  prepared  from  his  papers  by  another  hand, 
which  is  responsible  for  the  anachronous  allusions  above 
referred  to.  But  the  strongest  argument,  and  one  which 
has  never  been  attacked  by  authorities  really  competent 
to  judge,  is  that  the  "  griffe  de  1'aigle "  is  on  the  book, 
and  that  no  known  author  of  the  time  except  Rabelais 
was  capable  of  writing  the  passage  about  the  Chats  fourres, 
the  better  part  of  the  history  of  Queen  Whims  (La  Quinte) 
and  her  court,  and  the  conclusion  giving  the  Oracle  of  the 
Bottle.  To  this  argument  we  believe  that  the  more  com- 
petent a  critic  is,  both  by  general  faculty  of  appreciation 
and  by  acquaintance  with  contemporary  French  literature, 
the  more  positive  will  be  the  assent  that  he  yields. 

Gargantua  and  Pantagruel,  notwithstanding  their  high  literary 
standing  and  the  frequency  with  which  certain  passages  from  them 
are  cited,  are,  owing  partly  to  their  archaism  of  language  and  partly 
to  the  extreme  licence  which  their  author  has  allowed  himself,  so 
little  read  that  no  notice  of  them  or  of  him  could  be  complete 
without  some  sketch  of  their  contents.  The  first  book,  Gargantua, 
describes  the  birth  of  that  hero  (a  giant  and  the  son  of  gigantic 
parents),  whose  nativity  is  ushered  in  by  the  account  of  a  tremendous 
feast.  In  this  the  burlesque  exaggeration  of  the  pleasures  of  eating 
and  drinking,  which  is  one  of  the  chief  exterior  notes  of  the  whole 
work,  is  pushed  to  an  extreme, — an  extreme  which  has  attracted 
natural  but  perhaps  undue  attention.  Very  early,  however,  the 
axithor  becomes  serious  in  contrasting  the  early  education  of  his 
hero — a  satire  on  the  degraded  schools  of  the  Middle  Ages — with 
its  subsequent  and  reformed  stage,  in  the  account  of  which  all  the 
best  and  noblest  ideas  of  the  humanist  Kenaissance  in  reference  to 
pedagogy  are  put  with  exceptional  force.  Gargantua  is  recalled 
from  Paris,  whither  he  had  been  sent  to  finish  his  education,  owing 
to  a  war  between  his  father,  Grandcosier,  and  the  neighbouring  king, 
Picrochole.  This  war  is  described  at  great  length,  the  chief  hero 
of  it  being  the  monk,  Friar  John,  a  very  unclerical  cleric,  in  whom 
Rabelais  greatly  delights.  Picrochole  defeated  and  peace  made, 
Gargantua  establishes  the  abbey  of  Thelema  in  another  of  Rabelais's 
most  elaborate  literary  passages,  where  all  the  points  most  obnoxious 
to  him  in  monastic  life  are  indicated  by  the  assignment  of  their 
exact  opposites  to  this  model  convent.  The  second  book,  which 
introduces  the  principal  hero  of  the  whole,  Pantagruel,  Gargantua's 
son,  is,  on  any  other  hypothesis  but  that  already  suggested  of  its 
prior  composition,  very  difficult  to  explain,  but  in  itself  it  is  intelli- 
gible enough.  Pantagruel  goes  through  something  like  a  second 
edition  (really  a  first)  of  the  educational  experiences  of  his  father. 
Like  him,  he  goes  to  Paris,  and  there  meets  with  Panurge,  the 
principal  triumph  of  Rabelaisian  character-drawing,  and  the  most 
original  as  well  as  puzzling  figure  of  the  book.  Panurge  has  almost 
all  intellectual  accomplishments,  but  is  totally  devoid  of  morality  : 
he  is  a  coward,  a  drunkard,  a  lecher,  a  spiteful  trickster,  a  spend- 
thrift, but  all  the  while  infinitely  amusing.  This  book,  like  the 
other,  has  a  war  in  its  latter  part ;  Gargantua  scarcely  appears  in 
it  and  Friar  John  not  at  all.  It  is  not  till  the  opening  of  the  third 
book  that  the  most  important  action  begins.  This  arises  from 
Panurge's  determination  to  marry  —  a  determination,  however, 
which  is  very  half-hearted,  and  which  leads  him  to  consult  a  vast 
number  of  authorities,  each  giving  occasion  for  satire  of  a  more  or 
less  complicated  kind.  At  last  it  is  determined  that  Pantagruel 
and  his  followers  (Friar  John  has  reappeared  in  the  suite  of  the 
prince)  shall  set  sail  to  consult  the  Oracle  of  the  Dive  Bouteille. 
The  book  ends  with  the  obsciirest  passage  of  the  whole,  an  elaborate 
eulogy  of  the  "herb  pantagruelion,"  which  appears  to  be,  if  it  is 
anything,  hemp.  Only  two  probable  explanations  of  this  have 
been  offered,  the  one  seeing  in  it  an  anticipation  of  Joseph  de 
Maistre's  glorification  of  the  executioner,  the  other  a  eulogy  of 
work,  hemp  being  on  the  whole  the  most  serviceable  of  vegetable 
products  for  that  purpose.  The  fourth  and  fifth  books  are  entirely 
taken  up  with  a  description  of  the  voyage.  Many  strange  places 
with  stranger  names  are  visited,  some  of  them  offering  obvious 
satire  on  human  institutions,  others,  except  by  the  most  far-fetched 
explanations,  resolvable  into  nothing  but  sheer  extravaganza.  At 
last  the  Land  of  Lanterns,  borrowed  from  Lucian,  is  reached,  and 
the  Oracle  of  the  Bottle  is  consulted.  This  yields  the  single  word 
"Trinq,"  which  the  attendant  priestess  declares  to  be  the  most 
gracious  and  intelligible  she  has  ever  heard  from  it.  Panurge 
takes  this  as  a  sanction  of  his  marriage  and  the  book  ends  abruptly. 
This  singular  romance  is  diversified  by  or,  to  speak  more  properly, 
it  is  the  vehicle  of  the  most  bewildering  abundance  of  digression, 
burlesque  amplification,  covert  satire  on  things  political,  social, 
and  religious,  miscellaneous  erudition  of  the  literary  and  scientific 
kind.  Everywhere  the  author  lays  stress  on  the  excellence  of 
"  Pantagruelism,"  and  the  reader  who  is  himself  a  Pantagruelist 
(it  is  perfectly  idle  for  any  other  to  attempt  the  book)  soon  discovers 


RABELAIS 


197 


what  this  means.  It  is,  in  plain  English,  humour.  The  definition 
of  humour  is  a  generally  acknowledged  crux,  and  till  it  is  defined 
the  definition  of  Pantagruelism  will  be  in  the  same  position.  But 
that  it  consists  in  the  extension  of  a  wide  sympathy  to  all  human 
affairs  together  with  a  comprehension  of  their  vanity  may  be  said 
as  safely  as  anything  else.  Moroseness  and  dogmatism  are  as  far 
from  the  Pantagruelism  of  Rabelais  as  maudlin  sentimentality  or 
dilettantism.  Perhaps  the  chief  things  lacking  in  his  attitude  are, 
in  the  first  place,  reverence,  of  which,  however,  from  a  few  passages, 
it  is  clear  he  was  by  no  means  totally  devoid,  and  an  appreciation 
of  passion  and  poetry.  Here  and  there  there  are  touches  of  the ' 
latter,  as  in  the  portrait  of  Quintessence,  but  passion  is  everywhere 
absent — an  absence  for  which  the  comic  structure  and  plan  of  the 
book  does  not  by  any  means  supply  a  complete  explanation. 

For  a  general  estimate  of  Rabelais's  literary  character  and  influ- 
ence the  reader  may  be  referred  to  the  article  FRANCE  (vol.  ix. 
p.  652).  But  some  detailed  remarks  must  be  given  here.  The  life 
and  works  of  Rabelais,  despite  the  considerable  number  of  publica- 
tions of  which  they  have  been  the  subject,  have  hitherto  been  less 
fully  and  satisfactorily  treated  than  the  life  and  works  of  any  author 
who  occupies  an  equally  important  place.  As  will  have  been  seen 
from  the  foregoing  attempt  to  give  the  actual  facts,  a  whole  legend 
has  grown  up  round  the  scanty  details  recorded  of  him,  and  many, 
if  not  all,  of  the  particulars  of  that  legend  can  be  shown  to  be 
false.  But  no  one  hitherto  has  undertaken  in  a  satisfactory  fashion 
the  construction  of  a  rigorously  critical  life.  In  the  same  way 
there  are  many  questions  in  reference  to  his  main  work  which  have 
never  been  thoroughly  and  finally  sifted  by  a  critical  intelligence 
equal  to  the  task.  Limits  of  space,  to  say  no  more,  prevent  any 
such  attempt  being  made  here  ;  but  there  are  three  questions  with- 
out the  discussion  of  which  this  notice  of  one  of  the  foremost  writers 
of  the  world  would  not  be  worthy  of  its  present  place.  These  are 
— What  is  the  general  drift  and  purpose  of  Gargantua  and  Panta- 
gruel,  supposing  there  to  be  any  ?  What  defence  can  be  offered,  if 
any  defence  is  needed,  for  the  extraordinary  licence  of  language 
and  imagery  which  the  author  has  permitted  himself?  What  was 
his  attitude  towards  the  great  questions  of  religion,  philosophy,  and 
politics  ?  These  questions  succeed  each  other  in  the  order  of  reason, 
and  the  answer  to  each  assists  the  resolution  of  the  next. 

There  have  been  few  more  remarkable  instances  of  the  lues  com- 
mentatoria  than  the  work  of  the  editors  of  Rabelais.  Almost  every 
one  appears  to  have  started  with  a  Rabelais  ready  made  in  his  head, 
and  to  have,  so  to  speak,  read  that  Rabelais  into  the  book.  Those 
who  have  not  done  this,  like  Le  Duchat,  Motteux,  and  Esmangart, 
have  generally  committed  the  error  of  tormenting  themselves  and 
their  author  to  find  individual  explanations  of  personages  and 
events.  The  extravagance  of  the  last-named  commentator  takes 
the  form  of  seeing  elaborate  allegories  ;  that  of  some  others  devotes 
itself  chiefly  to  identifying  the  characters  of  the  romance  with  more 
or  less  famous  historical  persons.  But  the  first  blunder,  that  of 
forming  a  general  hypothetical  conception  of  Rabelais  and  then 
adjusting  interpretation  of  the  work  to  it,  is  the  commoner.  This 
conception,  however,  has  singularly  varied.  According  to  some 
expositors,  among  whom  the  latest  and  not  the  least  respectable  is 
M.  Fleury,  Rabelais  is  a  sober  reformer,  an  apostle  of  earnest  work, 
of  sound  education,  of  rational  if  not  dogmatic  religion,  who  wraps 
up  his  morals  in  a  farcical  envelope  partly  to  make  them  go  down 
with  the  vulgar  and  partly  to  shield  himself  from  the  consequences 
of  his  reforming  zeal.  According  to  others,  of  whom  we  have  had 
in  England  a  distinguished  example  in  Mr  Besant,  Rabelais  is  all 
this  but  with  a  difference.  He  is  not  religious  at  all ;  he  is  more 
or  less  anti-religious  ;  and  his  book  is  more  or  less  of  a  general  pro- 
test against  any  attempt  to  explain  supematurally  the  riddle  of 
the  earth.  According  to  a  third  class,  the  most  distinguished  re- 
cent representative  of  which  was  M.  Paul  Lacroix,  the  Rabelaisian 
legend  does  not  so  much  err  in  principle  as  it  invents  in  fact. 
Rabelais  is  the  incarnation  of  the  "  esprit  Gaulois,"  a  jovial  careless 
soul,  not  destitute  of  common  sense  or  even  acute  intellectual 
power,  but  first  of  all  a  good  fellow,  rather  preferring  a  broad  jest 
to  a  fine-pointed  one,  and  rollicking  through  life  like  a  good-natured 
undergraduate.  Of  all  these  views  it  may  be  said  that  those  who 
hold  them  are  obliged  to  shut  their  eyes  to  many  things  in  the 
book  and  to  see  in  it  many  which  are  not  there.  The  religious 
part  of  the  matter  will  be  dealt  with  presently  ;  but  it  is  impossible 
to  think  that  any  unbiassed  judge  reading  Rabelais  can  hold  the 
grave  philosopher  view  or  the  reckless  good  fellow  view  without 
modifications  and  allowances  which  practically  deprive  either  of 
any  value  as  a  sufficient  explanation  of  the  book  and  its  writer. 
Those  who,  as  it  has  been  happily  put,  identify  Rabelais  with 
Pantagruel,  strive  in  vain  on  any  view  intellectually  consistent  or 
morally  respectable  to  account  for  the  vast  ocean  of  pure  or  impure 
laughter  and  foolery  which  surrounds  the  few  solid  islets  of  sense 
and  reason  and  devotion.  Those  who  in  the  same  way  identify 
Rabelais  with  Panurge  can  never  explain  the  education  scheme,  the 
solemn  apparition  of  Gargantua  among  the  farcical  and  fantastic 
variations  on  Panurge's  wedding,  and  many  other  passages  ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  those  who  insist  on  a  definite  propaganda  of 


any  kind  must  justify  themselves  by  their  own  power  of  seeing 
things  invisible  to  plain  men.  But  these  vagaries  are  not  only  un- 
justifiable ;  they  are  entirely  unnecessary.  No  one  reading  Rabelais 
without  parti  pris,  but  with  a  good  knowledge  of  the  history  and 
literature  of  his  own  times  and  the  times  which  preceded  him,  can 
have  much  difficulty  in  appreciating  his  book.  He  had  evidently 
during  his  long  and  studious  sojourn  in  the  cloister  (a  sojourn 
which  was  certainly  not  less  than  five-and-twenty  years,  while  it 
may  have  been  five-and-thirty,  and  of  which  the  stud  iousuess  rests 
not  on  legend  but  on  documentary  evidence)  acquired  a  vast  stock 
of  learning.  He  was,  it  is  clear,  thoroughly  penetrated  with  the 
instincts,  the  hopes,  and  the  ideas  of  the  Renaissance  in  the  form 
which  it  took  in  France,  in  England,  and  in  Germany, — a  form, 
that  is  to  say,  not  merely  humanist  but  full  of  aspirations  for  social 
and  political  improvement,  and  above  all  for  a  joyous,  varied,  and 
non-ascetic  life.  He  had  thoroughly  convinced  himself  of  the  abuses 
to  which  monachism  lent  itself.  Lastly,  he  had  the  spirit  of  lively 
satire  and  of  willingness  desipere  in  loco  which  frequently  goes  with 
the  love  of  books.  It  is  in  the  highest  degree  improbable  that  in 
beginning  his  great  work  he  had  any  definite  purpose  or  intention. 
The  habit  of  burlesquing  the  romans  d'aventures  was  no  new  one, 
and  the  form  lent  itself  easily  to  the  two  literary  exercises  to  which 
he  was  most  disposed, — apt  and  quaint  citation  from  and  variation 
on  the  classics  and  satirical  criticism  of  the  life  he  saw  around  him. 
The  immense  popularity  of  the  first  two  parts  induced  him  to  con- 
tinue them,  and  by  degrees  (the  genuineness  of  the  fifth  book  at 
any  rate  in  substance  is  here  assumed)  the  possibility  of  giving  the 
whole  something  like  a  consistent  form  and  a  regular  conclusion 
presented  itself  to  him.  The  voyage  in  particular  allowed  the 
widest  licence  of  satirical  allusion,  and  he  availed  himself  of  that 
licence  in  the  widest  sense.  Here  and  there  persons  are  glanced 
at,  while  the  whole  scenery  of  his  birthplace  and  its  neighbourhood 
is  curiously  worked  in  ;  but  for  the  most  part  the  satire  is  typical 
rather  than  individual,  and  it  is  on  the  whole  a  rather  negative 
satire.  In  only  two  points  can  Rabelais  be  said  to  be  definitely 
polemic.  He  certainly  hated  the  monkish  system  in  the  debased 
form  in  which  it  existed  in  his  time  ;  he  as  certainly  hated  the 
brutish  ignorance  into  which  the  earlier  systems  of  education  had 
suffered  too  many  of  their  teachers  and  scholars  to  drop.  At  these 
two  things  he  was  never  tired  of  striking,  but  elsewhere,  even  in 
the  grim  satire  of  the  Ghats  fourres,  he  is  the  satirist  proper  rather 
than  the  reformer.  It  is  in  the  very  absence  of  any  cramping  or 
limiting  purpose  that  the  great  merit  and  value  of  the  book  consist. 
It  holds  up  an  almost  perfectly  level  and  spotless  mirror  to  the 
temper  of  the  earlier  Renaissance.  The  author  has  no  universal 
medicine  of  his  own  (except  Pantagruelism)  to  offer,  nor  has  he 
anybody  else's  universal  medicine  to  attack.  He  ranges  freely 
about  the  world,  touching  the  laughable  sides  of  things  with  kindly 
laughter,  and  every  now  and  then  dropping  the  risibile  and  taking 
to  the  rationale.  It  is  not  indeed  possible  to  deny  that  in  the 
Oracle  of  the  Bottle,  besides  its  merely  jocular  and  fantastic  sense, 
there  is  a  certain  "echo,"  as  it  has  been  called,  "of  the  conclusion 
of  the  preacher, "  a  certain  acknowledgment  of  the  vanity  of  things. 
But  in  such  a  book  such  a  note  could  hardly  be  wanting  unless  the 
writer  had  been  a  fanatic,  which  he  was  not,  or  a  mere  voluptuary, 
which  he  was  not,  or  a  dullard,  which  he  was  least  of  all.  It 
is,  after  all,  little  more  than  a  suggestion,  and  is  certainly  not 
strengthened  by  anything  in  the  body  of  the  work.  Rabelais  is, 
in  short,  if  he  be  read  without  prejudice,  a  humourist  pure  and 
simple,  feeling  often  in  earnest,  thinking  almost  always  in  jest. 
He  is  distinguished  from  the  two  men  who  alone  can  be  compared 
to  him  in  character  of  work  and  force  of  genius  combined — Lucian 
and  Swift — by  very  marked  characteristics.  He  is  much  less  of  a 
mere  mocker  than  Lucian,  and  he  is  entirely  destitute,  even  when 
he  deals  with  monks  or  pedants,  of  the  ferocity  of  Swift.  He 
neither  sneers  nor  rages ;  the  rire  immense  which  distinguishes 
him  is  altogether  good-natured  ;  but  he  is  nearer  to  Lucian  than 
to  Swift,  and  Lucian  is  perhaps  the  author  whom  it  is  most  neces- 
sary to  know  in  order  to  understand  him  rightly. 

If  this  general  view  is  correct  (and  it  may  at  least  claim  to  be 
founded  on  nothing  but  the  reading  of  Rabelais  himself  without 
prejudice  and  with  a  tolerable  apparatus)  it  will  probably  condition 
to  some  extent  the  answer  to  be  given  to  the  two  minor  questions 
stated  above.  The  first  is  connected  with  the  great  blemish  of 
Gargantua  and  Pantagruel,—  their  extreme  coarseness  of  language 
and  imagery.  It  is  somewhat  curious  that  some  of  those  who  claim 
Rabelais  as  an  enemy  of  the  supernatural  in  general  have  been  the 
loudest  to  condemn  this  blemish,  and  that  some  of  them  have 
made  the  exceedingly  lame  excuse  for  him  that  it  was  a  means  of 
wrapping  up  his  propaganda  and  keeping  it  and  himself  safe  from 
the  notice  of  the  powers  that  were.  This  is  not  complimentary  to 
Rabelais,  and,  except  in  some  very  small  degree,  it  is  not  likely  to 
be  true.  For  as  a  matter  of  fact  obscenity  no  less  than  impiety 
was  charged  against  him  by  his  ultra-orthodox  enemies,  and  the 
obscenity  no  less  than  the  supposed  impiety  gave  them  a  handle 
against  him  before  such  bodies  as  the  Sorbonne  and  the  parliaments. 
As  for  the  extreme  theory  of  the  anti-Rabelaisians,  that  Rabelais 


198 


E  A  B  — R  A  B 


was  a  "dirty  old  blackguard"  who  liked  filth  and  wallowed  in  it 
from  choice,"  that  hardly  needs  comment.  His  errors  in  this  way 
are  of  course,  looked  at  from  an  absolute  standard,  unpardonable. 
But  judged  relatively  there  are  several,  we  shall  not  say  excuses, 
but  explanations  of  them.  In  the  first  place,  the  comparative 
indecency  of  Rabelais  has  been  much  exaggerated  by  persons  un- 
familiar with  early  French  literature.  The  form  of  his  book  was 
above  all  things  popular,  and  the  popular  French  literature  of  the 
Middle  Ages  as  distinguished  from  the  courtly  and  literary  litera- 
ture, which  was  singularly  pure,  can  hardly  be  exceeded  in  point 
of  coarseness.  The  fabliaux,  the  early  burlesque  romances  of  the 
Audigier  class,  the  farces  of  the  15th  century,  equal  (the  grotesque 
iteration  and  amplification  which  is  the  note  of  Gargantua  and 
Pantagruel  being  allowed  for,  and  sometimes  without  that  allow- 
ance) the  coarsest  passages  of  Rabelais.  His  coarseness,  moreover, 
disgusting  as  it  is,  has  nothing  of  the  corruption  of  refined  voluptu- 
ousness about  it,  and  nothing  of  the  sniggering  indecency  which 
disgraces  men  like  Pope,  like  Voltaire,  and  like  Sterne.  It  shows 
in  its  author  a  want  of  reverence,  a  want  of  decency  in  the  proper 
sense,  a  too  great  readiness  to  condescend  to  the  easiest  kind  of 
ludicrous  ideas  and  the  kind  most  acceptable  at  that  time  to  the 
common  run  of  mankind.  The  general  taste  having  been  consider- 
ably refined  since,  Rabelais  has  in  parts  become  nearly  unreadable, 
— the  worst  and  most  appropriate  punishment  for  his  faults.  As 
for  those  who  have  tried  to  make  his  indecency  an  argument  for 
his  laxity  in  religious  principle,  that  argument,  like  another  men- 
tioned previously,  hardly  needs  discussion.  It  is  notoriously  false 
as  a  matter  of  experience.  Rabelais  could  not  have  written  as  he 
has  written  in  this  respect  and  in  others  if  he  had  been  an  earnestly 
pious  person,  taking  heed  to  every  act  and  word,  and  studious 
equally  not  to  offend  and  not  to  cause  offence.  But  no  one  in  his 
senses  would  dream  of  claiming  any  such  character  for  him. 

This  brings  us  to  the  last  point — what  his  religious  opinions 
were.  He  has  been  claimed  as  a  freethinker  of  all  shades,  from 
undogmatic  theism  to  atheism,  and  as  a  concealed  Protestant.  The 
last  of  these  claims  has  now  been  very  generally  given  up,  and 
indeed  Erasmus  might  quite  as  reasonably  be  claimed  for  the 
Reformation  as  Rabelais.  Both  disliked  and  attacked  the  more 
crying  abuses  of  their  church,  and  both  at  the  time  and  since  have 
been  disliked  and  attacked  by  the  more  imprudent  partisans  of 
that  church.  But  Rabelais,  in  his  own  way,  held  off  from  the 
Reformation  even  more  distinctly  than  Erasmus  did.  The  accusa- 
tion of  freethinking,  if  not  of  directly  anti-Christian  thinking,  has 
always  been  more  common  and  has  recently  found  much  favour. 
It  is,  however,  remarkable  that  those  who  hold  this  opinion  never 
give  chapter  and  verse  for  it,  and  it  may  be  said  confidently  that 
chapter  and  verse  cannot  be  given.  The  sayings  attributed  to 
Rabelais  which  colour  the  idea  (such  as  the  famous  "Je  vais 
chercher  un  grand  peut-etre,"  said  to  have  been  uttered  on  his 
death-bed)  are,  as  has  been  said,  purely  apocryphal.  In  the  book 
itself  nothing  of  the  kind  is  to  be  found.  Perhaps  the  nearest 
approach  to  it  is  a  jest  at  the  Sorbonne  couched  in  the  Pauline 
phrase  about  "  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen,"  which  the  author 
removed  from  the  later  editions.  But  irreverences  of  this  kind, 
as  well  as  the  frequent  burlesque  citations  of  the  Bible,  whether 
commendable  or  not,  had  been,  were,  have  since  been,  and  are 
common  in  writers  whose  orthodoxy  is  unquestioned  ;  and  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  later  Middle  Age,  which  in  many  respects 
Rabelais  represents  almost  more  than  he  does  the  Renaissance,  was, 
with  all  its  unquestioning  faith,  singularly  reckless  and,  to  our 
fancy,  irreverent  in  its  use  of  the  sacred  words  and  images,  which 
were  to  it  the  most  familiar  of  all  images  and  words.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  in  the  book,  in  the  description  of  Gargantua's  and 
Pantagruel's  education,  in  the  sketch  of  the  abbey  of  Thelema,  in 
several  passages  relating  to  Pantagruel,  expressions  which  either 
signify  a  sincere  and  unfeigned  piety  of  a  simple  kind  or  else  are 
inventions  of  the  most  detestable  hypocrisy.  For  these  passages 
are  not,  like  many  to  be  found  from  the  Renaissance  to  the  end 
of  the  18th  century,  obvious  flags  of  truce  to  cover  attacks, — mere 
bowings  in  the  house  of  Rimmon  to  prevent  evil  consequences. 
There  is  absolutely  no  sign  of  the  tongue  in  the  cheek.  They  are 
always  written  in  the  author's  highest  style,  a  style  perfectly  elo- 
quent and  unaffected  ;  they  can  only  be  interpreted  (on  the  free- 
thinking  hypothesis)  as  allegorical  with  the  greatest  difficulty  and 
obscurity,  and  it  is  pretty  certain  that  no  one  reading  the  book 
without  a  thesis  to  prove  would  dream  of  taking  them  in  a  non- 
natural  sense.  It  is  not,  indeed,  to  be  contended  that  Rabelais 
was  a  man  with  whom  religion  was  in  detail  a  constant  thought, 
that  he  had  a  very  tender  conscience  or  a  very  scrupulous  orthodoxy. 
His  form  of  religious  sentiment  was  not  evangelical  or  mystical, 
any  more  than  it  was  ascetic  or  ceremonial  or  dogmatic.  As  regards 
one  of  the  accepted  doctrines  of  his  own  church,  the  excellence  of 
the  celibate  life,  of  poverty,  and  of  elaborate  obedience  to  a  rule, 
he  no  doubt  was  a  strong  dissident ;  but  the  evidence  that,  as  a 
Christian,  he  was  unorthodox,  that  he  was  even  an  heretical  or 
latitudinarian  thinker  in  regard  to  those  doctrines  which  the  various 
Christian  churches  have  in  common,  is  not  merely  weak,  it  is 


practically  non-existent.  The  counter  testimony  is,  indeed,  not 
very  strong  and  still  less  detailed.  But  that  is  not  the  point.  It 
is  sufficient  to  say  that  there  is  absolutely  nothing  within  the 
covers  of  Rabelais's  works  incompatible  with  an  orthodoxy  which 
would  be  recognized  as  sufficient  by  Christendom  at  large,  leaving 
out  of  the  question  those  points  of  doctrine  and  practice  on  which 
Christians  differ.  Beyond  this  no  wise  man  will  go,  and  short 
of  it  hardly  any  unprejudiced  man  will  stop. 

The  dates  of  the  original  editions  of  Rabelais's  works  have  been 
given  where  possible  already.  The  earlier  books  were  repeatedly 
reissued  during  the  author's  life,  and  always  with  some  correction. 
What  may  be  called  the  first  complete  edition  appeared  in  1567  at 
Lyons,  published  by  Jean  Martin.  It  is  computed  that  no  less  than 
sixty  editions  were  printed  before  the  close  of  the  16th  century.  A 
very  considerable  time,  however,  elapsed  before  the  works  were, 
properly  speaking,  edited.  Huet  devoted  much  pains  to  them,  but 
his  results  were  .not  made  public.  The  first  edition  which  calls  for 
notice,  except  in  a  complete  bibliography,  is  that  of  Le  Duchat 
(Amsterdam,  1711).  Le  Duchat  was  a  very  careful  student,  and 
on  the  whole  a  very  efficient  editor,  being  perhaps,  of  the  group 
of  students  of  old  French  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
which  included  La  Monnoye  and  others,  the  most  sober,  critical, 
and  accomplished.  But  at  that  time  the  knowledge  of  the  period 
was  scarcely  far  enough  advanced.  The  next  important  date  in 
the  bibliography  of  Rabelais  is  1823,  in  which  year  appeared  the 
most  elaborate  edition  of  his  work  yet  published,  that  of  Esmangart 
and  Johanneau  (9  vols.),  including  for  the  first  time  the  "Songes 
Drolatiques,"  a  spurious  but  early  and  not  uninteresting  collection 
of  grotesque  figure-drawings  illustrating  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel, 
and  the  second  edition  of  M.  de  1'Aulnaye,  containing  a  bad  text 
but  a  useful  glossary.  From  this  time  the  editions  have  been  very 
numerous.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  those  illustrated  by 
Gustave  Dore,  first  on  a  small  scale  (1854),  afterwards  more  elabo- 
rately (1870) ;  that  of  the  Collection  Diclot  by  Burgaud  des  Marets 
and  Rathery  (1859,  second  edition  1870) ;  the  Bibliotheque  Elzevir- 
ienne  edition  by  MM.  Lacour  and  A.  de  Montaiglon  ;  that  of  the 
Nouvelle  Collection  Jannet  (seven  small  volumes,  1867-74),  com- 
pleted by  M.  Moland  ;  and  lastly,  the  edition  of  M.  Marty-Laveaux 
in  the  Collection  Lemerre  (1868-81),  which  is  unfortunately  not 
yet  completed,  but  which  when  finished  will  undoubtedly  be  the 
handsomest,  the  most  accurate,  and  the  most  complete  in  the 
scholarly  sense  yet  published.  At  present  the  most  really  useful 
edition  which  combines  a  handsome  fonn  with  cheapness  is  that 
of  the  Nouvelle  Collection  Jannet,  though  that  of  MM.  Burgaud 
des  Marets  and  Rathery  is  not  to  be  despised.  Commentaries  on 
Rabelais,  independent  of  editions,  have  been  especially  numerous 
of  late  years  ;  the  work  of  MM.  Reville,  Noel,  Mayrargues,  and 
Gebhart  may  be  mentioned.  But  the  best  recent  book  on  the  sub- 
ject in  French  is  that  of  M.  J.  Fleury  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1876),  which, 
though  deficient  in  exactitude  as  to  many  points  of  detail,  and 
sacrificing  something  to  a  desire  of  presenting  Rabelais  as  a  great 
social  philosopher,  is,  on  the  whole,  veiy  sensible  and  complete. 

Rabelais  was  very  early  popular  in  England.  There  are  possible 
allusions  to  him  in  Shakespeare,  and  the  current  clerical  notion  of 
him  is  very  unjustly  adopted  by  Marston  in  the  words  "wicked 
Rabelais";  but  Bacon  described  him  better  as  the  great  jester  ol 
France,  and  a  Scot,  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart,  translated  the  earlier 
books  in  1653.  This  was  not  worthily  completed  till  the  luckless 
Motteux,  or,  as  his  compatriots  call  him,  Le  Motteux,  finished  it 
with  an  extensive  commentary.  Criticism  of  a  scattered  kind  on 
Rabelais  in  English  is  abundant,  that  of  Coleridge  being  the  most 
important,  while  the  constant  evidence  of  his  influence  in  Southey's 
Doctor  is  also  noteworthy.  But  he  was  hardly  treated  as  a  whole 
before  Mr  Besant's  book  on  the  subject  in  the  Foreign  Classics  for 
English  Readers  (1879),  which  the  author  has  since  followed  up 
with  Readings  from  Rabelais  (1883).  Mr  Besant  has  too  readily 
adopted  (probably  from  Michelet)  the  apocryphal  scandals  as  to 
the  difference  between  Rabelais  and  the  poets  of  the  Pleiade,  and 
is  committed  (it  is  not  quite  clear  why)  to  a  view  of  Rabelais  as  a 
non  -  Christian  thinker  and  preacher  for  which  it  is  impossible  to 
discover  solid  justification.  But  otherwise  his  books  form  the 
best  introduction  possible  for  a  modern  English  reader  to  this 
great  author.  (G.  SA. ) 

RABENER,  GOTTLIEB  WILHELM  (1714-1771),  German 
satirist,  was  born  in  1714  near  Leipsic,  and  after  studying 
law  at  that  city  entered  the  civil  service,  in  which  he 
continued  for  many  years.  He  died  on  22d  March  1771. 
The  papers  which  he  published  in  the  Brevier  Beitrdge 
were  subsequently  collected  into  a  Sammhing  satirischer 
Schriflen  (2  vols.,  1751),  to  which  two  volumes  were  after- 
wards added.  The  work  passed  through  numerous  edi- 
tions. Rabener's  Freundschaftliche  Brief e  were  published 
posthumously  by  C.  F.  Weisse  with  a  biography.  (See 
GERMANY,  vol.  x.  p.  533.) 


RABIES 


199 


RABIES,  a  virulent  disease,  developed  primarily  in 
and  peculiar  to  the  canine  species.  Its  occurrence  in  the 
same  manner  in  other  carnivorous  animals,  as  the  fox, 
wolf,  hyaena,  jackal,  raccoon,  badger,  and  skunk,  has  been 
asserted ;  but  there  is  every  probability  that  it  is  originally 
a  disease  of  the  dog.  It  is  communicated  by  inoculation 
to  nearly  all,  if  not  all,  warm-blooded  creatures.  The  trans- 
mission from  one  animal  to  another  only  certainly  takes 
place  through  inoculation  with  viruliferous  matters.  The 
malady  is  generally  characterized  at  a  certain  stage  by  an 
irrepressible  desire  in  the  animal  to  act  offensively  with 
its  natural  weapons, — dogs  and  other  carnivora  attacking 
with  their  teeth,  herbivora  with  their  hoofs  or  horns,  and 
birds  with  their  beaks,  when  excited  ever  so  slightly.  In 
the  absence  of  excitement  the  malady  may  run  its  course 
without  any  fit  of  fury  or  madness.  Transmission  of  the 
disease  to  man  produces  HYDROPHOBIA  (q.v.)  or  dread  of 
water,  but  in  animals  this  symptom  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
observed.  Rabies  has  been  known  from  the  very  earliest 
times,  and  serious  outbreaks  have  been  recorded  as  occur- 
ring among  dogs,  wolves,  and  foxes  in  different  parts  of 
the  world,  particularly  in  western  Europe  and  in  North 
and  South  America.  It  is  very  frequent  in  Europe  and 
appears  to  be  on  the  increase.  France,  Germany,  upper 
Italy,  and  Holland  evidently  suffer  more  than  other  Con- 
tinental countries.  England  is  becoming  more  frequently 
visited  than  before,  though  Scotland  and  Ireland  are  much 
less  troubled  than  England.  Spain  is  also  sometimes 
severely  scourged  by  it;  but  it  is  rare  in  Portugal.  On 
the  American  continent  it  is  well  known,  though  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Andes  it  is  rarely  if  ever  seen ;  and  it 
has  never  been  heard  of  in  Quito.  In  the  West  Indies 
— in  Hispaniola,  Jamaica,  Domingo,  Havana,  Guadaloupe, 
and  Hayti — as  well  as  in  Ceylon,  it  is  frequently  wit- 
nessed, and  in  1813  it  was  introduced  into  Mauritius.  It 
exists  in  North  and  South  China,  and  has  been  reported 
in  Cochin  China  and  the  kingdom  of  Anam.  It  is  fre- 
quent and  fatal  in  India ;  and  it  is  by  no  means  rare  in 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Turkey.  It  has  been  observed  in 
the  Hijaz  in  Arabia,  and  in  North  Africa  and  Egypt. 
Hydrophobia  has  been  reported  in  Algeria;  but  Rohlfs 
asserts  that  it  is  unknown  in  Morocco.  Gibraltar  and 
Malta  have  been  seriously  invaded  at  times,  and  in  Sweden, 
Denmark,  Norway,  Russia,  and  Lapland  it  has  been  fre- 
quently seen  in  an  epizootic  form;  but  it  is  not  yet 
positively  decided  whether  it  exists  in  the  Arctic  regions. 
Steller  and  Erman  assert  that  it  is  unknown  in  Kam- 
chatka and  Greenland ;  but  Hayes  (The  Open  Polar  Sea) 
gives  us  the  particulars  of  an  outbreak  of  disease  in 
South  Greenland,  which  persisted  for  several  years,  caused 
him  the  loss  of  his  sledge-dogs  in  1870,  and  in  1872 
extended  from  Smith's  Sound  to  Jakobshavn,  threatening 
the  utter  extinction  of  the  species,  and  with  it  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  Eskimo.  In  most  of  its  features  it 
appeared  to  be  rabies.  The  scourge  is  unknown,  accord- 
ing to  reliable  evidence,  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand, 
Tasmania,  the  Azores,  and  St  Helena,  as  well  as  the  island 
of  Madeira ;  it  has  not  been  seen  at  Sumatra,  nor  in  East, 
South,  and  West  Africa,  nor  in  the  island  of  Reunion. 

Rabies  (hydrophobia)  is  almost  invariably  fatal  in  man, 
and  in  the  dog  it  nearly  always  terminates  in  death,  though 
instances  of  recovery  are  recorded ;  and  it  is  extremely 
probable  that  in  those  cases  in  which  people  have  been 
bitten  by  dogs  and  subsequently  perished  from  hydro- 
phobia, without  the  animals  themselves  offering  any  marked 
indications  of  illness  either  at  the  time  or  afterwards,  these 
have  been  suffering  from  a  mild  form  of  the  disease.  It 
is  also  fatal  to  horses,  cows,  pigs,  goats,  and  cats,  but  not 
to  fowls,  many  of  these  recovering  from  accidental  or 
experimental  inoculation.  Indeed  rabies  varies  consider- 


ably in  intensity  and  in  the  character  of  its  symptoms  in 
different  species  of  creatures.  Pasteur  has  shown  that,  if 
it  is  transmitted  from  the  diseased  dog  to  the  monkey 
and  ultimately  from  monkey  to  monkey,  at  each  trans- 
mission it  becomes  more  attenuated  in  virulence,  and 
remains  so  attenuated  when  passed  again  to  the  dog, 
rabbit,  or  guinea-pig,  nor  will  it  any  longer  produce  the 
disease  in  dogs  by  hypodermic  inoculations.  Even  inocu- 
lation by  trepanning  the  cranium,  which  is  so  infallible  in 
conveying  rabies,  may  produce  no  result,  the  dog  thence- 
forward being  protected,  and  no  longer  capable  of  receiving 
the  disease.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rabific  virus  is  in- 
tensified when  passed  from  rabbit  to  rabbit,  or  from 
guinea-pig  to  guinea-pig ;  and  after  several  transmissions 
through  the  bodies  of  these  animals  it  regains  the  maxi- 
mum virulence  which  it  possessed  before  it  was  enfeebled 
by  being  passed  through  the  monkey.  And  the  same  thing 
holds  with  respect  to  the  virulence  of  the  ordinary  rabid 
dog :  when  virus  which  is  far  from  having  reached  its 
maximum  intensity  is  conveyed  to  the  rabbit,  it  requires 
to  be  passed  through  several  of  these  animals  before  it 
reaches  its  maximum.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
disease  is  not  readily  conveyed  from  man  to  animals, 
either  accidentally  or  experimentally.  The  virus  appears 
to  exist  in  greatest  intensity  in  the  salivary  glands  and 
their  secretion,  in  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  perhaps 
to  a  lesser  degree  in  the  blood ;  doubtless  it  exists  also  in 
other  fluids  and  tissues  of  the  diseased  animal.  The 
principal  alterations  found  in  the  bodies  of  rabid  animals 
after  death  are  located  in  the  spinal  cord,  especially  its 
upper  portion,  the  medulla  oblongata,  certain  parts  of 
the  brain,  and  the  salivary  glands,  more  particularly  the 
submaxillary  and  sublingual, — less  in  the  parotid.  The 
stomach,  kidneys,  and  other  organs  also  present  altera- 
tions which  are  more  or  less  significant,  especially  the 
former,  in  which  foreign  bodies,  as  hair,  wood,  stones, 
earth,  pieces  of  cloth,  &c.,  are  very  frequently  found. 
But  the  nature  of  the  lesions,  as  well  as  the  symptomato- 
logy, shows  that  the  action  of  the  poison  is  more  especially 
exerted  on  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  though  the  eighth 
pair  of  nerves,  and  branches  of  the  fifth  and  seventh  pairs, 
are  not  involved  in  animals,  as  in  man. 

The  period  in  which  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  become 
manifest,  especially  after  accidental  inoculations,  as  bites, 
varies  extremely ;  indeed  there  is  no  disease  in  which  the 
period  of  latency  or  incubation  is  more  variable  or  pro- 
tracted, this  being  sometimes  limited  to  a  few  days  or 
weeks  and  extending  in  rare  cases  to  more  than  twelve 
months.  In  experimental  inoculations  the  period  is  greatly 
shortened  and  the  results  more  certain, — all  the  more  so 
if  the  virus  is  introduced  into  the  cranial  cavity  by  trepan- 
ning, or  into  the  blood-stream  by  intravenous  inoculation. 
In  accidental  inoculations,  as  in  wounds  from  rabid  dogs, 
a  certain  but  varying  percentage  escape.  This  immunity 
may  be  due  to  natural  non-receptivity,  to  the  wound  not 
having  been  inflicted  in  a  very  vascular  part,  or  to  the 
saliva  having  been  expended  from  frequent  bites  on  other 
animals,  or  intercepted  by  clothing,  hair,  wool,  &c. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  has  been  divided  into  three  stages  or 
periods,  and  has  also  been  described  as  appearing  in  at  least  two 
forms,  according  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  symptoms.  But,  as  a 
rule,  one  period  of  the  disease  does  not  pass  suddenly  into  another, 
the  transition  being  almost  imperceptible  ;  and  the  forms  do  not 
differ  essentially  from  each  other,  but  appear  merely  to  constitute 
varieties  of  the  same  disease,  due  to  the  natural  disposition  of  the 
animal,  or  other  modifying  circumstances.  These  forms  have  been 
designated  true  or  furious  rabies  (Fr.  rage  vrai ;  Genn.  rascnde 
Wuth)  and  dumb  rabies  (Fr.  rage  mue  ;  Germ,  stille  IVuth). 

The  malady  does  not  commence  with  fury  and  madness,  but  in  a 
strange  and  anomalous  change  in  the  habits  of  the  dog  :  it  becomes 
dull,  gloomy,  and  taciturn,  and  seeks  to  isolate  itself  in  out-of-the- 
way  places,  retiring  beneath  chairs  and  to  odd  corners.  But  in 
its  retirement  it  cannot  rest :  it  is  uneasy  and  fidgety,  and  no 


200 


RABIES 


sooner  has  it  lain  down  than  suddenly  it  jumps  up  in  an  agitated 
manner,  walks  backwards  and  forwards  several  times,  again  lies 
down  and  assumes  a  sleeping  attitude,  but  has  only  maintained 
it  for  a  few  minutes  when  it  is  once  more  moving  about.  Again  it 
retires  to  its  corner,  to  the  farthest  recess  it  can  find,  and  huddles 
itself  up  into  a  heap,  with  its  head  concealed  beneath  its  chest  and 
fore -paws.  This  state  of  continual  agitation  and  inquietude  is  in 
striking  contrast  with  its  ordinary  habits,  and  should  therefore 
receive  attention.  Not  unfrequently  there  are  a  few  moments  when 
the  creature  appears  more  lively  than  usual,  and  displays  an  extra- 
ordinary amount  of  affection.  Sometimes  there  is  a  disposition  to 
gather  up  straw,  thread,  bits  of  wood,  &c.,  which  are  industriously 
carried  away ;  a  tendency  to  lick  anything  cold,  as  iron,  stones, 
&c. ,  is  also  observed  .in  many  instances  ;  and  there  is  also  a  desire 
evinced  to  lick  other  animals.  Sexual  excitement  is  also  frequently 
an  early  symptom.  At  this  period  no  disposition  to  bite  is  observed  ; 
the  animal  is  docile  with  its  master  and  obeys  his  voice,  though 
not  so  readily  as  before,  nor  with  the  same  pleased  countenance. 
There  is  something  strange  in  the  expression  of  its  face,  and  the 
voice  of  its  owner  is  scarcely  able  to  make  it  change  from  a  sudden 
gloominess  to  its  usual  animated  aspect.  These  symptoms  gradu- 
ally become  more  marked  :  the  restlessness  and  agitation  increase. 
If  on  straw  the  dog  scatters  and  pulls  it  about  with  its  paws, 
and  if  in  a  room  it  scratches  and  tumbles  the  cushions  or  rugs  on 
which  it  usually  lies.  It  is  incessantly  on  the  move,  rambling 
about,  scratching  the  ground,  sniffing  in  corners  and  at  the  doors, 
as  if  on  the  scent  or  seeking  for  something.  It  indulges  in  strange 
movements,  as  if  affected  by  some  mental  influences,  or  a  prey 
to  hallucinations.  When  not  excited  by  any  external  influence 
it  will  remain  for  a  brief  period  perfectly  still  and  attentive,  as  if 
watching  something,  or  following  the  movements  of  some  creature 
on  the  wall ;  then  it  will  suddenly  dart  forward  and  snap  at  the 
vacant  air,  as  if  pursuing  an  annoying  object,  or  endeavouring  to 
seize  a  fly.  At  another  time  it  throws  itself,  yelling  and  furious, 
against  the  wall,  as  if  it  heard  threatening  voices  on  the  other 
side,  or  was  bent  on  attacking  an  enemy.  Nevertheless,  the  animal 
is  still  docile  and  submissive,  for  its  master's  voice  will  bring  it 
out  of  its  frenzy.  But  the  saliva  is  already  virulent,  and  the  excess- 
ive affection  which  it  evinces  at  intervals,  by  licking  the  hands  or 
face  of  those  it  loves,  renders  the  danger  very  great  should  there 
be  a  wound  or  abrasion.  Until  a  late  period  in  the  disease  the 
master's  voice  has  a  powerful  influence  over  the  animal.  When 
it  has  escaped  from  all  control  and  wanders  erratically  abroad, 
ferocious  and  restless,  and  haunted  by  horrid  phantoms,  the  familiar 
voice  yet  exerts  its  influence,  and  it  is  rare  indeed  that  it  attacks 
its  master. 

There  is  no  dread  of  water  in  the  rabid  dog  ;  the  animal  is  gener- 
ally thirsty,  and  if  water  be  offered  will  lap  it  with  avidity,  and 
swallow  it  at  the  commencement  of  the  disease.  And,  when,  at 
a  later  period,  the  constriction  about  the  throat — symptomatic  of 
the  disease — renders  swallowing  difficult,  the  dog  will  none  the 
less  endeavour  to  drink,  and  the  lappings  are  as  frequent  and  pro- 
longed when  deglutition  becomes  impossible.  So  little  dread  has 
the  rabid  dog  of  water  that  it  will  ford  streams  and  swim  rivers  ; 
and  when  in  the  ferocious  stage  it  will  even  do  this  in  order  to 
attack  other  creatures  on  the  opposite  side.  The  evidence  on  this 
head  is  overwhelming. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  disease  the  dog  does  not  usually 
refuse  to  eat,  and  some  animals  are  voracious  to  an  unusual  degree. 
But  in  a  short  time  it  becomes  fastidious,  only  eating  what  it 
usually  has  a  special  predilection  for.  Soon,  however,  this  gives 
place  to  a  most  characteristic  symptom — either  the  taste  becomes 
extremely  depraved  or  the  dog  has  a  fatal  and  imperious  desire  to 
bite  and  ingest  everything.  The  litter  of  its  kennel,  wool  from 
cushions,  carpets,  stockings,  slippers,  wood,  grass,  earth,  stones, 
glass,  horse -dung,  even  its  own  faeces  and  urine,  or  whatever  else 
may  come  in  its  way,  are  devoured.  On  examination  of  the  body 
of  a  dog  which  has  died  of  rabies  it  is  so  common  to  find  in  the 
stomach  a  quantity  of  dissimilar  and  strange  matters  on  which 
the  teeth  have  been  exercised  that,  if  there  was  nothing  known 
of  the  animal's  history,  there  would  be  strong  evidence  of  its 
having  been  affected  with  the  disease.  When  a  dog,  then,  is 
observed  to  gnaw  and  eat  suchlike  matters,  though  it  exhibits  no 
tendency  to  bite,  it  should  be  suspected. 

The  mad  dog  does  not  usually  foam  at  the  mouth  to  any  great 
extent  at  first.  The  mucus  of  the  mouth  is  not  much  increased  in 
quantity,  but  it  soon  becomes  thicker,  viscid,  and  glutinous,  and 
adheres  to  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  fauces,  and  teeth.  It  is  at 
this  period  that  the  thirst  is  most  ardent,  and  the  dog  sometimes 
furiously  attempts  to  detach  the  saliva  with  its  paws ;  and,  if  after 
a  while  it  loses  its  balance  in  these  attempts  and  tumbles  over, 
there  can  no  longer  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  malady. 
There  is  another  symptom  connected  with  the  mouth  in  that  form 
of  the  disease  named  "dumb  madness"  which  has  frequently 
proved  deceptive.  The  lower  jaw  drops  in  consequence  of  paralysis 
of  its  muscles,  and  the  mouth  remains  open.  The  interior  is  diy 
from  the  air  passing  continually  over  it,  and  assumes  a  deep  red 


tint,  somewhat  masked  by  patches  of  dust  or  earth,  which  more 
especially  adhere  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue  and  to  the 
lips.  The  strange  alteration  produced  in  the  dog's  physiognomy 
by  its  constantly  open  mouth  and  the  dark  colour  of  the  interior 
is  rendered  still  more  characteristic  by  the  dull,  sad,  or  dead  ex- 
pression of  the  animal's  eyes.  In  this  condition  the  creature  is  not 
very  dangerous,  because  generally  it  could  not  bite  if  it  tried,— 
indeed  there  does  not  appear  to  be  much  desire  to  bite  in  dumb 
madness ;  but  the  saliva  is  none  the  less  virulent,  and  accidental 
inoculations  with  it,  through  imprudent  handling,  will  prove  as 
fatal  as  in  the  furious  form.  The  mouth  should  not  be  touched, 
— numerous  deaths  having  occurred  through  people  thinking  the 
dog  had  some  foreign  substance  lodged  in  its  throat,  and  thrustin" 
their  fingers  down  to  remove  it.  The  sensation  of  tightness  which 
seems  to  exist  at  the  throat  causes  the  dog  to  act  as  if  a  bone  were 
fixed  between  its  teeth  or  towards  the  back  of  its  mouth,  and  to 
employ  its  fore-paws  as  if  to  dislodge  it.  This  is  a  very  deceptive 
symptom,  and  may  prove  equally  dangerous  if  caution  be  not  ob- 
served. Vomiting  of  blood  or  a  chocolate-coloured  fluid  is  witnessed 
in  some  cases,  and  has  been  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  foreign  sub- 
stances in  the  stomach,  which  abrade  the  lining  membrane  ;  this, 
however,  is  not  correct,  as  it  has  been  observed  in  man. 

The  voice  of  the  rabid  dog  is  very  peculiar,  and  so  characteristic 
that  to  those  acquainted  with  it  nothing  more  is  needed  to  prove 
the  presence  of  the  disease.  Those  who  have  heard  it  once  or  twice 
never  forget  its  signification.  Owing  to  the  alterations  taking  place 
in  the  larynx  the  voice  becomes  hoarse,  cracked,  and  stridulous,  like 
that  of  a  child  affected  with  croup, — the  "voix  du  coq,"as  the  French 
have  it.  A  preliminary  bark  is  made  in  a  somewhat  elevated  tone 
and  with  open  mouth  ;  this  is  immediately  succeeded  by  five,  six, 
or  eight  decreasing  howls,  emitted  when  the  animal  is  sitting  or 
standing,  and  always  with  the  nose  elevated,  which  seem  to  come 
from  the  depths  of  the  throat,  the  jaws  not  coming  together  and 
closing  the  mouth  during  such  emission,  as  in  the  healthy  bark. 
This  alteration  in  the  voice  is  frequently  the  first  observable  indica- 
tion of  the  malady,  and  should  at  once  attract  attention.  In  dumb 
madness  the  voice  is  frequently  lost  from  the  very  commencement, 
— hence  the  designation. 

The  sensibility  of  the  mad  dog  appears  to  be  considerably  dimi- 
nished, and  the  animal  appears  to  have  lost  the  faculty  of  expressing 
the  sensations  it  experiences :  it  is  mute  under  the  infliction  of 
pain,  though  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  still  has  peripheral 
sensation  to  some  extent.  Burning,  beating,  and  wounding  produce 
much  less  effect  than  in  health,  and  the  animal  will  even  mutilate 
itself  with  its  teeth.  Suspicion,  therefore,  should  always  strongly 
attach  to  a  dog  which  does  not  manifest  a  certain  susceptibility  to 
painful  impressions  and  receives  punishment  without  any  cry  or 
complaint.  There  is  also  reason  for  apprehension  when  a  dog  bites 
itself  persistently  in  any  part  of  its  body.  A  rabid  dog  is  usually 
stirred  to  fury  at  the  sight  of  one  of  its  own  species  ;  this  test  has 
been  resorted  to  by  Bouley  to  dissipate  doubts  as  to  the  existence 
of  the  disease  when  the  diagnosis  is  otherwise  uncertain.  As  soon 
as  the  suspected  animal,  if  it  is  really  rabid,  finds  itself  in  tho 
presence  of  another  of  its  species  it  at  once  assumes  the  aggress- 
ive, and,  if  allowed,  will  bite  furiously.  All  rabid  animals  indeed 
become  excited,  exasperated,  and  furious  at  the  sight  of  a  dog,  and 
attack  it  with  their  natural  weapons,  even  the  timid  sheep  when 
rabid  butts  furiously  at  the  enemy  before  which  in  health  it  would 
have  fled  in  terror.  This  inversion  of  sentiment  is  sometimes  valu- 
able in  diagnosing  the  malady  ;  it  is  so  common  that  it  may  be 
said  to  be  present  in  every  case  of  rabies.  When,  therefore,  a  dog, 
contrary  to  its  habits  and  natural  inclination,  becomes  suddenly 
aggressive  to  other  dogs,  it  is  time  to  take  precautions. 

In  the  large  majority  of  instances  the  dog  is  inoffensive  in  the 
early  period  of  the  disease  to  those  to  whom  it  is  familiar.  It  then 
flies  from  its  home  and  either  dies,  is  killed  as  "mad,"  or  returns  in 
a  miserable  plight,  and  in  an  advanced  stage  of  the  malady,  when  the 
desire  to  bite  is  irresistible.  It  is  in  the  early  stage  that  sequestra- 
tion and  suppressive  measures  are  most  valuable.  The  dogs  which 
propagate  the  disease  are  usually  those  that  have  escaped  from 
their  owners.  After  two  or  three  days,  frequently  in  about  twelve 
hours,  more  serious  and  alarming  symptoms  appear,  ferocious  in- 
stincts are  developed,  and  the  desire  to  do  injury  is  irrepressible. 
The  animal  has  an  indefinable  expression  of  sombre  melancholy 
and  cruelty.  The  eyes  have  their  pupils  dilated,  and  emit  flashes 
of  light  when  they  are  not  dull  and  heavy  ;  they  always  appear  so 
fierce  as  to  produce  terror  in  the  beholder  ;  they  are  red  and  their 
sensibility  to  light  is  increased  ;  and  wrinkles,  which  sometimes 
appear  on  the  forehead,  add  to  the  repulsive  aspect  of  the  animal. 
If  caged  it  flies  at  the  spectator,  emitting  its  characteristic  howl  or 
bark,  and  seizing  the  iron  bars  with  its  teeth,  and  if  a  stick  be 
thrust  before  it  this  is  grasped  and  gnawed.  This  fury  is  soon  suc- 
ceeded by  lassitude,  when  the  animal  remains  insensible  to  every 
excitement.  Then  all  at  once  it  rouses  up  again,  and  another 
paroxysm  of  fury  commences.  The  first  paroxysm  is  usually  the 
most  intense,  and  the  fits  vary  in  duration  from  some  hours  to  a 
day,  aud  even  longer ;  they  are  ordinarily  briefer  in  trained  and 


RABIES 


201 


pet  dogs  than  in  those  which  are  less  domesticated,  but  in  all  the 
remission  is  so  complete  after  the  first  paroxysm  that  the  animals 
appear  to  be  almost  well,  if  not  in  perfect  health.  During  the 
paroxysms  respiration  is  hurried  and  laboured,  but  tranquil  during 
the  remissions.  There  is  an  increase  of  temperature  and  the  pulse 
is  quick  and  hard.  When  the  animal  is  kept  in  a  dark  place  and 
not  excited,  the  fits  of  fury  are  not  observed.  Sometimes  it  is 
agitated  and  restless  in  the  manner  already  described.  It  never 
becomes  really  furious  or  aggressive  unless  excited  by  external 
objects, — the  most  potent  of  these,  as  has  been  said,  being  another 
dog,  which,  however,  if  it  be  admitted  to  its  cage,  it  may  not  at 
once  attack.  The  attacked  animal  rarely  retaliates,  but  usually 
responds  to  the  bites  by  acute  yells,  which  contrast  strangely  with 
the  silent  anger  of  the  aggressor,  and  tries  to  hide  its  head  with 
its  paws  or  beneath  the  straw.  These  repeated  paroxysms  hurry 
the  course  of  the  disease.  The  secretion  and  flowing  of  a  large 
quantity  of  saliva  from  the  mouth  are  usually  only  witnessed  in 
cases  in  which  swallowing  has  become  impossible,  the  mouth  being 
generally  dry.  At  times  the  tongue,  nose,  and  whole  head  appear 
swollen.  Other  dogs  frequently  shun  one  which  is  rabid,  as  if 
aware  of  their  danger. 

The  rabid  dog,  if  lodged  in  a  room  or  kept  in  a  house,  is  continually 
endeavouring  to  escape ;  and  when  it  makes  its  escape  it  goes  freely 
forward,  as  if  impelled  by  some  irresistible  force.  It  travels  con- 
siderable distances  in  a  short  time,  perhaps  attacking  every  living 
creature  it  meets, — preferring  dogs,  however,  to  other  animals,  and 
these  to  mankind  ;  cats,  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  are  particularly 
liable  to  be  injured.  It  attacks  in  silence,  and  never  utters  a 
snarl  or  a  cry  of  anger  ;  should  it  chance  to  be  hurt  in  return  it 
emits  no  cry  or  howl  of  pain.  The  degree  of  ferocity  appears  to  be 
related  to  natural  disposition  and  training.  Some  dogs,  for  instance, 
will  only  snap  or  give  a  slight  bite  in  passing,  while  others  will 
bite  furiously,  tearing  the  objects  presented  to  them,  or  which  they 
meet  in  their  way,  and  sometimes  with  such  violence  as  to  injure 
their  mouth  and  break  their  teeth,  or  even  their  jaws.  If  chained, 
they  will  in  some  cases  gnaw  the  chain  until  their  teeth  are  worn 
away  and  the  bones  laid  bare.  The  rabid  dog  does  not  continue 
its  progress  very  long.  Exhausted  by  fatigue  and  the  paroxysms 
of  madness  excited  in  it  by  the  objects  it  meets,  as  well  as  by 
hunger,  thirst,  and  also,  no  doubt,  by  the  malady,  its  limbs  soon 
become  feeble ;  the  rate  of  travelling  is  lessened  and  the  walk  is 
unsteady,  while  its  drooping  tail,  head  inclined  towards  the  ground, 
open  mouth,  and  protruded  tongue  (of  a  leaden  colour  or  covered  with 
dust)  give  the  distressed  creature  a  very  striking  and  characteristic 
physiognomy.  In  this  condition,  however,  it  is  much  less  to  be 
dreaded  than  in  its  early  fits  of  fury,  since  it  is  no  longer  capable 
or  desirous  of  altering  its  course  or  going  out  of  its  way  to  attack 
an  animal  or  a  man  not  immediately  in  the  path.  It  is  very 
probable  that  its  fast-failing  vision,  deadened  scent,  and  generally 
diminished  perception  prevent  its  being  so  readily  impressed  or 
excited  by  surrounding  objects  as  it  previously  was.  To  each 
paroxysm,  which  is  always  of  short  duration,  there  succeeds  a 
degree  of  exhaustion  as  great  as  the  fits  have  been  violent  and 
oft  repeated.  This  compels  the  animal  to  stop ;  then  it  shelters 
itself  in  obscure  places — frequently  in  ditches  by  the  roadside — and 
lies  there  in  a  somnolescent  state  for  perhaps  hours.  There  is  great 
danger,  nevertheless,  in  disturbing  the  dog  at  this  period ;  for  when 
roused  from  its  torpor  it  has  sometimes  sufficient  strength  to  in- 
flict a  bite.  This  period,  which  may  be  termed  the  second  stage, 
is  as  variable  in  its  duration  as  the  first,  but  it  rarely  exceeds 
three  or  four  days.  The  above -described  phenomena  gradually 
merge  into  those  of  the  third  or  last  period,  when  symptoms  of 
paralysis  appear,  which  are  speedily  followed  by  death.  During 
the  remission  in  the  paroxysms  these  paralytic  symptoms  are  more 
particularly  manifested  in  the  hind  limbs,  which  appear  as  if  un- 
able to  support  the  animal's  weight,  and  cause  it  to  stagger  about ; 
or  the  lower  jaw  becomes  more  or  less  drooping,  leaving  the 
parched  mouth  partially  open.  Emaciation  rapidly  sets  in,  and 
the  paroxysms  diminish  in  intensity,  while  the  remissions  become 
less  marked.  The  physiognomy  assumes  a  still  more  sinister  and 
repulsive  aspect ;  the  hair  is  dull  and  erect ;  the  flanks  are  re- 
tracted ;  the  eyes  lose  their  lustre  and  are  buried  in  the  orbits, 
the  pupil  being  dilated,  and  the  cornea  dull  and  semi-opaque  ;  very 
often,  even  at  an  early  period,  the  eyes  squint,  and  this  adds  still 
more  to  the  terrifying  appearance  of  the  poor  dog.  The  voice,  if  at 
all  heard,  is  husky,  the  breathing  laborious,  and  the  pulse  hurried 
and  irregular.  Gradually  the  paralysis  increases,  and  the  posterior 
extremities  are  dragged  as  if  the  animal's  back  were  broken,  until 
at  length  it  becomes  general;  it  is  then  the  prelude  to  death.  Or 
the  dog  remains  lying  in  a  state  of  stupor,  and  can  only  raise  itself 
with  difficulty  on  the  fore -limbs  when  greatly  excited.  In  this 
condition  it  may  yet  endeavour  to  bite  at  objects  within  its  reach. 
At  times  convulsions  of  a  tetanic  character  appear  in  certain 
muscles  ;  at  other  times  these  are  general.  A  comatose  condition 
ensues,  and  the  rabid  dog,  if  permitted  to  die  naturally,  perishes, 
in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  from  paralysis  and  asphyxia. 

In  dumb  madness  there  is  paralysis  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  im- 


parts a  curious  and  very  characteristic  physiognomy  to  the  dog  ; 
the  voice  is  also  lost,  and  the  animal  can  neither  eat  nor  drink. 
In  this  condition  the  creature  remains  with  its  jaw  pendent  and 
the  mouth  consequently  wid,e  open,  showing  the  flaccid  or  swollen 
tongue  covered  with  brownish  matter,  and  a  stringy  gelatinous- 
looking  saliva  lying  between  it  aud  the  lower  lip  and  coating  the 
fauces,  which  sometimes  appear  to  be  inflamed.  Though  the 
animal  is  unable  to  swallow  fluids,  the  desire  to  drink  is  neverthe- 
less intense  ;  for  the  creature  will  thrust  its  face  into  the  vessel  of 
water  in  futile  attempts  to  obtain  relief,  even  until  the  approach 
of  death.  Water  may  be  poured  down  its  throat  without  inducing 
a  paroxysm.  The  general  physiognomy  and  demeanour  of  the  poor 
creature  inspire  the  beholder  with  pity  rather  than  fear.  The 
symptoms  due  to  cerebral  excitement  are  less  marked  than  in  the 
furious  form  of  the  disease ;  the  agitation  is  not  so  considerable, 
and  the  restlessness,  tendency  to  run  away,  and  desire  to  bite  are 
nearly  absent ;  generally  the  animal  is  quite  passive.  Not  unfre- 
quently  one  or  both  eyes  squint,,  and  it  is  only  when  very  much 
excited  that  the  dog  may  contrive  to  close  its  mouth.  Sometimes 
there  is  swelling  about  the  pharynx  and  the  neck  ;  when  the 
tongue  shares  in  this  complication  it  hangs  out  of  the  mouth.  In 
certain  cases  there  is  a  catarrhal  condition  of  the  membrane  lining 
the  nasal  cavities,  larynx,  and  bronchi ;  sometimes  the  animal 
testifies  to  the  existence  of  abdominal  pain,  and  the  faeces  are  then 
soft  or  fluid.  The  other  symptoms — such  as  the  rapid  exhaustion 
and  emaciation,  paralysis  of  the  posterior  limbs  towards  the  ter- 
mination of  the  disease,  as  well  as  the  rapidity  with  which  it  runs 
its  course — are  the  same  as  in  the  furious  form. 

The  simultaneous  occurrence  of  furious  and  dumb  madness  is 
frequently  observed  in  packs  of  fox -hounds.  Dumb  madness 
differs,  then,  from  the  furious  type  in  the  paralysis  of  the  lower 
jaw,  which  hinders  the  dog  from  biting,  save  in  very  exceptional 
circumstances ;  the  ferocious  instincts  are  also  in  abeyance  ;  and 
there  is  no  tendency  to  aggression.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  rabid  dogs  have  this  particular  form  of 
the  disease.  Puppies  and  young  dogs  chiefly  have  furious  rabies. 

These  are  the  symptoms  of  rabies  in  the  dog ;  but  it  is  not  likely, 
nor  is  it  necessary,  that  they  will  all  be  present  in  every  case.  In 
other  species  the  symptoms  differ  more  or  less  from  those  mani- 
fested by  the  dog,  but  they  are  generally  marked  by  a  change  in 
the  manner  and  habits  of  the  creatures  affected,  with  strong  indi- 
cations of  nervous  disturbance,  in  the  majority  of  species  amounting 
to  ferociousness  and  a  desire  to  injure,  timid  creatures  becoming 
bold  and  aggressive.  (See  Fleming,  Rabies  and  Hydrophobia. ) 

In  order  to  prevent  injury  from  this  disease  in  countries 
in  which  it  is  prevalent  owners  of  dogs  should  be  well 
acquainted  with  its  symptoms,  especially  the  premonitory 
ones ;  of  these  a  change  in  the  demeanour  and  habits  of 
the  animal — unusual  irritability,  depraved  appetite,  rest- 
lessness, and  a  tendency  to  wander  from  home — are  the 
most  marked.  One  of  the  chief  police  measures  is  dimi- 
nution in  the  number  of  useless  dogs.  This  is  best 
enforced  by  the  imposition  of  a  dog-tax  or  licence,  which 
may  be  large  or  small  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  dogs 
or  the  urgency  of  the  case.  ^On  the  licence -paper  the 
chief  symptoms  of  the  malady  should  be  described  so  as 
to  warn  dog -owners.  Every  dog  should  wear  a  collar 
with  a  brass  plate,  on  which  are  inscribed  the  name  and 
address  of  the  owner  as  well  as  a  police  register-number 
stamped  thereon,  or  some  particular  mark  affixed  by  the 
police  or  inland  revenue  authorities,  for  purposes  of  identi- 
fication ;  all  stray  dogs  without  a  collar  of  this  description 
ought  to  be  captured,  and  sold  or  destroyed  after  three  or 
more  days  if  not  claimed.  Blunting  the  canine  and  incisor 
teeth  of  dogs  has  also  been  proposed  as  a  precautionary 
measure.  All  dogs  suspected  of  rabies  should  be  captured 
and,  when  the  existence  of  the  disease  is  confirmed,  de- 
stroyed. Rabid  dogs  should  be  destroyed  at  once.  It  is 
also  well  as  a  precautionary  measure  to  kill  dogs  or  cats 
which  have  been  bitten  or  "  worried "  by  rabid  animals. 
During  an  outbreak  of  rabies  all  dogs  should  be  securely 
muzzled  and  if  possible  led.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  de- 
stroy immediately  suspected  dogs  which  have  bitten  people  ; 
they  should  be  kept  until  their  condition  is  ascertained, 
as,  if  they  are  found  to  be  healthy,  this  will  greatly  relieve 
the  mind  of  those  who  have  been  bitten.  Suspected  dogs 
should  be  carefully  kept  under  observation  and  frequently 
inspected  by  a  veterinary  surgeon  or  other  competent  per- 

XX.  —  26 


202 


R  A  B  — R  A  C 


son.  All  wounds  inflicted  by  strange  or  suspected  dogs 
should  be  immediately  attended  to  and  treated  by  suction, 
washing,  and  expression,  until  proper  surgical  treatment 
can  be  adopted.  In  those  countries  in  which  the  disease 
has  not  yet  appeared,  in  order  to  prevent  its  admission, 
the  importation  of  dogs  should  be  forbidden  or  an  extended 
period  of  quarantine  imposed. 

We  may  here  allude  to  the  results  of  Pasteur's  experi- 
ments in  rabies.  By  passing  modified  virus  into  the 
bodies  of  dogs  he  has  discovered  that  they  are  protected 
from  an  attack  of  the  disease — are,  in  fact,  rendered 
refractory  to  rabies.  For  instance,  rabific  virus  is  obtained 
from  a  rabbit  which  has  died  after  inoculation  by  tre- 
panning, and  after  a  period  of  incubation  longer  by  some 
days  than  the  shortest  period  in  these  animals,  which  is 
invariably  between  seven  and  eight  days  subsequent  to 
inoculation  with  the  most  active  virus.  The  virus  of  the 
rabbit  in  the  period  of  long  incubation  is  inoculated  by 
trepanning  into  a  second  rabbit,  the  virus  of  this  into  a 
third ;  and  on  each  occasion  the  virus,  which  becomes 
more  and  more  potent,  is  inoculated  into  a  dog.  The 
latter  at  last  becomes  capable  of  supporting  what  would 
be  to  other  dogs  a  deadly  virus,  and  is  entirely  proof 
against  rabies  either  by  intravenous  inoculation,  by  tre- 
panning, or  by  the  virus  of  a  rabid  animal.  By  using  the 
blood  of  rabid  animals  in  certain  determinate  conditions 
Pasteur  has  been  able  to  greatly  simplify  the  operations 
of  inoculation,  and  to  render  dogs  most  decidedly  refrac- 
tory to  the  malady.  There  is  great  importance  attached 
to  the  suggestion  that  now,  and  until  rabies  has  been  ex- 
tinguished altogether  by  inoculation,  it  may  be  possible 
to  prevent  development  of  the  disease  after  bites  from 
rabid  dogs,  owing  to  the  long  duration  of  the  incubative 
period.  Admitting  that  rabies  is  produced  by  the  bite  of 
rabid  animals  only,  and  that  Pasteur's  inoculations  are 
really  protective,  it  is  suggested  that  a  law  compelling  all 
dogs  to  be  so  protected  would  in  the  end  extirpate  the 
disease.  But  certain  important  points  have  yet  to  be 
decided  before  any  definite  conclusion  can  be  arrived 
at.  (G.  FL.) 

RABUTIN,  ROGER  DE,  COMTE  DE  BTJSSY  (1618-1693), 
commonly  known  as  BUSSY-RABUTIN  (and  for  shortness 
BUSSY),  is  perhaps  the  most  characteristic  figure  among 
the  lesser  noblesse  of  France  in  the  17th  century,  as  La 
Rochefoucauld  is  among  the  greater.  Bussy,  however, 
except  in  point  of  gallantry  and  literary  power,  chiefly 
illustrated  the  evil  sides  of  the  character.  He  represented 
a  family  of  distinction  and  age  in  Burgundy  (see  SEVIGNE, 
Madame  de),  and  his  father  was  Leonor  de  Rabutin,  a 
soldier  of  merit  and  a  man  of  position,  holding  the  lieu- 
tenant-generalship of  the  province  of  Nivernais.  Bussy- 
Rabutin  (it  is  perhaps  advisable  to  add  the  family  name 
to  distinguish  him  from  the  hardly  less  famous  Bussy 
d'Amboise)  was  born  in  1618.  He  was  the  third  son,  but 
by  the  death  of  his  elder  brothers  became  the  representative 
of  the  family.  He  entered  the  army  when  he  was  only 
sixteen  and  fought  through  several  campaigns,  succeeding 
his  father  in  the  office  of  "  mestre  de  camp."  But  he  very 
early  distinguished  himself  in  other  ways  than  that  of 
military  service,  and  in  1641  was  sent  to  the  Bastille  by 
Richelieu  for  some  months  as  a  punishment  for  neglect  of 
his  duties  in  running  after  his  ladyloves.  In  1643  he 
married  a  cousin,  Gabrielle  de  Toulongeon,  who  seems  to 
have  been  fond  of  him,  and  for  a  short  time  he  left  the 
army.  But  in  1644  he  again  bought  a  commission  and 
for  some  years  was  closely  connected  with  the  great  Cond6. 
His  wife  died,  and  he  became  more  famous,  or  at  least  more 
notorious,  than  ever  by  an  attempt  to  abduct  Madame  de 
Miramion,  a  rich  widow.  This  affair  was  with  some  diffi- 
culty made  up  and  Bussy  afterwards  married  Louise  de 


Rouville.  When  the  Fronde  "broke  out  he,  like  others,  went 
from  party  to  party,  but  finally  passed  to  the  royal  side. 
He  fought  with  some  distinction  both  in  the  civil  war  and 
on  foreign  service,  and  in  1655  he  went  to  serve  under 
Turenne  in  Flanders.  He  served  there  for  several  cam- 
paigns and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  the  Dunes 
and  elsewhere ;  but  he  did  not  get  on  well  with  his  general, 
and  his  quarrelsome  disposition,  his  overweening  vanity, 
and  his  habit  of  composing  libellous  chansons  by  degrees 
made  him  the  enemy  of  most  persons  of  position  both  in 
the  army  and  at  court.  In  the  year  1659  he  fell  into 
disgrace  for  having  taken  part  in  an  orgy  or  series  of 
orgies  at  Roissy  near  Paris  during  Holy  Week,  which  caused 
great  scandal,  and  shortly  afterwards  he  began  to  compose 
for  the  amusement  of  his  mistress,  Madame  de  Montglas, 
his  famous  Histoire  Amour euse  des  Gaules.  This  book — a 
series  of  sketches  of  the  chief  ladies  of  the  court,  not 
without  wit,  but  much  less  remarkable  for  wit  than  for  ill 
nature  and  licence — circulated  freely  in  manuscript  and 
had  numerous  spurious  sequels.  One  of  these  stung  the 
king,  and  Bussy  was  in  1665  sent  to  the  Bastille,  where 
he  remained  for  more  than  a  year,  and  from  which  he  was 
only  liberated  on  condition  of  retiring  to  his  estates. 
Here  he  abode  in  what  was  then  called  exile  for  seventeen 
years.  He  was  then  restored  to  a  modified  degree  of  royal 
favour,  but  never  received  any  great  mark  of  it,  and  died 
in  1693. 

Although  a  man  of  considerable  abilities,  Bussy  had  very  little 
in  his  character  that  was  either  amiable  or  estimable.  Despite  his 
extravagant  pride  of  birth  and  rank,  there  is  much  reason  for 
acquiescing  in  the  verdict  pronounced  on  him  (by  an  anonymous 
contemporary  apparently),  that  he  was  "a  coxcomb,  who  never, 
either  at  court  or  in  camp,  lost  the  taste  for  bad  company  and  the 
air  of  a  rustic  "  ;  his  bravery  was  undoubted,  but  he  seems  to  have 
much  overrated  his  own  military  ability.  He  libelled  friends  and 
foes  alike,  and  any  toleration  which  might  be  extended  to  his 
innumerable  gallantries  is  lessened  by  his  incorrigible  habit  of 
telling  tales  and  his  spiteful  scandal  -  mongering  against  women 
who  had  left  him  or  whom  he  had  left.  He  was,  however,  possessed 
of  much  literary  power.  The  Histoire  Amoureuse  is  in  its  most 
striking  passages  merely  adapted  from  Petronius,  and,  except  in 
a  few  portraits,  its  attractions  are  chiefly  those  of  the  scandalous 
chronicle.  But  his  Memoires,  published  after  his  death,  are  ex- 
tremely lively  and  characteristic,  and  his  voluminous  correspond- 
ence yields  in  variety  and  interest  to  few  collections  of  the  kind, 
except  Madame  de  Sevigne's,  who  indeed  is  represented  in  it  to 
a  great  extent,  and  whose  letters  first  appeared  in  it.  The  literary 
and  historical  student,  therefore,  owes  Bussy  some  thanks.  But 
it  is  impossible  not  to  see  that  he  united  some  of  the  worst  charac- 
teristics of  an  aristocracy  on  the  way  to  decadence — relaxed  morals, 
a  glaring  indifference  to  duty  and  to  all  motives  but  self-interest, 
insolence  in  prosperity,  servility  in  adverse  circumstances,  jealousy 
of  others  more  favoured  than  himself. 

The  best  edition  of  the  Histoire  Amoureuse  des  Gaules  is  that  of  Boiteaii  and 
Livet  in  the  Bibliotheque  Elzevirienne  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1856-76),  of  the  Mimoires 
and  Correspondance  that  of  Lalanne  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1857-59).  Bussy  wrote  other 
tilings,  of  which  the  most  important,  his  Genealogy  of  the  Sabutin  Family,  re- 
mained in  MS.  till  1807. 

RACCOON.  This  name,1  familiar  to  all  readers  of 
works  on  American  natural  history,  is  borne  by  a  small 
carnivore  belonging  to  that  section  of  the  order  which 
contains  the  bears,  weasels,  badgers,  &c.  (see  MAMMALIA, 
vol.  xv.  p.  440).  The  raccoon  resembles  in  many  respects 
a  diminutive  bear,  both  in  its  general  build  and  in  the  pro- 
portions of  its  skull  and  teeth,  which  last  are  broad,  blunt, 
and  rounded,  and  more  suited  for  a  semi-vegetarian  than 
for  an  exclusively  animal  diet.  Its  other  more  important 
zoological  characters,  with  an  account  of  its  systematic 
position,  have  been  already  noted  in  the  article  just  re- 
ferred to.  The  common  North-American  raccoon  (Procyon 
lotor)  is  a  clumsy  thickly-built  animal  about  the  size  of  a 
badger,  with  a  coat  of  long  coarse  greyish  brown  hairs, 
short  ears,  and  a  bushy  black  and  white  ringed  tail.  Its 


1  A  corruption  of  the  North  -  American  Indian  "arrathkune"  or 
"  arathcone. "  The  French  raton  or  raton  laveur,  German  Waschbdr, 
and  other  European  names  are  derived  from  a  curious  habit  the 
raccoon  has  of  dipping  or  washing  its  food  in  water  before  eating  it. 


E  A  C  — R  A  C 


203 


range  extends  over  the  whole  of  the  United  States,  and 
stretches  on  the  west  northwards  to  Alaska  and  southwards 


Raccoon. 

well  into  Central  America,  where  it  attains  its  maximum 
size.  The  following  notes  on  the  habits  of  the  raccoon 
are  extracted  from  Dr  C.  Hart  Merriam's  charming  work 
on  the  mammals  of  the  Adirondacks  (N.  E.  New  York). 

"Raccoons  are  omnivorous  beasts  and  feed  upon  mice,  small 
birds,  birds'  eggs,  turtles  and  their  eggs,  frogs,  fish,  crayfish, 
molluscs,  insects,  nuts,  fruits,  maize,  and  sometimes  poultry. 
Excepting  alone  the  bats  and  flying-squirrels,  they  are  the  most 
strictly  nocturnal  of  all  our  mammals,  and  yet  I  have  several  times 
seen  them  abroad  on  cloudy  days.  They  haunt  the  banks  of  ponds 
and  streams,  and  find  much  of  their  food  in  these  places,  such  as 
crayfish,  mussels,  and  fish,  although  they  are  unable  to  dive  and 
pursue  the  latter  under  water,  like  the  otter  and  mink.  They  are 
good  swimmers  and  do  not  hesitate  to  cross  rivers  that  lie  in  their 
path.  .  .  .  The  raccoon  hibernates  during  the  severest  part  of  the 
winter,  retiring  to  its  nest  rather  early,  and  appearing  again  in 
February  or  March,  according  to  the  earliuess  or  lateness  of  the 
season.  It  makes  its  home  high  up  in  the  hollow  of  some  large 
tree,  preferring  a  dead  limb  to  the  trunk  itself.  It  does  little 
in  tlie  way  of  constructing  a  nest,  and  from  four  to  six  young  are 
commonly  born  at  a  time,  generally  early  in  April  in  this  region. 
The  young  remain  with  the  mother  about  a  year." 

The  South -American  species,  Procyon  cancrivorus,  the 
crab -eating  raccoon,  is  very  similar  to  P.  lotor,  but  differs 
by  its  much  shorter  fur,  larger  size,  proportionally  more 
powerful  teeth,  and  other  minor  characters.  It  extends 
over  the  whole  of  South  America,  as  far  south  as  the 
Rio  Negro,  and  is  very  common  in  all  suitable  localities. 
Its  habits  are  similar  to  those  of  the  North -American 
species. 

RACHEL  (1820  or  1821-1858),  the  stage  name  of  a 
French  actress,  whose  true  name  was  ELIZABETH  F^LIX, 
and  who  was  the  daughter  of  Jacob  Felix  and  Esther  Haya, 
Alsatian  Jews,  who  travelled  on  foot  through  France  as 
pedlars.  She  was  born  according  to  one  account  on  24th 
March  1820,  according  to  another  on  28th  February  of 
the  following  year,  in  a  small  inn  in  Mumpf  in  the  canton 
of  Aargau,  Switzerland.  At  Rheims  she  and  her  eldest 
sister  Sophia,  afterwards  known  as  Sarah,  joined  a  troupe 
of  Italian  children  who  made  their  living  by  singing  in 
the  cafes,  Sarah  taking  part  in  the  singing  and  Elizabeth, 
then  only  four  years  of  age,  collecting  the  coppers.  In 
1830  they  came  to  Paris,  where  they  sang  in  the  streets, 
Rachel  giving  such  patriotic  songs  as  the  Parisienne  and 
the  Marseillaise  with  a  rude  but  precocious  energy  which 
evoked  special  admiration  and  an  abundant  shower  of 
coppers.  Choron,  a  famous  teacher  of  singing,  was  so  im- 
pressed with  the  talents  of  the  two  sisters  that  he  under- 
took to  give  them  gratuitous  instruction,  and  after  his 
death  in  1833  they  were  received  into  the  Conservatoire. 


Sophia  gained  a  medal  for  singing,  but  Rachel  at  an  early 
period  gave  her  chief  attention  to  elocution  and  acting. 
Her  voice,  though  deep  and  powerful,  was  at  first  hard 
and  inflexible ;  and  her  thin  and  meagre  appearance  con- 
veyed an  impression  of  insignificance,  which  her  plain 
features  and  generally  impassive  manner  tended  to  confirm. 
It  was  only  her  remarkable  intelligence  that  encouraged  her 
instructors  to  persevere ;  but  even  they  did  not  recognize 
her  talents  as  exceptional.  She  made  her  first  appearance 
at  the  Gymnase  in  the  Vendeenne  in  1837  with  only  medi- 
ocre success.  On  12th  June  of  the  following  year  she 
succeeded,  after  great  difficulty,  in  making  a  debut  at  the 
Theatre  Francais,  appearing  as  Camille  in  Les Horaces,  when, 
attention  having  been  directed  to  her  remarkable  genius  by 
Jules  Janin  in  the  Debats  and  Madame  de  Girardin  in  the 
Presse,  it  at  once  received  universal  recognition.  Her  range 
of  characters  was  limited,  but  within  this  range  she  was 
unsurpassable.  It  was  especially  in  the  tragedies  of  Racine 
and  Corneille  that  she  excelled,  and  more  particularly  in 
the  impersonation  of  evil  or  malignant  passion.  By  care- 
ful training  her  originally  hard  and  harsh  voice  had  become 
flexible  and  melodious,  and  its  low  and  muffled  notes  under 
the  influence  of  passion  possessed  a  thrilling  and  penetrat- 
ing quality  that  was  irresistible.  When  excited  her  plain 
features  became  transfigured  by  the  glow  of  genius,  and  in 
her  impersonations  of  evil  and  malignant  emotions  there 
was  a  majesty  and  dignity  which  fascinated  whilst  it  re- 
pelled. Her  facial  elocution  was  unsurpassable  in  variety 
and  expressiveness,  whilst  the  grace  of  her  gestures  and  the 
marvellous  skill  with  which  she  varied  her  tones  with  every 
shade  of  thought  and  emotion  were  completely  beyond  criti- 
cism. It  was,  however,  the  predominance  of  intellect  and 
will  rather  than  the  perfection  of  her  art  that  most  specially 
characterized  her  impersonations  and  conferred  on  them 
their  unique  excellence.  She  appeared  successively  as  Emilie 
in  Cinna,  Hermione  in  Andromaque,  Eriphile  in  Iphigenie, 
Monime  in  Mitkridate,  and  Amenaide  in  Tancrede ;  but  it 
was  in  P/iedre,  which  she  first  played  on  21st  January 
1843,  that  her  peculiar  gifts  were  most  strikingly  mani- 
fested. In  modern  plays  she  created  the  characters  of 
Judith  and  Cleopatra  in  the  tragedies  of  Madame  de  Gir- 
ardin, but  her  most  successful  appearance  was  in  1849  in 
Adrienne  Lecouvreur.  In  1840  she  visited  London,  where 
her  interpretations  of  Corneille  and  Racine  were  the  sen- 
sation of  the  season.  She  also  played  successively  in  the 
principal  capitals  of  Europe.  In  1855  she  made  a  tour  in 
the  United  States  with  comparatively  small  success.  This 
was,  however,  after  her  powers  through  continued  ill-health 
had  begun  to  deteriorate.  She  died  of  consumption  at 
Cannet,  near  Cannes,  on  4th  January  1858. 

RACINE,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  county  seat 
of  Racine  county,  Wisconsin,  lies  23  miles  by  rail  south  of 
Milwaukee,  and  occupies  a  plateau  projecting  for  about  6 
miles  into  Lake  Michigan,  40  feet  above  its  level.  The 
town  is  the  seat  of  extensive  manufacturing  industries — 
producing  carriages,  waggons,  ploughs,  threshing-machines, 
portable  steam-engines,  fanning -mills,  leather,  blinds  and 
sashes,  school  furniture,  wire,  linseed  oil,  baskets,  &c. — 
is  engaged  in  the  lumber  trade  and  general  commerce, 
and  contains  two  city  hospitals,  an  orphan  asylum,  Racine 
(Episcopalian)  college  founded  in  1852,  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  academy.  The  harbour  is  open  to  vessels  drawing 
15  feet.  Racine,  first  settled  in  1834,  was  incorporated 
in  1848,  four  years  after  the  first  steamer  had  entered  the 
port.  The  population  was  7822  in  1860,  9880  in  1870, 
and  16,031  in  1880. 

RACINE,  JEAN  (1639-1699),  the  most  equal  and  accom- 
plished, if  not  the  greatest,  tragic  dramatist  of  France,  was 
born  at  La  Ferte  Milon  in  the  old  duchy  of  Valois  in  the 
month  of  December  1639.  The  20th  and  the  two  follow- 


204 


RACINE 


ing  days  of  the  month  are  variously  given  as  his  birthday ; 
all  that  is  certain  is  that  he  was  christened  on  the  22d. 
The  ceremony  was  at  that  time  often,  though  not  invariably, 
performed  on  the  day  of  birth.  Racine  belonged  to  a 
family  of  the  upper  bourgeoisie,  which  had  indeed  been 
technically  ennobled  some  generations  earlier  and  bore 
the  punning  arms  of  a  rat  and  a  swan  (rat,  cygne).  The 
poet  himself  subsequently  dropped  the  rat.  His  family 
were  connected  with  others  of  the  same  or  a  slightly 
higher  station  in  La  Ferte  and  its  neighbourhood, — the 
Des  Moulins,  the  Sconins,  the  Vitarts,  all  of  whom  appear 
in  Racine's  life.  His  mother  was  Jeanne  Sconin.  His 
father,  of  the  same  name  as  himself,  was  only  four-and- 
twenty  at  the  time  of  the  poet's  birth.  He  seems  to  have 
been  a  solicitor  (procureur)  by  profession,  and  held,  as  his 
father,  the  grandfather  of  the  dramatist,  had  done,  the 
office  of  controleur  au  grenier  d,  sel.  Racine  was  the  eldest 
child  of  his  parents.  Little  more  than  a  year  afterwards 
his  sister  Marie  was  born  and  his  mother  died.  Jean 
Racine  the  elder  married  again,  but  three  months  later 
he  himself  died  and  the  stepmother  is  never  heard  of  in 
connexion  with  the  poet  or  his  sister.  They  were  left 
without  any  provision,  but  their  grandparents,  Jean  Racine 
the  eldest  and  Marie  des  Moulins,  were  still  living,  and 
took  charge  of  them.  These  grandparents  had  a  daughter, 
Agnes,  who  figures  in  Racine's  history.  She  was  a  nun  of 
Port  Royal  under  the  style  of  Mere  de  Sainte  Thecle,  and 
the  whole  family  had  strong  Jansenist  leanings.  Jean 
Racine  the  eldest  died  in  1649,  and,  apparently  as  a  con- 
sequence of  this,  the  poet  was  sent  to  the  College  de 
Beauvais.  This  (which  was  the  grammar-school  of  the 
town  of  that  name,  and  not  the  famous  College  de  Beauvais 
at  Paris)  was  intimately  connected  with  Port  Royal,  and 
to  this  latter  place  Racine  was  transferred  in  November 
1655.  His  special  masters  there  were  Nicole  and  Le 
Maitre.  The  latter,  in  an  extant  letter  written  to  his 
pupil  during  one  of  the  gusts  of  persecution  which  Port 
Royal  constantly  suffered,  speaks  of  himself  as  "votre 
papa  " ;  the  manner  in  which  Racine  repaid  this  affection 
will  be  seen  shortly.  It  is  evident  from  documents  that 
he  was  a  very  diligent  student  both  at  Beauvais  and  Port 
Royal.  He  wrote  verse  both  in  Latin  and  French,  and 
his  Port  Royal  odes,  which  it  has  been  the  fashion  with 
the  more  fanatical  admirers  of  his  later  poetry  to  ridicule, 
are  far  from  despicable.  They  show  the  somewhat  gar- 
rulous nature -worship  of  the  Pleiade  tempered  by  the 
example  of  the  earlier  school  of  Malherbe.  He  seems 
also  to  have  made  at  least  a  first  draft  of  his  version  of 
the  breviary  hymns ;  some,  if  not  most,  of  a  considerable 
mass  of  translations  from  the  classics  and  annotations  on 
them  must  also  date  from  this  time.  Racine  stayed  at 
Port  Royal  for  three  years,  and  left  it,  aged  nearly  nineteen, 
in  October  1658.  He  was  then  entered  at  the  College 
d'Harcourt  and  boarded  with  his  second  cousin,  Nicolas 
Vitart,  steward  of  the  duke  of  Luynes.  Later,  if  not  at 
first,  he  lived  in  the  Hotel  de  Luynes  itself.  It  is  to  be 
observed  that  his  Jansenist  surroundings'  continued  with 
him  here,  for  the  duke  of  Luynes  was  a  severe  Port  Royalist. 
It  is,  however,  clear  from  Racine's  correspondence,  which 
as  we  have  it  begins  in  1660  and  is  for  some  years  very 
abundant  and  interesting,  that  he  was  not  at  all  of  an 
austere  disposition  at  this  time.  His  chief  correspondent 
is  a  certain  young  abb6  Le  Vasseur,  who  seems  to  have 
been  by  no  means  seriously  given.  The  letters  are  full 
of  verse-making  and  of  other  diversions ;  a  certain  Made- 
moiselle Lucrece,  who  seems  to  have  been  both  amiable 
and  literary,  is  very  frequently  mentioned,  neither  is  she 
the  only  one  of  her  sex  who  appears.  Occasionally  the 
liveliness  of  the  letters  passes  the  bounds  of  strict  de- 
cency, though  there  is  nothing  very  shocking  in  them. 


Those  to  Madame  (or,  as  the  habit  of  the  time  called  her, 
Mademoiselle)  Vitart  are  free  from  anything  of  this  kind, 
while  they  are  very  lively  and  pleasant.  It  does  not 
appear  that  Racine  read  much  philosophy,  as  he  should 
have  done,  but  he  occasionally  did  some  business  in  super- 
intending building  operations  at  Chevreuse,  the  duke's 
country  house.  He  would  seem,  however,  to  have  been 
already  given  up  irrevocably  to  literature.  This  by  no 
means  suited  the  views  of  his  devout  relations  at  Port 
Royal,  and  he  complains  in  one  of  his  letters  that  an 
unlucky  sonnet  on  Mazarin  had  brought  down  on  him 
"  excommunications  sur  excommunications."  But  he  had 
much  more  important  works  in  hand  than  sonnets.  The 
marriage  of  Louis  XIV.  was  the  occasion  of  an  ambitious 
ode,  "La  Nymphe  de  la  Seine,"  which  was  submitted 
before  publication  to  Chapelain,  the  too  famous  author  of 
the  Pucelle.  Chapelain's  fault  was  not  ill-nature,  and  he 
made  many  suggestions  (including  the  very  pertinent  one 
that  Tritons  were  not  usually  found  in  rivers),  which  Racine 
duly  adopted.  Nor  did  the  ode  bound  his  ambitions,  for 
he  finished  one  piece,  Amasie,  and  undertook  another,  Les 
Amours  cFOvide,  for  the  theatre.  The  first,  however,  was 
rejected  by  the  actors  of  the  Marais,  and  it  is  not  certain 
that  the  other  was  ever  finished  or  offered  to  those  of  the 
Hotel  de  Bourgogne.  Racine's  letters  show  that  he  was 
intimate  with  more  than  one  actress  at  this  time ;  he  also 
made  acquaintance  with  La  Fontaine,  and  the  foundations 
at  any  rate  of  the  legendary  "  society  of  four "  (Boileau, 
La  Fontaine,  Moliere,  and  Racine)  were  thus  laid. 

His  relations  were  pretty  certainly  alarmed  by  this  very 
pardonable  worldliness,  though  a  severe  expostulation  with 
him  for  keeping  company  with  the  abominable  actors  is 
perhaps  later  in  date.  Allusions  in  a  letter  to  his  sister 
leave  little  doubt  of  this.  Racine  was  accordingly  disturbed 
in  his  easy-going  life  at  Paris.  In  November  1661  he 
went  to  Uzes  in  Languedoc  to  live  with  his  uncle  the  Pere 
Sconin,  vicar-general  of  that  diocese,  where  it  was  hoped 
that  Sconin  would  be  able  to  secure  a  benefice  for  his 
nephew.  It  is  certain  that  he  was  not  slack  in  endeavour- 
ing to  do  this,  but  his  attempts  were  in  vain,  and  perhaps 
the  church  did  not  lose  as  much  as  the  stage  gained. 
Racine  was  at  Uzes  for  an  uncertain  time.  All  that  is 
known  is  that  he  was  back  in  Paris  before  the  end  of 
1663.  His  letters  from  Uzes  to  La  Fontaine,  to  Le  Vas- 
seur, and  others  are  in  much  the  same  strain  as  before, 
but  there  is  here  and  there  a  marked  tone  of  cynicism  in 
them.  One  passage  in  particular,  in  which  he  tells  how 
he  was  disenchanted  with  a  damsel  of  Uzes,  has  an  un- 
pleasantly Swiftian  touch  about  it.  Once  back  in  Paris, 
he  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  letters  with  a  little  courtier- 
ship.  An  ode  on  the  recovery  of  Louis  XIV.  from  a  slight 
illness  probably  secured  him  the  promise  of  a  pension,  of 
which  he  speaks  to  his  sister  in  the  summer  of  1664,  and 
on  22d  August  he  actually  received  it.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  this  pension  is  identical  with  "gratifications" 
which  we  know  that  Racine  for  some  years  received  and 
which  were  sometimes  eight  and  sometimes  six  hundred 
livres.  It  would  seem  not,  as  one  of  these  gratifications 
had  been  allotted  to  him  the  year  before  he  so  wrote  to 
his  sister.  All  this  shows  that  he  had  already  acquired 
some  repute  as  a  promising  novice  in  letters,  though  he 
had  as  yet  done  nothing  substantive.  The  ode  in  which 
he  thanked  the  king  for  his  presents,  "  La  Renomm^e,"  is 
said  to  have  introduced  him  to  Boileau,  to  whose  censor- 
ship there  is  no  doubt  that  he  owed  much,  if  not  every- 
thing; and  from  this  date,  November  1663,  the  familiarity 
of  "  the  four  "  undoubtedly  existed  in  full  force.  Racine 
was  at  the  time  the  least  distinguished,  but  he  rapidly 
equalled,  if  not  the  merit,  the  reputation  of  his  friends. 
Unfortunately  it  is  precisely  at  this  date  that  his  corre- 


RACINE 


205 


spondence  ceases,  and  it  is  not  renewed  till  after  the  close 
of  his  brief  but  brilliant  career  as  a  dramatist  (Esther  and 
Athalie  excepted).  This  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  in 
that  the  most  disputable  events  of  Racine's  life  as  well  as 
the  greater  part  of  his  literary  work  fall  within  this  silent 
period.  His  strange  behaviour  .to  Moliere,  his  virulent 
attack  on  his  masters  and  friends  of  Port  Royal,  and  the 
sudden  change  by  which,  after  the  failure  of  Phedre  and 
for  no  clearly  expressed  cause,  a  man  of  pleasure  and  an 
active  literary  worker  became  a  sober  domestic  character 
of  almost  ostentatiously  religious  habits,  and  abstained 
from  almost  all  but  official  work,  are  unillumined  by  any 
words  of  his  own.  From  this  time  forward  the  gossip  of 
the  period  and  the  Life  by  his  son  Louis  are  the  chief 
sources  of  information.  Unfortunately  Louis  Racine, 
though  a  man  of  some  ability  and  of  unimpeached  charac- 
ter, was  only  six  years  old  when  his  father  died,  and  had 
no  direct  knowledge.  Still  his  account  represents  family 
papers  and  traditions  and  seems  to  have  been  carefully, 
as  it  is  certainly  in  the  main  impartially,  written.  From 
other  sources — notably  Boileau,  Brossette,  and  Valincourt — 
a  good  deal  of  pretty  certainly  authentic  information  is 
obtainable,  and  there  exists  a  considerable  body  of  corre- 
spondence between  Boileau  and  the  poet  during  the  last 
ten  years  of  Racine's  life. 

The  first  but  the  least  characteristic  of  the  dramas  by 
which  Racine  is  known,  La  Thebaide,  was  finished  by  the 
end  of  1663,  and  on  Friday  20th  June  1664  it  was  played 
by  Moliere's  company  at  the  Palais  Royal  theatre.  Some 
editors  assert  that  Moliere  himself  acted  in  it,  but  the 
earliest  account  of  the  cast  we  have,  and  that  is  sixty  years 
after  date,  omits  his  name,  though  those  of  Madeleine  Bejard 
and  Mademoiselle  de  Brie  occur.  There  is  a  tradition, 
supported  by  very  little  evidence,  that  Moliere  suggested 
the  subject ;  on  the  other  hand,  Louis  Racine  distinctly 
says  that  his  father  wrote  most  of  the  play  at  Uzes  before 
he  knew  Moliere.  Racine's  own  letters,  which  cover  the 
period  of  composition,  though  not  that  of  representation, 
give  little  help  in  deciding  this  not  very  important  ques- 
tion, except  that  it  appears  from  them  that  the  play  was 
designed  for  the  rival  theatre,  and  that  "La  Dehanchee," 
Racine's  familiar  name  for  Mademoiselle  de  Beauchateau, 
with  whom  he  was  intimate,  was  to  play  Antigone.  The 
play  itself  is  by  far  the  weakest  of  Racine's  works.  He 
has  borrowed  much  from  Euripides  and  not  a  little  from 
Rotrou ;  and  in  his  general  style  and  plan  he  has  as  yet 
struck  out  no  great  variation  from  Corneille.  We  have 
very  little  intelligence  about  the  reception  of  the  piece. 
It  was  acted  twelve  times  during  the  first  month,  which 
was  for  the  period  a  very  fair  success,  and  was  occasion- 
ally revived  during  the  year  following. 

This  is  apparently  the  date  of  the  pleasant  picture  of 
the  four  friends  which  La  Fontaine  draws  in  his  Psyche, 
Racine  figuring  as  Acante,  "qui  aimait  extremement  les 
jarclins,  les  fleurs,  les  ombrages."  Various  stories,  more 
or  less  mythical,  also  belong  to  this  period ;  the  best 
authenticated  of  them  contributes  to  the  documents  for 
Racine's  unamiable  temper.  He  had  absolutely  no  reason 
to  complain  of  Chapelain,  who  had  helped  him  with 
criticism,  obtained  royal  gifts  for  him,  and,  in  a  fashion, 
started  him  in  the  literary  career,  yet  he  helped  in  com- 
posing the  lampoon  of  Chapelain  decoi/e.  The  sin  would 
not  be  unpardonable  if  it  stood  alone,  but  unluckily  a  much 
graver  one  followed. 

We  have  no  definite  details  as  to  Racine's  doings  during 
the  year  1664,  but  in  February  1665  he  read  at  the  Hotel 
de  Nevers  before  La  Rochefoucauld,  Madame  de  la  Fayette, 
Madame  de  Sevigne,  and  other  scarcely  less  redoubtable 
judges  the  greater  part  of  his  second  acted  play,  Alexandra 
le  Grand,  or,  as  Pomponne  (who  tells  the  fact)  calls  it,  Poms. 


This  was  a  frequent  kind  of  preliminary  advertisement  at 
the  time,  and  it  seems,  as  we  find  from  the  rhymed  gazettes, 
to  have  been  successful.  It  was  anxiously  expected  by 
the  public,  and  Moliere's  company  played  it  on  4th  Decem- 
ber,— Monsieur,  his  wife  Henrietta  of  England,  and  many 
other  distinguished  persons  being  present.  The  gazetteer 
Subligny  vouches  for  its  success,  and  the  still  more  certain 
testimony  of  the  accounts  of  the  theatre  shows  that  the 
receipts  were  good  and,  what  is  more,  steady.  But  a  fort- 
night afterwards  Alexandre  was  played,  "  de  complot  avec 
M.  Racine,"  says  La  Grange,  by  the  rival  actors  (who  had 
four  days  before  performed  it  in  private)  at  the  Hotel  de 
Bourgogne.  A  vast  amount  of  ink  has  been  spilt  on  this 
question,  but  no  one  has  produced  any  valid  justification 
for  Racine.  That  the  piece  failed  at  the  Palais  Royal  is 
demonstrably  false,  and  as  this  is  stated  in  the  earliest 
attempt  to  excuse  Racine,  and  the  only  one  made  in  his 
lifetime,  it  is  pretty  clear  that  his  case  was  very  weak. 
His  son  simply  says  that  he  was  "  me"content  des  acteurs," 
which  indeed  is  self-evident.  It  is  certain  that  Moliere  and 
he  ceased  to  be  friends  in  consequence  of  this  proceeding ; 
and  that  Moliere  was  in  fault  no  one  who  has  studied  the 
character  of  the  two  men,  no  one  even  who  considers  the 
probabilities  of  the  case,  will  easily  believe.  If,  however, 
Alexandre  was  the  occasion  of  showing  the  defects  of 
Racine's  character  as  a  man,  it  raised  him  vastly  in  public 
estimation  as  a  poet.  He  was  now  for  the  first  time  pro- 
posed as  a  serious  rival  to  Corneille.  There  is  a  story, 
which  a  credible  witness  vouches  for  as  Racine's  own,  that 
he  read  the  piece  to  the  author  of  the  Cid  and  asked  his 
verdict.  Corneille  praised  the  piece  highly,  but  not  as  a 
drama,  "  II  1'assurait  qu'il  n'etait  pas  propre  a  la  poe"sie 
dramatique."  There  is  no  reason  for  disbelieving  this,  for 
the  character  of  Alexander  could  not  fail  to  shock  Corneille, 
and  he  was  notorious  for  not  mincing  his  words.  Nor  can 
it  be  denied  that  Racine  might  have  been  justly  hurt, 
though  with  a  man  of  more  amiable  temper  the  slight  would 
hardly  have  caused  the  settled  antagonism  to  Corneille 
which  he  displayed.  The  contrast  between  the  two  even 
at  this  early  period  was  accurately  apprehended  and  put 
by  Saint  Evremond  in  his  masterly  Dissertation  sur  V Alex- 
andre, but  this  was  not  published  for  a  year  or  two.  To 
this  day  it  is  the  best  criticism  of  the  faults  of  Racine, 
though  not,  it  may  be,  of  the  merits,  which  had  not  yet 
been  fully  seen.  It  may  be  added  that  in  the  preface  of  the 
printed  play  the  poet  showed  the  extreme  sensitiveness  to 
criticism  which  perhaps  excuses,  and  which  certainly  often 
accompanies,  a  tendency  to  criticize  others.  These  defects 
of  character  showed  themselves  still  more  fully  in  another 
matter.  The  Port  Royalists,  as  has  been  said,  detested  the 
theatre,  and  in  January  1666  Nicole,  their  chief  write!4, 
spoke  in  one  of  his  Lettres  sur  Visionnaires  of  dramatic 
poets  as  "  empoisonneurs  publics."  There  was  absolutely 
no  reason  why  Racine  should  fit  this  cap  on  his  own  head ; 
but  he  did  so,  and  published  immediately  a  letter  to  the 
author.  It  is  very  smartly  written,  and  if  Racine  had  con- 
tented himself  with  protesting  against  the  absurd  exaggera- 
tion of  the  decriers  of  the  stage  there  would  have  been 
little  harm  done.  But  he  filled  the  piece  with  personalities, 
telling  an  absurd  story  of  Mere  Angelique  Arnauld's 
supposed  intolerance,  drawing  a  ridiculous  picture  of  Le 
Maitre  (a  dead  man  and  his  own  special  teacher  and  friend), 
and  sneering  savagely  at  Nicole  himself.  The  latter  made 
no  reply,  but  two  lay  adherents  of  Port  Royal  took  up  the 
quarrel  with  more  zeal  than  discretion  or  ability.  Racine 
wrote  a  second  pamphlet  as  bitter  and  personal  as  the  first, 
but  less  amusing,  and  was  about  to  publish  it  when  fortu- 
nately Boileau,  who  had  been  absent  from  Paris,  returned 
and  protested  against  the  publication.  It  remained  accord- 
ingly unprinted  till  after  the  author's  death,  as  well  as  a 


206 


E  A  C  I  N  E 


preface  to  both  which  he  had  prepared  with  a  view  to 
publishing  them  together.  In  this  respect  Boileau  was 
certainly  Racine's  good  angel,  for  no  one  has  ventured  to 
excuse  the  tone  of  these  letters.  The  best  excuse  for  them  is 
that  they  represent  the  accumulated  resentment  arising 
from  a  long  course  of  "  excommunications." 

After  this  disagreeable  episode  Racine's  life  for  ten  years 
and  more  becomes  simply  the  history  of  his  plays,  if  we 
except  his  liaisons  with  the  actresses  Mademoiselle  du  Pare 
and  Mademoiselle  de  Champmesle"  (which  are  undoubted, 
though  there  is  not  much  to  be  said  about  them)  and  his 
election  to  the  Academy  on  17th  July  1673.  Mademoiselle 
du  Pare  (Marquise  de  Gorla)  was  no  very  great  actress,  but 
was  very  beautiful,  and  she  had  previously  captivated 
Moliere.  Racine  induced  her  to  leave  the  Palais  Royal 
company  and  join  the  Hotel.  She  died  in  1668,  and  long 
afterwards  the  infamous  Voisin  accused  Racine  of  having 
poisoned  her.  Mademoiselle  de  Champmesl6  was  plain  and 
stupid,  but  an  admirable  actress  and  apparently  very  at- 
tractive in  some  way,  for  not  merely  Racine  but  Charles 
de  Sevigne"  and  many  others  adored  her.  She  was  cruel 
to  none,  but  for  five  years  before  his  marriage  Racine 
seems  to  have  been  her  amant  en  litre.  Long  after- 
wards, just  before  his  own  death,  he  heard  of  her  mortal 
illness  and  speaks  of  her  to  his  son  without  a  flash  of 
tenderness. 

The  series  of  his  dramatic  triumphs  began  with  Andro 
maque,  and  this  play  may  perhaps  dispute  with  Phedre 
and  AtJialie  the  title  of  his  masterpiece.  It  is  much  more 
uniformly  good  than  Phedre,  and  the  character  of  Hermione 
is  the  most  personally  interesting  on  the  French  tragic 
stage.  It  is  said  that  the  first  representation  of  Andro- 
maque  was  on  10th  November  1667,  in  public  and  by 
the  actors  of  the  Hotel  de  Bourgogne,  but  the  first  con- 
temporary mention  of  it  by  the  gazettes,  prose  and  verse, 
is  on  the  17th,  as  performed  in  the  queen's  apartment. 
Perrault,  by  no  means  a  friendly  critic  as  far  as  Racine  is 
concerned,  says  that  it  made  as  much  noise  as  the  Cid, 
and  so  it  ought  to  have  done.  Whatever  may  be  thought 
of  the  tragedie  pathetique  (a  less  favourable  criticism  might 
call  it  the  "sentimental  tragedy"),  it  could  hardly  be 
better  exemplified  than  in  this  admirable  play.  A  ferocious 
epigram  of  Racine's  own  (an  epigram  not  unworthy  of 
Martial,  and  as  difficult  to  comment  on  to  modern  ears 
polite  as  some  of  Martial's  own)  tells  us  that  some  critics 
thought  Pyrrhus  too  fond  of  his  mistress,  and  Andromache 
too  fond  of  her  husband,  which  is  not  likely  to  be  the 
present  verdict.  In  the  contemporary  depreciations  is  to 
be  found  the  avowal  of  its  real  merit.  The  interest  was 
too  varied,  the  pathos  too  close  to  human  nature  to  content 
Boileau,  and  the  partisans  of  Corneille  still  found  Racine 
unequal  to  the  heroic  height  of  their  master's  grandeur. 
A  just  criticism  will  probably  hold  that  these  two  objections 
neutralize  each  other.  Both  parties  agreed  in  saying  that 
much  of  the  success  was  due  to  the  actors,  another  censure 
which  is  equivalent  to  praise.  It  so  happens,  too,  that, 
though  the  four  main  parts  were  played  by  accomplished 
artists,  two  at  least  of  them  were  such  as  to  try  those 
artists  severely.  Pyrrhus  was  taken  by  Floridor,  the  best 
tragic  actor  by  common  consent  of  his  time,  and  Orestes 
by  Montfleury,  also  an  accomplished  player.  But  Made- 
moiselle du  Pare,  who  played  Andromache,  had  generally 
been  thought  below,  not  above,  her  parts,  and  Mademoiselle 
des  Oeillets,  who  played  the  difficult  role  of  Hermione,  was 
old  and  had  few  physical  advantages.  No  one  who  reads 
Andromaque  without  prejudice  is  likely  to  mistake  the 
secret  of  its  success,  which  is,  in  few  words,  the  application 
of  the  most  delicate  art  to  the  conception  of  really  tragic 
passion.  Before  leaving  the  play  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  it  is  said  to  have  been  in  the  part  of  Hermione,  three 


years  later,  that  Mademoiselle  de  Champmesle  captivated 
the  author.  Andromaque  was  succeeded,  at  the  distance 
of  not  more  than  a  year,  by  a  play  which,  taken  in  con- 
junction with  his  others,  is  perhaps  the  best  proof  of  the 
theatrical  talent  of  Racine, — the  charming  comedietta  of 
Les  Plaideurs.  We  do  not  know  exactly  when  it  was 
played,  but  it  was  printed  on  5th  December  1668,  and  it 
had  succeeded  so  badly  that  doubtless  no  long  time  passed 
between  its  appearance  on  the  stage  and  in  print.  For 
the  printing  at  that  time  both  in  France  and  England 
made  the  play  publica  materies,  and  therefore  in  the  case 
of  very  successful  pieces  it  was  put  off  as  long  as  possible. 
Many  anecdotes  are  told  about  the  origin  and  composition 
of  Les  Plaideurs*  The  Wasps  of  Aristophanes  and  the 
known  fact  that  Racine  originally  destined  it,  not  for  a 
French  company,  but  for  the  Italian  troupe  which  was 
then  playing  the  Commedia  dell'  Arte  in  Paris  dispense  us 
from  enumerating  them.  The  result  is  a  piece  admirably 
dramatic,  but  sufficiently  literary  to  shock  the  profanum 
vulgus,  which  too  frequently  gives  the  tone  at  theatres.  It 
failed  completely,  the  chief  favouring  voice  being,  accord- 
ing to  a  story  sufficiently  well  attested  and  worthy  of 
belief  even  without  attestation,  that  of  the  man  who  was 
best  qualified  to  praise  and  who  might  have  been  most 
tempted  to  blame  of  any  man  then  living.  Moliere,  says 
Valincourt,  the  special  friend  of  Racine,  said  in  leaving 
the  house,  "Que  ceux  qui  se  moquoient  de  cette  piece 
meritoient  qu'on  se  moquoient  d'eux."  But  the  piece  was 
suddenly  played  at  court  a  month  later ;  the  king  laughed, 
and  its  fortunes  were  restored.  The  truth  probably  was 
that  the  legal  profession,  which  was  very  powerful  in  the 
city  of  Paris,  did  not  fancy  the  most  severe  satire  on  its 
ways  which  had  been  made  public  since  the  or  ca  of  the 
fifth  book  of  Rabelais.  It  need  only  be  added  that,  if 
Louis  XIV.  admired  Les  Plaideurs,  Napoleon  did  not,  and 
excluded  it  from  his  travelling  library.  It  was  followed 
by  a  very  different  work,  Britannicus,  which  appeared  on 
13th  December  1669.  It  was  much  less  successful  than 
Andromaque,  and,  whether  or  not  the  cabals,  of  which 
Racine  constantly  complains,  and  which  lie  certainly  did 
nothing  to  disarm,  had  anything  to  do  with  this,  it  seems 
to  have  held  its  own  but  a  very  few  nights.  Afterwards 
it  became  very  popular,  and  even  from  the  first  the  ex- 
quisite versification  was  not  denied.  But  there  is  no 
doubt  that  in  Britannicus  the  defects  of  Racine,  which  in 
his  first  two  plays  were  excusable  on  the  score  of  apprentice- 
ship, and  in  the  next  two  hardly  appeared  at  all,  display 
themselves  pretty  clearly  to  any  competent  critic.  The 
complete  nullity  of  Britannicus  and  Junie  and  the  insuffi- 
cient attempt  to  display  the  complex  and  dangerous  char- 
acter of  Nero  are  not  redeemed  by  Agrippina,  who  is  really 
good,  and  Burrhus,  who  is  solidly  painted  as  a  secondary 
character.  Voltaire  calls  it  "la  piece  des  connaisseurs," 
and  the  description  is — not  quite  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
critic  meant  it — a  very  pregnant  one.  Britannicus  is 
eminently  the  piece  in  which  persons  of  a  dilettante  turn 
are  seduced  by  the  beauties  which  do  exist  to  discover 
those  which  do  not.  The  next  play  of  Racine  has,  except 
Pkedre,  the  most  curious  history  of  all.  "  Berenice,"  says 
Fontenelle  succinctly,  "  fut  un  duel,"  and  he  acknowledges 
that  his  uncle  was  not  the  conqueror.  Henrietta  of  Orleans 
proposed  (it  is  said  without  letting  them  know  the  double 
commission)  the  subject  to  Corneille  and  Racine  at  the 
same  time,  and  rumour  gives  no  very  creditable  reasons 
for  her  choice  of  the  subject.  Her  death,  famous  for  its 
disputed  causes  and  for  Bossuet's  sermon,  preceded  the 
performance  of  the  two  plays,  both  of  which,  but  especially 
Racine's,  were  successful.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  is 
the  better  of  the  two,  but  Chapelle's  not  unfriendly  criti- 
cism in  quoting  the  two  lines  of  an  old  song — 


RACINE 


207 


"  Marion  pleure,  Marion  crie, 
Marion  veut  qu'on  la  marie  " — 

is  said  to  have  annoyed  Racine  very  much,  and  it  has  a 
most  malicious  appropriateness.  Bajazet,  which  was  first 
played  on  4th  January  1672  (for  Racine  punctually  pro- 
duced his  piece  a  year),  is  perhaps  better.  As  a  play, 
technically  speaking,  it  has  great  merit,  but  the  reproach 
commonly  brought  against  its  author  was  urged  specially 
and  with  great  force  against  this  by  Corneille.  It  is  im- 
possible to  imagine  anything  less  Oriental  than  the  atmo- 
sphere of  Bajazet  •  the  whole  thing  is  not  only  French  but 
ephemerally  French — French  of  the  day  and  hour ;  and  its 
ingenious  scenario  and  admirable  style  scarcely  save  it. 
This  charge  is  equally  applicable  with  the  same  reservations 
to  Mitkridate,  which  appears  to  have  been  produced  on 
13th  January  1673,  the  day  after  the  author's  reception 
at  the  Academy.  It  was  extremely  popular  and,  as  far 
as  style  and  perfection  in  a  disputable  kind  go,  Racine 
could  hardly  have  lodged  a  more  triumphant  diploma 
piece.  His  next  attempt,  Iphigenie,  was  a  long  step  back- 
wards and  upwards  in  the  direction  of  Andromaque.  It 
is  not  that  the  characters  are  eminently  Greek,  but  that 
Greek  tragedy  gave  Racine  examples  which  prevented  him 
from  flying  in  the  face  of  the  propriety  of  character  as  he 
had  done  in  Berenice,  Bajazet,  and  Mithridate,  and  that  he 
here  called  in,  as  in  Andromaque,  other  passions  to  the  aid 
of  the  mere  sighing  and  crying  which  form  the  sole  appeal 
of  these  three  tragedies.  Achilles  is  a  rather  pitiful  per- 
sonage, and  the  grand  story  of  the  sacrifice  is  softened 
very  tamely  to  suit  French  tastes ;  but  the  parental  agonies 
of  Clytemnestra  and  Agamemnon  are  truly  drawn,  and 
the  whole  play  is  full  of  pathos.  It  succeeded  brilliantly 
and  deservedly,  but,  oddly  enough,  the  date  of  its  appear- 
ance is  very  uncertain.  It  was  assuredly  acted  at  court 
in  the  late  summer  of  1674,  but  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  given  to  the  public  till  the  early  spring  of 
1675,  the  usual  time  at  which  Racine  produced  his 
work. 

The  last  and  finest  of  the  series  of  tragedies  proper  was 
the  most  unlucky.  Phedre  was  represented  for  the  first 
time  on  New- Year's  Day  1677  at  the  Hotel  de  Bourgogne. 
Within  a  week  the  opposition  company  or  "troupe  du  roi" 
launched  an  opposition  Phedre  by  Pradon.  This  singular 
competition,  which  had  momentous  results  for  Racine,  and 
in  which  he  to  some  extent  paid  the  penalty  of  the  lex 
talionis  for  his  own  rivalry  with  Corneille,  had  long  been 
foreseen.  It  has  been  hinted  that  Racine  had  from  the 
first  been  bitterly  opposed  by  a  clique,  whom  his  great 
success  irritated,  while  his  personal  character  did  nothing  to 
conciliate  them.  His  enemies  at  this  time  had  the  powerful 
support  of  the  duchess  of  Bouillon,  one  of  Mazarin's  nieces, 
a  woman  of  considerable  talents  and  imperious  temper,  to- 
gether with  her  brother  the  duke  of  Nevers  and  divers  other 
personages  of  high  position.  These  persons  of  quality, 
guided,  it  is  said,  by  Madame  Deshoulieres,  a  poetess  of 
merit  whom  Boileau  unjustly  depreciated,  selected  Pradon, 
a  dramatist  of  little  talent  but  of  much  facility,  to  compose 
a  Phedre  in  competition  with  that  which  it  was  known 
that  Racine  had  been  elaborating  with  unusual  care. 
Pradon,  perhaps  assisted,  was  equal  to  the  occasion,  and  it 
is  said  that  the  partisans  on  both  sides  did  not  neglect 
means  for  correcting  fortune.  On  her  side  the  duchess 
of  Bouillon  is  accused  of  having  bought  up  the  front  places 
in  both  theatres  for  the  first  six  nights ;  on  his  part  Racine 
is  said  to  have  repeated  an  old  trick  of  his  and  prevailed 
on  the  best  actresses  of  the  company  that  played  Pradon's 
piece  to  refuse  the  title  part.  There  is  even  some  ground 
for  believing  that  Racine  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  op- 
position play  from  being  played  at  all,  and  that  an  express 
order  from  the  kin^  had  to  be  obtained  for  it.  It  was  of 


no  value,  but  the  measures  of  the  cabal  had  been  so  well 
taken  that  the  finest  tragedy  of  the  French  classical  school 
was  all  but  driven  from  the  stage,  while  Pradon's  was  a 
positive  success.  A  war  of  sonnets  and  epigrams  followed, 
during  which  it  is  said  that  the  duke  of  Nevers  menaced 
Racine  and  Boileau  with  the  same  treatment  which  Dryden 
and  Voltaire  actually  received,  and  was  only  deterred  by 
the  protection  which  Conde  extended  to  them. 

The  unjust  cabal  against  his  piece  and  the  various 
annoyances  to  which  it  gave  rise  no  doubt  made  a  deep 
impression  on  Racine.  But  in  the  absence  of  accurate 
contemporary  information  it  is  impossible  to  decide  exactly 
how  much  influence  they  had  on  the  subsequent  change  in 
his  life.  For  thirteen  years  he  had  been  constantly  em- 
ployed on  a  series  of  brilliant  dramas.  He  now  broke  off 
his  dramatic  work  entirely  and  in  the  remaining  twenty 
years  of  his  life  wrote  but  two  more  plays,  and  those  under 
special  circumstances  and  of  quite  a  different  kind.  He 
had  been  during  his  early  manhood  a  libertine  in  morals 
and  religion ;  he  now  married,  became  irreproachably 
domestic,  and  almost  ostentatiously  devout.  No  authentic 
account  of  this  change  exists ;  for  that  of  Louis  Racine, 
which  attributes  the  whole  to  a  sudden  religious  impulse, 
is  manifestly  little  more  than  the  theory  of  a  son  pious  in 
both  senses  of  the  word.  Probably  all  the  motives  which 
friends  and  foes  have  attributed — weariness  of  dissipated 
life,  jealousy  of  his  numerous  rivals  in  Mademoiselle  de 
Champmesle's  favour,  pique  at  Pradon's  success,  fear  of  los- 
ing still  further  the  position  of  greatest  tragic  poet  which 
after  Corneille's  Surena  was  indisputably  his,  religious  sen- 
timent, and  so  forth — entered  more  or  less  into  his  action. 
At  any  rate  what  is  certain  is  that  he  reconciled  himself 
with  Arnauld  and  Port  Royal  generally,  and  on  1st 
June  married  Catherine  de  Romanet  and  definitely  settled 
down  to  a  quiet  domestic  life,  alternated  with  the  duties 
of  a  courtier.  For  his  repentance  was  by  no  means  a 
repentance  in  sackcloth  and  ashes.  The  drama  was  not 
then  very  profitable  to  dramatists,  but  Louis  Racine  tells 
us  that  his  father  had  been  able  to  furnish  a  house,  collect 
a  library  of  some  value,  and  save  6000  livres.  His  wife 
had  money,  and  he  had  possessed  for  some  time  (it  is  not 
certain  how  long)  the  honourable  and  valuable  post  of 
treasurer  of  France  at  Moulins.  His  annual  "gratification" 
had  been  increased  from  800  to  1500  livres,  then  to  2000, 
and  in  the  October  of  the  year  of  his  marriage  he  and 
Boileau  were  made  historiographers-royal  with  a  salary  of 
2000  crowns.  Besides  all  this  he  had,  though  a  layman, 
one  or  two  benefices.  It  would  have  been  pleasanter  if 
Louis  Racine  had  not  told  us  that  his  father  regarded  His 
Majesty's  choice  as  "an  act  of  the  grace  of  God  to  detach 
him  entirely  from  poetry."  Even  after  allowing  for  Louis 
Racine's  religiosity  and  the  conventional  language  of  all 
times,  there  is  a  flavour  of  hypocrisy  about  this  which  is 
disagreeable,  and  has  shocked  even  Racine's  most  uncom- 
promising admirers.  For  the  historiographer  of  Louis 
XIV.  was  simply  his  chief  flatterer.  Before  going  further 
it  may  be  observed  that  very  little  came  of  this  historio- 
graphy. The  joint  incumbents  of  the  office  made  some 
campaigns  with  the  king,  sketched  plans  of  histories,  and 
left  a  certain  number  of  materials  and  memoirs ;  but  they 
executed  no  substantive  work.  Racine,  whether  this  be 
set  down  to  his  credit  or  not,  was  certainly  a  fortunate 
and  apparently  an  adroit  courtier.  His  very  relapse  into 
Jansenism  coincided  with  his  rise  at  court,  where  Jansen- 
ism was  in  no  favour,  and  the  fact  that  he  had  been  in  the 
good  graces  of  Madame  de  Montespan  did  not  deprive  him 
of  those  of  Madame  de  Maintenon.  Neither  in  Esther  did 
he  hesitate  to  reflect  upon  his  former  patroness.  But  a 
reported  sneer  of  the  king,  who  was  sharp-eyed  enough, 
"Cavoie  avec  Racine  se  croit  bel  esprit;  Racine  avec  Cavoie 


208 


RACINE 


se  croit  courtisan,"  makes  it  appear  that  his  comparatively 
low  birth  was  not  forgotten  at  Versailles. 

Racine's  first  campaign  was  at  the  siege  of  Ypres  in 
1678,  where  some  practical  jokes  are  said  to  have  been 
played  on  the  two  civilians  who  acted  this  early  and 
peculiar  variety  of  the  part  of  special  correspondent. 
Again  in  1683,  in  1687,  and  in  each  year  from  1691  to  1693 
Racine  accompanied  the  king  on  similar  expeditions.  The 
literary  results  of  these  have  been  spoken  of.  His  labours 
brought  him,  in  addition  to  his  other  gains,  frequent 
special  presents  from  the  king,  one  of  which  was  as  much 
as  1000  pistoles.  In  1690  he  further  received  the  office  of 
"  gentilhomme  ordinaire  du  roi,"  which  afterwards  passed 
to  his  son.  Thus  during  the  later  years  of  his  life  he  was 
more  prosperous  than  is  usual  with  poets.  His  domestic 
life  appears  to  have  been  a  happy  one.  Louis  Racine 
tells  us  that  his  mother  "  did  not  know  what  a  verse  was," 
but  Racine  certainly  knew  enough  about  verses  for  both. 
They  had  seven  children.  The  eldest,  Jean  Baptiste,  was 
born  in  1678  ;  the  youngest,  Louis,  in  1692.  It  has  been 
said  that  he  was  thus  too  young  to  have  many  personal 
memories  of  his  father,  but  he  tells  one  or  two  stories 
which  show  Racine  to  have  been  at  any  rate  a  man  of 
strong  family  affection,  as,  moreover,  his  letters  prove. 
Between  the  two  sons  came  five  daughters,  Marie,  Anne, 
Elizabeth,  Franchise,  and  Madeleine.  The  eldest,  after 
showing  "vocation,"  married  in  1699,  Anne  and  Elizabeth 
took  the  veil,  the  youngest  two  remained  single  but  did 
not  enter  the  cloister.  To  complete  the  notice  of  family 
matters — much  of  Racine's  later  correspondence  is  addressed 
to  his  sister  Marie,  Madame  Riviere. 

The  almost  complete  silence  in  the  literary  sphere  which 
Racine  imposed  on  himself  after  the  comparative  failure, 
shameful  not  for  himself  but  for  his  adversaries,  of  PJtedre 
was  broken  once  or  twice  even  before  the  appearance  of 
the  two  exquisite  tragedies  in  which  under  singular  circum- 
stances he  took  leave  of  the  stage.  The  most  honourable 
of  these  was  the  reception  of  Thomas  Corneille  on  2d 
January  1685  at  the  Academy  in  the  room  of  his  brother. 
The  discourse  which  Racine  then  pronounced  turned  almost 
entirely  on  his  great  rival,  of  whom  he  spoke  even  more 
than  becomingly.  But  it  was  an  odd  conjunction  of  the  two 
reigning  passions  of  the  latter  part  of  his  life — devoutness 
and  obsequiousness  to  the  court — which  made  him  once 
more  a  dramatist.  Madame  de  Maintenon  had  established 
an  institution,  first  called  the  Maison  Saint  Louis,  and 
afterwards  (from  the  place  to  which  it  was  transferred) 
the  Maison  de  Saint  Cyr,  for  the  education  of  poor  girls  of 
noble  family.  The  tradition  of  including  acting  in  edu- 
cation was  not  obsolete.  At  first  the  governess,  Madame 
de  Grinon,  composed  pieces  for  representation,  but,  says 
Madame  de  Caylus,  a  witness  at  first  hand  and  a  good 
judge,  they  were  "detestable."  Then  recourse  was  had  to 
chosen  plays  of  Corneille  and  Racine,  but  here  there  were 
obvious  objections.  The  favourite  herself  wrote  to  Racine 
that  "nos  petites  filles"  had  played  Andromaque  "a  great 
deal  too  well."  She  asked  the  poet  for  a  new  play  suited 
to  the  circumstances,  and,  though  Boileau  advised  him 
against  it,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  he  yielded.  The  result 
was  the  masterpiece  of  Esther,  with  music  by  Moreau,  the 
court  composer  and  organist  of  Saint  Cyr.  Although  played 
by  schoolgirls  and  in  a  dormitory,  it  had  an  enormous 
success,  in  which  it  may  be  charitably  hoped  that  the 
transparent  comparison  of  the  patroness  to  the  heroine 
had  not  too  much  to  do.  Printed  shortly  afterwards, 
it  had  to  suffer  a  certain  reaction,  or  perhaps  a  certain 
vengeance,  from  those  who  had  not  been  admitted  to  the 
private  stage.  But  no  competent  judge  could  hesitate. 
Racine  probably  had  read  and  to  some  extent  followed  the 
Aman  of  Montchrestien,  but  he  made  of  it  only  the  use 


which  a  proved  master  in  literature  has  a  perfect  right  to 
make  of  his  forerunners.  The  beauty  of  the  chorus,  which 
Racine  had  restored  more  probably  from  a  study  of  the 
Ple"iade  tragedy  than  from  classical  suggestions,  the  per- 
fection of  the  characters,  and  the  wonderful  art  of  the 
whole  piece  need  no  praise.  Almost  immediately  the 
poet  was  at  work  on  another  and  a  still  finer  piece  of  the 
same  kind,  and  he  had  probably  finished  At/talie  before  the 
end  of  1690.  The  fate  of  the  play,  however,  was  very 
different  from  that  of  Esther.  Some  fuss  had  been  made 
about  the  worldliness  of  great  court  fetes  at  Saint  Cyr,  and 
the  new  play,  with  settings  as  before  by  Moreau,  was  acted 
both  at  Versailles  and  at  Saint  Cyr  with  much  less  pomp 
and  ceremony  than  Esther.  It  was  printed  in  March  1691 
and  the  public  cared  very  little  for  it.  The  truth  is  that 
the  last  five-and-twenty  years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
were  marked  by  one  of  the  lowest  tides  of  literary  accom- 
plishment and  appreciation  in  the  history  of  France.  The 
just  judgment  of  posterity  has  ranked  Athalie,  if  not  as 
Racine's  best  work  (and  there  are  good  grounds  for  consider- 
ing it  to  be  this),  at  any  rate  as  equal  to  his  best.  Thence- 
forward Racine  was  practically  silent,  except  for  four  can- 
tiques  sjriritiielles,  in  the  style  and  with  much  of  the  merit 
of  the  choruses  of  Esther  and  Athalie.  The  general  literary 
sentiment  led  by  Fontenelle  (who  inherited  the  wrongs  of 
Corneille,  his  uncle,  and  whom  Racine  had  taken  care  to 
estrange  further)  was  against  the  arrogant  critic  and  the 
irritable  poet,  and  they  made  their  case  worse  by  espousing 
the  cause  of  La  Bruyere,  whose  personalities  in  his  Carao- 
teres  had  made  him  one  of  the  best  hated  men  in  France, 
and  by  engaging  in  the  ancient  and  modern  battle  with 
Perrault.  Racine,  moreover,  was  a  constant  and  spiteful 
epigrammatist,  and  the  unlucky  habit  of  preferring  his  joke 
to  his  friend  stuck  by  him  to  the  last.  A  savage  epigram 
on  the  Sesostris  of  Longepierre,  who  had  done  him  no  harm 
and  was  his  familiar  acquaintance,  dates  as  late  as  1695. 
Still  the  king  maintained  him  in  favour,  and  so  long  as 
this  continued  he  could  afford  to  laugh  at  Grub  Street  and 
the  successors  of  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet  alike.  At  last, 
however,  there  seems  (for  the  matter  is  not  too  clear)  to 
have  come  a  change.  Some  say  that  he  disobliged  Madame 
de  Maintenon,  some  (and  this  would  be  much  to  his  honour, 
but  not  exactly  in  accord  with  anything  else  known  of  him) 
that,  like  Vauban  and  F6nelon,  he  urged  the  growing  misery 
of  the  people.  But  there  seems  to  be  little  doubt  of  the 
fact  of  the  royal  displeasure,  and  it  is  even  probable  that  it 
had  some  effect  on  his  health.  Disease  of  the  liver  appears 
to  have  been  the  immediate  cause  of  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  12th  April  1699.  The  king  seems  to  have,  at  any 
rate,  forgiven  him  after  his  death,  and  he  gave  the  family  a 
pension  of  2000  livres.  Racine  was  buried  at  Port  Royal, 
but  even  this  transaction  was  not  the  last  of  his  relations 
with  that  famous  home  of  religion  and  learning.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  abbey  in  1 7 1 1  his  body  was  exhumed 
and  transferred  to  Saint  Etienne  du  Mont,  his  gravestone 
being  left  behind  and  only  restored  to  his  ashes  a  hundred 
years  later,  in  1818.  His  eldest  son  was  never  married; 
his  eldest  daughter  and  Louis  Racine  have  left  descendants 
to  the  present  day. 

A  critical  biography  of  Racine  is,  in  more  ways  than  one,  an  ex- 
ceptionally difficult  undertaking, — not  in  regard  to  the  facts,  which, 
as  will  have  been  seen,  are  fairly  abundant,  but  as  to  the  construc- 
tion to  be  placed  on  them.  The  admirers  of  Racine's  literary  genius 
have  made  it  a  kind  of  religion  to  defend  his  character  ;  and  strict- 
ures on  his  character,  it  seems  to  be  thought,  imply  a  desire  to 
depreciate  his  literary  worth.  The  reader  of  the  above  sketch  of 
his  life  must  judge  for  himself  whether  Racine  is  or  is  net  to  be 
ranked  with  those  great  men  of  letters,  fortunately  the  giv.it  IT 
number,  whose  personality  is  attractive  and  their  foibles  at  worst 
excusable.  ,  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  general  impression  givm, 
not  merely  by  the  flying  anecdotes  of  the  time,  but  by  ascertained 
facts,  is  somewhat  unfavourable.  Racine's  affection  for  his  family 


R  A  C  —  li  A  C 


209 


and  his  unbroken  friendship  for  Boileau  are  the  sole  points  of  his 
life  which  are  entirely  creditable  to  him.  His  conduct  to  Moliere 
and  to  Nicole  cannot  be  excused ;  his  attitude  towards  his  critics 
and  his  rivals  was  querulous  and  spiteful  ;  his  relation  to  Corneille 
contrasts  strikingly  with  the  graceful  position  which  young  men  of 
letters,  sometimes  by  no  means  his  inferiors,  have  often  taken  up 
towards  the  surviving  glories  of  a  past  generation ;  his  "  conver- 
sion," though  there  is  no  just  cause  for  branding  it  as  hypocritical, 
appears  to  have  been  a  singularly  accommodating  one,  enabling  him 
to  tolerate  adultery,  to  libel  his  friends  in  secret,  and  to  flatter 
greatness  unhesitatingly.  None  of  these  things  perhaps  are  very 
heinous  crimes,  but  they  are  all  of  the  class  of  misdoing  which, 
fairly  or  unfairly,  mankind  are  apt  to  regard  with  greater  dislike 
than  positive  misdeeds  of  a  more  glaring  but  less  unheroic  character. 

The  personality  of  an  author  is,  however,  by  all  the  laws  of  the 
saner  criticism,  entirely  independent  of  the  rank  to  be  assigned  to 
his  work,  and,  as  in  other  cases,  the  strongest  dislike  for  the  char- 
acter of  Racine  as  a  man  is  compatible  with  the  most  unbounded 
admiration  of  his  powers  as  a  writer.  But  here  again  his  injudicious 
admirers  have  interposed  a  difficulty.  There  is  a  theory  common 
in  France,  and  sometimes  adopted  out  of  it,  that  only  a  Frenchman, 
and  not  every  Frenchman,  can  properly  appreciate  Racine.  The 
charm  of  his  verse  and  of  his  dramatic  presentation  is  so  esoteric  and 
delicate  that  foreigners  cannot  hope  to  taste  it.  This  is  of  course 
absurd,  and  if  it  were  true  it  would  be  fatal  to  Racine's  claims  as  a 
poet  of  the  highest  rank.  Such  poets,  such  writers,  are  not  paro- 
chial or  provincial,  and  even  the  greatest  nations  are  but  provinces 
or  parishes  in  the  realm  of  literature.  Homer,  Shakespeare,  Dante, 
even  Moliere,  Rabelais,  Goethe,  are  not  afraid  to  challenge  the 
approval  of  the  whole  world,  and  the  whole  world  is  not  found  incom- 
petent or  unwilling  to  give  it.  Nor  need  Racine  in  reality  avail 
himself  of  this  unwise  pretension.  Judged  by  the  common  tests  of 
literature  he  is  a  consummate  artist,  but  he  is  scarcely  a  great  poet, 
for  his  art,  though  unsurpassed  in  its  kind,  is  narrow  in  range  and 
his  poetry  is  neither  of  the  highest  nor  of  the  most  genuine. 

He  may  be  considered  from  two  very  different  points  of  view, — 
(1)  as  a  playwright  and  poetical  artificer,  and  (2)  as  a  dramatist 
and  a  poet.  From  the  first  point  of  view  there  is  hardly  any  praise 
too  high  for  him.  He  did  not  invent  the  form  he  practised,  and 
those  who,  from  want  of  attention  to  the  historical  facts,  assume 
that  he  did  are  unskilful  as  well  as  ignorant.  When  he  came  upon 
the  scene  the  form  of  French  plays  was  settled,  partly  by  the 
energetic  efforts  of  the  Pleiade  and  their  successors,  partly  by  the 
reluctant  acquiescence  of  Corneille.  It  is  barely  possible  that  the 
latter  might,  if  he  had  chosen,  have  altered  the  course  of  French 
tragedy  ;  it  is  nearly  certain  that  Racine  could  not.  But  Corneille, 
though  he  was  himself  more  responsible  than  any  one  else  for  the 
acceptance  of  the  single -situation  tragedy,  never  frankly  gave 
himself  up  to  it,  and  the  inequality  of  his  work  is  due  to  this.  His 
heart  was,  though  not  to  his  knowledge,  elsewhere,  and  with  Shake- 
speare. Racine,  in  whom  the  craftsman  dominated  the  man  of 
genius,  worked  with  a  will  and  without  any  misgivings.  Every 
advantage  which  the  Senecan  tragedy  adapted  to  modern  times  was 
capable  of  he  gave  it.  He  perfected  its  versification  ;  he  subordi- 
nated its  scheme  entirely  to  the  one  motive  which  could  have  free 
play  in  it, — the  display  of  a  conventionally  intense  passion  ;  he  set 
himself  to  produce  in  verse  a  kind  of  Ciceronian  correctness.  The 
grammar  criticisms  of  Vaugelas  and  the  taste  criticisms  of  Boileau 
produced  in  him  no  feeling  of  revolt,  but  only  a  determination  to 
play  the  game  according  to  these  new  rules  with  triumphant 
accuracy.  And  he  did  so  play  it.  He  had  supremely  the  same 
faculty  which  enabled  the  rhetoriqueurs  of  the  15th  century  to 
execute  apparently  impossible  tours  de  force  in  ballades  couronnees, 
and  similar  tricks.  He  had  besides  a  real  and  saving  vein  of  truth 
to  nature,  which  preserved  him  from  tricks  pure  and  simple.  He 
would  be  and  he  was  as  much  a  poet  as  prevalent  taste  would  let 
him  be.  The  result  is  that  such  plays  as  Phedre  and  Andromaque 
are  supreme  in  their  own  way.  If  the  critic  will  only  abstain  from 
thrusting  in  tierce,  when  according  to  the  particular  rules  he  ought 
to  thrust  in  quart,  Racine  is  sure  to  beat  him. 

But  there  is  a  higher  game  of  criticism  than  this,  and  this  game 
Racine  does  not  attempt  to  play.  He  does  not  even  attempt  the 
highest  poetry  at  all.  His  greatest  achievements  in  pure  passion — 
the  foiled  desires  of  Hermione  and  the  jealous  frenzy  of  Phedre 
— are  cold,  not  merely  beside  the  crossed  love  of  Ophelia  and  the 
remorse  of  Lady  Macbeth,  but  beside  the  sincerer  if  less  perfectly 
expressed  passion  of  Corneille's  Cleopatre  and  Camille.  In  men's 
parts  he  fails  still  more  completely.  As  the  decency  of  his  stage 
would  not  allow  him  to  make  his  heroes  frankly  heroic,  so  it  would 
not  allow  him  to  make  them  utterly  passionate.  He  had,  moreover, 
cut  away  from  himself  by  the  adoption  of  the  Senecan  model  all 
the  opportunities  which  would  have  been  offered  to  his  remarkably 
varied  talent  on  a  freer  stage.  It  is  indeed  tolerably  certain  that 
he  never  could  have  achieved  the  purely  poetical  comedy  of  As  You 
Like  It  or  the  Vida  cs  Sueno,  but  the  admirable  success  of  Les 
Plaidcurs  makes  it  at  least  probable  that  he  might  have  done  some- 
thing in  a  lower  and  a  more  conventional  style.  From  all  this, 


however,  he  deliberately  cut  himself  off.  Of  the  whole  world  whicL 
is  subject  to  the  poet  he  took  only  a  narrow  artificial  and  conven- 
tional fraction.  Within  these  narrow  bounds  he  did  work  which 
no  admirer  of  literary  craftsmanship  can  regard  without  admiration. 
But  at  the  same  time  no  one  speaking  with  competence  can  deny 
that  the  bounds  are  narrow.  It  would  be  unnecessary  to  contrast 
his  performances  with  his  limitations  so  sharply  if  those  limitations 
had  not  been  denied.  But  they  have  been  and  are  still  denied  by 
persons  whose  sentence  carries  weight,  and  therefore  it  is  still  neces- 
sary to  point  out  the  fact  of  their  existence. 

Nearly  all  Racine's  works  are  mentioned  in  the  above  notice.  There  is  here 
no  room  for  a  bibliographical  account  of  their  separate  appearances.  The  first 
collected  edition  was  in  1675-76,  and  contained  the  nine  tragedies  which  had 
then  appeared.  The  last  and  most  complete  which  appeared  in  the  poet's  life- 
time (1697)  was  revised  by  him,  and  contains  the  dramas  and  a  few  miscellane- 
ous works.  Like  the  editio  princeps,  it  is  in  2  vols.  12mo.  The  posthumous 
editions  are  innumerable  and  gradually  became  more  and  more  complete.  The 
most  noteworthy  are  the  Amsterdam  edition  of  1722  ;  that  by  Abbe  d*Olivet, 
also  at  Amsterdam,  1743  ;  the  Paris  quarto  of  1760  ;  the  edition  of  Luneau  de 
Boisjermain,  Paris  and  London,  1768 ;  the  magnificent  illustrated  folios  of  1805 
(Paris) ;  the  edition  of  Germain  Gamier  with  La  Harpe's  commentary,  1807 ; 
Geoffrey's  of  the  next  year ;  Aime  Martin's  of  1820 ;  and  lastly,  the  grands 
tcrivains  edition  of  Paul  Mesnard  (Paris,  1865-73).  This  last  contains  almost 
all  that  is  necessary  for  the  study  of  the  poet,  and  has  been  chiefly  used  in 

Preparing  the  above  notice.    Louis  Racine's  Life  was  first  published  in  1747. 
ranslations  and  imitations  of  Racine  are  innumerable.    In  English  the  Dis- 
tressed Mother  of  Philips  and  the  PheedraandHippolytus  of  Smith,  both  composed 
more  or  less  under  Addison's  influence,  are  the  most  noteworthy.      (G.  SA.) 

EACKETS.  Like  tennis,  this  game  of  ball  is  of  French 
origin,  and  its  name  is  derived  from  "  raquette,"  the  French 
term  for  the  bat  used  in  the  pastime.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  it  is  not  so  universally  pursued  as  cricket  and 
football,  and  is  essentially  an  indoor  game,  which  is  played 
only  in  prepared  and  covered  courts.  Such  buildings  have 
been  erected  at  many  of  the  large  public  schools,  at  the 
universities,  and  in  garrison  towns,  where  will  be  found  the 
chief  exponents  of  rackets,  a  game  which  requires  active 
running  powers,  quick  eyesight,  and  dexterity  of  hand. 

The  old  "open"  courts,  which  merely  consisted  of  a 
plain  wall  without  any  side  walls,  are  now  almost  obsolete 
and  need  not  be 


FRONT 


WALL 


Sf   Feet 


Of     Feet 


LEFT 

SERVICE 

SPACE 


RIGHT 

SERVICE 

SPACE 


SERVICE  LINE 


further  mentioned. 
The  usual  dimen- 
sions of  a  "close" 
court  are  80  feet  by 
40  feet  for  four- 
handed  matches, 
whilst  60  feet  by  30 
feet  are  sufficient 
for  a  single  match. 
Sometimes  courts 
are  built  of  an  in- 
termediate size  so 
as  to  be  available 
for  either  single 
or  double  matches. 
The  front  wall  of  a 
court  should  be  40 
feet  high,  the  back 
one  14  feet,  the 
space  over  the  latter 
being  utilized  by  a 
gallery  for  specta- 
tors, umpire,  and 
marker.  The  side 
walls  are  40  feet 
high  throughout,  in 
order  to  support  the 
roof.  This  must  be 
well  lit  with  sky- 
lights carried  on 
light  iron  girders 
and  protected  inside  with  wire -work  in  order  to  ward 
off  damage  from  the  balls.  Bricks  make  the  best  walls, 
which  must  be  plastered  inside  with  Roman  cement  or 
plaster  of  Paris,  set  to  a  perfectly  level  surface  in  order 
that  the  balls  may  rebound  evenly.  In  the  military  officers' 
courts  in  India  this  plaster  is  painted  white  for  the  sake  of 

XX.  —  27 


LEFT  BACK  COURTS 


BACK 


HIGHT  BACK  COURT 


WALL 


Racket  court. 


210 


R  A  D  — R  A  D 


coolness,  and  black  balls  are  in  vogue.  In  England  black 
paint  and  white  balls  are  used.  In  cool  climates  asphalt 
makes  the  best  flooring.  In  the  tropics  stone  paving, 
perfectly  evenly  set,  or  some  similar  material,  must  be  used. 
Gutta-percha  soles  to  the  shoes  of  the  players  are  indis- 
pensable, to  prevent  slipping  and  to  preserve  the  evenness 
of  the  flooring.  The  narrow  entrance  door,  made  of  very 
hard  wood,  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  back  wall  and 
must  be  perfectly  flush  with  the  same  on  the  inside.  The 
bottom  of  the  front  wall  is  covered  with  hollow  deal  sound- 
ing boarding  up  to  a  height  of  2  feet  2  inches,  where  is 
the  "  line."  The  sound  betrays  a  ball  striking  the  board- 
ing below  the  line,  which  throws  it  out  of  play.  At  7  feet 
9  inches  above  the  level  of  the  floor  comes  another  white 
line  across  the  front  wall,  termed  the  "  cut  line,"  because 
the  in-player,  when  serving,  must  first  make  the  ball  re- 
bound from  the  front  wall  above  this  line.  Across  the 
floor,  varying  in  position  according  to  the  length  of  the 
court,  is  the  "short  line,"  so  called  because  an  out-player 
is  not  bound  to  take  any  ball  served  which  falls  between 
it  and  the  front  wall.  The  space  between  here  and  the 
back  wall  is  divided  into  two  equal-sized  parallelograms 
by  a  line  drawn  down  to  the  doorway.  As  the  front 
wall  is  faced,  these  are  called  "  right "  and  "  left "  courts. 
An  in-player  serving  from  one  side  must  make  the  ball 
fall  in  the  other  court  after  rebounding  from  the  front 
wall.  The  "  service  spaces,"  in  which  an  in-player  stands 
when  serving,  are  8  feet  6  inches  deep  from  the  short  line 
and  6  feet  6  inches  wide  from  each  side  wall. 

The  game  is  played  with  no  other  implements  but  bats 
and  balls.  The  striking  portion  of  the  former  is  oval- 
shaped  and  strung  tightly  across  with  catgut.  The  handle 
is  of  pliant  ash  covered  with  leather  in  order  to  give  the 
hand  a  tight  grip.  The  balls  are  about  1£  inches  in  diameter, 
and  very  hard  in  order  to  rebound  evenly  and  quickly. 

In  a  four-handed  game  we  will  suppose  A  and  B  to  be  playing 
against  C  and  D  and  that  the  former  couple  have  won  the  choice 
of  first  innings.  A  accordingly  commences  serving  from  the  right 
service  space  into  the  left  court,  that  being  the  most  difficult  one  to 
return  the  ball  from.  B  stands  behind  A  to  return  any  balls  for 
his  side  in  the  back  portion  of  the  court.  C  stands  where  he  likes 
ready  to  take  the  ball  about  to  be  served  by  A,  whilst  C's  partner, 
D,  places  himself  between  A  and  B  to  take  the  fore  court  play  for 
his  side.  For  A's  service  to  be  good  his  ball  must  first  strike  the 
front  wall  above  the  cut  line,  and  secondly  rebound  from  the  floor 
of  the  left-hand  court,  though  whether  it  strike  the  side  or  back 
walls  or  not  after  rebounding  from  the  front  wall  is  immaterial. 
If  these  rules  are  complied  with,  C  is  bound  to  return  the  ball,  at  its 
first  bound  off  the  floor,  on  to  the  front  wall  above  the  sounding- 
board.  If  he  does  not  succeed  A  and  B  score  one  ace  in  their  favour. 
If  C  achieves  his  purpose  the  game  is  continued  by  one  of  either  side 
returning  the  ball  alternately,  till  a  player  either  strikes  the  sound- 
ing board,  skies  it  into  the  roof  or  gallery,  or  strikes  it  later  than 
the  first  bound  off  the  floor.  If  A  or  B  makes  the  first  failure  A  is 
out  If  it  is  C  or  D,  the  in-side  scores  an  ace,  and  A  continues 
serving  alternately  from  each  service  space.  The  out-player  may 
take  a  faulty  service  at  his  own  option.  If  he  does,  the  ace  is 
played  out  in  the  usual  way.  When  A  is  put  out  C  goes  in,  then 
D,  and  lastly  A's  partner  B,  and  so  on  in  the  same  rotation.  B 
is  not  allowed  to  follow  A's  first  hand,  as  the  latter  has  the  advan- 
tage of  possibly  scoring  the  first  ace.  The  player  who  gains  the 
last  ace  of  a  game  continues  serving  for  the  next.  The  mode  of 
procedure  in  a  single-handed  match  is  precisely  the  same,  each 
player  going  in  alternately,  but  having  no  partner  to  aid  him.  It 
often  happens  that  both  sides  go  in  and  out  several  times  running 
without  scoring.  The  most  difficult  kind  of  services  to  take  are 
the  sharp  "cut,"  which  strikes  the  front  wall  just  above  the  cut 
line  and  rebounds  with  great  velocity,  and  the  "nick"  into  the 
back  corner  of  the  court  served  into.  Other  strokes  are  the  "  drop," 
which  places  the  ball  only  just  above  the  wooden  board,  making  it 
fall  almost  dead  ;  the  "  volley,"  in  which  the  ball  is  struck  in  the 
full  before  touching  the  floor ;  and  lastly,  the  "cut,"  by  which  the 
ball  acquires  a  twisting  or  rotatory  spin  as  well  as  a  forward  motion 
caused  by  a  descending  diagonal  stroke  with  the  bat.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  rules  of  rackets  as  drawn  up  and  used  at  Prince's  Club, 
London,  the  leading  racket  club  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

1.  The  game  to  be  15  up.  At  13  all,  the  out-players  may  set  it  to  5,  and  at 
14  all,  to  3,  provided  this  be  done  before  another  ball  is  struck. 


2.  The  going  in  first,  whether  odds  be  given  or  not,  to  be  decided  by  lot 
but  one  hand  only  then  is  to  be  taken. 

3.  The  ball  to  be  served  alternately  from  right  and  left,  beginning  whichever 
side  the  server  pleases. 

4.  In  serving,  the  server  must  have  one  foot  in  the  space  marked  off  for  that, 
purpose.    The  out-player  to  whom  he  serves  may  stand  where  he  pleases  but 
his  partner  and  the  server's  partner  must  both  stand  behind  the  server  till 
the  ball  is  served. 

5.  The  ball  must  be  served  above,  and  not  touching  the  line  on  the  front 
wall,  and  it  must  strike  the  floor,  before  it  bounds,  within  and  not  touchine 
the  lines  enclosing  the  court  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  in  which  the  server 
stands. 

6.  A  ball  served  below  the  line,  or  to  the  wrong  side,  is  a  fault,  but  it  may 
be  taken,  and  then  the  ace  must  be  played  out,  and  counts. 

7.  In  serving,  if  the  ball  strikes  anywhere  before  it  reaches  the  front  wall,  it 
is  a  hand  out. 

8.  In  serving,  if  a  ball  touches  the  server  or  his  partner  before  it  has  bounded 
twice  it  is  a  hand  out,  whether  it  was  properly  served  or  not. 

9.  It  is  a  faults 

a.  If  the  server  is  not  in  his  proper  place. 

b.  If  the  ball  is  not  served  over  the  line. 

c.  If  it  does  not  fall  in  the  proper  court. 

d.  If  it  touches  the  roof. 

e.  If  it  touches  the  gallery-netting,  posts,  or  cushions. 

The  out-player  may  take  a  fault  if  he  pleases,  but  if  he  fails  in  putting  the 
ball  up  it  counts  against  him. 

10.  Two  consecutive  faults  put  a  hand  out. 

11.  An  out-player  may  not  take  a  ball  served  to  his  partner. 

12.  The  out-players  may  change  their  courts  once  only  in  each  game. 

13.  If  a  player  designedly  stops  a  ball  before  the  second  bound  it  counts 
against  him. 

14.  If  a  ball  hits  the  striker's  adversary  above  or  on  the  knee,  it  is  a  let ;  if 
below  the  knee,  or  if  it  hits  the  striker's  partner  or  himself,  it  counts  against 
the  striker. 

15.  Till  a  ball  has  been  touched,  or  has  bounded  twice,  the  player  or  his 
partner  may  strike  it  as  often  as  they  please. 

16.  Every  player  should  get  out  of  the  way  as  much  as  possible.    If  he  cannot, 
the  marker  is  to  decide  whether  it  is  a  let  or  not. 

17.  After  the  service,  a  ball  going  out  of  the  court  or  hitting  the  roof  is  ,171 
ace  ;  a  ball  hitting  the  gallery-netting,  posts,  or  cushions,  in  returning  from  tin' 
front  wall,  is  a  let ;  but  if  it  hits  the  roof  before  reaching  the  front  wall  it 
counts  against  the  striker. 

18.  The  marker's  decision  is  final.     If  he  has  any  doubt,  he  should  ask 
advice ;  and,  if  he  cannot  decide  positively,  the  ace  is  to  be  played  over 
again.  (H.  F.  W.) 

KADAUTZ,  a  town  in  the  Austrian  duchy  of  Bukowina, 
is  situated  on  the  Suczava,  about  15  miles  from  the 
frontier  of  Moldavia.  It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
bishopric,  removed  to  Czernowitz  in  1786,  and  possesses  a 
cathedral  with  the  tombs  of  several  Moldavian  princes. 
It  contains  a  Government  stud,  and  manufactures  paper, 
glass,  machinery,  beer,  and  brandy.  In  1880  Radautz 
had  11,162  inhabitants. 

RADBERTUS,  head  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Corbie, 
near  Amiens,  from  844  to  851,  and  one  of  the  most  pro- 
minent theological  writers  of  his  age,  was  born  at  or  near 
Soissons  towards  the  close  of  the  8th  century,  and  became 
a  monk  of  Corbie  in  814,  when  he  assumed  the  cloister 
name  of  PASCHASIUS.  He  soon  gained  recognition  as  a 
learned  and  successful  teacher,  and  Adalhard,  St  Anskar 
the  apostle  of  Sweden,  Odo  bishop  of  Beauvais,  and 
Warinus  abbot  of  Corvey  in  Saxony  may  be  mentioned 
among  the  more  distinguished  of  his  pupils.  In  844  he 
was  chosen  abbot,  but  as  a  disciplinarian  he  was  more 
energetic  than  successful,  and  in  867  he  resigned  the  office. 
In  his  official  capacity  he  took  part  in  the  synod  of  Chiersy 
which  condemned  Gottschalk.  Of  the  closing  period  of 
his  life  nothing  is  known,  except  that  it  was  one  of  great 
literary  activity. 

His  works  include  an  Expositio  in  Matthaeum,  in  twelve  books, 
a  favourable  specimen  of  the  exegesis  of  that  period,  and  the  Liber  dc 
Corpore  et  Sanguine  Christi,  a  pious  and  popularly  written  treatise, 
designed  to  prove  that  the  elements  in  the  sacrament  are  completely 
changed.  The  latter  work,  originally  composed  in  831,  elicited  a 
reply  by  Ratramnus,  a  brother  monk  of  Corbie,  who  maintained 
that  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  present  in  the  Eucharist 
only  "  spiritual iter  et  secundum  potentiam."  The  DC  Partu 
Virginia  of  Radbertus  (845)  was  also  taken  exception  to  by 
Ratramnus  for  its  Docetic  teaching  as  to  the  manner  of  Christ's 
birth  "  utero  clauso. " 

RADCLIFFE,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  is  situated  on 
the  river  Irwell,  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  two  arches,  and  on 
the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway,  7  miles  north-west 
of  Manchester  and  2  south-west  of  Bury.  The  church 
of  St  Bartholomew  dates  from  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  ; 
some  of  the  Norman  portions  of  the  building  still  remain. 
The  to\ver  was  rebuilt  in  1665,  the  north  transept  added 
in  1846,  and  the  whole  building  restored  in  1870-73.  It 
possesses  some  good  windows  and  several  ancient  monu 


R  A  D  — R  A  D 


231 


ments.  Radcliffe  Tower,  dating  from  the  13th  century, 
and  formerly  an  extensive  manorial  residence,  is  now 
a  complete  ruin.  Cot  ton -weaving,  calico-printing,  and 
bleaching  are  the  principal  industries,  and  there  are 
extensive  collieries  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  town  is 
governed  by  a  local  board  of  health  established  in  1866. 
The  area  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  is  2453  acres,  with 
a  population  in  1871  of  11,446,  and  in  1881  of  16,267. 

Radcliffe  is  so  called  from  a  cliff  of  red  rock  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Irwell  opposite  the  town.  The  manor  was  held  by  Edward 
the  Confessor,  and  was  conferred  on  Roger  de  Poictou,  but  was 
forfeited  by  him  soon  after  the  Domesday  survey.  In  the  reign 
of  Stephen  it  was  granted  to  Ranulph  de  Gernons,  earl  of  Chester. 

RADCLIFFE,  ANN  WARD  (1764-1823),  novelist,  was 
born  in  London  on  9th  July  1764.  She  was  the  author  of 
three  novels  unsurpassed  of  their  kind  in  English  litera- 
ture, The  Romance,  of  the  Forest  (1791),  The  Mysteries  of 
Udolpho  (1794),  The  Italian  (1797).  The  interval  of  three 
years  between  the  successive  publications  is  noticeable; 
works  so  elaborate,  intricate,  and  closely  interwoven  could 
not  be  written  in  a  hurry.  The  second  of  the  three  novels 
is  the  one  commonly  associated  with  Mrs  Radcliffe's  name, 
but  the  preference  is  probably  due  to  the  title ;  each  is  an 
improvement  on  its  predecessor,  and  the  last  is  considerably 
the  best  on  the  whole  in  style  as  well  as  in  plot  and  char- 
acter. She  wrote  two  other  novels  before  any  of  these, 
the  Castles  of  Athlin  and  Dunbayne  (1789)  and  the  Sicilian 
Romance  (1790),  but  they  attracted  no  special  attention 
and  deserve  none,  although  in  them  she  works  with  the 
same  romantic  materials — dreadful  castles,  wild  adventures, 
terrible  characters.  One  other  was  written  after  the  famous 
three,  but  not  published  till  1826,  three  years  after  her 
death — Gaston  de  Blondeville,  interesting  as  an  elaborate 
study  of  costume  and  scenery,  and  valuable  as  a  monument 
of  her  accurate  archaeological  learning,  but  comparatively 
tedious  as  a  story,  though  not  without  passages  in  her  best 
style.  The  circumstances  that  turned  Mrs  Radcliffe  to 
literature  are  not  recorded  in  the  meagre  memoir  published 
under  her  husband's  direction.  Her  maiden  name  was 
Ward,  and  her  parents,  who  are  described  as  "  persons  of 
great  respectability,  though  engaged  in  trade,"  in  London, 
had  literary  relations.  Her  husband  was  an  Oxford  gradu- 
ate and  proprietor  and  editor  of  the  English  Chronicle. 
After  The  Italian  she  gave  up  writing  for  publication,  and 
was  reported  to  have  been  driven  mad  by  the  horrors  of 
her  own  creations.  This  was  purely  mythical.  It  appears 
that  she  never  saw  the  Italian  scenery  which  she  depicts 
with  such  minuteness,  and  never  left  England  but  once,  in 
the  summer  of  1794,  after  the  completion  of  her  Udolpho. 
A  record  of  the  tour  was  published  in  the  following  year, 
along  with  descriptions  of  a  visit  to  the  English  Lakes, 
the  beauties  of  which  she  was  one  of  the  first  to  celebrate. 
Of  scenery,  as  might  be  judged  from  her  novels,  where  the 
descriptions  are  often  felt  as  a  tedious  impediment,  Mrs 
Radcliffe  was  an  enthusiastic  amateur,  and  made  driving 
tours  with  her  husband  every  other  summer  through  the 
English  counties.  She  died  in  February  1823. 

As  a  novelist  Mrs  Radcliffe  deserves  a  much  higher  place  than 
is  accorded  to  her  in  general  estimation.  Critics  familiar  with  her 
works,  from  Sir  Walter  Scott  downwards,  have  shown  themselves 
fully  alive  to  the  difference ;  but  the  general  public  confound  her 
with  puerile  and  extravagant  imitators,  who  have  vulgarized  her 
favourite  "properties"  of  rambling  and  ruinous  old  castles,  dark, 
desperate,  and  cadaverous  villains,  secret  passages,  vaults,  trapdoors, 
evidences  of  deeds  of  monstrous  crime,  sights  and  sounds  of  mys- 
terious horror.  She  deserves  at  least  the  credit  of  originality,  but 
apart  from  this  there  are  three  respects  in  which  none  of  her  numer- 
ous imitators  approach  her, — ingenuity  of  plot,  fertility  of  incident, 
and  skill  in  devising  apparently  supernatural  occurrences  capable 
of  explanation  by  human  agency  and  natural  coincidence.  Except 
in  her  last  and  posthumously  published  work  she  never  introduces 
the  really  supernatural,  and,  whether  or  not  we  agree  with  Sir 
w  alter  Scott  that  this  limitation  was  a  mistake  in  art,  it  must  at 
least  be  acknowledged  to  impose  a  heavier  burden  on  the  author's 


ingenuity.  Her  imitators  found  it  easier  to  follow  Horace  "Walpole 
in  this  point.  Some  of  the  tragic  situations  in  The  Italian  are 
worked  out  with  a  vivid  power  of  imagination  which  it  would  be 
hard  to  parallel  in  English  literature  outside  the  range  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan drama,  with  the  minor  celebrities  of  which  Mrs  Radcliffe 
may  fairly  challenge  comparison. 

RADETZKY,    JOHANN   J.  W.  A.  F.  C.,    COUNT  OF 
RADETZ  (1766-1858),  field-marshal  of  Austria,  was  born 
at  Trzebnitz  in  Bohemia  in  1766,  to  the  nobility  of  which 
province  his  family  belonged.     He  entered  a  cavalry  regi- 
ment in  1784  and  served  under  Joseph  II.  and  Laudon 
against  the  Turks  in  1788  and  1789.    In  1793  his  regiment 
was  sent  to  the  lower  Rhine,  and  from  this  time  onwards 
Radetzky  was  engaged  in  the  wars  which  were  continued 
(with  intermission)  between  Austria  and  France  for  the 
next  twenty  years.     In  1796  he  was  adjutant  to  General 
Beaulieu,  over  whom  Bonaparte  won  his  first  victories  in 
Italy.     In  1799,  when  the  Austrians  with  Suwaroffs  help 
reconquered  Northern  Italy,  he  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battles  of  Novi  and  the  Trebbia,  displaying,  accord- 
ing to  the  despatches  of  General  Melas,  great  presence 
of  mind  in  the  midst  of  extreme  danger.    After  the  defeat 
of  Marengo  he  was  removed  from  Italy  to  Germany,  and 
there  took  part  in  the  still  more  disastrous  engagement 
of  Hohenlinden.     In  1805  Radetzky,  now  major-general, 
was  back  in  Italy,  serving  under  the  archduke  Charles 
in  the  successful  campaign  of  Caldiero,  the  fruits  of  which 
were  lost  by  Mack's  capitulation  at  Ulm  and  the  fall  of 
Vienna.     In  1809  he  fought  at  Wagram.     In  1813,  when 
all  the  great  powers  of  Europe  combined  against  Napoleon, 
Radetzky  was  chief  of  the  staff  under  Schwarzenberg,  the 
Austrian  commander-in-chief  of  the  allied  forces,  and  he 
now  gained  a  reputation  outside  his  own  country.     The 
plan  of  the  battle  of  Leipsic  is  said  to  have  been  in  great 
part  Radetzky's  work,  and  in  this  engagement  he  was 
wounded.     He  entered  Paris  with  the  allied  sovereigns 
in  March  1814,  and  returned  with  them  to  the  congress 
of  Vienna,  where  he  appears  to  have  acted  as  an  inter- 
mediary  between   Metternich    and   the   czar  Alexander, 
when  these  great  personages  were  not  on  speaking  terms. 
During  the  succeeding  years  of  peace  he  disappeared  from 
the  public  view  and  narrowly  escaped  being  pensioned 
off  in  1829.     The  insurrection  of  the  Papal  Legations  in 
1831   brought  him,  however,  into  active  service  again; 
and  on  the  retirement  of  General  Frimont  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  all  the  Austrian  forces  in  Italy,  receiving 
in  1836  the  dignity  of  field-marshal.     Radetzky  was  now 
seventy  years  old,  but  twelve  more  years  were  to  pass 
before  the   really  historical   part   of  his  career  opened. 
When  he  was  eighty-two  the  revolution  of  1848  broke  out. 
Milan  rose  in  insurrection  against  its  Austrian  rulers,  and 
after  a  struggle  of  five  days  Radetzky  was  forced  to  eva- 
cuate the  city.     Unable  to  retain  any  hold  on  Lombardy, 
he  concentrated  his  troops  at  Verona,  the  fortifications  of 
which  were  to  a  great  extent  his  own  creation.     Charles 
Albert,  king  of  Sardinia,  now  declared  war  upon  Austria, 
occupied  Milan,  and  laid  siege  to  Peschiera.     Radetzky, 
after  the  arrival  of  reinforcements,  moved  southwards  to 
Mantua,  and  attempted  from  that  point  to  turn  the  Sar- 
dinian flank ;  he  was,  however,  defeated  on  the  Mincio, 
and  Peschiera  fell  into  the  enemy's  hands.     Radetzky, 
nevertheless,  was  secure  in  the  possession  of  Verona  and 
Mantua;  and,  after  being  still  further  reinforced,  he  re- 
sumed the  offensive  in  July,  defeated  the  Sardinians  at  Cus- 
tozza  and  in  several  other  encounters,  and  advanced  victori- 
ously upon  Milan,  where,  on  6th  August,  an  armistice  was 
concluded,  the  Sardinian  army  retiring  behind  the  Ticino. 
During  the   succeeding  months,  while   Vienna  and   the 
central  provinces  of  the  Austrian  empire  appeared  likely  to 
fall  into  anarchy,  Radetzky's  army  remained  firm  in  its 
loyalty  to  the  old  order  of  things,  and  declined  to  enter 


212 


R  A  D  — R  A  D 


into  relations  with  the  democratic  leaders.  It  was  in  fact 
at  this  time  the  mainstay  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  while 
everything  around  the  central  government  tottered ;  and, 
when  the  restoration  of  authority  began,  and  the  young 
emperor  Francis  Joseph  ascended  the  throne  that  had  been 
vacated  by  his  imbecile  predecessor,  Radetzky  gave  to 
the  new  monarch  the  prestige  of  a  crushing  victory  over 
his  Italian  enemies.  The  armistice  was  denounced  by 
Charles  Albert  on  the  12th  of  March  1849.  On  the  20th 
Radetzky  crossed  the  Ticino  at  Pa  via,  and  on  the  23d  he 
annihilated  the  Italian  army  at  Novara.  Peace  followed 
this  brief  and  decisive  campaign,  and  for  the  next  eight 
years  Radetzky  governed  upper  Italy.  He  retired  from 
service  in  1857,  and  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-two  in  the 
following  year.  Radetzky  was  idolized  by  the  Austrian 
army,  but  his  reputation  as  a  general  has  not  survived  him. 

RADHANPUR,  a  petty  state  of  India,  within  the  group 
of  states  under  the  supervision  of  the  political  superintend- 
ent of  Palanpur ;  it  is  situated  in  the  north-western  corner 
of  Gujarat,  close  to  the  Runn  of  Cutch,  Bombay  presidency, 
and  lies  between  23°  26'  and  23°  58'  N.  lat.  and  between 
71°  28'  and  72°  3'  E.  long.  The  country  is  an  open  plain 
without  hills  and  with  few  trees,  square  in  shape,  and  about 
35  miles  across.  Including  the  pergunnahs  of  Munjpur  and 
Sami,  it  contains  an  area  of  1150  square  miles  with  a  popu- 
lation (1881)  of  98,129  (males  50,903,  females  47,226), 
the  majority  being  Hindus.  Though  subject  to  very  great 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  the  climate  is  healthy.  The 
estimated  yearly  revenue  of  the  state  is  from  £50,000  to 
£60,000.  Its  chief  products  are  cotton,  wheat,  and  all  the 
common  varieties  of  grain ;  the  only  manufacture  of  any 
importance  is  the  preparation  of  a  fine  description  of  salt- 
petre. Radhanpur  came  under  British  protection  in  1819, 
when  the  nawab  applied  for  aid  to  check  the  raids  of  mar- 
auders. No  tribute  is  exacted  and  its  domestic  relations 
are  left  entirely  free. 

RADHANPUR,  chief  town  of  the  state  and  the  seat  of  the 
nawab,  had  a  population  of  14,722  in  1881.  The  nearest 
railway  station  is  at  Kharagoda,  40  miles  distant. 

RADIATA.  This  term  was  introduced  by  Cuvier  in 
1812  to  denote  the  lowest  of  his  four  great  animal  groups 
or  "  embranchements."  He  defined  them  as  possessing 
radial  instead  of  bilateral  symmetry,  and  as  apparently 
destitute  of  nervous  system  and  sense  organs,  as  having  the 
circulatory  system  rudimentary  or  absent,  and  the  respira- 
tory organs  on  or  coextensive  with  the  surface  of  the 
body;  he  included  under  this  title  and  definition  five 
classes, — Echinodermata,  Acalepha,  Entozoa,  Polypi,  and 
Infusoria.  Lamarck  (Hist.  nat.  d.  Anim.  s.  Vertebres) 
also  used  the  term,  as  when  he  spoke  of  the  Medusae  as 
radiata  medusaria  et  anomala ;  but  he  preferred  the 
term  Radiaria,  under  which  he  included  Echinodermata 
and  Medusae.  Cuvier's  term  in  its  wide  extension,  how- 
ever, passed  into  general  use ;  but,  as  the  anatomy  of  the 
different  forms  became  more  fully  known,  the  difficulty  of 
including  them  under  the  common  designation  made  itself 
increasingly  obvious.  Milne -Ed wards  removed  the  Poly- 
zoa;  the  group  was  soon  further  thinned  by  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  Protozoa  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Entozoa 
on  the  other;  while  in  1848  Leuckart  and  Frey  clearly 
distinguished  the  Ccelenterata  from  the  Echinodermata  as 
a  separate  sub -kingdom,  thus  condemning  the  usage  by 
which  the  term  still  continued  to  be  applied  to  these  two 
groups  at  least.  In  1855,  however,  Owen  included  under 
Lamarck's  term  Radiaria  the  Echinodermata,  Anthozoa, 
Acalepha,  and  Hydrozoa,  while  Agassiz  also  clung  to  the 
term  Radiata  as  including  Echinodermata,  Acalepha,  and 
Polypi,  regarding  their  separation  into  Coelenterata  and 
Echinodermata  as  "an  exaggeration  of  their  anatomical 
differences"  (Essay  on  Classification,  London,  1859). 


These  attempts,  however,  to  perpetuate  the  usage  were 
finally  discredited  by  Huxley's  important  Lectures  on  Com- 
parative Anatomy  (1864),  in  which  the  term  was  finally 
abolished,  and  the  "radiate  mob  "  finally  distributed  amonLr 
the  Echinodermata,  Polyzoa,  Venues  (Platyhelminthes), 
Coelenterata,  and  Protozoa.  On  radiate  symmetry,  see 
MORPHOLOGY.  Compare  also  CUVIER,  ANIMAL  KINGDOM, 
ECHINODERMATA,  CORALS,  &c. 

RADIATION  AND  CONVECTION.  1.  When  a  red- 
hot  cannon  ball  is  taken  out  of  a  furnace  and  suspended  in 
the  air  it  is  observed  to  cool,  i.e.,  to  part  with  heat,  and  it 
continues  to  do  so  at  a  gradually  diminishing  rate  till  it 
finally  reaches  the  temperature  of  the  room.  But  the  pro- 
cess by  which  this  effect  is  produced  is  a  very  complex 
one.  If  the  hand  be  held  at  a  distance  of  a  few  inches 
from  the  hot  ball  on  either  side  of  it  or  below  it,  the  feeling 
of  warmth  experienced  is  considerable;  but  it  becomes 
intolerable  when  the  hand  is  held  at  the  same  distance 
above  the  ball.  Even  this  rude  form  of  experiment  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  two  processes  of  cooling  are  simul- 
taneously at  work, — one  which  apparently  leads  to  the  loss 
of  heat  in  all  directions  indifferently,  another  which  leads 
to  a  special  loss  in  a  vertical  direction  upwards.  If  the  ex- 
periment is  made  in  a  dark  room,  into  which  a  ray  of  sun- 
light is  admitted  so  as  to  throw  a  shadow  of  the  ball  on  a 
screen,  we  see  that  the  column  of  air  above  the  ball  also 
casts  a  distinct  shadow.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  column  of  air  very 
irregularly  heated  by  contact  with  the  ball,  and  rising,  in 
obedience  to  hydrostatic  laws,  in  the  colder  and  denser  air 
around  it.  This  conveyance  of  heat  by  the  motion  of 
the  heated  body  itself  is  called  convection ;  the  process  by 
which  heat  is  lost  indifferently  in  all  directions  is  called 
radiation.  These  two  processes  are  entirely  different  in 
their  nature,  laws,  and  mechanism ;  but  we  have  to  treat 
of  both  in  the  present  article. 

2.  To  illustrate  how  the  third  method  by  which  heat  can 
be  transferred,  viz.,  conduction  (see  HEAT,  vol.  xi.  p.  577), 
is  involved  in  this  process,  let  the  cannon  ball  (which  for 
this  purpose  should  be  a  large  one)  be  again  heated  and  at 
once  immersed  in  water  until  it  just  ceases  to  be  luminous 
in  the  dark,  and  then  be  immediately  hung  up  in  the  air. 
After  a  short  period  it  again  becomes  red-hot  all  over,  and 
the  phenomenon  then  proceeds  precisely  as  before,  except 
that  the  surface  of  the  ball  does  not  become  so  hot  as  it 
was  before  being  plunged  in  the  water.      This  form  of 
experiment,  which  requires  that  the  interior  shall  be  very 
considerably  cooled  before  the  surface  ceases  to  be  self- 
luminous,  does  not  succeed  nearly  so  well  with  a  copper 
ball  as  with  an  iron  one,  on  account  of  the  comparatively 
high  conductivity  of  copper.    In  fact,  even  when  its  surface 
is  covered  with  lamp-black,  to  make  the  loss  by  radia- 
tion as  great  as  possible,  the  difference  of  temperature 
between  the  centre  and  the  surface  of  a  very  hot  copper 
ball — which  is  only  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter — is  in- 
considerable. 

3.  In  conduction  there  is  passage  of  heat  from  hotter  to 
colder  parts  of  the  same  body;  in  convection  an  irregularly 
heated  fluid  becomes  hydrostatically  unstable,  and  each 
part  carries  its  heat  with  it  to  its  new  position.     In  both 
processes  heat  is  conveyed  from  place  to  place.     But  it 
quite  otherwise  with  radiation.     That  a  body  cools  in  co 
sequence  of  radiation  is  certain  ;  that  other  bodies  whi 
absorb  the  radiation   are  thereby  heated  is  also  certain  ; 
but  it  does  not  at  all  follow  that  what  passes  in  the  radiant 
form  is  heat.     To  return  for  a  moment  to  the  red-hot 
cannon  ball.     If,  while  the  hand  is  held  below  it,  a  thick 
but  dry  plate  of  rock-salt  is  interposed  between  the  to 
and  the  hand  there  is  no  perceptible  diminution  of  warmth, 
and  the  temperature  of  the  salt  is  not  perceptibly  raised 
by  the  radiation  which  passes  through  it.     When  a  piece 


RADIATION 


213 


of  clear  ice  is  cut  into  the  form  of  a  large  burning-glass  it 
can  be  employed  to  inflame  tinder  by  concentrating  the 
sun's  rays,  and  the  lens  does  the  work  nearly  as  rapidly 
as  if  it  had  been  made  of  glass.  It  is  certainly  not  what 
we  ordinarily  call  "  heat "  which  can  be  transmitted  under 
conditions  like  these.  Radiation  is  undoubtedly  a  trans- 
ference of  energy,  which  was  in  the  form  commonly  called 
heat  in  the  radiating  body,  and  becomes  heat  in  a  body 
which  absorbs  it ;  but  it  is  transformed  as  it  leaves  the  first 
body,  and  retransformed  when  it  is  absorbed  by  the  second. 
Until  the  comparatively  recent  full  recognition  of  the  con- 
servation and  transformation  of  energy  it  was  almost  im- 
possible to  form  precise  ideas  on  matters  like  this ;  and, 
consequently,  we  find  in  the  writings  even  of  men  like 
Prevost  and  Sir  J.  Leslie  notions  of  the  wildest  character 
as  to  the  mechanism  of  radiation.  Leslie,  strangely,  re- 
garded it  as  a  species  of  "  pulsation  "  in  the  air,  in  some 
respects  analogous  to  sound,  and  propagated  with  the  same 
speed  as  sound.  Prevost,  on  the  other  hand,  says,  "  Le 
calorique  est  un  fluide  discret;  chaque  element  de  calo- 
rique  suit  constamment  la  meme  ligne  droite,  tant  qu'aucun 
obstacle  ne  1'arrete.  Dans  un  espace  chaud,  chaque  point 
est  traverse  sans  cesse  en  tout  sens  nar  des  filets  de 
calorique." 

4.  The  more  intensely  the  cannon  ball  is  heated  the 
more  luminous  does  it  become,  and  also  the  more  nearly 
white  is  the  light  which  it  gives  out.     So  well  is  this 
known  that  in  almost  all  forms  of  civilized  speech  there 
are  terms  corresponding  to  our  "red-hot,"  "white-hot,"  &c. 
As  another  instance,  suppose  a  powerful  electric  current 
is  made  to  pass  through  a  stout  iron  wire.     The  wire 
becomes  gradually  hotter,  up  to  a  certain  point,  at  which 
the  loss  by  radiation  and  convection  just  balances  the 
gain  of  heat  by  electric  resistance.     And  as  it  becomes 
hotter  the   amount  of   its  radiation   increases,  till  at  a 
definite  temperature  it  becomes  just  visible  in  the  dark 
by  red  rays  of  low  refrangibility.     As  it  becomes  still 
hotter  the  whole  radiation  increases ;  the  red  rays  formerly 
given  off  become  more  luminous,  and  are  joined  by  others 
of  higher  refrangibility.     This  process  goes  on,  the  whole 
amount  of  radiation  still  increasing,  each  kind  of  visible 
light  becoming  more  intense,  and  new  rays  of  light  of 
higher  refrangibility  coming  in,  until  the  whole  becomes 
white,  i.e.,  gives  off  all  the  more  efficient  kinds  of  visible 
light  in  much  the  same  relative  proportion  as  that  in 
which  they  exist  in  sunlight.     When  the  circuit  is  broken, 
exactly  the  same  phenomena  occur  in  the  reverse  order, 
the  various   kinds  of   light   disappearing   later  as  their 
refrangibility  is  less.     But  the  radiation  continues,  grow- 
ing weaker  every  instant,  even  after  the  whole  is  dark. 
This  simple  observation  irresistibly  points   to   the  con- 
clusion that  the  so-called  "  radiant  heat "  is  precisely  the 
same  phenomenon  as  "  light,"  only  the  invisible  rays  are 
still  less  refrangible  than  the  lowest  red,  and  that  our 
sense  of  sight  is  confined  to  rays  of  a  certain  definite 
range  of  refrangibility,  while  the  sense  of  touch  comes 
in  where  sight  fails  us.     Sir  W.   Herschel  in   1798,  by 
placing  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  in  the  solar  spectrum 
formed   by  a  flint-glass  prism,  found  that    the  highest 
temperature  was  in  the  dark  region  outside  the  lowest 
visible  red, — a  result  amply  verified  at  the  time  by  others, 
though  warmly  contested  by  Leslie. 

5.  This  striking  conclusion  is  not  without  close  ana- 
logies in  connexion  with  the  other  senses,  especially  that 
of  hearing.     Thus  it  has  long  been  known  that  the  "  range 
of  hearing"  differs  considerably  in  different  individuals, 
some,  for  instance,  being  painfully  affected  by  the  chirp 
of  a  cricket,  which  is  inaudible  to  others  whose  general 
hearing  is  quite  as  good.     Extremely  low  notes,  on  the 
other  hand,  of  whose  existence  we  have  ample  dynamical 


evidence,  are  not  heard  by  any  one ;  when  perceived  at 
all  they  are /eft. 

6.  We  may  now  rapidly  run  over  the  principal  facts 
characteristic  of  the  behaviour  of  visible  rays  (see  LIGHT), 
and  point  out  how  far  each  has  been  found  to  characterize 
that  of  so-called  "  radiant  heat "  under  similar  conditions. 

(a)  Rectilinear  propagation  :  an  opaque  screen  which  is 
placed  so  as  to  intercept  the  sun's  light  intercepts  its 
heat  also,  whether  it  be  close  to  the  observer,  at  a  few 
miles  from  him  (as  a  cloud  or  a  mountain),  or  240,000 
miles  off  (as  the  moon  in  a  total  eclipse).  (6)  Speed  of 
propagation :  this  must  be  of  the  same  order  of  magni- 
tude, at  least,  for  both  phenomena,  i.e.,  186,000  miles 
or  so  per  second ;  for  the  sun's  heat  ceases  to  be  percep- 
tible the  moment  an  eclipse  becomes  total,  and  is  perceived 
again  the  instant  the  edge  of  the  sun's  disk  is  visible. 
(c)  Reflexion :  the  law  must  be  exactly  the  same,  for 
the  heat-producing  rays  from  a  star  are  concentrated  by 
Lord  Rosse's  great  reflector  along  with  its  light,  (d) 
Refraction :  when  a  lens  is  not  achromatic  its  principal 
focus  for  red  rays  is  farther  off  than  that  for  blue  rays ; 
that  for  dark  heat  is  still  farther  off.  Herschel's  deter- 
mination of  the  warmest  region  of  the  spectrum  (§  4  above) 
is  another  case  in  point,  (e)  Oblique  radiation  :  an  illumi- 
nated or  a  self-luminous  surface  appears  equally  bright 
however  it  is  inclined  to  the  line  of  sight.  The  radiation 
of  heat  from  a  hot  blackened  surface  (through  an  aperture 
which  it  appears  to  fill)  is  sensibly  the  same  however  it  be 
inclined  (Leslie,  Fourier,  Mellorii).  (/)  Intensity :  when 
there  is  no  absorption  by  the  way  the  intensity  of  the  light 
received  from  a  luminous  point-source  is  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance.  The  same  is  true  of  dark  heat. 
But  this  is  not  a  new  analogy ;  it  is  a  mere  consequence 
of  (a)  rectilinear  propagation,  (g)  Selective  absorption  : 
light  which  has  been  sifted  by  passing  through  one  plate 
of  blue  glass  passes  in  much  greater  percentage  through 
a  second  plate  of  the  same  glass,  and  in  still  greater 
percentage  through  a  third.  The  same  is  true  of  radiant 
heat,  even  when  the  experiment  is  made  with  uncoloured 
glass ;  for  clear  glass  absorbs  certain  colours  of  dark  heat 
more  than  others  (De  Laroche,  Melloni).  (h)  Interference 
bands,  whether  produced  by  two  mirrors  or  by  gratings, 
characterize  dark  heat  as  well  as  light ;  only  they  indicate 
longer  waves  (Fizeau  and  Foucault).  (i)  Polarization 
and  double  refraction  :  with  special  apparatus,  such  as 
plates  of  mica  split  by  heat  into  numerous  parallel  films, 
the  polarization  of  dark  heat  is  easily  established.  When 
two  of  these  bundles  are  so  placed  as  to  intercept  the  heat, 
an  unsplit  film  of  mica  interposed  between  them  allows 
the  heat  to  pass,  or  arrests  it,  as  it  is  made  to  rotate  in  its 
own  plane  (Forbes),  (j)  By  proper  chemical  adjustments 
photographs  of  a  region  of  the  solar  spectrum  beyond 
the  visible  red  have  been  obtained  (Abney).  We  might 
mention  more,  but  those  given  above,  when  considered 
together,  are  conclusive.  In  fact  (b)  or  (i)  alone  would 
almost  settle  the  question. 

7.  But  there  is  a  superior  as  well  as  an  inferior  limit  of 
visible  rays.     Light  whose  period  of  vibration  is  too  small 
to  produce  any  impression  on  the  optic  nerve   can  be 
degraded  by  fluorescence  (see  LIGHT)   into  visible  rays, 
and  can  also  be  detected  by  its  energetic  action  on  various 
photographic  chemicals.     In  fact  photographic  portraits 
can  be  taken  in  a  room  which  appears  absolutely  dark  to 
the  keenest  eyesight.     By  one  or  other  of  these  processes 
the  solar  spectrum  with  its  dark  lines  and  the  electric  arc 
with  its  bright  lines  have  been  delineated  to  many  times 
the  length  of  their  visible  ranges.    The  electric  arc  especially 
gives  (in  either  of  these  ways)  a  spectrum  of  extraordinary 
length ;  for  we  can  examine  it,  as  we  can  not  examine 
sunlight,  before  it  has  suffered  any  sensible  absorption. 


214 


RADIATION 


8.  Thus  radiation  is  one  phenomenon,  and  (as  we  shall 
find)  the  spectrum  of  a  black  body  (a  conception  roughly 
realized  in  the  carbon  poles  of  an  electric  lamp)  is  continu- 
ous from  the  longest  possible  wave-length  to  the  shortest 
which  it  is  hot  enough  to  emit.     These  various  groups  of 
rays,  however,  are  perceived  by  us  in  very  different  ways, 
whether  by  direct  impressions  of  sense  or  by  the  different 
modes  in  which  they  effect  physical  changes  or  transforma- 
tions.    The  only  way  as  yet  known  to  us  of  treating  them 
all  alike  is  to  convert  their  energy  into  the  heat-form  and 
measure  it  as  such.      This  we  can  do  in  a  satisfactory 
manner  by  the  thermo-electric  pile  and  galvanometer. 

9.  Of  the  history  of  the  gradual  development  of  the 
theory  of  radiation  we  can  give  only  the  main  features. 
The  apparent  concentration  of  cold  by  a  concave  mirror, 
which  had  been  long  before  observed  by  Porta,  was  redis- 
covered by  Pictet,  and  led  to  the  extremely  important 
enunciation  of  the  Law  of  Exchanges  by  Prevost  in  1791. 
As  we  have  already  seen,  Prevost's  idea  of  the  nature  of 
radiation  was  a  corpuscular  one,  no  doubt  greatly  influenced 
in  this  direction  by  the  speculations  of  Lesage  (see  ATOM). 
But  the  value  of  his  theory  as  a  concise  statement  of 
facts  and  a  mode  of  co-ordinating  them  is  not  thereby 
materially  lessened.     We  give  his  own  statements  in  the 
following  close  paraphrase,  in  which   the  italics  are  re- 
tained,  from  sect.   ix.   of   his  Du  Calorique  Rayonnant 
(Geneva,  1809). 

"1.  Free  caloric  is  a  radiant  fluid.  And  because  caloric  becomes 
free  at  the  surfaces  of  bodies  every  point  of  the  surface  of  a  body  is 
a  centre,  towards  and  from  which  filaments  (filets)  of  caloric  move 
in  all  directions. 

"  2.  Heat  equilibrium  between  two  neighbouring  free  spaces 
consists  in  equality  of  exchange. 

"  3.  When  equilibrium  is  interfered  with  it  is  re-established  by 
inequalities  of  exchange.  And,  in  a  medium  of  constant  temper- 
ature, a  hotter  or  a  colder  body  reaches  this  temperature  according 
to  the  law  that  difference  of  temperature  diminishes  in  geometrical 
2)rogression  in  successive  equal  intervals  of  time. 

"  4.  If  into  a  locality  at  uniform  temperature  a  reflecting  or  refract- 
ing surface  is  introduced,  it  has  no  effect  in  the  way  of  changing 
the  temperature  at  any  point  in  that  locality. 

"5.  If  into  a  locality  otherwise  at  uniform  temperature  there  is 
introduced  a  warmer  or  a  colder  body,  and  next  a  reflecting  or  refract- 
ing surface,  the  points  on  which  the  rays  emanating  from  tlie  body  are 
thrown  by  these  surfaces  will  be  affected,  in  the  sense  of  being 
wanned  if  the  body  is  warmer,  and  cooled  if  it  is  colder. 

"  6.  A  reflecting  body,  heated  or  cooled  in  its  interior,  will  acquire 
the  surrounding  temperature  more  slowly  than  would  a  non-reflector. 

"7.  A  reflecting  body,  heated  or  cooled  in  its  interior,  will  less 
affect  (in  the  way  of  heating  or  cooling  it)  another  body  placed  at  a 
little  distance  than  would  a  non-reflecting  body  under  the  same 
circumstances. 

"  All  these  consequences  have  been  verified  by  experiment,  except 
that  which  regards  the  refraction  of  cold.  This  experiment  remains 
to  be  made,  and  I  confidently  predict  the  result,  at  least  if  the 
refraction  of  cold  can  be  accurately  observed.  This  result  is  indi- 
cated in  the  fourth  and  fifth  consequences  [above],  and  they  might 
thus  be  s\ibjected  to  a  new  test.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  point 
out  here  the  precautions  requisite  to  guard  against  illusory  results 
of  all  kinds  in  this  matter." 

10.  There  the  matter  rested,  so  far  as  theory  is  con- 
cerned, for  more  than  half  a  century.     Leslie  and,  after 
him,  many  others  added  fact  by  fact,  up  to  the  time  of  De 
la  Provostaye  and  Desains,  whose  experiments  pointed  to 
a  real  improvement  of  the  theory  in  the  form  of  specializa- 
tion.     But,  though  such  experiments   indicated,  on  the 
whole,  a  proportionality  between  the  radiating  and  absorb- 
ing powers  of  bodies  and  a  diminution  of  both  in  the  case 
of  highly  reflecting  surfaces,  the  anomalies  frequently  met 
with  (depending  on  the  then  unrecognized  colour-differences 
of  various  radiations)  prevented  any  grand  generalization. 
The  first  real  step  of  the  general  theory,  in  advance  of 
what  Prevost  had  achieved,  and  it  was  one  of  immense 
import,  was  made  by  Balfour  Stewart  in  1858.     Before  we 
take  it  up,  however,  we  may  briefly  consider  Provost's  state- 
ments, putting  aside  his  erroneous  views  as  to  the  nature 


of  heat ;  and  we  must  also  introduce  some  results  of  the 
splendid  investigations  of  Sadi  Carnot  (1824),  which  cast 
an  entirely  new  light  on  the  whole  subject  of  heat. 

11.  Prevost's  leading  idea  was  that  all  bodies,  whether 
cold  or  hot,  are  constantly  radiating  heat.     This  of  itself 
was  a  very  great  step.     It  is  distinctly  enunciated  in  the 
term  "  exchange  "  which  he  employs.     And  from  the  way 
in  which  he  introduces  it  it  is  obvious  that  he  means 
(though  he  does  not  expressly  say  so)  that  the  radiation 
from  a  body  depends  on  its  own  nature  and  temperature 
alone,  and  is  independent  altogether  of  the  nature  and 
temperature  of  any  adjacent  body.     This  also  was  a  step 
in  advance,  and  of  the  utmost  value.     It  will  be  seen  later 
that  Prevost  was  altogether  wrong  in  his  assumption  of 
the   geometrical    rate   of    adjustment    of    differences   of 
temperature, — a  statement  originally  made  by  Newton, 
but  true  only  approximately,  and  even  so  for  very  small 
temperature  differences  alone.     Newton  in  the  Queries  to 
the  third  book  of  his  Optics  distinctly  recognizes  the  pro- 
pagation of  heat  from  a  hot  body  to  a  cold  one  by  the 
vibrations  of  an  intervening  medium.     But  he  says  no- 
thing as  to  bodies  of  the  same  temperature. 

12.  To  Carnot  we  owe  the  proposition  that  the  thermal 
motivity  of  a  system  cannot  be  increased  by  internal  actions. 
A  system  in  which  all  the  parts  are  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture  has   no   thermal   motivity,   for   bodies   at   different 
temperatures  are  required  in  order  to  work  a  heat-engine, 
so  as  to  convert  part  of  their  heat  into  work.     Hence,  if 
the  contents  of  an  enclosure  which  is  impervious  to  heat 
are  at  any  instant  at  one  and  the  same  temperature,  no 
changes  of  temperature  can  take  place  among  them.     This 
is  certainly  true  so  far  as  our  modes  of  measurement  are 
concerned,  because  the  particles  of   matter   (those  of   a 
gas,  for  instance)  are  excessively  small  in  comparison  with 
the  dimensions  of  any  of  our  forms  of  apparatus  for  mea- 
suring temperatures.      Something  akin  to  this  statement 
has  often  been  assumed  as  a  direct  result  of  experiment : 
a  number  of  bodies  (of  any  kinds)  within  the  same  imper- 
vious enclosure^  which  contains  no  source  of  heat,  mill  ulti- 
mately acquire  the  same  temperature.     This  form  is  more 
general   than  that   above,  inasmuch  as  it  involves  con- 
siderations of  dissipation  of  energy.     Either  of  them,  were 
it  strictly  true,  would  suffice   for  our  present   purpose. 
But  neither  statement  can  be  considered  as  rigorously  true. 
We  may  employ  them,  however,  in  our  reasoning  as  true 
in  the  statistical  sense ;  but  we  must  not  be  surprised  if 
we  should  find  that  the  assumption  of  their  rigorous  truth 
may  in  some  special  cases  lead  us  to  theoretical  results 
which  are  inconsistent  with  experimental  facts, — i.e.,  if 
we  should  find  that  deviations  from  an  average,  which  are 
on  far  too  minute  a  scale  to  be  directly  detected  by  any  of 
our  most  delicate  instruments,  may  be  seized  upon  and 
converted   into  observable   phenomena   by  some  of   the 
almost  incomparably  more  delicate  systems  which  we  call 
individual  particles  of  matter. 

13.  The   next   great  advance  was    made   by   Balfour 
Stewart.1     The  grand  novelty  which  he  introduced,  and 
from  which  all  his  varied  results  follow  almost  intuitively, 
is  the  idea  of  the  absolute  uniformity  (qualitative  as  well  as 
quantitative)  of  the  radiation  at  all  points,  and  in  all  direc- 
tions, within  an  enclosure  impervious  to  heat,  when  thermal 
equilibrium  has  once  been  arrived  at.     (So  strongly  does 
he  insist  on  this  point  that  he  even  states  that,  whatever 
be  the  nature  of  the  bodies  in  the  enclosure,  the  radiation 
there  will,  when  equilibrium  is  established,  be  that  of  a 
black  body  at  the  same  temperature.    He  does  not  expressly 
say  that  the  proposition  will  still  be  true  even  if  the  bodies 
can  radiate,  and  therefore  absorb,  one  definite  wave-length 
only ;  but  this  is  a  legitimate  deduction  from  his  state- 

1  Trans.  R.  S.  £.,  1858  ;  see  also  Phil.  Mag.,  1863,  i.  p.  354. 


RADIATION 


215 


ments.  To  this  we  will  recur.)  His  desire  to  escape  the 
difficulties  of  surface-reflexion  led  him  to  consider  the  radia- 
tion inside  an  imperfectly  transparent  body  in  the  enclo- 
sure above  spoken  of.  He  thus  arrived  at  an  immediate 
proof  of  the  existence  of  internal  radiation,  which  recruits 
the  stream  of  radiant  heat  in  any  direction  step  by  step 
precisely  to  the  amount  by  which  it  has  been  weakened  by 
absorption.  Thus  the  radiation  and  absorption  rigorously 
compensate  one  another,  not  merely  in  quantity  but  in 
quality  also,  so  that  a  body  which  is  specially  absorptive 
of  one  particular  ray  is  in  the  same  proportion  specially 
radiative  of  the  same  ray,  its  temperature  being  the  same 
in  both  cases.  To  complete  the  statement,  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  show  how  one  ray  may  differ  from  another, 
viz.,  in  intensity,  wave-length,  and  polarization. 

14.  The  illustrations  which  Stewart  brought  forward  in 
support  of  his  theory  are  of  the  two  following  kinds.   (1)  He 
experimentally  verified  the  existence  of  internal  radiation, 
to  which  his  theory  had  led  him.     This  he  did  by  show- 
ing that  a  thick  plate  of  rock-salt  (chosen  on  account  of  its 
comparative  transparency  to  heat-radiations)  radiates  more 
than  a  thin  one  at  the  same  temperature, — surrounding 
bodies  being  in  this  case  of  course  at  a  lower  temperature, 
so  that  the  effect  should  not  be  masked  by  transmission. 
The  same  was  found  true  of  mica  and  of  glass.     (2)  He 
showed  that  each  of  these  bodies  is  more  opaque  to  radia- 
tions from  a  portion  of  its  own  substance  than  to  radiation 
in  general.     Then  comes  his  conclusion,  based,  it  will  be 
observed,  on  his  fundamental  assumption  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  equilibrium  radiation  in  an  enclosure.     It  is  merely  a 
detailed  explanation  that,  once  equilibrium  has  been  arrived 
at,  the  consequent  uniformity  of  radiation  throughout  the 
interior  of  a  body  requires  the  step-by-step  compensation 
already  mentioned.    And  thus  he  finally  arrives  at  the  state- 
ment that  at  any  temperature  a  body's  radiation  is  exactly 
the  same  both  as  to  quality  and  quantity  as  that  of  its 
absorption  from  the  radiation  of  a  black  body  at  the  same 
temperature.     In  symbolical  language  Stewart's  proposi- 
tion (extended  in  virtue  of  a  principle  always  assumed) 
amounts  to  this : — at  any  one  temperature  let  E  be  the 
radiation  of  a  black  body,  and  eR  (where  e  is  never  greater 
than  1)  that  of  any  other  substance,  both  for  the  same 
definite  wave-length;  then  the  substance  will,  while  at 
that  temperature,  absorb  the  fraction  e  of  radiation  of  that 
wave-length,  whatever  be  the  source  from  which  it  comes. 
The  last  clause  contains  the  plausible  assumption  already 
referred  to.     Stewart  proceeds  to  show,  in  a  very  original 
and  ingenious  way,  that  his  result  is  compatible  with  the 
known  facts  of  reflexion,  refraction,  &c.,  and  arrives  at 
the  conclusion  that  for   internal   radiation  parallel   to  a 
plane  the  amount  is  (in  isotropic  bodies)  proportional  to 
the  refractive  index.     Of  course,  when  the  restriction  of 
parallelism  to  a  plane  is  removed  the  internal  radiation  is 
found  to  be  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  refractive 
index.     This  obvious  completion  of  the  statement  was  first 
given  by  Stewart  himself  at  a  somewhat  later  date. 

15.  So  far  Stewart  had  restricted  his  work  to  "dark 
heat,"  as  it  was  then  called ;  and  he  says  that  he  did  so 
expressly  in  order  to  confine  himself  to  rays  "  which  were 
universally  acknowledged  to  produce  heat  by  their  absorp- 
tion."   But  he  soon  proceeded  to  apply  himself  to  luminous 
radiations.     And  here  he  brought  forward  the  extremely 
important  fact  that  "  coloured  glasses  invariably  lose  their 
colour  in  the  fire  "  when  exactly  at  the  temperature  of  the 
coals  behind  them,  i.e.,  they  compensate  exactly  for  their 
absorption   by  their  radiation.      But  a   red   glass  when 
colder  than  the  coals  behind  appears  red,  while  if  it  be 
hotter  than  they  are  it  appears  green.     He  also  showed 
that  a  piece  of  china  or  earthenware  with  a  dark  pattern 
on  a  light  ground  appears  to  have  a  light  pattern  on  a 


dark  ground  when  it  is  taken  out  of  the  fire  and  examined 
in  a  dark  room.  Hence  he  concluded  that  his  extension 
of  Prevost's  theory  was  true  for  luminous  rays  also. 

16.  In  this  part  of  the  subject  he  had  been  anticipated, 
for  Fraunhofer  had  long  ago  shown  that  the  flame  of  a 
candle  when  examined  by  a  prism  gives  bright  lines  (i.e., 
maxima  of  intensity  of  radiation)  in  the  position  of  the 
constituents  of  a  remarkable  double  dark  line  (i.e.,  minima 
of  radiation)  in  the  solar  spectrum,  which  he  called  D. 
Hallows  Miller  had  afterwards  more  rigorously  verified  the 
exact  coincidence  of  these  bright  and  dark  lines.      But 
Foucault 1  went  very  much  farther,  and  proved  that  the 
electric  arc,  which  shows  these  lines  bright  in  its  spectrum, 
not  only  intensifies  their  blackness  in  the  spectrum  of  sun- 
light transmitted  through  it,  but  produces  them  as  dark 
lines  in  the  otherwise  continuous  spectrum  of  the  light 
from  one  of  the  carbon  points,  when  that  light  is  made  by 
reflexion  to  pass  through  the  arc.      Stokes  about  1850 
pointed  out  the  true  nature  of  the  connexion  of  these 
phenomena,  and  illustrated  it  by  a  dynamical  analogy 
drawn  from  sound.     He  stated  his  conclusions  to  Sir  W. 
Thomson,2  who  (from  1852  at  least)  gave  them  regularly 
in  his  public  lectures,  always  pointing  out  that  one  con- 
stituent of  the  solar  atmosphere  is  certainly  sodium,  and 
that  others  are  to  be  discovered  by  the  coincidences  of 
solar  dark  lines  with  bright  lines  given  by  terrestrial  sub- 
stances rendered   incandescent   in   the   state  of   vapour. 
Stokes's  analogy  is  based  on  the  fact  of  synchronism  (long 
ago  discussed  by  Hooke  and  others),  viz.,  that  a  musical 
string  is  set  in  vibration  when  the  note  to  which  it  is  tuned 
is  sounded  in  its  neighbourhood.     Hence  we  have  only  to 
imagine  a  space  containing  a  great  number  of  such  strings, 
all  tuned  to  the  same  note.     Such  an  arrangement  would 
form,  as  it  were,  a  medium  which,  when  agitated,  would 
give  that  note,  but  which  would  be  set  in  vibration  by, 
and  therefore  diminish  the  intensity  of,  that  particular 
note  in  any  mixed  sound  which  passed  through  it. 

17.  Late  in  1859  appeared  Kirchhoff's  first  paper  on 
the  subject.3      He  supplied   one  important  omission  in 
Stewart's  development  of  the  theory  by  showing  why  it 
is  necessary  to  use  as  an  absorbing  body  one  colder  than 
the  source  in  order  to  produce  reversal  of  spectral  lines. 
This  we  will  presently  consider.     Kirchhoff's  proof  of  the 
equality  of  radiating  and  absorbing  powers  is  an  elaborate 
but  unnecessary  piece  of  mathematics,  called  for  in  con- 
sequence of  his  mode  of  attacking  the  question.    He  chose 
to  limit  his  reasoning  to  special  wave-lengths  by  introduc- 
ing the  complex  mechanism  of  the  colours  of  thin  plates 
(LIGHT,  vol.  xiv.  p.   608),  and   a  consequent  appeal  to 
Fourier's  theorem  (HARMONIC  ANALYSIS,  vol.  xi.  p.  481), 
instead  of  to  the  obviously  permissible  assumption  of  a  sub- 
stance imperfectly  transparent  for  one  special  wave-length, 
but  perfectly  transparent  for  all  others ;  and  he  did  not, 
as  Stewart  had  done,  carry  his  reasoning  into  the  interior 
of  the  body.    With  all  its  elaboration,  his  mode  of  attack- 
ing the  question  leads  us  no  farther  than  could  Stewart's. 
Both  are  ultimately  based  on  the  final  equilibrium  of  tem- 
perature in  an  enclosure  required  by  Carnot's  principle, 
and  both  are,  as  a  consequence,  equally  inapplicable  to 
exceptional  cases,  such  as  the  behaviour  of  fluorescent  or 
phosphorescent  substances.    In  fact  (see  THERMODYNAMICS) 
Carnot's  principle  is  established  only  on  a  statistical  basis 
of  averages,  and  is  not  necessarily  true  when  we  are  deal- 
ing with  portions  of  space,  which,  though  of  essentially 
finite  dimensions,  are  extremely  small  in  comparison  with 
the  sentient  part  of  even  the  tiniest  instrument  for  measur- 
ing temperature. 


1  L'lnstitut,  7th  February  1849  ;  see  Phil.  Mag.,  1860,  i.  p.  193. 

2  Brit.  Assoc.,  President's  address,  1871. 

3  Pogg.  Ann.,  or  Phil.  Mag.,  I860. 


216 


RADIATION 


18.  Kirchhoff's  addition  to  Stewart's  result  may  be  given 
as  follows.     Let  radiation  r,  of  the  same  particular  wave- 
length as  that  spoken  of  in  §  14,  fall  on  the  substance ;  er 
of  it  will  be  absorbed,  and  (1  -  e)r  transmitted.     This  will 
be  recruited  by  the  radiation  of  the  substance  itself,  so 
that  the  whole  amount  for  that  particular  wave-length 
becomes  (1  -  e)r  +  eft,  or  r  -  e(r  -  K).     Thus  the  radiation 
is  weakened  only  when  H<r,  a  condition  which  requires 
that  the  source  (even  if  it  be  a  black  body)  should  be  at 
a  higher  temperature  than  the  absorbing  substance  (§  4, 
above).     But  the  converse  is,  of  course,  not  necessarily 
true.     This  part  of  the  subject,  as  well  as  the  special  work 
of  Kirchhoff  and  of  Bunsen,  belongs  properly  to  spectrum 
analysis  (see  SPECTROSCOPY). 

19.  From  the  extension  of  Prevost's  theory,  obtained  in 
either  of  the  ways  just  explained,  we  see  at  once  how  the 
constancy  of  the  radiation  in  an  enclosure  is  maintained. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  and  perpendicular  to  the  surfaces 
of  a  black  body  it  is  wholly  due  to  radiation,  near  a 
transparent  body  wholly  to  transmission.     A  body  which 
reflects  must  to  the  same  extent  be  deficient  in  its  radia- 
tion and  transmission ;  thus  a  perfect  reflector  can  neither 
radiate  nor  transmit.     And  a  body  which  polarizes  by 
reflexion  must  supply  by  radiation  what  is  requisite  to 
render  the  whole  radiation  unpolarized.     A  body,  such  as 
a  plate  of  tourmaline,  which  polarizes  transmitted  light, 
must  radiate  light  polarized  in  the  same  plane  as  that 
which  it  absorbs.     Kirchhoff  and  Stewart  independently 
gave  this  beautiful  application. 

20.  Empirical  formulae  representing  more  or  less  closely 
the  law  of  cooling  of  bodies,  whether  by  radiation  alone  or 
by  simultaneous  radiation  and  convection,  have  at  least  an 
Mstoric  interest.     What  is  called  Newton's  Law  of  Cool- 
ing was  employed  by  Fourier  in  his  Theorie  Analytigue 
de  la  Chcdeur.     Here  the  rate  of  surface-loss  was  taken  as 
proportional  to  the  excess  of  temperature  over  surrounding 
bodies.    For  small  differences  of  temperature  it  is  accurate 
enough  in  its  applications,  such  as  to  the  corrections  for 
loss  of  heat  in  experimental  determinations  of  specific  heat, 
<fec.,  but  it  was  soon  found  to  give  results  much  below  the 
truth,  even  when  the  excess  of  temperature  was  only  10°  C. 

21.  Dulong  and  Petit,  by  carefully  noting  the  rate  of 
cooling  of  the  bulb  of  a  large  thermometer  enclosed  in  a 
metallic  vessel  with  blackened  walls,  from  which  the  air 
had  been  as  far  as  possible  extracted  and  which  was  main- 
tained at  a  constant  temperature,  were  led  to  propound 
the  exponential  formula  Aat  +  B  to  represent  the  radia- 
tion from  a  black  surface  at  temperature  t.     As  this  is  an 
exponential  formula,  we  may  take  t  as  representing  absolute 
temperature,  for  the  only  result  will  be  a  definite  change 
of  value  of  the  constant  A.     Hence  if  tQ  be  the  temper- 
ature of  the  enclosure,  the  rate  of  loss  of  heat  should  be 
A(a.1  -  afo),  or  Aa^a'-to  _  i).     The  quantity  A  was  found 
by  them  to  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  radiating  surface, 
but  a  was  found  to  have  the  constant  value  1*0077.     As 
the  approximate  accuracy  of  this  expression  was  verified 
by  the  experiments  of  De  la  Provostaye  and  Desains  for 
temperature  differences  up  to  200°  C.,  it  may  be  well  to 
point  out  two  of  its  consequences.     (1)  For  a  given  differ- 
ence of  temperatures  the  radiation  is  an  exponential  func- 
tion of  the  lower  (or  of  the  higher)  temperature.     (2)  For 
a  given  temperature  of  the  enclosure  the  radiation  is  as 
(1-0077)*- 1,  or  0(1+0-00380+  .  .  .  ),  where  0  is  the 
temperature  excess  of  the  cooling  body.     Thus  the  New- 
tonian law  gives  4  per  cent,  too  little  at  10°  C.  of  difference. 

22.  Dulong  and   Petit   have  also  given  an  empirical 
formula  for  the  rate  of  loss  by  simultaneous  radiation  and 
convection.      This  is  of  a  highly  artificial  character,  the 
part  due  to  radiation  being  as  in  the  last  section,  while  that 
due  to  convection  is  independent  of  it,  and  also  of  the 


nature  of  the  surface  of  the  cooling  body.  It  is  found 
to  be  proportional  to  a  power  of  the  pressure  of  the 
surrounding  gas  (the  power  depending  on  the  nature  of 
the  gas),  and  also  to  a  definite  power  of  the  temperature 
excess.  The  reader  must  be  referred  to  French  treatises, 
especially  that  of  Desains,  for  further  information. 

23.  Our  knowledge  of  the  numerical  rate  of  surface- 
emission  is  as  yet  scanty,  but  the  following  data,  due  to 
Nicol,1  may  be  useful  in  approximate  calculations.     Loss 
in  heat  units  (1  ft)  water  raised  1°  C.  in  temperature)  per 
square  foot  per  minute,  from 

Bright  copper   1'09  0'51  0'42 

Blackened  copper 2  "03  1  '46  1  '35. 

The  temperatures  of  body  and  enclosure  were  58°  C.  and  8° 
C.,  and  the  pressure  of  contained  air  in  the  three  columns 
was  about  30,  4,  and  0'4  inches  of  mercury  respectively. 
The  enclosure  was  blackened. 

24.  Scanty  as  is  our  knowledge  of  radiation,  it  is  not  at 
all  surprising  that  that  of  convection  should  be  almost  nit, 
except  as  regards  some  of  its  practical  applications.     Here 
we  have  to  deal  with  a  problem  of  hydrokinetics  of  a 
character,  even  in  common  cases,  of  far  higher  difficulty 
than  many  hydrokinetic  problems  of  which  not  even  ap- 
proximate solutions  have  been  obtained. 

25.  What  is  called  Doppler's  Principle  (LIGHT,  vol.  xiv. 
p.  614)  has  more  recently2  led  Stewart  to  some  curious 
speculations,  which  a  simple  example  will  easily  explain. 
Suppose  two  parallel  plates  of  the  same  substance,  per- 
fectly transparent  except  to  one  definite  wave-length,  to 
be  moving  towards  or  from  one  another.     Each,  we  pre- 
sume, will  radiate  as  before,  and  on  that  account  cool ; 
but  the  radiation  which  reaches  either  is  no  longer  of  the 
kind  which  alone  it  can  absorb,  whether  it  come  directly 
from  the  other,  or  is  part  of  its  own  or  of  the  other's 
radiation  reflected  from  the  enclosure.     Hence  it  would 
appear  that  relative  motion  is  incompatible  with  temper- 
ature equilibrium  in  an  enclosure,  and  thus  that  there 
must  be  some  effect  analogous  to  resistance  to  the  motion. 
We  may  get  over  this  difficulty  if  we  adopt  the  former 
speculation  of  Stewart,  referred  to  in  brackets  in  §  13 
above.     For  this  would  lead  to  the  result  that,  as  soon  as 
either  of  the  bodies  has  cooled,  ever  so  slightly,  the  radia- 
tion in  the  enclosure  should  become  that  belonging  to  a 
black  body  of  a  slightly  higher  temperature  than  before, 
and  thus  the  plates  would  be  furnished  with  radiation 
which  they  could  at  once  absorb,  and  be  gradually  heated 
to  their  former  temperature. 

26.  A  very  recent  speculation,  founded  by  Boltzmann3 
upon  some  ideas  due  to  Bartoli,  is  closely  connected  in 
principle  with  that  just  mentioned.     This  speculation  is 
highly  interesting,  because  it  leads  to  an  expression  for  the 
amount  of  the  whole  radiation  from  a  black  body  in  terms 
of  its  absolute   temperature.     Boltzmann's   investigation 
may  be  put,  as  follows,  in  an  exceedingly  simple  form.    It 
was  pointed  out  by  Clerk  Maxwell,  as  a  result  of  his 
electro-magnetic  theory  of  light,  that  radiation  falling  on 
the  surface  of  a  body  must  produce  a  certain  pressure.    It 
is  easy  to  see  (most  simply  by  the  analogy  of  the  virial 
equation,  MECHANICS,  vol.  xv.  p.  719)  that  the  measure  of 
the  pressure  per  square  unit  on  the  surface  of  an  impervi- 
ous enclosure,  in  which  there  is  thermal  equilibrium,  must 
be  one-third  of  the  whole  energy  of  radiation  per  cubic 
unit  of  the  enclosed  space.     We  may  now  consider  a  re- 
versible engine  conveying  heat  from  one  black  body  to 
another  at  a  different  temperature,  by  operations  alternately 
of  the  isothermal  and  the  adiabatic  character  (THERMO- 
DYNAMICS), which  consist  in  altering  the  volume  of  the  en- 

1  Proc.  JR.  S.  E.,  vii.  1870,  p.  206. 

2  Brit.  Assoc.  Report,  1871. 

3  Wiedemann's  Ann. ,  1884,  xxii. 


R  A  D  — R  A  D 


217 


closure,  with  or  without  one  of  the  bodies  present  in  it. 
For  one  of  the  fundamental  equations  gives 

dE     dp 

3Zts*dt~y> 

where  t  is  the  absolute  temperature.  If  /  be  the  pressure 
on  unit  surface,  3/  is  the  energy  per  unit  of  volume,  and 
this  equation  becomes 


Hence  it  follows  at  once  that,  if  the  fundamental  assump- 
tions be  granted,  the  energy  of  radiation  of  a  black  body 
per  unit  volume  of  the  enclosure  is  proportional  to  the 
fourth  power  of  the  absolute  temperature.  It  is  not  a 
little  remarkable  that  Stefan  1  had  some  years  previously 
shown  that  this  very  expression  agrees  more  closely  with 
the  experimental  determinations  of  Dulong  and  Petit  than 
does  their  own  empirical  formula. 

27.  It  would  appear  from  this  expression  that,  if  an 
impervious  enclosure  containing  only  one  black  body  in 
thermal  equilibrium  is  separated  into  two  parts  by  an 
impervious  partition,  any  alteration  of  volume  of  the  part 
not  containing  the  black  body  will  produce  a  corresponding 
alteration  of  the  radiation  in  its  interior.     It  will  now 
correspond  to  that  of  a  second  black  body,  whose  tempera- 
ture is  to  that  of  the  first  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  fourth 
roots  of  the  volumes  of  the  detached  part  of  the  enclosure. 

28.  Lecher2  has  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  distri- 
bution of  energy  among  the  constituents  of  the  radiation 
from  a  black  body  does  not  alter  with  temperature.     Such 
a  result,  though  apparently  inconsistent  with  many  well- 
known  facts,  appears  to  be  consistent  with  and  to  harmonize 
many  others.     It  accords  perfectly  with  the  notion  of  the 
absolute  uniformity  (statistical)  of  the  energy  in  an  en- 
closure, and  its  being  exactly  that  of  a  black  body,  even  if 
the  contents  (as  in  §  25)  consist  of  a  body  which  can  radiate 
one  particular  quality  of  light  alone.     And  if  this  be  the 
case  it  will  also  follow  that  the  intensity  of  radiation  of 
any  one  wave-length  by  any  one  body  in  a  given  state 
depends  on  the  temperature  in  exactly  the  same  way  as 
does  the  whole  radiation  from  a  black  body.      Unfor- 
tunately this  last  deduction  does  not  accord  with  Melloni's 
results  ;  at  least  the  discrepance  from  them  would  appear 
to  be  somewhat  beyond  what  could  fairly  be  set  down  to 
error  of  experiment.     But  it  is  in  thorough  accordance 
with  the  common  assumption  (§  14)  that  the  percentage 
absorption  of  any  particular  radiation  does  not  depend  on 
the  temperature  of  the  source.     The  facts  of  fluorescence 
and  phosphorescence,  involving  the  radiation  of  visible 
rays  at  temperatures  where  even  a  black  body  is  invisible, 
have  not  yet  been  dealt  with  under  any  general  theory  of 
radiation;   though   Stokes  has  pointed  out  a  dynamical 
explanation  of  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  character,  they  re- 
main outside  the  domain  of  Carnot's  principle.    (P.  G.  T.) 

RADIOMETER.     See  PNEUMATICS,  vol.  xix.  p.  249. 

RADISH.     See  HORTICULTURE,  vol.  xii.  pp.  286,  287. 

RADNOR,  an  inland  county  of  South  Wales,  is  situated 
between  52°  5'  and  52°  25'  N.  lat.  and  between  2°  57' 
and  3°  25'  W.  long.,  and  is  bounded  E.  by  Hereford  and 
Shropshire,  N.  by  Montgomery,  W.  by  Cardigan,  and  S. 
by  Brecknock.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is 
about  30  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west 
about  33  miles.  The  area  is  276,552  acres,  or  432  square 
miles. 

The  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the  county  is  hilly, 
and  the  centre  is  occupied  by  a  mountainous  tract  called 
Radnor  Forest,  running  nearly  east  and  west,  its  highest 
summit  reaching  2163  feet.  Towards  the  south  and 
south-east  the  hills  are  much  less  elevated  and  the  valleys 

1  Sitzunysber.  d.  k.  Ak.  in  Wien,  1879. 

2  Wiedemann's  Ann.,  1882,  xvii. 


widen  out  into  considerable  plains,  abounding  with  small 
rivulets.  The  hills  for  the  most  part  present  smooth  and 
rounded  outlines,  but  the  valley  of  the  Wye  is  famed  for 
its  beauty.  The  higher  ranges  are  covered  with  heath, 
but  there  is  good  pasturage  on  the  lower  slopes.  The 
smaller  elevations  are  frequently  clothed  with  wood.  The 
prevailing  strata  are  the  Lower  Silurian  rocks;  but  in  the 
east  there  is  a  considerable  area  occupied  by  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone, and  throughout  the  county  felspathic  ash  and  green- 
stone are  found,  while  near  Old  Radnor  there  is  a  large 
patch  of  Silurian  limestone.  Lead  and  cor  per  are  said  to 
exist,  but  not  in  quantities  sufficient  to  pay  the  working. 
There  are  saline,  sulphurous,  and  chalybeate  wells  at  Llan- 
drindod.  The  Wye  enters  the  county  in  the  north-west, 
18  miles  from  its  source  in  Plinlimmon,  and  flowing  in  a 
south-easterly  direction  divides  it  from  Brecknock,  until  it 
bends  north-east  and  reaches  Hay,  after  which  it  for  some 
distance  forms  the  boundary  with  Hereford.  Its  prin- 
cipal tributary  is  the  Ithon,  which  flows  south-west  and 
joins  it  7  miles  above  Builth.  The  Teme,  flowing  south- 
east, forms  the  northern  boundary  of  the  county  with 
Shropshire.  The  Llugw,  rising  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  county,  flows  south-east  into  Hereford,  a  little  below 
Presteigne. 

Agriculture. — The  climate  is  somewhat  damp,  and  in  the  spring 
cold  and  ungenial.  The  greater  part  of  the  county  is  suitable  only 
for  pasturage,  but  there  is  some  good  arable  land  in  the  valleys  in 
the  southern  and  south-eastern  districts,  which  pioduces  excellent 
crops  of  turnips,  oats,  and  Welsh  barley,  the  soil  being  chiefly 
open  shaly  clay,  although  in  the  east  there  is  an  admixture  of  red 
sandstone  soils.  In  1884  there  were  156,628  acres,  or  about  five- 
ninths  of  the  total  area,  under  cultivation,  and  of  these  114,242 
acres,  or  about  four-fifths,  were  in  permanent  pasture.  Of  the 
21,356  acres  under  corn  crops  12,245  acres,  or  more  than  half, 
were  under  oats,  whilst  wheat  occupied  5200  acres  and  barley  3853. 
Green  crops  occupied  only  7100  acres,  of  which  1107  were  under 
potatoes  and  5682  under  turnips.  Horses  numbered  9249  (3755 
used  solely  for  agricultural  purposes),  cattle  30,917  (10,223  cows 
and  heifers  in  milk  or  in  calf),  and  sheep  as  many  as  244,771. 
The  inhabitants  are  dependent  almost  solely  on  agriculture,  the 
manufactures  being  confined  chiefly  to  coarse  cloth,  stockings,  and 
flannel  for  home  use. 

Railways.  — The  county  is  intersected  by  several  lines :  the 
Central  Wales  Railway  runs  south-west  from  Knighton  to  Llan- 
dovery  ;  another  line  runs  south-eastwards  by  Rhayaderand  Builth 
and  joins  the  Hereford  line,  which  passes  by  Hay  and  Talgarth  ; 
while  another  branch  line  passes  by  Kineton  to  New  Radnor. 

Administration  and  Population. —  Radnor  comprises  six  hun- 
dreds, but  contains  no  municipal  borough.  It  has  one  court  of 
quarter  sessions  and  is  divided  into  six  petty  and  special  sessional 
divisions.  The  ancient  borough  of  Radnor  (population  2005)  is 
governed  by  the  provisions  of  an  old  charter,  and  has  a  commission 
of  the  peace.  The  county  contains  sixty  civil  parishes  with  part  of 
one  other,  and  is  partly  in  the  diocese  of  St  David's  and  partly  in 
that  of  Hereford.  It  returns  one  member  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. The  population  in  1871  was  25,430  and  in  1881  it  was 
23,528,  of  whom  11,939  were  males  and  11,589  females.  ,The 
number  of  inhabited  houses  was  4775.  The  average  number  of 
persons  to  an  acre  was  0'09  and  of  acres  to  a  person  11*75. 

History  and  Antiquities. — During  the  Roman  occupation  the 
district  was  included  in  the  province  of  Siluria.  The  Roman  road 
from  Chester  to  Caermarthen  entered  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  county  near  Newtown  and,  following  the  valley  of  the  Ithon, 
crossed  the  Wye  and  entered  Brecknockshire  near  the  town  of 
Builth.  There  are  remains  of  a  Roman  station  at  Gym  near  Llan- 
drindod,  and  at  Wapley  Hill  near  Presteigne  there  is  a  very  good 
example  of  a  British  camp.  The  district  was  afterwards  included 
chiefly  in  Powis,  but  partly  in  Gwent  and  partly  in  Feryllwge.  It 
was  made  a  county  by  Henry  VIII.  Anciently  it  was  called  Maesy- 
fedd.  The  name  Radnor  is  also  of  very  great  antiquity,  and  occurs 
in  the  Cambrian  annals  as  early  as  1196.  There  are  no  ancient 
castles  claiming  special  notice,  and  the  only  ecclesiastical  ruin  of 
importance  is  that  of  the  abbey  of  Cwm-Hir,  founded  for  the  Cis- 
tercians in  1143,  and  occupying  a  romantic  situation  in  the  vale  of 
Clywedog.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  ancient  building  has  been 
used  as  materials  for  the  adjoining  modern  mansion. 

RADOM,  a  government  of  Poland,  occupying  a  trian- 
gular space  between  the  Vistula  and  the  Pilica  and  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Warsaw  and  Siedlce,  on  the  E.  by  Lublin, 
on  the  S.  by  Austrian  Galicia  and  Kielce,  and  on  the  W. 

XX.  —  28 


218 


R  A  D  — R  A  E 


by  Piotrkdw.  The  area  is  4765  square  miles.  Its  southern 
part  stretches  over  the  hilly  plateau  of  Poland,  which 
consists  of  short  ridges  of  hills  from  800  to  2000  feet  in 
height,  intersected  by  deep  valleys,  and  is  known  as  the 
Sandomir  Heights.  These  heights  are  thickly  wooded ; 
the  valleys,  running  west  and  east  and  watered  by  several 
tributaries  of  the  Vistula,  are  excellently  adapted  for  agri- 
culture. Farther  north  in  its  central  portion  the  contour  of 
the  government  is  level,  the  soil  fertile,  and  the  surface, 
which  is  diversified  here  and  there  with  wood,  is  further 
broken  up  by  occasional  spurs,  800  feet  in  height,  of  the 
Lysa  G6ra  Mountains.  The  northern  districts,  where  the 
Pilica  joins  the  Vistula,  consist  of  low  flat  tracts  with 
undefined  valleys,  exposed  to  frequent  floods  and  covered 
over  large  areas  with  marshes;  the  basin  of  the  Pilica, 
notorious  for  its  unhealthiness,  is  throughout  a  low  marshy 
plain.  Devonian,  Carboniferous,  Permian,  and  Triassic 
deposits  appear  in  the  southern  plateau,  Chalk  and 
Jurassic  in  the  middle,  and  Tertiary  in  the  north.  Wide 
tracts  are  covered  with  Glacial  deposits, — the  Scandinavian 
erratics  reaching  as  far  south  as  Ilza ;  these  last  in  their 
turn  are  covered  with  widely  spreading  post-Glacial  lacus- 
trine deposits.  The  Vistula  skirts  the  government  on 
the  south  and  east  and  is  an  important  means  of  com- 
munication, several  hundreds  of  light  boats  (galary) 
descending  the  river  every  year,  while  steamers  ply  as  far 
up  as  Sgdomierz.  The  S§domierz  district  is  occasionally 
exposed  to  disastrous  inundations  of  the  river.  The  tribu- 
taries of  the  Vistula  (Radomka,  Kamienna,  and  several 
others)  are  but  short  and  small,  while  those  of  the  Pilica 
are  mere  streams  sluggishly  flowing  amidst  marshes. 

The  population  (644,830  in  1882)  is  Polish  for  the  most  part,  one- 
seventh  being  Jews.  According  to  creed  the  proportions  are — 
Roman  Catholic  84'0  per  cent.,  Jewish  14'6,  Protestant  1'3,  and 
Greek  O'l  per  cent.  The  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is 
agriculture,  the  principal  crops  being  wheat,  oats,  rye,  potatoes, 
and  beetroot  (for  sugar).  Corn  is  exported  and  potatoes  largely 
used  for  distillation.  In  1879  there  were  148  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments (197  in  1883),  employing  1708  hands,  with  an  aggregate 
production  of  2,121,000  roubles  (£212,000),  the  more  important 
being  tanneries,  flour-mills,  sugar-works,  and  several  machinery 
and  iron-works.  These  last  are  suffering,  however,  from  want  of 
wood-fuel,  and  many  of  them  have  recently  been  closed.  Trade  is 
not  very  extensive,  the  only  channel  of  commerce  being  the  Vistula. 
There  is  no  lack  of  philanthropic  institutions  within  the  govern- 
ment (most  of  them  founded  early  in  this  century),  but  never- 
theless the  sanitary  condition  of  the  people  is  deplorable.  Plica 
polonica,  which  is  endemic  in  the  government  of  Radom  as  well 
as  in  that  of  Kielce,  is  widely  diffused,  no  fewer  than  15,000  per- 
sons suffering  from  it,  and  cognate  maladies,  such  as  goitre,  scabies, 
and  tinea  capitis,  are  also  widely  prevalent. 

The  educational  institutions  include  two  lycees  or  gymnasia  and 
two  progymnasia  (all  at  Radom),  with  813  male  and  287  female 
pupils,  a  normal  school,  a  theological  seminary  at  Sandomir,  and 
170  primary  schools  (112  in  villages),  with  8465  scholars. 

The  government  is  divided  into  eight  districts,  the  chief  towns 
of  which  are— Radom,  Ilza  (2750),  Konsk  (6275),  Kozienice  (5690), 
Opatow  (5200),  Opoczno  (5585),  and  Sedomierz  or  Sandomir  (6265, 
or  14,710  including  suburbs).  Zavihvost  (3700)  is  an  important 
custom-house.  Ostrowiec  (5290),  Staszow  (6910),  Przedborz  (6345), 
and  Szidlowiec  (5290)  have  municipal  institutions. 

RADOM,  capital  of  the  above  government,  situated  on 
the  Mleczna,  a  tributary  of  the  Radomka,  65  miles  south 
from  Warsaw,  is  one  of  the  best-built  provincial  towns  of 
Poland.  Lublin  Street  has  a  number  of  fine  shops,  and 
there  are  two  well-kept  public  gardens.  The  permanent 
population  in  1882  was  12,970,  half  of  whom  were  Jews, 
and  the  town  is  rapidly  growing  towards  the  south-east. 
Though  an  old  town,  Radom  has  no  interesting  antiquities. 
The  church  of  St  Wlaclaw,  contemporary  with  the  founda- 
tion of  the  town,  was  transformed  by  the  Austrians  into  a 
storehouse,  and  subsequently  by  the  Russian  Government 
into  a  military  prison.  The  old  castle  is  in  ruins,  and  the 
old  Bernardine  monastery  is  now  used  as  barracks.  The 
manufactures  are  unimportant,  but  trade  has  been  lately 
increasing. 


Radom,  which  is  mentioned  in  historical  documents  of  the  year 
1216,  at  that  time  occupied  the  site  of  what  is  now  Old  Radom. 
New  Radom  was  founded  in  1340  by  Casimir  the  Great.  Here 
Jadwiga  was  elected  queen  of  Poland  in  1382,  and  here  too  in 
1401  the  first  act  relating  to  the  union  of  Poland  with  Lithuania 
was  signed  ;  the  "seim  "  of  1505,  where  the  organic  law  of  Poland 
was  sworn  by  the  king,  was  also  held  at  Radom.  Several  great 
fires,  and  still  more  the  Swedish  War,  were  the  ruin  of  the  old  city. 
After  the  third  partition  of  Poland  it  fell  under  Austrian  rule ; 
later  on,  in  1809,  it  became  capital  of  the  Radom  department  of 
the  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw.  In  1815  it  was  annexed  to  Russia 
and  became  chief  town  of  the  province  of  Sandomir. 

RAEBURN,  SIR  HENRY  (1756-1823),  portrait-painter, 
was  born  at  Stockbridge,  a  suburb  of  Edinburgh,  on 
the  4th  of  March  1756,  the  son  of  a  manufacturer  of 
the  city.  He  was -early  left  an  orphan.  Being  placed  in 
Heriot's  Hospital,  he  received  there  the  elements  of  a  sound 
education,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  was  apprenticed  to  a 
goldsmith  in  Edinburgh.  Here  he  had  some  little  oppor- 
tunity for  the  practice  of  the  humbler  kinds  of  art,  and 
various  pieces  of  jewellery,  mourning  rings  and  the  like, 
adorned  with  minute  drawings  on  ivory  by  his  hand,  are 
still  extant.  Soon  he  took  to  the  production  of  care- 
fully finished  miniatures ;  and,  meeting  with  success  and 
patronage,  he  extended  his  practice  to  oil-painting,  being 
all  the  while  quite  self-taught.  The  worthy  goldsmith  his 
master  watched  the  progress  of  his  pupil  with  interest, 
gave  him  every  encouragement,  and  introduced  him  to 
David  Martin,  who  had  been  the  favourite  assistant  of 
Allan  Ramsay  junior,  and  was  now  the  leading  portrait- 
painter  in  Edinburgh.  Raeburn  received  considerable 
assistance  from  Martin,  and  was  especially  aided  by  the 
loan  of  portraits  to  copy.  Soon  the  young  painter  had 
gained  sufficient  skill  to  render  it  advisable  that  he 
should  devote  himself  exclusively  to  art.  When  in  his 
twenty-second  year  he  was  asked  to  paint  the  portrait 
of  a  young  lady  whom  he  had  previously  observed  and 
admired  when  he  was  sketching  from  nature  in  the  fields. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Peter  Edgar  of  Bridgelands  and 
widow  of  Count  Leslie.  The  lady  was  speedily  fascinated 
by  the  handsome  and  intellectual  young  artist,  and  in  a 
month  she  became  his  wife,  bringing  him  an  ample  fortune. 
After  the  approved  fashion  of  artists  of  the  time,  it  was 
resolved  that  Raeburn  should  visit  Italy,  and  he  accord- 
ingly started  with  his  wife.  In  London  he  was  kindly 
received  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  who  gave  him  excellent 
advice  as  to  his  study  in  Rome,  especially  recommending 
to  his  attention  the  works  of  Michelangelo.  He  also 
offered  him  more  substantial  pecuniary  aid,  which  was 
declined  as  unneeded;  but  Raeburn  carried  with  him 
to  Italy  many  valuable  introductions  from  the  president 
of  the  Academy.  In  Rome  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Gavin  Hamilton,  of  Batoni,  and  of  Byers.  For  the 
advice  of  the  last-named  he  used  to  acknowledge  himself 
greatly  indebted,  and  particularly  for  the  recommendation 
that  "  he  should  never  copy  an  object  from  memory,  but, 
from  the  principal  figure  to  the  minutest  accessory,  have 
it  placed  before  him."  After  two  years  of  study  in  Italy 
he  returned  to  Edinburgh  in  1787,  where  he  began  a  most 
successful  career  as  a  portrait-painter.  In  that  year  he 
executed  an  admirable  seated  portrait  of  the  second  Lord 
President  Dundas. 

Of  his  earlier  portraiture  we  have  interesting  examples 
in  the  bust-likeness  of  Mrs  Johnstone  of  Baldovie  and  in 
the  three-quarter-length  of  Dr  James  Hutton,  works  which, 
if  they  are  somewhat  timid  and  tentative  in  handling  and 
wanting  in  the  trenchant  brush-work  and  assured  mastery 
of  subsequent  productions,  are  full  of  delicacy  and  char- 
acter. The  portraits  of  John  Clerk,  Lord  Eldin,  and  of 
Principal  Hill  of  St  Andrews  belong  to  a  somewhat  later 
period.  Raeburn  was  fortunate  in  the  time  in  which  he 
practised  portraiture.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Blair,  Mackenzie, 


R  A  F  —  R  A  F 


219 


Wooclliouselee,  Robertson,  Home,  Ferguson,  and  Dugald 
Stewart  were  resident  in  Edinburgh,  and  they  were  all, 
along  with  a  host  of  others  less  celebrated,  immortalized 
on  the  painter's  canvas.  Of  his  fully  matured  manner  we 
could  have  no  finer  examples  than  his  own  portrait  and 
that  of  the  Rev.  Sir  Henry  Moncreiff  Wellwood,  the  bust 
of  Dr  Wardrop  of  Torbane  Hill,  the  two  full-lengths  of 
Adam  Rolland  of  Gask  and  that  of  William  Macdonald 
of  St  Martin's.  It  was  commonly  believed  that  Raeburn 
was  less  successful  in  his  female  than  in  his  male  portraits, 
but  the  exquisite  full-length  of  his  wife,  the  smaller  like- 
ness of  Mrs  R.  Scott  Moncrieff  in  the  Scottish  National 
Gallery,  and  that  of  Mrs  Robert  Bell  are  sufficient  to 
prove  that  he  could  on  occasion  portray  all  the  grace  and 
beauty  of  the  gentler  sex. 

Raeburn  spent  his  life  in  Edinburgh,  rarely  visiting  the 
metropolis,  and  then  only  for  brief  periods,  thus  preserving 
his  own  sturdy  individuality,  if  he  missed  the  opportunity 
of  engrafting  on  it  some  of  the  fuller  refinement  and 
delicacy  of  the  London  portraitists.  His  leisure  was  em- 
ployed in  athletic  sports,  in  his  garden,  and  in  architectural 
and  mechanical  pursuits,  and  so  varied  were  the  interests 
that  filled  his  life  that  his  sitters  used  to  say  of  him,  "You 
would  never  take  him  for  a  painter  till  he  seizes  the 
brush  and  palette."  Professional  honours  fell  thick  upon 
him.  In  1812  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Society  of 
Artists  in  Edinburgh,  in  1814  associate,  and  in  the  following 
year  full  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1822  he 
was  knighted  by  George  IV.  and  appointed  His  Majesty's 
limner  for  Scotland.  He  died  at  Edinburgh  on  the  8th 
of  July  1823. 

In  his  own  day  the  portraits  of  Raeburn  were  excellently  and 
voluminously  engraved,  especially  by  the  last  members  of  the 
great  school  of  English  mezzotint.  In  1876  a  collection  of  over 
300  of  his  works  was  brought  together  in  the  Royal  Scottish 
Academy  galleries  ;  in  the  following  year  a  series  of  twelve  of  his 
linest  portraits  was  included  in  the  winter  exhibition  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  London  ;  and  a  volume  of  photographs  from  his  paintings 
has  been  edited  by  Dr  John  Brown. 

Raeburn  possessed  all  the  necessary  requirements  of  a  popular 
and  successful  portrait-painter.  He  had  the  power  of  producing 
a  telling  and  forcible  likeness  ;  his  productions  are  distinguished 
by  breadth  of  effect,  by  admirable  force  of  handling,  by  execution 
of  the  swiftest  and  most  resolute  sort.  Wilkie  has  recorded  that, 
while  travelling  in  Spain  and  studying  the  works  of  Velazquez, 
the  brash-work  of  that  master  reminded  him  constantly  of  the 
"square  touch"  of  Raeburn.  But  the  portraits  of  Velazquez  are 
unsurpassable  examples  of  tone  as  well  as  of  handling,  and  it  is 
in  the  former  quality  that  Raeburn  is  distinctly  wanting.  The 
colour  of  his  portraits  is  sometimes  crude  and  out  of  relation, 
inclining  to  the  use  of  positive  and  definite  local  pigments,  and  too 
little  perceptive  of  the  changeful  subtilties  and  modifications  of 
atmospheric  effect.  His  draperies  frequently  consist  of  little  more 
than  two  colours — the  local  hue  of  the  fabric  and  the  black  which, 
more  or  less  graduated,  expresses  its  shadows  and  modelling.  In 
his  flesh,  too,  he  wants — in  all  but  his  very  best  productions — 
the  delicate  refinements  of  colouring  which  distinguish  the  works 
of  the  great  English  portrait-painters.  His  faces,  with  all  their 
excellent  truth  of  form  and  splendid  vigour  of  handling,  are  often 
hard  and  bricky  in  hue. 

RAFF,  JOSEPH  JOACHIM  (1822-1882),  composer  and 
orchestral  conductor,  was  born  near  Zurich  on  27th  May 
1822  and  educated  chiefly  at  Schwyz.  Here,  under  the 
care  of  the  Jesuit  fathers,  he  soon  became  an  excellent 
classical  and  mathematical  scholar,  but  received  scarcely 
any  instruction  in  his  favourite  art,  in  which,  nevertheless, 
he  made  extraordinary  progress  through  sheer  force  of 
natural  genius,  developed  by  persevering  study  which  no 
external  obstacles  could  induce  him  to  discontinue.  So 
successful  were  his  unaided  efforts  that,  when  in  1843  he 
sent  some  MSS.  to  Mendelssohn,  that  warm  encourager  of 
youthful  talent  felt  justified  in  at  once  recommending  him 
to  Breitkopf  &,  Hartel  of  Leipsic,  who  published  a  large 
selection  of  his  early  works.  Soon  after  this  he  became 
acquainted  with  Liszt,  who  gave  him  much  generous 


encouragement.  He  first  became  personally  acquainted 
with  Mendelssohn  at  Cologne  in  1846,  and  gave  up  all 
his  other  engagements  for  the  purpose  of  following  him 
to  Leipsic,  but  his  intention  was  frustrated  by  the  great 
composer's  death  in  1847.  After  this  cruel  disappoint- 
ment he  remained  for  some  time  at  Cologne,  where  his 
attention  was  alternately  devoted  to  composition  and  to 
the  preparation  of  critiques  for  the  well-known  periodical 
Cdcilia.  Thus  far  he  must  be  regarded  as,  in  every  sense 
of  the  word,  a  self-taught  artist ;  but  he  felt  the  need  of 
systematic  instruction  so  deeply  that,  retiring  for  a  time 
from  public  life,  he  entered  at  Stuttgart  upon  a  long 
course  of  severe  and  uninterrupted  study,  and  with  so 
great  success  that  in  1850  he  appeared  before  the  world 
in  the  character  of  an  accomplished  and  highly-cultivated 
musician.  Raff  now  settled  for  a  time  in  Weimar  in 
order  to  be  near  Liszt.  Hans  von  Billow  had  already 
brought  him  into  notice  by  playing  his  Concertstuck  for 
pianoforte  and  orchestra  in  public,  and  the  favour  with 
which  this  fine  work  was  everywhere  received  encouraged 
him  to  attempt  a  greater  one.  During  his  stay  in  Stutt- 
gart he  had  begun  the  composition  of  an  opera  entitled 
Koniy  Alfred,  and  had  good  hope  of  securing  its  perform- 
ance at  Dresden ;  but  the  political  troubles  with  which 
Germany  was  then  overwhelmed  rendered  its  production  in 
the  Saxon  capital  impossible.  At  Weimar  he  was  more 
fortunate.  In  due  time  Konig  Alfred  was  produced  there 
under  Liszt's  able  direction  with  complete  success ;  it  is 
still  frequently  performed  at  the  court  theatre,  as  is  also 
his  second  opera,  Dame  Kobold,  written  for  the  same 
theatre  in  1870.  His  third  opera,  Samson,  has  not  yet, 
we  believe,  been  publicly  represented. 

Raff  remained  at  Weimar  until  1856,  when  he  obtained 
a  large  clientele  at  Wiesbaden  as  a  teacher  of  the  pianoforte. 
In  1859  he  married  Doris  Genast,  an  actress  of  high  repute, 
and  thenceforward  devoted  himself  with  renewed  energy 
to  the  work  of  composition,  displaying  an  inexhaustible 
fertility  of  invention  tempered  by  an  amount  of  technical 
skill  which  stamped  even  his  lightest  works  with  the 
dignity  to  which  the  union  of  natural  talent  with  high 
artistic  cultivation  can  alone  give  birth.  He  resided 
chiefly  at  Wiesbaden  till  1877,  when  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Hoch-Conservatorium  at  Frankfort,  an 
office  which  he  retained  until  his  death,  25th  June  1882. 

Raffs  compositions  are  almost  innumerable.  More  than  200 
have  been  published,  including  ten  symphonies — undoubtedly  his 
finest  works — quartets,  concertos,  sonatas,  songs,  and  examples  of 
nearly  every  known  variety  of  style  ;  yet  he  never  repeats  himself. 
Notwithstanding  his  strong  love  for  the-  romantic  school,  he  is 
never  guilty  of  extravagance,  and,  if  in  his  minor  works  he  is 
sometimes  a  little  commonplace,  he  never  descends  to  vulgarity. 
His  symphonies  Lcnorc  and  Im  Walde  are  truly  wonderful  examples 
of  musical  painting,  and  replete  with  poetry  in  every  bar. 

RAFFLES,  SIR  THOMAS  STAMFORD  (1781-1826),  the 
son  of  a  captain  in  the  West  India  trade,  was  born  at  sea 
off  the  coast  of  Jamaica  on  5th  July  1781.  Returning 
with  his  mother  to  England,  he  was  placed  in  a  boarding- 
school  at  Hammersmith,  where  he  remained  till  the 
age  of  fourteen,  when  he  entered  the  East  India  House  as 
an  extra  clerk.  While  employed  there  he  occupied  his 
leisure  hours  in  particularly  studying  languages,  for  which 
he  possessed  great  facility.  In  1805  the  directors  of  the 
India  House  having  resolved  to  found  a  new  trading 
settlement  at  Penang,  Raffles  was  appointed  assistant- 
secretary,  and  on  his  voyage  out  he  acquired  the  Malay 
language.  Owing  to  the  illness  of  the  chief  secretary, 
he  soon  had  to  undertake  the  entire  administrative  labour 
of  the  new  government.  In  1808  he  had  to  visit  Malacca 
to  recruit  his  shattered  strength ;  here  he  enjoyed  large 
opportunity  of  mingling  with  a  very  varied  population, 
and,  in  company  with  the  two  Orientalists  Marsden  and 


220 


R  A  F  —  R A  G 


Leyden,  he  began  his  elaborate  researches  into  the  history, 
laws,  and  literature  of  the  Hindu  and  Malay  races.  In 
zoology  he  took  special  interest,  and  on  his  return  to 
England  became  founder  and  first  president  of  the  Zoolo- 
gical Society.  While  in  Calcutta  in  1809,  Raffles  sug- 
gested to  Lord  Minto,  then  governor-general  of  India,  the 
desirableness  of  wresting  Java  from  the  French.  The 
governor-general  took  up  the  idea  with  vigour ;  a  fleet  of 
ninety  ships  dropped  anchor  before  Batavia  in  August 
1811,  and  in  a  short  time  the  conquest  of  the  island  was 
effected.  Raffles  was  made  lieutenant-general  of  the  new 
territory,  and  resolved  to  give  to  the  island  a  pure  and 
upright  administration.  There  were  three  sources  of 
abuse  to  eradicate — the  revenue  system,  the  system  of 
police  and  public  justice,  and  the  slave  trade.  In  a  period 
of  only  five  years  Raffles  had  almost  effected  his  design ; 
his  popularity  was  secured,  and  the  revenue  was  eight 
times  larger  than  it  had  been  under  the  Dutch.  The 
policy  of  some  of  his  measures  being,  however,  considered 
doubtful  by  the  home  authorities,  he  was  recalled  in  1816, 
but  his  conduct  was  approved.  He  published  a  valuable 
and  well-illustrated  History  of  Java,  in  2  vols.  4to,  1817. 

Having  received  knighthood,  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  set 
out  for  Sumatra  as  lieutenant-governor  of  Bencoolen, 
arriving  in  March  1818,  and  immediately  recommenced 
the  work  of  reform.  In  1819  he  induced  the  marquis  of 
Hastings  to  annex  Singapore.  He  again  visited  Singapore, 
his  "political  child,"  in  1822,  and  occupied  himself  for 
nearly  a  year  in  laying  out  the  new  city,  and  in  estab- 
lishing its  constitution  as  a  free  port.  Java  had  been 
given  up  to  the  Dutch  shortly  after  Sir  Stamford  left  it, 
and  now  Bencoolen  was  granted  to  them  in  exchange  for  • 
Malacca.  On  setting  sail  for  England  from  Sumatra  in 
February  1824  the  ship  took  fire  and  the  crew  and  pass- 
engers were  with  difficulty  saved.  The  loss  to  Sir  Stam- 
ford was  beyond  all  repair.  The  whole  of  his  drawings, 
all  his  collections  in  botany  and  zoology,  all  his  multi- 
tudinous papers  and  manuscripts,  fell  a  prey  to  the  flames, 
his  pecuniary  loss  amounting  to  more  than  £20,000. 
During  one  of  his  excursions  into  the  interior  of  Sumatra, 
in  company  with  Dr  Arnold,  he  came  upon  the  largest 
and  most  extraordinary  of  known  flowers,  the  Rafflesia 
Arnoldi  (see  PARASITISM,  vol.  xviii.  p.  265).  In  1820  he 
sent  home  a  large  collection  of  preserved  animals,  now  in 
the  museum  of  the  London  Zoological  Society,  described 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Linnean  Society.  He  died  of 
apoplexy  at  his  house  near  London  on  5th  July  1826. 

RAFN,  CARL  CHRISTIAN  (1795-1864),  Danish  archae- 
ologist, was  born  in  Brahesborg,  Fiinen,  on  16th  January 
1795  and  died  at  Copenhagen  on  20th  October  1864.  He 
is  chiefly  known  in  connexion  with  the  controversy  as  to 
the  question  of  the  discovery  of  America  by  the  Norsemen. 
(See  AMERICA,  vol.  i.  p.  706.) 

RAGATZ,  or  RAGAZ,  a  watering-place  in  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  St  Gall,  with  a  station  on  the  railway  to 
Coire,  64  miles  south-east  of  Zurich,  stands  1700  feet 
above  the  sea  at  the  mouth  of  the  magnificent  gorge 
through  which  the  impetuous  Tamina  forces  its  way  to 
the  Rhine ;  its  baths  are  supplied  with  mineral  water 
from  the  hot  springs  of  Pfaffers,  which  issue  from  the 
right  side  of  the  ravine  2£  miles  higher  up.  As  the  tourist 
centre  for  one  of  the  most  picturesque  districts  of  Switzer- 
land, Ragatz  has  greatly  increased  since  the  middle  of  the 
century.  It  had  then  only  650  inhabitants  ;  in  1870 
there  were  1825,  and  in  1880  1996,  while  the  annual 
number  of  visitors  is  about  50,000.  In  the  churchyard 
is  the  grave  of  Schelling,  who  died  at  Ragatz  in  1854. 
Ragatz  originally  belonged  to  the  abbots  of  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Pfaffers  (713-1838);  their  residence  became 
in  1840  the  "Hof  Ragatz"  hotel,  and  in  1868  the  whole 


property,  which  had  been  seized  by  the  state  in  1838, 
passed  into  private  hands.  The  Swiss  defeated  the 
Austrians  at  Ragatz  in  1446. 

RAGLAN,  FITZROY  JAMES  HENRY  SOMERSET,  BARON 
(1788-1855),  English  general,  was  the  eighth  and  youngest 
son  of  the  fifth  duke  of  Beaufort  by  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  Admiral  the  Hon.  Edward  Boscawen,  and  was  born  on 
30th  September  1788.  He  entered  the  army  in  1804.  In 
1807  he  was  attached  to  the  Hon.  Sir  Arthur  Paget's 
embassy  to  Turkey,  and  the  same  year  he  was  selected  to 
serve  on  the  staff  of  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  in  the  expedi- 
tion to  Copenhagen.  In  the  following  year  he  accom- 
panied the  same  general  in  a  like  capacity  to  Portugal, 
and  during  the  whole  of  the  Peninsular  War  was  at  his 
right  hand,  first  as  aide-de-camp  and  then  as  military 
secretary.  He  specially  distinguished  himself  at  the  storm- 
ing of  Badajoz,  being  the  first  to  mount  the  breach,  and 
it  was  to  him  that  the  governor  delivered  up  his  sword. 
During  the  short  period  of  the  Bourbon  rule  in  1814  and 
1815  he  was  secretary  to  the  English  embassy  at  Paris. 
On  the  renewal  of  the  war  he  again  became  aide-de-camp 
and  military  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Wellington.  At 
Waterloo  he  lost  his  right  arm  by  a  shot,  but  he  quickly 
gained  the  facility  of  writing  with  his  left  hand,  and  on 
the  conclusion  of  the  war  resumed  his  duties  as  secretary 
to  the  embassy  at  Paris.  From  1818  to  1826  he  sat  in  the 
House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Truro.  In  1819  he  was 
appointed  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Wellington  as  master- 
general  of  the  ordnance,  and  from  1827  till  the  death  of 
the  duke  in  1852  was  military  secretary  to  him  as  com- 
mander-in-chief.  He  was  then  appointed  master-general 
of  the  ordnance,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  raised  to  the 
House  of  Lords  as  Baron  Raglan.  In  1854  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  English  troops  sent  to 
the  Crimea.  Here  the  advantage  of  his  training  under 
the  duke  of  Wellington  was  seen  in  the  soundness  of  his 
military  tactics,  but  the  trying  winter  campaign  in  the 
Crimea  also  brought  into  prominence  defects  perhaps 
traceable  to  his  long  connexion  with  the  formalities  and 
uniform  regulations  of  military  offices  in  peace  time.  At 
the  same  time  the  hampering  influence  of  a  divided  com- 
mand must  be  taken  into  account,  and  it  ought  not  to  be 
forgotten  that,  if  his  advice  had  been  adopted  by  the 
French  at  the  beginning,  Sebastopol  would  very  probably 
have  fallen  in  a  few  weeks  after  the  landing  of  the  allies. 
His  suggestion  was  to  march  straight  upon  the  north  side 
of  Sebastopol,  but  after  the  battle  of  Alma  on  20th 
September  the  plan  was  abandoned,  and  the  south  side 
was  reached  by  the  desperate  expedient  of  a  perilous  flank 
march.  For  the  hardships  and  sufferings  of  the  English 
soldiers  in  the  terrible  Crimean  winter  owing  to  a  failure 
in  the  commissariat,  both  as  regards  food '  and  clothing, 
Lord  Raglan  and  his  staff  were  at  the  time  severely  cen- 
sured by  the  press  and  the  Government ;  but,  while  Lord 
Raglan  was  possibly  to  blame  in  representing  matters  in  a 
too  sanguine  light,  it  afterwards  appeared  that  the  chief 
neglect  rested  with  the  home  authorities.  The  monotony 
of  the  siege  was  broken  by  the  battles  of  Balaclava  on  26th 
October  and  of  Inkermann  on  5th  November,  in  which 
the  accurate  and  rapid  decision  of  Lord  Raglan  changed 
impending  disasters  into  brilliant  victories.  During  the 
trying  winter  of  1854-55  the  suffering  he  was  compelled 
to  witness,  the  censures,  in  great  part  unjust,  which  he  had 
to  endure,  and  all  the  manifold  anxieties  of  the  siege 
seriously  undermined  his  health,  and  he  died  of  dysentery 
on  28th  June  1855. 

See  Kinglake's  History  of  the  Invasion  of  the  Crimea. 

RAGMAN  ROLLS,  the  name  given  to  the  collection  of 
instruments  by  which  the  nobility  and  gentry  of  Scotland 
were  compelled  to  subscribe  allegiance  to  Edward  I  of 


R  A  G  —  R  A  G 


221 


England  between  the  conference  of  Norham  in  May  1291 
and  the  final  award  in  favour  of  Baliol  in  November  1292, 
and  again  in  1296.  Of  the  former  of  these  records  two 
copies  were  preserved  in  the  chapter-house  at  Westminster 
(now  in  the  Record  Office,  London),  and  it  has  been  printed 
by  Rymer  (Fcedera,  ii.  542).  Another  copy,  preserved 
originally  in  the  Tower  of  London,  is  now  also  in  the 
Record  Office.  The  latter  record,  containing  the  various 
acts  of  homage  and  fealty  extorted  by  Edward  from  Baliol 
and  others  in  the  course  of  his  progress  through  Scotland 
in  the  summer  of  1296  and  in  August  at  the  parliament 
of  Berwick,  was  published  by  Prynne  from  the  copy  in  the 
Tower  and  now  in  the  Record  Office.  Both  records  were 
printed  by  the  Bannatyne  Club  in  1834.  The  derivation  of 
the  word  "  ragman  "  has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained, 
but  various  guesses  as  to  its  meaning  and  a  list  of  examples 
of  its  use  for  legal  instruments  both  in  England  and  Scot- 
land will  be  found  in  the  preface  to  the  Bannatyne  Club's 
volume,  and  in  Jarnieson's  Dictionary,  s.v.  "Ragman."  The 
name  of  "  Ragman  "  has  been  sometimes  confined  to  the 
record  of  1296,  of  which  an  account  is  given  in  Calendar  of 
Documents  relating  to  Scotland  preserved  in  the  Public 
Record  Office,  London  (1884),  vol.  ii.,  Introd.,  p.  xxiv. ; 
and  as  to  the  seals  see  p.  Hi.  and  appendix. 

RAGUSA  (Slavonic  Dubrovnik,  Turkish  Paprovnik),  a 
city  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  for  many  centuries 
an  independent  republic,  now  at  the  head  of  a  district 
in  the  province  of  Dalmatia  in  Austria-Hungary.  It  is 
built  close  to  the  sea  at  the  foot  of  the  bare  limestone 
mass  of  Monte  Sergio,  on  which  stands  an  unfinished  Fort 
Imperial  erected  by  the  French.  In  front  lies  the  island 
of  Lacroma,  the  traditional  landing-place  of  Coeur-de-Lion. 
Several  ancient  stone-built  forts — San  Lorenzo  (llth  cen- 
tury), Leverono  (16th),  &c. — defend  the  harbour,  and  the 
city  is  fenced  in  with  lofty  walls.  The  main  street  runs 
in  a  narrow  valley  between  the  mountain  and  a  seaward 
ridge;  the  valley  was  up  till  the  13th  century  a  channel 
of  the  sea,  and  the  seaward  ridge  was  the  rocky  island  of 
Lavve  or  Ragusa  proper,  opposite  which  lay  among  its 
pine  trees  the  Slavonic  settlement  of  Dubrovnik.  Though 
still  a  fine  street,  this  corso  is  not  so  imposing  as  before 
its  palatial  mansions  were  overthrown  by  the  earthquake 
of  1667.  It  contains  a  15th-century  cistern,  a  church 
(Del  Redentore)  erected  after  the  earthquake  of  1536  to 
avert  similar  catastrophes,  and  a  Franciscan  monastery ; 
and  in  the  piazza  off  its  southern  extremity  are  the  Palazzo 
Rettorale,  or  residence  of  the  "rectors"  of  the  republic 
(1435-52),  the  old  custom-house  and  mint,  completed  in 
1520,  and  the  Torre  del  Orologio,  with  its  curious  clock. 
The  "palace"  is  a  marvellous  specimen  of  late  Romanesque 
influence,  especially  famous  for  the  six  columns  of  its  facade 
and  the  alchemist  group  with  which  one  of  the  capitals  is 
decorated ;  and  the  custom-house  has  also  a  fine  Roman- 
esque element  in  its  style.  The  cathedral  (dedicated  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  though  the  patron  saint  of  the  city  is 
St  Blasius,  whose  effigy  perpetually  occurs  on  its  coins, 
fortifications,  and  churches)  is  a  building  in  the  Italian 
taste  of  the  18th  century.  Ragusa  can  never  have  been 
a  large  city.  In  the  16th  century  it  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained 30,000  or  40,000  inhabitants;  in  1881  it  had  only 
7245,  and  its  commune,  with  its  fifteen  additional  villages, 
10,936.  The  harbour,  once  one  of  the  great  ports  of 
southern  Europe,  is  altogether  too  small  for  modern 
requirements,  in  spite  of  the  new  breakwater  constructed 
in  1873  to  protect  it  from  the  south-west  winds.  From 
400  to  600  vessels  (mostly  under  50  tons  burden)  enter 
yearly.  The  neighbouring  harbour  of  Gravosa  (Slav  Gruz; 
population  677)  is  the  real  port  of  Ragusa  as  far  as  steam- 
boat traffic  is  concerned.  The  staple  trade  is  that  of  oil ; 
but  the  whole  supply  is  sent  to  the  Trieste  market. 


Ragusan  Malmsey,  once  famous,  has  disappeared  before 
the  vine-disease  since  1852. 

The  history  of  Ragusa  has  been  thus  summarized  by  Mr  Free- 
man: — "  Those  hills,  the  slopes  of  which  begin  in  the  -streets  of 
the  city,  once  fenced  in  a  ledge  of  Hellenic  land  from  the  native 
barbarians  of  Illyricum.  Then  they  fenced  in  a  ledge  of  Roman 
land  from  the  Slavonic  invader.  Lastly  they  still  fence  in  a  ledge 
of  Christian  land  from  the  dominion  of  the  infidel."  The  city  was 
founded  on  a  rocky  island  by  Roman  Christian  refugees  from 
Epidaurus  (now  Ragusa  Vecchia,  675  inhabitants),  in  the  middle, 
say  some,  of  the  3d  century  after  Christ ;  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
7th  century  it  was  strengthened  by  other  refugees  from  Salona, 
destroyed  by  the  Slavs.  In  course  of  time  a  Slavic  settlement 
was  incorporated  within  its  walls  ;  and  thus  by  language  and 
sympathies  it  became  a  link  between  two  great  civilizations. 
Ragusa l  maintained  its  independence  against  all  comers  partly  by 
war  but  more  by  diplomacy.  In  the  9th  century  it  more  than 
once  repulsed  the  Saracens,  and  in  the  10th  defended  itself  against 
Venice,  the  pirates  of  the  Narenta,  Samuel  (czar  of  the  Bulgarians), 
and  the  emperor  Otho  ;  in  the  llth  century  it  was  drawn  by  its 
alliance  with  Robert  Guiscard  into  a  war  with  Byzantium  and 
Venice,  and  in  the  12th  century  fought  with  the  ban  of  Bosnia 
and  with  Stephen  Nemanya  of  Servia,  who  twice  invested  the  city. 
But  its  policy  was  generally  peaceful.  To  refugees  of  all  nations, 
even  to  those  who  had  been  its  own  bitter  foes,  it  afforded  asylum  ; 
and  by  means  of  treaty  and  tribute  it  gradually  worked  its  way  to 
a  position  of  mercantile  power  which  Europe  could  hardly  parallel. 
A  compact  which  it  made  with  the  Turkish  ruler  at  Broussa  in  1370 
was  renewed  by  Bajazet  in  the  15th  century  and  saved  the  little 
state  from  the  fate  of  her  most  powerful  neighbours,  Byzantium 
and  Servia.  By  that  time  Ragusa  had  stations  at  Serai,  Bucharest, 
Tirgovisce,  Widdin,  Rustchuk,  Sophia,  and  Adrianople  ;  and  her 
vessels  were  known  not  only  in  Italy,  Sicily,  Spain,  Greece,  and 
the  Levant,  but  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  Europe.  Our  own 
language  retains  in  the  word  "argosy"  a  relic  of  the  carracks  of 
Ragusa,  then  known  to  Englishmen  as  Argouse,  Argusa,  or  Aragosa. 
As  the  world  widened  the  Ragusan  merchants  went  farther, — to 
India,  even,  and  America.  But  the  finest  vessels  of  their  fleet  were 
compelled  to  join  the  Spanish  Armada  and  shared  its  fate  ;  and  the 
city,  which  had  felt  shocks  of  earthquake  in  1520,  1521,  1536,  and 
1639,  was  in  April  1667  laid  utterly  in  ruins  and  lost  a  fifth  of  its 
inhabitants.  "  The  rector  of  the  republic,  five-sixths  of  the  nobles, 
nine-tenths  of  the  clergy,  a  Dutch  ambassador  with  his  suite  of 
thirty-three  on  his  way  to  Constantinople,  and  6000  citizens  were 
buried."  Ragusa  never  quite  recovered  its  prosperity,  though  it 
was  again  a  busy  trading  town  of  15,000  inhabitants  when  Napoleon 
seized  it  in  1806.  In  1808  it  was  deprived  of  its  independence  ; 
and  by  the  congress  of  Vienna  in  181f  it  was  assigned  to  Austria. 
This  is  not  the  place  to  describe  the  remarkable  literary  develop- 
ment, Latin,  Italian,  and  Slavonic,  of  which  Ragusa  was  the 
centre  in  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries,  and  to  which  so  many 
of  its  patricians  contributed  ;  a  detailed  account  will  be  found 
in  Pypin  and  Spasovich's  History  of  Slavic  Literatures  (German 
edition,  1880).  Gondulic  (Gondola)  the  poet  and  Boscovich  the 
mathematician  are  leading  names. 

See  Engel,  Geschichte  von  Ragusa  (Vienna,  1807) ;  Makusheff,  Investigations 
into  tlie  Historical  Documents  of  Ragusa  (in  Russian,  St  Petersburg,  1867);  Monu- 
mentahist.  Slavorwm ineridionalium  (Warsaw,  1864)  ;  Appendini,  Notizie storico- 
crit.  suite  antichita,  &c.,  del  Sagusei  (Ragusa,  1802-3)  ;  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson, 
Dalmatia ;  A.  A.  Paton,  The  Danube  and  Adriatic ;  J.  A.  Evans,  Thro'  Bosnia 
and  the  Herzegovina,  1876 ;  E.  A.  Freeman,  Subject  and  Neighbour  Lands  of 
Venice,  1881. 

RAGUSA,  a  city  of  Italy  in  the  province  of  Syracuse 
(Sicily),  16  miles  east  of  Vittoria  and  10  north -north- 
west of  Modica,  lies  on  the  right  side  of  the  valley  of  the 
Ragusa  or  Erminio  (Herminius).  It  consists  of  an  upper 
town  with  24,183  inhabitants  and  a  lower  town  with 
6260  (1881),  the  two  communes  having  a  total  popula- 
tion of  30,720.  The  church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Scala  is 
in  part  modern,  but  in  part  of  considerable  antiquity  and 
interest ;  and  San  Giorgio  contains  the  tomb  of  Bernardo 
Caprera  (ob.  1423),  who  tried  to  seize  the  crown  of  Sicily. 
Ragusa  possesses  a  large  cotton -factory.  Stone  impreg- 
nated with  petroleum  is  quarried  in  the  Grotta  Oleosa  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  after  the  oil  is  burned  out  becomes 
an  article  of  export  under  the  name  of  pietra  nera.  The 
city,  which  was  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  1693,  is  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  as  is  proved  by  the  numerous  ancient 
tombs  existing  in  the  district;  but  whether  it  is  to  be 
identified  with  Hybla  Herasa  is  matter  of  opinion. 


1  The  name,  of  unknown  origin,  appears  as  Rhaugia,  Rhaugium, 
Khausium,  Ragusium,  Lavusa,  Labuda,  Labusaedum,  &c. 


222 


R,  A  H  — R  A  I 


RAHEL.     See  VARNHAGEN  VON  ENSE. 

RAHWAY,  a  city  of  the  United  States  in  Union  county, 
New  Jersey,  1 9  miles  by  rail  south-west  of  New  York,  lies 
on  Rah  way  river  at  the  head  of  schooner  navigation,  about 
4  miles  above  its  mouth  in  Staten  Island  Sound.  It  is 
best  known  for  its  carriage-factories,  but  has  also  a  wool- 
mill,  a  printing-press  manufactory,  a  printing-house,  a 
shirt -factory,  a  hunting -goods  factory,  &c.  The  popula- 
tion was  6258  in  1870  and  6455  in  1880.  First  settled 
in  1720  and  named  after  Rahwack,  the  Indian  owner  of 
the  site,  Rah  way  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1858. 

RAI  BARELI  or  ROY  BAREILLY,  a  district  of  British 
India,  in  the  Rai  Bareli  division l  of  Oudh,  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  lieutenant-governor  of  the  North- 
Western  Provinces,  has  an  area  of  1738  square  miles. 
It  lies  between  25°  49'  and  26°  35'  N.  lat.  and  between 
80°  45'  and  81°  40'  E.  long.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  the  districts  of  Lucknow  and  Bara  Banki,  on  the  E. 
by  Sultanpur,  on  the  S.  by  Partabgarh  and  the  Ganges, 
and  on  the  W.  by  Unao.  The  general  aspect  of  the 
district  is  slightly  undulating,  and  the  country  is  beauti- 
fully wooded ;  in  fact,  the  beauty  of  the  country  is  not  to 
be  surpassed  by  any  part  of  the  real  plain  of  Hindustan. 
The  soil  is  remarkably  fertile,  and  the  cultivation  of  a 
high  class.  The  principal  rivers  of  the  district  are  the 
Ganges  and  the  Sai :  the  former  skirts  it  for  54  miles 
and  is  everywhere  navigable  for  boats  of  40  tons;  the 
latter  traverses  it  from  north-west  to  south-east,  a  dis- 
tance of  55  miles.  Other  rivers  are  the  Basha,  the  Loni, 
and  the  Naiya.  The  indigenous  products  of  Rai  Bareli 
consist  of  several  magnificent  and  useful  timber  trees, 
numerous  kinds  of  grazing  and  thatching  grasses,  and  a 
variety  of  rice  known  as  "pasahi,"  which  grows  wild  in 
many  tanks  and  marshes ;  its  jungle  products  are  lac  and 
silk  cocoons.  Herds  of  wild  cattle  are  to  be  found  in 
the  south  of  the  district,  near  the  Sai  river,  and  do  much 
harm  to  the  crops ;  nylghau  are  common  near  the  Ganges, 
and  wolves  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  jungles. 

According  to  the  census  of  1881  Rai  Bareli  district  contains  a 
population  of  951,905  (males  466,906,  females  484,999).  By 
religion  874,180  are  Hindus,  77,424  Mohammedans,  and  123 
Christians.  The  most  numerous  castes  are  the  Ahirs  (114,869),  the 
Brahmans(113,212),  and  the  Rajputs  (70,757).  Compared  with  other 
Oudh  districts,  the  proportion  of  high  castes  is  large,  which  is 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Rai  Bareli  was  for  centuries  the  seat 
of  Hindu  authority  and  but  little  controlled  by  the  Mohammedan 
kings.  The  population  is  almost  entirely  rural,  there  being  only 
three  towns  with  a  population  exceeding  5000,  viz.,  Rai  Bareli  (see 
below),  Jais  (11,044),  and  Dalmau  (5367).  The  principal  occupa- 
tion of  the  people  is  agriculture.  Of  the  total  area  892  square 
miles  were  in  1882  returned  as  cultivated,  432  as  cultivable,  and 
414  square  miles  as  uncultivable.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
cultivated  area  is  two-crop  land.  The  principal  crops  are  rice, 
wheat,  gram,  arhar,  and  pease.  In  years  of  scarcity  Rai  Bareli 
is  worse  off  than  other  districts,  having  no  railway  and  only 
some  56  miles  of  water  communication  along  its  border.  On 
the  other  hand,  its  masonry  wells  afford  it  a  greater  assurance 
against  famine ;  its  drainage  is  superior  to  that  of  other  districts  ; 
it  suffers  comparatively  less  from  floods  ;  and  its  area  of  artificial 
irrigation  is  so  large  that  absolute  famine  ought  to  be  almost 
unknown.  The  average  rainfall  of  the  district  is  37  inches  ;  the 
rainfall  is,  however,  very  capricious  and  often  deficient  in  the  very 
months  when  it  is  most  needed  for  agricultural  purposes.  Although 
possessing  no  railway  communication,  the  district  is  well  opened  up 
by  roads.  Its  gross  revenue  in  1882  was  £153,072,  of  which 
£129,841  was  derived  from  the  land-tax.  There  are  little  trade  and 
few  manufactures,  except  cloth-weaving  for  local  use,  the  making 
of  brass  and  copper  utensils,  and  glass  ware. 

RAI  BARELI  or  ROY  BARBELL Y,  town  and  administra- 
tive headquarters  of  the  above  district,  is  situated  on  the 


t  l  Rai  Bareli  division  comprises  the  three  districts  of  Rai  Bareli, 
Sultanpur,  and  Partabgarh,  and  contains  an  area  of  4882  square  miles, 
with  a  population  (1881)  of  2,756,864  (males  1,362,761,  females 
1,394,103).  The  great  majority  of  the  people  are  Hindus,  of  whom 
there  are  2,493,536;  the  Mohammedans  number  262,892  and  the 
Christians  226. 


banks  of  the  Sai  in  26°  14'  N.  lat.  and  81°  17'  E.  long. 
It  was  founded  by  the  Bhars,  who  called  it  Bharauli,  but 
it  was  subsequently  corrupted  into  Bareli.  The  prefix 
"Rai"  is  either  derived  from  Rahi,  a  village  near  the 
town,  or  from  the  fact  of  its  having  been  long  in  the 
possession  of  a  Kayasth  family  bearing  the  name  of  Rai. 
The  population  of  the  town  (1881)  is  11,781  (males 
5970,  females  5811).  It  possesses  many  architectural 
features,  chief  of  which  is  a  spacious  and  strong  fort 
erected  in  1403,  and  constructed  of  bricks  2  feet  long  by 
1  foot  thick  and  1|  wide.  Among  its  ancient  buildings 
are  the  magnificent  palace  and  tomb  of  Nawab  Jahan 
Khan,  the  governor  in  the  time  of  Aurangzeb,  and  four 
fine  mosques. 

RAIKES,  ROBERT  (1735-1811),  the  founder  of  Sunday 
schools,  was  the  son  of  Robert  Raikes,  a  printer  in 
Gloucester  and  proprietor  of  the  Gloucester  Journal,  and 
was  born  on  14th  September  1735.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1757  he  succeeded  him  in  the  business,  which 
he  continued  to  conduct  till  1802.  Along  with  some 
others  he  started  a  Sunday  school  at  Gloucester  in  1780, 
and  on  his  giving  publicity  to  the  enterprise  in  the  columns 
of  his  journal  the  notice  was  copied  into  the  London  papers 
and  awakened  considerable  attention.  For  nearly  thirty 
years  he  continued  actively  engaged  in  the  promotion  of 
his  undertaking,  and  he  lived  to  witness  its  wide  extension 
throughout  England.  He  died  on  5th  April  1811.  Among 
various  accounts  of  the  life  and  work  of  Raikes  mention 
may  be  made  of  that  by  P.  M.  Eastman,  1880. 

RAIL  (German  fialle,  French  JRdle,  Low  Latin  Itallus), 
originally  the  English  name  of  two  birds,  distinguished 
from  one  another  by  a  prefix  as  Land-Rail  and  Water-Rail, 
but  latterly  applied  in  a  much  wider  sense  to  all  the  species 
which  are  included  in  the  Family  Rallidse,  of  Ornithology. 

The  LAKD-RAIL,  also  very  commonly  known  as  the 
Corn-Crake,  and  sometimes  as  the  Daker-Hen,  is  the 
Rallus  crex  of  Linnaeus  and  Crex  pratensis  of  recent 
authors.  Its  monotonous  grating  cry,  which  has  given  it 
its  common  name  in  several  languages,  is  a  familiar  sound 
throughout  the  summer  nights  in  many  parts  of  the  British 
Islands ;  but  the  bird  at  that  season  very  seldom  shews 
itself,  except  when  the  mower  lays  bare  its  nest,  the  owner 
of  which,  if  it  escape  beheading  by  the  scythe,  may  be 
seen  for  an  instant  before  it  disappears  into  the  friendly 
covert  of  the  still  standing  grass.  In  early  autumn  the 
partridge-shooter  not  unfrequently  flushes  it  from  a  clover- 
field  or  tangled  hedgerow ;  and,  as  it  rises  with  apparent 
labour  and  slowly  flies  away  to  drop  into  the  next  place 
of  concealment,  if  it  fall  not  to  his  gun,  he  wonders  how 
so  weak-winged  a  creature  can  ever  make  its  way  to  the 
shores  if  not  to  the  interior  of  Africa,  whither  it  is  almost 
certainly  bound;  for,  with  comparatively  few  individual 
exceptions,  the  Land-Rail  is  essentially  migratory — nay 
more  than  that,  it  is  the  Ortygometra  of  classical  authors 
— supposed  by  them  to  lead  the  QUAIL  (supra,  p.  146)  on 
its  voyages — and  in  the  course  of  its  wanderings  has  now 
been  known  to  reach  the  coast  of  Greenland,  and  several 
times  that  of  North  America,  to  say  nothing  of  Bermuda, 
in  every  instance  we  may  believe  as  a  straggler  from  Europe 
or  Barbary.  The  Land-Rail  needs  but  a  brief  description. 
It  looks  about  as  big  as  a  Partridge,  but  on  examination 
its  appearance  is  found  to  be  very  deceptive,  and  it  will 
hardly  ever  weigh  more  than  half  as  much.  The  plum- 
age above  is  of  a  tawny  brown,  the  feathers  being  longi- 
tudinally streaked  with  blackish  brown ;  beneath  it  is  of 
a  yellowish  white ;  but  the  flanks  are  of  a  light  chestnut. 
The  species  is  very  locally  distributed,  and  in  a  way  for 
which  there  is  at  present  no  accounting.  In  some  dry 
upland  and  corn-growing  districts  it  is  plentiful ;  in  others, 
of  apparently  the  same  character,  it  but  rarely  occurs  ;  and 


R  A  I  —  R  A  I 


223 


the  same  may  be  said  in  regard  to  low -lying  marshy 
meadows,  in  most  of  which  it  is  in  season  always  to  be 
heard,  while  in  others  having  a  close  resemblance  to  them 
it  is  never  met  with.  The  nest  is  on  the  ground,  generally 
in  long  grass,  and  therein  from  nine  to  eleven  eggs  are 
commonly  laid.  These  are  of  a  cream-colour,  spotted  and 
blotched  with  light  red  and  grey.  The  young  when 
hatched  are  thickly  clothed  with  black  down,  as  is  the  case 
in  nearly  all  species  of  the  Family. 

The  WATER-RAIL,  locally  known  as  the  Skiddy  or  Bill- 
cock,  is  the  Rallus  aquations  of  Ornithology,  and  seems  to 
be  less  abundant  than  the  preceding,  though  that  is  in 
some  measure  due  to  its  frequenting  places  into  which  from 
their  swampy  nature  men  do  not  often  intrude.  Having 
a  general  resemblance  to  the  Land-Rail,1  it  can  be  in  a 
moment  distinguished  by  its  partly  red  and  much  longer 
bill,  and  the  darker  coloration  of  its  plumage — the  upper 
parts  being  of  an  olive  brown  Avith  black  streaks,  the 
breast  and  belly  of  a  sooty  grey,  and  the  flanks  dull  black 
barred  with  white.  Its  geographical  distribution  is  very 
wide,  extending  from  Iceland  (where  it  is  said  to  preserve 
its  existence  during  winter  by  resorting  to  the  hot  springs) 
to  China ;  and  though  it  inhabits  Northern  India,  Lower 
Egypt,  and  Barbary,  it  seems  not  to  pass  beyond  the  tropical 
line.  It  never  affects  upland  districts  as  does  the  Land- 
Rail,  but  always  haunts  wet  marshes  or  the  close  vicinity 
of  water.  Its  love-note  is  a  loud  and  harsh  cry,  not  con- 
tinually repeated  as  is  that  of  the  Land-Rail,  but  uttered 
at  considerable  intervals  and  so  suddenly  as  to  have  been 
termed  "explosive."  Besides  this,  which  is  peculiar  to 
the  cock-bird,  it  has  a  croaking  call  that  is  frog-like.  The 
eggs  resemble  those  of  the  preceding,  but  are  more 
brightly  and  delicately  tinted. 

The  various  species  of  Rails,  whether  allied  to  the  former  or  latter 
of  those  just  mentioned,  are  far  too  numerous  to  be  here  noticed. 
Hardly  any  part  of  the  world  is  without  a  representative  of  the 
genera  Crcx  or  Rallus,  and  every  considerable  country  has  one  or 


perhaps  more  of  each — though  it  has  been  the  habit  of  systematists 
to  refer  them  to  many  other  genera,  the  characters  of  which  are 
with  difficulty  found.  Thus  in  Europe  alone  three  other  species 
allied  to  Crcx  pratensis  occur  more  or  less  abundantly  ;  but  one  of 
them,  the  Spotted  Rail  or  Crake,  has  been  made  the  type  of  a  so- 
called  genus  Porzana,  and  the  other  two,  little  birds  not  much 
bigger  than  Larks,  are  considered  to  form  a  genus  Zapornia.  The 
first  of  these,  which  used  not  to  be  uncommon  in  the  eastern  part 
of  England,  has  a  very  near  representative  in  the  Carolina  Rail  or 
Sora,  Crex  Carolina,  of  North  America,  often  there  miscalled  the 
Ortolan,  just  as  its  European  analogue,  C.  porzana,  is  in  England 
often  termed  the  Dotterel.  But,  passing  over  these  as  well  as 
some  belonging  to  genera  that  can  be  much  better  defined,  and 
other  still  more  interesting  forms  of  the  Family,  as  Aphanapteryx 
(BIRDS,  vol.  iii.  p.  733),  COOT  (vol.  vi.  p.  341),  MOOK-HEN  (vol. 
xvi.  p.  808),  and  OCYDROME  (vol.  xvii.  p.  722),  a  few  words  must 
be  said  of  the  more  distant  group  formed  by  the  South-American 
Heliornis,  and  the  African  and  Indian  Podica,  comprising  four  or 
five  species,  to  which  the  name  "Finfoots"  has  been  applied  — 
from  the  lobes  or  flaps  of  skin  that  fringe  their  toes.  Though  for  a 
long  while  placed  among  the  Podidpedidse,  (GREBE,  vol.  xi.  p.  79), 
their  osteology  no  less  than  their  habits  appear  to  indicate  their 
alliance  with  the  Rails,  if  they  be  not  members  of  the  Family 
JKallidas  ;  but  they  seem  to  shew  the  extreme  modification  of  that 
type  in  adaptation  to  aquatic  life.  Then  again  the  curious  genus 
Mesites  of  Madagascar,  whose  systematic  place  has  been  so  long  in 
doubt,  has  been  referred  by  Prof.  Alph.  Milne-Edwards  (Ann.  Sc. 
Naturelle,  ser.  6,  vii.  art.  2)  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Rails, 
though  offering  some  points  of  resemblance  to  the  Herons.  On 
the  other  hand  the  Jacanas  (vol.  xiii.  p.  531)  or  Parridse,  which 
from  their  long  toes  were  once  thought  to  belong  to  the  Rails,  are 
now  generally  admitted  to  be  Limicoline,  while  the  genus  Aram/us 
— the  Courlan  or  Limpkin  of  the  Southern  United  States — still 
occupies  a  very  undetermined  position.  On  the  whole  the  RallidsR 
constitute  a  group  of  birds  which,  particularly  as  regards  their 
relations  to  some  other  remarkable  forms,  of  which  the  Sun-Bittern, 
Eurypyga,  and  Kagu,  Rhinoclwtus,  may  especially  be  named,  well 
deserve  greater  attention  from  the  systematist,  and  any  ornitho- 
logist in  want  of  a  subject  could  hardly  find  one  more  likely  to 
reward  his  labours  if  he  were  only  to  carry  them  out  in  a  judicious 
way.  Based  on  the  safe  ground  of  anatomy,  but  due  regard  being 
also  had  to  the  external  characters,  habits,  and  other  peculiarities 
of  this  multifarious  group,  a  monograph  might  be  produced  of  sur- 
passing interest,  and  one  that  in  its  bearings  on  the  doctrine  of 
evolution  would  be  likely  to  prove  a  telling  record.  (A.  N. ) 


E 


AIL  WAYS  had  their  origin  in  the  tramways  which 

were  laid  more  than  two  hundred  years  ago  in  the 

mineral  districts  of  England  for  the  conveyance  of  coal  to 
the  sea.  In  those  days,  before  Macadam,  roads  bearing 
.a-1  heavy  traffic  were  with  difficulty  kept  in  repair.  This  led 
'oa  to  the  plan  of  laying  planks  or  timbers  at  the  bottom  of 
the  ruts  as  a  better  contrivance  than  filling  in  with  stones, 
and  then  to  laying  rails  of  timber  on  the  level  surface.  In 
1676  tramways  consisted  of  rails  of  timber  laid  "from  the 
colliery  to  the  river,  exactly  straight  and  parallel,  and  bulky 
carts  were  made  with  four  rollers  fitting  the  rails,  whereby 
the  carriage  was  so  easy  that  one  horse  would  draw  down 
four  or  five  chaldron  of  coals."  The  rails  originally  were 
formed  of  scantlings  of  good  sound  oak,  and  were  con- 
nected by  sills  or  cross  timbers  of  the  same  material  pinned 
together  with  oak  trenails.  By  and  by  an  additional  or 
wearing  rail,  which  could  be  easily  renewed  when  worn,  was 
placed  above  the  supporting  rail,  and  it  was  then  possible 
to  cover  the  cross  pieces  or  sleepers  with  earth  to  protect 
them  from  the  horses'  feet.  These  ways,  laid  by  permis- 
sion of  local  proprietors,  were  called  "way-leaves."  It 
became  a  common  practice  to  nail  down  bars  of  wrought 
iron  on  the  surfaces  of  the  ascending  inclines  of  the  road. 
These  bars  or  rails  were  about  2  inches  wide  and  half  an 
inch  thick,  and  were  fastened  to  the  wood  rails  by  counter- 
sunk spikes.  But  the  iron  bars,  not  being  stiff  enough, 

1  Formerly  it  seems  to  have  been  a  popiilar  belief  in  England  that 
the  Land-Rail  in  autumn  transformed  itself  into  a  Water-Rail,  resuming 
its  own  characters  in  spring.  The  writer  has  met  with  several  persons 
who  had  serious  doubts  on  the  subject  ! 


were  considerably  bent  when  the  trucks  were  loaded,  and 
the  resistance  was  reduced  but  slightly  below  that  of  a 
well-constructed  double  wooden  tramway.2  Nevertheless, 
while  the  regular  load  of  coals  for  one  horse  on  the  common 
road  was  but  17  cwt.,  on  the  tramway  the  horse  could 
regularly  take  a  load  of  42  cwt.  Cast-iron  was  first  tried  iron 
incidentally  as  a  material  for 
rails  in  1767  by  the  Coal- 
brookdale  Iron  Company. 
The  iron  rails  were  cast  in 
lengths  of  5  feet,  4  inches 
wide,  and  1£  inches  thick, 
formed  with  three  holes, 
through  which  they  were 
fastened  to  the  oak  rails. 
The  tramway  was  developed 
into  the  railway  by  the  em- 
ployment of  cast-iron  flange 
rails  (fig.  1)  to  replace  the 
wooden  rails  ;  the  continuous 
flange  or  ledge  on  their  inner 


FIG.  1. — The  tram-road, 
1776-1800. 


edge  kept  the  wheels  on  the  track.  The  roads  were 
then  called  tram-roads,  probably  as  an  abbreviation  of 
trammel -roads,  the  flanges  of  the  rails  being  in  reality 
trammels  to  gauge  the  road  and  confine  the  wheels  to 


2  The  earliest  system  of  way  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
and  other  railroads  in  the  United  States  was  a  simple  reproduction  of 
this  compound  of  wood  and  iron.  As  the  ends  of  the  bars  became  loose 
and  turned  upwards  they  were  known  as  "  snakes'  heads. "  Occasion- 
ally they  pierced  the  floors  of  the  carriages  and  injured  passengers. 


RAILWAY 


the  track.      The  leading   objection  to   this   system  was 

that  the  rail  was  liable  to  be  covered  with  dust.     Jessop 

therefore  in  1789  laid  down  at  Loughborough  cast-iron 

"  edge  rails,"  raised  above  the  ground 

so  as  to  allow  a  flanged  cast-iron  wheel 

to  run  on  them  (fig.  2).    This  appears 

to  have  been  the  first  system  of  rails 

laid  on  cast-iron  chairs  and  on  sleepers. 

The  rails  were  pinned  or  bolted  into 

the  chairs.     A  wrought-iron  rail  was 

patented  by  Birkenshaw  in  1820,  as 

the  "fish-belly"  rail,  similar  in  form 

and  mode  of  support  to  Jessop's  rail, 

but    rolled    in     continuous    lengths, 

embracing  a  number  of  spans,  withl|| 

stiffening   ledges   or   flanges   on   thet^ 


Fio.  2.— The  edge  rail,  1789. 

under  side.  This  form  of  rail  grew  into  favour.  It 
weighed  33  Bb  per  yard,  and  was  laid  in  cast-iron  chairs, 
spiked  down  to  square  stone  blocks  at  3-feet  bearings  (see 
fig.  3).  The, 
edge  rail  and 
the  flanged 
wheel  consti- 
tute the  basis 
of  the  whole 
system  of  a 
railway.  The 
rails  forming  a 
line  of  way 
were  placed  to 
a  gauge  or  dis- 
tance apart  of  4 
feet  8J  inches, 


JHL 


JHL 


TUT 


TEJ 


FIG.  3.— The  fish-belly  rail,  1820-30. 


and  two  parallel  lines  of  way  were  spaced  with  6  feet 
between  the  inner  rails  of  the  ways.  This  interspace  is 
popularly  known  as  the  "  six-foot." 

The  benefits  derived  from  the  use  of  the  tramway  or 
railway  for  the  transport  of  coal  suggested  to  reflective 
persons  the  employment  of  it  for  the  conveyance  of  general 
merchandise  and  of  passengers.  For  the  conveyance  of 
heavy  merchandise  inland  the  canals  little  more  than  sixty 
years  ago  furnished  the  principal  means.  Though  there 
were  three  such  water-routes  between  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester, they  were  sometimes  so  crowded  that  cotton  took 
a  month  to  pass  from  the  seaport  to  the  manufacturing 
towns  in  the  interior ;  yet  the  whole  of  the  merchandise 
passing  between  Liverpool  and  Manchester  did  not  average 
more  than  1 200  tons  a  day.  The  average  rate  of  carriage  was 
18s.  per  ton,  and  the  average  time  of  transit  on  the  50  miles 
of  canal  was  thirty-six  hours.  The  conveyance  of  passengers 
by  the  improved  coach-roads  was  comparatively  rapid,  but 
Stockton  it  was  very  costly.  The  first  great  movement  to  mend  this 
andTDar-  state  of  things  was  the  passing  of  the  Act  in  1821  for 
construction  of  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  Railway. 
Colliery  railways  were  in  evidence  to  prove  the  benefits 
of  railway  communication  by  steam-power.  The  Hetton 
Railway,  for  instance,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Newcastle, 
from  the  colliery  to  the  river  Wear,  was  7  miles  long,  and 
trains  of  60  tons  net  weight  were  taken  over  the  line  a1 
a  speed  of  4J  miles  per  hour.  On  the  Killingworth  Rail 
way  an  engine  and  tender  weighing  10  tons  drew  a  loac 
of  40  tons  at  a  speed  of  6  miles  per  hour,  consuming  50  ft 
of  coal  per  mile  run.  Whilst  animal-power  only  was 
first  relied  on  for  working  the  Stockton  and  Darlington 


' 


Railway,  the  Act  provided  for  working  with  men  and 
xorses  or  "  otherwise."  By  another  Act  applied  for  at  the 
•equest  of  George  Stephenson,  who  became  engineer  to  the 
ine,  the  company  was  empowered  to  work  the  railway  with 
ocomotive  engines.  The  line,  with  three  branches,  was 
over  38  miles  in  length,  and  was  at  first  laid  as  a  single 
e,  with  passing  places  at  intervals  of  a  quarter  of  a 
mile,  the  way  being  constructed  with  wrought-iron  fish- 
jelly  rails,  weighing  28  Bb  per  yard.  It  was  opened  in 
icptember  1825  by  a  train  of  thirty -four  vehicles,  making 
a  gross  load  of  about  90  tons,  drawn  by  one  engine  driven 

Stephenson,  with  a  signalman  on  horseback  in  advance. 
The  train  moved  off  at  the  rate  of  from  10  to  12  miles  an 
lour,  and  attained  a  speed  of  1 5  miles  per  hour  on  favour- 
able parts  of  the  line.  A  train  weighing  92  tons  could  be 
drawn  by  one  engine  at  the  rate  of  5  miles  per  hour.  The 
principal  business  of  the  new  railway  was  the  conveyance 
of  minerals  and  goods,  but  from  the  first  passengers  in- 
sisted upon  being  carried,  and  in  October  1825  the  com- 
pany began  to  run  a  daily  coach,  called  the  "  Experiment," 
to  carry  six  inside,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  outside, 
making  the  journey  from  Darlington  to  Stockton  and  back 
in  two  hours.  The  fare  was  Is.,  and  each  passenger  was 
allowed  to  take  baggage  not  exceeding  14  Bb  weight.  The 
rate  for  carriage  of  merchandise  was  reduced  from  5d.  to 
one-fifth  of  a  penny  per  ton  per  mile,  and  that  of  minerals 
from  7d.  to  l|d.  per  ton  per  mile.  The  price  of  coals  at 
Darlington  fell  from  18s.  to  8s.  6d.  per  ton. 

The  Monklands  Railway  in  Scotland,  opened  in  1826,  Earlie 
was  the  first  to  follow  the  example  of  the  Stockton  and  lines. 
Darlington  line,  and  several  other  small  lines— including 
the  Canterbury  and  Whitstable,  worked  partly  by  fixed 
engines  and  partly  by  locomotives — quickly  adopted  steam- 
traction.  But  the  inauguration  of  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  Railway,  opened  in  1829,  made  the  first 
great  impression  on  the  national  mind  that  a  revolution 
in  the  modes  of  travelling  had  really  taken  place.  In 
1838  a  line  was  opened  between  London  and  Birmingham, 
and  the  first  train  accomplished  the  whole  distance — 112£ 
miles — at  an  average  speed  of  over  20  miles  per  hour. 
The  London  and  Greenwich,  the  London  and  Southamp- 
ton, the  Great  Western,  Birmingham  and  Derby,  Bristol 
and  Exeter,  Eastern  Counties,  Manchester  and  Leeds, 
Grand  Junction,  Midland  Counties,  North  Midland,  South- 
Eastern,  London  and  Brighton,  Manchester  and  Birming- 
ham, and  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  together  with  many 
small  Bills,  were  all  passed  within  four  years  from  the 
time  of  the  passing  of  the  London  and  Birmingham  Bill. 
Thus  in  the  course  of  four  or  five  years  the  foundations 
were  laid  of  most  of  the  existing  trunk  lines  of  railway 
in  Great  Britain.  The  original  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
line,  30£  miles  in  length,  now  forms  part  of  a  network  of 
lines,  the  property  of  one  company,  nearly  1 800  miles  in 
extent,  representing  a  capital  invested  in  railway  works 
and  plant  of  £100,000,000. 

Meantime  the  construction  of  the  way  was  the  subject  Kinc 
of  much  consideration.     The  fish-belly  form  of  wrought- raiL 
iron  rail  was  troublesome  to  roll,  and  so  the  flat-bottom 
or  flat-foot  rail  (fig.  4)  was  designed, 
combining  a  solid  head  with  a  flange 
base.     This  rail,  with  holes  through  the 
flange  to  hold  the  spikes,  was  used  to 
some   extent,  and  was   laid  on   longi- 
tudinal  timber    sleepers,  and  also   on 
transverse  sleepers.     The  disadvantage 
was  want  of  vertical  stiffness  of  the  system ;  and,  if  the  rail 
was  made  higher,  it  was  liable  to  rock  on  the  sleeper  and 
work  loose  on  the  spikes.     This  rail,  known  as  the  Vignoles 
rail,  has  been  much  improved  in  form  and  proportions 
and  is  extensively  used.     The  bridge  rail  (fig.  5) — so  called 


FIG.  4.— The  flat- 
bottomed  rail. 


RAILWAY 


225 


because  it  was  first  laid  on  bridges — was  that  first  used 
on  the  Great  Western  Railway,  and  is  of  a  shallow  section, 
but  wide,  and  possessed  of  lateral  stiff- 
ness. The  first  line  was  a  series  of  beech 
piles,  12  inches  square,  driven  into  the  FIG.  5. — The  bridge 
ground,  to  which  were  bolted  at  the  sur-  rail- 

face  level  cross  balks  of  timber,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
pilehead  on  which  they  were  shouldered.  Longitudinal 
balks,  1 5  feet  long,  were  laid  on  the  cross  balks.  The  longi- 
tudinals were  covered  with  oak  or  elm  planking  screwed 
down  to  the  surface.  When  the  ballast  was  packed  under 
the  longitudinal  balks,  the  surface  of  the  oak  planks  was 
planed  level,  and  the  bridge  rails  screwed  down  on  them, 
with  felt  between.  It  was  supposed  that  there  would  be 
no  yielding  whatever,  but  a  very  short  time  demonstrated 
that  the  piles  formed  a  series  of  solid  resistances,  while 
the  balks  between  sprang,  and  it  was  found  necessary  to 
cut  away  the  piles.  Transoms  were  then  framed  into 
the  longitudinals  and  secured  by  strap -bolts,  and  the 
whole  resembled  a  long  ladder  laid  on  the  ground.  Eight 
different  sections  of  rails  were  tried  in  succession ;  one 
section  measured  1 J  inches  in  height  by  7  inches  in  width, 
weighing  44  K>  per  yard ;  and  the  last  section  2f  inches 
high  by  6  inches  wide,  weighing  62  Ib  per  yard.  The 
screws  which  held  down  the  rails  were  counter-sunk  be- 
neath the  wheel-flanges,  and  nut-headed  on  the  other  side 
(see  fig.  6).  In  consequence  of  the  ^a 

want  of  depth  in  the  rails,  they  bent 

longitudinally   under    the   wheels,  QSE3 

and  the  horizontal  flanges  curled 

up  at   the  sides,   while   the  holes  Fig.    6.  —  Bridge    rail   on 

through  them  bent  into  angles.  One    Great  Western  Railway. 

remedy  tried  was  to  cross-board  the  longitudinal  timbers 

on  the  surface,  and  thus  the  fibre  was  made  less  yielding. 

The  double-headed  rail  (fig.  7)  was  originated  by  Joseph 
Locke,  and  was  first  laid  on  the  Grand  Junction 
Railway.  It  also  weighed  62  Ib  per  yard.  The 
two  tables  were  equal ;  the  rail  was  more  easily 
rolled  than  others,  and,  being  reversible,  it  was 
in  fact  two  rails  in  one.  But  as  it  was  laid  in 
cast-iron  chairs  the  lower  table  was  exposed  to  FIG.  7. — The 
damage  under  the  hammering  of  the  traffic ;  and  double- 
many  engineers  were  led  to  make  the  lower 
table  of  smaller  size,  as  in  fig.  8,  merely  as  a 
support,  not  as  a  surface  to  be  used  by  the  wheels.  This 
rail,  which  acquired  the  title  of  "  bull-headed,"  was,  like 
the  flat-foot  and  bridge  rails,  used  as  a 
prop  supported  on  its  base.  There  was  a 
waste  of  metal  in  these  early  rails,  both 
flat-foot  and  double-headed,  owing  to  the 
excessive  thickness  of  the  vertical  web, 
which  has  been  corrected  in  recent  designs. 
It  was  found,  naturally,  that  rails  would 
not  rest  in  their  chairs  at  the  joints,  but 
were  loosened  and  bruised  at  the  ends  by 
the  blows  of  the  traffic.  The  fish-joint  Fr°-  8;TThe,bV«" 
was  therefore  devised  in  1847  by  Mr  W.  a  pw  y.£d). ( 
Bridges  Adams,  the  intention  being  by 
"fishing"  the  joints  to  convert  the  rails  into  continuous 
beams.  In  the  original  design  two  chairs  were  placed, 
one  under  each  rail,  a  few  inches  apart,  as  in  fig.  9.  The 
joint  was  thus  suspended  between  the  two  chairs,  and  two 
keys  of  iron,  called  "  fishes,"  fitting  the  side  channels  of  the 
rails,  were  driven  in  on  each  side  between  the  chairs  and 
the  rails.  In  subsequent  modifications  the  fishes  were, 
and  they  continue  to  be,  bolted  to  and  through  the  rails, 
the  sleepers  being  placed  further  apart,  and  the  joint  sus- 
pended between  them. 

In  the  employment  of  steam-power  for  traction  on  rail- 
ways rapid  progress  was  made  in  response  to  the  demand 


headed 
rail. 


for  power.     The  year  1829  is  famous  in  the  annals  of  rail- 
ways not  only  for  the  opening  of  the  Liverpool  and  Mau- 


FIG.  9.  — The  original  fish-joint,  by  W.  Bridges  Adams. 

Chester  line  but  for  the  invention  and  construction  of  the 
first  high-speed  locomotive  of  the  standard  modern  type. 
Robert  Stephenson's  engine,  the  "Rocket,"  was  made 
under  competition  for  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Rail- 
way, and  it  gained  the  prize  for  lightness,  power,  and  speed 
awarded  by  the  directors.  The  two  steam-cylinders  of  the 
"Rocket"  were  8  inches  in  diameter,  with  16^  inches  of 
stroke,  and  the  driving-wheels  were  4  feet  8|  inches  in 
diameter.  The  engine  weighed  4  tons  5  cwt.,  the  tender 
following  it  3  tons  4  cwt.,  and  two  loaded  carriages  drawn 
by  it  on  the  trial  9  tons  II  cwt.  :  thus  the  weight  drawn 
was  12  tons  15  cwt.,  and  the  gross  total  17  tons.  The 
pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler  was  50  Bb  per  square  inch. 
An  average  speed  of  14  miles  per  hour  was  attained,  the 
greatest  velocity  being  29  miles  per  hour ;  and  the  boiler 
evaporated  18|  cubic  feet,  or  114  gallons,  of  water  per 
hour.  The  "  Rocket "  possessed  the  three  elements  of  effi- 
ciency of  the  modern  locomotive, — the  internal  water- 
surrounded  fire-box  and  the  multitubular  flue  in  the  boiler, 
or  a  number  of  small  tubes  in  place  of  one  large  tube ;  the 
blast-pipe,  by  which  the  waste  steam  of  the  engine  was 
exhausted  up  the  chimney ;  and  the  direct  connexion  of 
the  two  steam-cylinders,  one  on  each  side  of  the  engine, 
with  the  driving  or  propelling  wheels,  on  one  axle.  The 
subdivision  of  the  single  large  flue,  up  to  that  time  in 
general  use  in  locomotives,  into  a  number  of  small  tubes 
greatly  accelerated  the  generation  of  steam  without  adding 
to  the  size  or  weight  of  the  boiler.  But  the  evaporating 
tubes  would  have  been  of  little  avail  practically  had  they 
not  been  supplemented  by  the  blast-pipe,  which,  by  ejecting 
the  steam  from  the  engine  after  it  had  done  its  work  in  the 
cylinder  straight  up  the  chimney,  excited  a  strong  draught 
through  the  boiler  and  caused  a  brisk  and  rapid  combustion 
of  fuel  and  generation  of  heat.  The  heat  was  absorbed 
with  proportional  rapidity  through  the  newly  applied  heat- 
ing-tubes. The  blast-pipe,  thus  applied,  in  conjunction 
with  the  multitubular  flue,  vastly  improved  the  capacity 
and  usefulness  of  the  locomotive.  And,  taking  into  account 
the  direct  connexion  of  the  steam-cylinder  with  one  axle 
and  pair  of  wheels,  the  improvements  were  tantamount  to 
a  new  and  original  machine.  The  "  Rocket "  subsequently 
drew  an  average  gross  load  of  40  tons  behind  the  tender 
at  a  speed  of  13'3  miles  per  hour.  The  old  Killingworth 
engine,  one  of  the  earlier  type  of  locomotives  constructed 
by  George  Stephenson,  weighing  with  its  tender  10  tons, 
could  only  work  at  a  maximum  of  6  miles  per  hour  with 
50  tons. 

For  many  years  engines  belonged  to  two  general  classes. 
In  one  class  there  were  six  wheels,  of  which  one  pair  was 
placed  behind  the  boiler,  typified  in  the  engines  of  the  day 
made  by  Robert  Stephenson  ;  in  the  other  class  there  were 
but  four  wheels,  placed  under  the  barrel  of  the  boiler, 
leaving  the  fire-box  overhung,  typified  in  the  engines  made 
by  Bury  for  the  London  and  Birmingham  Railway.  Ex- 
perience demonstrated  the  disadvantage  of  an  overhanging 
mass,  with  a  very  limited  wheel-base,  in  the  four-wheeled 
engine  running  at  high  speed;  and  now  it  is  the  general 

XX.  —  29 


226 


RAILWAY 


practice  to  apply  six  wheels  at  least  to  all  ordinary  loco- 
motive stock.  The  earliest  four-wheeled  locomotive  con- 
structed by  Robert  Stephenson  and  Co.  as  an  article  of 
regular  manufacture  weighed  9  tons  in  working  order. 
The  six-wheeled  engines  which  followed  weighed  1 1 J  tons. 
In  the  course  of  business  locomotives  of  greater  power 
and  greater  weight  were  constructed  ;  and  there  are  loco- 
motives of  the  present  time  which  weigh  47 J  tons  in 
working  order,  and  with  the  tender  full  of  water  and 
coal  about  80  tons  gross.  There  are  other  engines  of 
special  design  with  twelve  wheels  which  weigh  in  working 
order,  with  fuel  and  water,  72  tons.  The  contrast  is 
emphasized  in  the  history  of  the  old  Garnkirk  and  Glasgow 
Railway,  which  was  opened  about  the  year  1829.  The 
first  engines  of  that  line  weighed  from  8  to  9  tons.  They 
had  steam-cylinders  1 1  inches  in  diameter,  and  4-f  eet  wheels 
of  cast-iron,  with  a  working  pressure  in  the  boiler  of  50  K> 
per  square  inch.  The  "  Garnkirk  "  engine  used  to  take  a 
train  of  three  carriages,  together  Aveighing  7  tons  gross,  at 
the  average  speed  of  16  miles  per  hour  between  Glasgow 
and  Gartsherrie.  "When  the  old  line,  8  miles  in  length, 
was  merged  in  the  Caledonian  Railway,  now  comprising  a 
system  of  nearly  1000  miles  in  length,  the  power  of  the 
engines  was  greatly  increased,  and  at  this  day  (1885)  there 
are  express  passenger  engines  working  over  the  same  ground 
having  large  cylinders  of  17  or  18  inches  in  diameter,  and 
wheels  of  7  and  8  feet  in  diameter,  weighing  from  35  to 
45  tons.  These  engines,  with  steam  of  120  ft)  pressure 
per  square  inch,  take  a  gross  load  of  90  tons  at  a  speed  of 
from  40  to  50  miles  per  hour. 

STATISTICS. 

Length  of  Railways  in  the  United  Kingdom. — The  length  of  rail- 
ways open  for  traffic  at  the  end  of  the  year  1854,  twenty-five  years 
after  the  opening  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway,  was 
8053  miles  (of  which  nearly  one-fourth  was  single  line  of  way),  cost- 
ing about  £35,500  per  mile.  In  1874  that  mileage  was  doubled 
(16,449  miles,  nearly  one-half  being  only  single  line),  costing 
about  £37,000  per  mile.  According  to  the  latest  published  return 
the  length  of  railways  open  for  traffic  at  the  end  of  1883  amounted 
to  18,681  miles,  and  the  proportion  of  single  line  had  decreased, 
being  under  46  per  cent.  Whilst  the  mileage  open  was  increased 
at  the  rate  of  420  miles  a  year  during  the  earlier  period  (1854-74), 
it  was  only  increased  by  248  miles  a  year  during  the  later  period 
(1874-83).  But  many  miles  of  way  in  multiple  have  been  laid  for 
the  working  of  traffic  concentrated  on  main  lines, — 127  miles  of 
triple  line  and  285  of  quadruple.  The  largest  share  of  multiple 
way  belongs  to  the  London  and  North- Western  Railway  Company, 
which  owns  28  miles  of  triple  way  and  no  less  than  114  of  quad- 
ruple. The  principal  section  of  this  railway,  80  miles  in  length, 
between  London  and  Rugby,  is  entirely  in  quadruple, — two  lines 
for  goods  and  two  for  passenger  traffic.  Table  I.  shows  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  18,681  miles  of  railway  open  at  the  end  of  1883  : — 


Country. 

Double  Line  or 
more. 

Single  Line. 

Total. 

England  and  Wales    

Miles.     Per  cent. 
8,380    or     63-5 

Miles.    Per  cent. 
4,835    or    36-5 

Miles. 
13,215 

Scotland    

1,147     „     39 

1,817     „     61 

2,964 

Ireland      

578     „     23 

1,924     „     77 

2,502 

Total... 

10.105     ,,     54 

8,576     „     46 

18,681 

The  railways  here  represented  were  owned  by  281  companies  (206 
in  England  and  Wales,  31  in  Scotland,  and  44  in  Ireland).  But 
the  whole  property  is  worked  by  123  companies.1 

The  longest  mileage  of  railway  worked  by  one  company  is  that 
of  the  Great  Western  Railway,  which  at  the  end  of  1883  was  2268 
miles.  Next  to  this  ranks  the  London  and  North-Western  (1793), 
then  the  North-Eastern  (1534),  the  Midland  (1381),  the  North- 
British  (1006),  and  the  Caledonian  (877).  The  three  longest  mile- 
ages in  Ireland  owned  each  by  one  company  are  those  of  the  Great 
Northern  (503),  the  Great  Southern  and  Western  (478),  and  the 
Midland  Great  Western  (425).  The  four  largest  English  com- 
panies, taken  together,  work  nearly  7000  miles  of  railway, — more 
than  half  of  the  whole  length  of  railways  in  England  and  Wales. 
The  two  leading  lines  in  Scotland,  taken  together,  work  nearly 
1900,  or  two-thirds  of  the  whole  length  of  railways  in  Scotland.  In 

1  It  would  appear  that  less  progress  has  been  made  in  Ireland  than 
in  Great  Britain  in  amalgamation  and  concentration  of  management. 


Miles 
Open. 

Capital. 

Per  Mile 
1883. 

Per  Mile 
1857. 

England  and  Wales    

13,215 

650,945,834 

£49  260 

£39,270 

Scotland     

2,964 

98  531  315 

33  240 

28  230 

Ireland   

2,502 

35,444  163 

14  170 

15  OCO 

18,681 

784,921,312 

42,020 

34,950 

Ireland  the  three  leading  lines,  taken  together,  work  1400,— more 

than  half  of  the  whole  length  of  railways  in  Ireland. 

Capital  Invested,  Expenditure  per  Mile,  &c. — The  capital  raised  Oajii 

for  the   construction  of  railways  at  the   end  of  the   year  1883  inve; 

amounted  to  about  £785,000,000,  representing  an  expenditure  of 

£42,000  per  mile  open.     Some  small  portion  of  this  cost  belongs 

to  lines  in  course  of  construction.     The  money  has  been  raised  in 

the  following  proportions  : — 

Ordinary  share  capital  paid  up £293,437,106  or  37'4  per  cent. 

Guaranteed  stock  94,672,823   „   12-1        ,, 

Preferential  stock 200,888,198   „   25-6 

Loans     15,323,505   „      1'9        „ 

Debenture  stock    180,599,680   „   23- 0        „ 

Total  (say  £785,000,000)....  £784,921,312  „  lOO'O        „ 

In  1857  the  ordinary  stock  was  57  per  cent.,  as  against  37'4  per 
cent,  in  1883  ;  and  the  guaranteed  and  preferential  stock  together 
were  but  one-third  of  the  ordinary  share  capital,  while  in  1883  they 
equalled  it.  The  English  railway  system,  so  far  as  capital  is  con- 
cerned, has  become  adjusted  to  the  rule  of  having  rather  less  than 
40  per  cent,  of  the  capital  in  "open  stock."  In  1845-46  the  divi- 
dends of  railways  appear  to  have  reached  a  maximum.  The  pre- 
cipitate influx  of  new  lines  during  the  four  years  from  1846  to 
1850,  contests  before  parliament,  competition  in  various  forms,  ami 
other  causes  then  came  in  to  depress  dividends,  and  reduced  the 
average  proportion  of  net  receipts  in  1849  to  2 '83  per  cent,  of  the 
total  capital  and  loans  raised  at  that  time.  In  1857  the  percentage 
of  net  receipts  had  risen  again  to  4 '06  per  cent,  of  the  total  capital 
and  loans  ;  and  notwithstanding  the  accumulation  of  preference 
capital  and  loans,  both  taking  precedence  of  ordinary  capital,  the 
available  dividend  on  the  latter  increased  from  1'88  per  cent,  to 
3'6  per  cent.  Since  that  time  the  average  dividend  paid  on 
ordinary  capital  has  maintained  its  level  at  least,  and  it  amounted 
for  1883  to  4 '68  per  cent.  The  average  cost  per  mile  open  at  the 
end  of  1883,  calculated  on  the  amount  of  capital  raised,  with  that 
for  1857  added  for  comparison,  was  as  follows  (Table  II.) : — 


The  marked  increase  in  capital  expenditure  per  mile  is  due  to  per-  Cost 
manent  improvements,  station  accommodation,  reconstruction,  and  niile. 
multi plication  of  lines.  Of  the  great  cost  of  English  railways,  inde- 
pendently of  the  permanent  improvements  already  noticed,  part 
has  been  incurred  in  parliamentary  warfare,  while  much  of  it  is 
due  to  great  and  costly  termini,  and  to  the  character  of  the  earlier 
works  of  construction  in  England,  where  great  expenditure  was 
incurred  for  the  sake  of  securing  long  levels  and  very  easy  gradi- 
ents, until  Joseph  Locke  made  a  new  departure,  and  constructed 
the  Grand  Junction  Railway  on  economic  principles  by  following 
in  great  part  the  contour  of  the  surface.  For  tins  line  and  the 
London  and  Birmingham  line,  for  which  Robert  Stephenson  was 
the  engineer,  Acts  were  passed  in  the  same  year  (1833).  The  latter 
line  was  expensively  laid  out  with  tunnels,  viaducts,  and  heavy 
cuttings  and  embankments,  and  cost  in  round  numbers  £53,600 
per  mile,  as  against  £23,200  per  mile  for  Locke's  line.  The  cheaper 
line  abounded  in  inclines  of  from  1  in  85  to  1  in  265,  whilst  the  more 
expensive  line  was  ruled  by  gradients  not  steeper  than  1  in  330. 
Locke  reckoned  upon  the  sufficiency  of  the  engine-power  to  take 
the  trains  up  the  inclines,  and  the  famous  Crewe  engine  was  the 
outgrowth  of  the  situation.  The  London  and  South-Western  liail- 
way,  which  cost  £26,800  per  mile,  was  laid  out  by  Locke  to  a 
ruling  gradient  of  1  in  250.  There  are  other  instances  of  econo- 
mical construction  by  the  same  engineer  in  the  original  Caledonian 
and  Scottish  Central  Railways — now  amalgamated — the  former  of 
which  was  made  with  long  gradients  of  1  in  75,  1  in  80,  1  in  100, 
and  other  steep  slopes.  Besides  these  there  are  other  cheaply 
made  railways  in  Scotland  ;  but  there  is  only  one  Scottish  railway 
of  the  monumental  class, — the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  nearly 
dead  level,  with  enormously  expensive  works.  On  the  Metro- 
politan Railway  system,  22  miles  in  length,  upwards  of  £11,000,000 
have  been  paid  up,  or  about  £500,000  per  mile.  The  enormous 
cost  of  this  line,  as  well  as  of  the  Metropolitan  District  system 
(18  miles  long,  costing  £374,000  per  mile)  and  the  North  London 
system  (12  miles  long,  costing  £325,000  per  mile),  is  sufficiently 
explained  by  the  place  and  conditions.  The  original  London  and 
Blackwall  Railway,  built,  like  the  North  London,  for  the  most 
part  on  arches,  cost  £311,912  per  mile.  The  original  Birkenhead, 
Cheshire,  and  Lancashire  Junction  Railway,  now  vested  in  the 
neighbouring  railway  companies,  cost  upwards  of  £75,000  per  mile, 
owing  partly  to  the  protracted  contests  in  which  it  had  been 
involved  with  the  neighbouring  railways,  and  partly  to  the  costly 
works  of  construction  joining  the  railway  to  the  docks  at  Birkcn- 
head.  Of  railways  in  England,  the  original  Carlisle  and  Silloth 


RAILWAY 


227 


Railway,  13  miles  long,  has  the  honour  of  standing  at  the  foot  of 
the  list,  having  cost  £6474  per  mile.     Of  the  Scottish  lines  the 
Caledonian  system  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list,  costing  £45,500 
per  mile.     The  North  British  system  cost  £33,  000  per  mile.     At 
the  foot  of  the  list  stood  the  original  East  of  Fife  line,  7  miles 
long,  with  a  cost  of  £4351  per  mile.     But  the  cheapest  lines  of 
considerable  length  are  the  Forth  and  Clyde  line,  costing  £5525 
per  mile,  and  the  Peebles  line,   costing  £5545  per  mile.     Both 
these  lines  have  been  taken  into  the  North  British  system.     In 
Ireland  the  Dublin  and  Kingstown  Railway,  8  miles  long,  a  suburban 
railway,  cost  £53,000  per  mile.     The  original  Limerick  and  Foynes 
line,  costing  £5282  per  mile,  is  probably  the  cheapest  piece  of 
railway  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  proportions  of  expenditure  on  capital  account  cannot  in  the 
absence  of  data  be  exactly  determined.      The  following  may  be 
accepted  as  an  approximate  analysis  of  the  average  cost  of  the  rail- 
ways, as  it  stood  in  1871  :  — 

Per          Per 
mile.       cent. 
Law  anil  parliamentary  expenses     ....................  £2,000  or    5  J 

Land  and  compensation  ..............................     7,000   „   191 

Works  of  construction  and  stations  complete  ..........  18,000   ,,   50" 

Locomotive  and  carrying  stock    ......................      3,000  „     8 

Interest  on  stock,  discounts,  bonuses,  dividends  from 
capital,  contingencies,  &c  .............  .  ...........     6,000  ,,   17 

30,000      100 

From  this  estimate  it  would  appear  that  the  net  cost  of  construc- 

tion and  equipment  was  £21,000  per  mile,  or  about  58  per  cent. 

!LK  f    of  the  entire  cost.     The  capital  cost  of  the  working  stock  is  given 

'or  .ig  by  the  London  and  North-Western  Railway  Company.    Excluding 

t<>c       a  considerable  number  of  engines  and  carrying  stock  which  had 

been  constructed  as  duplicate  stock  —  charged  to  revenue,  no  doubt 

—  at  31st  December  1884  the  quantities  and  costs  were  as  follows  :  — 


51,847  waggon  stock    ..................       3,320,322  (£04  „         ). 

Total  ..................  £8,390,818 

It  is  to  be  explained  with  reference  to  these  low  rates  of  cost 
that  the  original  cost  of  the  early  working  stock  stands  unaltered 
in  the  books  of  the  company,  whilst  the  whole  of  the  original 
working  stock  has  been  replaced  at  the  charge  of  revenue  by  engines 
and  vehicles  of  modern  design  and  larger  capacity.  Divided  by 
the  number  of  miles  (1793)  open  at  31st  December  1884,  the  total 
charge  for  working  stock  is  at  the  rate  of  £4680  per  mile  open. 
For  new  working  stock  manufactured  by  the  same  company  dur- 
ing the  eighteen  months  ending  31st  December  1884  the  following 
average  sums  were  charged  to  capital  :— 

31  locomotives  with  tenders  or  tank-engines  ..............  £1100  each. 

221.}  vehicles,  carriage  stock  ..............................      385     „ 

2102  vehicles,  waggon  stock    ..............................         59     „ 

Working  or  Rolling  Stock.  —  The  working  or  rolling  stock  of 
railways  consists  of  locomotives  with  their  tenders,  passenger 
carriages,  horse-boxes,  carriage  trucks,  travelling  post-offices  with 
their  tenders  and  vans,  goods  waggons,  covered  goods  waggons, 
cattle  trucks,  coke  and  coal  waggons,  timber  trucks,  ballast  waggons, 
and  goods  brake  vans.  Table  III.  (below)  shows  that  in  England  and 
Wales  there  is  nearly  one  locomotive  per  mile  of  line  open,  or  for  the 
United  Kingdom  three  engines  for  every  4  miles.  The  greatest 
waggon  stock  per  mile  open  is  to  be  found  in  Scotland  —  nearly 
thirty-one  per  mile.  The  proportions  of  vehicles  for  traffic  of  all 
classes  for  each  locomotive  averaged  at  the  end  of  the  year  1883  :  — 

England  and  Wales  ..................  31  '1  vehicles  per  engine. 

Scotland  ............................  517         ,,  „ 

Ireland    ............................  24'fi         „  ,, 

Total    ..................  33-9         „  ,, 

The  excessive  proportion  of  fifty-two  vehicles  per  engine  in  Scot- 
land corresponds  to  the  comparatively  excessive  number  of  train 
miles  with  goods  and  minerals,  which  are  20  per  cent,  more  than 
the  passenger-train  miles,  whilst  in  England  they  are  8  per  cent. 
less,  and  in  Ireland  more  than  50  per  cent.  less.  The  various 


proportions  of  rolling  stock  for  twenty-one  leading  British  railways 
(31st  December  1883)  are  exhibited  in  detail  in  Table  IV.,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  the  numerical  proportions  which  the  carrying  stock 
for  traffic  bears  to  the  locomotive  stock : — 


Railway. 

Miles 
open. 

Loco- 
motives. 

Carriage 
Stock. 

G    . 
OM 
tti  o 

£& 

Carriage  and 
Waggon  Stocks. 

ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 
Metropolitan    

Miles. 

22 
18 
12 
160 
721 
370 
1793 

403 

1049 
2268 

314 

768 
494 
1381 
1534 

330 

997 
867 

425 
478 
503 

En- 
gines. 

60 
42 
86 
168 
471 
325 
2451 

410 

615 
1577 

505 
733 
832 
1629 
1462 

290 
573 
690 

100 
160 
127 

Vehi- 
cles. 

241 

296 
610 
972 
2467 
2047 
6092 

2817 
2960 
4508 

781 
2086 
2495 
3856 
2739 

886 
1354 
1630 

298 
344 
468 

Vehi- 
cles. 

59 
19 
394 
1,967 
6,964 
4,798 
47,518 

7,078 
11,957 
34,794 

12,434 
17,384 
20,223 
61,532 
76,369 

11,289 
32,465 
43,253 

1,921 
3,345 
2,807 

Vehi- 
cles. 

300 
315 

1,004 
2,939 
9,431 
6,845 
53,610 

9,895 
14,917 
39,302 

13,215 
19,450 
22,718 
65,388 
79,108 

12,175 
33,819 
44,883 

2,219 
3,689 
3,275 

Per 
en- 
gine. 
5-0 
7-0 
11-7 
17-5 
20-0 
21-1 
21-9 

24-1 
24-3 
24-9 

26-2 
265 
27-3 
40-1 
54-1 

42-0 
59-0 
65-0 

22-1 
23-1 
25-8 

Per 
mile 
open 
13-6 
17-5 
83-7 
187 
13  1 
18-5 
29-9 

24-5 
14-2 
17-3 

42-1 
25-3 
46-0 
47-3 
51-6 

36-9 
33-9 
51-8 

5-2 
7-9 
6-5 

Metropolitan  District   

North  London  

London,  Chatham,  and  Dover 
London  and  South-Western    .  . 
South-Eastern  

London  and  North-Western   .  . 
London,  Brighton,  and  South 
Coast  

Great  Eastern  

Great  Western  

Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lin- 
colnshire   

Great  Northern  

Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  
Midland    

North-Eastern    

SCOTLAND. 
Glasgow  and  South-Western  .  . 
North  British  

Caledonian   

IRELAND. 
Midland  Great  Western    
Great  Southern  and  Western  .  . 
Great  Northern  

Here  the  number  of  vehicles  varies  from  5  per  engine  on  the  Metro- 
politan Railway,  7  on  the  District  Railway,  and  117  on  the  North 
London  Railway  —  all  of  these  specially  passenger  lines  of  dense 
traffic— to  54  per  engine  on  the  North-Eastern  Railway,  59  on  the 
North  British  Railway,  and  65  on  the  Caledonian  Railway— all 
these  being  specially  lines  of  mineral  traffic. 

Train  Miles  Run,  1883. — The  number  of  miles  run  by  passenger  Train 
and  goods  and  mineral  trains,  and  the  number  run  by  mixed  trains,  miles 
are  as  follows  (Table  V.)  : —  run. 


Country. 

Passenger. 

Goods  and 
Minerals. 

Mixed. 

Total. 

Train 

Miles. 

Per 

aver- 
age 
mile 
open 

Train 
Miles. 

Pei- 
aver- 
age 
mile 
open 

Train 
Miles. 

Per 

aver- 
age 
mile 
open 

Train 
Miles. 

Per 
aver- 
age 
mile 
open 

England 
and  Wales 
Scotland  .  . 
Ireland    .  . 

Total    .... 
Total,  pei- 
eent.    .  . 

117,406,242 
13,243,827 
7,526,871 

8940 
4486 
3030 

108,446,732 
15,933,637 
3,602,884 

8258 
5397 
1450 

498,415 
1,632,851 
605,777 

38 
553 
246 

226,351,389 
30,810,315 
11,735,532 

17,236 
10,430 
4,726 

138,176,940 
51-1 

7442 

127,983,253 
47-6 

6893 

2,737,043 
1-0 

147 

268,897,236 
100 

14,482 

The  mixed-train  miles  constitute  just  1  per  cent,  of  the  total 
number,  and  the  mileages  run  by  passenger  and  goods  trains  are 
nearly  equal.  On  an  average  each  mile  of  way  was  traversed  forty 
times  a  day.  Taking  the  means  of  the  numbers  of  engines  for  the 
end  of  1882  and  the  end  of  1883  as  the  average  number  during  the 
year,  the  train  miles  run  per  locomotive  are  as  follows  (Table  VI. ) : — 


1883. 

Average  Number 
of  Engines. 

Train  Miles  per 
Engine. 

England  a 
Scotland  . 

nd  Wales  

11,996 
1,678 
626 

18,863 
18,361 
18,747 

Ireland    . 

Total  

14,300 

18,805 

An  engine  when  actually  on  duty  may  accomplish  120  train  miles 


TABLE  III. — Summary  of  the  (Quantities  of  Working  Stock  at  the  end  of  the  Year  1883. 


Country. 

Locomotives. 

Passenger 
Carriages. 

Other  Vehicles 
attached  to 
Passenger 
Trains. 

Total  Pass- 
enger-Train 
Stock. 

Waggons  and 
Trucks  for  Live 
Stock,  Miner- 
als, and  Mer- 
chandise. 

Total  Pass- 
enger, Goods, 
and  Mineral 
Train  Stock. 

Other  Vehicles, 
as  Ballast 
Waggons,  &c. 

Total  No.  of 
Vehicles  for 
Passengers, 
Goods,  Ballast, 

&C, 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
mile 
open. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
mile 
open. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
mile 
open. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
mile 
open. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
mile 
open. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
mile 
open. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
mile 
open. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

mile 
open. 

England  and  Wales    . 

12,144 
1,693 
632 

•92 
•57 
•25 

27,274 
3,591 
1,439 

2-06 
1-21 
•57 

10,133 
1,269 
622 

•77 
•43 
•25 

37,407 
4,860 
2,061 

2-83 
1-64 
•82 

329,622 
91,444 
13,195 

24-94 
30-85 
5-27 

367,029 
96,304 
15,256 

27-77 
32-49 
6-09 

10,609 
1,166 
297 

•80 
•39 
•12 

377,638 
97,470 
15,553 

28-57 
32-88 
6-21 

80-28 

Scotland  

Ireland     .... 

Total  

14,469 

•77 

32,304 

1-73 

12,024 

•64 

44,328 

2-37 

434,261 

23-24 

478,589  j  25-01 

12,072 

•65 

490,661 

228 


RAILWAY 


per  day,  which  would  make  upwards  of  40,000  per  annum.  But 
at  any  moment  half  the  engines  may  be  taken  as  in  reserve  or 
under  repair,  which  reduces  the  average  performance  per  engine  of 
the  whole  stock  to  some  20,000  miles  per  year,  and  the  circum- 
stances of  many  lines  do  not  admit  of  such  high  averages  of  mileage 
run.  Taking  the  twenty-one  leading  lines  in  detail,  following  the 
selection  already  made  to  show  the  quantities  of  working  stock, 
the  number  of  train  miles  run  on  the  different  lines  in  1883  is 
shown  in  Table  VII.  as  follows  : — 


Railway. 

*       . 

*?  J  S 

V'-St 

>*0 

Average 
Number 
of  Loco- 
motives. 

Train  Miles  run. 

Miles  run 
per 
Engine. 

Passenger. 

Goods  and 
Minerals. 

Total. 

ENGLAND  AND 

WALES. 

Metropolitan  

22 

5S 

1,443,401 

3,794 

1,447,195 

24,950 

Metropolitan  Dis- 
trict   

16 

39 

1,191,966 

5,719 

1,197,685 

30,710 

North  London    .  . 

12 

87 

1,705,749 

285,085 

1,990,834 

22,880 

London,  Chatham, 

and  Dover   

100 

168 

3,152,077 

678,173 

3,830,850 

22,800 

London  and  Soutli- 

Western 

721 

456 

8,001,548 

3,045,365 

11,046,913 

24,220 

South-Eastern    .  . 

370 

322 

4,930,330 

1,416,949 

6,347,279 

19,710 

London  and  North- 

Western    

1784 

2424 

18,931,111 

19,395,461 

38,326,572 

15,810 

London           and 

Briirhton  

130 

404 

6,521,451 

1,427,306 

7,948,757 

19,680 

Great  Eastern    .  . 

1032 

608 

8,486,358 

5,334,027 

13,820,385 

22,730 

Great  Western    .  . 

2254 

1565 

14,298,157 

16,047,939 

30,346,096 

19,390 

Manchester,  Shef- 

field, and    Lin- 

colnshire   

814 

496 

4,507,290 

5,065,879 

9,573,169 

19,300 

Great  Northern  .  . 

770 

726 

8,091,256 

8,238,177 

16,329,433 

22,490 

Lancashire      and 

Yorkshire 

493 

815 

7,602,008 

5,467,541 

13,069,549 

16,040 

Midland    

1378 

1605 

13,105,400 

19,981,855 

33,087,255 

20,620 

North-Eastern   .  . 

1521 

1462 

9,681,906 

14,763,232 

24,445,138 

16,720 

SCOTLAND. 

Glasgow          and 

South-Western 

331 

285 

2,230,838 

2,294,680 

4,525,518 

15,880 

North  British  

1002 

563 

5,032,790 

6,428,496 

11,461,286 

20,300 

Caledonian  

872 

690 

5,232,096 

6,617,610 

11,849,703 

17,170 

IRELAND. 

Midland       Great 

Western    

425 

100 

1,104,971 

682,651 

1,787,622 

17,880 

Great     Southern 

and  Western   .  . 

478 

160 

1,678,691 

1,164,993 

2,843,684 

17,780 

Great  Northern  .  . 

503 

127 

1,851,768 

783,148 

2,634,916 

20,750 

TABLE  Till. — Duties  performed  by  Engines  of  Manchester,  Sheffield, 
and  Lincolnshire  Railway. 


Half-year  ending 
31st  Dec.  1857. 

Half-year  ending 
31st  Dec.  1883. 

115 

505 

Tenders  

431 

Number  of  hours  in  steam  — 
With  passenger  trains    

)                         ( 

246,674 

With  goods  trains    

\          95,337     \ 

376,576 

With  ballast  trains  

j                          ( 

19,746 

Shunting    ,  

49,093 

621,000 

Standing  

28,842 

421,430 

Total  hours  in  steam  

173,272 

1,685,426 

Train  miles  run  by  engines  — 

693,921 

2,343,689 

Goods  

360,243 

Cattle  

8,772 

Mixed  

87,244 

Coal  

94,189 

Stone  

162 

Total  goods  and  mineral    

550,610 

2,614,546 

Total  train  miles  

1,244,531 

4,958,235 

Ballast  (8  miles  per  hour)  

1,045 

73,292 

Shunting  (6  miles  per  hour)  

1,123,242 

Assisting    

34,250 

33,304 

Empty  

81,327 

253,794 

Total  engine  miles  

1,361,153 

6,441,867 

Difference  of  engine  miles  and  train 
miles    

116,622 

1  483  632 

Difference  per  cent,  of  train  miles  .... 
Fuel  consumed  — 
Coke     

9-37 
12,076-3  tons 

29-9 

Coal  

11,484-0    „ 

117  679  tons 

Per  train  mile  run   

42-4  lb 

53-4  lb 

,,   engine  mile  run    

38-8  tt> 

40-9  lb 

,,   hour  in  steam    

304-5  lb 

100-5  lb 

Cost  for  fuel  per  train  mile,  at  6s.  5-42d. 
per  ton    

l'84d 

Cost  for  fuel  per  engine  mile       .... 

l'41d. 

,,          per  hour  in  steam  

6'40d. 

In  general  the  lines  of  preponderating  passenger-train  miles  run 
the  greater  number  of  miles  per  engine.  The  small  mileage  per 
engine  of  the  London  and  J^orth- Western  line,  with  a  relatively 


small  goods-train  mileage,  is  partly  explained  by  the  fact  that  this 
company  had  141  duplicate  locomotives  in  1883.  Engines  run 
many  miles  unavoidably  "empty," — that  is,  without  a  train,  the 
proportion  of  the  empty  or  unprofitable  mileage  depending  on  tin- 
traffic  and  the  nature  of  the  line.  A  line  with  locally  heavy 
gradients  must  have  "assistant"  or  "pilot"  engines  in  readiness 
to  assist  the  trains  up  the  inclines,  and  such  engines  usually  have 
to  return  empty  to  the  depot ;  and  in  cases  of  special  trains  empty 
engines  are  run  to  or  from  the  train,  as  the  case  may  happm. 
Engines,  especially  assistant  engines,  may  have  to  stand  "in 
steam  "  or  with  the  steam  up  and  the  fire  in  good  order,  in  readi- 
ness to  act  when  required.  Some  railway  companies  register  the 
whole  time  the  engines  are  in  steam,  also  the  assistant,  ballasting, 
and  empty  mileage  run,  besides  the  time  on  active  duty  and  the 
train  miles  run.  The  nature  of  the  duty  of  goods  engines,  which 
is  various,  is  also  distinguished,  so  as,  in  short,  to  make  a  complete 
record  of  the  work  done.  Thus  for  the  Manchester,  Sheffield, 
and  Lincolnshire  Railway  Table  VIII.  (see  above)  gives  the  duties 
performed  by  the  engines  during  the  second  half-years  of  1857  and 
1883.  The  times  of  engines  assisting  and  running  empty  are 
included  in  the  hours  in  steam  with  trains, — passenger  and  goods 
respectively.  There  were  about  170  engines  employed  in  shunting 
and  marshalling  trains.  The  relative  percentages  of  the  hours  the 
engines  were  in  steam  and  of  miles  run  on  different  duties  in  the 
second  half-year  of  1883  are  given  in  Table  IX.  : — 


Service. 

Hours  in  Steam. 

Miles  run. 

Passenger  trains    

Per  cent. 
14-6 

Per  cent. 
36-4 

Goods  and  mineral  trains  

22-4 

40-6 

Passenger,  goods,  and  mineral  trains  
Ballast  trains     

370 
1'2 

77-0 
1-1 

Shunting  

36-8 

17-4 

Assisting  

C  included  in  pass-  } 

•5 

Empty  

4-0 

Standing  

25'0 

Total  

100-0 

100-0 

The  proportion  of  extra  engine  mileage  to  the  work  done  in 
hauling  goods,  minerals,  and  passengers  varies  very  much  on  dif- 
ferent systems,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  traffic,  for  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  it  arises  in  connexion  with  goods  and  minerals, 
which  itself  is  a  very  varying  quantity.  The  train  mile,  therefore, 
—  that  is,  the  revenue  -  producing  train  mile  —  though  it  is  the 
simplest  and  handiest  unit  of  performance,  is  not  an  absolute 
measure  of  work  done.  The  shunting  or  marshalling  of  trains  is 
an  item  not  indicated  by  train  mileage,  and  yet  it  is  hard  work  and 
occupies  as  many  hours  in  steam  as  the  train  mileage.  Again,  the 
fuel  consumed,  reckoned  only  on  the  train  mileage  run,  amounts  to 
53  tt>  per  mile  run  ;  but,  reckoned  on  the  total  mileage  run  by  engines, 
in  which  the  extra  mileage,  whether  ballasting,  shunting,  or  assist- 
ing, is  hard  work,  it  amounts  only  to  41  lb  per  mile  run. 

On  the  London  and  North  -  Western  Railway  in  1874  the  total 
shunting  time  was  613,472  hours  of  one  engine — about  the  same 
as  on  the  Sheffield  line  in  1883 — and  on  this  work  171  engines 
were  constantly  employed,  marshalling  and  classifying  the  trains 
in  the  sidings.  A  like  number,  so  employed  on  the  Sheffield  line, 
amount  to  one-third  of  the  total  locomotive  stock. 

Traffic. — Before  the  establishment  of  the  railway  from  twenty  Pas 
to  thirty  coaches 'ran  daily  between  Manchester  and  Liverpool,  eng 
whereas  the  railway  carried  700,000  passengers  during  its  first  trai 
eighteen  months.     Wherever  railways  were  made  the  carriage  of 
passengers  was  found  to  be  one  of  the  most  remunerative  sources 
of  traffic.      Nearly  fifty  years  ago   Porter,  in  his  Progress  of  tJie 
Nation  (1836),  estimated  that  in  Great  Britain  82,000  persons  daily, 
or  30,000,000  per  annum,  travelled  by  coach  an  average  distance 
of  about  12  miles  each,  at  an  average  cost  of  5s.  for  each  passenger, 
or  5d.  per  mile,  whereas  in  1881  upwards  of  600,000,000  pass- 
engers travelled  by  railway  at  a  cost,  taking  averages,  of  lOid. 
each,  which  at  the  average  rate  of  say  1  Jd.  per  mile  travelled  would 
represent  an  average  length  of  8£  miles,  at  one-fourth  of  the  cost 
and  in  one-third  of  the  time  required  by  coach. 

Table  X.  shows  the  total  number  of  passengers  of  each  class 
conveyed  in  1883  : — 


Country. 

First  Class. 

Second 
Class. 

Third  Class 
and  Parlia- 
mentary. 

Total. 

England  and  Wales    
Scotland    

29,807,866 
4,790,982 

59,083,508 
2,835,687 

523,420,384 
44  404,858 

612,401,758 
52,031,527 

Ireland  

1,699,029 

4,177,589 

13,408,234 

19,284,862  | 

Total    

36,387,877 

06,096,784 

581,233,476 

683,718,137  * 

The   proportions  of   passengers,   independent  of  season-ticket 
holders,  were  as  follows  (Table  XI.) :  — 


1  Season-ticket  holders  in  addition  :— England  and  Wales,  570,686 ;  Scotland, 
37,924  ;  Ireland,  23,440 ;  total,  632,050. 


RAILWAY 


229 


Country. 

First 
Class. 

Second 
Class. 

Third 
Class. 

Totals. 

England  and  Wales     

Per  cent. 
4-9 

Per  cent. 
9-7 

Per  cent. 
85-4 

100 

9-2 

5-4 

85-4 

100 

Ireland    

8-8 

2V6 

69  6 

100 

Total     

5-3 

9  '7 

85  "0 

100 

The  number  of  passengers  conveyed  in  the  year  1883  per  mile  of 
the  mean  length  of  railway  open  during  the  year  was,  in  England 
46,340,  in  Scotland  17,550,  and  in  Ireland  7710. 

The  receipts  from  passenger  traffic  in  1883  are  given  in  Table  XII. 
(see  below).  The  decided  preponderance  of  third-class  traffic  shown 
in  this  table  is  the  outcome  of  the  work  of  years.  In  1854  upwards 
of  111  million  passengers  travelled  by  railway,  of  whom  13  per  cent, 
travelled  by  first,  34  by  second,  and  53  by  third  class  and  parlia- 
mentary carriages.  In  1873,  the  year  before  the  Midland  Railway 
Company  ceased  to  carry  second-class  passengers,  upwards  of  455 
million  passengers  travelled  by  railway,  of  whom  only  8£  per  cent, 
travelled  by  first,  15  by  second,  and  76 J  by  third  class  carriages. 
In  1881  upwards  of  623  million  passengers  travelled  by  railway, 
nearly  six  times  as  many  as  in  1854.  Of  these  only  6  per  cent, 
were  first  and  10£  second  class  passengers,  whilst  the  third-class 
and  parliamentary  passengers  rose  to  83|.  Finally,  in  1883  (as 
already  stated  in  Table  XI. ),  85  per  cent,  of  the  passengers  were 
third  class.  The  same  movement  is  exemplified  in  the  receipts, 
the  mass  of  receipts  gravitating  towards  third  class,  as  shown  by 
the  following  abstract  per  mile  open  for  the  years  already  men- 
tioned (Table  XIII.):— 


Year. 

First 
Class. 

Second 
Class. 

Third 
Class. 

1854 

£349 

£416 

£382 

1S73 

274 

250 

737 

1881 

209 

190 

846 

1S83 

196 

178 

913 

These  figures  show  that  in  1854  first  and  second  class  receipts 
together  made  up  two-thirds  of  the  whole  receipts  from  passengers, 
but  that  they  steadily  declined  in  succeeding  years,  not  only 
proportionally  but  absolutely, — the  third-class  receipts,  on  the  con- 
trary, exhibiting  a  rapid  increase,  insomuch  that,  whereas  in  1854 
they  were  exactly  one-third  of  the  whole  receipts,  in  1883  they 
amounted  to  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  whole  receipts  from  pass- 
engers. The  reaction  in  first-class  receipts  is  all  the  more  remark- 
able because  the  number  of  first-class  passengers  in  1854 — 14^ 
millions — was  nearly  trebled  in  1873  ;  that  of  1873  was  almost 
exactly  the  same  as  in  1881, — about  38  millions  ;  whilst  in  1883 
there  were  nearly  36^  millions.  The  explanation  is  probably  to  be 
sought  partly  in  the  fact  that  first-class  fares  have  been  reduced  in 
many  cases  and  express  fares  have  been  almost  entirely  abolished, 
and  partly  to  the  increased  habit  of  taking  third  class  for  long 
journeys,  so  that  first-class  journeys,  being  shorter  on  the  average, 
have  become  less  remunerative  to  the  companies  than  before.  The 
third  class  is  by  far  the  most  remunerative  portion  of  the  passenger 
traffic  of  railways  ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  understand  the  policy  still 
pursued  by  railway  companies  in  France,  of  discouraging  third- 
class  traffic.  On  those  railways  where  fast  trains  do  not  take  third- 
class  passengers,  or  third-class  carriages  are  deterrently  uncom- 
fortable and  repulsive,  only  those  travel  who  travel  by  necessity, 
or  to  whom  money  is  no  object.  On  the  contrary,  low  fares  and 
comfortable  carriages  invite  traffic ;  they  may  almost  be  said  to 
create  it, — a  fact  which  has  long  been  recognized  by  the  more  in- 
telligent of  railway  managers.  The  high  speed  of  express  trains 
—  from  45  to  50  miles  and  upwards  per  hour — is,  of  course,  an 
additional  inducement  to  travel.  On  certain  lines  there  are  only 
two  classes  of  carriages,  —  first  and  third.  The  Caledonian  Rail- 
way Company  was  the  first  to  adopt,  about  thirty-five  years  ago, 
the  system  of  two  classes  only  for  local  main-line  passenger  traffic. 
The  Great  North  of  Scotland  Railway  Company  opened  its  line  in 
1854  with  only  first  and  third  class  carriages.  The  Midland  Rail- 
way Company,  as  already  noticed,  ceased  in  1874  to  run  second- 


class  carriages,  at  the  same  time  readjusting  and  lowering  the  fares, 
— the  revised  rates  being  l|d.  and  Id.  respectively  per  mile  for 
first  and  third  class.  The  result  was  that  in  1875  27|  million 
passengers  travelled  on  this  railway, — nearly  5  millions  more  than 
in  1873,  before  the  change  was  made  ;  whilst  in  1881  there  were 
29  million  travellers,  of  whom  -27  millions  were  third  and  only 
2  millions  first  class  passengers;  and  in  1883  upwards  of  31  million 
passengers  were  carried,  of  whom  29£  millions  were  of  the  third 
and  a  little  over  If  millions  of  the  first  class.  The  gross  receipts 
for  passenger  traffic  on  the  Midland  Railway  were,  in  round  num- 
bers, £1,660,000  in  1873,  £1,787,000  in  1881,  and  £1,904,000  in 
1883,  whilst  the  percentage  of  working  expenditure  remained  the 
same.  On  the  whole,  it  appears  from  the  results  of  this  grand 
experiment  that  the  change  has  succeeded  financially,  whilst  there 
is  no  doubt  that  it  has  stimulated  the  provision  for  and  develop- 
ment of  third-class  travelling  on  other  railways.  The  gravitation 
of  traffic  to  the  lowest  level  is  unquestionable  ;  and  it  is  aided 
by  the  fact  that  third-class  carriages  have  been  (1885)  for  some 
years  run  with  nearly  all  trains,  fast  as  well  as  slow,  and  that  the 
largeness  of  the  number  of  third-class  passengers  has  forced  upon 
the  management  of  the  companies  improvements  in  the  popular 
class  of  carriage.  As  the  downward  movement  of  the  classes  con- 
tinues the  outcome  will  most  likely  be  a  general  reduction  of  the 
number  of  classes  to  two, — nominally  first  and  third,  practically 
first  and  second.  On  1st  May  1885  second-class  carriages  were 
abolished  on  the  branch  lines  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway  ; 
and,  if  the  experiment  answers  expectations,  second-class  carriages 
will  be  abolished  on  the  entire  Great  Northern  system. 

The  returns  to  the  Board  of  Trade  do  not  supply  material  for  Goods 
close  analysis  of  goods  traffic.     The  quantities  of  minerals  and  traffic, 
goods  or  general  merchandise  conveyed  in  1883*  were  as  follows 
(Table  XIV.):— 


Country. 

Minerals. 

General  Mer- 
chandise. 

Total. 

Total 
per  aver- 
age mile 
open. 

England  and  Wales  
Scotland     

Tons. 
160,522,029 
27,767,095 

Tons. 
65,387,354 
8  692,433 

Tons. 
225,909,383 
36,459,528 

Tons. 
17,100 
12  300 

Ireland     

1,196,488 

2,817,569 

4,014,057 

1  600 

Total  

189,485,612 

76,897,356 

266,382,968 

14  260 

The  receipts  from  mineral  and  goods  traffic  in  1883  are  given  in 
Table  XV.  :- 


Country. 

Mer- 
chandise. 

Live 
Stock. 

Minerals. 

Total. 

England  and  Wales  

£18,028,587 
2  267,685 

£787,642 
175,996 

£14,057,188 
2,062,223 

£32,873,417 
4,530,8691 

Ireland    

952,215 

208,808 

136,010 

1,297,033 

Total  

£21  248  487 

£1,172,446 

£16  255,421 

£38,701,319' 

Total  per  mile  open    .... 
Proportion   per  cent,   of 
total     

£1137 
55-0 

£63 
3'0 

£870 
42-0 

£2070 
100 

These  statistics  of  merchandise  and  mineral  traffic  show  that 
upwards  of  266  million  tons  were  conveyed  in  1883  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  seven-tenths  of  which  were  minerals.  In  1857  71  million 
tons  were  conveyed,  of  which  only  two-thirds  consisted  of  minerals  ; 
whence  it  appears  that  a  more  rapid  development  of  mineral  traffic 
than  of  general  merchandise  took  place  in  the  interval. 

The  whole  of  the  receipts  directly  earned  on  the  railways  in  Receipts. 
1883,  with  the  miscellaneous  receipts  derived  from  rents,  tolls, 
navigation,  steamboats,  &c.,  are  brought  together  in  Table  XVI. 
(see  below).  The  receipts  per  train  mile  from  passengers  and  from 
goods  and  mineral  traffic  are  reckoned  exclusive  of  the  receipts  on 
railways  working  mixed  trains  ;  but  all  the  receipts  per  train  mile 
for  passengers  and  goods  together  are  divided  by  the  total  mileage 
run  by  all  trains.  In  the  last  column  the  gross  receipts,  including 
miscellaneous  receipts,  are  divided  by  the  total  train  mileage. 

1  Including  £24,965  from  goods-traffic  receipts  not  classified. 


TABLE  XII. — Receipts  from  Passenger  Traffic  in  1883. 


Country. 

Eeceipts  from  Passengers. 

*£  if  :D    "  ^ 

tc^  S/;  *  *^ 

Hfl! 

Mails. 

Gross  Total. 

First  Class. 

Second 

Class. 

Third  Class. 

Season 
Tickets. 

Total. 

Kit-land  and  Wales     
Scotland  

£2,908,005 
450,010 
221,138 

£2,859,017 
147,085 
323,642 

£14,702,697 
1,661,281 
68(3,086 

£1,498,554 
146,038 
47,999 

£22.059,173 
2,404,414 
1,278,865 

£2,562,166 
336,742 
126,447 

£483,542 
144,021 
113,363 

£25,104,881 
2,885,177 
1,518,675 

Ireland    .   .. 

Total    

£3,670,053 

£3,320,744 

£17,050,064 

£1,692,591 

£25,742,452 

£3,025,355 

£740,926 

£29,508,733 

A  vpr.i£e  per  mile  open   .         

£196 
12-4 

£178 
11-3 

£013 

57-8 

£91 
5-7 

£1378 
87*2 

£162 
10-3 

£40 
2-5 

£1580 
100 

Proportion  per  cent,  of  groM  total  

230 


RAILWAY 


TABLE  XVI.—  Statistics  of  Receipts  earned  in  1883. 


Country. 

Passengers. 

Merchandise  and 
Minerals. 

Passengers,  Merchan-  j       Mis- 
dise,  and  Minerals.      |  cellaneous. 

ToUil  Receipts  from 
all  sources. 

£1 
25,104,881 
2,885,177 
1,518,675 

Per  train 
mile, 
s.      d. 
4      3-3 
4      0-0 
3    10-3 

£1 
32,873,417 
4,530,869 
1,297,033 

Per  train 
mile, 
s.      d. 
6      0-6 
5      5'8 
6    11-2 

£ 
57,978,298 
7,416,046 
2,815,708 

Per  train 
mile. 
s.      d. 
5      1-5 
4      9-8 
4      9-6 

£ 
2,543,240 
269,447 
39,531 

£ 
60,521,538 
7,685,493 
2,855,239 

Per  train 
mile. 

s.       ,1. 
5      4-2 
4     11-9 
4     10-4 

Ireland  

Total  

29,508,733 

4      27 

38,701,319 

6      0-1 

68,210,052 

5      0-9 

2,852,218 

71,062,270 

5      3-4 

Total  per  mile  open  

1,579 

2,071 

3,651 

153 

3,S04 

.... 

Total  per  mile  per  week  

30-4 

39-8 

70-2 

3 

73-1 

Proportion  per  cent,  of  gross  receipts    
Receipts  per  cent,  of  capital  cost     

41-5 

54-5 

96 

4-0 

100 

.... 

.... 

8-69 

....        |                905,       .... 

Of  the  total  receipts  for  passengers  and  goods,  goods  brought  56'8 
per  cent,  and  passengers  43 '2.  In  1857  the  proportions  were  nearly 
the  same, — 56  and  44  per  cent,  respectively.  For  the  three  king- 
doms separately  the  percentages  for  1883  were  (Table  XVII.)  : — 


Passengers. 

Minerals  and 
Merchandise. 

England  and  Wales  

Per  cent. 
43-4 

Per  cent. 
56-6 

39-0 

61'0 

Ireland  

54-2 

45  8 

Total  

43-2 

56-8 

The  average  traffic  receipts  per  mile  open  in  1883  were  distributed 
between  the  three  kingdoms  as  shown  in  Table  XVIII.  : — 


Per  average 
Mile  open. 

Per  Mile 
per  Week. 

£4415 

£84-9 

Scotland   

2509 

48-2 

1134 

21-8 

Total  

£3673 

£70-6 

Total,  1857  

£2715 

£52 

These  quantities  for  1883  are  proportionally  for  the  three  kingdoms 
as  4,  24,  1.  For  the  year  1857  the  corresponding  amounts  were 
as  3,  2,  1,  so  that  the  growth  of  traffic  in  the  interval  has  been 
greater  in  England  than  in  Scotland,  and  greater  in  Scotland  than 
in 'Ireland. 


Table  XIX.  (below)  contains  a  summary  of  the  expenditure  of  the  Work 
railways  of  the  United  Kingdom  for  the  year  1883,  with  the  rateexpen 
of  expenditure  of  different  kinds  per  mile  open  and  per  train  mile 
run,  and,  in  addition,  the  proportional  expenditure  of  the  different 
kinds  in  parts  of  the  total  working  expenditure.  The  heads  of 
expenditure  are  classified  in  this  table  in  order  to  separate  direct  or 
really  working  expenditure  from  what  may  be  called  contingent  or 
incidental  expenditure  not  essential  to  the  working  of  a  railway,  as 
rates,  duty,  compensation,  &c.  The  direct  or  essential  working  ex- 
penditure is  thus  upwards  of  32  millions  sterling,  or  86  per  cent 
of  the  whole  expenditure.  The  amount  and  proportion  of  the  net 
receipts  are  shown  by  deducting  the  total  working  expenditure  from 
the  total  receipts,  as  under  : — 

Per  train  mile. 

Total  receipts £71,062,270,  or  5s.  3'4d.  or  100    per  cent 

Gross  working  expenditure 37,369,562   „  2s.  9Jd.    „    526       „ 

Net  receipts  £33,692,708   „  2s.  6d.      „    474        „ 

The  net  receipts  available  for  payment  of  dividend  are  equal  to 
4  '29  per  cent,  on  the  paid-up  capital,  and  they  were  disposed  for 
1883  in  the  following  fashion  : — 

On  ordinary  capital    £13,725,933,  equivalent  to  4-68  per  cent 

On  guaranteed  and   preferential 

capital    12,601,797        „        „        4-26 

On  bonus  and  debenture  stock  ..      8,254,643        ,,        „        4-21        „ 

Total  payments   £34,582,373        „        „        4-41 

Net  available  receipts    ....£33,692,708        „        „        4'29        „ 
The  total  distribution,  it  appears,  exceeded   the   available  net 
receipts  for  the  year  by  nearly  £1,000,000.     In  explanation  of  the 


TABLE  XIX. — Statistics  of  Expenditure  for  the  United  Kingdom  for  1883. 


Country. 

Average  Miles  open 
during  1883. 

Maintenance  of 
Way,  Works,  &c. 

Locomotive  Power 
(including  Station- 
ary Engines). 

Repair  and  Renewal 
of  Carriages  and 
Waggons. 

Traffic  Expenses. 

8 
|« 

5 

! 
s 

Total  Direct 
Expenditure  on 
Working. 

Contingent  Working  Expenditure. 

to 

a 

f  rf 

fe* 

PS 

11 
I* 

O 

& 

31,819,248  J 
3,974,796 
1,575,518 

Rates  and 
Taxes. 

Government 
Duty. 

e_ 
0-3  o 

^g* 

sis 

Ml 
|«r 

Compensation 
for  Damage  and 
Loss  of  Goods. 

Legal  and 
Parliamentary 
Expenses. 

Steamboat, 
Canal,  and  Har- 
bour Expenses. 

Miscellaneous 
Expenditure. 

Total  Contingent 
Working  Ex- 
penditure. 

England 
and  Wales  .  . 
Scotland  .... 
Ireland  

Total  .... 

Miles. 
13,133 
2,952 
2,484 

£ 

5,545,784 
774,038 
423,976 

£ 

8,013,274 
929,352 
391,721 

£ 
2,705,031 
471,806 
130,909 

£ 
9,705,382 
1,096,011 
411,675 

£ 
1,384,598 
158,644 
80,595 

£ 

27,354,069 
3,429,851 
1,439,876 

£ 
1,598,490 
181,047 
81,312 

£ 
681,560 
57,696 

£ 
172,335 
63,167 
11,630 

£ 
171,237 
19,883 
6,821 

£ 
314,139 
45,657 
13,389 

£ 
1,239,878 
74,068 
11,010 

£ 
338,875 
103,427 
11,580 

£ 
4,516,514 
544,945 
135,642 

18,569 

6,743,798 

9,334,347.3,307,746  11,213,068  1,623,837 
Working  Expend 

32,223,796  1,860,849  739,256 
iture  per  Mile  open  per 

247,0321197,941373,185 
Year. 

1,324,956  453,882  5,197,101  37,369,562  * 

England 
and  Wales.. 
Scotland  
Ireland  

Total  .... 

Miles. 
13,133 
2,952 
2,484 

£ 
422 
262 
171 

& 
610 
314 
158 

£ 

206 
160 
53 

£ 
739 
371 

it;.; 

£ 
105 
54 
32 

£ 
2082 
1161 
580 

£ 
337 
184 
54 

£ 
2423 
1345 
634 

18,569 

363 

503 

178 

604 
Workii 

87 
ig  Expei 

1735 
iditure  p 

280 

2013 

yr  Train  Mile  run. 

England 
and  Wales  .  . 
Scotland 
Ireland  

Total  .... 

Train 
Miles. 
226,351,389 
30,810,315 
11,735,532 

d. 

5-88 
6-03 

8-67 

d. 

8-49 
7-24 
8-01 

d. 

2-87 
3-68 
2-68 

d. 

10-29 
8-54 
8-42 

d. 

1-47 
1-24 

i  •<;:, 

s.   d. 

2    5 
2    2} 

2     M 

d. 

4} 
4i 
2J 

S.     (1. 

2    9} 

2    7 
2    81 

268,897,236 

6-02 

8-33 
1 

2-95 
^roportic 

10-01 
<ns  of  Wi 

1-45 
yrking  I 

2-  4J 
Censes  i 

4J 

2    9J 

n  parts  of  the  Total  Expenses. 

England 
and  Wales  .  . 
Scotland  
Ireland  

Total  .... 

per  cent. 
17-4 
19-5 
26-9 

per  cent. 
25-2 
23-4 
24-9 

per  cent. 
8-5 
11-9 
8-3 

per  cent 
30-5 
27-5 
26-2 

percent 
4-4 
4-0 
5-1 

per  cent. 
86-0 
86-3 
91-4 

per  cent. 
14'0 
18-7 
8-6 

Total. 
100 
100 
100 

18-0 

25-0 

8-9 

30-0            4-3 

86-1 

13-9 

100 

1  Exclusive  of  receipts  on  railways  in  cases  where  the  traffic  is  conveyed  by  mixed  trains. 

2  Exclusive  of  £51,335  received  by  the  North  London  Company  for  working  other  lines. 


RAILWAY 


231 


apparent  discrepancy  it  may  be  stated  that  some  companies  had 
invested  a  portion  of  their  capital  in  the  stocks  and  shares  of  other 
companies  ;  that  interest  is  occasionally  paid  on  the  capital  of  com- 
panies whose  lines  are  not  open  for  traffic  ;  and  that  interest  on 
loan  capital  is  not  always  paid  out  of  net  earnings.  The  appropria- 
tion of  the  gross  receipts  to  working  expenditure  and  dividends, 
according  to  the  tabulated  statement  of  expenditure,  is  summarily 
as  follows,  in  parts  of  the  gross  receipts  : — 

Per  cent. 

Maintenance  of  way,  works,  &e 9'5 

Locomotive  power 13'1 

Maintenance  of  carriages  and  waggons    4-6 

Traffic  expenses  15'8 

General  charges 2-3 

Direct  expenditure  on  working 45'3 

Contingent  expenditure  on  working    7  "3 


Total  working  expenditure 

Payments  of  interest  and  dividends . 


52-6 
47-4 


Gross  receipts 100 

]•'.)•  a  The  statistics  of  traffic  returns  of  railways  in  the  United  Kingdom 
id  j-  since  1842  indicate  a  remarkably  steady  and  rapid  increase  of  traffic. 
•ibi  on  In  1842  the  total  receipts  amounted  to  upwards  of  £4,250,000.  In 
f  tide.  1852  they  were  nearly  £16,000,000,  and  during  the  thirty-one  years 
following  they  are  given  at  intervals  as  in  Table  XX.  : — 


Tear. 

Average 
Miles  open. 

Total  Receipts. 

Receipts 
per  Mile. 

11 

fill 

P?  ftg, 

H'S 

Miles. 

Per  cent. 

1853 

7,488 

£18,035,879 

£2408 

£46 

1856 

8,523 

23,165,493 

2718 

52 

1859 

9,772 

25,743,502 

2635 

51 

1862 

11,208 

29,128,558 

2599 

50 

49 

1865 

13,039 

35,890,113 

2752 

54 

48 

1868 

14,438 

? 

1871 

15,457 

48,892,780 

3i(32 

ei 

47 

1874 

16,266 

59,255,715 

3643 

70 

55 

1877 

16,975 

62,973,328 

3709 

71 

54 

1880 

17,815 

65,491,625 

3677 

71 

51 

1883 

18,569 

71,062,270 

3S04 

73 

53 

Thus  the  receipts  were  quadrupled  during  the  thirty  years  from 
1853  to  1883,  whilst  the  mileage  of  railway  open  was  increased  by 
two  and  a  half  times.  The  receipts  per  mile  increased  notwith- 
standing their  continual  dilution  by  the  accession  of  new  lines. 
These  results,  taken  together,  indicate  the  inherent  elasticity  of 
the  railway  and  its  seemingly  inexhaustible  resources. 

Of  the  main  trunk-lines,  which  constitute  the  foundation  of  the 
railway  system,  those  which  converge  towards  and  terminate  in 
London — the  metropolitan  lines — are  more  important  than  the 
provincial  lines.  London  is  the  great  heart  of  the  country  and  is 
the  chief  centre  of  commerce  ;  moreover,  the  metropolitan  railways, 
taken  together,  possess  a  greater  variety  of  traffic  than  others  ; 
hence  they  are  selected  for  discussion  illustrative  of  the  growing 
magnitude  and  distribution  of  traffic.  On  the  nine  metropolitan 
railways,  including  the  London  and  Blackwall  and  the  North 
London,  in  operation  in  1854-57,  Table  XXI.  shows  the  receipts 
for  these  four  years  ;  and  the  receipts  for  the  year  1883  derived 
from  the  twelve  metropolitan  companies  then  in  operation  are 
added  for  comparison  : — 


Tear. 

Average 
Miles  open. 

Total  Receipts. 

Receipts 
per  Mile. 

Receipts 
]>er  Mile 
per  Week. 

1854 

2579 

£9,354,425 

£3627 

£70 

1855 

2664 

9,920,609 

3724 

71 

1856 

2778 

10,559,658 

3801 

73 

1857 

2834 

10,743,118 

3790 

73 

1883 

8649 

43,389,062 

5017 

96 

In  the  early  years — 1856,  for  instance — the  metropolitan  rail- 
way mileage  open  constituted  one-third  of  the  total  mileage  open, 
whilst  it  produced  nearly  one-half  of  the  total  traffic  receipts  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  insomuch  that  the  receipts  per  metropolitan  mile 
were  two -fifths  more  than  the  average  total  receipts  per  mile. 
Recently — in  1883— though  the  metropolitan  mileage  open  was  less 
than  one-half  of  the  total  mileage  open  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
it  earned  six-tenths  of  the  total  receipts  ;  and  the  receipts  per 
metropolitan  mile  were  one-third  more  than  the  average  total  on 
the  whole  mileage  of  the  country.  Lastly,  the  increase  of  receipts 
of  the  metropolitan  lines  is  greater  than  that  of  the  entire  system. 
Whether,  therefore,  the  increase  of  receipts  be  compared  with  the 
total  receipts  or  with  the  mileage  open,  the  traffic  of  the  metro- 
politan railways  increases  the  most  rapidly,  and  it  is  also  of  the 
greatest  absolute  magnitude.  But,  to  bring  out  clearly  the  relative 
importance  and  progress  of  the  traffic  of  different  districts,  let  us 
separate  what  may  be  distinguished  as  the  coast  lines  to  the  south 
and  east  of  the  metropolis — the  Great  Eastern,  and  the  railways 
south  of  the  Thames — from  the  interior  lines  to  the  north  and  west, 


the  Great  Northern,  Midland,  North-Western,  Great  Western,  and 
the  three  local  lines,  the  North  London,  Metropolitan,  and  District. 
The  receipts  may  be  correspondingly  classified  and  compared  with 
the  receipts  in  other  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  (Table  XXII.): — 


District. 

Year  1857. 

Tear  1883. 

Average 
Miles  open. 

Receipts 
per  Mile 
per  Week. 

Average 
Miles  open. 

Receipts 
per  Mile 
per  Week. 

Metropolitan  interior  lines 
Metropolitan  coast  lines   .  . 
Other  English  lines  not  in- 
cluded in  the  above    .... 
Scottish  railways    

Miles. 
1515 
1319 

3616 
1183 
1044 

£86-5 
56-5 

51-5 
40-5 
21-0 

Miles. 
6236 
2413 

4484 
2952 
2484 

£95-9 
98-0 

73-5 
50-1 
22-1 

Irish  railways  

This  comparative  statement  shows  some  strong  contrasts.  In  1857 
the  densest  traffic  in  England,  averaging  £86, 10s.,  over  1515  miles 
lay  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  metropolis  ;  the  railway  traffic  of 
the  country  was  very  partially  distributed  ;  and,  taking  London  as 
the  great  focus,  the  traffic  radiated  and  converged  in  all  directions, 
with  decreasing  intensity  as  the  distance  from  the  centre  increased. 
In  the  year  1883,  on  the  contrary,  whilst  the  metropolitan  traffic 
continued  to  be  the  densest,  the  traffic  of  the  metropolitan  coast 
lines  per  mile  open  had  advanced  so  rapidly  as  even  to  surpass  that 
of  the  interior  metropolitan  lines, — the  receipts  being  £98  per  mile 
per  week  against  £96.  The  rapid  development  of  the  southern  lines 
passenger  traffic  is,  as  will  be  shown,  the  cause  of  the  great  advance 
in  receipts.  Further  insight  into  the  comparative  conditions  of 
interior  and  coast  lines  may  be  got  by  taking  four  great  inland 
lines  (Great  Northern,  Great  Western,  Midland,  and  London  and 
North -Western),  which  are  lines  of  preponderating  goods  and 
mineral  traffic,  and  contrasting  them  with  four  great  coast  lines  of 
preponderating  passenger  traffic  (South-Eastern  ;  London,  Brighton, 
and  South  Coast ;  London,  Chatham,  and  Dover ;  and  South- 
western). In  the  annexed  table  (XXIII.)  for  1883  the  average  fare 
per  passenger  is  calculated  on  the  assumption  that  the  fares  formed 
80  per  cent,  of  the  whole  receipts  for  passenger  trains,  and  the 
average  length  of  a  passenger's  journey  is  got  by  taking  85  per  cent, 
of  the  passengers  as  third  class  at  Id.  a  mile  and  15  per  cent,  as 
first  and  second  class  at  Ifd.  a  mile. 


Four  Metropolitan 
Interior  Railways. 

Four  Metropolitan 
Coast  Railways. 

Average  miles  open   

6,186 
54,425,924 

63,663,432 
118,089,356 
159,686,870 

94,870,258 
£11,234,047 
38-6  per  cent. 
4s.  3-07d. 
Is.  4-88d. 
Is.  l'50d. 

12  miles 
£17,831,467 
61  -4  per  cent. 
5s.  7-21d. 
3s.  9-09d. 
£29,065,514 
4s.  ir06d. 

Per  mile 
open. 

8,799 

10,291 
19,090 
25,814 

15,340 
£1,816 

£2,882 
£4,698 

1,381 
22,606,006 

6,567,793 
29,173,799 
131,002,266 

10,365,093 
£5,755,000 
72'3  per  cent 
5s.  l'09d. 
10-05d. 
8-lld. 

7J  miles 
£2,202,137 
27  '7  percent 
6s.  8-46d. 
4s.  3-OOd. 
£7,957,137 
5s.  5-45d. 

Per  mile 
open. 

16,370 

4,756 
21,126 
94,800 

7,505 
£4,167 

£1,595 
£5,762 

Passenger  train  miles  run   
Goods  and  mineral  train  miles 

\  Total  train  miles  run    

i  Number  of  passengers  

Tons  of  goods  and   minerals 

Receipts  from  passenger  traffic 
Proportion  of  total  receipts 
Receipts  per  train  mile  .... 
'  Average  receipt  per  passenger 

'•  Approximate    average    length 
of  passenger  journeys    
Receipts  from  goods,  &c  
Proportion  of  total  receipts 
Receipts  per  ti-ain  mile  .... 
Average  receipt  per  ton   

Direct  working  expenditure    .  . 

£13,461,020 
2s.  3'36d. 

£2,176 

£3,621,907 
2s.  5'80d. 

£2,623 

£15,604,494 
53-60 
2s.  7'70d. 
£275,582,620 
5-66 

£2,522 
£44,550 

£4,335,230 
54-48 
2s.  ll-66d. 
£94,983,202 
4-56 

£3,139 
£68,776 

Per  cent,  of  total  receipts  .  . 
Receipts  per  train  mile  .... 

Net  receipts  per  cent,  of  capital 

The  coast  lines,  being  freer  from  competition,  get  higher  rates 
both  for  goods  and  passengers  ;  but  the  inland  lines  have  the 
advantage  in  direct  working  expenditure  per  train  mile,  and  a  still 
greater  advantage  in  the  much  smaller  capital  raised  per  mile  of 
line  open,  so  that,  in  spite  of  competition  and  low  rates,  they 
earn  5|  per  cent,  on  their  capital  as  against  a  little  over  4£ 
earned  by  the  coast  lines.  The  greater  capital  outlay  on  the  coast 
railways  seems  to  be  due  to  the  costliness  of  stations  and  carriage 
stock  for  a  preponderating  passenger  traffic  ;  and  as  this  more 
than  outweighs  the  gains  from  higher  rates  the  statistics  support 
the  generally  accepted  opinion  that  goods  and  mineral  traffic  on 
railways  is  profitable  and  should  be  encouraged  and  developed. 
Mr  R.  Price  Williams,  an  accepted  authority  on  railway  statistics, 
supports  this  conclusion.  Mr  F.  R.  Conder,  on  the  contrary,  who 
has  deeply  studied  the  question,  maintains  that  the  heavy  mineral 
traffic  of  railways  should  be  relegated  to  the  canals,  which,  though 
slow,  are  low  in  their  charges. 

Employes, — In    1856  Robert   Stephenson  estimated  that   1  per  Em- 
cent,   of  the  population  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  maintained  ployes. 


232 


RAILWAY 


by  the  railways  then  in  operation,  independently  of  the  consider- 
able amount  of  labour  employed  on  railways  in  course  of  construc- 
tion. On  31st  March  1884  railway  employes  numbered  in  all 
367,793  persons,  or  19 '69  per  mile  open,  showing  an  increase  of 
more  than  50  per  cent,  on  the  proportion  per  mile  in  1857,  which 
was  only  12'63.  Table  XXIV.  gives  details  :— 


Persons. 

Per 
Mile. 

4,199 
781 

74,177 
69,713 

•23 
•04 

3'-97 
3-73 

6'-33 

4-32 
•15 
•10 
•01 
•20 
•43 
•18 

Superintendent's  departments  — 
Superintendents  and  assistant  superintendents  .  . 

143 

16,178 
1,889 
5,902 
19,012 
2,0(50 
29,493 

1      Guards     

i     Signalmen  and  pointsmen  

Shunters,  porters,  messengers,  &c  

Goods  and  assistant  managers     

113 
17,058 
963 
7,410 
44,169 

Guards  and  brakesmen  

125 

248 
2,013 
47,130 
25,669 
43,141 

118,326 

80,609 
2,820 
1,781 
222 
3,754 
8,004 
3,407 

Clerks                      .          

Engineer's  departments- 
Engineers  and  assistant  engineers  

201 
585 
782 
1,166 
8,020 
10,539 
59,316 

Clerks    

Inspectors  

Telegraph    

Hotels,  refreshment-rooms,  and  sundries  

Total  

307,793 

19-09 

From  this  table  it  may  be  estimated  that  there  are  now  two  drivers 
and  two  firemen  for  every  3  miles  of  line  open.  In  1857  there 
were  only  two  drivers  and  two  firemen  for  every  5  miles  ;  and, 
though  the  train  service  has  increased  faster  than  the  train  mileage, 
the  work  of  the  drivers  has  sensibly  diminished,  each  man  on  an 
average  doing  20,950  miles  as  against  23,420  in  1857. 

RAILWAY  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  selection  of  lines  of  railway  is  mainly  governed  by  the  same 
principles  as  hold  good  for  roads,  but  the  cost  of  the  rails  renders 
it  of  greater  importance  to  shorten  the  length  of  the  route  than  to 
make  slight  savings  in  embankments  and  cuttings.  The  first  step 
in  the  survey  is  to  ascertain  the  positions  of  the  watercourse  and 
watershed  lines  of  the  district  to  be  passed  through.  The  general 
direction  having  been  selected  by  the  help  of  an  ordnance  map,  a 
sketch-map,  or  a  special  reconnaissance  survey,  the  river-crossings 
are  to  be  examined  and  decided  upon,  and  the  points  determined 
at  which  the  watersheds  are  to  be  crossed  and  the  approaches  to 
bridges  set  out.  Trial  lines  should  be  run  between  the  points  thus 
fixed,  and  the  country  should  be  carefully  examined  on  each  side  of 
these  before  the  route  is  finally  decided  on.  Sharp  curves  and 
steep  gradients  are  in  themselves  evils,  involving  special  cost  for 
maintenance  and  for  working,  although  original  outlay  may  be 
economized  by  the  adoption  of  them.  A  straight  and  horizontal 
surface  is  assumed  as  the  standard  of  perfection  ;  and  the  proper 
business  of  the  engineer  in  laying  out  a  railway  is  to  harmonize  the 
engineering  and  the  financial  conditions  of  the  problem  so  as  to 
yield  the  highest  practicable  return  on  the  money  expended,  and 
to  see  that,  whilst  the  railway  may  be  neither  quite  straight  nor 
quite  level,  it  shall  not  be  unduly  costly  in  construction  from  ex- 
cessive cutting,  tunnelling,  and  making  of  embankments,  in  order 
to  obviate  severe  curves  and  gradients,  nor  excessively  cheap  from 
following  the  surface  of  the  ground  too  closely  and  incurring  heavy 
gradients  and  severe  curves,  and  as  a  consequence  heavy  working 
expenditure. 

Cuttings  and  Embankments.  — Engineers  endeavour  so  to  plan  the 
works  of  a  railway  that  the  quantity  of  earth  to  be  excavated  shall 
be  equal  to  the  quantity  that  goes  to  form  the  embankments.  The 
earthwork  is  the  foundation  and  support  of  the  superstructure,  and 
as  such  it  must  be  uniformly  firm,  of  liberal  width,  easy  slopes, 
thorough  drainage.  Figs.  10  and  11  are  type-sections  of  cuttings 
and  embankments  for  a  double  line  of  way  on  the  national  gauge, 
showing  the  "formation"  surface  and  the  ballast  on  which  the 
permanent  way  is  supported,  with  the  slopes,  the  side  drains,  and 
the  fencing.  Fig.  12  is  a  type-section  of  the  ]>ermanent  way  on 
the  national  gauge,  settled  by  Mr  John  Fowler  for  the  South  Wales 
Railway.  Upon  the  formation  level  the  ballast  is  deposited,  2  feet 


in  depth  at  the  centre,  dressed  level,  for  about  22  feet  in  width  for 
a  double  line  of  way.     The  sleepers  and  chairs  are  buried  in  the 


Ktifs 


FIG.  10.— Type  section  of  a  cutting. 

ballast,  and  the  rails  partially  also,  these  standing  2  or  3  inches 

above  the  ballast.     The  intermediate  space  between  the  two  lim-s 

of  way  is,  as  before  stated,  6  feet,  and,  taking  the  lengths  of  the 

/•»•/  of  a,its 


FIG.  11.— Type  section  of  an  embankment. 

sleepers  at  9  feet,  the  total  width  for  two  lines  of  way  over  the 

sleepers  is  6  feet  +  4  feet  8J  inches  +  2£  inches  x  2  (width  of  the 

rails)  +  9  feet  =  20  feet  1£  inches  ;   and  it  is  seen  that,  as  the 

/-^=&z=Z        _   A      . ,      Jil^  z     A.      .  X 


FIG.  12. — Type  section  of  permanent  way. 

ballast  is  22  feet  wide  at  the  upper  surface,  it  extends  to  nearly  1 
foot  beyond  the  ends  of  the  sleeper  at  each  side  and  about  3£  feet 
beyond  the  outer  rails  at  each  side. 

_  The  slopes  of  cuttings  vary  according  to  stratification,  soil,  direc-  Cuttii 
tion  of  the  vein,  moisture.  In  gravel,  sand,  or  common  earth  the 
slopes  rise  1  foot  for  1  to  1J  or  2  feet  of  base  ;  in  solid  rock  the 
slopes  are  nearly  vertical.  Cuttings  are  as  deep  as  from  50  to  1  00 
feet  below  the  surface,  and  embankments  as  high  above.  The 
London  and  Birmingham  Railway  had  upwards  of  12  million  cubic 
yards  of  excavation,  and  10J  millions  of  excavation  in  the  original 
estimates,  or  above  100,000  cubic  yards  of  earthwork  per  mile. 
The  heaviest  cutting  on  the  line  is  at  Tring,  2£  miles  long,  averag- 
ing 40  feet  deep,  the  greatest  depth  being  60.  In  the  case  of  the 
great  Blisworth  cutting  the  strata  were  unequal  in  consistency. 
About  halfway  up  the  face  of  the  cutting  a  stratum  of  limestone 
rock,  25  feet  in  thickness,  was  found,  with  loose  strata  below  and 
above  it,  and  it  was  necessary  to  prevent  the  lower  stratum,  con- 
sisting of  wet  clay,  from  being  forced  out  under  the  superincum- 
bent mass  by  undersetting.  A  rubble  wall,  averaging  20  feet  in 
height,  was  built  on  each  side  underneath  the  rock,  strengthened 
by  buttresses  at  intervals  of  20  feet,  resting  on  inverted  arches 
carried  across  underneath  the  line.  A  puddle -drain  was  formed 


Flo_  14. 


FIG.  13.— Blisworth  cutting;  west  end. 

behind  each  wall,  with  a  small  drain  through  the  wall  to  let  off 
the  water  from  behind.  Fig.  13  is  an  elevation  of  the  west  end  of 
the  cutting  where  it  is 
about  40  feet  deep,  show-  _^r 
ing  clearly  the  method  -_^ 
of  undersetting,  and  fig. 
14  is  a  cross  section  of^ 
the  side  walls  at  the' 
same  place,  where  the 
left-hand  shows  a  sec- 
tion of  the  wall  in  the 
water,  and  the  right-hand 
side  shows  the  section 
through  a  buttress,  together  with  the  invert  and  drains.  One  of 
the  walls  is  shown  in  front  elevation  in  fig.  15.  The  New  Cross 
cutting  through  the  London  clay,  on  the  South-Eastern  Railway, 
is  2  miles  long, 
and  is  for  some, 
distance  from 
80  to  nearly 
100  feet  in. 
depth.  This 
cutting  affords 
an  example  of 
the  tendency 

of  some  soils  to  slip.     The  slopes  of  the  cutting  were  finished  at  2 
horizontal  to  1  vertical ;  and  they  remained  as  thus  finished  for 


FIG.  15.— Wall  of  the  same  cutting. 


233 


about  two  years,  when,  after  continued  bad  weather,  the  slopes 
commenced  slipping  to  such  an  extent  that  the  line  was  rendered 
impassable  for  some  weeks,  and  parts  of  the  slopes  were  reduced  to 
an  inclination  of  4  to  1.  The  Wiuchburgh  cutting,  on  the  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow  Railway,  is  4  miles  long  and  from  25  to  60  feet 
deep,  through  solid  rock.  It  is  succeeded  by  an  embankment  1^ 
miles  long  and  60  feet  high,  followed  in  immediate  succession  by 
a  stone  viaduct  half  a  mile  long  and  80  feet  high.  The  Olive 
Mount  cutting  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway  is  2  miles 
long  and  at  some  places  100  feet  deep. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  case  of  embankment  and  cutting  in 
combination  is  that  of  the  crossing  of  Chat  Moss,  on  the  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  Railway.  The  moss  was  4£  miles  across,  and  it 
varied  in  depth  from  10  to  30  feet.  Its  general  character  was  such 
that  cattle  could  not  stand  on  it,  and  a  piece  of  iron  would  sink 
in  it.  The  subsoil  was  composed  principally  of  clay  and  sand,  and 
the  railway  had  to  be  carried  over  the  moss  on  the  level,  requiring 
cutting  and  embanking  for  upwards  of  4  miles.  In  forming  277,000 
cubic  yards  of  embankment  670,000  yards  of  raw  peat  were  con- 
sumed, the  difference  being  occasioned  by  the  squeezing  out  of  the 
water.  Large  quantities  of  embanking  were  sunk  in  the  moss, 
and,  when  the  engineer,  Stephenson,  after  a  month's  vigorous 
operations,  had  made  up  his  estimates,  the  apparent  work  done 
was  sometimes  less  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  month.  The 
railway  ultimately  was  made  to  float  on  the  bog.  Where  em- 
bankment was  required  drains  about  5  yards  apart  were  cut,  and 
when  the  moss  between  them  was  dry  it  was  used  to  form  the 
embankment.  Where  the  way  was  formed  on  the  level  drains 
were  cut  on  each  side  of  the  intended  line,  and  were  intersected 
here  and  there  by  cross  drains,  by  which  the  upper  part  of  the 
moss  became  dry  and  firm.  On  this  surface  hurdles  were  placed, 
4  feet  broad  and  9  long,  covered  with  heath,  upon  which  the 
ballast  was  laid. 

Tunnels. — The  relative  costs  of  rock  -  cuttings  and  cuttings  in 
clay  do  not  greatly  differ ;  for,  not  only  does  the  vertical  rock- 
cutting  require  less  excavation  than  the  wide  yawning  earth- 
cutting  of  the  same  depth,  with  extended  slopes,  but,  when  it  is 
executed,  the  rock-cutting  is  not  liable  to  the  expensive  slips  which 
sometimes  overtake  the  other.  For  depths  exceeding  60  feet  it  is 
usually  cheaper  to  tunnel. 

The  tunnel  (see  fig.  16)  under  Callander  ridge  near  Falkirk  station, 
on  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway,  is  a  fair  representation  of 


I"io.  10.— Tunnel  under  Callander  ridge,  on  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway. 

tunnels  as  usually  constructed.  It  is  lined  with  brick  18  inches 
thick,  founded  on  stone  footings  of  greater  breadth,  in  order  to 
throw  the, load  securely  upon  the  subsoil,  as  shown  in  the  trans- 
verse section.  The  sides  and  roof  of  the  tunnel  are  curved  from 
footing  to  footing,  so  as  effectually  to  resist  the  inevitable  external 
pressure  of  the  earth,  to  a  span  of  26  feet  in  width  and  a  height 
of  22.  The  sectional  view  shows  also  the  centering  or  timber 
framing  employed  in  the  building  of  the  tunnel,  which  was  braced 
diagonally  and  transversely  to  resist  the  unavoidable  inequalities 
of  pressure  without  alteration  of  form  whilst  the  arch  was  in  course 
of  construction.  Externally  the  entrances  are  built  of  stone,  and 
the  flank  walls  are  3  feet  in  thickness,  with  counterforts  at  inter- 
vals. This  tunnel  is  not  straight,  but  is  formed  on  a  curve  of  1 
mile  radius,  and  is  830  yards,  or  nearly  half  a  mile  in  length. 

The  Kilsby  tunnel,  on  the  London  and  Birmingham  Railway,  was 
rendered  necessary  by  the  opposition  raised  to  the  line  passing 
through  Northampton.  It  is  driven  160  feet  below  the  surface 
and  is  2398  yards  in  length,  30  feet  in  width,  and  30  feet  high, 
constructed  with  two  wide  air-shafts  60  feet  in  diameter,  not  only 
to  give  air  and  ventilation  but  to  admit  light  enough  to  enable  the 
engine-driver  in  passing  through  it  with  a  train  to  see  the  rails 


from  end  to  end.  .The  construction  of  the  tunnel  was  let  for  the 
sum  of  £99,000,  but,  owing  chiefly  to  the  existence  of  unseen 
quicksands,  the  tunnel  is  stated  to  have  actually  cost  nearly 
£300,000,  or  £125  per  lineal  yard. 

The  Box  tunnel,  on  the  Great  Western  Railway,  between  Bath 
and  Chippenham,  was  another  difficult  and  expensive  work.  It 
is  about  70  feet  below  the  surface,  and  is  3123  yards  in  length,  or 
rather  more  than  1 1  miles  ;  the  width  is  30  and  the  height  25  feet. 
Where  bricked,  the  sides  are  constructed  of  seven  and  the  arch  of 
six  rings  of  brick,  and  there  is  an  invert  of  four  rings.  There  are 
eleven  air-shafts  to  this  tunnel,  generally  25  feet  in  diameter. 

The  tunnel  under  the  Mound  at  Edinburgh  (see  fig.  17),  on  the 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway,  supplies  an  excellent  illustration 
of  tunnels  formed  with  inverts, — 
that  is  to  say,  inverted  arches  built : 
under  the  rails.  The  figure  is  a 
transverse  section,  showing  the 
truly  circular  arch  of  the  tunnel, 
28  feet  in  diameter  and  20  high 
above  the  rails,  built  of  brick  3  feet 
thick,  stiffened  with  counterforts  ex- 
ternally, and  with  ribs  of  masonry 
internally,  founded  on  a  solid  bed 
of  mason -work,  with  an  inverted  i'io.  17. — Tunnel  under  the  Moond, 
arch  to  distribute  the  weight.  The  at  Edinburgh. 

Mound  was  a  mass  of  loose  earth  and  rubbish  on  a  boggy  soil, 
hence  the  necessity  for  the  invert  arch,  on  which  the  tunnel  may 
be  conceived  to  float. 

The  Shakespeare  tunnel,  or,  more  correctly,  double  tunnel,  driven 
through  the  Shakespeare  Cliff  near  Dover,  on  the  South-Eastern 
Railway,  is  in  fact  two  narrow  tunnels,  carrying  each  one  line  of 
rails  (see  fig.  18),  12  feet  wide  and  30  in  extreme  height,  through 


FIG.  18. — The  Shakespeare  tunnel,  on  the  South-Eastern  Railway. 

the  chalk,  separated  by  a  solid  pier  or  wall  of  chalk  10  feet  thick. 
The  chalk  is  of  variable  quality,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  tunnel 
is  lined  with  brick,  strengthened  by  counterforts  at  12  feet  intervals, 
which  carry  the  weight  of  doubtful  beds  of  chalk.  The  tunnel  is 
1430  yards,  or  upwards  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  rising 
westward  with  an  inclination  of  1  in  264.  The  tunnel  being 
within  a  short  distance  of  the  face  of  the  cliff,  the  material  excavated 
was  discharged  through  galleries  about  400  feet  long,  driven  in 
from  the  face  of  the  cliff,  into  the  sea, — the  first  operation  being  to 
run  a  bench  or  roadway  along  the  face  of  the  cliff.  There  are  seven 
vertical  shafts  from  the  surface,  averaging  180  feet  deep. 

There  were  in  1857  about  70  miles  of  railway  tunnelling  in  Great 
Britain,  or  1  mile  of  tunnel  for  130  miles  of  railway.  There  are 
now  (1885)  probably  at  least  100  miles  of  tunnelling.  The  cost 
of  tunnelling  has  averaged  £102  per  mile.  The  longest  tunnel 
is  the  Woodhead,  at  the  summit  of  the  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and 
Lincolnshire  Railway,  being  3  miles  and  60  feet  long.  The  tun- 
nelling on  the  Metropolitan  Railway  is  noticed  below,  p.  239. 

Bridges  and  Viaducts. — There  are  very  few  level  crossings  on  Bridges. 
English  railways — that  is,  the  crossing  of  one  railway  with  another, 
or  with  a  common  road,  at  the  same  level — the  chances  of  accidents 
having  demanded,  in  general,  the  construction  of  bridges  over  or 
under  the  railway.  The  general  appearance  of  an  ordinary  stone 
or  brick  bridge  is  represented  by  fig.  19,  showing  in  elevation  a 
bridge  over  or  under  the  railway.  The  minimum  height  of  a 
bridge  over  the  railway  is  ruled  by  the  elevation  necessary  to  clear 
the  top  of  the  chimney  of  the  locomotive.  An  excellent  method 
of  carrying  roads  over  railways,  where  the  height  is  limited  and 
the  span  is  moderate,  consists  in  erecting  flat -arched  cast-iron 
beams  over  the  railway,  and  throwing  brick  arches  of  small  span 
between  the  beams  upon  their  lower  flanges,  to  carry  the  roadway. 
Thus  the  vertical  depth  from  the  soffit  or  crown  of  the  main  arch 
to  the  roadway  above  may  but  very  little  exceed  the  depth  of  the 
beam,  which  is  apparent  in  the  sectional  view.  This  method  of 
construction  is,  moreover,  well  adapted  for  skew-bridges.  Cast-iron 

XX.  —  30 


234 


RAILWAY 


has,  however,  as  a  material  for  railway  structures,  been  very  gen- 
erally superseded  by  wrought -iron,  forming  plate  girder  bridges. 
Timber  is  now  almost  unheard  of  for  railway  bridges  on  account 


FIG.  19.— Ordinary  bridge  over  or  under  a  railway.  The  left-hand  side  is  for  a 
cutting,  and  a  bridge  over  the  railway  ;  the  right-hand  side  is  for  an  embank- 
ment and  a  bridge  under  the  railway  ;  the  difference  is  in  the  foundations. 

of  its  want  of  durability  and  stiffness  ;  and  such  bridges  as  have 
formerly  been  built  of  timber  in  Great  Britain  are  being  rebuilt  of 
stone,  brick,  or  plate-iron. 
Viaducts.     The  longest  viaduct  in  England  is  perhaps  the  Congleton,  on  the 


Manchester  and  Birmingham  Railway  ;  it  is  of  stone,  1026  yards 
or  more  than  half  a  mile  in  length  and  106  feet  high,  and  it  cost 
£113,000,  or  £113  per  yard  run.  The  Dane  viaduct,  on  the  same 
line,  is  of  brick,  572  yards  long  and  88  feet  high,  and  it  cost 
£54,000,  or  £96  per  yard  run,  having  23  arches  of  63  feet  span. 
The  Avon  viaduct,  on  the  Midland  Railway,  is  of  brick,  240  yards 
in  length  and  51  feet  high,  with  11  arches  of  50  feet  span  ;  it  cost 
£14,000,  or  £60  per  yard  run.  For  comparison  it  maybe  stated 
that  the  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge  across  the  Menai  Straits,  616 
yards  long  and  104  feet  high,  cost  £600,000,  or  £974  per  yard  run. 
On  the  different  lines  entering  London  there  are  several  miles  of 
brick  viaducts  in  the  approaches  to  termini,  and  .also  at  Manchester 
and  other  large  cities  and  towns.  Many  interesting  details  might 
be  given  as  to  bridges  and  viaducts  of  the  larger  kind,  but  we  must 
here  confine  ourselves  to  some  account  of  the  Forth  Bridge,  now  in 
course  of  construction  at  Queensferry,  referring  the  reader  for  other 
examples  to  the  article  BRIDGES. 


Fio.  20.— The  Forth  Bridge. 


The  Forth  Bridge,  designed  by  Mr  John  Fowler  and  Mr  Benjamin 
Baker,  is  thfc  largest  and  most  remarkable  railway  bridge  in  the 
world.  One  of  its  spans  is  shown  in  elevation  and  plan  in  fig.  20. 
The  bridge  consists  of  2  spans  of  1700  feet  each,  2  of  675  each,  15 
of  168  each,  and  5  of  25  each.  Including  the  width  of  the  piers, 
there  is  almost  exactly  1  mile  of  main  spans  and  half  a  mile  of 
approaches  by  viaducts,  making  together  about  1  \  miles  of  total 
length.  The  clear  headway  under  the  centre  of  the  bridge  is  150 
feet  above  the  level  of  high  water,  and  the  highest  part  of  the  bridge 
is  361  above  the  same  level.  Each  of  the  three  main  piers  consists 
of  a  group  of  four  cylindrical  piers  of  masonry  and  concrete,  49  feet 
in  diameter  at  the  top  and  from  60  to  70  in  diameter  at  the  bottom. 
The  deepest  pier  is  about  70  feet  below  low  water,  and  the  rise  of 
the  tide  is  18  feet  at  ordinary  spring  tides.  In  the  piers  there  are 
about  120,000  cubic  yards  of  masonry  and  in  the  superstructure 
44,500  tons  of  steel.  The  contract  was  let  for  the  sum  of  £1,600,000, 
being  at  the  rate  of  £645  per  lineal  yard.  An  impression  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  bridge  is  derived  from  a  comparison  with  the 
largest  railway  bridge  in  England,  the  Britannia  Bridge,  which 
has  a  span  of  465  feet,  the  ratio  of  which  to  that  of  the  Forth 
Bridge— 1700  feet— is  as  1  to  3 '65.  The  site  of  the  Forth  Bridge 
is  at  Queensferry.  At  this  place  the  Firth  of  Forth  is  divided  by 
the  island  of  Inchgarvie  into  two  channels,  which,  being  as  much 
as  200  feet  in  depth,  precluded  the  construction  of  intermediate 
piers.  Hence  the  adoption  of  two  large  spans  of  1700  feet  each, 
between  which  the  central  pier  is  founded  on  the  island  midway 
across.  The  bridge  is  composed  of  three  double  lattice-work  canti- 
levers, like  scale-beams,  1360  feet  in  length,  poised  on  three  sub- 
structures, and  connected  at  their  extremities  by  ordinary  girders 
350  feet  long,  which  complete  the  main  spans.  The  bridge  is  taper 
in  plan,  varying  from  a  width  of  120  feet — the  distance  apart  of 
the  lower  members  of  the  cantilevers  at  the  piers — to  a  minimum 
of  31  \  at  the  ends,  in  order  to  confer  a  degree  of  stiffness  laterally, 
for  resisting  irregular  stresses,  wind  -  pressure  in  particular.  The 
columns  above  the  piers,  forming  the  basis  of  the  cantilevers,  are 
12  feet  in  diameter.  The  lower  booms,  as  well  as  the  struts  of  the 
cantilevers,  being  the  members  in  compression,  are  circular  in  cross 
section,  this  form  of  section  having  been  selected  as  the  most 
effective  for  resisting  compressive  stress.  The  lower  boom  is  at 
the  piers  12  feet  in  diameter,  constructed  of  plates  1J  inches  in 
thickness.  The  size  is  gradually  reduced  towards  the  ends,  where 
the  diameter  is  5  feet,  made  of  plates  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  Correspondingly  the  upper  member  of  each  cantilever 
is  a  tapering  box-lattice  girder,  rectangular  in  section,  12  feet  deep 
by  10  wide  at  the  piers,  and  5  feet  by  3  at  the  ends.  The  central 
girders  are  32  feet  apart.  The  wind-pressure  is  assumed  for  calcu- 
lation at  a  maximum  of  56  tt>  per  superficial  foot.  It  is  calculated 
that  the  maximum  possible  stress  on  any  member  of  the  bridge  is 
at  the  rate  of  7^  tons  per  square  inch  of  section.  The  required 
ultimate  strength  of  steel  under  compression  is  from  34  to  37  tons 
per  square  inch,  and  under  tension  from  30  to  33  tons.  Between 
the  two  main  girders  the  double  line  of  way  is  to  be  earned  on  an 


internal  viaduct  (see  smaller  figure  in  fig.  20),  supported  by  trestles 
and  cross  girders.  The  way  will  consist  of  heavy  bridge  rails, 
Brunei  section,  laid  on  longitudinal  sleepers  bedded  in  four  steel 
troughs,  into  which  the  wheels  will  drop  in  case  of  derailment, 
and  then  run  on  the  sleepers. 

Railway  Stations. — Railway  stations  are  either  "terminal"  or  Station 
"intermediate."  A  terminal  station  embraces  (1)  the  passenger 
station  ;  (2)  the  goods  station  ;  (3)  the  locomotive,  carriage,  and 
waggon  depots,  wher'e  the  engines  and  the  carrying  stock  are  kept, 
cleaned,  examined,  and  repaired.  At  many  intermediate  stations 
the  same  arrangements,  on  a  smaller  scale,  are  made  ;  in  all  of  them 
there  is  at  least  accommodation  for  the  passenger  and  the  goods 
traffic.  The  stations  for  passengers  and  goods  are  generally  in 
different  and  sometimes  in  distant  positions,  the  place  selected  for 
each  being  that  which  is  most  convenient  for  the  traffic.  The 
passenger  station  abuts  on  the  main  line,  or,  at  termini,  forms  the 
natural  terminus,  at  a  place  as  near  as  can  conveniently  be  obtained 
to  the  centre  of  the  population  which  constitutes  the  passenger 
traffic.  The  goods  station  is  approached  by  a  siding  or  fork  set 
off  from  the  main  line  at  a  point  short  of  the  passenger  station. 
Terminal  branches  of  the  railways — where,  for  example,  there  is 
a  sharp  incline — are  sometimes  worked  by  stationary  engines  and 
ropes  to  the  point  where  the  locomotive  joins  the  train.  The  loco- 
motive station  is  placed  wherever  the  ground  may  most  conveni- 
ently be  obtained,  at  or  near  to  the  terminus  ;  in  some  cases  it  is 
found  at  a  distance  of  3  or  4  miles.  An  abundant  supply  of  good 
water  and  ample  means  of  drainage  are  important  at  stations. 
There  should  be  ample  area  of  land  to  admit  of  the  greatest  possible 
extension  of  accommodation,  and  the  erection  of  buildings  on  land 
adjacent  to  the  station  grounds  should  be  discouraged.  Companies 
have  been  compelled  to  repurchase  at  greatly  advanced  cost  land 
originally  disposed  of  by  them  as  "surplus,"  and  generally  with  a 
view  to  building  operations.  When  this  course  is  adopted  prudent 
managers  should  take  care  to  secure  in  the  conveyance  power  to 
repurchase  the  freehold  at  original  prices,  with  allowance  for  out- 
lay in  building  or  otherwise,  by  valuation. 

In  laying  out  the  approaches  and  station-yard  of  passenger  A rrar 
stations  ample  width  and  space  should  be  provided,  with  well-  inent 
defined  means  of  ingress  and  egress  to  facilitate  the  circulation  of  term: 
vehicles,  and  the  setting -down  pavement  should  be  as  long  as 
possible,  to  admit  of  several  carriages  discharging  passengers  and 
luggage  at  the  same  time.  The  pavement  should  be  wide  and 
sheltered  from  the  weather  by  a  roof,  overhanging  beyond  the  kerb, 
or  spanning  the  roadway,  but  in  all  cases  free  from  columns.  The 
position  of  the  main  buildings  relative  to  the  direction  of  the  lines 
of  rails  is  the  distinguishing  feature  in  terminal  stations.  When 
space  permits,  the  usual  course  is  to  place  them  on  the  departure 
side  parallel  to  the  platform,  but  they  are  frequently  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  station  at  right  angles  to  the  rails  and  platforms.  Or 
these  two  systems  are  combined  in  a  third  arrangement,  in  which 
the  offices  are  placed  in  a  fork,  between  two  or  more  series  of  lines 
and  platforms.  Of  the  metropolitan  termini,  the  Great  Northern 


RAILWAY 


235 


passenger  station,  the  Great  Western,  and  the  South-Western  sta- 
tions are  examples  of  the  first  class  ;  the  London  Bridge,  Cannon 
Street,  Charing  Cross,  and  Victoria  stations  (comprising  the  South- 
Eastern  and  the  Brighton  lines),  and  the  Great  Eastern  and  the 
Fenchurch  Street  stations  (comprising  the  North  London,  Black- 
wall,  North  Woolwich,  and  Tilbury  lines),  are  examples  of  the 
second  class  ;  and  the  London  and  North-Western  station  is  an 
example  of  the  third  class.  The  first  and  usual  class  of  stations 
commands  the  greatest  length  of  setting -down  pavement,  ample 
space  for  booking  and  other  offices,  waiting-rooms,  &c.,  and  the 
shortest  average  distance  for  passengers  and  luggage  from  the 
offices  to  the  outgoing  trains.  Nevertheless,  where  the  traffic  is 
various,  involving  the  despatch  of  numerous  trains  to  different 
points  in  quick  succession,  and  necessarily  with  perfect  regularity, 
the  second  system  is  the  best.  But  where  the  frontage  is  limited, 
and  where  trains  start  at  some  distance  from  the  entrance,  there  is 
inconvenience  in  the  movement  of  luggage  over  a  crowded  platform. 
The  third  plan  is  probably  the  least  commodious  of  the  three  ;  but 
it  has  the  advantage  of  affording  two  arrival  platforms,  with  car- 
riage-roads alongside,  the  others  having  but  one  so  situated.  In 
all  the  classes,  it  may  be  observed,  transverse  lines  are  inserted 
with  turn-tables,  to  place  all  the  lines  in  compact  communication 
for  turning  on  or  off  spare  carriages,  loaded  horse-boxes,  or  carriage- 
trucks.  Independently  of  the  turn-tables,  the  lines  of  rail  are  con- 
nected by  switches  or  points  converging  towards  the  two  main 
lilies  of  rail,  outgoing  and  incoming  ;  and  thus  the  assortment  and 
marshalling  of  trains  may  be  effected  by  horse  or  engine  power 
independently  of  the  turn-tables.  Each  plan  of  station  comprises 
one  or  more  large  turn-tables  for  reversing  the  engine  with  its 
tender  together. 

The  correct  arrangement  and  appropriation  of  t"he  several  lines  of 
railway  in  a  terminal  station  materially  affect  the  economical  and 
efficient  working  of  the  traffic.  It  is  essential  that  every  traffic  line, 
both  in  and  out,  should  be  provided  with  one  or  more  spare  sidings, 
in  addition  to  those  set  apart  for  the  break-vans,  horse-boxes,  and 
carriage-trucks,  and  for  the  locomotive  department.  All  these 
lines  should  communicate  with  each  other  by  means  of  points  and 
crossings,  to  allow  of  shunting  with  engine-power,  and  to  reduce 
to  the  lowest  limits  the  number  of  turn-tables  or  their  substitutes. 
Curves  ought  never  to  have  a  radius  of  less  than  800  feet. 
it:  The  practice  with  regard  to  the  height  of  platforms  above  the 
•ra  rails  has  varied  considerably,  the  tendency  being  to  raise  them 
much  higher  than  was  usual  at  first ;  3  feet  may  be  stated  as  the 
limit  in  this  respect.  Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  the 
necessity  for  obtaining  the  greatest  possible  width  of  platform. 
Where  the  platform  is  used  on  one  side  only,  the  width  ought 
never  to  be  less  than  20  feet ;  and  when  both  sides  are  required 
oO,  or  even  40,  should  be  allowed.  The  best  mode  of  constructing 
the  platform  is  undoubtedly  with  stone  slabs  laid  hollow  upon 
longitudinal  walls,  so  as  to  admit  of  carrying  beneath  it  the  water 
and  gas  pipes,  telegraph  or  signal  wires,  and  the  general  drainage, 
with  free  access  to  each.  Cutting  out  for  turn-tables  and  openings 
for  cross  lines  of  rails  are  frequently  inevitable  difficulties,  which 
have  given  rise  to  various  ingenious  contrivances,  as  shifting-stages, 
drawbridges,  &c.  By  far  the  best  substitute  for  the  turn-table  yet 
introduced  is  the  traverser.  If  well  made  and  carefully  worked  and 
attended  to,  the  shifting  of  carriages  from  line  to  line  can  be  per- 
formed without  extra  manual  labour  or  interference  either  with  the 
rails  or  the  platforms.  The  other  objection  is  best  met  by  the  use 
of  easy  inclines,  with  crossings  on  the  rail-level.  Where  the  plat- 
forms do  not  exceed  2  feet  in  height  and  the  surface  is  smooth, 
gradients  of  1  in  10  are  not  too  steep  for  luggage-barrows,  nor  are 
they  dangerous  in  a  crowd. 

The  earlier  terminal  railway  stations  were  designed  either  with 
intermediate  columns  supporting  the  roof  or  with  brick  walls,  vary- 
ing in  number  of  spans  from  two  to  five  or  six.  It  often  happens 
that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  such  stations  have  to  be  remodelled 
to  meet  the  constantly  increasing  traffic  ;  and  great  difficulties  are 
occasionally  met  with  in  the  rearrangement  of  platforms  which  are 
wasted  where  lines  of  rails  have  been  laid,  whilst  rails  are  wasted 
where  platforms  are  placed,  and  where  columns  interfere.  To  allow 
engines  and  carriages  to  pass  from  one  line  of  rails  to  another 
at  the  shortest  possible  intervals  it  becomes  necessary  to  have 
diagonal  crossings  from  one  part  of  the  station  to  another  in  many 
directions,  while  at  the  same  time  the  free  movements  of  pass- 
engers and  luggage  on  the  platforms  must  not  be  impeded.  Thus 
there  arose  a  system,  originated,  it  is  believed,  in  the  great  Con- 
tinental termini,  of  constructing  roofs  in  two  spans,  one  covering 
the  up  lines  of  rails  and  the  other  the  down  lines.  King's  Cross 
passenger  station  is  an  example  of  this  kind.  The  principle  of 
wide  spans  for  the  roofs  of  railway  stations,  clear  of  intermediate 
walls  or  columns,  was  adopted  in  England  probably  for  the  first 
time  in  1848-49,  in  covering  Lime  Street  station,  Liverpool,  on  the 
London  and  North- Western  Railway,  by  one  span  of  153J  feet. 
The  extreme  length  of  the  roof  was  374  feet.  The  new  Lime  Street 
station,  it  may  be  added,  is  covered  by  a  roof  of  one  span  of  212 
feet.  Tythebarn  Street  station,  Liverpool,  on  the  Lancashire  and 


Yorkshire  Railway,  is  covered  by  a  roof  in  one  span  of  136  feet ; 
there,  as  the  traffic  increased,  the  lines  and  platforms  were  changed 
so  as  to  admit  of  treble  the  quantity  of  traffic  being  conducted, 
which  would  have  been  impossible  if  the  roof  had  been  built  with 
sectional  spans  and  columns.  It  is  averred  that  the  railway  com- 
pany lias  been  repaid  the  excessive  cost  of  the  single-span  roof 
many  times  over  in  economy  of  working.  The  next  single-span 
roof  on  a  large  scale  appears  to  have  been  that  of  212  feet  covering 
the  New  Street  station,  Birmingham,  in  which  five  lines  of  way, 
belonging  to  different  companies — the  London  and  North-Western 
and  others — meet  and  concentrate  passenger  and  goods  traffic  of 
every  description.  The  roof  was  840  feet  in  length,  with  trusses 
or  principals  placed  at  intervals  of  24  feet.  The  principal  consists 
of  one  arched  plate-iron  girder  15  inches  deep,  having  a  rise  of  45^ 
feet  at  the  centre.  The  ends  of  the  arch  are  tied  by  a  round  tie- 
bar  4  inches  in  diameter,  from  which  the  arch  is  strutted  at  inter- 
vals. This  is  said  to  cover  the  largest  area  of  any  station  in  England. 

The  Cannon  Street  station  of  the  Charing  Cross  Railway  is  the  Cannon 
terminus  of  the  City  extension  of  that  line,  giving  direct  access  to  Street 
the  City  of  London  for  the  South-Easteni  Railway,  and  linking  the  station. 
Charing  Cross  station  at  the  west  end  with  the  City.  During  the 
year  1867 — the  first  year  the  extension  was  open  for  traffic — about 
8  million  passengers  used  the  Cannon  Street  station,  of  which 
nearly  one-half  were  local  passengers  booked  between  Cannon  Street 
and  Charing  Cross.  The  length  of  ground  between  the  river 
Thames  and  Cannon  Street  is  855  feet,  of  which  the  fore-court 
occupies  90,  the  booking-offices  85,  and  the  shed  or  covered  portion 
of  the  station  reaching  to  the  river  680.  The  station  is  201  feet  8 
inches  wide  outside  the  walls  and  187  feet  inside.  The  whole  of 
the  station  is  built  on  a  substructure  of  brick  piers  and  arches,  ex- 
cepting the  booking-offices  and  the  part  which  is  over  Upper  Thames 
Street.  The  ordinary  piers  are  5  feet  thick  with  footings  8  feet 
wide,  resting  on  a  bed  of  concrete  10  feet  in  thickness,  and  the 
whole  of  the  under  structure  is  made  available  for  storage  and  other 
purposes.  The  rails  and  platforms  are  carried  across  Upper  Thames 
Street  on  wrought -iron  girders  2£  feet  deep  to  37  feet  of  span. 
The  floor  of  this  bridge  is  of  creasoted  Baltic  planking  8  inches 
thick.  The  walls  of  the  station  are  of  brick-work,  45  feet  high 
above  the  level  of  the  platform.  They  are  built  in  piers  6  feet  4£ 
inches  thick  and  panels  2  feet  74  inches  thick.  The  roof  is  of  one 
clear  span  of  190  feet  4J  inches  circular,  having  a  rise  or  versed 
sine  of  60  feet  at  the  centre,  composed  of  ribs  constructed  of  plate- 
iron  and  angle-iron,  and,  like  ordinary  girders,  21  inches  deep, 
each  foot  of  each  rib  being  tied  by  a  tie-bar  of  round  wrought-iron 
5T\  inches  in  diameter.  The  tie-bar  rises  30  feet  and  the  depth 
of  the  truss  at  the  centre  is  30  feet.  One  end  or  foot  of  the  rib  is 
fixed  to  the  supporting  wall  and  the  other  end  is  placed  on  rollers, 
by  the  aid  of  which  the  principal  or  truss  is  free  to  expand  or  to 
contract  according  to  the  variations  of  temperature.  The  trasses 
are  placed  at  from  33|  to  35  feet  apart.  The  booking-offices,  wait- 
ing-rooms, &c. ,  are  at  the  end  of  the  station  on  the  ground  floor  of 
the  building,  which  above  and  below  them  forms  the  City  Terminus 
Hotel.  Parcels  offices,  stores,  cellarage,  &c.,  are  provided  in  the 
basement,  with  hydraulic  lifts  worked  by  direct  pressure  from  tanks 
in  the  towers  at  the  south  end.  The  used  water  is  discharged  into 
tanks  about  9  feet  above  the  level  of  the  platform,  whence  it  is 
again  utilized  for  the  general  purposes  of  the  station.  There  are 
nine  lines  of  way  in  the  station,  of  which  eight  run  alongside  five 
platforms,  and  one  line  is  space  for  stock  and  for  standing-room. 
The  two  outer  platforms  are  employed  for  the  short  traffic  to 
Greenwich  and  W  id-Kent  and  to  Charing  Cross,  13  J  feet  wide  by 
522  and  486  feet  long  respectively.  The  general  departure  platform 
is  665  feet  long  and  19  wide ;  and  the  two  general  arrival  platforms, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  cab  road,  are  721  feet  long  by  12J  wide. 
On  this  system  there  are  two  lines  of  rail  to  each  platform,  reckon- 
ing the  general  arrival  platforms  as  one ;  accommodation  is  thus 
found  for  4788  lineal  feet  of  trains.  These  nine  lines  of  way  con- 
verge and  merge  in  five  lines  of  way  over  the  bridge  for  a  length  of 
about  600  feet,  constituting  the  station-yard.  The  first  line,  on 
the  western  or  up-stream  side,  is  exclusively  for  trains  proceeding 
from  Cannon  Street  to  Charing  Cross  ;  the  second  line  is  for  trains 
approaching  Cannon  Street,  whether  from  London  Bridge,  the 
country,  or  Charing  Cross ;  the  centre  line  is  exclusively  for 
trains  from  London  Bridge  or  the  country  ;  the  fourth  is  the  main 
down  line  ;  the  fifth,  or  east  line,  is  for  engines  going  to  or  from 
the  engine  dep6tr  at  the  far  end  of  the  bridge,  or  for  engines  wait- 
ing for  their  trains.  The  movements  of  the  trains  are  regulated 
from  the  signal-bridge,  which  crosses  the  converged  lines  of  way 
at  a  distance  of  about  140  feet  from  the  south  end  of  the  station, 
by  means  of  about  forty  pairs  of  points,  with  twenty-four  sema- 
phore arms,  eight  of  which  are  for  trains  outward  and  sixteen  for 
trains  inward.  The  signal-box  on  the  bridge  is  42  feet  long  and  9 
wide,  and  contains  sixty -seven  levers,  by  thirty -seven  of  which 
signals  on  Saxby  and  Farmer's  system  are  worked,  and  by  thirty 
the  points  are  worked.  Several  of  the  point -levers  work  the 
switches  at  both  ends  of  cross-over  lines.  The  signals  lock  the 
points  and  each  other,  so  that  no  contradictory  signals  can  be 


236 


RAILWAY 


given  ;  nor  can  ingress  to  or  egress  from  a  platform  be  given  until 
the  points  are  set  accordingly.  There  are  in  the  locking  frame 
thirty-two  slides  and  about  a  thousand  locks,  and  an  idea  of  the 
duty  that  falls  on  this  apparatus  may  be  formed  from  the  fact 
that  775  trains  have  passed  under  the  signal -bridge  in  a  single 
working  day  (Whit-Monday),  and  that,  each  train  being  reversed 
here,  a  fresh  engine  has  to  be  attached  to  it,  the  superseded  engine 
being  passed  into  a  siding.  In  the  course  of  thirty-five  minutes 
one  morning  thirty -five  trains  were  signalled  and  passed  in  or  out 
of  the  station.  The  duty  of  signalling  is  performed  by  two  men. 

The  cost  of  the  works  of  the  Cannon  Street  station,  with  the 
cost  for  Charing  Cross  station  for  comparison,  is  shown  in  Table 
XXV.  (below).  The  substructure  is  reckoned  to  the  formation- 
level,  inclusive  of  the  public  footway  under  Charing  Cross  station 
and  the  public  roadway  under  Cannon  Street  station,  but  exclusive 
of  the  river  abutment  of  the  bridge.  The  superstructure  includes 
the  fore-court,  booking-offices,  fittings,  towers,  roof,  gas  and  water 
mains,  &c. ,  excluding  the  permanent  way. 


Cannon  Street. 

Charing  Cross. 

Area,  exclusive  of  fore-court  .... 
Substructure  

152,632  square  feet 
£74,902 

103,672  square  feet 
£41,422 

„            per  square  foot.  .  .  . 
Superstructure  

9s.  lOd. 
157,262 

8s. 
111,604 

,,               per  square  foot  .  . 

20s.  7d. 

21s.  6d. 

Total      .  .          .     . 

£232  224 

£153  026 

„   per  square  foot.  . 

80s.  5d. 

29s.  7d. 

The  total  cost  of  the  works  of  the  whole  Charing  Cross  Railway, 
from  London  Bridge  station  to  Cannon  Street  and  Charing  Cross, 
with  the  terminal  stations,  was  £1,160,118.  The  cost  of  the  land 
for  the  whole  railway,  after  deducting  the  value  of  surplus  land, 
Hungerford  Bridge,  pier  tolls,  &c.,  was  £1,900,000,  making  a  total 
for  land  and  works  of  over  £3,000,000.  For  this  sum  there  are 
4£  miles  of  railway  for  double  line,  the  cost  being  at  the  rate  of 
£680,000  per  mile.  The  works  include  two  large  bridges  over  the 
river  Thames,  a  number  of  expensive  bridges  over  streets,  viaducts, 
and  two  large  metropolitan  termini.  The  cost  for  land  at  Cannon 
Street  station  was  at  the  rate  of  £3, 15s.  7d.  per  square  foot,  and 
that  at  Charing  Cross  station  was  £2,  18s.  5d. 

St  Pancras  passenger  station  of  the  Midland  Railway  is  the  most 
recently  constructed  metropolitan  terminus.  The  approach  to  the 
land  on  which  the  station  is  built  was  crossed  by  the  Regent's 
Canal,  and  in  order  to  secure  good  gradients  and  suitable  levels  for 
metropolitan  suburban  stations  the  main  passenger  line  is  carried 
over  the  canal ;  and,  as  a  result,  the  level  of  St  Pancras  station  is 
from  12  to  17  feet  higher  than  that  of  the  adjoining  roads.  The 
St  Pancras  branch,  on  the  contrary,  for  effecting  a  junction  with 
the  Metropolitan  Railway,  leaving  the  main  line  some  distance 
from  the  terminus,  descends  through  a  tunnel  beneath  the  Regent's 
Canal  and  the  passenger  station,  as  well  as  under  a  considerable 
length  of  the  main  line.  The  height  of  the  rails  above  the  ground- 
level  admitted  of  the  construction  of  a  lower  floor  with  direct  access 
to  the  streets,  built  and  arranged  for  Burton  beer  traffic.  The  floor 
of  the  station  is  supported  on  girders  and  columns  extending  from 
side  to  side  and  acting  as  a  tie  for  the  roof  girders,  which  start 
from  the  ground-level  and  form  the  roof  as  a  single  arch.  The  ribs 
or  girders  forming  the  roof  are  laid  to  a  clear  span  of  240  feet ;  the 
walls  built  between  the  ribs  are  245£  feet  apart.  The  clear  height 
of  the  ribs  above  the  level  of  the  platforms  is  96  feet  at  the  centre. 
The  length  of  the  station  is  689  feet  4  inches.  The  lower  floor 
contains  720  cast-iron  columns  set  on  brick  piers,  and  49  rows  of 
principal  girders  across  the  station,  with  15  rows  longitudinally. 
Upon  these  intermediate  girders  are  carried,  and  the  whole  is  covered 
in  with  Mallett's  buckled  plates.  The  cost  of  the  ironwork  of  the 
floor  was  £57, 000,  being  at  the  rate  of  £3,  Os.  6d.  per  square  yard. 
The  roof  girders,  twenty-five  in  number,  are  placed  at  intervals  of 
29  feet  4  inches,  except  at  the  outer  end,  where  the  last  two  girders 
are  only  14  feet  8  inches  apart.  The  cost  of  the  roof,  including 
covering,  with  two  gables  and  screens,  amounted  to  £69,365,  being 
at  the  rate  of  £40,  18s.  per  square  of  100  square  feet  or  10  feet 
square.  If  there  had  not  been  any  floor-girders  to  act  as  roof-ties, 
the  extra  cost  for  ties  at  the  level  of  the  floor  would  have  been 
about  £1  per  square. 

Table  XXVI.  gives  the  spans  and  areas  covered  by  the  roofs  of 


some  01  me  principal  ijonuon  pa 

ssengei 

termu 

H  :  — 

Railway  and  Station. 

Span 
of 
Roof. 

Covered 
Area. 

Cost  per 
square  of 
100  sq.  ft. 

Additional 
for  one 
Gable. 

London  and  North-Wastern,  Euston 
,,           „          New  Lime  Street 
Great  Northern,  King's  Cross  
Midland,  St  Pancras    

Feet. 
212 
240 

8q.  yds. 
23,144 

22,'808 
18,822 

&  e.  d. 
30"6'  0 

si  ii  o 

£  s.  d. 
470 

South-Eastern,  Charing  Cross  
,,            Cannon  Street  
Great  Western  Paddington          ... 

166 
190 

8,888 
13,875 
28,807 

34  0  0 

43  10'  0 

600 

600 

Victoria  Station,  Great  Western  side 

120 

27  13  4 

with  gable 

The  goods  and  mineral  station  at  King's  Cross  maybe  selected  as  King's 
an  example  of  such  stations.  It  comprises  coal  depSts  and  wharves,  Cross 
potato-stores,  engine-sheds,  repairing  sheds,  stores,  stables,  and  all  goods 
the  necessary  offices,  buildings,  and  appliances  required  tor  the  station 
goods  and  mineral  traffic  of  the  company.  Twelve  lines  of  rail  run 
into  the  goods-shed,  with  a  platform  at  each  side  for  the  receipt 
and  despatch  of  goods.  On  the  outer  side  of  the  rails,  within  tin- 
building,  space  is  reserved  for  the  vans  engaged  in  collecting  and 
distributing  the  goods.  The  outer  line  of  rails  at  the  east  side  of 
the  platform  is  used  for  unloading  the  Avaggons  with  the  inward 
goods,  and  that  on  the  west  side  for  loading  the  outward  goods. 
The  inner  lines  nearest  to  these  are  used  for  the  arrival  of  goods 
trains,  for  empty  waggons,  and  for  making  up  trains  for  departure. 
The  waggons,  after  being  unloaded,  are  taken  by  means  of  turn- 
tables and  cross-roads  to  the  departure  side  of  the  station,  win-re 
the  business  of  loading  and  despatching  them  is  carried  on.  The 
platforms  have  each  two  rows  of  hydraulic  cranes,  of  1  and  2  tons 
lifting  power  alternately.  The  receiving  offices  are  on  the  plat- 
forms, but  the  general  offices  are  adjacent  to  the  main  building. 
The  stables  are  under  the  platform ;  the  granary  is  at  the  south 
end  of  the  goods-shed,  through  which  it  is  approached  by  two  lines 
running  through  the  middle  of  the  shed, — two  other  lines,  one  on 
each  side  of  them,  being  reserved  for  full  waggons.  When  emptied, 
the  waggons  are  removed  by  two  lines  which  run  one  on  each  outer 
side  of  the  goods-shed.  The  shed  and  the  granary  are  supplied 
with  water  communication  through  tunnels  under  the  roads  to  a 
basin  on  the  south,  and  thence  to  the  Regent's  Canal ;  and  lighters 
can  receive  or  discharge  their  freights  directly  under  the  buildings. 
On  the  west  of  the  goods-shed  are  the  coal  depots  and  staiths.  The 
coal  arriving  at  the  station  is  discharged  in  some  cases  directly 
from  the  waggons  into  carts  alongside  ;  in  other  cases  it  is  dis- 
charged through  hoppers  on  to  weighing  machines  at  a  lower  level, 
and  thence  filled  into  sacks.  For  this  operation  there  is  a  frontage 
of  343  yards  ;  and  there  is  in  addition  a  coal  depot  in  Cambridge 
Street,  adjoining  the  goods -yard,  with  a  frontage  of  196  yards. 
There  is  a  coal  and  stone  dock  or  basin  connected  with  the  Regent's 
Canal,  where  barges  are  loaded  directly  from  the  coal  -  waggons, 
either  through  doorways  in  the  bottom  of  the  waggons  or  by  dis- 
charging the  coal  from  the  sides  of  the  waggons  into  hoppers. 
There  is  also  a  hopper  at  the  Cambridge  Street  depot  for  the  pur- 
pose of  loading  barges  on  the  canal.  Adjoining  the  canal  basin 
there  are  numerous  private  wharves  for  bricks  and  other  merchan- 
dise. To  the  north  are  the  locomotive  and  carriage  sheds  for  repair- 
ing the  stock,  also  two  engine-running  sheds,  one  round  and  tin- 
other  rectangular.  The  goods,  mineral,  and  locomotive  stations 
cover  an  area  of  about  70  acres,  and  the  total  area  covered  by  the 
goods  and  passenger  stations  and  the  running  lines  to  Copenhagen 
tunnel  is  upwards  of  90  acres.  The  principal  goods -shed  and 
granary  is  300  feet  long  and  175  wide,  and  the  area  occupied  by  the 
goods-warehouses,  potato-market,  coal-offices,  and  other  buildings 
amounts  to  8f  acres.  In  addition,  1  acre  is  covered  by  open  sheds 
and  1£  acres  by  the  stables  and  the  engineers'  shops.  The  engine- 
sheds  can  hold  eighty- four  engines  and  tenders,  and  they,  with  the 
workshops,  tanks,  carriage -repairing  shops,  and  sundry  premises, 
cover  2^  acres.1  There  are  in  the  goods,  mineral,  and  engine  yards 
28^  miles  of  single  line  of  way  and  more  than  250  sets  of  switches, 
200  turn-tables  for  waggons,  and  one  for  engines  and  tenders ;  of 
that  length  of  line  11  \  miles  of  sidings  are  used  for  coal -Avaggons. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  at  length  on  the  arrangement  of  small 
terminal  stations  for  branch  lines.  Where  the  line  is  single  a 
single  platform  suffices,  the  trains  being  light  and  moving  only  in 
one  direction  at  one  time. 

In  fixing  intermediate  stations  the  first  step  should  be  to  get  a  Inter 
good  map  of  all  the  places  within  the  scope  of  the  railway,  and  to  medi. 
mark  upon  it  the  population  of  each  place  from  the  last  parlia-  statii 
mentary  census.  The  greater  the  number  of  stations,  the  more  the 
travelling  increases  ;  for  quick  and  cheap  transit  creates  traffic. 
Stations,  especially  important  ones,  should  be  on  the  surface  rather 
than  on  an  embankment  or  a  viaduct  or  in  a  cutting.  Facilities 
of  access  in  all  directions  from  the  surrounding  districts,  with  good 
roads  in  the  case  of  passenger  traffic,  and  good  water  and  railway 
communication  for  goods  depots,  are  obviously  indispensable.  For 
safety  and  regularity  there  should  be  an  uninterrupted  view  along 
the  line  of  railway — no  sharp  curves  or  complication  of  over-bridges 
— in  the  vicinity  of  a  large  station.  Intermediate  and  junction 
stations  should  be  situated  on  dead  levels,  since,  when  a  good 
length  of  level  can  be  had,  with  gradients  falling  from  it  both 
w-ays,  there  is  the  greatest  possible  facility  for  working  the  traffic. 
Falling  gradients  towards  a  station  are  objectionable,  but  cannot 
in  all  cases  be  avoided.  When  the  station  is  situated  midway 
between  towns  of  such  extent  as  to  cause  an  equal  flow  of  traffic  in 
each  direction,  offices  may  be  requisite  on  both  sides  of  the  line  ; 
but,  where  the  bulk  of  the  traffic  tends  one  way  only,  it  will  be 
desirable  to  concentrate  it  on  that  side  which  involves  the  larger 
number  of  passengers  and  the  greater  extent  of  waiting 


1  The  headquarters  of  the  locomotive  and  carriage  department  are  at  Don- 
caster  station. 


RAILWAY 


237 


This  rule,  again,  will  be  modified  by  the  position  of  the  town  or 
the  district  whence  the  traffic  is  to  be  derived,  especially  if  the 
railway  lies  on  the  natural  surface  and  adjoins  a  public  road, 
whether  crossing  on  the  level  or  otherwise.  This  last  condition  is 
the  most  frequent  one  ;  and,  as  some  portion  at  least  of  the  traffic 
must  be  expected  to  depart  from  the  platform  opposite  to  the  offices, 
provision  must  be  made  for  crossing  with  the  least  amount  of 
danger  to  the  public.  When  the  passengers  are  numerous  in  both 
directions,  over -bridges,  as  before  stated,  are  objectionable;  and 
in  a  surface-station  an  archway  under  the  line  is  frequently  imprac- 
ticable. Some  good  authorities  have  adopted  the  plan  of  making 
the  trains  take  up  and  set  down  the  passengers  at  one  platform 
only,  when  the  platform  may  be  made  rather  more  than  double  the 
length  of  a  single  train,  having  crossings  in  the  centre  to  com- 
municate with  both  lines  of  rails,  thus  placing  the  trains  when 
standing  on  the  platform  upon  a  loop -siding  distinct  from  those 
lines.  This  system  offers  great  convenience  to  the  public  when 
there  is  much  first-class  traffic  and  a  large  quantity  of  baggage  ; 
and  it  is  especially  applicable  when  the  station  partakes  of  the 
character  of  a  terminus,  or  is  used  as  a  receiver  from  branch  or 
neighbouring  lines,  offering,  as  it  does,  great  facilities  for  making 
up  and  receiving  trains  which  may  run  over  a  portion  only  of  the 
main  lines,  as  well  as  for  attaching  and  detaching  the  carriages 
intended  or  used  for  branch  traffic. 

mcDD      The  buildings  and  yards  in  junction  stations  may  be  placed  in 
iti  3.   the  fork  between  the  two   double  lines  of  railway  forming  the 

junction,  or  beyond  the  point  of  junction. 

idld  Locomotive  stations  comprise  two  departments, — the  running 
lilt  g  and  the  constructing  and  repairing  of  engines  and  tenders.  The 
>rl  chief  locomotive  station  of  the  Midland  Railway  at  Derby  may  be 
taken  as  an  example.  It  is  contiguous  to  the  passenger  station, 
and  is  in  communication  with  the  main  line  by  a  number  of 
sidings  branching  off  at  the  north  end  of  that  station,  near  the 
bridge  over  the  Derby  Canal.  The  area  of  ground  enclosed  is 
about  80  acres,  of  which  12  are  covered  by  buildings.  The  walls 
of  the  erecting  shops  are  28^  feet  high  ;  those  of  the  fitting  and 
other  shops  are  20.  The  tools  are  693  in  number.  The  number 
of  locomotives  housed  at  Derby  station  (1885)  is  289.  There  is 
room  in  the  erecting  shops  for  seventy -one  locomotives.  The 
workshops  are  capable  of  turning  out  120  engines  per  year — say, 
thirty  new  engines  with  tenders,  and  ninety  engines  with  new 
boilers,  cylinders,  and  other  working  parts. 

The  carriage  and  waggon  works  of  the  Midland  Railway  at 
Derby  are  situated  about  half  a  mile  south  of  the  passenger 
station,  with  which  they  are  connected  by  a  double  line  of  way 
branching  out  from  the  south  end  of  the  station.  The  works 
were  built  in  1875-76,  on  an  enclosed  piece  of  land  67  acres  in 
extent,  of  which  19|  are  covered  by  buildings.  There  are  15| 
miles  of  single  way  within  the  enclosure.  The  workshops  are 
built  in  blocks,  separated  by  open  spaces  of  at  least  70  feet  in 
width.  They  consist  principally  of  seven  large  shops,  of  red  brick, 
the  walls  being  of  a  uniform  height  of  21  feet ;  four  on  the  west 
side  are  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  timber  and  the  building  and 
painting  of  carriages  and  waggons,  and  three  on  the  east  side  to 
the  manipulation  of  various  metals,  comprising  the  foundry  and 
iron  stores,  the  smithy  and  the  machine  and  fitting  shop.  Each 
block  of  building  is  entirely  surrounded  by  a  7-inch  water-main 
continually  charged  with  water  at  a  pressure  sufficient  to  throw  a 
jet  over  the  ridge  of  the  roof  of  any  of  these  buildings.  Vehicular 
communication  is  carried  on  between  the  shops  on  the  east  and 
the  west  side  of  the  works  by  means  of  traversing  tables,  ths  rails 
for  which  are  laid  the  entire  distance  across  the  shops  from  north 
to  south,  and  intersect  the  nine  principal  lines  of  sidings  flanking 
the  shops.  Both  steam-power  and  horse-power  are  used  for  mov- 
ing the  traversers. 

The  saw -mill  is  320  feet  long  and  200  wide.  In  the  cellar 
underneath  all  the  main  shafting,  pulleys,  and  belting  are  placed. 
About  a  hundred  loads  of  oak  logs  are  converted  into  plank  or 
scantling  weekly.  There  are  in  all  about  a  hundred  machines  for 
sawing  and  working  wood.  Outside  the  saw-mill  are  large  cross- 
cutting  saw-benches,  with  circular  saws  6  feet  in  diameter,  by  which 
logs  of  deal  ai-e  cut  to  the  required  length  before  being  taken  into 
the  mill.  The  waggon -shop  is  320  feet  long  and  200  wide.  The 
carriage  building  and  finishing  shop  is  384  by  200  feet  wide.  In 
the  panel -shed  fitted  with  louvre  ventilators,  mahogany  panel 
boards,  maple  boards,  &c. ,  are  stored  for  about  two  years,  to  be 
thoroughly  dried  and  seasoned  before  being  used  in  vehicles.  The 
painting  and  trimming  shop  is  384  by  300  feet.  It  has  seventeen 
lines  of  rails,  each  capable  of  holding  ten  ordinary  vehicles.  From 
the  commencement  to  the  finish,  twenty-five  distinct  operations — 
pruning,  filling  up,  rubbing  down,  painting,  varnishing — are  per- 
formed on  a  passenger  carriage.  Young  girls  and  women — the 
children  and  widows  of  the  company's  servants  who  have  lost  their 
lives  by  accident  in  the  service — are  employed  on  the  light  work  of 
sewing,  stuffing  of  cushions  and  backs  of  carriages,  french-polishing, 
washing  and  dyeing,  cleaning  and  lacquering  light  brass-work  and 
gilding. 


The  foundries,  iron  and  brass,  are  200  feet  long  by  90  wide.  Two 
thousand  tons  of  iron  castings  are  turned  out  annually.  There 
are  the  bar-iron  stores  200  by  45  feet,  the  general  stores  150  by  90 
feet,  and  the  mess-room  45  by  70  feet,  providing  accommodation 
for  500  workmen  ;  also  two  smiths'  shops,  one  of  them  225  by  200 
feet,  the  other  140  by  200  feet ;  the  machine  and  fitting  shop,  400 
by  225  feet ;  and  the  coal-waggon  repairing  shop,  350  by  300  feet. 
The  carriage  arid  waggon  works  just  noticed  are  capable  of  turning 
out  seveu  new  carriages  and  eighty  new  waggons  weekly.  All  the 
building  of  railway  carriages  for  the  Midland  Railway  is  done  at 
their  works,  and  80  per  cent,  of  the  new  waggons  are  built  here. 
Eighty  per  cent,  of  the  carriages  and  20  per  cent,  of  the  waggons 
are  repaired  here.  The  machinery  of  all  kinds  laid  down  for  carry- 
ing on  the  business  of  the  carriage  and  waggon  works  comprises 
500  machine  tools,  9  steam-engines,  1  gas-engine,  15  stationary 
boilers,  4  warming  boilers,  3  steam  traversers,  2  steam  cranes,  2 
steam  travelling  cranes,  with  a  number  of  hydraulic  cranes  and 
overhead  cranes. 

One  of  the  engine  houses  or  sheds  for  engines  on  duty,  at  Gorton  Engine- 
station,  on  the  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire  railway,  is  sheds, 
shown  in  fig.  21.     It  is  a  rotunda  of  150  feet  in  diameter  inside, 


FIG.  21.— Rotunda  at  Gorton  locomotive  station,  to  house  the  working  engines. 

and  is  capable  of  holding  seventeen  engines  with  their  tenders, 
leaving  the  entrance  and  exit  lines  clear.  The  advantage  of  this 
arrangement  over  the  ordinary  polygonal  engine-house  is  in  the 
absence  of  pillars  for  supporting  the  roof,  of  which  there  are  twelve 
for  a  twelve-sided  polygon ;  in  this  building  there  is  but  one  column, 
at  the  centre.  To  the  left  of  the  entrance  is  a  furnace  for  holding 
live  fuel,  from  which  the  engines  are  lighted  ;  and  there  are  two 
lines  of  rail  across  the  central  turn-table,  on  one  of  which  the 
engines  enter  and  on  the  other  depart.  Between  the  rails  of  each 
radiating  line  a  pit  is  constructed  to  afford  access  below  the  engines 
for  inspection.  The  roof  is  of  wrought-iron,  surmounted  by  a  louvre 
for  ventilation,  which  is  glazed  to  admit  light  freely.  In  the 
engine-shed  of  the  North-Eastern  Railway  at  Newcastle  five  ordi- 
nary engine-house  rotundas  have  been  replaced  by  a  single  rect- 
angular building  450  by  280  feet  with  five  turn-tables.  This 
shed  has  berths  for  ninety  engines,  and  the  extra  space  enclosed  by 
the  rectangular  building  as  against  separate  rotundas  is  used  for 
executing  minor  repairs. 

Station  Fittings. — The  use  of  switches  and  crossings  is  to  form  Switches, 
a  link  of  communication  between  one  line  of  rails  and  another. 
They  are  either  constructed  with  ordinary  rails  or  with  rails 
specially  rolled,  and  are  carried  in  cast-iron  chairs  spiked  down  to 
sleepers.  The  switch -rails  are  movable,  and  when  worked  inde- 
pendently are  moved  by  rods  to  which  heavy  weights  are  attached, 
— the  function  of  the  weights  being  to  retain  the  points  in  one 
position,  and  to  act  as  a  self-acting  adjustment  in  restoring  them  to 
their  normal  position  after  they  have  been  shifted  for  the  passage 
of  a  vehicle  or  a  train.  When  only  one  of  the  terminal  rails  is 
movable  it  is  called  a  single  switch  and  is  used  only  on  sidings  or 
I  branch  lines  of  rail.  The  double  switches,  being  more  perfect  in 


238 


RAILWAY 


action,  are  adopted  on  the  main  line  ;  and,  as  a  general  rule, 
switches  on  the  main  line  are  ordered  to  be  laid  with  the  points  in 
the  direction  of  the  traffic,  so  that  passing  trains  may  run  out  of  the 
points,  and  not  into  them.  "  Facing- points,"  as  they  are  termed, 
are  such  as  are  laid  on  the  main  line,  facing  or  pointing  towards  the 
regular  advancing  trains.  Many  accidents  have  been  caused  to 
trains  by  facing-jxrints,  improperly  set  or  out  of  order,  turning  the 
train  unexpectedly  into  a  siding,  when  it  was  impossible  to  pull 
up  in  time  to  prevent  a  collision,  or  throwing  the  train  off  the  rails 
altogether.  So  dangerous  are  facing-points  felt  to  be,  particularly 
on  high-speed  lines,  that  on  some  railways  they  are  absolutely 
forbidden  at  all  except  at  terminal  stations  and  at  intermediate 
stations  where  every  train  is  ordered  to  stop.  In  some  situations 
this  rule  can  only  be  followed  by  sacrificing  simplicity  and  increas- 
ing the  number  of  backing-points  ;  but  it  no  doubt  diminishes  the 
risk  of  accident. 

Turn-tables  are  of  two  classes, — for  turning  carriages  and 
waggons,  and  for  turning  engines  and  tenders  together.  Those 
ordinarily  used  are  of  cast-iron,  and  carry  two  transverse  lines  of 
rails.  They  re- 
volve upon  a 
central  pivot  and 
conical  rollers 
near  the  circum- 
ference, which 
are  upheld  by 
and  turn  upon  a 
cast  -  iron  base 
bedded  in  ce- 
ment, or  on  a 
built  foundation 
(see  fig.  22).  For 
turning  engines 
and  tenders  to- 
gether turn- 
tables about  40 
feet  long  are  re- 
quired. A  com- 
mon plan  of 
table  consists  of 
two  longitu- 
dinal balks  of 
timber,  to  carry 
a  line  of  rails, 
framed  together 
with  cast  -  iron 
beams  in  such  a 
way  that  the  FIG.  22. — Carriage  turn-table  for  stations, 

centre  is  supported  on  a  pivot  and  the  extremities  on  rollers.  The 
table  revolves,  in  a  pit  about  4  feet  deep,  on  a  large  circular  race 
of  cast-iron  bedded  on  a  firm  foundation  to  carry  the  rollers,  and 
the  motive  force  is  applied  by  means  of  gearing.  In  situations 
where  there  is  much  traffic  it  is  needful  to  extend  the  deck  of 
the  table  laterally,  like  wings,  to  complete  the  circle,  and  so  cover 
in  the  pit. 

Traversers  are  a  convenient  substitute  for  turn-tables,  particularly 
for  working  a  number  of  parallel  lines  of  rails.  A  traverser  is  simply 
a  low  rectangular  frame,  made  with  two  overhanging  rails,  to  receive 
carriages  or  waggons,  and  movable  on  rollers  across  the  lines  of  rail, 
so  as  to  receive  the  carriage  from  any  one  line  of  rail  and  deposit 
it  on  any  other. 

Water-cranes  for  delivering  water  to  locomotives  are  too  familiar 
to  every  one  to  need  description. 

Railway  Signals. — The  earliest  passenger  railways  were  opened 
without  any  fixed  signals.  Flags  and  disks,  elevated  on  posts  and 
pillars,  were  first  employed,  in  various  forms,  and  were  worked  on 
various  codes.  Sir  Charles  Hutton  Gregory,  about  the  year  1841, 
designed  and  erected  at  New  Cross  station,  on  the  Croydon  Rail- 
way, the  semaphore  signal,  an  adaptation  of  the  old  form  of  sema- 
phore used  for  telegraphing  over  short  distances.  This  was  the 
most  important  step  ever  taken  in  the  development  of  railway 
signalling.  The  semaphore  has  been  almost  universally  adopted 
for  fixed  signalling  on  railways.  There  are  two  arms,  to  the  right 
and  to  the  left,  to  command  trains  arriving  in  either  direction.  The 
arm  is  turned  out  horizontally,  in  a  position  perpendicular  to  the 
post,  to  signal  danger  ;  diagonally  downwards  at  an  angle  of  about 
453  as  a  signal  of  caution  ;  and  it  is  turned  home,  disappearing 
within  the  post,  when  the  line  is  right  for  the  approach  of  a  train. 
But  the  general  practice  now  (1885)  is  to  work  the  semaphore  in  two 
positions  only, — at  danger  and  at  caution.  It  is  thus  always  in 
sight,  and  its  position  can  be  identified  without  hesitation.  To 
make  the  signal  system  safe  there  must  be  clear  definition  and 
strict  enforcement  of  the  duties  of  the  attendant ;  good  men  must 
be  selected  at  adequate  pay,  and  they  must  have  convenient,  warm, 
well -fitted  lodges,  with  ample  window -space,  within  which  they 
may  keep  a  constant  watch  over  the  line  without  exposure  to 
weather.  At  junctions  and  other  important  signal-stations  the 


lodges  should  be  raised  some  height  above  the  surface,  to  give 
perfect  supervision  in  every  direction  and  prevent  distraction.  At 
night  the  place  of  semaphores  or  disks  is  supplied  by  large  and 
powerful  lamps  with  reflectors,  capable  of  showing  lights  of  three 
colours, — a  white  light,  a  blue  or  green  light,  and  a  red  light,  signi- 
fying respectively  safety,  caution,  danger  ;  or,  as  in  general  prarti< v, 
two  lights  only  are  shown, — red  and  green. 

Signalling  has  been  a  subject  of  much  controversy,  and  has  been 
divided  into  two  main  systems.  In  "  negative  "  signalling  the 
normal  position  is  that  of  caution,  or  that  of  safety,  as  the  practice 
may  be,  and  the  signal  is  only  turned  on  to  danger  when  specially 
required  for  the  protection  of  the  station  on  the  line.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  "  positive  "  system  presupposes  the  normal  state  of  the 
signal  to  be  that  of  danger,  so  that,  if  the  signalman  neglect  his 
duty  to  lower  the  semaphore  when  the  station  is  clear  for  the 
passage  of  an  approaching  train,  the  train  is  bound  to  stop.  The 
positive  system  has  long  been  in  successful  operation  at  all  largo 
and  important  junctions.,  In  such  a  situation  the  use  of  a  stringent 
code  is  manifestly  conducive  to  the  greatest  degree  of  safety,  as  by 
the  unavoidable  intersections  of  the  lines  of  rails  there  are  many 
chances  of  collision.  The  positive  system  has  been  merged  in 
what  is  known  as  the  block  system  of  signalling, — that  is  to  say,  Block 
the  positive  system  has  been  on  most  railways  extended  to  every  system 
station  on  the  lines  in  combination  with  telegraphic  signalling. 
The  best,  perhaps  the  only,  safeguard  against  error  on  the  part  of 
the  persons  in  charge  of  trains  is  to  be  found  in  the  adoption  of 
the  absolute  block  system,  and  of  means  for  enabling  engine-drivers 
to  observe  signals  well  in  advance.  The  absolute  block  system  con- 
sists in  dividing  the  line  of  railway  into  intervals  of  convenient 
lengths,  and  by  means  of  telegraphic  and  fixed  signals  allowing 
only  one  train  at  a  time  on  any  single  length  of  single  way.  The 
signalman  at  station  A  does  not  send  a  second  train  to  station  13 
until  he  receives  a  signal  from  station  13  that  the  first  train  has 
arrived  there  ;  meantime  the  signal  at  A  stands  at  danger  until  the 
man  at  B  signals  the  arrival  of  the  train  at  B.  Under  the  "  per- 
missive block  "  system  it  is  simply  permitted  to  signalman  B  to 
block  signalman  A  in  the  event  of  anything  occurring  at  station 
B  that  may  render  that  course  advisable.  But,  supposing  that  a 
train  has  just  left  station  A,  then  the  message  from  B  comes  too 
late  to  enable  signalman  A  to  prevent  the  train  from  running  into 
the  obstruction  at  B.  The  permissive  system  has  been  well  tried 
on  the  principal  railways,  and  is  preferred  on  some  lines  because  it 
admits  of  trains  being  passed  on  one  after  another  with  greater 
rapidity  than  on  the  absolute  block  system.  But  it  does  not  afford 
much  protection,  and  it  is  now  generally  preferred  to  work  on  the 
absolute  block  system,  and,  for  the  purpose  of  doing  so  effectually, 
to  erect  intermediate  stations  on  lines  of  constant  traffic,  so  as  to 
provide  shorter  intervals  for  blockings  and  obviate  the  delay  inci- 
dental to  unduly  long  intervals.  The  average  distance  apart  of 
passenger  stations  is,  say,  3  miles,  but  the  distance  of  signal-sta- 
tions, whilst  it  seldom  exceeds  4  miles,  is  frequently  only  a  quarter 
of  a  mile,  and  the  average  interval  may  be  taken  as  1|  miles.  Dis- 
tant signals — that  is,  signals  placed  at  a  distance  in  advance  of 
points  of  danger  and  worked  by  wire  communication  from  the 
signal-box — were,  it  is  believed,  first  introduced  on  the  North 
British  Railway  at  Meadowbank  station  near  Edinburgh  in  1846, 
after  the  opening  of  the  Hawick  branch.  In  1852  the  Great 
Northern  Railway  was  completely  fitted  with  distant  signals  of  the 
semaphore  type.  Distant  signals  are  occasionally  fixed  at  1500 
yards'  distance  ;  but  beyond  800  yards  their  action  is  uncertain, 
and  it  is  checked  by  a  repeater — electric  or  mechanical — by  which, 
by  way  of  confirmation,  the  signal  is  returned  to  the  signalman. 

As  railway  junctions  were  multiplied  it  became  apparent,  not 
only  that  distant  signals  were  to  be  provided  for  distinct  lines,  but 
that  concerted  action  should  be  established  between  signals  and 
switches.  They  are  said  to  be  connected  when  they  are  simply 
coupled  together  and  are  moved  simultaneously.  They  are  said  Inter- 
to  be  interlocked  when  the  necessary  movement  of  the  switches  is  lockin 
completed  before  that  of  the  signal  to  safety  is  commenced  ;  and,  systen 
conversely,  the  movement  of  the  signal  to  danger  is  completed 
before  the  movement  of  the  switches  can  be  commenced.  This  is 
the  fundamental  principle  of  the  interlocking  system  of  signalling 
now  generally  practised.  By  the  combination  of  the  absolute  block 
system  and  the  interlocking  system  the  greatest  possible  number 
of  trains  are  enabled  to  travel  over  one  pair  of  rails  in  a  given 
time.  At  Cannon  Street  station,  at  the  busiest  time  of  the  day, 
eighteen  trains  arrive  and  eighteen  depart  within  an  hour;  108 
operations  of  shifting  switches  and  signals,  by  means  of  sixty-seven 
levers  or  handles,  have  to  be  performed  in  that  time.  On  the 
North  London  Railway,  at  Liverpool  Street  station,  250  trains  pass 
over  the  same  rails  in  a  day  of  nineteen  hours,  averaging  only  four 
minutes  between  trains  ;  frequently  only  two  minutes  elapse.  The 
number  of  trains  daily  using  Moorgate  Street  station  on  the  Metro- 
politan Railway  is  more  than  770,  involving  twice  as  many  move- 
ments of  engines — 1540  movements— on  four  lines  of  way  in  nine- 
teen hours,  and  every  movement  is  separately  signalled.  This,  of 
course,  could  not  be  performed  without  the  aid  of  electric  iustru- 


RAILWAY 


239 


ments,  to  enable  the  signalmen  to  communicate  with  each  other, 
and  to  have  a  constant  record  on  the  faces  of  the  instruments  to 
show  what  is  being  done. 

METROPOLITAN  RAILWAYS. 

Railways  designed  for  the  local  service  of  large  cities  are  neces- 
sarily either  sunk  below  or  raised  above  the  level  of  the  streets. 
The  late  Mr  Charles  Pearson,  solicitor  to  the  City  of  London,  was 
the  originator  of  the  system  of  iutra-inetropolitan  railways.  He 
worked  at  the  subject  from  the  year  1837.  The  Metropolitan  and 
the  Metropolitan  District  Railways  in  and  around  London  are  ex- 
amples of  the  underground  system.  In  1854  the  first  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment was  passed  ;  the  works  were  commenced  in  1860  ;  the  first 
section  of  the  line— Paddington  to  Farringdon  Street — was  opened 
in  January  3863,  Mr  John  Fowler  being  the  engineer.  Several  con- 
secutive extensions  into  the  City  and  towards  Westminster  and  the 
Mansion  House  were  made  at  different  times,  iintil  the  "inner 
circle  "  was  completed  in  October  1884,  thirty  years  after  the  passing 
of  the  first  Act,  and  twenty-four  years  after  the  commencement  of 
the  work  of  construction.  The  inner  circle  of  railways  as  con- 
structed is  the  direct  outcome  of  the  recommendation  of  the  Lords' 
Committee  of  1863,  that  they  should  abut  upon,  if  they  did  not 
actually  join,  nearly  all  the  principal  railway  termini  in  the  metro- 
polis, completing  the  circle  by  a  line  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Thames.  The  total  length  of  the  inner  circle  is  13  miles  and  176 
yards.  About  2  miles  of  this  length  are  laid  with  four  lines  of  rails, 
and  there  are  twenty- seven  stations  on  the  circle  at  an  average 
distance  of  half  a  mile  apart.  The  combined  length  of  the  two 
systems,  including  the  extensions  beyond  the  inner  circle,  amoiinted 
in  December  1883  to  40  miles. 

The  cost  of  the  Metropolitan  Railway  system,  22  miles  in  length, 
in  December  1883  has  already  been  stated  as  £500,000  per  mile, 
and  that  of  the  Metropolitan  District  Railway  system,  18  miles  in 
length,  as  £374,000  per  mile.  In  1871,  when  the  works  had  been 
completed  and  opened  from  Moorgate  Street  to  Mansion  House 
station,  the  capital  expenditure  by  the  District  Railway  Company 
for  works  and  equipment  of  7J  miles  of  double-line  railway  was 
officially  stated  to  be  £5,147,000  ;  and  by  the  Metropolitan  Railway 
Company  £5,856,000  on  10|  miles, — subject  to  deduction  in  respect 
of  surplus  lands.  The  combined  cost  for  17£  miles  was  at  the  rate 
of  £630,000  per  mile — the  greater  cost  per  mile  being,  no  doubt, 
due  to  the  greater  proportion  of  underground  work.  The  cost  of 
the  1^  miles  recently  opened  between  Mansion  House  and  Aldgate 
stations  was  about  £450,000,  or  about  £400,000  per  mile.  The 
longer  axis  of  the  inner  circle  is  about  5^  miles  in  length,  east  and 
west,  and  the  shorter  about  2  miles  long  at  the  widest  part,  north 
and  south.  The  line  runs  at  very  various  levels,  traversing  the 
sloping  ground  that  stretches  from  the  river  Thames  towards  the 
heights  of  Hampstead  and  Highgate.  Several  natural  sewers, 
formerly  clear  brooks  or  tidal  channels,  now  covered,  are  traversed 
by  the  railway.  They  occasioned  many  difficulties  and  great  out- 
lay, as  they  required  to  be  conveyed  across  the  line  in  specially  con- 
structed conduits.  The  Ranelagh  sewer,  for  instance,  is  carried 
under  the  Metropolitan  Railway  at  Gloucester  Terrace"  in  a  brick- 
built  channel  9  feet  wide  by  8  high  ;  and  over  the  District  Railway 
at  Sloane  Square  station  in  a  cast-iron  tube  9  feet  in  diameter, 
supported  on  wrought-iron  girders  of  70  feet  span.  The  Fleet  Ditch 
had  to  be  crossed  five  times.  The  average  level  of  the  rails  of  the 
District  Railway,  which  traverses  the  old  bed  of  the  river  and  the 
swamps  of  Pimlico  and  Bridge  Creek,  is  13  feet  below  Thames  high- 
water  mark  ;  whilst  that  of  the  northern  part,  on  the  Metropolitan 
Railway,  is  60  feet  above  that  datum,  making  73  feet  of  difference 
of  level,  and  giving  rise  to  heavy  works  and  steep  gradients  at  the 
west  and  east  ends  of  the  circle.  Cuttings  42  feet  deep  and  a  tunnel 
421  yards  in  length  are  found  at  Campden  Hill  on  the  west ;  and 
cuttings  33  feet  deep  and  a  tunnel  728  yards  in  length  at  Clerken- 
well  on  the  east,  on  gradients  of  1  in  75  and  1  in  100  respectively. 

The  works  of  construction  consist  of  covered  ways,  tunnels,  and 
open  cuttings  with  retaining  walls.  The  cost  of  property  precluded 
the  use  of  ordinai-y  open  cuttings  with  slopes.  The  covered  ways 
were  formed  by  making  open  cuttings  in  the  first  place  and  then 
building  "open"  or  artificial  tunnels,  and  covering  them  in,  so  as 
to  restore  the  surface.  The  sides  of  the  cuttings  were  made  vertical 
or  nearly  vertical,  and  they  were  siTpported  by  timber  framing  or 
poling  boards  till  the  masonry  of  the  tunnel  was  completed.  The 
line  from  Paddington  to  Moorgate  was  made  in  this  way  with  a 
mixed  gauge — that  is,  the  7  feet  gauge  and  the  4  feet  8|  inch  gauge 
in  combination — to  take  the  traffic  of  the  Great  Western  Railway 
as  well  as  that  of  national  gauge  lines.  The  covered  way  was 
therefore  made  28 \  feet  wide  and  17  high  for  the  mixed  gauge,  and 
the  arch  is  elliptical,  built  of  seven  "  rings  "  or  courses  of  brick, 
with  side  walls  _three  bricks  or  27  inches  thick,  on  footings  4  feet 
wide.  At  the  junction  of  a  branch  with  the  main  line  a  "bell- 
mouth  "  or  expanding  arch  was  constructed  in  which  the  span  was 
gradually  enlarged  to  60  feet.  The  covered  way  on  the  extension, 
where  the  national  gauge  alone  was  laid,  was  "25  feet  wide.  The 
normal  or  standard  type  of  arched  covered  way  is  15  feet  9  inches 


high  above  the  level  of  the  rails.  The  side  walls  are  three  bricks 
or  27  inches  in  thickness,  and  the  backs  of  the  walls  are  earned 
down  vertically  to  the  foundation.  The  arch  was  ordinarily  built 
with  five  rings  of  bricks,  making  22 \  inches  of  thickness  ;  but  the 
number  of  rings  was  increased  occasionally  to  eight,  nine,  or  ten 
rings.  The  haunches  of  the  arch  are  backed  with  concrete.  The 
footings  of  the  walls  rest  on  concrete  fcmndations  30  inches  in  thick- 
ness. A  drain-pipe  18  inches  in  diameter  is  laid  longitudinally 
along  the  middle  of  the  tunnel.  The  whole  of  the  tunnelling  of 
the  District  Railway,  of  which  Mr  Fowler  was  the  engineer,  was 
put  in  with  open  cuttings.  Two  trenches  6  feet  wide  were  sunk  to 
receive  the  side  walls,  which  were  built  up  to  a  level  4  feet  above 
the  springing  of  the  arch.  As  the  construction  of  the  walls  pro- 
ceeded the  timbering  was  removed  and  replaced  by  concrete  backing 
behind  the  walls.  The  earth  in  the  middle,  called  the  "  dumpling  " 
or  core,  was  excavated  to  such  a  level  as  to  admit  of  the  centering 
being  put  into  position  for  the  turning  of  the  arch.  When  the  arch 
was  built  and  the  centering  removed,  the  dumpling,  which  had 
been  utilized  for  transport,  was  excavated  down  to  the  floor -level 
from  the  ends,  whence  the  stuff  was  conveyed  away.  By  this 
economical  method  of  procedure  the  only  earth  and  gravel  that 
required  to  be  lifted  was  that  which  was  excavated  in  forming  the 
trenches  for  the  side  walls.  It  was  raised  by  means  of  steam- 
cranes  travelling  on  temporary  rails  laid  by  the  sides  of  the 
excavations.  Again,  the  centering  for  the  arch  was  supported  on 
the  core,  and  was  simple  and  less  costly  than  ordinary  centering. 
The  complete  arch  is  shown  in  section  in  fig.  23.  Inverts,  or  in- 
verted arches,  were  laid  in  across  the  bottom,  between  the  footings 
of  the  walls,  where,  from  the  nature  of  the  soil  or  from  excessive 


Fig.  23. 


Fig.  24. 


FIG.  23. — Metropolitan  District  Railway.    Type  section  of  covered  way;  brick 

arch. 
Fia.  24. — Metropolitan  District  Railway.    Type  section  of  covered  way. 

lateral  pressure,  the  floor  was  thought  likely  to  rise.  When  there 
was  not  sufficient  depth  for  a  brick  arched  way  the  side  walls  were 
made,  as  shown  in  fig.  24,  of  brick  and  concrete,  in  bays  8  feet 
wide,  of  piers  and  recesses^  spanned  by  cast-iron  girders  from  18 
to  30  inches  in  depth,  carrying  jack-arches  between  them.  The 
average  cost  of  the  arch-covered  ways,  25  feet  wide,  was  about  £40 
per  lineal  yard,  as  against  £52  per  yard  for  the  girder-covered  way. 

On  the  inner  circle  there  are  three  tunnels, — the  Clerkenwell  Inner 
tunnel,  728  yards  long,  of  which  the  level  of  the  rails  was  from  circle. 
29  to  59  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground;  the  "widening" 
tunnel,  733  yards  long,  parallel  to  the  Clerkenwell  tunnel ;  and 
the  tunnel  under  Campden  Hill,  421  yards  in  length.     Even  when 
the   utmost    precautions 
are     taken,     tunnelling 
through    a    town    is   a  - 
risky  operation.     Settle- 
ments may  occur  years 
after  the  completion  of 
the  works  ;  water  mains 
may  be   broken  in  the 
streets  and  in  the  houses ; 
stone  staircases  may  fall 
down ;    and    other    un- 
pleasant   symptoms    of 
instability     may     show 
themselves.       The    cost 
of  the  tunnel  of  25  feet 
in  width  was  at  the  rate 
of  £63  per  lineal  yard. 
Open    cuttings    are   28J 
feet   in   clear  width   on 
the  original  line  of  mixed 
gauge  and  25  feet  wide 
on  the  extensions.     The 

retaining  walls  are  of  FIG.  25.— Metropolitan  District  Railway.  Type 
brick  and  concrete,  in  section  of  open  cutting. 

11  feet  bays,  consisting  of  piers  3  feet  wide  on  the  face,  and  recesses 
between  the  piers  8  feet  wide.  They  are  inclined  backwards  with 
a  batter  of  1|  inches  to  1  foot.  The  foundations  are  5  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  rails,  and  the  thickness  of  the  walls  at  the  base  is 
40  per  cent.,  or  two-fifths  of  the  height.  Occasionally,  where  the 
depth  is  considerable,  the  thickness  is  less,  and  one  or  two  rows  of 


240 


RAILWAY 


cast-iron  struts,  according  to  the  depth,  are  placed  between  the 
walls  at  the  upper  part  to  take  the  thrust.  A  section  of  open 
cutting  with  two  rows  of  struts  is  shown  in  fig.  25.  The  cost  of 
open  cuttings  25  feet  wide  and  25  deep  was,  say,  £67  per  lineal 
yard,  or  with  one  row  of  cast-iron  struts  £55  per  yard.  With  two 
rows  of  struts  for  a  depth  of  42  feet,  the  cost  was  £108  per  lineal 
yard.  It  was  the  intention  originally  to  make  the  stations  as  well 
as  the  railway  strictly  "underground,"  and  those  at  Baker  Street, 
Portland  Road,  and  Gower  Street  were  so  constructed.  At  Baker 
Street  a  segmental  arch  of  45  feet  span  and  10  feet  4  inches  of 
rise  extends  over  the  entire  length  of  300  feet  of  platform.  The 
cost  of  such  a  station,  including  booking-offices,  restorations,  and 
other  contingencies,  amounted  to  £18,000.  On  the  extensions  the 
stations  were,  when  the  conditions  admitted  it,  placed  in  open 
cuttings,  roofed  over,  300  feet  long,  with  platforms  15  feet  wide. 
The  average  cost  exceeded  that  of  the  same  length  of  ordinary 
covered  way  by  from  £14,000  to  £22,000.  Not  only  sewers  but 
gas  mains  and  water  mains  occasionally  demanded  very  expensive 
diversions.  In  passing  Broad  Sanctuary  2000  feet  of  gas  mains, 
ranging  from  14  to  30  inches  in  diameter,  were  diverted  ;  and  in 
simply  crossing  High  Street,  Kensington,  600  feet  of  pipes  of  from 
3  to  30  inches  bore  were  diverted.  In  passing  a  sound  building 
on  a  good  foundation  the  work  was  executed  in  short  lengths, 
with  carefully  timbered  trenches  quickly  followed  up  by  the  con- 
crete and  brickwork  of  the  retaining  walls  or  covered  way.  Under 
the  houses  of  Pembridge  Square  the  side  walls  of  the  railway  were 
constructed  in  short  lengths,  and  to  form  the  roof  of  the  covered 
way  main  girders  of  25  feet  span  were  slipped  between  the  walls 
of  the  houses  at  convenient  places,  between  which  jack-arches  were 
built.  At  Park  Crescent  only  a  floor  of  old  ship  timber  separates 
the  kitchens  from  the  railway.  The  permanent  way  originally 
consisted  of  wrought -iron  flange  rails  with  longitudinal  sleepers 
and  then  of  steel  flange  rails  ;  but  these  have  been  gradually  re- 


Fig.  26. 

placed  by  double-headed  rails  in  chairs.     Fig.  26  shows  a  section 

of  the  covered  way  under  Queen  Victoria  Street,  with  the  main 

sewer  underneath  and  the  galleries  for  pipes,  &c.,  at  the  sides. 

Glasgow       The  Glasgow  City  and  District  Railway  will  supply  important 

City  and  links  of  communication  between  the  railways  on  the  north  side  of 

District    the  river  Clyde.      The  line  extends  from  College  station,   High 

Railway.  Street,  by  George  Street  and  Regent  Street,  crossing  Dumbarton 

Road  to  the  existing  Stobcross  line,  over  a  length  of  nearly  2^ 

miles,  almost  wholly  underground.     Of  this  length  1700  yards,  or 

nearly  1  mile,  are  tunnelled  and  1000  yards  are  covered  way.     The 

tunnels  are  arched  with  four  rings  of  brick  in  cement,  to  a  clear 

height  of  18 J  feet  at  the  crown  ami  27  feet  in  width,  for  two  lines 

of  way.     The  covered  way  is  arched  over  with  brick. 

New  We  may  take  the  ' '  elevated  railroads  "  of  New  York  as  an  instance 

York  of  metropolitan  railways  for  local  service  above  ground.  In  1867 
elevated  the  first  attempt  was  made  to  improve  existing  means  of  transit 
railroad,  between  the  residential  and  the  business  quarters  of  the  city  by  the 
construction  of  an  elevated  railroad  worked  by  a  wire  rope  and 
a  stationary  engine.  The  railroad  passed  into  other  hands  in  1872, 
and  the  New  York  Elevated  Railroad  Company  was  formed.  The 
lines  of  this  and  of  the  Metropolitan  Elevated  Railroad  Company  are 
now  worked  together  by  the  Manhattan  Railway  Company.  From 
the  southern  terminus  of  the  former  railway  at  South  Ferry  diverge 
the  lines  by  which  the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  city  are 
traversed.  Junctions  are  made  with  the  Grand  Central  Dep6t  of 
the  New  York  Central  and  other  railroads,  and  with  the  New  York 
City  and  Northern  Railroad.  In  the  beginning  of  1880  the  elevated 
system  was  worked  over  34 J  miles  of  line;  in  1884  96,702,620 
passengers  were  carried  over  the  system,  averaging  265,000  per  day, 
over  half  on  one  line  (3d  Ave.).  Trains  run  every  two  minutes  in 
the  morning  and  evening,  when  the  fares  are  5  cents  or  2  Jd.  for  any 
distance  ;  and  in  the  quieter  hours  of  the  day  every  four  or  five 
minutes  for  a  general  fare  of  10  cents  or  5d.  The  working  charges 


amounted  in  1883-84  to  58  per  cent,  of  the  gross  earnings.  On  the 
Xe\v  York  Elevated  Railroad  the  line  is  supported  on  square  \vi  ought- 
iron  lattice-work  columns  let  into  cast-iron  base  blocks  founded  on 
brickwork  and  concrete,  at  distances  of  from  37  to  44  feet  apart. 
Where  the  street  traffic  is  crowded  a 
single  row  of  columns  is  planted  in 
the  line  of  each  curb,  on  the  upper 
ends  of  which  a  pair  of  longitudinal 
girders  are  fixed  to  carry  a  line  of 
way,  22£  feet  high  above  the  street 
level,  as  shown  in  fig.  27,  at  each 
side  of  the  street.  In  other  situations 
the  two  lines  of  way  are  supported  at 
a  height  of  21  feet  on  longitudinal 
girders  in  the  middle  of  the  street, 
fixed  to  transverse  girders,  which 
span  the  street  and  are  carried  on 
columns  at  the  curbs.  A  third  ar- 
rangement is  adopted  '  where  the 
columns  are  planted  in  the  street  at 
a  distance  transversely  of  23£  feet, 
as  in  fig.  28,  each  carrying  a  line  of 
rails  at  a  height  of  18  feet,  and  con- 
nected at  intervals  by  arched  bracing 
to  steady  the  structure.  In  this  il- 
lustration the  street  is  occupied  by  a 
double  line  of  tramway.  The  rails 
are  of  the  Vignoles  pattern,  of  Bes- 
semer steel,  weighing  50  lb  per  yard, 
spiked  to  cross  timber  sleepers,  and 
guarded  by  two  longitudinal  timbers, 
one  on  each  side  of  each  rail.  The 
sharpest  curve  on  the  main  line  has 
90  feet  of  radius.  The  gradients  con- 
form, for  the  most  part,  to  those  of 
the  streets,  and  the  steepest  gradient  is  1  in  50  for  a  length  of 
800  yards.  The  traffic  is  worked  with  outside  cylinder,  four- 
coupled  wheel,  bogie-truck  locomotives,  weighing  in  working  order 
19^  tons.  The  driving-wheels  are  3|  feet  in  diameter,  ami  the 


FIG.  28.-  New  York  Elevated  Railroad.    Section. 

cylinders  12  inches  in  diameter  with  a  stroke  of  16  inches.  The 
cars  are  of  the  usual  American  type,  entered  from  each  end,  45  feet 
long  and  8  wide,  with  seats  for  forty- two  passengers.  They  are 
placed  on  two  bogie  trucks,  and  weigh  12  tons.  The  trains  are 
provided  with  continuous  air-brakes.  The  stations  are  about  one- 
third  of  a  mile  apart ;  the  platforms  are  200  feet  long  and  1 3  wide. 
The  cost  per  mile  of  double  way  is  given  by  Mr  R.  E.  Johnston  as 
follows : — 

Foundations,  columns,  girders,  superstructure,  and  permanent  way  . .  t 

Stations 12,000 

Five  locomotives 4,000 

Twelve  cars ~,I;M-> 

Total  per  mile £81,378 

No  payment  has  been  made  for  way-leave  along  the  streets,  nor  for 
compensation  to  froutagers,  though  it  is  known  that  in  the  residen- 
tial quarters  traversed  by  the  railroads  rents  have  in  many  instances, 
at  least,  been  depreciated  to  the  extent  of  50  per  cent. 

PERMANENT  WAY. 

The  permanent  way  consists  of  rails,  chairs,  spikes,  keys,  and 
sleepers  laid  in  a  bed  of  ballast  deposited  on  the  formation.  The 
sleepers  or  substructure  should  be  bedded  on  broken  stones,  cinders, 
or  gravel,  at  least  12  inches  in  depth  under  the  sleepers,  without 


RAILWAY 


241 


any  clay  or  other  material   in   it  that  might  interfere  with  the 
drainage  of  water  through  the  ballast  to  the  formation. 

Gauge.  — The  measure  of  the  standard  or  British  national  gauge 
of  railways  is  4  feet  8^  inches  of  width  between  the  rails  forming  a 
line  of  rails  or  a  way.  There  are  many  other  gauges  in  existence 
in  different  parts  of  the  world.  In  England  the  gauge  of  7  feet, 
originally  adopted  on  the  Great  Western  Railway,  was  known  as 
the  "broad  gauge"  in  contradistinction  to  the  ordinary  gauge  of 
4  feet  8£  inches,  which  was  for  a  long  time  known  as  the  "  narrow 
gauge."  But  the  7  feet  gauge  has  been  to  a  great  extent  replaced 
by  the  4  feet  8J  inch  or  national  gauge,  and  it  is  being  gradually 
replaced  altogether.  The  lengths  of  line  now  (1885)  laid  on  the  two 
gauges  on  the  Great  Western  Railway  are  as  follows  : — 

Miles.  Yards. 

7  feet  gauge  183      924 

Mixed  gauge 243    1034 

4  feet  8§  inch  gauge    1789      594 

,,           ,,           joint,  half  the  length  being  taken  as  in 
the  Great  Western  system    84      946 

Total  length  of  line 2300    1738 

The  name  of  "narrow  gauge  "  has  now  ceased  to  be  applicable  to 
the  standard  gauge,  and  is  reserved  for  gauges  of  much  less  width, — 
the  metre  gauge  and  others  of  from  2  to  3  or  3£  feet  wide.  Why  a 
fractional  measure  of  gauge  should  have  been  selected  is  a  question 
which  has  puzzled  many  people.  The  fact  seems  to  be  that  the 
track  of  the  original  carts  or  trains — 5  feet  wide  outside  the  wheels — 
was  taken  as  a  standard  for  the  gauge  of  rails,  which  was  measured 
outside  also.  The  width  of  the  single  rail  at  the  top  being  originally 
If  inches,  the  width  for  the  two  rails  together  is  3^  inches,  which 
leaves  4  feet  8J  inches  for  the  inside  measure  or  true  gauge.  There 
are  in  the  United  Kingdom  a  few  railways  of  gauge  narrower  than 
the  standard  gauge,  of  which  instances  occur  in  the  following 
lines : — Festiniog,  1  foot  11£  inches  ;  Talyllyn,  2  feet  6  inches ; 
Dinas  and  Snowdon,  Southwold,  Isle  of  Man,  Manx  Northern, 
Ravenglass  and  Eskdale,  Ballymena  and  Larne,  each  3  feet.  The 
following  statement  (Table  XX VI I.)  comprises  the  gauges  of  the 
principal  railway  systems  in  the  world : — 


Great  Britain  standard  gauge 
Ireland,  standard  gauge  .... 
Central    Europe,    prevailing 
gauge     .  .             ... 

ft.  in. 
4    8i 
5    3 

4     Si 
5     0 
14     8i 
13    6 

5    6 
2    3 
5    6 
3    3| 

3    6 

3    6 
4    8i 
(-5    6 
4     Si 
(3    6 
14     SJ 
13    0 

{Prevailing  gauges 

ft.  in. 
(4    Si 
149 
6    0 
5    0 
3    0 
2    0 

/5     6 
1  4    8i 
14    2 
(f    6 
(53 
15    6 
(5    3 
136 
3    6 
4    8i 
5    3 
(53- 
13    6 



Russia,  standard  gauge    



:::::::::::::::::: 

Spain  and  Portugal,  standard 
gauge  

Chili 

Antwerp  and  Ghent  
India,  prevailing  gauge    .... 
,,      metre  gauge  

,,      Arconum    and    Conje- 
veram  Railway    .... 

South  Australia  

Egypt  

Queensland  

Canada  .  .  . 

New  South  Wales  

Mexico  

New  Zealand   

The  relative  advantages  of  broad  gauges  and  narrow  gauges  were 
exhaustively  discussed  at  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  (in 
1873),  on  the  reading  of  Mr  W.  T.  Thornton's  paper  on  "  The 
Relative  Advantages  of  the  5  feet  6  inch  Gauge  and  of  the  Metre 
Gauge  for  the  State  Railways  of  India."  The  fallacy  pervading  the 
arguments  for  narrow  gauges  is  that  they  take  the  width  between 
the  rails  as  the  basic  unit  of  the  system  ;  whereas  that  is  really 
little  more  than  an  incident,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  railway 
must  in  point  of  fact  be  governed  by  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
vehicles  which  the  traffic  requires.  Speaking  generally,  the 
national  gauge  of  4  feet  8|  inches  is  at  least  as  good  as  any 
other  for  the  purposes  of  general  traffic.  If  the  width  of  gauge 
were  still  an  open  question,  it  might  be  maintained  that  a  gauge 
of  5  feet  would  be  rather  more  convenient  in  view  of  the  increasing 
size  of  the  more  powerful  locomotives. 

JRails. — "The  experience  of  the  last  twenty-five  years,"  said  Mr 
George  Parker  Bidder,  speaking  in  1861,  "has  shown  that  one 
system  has  been  adopted  almost  universally — the  double-headed 
rails,  upon  chairs  with  cross  sleepers,  a  plan  which  has  been 
materially  improved  by  fishing  the  joints."  On  the  continent  of 
Europe  and  in  America,  however,  engineers  have  almost  universally 
laid  the  fiat-foot  or  flange  rail ;  and  in  France  double-headed  rails, 
keyed  in  chairs,  have  been  replaced  by  flange  rails.  On  the  Metro- 
politan and  Metropolitan  District  Railways,  on  the  contrary,  the 
flange  rails  have  been  taken  up  and  replaced  by  double-headed  rails 
in  chairs.  The  case  may  be  briefly  stated  in  the  following  terms. 
The  double-headed  rail  system  with  chairs  is  the  best  where  sup- 
plies of  material  and  labour  for  maintenance  and  repair  are  always 
ready  and  available.  The  single-headed  flange  rail  system  is  the 
best  when  the  main  thing  to  attain  is  simplicity  in  construction. 


Steel  rails  are  now  very  generally  used  instead  of  iron  ;  and  indeed  Steel 
it  may  be  affirmed  that  but  for  the  introduction  of  that  material  rails, 
for  rails  and  also  for  the  wheel  tires  of  locomotives  the  railway 
system  would  have  broken  down  under  the  enormous  growth  of 
traffic.  Rails  of  wrought-iron  on  the  early  railways  lasted  about 
twenty-five  years  ;  those  of  later  date  have  been  worn  out  in  from 
five  to  ten  years  and  in  certain  situations  in  twelve  months,  mainly 
owing  to  increased  traffic,  heavier  loads  on  the  engine-wheels,  in- 
creased speed,  quicker  stopping  and  quicker  starting.  Steel  has 
come  to  the  rescue  both  in  the  engine-wheels  and  in  the  rails. 
Loads  of  from  15  to  18  tons  are  now  placed  with  impunity  on  the 
single  wheels  of  engines  as  well  as  on  coupled  wheels,  while  it 
appears  from  the  investigations  of  Mr  R.  Price  Williams,  a  leading 
authority  on  permanent  way,  that  a  fully  proportioned  bull-headed 
rail  of  steel  outlasts  fifteen  or  eighteen  iron  rails.  Steel  rails  are 
not  merely  stronger  or  harder  but,  owing  to  their  texture,  are  worn 
away  only  by  simple  abrasion,  whereas  iron  rails  separate  out  into 
strands  as  soon  as  the  outer  coating  that  binds  them  together  is 
worn  off.  Mr  Alfred  A.  Langley  laid  down  in  1874  samples  of 
permanent  way  near  Stepney  station  on  the  London  and  Blackwall 
Railway,  where  upwards  of  300  trains  a  day  passed  over  a  single  line 
of  way.  The  weight  of  each  train  was  on  an  average  about  150  tons, 
making  a  total  of  about  45,000  tons  daily  over  one  line  of  rails. 
The  rails  are  both  of  steel  and  of  iron,  weighing  80  lb  per  lineal 
yard  and  keyed  in  cast-iron  chairs  on  cross  rectangular  sleepers. 
The  greater  number  of  the  wrought-iron  rails  had  to  be  turned 
after  one  year  and  three-quarters,  during  which  period  they  had 
worn  down  about  one -eighth  of  an  inch  ;  but  the  necessity  for  re- 
versing did  not  arise  from  the  wear  itself,  but  because  they  gave 
way  in  places,  either  bulging  or  splitting.  The  steel  rails  had 
worn  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  the  same  period.  About 
27,000,000  tons  had  passed  over  the  line. 

The  rails  generally,  indeed  almost  universally,  used  for  the  way  Kinds  of 
of  railways  are  the  double-headed,  the  bull-headed,  and  the  flange  rails, 
or  Vignoles  rails  (in  the  United  States,  Germany,  Canada,  and 
Mexico),  the  double-headed  and  the  bull-headed  rails  being  keyed 
into  cast-iron  chairs  spiked  to  sleepers,  the  flanged  being  laid  upon 
and  fastened  direct  to  the  sleepers.  The  principal  advantage  of 
the  flange  rail  is  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  attached  to  the 
sleeper  with  fastenings  of  a  simple  description.  The  disadvantages 
are  that  it  cannot  be  turned  or  reversed  when  the  head  is  worn,  as 
the  double-headed  rail  may  be,  and  that  the  rigid  attachment  of 
the  rail  to  the  sleeper  causes  a  greater  degree  of  disturbance  of 
the  way  and  involves  more  labour  for  maintenance  than  in  the  case 
of  the  double-headed  rail.  The  double-headed  rail  is  made  heavier 
for  the  same  class  of  traffic  than  the  flange  rail ;  but  it  is  also 
stronger  and  is  easily  bent  to  curves,  although  owing  to  the  mode 
of  attachment  to  the  chairs  by  wooden  keys  there  is  a  liability 
to  a  slight  longitudinal  movement  of  the  rails,  known  as  ' '  creep- 
ing." The  bull-headed  rail  possesses  the  advantages  of  the  double- 
headed  rail,  except  that,  like  the  flange  rail,  it  is  not  reversible. 
The  bull-headed  rail  is  laid  on  most  of  the  railway  lines  of  England 
and  Scotland  ;  the  double-headed  rail  is  also  in  use.  In  Ireland 
the  bull-headed  and  the  flange  rails  are  used.  Double-headed  and 
bull-headed  rails  in  English  practice  are  rolled  to  a  weight  of  from 
82  to  86  Ib  per  yard ;  the  heads  are  made  from  2£  to  2f  inches 
wide  ;  the  webs  are  from  five-eighths  to  thirteen-sixteenths  of  an 
inch  in  thickness  ;  and  the  height  of  the  rail  varies  from  5|  to 
5|  inches.  The  rails  are  now  made  of  steel,  in  bars  for  the  most 
part  30  feet  in  length,  with  the  advantage  in  comparison  with 
shorter  lengths  of  a  more  solid  road,  fewer  joints,  and  less  cost  for 
maintenance.  They  are  fixed  into  massive  cast-iron  chairs,  weigh-  Chairs, 
ing  from  31  to  55  ft  each,  by  means  of  hard  wood  keys — oak. 
They  are  canted  inwards  in  their  seats  at  an  angle  usually  of  1  in 
20,  the  better  to  resist  lateral  blows  from  wheels.  The  chairs  are 
made  of  considerable  width  on  the  more  heavily  worked  lines — 
from  7  to  8  inches,  against  a  minimum  of  4|  inches  on  other  lines. 
On  some  lines  the  seats  of  the  chairs  on  which  the  rails  rest  are 
slightly  rounded  in  the  direction  of  the  rail ;  this  forms  a  com- 
pensation for  slight  deviations  from  the  level  in  the  sleepers,  but  is 
mainly  useful  in  preventing  indentation  of  the  rails  by  the  con- 
cussions to  which  they  are  subject — a  matter  of  importance  with 
double-headed  rails  which  are  by  and  by  to  be  reversed.  In  such 
cases  Mr  T.  E.  Harrison  places  cushions  of  hard  wood  in  the  chair 
to  support  the  rails,  which  are  thus  effectually  protected  from 
indentation  ;  and,  in  addition,  the  trains  run  more  smoothly. 
The  oak  keys  by  which  the  rails  are  fastened  in  the  chairs  are  Keys, 
generally  applied  at  the  outer  side  of  the  rail,  as  the  jar  caused  by 
the  lateral  percussion  of  the  flanges  of  wheels  is  then  less  than 
when  the  key  is  placed  inside  ;  but  on  the  Manchester,  Sheffield, 
and  Lincolnshire  Railway  the  key  is  put  at  the  inner  side  of  the 
rail,  and  there  is  this  to  be  said  in  favour  of  the  practice,  that  the 
rails  are  kept  firmly  to  gauge  and  the  key  is  less  likely  to  shift. 
On  some  railways  contrivances  are  employed  to  prevent  the  keys 
from  shifting  or  creeping  out  of  their  proper  position  in  the  chair  ; 
these  will  be  noticed  in  their  places.  The  rails  are  laid  end  to 
end,  one-eighth  or  three  -  sixteenths  of  an  inch  apart  at  ordinary 

XX.  —  31 


242 


RAILWAY 


Fish-  temperatures,  to  allow  for  expansion  in  hot  weather.  The  joints 
plates,  of  the  rails  are  united  or  fished  with  parallel  steel  plates  lodged 
within  the  side  channels  of  the  rails  and  fastened  with  four  bolts 
and  nuts  passed  through  the  web  of  the  rails,  and,  in  order  that 
the  fish-plates  may  take  a  solid  and  steady  bearing,  the  entering 
faces  of  the  upper  and  lower  members  of  the  rails  are  in  most  in- 
stances formed  straight  and  steep, — at  an  angle  of  about  2  to  1. 
For  the  same  purpose  the  fish-plates  are  hollow  at  their  inner  faces, 
so  as  not  to  be  in  contact  with  the  vertical  members  or  web  of  the 
rails,  and  are  slightly  elastic  in  consequence.  Vertical  stiffness, 
also,  is  of  prime  importance  in  fish-plates,  which  act  as  beams  fixed 
at  the  ends  and  uniformly  loaded,  being  required  to  sustain  the 
loads  of  trains  passing  over  the  joints.  On  some  lines,  accordingly, 
the  fish-plates  are  made  of  greater  depth,  extending  downwards 
along  the  lower  table  of  the  rail,  and  are  even  turned  under  it, 
Sleepers,  whence  they  are  called  clip  fish-plates.  The  chairs  are  laid  on 
transverse  timber  sleepers,  ordinarily  cut  from  Baltic  redwood  to 
a  scantling  of  10  inches  wide  and  5  deep,  and  9  feet  in  length, — 
speaking  precisely,  only  8  feet  11  inches  in  length,  to  secure  the 
timber  from  import  duty.  They  are  most  commonly  submitted 
to  a  preserving  process  by  the  injection  of  about  2^  gallons  of 
creasote  into  each  sleeper.  The  chairs  are  fixed  to  the  sleepers 
by  iron  spikes  or  oak  trenails,  or  both,  varying  in  number  from 
two  on  the  lines  of  lighter  traffic  to  three  or  four  on  lines  of 
heavier  traffic.  On  the  London  and  South  -Western  Railway  and 
on  the  South  -  Eastern  Railway  a  compound  fastener  is  used, — a 
spike  driven  into  a  hollow  trenail,  after  the  latter  is  driven  into 
the  sleeper.  There  are  usually  eleven  cross  sleepers  to  each  length 
of  rails  of  30  feet,  making  the  average  distance  between  the 
sleepers  about  2  feet  9  inches  from  centre  to  centre.  It  is  usual 
to  space  them  apart  more  widely  in  the  middle  portion  of  the 
rail-bars  (up  to  3  feet)  and  more  closely  about  the  joints,  with  a 
view  to  equalizing  the  vertical  resistance  of  the  rails  to  rolling 
loads,  by  supplying  a  greater  degree  of  support  from  the  sleepers 
near  the  joints. 

The  standard  models  of  permanent  way  on  the  double-headed 
rail  and  chair  system  adopted  by  Mr  John  Fowler  for  the  New 
South  Wales  railways  have  been  already  noticed.  The  rails  are 
shown  in  section  in  figs.  29  and  35.  The  sleepers  are  of  colonial  hard 
woods,  chiefly  iron-bark  timber.  They  are  laid  2  feet  6  inches 
apart  between  centres  at  the  joints  of  the  rails,  and  3  feet  1  inch 
apart  elsewhere.  The  upper  and  lower  tables  of  the  rails  are  curved 
or  rounded  in  section  to  a  radius  of  5J  inches,  the  height  of  the 
rail.  The  entering  or  overhanging  faces  of  the  rail  are  inclined  at 


Fig.  29. 


Fig.  30. 


FIG.  29.-  Double-headed  rail ;  New  South  Wales  Railway. 
Fio.  30.  -Chair  ;  New  South  Wales  Railway. 

a  slope  of  about  1  in  2,  forming  straight  and  equally  inclined 
bearings  to  receive  the  fish-plates.  The  rails,  while  in  course  of 
manufacture,  are  tested  by  selecting  a  few  rails  of  each  day's 
make,  from  which  a  portion  4}  feet  in  length  is  cut  off  and 
placed  on  iron  supports  3$  feet  apart,  and  is  subjected  to  three 
blows  from  a  weight  of  1  ton  falling  12  feet  each  time.  The  rails 
are  to  deflect  not  less  than  6£  inches  and  not  more  than  7$  under 
this  test  without  showing  any  signs  of  fracture.  The  fish-bolts, 
as  well  as  the  spikes  for  fastening  the  chairs  to  the  sleepers,  are 
made  of  the  finest  quality  of  close  fibrous  iron.  Fifty  per  cent,  of 
the  rails  were  ordered  24  feet  in  length,  40  per  cent.  21,  and  10 
l>er  cent.  18.  The  chairs  (fig.  30)  are  13£  inches  long  at  the  sole, 
4$  wide,  and  1£  thick  at  the  seat  of  the  rail.  Test  bars  of  the 
metal  used  for  the  chairs  are  cast  to  a  scantling  of  2  inches  by  1 
inch  and  3J  feet  long.  They  are  placed  on  edge,  on  supports  3 
feet  apart,  and  are  required  to  sustain  a  dead  load  of  30  cwt. 
suspended  from  the  centre  of  the  bar  without  fracture.  The  spikes 
are  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  tapered  at  the  head  to 


fifteen-sixteenths,  with  hemispherical  or  cup -heads  forged  from 
the  solid  bar.  The  above-described  way,  as 
laid  in  New  South  Wales,  is  bedded  in  bal- 
last consisting  of  broken  stone  12  inches  in 
depth  below  the  sleepers,  broken  to  a  gauge 
of  3  inches,  boxed  up  with  broken  stone  of  a 
smaller  size  to  a  gauge  of  2  inches  for  a  depth 
of  8  inches.  The  total  depth  of  the  ballast 
from  the  crown  of  the  formation  is  22  inches. 
The  surface  of  the  formation  below  the  ballast 
is  rounded  in  cross-section,  in  order  to  drain 
off  such  water  as  penetrates  through  the  bal- 
last. Grips  or  furrows  are  cut  and  drains  laid 
in  where  necessary,  so  that  no  water  is  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  line  or  under  the  ballast. 

The  South-Eastern  double-headed  rail  (fig. 
31)  is  keyed  into  chairs  4^  inches  wide  and 
13|  long  at  the  sole.  They  are  fixed  to  the 
sleeper  by  two  spikes  driven  into  two  hollow 
oak  trenails.  The  sleepers  at  the  joints  are 
laid  2  feet  4  inches  apart  between  centres.  *IG-31-— ' 


rilsuth 
Railway. 


The  following  are  the  quantities  of  material 

for  1  mile  of  way,  single  line  : — 

tons.    cwt.   qr. 

Steel  rails,  82  ft)  per  yard 3521  yards        128        17        3 

Fish-plates 505  pairs  5         01 

Fish  bolts  and  nuts 2020  122 

Chairs    4022  56        11        0 

Chair  spikes    8044  3        11        3 

Keys 4022 

Sleepers,  creasoted   2011 

Trenails    8044 

These  quantities  are  considerably  less  than  those  of  the  Midland 
Railway  (which  are  stated  below),  as  may  naturally  be  the  case  for 
a  line  chiefly  of  passenger  traffic  in  comparison  with  one  of  heavy 
goods  and  mineral  traffic.  The  double-headed  rails  of  the  North- 
Eastern  Railway,  82  ft  per  yard,  are  bedded  on  blocks  or  cushions 
of  oak  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  chairs,  the  advantages  of  which 
have  already  been  noticed. 

The  type  section  of  way  of  the  Midland  Railway  is  shown  in  fig.  Bull- 
32.     The  formation  is  inclined  each  way  from  the  centre,  making  headed 
two  straight  slopes  for  drainage.     The  ballast  is  of  strong  gravel   rails, 

{  «          !          i  ! 

f  1          i 


Fio.  32. — Type  section  of  way  of  Midland  Railway. 

broken  stone,  and  ashes  or  clinker, — chiefly  gravel.  It  covers  a 
width  of  26£  feet  for  two  lines  of  way.  It  is  laid  to  a  depth  of  16 
inches  at  the  middle  of  the  six-foot,  and  is  formed  level  with  the 
upper  sides  of  the  sleepers  between  the  rails  in  the  four-foot,  with 
a  medium  depth  of  16  inches,  or  11  inches  beneath  the  sleepers. 
At  the  outer  sides  of  the  rails  the  ballast 
is  heaped  level  with  the  tops  of  the  chairs, 
or,  more  precisely,  the  tops  of  the  keys, 
and  is  sloped  down  to  the  formation  at 
each  outer  side.  The  upper  and  lower 
surfaces  of  the  rail  (see  fig.  33)  are  curved 
to  a  radius  equal  to  the  height  of  it,  and 
the  planks  are  flat, — adapted  for  taking 
up  lateral  blows  and  mitigating  wear.  ' 
The  chairs  are  remarkable  for  large 
dimensions,  being  7£  inches  wide  and 
15£  long  at  the  sole,  which  is  1£  inches 
thick  under  the  rail,  and  for  their  weight, 
50  Ib  each.  The  cost  of  relaying  1  mile 
of  single  way  on  the  Midland  system  just 
described,  based  on  contract  prices  in 
1884,  amounts  to  £1572,  8s.  5d.  Deduct- . 
ing  credit  for  old  material  to  the  amount 
of  £714,  8s.  3d.,  the  net  cost  of  relaying 
is  £858,  Os.  2d.  The  particulars  of  quantities,  cost,  and  credit  are 
given  in  the  following  statement,  prepared  by  Mr  Alfred  A.  Lang- 
ley,  the  engineer  of  the  railway  :— 

Cost  to  relay  1  mile  of  Single  Line  with  30-fect  Bull-headed  Steel 
Rails,  weighing  85  Ib.  per  yard  ;  eleven  Sleepers  to  each  30 feet  length. 

Steel  rails,  3520  yards  at  85  Ib = 133 J  tons,  at  £5    £667  10  0 

Chairs,  3872  at  50  tt>  =  86$  tons,  at  £3 20910  0 

Fish-plates  (steel  clip),  352  pairs  at  40  lb= 6J  tons,  at  £8 50    0  0 

Bolts  and  nuts,  1408  at  1*  tb=l  ton,  at  £9,  10s 9  10  0 

Spikes,  7744,  at  11  tb  =  4J  tons,  at  £7,  10s 3117  6 

Trenails  (solid  oak),  7744,  at  £2,  10s.  per  thousand  19    7  2 

Keys  (oak),  3872,  at  £4  per  thousand 15    9  9 

Sleepers  (creasoted),  1936,  at  4s 387    4  0 

Labour,  1760  yards,  at  Is.  6d 132    0  0 

Total  cost  of  laying £1572    8    5 


RAILWAY 


Credits : — 

Steel  rails,  3520  yards  at  80  tb  =  12of  tons,  at  £3,  15s £471  11  3 

Chairs,  3872,  at  42  lb  =  72£  tons,  at  £2    145    0  0 

•     Fish-plates  (clip),  352  pairs  at  35  lt»  =  5j  tons,  at  £3, 10s 19    5  0 

Wrought-iron  scrap,  2  tons,  at  £3   6    0  0 

Sleepers,  1930,  at  9d.  each 72  12  0 

Total  credits  ..  ...£714    8  3 


Net  cost  of  relaying £858    0    2 

Not  included  in  the  above  : — Ballast  for  1  mile  of  single  line,  4000  cubic  yards, 
at  2s.  =  £400;  ballast  for  1  mile  of  double  line,  7000  cubic  yards,  at  2s.  = 
£700 ;  ballast  for  a  lift  of  about  3  inches,  in  relaying  1  mile  of  single  line, 
520  cubic  yards,  at  2s.  =  £52 ;  engine  hire,  wages  of  ballast  guards,  use  of 
waggons,  &c.,  in  relaying  1  mile  of  single  line,  £50.  The  lift  of  3  inches  signi- 
fies the  wear  and  tear  of  ballast  and  the  quantity  required  to  be  replaced. 

The  standard  rail  on  the  London  and  North-Western  Railway  is, 
like  that  of  the  Midland,  bull-headed,  but  less  high  and  wider  at 
the  head  and  the  foot  and  thicker  in  the  web.  The  chairs  have 
the  peculiarity  of  being  ribbed  horizontally  on  the  inner  face  against 
which  the  oak  key  is  driven,  in  order  to  grip  the  key.  The  sleepers 
at  the  joints  are  placed  2  feet  3  inches  npai  t  between  centres.  The 
Great  Northern  Company's  standard  rail  contrasts  with  the  two 
immediately  preceding  rails  in  being  less  high  than  either,  and 
having  a  thinner  web  and  a  larger  head  than  the  others.  There 
are  peculiarities  in  the  disposition  of  the  way.  The  first  is  that 
the  joints  of  the  rails  are  supported  in  a  chair  directly  under  each 
joint,  to  which  the  fishes  are  bolted  ;  the  second  is  that  the  two 
rails  forming  a  line  of  way  break  joint  with 
each  other,  the  joints  alternating  from  side  to 
side,  and  that,  as  a  consequence,  all  the  sleepers 
are  placed  equally  apart.  On  this  system,  it 
is  argued,  the  way  is  of  as  nearly  uniform 
strength  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it.  The 
keys  for  fixing  the  rails  are  of  compressed  fir. 
The  Great  Western,  the  Metropolitan,  and 
the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  rails  are  the 
heaviest  of  the  bull -headed  rails  noticed  in 
Table  XXVIII.  (see  below),— weighing  86  lb 
per  yard,  having  comparatively  thin  webs  and 
great  development  of  head  (see  fig.  34).  In  the 
Great  Western  chair  the  inner  face  of  the  jaw 
that  holds  the  key  is  formed  with  an  indenta- 
tion, to  aid  in  keeping  the  key  in  place, — the 
key  being  likely  to  expand  into  the  vacancy. 
In  the  Metropolitan  way  the  chairs  are  fast- 
ened to  the  sleepers  by  two  through  bolts 
and  nuts  to  each  chair.  The  rails  of  the  FlG-  34.— Bull  -  headed 
Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire  Rail-  R^ay 
way  are  placed  in  chairs  of  great  length,  16| 
inches  ;  and,  contrary  to  usual  practice,  the  oak  keys  for  securing 
the  rails  in  the  chairs  are  fixed  on  the  inner  side  of  the  rail,  the 
rail  taking  its  bearing  directly  upon  the  jaw  of  the  chair.  Thus 
the  lateral  strokes  of  the  wheels  on  the  rails  are  resisted  directly 


by  the  jaw  of  the  chair,  and  not  through  the  medium  of  the  key. 
There  are  twelve  sleepers  to  each  length  of  rail,  averaging  2  feet 
6  inches  apart  between  centres,  as  against  the  usual  number  on 
other  lines,  eleven  per  rail-length  of  30  feet.  The  -sleepers,  of 
Baltic  redwood,  are  not  creasoted  nor  preserved  by  any  other  pro- 
cess, except  in  one  or  two  places  where  sand  ballast  is  used. 

The  leading  particulars  of  standard  double-headed  and  bull- 
headed  rails,  with  chairs  and  sleepers,  are  given  in  Table 
XXVIII.  (see  below). 

Specimen  standard  flange  rails  are  illustrated  in  figs.  35  and  36  Flange 
in  cross  section.     Leading  particulars  of  flange  rails  are  given  in  rails. 
Table  XXIX.  below. 

In  the  case  of  the  flange  rail  of  the  New  South  Wales  Railway  (fig. 
35)  the  inward  cant  of  the  rails  is  provided  for  by  planing  out  by 
machinery  the  beds  of  the  rails  at  the  upper  sides  of  the  sleepers  to 
the  angle  1  in  20  ;  and  that  the  rails  may  be  kept  in  gauge  the 
beds  are  notched  into  the  surface  by  as  much  as  the  thickness  of 
the  flange  of  the  rail.  No  holes  of  any  kind,  either  punched  or 
drilled,  are  made  in  the  flanges  of  the  rails  ;  these  are  fastened  to 
the  sleepers  by  screws  and  spikes  alternately,  having  projecting 
heads,  by  which  the  flange  is  clipped  and  held  down.  In  order 
to  check  the  tendency  to  creeping  of  the  rails  as  well  as  of  the 
fish-plates,  it  is  intended  to  flange  the  fish-plates  and  to  cut  a 
notch  at  each  end  of  them,  in  each  of  which  a  dog-spike  is  to  be 


Fig.  35.  Fig.  36.  Fig.  37. 

Fio.  35. — Flange  rail ;  New  South  Wales  Railway. 
FIG.  36. — Flange  rail ;  Midland  Great  Western  Railway. 
Fio.  37. — Bridge  rail ;  Great  Western  Railway. 

driven  into  the  sleepers.  The  Great  Northern  of  Ireland  rail  is 
similar  to  Mr  Fowler's  on  the  New  South  Wales  Railway,  but 
heavier.  The  Midland  Great  Western  rail  (fig.  36)  is  peculiarly 
formed,  with  a  web  of  taper  section,  being  nine-sixteenths  of  an 
inch  thick  at  the  head,  and  thickened  to  1  inch  at  the  flange.  The 
bridge  rail  of  the  Great  Western  Railway  (fig.  37)  is  laid  on  the 
model  originally  adopted  by  Mr  Brunei.  The  rails  are  only  3 
inches  high,  and  are  aided  in  resisting  vertical  stress  by  the  con- 
tinuous longitudinal  sleepers  of  large  scantling,  14  inches  wide  and 
7  deep,  on  which  they  are  laid,  with  pine  packing  8  inches  wide 
and  1  thick.  The  rails  are  laid  so  as  to  break  joint  with  the 
sleepers,  which  are  in  lengths  of  25 .  feet,  whilst  the  rails  are  from 
18  to  32  feet  in  length.  The  rails  are  fastened  down  by  fang-bolts, 


TABLE  XXVIII. — Standard  Double-headed  and  Bull-headed  Hails,  ivith  Chairs  and  Sleepers. 


Railway. 

Weight  of 
Rail  per 
Yard. 

Dimensions  of  Rail. 

Fish- 
plates 

Chairs. 

Number  of 

Sleepers. 

Height. 

Width  of 
Head. 

Thick- 
ness of 
Web. 

Length- 
of  Bars. 

Weight. 

Width  of 
Sole. 

Sole  flat 
or 
rounded. 

Spikes. 

Tre- 
nails. 

Total. 

Section. 

Distance 
apart. 

Double-headed  rails  — 
New  South  Wales   
South-  Eastern 

ft. 
76 

82 
82 
82 
72 

85 

84 
82 
86 
86 

80 

86 
80 

76 

Inches. 
61 

5i 
5J 

5f 

4J 

5f 
51 
5ft 
8* 
5ft 

'5| 

5J 
5 
6J 

Inches. 

s§ 

2* 
2J 

2J 

2f 
2| 
2f 
2J 

2J 

4 

2f  full 
2i 

Inch. 

4 

,i 

ii 

if 

f 

f  bare 

it 

Feet. 
21,24 
24 
30 
30 
30 

30 
30 
30 
26,  29,  32 
24 

30 

30 
30 

26 

plain 
plain 
clip 
plain 
plain 

clip 
clip 
plain 
plain 
clip 

plain 

plain 
plain 
clip 

»>. 
26 
81i 

40 
40 
35 

50 
45 
40 

39 
40,51 

55 
35 

Inches. 

4 
*? 

4 

8 
5f 

joints  7,  7} 
? 
6 

flat 
flat 
flat 
cushion 
flat 

rounded 
rounded 
flat 
rounded 
flat 

flat 

flat 
flat 
flat 

o 

spiked 
4 
3 

2 
2 

2 

bolts  a 

3 

2 
3 
3 

2 

;renails 

2 
2 
3 

id  nuts 
2 

2 
2 
3 
4 
3 

4 
4 
3 
2 
2 

3 

4 
3 
3 

in.  x  in. 
10  X  5 
10  X  5 
10  X  5 
10  X  5 
10X4J 

10X5 
10  X  5 
10  X  5 
12x6 
12  x  6 

10X5 

10  X  5 
10x4i 
10x5 

ft.  in. 
3      1 
2      8 
2    10 
2      9 

a    9f 

3      0 
3      1 
2      8| 
2      9 

2    6  (as.) 

2      9t 
2      9f 
3      0 

London  and  S.  -Western 
North-Eastern  

Great  X.  of  Scotland  .  . 
Boll-headed  rails- 
Midland  .  . 

London  and  N.-  Western 
Great  Northern    
Great  Western  

Metropolitan     .  . 

Manchester,    Sheffield, 
and  Lincolnshire     .  . 
Lancashire   and  York- 
shire     

Great  N.  of  Scotland  .  . 
Great  N.  of  Ireland    .  . 

TABLE  XXIX.  — Specimen  Standard  Flange  Rails  ;  in  Cross  Section. 


Railway. 

Rail. 

Weight 
of  Rail 
per  yd. 

Dimensions  of  Rail. 

Fish-plates. 

Sleepers. 

Height. 

Width 

of  Head. 

Width  of 

Flange. 

Thickness 
of  Web. 

Length 
of  Bars. 

Section. 

Distance 
apart. 

New  South  Wales    

flange 
bridge 

Ib. 

"* 

79 

79 

74 
68 

Inches. 
4J 
4| 

m 

*A 

3 

Inches. 
2J 
2* 

2§ 
2f 

2| 

Inches. 
4| 
5 
5 

5 

3 

Inch. 
A 
« 
fttol 

ft 

2  webs,  } 

Feet. 
24 
26 
23,  26J 

24 
18  to  32 

plain 
plain  flanged 
flanged 

joint-plate 

Inches  x  inches. 
10x5 
10  X  5 
10  x  5 
f  10  X  5  ) 
\   9x5f 
f       14  x  7       ) 
(  longitudinal  f 

Feet  in. 
3      1 
3      0 

continuous 

Great  Northern  of  Ireland     

Midland  Great  Western    

Great  Southern  and  Western  

Great  Western  

RAILWAY 


which  pass  through  their  flanges  and  the  sleeper  together.  At  the 
joints  they  are  fortified  by  square  iron  plates  laid  under  the  joints, 
through  which  fang-bolts  are  passed.  The  longitudinals  are  con- 
nected and  kept  to  gauge  by  transoms  or  cross-ties  at  intervals. 

The  minimum  weight  of  ordinary  flange  rails  is  about  45  Ib  per 
lineal  yard.  If  the  weight  is  less  than  this  for  main  lines  the 
upper  bearing  surface  is  objectionably  narrow,  and  it  is  scarcely 
high  enough  above  the  sleepers.  The  maximum  weight  of  flange 
rafts  is  about  80  ft  per  lineal  yard.  Flange  rails,  like  headed  rails, 
are  laid  on  transverse  sleepers,  to  which  they  are  fixed,  most  com- 
monly by  means  of  screws,  spikes,  or  flange  bolts  and  nuts.  In  all 
cases 'it  is  preferable  to  effect  the  fastening  of  steel  rails  without 
piercing  them  in  the  flange,  as  they  are  materially  weakened  by 
such  perforations. 

In  the  United  States  (also  very  largely  in  Germany,  Canada,  and 
Mexico)  the  Vignoles  rail  is  universally  used  for  railways,  varying 
in  weight  from  67  or  70  Ib  per  yard  on  a  few  leading  lines  to  30  tt> 
on  narrow-gauge  railways.  No  railroads  with  any  considerable 
traffic  are  now  laid  down  with  rails  of  less  weight  than  60  Ib  per 
yard.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  laid  to  a  gauge  of  4  feet  9  inches, 
is  constructed  of  flange  rails  of  two  sections,  one  of  60  Ib  per  yard 
4^  inches  high,  the  other  of  67  Ib  4J  inches  high,  in  lengths  of  30 
feet  The  fishes  or  splices  are  2  feet  in  length,  held  by  four  bolts 
and  nuts.  The  outer  splice  is  formed  with  a  horizontal  flange  or 
"tongue,"  which  overhangs  the  flange  of  the  rail  and  is  spiked  to 
the  sleeper.  Allowance  for  expansion  when  the  rails  are  laid  in 
winter  is  provided  by  laying  the  rails  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
apart,  endwise  ;  in  summer  a  space  of  only-one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
in  width  is  allowed.  The  cross  sleepers  are  8  inches  wide  by  7  deep, 
and  are  8£  feet  in  length  ;  they  are  laid  so  closely  that  the  maximum 
distance  apart  between  centres  does  not  exceed  2  feet.  There  are 
sixteen  sleepers  for  each  length  of  30  feet,  and  the  sleepers  at  the 
joints  are  laid  with  a  clearance  of  over  10  inches  between  them. 
The  rails  are  fastened  by  spikes  to  the  sleepers  at  the  inside  and  the 
outside.  The  width  for  the  double  line  of  way  at  the  formation 
level  is  31  feet  4  inches  in  cuttings ;  and  on  embankments  the 
width  of  the  formation  is  24  feet  3  inches,  sloping  from  the  centre 
at  the  rate  of  1  in  20.  The  ballast  is  laid  to  a  depth  of  not  less 
than  12  inches  under  the  sleepers,  and  is  filled  in  to  the  level  of  the 
upper  surface  of  the  sleepers.  Where  stone  ballast  is  used  it  is 
broken  uniformly  to  a  gauge  of  2£  inches  in  diameter.  For  double 
lines  of  way  large  stones  are  placed  in  the  bottom,  at  the  centre, 
between  the  lines  to  provide  for  drainage  ;  but  the  stones  are  not 
placed  under  the  ends  of  the  sleepers  ;  thus  water  is  drained  off 
rapidly. 

Metallic  Permanent   Way. — Metallic  permanent  way,  in  which 

the  sleepers  are  of  iron,   has   been  much   employed  in  tropical 

nent  way.  countries,    and    is 
now  to    some   ex- 
tent    adopted     in 
France  and  in  Ger- 
many.    The  oldest 
and    most    widely  "~ 
used  system  of  me-  n 
tallic  way  is  that  of  ^ 
Mr  H,  Greaves,  who  ?; 
in  1846  introduced  ^ 
a  spherical  or  bowl 
sleeper  of  cast-iron, 
having    the    chair 
for  the  rail  cast  on 
its  summit  (see  fig. 
38).    Every  second 
pair  of  sleepers  are 

connected  and  held  Fio-  38.  — Greaves's  cast-iron  sleepers, 

to  gauge  by  transverse  tie-bars,  which  pass  through  and  are  bolted 
to  them.  The  form  of  the  sleeper  is  strong,  it  holds  well  in  the 
ground,  the  chair  is  not  liable  to  be  detached,  the  whole  bearing 
surface  is  directly  beneath  the  road,  the  ballast  is  kept  dry  and 
elastic,  and  there  is  a  simple  means  of  packing  the  sleeper  through 
holes  in  the  top,  with  a  pointed  rammer  from  the  surface,  so 
that  the  sleeper  and  the  rail  can  be  forced  upwards  without  dis- 
turbing the  general  bed  of  ballast.  They  may  also  be  lowered 
by  taking  out  a  portion  of  ballast  from  the  interior.  Another 
system,  Mr  W.  Bridges  Adams's  "  suspended  girder  rail,"  is  shown 
in  fig.  39.  The  rail  __  ^  ^ 

is    7     inches     deep,        ^tyr^*  ~^=T^^==" 

weighing   65   Ib  per        1* "tJ 
lineal  yard,    and    is  Fio.  39.— Suspended  girder  raiL 

suspended  by  continuous  angle-wires,  or  side  wings  bolted  to  it, 
ana  bedded  in  the  ballast ;  and,  as  the  bearing  surface  on  the 
ballast  was  approximated  to  the  bearing  surface  of  the  rail,  a 
great  degree  or  stability  was  anticipated.  Wrought -iron  trans- 
verse sleepers  were  first  tried  in  Belgium  in  1862,  then  in 
France  and  in  Portugal,  and  afterwards  in  Germany.  There  are 
various  systems,  most  of  which  were'  unsatisfactory,  but  the 
Vautherin  sleeper,  first  tried  in  1864  on  the  Lyons  railway,  has 


Metallic 
perma- 


been  successful.  It  is  hollow  in  section,  of  the  form  A  truncated, 
supposing  the  upper  part  of  the  letter  to  be  removed,  presenting  a 
flat  bearing  surface,  3|  inches  wide,  for  a  flange  rail.  It  is  8  feet 
in  length  and  9  inches  wide  over  the  flanges  forming  the  base.  It 
is  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  at  the  centre  and  is  only  half 
that  thickness  in  the  wings.  The  rail  is  fixed  to  the  sleeper  with 
gibs  and  cotters.  It  has  been  reported  that  the  motion  over  the 
Vautherin  sleepers  is  much  easier  than  that  over  sleepers  of  oak, 
and  that  in  consequence  the  cost  of  maintenance  is  comparatively 
low.  It  is  stated  that  amongst  a  number  of  rails  laid  for  trial 
under  similar  conditions,  some  of  them  on  wooden  sleepers  and 
some  of  them  on  Vautherin  sleepers,  the  number  of  defective  rails 
amounted  to  only  2£  per  cent,  of  those  laid  on  Vautherin  sleepers 
against  13  per  cent,  of  those  laid  on  wood.  It  was  found  that  if 
the  Vautherin  sleepers  were  not  at  least  8  feet  in  length  they  failed 
at  the  ends,  and  that  even  for  this  length  it  was  expedient  to 
strengthen  them  at  the  angles.  It  was  also  found  that  large  and 
hard  ballast,  or  broken  stoijea  or  broken  slag,  aggravated  the  tend- 
ency to  give  way.  Ballast  of  ashes  produced  a  similar  bad  effect, 
and  also  caused  the  sleepers  to  rust.  On  the  contrary,  ballast  of 
gravel,  of  a  marly  character,  adapted  itself  admirably  to  the  form 
of  the  sleeper.  The  system  of  fastening  the  rails  to  the  sleepers  by 
gibs  and  cotters  has  been  abandoned  in  favour  of  clips  and  hook- 
bolts.  The  Hartwich  system  of  iron  way  need  not  be  described 
here,  having  always  given  bad  results.  The  Hilf  system  of  iron 
way  consists  of  two  parts, — an  iron  longitudinal  sleeper  and  a  flange 
rail  of  steel.  It  is  simple,  easily  laid  and  maintained,  and  econo- 
mical. The  sleeper  is  in  section  like  the  letter  E,  bevelled  at  the 
angles,  having  an  upper  flat  surface  and  three  flanges  downwards. 
It  is  12  inches  wide  and  about  2£  deep  ;  and  it  can  be  rolled  to 
lengths  of  30  feet  and  only  one-third  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and 
to  a  weight  of  59  Ib  per  yard.  The  rail  is  4 '32  inches  high,  with 
2 '32  inches  width  of  table,  3 '40  width  of  flange  base,  and  four- 
tenths  of  an  inch  thickness  of  web.  It  is  rolled  in  lengths  of  30 
feet  and  weighs  51^  R>  per  yard.  It  is  fish-jointed  and  is  fixed  to 
the  sleeper  with  two  rows  of  bolts  and  nuts  at  intervals  of  from  30 
to  40  inches.  The  gauge  is  preserved  by  means  of  1-inch  tie-rods, 
screwed  at  both  ends  with  nuts.  One  tie-rod  is  sufficient  for  each 
length  of  rail.  The  combined  rail  and  sleeper,  placed  on  supports 
54  inches  apart,  can  carry  18  tons  at  their  middle,  without  im- 
pairing their  elastic  strength. 

LOCOMOTIVE  POWER. 

Locomotives  may  broadly  be  reduced  to  two  classes,  according 
to  the  situation  of  the  working  cylinders.  In  the  first  class  these 
are  within  the  framing,  under  the  boiler,  with  the  main  driving 
axle  cranked  at  two  points  to  receive  the  power  from  the  two 
cylinders  ;  in  the  second  class  they  are  outside  the  framing,  and 
connected,  not  to  the  axle,  which  is  straight,  but  to  crank-pins 
fixed  between  the  spokes  of  the  wheels,  in  connexion  with  the 
nave.  From  these  distinguishing  features  the  two  types  of  engines 
are  known  respectively  as  "  inside  cylinder  locomotives  "  and  "out- 
side cylinder  locomotives."  In  the  latter  the  general  contour  of 
the  cylinders  is  usually  visible  at  the  fore -end  of  the  machine. 
The  tenders  have  six  or  four  wheels,  according  to  the  taste  of  the 
designer,  and  they  are  supplied  with  powerful  brakes,  worked  by 
screws,  with  blocks  of  wood  placed  against  each  wheel.  A  water- 
tank  forms  the  upper  part  of  the  tender,  namely,  the  two  sides 
and  the  back,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  holding  from 
1000  to  3000  gallons ;  and  in  the  hollow  of  the  shoe  the  fuel  is 
deposited,  of  which  a  full  charge  may  weigh  from  30  cwt.  to  3  J 
tons.  The  engine  and  the  tender  are  sustained  on  springs  placed 
over  the  axle-bearings.  Again,  there  is  the  general  classification 
of  locomotives  into  passenger  engines  and  goods  and  mineral 
engines.  As  the  power  of  the  engine  is  brought  into  action  through 
the  grip  of  the  driving  wheels  upon  the  rails,  it  is  necessary,  for 
the  exertion  of  maximum  power  in  goods  engines,  to  make  two  or 
more  pairs  of  the  wheels  of  one  -size,  and  transmit  the  driving  force 
from  the  central  pair  of  wheels  to  the  front  and  back  pairs  by 
means  of  coupling-rods  attached  to  crank-pins  at  the  naves  of  the 
wheels.  Such  engines  are  called  "six-coupled,"  and  for  them  the 
most  convenient  combination  is  with  inside  cylinders.  When  the 
cylinders  are  outside  it  is  usual  to  couple  only  the  hind  pair  of 
wheels  to  the  driving  wheels,  making  a  "  four-coupled  "  engine, 
the  leading  or  front  wheels  being  of  smaller  diameter  than  the 
driving-wheels,  and  so  leaving  room  for  the  convenient  placement 
of  the  cylinders.  The  six-coupled  engine  can  take  the  heaviest 
train  on  a  good  straight  railway, — that  is,  one  free  for  the  most 
part  from  curves  ;  but  four-coupled  engines  work  more  economic- 
ally on  lines  with  frequent  curves,  and  may  be  made  so  as  to  take, 
in  average  practice,  as  great  a  load  as  six-coupled  engines.  Pass- 
enger locomotives  have  usually  been  constructed  with  a  single 
pair  of  driving-wheels,  for  free  running  at  high  speeds;  but  as 
traffic  became  heavier  four-coupled-wheel  passenger  engines  came 
into  vogue  ;  and  express  trains  are  •  now  for  the  most  part  worked 
with  four-coupled  engines.  In  recent  years  the  forepart  of  engines 
has  in  many  cases  been  placed  on  a  four-wheeled  truck  connected 


Types 
engine 


RAIL  WAY 


245 


by  a  central  bolt  or  pivot  to  the  frame  of  the  engine,  so  that  the 
fore-wheels  can  swing  to  the  curves  of  the  line.  On  the  Metro- 
politan, Metropolitan  District,  and  North  London  Railways  entirely, 
and  on  many  large  railway  systems  partially,  where  sharp  curves 
are  frequent,  bogie-engines  are  employed,  and  with  great  advan- 
tage in  facilitating  traction.  Another  device  for  the  same  purpose 
is  the  use  of  radial  axles, — that  is,  axles  either  at  the  forepart  or 
the  back  of  the  engine,  which  by  their  axle-boxes  slide  laterally 
between  circularly  formed  guides  on  entering  and  on  leaving  curved 
parts  of  the  way,  and  so  maintain  a  radial  position  at  right  angles 
to  the  line  of  rails. 

American  practice,  many  years  since,  arrived  at  two  leading 
types  of  locomotive  for  passenger  and  for  goods  traffic.  The 
passenger  locomotive  has  eight  wheels,  of  which  four  in  front  are 
framed  in  a  bogie,  and  the  four  wheels  behind  are  coupled  drivers. 
This  is  the  type  to  which  English  practice  has  been  approximating. 
The  tender  is  carried  on  eight  wheels,  disposed  under  two  trucks 
or  bogies,  fore  and  aft.  Goods  locomotives  are  made  with  eight 
wheels  and  with  ten  wheels,  of  which,  in  each  case,  the  leading 
pair  of  wheels  are  connected  with  a  swing  bolster  and  radius  bar, 
to  conform  laterally  and  radially  to  curves. 

As  the  speed  increases  a  more  than  proportional  increase  in  the 
engine-power  is  necessary  to  draw  a  given  train.  Thus,  if  an  engine 
and  tender,  weighing  together  40  tons  and  exerting  a  given  tractive 
force,  takes,  say,  forty  loaded  carriages,  weighing  360  tons,  at 
20  miles  per  hour  on  a  level,  the  loads  which  it  could  take  if  it 
exerted  the  same  tractive  power  at  higher  speeds  would  be  only  as 
follows : — 

At  20  miles  per  hour,  40  carriages,  weighing  360  tons.     ' 
„  30        „         „          30          „  „          200    ,, 

„  40        „          „  21  „  „  144     „ 

„  50        „          „  15  „  ,,  106     „ 

,,  60        „         „          11          „  „  75    „ 

The  influence  of  gradients  also  is  very  important.  If  an  engine 
and  tender,  weighing  together  40  tons,  is  capable  of  drawing  a 
maximum  train  of,  say,  forty-two  loaded  carriages,  weighing  420 
tons,  at  20  miles  per  hour  on  a  level,  it  would  only  draw  the 
following  loads  at  the  same  speed  on  the  following  inclines : — 

Level  42  carriages,  weighing  420  tons. 

Incline  1  in  600,  34        „  340 

300,  27        ,,  270 

150,  20        „  200 

100,  15        ,,  150 

75,  12        „  120 

50,    9         ,  90 

40,    6         ,  65 

30,    5         ,  45 

20,    3         ,  24 

10,  nil       ,  nil 

This  is  the  reason  why  the  older  railways  were  made  nearly  level 
at  an  enormous  cost, — the  elder  Stephenson's  policy  being  to  incur 
a  large  expenditure  in  construction  in  order  to  avoid  otherwise 
heavy  inclines  and  heavy  expenses.  The  ruling  gradient  of  the 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway  was  fixed  at  1  in  900,  excepting, 
of  course,  the  inevitable  inclines  at  Rainhill  summit,  for  working 
which  special  provision  was  made  ;  that  of  the  next  great  line,  the 
London  and  Birmingham,  was  fixed  at  1  in  330  ;  on  the  Great 
Western  Railway,  one  of  the  earliest  made  lines,  the  ruling  inclina- 
tion is  1  in  1320  for  the  greater  part  of  the  way.  Locke,  as  already 
explained,  initiated  the  system  of  cheaply  constructed  railways,  as 
the  facilities  for  increasing  the  power  of  locomotives  became  better 
understood  ;  he  constructed  lines  with  long  steep  gradients,  some 
of  them  1  in  70,  1  in  75,  1  in  80.  The  Great  Northern  Railway, 
of  comparatively  recent  origin,  was  constructed  on  a  ruling  gradient 
of  1  in  200  ;  and,  in  general,  the  more  recently  made  lines  have 
the  steepest  gradients.  Steep  railways  are  generally  also  lines  of 
frequent  curves,  which  is  another  cause  of  loss  of  locomotive  power. 
Moreover,  the  ruling  speeds,  as  they  may  be  called,  have  in  the 
course  of  years  increased.  Thus  in  every  way  more  powerful 
engines  are  now  needed  than  in  the  early  days  of  railways. 

The  fundamental  characteristics  of  English  practice  are  fairly 
represented  by  a  few  types  of  locomotives.  Take  first  an  express 
passenger  locomotive,  which  stands  on  a  wheel  base — the  distance 
apart  of  the  centres  of  the  extreme  axles — of  15  feet  4  inches.  The 
cylinders  are  inside  and  are  16  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  slide  of 
22  inches.  The  driving-wheels  are  7  feet  in  diameter.  The  fire- 
grate has  an  area  of  18  square  feet,  and  the  heating  surface  of  the 
fire-box  and  flue-tubes  taken  together  is  1339  square  feet.  The 
total  weight  of  the  engine  in  working  order  is  28  tons  6  cwt.,  of 
which  nearly  12  tons  are  driving  weight, — the  weight  at  the  driving- 
wheels.  The  tender  stands  on  three  pairs  of  wheels  and  weighs 
about  16  tons,  with,  in  addition,  1780  gallons  or  8  tons  of  water 
when  filled,  and  3  tons  of  coal. 

The  "  Lady  of  the  Lake  "  is  an  express  passenger  locomotive,  one 
of  a  class  which  was  designed  by  Mr  John  Ramsbottom  with  special 
regard  to  the  running  of  express  trains  on  the  northern  division 
of  the  London  and  North  -  Western  Railway.  The  cylinders  are 
"outside";  they  are  16  inches  in  diameter,  with  24  inches  of 
stroke,  and  the  driving-wheels  are  7  feet  7  inches  in  diameter.  The 
fire-grate  has  an  area  of  15  square  feet,  and  there  is  over  1000  square 


feet  of  heating  surface.  The  engine  weighs  27  tons  in  working 
order  and  the  tender  17£,  together  44£  tons.  The  tender  is  fitted 
with  Mr  Ramsbottom's  apparatus  for  picking  up  feed-water  whilst 
running :  a  scoop  is  let  down  from  the  bottom  of  the  tender  and 
dips  into  water  contained  in  a  long  open  trough,  laid  between  the 
rails,  from  which  it  is  scooped  up  into  the  tanks.  The  minimum 
speed  at  which  this  operation  can  be  effected  is  22  miles  per  hour. 
By  the  aid  of  the  water-lifter  this  express  engine  has  been  enabled 
to  run  the  whole  distance  from  Holyhead  to  London — 264  miles — 
in  one  continuous  run,  at  an  average  speed  of  42  miles  per  hour, 
taking  a  train  of  eight  or  nine  carriages,  and  consuming  27  Ib  of 
coal  as  fuel  per  mile  run. 

An  express  passenger  locomotive  having  18 -inch  cylinders  and 
four-coupled  driving-wheels,  7  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  four-wheel 
bogie  in  front  under  the  smoke -box,  was  designed  by  Mr  T.  W. 
Johnson  for  the  traffic  of  the  Midland  Railway.  The  engine  stands 
on  eight  wheels,  forming  a  base  21£  feet  long.  It  weighs  about 
42  tons  in  working  order,  and  with  the  tender,  including  coal  and 
water,  about  68  tons.  The  average  load  taken  by  engines  of  this 
class  is  fourteen  carriages  at  the  time-bill  speed  of  50  miles  per 
hour,  over  gradients  of  from  1  in  120  to  1  in  130,  with  a  consump- 
tion of  28  ft>  of  coal  per  mile  run.  The  engine  can  take  as  a  maxi- 
mum load  seventeen  carriages  between  Manchester  and  Derby,  over 
ruling  gradients  of  1  in  90  and  1  in  100  for  10  miles,  at  a  speed  up 
the  inclines  of  35  miles  per  hour,  and  on  levels  and  falling  gradients 
at  50  miles  per  hour.  The  carriages  weigh,  with  passengers,  11 
tons  each,  making  up  a  train  of  the  gross  weight  of  187  tons. 

The  express  passenger  engines  on  the  Great  Northern  Railway 
(fig.  40),  designed  by  Mr  Patrick  Stirling,  have  outside  cylinders,  18 


FIG.  40.— Express  locomotive  ;  Great  Northern  Railway. 

inches  in  diameter,  and  a  single  pair  of  8-feet  driving-wheels.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  recent  developments  of  the  single-wheel  engine.  It 
is  placed  on  eight  wheels,  of  which  the  first  four  are  framed  in  a 
bogie,  or  truck,  pivoted  on  a  centre  under  the  smoke -box.  The 
cylinders  are  placed  outside,  and  between  the  wheels  of  the  bogie 
at  each  side.  They  are  18  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  stroke  of 
28  inches, — dimensions  which,  taken  together,  exceed  in  magni- 
tude those  of  any  other  engine  for  English  passenger-traffic.  The 
driving-wheels  are  8  feet  1  inch  in  diameter  and  the  bogie-wheels 
3  feet  11  inches.  The  engine  weighs  38  tons  in  working  order,  the 
distribution  of  the  weight  being  as  follows  : — 

Leading  bogie-wheels  )  15  tong  ( 7  tons 

Hind         »         >,         )  "  ( 8     „ 

Driving-wheels 15     „ 

Hind  wheels 8     „ 

Total  weight  in  working  order    38     „ 

The  pivot  of  the  bogie  is  6  inches  nearer  the  hind  than  the  front 
axle, — these  being  6£  feet  apart.  By  this  disposition  the'  bogie 
appears  to  lead  better  than  if  the  pivot  were,  as  usual,  equidistant 
between  the  axles.  The  working  pressure  in  the  boiler  is  140  R  per 
square  inch.  There  are  217  brass  flue-tubes,  1^-  inches  in  diameter, 
presenting  a  heating  surface  for  evaporation  of  upwards  of  1000 
square  feet.  There  is  in  all  1165  square  feet  of  surface,  and  there 
is  17 '6  square  feet  of  grate  siirface.  Mr  Stirling,  on  the  question 
of  single -wheel  versus  coupled  wheels  for  passenger  locomotives, 
states  that  he  constructed  two  classes  of  engines, — one  class  with 
four  6^-feet  wheels  coupled,  the  other  with  a  single  pair  of  7-feet 
driving-wheels.  The  boilers  of  the  two  classes  were  alike;  also 
the  cylinders,  which  were  17  inches  in  diameter,  with  24  inches  of 
stroke.  The  pressure  in  the  boilers  was  140  Ib.  With  like  trains 
the  single-wheel  engine  had  the  better  of  it ;  in  fact,  it  generally 
beat  the  coupled  engine  in  time,  running  from  King's  Cross  to 
Potter's  Bar,  a  distance  of  nearly  13  miles,  nearly  all  uphill,  the 
gradients  varying  from  1  in  105  for  2  miles  to  1  in  200.  Engines 
of  the  class  of  the  8-feet-wheel  engine  travel  between  King's  Cross 
and  Leeds  or  York.  The  steepest  gradients  on  the  route  are  met 
with  on  leaving  Leeds,  ascending  1  in  50,  besides  the  gradient  1 
in  105  leaving  King's  Cross.  Trains  of  from  sixteen  to  twenty- 
two  carriages  are  taken  from  King's  Cross  station  with  ease  ;  and 
on  several  occasions  twenty-eight  carriages  have  been  taken,  and 
time  has  been  kept.  On  one  occasion  a  distance  of  15  miles  in 


246 


RAILWAY 


twelve  minutes  was  accomplished  with  a  train  of  sixteen  carriages, 
making  a  speed  of  75  miles  per  hour.  The  engine  has  taken  a 
train  of  thirty-three  carriages  full  of  passengers  from  Doncaster  to 
Scarborough  and  back  at  an  average  speed  of  45  miles  per  hour. 
It  is  capable  of  moving  a  gross  weight,  including  engine,  tender, 
and  train,  of  356  tons  on  a  level  at  a  speed  of  45  miles  per  hour. 
The  average  results  of  the  regular  performance  of  seven  engines 
of  this  class  between  Doncaster,  Peterborough,  and  London  for 
the  third  quarter  of  1884  show  that  a  train  of  twelve  six-wheeled 
carriages  weighing  13  tons  each  was  taken  at  a  speed  of  from  50  to 
53  miles  per  hour,  for  a  consumption  of  25J  ft  of  coal  per  mile 
run  and  five  pints  of  oil  per  100  miles  run. 

Other  Four-coupled  locomotives,  having  the  cylinders  inside,  and  four 

locomo-   wheels  coupled  "  in  front,"  with  a  pair  of  hind  or  trailing  wheels, 

lives.        are  known  as  "mixed  engines," — tnat  is  to  say,  engines  adapted 

for  either  passenger  traffic  or  goods  traffic, — a  generally  useful  type. 

In  one  example  the  cylinders  are  16  inches  in  diameter,  with  a 

stroke  of  22  inches  ;  the  coupled  wheels  are  5  feet  in  diameter. 

The  weight  of  the  engine  is  24£  tons,  of  which  20  tons  are  driving 

weight. 

The  next  engine  to  be  noticed  is  a  generally  useful  engine,  four- 
coupled  "behind,"  for  passenger  traffic,  such,  for  instance,  as  that 
with  inclined  fire-grate  and  sloping  fire-box  designed  by  Mr  J.  J. 
Cudworth  for  service  on  the  South-Eastern  Railway.  On  a  wheel- 
base  of  15  feet  the  weight  of  the  engine — 30£  tons — is  so  distributed 
that  10£  tons  fall  at  each  pair  of  driving-wheels  and  9J  tons  at  the 
leading  wheels.  The  cylinders  are  inside,  16  inches  in  diameter, 
with  24  inches  of  stroke  and  6-feet  driving-wheels. 

Another  express  passenger  locomotive,  having  inside  cylinders 
and  four -coupled  wheels  behind,  for  service  on  the  London  and 
North-Western  Railway,  has  cylinders  17  inches  in  diameter,  with 
24  inches  of  stroke,  and  6  feet  7  inch  driving  wheels.  The  engine 
weighs  29£  tons,  of  which  11  are  at  the  middle  wheels,  8|  at  the 
hind  wheels,  and  9£  at  the  front ;  thus  the  driving  weight  amounts 
to  two-thirds  of  the  total  weight.  This  engine  can  move  a  gross 
weight  of  293  ton?,  comprising  engine,  tender,  and  train,  on  a  level 
at  a  speed  of  45  miles  per  hour,  with  a  working  pressure  of  120  R> 
per  square  inch  in  the  boiler.  With  trains  averaging  ten  carriages 
the  consumption  of  coal  is  26J  ft  per  mile  run. 

A  tank  locomotive  is  an  engine  which  carries  its  supply  of  fuel 
and  water  with  it  on  its  own  frame,  dispensing  with  the  tender. 
Such  engines  are  much  used  for  short  traffic,  as  well  as  for  shunting 
and  marshalling  trains. 

The  four-coupled  tank  engine  (fig.  41)  used  for  the  passenger 


FIG.  41. — Tank  locomotive  ;  Metropolitan  Railway. 

traffic  of  the  Metropolitan  Railway  has  four  wheels  coupled  behind 
and  a  bogie  in  front.  This  engine  weighs  in  working  order  45£ 
tons,  of  which  about  35  tons  are  utilized  as  driving  weight,  making 
17£  tons  for  one  pair  of  wheels, — about  the  greatest  load  on  one 
pair  of  wheels  anywhere.  The  regular  duty  of  this  engine  is  to  take 
a  train  of  six  carriages  capable  of  holding  in  all  432  passengers, 
and  weighing  in  themselves  13  tons  each,  at  an  average  speed, 
including  stoppages,  of  18  miles  per  hour,  consuming  37  lb  of 
Welsh  coal  per  train  mile  run.  Whilst  passing  through  the 
tunnels  or  covered  ways  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine  is 
condensed  in  large  tanks  carried  on  the  engine,  filled  with  cold 
water.  The  quantity  of  condensing  water  consumed  is  900  gallons 
for  half  the  journey,  or  every  6£  miles  ;  it  is  raised  to  200°  Fahr. 
temperature. 

The  eight-wheeled  tank  engine  (fig.  42)  has  been  designed  by  Mr 


FIG.  42.— Tank  locomotive  ;  Great  Eastern  Railway. 


T.  W.  Worsdell  to  work  the  heavy  suburban  metropolitan  traffic  of 
the  Great  Eastern  Railway,— the  ordinary  trains  in  tliis  service  being 
composed  of  fifteen  or  twenty  close-coupled  carriages,  taken  over 
steep  gradients  and  sharp  curves.  For  this  purpose  the  fore  and 


hind  axles  are  radially  mounted,  as  before  explained,  to  take  the 
curves  with  facility,  the  engine  running  either  end  first.  The 
engine  weighs  52  tons  in  working  order,  and  of  these  30  tons  are 
driving  weight  placed  on  the  two  pairs  of  coupled  driving-wheels. 
With  large  cylinders  18  inches  in  diameter,  and  driving-wheels 
only  5  feet  4  inches  in  diameter,  the  engine  is  adapted  for  starting 
promptly,  which  it  is  required  to  do  in  order  to  keep  time  between 
closely  placed  stations.  Every  stop  is  made  by  the  Westinghouse 
brake,  with  which  the  engine  is  fitted. 

Locomotives  for  drawing  heavy  goods  trains,  though  not  heavier 
than  the  most  powerful  passenger  locomotives,  can  take  goods 
trains  of  great  weight.  Six-coupled  goods  engines,  with  17-ineh 
cylinders  and  driving-wheels  5  feet  in  diameter,  weighing  32  tons 
in  working  order,  can  take  a  train  weighing  360  tons  on  a  level  at 
a  speed  of  25  miles  per  hour,  consuming  from  40  to  45  lt>  of  coal 
per  mile  run  with  trains.  The  Fairlie  engine  (fig.  43)  is  placed  on 


FIG.  43.  —  The  Fairlie  locomotive. 


two  bogies  or  swivelling  trucks,  the  foremost  'of  which  carries  the 
cylinders  and  propelling  gear  and  the  hindmost  the  tank  and  coal- 
boxes. 

The  longest  distance  run  without  stopping,  combined  with  the  Rates  o 
highest  speed,  is  performed  on  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  between  speed. 
Grantham  and  King's  Cross,  105^  miles,  in  1  hour  58  minutes,  at 
the  rate  of  53£  miles  per  hour.  The  Great  Western  Company  run 
from  Paddington  to  Swindon  —  77J  miles  —  in  1  hour  27  minutes, 
being  at  the  rate  of  53£  miles  per  hour.  On  the  London  and 
North-Western  Railway  the  distance  —  77J  miles  —  from  Willesden 
to  Rugby  is  run  in  1  hour  28  minutes,  at  the  rate  of  52f  miles  per 
hour.  The  average  rate  of  express  and  mail  passenger  trains  on 
this  line  is  40  miles  per  hour  or  more.  Parliamentary  trains,  call- 
ing at  all  stations,  run  at  an  average  speed  of  from  19  to  28  miles 
per  hour.  Express  goods  trains  attain  a  speed  of  from  20  to  25 
miles  per  hour.  The  speed  of  coal  trains  is  limited,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  15  miles  per  hour. 

The  coal  trains  on  the  London  and  North  -  Western,  Midland,  Coal 
and  Great  Northern  Railways  generally  consist  of  from  thirty  to  trains. 
thirty  -five  waggons,  weighing  from  5  to  5i  tons  each,  and  carry- 
ing a  load  of  8  tons  of  coal.  At  this  rate  the  total  load  of  coal 
for  thirty-five  waggons  weighs  280  tons,  and,  adding  the  weight 
of  the  brake-van  at  the  end  of  the  train,  10  tons  17  cwt,  the 
maximum  gross  weight  of  train  is  483  tons  7  cwt.,  as  on  the 
Great  Northern  Railway.  This  train  is  taken  by  a  goods  engine 
with  six  -coupled  wheels  5$  feet  in  diameter,  having  two  steam 
cylinders  17£  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  stroke  of  26  inches,  and 
a  pressure  of  140  Ib  per  square  inch  in  the  boiler.  The  loco- 
motive weighs  in  working  order  36  tons  18  cwt.,  and  the  tender 
with  fuel  and  water  30  tons  17  cwt,  making  together  67  tons  15 
cwt.  for  the  locomotive  and  tender.  The  gross  weights  are  as 
follows  :  — 

Tons,  civt* 

Train,  thirty-five  vehicles  (waggons,  load,  and  brake-van)  .  .483    7 
Engine  and  tender,  in  full  working  order  ..................  67  15 


Engine,  tender,  and  train  551    2 

These  large  coal  trains  are  taken  at  a  speed  of  IS  miles  per  hour, 
on  ascending  inclines  of  1  in  178  at  10  miles  per  hour.  The  con- 
sumption of  coal  as  fuel  in  the  engine  is  at  the  rate  of  45  ft>  per  mile 
run,  including  the  coal  consumed  in  getting  up  steam.  Mi'  Patrick 
Stirling,  the  locomotive  engineer  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway, 
has  also  designed  and  constructed  still  more  powerful  engines, 
having  six -coupled  5 -feet  wheels,  with  cylinders  19  inches  in 
diameter  and  of  28  inches  stroke.  These  engines  are  capable  of 
taking  a  train  of  forty-nine  loaded  coal-waggons,  weighing  with 
brake-van  672^  tons.  Including  the  weight  of  the  engine  and 
tender  the  total  gross  load  is,  say,  740  tons,  taken  with  a  consump- 
tion of  50  ft  of  coal  per  mile  run.  This  is  probably  the  most 
extraordinary  example  of  a  dead  pull  on  an  ascending  incline  of  1 
in  178.  It  is  equivalent  to  a  gross  weight  of  1816  tons  on  a  level. 
It  was  found  that  this  train  was  too  long  for  some  of  the  sidings, 
besides  fouling  both  the  level  crossings  in  the  city  of  Lincoln ;  hence 
the  train  was  reduced  in  number  to  forty-five  waggons.  Six-coupled 
goods  -  engines  of  the  usual  proportions,  working  at  full  power, 
exert  a  tractive  force  of  from  5  to  6  tons  in  the  direction  of  the 
rails,  equal  to  the  movement  of  a  gross  weight  of  engine,  tender, 
and  train  of  from  1240  to  1500  tons  on  a  level  straight  line  at  a 
speed  of  15  miles  per  hour,  or  to  from  386  to  463  tons  on  a  level 


RAILWAY 


247 


straight  line  at  a  speed  of  60  miles  per  hour.  A  tractive  force  of 
10  or  12  lb  is  capable  of  drawing  1  ton  on  a  level  at  10  miles  per 
hour.  At  60  miles  per  hour  the  required  tractive  force  is  about 
45  lb  for  1  ton  of  gross  weight. 

CARRIAGES  AND  WAGGONS. 

»rai  ;ies  The  common  varieties  of  vehicle  employed  in  railway  traffic  are 
if  1 1-  as  follows  : — (1)  Passenger-train  stock  :  first-class  carriage,  second- 
ly class  carriage,  third-class  carriage,  composite  carriage,  luggage 
eh  e.  brake-van,  horse-box,  carriage-truck.  To  these  may  be  added  the 
mail  -  carriage  or  travelling  post-office.  (2)  Goods -train  stock: 
platform-waggon,  open  or  box  waggon,  high-sided  round-end  wag- 
gon, covered  goods -waggon,  cattle  -  waggon,  sheep  -  waggon,  coai- 
"vvaggon,  coke-waggon,  brake-van.  Besides  these  there  are  other 
waggons  specially  designed  for  special  traffic,  as  gunpowder,  salt, 
and  lime,  also  ballast -waggons,  for  the  private  use  of  the  engineer's 
department.  Carriages  are  usually  made  of  the  same  external 
length,  width,  and  height.  The  under  works  of  the  stock  may 
thus  be  identical  in  construction,  and  an  economical  uniformity  of 
working  and  wearing  parts  is  secured.  Uniformity  of  waggons  is 
still  more  important  than  in  the  case  of  carriages,  as  their  total 
number  and  cost  are  much  greater,  and  the  supervision  with  which 
they  are  favoured  is  less  minute  ;  besides,  the  cost  of  maintenance 
is  less  than  where  many  varieties  of  waggon  exist  on  the  same  line. 
But,  whatever  may  be  the  upper  works,  the  under  works  of  the 
whole  of  the  waggon  stock  should  be  entirely  uniform.  One  of  the 
greatest  evils  of  railway  engineering  has  been  want  of  uniformity 
in  stock,  partly  due  to  different  companies  not  arranging  to  have 
stock  suitable  for  joint  use  on  each  other's  lines  and  partly  to 
inevitable  changes  of  plan  to  meet  the  growing  wants  of  traffic. 
Another  source  of  mischief  was  the  separation  of  the  duties  of 
engine  and  of  carriage  and  waggon  superintendence.  The  carriage 
superintendent,  aiming  at  the  utmost  economy  of  maintenance  in 
his  department,  continually  added  to  the  quantity  and  weight  of 
"material  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  carrying  stock,  as  the 
remedy  for  the  observed  failure  of  weak  parts  ;  and  thus  the  stock, 
particularly  waggons,  was  increased  in  strength  rather  by  adding 
to  the  mass  of  matter  than  by  studying  to  throw  the  same  weight 
of  timber  and  iron  into  superior  combinations.  Meantime  the 
heavy  trains,  handed  over  to  the  locomotive  department,  led  to 
the  construction  of  heavier  and  more  powerful  locomotives,  when 
the  maximum  was  quickly  reached,  and  strongly  evinced  by  the 
damage  done  to  the  permanent  way.  It  was  found,  moreover, 
that  the  older  carriages  suffered  most  in  cases  of  collision  ;  hence 
there  was  an  additional  inducement  to  add  to  the  size  and  weight 
of  carriages.  But  this  line  of  development  has  been  mainly  deter- 
mined by  the  demands  of  the  public  for  greater  convenience,  speed, 
and  safety,  and  from  the  growth  of  traffic,  involving  greater  length 
and  weight  of  trains. 

-  The  early  first-class  carriages  weighed  3^  tons,   the  bodies  or 

-  upper  parts  being  15  feet  long,  6 J  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  9  inches 
high,  divided  into  three   compartments,    to  hold  six  passengers 
each,  or  eighteen  in  all.     They  now  weigh  from  8  to  13  tons  each, 
and  are  from  20  to  30  feet  in  length  and  from  8  to  8J  feet  wide. 
Carriages  have  until  recent  years  been  placed  almost  all  on  four 
wheels  ;  but  six  wheels  on  three  axles  are  now  generally  in  use. 
A  modern  first-class  carriage,  28  to  30  feet  long  with  four  compart- 
ments, gives  7  to  7J  feet  of  total  length  for  each  compartment,  as 
against  5  feet  in  the  early  carnages.      Second  and   third  class 
carriages,  in  length  from  28  to  31  feet,  are  divided  into  five  com- 
partments,  each  from  5  feet  7  inches  to  6  feet  2  inches  long. 
Saloon  carriages  are  occasionally  used,  so  called  because  two  or 
more  of  the  ordinary  compartments  are  merged  in  one.     Second- 
class  carriages  originally  were  destitute  of  cushioning,  hard  and 
square,  on  the  nearly  obsolete  policy  of  making  them  uncomfort- 
able in  the  hope  of  inducing  passengers  to  travel  first  class.     The 
London,  Brighton,  and  South  Coast  Railway  Company  in  1857-58 
were  the  first  to  supply  comfortably  padded  seats  in  their  second- 
class  carriages,  and  the  receipts  of  that  company  were  in  1858 
materially  augmented  in  consequence.     Third-class  carriages  have 
been  improved,  under  the  stimulating  example  of  the  Midland 
Railway  Company,  who  abandoned  their  second-class  caniages, 
and  raised  their  third-class  stock  to  an  equality  with  the  second- 
class  vehicles  of  other  lines.     But  there  are  yet  lines  of  railway 
on  which  the  third-class  carriages  are  little  better  than  obsolete 
first  and  second  class  carriages  converted  into  third-class. 

Passenger  luggage  brake-vans  are  made  open  (for  the  most  part) 
inside  for  passengers'  luggage.  They  are  fitted  with  a  dog-box  or 
small  enclosure  from  side  to  side  with  doors  at  both  ends,  and 
with  projecting  sides,  glazed,  to  accommodate  the  guard  and  afford 
a  view  of  the  train  from  end  to  end.  A  pair  of  doors  are  placed  in 
each  side  for  luggage.  In  some  designs  a  separate  compartment  is 
partitioned  off  for  the  guard,  in  other  cases  a  compartment  of  a 
passenger  carriage  is  allotted  for  luggage  and  for  the  guard.  The 
luggage  van  is  fitted  with  a  powerful  brake ;  it  should  be  fitted 
with  three  pairs  of  wheels.  Horse-boxes  are  constructed  to  cany 
three  horses. 


The  long  double-bogie  passenger-car  universally  in  use  in  the  United 
United  States,  originally  introduced  by  Ross  Winans  on  the  Balti-  States 
more  and  Ohio  Railroad,  is  distinguished  essentially  from  the  cars, 
carriages  on  British  railways  by  the  longitudinal  passage  in  the 
centre  of  the  body,  reaching  from  end  to  end  of  the  car,  with  seats 
at  each  side,  and  admitting  of  the  free  passage  of  the  conductor 
throughout  the  train.  The  absence  of  doors  at  the  sides  permits 
of  the  enlargement  of  the  body  laterally.  These  cars  are  also  dis- 
tinguished by  the  use  of  two  four-wheeled  bogies  or  tracks  on  which 
the  body  is  carried,  and  to  which  it  is  pivoted,  allowing  the  car 
to  pass  with  facility  over  quick  curves.  There  is  generally  but  one 
class  of  travellers ;  yet  for  the  long  journeys  Pullman  and  other  sleep- 
ing cars  have  come  into  use,  at  extra  fares.  From  the  Atlantic  cities 
to  the  West  there  is  a  special  "  immigrant "  class,  as  also  over  the 
Pacific  railroads ;  and  between  the  chief  Western  cities  and  the  sea- 
board of  late  years  a  second-class  system  has  been  begun :  passengers 
are  usually  carried  in  smoking  cars  at  rates  but  little  Tower  than  first- 
class  fares,  which  on  these  lines  are  about  Id.  per  mile.  Refresh- 
ment cars  are  also  attached  to  trains.  Ordinary  passenger  cars  are 
9J  to  10  feet  wide  and  44A  in  length  of  body,  or  49  feet  over  the 
extreme  platforms.  They  are  about  7  ,J  feet  high  at  the  sides,  inside 
the  body,  and  nearly  10  feet  high  at  the  centre.  The  car  is  entered 
by  steps  at  the  ends.  The  middle  passage  is  about  2  feet  wide. 
On  each  side  there  are  fourteen  seats,  placed  transversely,  each  38 
inches  wide  and  holding  two  persons.  The  backs  of  the  seats, 
which  do  not  rise  more  than  34  inches  above  the  floor,  are  mounted 
on  swivels,  by  which  the  seat  is  made  reversible.  A  window  is 
placed  next  each  seat,  having  a  movable  glass  and  a  Venetian  blind. 
The  cars  are  heated  by  stoves  or  steam  heaters,  burning  coal,  and 
are  lighted  by  oil-lamps  or  candles,  on  some  lines  by  compressed 
coal-gas.  Each  car  is  provided  with  a  water-closet  and  a  supply  of 
iced  water,  and  a  vendor  of  books,  papers,  and  cigars  patrols  the 
cars.  There  is  a  cord  of  communication  with  the  engine-driver. 
The  car,  complete,  weighs  from  17  to  20  tons,  and  sleeping  cars 
about  one-half  more. 

The  form  of  goods  truck  generally  used  for  some  years  after  the  Goods 
opening  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway  in  1829  was  trucks, 
simply  a  platform  about  10  feet  long,  on  four  wheels,  with  sides 
varying  from  4  to  10  inches  in  height,  weighing  from  2£  to  3£ 
tons.  Many  such  waggons  were  employed  for  transporting  heavy 
rough  goods  of  2  tons  weight.  The  general  unfitness  of  this  style 
of  waggon  led  to  the  adoption  of  portable  sides  and  ends,  which 
consisted  of  open  crib-rails  dropped  into  staples  ;  and  to  these 
was  added  the  costly  tarpauling  or  sheet  to  cover  the  goods  and 
bind  them  down.  The  waggon  thus  appointed,  13  or  14  feet  in 
length  and  weighing  about  3£  tons,  was  fit  to  carry  4  or  5  tons 
of  ordinaiy  goods.  But  loose  or  removable  parts  of  waggons  are 
liable  to  be  lost  or  get  out  of  order,  and  are  costly  to  maintain, 
while  a  new  tarpauling  may  be  spoiled  on  the  first  day  of  using  it 
by  injury  from  projecting  angles  of  goods  under  cover.  Crib-rails 
and  tarpaulings,  therefore,  have  been  to  some  extent  superseded 
by  built  covered  waggons  from  14  to  16  feet  long  and  1\  feet  wide, 
with  sliding  or  hinged  doors  and  roofs,  so  that  with  the  crane- 
chairs  a  bale  of  goods,  however  heavy,  can  be  deposited  at  or 
moved  from  any  part  of  the  interior  of  the  waggon,  and  the  goods 
may  be  perfectly  enclosed  and  protected  from  damage  by  fire, 
wind,  or  rain.  Covered  waggons  weigh  from  4  to  6^  tons,  and 
they  can  carry,  according  to  their  dimensions,  from  6  to  8  tons 
of  goods.  The  cost  of  maintenance  of  ordinary  open  waggons  is 
said  to  amount  to  from  7  to  10  per  cent  of  the  first  cost,  whilst 
that  of  covered  waggons  is  said  to  be  only  4  per  cent.  It  may 
be  stated  generally  that  waggons  if  properly  made  will  carry 
60  per  cent,  more  than  their  own  weight  of  goods,  but  that  ill- 
designed  badly -made  waggons  will  carry  no  more  than  their 
own  weight  of  goods.  The  great  demand  for  weight  in  waggons 
arose,  as  much  as  from  anything  else,  from  the  absence  of  spring- 
buffers  at  the  ends,  which  exposed  them  daily  to  rude  and  trying- 
collisions.  By  and  by  buffing-springs  were  introduced  at  one  end 
of  the  waggon,  the  other  being  left  "  dead, "  and  at  length,  cheap 
and  convenient  buffers  having  been  devised,  springs  came  to  be 
placed  at  both  ends  of  new  stock.  Waggons,  as  formerly  made, 
were  in  long  trains  likewise  subjected  to  violent  shocks  in  starting 
into  motion,  and  therefore  the  draw-bars  also  were  placed  upon 
springs.  Some  companies  have  gone  further  and  placed  the  guard 
or  side  chains  upon  springs.  Thus  the  waggon  has  come  to  be 
defended  by  springs  at  all  points,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
extra  cost  so  incurred  has  been  amply  covered  'by  savings  on  repairs 
and  diminished  breakages  of  goods.  Spiral  springs  for  buffing  and 
drawing,  made  of  round  or  of  oval  steel,  fixed  externally  to  the 
ends  of  waggons,  have  been  much  employed  ;  but  laminated  springs, 
placed  under  the  floor,  are  taking  their  place.  Broad-gauge  (7-feet 
gauge)  waggons  have  been  constructed  sufficiently  strong  to  carry 
20  tons  of  load  on  six  wheels ;  but  they  were  not  generally  made 
to  carry  more  than  10  tons.  Even  10  tons  is  considered  in  some 
quarters  to  be  excessive  as  a  maximum  waggon-load  on  the  ordinary 
or  4  feet  8£  inch  gauge.  On  the  Midland  Railway,  for  instance, 
the  standard  coal -waggon  is  constructed  to  carry  8  tons.  The 


248 


RAILWAY 


heavier  the  load  for  which  mineral  vehicles  are  constructed,  the 
greater  is  the  tear  and  wear  of  the  stock,  insomuch  that  the 
waggons  on  that  line  which  stood  to  their  work  best  were  the  old 
6-tou  waggons. 

Recent         Railway  carriages  are  composed  of  two  distinct  parts, — the  under- 
carriage   frame  or  substructure,  and  the  body  or  superstructure.     The  under- 
stock,      frame  has  to  carry  the  body  and  to  resist  the  stress  of  work.     It 
should  be  on  axles  placed  well  apart,  and  should  be  firmly  framed 
together,  of  hard  wood,  with  iron  tie-rods,  brackets,  knees,  straps, 
bolts,  and  nuts.     Powerful  laminated  springs  are  lodged  within 
the  frame  to  take  the  pull  of  the  train  through  the  central  draw- 
bars and  to  intercept  and  absorb  the  thrusts  of  the  buffers  at  the 
ends  through  the  buffing -rods.     On  the  Midland  Railway  four- 


wheeled  carriages  are  (1885)  being  gradually  superseded  by  six- 
wheeled  and  long  bogie  carriages.  Four  varieties  of  bogie  carriage 
and  three  varieties  of  six-wheeled  carriage  are  constructed  for  the 
service.  First-class  compartments  are  constructed  to  scat  MX 
persons,  three  on  each  side  ;  third  -  class  compartments  seat  ten 
persons,  five  on  each  side.  A  uniform  width  of  8  feet  outside,  or 
?i  inside,  is  adopted  for  all  carriages;  and,  as  a  rule,  first-class 
compartments  are  7£  feet  long  between  the  partitions,  and  third- 
class  compartments  6  feet  long.  The  roof  is  7  feet  4  inches  above 
the  floor  at  the  centre,  and  the  clear  height  of  the  doorway  is  6 
feet.  The  wheels  are  3  feet  7£  inches  in  diameter.  Leading  par- 
ticulars of  the  several  kinds  of  carriage  now  constructed  on  the 
Midland  Railway  are  given  in  Table  XXX.  as  follows : — 


Carriage. 

Length 
of  Body. 

Compartments. 

Number  of 
Passengers. 

Weight 

Price. 

6-  wheeled  bogie  composite    

Feet. 
54 

3  first  class.  4  third  class,  1  luggage—  8       x 

58 

Tons.  cwt. 
23        0 

£1097 

4-wheeled  bogie  composite    

45 

3        „           3          ,,           1       „       =  7 

48 

18      10 

768 

4-wheeled  bogie  third  class  

43 

7  third  class 

•    70 

17      15 

620 

40 

2  first  class,  3  third  class,  1  luggage  —  6 

42 

17        5 

654 

6-wheeled  first  class    

-30 

4  first  class 

24 

10      13 

516 

31 

2  first  class,  2  third  class,  1  luggage  —  5 

32 

11      10 

450 

6-wheeled  third  class  

31 

5  third  class 

50 

10       7 

390 

Each  of  these  carriages  is  fitted  with  a  vacuum  brake.  In  the 
beginning  of  1885  there  were  837  bogie  carriages  at  work  on  the 
Midland  Railway,  inclusive  of  34  Pullman  cars.  The  bogie  cars, 
in  virtue  of  their  ability  to  swing  their  bogies  to  the  curves  on  the 
line,  run  more  freely  than  ordinary  carriages,  which  have  parallel 
axles.  Six-wheeled  carriages  are  enabled  to  run  the  more  freely 
by  an  allowance  of  lateral  play  for  the  axle-boxes  of  the  middle 
axle  between  the  axle-guards,  whereby  the  wheels  adapt  themselves 
freely  to  the  rails  on  curves.  The  Pullman  cars  in  use  on  the 
Midland  Railway  were  sent  from  America.  They  are  of  two  kinds, 
— the  drawing-room  for  day  service  and  the  sleeping-car.  The 
body  of  the  cars  is  51£  feet  in  length  externally  and  8  feet  9  inches 
wide.  Inside  the  body  is  8  feet  2  inches  wide,  and  8  feet  6£  inches 
high  above  the  floor.  The  total  length,  including  the  gangways 
at  the  ends,  is  58  feet.  Each  car  is  mounted  on  two  four-wheeled 
bogies.  There  are  seats  for  twenty-seven  persons  in  the  drawing- 
room  car,  with  lavatories  and  heating  apparatus,  and  twenty-two 
beds  are  made  up  in  each  sleeping-car.  The  cars  weigh  21 J  tons 
and  their  cost  is  £2700  each. 

The  carriage  stock  of  the  Metropolitan  Railway  was  designed  to 
carry  large  numbers.  The  bodies  of  the  carriages  are  39^  feet  in 
length  and  8£  feet  wide  outside,  running  on  eight  wheels,  of  which 
the  extreme  axles  radiate,  or  are  movable  laterally  to  suit  the 
curves  of  the  way.  The  first-class  carriages  are  divided  into  six 
compartments,  providing  seats  for  forty -eight  passengers.  The 
second  and  third  class  carriages  have  eight  compartments,  hold- 
ing altogether  eighty  passengers  in  each.  These  carriages  weigh 
13  tons  each. 

The  waggon  stock  of  the  Midland  Railway  is  of  several  classes. 
All  the  standard  goods  and  mineral  waggons,  as  well  as  cattle- 
waggons,  are  constructed  to  carry  8  tons.  Leading  dimensions, 
weights,  and  prices  are  given  below  in  Table  XXXI.  : — 


Waggon. 

External  Di- 
mensions over 
Corner  Pillars. 

Internal  Dimensions. 

Load 
to 
carry. 

Weight 
of  Wag- 
gon. 

Price. 

Length. 

Width. 

Length. 

Width. 

Height 
above 
Floor. 

Covered 
goods    
-iigh  -  sided 
for  goods  or 
coal  
Low-sided  .  . 
Cattle    wag- 
gons   

ft.    in. 
14    11 

14    11 
14    11 

13      6 

ft.  in. 
7    5 

7    5 
7    5 

8    0 

ft.   in. 
14    2 

14    6 
14    6 

17    9 

ft.  in. 
6  10 

7    0 
7    0 

7    4 

ft.  in. 
5  lOJ 

2  10 
1  9 

7  OJ 

tons. 

8 

8 
8 

8 

tns.  cwt. 
5      3 

5      2 
4    14 

6      0 

& 
72 

68 
61 

86 

The  covered  goods  waggons  are  made  with  a  doorway  at  each 
side,  5  feet  wide  and  5  high,  and  a  sliding  door  to  each  door- 
way. The  high -sided  waggons  are  made  with  a  doorway  and 
hinged  door  in  each  side,  and  two  trap-doors  in  the  bottom.  In 
the  low-sided  waggons  each  side  is  a  door  for  its  whole  length. 
The  cattle-waggons  are  made  with  doorways  in  each  side,  to  each 
of  which  there  are  two  doors  hinged  to  each  doorpost,  and  a  letting- 
down  door  hinged  to  the  lower  side-rail.  All  the  waggons  are  fitted 
with  transverse  buffing  and  draw  springs. 

Lighting.  Lighting  of  Carriages.  — The  North  London  Railway  Company, 
it  is  believed,  were  the  first  to  use  gas  instead  of  oil  for  lighting 
carriage  stock.  Thirty  gas-lights  in  a  train  are  supplied  from  two 
reservoirs  or  gasholders  in  the  brake-vans,  which  hold  200  cubic 
feet  of  ordinary  coal-gas,  supplied  from  the  mains, — enough  to  serve 
the  train  for  from  two  hours  to  two  and  a  half  hours.  The  gas  is 
conducted  by  pipes  over  the  roofs  of  the  carriages,  with  a  branch 


to  each  compartment.  Ordinary  coal-gas  has  also  been  used  on  the 
metropolitan  railways.  Pintsch's  system  of  lighting  carriages  by 
compressed  oil-gas  is  extensively  in  use  on  Continental  railways, 
where  it  has  been  in  operation  for  upwards  of  ten  years.  In 
1876-77  the  system  was  tried  successfully  on  the  Metropolitan 
Railway,  when  it  appeared  that  1000  cubic  feet  of  the  compressed 
gas  could  do  the  work  of  6500  cubic  feet  of  coal-gas,  at  a  cost  of 
scarcely  one  farthing  per  burner  per  hour,  against  one-third  of  a 
penny  for  coal-gas  lamps,  and  from  ^d.  to  fd.  for  oil-lamps.  The 
gas  is  distilled  from  cheap  oils,  as  the  waste  -  products  from  the 
manufacture  of  paraffin,  soft  lignite,  or  shale.  The  gas  is  pumped 
from  the  gasholder  into  reservoirs,  in  which  it  is  compressed  to 
about  one-tenth  of  its  ordinary  volume.  From  these  it  is  drawn  off 
into  a  reservoir  stowed  under  each  carriage  at  a  pressure  of  six 
atmospheres,  or  90  ft  per  square  inch.  The  Pintsch  system  is  in 
use  on  railways  in  England  and  Scotland  on  nearly  3000  vehicles, 
and  is  being  extended  to  other  stock  ;  the  number  of  vehicles  thus 
lighted  in  all  the  railways  of  Europe  is  about  18,000.  Besides,  the 
system  is  employed  for  the  head-lights  of  locomotives. 

Intercommunication    signals    for   railway   trains   are    provided  Inter 
between  driver  and  guard,  driver  and  passengers,  or  passengers  com- 
and  guard.     Electric  means  of  communication  have  been  proposed  muni 
and  tried,  but  mechanical  appliances  are  most  commonly  employed,  tion 
There  is  the  ordinary  guard's  cord,  extending  along  the  train  out-  signa 
side,  placed  so  as  to  be  accessible  from  the  window ;  then  there  are 
the  same  cord,  with  an  attachment  coming  inside  the  window,  the 
English  cord,  connected  with  a  bell  in  the  driving  cab,  a  line  inside 
the  carriage  connected  with  the  steam-whistle,  and  so  on.     The 
acoustic  signals  appear  to  belong  to  the  last  type ;  but  none  of  these 
systems  is  comparable  with  the  through  middle  passage  of  the 
American  cars  already  noticed. 

Continuous  Brakes. — No  department  of  railway  practice  has  in  Con- 
recent  years  received  closer  attention  and  more  minute  study  than  tintu 
that  of  continuous  brakes, — brakes  applied  to  the  several  vehicles  brak 
in  a  train.  With  the  amount  of  brake-power  that  had  for  many 
years  been  supplied  to  passenger  trains — hand-brakes  on  tenders 
and  guards'  vans — a  train  running  at  from  45  to  50  miles  per  hour 
on  a  straight  level  line  could  not  be  pulled  up  within  from  800  to 
1200  yards  ;  and  even  that  inadequate  amount  of  brake-power  was 
in  the  hands  of  several  men.  It  was  clear  that  the  problem  of 
arresting  a  train  in  the  shortest  distance  could  only  be  solved  by 
bringing  a  power  to  bear  on  every  part  of  the  train  in  the  shortest 
possible  time.  But  the  difficulty  consisted  in  establishing  con- 
tinuity of  action,  so  that  the  engine-driver  or  the  guard  should  be 
enabled  to  apply  the  brake-blocks  on  a  series  of  vehicles  in  one 
operation.  Mechanical  means  were  first  tried,  in  the  systems  of 
Fay  and  Newall,  in  which  the  brakes  are  worked  by  a  continuous 
rod  passed  under  the  vehicles.  These  systems  were  found  to  be 
available  only  on  sections  of  not  more  than  four  or  five  vehicles, 
and  were  not  worked  by  the  driver  but  by  the  guard.  In  Septembei 
1858  a  circular  was  issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade  to  the  railway 
companies,  calling  attention  to  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
having  their  trains  controlled  by  a  sufficient  amount  of  brake-power. 
Subsequently  many  inventions  were  tried, — brakes  worked  by  fluid 
pressure,  others  worked  by  chains  ;  but  no  practical  solution  of  the 
problem  appears  to  have  been  arrived  at  until  Mr  Westinghouse 
of  Pittsburgh,  U.S.A.,  invented  a  really  continuous  brake  worked 
by  compressed  air,  which  was  quickly  adopted  in  the  United  States, 
and  was  tried  a  few  years  later  on  several  .railways  in  England. 
It  is  still  (1885)  employed  exclusively  on  the  Metropolitan  District 
Railway. 

Although  the  Westinghouse  brake  was  greatly  in  advance  of 
previously  existing  systems  and  answered  ordinary  requirements 


RAIL  WAY 


249 


remarkably  well,  it  became  evident  that  for  the  worst  types  of  acci- 
dents something  more  was  wanted.  The  brake  as  first  produced 
was  non-automatic,  being  worked  from  the  engine  only,  not  by  the 
guard.  And,  since  the  power  had  to  travel  from  the  engine  along 
the  whole  length  of  the  train,  there  was  a  loss  of  valuable  seconds 
of  time  whilst  the  brake-blocks  were  being  applied.  Mr  Westing- 
house  therefore  designed  a  system  by  which  each  vehicle  was  supplied 
with  a  complete  brake  apparatus,  carrying  its  own  store  of  power  in 
the  form  of  an  auxiliary  reservoir  of  compressed  air,  in  addition  to 
the  brake  cylinder  already  there.  By  the  action  of  the  "triple 
valve  " — a  later  introduction — which  is  fitted  to  each  smaller  re- 
servoir on  the  branch  by  which  it  is  connected  to  the  main  or  brake- 
pipe,  the  brakes  can  be  instantly  applied.  A  store  of  compressed 
air  is  maintained  throughout  the  train  in  the  continuous  pipe  and 
auxiliary  reservoirs  ;  and  so  long  as  the  pressure  in  these  is  main- 
tained the  brakes  are  kept  off.  By  a  reduction  of  the  pressure 
in  the  pipe  the  triple  valve  is  brought  into  action,  and  the  com- 
pressed air  in  the  reservoir  flows  into  the  brake  -  cylinder  and 
applies  the  brake.  The  brake  can  be  at  once  released  by  restoring 
the  pressure  in  the  brake -pipe,  when  the  compressed  air  in  the 
cylinder  escapes  into  the  atmosphere.  In  the  event  of  a  train 
being  parted  and  the  brake-pipe  severed,  the  escape  of  air  reduces 
the  pressure  in  the  pipe,  and  the  brakes  are  instantly  self-applied. 
They  have  thus  become  known  as  "automatic"  brakes.  The  com- 
pressed air  by  the  agency  of  which  the  Westinghouse  automatic 


FIG.  44.  — E,  the  brake- pipe,  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  train,  connected 
between  the  vehicles  by  a  coupling  E',  with  flexible  pipes  e',  e  ;  F,  the  triple 
valve  at  the  end  of  the  reservoir  G  ;  H,  the  brake-cylinder,  with  pistons  and 
rods  connected  with  the  brake-levers  and  the  blocks  suspended  on  frames ;  h, 
a  branch  pipe  from  the  brake-pipe  or  main  to  the  triple  valve  and  reservoir  ; 
h',  a  branch  pipe  from  the  reservoir  and  triple  valve  to  the  brake-cylinder. 

brake  is  worked  is  stored  in  a  main  reservoir  on  the  engine,  as 
well  as  in  the  local  reservoirs  under  the  carriages,  at  a  pressure  of 
from  70  to  80  lb  per  square  inch.  The  air  is  compressed  by  means 
of  a  steam-pump  attached  to  the  engine  and  worked  by  steam  from 
the  boiler.  The  compressed  air  is  supplied  through  the  brake-pipe, 
which  passes  through  the  whole  length  of  the  train  to  the  second- 
ary reservoirs.  A  brake-cylinder  is  fixed  near  each  secondary  re- 
servoir, and  the  charge  enters  the  cylinder  at  the  middle  of  its  length 
between  the  pistons,  which  are  driven  apart,  one  towards  each  end 
of  the  cylinder,  and  act,  through  piston-rods  and  levers,  upon  the 
brake-blocks  which  are  applied  to  the  wheels.  The  pistons  are 
maintained  in  their  central  positions  in  the  brake-cylinder,  when 
out  of  action,  by  spiral  springs  which  abut  on  the  ends  of  the 
cylinders  ;  and  so  the  brake  -  blocks  are  kept  clear  of  the  wheels. 
The  general  arrangement  of  the  brake-apparatus  applied  to  a  car- 
riage is  shown  in  fig.  44;  and  the  reservoir  and  brake -cylinder, 
witn  their  connexions  to  each  other  and  to  the  main  pipe,  and  the 
intermediary  triple  valve  in  section,  are  shown  on  a  larger  scale  in 
fig.  45.  The  triple  valve,  by  means  of  which  instant  automatic  ac- 
tion throughout  the  train  is  produced,  consists  of  a  piston  in  a  short 
cylinder,  carrying  a  slide  valve, — the  piston  and  the  valve  moving 
together.  A  vehicle  out  of  order  can  be  cut  out  of  the  system  by 
turning  a  tap,  and  brakes  which  have  been  applied  by  the  parting 
of  a  train  can  be  released  by  opening  a  valve  on  the  cylinder. 

In  1874  a  royal  commission  on  railway  accidents  was  appointed, 
and  in  June  1875  brake  trials  were  made  at  Newark.  On  a  level 
road  a  train,  weighing  208'6  tons,  running  at  a  speed  of  51 J  miles 
per  hour,  and  fitted  with  the  Westinghouse  automatic  pressure- 


brake — there  tested  for  the  first  time  on  an  English  railway — was 
brought  to  a  stand  in  a  distance  of  825  feet  in  the  course  of  18 
seconds, — the  equivalent  distance  for  an  initial  speed  of  50  miles 
per  hour  being  777  feet.  In  trials  on  the  North-Eastern  Railway 


Fig.  45. 

in  July  1879,  a  train,  fitted  with  the  Westinghouse  brake,  weighing 
208  tons,  and  running  at  a  speed  of  51  miles  per  hour,  was  stopped 
in  a  distance  of  621  feet  in  14f  seconds, — the  equivalent  distance 
for  a  speed  of  50  miles  per  hour  being  594  feet.  In  August  1877 
the  Board  of  Trade  urged  the  railway  companies  to  united  and 
harmonious  action,  and  stated  the  requirements  which  in  their 
opinion  were  essential  in  a  good  continuous  brake  :  it  should  be — 
efficient  in  stopping  trains ;  instantaneous  in  action  and  easily 
applied  by  engine-drivers  or  guards  ;  in  case  of  accident  instant- 
aneously self-acting ;  capable  of  being  put  on  or  taken  off  with 
facility,  on  the  engine,  tender,  and  eveiy  vehicle  of  a  train  ;  regu- 
larly used  in  daily  working ;  and  the  materials  employed  easily 
maintained  and  kept  in  order.  That  a  brake  should  be  instant- 
aneous in  action  is  evident  on  considering  that  at  a  speed  of  50 
miles  per  hour  a  train  advances  through  73£  feet  in  a  second  of 
time.  A  striking  example  of  the  value  of  seconds  under  such  cir- 
cumstances is  quoted  in  the  Report,  contrasting  the  working  of  the 
Westinghouse  compressed-air  brake  and  the  Westinghouse  vacuum- 
brake.  The  rates  of  speed  were  nearly  the  same, — about  52  miles 
per  hour,  or  76  feet  per  second.  The  train  with  the  former  brake 
ran  825  feet,  whilst  that  with  the  latter  ran  1533  feet.  Now,  it 
took  7J  seconds  to  put  on  the  vacuum-brakes  and  1J  seconds  to 
put  on  the  pressure-brakes.  The  difference,  6£  seconds,  at  76  feet 
per  second,  makes  a  space  of  475  feet  traversed  by  the  train  before 
the  brake  came  into  action.  In  consequence  of  these  steps  taken  * 
by  the  Board  of  Trade  all  the  large  railway  companies  have  now 
(1885)  adopted  continuous  brakes,  though  some  of  these  do  not 
comply  with  the  conditions  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  The  principal 
question  is  not  now  that  of  automatic  versus  non -automatic,  but  of 
automatic  pressure-brakes  versus  automatic  vacuum-brakes.  In 
the  latter,  as  the  name  indicates,  the  work  is  done  by  the  atmo- 
spheric pressure  against  the  pressure  of  a  comparative  vacuum.  At 
31st  December  1878  only  21  per  cent,  of  the  total  carnage  stock  was 
fitted  with  brakes  of  some  form,  of  which  12 '8  per  cent,  were  auto- 
matic ;  whilst  at  30th  June  1884  of  the  total  carriage  stock  76  per 
cent,  was  fitted  with  continuous  brakes,  of  which  58  per  cent, 
were  automatic.-  It  appears  that  there  are  in  the  United  Kingdom 
considerably  more  Westinghouse  automatic  brakes  in  operation 
than  any  other  single  system.  The  same  brake  is  veiy  largely,  used 
in  America  and  on  the  Continent,  and  at  the  end  of  1884  it  had 
been  adopted  to  the  extent  of  upwards  of  15,000  sets  for  locomotives 
and  78,000  for  carriages. 

ELECTRICITY. 

The  employment  of  electricity  in  the  working  of  railways  has  Signal- 
already  been  referred  to  in  the  application  of  block-signalling  to  ling, 
the  direction  of  the  traffic,  in  the  working  of  junctions,  the  protec- 
tion of  stations  and  sidings,  and  the  repetition  of  signals. 

The  first  attempt  to  apply  electric  power  for  propulsion  on  rail-  Propul- 
ways  was  made  by  Mr  R.  Davidson,  who  in  September  1842  tried  sion. 
on  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway  an  electro-magnetic  loco- 
motive, running  on  four  wheels  and  weighing  5  tons.  A  speed  of 
4  miles  per  hour  was  attained.  Electric  power  was  applied  in  1881 
by  Messrs  Siemens  and  Halske  of  Berlin  on  an  electric  railway,  the 
Lichterfelde  line,  near  Berlin  ;  and  since  then  they  have  con- 
structed an  electric  line  1^-  miles  long,  from  Charlottenburg  to  the 
Spandauer  Bock,  and  a  short  line  in  Costverloren  Park  near  Am- 
sterdam. They  also  applied  the  system  to  a  railway  in  the  mines 
at  Zankerode  in  Saxony.  At  the  International  Electric  Exhibition 
in  Paris  (1881)  an  electric  line  was  worked  by  Messrs  Siemens 
Brothers  which  carried  an  average  of  over  13,000  passengers  per 
week  ;  and  in  September  1883  a  railway  of  3  feet  gauge,  6  miles 
in  length,  was  opened  between  Portrush  and  Bushmills  in  the 

XX.  —  32 


250 


RAIL  WAY 


north  of  Ireland.  The  gradients  are  very  heavy,  having  a  slope 
of  1  iu  35  at  many  parts.  The  curves  are  very  quick,  following 
the  line  of  the  road.  The  conductor  employed  consists  of  a  third 
rail,  weighing  19  lb  to  the  yard,  and  laid  close  to  the  fence.  Elec- 
tricity is  transmitted  through  the  conductor,  by  means  of  steel 
brushes,  to  the  Siemens  motors  by  which  the  car  is  propelled.  The 
dynamo-machines  by  which  the  electricity  is  generated  are  driven 
by  the  power  of  a  natural  waterfall  of  26  feet  in  the  river  Bush. 
Two  turbines  are  driven  by  the  fall  of  water  at  a  speed  of  225  revolu- 
tions per  minute  ;  each  is  capable  of  yielding  50  horse-power.  The 
electric  car  can  run  on  the  level  at  the  rate  of  12  miles  per  hour. 
Lighting.  Several  large  metropolitan  and  other  stations  are  lighted  by 
electricity.  At  the  Waterloo  station  of  the  London  and  South- 
Western  "Railway,  for  example,  the  new  main  line  suburban  pass- 
enger station,  about  1J  acres  in  area,  has  been  lighted  by  the 
Anglo-American  Brush  Light  system  since  February  1881,  sixteen 
arc  -  lamps  of  2000  candle  -  power  each  being  employed.  The 
Windsor  line  station  at  the  same  terminus,  about  1£  acres  in  area, 
has  been  lighted  by  the  Edison  Company's  system  since  January 
1S83  with  200  glow-lamps  of  16  candle-power  each.  The  large 
goods-yard  on  the  same  railway,  about  18  acres  in  extent,  at  Nine 
Elms,  lias  been  lighted  since  January  1883  by  fourteen  arc-lamps  of 
4000  candle-power  each.  The  lighting  of  railway  trains  by  elec- 
tricity has  been  successfully  effected  on  the  Great  Eastern  Railway 
since  October  1884.  The  power  is  derived  from  a  dynamo-machine 
driven  by  a  compact  rotary  engine,  placed  together  in  a  small  case 
on  the  top  of  the  locomotive,  and  worked  by  steam  from  the  boiler. 
Sixty  electric  lights  are  generated,  each  of  them  sufficient  to  light 
thoroughly  a  compartment  of  a  carriage,  and  supply  light  for  a 
train  of  at  least  twelve  vehicles.  Trains  on  other  lines  also  are 
lighted  by  electricity. 

ACCIDENTS. 

Acci-  Accidents  on  railways  arise  from  three  causes, — inattention  of 

dents.  servants,  defective  material  either  in  the  works  or  the  rolling  stock, 
and  excessive  speed.  But  the  adoption  of  the  absolute  block  system, 
with  the  use  of  interlocked  points  and  signals  and  continuous  brakes, 
has  led  to  an  absolute  diminution  of  the  number  of  accidents, 
whilst  the  amount  of  traffic  has  been  greatly  increased.  In  1883 
the  total  number  of  train  accidents  on  railways  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  reported  on  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  was  94  on  18,681 
miles  open,  against  241  accidents  ten  years  earlier  on  16,082  miles 
open.  The  increased  efficiency  of  management  is  strikingly  brought 
out  by  Table  XXXII.  :— 


Class  of  Accident  to  Engines  and  Trains. 

Number  of 
Accidents. 

1873. 

1883. 

1. 

i 

z 

4 
I 

8 

7 

I 

'.' 

10. 
11. 

Meeting  with  or  leaving  the  rails  in  consequence  of 
obstruction,  or  from  defects  in  the  way  or  works  

24 
23 
5 

18 
20 
98 

3 
8 

36 
11 

12 
7 
12 

3 

8 
44 

6 
2 

Collisions  between  trains  following  on  the  same  line  of 
.    rails,  except  at  junctions,  stations,  or  sidings    

Collisions  within  fixed  signals  at  stations  or  sidings 
Collisions  between  engines  or  trains  meeting  in  oppo- 

Collisions  at  level  crossings  of  two  railways  

Derailment  of  engines  or  trains  wrongly  run  or  turned 
into  sidings,  or  otherwise  through  facing  points  
On  inclines,  —  want  of  control  

Total  of  train  accidents  

241 
6 

94 
7 

Miscellaneous,  —  not  train  accidents  

Total    

247 

101 

During  the  period  1873-1883  there  was  therefore  a  material 
improvement  not  only  in  the  character  of  the  way  and  works  but 
also  in  that  of  the  rolling  stock.  Accidents  from  entering  stations 
at  too  great  a  speed  have  been  augmented  in  number, — a  result 
naturallv  arising  from  the  greater  speeds  and  volumes  of  traffic. 
Ten  of  these  (for  1873  and  1883)  were  due  to  want  of  control  of  the 
trains,  and  seven  others  to  want  of  continuous  brakes.  Collisions 
have  been  diminished  to  a  marked  extent ;  and  nearly  all  of  those 
in  1883  took  place  at  junctions,  stations,  and  sidings,  mostly  within 
fixed  signals.  Many  of  these  collisions  could  have  been  obviated 
if  proper  interlocking  and  block  working  had  been  in  use,  together 
with  continuous  brakes  on  the  trains.  Of  the  94  investigated 
train  accidents  75  took  place  on  the  lines  of  fifteen  companies, 
working  in  the  aggregate  12,850  miles,  and  having  run  upwards  of 
216  millions  of  miles  with  trains, — showing  that  one  accident 
happened  for  every  171  miles  of  railway,  or  for  every  3  millions 
nearly  of  miles  run.  One  person  in  every  625  employed  in  the 
traffic — locomotive,  carriage,  engineers',  and  stores  departments — 
in  1883  was  killed  in  the  service.  The  employes  wno  stand  at 
the  extremes  of  the  scale  of  fatality  are  guards  :  of  brakesmen  and 
goods-guards  1  in  97  lost  their  lives,  and  of  passenger-guards  only 
1  in  5902.  Pointsmen  and  signalmen  occupy  a  medium  position 
in  the  scale,  1  in  800  losing  their  lives  ;  of  engine-drivers  1  in  643 
was  killed,  and  of  firemen  1  in  533.  Of  persons  other  than  pass- 


engers or  servants  of  railway  companies  who  suffered  in  accidents, 
trespassers,  including  suicides,  as  usual  form  the  largest  iiumliur, 
— 354  killed  and  165  injured.  Of  passengers  125  were  killed  and 
1416  were  injured — together,  1541  persons,  or  1  in  about  444,000 
of  the  total  number  of  passengers  in  1883. 

RAILWAY  LAW. 

Parliament  soon  began  to  exercise  control  over  railways  by  means  Legis] 
of  standing  orders;  and  in  1832  a  passenger  duty  of  |d.  per  mil 
for  every  four  passengers  carried  was  levied  on  railway  companies,  sures. 
In  1842  a  Government  department  was  instituted  whereby  the 
Board  of  Trade  was  empowered  to  appoint  inspectors  of  railways, 
to  postpone  the  opening  of  railways,  to  disallow  bye-laws,  and  to 
institute  legal  proceedings  against  companies  for  infringing  the  law. 
The  Board  of  Trade  was  further  empowered  to  direct  companies 
to  make  returns  of  accidents,  of  traffic,  and  of  tolls  levied.  The 
passenger  duty  was  fixed  at  5  per  cent,  of  the  gross  receipts  from 
passengers.  In  1846  the  Commissioners  of  Railways,  five  in  number, 
were  appointed,  to  whom  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
was  transferred,  but  in  1851  it  was  re-transferred  to  the  Board  of 
Trade.  The  Railway  and  Canal  Traffic  Act,  1854,  requires  railway 
companies  to  provide  "  reasonable  facilities  "  for  receiving,  forward- 
ing, and  delivering  their  own  traffic  and  the  traffic  of  other  com- 
panies, and  to  abstain  from.  "  unreasonable  "  preference.  It  appears 
to  have  been  of  small  practical  utility  until  1873.  The  Regulation 
of  Railways  Act,  1873,  establishes  a  new  tribunal,  "The  Railway 
Commissioners,"  not  more  than  three  in  number,  one  to  be  of  ex- 
perience in  the  law  and  one  of  experience  in  railway  business.  The 
principal  duty  of  the  commissioners  is  to  enforce  the  observance 
of  the  "reasonable  facilities  "  section  of  the  Act  of  1854.  The  com- 
missioners have  power  to  enjoin  the  forwarding  of  through  traffic 
at  through  rates,  the  power  being  set  in  motion  by  the  companies 
only.  The  commissioners  are  empowered  whenever  there  is  a  dis- 
pute between  two  companies  that  can  be  referred  to  arbitration  to 
decide  such  dispute.  The  Employers'  Liability  Act,  1880,  provides 
that  where  personal  injury  is  caused  to  a  workman  by  reason  of  the 
negligence  of  any  person  in  the  service  of  the  employer,  who  has  the 
charge  or  control  of  any  signal,  points,  locomotive  engine,  or  train 
upon  a  railway,  he  or  his  representatives  shall  have  the  same  right 
of  compensation  or  remedy  against  the  employer  as  if  the  workman 
had  not  been  in  the  service  of  the  employer  nor  engaged  in  his 
work.  The  amount  of  compensation  is  not  to  exceed  three  years' 
earnings  of  the  workman.  (D.  K.  C. ) 

FOREIGN  AND  CONTINENTAL. 

Europe. — A  few  unimportant  tramways  were  opened  in  France  in  Fram 
1826-32.  In  1833  the  Government  began  a  comprehensive  system 
of  surveys,  and  laid  down  the  general  plan  of  railway  development 
for  the  whole  country;  and  in  1842  Thiers  devised  a  scheme  by 
which  the  state  was  to  furnish  half  the  cost  (about  £10,000  per 
mile),  while  private  companies  were  to  lay  the  lines  at  their  own 
expense  and  equip  and  work  them  for  a  term  of  years.  In  1857  six 
great  companies  were  working  their  lines  with  profit ;  but  the  state 
found  it  necessary  (1859)  to  guarantee  them  the  interest  on  the 
additional  lines  which  were  needed.  By  subsequent  legislation  the 
construction  of  local  railways  on  a  cheaper  scale  was  encouraged, 
and  in  1875-76  unsuccessful  efforts  were  made  by  speculators  to 
unite  these  local  lines  into  systems  which  should  compete  with  the 
old  companies  and  break  their  monopoly.  Since  that  date  some 
have  been  absorbed  by  the  great  companies  ;  others  have  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  state.  After  more  than  one  scheme  for  a 
comprehensive  system  of  state  railways  had  been  formed  by  leading 
statesmen  and  tnen  for  one  reason  or  another  abandoned,  in  1884 
agreements  were  made  by  which  some  7000  miles  of  railway  were 
to  be  constructed  in  addition  to  the  17,000  miles  then  in  operation, 
the  money  to  be  supplied  by  the  six  great  companies  and  ultimately 
repaid  by  the  state,  which  meanwhile  guaranteed  the  shareholders 
of  each  company  a  dividend  equal  to  the  average  of  recent  years  (in 
no  case  so  low  as  7  per  cent. ).  The  profitable  system  of  monopoly 
has  not  been  favourable  to  the  development  of  enterprise  in  railway 
management  in  France.  Scarcely  any  of  the  so-called  express 
trains  run  at  as  high  a  speed  as  40  miles  an  hour.  The  time 
allowed  for  the  despatch  of  goods  is  very  long.  The  average  rates 
(078d.  per  passenger-mile,  0'82d.  per  ton-mile)  are  somewhat  higher 
than  those  of  Germany.  The  long-distance  traffic  especially  has 
received  but  little  encouragement.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of 
the  technical  arrangements  of  the  French  lines  are  excellent. 
Although  the  state  owns  so  few  railroads,  it  has  reserved  extensive 
rights  of  regulation,  both  in  matters  of  business  and  in  engineering  ; 
there  is  a  body  of  Government  engineers  organized  with  almost 
military  precision. 

Soon  after  1830  plans  were  laid  for  a  Belgian  system  to  be  owned  Belf 
and  managed  by  the  state,  and  work  was  actively  begun  in  1833. 
The  Government  lines  were  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  the 
point  of  intersection  being  at  Malines.  By  this  means  the  Govern- 
ment was  able  to  develop  the  traffic  of  Belgium  itself,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  secure  a  large  share  of  the  transit  trade  between  Ger- 


many  and  England  which  had  formerly  gone  via  Holland.  Having 
obtained  control  of  the  main  lines  with  a  length  of  about  300  miles 
the  Government  left  the  rest  to  private  enterprise.  Between  1850 
and  1870  the  private  lines  had  increased  from  less  than  200  to 
:  1400  miles  and  competition  between  the  state  and  private  railways 
soon  became  active,  and  for  ten  years  after  1856  rates  were  in  con- 
sequence reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  point.  The  state  railways, 
however,  had  certain  advantages  :  they  had  been  well  laid  out  and 
economically  constructed  ;  their  organization  was  admirable  and 
the  very  keenness  of  private  competition  was  sufficient  to  guard 
against  serious  abuses.  Nevertheless  about  1870  the  Government 
decided  to  purchase  most  of  the  competing  lines,  and  by  1874  it 
owned  more  than  half  the  railways  of  the  country.  It  now  (1885) 
owns  three-quarters  ;  there  is  only  one  large  private  system  which 
could  by  any  possibility  compete,  and  with  this  there  is  a  joint- 
purse  agreement.  The  charges  in  general  have  not  been  raised  as  a 
result  of  the  new  policy,  and  they  are  still  the  lowest  in  Europe. 

lar  The  first  lines  in  Holland  were  constructed  by  private  companies 
in  1840-56.  In  I860  a  state  system  was  begun,  which  included  at 
one  time  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  mileage  of  the  kingdom.  It  was 
not,  however,  managed  by  the  state  directly,  but  leased  to  a  private 
company.  But  the  financial  results  were  not  satisfactory  to  either 
party,  and  the  commission  of  1881-82  reported  strongly  against  the 
arrangement.  The  absence  of  connexions  or  of  mutual  accommoda- 
tion between  the  different  systems  elicited  severe  criticism. 

ma'.  The  first  German  line  was  opened  in  1835.  While  most  of  the 
states  were  too  small  to  have  a  comprehensive- policy,  Prussia  from 
the  very  outset  encouraged  railway  development,  giving  pecuniary 
assistance,  and  in  return  reserving  important  rights  of  state  con- 
trol. About  1848  the  Government  began  to  construct  railways  of 
its  own,  at  the  same  time  purchasing  shares  of  stock  in  private 
companies.  After  1870  the  same  policy,  which  had  been  for  a  time 
suspended,  was  again  pushed  forward  in  the  direction  of  creating  a 
German  imperial  system ;  but  the  jealousy  of  the  smaller  states 
proved  fatal  to  its  success.  The  Prussian  Government,  however, 
began  to  extend  its  own  system  on  a  large  scale.  In  1878  it  owned 
only  3000  miles  of  railroad  and  managed  2000  more,  while  6000 
were  in  the  hands  of  private  companies.  Now  (1885)  there  are 
13,000  miles  of  state  railways  and  only  about  1000  in  private  hands. 
The  prices  paid  by  the  Government  were,  as  a  rule,  high  (in  one 
instance  the  sellers  secured  an  income  of  more  than  16  per  cent.), 
but  the  lines  are  nevertheless  managed  with  reasonable  profit  to 
the  state.  The  passenger-train  service  is  prompt  and  comfortable. 
The  speed  attained  is  greater  than  elsewhere  in  Continental  Europe, 
the  maximum  being  about  45  miles.  The  passenger  rates  are  low, 
averaging  not  quite  0-7d.  per  mile  for  all  passengers  carried.  There 
are  comparatively  few  accidents.  The  freight  service  is  rather 
:  slow,  and  the  charges  are  not  relatively  so  low  as  those  for  pass- 
engers. On  the  other  hand,  they  have  for  the  most  part  avoided 
preferential  rates  ;  something  very  like  a  system  of  equal  mileage 
rates  prevails,  though  not  always  quite  consistently  carried  out. 
In  addition  to  this  rate  there  is  a  fixed  terminal  or  "Grundsatz"; 
but  it  is  put,  almost  purposely,  too  low,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with 
1  the  very  short-distance  traffic.  The  result  is  that  the  mileage  rate 
is  relatively  too  high,  and  for  the  long-distance  traffic  it  reaches 
a  very  high  figure.  Down  to  1SSO  this  result  was  evaded  by  a 
system  of  special  tariffs  for  export,  import,  or  transit  traffic,  but 
during  the  last  five  years  a  strong  effort  has  been  made  to  do  away 
with  them.  It  has  not  been  altogether  successful,  owing  to  the 
competition  of  water-routes. 

tr        In  Austria  a  tramway  line  for  general  traffic  was  chartered  in  1824 

'igy.and  opened  in  1828.  But  until  1838  the  Government  positively 
discouraged  the  introduction  of  railways.  The  policy  then  adopted, 
however,  guaranteed  to  each  railway  a  monopoly  in  its  own  district 
during  the  (comparatively  short)  period  for  which  its  charter  was 
to  run.  At  the  same  time  the  state  made  lines  of  its  own  on  a 
large  scale.  The  revolution  of  1848  led  to  financial  straits  ;  and 
in  the  years  following  most  of  the  state  railways,  at  least  in  Austria 
itself,  were  sold  to  private  companies  for  about  one-half  their  real 
value.  But  in  Hungary  the  reality  of  a  state  railway  system  was 
more  steadily  maintained.  The  growth  of  the  Austrian  system 
was  slow  until  after  the  war  of  1866  ;  then  it  began  to  develop 
rapidly.  The  railway  speculation  which  ended  in  the  crisis  of 
1873,  being  perhaps  more  recklessly  carried  on  in  Austria  than  any- 
where else  in  the  world,  resulted  in  very  severe  distress.  Since 
1876  there  have  been  consistent  efforts  to  increase  the  importance 
of  the  state  railway  system  both  by  the  purchase  of  old  lines  and 
the  construction  of  new  ones.  At  present  there  are  in  Austria 
2000  miles  of  state-managed  railroad,  and  not  quite  6000  managed 
by  private  companies ;  while  in  Hungary  there  are  2000  miles  of 
state  railroad  and  3000  in  private  hands.  The  policy  of  the  state 
management  has  been  to  reduce  rates,  especially  for  passengers  ; 
but  they  are  still  higher  than  in  Germany.  In  1883  the  average 
receipt  per  mile  for  each  passenger  was  0'84d.  ;  while  the  average 
receipt  per  ton  of  freight  was  1  •  09d.  Per  train-mile  the  receipts  were 
about  9s.  ;  but  the  traffic  was  so  light  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
that  the  average  profit  on  the  investment  was  only  4|  per  cent. 


251 

The  Austrian  railways  belong  to  the  German  Verein,  and  are  like 
the  German  lines  in  most  of  their  methods  and  principles  of  ad- 
ministration. The\T  have  carried  the  system  of  traffic  agreements, 
even  between  the  state  and  private  companies,  into  the  same  de- 
tail ;  but  they  have  not  adopted  the  system  of  equal  mileage  rates 
in  their  tariffs  ;  on  the  contrary,  they  have  (like  Belgium)  adopted 
a  sliding  scale,  diminishing  for  longer  distances.  Probably  no 
other  country  is  so  situated  that  it  has  to  deal  with  such  perplex- 
ing problems  of  railway  tariff  policy  as  Austria.  Nearly  all  the 
Austrian  railways  are  of  standard  gauge  ;  but  the  problem  of  the 
economical  construction  and  management  of  local  lines  has  received 
most  careful  attention  from  the  authorities  ;  and  the  law  specially 
encourages  the  construction  of  cheap  railways  in  mountainous  dis- 
tricts or  for  purely  local  traffic.  About  fifty  such  railways  were 
chartered  between  1880  and  1883. 

The  first  lines  in  Switzerland  were  merely  local,  and  the  summer  Switzer 
passenger  traffic  formed  a  main  source  of  income.     It  was  not  until  land. 
Austria  had  completed  two  routes  across  the  Alps  and  France  one 
that  the  first  Swiss  route,  the  St  Gotthard,  was  projected.     It  is, 
however,  the  greatest  work  of  them  all,  the  main  tunnel  being 
over  9£  miles  in  length.     In  spite  of  the  character  of  the  country, 
the  Swiss  railways  are  nearly  all  of  standard  gauge.      They  are 
entirely  owned  by  private  companies,  though  many  of  them  have 
received  aid  from  the  cantons.     The  rates  for  freight  are  somewhat 
high.     There  are  now  about  2000  miles  in  all. 

After  1860  the  railways  of  Italy  developed  rapidly.  There  were  Italy, 
four  main  systems — the  upper  Italian,  the  Roman,  the  Calabrian, 
and  the  southern  system  (along  the  Adriatic).  Although  this  last 
had  in  many  respects  the  least  promising  field,  it  was  the  most 
enterprising  and  the  most  successful.  The  other  systems  had  been 
arranged  more  in  accordance  with  the  old  political  divisions  than 
in  accordance  with  the  wants  of  trade.  In  spite  of  liberal  subsidies 
from  the  Government  they  did  not  prosper.  The  lines  of  Calabria 
(and  Sicily)  were  the  most  unfortunate  ;  and  the  Government  in 
1870  Avas  compelled  to  take  the  railways  of  this  section  into  its 
own  hands.  The  gross  receipts  have  been  constantly  less  than 
the  working  expenses.  In  1873  the  Government  contracted  to 
purchase  the  Roman  railways  for  the  same  general  reasons.  The 
financial  difficulties  were  such  that  the  contract  was  not  carried  out 
till  1880-82.  Meantime  similar  contracts,  though  for  very  different 
reasons,  had  been  made  for  the  purchase  of  the  other  two  systems. 
But  a  special  commission,  which  thoroughly  studied  the  question 
during  1878-81,  reported  that  the  Italian  Government  had  better 
not  undertake  to  work  its  lines,  even  though  it  virtually  owned 
them.  Eventually  they  were  leased  for  a  term  of  sixty  years  to 
two  main  companies,  each  controlling  about  3000  miles  of  line, 
with  a  third,  much  smaller,  in  Sicily.  The  state  is  to  receive  about 
27£  per  cent,  of  the  gross  receipts,  the  companies  62£  per  cent.  ; 
the  remainder  is  to  be  divided  in  a  somewhat  complicated  system 
of  reserve  funds.  On  the  whole,  the  railways  of  Italy  leave  much 
to  be  desired  both  in  construction  and  equipment.  The  rates  are 
reasonable,  particularly  for  local  traffic  ;  but  the  service  is  always 
slow,  and  often  quite  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  trade. 

The  first  railway  line  in  Spain  was  opened  in  1848,  and  the  period  Spain, 
of  most  rapid  development  was  from  1855  to  1865.  The  Govern- 
ment encouraged  railways  by  most  liberal  subsidies,  which  had  the 
effect  of  bringing  forward  a  number  of  purely  speculative  under- 
takings. The  indirect  results  were  bad ;  and  for  this,  as  well  as 
other  reasons,  the  years  1869-75  formed  a  time  of  most  serious 
depression.  Since  then  matters  have  improved  greatly,  on  account 
both  of  changes  in  legislation  made  about  1870  and  of  the  improve- 
ment in  the  country  itself.  There  are  now  about  5000  miles  of 
railway.  One-fourth  of  the  money  spent  has  been  advanced  by 
the  Government ;  and  of  late  years  the  financial  results  have  been 
reasonably  good.  The  ratio  of  working  expenses  to  gross  earnings 
is  about  45  per  cent.  The  charges  for  passengers  are  rather  low  ; 
but  those  for  freight  are  extremely  high.  The  gauge  is  5|  feet. 

The  first  Portuguese  line  was  constructed  by  the  state  in  1853  Portugal, 
or  1854.  The  Government  now  owns  about  half  the  roads  of  the 
country, — one  system  in  the  north  and  another  in  the  south,  each 
somewhat  less  than  200  miles  long.  The  central  lines  are  owned 
by  a  company,  chartered  in  1859,  which  has  been  for  many  years 
managed  by  a  body  of  French  directors,  from  whose  control  it  has 
but  recently  been  freed.  The  financial  results  have  been  far  from 
satisfactory.  The  railways  are  built  on  a  5^  feet  gauge. 

In  Denmark  and  in  Norway  railway  development  has  been  slow.  Scandi- 
The  greater  part  of  the  lines  are  owned  and  managed  by  Govern-  navia. 
ment.    Most  of  the  Norwegian  lines  are  laid  on  a  gauge  of  3^  feet. 
The  running  is  slow  and  the  traffic  very  light.     Sweden  possesses 
something  over  4000  miles  in  all,  of  which  the  state  owns  about 
one-third.     The  capital  averages  less  than  £7000  per  mile,— lower 
than  in  almost  any  other  country  of  the  world.     The  railways  are 
in  the  hands  of  a  number  of  local  companies,  which  control  on  an 
average  hardly  30  miles  each. 

In  Russia  a  short  railway — little  more  than  an  experiment — was  Russia, 
constructed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  St  Petersburg  in  1835-37. 
The  first  line  of  any  length  was  opened  in  1851  between  St  Peters- 


252 


RAILWAY 


burg  and  Moscow.  This  was  built  by  the  state,  but  afterwards 
sold  to  a  private  company.  After  the  close  of  tlie  Crimean  War 
railway  construction  was  more  rapid.  The  lines  were  laid  down 
by  the  Government  surveyors,  but  were  constructed  and  managed 
by  private  companies,  receiving,  however,  much  help  from  the 
Government.  Of  the  15,000  miles  in  operation  hardly  a  tenth 
part  belongs  to  the  state,  even  including  the  700  miles  of  state 
railway  in  Finland.  Yet  about  half  the  capital  employed  in  rail- 
way construction  has  been  furnished  by  the  state.  Since  1880  the 
construction  of  railways  in  European  Russia  has  moved  slowly. 
Of  greater  importance  has  been  the  development  of  the  Asiatic  lines. 
The  first  of  these,  in  the  Caucasus,  was  opened  in  1872  to  a  length 
of  nearly  200  miles.  The  Trans-Caspian  military  railway  was  begun 
in  1880  ;  the  connexion  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Black  Sea 
was  completed  in  1883.  The  Siberian  railway  is  being  pushed 
forward  as  rapidly  as  the  finances  of  the  empire  will  allow.  The 
administration  is  in  most  respects  modelled  upon  that  adopted  by 
Germany  and  Austria.  The  plan  of  the  Russian  railways  has  been 
dictated  by  military  rather  than  industrial  considerations.  The 
gauge  is  5  feet. 

Turkey.  Isolated  lines  were  constructed  in  Turkey  in  1860  and  1866. 
The  first  general  plan  for  a  system  of  importance  dates  from  1869, 
and  was  modified  in  1872.  Foreign  companies  furnished  the  capital 
and  received  a  subsidy  from  the  Government.  In  return  they 
were  to  make  certain  annual  payments  ;  but  the  clauses  providing 
for  this  were  so  carelessly  drawn  that  the  companies  seem  to  have 
had  an  interest  in  delaying  the  completion  of  the  work.  Some  of 
the  lines  were  lost  in  the  cession  of  territory  which  followed  the 
war  of  1878.  There  are  now  open  for  traffic  about  1000  miles  of 
railway  in  European  Turkey,  and  200  more  in  Asia  Minor. 

There  is  a  fairly  developed  system  of  railways  (1000  miles  or  more) 
in  Roumania,  owned  by  the  state ;  and  there  are  a  few  lines  in  Servia. 
Arrangements  seem  to  be  completed  by  which  through  communica- 
tion in  these  countries  will  soon  be  established  on  a  large  scale, 
if  the  authorities  in  Turkey  and  Bulgaria  do  not  fail  in  their  duty. 
The  Government  of  Greece  is  also  engaged  in  extending  its  railway 
system,  which  has  hitherto  amounted  to  nothing.  (A.  T.  H.) 

Canada.  America. — In  the  Dominion  of  Canada  9113  miles  of  railway 
and  6735  of  tramway,  together  15,848,  were  open  in  the  end  of 
1883.  The  accounts  show  that  the  total  outlay  for  construction 
amounted  to  about  73  millions  sterling,  being  at  the  rate  of  £4610 
per  mile.  The  gross  earnings  for  the  year  1883  amounted  to  up- 
wards of  6  millions  sterling,  of  which  72'3  per  cent,  was  absorbed  as 
working  expenses,  leaving  £1,693,000  net  earnings,  which  amounted 
to  only  2'3  per  cent,  on  the  capital  cost.  The  earlier  railways  were 
laid  to  gauges  of  5£  and  3£  feet,  but  the  inconveniences  of  break  of 
gauge  with  the  railways  of  the  United  States  led  to  the  relaying  of 
all  the  lines  to  the  standard  gauge,  except  those  of  Newfoundland 
and  Prince  Edward's  Island,  which  remain  on  the  3^  feet  gauge. 
The  principal  system  is  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  comprising  the 
original  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Great  Western,  which  were  consolid- 
ated in  1882,  making  a  total  length  of  2358  miles  of  line.  The 
first  section  of  the  system — Portland  to  Montreal — was  opened  in 
1853,  the  first  line  opened  in  Canada.  In  June  1884  of  the  (esti- 
mated) 2899  miles  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  connecting  the 
Pacific  with  the  Atlantic,  2105  miles  were  open  and  in  operation. 

Mexico.  In  Mexico  the  first  railway  constructed  and  opened  was  the  Mexi- 
can Railway,  between  Mexico  city  and  Vera  Cruz,  264  miles,  with 
a  branch  29  miles,  the  first  section  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Paso  del 
Macho  being  opened  in  1865.  This  railway,  with  one  or  more 
others  in  Mexico,  was  constructed  to  the  4  feet  8£  inch  gauge,  but 
others,  including  the  Mexican  National  Railway,  910  miles  long, 
are  laid  to  the  3  feet  gauge.  The  Mexican  Central  Railroad,  1224 
miles  long,  was  completed  in  1884. 

Col-  The  Panama  Railroad,  Colombia,  between  Aspinwall  and  Panama, 

ombia.  47£  miles  in  length,  was  opened  in  January  1855.  The  rails  are  laid 
to  a  gauge  of  5  feet.  Railways  were  in  progress  in  1883-84  in  several 
of  the  other  states  of  Colombia,  all  of  them  to  a  gauge  of  3  feet. 

Guate-         In  Guatemala  the  first  line  of  railway  from  San  Jose  to  Esquintla, 

mala.  13  miles  in  length,  laid  to  a  gauge  of  3  feet,  was  opened  in  June 
1880.  A  line  from  Champerico  to  Ritalhulca,  30  miles  long,  was 
opened  in  December  1883  ;  and  another  from  San  Jose  to  the  capi- 
tal, 69  miles  long,  is  now  finished. 

Brazil.  In  the  empire  of  Brazil  the  Mana  Railway  was  the  first  line 
opened,  early  in  the  decade  1850-60.  It  is  a  short  line  of  single 
way,  11  miles  long,  between  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  the  foot  of  the  serra.  It  was  laid  to  a  gauge  of  5J  feet ;  but 
other  lines  in  Brazil  are  laid  to  a  gauge  of  5  feet  3  inches.  The 
empire  possessed  in  January  1884  railways  of  a  total  length  of  3500 
miles  open  for  traffic,  besides  1500  miles  in  course  of  construction. 
The  state  owns  nine  lines,  having  1300  miles  open,  the  principal 
of  which  is  the  Dom  Pedro  II.,  intended  to  connect  the  eastern 
and  western  provinces  of  the  empire. 

Chili.  Chili  was  one  of  the  first  states  in  South  America  to  initiate  the 

construction  of  railways.  The  Copiapo  Railway,  laid  to  the  4  feet 
8£  inch  gauge,  was  opened  about  1850  ;  and  an  Act  was  passed  in 
1852  authorizing  the  construction  of  a  line  to  connect  Santiago 


with  Valparaiso,  114  miles  distant.  In  1855  the  first  8  miles  were 
opened  for  traffic,  and  in  1863  the  line  was  opened  throughout.  It 
was  constructed  to  a  gauge  of  5£  feet.  In  1883  the  total  length 
of  lines  open  for  traffic  was  1378  miles. 

In  Peru  a  system  of  railways  has  been  in  course  of  construction  Per 
since  1852,  chiefly  at  the  expense  of  the  state.     In  1878  there  were 
open  for  traffic,  or  in  course  of  construction,  twenty -two  lines 
belonging  to  the  state  and  to  private  individuals,  2030  miles  in 
length,  representing  a  cost  of  about  36  millions  sterling. 

Africa. — The  railways  of  Lower  Egypt  have  been  laid  out  pri-  Egv 
marily  to  connect  Alexandria,  Cairo,  and  Suez,  with  branches  to 
Mansurah  and  elsewhere  in  the  Delta.  The  line  first  laid  out, 
between  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  130  miles  long,  was  opened  in 
January  1856.  The  junction  line  from  Bennah  to  Suez  is  lOlf  miles 
in  length  ;  the  total  length  of  railways  open  for  traffic  in  Egypt 
at  the  end  of  1883  was  941  miles,  laid  to  the  4  feet  8^  inch  gauge. 

There  are  three  systems  of  railway  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, —  Cap 
the  Western  from  Cape  Town,  the  Midland  from  Port  Elizabeth,  Col 
and  the  Eastern  from  E£st  London.     In  January  1884  there  were 
1213  miles  open  for  traffic. 

In  the  colony  of  Natal  there  were  at  the  end  of  1883  105  miles  Nal 
of  railway  open,  and  120  were  then  in  course  of  construction. 

In  the  Island  of  Mauritius  there  are  two  lines  of  railway  laid  Ma 
to  the  4  feet  8£  inch  gauge,  with  two  branches,  of  a  total  length  ofriti 
94  miles.     The  North  line,  starting  from  Port  Louis,  is  31  miles 
long,  and  was  opened  in  1864  ;  the  Midland  line,  passing  through 
the  centre  of  the  island,  is  35  miles  long,  and  was  opened  in  1865. 

Asia. — In  1845  the  East  Indian  and  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula Ind 
Railway  Companies  were  formed.  Four  years  later  the  Government 
entered  into  arrangements  with  these  two  companies  for  the  con- 
struction of  railways  in  the  presidencies  of  Bengal  and  Bombay, 
guaranteeing  for  ninety-nine  years  a  dividend  of  from  4^  to  5  pel- 
cent,  upon  the  estimated  cost  of  these  and  succeeding  railways. 
They  adopted  one  uniform  gauge  of  5  feet  6  inches.  Down  to  1869 
this  policy  of  guarantee  and  uniform  gauge  was  adhered  to.  But 
in  1869,  under  the  rule  of  Lord  Lawrence,  the  Government  altered 
the  standard  gauge  for  new  lines  to  one  metre,  or  3  feet  3f  inches, 
and  used  the  lightest  rails  and  rolling-stock  compatible  with  the 
requirements  of  Indian  traffic.  There  are  now  five  different  railway 
gauges  in  India,  namely,  the  5^  feet,  the  3  feet  3|  inch,  the  4  feet, 
the  2^  feet,  and  the  2  feet.  The  first  piece  of  railway  opened  in 
India  was  a  section  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  20£ 
miles  long,  from  Bombay  to  Tannah,  in  1853.  At  the  end  of 
March  1884  there  were  1288  miles  of  that  railway  open  for  traffic. 
The  East  Indian  Railway  was  opened  for  a  length  of  38  miles  in 
1854  ;  there  are  now  1509  miles  open.  In  1869  this  railway  was 
transferred  to  Government,  though  it  is  still  worked  by  the  com- 
pany. Of  the  Madras  Railway  65  miles  were  opened  in  1856  ;  there 
are  now  861  open.  The  first  of  the  imperial  state  railways  was 
opened  (114  miles)  in  1873.  At  the  end  of  March  1884  the  number 
of  miles  of  line  open  for  traffic  was  as  follows  (Table  XXXIII.)  : — 


Miles  open, 
March  1884. 

Cost  per  Mile, 
December  1883. 

Kast  Indian  Railway  

1,509 

£22,400 

Guaranteed  railways  

4,641 

15,000 

Assisted  companies    

256 

(  Darjiling- 
\  Himalayan 

State  railways  —  Imperial  

2,649 

(         4,700 
10,200 

Provincial   

1,273 

6,«00 

Native  States  

504 

5,'000 

Total  for  all  railways  

10,832 

£13,700 

The  number  of  passengers  carried  increased  from  24,280,459  in 
1874  to  65,098, 953  in  1883. 

In  Ceylon  the  railways  have  been  constructed  by  the  Govern-  Ct 
ment.  The  main  line,  from  Colombo  to  Kandy,  74, t  miles  long, 
was  opened  for  traffic  in  1867  ;  and  the  branch  to  Navalapitiya, 
17  miles  long,  was  opened  in  1874.  The  Kalutara  Railway,  27$ 
miles  long,  was  finally  opened  in  1879.  There  were  164  miles  open 
at  the  end  of  1884,  and  16  in  course  of  construction. 

The  only  railway  ever  laid  in  China  ran  along  a  strip  of  land,  C 
about  9  miles  long,  between  Shanghai  and  Woosung,  opened  in 
1876.     In  October  1877  the  line  was  removed  and  the  traffic  came 
to  an  end  in  consequence  of  official  jealousy,  although  the-  railway 
was  very  popular  with  the  natives. 

The  first  railway  that  was  opened  in  Japan  was  the  Tokio  -Yoko-  3- 
hama  line,  18  miles  in  length,  commenced  in  1869  and  opened  tor 
traffic  in  1872,  laid  to  a  gauge  of  3£  feet.     At  June  1884  ther 
were  open  for  traffic  236  miles  of  railway. 

Australia. — The  four  leading  colonies  of  Australia  have  their 
capitals  connected  by  railways,  and  each  has  its  own  gauge. 

The  railways  of  New  South  Wales  are  divided  into  three  systems,  J> 
all  of  which  take  their  departure  from  Sydney,  the  capital, — theS 
northern,  the  western,  and  the  southern  system.     The  first  piece  of  \ 
line,  15  miles  in  length,  was  opened  in  1855  ;  and  at  the  end  of 
1883  there  were  1320  miles  open  for  traffic,  and  597  in  course  of 


RAILWAY 


253 


construction.  The  lines  are  laid  to  a  uniform  gauge  of  4  feet  8 \ 
inches. 

,ori  Victoria  has  a  uniform  gauge  of  5  feet  3  inches.  The  railways 
all  belong  to  the  state.  There  were  1562  miles  of  railway  open  at 
the  end  of  1883,  besides  which  130  were  in  progress. 

mi  In  Queensland  a  system  of  light  substantial  railways  has  been 
laid  out  on  the  3£  feet  gauge,  mainly  from  motives  of  economy  and 
to  moderate  the  difficulties  of  carrying  the  line  over  the  main  range 
to  the  tableland  of  the  Darling  Downs.  The  first  section  of  the 
Southern  and  Western  Railway  was  opened  in  1867.  At  the  end 
of  1883  there  were  1038  miles  of  railway  open  for  traffic,  and  454 
were  in  course  of  construction. 

;li  In  South  Australia  a  gauge  of  5  feet  3  inches  was  at  first  adopted. 
The  Adelaide  and  Port  Adelaide  Railway,  7|  miles  long,  was  opened 

a.  in  1856,  and  the  Adelaide  and  Kapunda  Railway,  connecting  the 
capital  with  the  chief  copper  mines,  50J  miles  long,  was  opened  in 
1857.  At  the  same  time  railways  on  a  3J  feet  gauge  were  also  con- 
structed ;  the  first  of  these,  between  Port  Wakefield  and  Blyth, 
was  partly  opened  in  May  1867.  The  Port  Augusta  and  Port 
Darwin  Railway,  destined  to  connect  the  Indian  Ocean  with  the 
Southern  Ocean,  will,  when  completed,  be  about  2000  miles  in 
length.  The  colony  had  991  miles  of  railway  open  for  traffic  at 
the  end  of  1883,  with  225  in  course  of  construction.  In  view  of 
the  inconveniences  of  a  break  of  gauge,  the  progress  of  the  broader 
gauge  lines  was  stayed  northwards,  after  the  junctions  had  been 
effected,  and  new  main  lines  into  the  interior  are  constructed  on 
the  3J  feet  gauge. 

ite  In  Western  Australia  there  were  only  55  miles  of  railway  open 
for  traffic  at  the  end  of  1883  and  68  in  course  of  construction. 

Li.  At  the  end  of  1883  Tasmania  had  167  miles  of  railway  completed, 
and  in  1884  207  miles  in  course  of  construction. 

'Z-     New  Zealand. — The  first  railways  in  New  Zealand  were  con- 

1.  structed  in  the  province  of  Canterbury :  the  Lyttelton  and  Christ- 
church  Railway,  connecting  the  port  town  with  the  capital  of  the 
province,  6  miles  long,  was  commenced  in  1860,  and  opened  in 
1867,  laid  to  a  gauge  of  5  feet  3  inches.  The  Great  Southern  Rail- 
way, a  portion  of  the  trunk  line  to  the  south,  of  the  same  gauge, 
was  opened,  also  in  1867,  to  the  river  Selwyn,  distant  23  miles  from 
Christchurch.  A  comprehensive  system  of  railways  connecting  the 
chief  towns  of  the  colony  was  commenced  at  the  expense  of  the 
Government  in  1872,  for  which  the  3^  feet  gauge  was  adopted  as 
the  standard.  The  first  lines  so  constructed  were  the  Wellington 
and  Woodville  Railway  and  the  Napier  and  Manawatu  Railway. 
At  the  end  of  1883  there  were  469  miles  open  for  traffic  in  the 
North  Island  and  926  in  the  South  Island,  besides  91  of  private 
lines,  making  in  all  1486  miles.  (D.  K.  C.) 

United  States. 

i-  Construction. — The  low  cost  of  American  railways  has  been  due 
to  largely  to  a  close  adaptation  of  the  alignment  to  the  natural  surface 
i.  by  the  use  of  grades  and  curves.  The  importance  of  saving  in 
materials,  labour,  and  cost  has  been  very  much  greater  than  in 
Europe,  because  labour  and  nearly  all  materials  but  timber  were 
much  costlier,  and  especially  because  the  interest  on  money  was 
very  much  higher, — until  about  1875,  on  the  average  probably  9  or 
10  per  cent.  The  use  of  the  ' '  truck  "  or  ' '  bogie  "  under  locomotives 
and  cars  made  it  possible  for  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  the 
first  long  line  in  a  mountainous  country,  to  be  constructed  with 
curves  of  600  feet  radius,  and  on  temporary  lines  on  the  same  rail- 
way with  curves  of  300  and  278  feet  radius.  Curves  of  955  and  even 
716  feet  radius  are  common  through  difficult  country ;  curves  of 
573  feet  radius  occur  on  some  important  lines ;  and  410  to  383  feet 
radii  are  not  uncommon  in  mountainous  regions.  On  the  United 
States  military  railroads  in  1864  an  immense  traffic  passed  safely 
over  temporary  lines  with  a  curve  of  50  feet  radius.  Early  experi- 
ments as  to  the  real  power  of  the  locomotive  to  surmount  gradients 
led  to  the  adoption  of  110  and  116  feet  per  mile  for  ascents  17  miles 
long,  and  to  the  successful  use  on  a  temporary  track  over  a  tunnel 
(in  1852)  of  gradients  of  1  in  10,  over  which  a  locomotive  weighing 
25  tons  hauled  regularly  one-car  trains  weighing  53J  tons,  including 
its  own  weight.  A  gradient  of  1  in  12J,  7  miles  long,  in  a  mining 
branch  in  Colorado  is  now  regularly  worked.  In  the  construction 
proper  a  noticeable  peculiarity  has  been  the  free  use  of  open  trestle- 
work  of  timber,  to  save  both  masonry  and  earth  or  rock  excavation. 
Some  of  these  timber  structures  have  been  of  enormous  proportions, 
as  the  Portage  Viaduct  (see  vol.  iv.  p.  328)  over  the  Genesee  River, 
234  feet  high  and  800  feet  long,  in  50  feet  spans,  built  in  eighteen 
months  (1858),  at  a  cost  of  only  $140,000,  and  containing  125,000 
cubic  feet  of  timber  and  80  tons  of  bolts.  Structures  of  timber 
exceeding  100  feet  in  height  have  been  rare,  but  of  all  dimensions 
below  that  exceedingly  common,  the  iisual  intent  and  practice  hav- 
ing been  to  replace  them  as  they  became  unserviceable  with  masonry 
embankments.  Although  their  use  has  not  unfrequently  been 
abused  by  permitting  them  to  become  unsafe  from  decay,  they  have 
in  the  main  been  thoroughly  solid  and  substantial.  For  bridge 
spans  of  30  to  250  feet  the  wooden  "Howe  truss"  bridge,  a  type 
peculiar  to  America,  was  early  invented  and  almost  universally 


used  where  wrought -iron  trusses  would  be  now  used  both  in 
Europe  and  America.  The  piers  and  abutments  for  such  trusses 
were  usually  of  stone,  but  not  unfrequently  of  timber  also.  These 
wooden  trusses  are  now  being  rapidly  replaced  with  iron,-the  lead- 
ing types  being  the  Whipple,  Post,  Fink,  and  Bollman  trusses  (see 
BRIDGES,  vol.  iv.  p.  322  sq.).  The  sleepers  (in  America  called  ties 
or  cross-ties)  are  usually  of  hard  wood  (white  oak),  hewn  on  top 
and  bottom,  with  the  natural  surface  of  the  tree  on  the  sides.  The 
usual  dimensions  are  6  (sometimes  7)  inches  thick,  8  (sometimes  8£ 
or  9)  feet  long,  and  8  to  10  or  even  12  inches  face.  The  usual  rule 
is  to  place  them  2  feet  or  less  apart,  and  2640  to  2700  to  the  mile. 
The  large  bearing  surface  thus  afforded  has  especially  favoured  the 
use  of  the  flat-based  or  Vignoles  rail,  and  it  is  in  exclusive  use 
throughout  North  and  for  the  most  part  South  America.  The  rails 
now  most  largely  rolled  weigh  from  56  to  65  R>  per  yard.  On  the 
light-traffic  lines  of  the  south  and  west  there  are  still  many  50  R> 
rails,  and  in  the  north  and  east  rails  of  70,  72,  75,  and  80  lb  sections 
are  in  limited  but  increasing  use.  An  average  for  the  whole  United 
States  would  now  be  somewhat  under  60  K>.  The  close  propinquity 
of  the  sleepers  gives  much  greater  stiffness  to  the  rail  than  com- 
parative weights  alone  would  indicate,  a  60  ft>  rail  being  fully 
equivalent  in  stiffness  and  strength  to  an  80  tt>  rail  supported  on 
chairs  3  feet  between  centres.  The  ballast  and  drainage  of  American 
railroads  have  often  been  very  defective,  with  the  view  to  effecting 
a  large  saving  in  first  cost.  Improvements  in  this  as  in  other 
respects  have  taken  place  in  recent  years,  and  many  thousand  miles 
are  now  maintained  at  a  high  standard  of  excellence.  Right  of 
way,  usually  in  a  continuous  strip  100  feet  wide  (wider  where 
necessary,  but  never  narrower),  has  been  largely  given,  or  purchased 
at  very  low  rates.  The  widths  of  road-bed  (almost  always  first 
graded  for  a  single  track)  are  usually  1 8  to  20  feet  in  excavation 
and  14  feet  on  embankments,  with  1^  to  1  slopes.  Side  slopes  of 
1  to  1  have  been  largely  used  in  regions  not  exposed  to  frost. 
Parallel  tracks  are  placed  13  feet  between  centres. 

Railway  development  in  the  United  States  has  had  to  adapt  Develop- 
itself  to  the  needs  of  a  new  and  rapidly  growing  country,  a  large  ment. 
part  of  which  was  first  made  available  for  settlement  by  railways. 
Three  locomotives  were  imported  from  England  in  1829,  and  the 
first  trial  in  America  took  place  on  8th  August  1829  at  Honesdale, 
Pennsylvania.  The  first  railway  constructed  to  be  worked  by  loco- 
motives was  the  South  Carolina  Railroad  (1828-30),  though  trials 
of  an  experimental  locomotive  had  been  made  before  on  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  Railroad,  which  continued  to  be  worked  by  horse 
power  until  1832.  The  mileage  of  railway  construction  about  kept 
pace  with  that  of  the  United  Kingdom  until  1850  ;  at  the  beginning 
of  1885  it  amounted  to  125,379  miles.  The  mileage  completed 
amounted  to  40  miles  at  the  end  of  1830,  to  3361  miles  in  1841,  and 
to  5206  miles  in  1847,  of  which  1340  miles  had  been  opened  within 
six  years.  Then  there  was  a  sudden  and  great  increase,  the  yearly 
additions  for  seven  years  being  1056  miles  in  1848,  1048  in  1849, 
1261  in  1850,  1274  in  1851,  2288  in  1852,  2170  in  1853,  3442 
miles  in  1854.  The  Civil  War  checked  railway  construction,  only 
3257  miles  being  opened  during  the  five  years  ending  with  1865, 
when  the  aggregate  amounted  to  32,996  miles.  But  during  the 
seven  years  ending  with  1872  the  mileage  of  the  country  was  nearly 
doubled,  the  yearly  additions  being  1403  miles  in  1866,  2541  in 
1867,  2468  in  1868,  4103  in  1869,  5658  in  1870,  6660  in  1871,  7439 
in  1872,  a  total  of  30,272  miles  in  seven  years.  At  the  close  of 
this  period  of  construction  there  was  a  mile  of  railway  to  every  666 
inhabitants.  It  was  followed  by  great  financial  disasters  and  in- 
dustrial stagnation,  and  by  a  period  of  comparative  inactivity  in 
railway  extension,  only  5217  miles  being  opened  in  1873,  and  only 
14,057  in  the  five  years  ending  with  1878  (2428  in  the  last-named 
year).  During  the  five  years  ending  with  1883  40,000  miles  were 
opened,  of  which  11,568  fell  to  1882.  At  the  end  of  1884  the 
population  per  mile  of  railway  was  458.  There  was  no  railway  west 
of  the  Mississippi  until  1853,  and  then  only  38  miles  ;  in  1860 
there  were  1930  miles  (24,990  on  the  east),  and  in  1865  3007  miles. 
(29,988  on  the  east).  Since  1865  46,600  miles  have  been  built 
west  of  the  Mississippi.  About  one-half  of  the  population  of  the 
United  States  is  in  the  territory  lying  north  of  the  Potomac  and 
Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi,  including  sixteen  States  witk 
an  aggregate  area  of  418,495  square  miles,  29,000,000  inhabitants, 
and  55,725  miles  of  railway.  France  and  Germany  together  have 
nearly  the  same  area  (416,205  square  miles),  83,000,000  inhabitants, 
and  40,682  miles  of  railway.  The  United  States  has  one  mile  of 
railway  to  7 "5  square  miles  of  territory  and  520  inhabitants,  and. 
Europe  1  mile  of  railway  to  10 '2  square  miles  and  2040  inhabit- 
ants. The  two  States  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  whose  area 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  Great  Britain,  have  one  mile  of  railway  to 
6 '2  square  miles,  against  one  to  5'9  in  Great  Britain  ;  and  Massa- 
chusetts and  New  Jersey,  with  one-third  more  area  than  Belgium 
(which  has  more  railway  in  proportion  to  area  than  any  other 
European  country),  have  4  square  miles  of  area  per  mile  of  railway, 
while  Belgium  has  4'2.  In  the  Southern  States  the  railways  are 
much  less  numerous  and  have  lighter  traffic  and  earnings.  The 
prevailing  course  of  traffic  in  America  is  east  and  west,  or  rather 


254 


R  A  I  L WAY 


Cost. 


Traffic. 


Rates. 


to  and  from  the  north-eastern  Atlantic  States  north  of  the  Potomac. 
The  eastern  "trunk  lines,"  as  they  are  called,  extending  from  the 
west  to  the  north-eastern  seaports  (and  also  to  Canada),  have  a 
heavier  goods  traffic  than  any  other  lines  of  considerable  length 
iu  the  world.  The  companies  owning  these  lines  also  own  or  con- 
trol in  some  way  extensive  systems  reaching  as  far  west  as  Chicago, 
and  in  several  cases  to  the  Mississippi  at  St  Louis.  Two  great 
systems  centre  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Chicago  is  the  chief  traffic 
centre  of  the  interior. 

The  railways  having  at  first  to  serve  a  thinly  peopled  but  rapidly 
growing  country,  American  engineers  devised  methods  of  construc- 
tion and  working  which  produced  a  line  at  very  small  cost,  lacking 
very  many  of  the  appliances  considered  necessary  in  Europe,  but 
capable  of  being  extended  and  developed  as  the  country  itself  be- 
came more  settled  and  prosperous.  At  first  many  lines  cost  only 
£2000  per  mile,  and  much  better  lines  are  now  being  built  for 
£3000  per  mile  or  less.  Even  when  fully  developed  they  are  still 
usually  very  much  less  costly  than  European  railways.  Some  of 
the  large  systems  have  cost,  on  the  average,  only  from  £7000  to 
£SOOO  per  mile.  The  average  reported  cost  in  1884  of  the  125,000 
miles  of  railway  in  the  United  States  was  £11,400  per  mile  ;  but 
the  actual  average  cost  is  probably  much  less. 

In  the  United  States  coal  for  fuel  and  timber  for  building  and 
other  purposes  are  carried  by  railway  1500  miles  or  more  from  the 
place  of  production.  Cattle  are  carried  2000  miles  and  more,  and 
wheat  and  other  grains  worth  but  half  as  much  per  ton,  in  immense 
quantities,  1500  to  1800  miles.  This  is  possible  only  by  rates 
which  in  most  countries  would  be  thought  ruinously  low.  But  in 
recently  settled  parts  of  the  United  States  the  population  are  often 
dependent  upon  the  railway  for  almost  everything  they  consume  ; 
and  almost  everything  they  produce,  except  their  bread  and  meat, 
has  to  be  carried  by  the  same  means.  Thus  the  traffic  per  inhabit- 
ant is  very  much  larger  than  in  most  old  countries.  Hence  too 
manufactured  goods  can  often  be  carried  1000  or  1500  miles  at  a 
cost  very  little  more  than  that  at  the  place  of  manufacture  or 
importation.  In  one  year  the  five  eastern  trunk  lines  received  at 
their  western  termini  (about  450  miles  from  New  York)  for  trans- 
portation eastwards  8,200,000  tons  of  goods,  equal  to  more  than 
26,000  tons  daily.  This  has  greatly  promoted  the  formation  of 
large  railway  systems  and  the  construction  of  branches  and  exten- 
sions by  railway  companies  near  unsettled  districts.  A  company 
with  a  line  500  miles  long  is  induced  to  make  extensions  not  only 
by  the  profit  to  be  made  on  the  new  line,  which  in  a  new  country 
may  be  almost  nothing  for  several  years,  but  also  by  the  profit 
made  by  carrying  the  traffic  of  the  new  line  over  the  500  miles  of 
old  railway.  Comparing  the  traffic  per  inhabitant  in  the  United 
States,  Germany,  and  Austria-Hungary  in  1883,  we  get  (Table 
XXXIV.)  :— 


Thus  each  American  travels  three-fifths  more  and  has  3£  times  as 
much  goods  transportation  done  for  him  as  the  average  German. 

The  railways  of  America  have  enjoyed  great  liberty  in  fixing  their 
rates,  which,  however,  have  been  somewhat  restricted  by  new  legisla- 
tion in  several  States  since  1870,  notably  one  limiting  the  New 
York  Central  to  2  cents  (Id.)  per  mile  for  all  classes  of  passengers. 
The  average  rates  for  goods  have  been  reduced  very  much  since  the 
Civil  War  and  even  since  1875.  Passenger  rates  have  also  been 
reduced,  but  not  nearly  so  much.  Table  XXXV.  shows,  in  pence, 
the  average  goods  rates  per  ton  on  a  few  important  railways  : — 


From  the  whole  country  the  averages  in  1884  were — rate  per 
mile,  0'629d.  ;  per  ton  of  goods,  0'502d.  ;  per  passenger,  l'178d. 
This  on  the  average  goods  rate  from  1880  to  1884  was  a  reduction 
of  13  per  cent,  amounting  to  more  than  £13,000,000  on  the  traffic 
of  1884.  The  passenger  rates  of  the  above-named  railways  have 
been  in  pence  per  mile  (Table  XXXVI.) :— : 


1S69. 

1870. 

1871. 

1875. 

1882. 

1884. 

Highest  rate  

188 

180 

130 

100 

75 

75 

50 

30 

30 

30 

40 

United 

States. 

Germany. 

Austria- 
Hungary. 

Passenger-miles  

158 

99 

39 

Ton-miles    

772 

212 

112 

Year. 

New  York 
Central. 

Penn- 
sylvania. 

Lake  Shore 
<v  Michigan 
Southern. 

Chicago 
and  North- 
Westeni. 

Union 
Pacific. 

1867 
1870 
1875 
1880 
1884 

1-540 
1-034 
0-711 
0-490 
0-464 

0-167 
0-865 
0-590 
0-491 
0-413 

1-050 
0-645 
0-423 
0-38S 

1-943 
1-724 
1-184 
0-831 
0-664 

1-155 
1-055 
0-781 

Year. 

New  York 
Central. 

Penn- 
sylvania. 

Lake  Shore 
&  Michigan 
Southern. 

Chicago 
and  North- 
Western. 

Union 
Pacific. 

1870 

1-045 

1-245 

1-306 

1-645 

1875 

1-070 

1-175 

1-189 

1-500 

1-640 

1880 

0-995 

1-127 

1-068 

1-335 

1-665 

1884 

0-970 

1-211 

1-085 

1-190 

1-485 

The  classification  of  passengers  is  but  little  developed  in  America. 
For  local  journeys  there  are  usually  but  one  class  and  one  rate  of 
fare  ;  but  on  several  important  lines  additional  charges  are  nm<!r 
for  certain  special  kinds  of  accommodation.  Railway  "wars' 
often  bring  down  the  through  fares  to  a  ridiculously  low  figure : 
for  instance,  the  first-class  fare  for  960  miles,  New  York  to  Chicago, 
has  been  £2  or  less,  and  the  immigrant  fare  during  the  spring  and 
summer  of  1884  was  4s.  The  rates  on  goods  are  innumerable  and 
are  often  changed.  Table  XXXVII.  gives  examples  of  the  great 
iluctuations  iu  these  rates,  the  figures  being  the  number  of  cents 
per  100  Ib  of  first-class  (the  highest  class)  freight : — 


The  rates  which  the  railways  have  endeavoured  to  maintain  on 
this  traffic  since  1877  have  been,  with  but  slight  changes,  75  cents 
for  first-class  freight,  60  for  second,  45  for  third,  35  for  fourth, 
and  25  cents  for  fifth.  The  highest  of  these  is  at  the  rate  of  T644 
cents  per  American  ton  per  mile  ( =  0-92d.  per  English  ton  per  mile) ; 
the  lowest  is  0'548  cent  (  =  0'307d.)  The  "basis  rate"  is  that  on 
grain  and  flour  from  Chicago  to  New  York, — grain,  flour,  and  meats 
forming  about  four-fifths  of  the  whole  traffic  eastwards.  Twenty 
cents  (  =  0'492  cent  or  0'275d.  per  ton  per  mile)  is  considered  a 
remunerative  rate.  Another  "basis  rate"  is  that  from  Chicago 
south-west  to  Kansas  City,  which  governs  rates  from  places  about 
500  miles  from  Chicago  west  and  south-west.  This  rate  is  usually 
nearly  the  same  as  that  from  Chicago  north-west  to  St  Paul,  400 
miles,  governing  a  large  amount  of  traffic  iu  that  direction.  Between 
the  Missouri  river  and  the  Pacific  coast  is  another  territory  with 
another  basis  ;  and  in  the  south,  rates  from  the  Atlantic  ports  to 
inland  towns  are  governed  by  one  general  rule,  as  also  those  from 
places  in  the  upper  Mississippi  valley  (like  St  Louis,  Chicago, 
Cincinnati,  and  Louisville)  to  the  same  or  other  interior  towns  of 
the  south.  Traffic  is  facilitated  on  the  longer  routes  by  organiza- 
tions known  as  "fast  freight  lines,"  whose  cars  run  over  several 
connecting  railways.  When  first  established  these  lines  were  in- 
dependent corporations,  owning  their  cars,  collecting  the  charges  for 
transportation,  and  paying  dividends  out  of  their  profits.  Now  all 
but  a  few  are  simply  co-operative  agencies  of  the  several  associated 
railway  companies,  which  contribute  cars  in  certain  agreed  pro- 
portions, and  share  the  expenses  of  the  joint  agencies,  each  com- 
pany receiving  the  earnings  for  the  freight  passing  over  its  railway 
precisely  as  for  any  through  freight. 

The  laws  governing  the  formation  of  railway  corporations  and  Cor] 
authorizing  railway  construction  differ  in  different  States,  but  in  atio: 
most  it  is  open  to  any  association  of  men  with  the  necessary  capital  man 
to  form  a  company  and  construct  a  railway  anywhere.  Generally  men 
the  laws  relating  to  raising  and  extending  capital  and  the  disposi- 
tion of  income  are  very  lax,  and  under  them  great  abuses  have 
occurred.  All  but  a  very  small  number  of  the  railways  have  been, 
projected  and  constructed  by  private  enterprise ;  but  many  com- 
panies have  received  aid  from  towns,  cities,  counties,  or  States,  and 
the  Federal  Government  and  the  State  of  Texas  (the  only  State 
owning  the  public  land  within  its  borders)  have  subsidized  many 
railways,  mostly  west  of  the  Mississippi,  by  immense  grants  of 
public  lands,  in  the  aggregate  amounting  to  200,000,000  acres. 
The'  Federal  Government  also  lent  its  bonds  to  the  amount  of 
£13,000,000  to  aid  in  the  construction  of  a  few  lines  between  the 
Missouri  and  the  Pacific  coast.  Between  1830  and  1840  several 
States  undertook  to  construct  railways  on  their  own  account ;  but 
most  of  these  attempts  ended  in  disaster,  and  the  railways  WITH 
completed  by  companies,  if  completed  at  all.  There  remain,  how- 
ever, two  State  railways,  one  138  miles  long  OAvned  by  Georgia, 
which  it  leases  to  a  corporation  for  working,  and  the  other  by 
Massachusetts,  mostly  in  the  long  Hoosac  tunnel.  Owing  to  the 
pernicious  system  of  raising  capital  for  railway  construction  from 
the  sale  of  bonds,  secured  only  by  the  property  bought  by  the 
proceeds,  before  the  end  of  1874  108  railway  companies  were  in- 
solvent, and  interest  was  unpaid  on  more  than  £100,000,000 
($497,807,660)  of  mortgage  bonds  which  they  had  issued.  Indci.l, 
of  the  total  nominal  railway  capital  of  the  LTnited  States  very 
nearly  one-half  is  represented  by  bonds.  One  great  company 
which  has  paid  dividends  for  many  years  has  £9,500,000  of  stock 
to  £20,000,000  of  debt.  The  management  of  railway  companies 
in  the  United  States  is  often  autocratic  to  the  last  degree.  Win  n 
once  directors  have  been  elected  by  the  vote  of  the  majority  of  the 
shareholders,  they  take  the  most  important  steps  without  ever  con- 
suiting  the  shareholders,  and  in  their  annual  reports  they  give  only 
such  information  as  they  please,  subject  to  no  examination  by  in- 
dependent auditors.  This  state  of  things  naturally  leads  to  grave 
abuses,  to  directoral  mismanagement  and  dishonest  speculation  in 
bonds  and  shares.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  authority  of  the 
directors  is  limited  by  the  charter  or  constitution  of  the  company. 

There  are  very  few,  if  any,  lines  which  have  trains  whose  speed  Sp< 
equals  that  of  the  fast  English  trains,  the  fastest  being  between 


R  A  I  — R  A  I 


255 


New  York  and  Philadelphia,  90  miles  in  112  minutes.  The  440 
miles  from  New  York  to  Buffalo  are  run  in  lOf  hours,  and  the  960 
miles  from  New  York  to  Chicago  in  25  hours.  A  great  obstacle  to 
fast  running  is  the  original  vice  of  construction  with  level  highway 
and  railway  crossings.  Only  few  lines  are  provided  with  the  block 
signals  and  interlocking  apparatus  recpaired  with  numerous  fast 
trains  ;  but  the  use  of  continuous  air-brakes  is  general.  There  has 
been  more  success  in  designing  appliances  to  mitigate  the  effect  of 
accidents  than  in  inventions  for  avoiding  them  altogether.  Acci- 
dents are  very  numerous,  the  casualties  being  more  frequent  in 
proportion  to  traffic  than  in  the  principal  European  countries.  The 
number  of  accidents  to  passengers,  however,  is  insignificant  when 
compared  with  that  of  accidents  to  employes  and  persons  walking 
over  crossing-lines.  In  1880  the  numbers  killed  and  injured  were 
(Table  XXXVIII.):— 


Pass- 
engers. 

Em- 
ployes. 

Others. 

Un- 
known. 

Total. 

Killed    

143 

Q23 

1472 

3 

2541 

Injured  

544 

3617 

1451 

62 

5674 

Total  .  .  . 

687 

4040 

2923 

65 

8215 

This  gives  one  passenger  killed  for  every  43,280,000  miles  travelled, 
and  one  injured  to  every  11,375,000.  In  the  United  Kingdom 
there  were  one  passenger  killed  for  every  960,000  miles  run  by 
passenger  trains,  and  one  injured  for  every  254,000  miles. 

Though  American  railways  have  steeper  grades  and  sharper 
curves  than  in  Europe,  the  loads  carried  in  freight  trains  are  some- 
times exceptionally  large  :  trains  of  45  or  50  eight-wheeled  cars 
each  loaded  with  nearly  18  tons  are  common.  The  average  load 
on  the  principal  lines  has  been  doubled  since  1870,  largely  by  the 
adoption  of  heavier  and  more  powerful  locomotives  and  by  the  better 
management  of  trains,  and  to  some  extent  by  a  better  condition  of 
permanent  way.  This  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  great  reduction 
in  the  rates  charged.  The  cost  of  working  American  railways  is 
usually  a  larger  proportion  of  the  earnings  than  in  Europe.  An 
American  railway  which  spends  60,  66|,  or  75  per  cent,  of  its  earn- 
ings for  working  expenses  would  in  England  be  called  costly  to 
work.  The  expense  per  ton  per  mile  on  several  railways  in  recent 
years  has  been,  in  cents  per  ton  of  2000  R>  (Table  XXXIX.) : — 


All  U.S. 

New  York 
Central. 

Erie. 

Penn- 
sylvania. 

Lake 
Shore. 

Wabash. 

Illinois 
Central. 

0-76 

0-600 

0-529 

0-473 

0-413 

0-694 

0-639 

The  expense  per  passenger  mile,  which  is  larger  than  in  Europe, 
since  the  traffic  is  nearly  all  first-class,  is  shown,  in  cents,  in  Table 


work  done  per  man  is  the  number  of  passenger  and  ton  miles  for  each 
man  employed  (which  cannot  be  given  for  the  United  Kingdom) ; 
this  is  snown  in  Table  XLI. : — 


All  U.S. 

New  York 
Central. 

Erie. 

Penn- 
sylvania. 

Lake 
Shore. 

Wabash. 

Illinois 
Central. 

1-710 

1-159 

1-372 

1-733 

1-166 

1-804 

1-075 

American  railways  also  contrive  to  do  their  work  with  a  very 
small  number  of  men.  In  1880  86,781  miles  of  railway  were 
worked  with  a  force  of  418,957  men,  or  4*7  men  per  mile,  against 
367,793  in  the  United  Kingdom  on  18,681  miles,  or  19 '7  per  mile, 
and  316,570  in  Germany,  or  14'3  per  mile.  The  greater  thinness 
of  traffic  on  American  lines  accounts  for  but  part  of  this,  for  the 
number  of  train-miles  per  year  per  man  employed  in  different 
countries  is  929  in  the  United  States,  350  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
476  in  Germany,  395  in  Austria-Hungary.  A  better  measure  of  the 


Per  Employe. 

United  States. 

Germany. 

A'wstria- 
Hungary. 

Passenger-miles    

14,860 

14,883 

11,111 

Ton-miles    

70,587 

31,050 

31,132 

The  principal  statistics  of  the  railways  of  the  United  States  in 
recent  years  are  shown  in  Table  XLII.  : — 


1884. 

1883. 

1882. 

1880. 

Miles  of  railway  

125,152 

24,587 
17,993 

5,911 

798,399 

120,552 

23,823 
16,889 

5,948 
738,660 

114,461      ! 

22,114 
15,551 

5,366 
710,451 

87,801 

17,412 
12,330 

4,475 
455,450 

Soiling  Stock  — 
No.  of  locomotives    .  . 
No.  of  passenger  car- 
riages 
Luggage,  mail,  and  ex- 
press cars 
Freight  cars    

Traffic  per  mile  of  railway 
Train-miles  —  Passenger 
Goods    .  . 

Total  .. 
Passenger-miles  

1,825 
2,958 

1,757 
3,274 

1,728 
3,186 

1,575 
2,860 

4,783 

5,031 

4,914 

4,435 

77,568 
352,845 

79,872 
367,904 

78,105 
366,480 

65,3P2 
329,027 

Ton-miles  

£ 
1,535,279,811 
1,384,910,888 

£ 
1,495,573,156 
1,336,951,209 

£                    £ 
1,403,350,022  1,085,144,512 
1,207,018,029  1,036,489,161 

Cost    

Earnings  from  — 
Passengers   

£ 
41,358,140 
100,573,982 
10,729,200 

£ 
41,367,451 
108,901,966 
11,153,139 

£ 
37,627,492 
97,155,664 
10,814,306 

£ 
28,820,342 
83,229,152 
4,040,625 

Goods    

Other  sources  

Total  

152,661,322 

161,422,556 

145,597,462 

116,090,119 

Working  expenses  
Per  cent,  of  earnings 

Net  earnings    

99,359,540 
65-21 

103,105,033 
63-78 

92.633,708 
63-61 

70,560,024 
60-78 

53,302,782 

58,317,518 

52,963,754 

45,530,095 

Per  passenger  train-mile  — 
Gross  earnings   

s.   d. 
4    2 
3    2| 

s.   d. 
4    7i 
3    4 

s.    d. 
4    9 
3    5i 

s.   d. 
4  Hi 
3    2 

Expenses  

Net  earnings   

0  11J 

1     3i 

1     3| 

1     Pi 

Per  goods  train-mile  — 
Gross  earnings   
Expenses  .   . 

s.    d. 
6    3 
4    2J 

s.  d. 
6    6 
4    4 

s.   d. 
6    7i 
4    5i 

s.   d. 
6  10i 
4    1 

Net  earninge   

2    0| 

2    2 

2    2 

2    Pi 

Per  passenger  mile  — 
Receipts  

d. 

1-178 
0-912 

d. 
1-211 
0-881 

d. 
1-257 
0-914 

d. 

1-165 
0-839 

Profit    

0-266 

0-330 

0-343 

0-32(3 

Per  ton-mile  — 
Receipts   

d. 
0-629 
0-425 

d. 

0-692 
0-413 

d. 

0-692 
0-441 

it 

0-722 
0-426 

Expenditure 

Profit     

0-204 

0-279               0-251 

0-296 

Average    No.    of    miles 
travelled  — 

26J 

27J 
110 

251' 
109 

23 
112 

Goods    

(A.  M.  W.— D.  W.  D.) 


RAIMBACH,  ABRAHAM  (1776-1843),  line-engraver,  a 
Swiss  by  descent,  was  born  in  London  in  1776.  Educated 
at  Archbishop  Tenison's  Library  School,  he  was  an  appren- 
tice to  J.  Hall  the  engraver  from  1789  to  1796.  For 
nine  years  part  of  his  working -time  was  devoted  to  the 
study  of  drawing  in  the  Royal  Academy  and  to  executing 
occasional  engravings  for  the  booksellers,  whilst  his  leisure 
hours  were  employed  in  painting  portraits  in  miniature. 
Having  formed  an  intimacy  with  Sir  David  Wilkie,  Raim- 
bach  in  1812  began  to  engrave  some  of  that  master's  best 
pictures.  The  Village  Politicians,  the  Rent-Day,  the  Cut 
Finger,  Blind-Man's  Buff,  the  Errand -Boy,  Distraining  for 
Rent,  the  Parish  Beadle,  and  the  Spanish  Mother  and  Child 
raised  him  in  the  estimation  of  connoisseurs,  the  French 
especially  holding  him  in  great  honour.  It  is  said  that  he 
never  employed  any  assistants,  but  executed  the  whole  of 
his  plates  with  his  own  hand.  At  his  death,  in  1843,  he 
held  a  gold  medal  awarded  to  him  for  his  Village  Poli- 


ticians at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1814.  He  was  elected 
corresponding  member  of  the  Institute  of  France  in  1835. 

RAIMONDI,  MARCANTOXIO.     See  MARCA^TONIO. 

RAIN.  See  METEOROLOGY,  vol.  xvi.  pp.  128,  150-4, 
180,  and  GEOLOGY,  vol.  x.  p.  267  sq. 

RAINBAND.  Every  transparent  substance  is  perfectly 
opaque  to  some  particular  kinds  of  light.  A  certain  shade 
of  orange  light  is  absorbed  by  the  vapour  of  water,  and, 
when  sunlight  which  has  traversed  a  stratum  containing 
this  vapour  is  decomposed  in  a  spectroscope,  the  blank 
caused  by  the  missing  rays  appears  as  a  black  band  or 
group  of  fine  lines.  This  is  called  the  rainband,  because 
from  its  intensity  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmo- 
sphere may  be  guessed  at,  and  the  occurrence  of  rain 
predicted  with  considerable  certainty.  It  has  long  been 
known  that  the  spectrum  of  sunlight  shows  lines  of 
telluric  as  well  as  of  solar  origin.  The  former  constitute 
the  absorption-spectrum  of  the  atmosphere  (see  SPECTRO- 


zoo 


SCOPY)  ;  some  are  produced  by  the  permanent  gases,  others 
by  aqueous  vapour,  which  is  always  present,  though  in 
variable  amount.  The  absorption -spectrum  of  water- 
vapour  has  been  minutely  studied  and  carefully  mapped 
by  Janssen  and  by  Cornu.  In  Angstrom's  table  of  normal 
solar  spectra  there  are  numerous  groups  of  lines  which 
appeared  most  conspicuous  when  the  sun  was  close  to  the 
horizon,  and  many  of  these  are  coincident  with  the  absorp- 
tion-lines of  water-vapour.  They  are  found  principally  in 
the  red  and  yellow,  and  the  main  group  is  seen  a  little  to 
the  red  side  of  the  D  line.  In  small  spectroscopes  the 
water-vapour  lines  appear  fused  together  into  a  band  on 
the  red  side  of  jD,  or  even  as  a  mere  widening  of  that  line. 
There  are  several  variable  bands  in  the  spectrum  which 
come  to  a  maximum  of  intensity  when  the  sun  is  on  the 
horizon.  These  are  due  to  absorption  by  the  permanent 
gases ;  the  one  which  in  a  small  instrument  appears  to 
separate  the  yellow  from  the  green  is  frequently  mistaken 
for  the  water-vapour  band,  and  this  is  the  cause  of  many 
incorrect  "  rainband  predictions."  In  1872  Professor  Piazzi 
Smyth  noticed  a  change  in  the  water- vapour  lines  before  and 
after  a  sirocco  in  Palermo,  and  the  same  phenomenon  was 
brought  before  him  very  strikingly  in  France  before  great 
rains  in  1875  (Edin.  Ast.  Obs.,  vol.  xiv.),  when  he  named 
the  main  group  of  water-vapour  lines  the  "  rainband." 

The  rainband  may  be  observed  with  any  spectroscope,  but  direct- 
vision  instruments  of  medium  size  are  most  convenient.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  spectroscope  should  have  as  great  dispersion  as 
possible  and  good  definition,  especially  at  the  red  end.  To  make 
an  observation  the  slit,  which  must  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  should  be 
narrowed  down  until  the  spectral  lines  are  sharp  and  clear.  The 
instrument  should  be  carefully  focused  to  get  the  maximum  absorp- 
tion effect ;  but  all  observers  lay  stress  on  noting  whether  the 
intensity  of  the  band  decreases  rapidly  or  gradually  as  the  altitude 
is  increased.  When  a  dark  band  is  observed  at  the  horizon  and  at 
the  zenith,  heavy  rain  is  almost  certain  to  follow  immediately.  It 
is  of  little  importance  whether  the  sky  be  clear  or  covered  with 
high  clouds  at  the  point  of  observation  ;  low  clouds  or  haze  make 
the  result  untrustworthy  by  shortening  the  line  of  sight,  thus 
reducing  the  strength  of  the  band  and  equalizing  it  in  all  directions. 
The  utility  of  the  spectroscope  in  meteorology  depends  on  its  power 
of  investigating  the  hygrometrical  conditions  of  the  whole  slice  of 
atmosphere  looked  through,  and  it  affords  a  means  of  ascertaining 
the  difference  of  humidity  in  different  directions.  The  hygrometer 
only  indicates  the  state,  as  regards  moisture,  of  the  few  yards  of 
air  surrounding  it.  The  great  difficulty  in  the  way  of  obtaining 
accurate  results  with  the  rainband  spectroscope  has  been  the  mental 
scale  of  comparison  employed  by  most  observers.  Although  some 
have  found  it  easy  to  estimate  the  intensity  of  the  baud  from  0  to 
20,  it  is  beyond  the  power  of  many  to  describe  it  in  figures  even 
from  0  to  5.  Professor  Piazzi  Smyth  noted  its  strength  relatively 
to  that  of  the  dry-air  band  between  the  green  and  yellow.  The 
fixed  solar  lines  E,  b,  and  F  have  been  used  as  a  closer  approxi- 
mation to  a  scale  in  instruments  not  powerful  enough  to  separate 
the  rainband  from  the  D  line.  This  compound  line  appears  to 
vary  from  something  less  intense  than  E  in  very  dry  weather  to 
something  considerably  darker  than  F  when  rain  is  imminent. 
Seven  degrees  can  be  discerned,  and  these  may  be  represented  by 
using  the  sign  =  to  mean  "of  equal  intensity  with,  >  to  mean 
"darker  than,"  and  <  "less  dark  than,"  as,  <E,  =  E,>E<b, 
=  b,>b<F,  =  F,  and  > F.  When  the  thin  solar  lines  in  the  green 
are  seen  very  distinctly  there  is  less  probability  of  rain  falling  than 
when  they  are  indistinct  or  invisible. 

The  following  table  gives  an  idea  of  the  intensities  corresponding 
to  rain-probabilities  at  Edinburgh. 


Intensity  of  rainband  with  D. 

Temperature. 

Prediction. 

<b. 
-ft. 

=  Z>. 
>b<  F  (thin  lines  distinct). 
>  b  <  F  (        „        indistinct). 
>1><F 
=  F. 
>F. 

Any. 
Below  40°  Fahr. 
Above  45°  Fahr. 
Below  60°  Fahr. 

Above  60°  Fahr. 
Any. 

No  rain. 
Probably  rain. 
Probably  no  rain. 

Probably  rain. 
Probably  no  rain. 
Rain. 
Much  rain. 

It  appears  that  the  average  percentage  of  fulfilments  of  ro- 
of "rain  "  and  "no  rain,"  made  for  a  period  of  twelve  he 


predictions 
lours  after 

one  observation  in  the  morning,  which  may  be  expected  in  Scotland 
is  about  75.  In  less  variable  climates,  such  as  those  of  the  south 
of  Europe  and  parts  of  the  United  States,  a  much  higher  degree  of 
accuracy  has  been  attained.  The  precise  strength  of  rainband 


which  corresponds  to  the  probability  of  a  fall  of  rain  within  a 
definite  time  depends  on  the  temperature  and  also  on  the  place  of 
observation  ;  in  every  case  it  must  be  determined  by  the  observer 
for  himself.  Very  dark  rainbands  are  found  to  precede  rain  in 
more  than  95  per  cent,  of  the  cases  everywhere  ;  entire,  or  almost 
entire,  absence  of  the  band  presages  a  dry  day  with  equal  prob- 
ability. With  a  spectroscope  powerful  enough  to  split  1)  a  mental 
numerical  scale  must  be  used  in  default  of  a  suitable  microniri,  i. 
and  by  practice  the  observer  will  be  able  to  draw  up  a  table  for  its 
conversion  into  probabilities  of  rain. 

The  production  of  an  artificial  absorption -line  the  intensity  of 
which  could  be  varied  by  known  degrees  suggested  itself  to  more 
than  one  observer  as  the  principle  for  a  rainband-micrometer.  A 
wedge  of  didymium  glass  comes  very  near  success  in  this  direction, 
but  the  absorption-line  is  awkwardly  situated.  Professor  Cook  of 
Dartmouth  College,  the  leading  meteorological  spectroscopist  in 
the  United  States,  has  constructed  a  micrometer  for  a  spectroscope 
of  sufficient  power  to  separate  the  rainband  into  lines.  A  silk 
fibre  is  fixed  to  a  frame  capable  of  being  moved  to  and  fro  in  the 
tube  of  the  spectroscope  by  a  micrometer  screw.  When  brought 
into  focus  the  fibre  appears  as  two  sharp  lines,  which  become  fainter 
and  wider  as  it  is  withdrawn.  When  the  lines  appear  of  equal 
intensity  with  the  most  prominent  line  of  the  rainband  (a  of  the 
D  group  in  Janssen's  map)  the  micrometer  is  read  ;  forty  shades  of 
intensity  may  be  indicated  by  it.  The  unit  proposed  for  graduating 
such  micrometers  on  a  uniform  scale  is  the  intensity  of  the  faintest 
and  least  refrangible  of  a  group  of  three  lines  in  the  red  (w.  I.  6207) 
of  the  spectrum  produced  by  a  1  centimetre  column  of  the  gas 
given  off  by  heated  lead  nitrate  (mixture  of  nitrogen  peroxide  and 
oxygen)  at  25°  C.  and  760  mm.  The  spectroscope  when  reinforced 
by  this  micrometer  has  been  found  to  indicate  with  unfailing  accu- 
racy the  existence  in  certain  parts  of  the  sky  of  banks  of  invisible 
cloud,  which  become  visible  when  a  fall  of  temperature  and  other 
necessary  conditions  allow  the  vapour  to  condense.  In  settled 
weather  such  masses  of  vapour  are  not  to  be  found,  the  micrometer 
readings  being  the  same  in  all  directions  at  the  same  altitude. 
Sometimes  the  rainband  grows  gradually  darker  for  several  days 
before  a  period  of  steady  and  long-continued  rain,  while  sudden 
violent  showers  may  give  very  short  notice. 

The  spectroscopic  history  of  a  thunderstorm  observed  on  9th 
June  1884  by  Professor  Cook  is  extremely  interesting.  During 
its  approach  the  water-vapour  line  observed  at  10°  north  of  the 
zenith  towards  the  storm  was  darker  by  ten  degrees  of  the  scale 
than  that  observed  10°  south  of  the  zenith,  although  to  the  eye 
the  clouds  presented  exactly  the  same  appearance  at  both  places. 
On  this  occasion  the  strength  of  the  line  varied  as  follows  : — 


Hour. 

At  zenith. 

At  30°. 

At  20°. 

At  10°. 

At  horizon. 

8  a.m.  . 

13 

21 

32 

43 

45 

9    „     . 

14 

23 

34 

44 

46 

10    „     . 

14 

25 

36 

45 

47 

11     „     . 

15 

27 

37 

46 

48 

11.  45  a.  m 

50 

Rain  commenced  11.30. 

12  noon. 

32 

Rain  ceased  12.10. 

12.  45  p.  m 

40 

,,     recommenced  12.20. 

1.30  „ 

15 

Rain  ceased  at  1.    Total  rain- 

fall, 1-6  inches  in  1J  hours. 

Some  relation  has  been  traced  between  the  variations  of  the  rain- 
band  and  the  appearance  of  aurora,  but  this  matter  is  not  yet 
fully  investigated.  (H.  R.  M.) 

RAINBOW.     See  LIGHT,  vol.  xiv.  p.  595  sq. 

RAINGAUGE    (PLUVIOMETER,     HYETOMETER,    UDO- 
METER).    The  value  of  the  measurement  of  rainfall  (see 
METEOROLOGY)  has  long  been  understood,  although  it  is 
only  within  the  last  hundred  years  that  trustworthy  results 
have  been  obtained.    Marriotte  is  claimed  as  the  originator 
of  the  raingauge  in  1677.     The  simplest  form  is  an  open 
vessel  of  uniform  diameter  exposed  to  the  rain,  in  which 
the  depth  of  water  collected  during  any  interval  of  time 
may  be  measured.     In  order  to  reduce  evaporation  the 
mouth  of  the  gauge  is  usually  a  funnel  of  the  same  diametei 
as  the  vessel ;  and  some  means,  such  as  an  external  narrow 
glass  tube  graduated   in  inches  and  parts  to  show  the 
height  of  the  water  inside,  or  a  float  bearing  a  graduatec 
rod,  or,  in  more  delicate  forms,  a  movable  scale  which  ma? 
be  set  by  a  vernier  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  is  adoptee 
to  facilitate  measurement.     Raingauges  on  this  plan  can 
not  be  very  accurate ;  their  one  advantage  is  that  the  ar« 
of  the  collecting  surface  does  not  require  to  be  known 
The  disadvantages  are  that  so  much  water  is  required  fr 
wet  the  sides  of  the  vessel  as  to  make  the  instrument  rea« 
too  low  when  a  side  tube  is  used,  and  the  tube  is  liable  t 


R  A  I  —  R  A  I 


257 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

FIG.  1. — Glaisher's  rain  and 


be  broken  in  frost ;  when  a  float  and  rod  are  employed, 
the  rod  projecting  above  the  funnel  catches  rain  and  the 
resulting  reading  is  too  high.  Almost  all  raingauges  now 
used  have  a  circular  funnel  of  known  diameter,  which  con- 
ducts the  rain-water  to  a  receiver,  from  which  it  may  be 
poured  into  a  special  narrow  measuring-glass  so  graduated 
that  what  would  cover  a  space  of  the  area  of  the  funnel  to 
the  depth  of  1  inch  fills  a  portion  of  the  glass  large  enough 
to  be  easily  graduated  into  100  parts.  The  funnel  may 
have  any  diameter  from  3  to  24  inches  without  introduc- 
ing a  greater  discrepancy  than  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  of  rain  collected,  but  5  and  8  inches  are  the  dia- 
meters usually  employed,  and  the  measuring -glasses  are 
graduated  accordingly.  Advantage  is  sometimes  taken  of 
the  fact  that  for  a  funnel  4' 697  inches  in  diameter  1  fluid 
ounce  of  water  collected  represents  one-tenth  of  an  inch  of 
rain,  since  the  area  is  17' 33  square  inches,  and  a  fluid 
ounce  at  60°  Fahr.  contains  I1 733  cubic  inches  of  water. 

The  best  form  of  instrument,  Glaisher's  rain  and  snow  gauge 
recommended  by  the  Royal  Meteoro- 
logical Society,  is  a  cylindrical  copper 
vessel  8  inches  in  diameter  and  18 
inches  high,  in  which  the  funnel  is 
placed  about  halfway  down  (see  fig.  1 ). 
The  Scottish  Meteorological  Society 
largely  employ  Howard's  raingauge,  a 
plain  glass  bottle  holding  about  half 
a  gallon  and  provided  with  a  long 
5 -inch  copper  funnel,  which  has  a 
collar  fitting  over  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  to  prevent  rain  from  being 
blown  in  laterally  by  the  wind.  In 
some  forms  the  funnel  leads  to  a  long 
glass  tube  divided  into  inches,  tenths, 
and  hundredths  of  rainfall.  Mr 
Symon's  storm  raingauge  on  this  prin- 
ciple is  intended  to  be  read  from  a 
distance,  and  is  only  graduated  into 
tenths  of  an  inch.  The  water  col- 
lected by  a  raingauge  may  be  weighed  snow  gauge, 
instead  of  measured,  but  the  latter  FlG-  2. -Graduated  measuring 
process  being  much  more  simple  is  glass, 
always  adopted,  at  a  slight  expense  of  accuracy,  however,  as  the 
variation  of  volume  with  temperature  is  not  taken  into  account. 
Precipitation  and  evaporation  being  complementary  phenomena, 
an  atmometer  or  evaporation-gauge  ought,  strictly  speaking,  to  ac- 
company each  raingauge.  But  none  of  the  instruments  yet  devised 
can  be  regarded  as  satisfactory,  accordingly  a  number  of  devices 
have  been  introduced  to  calculate  or  to  minimize  the  evaporation 
from  raingauges.  Dr  Garnett  in  1795  proposed  to  use  two  gauges 
of  unequal  size,  and  recently  Prof.  Michie  Smith  has  introduced 
a  simplification  by  making  the  area  of  one  gauge  exactly  double 
that  of  the  other.  If  the  evaporation  is  the  same  from  each,  the 
difference  between  the  readings  of  the  two  gauges  gives  the  true 
rainfall  in  the  smaller.  If  A  be  the  area  of  the  funnel  in  the 
smaller,  1A  that  of  the  funnel  in  the  larger,  V  a  certain  volume  of 
water  placed  in  each  gauge,  E  the  evaporation,  and  R  the  inches 
of  rainfall,  then  V+ 1AR  -  E  -  (  V+  A  R  -  E)  =  AE,  however  V  and 
E  may  vary.  The  simplest  and  best  method  is  to  use  a  funnel 
terminating  in  a  long  straight  tube,  which  reaches  almost  to  the 
bottom  of  the  receiving  vessel.  Gauges  have  been  constructed  for 
experimental  purposes  always  to  face  the  wind,  and  with  openings 
capable  of  being  fixed  at  any  angle.  For  use  at  sea  they  may  be 
swung  on  gimbals  ;  but  when  so  employed  the  record  must  be  sup- 
plemented by  the  readings  of  a  hydrometer  so  as  to  detect  and 
allow  for  any  admixture  with  sea-spray.  Self-registering  and  self- 
recording  raingauges,  as  frequently  used  in  meteorological  observa- 
tories, are  constructed  on  two  leading  types.  In  Hermann's 
"hyetometrograph,"  1789,  a  fixed  funnel  conducts  the  rain  into 
one  of  twelve  glasses  placed  on  the  circumference  of  a  horizontal 
wheel,  which  is  turned  by  clockwork  so  that  each  glass  remains 
under  the  funnel  for  one  hour.  In  Stutter's  more  recent  instru- 
ment the  receiving  funnel  delivers  into  a  smaller  funnel,  which  has 
a  sloping  tube  and  is  carried  round  by  clockwork  so  as  to  remain 
for  one  hour  over  each  of  twenty-four  fixed  glasses  arranged  in  a 
circle.  The  second  kind  of  self-registering  instrument  produces  a 
continuous  record  of  rainfall,  indicating  the  hour  of  commencement 
and  close  of  each  shower,  the  amount  of  rain  that  has  fallen,  and 
the  rate  at  which  it  fell.  In  Beckley's  "  pluviograph  "  a  pencil, 
attached  to  a  vessel  which  sinks  as  it  receives  the  rain,  describes  a 
curve  on  a  sheet  of  paper  fixed  round  a  rotating  cylinder ;  when 
full  the  receiver  empties  itself  by  means  of  a  siphon  and  the  pencil 
is  carried  rapidly  upwards,  describing  a  straight  vertical  line. 


The  higher  a  raingauge  is  placed  above  the  ground,  or  rather 
above  a  broad  flat  surface,  the  smaller  is  the  rainfall  registered,  as 
the  following  figures  indicate  : — 

Height  of  funnel  above  ground  in  feet..    01         10       20       40      200 
Rain  registered  (average) 1'07    TOO    0'93    0'90    0'70    0'58 

When  the  mouth  of  the  gauge  is  on  or  within  a  few  inches  of  the 
ground  the  insplashing  of  raindrops  increases  the  amount  of  water. 
Minute  rain-spherules,  which  usually  float  in  horizontal  or  oblique 
planes,  are  most  numerous  near  the  ground,  where  consequently 
they  coalesce  to  form  regular  drops  which  fall  into  the  funnel. 
The  raindrops  also  increase  slightly  in  size  by  condensing  moisture 
as  they  fall.  But  the  greatest  effect  is  probably  produced  by  wind, 
which  forms  eddies  round  high  and  isolated  objects,  thus  more  or 
less  interfering  with  the  fall  of  rain  into  the  gauge.  It  is  obvious 
that  all  raingauges  intended  for  comparison  should  be  fixed  at  the 
same  height,  and  in  Great  Britain  the  standard  distance  of  the 
mouth  of  the  funnel  from  the  ground  or  from  a  broad  flat  surface 
is  one  foot.  The  situation  of  a  raingauge  should  be  perfectly  open, 
especially  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  rainbringing  winds. 
In  measuring  rain  it  is  essential  to  see  that  the  funnel  is  not 
indented  or  deformed  in  any  way,  and  that  the  collecting  vessel  is 
inaccessible  to  air  or  rain  except  through  the  funnel.  The  temper- 
ature of  rain  as  it  falls  should  be  observed  whenever  it  is  possible 
to  do  so.  The  amount  of  solid  matter  collected  in  the  raingauge 
should  be  ascertained  and  recorded  as  bearing  on  Mr  Aitkeu's 
theory  of  rain  (see  EVAPORATION),  and  it  should  be  examined  micro- 
scopically for  volcanic  and  cosmic  dust.  (H.  R.  M.) 

RAIPUR,  a  district  of  India,  in  the  Chhatisgarh  division 
of  the  Central  Provinces,  lying  between  19°  48'  and  21° 
45'  N.  lat.  and  80°  28'  and  82°  38'  E.  long.,  with  an  area 
of  11,855  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Bilaspur,  on  the  E.  by  Sambalpur  and  Patna,  on  the  W. 
by  Balaghat,  Bhandara,  and  Chanda,  and  on  the  S.  by 
Bastar  and  Jeypur.  The  district  spreads  out  in  a  vast 
plateau  closed  in  by  ranges  of  hills  branching  from  the 
great  Vindhyan  chain.  It  is  drained  by  the  Seonath  and 
the  Karun  rivers,  which  subsequently  unite  and  form  the 
Mahanadi.  Geologically  the  country  consists  in  the  hilly 
tracts  of  gneiss  and  quartzite ;  the  sandstone  rocks  in  the 
west  are  intersected  with  trap  dykes.  Iron  ore  is  abun- 
dant, and  red  ochre  of  high  repute  is  found.  In  the 
interior  the  principal  strata  are  a  soft  sandstone  slate 
(covered  generally  by  a  layer  of  laterite  gravel)  and  blue 
limestone,  which  crops  out  in  numerous  places  on  the 
surface  and  is  invariably  found  in  the  beds  of  the  rivers. 
Throughout  the  plains  the  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The 
climate  is  generally  good ;  the  mean  temperature  is  78° 
and  the  average  rainfall  about  49  inches. 

The  population  of  Raipur  in  1881  was  1,405,171  (males  696,242, 
females  708,929).  By  religion  856,492  were  Hindus,  14,991  Moham- 
medans, and  821  Christians.  The  only  town  with  a  population 
exceeding  10,000  is  RAIPUR  (see  below).  Attached  to  the  district 
are  four  feudatory  states,  viz.,  Chhuikhadan  (with  32,979  inha- 
bitants), Kanker  (63,610),  Khairagarh  (166,138),  and  Nandgaon 
(164,339).  Their  combined  area  is  2658  square  miles. 

Of  the  total  area  under  British  administration  only  3636  square 
miles  are  cultivated,  and  of  the  portion  lying  waste  4337  acres  are 
returned  as  cultivable.  The  staple  crop  is  rice  ;  other  crops  are 
wheat,  food-grains,  oil-seeds,  and  cotton.  The  commerce  of"  Raipur 
is  of  quite  recent  creation,  for  under  the  Mahrattas  the  transit  dues 
that  were  levied  prevented  its  development.  The  exports  consist 
mainly  of  grain,  cotton,  and  lac,  while  metals  constitute  the  chief 
import.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  district  for  1883-84  amounted  to 
about  £89,829,  of  which  the  land  yielded  £64,871. 

Raipur  was  governed  by  the  Haihai-Bansi  dynasty  of  Ratanpur 
for  many  centuries  until  their  deposition  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1741. 
The  country  was  then  already  in  a  condition  of  decay,  and  soon 
afterwards  it  relapsed  into  absolute  anarchy.  In  1818  it  was  taken 
under  British  superintendence  and  made  rapid  progress.  It  fell 
with  the  rest  of  the  Nagpur  dominions  to  the  British  Government 
in  1854.  Raipur  suffered  but  little  during  the  mutiny. 

EAIPUR,  chief  town  of  the  above  district  and  head- 
quarters of  the  Chhatisgarh  division  of  the  Central  Pro- 
vinces, is  situated  in  21°  15'  K  lat.  and  81°  41'  E.  long.,  on 
a  plateau  950  feet  above  sea-level.  In  1881  its  population 
amounted  to  24,948  (12,447  males  and  12,501  females). 
The  modern  town  dates  from  1830,  and  carries  on  a  flour- 
ishing trade  in  grain,  lac,  cotton,  &c. 

XX.  —  33 


258 


R  A  I  — R  A  I 


RATS,  RAIZ,  or  RETZ,  GILLES  DE  (d.  1440),  marshal  of 
France,  seigneur  of  Hautpart  and  of  many  other  lordships, 
who  was  hanged  and  burned  at  Nantes  in  1440,  has  left 
a  name  connected  directly  with  one  of  the  most  horrible 
stories  in  history,  and  indirectly  with  other  curious  matter. 
Not  much  is  known  of  Rais  before  the  trial  which  made 
his  name  infamous.  He  was  of  the  noblest  blood  of  the 
marches  of  Brittany,  being  on  the  father's  side  of  the 
Laval  branch  of  the  ducal  family  of  Montfort,  and  being 
connected  through  his  mother  and  by  marriage  with  the 
houses  of  Craon,  Thouars,  and  others.  His  possessions  in 
the  district  from  which  he  took  his  name,  and  which 
borders  the  estuary  of  the  Loire  on  the  south,  as  well  as 
along  the  river,  were  great,  and  his  chief  seat  was  at 
Champtoce".  He  had  served  in  the  English  wars  with 
the  credit  of  a  brave  knight,  had  a  rather  special  reputa- 
tion for  devotion,  had  been  marshal  since  1429,  and  had 
held  the  alms -dish  at  the  coronation  of  Charles  VII. 
Suddenly  he  was  arrested,  tried,  and,  as  above  stated, 
executed  on  the  evidence  of  accomplices  and  his  own  con- 
fession. The  crimes  with  which  he  was  charged  extended 
over  some  fourteen  years.  During  that  period  it  was 
alleged  that  he  had,  through  different  agents,  especially 
a  woman  called  La  Meffraie,  kidnapped  or  enticed  to 
his  various  abodes  large  numbers  (Monstrelet  says  100, 
others  140)  of  children.  These  children,  after  being  sub- 
jected to  every  outrage  of  lust  and  cruelty,  were  sacrificed 
to  the  devil,  their  blood  used  for  magical  ceremonies, 
their  bodies  burned,  and  their  bones  buried  in  the  precincts 
of  Rais's  castles.  The  ultimate  purpose  of  this  devil- 
worship  was  asserted  to  be  the  acquisition  by  Rais  (who 
was  assisted  by  divers  sorcerers,  especially  an  Italian  im- 
ported for  the  purpose)  of  power  and  honours  in  the  state. 
The  depositions  were  very  full  and  still  exist,  and  on  them 
and  his  confession  Rais  was  executed.  It  is,  however, 
somewhat  suspicious  that  the  bishop  of  Nantes,  who  pro- 
moted, and  the  duke  of  Brittany,  who  sanctioned  the  pro- 
ceedings, were  both  bitter  personal  enemies  of  Rais,  while 
the  king,  who  was  also  concerned,  had  for  a  main  part  of 
his  policy  the  putting  down  of  feudal  barons  who,  like 
Rais,  held  posts  of  vantage  in  the  country.  The  two  chief 
contemporary  authors  who  mention  the  case,  Monstrelet 
and  Chastellain,  speak  of  it  with  somewhat  less  horror 
than  might,  even  allowing  for  possible  political  sympathies, 
have  been  expected.  Monstrelet  (who  says  that  Rais  was 
charged  with  the  murder  of  pregnant  women  also)  says 
that  "  many  ladies  and  damsels  "  begged  his  body  of  the 
duke,  and  that  great  part  of  the  nobles  of  Brittany,  not 
only  his  relations,  had  great  sorrow  and  sadness  for  his 
death.  Chastellain  introduces  the  ghost  of  Rais  in  rather 
striking  fashion  in  his  Temple  de  Bocace  as  "  followed  by 
a  multitude  of  little  children  crying  '  Vengeance.' "  The 
affair  affected  public  imagination  as  much  because  of 
the  rarity  of  a  criminal  of  such  rank  being  brought  to 
justice  as  of  the  heinousness  of  the  crimes  attributed 
to  him.  Locally  it  took  a  very  strong  hold  of  the  popu- 
lar mind,  and  a  tradition  not  easy  to  trace  connects 
it  with  the  Bluebeard  legend,  which  finally  took  shape 
in  the  hands  of  Perrault.  This  connexion,  however, 
hardly  bears  examination.  In  the  first  place,  there  is 
no  evidence  that  Rais  ever  was  called  Bluebeard,  though 
a  contemporary  English  adventurer  who  is  mentioned 
by  Holinshed  was  so  called,  and  may  have  left  a  bad 
reputation  in  France.  In  the  second,  it  is  impossible  to 
trace  even  the  most  superficial  resemblance  between  the 
stories.  In  Bluebeard  there  are  no  children  concerned, 
no  unnatural  crimes,  no  sorcery ;  it  is  merely  one  of 
the  numerous  stories  of  "punished  curiosity"  so  fre- 
quent in  folk-lore.  As  it  stands  the  Rais  story  is  too 
horrible  to  make  much  of  a  figure  in  literature;  but  it 


has  attracted   some   students  of   causes  celebrcs,   notably 
Dumas  file  in  his  Tristan  le  Roux. 

For  authorities  besides  the  passages  of  Monstrelet  and  Chastellain 
above  quoted,  Michelet,  Histoire  dc  France,  and  Vallet  de  Virivillc, 
Histoire  de  Charles  VII.,  may  be  consulted.  Mezeray's  account, 
usually  followed  in  books  of  reference,  is  loose  ;  he  had  evidently 
not  seen  the  records,  nor  even  Monstrelet.  But  his  assignment  of 
a  state  crime  against  the  duke  as  the  real  cause  of  death  is  very 
probable,  though  not  formally  correct. 

RAISINS  are  the  dried  fruits  of  certain  varieties  of  the 
grape  vine,  Vitis  vim/era,  which  grow  principally  in  the 
warm  climate  of  the  Mediterranean  coasts  and  are  com- 
paratively rich  in  sugar.  The  use  of  dried  grapes  or  raisins 
as  food  is  of  great  antiquity  (Numb.  vi.  3 ;  1  Sam.  xxv. 
18,  xxx.  12).  In  mediaeval  times  raisins  imported  from 
Spain  were  a  prized  luxury  in  England,  and  to  the  pre- 
sent day  Great  Britain  continues  to  be  the  best  customer 
of  the  raisin-producing  regions.  "  Raisins  of  the  sun  "  are 
obtained  by  letting  the  fruit  continue  on  the  vines  after 
it  has  come  to  maturity,  where  there  is  sufficient  sunshine 
and  heat  in  the  autumn,  till  the  clusters  dry  on  the  stocks. 
Another  plan  is  partially  to  sever  the  stalk  before  the 
grapes  are  quite  ripe,  thus  stopping  the  flow  of  the  sap, 
and  in  that  condition  to  leave  them  on  the  vines  till  they 
are  sufficiently  dry.  The  more  usual  process,  however, 
is  to  cut  off  the  fully  ripe  clusters  and  expose  them, 
spread  out,  for  several  days  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  taking 
care  that  they  are  not  injured  by  rain.  In  unfavourable 
weather  they  may  be  dried  in  a  heated  chamber,  but 
are  then  inferior  in  quality.  In  some  parts  of  Spain  and 
France  it  is  common  to  dip  the  gathered  clusters  in  boiling 
water,  or  in  a  strong  potash  lye,  a  practice  which  softens 
the  skin,  favours  drying,  and  gives  the  raisins  a  clear 
glossy  appearance.  Again,  in  Asia  Minor  the  fruit  is 
dipped  into  hot  water  on  the  surface  of  which  swims  a 
layer  of  olive  oil,  which  communicates  a  bright  lustre  and 
softness  to  the  skin.  Some  superior  varieties  are  treated 
with  very  great  care,  retained  on  their  stalks,  and  sent 
into  the  market  as  clusters  for  table  use ;  but  the  greater 
part  are  separated  from  the  stalks  in  the  process  of  drying 
and  the  stalks  winnowed  out  of  the  fruit.  Raisins  come 
from  numerous  Mediterranean  localities,  and  present  at 
least  three  distinct  varieties, — (1)  ordinary  or  large  raisins, 
(2)  sultana  seedless  raisins,  and  (3)  currants  or  Corinthian 
raisins  (see  vol.  vi.  p.  715).  The  greater  proportion  of 
the  common  large  raisins  of  English  commerce  comes  from 
the  provinces  of  Malaga,  Valencia,  and  Alicante  in  Spain ; 
these  are  known  by  the  common  name  of  Malaga  raisins. 
Those  of  the  finest  quality,  called  Malaga  clusters,  are 
prepared  from  a  variety  of  muscatel  grape,  and  preserved 
on  the  stalks  for  table  use.  This  variety,  as  well  as 
Malaga  layers,  so  called  from  the  manner  of  packing,  are 
exclusively  used  as  dessert  fruit.  Raisins  of  a  somewhat 
inferior  quality,  known  as  "lexias,"  from  the  same  pro- 
vinces, are  used  for  cooking  and  baking  purposes.  Smyrna 
raisins  also  come  to  some  extent  into  the  English  market. 
The  best  quality,  known  as  Eleme",  is  a  large  fruit,  having 
a  reddish  yellow  skin  with  a  sweet  pleasant  flavour. 
Large-seeded  dark-coloured  raisins  are  produced  in  some 
of  the  islands  of  the  Greek  Archipelago  and  in  Crete,  but 
they  are  little  seen  in  the  British  markets.  In  Italy  the 
finest  raisins  are  produced  in  Calabria,  inferior  qualities 
in  central  Italy  and  in  Sicily.  From  the  Lipari  Islands 
a  certain  quantity  of  cluster  raisins  of  good  quality  is 
sent  to  England.  In  the  south  of  France  raisins  of  high 
excellence — Provence  raisins  in  clusters — are  obtained^ 
at  Roquevaire,  Lunel,  and  Frontignan.  Sultana  seedless 
raisins  are  the  produce  of  a  small  variety  of  yellow  grape, 
cultivated  exclusively  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Smyrna. 
The  vines  are  grown  on  a  soil  of  decomposed  hippurite 
limestone,  on  sloping  ground  rising  to  a  height  of  400  feet 


R  A  J  — R  A  J 


259 


above  the  sea,  and  all  attempts  to  cultivate  sultanas  in 
other  raisin -growing  localities  have  failed,  the  grapes 
quickly  reverting  to  a  seed -bearing  character.  The  dried 
fruit  has  a  fine  golden-yellow  colour,  with  a  thin,  delicate, 
translucent  skin  and  a  sweet  aromatic  flavour.  A  very 
fine  seedless  oblong  raisin  of  the  sultana  type  with  a 
brownish  skin  is  cultivated  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Damascus,  but  it  is  rarely  seen  in  the  Western  markets. 

Raisins  are  chiefly  valuable  on  account  of  the  large  proportion 
of  grape  sugar  and  cream  of  tartar  which  they  contain.  In  old 
dry  raisins  these  substances  are  found  in  hard  nodular  masses. 
The  seeds  contain  from  15  to  18  per  cent,  of  a  bland  fixed  oil  and 
about  5  per  cent,  of  tannin.  The  imports  into  the  United  Kingdom 
average  in  value  about  £1,000,000  yearly,  the  quantity  imported 
in  1883  having  been  588,309  cwt,  valued  at  £1,057,934. 

RAJA  (English  form  RAJAH),  Sanskrit  nom.  sing,  of  the 
stem  rajan  (in  modern  Indian  vernaculars  rdjd,  rdjah,  raja, 
rdjan,  rdzu,  irdsen,  also  the  forms  rdi,  rdo,  rand  are  trace- 
able to  the  same  stem)  =  king,  prince,  chief,  from  the  root 
raj,  to  be  resplendent.  In  the  oldest  times  the  headman 
of  any  petty  tribe  was  called  raj  A  from  the  fact  of  his 
being  conspicuous  for  the  number  of  golden  ornaments 
with  which  he  was  decked  out.  Then  rajd  became  the  com- 
mon designation  for  a  king,  whether  of  a  small  tribe  or  of 
a  large  state.  The  constitution  of  all  states  was  monarch- 
ical, mostly  hereditary,  occasionally  also  electoral,  but  in 
no  case  absolute,  for  the  people  had  a  voice  in  the  govern- 
ment. On  the  other  hand,  the  king  was  greatly  hampered 
in  his  action  by  his  duties  towards  the  priestly  caste. 
Even  in  that  later  stage  of  Indian  civilization  which  we 
find  portrayed  in  the  code  of  Manu  the  king  appears  as 
subordinate  to  the  priest,  though  his  prerogative  is  in 
all  other  respects  paramount,  especially  in  the  matter  of 
revenue.  Theoretically  this  system  has  been  continued 
ever  since ;  but  practically  the  raja's  powers  have  been 
gradually  extended,  some  of  them  being  distributed  by 
him  at  his  pleasure  among  various  officials,  who  were 
rewarded,  not  by  regular  salaries,  but  by  grants  and  the 
profits  of  oppression.1  It  thus  appears  that  the  title  is, 
strictly  speaking,  only  applicable  to  Hindu  potentates,  but 
in  practice  it  is  not  unfrequently  used  to  indicate  a  ruling 
chief  irrespective  of  his  nationality  or  creed. 

The  rights  and  privileges  assigned  to  rajas  by  treaty 
and  usage  are  manifold  and  varied.  But  all  rajas  are 
precluded  from  waging  war  against  an  external  foe  save 
with  the  permission  of  the  British  Government,  and  so 
none  can  be  said  to  be  independent  in  the  fullest  sense 
of  the  word.  At  the  same  time  there  are  several  princes 
in  India  who  titularly  hold  that  status,  in  so  far,  that  is, 
as  they  possess  the  right  to  administer  their  kingdom 
according  to  their  own  notions  of  justice  and  equity  ;  but 
even  in  these  instances,  and  they  are  few,  British  residents 
are  attached  to  the  various  courts,  charged  to  advise  in 
the  interests  of  good  government  and  righteous  dealing. 
Such  officers  seldom  fail  to  secure  a  powerful  influence, 
and  it  is  not  often  that  their  counsel  is  disregarded  or 
their  representations  pass  unheeded.  More  than  this, 
when  flagrant  injustice  occurs  the  British  Government  is 
occasionally  compelled  to  interfere,  and  instances  are  not 
wanting  when  a  rajA  has  been  deposed,  notwithstanding 
a  clause  in  his  treaty  forbidding  the  intervention  of  the 
British  Government  in  the  affairs  of  his  state.  Such  cases, 
which  are  not  frequent,  are  justified  by  political  necessity. 
In  many  instances  native  chiefs  are  allowed  by  treaty  to 
maintain  a  military  force,  but  at  the  present  time  the 
troops  principally  serve  to  gratify  the  cravings  of  Eastern 
potentates  for  the  outward  and  visible  signs  of  power. 

Rajas  of  lesser  note  retain  a  semblance  of  power  so  far 

1  See  for  the  Vedic  period,  H.  Zimmer,  Altindisches  Leben,  Berlin, 
1879,  p.  162  sq.  ;  for  later  times,  M.  Duncker,  Geschichte  des  Alter  - 
thums,  iii.  152  sq. ,  and  Tod's  Antiquities  of  Rajasthan,  passim. 


as  concerns  questions  of  minor  importance,  but  in  grave 
cases  involving  issues  of  life  and  death  the  officer  attached 
to  the  court  reviews  and,  should  it  be  necessary,  modifies 
or  reverses  the  decrees  which  may  be  passed..  Chieftains 
in  this  category  do  not  even  enjoy  the  appearance  of  inde- 
pendence, though  in  many  instances  they  are  allowed  to 
keep  a  body  of  military  retainers. 

Other  rajas  are  merely  large  and  wealthy  landholders 
with  no  sovereign  rights  or  privileges,  resembling  in  many 
respects  the  territorial  magnates  of  Great  Britain ;  while  in 
some  instances  the  term  is  simply  a  title  of  distinction 
unconnected  with  the  possession  of  land  or  power. 

Scarcely  less  complex  and  varied  are  the  conditions 
which  regulate  succession  to  the  raj  ships  of  India :  in 
some  instances  adoption  is  admitted,  in  other  cases  col- 
lateral succession  is  accepted,  while  again  there  are  occa- 
sions when  the  customs  of  the  family  are  a  potent  factor 
in  the  choice  of  an  heir.  It  might  have  been  supposed 
perhaps  that  the  salute  could  be  fairly  taken  as  indicative 
of  the  status  of  the  chief  to  whom  it  is  assigned ;  but  in 
reality  such  an  assumption  would  be  most  misleading,  for 
not  unfrequently  the  number  of  guns  was  fixed  in  bygone 
years,  and  the  lapse  of  time  has  made  numerous  and 
essential  changes  in  the  status  of  the  various  chieftains. 
So  much  is  this  the  case  that  it  has  never  been  settled 
authoritatively  what  chiefs  are  entitled  to  claim  the 
Western  prefix  of  "  highness." 

RAJAMAHENDRI  (Rajamahendravaram,  Rajahmun- 
dry),  a  town  of  India,  in  the  Godavari  district,  Madras 
presidency,  situated  on  high  ground  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Godavari  river  in  17°  N.  lat.  and  81°  49'  E.  long., 
and  365  miles  north-east  of  Madras.  Its  population  in 
1881  numbered  24,555  (males  12,290,  females  12,265). 
Rajamahendri  was  formerly  the  headquarters  of  a  separate 
district  of  the  same  name,  but  is  now  incorporated  with 
Godavari. 

Tradition  divides  the  merit  of  founding  this  city  between  the 
Orissa  and  Chalukya  princes.  There  appears  little  doubt  that  the 
city  of  the  Vengi  kings  was  identical  with  the  site  of  the  present 
town,  and  that  this  also  was  the  seat  of  the  Orissa  power  in  the 
south.  In  1471  Rajamahendri  was  wrested  from  Orissa  by  the 
Mohammedans,  but  early  in  the  16th  century  it  was  retaken  by 
Krishna  Raja  and  restored  to  Orissa.  It  continued  under  Hindu 
rule  till  1572,  when  it  yielded  to  the  Moslems  of  the  Deccan  under 
Rafat  Khan.  For  the  next  century  and  a  half  it  was  the  scene  of 
perpetual  fighting,  and  at  last  fell  to  Golconda,  and  became  one  of 
the  four  nawabships  of  that  government.  Rajamahendri  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  French  in  1753,  but  they  were  driven  out 
by  the  British  under  Colonel  Forde  in  1758.  The  French,  however, 
recaptured  it,  but,  finding  that  the  treasure  had  been  removed, 
they  evacuated  it  almost  immediately. 

RAJPUTANA,  an  immense  tract  of  country  in  India, 
consisting  of  twenty  states,  having  each  its  own  autonomy 
and  separate  chief,  besides  the  small  British  division  of 
Ajmere,  which  is  situated  almost  in  the  centre  'of  the 
province.  These  territories  lie  between  23°  and  30°  N". 
lat.  and  between  69  30'  and  78°  15'  E.  long.,  and  their 
combined  area  is  approximately  estimated  at  130,000 
square  miles.  Rajputana  extends  from  the  province  of 
Sind  on  the  west  to  the  North- Western  Provinces  on  the 
east,  skirting  the  Bombay  presidency  on  the  south,  and 
stretching  to  the  Punjab  on  the  north.  It  is  traversed 
from  south-west  to  north-east  by  the  Rajputana  State 
Railway,  and  from  the  south  to  that  railway  at  Ajmere 
by  the  Malwa  Railway  from  Khandwa  on  the  Great  Indian 
Peninsula  line  through  Indore.  The  country  is  divided 
by  the  Aravalli  Mountains  into  two  unequal  parts  (of 
which  the  north-western  is  much  the  "larger),  and  consists 
to  a  great  extent  of  sandy,  arid,  and  unproductive  wastes, 
but  it  improves  gradually  to  comparatively  habitable  and 
fertile  tracts  towards  the  north-east.  This  division  includes 
the  Thur  or  great  sandy  desert  of  northern  India,  covered 
everywhere  by  long  parallel  dunes,  varying  from  50  to  100 


260 


RAJPUTANA 


feet  high,  with  few  wells  and  streams,  and  almost  destitute 
of  vegetation.  The  south-eastern  division  is  considerably 
more  elevated  and  fertile,  is  diversified  in  character,  and 
contains  extensive  hill-ranges  and  long  stretches  of  rocky 
wold  and  woodland ;  it  is  watered  by  the  drainage  of  the 
Vindhyas,  carried  north-east  by  the  Chambal  and  Banas 
rivers.  In  many  parts  there  are  wide  vales,  fertile  plateaus, 
and  great  stretches  of  excellent  soil,  with  forests  and  arti- 
ficial lakes ;  but  even  in  this  division  the  surface,  for  the 
most  part,  is  stony,  rugged,  under  jungle,  and  infertile, 
except  close  to  the  river  banks. 

The  chief  rivers  of  Rajputana  are  the  Loni,  the  Chambal,  and 
the  Banas.  The  first  of  these,  the  only  river  of  any  consequence 
in  the  north-western  division,  flows  for  200  miles  from  the  Pukar 
valley,  close  to  Ajmere,  to  the  Runn  of  Cutch.  In  the  south- 
eastern division  the  river  system  is  important  The  Chambal  is  by 
far  the  largest  river  in  Rajputana,  through  which  it  flows  for  about 
one-third  of  its  course,  while  it  forms  its  boundary  for  another 
third.  The  source  of  the  river  is  in  the  highlands  of  the  Vindhyas, 
upwards  of  2000  feet  above  the  sea  ;  it  enters  the  province  at 
Cnaurasgarh  in  Mewar  and  soon  becomes  a  considerable  stream, 
collecting  in  its  course  the  waters  of  other  rivers,  and  finally  dis- 
charging itself  into  the  Jumna  after  a  course  of  560  miles.  Next 
in  importance  ranks  the  Banas,  which  rises  in  the  south-west  near 
Kankraoli  in  Mewar.  It  collects  nearly  all  the  drainage  of  the 
Mewar  plateau  with  that  of  the  eastern  slopes  and  hill-tracts  of 
the  Aravallis,  and  joins  the  Chambal  a  little  beyond  the  north- 
eastern extremity  of  the  Bundi  state,  after  a  course  of  about  300 
miles.  Other  rivers  are  the  W.  Banas  and  the  Sabarmati,  which 
rise  among  the  south-west  hills  of  Mewar  and  take  a  south-westerly 
course.  The  river  Mahi,  which  passes  through  the  states  of  Partab- 
garh  and  Banswara,  receiving  the  Som,  drains  the  south-west 
corner  of  Rajputana  through  Gujrat  into  the  gulfs  of  Cutch  and 
Cambay.  Rajputana  possesses  no  natural  freshwater  lakes,  but 
there  are  several  important  artificial  lakes,  all  of  which  have  been 
constructed  with  the  object  of  storing  water.  The  only  basin  of 
any  extent  is  the  Sambhar  salt  lake,  of  about  50  miles  in  circuit. 

Geologically  considered  the  country  may  be  divided  into  three 
regions, — a  central,  and  the  largest,  comprising  the  whole  width 
of  the  Aravalli  system,  formed  of  very  old  sub-metamorphic  and 
gneissic  rocks  ;  an  eastern  region,  with  sharply  defined  boundary, 
along  which  the  most  ancient  formations  are  abruptly  replaced  by 
the  great  basin  of  the  Vindhyan  strata,  or  are  overlaid  by  the  still 
more  extensive  spread  of  the  Deccan  trap,  forming  the  plateau  of 
Malwa  ;  and  a  western  region,  of  very  ill-defined  margin,  in  which, 
besides  some  rocks  of  undetermined  age,  it  is  more  or  less  known 
or  suspected  that  Tertiary  and  Secondary  strata  stretch  across  from 
Sind,  beneath  the  sands  of  the  desert,  towards  the  flanks  of  the 
Aravallis.  Rajputana  produces  a  variety  of  metals.  Ore  of  cobalt 
is  obtained  in  no  other  locality  in  India,  and  although  zinc  blend 
has  been  found  elsewhere  it  is  known  to  have  been  extracted  only 
in  this  province.  Copper  and  lead  are  found  in  several  parts  of 
the  Aravalli  range  and  of  the  minor  ridges  in  Ulwur  and  Shekha- 
wati,  and  iron  ores  abound  in  several  states.  Alum  and  blue 
vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper)  are  manufactured  from  decomposed 
schists  at  Khetri  in  Shekhawati.  Good  building  materials  are 
obtained  from  many  of  the  rocks  of  the  country,  amongst  which 
the  Raialo  limestone  (a  fine-grained  crystalline  marble)  and  the 
Jaisalmir  (Jeysulmere)  limestone  stand  pre-eminent. 

Rajputina  is  of  great  archaeologic  interest,  and  possesses  some 
fine  religious  buildings  in  ruins  and  others  in  excellent  preserva- 
tion. Amongst  the  latter  are  the  mosque  at  Ajmere  and  the 
temples  on  Abu.  But  the  finest  and  most  characteristic  features 
of  architecture  in  the  country  are  shown  in  the  forts  and  palaces 
of  the  chiefs  and  in  their  cenotaphs. 

Herds  of  camels,  horses,  and  sheep  are  found  wherever  there  is 
pasturage,  and  in  the  desert  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
country  wild  asses,  nylghau,  and  antelopes,  besides  lions,  leopards, 
tigers,  wolves,  hyaenas,  jackals,  and  foxes,  are  met  with. 

The  climate  throughout  Rajputana  is  very  dry  and  hot  during 
summer  ;  while  in  the  winter  it  is  much  colder  in  the  north  than 
in  the  lower  districts,  with  hard  frost  and  ice  on  the  Bikanir 
borders.  The  rainfall  is  very  unequally  distributed  :  in  the  western 
part,  which  comes  near  to  the  limits  of  the  rainless  region  of 
Asia,  it  is  very  scanty,  and  scarcely  averages  more  than  5  inches  ; 
in  the  south-west  the  fall  is  more  copious,  sometimes  exceeding 
100  inches  at  Abu  ;  but,  except  in  the  south-west  highlands  of  the 
Aravallis,  rain  is  most  abundant  in  the  south-east.  Notwith- 
standing all  its  drawbacks,  Rajputana  is  reckoned  one  of  the 
healthiest  countries  in  India,  at  least  for  the  native  inhabitants. 

Popukition. — The  census  of  1881,  which  was  the  first  general 
enumeration  of  population  in  Rajputana  since  England's  connexion 
with  India,  gave  a  total  number  (including  Ajmere  division)  of 
10,729,114.  Of  these  166,343  were  Bhils  ;  but  no  accurate  census 


could  be  taken  of  these  people  owing  to  their  repugnance  to  bo 
counted.  Exclusive  of  Bhils,  the  population  numbered  10,562,771 
(5,710,337  males,  4,852,434  females).  The  following  statcim-nt 

S'ves  the  area  and  population  of  the  several  states  and  of  the 
ritish  division  of  Ajmere  : — 


States. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Popula- 
tion. 

States. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Ajmere-Mhair- 
wara  (British) 

2,711 

460,722 

Kishengnrh  
Kotah  

724 

3  797 

112,633 
517  275 

1,500 

152,045 

18 

2  082 

Bhurtpur  

1,974 

645,540 

Marwar  or  Jodh- 

Bikanir  

22,340 

509,021 

pur  

37  000 

1  750  403 

Bundi  

2,300 

254,701 

Mewar  or  Udaipur 

12  670 

1  494  900 

1,200 

249,657 

1  460 

70  568 

Dungarpur    .... 

1,000 

153,381 

Shahpura   

400 

51  750 

Jaipur  

14,465 

2,534,357 

Sirohi  

3  020 

142  903 

Jaisalmir  (Jey- 

Tonk   

2,509 

338  029 

16,447 

108,143 

Ulwur  (Alwar) 

3  024 

682  926 

Karauli  

1,208 

148,670 

Total  

132  461 

10  720  114 

The  great  mass  of  the  people  are  Hindus,  numbering  in  1881 
(excluding  Bhils)  9,215,272,  as  against  919,556  Mohammedans  and 
3519  Christians.  Among,  the  Hindus  the  paucity  of  Rajputs  is 
remarkable.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that,  because  nearly  the 
whole  country  is  ruled  by  Rajputs,  therefore  the  population  consists 
mainly  of  Rajput  tribes  ;  but  these  are  merely  the  dominant  race, 
and  the  territory  is  called  Rajputana  because  it  is  politically  pos- 
sessed by  Rajputs.  The  whole  number  of  this  race  is  roughly 
estimated  at  700,000,  and  nowhere  do  they  form  a  majority  of  tho 
whole  population  in  a  state  ;  but  they  are  strongest,  numerically, 
in  the  northern  states  and  in  Mewar.  By  rigid  precedence  the 
Brahmans  occupy  the  first  rank  ;  they  are  numerous  and  influential, 
and  with  them  may  be  classed  the  peculiar  and  important  caste  of 
Charans  or  Bhats,  the  keepers  of  secular  tradition  and  of  the 
genealogies.  Next  come  the  mercantile  castes,  mostly  belonging 
to  the  Jaina  sect  of  Hinduism  ;  these  are  followed  by  the  powerful 
cultivating  tribes,  such  as  the  Jats  and  Gujars,  and  then  come  the 
non-Hindu  or  so-called  aboriginal  tribes,  chief  of  whom  are  the 
Minas,  Bhils,  and  Mhairs. 

The  mass  of  the  people  are  occupied  in  agriculture.  In  the  large 
towns  banking  and  commerce  flourish  to  a  degree  beyond  what 
would  be  expected  for  so  backward  a  country.  In  the  north  the 
staple  products  for  export  are  salt,  grain,  wool,  and  cotton,  in  tho 
south  opium  and  cotton  ;  while  the  imports  consist  of  sugar,  hard- 
ware, and  piece  goods.  Rajputana  is  very  poor  in  industrial  pro- 
duction. The  principal  manufactures  are  salt,  cotton,  and  woollen 
goods,  carvings  in  ivory,  and  working  in  metals,  &c.,  all  of  which 
handicrafts  are  chiefly  carried  on  in  the  eastern  states.  The  system 
of  agriculture  is  very  simple  ;  in  the  country  west  of  the  Aravallis 
only  one  crop  is  raised  in  the  year,  while  in  other  parts  south  and 
east  of  the  Aravallis  two  crops  are  raised  annually,  and  various 
kinds  of  cereals,  pulses,  and  fibres  are  grown. 

History. — Only  faint  outlines  can  be  traced  of  the  condition  of 
Rajputana  previous  to  the  invasion  of  Upper  India  by  the  Moham- 
medans, and  these  indicate  that  the  country  was  subject  for  the 
most  part  to  two  or  three  veiy  powerful  tribal  dynasties.  Chief 
of  these  were  the  Rahtors,  who  ruled  at  Kanauj  ;  the  Chauhans  of 
Ajmere  ;  the  Solankhyas  of  Anhilwara,  in  Gujrat ;  the  Gehlots 
with  the  Sesodia  sept,  still  in  Mewar  or  Udaipur ;  and  the 
Kachwaha  clan,  still  in  Jaipur.  These  tribal  dynasties  of  Rajputs 
were  gradually  supplanted  by  the  Moslem  invaders  of  the  llth 
century  and  weakened  by  internal  feuds.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century  the  Rajput  power  began  to  revive,  but  only  to  be 
overthrown  by  Baber  at  Fatehpur  Sikri  in  1527.  The  clans  were 
finally  either  conquered,  overawed,  or  conciliated  by  Akbar — all 
except  the  distant  Sesodia  clan,  which,  however,  submitted  to 
Jahangir  in  1616.  From  Akbar's  accession  to  Aurangzeb's  death, 
a  period  of  151  years,  the  mogul  was  India's  master.  Aurangzeb's 
death  and  the  invasion  of  Nadir  Shah  led  to  a  triple  alliance  among 
the  three  leading  chiefs,  which  internal  jealousy  so  weakened  that 
the  Mahrattas,  liaving  been  called  in  by  the  Rahtors  to  aid  them, 
took  possession  of  Ajmere  about  1756;  thenceforward  Rajputana 
became  involved  in  the  general  disorganization  of  India.  By  1803 
nearly  the  whole  of  Rajputana  had  been  virtually  subdued  by  the 
Mahrattas.  The  victories  of  Generals  Wellesley  and  Lake,  how- 
ever, saved  the  Rajputs  ;  but  on  Wellington's  departure  from  India 
the  floodgates  of  anarchy  were  reopened  for  ten  years.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Pindari  War  in  1817  the  British  Government  offered 
its  protection.  The  Pindaris  were  put  down,  Amir  Khan  sub- 
mitting and  signing  a  treaty  which  constituted  him  the  first  ruler 
of  the  existing  state  of  Tonk.  By  the  end  of  1818  similar  treaties 
had  been  executed  by  the  other  Rajput  states  with  the  paramount 
power.  Sindhia  gave  up  the  district  of  Ajmere  to  the  British,  and 
the  pressure  of  the  great  Mahratta  powers  upon  Rajputana  was 

Ermanently   withdrawn.      Since   then    the    political    history  of 
ijputana  has  been  comparatively  uneventful.     The  great  storm 
of  the  mutinies  of  1857,  though  dangerous  while  it  lasted,  was 


R  A  J  — R  A  L 


261 


short.  The  capture  of  the  town  of  Kotah,  which  had  been  held  by 
the  mutineers  of  that  state,  in  March  1858,  marked  the  extinction 
of  armed  rebellion  in  the  province.  (W.  T.  R.) 

RAJSHAHl  or  RAJESHAYE,  a  district  of  India,  in 
the  lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal,  forming  the  south- 
western corner  of  the  Rajshahf  with  Kuch  Behar  division.1 
It  lies  between  24°  3'  and  24°  59'  N.  lat.  and  between 
88°  21'  and  89°  24'  E.  long.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N". 
by  the  districts  of  Dinajpur  and  Bogra,  on  the  E.  by  Bogra 
and  Pabna,  on  the  S.  by  the  Ganges  and  Nuddea  district, 
and  on  the  W.  by  Maldah  and  Murshidabad.  The  area  of 
2359  square  miles  is  one  alluvial  plain  seamed  with  old 
river-beds  and  studded  with  marshes.  The  Ganges  and 
the  Mahanandci  are  its  principal  rivers ;  the  former  con- 
stitutes a  great  natural  boundary-line  to  the  south  and 
south-west,  and  the  latter,  which  rises  in  the  Himalayas, 
borders  the  district  on  the  west  for  a  few  miles  before 
joining  the  Ganges.  Other  rivers  are  the  Narad  and 
Baral,  important  offshoots  of  the  Ganges ;  the  Atrai,  a 
channel  of  the  Tista ;  and  the  Jamuna,  a  tributary  of  the 
Atrai.  Both  the  Atrai  and  the  Jamuna  belong  to  the 
Brahmaputra  system  and  are  navigable  throughout  the 
year  for  small  cargo  boats.  The  drainage  of  Rajshahi  is 
not  carried  off  by  means  of  its  rivers,  but  through  the 
chains  of  marshes  and  swamps,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  the  Chalan  "  bil "  or  lake,  which  discharges  itself 
into  the  Brahmaputra.  The  climate  of  Rajshahi  does  not 
differ  from  that  of  other  districts  of  Lower  Bengal ;  its 
average  rainfall  for  the  five  years  ending  1882/83  equalled 
68  inches.  The  Northern  Bengal  State  Railway  intersects 
the  district  from  north  to  south. 

Population. — The  census  of  1881  gave  a  population,  almost  en- 
tirely rural,  of  1,338,638  (males  660,226,  females  678,412).  Of  this 
number  288,749  were  returned  as  Hindus,  1,049,700  as  Moham- 
medans, and  only  121  as  Christians.  The  only  town  with  over 
10,000  inhabitants  was  Rampur  Beauleah  (19,228),  which  is  the 
chief  town  and  administrative  headquarters  of  the  district.  This 
town  is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ganges  in  24°  22'  N.  lat. 
ami  88°  39'  E.  long.  ;  it  is  of  modern  growth  and  is  built  for  the 
most  part  on  river  alluvia.  It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  Dutch 
ami  East  India  Company's  factories,  and  is  still  a  centre  of  the  silk 
and  indigo  trade. 

Rice  is  the  staple  crop  of  the  district ;  other  cereal  crops  are 
wheat,  barley,  and  Indian  corn,  which  are  grown  to  a  small  extent ; 
among  miscellaneous  crops  are  indigo,  sugar-cane,  mulberry,  and 
tobacco.  Ganja  is  also  grown  in  a  small  tract  to  the  north  of  the 
district.  Silk  spinning  and  weaving  and  the  preparation  of  indigo 
are  the  chief  manufactures,  but  these  are  now  both  declining.  The 
total  revenue  of  Rajshahi  in  1883-84  amounted  to  £123,098,  towards 
which  the  land-tax  contributed  £88,584. 

History. — When  the  East  India  Company  took  over  the  adminis- 
tration of  Bengal  in  1765  Rajshahi  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
important  districts  in  the  province.  It  appears  to  have  extended 
from  Bhagulpur  on  the  west  to  Dacca  on  the  east,  and  to  have  in- 
cluded an  important  subdivision  called  Nij-Chakla  Rajshahi  on  the 
south  of  the  Ganges,  which  extended  over  a  great  portion  of  what 
now  lies  within  the  districts  of  Murshidabad,  Nuddea,  Jessore, 
Birbhum,  and  Burdwan.  The  total  area  was  estimated  at  12,909 
square  miles,  or  more  than  five  times  the  size  of  the  present  district. 
Having  been  found  much  too  large  to  be  effectually  administered 
by  one  central  authority,  Rajshahi  was  stripped  by  Government 
in  1793  of  a  considerable  portion  of  its  outlying  territory,  and  a 
natural  boundary -line  was  drawn  to  the  west,  south,  and  east 
along  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra.  Its  north-western  limits  were 
reduced  in  1 81 3,  when  the  present  district  of  Maldah  was  constituted. 
The  erection  of  Bogra  into  a  separate  jurisdiction  in  1821  still 
further  reduced  its  area  ;  and  in  1832  the  limits  of  Rajshahi  were 
finally  fixed  very  much  at  their  present  lines  by  the  constitution 
of  Pabna  into  an  independent  jurisdiction. 

RAKOCZY,  the  name  of  an  old  and  wealthy  family  of 
upper  Hungary.  SIGISMTJNB  was  on  llth  February  1607 
elected  prince  of  Transylvania,  but  in  the  following  year 
abdicated  in  favour  of  Gabriel  B.ithori,  to  whom  succeeded 

1  The  Rajshahi  with  Kuch  Behar  division  comprises  the  seven  dis- 
tricts of  Dinajpur,  Rajshahi,  Rangpur,  Bogra,  Pabna,  Darjiling,  Jal- 
pakniri,  and  the  native  state  of  Kuch  Behar.  Its  total  area  is  18,735 
square  miles,  and  its  population  (1881)  8,336,399  (males  4,237,388, 
females  4,099,011). 


Bethlen  Gabor.  Bethlen  died  in  1629,  and  GEORGE  I. 
(1591-1648),  son  of  Sigismund,  born  in  1591,  was,  after 
the  demission  of  Gabor's  widow,  Catherine  of  Brandenburg, 
26th  November  1631,  elected  prince  of  Transylvania  by 
the  estates.  In  1645  he  joined  the  Swedes  in  an  attempt 
to  deliver  Hungary  from  the  yoke  of  Austria  and  secure 
religious  liberty  to  the  Protestants,  but  when  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  showed  a  disposition  to  enter  into  a  treaty  with 
him  he  became  oblivious  of  the  cause  of  which  he  had  been 
the  professed  champion.  By  the  treaty  of  Linz  he  was 
formally  recognized  as  prince  of  Transylvania.  He  died 
on  24th  October  1648.  GEORGE  II.  (1615-1660),  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  chosen  by  the  estates  to  succeed  him  as 
prince  of  Transylvania.  Having  been  disappointed  in  his 
hopes  of  the  crown  of  Poland  on  the  death  of  Casimir  V., 
he  entered  into  an  alliance  with  John  Casimir  and  invaded 
the  country,  but  was  completely  defeated  on  16th  July 
1657.  His  procedure  against  Poland  provoked  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Turks,  with  whom  he  was  engaged  in  con- 
tinual war  until  his  death  at  Grosswardein  on  26th  June 
1660,  from  wounds  received  at  the  battle  of  Klausenburg. 
FRANCIS  I.  (1642-1676),  son  of  the  preceding,  did  not 
succeed  his  father  as  prince  of  Transylvania.  Having 
become  connected  with  a  plot  for  the  overthrow  of  the 
Austrian  Government,  his  life  was  only  saved  through  the 
intervention  of  his  mother,  who  was  a  Catholic,  and  he 
had  to  pay  a  fine  of  400,000  florins.  He  edited  a  volume 
of  prayers,  which  had  an  extensive  circulation  in  Hungary. 
He  died  on  8th  July  1676.  FRANCIS  LEOPOLD  (1676- 
1735),  son  of  the  preceding,  was  at  the  age  of  twelve  along 
with  his  mother  made  prisoner  by  the  Austrians,  and  by 
them  was  educated  in  a  Jesuit  college  in  Bohemia.  After 
his  marriage  with  a  princess  of  Hesse  he  returned  to 
Hungary,  where  the  greater  portion  of  his  estates  was 
restored  to  him.  On  account  of  his  connexion  with  a 
conspiracy  of  the  malcontent  party  he  was  in  1701  arrested 
and  brought  to  Vienna,  but  making  his  escape  he  went  to 
Poland,  where  he  spent  several  years  in  exile.  In  1703 
he  headed  a  new  insurrection,  which  had  achieved  consider- 
able success  before  the  death  of  the  emperor  Leopold  in 
the  end  of  1705.  Owing  to  the  milder  attitude  of  Joseph 
I.,  matters  for  a  time  assumed  a  more  peaceful  appearance. 
In  1707  Rak6czy  was  elected  prince  of  Transylvania,  and 
on  31st  May  of  this  year  the  independence  of  Hungary 
was  proclaimed.  From  this  time,  however,  the  fortunes  of 
the  Hungarian  cause  began  to  decline,  and  Rak6czy  finally 
in  despair,  having  refused  an  amnesty  and  offers  of  pardon, 
retired  to  the  frontiers  of  Poland,  after  which,  on  1st  May 
1711,  peace  was  concluded  at  Szatm&r.  Rakoczy  refused  to 
own  it,  and  retired  to  France  and  subsequently  to  Turkey, 
where  he  died  at  Rodosto  on  8th  April  1735.  (See  HUN- 
GARY, vol.  xii.  pp.  369-370.) 

RALEIGH,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital  of 
North  Carolina  and  the  seat  of  justice  of  Wake  county,  is 
situated  in  35°  47'  N.  lat.  and  78°  48'  W.  long!,  a  little 
to  the  north-east  of  the  geographical  centre  of  the  State, 
and  occupies  a  kind  of  high  ground  in  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Neuse,  a  river  flowing  south-east  towards  Pamlico 
Sound.  It  is  the  meeting-place  of  three  railways — the 
Raleigh  and  Gaston,  the  Raleigh  and  Augusta,  and  the 
Richmond  and  Danville  lines — and  its  railway  distance 
from  Portsmouth  is  177  miles  and  from  Washington  230. 
Raleigh  is  laid  out  round  a  park  of  10  acres  called  Union 
Square  and  divided  into  four  sections  by  four  broad  streets 
which  strike  out  symmetrically  from  this  centre ;  the  fine 
old  trees  which  were  spared  by  the  original  settlers  give 
it  the  sobriquet  of  "City  of  Oaks."  Besides  the  State 
house  or  capitol  (a  substantial  granite  structure  in  Union 
Square),  the  public  buildings  comprise  the  county  court- 
house, the  governor's  mansion,  the  United  States  court- 


262 


RALEIGH 


house  and  post-office  (1875),  the  State  geological  museum, 
a  State  insane  asylum,  institutions  for  the  blind  and  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  the  penitentiary,  and  the  Shaw  institute 
for  the  higher  education  of  coloured  pupils.  There  are  a 
normal  school  and  a  graded  school  system  for  both  white 
and  coloured  pupils.  Raleigh  is  a  centre  of  the  cotton 
and  tobacco  trades,  has  railway  machine  and  car  shops, 
and  manufactures  steam-engines,  shuttle  blocks  and  bob- 
bins, ice,  cotton-seed  oil,  fertilizers,  hosiery,  clothing,  agri- 
cultural implements,  carriages,  carpentry,  cigars,  marble 
wares,  <tc.  The  population  was  4780  in  1860,  7790  (4094 
coloured)  in  1870,  and  9265  (4354  coloured)  in  1880. 
Raleigh  was  selected  as  the  seat  of  government  in  1 788, 
was  laid  out  in  1792,  and  made  a  city  in  1794. 

RALEIGH,  SIR  WALTER  (1552-1618),  admiral  and 
courtier,  was  born  at  Hayes  in  Devonshire  in  1552.  After 
a  short  residence  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  he  took  service 
in  the  autumn  of  1569  with  a  body  of  volunteers  serving 
in  the  French  Huguenot  army,  and  he  probably  did  not 
return  to  England  till  1576.  During  the  course  of  these 
years  he  appears  to  have  made  himself  master  of  seaman- 
ship, though  no  evidence  of  this  is  obtainable.  In  1579 
he  was  stopped  by  the  council  from  taking  part  in  a 
voyage  planned  by  his  half-brother  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert, 
and  in  1580  he  commanded  an  English  company  in 
Munster  (Ireland).  On  10th  November  he  took  part  in 
the  massacre  at  Smerwick.  He  remained  in  Ireland  till 
December  1581,  distinguished  for  his  vigour  and  ability  as 
well  as  for  his  readiness  to  treat  Irish  rebels  as  mere  wild 
beasts,  who  were  to  be  pitilessly  exterminated,  and  whose 
leaders  might  be  smitten  down  if  necessary  by  assassina- 
tion. In  one  way  or  another  Raleigh's  conduct  gained  the 
favourable  notice  of  Elizabeth,  especially  as  he  had  chosen 
to  seek  for  the  support  of  Leicester,  in  whose  suite  he  is 
found  at  Antwerp  in  February  1582.  For  some  years 
Raleigh  shone  as  a  courtier,  receiving  from  time  to  time 
licences  to  export  woollen  cloths  and  to  sell  wine,  after  the 
system  by  which  Elizabeth  rewarded  her  favourites  with- 
out expense  to  herself.  In  1585  he  became  lord  warden 
of  the  Stannaries,  soon  afterwards  he  was  vice-admiral 
of  Devon  and  Cornwall,  and  in  1587  was  captain  of  the 
guard.  But  he  was  one  of  those  who  were  dissatisfied 
unless  they  could  pursue  some  public  object  in  connexion 
with  their  chase  after  a  private  fortune.  In  1583  he 
risked  £2000  in  the  expedition  in  which  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert  perished.  In  1584  he  obtained  a  charter  of 
colonization,  and  sent  Amadas  and  Barlow  to  examine  the 
country  which  he  named  Virginia.  In  1585  he  despatched 
a  fleet  laden  with  colonists.  They  were,  however,  soon 
discouraged  and  were  brought  back  to  England  by  Drake 
in  the  following  year.  Shortly  afterwards  fifteen  fresh 
colonists  were  landed,  and  another  party  in  1587.  All 
these,  however,  perished,  and,  though  Raleigh  did  all  that 
was  possible  to  succour  them,  the  permanent  colonizing  of 
Virginia  passed  into  other  hands. 

In  1584  Raleigh  obtained  a  grant  of  an  enormous  tract 
of  land  in  Munster,  in  one  corner  of  which  he  introduced 
the  cultivation  of  the  potato.  To  people  that  land  with 
English  colonists  was  but  the  counterpart  of  the  attempt 
to  exterminate  its  original  possessors.  This  view  of  the 
policy  of  England  in  Ireland  was  not  confined  to  Raleigh, 
but  it  found  in  him  its  most  eminent  supporter.  In  his 
haste  to  be  wealthy,  his  love  of  adventure,  his  practical  in- 
sight into  the  difficulties  of  the  world,  and  his  unscrupulous- 
ness  in  dealing  with  peoples  of  different  habits  and  beliefs 
from  his  own,  Raleigh  was  a  representative  Elizabethan 
Englishman.  He  did  his  best,  so  far  as  a  usually  absentee 
landlord  could  do,  to  make  his  colonists  prosperous  and 
successful;  but  he  underestimated  the  extraordinary 
vitality  of  the  Irish  race,  and  the  resistance  which  was 


awakened  by  the  harsh  system  of  which  he  was  the  con- 
stant adviser  at  Elizabeth's  court.  Elizabeth,  too,  was 
unable  to  support  him  with  the  necessary  force,  and  his 
whole  attempt  ended  in  failure.  Raleigh's  efforts  were 
at  least  made  on  behalf  of  a  race  whose  own  civilization  and 
national  independence  were  at  stake.  The  Elizabethan  men 
were  driven  to  take  large  views  of  their  difficulties,  and  it 
was  impossible  for  Raleigh  to  separate  the  question  whether 
English  forms  of  life  should  prevail  in  Munster  from  the 
question  whether  they  should  be  maintained  in  England. 
Two  conceptions  of  politics  and  religion  stood  face  to  face 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Carpathians,  and  every  one  of 
vigour  took  a  side.  The  balancing  intellects  were  silenced, 
or,  like  Elizabeth's,  were  drawn  in  the  wake  of  the  cham- 
pions of  one  party  or  the  other.  Wherever  the  strife  was 
hottest  Raleigh  was  sure  to  be  found.  If  he  could  not 
succeed  in  Ireland  he  would  fight  it  out  with  Spain.  In 
1588  he  took  an  active^  part  against  the  Armada,  and  is 
even  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  adviser  of  the 
successful  tactics  which  avoided  any  attempt  to  board  the 
Spanish  galleons.  In  1589  he  shared  in  the  unsuccessful 
expedition  commanded  by  Drake  and  Norris,  and  for  some 
time  vessels  fitted  out  by  him  were  actively  employed  in 
making  reprisals  upon  Spain. 

Raleigh  was  a  courtier  as  well  as  a  soldier  and  a  mariner, 
and  as  early  as  1589  he  was  brought  into  collision  with 
the  young  earl  of  Essex,  who  challenged  him,  though  the 
duel  was  prevented.  Some  passing  anger  of  the  queen 
drove  him  in  this  year  to  visit  Ireland,  where  he  renewed 
his  friendship  with  Spenser,  and,  as  is  told  in  poetic  lan- 
guage in  Colin  Clout's  come  Home  again,  took  the  poet  back 
with  him  to  England,  introduced  him  to  Elizabeth,  and 
persuaded  him  to  proceed  to  the  immediate  publication  of 
a  portion  of  the  Faerie  Queen.  If  Raleigh  could  plead 
for  a  poet,  he  could  also  plead  for  a  Puritan,  and  in  1591 
he  joined  Essex  in  begging  for  mercy  for  Udall.  In  the 
end  of  1591  or  the  beginning  of  1592  Raleigh  seduced 
and  subsequently  married  Elizabeth  Throckmorton,  and 
was  consequently  thrown  into  the  Tower  by  Elizabeth, 
who  could  not  endure  that  the  fantastic  love-making  to 
herself  which  she  exacted  from  her  courtiers  should  pass 
into  real  affection  for  a  younger  woman.  Previously  to 
his  imprisonment  Raleigh  had  been  forbidden  to  sail  in 
command  of  a  fleet  of  which  a  great  part  had  been  fitted  out 
at  his  own  cost  for  service  against  Spain.  The  ships,  how- 
ever, sailed,  and  succeeded  in  capturing  a  prize  of  extra- 
ordinary value  known  at  the  time  as  the  "  Great  Carrack." 
No  one  but  Raleigh  was  capable  of  presiding  over  the  work 
of  securing  the  spoils.  He  was  sent  to  Plymouth,  still  in 
the  name  of  a  prisoner,  where  his  capacity  for  business  and 
his  power  of  Avinning  the  enthusiastic  affection  of  his  sub- 
ordinates were  alike  put  to  the  test.  The  queen  at  last 
consented  to  restore  him  to  complete  liberty,  though  she 
tried  to  cheat  him  of  his  fair  share  of  the  booty. 

Raleigh  resolved  to  use  his  regained  liberty  on  an  en- 
terprise more  romantic  than  the  capture  of  a  carrack. 
The  fable  of  the  existence  of  El  Dorado  was  at  that  time 
fully  believed  in  Spain,  and  in  1594  Raleigh  sent  out 
Captain  Wheddon  to  acquire  information  about  the  lands 
near  the  Orinoco.  In  1595  he  sailed  in  person  with  five 
ships  for  Trinidad.  On  his  arrival  he  found  that  the 
Spaniards,  who  had  occupied  a  place  called  San  Thome  at 
the  junction  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Caroni,  had  been 
obliged  to  abandon  it.  Raleigh  ascended  the  river  to  the 
spot,  heard  more  about  El  Dorado  from  the  Indians, 
brought  away  some  stones  containing  fragments  of  gold, 
and  returned  to  England  to  prepare  a  more  powerful  ex- 
pedition for  the  following  year.  When  he  came  back  lies 
published  an  account  of  his  voyage.  The  hope  of  enrich- 
ing himself,  and  of  giving  to  his  country  a  source  of  wealth 


f 


RALEIGH 


263 


which  would  strike  the  balance  in  its  favour  in  the  struggle 
with  Spain,  exercised  a  strong  fascination  over  the  imagi- 
native character  of  Raleigh.  In  the  next  year,  1596,  how- 
ever, he  was  wanted  nearer  home,  and  was  compelled  to 
content  himself  with  sending  one  of  his  followers,  Captain 
Keymis,  to  extend  his  knowledge  of  Guiana.  He  was 
himself  called  on  to  take  the  command  of  a  squadron  in 
the  expedition  sent  against  Spain  under  Lord  Howard  of 
Effingham  and  the  earl  of  Essex.  It  Avas  Raleigh  who, 
on  the  arrival  of  the  fleet  off  Cadiz,  persuaded  Howard 
and  Essex  to  begin  by  an  attack  on  the  Spanish  fleet,  and 
who  himself  led  the  van  in  sailing  into  the  harbour.  Before 
long  the  Spanish  fleet  was  thoroughly  beaten,  and  all  of 
it,  except  two  vessels  which  were  captured,  was  destroyed 
by  the  Spaniards  themselves.  Raleigh  was  wounded  in 
the  action,  and  the  subsequent  capture  of  Cadiz  was  carried 
out  by  others.  In  May  1597  Elizabeth,  who  was  growing 
somewhat  tired  of  the  petulance  of  Essex,  readmitted 
Raleigh  to  court.  It  was  arranged  that  he  should  go  as 
rear-admiral  of  a  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Essex, 
intended  to  cripple  yet  further  the  maritime  power  of 
Spain.  The  "island  voyage,"  as  it  was  called,  was  on  the 
whole  a  failure,  the  only  notable  achievement  being  the 
capture  of  Fayal  (Azores)  by  Raleigh  in  the  absence  of 
Essex.  The  generous  nature  of  Essex  was  overmastered 
by  vanity,  and,  falling  under  the  sway  of  meaner  men,  he 
grew  to  regard  Raleigh  as  a  personal  rival.  He  did  not 
even  mention  the  capture  of  Fayal  in  his  official  account 
of  the  voyage. 

In  1598  Elizabeth,  who  was  always  ready  to  reward 
her  courtiers  at  the  expense  of  others,  completed  a  bargain 
in  Raleigh's  favour.  In  1591  he  had  obtained,  through 
the  queen's  intervention,  a  lease  for  ninety-nine  years  of 
the  manor  of  Sherborne  from  the  bishop  of  Salisbury.  In 
1598  the  see  was  vacant.  Aspirants  to  the  mitre  were 
informed  that  only  by  converting  the  lease  into  a  perpetual 
estate  in  Raleigh's  favour  could  the  object  of  their  wishes 
be  obtained.  On  these  terms  Dr  Cotton  became  bishop 
of  Salisbury  and  Raleigh  possessor  of  Sherborne  in  full 
ownership.  In  1600  Raleigh  added  to  his  other  offices 
that  of  governor  of  Jersey.  A  temporary  reconciliation 
between  Raleigh  and  Essex  was  followed  by  a  permanent 
estrangement  when  Essex  was  appointed  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Ireland,  the  personal  feeling  on  both  sides  being 
probably  strengthened  by  the  divergence  between  their 
Irish  policies, — Raleigh  wishing  to  use  force  alone,  whilst 
Essex  wished  to  come  to  terms  with  Tyrone.  When  Essex 
rushed  into  his  final  act  of  rebellion  he  gave  out  as  one  of 
his  reasons  his  fear  of  being  murdered  by  Raleigh  and 
Lord  Cobham,  who  at  this  time  were  allied. 

After  the  death  of  Essex  the  question  of  the  succession 
assumed  a  pressing  importance  with  the  imminence  of  the 
close  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  Cecil,  allying  himself  with  the 
intriguing  Lord  Henry  Howard,  assured  himself  of  James's 
favour,  and  poisoned  his  ear  against  Raleigh  and  Cobham. 
Into  Raleigh's  feelings  at  this  time  it  is  impossible  to 
penetrate  with  certainty,  but  it  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that,  though  he  professed  himself  ready  to  support  James's 
claim,  he  did  not  throw  his  whole  heart  into  the  cause  of 
the  Scottish  king.  Raleigh  was  the  man  of  the  struggle 
against  Spain,  self-reliant  and  unrelenting,  eager  to  push  on 
the  reprisals  on  Spain  till  the  Spanish  monarchy  was  utterly 
beaten  down.  James  was  a  lover  of  peace,  anxious  to  live 
on  good  terms  with  all  his  neighbours,  and  under  the  belief 
that  by  fair  dealing  the  Catholic  powers  and  the  pope 
himself  might  be  brought  to  accept  loyally  the  hand  which 
he  was  ready  to  hold  out.  Raleigh,  in  short,  wished  to 
emphasize  the  differences  which  divided  Christendom ; 
James  wished  to  treat  them  as  hardly  existing  at  all. 
When  James  came  to  the  throne,  therefore,  he  was  certain 


to  come  into  conflict  with  Raleigh,  and  not  being  able  to 
see  the  advantage  of  keeping  about  him  men  of  different 
tempers  he  dismissed  him  from  the  captaincy  of  the  guard, 
compelled  him  to  surrender  the  wardenship  of  the  Stan- 
naries, suspended  his  patent  of  wine  licences  as  a  monopoly, 
and  took  from  him  the  governorship  of  Jersey,  though  for 
this  he  gave  him  a  pension  to  compensate  for  his  loss.  That 
which  followed  it  is  impossible  to  fathom  to  the  bottom. 
Raleigh  must  have  been  very  angry,  and  it  is  quite  possible 
that  he  may  have  used  violent  language  and  have  even 
spoken  of  a  Spanish  invasion  as  preferable  to  the  rule  of 
James,  or  have  declared  his  preference  of  the  title  of 
Arabella  Stuart  to  that  of  the  existing  sovereign.  The 
main  witness  against  him  was  Cobham,  and  Cobham  made 
and  retracted  his  charges  with  such  levity  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  trust  to  his  evidence.  Raleigh,  however,  was 
imprisoned,  and,  after  attempting  to  commit  suicide,  was 
brought  to  trial  at  Winchester  in  November  1603,  when  he 
was  condemned  to  death.  The  king,  however,  commuted 
his  sentence  upon  the  scaffold  to  one  of  imprisonment. 

During  his  imprisonment  in  the  Tower  Raleigh  devoted 
himself  to  chemical  experiments  and  to  literary  work.  It 
was  here  that  he  composed  so  much  of  the  History  of  the 
World  as  was  ever  finished,  and  that  he  also  issued  pam- 
phlets on  questions  of  passing  politics.  Here  too  he  learned 
that  misfortune  continued  to  follow  him,  and  that  there 
was  a  flaw  in  the  conveyance  by  which  he  had  made  over 
Sherborne  to  trustees  to  save  it  from  the  usual  consequences 
of  attainder,  and  that  James  had  seized  it  for  his  favourite 
Carr,  though  he  gave  in  compensation  £8000  and  a  pen- 
sion of  <£400  a  year  for  the  lives  of  Lady  Raleigh  and  her 
eldest  son. 

Raleigh's  thoughts  had  often  turned  to  Guiana.  An 
offer  made  by  him  in  1612  to  send  Keymis  to  the  gold 
mine  which  he  believed  to  exist  near  the  Orinoco  was 
rejected,  but  in  1616  he  was  himself  released  at  the  inter- 
cession of  Villiers,  on  the  understanding  that  he  was  to  go 
in  person  to  Guiana,  and  was  to  visit  the  gold  mine.  As 
a  security  that  he  would  not  encroach  upon  the  territory 
of  Spain,  he  was  to  remain  unpardoned,  so  that  his  life 
might  be  at  the  king's  mercy  if  he  broke  his  promise.  It 
is  probably  not  doing  injustice  to  Raleigh  to  suppose  that 
he  had  no  intention  of  keeping  it  if  it  proved  inconvenient. 
As  far  as  was  then  known,  indeed,  the  spot  where  the  mine 
was  supposed  to  be  might  be  reached  without  passing  a 
Spanish  settlement,  though  he  was  aware  that  the  Spaniards 
claimed  the  whole  country  as  their  own.  To  seize  Spanish 
territory  and  to  fight  the  Spaniards  in  every  possible  way 
was,  however,  regarded  by  him  as  altogether  righteous  as 
well  as  politic,  and  he  had  no  respect  for  James's  scruples, 
which  arose  partly  from  weakness,  but  partly  also  from  a 
respect  for  international  obligations,  which  in  the  case 
of  Spain  was  foreign  to  Raleigh's  mind.  Most  likely 
Raleigh  thought  that  all  Avould  be  well  if  he  brought  home 
sufficient  evidence  that  the  mine  was  worth  possessing. 
Before  he  sailed  he  suggested  to  James  that  he  should  be 
allowed  to  attack  Genoa,  a  city  in  dependence  on  Spain, 
and  when  this  plan  was  rejected  he  entered  into  com- 
munication with  the  French  ambassador  and  sent  to  the 
admiral  of  France  to  ask  permission  to  bring  into  a  French 
harbour  all  that  he  might  gain  on  his  voyage.  The  ex- 
pedition turned  out  badly.  His  sailors  would  not  ascend 
the  Orinoco  unless  he  remained  at  the  mouth  to  keep  off 
the  Spaniards.  Those  who  ascended  found  a  Spanish 
village  in  the  way,  and  after  a  sharp  fight  drove  the 
Spaniards  out  and  burned  the  place.  The  mine,  if  it  really 
existed,  they  never  reached,  and  Raleigh  had  to  return  to 
England  with  failure  on  his  head.  He  Avas  soon  arrested 
and  lodged  in  the  Tower. 

Whether  James  Avould  have  pardoned  Raleigh  if  he  had 


2G4 


R  A  M  — R  A  M 


brought  home  large  quantities  of  gold  cannot  now  be  said. 
Coining  home  as  he  did,  he  had  to  bear  the  blame  of  the 
attack  on  the  Spanish  village,  which  he  had  done  nothing 
to  avert  in  his  orders  to  the  party  going  up  the  river.  He 
was  brought  before  a  commission  of  the  privy  council. 
Notes  taken  of  the  proceedings  have  only  partially  been 
preserved,  but  it  appears  that  there  was  strong  evidence 
that  after  his  failure  he  had  attempted  to  induce  his 
captains  to  seize  Spanish  prizes,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
commit  what  James  held  to  be  an  act  of  piracy,  though 
Raleigh,  with  his  views  of  the  rightfulness  of  fighting 
Spain  in  America  whatever  the  Governments  in  Europe 
might  do,  would  doubtless  have  qualified  it  by  another 
name.  At  last  the  commission  decided  against  him,  and 
he  was  sent  to  execution  formally  on  his  old  sentence  at 
Winchester,  in  reality  for  having  allowed  his  men  to  shed 
Spanish  blood  after  engaging  that  he  would  not  do  so. 
He  was  executed  on  29th  October  1618.  His  attitude 
against  Spain  gave  him  popularity  at  a  time  when  the 
attempt  of  James  to  draw  closer  the  bonds  between  Spain 
and  England  was  repudiated  by  the  great  majority  of  the 
nation.  (s.  R.  G.) 

RAMAH.     See  SAMUEL. 

RAMAY.ANA.     See  SANSKRIT  LITERATURE. 

RAMBAN.  R.  MOSHEH  BEN  NAHMAN,  or  NACHMAN- 
IDES,  was  born  before  1 200  at  Gerona,  where  he  was  rabbi 
and  physician,  and  died  between  1268  and  1270  in  Pales- 
tine, probably  at  Acre.  Although  a  Sepharadi  in  the  later 
and  larger  sense  of  the  word,  he  was  the  disciple  of  the 
greatest  Provencal  rabbis,  and  became  the  most  celebrated 
Talmudist  and  cabbalist  of  his  age  in  his  own  country. 

1.  Of  his  extant  commentaries  on  the  Bible  that  on  the  Penta- 
teuch is  the  most  valuable.     Three  editions  may  be  named.     (1) 
Ed.  prin.,  s.  Let  a.,  but  certainly  before  1480.     According  to  oral 
tradition  the  compositors  set  the  type  in  a  waggon  whilst  travel- 
ling in  Italy  from  place  to  place  for  the  purpose  of  selling  printed 
books.     (2)  Lisbon,  1489.     (3)  Naples,  1490.     This  book  has  been 
translated  at  least  twice  into  Latin  (Schiller-Szinessy,  Catal.,  i.  pp. 
174-177).     The  authorship  of  the  commentary  on  Job,  ascribed  to 
Nachmanides,  has  been  questioned,  but  without  good  grounds  (op. 
cit,  pp.  211-213).     The  commentaries,  however,  generally  ascribed 
to  him  on  Canticles  and  Ruth  are  certainly  not  his. 

2.  Of  his  many  works  on  Rabbinic  literature  we  mention  only  : 
(1)  JlUtJTI,  Strictures  on  MAIMONIDES'S  (q.v.)  Sepher  Hammisvoth 
(Constantinople,  1510,   4to  ;    Venice,   1550,   folio, — the  latter  in 
Giustiniani's  edition  of  Maimonides's  Mishneh  Torah.     A  cheap 

edition  came  out  at  Warsaw  in  1883).  (2)  'H  JTl»r6D,  i.e., 
Remarks  against  Rabbenu  Zerahyah's  Moor  (both  printed  now  with 
the  Riph)  and  Hassaba  (both  in  Tcmim  Dc'im,  §§  225,  226).  (3) 
fllDTn  "ISO,  vindication  of  Al-Phasi  against  RABAD  (q.v. — the  third) 

(Vienna,  1805).  (4)  D^n,  D^IH,  nit31p6,  Decisions,  Novelise,  and 
Collectanea  ;  these  are  spread  over  almost  the  whole  Talmud.  The 
Responsa  ascribed  to  him  are  by  his  disciple  Rashba.  (5)  riBHI, 
a  sermon  on  the  superiority  of  the  Mosaic  Law  (best  edition  by 
Jellinek,  Vienna,  1872,  8vo).  (6)  Letters  (a)  on  the  Maimonidean 
controversy  (cheapest  edition,  Vilna,  1821,  8vo) ;  (b)  to  his  son,  on 
conduct  (Lisbon  ed.  of  the  Pent,  com.) ;  (c)  Iggereth  Hakkodesh, 
on  the  ethics  of  matrimony  (latest  edition,  Berlin,  1793,  8vo) ; 
MSS.  lie  in  almost  every  public  library  in  Europe,  e.g.,  Cambridge. 
(7)  DIKil  mm,  on  Sickness,  Death,  <t-c.  (Constantinople,  1518, 
folio), — partly  ascetic  and  contemplative,  partly  Rabbinic  ordi- 
nances ;  its  last  chapter  separately  under  the  title  of  ^IIMPI  "W 
(Naples,  1490,  4to,  and  reprints).  (8)  His  anti-Christian  contro- 
versies are  chiefly  contained  in  his  H131,  a  Disputation  with  the 
convert  Pablo  Christiani,  the  teacher  of  Raymundus  Martini,  held 
before  Jayme  I.,  king  of  Aragon  ;  it  is  translated  into  Latin,  and 
will  be  found,  with  a  mutilated  and  otherwise  corrupt  text,  in  Wag- 
enseil's  Tela  ignea  Solans,  (Altdorf,  1681,  4to),  the  best  and  cheapest 
edition  of  the  text  and  of  the  explanation  of  Isa.  lil  13  to  liii.  12 
being  that  of  Dr  Steinschneider  (Berlin,  1860,  8vo).  (9)  Cabbal- 

stic  matter  is  contained  in  all  Ramban's  works  (notably,  however, 
in  the  Pentateuch  *  and  Job) ;  he  has  also  a  commentary  on  the  Sepher 

I  esirah  (Mantua,  1562,  4to,  and  reprints).     (10)  Nachmanides  was 

Nachmanides's  acuteness  and  honesty  are  a  sufficient  guarantee 
that  the  Dahir  (Midrash,  15;  Ency.  Brit.,  xvi.  p.  287),  so  often 
quoted  in  his  Pentateuch  commentary  as  a  bona  fide  old  book,  cannot 
be  a  composition  of  his  own  time,  as  some  have  of  late  asserted. 


also  a  liturgical  writer  of  eminence.  There  are  extant  by  him  a 
prose  prayer  for  one  going  on  a  sea  voyage  (Yephe  A'oph,  Venice, 
1575,  4to),  and  a  piece  of  religious  poetry  (Mclo  Chofnajim,  Berlin, 
1840,  8vo,  pp.  39-41)  for  the  Malkhiyyoth  (first  part  of  the  additional 
service  of  New  Year)  ;  the  latter  is  a  mosfajdb  and  betrays  a  perfect 
master  both  in  kabbalah  and  poetry.  For  a  specimen  of  Aramaic 
poetry  see  his  introductory  poem  to  Milfunnolh  Adonai.  (S.  M.  S.-S. ) 

RAMBOUILLET,  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement  in 
the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  30  miles  south- 
west of  Paris  on  the  line  to  Brest,  is  a  small  place  of  5186 
inhabitants,  and  derives  its  whole  interest  from  the  associa- 
tions connected  with  the  ancient  chateau,  which  stands 
surrounded  by  a  beautiful  park  of  2965  acres  and  a  wide 
forest  dating  from  the  14th  century.  A  great  machicolated 
tower  and  some  apartments  with  good  woodwork  still 
remain.  The  gardens,  partly  in  French,  partly  in  English 
style,  are  picturesque,  and  have  an  avenue  of  Louisiana 
cypress  unique  in  Europe.  The  park  contains  the  national 
sheep-farm,  where  the  first  flock  of  merino  sheep  in  France 
was  raised  last  century.  The  school  of  sheep-farming  is  of 
recent  foundation.  Here,  too,  is  the  first  military  school 
erected  for  soldiers'  children. 

Originally  a  royal  domain,  the  lands  of  Rambouillet  passed  in 
the  14th  century  to  the  D'Angennes  family,  who  held  them  for 
300  years  and  built  the  chateau.  Francis  I.  died  there  in  1547  ; 
and  Charles  IX.  and  Catherine  de'  Medici  found  a  refuge  in  the 
chateau  in  the  wars  of  religion,  as  Henry  III.  did  after  them. 
The  famous  marquise  de  Rambouillet  is  separately  noticed  below. 
Created  a  duchy  and  peerage  in  favour  of  the  duke  of  Toulouse, 
son  of  Louis  XIV.,  Rambouillet  was  subsequently  bought  and  em- 
bellished by  Louis  XVI.,  who  erected  a  model  farm,  sheep  establish- 
ment, and  other  buildings.  The  place  was  a  hunting -seat  of 
Napoleon  I.  and  Charles  X.,  and  it  was  here  that  in  1830  the  latter 
signed  his  abdication. 

RAMBOUILLET,  CATHERINE  DE  VIVONNE,  MARQUISE 
DE  (1588-1665),  a  lady  famous  in  the  literary  history  of 
France,  was  born  in  1588.  She  was  the  daughter  and 
heiress  of  Jean  de  Vivonne,  marquis  of  Pisani,  and  her 
mother  Giulia  was  of  the  noble  Roman  family  of  Savelli. 
She  was  married  at  twelve  years  old  to  Charles  d'Angennes, 
vidarne  of  Le  Mans,  and  afterwards  marquis  of  Rambouillet. 
Her  celebrity  is  due  to  the  salon  or  literary  meeting-place 
which  she  established  as  early  as  1608  in  the  Hotel  de 
Rambouillet, — or,  to  give  it  its  proper  name,  the  Hotel 
Pisani,  for  M.  de  Rambouillet  had  shortly  before  his 
marriage  sold  his  family  mansion.  Madame  de  Ram- 
bouillet not  merely  endeavoured  to  refine  the  manners  of 
her  guests  and  gave  special  attention  to  literary  conversa- 
tion, but  also  seems  to  have  taken  great  trouble  to  arrange 
her  house  for  purposes  of  reception,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  devise  suites  of  rooms  through  which 
visitors  could  move  easily.  The  hotel  was  open  for  more 
than  fifty  years,  and  almost  all  the  more  remarkable  person- 
ages in  French  society  and  French  literature  frequented  it, 
especially  during  the  second  quarter  of  the  century,  when 
it  was  at  the  height  of  its  reputation.  The  incidents  con- 
nected with  the  salon  of  the  "  incomparable  Arthenice " 
(an  anagram  for  Catherine  which  is  said  to  have  taken  two 
poets  of  renown,  Malherbe  and  Racan,  a  whole  afternoon 
to  devise)  are  innumerable,  and  it  would  be  impossible  to 
recount  them  in  any  space  here  available.  Among  the 
more  noteworthy  are  the  sonnet  war  between  the  Uranistes 
and  the  Jobistes — partisans  of  two  famous  sonnets  by 
Voiture  and  Benserade — and  the  composition  by  all  the 
famous  poets  of  the  day  of  the  Guirlande  de  Julie,  a  collec- 
tion of  poems  on  different  flowers,  addressed  to  Julie 
d'Angennes,  Madame  de  Rambouillet's  eldest  daughter. 
Even  more  important  is  the  rise  of  the  Precieuses,  who 
owed  their  existence  to  Madame  de  Rambouillet's  salon 
and  influence.  These  ladies — who  are  usually  represented 
in  the  memory  of  posterity  by  Moliere's  avowed  caricatures 
and  by  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery,  but  whose  name,  it  must 
be  remembered,  Madame  de  Sevign6  herself  was  proud  to 


R  A  M  — R  A  M 


265 


bear — insisted  on  a  ceremonious  gallantry  from  their  suitors 
and  friends  (though  it  seems  from  Tallemant's  account 
that  practical  jokes  of  a  mild  kind  were  by  no  means 
excluded  from  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet),  and  especially 
favoured  an  elaborate  and  quintessenced  kind  of  colloquial 
and  literary  expression,  such  as  at  the  end  of  the  16th 
and  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  17th  century  was  fashionable 
throughout  Europe.  The  immortal  Precieuses  Ridicules 
was  no  doubt  directly  levelled  not  at  the  Hotel  de  Ram- 
bouillet itself  but  at  the  numerous  coteries  which  in  the 
course  of  years  (for  the  salon  had  been  open  for  more  than 
a  generation  when  Moliere's  piece,  which  was  patronized  by 
the  real  Precieuses  themselves,  appeared)  had  sprung  up  in 
imitation  of  it.  But  the  satire  did  in  truth  touch  the 
originators  as  well  as  the  imitators, — the  former  more 
closely  perhaps  than  they  perceived.  The  Hotel  de  Ram- 
bouillet continued  open  till  the  death  of  its  mistress,  27th 
December  1665,  but  latterly  it  lost  its  peculiar  position. 
It  had  no  doubt  a  very  considerable  influence  in  bringing 
about  the  classicizing  of  French  during  the  17th  century, 
though  the  literary  work  with  which  it  is  chiefly  identified 
was  of  an  older  school  than  that  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 
proper. 

The  chief  original  authorities  respecting  Madame  de  Rambouillet 
and  her  set  are  Tallemaut  des  Reaux  in  his  Historiettes  and  Somaize 
in  his  Dictionnaire  des  Precieuses.  Many  recent  writers  have  treated 
the  subject,  among  whom  MM.  Cousin,  Livet,  and  De  Barthelemy 
deserve  special  mention. 

RAMEAU,  JEAN  PHILIPPE  1  (1683-1764),  musical 
theorist  and  composer,  was  born  at  Dijon,  25th  September 
1683.  His  musical  education,  partly  in  consequence  of 
his  father's  desire  to  prepare  him  for  the  magistracy,  still 
more  through  his  own  wayward  disposition,  was  of  a  very 
desultory  character ;  but  his  talent  manifested  itself  at  a 
very  early  age.  In  1701  his  father  sent  him  to  Milan  to 
break  off  a  foolish  love-match.  But  he  learned  little  in 
Italy,  and  soon  returned,  in  company  with  a  wandering 
theatrical  manager,  for  whom  he  played  the  second  violin. 
He  next  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  published  his  Premier 
Livre  de  Pieces  de  Clavecin,  in  1706.  In  1717  he  made 
an  attempt  to  obtain  the  appointment  of  organist  at  the 
church  of  St  Paul.  Deeply  annoyed  at  his  unexpected 
failure,  he  retired  for  a  time  to  Lille,  whence,  however, 
he  .soon  removed  to  Clermont-Ferrand,  where  he  succeeded 
his  brother  as  organist  at  the  cathedral,  and  here  it  was 
that  his  true  art-life  began. 

Burning  with  desire  to  remedy  the  imperfection  of  his 
early  education,  Rameau  now  diligently  studied  the  writ- 
ings of  Zarlino,  Descartes,  Mersenne,  F.  Kircher,  and  certain 
other  well-known  authors.  He  not  only  mastered  their 
several  theories  but  succeeded  in  demonstrating  their  weak 
points  and  substituting  for  them  a  system  of  his  own, 
which,  notwithstanding  its  manifest  imperfection,  was 
based  upon  firm  natural  principles,  and  ultimately  led  to 
discoveries  of  the  utmost  possible  value  to  musical  science. 
His  keen  insight  into  the  constitution  of  certain  chords, 
which  in  early  life  he  had  studied  only  by  ear,  enabled 
him  to  propound  a  series  of  hypotheses,  many  of  which 
are  now  accepted  as  established  facts ;  and,  if,  in  his 
desire  to  carry  out  his  system  to  a  logical  conclusion,  he 
was  sometimes  tempted  into  palpable  and  dangerous  error, 
it  was  only  in  obedience  to  the  law  which  invariably 
renders  the  inventor  of  a  new  theory  blind  to  the  stubborn 
facts  which  militate  against  its  universal  application. 
His  theory  was  based  upon  an  instinctive  anticipation  of 
the  discoveries  of  modern  science.  While  the  older  con- 
trapuntists were  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  laws  which 
regulated  the  melodious  involutions  of  their  vocal  and 
instrumental  parts,  Rameau  demonstrated  the  possibility 
ff  building  up  a  natural  harmony  upon  a  fundamental  bass, 
1  Not  Jean  Baptiste,  as  erroneously  stated  by  Gerber. 


and  of  using  that  harmony  as  an  authority  for  the  enact- 
ment of  whatever  laws  might  be  considered  necessary  for 
the  guidance  either  of  the  contrapuntist  or  the  less  ambi- 
tious general  composer.  And  in  this  he  first  explained 
the  distinction  between  two  styles,  which,  in  deference  to 
the  views  expressed  by  a  popular  critic  of  the  present  day, 
have  been  called  the  "horizontal  and  vertical  systems," 
the  "  horizontal  system "  being  that  by  which  the  older 
contrapuntists  regulated  the  onward  motion  of  their  several 
parts,  and  the  "  vertical  system  "  that  which  constructs  an 
entire  passage  out  of  a  single  harmony.  From  fundamental 
harmonies  he  passed  to  inverted  chords,  to  which  he  was  the 
first  to  call  attention ;  and  the  value  of  this  discovery  fully 
compensates  for  his  erroneous  theory  concerning  the  chords 
of  the  eleventh  and  the  great  (Anyl.  "added")  sixth.2 

Rameau  first  set  forth  his  new  theory  in  his  Traite  de 
VHarmonie  (Paris,  1722),  and  followed  it  up  in  his  Nouveau 
Systeme  (1726),  Generation  Harmonique  (1737),  Demonstra- 
tion (1750),  and  Nouvelles  Reflexions  (1752).  But  it  was  not 
only  as  a  theorist  that  he  became  famous.  Returning  to 
Paris  in  1722,  he  first  attracted  attention  by  composing 
some  light  dramatic  pieces,  and  then  showed  his  real 
powers  in  his  first  great  opera,  Hijypolyte  et  Aricie,  founded 
on  Racine's  Phedre,  and  produced  at  the  Academic  in 
1733.  Though  this  work  was  violently  opposed  by  the 
admirers  of  Lully,  whose  party  spirit  eventually  stirred  up 
the  famous  "guerre  des  bouffons,"  Rameau's  genius  was  too 
brilliant  to  be  trampled  under  foot  by  an  ephemeral  faction, 
and  his  ultimate  triumph  was  assured.  He  afterwards 
produced  more  than  twenty  operas,  the  most  successful  of 
which  were  Dardanus,  Castor  et  Pollux,  Les  Indes  Gal- 
antes,  and  La  Princesse  de  Navarre.  Honours  Avere  now 
showered  upon  him.  He  was  appointed  conductor  at  the 
Opera  Comique,  and  the  directors  of  the  opera  granted 
him  a  pension.  King  Louis  XV.  appointed  him  composer 
to  the  court  in  1745,  and  in  1764  honoured  him  with  a 
patent  of  nobility  and  the  order  of  Saint  Michael.  But 
these  last  privileges  were  granted  only  on  the  eve  of  his 
death,  which  took  place  in  Paris  on  12th  September  1764. 

RAMESES  (Gen.  xlvii.  11 ;  Exod.  xii.  37;  Num.  xxxiii. 
3),  or,  with  a  slight  change  in  the  vowel  points,  RAAMSES 
(Exod.  i.  11),  the  name  of  a  district  and  town  in  Lower 
Egypt,  is  notable  as  affording  the  mainstay  of  the  current 
theory  that  King  Rameses  II.  was  the  pharaoh  of  the 
oppression  and  his  successor  Menptah  the  pharaoh  of  the 
exodus.  The  actual  facts,  however,  hardly  justify  so  large 
an  inference.  The  first  three  passages  cited  above  are  all 
by  the  priestly  (post-exile)  author  and  go  together.  Jacob 
is  settled  by  his  son  Joseph  in  the  land  of  Rameses  and 
from  the  same  Rameses  the  exodus  naturally  takes  place. 
The  older  narrative  speaks  not  of  the  land  of  Rameses  but 
of  the  land  of  Goshen ;  it  seems  probable,  therefore,  that  the 
later  author  interprets  an  obsolete  term  by  one  current  in 
his  own  day,  just  as  the  Septuagint  in  Gen.  xlvi.  28  names 
instead  of  Goshen  Heroopolis  and  the  land  of  Rameses. 
Heroopolis  lay  on  the  canal  connecting  the  Nile  and  the 
Red  Sea,  and  not  far  from  the  head  of  the  latter,  so  that 
the  land  of  Rameses  must  be  sought  in  Wady  Tumilat 
near  the  line  of  the  modern  freshwater  canal.  In  Exod.  i. 
11,  again,  the  store-cities  or  arsenals  which  the  Hebrews 
built  for  Pharaoh  are  specified  as  Pithom  and  Raamses, 
to  which  LXX.  adds  Heliopolis.  Pithom  (the  city  of 
the  god  Turn)  is  probably  the  Patumus  of  Herod,  ii. 
158,  which  also  lay  on  the  canal,  so  here  again  Wady 
Tumilat  is  the  district  to  which  we  are  referred.  But  did 
the  Israelites  maintain  a  continuous  recollection  of  the 
names  of  the  cities  on  which  they  were  forced  to  build,  or 
were  these  names  rather  added  by  a  writer  who  knew  what 
fortified  places  were  in  his  own  time  to  be  seen  in  Wady 
2  For  further  information  on  this  subject,  see  vol.  xvii.  p.  92. 

XX.  —  34 


266 


R  A  M  — R  A  M 


Tiimilat  ?  The  latter  is  far  the  more  likely  case,  when  we 
consider  that  the  old  form  of  the  story  of  the  Hebrews  in 
Egypt  is  throughout  deficient  in  precise  geographical  data, 
as  might  be  expected  in  a  history  not  committed  to  writing 
till  the  Israelites  had  resided  for  centuries  in  another  and 
distant  land.  The  post-exile  or  priestly  author  indeed 
gives  a  detailed  route  for  the  exodus  (which  is  lacking  in 
the  older  story),  but  he,  we  know,  was  a  student  of  geo- 
graphy and  might  supplement  tradition  by  what  he  could 
gather  from  traders  as  to  the  caravan  routes.1  And  at  all 
events  to  argue  that,  because  the  Hebrews  worked  at  a  city 
named  after  Rameses,  they  did  so  in  the  reign  of  the 
founder,  is  false  reasoning,  for  the  Hebrew  expression 
might  equally  be  used  of  repairs  or  new  works  of  any  kind. 

It  appears,  however,  from  remains  ami  inscriptions  that  Kaineses 
II.  did  build  in  Wady  Tumilat,  especially  at  Tell  Maskhuta,  which 
Lepsius  therefore  identified  with  the  Raamses  of  Exodus.  This 
identification  is  commemorated  in  the  name  of  the  adjacent  rail- 
way station.  But  recent  excavations  on  the  spot  have  brought  to 
light  further  inscriptions,  on  the  ground  of  which  Naville  makes 
the  ruins  those  of  Pithom  and  further  identifies  Pithom  with  the 
later  Heroopolis.  The  identity  of  Pithom  and  Heroopolis  is  also 
favoured  by  comparison  of  the  LXX.  and  the  Coptic  of  Gen.  xlvi. 
28.  See  E.  Xaville,  The  Store-city  of  Pithom  and  the  Eoute  of  the 
Exodus,  London,  1885. 

RAMESWARAM,  a  small  island  situated  between 
Ceylon  and  India,  at  the  entrance  of  Palk  Strait  in  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar,  in  9°  18'  N.  lat.  and  79°  22'  E.  long.  It 
is  about  1 4  miles  long  by  5  wide,  is  low  and  sandy,  and  for 
the  most  part  uncultivated.  The  estimated  population  of 
the  island  is  about  14,000.  It  contains  one  of  the  most 
venerated  Hindu  shrines,  founded,  according  to  tradition, 
by  Rama  himself,  which  for  centuries  has  been  the  resort 
of  thousands  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  India.  To  the 
south  of  this  great  temple  there  is  a  freshwater  lake 
about  3  miles  in  circumference.  At  the  western  extremity 
of  the  island  is  the  small  but  busy  port  of  Pambam,  which 
gives  its  name  to  the  channel  between  India  and  Ceylon. 

Rameswaram  island  is  the  first  link  in  the  chain  of  islets  and 
rocks  forming  Adam's  Bridge.  Geological  evidence  shows  that 
this  gap  was  once  bridged  by  a  continuous  isthmus,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  temple  records,  was  breached  by  a  violent  storm  in  1480. 
Operations  for  removing  the  obstacles  in  the  channel,  and  for 
deepening  and  widening  it,  were  begun  in  1838.  The  main  channel 
has  a  minimum  depth  of  14  feet ;  its  length  is  4232  feet  and  its 
breadth  80  feet.  A  second  channel  to  the  south,  called  the  Kilkarai 
Passage,  is  2100  feet  long,  150  feet  wide,  and  is  dredged  to  a  depth 
of  12  feet. 

RAMMOHUN  ROY.     See  ROY. 

RAMPUR,  a  native  state  of  India,  in  the  Rohilkhand 
division  of  the  North- Western  Provinces,  lying  between 
28°  26'  and  29°  10'  N.  lat.  and  between  78° 54'  and  79°33' 
E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by  the  British 
district  of  Muradabad,  and  on  the  N.E.  and  S.E.  by  the 
district  of  Bareli.  The  country  is  level  and  generally 
fertile  ;  it  is  well  watered  in  the  north  by  the  rivers  Kosila 
and  Xahul  and  in  the  south  by  the  Ramgangd.  It 
adjoins  the  Tarai  on  the  north,  at  the  foot  of  the  Hima- 
layas, and  is  exceedingly  unhealthy.  The  total  area  of 
the  state  is  945  square  miles,  with  a  population  (1881) 
of  541,914  (males  282,359,  females  259,555),  of  whom 
302,989  were  Hindus  and  238,925  Mohammedans. 

The  revenue  of  Rampur  in  1883-84  was  £167,031  and  the 
ordinary  annual  expenditure  £160,134.  Rice,  sugar,  hides,  and  a 
kind  of  damask  are  the  principal  exports,  and  the  imports  comprise 
elephants,  English  cloth,  and  groceries  and  salt.  During  the 
mutiny  of  1857  the  nawab  of  Rampur  rendered  important  services 
to  the  British,  for  which  he  received  a  grant  of  land  assessed  at 
£12,852  in  perpetuity,  besides  other  honours. 

RAMPUR,  capital  of  the  above  state,  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Kosila  in  28°  48'  N.  lat.  and  79°  4'  E. 
long.;  it  is  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  bamboo  trees  and 

1  From  the  position  of  the  words  it  is  even  not  unlikely  that 
"  Pithom  and  Raamses"  may  be  the  addition  of  a  redactor,  and  that 
the  first  author  of  Exod.  Ill  only  spoke  generally  of  store-cities. 


brushwood,  with  a  low  ruined  parapet,  and  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  nawab,  who  represents  the  Rohilla  chieftair 
of  Rohilkhand.  A  lofty  mosque  stands  in  the  market 
place  ;  the  streets  are  densely  crowded  together  and  princi- 
pally built  of  mud.  The  population  of  the  town  in  1881 
numbered  74,250  (males  36,355,  females  37,895);  it  is 
famous  for  fine  shawls  and  damask,  which  are  exported  to 
all  parts  of  India. 

RAMPUR  BEULEAH.     See  RAJSHAH*,  supra,  p.  261. 

RAMSAY,  ALLAN  (1686-1758),  author  of  the  Guttls 
Shepherd,  a  pastoral  drama  in  the  Lowland  Scotch  dialect, 
was  born  in  Lanarkshire  in  1686.  An  Edinburgh  barber 
set  agoing  the  literary  movement  in  Scotland  that  cul- 
minated in  the  poetry  of  Burns.  This  peasant-poetry  is 
often  spoken  of  as  if  it  were  a  spontaneous  indigenous 
product,  but  the  harvest  that  ripened  towards  the  close  of 
the  18th  century  had  its  seed-time  earlier,  and  the  seeds 
were  imported  from  England.  Allan  Ramsay  was  a 
peasant  by  birth  (although  he  claimed  kinship  with  the 
noble  family  of  Dalhousie) — the  son  of  a  manager  of  lead- 
mines  in  Lanarkshire ;  but  the  country-bred  lad  was  trans- 
planted to  a  town,  being  apprenticed  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
to  a  barber  in  Edinburgh.  In  this  calling  he  somehow 
made  the  acquaintance  of  a  band  of  Jacobite  young  gentle- 
men of  literary  tastes,  was  admitted  to  the  convivialities 
of  their  "Easy  Club,"  and  formally  adjudged  "a  gentle- 
man." The  basis  of  the  club  seems  to  have  been  literary, 
the  members  taking  fancy  names  of  celebrities, — Buchanan, 
Boece,  Bickerstaff,  and  so  forth.  Ramsay's  name  was 
Bickerstaff,  and  the  fact  is  of  some  importance  as  showing 
how  he  was  brought  into  contact  with  the  discussion  of  the 
theory  of  pastoral  poetry  among  the  London  wits  of  the 
time.  Ramsay's  connexion  with  the  Easy  Club  lay  between 
1712  and  1715,  and  in  the  course  of  that  period  occurred 
the  dispute  about  pastoral  poetry  occasioned  by  the  great 
publication  of  Pope's  Windsor  Forest  (see  POPE).  The 
Guardian  for  7th  April  1713  (Xo.  23)  contained  a  descrip- 
tion of  a  true  pastoral  poem,  which  was  afterwards  realized 
by  Ramsay  in  the  Gentle  Shepherd  with  such  scrupulous 
fidelity  in  every  detail  that  the  criticism  might  fairly  be 
described  as  the  recipe  from  which  the  poem  was  made. 
There  is  not  a  clearer  case  in  literary  history  of  the  influ- 
ence of  criticism  on  creation ;  Ramsay's  great  pastoral — 
and  it  well  deserves  the  epithet — was  the  main  outcome 
of  the  prolonged  discussion  of  that  kind  of  poetry  by  the 
Queen  Anne  wits.  "Paint  the  manners  of  actual  rustic  life," 
said  the  Guardian  critic  to  the  poet,  "  not  the  manners  of 
artificial  shepherds  and  shepherdesses  in  a  fictitious  golden 
age ;  use  actual  rustic  dialect ;  instead  of  satyrs  and  fauns 
and  nymphs  introduce  the  supernatural  creatures  of  modern 
superstition."  These  precepts  Ramsay  diligently  observed, 
and  the  result  was  that  his  Gentle  Shepherd  not  only 
attracted  attention  among  the  learned  students  of  poetry  as 
a  literary  curiosity,  the  first  genuine  pastoral  after  Theo- 
critus, but  at  once  became  a  favourite  and  a  living  force 
among  the  peasantry  in  whose  dialect  it  was  written  and 
for  whose  characters  it  furnished  ideal  models.  There  was 
hardly  a  farmhouse  in  Scotland  in  which  a  copy  of  the 
poem  was  not  to  be  found,  and  the  moral  force  of  the  ideal 
exhibited  in  the  hero  Patie  may  be  traced  in  the  character 
of  Burns  and  many  another  Scottish  peasant-bard  in  whom 
ostentatious  libertinism  is  not  redeemed  by  the  same  genius. 
From  a  moral  point  of  view  a  better  exemplar  than  Ram- 
say's ideal  hero  might  well  have  been  desired.  The  poet- 
laureate  of  the  Easy  Club  'took  his  moral  tone  from  the 
poets  of  the  Restoration,  with  whom  his  Jacobite  boon  com- 
panions were  in  full  sympathy ;  and  thus  through  the  genial, 
convivial,  quick-witted,  and  slily  humorous  barber  the  spirit 
of  the  Restoration  passed  into  the  homes  of  the  Scotch 
peasantry  to  do  battle  with  the  austere  spirit  of  the  kirk. 


R  A  M  — R  A  M 


267 


The  Gentle  Shepherd  is  the  only  production  of  Ramsay's 
chat  has  much  claim  to  remembrance.  His  lyrics  for  the 
most  part  are  poor  artificial  imitations,  adorned  here  and 
there  with  pretty  fancies,  but  devoid  of  sincerity  of  feeling. 
He  is  happier  in  his  humorous  descriptions  of  character 
and  occasional  personal  poems ;  "  renowned  Allan,  canty 
callan,"  as  his  admirers  loved  to  call  him,  had  a  quick 
sense  of  the  ridiculous  and  a  firm  touch  in  the  exhibition 
of  what  amused  him.  Once  he  had  established  a  character 
as  a  poet  he  abandoned  the  trade  of  wig-making,  set  up  as 
a  bookseller,  and  was  the  first  to  start  a  circulating  library 
in  Scotland.  From  his  shop  in  High  Street  opposite  Niddry 
Street  he  issued  his  incidental  poems  in  broadsheets,  and 
made  a  volume  of  them  in  1721,  and  another  in  1728. 
The  nucleus  of  the  Gentle  Shepherd  was  laid  in  separately 
issued  pastoral  dialogues ;  round  these  the  complete  drama 
was  built  and  published  as  a  whole  in  1725.  As  a  col- 
lector, editor,  imitator,  and  publisher  of  old  Scottish  poetry 
Ramsay  gave  an  impetus  to  vernacular  literature  at  least  as 
great  as  that  given  by  his  principal  original  poem.  His 
Tea-Table  Miscellany,  published  in  1724,  for  which  English 
as  well  as  Scottish  poets  and  moderns  as  well  as  ancients 
were  laid  under  contribution,  was  extremely  popular ;  and 
his  Evergreen,  (1724),  a  collection  of  poems  written  prior 
to  1600,  was  the  precursor  of  Bishop  Percy's  Reliques  in  a 
similar  field.  A  collection  of  Fables,  published  complete  in 
1730,  part  original,  part  translated  from  La  Motte  and  La 
Fontaine,  was  Ramsay's  last  literary  work,  but  he  lived  to 
an  advanced  age,  dying  in  1758,  the  year  before  the  birth 
of  Burns.  One  of  the  speculations  of  the  enlightened  and 
enterprising  man  of  business  was  a  theatre,  which  was 
opened  in  1736,  but  soon  shut  up  by  the  magistrates. 

A  complete  edition  of  Ramsay's  poems  was  issued  by  A.  Gardner 
in  1877. 

RAMSAY,  ALLAN  (1713-1784),  portrait -painter,  the 
eldest  son  of  the  author  of  The  Gentle  Shepherd,  was 
born  at  Edinburgh  about  17 13.1  Ramsay  manifested  an 
aptitude  for  art  from  an  early  period,  and  at  the  age 
of  twenty  we  find  him  in  London  studying  under  the 
Swedish  painter  Hans  Huyssing,  and  at  the  St  Martin's 
Lane  Academy;  and  in  1736  he  left  for  Rome,  where  he 
worked  for  three  years  under  Solimena  and  Imperial: 
(Fernandi).  On  his  return  he  settled  in  Edinburgh  ;  and, 
having  attracted  attention  by  his  head  of  Forbes  of 
Culloden  and  his  full-length  of  the  duke  of  Argyll,  he 
removed  to  London,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the  duke 
of  Bridgewater.  His  pleasant  manners  and  varied  culture, 
not  less  than  his  artistic  skill,  contributed  to  render  him 
popular..  In  1767  the  Scotsman  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Shakelton  as  principal  painter  to  His  Majesty ;  and  so 
fully  employed  was  he  on  the  royal  portraits  which  the 
king  was  in  the  habit  of  presenting  to  ambassadors  and 
colonial  governors  that  he  was  forced  to  take  advantage 
of  the  services  of  a  host  of  assistants — of  whom  David 
Martin  and  Philip  Reinagle  are  the  best  known — upon 
the  minor  portions  of  his  works,  and  sometimes  on  the 
faces  themselves.  His  life  in  London  was  varied  by 
frequent  visits  to  Italy,  where  he  occupied  himself  more 
in  literary  and  antiquarian  research  than  with  art.  But 
at  length  this  prosperous  career  came  to  an  end.  The 
painter's  health  was  shattered  by  an  accident,  a  dislocation 
of  the  right  arm.  With  an  unflinching  pertinacity,  which 
we  can  understand  when  we  see  the  firm -set  resolute 
mouth  of  his  own  portrait,  he  struggled  till  he  had  com- 
pleted a  likeness  of  the  king  upon  which  he  was  engaged 
at  the  time,  and  then  started  for  his  beloved  Italy,  leaving 

1  There  seems  to  be  some  dubiety  as  to  the  exact  date  :  the  brothers 
Redgrave,  in  their  Century  of  Painters,  give  the  date  as  1709,  while 
Samuel  Redgrave,  in  his  Dictionary  of  Painters  of  the  English  School 
states  it  as  1713,  a  year — probably  the  correct  one — assumed  by 
Cunningham  in  his  Lives. 


behind  him  a  series  of  fifty  royal  portraits  to  be  completed 
by  his  assistant  Reinagle.  For  several  years  he  lingered 
in  the  south,  his  constitution  finally  broken.  He  died 
at  Dover  on  the  10th  of  August  1784. 

In  his  art  Ramsay  paid  the  penalty  of  popularity  :  the  quality 
of  the  work  which  bears  his  name  suffered  from  his  unremitting 
assiduity  as  a  court-painter  and  from  his  unsparing  employment 
of  assistants.  Among  his  most  satisfactory  productions  are  some 
of  his  earlier  ones,  such  as  the  full-length  of  the  duke  of  Argyll, 
and  the  numerous  bust-portraits  of  Scottish  gentlemen  and  their 
ladies  which  he  executed  before  settling  in  London.  They  are 
full  of  both  grace  and  individuality  ;  the  features  show  excellent 
draughtsmanship  ;  and  the  flesh -pain  ting  is  firm  and  sound  in 
method,  though  frequently  tending  a  little  to  hardness  and  opacity. 
His  full-length  of  Lady  Mary  Coke  is  an  especially  elegant  female 
portrait,  remarkable  for  the  skill  and  delicacy  with  which  the  white 
satin  drapery  is  managed  ;  while  in  the  portrait  of  his  brown-eyed 
wife,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Sir  Alexander  Lindsay  of  Evelick,  in 
the  Scottish  National  Gallery,  we  have  a  sweetness  and  tenderness 
which  shows  the  painter  at  his  highest.  This  last-named  work 
shows  the  influence  of  French  art,  an  influence  which  helped 
greatly  to  form  the  practice  of  Ramsay,  and  which  is  even  more 
clearly  visible  in  the  large  collection  of  his  sketches  in-  the  pos- 
session of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy  and  the  Board  of  Trustees, 
Edinburgh. 

RAMSAY,  ANDREW  MICHAEL  (1686-1743),  commonly 
called  the  "  Chevalier  Ramsay,"  who  was  born  at  Ayr, 
Scotland,  on  9th  January  1686,  is  noteworthy  as  having 
been  among  the  few  writers  not  of  French  birth  who  are 
admitted  by  French  criticism  to  have  written  in  French 
with  purity  and  scholarship.  Ramsay  visited  France  com- 
paratively early  and  came  under  the  influence  of  Fenelon, 
which  made  him  a  convert  to  Roman  Catholicism.  He 
held  several  important  tutorships  in  his  adopted  country, 
the  chief  of  which  was  the  charge  of  Prince  Charles 
Edward  and  the  future  cardinal  of  York.  His  biographers 
mention  with  surprise  the  conferring  of  an  honorary  degree 
upon  him  by  the  university  of  Oxford.  The  claim  was 
nominally  his  discipleship  to  Fenelon,  but  in  reality  beyond 
doubt  his  connexion  with  the  Jacobite  party.  He  died  at 
St  Germain-en-Laye  (Seine-et-Oise)  on  6th  May  1743. 

Ramsay's  principal  work  was  the  Travels  of  Cyrus  (London  and 
Paris,  1727),  a  book  composed  in  avowed  imitation  of  Tdemaquc. 
He  also  edited  Telemaque  itself  with  an  introduction,  and  wrote 
an  Essai  de  Politique  on  the  principles  of  his  master  and  a  Histoire 
de  la  Vie  et  dcs  Ouvrages  de  Fenelon,  besides  a  partial  biography  of 
Turenne,  some  poems  in  English,  and  other  miscellaneous  works. 

RAMSAY,  DAVID  (1749-1815),  American  physician  and 
historian,  was  the  son  of  an  Irish  emigrant,  and  was  born 
in  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  on  2d  April  1749. 
After  graduating  M.D.  at  Princeton  College  in  1765  he 
settled  as  a  physician  at  Charleston,  Avhere  he  obtained  an 
extensive  practice.  During  the  revolutionary  war  he 
served  as  a  field-surgeon,  and  in  1776  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  South  Carolina  legislature.  Having  acted  as 
one  of  the  "council  of  safety"  at  Charleston,  he  was  on 
the  capture  of  that  city  on  27th  August  1780  seized  by  the 
British  as  a  hostage,  and  for  nearly  a  year  was  kept  in 
confinement  at  St  Augustine.  From  1782  to  1786  he  was 
a  member  of  Congress.  His  interest  in  the  revolutionary 
struggle  led  him  to  devote  his  leisure  to  the  preparation 
of  several  historical  works  on  the  subject,  and  in  1785  he 
published  in  two  volumes  History  of  the  Revolution  in 
South  Carolina,  in  1789  in  two  volumes  History  of  the 
American  Revolution,  in  1801  a  Life  of  Washington,  and 
in  1809  in  two  volumes  a  History  of  South  Carolina. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  several  minor  works.  He  died 
at  Charleston  on  8th  May  1815  from  a  wound  inflicted  by 
a  lunatic.  His  History  of  the  United  States  in  3  vols.  was 
published  posthumously  in  1816,  and  forms  the  first  three 
volumes  of  his  Universal  History  Americanized,  published 
in  12  vols.  in  1819. 

RAMSDEN,  JESSE  (1735-1800),  astronomical  instru- 
ment maker,  was  born  at  Salterhebble  near  Halifax,  York- 
shire, in  1735.  He  went  to  London  in  1755,  and  was 


R  A  M  —  R  A  M 


shortly  afterwards  bound  apprentice  to  a  mathematical 
instrument  maker.  He  afterwards  started  business  on  his 
own  account  and  acquired  great  celebrity  as  an  artist. 
He  died  on  5th  November  1800. 

Ramsden's  speciality  was  divided  circles,  which  began  to  super- 
sede the  quadrants  in  observatories  towards  the  end  of  the  18th 
century.  His  most  celebrated  work  was  a  5-feet  vertical  circle, 
which  "was  finished  in  1789  and  was  used  by  Piazzi  at  Palermo  in 
constructing  his  well-known  catalogue  of  stars.  He  was  the  first 
to  carry  out  in  practice  a  method  of  reading  off  angles  (first  suggested 
in  1768  by  the  duke  of  Chaulnes)  by  measuring  the  distance  of  the 
index  from  the  nearest  division  line  by  means  of  a  micrometer  screw 
which  moves  one  or  two  fine  threads  placed  in  the  focus  of  a  micro- 
scope. Ramsden's  transit  instruments  were  the  first  which  were 
illuminated  through  the  hollow  axis ;  the  idea  was  suggested  to 
him  by  Professor  Ussher  in  Dublin. 

RAMSGATE,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of  England, 
in  the  Isle  of  Thanet,  Kent,  and  a  "  vill "  of  the  old  Cinque 
Port  of  Sandwich,  is  finely  situated  between  chalk  cliffs  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  Pegwell  Bay,  on  the  London, 
Chatham,  and  Dover  Railway,  79  miles  east-south-east  of 
London.  It  possesses  a  fine  stretch  of  sand,  and  is  much 
frequented  as  a  watering-place.  It  first  rose  into  import- 
ance in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  through  its  trade 
with  Russia.  In  1749  it  was  selected  as  a  harbour  of  refuge 
for  the  Downs,  and  the  erection  of  a  pier  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Smeaton  was  begun  in  1787.  The  harbour  has 
been  improved  at  various  periods,  and  now  (1885)  covers 
an  area  of  51  acres,  enclosed  by  two  piers,  one  about  1200 
and  the  other  about  1500  feet  in  length,  accommodation 
being  afforded  for  as  many  as  400  sail.  The  limits  of  the 
port  were  extended  in  1882.  A  considerable  shipping 
trade  in  coal  and  provisions  is  carried  on,  and  there  is 
also  a  fleet  of  150  vessels  engaged  in  the  North  Sea  fishery. 
A  fine  promenade  pier  was  erected  in  1881.  The  town 
possesses  a  town-hall  (1839),  assembly  rooms,  and  exten- 
sive bathing  establishments.  The  church  of  St  George 
was  built  in  1826.  There  is  a  small  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  built  by  Welby  Pugin.  The  neighbouring  Peg- 
well  Bay,  famed  for  its  shrimps,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  scene  of  the  landing  of  Hengist  and  Horsa,  and  at 
Cliff's  End  (Ebbs  Fleet)  a  monolithic  cross  marks  the 
landing-place  of  St  Augustine  in  596.  On  the  summit  of 
Osengal  Hill,  about  a  mile  to  the  west  of  the  town,  a 
graveyard  of  the  early  Saxon  settlers  was  discovered  during 
the  cutting  of  the  railway.  Ramsgate  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough  in  1884.  The  population  of  the  urban 
sanitary  district  (area  2278  acres)  in  1871  was  19,640, 
and  in  1881  22,683,  or,  including  638  fishermen  at  sea, 
23,321. 

RAMUS,  PETER,  or  PIERRE  DE  LA  RAMEE  (1515-1572), 
logician,  was  born  at  the  village  of  Cuth  in  Picardy  in 
the  year  1515.  He  was  descended  from  a  noble  family, 
which  had  fallen,  however,  into  such  poverty  that  his 
father  earned  his  livelihood  as  a  field-labourer.  The  early 
death  of  his  father  increased  Ramus's  difficulties  in  obtain- 
ing the  education  for  which  he  thirsted.  But  at  last  his 
perseverance  was  rewarded  by  admission,  in  a  menial 
capacity,  to  the  college  of  Navarre.  He  worked  with  his 
hands  by  day  and  carried  on  his  studies  at  night.  The 
reaction  against  scholasticism  was  still  in  full  tide ;  it  was 
the  transition  time  between  the  old  and  the  new,  when 
the  eager  and  forward-looking  spirits  had  first  of  all  to  do 
battle  with  scholastic  Aristotelianism.  In  the  domain  of 
logic  men  like  Laurentius  Valla,  Rudolphus  Agricola,  and 
Ludovicus  Vives,  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  Renais- 
sance, had  already  invoked  Cicero  against  the  barbarous 
Latinity  of  the  scholastic  compends ;  and,  following  the 
same  prototype,  they  had  proposed  various  innovations 
which  tended  to  assimilate  logic  to  rhetoric.  Ramus  out- 
did his  predecessors  in  the  impetuosity  of  his  revolt.  He 
signalized  himself  on  the  occasion  of  taking  his  degree 


(1536)  by  victoriously  defending  the  daring  thesis — Every- 
thing that  Aristotle  taught  is  false.  This  (our  d?  force 
was  followed  up  by  the  publication  in  1543  of  Aristotelicss 
Animadversiones  and  Dialectics  Partitiones,  the  former  a 
criticism  on  the  old  logic  and  the  latter  a  new  text-book  of 
the  science.  What  are  substantially  fresh  editions  of  the 
Partitiones  appeared  in  1547  as  Institutiones  Dialectics^, 
and  in  1548  as  Scholx  Dialectics;  his  Dialectique,  a  French 
version  of  his  system,  is  the  earliest  work  on  the  subject 
in  the  French  language.  Meanwhile  Ramus,  as  graduate 
of  the  university,  had  opened  courses  of  lectures  ;  but  his 
audacities  drew  upon  him  the  determined  hostility  of  the 
conservative  party  in  philosophy  and  theology.  He  was 
accused  of  undermining  the  foundations  of  philosophy  and 
religion,  and  the  matter  was  brought  before  the  parlemcnt 
of  Paris,  and  finally  before  the  king.  By  him  it  was  re- 
ferred to  a  commission  of  five,  who  found  Ramus  guilty 
of  having  "acted  rashly,  arrogantly,  and  impudently," 
and  interdicted  his  lectures  (1544).  He  withdrew  from 
Paris,  but  soon  afterwards  returned,  the  decree  against 
him  being  cancelled  through  the  influence  of  the  cardinal 
of  Lorraine.  In  1551  Henry  II.  appointed  him  professor 
of  philosophy  and  eloquence  at  the  College  de  France, 
where  for  a  considerable  time  he  enjoyed  free  scope  for 
his  energies.  His  incessant  literary  activity  is  proved  by 
the  fifty  works  which  he  published  in  his  lifetime,  to  which 
must  be  added  nine  that  appeared  after  his  death.  In 
1561,  however,  the  slumbering  enmity  against  Ramus  was 
suddenly  fanned  into  flame  by  his  adoption  of  Protestant- 
ism. He  had  to  flee  from  Paris  for  his  life ;  and,  though 
he  found  an  asylum  in  the  palace  of  Fontainebleau,  his 
house  was  pillaged  and  his  library  burned  in  his  absence. 
He  resumed  his  chair  after  this  for  a  time,  but  in  1568 
the  position  of  affairs  was  again  so  threatening  that  he 
found  it  advisable  to  ask  permission  to  travel.  He  travelled 
mainly  in  Switzerland  and  Germany,  residing  some  time 
in  Basel,  Heidelberg,  Geneva,  and  Lausanne,  and  meeting 
everywhere  with  the  most  flattering  reception.  Returning 
to  France,  Ramus  at  last  fell  a  victim  to  the  inveterate 
hate  of  his  opponents  :  he  perished  by  the  hands  of  hired 
assassins  in  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew  (1572). 

The  logic  of  Ramus  enjoyed  a  great  celebrity  for  a  time,  and 
there  existed  a  school  of  Ramists  boasting  numerous  adherents 
in  France,  Germany,  and  Holland.  As  late  as  1626  Burgersdyck 
divides  the  logicians  of  his  day  into  the  Aristotelians,  the  Ramists, 
and  the  Semi-Ramists,  who  endeavoured,  like  Goclenius  of  Mar- 
burg, to  mediate  between  the  contending  parties.  Ramus's  works 
appear  among  the  logical  text-books  of  the  Scottish  universities, 
and  he  was  not  without  his  followers  in  England  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury. There  is  even  a  little  treatise  from  the  hand  of  Milton, 
published  two  years  before  his  death,  called  Artis  Logicse  Plcnior 
Institutio  ad  Petri  Rami  Methodum  concinnata.  It  cannot  be  said, 
however,  that  Ramus's  innovations  mark  any  epoch  in  the  history 
of  logic  ;  and,  though  some  of  his  additions  have  maintained  their 
ground,  he  has  made  no  contribution  of  fundamental  importance 
to  the  science.  His  rhetorical  leaning  is  seen  in  the  definition  of 
logic  as  the  "ars  disserendi "  ;  he  maintains  that  the  rules  of  logic 
may  be  better  learned  from  observation  of  the  way  in  which  Cicero 
persuaded  his  hearers  than  from  a  study  of  the  Organon.  The  dis- 
tinction between  natural  and  artificial  logic,  i.e.,  between  the  im- 
plicit logic  of  daily  speech  and  the  same  logic  made  explicit  in  a 
system,  passed  over  into  the  logical  handbooks.  Logic  falls,  accord- 
ing to  Ramus,  into  two  parts — invention  (treating  of  the  notion 
and  definition)  and  judgment  (comprising  the  judgment  proper, 
syllogism,  and  method).  This  division  gave  rise  to  the  jocular 
designation  of  judgment  or  mother-wit  as  the  "  secunda  Petri. "  He 
is,  perhaps,  most  suggestive  in  his  emendations  of  the  syllogism. 
He  admits  only  the  first  three  figures,  as  in  the  original  Aristotelian 
scheme,  and  in  his  later  works  he  also  attacks  the  validity  of  the 
third  figure,  following  in  this  the  precedent  of  Laurentius  Valla. 
Ramus  also  set  the  modern  fashion  of  deducing  the  figures  from 
the  position  of  the  middle  term  in  the  premises,  instead  of  basing 
them,  as  Aristotle  does,  upon  the  different  relation  of  the  middle 
to  the  so-called  major  and  minor  term.  On  the  whole,  however, 
though  Ramus  may  be  allowed  to  have  advanced  logical  study  by 
the  wholesome  fermentation  of  thought  which  he  caused,  we  are 


Jj 

m 


A  M  —  R  A  M 


269 


at  a  loss  to  see  the  grounds  for  his  pretentious  claim  to  supersede 
Aristotle  by  a  new  and  independent  system. 

See  Waildington - Kastus,  De  Petri  Kami  vita,  scriptis,  philosophia,  Paris, 
1848  ;  Charles  "Desmaze,  Petrus  Kamus,  professeur  au  College  de  France,  sa  vie, 
ses  ec'rlts,  sa  mart,  Paris,  1864. 

KAMUSIO.  The  noble  family  of  Ramusio — the  spelling 
adopted  in  the  publication  of  the  Navigationi,  though  it  is 
also  written  Ramnusio,  Rhamnusio,  Rannusio,  &c. — was 
one  of  note  for  literary  and  official  ability  during  at  least 
four  generations.  Its  original  home  was  in  Rimini,  and 
the  municipality  of  that  city  has  within  the  last  few  years 
set  up  a  tablet  on  the  town -hall  bearing  an  inscription 
which  may  be  thus  rendered:  "  The  municipality  of  Rimini 
here  records  the  claim  of  their  city  to  the  family  of  the 
Ramusios,  adorned  during  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  by 
the  illustrious  jurist  and  man  of  letters  Paolo  the  elder, 
who  rendered  the  work  of  Valturius,  our  fellow -citizen, 
into  the  vernacular ;  by  the  physician  Girolamo,  a  most 
successful  student  of  Oriental  tongues,  and  the  first  to 
present  Europe  with  a  translation  of  Avicenna ;  and  by 
Giovanni  Battista,  cosmographer  to  the  Venetian  republic 
and  secretary  to  the  Council  of  Ten,  who  bequeathed  to  the 
world  that  famous  collection  of  voyages  and  travels,  re- 
garded in  his  own  day  as  a  marvellous  work,  and  still  full 
of  authority  among  all  civilized  nations." 

PAOLO  THE  ELDER  (c.  1443-1506),  the  first  of  those  thus 
commemorated,  migrated  in  1458  from  Rimini  to  Venice, 
where  he  obtained  full  citizenship,  studied  law,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  magistracy,  filling  the  offices  of  vicario, 
of  judicial  assessor,  and  of  criminal  judge  under  various 
administrators  of  the  Venetian  provinces  on  the  continent. 
He  continued,  however,  to  maintain  relations  with  the  Mala- 
testa  princes  of  his  native  city,  and  in  1503  negotiated  with 
them  the  cession  of  Rimini  to  the  republic.  The  wife  of 
Paolo,  bearing  the  singular  name  of  Tomyris  Macachio,  bore 
him  three  sons  and  four  daughters.  Paolo  died  at  Bergamo 
on  19th  August  1506  at  the  age  of  sixty-three,  and  was 
buried  in  S.  Agostino  at  Padua.  Paolo  was  the  author  of 
a  variety  of  legal  treatises  and  the  like,  and  also  published 
at  Verona  in  1483  both  a  corrected  edition  and  an  Italian 
translation  oi  a  once  famous  book,  Valturius,  De  re  militari, 
dedicating  both  to  Pandolfo  Malatesta  of  Rimini.1 

GIEOLAMO  (1450-1486),  younger  brother  of  Paolo,  had  a 
notable  history.  After  he  had  studied  medicine  at  Padua 
public  suspicion  was  roused  against  him  in  connexion  with 
the  death  of  a  lady  with  whom  he  had  had  some  love 
passages,  and  this  ran  so  high  that  he  was  fain,  by  help  of 
his  brother  Paolo,  to  whom  he  transferred  his  property,  to 
make  his  escape  (about  1481-83)  to  Syria  and  to  take  up 
his  abode  at  Damascus.  In  1486  he  removed  to  Beyrout, 
and  died  the  same  year,  killed,  as  the  family  chronicler  re- 
lates, by  a  surfeit  of  "certain  fruit  that  we  call  armellini  and 
albicocche,  but  which  in  that  country  are  known  as  mazza- 
franchi"  a  title  which  English  sailors  in  southern  regions 
still  give  to  apricots  in  the  vernacular  paraphrase  of  kill- 
Johns.  During  his  stay  in  Syria  Girolamo  studied  Arabic 
and  made  a  new  translation  of  Avicenna,  or  rather,  we  may 
assume,  of  some  part  of  that  author's  medical  works  (the 
Canon  1).  It  was,  however,  by  no  means  the  first  such  trans- 
lation, as  is  erroneously  alleged  in  the  Rimini  inscription, 
for  the  Canon  had  been  translated  by  Gerard  of  Cremona 
(d.  1187),  and  this  version  was  frequently  issued  from  the 
early  press.  Girolamo's  translation  was  never  printed,  but 
was  used  by  editors  of  versions  published  at  Venice  in  1579 
and  1606.  Other  works  of  this  questionable  member  of  the 
house  of  Ramusio  consisted  of  medical  and  philosophical 
tracts  and  Latin  poems,  some  of  which  last  were  included 
in  a  collection  published  at  Paris  in  179 1.2 


1  Both  works  are  in  the  British  Museum. 

2  "Ramusii  Ariminensis  Carmina,"  in  Quinque  Rlustrium  Poetarum 
.  .   Lusus  in  Venerem.     Girolamo's  are  grossly  erotic. 


GIAN  BATTISTA  (1485-1557),  the  eldest  son  of  Paolo 
Ramusio  and  Tomyris  Macachio,  was  born  at  Treviso  in 
1485  (20th  June).  Having  been  educated  at  Venice  and 
at  Padua,  at  an  early  age  he  entered  the  public  service 
(1505),  becoming  in  1515  secretary  of  the  senate  and  in 
1533  secretary  of  the  Council  of  Ten.  He  also  served  the 
republic  in  various  missions  to  foreign  states,  e.g.,  to  Rome, 
to  Switzerland,  and  to  France,  travelling  over"  much  of  the 
latter  country  by  special  desire  of  the  king,  Louis  XII. 
He  also  on  several  occasions  filled  the  office  of  cancellier 
grande.  In  1524  he  married  Franceschina,  daughter  of 
Francesco  Navagero,  a  noble, — a  papal  dispensation  being 
required  on  account  of  her  being  cousin  to  his  mother 
Tomyris.  By  this  lady  he  had  one  son,  Paolo.  In  his 
old  age  Ramusio  resigned  the  secretaryship  and  retired  to 
the  Villa  Ramusia,  a  property  on  the  river  Masanga,  in 
the  province  of  Padua,  which  had  been  bestowed  on  his 
father  in  1504  in  recognition  of  his  services  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Rimini  the  year  before.  The  delights  of  this  retreat 
are  celebrated  in  the  poems  and  letters  of  several  of  Gian 
Battista's  friends.  He  also  possessed  a  house  at  Padua 
in  the  Strada  del  Patriarcato,  a  mansion  noted  for  its 
paintings  and  for  its  collection  of  ancient  sculpture  and 
inscriptions.  These,  too,  are  commemorated  by  various 
writers.  A  few  days  before  his  death  Ramusio  removed 
to  this  house  in  Padua,  and  there  died,  10th  July  1557,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-two.  He  was,  by  his  own  desire,  buried 
at  Venice,  in  the  tomb  which  he  had  made  for  his  mother, 
in  Santa  Maria  dell'  Orto.  His  wife's  death  had  occurred 
in  1536.  In  the  work  called  Museum  Mazzuchellianum 
(Venice,  1761,  vol.  i.  pi.  Ixiv.  No.  6)  there  is  represented 
a  16th-century  medal  of  Ramusio,  which  looks  a  genuine 
likeness,  and  a  bronze  example  of  which,  without  the 
reverse,3  is  preserved  in  St  Mark's  Library.  There  was  a 
portrait  of  him,  represented  as  in  conversation  with  Andrea 
Gradenigo,  in  the  Sala  del  Maggior  Consiglio,  but  in  1577 
this  perished  in  a  fire,  as  did  also  a  portrait  of  his  father, 
Paolo.  A  professed  portrait  of  Gian  Battista  by  Francesco 
Grisellini,  in  the  Sala  dello  Scudo,  appears  to  be,  like  the 
companion  portrait  of  Marco  Polo,  a  work  of  fancy.  A 
public  nautical  school  at  Rimini  has  within  the  last  three 
years  received  from  the  Government  the  title  of  the  Isti- 
tuto  Ramusio. 

Ramusio  was  evidently  a  general  favourite,  as  he  was  free 
from  pushing  ambition,  modest,  and  ingenuous,  and,  if  it 
be  safe  to  judge  from  some  of  the  dissertations  in  his 
Navigationi,  must  have  been  a  delightful  companion ;  both 
his  friend  Giunti  and  the  historian  Giustiniani  4  speak  of 
him  with  the  strongest  affection.  He  had  also  a  great 
reputation  for  learning.  Before  he  was  thirty  Aldus 
Manutius  the  elder  dedicated  to  him  his  edition  of  Quin- 
tilian  (1514) ;  a  few  years  later  (1519)  Francesco  Ardano 
inscribed  to  him  an  edition  of  Livy,  and  in  1528  Bernardino 
Donati  did  the  like  with  his  edition  of  Macrobius  and 
Censorinus.  To  Greek  and  Latin  and  the  modern  lan- 
guages of  southern  Europe  he  is  said  to  have  added  a 
knowledge  of  "  Oriental  tongues,"  but  there  is  no  evidence 
how  far  this  went,  unless  we  accept  as  such  a  statement 
that  he  was  selected  in  1530  on  account  of  this  accom- 
plishment to  investigate  the  case  of  one  David,  a  Hebrew, 
who,  claiming  to  be  of  the  royal  house  of  Judah,  wished 
to  establish  himself  at  Venice  outside  of  the  Ghetto.5  But 


3  The  reverse  is  an  amorphous  map.     The  book  is  in  the  British 
Museum. 

4  Rerum  Venetarum  .  .   .  Historic,  bk.  xiv. 

5  Ranmsio's  report  on  this  Hebrew  is  preserved  in  the  diaries  of 
Marcus  Sanudo,   and  is  printed  by  Cigogna.     It  is  curious.     David 
represented  himself  as  a  prince  of  the  Bedouin  Jews  who  haunt  the 
caravan-road  between  Damascus  and  Medina  ;  he  claimed  to  be  not 
only  a  great  warrior  covered  with  wounds  but  great  also  in  the  law 
and  in  the  cabala,  and  to  have  been  inspired  by  God  to  conduct  the 


270 


RAMUSIO 


Ramusio  had  witnessed  from  his  boyhood  the  unrolling  of 
that  great  series  of  discoveries  by  Portugal  and  Spain  in 
East  and  West,  and  the  love  of  geography  thus  kindled  in 
liim  made  that  branch  of  knowledge  through  life  his  chief 
study  and  delight.  He  is  said,  with  the  assistance  of 
friends  touched  by  the  same  flame,  to  have  opened  a 
school  for  geography  in  his  house  at  Venice.  And  it 
appears  from  a  letter  addressed  to  him  by  his  friend 
Andrea  Navagero,  that  as  early  as  1523  the  preparation 
of  material  for  his  great  work  had  already  begun.  The 
task  had  been  suggested  and  encouraged,  as  Ramusio  him- 
self states  in  a  dedicatory  epistle  to  the  famous  Girolamo 
Fracastoro,  by  that  scholar,  his  lifelong  friend ;  an  address 
to  the  same  personage  indeed  introduced  each  of  the  three 
volumes,  and  in  the  first  the  writer  speaks  of  his  desire  to 
bequeath  to  posterity,  along  with  his  labours,  "a  testimony 
to  the  long  and  holy  friendship  that  had  existed  between 
the  two."  They  were  contemporaries  in  the  strictest  sense 
(Ramusio  1485-1557,  Fracastorius  1483-1553).  His  corre- 
spondence, which  was  often  devoted  to  the  collection  of 
new  material  for  his  work,  was  immense,  and  embraced 
many  distinguished  men.  Among  those  whose  names 
have  still  an  odour  of  celebrity  were  Fracastoro,  just  men- 
tioned, Cardinal  Bembo,  Damiano  de  Goez,  and  Sebastian 
Cabot;  among  lesser  lights,  Vettor  Fausto,  Daniel  Barbaro, 
Paolo  Manuzio,  Andrea  Navagero,  the  cardinals  Gasparo 
Contarini  and  Gregorio  Cortese,  and  the  printer  Tommaso 
Giunti,  editor  after  Ramusio's  death  of  the  Navigationi. 
Before  speaking  more  particularly  of  this  work  we  may 
conclude  the  history  of  the  family. 

PAOLO  (GIROLAMO  GASPARE)  1  (1532-1600)  was  the  only 
child  of  Gian  Battista,  and  was  born  on  4th  July  1532. 
Like  his  father,  he  maintained  a  large  correspondence  with 
many  persons  of  learning  and  note.  In  1541  Francesco 
Contarini,  procurator  of  St  Mark's,  brought  from  Brussels 
a  MS.  of  Yillehardouin's  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople, which  he  presented  to  the  Council  of  Ten.  In 
1556  they  publicly  ordered  its  translation  into  Latin,  and 
gave  the  commission  to  Paolo  Rannusio.  His  father  also 
seems  to  have  taken  much  interest  in  the  work,  for  a  MS. 
vernacular  translation  by  him  exists  in  the  Marciana. 
Paolo's  book  was  not  completed  till  1573,  many  years 
after  the  father's  death,  and  was  in  fact  a  paraphrase 
enlarged  from  other  sources,  thus,  according  to  Cigogna's 
questionable  judgment,  "  converting  the  dry  story  of  Ville- 
hardouin  into  an  elegant  (fiorita)  historical  work."  It 
was  not  published  till  1609,  nine  years  after  Paolo's 
death  ;  nor  was  it  ever  really  reprinted,  though  it  became 
the  subject  of  a  singular  and  unintelligible  forgery.  For 
Jacopo  Gaffarelli,  who  was  sent  to  Venice  to  buy  books 
for  Richelieu,  having  apparently  procured  the  "  remainder  " 
copies,  removed  the  title  and  preliminary  pages  and  sub- 
stituted a  fresh  title  with  the  date  1634,  and  a  dedication 
to  his  master  the  cardinal.2 

GIROLAMO  GIUSEPPE  (1555-1611),  the  son  of  Paolo,  was 
born  at  Venice  in  1555.  He  entered  the  public  service  in 
1577,  and  was  employed  in  connexion  with  various  foreign 
missions.  In  1601  he  published  at  Lyons  the  French 
text  of  Villehardouin ;  and,  besides  an  Italian  translation 
of  this  old  historian  (who  seems  thus  to  have  furnished 
occupation  for  three  generations  of  Ramusios),  he  left 
behind  him  a  Storia  o  Cronaca  di  Casa  Ramusia,  a  folio 


dispersed  tribes  to  the  Efoly  Land  and  to  rebuild  the  temple.  In 
this  view  he  had  visited  Prester  John  and  the  J.ews  in  his  kingdom, 
and  then  various  European  countries.  David  was  dark  in  complexion, 
"  like  an  Abyssinian,"  lean,  dry,  and  Arab-like,  well  dressed  and  well 
attended,  full  of  pretensions  to  supernatural  cabalistic  knowledge,  and 
with  enthusiastic  ideas  about  his  mission,  whilst  the  Jews  regarded  him 
as  a  veritable  Messiah. 

1  This  person  and  his  son  affected  the  spelling  Rannusio. 

2  In  the  British  Museum. 


MS.  still  in  St  Mark's  Library.  He  died  at  Padua  in 
1611,  and  his  posterity  did  nothing  to  continue  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  family,  official  or  literary. 

We  revert  to  the  Navigations  c  Viaggi.  Two  volumes  only  were 
published  during  the  life  of  Gian  Battista,  vol.  i.  in  1550,  vol.  iii. 
in  1556  ;  vol.  ii.  did  not  appear  till  1559,  two  years  after  his 
death,  delayed,  as  his  friend  and  printer  T.  Giuiiti  explains,  not 
only  by  that  event  but  by  a  fire  iu  the  printing-office  (November 
1557),  which  destroyed  a  part  of  the  material  which  had  been 
prepared.  It  had  been  Ramusio's  intention  to  publish  a  fourth 
volume,  containing,  as  he  mentions  himself,  documents  relating  to 
the  Andes,  and,  as  appears  from  one  of  the  prefaces  of  Giunti, 
others  relating  to  explorations  towards  the  Antarctic.3  Ramusio's 
collection  was  by  no  means  the  first  of  the  kind,  though  it  was, 
and  we  may  say  on  the  whole  continues  to  be,  the  best.  Even 
before  the  invention  of  the  press  such  collections  were  known,  of 
which  that  made  by  a  certain  Long  John  of  Ypres,  abbot  of  St 
Bertin,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century  was  most  meritorious, 
and  afforded  in  its  transcription  a  splendid  field  for  embellishment 
by  the  miniaturists,  which  was  not  disregarded.  The  best  of  the 
printed  collections  before  Ramusio's  was  the  Novus  Orbis,  edited 
at  Basel  by  Simon  Grynaeus  in  1532,  and  reissued  in  1537  and 
1555.  This,  however,  can  boast  of  no  disquisitions  nor  of  much 
editorial  judgment.  Ramusio's  collection  is  in  these  respects  far 
superior,  as  well  as  in  the  variety  and  fulness  of  its  matter.  He 
spared  no  pains  in  ransacking  Italy  and  the  Spanish  peninsula  for 
contributions,  and  in  translating  them  when  needful  into  the  racy 
Italian  of  his  day.  Several  of  the  pieces  are  very  rare  in  any  other 
shape  than  that  exhibited  in  Ramusio's  collection  ;  several  besides 
of  importance — e.gr.,thein  valuable  travels  of  Barbosa  and  Pigafetta's 
account  of  Magellan's  voyage — were  not  publicly  known  in  any 
complete  form  till  the  present  century.  Of  two  important  articles 
at  least  the  originals  have  never  been  otherwise  printed  or  dis- 
covered ;  one  of  these  is  the  Summary  of  all  the  Kingdoms,  Cities, 
and  Nations  from  the  Red  Sea  to  China,  a  work  translated  from  the 
Portuguese,  and  dating  apparently  from  about  1535  ;  the  other, 
the  remarkable  Ramusian  redaction  of  MARCO  POLO  (g.v.).  The 
Prefatione,  Espositionc,  and  Dichiarazione,  which  precede  this  ver- 
sion of  Marco  Polo's  book,  are  the  best  and  amplest  examples  of 
Ramusio's  own  style  as  an  editor.  They  are  full  of  good  sense  and 
of  interesting  remarks  derived  from  his  large  reading  and  experi- 
ence, and  few  pictures  in  words  were  ever  touched  more  delightfully 
than  that  in  which  he  sketches  the  return  of  the  Polo  family  to 
their  native  city,  as  he  had  received  it  in  the  tradition  of  the 
Venetian  elders. 

There  were  several  editions  of  the  Navigationi  e  Viaggi,  and  as 
additions  continued  to  be  made  to  the  several  volumes  a  good  deal 
of  bibliographical  interest  attaches  to  these  various  modifications.4 
The  two  volumes  (i.  and  iii. )  published  in  Ramusio's  lifetime  do  not 
bear  his  name  on  the  title-page,  nor  does  it  appear  in  the  addresses 
to  his  friend  Fracastorius  with  which  these  volumes  begin  (as  does 
also  the  second  and  posthumous  volume).  The  editions  of  vol.  i. 
are  as  follows— 1550,  1554,  1563,  1588,  1606,  1613. 5  The  edition 
of  1554  contains  the  following  articles  which  are  not  in  that  of 
1550, — (1)  copious  index  ;  (2)  "Narr.  di  un  Compagno  di  Barbosa" ; 
(3)  "  Information!  del  Giapan "  ;  (4)  "  Alii  Lettori  di  Giov.  de 
Barros";  (5)  "Capitoli  estratti  da  di  Barros."  The  edition  of 
1563  adds  to  these  a  preliminary  leaf  concerning  Ramusio,  "Tom- 
maso Giunti  alii  Lettori."  After  1563  there  is  no  change  in  the 
contents  of  this  volume,  only  in  the  title-page.  It  should  be  added 
that  in  the  edition  of  1554  there  are  three  double-page  woodcut 
maps  (Africa,  India,  and  India  extra  Gangem),  which  do  not  exist 
in  the  edition  of  1550,  and  which  are  replaced  by  copper- plate 
maps  in  subsequent  editions.  These  maps  are  often  missing.  The 
editions  of  vol.  ii.  are  as  follows— 1559,  1574,  1583,  1606.  There 
are  important  additions  in  the  1574  copy,  and  still  further  addi- 
tions in  that  of  1583.  The  additions  made  in  1574  were  — (1) 
"  Herberstein,  Delia  Moscovia  e  della  Russia "  ;  (2)  "  Viaggio  in 
Persia  di  Caterino  Zeno  "  ;  (3)  "  Scoprimento  dell'  Isola  Frislanda, 
&c.,  per  due  fratelli  Zeni"  ;  (4)  "Viaggi  in  Tartaria  per  alcuni  frati 
Minori"  ;  (5)  "Viaggio  del  Beato  Odorico"  (two  versions).  Further 
additions  made  in  1583  were — (1)  "Navigatione  di  Seb.  Cabota"; 
(2)  at  the  end  90  ff.  with  fresh  pagination,  containing  ten  articles 
on  "  Sarmatia,  Polonia,  Lithuania,  Prussia,  Livonia,  Moscovia,  and 
the  Tartars  by  Aless.  Guagnino  and  Matteo  di  Micheovo."  The 
two  latest  "editions"  of  vol.  ii.  are  identical,  i.e.,  from  the  same 
type,  with  a  change  of  title-page  only,  and  a  reprint  of  the  last  leaf 
of  the  preface  and  of  the  last  leaf  of  the  book.  But  the  last  cir- 
cumstance does  not  apply  to  all  copies.  In  one  now  before  the 

3  See  in  vol.  iii.  the  end  of  Ramusio's  Discorso  on  the  conquest  of 
Peru,  and  Giunti's  "  Alii  Lettori  "  in  the  3d  edition  of  the  first  volume. 

4  Brunet's  statements  on  the  subject  are  borrowed,  and  not  quite 
accurate.     The  detail  in  Cigogna  seems  to  be  accurate,  but  it  is  vague 
as  to  the  deficiencies  of  the  earlier  editions. 

B  All  of  these  are  in  the  British  Museum. 


R  A  N  — R  A  N 


271 


writer,  whilst  the  title  bears  1606,  the  colophon  bears  "Appresso 
i  Giunti,  1583."  Vol.  iii.  editions  are  of  1556,  1565,  and  1606.1 
There  is  no  practical  difference  between  the  first  two,  bnt  that  of 
1606  has  forty-five  pages  of  important  new  matter,  which  embraces 
the  Travels  of  Cesare  Fedrici  or  Federici  in  India,  one  of  the  most 
valuable  narratives  of  the  16th  century,  and  Three  Voyages  of  the 
Hollanders  and  Zealanders  to  Nova  Zembla  and  Groenland.  Vol. 
iii.  also  contains  (omitting  maps  and  figures  inserted  in  the  text, 
or  with  type  on  the  reverse)  a  two -page  topographical  view  of 
Cuzco,  a  folding  map  of  Terra  Nova  and  Labrador,  a  two-page  map 
of  Brazil,  a  two-page  map  of  Guinea,  &c. ,  a  two  -  page  map  of 
Sumatra,  a  two-page  pictorial  plan  of  the  town  of  Hochelaga  in 
New  France,  and  a  general  map  of  the  New  World  in  a  hemisphere. 
Brunei's  statement  mentions  issues  of  vol.  ii.  in  1564,  and  of  vol. 
iii.  in  1613  ;  but  these  seem  to  have  no  existence.  It  would  thus 
appear  that  a  set  of  Ramusio,  to  be  as  complete  as  possible,  should 
embrace — for  vol.  i.,  1563  or  any  subsequent  edition  ;  for  vol.  ii., 
1583  or  1606  ;  for  vol.  iii.,  1606. 

Besides  the  circumstances  to  be  gathered  from  the  No.i'igationi  regarding  the 
Ramusio  family  see  the  Iscrizioni  I'enete  of  Emanuele  Cigogna.  There  is  also 
in  the  British  Museum  Monografta  letta  il  1U  Marzo  1383  ...  by  Guglielmo 
Carradori,  Rimini,  1833  ;  but  hardly  anything  has  been  found  in  this  except 
the  inscription  quoted  at  the  beginning  of  this  article.  (H.  Y.) 

RANGE,  ARMAND  JEAN  LE  BOUTHILLIER  DE.  See 
TRAPPISTS. 

RANDERS,  a  town  of  Denmark,  at  the  head  of  an 
amt  in  the  province  of  North  Jutland  (Norrejylland),  on 
the  Gudenaa,  about  8  miles  above  its  junction  with  Randers 
Fjord,  an  inlet  of  the  Cattegat.  It  is  situated  on  the 
railway  that  runs  south  by  Aarhuus  to  Fredericia,  and  has 
a  branch  line  (1875)  to  Grenaa  on  the  coast.  Though  a 
place  of  considerable  antiquity — being  mentioned  in  1086 
as  the  meeting-place  of  insurgents  against  Knud,  the  saint 
— Randers  has  few  remains  of  old  buildings  and  bears  the 
stamp  of  a  compact  modern  manufacturing  town  that  owes 
its  importance  to  its  distilleries,  dye-works,  carriage -fac- 
tories, salt-works,  weaving -factories,  tan -works,  <tc.  St 
Morten's  church  dates  from  the  14th  century,  but  has 
been  frequently  altered  and  enlarged  down  to  1869-70. 
Other  buildings  are  the  town-house  (1778,  restored  1858), 
the  court-house  (1860-62),  the  infirmary  (1870),  the  alms- 
house  (1868),  the  Jewish  synagogue  (1858),  and  the  high 
school  (1858;  the  institution  founded  by  Christian  III.). 
The  population  was  11,354  in  1870  and  13,457  in  1880. 

Randers  is  best  known  in  history  as  the  scene  of  the  assassina- 
tion of  Count  Geerts  by  Niels  Ebbesbn  in  1340.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  it  had  six  churches  and  four  monastic  establishments — the 
oldest  a  Benedictine  nunnery  (1170).  The  Grey  Friars'  building 
was  turned  into  a  castle  (Dronningborg)  after  the  Reformation  ; 
its  church  Avas  burned  down  in  1698. 

RANDOLPH,  JOHN  (1773-1833),  of  Roanoke,  American 
statesman,  was  descended  from  an  influential  and  wealthy 
Virginian  family,  and  was  the  third  and  youngest  son  of 
John  Randolph  of  Cawsons,  Chesterfield  county,  where  he 
was  born  on  2d  June  1773.  His  father  having  died  in 
his  infancy,  his  early  years  were  passed  under  the  care  of 
his  stepfather.  He  attended  schools  at  Williamsburg  and 
Princeton  and  for  a  short  time  studied  at  Columbia  College, 
New  York,  but,  although  well  read  in  modern  works  bear- 
ing on  politics  and  philosophy,  his  own  statement,  "  I  am 
an  ignorant  man,  sir,"  was  in  other  respects  not  inaccurate. 
Both  his  religious  and  his  political  views  were  radical 
and  extreme.  At  an  early  period  he  imbibed  deistical 
opinions,  which  he  promulgated  with  extreme  eagerness. 
He  was  also  so  strongly  opposed  to  the  new  constitution 
of  the  United  States  that  he  could  not  bear  to  hear  Wash- 
ington take  the  oath  to  support  it.  In  order  to  assist  in 
asserting  the  right  of  resistance  to  national  laws,  and  to 
withstand  the  "  encroachments  of  the  administration  upon 
the  indisputable  rights"  of  Virginia,  he  was  in  1799 
elepted  as  a  democrat  to  Congress,  where  he  sat,  with  the 
exception  of  two  terms,  till  1825.  After  the  election  of 
Jefferson  as  president  in  1801  Randolph  was  elected  chair- 
man of  the  committee  of  ways  and  means.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  agitating  for  the  reform  of  the  judiciary,  and 

1  All  of  these  are  in  the  British  Museum. 


in  1804  moved  the  impeachment  of  Judge  Chase.  The  part 
he  took  in  this  matter  tended  to  widen  his  breach  with 
Jefferson,  from  whom  he  finally  separated  in  1806.  Pos- 
sessing considerable  wit,  great  readiness,  and  a  showy  if 
somewhat  bombastic  eloquence,  he  would  undoubtedly 
have  risen  to  high  influence  but  for  his  strong  vein  of 
eccentricity  and  his  bitter  and  ungovernable  temper. 
The  championship  of  State  rights  was  carried  by  him  to 
an  extreme  utterly  quixotic,  inasmuch  as  he  not  only 
asserted  the  constitutional  right  of  Virginia  to  interpose 
her  protest  against  the  usurpation  of  power  at  Washington 
but  claimed  that  the  protest  should  be  supported  by  force. 
On  account  of  his  opposition  to  the  war  with  England  in 
1812  he  was  not  returned  to  Congress  in  1813,  but  he 
was  re-elected  in  1815.  In  1825  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  where  he  continued  to  sit  till  1827. 
In  1-830  he  was  for  a  short  time  minister  to  Russia.  He 
was  elected  to  Congress  in  1832,  but  died  of  consumption 
at  Philadelphia  before  he  took  his  seat,  24th  May  1833. 
His  last  will  was  disputed  in  the  law  courts,  and  the  jury 
returned  a  verdict  that  in  the  later  years  of  his  life  he 
was  not  of  sane  mind. 

Among  several  biographies  of  Randolph  mention  may  be  made 
of  that  by  Hugh  A.  Garland,  New  York,  1850  (llth  ed.,  1857),  and 
that  by  Henry  Adams,  forming  vol.  i.  of  the  series  of  American 
Statesmen,  edited  by  J.  T.  Morse,  junior,  Boston,  1883. 

RANDOLPH,  THOMAS  (1605-1634),  an  English  poet, 
was  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1605.  He  was  educated 
at  Westminster  and  Cambridge,  and  soon  gave  promise  as 
a  writer  of  comedy.  Ben  Jonson,  not  an  easily  satisfied 
critic,  adopted  him  as  one  of  his  "  sons."  The  ease  and 
melody  of  his  verse  and  the  quickness  of  his  wit  and 
fancy  justify  the  favour  with  which  the  youth  was  received 
by  the  magnates  of  literature.  Unhappily  he  died  under 
thirty  in  1634,  before  his  powers  had  reached  their  matur- 
ity. His  principal  works  are — The  Muses'  Looking-Glass, 
a  Comedy ;  Amyntas,  or  the  Impossible  Dowry,  a  pastoral 
acted  before  the  king  and  queen  ;  Aristippm,  or  the  Jovial 
Philosopher ;  The  Conceited  Pedlar ;  The  Jealous  Lovers,  a 
Comedy ;  Hey  for  Honesty,  down  with  Knavery,  a  Comedy ; 
and  several  other  poems.  His  works  have  recently  been 
edited  by  W.  Carew  Hazlitt. 

RANGOON  TOWN,  a  district  in  the  Pegu  division 
of  the  province  of  British  Burmah,  situated  in  1 6°  47' 
N.  lat.  and  96°  13'  E.  long.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Hlaing  or  Rangoon  river  at  its  junction  with  the  Pegu 
and  Pu-zwon-doung  streams,  21  miles  from  the  sea.  In 
1880  the  town  was  detached  from  the  surrounding  area 
of  the  old  district  of  Rangoon  and  constituted  a  separate 
district,  the  remainder  of  the  country  being  formed  into 
a  distinct  jurisdiction  under  the  title  of  Hanthawady. 
The  soil  of  Rangoon  in  the  mountains  and  elevated  tracts 
is  grey  sandy  clay,  and  in  the  plains  it  is  mostly  alluvial 
mixed  with  earth  of  reddish  colour,  well  suited  for  the 
growth  of  rice,  vegetables,  and  fruit  trees.  The  Rangoon 
river  flows  from  the  junction  of  the  Panlaing  and  Hlaing 
rivers  to  the  sea ;  from  the  sea  to  Rangoon  it  is  navigable 
during  the  monsoons  by  vessels  of  the  largest  draught, 
and  in  the  dry  season  by  vessels  of  1000  tons.  Pu-zwon- 
doung  creek  empties  itself  into  the  Rangoon  river  at  Battery 
Point.  It  is  navigable  during  the  spring  tides  of  the  south- 
west monsoon  for  cargo  boats  of  100  tons;  near  its  junction 
with  the  Rangoon  river  is  a  small  rock,  dangerous  to  large 
vessels.  The  only  lake  of  any  importance  is  the  Kandaugyi 
or  Royal  Lake  within  the  Dalhousie  Park.  The  chief 
products  of  the  district  are  grains  and  pulses  (principally 
rice),  cotton,  timber,  and  cutch  (catechu)  and  gambier. 
Rangoon  comprises  an  area  of  22  square  miles,  with  a 
population  in  1881  of  134,176  (males  91,504,  females 
42,672);  Hindus  numbered  35,871,  Mohammedans  21,169, 
Christians  9741,  and  Buddhists  67,131. 


•27-2 


R  A  N  — R  A  N 


The  town  was  first  built  in  1753  by  Aloung-bhoora,  the  founder 
of  the  Burmese  monarchy.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  first  Burmese 
War,  in  1824,  it  was  taken  by  the  British,  but  subsequently  restored 
to  the  native  power.  It  was  captured  a  second  time  in  1852  and 
passed  along  with  the  province  of  Pegu  into  the  hands  of  the 
British.  The  town  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1850,  and  serious 
conflagrations  occurred  again  in  1853  and  1855.  Since  the  last 
devastation  Rangoon  has  undergone  considerable  improvements ; 
among  the  latest  may  be  mentioned  the  construction  of  steam 
tramways  in  the  principal  thoroughfares  and  the  establishment 
of  a  volunteer  fire  brigade. 

RANGPUR,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  lieu- 
tenant-governorship of  Bengal,  lying  between  25°  3'  and 
26°  19'  N.  lat.  and  88°  47'  and  89°  56'  E.  long.,  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Jalpaiguri  district  and  Kuch  Behar  state, 
on  the  E.  by  the  Brahmaputra,  separating  it  from  Goalpara 
and  Maimansinh,  on  the  S.  by  Bogra,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Dinajpur  and  Jalpaigurf.  The  district  is  one  vast  plain ; 
the  greater  part  of  it,  particularly  towards  the  east,  is  in- 
undated during  the  rains,  and  the  remainder  is  traversed 
by  a  network  of  streams  which  frequently  break  through 
their  sandy  banks  and  plough  for  themselves  new  channels 
over  the  fields.  Agricultural  industry  has  taken  full 
advantage  of  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil,  which  is 
composed  of  a  sandy  loam.  The  river  system  is  constituted 
by  the  Brahmaputra  and  its  tributaries,  chief  of  which  are 
the  Tista,  Dharla,  Sankos,  and  Dudhkumar.  There  are 
no  embankments  or  artificial  canals  in  the  district,  nor 
does  the  alluvial  soil  produce  any  minerals.  The  climate 
of  Rangpur  is  generally  malarious  owing  to  the  numerous 
stagnant  swamps  and  marshes  filled  with  decaying  vege- 
table matter.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is  86-14  inches. 
The  Northern  Bengal  State  Railway  cuts  through  the 
western  half  of  the  district  from  north  to  south,  with  a 
branch  to  Rangpur  town. 

In  1881  the  population  was  2,097,964  (males  1,067,701,  females 
1,030,263);  Hindus  numbered  816,532,  Mohammedans  1,279,605, 
and  Christians  86.  The  population  is  for  the  most  part  rural ;  the 
only  towns  containing  upwards  of  10,000  inhabitants  are  RANGPUR, 
the  capital  (q.v.),  Barakhatta  (11,393),  Bhogdabari  (10,892),  and 
Dimlah  (10,503).  The  district  contains  an  area  of  3486  square 
miles,  fbout  three-fourths  being  under  continuous  cultivation.  The 
staple  crops  are  rice,  wheat,  and  other  grains,  oil-seeds,  and  jute  ; 
among  the  miscellaneous  crops  are  indigo,  sugar-cane,  betel -leaf, 
betel-nut,  and  mulberry  for  silkworms.  Spare  land  capable  of 
cultivation  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist, — even  the  patches  of  waste 
land  yield  a  valuable  tribute  of  reeds  and  cane.  Of  industries  the 
chief  is  the  manufacture  of  paper  from  jute  fibre  ;  other  products 
are  striped  cotton  carpets,  silk  cloth  woven  from  the  cocoon  of  a 
worm  fed  on  the  castor-oil  plant,  baskets  and  mats,  brass-ware, 
and  ornaments  carved  in  ivory  and  buffalo  horn.  In  1883-84  the 
gross  revenue  of  Rangpur  district  was  £165,165,  of  which  the  land- 
tax  contributed  £102,248. 

The  tract  comprised  within  the  district  of  Rangpur  was  formerly 
the  western  outpost  of  the  ancient  Hindu  kingdom  of  Kamrup. 
The  realm  appears  to  have  attained  its  greatest  power  and  prosperity 
under  Raja  Nilambhar,  who  was  treacherously  overthrown  by  Husain 
Shah,  king  of  Bengal,  at  the  close  of  the  15th  century.  On  the 
conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Bengal  about  1542  by  the  renowned 
Afghan  Sher  Shah,  subsequently  emperor  of  Delhi,  Rangpur 
appears  to  have  become  incorporated  with  the  empire.  Duiing 
the  turbulent  priod  which  followed  the  death  of  Sher  Shah  it 
threw  off  allegiance  to  Delhi,  but  the  country  was  re-annexed  by 
Akbar  in  1584,  though  it  was  not  completely  subjugated  till  the 
time  of  Aurangzeb,  about  1661.  Rangpur  passed  to  the  East 
India  Company  in  1765  under  the  firman  of  the  emperor  Shah 
Alam.  Numerous  changes  have  since  taken  place  in  the  jurisdiction, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  district  area  has  been  much  diminished. 

RANGPUR,  principal  town  and  administrative  head- 
quarters of  the  above  district,  is  situated  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Ghaghat  river  in  25°  44'  N.  lat.  and  89°  17'  E. 
long.,  and  contains  a  population  (1881)  of  13  320 

RANJiT  SINGH  (RUNJEET  SINGH).  See  PUNJAB, 
above,  p.  111. 

RANKINE,  WILLIAM  JOHN  MACQUORN  (1820-1872), 
a  descendant  of  old  Scottish  families,  the  Rankines  of 
Carrick  and  the  Cochranes  of  Dundonald  by  the  father's 
side,  and  the  Grahames  of  Dougalston  by  the  mother's, 


was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1820,  and  completed  his  educa- 
tion in  its  university.  He  was  trained  as  an  engineer  under 
Sir  J.  Macneill,  working  chiefly  on  surveys,  harbours,  and 
railroads,  and  was  appointed  in  1855  to  the  chair  of  civil 
engineering  in  Glasgow,  vacant  by  the  resignation  of 
Lewis  Gordon,  whose  work  he  had  undertaken  during  the 
previous  session. 

He  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  subjects  directly  con- 
nected with  his  chair,  and,  besides  contributing  almost 
weekly  to  the  technical  journals,  such  as  the  Engineer, 
brought  out  a  series  of  standard  text-books  on  Civil 
Engineering,  The  Steam- Engine  and  other  Prime  M<n-< •/•.»•, 
Machinery  and  Millwork,  and  Applied  Mechanics.  These 
have  passed  through  many  editions,  have  done  more  for 
the  advancement  of  their  subjects  than  any  works  of 
modern  date,  and  are  still  in  the  very  highest  rank  of 
educational  works.  To  these  must  be  added  his  elaborate 
treatise  on  Shipbuilding,  Theoretical  and  Practical.  This 
however,  corresponded  to  but  one  phase  of  Rankine's 
immense  energy  and  many-sided  character.  He  was  an 
enthusiastic  and  most  useful  leader  of  the  volunteer  move- 
ment from  its  commencement,  and  a  writer,  composer,  and 
singer  of  humorous  and  patriotic  songs,  some  of  which,  as 
"The  Three  Foot  Rule"  and  "They  never  shall  have 
Gibraltar,"  became  well  known  far  beyond  the  circle  of 
his  acquaintance.  Rankine  was  the  earliest  of  the  three 
founders  of  the  modern  science  of  THERMODYNAMics^.t^on 
the  bases  laid  by  Sadi  Carnot  and  Joule  respectively,  and 
the  author  of  the  first  formal  treatise  on  the  subject.  His 
contributions  to  the  theories  of  Elasticity  and  of  Waves  rank 
high  among  modern  developments  of  mathematical  physics, 
although  they  are  mere  units  among  the  150  scientific 
papers  attached  to  his  name  in  the  Royal  Society's  Cata- 
logue. The  more  important  of  these  have  been  collected 
and  reprinted  in  a  handsome  volume  (Rankine's  Scientific 
Papers,  London,  1881),  which  contains  a  memoir  of  the 
author,  written  by  Professor  Tait.  Rankine  died  in  1872. 

RANPUR,  a  native  state  of  India,  in  the  province  of 
Orissa  in  the  lieutenant -governorship  of  Bengal,  situated 
on  the  western  boundary  of  the  British  district  of  Puri, 
in  about  20°  N.  lat.  and  85°  20'  E.  long.  The  south- 
west part  of  the  state  is  a  region  of  hills,  forest  clad,  and 
almost  entirely  uninhabited,  which  Avail  in  its  whole  western 
side,  except  at  a  single  point,  where  a  pass  leads  into  the 
adjoining  state  of  Nayagarh.  Its  population  in  1881  was 
36,539  (18,382  males,  18,157  females).  The  only  town 
is  the  raja's  place  of  residence,  which  consists  of  one  long 
and  wide  street. 

RANUNCULUS.  Familiarly  known  as  "buttercups," 
the  species  of  this  genus  form  the  type  of  the  order 
Ranunculacex.  The  plants  are  herbs,  sometimes  with  fleshy 
roof>fibres,  or  with  the  base  of  the  stem  dilated  into  a  kind 
of  tuber  (R.  bulbosus).  They  have  tufted  or  alternate 
leaves,  dilated  into  a  sheath  at  the  base  and  very  generally, 
but  not  universally,  deeply  divided  above.  The  flowers  are 
solitary,  or  in  loose  cymes,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  num- 
ber and  distinctness  (freedom  from  union)  of  their  parts. 
Thus  there  are  five  sepals,  as  many  petals  arranged  in 
whorls,  numerous  stamens,  and  numerous  carpels  arranged 
in  spires.  The  petals  have  a  little  pit  or  gland  at  the 
base,  which  is  interesting  as  foreshadowing  the  more  fully 
developed  tubular  petals  of  the  nearly  allied  genera  Aconi- 
tum  and  Helleborus.  The  presence  of  all  the  floral  organs 
in  a  free  condition  induced  A.  P.  de  Candolle  to  place 
Ranunculus  at  the  head  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  but  at 
the  present  time  the  reverse  opinion  holds  good,  and 
Ranunculus  with  its  numerous  separate  parts  is  supposed 
to  occupy  a  lower  status  than  a  flower  in  which  a  greater 
amount  of  consolidation  and  differentiation  takes  place. 
The  genus  is  large  as  to  number  of  species,  which  occur  in 


R  A  O  —  R  A  P 


273 


most  temperate  countries  in  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres,  and,  while  they  extend  into  arctic  and  ant- 
arctic regions,  they  show  little  or  no  tendency  to  inhabit 
tropical  countries  except  on  the  higher  mountains.  Several 
are  natives  of  Great  Britain,  occurring  in  pastures,  while 
the  water-buttercups,  denizens  of  pools  and  streams,  vary 
greatly  in  the  character  of  the  foliage  according  as  it  is 
submersed,  floating,  or  aerial,  and  when  submersed  varying 
in  accordance  with  the  depth  and  strength  of  the  current. 
The  ranunculus  of  the  florist  is  a  cultivated  form  of  R. 
asiaticus,  remarkable  for  the  range  of  colour  of  the  flowers 
(yellow  to  purplish  black)  and  for  the  regularity  with 
which  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  replaced  by  petals.  The 
common  or  lesser  celandine  is  the  R.  Ficaria  of  the 
botanist,  remarkable  for  its  tuberous  root-fibres.  The 
species  are  all  more  or  less  acrid. 

RAOUL  ROCHETTE,  DESIRE  (1783-1854),  French 
archaeologist,  was  born  in  1783  at  St  Amand  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Cher,  and  received  his  education  at  Bourges.  In 
1813  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  history  in  the  College 
de  Louis-le-Grand  at  Paris.  About  four  years  afterwards 
he  was  translated  to  the  similar  chair  in  the  Sorbonne. 
The  first  result  of  his  labours,  published  in  1815  under 
the  title  of  Histoire  Critique  de  V  fitablissement  des  Colonies 
Grecques,  in  4  vols.  8vo,  was  favourably  received  by  the 
public.  In  1819  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of 
antiquities  in  the  Bibliotheque  at.  Paris,  an  office  which 
he  held  till  1848.  To  this  was  added  in  1826  the  pro- 
fessorship of  archaeology  at  the  Bibliotheque,  a  result  of 
which  may  be  seen  in  his  excellent  Cours  d 'Archeologie 
(1828).  In  the  following  year  (1829)  appeared  his  Monu- 
ments Inedits,  and  if  this  great  work  is  now  less  frequently 
referred  to  than  in  former  years  it  is  because  the  path 
which  it  indicated  has  been  steadily  followed  out  by  others, 
and  with  more  complete  results  than  was  possible  in  his 
day.  A  still  valuable  and  interesting  work  is  his  Peintures 
Inedites  (1836).  So  also  his  Peintures  de  Pompei  (1844) 
remains  a  splendid  monument  of  the  enterprise  with  which 
he  sought  to  render  attractive  the  study  of  archaeology. 
He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Annali  of  the  Roman 
Institute,  the  Journal  des  Savants,  and  the  Academie  des 
Inscriptions,  and  often  engaged  in  disputes  with  his  con- 
temporaries in  matters  on  which  time  has  for  the  most 
part  proved  him  to  have  been  right.  At  his  death  in  1854 
Raoul  Rochette  was  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  and  a  corresponding  member  of  most  of  the 
learned  societies  in  Europe. 

RAOUX,  JEAN,  French  painter,  was  born  at  Montpellier 
in  1677  and  died  at  Paris  in  1734.  After  the  usual  course 
of  training  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  in  1717 
as  an  historical  painter.  His  reputation  had  been  previ- 
ously established  by  the  credit  of  decorations  executed 
during  his  three  years  in  Italy  on  the  palace  of  Giustiniani 
Solini  at  Venice,  and  by  some  easel  paintings,  the  Four 
Ages  of  -Man  (National  Gallery),  commissioned  by  the 
grand  prior  of  Vendome.  To  this  latter  class  of  subject 
Raoux  devoted  himself,  nor  did  he  even  paint  portraits 
except  in  character.  The  list  of  his  works  is  a  long  series 
of  sets  of  the  Seasons,  of  the  Hours,  of  the  Elements, 
or  of  those  scenes  of  amusement  and  gallantry  in  the 
representation  of  which  he  was  immeasurably  surpassed 
by  his  younger  rival  Watteau.  After  his  stay  in  England 
(1720)  he  lived  much  in  the  Temple,  where  he  decorated 
several  rooms.  His  best  pupils  were  Chevalier  and  Mont- 
didier.  His  works,  of  which  there  is  a  poor  specimen  in 
the  Louvre,  were  much  engraved  by  Poilly,  Moyreau, 
Dupuis,  &c. 

See  Marietta,  Abeccdario  Arch,  de  T Art  Franqais  ;  Dussieux,  Les 
Artistes  Franqais  ci  Vfitrangcr ;  Soulie,  Musee  de  Versailles ;  De 
Chennevieres,  Peintrcs  provinciaux. 


RAPANUI,  or  EASTER  ISLAND  (Paascheylandt,  Oster- 
insel,  lie  de  Pdques,  <fec.),  the  WAIHTJ  or  TEAPI  of  Cook, 
an  island  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  South  Pacific,  lying  in 
27°  8'  S.  lat.  and  109°  25'  W.  long.,  1000  miles  east  of 
Pitcairn.  It  is  rudely  triangular  in  shape,  with  its  hypo- 
tenuse 12  miles  long  running  north-east  and  south-west, 
and  its  three  angles  marked  by  three  volcanic  peaks.  The 
coasts  have  no  natural  harbours  of  any  importance,  and 
landing  is  difficult.  There  is  no  lack  of  fertile  soil,  and  the 
climate  is  moist  enough  to  make  up  for  the  absence  of 
running  water.  At  one  time  the  island  would  appear  to 
have  been  wooded,  but  it  now  presents  only  a  few  bushes 
(Edwardsia,  Broussonetia,  &c.),  ferns,  grasses,  sedges,  &c. 
The  natives  keep  a  few  goats  and  a  large  stock  of  domestic 
fowls,  and  the  French  house  which  now  owns  a  large  part 
of  the  island  feeds  about  10,000  sheep. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  Rapanui  (i.  c.,  Great  Rapa)  was  discovered 
by  Davis  iu  1686,  though  it  is  sometimes  marked  Davis  Island  on 
our  maps.  Admiral  Roggeveen  reached  it  on  6th  April  1722  ;  in 
1744  Captain  Cook  discovered  it  anew,  and  it  has  since  been  visited 
by  La  Perouse  (1776),  Kotzebue  (1816),  Beasby  (1826),  &c.  At  the 
time  of  Roggeveen's  discovery  the  island  probably  contained  from 
1500  to  2000  inhabitants  of  Polynesian  race,  who,  according  to 
their  own  tradition,  came  from  Rapa  Iti  (Little  Rapa)  or  Oparo, 
one  of  the  Tibuai  or  Austral  group. 

The  remarkable  colossal  statues  which  give  a  unique  archseo- 
logical  interest  to  Rapanui  have  been  described  under  POLYNESIA, 
vol.  xix.  p.  428  ;  figures  of  them  will  be  found  in  Pinart's  valuable 
paper  in  the  Tour  du  Monde  (1878,  No.  927). 

RAPE  OIL.  This  important  fatty  oil,  known  also  as 
"  sweet  oil,"  is  obtained  from  seeds  of  cultivated  varieties 
of  the  cruciferous  genus  Brassica,  the  parent  form  of  the 
whole  apparently  being  the  wild  navew,  B.  campestris 
(Lin.),  the  B.  pr&cox  of  De  Candolle.  From  the  same  stock, 
it  is  generally  assumed,  have  sprung  the  Swedish  turnip 
and  the  common  turnip  ;  but  the  oil-yielding  plants  have 
developed  in  a  special  direction  and  are  exclusively  culti- 
vated for  the  oil  they  yield.  Under  the  general  name 
"  rape  oil "  is  included  the  produce  of  several  plants  having 
distinct  and  fairly  constant  characters,  and  one  of  these  oils 
— COLZA  (q.v.) — is  a  very  well-known  commercial  variety. 
In  Germany,  where  the  production  of  rape  oil  centres, 
three  principal  oil-seeds — colza  (Kohlsaat),  rape,  and  riibsen 
— are  well  recognized.  Colza  is  the  produce  of  the  parent 
stock  B.  campestris  and  is  the  form  principally  cultivated 
in  France  and  Germany.  Rape  seed,  the  variety  produced 
by  B.  campestris,  var.  napus,  and  riibsen  seed,  yielded 
by  B.  campestris,  var.  rapa,  are  extensively  cultivated  in 
the  valley  of  the  Danube  and  eastwards  through  Persia 
into  India.  These  plants  are  principally  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  the  colour  of  their  radicle  leaves  and 
the  form  of  inflorescence,  but  also  by  the  size  and  appear- 
ance of  the  small  ovoid  seeds.  The  seed  of  the  colza  is 
ruddy  brown,  rape  is  blue-black,  and  riibsen  is  almost  black 
in  colour.  It  has  been  found  that  1000  seeds  of  colza 
weigh  29 '3  grains,  the  same  number  of  riibsen  weighing 
34'5  grains  and  of  rape  71'75  grains.  Each,  of  these 
plants  has  summer  and  winter,  or  annual  and  biennial, 
varieties ;  and  as  there  are  numerous  intermediate  forms 
in  cultivation  the  varieties  merge  into  each  other. 

The  oil  yielded  by  these  seeds  is,  in  physical  and  chemi- 
cal properties,  practically  the  same,  the  range  of  fluctua- 
tions not  being  greater  than  would  be  found  in  the  oil  of 
any  specific  seed  under  similar  varying  conditions  of  pro- 
duction. Colza  seed  is,  in  general,  the  richest  in  oil,  and 
the  winter  varieties  of  all  the  seeds  are  more  productive 
than  the  summer  varieties.  In  summer  rape  and  riibsen 
the  proportion  of  oil  averages  from  30  to  35  per  cent.,  the 
winter  seeds  have  from  35  to  40,  and  winter  colza  contains 
from  40  to  45  per  cent.  Newly  pressed  rape  oil  has  a 
dark  sherry  colour  with,  at  first,  scarcely  any  perceptible 
smell ;  but  after  resting  a  short  time  the  oil  deposits  an 

XX.  -35 


274 


R  A  P  —  R  A  P 


abundant  mucilaginous  slime,  and  by  taking  up  oxygen  it 
acquires  a  peculiar  disagreeable  odour  and  an  acrid  taste. 
Refined  by  the  ordinary  processes  (see  OILS,  vol.  xvii.  p. 
743),  the  oil  assumes  a  clear  golden  yellow  colour.  In 
specific  gravity  it  ranges  between  0'9112  and  0'9117  in 
the  raw  state,  and  from  0*9127  to  0'9136  when  refined ; 
the  solidifying  point  is  from  -  2°  to  - 10"  C.  Rape  oil 
consists  of  a  mixture  of  three  simple  fats  or  glycerides  of 
fatty  acids — the  glyceride  of  oleic  acid  (olein),  of  stearic  acid 
(stearin),  and  of  brassic  acid,  the  latter  being  a  fat  found 
hitherto  only  in  oils  from  the  Crudferse,  and  from  grape 
seeds.  The  olein  of  rape  oil  differs  from  ordinary  olein 
in  not  yielding  sebacylic  acid  on  destructive  distillation. 

The  principal  uses  of  rape  oil  are  for  lubrication  and  lighting ; 
but  since  the  introduction  of  mineral  oils  for  both  these  purposes 
the  importance  of  rape  has  considerably  decreased.  It  is  but  little 
employed  in  soap-making,  as  it  saponifies  with  difficulty  and  yields 
only  an  indifferent  product.  In  Germany  it  is  very  considerably 
used  as  a  salad  oil  under  the  name  of  Schmalzol,  being  for  that 
purpose  freed  from  its  biting  taste  by  being  mixed  with  starch, 
heated  till  the  starch  is  carbonized,  and  filtered  after  the  oil  has 
cooled.  The  offensive  taste  of  rape  oil  may  also  be  removed  by 
treatment  with  a  small  proportion  of  sweet  spirit  of  nitre  (nitrous 
ether).  In  the  East  Indies  rape  oil  and  its  equivalents,  known 
under  various  names,  are  the  most  important  of  oils  for  native  use. 
They  are  largely  consumed  as  food  instead  of  ghi  under  the  name 
of  "  metah  "  or  sweet  oil,  but  for  all  other  purposes  the  same  sub- 
stance is  known  as  "kurwah"  or  bitter  oil  Most  natives  prefer  it 
for  the  preparation  of  their  curries  and  other  hot  dishes.  Rape  oil 
is  the  subject  of  extensive  adulteration,  principally  with  the  cheaper 
hemp  oil,  rosin  oil,  and  mineral  oils.  These  sophistications  can  be 
most  conveniently  detected,  first  by  taste  and  next  by  saponifica- 
tion,  rosin  oil  and  mineral  oil  remaining  unsaponified,  hemp  oil 
giving  a  greenish  soap,  while  rape  oil  yields  a  soap  with  a  yellow 
tinge.  With  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  fuming  nitric  acid, 
nitrous  acid,  and  other  reagents  rape  oil  gives  also  characteristic 
colorations  ;  but  these  are  modified  according  to  the  degree  of 
purity  of  the  oil  itself.  The  presence  of  sulphur  in  rape  and  other 
cruciferous  oils  also  affords  a  ready  means  for  their  identification. 
Lead  plaster  (emplastrum  lithargyri)  boiled  in  rape  oil  dissolves, 
and,  sulphide  of  lead  being  formed,  the  oil  becomes  brown  or  black. 
Other  lead  compounds  give  the  same  black  coloration  from  the 
formation  of  sulphide. 

RAPHAEL  (bssn,  "  God  heals  ")  first  appears  in  litera- 
ture in  the  book  of  Tobit,  where  in  human  disguise  and 
under  the  name  of  Azarias  ("  God  helps  ")  he  accompanies 
Tobias  in  his  adventurous  journey  and  conquers  the  demon 
Asmodaeus.  He  is  said  to  be  "one  of  the  seven  angels 
[archangels]  who  present  the  prayers  of  the  saints  and 
enter  into  the  presence  of  the  glory  of  the  Holy  One."  In 
the  book  of  Enoch  Raphael  is  the  angel  of  the  spirits  of 
man,  and  it  is  his  business  to  gather  the  souls  of  the  dead 
in  the  place  where  they  are  reserved  till  the  day  of  judg- 
ment,— a  conception  which  seems  to  imply  a  derivation 
from  D^XETI,  "  ghosts."  In  later  Midrash  Raphael  appears 
as  the  angel  commissioned  to  put  down  the  evil  spirits  that 
vexed  the  sons  of  Noah  with  plagues  and  sicknesses  after 
the  flood,  and  he  it  was  who  taught  men  the  use  of  simples 
and  furnished  materials  for  the  "Book  of  Noah,"  the 
earliest  treatise  on  materia  medica  (Ronsch,  Buck  der 
Jubilaen,  p.  385  sq.). 

RAPHAEL  (1 483-1 520).  RAPHAEL  SANZIO  was  the  son 
of  Giovanni  Santi,  a  painter  of  some  repute  in  the  ducal 
city  of  Urbino,  situated  among  the  Apennines  on  the 
borders  of  Tuscany  and  Umbria.1  For  many  years  both 
before  and  after  the  birth  of  Raphael  the  city  of  Urbino  was 
one  of  the  chief  centres  in  Italy  of  intellectual  and  artistic 
activity,  thanks  to  its  highly  cultured  rulers,  Duke  Federigo 
II.  of  Montefeltro  and  his  son  Guidobaldo,  who  succeeded 
him  in  1482,2  the  year  before  Raphael  was  born.  The  ducal 

1  See  Pungileoni,  Elogio  Storico  di  Ra/aello,  Urbino,  1829  ;  for 
a  valuable  account  of  Raphael's  family  and  his  early  life,  see  also  Id., 
Vita  di  Give.  Santi,  Urbino,  1822,  and  Campori,  Notizie  e  Documents 
per  la  Vita  di  Oiov.  Santi  e  di  Ra/aello,  Modena,  1870. 
, 2  See  an  interesting  account  of  the  court  of  Urbino  by  Delaborde, 
Etudes  sur  les  B.  Arts  ...  en  Italic,  Paris,  1864,  vol.  i.  p.  145. 


residence  of  Urbino,  built  by  Federigo  II.,  even  now  one 
of  the  most  magnificent  palaces  in  Italy,  was  lavishly 
adorned  with  works  of  art  of  every  class — frescos,  panel- 
pictures,  tapestries,  tarsia-work,  stucco-reliefs,  and  sculp- 
ture— executed  for  the  duke  by  some  of  the  chief  Italian 
artists  of  his  time,  and  contained  a  collection  of  oil-paintings 
by  the  Van  Eycks  and  other  celebrated  Flemish  painters. 
Giovanni  Santi  was  a  welcome  guest  at  this  miniature  but 
splendid  court,  and  the  rich  treasures  which  the  palace 
contained,  familiar  to  Raphael  from  his  earliest  years, 
were  a  very  important  item  among  the  various  influences 
which  formed  and  fostered  his  early  love  for  art.  It  may 
not  perhaps  be  purely  fanciful  to  trace  Raphael's  boyish 
admiration  of  the  oil-paintings  of  Jan  Van  Eyck  and  Justus 
of  Ghent  in  the  miniature -like  care  and  delicacy  with 
which  some  of  his  earliest  works,  such  as  the  Knight's 
Dream,  were  executed. 

Though  Raphael  lost  his  father  at  the  age  of  eleven, 
yet  to  him  he  certainly  owed  a  great  part  of  that  early 
training  which  enabled  him  to  produce  paintings  of  appa- 
rently mature  beauty  when  he  was  scarcely  twenty  years  of 
age.  From  his  father,  too,  Raphael  learned  much  of  the 
religious  sentiment  and  grace  of  motive  which  are  specially 
conspicuous  in  his  earlier  paintings.  The  altar-piece 
painted  by  Giovanni  for  the  church  of  Gradara,  and  a 
fresco,  now  preserved  in  the  Santi  house  3  at  Urbino,  are 
clearly  prototypes  of  some  of  Raphael's  most  graceful 
paintings  of  the  Madonna  and  Child.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1494  young  Raphael  was  left  in  the  care  of  his 
stepmother  (his  own  mother,  Magia  Ciarla,  having  died 
in  1491)  and  of  his  uncle,  a  priest  called  Bartolomeo.4 

First  or  Perugian  Period. — In  what  year  Raphael  was 
apprenticed  to  Perugino  and  how  the  interval  before  that 
was  spent  are  matters  of  doubt.  Vasari's  statement  that 
he  was  sent  to  Perugia  during  his  father's  lifetime  is  cer- 
tainly a  mistake.  On  the  whole  it  appears  most  probable 
that  he  did  not  enter  Perugino's  studio  till  the  end  of 
1499,  as  during  the  four  or  five  years  before  that  Perugino 
was  mostly  absent  from  his  native  city.5  As  was  the  case 
with  every  one  with  whom  Raphael  came  in  contact,  the 
Perugian  master  was  fascinated  by  the  charm  of  his  manner 
and  delighted  by  his  precocious  ability,  and  seems  to  have 
devoted  special  pains  to  his  artistic  education.  The  so-called 
Sketch  Book  of  Raphael  in  the  academy  of  Venice  contains 
studies  apparently  from  the  cartoons  of  some  of  Perugino's 
Sistine  frescos,  possibly  done  as  practice  in  drawing. 

This  celebrated  collection  of  thirty  drawings,  now  framed  or 
preserved  in  portfolios,  bears  signs  of  having  once  formed  a  bound 
book,  and  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  sketch-book  filled  by  Raphael 
during  his  Perugian  apprenticeship.  Many  points,  however,  make 
this  tempting  hypothesis  very  improbable  ;  the  fact  that  the  draw- 
ings were  not  all  originally  on  leaves  of  the  same  size,  and  the 
miscellaneous  character  of  the  sketches — varying  much  both  in 
style  and  merit  of  execution — seem  to  show  that  it  is  a  collection 
of  studies  by  different  hands,  made  and  bound  together  by  some 
subsequent  owner,  and  may  contain  but  very  few  drawings  by 
Raphael  himself.6 

Before  long  Raphael  appears  to  have  been  admitted  to 
take  a  share  in  the  execution  of  paintings  by  his  master ; 


3  The  house  of  Giovanni  Santi,  where  Raphael  was  born,  still  exists 
at  Urbino  in  the  Contrada  del  Monte,  and,  being  the  property  of  the 
municipality,  is  now  safe  from  destruction. 

4  The  administration    of  Giovanni  Santi's  will   occasioned   many 
painful  family  disputes  and  even  appeals  to  law  ;  see  Pungileoni,  EL 
Star,  di  Raffaello. 

6  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  (Life  of  Raphael,  vol.  i. ,  London,  1882) 
adopt  the  notion  that  Raphael  went  to  Perugia  in  1 495,  but  the  reasons 
with  which  they  support  this  view  appear  insufficient. 

6  See  an  excellent  critical  examination  of  the  Sketch  Book  by 
Morelli,  Italian  Masters  in  German  Galleries,  translated  by  Mrs 
Richter,  London,  1882  ;  according  to  this  able  critic,  only  two  draw- 
ings are  by  Raphael.  See  also  Schmarsow,  "Raphael's  Skizzenbuch 
in  Venedig,"  in  Preussische  Jahrbiicher,  xlviii.  pp.  122-149,  Berlin, 
1881,  who  takes  the  opposite  view.  Kahl,  Das  venezianische  Skizzen- 
buch, Leipsic,  1882,  follows  Morelli's  opinion. 


RAPHAEL 


275 


and  his  touch  can  with  more  or  less  certainty  be  traced  in 
some  of  Perugino's  panels  which  were  executed  about  1502. 
Many  of  those  who,  like  Messrs  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle, 
adopt  the  earlier  date  of  Raphael's  apprenticeship  believe 
that  his  hand  is  visible  in  the  execution  of  the  beautiful 
series  of  frescos  by  Perugino  in  the  Sala  del  Cambio,  dated 
1500;  as  does  also  M.  Miintz  in  his  excellent  Raphael, 
sa  Vie,  Paris,  1881,  in  spite  of  his  accepting  the  end  of 
1499  as  the  period  of  Raphael's  first  entering  Perugino's 
studio, — two  statements  almost  impossible  to  reconcile. 
Considering  that  Raphael  was  barely  seventeen  when  these 
frescos  were  painted,  it  is  hardly  reasonable  to  attribute 
the  finest  heads  to  his  hand ;  nor  did  he  at  an  early  age 
master  the  difficulties  of  fresco  buono.  The  Resurrection 
of  Christ  in  the  Vatican  and  the  Diotalevi  Madonna  in  the 
Berlin  Museum  are  the  principal  pictures  by  Perugino  in 
parts  of  which  the  touch  of  Raphael  appears  to  be  visible, 
though  any  real  certainty  on  this  point  is  unattainable.1 

About  1502  Raphael  began  to  execute  independent 
works;  four  pictures  for  churches  at  Citta  di  Castello 
were  probably  the  earliest  of  these,  and  appear  to  have 
been  painted  in  the  years  1502-4.  The  first  is  a  guild- 
banner  painted  on  one  side  with  the  Trinity,  and  below, 
kneeling  figures  of  S.  Sebastian  and  S.  Rocco ;  on  the 
reverse  is  a  Creation  of  Eve,  very  like  Perugino  in  style,  but 
possessing  more  grace  and  breadth  of  treatment.  These 
are  still  in  the  church  of  S.  Trinita.2  Also  for  Citta  di 
Castello  were  the  coronation  of  S.  Niccolo  Tolentino,  now 
destroyed,  though  studies  for  it  exist  at  Oxford  and  Lille 
(Gaz.  d.  B.  Arts,  1878,  i.  p.  48),  and  the  Crucifixion,  now 
in  the  Dudley  collection,  painted  for  the  church  of  S. 
Domenico,  and  signed  RAPHAEL  VRBINAS  P.  It  is  a 
panel  8  feet  6  inches  high  by  5  feet  5  inches  wide,  and 
contains  noble  figures  of  the  Virgin,  St  John,  St  Jerome, 
and  St  Mary  Magdalene.  The  fourth  painting  executed 
for  this  town,  for  the  church  of  S.  Francesco,  is  the 
exquisitely  beautiful  and  highly  finished  Sposalizio,  now 
in  the  Brera  at  Milan,  signed  and  dated  RAPHAEL 
VRBINAS  MDIIII.  This  is  closely  copied  both  in  com- 
position and  detail  from  Perugino's  painting  of  the  same 
subject  now  at  Caen,  but  is  far  superior  to  it  in  sweetness 
of  expression  and  grace  of  attitude.  The  Temple  of 
Jerusalem,  a  domed  octagon  with  outer  ambulatory  in 
Perugino's  picture,  is  reproduced  with  slight  alterations 
by  Raphael,  and  the  attitudes  and  grouping  of  the  figures 
are  almost  exactly  the  same  in  both.  The  Connestabile 
Madonna  is  one  of  Raphael's  finest  works,  painted  during 
his  Perugian  period ;  it  is  a  round  panel ;  the  motive,  the 
Virgin  reading  a  book  of  hours,  is  a  favourite  one  with 
him,  as  it  was  with  his  father  Giovanni.  This  lovely 
picture  was  lost  to  Perugia  in  1871,  when  Count  Connes- 
tabile sold  it  to  the  emperor  of  Russia  for  £13,200. 

Second  or  Florentine  Period,  1504-1508. — From  1504  to 
1508  Raphael's  life  was  very  stirring  and  active.  In  the 
first  half  of  1504  he  visited  Urbino,  where  he  painted  two 
small  panels  for  Duke  Guidobaldo,  the  St  George  and  the 
St  Michael  of  the  Louvre.  His  first  and  for  him  mo- 
mentous visit  to  Florence  was  made  towards  the  end  of 
1504,  when  he  presented  himself  with  a  warm  letter  of 
recommendation  3  from  his  patroness  Joanna  della  Rovere 

1  Parts  of  Perugino's  beautiful  triptych  of  the  Madonna,  with  the 
archangels  Raphael  and  Michael,  painted  for  the  Certosa  near  Pavia 
and  now  in  the  National  Gallery  of  London,  have  been  attributed  to 
Raphael,  but  with   little  reason.      Perugino's  grand   altar-piece  at 
Florence  of  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  shows  that  he  was  quite 
capable  of  painting  figures  equal  in  beauty  and  delicacy  to  the   St 
Michael  of  the  Certosa  triptych.     See  Frizzoni,  L'Arte  Italiana  nella 
Gal.  Nat.  di  Londra,  Florence,  1880. 

2  For  an  account  of  processional  banners  painted  by  distinguished 
artists,  see  Mariotti,  Letter e  pittoriche  Pemgine,  p.  76  sq. 

3  This  letter,  which  still  exists,  was  sold  in  Paris  in  1856,  and  is 
now  in  private  hands. 


to  the  gonfaloniere  Pier  Soderini.  In  Florence  Raphael 
was  kindly  received,  and,  in  spite  of  his  youth  (being 
barely  of  age),  was  welcomed  as  an  equal  by  the  majority 
of  those  great  artists  who  at  that  time  had  raised  Florence 
to  a  pitch  of  artistic  celebrity  far  above  all  other  cities  of 
the  world.  At  the  time  of  his  arrival  the  whole  of  artistic 
Italy  was  being  excited  to  enthusiasm  by  the  cartoons  of 
the  battle  of  Anghiari  and  the  war  with  Pisa,  on  which 
Da  Vinci  and  Michelangelo  were  then  devoting  their 
utmost  energies  (see  LEONARDO  and  MICHELANGELO).  To 
describe  the  various  influences  under  which  Raphael  came 
and  the  many  sources  from  which  he  drank  in  stores  of 
artistic  knowledge  would  be  to  give  a  complete  history 
of  Florentine  art  in  the  15th  century.4  With  astonishing 
rapidity  he  shook  off  the  mannerisms  of  Perugino,  and 
put  one  great  artist  after  another  under  contribution  for 
some  special  power  of  drawing,  beauty  of  colour,  or  grace 
of  composition  in  which  each  happened  to  excel.  Nor  was 
it  from  painters  only  that  Raphael  acquired  his  enlarged 
field  of  knowledge  and  rapidly  growing  powers.  Sculptors 
like  Ghiberti  and  Donatello  must  be  numbered  among 
those  whose  works  helped  to  develop  his  new-born  style.5 
The  Carmine  frescos  of  Masaccio  and  Masolino  taught 
this  eager  student  long -remembered  lessons  of  methods 
of  dramatic  expression.6  Among  his  contemporaries  it 
was  especially  Signorelli  and  Michelangelo  who  taught 
him  the  importance  of  precision  of  line  and  the  necessity 
of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  human  form.7  From  Da 
Vinci  he  learned  subtleties  of  modelling  and  soft  beauty 
of  expression,8  from  Fra  Bartolomeo  nobility  of  composi- 
tion and  skilful  treatment  of  drapery  in  dignified  folds.9 
The  friendship  between  Raphael  and  the  last  of  these 
was  very  close  and  lasted  for  many  years.  The  architect 
Baccio  d'Agnolo  was  another  of  his  special  friends,  at 
whose  house  the  young  painter  enjoyed  social  intercourse 
with  a  large  circle  of  the  chief  artists  of  Florence,  and 
probably  learned  from  him  much  that  was  afterwards  use- 
ful in  his  practice  as  an  architect. 

The  transition  in  Raphael's  style  from  his  first  or 
Perugian  to  his  second  or  Florentine  manner  is  well  shown 
in  the  large  picture  of  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  painted 
for  Maddalena  degli  Oddi,  now  in  the  Vatican,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  that  he  ever  produced,  and  especially  re- 
markable for  its  strong  religious  sentiment, — in  this  respect 
a  great  contrast  to  the  paintings  of  his  last  or  Roman 
manner  which  hang  near  it.  The  exquisite  grace  of  the 
angel  musicians  and  the  beauty  of  the  faces  show  signs 
of  his  short  visit  to  Florence,  while  the  general  formality 
of  the  composition  and  certain  details,  such  as  the  flutter- 
ing ribbands  of  the  angels,  recall  peculiarities  of  Perugino 
and  of  Pinturicchio,  with  whose  fine  picture  of  the  same 
subject  hung  close  by  it  is  interesting  to  compare  it. 
Raphael's  painting,  though  by  far  the  more  beautiful  of 
the  two,  is  yet  inferior  to  that  of  Pinturicchio  in  the 
composition  of  the  whole ;  an  awkward  horizontal  line 
divides  the  upper  group  of  the  Coronation  from  that  below, 
the  apostles  standing  round  the  Virgin's  tomb,  filled  with 
roses  and  lilies  (Dante,  Par.,  xxiii.  73),  while  the  older 
Perugian  has  skilfully  united  the  two  groups  by  a  less 
formal  arrangement  of  the  figures.  The  predella  of  this 
masterpiece  of  Raphael  is  also  in  the  Vatican;  some  of 


4  See  Minghetti,  "I  Maestri  di  RafFaello, "  in  the  Xuova  Antologia, 
1st  August  1881. 

5  See  his  sketch  of  St  George  and  the  Dragon  in  the  Uffizi,  largely 
taken  from  Donatello's  pedestal  relief  outside  Or  San  Michele. 

6  See  his  cartoon  of  St  Paul  preaching  at  Athens  (South  Kensington 
Museum). 

7  See  many  of  his  life-studies,  especially  the  one  he  sent  to  Albert 
Diirer,  now  at  Vienna. 

8  See  the  portrait  of  Maddalena  Doni  in  the  Pitti. 

9  See  the  Madonna  del  Baldacchino  in  the  Pitti. 


276 


RAPHAEL 


its  small  paintings,  especially  that  of  the  Annunciation 
to  the  Virgin,  are  interesting  as  showing  his  careful  study 
of  the  rules  of  per- 
spective.1 Several 
preparatory  sketches 
for  this  picture  exist : 
fig.  1  shows  a  study, 
now  at  Lille,  for  the 
two  principal  figures, 
Christ  setting  the 
crown  on  His  mother's 
head  (see  fig.  2).  It 
is  drawn  from  two 
youths  in  the  ordi- 
nary dress  of  the 
time;  and  it  is  in- 
teresting to  compare 
it  with  his  later 

studies     from      the  for 

nude,  many  of  which  jtgmM  ^  fJESwJS?  of  fl»  Virgin 
are  for  figures  which  (Vatican).  In  the  Lille  museum.  Illus- 
in  the  future  picture  trating  Raphael's  use  of  draped  models 
were  to  be  draped,  during  his  early  period. 
made  at  a  time  when  his  developed  style  required  a  more 
careful  rendering  of  the  human  form  than  was  necessary 
for  the  simpler  and  more  religious  manner  of  Perugia. 
It  was  at  Florence,  as  Yasari  says,  that  Raphael  began 


up  for  which  fig.  1  is  a  study. 


serious  life  studies,  not  only  from  nude  models  but  also 
by  making  careful  anatomical  drawings  from  dissected 
corpses  and  from  skeletons. 

His  first  visit  to  Florence  lasted  only  a  few  months ;  in 
1505  he  was  again  in  Perugia  painting  his  first  fresco, 
the  Trinity  and  Saints  for  the  Camaldoli  monks  of  San 
fsevero,  now  a  mere  wreck  from  injury  and  restorations. 
The  date  MDV  and  the  signature  were  added  later,  prob- 
ably in  1521.  Part  of  this  work  was  left  incomplete  by  the 
painter,  and  the  fresco  was  finished  in  1521  (after  his 

1  While  at  Florence  he  is  said  to  have  taught  the  science  of  per- 
spective to  his  friend  Fra  Bartolomeo,  who  certainly  gave  his  young 
instructor  valuable  lessons  on  composition  in  return. 


death)  by  his  old  master  Perugino.2  It  was  probably 
earlier  than  this  that  Raphael  visited  Siena  and  assisted 
Pinturicchio  with  sketches  for  his  Piccolomini  frescos.3 
The  Madonna  of  S.  Antonio  was  also  finished  in  1505, 
but  was  probably  begun  before  the  Florentine  visit.4  A 
record  of  his  visit  to  Siena  exists  in  a  sketch  of  the 
antique  marble  group  of  the  Three  Graces,  then  in  the 
cathedral  library,  from  which,  not  long  afterwards,  he 
painted  the  small  panel  of  the  same  subject  now  in  Lord 
Dudley's  collection. 

In  1506  Raphael  was  again  in  Urbino,  where  he  painted 
for  the  duke  another  picture  of  St  George,  which  was  sent 
to  England  as  a  present  to  Henry  VII.  The  bearer  of  this 
and  other  gifts  was  Guidobaldo's  ambassador,  the  accom- 
plished Baldassare  CASTIGLIONE  (q.v.),  a  friend  of  Raphael's, 
whose  noble  portrait  of  him  is  in  the  Louvre.  At  the 
court  of  Duke  Guidobaldo  the  painter's  ideas  appear  to 
have  been  led  into  a  more  secular  direction,  and  to  this 
stay  in  Urbino  probably  belong  the  Dudley  Graces,  the 
miniature  Knight's  Dream  of  Duty  and  Pleasure  in  the 
National  Gallery  (London),5  and  also  the  Apollo  and 
Marsyas,  sold  in  1882  by  Mr  Morris  Moore  to  the  Louvre 
for  £10,000,  a  most  lovely  little  panel,  painted  with 
almost  Flemish  minuteness,  rich  in  colour,  and  graceful  in 
arrangement.6 

Towards  the  end  of  1 506  Raphael  returned  to  Florence, 
and  there  (before  1508)  produced  a  large  number  of  his 
finest  works,  carefully  finished,  and  for  the  most  part 
wholly  the  work  of  his  own  hand.  Several  of  these  are 
signed  and  dated,  but  the  date  is  frequently  very  doubtful, 
owing  to  his  custom  of  using  Roman  numerals,  introduced 
among  the  sham  Arabic  embroidered  on  the  borders  of 
dresses,  so  that  the  I's  after  the  V  are  not  always  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  straight  lines  of  the  ornament.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  some  of  his  chief  paintings  of  this 
period: — the  Madonna  del  Gran  Duca  (Pitti);  Madonna  del 
Giardino,  1506  (Vienna);  Holy  Family  with  the  Lamb, 

1506  or  1507  (Madrid);  the  Ansidei  Madonna,  1506  or 

1507  (National  Gallery);  theBorghese  Entombment,  1507; 
Lord  Cowper's  Madonna  at  Panshanger,  1508;  La  bella 
Giardiniera,  1508  (Louvre) ;  the  Eszterhazy  Madonna,  prob- 
ably the  same  year ;  as  well  as  the  Madonna  del  Cardellino 
(Uffizi),    the    Tempi    Madonna    (Munich),    the    Colonna 
Madonna  (Berlin),  the  Bridgewater  Madonna  (Bridgewater 
House),  and  the  Orleans  Madonna  (Due  d'Aumale's  col- 
lection).    The  Ansidei  Madonna  was  bought  in  1884  for 
the  National  Gallery  from  the  duke  of  Marlborough  for 
.£70,000,  more  than  three  times  the  highest  price  ever 
before  given  for  a  picture.7    It  was  painted  for  the  Ansidei 


2  The  fresco  of  the  Last  Supper,  dated  1505,  in  the  refectory  of  S. 
Onofrio  at  Florence  is  not  now  claimed  as  a  work  of  Raphael's,  in  spite 
of  a  signature  partly  introduced  by  the  restorer. 

3  Raphael  probably  had  no  hand  in  the  actual  execution  of  the 
paintings ;  see  Schmarsow,  Raphael  und  Pinturicchio  in  Siena,  Stutt- 
gart,  1880,  and  Milanesi,  in  his  edition  of  Vasari,  iii.  p.  515  sq., 
appendix  to  life  of  Pinturicchio. 

4  This  fine  altar-piece,  with  many  large  figures,  is  now  the  property 
of  the  heirs  of  the  duke  of  Ripalta,  and  is  stored  in  the  basement  of 
the  National  Gallery,  London. 

5  This  missal-like  painting  is  about  7  inches  square  ;  it  was  bought 
in  1847  for  1000  guineas.     The  National  Gallery  also  possesses  its 
cartoon,  in  brown  ink,  pricked  for  transference. 

8  In  spite  of  some  adverse  opinions,  frequently  expressed  with  ex  • 
treme  virulence,  the  genuineness  of  this  little  gem  can  hardly  be 
doubted  by  any  one  who  carefully  studies  it  without  bias.  Sketches 
for  it  at  Venice  and  in  the  Uffizi  also  appear  to  bear  the  impress  of 
Raphael's  manner.  See  Delaborde,  Etudes  sur  les  B.  Arts  .  .  .  en 
Italie,\.  p.  236;  Gruyer,  Raphael  etl'Antiquite,  ii.  p.  421  ;  Eitelberger, 
Rafael's  Apollo  und  Marsyas,  Vienna,  1860  ;  Batte,  Le  Raphael  de  M. 
Moore,  Paris,  1859  ;  and  also  various  pamphlets  on  it  by  its  former 
owner,  Mr  Morris  Moore. 

7  It  is  engraved  at  p.  53,  vol.  ii.,  of  Dohme,  Kunst  und  Kunstler  des 
M 'ii  I  rl  alters,  Leipsic,  1878,  a  work  which  has  many  good  reproductions 
of  Raphael's  paintings  and  sketches. 


RAPHAEL 


277 


family  of  Perugia  as  an  altar-piece  in  the  church  of  S. 
Fiorenzo,  and  is  a  work  of  the  highest  beauty  in  colour, 
well  preserved,  and  very  large  in  scale.  The  Virgin 
with  veiled  head  is  seated  on  a  throne,  supporting  the 
Infant  with  one  hand  and  holding  a  book  in  the  other. 
Below  stands  S.  Niccolo  da  Tolentino,  for  whose  altar  it 
was  painted ;  he  holds  a  book  and  a  crozier,  and  is  clad 
in  jewelled  mitre  and  green  cope,  under  which  appear  the 
alb  and  cassock.  On  the  other  side  is  the  Baptist,  in  red 
mantle  and  camel's-hair  tunic,  holding  a  crystal  cross.  The 
rich  jewellery  in  this  picture  is  painted  with  Flemish- 
like  minuteness.  On  the  border  of  the  Virgin's  robe  is  a 
date,  formerly  read  as  MDV  by  Passavant  and  others ;  it 
really  is  MDVI  or  MDVII.  If  the  later  date  is  the  true 
one,  the  picture  was  probably  begun  a  year  or  two  before. 
A  favourite  method  of  grouping  his  Holy  Families  is  that 
seen  in  the  Madonna  del  Cardellino  and  the  Bella  Giar- 
diniera,  in  which  the  main  lines  form  a  pyramid.  This 
arrangement  is  also  used  in  the  Madonna  del  Giardino  and 
in  the  larger  group,  including  St  Joseph  and  St  Elizabeth, 
known  as  the  Canigiani  Holy  Family,  now  at  Munich, 
one  of  the  least  graceful  of  all  Raphael's  compositions. 
The  Entombment  of  Christ,  now  in  the  Palazzo  Borghese 
in  Rome,  was  painted  during  a  visit  to  Perugia  in  1507  for 
Lady  Atalanta  Baglioni,  in  memory  of  the  death  of  her 
brave  and  handsome  but  treacherous  son  Grifonetto,  who 
was  killed  in  1500  by  his  enemies  the  Oddi  party.1  The 
many  studies  and  preliminary  sketches  2  for  this  import- 
ant picture  which  exist  in  various  collections  show  that 
it  cost  Raphael  an  unusual  amount  of  thought  and  labour 
in  its  composition,  and  yet  it  is  quite  one  of  his  least  suc- 
cessful paintings,  especially  in  colour.  It  is,  however, 
much  injured  by  scraping  and  repainting,  and  appears  not 
to  be  wholly  by  his  hand.  The  Madonna  del  Baldacchino, 
one  of  the  finest  compositions  of  the  Florentine  period, 
owing  much  to  Fra  Bartolomeo,  is  also  unsatisfactory  in 
execution ;  being  left  unfinished  by  Raphael,  it  was  com- 
pleted by  Ridolfo  Ghirlandajo,  by  whom  the  ungraceful 
angels  of  the  upper  part  and  the  canopy  were  wholly  exe- 
cuted, and  even  designed.  It  was  painted  for  the  Dei  family 
as  an  altar-piece  for  their  chapel  in  S.  Spirito,  Florence. 
The  St  Catherine  of  the  National  Gallery  was  probably 
painted  in  1507;  its  cartoon,  pricked  for  transference, 
is  in  the  Louvre.  In  colouring  it  much  resembles  parts  of 
the  Borghese  Entombment,  being  quiet  and  grey  in  tone. 
To  the  Florentine  period  belong  some  of  his  finest  portraits, 
and  it  is  especially  in  these  that  Da  Vinci's  influence 
appears.  The  portraits  of  Angelo  Doni  and  his  wife 
Maddalena  (Pitti)  are  vivid  and  carefully  executed  paint- 
ings, and  the  unknown  lady  with  hard  features  (now  in 
the  Uffizi)  is  a  masterpiece  of  noble  realism  and  conscien- 
tious finish.  The  Czartoriski  portrait,  a  graceful  effemi- 
nate-looking youth  with  long  hair  and  tapering  hands, 
now  moved  to  Cracow,  is  probably  a  work  of  this  period ; 
though  worthy  to  rank  with  Raphael's  finest  portraits,  its 
authenticity  has  been  doubted.  Very  similar  in  style  is 
the  Herrenhausen  portrait,  once  attributed  to  Giovanni 
Bellini,  but  an  undoubted  work  of  Raphael,  in  his  second 
manner ;  it  also  represents  a  young  man  with  long  hair, 
close  shaven  chin,  a  vide  cloth  hat  and  black  dress,  painted 
in  half  length.  The  so-called  Portrait  of  Raphael  by  him- 
self at  Hampton  Court  is  a  very  beautiful  work,  glowing 
with  light  and  colour,  which  may  possibly  be  a  genuine 
picture  of  about  1506.  It  represents  a  pleasant-looking 

1  See  Symonds,  Sketches  in  Italy,  the  chapter  on  Perugia,  mainly 
taken  from  the  contemporary  chronicle  of  Matarazzo. 

2  These  show  that  Raphael  at  first  intended  to  paint  a  Deposition 
from  the  Cross,  and  afterwards  altered  his  scheme  into  the  Entomb- 
ment ;  an  excess  of  study  and  elaboration  partly  account  for  the 
shortcomings  of  this  picture. 


youth  with  turned -up  nose,  not  bearing  the  remotest 
resemblance  to  Raphael,  except  the  long  hair  and  black 
cap  common  to  nearly  all  the  portraits  of  this  time.3  A 
fine  but  much -restored  portrait  of  Raphael  by  himself, 
painted  at  Florence,  exists  in  the  Uffizi ;  it  represents  him 
at  a  very  early  age,  and  was  probably  painted  during  the 
early  part  of  his  stay  in  Florence. 

Third  or  Roman  Period,  1508-20. — In  1508  Raphael 
was  painting  several  important  pictures  in  Florence ;  in 
September  of  that  year  we  find  him  settled  in  Rome,  from 
a  letter  addressed  in  the  warmest  terms  of  affectionate 
admiration  to  Francia,  to  whom  he  sent  a  sketch  for  his 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,  and  promised  to  send  his  own 
portrait  in  return  for  that  which  Francia  had  given  him.* 
Raphael  was  invited  to  Rome  by  his  fellow-citizen  (not 
relation,  as  Vasari  says)  Bramante,  who  was  then  occupied 
in  the  erection  of  the  new  church  of  St  Peter's,  the  founda- 
tion-stone of  which  had  been  laid  by  Julius  II.  on  18th 
April  1506.  At  this  time  the  love  of  the  popes  for  art 
had  already  attracted  to  Rome  a  number  of  the  chief  artists 
of  Tuscany,  Umbria,  and  North  Italy,  among  whom  were 
Michelangelo,  Signorelli,  Perugino,  Pinturicchio,  Lorenzo 
Lotto,  Peruzzi,  Sodoma,  and  many  others,  and  it  was 
among  this  brilliant  assembly  that  Raphael,  almost  at 
once,  took  a  leading  position.5  Thanks  to  Bramante's 
friendly  intervention,  Julius  II.  (Delia  Rovere)  soon  became 
Raphael's  most  zealous  patron  and  friend,  as  did  also  the 
rich  bankers  Agostino  Chigi  (the  Rothschild  of  his  time) 
and  Bindo  Altoviti,  whose  portrait,  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
now  at  Munich,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  that  Raphael 
ever  produced. 

A  series  of  rooms  in  the  Vatican,  over  the  Appartamenti 
Borgia,  were  already  decorated  with  frescos  by  Bonfigli, 
Perugino,  Piero  della  Francesca,  Andrea  del  Castagno, 
Signorelli,  and  Sodoma ;  but  so  rapidly  had  the  taste  of 
the  time  changed  that  Julius  II.  decided  to  sweep  them 


FIG.  3. — Plan  showing  position  of  Raphael's  frescos  in  the  stanze. 

A.  Stanza  della  Segnatnra  (1509-11):  1,  Disputa ;  2,  School  of  Athens 
3,  Justinian  giving  his  code  to  Trebonian  ;  4,  Gregory  IX.  giving  decretals  to 
a  jurist ;  5  (over  the  window),  Three  Virtues ;  6  (over  the  other  window),  Apollo 
and  a  group  of  poets  on  Mount  Parnassus  ;  vault  with  medallions  of  Poetry, 
Theology,  Science,  and  Justice,  and  other  paintings.  B.  Stanza  d'Eliodoro 
(1511-14)  :  7,  Expulsion  of  Heliodorus  from  the  Temple ;  8,  Mass  of  Bolsena ; 
9,  St  Peter  freed  from  prison  ;  10,  Attila  repulsed  by  Leo  I. ;  vault  with  scenes 
from  Old  Testament,  by  pupils.  C.  Stanza  dell'  Incendio  (1517),  nearly  all 
painted  by  pupils  :  11,  Burning  of  the  Borgo  ;  12,  Victory  of  Leo  IV.  over  the 
Saracens  at  Ostia  ;  13,  Coronation  of  Charlemagne  by  Leo  III.  in  St  Peter's  ; 
14,  Oath  of  Leo  III.  before  Charlemagne.  D.  Sala  di  Costantino,  painted  by 
pupils  (1520-24) :  15  and  16,  oil-paintings  of  Comitas  and  Justitia  attributed 
to  Raphael ;  17,  17,  great  fresco  of  the  Defeat  of  Maxentius.  E  E.  Part  of 
Raphael's  loggia,  by  his  pupils.  F.  Chapel  of  Nicholas  V.,  painted  by  Fra 
Angelico.  G.  Cortile  of  Bramante. 

all  away  and  re-cover  the  walls  with  paintings  in  the  more 
developed  but  less  truly  decorative  style  of  Raphael.  It 
was  not  without  regret  that  Raphael  saw  the  destruction 
of  this  noble  series  of  frescos.  One  vault,  that  of  the 

8  To  judge  of  the  authorship  of  a  portrait  from  internal  evidence  is 
especially  difficult,  as  in  so  many  cases  the  strong  individuality  of  the 
person  represented  obscures  that  of  the  painter. 

4  Malvasia,  Fdsina  pittrice,  Bologna,  1678,  was  the  first  to  publish 
this  letter ;  see  also  Miintz,  Raphael,  sa  Vie,  &c.,  p.  315,  Paris,  1881. 
Minghetti  (Nuova  Antologia,  1883)  throws  doubt  on  the  date  of  this 
letter. 

8  Miintz,  "  Michel- Ange  et  Raphael  a  la  cour  de  Rome,"  Gaz.  des 
B.  Arts,  March  and  April  1882,  and  Les  Arts  d  la  cour  des  Papes,  voL 
iii.,  Paris,  1884. 


278 


RAPHAEL 


Stanza  dell'  Incendio,  painted  by  his  master  Perugino,  he 
saved  from  obliteration ;  it  still  exists,  well  preserved,  a 
most  skilful  piece  of  decorative  work  ;  and  he  also  set  his 
pupils  to  copy  a  number  of  portrait-heads  in  the  frescos 
of  Piero  della  Francesca  before  they  were  destroyed.1 
Fig.  3  shows  the  positions  of  Raphael's  frescos  in  the  stanze, 
which,  both  from  their  size  and  method  of  lighting,  are 
very  unsuited  for  the  reception  of  these  large  pictures. 
The  two  most  important  rooms  (A  and  B)  are  small,  and 
have  an  awkward  cross  light  from  opposite  windows.2 

Stanza  della  Segnatura  (papal  signature  room),  painted  in  1509-11 
(A  on  fig.  3).  The  first  painting  executed  by  Raphael  in  the  stanze 
was  the  so-called  Disputa,  finished  in  1509.  It  is  very  unlike  the 
later  ones  in  style,  showing  the  commencement  of  transition  from 
his  Florentine  to  his  "Roman  manner";  as  a  "decorative  work  it 
is  very  superior  to  the  other  frescos ;  the  figures  are  much  smaller 
in  scale,  as  was  suited  to  the  very  moderate  size  of  the  room,  and 
the  whole  is  arranged  mainly  on  one  plane,  without  those  strong 
effects  of  perspective  which  are  so  unsuited  to  the  decorative  treat- 
ment of  a  wall-surface.  In  its  religious  sentiment  too  it  far  excels 
any  of  the  later  stanze  paintings, 
retaining  much  of  the  sacred  charac- 
ter of  earlier  Florentine  and  Umbrian 
art.  As  a  scheme  of  decoration  it 
appears  to  have  been  suggested  by 
some  of  the  early  apsidal  mosaics. 
Fig.  4  shows  the  disposition  of  its 
main  masses,  which  seem  to  indicate 
the  curved  recess  of  an  apse.  Gold 
is  largely  used,  with  much  richness 
of  effect,  while  the  later  purely 
pictorial  frescos  have  little  or  none.  ^ 
The  subject  of  this  magnificent  paint-  Fl?:  ,D''agr*m  tot  s  mT 
ing  is  the  hierarchy  of  the  church  on  *mes  of  the  ™3f+  sugge?  *' 
earth  and  its  glory  in  heaven."  The  ing  au  aPse>  Wlth  mosaic  de' 
angels  in  the  upper  tier  and  the  nude  oration. 
cherubs  who  carry  the  books  of  the  Gospels  are  among  the  most 
beautiful  figures  that  Raphael  ever  painted. 

The  painting  on  the  vault  of  this  room  is  the  next  in  date,  and 
shows  further  transition  towards  the  "Roman  manner."  In  his 
treatment  of  the  whole  Raphael  has,  with  much  advantage,  been 
partly  guided  by  the  painting  of  Perugino's  vault  in  the  next  room 
(C).  Though  not  without  faults,  it  is  a  very  skilful  piece  of  de- 
coration ;  the  pictures  are  kept  subordinate  to  the  lines  of  the 
vault,  and  their  small  scale  adds  greatly  to  the  apparent  size  of  the 
whole.  A  great  part  of  the  ground  is  gilt,  marked  with  mosaic- 
like  squares,  a  common  practice  with  decorative  painters, — not 
intended  to  deceive  the  eye,  but  simply  to  give  a  softer  texture  to 
the  gilt  surface  by  breaking  up  its  otherwise  monotonous  glare. 
The  principal  medallions  in  each  cell  of  this  quadripartite  vault 
are  very  graceful  female  figures,  representing  Theology,  Science, 
Justice,  and  Poetry.  Smaller  subjects,  some  almost  miniature-like 
in  scale,  are  arranged  in  the  intermediate  spaces,  and  each  has 
some  special  meaning  in  reference  to  the  medallion  it  adjoins  ;  some 
of  these  are  painted  in  warm  monochrome  to  suggest  bas-reliefs. 
The  fine  painting  of  the  Flaying  of  Marsyas  is  interesting  as  show- 
ing Raphael's  study  of  antique  sculpture :  the  figure  of  Marsyas 
is  a  copy  of  a  Roman  statue,  of  which  several  replicas  exist.  The 
very  beautiful  little  picture  of  the  Temptation  of  Eve  recalls  Albert 
Diirer's  treatment  of  that  subject,  though  only  vaguely.  Much 
mutual  admiration  existed  between  Raphael  and  Diirer :  in  1515 
Raphael  sent  the  German  artist  a  most  masterly  life  study  of  two 
nude  male  figures  (now  at  Vienna)  ;  on  it  is  written  in  Albert 
Diirer's  beautiful  hand  the  date  and  a  record  of  its  being  a  gift 
from  Raphael.  It  is  executed  in  red  chalk,  and  was  a  study  for 
two  figures  in  the  Battle  of  Ostia  (see  below). 

On  the  wall  opposite  the  Disputa  is  the  so-called  School  of 
Athens.4  In  this  and  the  succeeding  frescos  all  notion  of  decora- 
tive treatment  is  thrown  aside,  and  Raphael  has  simply  painted  a 
magnificent  series  of  paintings,  treated  as  easel  pictures  might 
have  been,  with  but  little  reference  to  their  architectural  surround- 
ings.8 The  subject  of  this  noble  fresco,  in  contrast  to  that  opposite, 

1  How  fine  these  portrait-heads  probably  were  may  be  guessed  from  Piero's 
magnificent  frescos  at  Arezzo,  in  the  retro-choir  of  8.  Francesco. 

2  See  Brunn,  Die  Composition  der  Wandgemalde  Raphaels  im  Vatican,  Berlin 
and  Gruyer,  J^es  Fresques  de  Raphael  au  Vatican,  Paris,  1859. 

8  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  name  Disputa  is  a  misnomer ;  there  could 
je  no  dispute  among  the  saints  and  doctors  of  the  church  about  so  well  estab- 
lished a  dogma  as  the  real  presence  :  the  monstrance  with  the  Host  below  and 
the  figure  of  Christ  above  indicate  His  double  presence  both  on  earth  and  in 
heaven.  Dr  Braun,  Springer,  and  Hagen  have  published  monographs  in  Ger- 
man on  this  painting. 

4  See  Trendelenburg,   Ueber  RafaeVs  Schule  von  Athen,  Berlin,  1843,   and 
Richter(same  title),  Heidelberg,  1882;  the  title  "School  of  Athens"  is  com- 
paratively modern. 

5  He  has  shown  great  skill  in  the  way  in  which  he  has  fitted  his  end  frescos 
into  the  awkward  spaces  cut  into  by  the  windows,  but  they  are  none  the  less 
treated  m  a  purely  pictorial  manner. 


is  Earthly  Knowledge,  represented  by  an  assembly  of  those  great 
philosophers,  poets,  and  men  of  science  of  ancient  Greece  who  were 
admitted  by  the  church  to  have  been  not  wholly  without  inspira- 
tion from  Heaven,  and  by  their  labours  to  have  prepared  the  way 
for  the  clearer  light  of  Christianity.  The  central  figures  are  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  while  below  and  on  each  side  are  groups  arranged 
with  the  most  consummate  skill,  including  the  whole  "  filosofica 
famiglia"  of  Dante  (Infer.,  iv.  133-144),  and  a  number  of  other 
leaders  of  thought,  selected  in  a  way  that  shows  no  slight  acquaint- 
ance with  the  history  of  philosophy  and  science  among  the  ancient 
Greeks.  In  this  selection  we  may  fairly  suppose  that  Raphael  was 
aided  by  Bembo,  Ariosto,6  Castiglione,  Bibbiena,  or  others  of  the 
crowd  of  scholars  who  at  this  time  thronged  the  papal  court. 
Many  interesting  portraits  are  introduced — Bramante  as  the  ayed 
Archimedes,  stooping  over  a  geometrical  diagram  ;  a  beautiful  fair- 
haired  youth  on  the  left  is  Francesco  Maria  della  Rovere,  duke  of 
Urbino  ;  and  on  the  extreme  right  figures  of  Raphael  himself  and 
Perugino  are  introduced  (see  fig.  5,  below).  The  stately  building 
in  which  these  groups  are  arranged  is  taken  with  modifications  from 
Bramante's  first  design  for  St  Peter's. 

Over  the  window  (No.  6  on  fig.  3)  is  a  group  of  poets  and  musicians 
on  Mount  Parnassus,  round  a  central  figure  of  Apollo  ;  it  contains 
many  heads  of  great  beauty  and  fine  portraits  of  Dante  and  Petrarch. 
The  former,  as  a  theologian,  appears  also  in  the  Disputa.  Over 
the  opposite  window  (No.  5)  are  graceful  figures  of  the  three  chief 
Virtues,  and  at  one  side  (No.  4)  Gregory  IX.  (a  portrait  of  Julius 
II.)  presenting  his  volume  of  decretals  to  a  jurist ;  beside  him  is 
a  splendid  portrait  of  Cardinal  de'  Medici  (afterwards  Leo  X. )  be- 
fore his  face  was  spoiled  by  getting  too  stout.  This  painting  shows 
the  influence  of  Mclozzo  da  Forli.7  On  the  other  side  Justinian 
presents  his  code  to  Trebonianus  (No.  3) ;  this  is  inferior  in  exe- 
cution and  appears  to  have  been  chiefly  painted  by  pupils. 

The  next  room  (B),  called  La  Stanza  d'Eliodoro,  was  painted  in 
1511-14  ;8  it  is  so  called  from  the  fresco  (No.  7  in  fig.  3)  represent- 
ing the  expulsion  of  Heliodorus  from  the  Temple  (2  Mace,  iii.),  an 
allusion  to  the  struggles  between  Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Julius 
II.  The  whole  spirit  of  the  subjects  in  this  room  is  less  broad  and 
tolerant  than  in  the  first :  no  pagan  ideas  are  admitted,  and  its 
chief  motive  is  the  glorification  of  the  pontificate,  with  insistence 
on  the  temporal  power.  The  main  incident  of  this  picture  is  the 
least  successful  part  of  it :  the  angel  visitant  on  the  horse  is  want- 
ing in  dignity,  and  the  animal  is  poorly  drawn,  as  is  also  the  case 
with  the  horses  of  Attila's  army  in  the  fresco  opposite.  The  group 
of  women  and  children  on  the  left  is,  however,  very  beautiful,  and 
the  figures  of  Julius  II.  and  his  attendants  are  most  nobly  designed 
and  painted  with  great  vigour.  The  tall  standing  figure  of  Marc 
Antonio  Raimondi,  as  one  of  the  pope's  bearers,  is  a  marvellous  piece 
of  portrait  painting,  as  is  also  the  next  figure  who  bears  his  name 
on  a  scroll— IO  .  PETRO  .  DE  .  FOLIARIIS  .  CREMONEN. 
Behind,  Giulio  Romano  is  represented  as  another  papal  attendant. 
This  picture  was  completed  in  1512.  Over  the  window  (No.  8)  is 
the  scene  of  the  Miracle  at  Bolsena  of  1264,  when  the  real  presence 
was  proved  to  a  doubting  priest  by  the  appearance  of  blood-stains 
on  the  Corporal  (see  ORVIETO).  Julius  II.  is  introduced  kneeling 
behind  the  altar  ;  and  the  lower  spaces  on  each  side  of  the  windows 
are  filled  with  two  groups,  that  on  the  left  with  women,  that  on 
the  right  with  officers  of  the  papal  guard.  The  last  group  is  one 
of  the  most  masterly  of  all  throughout  the  stanze :  each  face,  a 
careful  portrait,  is  a  marvel  of  expression  and  power,  and  the 
technical  skill  with  which  the  whole  is  painted  to  the  utmost 
degree  of  finish,  almost  without  any  tempera  touches,  is  most 
wonderful.  The  next  fresco  in  date  (No.  10)  is  that  of  the  Repul- 
sion of  Attila  from  the  walls  of  Rome  by  Leo  I.,  miraculously  aided 
by  the  apparitions  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul ;  it  contains  another 
allusion  to  the  papal  quarrels  with  France.  It  was  begun  in  the 
lifetime  of  Julius  II.,  but  was  only  half  finished  at  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1513  ;  thus  it  happens  that  the  portrait  of  his  successor, 
the  Medici  pope  Leo  X.,  appears  twice  over,  first  as  a  cardinal 
riding  behind  the  pope,  painted  before  the  death  of  Julius  II.,  and 
again  in  the  character  of  S.  Leo,  instead  of  the  portrait  of  Julius 
which  Raphael  was  about  to  paint.9  Attila  with  his  savage-looking 
army  is  not  the  most  successful  part  of  the  fresco  :  the  horses  are 
very  wooden  in  appearance,  and  tne  tight-fitting  scale  armour,  put 
on  in  some  impossible  way  without  any  joints,  gives  a  very  unreal 
and  theatrical  look  to  the  picture.  Part  is  the  work  of  pupils. 
In  1514  he  painted  the  Deliverance  of  St  Peter  from  Prison,  with 


6  Ariosto  visited  Koine  twice  about  this  time,  as  ambassador  from  the  duke 
of  Ferrara  to  Julius  II., — the  first  time  in  1509. 

7  Compare  his  fresco  of  Sixtus  IV.,  now  in  the  picture-gallery  of  the  Vatican. 

8  The  vault  of  this  room  is  painted  with  scenes  from  the  Old  Testament  on 
a-  harsh  blue  ground,  much  restored  ;  they  are  probably  the  work  of  Giulio 
Romano,  and  in  a  decorative  way  are  very  unsuccessful, — a  striking  contrast 
to  the  beautiful  vaults  of  Perugino  and  Raphael  in  rooms  C  and  A.    The  deep 
blue  grounds  so  much  used  by  Raphael's  school  are  very  liable  to  injury 
from  damp,  and  in  most  cases  have  been  coarsely  restored.     Those  in  the 
Villa  Madama  are  untouched,  and  in  parts  the  damp  has  changed  the  ultra- 
marine into  emerald  green. 

9  A  pen  sketch  in  the  Louvre  by  Raphael  shows  Julius  II.  in  the  place 
afterwards  occupied  by  Leo  X.  ;  another  difference  in  this  sketcli  is  that  the 
pope  is  borne  in  a  chair,  not  on  horseback  as  in  the  fresco. 


RAPHAEL 


279 


a  further  political  allusion  (No.  9).  It  is  very  skilfully  arranged 
to  fit  in  the  awkward  space  round  the  window,  and  is  remarkable 
for  an  attempt,  not  much  suited  for  fresco-painting,  to  combine 
and  contrast  the  three  different  qualities  of  light  coming  from  the 
moon,  the  glory  round  the  angel,  and  the  torches  of  the  sentinels. 

For  room  C  Raphael  designed  and  partly  painted  the  Incendio  del 
Borgo  (No.  11),  a  fire  in  the  Borgo  or  Leonine  City,  which  was 
miraculously  stopped  by  Leo  IV.  appearing  and  making  the  sign 
of  the  cross  at  a  window  in  the  Vatican.  In  the  background  is 
shown  the  facade  of  the  old  basilica  of  St  Peter,  not  yet  destroyed 
when  this  fresco  was  painted.  One  group  on  the  left,  in  the  fore- 
ground, is  remarkable  for  its  vigour  and  powerful  drawing ;  the 
motive  is  taken  from  the  burning  of  Troy ;  a  fine  nude  figure  of 
/Eneas  issues  from  the  burning  houses  bearing  on  his  back  the  old 
Anchises  and  leading  the  boy  Ascanius  by  the  hand.  Some  of  the 
female  figures  are  designed  with  much  grace  and  dramatic  power. 
Many  studies  for  this  picture  exist.  This  is  the  last  of  the  stanze 
frescos  on  which  Raphael  himself  worked.  Others  designed  by 
him  and  painted  by  Giulio  Romano,  Gianfrancesco  Penni,  and  other 
pupils  were  the  Battle  of  Ostia  (No.  12),  a  very  nobly  composed 
picture,  and  the  Oath  of  Leo  III.  before  Charlemagne  (No.  14). 
The  other  great  picture  in  this  room  (No.  13),  the  Coronation  of 
Charlemagne  (a  portrait  of  Francis  I.  of  France),  is  so  very  inferior 
in  composition  that  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  Raphael  even  made 
a  sketch  for  it.  The  enormous  fresco  of  the  Defeat  of  Maxentins 
by  Constantino  (room  D,  No.  17)  was  painted  by  Giulio  Romano, 
soon  after  Raphael's  death,  from  a  sketch  by  the  latter  ;  it  is  even 
more  harsh  and  disagreeable  in  colour  than  most  of  Giulio  Romano's 
early  frescos.1  Among  the  other  very  inferior  frescos  in  this  great 
hall  are  two  female  figures  (Nos.  15  and  16)  representing  Comitas 
and  Justitia,  painted  on  the  wall  in  oil  colours,  very  harmonious 
and  rich  in  tone  ;  they  are  usually,  though  wrongly,  attributed  to 
Raphael  himself. 

Technical  Methods  employed  in  Raphael's  Frescos. — Having 
made  many  studies,  both  nude  and  draped,  for  single  figures  and 


5. — Heads  of  Raphael  and  Perugino  from  the  School  of  Athens, 
showing  incised  lines  and  "  fresco  edges." 

groups,  the  painter  made  a  small  drawing  of  the  whole  composi- 
tion, which  was  enlarged  by  his  pupils  with  the  help  of  numbered 
squares,  drawn  all  over  it,  to  the  full  size  required,2  on  paper  or 
canvas.  Holes  were  then  pricked  along  the  outlines  of  the  cartoon, 
and  the  design  pounced  through  on  to  an  undercoat  of  dry  stncco 
on  the  wall,  with  pounded  charcoal  and  a  stiff  brush.  Over  this, 

1  See  Montagnani,  Sala  di  Costantino,  Rome,   1834.     Though  he 
was  never  a  good  colourist,  the  great  frescos  by  Giulio  Romano  in  the 
Palazzo  del  Te,  Mantua,  show  some  improvement  as  compared  with  his 
Roman  work. 

2  These  three  stages  were  usually  distinguished  as  study,  sketch, 
and  cartoon. 


early  in  the  morning,  a  patch  of  wet  stucco  was  laid,  about  enough 
to  serve  for  the  day's  painting  ;  this  of  course  obliterated  the  out- 
line on  the  wall,  and  the  part  covered  by  the  patch  was  again 
sketched  in  by  freehand,  with  a  point  on  the  wet  stucco,  so  as  to 
be  a  guide  for  the  outline  traced  with  the  brush  and  the  subsequent 
painting.  A  line  impressed  on  the  wet  stucco  was  easily  smoothed 
out,  but  a  touch  of  the  brush  full  of  pigment  sank  deeply  into  the 
moist  stucco,  and  could  not  easily  be  eflaced.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  in  fresco  painting  the  only  use  of  pouncing  the  whole  design 
on  to  the  wall  was  to  keep  the  general  positions  -of  the  figures  right, 
and  was  no  guide  as  to  the  drawing  of  each  separate  part.  Fig.  5 
shows  the  portrait-heads  of  himself  and  Perugino,  at  the  extreme 
left  of  the  School  of  Athens ;  on  this  are  visible  many  of  the 
impressed  sketch-lines,  and  also  part  of  the  "  fresco  edge  "  of  the 
patch  on  which  this  part  is  painted.  The  heads  in  this  figure  are 
less  than  one  day's  work.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  no  attempt 
at  any  accuracy  of  drawing  in  the  impressed  lines.  Raphael,  especi- 
ally in  his  later  frescos,  worked  with  wonderful  rapidity :  three 
life-sized  busts,  or  half  a  full-length  figure,  more  than  life -size, 
was  a  not  unusual  day's  work.  In  some  of  the  frescos  the  edges 
of  each  day's  patch  of  stucco  can  easily  be  traced,  especially  in  the 
Incendio  del  Borgo,  which  has  a  strong  side  light.  In  the  Disputa 
much  use  was  made  of  tempera  in  the  final  touches,  but  less  was 
used  in  the  subsequent  frescos,  owing  to  his  increasing  mastery  of 
the  difficulties  of  the  process. 

The  paintings  in  the  stanze  were  only  a  small  part  of 
Raphael's  work  between  1509  and  1513.  To  this  period 
belong  the  Madonna  of  Foligno  (Vatican),  painted  in  1511 
for  Sigismondo  Conti ;  it  is  one  of  his  most  beautiful 
compositions,  full  of  the  utmost  grace  and  sweetness  of 
expression,  and  appears  to  be  wholly  the  work  of  his  hand. 
It  has  suffered  much  from  repainting.  Of  about  the  same 
date  are  the  gem-like  Garvagh  Madonna  (National  Gallery, 
bought  for  £9000 ;  once  in  the  possession  of  the  Aldo- 
brandini  family),  the  Diademed  Virgin  of  the  Louvre,  and 
the  Madonna  del  Pesce  at  Madrid.  The  last  is  a  very 
noble  picture,  but  the  design  is  more  pleasing  than  the 
colour,  which,  like  other  paintings  of  Raphael's  at  Madrid, 
suggests  the  inferior  touch  of  a  pupil ;  it  was  executed  in 
1513  for  S.  Domenico  in  Naples.  In  addition  to  other 
easel  pictures  a  number  of  his  finest  portraits  belong  to 
this  period — that  of  Julius  II.  (Uffizi),3  of  which  a  good 
replica  or  contemporary  copy  exists  in  the  National  Gallery, 
the  so-called  Fornarina  in  the  Palazzo  Barberini,  the  Bal- 
dassare  Castiglione  of  the  Louvre,  and  the  unfinished  por- 
trait of  Federigo  Gonzaga  of  Mantua. 

When  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight, 
became  pope  as  Leo  X.,  a  period  of  the  most  glowing 
splendour  and  reckless  magnificence  succeeded  the  sterner 
rule  of  Julius  II.  Agostino  Chigi,  the  Sienese  financier, 
was  the  chief  of  those  whose  lavish  expenditure  contributed 
to  enrich  Rome  with  countless  works  of  art.  For  him 
Raphael  painted,  in  1513-14,  the  very  beautiful  fresco 
of  the  Triumph  of  Galatea  in  his  new  palace  by  the  Tiber 
bank,  the  Villa  Farnesina,  and  also  made  a  large  series  of 
magnificent  designs  from  Apuleius's  romance  of  Cupid 
and  Psyche,  which  were  carried  out  by  a  number  of  his 
pupils.4  These  cover  the  vault  and  lunettes  of  a  large 
loggia  (now  closed  in  for  protection) ;  in  colouring  they 
are  mostly  harsh  and  gaudy,5  as  is  usually  the  case  with 
the  works  of  his  pupils,  a  great  contrast  to  the  fresco  of 
the  Galatea,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  certainly  the 
master's  own  work.6  For  the  same  patron  he  painted 


3  A  very  fine  ancient  copy  of  this  portrait  is  in  the  Pitti  Palace  ; 
certain  peculiarities  in  its  execution  show  it  to  be  by  some  Venetian 
painter,  as  was  pointed  out  to  the  present  writer  by  Mr  Fairfax 
Murray. 

4  Chiefly  by  Giulio  Romano,  Gianfrancesco  Penni,  and  Giovanni  da 
Udine ;  much  injury  has  been  done  to  these  frescos  by  repainting, 
especially  in  the  coarse  blue  of  the  ground. 

8  These  and  other  frescos  by  his  pupils  are  much  disfigured  by  the 
disagreeable  hot  tone  of  the  flesh,  very  unlike  the  pearly  tone  of  the 
flesh  of  Galatea. 

6  Doriguy,  Psychis  et  Amoris  fabula  a  Raphaele,  &c.,  Rome,  1693  ; 
and  Gruner,  Fresco  Decorations  in  Italy,  London,  1854,  pis.  16-18. 
The  group  of  the  Triton  and  Nymph  on  the  left  of  the  composition  was 
probably  executed  by  Giulio  Romano. 


280 


RAPHAEL 


(also  in  1513)  his  celebrated  Sibyls  in  S.  Maria  della  Pace, 
— figures  of  exquisite  grace,  arranged  with  perfect  skill 
in  an  awkward  space.  It  is  not  without  reason  that 
Vasari  gives  these  the  highest  position  among  his  fresco- 
paintings.1  Agostino  Chigi  also  employed  Raphael  to 
build  for  him  a  private  chapel  in  S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  and 
to  make  a  series  of  cartoons  to  be  executed  in  mosaic  on 
the  inner  dome.2  The  central  medallion  has  a  figure  of 
God  among  clouds  and  angel  boys,  such  as  Raphael  drew 
with  unrivalled  grace  (fig.  6),  and  around  are  the  eight 


FIG.  6. — Mosaic  of  God  creating  the  stars,  from  the  Chigi  chapel,  in 
centre  of  dome,  designed  by  Raphael. 

planets,  each  with  its  pagan  deity  and  directing  angel.3 
He  has  not  hampered  himself  by  any  of  the  usual  rules 
which  should  apply  to  the  designing  of  mosaic  ;  they  are 
simply  treated  as  pictures,  with  almost  deceptive  effects 
of  perspective.  The  execution  of  these  brilliant  mosaics 
was  carried  out  by  the  Venetian  Luigi  della  Pace,  whose 
signature  is  introduced  on  the  torch  of  Cupid  in  the  panel 
representing  the  star  Venus  (Ludovico  della 
Pace  Veneziano  fecit,  1516).  These  mosaics 
are  still  as  perfect  and  brilliant  as  if  they 
were  the  work  of  yesterday.  Probably  in 
the  early  years  of  Leo  X.'s  reign  were  painted  the  Madonna 
della  Seggiola  (Pitti),  the  S.  Cecilia  at  Bologna  (not  com- 
pleted till  1516),  the  miniature  Vision  of  Ezekiel  (Pitti), 
and  three  important  pictures  at  Madrid.  The  latest  of 
these,  known  as  Lo  Spasimo,  from  the  church  at  Palermo, 
for  which  it  was  painted,  is  one  of  Raphael's  finest  com- 
positions, representing  Christ  bearing  His  Cross.  It  bears 
signs  of  Giulio  Romano's  hand  in  its  heavy  colouring  with 
unpleasant  purple  tones.  The  Madonna  called  Della  Per  la 
has  much  changed  from  the  darkening  of  the  pigments ; 
in  design  it  recalls  Leonardo  da  Vinci.4  The  small 
Madonna  della  Rosa  is  the  most  perfect  in  colour  of  all 
the  master's  pictures  in  the  Madrid  Gallery,  and  is  usually 
rather  undervalued;  it  is  a  most  graceful  little  picture. 
The  portrait  of  Leo  X.  with  Cardinals  de'  Rossi  and  de' 
Medici,  in  the  Pitti,  is  one  of  his  finest  portrait-pictures, 
especially  as  regards  the  figure  of  the  pope.5  Little  is 

1  Thanks  to  Michelangelo's  generous  intervention,  Raphael  was  paid 
the  large  sum  for  that  time  of  900  gold  ducats  for  this  fresco. 

2  Gruner,  Mosaici  in  S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  Rome,  1839. 

3  In  accordance  with  Dante's  scheme  in  the  Paradiso. 

*  La  Perla,  "  the  pearl "  of  the  Spanish  royal  collection,  was  origin- 
ally painted  for  Bishop  Louis  of  Canossa ;  it  was  sold  by  Cromwell  with 
the  greater  part  of  Charles  I.'s  collection  at  Hampton  Court.  The  com- 
position, though  not  the  execution,  of  this  picture  belongs  to  Raphael's 
early  years  in  Rome  ;  it  is  very  remarkable  for  its  delicacy  of  touch  and 
high  finish. 

6  The  magnificent  portrait-heads  of  the  Venetian  scholars  Navagero 
and  Beazzano,  now  in  the  Doria  Gallery  in  Rome,  are  worthy  of  Raphael 
at  his  best,  and  have  for  long  been  attributed  to  him.  There  are  good 
contemporary  copies  at  Madrid. 


known  about  the  Madonna  di  S.  Sisto,  the  glory  of  the 
Dresden  Gallery ;  no  studies  or  sketches  for  it  exist.  In 
style  it  much  resembles  the  Madonna  di  Foligno;  it  is 
less  injured  by  restoration  than  the  latter. 

Among  the  latest  works  of  Raphael  are  the  large  St 
Michael  and  the  Devil,  in  the  Louvre,  signed  "Raphael 
Urbinas  pingebat,  MDXVIII.,"  and  the  very  beautiful  por- 
trait of  the  Violin-player,  in  the  Sciarra-Colonna  Palace  in 
Rome,  also  dated  1518;  this  last  bears  much  resemblance 
to  the  painter  himself.  The  British  Museum  possesses 
one  of  Raphael's  finest  portraits,  though  only  a  chalk 
drawing,  that  of  his  friend  the  painter  Timoteo  della  Vite, 
a  masterpiece  of  expression  and  vigour ;  it  is  executed  in 
black  and  red,  and  is  but  little  inferior  in  chromatic  effect 
to  an  oil-painting;  it  is  life-size,  and  is  executed  with 
wonderful  skill  and  evident  keen  interest  in  the  subject. 

The  tapestry  cartoons,  seven  of  which  are  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  were  painted  by  pupils  from  Raphael's 
designs.  They  are  part  of '  a  set  of  ten,  with  scenes  from 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  intended,  when  copied  in  tapestry, 
to  adorn  the  lower  part  of  the  walls  of  the  Sistine  chapel. 
The  tapestries  themselves,  worked  at  Brussels,  are  now, 
after  many  vicissitudes,  hung  in  a  gallery  in  the  Vatican ; 
the  set  is  complete,  thus  preserving  the  design  of  the  three 
lost  cartoons.  The  existing  seven,  after  being  cut  up  into 
strips  for  use  on  the  looms,  were  bought  by  Rubens  for 
Charles  I.6  The  tapestry  copies  are  executed  with  wonder- 
ful skill,  in  spite  of  Raphael's  having  treated  the  subjects 
in  a  purely  pictorial  way,  with  little  regard  to  the  exi- 
gencies of  textile  work.  The  designs  are  reversed,  and  the 
colours  far  more  brilliant  than  those  of  the  cartoons,  much 
gold  and  silver  being  introduced.  The  noble  figure  of 
Christ  in  the  Delivery  of  the  Keys  to  St  Peter  is  in  the 
tapestry  much  disfigured  by  the  addition  of  a  number  of 
large  gold  stars  all  over  the  drapery,  which  spoil  the  simple 
dignity  of  the  folds.  The  rich  framework  round  each  pic- 
ture, designed  by  Raphael's  pupils,  probably  by  Penni  and 
Giovanni  da  Udine,  exists  in  the  tapestries  and  adds  greatly 
to  their  decorative  effect.  The  cartoons  were  executed  in 
1515  and  1516,  and  the  finished  tapestries  were  first  exhi- 
bited in  their  place  in  the  Sistine  chapel  on  26th  December 
1519, — a  very  short  time  for  the  weaving  of  such  large 
and  elaborate  pictures.  The  three  of  which  the  cartoons 
are  lost  represent  the  Martyrdom  of  St  Stephen,  the  Con- 
version of  St  Paul,  and  St  Paul  in  Prison  at  Philippi. 
Probably  no  pictures  are  better  known  or  have  been  more 
often  engraved  and  copied  than  these  seven  cartoons.7 

The  Transfiguration.3 — In  1519  Cardinal  Giuliano  de' 
Medici  (afterwards  Clement  VII.),  as  bishop  of  Nar bonne, 
ordered  two  altar-pieces  for  his  cathedral, — the  one  by 
Raphael,  the  other  by  Raphael's  Venetian  rival  Sebastiano 
del  Piombo  (see  SEBASTIANO).  That  by  the  latter  painter 
is  the  noble  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,  now  in  the  National 
Gallery,  in  the  drawing  of  which  the  Venetian  received 
important  aid  from  Michelangelo.  Several  studies  for 
Raphael's  picture  exist,  showing  that  he  at  first  intended 
to  paint  a  Resurrection  of  Christ  as  a  pendant  to  Sebas- 
tiano's  subject,  but  soon  altered  his  scheme  into  the  Trans- 
figuration. The  eight  or  nine  existing  studies  are  scattered 
through  the  Oxford,  Lille,  Windsor,  and  some  private 


6  Fortunately  they  were  not  sold  with  the  bulk  of  Charles's  collec- 
tion, and  remained  at  Hampton  Court  till  a  few  years  ago.  See  Koch, 
RafaeVs  Tapeten  im  Vatican,  Vienna,  1878,  and  Miintz,  Hist,  de  la 
tapisserie  Italienne,  Paris,  1880. 

1  The  name  "  arazzi "  given  by  Italians  to  these  tapestries  is  derived 
from  Arras,  where  they  were  erroneously  thought  to  have  been  woven  ; 
they  were  made  at  Brussels.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  visitors 
to  the  Vatican  are  no  longer  allowed  to  see  these  priceless  examples  of 
textile  work. 

8  See  Morgenstern,  Ueber  RafaeVs  Verkldrung,  Leipsic,  1822,  and 
Justi,  Die  Verklarung  Christi,  Leipsic,  1870. 


RAPHAEL 


281 


collections.  A  great  part  of  the  lower  group  was  un- 
finished at  the  time  of  the  painter's  sudden  death  in  1520, 
and  a  good  deal  of  the  heavy  colouring  of  Giulio  Romano 
is  visible  in  it.  On  the  death  of  Raphael  the  picture  be- 
came too  precious  to  send  out  of  Rome,  and  Cardinal  de' 
Medici  contented  himself  with  sending  the  Resurrection  of 
Lazarus  to  Narbonne.  The  Transfiguration  was  bequeathed 
by  him  to  the  monks  of  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio,  in  whose 
church  it  remained  till  it  was  stolen  by  Napoleon  I.  It 
now  hangs  in  the  Vatican  Gallery. 

Architectural  Work.1 — Though  he  designed  but  few  buildings, 
Raphael's  great  repute  even  in  this  branch  of  art  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  Bramante,  before  his  death  in  March  1514,  specially- 
requested  that  Raphael  should  be  made  his  successor  as  chief  archi- 
tect of  St  Peter's.  To  this  most  important  post  he  was  appointed 
by  a  brief  of  Leo  X.,  dated  1st  August  1514.  The  progress  of  St 
Peter's  was,  however,  too  slow  for  him  to  leave  much  mark  on  its 
design.  Another  work  of  Bramante's,  completed  by  Raphael,  was 
the  graceful  Cortile  di  S.  Damaso  in  the  Vatican,  including  the 
loggie,  which  were  decorated  with  stucco-reliefs  and  paintings  of 
sacred  subjects  by  his  pupils  under  his  own  supervision,  but  only 
very  partially  from,  his  designs.2  The  Palazzo  dell'  Aquila,  built 
for  Giovanni  Battista  Branconio,  and  destroyed  in  the  17th  century 
during  the  extension  of  St  Peter's,  was  one  of  Raphael's  chief  works 
as  an  architect.  He  also  designed  the  little  cross  church,  domed 
at  the  intersection  like  a  miniature  St  Peter's,  called  S.  Eligio 
degli  Orefici,  which  still  exists  near  the  Tiber,  almost  opposite  the 
Farnesina  gardens,  a  work  of  but  little  merit.  According  to  M. 
Geymiiller,  whose  valuable  work,  Ea/aello  come  Architetto,  Milan, 
1883,  has  done  so  much  to  increase  our  knowledge  of  this  subject, 
the  Villa  Farnesina  of  Agostino  Chigi,  usually  attributed  to  Peruzzi, 
was,  as  well  as  its  palace-like  stables,  designed  by  Raphael ;  but 
internal  evidence  makes  this  very  difficult  to  believe.  It  has  too 
much  of  the  delicate  and  refined  character  of  the  15th  century  for 
Raphael,  whose  taste  seems  to  have  been  strongly  inclined  to  the 
more  developed  classic  style,  of  which  Palladio  afterwards  became 
the  chief  exponent.  The  Palazzo  Vidoni,  near  S.  Andrea  della 
Valle,  also  in  Rome,  is  usually  attributed  to  Raphael,  but  an 
original  sketch  for  this  in  Peruzzi's  own  hand  has  recently  been 
identified  among  the  collection  of  drawings  at  Siena  ;  this,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  certain  proof  that  the  design  was  not  Raphael's.  M. 
Geymiiller  has,  however,  shown  that  the  Villa  Madama,  on  the 
slopes  of  Monte  Mario  above  Rome,  was  really  designed  by  him, 
though  its  actual  carrying  out,  and  the  unrivalled  stucco-reliefs 
which  make  its  interior  one  of  the  most  magnificent  palaces  in  the 
world,  are  due  to  Giulio  Romano  and  Giovanni  da  Ucline,  as  men- 
tioned in  Vasari's  life  of  the  latter.3  The  original  design  for  this 
villa  made  by  Raphael  himself  has  been  discovered  by  M.  Gey- 
miiller. Another  architectural  work  was  the  little  Chigi  chapel  in 
S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  built  in  1516,  for  the  dome  of  which  the 
above-mentioned  mosaics  were  designed  (see  fig.  6).  At  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  preparing  to  build  himself  a  handsome  palace 
near  the  church  of  S.  Eligio  ;  the  deed  for  the  purchase  of  its  site 
was  signed  by  him  only  a  few  days  before  his  last  short  illness. 
Though  not  completed  till  1530,  the  Palazzo  Pandolfini  at  Florence 
was  also  designed  by  him  ;  it  is  a  dull  scholastic  building  without 
any  special  beauty  either  in  proportion  or  treatment  of  the  mass  ; 
it  is  illustrated  by  Montigny  and  Famin,  Architecture  Toscane, 
Paris,  1815,  pis.  33-36. 

A  sober  criticism  of  Raphael's  architectural  works  must  force  one 
to  refuse  him  a  high  position  in  this  branch  of  art.  In  the  church 
of  S.  Eligio  and  the  Chigi  chapel  he  is  merely  a  copyist  of  Bramante, 
and  his  more  original  works  show  but  little  power  of  invention  or 
even  mastery  of  the  first  principles  of  architectural  design.  His 
details  are,  however,  often  delicate  and  refined  (especially  in  the 
Palazzo  Pandolfiiii),  and  he  was  supremely  successful  in  the  decora- 
tive treatment  of  richly  ornamented  interiors  when  he  did  not,  as 
in  some  of  the  Vatican  stanze,  sacrifice  the  room  to  the  frescos  on 
its  walls. 

Sculpture. — That  Yasari  is  right  in  attributing  to  him  the  model 
for  the  beautiful  statue  of  Jonah  in  the  Chigi  chapel  (fig.  7)  is 
borne  witness  to  by  two  important  documents,  which  show  that 
his  almost  universal  talents  led  him  to  attempt  with  success  the 

J  See  Ojetti,  Discorso  su  Safaello  Architetto,  Rome,  1883,  but  more  especially 
Geymiiller's  work  mentioned  below,  and  his  Projets  Primitifs  pour  la  Bos.  de  S. 
Purrt,  Paris,  1875-80. 

*  See  Mariani,  La  BibHa  nelle  Loggie  del  Vatimno,  Rome;   Anon.,  Dipinti 

wile.  Loqgie.  del  Vaticano,  Rome,  1841  ;  and  Gruner,  Fresco  Decorations,  London, 

1864,  pis.  1-5.    Too  great  a  share  in  the  decoration  of  the  loggie  is  usually  given 

1  Raphael ;  not  only  the  harsh  colour  but  also  the  feebleness  of  much  of  the 

drawing  shows  that  he  can  have  had  but  little  to  do  with  it. 

<•  See  Gruner,  Fresco  Decorations,  &c.,  London,  1854,  pis.  6-12,  and  Raffaelle 

inti,  Ornati  della  Villa  Madama,  &c.,  Rome,  1875.     Two  other  little  known 

nt  very  beautiful  architectural  works,  executed  under  Raphael's  influence 

>y  Ins  pupils,  are  the  bath-room  of  Cardinal  Bibbiena  in  the  Vatican  and  the 

mh-room  of  Clement  VII.  in  the  castle  of  S.  Angelo,  both  richly  decorated 

mh  delicate  stucco-reliefs  and  paintings,  treated  after  a  classical  model. 


preliminary  part  of  the  sculptor's  art,  though  there  is  no  evidence 
to  show  that  he  ever  worked  on  marble.4  Ojie  of  these  is  a  letter 
written  to  Michelangelo  to  warn  him  that  Raphael  had  been  in- 
vading his  province  as  a  sculptor  by  modelling  a  boy,  which  had 
been  executed  in  marble  by  a  pupil,  and  was  a  work  of  much 
beauty.  Again,  after  his  death  his  friend  Baldassare  Castiglione, 
in  a  letter  dated  8th  May  1523,  asks  his  steward  in  Rome  "if 
Giulio  Romano  still  possesses  a  certain  boy  in  marble  by  Raphael 
and  what  his  lowest  price  for  it  would  be," — "s'egli  [Giulio  Romano] 
ha  piu  quel  puttino  di  marmo  di  mano  di  Raffaello  e  per  quanto  si 
daria  all'  ultimo."  A  group  in  marble  of  a  Dead  Boy  on  his  Dolphin 
Playfellow,  now  in 
the  St  Petersburg 
Hermitage,  has  been 
erroneously  supposed 
to  be  Raphael's  "put- 
tino," which  has  also 
been  identified  with 
a  statuette  of  a  child 
till  recently  at  Flor- 
ence in  the  possession 
of  Signer  Molini.5 
The  statue  of  Jonah 
was  executed  in 
marble  by  Loren- 
zetto,  a  Florentine 
sculptor  ;  and  it  re- 
mained in  his  studio 
for  many  years  after 
Raphael's  death.  The 
South  Kensington 
Museum  possesses  a 
small  clay  sketch  for 
this  beautiful  group, 
slightly  different 
from  the  marble ;  it 
is  probably  the  ori- 
ginal design  by  the 
master's  own  hand. 
The  whole  feeling  of 
the  group — a  beauti- 
ful youth  seated  on 
a  sea  -  monster  —  is 
purely  classical,  and 
the  motive  is  prob-. 
ably  taken  from 
some  antique  statue  FlG'  '.—Statue  of  Jonah  in  the  Chigi  chapel, 
representing  Arion  designed  *>y  Raphael,  sculptured  by  Loren- 
or  Taras  on  a  dol-  zetto '  heroic  size- 

phin.6  Being  intended  for  a  church  it  was  necessary  to  give  the 
figure  a  sacred  name,  and  hence  the  very  incongruous  title  that  it 
received.  There  is  no  trace  of  Raphael's  hand  in  the  design  of  the 
other  statue,  an  Elijah  by  Lorenzetto,  though  it  also  is  ascribed  to 
him  by  Vasari. 

Lesser  Arts  practised  ~by  Raphael. — Like  other  great  artists, 
Raphael  did  not  disdain  to  practise  the  lesser  branches  of  art :  a 
design  for  a  silver  perfume-burner  with  female  caryatids  is  preserved 
in  an  engraving  by  Marco  da  Ravenna ;  and  he  also  designed  two 
handsome  repousse  salvers  for  Agostino  Chigi,  drawings  for  which 
are  now  at  Dresden.  In  designs  for  tarsia -work  and  wood -carv- 
ing he  was  especially  skilful  ;  witness  the  magnificent  doors  and 
shutters  of  the  stanze  executed  by  his  pupil  Giovanni  Barile  of 
Siena.7  The  majolica  designs  attributed  to  him  were  by  a  name- 
sake and  relation  called  Raffaello  di  Ciarla ; 8  and,  though  many 
fine  dishes  and  ewers  of  Urbino  and  other  majolica  are  decorated 
with  Raphael's  designs,  they  are  all  taken  from  pictures  or  engrav- 
ings, not  specially  done  by  him  for  ceramic  purposes.  With  the 
frivolity  of  his  age  Leo  X.  occasionally  wasted  Raphael's  skill  on 
unworthy  objects,  such  as  the  scenery  of  a  temporarytheatre  ;  and 
in  1516  the  pope  set  him  to  paint  in  fresco  the  portrait  life-size 
of  a  large  elephant,  the  gift  of  the  king  of  Portugal,  after  the 

4  See  note  on  p.  369,  vol.  iv.,  of  Milanesi's  edition  of  Vasari,  Florence,  1879. 
To  one  branch  of  the  sculptor's  art,  practised  under  Raphael's  supervision, 
belong  the  elaborate  and  delicately  executed  stucco-reliefs  of  the  loggie  and 
elsewhere.  Among  these  occur  many  panels  with  figure-subjects,  large  in 
scale  and  important  in  composition  ;  those  executed  during  his  lifetime  are 
free  from  the  too  pictorial  character  which  is  an  obvious  fault  in  the  very 
magnificent  reliefs  of  the  Villa  Madama. 

s  See  Appendix,  p.  406,  vol.  iv.,  of  Milanesi's  edition  of  Vasari;  Rembadi, 
Del  putto  .  .  .  di  Rafaello,  Florence,  1872 ;  Gennarelli,  Sopra  uiw  Scultura  di 
Raffaello,  Florence,  1873.  The  evidence  which  would  attribute  this  piece  of 
sculpture  to  Raphael  is  almost  worthless.  See  on  the  St  Petersburg  group, 
Guedeonoff,  Ueber  die  dem  Saphael  zugeschr.  Marmorgruppe,  St  Petersburg,  1872. 

6  Compare  this  latter  subject  on  reverses  of  the  beautiful  didrachms  of 
Tarentum,  c.  300  B.C. 

7  The  very  beautiful  and  elaborate  choir-stalls  of  the  church  of  S.  Pietro  de' 
Casinensi  at  Perugia,  with  panels  carved  in  relief,  executed  in  1535  by  Stefano 
da  Bergamo,  are  mainly  adapted  from  Raphael's  designs. 

8  Campori,  Notizie  Stor.  d.  Maiolica  di  Ferrara,  3d  ed.,  Pesaro,  1879,  pp. 
132-133. 


282 


RAPHAEL 


animal  was  dead.1  This  elephant  is  also  introduced  among  the 
stucco  reliefs  of  the  Vatican  loggie,  with  the  poetaster  Barrabal 
sitting  in  mock  triumph  on  its  back. 

Though  Raphael  himself  does  not  appear  to  have  practised  the  art 
of  engraving,  yet  this  formed  one  of  the  many  branches  of  art  which 
were  carried  on  under  his  supervision.  A  large  number  of  his 
designs  were  engraved  by  his  pupils  Marcantonio  Raimondi  (see 
vol.  xv.  p.  530)  and  Agostino  Veneziano.  These  valuable  engrav- 
ings are  from  Raphael's  sketches,  not  from  his  finished  pictures, 
and  in  some  cases  they  show  important  alterations  made  in  the 
execution  of  the  picture.  Raimondi's  engraving  of  the  S.  Cecilia 
of  Bologna  in  design  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  the  actual  painting. 
Several  of  Raphael's  most  important  compositions  are  known  to  us 
only  by  these  early  engravings,  e.g.,  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents 
(engraved  by  Raimondi),  which  is  one  of  his  finest  works,  both  for 
skilful  composition  and  for  masterly  drawing  of  the  nude.  Another 
magnificent  design  is  the  Judgment  of  Paris,  containing  a  large 
number  of  figures  ;  the  nude  figure  of  Minerva  is  a  work  of  especial 
force  and  beauty.  A  standing  figure  of  Lucretia2  about  to  stab 
herself  is  also  one  of  his  most  lovely  figures.  Many  of  Raphael's 
studies  for  Marcantonio's  engravings  still  exist. 

Archaeology. — As  an  antiquary  Raphael  deserves  to  take  the 
highest  rank.  His  report3  to  Leo  X.  in  1518  is  an  eloquent  plea 
for  the  preservation  of  ancient  buildings.  In  1515  he  had  been 
appointed  by  Leo  X.  inspector  of  all  excavations  in  Rome  and 
within  10  miles  round.  His  careful  study  of  the  antique,  both 
statues  and  modes  of  decoration,  is  clearly  shown  in  many  of  his 
frescos,  and  especially  in  the  graceful  stucco  reliefs  and  painted 
grotteschi,  of  which  he  and  his  pupils  made  such  skilful  use  in 
the  decorations  of  the  Vatican  loggie,  the  Villa  Madama,  and 
elsewhere.4 

Raphael's  Fame. — When  we  consider  the  immense  field 
over  which  his  labours  were  spread  and  the  strong  personal 
individuality  which  appears  in  all  these  varied  branches  of 
art,  together  with  the  almost  incredible  number  of  paint- 
ings that  issued  from  his  studio,  it  will  be  seen  that  he 
must  have  laboured  with  an  amount  of  unflagging  industry 
which  has  perhaps  never  been  surpassed,  and  that  too  in  a 
time  and  in  a  city  of  which  the  social  habits  and  luxurious 
splendour  certainly  threw  every  possible  temptation  in  the 
way  of  steady  application  and  regular  work. 

Among  all  the  painters  of  the  world  none  has  been  so 
universally  popular  as  Raphael,  or  has  so  steadily  main- 
tained his  pre-eminent  reputation  throughout  the  many 
changes  in  taste  which  have  taken  place  in  the  last  three 
and  a  half  centuries.  Apart  from  his  combined  merits  as 
a  draughtsman,  colourist,  and  master  of  graceful  composi- 
tion, he  owes  the  constancy  of  admiration  which  has  been 
felt  for  him  partly  to  the  wide  range  of  his  subjects,  but 
still  more  to  the  wonderful  varieties  of  his  style.  If  the 
authorship  of  his  paintings  were  unknown,  who  would 
guess  that  the  Sposalizio  of  the  Brera,  the  Madonna  del 
Baidacchino  of  the  Pitti,  and  the  Transfiguration  could 
possibly  be  the  work  of  one  painter  ?  In  his  earliest  pic- 
tures he  touches  the  highly  spiritual  and  sacred  art  of  the 
Perugian  Fiorenzo  di  Lorenzo,  while  in  his  latest  Roman 
work  he  is  fully  embarked  in  the  pagan  spirit  of  the  last 
development  of  the  Renaissance,  already  on  the  brink  of 
the  most  rapid  decline.  In  the  seventeen  or  eighteen  years 
which  composed  his  short  working  life  he  passed  through 
stages  of  development  for  which  a  century  would  not  have 
seemed  too  long,  while  other  painters  lived  through  the 
same  changeful  time  with  but  little  alteration  in  their 
manner  of  work.  Perugino,  who  outlived  his  wonderful 
pupil,  completed  in  1521  Raphael's  San  Severe  fresco  in 
a  style  differing  but  little  from  his  paintings  executed  in 
the  previous  century. 

In  versatility  of  power  Raphael  (as  a  painter)  remains 
almost  without  a  rival ;  whether  painting  an  altar-piece 


1  Under  it  was  inscribed — "  Raphael  Urbinas  quod  natura  abstu- 
lerat  arte  restituit." 

2  On  a  pedestal  is  inscribed  in  Greek — "Better  to  die  than  live 
basely." 

8  Published  by  Visconti,  Lettera  di  Ra/aeUo  a  Leone  X. ,  Rome, 
1840 ;  see  also  Miintz,  "  Raphael  Archeologue,"  &c.,  Oaz.  dcs  B.  Arts, 
October  and  November  1 880. 

*  See  Grayer,  Raphael  el  F AntiquiU,  Paris,  1864. 


for  a  church,  a  large  historical  fresco,  a  portrait,  or  decor- 
ative scenes  from  classical  mythology,  he  seems  to  excel 
equally  in  each;  and  the  widely  different  methods  of 
painting  in  tempera,  oil,  or  fresco  are  employed  by  him 
with  apparently  equal  facility.  His  range  of  scale  is  no 
less  remarkable,  varying  from  a  miniature,  finished  like  an 
illuminated  MS.,  to  colossal  figures  in  fresco  dashed  in 
with  inimitable  breadth  and  vigour. 

An  additional  glory  is  thrown  round  his  memory  by  the 
personal  beauty,  charm  of  manner,  and  deep  kindliness  of 
heart  which  endeared  him  to  all  who  knew  him.5  His 
sincere  modesty  was  not  diminished  by  his  admission  as 
an  equal  by  the  princes  of  the  church,  the  distinguished 
scholars,  and  the  world -famed  men  of  every  class  who 
formed  the  courts  of  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.  In  accordance 
with  the  spirit  of  the  age  he  lived  with  considerable  dis- 
play and  luxury,  and  was  approached  with  the  utmost 
deference  by  the  ambassadors  of  foreign  princes,  whether 
their  master  desired  a  picture,  or,  as  the  duke  of  Ferrara 
did,  sent  to  consult  him  on  the  best  cure  for  smoky 
chimneys.  To  his  pupils  he  was  as  a  father,  and  they 
were  all,  as  Vasari  says,  "  vinti  dalla  sua  cortesia  "  ;  they 
formed  round  him  a  sort  of  royal  retinue,  numbering  about 
fifty  youths,  each  talented  in  some  branch  of  the  arts.6 
Giulio  Romano  and  Gianfrancesco  Penni,  his  two  favourite 
pupils,  lived  with  him  in  the  Palazzo  di  Bramante,  a  house 
near  St  Peter's,  where  he  resided  during  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  in  Rome.  This  fine  palace,  designed  by  Bra- 
mante, was  destroyed  in  the  17th  century  at  the  same 
time  as  Raphael's  Palazzo  dell'  Aquila. 

It  is  difficult  to  realize  the  furor  of  grief  and  enthusiasm 
excited  by  the  master's  death  on  Good  Friday  1520,  at  the 
age  of  thirty-seven  exactly,  after  an  attack  of  fever  which 
lasted  only  ten  days.  His  body  was  laid  out  in  state  in 
his  studio,  by  the  side  of  the  unfinished  Transfiguration, 
and  all  Rome  flocked  to  the  place  for  a  last  sight  of  the 
"  divino  pittore."  His  property  amounted  to  about 
£30,000  ;  his  drawings  and  MSS.  he  left  to  Giulio 
Romano  and  Gianfrancesco  Penni ;  his  newly  bought  land 
to  Cardinal  Bibbiena,  the  uncle  of  the  lady  to  whom  he 
had  been  betrothed ;  there  were  liberal  bequests  to  his 
servants;  and  the  rest  was  mostly  divided  among  his 
relatives  at  Urbino.  He  desired  to  be  buried  in  the  Pan- 
theon, under  the  noble  dome  which  he  and  Bramante  had 
dreamed  of  rivalling.  His  body  is  laid  beside  an  altar, 
which  he  endowed  with  an  annual  chantry,  and  on  the 
wall  over  it  is  a  plain  slab,  with  an  inscription  written  by 
his  friend  Cardinal  Bembo.  Happily  his  grave  has  as  yet 
escaped  the  disfigurement  of  a  pretentious  monument  such 
as  those  erected  to  Michelangelo,  Dante,  and  other  great 
Italians ;  it  has  not,  however,  remained  undisturbed  :  in 
1833  it  was  opened  and  the  bones  examined.7  In  March 
1883  a  festival  was  held  at  Urbino,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
4th  centenary  of  his  birth,  and  on  this  occasion  many 
interesting  articles  on  Raphael  were  published,  especially 
one  by  Geymiiller,  "  Le  IVme  Centenaire  de  la  Naissance 
de  Raphael,"  1483-1883,  in  the  Gaz.  de  Lausanne,  March 
1883. 

Literature. — Comolli,  Vita  incdita  di  Raffaello,  1790  ;  Duppa, 
Life  of  Raphael,  London,  1816  ;  Braun,  Raphael  .  .  .  Lebcn  und 
IVerke,  Wiesbaden,  1819  ;  Fea,  Raffaello  .  .  .  ed  alcune  di  lui 
Opere,  Rome,  1822 ;  Rehberg,  Rafael  Sanzio  aus  Urbino,  Munich, 
1824  ;  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  Vita  ed  Opere  di  Raffaello,  trans,  by 
Longhena,  Milan,  1829  (a  work  marred  by  many  inaccuracies) ; 
Rumohr,  Ueber  Raphael  und  sein  Verhaltniss,  Berlin,  1831  ;  Rio, 
Michelange  et  Raphael,  Paris,  1863  ;  Gruyer,  Raphael  et  I'Antiquite 

5  See  the  eloquent  eulogy  of  his  character  at  the  end  of  Vaaari's  Life. 

8  See  Minghetti,  "Gli  Scolari  di  Raffaello,"  Nuova  Antologia,  June 
1880. 

7  See  "  Ritrovamento  delle  ossa  di  Raffaello,"  Soc.  Virtuosi  al  l'«n- 
teone,  Rome,  1833  ;  other  pamphlets  on  this  were  published  in  the 
same  year  by  Fea,  Falconieri,  and  Odescalchi. 


R  A  P  — R  A  S 


283 


(Paris,  1864),  Lcs  Vierges  de  Raphael  (Paris,  1878),  and  Raphael, 
Peintre  de  Portraits  (Paris,  1880) ;  Grimm,  Das  Leben  Raphaels  von 
Urbino,  Berlin,  1872  (intended  specially  to  point  out  the  errors  of 
Vasari  and  Passavant,  and  not  written  in  a  very  fair  spirit) ;  Ghcr- 
ardi,  Delia  Vita  di  Ra/acllo,  Urbino,  1874  ;  Springer,  Raffael  und 
Michelangelo,  Leipsic,  1878  ;  Perkins,  Raphael  and  Michelangelo, 
Boston,  1878  ;  Dohme,  Kunst  und  Kiinstler  dcs  Mittelalters,  Leipsic, 
1878  (vol.  ii.  of  this  valuable  work,  with  many  illustrations,  is 
devoted  entirely  to  Raphael  and  Michelangelo) ;  Alippi,  11  R,affaello, 
Urbino,  1880  ;  Clement,  Michelange  et  Raphael,  5th  ed.  (improved), 
Paris,  1881  ;  Eug.  Miintz,  Raphael,  sa  Vie,  son  CEuvre,  &c.,  Paris, 
1881  (this  is  on  the  whole  the  best  single  work  on  Raphael,  both 
from  its  text  and  its  numerous  well-chosen  illustrations) ;  Passavant, 
Rafael  und  sein  Vater,  Leipsic,  1839-58  (a  valuable  book,  especially 
for  its  list  of  Raphael's  works  ;  a  new  edition  translated  by  Guasti 
into  Italian  was  published  at  Florence  in  1882,  but,  though  printed 
so  recently,  this  edition  is  in  no  way  superior  to  the  French  one  of 
Lacroix,  Paris,  1860,  which,  however,  is  a  great  advance  on  the 
original  German  text) ;  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  Life  and  Works  of 
Raphael,  London,  1882-85;  Eug.  Miintz,  Les  Historiens  et  les  Cri- 
tiques de  Raphael,  Paris,  1883  (contains  a  good  bibliography  of  the 
subject).  The  student  of  Raphael  owes  a  special  debt  of  gratitude 
for  the  recent  labours  of  MM.  Miintz,  Gruyer,  and  Geymiiller. 

Reproductions  of  Raphael's  Works. — From  the  time  of  Raimondi 
downwards  no  painter's  works  have  been  so  frequently  engraved. 
The  Calcografia  Camerale  (now  called  Regia)  of  Rome  possesses 
an  enormous  number  of  copper -plates  of  his  pictures  by  a  great 
many  good  (and  bad)  engravers  of  this  and  the  last  century.  Elec- 
trotypes of  the  old  coppers  are  still  worked,  and  are  published  by 
the  Stamperia  at  very  moderate  prices  ;  in  the  catalogue  Nos.  736 
to  894  are  the  works  of  Raphael,  including  several  books  of  engrav- 
ings containing  whole  sets,  such  as  the  Vatican  loggie,  &c.  A 
very  complete  collection  of  photographs  from  these  and  other  en- 
gravings is  published  by  Gutbier  and  Liibke,  Rafael's  Werke,  sammt- 
liche  Tafclbilder  und  Freshen,  Dresden,  1881-82,  in  three  large 
volumes,  divided  into  classes, — pictures  of  the  Madonna,  frescos, 
stanze  of  the  Vatican,  tapestry  cartoons,  &c.  The  descriptive  text 
and  life  of  Raphael  are  by  Liibke.  The  Malcolm,  Oxford,  British 
Museum,  Lille,  Louvre,  Dresden,  and  other  collections  of  Raphael's 
drawings  have  mostly  been  published  in  photographic  facsimile, 
and  an  enormous  number  of  illustrated  monographs  on  single 
pictures  exists.  Braun's  autotypes  of  the  stanze  and  Farnesina 
frescos  are  especially  good.  (J.  H.  M.) 

RAPIN,  PAUL  DE  (1661-1725),  sieur  of  Thoyras, 
French  historian,  was  the  son  of  Jacques  de  Eapin,  avocat 
at  Castres  (Tarn),  where  he  was  born  on  25th  March 
1661.  He  was  educated  at  the  Protestant  academy  of 
Saumur,  and  in  1679  he  became  an  advocate,  but  soon 
afterwards  entered  the  army.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  in  1685  and  the  death  of  his  father,  which 
happened  two  months  afterwards,  led  him  to  come  to 
England;  but,  unable  to  find  employment  there,  he  crossed 
to  Holland  and  enlisted  in  the  company  of  French  volun- 
teers at  Utrecht  commanded  by  Daniel  de  Rapin,  his 
cousin -german.  He  accompanied  the  prince  of  Orange 
to  England  in  1688,  and  the  following  year  Lord  Kingston 
made  him  ensign  in  his  regiment,  with  which  he  proceeded 
to  Ireland.  He  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Carrickfergus 
and  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and  was  shot  through  the 
shoulder  at  the  battle  of  Limerick.  Soon  afterwards  he 
was  promoted  captain;  but  in  1693  he  resigned  in  order 
to  become  tutor  to  the  earl  of  Portland's  son.  His  next 
change  was  to  return  to  his  family,  which  he  had  settled 
at  The  Hague,  and  there  he  continued  some  years.  But, 
as  he  found  his  family  increase,  he  resolved  to  retire  to  a 
more  economical  residence,  and  accordingly  removed  in 
1707  to  Wesel,  where  he  commenced  his  great  work 
L'Histoire  d' 'Angleterre.  Though  he  was  of  a  strong  con- 
stitution, the  seventeen  years'  application  entirely  ruined 
his  health.  He  died  in  1725. 

Rapin  was  also  the  author  of  a  Dissertation  sur  les  Whigs  et  les 
Torys,  1717.  L'Histoire  d' 'Angleterre,  embracing  the  period  from 
the  invasion  of  the  Romans  to  the  death  of  Charles  I.,  was  printed 
at  The  Hague  in  1724  in  8  vols.  It  was  translated  into  English, 
and  improved  with  notes,  by  Tindal,  in  2  vols.  folio,  1725-31. 
Although  the  work  of  a  foreigner,  it  is  deservedly  esteemed  as  one 
of  the  fullest  and  most  impartial  collections  of  English  political 
transactions  extant. 

RASGRAD  or  HESARGRAD,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  with  a 
station  about  2  miles  distant  on  the  Varna  and  Rustchuk 


Railway,  is  situated  on  the  Byaly  Lorn,  970  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  has  increased  in  population  during  the  last 
fifty  years  from  3000  to  10,000  inhabitants.  In  1810  it 
was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Turks  by  the  Russians. 
RASHBA  ($OKn)  stands  for  three  rabbins  of  various 
ages  and  various  countries. 

1.  R.  SHIME'ON  BEN  EI/AZAR  was  a  Mishnic  teacher  of 
the  2d  century. 

2.  RABBENTT  SHIMSHON  BEN  ABRAHAM  of  Sens  wrote 
commentaries  on  various  Mishnic  treatises  (see  MISHNAH, 
vol.  xvi.  p.  506). 

3.  R.   SHELOMOH  BEN  ABRAHAM  (or  Ben  [Ibn]  Ad- 
dereth)  was  a  disciple  of  Nachmanides,  upon  whom  his 
master's  mantle  had  fallen  (see  RAMBAN).      He  became 
chief  rabbi  of  Barcelona.     Here  so  many  disciples  from 
the  neighbouring  provinces  flocked  to  him  as  to  excite 
emulation  among  the  Jews  in  the  capital  of  Castile,  who 
thereupon  appointed  the  German  Rabbi  Asher  b.  Yehiel 
(Rosh).     At  the  same  time  religious  questions  poured  in 
upon  him  from  all  Israel,  so  that  it  is  a  marvel  how  he 
could  go  through  his  mere  clerical  work. 

His  works  extend  over  the  whole  Talmud,  although  not  all  of 
them  are  printed.  But  thousands  of  his  Responsa  have  been  printed, 
while  many  others  lie  in  MS.  at  Cambridge  (Add.  500).  Of  his 
other  works,  the  enumeration  of  which  would  occupy  columns, 
mention  can  be  made  only  of  his  explanations  of  the  Agadoth  of 
the  Babylonian  Talmud,  containing  polemic  against  both  Christians 
and  Moslems  (MS.,  Univ.  Carnb.,  Add.  1567,  1).  On  his  part  in 
the  Maimonidean  controversy  see  Schiller -Szinessy,  Catalogue,  i. 
187  sq.  (S.  M.  S.-S.) 

RASHBAM.  RABBENTJ  SHEMUEL  BEN  MEIR,  commonly 
called,  from  his  title  and  the  initials  of  his  own  and  his 
father's  names,  Rashbam,  was  born  at  Rameru  (Ramerupt 
near  Troyes,  in  France)  about  1080.  He  was  almost  the 
greatest  Talmudist  of  his  time,  the  only  two  excelling  him 
till  1 105  being  Rashi  and  later  on  his  own  younger  brother, 
Rabbenu  Ya'akob,  better  known  as  Rabbenu  Tham.  In 
Bible  criticism  and  exegesis,  however,  he  excelled  all  the 
men  of  the  llth  and  12th  centuries,  even  if  we  include 
R.  Menahem  b.  Helbo,  R.  Yoseph  Bekhor  Shor,  and  R. 
Yoseph  Kara  of  the  Franco  -  Ashkenazic  school,  and 
Abraham  Ibn  'Ezra  of  the  Sepharadic  school.  Rashbam 
was  the  son  of  Yokhebed,  second  daughter  of  RASHI  (q.v.), 
and  of  Rabbenu  Meir  of  Rameru  (b.  Shemuel).  He  suc- 
ceeded his  grandfather  Rashi  as  head  of  the  Rabbinical 
college,  and  probably  also  of  the  congregation,  of  Troyes. 
Later,  however,  we  meet  him  at  other  places,  e.g.,  Caen, 
Loudun.  He  died  about  1160. 

Of  his  works  the  following  are  known.  (1)  Commentaries  on 
the  Bible  :  (a)  his  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  uncritically 
edited  several  times  (ed.  princeps,  Berlin,  1705),  and  critically  and 
most  ably  for  the  first  time  by  Rosin  of  Breslau  (1881,  8vo)  ;  (b) 
commentaries  on  most  of  the  other  books  of  the  Bible,  the  greater 
part  of  which  are  now  lost,  but  the  existence  of  which  is  in  early 
times  fully  testified  to.  Those  on  Ecclesiastes  and  Canticles l  were 
published  by  Dr  Jellinek  at  Leipsic  (1855,  8vo) ;  specimens  of  both 
books  have  been  translated  into  English  by  Dr  Ginsburg  (Song  of 
Songs,  London,  1857,  and  Coheleth,  London,  1861).  (2)  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Babylonian  Talmud  ;  of  these  we  now  possess  only 
his  supplements  on  Pesahim  (leaves  99b-121b),  Baba  Bathra 
(leaves  29a-176b),  and  Makkoth  (leaves  19b  sq.  ;  see  the  so-called 

Rashi  on  the  Riph,  in  the  Mishnah,  iii.  5,  catchword  JpfH  ?JD). 
Commentaries  on  five  other  treatises  are  distinctly  referred  to  by 
old  authorities,2  but  Rashi's  commentaries  so  thoroughly  eclipsed 
all  those  written  before  and  after  him  that  none  of  them  had  a 
chance  of  surviving,  except  in  the  shape  of  a  supplement.  (3) 
Additamenta  or  Tosaphotk  ;  see  Rabbinovicz  (variee  lectiones),  ii., 


1  The  present  writer  cannot  share  the  opinion  of  those  who,  because 
of  the  Agadic  explanations  with  which  that  commentary  abounds,  call 
Rashbam's  authorship  in  question.     Ibn  'Ezra  himself,  who  was  sober 
thinker  enough,  is   compelled  in  Canticles  to  resort  to  the  Rabbinic 
explanation, — a  proceeding  and  a  method  in  which  every  modern  com- 
mentator must  take  refuge,  unless  he  wishes  to  explain  the  book  as  a 
merely  profane  one. 

2  See  Berliner  Magazin,  &c.,  vii.  186,  and  Or  Zaru'a,  in  several 
places  (comp.  Magazin,  ii.  p.  100). 


284 


R  A  S  — R  A  S 


Preface,  p.  13,  and  Steinschneider,  ffebr.  Handschr.  in  der  kon. 
Bib.  Berlin,  p.  3.  (4)  Rtsponsa  ;  see,  for  example,  Jtaban  (Prague, 
1610,  folio),  leaves  143,  col.  2,  to  146b,  col.  1,  and  elsewhere.  (5) 
Of  his  controversies  with  Christians  nothing  is  left  except  what  is 
occasionally  to  be  found  in  his  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch. 
(6)  On  his  book  on  the  calendar  calculations  see  Berliner  Magazin, 
vii.  p.  185.  (7)  On  the  true  author  of  the  commentary  on  Aboth, 
ascribed  to  Rashbam,  see  Taylor,  Catal,  No.  20.  (8)  Although 
the  attack  on  his  hemero-nyction  theory  (commentary  on  Gen.  i. 
4,  5)  was  made  by  Ibn  'Ezra  (Iggereth  Hasshabbath ;  see  Kerem 
Hemed,  iv.  pp.  159-173,  and  MibJtar  Hammaamarim  by  Nathan 
b.  Shemuel,  printed  at  Leghorn  in  1840,  leaves  58a-66a)  in  Rash- 
barn's  lifetime  he  seems  not  to  have  answered  it.  (S.  M.  S.-S.) 

RASHI  ('"en),  that  is,  RABBENU  SHELOMOH  YISHA^I 
(Solomon,  son  of  Isaac),  whence  by  Christian  writers  he  is 
also  called  Isacides1  (1040-1105),  was  the  greatest  rabbi 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  is  equally  important  for  Biblical 
and  Talmudic  study,  and  in  the  former  connexion  as  inter- 
esting to  Christians  as  to  Jews  from  the  influence  of  his 
exegesis  on  Luther's  Bible  (through  De  Lyra ;  see  vol.  xi. 
p.  601)  and  on  the  English  version  of  the  Old  Testament 
(mainly  through  Ibn  'Ezra,  and  still  more  through  Kimhi). 
Rashi  is  the  most  eminent  of  the  "sages"  or  "great  men 
of  Lothaire"2  (Tmi>,  i.e.,  Lorraine)  in  whom  culminated 
that  movement  of  Jewish  scholarship  to  which  Charlemagne 
had  given  the  first  impulse.  From  the  Jew  Isaac,  first  in- 
terpreter and  then  ambassador  in  his  famous  mission  to 
Hdrun  ar-Rashid,  Charlemagne  had  doubtless  learned  how 
superior  in  literary  attainments  the  Jews  of  the  East  were 
to  those  of  the  West,  and  therefore  he  gave  great  privileges 
to  the  accomplished  Makhirites  3  who  were  introduced  into 
the  south  of  France,  and  spread  Jewish  culture  and  litera- 
ture there.4  Later  on  he  brought  from  Rome  to  Mainz 
the  Kalonymites,  a  family  of  distinguished  Talmudists, 
poets,  &c.,  of  Lucca;5  and  soon  Spires,  Worms,  and  Mainz 
(spoken  of  as  Shum,  D"ltf )  became  famous  seats  of  Jewish 
learning;  their  ordinances  (Takkanoth  Shum)  were  of  norm- 
ative authority  for  centuries,  and  the  study  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible  and  the  Babylonian  Talmud  steadily  spread  from 
southern  Germany  to  northern  France.  Though  Spires, 
Worms,  and  Mainz  by  the  partition  treaty  of  Verdun  in 
843  belonged  to  East  Frankland,  yet  in  Jewish  literature 
Lothaire  includes  these  cities ;  and  all  the  greatest  doctors 
of  Jewish  lore  in  the  south  of  Germany  or  north  of  France 
belong  to  the  "  great  men  "  or  "  sages  of  Lothaire."6  Rashi 
was  born,  in  the  year  in  which  the  last  nominal  gaon  of 
Pumbaditha  died,  at  Troyes,  where  his  father  Yishak  was 
no  doubt  rabbi.  R.  Yishak  was  probably  a  disciple  of  R. 
Gershom ;  certainly  he  was  an  eminent  Talmudist.7  His 
wife,  Rashi's  mother,  was  a  sister  of  R.  Shime'on  hazzaken.8 

1  The  interpretation  of  the  *  of  V'KH  as  meaning  Yarchi  (Jarchi), 
i.e.,  of  Lunel,  is  not  to  be  charged  on  Buxtorf,  nor  on  Seb.  Miinster, 
being  already  found  hi  the  text  of  the  Pugio  Fidei  of  Raymundus 
Martini,  written  in  the  second  half  of  the  13th  century. 

2  Lothaire  never  means  Lhuitre  (Luistre),  as  appears  from  the  phrase 

•Vni!>  ni3^O,  "  realm  of  Lothaire."     Instead  of  "ITT^  TJJ  in  Rashi's 

so-called  Siddur,  ii.  leaf  33a,  must  be  read  *Vni?  l|"iy,  as  will  be  easily 
seen  from  the  context. 

3  See  Yohasin  Hasshalem  (London  and  Edinburgh,  1857,  8vo),  p.  84. 

4  Possibly  also,  like  some  princes  of  the  10th  century,  Charlemagne 
encouraged  Jewish  literature  in  order  to  keep  at  home  the  considerable 
sums  which  the  Jews  had  been  wont  to  send  to  the  Babylonian  geonim. 

8  See  'Emek  Habbakha,  ed.  Letteris  (Vienna,  1852,  12mo),  p.  13, 
and  Wiener's  German  translation  (Leipsic,  1858,  8vo),  p.  8.  Reshal's 
Responsa,  §  xxix.,  is  unfortunately  corrupt  in  many  places. 

6  See  Brit.  Mus.  MS.  Add.  27200,  leaf  24a. 

7  This  appears  from  an  explanation  quoted  from  him  by  his  son 

on  a  passage  of  'Abodah  Zarah  (f.  75a,  catchword  TpD  N71).  This 
treatise  was  at  that  time  scarcely  studied,  even  by  eminent  rabbis,  and 
the  explanation  is  markedly  superior  to  one  which  Rashi  also  gives 
from  R.  Ya'akob  b.  Yakar,  hitherto  regarded  as  the  most  eminent 
of  his  teachers. 

8  Not  to  be  confounded  with  his  older  contemporary,  the  poet  and 
Halakhist,  Shime'on  b.  Yishak  haggadol.    The  epithets  "hazzaken  "  and 
"  haggadol "  both  mean  "  the  elder,"  but  the  epithet  is  varied  {o  distin- 
guish the  persons. 


Her  name  is  unknown,  as  is  also  that  of  the  wife  whor 
Rashi,  according  to  Mishnic  precept  (Aboth,  v.  21),  married 
at  the  age  of  eighteen.  Soon  after  his  marriage,  and  with 
his  wife's  consent,  he  left  her  to  prosecute  his  studies  in 
Germany,  returning  home  only  from  time  to  time.9  She 
bore  him  no  sons,  but  three  daughters.10 

Rashi  had  at  least  six  teachers, — (1)  his  father;  (2)  R. 
Ya'akob  b.  Yakar  (chief  rabbi  at  Worms)  for  Bible  and 
Talmud  (Rashi  on  T.  B.,  Pesahim,  Ilia),  a  disciple  of 
R.  Gershom  (Rashbam,  ibid.,  and  Siddur,  ii.  leaf  lOa)  and 
friend  of  R.  Eli'ezer  haggadol ;  (3)  his  successor,  R.  Yishak 
Segan  Leviyyah  (T.B.,  Besah,  24b),  a  pupil  of  R.  Eli'ezer 
haggadol ;  (4)  his  mother's  brother,  already  named  (T.B., 
Shabbath,  85b);  (5)  R.  Yishak  b.  Yehudah,  also  a  pupil 
of  R.  Eli'ezer,  and  head  of  the  community  at  Mainz 
(Pardes,  xxi.) ;  (6)  R.  Elyakim,  head  of  the  community 
at  Spires  (ibid.,  clix.,  clxxxi.,  ccxc.,  cccvi.).  Besides  the 
oral  instruction  of  his  teachers,  Rashi  had  and  used  copies 
of,  and  commentaries  on,'  sundry  parts  of  the  Talmud 
written  by  these  scholars  themselves  or  by  their  teachers 
or  disciples  (T.  B.,  Herakhoth,  39a,  57b ;  Shabbath,  lOb ; 
JR.  Hasshanah,  28a;  Sukkah,  45b ;  Siddur,  ii.  leaf  lOa). 
He  had  also  before  him  all  the  Jewish  literature  existing 
and  known  at  his  time,  as  the  Bible,  part  of  the  Apo- 
crypha, all  the  Targums,  sundry  cabbalistic  works  (Sepher 
Yeslrah,  Hekhaloth,  &C.11),  both  Talmuds,  the  Midrashim, 
Sheeltoth,  Halakhoth  Gedoloth,  Teshuboth  Haggeonim,  the 
works  of  R.  Mosheh  Haddarshan,  the  lexicographical  works 
of  Menahem  b.  Seruk  and  Donash  b.  Labrat,  and,  last  but 
not  least,  the  commentaries  of  R.  Gershom,  which  he  used 
largely,  but  mostly  silently.12  He  also  used  the  works  of 
his  own  contemporaries,  such  as  the  *Arukh.13  His  studies 
completed,  Rashi  returned  to  his  native  town  and  opened 
a  school  for  Bible  and  Talmud.  His  fame  quickly  rose ; 
disciples  gathered  round  him  from  the  whole  north  of 
France  and  south  of  Germany,  and  men  in  office,  who  had 
grown  grey  in  study,  addressed  to  him  "  religious  ques- 
tions," his  "answers"  to  which  give  us  insight  into  his 
character,  piety,  and  ability.14  He  died  on  13th  (not  26th) 
July  1105,15  having  already  seen  two  of  his  grandsons  "in- 

9  See  Hophes  Matmonim,  ed.  Goldberg,  p.  2  (Tl^Dt?  "1X11X3  D"mi 


10  They  married  three  of  their  father's  disciples.     The  husband  of 
the  eldest  was,  according  to  Schiller-Szinessy  (Camb.  Cat.,  ii.  88  sq., 
note  1),  R.  Simhah  of  Vitry-le-Frau9ais  (ob.  1105),  reputed  author  of 
the  Mahzor  Vitri,  which,  if  the  other  MSS.  so  called  have  no  better 
title  to  the  name  than  that  in  the  British  Museum,  Add.  27200-1,  must 
now  be  regarded  as  lost  (Taylor,  Catal.  MSS.  of  Aboth,  &c.,  No.  20; 
Schiller-Sziuessy,  op.  cit.,  ii.  61  sq. ).     The  issue  of  this  marriage  was 
(1)  R.   Shema'yah  of  Soissons  (see  MISHNAH,  vol.  xvi.  p.  506);  (2) 
R.  Shemuel,  who  married  his  cousin,  Rashbam's  only  sister.     Rashi's 
second  daughter,  Yokhebed,  married  R.  Meir  of  Rameru  (b.  Shemuel),  a 
brother  of  R.  Simhah.     He  was  father  of  four  sons, —  (1)  Ribam  (R. 
Yishak  b.  Meir),  who  died  in  his  father's  lifetime ;  (2)  RASHBAM  (q.v.) ; 
(3)'R.Tham  or  Rath;  (4)  R.  Shelomoh  (Br.  Mus.,  Add.  27200, leaf  158b). 
The  third  daughter,  Miryam,  married  R.  Yehudah  b.  Nathan,  who  sup- 
plemented his  father-in-law's  commentary  on  Makkoth,  and  wrote  the 
commentary  that  goes  by  Rashi's  name  on  T.  B. ,  Nazir,  &c.    Their  son's 
name  was  R.  Yom  Tob  (Sepher  Hayyashar,  Vienna,  1810,  §  599). 

11  See  Rashi,  T.  B.,  Berakhoth,  51a  ;  Hoglgnh,  13a  ;  Sukkah,  45a  ; 
and  many  other  places.     See  also  Siddur,  ii.  leaf  22b,  col.  2  (on  the 
reading  of  the  Shema  in  bed).     Such  passages  as  Kiddushin,  71a,  do 
not,  when  rightly  understood,  testify  to  the  contrary.     Rashi's  "they" 
refers  not  to  his  contemporary  teachers,  but  to  those  of  the  Talmud  who 
"had  not  explained  to  us  the  Holy  Names  of  the  Twelve  and  Forty-two." 
It  is  therefore  quite  untrue  that  Rashi  "  knew  nothing  of  kabbalah." 

12  R.  Gershom,  "  the  light  of  the  Diaspora  "  (see  vol.  xvi.  p.  506), 
died  in  the  year  in  which  Rashi  was  born,  and  was  the  immediate 
teacher  of  his  teachers.     One  of  his  commentaries  is  printed  in  the 
Shittah  Mekubbeseth  on  Karethoth,  Vienna,  1878,  folio. 

13  See  T.B.,  Shabbath,  13b,  catchword  baiKH. 

14  See  Hophes  Matmonim,  p.  8. 

15  See  MS.  De-Rossi  (Roy.  Libr.,  Parma)  175  (Catal.,  p.  116),  and 
MS.  Luzzatto  (Literaturbl.  d.  Orients,  vii.  p.  418).    This  precious  MS., 
which   subsequently  belonged  to  Halberstam  of  Bielitz,  is  now  the 
property  of  the  master  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge. 


R  A  S  — H  A  S 


285 


terpreting'  in  his  presence,  and  the  budding  intelligence 
of  a  third,  who  became  the  greatest  Talmudist  of  his  age. 

Rashi,  though  not  the  originator  of  all  that  he  teaches  in  his 
commentary  on  the  Talmud,  had  so  digested  the  whole  literature 
bearing  on  that  stupendous  work  that  his  teaching,  even  when  it 
appears  to  be  imitative,  is  really  creative.  In  his  Biblical  com- 
mentaries he  has  not,  of  course,  grammatical  and  philological 
knowledge  of  the  modern  type,  but  he  had  a  very  fine  sense  for 
linguistic  points,  which  was  not  equalled,  much  less  surpassed,  by 
the  greatest  rabbis  who  followed  him.  He  gave  satisfaction,  if  not 
to  all,  at  least  to  the  best  of  his  time,  and,  as  the  great  German 
poet  says,  "  he  who  has  given  satisfaction  to  the  best  of  his  time 
lives  for  all  ages." 

RASHI'S  WORKS. — A.  Bible  Comincntary  (KT1Q). — Rashi  com- 
mented on  the  whole  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  except  Job,  chaps,  xl. 
21  to  the  end,  and  the  books  of  Chronicles.1  Kimhi's  is  the  only 
Rabbinical  commentary  which  can  be  said  to  have  successfully 
approached  this  great  work  in  its  influence  on  Jewish  scholarship  ; 
and  on  the  Pentateuch  Rashi  had  no  rival.  For  centuries  too  his 
was  the  text-book  in  boys'  schools  throughout  the  Jewish  world — and 
in  some  countries  it  is  so  still,  its  depth  and  subtilty  being  com- 
bined with  simplicity  of  exposition.  Its  currency  is  attested  by 
more  than  a  hundred  supercommentaries,  translations,  extracts, 
and  the  like,  of  which  there  are  about  fifty  in  print.  An  eminent 
rabbi  declares  that  Rashi  may  be  substituted  for  the  Targum  "  in 
the  reading  of  the  weekly  pericope  "  (Reshal,  Yam  shd  Shelomoh 
on  Kiddushin,  ii.  §  14).  Rashi's  influence  on  Christian  scholars  has 
already  been  alluded  to.  N.  de  Lyra  copied  him  so  closely  as  to 
be  called  his  "ape."2 

Translations.  — The  whole  commentary  was  rendered  into  Latin 
by  PELLICANUS  (q.v.\  but  never  printed,  and  again  by  Breithaupt 
(3  vols.  4to,  Gotha,  1710-14).  This  version  includes  the  spurious 
commentary  on  Chronicles  and  is  accompanied  by  notes.  Of  separate 
parts  there  are  printed  versions  of  Gen.  i.-vi.  (Scherzer,  1663),  Gen. 
vi.-xi.  (Abicht,  1705),  Gen.  xlix.  (Loscani,  1710),  Hosea  (Mercier, 
1621),  Joel,  Jonah  (Leusden,  1656),  Joel  (Genebrard,  1563),  Jonah, 
Zephaniah,  Obadiah.  (Pontac,1556),  Obadiah  (Crocius,  1673),  Malachi 
(S.  de  Muis,  1618),  Ps.  xix.  (Id.,  1620),  Proverbs  (Giggreus,  1620), 
Canticles  (Genebrard,  1570),  Ruth  (Carpzov,  1703),  Esther  (Aquinas, 
1622).  The  Pentateuch  was  translated  into  German  by  L.  Dukes 
(Prague,  1833-38,  8vo) ;  Genesis  was  done  by  L.  Haymann  (Bonn, 
1833,  8vo).  Editions,  especially  of  the  Pentateuch,  are  very  numer- 
ous. Only  some  of  the  chief  can  here  be  named, — (a)  on  the  whole 
Bible,  with  the  sacred  text — Venice,  1545,  1595,  1607  (all  three  in 
4to)  ;  Cracow,  1610,  4to ;  Basel,  1618,  folio  ;  (b)  Pentateuch  with 
text  (all  sm.  folio)  —  Bologna,  1482;  Ixar,  1490;  Lisbon  and 
Naples,  1491  ;  (c)  Pentateuch  without  text — Reggio,  1475,  folio 
(the  first  Hebrew  book  printed  with  date);  s.  I.  eta.,  but  before  1480, 
4to  ;  Soncino,  1487,  folio.  MSS.  of  Rashi  on  the  whole  Bible  are 
very  rare,  and  even  those  which  are  supposed  to  be  such  turn  out, 
on  examination,  to  be  either  incomplete  or  defective,  or  both.  There 
lies  a  precious  MS.  in  Leyden  (1  Seal.)  ;  but  it  is  a  trifle  defective 
in  Exodus.  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  possesses  a  still  more 
ancient  and  precious  MS.  (A.  3;  dated  1239)  ;  but  it  lacks  the  Penta- 
teuch and  Ezra(-Nehemiah),  and  is  defective  in  the  end  (though, 
it  is  true,  only  in  Chronicles,  which  is  not  Rashi's,  as  mentioned 
before).  But  MSS.  of  Rashi  on  the  Pentateuch,  both  old  and  good, 
abound.  There  are  few  libraries  in  Europe  that  have  not  one  or 
two  of  this  commentary.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  therefore,  that  Dr  A. 
Berliner,  who  has  already  edited  critically  Rashi  on  the  Pentateuch 
(Berlin,  1866,  8vo),  although  not  on  the  faith  of  a  sufficient  number 
of  MSS. ,  will  soon  issue  a  second  and  superior  edition. 

B.  Commentary  on  the.  Babylonian  Talmud,  DIEJ'Ip.3 — Rashi 
had  not  been  dead  a  hundred  years  when  it  was  felt  in  the  learned 
world  that  no  such  master  in  the  Talmud  had  ever  existed  before 
him,  and  that  without  his  aid  and  especially  his  corrections  of  the 
text  (then  only  embodied  in  his  commentary),  the  sea  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud  could  not  safely  be  sailed  on.  He  became  now  the 
teacher  even  of  the  Jews  in  the  East.  He  commented  on  the  whole 
of  the  Talmud  to  which  Gemara  is  attached  (see  MISHNAH),  except 
on  Nedarim  from  leaf  22b  to  the  end,  Nazir  and  Tamid  from  begin- 
ning to  end,  Baba  Bathra  from  29a  to  the  end,  and  Makkoth  from 
leaf  19b4  to  the  end.  In  commenting  on  the  two  last-named 

1  The  supplement  to  the  former  is  generally  ascribed  to  R.  Ya'akob 
Nazir  ;  its  relation  to  the  author  of  the  MS.  commentary  on  Job  (Camb. 
Univ.  Lib. ,  Del.  8.  53)  has  still  to  be  worked  out.     The  commentary 
on  Chronicles  in  which  Rashi  is  three  times  cited  by  name  (2  Chron. 
iii.  15,  xxii.  11,  and  xxiii.  14)  is  the  work  of  a  German  rabbi  residing 
in  Provence. 

2  See  J.  H.  Maius,  Vita  Reuchlini,  1687,  Prsef.     The  thanks  of  the 
present  writer  are  due  to  the  curators  and  librarian  of  the  Bodleian  for 
the  loan  of  this  book. 

3  On  this  word  see  Schiller-Szinessy,  Catalogue,  i.  p.  181,  note. 

4  His  disciple,   son-in-law,   and  continuator  Rabbenu  Yehudah  b. 
Nathan  writes  :    "  At  the  word  '  tahor  '  (pure)  the  soul  of  our  teacher 
went  out  in  purity." 


massekhtoth  death  surprised  him.  Rashi  on  the  Talmud  has  never 
been  printed  apart  from  the  text,  and  so  the  first  complete  edition 
is  that  contained  in  the  editio  princeps  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud 
(Venice,  1520-23,  folio).  Portions  had  come  out  before  with  parts 
of  the  Talmud  (Soncino,  1483,  and  elsewhere  later).  There  are  MSS. 
containing  Rashi  on  isolated  Talmudic  treatises  in  various  libraries  : 
the  Cambridge  University  Library  and  British  Museum  have  six 
each,  the  Bodleian  twelve,  the  Paris  National  Library  seven. 

C.  The  Religious  Decisions  (D'pDD)  given  by  Rashi  are  to  be  found 
in  various  works,  principally  in  the  so-called  Siddur  (i.  and  ii.)  and 
Happardes  (Warsaw,  1870,  folio) — called  Happardes  Haggadol  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  abridgment  by  R.  Shemuel  of  Bamberg 
(13th  century)  called  Likkute  Happardes  (Venice,  1519,  4to)  — a 
work  of  which  Rashi  himself  seems  to  have  laid  the  foundation, 
though  other  literature  on  other  subjects  is  now  mixed  up  with  it. 
Of  the  same  nature  are  "inm  ~I1DK  (kindly  lent  to  the  writer  by 
Dr  Merzbacher  of  Munich)  and  Haorah  (only  in  part  printed). 
Various  halakhoth,  &c.,  are  also  to  be  found  in  various  mahzorim 
(e.g.,  the  Cambridge  MS.  Add.  667,  leaves  153-156,  and  elsewhere), 
the  Shibbole  Halleket,  ii.  (by  R.  Sidkiyyahu  b.  Abraham  Harophe, 
Cambridge  MS.  Add.  653). 

D.  Poems  (D^tDVS). — Rashi  was  no  poet  by  profession  and  much 
less  by  genius ;  but  he  had  a  tenderly  feeling  heart,  and  saw  the 
horrors  of  the  first  crusade  ;  and  he  wrote  Selihoth  (propitiatory 
and  penitential  prayers),  which  are  by  no  means  without  their 
value.     One  is  embodied  in  the  additional  service  of  the  day  of 
atonement   and   begins  "  Tannoth  Saroth "  (Reshal's  Eesponsa,  § 
xxix. ),  and  several  more,  which  form  the  acrostic  Shelomoh  bar 
Yishak,  are  found  in  the  collection  of  the  Selihoth  of  the  Ash- 
kenazic  rite.     It  is  not  improbable  also  that  the  Aramaic  Reshuth 
iv.   to  the  Haphtarah  in  Targum  (introduction  to  the  prophetic 
portion  as  given  in  Yonathan  b.   'Uzz'iel's  Aramaic  paraphrase), 
which  is  to  be  found  in    the  Reuchlinian    Codex  (De  Lagarde, 
Prophetse  chaldaice,  Leipsic,   1872,  8vo,  leaf  492),  is  his.      It  is 
much  his  style,  and  the  acrostic  is  Shelomoh  (and  not  JiyDS?).     It 
is  also  very  probable  that  Reshuth  v.  is  his.     If  so,  he  must  have 
composed  it  when  very  young,  as  several  expressions  in  it  testify. 

E.  Le'azim  (D^y?). — In  his  commentaries  Rashi,  like  R.  Gershom 
before  him  and  others  after  him,  often  introduces  French  words 
(chiefly  verbs  and  nouns)  to  give  precision  to  his  explanations. 
Of  these  Le'azim  there  are  certainly  more  than  3000,  and  they  are 
most  valuable  to  the  student  of  old  French.    Unfortunately  copyists, 
notably  in  Italy,  and  printers  subsequently,  have  often  substituted 
their  own  vernacular  for  the  original  French  ;  there  are  now  even 
Russian  words  to  be  found  in  Rashi.      Four  hundred  years  ago 
explanations  of  some  of  these  Le'azim  and  of  those  of  Kimhi  were 
offered  by  the  author  of  Makre  Dardeke  (Naples,   1488).      Other 
contributions  have  followed  intermittingly  down  to  the  present 
time  (Brothers  Bondi  in  Or  Esther,  Dessau,  1812;  Dormitzer  and 
Landau  in  Marpe  Lashon,  Odessa,  1865,  12mo).     The  labours  of  M. 
Arsene  Darmsteter  promise  to  be  exhaustive,  and  are  based  on  ex- 
tensive collations,  see  Romania,  April  1872,  p.  146  sq. 

There  is  no  satisfactory  life  of  Rashi ;  most  recent  accounts  rest  on  a  Life  by 
Zunz  (1S22),  which  has  not  been  reprinted  in  his  collected  works.    (S.  M.  S.-  S.) 

RASHT  (also  Rascht,  Rescht,  Rashd,  and  Resht),  a 
town  in  northern  Persia,  situated  in  37°  18'  N.  lat.  and 
49°  37'  E.  long.,  capital  of  the  richly  wooded  maritime  pro- 
vince of  Gilan,  contains  from  15,000  to  20,000  inhabitants. 
Eastwick,  who  was  there  in  1861,  accepts  the  former 
estimate,  but  states  that  the  place  was  four  times  as  popu- 
lous before  the  plague  of  1831.  The  distance  from  Enzelli, 
on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian,  the  actual  port  of  dis- 
embarkation for  passengers  and  goods  from  Russia,  is  about 
16  miles,  of  which  12  (to  Pari  Bazaar)  are  accomplished 
in  an  open  boat,  the  last  part  by  river,  but  for  the  most 
part  over  a  widespread  brackish  lake  or  lagoon  (murddb), 
abounding  in  wild  fowl,  surrounded  by  reeds,  and  separated 
from  the  sea  by  a  narrow  belt  of  sand.  From  Pari  Bazaar 
to  Rasht  the  road,  piercing  through  forest  and  swamp, 
had  for  many  long  years  been  memorable  only  for  its 
puddles  and  pools,  its  ruts  and  ruggedness,  but  it  has  more 
recently  undergone  great  improvement.  As  for  the  town 
itself,  the  tiled  houses  in  the  streets,  and  the  lanes,  lined 
with  hedge  and  cottage,  in  the  environs,  impart  a  cheer- 
fulness to  the  locality  little  in  unison  with  the  sickly  and 
fever-stricken  faces  and  forms  of  the  inhabitants.  Yet  the 
beauty  and  hazel  eyes  of  the  children,  with  their  "  true 
English  pink  and  white  complexions"  noticed  by  Eastwick, 
are  not  significant  of  inherited  enervation. 

Rasht  is  the  residence  of  a  Russian  and  an  English 


286 


R  A  S  —  R  A  S 


consul,  and  the  seat  of  a  local  governor  nominated  by  the 
shah.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  silk  trade,  which  once 
flourished  so  greatly  in  Persia  as  to  show  an  annual  export 
of  nearly  a  million  and  a  half  pounds  in  weight,  valued  at 
£700,000.  In  1882,  however,  the  prevalence  of  disease 
among  the  silkworms  caused  many  of  the  peasants  of  Gilan 
to  abandon  the  culture  of  silk  in  favour  of  rice,  which 
became  largely  exported  to  Russia.  But  the  geographical 
position  of  Rasht  gives  it  a  world-wide  reputation  irre- 
spective of  trade.  If  the  roads  by  Trebizond,  Erzeroum, 
and  Tabriz  on  the  one  hand  and  by  Poti,  Tiflis,  and  Tabriz 
on  the  other  can  still  be  considered  the  two  "  commercial 
highways"  from  Europe  to  Persia,  the  line  of  land  and 
water  communication  by  Astrakhan  and  the  south-eastern 
shores  of  the  Caspian  has  a  good  claim  to  be  called  the 
true  modern  highway  for  travellers  and  diplomatists  moving 
in  the  same  direction. 

Rasht  was  visited  in  1739  by  "two  English  gentlemen  from 
Petersburg, "  whose  narrative,  published  three  years  later,  contains 
much  interesting  information  on  the  existing  relations  of  Gilan  with 
Russia.  It  is  noteworthy,  but  not  astonishing,  to  find  that  in 
those  days  the  shah  (Nadir  Kuli)  was  himself  "in  a  manner  the 
sole  merchant  or  trader  in  all  Persia."  In  1744  Jonas  Hanway 
came  there  also  ;  but  no  fuller  account  of  the  capital  of  Gilan  has 
perhaps  ever  been  recorded  than  that  of  Samuel  Gmelin  in  1771, 
when  Hidaiyat  Khan  ruled  the  province,  and  Karim  Khan  Zend 
was  sovereign  of  Persia.  Gmelin  was  received  with  extraordinary 
honours,  as  an  imperial  officer  of  Russia,  and  every  opportunity 
was  afforded  him  of  observing  the  country,  its  features  and  produce, 
and  of  acquainting  himself  with  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
inhabitants.  In  1882  a  concession  for  the  construction  of  a  railway 
from  Rasht  to  Teheran,  via  Kazvin,  was  granted  to  a  M.  Boital. 
It  is  probable  that  no  more  practical  effect  will  be  given  to  this 
scheme  than  to  that  of  Baron  de  Reuter  some  ten  years  before. 

See  A  Journey  throvgh  Russia  into  Persia  (London,  1742) ;  Histoire  des  Deccm- 
vertes,  vol.  ii.  (Lausanne,  1784);  Eastwick,  Three  Years'  Residence  in  Persia 
(1864) ;  Telegraph  and  Travel  (1874) ;  and  published  official  Reports  (1S82). 

RASK,  RASMUS  CHRISTIAN  (1787-1832),  an  eminent 
scholar  and  philologist,  was  born  at  Brandekilde  in  the 
Island  of  Fiinen  or  Fyen  in  Denmark  in  1787.  He 
studied  at  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  and  early  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  singular  talent  for  the  acquisition 
of  languages.  In  the  year  1 808  he  was  appointed  assistant 
keeper  of  the  university  library,  and  some  years  after 
wards  made  professor  of  literary  history.  In  1811  he 
published,  in  Danish,  his  Introduction  to  the  Grammar  of 
the  Icelandic  and  other  Ancient  Northern  Languages,  from 
printed  and  MS.  materials  which  had  been  accumulated 
by  his  predecessors  in  the  same  field  of  research.  The 
reputation  which  Rask  thus  acquired  recommended  him  to 
the  Arna-Magnaean  Institution,  by  which  he  was  employed 
as  editor  of  the  Icelandic  Lexicon  (1814)  of  Bjorn  Haldor- 
son,  which  had  long  remained  in  manuscript.  About  the 
same  time  Rask  paid  a  visit  to  Iceland,  where  he  remained 
from  1813  to  18i5,  and  made  himself  completely  master 
of  the  language  and  familiarized  himself  with  the  litera- 
ture, manners,  and  customs  of  the  natives.  To  the  interest 
with  which  they  inspired  him  may  probably  be  attributed 
the  establishment  at  Copenhagen,  early  in  1816,  of  the 
Icelandic  Literary  Society,  which  was  mainly  instituted' 
by  his  exertions,  and  of  which  he  was  the  first  president. 

In  October  1816  Rask  left  Denmark  on  a  literary 
expedition,  at  the  cost  of  the  king,  to  prosecute  inquiries 
into  the  languages  of  the  East,  and  collect  manuscripts 
for  the  university  library  at  Copenhagen.  He  proceeded 
first  to  Sweden,  where  he  remained  two  years,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  made  an  excursion  into  Finland,  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  the  language  of  that  country. 
Here  he  published,  in  Swedish,  his  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar 
in  1817.  In  1818  there  appeared  at  Copenhagen,  in 
Danish,  an  Essay  on  the  Origin  of  the  Ancient  Scandi- 
navian or  Icelandic  Tongue,  in  which  he  traced  the  affinity 
of  that  idiom  to  the  other  European  languages,  particu- 
larly to  the  Latin  and  the  Greek.  In  the  same  year  he 


brought  out  the  first  complete  editions  of  Snorro's  Edda 
and  Saemund's  Edda,  in  the  original  text,  along  with 
Swedish  translations  of  both  Eddas,  the  originals  and  the 
versions  occupying  each  two  volumes.  From  Stockholm 
he  went  in  1819  to  St  Petersburg,  where  he  wrote,  in 
German,  a  paper  on  "The  Languages  and  Literature  of 
Norway,  Iceland,  Sweden,  and  Finland,"  which  was  pub- 
lished in  the  sixth  number  of  the  Vienna  Jahrbw-lnr. 
From  Russia  he  proceeded  through  Tartary  into  Persia, 
and  resided  for  some  time  at  Tabriz,  Teheran,  Persepolis, 
and  Shiraz.  In  about  six  weeks  he  made  himself  suffi- 
ciently master  of  the  Persian  to  be  able  to  converse 
freely  in  that  language  with  the  natives.  In  1820  he 
embarked  at  Bushire  for  Bombay ;  and  during  his  residence 
in  the  latter  city  he  wrote,  in  English,  "  A  Dissertation  on 
the  Authenticity  of  the  Zend  Language  "  (Trans.  Lit.  Soc. 
of  Bombay,  vol.  iii.,  reprinted  with  corrections  and  addi- 
tions in  Trans.  R.  As.  Soc.}^  From  Bombay  he  proceeded 
through  India  to  Ceylon,  where  he  arrived  in  1822,  and 
soon  afterwards  wrote,  in  English,  "  A  Dissertation  respect- 
ing the  best  Method  of  expressing  the  Sounds  of  the 
Indian  Languages  in  European  Characters,"  which  was 
printed  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Literary  and  Agricultural 
Society  of  Colombo.  Rask  returned  to  Copenhagen  in  May 
1823,  bringing  with  him  a  considerable  number  of  Oriental 
manuscripts,  Persian,  Zend,  Pali,  Singalese,  and  others, 
which  now  enrich  the  collections  of  the  Danish  capital. 
He  died  at  Copenhagen  on  14th  November  1832. 

During  the  period  between  his  return  from  the  East  and  his 
death  Rask  published  in  his  native  language  a  Spanish  Grammar 
(1824),  a  Frisic  Grammar  (1825),  an  Essay  on  Danish  Orthography 
(1826),  a  Treatise  respecting  the  Ancient  Egyptian  Chronology  and 
an  Italian  Grammar  (1827),  and  the  Ancient  Jewish  Chronology 
previous  to  Moses  (1828).  He  likewise  edited  an  edition  of  Schneider's 
Danish  Grammar  for  the  use  of  Englishmen  (1830),  and  super- 
intended the  English  translation  of  his  valuable  Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar  by  Thorpe  (1830).  Rask's  services  to  comparative 
philology  were  very  great.  He  was  the  first  to  point  out  the  con- 
nexion between  the  ancient  Northern  and  Gothic  on  the  one  hand, 
and  of  the  Lithuanian,  Sclavonic,  Greek,  and  Latin  on  the  other, 
and  he  also  has  the  credit  of  being  the  real  discoverer  of  the  so- 
called  "  Grimm's  Law  "  for  the  transmutation  of  consonants  in  the 
transition  from  the  old  Indo-European  languages  to  Teutonic, 
although  he  only  compared  Teutonic  and  Greek,  Sanskrit  being  at 
the  time  unknown  to  him.  Rask's  facility  in  the  acquisition  of 
languages  was  extraordinary ;  in  1822  he  was  master  of  no  less 
than  twenty -five  languages  and  dialects,  and  is  stated  to  have 
studied  twice  as  many.  His  numerous  philological  manuscripts 
were  transferred  to  the  king's  library  at  Copenhagen.  Rask's 
Anglo-Saxon,  Danish,  and  Icelandic  Grammars  have  been  given 
to  the  English  public  by  Thorpe,  Repp,  and  Dasent  respectively. 

RASKOLNIKS.     See  RUSSIA. 

RASPBERRY.     See  HORTICULTURE,  vol.  xii.  p.  276. 

RASTATT,  or  RASTADT,  a  small  town  in  Baden,  is 
situated  on  the  Murg,  4  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Rhine  and  12  miles  south-west  of  Carlsruhe.  It 
is  a  fortress  of  great  strength,  commanding  the  passage 
through  the  Black  Forest.  The  only  notable  building  is 
the  old  palace  of  the  margraves  of  Baden,  a  large  Renais- 
sance edifice  in  red  sandstone,  now  partly  used  for  military 
purposes  and  containing  a  collection  of  pictures,  antiquities, 
and  trophies  from  the  Turkish  wars.  The  industry  of 
Rastatt  is  almost  confined  to  local  needs,  and  the  town 
may  be  said  to  live  on  the  garrison,  which  forms  nearly 
half  of  its  population  (1880)  of  12,356.  Two-thirds  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics. 

Previous  to  the  close  of  the  17th  century  Rastatt  was  a  place  of 
no  importance,  but  after  its  destruction  by  the  French  in  1689  it 
was  rebuilt  on  a  larger  scale  by  Margrave  Lewis,  the  well-known 
imperial  general  in  the  Turkish  wars,  and  became  the  residence  of 
the  margraves  of  Baden  down  to  1771.  In  1714  the  preliminary 
articles  of  the  peace  between  Austria  and  France,  ending  the  "War 
of  the  Spanish  Succession,  were  signed  here.  The  congress  of 
Rastatt  in  1797-99  had  for  its  object  the  re-arrangement  of  the 
man  of  Germany  by  providing  compensation  for  those  princes  who 
had  relinquished  to  France  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 


R  A  S  —  R  A  T 


287 


It  dispersed,  however,  without  result,  war  having  again  broken 
out  between  France  and  Austria.  As  the  French  plenipotentiaries 
were  leaving  the  town  they  were  waylaid  and  assassinated  by 
Hungarian  hussars.  The  object  and  instigators  of  this  deed  have 
remained  shrouded  in  mystery,  but  the  balance  of  evidence  seems 
to  indicate  that  the  Austrian  authorities  had  ordered  a  violent 
seizure  of  the  ambassadors'  papers,  to  avoid  damaging  disclosures 
with  regard  to  Austrian  designs  on  Bavaria,  and  that  the  soldiers 
had  simply  exceeded  their  instructions.  The  Baden  revolution  of 
1849  began  at  Rastatt  with  a  military  mutiny  and  ended  here  a 
few  months  later  with  the  capture  of  the  town  by  the  Prussians. 
Rastatt  is  now  a  fortress  of  the  German  empire. 

RASTELL,  the  name  of  two  early  English  printers. 

I.  JOHN  RASTELL  or  RASTALL,  printer  and  author,  was 
born  at  London  towards   the  end  of  the   15th  century. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  married  Elizabeth,  the 
sister  of  Sir  Thomas  More.    He  was  a  man  of  considerable 
learning  and,  although  not  bred  to  the  law  like  his  son, 
showed  his  devotion  to  legal  studies  by  his  writings.     He 
went  into  the  printing  business  about  the  year  1514,  and 
produced  Liber  assisarum,  with  a  preface  by  himself.     His 
first  dated  publication  was  Abbreviamentum  librorum  legum 
Anf/lorum  (1517).     He  also  printed  The   Wydow  Edyih 
(1525),  A  Dyaloge  of  Syr  Thomas  More  (1529),  and  a 
number  of  other  books.     The  last  dated  piece  from  his 
press  was  FabyVs  Ghoste  (1533),  a  poem.     He  lived  "at 
the  sygne  of  the  meremayd  at  Powlysgate."    John  Rastell, 
the  Jesuit,  who  has  been  frequently  confounded  with  him, 
was  no  relation.     By  his  will,  dated  20th  April  1536,  he 
appointed  Henry  VIII.  one  of  his  executors ;  administra- 
tion was  granted  on  the  renunciation  of  the  executorship 
by  the  king  on  18th  July  1536.    It  is  a  curious  document, 
and  contains  a  long  account  of  the  testator's  religious 
belief.     Rastell  was  occupied  upon  a  concordance  at  the 
time  of  his  death ;  its  publication  was  provided  for  by  the 
will  (see  Arber's  Registers  of  Comp.  of  Stationers,  ii.  8,  9). 
He  died  at  London,  leaving  two  sons, — William,  printer 
and  judge  (see  below),  and  John,  a  justice  of  the  peace. 

Rastell's  chief  writings  are  the  following.  The  Pastyme  of 
People  ;  the  Chronycles  of  dyuers  Realmys  and  most  specyally  of  the 
Rcalme  of  Englonde  (1529),  now  of  extreme  rarity  ;  a  note  in  the 
catalogue  of  the  British  Museum  says,  "the  only  perfect  copy 
known."  It  ranges  from  the  earliest  times  to  Richard  III.,  and 
was  edited  by  Dibdin  in  1811  for  the  quarto  series  of  English 
chronicles.  A  new  Boke  of  Purgatory,  1530,  being  dialogues  on 
the  subject  between  "Comyngo  au  Almayne  a  Christen  Man,  and 
one  Gyngemyn  a  Turke."  This  was  answered  by  John  Frith,  pro- 
ducing Rastell's  Apology  against  John  Fryth,  also  answered  by  the 
latter.  The  controversy  is  said  to  have  ended  in  Rastell's  con- 
version to  the  Reformed  religion.  Expositiones  terminorum  legum 
anglorum  (in  French,  also  translated  into  English,  1527  ;  reprinted 
as  recently  as  1812  as  Lcs  Termes  de  la  Ley).  The  Abbreviation 
of  Statutis  (1520),  the  first  abridgment  of  the  statutes  in  English, 
with  an  interesting  preface  by  Rastell,  giving  reasons  for  the  in- 
novation ;  down  to  1625  fifteen  editions  appeared. 

II.  WILLIAM  RASTELL  (c.  1 508-1 565),  printer  and  judge, 
son  of  the  above,  was  born  in  London  about  1508.     At 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  went  to  the  university  of  Oxford, 
but  did  not  take  a  degree,  being  probably  called  home  to 
superintend  his  father's  business.     The  first  work  which 
bears  his  own  imprint  was  A  Dyaloge  of  Sir  Thomas  More 
(1531),  a  reprint  of  the  edition  published  by  his  father  in 
1529.     He  also  brought  out  a  few  law  books,  some  poetry, 
an  edition  of  Fabyaris  Cronyde  (1533),  and  The  Apologye 
(1533)  and  The  Supplycacyon  of  Soulys  of  his  uncle  Sir 
Thomas  More.     His  office  was  "in  Fletestrete  in  saynt 
Brydys  chyrche  yarde."    He  became  a  student  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  on  12th  September  1532,  and  gave  up  the  printing 
business  two  years   later.      In   1547   he  was  appointed 
reader.     On  account  of  his  religion  he  left  England  for 
Louvain;  but  upon  the  accession  of  Mary  he  returned, 
and  was  made  sergeant-at-law  in  October  1555.     He  was 
one  of  the  seven  sergeants  who  gave  the  famous  feast  that 
year  in  the  Inner  Temple  Hall  (see  Dugdale's  Orig.  Jwrid., 
1680,  p.  128).     His  patent  as  judge  of  the  Queen's  Bench 


was  granted  on  27th  October  1558.  One  of  his  pre- 
decessors, John  Boteler,  had  also  been  printer  and  judge. 
Rastell  continued  on  the  bench  until  1562,  when  he  retired 
to  Louvain  without  the  queen's  licence.  By  virtue  of  a 
special  commission  issued  by  the  barons  of  the  Exchequer 
on  the  occasion  an  inventory  of  his  goods  and  chattels  was 
taken.  It  furnishes  an  excellent  idea  of  the  modest  nature 
of  the  law  library  (consisting  of  twenty-four  works)  and  of 
the  chambers  of  an  Elizabethan  judge  (see  Law  Magazine, 
February  1844).  He  died  at  Louvain  on  27th  August  1565. 

It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  books  written  by  him 
and  those  by  his  father.  The  following  are  believed  to  be  his  :  A 
Collection  of  all  the  Statutes  (1557),  A  Table  collected  of  the  Yeares  of 
the  Kynges  of  Englande  (1561),  both  frequently  reprinted  with  con- 
tinuations, and  A  Collection  of  Entrees,  of  Declarations,  &c.  (1566), 
also  frequently  reprinted.  The  entries  are  not  of  Rastell's  own 
drawing,  but  have  been  selected  from  printed  and  MS.  collections  ; 
their  "  pointed  brevity  and  precision  "  are  commended  by  Story. 
He  supplied  tables  or  indexes  to  several  law  books,  and  edited  La 
novel  natura  brevium  de  Monsieur  Anton.  Fitzherbert-  and  The 
Worlces  of  Sir  T.  More  in  the  English  Tonge  (1557).  He  is  also 
stated  to  have  written  a  life  of  Sir  T.  More,  but  it  has  not  come 
down  to  us. 

See  Bale,  Scriptores  maioris  Brytannise,  1557-59  ;  Pits,  Relationes  hist,  de  rebus 
Angl.,  1619;  Tanner,  Bibliotheca,  1748;  Ames,  Typogr.  Antiq.,  by  Dibdin,  1816, 
iii.  pp.  81,  370  ;  Wood,  Athena  Oxonienses,  1813,  i.  pp.  100,  343  ;  Dodd,  Church 
History,  1739,  ii.  p.  149;  Foss,  Biographia  Juridica,  1870;  Reeves,  History  of  the 
Engl.  Law,  1869,  iii.  p.  432  ;  Marvin,  Legal  Bibliography,  1847  ;  Clarke,  Biblio- 
theca Legum,  1819;  Bridgman,  Legal  Bibliography,  1807;  Catalogue  of  Books  in 
the  British  Museum  before  16UO,  1884. 

RASTRICK,  an  urban  sanitary  district  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated  on  an  acclivity  near  the 
Calder,  and  on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway  5 
miles  south-east  of  Halifax  and  3|  north  of  Huddersfield. 
It  possesses  woollen  and  silk  manufactures,  and  there  are 
stone  quarries  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  ancient  chapel 
of  St  Matthew  was  replaced  in  1798  by  a  church  in  the 
Grecian  style,  which  was  restored  in  1879.  A  school  was 
founded  in  1701  by  Mrs  Mary  Law,  who  also  endowed  a 
charity  for  poor  widows.  The  population  of  the  urban 
sanitary  district  (area,  1371  acres)  in  1871  was  5896,  and 
in  1881  it  was  8039. 

RAT.  Under  the  article  MOUSE  (vol.  xvii.  p.  5)  an 
account  has  been  already  given  of  the  relationships  and 
chief  allies  of  the  animals  known  as  rats,  and  the  present 
article  is  confined  to  the  two  species  to  which  the  name 
rat  is  most  strictly  applicable.  These  are  the  so-called 
old  English  black  rat,  Mus  rattus,  and  the  common  brown 
or  Norway  rat,  M.  decumanus.  The  first  of  these  is  a  com- 
paratively small 
and  lightly  built 
animal,  seldom 
exceeding  about 
7  inches  in  length, 
with  a  slender 
head,  large  ears 
(see  fig.,  A),  and 
a  long  thin  scaly 
tail  about  8  or  9 
inches  in  length. 
Its  colour  is,  at 
least  in  all  tem- 
perate climates,  a 
peculiar  shining 
bluish  black, 
rather  lighter  on 
the  belly,  the 
ears,  feet,  and 
tail  being  also 


A. 
B- 


Black  Rat  (Mus  rattus). 
Brown  Rat  (M.  decmnanus). 

black  ;  but  in  tropical  regions  it  is  represented  by  a  grey 
or  rufous  -backed  and  white  -bellied  race  to  which  the 
name  of  Alexandrian  rat  (M.  alexandrinus)  has  been 
applied,  owing  to  its  having  been  first  discovered  at 
Alexandria,  but  which  cannot  be  considered  to  be  really 
specifically  distinct  from  the  true  black  rat.  Its  disposi- 


R  A  T  — R  A  T 


tion  is  milder  and  more  tamable  than  that  of  M.  decu- 
manus,  and  it  is  therefore  the  species  to  which  the  tame 
white  and  pied  rats  kept  as  pets  commonly  belong.  It  is 
said  that  in  some  parts  of  Germany  M.  rattus  has  been 
lately  reasserting  itself  and  increasing  at  the  expense  of 
.]/.  decumanus,  but  this  seems  very  unlikely  from  the  pre- 
vious history  of  the  two  animals  (compare  MOUSE,  vol. 
xvii.  p.  5). 

The  brown  or  Norway  rat,  M.  decumamis,  is  a  heavily 
built  animal,  growing  to  8  or  9  inches  in  length,  with  a 
bluff  rounded  head,  small  ears  (see  fig.,  B),  and  a  com- 
paratively short  tail, — always  shorter  than  the  head  and 
body  combined,  and  generally  not  longer  than  the  body 
alone.  Its  colour  is  a  uniform  greyish  brown  above,  and 
white  below,  the  ears,  feet,  and  tail  being  flesh-coloured ; 
melanistic  varieties  are  by  no  means  rare,  and  these  are 
often  mistaken  for  true  black  rats,  but  the  differences  in 
size  and  proportions  form  a  ready  means  of  distinguishing 
the  two.  The  brown  rat  is  believed  to  be  a  native  of 
western  China,  where  a  wild  race  has  been  recently  dis- 
covered so  like  it  as  to  be  practically  indistinguishable. 
The  two  species  agree  fully  in  their  predaceous  habits, 
omnivorous  diet,  and  great  fecundity.  They  bear  four 
or  five  times  in  the  year  from  four  to  ten  blind  and  naked 
young,  which  are  in  their  turn  able  to  breed  at  an  age  of 
about  six  months.  The  time  of  gestation  is  about  twenty 
days.  (o.  T.) 

RATAFIA  is  a  term  applied  to  a  flavouring  essence, 
the  basis  of  which  is  the  essential  oil  of  bitter  almonds. 
Peach  kernels  are  properly  the  source  of  ratafia,  but  any 
of  the  other  substances  yielding  bitter  almond  oil  is  used. 
The  name  "  ratafia  "  is  also  applied  in  France  to  a  variety 
of  liquors,  and  from  Dantzic  a  special  liqueur  is  sent  out 
under  the  name  of  "  ratafia  "  (see  vol.  xiv.  p.  686). 

RATEL.  The  animals  known  as  Ratels  or  Honey- 
badgers  are  small  clumsy-looking  creatures  of  about  the 
size  and  appearance  of  the  true  badgers,  and  belong  to  the 
same  natural  group  of  the  Camivora,  namely,  the  subfamily 
Melimz  of  the  large  family  Mustelidx,  which  contains  the 
otters,  badgers,  stoats,  weasels,  &c.  (see  MAMMALIA,  vol. 
xv.  p.  440).  Of  the  ratels  two  species  are  generally 
recognized,  viz.,  the  Indian  Ratel  (Mellivora  indica),  a 


African  Ratel  (Mdliwra  ratel). 

native  of  all  the  peninsula  of  India,  and  the  African  (M. 
ratel),  which  ranges  over  the  whole  of  the  African  continent 
— although  by  some  authors  the  West  African  race  is  con- 
sidered to  represent  a  third  distinct  species,  which  has 


been  named  3f.  leuconota.  All  the  ratels  are  of  very  much 
the  same  colour,  namely,  iron-grey  on  the  upper  parts  of 
the  head,  body,  and  tail,  and  black  below,  a  style  of  colora- 
tion rather  rare  among  mammals,  as  the  upper  side  of  the 
body  is  in  the  great  majority  darker  than  the  lower.  Their 
body  is  stout  and  thickly  built ;  the  legs  are  short  and 
strong,  and  armed,  especially  on  the  anterior  pair,  with 
long  curved  fossorial  claws ;  the  tail  is  short ;  and  the 
ear-conches  are  reduced  to  mere  rudiments.  These  modi- 
fications are  all  in  relation  to  a  burrowing  mode  of  life, 
for  which  the  ratels  are  among  the  best  adapted  of  all 
carnivores.  The  skull  is  conical,  stout,  and  heavy,  and 
the  teeth,  although  sharper  and  less  rounded  than  those 
of  their  allies  the  badgers,  are  yet  far  less  suited  to  a  purely 
carnivorous  diet  than  those  of  such  typical  Mustelidx  as 
the  stoats,  weasels,  and  martens.  The  two  species  of 
ratel  may  be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  African 
has  a  distinct  white  line  round  the  body  at  the  junction  of 
the  grey  of  the  upper  side  with  the  black  of  the  lower, 
while  in  the  Indian  this  line  is  absent ;  the  teeth  also  of 
the  former  are  on  the  whole  decidedly  larger,  rounder,  and 
heavier  than  those  of  the  latter.  In  spite  of  these  dif- 
ferences, however,  the  two  ratels  are  so  nearly  allied  that 
they  might  almost  be  considered  to  be  merely  geographical 
races  of  a  single  widely  spread  species. 

The  following  account  of  the  Indian  ratel  is  extracted  from  Dr 
Judson's  Mammals  of  India: — "The  Indian  badger  is  found 
throughout  the  whole  of  India,  from  the  extreme  south  to  the  foot 
of  the  Himalayas,  chiefly  in  hilly  districts,  where  it  lias  greater 
facilities  for  constructing  the  holes  and  dens  in  which  it  lives  ;  but 
also  in  the  north  of  India  in  alluvial  plains,  where  the  banks  of 
large  rivers  afford  equally  suitable  localities  wherein  to  make  its 
lair.  It  is  stated  to  live  usually  in  pairs,  and  to  eat  rats,  birds, 
frogs,  white  ants,  and  various  insects,  and  in  the  north  of  India  it 
is  accused  of  digging  out  dead  bodies,  and  is  popularly  known  as 
the  grave-digger.  It  doubtless  also,  like  its  Cape  congener,  occa- 
sionally partakes  of  honey.  It  is  often  very  destructive  to  poultry, 
and  I  have  known  of  several  having  been  trapped  and  killed  whilst 
committing  such  depredations  in  Central  India  and  in  the  northern 
Circars.  In  confinement  the  Indian  badger  is  quiet  and  will  par- 
take of  vegetable  food,  fruits,  rice,  &c."  '  (0.  T. ) 

RATHENOW,  a  small  town  of  Prussia  in  the  province 
of  Brandenburg,  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Havel, 
44  miles  to  the  west  of  Berlin.  It  is  known  for  its 
"  Rathenow  stones,"  i.e.,  bricks  made  of  the  clay  of  the 
Havel,  and  for  its  spectacles  and  optical  instruments, 
which  are  exported  to  various  parts  of  the  world.  It 
contains  no  buildings  of  note.  The  population  in  1880 
was  11,394,  including  174  Roman  Catholics  and  68  Jews. 

Rathenow  has  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  a  town  since  1217. 
In  1394  it  was  taken  and  partly  destroyed  by  the  archbishop  of 
Magdeburg.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  was  repeatedly 
occupied  by  the  opposing  troops,  and  in  1675  it  was  cleverly 
snatched  from  the  Swedish  garrison  by  the  Great  Elector. 

RATIBOR  (Polish  Raciborz),  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia 
in  the  department  of  Oppeln,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Oder  at  the  point  where  the  river  becomes 
navigable,  about  12  miles  from  the  Austrian  frontier. 
The  most  prominent  buildings  are  the  handsome  court- 
house by  Schinkel  and  the  Modern  Gothic  church ;  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Oder  is  the  old  chateau  of  the  dukes 
of  Ratibor.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  a  diversified  industry, 
the  chief  products  of  which  are  machinery  and  railway 
gear,  iron  wares,  tobacco  and  cigars,  paper,  sugar,  furni- 
ture, and  glass.  Trade  is  carried  on  in  these  articles  and 
in  agricultural  produce,  and  hemp  and  vegetables  are 
largely  grown  in  the  environs.  The  population  in  1880 
was  18,373,  or,  including  the  immediately  adjacent  villages, 
27,100,  five-sixths  of  whom  are  Roman  Catholics.  In 
the  town  itself,  where  there  are  only  about  2500  Poles, 
German  is  chiefly  spoken,  but  Polish  and  Czechish  dialects 
are  predominant  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Ratibor,  which  received  municipal  privileges  at  the  close  of  tlie 
13th  century,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  an  independent  duchy, 


R  A  T  — R  A  T 


289 


380  square  miles  in  extent,  which  existed  as  such  from  1288  to 
1532  and  afterwards  passed  successively  into  the  hands  of  Austria 
and  Prussia  (1742).  In  1815  a  small  mediate  principality  was 
formed  out  of  the  old  lordship  of  Ratibor  and  certain  ecclesiastical 
domains,  and  was  conferred  upon  the  landgrave  Amadeus  of  Hessen- 
Rothenburg  as  compensation  for  Rhenish  territory  absorbed  by 
Prussia.  The  title  of  "  duke  of  Ratibor  "  was  revived  for  his  suc- 
cessor in  1840. 

EATIONALISM.  In  modern  usage  the  term  "  rational- 
ism "  is  employed  almost  exclusively  to  denote  a  theological 
tendency,  method,  or  system,  and  is  then  applied  in  a 
narrower  and  a  wider  sense.  In  its  wider  sense,  which  is 
most  common  in  English  theological  literature,  it  is  the 
name  of  that  mode  of  thought  generally  which  finds  the 
final  test  of  religious  truth  in  the  human  understanding, 
conscience,  or  reason,  and  particularly  in  the  understanding. 
In  its  narrower  sense,  which  is  almost  the  only  sense  it 
bears  in  Germany,  it  denotes  a  definite  school,  or  rather 
phase  of  theological  thought,  and  a  phase  of  thought  which 
has  now  been  outlived.  It  is  with  rationalism  in  this 
limited  sense  and  as  a  tendency  of  German  theological 
thought  that  this  article  deals.  Rationalism  had  as  its 
antitheses  on  the  one  hand  supernaturalism,  and  on  the 
other  naturalism  or  simple  deism.  The  matter  of  the 
contention  between  the  rationalists  and  these  two  classes 
of  opponents  was  supernatural  revelation — its  necessity, 
its  existence,  its  possibility.  The  naturalists  denied  revela- 
tion altogether ;  the  supernaturalists  maintained  the  fact 
of  a  supernatural  revelation,  possessing  an  authority  above 
"reason,"  though  capable  of  being  proved  by  "reason." 
The  rationalists  did  not  deny  the  fact  of  a  revelation, 
though  in  the  end  they  ignored  it  and  claimed  the  right  to 
submit  every  supposed  revelation  to  the  judgment  of  the 
"  reason  "  or  the  moral  sense.  The  rationalists  themselves 
are,  however,  divided  by  some  German  writers  into  two 
classes — relative  and  absolute — those  who  hold  that  the 
matter  of  revelation  is  identical  with  the  truths  of  reason, 
but  admit  that  of  necessity,  or  as  a  matter  of  fact,  re- 
velation anticipated  reason,  and  those  who  really  call  in 
question  the  fact  of  a  revelation,  without  going  quite  the 
length  of  the  naturalists  in  the  rejection  of  Christianity. 
Kant  drew  a  distinction  between  the  "rationalist"  and 
the  "  pure  rationalist,"  defining  the  former  as  one  who 
maintains  that  natural  religion  alone  is  essential,  and 
the  latter  as  one  who  admits  the  fact  of  a  supernatural 
revelation  but  denies  that  it  is  a  part  of  religion  to  know 
and  accept  it. 

German  rationalism  was  a  specific  theological  form  of 
the  general  intellectual  movement  of  the  last  century 
known  as  "  illuminism  "  or  Aufklarung;  but,  while  the  illu- 
minati  generally  ended  in  rejecting  Christianity,  the  ration- 
alists retained  and  defended  it  in  a  form  approved  by  the 
logical  understanding  or  the  moral  sense.  While  ration- 
alism, as  a  child  of  the  general  intellectual  movement  of 
the  age  in  which  it  appeared,  owed  much  to  the  philosophy, 
science,  and  humanism  of  the  intellectual  life  of  Europe, 
as  a  specially  theological  tendency  it  was  powerfully  influ- 
enced by  English  deistical  writings.  Both  Lechler  and 
Ritschl  assign  to  these  writings  a  great  immediate  effect 
on  the  development  of  German  rationalism.  Of  German 
thinkers  it  was  especially  the  philosopher  Wolff — who 
threw  into  a  compact  and  systematic  form,  suited  for  Ger- 
man students,  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz — who  initiated 
German  theologians  into  the  rationalistic  habit  and  method, 
though  Wolff  himself  was  a  supernaturalist.  The  condition 
of  the  German  church  and  the  state  of  theology  also  con- 
tributed to  the  creation  of  rationalism.  The  hard  intellect- 
ual orthodoxy  of  Lutheranism  had  already  done  its  part 
towards  producing  the  pietistic  movement,  and,  while 
pietism  helped  to  free  men's  minds  from  bondage  to  the 
Lutheran  creeds  and  once  more  directed  attention  to  the 


Bible,  the  cold  intellectual  habit  of  orthodoxy  nurtured  the 
same  habit  of  rationalism  while  it  failed  to  satisfy  it,  and 
so  created  a  reaction  against  itself.  Thus  both  orthodoxy 
and  pietism  were  agents  in  calling  forth  rationalism,  which 
was  to  prove  the  most  dangerous  opponent  to  both.  More 
than  one  of  the  foremost  rationalists  had  passed  through 
the  school  of  pietism. 

Regarding  rationalism  as  the  opponent  of  supernatural- 
ism  and  naturalism,  and  as  an  opponent  which  appealed  in 
the  conflict  almost  exclusively  to  either  the  logical  under- 
standing or  the  moral  sense  as  the  criterion  of  religious 
truth,  it  may  be  said  to  have  existed  in  Germany  for  nearly 
a  century  (c.  1740-1836),  and  to  have  flourished  about 
half  that  length  of  time  (c.  1760-1810),— that  is,  it  took 
its  rise  simultaneously  with  the  publication  of  Wolffs  writ- 
ings (1736-50)  and  the  translation  into  German  of  the 
works  of  the  English  deists  (Tindal's  Christianity  as  Old  as 
the  Creation  was  translated  in  1741),  displayed  its  greatest 
strength  in  Semler's  critical  works  (1760-73)  and  in  Kant's 
philosophy  (1781-93),  began  then  to  decline  gradually 
under  the  influence  of  the  works  of  Herder,  Jacobi,  Fichte 
(in  his  later  period),  and  Hegel,  and  at  last  died  out  when 
Schleiermacher  especially,  in  the  department  of  theology 
proper,  and  Baur  and  Strauss,  amongst  others,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Biblical  criticism,  had  given  currency  to  ideas 
and  issues  which  rendered  its  main  contentions  objectless 
and  its  criteria  of  religious  truth  invalid. 

The  English  deists,  the  German  illuminati,  and  the 
French  philosophers  had  before  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  with  a  vast  array  of  argument,  called  in  question 
the  idea  of  a  supernatural  revelation,  and  had  seriously 
attacked  the  supernatural  origin  of  the  Hebrew  and  Chris- 
tian Scriptures.  Christian  Wolff  undertook  the  defence, 
and  claimed  to  have  demonstrated  the  supernatural  reve- 
lation of  the  Bible.  He  made  the  old  distinction  between 
natural  and  revealed  religion  of  fundamental  importance, 
and  maintained  that  demonstrable  truths  alone  can  be  re- 
garded as  part  of  natural  religion.  Revealed  religion  he 
drew  solely  from  the  Scriptures,  and  sought  to  prove  by  a 
chain  of  reasoning  and  historical  evidence  their  divine  ori- 
gin. Thus  in  reality  the  intellect  alone  was  constituted  the 
faculty  for  ultimately  determining  the  truth  of  revelation 
as  well  as  for  constructing  a  natural  religion.  The  general 
adoption  of  the  distinction  between  natural  and  revealed 
religion,  of  the  appeal  to  logical  and  historical  evidence 
and  argument  for  proof  of  the  truths  of  both,  and  of  the 
supposition  that  the  truths  of  natural  religion  could  be 
demonstrated  while  those  of  revealed  religion  were  above, 
if  not  contrary  to  reason,  and  rested  solely  on  the  authority 
of  Scripture,  naturally  divided  theologians  into  two  hostile 
camps,  and  proved,  contrary  to  Wolffs  expectations,  more 
favourable  to  the  naturalists  and  rationalists  than  to  the 
supernaturalists.  If  it  was  admitted  by  all  that  the 
appeal  in  the  contention  was  to  be  to  the  understanding, 
and  the  religious  nature  and  higher  reason  were  left  out 
of  account,  and  if,  moreover,  the  truths  of  natural  religion 
— God,  duty,  immortality — were  supposed  by  all  to  be  de- 
monstrable, supernatural  revelation  was  certain  in  that  age 
to  be  put  to  great  disadvantage.  The  result  of  Wolffs 
philosophy  was  a  natural  theology,  a  utilitarian  system  of 
morals,  without  any  religious  fervour  or  Christian  pro- 
fundity. Wolffs  philosophy  thus  inaugurated  in  Germany 
a  theological  period  corresponding,  in  its  way,  with  the 
period  in  England  between  1688  and  1750,  when  "Chris- 
tianity appeared  to  be  made  for  nothing  but  to  be  'proved,' " 
and  the  only  test  to  be  applied  was  "  reason,"  which  was 
simply  the  philosophy  in  vogue.  In  both  cases  religion 
was  regarded  as  substantially  a  set  of  doctrines,  revelation 
as  the  publication  of  them,  and  God  as  teaching  them  after 
the  most  anthropomorphic  manner.  No  profound  concep- 

XX.  —  37 


290 


RATIONALISM 


tion  had  been  formed  of  either  religion  or  revelation,  and 
none  at  all  of  their  relation  to  each  other,  while  the  idea 
of  God  was  simply  that  of  the  deists. 

It  was  in  the  application  of  its  principles  and  method 
(thus  brought  into  vogue)  to  Biblical  studies  that  rational- 
ism won  its  greatest  triumphs,  and  really  accomplished  its 
greatest  measure  of  good  work.  Johann  Salomo  Semler 
(1725-1791),  the  father  of  modern  Biblical  criticism,  as 
the  Germans  call  him,  was  the  greatest  representative  of 
the  school  in  this  department.  A  pietist  by  education, 
with  something  of  Gottfried  Arnold's  liking  for  heretics 
and  all  his  dislike  of  ecclesiasticism,  but  with  none  of 
Arnold's  mysticism,  a  man  of  immense  learning,  without 
any  clear  and  systematic  management  of  it,  he  was  the 
first  German  to  apply  the  strict  principles  of  historical 
criticism,  in  conjunction  with  the  rationalistic  truths  and 
errors  of  his  day,  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  ecclesi- 
astical history,  particularly  the  history  of  doctrines.  He 
assailed  with  all  the  wealth  of  his  learning  the  traditional 
view  of  the  limits  and  authority  of  the  Biblical  canon 
especially,  and  having,  as  he  held,  demonstrated  its  human 
origin  and  fallibility,  he  proceeded  to  deal  freely  with  the 
books  composing  it,  as  sharing  the  failings  common  to 
everything  human.  He  found  the  Scriptures  pervaded 
with  "  local  ideas,"  and  his  Christianity  was  really  limited 
to  the  "  natural  religion "  of  the  deists  and  the  moral 
truths  taught  by  Christ.  As  a  man  who  had  been  under 
a  pietistic  training,  he  was,  it  is  true,  unwilling  to  refer  to 
the  understanding  alone  for  evidence  of  the  truths  of 
Christianity,  but  his  enlargement  of  the  test  is  confined 
to  the  admission  of  an  appeal  to  the  measure  of  virtue  and 
happiness  produced.  By  this  extended  test  he  tries  the 
matter  of  the  Scriptures,  assigning  to  his  category  of  local 
ideas  "  whatever  is  not  adapted  to  make  men  wise  unto 
their  true  advantage."  The  supernatural  origin  of  the 
Scriptures  as  writings  and  most  of  the  miracles  recorded 
in  them  he  rejected ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  was  a 
vigorous  opponent  of  the  adversaries  of  Christianity  and 
of  the  naturalists  who  denied  revelation  altogether, — Keim- 
arus,  for  instance,  the  author  of  the  Wolfenbiittel  Frag- 
mente.  Other  decided  rationalists  contemporaneous  with 
Semler  were  Teller  (1734-1804),  Eberhard  (1739-1809), 
and  Steinbart  (1738-1809),  who  all  agreed  in  confounding 
religion  with  morality,  and  in  reducing  Christianity  to  a 
popularization  of  utilitarian  morals. 

Meanwhile  the  profounder  spirits  of  the  nation — Lessing, 
Herder,  Hamann,  and  others — were  conceiving  truer  ideas 
of  the  nature  of  religion,  of  the  human  conditions  of  revela- 
tion, and  of  the  character  of  the  Bible  and  the  mission  of 
Christianity.  It  was,  however,  Kant  who  produced  the 
greatest  immediate  effect  on  the  history  of  rationalism. 
Himself  a  rationalist,  regarding  religion  only  as  a  form  of 
morality,  and  revelation  as  at  most  a  possible  aid  to  the 
earlier  propagation  of  moral  principles,  he  nevertheless 
started  doubts  and  ideas  which  sealed  the  doom  of  rational- 
ism in  its  first  shallow  form.  There  was  an  end  of  the 
demonstrable  natural  religion  of  Wolff  when  once  Kant's 
criticism  of  the  proofs  of  the  existence  of  God  and  of  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  met  with  even  partial  acceptance. 
The  breath  of  lofty  mysticism  which  inspired  his  grand 
ethical  system  was  also  fatal  to  the  cold  shallow  reasoning 
and  commonplace  utilitarianism  of  previous  rationalists. 
Yet,  though  Kant  proclaimed  principles  which  compelled 
rationalism  to  assume  other  positions,  and  which  really 
contained  within  them  the  seeds  of  its  destruction,  he  re- 
mained himself  a  rationalist,  for  the  reason  especially  that 
he  never  advanced  to  a  profound  conception  of  the  nature 
of  either  religion  or  revelation  and  the  conditions  and 
relations  of  both.  His  fruitful  idea  of  the  relation  of 
revelation  to  a  community  rather  than  to  an  individual 


he  was  unable  to  apply  properly  to  the  revelation  contain? 
in  the  Bible.  Though  his  morality  was  something  infinitely 
beyond  18th-century  utilitarianism,  it  still  constituted  for 
him  religion,  and  the  only  test  he  applied  to  a  professed 
revelation  was  that  it  must  contain  the  purest  moral  teach- 
ing. Fichte,  accepting  Kant's  ethical  principles,  taught 
that  a  revelation — that  is,  proclamation  of  God  as  the 
moral  lawgiver  of  the  world — might  be  a  necessity  in  the 
case  of  a  degeneration  of  mankind  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  idea  of  goodness  should  be  lost.  On  the  other  hand, 
Fries  and  Jacobi  took  up  the  position  of  Kant  regardiiiLf 
the  limitations  of  human  knoivledge  of  religious  truth,  and 
still  further  prepared  for  the  advance  beyond  rationalism 
by  claiming  for  man  a  special  religious  faculty,  under  the 
names  of  faith,  feeling,  or  a  sense  of  the  infinite.  Fichte, 
in  his  later  period,  made  an  advance  in  the  same  direction, 
abandoning  the  abstract  ethical  position  of  Kant  by  an 
appeal  to  love  as  the  supreme  principle  in  God  and  man. 
He  thus  reached  a  position  more  suited  for  the  apprehen- 
sion of  the  nature  of  religion,  and  he  recognized  in  the 
workings  of  genius — with  its  incomprehensible  light  and 
movements — manifestations  analogous  to  the  phenomena 
of  revelation.  Meantime,  the  rationalists  amongst  theo- 
logians continued  their  work  of  reducing  the  Bible,  with 
its  history,  miracles,  and  doctrines,  by  one  means  or 
another,  into  harmony  with  their  notions  of  a  rational  and 
useful  moral  revelation,  though  for  the  most  part  they  did 
not  acknowledge  the  claims  of  the  Old  Testament  to  be 
considered  a  revelation  at  all,  or  at  most  a  revelation  for 
the  childhood  of  the  race.  The  accounts  of  miracles  in  the 
Bible  were  either  denied  or  explained  away  as  natural 
occurrences,  or  as  poetical  and  Oriental  phraseology,  while 
the  doctrines  of  the  Bible  and  the  creeds  were  diluted  into 
religious  or  moral  commonplaces.  As  representative  Bibli- 
cal scholars  of  this  class  J.  G.  Eichhorn  (1752-1827)  and 
H.  E.  G.  Paulus  may  be  mentioned,  as  representative 
theologians  Henke  (1752-1809),  Wegscheider  (1771-1849), 
and  Rohr  (1752-1848). 

But  early  in  the  new  century  the  triumph  of  a  profounder 
philosophy  of  religion  and  of  a  worthier  treatment  of  re- 
ligious systems  and  the  records  of  revelation  began  rapidly 
to  make  itself  felt.  Schleiermacher  once  more  carried 
religion  from  the  confined  and  frigid  regions  of  the  under- 
standing and  the  distant  heights  of  abstract  morals  into 
the  vaster  and  yet  nearer,  warmer  and  yet  clearer,  world 
of  feeling.  Following  Herder,  he  annihilated  the  rational- 
istic distinction  between  natural  and  revealed  religion  by 
claiming  revelation  for  all  religion  and  religions,  and  he 
mediated  in  the  fruitless  contention  of  rationalism  versus 
supernaturalism  by  vindicating  a  supernatural  element  for 
the  religious  life  and  Christianity,  while  at  the  same  time 
he  justified  rationalism  in  its  rejection  of  any  infraction 
of  the  laws  of  nature.  He  put  an  end  to  the  conception 
of  revelation  as  the  communication  of  doctrine  by  sub- 
stituting for  it  the,  at  all  events,  profounder  and  truer  view 
that  it  consists  in  a  fundamental  affection  of  the  whole 
religious  nature,  giving  it  a  new  and  special  direction,  the 
organs  of  it  being  historical  personalities  endowed  with 
supreme  religious  genius.  Hegel  and  Schelling  contributed 
in  other  ways,  particularly  by  substituting  another  idea  of 
God  and  nature,  to  the  decay  of  rationalism.  Amongst 
Biblical  critics  De  Wette,  under  the  influence  of  Herder's 
poetic  insight  into  early  literatures  and  of  Fries's  religious 
philosophy,  contributed  largely  to  a  truer  appreciation  of 
the  Bible  as  literature  and  the  record  of  revelation  than 
such  scholars  as  Eichhorn  and  Paulus  had  attained  to. 
In  the  year  1828  Dr  Pusey  could  inform  English  theolo- 
gians that  the  school  had  had  its  day,  and  early  in  the 
third  decade  of  the  century  Hase  was  able  to  sum  up  the 
work  of  the  school,  which  was  then  practically  defunct, 


R  A  T  —  R  A  T 


291 


though  some  of  its  ablest  representatives  continued  for 
some  years  to  defend  its  positions.  Hase's  summary  is, 
that  rationalism  failed  to  recognize  the  historical  forces 
that  condition  all  religious  life  and  progress ;  that  it 
necessarily  issued  in  a  barren  religion  of  the  intellect ; 
that  in  the  last  instance  it  drew  its  decisions,  not  from  the 
depths  of  the  soul,  but  from  a  shallow  popular  philosophy 
which  overlooked  the  rights  of  religious  feeling ;  that  on 
that  account  it  kept  its  God  of  the  outward  universe  as 
far  removed  from  men's  hearts  and  lives  as  possible ;  but 
that,  nevertheless,  it  was  through  it  especially  that  a 
breach  between  modern  culture  and  the  church  was  avoided 
and  the  banner  of  free  inquiry  was  kept  waving.  Even 
men  as  far  removed  from  rationalism  as  Tholuck,  Dorner, 
llitschl,  and  Alexander  Schweizer  acknowledge  that  it 
was  a  means,  however  imperfect,  of  effectually  upholding 
in  the  church  the  great  principle  that  religious  truth  has 
an  intimate  affinity  to  man's  nature  and  must  be  freely 
examined  and  intelligently  appropriated.  Tholuck  pro- 
nounces it  not  an  outward  skin  disease  in  the  history  of 
Protestantism,  but  an  integral  part  of  that  history  and  a 
phase  of  its  development,  in  some  respects  abnormal,  in 
others  normal  and  natural. 

Literature. — Staudlin,  Geschichte  des  fiationalismus  und  Supra- 
natural 'ismus,  1826  ;  Amand  Saintes,  Hist.  crit.  du  Rationalisms 
en  Allemagne,  1841  ;  H.  J.  Rose,  The  State  of  Protestantism  in 
Germany  described,  2d  ed.  1829  ;  E.  B.  Pusey,  Historical  Inquiry 
into  the  Causes  of  the  Rationalist  Character  lately  predominant  in 
the  Theology  of  Germany,  1828;  Tholuck,  Vorgcschichte  des  Rat., 
1853-61,  and  Geschichte  des  Rat.,  1865;  Hase,  Tkeolog.  Streit- 
schriftcn,  1834  Hagenbach,  Kirchengeschichte  des  IS  und  19 
Jahrh.,  1856,  3d  ed.  ;  Heinricli  Lang,  Ein  Gang  durch  die  christ- 
liche  Welt,  2d  ed.  1870,  p.  110  sq.  ;  Diestel,  Geschichte  des  Alien 
Testaments  in  der  christliclien  Kirche,  1869,  p.  672  sq.  ;  Ritschl, 
Christ.  Lehre  von  der  Rechtfcrtigung,  &c.,  1870,  vol.  i.  cc.  vii.-ix.  ; 
the  Histories  of  Protestant  theology  by  Frank,  Dorner,  and 
Gass.  (J.  F.  S.) 

RATISBON  (German  Regensbury),  an  ancient  city  of 
Bavaria,  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  the  capital  of  the  Upper 
Palatinate,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube,  opposite  the  influx  of  the  Regen,  from  which  it 
derives  its  German  name.  It  lies  almost  exactly  in  the 
centre  of  the  kingdom,  about  65  miles  to  the  north-east  of 
Munich  and  53  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Nuremberg.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  river  is  the  small  town  of  Stadt-am- 
Hof,  connected  with  Ratisbon  by  a  long  stone  bridge  of 
the  12th  century,  above  and  below  which  are  the  islands 
of  the  Obere  and  Untere  Worth.  In  external  appearance 
Ratisbon  is  quaint  and  romantic,  presenting  almost  as 
faithful  a  picture  of  a  town  of  the  early  Middle  Ages 
as  Nuremberg  does  of  the  later.  Most  of  the  streets 
are  narrow  and  irregular,  but  spacious  promenades  have 
been  laid  out  on  the  site  of  the  old  fortifications.  One.  of 
the  most  characteristic  features  in  its  architecture  is  the 
number  of  strong  loopholed  towers  attached  to  the  more 
ancient  dwellings,  recalling  a  day  when  civic  broils  were 
of  frequent  recurrence.  The  interesting  "street  of  the 
ambassadors"  is  so  called  because  it  contained  the  resi- 
dences of  most  of  the  ambassadors  to  the  German  diet, 
whose  coats -of -arms  may  still  be  seen  on  many  of  the 
houses. 

The  cathedral  of  Ratisbon,  though  small  in  size,  is  a 
very  interesting  example  of  pure  German  Gothic,  diverg- 
ing in  several  points  from  the  type  elaborated  in  France. 
It  was  founded  in  1275  and  completed  in  1634,  with  the 
exception  of  the  towers,  which  were  added  during  a  recent 
restoration.  The  details  are  very  harmonious  and  pleasing, 
and  the  interior  contains  numerous  interesting  monuments, 
including  one  of  Peter  Vischer's  masterpieces.  Adjoining 
the  cloisters  are  two  chapels  of  earlier  date  than  the  cathe- 
dral itself,  one  of  which,  known  as  the  "old  cathedral," 
goes  back  perhaps  to  the  8th  century.  The  Schotten- 


kirche,  a  plain  Romanesque  basilica  of  the  12th  century, 
derives  its  name  from  the  monastery  of  Irish  Benedictines 
("Scoti")  to  which  it  was  attached;  the  principal  door- 
way is  covered  with  very  singular  grotesque  carvings,  the 
meaning  of  which  remains  a  mystery.  The  old  parish 
church  of  St  Ulrich  is  a  good  example  of  the  Transition 


1.  Cathedral. 

2.  Schottenkirch*. 


Ratisbon. 

3.  St  Emmeran's  Church. 

4.  Thurn  and  Taxis  Palace. 


5.  Town-house. 

6.  Golden  Cross  Inn. 


style  of  the  13th  century.  Other  specimens  of  the 
Romanesque  basilica  style  are  the  church  of  Obermunster, 
dating  from  1010,  and  the  abbey  church  of  St  Emmeran, 
built  in  the  13th  century  and  remarkable  as  one  of  the 
few  German  churches  with  a  detached  belfry.  The  beau- 
tiful cloisters  of  the  ancient  abbey,  one  of  the  oldest  in 
Germany,  are  still  in  fair  preservation.  In  1809  the 
conventual  buildings  were  converted  into  a  palace  for  the 
prince  of  Thurn  and  Taxis,  hereditary  postmaster-general 
of  the  old  German  empire.  The  town-house,  a  somewhat 
gloomy  pile,  dating  in  part  from  the  14th  century,  contains 
the  rooms  occupied  by  the  imperial  diet  of  Germany  from 
1663  to  1806.  An  historical  interest  also  attaches  to  the 
Golden  Cross  Inn,  where  Charles  V.  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  fair  Barbara  Blumberger,  the  mother  of  Don  John 
of  Austria  (b.  1547).  The  promenade  is  adorned  with  a 
bust  of  Kepler,  who  died  at  Ratisbon  in  1630.  Perhaps 
the  most  pleasing  modern  building  in  the  city  is  the  Gothic 
villa  of  the  king  of  Bavaria  on  the  bank  of  the  Danube. 
Among  the  chief  manufactures  of  Ratisbon  are  iron  and 
steel  wares,  pottery,  parquet  flooring,  and  lead  pencils. 
Boat-building  is  also  prosecuted,  and  a  brisk  transit  trade 
is  carried  on  in  salt,  grain,  and  timber.  In  1880  the  town 
contained  34,516  inhabitants,  of  whom  27,844  were  Roman 
Catholics,  5995  Protestants,  and  675  Jews.  Stadt-am- 
Hof,  which  practically  forms  a  suburb  of  Ratisbon,  con- 
tained 3392  inhabitants. 

Near  Ratisbon  are  two  very  handsome  classical  buildings  erected 
by  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria,  with  the  aid  of  the  architect  Klenze,  as 
national  monuments  of  German  patiiotism  and  greatness.  The 
more  imposing  of  the  two  is  the  Walhalla,  a  costly  reproduction 
of  the  Parthenon,  erected  as  a  Teutonic  temple  of  fame  on  a  hill 
rising  from  the  Danube  at  Donaustauf,  6  miles  to  the  east.  The 
massive  substructions  of  the  temple  somewhat  dwarf  the  building 
itself  when  seen  from  a  distance,  and  the  choice  of  a  classic  model 
for  a  German  Pantheon  seems  somewhat  incongruous,  but  after 
these  deductions  are  made  it  still  remains  a  magnificent  and 
imposing  structure.  The  interior,  which  is  as  rich  as  coloured 
marbles,  gilding,  and  sculptures  can  make  it,  contains  the  busts 
of  more  than  a  hundred  German  worthies.  The  second  of  King 
Louis's  buildings  is  the  Befreiungsballe  at  Kelheim,  14  miles  above 
Ratisbon,  a  large  circular  building,  which  has  for  its  aim  the 
glorification  of  the  heroes  of  the  war  of  liberation  in  1813. 


292 


R  A  T  — R  A  T 


The  early  Celtic  settlement  of  Radespona  was  chosen  by  the 
Romans,  who  named  it  Castra  Rcgina,  as  the  centre  of  their 
power  on  the  upper  Danube,  and  it  soon  attained  considerable 
importance.  It  afterwards  became  the  seat  of  the  dukes  of  Bavaria 
and  one  of  the  main  bulwarks  of  the  East  Frankish  monarchy ; 
and  it  was  also  the  focus  from  which  Christianity  spread  over 
southern  Germany.  St  Einmeran  .founded  an  abbey  here  in  the 
middle  of  the  7th  century,  and  St  Boniface  established  the  bishop- 
ric about  a  hundred  years  later.  Ratisbon  acquired  the  freedom 
of  the  empire  in  the  13th  century  and  was  for  a  time  the  most 
flourishing  city  in  southern  Germany.  It  became  the  chief  seat 
of  the  trade  with  India  and  the  Levant,  and  the  boatmen  of 
Ratisbon  are  frequently  heard  of  as  expediting  the  journeys  of  the 
crusaders.  The  city  was  loyally  Ghibelliue  in  its  sympathies  and 
was  a  favourite  residence  of  the  German  emperors.  .Numerous 
diets  were  held  here  from  time  to  time,  and  after  1663  it  became 
the  regular  place  of  meeting  of  the  German  diet.  The  Reforma- 
tion found  only  temporary  acceptance  at  Ratisbon  and  was  met 
by  a  counter -reformation  inspired  by  the  Jesuits.  Before  this 
period  the  city  had  almost  wholly  lost  its  commercial  importance, 
owing  to  the  changes  in  the  great  highways  of  trade.  Ratisbon 
had  its  due  share  in  the  Thirty  Years'  and  other  wars,  and  is  said 
to  have  suffered  in  all  no  fewer  than  seventeen  sieges.  In  1807 
the  town  and  bishopric  were  assigned  to  the  prince  primate 
Dalberg  and  in  1810  they  were  ceded  to  Bavaria.  After  the  battle 
of  Eggmiihl  (1809)  the  Austrians  retired  upon  Ratisbon,  and  the 
pursuing  French  defeated  them  again  beneath  its  walls  and  reduced 
great  part  of  the  city  to  ashes. 

RATLAM  or  RTJTLAM,  a  native  state  of  India,  in  the 
Western  Malwa  Agency  (Central  India  Agency),  lying  be- 
tween 23°  2'  and  23°  36'  N.  lat.  and  74°  42'  and  75°  17' 
E.  long.,  with  an  area  of  729  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion (1881)  of  87,314  (males  45,779,  females  41,535),— 
Hindus  numbering  54,034,  Mohammedans  9913,  Jains 
6038,  Christians  19,  and  aboriginals  17,297.  Its  revenue 
from  all  sources  in  1881-82  was  estimated  at  £130,000. 
The  Nimach  State  Railway  connecting  Indore  with  Nimach 
and  Nasirabad  passes  by  Ratlam  town.  This  town,  which 
is  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  opium  trade  of  Malwa, 
is  superior  to  most  cities  in  Indore,  and  has  good  bazaars. 
Its  population  in  1881  amounted  to  31,066  (16,544  males 
and  14,522  females). 

Ratlam  state  is  held  as  tributary  to  Sindhia  ;  but  in  1819  an 
arrangement  was  made  by  which  the  raja  agreed  to  pay  an  annual 
tribute  amounting  to  about  £6600,  while  Sindhia  engaged  never 
to  send  any  troops  into  the  country  or  to  interfere  with  the  in- 
ternal administration.  This  tribute  was  assigned  by  the  treaty 
of  1844  between  the  British  Government  and  Sindhia  in  part 
payment  of  the  Gwalior  contingent.  It  is  now  paid  to  the  British 
Government. 

RATNAGIRI  or  RUTNAGHERRY,  a  British  district  of 
India,  in  the  Konkan  division  of  the  Bombay  presidency, 
with  an  area  of  3922  square  miles.  It  lies  between  15° 
40'  and  18°  5'  N.  lat.  and  73°  5'  and  73°  55'  E.  long.,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Savitri  river,  separating  it 
from  the  Janjira  Agency,  and  by  Kolaba  district ;  on  the 
E.  by  the  Western  Ghats,  dividing  it  from  the  districts  of 
Satara  and  Belgaum  and  the  native  state  of  Kolhapur ; 
on  the  S.,  where  it  is  reduced  to  a  strip  of  sea-coast  not 
more  than  4  miles  wide,  by  the  Portuguese  possessions  of 
Goa;  and  on  .the  W.  by  the  Arabian  Sea.  The  district 
forms  a  belt  between  the  Ghats  and  the  sea,  and  its 
general  character  is  rocky  and  rugged;  nearly  all  the  fertile 
land  lies  on  the  banks  of  the  streams  which  intersect  the 
country.  The  coast,  about  150  miles  in  length,  is  almost 
uniformly  rocky  and  dangerous.  At  intervals  of  about 
10  miles  a  river  or  bay  opens,  sufficiently  large  to  form  a 
secure  harbour  for  native  craft,  and  the  promontories  at 
the  river-mouths  are  almost  invariably  crowned  with  the 
ruins  of  an  old  fort.  The  rivers  and  creeks  are  generally 
navigable  for  about  20  miles,  and  afford  great  facilities  for 
a  coasting  trade.  The  denudation  of  the  forests  has 
apparently  tended  to  promote  deposits  of  silt ;  but  active 
measures  have  of  late  been  taken  to  preserve  and  extend 
the  forest  area.  Tigers,  leopards,  bears,  bison,  wild  boar, 
sambhar  deer,  and  hysenas  are  found  in  the  forests  on  the 


the  population  of  Ratnagiri  district  was  997,090  (473,053 
524,037  females), — Hindus  numbering  921,046,  Moham- 


slopes  and  near  the  foot  of  the  Sahyadri  Hills.  At  the 
beginning  of  British  rule  there  were  no  roads,  and  traffic 
was  confined  to  places  where  there  was  water  carriage ; 
but  a  network  of  roads  has  now  been  made,  and  the  open- 
ing of  the  Ghat  roads  to  cart  traffic  has  revolutionized 
the  trade  and  concentrated  it  at  Chiplun,  Rajapur,  and 
Vengurla,  which  form  the  gates  of  a  considerable  traffic 
to  and  from  the  Deccan.  The  exports  are  salt  fish,  shell- 
lime,  and  cocoa-nuts,  and  the  imports  comprise  food 
grains,  molasses,  tobacco,  chillies,  ground  nuts,  turmeric, 
ghi,  blankets,  piece  goods,  and  iron.  The  mean  temper- 
ature, as  registered  at  Ratnagiri  station,  is  78°'6,  and  the 
average  annual  rainfall  is  103*58  inches. 

In  1881 
males  and 

medans  71,051,  and  Christians  3275.  The  district  contains  three 
towns  with  a  population  exceeding  10,000, — RATNAGIRI  (see  be- 
low), Malwan  (15,565),  and  Chiplun  (12,065).  Since  it  came  under 
British  rule  the  number  of  inhabitants  has  increased  threefold  ; 
all  the  land  is  occupied,  and  the  population  is  greater  than  the 
land  can  feed.  Food  has  in  consequence  to  be  imported,  and  the 
condition  of  the  people  would  be  deplorable  were  it  not  their  custom 
to  move  in  large  numbers  to  Bombay  in  search  of  employment, 
where  they  earn  good  wages  and  return  to  spend  it  in  their  homes. 
The  chief  crops  are  grain  and  rice.  The  extent  of  arable  land  is 
small,  but  on  the  whole  cultivation  is  good.  Of  1,117,686  acres 
under  actual  cultivation  in  1883-84,  of  which  38,865  were  twice 
cropped,  cereals  occupied  1,020,583  and  pulses  41,733  acres.  There 
are  no  manufactures  of  any  importance  ;  but  the  school  of  industry 
at  Ratnagiri  possesses  steam  saw-mills,  and  undertakes  wood  and 
iron  work  of  all  descriptions.  The  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84 
amounted  to  £126,596,  of  which  the  land-tax  contributed  £91,429. 

Ratnagiri  formed  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  peshwa,  and  was 
annexed  by  the  British  Government  in  1818  on  the  overthrow  of 
Baji  Rao. 

RATNAGIRI  or  RUTNAGHERRY,  chief  town  of  the 
above  district,  is  situated  on  the  Konkan  coast  in  16°  59' 
N.  lat.  and  73°  19'  E.  long.,  136  miles  south  by  east  of 
Bombay.  A  leading  industry  connected  with  the  town  is 
the  sardine  fishery,  Avhich  usually  takes  place  in  January 
and  February,  and  engages  fleets  of  canoes.  A  single 
net-caster  will  fill  his  canoe  in  the  course  of  a  morning. 
The  lighthouse  was  erected  in  1867;  its  light,  visible  18 
miles  distant,  is  250  feet  above  high  water.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  town  in  1881  numbered  12,616  (males  6418, 
females  6198). 

RATRAMNUS,  a  theological  controversialist  of  some 
mark,  who  flourished  in  the  9th  century,  was  a  monk  of 
the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Corbie  near  Amiens,  but  beyond 
this  fact  almost  nothing  of  his  personal  history  has  been 
preserved.  He  is  now  best  known  by  his  treatise  on  the 
Eucharist  (De  corpore  et  sanguine  Domini  liber),  in  which 
he  controverted  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  as  taught 
in  a  similar  work  by  his  contemporary  Radbertus  Paschasius 
(see  above,  p.  210).  In  the  controversy  about  election, 
when  appealed  to  by  Charles  the  Bald,  he  wrote  two 
books  De  prxdestinatione  Dei,  in  which  he  maintained  the 
doctrine  of  a  twofold  predestination,  nor  did  the  fate  of 
Gottschalk  deter  him  from  supporting  the  view  of  that  un- 
fortunate theologian  against  Hincmar  as  to  the  orthodoxy 
of  the  expression  "trina  Deitas."  Ratramnus  perhaps 
won  most  glory  in  his  own  day  by  his  Contra  Grsecorum 
of>posita,  in  four  books  (868),  a  much  valued  contribution  to 
the  controversy  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
which  had  been  raised  by  the  publication  of  the  encyclical 
letter  of  Photius  in  867. 

RATTAN.     See  CANE  and  PALM. 

RATTAZZI,  URBANO  (1808-1873),  Italian  statesman, 
was  born  on  29th  June  1808  at  Alessandria,  and  from  1838 
practised  with  great  success  at  the  bar.  In  1848  he  was 
sent  to  the  chamber  of  deputies  in  Turin  as  representative 
of  his  native  town.  By  his  debating  powers  he  contributed 
to  the  defeat  of  the  Balbo  ministry,  and  for  a  short  time 
held  the  portfolio  of  minister  of  public  instruction ;  after- 


R  A  T  — R  A  U 


293 


wards,  under  Gioberti,  he  became  minister  of  the  interior, 
and  on  the  retirement  of  the  last-named  in  1849  he  be- 
came practically  the  head  of  the  Government.  The  defeat 
at  Novara  compelled  the  resignation  of  Rattazzi  in  March 
1849.  His  election  as  president  of  the  chamber  in  1852 
was  one  of  the  earliest  results  of  the  so-called  "  connubio  " 
with  Cavour,  and  having  become  minister  of  justice  in 
1853  he  in  that  and  the  next  following  years  was  able  to 
carry  a  number  of  measures  of  reform  of  considerable 
importance,  including  that  for  the  suppression  of  certain 
of  the  monastic  orders.  During  a  momentary  reaction  of 
public  opinion  he  resigned  office  in  1858,  but  again  entered 
the  cabinet  under  La  Marmora  in  1859  as  minister  of  the 
interior.  In  consequence  of  the  cession  of  Nice  and  Savoy 
he  again  retired  in  January  1 860.  He  was  entrusted  with 
the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  in  March  1862,  but  in 
consequence  of  his  policy  of  repression  towards  Garibaldi 
was  driven  from  office  in  the  following  December.  He 
was  again  prime  minister  in  1867,  from  April  to  October. 
His  death  took  place  at  Frosinone  on  5th  June  1873. 
(See  ITALY,  vol.  xiii.  p.  488  sq.) 

RATTLESNAKE.  Rattlesnakes  are  a  small  group  of 
the  family  of  Pit -vipers  (Crotalidae),  characterized  by  a 
tail  which  terminates  in  a  chain  of  horny,  loosely  con- 
nected rings,  the  so-called  "rattle."  The  "pit"  by  which 
the  family  is  distinguished  from  the  ordinary  vipers  is  a 
deep  depression  in  the  integument  of  the  sides  of  the 
snout,  between  the  nostrils  and  the  eye ;  its  physiological 
function  is  unknown.  The  rattle  is  a  complicated  and 
highly  specialized  organ,  developed  from  the  simple  conical 
scale  or  epidermal  spine,  which  in  the  majority  of  snakes 
forms  the  termination  of  the  general  integument  of  the  tail. 
The  bone  by  which  the  root  of  the  rattle  is  supported 
consists  of  the  last  caudal  vertebrae,  from  three  to  eight 
in  number,  which  are  enlarged,  dilated,  compressed,  and 
coalesced  (fig.  1,  a).  This  bone  is  covered  with  thick  and 


Rattle  of  Rattlesnake  (after  Czermak). 


Fig.  1. — Caudal  vertebrae,  the  last  coalesced  in  a  single  bone  a.  Fig.  2. — End 
of  tail  (rattle  removed) ;  a,  cuticular  matrix  covering  terminal  bone.  Pig. 
3.— Side  view  of  a  rattle  ;  c  and  d  the  oldest,  a  and  6  the  youngest  joints. 
Fig.  4. — A  rattle  with  joints  disconnected ;  x  fits  into  b  and  is  covered  by 
it ;  z  into  d  in  like  manner. 

vascular  cutis,  transversely  divided  by  two  constrictions 
into  three  portions,  of  which  the  proximal  is  larger  than 
the  median,  and  the  median  much  larger  than  the  distal 
(fig.  2,  a).  This  cuticular  portion  constitutes  the  matrix 
of  a  horny  epidermoid  covering  which  closely  fits  the 
shape  of  the  underlying  soft  part  and  which  is  the  first 
commencement  of  the  rattle,  as  it  appears  in  very  young 
rattlesnakes  before  they  have  shed  their  skin  for  the  first 
time.  When  the  period  of  a  renewal  of  the  skin  approaches 
a  new  covering  of  the  extremity  of  the  tail  is  formed  below 
the  old  one,  but  the  latter,  instead  of  being  cast  off  with 
the  remainder  of  the  epidermis,  is  retained  by  the  posterior 
swelling  of  the  end  of  the  tail,  forming  now  the  first  loose 
joint  of  the  rattle.  This  process  is  repeated  on  succeeding 


exuviations, — the  new  joints  being  always  larger  than  the 
old  ones  as  long  as  the  snake  grows  (fig.  3).  Perfect 
rattles  therefore  taper  towards  the  point,  but  generally 
the  oldest  (terminal)  joints  wear  away  in  time  and  are 
lost.  As  rattlesnakes  shed  their  skins  more  than  once 
every  year,  the  number  of  joints  of  the  rattle  does  not 
indicate  the  age  of  the  animal  but  the  number  of  exuvia- 
tions which  it  has  undergone.  The  lar-gest  rattle  in  the 
British  Museum  has  twenty-one  joints.  The  rattle  (fig.  4) 
consists  thus  of  a  variable  number  of  dry,  hard,  horny 
cup-shaped  joints,  each  of  which  loosely  grasps  a  portion 
of  the  preceding,  and  all  of  which  are  capable  of  being 
shaken  against  each  other.  If  the  interspaces  between 
the  joints  are  filled  with  water,  as  often  happens  in  wet 
weather,  no  noise  can  be  produced.  The  motor  power  lies 
in  the  lateral  muscles  of  the  tail,  by  which  a  vibratory 
motion  is  communicated  to  the  rattle,  the  noise  produced 
being  similar  to  that  of  a  weak  child's  rattle  and  percep- 
tible at  a  distance  of  from  10  to  20  yards. 

The  habit  of  violently  and  rapidly  agitating  the  tail  is 
by  no  means  peculiar  to  the  rattlesnake,  but  has  been 
observed  in  other  venomous  as  well  as  innocuous  snakes 
with  the  ordinary  termination  of  the  tail,  when  under 
the  influence  of  fear  or  anger.  The  special  object  for 
which  the  rattle  has  been  developed  in  these  snakes  is 
unknown. 

Rattlesnakes  are  entirely  confined  to  the  New  "World. 
North-American  authors  distinguish  now  a  great  number 
of  different  kinds,  the  most  recent,  Garman  (Reptiles  and 
Batrachians  of  North  America,  1883,  4to),  enumerating 
twelve  distinct  species  and  thirteen  additional  varieties ; 
but  all  these  species  or  varieties  fall  into  two  groups,  viz., 
one  which  has  the  upper  side  of  the  head  covered  with  the 
ordinary  nine  dermal  shields,  and  the  other  in  which  the 
shields  between  and  behind  the  eyes  are  broken  up  or 
replaced  by  small  scales.  The  former  group  consists  of 
two  species  only,  of  comparatively  small  size,  both  North 
American,  Crotalus  miliarius  being  the  more  generally 
known.  The  second  group  comprises  the  more  formidable 
kinds  of  South  as  well  as  North  America,  which  are  gener- 
ally described  under  the  names  of  C.  horridus  and  C. 
durissus.  In  the  older  standard  works  the  former  name 
was  applied  to  the  southern  form,  which  extends  from 
Paraguay  and  Chili  through  Brazil  into  Mexico,  and  the 
latter  to  the  common  North -American  rattlesnake;  in 
modern  American  works  this  nomenclature  is  reversed. 
C.  horridus  and  C.  durissus  belong  to  the  most  danger- 
ous of  poisonous  snakes.  If  a  person  bitten  by  an  adult 
rattlesnake  escapes  with  life,  protracted  illness  and  the 
loss  of  or  injury  to  the  wounded  limb  are  frequently  the 
consequence.  They  inhabit  localities  to  which  the  sun  has 
free  access,  prairies,  rough  stony  ground,  «fec.  Specimens 
of  5  feet  in  length  are  not  rare.  Formerly  common  in 
the  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  still  so  in  thinly 
inhabited  districts  of  the  western  States,  rattlesnakes,  like 
the  vipers  of  Europe,  have  gradually  succumbed  to  the 
unceasing  persecution  of  man.  They  vary  much  in  colour  : 
a  common  type  of  coloration  is  a  brownish  ground-colour, 
sometimes  yellowish,  sometimes  blackish.  Series  of  large 
dark  spots,  frequently  edged  with  yellow,  and  of  very 
variable  shape,  run  along  the  back  and  sides.  The  head 
and  neck  are  ornamented  with  dark  or  black  longitudinal 
bands,  or  are  marked  by  an  almost  uniform  coloration. 

RAU,  KARL  HEINEICH  (1792-1870),  German  political 
economist,  was  born  at  Erlangen  on  23d  November  1792. 
He  pursued  his  studies,  devoting  himself  principally  to 
the  (so-called)  cameralistic  sciences,  from  1808  to  1812  at 
the  university  of  his  native  place,  where  he  afterwards 
remained  as  a  privat-docent.  In  1814  he  obtained  the  prize 
offered  by  the  academy  of  Gottingen  for  the  best  treatment 


294 


R  A  U  — R  A  U 


of  the  question,  How  the  disadvantages  arising  from  the 
abolition  of  trade  guilds  might  be  removed.  His  memoir, 
greatly  enlarged,  was  published  in  1816  under  the  title 
tfcber  da*  Zunftwesen  und  die  Fdgen  seiner  A ufhebung.  He 
was  then  favourable  to  the  continued  existence  of  trade 
corporations  on  a  reformed  basis,  but  afterwards  abandoned 
this  view.  In  the  same  year  appeared  his  Primx  linex 
historic  politices.  In  .1818  he  became  professor  at  Erlan- 
gen.  He  competed  successfully  in  1820  for  a  prize  offered 
by  the  academy  of  Haarlem  for  the  best  essay  on  the  causes 
of  poverty ;  and  in  the  same  year  he  published  a  transla- 
tion, characterized  by  Roscher  as  "free,  but  very  good,"  of 
Storch's  Cours  d'£conomie  Politique,  with  notes  and  addi- 
tions of  his  own.  In  1822  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
political  economy  at  Heidelberg,  where  the  rest  of  his  life 
was  spent,  in  the  main,  in  teaching  and  research.  He 
took  some  part,  however,  in  public  affairs  :  in  1837  he  was 
nominated  a  member  of  the  first  chamber  of  the  duchy  of 
Baden,  and  did  good  service  in  that  capacity  ;  and  in  1851 
he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  sent  to  England  on  the 
part  of  the  Zollverein  to  study  the  Industrial  Exhibition. 
A  result  of  this  mission  was  his  account  of  the  agricultural 
implements  exhibited  at  London  (Die  landurirtlischaftlichen 
Gerdthe  der  Londoner  Ausstellung,  1853).  He  was  elected 
a  corresponding  member  of  the  French  Institute  in  1856. 
After  a  useful  and  honourable  career  he  died  at  Heidel- 
berg on  18th  March  1870. 

His  principal  work  is  the  Lehrbuch  der  politischen  Oekonomie 
(1826-37),  an  encyclopaedia  of  the  economic  knowledge  of  his 
time,  written  with  a  special  view  to  the  guidance  of  practical  men. 
The  doctrines  are,  in  the  main,  those  of  Smith  and  Say ;  but  they 
are  treated  in  an  independent  manner,  and  the  conclusions  of  his 
predecessors  are  modified,  especially  by  giving  larger  scope  to  the 
action  of  the  state.  The  three  volumes  are  respectively  occupied 
with  (1)  political  economy,  properly  so  called,  or  the  theory  of 
wealth,  (2)  administrative  science  ( Volkswirtnschaftspolitilc),  and  (3) 
finance.  The  two  last  he  recognizes  as  necessarily  admitting  of 
variations  in  accordance  with  the  special  circumstances  of  different 
countries,  whilst  the  first  is  more  akin  to  the  exact  sciences,  and 
is  in  many  respects  capable  of  being  treated,  or  at  least  illustrated, 
mathematically.  This  threefold  division  marks  his  close  relation 
to  the  older  German  cameralistic  writers,  with  whose  works  he  was 
familiarly  acquainted.  It  is  a  consequence  in  part  of  his  conformity 
to  their  method  and  his  attention  to  administrative  applications 
that  his  treatise  was  found  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  use  of  the 
official  class,  and  long  maintained  its  position  as  their  special  text- 
book. He  was  the  economic  teacher,  says  Roscher,  of  the  well- 
governed  middle  states  of  Germany  from  1815  to  1848.  The  book 
has  passed  through  many  editions  ;  in  that  of  1870  by  Adolf  Wagner 
it  was  transformed  into  a  new  book. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  his  scientific  life  Ran  tended  strongly 
towards  the  relative  point  of  view  and  an  historical  method  in 
economics.  But,  though  in  his  great  work  he  kept  clear  of  the 
exaggerated  abstraction  of  the  Ricardians  and  rejected  some  of 
their  a  priori  assumptions,  he  never  joined  the  historical  school. 
To  the  end  he  occupied  a  somewhat  indeterminate  position  with 
respect  to  that  school ;  on  the  whole,  however,  he  more  and  more 
subordinated  historical  investigation  to  immediate  practical  in- 
terests, and  in  his  economic  politics  moved  in  the  direction  of 
limiting  rather  than  extending  the  sphere  of  state  action.  His 
general  merits  are  thoroughness  of  treatment,  accuracy  of  state- 
ment, and  balance  of  judgment ;  he  shows  much  industry  in  the 
collection  and  skill  in  the  utilization  of  statistical  facts  ;  and  his 
exposition  is  orderly  and  clear.  Roscher  finds  in  his  earlier  works 
a  spirituel  charm  which  disappears  in  the  later. 

Besides  the  publications  already  mentioned,  he  was  author  of 
the  following  : — Ueber  den  Luxus,  1817  ;  Ansichten  der  Staatsurirth- 
schaft  rn.it  besonderer  Beziehung  auf  Deutschland,  1820  ;  Mallhus 
und  Say  iiber  die  Ursachen  der  jetzigen  Handelsstockung,  1821  ; 
Grundriss  der  Kameralwissenschaft  oder  WirthschaftsleJire,  1823  ; 
Ueber  die  Kameralwissenschaft,  Entwickelung  ihres  Wesens  und 
ihrer  Theile,  1825  ;  Ueber  die  Landwirthschaft  der  Rhcinpfalz, 
1830  ;  an  academic  oration  De  vi  naturae  in  rempublimm,  1831  ; 
and  Geschichte  des  Pfluges,  1845. 

Rau  founded  in  1834  the  Archiv  der  politischen  Oekonomie  und 
Polizciwissenschaft,  in  which  he  wrote  a  number  of  articles,  after- 
wards issued  in  separate  form  :  amongst  them  may  be  named  those 
on  the  debt  of  Baden,  on  the  accession  of  Baden  to  the  Zollverein, 
on  the  crisis  of  the  Zollverein  in  the  summer  of  1852,  on  the 
American  banks,  on  the  new  English  poor  law,  on  List's  national 


system  of  political  economy,  nnd  on  the  minimum  size  of  a  peasant 
property.  This  enumeration  will  give  an  idea  of  the  extent  and 
variety  of  his  researches. 

RAUCH,  CHRISTIAN  DANIEL  (1777-1857),  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  sculptors  of  modern  times,  was  born  at 
Arolsen   in   the   principality  of   Waldeck  on  the  2d  of 
January  1777.     The  opening  career  of  the  young  artist 
was  attended  with  considerable  difficulty,  his  parents  being 
poor  and  unable  to  place  him  under  efficient  ma-in  . 
His  first  instructor  taught  him  little  else  than  the  art  of 
sculpturing  grave -stones,  and  Professor  Ruhl  of  Cassel 
could  not  give  him  much  more.    A  wider  field  of  improve- 
ment opened  up  before  him  when  he  removed  to  Berlin  in 
1797  ;  but  poverty  still  hampered  all  his  efforts.     He  was 
obliged  to  earn  a  livelihood  by  becoming  a  royal  lackey, 
and  to  reserve  the  prosecution  of  his  favourite  art  for  his 
spare  hours.     The  genius  of  Rauch,  however,  soon  forced 
itself  into  notice  and  recommended  him  to  several  persons 
of  influence  who  were  able  to 'give  him  assistance.    Queen 
Louisa,  surprising  him  one  day  in  the  act  of  modelling  her 
features  in  wax,  sent  him  to  study  at  the  Academy  of  Art. 
Not  long  afterwards,  in  1804,  Count  Sandrecky  gave  him 
the  means  to   complete   his  education   at   Rome,  where 
William  von   Humboldt,  Canova,   and   Thorwaldsen   be- 
friended him.     Under  such  patronage  the  young  sculptor 
made  rapid  progress.     Among  other  works,  he  executed 
bas-reliefs  of  Hippolytus  and  Phaedra,  Mars  and  Venus 
wounded  by  Diomede,  and  a  Child  praying.      In  1811 
Rauch  entered  upon  the  eminent  part  of  his  career,  when 
he  was  commissioned  to  execute  a  monument  for  Queen 
Louisa  of  Prussia.      The  statue,  representing  the  queen 
in  a  sleeping  posture,  was  placed  in  a  mausoleum  in  the 
grounds  of  Charlottenburg,  and  procured  great  fame  for 
the  artist.     Commissions  for  portraits  came  pouring  in 
upon  him.     The  consummate  tact  with  which  he  seized 
individual  characteristics  and  the  artistic  manner  in  which 
he  treated  them  at  once  established  his  reputation.     The 
erection  of  nearly  all  public  statues  came  to  be  entrusted  to 
him.     He  began  to  execute  that  long  series  of  representa- 
tions of  great  Germans  in  which  his  genius  is  exhibited  to 
full  advantage.     In  course  of  time  almost  every  important 
town  throughout  the  country  possessed  a  bust  of  some 
eminent  statesman,  patriot,  or  man  of   genius  from  his 
chisel.     There  were,  among  others,  Bliicher  at  Breslau, 
Maximilian  at  Munich,  Francke  at  Halle,  Diirer  at  Nurem- 
berg,  Luther  at  Wittenberg,  and  the  grand -duke  Paul 
Frederick  at   Schwerin.      At  length,   in   1830,   he  com- 
menced, along  with  Schinkel  the  architect,  the  models  for 
a  colossal  monument  at  Berlin  to  Frederick  the  Great. 
This  work  was  inaugurated  with  great  pomp  in  May  1851, 
and  has  ever  since  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  masterpieces 
of  modern  sculpture.     On  a  granite  pedestal  25  feet  in 
height  stands  the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  the  king. 
His  plain  pinched  features  and  his  grotesque  costume  are 
given  with   historical   exactness   without   impairing   the 
artistic  effect.     An  air  of  resistless  majesty  ennobles  the 
mean  countenance,  and  a  bold  and  skilful  treatment  hides 
the  absurdity  of  the  garb.     The  excellence  of  his  master- 
piece was  recognized  throughout  the  world.     Princes  de- 
corated him  with   honours.      The  academies  of   Europe 
enrolled  him  among  their  members.     Especially  did  his 
own  sovereign  and  countrymen  regard  him  with  proud 
affection  and  respect.     A  statue  of  Kant  for  Konigsberg 
and  a  statue  of  Thaer  for  Berlin  occupied  his  attention 
during  some  of  his  last  years ;  and  he  had  just  finished  a 
model  of  Moses  praying  between  Aaron  and  Hur  when  he 
was  attacked  by  his  last  illness.     He  died  on  3d  December 
1857. 

RAUMER,FRiEDRicH  LUDWIG  GEORG  VON  (1781-1873), 
German  historian,  was  born  at  Worlitz  in  Anhalt  on  14th 


R  A  U  —  R  A  V 


295 


May  1781.  His  father  (who  died  in  1822)  was  much 
esteemed  in  Anhalt,  where,  as  "kammerdirector,"  he  did 
excellent  service  to  agriculture.  Raumer  was  educated  at 
the  Joachimsthal  Gymnasium,  Berlin,  and  at  the  universi- 
ties of  Halle  and  Gottingen.  In  1801  he  began  to  practise 
as  a  lawyer  in  the  Brandenburg  chamber,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  made  assessor.  From  1806  to  1808  he  was 
connected  with  a  department  of  the  crown  lands  chamber 
at  Wusterhausen  near  Berlin.  Having  been  made  a  coun- 
cillor in  1809,  he  was  called  in  1810  to  a  post  in  the  office 
for  the  national  debt,  and  soon  afterwards  received  an 
appointment  in  the  bureau  of  the  chancellor,  Hardenberg. 
He  was  made  a  professor  at  the  university  of  Breslau  in 
1811,  and  in  1819  he  became  professor  of  political  science 
and  history  at  Berlin.  In  1815  he  had  carried  on  histori- 
cal investigations  in  Venice,  and  in  the  two  following  years 
he  had  travelled  much  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Italy. 
At  Berlin  he  was  for  some  time  a  member  of  the  Upper 
Board  of  Censors  and  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
The  former  office  he  resigned  in  1831,  the  latter  in  1847. 
His  professorship  at  the  Berlin  university  he  did  not  give 
up  until  1853,  and  even  then  he  did  not  altogether  cease 
to  lecture.  In  1848  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
national  assembly  at  Frankfort,  where  he  associated  him- 
self with  the  right  centre ;  and  from  Frankfort  he  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Paris.  At  a  later  period  he  was  a 
member  of  the  first  chamber  of  the  Prussian  parliament. 
He  died  at  Berlin  on  14th  June  1873.  Raumer  made 
many  contributions  to  history,  in  all  of  which  he  embodied 
the  results  of  independent  research  and  gave  evidence  of  a 
sound  and  penetrating  judgment.  His  style  is  direct, 
lucid,  and  vigorous,  and  his  best  books  have  been  as  warmly 
appreciated  by  ordinary  readers  as  by  scholars. 

His  first  work,  published  anonymously  in  1806,  was  entitled 
Seeks  Dialoge  iiber  Krieg  und  Handel.  This  was  followed  by  Das 
britischc  Bcstcuerungssystem  (1810),  Handbuchmerkwilrdiger  Stellen 
aus  den  lateinischen  Geschichtschreibern  des  Mittelalters  (1813), 
Herbstreise  nach  Venedig  (1816),  and  other  books.  His  most  famous 
works  are  Geschichte  der  Hohenstaufen  und  ihrer  Zeit  (1823-25)  and 
Geschichte  Europas  seit  dem  Ende  des  15ten  Jahrhunderts  (1832-50). 
In  1831  appeared  Briefe  aus  Paris  und  FranTcreich  im  Jahre  1830 
and  Briefe  aus  Paris  zur  Erlduterung  der  Geschichte  des  16len  und 
17ten  Jahrhunderts.  He  went  to  England  in  1835,  to  Italy  in  1839, 
and  to  America  in  1843,  and  these  visits  led  to  the  publication  of 
various  works — England  in  1835  (1836),  Beitrage  zur  neuern  Ge- 
sckichte  aus  dem  Britischen  Museum  und  Reichsarchive  (1836-39), 
Italien,  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  dieses  Landes  (1840),  Die  Vereinigten 
Staaten  von  Nordamerika  (1845).  Among  his  later  books  maybe  men- 
tioned Antiquarische  Briefe  (1851),  Historisch-politische  Briefe  iiber 
die  geselligen  Verhdltnisse  der  Menschen  (I860),  Lebenserinnerungen 
und  Briefwechsel  (1861),  and  Handbuch  zur  Geschichte  der  Literatur 
(1864-66).  In  1830  Raumer  began  the  Historisches  Taschenbuch 
published  by  Brockhaus,  which  from  1871  was  continued  by  Riehl. 

RAUPACH,  ERNST  BENJAMIN  SALOMO  (1784-1852), 
German  dramatic  writer,  was  born  on  the  21st  of  April 
1784  at  Straupitz,  a  village  near  Liegnitz  in  Silesia.  He 
attended  the  gymnasium  at  Liegnitz  and  afterwards  studied 
theology  at  Halle.  He  spent  a  good  many  years  in  Russia 
as  a  teacher,  and  in  1816  was  made  a  professor  in  the 
university  of  St  Petersburg.  In  1822  he  left  Russia,  and 
after  travelling  for  some  time  in  Italy  settled  as  a  writer 
for  the  stage  in  Berlin,  where  he  remained  during  the  rest 
of  his  life.  He  died  at  Berlin  on  the  18th  of  March  1852. 

Raupach  was  not  a  man  of  imaginative  genius,  but  he  had  re- 
markable skill  in  the  invention  of  effective  dramatic  situations,  and 
was  master  of  a  vigorous  rhetorical  style.  These  qualities  secured 
for  him  a  prominent  place  among  the  most  popular  dramatic  writers 
of  his  day.  He  wrote  both  tragedies  ana  comedies,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  series  of  dramas  representing  the  great  events  of  the 
age  of  the  Hohenstaufen. 

See  P.  Raupach,  Raupach,  eine  liographische  Skizze  (1853). 

RAVAILLAC,  FRANCOIS  (1578-1610),  the  assassin  of 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  Avas  born  near  Angouleme  in  1578. 
He  was  of  humble  origin,  and  began  life  as  a  valet  de 
chambre,  but  afterwards  became  a  petty  solicitor  and  also 


teacher  of  a  school.  He  was  not  able,  however,  to  keep  clear 
of  debt,  and  after  having  been  imprisoned  for  some  time 
by  his  creditors  he  sought  admission  to  the  recently  founded 
order  of  Feuillants,  but  after  a  short  probation  was  dis- 
missed as  a  visionary.  An  application  for  admission  to 
the  Society  of  Jesus  was  equally  unsuccessful  in  1606. 
His  various  disappointments  tended  to  foster  a  violently 
fanatical  temperament,  and  widely- spread  rumours  that 
the  king  was  intending  to  make  war  upon  the  pope  sug- 
gested to  him  the  idea  of  assassination,  which  he  deliber- 
ately and  successfully  carried  out  on  14th  May  1610.  In 
the  course  of  his  trial  he  was  frequently  put  to  the  torture, 
but  persistently  (and  it  is  now  believed  truly)  denied  that 
he  had  been  prompted  by  any  one  or  had  any  accomplices. 
Sentence  of  death  was  carried  out  with  revolting  barbarity 
on  27th  May. 

RAVEN  (Anglo-Saxon  ffr&fn,  Icelandic  Hrafn,  Danish 
Ravn,  Dutch  Raaf,  German  Robe),  the  largest  of  the  Birds 
of  the  Order  Passeres;  and,  as  already  shewn  (ORNI- 
THOLOGY, vol.  xviii.  p.  49),  probably  the  most  highly 
developed  of  all  Birds. 

Quick-sighted,  sagacious,  and  bold,  it  must  have  followed  the 
prehistoric  fisher  and  hunter,  and  generally  without  molestation 
from  them,  to  prey  on  the  refuse  of  their  spoils,  just  as  it  now  waits, 
with  the  same  intent,  on  the  movements  of  their  successors  ;  while 
it  must  have  likewise  attended  the  earliest  herdsmen,  who  could 
not  have  regarded  it  with  equal  indifference,  since  its  now  notorious 
character  for  attacking  and  putting  to  death  a  weakly  animal  was 
doubtless  in  those  days  manifested.  Yet  the  Raven  is  no  mere 
dependant  upon  man,  being  always  able  to  get  a  living  for  itself; 
and  moreover  a  sentiment  of  veneration  or  superstition  has  from 
very  remote  ages  and  among  many  races  of  men  attached  to  it — a 
sentiment  so  strong  as  often  to  overcome  the  feeling  of  distrust  not  to 
say  of  hatred  which  its  deeds  inspired,  and,  though  rapidly  decreas- 
ing, even  to  survive  in  some  places  until  the  present  day.  There 
is  no  need  to  dwell  on  the  association  of  this  bird  with  well-known 
characters  of  history  sacred  or  profane— Noah  or  Elijah,  Odin  or 
Flokki,  the  last  of  whom  by  its  means  discovered  Iceland.  The 
Raven  is  even  said  to  have  played  its  part  in  the  mythology  of  the 
Red  Indian  ;  and  none  can  wonder  that  all  this  should  be  so,  since, 
wherever  it  occurs  and  more  especially  wherever  it  is  numerous,  as 
in  ancient  times  and  in  thinly  peopled  countries  it  must  have  been, 
its  size,  appearance,  and  fearless  habits  Avould  be  sure  to  attract 
especial  attention.  Nor  has  this  attention  wholly  ceased  with  the 
advance  of  enlightenment,  for  both  in  prose  and  verse,  from  the 
time  of  Shakespeare  to  that  of  Poe  and  Dickens,  the  Raven  has 
often  figured,  and  generally  without  the  amount  of  misrepresenta- 
tion which  is  the  fate  of  most  animals  which  celebrated  writers 
condescend  to  notice.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  however,  the 
Raven  has  now  fallen  upon  evil  days.  The  superstitious  reverence 
with  which  it  was  once  regarded  has  all  but  vanished  and  has  been 
very  generally  succeeded  by  persecution,  which  in  many  districts 
has  produced  actual  extirpation,  so  that  it  is  threatened  with  ex- 
tinction, save  in  the  wildest  and  most  unpeopled  districts.1 

The  Raven  breeds  very  early  in  the  year,  in  England 
resorting  to  its  nest,  which  is  usually  an  ancient  if  not  an 
ancestral  structure,  about  the  middle  or  towards  the  end 
of  January.  Therein  are  laid  from  five  to  seven  eggs  of 
the  common  Corvine  coloration  (see  CROW,  vol.  vi.  pp. 
617,  618),  and  the  young  are  hatched  before  the  end  of 
February.  In  more  northern  countries  the  breeding-season 
is  naturally  delayed,  but  everywhere  this  species  is  almost 
if  not  quite  the  earliest  of  birds  to  enter  upon  tKe  business 


1  That  all  lovers  of  nature  should  take  what  steps  they  can  to  arrest 
this  sad  fate  is  a  belief  which  the  present  writer  fully  holds.  With- 
out attempting  to  deny  the  loss  which  in  some  cases  is  inflicted  upon 
the  rearers  of  cattle  by  Ravens,  it  is  an  enormous  mistake  to  suppose 
that  the  neighbourhood  of  a  pair  of  these  birds  is  invariably  detri- 
mental. On  this  point  he  can  speak  from  experience.  For  many 
years  he  had  an  intimate  knowledge  of  a  pair  occupying  an  inland 
locality  surrounded  by  valuable  flocks  of  sheep,  and  abounding  in 
rabbits  and  game,  and  had  ample  opportunities,  which  he  never 
neglected,  of  repeatedly  examining  the  pellets  of  bones  and  exuviae  that 
these,  like  all  other  carnivorous  birds,  cast  up.  He  thus  found  that 
this  pair  of  Ravens  fed  almost  exclusively  on  moles.  Soon  after  he 
moved  from  the  neighbourhood  in  which  they  lived  the  unreasoning 
zeal  of  a  gamekeeper  (against,  it  is  believed,  the  orders  of  his  master) 
put  an  end  to  this  interesting  couple — the  last  of  their  species  which 
inhabited  the  county. 


296 


R  A  V  —  R  A  V 


of  perpetuating  its  kind.  The  Raven  measures  about  26 
inches  in  length,  and  has  an  expanse  of  wing  considerably 
exceeding  a  yard.  Its  bill  and  feet  are  black,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  its  whole  plumage,  but  the  feathers  of 
the  upper  parts  as  well  as  of  the  breast  are  very  glossy,  re- 
flecting a  bright  purple  or  steel-blue.1  The  species  inhabits 
the  whole  of  Europe,  and  the  northern  if  not  the  central 
parts  of  Asia;  but  in  the  latter  continent  its  southern 
range  is  not  well  determined.  In  America  2  it  is,  or  used 
to  be,  found  from  the  shores  of  the  Polar  Sea  to  Guatemala 
if  not  to  Honduras,  but  is  said  hardly  to  be  found  of  late 
years  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  In  Africa 
its  place  is  taken  by  three  allied  but  well-differentiated 
species,  two  of  which  (Corvus  umbrimis,  readily  distin- 
guished by  its  brown  neck,  and  (7.  affinis,3  having  its 
superior  nasal  bristles  upturned  vertically)  also  occur  in 
South-Western  Asia,  while  the  third  (C.  leptonyx  or  C. 
tingitamis,  a  smaller  species  characterized  by  several  slight 
differences)  inhabits  Barbary  and  the  Atlantic  Islands. 
Further  to  the  southward  in  the  Ethiopian  Region  three 
more  species  appear,  whose  plumage  is  varied  with  white 
— C.  scapulatiis,  C.  albicollis,  and  C.  crassirostris — the  first 
two  of  small  size,  but  the  last  rivalling  the  real  Raven  in 
that  respect.  (A.  N.) 

RAVENNA,  chief  city  of  an  Italian  province  of  the 
same  name,  contained  18,571  inhabitants  according  to  the 
census  of  1881.  It  is  situated  in  the  north-east  of  Italy, 
in  44°  25'  N.  lat.  and  12°  12'  E.  long.,  about  4  miles  from 
the  Adriatic,  with  which  it  is  now  connected  by  the  Cor- 
sini  Canal,  the  two  small  rivers  Ronco  and  Montone  no 
longer  serving  as  means  of  communication  between  the 
city  and  the  sea.  A  railway,  26  miles  long,  unites 
Ravenna  with  Castel  Bolognese  on  the  line  from  Bologna 
to  Rimini. 

Ravenna  owes  both  its  great  historic  importance  in  the 
past  and  its  comparative  dulness  and  obscurity  in  the 
present  to  the  same  cause, — its  position  in  an  alluvial 
plain,  formed  and  continually  extended  by  the  deposits 
brought  down  by  a  number  of  small  and  rapid  streams 
from  the  neighbouring  Apennines.  Any  one  who  glances 
at  a  map  of  the  north-western  corner  of  the  Adriatic  will 
see  at  once  the  general  character  of  the  coast, — broad 
lagunes  sometimes  stretching  far  inland ;  flat  alluvial 
plains  intersected  by  endless  dykes ;  numerous  rivers  (of 
which  the  Po  is  by  far  the  largest  and  makes  the  most 
conspicuous  delta)  descending  from  the  Apennines  or  the 
Alps ;  and,  outside  of  all,  a  barrier  of  islands  which  have 
a  continual  tendency  to  become  adherent  to  the  shore 
through  the  new  deposits  which  are  brought  down,  and 
thus  to  be  turned  from  islands  into  low  hills.  This  de- 
scription suits  Venice  nearly  as  well  as  it  suits  Ravenna, 
and  the  chief  difference  between  these  two  great  historic 
cities  is  that  the  lagunes  of  Ravenna  are  about  twenty 
centuries  older  than  those  of  Venice. 

The  one  transcendent  interest  of  Ravenna  to  a  modern 
traveller  consists  in  its  churches.  No  other  city  in  the 
world  offers  so  many  and  such  striking  examples  of  the 
ecclesiastical  architecture  of  the  centuries  from  the  4th  to 
the  8th.  The  stylo  is  commonly  called  Byzantine,  and  no 
doubt  from  the  close  connexion  of  Ravenna  with  Constan- 
tinople considerable  influence  was  exerted  by  the  latter  city 
on  the  former ;  but  some  of  the  most  striking  features  of 
the  churches  of  Ravenna — the  colonnades,  the  mosaics, 


1  Pied  examples  are  not  at  all  uncommon  in  some  localities  and 
wholly  white  varieties  are  said  to  have  been  seen. 

2  American  birds  have  been  described  as  forming  a  distinct  species 
under  the  name  of  Corvus  carnivorus  or  C.  cacolotl. 

3  Mr  Sharpe  (Cat.  B.  Brit.  Museum,  iii.  p.  45)  separates  C.  affinis 
as  forming  a  distinct  genus  Rhinocorax  ;  but  it  is  a  hard  task  on  any 
reasonable  ground  to  break  up  the  genus  Corvus  as  long  accepted  by 
Bystematists. 


perhaps  the  cupolas — are  not  so  much  Byzantine  as  rcpr 
sentative  of  early  Christian  art  generally.     It  is  truly  saic 
by  Mr  Freeman : 
"The  outside  of  a  Ravennese  basilica  is  an  unadorned  and  un- 
attractive pile  of  brick.     If  it  has  any  architectural  grouping  or 
outline  about  it,  it  owes  it  to  the  campanile  which  a  later  age  has 
added.      But  if  the  churches  of  Ravenna  are  thus  unattractive 
without,  they  are  emphatically  all  glorious  within.     The  eye  dwell 
with  genuine  artistic  delight  on  the  long  unbroken  rows  of  pillar 
and  arches,  their  marble  shafts,  their  floriated  capitals,  sometime 
the  work  of  the  Christian  craftsman,  sometimes  the  spoils  of  heathen- 
dom pressed  into  the  service  of  the  sanctuary.  .  .  .  The  whole 
plan  of  these  buildings  allows  a  great  field  for  void  spaces  ;  but  tr, 
void  spaces  thus  left  are  filled  up  by  these  wonderful  mosaic  pair 
ings  which  look  down  upon  us  as  fresh  as  they  were  thirteen  hundr 
years  back." 

Every  traveller  to  Ravenna  is  impressed  by  the  vivi 
ness  of  these  decorations,  which  were  older  when  Giotto 
painted  his  first  fresco  than  Giotto's  frescos  are  now ;  but 
we  can  here  only  allude  to  the  subject,  referring  the  reader 
to  the  article  MOSAIC  (vol.  xvi.  p.  852  sq.). 

The  following  are  the  most  important  churches  ol 
Ravenna,  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  dates  generally 
attributed  to  them  : — 


Church. 

Builder. 

Date. 

1.  Metropolitan  Church,  or  Ecclesia  Ur- 
siana,  and  baptistery  adjoining 
2    8  Giovanni  Evangelista  

S.  Ursus    

370-390  (?)  | 

425 
about  430 
about  450 
>i 

about  458 
493-526 

about  530 
about  535 
worship.) 

Galla  Placidia  

3.  S.  Agata    
4.  S.  Pier  Crysologo  (chapel)  

Gemellus  
S.  Peter  Chrysologus  .  . 
Baduarius  
Galla  Placidia  

5.  S.  Giovanni  Battista  
6.  88.  Nazario  e  Celso   

7.  S.  Pier  Maggiore  (now  S.  Francesco).  . 
8.  8.  Teodoro  (now  Santo  Spiri  to)  —  A.  .. 
9.  S.  Maria  in  Cosmodin  (Arian  bap- 
tistery)— A. 
10.  S.  Martino  in  Coelo  Aureo  (now  S. 
Apollinare  Nuovo)  —  A. 
11.  S.  Vitale   

Bishop  Neon  (?)  
Theodoric  (?)      

Julianus  Argentarius.  . 
Bishon  Rr.filesins     . 

12.  S.  Maria  Maggiore  

13.  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe  Julianus  Argentarius  .  . 
(The  churches  marked  A.  were  originally  erected  for  the  Arian 

The  cathedral  (No.  1)  has  been  so  much  modernized  as  to  have 
lost  its  interest ;  but  the  baptistery  adjoining  it,  decorated  by 
Bishops  Neon  and  Maximiau  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries,  an 
octagonal  building  with  mosaics  of  the  apostles  on  the  roof,  is  still 
unspoiled.  SS.  Nazario  e  Celso  (No.  6)  is  a  little  building  in  the 
form  of  a  Latin  cross,  and  is  better  known  as  the  mausoleum  of 
Galla  Placidia,  whose  tomb  and  those  of  three  emperors,  her  hus- 
band, brother,  and  son,  are  deposited  here.  It  is  surmounted  with 
a  cupola  surrounded  with  four  semi-domes,  on  which  are  depicted 
figures  of  the  Good  Shepherd  with  His  sheep,  of  evangelists, 
prophets,  &c.,  and  two  stags  drinking  at  a  fountain.  S.  Apollinare 
Nuovo  (No.  10)  has  above  the  arches  of  the  nave  what  is  perhaps 
the  greatest  triumph  of  mosaic  art,  two  processions  of  virgins  and 
of  martyrs  marching,  the  former  from  the  city  of  Classis,  the  latter 
from  the  palace  of  Theodoric,  to  the  Saviour.  In  the  former  group 
Christ  sits  upon  the  lap  of  His  mother,  and  the  Magi  are  interposed 
between  Him  and  the  procession  of  virgins.  In  the  latter  He  is  en- 
throned in  glory  and  guarded  by  four  ministrant  angels.  S.  Vitale 
(No.  11)  is  doubly  interesting  as  having  furnished  the  model  after 
which  Charles  the  Great  built  his  imperial  minster  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
and  as  containing  full-length  contemporary  portraits  in  mosaic  of 
Justinian  and  Theodora,  surrounded  by  ecclesiastics,  courtiers,  and 
soldiers  of  the  guard.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  dome,  is  circular  in  form, 
and  has  eight  apsidal  chapels  all  round  it,  one  of  which,  correspond- 
ing to  the  choir  in  an  ordinary  church,  is  prolonged  to  about  four 
times  the  length  of  the  other  apses.  Unfortunately,  only  in  this 
choir  have  the  mosaics  been  preserved,  but  they  are  of  the  highest 
possible  interest.  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe  (No.  13),  once  the  centre 
of  a  busy  population  of  sailors,  shopkeepers,  and  dock -labourers, 
now  stands  absolutely  alone  in  a  wide  and  desolate  expanse  2  miles 
from  the  sea.  The  decorations  of  the  church  have  suffered  from  damp 
— there  are  frequently  some  inches  of  water  on  the  pavement—  but 
the  twenty-four  stately  marble  columns  with  Corinthian  capitals 
form  a  magnificent  prelude  to  an  apse  covered  with  mosaics,  among 
which  is  conspicuous  a  great  jewelled  cross,  symbolizing  the  Saviour 
on  the  Mount  of  Transfiguration  ;  Moses  and  Elias  lean  forth  from 
the  clouds  on  either  side,  and  in  the  valley  below  the  apostles  wait, 
represented  symbolically  as  sheep.  Many  mosaic  portraits  of 
bishops  of  Ravenna  are  on  the  walls  of  the  church,  and  a  mosaic 
picture,  representing  Constantino  Pogonatus  and  his  brothers  be- 
stowing a  privilegium  on  Bishop  Reparatus  about  the  year  670. 

History. — Strabo  mentions  a  tradition  that  Ravenna  was  founded 
by  Thessalians,  who  afterwards,  finding  themselves  pressed  on  by 


R  A  V  — R  A  V 


297 


the  Etrurians,  called  in  their  Umbrian  neighbours  and  eventually 
departed,  leaving  the  city  to  their  allies.  Throughout  the  valley 
of  the  Po  the  Gauls  took  the  place  of  the  Etrurians  as  a  conquer- 
ing power  ;  but  Ravenna  may  possibly  have  retained  its  Umbrian 
character  until,  about  the  year  191  B.C.,  by  the  conquest  of  the 
Boii  the  whole  of  this  region  passed  definitely  under  the  dominion 
of  Rome.  Either  as  a  colonia  or  a  municipium,  Ravenna  remained 
for  more  than  two  centuries  an  inconsiderable  city  of  Gallia  Cis- 
alpina,  chiefly  noticeable  as  the  place  to  which  Csesar  during  his 
ten  years'  command  in  Gaul  frequently  resorted  in  order  to  confer 
with  his  friends  from  Rome.  At  length  under  Augustus  it  suddenly 
rose  into  importance,  when  that  emperor  selected  it  as  the  station 
for  his  fleet  on  "the  upper  sea."  Two  hundred  and  fifty  ships, 
said  Dion  (in  a  lost  passage  quoted  by  Jordanes),  could  ride  at 
anchor  in  its  harbour.  Strabo,  writing  probably  a  few  years  after 
Ravenna  had  been  thus  selected  as  a  naval  arsenal,  gives  us  a 
description  of  its  appearance  which  certainly  corresponds  more 
closely  with  modern  Venice  than  with  modern  Ravenna.  "It  is 
the  largest  of  all  the  cities  built  in  the  lagunes,  but  entirely  com- 
posed of  wooden  houses,  penetrated  in  all  directions  by  canals, 
wherefore  bridges  and  boats  are  needed  for  the  wayfarer.  At  the 
flow  of  the  tide  a  large  part  of  the  sea  comes  sweeping  into  it,  and 
thus,  while  all  the  muddy  deposit  of  the  rivers  is  swept  away,  the 
malaria  is  at  the  same  time  removed,  and  by  this  means  the  city 
enjoys  so  good  a  sanitary  reputation  that  the  Government  has 
fixed  on  it  as  a  place  for  the  reception  and  training  of  gladiators. " 
On  the  other  hand,  good  water  was  proverbially  difficult  to  obtain 
at  Ravenna, — dearer  than  wine,  says  Martial,  who  has  two  epigrams 
on  the  subject.  And  Sidouius,  writing  in  the  5th  century,  com- 
plains bitterly  of  the  "feculent  gruel  "  (cloacalis puls]  which  filled 
the  canals  of  the  city,  and  which  gave  forth  fetid  odours  when 
stirred  by  the  poles  of  the  bargemen.  The  port  of  Ravenna, 
situated  about  3  miles  from  the  city,  was  named  Classis.  A  long 
line  of  houses  called  Caesarea  connected  it  with  Ravenna,  and  in 
process  of  time  there  was  such  a  continuous  series  of  buildings  that 
the  three  towns  seemed  like  one. 

The  great  historical  importance  of  Ravenna  begins  early  in  the 
5th  century,  when  Honorius,  alarmed  by  the  progress  of  Alaric  in 
the  north  of  Italy,  transferred  his  court  to  the  city  in  the  lagunes. 
From  this  date  (c.  402)  to  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire  in  476 
Ravenna  was,  though  not  the  exclusive,  the  chief  residence  of  the 
Roman  emperors  and  the  centre  of  the  elaborate  machinery  of  the 
state.  Here  Stilicho  was  slain  ;  here  Honorius  and  his  sister 
Placidia  caressed  and  quarrelled  ;  here  Valentinian  III.  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  useless  life ;  here  Majorian  was  proclaimed  ; 
here  the  Little  Romulus  donned  his  purple  robe  ;  here  in  the  pine- 
wood  *  outside  the  city  his  uncle  Paulus  received  his  decisive  defeat 
from  Odoacer.  Through  all  these  changes  Ravenna  maintained  its 
character  as  an  impregnable  "city  in  the  sea,"  not  easily  to  be 
attacked  even  by  a  naval  power  on  account  of  the  shallowness  and 
devious  nature  of  the  channels  by  which  it  had  to  be  approached. 
On  becoming  supreme  ruler  of  Italy  Odoacer,  like  the  emperors 
who  had  gone  before  him,  made  Ravenna  his  chief  place  of 
residence,  and  here  after  thirteen  years  of  kingship  he  shut  himself 
up  when  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth  had  invaded  Italy  and  defeated 
him  in  two  battles.  Theodoric's  siege  of  Ravenna  lasted  for  three 
years  (489-492)  and  was  marked  by  one  bloody  encounter  in  the 
pine-wood  on  the  east  of  it.  The  Ostrogoth  collected  a  fleet  and 
established  a  severe  blockade,  which  at  length  caused  Odoacer  to 
surrender  the  city.  The  terms,  arranged  through  the  intervention 
of  John,  archbishop  of  Ravenna,  were  not  observed  by  Theodoric, 
who,  ten  clays  after  his  entry  into  the  city,  slew  his  rival  at  a 
banquet  in  the  palace  of  the  Laurel  Grove  (15th  March  493). 
Ravenna  was  Theodoric's  chief  place  of  residence,  and  the  thirty- 
three  years  of  the  reign  of  the  great  Ostrogoth  (493-526)  may  prob- 
ably be  considered  the  time  of  its  greatest  splendour.  In  the 
eastern  part  of  the  city  he  built  for  himself  a  large  palace,  which 
probably  occupied  about  a  sixth  of  the  space  now  enclosed  within 
the  city  walls,  or  nearly  the  whole  of  the  rectangle  enclosed  by 
Strada  di  Porta  Alberoui  on  the  south,  Strada  Nuova  di  Porta 
Serrata  on.  the  west,  and  the  line  of  the  city  walls  on  the  north 
and  east.  There  still  remains  close  to  the  first-named  street  and 
fronting  the  Corso  Garibaldi  a  high  wall  built  of  square  Roman 
bricks,  with  pillars  and  arched  recesses  in  the  upper  portion,  which 
goes  by  the  name  of  Palazzo  di  Teodorico.  Freeman,  on  account  of 
the  Romanesque  character  of  the  architecture,  thinks  it  probable 
that  it  really  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Lombard  kings  ;  but  at 

1  The  great  pine-wood  to  the  east  of  the  city,  which,  though  injured 
by  an  unusually  severe  winter  and  threatened  by  a  projected  railway, 
is  still  one  of  the  great  glories  of  Ravenna,  must  therefore  have  been 
in  existence  already  in  the  5th  century.  Byron's  description, 

"  [The]  immemorial  wood 

Rooted  where  once  the  Adrian  wave  flowed  o'er," 

is  probably  true  ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  in  historic  time 
that  this  change  took  place.  Our  conjecture  is  that  the  Pineta  grew 
on  a  large  peninsula  somewhat  resembling  the  Lido  of  Venice. 


any  rate  it  is  of  the  very  early  mediseval  period,  and  it  marks  the 
spot  where  part  of  the  Ostrogothic  palace  once  stood.  A  more 
memorable  and  clearly  authentic  monument  of  Theodoric  is  fur- 
nished by  his  tomb,  a  massive  mausoleum  in  the  style  of  the  tomb 
of  Hadrian  at  Rome,  which  stands  still  perfect  outside  the  walls 
near  the  north-east  corner  of  the  city.  It  is  of  circular  shape  and 
surmounted  by  an  enormous  monolith,  brought  from  the  quarries 
of  Istria  and  weighing  more  than  300  tons.  In  this  mausoleum 
Theodoric  was  buried,  but  his  body  was  cast  forth  from  it,  perhaps 
during  the  troublous  times  of  the  siege  of  Ravenna  by  the  imperial 
troops,  and  the  Rotunda  (as  it  is  now  generally  called)  was  con- 
verted into  a  church  dedicated  to  the  Virgin. 

Nine  years  after  the  death  of  Theodoric  Justinian  sent  an  army 
to  Italy,  nominally  in  order  to  avenge  the  murder  of  Theodoric's 
daughter  Amalasuntha,  but  in  fact  to  destroy  the  Gothic  monarchy 
and  restore  Italy  to  the  empire.  Long  after  the  Goths  had  lost 
Rome  they  still  clung  to  Ravenna,  till  at  length,  weary  of  the 
feebleness  and  ill-success  of  their  own  king,  Vitiges,  and  struck 
with  admiration  of  their  heroic  conqueror,  they  offered  to  transfer 
their  allegiance  to  Belisarius  on  condition  of  his  assuming  the 
diadem  of  the  Western  empire.  Belisarius  dallied  with  the  pro- 
posal until  he  had  obtained  an  entrance  for  himself  and  his  troops 
within  the  walls  of  the  capital,  and  then  threw  off  the  mask  and 
proclaimed  his  inviolable  fidelity  to  Justinian.  Thus  in  the  year 
540  was  Ravenna  re-united  to  the  Roman  empire.  Its  connexion 
with  that  empire — or,  in  other  words,  its  dependence  upon  Con- 
stantinople— lasted  for  more  than  200  years,  during  which  period, 
under  the  rule  of  Narses  and  his  successors  the  exarchs,  Ravenna 
was  the  seat  of  Byzantine  dominion  in  Italy.  In  728  the  Lombard 
king  Luitprand  took  the  suburb  Classis  ;  about  752  the  city  itself 
fell  into  the  hands  of  his  successor  Aistulf,  from  whom  a  few  years 
after  it  was  wrested  by  Pippin,  king  of  the  Franks.  By  this  time 
the  former  splendour  of  the  city  had  probably  in  great  measure 
departed  ;  the  alteration  of  the  coast-line  and  the  filling  up  of  the 
lagunes  which  make  it  now  practically  an  inland  city  had  probably 
commenced,  and  no  historical  importance  attaches  to  its  subsequent 
fortunes.  It  formed  part  of  the  Fraukish  king's  donation  to  the 
pope  in  the  middle  of  the  8th  century.  It  was  an  independent 
republic,  generally  taking  the  Guelf  side  in  the  13th  century, 
subject  to  rulers  of  the  house  of  Polentani  in  the  14th,  Venetian  in 
the  15th  (1441),  and  papal  again  in  the  16th, — Pope  Julius  II. 
having  succeeded  in  wresting  it  from  the  hands  of  the  Venetians. 
From  this  time  (1509)  down  to  our  own  days,  except  for  the  inter- 
ruptions caused  by  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution,  Ravenna 
continued  subject  to  the  papal  see  and  was  governed  by  a  cardinal 
legate.  In  1859  it  was  one  of  the  first  cities  to  give  its  vote  in 
favour  of  Italian  unity,  and  it  has  since  then  formed  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  period  thus  rapidly  sketched  Charles  the 
Great  visited  the  city  and  carried  off  the  brazen  statue  of  Theodoric 
and  the  marble  columns  of  his  palace  to  his  own  new  palace  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle.  More  than  five  centuries  later  (1320)  Dante  became 
the  guest  of  Guido  Novello  di  Polenta,  lord  of  Ravenna,  and  here 
he  died  on  the  14th  September  of  the  following  year.  The  marble 
urn  containing  the  body  of  the  poet  still  rests  at  Ravenna,  where 
what  Byron  calls  "a  little  cupola  more  neat  than  solemn  "has 
been  erected  over  it.  In  1512  the  French  army  under  Gaston  de 
Foix  fought  a  fierce  battle  with  the  Spanish,  Venetian,  and  papal 
troops  on  the  banks  of  the  Ronco  about  2  miles  from  Ravenna. 
The  French  were  victorious,  but  Gaston  fell  in  the  act  of  pursuing 
the  enemy.  His  death  is  commemorated  by  the  Colonna  dei 
Francesi  erected  on  the  spot  where  he  fell.  Lord  Byron  resided  at 
Ravenna  for  eighteen  months  in  1820-21,  attracted  by  the  charms 
of  the  countess  Guiccioli. 

Literature. — The  most  important  authority  for  the  history  of  Ravenna  is 
Bishop  Agnellus,  who  wrote  about  840,  in  very  bad  Latin,  the  Liber  Pontificalia 
Ecclesiee  Ravennatis.  It  is  printed  in  vol.  ii.  of  Muratori's  Rer.  Hal.  Scriptores, 
but  much  the  best  edition  is  that  by  Holder-Egger  iu  the  Monumenta  Germanise 
Historica  (1878).  Rubeus  (Hist.  Ravennatum  Libri  Decem,  Venice,  1599)  seems 
to  have  had  access  to  some  authorities  besides  Agnellus  which  are  now 
lost.  Ciampini  (Vetera  Monumenta,  1690-99,  and  Synopsis  Historica,  1693)  gives 
some  fair  representations  of  the  mosaics,  and  Quast's  Ravenna  (Berlin,  1842)  is 
a  careful  and  well-illustrated  monograph.  Dr  Ricci,  in  a  popular  guide,  Ra- 
venna e  i  swot  Dintorni  (187S),  has  included  some  of  the  results  of  a  very  careful 
study  of  the  antiquities  of  his  native  city.  Professor  Freeman's  essay  The 
Goths  at  Ravenna  is  the  best  account  in  English  of  the  city  in  its  historical 
connexion,  and  Mr  J.  A.  Symonds  in  his  Sketches  in  Italy  and  Greece  has  grace- 
fully touched  on  its  picturesque  qualities  and  literary  associations.  (T.  H.) 

RAVENSBURG,  an  industrial  town  of  Wiirtemberg, 
is  pleasantly  situated  amid  vine-clad  hills  on  the  small 
river  Schussen,  12  miles  to  the  north  of  Friedrichshafen 
on  the  Lake  of  Constance.  Its  aspect  is  quaint  and 
mediseval,  and  above  its  houses  rise  nine  picturesque 
towers,  the  most  prominent  of  which,  dating  from  the 
15th  century,  is  known  as  the  "Mehlsack"  or  sack  of 
flour.  The  town-house  is  also  a  15th-century  building. 
The  industrial  products  of  Ravensburg  are  varied,  includ- 

XX.  —  38 


L'lKS 


R  A  W  —  R  A  W 


ing  linen,  cotton,  embroidered  muslins,  pottery,  glass,  and 
playing-cards.  The  fruit  market  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance, and  trade  is  also  carried  on  in  cattle,  grain, 
and  wood.  The  population  in  1880  was  10,550,  of  whom 
2620  were  Protestants. 

Ravensburg  was  founded  in  the  llth  century  by  the  Guelfs, 
one  of  whose  ancestral  castles  lay  on  the  Veitsberg,  to  the  south 
of  the  town.  In  1180  the  town  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Hohenstaufens,  and  a  century  later  it  became  a  free  town  of  the 
empire.  Annexed  to  Bavaria  from  1803  to  1810,  it  was  ceded  to 
"\Viirtemberg  in  the  latter  year. 

RAWAL  PINDf  or  RAWUL  PINDEE,  a  district  of  British 
India,  in  the  division  of  the  same  name, 1  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  lieutenant-governor  of  the  Punjab,  lying 
between  33°  and  34°  N.  lat.  and  71°  46' and  73°  41'  E. 
long.  It  is  situated  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  north- 
western extremities  of  the  Himalayas,  and  contains  large 
mountain  tracts,  with  rich  valleys  traversed  by  many  moun- 
tain torrents.  Its  area  is  4861  square  miles ;  it  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Hazara  district,  on  the  E.  by  the  river 
Jhelum,  on  the  S.  by  Jhelum  district,  and  on  the  W.  by 
the  Indus.  From  its  north-eastern  extremity  to  its  western 
limits  the  district  is  traversed  by  hills  more  or  less  linked 
together,  causing  those  peculiarities  of  surface  and  of 
climate  by  which  it  is  distinguished.  The  eastern  range, 
known  locally  as  the  Murree  (Marri)  Hills,  from  the  sana- 
torium erected  at  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  dis- 
trict, is  a  continuation  of  the  great  Himalayan  system ;  it 
descends  in  a  southerly  and  westerly  direction,  and  is 
clothed  with  magnificent  forest  trees  and  a  rich  under- 
growth of  brushwood.  Southward  these  hills  follow  the 
course  of  the  Jhelum,  decreasing  in  height,  but  gaining  in 
picturesqueness  what  they  lose  in  sublimity,  until  they 
subside  into  a  comparatively  level  country.  The  mountains 
in  the  western  half  of  the  district  belong  to  the  trans-Indus 
system ;  the  chief  range,  known  as  the  Chitta  Pahar  or 
White  Hills,  is  composed  chiefly  of  nummulitic  limestone. 
To  the  north  lies  the  fertile  valley  of  Chach,  one  of  the 
rare  oases  which  relieve  the  wildness  of  this  savage  waste. 
The  Indus  and  the  Jhelum  are  the  chief  rivers  of  Rawal 
Pindf.  The  former  bounds  the  district  along  its  whole 
western  edge,  where  it  is  very  picturesque,  and  in  parts 
navigable  for  steamers ;  the  latter,  forming  the  eastern 
frontier,  is  equally  picturesque  though  less  important  for 
navigation.  Other  chief  rivers  are  the  Sohan  and  the 
Haroh,  both  tributaries  of  the  Indus.  The  climate  of 
Rawal  Pindi  is  noted  for  its  salubrity ;  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  69°'4,  and  the  average  annual  rainfall  33'15 
inches.  The  Punjab  Northern  State  Railway  runs  through 
its  whole  length,  with  a  branch  from  Golra  junction,  north 
of  the  town  of  Rawal  Pindf,  to  Khusalgari  on  the  western 
frontier. 

The  population  in  1881  was  820,512  (males  449,287,  females 
371,225),  Hindus  numbering  86,162,  Mohammedans  711,546,  Sikhs 
17,780,  Christians  3822,  and  "others"  202.  The  only  town  with 
a  population  exceeding  10,000  is  the  capital  (see  below).  The 
inhabitants  are  mostly  scattered  in  small  hamlets  over  the  surface 
of  the  country.  The  staple  product  is  wheat  in  the  spring  and 
bajra  in  the  autumn.  Inferior  grains  are  giving  place  to  more 
valuable  cereals,  and  to  cotton  and  potatoes.  Of  the  total  area  1517 
square  miles  are  cultivated  and  379  cultivable.  Owing  to  the 
rugged  nature  of  the  country  there  is  very  little  commerce,  and 
that  little  is  concentrated  principally  at  the  headquarters  town. 
Imports  consist  of  sugar,  spices,  cotton  goods,  and  salt ;  while 
exports  are  confined  to  the  raw  materials  of  agriculture.  The  only 
manufacture  of  any  importance  is  cotton-weaving.  The  total 
revenue  of  the  district  in  1882-83  was  £105,316,  of  which  the  land- 
tax  yielded  £68,715. 

Rawal  Pindi  with  the  rest  of  the  Sikh  dominions  passed  to  the 
British  in  1849,  under  whose  administration  it  enjoyed  compara- 
tive peace  until  the  mutiny  in  1857.  The  events  of  that  year 


1  Rawal  Pindi  division  comprises  the  four  districts  of  Rawal  Pindi, 
Jhelum,  Gujrdt,  and  Shahpur,  with  a  total  area  of  15,435  square 
miles  and  a  total  population  (1881)  of  2,520,508  (males  1,346,573, 
females  1,173,935). 


afforded  an  outlet  for  the  smouldering  passions  engendered  bj 
ancestral  feuds,  and  the  Murree  Hills  became  the  scene  of  an 
attempted  insurrection.  The  authorities,  however,  having  li«,n 
warned  of  this  by  a  faithful  native,  took  steps  for  defence,  so  that 
when  the  enemy  arrived  they  were  compelled  to  withdraw  in  dis- 
order, and  they  shortly  afterwards  disbanded  themselves.  Since 
then  the  district  has  remained  comparatively  tranquil.  Among 
recent  events  is  the  great  durbar  held  by  the  viceroy  of  India  flvu  1 
Dufferin)  on  8th  April  1885  in  honour  of  the  amir  of  Afghanistan 
(Abdur  Rahman).  The  district  abounds  in  objects  of  great  anti- 
quarian interest,  chief  of  which  are  those  of  Dehri  Shahan  (or 
Shah  Dheri),  a  village  situated  in  33°  17'  N.  lat.  and  72°  49'  E.  long. 
Dehri  Shahan  has  been  identified  with  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Taxila  or  Takshasila,  which  in  the  time  of  Alexander  was  "a  large 
and  wealthy  city,  the  most  populous  between  the  Indus  and 
Hydaspes"  (Jhelum).  The  ruins  of  Taxila  consist  of  several  dis- 
tinct portions,  and  rank  as  the  most  interesting,  extensive,  and 
best  preserved  memorials  of  antiquity  in  the  Punjab  province. 

RAWAL  PINDi  or  RAWTJL  PINDEE,  principal  town  and 
administrative  headquarters  of  the  above  district,  lies  in 
33°  37'  N.  lat.  and  73°  6'  E.  long.  The  .present  town  is 
of  modern  origin ;  it  is  well  built  and  has  an  air  of  con- 
siderable prosperity ;  its  streets  are  broad  and  handsome, 
and  several  fine  buildings  add  to  its  appearance.  It  is 
chiefly  a  grain  mart.  The  population  of  the  town  in  1881 
was  52,975  (35,985  males  and  16,990  females). 

RAWANDtS.     See  MOHAMMEDANISM,  vol.  xvi.  p.  579. 

RAWITSCH  (Polish  fiavicz),  a  small  manufacturing 
town  of  Prussia  in  the  province  of  Posen,  lies  near  the 
Silesian  frontier,  37  miles  to  the  north  of  Breslau.  It 
is  regularly  built  and  contains  a  handsome  Protestant 
church  and  a  substantial  town-hall.  The  principal  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  snuff  and  cigars,  for  the  first  of 
which  in  particular  it  enjoys  a  considerable  reputation. 
Trade  is  carried  on  in  grain,  wool,  cattle,  hides,  and 
timber.  The  population  in  1880  was  12,260,  made  up  of 
7587  Protestants,  3539  Roman  Catholics,  and  1123  Jews. 
Rawitsch  is  of  comparatively  modern  origin,  having  been 
founded  by  Protestant  refugees  from  Silesia  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War. 

RAWMARSH,  a  large  village  and  urban  sanitary  dis- 
trict in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated  on  the 
ridge  of  a  hill  above  the  valley  of  the  Don  and  on  the 
Midland  Railway,  2  miles  north  of  Rotherham  and  12 
south-west  of  Doncaster.  It  possesses  extensive  iron-works 
and  steel  rolling-mills,  and  there  are  collieries  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  church  of  St  Lawrence  was  rebuilt 
in  1839  with  the  exception  of  the  old  Norman  tower. 
There  are  several  almshouses  and  other  charities.  At  the 
time  of  the  Conquest  the  manor  was  granted  to  Walter 
d'Eincourt,  and  in  the  12th  century  it  was  divided  among 
the  three  daughters  of  his  subinfeudatory  Paganus,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  church.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area,  2578  acres) 
in  1871  was  6869,  and  in  1881  it  was  10,179. 

RAWTENSTALL,  a  town  of  east  Lancashire,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway,  8  miles 
north  of  Bury  and  12  south-east  of  Blackburn.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  century  it  contained  only  a  few  houses, 
but  since  the  rise  of  the  manufacturing  industry  it  has 
steadily  increased,  till  it  is  now  a  considerable  town.  The 
cotton  and  woollen  mills  are  very  extensive,  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  there  are  stone  quarries.  The  church  of 
St  Mary,  in  the  Gothic  style,  erected  in  1837,  has  lately 
been  restored  ;  and  several  of  the  denominational  chapels 
are  large  and  handsome  buildings.  The  town  has  also  good 
schools.  There  is  a  public  cemetery,  15  acres  in  extent. 
Near  the  town  is  the  Haslingden  Union  workhouse,  erected 
in  1869.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area,  1667  acres)  in  1871  was  estimated  at  11,307,  and 
in  1881  it  was  12,571.  Now  (1885)  by  the  incorporation 
of  Newchurch,  Goodshaw,  and  Crawshaw  Booth  the  popu- 
lation is  over  30,000. 


RAY 


299 


RAY.  The  Rays  (Batoidei)  together  with  the  Sharks 
(Selac/toidei)  form  the  suborder  Plagiostomata  of  Cartila- 
ginous fishes,  and  are  divided  into  six  families,  as  already 
noticed  in  ICHTHYOLOGY,  vol.  xii.  pp.  685,  686. 

The  first  family  contains  only  the  Saw-fishes  (Pristis),  of  which 
five  species  are  known,  from  tropical  and  subtropical  seas.  Although 
saw-fishes  possess  all  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  rays  proper, 
they  retain  the  elongate  form  of  the  body  of  sharks,  the  tail  being 
excessively  muscular  and  the  sole  organ  of  locomotion.  The 

protruding  intestines.  The 


"saw"  (fig.  1)  is  a  flat 
and  enormously  devel- 
oped prolongation  of  the 
snout,  with  an  endo- 
skeleton  which  consists 
of  from  three  to  five  carti- 
laginous tubes ;  these  are, 
in  fact,  merely  the  rostral 
processes  of  the  cranial 
cartilage  and  are  found 
in  all  rays,  though  they 
are  commonly  much 
shorter.  The  integument 
of  the  saw  is  hard,  covered 
with  shagreen ;  and  a 
series  of  strong  teeth, 
sharp  in  front,  and  flat 
behind,  are  embedded  in 
it,  in  alveolar  sockets,  on 
each  side.  The  saw  is  a 
most  formidable  weapon  , 
of  offence,  by  means  of 
which  the  fish  tears  pieces 
of  flesh  off  the  body  of  its 
victim,  or  rips  open  its 
abdomen  to  feed  on  the 


teeth  proper,  with  which  the 
mouth  is  armed,  are  ex- 
tremely small  and  obtuse, 
and  unsuitable  for  inflicting 
wounds  or  seizing  animals. 
Saw-fishes  are  abundant  in 
the  tropics ;  in  their  stomach 
pieces  of  intestines  and  frag- 
ments of  cuttle-fish  have 
been  found.  They  grow  to 
a  large  size,  specimens  with 
saws  6  feet  long  and  1  foot 
broad  at  the  base  being  of 
common  occurrence. 

The  rays  of  the  second 
.  family,  Rhinobalidas,  bear  a 
,  strong  resemblance  to  the 
saw -fishes,  but  lack  the 
'  saw.  Their  teeth  are  con- 
;  sequently  more  developed, 
flat,  obtuse,  and  adapted  for 
crushing  hard-shelled  mar- 
ine animals.  There  are 
about  sixteen  species,  from 
k  tropical  seas. 


Fia.  1. — Pristis  perrotteti. 

The  third  family,  Torpcdinidss,  includes  the  Electric  Rays.  The 
peculiar  organ  (fig.  2)  by  which  the  electricity  is  produced  has  been 
described  in  vol.  xii.  p.  650.  The  fish  uses  this  power  voluntarily 
either  to  defend  itself  or  to  stun  or  kill  the  smaller  animals  on 
which  it  feeds.  To  receive  the  shock  the  object  must  complete 
the  galvanic  circuit  by  communicating  with  the  fish  at  two  distinct 
points,  either  directly  or  through  the  medium  of  some  conducting 
body.  The  electric  currents  created  in  these  fishes  exercise  all  the 
other  known  powers  of  electricity  :  they  render  the  needle  mag- 
netic, decompose  chemical  compounds,  and  emit  the  spark.  The 
dorsal  surface  of  the  electric  organ  is  positive,  the  ventral  negative. 
Shocks  accidentally  given  to  persons  are  severely  felt,  and,  if  pro- 
ceeding from  a  large  healthy  fish,  will  temporarily  paralyse  the 
arms  of  a  strong  man.  The  species  of  the  genus  Torpedo,  six  or 
seven  in  number,  are  distributed  over  the  coasts  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Indian  Ocean,  and  two  reach  northwards  to  the  coasts  of  Great 
Britain  (T.  marmorata  and  T.  hcbetans).  They  are  said  to  attain 
to  a  weight  of  from  80  to  100  Ib,  but  fortunately  such  gigantic 
specimens  are  scarce,  and  prefer  sandy  ground  at  some  distance 
from  the  shore,  where  they  are  not  disturbed  by  the  violent  agita- 


tion of  the  surface-water.      Other  genera,  comprising  species  of 
smaller  size,  inhabit  different  parts  of  the  tropical  and  subtropical 


FIG.  2. — Torpedo  tmrce  (Mediterranean).     A  portion  of  the  skin  on 
the  left  side  has  been  removed  to  show  the  electric  organ. 

seas.  All  the  rays  of  this  family  have,  like  electric  fishes  generally, 
a  smooth  and  naked  body. 

The  fourth  family,  Raiidss,  comprises  the  Skates  and  Rays  proper, 
or  Raia.  More  than  thirty  species  are  known,  chiefly  from  the 
temperate  seas  of  both  hemispheres,  but  much  more  numerously  from 
the  northern  than  the  southern.  A  few  species  descend  to  a 
depth  of  nearly  600  fathoms,  without,  however,  essentially  differing 
from  their  surface  congeners.  Rays,  as  is  sufficiently  indicated  by 
the  shape  of  their  body,  are  bottom-fishes,  living  on  flat  sandy 
ground,  generally  at  no  great  distance  from  the  coast  or  the  surface. 
They  lead  a  sedentary  life,  progressing,  like  the  flat-fishes,  by  an 
undulatory  motion  of  the  greatly  extended  pectoral  fins,  the  thin 
slender  tail  having  entirely  lost  the  function  of  an  organ  of  locomo- 
tion, and  acting  merely  as  a  rudder.  They  are  carnivorous  and 
feed  exclusively  on  molluscs,  crustaceans,  and  fishes.  Some  of  the 
species  possess  a  much  larger  and  more  pointed  snout  than  the 
others,  and  are  popularly  distinguished  as  "skates."  The  follow- 
ing are  known  as  inhabitants  of  the  British  seas : — (a)  Short- 
snouted  species :  (1)  the  Thornback  (R.  clavata),  (2)  the  Homelyn 
Ray  (R.  maculata),  (3)  the  Starry  Ray  (R.  radiata),  (4)  the  Sandy 
Ray  (R.  circularis) ;  (b)  Long-snouted  species,  or  Skates :  (5)  the 
Common  Skate  (R.  batis),  (6)  the  Flapper  Skate  (R.  macrorhynchus), 
(7)  the  Burton  Skate  (R.  marginata),  (8)  and  (9)  the  Shagreen 
Skates  (R.  vomer  and  R.  fullonica).  A  deep-sea  species  (R.  hyper- 
borea)  has  recently  been  discovered  near  the  Faroe  Islands  at  600 
fathoms.  Most  of  the  skates  and  rays  are  eaten,  except  during 
the  breeding  season  ;  and  even  the  young  of  the  former  are  esteemed 
as  food.  The  skates  attain  to  a  much  larger  size  than  the  rays,  viz., 
to  a  width  of  6  feet  and  a  weight  of  400  and  500  Ib. 

The  members  of  the  fifth  family,  Trygonidse  or  Sting-rays,  are 
distinguished  from  the  rays  proper  by  having  the  vertical  fins 
replaced  by  a  strong  spine  attached  to  the  upper  side  of  the  tail. 
Some  forty  species  are  known,  which  inhabit  tropical  more  than 
temperate  seas.  The  spine  is  barbed  on  the  sides  and  is  a  most 
effective  weapon  of  defence  ;  by  lashing  the  tail  in  every  direction 
the  sting-rays  can  inflict  dangerous  or  at  least  extremely  painful 
wounds.  The  danger  arises  from  the  lacerated  nature  of  the  wound 
as  well  as  from  the  poisonous  property  of  the  mucus  inoculated. 
Generally  only  one  or  two  spines  are  developed.  Sting-rays  attain 
to  about  the  same  size  as  the  skates  and  are  eaten  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  elsewhere.  One  species  (Trygon  pastinaca] 
is  not  rarely  found  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  extends  northwards 
to  the  coasts  of  Ireland,  England,  and  Norway. 


300 


RAY 


The  rays  of  the  sixth  and  last  family,  Mylidbatidse,  are  popularly 
known  under  various  names,  such  as  "Devil-fishes,"  "Sea-devils," 
and  ' '  Eagle-rays. "  In  them  the  dilatation  of  the  body,  or  rather 
the  development  of  the  pectoral  fins,  is  carried  to  an  extreme, 
whilst  the  tail  is  very  thin  and  sometimes  long  like  a  whip-cord 
(fig.  3).  Caudal  spines  are  generally  present  and  similar  to  those 


FIG.  3. — Aetobatis  narinari  (Indo-Pacific  Ocean). 

of  the  sting-rays  ;  but  in  the  pectoral  fin  a  portion  is  detached  and 
forms  a  "cephalic"  lobe  or  pair  of  lobes  in  front  of  the  snout. 
The  dentition  consists  of  perfectly  flat  molars,  adapted  for  crushing 
hard  substances.  In  some  of  the  eagle-rays  the  molars  are  large 
and  tessellated  (fig.  4),  in  others  extremely  small.  Of  the  twenty 


FIG.  4. — Jaws  of  au  Eagle-Ray,  Myliobatis  aquila. 


species  which  are  known,  from  tropical  and  temperate  seas,  the 
majority  attain  to  a  very  large  and  some  to  an  enormous  size  :  one 
mentioned  by  Risso,  which  was  taken  at  Messina,  weighed  1250  lt». 
A  fostus  taken  from  the  uterus  of  the  mother  (all  eagle-rays  are 
viviparous),  captured  at  Jamaica  and  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum,  is  5  feet  broad  and  weighed  20  ft>.  The  mother  measured 
15  feet  in  width  and  as  many  in  length,  and  was  between  3  and  4 
feet  thick.  At  Jamaica,  where  these  rays  are  well  known  under  the 
name  of  "  devil-fishes,"  they  are  frequently  attacked  for  sport's  sake, 
but  their  capture  is  uncertain  and  sometimes  attended  with  danger. 
The  eagle-ray  of  the  Mediterranean  (Myliobatis  aquila)  has  strayed 
as  far  northwards  as  the  south  coast  of  England.  (A.  C.  G.) 

RAY  or  WRAY  (as  he  wrote  his  name  till  1670),  JOHN 
(1628-1705),  sometimes  called  the  father  of  English  natural 
history,  was  the  son  of  the  blacksmith  of  Black  Notley 
near  Braintree  in  Essex.  There  he  was  born  on  29th 
November  1628,  or,  according  to  other  authorities,  some 
months  earlier.  From  Braintree  school  he  was  sent  at  the 
age  of  sixteen  to  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge,  whence  he 
removed  to  Trinity  College  after  about  one  year  and  three- 
quarters.  His  tutor  at  Trinity  was  Dr  Duport,  regius  pro- 
fessor of  Greek,  and  his  intimate  friend  and  fellow-pupil 
the  celebrated  Isaac  Barrow.  Ray  was  chosen  minor  fellow 
of  Trinity  in  1649,  and  in  due  course  became  a  major 
fellow  on  proceeding  to  the  master's  degree.  He  held 


many  college  offices,  becoming  successively  lecturer  in  Greek 
(1651),  mathematics  (1653),  and  humanity  (1655),  praelec- 
tor  (1657),  junior  dean  (1657),  and  college  steward  (1659 
and  1660) ;  and  according  to  the  habit  of  the  time  he  was 
accustomed  to  preach  in  his  college  chapel  and  also  at 
Great  St  Mary's  before  the  university,  long  before  he  took 
holy  orders.  Among  his  sermons  preached  before  his 
ordination,  which  was  not  till  23d  December  1660,  were 
the  famous  discourses  on  The  Wisdom  of  God  in  the  Crea- 
tion, and  on  the  Chaos,  Deluge,  and  Dissolution  of  the 
World.  Ray's  reputation  was  high  also  as  a  tutor;  he 
communicated  his  own  passion  for  natural  history  to  several 
pupils,  of  whom  Francis  Willughby  is  by  far  the  most 
famous. 

Ray's  quiet  college  life  came  to  an  abrupt  close  when 
he  found  himself  unable  to  subscribe  to  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity of  1661,  and  was  accordingly  obliged  to  give  up 
his  fellowship  in  1662,  the  year  after  Isaac  Newton  had 
entered  the  college.  We  are1  told  by  Dr  Derham  in  his 
Life  of  Ray  that  the  reason  of  his  refusal  "  was  not  (as 
some  have  imagined)  his  having  taken  the  '  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant,'  for  that  he  never  did,  and  often  declared 
that  he  ever  thought  it  an  unlawful  oath ;  but  he  said  he 
could  not  declare  for  those  that  had  taken  the  oath  that  no 
obligation  lay  upon  them,  but  feared  there  might."  From 
this  time  onwards  he  seems  to  have  depended  chiefly  on 
the  bounty  of  his  pupil  Willughby,  who  made  Ray  his 
constant  companion  while  he  lived,  and  at  his  death  left 
him  .£60  a  year,  with  the  charge  of  educating  his  two  sons. 

In  the  spring  of  1663  Ray  started  together  with 
Willughby  and  two  other  of  his  pupils  on  a  Continental 
tour,  from  which  he  returned  in  March  1666,  parting 
from  Willughby  at  Montpellier,  whence  the  latter  con- 
tinued his  journey  into  Spain.  He  had  previously  in  three 
different  journeys  (1658,  1661,  1662)  travelled  through 
the  greater  part  of  Great  Britain,  and  selections  from  his 
private  notes  of  these  journeys  were  edited  by  George 
Scott  in  1760,  under  the  title  of  Mr  Ray's  Itineraries. 
Ray  himself  published  an  account  of  his  foreign  travel 
in  1673,  entitled  Observations  topographical,  moral,  and 
physiological,  made  on  a  Journey  through  part  of  the  Low 
Countries,  Germany,  Italy,  and  France.  From  this  tour 
Ray  and  Willughby  returned  laden  with  collections,  on 
which  they  meant  to  base  complete  systematic  descriptions 
of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  Willughby  under- 
took the  former  part,  but,  dying  in  1672,  left  only  an 
ornithology  and  ichthyology,  in  themselves  vast,  for  Ray 
to  edit ;  while  the  latter  used  the  botanical  collections  for 
the  groundwork  of  his  Methodus  plantarum  nova  (1682), 
and  his  great  Historia  generalis  plantarum  (1685).  The 
plants  gathered  on  his  British  tours  had  already  been 
described  in  his  Catalogus  plantarum  Angtise.  (1670), 
which  work  is  the  basis  of  all  later  English  floras. 

In  1667  Ray  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  in  1669  he  published  in  conjunction  with  Willughby 
his  first  paper  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  on  "  Ex- 
periments concerning  the  Motion  of  Sap  in  Trees."  They 
demonstrated  the  ascent  of  the  sap  through  the  wood  of 
the  tree,  and  supposed  the  sap  to  "  precipitate  a  kind  of 
white  coagulum  or  jelly,  which  may  be  well  conceived  to 
be  the  part  which  every  year  between  bark  and  tree  turns 
to  wood,  and  of  which  the  leaves  and  fruits  are  made." 
Immediately  after  his  admission  into  the  Royal  Society 
he  was  induced  by  Bishop  Wilkins  to  translate  his  Real 
Character  into  Latin,  and  it  seems  he  actually  completed 
a  translation,  which,  however,  remained  in  manuscript ; 
his  Methodus  plantarum  nova  was  in  fact  undertaken  as 
a  part  of  Wilkins's  great  classificatory  scheme. 

In  1673  Ray  married  Margaret  Oakley  of  Launton 
(Oxford);  in  1676  he  went  to  Sutton  Coldfield,  and  in  1677 


R  A  Y  — R  A  Y 


301 


to  Falborne  Hall  in  Essex.  Finally,  in  1679,  he  removed 
to  Black  Notley,  where  he  afterwards  remained.  His  life 
there  was  quiet  and  uneventful,  but  embittered  by  bodily 
weakness  and  chronic  sores.  He  occupied  himself  in  writ- 
ing books  and  in  keeping  up  a  very  wide  scientific  corre- 
spondence, and  lived,  in  spite  of  his  infirmities,  to  the  age 
of  seventy-six,  dying  on  17th  January  1705. 

Ray's  first  book,  the  Calalogus  plantarum  circa  Cantabrigiam 
nasccnlium  (1660,  followed  by  appendices  in  1663  and  1685),  was 
written  in  conjunction  with  his  "  amicissimus  et  individuus  comes," 
John  Nid.  The  plants,  626  in  number,  are  enumerated  alphabetic- 
ally, but  a  system  of  classification  differing  little  from  Caspar 
Bauhin's  is  sketched  at  the  end  of  the  book  ;  and  the  notes  contain 
many  curious  references  to  other  parts  of  natural  history.  The 
stations  of  the  plants  are  minutely  described  ;  and  Cambridge 
students  still  gather  some  of  their  rarer  plants  in  the  copses  or 
chalk -pits  where  he  found  them.  The  book  shows  signs  of  his 
indebtedness  to  Joachim  Jung  of  Hamburg,  who  had  died  in  1657 
leaving  his  writings  unpublished  ;  but  a  MS.  copy  of  some  of  them 
was  sent  to  Ray  by  Hartlieb  in  1660.  Jung  invented  or  gave 
precision  to  many  technical  terms  that  Ray  and  others  at  once 
made  use  of  in  their  descriptions,  and  that  are  now  classical ;  and 
his  notions  of  what  constitutes  a  specific  distinction  and  what 
characters  are  valueless  as  such  seem  to  have  been  adopted  with 
little  change  by  Ray.  The  first  two  editions  of  the  Catalogus 
plantarum  Anglisz  (1670,  1677)  were  likewise  arranged  alphabetic- 
ally ;  but  in  the  Synopsis  stirpium  Britannicarum  (1690,  1696, 
also  re-edited  by  Dillenius  1724,  and  by  Hill  1760)  Ray  applied 
the  scheme  of  classification  which  he  had  by  that  time  elaborated 
in  the  Mcthodus  and  the  Historia  plantarum.  The  Methodus  plan- 
tarum nova  (1682)  was  largely  based  on  the  works  of  Cfesalpini 
and  Jung,  and  still  more  on  that  of  Morison  of  Oxford.  The 
greatest  merit  of  this  book  is  the  use  of  the  number  of  cotyledons 
as  a  basis  of  classification  ;  though  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  difference  between  the  monocotyledonous  and  dicotyledonous 
embryo  was  detected  by  Grew.  After  dividing  plants  into  flowerless 
and  flowering,  Ray  says,  "  Floriferas  dividemus  in  Dicotyledones, 
qxiarum  semina  sata  binis  foliis  anomalis,  seminalibus  dictis,  quse 
cotyledonorum  usum  prtestant,  e  terra  exeunt,  vel  in  binos  saltern 
lobos  dividuntur,  quamvis  eos  supra  terram  foliorum  specie  non 
efferunt  ;  et  Monocotyledones,  quse  nee  folia  bina  seminalia  efferunt 
nee  lobos  binos  condunt.  Hrec  divisio  ad  arbores  etiam  extendi 
potest  ;  siquidem  Palrme  et  congeneres  hoc  respectu  eodern  modo 
a  reliquis  arboribus  differunt  quo  Monocotyledones  a  reliquis 
herbis. "  But  a  serious  blemish  was  his  persistent  separation  of 
trees  from  herbs,  a  distinction  whose  falsity  had  been  exposed  by 
Jung  and  others,  but  to  which  Ray  tried  to  give  scientific  founda- 
tion by  denying  the  existence  of  buds  in  the  latter.  At  this  time 
he  based  his  classification,  like  Cfesalpini,  chiefly  upon  the  fruit, 
and  he  distinguished  several  natural  groups,  such  as  the  grasses, 
Labiates,  Umbelliferse,  and  Papilionacess.  The  classification  of  the 
Mcthodus  was  extended  and  improved  in  the  Historia  plantarum, 
but  was  disfigured  by  a  large  class  of  Anomalfe,  to  include  forms 
that  the  other  orders  did  not  easily  admit,  and  by  the  separation 
of  the  cereals  from  other  grasses.  The  first  volume  of  this  vast 
book  was  published  in  1685,  the  second  in  the  next  year,  and  the 
third  in  1704  ;  it  enumerates  and  describes  all  the  plants  known 
to  the  author  or  described  by  his  predecessors,  to  the  number, 
according  to  Adanson,  of  18,625  species.  In  the  first  volume  a 
chapter  "De  plantis  in  genere  "  contains  an  account  of  all  the 
anatomical  and  physiological  knowledge  of  the  time  regarding 
plants,  with  the  recent  speculations  and  discoveries  of  Cresalpini, 
Grew,  Malpighi,  and  Jung.  And  Cuvier  and  Dupetit  Thouars, 
declaring  that  it  was  this  chapter  which  gave  acceptance  and 
authority  to  these  authors'  works,  say  that  "the  best  monument 
that  could  be  erected  to  the  memory  of  Ray  would  be  the  republica- 
tion  of  this  part  of  his  work  separately."  The  Stityrium  Europaz- 
arum  extra  Britannias  nascentium  Sylloge  (1694)  is  a  much  amplified 
edition  of  the  catalogue  of  plants  collected  on  his  own  Continental 
tour.  In  the  preface  to  this  book  he  first  clearly  admitted  the 
doctrine  of  the  sexuality  of  plants,  which,  however,  he  had  no 
share  in  establishing.  Here  also  begins  his  long  controversy  with 
Rivinus,  which  chiefly  turned  upon  Ray's  indefensible  separation 
of  ligneous  from  herbaceous  plants,  and  also  upon  what  he  con- 
ceived to  be  the  misleading  reliance  that  Rivinus  placed  on  the 
characters  of  the  corolla.  But  in  the  second  edition  of  his  Methodus 
(1703)  he  followed  Rivinus  and  Tournefort  in  taking  the  flower 
instead  of  the  fruit  as  his  basis  of  classification  :  he  was  no  longer 
a  fructicist  but  a  corollist. 

Besides  editing  his  friend  Willughby's  books,  Ray  wrote  several 
zoological  works  of  his  own,  including  Synopses  of  Quadrupeds 
(1693),  that  is  to  say,  both  mammals  and  reptiles,  of  Birds,  and  of 
Fishes  (1713)  ;  the  last  two  were  published  posthumously,  as  was 
also  the  more  important  Historia  Insectorum  (1710).  The  History 
of  Insects  embodied  a  great  mass  of  Willughby's  notes,  and  the 


Synopses  of  Birds  and  Fislws  were  mere  abridgments  of  the  "  Orni- 
thology" and  "Ichthyology." 

Most  of  Ray's  minor  works  were  the  outcome  of  his  faculty  for 
laborious  compiling  and  cataloguing  ;  for  instance,  his  Collection 
of  English  Proverbs  (1670),  his  Collection  of  out-of-the-way  English 
Words  (1674),  his  Collection  of  Curious  Travels  and  Voyages 
(1693),  and  his  Dictionariolum  trilingue,  or  Nomenclator  classicus 
(1675).  The  last  was  written  for  the  use  of  Willughby's  sons,  his 
pupils  ;  it  passed  through  many  editions,  and  is  still  useful  for 
its  careful  identifications  of  plants  arid  animals  mentioned  by 
Greek  and  Latin  writers.  But  Ray's  permanent  influence  and 
reputation  have  probably  depended  most  of  all  upon  his  two  books 
entitled  The  Wisdom  of  God  manifested  in  the  Works  of  the  Crea- 
tion (1691),  and  Miscellaneous  Discourses  concerning  the  Dissolution 
and  Changes  of  the  World  (1692).  The  latter  includes  three 
essays,  on  "The  Primitive  Chaos  and  Creation  of  the  World," 
"The  General  Deluge,  its  Causes  and  Effects,"  and  "The  Dissolu- 
tion of  the  World  and  Future  Conflagrations."  The  germ  of  these 
works  was  contained  in  sermons  preached  long  before  in  Cambridge. 
Both  books  obtained  immediate  popularity  ;  the  former,  at  least, 
was  translated  into  several  languages  ;  and  to  this  day  their  influ- 
ence is  apparent.  For,  as  Sir  J.  Smith  says  in  his  biography  of 
Ray,  ' '  this  book  [  The  Wisdom  of  God,  &c.  ]  is  the  basis  of  all  the 
labours  of  following  divines,  who  have  made  the  book  of  nature  a 
commentary  on  the  Book  of  Revelation."  In  it  Ray  recites  in- 
numerable examples  of  the  perfection  of  organic  mechanism,  the 
multitude  and  variety  of  living  creatures,  the  minuteness  and 
usefulness  of  their  parts.  Many,  if  not  most,  of  the  familiar 
proofs  of  purposive  adaptation  and  design  in  nature  were  suggested 
by  Ray.  The  structure  of  the  eye,  the  hollowuess  of  the  bones, 
the  camel's  stomach,  the  hedgehog's  armour,  are  among  the  thou- 
sand instances  cited  by  him  of  immediate  creative  interpositions. 
But,  though  his  application  of  natural  history  to  apologetic  theo- 
logy has  made  his  reputation  peculiarly  wide,  it  must  be  acknow- 
ledged that  none  of  his  scientific  discoveries  at  all  equal  in  value 
those  of  the  physiological  botanists  who  immediately  preceded  him, 
and  that  even  in  classificatory  insight  he  was  surpassed  by  several 
of  his  contemporaries. 

Authorities. — Select  Remains,  Itineraries,  and  Life,  by  Dr  Derham,  edited  by 
George  Scott,  1740  ;  notice  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  in  Ree's  Cyclopaedia ;  notice  by 
Cuvier  and  A.  Dupetit  Thouars  in  the  Biographie  Universelle ;  all  these  were 
collected  under  the  title  Memorials  of  Ray,  and  edited  (with  the  addition  of  a 
complete  catalogue  of  his  works)  by  Dr  Edwin  Lankester,  8vo  (Ray  Society), 
1846  ;  Correspondence  (with  Willughby,  Martin  Lister,  Dr  Robinson,  Petiver, 
Derham,  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  and  others),  edited  by  Dr  Derham,  1718 ;  Selections, 
with  additions,  edited  by  Lankester  Ray  Society),  1848.  For  accounts  of  Ray's 
system  of  classification,  see  Cuvier,  Legons  Hist.  s.  Sci.  Nat.,  p.  488 ;  Sprengel, 
Gesch.  d.  Botanik,  ii.  p.  40 ;  also  Whewell,  Hist.  Ind.  Sci.,  iii.  p.  332  (ed.  1S47), 
and  Wood,  art.  "Classification"  in  Ree's  Cyclopeedia.  (D.  W.  T.) 

RAYMOND  LULLY.     See  LULLY. 

RAYMOND  OF  SABUNDE  (Sebonde,  Sebeyde,  &c.) 
appears  to  have  been  born  at  Barcelona  towards  the  end 
of  the  14th  century.  He  combined  the  training  of  a  phy- 
sician and  a  theologian,  and  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Toulouse,  seemingly  from  the  year  1430  onwards.  He 
published  there  in  1436  his  chief  work,  Theologia  Naturalis, 
sive  liber  creaturarum.  This  book  was  reprinted  pretty 
frequently  during  the  next  two  centuries,  and  has  recently 
been  republished  at  Sulzbach  (1852),  but  without  the  intro- 
duction, which,  for  some  not  very  intelligible  reason,  was 
placed  upon  the  Index  by  the  council  of  Trent.  It  was 
translated  into  French  by.  Montaigne  at  the  command  of 
his  father  (see  Montaigne,  Essais,  ii.  12).  The  six  Dialogi 
de  natura  hominis  are  an  extract  from  the  larger  work  made 
by  Raymond  himself.  Raymond  is  a  scholastic  of  the 
period  of  decline.  The  chief  thought  of  the  Theologia 
Naturalis  is  the  parallelism  between  the  book  of  nature 
and  the  book  of  revelation.  The  second  of  these  two  books 
is  more  sacred  on  account  of  its  supernatural  character, 
but  a  foundation  must  be  laid  by  the  study  of  the  first. 
Nature  culminates  in  man,  who  alone  of  the  creatures 
possesses  all  the  four  properties  which  mark  off  the  different 
grades  of  existence  (esse,  vivere,  sentire,  intelligere).  But 
man  himself  points  forward  to  a  self -existent  unity  in  which 
individual  differences  disappear.  Everything  that  we  find 
in  the  creatures  is  present  in  God  without  limitation  or 
negation,  so  that  God's  being  is  the  universal  being  of  all 
things.  Hence  it  is  true  that  God  created  the  world  out 
of  nothing.  Raymond  endeavours  to  deduce  the  principal 
dogmas  of  the  church  by  the  natural  light  in  a  similar 
fashion.  Man's  own  advantage  and  the  glory  of  God  are 


302 


R  A  Y  — R  E  A 


the  ultimate  rules  of  conduct,  and  the  coincidence  of  the 
two  is  maintained  on  the  ground  of  the  joys  of  knowledge. 
Knowledge  has  its  natural  consummation  in  the  knowledge 
of  God ;  man's  knowledge  of  God  is  at  the  same  time  the 
love  and  gratitude  which  he,  as  representative  of  the 
creatures  and  mediator  between  them  and  God,  continually 
offers  to  the  divine  majesty.  The  fact  that  self-love  and  the 
love  of  God  are  at  present  often  in  conflict  is  traced  by 
Raymond  to  the  fall  of  the  first  human  pair;  and  this 
gives  him  occasion  to  deduce  the  doctrine  of  the  incarna- 
tion, almost  in  the  words  of  Anselm's  Cur  Deus  homo. 

RAYNAL,  GUILLAUME  THOMAS  FRANCOIS  (1713-1796), 
was  born  on  12th  April  1713  in  the  province  of  Rouergue, 
and  was  educated  at  Pezenas  by  the  Jesuits.  He  took 
orders,  and,  going  to  Paris,  did  parish  work ;  but  he  left 
the  priesthood  (being  indeed  deprived  for  misconduct) 
and  betaking  himself  to  literature  soon  became  one  of 
the  minor  members  of  the  philosophe  coterie.  He  did  not 
a  little  journalism  and  bookmaking  of  divers  kinds ;  but 
his  name  would  be  entirely  forgotten  were  it  not  for  the 
Histoire  philosophique  et  politique  des  fitablissements  et  du 
Commerce  des  Europeens  dans  les  Deux  Indes.  This  book 
is  not,  and  indeed  was  not  in  its  own  day,  of  any  substan- 
tive value  as  a  book  of  reference  on  its  nominal  subject ; 
but  it  exercised  considerable  influence  :  it  was  exceedingly 
characteristic  of  the  period  and  society  which  produced  it, 
and  passages  of  it  are  still  worth  reading.  The  secret  of 
its  merits  and  its  faults  is  to  be  found  in  the  manner  of 
its  composition.  Raynal  himself  wrote  but  a  small  part 
of  it,  and  he  took  not  the  slightest  pains  to  make  it  a  homo- 
geneous work.  But  he  borrowed  from  books  and  he  begged 
from  his  own  friends  all  manner  of  diatribes  against  super- 
stition and  tyranny,  often  illustrated  by  lively  anecdotes 
and  eloquent  tirades.  Grimm  assigns  a  full  third  of  the 
book  to  Diderot,  which  is  probably  an  exaggeration,  but 
that  Diderot  had  a  great  hand  in  it  no  judge  of  style  can 
doubt.  It  was  published  in  1772,  and  brought  the  author 
many  compliments,  even  from  men  like  Gibbon,  who  should 
have  known  better.  A  new  edition  in  1780  was  even 
bolder.  It  was  condemned  and  burned  (29th  May  1781), 
and  the  author  had  to  fly  the  country.  He  returned  just 
before  the  Revolution,  but  having  apparently  a  natural 
tendency  to  opposition  he  became  a  strong  Royalist.  He 
died  on  6th  March  1796. 

No  other  work  of  Raynal's  deserves  notice  here.  The  best  account 
in  English  of  the  Histoire  des  Indes  will  be  found  in  Mr  John 
Morley's  Diderot,  vol.  ii.  chap.  xv. 

RAZORBILL  or  RAZOR -BILLED  AUK,  known  also  on 
many  parts  of  the  British  coasts  as  the  Marrot,  Murre, 
Scout,  Tinker,  or  Willock — names  which  it,  however,  shares 
with  the  GUILLEMOT  (vol.  xi.  p.  262),  and  to  some  extent 
with  the  PUFFIN  (see  above,  p.  101) — a  common  sea-bird  of 
the  Northern  Atlantic,1  resorting  in  vast  numbers  to  certain 
stations  on  rocky  cliffs  for  the  purpose  of  breeding,  and, 
its  object  being  accomplished,  returning  to  deeper  waters 
for  the  rest  of  the  year.  It  is  the  Alca  torda  of  Linnaeus  2 
and  most  modern  authors,  congeneric  with  the  G ARE-FOWL 
(vol.  x.  p.  78),  if  not  with  the  true  Guillemots,  between 
which  two  forms  it  is  intermediate — differing  from  the 
former  in  its  small  size  and  retaining  the  power  of  flight, 

1  Schlegel  (Mus.  des  Pays-Bos,  Urinatores,  p.  14)  records  an  example 
from  Japan  ;  but  this  must  be  in  error. 

2  The  word  Alca  is  simply  the  Latinized  form  of  this  bird's  common 
Teutonic  name,  Alk,  of  which  Auk  is  the  English  modification.     It 
must  therefore  be  held  to  be  the  type  of  the  Linnaean  genus  Alca, 
though  some  systematists  on  indefensible  grounds  have  removed  it 
thence,  making  it  the  sole  member  of  a  genus  named  by  Leach,  after 
Aldrovandus  (Ornithologia,  bk.  xix.  chap,  xlix.),  Ulamania — an  ex- 
traordinary word,  that  seems  to  have  originated  in  some  mistake  from 
the  no  less  extraordinary  Vuttamaria,  given  by  Belon  (Observations, 
i.  c.  xi.)  as  the  Cretan  name  of  some  diving  bird,  which  certainly 
could  not  have  been  the  present  species. 


which  that  presumably  extinct  species  has  lost,  and  from 
the  latter  in  its  peculiarly-shaped  bill,  which  is  vertically 
enlarged,  compressed,  and  deeply  furrowed,  as  well  as  in 
its  elongated,  wedge-shaped  tail.  A  fine  white  line,  run- 
ning on  each  side  from  the  base  of  the  culmen  to  the  eye, 
is  in  the  adult  bird  in  breeding-apparel  (with  a  few  very 
rare  exceptions)  a  further  obvious  characteristic.  Other- 
wise the  appearance  of  all  these  birds  may  be  briefly 
described  in  the  same  words — head,  breast,  and  upper 
parts  generally  of  a  deep  glossy  black,  and  the  lower  parts 
and  tip  of  the  secondaries  of  a  pure  white,  while  the 
various  changes  of  plumage  dependent  on  age  or  season 
are  alike  in  all.  In  habits  the  Razorbill  closely  agrees 
with  the  true  Guillemots,  laying  its  single  egg  (which  is 
not,  however,  subject  to  the  same  amazing  variety  of 
coloration  that  is  pre-eminently  the  Guillemot's  own)  on 
the  ledges  of  the  cliffs  to  which  it  repairs  in  the  breeding- 
season,  but  it  is  said  then  as  a  rule  to  occupy  higher  eleva- 
tions, and  when  not  breedirlg  to  keep  further  out  to  sea. 
On  the  east  side  of  the  Atlantic  the  Razorbill  has  its 
stations  on  convenient  parts  of  the  coast  from  the  North 
Cape  to  Britanny,  besides  several  in  the  Baltic,  while  in 
winter  it  passes  much  further  to  the  southward,  and  is 
sometimes  numerous  in  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar,  occasionally 
entering  the  Mediterranean  but  apparently  never  extending 
to  the  eastward  of  Sicily  or  Malta.  On  the  west  side  of 
the  Atlantic  it  breeds  from  70°  N.  lat.  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  Baffin's  Bay  to  Cape  Farewell,  and  again  on  the  coast 
of  America  from  Labrador  and  Newfoundland  to  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  while  in  winter  it  reaches  Long  Island.  (A.  N.) 

RAZZI,  GIANANTONIO.     See  SODDOMA. 

RE,  ISLE  OF,  a  long,  low  island  3  miles  off  the  coast 
of  the  French  department  of  Charente  Inferieure,  runs 
south-east  and  north-west  with  a  breadth  of  about  3  miles 
and  a  length  of  18|  miles.  The  north-west  point  (Pointe 
des  Baleines)  has  a  lighthouse  of  the  first  class.  The 
Pertuis  Breton  separates  the  island  from  the  coast  of  La 
Vendee  to  the  north,  and  the  Pertuis  d'Antioche  from  the 
Isle  of  Oleron  to  the  south.  With  a  surface  of  18,259 
acres,  the  Isle  of  Re  has  15,370  inhabitants,  whose  chief 
source  of  income  is  the  salt  marshes,  producing  annually 
31,500  tons  of  salt.  The  island  has  also  a  vineyard  and 
corn  lands,  and  boasts  of  the  excellence  of  its  figs,  pears, 
and  cream.  Apart  from  the  orchards  it  is  now  woodless, 
though  once  covered  with  forests.  Oysters  are  success- 
fully cultivated,  the  annual  supply  of  these  molluscs  being 
35,000,000.  The  coast  facing  the  Atlantic  is  rocky  and 
inhospitable,  but  there  are  numerous  harbours  on  the  land- 
ward side.  The  island  seems  once  to  have  been  united 
to  the  continent,  with  which  it  is  still  connected  by  a  line 
of  sunken  rocks ;  its  existence  is  not  mentioned  before 
the  8th  century.  Tradition  says  that  the  city  of  Antioche 
on  the  west  coast  was  destroyed  by  the  Atlantic  storms, 
which  still  constantly  threaten  to  cut  the  island  in  two  at 
the  isthmus  (only  230  feet  wide)  formed  by  the  gulf 
called  Fier  d'Ars.  There  are  two  cantons — St  Martin  and 
Ars-en-R6 — in  the  arrondissement  of  La  Rochelle.  St 
Martin,  with  a  secure  harbour,  was  fortified  by  Vauban,  and 
is  the  depot  for  convicts  on  their  way  to  New  Caledonia. 

READE,  CHARLES  (1814-1884),  holds  a  high  and  dis- 
tinctive place  among  the  English  novelists  of  the  third 
quarter  of  the  19th  century.  The  son  of  an  Oxfordshire 
squire,  he  was  born  at  Ipsden  in  1814,  and  was  educated 
for  the  bar.  He  entered  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  pro- 
ceeded B.A.  in  1835,  with  a  third  class  in  classics,  was 
elected  Vinerian  Reader  in  1842,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  (Lincoln's  Inn)  in  1843.  It  was  comparatively  late 
in  his  life  that  he  made  his  first  appearance  as  an  author, 
but  he  showed  at  once  that  he  had  subjected  himself  to  a 
laborious  apprenticeship  to  the  study  of  life  and  literature. 


E  A  — R  E  A 


303 


He  began  as  a  dramatist,  and  this  his  first  ambition  shaped 
and  coloured  his  work  to  the  end.  It  was  his  own  wish 
that  the  word  "  dramatist "  should  stand  first  in  the  de- 
scription of  his  occupations  on  his  tombstone.  He  was 
dramatist  first  and  novelist  afterwards,  not  merely  chrono- 
logically but  in  his  aims  as  an  author,  always  having  an 
eye  to  stage -effect  in  scene  and  situation  as  well  as  in 
dialogue.  Gold,  his  first  play  (1850),  was  but  a  moderate 
success.  He  did  not  achieve  popularity  till  1856,  when 
he  produced  It 's  Never  Too  Late  to  Mend,  a  novel  written 
with  the  purpose  of  reforming  abuses  in  prison  discipline 
and  the  treatment  of  criminals.  The  prosecution  of  his 
moral  purpose  carried  him  too  far  for  most  of  his  readers ; 
he  described  prison  life  with  a  minuteness  and  fidelity — 
the  result  of  laborious  studies  of  blue-books  and  newspapers 
and  personal  inquiries — which  become  at  times  tedious  and 
revolting ;  but  the  power  of  the  descriptions  was  undeni- 
able, and  the  interest  of  the  story,  in  spite  of  all  over- 
elaboration  of  painful  details,  was  profound  and  thrilling. 
The  truth  of  some  of  his  details  was  challenged,  and  the 
novelist  showed  himself  a  pungent  controversialist.  From 
first  to  last  he  defended  himself  with  vigour  and  great 
strength  of  language  against  all  attempts  to  rebut  his  con- 
tentions or  damage  his  literary  property.  It 's  Never  Too 
Late  to  Mend  was  his  first  great  success,  but  before  this 
he  had  gained  the  respect  of  critics  with  two  shorter 
novels,  Peg  Woffington  (1852),  a  close  study  of  life  and 
character  behind  the  scenes,  and  Christie  Johnstone  (1853), 
an  equally  close  study  of  Scotch  fisher  folk,  an  extraordi- 
nary tour  de  force  for  the  son  of  an  English  squire,  whether 
we  consider  the  dialect  or  the  skill  with  which  he  enters 
into  alien  habits  of  thought.  He  had  also  established  his 
position  as  a  dramatist  by  writing  (in  combination  with 
Mr  Tom  Taylor)  a  stage  version  of  Peg  Woffington  under 
the  title  of  Masks  and  Faces  (1854),  the  most  successful 
and  the  most  frequently  reproduced  of  his  plays,  besides 
three  that  were  less  successful,  The  Courier  of  Lyons  (a 
powerful  melodrama),  Two  Loves  and  a  Life,  and  The  King's 
Rivals  (1854).  From  1856  onwards  he  kept  his  position 
in  the  foremost  rank  of  contemporary  novelists.  Five 
minor  novels  followed  in  quick  succession, — The  Course 
of  True  Love  never  did  Run  Smooth  (1857),  Jack  of  all 
Trades  (1858),  The  Autobiography  of  a  Thief  (1858),  Love 
Me  Little,  Love  Me  Long  (1859),  The  Double  Marriage,  or 
White  Lies  (1860).  Then  appeared,  in  1861,  what  most 
critics  regard  as  his  masterpiece,  The  Cloister  and  the 
Hearty.  He  had  dealt  with  the  subject  two  years  before 
in  a  short  story  in  Once  a  Week,  but,  seeing  its  capabilities, 
he  returned  to  it  and  expanded  it  into  its  present  form. 
As  a  picture  of  manners  it  is  broad  and  full ;  yet  amply 
as  the  novelist  illustrates  the  times  he  very  rarely  becomes 
tedious  or  allows  the  thrilling  interest  of  the  story  to  lapse. 
Returning  from  the  15th  century  to  modern  English  life, 
he  next  produced  another  startling  novel  with  a  purpose, 
Hard  Cash  (1863),  in  which  he  strove  to  direct  attention 
to  the  abuses  of  private  lunatic  asylums.  Three  more  such 
novels,  in  two  of  which  at  least  the  moral  purpose,  though 
fully  kept  in  view,  was  not  allowed  to  obstruct  the  rapid 
flow  of  thrilling  incident,  were  afterwards  undertaken, — 
Foul  Play  (1869),  in  which  he  exposed  the  iniquities  of 
ship-knackers,  and  paved  the  way  for  the  labours  of  Mr 
Plimsoll;  Put  Yourself  in  his  Place  (1870),  in  which  he 
grappled  with  the  tyrannous  outrages  of  trades -unions ; 
and  A  Woman-Hater  (1877),  in  which  he  gave  a  helping 
hand  to  the  advocates  of  woman's  rights.  The  Wandering 
Heir  (1875),  of  which  he  also  wrote  a  version  for  the  stage, 
was  suggested  by  the  Tichborne  trial.  Outside  the  line  of 
these  moral  and  occasional  works  Reade  produced  three 
that  might  be  classified  as  psychological,  inasmuch  as  they 
were  elaborate  studies  of  character, — Griffith  Gaunt  (1866), 


A  Terrible  Temptation  (1871),  A  Simpleton  (1873).  The 
first  of  these  was  in  his  own  opinion  the  best  of  his  novels, 
and  his  own  opinion  was  probably  right.  He  was  wrong, 
however,  in  his  own  conception  of  his  powers  as  a  dramatist. 
At  intervals  throughout  his  literary  career  he  sought  to 
gratify  his  dramatic  ambition,  hiring  a  theatre  and  en- 
gaging a  company  for  the  representation  of  his  own  plays. 
An  example  of  his  persistency  was  seen  in  the  case  of  Foul 
Play.  He  wrote  this  in  1869  in  combination  with  Mr  Dion 
Boucicault  with  a  view  to  stage  adaptation.  The  play 
was  more  or  less  a  failure ;  but  he  produced  another  ver- 
sion alone  in  1877,  under  the  title  of  A  Scuttled  Shi}),  and 
the  failure  was  pronounced.  His  greatest  success  as  a 
dramatist  attended  his  last  attempt — Drink — an  adapta- 
tion of  Zola's  L'Assommoir,  produced  in  1879.  At  his 
death  in  1884  (llth  April)  Reade  left  behind  him  a  com- 
pleted novel,  A  Perilous  Secret,  which  showed  no  falling 
off  in  the  art  of  weaving  a  complicated  plot  and  devising 
thrilling  situations. 

It  was  characteristic  of  Reade's  open  and  combative  nature  that 
he  admitted  the  public  freely  to  the  secrets  of  his  method  of  com- 
position. He  spoke  about  his  method  in  his  prefaces  ;  he  intro- 
duced himself  into  one  of  his  novels — "Dr  Rolfe"  in  A  Terrible 
Temptation  ;  and  by  his  will  he  left  his  workshop  and  his  accumu- 
lation of  materials  open  for  inspection  for  two  years  after  his  death. 
It  appears  that  he  had  collected  an  enormous  mass  of  materials  for 
his  study  of  human  nature,  from  personal  observation,  from  news- 
papers, books  of  travel,  blue-books  of  commissions  of  inquiry,  from 
miscellaneous  reading.  This  vast  collection  of  notes,  cuttings, 
extracts,  gathered  together  week  by  week  and  year  by  year,  is 
classified  and  arranged  in  huge  ledgers  and  note-books  duly  paged 
and  indexed.  He  had  planned  a  great  work  on  "the  wisdom  and 
folly  of  nations,"  dealing  with  social,  political,  and  domestic 
details,  and  it  was  chiefly  for  this  that  his  collection  was  destined, 
but  in  passing  te  found  the  materials  very  useful  as  a  store  of 
incidents  and  suggestions.  A  collector  of  the  kind  was  bound  to 
be  systematic,  otherwise  his  collection  would  have  fallen  into 
inextricable  confusion,  and  Reade's  collection  contains  many  re- 
markable curiosities  in  classification  and  tabulation.  On  the 
value  of  this  method  for  his  art  there  has  been  much  discussion, 
the  prevalent  opinion  being  that  his  imagination  was  overwhelmed 
and  stifled  by  it.  He  himself  strenuously  maintained  the  contrary  ; 
and  it  must  be  admitted  that  a  priori  critics  have  not  rightly 
understood  the  use  that  he  made  of  his  laboriously  collected  facts. 
He  did  not  merely  shovel  the  contents  of  his  note  -  books  into  his 
novels  ;  they  served  rather  as  an  atmosphere  of  reality  in  which  he 
worked,  so  that  his  novels  were  like  pictures  painted  in  the  open 
air.  His  imagination  worked  freely  among  them  and  was  quick- 
ened rather  than  impeded  by  their  suggestions  of  things  suited  to 
the  purpose  in  hand  ;  and  it  is  probably  to  his  close  and  constant 
contact  with  facts,  acting  on  an  imagination  naturally  fertile,  that 
we  owe  his  marvellous  and  unmatchable  abundance  of  incident. 
Even  in  his  novels  of  character  there  is  no  meditative  and  analytic 
stagnation  ;  the  development  of  character  is  shown  through  a  rapid 
unceasing  progression  of  significant  facts.  This  rapidity  of  move- 
ment was  perhaps  partly  the  result  of  his  dramatic  studies  :  it  was 
probably  in  writing  for  the  stage  that  he  learned  the  value  of  keep- 
ing the  attention  of  his  readers  incessantly  on  the  alert.  The 
hankering  after  stage  effect,  while  it  saved  him  from  dulness,  often 
betrayed  him  into  rough  exaggeration,  especially  in  his  comic  scenes. 
But  the  gravest  defect  in  his  work  is  a  defect  of  temper.  His  view 
of  human  life,  especially  of  the  life  of  women,  is  harsh,  almost 
brutal ;  his  knowledge  of  frailties  and  vices  is  obtruded  with  repel- 
lent force  ;  and  he  cannot,  with  all  his  skill  and  power  as  a  story- 
teller, be  numbered  among  the  great  artists  who  warm  the  heart 
and  help  to  improve  the  conduct.  But  as  a  moral  satirist  and 
castigator,  which  was  the  function  he  professed  over  and  above  that 
of  a  story-teller,  he  undoubtedly  did  good  service,  both  indirectly 
in  his  novels  and  directly  in  his  own  name.  (W.  M.) 

READING,  a  market-town  and  ancient  borough  of  Berk- 
shire, is  pleasantly  situated  on  slightly  elevated  ground  on 
the  banks  of  the  Kennet,  a  short  distance  above  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Thames,  and  on  branches  of  the  Great 
Western,  South-Eastern,  and  South-Western  Railways,  28 
miles  south-south-east  of  Oxford  and  35J  west  of  London 
by  rail.  Besides  the  facilities  on  the  Thames  there  is 
water  communication  by  the  Kennet  to  Newbury,  and  by 
the  Kennet  and  Avon  Canal  to  the  Severn.  The  Thames 
is  crossed  by  one  bridge  and  the  Kennet  by  three.  The 


304 


R  E  A  — R  E  A 


town  is  well  built,  with  wide  and  regular  streets  and 
many  good  villas  in  the  suburbs.  Of  the  magnificent 
Benedictine  abbey  founded  in  1121  by  King  Henry  I., 
originally  one  of  the  three  wealthiest  in  England,  all  that 
now  remains  is  a  mass  of  ruins  (with  the  exception  of  the 
gateway,  which  was  restored  in  1861  and  is  now  carefully 
preserved),  a  portion  of  the  great  hall  (in  which  several 
parliaments  have  been  held),  and  the  foundation  of  the 
Norman  apsidal  chapel.  Henry  L,  who  died  at  Rouen, 
was  buried  within  its  precincts ;  but  his  monument  was 
destroyed  in  the  time  of  Edward  VI. ;  and  John  of  Gaunt 
was  married  there  to  Blanche  of  Lancaster  in  1359.  By 
Henry  VIII.  it  was  converted  into  a  palace,  which  formed 
the  occasional  residence  of  subsequent  sovereigns  until  its 
destruction  during  the  Cromwellian  wars.  Of  other  old 
ecclesiastical  buildings  of  special  interest  the  principal  are 
Greyfriars'  church,  completed  about  1311,  formerly  the 
church  of  Greyfriars'  monastery,  but  after  the  dissolution 
used  successively  as  a  town-hall,  a  workhouse,  and  a  jail, 
until  it  was  restored  to  its  original  use  in  1864  ;  St  Mary's 
church,  rebuilt,  according  to  Camden,  in  1551  from  the 
ruins  of  a  nunnery  founded  by  Elfrida  to  expiate  the 
murder  of  her  stepson  (Edward  the  Martyr) ;  the  church 
of  St  Lawrence,  originally  Norman,  but  rebuilt  in  the 
15th  century  in  the  Early  English  style,  containing  some 
interesting  brasses ;  and  the  church  of  St  Giles,  of  mixed 
architecture,  which  was  severely  damaged  during  the 
Cromwellian  wars.  At  the  free  grammar-school,  founded 
in  1445,  Archbishop  Laud  received  his  education,  and  he 
afterwards  became  a  generous  benefactor  to  it.  The 
school  was  removed  in  1871  to  new  buildings  surrounded 
by  12  acres  of  ground.  Other  educational  foundations 
are  the  Kendrick  schools  (1624),  the  blue-coat  school 
(1656),  and  the  green-coat  school  for  girls  (1779).  The 
various  almshouses  were  consolidated  into  one  building  in 
1865.  Among  the  modern  structures  are  the  municipal 
buildings  (in  the  Renaissance  style,  erected  in  1875  and 
enlarged  in  1882,  containing  a  large  concert-room,  a  free 
library,  schools  for  science  and  art,  and  a  museum),  the  corn 
exchange,  the  assize  courts,  the  athenaeum,  the  royal  Albert 
hall,  the  masonic  hall,  the  workhouse,  and  the  royal  Berk- 
shire hospital.  The  town  has  a  large  trade  in  corn  and  agri- 
cultural produce  ;  and,  in  addition  to  an  extensive  biscuit 
manufactory  which  employs  over  3000  hands,  it-  possesses 
iron -works,  iron-foundries,  engine  -  works,  and  breweries. 
Adjoining  the  town  are  extensive  seed  nurseries  covering 
about  10,000  acres.  The  population  of  the  borough  (area, 
2186  acres)  in  1871  was  32,324,  and  in  1881  it  was  42,054. 
The  origin  of  the  town  is  doubtful  ;  but  Reading  must  have  been 
a  place  of  some  importance  when  the  Danes  in  871  brought  their 
war-ships  up  the  Thames  as  far  as  the  Kennet  and  made  the  town 
for  some  time  their  headquarters.  It  was  burned  by  Sweyn  in 
1006.  In  Domesday  the  name  occurs  as  Radynges.  A  new  and 
strong  castle  was  erected  here  by  Stephen,  which  was  destroyed  by 
Henry  JI.  In  1209  the  professors  and  students  of  Oxford  made  a 
temporary  retreat  to  Reading,  owing  to  a  quarrel  with  King  John. 
From  the  13th  to  the  16th  century  parliaments  were  frequently 
held  in  the  town,  and  in  the  Michaelmas  term  of  1625  the  law 
courts  were  transferred  to  it  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  the 
plague  in  London.  In  1643  it  surrendered  to  the  Parliamentary 
forces  under  the  earl  of  Essex,  and  subsequently  was  more  than 
once  occupied  by  the  rival  armies.  It  is  a  borough  by  prescription 
and  received  charters  and  grants  from  Henry  III.  and  subsequent 
sovereigns.  It  has  returned  members  to  parliament  from  the  23d 
of  Edward  I.  ;  the  number  was  reduced  from  two  to  one  in  1885. 
By  the  Municipal  Act  of  1836  it  was  divided  into  three  wards 
governed  by  a  mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  eighteen  councillors. 

READING,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Berks  county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Schuylkill  river,  and  on  the  Schuylkill  and  Union  Canals, 
58  miles  north-west  of  Philadelphia  at  the  intersection  of 
some  fourteen  railway  lines,  representing  eight  different 
companies.  It  occupies  an  elevated  and  healthy  position 


on  a  plain  that  gradually  rises  towards  an  amphitheatre 
of  hills,  including  Penn's  Mount  on  the  east  and  Neversink 
Mountain  on  the  south.  The  plan  is  extremely  regular 
and  the  principal  streets  cross  at  Penn  Square,  the  business 
centre  of  the  city.  An  abundant  supply  of  excellent 
water  helps  to  keep  the  whole  place  sweet  and  clean. 
Conspicuous  buildings  are — the  court-house,  the  city-hall, 
Trinity  Church  (Lutheran),  Christ  Church  (Episcopal),  the 
opera-house,  Mishler's  academy  of  music,  and  the  railway 
station.  Besides  a  very  extensive  and  varied  manufacture 
of  iron  and  iron  wares  from  steam-boilers  down  to  nails, 
Reading  carries  on  distilling,  tanning,  cotton -weaving, 
cigar -rolling,  paper -making,  and  many  other  industries, 
and  is  the  seat  of  extensive  machine-shops  of  the  Phil- 
adelphia and  Reading  Railroad.  The  population — 2385  in 
1800,  15,743  in  1850,  33,930  in  1870,  and  43,278  in 
1880 — is  largely  of  German  origin;  and  in  1883  one  out 
of  its  five  daily  newspapers  and  six  out  of  its  eleven 
weeklies  were  in  German. 

Laid  out  in  1748  by  Thomas  and  Richard  Penn,  Reading  received 
incorporation  as  a  borough  in  1783,  and  was  made  a  city  in  1847. 

REALEJO,  a  town  and  harbour  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
Nicaragua,  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  12°  28'  N. 
lat.  The  harbour  is  spacious  and  well  sheltered,  and 
altogether  the  best  which  Nicaragua  possesses  on  that 
coast ;  it  is  protected  by  a  peninsula  and  two  considerable 
islands,  Garden  and  Asserradores  or  Corinto.  The  town 
lies  9  miles  inland,  and  as  a  port  is  now  superseded  by 
the  new  town  of  Corinto,  founded  about  1849,  and  since 
1881  connected  with  Leon  and  the  interior  by  a  railway. 
Realejo  was  the  terminus  adopted  by  Bedford  Pirn  for  his 
scheme  of  an  interoceanic  canal ;  but  the  route  actually 
sanctioned  reaches  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  at  Brito,  some 
distance  to  the  south. 

REAL  ESTATE.  The  land  law  of  England  and  of 
countries  whose  law  is  based  upon  that  of  England  stands 
in  a  peculiar  position,  which  can  be  understood  only  by  an 
outline  of  its  history. 

History. — Such  terms  as  "  fee  "  or  "  homage  "  carry  us 
far  back  into  feudal  times.  Rights  of  common  and  dis- 
tress are  based  upon  still  older  institutions,  forming  the 
very  basis  of  primitive  law.  The  conception  of  tenure 
is  the  most  fundamental  ground  of  distinction  between 
real  and  personal  estate,  the  former  only  being  strictly  en- 
titled to  the  name  of  estate  (see  ESTATE).  The  division 
into  real  and  personal  is  coincident  to  a  great  extent  with 
that  into  immovable  and  movable,  generally  used  by 
systems  of  law  founded  on  the  Roman  (see  PERSONAL 
ESTATE).  That  it  is  not  entirely  coincident  is  due  to 
the  influence  of  the  Roman  law  itself.  The  Greeks  and 
the  Romans  of  the  republic  were  essentially  nations  of 
citizens ;  the  Teutons  were  essentially  a  nation  of  land- 
folk  ;  the  Roman  empire  bridged  the  gulf  between  the  two. 
It  is  probable  that  the  English  land  law  was  produced  by 
the  action  of  the  policy  adopted  in  the  lower  empire, 
finally  developed  into  feudalism,  upon  the  previously  ex- 
isting course  of  Teutonic  custom  (see  FEUDALISM).  It  is 
sufficient  to  say  here  that  the  distinguishing  features  of 
the  Teutonic  system  were  enjoyment  in  common  and  the 
absence  of  private  ownership,  except  to  a  limited  extent. 
The  history  of  the  development  of  the  old  English  land 
law  before  the  Conquest  will  be  found  under  ENGLAND  and 
LAND.  Its  principal  features,  stated  as  shortly  as  possible, 
were  (1)  liberty  of  alienation,  either  by  will  or  inter  vivos, 
of  such  land  as  could  be  alienated,  chiefly,  if  not  entirely, 
bocland,  subject  always  to  the  limits  fixed  by  the  boc  ;  (2) 
publicity  of  transfer  by  enrolment  in  the  shire -book  or 
church -book  ;  (3)  equal  partition  of  the  estate  of  a  deceased 
among  the  sons,  and  failing  sons  among  the  daughters; 
(4)  cultivation  to  a  great  extent  by  persons  in  various 


REAL     ESTATE 


305 


degrees  of  serfdom,  owing  money  or  labour  rents;  (5) 
variety  of  custom,  tending  to  become  uniform,  through 
the  application  of  the  same  principles  in  the  local  courts ; 
(6)  subjection  of  land  to  the  trinoda  necessitas,  a  burden 
imposed  for  the  purpose  of  defence  of  the  realm.  The 
rudiments  of  the  conceptions  of  tenure  and  of  the  crown 
as  lord  paramount  were  found  in  the  old  English  system, 
and  laenland  was  an  anticipation  of  the  limited  interests 
which  afterwards  became  of  such  importance.1  The  con- 
nexion of  political  privileges  with  the  ownership  of  land 
is  not  peculiar  to  the  pre-Conquest  or  any  other  period. 
It  runs  through  the  whole  of  English  history.  Originally 
all  freeholders  seem  to  have  voted  in  the  county  court. 
Finally  the  Reform  Acts  of  this  century,  however  they 
may  have  lowered  the  qualification,  still  require  (except 
in  the  case  of  the  university  vote)  the  vote  to  be  derived 
from  an  interest  in  land.  No  amount  of  consols  will  give 
a  vote  at  a  parliamentary  election.  A  qualification  from 
land  is  also  necessary  in  the  case  of  sheriff,  justices  of  the 
peace,  and  other  public  officials. 

The  elements  of  feudalism  so  far  existed  in  England 
under  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Danish  kings  as  to  make  it 
easy  to  introduce  it  in  full  at  the  Norman  Conquest. 
Feudalism  was  not  so  much  a  distinct  and  separate  creation, 
developed  at  once  in  its  maturity,  as  a  collection  of  institu- 
tions whose  origin  was  to  be  found  in  unconnected  sources. 
What  the  Norman  Conquest  did  was  not  to  change  all 
at  once  allodial  into  feudal  tenure,  but  to  complete  the 
association  of  territorial  with  personal  dependence  in  a 
state  of  society  already  prepared  for  it.2  "Nulle  terre  sans 
seigneur"  was  one  of  the  fundamental  axioms  of  feudalism. 
There  might  be  any  number  of  infeudations  and  subin- 
feudations  to  mesne  lords,  but  the  chain  of  seigniory  was 
complete,  depending  in  the  last  resort  upon  the  king  as 
lord  paramount.  Land  was  not  owned  by  free  owners 
owing  only  necessary  militia  duties  to  the  state,  but  was 
held  of  the  king  by  military  service  of  a  far  more  onerous 
nature.  The  folkland  became  the  king's  land ;  the  soldier 
was  a  landowner  instead  of  the  landowner  being  a  soldier. 
Free  owners  tended  to  become  tenants  of  the  lord,  the 
township  to  be  lost  in  the  manor.3  The  common  land 
became  in  law  the  waste  of  the  manor,  its  enjoyment  rest- 
ing upon  a  presumed  grant  by  the  lord.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  whole  of  England  did  not  become  manorial ;  the 
conflict  between  the  township  and  the  manor  resulted  in  a 
compromise,  the  result  of  which  affects  English  tenure  to 
this  day.  But  it  was  a  compromise  much  to  the  advantage 
of  the  privileged  class,  for  in  England  more  than  in  any 
other  country  the  land  law  is  the  law  of  the  nobility  and 
not  of  the  people.  One  reason  of  this  is  that,  as  England 
was  never  so  completely  feudalized  as  were  some  of  the 
Continental  states,  the  burden  of  feudalism  was  not  so 
severely  felt,  and  has  led  to  less  agitation  for  reform. 

The  land  forfeited  to  the  Conqueror  was  regranted  by 
him  to  be  held  by  military  service  due  to  the  king,  not 
to  the  mesne  lord  as  in  Continental  feudalism.  In  1086 
at  the  council  of  Salisbury  all  the  landholders  swore  fealty 
to  the  crown.  In  the  full  vigour  of  feudalism  the  inhabit- 
ants of  England  were  either  free  or  not  free.  The  free 
inhabitants  held  their  lands  either  by  free  tenure  (liberum 
tetiementum,  franktenement)  or  by  a  tenure  which  was 
originally  that  of  a  non-free  inhabitant,  but  attached  to 
land  in  the  possession  of  a  free  man.  Franktenement  was 

The  name  has  not  remained  as  in  Germany  and  Denmark.  A  fief 
is  still  Lchen  in  Germany,  Lehn  in  Denmark. 

'  The  relation  of  vassalage,  originally  personal,  became  annexed 
to  the  tenure  of  land"  (Palgrave,  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English 
Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  p.  505). 

It  is  a  disputed  point  whether  the  manor  organization  existed 
before  the  Conquest ;  but  its  full  development  seems  to  have  been 
later  than  that  event. 


either  military  tenure,  called  also  tenure  in  knight  service 
or  chivalry  (including  barony,  the  highest  tenure  known  to 
the  law,  grand  serjeanty  and  the  special  forms  of  escuage, 
castle -guard,  cornage,  and  others),  or  socage  (including 
burgage  and  petit  serjeanty),  or  frankalmoign  (libera  elee- 
mosyna)  or  divine  service,  by  which  ecclesiastical  corpora- 
tions generally  held  their  land.4  The  non-free  inhabitants 
were  in  Domesday  Book  servi,  cotarii,  or  bordarii,  later 
nativi  or  villani,  the  last  name  being  applied  to  both  free 
men  and  serfs.  All  these  were  in  a  more  or  less  dependent 
condition.  The  free  tenures  all  exist  at  the  present  day, 
though,  as  will  appear  later,  the  military  tenures  have 
shrunk  into  the  unimportant  and  exceptional  tenure  of 
grand  serjeanty.  The  non-free  tenures  are  to  a  certain 
extent  represented  by  COPYHOLD  (q.v.}.  The  most  im- 
portant difference  between  the  military  and  socage  tenures 
was  the  mode  of  descent.  Whether  or  not  a  feudal  benefice 
was  originally  hereditary,  it  bad  certainly  become  so  at  the 
time  of  the  Conquest,  and  it  descended  to  the  eldest  son. 
This  applied  at  once  in  England  to  land  held  by  military 
service  as  far  as  regarded  the  capital  fief.  The  descent 
of  socage  lands  or  lands  other  than  the  capital  fief  for 
some  time  followed  the  old  pre-Conquest  rule  of  descent. 
Thus  in  the  so-called  "Laws  of  Henry  I. "  the  lands  other 
than  the  capital  fief,  and  in  Glanvill,  who  wrote  in  the 
time  of  Henry  II.,  socage  lands,  if  anciently  partible 
(antiguitus  division),  were  divided  among  all  the  sons 
equally.  But  by  the  time  of  Bracton  (Henry  III.)  the 
course  of  descent  of  lands  held  by  military  service  had  so 
far  prevailed  that,  though  it  was  a  question  of  fact 
whether  the  land  was  partible  or  not,  if  there  was  no 
evidence  either  way  descent  to  the  eldest  son  was  pre- 
sumed. Relics  of  the  old  custom  still  remain  in  the  case 
of  gavelkind  (see  below).  The  military  tenant  was  sub- 
ject to  the  feudal  incidents,  from  which  the  tenant  in 
socage  was  exempt.  These  incidents,  especially  wardship 
and  marriage,  were  often  of  a  very  oppressive  nature. 
Alienation  of  lands  by  will,  except  in  a  few  favoured 
districts,  became  impossible ;  alienation  inter  vivos  was 
restrained  in  one  direction  in  the  interests  of  the  heir,  in 
another  in  the  interests  of  the  lord.  At  the  time  of  Glan- 
vill a  tenant  had  a  greater  power  of  alienation  over  land 
which  he  had  purchased  (terra  acquietata)  than  over  land 
which  he  had  inherited.  But  by  the  time  of  Bracton  the 
heir  had  ceased  to  have  any  interest  in  either  kind  of  land. 
The  lords  were  more  successful.  It  was  enacted  by  Magna 
Charta  that  a  free  man  should  not  give  or  sell  so  much  of 
his  land  as  to  leave  an  amount  insufficient  to  perform  his 
services  to  his  lord.  In  spite  of  this  provision,  the  rights 
of  the  lords  were  continually  diminished  by  subinfeudation 
until  the  passing  of  the  Statute  of  Quia  Emptores.  Aliena- 
tion by  a  tenant  in  chief  of  the  crown  without  licence 
was  a  ground  of  forfeiture  until  1  Edw.  III.  st.  2,  c.  12, 
by  which  a  fine  was  substituted.  The  modes  of  con- 
veyance at  this  time  were  only  two,  feoffment  with  livery 
of  seisin  for  corporeal  hereditaments,  grant  for  incorporeal 
hereditaments.  Livery  of  seisin,  though  public,  was  not 
officially  recorded  like  the  old  English  transfer  of  property. 
The  influence  of  local  custom  upon  the  land  law  must  have 
become  weakened  after  the  circuits  of  the  judges  of  the 
King's  Court  were  established  by  Henry  II.  Jurisdiction 
over  litigation  touching  the  freehold  was  taken  away  from 
the  lords'  courts  by  15  Ric.  II.  c.  12. 

The  common  law  as  far  as  it  dealt  with  real  estate  had 
in  the  main  assumed  its  present  aspect  by  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  The  changes  which  have  been  made  since 
that  date  have  been  chiefly  due  to  the  action  of  equity 


4  Frankalmoign  was  not  always  regarded  as  a  distinct  tenure.  Thus 
Littleton  (§  118)  says  that  all  that  is  not  tenure  in  chivalry  is  tenura 
in  socage. 

XX.  -  39 


306 


REAL      ESTATE 


and  legislation,  the  latter  sometimes  interpreted  by  the 
courts  in  a  manner  very  different  from  the  intention  of 
parliament.  The  most  important  influence  of  equity  has 
been  exercised  in  MORTGAGE  (q.v.)  and  trusts  (see  TRUST), 
in  the  doctrine  of  specific  performance  of  contracts  con- 
cerning real  estate,  and  in  relief  from  forfeiture  for  breach 
of  covenant.  As  to  legislation,  it  is  impossible  in  this  place 
to  do  more  than  direct  attention  to  the  main  provisions  of 
the  principal  statutes  among  the  mass  of  those  which  from 
Magna  Charta  downwards  have  dealt  with  real  estate. 

History  of  Real  Estate  Legislation. — The  reign  of  Edward 
I.  is  notable  for  three  leading  statutes  which  are  still  law, 
all  passed  in  the  interests  of  the  superior  lords.  The 
Statute  of  Mortmain  (7  Edw.  I.  st.  2,  c.  13)  is  the  first  of 
a  long  series  directed  against  the  acquisition  of  land  by 
religious  and  charitable  corporations  (see  CHARITIES).  The 
statute  De  Donis  Conditionalibm  (13  Edw.  I.  c.  1)  forbade 
the  alienation  of  estates  granted  to  a  man  and  the  heirs 
of  his  body,  which  before  the  statute  became  on  the  birth 
of  an  heir  at  once  alienable  (except  in  the  case  of  gifts  in 
frankmarriage),  and  so  the  lord  lost  his  escheat.  For  the 
mode  in  which  the  statute  was  practically  defeated  and 
estates  tail  in  their  modern  form  created  see  ENTAIL. 
The  statute  Quia  Emptores  (18  Edw.  I.  c.  1)  preserved 
those  rights  of  the  lords  which  were  up  to  that  time  sub- 
ject to  be  defeated  by  subinfeudation,  by  enacting  that  in 
any  alienation  of  lands  the  alienee  should  hold  them  of 
the  same  lord  of  the  fee  as  the  alienor.1  Since  1290  it 
has  been  impossible  to  create  an  estate  in  fee-simple  to  be 
held  of  a  inesne  lord,  or  to  reserve  a  rent  upon  a  grant  of 
an  estate  in  fee  (unless  in  the  form  of  a  rent-charge),  or  to 
create  a  new  manor.  The  statute,  however,  does  not  bind 
the  crown.  The  practical  effect  of  the  statute  was  to  make 
the  transfer  of  land  thenceforward  more  of  a  commercial 
and  less  of  a  feudal  transaction.  The  writ  of  elegit  was 
introduced  by  the  Statute  of  Westminster  II.  in  1285  as  a 
creditor's  remedy  over  real  estate.  It  has,  however,  been 
considerably  modified  by  subsequent  legislation.  From 
1290  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  there  is  no  statute  of 
the  first  importance  dealing  with  real  estate.  The  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  like  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  is  signalized 
by  three  Acts,  the  effects  of  which  continue  to  this  day. 
The  one  which  has  had  the  most  lasting  influence  in  law 
is  the  Statute  of  Uses,  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  10  (see  CONVEY- 
ANCING, TRUST).  The  Statute  of  Uses  was  intended  to 
provide  against  secrecy  of  sales  of  land,  and  as  a  necessary 
sequel  to  it  an  Act  of  the  same  year  (27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16) 
enacted  that  all  bargains  and  sales  of  land  should  be  duly 
enrolled  (see  SALE).  Bargain  and  sale  was  a  form  of  equi- 
table transfer  which  had  for  some  purposes  superseded 
the  common  law  feoffment.  It  applied  only  to  estates 
of  inheritance  and  not  to  terms  of  years.  The  unforeseen 
effect  of  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16  was  to  establish  as  the 
ordinary  form  of  conveyance  until  1841  the  conveyance 
by  lease  and  release.2  Uses  having  become  legal  estate 
by  the  Statute  of  Uses,  and  therefore  no  longer  devis- 
able, 32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  1  (explained  by  34  and  35  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  5)  was  passed  to  remedy  this  inconvenience. 
It  is  still  law  as  to  wills  made  before  1838  (see  WILL). 
In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  Acts  of  13  Eliz.  c.  5  and 
27  Eliz.  c.  4  avoided  fraudulent  conveyances  as  against 
all  parties  and  voluntary  conveyances  as  against  subse- 
quent purchasers  for  valuable  consideration.  Early  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  Act  of  1661  (12  Car.  II. 
c.  24)  turned  all  the  feudal  tenures  (with  the  exception 

*  Tenants  in  chief  of  the  crown  were  liable  to  a  fine  on  alienation 
until  12  Car.  II.  c.  24. 

2  From  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  at  latest  up  to  the  Fines  and  Re- 
coveries Act  of  1833  fines  and  recoveries  were  also  recognized  as  a 
means  of  conveyance.  They  are  so  regarded  in  the  Statute  of  Uses. 


of  frankalmoign  and  grand  serjeanty)  into  tenure  by  free 
and  common  socage  and  abolished  the  feudal  incidents. 
The  Statute  of  Frauds  (29  Car.  II.  c.  3)  contained  pro- 
visions that  certain  leases  and  assignments,  and  that  all 
agreements  and  trusts  relating  to  land,  should  be  in  writing 
(see  FRAUD).  The  land  registries  of  Middlesex  and  York- 
shire date  from  the  reign  of  Anne  (see  REGISTRATION). 
Devises  of  land  for  charitable  purposes  were  forbidden  by 
the  Mortmain  Act  (9  Geo.  II.  c.  36).  In  the  next  reign 
the  first  general  Inclosure  Act  was  passed,  41  Geo.  III. 
c.  109  (see  COMMONS).  In  the  reign  of  William  IV.  were 
passed  the  Prescription,  Limitation,  and  Tithe  Commuta- 
tion Acts  (see  PRESCRIPTION,  LIMITATION,  TITHES)  ;  fines 
and  recoveries  were  abolished  and  simpler  modes  of  con- 
veyance substituted  by  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74 ;  and  the 
laws  of  inheritance  and  dower  were  amended  by  3  and 
4  Will.  IV.  cc.  105,  106  (see  INHERITANCE,  HUSBAND 
AND  WIFE).  In  the  reign  of  Victoria  there  has  been  a  vast 
mass  of  legislation  dealing  with  real  estate  in  almost  every 
conceivable  aspect.  At  the  immediate  beginning  of  the 
reign  stands  the  Wills  Act  (see  WILL).  The  transfer  of 
real  estate  has  been  simplified  by  8  and  9  Viet.  c.  106 
and  by  the  Conveyancing  Acts  of  1881  and  1882  (see 
below).  Additional  powers  of  dealing  with  settled  estates 
were  given  by  the  Settled  Estates  Act,  1856,  later  by  the 
Settled  Estates  Act,  1877,  and  the  Settled  Land  Act, 
1882  (see  SETTLEMENT).  Succession  duty  was  levied  for 
the  first  time  on  freeholds  in  1853.  The  strictness  of  the 
Mortmain  Act  has  been  relaxed  in  favour  of  gifts  and  sales 
to  public  institutions  of  various  kinds,  such  as  schools, 
parks,  and  museums.  The  period  of  limitation  has 
been  shortened  for  most  purposes  from  twenty  to  twelve 
years  by  the  Real  Property  Limitation  Act,  1874  (see 
LIMITATION).  Several  Acts  have  been  passed  dealing  with 
the  enfranchisement  and  commutation  of  copyholds  and 
the  preservation  of  commons  and  open  spaces  (see  COM- 
MONS, COPYHOLD).  The  Naturalization  Act,  1870  (33  and 
34  Viet.  c.  14),  enables  aliens  to  hold  and  transfer  land  in 
England.  The  Felony  Act,  1870  (33  and  34  Viet.  c.  23), 
abolished  forfeiture  of  real  estate  on  conviction  for  felony. 
The  Agricultural  Holdings  Act,  1883  (46  and  47  Viet.  c. 
61),  gives  the  tenant  of  a  tenancy  within  the  Act  a  general 
right  to  compensation  for  improvements,  substitutes  a 
year's  notice  to  quit  for  the  six  months'  notice  previously 
necessary,  enlarges  the  tenant's  right  to  fixtures,  and  limits 
distress  to  a  year's  rent.  By  47  and  48  Viet.  c.  71  the 
law  of  escheat  is  extended  to  incorporeal  hereditaments 
and  equitable  estates.  Among  other  subjects  which  have 
been  dealt  with  by  recent  legislation  may  be  mentioned  RE- 
GISTRATION, MORTGAGE,  PARTITION,  EXCAMBION,  FIXTURES 
(qq.vv.),  taking  of  land  in  execution,  declaration  of  title, 
and  apportionment.  Not  a  year  passes  in  which  the  land 
law  is  not  altered  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Bills  have 
been  introduced  within  recent  years,  but  hitherto  unsuccess- 
fully, for  amending  the  law  by  the  assimilation  of  the  suc- 
cession to  real  and  personal  estate,  and  for  the  compulsory 
enfranchisement  of  leaseholds. 

Real  estate  at  the  present  day  is  either  legal  or  equitable,  a  differ- 
ence resting  mainly  upon  historical  grounds  (see  EQUITY,  TRUST). 
The  following  observations  apply  in  general  to  both  kinds  of  estate. 
The  usual  classification  of  interests  in  real  estate  regards  either  the 
extent,  the  time,  or  the  mode  of  enjoyment.  The  division  accord- 
ing to  the  extent  is  in  the  first  instance  into  corporeal  and  incorporeal 
hereditaments,  a  division  based  upon  the  Roman  law  division  of 
res  into  corporales  and  incorporates,  and  open  to  the  same  objection, 
that  it  is  unscientific  as  co-ordinating  subjects  of  rights  with  the 
rights  themselves.3  Corporeal  hereditaments,  says  Blackstone, 
"consist  of  such  as  affect  the  senses,  such  as  may  be  seen  and 
handled  by  the  body ;  incorporeal  are  not  the  objects  of  sensation, 
can  neither  be  seen  nor  handled,  are  creatures  of  the  mind,  and 


8  In  spite  of  this  objection  the  division  is  adopted  by  the  legislature ; 
see,  for  instance,  47  and  48  Viet.  c.  71. 


REAL     ESTATE 


307 


exist  only  in  contemplation."  Corporeal  hereditaments  are  all 
necessarily  freehold  ;l  an  interest  in  land  less  than  freehold,  such 
as  a  term  of  years,  is  personalty  only.  There  was  no  room  for  such 
an  interest  in  the  feudal  gradation  of  tenure  ;  it  was  regarded  as  a 
mere  personal  contract  and  was  incapable  of  the  incidents  of  tenure. 
By  the  Conveyancing  Act,  1881  (44  and  45  Viet.  c.  41,  s.  65),  the 
residue  of  a  long  term  of  years  may  in  certain  cases  be  enlarged 
into  the  fee-simple.  A  copyhold  is  in  strict  law  only  a  tenancy 
at  the  will  of  the  lord  (see  Cor YH  OLD).  Estates  of  freehold  are 
either  estates  for  life  or  in  fee  (called  also  estates  of  inheritance), 
the  latter  being  in  fee-tail  or  in  fee-simple.  An  estate  for  life  may 
be  either  for  the  life  of  the  tenant  or  for  the  life  of  another  person, 
the  latter  called  an  estate  pur  autre  vie.  The  former  kind  of 
estate  includes  estates  of  dower  and  curtesy  (see  HUSBAND  AND 
WIFK).  An  estate  in  fee  is  called  a  fee  simply,  an  obvious  sign  of 
its  feudal  origin.  Estates  tail  are  either  general  or  special,  the 
latter  being  in  tail  male  or  (rarely)  in  tail  female.  There  may  also 
he  a  quasi-entail  of  an  estate  pur  autre  vie  (see  ENTAIL).  An 
estate  in  fee-simple  is  the  largest  estate  known  to  English  law. 
Its  ordinary  incidents  are  an  oath  of  fealty  (never  exacted), 
ESCHEAT  (q.v.),  and  (in  a  manor)  suit  of  the  coiirt  baron,  and 
occasionally  a  small  quit-rent  and  relief.  All  these  are  obviously 
relics  of  the  once  important  feudal  incidents.  Incorporeal  heredita- 
ments consist  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  of  rights  in  alicno  solo.  They 
are  divided  by  Mr  Joshua  Williams  (Real  Property,  pt.  ii. )  into  (1) 
reversions,  remainders,  and  executory  interests,  (2)  hereditaments 
purely  incorporeal,  the  last  being  either  appendant,  appurtenant,  or 
in  gross.  Examples  are  profits  a  prendre  (such  as  rights  of  common), 
easements  (such  as  rights  of  way),2  seigniories,  advowsons,  rents, 
tithes,  titles  of  honour,  offices,  franchises.  Before  1845  corporeal 
hereditaments  were  said  to  lie  in  livery,  incorporeal  in  grant.  But 
by  8  and  9  Viet.  c.  106,  s.  2,  all  corporeal  hereditaments  are,  as 
regards  the  conveyance  of  the  immediate  freehold  thereof,  to  be 
deemed  to  lie  in  grant  as  well  as  in  livery.  With  regard  to  the 
time  of  enjoyment,  estates  are  either  in  possession  or  in  expectancy, 
— that  is,  in  reversion  or  remainder  or  executory  interests  (see 
KEMAINDEU).  With  regard  to  the  mode  of  enjoyment,  estates  are 
either  joint,  in  common,  in  coparcenary,  or  in  severalty. 

Exceptional  Tenures. — It  has  been  already  stated  that  there  are 
still  to  be  found  survivals  of  the  old  pre-Conquest  customary  law. 
They  are  found  both  in  the  tenure  and  in  the  conveyance  of  land. 
The  only  customs  of  which  judicial  notice  is  taken  are  GAVELKIND 
(q.v. )  and  BoROUGH-ExGLLSH  (q.v.).  Any  other  local  customs,  as  in 
manors,  must  be  proved  by  evidence.  The  tenures  of  frankalmoign 
and  grand  serjeanty  were  specially  preserved  by  12  Car.  II.  c.  24. 
Tenure  in  frankalmoign  is  the  nearest  approach  in  English  law  to 
absolute  ownership.  An  estate  in  frankalmoign  has  no  incidents, 
as  it  is  held  simply  by  divine  service  and  is  not  subject  to  escheat. 
All  tenures  in  frankalmoign  must  (except  where  created  by  the 
crown)  be  older  than  Quia  Emptores.  The  tenure  of  grand  serjeanty 
is  the  holding  of  lands  by  doing  a  personal  service  to  the  king,  as 
carrying  his  banner  or  sword.  Petit  serjeanty  consists  in  the  pay- 
ment to  the  king  yearly  of  a  bow,  sword,  dagger,  or  such  other 
small  things  belonging  to  war  (Littleton,  §  159).  It  is  in  effect  socage. 

Title. — -This  is  the  name  given  to  the  mode  of  acquisition  of 
rights  over  real  estate.  Title  may  arise  either  by  alienation, 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  or  by  succession.  Voluntary  alienation 
is  either  inter  vivos  or  by  will.  The  former  branch  is  practically 
synonymous  with  conveyance,  whether  by  way  of  sale,  settlement, 
mortgage,  or  otherwise.  As  a  general  rule  alienation  of  real  estate 
inter  vivos  must  be  by  deed  since  8  and  9  Viet.  c.  106.  Since  that 
Act  a  deed  of  grant  has  superseded  the  old  forms  of  feoffment  and 
lease  and  release.  Considerable  alterations  in  the  direction  of 
shortness  and  simplicity  have  been  made  in  the  law  of  transfer  of 
real  estate  by  the  Conveyancing  Acts,  1881,  1882  (44  and  45  Viet. 
c.  41,  45  and  46  Viet.  c.  39).  The  word  "grant"  is  no  longer 
necessary  for  a  conveyance,  nor  are  the  old  words  of  limitation 
"  heirs  "  and  "  heirs  of  the  body."  It  is  sufficient  to  use  the  words 
"in  fee-simple,"  "in  tail,"  "in  tail  male,"  "in  tail  female."  Many 
provisions  usually  inserted  in  deeds,  such  as  covenants  for  title  by 
a  beneficial  owner  and  powers  of  appointment  of  new  trustees, 
obtain  statutory  sanction.  Forms  of  mortgage,  conveyance,  and 
settlement  are  appended  to  the  Act.  The  Solicitors'  Remuneration 
Act,  1881  (44  and  45  Viet.  c.  44),  was  passed  as  a  necessary  sequel 
to  the  Conveyancing  Act,  and  the  remuneration  of  solicitors  now 
stands  upon  a  different  and  more  satisfactory  basis.  For  acquisi- 
tion by  will  and  succession,  see  WILL,  INHERITANCE.  Involuntary 
alienation  is  by  BANKRUPTCY  (q.v.)  and  by  other  means  of  enforcing 
the  rights  of  creditors  over  land,  such  as  distress  or  execution.  It 
may  also  arise  by  the  exercise  by  the  state  of  its  right  of  eminent 
domain  for  public  purposes,  as  under  the  Lands  Clauses  and  other 
Acts.3  In  sales  of  real  estate  title  is  generally  traced  in  an  abstract 
delivered  by  the  vendor  (see  SALE). 

1  In  the  category  of  corporeal  hereditaments  are  also  included,  certain  acces- 
sories to  corporeal  hereditaments  proper,  such  as  growing  crops,  fixtures,  title- 
deeds,  &c. 

2  It  should  be  noticed  that  an  easement  in  gross  cannot  exist. 

3  The  right  of  the  state  to  contribution  from  land  for  revenue  purposes  and 


Restraints  on  Alienation. — The  alienation  of  real  estate  may  be 
subject  to  almost  any  conditions,  provided  that  such  conditions  do 
not  contravene  the  law.  As  a  general  rule  there  can  be  no  restric- 
tions upon  the  alienation  of  an  estate  in  fee-simple  ;  the  two  ideas 
are  incompatible.  In  the  case,  however,  of  a  married  woman  a 
restraint  on  anticipation  is  allowed  within  certain  limits.  The 
power  of  imposing  such  a  restraint  is  preserved  by  the  Married 
Women's  Property  Act,  1882  (45  and  46  Viet.  c.  75,  s.  19),  subject 
to  the  right  of  the  court  to  bind  the  interest  of  the  married  woman 
where  it  would  be  for  her  benefit  to  do  so  (44  and  45  Viet.  c.  41,  s. 
39).  In  another  direction  the  imposition  of  a  course  of  devolution 
upon  property  is  forbidden  by  the  law  against  perpetuities,  under 
which  no  executory  interest  can  be  made  to  commence  unless 
within  the  period  of  any  fixed  number  of  existing  lives,  and  an 
additional  period  of  twenty-one  years  (with  a  few  months  added,  if 
necessary,  for  the  period  of  gestation).  Accumulation  of  income 
is  forbidden  (with  a  few  exceptions)  by  the  Thelusson  Act  (39  and 
40  Geo.  III.  c.  98)  for  any  longer  term  than  the  life  of  the  grantor 
or  settlor,  or  twenty-one  years  from  his  death,  or  during  a  period 
of  minority.  Certain  persons  are  by  the  general  policy  of  the  law 
disabled  from  exercising  full  proprietary  rights,  such  as  married 
women  (see  above),  convicts,  infants,  and  lunatics.  Estates  tail 
are  in  general  alienable  under  the  Fines  and  Recoveries  Act  (see 
ENTAIL).  But  in  a  few  cases  estates  tail  are  settled  inalienably 
by  Act  of  Parliament,  generally  as  a  reward  for  public  services. 
Estates  are  thus  settled  to  go  with  the  titles  of  Marlborough, 
Wellington,  Abergavenny,  and  Shrewsbury. 

Exceptional  Modes  of  Alienation. — In  some  of  these  cases,  like 
those  of  the  exceptional  tenures,  the  influence  of  the  old  customary 
law  is  to  be  traced.  The  transfer  of  copyholds  especially  depends 
to  a  great  extent  upon  the  custom  of  particular  manors,  but,  subject 
to  that,  it  usually  takes  place  by  surrender  and  admittance  (see 
COPYHOLD).  Gavelkind  lands  may  be  conveyed  by  feoffment  by 
any  infant  above  the  age  of  fifteen.  For  mines  in  the  Forest  of 
Dean  a  peculiar  mode  of  transfer  is  provided  by  1  and  2  Viet.  c. 
43.  In  the  Isle  of  Portland  there  seems  to  be  a  distinct  survival 
of  the  pre-feudal  conveyance.  The  vendor  and  purchaser  meet  in 
the  parish  church,  where  a  deed  is  signed  by  the  parties  in  the 
presence  of  two  householders  of  the  island.  These  deeds  are  called 
"church  gifts." 

Procedure. — In  some  cases  rights  attaching  to  real  estate  are  pro- 
tected by  peculiar  remedies.  At  an  early  period  it  became  more 
convenient  to  try  the  right  to  the  possession  of,  rather  than  the 
right  to  the  property  in,  real  estate.  Possessory  tended  to  super- 
sede proprietary  remedies,  from  their  great  simplicity  and  elasticity. 
The  general  mode  of  trying  the  right  to  both  property  and  posses- 
sion was  from  the  time  of  Henry  II.  the  real  action,  the  form  called 
"  writ  of  right "  (after  Magna  Charta  gradually  confined  to  the  Court 
of  Common  Pleas)  being  used  to  determine  the  property,  that  called 
"  assise  of  novel  disseisin  "  being  the  general  means  by  which  the 
possession  was  tried.  About  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  action  of 
ejectment  became  the  ordinary  form  of  possessory  remedy.  Real 
actions  existed  until  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  27,  by  which  they  were 
finally  abolished,  with  the  exception  of  writ  of  right  of  dower,  writ 
of  dower  unde  nihil  habct,  quare  impcdit,  and  ejectment.  Of  these 
QUARE  IMPEDIT  (q.v.)  appears  to  be  the  only  one  now  in  use.  The 
assise  of  novel  disseisin,  the  action  of  ejectment  in  both  its  original 
and  its  reformed  stage  (see  EJECTMENT),  and  finally  the  action  for 
the  recovery  of  land  in  use  since  the  Judicature  Acts  are  all  historic- 
ally connected  as  gradual  developments  of  the  possessory  action 
(see  POSSESSION).  The  action  for  the  recovery  of  land  is  still  sub- 
ject to  special  provisions  and  is  not  quite  in  the  same  position  as 
an  ordinary  action  (see  Rules  of  the  Supreme  Court,  1883,  Ord. 
xii.  rr.  25-29,  Ord.  xviii.  r.  2,  &c.).  There  are  certain  matters 
affecting  real  estate  over  which  the  Court  of  Chancery  formerly  had 
exclusive  jurisdiction,  in  most  cases  because  the  principles  on  which 
the  court  acted  had  been  the  creation  of  equity.  The  Judicature 
Act,  1873  (36  and  37  Viet.  c.  66,  s.  34).  assigns  to  the  Chancery 
Division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice  all  causes  and  matters  for 
(inter  alia)  the  redemption  or  foreclosure  of  mortgages,  the  raising 
of  portions  or  other  charges  on  land,  the  sale  and  distribution  of 
the  proceeds  of  property  subject  to  any  lien  or  charge,  the  specific 
performance  of  contracts  between  vendors  and  purchasers  of  real 
estates,  including  contracts  for  leases,  the  partition  or  sale  of  real 
estates,  and  the  wardship  of  infants  and  the  care  of  infants'  estates. 
In  the  case  of  rent  a  summary  mode  of  remedy  by  act  of  the 
creditor  still  exists  (see  DISTRESS,  RENT). 

For  the  economical  aspect  of  the  English  law,  see  LAND.  For  a 
list  of  the  main  points  of  difference  between  real  and  personal  estate, 
see  PERSONAL  ESTATE. 

Authorities. — Those  cited  at  the  end  of  LAND,  and  in  addition  Digby,  History 
of  the  IMW  of  Real  Property  ;  Elton,  Tenures  of  Kent ;  Goodeve,  Modern  Law  of 
Real  Property;  Pollock,  Land  Laws;  Stephen,  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  ;  Seebohm, 
English  Village  Cnmmunity;  Williams,  Real  Property;  Wolstenholme  and  Turner, 
Conveyancing  Acts. 

Ireland.— The  law  of  real  estate  in  Ireland  is  the  English  law, 

to  stamp  duties  on  deeds  perhaps  falls  under  this  head.    These  imposts  are 
really  involuntary  alienations  of  part  of  the  profit  of  the  land. 


308 


R  E  A  — R  E  B 


which  finally  superseded  the  native  law  in  James  I.'s  reign,  as 
modified  by  subsequent  legislation.  The  main  difference  is  in  the 
law  of  LANDLORD  AND  TENANT  (q.v.)  and  the  operation  of  the 
Landed  Estates  Court,  merged  in  the  High  Court  of  Justice  in  Ire- 
land by  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  (Ireland)  Act,  1877. 

United  Skttes.—lhe  law  of  real  estate  in  the  United  States  is  the 
law  of  England  modified  to  suit  a  different  state  of  circumstances. 
The  main  point  of  difference  is  that  in  the  United  States  the 
occupiers  of  laud  are  generally  wholly  or  in  part  owners,  not  tenants, 
as  in  England.  This  is  to  a  great  extent  the  effect  of  the  home- 
stead laws  (see  HOMESTEAD).  The  traces  of  the  feudal  origin  of 
the  law  are,  as  might  be  expected,  considerably  less  prominent  than 
in  England.  Thus  estates  tail  are  practically  obsolete  ;  in  some 
States  they  are  specially  forbidden  by  the  State  constitutions.  The 
law  of  descent  is  the  same  in  real  and  personal  estate  (see  INHERIT- 
ANCE). Manors  do  not  exist,  except  in  the  State  of  New  York, 
where  they  were  created  by  the  crown  in  colonial  days  (Bouvier, 
Law  Diet.,  "Manor").  Registration  of  deeds  is  general  (see 
REGISTRATION).  In  some  States  forms  of  deed  are  prescribed  by 
statute.  Conveyancing  is  for  the  most  part  simpler  than  in  Eng- 
land. The  holding  of  real  estate  by  religious  or  charitable  corpora- 
tions is  generally  restricted  by  the  Act  creating  them  rather  than 
by  anything  like  the  English  law  of  mortmain.  In  Pennsylvania 
such  a  corporation  cannot  hold  land  without  an  Act  of  the  legisla- 
ture, and  in  Territories  of  the  United  States  it  cannot  hold  real 
estate  of  a  greater  value  than  $50,000  (Act  of  Congress  of  1st 
July  1862,  c.  126).  Perpetuities  are  forbidden  in  most  States.  The 
right  of  eminent  domain  is  at  once  acknowledged  and  limited  by  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States.  By  art.  5  of  the  Amendments 
private  property  is  not  to  bo  taken  for  public  use  without  just  com- 
pensation. A  similar  provision  is  found  in  many  of  the  State  con- 
stitutions. By  an  Act  of  Congress  of  9th  April  1866,  c.  31,  all 
citizens  of  the  United  States  have  the  same  right  in  every  State  and 
Territory  as  is  enjoyed  by  white  citizens  thereof  to  inherit,  purchase, 
lease,  sell,  hold,  and  convey  real  and  personal  property.  In  most 
States  aliens  may  hold  land ;  but  in  some  States  they  cannot  do 
so  without  becoming  naturalized  or  at  least  filing  in  the  specified 
manner  a  declaration  of  intention  to  become  naturalized.  For  the 
State  laws  affecting  the  capacity  of  aliens  to  hold  land,  see  Wash- 
burn,  Real  Property,  vol.  i.  p.  64. 

."  International  Law. — The  law  of  the  place  where  real  estate  is 
situated  (lex  loci  rei  sitse)  governs  its  tenure  and  transfer.  The  laws 
of  England  and  of  the  United  States  are  more  strict  on  this  point 
than  the  laws  of  most  other  countries.  They  require  that  the  for- 
malities of  the  locus  rei  sitx  must  be  observed,  even  if  not  necessary 
to  be  observed  in  the  place  where  the  contract  was  made.  The  lex 
loci  rei  sites  determines  what  is  to  be  considered  real  estate.  A 
foreign  court  cannot  as  a  general  rule  pass  title  to  land  situated  in 
another  country.  The  English  and  United  States  courts  of  equity 
have  to  a  certain  extent  avoided  the  inconvenience  which  this  in- 
ability to  deal  with  land  out  of  the  jurisdiction  sometimes  causes 
by  the  use  of  the  theory  that  equity  acts  upon  the  conscience  of 
the  party  and  not  upon  the  title  to  the  foreign  land.  Thus  in  the 
leading  case  of  Penn  v.  Lord  Baltimore  in  1750  (1  Vesey's  Reports, 
444)  the  Court  of  Chancery  on  this  ground  decreed  specific  per- 
formance of  articles  for  settling  the  boundaries  of  the  provinces  of 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  The  difficulty  always  arises  that, 
although  the  court  professes  to  act  upon  the  conscience,  it  must 
indirectly  act  upon  the  property,  and  that  it  cannot  carry  its  decision 
into  execution  without  the  aid  of  the  local  tribunals.  (J.  Wf.) 

REALISM.     See  SCHOLASTICISM. 

REAUMUR,  REN£  ANTOINE  FERCHAULT  DE  (1683- 
1757),  the  eldest  son  of  a  French,  nobleman,  was  born  on 
28th  February  1683  at  La  Rochelle  and  received  his  early 
education  there.  He  was  taught  philosophy  in  the  Jesuits' 
college  at  Poitiers,  and  in  1699,  when  "hardly  seventeen, 
but  already  possessed  of  the  prudence  of  a  grown  man," 
went  to  Bourges  to  study  civil  law  and  mathematics  under 
the  charge  of  an  uncle,  canon  of  La  Sainte  Chapelle.  In 
1703  he  came  to  Paris,  where  he  continued  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  physics.  He  soon  made  his  presence  felt 
in  the  highest  circles,  and  in  1708,  at  the  remarkably  early 
age  of  twenty-four,  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academic 
des  Sciences.  From  this  time  onwards  for  nearly  half 
a  century  hardly  a  year  passed  in  which  the  Memoires  de 
I' Academic  did  not  contain  at  least  one  paper  by  Reaumur. 
At  first  his  attention  was  occupied  by  mathematical  studies, 
especially  in  geometry.  In  1710  he  was  appointed  to  the 
charge  of  a  great  Government  work — the  official  descrip- 
tion of  the  useful  arts  and  manufactures — which  led  him 
to  many  practical  researches  that  resulted  in  the  establish- 


ment of  manufactures  new  to  France  and  the  revival  of 
neglected  industries.  For  discoveries  regarding  iron  and 
steel  the  regent  Orleans  awarded  him  a  pension  of  12,000 
livres ;  but,  being  content  with  his  ample  private  income, 
he  requested  that  the  money  should  be  secured  to  the 
Academic  des  Sciences  for  the  furtherance  of  experiments 
on  improved  industrial  processes.  In  1731  he  became 
greatly  interested  in  meteorology,  and  invented  the  thermo- 
meter which  bears  his  name.  In  1735  family  arrange- 
ments obliged  him  to  accept  the  post  of  commander  and 
intendant  of  the  royal  and  military  order  of  Saint  Louis ; 
he  discharged  his  duties  in  connexion  with  it  with  scru- 
pulous attention,  but  declined  to  receive  any  of  the 
emoluments.  Whatever  his  other  occupations  were,  he 
always  found  time  for  the  systematic  study  of  natural 
history,  in  which  he  took  great  delight.  He  was  a  born 
naturalist,  gifted  with  rare  powers  of  observation  and  de- 
scription,— indeed  his  frien4s  often  called  him  the  Pliny 
of  the  18th  century.  He  loved  retirement  and  lived  much 
at  his  country  residences,  at  one  of  which,  La  Bermondiere 
(Maine),  he  met  with  an  accident,  a  fall  from  horseback, 
the  effects  of  which  proved  fatal  on  17th  October  1757. 
He  bequeathed  his  manuscripts,  which  filled  138  port- 
folios, and  his  natural  history  collections  to  the  Academic 
des  Sciences. 

Reaumur  was  a  man  of  wide  attainments  and  great  industry. 
His  writings,  sometimes  on  trivial  topics,  were  frequently  diffuse,  yet 
always  interesting.  His  mind  was  original  and  intensely  practical. 
As  a  rule  he  avoided  theoretical  questions,  but  when  he  took  them 
up  his  manner  of  treatment  was  remarkably  clear,  chiefly  on  account 
of  an  ingenious  use  of  metaphor,  often  expanding  into  allegory. 
His  memory  was  retentive,  his  information  immense,  and  his 
kindliness  of  disposition  such  that  his  knowledge  and  wealth 
seemed  to  be  amassed  only  for  the  benefit  of  his  friends.  He 
always  bore  a  high  character,  was  a  great  favourite  in  society,  and 
associated  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  principal  great  men  of  the 
time  in  Europe. 

Reaumur's  scientific  papers  are  too  numerous  to  be  recapitulated ; 
they  deal  with  nearly  all  branches  of  science.  His  first  paper,  in 
1708,  was  on  a  general  problem  in  geometry,  his  last,  in  1756,  on 
the  forms  of  birds'  nests.  He  proved  experimentally  the  fact, 
afterwards  demonstrated  theoretically  by  Du  Hamcl,  that  the 
strength  of  a  rope  is  less  than  the  sum  of  the  strengths  of  its 
separate  strands.  He  examined  and  reported  on  the  auriferous 
rivers,  the  turquoise  mines,  the  forests,  and  the  fossil  beds  of 
France.  He  devised  the  method  of  tinning  iron  that  is  still 
employed,  and  investigated  the  differences  between  iron  and  steel, 
correctly  showing  that  the  amount  of  combustible  matter  (sulphur 
in  the  language  of  the  old  chemistry)  is  greatest  in  cast  iron,  less 
in  steel,  and  least  in  wrought  iron.  His  book  on  this  subject 
(1722)  was  translated  into  English  and  German.  The  thermo- 
meter by  which  he  is  now  best  remembered  was  constructed  on  the 
principle  of  taking  the  freezing-point  of  water  as  0°,  and  graduating 
the  tube  into  degrees  each  of  which  \vas  one -thousandth  of  the 
volume  contained  by  the  bulb  and  tube  up  to  the  zero  mark.  It 
was  purely  an  accident  dependent  on  the  dilatability  of  the  parti- 
cular quality  of  alcohol  employed  which  made  the  boiling-point  of 
water  80°  ;  and  mercurial  thermometers  the  stems  of  which  are 
graduated  into  eighty  equal  parts  between  the  freezing  and  boiling 
points  of  water  are  not  Reaumur  thermometers  in  anything  but  name. 
Reaumur  wrote  much  on  natural  history.  Early  in  life  he 
described  the  locomotor  system  of  the  Echinodermata,  and  showed 
that  the  supposed  vulgar  error  of  Crustaceans  replacing  their  lost 
liinbs  was  an  actual  fact.  In  1710  he  wrote  a  paper  on  the  possi- 
bility of  spiders  being  used  to  produce  silk,  which  was  so  celebrated 
at  the  time  that  the  Chinese  emperor  Kang-he  caused  a  translation 
of  it  to  be  made.  He  treated  also  of  botanical  and  agricultural 
matters,  and  devised  processes  for  preserving  birds  and  eggs.  He 
elaborated  a  system  of  artificial  incubation,  and  made  important 
observations  on  the  digestion  of  carnivorous  and  graminivorous 
birds  ;  but  his  greatest  work  is  the  Memoires  pour  servir  A  I'Histoire 
des  Insectes,  6  vols.,  with  267  plates,  Amsterdam,  1734-49.  It 
describes  the  appearance,  habits,  and  locality  of  all  the  known 
insects  except  the  beetles,  and  is  a  marvel  of  patient  and  accurate 
observation.  Amongst  other  important  facts  stated  in  this  work 
are  the  experiments  which  enabled  Reaumur  to  prove  the  correct- 
ness of  Peyssonel's  hypothesis,  that  corals  were  animals  and  not 
plants,  as  was  previously  supposed. 

REBUS,  an  enigmatical  representation  of  some  name 
or  thing,  by  using  figures  or  pictures  instead  of  words  or 


R  E  C  — R  E  C 


309 


parts  of  words.  Camden  mentions  an  instance  of  this  kind 
of  wit  in  a  gallant  who  expressed  his  love  to  a  woman 
named  Rose  Hill  by  painting  in  the  border  of  his  gown 
a  rose,  a  hill,  an  eye,  a  loaf,  and  a  well ;  this,  in  the  style 
of  the  rebus,  reads  "  Rose  Hill  I  love  well."  This  kind  of 
wit  was  long  practised  by  the  great,  who  took  the  pains 
to  find  devices  for  their  names.  It  was,  however,  happily 
ridiculed  by  Ben  Jonson  in  the  humorous  description  of 
Abel  Drugger's  device  in  the  Alchemist  and  by  the  Spectator 
in  the  device  of  Jack  of  Newberry.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  arrangements  of  words  in  which  the  position  of 
the  several  vocables  is  to  be  taken  into  account  in  divining 
the  meaning.  Thus  "  I  understand  you  undertake  to  over- 
throw my  undertaking  "  makes  the  rebus 

stand  take        to        taking 

I  you      throw       my ; 
or  in  French 

pir  vent        venir 

un  vient        d'un 

may  be  read  "un  soupir  vient  souvent  d'un  souvenir." 
The  original  use  of  the  word,  which"  comes  to  us  from 
France,  was,  however,  wider  :  any  equivoque  or  satirical 
pleasantry  might  be  so  named,  and  the  origin  of  the  term 
is  ascribed  by  Menage  to  the  clerks  of  Picardy,  who  at 
carnival  time  used  to  put  out  satirical  squibs  called  "  De 
rebus  quae  geruntur."  "  Rebus,"  in  heraldry,  is  a  coat  of 
arms  which  bears  an  allusion  to  the  name  of  the  person, — 
as  three  castles  for  Castleton,  three  cups  for  Butler,  three 
conies  for  Coningsby. 

RECAMIER,  MADAME  (whose  maiden  name  was  JEANNE 
FRAN<JOISE  JULIE  ADELAIDE  BERNARD),  was  born  on  4th 
December  1777  at  Lyons,  and  died  at  Paris  on  llth  May 
1849.  She  was  married  at  fifteen  to  the  banker  Recamier, 
who  was  more  than  old  enough  to  be  her  father.  Beautiful, 
accomplished,  with  a  real  love  for  literature,  she  possessed 
at  the  same  time  a  temperament  which  protected  her  from 
scandal,  and  from  the  early  days  of  the  consulate  to  almost 
the  end  of  the  July  monarchy  her  salon  was  one  of  the 
chief  resorts  of  literary  and  political  society  that  pretended 
to  fashion.  For  some  time  she  was  much  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Madame  de  Stael,  and  it  was  partly  through  her 
that  Madame  Recamier  became  acquainted  with  Benjamin 
Constant,  whose  singular  political  tergiversations  during 
the  last  days  of  the  empire  and  the  first  of  the  restoration 
have  been  attributed  to  Madame  Recamier.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  she  succeeded  in  inspiring  a  real  and  almost 
desperate  passion  in  the  heart  of  Constant,  whose  letters  to 
her  have  had  a  singular  fate,  having  been  twice  published 
in  part,  and  twice  interfered  with  by  judicial  proceedings 
on  the  part  of  the  representatives  of  the  parties  concerned. 
In  Madame  Recamier's  later  days  she  lost  most  of  the  for- 
tune which,  when  she  was  the  wife  of  a  rich  banker,  had 
given  her  part  of  her  consequence ;  but  she  continued  to 
receive  visitors  at  the  Abbaye-aux-Bois.  Here  Chateau- 
briand was  a  constant  visitor,  and  in  a  manner  master  of 
the  house ;  but  Madame  Recamier  never  even  in  old  age, 
ill -health,  and  reduced  circumstances  lost  her  attraction. 
After  her  death  Souvenirs  et  Correspondances  tires  des 
Papiers  de  Madame  Becamier  were  published.  To  compile, 
however,  a  real  account  of  her  would  necessitate  the  ransack 
of  all  the  memoirs,  correspondence,  and  anecdotage  con- 
cerning French  political  and  literary  life  for  the  first  half 
of  this  century. 

RECANATI,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Macerata, 
17 1  miles  from  Loreto,  on  the  highway  between  Ancona 
and  Rome,  is  built  on  a  hill  910  feet  above  the  sea,  and  still 
retains  portions  of  its  15th-century  walls  and  gateways.  It 
is  now  perhaps  best  known  as  the  birthplace  of  the  poet 
Leopardi,  whose  monument  adorns  the  principal  piazza  and 
whose  family  has  collected  in  the  town  a  very  interesting 


museum  of  Leopardiana;  but  it  also  contains  fine  old 
mansions  of  the  Leopardi,  Mazzagalli,  Massucci,  and  Car- 
radori  in  the  main  street,  a  palazzo  communale  with  a 
bronze  representation  of  the  removal  of  the  Holy  House  to 
Loreto,  and  a  Gothic  cathedral,  built  towards  the  close  of 
the  14th  century  and  dedicated  to  St  Flavianus,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople.  The  population  in  1881  was  8864  in 
the  town  and  port  (3040)  and  19,524, in  the  commune. 

Recanati  appears  as  a  strong  castle  in  the  10th  century  or  earlier. 
Round  this  gathered  a  community  whose  petty  wars  with  Osimo 
(Auximum)  called  for  the  interference  of  Innocent  III.  in  1198. 
From  Frederick  II.  it  obtained  the  right  of  having  a  port  on  the 
Adriatic ;  and  by  Gregory  IX.  it  was  made  a  city  and  the  seat  of  the 
bishopric  transferred  from  Osimo.  This  oscillation  between  Guelf 
and  Ghibelline  continued  characteristic  of  Eecanati.  Urban  IV. 
abolished  the  "city"  and  bishopric  ;  Nicholas  IV.  restored  them. 
John  XXII.  again,  in  1320,  removed  the  bishopric  and  placed  the 
city  under  interdict.  The  interdict  was  withdrawn  in  1328  on 
payment  of  a  heavy  fine,  but  the  bishopric  remained  in  abeyance 
till  1357.  Gregory  XII.,  who  on  his  deposition  by  the  council  of 
Constance  was  made  papal  legate  of  the  sees  of  Macerata  and 
Recanati,  died  in  this  city  in  1417.  The  assistance  rendered  by 
Recanati  to  the  popes  in  their  struggles  with  the  Sforza  seems  to 
have  exhausted  its  resources,  and  it  began  to  decline.  Considerable 
damage  was  done  by  the  earthquake  of  1741  ;  and  the  French,  who 
were  twice  in  possession  of  the  city  in  1797,  pillaged  it  in  1799. 

RECHABITES,  or  SONS  OF  RECHAB,  in  ancient  Israel 
formed  a  sort  of  religious  order  in  some  respects  analogous 
to  the  Nazarites,  with  whom  they  shared  the  rule  of 
abstinence  from  wine.  They  went  farther  than  the  latter, 
however,  in  eschewing  the  luxuries  and  pursuits  of  settled 
life,  living  in  tents  and  refusing  to  sow  grain  as  well  as 
to  plant  vineyards.  Their  origin  must  have  been  in 
northern  Israel,  for  their  "  father "  or  founder,  to  whom 
they  referred  their  rule  of  life,  was  that  Jehonadab  or 
Jonadab,  son  of  Rechab,  who  lent  his  countenance  to  Jehu 
in  the  abolition  of  Tyrian  Baal-worship  (2  Kings  x.).  The 
order  founded  by  Jehonadab  must  from  its  constitution 
have  soon  become  a  sort  of  hereditary  clan,  and  as  such 
the  "house  of  Rechab"  appears  in  Jer.  xxxv.,  from  which 
we  learn  that  they  had  survived  in  Judah  after  the  fall  of 
the  northern  kingdom  and  continued  to  observe  the  ordi- 
nance of  Jehonadab  till  the  approach  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
drove  them  for  protection  into  Jerusalem.  Jeremiah  pro- 
mised them  as  a  reward  of  their  obedience  that  they  should 
never  lack  a  man  to  represent  them  (as  a  priest)  before 
Jehovah.  This  perhaps  is  the  origin  of  the  later  Jewish 
tradition  that  the  Rechabites  intermarried  with  the  Levites 
and  so  entered  the  temple  service.1  Hegesippus  in  his 
account  of  the  death  of  James  the  Just  even  speaks  of 
Rechabite  priests  and  makes  one  of  them  protest  against 
the  crime  (Eus.,  H.E.,  ii.  23). 

RECIFE.     See  PERNAMBUCO. 

RECOGNIZANCE,  in  law,,  is,  in  the  words  of  Black- 
stone,  "  an  obligation  of  record,  entered  into  before  some 
court  or  magistrate  duly  authorized,  whereby  the  party 
bound  acknowledges  that  he  owes  to  the  king  or  a  private 
plaintiff  (as  the  case  may  be)  a  certain  sum  of  money,  with 
condition  to  be  void  if  he  shall  do  some  particular  act, — 
as  if  he  shall  appear  at  the  assizes,  keep  the  peace,  pay  a 
certain  debt,  or  the  like."  The  term  itself  means  that  the 
person  bound  recognizes  the  existence  of  a  debt.  Recog- 
nizance was  at  one  time  used  as  a  security  for  money  lent, 
something  in  the  nature  of  a  mortgage.  In  this  sense  it 
is  practically  obsolete,  though  it  is  alluded  to  in  modern 
Acts  of  Parliament,  e.g.,  27  and  28  Viet.  c.  112,  by  which 
a  recognizance  entered  into  after  29th  July  1864  does  not 
bind  the  land  until  actual  delivery  in  execution.  The 
principal  use  of  recognizances  at  the  present  day  is  in 
chancery  and  criminal  procedure.  In  chancery  recogniz- 
ances are  entered  into  as  a  form  of  security  by  certain 

1  From  the  obscure  passage  1  Chron.  ii.  55  it  would  seem  that  in 
later  times  the  Rechabites  were  regarded  as  Kenites. 


310 


R  E  C  — R  E  C 


persons  appointed  to  positions  of  trust,  such  as  guardians  or 
receivers.  In  criminal  practice  they  affect  either  suspected 
or  accused  persons,  or  witnesses.  As  early  as  1360  the 
Act  of  34  Edw.  III.  c.  1  empowered  justices  to  take  of 
all  them  that  were  not  of  good  fame  sufficient  surety  and 
mainprize  of  their  good  behaviour.  The  wide  terms  of 
this  provision  are  not  acted  upon  at  the  present  day.  The 
only  recognizances  of  this  kind  practically  enforced  are 
those  entered  into  as  security  for  keeping  the  peace.  Such 
recognizances  are  forfeited  by  any  act  tending  to  a  breach 
of  the  peace.  The  Criminal  Law  Consolidation  Acts  of 
1861  provide  that  any  court  may  on  the  conviction  of  a 
person  for  an  offence  under  any  of  the  Acts  require  him  in 
addition  to  or  in  lieu  of  other  punishment  to  enter  into 
his  own  recognizances  for  keeping  the  peace  and  being  of 
good  behaviour.  The  power  to  bind  witnesses  by  recog- 
nizance was  originally  conferred  by  an  Act  of  1554,  1  Ph. 
and  M.  c.  13.  Recognizances  are  now  the  usual  means 
by  which  a  court  of  summary  jurisdiction  or  a  coroner 
binds  over  a  prosecutor  and  his  witnesses  or  an  accused 
person  and  his  witnesses  to  appear  at  the  trial.  The  pro- 
cedure principally  depends  upon  7  Geo.  IV.  c.  64,  11  and 
12  Viet.  c.  42  (one  of  Jervis's  Acts),  30  and  31  Viet.  c.  35 
(Russell  Gurney's  Act),  42  and  43  Viet.  c.  49,  s.  31  (the 
Summary  Jurisdiction  Act,  1879).  In  proceedings  in 
error  and  in  appeals  from  courts  of  summary  jurisdiction 
to  quarter  sessions  the  prosecution  of  the  appeal  by  the 
appellant  is  secured  by  recognizance.  In  certain  cases 
police  authorities  have  by  recent  statutes  a  limited  authority 
to  take  the  recognizance  of  accused  persons.  Failure  to 
comply  with  the  conditions  of  recognizances  leads  to  their 
forfeiture.  Additional  facilities  for  the  enforcing  of  re- 
cognizances were  given  by  the  Summary  Jurisdiction  Act, 
1879  (see  QUARTER  SESSIONS).  When  recognizances  are 
forfeited  they  are  estreated  (i.e.,  extracted)  from  the  records 
of  the  court  to  be  enforced  against  the  defaulter.  An 
appeal  against  an  order  of  a  court  of  summary  jurisdic- 
tion forfeiting  recognizances  lies  to  quarter  sessions  (3  Geo. 
IV.  c.  46).  By  28  and  29  Viet.  c.  104  a  recognizance  does 
not  bind  the  land  in  the  hands  of  a  bona  fide  purchaser  for 
valuable  consideration  or  a  mortgagee  unless  actual  execu- 
tion has  issued  and  been  registered  in  the  name  of  the 
debtor  at  the  central  office  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judi- 
cature. Registered  recognizances  are  among  the  encum- 
brances for  which  search  is  made  on  a  purchase  of  land. 
By  45  and  46  Viet.  c.  39  an  official  negative  of  the  exist- 
ence of  registered  recognizances  may  be  given  by  the 
proper  officer  on  application.  A  discharge  in  bankruptcy 
does  not  release  the  debtor  from  a  debt  on  a  recognizance 
unless  the  Treasury  certify  in  writing  their  consent  to  his 
discharge  (46  and  47  Viet.  c.  52,  s.  30).  Forgery  of  recog- 
nizances is  a  felony  punishable  by  five  years'  penal  servi- 
tude (24  and  25  Viet.  c.  98,  s.  32). 

In  Scotland  the  place  of  recognizances  is  filled  by 
cautions ;  a  caution  in  law-burrows  corresponds  very  nearly 
to  a  recognizance  to  keep  the  peace. 

In  the  United  States  recognizances  are  used  for  much 
the  same  purposes  as  in  England. 

RECORDE,  ROBERT  (c.  1500-1558),  a  physician  and 
eminent  mathematician,  was  descended  from  a  respectable 
family  at  Tenby  in  Wales  and  was  born  about  1500.  He 
was  entered  of  the  university  of  Oxford  about  1525,  and 
was  elected  fellow  of  All  Souls  College  in  1531.  As  he 
made  physic  his  profession,  he  went  to  Cambridge,  where 
he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1545.  He  afterwards  re- 
turned to  Oxford,  where  he  publicly  taught  arithmetic  and 
mathematics,  as  he  had  done  prior  to  his  going  to  Cam- 
bridge. It  appears  that  he  afterwards  went  to  London, 
and  acted  as  physician  to  Edward  VI.  and  to  Queen  Mary, 
to  whom  some  of  his  books  are  dedicated.  He  died  in  the 


King's  Bench  prison,  Southwark,  where  he  was  confined 
for  debt,  in  1558. 

Recorde  published  several  works  upon  mathematical  subjects, 
chii'ily  in  the  form  of  dialogue  between  master  and  scholar,  viz.  : — 
T)ie  Grounds  of  Artcs,  tcachingc  the  Jt'orke  and  Practise  of  Arith- 
metickc,  both  in  whole  numbers  and  fractions,  1540,  8vo  ;  The  Path- 
way to  Knowledge,  containing  the  First  Principles  of  Geometry  .  .  . 
bothe  for  the  use  of  Instrumentes  Geomctricall  and  Astronomicall, 
and  also  for  Projection  of  Plattes,  London,  1551,  4to  ;  The  Castle  of 
Knowledge,  containing  the  Explication  of  the  Sphere  both  Celestieul 
and  Material!,  &c.,  London,  1556,  folio;  The  Whetstone  of  ll'ittc, 
whidi  is  tJie  second  part  of  Arithmetike,  containing  tlie  Extraction 
of  Rootes,  the  Cossike  Practice,  with  the  Rules  of  Equation,  and  the 
Woorkes  of  Surde  Numbers,  London,  1557,  4to.  This  was  the 
first  English  book  on  algebra.  He  wrote  also  a  medical  work, 
The  Urinal  of  Physic,  1548,  frequently  reprinted.  Sherburne 
states  that  Recorde  also  published  Cosmographise  Isagogc,  and  that 
he  wrote  a  book  De  Artc  facicndi  Horologium  and  another  De  Usu 
Globorum  ct  de  Statu  Tcmporum.  Recorde's  chief  contributions 
to  the  progress  of  algebra  were  in  the  way  of  systematizing  its 
notation.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  the  sign  of 
equality  ( = )  having  the  two  parallel  lines,  as  he  says  himself,  because 
no  two  things  could  be  more  equal.  The  adaptation  of  the  rule 
for  extracting  the  square  root  of  an  integral  number  to  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  square  root  of  an  integral  algebraical  function  is  also 
said  to  be  due  to  him. 

RECORDER.     See  COURT  and  QUARTER  SESSIONS. 

RECORDS,  PUBLIC.  According  to  the  definition  of 
the  Record  Commissioners  appointed  at  the  commencement 
of  this  century  to  report  upon  the  nature  of  the  archives, 
the  national  muniments  of  England  constitute  four  great 
classes.  The  first  class  consists  of  independent  documents 
relating  to  various  subjects,  persons,  and  places,  but  making 
altogether  one  whole,  such  as,  for  instance,  Domesday  Book, 
or  the  Valor  Ecclesiasticus  of  Henry  VIII.  The  second  class 
consists  of  the  series  of  enrolments,  including  within  one 
roll  great  varieties  of  distinct  and  separate  entries  classed 
according  to  their  formal  character,  as,  for  instance,  the 
close  rolls  and  patent  rolls,  or  classed  according  to  their 
subject-matter,  as  are  the  Liberate  and  the  Norman  rolls. 
The  third  class  embraces  those  records  which  contain  entries 
of  judicial  proceedings  and  those  where  each  subject  has  a 
distinct  roll ;  whilst  the  last  class  comprises  all  separate 
documents,  such  as  letters,  inquisitions,  privy  seals,  com- 
missions, and  other  various  descriptions  of  formal  instru- 
ments. Sir  Edward  Coke  has  given  in  his  signification  of 
the  term  "record"  a  briefer  and  less  involved  definition; 
but  according  to  his  rendering  many  important  documents 
would  have  to  be  excluded  from  the  list  of  the  national 
archives.  Hence  it  was  decreed,  on  the  passing  of  the 
Public  Records  Act  (1  and  2  Viet.  c.  94),  which  created 
the  master  of  the  rolls  the  keeper  of  the  archives,  that 
the  word  "records"  should  be  taken  to  mean  "all  rolls, 
records,  writs,  books,  proceedings,  decrees,  bills,  warrants, 
accounts,  papers,  and  documents  whatsoever,  of  a  public 
nature  belonging  to  Her  Majesty." 

The  documents  of  the  once  styled  Courts  of  Chancery, 
Queen's  Bench,  Exchequer,  and  Common  Pleas  contain 
the  very  essence  of  England's  antiquarian  wealth :  they 
constitute  most  of  its  bulk,  much  of  its  legal  importance, 
and  nearly  all  its  historical  interest.  "The  custom  of 
recording  documents  on  rolls  of  parchment,"  writes  Sir 
Thomas  Hardy,  the  late  deputy-keeper  of  the  public  records, 
"  though  of  very  ancient  date,  commenced  nevertheless  at 
a  period  subsequent  to  the  Conquest ;  for  no  vestige  can 
be  traced  of  such  a  system  during  the  Anglo-Saxon  dynasty. 
'  Apud  Anglo-Saxones,'  says  Hickes,  'etiam  mos  erat  leges 
regum  latas  in  codicibus  monasteriorum  tanquam  in  tabulas 
publicas  referendi.'  It  may  be  assumed  that,  had  such  a 
plan  been  then  in  operation,  the  same  would  have  been 
adopted  by  the  Conqueror  to  perpetuate  the  survey  of  the 
kingdom  which  he  caused  to  be  made,  and  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  which  he  evinced  so  much  zeal  and  anxiety."  As 
to  the  precise  time  when  the  use  of  rolls  for  the  entry  of 


RECORDS 


311 


matters  of  business  first  began  there  is  still  considerable 
doubt.  That  no  rolls  of  a  date  antecedent  to  that  of  the 
31st  Henry  I.  are  now  in  existence  is  certain.  It  may 
therefore  be  presumed  that  the  practice  of  enrolling  com- 
menced shortly  after  the  Conquest. 

Court  of  Chancery. —  Owing  to  the  vast  quantity  of 
documents  of  this  court,  only  the  salient  points  of  the 
principal  series  of  rolls  can  be  dealt  with.  Among  the 
most  important  enrolments  belonging  to  this  court  is  the 
extensive  series  of  documents  known  as  the  close  rolls  or 
Rotuli  Litterarum  Clausarum.  Upon  their  well-preserved 
parchment  membranes  the  historian  scans  entries  relating 
— to  the  privileges  of  peers  and  commoners  in  times  gone 
by ;  to  measures  employed  for  the  raising  of  armies  and 
the  equipment  of  fleets ;  to  orders  for  the  observance  of 
treaties,  and  for  the  fortification  of  castles ;  and  to  laws 
innumerable  touching  the  power  of  the  bench,  the  authority 
of  the  church,  the  extent  of  the  civil  jurisdiction,  and 
the  prerogatives  of  the  crown.  By  the  help  of  these 
rolls  the  lawyer  and  antiquary  can  learn  how  the  coinage 
of  the  realm  was  regulated,  how  aids  and  imposts,  toll- 
ages  and  subsidies,  were  raised,  how  riots  and  tumults 
were  suppressed,  how  state  prisoners  were  pardoned,  how 
the  writs  ran  for  the  summoning  of  parliaments,  what 
deeds  were  enrolled  between  party  and  party,  what  facts 
were  deemed  worthy  of  record  upon  the  birth,  marriage, 
and  death  of  royal  and  noble  families ;  in  short,  there  is 
little  that  concerns  the  naval  and  military,  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical,  the  legal  and  diplomatic  affairs  of  the  king- 
dom, which  is  not  to  be  found  upon  the  yards  and  yards 
of  parchment  which  constitute  the  collection  of  the  close 
rolls.  The  origin  of  the  name  "  close  "  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  documents  composing  the  series,  being  of  a  private 
nature,  were  despatched  closed  or  sealed  up,  and  were 
addressed  to  one  or  two  persons  only.  The  close  rolls 
begin  with  the  reign  of  John  and  continue  without  in- 
terruption to  the  present  time.  Since  the  days  of  Henry 
VIII.  the  entries  on  these  rolls  are  mostly  confined  to  the 
enrolments  of  deeds  of  bargain  and  sale,  wills  of  papists, 
recognizances,  specifications  of  new  inventions,  and  other 
instruments  enrolled  for  safe  custody  by  warrant  from  the 
lord  chancellor  or  master  of  the  rolls.  Next  in  importance, 
and  scarcely  second  in  historical  interest,  is  the  series  of 
muniments,  dating  also  from  King  John  to  the  present 
day,  called  the  patent  rolls.  Not  a  subject  connected  with 
the  history  and  government  of  the  country  but  receives 
illustration  from  this  magnificent  collection.  Is  a  castle 
besieged  by  the  king,  a  papal  interdict  removed  by  royal 
supplication,  a  safe-conduct  granted  to  an  unpopular  pre- 
late, credence  allowed  to  some  court  witness,  grace  shown 
to  a  rebellious  subject,  church  lands  bestowed  on  begging 
clergy,  negotiations  entered  into  with  foreign  princes, 
powers  of  ambassadors  regulated,  lands,  offices,  and  ward- 
ships granted  to  public  bodies  or  private  persons,  titles 
of  nobility  created,  charters  confirmed,  proclamations 
drawn  up,  licences  to  hold,  sell,  and  marry,  commands  to 
do  fealty  and  homage, — all,  whether  relating  to  political, 
social,  ecclesiastical,  or  commercial  life,  are  to  be  found 
recorded  on  the  membranes  of  the  "litterse  patentes." 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  gaps  in  the  reigns  of  John 
and  Henry  III.  the  letters-patent  extend  without  break  or 
flaw  from  the  year  1200  to  our  own  day.  Unlike  the 
close  rolls,  they  are  unsealed  and  exposed  to  view,  hence 
their  name.  The  third  great  class  of  records  belonging 
to  the  Court  of  Chancery  consists  of  the  "parliament 
rolls  " ;  these,  however,  are  far  from  being  a  perfect  collec- 
tion, as  many  of  the  documents  containing  the  proceedings 
of  various  parliaments  are  hopelessly  lost.  The  series 
begins  with  the  6th  Edward  I.  and  extends,  though  with 
frequent  breaks,  to  Henry  VIII.  As  the  journals  of  the 


House  of  Lords  do  not  commence  till  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  it  is  only  from  the  parliament  rolls  that  proof  can 
be  obtained  of  a  peer  having  sat  in  parliament  previous  to 
that  period ;  such  proof  is  always  requisite  in  claims  to  an 
ancient  barony  by  writ.  When  complete  these  rolls  contain 
entries  of  the  various  transactions  which  took  place  from 
the  opening  to  the  close  of  each  parliament.  Unfortunately 
many  of  the  lost  rolls  belong  to  those  parliaments  which 
are  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  history  of  the  con- 
stitution. The  enrolments  of  Acts  of  Parliament,  however, 
are  of  considerable  help  in  the  investigation  of  English 
parliamentary  history  and  constitute  a  most  important  sup- 
plement to  the  parliament  rolls.  They  begin  with  Richard 
III.  and  continue  to  1849,  when  enrolments  ceased  and 
Acts  printed  on  vellum  were  substituted.  Space  forbids 
us  to  enter  into  details  respecting  the  other  important 
collections  belonging  to  the  Chancery  records.  We  only 
allude  briefly  to  the  charter  rolls,  which  consist  of  grants 
of  privileges  to  religious  houses  and  bodies  corporate,  and 
which  extend  from  John  to  Henry  VIII.,  in  which  reign 
grants  from  the  crown  were  entered  on  the  patent  rolls ; 
the  coronation  rolls,  which  contain  the  commissions  and 
proceedings  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to  hear  and 
determine  claims  of  service  to  be  performed  at  coronations, 
as  well  as  the  oaths  taken  by  the  king  or  queen  when 
crowned, — this  collection,  with  the  exception  of  the  coro- 
nation rolls  of  Charles  I.  and  George  III.,  which  are 
wanting,  is  perfect  from  James  I.  to  Victoria ;  the  fine 
rolls,  consisting  of  accounts  of  fines  paid  to  the  king  for 
licences  to  alienate  lands,  for  freedom  from  knight  service, 
for  pardons,  wardships,  and  the  like,  which  also  begin 
with  John  and  go  down  to  Charles  I. ;  the  French  and  Nor- 
man rolls,  which  relate  to  transactions  in  France  whilst  the 
English  held  part  of  that  country ;  the  oblata  rolls,  con- 
sisting of  accounts  of  the  offerings  and  free  gifts  to  the 
sovereign  from  his  subjects;  and  the  valuable  inquisitions 
post-mortem,  frequently  but  erroneously  referred  to  as 
escheat  rolls,  taken  on  the  death  of  every  tenant  of  the 
crown.  Then  in  addition  to  these  there  are  the  hundred 
rolls,  the  decree  rolls,  the  royal  letters,  the  cartse  antiquae, 
the  privy  seals  and  signet  bills,  the  subsidy  rolls,  the  Irish, 
Scotch,  and  Welsh  rolls,  the  Almain  rolls,  and  numerous 
other  classes  of  document  which  it  is  impossible  to  cata- 
logue or  describe  within  the  limits  of  a  general  review  of 
the  English  archives.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  every  class 
of  records  is  carefully  arranged  for  public  inspection  and 
that  full  and  clear  indices  render  research  a  matter  of 
little  difficulty. 

Court  of  Queen's  Bench. — As  this  court  takes  cognizance 
of  both  civil  and  criminal  causes,  the  former  on  the  crown 
side  and  the  latter  on  the  plea  side  of  the  court,  the  re- 
cords are  arranged  in  the  two  sections,  crown  side  and 
plea  side.  Of  these  records  the  most  important  are  the 
judgment  or  plea  rolls.  From  the  time  of  Richard  I.  to 
the  year  1702  they  were  united  with  the  crown  rolls,  but 
at  that  date  they  were  separated.  The  plea  rolls  contain 
the  general  proceedings  in  causes,  but  the  modern  rolls 
are  very  defective  owing  to  the  neglect  of  attorneys  in 
bringing  the  records  in.  The  crown  rolls  are  composed  of 
indictments,  informations,  and  other  similar  proceedings 
to  which  parties  have  pleaded.  Another  division  of  the 
judgment  rolls  contains  the  controlment  rolls,  which  com- 
prise minutes  of  all  the  principal  proceedings  in  crown 
causes,  with  numerical  references  to  the  judgment  rolls, 
where  the  proceedings  are  entered  at  length.  Apart  from 
the  plea  rolls  the  remaining  records  of  this  court  are  of 
little  general  interest.  Among  their  number  we  may 
notice  the  attorney's  oath  roll,  containing  the  oaths  re- 
quired to  be  subscribed  by  attorneys  on  their  admission, 
the  "baga  de  secretis,"  containing  proceedings  on  attainders 


312 


RECORDS 


(of  great  interest  to  the  historian),  the  contents  of  which 
have  been  admirably  reported  upon  by  Sir  Francis  Palgrave, 
the  enrolment  of  bails,  proceedings  in  outlawry,  the  jail 
delivery  rolls,  and  a  mass  of  indictments,  recognizances, 
and  other  similar  documents.  The  prayer  book  known 
as  the  sealed  copy  of  the  "Book  of  Common  Prayer" 
pursuant  to  statute  14  Charles  II.  is  also  among  the  re- 
cords of  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench. 

Court  of  Common  Pleas. — This  court  contains  a  far  richer 
collection  than  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  and  from  the 
nature  of  its  jurisdiction  the  documents  possess  great 
interest  for  the  genealogist  and  topographer.  Foremost 
among  them  is  the  valuable  collection  of  "  feet  of  fines 
or  final  concords,"  which  date  from  Henry  II.  to  the 
year  1834,  when  fines  and  recoveries  were  abolished  and 
"more  simple  modes  of  assurance  substituted."  "The 
utility  of  these  records,"  says  the  Report  of  the  House  of 
Commons'  committee  on  the  state  of  the  public  records, 
"  to  all  persons  desirous  of  tracing  property  and  pedigree 
is  unquestionable."  Fines  contain  the  proceedings  which 
have  been  adopted  to  convey  estates  and  to  free  them  from 
their  entail  to  issue  and  from  the  dower  of  wives.  Thus 
we  are  able  to  learn  the  name  of  the  freeholder  levying 
the  fine,  and  if  he  was  married  the  name  of  his  wife  and 
often  of  his  children,  the  position  and  value  of  his  estate, 
and  not  unfrequently  something  about  his  ancestors.  Yet 
perhaps  the  chief  value  of  this  class  of  records  is  that  they 
prove  marriages  and  their  issue  at  a  time  when  parochial 
registers  were  not  in  existence.  Few  documents  show  so 
unbroken  a  succession  from  so  early  a  date  as  these  "  pedes 
finium."  The  king's  Silver  Office  books  are  the  chief  in- 
dexes to  the  fines,  but  they  suffered  greatly  from  the  fire 
at  the  king's  Silver  Office  in  the  Temple  in  March  1838. 
The  recovery  rolls  (since  1834  continued  under  the  name 
of  "  disentailing  assurances  "  on  the  close  rolls)  also  con- 
stitute another  important  supplement  to  the  study  of  the 
pedes  finium.  Next  to  the  collection  of  fines  may  be 
classed  the  judgment  rolls  of  this  court,  or,  as  they  are 
more  commonly  designated,  the  "  de  banco  "  rolls.  They 
formerly  consisted  of  two  parts,  the  "  communia  placita  " 
or  personal  plea  rolls,  and  the  "  placita  terras  "  or  pleas  of 
lands  and  deeds  enrolled ;  but  after  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
the  latter  became  distinct  rolls,  containing  the  king's  silver 
and  fines,  assizes,  deeds  enrolled,  and  all  real  actions.  The 
judgment  rolls  pass  through  three  stages — first,  they  are 
plea  rolls ;  then,  when  the  parties  join  issue,  issue  rolls ; 
and  lastly,  when  judgments  are  entered  upon  them,  judg- 
ment rolls.  The  recording  of  the  judgments  has,  however, 
been  very  much  neglected,  for  many  of  the  judgments, 
instead  of  being  entered  on  the  plea  or  issue  rolls,  have 
been  entered  on  separate  pieces  of  parchment,  and  thus 
have  given  rise  to  certain  distinct  bundles  called  "riders," 
in  which  such  entries  are  contained. 

Court  of  Exchequer. — This  collection  contains  next  to 
that  of  the  Court  of  Chancery  the  most  interesting  and  valu- 
able series  of  documents  among  the  English  public  records. 
The  most  important  and  most  prominent  series  is  that  of 
the  great  rolls  of  the  Exchequer,  otherwise  called  the  pipe 
rolls.1  As  with  the  close  and  patent  rolls,  so  with  the  rolls 
of  the  pipe,  it  is  difficult  to  state  what  is  and  what  is  not 
entered  upon  their  membranes.  Everything  which  in 
former  times  went  to  swell  the  revenues  of  the  crown — 
rents  of  various  kinds,  fines,  amercements,  profits  of  lands 
and  tenements,  and  the  like — is  to  be  found  enrolled  upon 
them.  The  accounts  of  the  ancient  revenue  of  the  crown, 
digested  under  the  heads  of  the  several  counties  and 
annually  written  out  in  order  to  the  charging  and  dis- 

*  In  1883  was  founded  the  Pipe  Roll  Society,  which  has  for  its 
object  the  printing  of  the  entire  series  of  pipe  rolls  from  the  reign  of 
Henry  II. 


charging  of  the  sheriffs  and  other  accountants,  are  also 
to  be  seen  upon  their  membranes.  If  a  great  man  Avau 
outlawed,  his  goods  seized,  his  daughter  married  or  niado 
a  ward,  the  account  thereof  can  be  read  in  the  pipe  rolls. 
To  the  pedigree-hunter  these  records  are  particularly  use- 
ful, since  they  contain  the  names  of  most  men  of  property ; 
while  to  the  county  historian  they  are  invaluable.  Few  of 
the  English  national  archives  boast  a  more  uninterrupted 
succession  than  the  great  rolls  of  the  Exchequer.  Begin- 
ning in  the  second  year  of  Henry  II.,  they  continue  to  the 
present  time  with  but  two  gaps — the  rolls  of  the  first 
year  of  Henry  III.  and  of  the  seventh  year  of  Henry  IV. 
Of  the  latter  of  these  missing  rolls  the  antigraph  or  roll 
made  by  the  chancellor's  scribe  is  still  in  existence  and 
supplies  the  place  of  the  lost  roll.  At  the  beginning  of 
this  series  there  is  a  roll  which  was  long  looked  upon  as 
that  of  the  first  year  of  Henry  II.,  or  by  some  antiquaries 
as  belonging  to  the  fifth  year  of  Stephen ;  but  recent 
criticism  seems  to  establish  thp  fact  that  it  is  a  roll  of  the 
31st  year  of  Henry  I., — the  earliest  national  document,  save 
Domesday,  of  any  extent  that  now  exists.  Another  im- 
portant class  of  documents  belonging  to  the  Court  of  Ex- 
chequer and  stored  with  a  variety  of  information  upon 
secular  and  religious  matters  is  the  memoranda  rolls, 
which  extend  from  Henry  III.  to  the  middle  of  the  present 
century.  These  rolls  contain  enrolments  of  all  the  weighty 
business  done  in  the  offices  of  the  queen's  and  lord  trea- 
surer's remembrancer.  Upon  their  membranes  the  in- 
quirer will  read  how  writs  ran  for  the  recovery  of  debts 
due  to  the  crown,  how  commissions  were  appointed  to 
seize  estates  attainted  or  forfeited  to  the  crown,  how  goods 
were  seized  in  the  various  ports  of  England  for  the  non- 
payment of  customs,  how  the  accounts  of  sheriffs  and 
escheators  were  settled  with  the  Exchequer,  how  cities 
and  boroughs  made  claim  to  special  privileges,  and  how 
the  numerous  proceedings  in  equity  on  English  informations 
and  bills  were  conducted.  The  "  brevia  regia  "  endorsed 
on  the  memoranda  rolls  are  the  most  ancient  writs  of  that 
description  in  the  kingdom ;  in  the  earlier  periods  they 
assume  the  shape  of  letters  and  contain  various  wishes  of 
the  sovereigns.  To  the  antiquary  and  historian  the  collec- 
tion of  archives  called  "originalia  rolls,"  which  extend  from 
Henry  III.  to  William  IV.,  is  of  great  service.  They 
not  only  throw  considerable  light  upon  the  manners  and 
customs  in  vogue  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  but  also 
record  the  descent  of  lands,  questions  relating  to  crown 
revenues  and  feudal  tenures,  the  appointment  of  various 
commissions  for  different  purposes  of  investigation,  and 
other  similar  entries.  The  importance  of  the  originalia 
rolls  is  also  increased  from  the  fact  that  they  contain  numer- 
ous extracts  from  early  rolls  now  no  longer  in  existence. 

Among  the  documents  of  the  ancient  Exchequer  there 
is  much  to  interest  the  purely  ecclesiastical  historian  in 
the  collection  of  ministers'  accounts  of  the  issues  and 
profits  of  monastic  lands  in  the  hands  of  the  crown  ;  in 
the  pensions  granted  to  abbots  and  others  upon  the  dis- 
solution of  the  monasteries,  now  enrolled  among  the  records 
of  the  Augmentation  Office ;  in  the  accounts  of  monasteries 
contained  in  the  chartularies,  the  account  books  of  first- 
fruits  and  tenths ;  in  the  taxation  rolls  which  regulated 
the  taxes  as  well  to  the  kings  as  to  the  popes  until  the 
survey  of  Henry  VIII. ;  in  the  Valor  Ecclesiasticus  of 
Hemy  VIII.,  which  contains  surveys  of  archbishoprics, 
bishoprics,  abbeys,  monasteries,  and  the  like  throughout 
the  kingdom ;  in  the  visitations  of  religious  houses ;  and 
in  the  Wolsey  books.  To  the  antiquary  pure  and  simple 
the  collection  in  the  Exchequer  which  records  the  history 
of  knights'  service  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting.  The 
number  of  knights'  fees  throughout  the  kingdom  was 
60,215,  of  which  the  clergy  had  28,015  ;  but,  as  in  process 


in 


RECORDS 


313 


of  time  it  became  a  doubtful  question  whether  lands  were 
held  by  knight's  service  or  by  some  other  tenure,  inquisi- 
tions were  held  and  each  baron  had  to  return  to  the  king 
an  account  of  what  he  held.  Such  accounts  comprise  the 
early  history  of  landed  property,  with  the  names  of  the 
owners  and  the  extent  of  the  estates.  For  information 
on  this  subject  the  three  great  authorities  are  the  Black 
and  Red  Books  of  the  Exchequer,  the  scutage  rolls,  and  the 
subsidy  rolls ;  the  Liber  Niger  Scaccarii,  or  Liber  Niger 
Parvus  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  compiled  by  Gervase  of 
Tilbury,  nephew  to  Henry  II.,  in  the  twenty-second  year  of 
that  king's  reign,  is  the  most  ancient  of  these.  It  contains 
a  list  of  knights'  fees  of  the  time  of  Henry  II.,  and  in 
many  of  the  returns  there  appear  family  names  and  par- 
ticulars of  the  parents,  children,  wives,  and  occupiers  of 
the  land  as  well  as  of  tenants  in  capite.  In  this  book 
there  are  also  various  treaties  of  the  same  king,  four  bulls 
of  Pope  Alexander  III.,  and  the  constitution  of  the  royal 
household  during  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  The  Red  Book 
is  somewhat  similar  to  the  Liber  Niger,  and  contains 
among  other  entries  the  oaths  of  the  different  officers  of 
the  Court  of  Exchequer  •  the  Dialogus  de  Scaccario  (for- 
merly ascribed  to  Gervase  of  Tilbury,  but  clearly  proved 
by  Madox  to  have  been  written  by  Richard  FitzNigel,  at 
one  time  treasurer  of  the  Exchequer,  who  held  the  see  of 
London  from  1189  to  1198);  numerous  short  memoranda, 
<fcc.,  for  the  instruction  and  use  of  the  officials  ;  and  collec- 
tions of  knights'  fees  and  serjeanties  of  the  reigns  of  Henry 
II.,  Richard  I.,  John,  and  Henry  III.  Many  of  its  entries  are 
also  in  the  Black  Book.  The  scutage  rolls,  which  begin  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  contain  the  pecuniary  satisfaction 
paid  by  each  knight  in  lieu  of  the  personal  attendance 
upon  his  sovereign  that  was  required  of  him.  This  satis- 
faction was  called  "scutagium"  or  "servitium  scuti"  (service 
of  the  shield),  and  in  Norman-French  "escuage,"  from  ecu, 
a  shield.  The  assessment  was,  however,  so  arbitrary  that 
it  was  decreed  by  Magna  Charta  that  no  scutage  should  be 
imposed  without  consent  of  parliament.  The  subsidy  rolls 
record  the  fifteenths  and  tenths,  &c.,  granted  by  parliament 
to  the  crown.  In  addition  to  the  above  are  the  marshals' 
rolls,  which  contain  an  account  of  the  military  service  due 
from  great  tenants  to  the  king  on  the  eve  of  a  war,  the 
"  testa  de  Nevil,"  and  the  solitary  roll  called  the  constable's 
roll.  Among  the  more  important  documents  belonging  to 
the  ancient  Exchequer  collection,  concerning  which  space 
forbids  us  to  particularize,  are  the  records  of  the  Augmenta- 
tion Court,  full  of  valuable  matter  to  the  church  historian, 
the  court  rolls  of  manors  possessed  by  the  crown,  the  volu- 
minous series  of  bills  and  answers,  the  collection  of  special 
commissions,  the  golden  bull  of  Clement  VII.  conferring 
the  title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith "  upon  Henry  VIII., 
hearth-money  accounts,  the  Jews'  rolls,  the  vast  collection 
of  crown  leases,  the  recusant  rolls,  and  the  very  curious 
wardrobe  accounts. 

Obsolete  Courts. — In  addition  to  the  various  records 
which  have  been  alluded  to  belonging  to  the  Courts  of 
Chancery,  Queen's  Bench,  Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer, 
there  is  a  large  class  of  documents  which  appertain  to 
obsolete  courts,  and  many  of  which  are  of  great  historical 
value.  The  most  important  of  this  class  are  the  archives 
belonging  to  the  Star  Chamber,  the  Court  of  Chivalry,  the 
Court  of  Requests,  the  Court  of  Wards  and  Liveries,  and 
the  Marshals  Court.  The  muniments  of  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster  and  also  those  of  the  abolished  courts  of  the 
palatinate  of  Durham  are  now  among  the  archives  of 
the  Record  Office.  An  account  of  Domesday  Book  has 
already  been  given  (see  DOMESDAY  BOOK).  The  amal- 
gamation of  the  State  Paper  Office  in  1854  with  the  Record 
Office  has  been  the  means  of  rendering  the  series  of  the 
English  national  archives  an  almost  complete  collection. 


With  the  exception  of  certain  manuscripts  in  the  British 
Museum  and  in  a  few  public  libraries,  most  of  the  public 
muniments  of  the  realm  are  now  placed  in  one  repository 
and  under  the  supervision  of  the  master  of  the  rolls. 

Upon  the  subject  of  the  public  records  Sir  Francis 
Palgrave,  under  whose  auspices  as  deputy  keeper  the 
public  muniments  were  brought  together  under  one  roof, 
writes  as  follows  : — 

"Whether  we  consider  them  in  relation  to  antiquity,  to  con- 
tinuity, to  variety,  to  extent,  or  to  amplitude  of  facts  and  details 
they  have  no  equals  in  the  civilized  world.  For  the  archives  of 
France,  the  most  perfect  and  complete  in  Continental  Europe,  do 
not  ascend  higher  than  the  reign  of  St  Louis,  and  compared  with 
ours  are  stinted  and  jejune  ;  whereas  in  England,  taking  up  our 
title  (so  to  speak)  from  Domesday,  the  documents  placed  under  the 
custody  of  the  master  of  the  rolls  contain  the  whole  of  the  materials 
for  the  history  of  this  country  in  every  branch  and  under  every 
aspect,  civil,  religious,  political,  social,  moral,  or  material  from  the 
Norman  Conquest  to  the  present  day." 

History. — In  consequence  of  the  neglect  and  indifference  from 
which  the  national  archives  suffered  before  being  housed  in  their 
present  quarters,  it  is  as  much  a  matter  for  wonder  as  for  congra- 
tulation that  any  of  them  are  still  in  existence.  In  the  earlier 
periods  the  records  of  the  courts  were  preserved  in  the  palace  of 
the  king  ;  but,  when  the  law  courts  became  stationary  and  were 
held  within  the  precincts  of  the  royal  palace,  instead  of  following 
the  sovereign  from  place  to  place,  all  legal  documents  remained 
in  the  custody  of  their  respective  courts.  On  the  business  of  the 
country  increasing,  the  records  began  to  assume  such  vast  propor- 
tions that  further  accommodation  had  to  be  obtained.  Gradually 
three  warehouses  for  the  custody  of  public  documents  came  into 
existence.  The  records  of  the  King's  Bench  and  Common  Pleas 
were  removed  to  the  palace  at  Westminster,  to  the  old  chapter- 
house, and  to  the  cloister  of  the  abbey  of  Westminster,  and 
thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  well-known  "chapter -house 
repository."  Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Richard  I.,  the 
Court  of  Chancery  becoming  separated  from  that  of  the  Exchequer, 
the  wardrobe  in  the  Tower  of  London  was  used  as  the  chief  place 
of  deposit  for  all  Chancery  documents,  and  thus  the  Record  Office 
in  the  Tower  sprang  up.  It  had  been  the  custom  of  the  earlier 
masters  of  the  rolls  to  keep  the  records  of  their  courts  in  their 
private  houses  ;  but  after  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  these  documents 
were  lodged  in  what  is  now  styled  the  "  chapel  of  the  rolls, "  but 
which  was  then  known  as  the  "  domus  conversorum  Judaeorum, "  or 
the  house  for  converted  Jews  and  infidels,  which  had  been  annexed 
to  the  office  of  the  master  of  the  rolls  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  ; 
an  office  was  subsequently  attached  to  the  chapel,  and  thus  arose  the 
record  depository  known  as  the  "rolls  chapel  office."  For  many 
years  these  three  places  of  deposit — the  chapter-house,  the  Tower, 
and  the  rolls  chapel  office — constituted  the  chief  repositories  for 
public  records  ;  but,  as  the  accommodation  that  these  buildings 
offered  was  limited,  rooms  in  private  houses,  vacant  vaults,  and 
even  stables  had  to  be  taken  by  the  ministers  of  the  day  for 
the  storing  of  the  ever-increasing  archives.  Little  care  was,  how- 
ever, paid  to  the  preservation  of  the  parchments.  They  were  put 
into  houses  and  forgotten  ;  their  various  removals  were  most  care- 
lessly superintended  ;  and  they  were  often  left  a  prey  to  the  pilfer- 
ings  of  the  curious.  Now  and  again  a  sovereign  or  a  secretary  of 
state  turned  his  attention  to  the  disgraceful  condition  in  which  the 
muniments  of  the  kingdom  were  preserved  and  a  sweeping  reform 
was  announced  ;  but  more  important  matters  always  appear  to 
have  shelved  the  subject.  In  1567  Queen  Elizabeth  was  informed 
of  the  confused  and  perilous  state  of  the  records  of  her  parliament 
and  her  chancery,  and  orders  were  given  for  rooms  to  be  prepared 
in  the  Tower  for  the  reception  of  these  parchments,  Her  Majesty 
declaring  that  ' '  it  was  not  meet  that  the  records  of  her  chancery, 
which  were  accounted  as  a  principal  measure  of  the  treasure  belong- 
ing to  herself  and  to  her  crown  and  realm,  should  remain  in  private 
houses  and  places  for  doubt  of  such  danger  and  spoil  as  theretofore 
had  happened  to  the  like  records  in  the  time  of  Richard  II.  and  Henry 
VI."  This  order  was,  however,  never  ex'ecuted.  On  the  accession 
of  Charles  II.,  William  Prynne,  then  keeper  of  the  records  in  the 
Tower,  implored  the  king  "to  preserve  these  ancient  records 
not  only  from  fire  and  sword,  but  water,  moths,  canker,  dust,  cob- 
webs, for  your  own  and  your  kingdom's  honour  and  service,  they 
being  such  sacred  reliques,  such  peerless  jewels  that  your  noble 
ancestors  have  estimated  no  places  so  fit  to  preserve  them  in  as 
consecrated  chapels  or  royal  treasuries  and  wardrobes  where  they 
lay  up  their  sacred  crowns,  jewels,  robes  ;  and  that  upon  very  good 
grounds,  they  being  the  principal  evidences  by  which  they  held, 
supported,  defended  their  crowns,  kingdoms,  revenues,  prerogatives, 
and  their  subjects,  their  respective  lands,  lives,  liberties,  properties, 
franchises,  rights,  laws."  This  earnest  appeal  was  not  urged  before 
it  was  required.  On  his  appointment  to  office  Prynne  made  an 
inspection  of  the  records  under  his  custody.  He  found  them 

XX.  —  40 


314 


R  E  D  — R  E  D 


"buried  together  in  one  confused  chaos,  dust,  and  filth  in  the  dark 
corners  of  Csesar's  chajx?!  iu  the  White  Tower."  He  employ, 1 
soldiers  and  women  to  remove  and  cleanse  them,  "who  soon  grow- 
ing weary  of  this  noisome  work  left  them  as  foul,  dusty,  and 
nasty  as  they  found  them."  He  then  begged  the  aid  of  the  clerks 
of  his  department,  but  these  officials,  "  being  unwilling  to  touch  the 
records  for  fear  of  fouling  their  fingers,  spoiling  their  clothes, 
endangering  their  eyesight  and  healths  by  their  cankerous  dust  and 
evil  scent,"  declined  the  task.  To  the  energetic  Prynne  the  labour 
of  methodizing  the  papers  iu  his  charge  seemed  hopeless  ;  he  saw 
them  in  confused  heaps  hidden  here  and  scattered  there  and  destitute 
of  anything  approaching  to  an  index.  He  lamented  that  it  would 
require  "Briareus  his  hundred  hands,  Argus  his  hundred  eyes, 
and  Nestor's  centuries  of  years  to  marshal  them  into  distinct  files 
and  make  exact  alphabetical  tables  of  the  several  things,  names, 
places,  comprised  in  them."  Still  nothing  was  done  to  remedy 
the  evils  complained  of.  Addresses  were  presented  to  parliament 
upon  the  subject ;  reports  were  drawn  up  and  committees  frequently 
sat ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  this  century  that  a  com- 
plete and  satisfactory  investigation  of  the  public  records  was  entered 
into.  In  the  summer  of  1800  a  very  able  report  upon  the  state  of 
the  archives  was  drawn  up;  and  a  commission  was  appointed  "to 
methodize,  regulate,  and  digest  the  records."  But  the  commission 
directed  its  attention  exclusively  to  the  printing  of  antiquarian 
matter,  and  nothing  was  attempted  for  the  better  preservation  of 
the  archives.  Dissatisfaction  arose,  and  a  select  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  working  of 
the  Record  Commission.  The  result  of  its  sittings  was  the  passing 
of  a  special  Act  of  Parliament,  which  placed  the  public  records  in 
the  custody  and  under  the  superintendence  of  the  master  of  the  rolls 
for  the  time  being,  and  directed  the  treasury  forthwith  to  provide 
a  suitable  building.  In  1851  the  foundations  of  the  present  Record 
Repository  were  laid,  and  seven  years  afterwards  the  public  records 
were  removed  from  their  different  places  of  deposit  and  housed  iu 
their  new  quarters,  where  they  are  now  most  carefully  preserved. 

The  history  of  the  custody  of  the  state  papers  which  run  from 
Henry  VIII.  to  the  present  time  is  but  a  repetition  of  the  neglect 
and  ill-treatment  which  the  public  records  had  to  endure.  When 
they  first  began  to  be  preserved  they  were  locked  up  in  chests,  then 
confined  in  the  larder  of  the  privy  seal,  then  lodged  in  the  tower 
over  the  gateway  of  Whitehall  Palace,  then  transferred  to  the  upper 
floor  of  the  lord  chamberlain's  lodgings,  then  despatched  to  an  old 
house  in  Scotland  Yard  ;  and  it  was  not  till  1833  that  the  State 
Paper  Office  in  St  James's  Park  was  specially  erected  for  their 
accommodation.  Twenty  years  later  it  was  deemed  advisable  by 
the  Government  of  the  day  to  amalgamate  the  state  papers  with 
the  public  records ;  the  State  Paper  Office  was  therefore  pulled 
down  and  its  contents  transferred  to  the  repository  in  Fetter  Lane. 
On  making  a  careful  examination  of  the  state  of  the  documents,  it 
was  found  that  many  of  them  had  "greatly  suffered  from  vermin 
and  wet,"  and  that  the  list  of  those  which  had  been  stolen  or  had 
strayed  from  the  collection  was  no  small  one.  Theft  and  destruction 
for  private  ends  appear  to  have  been  the  two  chief  agents  of  mis- 
chief. During  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  many  of  the  despatches 
were  appropriated  by  Lord  St  Albans  and  Lord  Cherbury,  to 
whom  they  were  entrusted.  In  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  most 
of  the  private  business  papers  of  Her  Majesty,  especially  her  letters 
on  matters  of  secret  importance,  came  into  the  hands  of  the  earl 
of  Leicester  and  finally  into  the  possession  of  his  secretary  and 
his  descendants;  and,  "though  they  were  ultimately  recovered, 
a  great  part  had  perished  by  time  and  the  distraction  of  the 
wars,  &c.  ;  being  left  in  England  during  the  Rebellion,  many  had 
been  abused  to  the  meanest  purposes.  '  Upon  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  the  king's  papers  from  the  time  he  was  in  the  north 
till  the  surrender  of  Oxford  were  designedly  burned;  whilst  "a 
fair  cabinet  of  the  king's,  full  of  papers  of  a  very  secret  nature, 
which  had  been  left  by  the  king  upon  his  retirement  to  the  Scots, 
amongst  which  were  thought  to  be  all  the  queen's  letters  to 
the  king  and  things  of  a  very  mysterious  nature,"  was  also  de- 
stroyed. Iu  the  turbulent  days  of  the  Commonwealth  Bradshaw, 
in  his  capacity  as  president  of  the  council,  managed  to  obtain 
possession  ' '  of  divers  books,  treaties,  papers,  and  records  of  state, " 
some  of  which,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  Charles  II.,  were  not 
regained.  At  the  Restoration  "all  the  paprs  of  state  during  the 
time  of  the  usurpation  remained  in  Thurloe's  hands,  and  Sir  Samuel 
Morland  advised  a  great  minister  to  have  them  seized,  being  then 
privately  in  four  great  deal  desks  ;  but  for  reasons  left  to  be  judged, 
that  minister  delayed  to  order  it,  and  Thurloe  had  time  to  burn 
them  that  would  have  hanged  a  great  many,  and  he  certainly  did 
burn  them  except  some  principal  ones  culled  out  by  himself." 
During  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  various  papers  were  sent  out  of 
the  country  to  The  Hague  and  Sweden  for  the  convenience  of 
ambassadors,  many  of  which  were  never  returned.  Indeed  so  care- 
lessly did  ministers  watch  their  own  documents  that  a  treaty  con- 
cluded with  Holland  in  1654  was  bought  at  an  auction,  and  the 
original  treaty  with  Portugal  in  the  same  year  was  found  on  a  stall 
in  the  street.  Within  almost  a  comparatively  recent  date  there 


were  instances  of  documents  sent  out  of  the  State  Paper  Offic 
which  were  never  returned, — a  fact  which  may  account  for  many 
of  the  purely  official  papers  to  be  found  in  the  manuscript  collec- 
tions of  private  individuals. 

In  spite,  however,  of  past  thefts  and  negligence,  the  state  papers, 
like  the  public  records,  are  a  most  wealthy  and  valuable  collection. 
Their  contents  were  considered  so  important  that  at  one  time  it 
was  a  matter  of  the  greatest  difficulty  for  any  outsider  to  obtain 
access  to  them.  The  keeper  of  the  state  papers  was  bound  by  oath 
"to  let  no  man  see  anything  in  the  office  of  His  Majesty's  papers 
without  a  warrant  from  the  king."  He  was  also  "tied  by  a  strict 
oath  and  by  His  Majesty's  commands  to  deliver  nothing  out  of  the 
oilice  unless  to  the  lords  and  others  of  the  council."  During  the 
whole  history  of  the  State  Paper  Office  the  keeper  never  had  power 
to  grant  on  his  own  authority  leave  to  consult  the  papers  ;  such 
permission  could  only  be  obtained  from  the  secretary  of  state,  to 
whose  office  the  documents  belonged.  Among  the  persons  fortunate 
enough  to  have  this  favour  accorded  them,  we  find  that  in  1670 
Evelyn  was  lent  several  documents  which  related  to  Holland  ;  that 
in  1679  Dr  Gilbert  Burnet  was  permitted  by  warrant  "  from  time 
to  time  to  have  the  sight  and  use  of  such  papers  and  books  as  he 
shall  think  may  give  him  information  and  help  in  finishing  his 
history  of  the  Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England";  and  that 
in  the  same  year  Prince  Rupert  made  a  personal  request  to  the  king 
on  behalf  of  Roger  L'Estrange,  who  was  writing  a  history  of  the 
Civil  War  in  England.  In  later  times  permission  was  more  freely 
given,  though  the  "library  of  MSS.  "  was  still  most  vigilantly 
guarded,  and  applications  were  more  often  refused  than  granted. 
As  an  instance  of  the  strictness  with  which  the  state  papers  were 
preserved,  we  find  that  as  late  as  1775  Lord  North,  though  he  was 
then  prime  minister,  had  to  beg  the  king's  permission  to  have  free 
access  to  all  correspondence  in  the  Paper  Office;  and  that  in  1780 
it  was  necessary  for  the  Ordnance  Office  to  have  permission  to  search 
the  Paper  Office  for  any  documents  that  regarded  their  depart- 
ment. These  restrictions  have  now  been  entirely  removed,  thanks 
to  the  late  Lord  Romilly  ;  when  he  was  master  of  the  rolls,  the 
public  records  were  thrown  open  to  the  public  free  of  all  the 
charges  that  were  formerly  demanded  for  investigation,  whilst  the 
same  liberal  course  has  been  pursued  with  regard  to  the  state  papers 
down  to  the  year  1760.  After  that  date  special  permission  has 
to  be  obtained.  Calendars  and  indexes  of  the  public  records  are 
annually  published  in  the  appendices  to  the  reports  of  the  deputy- 
keeper  of  the  public  records.  Large  volumes — entitled  Calendars 
of  State  Papers — consisting  of  condensations  of  the  documents 
in  the  Public  Record  Office  and  elsewhere  from  the  days  of  Henry 
VIII.  to  the  18th  century  are  now  in  course  of  publication. 

See  Sir  T.  D.  Hardy,  Introduction  to  the  Close  and  Patent  Rolls ;  Fine  Rolls, 
ed.  C.  Roberts ;  Feet  of  Fines,  ed.  Joseph  Hunter ;  Thomas  Madox,  History 
and  Antiquities  of  the  Exchequer;  Great  Roll  of  the  Pipe,  ed.  Joseph  Hunter; 
the  Record  Report  of  1800;  Noel  Sainsbury,  "The  State  Paper  Office,"  in 
the  deputy-keeper's  Thirtieth  Report  (Appendix) ;  A.  C.  Ewald,  Our  J'ullic 
Records.  (A.  C.  E.) 

REDBREAST,  the  name  of  a  bird  which  from  its 
manners,  no  less  familiar  than  engaging,  has  for  a  long 
while  been  so  great  a  favourite  among  all  classes  in  Great 
Britain  as  to  have  gained  an  almost  sacred  character.  The 
pleasing  colour  of  its  plumage — one  striking  feature  of 
which  is  expressed  by  its  ancient  name — its  sprightly  air, 
full  dark  eye,  enquiring  and  sagacious  demeanour,  added 
to  the  trust  in  man  it  often  exhibits,  but,  above  all,  the 
cheerful  sweetness  of  its  song,  even  "when  winter  chills 
the  day"  and  scarce  another  bird  is  heard — combine  to 
produce  the  effects  just  mentioned,  so  that  among  many 
European  nations  it  has  earned  some  endearing  name, 
though  there  is  no  country  in  which  "  Robin  Redbreast " 
is  held  so  highly  in  regard  as  England.1  Well  known  as 
is  its  appearance  and  voice  throughout  the  whole  year  in 
the  British  Islands,  there  are  not  many  birds  which  to  the 
attentive  observer  betray  more  unmistakably  the  influence 
of  the  migratory  impulse ;  but  somewhat  close  scrutiny  is 
needed  to  reveal  this  fact.  In  the  months  of  July  and 
August  the  hedgerows  of  the  southern  counties  of  Eng- 
land may  be  seen  to  be  beset  with  Redbreasts,  not  in  flocks 
as  is  the  case  with  so  many  other  species,  but  each  indi- 


1  English  colonists  in  far  distant  lands  have  gladly  applied  the 
common  nickname  of  the  Redbreast  to  other  birds  that  are  not  im- 
mediately allied  to  it.  The  ordinary  "Robin "  of  North  America  is  a 
Thrush,  Turdus  migratorius  (see  FIELDFARE,  vol.  ix.  p.  142),  and  one 
of  the  Bluebirds  of  the  same  continent,  the  Sialia  sialis  of  most  orni- 
thologists, is  in  ordinary  speech  the  Blue  "  Robin  "  ;  while  the  same 
familiar  name  is  given  in  the  various  communities  of  Australasia  to 
several  species  of  the  genus  Petrceca,  though  some  have  no  red  breast. 


R  E  D  — R  E  D 


315 


vidual  keeping  its  own  distance  from  the  next : — all,  how- 
ever, pressing  forward  on  their  way  to  cross  the  Channel. 
On  the  European  continent  the  migration  is  still  more 
marked,  and  the  Redbreast  on  its  autumnal  and  vernal 
passages  is  the  object  of  hosts  of  bird-catchers,  since  its 
value  as  a  delicacy  for  the  table  has  long  been  recognized.2 
But  even  those  Redbreasts  which  stay  in  Britain  during 
the  winter  are  subject  to  a  migratory  movement  easily  per- 
ceived by  any  one  that  will  look  out  for  it.  Occupying 
during  autumn  their  usual  haunts  in  outlying  woods  or 
hedges,  the  first  sharp  frost  at  once  makes  them  change 
their  habitation,  and  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  drives  them 
towards  the  homesteads  for  such  food  as  they  may  find 
there,  while,  should  severe  weather  continue  long  and 
sustenance  become  more  scarce,  even  these  stranger  birds 
disappear — most  of  them  possibly  to  perish— leaving  only 
the  few  that  have  already  become  almost  domiciled  among 
men.  On  the  approach  of  spring  the  accustomed  spots 
are  revisited,  but  among  the  innumerable  returning  deni- 
zens Redbreasts  are  apt  to  be  neglected,  for  their  song  not 
being  powerful  is  drowned  or  lost,  as  Gilbert  White  well 
remarked,  in  the  general  chorus. 

From  its  abundance,  or  from  innumerable  figures,  the 
Redbreast  is  too  well  known  to  need  description,  yet  there 
are  very  few  representations  of  it  which  give  a  notion  of 
its  characteristic  appearance  or  gestures — all  so  suggestive 
of  intelligence.  Its  olive-brown  back  and  reddish -orange 
breast,  or  their  equivalents  in  black  and  white,  may  be 
easily  imitated  by  the  draughtsman ;  but  the  faculty  of 
tracing  a  truthful  outline  or  fixing  the  peculiar  expression 
of  this  favourite  bird  has  proved  to  be  beyond  the  skill  of 
almost  every  artist  who  has  attempted  its  portraiture. 
The  Redbreast  exhibits  a  curious  uncertainty  of  tempera- 
ment in  regard  to  its  nesting  habits.  At  times  it  will 
place  the  utmost  confidence  in  man,  and  again  at  times 
shew  the  greatest  jealousy.  The  nest,  though  generally 
pretty,  can  seldom  be  called  a  work  of  art,  and  is  usually 
built  of  moss  and  dead  leaves,  with  a  moderate  lining  of 
hair.  In  this  are  laid  from  five  to  seven  white  eggs, 
sprinkled  or  blotched  with  light  red. 

Besides  the  British  Islands,  the  Redbreast  (which  is  the  Meta- 
cilla  rubecula  of  Linnosus  and  the  Erithacus  rulccula  of  modern 
authors)  is  generally  dispersed  over  the  continent  of  Europe,  and 
is  in  winter  found  in  the  oases  of  the  Sahara.  Its  eastern  limits 
are  not  well  determined.  In  Northern  Persia  it  is  replaced  by  a 
very  nearly  allied  form,  Erithacus  Jiyrcanus,  distinguishable  by  its 
more  ruddy  hues,  while  in  Northern  China  and  Japan  another 
species,  E.  akahige,  is  found  of  which  the  sexes  differ  somewhat  in 
plumage — the  cock  having  a  blackish  band  below  his  red  breast, 
and  greyish-black  flanks,  while  the  hen  closely  resembles  the 
familiar  British  species — but  both  cock  and  hen  have  the  tail  of 
chestnut-red.  A  beautiful  bird  supposed  to  inhabit  Corea,  the 
Sylvia  komadori  of  Temminck,  of  which  specimens  are  very  scarce 
in  collections,  is  placed  by  some  writers  in  the  genus  Erithacus, 
but  whether  it  has  any  very  close  affinity  to  the  Redbreasts  does 
not  yet  seem  to  be  proved.  It  is  of  a  bright  orange-red  above,  and 
white  beneath,  the  male,  however,  having  the  throat  and  breast 
black.  (A.  N.) 

REDDITCH,  a  town  of  Worcestershire,  is  situated  on 
an  eminence  near  the  Warwickshire  border,  1 6  miles  south- 
west of  Birmingham  by  the  Midland  Railway.  The  church 
of  St  Stephen,  a  handsome  building  in  the  Decorated 
style,  erected  in  1854-55,  contains  some  good  stained-glass 
windows.  A  public  cemetery  was  formed  in  1854.  Among 
the  public  buildings  are  the  county  court,  where  special 
sessions  are  held,  and  the  literary  and  scientific  institute. 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  the  remains  of  Bordesley  Abbey, 
founded  by  the  Cistercians  in  1138.  The  town  is  an 
important  seat  of  the  needle  manufacture.  The  urban 

1  It   is   a   very  old  saying   that    Unum  arbustum  non  alit  duos 
Erithacos — one  bush  does  not  harbour  two  Eedbreasts. 

2  Of  late  years  an  additional  impulse  has  been  given  to  the  capture 
of  this  species  by  the  absurd  fashion  of  using  its  skin  for  the  trimming 
of  ladies'  dresses  and  ' '  Christmas  cards. " 


sanitary  district  (area  about  926  acres)  had  a  population 
of  about  7871  in  1871,  and  of  9961  in  1881. 

REDEMPTORISTS  or  LIGUOEIANS.  See  LIGTTOKI,  vol. 
xiv.  p.  635. 

RED  RIVER.  Three  at  least  of  the  many  Red  Rivers 
of  the  world  deserve  to  be  mentioned, — (1)  the  Red  River 
or  Fleuve  Rouge,  the  Songcoi  or  Thao  of  the  Anamese, 
the  Hoang-Kiang  of  the  Chinese,  which  flows  through  the 
heart  of  TONG-KING  (g.v.) ;  (2)  the  Red  River  which  rises 
in  the  Stake  Plain  in  Texas  (U.S.),  passes  through  a 
magnificent  canon  100  miles  long,  and  from  200  to  1000 
feet  deep,  and  furnishes  a  navigable  channel  of  1200  miles 
before  it  reaches  the  MISSISSIPPI  (q.v!) ;  (3)  the  Red  River 
of  the  North,  a  somewhat  smaller  stream,  which,  rising 
in  Elbow  Lake  (so  called  from  its  shape)  in  Minnesota 
(U.S.),  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  crosses 
into  Canada  at  Pembina,  and  falls  into  Lake  Winnipeg, 
after  a  course  of  565  miles  (110  in  Canada).  The  Red 
River  of  the  Mississippi  presents  the  physical  geographer 
with  a  phenomenon  nowhere  reproduced  on  the  same  scale, 
— a  great  raft  of  timber  and  driftwood,  which,  in  spite 
of  the  labours  of  Captain  Shreve  (1835-39)  and  General 
Williamson  and  Captain  Linnard  (1841-45),  had  by  1871 
increased  so  as  to  block  the  channel  for  45  miles  between 
Spring  Creek  and  Caroline  Bluff.  The  Red  River  of  the 
North  is  equally  famous  as  the  scene  of  some  of  the  leading 
events  in  the  history  of  the  North- West. 

RED  RIVER  SETTLEMENT. — In  1811  the  fifth  earl  of  Selkirk 
(1771-1820),  who  had  devoted  special  attention  to  emigration  as 
a  means  of  providing  for  the  surplus  population  of  the  Scottish 
Highlands,  obtained  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  a  grant  of 
land  in  what  was  then  called  the  district  of  Ossiniboia  ( Assiniboia). 
In  1813  a  settlement  was  founded  by  his  agent,  Mr  Miles  Macdouell, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Red  River,  the  first  fort  (Fort  Daer)  being  at 
Pembina.  By  1814  the  settlers  numbered  200.  The  North- West 
Fur- Traders  of  Manchester  (a  company  which  was  the  bitterest 
rival  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  till  the  two  amalgamated  in 
1821)  did  all  they  could  by  force  and  fraud  to  break  up  the  colony, 
which,  by  1816,  had  taken  up  its  headquarters  at  Fort  Douglas,  on 
the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Winnipeg.  The  French-Indian 
half-breeds  (Bois-Brules)  were  incited  against  it,  and  its  mills  and 
houses  were  burned.  The  earl  of  Selkirk,  arriving  on  the  scene, 
succeeded  in  reorganizing  the  community,  to  which  the  name  of 
Kildonan  was  now  given,  after  Kildonan  in  Helmsdale,  Sutherland- 
shire.  He  found  himself  personally  involved  in  a  very  network 
of  hostile  intrigue  ;  but  the  colony  was  saved,  and  after  his  prema- 
ture death  it  continued  to  be  more  or  less  supported  by  his  heirs 
till  1824.  In  1835  Lord  Selkirk's  territorial  claims  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  who  undertook  to  pay  the 
expenses  incurred  by  the  family.  At  that  date  the  population  of 
the  settlement  consisted  of  about  5000  Highlanders,  Bois-Brules, 
English  half-breeds,  and  retired  company  officials.  At  the  transfer 
of  territorial  jurisdiction  to  the  Canadian  Government  in  1869  the 
Bois-Brules,  \inder  a  certain  Louis  Riel  (son  of  a  Frenchman  who 
had  built  the  first  mill  on  the  Red  river),  revolted  and  declared 
an  independent  republic.  Colonel  (now  Lord)  Wolseley  was  de- 
spatched with  a  force  of  1400  men,  and  without  bloodshed  took 
possession  of  Fort  Garry  on  24th  August  1870.  The  only  striking 
feature  of  the  expedition  was  the  remarkable  energy  with  which 
the  difficulties  of  transport  were  overcome.  Riel  in  1885  became 
the  leader  of  another  unsuccessful  insurrection  of  half-breeds  in  the 
same  region. 

See  Halkett,  Statement  respecting  the  Earl  of  Selkirk's  Settlement  upon  the  Red 
River,  London,  1817  ;  G.  Bryce,  Manitoba,  1882  (which  contains  previously 
unpublished  documents) ;  "  Narrative  of  the  Red  River  Expedition,"  in  Black- 
wood's  Magazine,  vols.  cviii.  and  cix.  (1871). 

REDRUTH,  a  market  town  of  Cornwall,  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  West  Cornwall  Railway,  about  9  miles 
west  of  Truro.  It  is  almost  the  centre  of  the  mining 
district  of  West  Cornwall,  and,  though  many  of  the  rich 
copper  mines  are  now  abandoned,  others  have  proved  rich 
in  tin  at  greater  depths,  and  new  mines  have  also  been 
opened,  sufficient  to  render  Redruth  one  of  the  most  busy 
and  important  towns  of  the  county.  Within  the  last  few 
years  a  post-office,  a  mining  exchange,  and  a  school  of 
science  and  art  have  been  built,  as  well  as  a  new  church. 
At  the  foot  of  Carn  Brea,  the  unique  Druidical  hill,  sur- 
mounted by  masses  of  granite,  with  an  ancient  castle  and 


316 


R  E  D  — R  E  D 


monument  to  Lord  de  Dunstanville,  is  the  parish  church 
dedicated  to  St  Uny,  with  a  fine  old  15th-century  tower 
and  peal  of  bells.  The  industries  include  brewing,  tin- 
smelting,  making  of  safety  fuses,  and  iron-founding.  Be- 
sides the  market-house,  there  are  a  granite  town-hall,  a 
masonic  hall,  and  the  public  rooms  with  Druids'  Hall. 
At  the  west  end  of  the  town  is  the  West  Cornwall  Miners' 
Hospital  (thirty  beds),  erected  by  Lord  Robartes  in  1863 
and  since  added  to  by  the  same  nobleman.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  4006  acres)  in 
1871  was  10,685,  and  in  1881  it  was  9335. 

See  Plate  RED  SEA.  The  Red  Sea  runs  north-north-west  from 
V.,  vol.  tne  Guif  of  Aden  in  the  Indian  Ocean  for  about  1200 
"•  miles,  extending  from  12°  40'  to  30°  N.  lat.  The  Strait 

of  Bab-el- Mandeb  at  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Aden 
is  13i  miles  across,  and  is  divided  by  Perim  Island  into 
two  channels,  the  north-eastern  narrow  and  shallow,  the 
south-western  10  miles  wide,  and  deep.  The  sea  widens 
rapidly  to  140  miles  in  16°  N.  lat.,  and  more  gradually 
to  205  miles  off  Kunfuda  in  19°  N.  lat. ;  from  this  point 
it  narrows  to  115  miles  in  24°  N.  lat.,  a  breadth  which  is 
maintained  up  to  27°  45'  N.  lat.,  where  the  sea  divides  into 
two  gulfs,  those  of  Suez  and  'Akaba.  The  Gulf  of  Suez 
continues  in  the  north-north-west  direction  for  170  miles, 
with  an  average  width  of  30  miles ;  that  of  'Akaba  is 
narrower,  and  runs  north-north-east  for  97  miles.  The 
Sinaitic  peninsula  between  the  two  gulfs  bounds  the  Red 
Sea  to  the  north ;  on  the  east  the  Arabian  coast  and  on 
the  west  the  coasts  of  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia  form 
the  boundaries. 

The  Arabian  coast  (see  ARABIA)  is  generally  a  narrow 
sandy  plain  backed  by  ranges  of  barren  mountains  abrupt 
in  outline  and  of  moderate  height.  Enormous  coral  reefs 
run  along  the  coast  in  broken  lines,  parallel  to  the  shore 
but  not  connected  with  it.  They  usually  rise  out  of  deep 
water  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface ;  and  a  navigable 
channel  of  from  2  to  3  miles  in  width,  in  which  the  water 
is  always  calm,  extends  between  them  and  the  land.  The 
Farisan  Archipelago  in  17"  N.  lat.  is  the  largest  and  most 
important  of  the  island  groups  of  the  eastern  reef.  It  is 
entirely  of  organic  formation.  The  most  important  har- 
bours of  Arabia  on  the  Red  Sea  are  Mokha  in  13°  30'  N. 
lat.  (now  nearly  deserted  for  those  of  Aden  and  Hodeida, 
the  port  of  San'a),  Lokeyyah  about  200  miles  farther 
north,  Jiddah  in  21°  20'  N.  lat.  (the  only  w.ell  protected 
harbour),  and  Yenbo'  in  24°  N.  lat.  The  western  coast  is 
flat  and  desert  in  the  north,  but  gives  place  farther  south 
to  high  tablelands  rising  at  some  distance  from  the  shore, 
and  then  to  the  lofty  Abyssinian  mountains  (see  ABYSSINIA, 
AFRICA,  EGYPT).  The  parallel  system  of  coral  reefs  is  not 
so  extensive  as  on  the  east  coast,  and  being  nearer  the 
land  the  inshore  channel  is  narrower.  The  large  and 
curiously  shaped  coral -rock  island  of  Dahlak,  lying  off 
Annesley  Bay,  is  the  most  important  on  the  reef.  There 
are  seven  or  eight  harbours,  of  which  the  best  known  are 
Massowah,  a  little  to  the  north  of  Annesley  Bay  (the  largest 
inlet  on  the  sea),  and  the  port  of  disembarkation  of  the 
British  troops  in  the  Abyssinian  War  of  1868,  Khor 
Nowarat,  which,  though  small,  is  the  best  bay  in  the  Red 
Sea,  and  Sawakin  (Suakim)  in  19'  30'  N.  lat.,  the  chief 
port  of  the  Soudan  trade. 

The  only  islands  of  importance  not  already  mentioned 
are  those  of  the  volcanic  group  in  14°  N.  lat.,  one  of  which, 
Jebel  Zugur,  10  miles  long  and  7  wide,  rises  in  a  series  of 
bare  hills  to  the  altitude  of  2074  feet,  and  the  islet  Jebel 
Teir  in  15°  30'  N.  lat.,  on  which  a  volcano  has  only  recently 
become  inactive.  A  dangerous  reef  named  the  Daedalus 
in  24°  26'  N.  lat.  lies  right  in  the  way  of  steamships 
traversing  the  sea ;  it  is  covered  with  a  few  feet  of  water 
or  uncovered,  according  to  the  season,  and,  like  most  of  the 


reefs  and  islands  on  the  usual  track  of  vessels,  is  furnished 
with  a  lighthouse. 

The  Red  Sea  area  is  in  a  state  of  gradual  upheaval,  the 
former  seaport  of  Adulis  on  Annesley  Bay  is  now  4  miles 
from  the  shore,  and  at  Suez  the  former  limits  of  the  sea 
can  be  traced  for  several  miles  northwards ;  whereas  the 
north  coast  of  Egypt  is  undergoing  gradual  subsidence. 

Tides. — The  tides  are  imperceptible  at  many  places  on  the  Red 
Sea,  and  where  observable  they  are  extremely  uncertain,  varying 
both  as  to  time  and  to  amount  of  rise  with  the  direction  and  force 
of  the  wind.  At  Suez,  where  they  are  most  regular,  the  rise  varies 
from  7  feet  at  spring  to  4  feet  at  neap  tides.  The  surface-currents 
of  the  sea  are  also  variable  and  perplexing ;  they  are  chiefly  pro- 
duced by  the  wind,  and  change  in  velocity  and  direction  accordingly. 

Traffic. — From  the  decline  of  the  old  Indian  ftade  with  Egypt 
till  the  formation  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Navigation 
Company  and  the  overland  route  to  India  in  1840,  traffic  in  the 
Red  Sea  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  small  native  vessels  trading 
with  grain  and  fruit  between  Fgypt  and  Arabia,  and  carrying  pil- 
grims to  Jiddah,  the  port  of  Mecca.  Since  1840  passenger  tiallic, 
and  since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869  trade  of  all  kinds 
in  European  vessels,  have  greatly  increased.  A  telegraphic  cable 
was  laid  from  Bombay  to  Suez  in  1859. 

Meteorology. — The  climate  of  the  Red  Sea  region  is  one  of  the 
hottest  in  the  world.  The  altitude  of  the  sun,  the  almost  con- 
tinually cloudless  skies,  the  arid  rainless  character  of  the  shores, 
and  the  complete  absence  of  rivers  combine  to  make  the  mean 
temperature  high.  That  of  the  air  usually  ranges  from  70°  to  94° 
Fahr.,  though  it  has  been  frequently  observed  as  high  as  105°  in 
the  shade  on  board  ship,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  sea  the 
clearness  of  the  nights  promotes  radiation,  so  that  by  morning  the 
thermometer  may  fall  to  the  freezing-point  on  shore.  The  atmo- 
sphere over  the  land  is  very  dry  ;  the  difference  between  the  read- 
ings of  the  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers  is  frequently  as  much 
as  25°,  and  sometimes,  during  the  prevalence  of  the  desert  wind,  it 
rises  to  40°.  The  evaporation  from  the  Red  Sea  is  naturally  excess- 
ive ;  the  humidity  of  the  air  over  the  water  is  always  great  in 
summer,  and  when  the  wind  blows  off  the  sea  the  atmosphere  is 
frequently  saturated  on  shore.  From  the  direction  of  the  prevail- 
ing winds,  precipitation  takes  place  chiefly  on  the  mountains  of 
Abyssinia.  North-north-west  winds  prevail  on  shore  all  the  year 
round  with  very  slight  exception ;  but  in  the  middle  of  the  sea  they 
are  only  universal  from  June  to  September,  and  are  confined  to  the 
northern  half  from  October  to  May.  During  the  latter  season  south- 
south-east  winds  prevail  in  the  southern  part  of  the  sea,  while  a 
belt  of  calms  and  light  variable  breezes  occupies  a  changing  position 
near  the  centre.  The  southerly  winds  are  often  accompanied  with 
rain  squalls,  and  in  September  there  are  frequently  calms  and  hazy 
weather.  Hurricanes  and  heavy  storms  seldom  occur  in  the  sea, 
but  moderate  gales  are  common  and  sandstorms  not  unusual.  From 
the  admiralty  temperature  charts  it  appears  that  the  mean  temper- 
ature of  the  surface-water  at  the  four  typical  seasons  of  the  year, 
taking  all  available  data  into  account,  is  as  follows  : — 

Gulf  of  About  South  Adjacent 

Suez.  20"  N.  lat.  End.  Indian  Ocean. 

February 65°  75°                  78*  84° 

May 76°  80°                  87"  85° 

August    79°  85°                  89"  79' 

November 76°  86°                  82°  82" 

The  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  south  end  of  the  sea  is  usually 
in  excess  of  that  of  the  air,  and  it  is  on  record  that  on  four  consecu- 
tive days  the  temperature  of  the  surface-water  was  100°,  106°,  100°, 
and  96°,  while  at  the  same  time  that  of  the  air  was  80°,  82°,  83°, 
and  82°.  The  surface-temperature  varies  from  70°  to  90°,  according 
to  the  position  and  the  season.  The  winter  mean  of  the  northern 
part  is  about  71°,  and  this  temperature  continues  to  the  bottom  at 
that  season.  When  the  temperature  on  the  surface  is  higher  than  71° 
it  gradually  falls  as  the  depth  increases,  until  at  about  200  fathoms 
it  becomes  uniform  in  all  parts  of  the  sea  as  71°,  a  temperature 
which  is  maintained  from  that  depth  to  the  bottom  all  the  year 
round.  This  is  in  consonance  with  all  observations  made  on 
enclosed  seas,  the  water  below  the  point  to  which  the  barrier 
reaches  being  of  uniform  temperature.  According  to  some  authori- 
ties this  is  the  isocheimal  or  mean  winter  temperature  of  the  sur- 
face ;  but  the  researches  of  the  "  Challenger  "  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  temperature  of  the  external  ocean  at  the  summit  of  the  barrier 
is  that  which  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  enclosed  sea, 

Physical  Conditions. — The  greatest  depth,  which  occurs  in  21° 
N.  lat.,  is  about  1200  fathoms,  and  from  this  point  the  sea  shoals 
to  each  end.  The  general  conformation  of  the  bottom  is  that  of  a 
series  of  gradually  sloping  rounded  elevations  with  rounded  basins 
between  them.  The  water  is  shallow  in  the  Gulf  of  Suez  and  also 
at  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  where  the  depth  in  the  centre  <  f 
the  large  channel  is  a  little  under  200  fathoms.  The  Red  Sea  basin 
is  cut  off  from  the  general  oceanic  circulation  by  a  barrier  rising 


R  E  D  — R  E  D 


317 


to  within  200  fathoms  of  the  surface  in  a  channel  that  has  a  much 
smaller  average  depth  and  is  only  13^  miles  wide.  As  no  rivers 
discharge  into  it  and  little  rain  falls,  it  must  be  viewed  as  a  purely 
evaporational  area,  and  as  such  it  is  of  extreme  scientific  interest. 
It  reproduces  and  exaggerates  all  the  special  physical  conditions  of 
the  Mediterranean  ;  but  on  account  of  the  extremely,  trying  nature 
of  the  climate  it  has  not  been  so  thoroughly  investigated.  The 
average  amount  of  evaporation  at  Aden  is  variously  estimated  at 
from  °Q-  25  to  0'75  inch  per  day,  or  from  8  to  23  feet  per  year  ;  in 
the  Red  Sea  generally  it  must  be  at  least  equal  to  the  smaller  figure, 
and  probably  exceeds  it.  As  the  level  of  the  Red  Sea  is  not  sub- 
ject to  any  permanent  change  it  is  evident  that  water  must  flow 
in  through  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandcb—  the  slight  current  through 
the  Suez  Canal  need  not  be  considered — to  replace  loss  by  evapora- 
tion. If  there  were  no  return  current  it  is  estimated  that  the  Red 
Sea  would  become  a  mass  of  solid  salt  in  one  or  two  thousand 
years.  Although  the  salinity  of  the  water  is  higher  than  that  of 
the  water  of  the  ocean  it  does  not  appear  to  be  on  the  increase. 
The  density  of  Red  Sea  water  at  60°  Fahr.  is  about  1'030,  corre- 
sponding to  4'0  per  cent,  of  total  salts,  while  that  of  average  ocean 
water  is  1'026,  which  corresponds  to  3'5  per  cent,  of  salts.  _  In 
order  to  account  for  the  constancy  of  salinity  in  the  Red  Sea  it  is 
necessary  to  assume  the  existence  of  strong  undercurrents  of  salt 
water  passing  out  of  the  sea,  beneath  the  opposite  entering  current 
of  fresher  water.  These  undercurrents  have  not  yet  been  ob- 
served, but  there  are  indirect  proofs  of  their  existence.  During 
the  hottest  months  (July  to  September),  when  there  is  most  eva- 
poration, the  prevalence  of  northerly  winds  drives  the  water  out  of 
the  Red  Sea  as  a  rapid  surface-drift ;  the  south-west  monsoon  is 
blowing  in  the  Indian  Ocean  at  the  same  time,  and  the  general 
level  in  the  Red  Sea  is  from  2  to  3  feet  higher  than  during  the 
cooler  months,  when  evaporation  is  less,  and  when  the  north-east 
monsoon  forces  water  into  the  funnel-shaped  Gulf  of  Aden,  and 
thence  through  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  This  is  held  by  Dr 
W.  B.  Carpenter  to  be  a  proof  of  the  existence  of  an  undercurrent, 
for  the  north-east  wind  forms  a  head  of  water  at  the  strait,  which 
to  equalize  pressure  over  the  area  produces  an  under-return-current, 
and  this  greatly  accelerates  the  flow  of  the  regular  undercurrent 
of  the  Red  Sea,  and  so  lowers  the  general  level.  In  summer  the 
outflow  of  dense  salt  water  is  slower,  and  this  more  than  neutralizes 
the  effect  of  the  outward  surface-drift,  which  to  some  extent  reduces 
the  volume  of  the  entering  fresher  water  at  that  season.  In  the 
Red  Sea  there  is  a  constant  and  regular  sub-surface  circulation  of 
water  due  solely  to  evaporation  ;  the  surface-drifts  caused  by  wind, 
although  they  form  rapid  currents  and  render  navigation  dangerous 
at  times,  are  minor  agents  in  the  system  and  modify  it  only  to  a 
slight  extent.  The  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf  serve  as  concen- 
tration areas  for  maintaining  the  salinity  of  the  deep  water  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  in  opposition  to  the  currents  of  comparatively  fresh 
water  flowing  northwards  from  the  Antarctic  Ocean. 

Deposits. — In  a  sea  so  nearly  landlocked  and  so  narrow  the 
deposits  which  cover  the  bottom  are  naturally  of  the  order  classed 
as  terrigenous.  The  large  quantity  of  sand  blown  into  the  sea, 
the  immense  abundance  of  corals  and  other  calcareous  organisms 
in  the  water,  and  the  entire  absence  of  rivers  with  their  suspended 
sediments  produce  deposits  more  nearly  resembling  in  some  of 
their  characteristics  those  of  the  open  ocean  than  those  of  inland 
seas.  But  the  sand  and  ooze  from  the  bottom  of  the  Red  Sea  have 
not  yet  been  thoroughly  examined. 

Fauna. — Animal  life  in  all  its  forms  is  extremely  abundant  in 
the  Red  Sea,  which,  however,  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  any 
more  completely  surveyed  from  a  biological  than  from  a  physical 
point  of  view,  although  several  eminent  zoologists  have  studied 
special  types.  Great  numbers  of  new  species  have  been  discovered 
by  each  investigator,  and  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  Red  Sea 
fauna  differs  considerably  from  that  of  the  Mediterranean,  not 
more  than  twenty  species  being  common,  it  is  stated,  to  both, 
thus  indicating  that  the  separation  of  the  two  seas  must  have 
taken  place  at  a  remote  epoch,  which  appears  from  geological  evi- 
dence to  be  the  Eocene  period.  It  exhibits  affinities  with  the  fauna 
of  the  Pacific,  particularly  with  that  of  the  coast  of  Japan.  Corals 
are  more  plentiful  and  more  active  in  the  Red  Sea  than  in  almost 
any  other  piece  of  water  of  its  size,  a  result  probably  due  equally 
to  the  high  temperature,  the  great  salinity  of  the  water,  and  the 
abundance  of  food.  (H.  E.  M.) 

REDSHANK,  the  usual  name  of  a  bird — the  Scolopcu 
calidris  of  Linnaeus  and  Totanus  calidris  of  modern  authors 
— so  called  in  English  from  the  colour  of  the  bare  part  of 
its  legs,  which,  being  also  long,  are  conspicuous  as  it  flies 
over  its  marshy  haunts  or  runs  nimbly  beside  the  waters 
it  affects.  In  suitable  localities  it  is  abundant  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Asia,  from  Iceland  to 
China,  mostly  retiring  to  the  southward  for  the  winter, 
though  a  considerable  number  remain  during  that  season 


along  the  coasts  and  estuaries  of  some  of  the  more  northern 
countries.  Before  the  great  changes  effected  by  drainage 
in  England  it  was  a  common  species  in  many  districts,  but 
at  the  present  day  there  are  very  few  to  which  it  can  resort 
for  the  purpose  of  reproduction.  In  such  of  them  as 
remain,  its  lively  actions,  both  on  the  ground  and  in  the 
air,  as  well  as  its  loud  notes  render  the  Redshank,  during 
the  breeding-season,  one  of  the  most  observable  inhabitants 
of  what  without  its  presence  would  often  be  a  desolate 
spot,  and  invest  it  with  a  charm  for  the  lover  of  wild  nature. 
At  other  times  the  cries  of  this  bird  may  be  thought  too 
shrill,  but  in  spring  the  love-notes  of  the  male  form  what 
may  fairly  be  called  a  song,  the  constantly  repeated  refrain 
of  which — hero,  leero,  hero  (for  so  it  may  be  syllabled) — 
rings  musically  around,  as  with  many  gesticulations  he 
hovers  in  attendance  on  the  flight  of  his  mate ;  or,  with  a 
slight  change  to  a  different  key,  engages  with  a  rival ;  or 
again,  half  angrily  and  half  piteously  complains  of  a 
human  intruder  on  his  chosen  ground.  The  body  of  the 
Redshank  is  almost  as  big  as  a  Snipe's,  but  its  longer  neck, 
wings,  and  legs  make  it  appear  a  much  larger  bird.  Above, 
the  general  colour  is  greyish -drab,  freckled  with  black, 
except  the  lower  part  of  the  back  and  a  conspicuous  band 
on  each  wing,  which  are  white,  while  the  flight-quills  are 
black,  thus  producing  a  very  harmonious  effect.  In  the 
breeding-season  the  back  and  breast  are  mottled  with  dark 
brown,  but  in  winter  the  latter  is  white.  The  nest  is 
generally  concealed  in  a  tuft  of  rushes  or  grass,  a  little 
removed  from  the  wettest  parts  of  the  swamp  whence  the 
bird  gets  its  sustenance,  and  contains  four  eggs,  usually  of  a 
rather  warmly  tinted  brown  with  blackish  spots  or  blotches; 
but  no  brief  description  can  be  given  that  would  point  out 
their  differences  from  the  eggs  of  other  birds,  more  or  less 
akin,  among  which,  those  of  the  LAPWING  (vol.  xiv.  p.  308) 
especially,  they  are  taken  and  find  a  ready  sale. 

The  name  Redshank,  prefixed  by  some  epithet  as  Black,  Dusky, 
or  Spotted,  has  also  been  applied  to  a  larger  but  allied  species — 
t\\&Totamis  fuscus  of  ornithologists.  This  is  a  much  less  common 
bird,  and  in  Great  Britain  as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  Europe  it 
only  occurs  on  its  passage  to  or  from  its  breeding-grounds,  which 
are  usually  found  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  differ  much  from 
those  of  its  congeners — the  spot  •  chosen  for  the  nest  being  nearly 
always  in  the  midst  of  forests  and,  though  not  in  the  thickest  part 
of  them,  often  with  trees  on  all  sides,  generally  where  a  fire  has 
cleared  the  undergrowth,  and  mostly  at  some  distance  from  water. 
This  peculiar  habit  was  first  ascertained  by  Wolley  in  Lapland  in 
1853  and  the  following  year.  The  breeding-dress  this  bird  assumes 
is  also  very  remarkable,  and  seems  (as  is  suggested)  to  have  some 
correlation  with  the  burnt  and  blackened  surface  interspersed  with 
white  stones  or  tufts  of  lichen  on  which  its  nest  is  made — for  the 
head,  neck,  shoulders,  and  lower  parts  are  of  a  deep  black,  con- 
trasting vividly  with  the  pure  white  of  the  back  and  rurnp,  while 
the  legs  become  of  an  intense  crimson.  At  other  times  of  the  year 
the  plumage  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  common  Redshank,  and 
the  legs  are  of  the  same  light  orange-red.  (A.  N.) 

REDSTART,  a  bird  well  known  in  Great  Britain,  in 
many  parts  of  which  it  is  called  Firetail — a  name  of  al- 
most the  same  meaning,  since  "  start "  is  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  steort,  a  tail.1  This  beautiful  bird,  the  Rutidlla 
phoenicurus  of  most  ornithologists,  returns  to  England 
about  the  middle  or  towards  the  end  of  April,  and  at  once 
takes  up  its  abode  in  gardens,  orchards,  and  about  old 
buildings,  when  its  curious  habit  of  flirting  at  nearly  every 
change  of  position  its  brightly-coloured  tail,  together  with 
the  pure  white  forehead,  the  black  throat,  and  bright  bay 
breast  of  the  cock,  renders  him  conspicuous,  even  if  attention 
be  not  drawn  by  his  lively  and  pleasing  though  short  and 
intermittent  song.  The  hen  is  much  more  plainly  attired ; 
but  the  characteristic  colouring  and  action  of  the  tail  per- 

1  On  this  point  the  articles  "  Stark -naked  "  and  "Start"  in  Prof. 
Skeat's  Etymological  Dictionary  may  be  usefully  consulted  ;  but  the 
connexion  between  these  words  would  be  still  more  evident  had  this 
bird's  habit  of  quickly  moving  its  tail  been  known  to  the  learned 
author. 


318 


R  E  D  — R  E  D 


tain  to  her  equally  as  to  her  mate.  The  nest  is  almost 
always  placed  in  a  hole,  whether  of  a  tree  or  of  a  more  or 
less  ruined  building,  and  contains  from  five  to  seven  eggs 
of  a  delicate  greenish-blue,  occasionally  sprinkled  with 
faint  red  spots.  The  young  on  assuming  their  feathers 
present  a  great  resemblance  to  those  of  the  REDBREAST 
(supra,  p.  314)  at  the  same  age;  but  the  red  tail,  though  of 
duller  hue  than  in  the  adult,  forms  even  at  this  early  age 
an  easy  means  of  distinguishing  them.  The  Redstart  breeds 
regularly  in  all  the  counties  of  England  and  Wales ;  but, 
except  in  such  localities  as  have  been  already  named,  it 
is  seldom  plentiful.  It  also  reaches  the  extreme  north  of 
Scotland ;  but  in  Ireland  it  is  of  very  rare  occurrence.  It 
appears  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe  in  summer,  and 
is  known  to  winter  in  the  interior  of  Africa.  To  the  east- 
ward its  limits  cannot  yet  be  exactly  defined,  as  several 
very  nearly  allied  forms  occur  in  Asia;  and  one,  R.  aurorea, 
represents  it  in  Japan. 

A  congeneric  species  which  has  received  the  name  of 
Black  Redstart,1  Ruticilla  titys*  is  very  common  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  the  Continent,  where,  from  its  partiality 
for  gardens  in  towns  and  villages,  it  is  often  better  known 
than  the  preceding  species.  It  yearly  occurs  in  certain 
parts  of  England,  chiefly  along  or  near  the  south  coast,  and 
curiously  enough  during  the  autumn  and  winter,  since  it 
is  in  central  Europe  only  a  summer  visitor,  and  it  has  by 
no  means  the  high  northern  range  of  R.  phoenicurus.  The 
males  of  the  Black  Redstart  seem  to  be  more  than  one  year 
in  acquiring  their  full  plumage  (a  rare  thing  in  Passerine 
birds),  and  since  they  have  been  known  to  breed  in  the 
intermediate  stage  this  fact  has  led  to  such  birds  being 
accounted  a  distinct  species  under  the  name  of  R.  cairii, 
thereby  perplexing  ornithologists  for  a  long  while,  though 
now  almost  all  authorities  agree  that  these  birds  are,  in 
one  sense,  immature. 

More  than  a  dozen  species  of  the  genus  Ruticilla  have 
been  described,  and  the  greater  number  of  them  seem  to 
belong  to  the  Himalayan  Sub-region  or  its  confines.  One 
very  pretty  and  interesting  form  is  the  R.  moussieri  of 
Barbary,  which  no  doubt  allies  the  Redstart  to  the  STONE- 
CHATS  (q.v.),  Pratincola,  and  of  late  some  authors  have 
included  it  in  that  genus.  In  an  opposite  direction  the 
Bluethroats,  apparently  nearer  to  the  Redstarts  than  to  any 
other  type,  are  by  some  authorities  placed  in  the  genus 
Ruticilla,  by  others  considered  to  form  a  distinct  genus 
Cyanecula,  and  by  at  least  one  recent  writer  referred  to  the 
genus  Erithacus  (see  REDBREAST).  If  we  look  upon  them 
as  constituting  a  separate  genus  we  find  it  to  contain  two 
or  three  distinguishable  forms  : — (1)  C.  suecica,  with  a 
bright  bay  spot  in  the  middle  of  its  clear  blue  throat, 
breeding  in  Scandinavia,  Northern  Russia,  and  Siberia,  and 
wintering  in  Abyssinia  and  India,  though  rarely  appearing 
in  the  intermediate  countries,  to  the  wonder  of  all  who 
have  studied  the  mystery  of  the  migration  of  birds ;  next 
there  is  (2)  C.  leucocyanea,  with  a  white  instead  of  a  red 
gular  spot,  a  more  Western  form,  ranging  from  Barbary  to 
Germany  and  Holland ;  and  lastly  (3)  C.  wolfi,  thought  by 
some  authorities  (and  not  without  reason)  to  be  but  an 
accidental  variety  of  the  preceding  (2),  with  its  throat 
wholly  blue, — a  form  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence. 
The  first  of  these  is  a  not  unfrequent,  though  very  irregular 
visitant  to  England,  while  the  second  has  appeared  there 
but  seldom,  and  the  third  never,  so  far  as  is  known.  By 

1  The  author  of  a  popular  work  on  British  birds  has  suggested  for 
this  species  the  name  of  "  Blackstart,"  thereby  recording  his  ign< .-ance 
of  the  meaning  of  the  second  syllable  of  the  compound  name  as  already 
explained,  for  the  Black  Redstart  has  a  tail  as  red  as  that  of  the  com- 
moner English  bird. 

2  The  orthography  of  the  specific  term  would  seem  to  be  titis  (Ann. 
Nat.  History,  ser.  4,  x.  p.  227),  a  word  possibly  cognate  with  the  first 
syllable  of  Titlark  and  Titmouse. 


the  ornithologist  of  tolerably  wide  views  the  Redstarts  and 
Bluethroats  must  be  regarded  as  forming  with  the  NIGHT- 
INGALE (vol.  xvii.  p.  498),  Redbreast,  Hedge -Spar  row, 
Wheatear,  and  Chats  a  single  group  of  the  "Family" 
Sylviidse,  which  has  been  usually  called  Sajricolinw,  and 
is  that  which  is  most  nearly  allied  to  the  Thrushes  (see 
THRUSH). 

In  America  the  name  Redstart  has  been  not  unfittingly  bestowed 
upon  a  bird  which  has  some  curious  outward  resemblance,  both  in 
looks  and  manners,  to  that  of  the  Old  Country,  though  the  two  arc 
in  the  opinion  of  some  systematists  nearly  as  widely  separated  from 
each  other  as  truly  Passerine  birds  well  ran  be.  The  American 
Redstart  is  the  Setophaga  ruticilla  of  authors,  belonging  to  the 
purely  New- World  family  AfniotiltidS;  and  to  a  genus  which  con- 
tains about  a  dozen  species,  ranging  from  Canada  (in  summer)  to 
Bolivia.  The  wonderful  likeness,  coupled  of  course  with  many 
sharp  distinctions,  upon  which  it  would  be  here  impossible  to 
dwell,  between  the  birds  of  these  two  genera  of  perfectly  distinct 
origin,  is  a  matter  that  must  compel  every  evolutionist  to  admit 
that  we  are  as  yet  very  far  from  penetrating  the  action  of  Creative 
Power,  and  that  especially  we  are  wholly  ignorant  of  the  causes 
which  in  some  instances  produce  analogy.  (A.  N.) 

REDWING,  Swedish  Rddvinge,  Danish  Roddrossel,  Ger- 
man Rothdrossel,  Dutch  Koperuriek,  a  species  of  THRUSH 
(q.v.\  the  Turdus  iliacus  of  authors,  which  is  an  abundant 
winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  arriving  in  autumn 
generally  about  the  same  time  as  the  FIELDFARE  (vol.  ix. 
p.  142)  does.  This  bird  has  its  common  English  name  3 
from  the  sides  of  its  body,  its  inner  wing-coverts,  and  axil- 
laries  being  of  a  bright  reddish -orange,  of  which  colour, 
however,  there  is  no  appearance  on  the  wing  itself  while 
the  bird  is  at  rest,  and  not  much  is  ordinarily  seen  -while 
it  is  in  flight.  In  other  respects  it  is  very  like  a  Song- 
Thrush,  and  indeed  in  France  and  some  other  countries  it 
bears  the  name  Mauvis  or  Mavis,  often  given  to  that  species 
in  some  parts  of  Britain ;  but  its  coloration  is  much  more 
vividly  contrasted,  and  a  conspicuous  white,  instead  of  a 
light  brown,  streak  over  the  eye  at  once  affords  a  ready 
diagnosis.  The  Redwing  breeds  in  Iceland,  in  the  sub- 
alpine  and  arctic  districts  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Finland, 
and  thence  across  Northern  Russia  and  Siberia,  becoming 
scarce  to  the  eastward  of  the  Yenissei,  and  not  extending 
beyond  Lake  Baikal.  In  winter  it  visits  the  whole  of 
Europe  and  North  Africa,  occasionally  reaching  Madeira, 
while  to  the  eastward  it  is  found  at  that  season  in  the 
north-western  Himalayas  and  Kohat.  Many  writers  have 
praised  the  song  of  this  bird,  comparing  it  with  that  of  the 
NIGHTINGALE  (vol.  xvii.  p.  498) ;  but  herein  they  seem  to 
have  been  as  much  mistaken  as  in  older  times  was  Linnaeus, 
who,  according  to  Nilsson  (Orn.  Svecica,  i.  p.  177,  note), 
failed  to  distinguish  in  life  this  species  from  its  commoner 
congener  T.  imtsicus.  The  notes  of  the  Redwing  are  indeed 
pleasing  in  places  where  no  better  songster  exists  ;  but  the 
present  writer,  who  has  many  times  heard  them  under  very 
favourable  circumstances,  cannot  but  suppose  that  those 
who  have  called  the  Redwing  the  "  Nightingale  "  of  Nor- 
way or  of  Sweden  have  attributed  to  it  the  credit  that 
properly  belongs  to  the  Song-Thrush  ;  for  to  him  it  seems 
that  the  vocal  utterances  of  the  Redwing  do  not  place  it 
even  in  the  second  rank  of  feathered  musicians.  Its  nest 


3  Many  old  writers  assert  that  this  bird  used  to  be  known  in  England 
as  the  "  Swinepipe  " ;  but,  except  in  books,  this  name  does  not  seem 
to  survive  to  the  present  day.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  to  doubt 
that  it  was  once  in  vogue,  and  the  only  question  is  how  it  may  have 
arisen.  If  it  has  not  been  corrupted  from  the  German  Weindrossd  or 
some  other  similar  name,  it  may  refer  to  the  soft  inward  whistle  which 
tlie  bird  often  utters,  resembling  the  sound  of  the  pipe  used  by  the 
swineherds  of  old  when  collecting  the  animals  under  their  charge, 
whether  in  the  wide  stubbles  or  the  thick  beech-woods  ;  but  another 
form  of  the  word  (which  may,  however,  be  erroneous)  is  "  Windpipe," 
and  this  might  lead  to  a  conclusion  very  different,  if  indeed  to  any 
conclusion  at  all.  "Whindle"  and  "Wheenerd"  have  also  been 
given  as  two  other  old  English  names  of  this  bird  (ffarl.  Miscellany, 
1st  ed.,  ii.  p.  558),  and  these  may  be  referred  to  the  local  German 
Weindrustle  and  Winsd. 


R  E  D  — R  E  F 


319 


and  eggs  a  good  deal  resemble  those  of  the  Blackbird,  and 
have  none  of  the  especial  characters  which  distinguish 
those  of  the  Song-Thrush.  (A.  N.) 

RED  WING,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Goodhue  county,  Minnesota,  occupies  a  commanding  site 
on  a  plateau  encircled  by  high  bluffs  (nearly  300  feet 
high),  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  41  miles  south 
of  St  Paul  on  the  La  Crosse  division  of  the  Chicago  and 
St  Paul  Railroad ;  it  is  also  the  eastern  terminus  of  the 
Cannon  Valley  branch  of  the  same  railway.  Red  Wing 
has  an  opera-house  and  a  music-hall  ;  it  trades  in  lumber, 
manufactures  earthenware,  waggons  and  carriages,  furni- 
ture, flour,  leather,  and  boots  and  shoes,  and  exports  large 
quantities  of  wheat.  The  population  was  4260  in  1870 
and  5876  in  1880;  in  1885  it  was  estimated  at  8000, 
including  1050  employes  in  manufactories. 

REDWOOD.     See  SEQUOIA. 

REED,  a  term  applied  to  several  distinct  species  of 
large,  water-loving  grasses.  The  common  or  water  reed, 
Pkragmites  communis,  Trin.  (Arundo  phragmites,  L.),  oc- 
curs along  the  margins  of  lakes,  fens,  marshes,  and  placid 
streams,  not  only  throughout  Britain  but  over  the  Palse- 
arctic  and  Nearctic  regions,  and  even  in  South  Australia. 
Another  very  important  species  is  Psamma  arenaria,  R.  and 
S.  (Ammophila  or  Arundo  arundinacea,  Host.),  the  sea-reed 
or  marram  grass,  a  native  of  the  sandy  shores  of  Europe 
and  North  Africa.  Both  species  have  been  of  notable 
geological  importance,  the  former  binding  the  soil  and  so 
impeding  denudation,  and  actually  converting  swamp  into 
dry  land,  largely  by  the  aid  of  its  tall  (5  to  10  feet)  close 
set  stems,  which  not  only  break  the  currents  of  water 
around  them,  and  so  cause  deposition  of  their  sediment, 
but  furnish  in  themselves  an  important  annual  contribution 
to  the  incipient  soil.  The  latter  species,  of  which  the 
branching  rootstocks  may  be  traced  30  or  even  40  feet,  is 
of  still  greater  importance  in  holding  sand-dunes  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  sea,  and  for  this  purpose  has  not 
only  been  long  protected  by  law  but  has  been  extensively 
planted  on  the  coasts  of  Norfolk,  Holland,  Gascony,  &c. 
Other  reeds  are  C alamagrostis  (various  species),  Gynerium 
argenteum  (pampas  grass),  Deyeuxia,  &c.,  also  Arundo 
Donax,  the  largest  European  grass  (6  to  12  feet  high), 
which  is  abundant  in  southern  Europe.  Reeds  have  been 
extensively  used  from  the  earliest  times  in  thatching  and 
in  other  branches  of  construction,  and  also  for  arrows, 


the  pipes  of  musical  instruments,  &c.  Reed  pens  are 
still  used  in  the  East  (see  PEN).  Plants  belonging  to 
other  orders  occasionally  share  the  name,  especially  the 
bur-reed  (Sparganium)  and  the  reed-mace  (Typha),  both 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Typhaceaz.  The  bulrushes 
(Scirpus),  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cyperocex,  are 
also  to  be  distinguished.  See  GRASSES  ;  also  Sowerby's 
British  Grasses,  &c. 

REED,  in  music.  See  OBOE,  vol.  xvii.  p.  705 ;  HAR- 
MONIUM, vol.  xi.  p.  483 ;  and  ORGAN,  vol.  xvii.  p.  828  sq. 

REEVE,  CLARA  (1725-1803),  one  of  the  imitators  of 
Horace  Walpole  in  Gothic  romance,  was  born  at  Ipswich 
in  1725.  She  was  an  industrious  woman  of  letters,  and 
produced  many  works  in  prose  and  verse,  including  an 
interesting  sketch  of  the  Progress  of  Romance ;  but  her 
only  eminent  success  was  the  romance  of  The  Old  English 
Baron  (1777).  In  her  theory  about  the  use  of  the  super- 
natural, as  in  chronological  position,  she  stands  midway 
between  Walpole  and  Mrs  Radcliffe.  Though  she  owned 
Walpole  as  a  master,  she  declined  to  follow  as  far  as  he 
went  in  supernatural  incident ;  she  admits  a  castle  and  a 
haunted  wing  and  the  ghost  of  a  murdered  man,  but 
draws  the  line  before  statues  dropping  blood,  pictures  that 
groan  and  walk  out  of  their  frames,  and  suchlike  improb- 
abilities. She  was  the  daughter  of  a  Suffolk  clergyman, 
and  died  at  Ipswich  in  1803. 

REFEREE,  in  law,  is  a  person  to  whom  a  matter  is 
delegated  by  a  superior  for  report  or  decision.  The  prin- 
cipal use  of  the  word  occurs  in  the  practice  of  the  House 
of  Commons  and  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice.  The  Court 
of  Referees  is  a  court  to  which  the  House  of  Commons 
commits  the  decision  of  all  questions  of  locus  standi, — that 
is,  the  right  of  petitioners  to  be  heard  in  opposition  to 
private  Bills.  A  referee  is  also  associated  with  members 
of  the  House  as  a  member  of  every  committee  on  an  opposed 
Bill,  but  may  not  vote.  Under  the  Judicature  Act,  1873, 
cases  are  submitted  to  either  official  or  special  referees  for 
inquiry  and  report,  or  for  trial.  Inquiry  and  report  may 
be  directed  in  any  case, — trial  only  by  consent  of  the  parties, 
or  in  any  matter  requiring  any  prolonged  examination  of 
documents  or  accounts,  or  any  scientific  or  local  investiga- 
tion which  cannot  be  tried  in  the  ordinary  way  (36  and  37 
Viet.  c.  66,  ss.  56,  57;  Rules  of  the  Supreme  Court,  1883, 
Ord.  xxxvi.). 

REFLEXION.     See  LIGHT,  vol.  xiv.  p.  586  sq. 


REFORMATION 


THE  period  occupied  by  the  great  movement  known 
as  the  Protestant  Reformation  stands  identified,  for 
the  most  part,  with  the  period  which  marks  the  transition 
from  the  mediaeval  to  the  modern  era  in  European  history. 
Taken  within  its  narrowest  limits,  it  may  be  looked  upon 
as  commencing  with  the  year  1517  and  as  finding  a  certain 
consummation  with  the  year  1545.  In  the  former  year 
Luther's  theses,  published  at  Wittenberg,1  represent  the 
commencement  of  that  direct  and  open  renunciation  of 
mediaeval  doctrine  which  he  initiated ;  in  the  latter  year 
the  assembling  of  the  council  of  Trent  mr.vks  the  renewed 
sanction  and  promulgation  of  that  doctrine  whereby  an 
insuperable  barrier  was  erected  between  the  communion 
of  Rome  and  the  churches  of  Protestantism.  From  that 
time  each  communion  possessed  its  distinctive  organiza- 
tion and  formulary  of  faith,  and  the  struggles  which 
subsequently  took  place  between  Romanism  and  Pro- 
testantism represent,  not  attempts  to  bring  about  or  to 


1  Most  of  the  details  of  the  main  facts  connected  with  the  German 
Reformation  during  Luther's  lifetime  are  given  under  LUTHER. 


resist  reform  (whether  of  discipline  or  of  doctrine),  but 
endeavours  on  the  part  of  both  communions  to  bring 
about,  if  possible,  the  extinction  of  the  opposed  form  of 
faith. 

But,  although  the  contest  which  Luther  initiated  had, 
long  before  his  death,  resulted  in  complete  and  irreparable 
rupture  between  the  contending  parties,  it  is  certain  that 
in  order  to  understand  the  true  nature  and  origin  of  that 
contest  we  must  go  back  to  events  long  anterior  to  1517  ; 
while  in  order  fully  to  estimate  its  effects  we  must  follow 
the  history  of  events  long  after  1545.  In  Germany,  for 
example,  the  Reformation  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  find- 
ing even  a  formal  consummation  before  the  peace  of  Augs- 
burg (1555)  ;  in  Switzerland  the  movement  went  on  with 
important  modifications  down  to  the  death  of  Calvin  in 
1564  ;  in  France  the  onward  progress  was  not  materially 
checked  before  the  massacre  on  the  eve  of  St  Bartholomew 
(1572);  in  Bohemia  its  independent  and  peculiar  fortunes 
found  a  final  solution  only  with  the  battle  of  the  White 
Hill  in  1620 ;  while  in  England  and  in  Scotland,  in  the 
Netherlands,  in  Scandinavia,  in  Italy  and  in  Spain,  the 


320 


REFORMATION 


movement  assumed  so  much  variety  of  character,  and  was 
decided  by  circumstances  of  time  and  place  of  so  different 
a  kind,  that  its  essential  features  often  become  merged 
and  almost  lost  in  their  combination  with  other  and 
altogether  extraneous  elements. 

Its  three  Nor  are  the  considerations  arising  out  of  diversities  of 
phases.  racej  divergencies  of  political  interests,  and  varied  issues 
the  only  difficulties  which  attach  to  any  attempt  to  treat 
the  movement  as  a  whole.  We  must  also  bear  in  mind 
the  very  different  conceptions  of  the  end  to  be  attained 
which  at  successive  stages  of  its  history  have  modified 
its  teaching  and  its  organization,  and  eventually  in  a 
great  measure  determined  its  geographical  limits.  These 
conceptions  may  be  distinguished  as  those  involving  (1)  a 
reform  of  discipline,  (2)  a  reform  of  doctrine,  (3)  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  current  dogmatic  teaching.  Of  these  three  dis- 
tinct conceptions  the  first,  taking  its  rise  in  the  generally 
admitted  corrupt  practice  of  the  Roman  Church,  aimed 
at  little  more  than  a  restoration  of  discipline, — a  reform 
of  morals,  that  is  to  say,  among  the  clergy  and  the  mon- 
astic orders,  and  the  abolition  of  those  various  abuses 
which  had  grown  up  under  the  lax  administration  and 
baneful  examples  of  successive  popes  and  of  the  Curia; 
the  second,  although  demanding  a  reform  of  doctrine  as 
well  as  of  discipline,  sought  simply  to  restore  what  was 
believed  to  be  the  teaching  of  the  primitive  as  opposed  to 
the  mediaeval  church ;  while  the  third,  guided  in  the 
first  instance  rather  by  an  only  half-conscious  instinct 
than  by  any  avowed  standard  of  belief,  sought  eventually 
to  establish  the  right  of  private  judgment,  to  the  almost 
entire  repudiation  of  authority,  whether  as  expressed  in 
the  decrees  of  councils,  in  the  confessions  of  the  Reformed 
churches,  or  in  the  creed  of  Trent.  And  it  is  from  this 
last  point  of  view  that  the  Reformation  has  gradually 
come  to  be  regarded  as  a  new  commencement  rather  than 
as  a  restoration  of  belief, — as  a  point  of  departure  towards 
a  higher  and  more  enlightened  faith  rather  than  as  a 
return  to  an  ancient,  imperfectly  ascertained,  and  possibly 
obsolete  standard. 

But,  by  whichever  of  these  aims  the  movement  in  favour 
of  reformation  was  guided,  the  dominant  conception  has 
not  unf  requently  operated  quite  independently  of  the  other 
two.  Demands  for  reform  of  discipline  not  unfrequently 
resulted  in  disunion  where  disagreement  with  respect  to 
doctrine  did  not  exist.  The  further  definition  of  already 
accepted  doctrine,  again,  even  when  made  in  connexion 
with  some  minor  article  of  belief  and  involving  but  an 
almost  imperceptible  divergence  of  interpretation,  often 
proved  productive  of  a  serious  schism  where  in  questions 
of  discipline  there  was  perfect  unanimity.  The  right  of 
private  judgment,  when  urged  in  contravention  of  any  of 
the  newly  formulated  standards  of  discipline  or  belief,  in- 
volved an  equally  decisive  rupture  with  those  who  recog- 
nized only  the  traditional  sources  of  doctrine.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  the  Reformation,  when  regarded 
from  a  fairly  comprehensive  point  of  view,  must  appear 
as  a  highly  complex  movement  carrying  in  itself  the  ele- 
ments of  further  controversy  and  conflict.  Even  the  theory 
which  would  seem  to  afford  the  most  satisfactory  solution 
of  its  varied  phenomena — that  which  teaches  us  to  look 
upon  it  as  a  Teutonic  revolt,  intellectual  no  less  than  re- 
ligious, against  the  traditions  which  the  Latin  Church  in 
the  course  of  centuries  had  invented  and  imposed  on  the 
faith  and  habits  of  thought  of  Western  Christendom — 
often  fails  us  as  a  clue  to  its  widely  different  manifesta- 
tions, and  other  disturbing  causes  seem  to  forbid  the  effort 
to  refer  them  to  any  general  principle.  The  character  and 
policy  of  the  reigning  Roman  pontiff,  the  jealousies  and 
divergent  interests  of  the  several  European  states  and  the 
special  aims  of  their  several  rulers,  the  spell  which  imperial 


institutions  and  traditions  long  continued  to  exercise  over 
the  minds  of  all  but  the  most  advanced  and  independent 
thinkers,  are  all  important  factors  in  the  movement.  If, 
however,  we  endeavour  to  assign  the  causes  which  pre- 
vented the  Reformation  from  being  carried  even  to  but 
partial  success  long  prior  to  the  16th  century,  we  can 
have  no  difficulty  in  deciding  that  foremost  among  them 
must  be  placed  the  manner  in  which  the  mediaeval  mind 
was  fettered  by  a  servile  regard  for  precedent.  To  the 
men  of  the  Middle  Ages,  whether  educated  or  uneducated, 
no  measure  of  reform  seemed  defensible  which  appeared 
in  the  light  of  an  innovation.  Precedent  was  the  standard 
whereby  every  authority,  lay  or  clerical,  was  held  to  be 
bound ;  and  to  this  rule  the  only  exceptions  were  a  general 
council  and  the  supreme  pontiff.  Even  Gregory  IX.  or 
Clement  V.,  when  he  assumed  to  promulgate  additions  to 
the  existing  code  of  the  Universal  Church,  was  understood 
to  do  so  simply  in  his  capacity  of  infallible  expounder  of 
essential  and  unalterable  doctrine ;  while  no  reform,  how- 
ever seemingly  expedient  or  however  recommended  by  its 
abstract  merits,  was  held  to  be  justifiable  if  it  could  be 
shown  to  be  in  conflict  with  ancient  and  authoritative 
tradition.  The  Reformers  themselves  always  maintained 
that  the  doctrines  which  they  enforced  rested  on  Scriptural 
precedent  and  primitive  example.  Their  assertion  was 
frequently  challenged  by  their  antagonists;  and  it  may 
reasonably  be  doubted  whether  even  Luther  or  Calvin 
could  have  commanded  any  considerable  following  had 
not  their  doctrinal  teaching  been  combined  with  a  demand 
for  a  reformation  of  discipline  which  rested  on  undeniable 
precedent,  and  to  which  the  circumstances  of  the  time 
imparted  new  and  irresistible  force, — a  force,  however, 
which  had  been  long  accumulating  and  had  been  derived 
in  no  small  measure  from  the  blind  obstinacy  of  the  Roman 
see  in  times  long  antecedent. 

The  existence  long  before  the  16th  century  of  a  strong  Desi 
desire  to  bring  about  a  reformation  of  discipline  within  the for  r 
church  itself  is  attested  by  evidence  which  it  will  suffice  *j? 
to  pass  by  with  little  more  than  an  allusion.  Among  the  p^, 
most  notable  instances  are  those  afforded  by  the  rise  of  the 
Dominican  and  Franciscan  orders  in  the  13th  century  and 
of  the  Brethren  of  St  Jerome  (or  the  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life)  in  the  14th  century, — efforts  based  upon 
general  conviction,  which  resulted  in  spontaneous  combina- 
tions. Similar  in  origin,  though  more  strictly  ecclesi- 
astical in  character,  were  the  designs  of  the  great  councils 
which  successively  assembled  at  Pisa  (1409),  at  Constance 
(1414),  and  at  Basel  (1431).  Among  those  who  were  dis- 
tinguished in  these  assemblies  by  their  strenuous  advocacy 
of  reform,  Pierre  d'Ailly  and  his  pupil  Jean  Charlier  de 
Gerson,  both  successively  chancellor  of  the  university  of 
Paris,  and  Nicholas  de  Clemenges,  archdeacon  of  Bayeux, 
were  especially  conspicuous.  Each  alike  upheld  in  the 
plainest  language  the  superiority  of  a  general  council  to 
the  pope,  and  the  obligation  that  rested  on  such  a  body 
to  address  itself  to  the  task  of  church  reform  whenever 
the  necessity  might  arise,  and  the  supreme  pontiff  himself 
be  found  either  incapable  of  such  a  labour  or  unwilling  to 
initiate  it.  Of  the  widespread  necessity  for  such  reform, 
as  shown  by  tlio  condition  of  the  clergy  and  the  monas- 
teries, the  remarkable  treatise  by  Nicholas  de  Clemenges,1 
De  Corrupto  Ecdesix  Statu,  affords  alone  sufficient  evidence. 
By  Michelet2  this  powerful  tractate  has  been  compared, 
for  its  vigour  and  the  effect  which  it  produced,  to  the  De 
Captivitate  Hcclesiss  Bahylonica  of  Luther;  and  it  is  a 
striking  proof  of  the  deep-rooted  corruption  of  the  whole 
church  that  such  flagrant  abuses  should  have  continued 
to  exist  for  another  century  with  little  or  no  abatement. 

1  Or  by  Dietrich  of  Niem  ;  the  authorship  is  disputed. 

2  Hist,  de  France,  bk.  viii.  c.  3. 


REFORMATION 


321 


Cl&menges  deplores  in  the  strongest  terms  the  state  of  the 
church  in  his  day, — a  condition  of  appalling  degeneracy, 
which  he  ascribes  mainly  to  the  increase  in  wealth  and 
luxury  that  had  followed  upon  the  development  of  a 
worldly  spirit  in  its  midst.  His  strictures  leave  no  order 
or  degree  of  either  the  ecclesiastical  or  the  monastic  life 
untouched, — the  overwhelming  ostentation  of  the  Curia ; 
the  pride  and  rapacity  of  the  cardinals,  their  immorality 
and  addiction  to  simony  ;  the  prevalence  of  the  same  vices 
among  the  episcopal  order,  filled  with  beardless  youths, 
who,  scarcely  liberated  from  the  dread  of  the  school- 
master's ferule,  hastened  to  assume  the  pastoral  office; 
the  lower  clergy  in  general  so  sunk  in  vice  and  sloth  that 
scarcely  one  in  a  thousand  ("  vix  inter  mille  unus  ")  was  to 
be  found  living  a  godly  and  sober  life;  the  nunneries,  which 
he  declares  were  brothels  rather  than  sanctuaries  ("  non  dico 
Dei  sanctuaria,  sed  Veneris  execranda  prostibula  ").  We 
can  feel  no  surprise  at  finding  that  in  the  16th  century 
Clement  VII.  thought  it  necessary  to  place  this  burning 
diatribe  by  a  great  doctor  of  the  church  in  the  Index  Ex- 
purgatorius.  A  few  years  later  we  find  the  evils  to  which 
Clemenges  called  attention  emphasized  by  one  of  the  most 
eminent  ecclesiastics  of  the  age,  —  the  cardinal  Julian 
Cesarini,  when  he  was  endeavouring  to  dissuade  Pope 
Eugenius  IV.  from  his  design  of  dissolving  the  council  of 
Basel  (see  POPEDOM,  vol.  xix.  p.  502).  In  this  letter  he 
affirms  that  so  strongly  is  popular  feeling  stirred  against 
the  clergy  by  their  neglect  of  their  duties  and  scandalously 
immoral  lives  that  there  is  reason  to  fear  that,  if  some 
remedy  be  not  devised,  the  whole  fabric  of  the  Roman 
Church  may  be  overturned.1 

The  complete  failure  of  these  successive  efforts  to  bring 
about  any  comprehensive  measure  of  church  reform  is  a 
familiar  fact  in  European  history.  And  not  only  were  the 
evils  which  it  was  sought  to  abolish  suffered  to  continue 
with  but  little  abatement,  but  dissent  even  from  the  recog- 
nized discipline  of  the  church  was  placed  under  a  ban,  and 
made,  in  common  with  dissent  from  doctrine,  an  offence 
punishable  with  the  severest  penalties.  The  mediaeval 
theory  of  the  Roman  hierarchy  had  indeed  been  reaffirmed 
by  Eugenius  IV.  and  his  successors  with  a  success  which 
seemed  almost  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  its  ever  being 
again  challenged.  But  the  main  point  here  to  be  noted  is 
that  in  none  of  these  several  efforts  in  the  direction  of 
reform,  whether  resulting  from  conciliar  or  popular  action, 
was  the  doctrine  of  the  church  once  called  in  question. 
The  fate  that  overtook  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague 
appears  to  have  been  very  generally  regarded  as  a  neces- 
sary example  of  just  rigour  in  the  suppression  of  heresy. 
We  find,  accordingly,  that,  when  in  the  following  century 
it  was  sought  to  associate  the  efforts  of  the  reformers  in 
the  direction  of  doctrinal  change  with  the  efforts  of  a  party 
within  the  church  itself  in  the  direction  of  disciplinary 
reform,  the  defenders  of  the  traditional  Catholic  faith 
challenged  the  assumed  precedent  and  altogether  denied 
the  parallel.  "  It  is,"  wrote  Bossuet  in  the  17th  century, 
"an  obvious  illusion;  for  among  all  the  passages  which  they 
adduce  there  is  not  one  in  which  those  teachers  have  ever 
dreamed  of  changing  the  belief  of  the  church,  of  amending 
its  worship,  which  consisted  chiefly  in  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass,  or  of  overthrowing  the  authority  of  her  prelates  and 
especially  that  of  the  pope,  all  which  was  the  primary 
design  of  this  new  reformation  of  which  Luther  was  the 
architect."2  It  is  not  easy  to  gainsay  the  reasonableness 
of  Bossuet's  criticism.  It  was  the  fundamental  theory  of 
the  Reformation  that  it  involved  the  setting  aside  of  the 

"Dissolutio  cleri  Alemannise,  ex  qua  laici  supra  modum  irritantur 
adversus  statum  ecclesiasticurn  .  .  .  inclinatus  est  arbor  ut  cadat,  nee 
potest  diutius  persistere."  See  JEn.  Sylvius,  Opera  (ed.  1.551),  pp.  66, 
'°-  2  (Euvres  (1865),  ii.  303. 


development  given  in  mediaeval  times  to  the  doctrines  and 
teaching  of  the  early  church,  and  proposed  to  substitute 
for  these  a  totally  different  interpretation,  which  rejected 
the  successive  decisions  of  councils  and  popes  as  arbitrary 
and  erroneous.  Such  a  theory,  however,  necessarily  im- 
posed on  the  Reformers  the  task  of  proving  the  validity  of 
their  own  position,  by  showing  that  their  repudiation  of  a 
practice  and  of  precedents  which  had  been  accepted  for 
so  many  centuries  was  justified  by  an  appeal  to  yet  more 
ancient  and  unquestionable  authority.  If  indeed  they 
failed  in  so  doing,  they  must  look  forward  to  sinking  in 
the  estimation  of  Christendom  to  the  level  of  heretics, 
and  be  prepared  to  stand  before  posterity  in  the  same 
category  as  the  Arians,  the  Albigenses,  the  Lollards,  and 
the  Hussites,  and  those  other  sects  which,  by  their  un- 
warranted assertion  of  the  right  of  private  interpretation, 
had  provoked  and  incurred  the  formal  condemnation  of 
the  church.  It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  article  to 
attempt  to  estimate  the  justice  of  the  theological  argu- 
ments by  which  the  Reformers  sought  to  vindicate  their 
position ;  but  there  is  good  reason  for  concluding  that  the 
argumentative  powers  and  personal  influence  of  Luther 
and  Calvin  would  have  failed,  just  as  the  efforts  of  pre- 
ceding reformers  had  failed,  in  effecting  the  desired  result, 
had  not  the  conditions  and  circumstances  of  the  age  been 
such  as  to  lend  new  force  to  the  arguments  which  they 
urged  in  favour  of  a  fundamental  change  in  the  standpoint 
of  religious  faith. 

The  most  notable  feature  in  connexion  with  traditional 
belief  which  challenges  our  attention  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  16th  century  is  the  manner  in  which  the 
popedom  was  becoming  less  and  less  in  harmony  with  the 
spirit  of  the  age,  and  with  those  new  forces  which  were 
now  developing  in  the  midst  of  Teutonism.  The  intoler- 
ance of  the  church  in  the  repression  of  heresy  had  become 
more  pronounced  and  was  pressing  with  increasing  rigour 
on  free  thought,  when,  owing  to  the  influences  of  the 
New  Learning,  that  thought  was  everywhere  on  the  point 
of  seeking  to  break  through  the  traditional  trammels ; 
the  corruption  of  the  Curia  and  of  both  the  regular  and  the 
secular  clergy,  the  extension  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
pontiffs  in  Italy,  and  the  extortion  of  their  emissaries  in 
other  countries  had  reached  a  climax  just  as,  owing  to  the 
more  independent  spirit  generated  by  the  consolidation  of 
the  nationalities,  the  ruler  and  the  people  in  each  kingdom 
or  principality  were  becoming  increasingly  impatient  of 
the  existence  of  such  abuses.  A  brief  consideration  of 
these  several  features  becomes,  accordingly,  quite  indis- 
pensable, if  we  wish  rightly  to  comprehend  the  forces  at 
work  in  Europe  at  the  time  when  the  Reformers  arose  to 
combine  them  and  give  them  more  definite  direction. 

Not  a  few,  and  some  very  memorable,  efforts  had  been  Efforts 
made  before  the  16th  century  to  bring  about  a  reformation  for  re- 
of  doctrine,  but  these  had  almost  invariably  been  promptly 
visited  with  the  censure  of  the  church.  Long  after  the 
"  heresies  "  of  the  4th  century  had  died  away  and  after  the 
controversies  of  the  turbulent  9th  century — such  as  those 
on  the  Eucharist  between  Paschasius  Radbertus  and 
Ratramnus,  and  on  predestination  between  John  Scotus 
Erigena  and  Gottschalk— had  been  silenced  by  the  decisions 
of  the  pontiffs,  we  find  movements  arising,  which,  how- 
ever much  they  differ  in  other  characteristics,  all  attest 
the  existence  of  a  widespread  desire  among  large  sections 
of  the  community  to  revert  to  a  simpler  form  of  religious 
belief  and  practice.  The  Paulicians  (or  Manichseans  of 
the  East),  the  Albigenses  (or  Manichaeans  of  the  West), 
the  Waldenses,  the  Cathari,  and  the  Leonists  (or  Poor 
Men  of  Lyons) — sects  which  made  their  appearance  mainly 
in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  and  for  the  most  part 
in  Switzerland,  Languedoc,  and  northern  France — the 

XX.  —  41 


doctrine. 


REFORMATION 


Lollards  in  England  and  the  Hussites  in  Bohemia,  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  ancestors  in  faith  of  the  Huguenots 
and  the  Puritans  of  after-times,  and  were  all  more  or  less 
characterized  by  an  aversion  to  the  Roman  ritual,  to 
splendid  churches,  to  crosses  and  crucifixes,  combined 
with  a  more  definite  denial  of  such  doctrines  as  that  of 
baptismal  regeneration,  of  transubstantiation,  of  masses 
for  the  dead,  and  of  the  obligation  to  observe  Lent.  The 
ultimate  fate  of  these  different  sects  was  singularly  similar. 
Of  their  earlier  history,  indeed,  we  have  but  few  memo- 
rials, for  their  records,  if  any  existed,  have  mostly  perished  ; 
and,  as  with  their  prototypes  in  the  earlier  Christian 
centuries,  it  became  almost  necessarily  their  policy  to 
avoid  all  external  demonstrations  which  would  be  likely 
to  arrest  the  attention  of  the  world.  An  inquisitor  of 
the  13th  century,  when  describing  the  Leonists  (c.  1250), 
whom  he  speaks  of  as  both  the  most  ancient  and  the 
most  widely  spread  of  the  sects  then  existing,  represents 
them  as  by  no  means  guilty,  to  all  external  appearance,  of 
practices  which  could  fairly  be  stigmatized  as  blasphemous, 
but  as  wearing  a  great  semblance  of  piety,  as  being  of  good 
repute  among  their  neighbours,  and  chiefly  blamable  as 
given  to  speaking  against  the  Eoman  Church  and  its 
clergy  and  thus  gaining,  only  too  easily,  the  ears  of  the 
laity  at  large.1  To  such  characteristics,  however,  the  Albi- 
genses  in  the  12th  century  had  presented  a  remarkable 
exception.  At  the  commencement  of  the  pontificate  of 
Innocent  III.  (1198)  his  legates  had  found  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  rich  and  prosperous  territory  extending  from 
Carcassonne  to  Bordeaux  dominated  by  this  powerful 
heresy, — a  form  of  doctrine  associated,  moreover,  not  with 
austerity  but  with  voluptuousness  of  life,  with  a  profound 
contempt  for  the  priestly  profession,  and  with  a  warm 
admiration  for  the  conceptions  of  chivalry  and  the  poetry 
of  the  troubadour, — a  heresy  enriched  by  the  devotion  of 
its  adherents  to  an  extent  which  made  it  far  wealthier 
than  the  church  itself  in  those  regions,  and  before  which 
the  representatives  of  the  Roman  orthodoxy  seemed 
threatened  almost  with  extinction.  The  suppression  of 
this  heresy  by  Simon  de  Montfort  is  a  well-known  episode, 
and  would  seem  to  have  formed  the  point  of  departure 
for  a  new  and  more  rigorous  policy  on  the  part  of  the 
church  in  its  dealings  with  like  manifestations  of  dis- 
obedience. In  the  year  1229  the  statutes  of  the  council 
of  Toulouse  formulated,  as  it  were,  the  code  of  persecution, 
and,  aided  by  the  Inquisition,  which  probably  took  its  rise 
about  the  same  time,  supplied  a  new  machinery  for  the 
detection  and  suppression  of  heresy.  To  the  terrorism 
thus  established,  after  the  sword  of  De  Montfort  had  done 
its  work,  we  may  fairly  refer  the  changed  characteristics 
of  the  adherents  of  the  heresies  in  France,  as  above  de- 
scribed, in  the  middle  of  the  13th  century. 

Influence  But,  the  suspicions  of  the  church  having  once  been 
of  poll-  thoroughly  roused  and  the  secular  power  incited  and 
motives  S^ed  to  lts  tas^>  external  conformity  and  inoffensive  life, 
the  mountain  hamlet  and  the  secluded  valley,  proved  alike 
unavailing  to  avert  the  cruelty  of  the  persecutor.  The 
Cathari  in  Italy  did  not  long  survive  the  fall  of  the  Hohen- 
staufens,  from  whom  they  had  received  effective  protection 
and  support ;  and  it  added  not  a  little  to  the  offence  of 
the  doctrines  proclaimed  by  the  Spiritual  Franciscans, 
whose  tenets  were  condemned  by  the  council  of  Vienne 
in  1311,  that,  while  the  order  had  taken  its  rise  in  a  spirit 
of  protest  against  the  corruptions  of  the  Curia,  its  members 
were  known  to  be  ready  to  favour  and  aid  by  all  the 
means  in  their  power  the  restoration  of  the  imperial 
ascendency  in  Italy.  The  Spiritual  Franciscans  were  the 
forerunners  of  the  Apostolic  Brethren,  one  of  the  most 
widely  spread  of  the  new  sects,  and  must  also  be  looked 
1  Max.  Bibl.  Patrum  (1676),  vol.  xxv.  p.  264. 


upon  as  the  precursors  of  the  Lollards.  The  intimate 
nexion  between  theological  doctrine  and  political  opinion 
that  existed  among  the  latter  sect  is  well  known.  Wo 
find,  accordingly,  that  heresy,  long  before  Reformation 
times,  was  regarded  by  the  papal  power  as  associated  -with 
hostile  political  interests,  and  that  a  new  incentive  to  its 
rigorous  suppression  was  thus  supplied. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  popedom  itself,  during  the  long 
sojourn  of  the  pontiffs  at  Avignon  (1309-78),  became 
involved  in  a  political  alliance,  whereby  it  alienated 
the  sympathies  of  Europe  at  large  to  an  extent  which  it 
was  never  afterwards  able  to  regain.  During  that  long 
and  humiliating  episode  in  its  history  the  office  was  filled 
almost  exclusively  by  Frenchmen,  whose  policy  was  con- 
ceived in  complete  subservience  to  that  of  the  reigning 
French  monarch ;  and  the  pontiff  at  Avignon  thus  came 
to  be  regarded  both  by  the  empire  and  in  England  as 
the  pliant  ally  of  a  hostile  p9wer.  During  the  following 
century  it  recovered  much  of  its  influence  in  Germany, 
where  its  pretensions  were  sometimes  regarded  not  un- 
favourably by  the  electors  as  an  equipoise  to  the  too 
despotic  sway  of  the  emperor.  Somewhat  later  we  find 
it  receiving  the  most  efficient  support  from  Spain.  But 
it  could  never  again  command  the  same  universal  defer- 
ence in  Western  Christendom ;  and  the  apparently  genuine 
devotion  to  its  interests  which  may  from  time  to  time  be 
discerned  manifesting  itself,  now  in  one  nation  and  now 
in  another,  was  largely  inspired  by  political  considerations, 
and  often  dearly  purchased  at  the  expense  of  a  corre- 
sponding hostility  provoked  among  another  people. 

To  the  manner  in  which  theological  tenets,  often  purely 
speculative  in  their  origin  and  innocuous  in  their  bearing 
upon  practice,  thus  came  to  be  regarded  as  identified 
with  secular  questions  of  grave  import  and  pressing  for  an 
immediate  solution,  we  must  partly  attribute  the  jealousy 
with  which  the  first  symptoms  of  heresy  were  now  watched 
for  by  Rome.  Early  in  the  14th  century  the  Fraticelli 
and  the  Apostolic  Brethren,  with  other  heretical  sects, 
were  anathematized.  In  the  year  1324  Pope  John  XXII. 
demanded  of  the  emperor  the  suppression  of  the  Waldenses,2 
who  had  reappeared  in  Lombardy ;  and,  ably  as  Marsilius 
of  Padua  assailed  the  pretensions  of  the  papacy,  his  pro- 
test seemed  ineffectual  amid  the  supreme  humiliation  of 
his  patron,  Louis  of  Bavaria.  Driven  alike  from  Italy 
and  from  France,  the  persecuted  sect  took  refuge  in  Savoy 
and  in  Switzerland,  and  in  the  year  1489  the  papal  legate 
reported  that  their  numbers  were  not  less  than  50,000. 
Lollardism  was  suppressed  with  unsparing  hand  in  England; 
and  John  Sawtrey,  the  first  of  Wikliffe's  followers  to  suffer 
martyrdom,  was  burnt  to  death  in  1401,  for  refusing  to 
worship  the  cross  and  for  denial  of  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation.  Fifteen  years  later  John  Huss  and 
Jerome  of  Prague  suffered  the  same  fate  at  Constance,  and 
the  indignation  excited  among  their  fellow-countrymen, 
intensified  as  this  feeling  was  by  differences  of  race,  gave 
rise  to  a  memorable  resistance,  which  eventually  won 
religious  freedom  for  the  land.  At  the  diet  of  Kutna 
Hora  (Kuttenberg)  in  1485  a  truce  was  made  between 
the  Utraquists  and  the  Catholics  for  thirty-two  years,  and 
the  complete  religious  equality  then  established  was  made 
permanent  at  the  diet  of  1512.  In  England,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Lollard  movement  was  almost  completely 
extinguished.  The  political  doctrines  with  which  it  had 
become  associated  made  it  the  object  of  suspicion  alike 
to  the  ecclesiastical  and  to  the  civil  power ;  and  Sir  John 

2  They  were  not,  however,  known  under  this  name ;  in  the  1 5th  and 
at  the  commencement  of  the  16th  century  they  never  so  styled  them- 
selves, and  were  rarely  so  styled  by  others.  The  name  by  which 
they  were  known  among  themselves  was  that  of  "The  Brethren." 
See  Ludwig  Keller,  Die  Reformation  und  die  tilteren  Jie/ormparleien 
(1885),  p.  206. 


REFORMATION 


323 


Oldcastle,  its  chief  leader,  although  he  suffered  martyrdom, 
altogether  failed  to  win  the  popularity  or  the  reverence 
which  waited  on  the  memories  of  the  two  Hussite  leaders. 
The  religious  tenets  of  his  followers  were  not,  indeed,  alto- 
gether suppressed,  and  continued  to  command  a  certain  fol- 
lowing down  to  the  1 6th  century.  As  a  tradition,  however, 
they  would  seem  to  have  survived  in  connexion  with  the 
early  English  Puritanism  rather  than  with  the  Reformation ; 
while  between  the  Hussite  movement  and  the  Reformation 
the  connexion  is  unquestionable  and  was  recognized  by 
Luther  himself. 

ew  During  the  very  time  that  the  Roman  pontiffs  were 
US-  wielding  thus  effectually  the  weapons  of  bigotry  and  per- 
secution against  all  manifestations  of  independent  religious 
thought,  their  influence  and  patronage  were  largely  given 
to  the  fostering  of  other  influences,  which  ultimately  proved 
highly  favourable  to  that  very  freedom  of  judgment  and  of 
philosophic  speculation  which  the  Roman  see  has  invariably 
sought  to  suppress.  The  relations  in  which  the  "  New 
Learning,"  as  it  was  then  called,  is  to  be  found  successively 
standing  to  the  representatives  of  orthodox  belief  constitute 
an  interesting  and  instructive  study.  At  one  time  Greek 
had  been  held  in  reverence  as  the  official  language  of  the 
Roman  Church ;  but,  from  the  period  when  the  popes 
were  first  enabled  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  the  Eastern 
emperor  in  Italy,  the  use  of  the  Greek  language  had  been 
discontinued,  its  literature  placed  under  a  ban,  and  the 
study  of  both  systematically  discouraged  in  Western  Chris- 
tendom. Then  came  the  Renaissance ;  and  under  the 
patronage  of  pontiffs  like  Nicholas  V.  (1447-1455),  and 
cardinals  like  Julian  and  Bessarion,  Greek  became  as  much 
in  favour  at  the  Curia  as  it  had  before  been  discredited. 
At  first  it  seemed  not  improbable  that  this  literary  re- 
volution might  prove  a  powerful  aid  not  only  in  promot- 
ing Christian  culture  but  in  diffusing  a  more  genuinely 
Christian  and  catholic  spirit.  While  eminent  ecclesiastics 
sought  to  bring  about  the  reconciliation  of  the  churches 
of  the  East  and  West,  original  thinkers  like  Pius  II.  and 
Maffeus  Vegius  put  forth  views  on  the  whole  subject  of 
education  which  involved  a  decisive  rupture  with  the 
traditions  of  medisevalism.  It  is  unnecessary  to  describe 
the  manner  in  which  this  promising  future  became  over- 
clouded ;  how  learning  in  Italy  became  associated  at  once 
with  scepticism  and  immorality;  and  how  men  of  letters  like 
Politian  and  Poggio  and  Bembo  and  Beccadelli,  under  the 
favour  of  pontiffs  like  Leo  X.,  at  once  scandalized  the 
devout  and  amused  the  fancy  of  the  polite  scholar.  "  This 
fable  of  Christ  has  been  to  us  a  source  of  great  gain,"  a 
cardinal  at  the  Vatican  was  overheard  to  observe.  Such 
a  tone  of  feeling,  however,  was  not  consonant  with  the 
spirit  of  the  persecutor,  and  if  the  religions  spirit  was 
shocked  by  profanity  it  was  less  disgraced  by  bigotry. 
Earnestness  of  conviction  was  derided  and  disbelieved  in ; 
and  the  prevalent  sentiments  at  the  Curia  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Reformation  were  those  of  idle  and  careless  security. 
Signs,  however,  were  not  wanting  to  prove  to  a  later 
generation  how  little  that  false  security  was  justifiable. 
Foremost  among  those  who  advocated  reform  and  a  policy 
of  reconciliation  in  the  first  half  of  the  1 5th  century  was 
Nicolas  de  Cusa,  who,  though  German  by  birth,  embraced 
with  ardour  the  schemes  projected  for  the  regeneration  of 
Italy  and  of  the  church  at  large.  Neither  Pius  II.  nor 
Nicholas  V.,  who  alike  promoted  him  and  honoured  him, 
appears  to  have  discerned  the  dangerous  element  that 
lurked  in  his  bold  spirit  of  inquiry.  From  Cusa,  however, 
Laurentius  Valla  derived  the  guidance  which  led  him  on 
to  his  memorable  attack  on  the  fiction  of  the  Donation  of 
Constantine,  and  to  that  more  general  investigation  of  the 
claims  of  the  popedom  which  marks  the  commencement 
of  the  historical  scepticism  which  now  began  to  develop 


with  such  startling  results.  To  Valla  succeeded  Gregory 
of  Heimburg,  who  exposed  the  papal  pretensions  with 
equal  vigour,  and  made  it  for  the  first  time  apparent 
how  formidable  a  weapon  the  New  Learning  might  prove 
in  the  defence  of  those  imperial  and  popular  rights  in 
Germany  which  Rome  at  that  time  contemptuously  ig- 
nored. The  conflict  between  Heimburg  and  Eugenius 
IV.  foreshadowed,  indeed,  the  greater 'contest  between  the 
Teutonic  and  the  Latin  power,  and  Heimburg  has  more 
than  once  been  designated  the  prototype  of  Ulrich  von 
Hutten. 

In  the  whole  history  of  the  Reformation,  and  of  the  Political 
period  by  which  it  was  immediately  preceded,  the  political aims  of 
relations  of  the  popedom  to  the  other  European  powers?01" 
and  more  especially  to  Germany,  constitute,  in  fact, 
elements  of  primary  importance.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  15th  century  those  relations  were  still  further  em- 
bittered by  the  personal  character  and  aims  of  the  reigning 
pontiffs.  At  the  very  time  when  the  existence  of  the 
popedom  as  a  temporal  power  was  menaced  by  the  rising 
spirit  of  innovation,  the  reverence  and  sympathy  of  Europe 
were  still  further  alienated  by  the  spectacle  of  the  career  of 
Alexander  VI.  and  of  his  end, — the  result,  it  was  commonly 
reported,  of  the  poison  which  he  had  designed  for  the  de- 
struction of  another.  The  character  of  his  successor,  Julius 
II.  (1503-1513),  might  well  seem  virtuous  by  comparison; 
but  at  no  period  in  the  history  of  the  pontificate  does  its 
religious  character  seem  more  completely  lost  sight  of  in 
purely  secular  interests.  It  had  long  before  (see  POPEDOM) 
been  the  aim  of  each  more  ambitious  pope  to  become  a 
great  territorial  prince  and  thus  to  lay  the  foundation  of 
the  private  fortunes  of  his  house.  But  Julius  aimed  at 
something  more  than  this, — at  the  assertion  of  political 
supremacy  throughout  Italy  and  of  the  right  to  rank  with 
the  great  powers  of  Europe  as  wielding  at  once  material 
resources  but  little  inferior  to  theirs,  and  as  commanding  a 
widespread  organization  to  the  like  of  which  not  one  of 
them  could  aspire.  Such  were  the  objects  to  which  his 
untiring  energies  were  systematically  directed.  Within 
four  years  of  his  accession  he  had  added  Perugia  and 
Bologna  to  the  possessions  of  the  church,  and  from 
Piacenza  to  Terracina  his  sway  extended  over  all  the 
great  strongholds  and  the  most  fertile  territory  ;  even 
the  great  powers  of  France  and  Spain,  notwithstanding 
their  newly  consolidated  strength,  could  not  but  regard 
with  jealousy  and  apprehension  his  genius  and  his  policy. 
"  Before,"  wrote  Machiavelli,  "  there  was  no  baron  so 
petty  as  not  to  look  with  contempt  on  that  popedom  which 
now  even  a  king  of  France  regards  with  respect."  The 
means  by  which  this  remarkable  change  was  effected 
involved,  however,  a  recourse  to  fiscal  expedients  which 
eventually  proved  eminently  detrimental  to  the  Roman 
see ; 1  while  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  we  find  the 
policy  of  the  great  powers  in  relation  to  Rome  almost 
entirely  determined  by  purely  political  considerations  and 
Italy  itself  becoming  the  arena  of  their  contending  ambi- 
tions. In  the  year  1494  Charles  VIII.  of  France  effected 
his  memorable  passage  of  the  Alps  to  grasp  the  crown 
of  Naples.  It  was  currently  believed  that  he  had  been 
incited  to  the  enterprise  by  Alexander  VI.  himself, — a  cir- 
cumstance which  alone  suffices  to  explain  the  failure  which 
attended  that  pontiff's  efforts  when  he  subsequently  sought 
to  prevail  upon  the  invader  to  submit  his  claims  to  the 
arbitration  of  the  holy  see.  In  the  year  1508  the  invasion 

1  "Sub  quibus "  (i.e.,  Alexander  VI.  arid  Julius  II.)  "etiam  in 
negotiatione  prebendaria  multoe  novae  technse  repertae  suut  ad  pecunias 
undique  corradendas,  et  ab  illis  receptae  sunt  approbataeque,  magis 
fisci  quam  Christi  rein  agenlibus."  See  the  remarkable  letter  of 
Eubulus  Cordatius  to  Montesius,  prefixed  to  the  reprints  of  the  Treatise? 
of  Nicolas  de  Clemenges,  ed.  1519. 


REFORMATION 


by  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  took  place,  with  the  object 
of  re-establishing  the  imperial  supremacy  in  Italy, — an 
expedition  which  was  in  some  respects  the  counterpart  of 
that  of  Charles,  and  to  which  Julius  II.  opposed  a  vacillat- 
ing policy  not  unlike  that  of  his  predecessor.  To  the 
expedition  of  Maximilian  succeeded  the  league  of  Cambray, 
designed  to  humble  the  republic  of  Venice,  and  warmly 
supported  by  Julius  II.  as  a  means  whereby  to  gratify  his 
resentment  at  the  resistance  offered  by  that  powerful  state 
to  the  encroachments  of  the  popedom.  No  sooner  was 
Venice  sufficiently  humiliated  than  Julius  proceeded  to 
concert  measures  for  carrying  out  the  great  object  of  his 
ambition, — the  expulsion  of  the  foreigner  from  Italy. 
Never  before  had  the  aims  of  the  papacy  seemed  so 
completely  in  conflict  with  those  of  every  European 
power. 

Reia-  In  France,  Louis  XII.,  on  appealing  to  the  representa- 

tions of  tives  of  the  Gallican  Church  (council  of  Tours,  September 
popedom  J51Q),  soon  found  that  national  feeling  entirely  prevailed 
France  •  over  Ultramontane  sympathies,  and  that  he  might  count 
on  their  effectual  support.  Notwithstanding,  therefore,  the 
remonstrances  of  his  devout  consort,  Anne  of  Brittany, 
he  resolved  upon  a  vigorous  anti-papal  policy.  In  concert 
with  the  emperor  Maximilian,  he  revived  the  long-dormant 
demand  for  a  general  council ;  and  a  mimic  assembly, 
consisting  of  four  cardinals,  twenty  Gallican  prelates,  cer- 
tain abbots  and  other  dignitaries,  was  actually  convened 
at  Pisa  in  1511.  In  this  extremity  Julius  exhibited  his 
usual  fertility  of  resource  by  organizing  the  Holy  League, 
and  thus  inducing  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and  the  Venetians 
to  combine  with  him  in  opposing  the  designs  of  schismatic 
France.  The  council,  transferred  to  Milan,  issued  from 
thence  in  April  1512  an  edict  suspending  Julius  from  all 
pontifical  functions  as  a  "notorious  disturber  of  the 
council,  the  author  of  schism,  contumacious,  incorrigible, 
hardened  "  (Raynaldus,  sub  ann.).  The  pontiff  thereupon 
excommunicated  Louis  XII.,  who  rejoined  by  a  formal 
protest  and  by  causing  coins  to  be  struck  and  circulated 
bearing  the  arms  of  France  and  the  ominous  inscription 
Perdam  Bahylonis  nomen.  In  the  meantime  the  fifth 
Lateran  council,  the  rival  council  convened  by  Julius, 
commenced  its  sittings  (May  1512),  and  forthwith  de- 
clared the  acts  of  the  assembly  held  at  Milan  to  be  those 
of  a  schismatical  body,  while  it  proceeded  to  confirm  the 
papal  censure  on  the  king  of  France.  The  expulsion  of 
the  French  from  Italy,  after  the  fall  of  their  heroic  leader, 
Gaston  de  Foix,  seemed  to  threaten  only  a  further  widening 
of  the  schism,  when  the  death  of  Julius  in  1513  opened  the 
door  for  negotiation — an  opportunity  of  which  Louis  eagerly 
availed  himself — while  the  pliant  disposition  of  the  new 
pontiff,  Leo  X.  (1513-1521),  afforded  additional  facilities 
for  arriving  at  an  agreement.  The  French  monarch  now 
disavowed  the  proceedings  of  the  council  which  he  had 
before  supported,  and  acknowledged  the  validity  of  the 
acts  of  the  council  at  the  Lateran.  Other  points  were  still 
under  discussion  when  Louis  died  and  was  succeeded  by 
Francis  I.,  January  1515. 

In  the  following  year  the  Catholic  king  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon  died.  The  relations  of  Spain  to  the  papacy  during 
his  reign  and  before  that  time  had  been  very  far  from 
representing  a  policy  of  complete  subserviency.  By  a 
concordat  made  in  the  year  1482  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  had 
conceded  to  the  sovereigns  of  Castile  and  Aragon  the  right 
of  nominating  to  the  higher  ecclesiastical  offices,  although 
he  had  reserved  to  himself  a  corresponding  power  in  con- 
nexion with  the  inferior  benefices, — a  privilege  which  soon 
resulted  in  the  customary  abuses  and  rendered  the  papal 
supremacy  for  a  time  scarcely  more  popular  in  Spain  than 
in  Germany.  At  nearly  the  same  time  the  institution  of 
the  Inquisition  in  the  former  country  is  generally  supposed 


to  have  first  taken  place  (see  INQUISITION), — an  event 
which  must  not,  however,  be  construed  into  a  proof  of  the 
ascendency  of  papal  influence.  In  its  earlier  stage  the 
Inquisition  was  quite  as  much  a  civil  as  an  ecclesiastical 
tribunal,  being  especially  directed  against  the  exclusive 
privileges  and  immunities  claimed  by  the  hereditary 
nobility ;  and,  although  under  Cardinal  Ximenes  the  re- 
pression of  heresy  became  one  of  its  chief  functions,  it 
was  long  regarded  with  no  friendly  feelings  by  Rome. 
The  Roman  doctrine  and  discipline  were  rigorously  im- 
posed on  the  Spanish  population,  but  Ferdinand  himself 
showed  little  disposition  to  submit  to  the  dictation  of 
the  Roman  pontiff.  In  the  year  1508  he  sharply  rebuked 
his  viceroy,  the  count  of  Rivarzoga,  for  allowing  a  papal 
bull  to  be  promulgated  in  the  provinces  without  having 
previously  obtained  his  sanction,  and  declared  that  if  the 
bull  were  not  forthwith  withdrawn  he  would  withdraw 
the  two  crowns  from  the  obedience  of  the  holy  see. 
Five  years  later  Cardinal  Xinlenes,  in  a  like  spirit,  openly 
denounced  the  abuses  that  accompanied  the  traffic  in 
indulgences. 

The  tone  that  Germany  at  this  period  was  able  to 
assume  was  very  different.  The  several  states  and  princi- 
palities, feebly  protected  by  the  imperial  authority,  which 
could  no  longer  be  asserted  as  of  yore,  yielded  an  easy 
prey  to  the  extortion  of  the  papal  emissaries.  The  national 
clergy,  perhaps  more  corrupt  than  in  any  other  Teutonic 
country,  showed  themselves  completely  subservient  to  the 
worst  malpractices  of  Rome.  It  was  from  the  laity  at 
large  that  the  first  warning  came  that  either  reform  or 
revolution  must  before  long  ensue.  In  the  year  1511 
a  notable  document,  purporting  to  emanate  from  the 
German  people  at  large,  was  laid  before  the  emperor. 
Drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  petition,  it  enumerated  and 
described  the  various  abuses  associated  with  the  prevailing 
ecclesiastical  practice  and  suggested  the  remedies.  Fore- 
most among  the  specified  grievances  it  placed  the  utter 
want  of  good  faith  shown  by  successive  pontiffs  in  the 
manner  in  which  they  were  accustomed  altogether  to  dis- 
regard (often  at  the  instance  of  most  unworthy  favourites) 
the  privileges  and  immunities  solemnly  granted  by  their 
predecessors.  It  complained  of  the  frequent  nullifying  of 
the  elections  of  prelates  canonically  elected  by  their  respect- 
ive chapters,  of  a  like  disregard  for  such  elections  even 
in  cases  where  large  sums  had  been  paid  to  the  Curia  by 
the  chapters  in  order  to  secure  the  ratification  of  their 
choice,  of  the  manner  in  which  all  the  richest  benefices 
were  reserved  for  cardinals  and  proto-notaries,  of  the  fre- 
quent anticipation  of  reversions  (expectativx  gratise)  and 
of  the  concentration  of  numerous  benefices  in  the  hands 
of  single  individuals,  of  the  incessant  lawsuits  generated 
by  these  malpractices  and  the  consequent  waste  of  con- 
siderable sums  both  on  the  lawsuits  themselves  and  on 
the  obtaining  of  bulls  which  eventually  proved  inoperative, 
— "so  that,"  said  the  petitioners,  "it  has  become  a  common 
saying  that,  on  obtaining  a  reversion  from  Rome,  one 
ought  to  lay  by  one  or  two  hundred  gold  pieces  where- 
with to  defend  the  actions  to  which  the  maintenance  of 
one's  rights  will  infallibly  give  rise."  Other  matters  of 
complaint  were  the  frequency  with  which  annates  were 
demanded;  the  bestowal  of  livings  on  those  utterly  in- 
competent for  the  discharge  of  their  duties, — "  fitter,"  in 
fact,  "to  be  muleteers  than  to  be  the  instructors  of  their 
fellow-men";  the  frequent  issuing  of  new  indulgences  and 
revocation  of  the  old,  notwithstanding  the  repeated  re- 
monstrances of  the  laity ;  the  levying  of  tenths  under  pre- 
text of  an  expedition  against  the  Turks  when  no  such 
expedition  was  designed  ;  and  the  petition  closed  with  the 
complaint,  which  had  been  rife  almost  ever  since  the  days 
of  Hilary  of  Aries,  of  the  continual  summoning  of  suits 


Ger- 
man 


REFORMATION 


325 


to  Rome  which  could  be  as  satisfactorily  and  far  more 
promptly  decided  before  the  national  tribunals.1 
'ide  While  the  popular  feeling  in  Germany  was  being  thus 
G-  effectually  alienated  from  the  papal  see,  the  learning  of 
lD  Germany  was  also  pursuing  that  ominous  track,  first 
delineated  by  Gregory  of  Heimburg,  which  marks  its  com- 
plete divergence  from  the  Italian  humanism.  The  names 
of  Johann  von  Goch  (d.  1475),  Johann  Wessel  (d.  1489), 
Johann  Reuchlin  (d.  1522),  and  Erasmus  stand  associated, 
although  in  different  ways,  with  a  great  movement  which, 
by  attacking  at  once  the  doctrine  and  the  discipline  of  the 
church,  opened  up  the  way  for  Luther.  Goch  and  Wessel 
were  among  the  first  to  give  systematic  form  to  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  existing  ecclesiastical  system,  and  their  criticism 
included  both  popes  and  councils  as  ultimate  authorities 
in  matters  of  faith.  They  inveighed  with  especial  force 
against  the  doctrines  of  indulgences,  veneration  of  saints, 
and  purgatory,  and  they  denied  that  confession,  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  extreme  unction  were  to  be  regarded  as 
sacraments  of  divine  institution.  During  the  years  1511 
to  1516  Reuchlin  carried  on  a  memorable  struggle  against 
the  monks  of  Cologne  in  defence  of  the  New  Learning 
and  of  improved  canons  of  textual  criticism.  In  the  year 
1516  Erasmus  put  forth  the  first  edition  of  his  Novum 
Instrumentum.  Side  by  side  with  these  more  elaborate 
efforts  there  was  going  on  another  literary  movement  which 
in  its  influence  on  the  popular  mind  was  not  less  consider- 
able. Ever  since  the  days  of  the  early  Lollards  satire  had 
been  found  a  not  altogether  ineffectual  weapon  in  assailing 
those  abuses  in  the  church  which  argument  and  remon- 
strance seemed  powerless  to  reform.  The  Praise  of  Folly, 
from  the  pen  of  Erasmus,  which  appeared  in  151"1,  seconded 
the  graver  efforts  of  Reuchlin,  and  successfully  held  up  to 
ridicule  those  monastic  orders  of  whose  greed  and  dull 
obstructive  activity  Germany  was  already  so  weary.  But 
even  this  brilliant  effort  paled  in  its  effects  when  compared 
with  the  Epistolse  Obscurorum  Virorum,  which  appeared 
in  1515-16.  These  letters,  of  which  Ulrich  von  Hutten 
and  his  friend  Crotus  Rubianus  were  the  principal  authors, 
were  a  series  of  broadly  humorous  fabrications,  purporting 
to  be  written  by  members  of  the  obscurantist  party  them- 
selves. A  more  skilful  mode  of  exposing  the  ignorance 
and  imbecility  of  thought  which  characterized  the  average 
intelligence  of  the  monks  of  those  days  could  hardly  have 
been  devised ;  and  the  success  of  the  artifice  appeared 
complete  when  it  became  known  that  certain  stolid  monks 
had  been  led  to  approve  the  volume  and  even  aid  in  its 
circulation  as  a  genuine  and  valid  defence  of  the  views 
which  they  upheld. 

These  effective  demonstrations,  it  is  to  be  noted,  were 
not  merely  the  outcome  of  that  widespread  discontent 
above  described,  but  resemble  rather  a  series  of  sparks 
elicited  by  immediate  contact  between  the  German  mind 
and  Rome ;  and  it  is  of  no  little  interest  to  mark  the 
effect  produced  on  three  of  the  most  eminent  representa- 
tives of  the  new  movement  by  their  visit,  within  a  few 
years  of  each  other,  to  the  capital  and  by  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  splendour  of  the  Curia  and  the  moral  degrada- 
i;  to   tion  of  its  members.     Of  these  three  observers  the  first 
^  was  Erasmus,  who  visited  the  capital  in  1506.     His  lively 
'  sense  of  the  incongruous  was  not  a  little  excited  by  the 
spectacle  of  the  warlike  pontiff,  Julius  II.,  whom,  in  his 
Praise  of  Folly,  written  a  few  years  later,  he  describes  as 

1  See  "Gravamina  Germanics  Nationis  cum  Remediis  et  Avisa- 
mentis  ad  Coesarem  Maximilianum,"  in  Freherus,  Gernianicariim  Rerum 
Scriptores,  ii.  313.  The  existence  of  siich  grievances  and  their  non- 
redress  may  serve  partly  to  explain  the  obduracy  with  which  the 
subjects  of  the  empire  received  the  simultaneous  proposals  of  Maxi- 
milian in  the  direction  of  state  -  reform.  See  Jaussen,  Gesch.  d. 
deulschen  Volkes,  i.  557-561.  Jaussen,  it  may  be  observed,  makes 
no  reference  to  the  document  above  cited. 


subverting  alike  the  laws,  peace,  and  religion.  But  Erasmus 
himself  does  not  appear  to  have  been  greatly  scandalized. 
He  affects,  indeed,  to  be  somewhat  uncertain  whether  it 
is  Germany  that  has  copied  Rome  or  whether  Rome  has 
not  rather  copied  a  certain  class  of  German  prelates,  who 
seem  to  look  upon  the  battlefield  as  the  fitting  place  where 
to  render  up  their  souls  to  God.  Somewhat  later,  writing 
in  a  graver  mood,  he  declares  that  nothing  will  ever  efface 
his  more  pleasing  recollections  of  the  great  city,  —  its 
freedom  of  discourse,  its  intellectual  illumination,  its 
works  of  art,  its  libraries,  and  its  scholars.  Four  years  of 
after  Erasmus  came  an  Augustinian  monk  from  Erfurt,  Luther  ; 
full  of  reverence  for  the  traditions,  the  grandeur,  and  the 
sanctity  of  Rome.  Martin  Luther  appears  to  have  been 
less  struck  than  was  Erasmus  by  the  unpriestly  character 
of  Julius  II.,  who,  as  he  admits,  maintained  order  and 
watched  over  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  Sacred  City. 
But  he  was  shocked  beyond  measure  by  the  corruption, 
the  profanity,  and  the  immoral  lives  of  the  Roman  clergy. 
The  fond  illusion  of  his  monastic  life  was  at  an  end  ;  and 
he  returned  to  Germany  not  only  prepared  to  counsel 
resistance  to  papal  extortion  but  shaken  in  his  whole 
allegiance  to  the  holy  see.  A  few  months  after  Luther  of 
came  Ulrich  von  Hutten.  It  would  be  difficult  to  select  a 
better  representative  of  the  temper  and  feeling  of  the 
higher  classes  in  Germany  at  that  time.  To  pride  of 
birth  and  devotion  to  the  New  Learning  he  united  a  love 
of  adventure  which  no  physical  suffering  or  misfortune 
seemed  able  to  subdue,  and  a  chivalrous  spirit  which  could 
but  impatiently  brook  the  assertion  of  even  legitimate 
authority.  Already  burning  with  resentment  at  the  sys- 
tematic extortion  to  which  his  countrymen  were  subjected, 
his  feelings  were  still  further  intensified  as  he  listened  to 
the  contemptuous  language  and  observed  the  supercilious 
demeanour  which  marked  the  Roman  estimate  of  those 
who  bore  the  German  name.  He  heard  from  an  eye-wit- 
ness a  description  of  Julius  II.  as  that  pontiff  had  presented 
himself  to  the  world  at  the  siege  of  Mirandola,  with  "wild 
eye,  brazen  front,  and  threatening  mien."  On  his  return 
to  his  fatherland  Hutten  condensed  into  epigrammatic 
Latin  verse,  beside  the  suppressed  fury  of  which  the 
polished  satire  of  Erasmus  seems  to  pale,  a  description  of 
what  he  had  seen  and  heard,  and  denounced  with  terrible 
effect  the  whole  system  of  bulls,  indulgences,  and  other 
devices  whereby  an  avaricious  prelate  was  wringing  dis- 
honest gains  from  a  long-suffering  nation.  Few  literary 
assailants  have  ever  possessed  a  greater  power  of  irritating 
an  antagonist  than  did  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  and  considera- 
tions of  generosity  or  expediency  rarely  deterred  him.  It 
was  generally  expected  when  Leo  X.  ascended  the  pontifical 
throne  that  he  would  be  anxious  to  sheathe  the  sword 
which  his  predecessor  had  wielded  so  vigorously,  and  his 
countrymen  already  hailed  him  as  the  "  restorer  of  peace." 
By  that  epithet  Hutten  too  vouchsafed  to  address  him, 
but  it  was  in  a  dedication  to  the  pontiff  of  a  reprint  of 
Laurentius  Valla's  Treatise  on  the  Donation  of  Constantine, 
and  the  seeming  act  of  homage  was  thus  artfully  appended 
to  pages  exceptionally  calculated  to  wound  the  papal 
susceptibilities. 

It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  the  character  of  the  Char- 
German  episcopate  at  this  time  was  such  that  it  scarcely  acter 
appeared  to  advantage  even  when  compared  with  that 


the  ecclesiastics  of  the  Roman  Curia.  Its  members  were  pate. 
generally  scions  of  princely  houses,  caring  little  for  the 
spiritual  interests  of  their  dioceses,  but  delighting  in  field 
sports  and  martial  exercises,  given  to  building  palaces  for 
their  own  residence  rather  than  to  the  erection  of  churches, 
and  often  without  the  slightest  tincture  of  learning. 
Their  primate  at  this  time  was  Albert,  brother  of  the 
elector  of  Brandenburg,  archbishop  of  Mainz  and  Magde- 


326 


REFORMATION 


burg,  a  young  and  ambitious  voluptuary,  caring  for  little 
but  pleasure  and  display.  On  the  great  prelates  the  ex- 
tortion of  Rome  sometimes  fell  not  less  heavily  than  on 
the  laity ;  and  the  archbishop,  before  he  could  receive  his 
pallium,  was  called  upon  to  pay  the  sum  of  30,000  gulden 
into  the  papal  exchequer.  Leo  X.  was  at  that  time  intent 
on  carrying  out  the  great  design  of  his  predecessor,  the 
rebuilding  of  St  Peter's.  It  has  been  observed  by  Palla- 
vicino  that  the  millions  devoted  to  the  erection  of  the 
material  church  were  acquired  at  the  cost  of  many  more 
millions  to  the  spiritual  church.  Leo  proclaimed  a  fresh 
issue  of  indulgences,  and  the  archbishop  Albert  was 
appointed  his  commissioner  to  carry  out  the  sale  in  a  large 
portion  of  Germany.  He  seized  the  occasion  to  prevail 
upon  the  pope  to  allow  him  to  appropriate  one  half  of  the 
money  collected  for  the  indulgences  in  order  to  pay  for 
Tetzel's  his  pallium.  As  his  chief  agent  in  the  sale  he  imprudently 
<*"?-  selected  one  Tetzel,  a  Dominican  friar,  whose  unscrupulous- 
P3*11-  ness  in  such  work  was  so  notorious  that  the  papal  collector 
at  Mainz  refused  to  employ  him.  In  the  course  of  his 
progress  Tetzel  came  to  J  liter bogk,  near  Wittenberg,  and 
his  superstitious  traffic  and  the  impudent  devices  which 
he  employed  to  cajole  the  people  were  thus  brought 
directly  under  the  notice  of  Luther.  The  young  professor 
seized  the  opportunity  of  directing  the  attention  of  the 
university,  where  he  was  already  highly  popular,  to  the 
abuses  associated  with  the  sale  of  indulgences.  He  did 
not  as  yet  impugn  the  doctrine  of  indulgences  itself,  and 
he  expressed  his  conviction  that  their  good  father  the 
pope  must  be  altogether  unaware  of  the  extent  to  which 
such  abuses  were  allowed  to  prevail.  His  celebrated  theses 
were  forwarded  by  himself  to  the  archbishop,  as  well  as 
to  the  elector  of  Saxony,  his  patron,  and  also  the  muni- 
ficent founder  of  the  university.  The  elector,  who  had 
seen  with  no  slight  dissatisfaction  the  manner  in  which 
his  provinces  were  being  plundered  in  order  to  pay  for 
the  extravagance  of  a  neighbouring  prelate,  extended  his 
protection  to  the  courageous  polemic,  and  Luther  thus 
gained  the  all-precious  interval  of  freedom  from  molesta- 
tion which  enabled  him  to  compose  the  memorable  treatises 
whereby  he  produced  such  an  immense  effect  on  the  minds 
and  consciences  of  his  countrymen.  The  nailing  of  his 
theses  to  the  door  of  the  church  at  Wittenberg,  it  is  to  be 
noted,  was  a  very  common  method  of  procedure  on  the 
part  of  a  university  disputant ;  and  nearly  a  year  passed 
away  before  the  events  which  so  deeply  agitated  Witten- 
berg were  recognized  in  their  full  importance  by  the 
world  at  large.  Luther  himself,  indeed,  in  his  notable 
letter  to  Leo  X.,  written  in  1518,  tells  us1  that,  contrary 
to  his  wishes,  his  theses  were  translated  into  German,  and 
circulated  throughout  the  nation,  and  that  his  antagonists 
declared  that  he  had  set  the  world  in  flames.  But.in  this 
language  there  is  evidently  something  of  exaggeration. 
Some  two  months  after  the  appearance  of  Luther's  theses 
Tetzel,  by  way  of  rejoinder,  published  at  the  university 
of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  a  hundred  and  six  anti-theses, 
and  these  were  subsequently  burnt  by  the  students  of 
Wittenberg  in  the  market-place.  To  Leo,  however,  the 
vague  reports  that  reached  Rome  conveyed  only  the  im- 
pression of  a  dispute  between  the  two  monastic  orders  of 
which  Luther  and  Tetzel  were  respectively  the  representa- 
tives. He  declared  that  Luther  was  a  man  of  genius,  and 
refused  to  interfere.  Even  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  at  that 
time  residing  not  far  from  Wittenberg,  seems  to  have 
shared  in  this  misapprehension,  and,  writing  to  his  patron, 
he  expresses  the  hope  that  the  two  contending  parties 
may  eventually  tear  each  other  to  pieces. 

But  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  the  importance  of  the 
struggle  began  to  be  more  clearly  apprehended.     John  Eck 
1  Werke,  ed.  18837  i-  528. 


of  Ingoldstadt  drew  attention  to  the  resemblance  between  Luthe; 
the  doctrines  put  forth  in  the  theses  and  those  of  the  rdatio 
Hussites,  and  at  the  mention  of  that  undoubted  heresy  not  Wltl1 1 
a  few  of  Luther's  supporters  recoiled.  His  conduct  was  * ">1Hi' 
certainly  not  wanting  in  astuteness,  however  genuine  his 
enthusiasm.  In  1518  he  republished  his  theses,  with  addi- 
tions and  explanations,  under  the  title  of  Solutions.  Like 
Hutten,  he  selected  the  supreme  pontiff  himself  as  the 
person  to  whom  he  dedicated  the  treatise.  In  the  letter 
of  dedication  (the  letter  above  referred  to)  he  professes  to 
make  his  unqualified  submission  to  him  whom  he  addresses, 
and  at  the  same  time  endeavours  to  exculpate  himself  for 
thus  republishing  the  theses.  Notwithstanding  the  popular 
form,  the  vernacular  language,  in  which  they  had  already 
appeared,  they  were  still  so  encumbered  with  the  techni- 
calities of  the  schools  that  he  could  not  conceive  how  they 
could  be  intelligible  to  the  laity  at  large  ("sic  editse  ut 
mihi  incredibile  sit  eas  ab  omnibus  intelligi ").  He  was 
therefore  anxious,  with  the  pontiffs  sanction  and  approval, 
to  republish  them  in  a  form  less  liable  to  misinterpretation. 
If,  however,  that  sanction  were  withheld,  he  could  only  bow 
to  Leo's  decision  as  to  that  of  God's  vicegerent  on  earth 
("vocem  tuam  vocem  Christi  in  te  prsesidentis  et  loquentis 
agnoscam  ").  While  Luther  was  thus  labouring  under  mis- 
apprehension, affected  or  real,  with  respect  to  the  kind  of 
doctrinal  teaching  that  was  likely  to  find  favour  in  Rome, 
it  would  seem  that  Leo  himself  was  very  imperfectly  in- 
formed regarding  the  state  of  feeling  in  Germany.  The 
conditions  which  moulded  his  political  action  and  his 
personal  sympathies  alike  tended  to  distract  his  attention 
from  the  events  which  had  recently  been  occurring  in 
Saxony.  The  representative  of  a  princely  house,  well 
versed  in  European  affairs  and  in  questions  of  statecraft, 
gifted  with  more  than  an  ordinary  share  of  Italian  subtlety 
and  powers  of  dissimulation,  he  was  well  qualified  to  cope 
with  the  difficulties  by  which  he  found  himself  surrounded. 
But  his  aims,  chief  among  which  was  his  desire  to  establish 
his  brother  Julian  on  the  throne  of  Naples,  were  directed 
more  to  family  aggrandizement  than  to  national  unity. 
They  ran  strongly  counter  to  the  growth  of  Spanish  influ- 
ence, while  with  that  stern  policy  which  guided  the  rule 
of  Ximenes,  dictated  by  the  desire  to  restore  medieval 
doctrine  and  discipline  and  to  suppress  heresy,  he  had  no 
sympathy.  The  ecclesiastic  was  almost  lost  in  the  patron 
of  the  arts,  the  urbane  and  polished  scholar  and  voluptuary, 
the  admirer  of  wit  and  epigram.  In  politics  it  was  his 
main  purpose  to  trim  the  balance  between  France  and 
Spain ;  in  church  matters  it  was  chiefly  to  stifle  contro- 
versy. So  indifferent  was  he  to  German  affairs,  and  so 
little  cognizant  of  the  state  of  feeling  among  the  people, 
that  at  the  very  moment  when  irritation  at  the  extortion 
of  his  emissaries  was  at  its  height,  and  the  fraudulent 
nature  of  that  extortion  had  been  thus  ably  exposed  by 
Luther,  he  conceived  it  to  be  a  suitable  time  for  levying 
a  contribution  throughout  the  empire  under  pretext  of  an 
expedition  against  the  Turks.  The  proposal  roused  a  spirit 
of  opposition  even  among  the  clergy  themselves  ;  and  one 
of  their  number,  a  prebendary  at  Wiirzburg,  issued  a  mani- 
festo, in  the  form  of  a  pamphlet,  in  which  he  roundly  de- 
clared that  the  true  Turks  were  to  be  found  in  Italy.  This 
pamphlet  fell  into  Luther's  hands,  and  with  the  instinct  of 
genius  he  recognized  the  opportunity  afforded  by  such  a 
state  of  feeling  for  an  appeal  to  a  wider  audience  than  he 
had  hitherto  addressed.  He  now  took  his  stand  as  the  de- 
nouncer both  of  abuses  in  the  matter  of  discipline  and  of 
the  extortion  and  oppression  under  which  his  countrymen 
laboured.  And  from  that  day  to  the  day  of  his  death  he 
filled  a  place  in  their  affection  and  esteem  to  which  no 
other  of  their  leaders  could  make  pretence.  The  turning- 
point  in  his  public  career  is  marked  by  his  appearance  at 


REFORMATION 


327 


Augsburg  before  the  papal  legate  Cajetan  and  his  subse- 
quent flight  from  the  city.  In  the  disputation  at  Leipsic 
he  could  go  so  far  as  to  repudiate  the  divine  institution  of 
the  papacy  and  even  pronounce  against  the  infallibility  of 
councils.  He  was  still  further  confirmed  in  his  doctrinal 
divergence  by  the  influence  of  Melanchthon,  who  now  began 
to  call  in  question  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation ;  and 
Valla's  Treatise  on  the  Donation  of  Constantine,  with  which 
he  first  became  acquainted  in  February  1520,  would  seem 
to  have  dispelled  the  last  vestige  of  doubt  in  his  mind  with 
respect  to  the  essential  falsity  of  the  claims  of  the  papacy 
to  temporal  power.  The  contrast  now  presented  by  the 
tone  and  language  of  his  writings  to  that  of  his  letter  to 
Leo,  written  two  years  before,  is  startling.  In  the  month 
of  April  1520  appeared  his  discourse  De  Libertate  Chris- 
tiana, inveighing  against  the  abuses  of  the  Curia  and  re- 
ferring to  Leo  himself  in  terms  of  open  irony.  To  this 
succeeded  in  the  following  August  his  appeal,  written  in 
the  vernacular  German,  "  To  the  Christian  nobility  of 
the  German  nation,"  wherein  he  frankly  confesses  that  his 
reliance  is  upon  none  of  the  ecclesiastical  orders,  but  upon 
the  newly -elected  young  emperor  and  the  nobles ;  and  he 
reiterates  his  demand  for  a  general  council, — one  that  shall 
be  really  free,  bound  by  no  arbitrary  canons,  and  holding 
its  deliberations  free  from  papal  control.  This  again  was 
succeeded  in  the  ensuing  October  by  his  treatise  on  The 
Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church,  wherein  he  examines, 
and  for  the  most  part  repudiates,  the  sacramental  theories 
of  the  mediaeval  church.  The  cause  which  he  advocated 
now  began  to  assume  genuinely  European  proportions. 
From  Nuremberg  came  an  effective  tribute  from  the  youth- 
ful meistersanger  Hans  Sachs  to  the  "  Wittenberg  Night- 
ingale," one  of  the  earliest  efforts  of  his  genius.  Ulrich 
von  Hutten,  at  length  perceiving  the  true  character  of  the 
contest,  followed  up  the  address  to  the  German  nobility 
by  translating  into  the  vernacular  his  own  treatise  To 
Germans  of  every  Class,  and  owing  to  his  persuasions  the 
powerful  and  chivalrous  free  knight  Franz  von  Sickingen 
hastened  to  declare  himself  an  uncompromising  supporter 
of  the  Lutheran  movement.  Together  they  already  dis- 
cussed plans  which  included  nothing  less  than  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  national  church  altogether  independent  of 
Home,  with  the  archbishop  of  Mainz  as  its  primate.  The 
danger  that  menaced  the  Roman  see  could  now  no  longer 
be  disguised;  and  in  June  1520  Leo  fulminated  his  bull 
of  excommunication  against  Luther.  On  the  8th  of  the 
following  July  he  addressed  a  letter  to  Frederick  of  Saxony 
in  which  he  deplores  that  he  can  no  longer  speak  of  Luther 
as  a  son.  He  feels  certain  that  the  elector  will  prove  loyal 
to  the  church,  although  he  does  not  disguise  the  fact  that 
he  has  heard  of  his  friendship  for  the  heretical  leader  and 
that  the  latter  relies  on  his  support.  He  has  ordered  the 
bull  to  be  circulated  among  the  nobility  of  Saxony,  and  he 
feels  equally  assured  that  he  may  reckon  on  their  assistance 
in  extinguishing  this  "  incendiary  conflagration."  As  for 
Luther  himself,  he  denounces  him  as  one  who  is  seeking  to 
revive  the  heresies  of  the  Waldenses,  the  Hussites,  and  the 
Bohemians,  and  who,  by  the  manner  in  which  he  has  con- 
demned the  burning  of  heretics,  has  clearly  shown  that  he 
sympathizes  with  the  Turks  and  aims  at  the  destruction  of 
the  true  church.1 

The  bull  of  excommunication,  along  with  numerous 
volumes  of  the  decretals,  was  burnt  by  Luther  himself  at 
Wittenberg  in  the  following  December, — a  proceeding  by 

1  Balan,  Monumenta  Reformationis  Lutheranse  (1884),  pp.  1-3. 
This  letter,  published  for  the  first  time  in  this  collection,  differs  entirely 
from  that  given  in  the  Jena  edition  of  Luther's  works  ;  and  Cardinal 
Balan  in  his  preface  (pp.  5-10)  adduces  satisfactory  reasons  for  con- 
cluding that  the  letter  which  he  prints  from  an  original  in  the  archives 
of  the  Vatican  is  the  true  letter,  and  that  the  other,  if  not  a  forgery,  is 
a  reproduction  from  some  untrustworthy  source. 


which  he  formally  intimated  his  repudiation  of  the  decrees 
and  canons  of  the  church.  Such  a  measure  necessarily 
roused  the  opposition  of  those  learned  bodies  by  whom  the 
canon  law  was  taught  and  elaborated,  and  on  21st  April 
1521  the  university  of  Paris  condemned  as  "heretical, 
schismatical,  impious,  and  blasphemous  "  more  than  a  hun- 
dred propositions  extracted  from  Luther's  writings ;  while, 
skilfully  following  up  the  line  of  attack  •  indicated  by  the 
supreme  pontiff,  they  enlarged  upon  the  view  that  Luther- 
anism  was  little  more  than  a  specious  reproduction  of  errors 
long  ago  proscribed  and  exploded.  The  university  at  the 
same  time  decreed  that  Luther's  writings  should  be  burnt ; 
and  the  sentence  was  subsequently  carried  into  effect  in 
most  of  the  capitals  of  Europe.  In  London  the  ceremony 
was  performed  at  Paul's  Cross  on  the  12th  May,  and 
Bishop  Fisher  in  his  sermon  on  the  occasion  declared  that 
Luther  by  burning  the  decretals  had  made  it  clear  that 
he  would  not  have  hesitated  to  burn  the  pope  himself  had 
the  latter  been  in  his  power. 

The  Reformation  in  England  had,  however,  already  com-  Reforma- 
menced,  and  its  origin  must  be  looked  upon  as  in  a  great tion  *n 
measure  independent  of  the  Lutheran  movement ;  as  in  EnSland- 
Germany,  it  had  been  preceded  by  a  kindred  movement, 
an  endeavour  to  bring  about  a  reform  of  discipline.  The 
nation  was  not  compelled,  as  in  Italy,  to  witness  the  cor- 
ruptions of  the  papal  court,  nor  were  the  laity  equally 
oppressed  with  the  people  of  Germany  by  imposts  and 
exactions  of  every  kind.  But  the  unsparing  extortion 
practised  by  Wolsey's  agents  after  his  appointment  as 
legatus  a  latere  was  severely  resented,  and  appeared  all  the 
more  grievous  when  contrasted  with  that  immunity  from 
arbitrary  taxation  which  it  was  the  Englishman's  special 
boast  to  inherit  as  his  birthright ;  and  the  arbitrary  pro- 
cedure of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  and  the  licentious  lives 
of  the  clergy  were  the  subjects  of  loud  and  continual  com- 
plaint. In  the  year  1514  the  notable  case  of  Richard 
Hunne  roused  popular  indignation  to  the  highest  pitch. 
He  had  been  so  bold  as  to  resist  what  he  regarded  as  an 
unjust  exaction  of  mortuary  fees,  by  pleading  in  the  eccle- 
siastical court  that  the  action  brought  against  him  was  un- 
lawful by  the  Statute  of  Prsemunire, — a  plea  which  virtually 
raised  the  whole  question  of  benefit  of  clergy.  Hunne 
was  committed  to  the  Lollards'  Tower  and  was  shortly  after 
found  dead, — murdered,  as  it  was  popularly  believed,  by 
the  contrivance  of  the  chancellor  of  the  bishop  of  London. 
The  case  gave  rise  to  a  fierce  legal  controversy,  in  which 
the  authority  of  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  opposed  by  the 
precedents  established  by  a  decretal  of  the  church.  It 
was  followed  by  the  memorable  trial  of  Dr  Standish  (1515), 
by  which  the  question  of  the  royal  supremacy  was  dis- 
tinctly raised,  and  Henry  himself  not  improbably  led 
to  conceive  that  theory  of  his  legitimate  authority  in 
matters  ecclesiastical  which  was  afterwards  attended  with 
such  important  results.  The  state  of  discipline  among  the 
clergy  at  large  was  but  little,  if  any,  better  than  in  Ger- 
many, and  their  addiction  to  secular  pursuits  and  plea- 
sures, their  covetousness,  ambition,  and  licentiousness  are 
attested  not  only  by  satirists  like  Roy  and  Skelton,  but 
by  grave  and  temperate  censors  such  as  Dean  Colet,  Arch- 
bishop Warham,  Bishop  Fisher,  and  Sir  Thomas  More, 
and  form  the  subject  of  their  earnest  remonstrance  and 
appeals  for  reform.  Wolsey  himself,  than  whom  no  states- 
man more  clearly  discerned  the  tendencies  of  the  age,  was 
especially  anxious  to  raise  the  reputation  of  the  whole 
body  for  learning  and  exemplary  lives,  and  it  was  with 
this  view  that  he  founded  Cardinal  College  (afterwards 
Christ  Church)  at  Oxford,  and  invited  some  of  the  most 
promising  young  scholars  at  Cambridge  to  become  instruc- 
tors within  its  walls. 

It  is  also  in  connexion  with  the  two  universities  that 


328 


REFORMATION 


we  meet  with  the  first  indications  of  a  reformation  of 
doctrine.  During  the  years  1511-14  Erasmus  had  filled 
the  post  of  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  the  publication  of  his  Novum  Instrumentum 
in  1516  was  directly  the  outcome  of  his  labours  during 
that  period.  Thomas  Bilney,  the  martyr,  a  member  of 
Trinity  Hall  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Reformers, 
expressly  attributes  his  conversion  to  the  influence  of 
Erasmus's  New  Testament.  Around  Bilney  there  gathered 
a  little  band  of  Cambridge  scholars,  —  Shaxton,  Crome, 
Skip,  Rogers,  Lambert,  Heynes,  Taverner,  Parker,  and 
others.  It  was  their  custom  to  meet  together  at  an 
inn  known  by  the  sign  of  the  "  White  Horse."  In  the 
first  instance,  their  attention  was  chiefly  given  to  the 
Scriptures  themselves,  but  subsequently  to  the  writings  of 
Luther.  The  inn  then  began  to  be  styled  "Germany" 
by  their  enemies  ;  and  such  would  appear  to  be  the  first 
commencement  of  the  Reformation  in  England.  That 
commencement  was  illustrated  by  an  incident  which  not  a 
little  resembles  the  better-known  incident  associated  with 
the  career  of  Luther.  On  the  appearance  of  the  papal 
proclamation  of  indulgences  in  1517  a  copy  had  been 
affixed  to  the  gate  of  the  common  schools  in  the  university. 
The  same  night  a  young  Norman  student,  of  the  name  of 
Peter  de  Valence,  wrote  over  the  proclamation  a  few  Latin 
words  denouncing  the  theory  of  indulgences  as  a  supersti- 
tion. He  was  forthwith  summoned  to  appear  before  the 
vice-chancellor  in  order  to  account  for  his  conduct,  and  on 
failing  to  do  so  was  formally  excommunicated. 
Eenry  In  the  month  of  January  1519  the  emperor  Maximilian  I. 
VIII.,  died,  and  the  imperial  dignity,  declined  by  Frederick  of 
^T&ac^  Saxony,  descended  to  Charles  V.  Of  the  three  monarchs 
aspired  to  this  supreme  honour  Henry  VIII.  was 


now  in  his  twenty-ninth  year,  Francis  I.  in  his  twenty-sixth, 
and  Charles  V.  in  his  nineteenth.  The  English  monarch, 
at  this  time  both  zealous  and  devout,  was  eager  to  give 
some  proof  of  his  loyalty  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  had 
he  occupied  the  place  of  Charles  the  career  of  Luther  would 
probably  have  been  soon  arrested.  The  great  Reformer 
owed  his  safety  at  this  critical  period  mainly  to  the  armed 
chivalry  of  Germany,  which  rallied  ominously  to  his  support. 
On  no  occasion  was  its  presence  more  sensibly  felt  than  at 
the  diet  of  Worms  (May  1521).  The  memorable  edict  (see 
LUTHER),  signed  on  the  same  day  as  that  on  which  the 
pope  and  the  young  emperor  concluded  their  compact  for 
the  reconquest  of  Milan  from  the  French,  marks  the  crown- 
ing triumph  of  the  policy  of  Leo  and  Alexander.  But 
Charles,  who  looked  upon  Luther  as  a  means  of  bringing 
pressure  to  bear  upon  the  pontiff  which  might  prove  useful 
in  a  future  emergency,  was  determined  not  to  surrender 
the  bold  professor,  for  the  present,  to  his  enemies.  To 
Henry,  who  was  influenced  by  no  such  secular  considera- 
tions, Luther's  contumacy  appeared  to  call  for  authorita- 
tive rebuke  in  every  land;  and  in  July  1521  he  produced, 
in  reply  to  the  treatise  on  The  Babylonian  Captivity,  his 
Defence  of  the  Sacraments.  The  book  passed  rapidly 
through  several  editions,  was  translated  into  German,  and, 
to  quote  the  expression  of  Cochlaeus,  "  filled  the  whole 
Christian  world  with  joy  and  admiration."  Such  an  effort 
from  such  a  quarter  called  for  distinguished  recognition. 
Francis  was  already  styled  the  eldest  son  of  the  church. 
The  imperial  dignity  presupposed  a  not  less  conspicuous 
fidelity.  The  titles  of  "  Most  Christian  "  or  "  Most  Catho- 
lic "  could  not  accordingly  be  vouchsafed  to  the  English 
monarch.  He  was  therefore  rewarded  with  the  newly- 
coined  title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith."  Sir  Thomas  More 
and  Bishop  Fisher  both  imitated  their  royal  master's  example 
by  also  compiling  a  tractate  in  reply  to  Luther  ;  but  the 
Reformer,  in  his  rejoinder  to  the  royal  polemic,  called  its 
author  a  fool  and  designated  him  the  "Pharaoh  of  England." 


The  death  of  Leo  X.  in  1521  was  coincident  with  an  im- 
portant crisis  in  Italian  history.  Milan  had  been  wrested  Ital7i 
from  the  French  by  the  allied  papal  and  imperial  forces, 
and  the  realization  of  that  scheme  of  national  unity  and 
independence  for  which  he  and  his  predecessor  had  laboured 
seemed  no  longer  a  dream  of  the  future.  In  the  midst  of 
his  exultation — partly,  it  is  said,  as  the  result  of  it — Leo 
died,  and  seldom  in  the  annals  of  the  papacy  had  an  elec- 
tion to  the  office  been  attended  with  equal  interest  and 
excitement.  Wolsey  eventually  was  out-manceuvred  by  the 
imperial  party,  and  the  emperor's  former  preceptor,  the 
irreproachable,  austere,  and  rigidly  devout  Adrian  (VI.)  of 
Utrecht  (1522-1523)  succeeded  to  the  papal  chair.  After 
a  few  months'  tenure  of  the  office  he  too  gave  place  to 
another,  and  the  house  of  Medici  was  again  represented  in 
the  person  of  Clement  VII.  (1523-1534).  In  this  election 
Wolsey  was  again  a  candidate,  and  a  second  time  he  had 
reason  to  believe  that  he  owed  his  defeat  to  the  emperor, 
an  injury  which  he  never  forgave.  In  not  a  few  respects 
Clement  was  admirably  qualified  to  cope  with  the  diffi- 
culties by  which  he  found  himself  surrounded.  He  had 
been  at  once  the  most  trusted  and  the  ablest  of  Leo's 
advisers ;  his  attainments  and  experience  were  such  as  in 
every  way  corresponded  to  the  requirements  of  his  office, 
for,  while  well  versed  in  philosophy  and  theology,  he  had 
also  mastered  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  questions  of 
the  day,  and  his  clear  perception  enabled  him  to  grasp  the 
essential  features  of  his  policy  with  remarkable  skill  and 
promptitude.  His  position,  however,  was  one  of  extreme 
perplexity,  alike  in  its  diplomatic  and  its  theological  rela- 
tions. To  no  power  had  he  and  his  house  rendered  greater 
services  than  to  Spain ;  ever  since,  indeed,  the  pontificate 
of  Alexander  VI.,  the  papacy  had,  often  without  designing 
it,  been  the  instrument  of  imperial  aggrandizement.  With 
the  accession  of  Clement,  however,  these  relations  are  to 
be  seen  assuming  a  new  phase.  The  election  of  Charles 
•V.  as  emperor  awoke  in  the  proud  representative  of  the 
great  house  of  the  Medici  the  sense  of  a  new  danger ; 
and  the  prospect  of  Milan,  Naples,  and  the  empire  being 
concentrated  in  a  single  hand  was  one  which  no  Italian 
potentate  could  be  expected  to  contemplate  with  equa- 
nimity. The  retreat  of  Bourbon  from  Italy,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  caused  the  Curia  to  look  with  altered  sentiments 
on  the  policy  of  France ;  and  if  Clement's  advice  and  good 
wishes  could  have  availed  aught  the  great  disaster  at  Pavia 
would  have  been  averted.  The  emperor  was  far  from 
unaware  how  little  he  had  throughout  been  indebted  to 
Clement's  good  offices,  and  before  he  led  his  army  into 
Italy  had  been  heard  to  avow  his  intention  of  avenging 
himself  "  on  that  poltroon  the  pope."  "  Some  day  or 
other,"  he  added,  "perhaps  Martin  Luther  may  become 
a  man  of  worth."  The  battle  of  Pavia  (February  1525) 
followed,  and  its  results  seemed  to  threaten  the  overthrow 
of  that  balance  of  power  which  it  was  the  aim  of  the  chief 
leaders  of  the  new  nationalities  to  maintain ;  both  Wolsey 
and  Clement  VII.  alike  now  regarded  with  dismay  the 
proportions  which  the  power  of  Spain  was  assuming.  "  It 
is  no  trivial  question,  no  single  state,  that  is  concerned  in 
the  coming  contest,"  exclaimed  Clement's  minister;  "this 
war  will  decide  the  freedom  or  the  eternal  slavery  of  Italy." 
In  July  1526  the  papal  troops  had  already  entered 
Lombardy. 

Such  were  the  circumstances  under  which  the  Clement- 
ine League  (22d  May  1526)  was  formed,  with  the  general 
assent  of  the  Italian  states,  but  with  the  usual  disregard  of 
the  state  of  opinion  north  of  the  Alps.  But  it  was  hardly 
reasonable  to  expect  that  Ferdinand  of  Austria  would  be 
solicitous  to  uphold  the  papal  interests  in  Germany  when 
the  imperial  interests  were  being  thus  vigorously  assailed 
in  Italy.  Three  months  before,  the  sanction  of  the 


REFORMATION 


329 


emperor  had  been  given  to  the  publication  of  certain  "  pro- 
visions "  in  matters  of  faith  which  had  filled  the  Lutheran 
party  with  alarm.     At  Gotha  and  again  at  Torgau  the 
Protestant  leaders  began  to  concert  measures  for  actively 
repelling   the  policy  of  coercion  which  they  anticipated 
would  shortly  be  commenced.     When,  however,  the  diet 
assembled  at  Spires  in  June  they  found  their  apprehen- 
sions dispelled  in  an  unexpected  manner  by  the  newly- 
aroused  animosity  towards   the  Roman   pontiff  and  his 
policy.     Never  had  the  electors  shown  themselves  more 
unanimous  in  counsel  or  submitted  with  better  grace  to 
the  contributions  imposed  upon  them.     It  was  even  pro- 
posed that  the  recently  issued  provisions  should  be  publicly 
burnt  and  the  Bible  adopted  as  the  only  rule  of  faith. 
However,  it  was  finally  resolved  that  the  respective  states 
should  be  declared  to  be  at  full  liberty,  in  relation  to  all 
questions  of  belief  raised   by  the  edict  of  Worms  (see 
LUTHER),   "to  conduct  themselves  as  each  should  here- 
after be  ready  to  answer  for  towards  God  and  the  emperor," 
— terms  which  virtually  implied  permission  to  proceed  ac- 
cording to  their  own  discretion.    "  Such  an  enactment,"  ob- 
serves Ranke,  "  containing  as  it  does  no  mention  whatever 
of  the  supreme  pontiff,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Reformation  properly  so  called,  involving, 
in  fact,  the  institution  of  a  new  church  in  Germany." 
lies        The  effects  of   the  concurrent  action  of  religious  and 
.  in-    national  sentiment  thus  brought  about  were  soon  to  receive 
i>n  of  a  memorable  illustration  in  Italy.     The  soldiers  who  made 
their  way  under  the  leadership  of  Frondsberg,  Ferdinand's 
lieutenant,  across  the  Alps,  in  the  snows   of  November 
1526,  into  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  and  afterwards  mingled 
with  the  Spanish  forces  which  Bourbon  led  on  to  the  assault 
on   Rome,    were    almost   entirely   avowed    supporters   of 
Luther's  cause  and  full  of  fierce  hatred  of  popery.     Fronds- 
berg  himself  loudly  declared  that  as  soon  as  he  had  taken 
Rome  he  would  hang  the  pope.     The  Spaniards,  notwith- 
standing their  unshaken  devotion  to  Catholicism,  entered 
the  city  burning  with  the  spirit  of  national  antipathy,  and 
eager  to  revenge  the  long  series  of  wrongs  and  exactions 
which  their  countrymen  had  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Italian 
ecclesiastics.     Among  the  horrors  which  followed  upon  the 
capture  of  the  capital  (May  1527)  nothing  more  completely 
shocked  the  sense  of  Latin  Christendom  than  the  savage 
contempt  manifested  by  the  German  soldiery  for  everything 
that  symbolized  the  Roman  faith,  their  wanton  destruction 
of  relics  and  images,  mock  religious  services,  and  especial 
brutality  in  the  treatment  of  priests.     Even  their  Spanish 
confederates,  though  equally  merciless  in  their  excesses, 
looked  on  with  indignation  as  they  saw  them  disguising 
themselves  as  cardinals  and  holding  a   mock  consistory 
under  the  windows  of  St  Angelo  for  the  purpose  of  elect- 
ing Luther  as  pope.     But  even  the  impressions  thus  pro- 
duced were  evanescent  when  compared  with  the  constantly 
renewed  and  unavailing  regret  which  filled  the  breast  of 
the  scholar  and  the  churchman  in  after  years,  as  he  realized 
the  irreparable  losses  inflicted  upon  art  and  learning,  the 
destruction  of  unique  manuscripts  and  ancient  records. 
Nor  can  it  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  a  sentiment  of 
deep  revenge  should  have  arisen  in  Rome  against  the 
Lutheran  destroyer,  and  that  even  the  Swabian  and  the 
Spanish  invader  alike  should  have  afterwards  been  solicit- 
ous in  a  manner  to  disguise  their  own  responsibility,  by 
professing  to  look  upon  the  blow  thus  struck  at  the  sanctity 
and  inviolability  of  the  sacred  city  as  a  direct  judgment  of 
God.     For  a  time,  though  only  for  a  few  months,  it  was 
believed,  even  by  politicians  so  shrewd  and  well  informed 
as  Wolsey,  that  the  emperor  himself  was  designing  to  aid 
the  Reformation.     The  approach  of  the  Turks,  who  had 
overrun   Hungary,  and  the   hostility  of    France   demon- 
strated the  urgent  necessity  of  maintaining  concord  among 


his  subjects  in  the  empire ;  and  it  is  possible  that  he  may 
really  have  contemplated  placing  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  Lutheran  movement  and  keeping  Clement  VII.  per- 
manently a  prisoner  at  Gaeta.  But  his  Spanish  blood,  his 
education  under  Adrian  of  Utrecht,  and  the  traditions  of 
the  imperial  dignity  proved  too  powerful  a  counterpoise, 
and  Charles  eventually  not  only  deigned  to  lay  before  the 
courts  of  Europe  a  partial  explanation  and  apology  for 
the  tragedy  at  Rome,  but  in  a  treaty  (26th  November 
1527)  with  the  pontiff  he  entered  upon  an  agreement  for 
the  adoption  of  a  distinct  anti-Reformation  policy.  It 
has  been  asserted  that  Clement  also  undertook  on  this 
occasion  not  to  declare  the  marriage  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
Catherine  illegal,  but  no  such  stipulation  appears  in  the 
existing  treaty. 

In  pursuance  of  his  anti-imperial  policy  Wolsey  did  WoLsey's 
not  fail  to  seek  to  turn  to  the  best  account  the  sensation  policy, 
caused  by  the  triumph  of  the  imperial  arms.  He  enjoined 
the  observance  of  a  three  days'  fast  and  the  offering  up 
of  prayers  in  every  church  in  England  for  the  captive 
pontiffs  deliverance.  He  could  not,  however,  but  be 
conscious  that  his  policy  was  regarded  with  but  little 
favour  by  the  nation  at  large.  The  young  emperor  was 
highly  popular  among  the  citizens  of  London,  and  the 
ancient  amicable  relations  with  the  house  of  Burgundy 
and  the  actual  important  commercial  relations  with  Flan- 
ders combined  to  render  Spain  in  the  eyes  of  Englishmen 
their  natural  ally,  while  France  they  still  regarded  as 
their  hereditary  foe.  An  expedient  to  which  he  had 
recourse  about  this  time  only  served  still  further  to  fan 
this  feeling.  He  had  sought  to  render  France,  instead 
of  the  Low  Countries,  the  main  channel  of  the  commerce 
between  England  and  the  Continent  by  making  Calais 
the  chief  port  for  merchandise.  The  merchants  of  the 
Hanse  towns  took  alarm ;  and,  as  it  was  in  their  vessels 
that  Luther's  writings,  which  were  now  eagerly  purchased 
in  England,  even  at  exorbitant  prices,  chiefly  found  their 
way  across  the  Channel,  the  preachers  of  the  Reformation 
found  no  difficulty  in  representing  to  their  countrymen 
that  an  Anglo-French  alliance  could  not  fail  to  prove 
inimical  to  the  gospel.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Catholic 
party  both  in  England  and  in  Germany,  as  soon  as  the 
project  of  the  divorce  became  noised  abroad,  could  not 
but  recognize  in  Catherine  the  representative  of  the 
interests  of  the  true  church,  while  they  looked  upon  the 
emperor  as  her  champion,  and  upon  Wolsey  as  a  traitor 
to  the  cause  of  truth  and  justice.  During  the  last  five 
years  the  cardinal's  efforts  to  reform  the  clergy  and 
repress  the  Reformation  in  England  had  been  strenuous 
and  constant.  In  the  year  1521  he  had  enjoined  all  the 
bishops  "  to  take  order  that  any  books,  written  or  printed, 
of  Martin  Luther's  heresies  and  errors  should  be  brought 
in  to  the  bishop  of  each  diocese."  l  The  movement  at 
Cambridge  continued,  however,  to  progress,  and  in  1523 
some  of  the  bishops  suggested  the  appointment  of  a  visita- 
tion to  the  university  "for  trying  who  were  the  fautors 
of  heresy  there."  This  proposition  was  not  acted  upon 
by  Wolsey,  who  probably  in  his  heart  sympathized  with 
the  genuine  spirit  of  learning  developing  in  the  university, 
and  the  matter  was  subsequently  made  the  ground  of  an 
accusation  against  him  by  his  enemies.2  We  find,  accord- 
ingly, George  Stafford,  a  member  of  Pembroke  Hall, 
venturing  in  the  following  year  to  adopt  the  example  set 
by  Luther,  of  taking  the  Scriptures  themselves,  instead 
of  the  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard  (the  theological  text- 
book of  the  universities),  as  the  basis  of  a  course  of 
divinity  lectures.  In  the  following  year  William  Tyndal 
published  at  Antwerp  the  first  edition  of  his  translation 

1  Strype,  Memorials,  i.  56. 

2  Bumet,  Hist,  of  the  Reform.,  ed.  Pocock,  i.  70. 

XX.  —  42 


330 


REFORMATION 


of  the  New  Testament,  and  in  1526  we  bear  of  its  intro- 
duction into  Oxford  by  Thomas  Garret,  and  of  the  volume 
being  burnt  at  Paul's  Cross.  On  27th  November  1527 
Bilney  and  Arthur  were  examined  at  the  Chapter  House 
at  Westminster  before  Wolsey  and  other  ecclesiastics,  as 
to  whether  they  had  preached  or  taught  to  the  people 
the  opinions  of  Luther  or  any  others  condemned  by  the 
church.  Owing  to  the  proximity  of  Cambridge  to  the 
seaports  and  commercial  towns  of  the  eastern  counties,  such 
as  Yarmouth,  Harwich,  and  Norwich,  the  university  would 
appear  to  have  become  familiarized  with  the  Lutheran 
doctrines  much  sooner  than  Oxford.  From  3d  July  to 
20th  September  1527  Wolsey  was  in  France,  intent  on 
bringing  about  the  marriage  of  Princess  Mary  with  the 
duke  of  Orleans,  and  on  gaining  the  support  of  Francis 
in  the  matter  of  the  royal  divorce. 

Henry  Henry  himself  had  at  this  time  fully  resolved  to  carry 
Vlll.'s  the  latter  project  into  effect,  and  the  doubts  raised  with 
iivorce.  resj)ect  ^o  the  validity  of  his  marriage  and  the  legitimacy 
of  Mary  cannot  be  regarded  as  anything  more  than  official 
formalities,  designed  to  give  a  veil  of  decency  to  his  real 
purpose.  While  in  France  Wolsey  learned  from  Flanders 
that  the  emperor  had  become  apprised  of  Henry's  real 
intentions,  and  he  himself  now  proceeded  (to  quote  his 
own  words)  to  employ  "all  possible  ways  and  practices 
for  the  obtaining  of  the  pope's  consent."  Unfortunately 
for  the  success  of  his  efforts,  Henry  at  this  juncture  con- 
ceived the  design  of  sending  another  agent  to  Rome,  to 
act  altogether  independently  of  Wolsey,  and  charged  to 
procure,  not  only  the  appointment  of  a  commission  em- 
powered to  dissolve  the  marriage  with  Catherine,  but  also 
a  dispensation  removing  all  obstacles  to  the  king's  second 
marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn.  Clement  was  still  a  prisoner 
in  the  castle  of  St  Angelo,  but  on  the  evening  of  the 
9th  December  1527,  disguised  in  a  blouse  and  carrying  a 
basket  and  an  empty  sack  on  his  back,  he  effected  his 
escape,  and  with  the  assistance  of  a  guide  arrived  the 
next  morning  at  Orvieto.  From  that  day  his  resolve 
was  probably  definitively  taken,  and,  notwithstanding  his 
previous  promises  and  his  subsequent  apparent  conces- 
sions, he  would  seem  to  have  been  firmly  resolved  not  to 
grant  his  consent  to  a  measure  deeply  humiliating  to  him- 
self and  certain  to  expose  him  to  the  full  brunt  of  the 
emperor's  resentment.  But  at  Orvieto  Henry's  delegate, 
Knight,  although  untrained  and  ill  qualified  for  the  task  of 
a  diplomatist,  obtained  both  a  commission  and  a  dispensa- 
tion, which,  however,  on  his  reaching  England,  were  both 
found  to  be  worthless,  owing  to  designed  non-observance 
of  the  necessary  technicalities.  In  the  following  year 
Foxe  and  Gardiner  were  despatched  on  a  like  errand. 
The  latter  was  far  better  suited  for  the  work  than  Knight; 
and  he  did  not  scruple  to  threaten  the  trembling  pontiff 
with  the  complete  withdrawal  of  Henry's  support,  and  to 
predict  as  the  inevitable  consequence  the  collapse  of  the 
already  tottering  apostolic  see, — a  result  which,  he  de- 
clared, "  would  be  attended  by  the  applause  and  satisfac- 
tion of  the  whole  world."  By  such  menaces  Clement  was 
eventually  induced  again  to  grant  a  commission  and  a 
dispensation.  A  decretal  bull,  formally  annulling  Henry's 
first  marriage,  was  handed  to  Campeggio,  which  he  was 
instructed  to  show  to  the  king  and  then  to  destroy.  But 
in  the  meantime  the  celebrated  brief  executed  by  Julius 
II.,  in  which  the  dispensation  for  Henry's  first  marriage 
was  re-enacted  in  more  precise  and  unqualified  terms,  was 
discovered  in  the  Spanish  archives.  It  was  sought  to 
show  that  the  brief  was  a  forgery,  but  to  this  view  of 
the  matter  Clement  altogether  refused  to  assent.  At 
length,  however,  in  May  1529  the  legate  proceeded  to 
open  his  court  at  Westminster.  The  courageous  conduct 
of  Catherine  put  honourable  men  to  shame;  and  no 


slight  impression  was  produced  by  Bishop  Fisher's  heroic 
declaration  of  his  willingness  to  stake  his  life  that  her 
marriage  with  the  king  was  perfectly  valid.  Campeggio, 
under  various  pretexts,  still  hesitated  and  delayed.  In 
July  the  news  of  the  peace  of  Cambray  arrived,  and  it 
was  known  that  the  influence  of  the  emperor  would  hence- 
forth be  paramount  in  Italy,  while  it  was  believed  that 
the  projected  marriage  between  the  French  monarch  and 
the  sister  of  the  emperor  augured  a  durable  peace  between 
the  empire  and  France.  Then  the  legate  adjourned  the 
court  and  the  pontiff  revoked  the  cause  to  Rome.  All 
around  Wolsey  saw  the  plans  which  he  had  laid  with  so 
much  toil  and  skill  breaking  up,  and  on  him  the  royal 
displeasure  vented  itself.  He  died  30th  November  1530, 
a  victim  to  the  wanton  caprice  of  one  whom  he  had  served 
only  too  faithfully,  and  with  him  the  ablest  supporter  of 
papal  influence  and  the  most  formidable  opponent  of 
Reformation  principles  in  England  disappeared. 

Henry  would  not  condescend*  to  appear  before  a  Roman 
court,  and  as  a  last  expedient  it  was  proposed  that  the 
question  of  the  legality  of  his  first  marriage  should  be 
submitted  to  the  learned  bodies,  the  universities  and  emi- 
nent canonists  of  Europe.  This  scheme  had  already  been 
recommended  by  the  episcopal  bench,  but  to  Cranmer's 
ingenuity  is  attributed  the  further  suggestion  that  the 
opinion  thus  obtained  should  be  carried  into  effect  by  a 
court  convened  in  England.  Commissioners,  among  whom 
Richard  Croke  appears  as  the  most  conspicuous  and  in- 
defatigable, were  accordingly  despatched  on  the  proposed 
errand.  The  means  to  which  they  had  recourse  in  order 
to  obtain  opinions  such  as  their  royal  employer  desired 
are  plainly  described  by  a  contemporary  writer,  who  says 
that  "  there  was  inestimable  sums  of  money  given  to  the 
famous  clerks  to  choke  them,  and  in  especial  to  such  as 
had  the  governance  and  custody  of  their  universities' 
seals." l  The  evidence  more  recently  brought  to  light 
enables  us  to  accept  this  statement  as  substantially  correct.2 
The  unpopularity  of  the  divorce  among  the  nation  at  large 
was  especially  shown  at  the  two  universities,  where  the 
junior  members  made  demonstrations  of  the  greatest  dis- 
satisfaction, while  their  seniors  were  mostly  bribed  or  in- 
timidated into  acquiescence  by  the  royal  agents ;  nor  could 
the  authorities  at  either  Oxford  or  Cambridge  disguise 
the  fact  that  they  found  themselves  at  variance  with  the 
feeling  of  the  country  at  large. 

It  is  at  this  juncture  that  Cranmer  assumes  a  foremost  Cran 
place  as  a  leader  of  the  English  Reformation.  He  had 
written  in  defence  of  the  divorce,  and  had  taken  a  part 
in  embassies  sent  by  Henry  to  treat  on  the  question  with 
the  emperor  and  the  pope ;  and  Clement  had  shown  his 
sense  of  the  value  of  his  influence  by  appointing  him  to 
the  lucrative  post  of  grand  penkentiary  for  England,  in 
the  hope  of  winning  him  over  to  the  papal  interests. 
Cranmer's  whole  policy,  however,  had  been  directly  opposed 
to  that  of  Wolsey.  He  had  used  his  best  efforts  to  con- 
firm the  commercial  relations  with  the  Netherlands,  and 
had  superintended  the  negotiation  of  a  commercial  treaty 
between  that  country  and  England.  He  had  resided  for 
some  months  in  Germany,  and  while  there  had  married 
Margaret,  the  daughter  of  Andrew  Osiander,  a  distin- 
guished preacher  and-  leader  of  the  Lutheran  party  at 
Nuremberg.  From  Germany  he  was  now  summoned  back 
to  England  to  become  the  successor  of  Warham,  the  pri- 
mate, who  had  died  in  August  1532.  As  there  had  as 
yet  been  no  formal  rupture  with  the  see  of  Rome,  it  became 
necessary  for  him  to  apply  to  Clement  for  the  customary 
bull  of  consecration,  and  also  for  his  pallium  as  metro- 


1  Cavendish,  Life  of  Wolsey,  ed.  Singer,  p.  206. 

2  See  Croke's  and  other  letters  in  Records  of  the  Reformation,  ed. 
Pocock,  Nos.  xcix.-cxxvi.,  cxxviii.-cxlvi.,  clvii.-cciii. 


REFORMATION 


331 


politan,  and  on  receiving  these  it  was  also  requisite  that 
he  should  take  the  oaths  of  canonical  obedience  and  sub- 
jection to  the  Roman  pontiff.  His  conduct  in  this  dilemma 
has  been  generally  regarded  as  indefensible.  In  order  to 
show  that  he  disclaimed  the  right  of  the  pontiff  to  nomi- 
nate to  ecclesiastical  offices  in  England,  he  surrendered 
the  several  bulls,  eleven  in  number,  into  Henry's  hands ; 
and,  having  done  this,  he  took  the  usual  oath  of  obedience 
to  the  see  of  Rome.1  Before  doing  so,  however,  he  made 
a  protestation  to  the  effect  that  he  did  not  intend  thereby 
to  bind  himself  to  do  anything  contrary  to  the  laws  of 
God,  the  king's  prerogative,  or  the  commonwealth  and 
statutes  of  the  kingdom.  On  23d  May  1533  he  proceeded, 
as  archbishop  and  legate  of  the  apostolic  see,  to  pronounce 
the  king's  marriage  with  Catherine  of  Aragon  null  and 
void  ab  initio,  as  contrary  to  the  divine  law;  and  five 
days  later  he  gave  judicial  confirmation  to  the  royal 
marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn.  In  the  following  year  (23d 
March  1534)  Clement  rejoined  by  a  manifesto  declaring 
the  validity  of  the  first  marriage,  and  calling  upon  Henry 
to  take  back  his  first  wife  and  to  observe  "a  perpetual 
silence  "  in  relation  to  the  question  for  the  future.2  This 
decisive  step  was  mainly  the  result  of  the  parliamentary 
action  that  had  in  the  meantime  been  going  on.  The 
parliament  of  1529  had  in  various  ways  limited  the  privi- 
leges of  the  clergy,  and  by  the  Act  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13 
had  deprived  them  of  the  power  of  holding  pluralities  by 
virtue  of  licences  obtained  from  Rome  for  money.  Fisher, 
from  his  place  in  the  House  of  Lords,  vainly  sought  to 
combat  these  reforms  by  declaring  that  Lutheranisnvwas 
spreading  in  the  nation  and  by  reminding  his  audience  of 
Germany  and  Bohemia  and  the  miseries  that  had  already 
befallen  those  countries.  The  allusion  to  the  Lutheran 
movement  appears  to  have  been,  indeed,  singularly  inju- 
dicious, and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  at  this  period  it 
was  the  aim  not  only  of  the  king  but  of  the  bishops  to 
dissociate  the  Reformation  movement  in  England  from 
the  movement  that  was  in  progress  in  Germany.  As  yet 
the  repudiation  of  the  papal  supremacy  and  a  reform  in 
matters  of  discipline  were  all  that  was  contemplated  either 
by  the  crown  or  the  parliament.  In  1531  appeared  a  pro- 
clamation making  it  penal  to  introduce  bulls  from  Rome, 
and  this  was  shortly  followed  by  an  Act  visiting  with 
severe  penalties  all  who  should  be  found  going  about  the 
country  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences ;  while  under  the  famous  Statute  of  Praemunire  the 
whole  body  of  the  clergy  were  convicted  of  having  recog- 
nized the  validity  of  Wolsey's  acts  as  papal  legate,  and 
thereby  placed  both  their  liberties  and  their  possessions 
at  the  mercy  of  the  king.  In  April  1533  there  followed 
the  Act  providing  that  all  causes  should  henceforth  be 
tried  in  the  courts  of  the  kingdom,  and  forbidding  appeals 
to  Rome  under  any  circumstances  whatever, — the  body 
"now  being  usually  called  the  English  Church"  being 
held  "sufficient  and  meet  of  itself  to  declare  and  deter- 
mine all  such  doubts  and  duties  as  to  their  rooms  [i.e., 
offices]  spiritual  doth  appertain."  These  successive  enact- 
ments had  already  paved  the  way  for  Henry's  final  rejoinder 
to  Clement's  demands, — the  Act  of  Supremacy  (November 
1534),  whereby  the  king  was  not  only  declared  to  be 
supreme  head  of  the  Church  of  England,  but  was  at  the 
same  time  invested  with  full  power  "  to  repress  and  amend 
all  such  errors  and  heresies  as,  by  any  manner  of  spiritual 
jurisdiction,  might  and  ought  to  be  lawfully  reformed." 


1  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that  Cranmer's  oath  as  metropolitan 
contained  the  clause  "  salvo  ordine  meo,"  and  this  clause  might  prob- 
ably, in  the  judgment  of  canonists,  render  his  subsequent  reservation 
more  defensible.     See  Sarum  Pontifical  in  Camb.   Univ.   Lib.  (Mm. 
iii.  21)  ;  Maskell,   Monitmenta  Ritualia,  ii.  317 ;  Strype,  Memorials 
of  Cranmer,  App.  No.  VI. 

2  Records  of  the  Reformation,  ii.  532. 


While  such  was  the  progress  of  events  in  England  and  in  Political 
Germany  there  had  been  going  on  in  Switzerland  a  corre-  cpn<li- 
sponding  movement,  second  only  in  importance  to  that  I""1.0* 
initiated  by  Luther.  The  political  relations  of  the  Swiss  ian(j. 
confederation  at  this  period  exercised  a  very  appreciable 
influence  over  the  whole  course  of  the  Reformation.  With 
the  commencement  of  the  century  the  cantons  had  already 
reached  the  number  of  thirteen;  and  the  confederates, 
in  combination  with  the  Leaguers,  represented  Italian  as 
well  as  German  interests.  In  great  crises  they  were  not 
incapable  of  presenting  a  combined  front  to  the  common 
foe ;  but  more  generally  they  were  divided  by  political 
jealousies  and  differences,  while  the  majority  of  the  men 
in  each  canton  were  mere  military  adventurers,  ready  to 
serve  under  the  banner  of  the  empire,  France,  the  pope, 
or  the  duke  of  Milan,  according  as  the  one  or  the  other 
power  seemed  likely  best  to  reward  their  services.  An 
important  change  in  the  ecclesiastical  relations  of  the 
cantons  had  recently  brought  them  into  closer  connexion 
with  Rome.  The  six  bishoprics  into  which  Switzerland 
was  divided — Lausanne,  Sion  (Sitten),  Como,  Basel,  Chur, 
and  Constance — had  formerly  been  severally  subject  to 
the  metropolitan  jurisdiction  of  Mainz,  Besan§on,  and 
Milan.  But  this  jurisdiction  had  been  superseded  by  the 
creation  of  the  nunciatures,  whereby  each  bishopric  was 
brought  into  direct  connexion  with  the  papal  see.  The 
nuncios  often  exercised  a  potent  influence  on  the  political 
relations  of  the  confederates.  They  negotiated  with  large 
bodies  of  Switzers  the  conditions  of  military  service  under 
the  pope;  they  directed  the  traffic  in  indulgences;  and 
they  watched  with  especial  jealousy  the  first  appearance 
of  schism.  The  experience,  however,  of  those  of  the  con- 
federates who  accepted  military  service  in  Italy  did  not 
serve  to  increase  their  reverence  for  the  Curia  and  its  aims. 
They  carried  back  with  them  to  their  homes  a  contempt 
for  the  whole  administration  of  the  Roman  see  and  its 
dependencies  which  communicated  itself  to  their  country- 
men, and  at  no  centres  were  opinions  adverse  to  Catho- 
licism now  spreading  more  rapidly  than  at  Zurich,  Bern, 
and  Basel. 

Born  in  the  same  year  as  his  brother  Reformer,  Ulrich  Zwingli. 
Zwingli  was  scarcely  less  distinguished  by  commanding 
powers,  devotion  to  study,  and  a  yet  more  notable  devo- 
tion to  truth ;  but  in  the  enlightened  tolerance  which 
marked  his  whole  career  we  recognize  the  contrast  be- 
tween his  early  associations  and  those  which  nurtured  the 
somewhat  narrow  though  fervid  patriotism  of  Luther. 
The  latter,  in  the  retirement  of  his  monastic  cell,  had 
pondered  over  the  profound  speculations  of  Augustine,  the 
imaginative  subtleties  of  De  Lyra,  and  the  mysticism  of 
Tauler.  The  other,  at  the  universities  of  Vienna  and 
Basel,  had  become  familiarized  with  classic  models,  and 
his  genius  had  gained  a  brighter  inspiration  from  converse 
with  the  masterpieces  of  antiquity.  It  was  in  connexion 
with  the  church  at  Glarus  that  Zwingli  first  assumed  the 
discharge  of  pastoral  duties.  It  was  characteristic  of  his 
true  and  discerning  patriotic  feeling  that  he  strongly  dis- 
approved of  the  acceptance  of  mercenary  service  by  his 
countrymen,  and  more  especially  of  the  service  of  France, 
and  his  outspoken  sentiments  on  the  subject  eventually 
rendered  it  necessary  for  him  to  quit  Glarus  for  Einsiedeln. 
Here  he  was  for  a  short  time  in  receipt  of  a  pension  from 
the  pope  and  was  generally  regarded  as  a  supporter  of 
Catholic  institutions.  In  conjunction  with  the  abbot  of 
Einsiedeln  he  aimed,  however,  at  the  development  of  a 
less  superstitious  spirit  among  both  the  clergy  and  the 
laity,  who  resorted  in  great  numbers  to  the  monastery  (a 
noted  centre  for  pilgrimages).  It  was  here  that  he  formed 
the  acquaintance  of  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Re- 
formers, Oswald  Geisshausler  (better  known  as  Myconius), 


332 


REFORMATION 


and  through  his  friend's  influence  received  in  1518  an 
invitation  to  settle  in  Zurich  as  the  parish  priest  of  the 
cathedral  in  that  city.  Here  he  at  once  began  to  discard 
the  traditional  mode  of  exposition  which  limited  the 
preacher  to  certain  prescribed  sections  of  the  Bible,  and 
commenced  instead  a  connected  series  of  lectures  on  the 
New  Testament.  In  the  course  of  four  years  he  thus 
completed  a  course  of  sermons  on  the  whole  of  that  portion 
of  the  Bible.  This  innovation,  peculiar  to  the  Reformed 
Church,  was  never  adopted  by  Luther,  although  followed 
by  most  of  the  theologians  of  Switzerland  and  the  upper 
Rhineland.  It  was  in  the  year  1519  that  Zwingli  first 
became  acquainted  with  Luther's  early  treatises ;  but  his 
own  views  appear  to  have  been  formed  quite  independently 
of  these.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Zurich  the  Fran- 
ciscan Bernardin  Samson  visited  the  city  on  a  like  mis- 
sion to  that  of  Tetzel  and  encountered  in  Zwingli  another 
Luther.  The  grossness  of  the  system  of  indulgences  was 
so  ably  exposed  by  Zwingli  that  he  carried  nearly  all  who 
heard  him  with  him,  and  Samson  was  obliged  to  return 
to  Italy  before  his  mission  was  fully  accomplished.  Even 
Faber,  afterwards  the  opponent  of  Zwingli,  could  not  but 
express  to  the  latter  his  satisfaction  at  the  result.  Gradu- 
ally the  voice  of  the  Reformer  was  heard  uplifted  against 
other  mediaeval  superstitions  and  especially  against  Mari- 
olatry ;  his  fame  as  a  preacher  rapidly  spread,  and  he 
became  known  as  one  of  the  chief  leaders  of  opinion  in 
Zurich.  The  state  of  morality  in  the  city  was,  however, 
exceedingly  low,  and  he  not  only  had  to  encounter  con- 
siderable opposition  but  was  repeatedly  exposed  to  charges 
of  heresy.  Nevertheless  the  conviction  which  he  produced 
among  the  more  influential  citizens  of  the  truth  of  the 
tenets  which  he  advocated  was  such  that  in  the  year  1520 
an  order  was  issued  by  the  city  council  to  the  effect  that 
all  ministers  should  in  future  ground  their  discourses  on 
the  New  Testament,  "  and  prove  their  doctrine  from  the 
Bible  alone,  discarding  all  innovations  and  human  inven- 
tions." While  meeting  with  opposition  in  one  direction, 
he  was  compelled  himself  to  oppose  the  zeal  of  fanaticism 
in  another.  As  at  Wittenberg,  an  iconoclastic  spirit  had 
begun  to  manifest  itself,  and  the  question  of  the  lawfulness 
of  images  in  churches  was  warmly  debated.  In  the  months 
of  January  and  October  1523  two  conferences  of  the  clergy 
and  laity  assembled  in  Zurich,  in  the  course  of  which 
Zwingli  put  forth  sixty-seven  propositions,  involving  con- 
clusions adverse  to  the  teaching  and  practice  of  the  medi- 
aeval church.  Among  those  who  took  part  in  the  discus- 
sions were  Faber,  Meyer  of  Bern,  Hofmeister,  and  Conrad 
Schmidt  of  Kiissnacht,  Knight  Commander  of  the  Order  of 
St  John,  a  man  of  eminent  character  and  ability.  Schmidt 
endeavoured,  although  in  a  temperate  and  rational  manner, 
to  defend  the  custom  of  placing  images  in  the  churches, 
but  after  a  warm  discussion  Zwingli  ultimately  decided  for 
their  abolition.  In  the  yet  more  important  discussion  that 
followed,  with  respect  to  the  true  nature  and  significance 
of  the  mass,  whether  it  was  to  be  regarded  as  of  the  nature 
of  a  sacrifice  or  simply  as  a  commemorative  ordinance,  he 
expressed  himself  in  favour  of  the  latter  interpretation. 
The  issues  raised  by  the  sixty-seven  propositions  extended 
considerably  in  their  scope  beyond  all  that  Luther  had  as 
yet  advanced ;  and,  as  at  Leipsic,  it  was  soon  discovered 
that  the  two  contending  parties  were  divided  by  an  insuper- 
able difference  with  respect  to  the  authority  which  they 
were  disposed  to  accept  as  final, — the  one  party  grounding 
their  arguments  solely  on  the  Scriptures,  the  other  on  the 
councils  and  the  fathers.  It  may  be  noted,  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  extremely  low  status  of  the  inferior  clergy  of 
the  country  at  this  period,  that,  in  replying  to  Zwingli's 
demand  for  an  intelligent  and  systematic  study  of  the 
Scriptures  by  all  pastors,  it  was  urged  as  an  objection  that 


many  pastors  might  be  unable  to  afford  to  purchase  a  copy 
of  the  Bible  for  their  own  use  !  Another  notable  theory 
supported  by  Zwingli  was  that  known  at  a  later  period  as 
Erastianism,  according  to  which  the  authorities  of  the  church 
were  to  be  held  to  be  ultimately  amenable  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  civil  power.  At  his  instance  the  church  at 
Zurich  next  proceeded  to  repudiate  the  control  both  of  the 
bishop  of  Constance  and  of  the  papal  nuncio,  constituting 
itself  (1524)  a  separate  ecclesiastical  body,  the  supreme 
authority  over  which  was  vested  in  the  magistrates  of  the 
city.  In  the  public  services  the  Latin  liturgy  and  the 
Gregorian  chant  were  set  aside  for  a  German  prayer-book 
and  German  singing.  The  rite  of  baptism  was  made  more 
simple, — the  ceremony  of  exorcism  on  which  the  Lutheran 
Church  continued  long  after  to  insist  being  altogether  dis- 
carded. In  the  year  1525  Zwingli  published  a  more  sys- 
tematic exposition  of  his  tenets  in  his  best-known  work, 
his  Commentary  on  True  and,  False  Religion,  which  he 
dedicated  to  Francis  I.  His  conception  of  the  sacraments 
and  of  original  sin  as  here  unfolded  separates  him  still 
further  from  the  doctrine  of  the  mediaeval  church,  while 
in  his  remarkable  catholicity  of  belief  in  regard  to  salva- 
tion he  much  resembles  some  of  the  early  Greek  fathers. 
Like  Clement  and  Origen,  he  believed  in  the  final  happi- 
ness of  the  good  and  wise,  including  the  good  and  wise  of 
pagan  antiquity ;  nor  did  he  hesitate  to  express  his  con- 
viction that  Socrates  was  a  better  and  wiser  man  than  any 
Dominican  or  Franciscan  of  his  own  day.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  upheld  the  doctrine  of  predestination  in  its  most 
rigid  form,  that  afterwards  known  as  "  supralapsarian " 
(see  PREDESTINATION). 

In  no  country  was  the  Reformation  so  closely  associated  ftefon 
with  political  feeling  as  in  Switzerland  ;  and  its  upholders,  **"? ir 
amid  surrounding  despotisms,  were  advocates  of  republican  ^ 
institutions.  Zwingli  and  his  followers  looked  on  with 
shame  and  sorrow  as  they  saw  their  countrymen  hastening 
to  cross  the  Alps  to  become  the  mercenaries  of  the  pope. 
With  no  less  sense  of  humiliation  did  they  regard  the 
venal  spirit  of  their  public  officials  stooping  to  become  the 
pensioners  of  the  French  court.  The  progress  of  these 
new  opinions  was,  as  is  usually  the  case,  much  more  rapid 
in  the  large  towns  than  in  the  more  rural  and  moun- 
tainous regions.  At  Bern  they  were  ably  upheld  by 
Anshelm,  the  historiographer  of  the  city,  and  by  Sebastian 
Meyer,  and  Haller ;  in  the  free  city  of  Basel  he  had  for 
his  followers  (Ecolampadius  and  William  Farel;  and 
already  in  1527  Conrad  Pellicanus,  afterwards  his  zealous 
follower,  had  conceived  that  admiration  of  his  character 
and  tenets  which  was  attended  by  such  important  results. 
Wyttenbach,  Zwingli's  former  preceptor,  sustained  his 
teaching  in  Biel,  Joachim  von  Watt  in  St  Gall,  Biirgli, 
Blasius,  and  Dorfmann  among  the  Grisons.  In  the  cantons 
of  Schwyz,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  Lucerne,  and  Zug,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  new  doctrines  found  strenuous  opposition ; 
and  the  simple  mountaineers  listened  with  unfeigned 
sorrow  and  indignation  when  they  heard  that  it  was  pro- 
posed to  abolish  pilgrimages,  such  as  those  to  the  field  of 
Morgarten  and  the  chapel  of  Tell,  and  to  dispense  with 
those  priestly  virtues  of  celibacy  and  fasting  which  so 
greatly  enhanced  their  filial  reverence  for  their  village 
pastor.  Another  and  yet  more  serious  obstacle,  which  Cont 
threatened  to  place  the  whole  movement  in  peril,  was  that 
presented  by  the  differences  of  belief  which  now  began  to 
rise  among  the  Protestants  themselves.  Foremost  among 
these  points  of  difference  was  that  respecting  the  Eucharist, 
— the  theory  which  Zwingli  maintained  being  assailed  with 
peculiar  acrimony  and  vehemence  by  Luther.  Political 
feeling  added  not  a  little  to  the  animosity  of  that  attack. 
Difficult  as  it  may  seem  to  associate  the  efforts  of  one  who 
did  so  much  for  intellectual  freedom  with  tyranny  and 


REFORMATION 


333 


coercion,  it  is  certain  that  Luther's  influence  after  the 
year  1523  was  not  favourable  to  the  political  liberties  of 
his  countrymen.  In  that  year  both  Sickingen  and  Hutten 
were  removed  by  death,  the  victims  of  a  policy  to  which 
Luther  was  always  strenuously  opposed, — the  endeavour 
to  enforce  the  redress  of  political  and  ecclesiastical  griev- 
ances by  recourse  to  arms.  The  iconoclastic  ardour  of 
Karlstadt  and  the  fanaticism  of  Miinzer  alarmed  him  be- 
yond measure,  and  he  regarded  with  the  most  genuine 
distrust  the  spread  of  their  influence  among  the  peasantry. 
The  sequel  justified  his  alarm.  Ground  between  the  exac- 
tions of  the  agents  of  the  church  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
oppression  of  the  nobles  on  the  other,  the  peasants  rose  at 
last  in  fierce  rebellion.  No  such  insurrection,  so  wide- 
spread, so  sanguinary,  and  so  ruthless  in  its  vengeance,  had 
ever  before  disquieted  Germany  as  that  which  marked  the 
close  of  the  year  1524.  The  part  played  by  Luther  in 
relation  to  that  gloomy  episode  will  always  be  a  matter 
for  dispute  among  critics  of  different  schools.  To  some 
he  appears  as  lending  his  great  influence  to  crush  the 
efforts  of  down-trodden  classes  driven  to  desperation  by  in- 
tolerable oppression,  to  others  as  the  champion  of  law  and 
order  against  lawless  miscreants  intent  on  revolutionizing 
both  church  and  state.  Luther  himself  considered  that 
loyalty  to  the  emperor  and  to  the  civil  authority  was  a 
primary  duty,  and  that  questions  of  religious  reform  should 
never  be  suffered  to  affect  the  citizen's  fidelity  to  his  politi- 
cal obligations.  He  probably  held  that  his  views  were 
justified  by  the  sequel ;  but  they  were  not  shared  by  Ulrich 
von  Hutten  nor  by  Zwingli,  who  both  maintained  that  the 
popedom  and  the  empire  were  too  closely  associated  to 
make  it  possible  to  attack  the  one  without  also  attacking 
the  other.1  The  sacramental  controversy  runs  parallel  with 
the  history  of  the  Peasants'  War,  and  it  unfortunately  hap- 
pened that  the  theory  of  the  Eucharist  maintained  by 
Zwingli  was  the  same  as  that  upheld  by  Karlstadt,  whose 
iconoclastic  successes  at  Wittenberg  had  made  him  an 
object  of  especial  dislike  to  Luther.  It  was  in  vain, 
therefore,  that  (Ecolampadius  and  Martin  Bucer  sought 
to  mediate  between  the  two  parties.  Luther,  to  whose 
view  the  republican  doctrines  and  the  sacramental  theory 
advocated  by  Zwingli  appeared  closely  associated,  believed 
he  saw  in  the  latter  only  a  second  Karlstadt ;  and  he  was 
thus  led  to  assail  him  and  his  followers  with  an  amount  of 
coarse  ridicule  altogether  unbecoming  both  the  subject  and 
the  occasion.  Zwingli  replied  in  much  more  temperate 
fashion,  but  he  did  not  hesitate  to  assert  that  the  doctrine 
which  Luther  maintained  was  identical  with  that  taught 
by  the  Church  of  Rome.2  To  this  Luther  replied  in  his 
tractate  entitled  Belcenntniss  vom  Abendmahl  Christi  (1528). 
This  pamphlet  warfare  only  served,  however,  to  embitter 
the  relations  of  the  two  parties  ;  and,  although  the  reaction- 
ary sentiments  evinced  by  several  of  the  princes  at  the 
second  diet  of  Spires  (15th  March  1529)  gave  significant 
warning  of  the  necessity  for  union  and  concord  among  the 
whole  body  of  the  Reformers,  it  was  distinctly  foreseen 
that  the  conference  convened  at  Marburg  a  month  later  was 
not  likely  to  lead  to  any  healing  of  the  schism  (LUTHER). 
The  excellent  intentions  of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  in  con- 
vening the  conference  were  altogether  frustrated.  The 
moral  effect  was,  however,  distinctly  favourable  to  Zwingli. 
His  demeanour  towards  his  opponent  had  throughout  been 
conciliatory  and  fraternal,  while  that  of  Luther  had  been 
of  a  different  character.  Although  fourteen  articles,  em- 
bracing the  most  important  tenets  of  the  Christian  faith, 
had  been  agreed  upon  almost  without  discussion,  he  could 
not  regard  as  a  brother  the  man  who  differed  from  him  on 
the  obscure  and  doubtful  doctrine  embodied  in  the  fifteenth 

1  See  Ranke's  Deutsche  Geschichte,  iv.  107. 

2  Deutsche  Schriften,  iii.  16. 


article.  This  intolerance,  a  sinister  omen  for  the  future 
of  the  Reformation  movement,  produced  an  unfavourable 
impression  on  the  minds  of  not  a  few  with  respect  to 
Luther's  moderation,  and  caused  them  subsequently  to 
espouse  the  side  of  Zwingli,  among  their  number  being 
the  landgrave  Philip  and  Francis  Lambert.  The  former, 
indeed,  did  not  altogether  despair  of  yet  bringing  about 
an  alliance  between  the  two  parties,  and  was  especially 
desirous  of  prevailing  upon  the  Evangelical  party  (as  the 
Lutherans  now  began  to  be  called)  to  admit  the  congrega- 
tions at  Ulm  and  Strasburg  into  their  communion.  With 
this  design  he  caused  the  congress  of  Schmalkald  to  be 
convened  on  the  29th  of  November,  an  earlier  date  than 
that  originally  intended.  His  friendly  purpose  was,  how- 
ever, again  frustrated  ;  and  it  soon  became  evident  that 
the  elements  of  difference  between  Luther  and  Zwingli  — 
the  reluctance  of  the  former  to  engage  in  any  line  of  action 
which  might  involve  an  appeal  to  arms,  and  the  patriotic 
spirit  of  the  other,  which  led  him  to  look  upon  the  assertion 
of  political  freedom  as  itself  a  Christian  duty  which  it 
would  be  moral  cowardice  to  evade  —  were  such  as  it  was 
hopeless  to  compose. 

Such  were  the  circumstances  under  which  the  emperor,  Imperial 
temporarily  freed  from  graver  political  anxieties  by  the  policy. 
treaty  of  Cambray,  convened  the  diet  of  Augsburg  ;  and 
on  the  25th  June  1530  the  able  and  generally  temperate  ex- 
position of  the  Protestant  faith  drawn  up  by  Melanchthon, 
known  as  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  was  read  before  the 
assembly  and  the  people.  The  Catholic  reply,  composed 
by  Eck  and  other  theologians,  was  then  presented,  and 
finally  the  Reformers  were  called  upon  to  renounce  their 
distinctive  tenets  and  return  to  their  ancient  faith.  They 
were  at  the  same  time  required  to  arrive  at  a  formal  decision 
within  a  stated  period;  and  on  the  13th  of  August  the 
Evangelical  princes  notified  to  the  emperor  their  inability 
to  comply  with  his  command.  On  the  29th  of  the  follow-  League 
ing  March,  at  a  third  congress,  convened  at  Schmalkald,  of 
they  formed  themselves  into  the  memorable  League,  where- 
by  each  party  to  the  compact  pledged  himself  to  the 
following  agreement  :  "As  soon  as  any  one  of  them  should 
be  attacked  for  the  gospel's  sake,  or  on  account  of  any 
matter  resulting  from  adherence  to  the  gospel,  all  should 
at  once  proceed  to  the  rescue  of  the  party  thus  assailed, 
and  aid  him  to  the  utmost  of  their  ability."  It  was  like- 
wise resolved  steadfastly  to  oppose  the  assembling  of  any 
council  which  was  not  summoned  independently  of  the 
pope  or  was  not  in  its  composition  fairly  representative  of 
the  whole  church.  In  the  meantime  the  efforts  made 
further  to  define  doctrine  had  been  attended  with  the 
usual,  it  might  be  said  the  inevitable,  results.  The  tenth 
article  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  had  been  rigorously 
formulated  so  as  not  merely  to  exclude  the  Zwinglian 
theory  of  the  Lord's  Supper  but  also  to  involve  in  censure 
any  interpretation  that  deviated,  however  slightly,  from 
that  laid  down  by  Luther  himself.  A  certain  section  of 
the  Evangelicals  declined,  accordingly,  to  sign  the  Con- 
fession, and  the  four  cities  of  Strasburg,  Constance,  Mem- 
mingen,  and  Lindau  shortly  after  drew  up  and  submitted 
to  the  diet  another  confession,  known  as  .  the  Confessio 
Tetrapolitana,  —  the  composition  mainly  of  Bucer  and 
Hedio.  In  this  the  influence  of  the  Zwinglian  party  so 
far  prevailed  that  the  adoration  of  images,  a  point  on 
which  the  Augsburg  Confession  had  been  silent,  was 
specifically  condemned.  The  four  cities  were,  however, 
admitted  to  the  League  of  Schmalkald  in  1531.  Other 
circumstances  temporarily  strengthened  the  hands  of  the 
Leaguers.  The  emperor  had  formed  the  design  of  raising 
his  brother  Ferdinand,  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  to 
the  dignity  of  "king  of  the  Romans";  but  the  project 
roused  the  jealousy  of  the  house  of  Bavaria,  and  the 


™ 


334 


REFORMATION 


reigning  duke  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the  Protestant 
League.  Treaties  were  about  the  same  time  made  with 
France  and  Denmark,  and  it  was  evident  that  the  new 
confederation  would  be  able  to  oppose  a  resistance  which 
even  the  resources  of  the  empire  might  not  be  able  to 
overcome.  At  this  juncture  another  circumstance  formed 
an  appreciable  element  in  the  imperial  calculations.  All 
attempts  at  arriving  at  an  understanding  with  the  Turks 
had  proved  without  result,  and  Solyman's  invasion  of 
Hungary  was  imminent.  At  the  advice  of  his  brother, 
Charles  accordingly  condescended  to  treat  with  the  mem- 
bers of  the  League,  and  in  July  1532  the  religious  peace 
of  Nuremberg  afforded  a  temporary  compromise,  which  it 
was  provided  should  remain  in  force  until  a  general  council, 
of  the  character  demanded  by  the  Lutherans,  was  con- 
vened, or  until  the  assembling  of  a  new  diet  of  the  states 
of  the  empire.  In  the  meantime  the  Lutherans  were  to 
be  free  from  molestation  and  to  be  permitted  to  preach 
and  publish  the  doctrines  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg. 
They  were  also  to  be  left  in  possession  of  such  church 
property  as  they  still  retained,  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
courts  of  the  empire  in  ecclesiastical  questions  was  to  be 
suspended.  In  return  for  these  concessions  the  Leaguers 
pledged  themselves  to  be  loyal  to  the  emperor,  and  to 
render  aid  both  with  money  and  men  in  the  event  of  an 
invasion  by  the  Turks.  They  likewise  undertook  not  to 
afford  protection  either  to  the  Anabaptists  or  to  the 
followers  of  Zwingli. 

Contest  The  great  leader  of  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland  was 
in  Swit-  at  this  time  no  more.  In  the  year  1531  the  feud  between 
^  '  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  cantons  had  reached  a  climax; 
in  the  former  the  more  bigoted  section,  aided  by  Ferdinand 
of  Austria,  had  commenced  an  active  persecution,  and 
some  of  the  Protestant  preachers  had  been  put  to  death,. 
In  order  to  repel  these  aggressions  a  league  was  formed 
between  Zurich,  Strasburg,  and  the  landgrave  of  Hesse, 
and  Zwingli  strongly  advised  that  a  combined  attack 
should  forthwith  be  made  on  their  opponents  in  Lucerne 
and  Schwyz,  and  freedom  of  conscience  obtained  by  an 
armed  demonstration.  Divided  counsels,  however,  pre- 
vailed ;  and  eventually  Zurich  was  left  to  bear  the  brunt 
of  the  contest  almost  entirely  alone.  At  the  battle  of 
Cappel  (llth  October  1531)  Zwingli  fell,  and  his  followers 
sustained  a  defeat  which,  although  they  carried  on  a  war 
of  fierce  retaliation,  they  were  unable  to  retrieve,  and  a 
decided  reaction  in  favour  of  Catholicism  now  set  in. 
The  death  of  (Ecolampadius  took  place  soon  after  the 
battle  of  Cappel,  and  was  followed  in  1535  by  that  of 
Francis  Kolb,  the  Bernese  Reformer.  The  heroic  end  of 
Zwingli  was  a  matter  of  exultation  not  only  to  his  Catho- 
lic antagonists  but  even  to  Luther,  who  was  ungenerous 
enough  to  class  his  brother  Reformer  with  lawless  fanatics 
like  Miinzer,1  and  in  a  letter  written  in  the  following  year 
even  went  so  far  as  to  warn  Duke  Albert  of  Prussia  not  to 
tolerate  the  followers  of  Zwingli  within  his  territories.2 
Progress  In  Germany,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Reformation  con- 
Ger"  tinued  to  progress.  In  1533  Philip  of  Hesse,  who  was 
subsidized  by  France,  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on  Ferdi- 
nand, and  was  able  shortly  after  to  reinstate  Ulrich,  duke 
of  Wiirtemberg,  in  his  dominions.  The  emperor  at  the 
peace  of  Kadan  (29th  June  1534)  undertook  to  abstain 
from  further  interference  in  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the 
duchy,  and  the  understanding  arrived  at  on  that  occasion 
is  regarded  by  Ranke  as  marking  the  second  important 
stage  in  the  history  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany.  The 
Reformed  faith  was  forthwith  established  throughout  Wiirt- 
emberg, and  soon  after  was  introduced  into  Holstein, 
Fomerania,  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  Upper  Saxony, 

1  De  Wette,  Letters,  iv.  Nos.  1429,  1430. 

2  Ib.,  No.  1445. 


Brunswick,  and  the  Palatinate.  The  League  of  Schnial- 
kald  was  thus  strengthened  by  numerous  and  powerful 
accessions ;  among  the  number  was  King  Francis  himself, 
who,  although  he  was  repressing  the  Reformation  move- 
ment with  severity  in  his  own  dominions,  saw  his  advan- 
tage in  siding  with  the  Protestant  princes  against  his  chief 
enemy,  the  emperor.  Henry  VIII.  declared  himself  also 
a  supporter  of  the  League.  The  city  of  Basel  had  already 
in  1534  put  forth,  independently,  a  new  confession  of 
faith,  and  this  was  followed  in  1536  by  a  second,  which 
received  the  approval  of  Luther  and  became  known  as  the 
"  first  Helvetic  confession."  In  order,  however,  still  further 
to  unite  the  Protestant  party,  with  a  view  to  a  general 
council,  Luther,  in  conjunction  with  other  theologians  from 
Saxony,  Swabia,  and  Hesse,  drew  up  and  transmitted  to 
the  Lutheran  representatives  at  Schmalkald  in  February 
1537  another  confession.  In  this  the  doctrines  contained 
in  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  were  reiterated,  but  in  a 
far  more  uncompromising  form.  Luther  denounced  the 
pope  as  Antichrist  and  the  mass  as  an  abomination. 
Melanchthon  declared  himself  unable  to  concur  in  this 
language,  and  in  an  additional  article  expressed  his  readi- 
ness to  yield  submission  to  the  bishop  of  Rome  as  the 
highest  dignitary  in  the  church  so  soon  as  the  latter  should 
sanction  really  scriptural  teaching. 

As  elsewhere,  the  history  of  the  Reformation  in  France  Refon 
is  that  of  a  twofold  struggle, — an  endeavour  to  bring  about tion  i; 
a  reform  of  discipline,  and  a  contest  which  pointed  in  the  ^ 
direction  of  doctrinal  change.  The  abuses  that  prevailed 
in  the  Gallican  Church  at  this  period  were  scarcely  less 
glaring  than  those  in  Germany.  The  appointments  to  the 
higher  benefices  were  dictated  solely  by  the  most  sordid 
motives, — political  ambition,  court  favouritism,  and  family 
interest.  Pluralism  largely  prevailed  ;  and  both  bishoprics 
and  abbeys  were  granted  in  commendam  to  such  an  extent 
that  residence  was  almost  unknown.  Preferments  were 
often  bestowed  upon  laymen,  and  even  upon  females  and 
children.  Pierre  de  1'Estoile,  writing  of  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century,  states  that  the  majority  of  the  benefices  in 
France  were  then  held  by  persons  who  were  by  the  canon 
law  disqualified  for  their  office.  But  in  no  country  was 
the  movement,  that  aimed  at  the  correction  of  abuses  such 
as  these,  more  completely  dissociated  from  the  religious 
revolution  contemplated  by  the  Protestant  leaders.  In 
the  first  instance,  the  doctrines  of  Luther  were  favourably 
regarded  by  many  of  the  nobility  and  of  the  episcopal 
order.  The  leader  of  the  party  which  represented  those 
doctrines  was  Lefevre  d'Etaples,  whose  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  French  appeared  in  the  year  1522. 
In  the  year  1521,  having  been  singled  out  by  the  Sorbonno 
for  special  attack  as  a  teacher  of  the  tenets  which  the 
university  had  just  so  emphatically  condemned,  he  deemed 
it  prudent,  notwithstanding  the  encouragement  he  received 
from  Francis,  to  retire  to  Meaux.  Here,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Brigonnet,  the  eminent  bishop  of  that  diocese, 
he  became  the  guiding  genius  of  a  movement  which  at  ono 
time  seemed  likely  to  transform  Meaux  into  a  second 
Wittenberg.  This  activity,  however,  was  very  early 
checked  by  the  terrors  of  a  commission.  Lefevre  and  his 
disciple  Farel  fled  to  Strasburg,  the  latter  subsequently 
to  Geneva,  where  his  efforts  founded  the  famous  school  of 
theology  associated  with  the  name  of  Calvin  (see  CALVIN)  ; 
Brigonnet,  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  a  schism  which 
threatened  to  prove  permanent,  reverted  to  Catholicism, 
and  even  acquiesced  in  a  policy  of  persecution  in  his  own 
diocese.  Both  Francis  I.  and  his  sister  Margaret,  queen 
of  Navarre,  were  at  this  time  disposed  to  support  the 
Reformation.  When  the  Sorbonne  condemned  the  Col- 
loquies of  Erasmus  (May  1526)  Francis  gave  orders  that 
24,000  copies  should  be  printed  and  circulated  throughout 


REFORMATION 


335 


the  country ;  he  accepted  with  expressions  of  favour  the 
dedication  to  himself  by  Zwingli  of  the  latter's  treatise 
On  True  and  False  Religion.  His  sister  corresponded 
with  Melanchthon  and  was  openly  assailed  by  the  Sorbonne 
as  a  favourer  of  heresy,  while,  as  the  mother  of  Jeanne 
d'Albret,  her  memory  was  always  cherished  with  peculiar 
regard  by  the  great  Huguenot  party.  But  the  loss  of 
prestige  which  Francis  incurred  by  his  defeat  at  Pavia 
and  his  subsequent  captivity  inspired  the  Ultramontane 
party  with  greater  confidence,  and,  in  spite  of  his  efforts, 
Louis  de  Berquin,  a  leader  of  the  Eeformers  and  one  of 
the  most  eminent  scholars  in  France,  perished  at  the  stake 
in  1529.  The  policy  of  Francis  was  indeed  mainly  dic- 
tated by  one  dominant  motive — that  of  personal  hostility 
to  the  emperor — and  the  apparent  caprice  with  which  he 
treated  the  Reformers  was  the  result  to  no  small  extent 
of  this  feeling.  It  now  became  his  aim  to  conciliate  Pope 
Clement  as  an  ally  against  his  great  rival,  and  with  this 
view  he  took  advantage  of  certain  excesses  committed  by 
a  few  fanatics,  after  the  example  of  Miinzer,  to  light  the 
fires  of  persecution.  At  the  same  time,  therefore,  that  he 
was  supporting  the  League  of  Schmalkald  he  was  burning 
heretics  in  his  own  dominions.  On  the  death  of  Clement 
(September  1534),  when  he  found  the  hopes  which  he  had 
founded  on  an  alliance  with  the  Medici  extinguished, 
since  Paul  III.  proved  less  amenable  to  his  plans,  he  again 
changed  his  tactics  :  he  invited  Melanchthon  to  come  and 
take  up  his  residence  in  France,  and  he  set  at  liberty 
those  who  had  been  imprisoned  for  holding  the  Reformed 
doctrines.  At  the  peace  of  Crespy  (1544),  again,  he  once 
more  changed  his  policy,  and  sought  to  arrive  at  an  agree- 
ment with  Charles  for  the  suppression  of  heresy  and  the 
restoration  of  discipline  in  the  church. 

At  the  period  at  which  we  have  now  arrived  the  main 
influences  which  guided  the  later  history  of  the  Reforma- 
tion may  be  discerned  in  full  activity.  Largely  political 
almost  from  the  commencement  of  the  movement,  they 
continued  more  and  more  to  partake  of  that  character  or 
became  mingled  with  elements  not  less  secular.  Foremost 
among  these  latter  must  be  placed  the  appeal  made  to 
baser  motives  both  in  Germany  and  in  England,  by  the 
manner  in  which  the  nobility  of  both  countries  were  bribed 
to  acquiesce  in  the  suppression  of  the  religious  orders,  by 
being  allowed  to  become  large  sharers  in  the  property  and 
revenues  of  the  monastic  and  conventual  foundations. 
Among  the  lower  classes,  on  the  other  hand,  who  were 
often  painfully  reminded  of  the  loss  they  had  sustained  in 
the  withdrawal  of  that  charity  which,  amid  all  the  de- 
generacy of  the  monasteries,  had  still  been  one  of  their 
recognized  functions,  a  certain  genuine  sympathy  with 
Catholicism  and  traditional  regard  for  its  institutions  long 
continued  to  survive.  But  even  among  these  classes  men 
could  not  but  be  conscious  that  a  higher  standard  of  belief 
and  practice  had  been  introduced  by  the  Reformation,  while 
the  superior  ability  shown  by  those  who  preached  its  doc- 
trines, in  adapting  their  discourse  to  the  comprehension 
and  spiritual  needs  of  the  poor,  invested  them  with  a 
highly  effective  influence. 

;rtsat  In  Germany  the  policy  of  the  emperor,  nearly  always 
'P™'  ambiguous,  became  complicated  with  new  difficulties. 
Charles  himself,  from  political  motives,  appears  at  this 
y,  time  to  have  been  really  desirous  of  bringing  about  a 
termination  of  the  prevailing  religious  controversies,  but 
his  vice-chancellor,  Held,  on  whom  it  devolved  to  carry 
out  his  intentions,  pursued  a  singularly  infelicitous  line  of 
action,  which  ultimately  led  to  the  formation  of  the  League 
of  Nuremberg  (10th  June  1538),  whereby  Ferdinand,  the 
duke  of  Bavaria,  Henry  of  Brunswick,  Albert  of  Branden- 
burg, and  George  of  Saxony  entered  into  a  combination 
for  the  purpose  of  opposing  the  League  of  Schmalkald. 


Dissatisfied  with  such  a  result,  Charles  next  endeavoured 
to  bring  about  an  understanding  by  a  series  of  conferences ; 
and  Paul  III.  was  induced  to  send  his  legate  to  attend  a 
diet  in  Ratisbon  (29th  July  1541),  where  a  project  for 
reunion,  known  as  the  Ratisbon  Interim,  was  brought  under 
formal  discussion.  "  It  resulted,"  says  Gieseler,  "  as  before 
at  Augsburg  :  they  quickly  came  together  on  merely  specu- 
lative formulas ;  but  as  soon  as  they  touched  upon  the  ex- 
ternal constitution  and  ordinances  relating  to  the  authority 
of  the  church  the  division  remained."  It  was  the  last, 
perhaps  the  only  occasion,  on  which  an  influential  section 
on  both  sides  (the  party  that  followed  Paul  III.  and  the 
party  that  followed  Melanchthon)  was  animated  by  a  genu- 
ine desire  for  reconciliation.  Their  design  was  defeated 
by  the  ignoble  political  aims  of  Francis  on  the  one  hand, 
and  by  the  theological  illiberality  of  Luther  and  the  elector 
of  Saxony  on  the  other.  In  the  meantime  Protestantism 
continued  to  advance :  Hermann  von  Wied,  elector  of 
Cologne,  became  a  supporter  of  its  doctrines ;  and  Pomer- 
ania,  Anhalt,  Mecklenburg,  and  the  imperial  cities  were 
added  to  the  territories  in  which  it  became  the  dominant 
faith.  It  was  at  this  juncture,  when  the  Reformation  in 
Germany  may  be  considered  to  have  advanced  to  its  high- 
est point,  that  Paul  III.  brought  forward  a  proposal  for 
assembling  a  general  council, — a  proposition  to  which  it 
was  decided  by  the  Protestant  party  at  the  diet  of  Worms 
(March  1545)  not  to  accede,  inasmuch  as  it  would  be  a 
council  convened  by  the  pope.  In  the  following  December, 
however,  the  council  (see  TEENT,  COUNCIL  OF)  assembled, 
— thj  publication,  in  the  meantime,  of  Luther's  pamphlet 
Against  the  Popedom  at  Rome,  founded  by  the  Devil,  having 
further  contributed  to  foster  theological  rancour.  The 
deliberations  of  this  famous  assembly  resulted,  as  is  well 
known,  in  the  enactment  of  a  series  of  canons  condemna- 
tory of  Protestant  doctrine ;  and  in  this  manner  the 
hopes  which  down  to  this  time  had  been  cherished  of 
bringing  about  a  compromise  with  respect  to  those  articles 
of  faith  on  which  agreement  had  before  seemed  not  un- 
attainable were  finally  extinguished. 

Two  months  after  the  first  assembling  of  the  council  of 
Trent  Luther  died.  His  latter  days  had  been  embittered 
by  the  defection  (as  he  regarded  it)  of  Melanchthon  to  a 
hostile  camp,  in  the  espousal  by  the  latter  of  the  tenets 
maintained  by  CEcolampadius  and  Bucer.  The  doctrine 
of  the  church  having  now  been  once  more  defined  by  the 
Tridentine  decisions,  the  emperor,  in  the  confident  belief 
that  theological  divergence  might  be  expected  soon  to 
cease,  next  turned  his  attention  to  the  removal  of  those 
abuses  in  matters  of  discipline  which  he  held  to  be  the 
chief  obstacle  to  the  return  of  Protestants  to  the  church. 
With  this  view  he  brought  about  the  acceptance  of  the 
Augsburg  Interim  (15th  May  1548)  by  the  diet,  a  com- 
promise which,  while  it  roused  the  susceptibilities  of  the 
pope,  altogether  failed  to  meet  the  conscientious  scruples 
of  the  Protestant  party.  In  its  place  Melanchthon  and 
Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony  put  forth  the  Leipsic  Interim,  a 
singular  admixture  of  Lutheran  doctrine  and  Roman  ritual, 
which  subsequently  gave  rise  to  the  controversy  with  the 
Adiaphorists.  The  imperial  design,  of  thus  bringing  about 
the  extinction  of  Protestantism  either  by  coercion  or  by 
conciliatory  measures,  may  be  held  to  have  been  finally 
defeated  at  the  diet  of  Augsburg  (1555),  when  it  was 
decided  not  only  that  every  ruler  of  a  separate  state  should 
henceforth  be  at  liberty  to  adopt  either  the  Augsburg 
Confession  (see  supra]  or  the  Catholic  faith  as  his  personal 
creed,  but  that  his  subjects  should  also  be  called  upon  to 
conform  to  the  profession  of  their  temporal  head.  The  Pro- 
effects  of  this  arrangement  cannot  be  held  to  have  been  testant 
beneficial.  Wherever,  as  was  not  seldom  the  case,  they°rsies" 
ruler  of  one  principality  embraced  a  different  doctrine 


336 


REFORMATION 


from  that  professed  by  a  neighbouring  potentate,  the 
carrying  out  of  such  a  law  could  scarcely  fail  to  generate 
or  intensify  feelings  of  aversion  and  enmity  between  their 
respective  subjects,  while  its  complete  failure  as  a  means 
of  bringing  about  unanimity  is  shown  in  the  rise  of  those 
numerous  controversies  which  afterwards  enabled  the  ad- 
herents of  Romanism  to  launch  so  effective  a  taunt  against 
the  principles  of  Protestantism.  Among  these  controversies 
were  those  of  the  Majorists  (1551-1562),  whose  founder, 
Georg  Major  of  Wittenberg,  maintained  the  doctrine  of 
the  necessity  of  good  works  to  salvation ;  of  the  Syner- 
gists  (1555-1567),  who  held  that  men  could  not  be  saved 
unless  the  operations  of  the  divine  grace  were  seconded 
by  the  spiritual  efforts  of  the  individual  soul ;  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  Osiander  (1549-1567),  who  supported  a  modified 
theory  of  the  doctrine  of  justification;  of  the  Crypto- 
Calvinists  (1552-1574),  who,  led  by  Peucerus,  the  son-in- 
law  of  Melanchthon,  maintained  against  Flacius  Illyricus 
a  theory  of  predestination  differing  from  the  Lutheran 
doctrine.  In  this  last  instance  the  feelings  of  enmity 
engendered  by  the  controversy  rose  to  such  a  pitch  that 
the  elector  of  Saxony  was  induced  to  send  the  leading 
Philippists  to  prison,  while  Flacius  and  his  party  celebrated 
the  victory  which  they  held  to  be  theirs  by  a  solemn 
service  of  thanksgiving  and  a  commemorative  medal.  In 
the  year  1580  an  endeavour  was  made  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation  of  the  various  contending  parties  by  drawing 
up  the  celebrated  Formula  of  Concord,  but  the  design  was 
attended  with  but  little  success.  In  the  midst  of  this 
theological  ferment,  however,  the  divines  of  the  university 
of  Helmstadt,  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  1 7th  century,  were 
honourably  distinguished  by  their  systematic  endeavours 
to  allay  the  strife ;  and  the  career  of  Georg  Calixtus, 
while  affording  a  remarkable  illustration  of  a  gloomy  chap- 
ter in  the  history  of  Protestantism,  may  be  cited  as  a  proof 
that  a  faithful  adherence  to  the  principles  of  the  Reforma- 
tion was  not  incompatible  with  a  regard  for  the  right  of 
private  judgment  and  intellectual  freedom. 

Reforma-  In  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms  the  Reformation  was 
in  ™  materially  assisted  by  political  motives ;  the  introduction 
of  Lutheranism  into  Denmark  by  King  Christian  II.  in 
1520  was  to  a  great  extent  the  result  of  his  desire  to 
raise  the  lower  classes  with  a  view  to  the  corresponding 
depression  of  the  nobility  and  the  more  powerful  eccle- 
siastics of  the  realm.  He  sanctioned  the  marriage  of  the 
clergy  and  caused  the  New  Testament  to  be  translated 
into  Danish.  These  measures,  however,  owing  in  no  slight 
degree  to  the  motives  by  which  they  were  held  to  be 
inspired,  involved  him  in  a  struggle  with  his  subjects 
which  eventually  led  to  his  deposition  and  to  his  passing 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  exile.  But  the  new  doctrines  con- 
tinued to  be  effectively  preached  by  John  Tausen,  who 
had  been  among  Luther's  pupils  at  Wittenberg ;  and  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation  spread  rapidly  in  Schleswig 
and  Holstein.  On  the  accession  of  Christian's  successor, 
Christian  III.  (his  cousin),  the  movement  acquired  fresh 
strength.  The  new  monarch  had  been  a  witness  of  Luther's 
heroic  conduct  at  Worms  and  had  conceived  the  warmest 
admiration  for  the  character  of  the  great  Reformer,  and 
through  his  efforts  the  tenets  of  the  Reformation  were 
adopted  in  1536,  at  a  diet  held  at  Copenhagen,  as  the 
religion  of  the  state.  In  the  following  year  the  move- 
ment extended  to  Norway  and  shortly  after  that  to  Ice- 
land. In  Sweden  the  Reformation  was  established  concur- 
rently with  the  political  revolution  which  placed  Gustavus 
Vasa  on  the  throne.  It  was,  however,  only  too  apparent 
that  the  patriot  king  was  largely  influenced  by  the  expect- 
ation of  replenishing  his  exhausted  exchequer  from  the 
revenues  of  the  church,  and,  as  in  Germany  and  in  Eng- 
land, the  assent  of  the  nobility  was  gained  by  their 


admission  to  a  considerable  share  in  the  confiscated  pro- 
perty. Among  the  powerful  cities  which  represented  the 
great  Hanseatic  confederacy,  again,  the  acceptance  of 
Lutheran  doctrine  turned  largely  on  the  keen  commercial 
rivalry  that  then  existed  between  that  confederacy  and 
Holland,  and  on  the  contests  between  the  privileged  and 
the  unprivileged  classes  in  the  towns.  In  the  prosecution  of 
the  former  struggle  the  burghers  of  Liibeck  appealed  for 
assistance  to  Denmark,  and,  failing  to  gain  the  aid  they 
sought,  proceeded  to  organize  an  alliance  with  the  object 
of  restoring  Christian  II.  to  his  throne ;  at  the  same  time, 
with  the  view  of  outbidding  their  opponents  in  popularity, 
they  unwisely  proclaimed  revolutionary  principles  scarcely 
less  subversive  than  those  of  Miinzer.  In  the  civil  war 
that  ensued  Christian  III.  ultimately  triumphed  over  his 
enemies,  and  Wullenwever,  the  leader  of  the  fanatical  party, 
suffered  death  upon  the  scaffold.  The  Reformation  was 
now  firmly  established,  but  in,  conjunction  with  the  mon- 
archy reinforced  by  the  power  of  the  nobility,  while  the 
ecclesiastical  constitution  was  remodelled  ;  and  in  the  year 
1539,  at  the  diet  of  Odense,  the  new  faith  was  proclaimed 
as  the  religion  of  the  land. 

In  Bohemia  the  Hussite  movement  (see  Huss  and  Bolie 
HUSSITES)  must  be  held  to  have  become  almost  absorbed 
in  the  broader  current  of  Lutheranism,  although  the  Calix- 
tines  (or  moderate  Utraquists)  and  the  Taborites  (or  ex- 
treme party)  long  continued  to  differ  on  questions  of  disci- 
pline. In  the  earlier  part  of  the  17th  century,  however, 
the  trained  activity  and  energy  of  the  Jesuits  led  to  the 
almost  entire  expulsion  of  both  parties,  and  Protestantism 
as  a  professed  creed  nearly  ceased  to  survive. 

In  Poland  Protestantism  prevailed  before  the  first  Polf 
quarter  of  the  16th  century  closed.  In  Dantzic,  Elbing, 
and  Thorn  it  was  established  by  overwhelming  majorities. 
By  the  Pax  Dissidentium,  however,  with  a  view  to  averting 
contests  such  as  those  that  disturbed  the  peace  of  other 
lands,  the  principle  of  universal  toleration  was  enunciated; 
and  the  duke  of  Anjou  (afterwards  Henry  III.  of  France), 
on  being  elected  to  the  vacant  throne  of  Poland  in  1573, 
notwithstanding  his  own  attachment  to  Catholicism,  found 
himself  compelled  to  swear  that  he  would  strictly  protect 
the  adherents  of  the  opposed  faith  from  persecution  and 
aggression.  But  here  again  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits 
ultimately  proved  victorious.  The  nobles  were  gained  over 
by  their  arts,  and  Catholicism  reasserted  its  ascendency. 

In  the  Netherlands,  where  the  free  spirit  of  the  great 
mercantile  communities  was  in  singular  harmony  with  the 
movement,  the  progress  was  still  more  rapid.  The  details 
of  the  heroic  struggle  waged  against  Charles  V.  and  Philip 
II.  must  be  regarded  as  belonging  rather  to  secular  than  to 
theological  history ;  but  it  is  to  be  noted,  alike  to  the  honour 
of  the  people  and  of  the  house  of  Orange,  that  the  enact- 
ment of  the  principle  of  religious  toleration  followed  upon 
the  fierce  and  intolerant  persecution  to  which  the  country 
had  so  long  been  exposed.  Although  the  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  professed  the  tenets  of  Calvinism,  the  Arminian 
party  succeeded  in  bringing  about  a  union  of  church  and 
state,  which,  however,  left  the  other  communions  almost 
entirely  unrestricted  in  their  religious  freedom.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Gomarus,  indeed,  early  in  the  17th  century, 
seemed  at  one  time  likely  to  place  this  freedom  in  danger, 
not  only  by  their  assertion  of  more  rigid  Calvinistic  doctrine, 
but  also  by  their  demand  that  the  church  should  be  con- 
stituted independent  of  the  state.  But  eventually  (see 
Motley,  Hist,  of  the  United  Netherlands,  c.  Hi.)  the  party 
that  favoured  religious  toleration  triumphed;  and  the  Dutch 
republic  long  continued  to  be  an  asylum  for  those  whom 
the  ascendency  of  the  contrary  principle  in  other  lands 
drove  into  exile.  The  church  organization  was  modelled 
on  the  political  organization  of  the  provinces,  each  province 


REFORMATION 


337 


being  subdivided  into  classes,  while  the  mode  of  government 
was  nearly  identical  with  that  known  as  Presbyterian. 
t,  In  England  the  reformation  of  doctrine  made  but  little 
g  in  progress  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  for,  although 
sad.  j^  the  Ten  Articles  (1536)  the  royal  assent  was  given  to 
the  adoption  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  and 
to  the  recognition  of  the  Bible  and  the  three  ancient  creeds 
as  the  standard  of  belief,  a  marked  reaction  in  favour  of 
Catholic  doctrine  took  place  in  the  enactment  of  the  Six 
Articles  in  1539.  For  a  brief  period  heresy  became  a 
statutable  offence  and  death  was  inflicted  under  the  new 
provisions.  The  anomalous  position  of  the  English  Church 
became  a  scandal  to  Europe ;  for,  while  some  men  were 
burnt  for  denying  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  or 
for  refusing  to  admit  the  royal  supremacy,  others,  as 
Barnes  and  Gerard,  suffered  at  the  stake  for  their  profes- 
sion of  Lutheran  opinions,  and  even  Cromwell  must  be 
regarded  as  in  some  measure  a  victim  of  his  attachment 
to  German  Protestantism.  During  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI.  Somerset  in  conjunction  with  Cranmer  pressed  on  the 
work  of  the  Reformation  apace.  Chantries  and  hospitals 
were  everywhere  suppressed  and  their  endowments  confis- 
cated. The  bishops  were  compelled  to  acknowledge  their 
direct  subordination  to  the  crown  by  being  required  to 
take  out  licences  for  the  exercise  of  their  jurisdiction.  In 
1549  the  first  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  published, 
and  the  Act  of  Uniformity  prescribed  its  use,  while  that 
of  all  other  forms  of  devotion  was  forbidden  under  heavy 
penalties.  The  canon  law  was  revised  by  a  body  of  com- 
missioners specially  appointed  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
new  code  was  completed  for  future  use,  although  it  never 
received  the  young  king's  signature.  By  these  and  other 
similar  reforms,  carried  out  in  a  great  measure  under 
Cranmer 's  direction,  it  was  sought  to  make  the  Reforma- 
tion in  England  a  complete  rejoinder  to  the  proceedings 
of  the  council  assembled  at  Trent. 

:tnd.  In  Scotland  the  Reformation  assumed  a  different  char- 
acter from  that  of  the  movement  in  England.  It  was 
inspired  directly  and  solely  by  Germany,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  commencing  from  the  martyrdom  of  Patrick 
Hamilton  in  the  year  1528,  there  being  no  evidence  of 
any  prior  spontaneous  efforts  in  the  direction  of  doctrinal 
reform  on  the  part  of  the  people.  Hamilton's  designs 
were  looked  upon  with  the  greatest  disfavour  by  the  clergy 
at  large;  and,  as  James  V.  was  especially  anxious  to  secure 
the  support  of  that  body  in  his  conflict  with  his  insub- 
ordinate nobility,  he  was  altogether  opposed  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Lutheran  tenets.  He  even  aspired  to  succeed 
to  the  title,  which  Henry  had  forfeited,  of  "  Defender  of 
the  Faith,"  and  was  encouraged  to  hope  that  he  might 
succeed  to  the  English  crown.  After  his  death  (1542), 
however,  under  the  regency  of  the  earl  of  Arran,  the 
Reformed  doctrines  began  to  be  regarded  with  greater 
favour  at  court,  while  the  merciless  policy  of  Cardinal 
Beaton  and  the  cruel  fate  of  Wishart  gave  rise  to  an  out- 
burst of  popular  indignation  against  the  bishops  to  which 
Beaton  himself  fell  a  victim  (1546).  The  country  was 
now  divided  into  two  parties, — the  bishops,  the  clergy  at 
large,  and  the  powerful  influence  of  France  (as  represented 
by  the  Guises)  being  on  the  side  of  Catholicism,  while 
many  of  the  chief  nobles  and  the  laity  at  large  were 
inclined  to  favour  Protestantism.  The  English  influence, 
which,  wisely  exerted,  might  have  operated  powerfully  on 
the  same  side,  was,  however,  sacrificed  by  the  injudicious 
policy  of  Somerset,  who  by  his  endeavour  to  enforce  the 
marriage  of  Mary  Stuart  with  the  youthful  Edward  roused 
the  national  spirit.  The  sense  of  humiliation  and  resent- 
ment which  followed  upon  the  battle  of  Pinkie  (1547), 
where  the  English  were  greeted  by  the  Scottish  soldiery 
with  the  cry  of  "heretics,"  produced  a  reaction  in  favour 


of  Catholicism  which  was  not  arrested  until  the  return  of 
John  Knox  in  1555  from  the  Continent  (see  KNOX). 

In  Ireland  the  circumstances  which  favoured  the  intro-  Ireland, 
duction  of  Protestantism  in  England  were  altogether 
wanting.  The  Roman  ritual  was  in  harmony  with  the 
genius  of  the  people,  whereas  the  aversion  naturally  inspired 
by  a  creed  imposed  at  the  dictation  of  the  conqueror  was 
in  itself  a  formidable  obstacle.  The  harsh  and  essentially 
un-Christian  policy  pursued  by  the  constituted  ecclesiastical 
authorities  presented  further  difficulties.  The  Bible  was 
not  translated  into  the  vernacular,  and  that  idiom  was 
equally  ignored  in  the  church  services,  where  the  choice 
lay  between  the  Latin,  hallowed  in  the  minds  of  the  people 
by  immemorial  usage,  and  the  language  of  the  oppressor. 
Notwithstanding,  if  the  native  population  failed  to  attend 
the  English  Church  services  they  were  fined.  Other 
abuses  similar  to  those  which  had  contributed  so  power- 
fully to  render  Germany  Protestant, — non-residence  on  the 
part  of  the  clergy,  the  bestowal  of  benefices  on  needy 
aliens,  often  altogether  wanting  in  religious  earnestness, 
and  sometimes  indifferent  to  the  observance  of  ordinary 
morality, — still  further  intensified  the  feeling  of  alienation. 
Protestantism  became  odious  in  the  eyes  of  the  Irish 
people ;  and,  when,  after  long  years  of  oppression  and 
neglect,  it  was  sought  to  inaugurate  a  juster  policy  and 
to  render  the  established  church  in  some  degree  really 
national,  the  obstacles  thus  created  could  not  be  overcome. 

Authorities. — The  sources  already  named  under  POPEDOM,  BEZA, 
CALVIN,  ERASMUS,  Huss,  JESUITS,  KNOX,  LUTHKR  may  be  con- 
sulted. The  Lchrbuch  dcr  KircJiengcschichte  of  Gieseler  (vol.  iii.  2 
pts. )  gives  a  condensed  and  impartial  summary  of  the  main  features 
of  the  movement  throughout  Europe,  together  with  a  valuable 
compendium  of  authorities.  A  translation  has  appeared  in  Clark's 
Foreign  Theological  Library,  and  has  been  republished  in  a  revised 
form  by  Prof.  Henry  B.  Smith  (New  York,  1868),  but  in  its  latter 
form  the  valuable  citations  contained  in  the  German  work  from 
the  original  authorities  are  not  given  in  full.  Other  standard  works 
are — Baur,  Gcsch.  d.  christlichcn  Kirchc  (1863) ;  Guericke,  Handbuch 
der  Kirchengesch. ,  vol.  ii.  (Leipsic,  1866),  which  treats  the  subject 
from  the  Lutheran  standpoint ;  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Ref.  in  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland  (Clark's  For.  Theol.  Lib.,  2  vols.,  1879), 
written  in  sympathy  with  the  Zwinglian  movement ;  Dollinger, 
Die  Reformation,  3  vols.  (1851),  treating  solely  of  the  Lutheran 
movement;  Ranke,  Deutsche  Gcsch.  im  Zcitalter  d.  Rcf.,  5  vols.; 
Maurenbrecher,  Gcsch.  d,  kath.  Ref.,  vol.  i.  (1517-34),  1880.  The 
Annales  Ecclcsiastici  of  Raynaldus.  the  continuator  of  Baronius, 
contains  original  documents.  See  also  Hausser's  Gesch.  d.  Zeitaltcrs 
der  Ref .  (1547-1648),  2d  ed.,  by  Oncken,  1879,  in  which  the  poli- 
tical relations  of  the  movement  are  succinctly  brought  out  (Eng. 
trans,  by  Mrs  Sturge,  1873) ;  Monumenta  Rcformationis  Lutlicranw, 
a  selection  from  documents  at  the  Vatican  by  Cardinal  Balan  (1883- 
84) ;  and  Keller's  Die  Reformation  und  die  altercn  Rcformparteien 
(Leipsic,  1885).  For  the  confessions  successively  adopted  by  the 
different  Evangelical  and  Reformed  churches  consult  Schaffs  His- 
tory of  the  Creeds  (1878),  chaps,  v.,  vi.,  and  vii.  The  series  known 
as  Leben  und  ausgewahlte,  Schriften  der  Vater  und  Bcgriinder  der 
Luthcrischcn  Kirchen,  ed.  Nitzsch,  8  vols.  (1861-<75),  gives  full  bio- 
graphies of  the  most  eminent  Evangelical  teachers.  The  corre- 
sponding work  for  the  Reformed  Church  is  the  Leben  und  ausgnv. 
Schriften  d.  Vater  u.  JBegr.  d.  ref.  Kirchen,  ed.  Hagenbach,  10  vols. 
(1857-62).  .Other  biographies  of  special  interest  are — Geiger,  Joliann 
Reuchlin,  sein  Leben  u.  seine  Werke  (Leipsic,  1871),  and  that  of 
Ulrich  von  Hutten,  by  Strauss  (trans,  by  Mrs  Sturge,  1874). 
Hutten's  Works  (ed.  E.  Booking,  7  vols.,  Leipsic,  1871)  and  Das 
Chronikon  des  Konrad  Pcllican  (ed.  Riggenbach,  Basel,  1877)  may 
also  be  consulted.  For  the  history  of  the  subject  in  England,  see 
Foxe's  Acts  and  Monuments,  ed.  Cattley,  8  vols.  (1841) ;  Jer. 
Collier's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Great  Britain,' 'ed.  Barham,  9  vols. 
(1840-41) ;  Burnet's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  England,  ed. 
Pocock,  7  vols.  (1865) ;  and  the  criticisms  contained  in  vol.  iii.  of 
S.  R.  Maitland's  Tracts  (1842),  and  also  his  Essays  on  Subjects  con- 
nected with  the,  Reformation  in  England.  The  Records  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, by  Pocock,  2  vols.  (1870),  contains  important  original  docu- 
ments ;  to  this  work  may  be  added  Strype's  Annals,  6  vols.  (1822), 
and  Memorials,  7  vols.  (1824) ;  the  works  of  the  Reformers  published 
by  the  Parker  Society  (Cambridge,  1841-54),  and  the  Zurich  Letters, 
3  vols.  (same  society) ;  J.  H.  Blunt's  Reformation  of  the  Church  of 
England  (1514-47),  2  vols.,  1869-80;  and  Dixon's  History  of  the 
Church  of  England  from  the  Abolition  of  tlic  Roman  Jurisdiction 
(1529-48),  2  vols.,  1877-80.  (J.  B.  M.) 

XX.  —  43 


338 


REFORMATORY 


REFORMATORY  AND  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 
There  exist  two  classes  of  schools  for  the  reformation  and 
industrial  training  of  children  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
both  under  state  control  when  duly  certified.  Reformatory 
schools  are  for  the  better  training  of  juvenile  convicted 
offenders ;  industrial  schools,  in  which  industrial  training 
is  provided,  are  chiefly  for  vagrant  and  neglected  children 
and  children  not  convicted  of  theft.  These  schools  are  of 
modern  but  gradual  growth,  the  result  in  part  of  humane 
endeavours  to  rescue  children  from  evil  courses  already 
embarked  on  or  likely  to  be  their  lot,  in  part  of  the  con- 
viction that,  as  a  matter  of  social  economy,  the  expendi- 
ture incurred  in  early  restraint  is  less  costly  than  the 
punishment  of  matured  crime. 

England  and  Scotland. — The  Acts  of  Parliament  relating 
to  reformatory  and  industrial  schools  in  Great  Britain  were 
consolidated  and  amended  in  1866;  and  these  Acts  (29  and 
30  Viet.  cc.  117,  118),  with  local  legislation  and  some  ex- 
tension and  amendment,  govern  the  two  classes  of  schools 
at  the  present  time.  Both  reformatory  and  industrial 
schools  are  certified  by  the  home  secretary  upon  the  appli- 
cation of  the  managers,  and  upon  a  satisfactory  inspection 
and  report,  and  subject  to  a  yearly  visit  by  inspectors.  In 
both  classes  industrial  training  is  an  essential  feature,  so 
as  to  engender  industrious  habits  in  the  inmates  and  give 
them  the  means  of  earning  an  honest  livelihood.  Not 
only  local  circumstances  but  reasonable  individual  inclina- 
tions are  taken  into  consideration.  In  rural  districts  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  and  in  urban  districts  local  trades 
are  obvious  sources  of  employment ;  the  duties  of  a  sailor 
are  taught  in  training  ships  near  the  coast.  Occupations 
that  create  a  distaste  for  labour  or  that  do  not  provide  a 
permanent  source  of  profitable  labour  for  adults  are  avoided. 
The  managers  (often  a  committee  of  magistrates)  make  all 
necessary  rules  for  the  management  and  discipline  of  the 
schools,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  legislature  and 
the  intervention  of  the  secretary  of  state.  They  have  the 
appointment  of  officers.  Conformity  to  the  rules  and 
residence  in  the  schools  may  be  enforced  by  imprisonment, 
the  application  and  limits  of  which  vary  somewhat  in 
reformatory  and  industrial  schools,  e.g.,  such  imprisonment 
for  school  offences  is  confined  in  industrial  schools  to 
children  above  ten,  an  age  almost  always  exceeded  in  the 
inmates  of  reformatories.  Attention  is  paid  in  both  classes 
to  religious  convictions,  and  as  far  as  possible  a  selection 
is  made  of  a  school  conducted  in  accordance  with  the 
creed  professed  by  the  child  or  its  responsible  guardians. 
Children  after  eighteen  months'  detention  may  be  placed 
out  on  licence  with  trustworthy  persons  and  with  their 
own  consent.  The  managers  of  a  reformatory  or  of  an  in- 
dustrial school  may  decline  to  receive  the  youthful  offender 
in  the  one  case  and  in  the  other  the  child  proposed  to  be 
sent ;  but  the  reception  of  a  child  operates  as  an  under- 
taking by  the  managers  to  educate,  clothe,  lodge,  and  feed 
him  (or  her)  until  he  (or  she)  can  be  legally  discharged 
or  is  removed.  Reformatory  and  industrial  schools  are, 
however,  essentially  distinct  in  character  and  governed  by 
distinct  Acts  of  Parliament :  a  school  cannot  at  the  same 
time  be  both  a  certified  industrial  school  and  a  certified 
reformatory  school.  The  Middlesex  Industrial  School  for 
juvenile  offenders,  established  under  local  Acts,  and  in 
part  a  certified  industrial  school,  is,  however,  somewhat 
exceptional  in  blending  the  treatment  of  both  classes. 

Any  offender  under  sixteen,  convicted  of  an  offence 
punishable  with  penal  servitude  or  imprisonment  and 
sentenced  to  be  imprisoned  for  ten  days  or  a  longer  term, 
may  be  sent  to  a  certified  reformatory  school  for  not  less 
than  two  and  not  more  than  five  years.  A  youthful 
offender  under  ten  cannot  be  sent  to  a  reformatory  school 
unless  he  has  been  previously  charged  with  some  crime 


or  offence  punishable  with  penal  servitude  or  imprisonment, 
or  is  sentenced  in  England  by  a  judge  of  assize  or  court  of 
general  or  quarter  sessions  or  in  Scotland  by  a  circuit  court 
of  justiciary  or  a  sheriff.  Youthful  offenders  receiving  a 
conditional  pardon  may  now  be  sent  to  a  certified  ref  on 
tory  school.  Certified  industrial  schools  receive  any  chile 
apparently  under  fourteen  who  is  brought  by  any  persor 
before  justices  as  answering  to  any  of  the  following  de 
scriptions : — if  found  begging  or  receiving  alms  (whethe 
actually  or  under  the  pretext  of  selling  or  offering  for 
anything)  or  being  in  any  street  or  public  place  for  thes 
purposes ;  if  found  wandering  and  not  having  any  home 
or  settled  place  of  abode,  or  proper  guardianship,  or  visible 
means  of  subsistence ;  if  found  destitute,  either  being  an 
orphan  or  having  a  surviving  parent  who  is  undergoing 
penal  servitude  or  imprisonment ;  if  it  frequents  the  com- 
pany of  reputed  thieves ;  if  lodging,  living,  or  residing  with 
common  or  reputed  prostitutes,  pr  in  a  house  resided  in  or 
frequented  by  prostitutes  for  the  purpose  of  prostitution ; 
if  it  frequents  the  company  of  prostitutes  (43  and  44 
Viet.  c.  15);  where  a  parent  or  step-parent  represents  to 
the  magistrates  that  he  is  unable  to  control  a  child  and 
that  he  desires  that  the  child  be  sent  to  an  industrial 
school ;  where  the  guardians  of  the  poor  represent  that  a 
child  maintained  in  a  workhouse  or  pauper  school  or  poor- 
house  is  refractory  or  the  child  of  a  parent  convicted  of  a 
crime  or  offence  punishable  with  penal  servitude  or  im- 
prisonment, and  that  it  is  desirable  that  he  be  sent  to  an 
industrial  school.  To  the  above  cases  have  to  be  added 
a  child  apparently  under  twelve  who  is  charged  Avith  an 
offence  punishable  by  imprisonment  or  a  less  punishment 
but  has  not  been  in  England  convicted  of  felony  or  in 
Scotland  for  theft ;  and  the  children  of  any  woman  con- 
victed of  a  crime  after  a  previous  conviction,  and  under 
her  care  and  control  at  the  time  of  conviction  for  the  last 
of  such  crimes,  who  have  no  visible  means  of  subsistence 
or  who  are  without  proper  guardianship  (Prevention  of 
Crimes  Act,  1871). 

A  prison  authority  (a  term  as  regards  industrial  schools 
calculated  to  mislead,  as  the  authority  is  in  general  the 
court  of  quarter  sessions  or  school  boards,  and  in  Scotland 
commissioners  of  supply,  magistrates  of  buFghs,  or  county 
boards)  may,  with  the  approval  of  the  secretary  of  state, 
establish  or  contribute  towards  the  establishment,  building 
(including  borrowing  money),  or  management  (and  in 
England  may  not  only  contribute  to  but  undertake  these 
matters)  of  reformatory  or  industrial  schools,  or  towards 
the  support  of  the  inmates,  and  such  authority  may  con- 
tract with  the  managers  for  the  reception  and  maintenance 
of  offenders  or  children.  The  treasury  contributes  towards 
the  custody  and  maintenance  of  offenders  in  reformatory 
and  of  children  in  industrial  schools  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  secretary  of  state,  the  sum  being  limited  as  regards 
children  in  industrial  schools,  on  the  application  of  their 
parents  or  guardians,  to  2s.  per  head  per  week.  The  guard- 
ians of  the  poor  or  the  board  of  management  of  district 
pauper  schools  or  parochial  boards  of  a  parish  or  com- 
bination may,  with  the  consent  in  England  of  the  local 
government,  and  in  Scotland  of  the  board  of  management, 
contribute  towards  the  maintenance  of  children  detained 
in  industrial  schools.  A  prison  authority  in  England  may 
contribute  towards  the  ultimate  disposal  of  an  inmate  of 
a  certified  industrial  school.  The  parent  or  other  person 
legally  liable  to  maintain  a  youthful  offender  or  child  in 
a  school  is  required  (if  able)  to  contribute  not  more  than 
5s.  per  week,  recoverable  summarily.  The  alleged  want 
of  diligent  enforcement  of  this  liability  is  a  great  source 
of  complaint. 

The  introduction  of  a  system  of  compulsory  elementary  educa- 
tion rendered  it  necessary  to  extend  industrial  schools.  TJnde£ 


E  F  —  R  E  F 


339 


various  Acts  passed  since  1870  school  boards  have  power,  with  the 
consent  of  the  secretary  of  state,  to  contribute  to  or  wholly  to 
undertake  the  establishment,  building,  and  maintenance  of  in- 
dustrial schools,  and  a  power  exists  to  transfer  industrial  schools 
from  other  authorities  to  school  boards,  but  such  schools  are  sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  secretary  of  state  in  the  same  manner 
as  other  certified  industrial  schools.  The  machinery  for  bringing 
children,  the  subjects  of  certified  industrial  schools,  before  the  proper 
tribunal  for  making  orders  has  been  and  is  a  vexed  question.  Legis- 
lative powers  given  to  "any  one"  are  apt  to  fall  into  abeyance  or 
into  the  hands  of  the  police.  School  boards  have  a  discretionary 
power  to  appoint  officers  to  bring  children  before  justices  to  be 
sent  to  industrial  schools  (33  and  34  Viet.  c.  75,  s.  36).  A  school 
board  or  school  attendance  committee  (as  the  local  authority)  is 
required,  after  due  warning  to  the  parents,  to  complain  to  a  court 
of  summary  jurisdiction  of  the  non-attendance  of  a  child  coming 
within  the  elementary  education  Acts,  and  must  so  complain  at 
the  instance  of  any  person.  The  court  may  then  make  an  attend- 
ance order  for  the  child  at  some  certified  efficient  school,  and,  in 
case  of  non-compliance,  may  order  the  child  to  be  sent  to  a  certified 
day  or  other  industrial  school.  The  expenses  of  industrial  schools, 
established  by  or  contributed  to  by  school  boards,  form  part  of  the 
general  expenses  of  the  school  fund.  As  in  the  case  of  other  in- 
dustrial schools,  parents  are  liable  to  contribution,  and  where  a 
child  is  ordered  upon  complaint  made  by  a  school  attendance  com- 
mittee to  be  sent  to  a  certified  industrial  school  the  council,  guard- 
ians, or  sanitary  authority  appointing  such  committee  have,  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  committee,  the  same  power  of  contri- 
buting towards  the  maintenance  as  if  they  were  a  school  board  (42 
and  43  Viet.  c.  48,  s.  4). 

In  1876  a  fresh  class  of  industrial  schools  was  introduced  called 
"certified  day  industrial  schools,"  in  relation  to  which  prison 
authorities  and  school  boards  have  the  same  powers  as  in  the  case 
of  industrial  schools  ;  and  towards  the  custody,  industrial  training, 
elementary  education,  and  meals  of  children  attending  these  schools 
parliament  may  contribute  a  sum  limited  to  Is.  per  head  per  week, 
on  conditions  recommended  by  the  secretary  of  state,  with  a  limited 
power  over  the  contribution  of  parents.  In  certain  cases  of  non- 
compliance  with  an  attendance  order  the  child  is  sent  to  a  day 
industrial  school  rather  than  to  an  industrial  school  of  the  class 
described  above  (39  and  40  Viet.  c.  79,  s.  16).  In  large  cities  day 
industrial  schools  are  calculated  to  be  of  great  service  in  dealing 
with  the  class  of  poor  neglected  children.  The  children  are  found 
to  be  managed  without  much  difficulty,  and  to  respond  to  any 
efforts  made  on  their  behalf ;  they  compare  favourably  with  children 
kept  for  years  in  close  confinement,  and  are  often  their  superiors 
in  spirit  and  intelligence  (27th  Report  of  inspector).  Another  de- 
scription of  certified  schools  has  sprung  up  in  connexion  with 
school  boards, — "truant  schools."  The  few  which  at  present  are 
established  in  London  and  some  large  towns  are  on  the  whole  doing 
a  good  work.  The  necessary  adaptation  of  certified  industrial 
schools  to  the  school-board  system  must  necessitate  the  placing  of 
all  reformatory  and  industrial  schools  on  a  clearer  system  of  classi- 
fication. Crime  must  be  distinguished  from  pauperism.  However 
crime  may  arise  from  neglect  of  parents,  it  is  neither  desirable  nor 
fair  to  compel  as  the  price  of  poverty  children  unconvicted  of  crime 
to  associate  with  juvenile  delinquents  even  after  the  punishment 
of  crime  has  ceased.  On  the  other  hand,  the  actual  incarceration 
of  boys  and  girls  in  a  jail  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 

The  total  number  of  schools  under  Government  inspection  at 
the  close  of  1883  was  200,  viz.,  61  reformatory  and  139  industrial 
schools,  of  which  last  7  were  specially  certified  as  truant  and  12 
as  day  industrial  schools.  The  number  of  children  under  detention 
in  1883  in  reformatory  schools  in  Great  Britain  was  6657,  at  a  total 
school  expenditure  of  £126,122,  of  which  £85,635  was  paid  by  the 
treasury,  £6140  by  parents,  £23,183  by  rates,  and  £4943  by  sub- 
scriptions and  legacies.  In  industrial  schools  the  number  was 
18,780  and  the  expenditure  £359,821,  of  which  £176,733  was  paid 
by  the  treasury,  £17,596  by  parents,  £40,052  by  rates,  £65,542  by 
school  boards,  and  £42,129  by  subscriptions.  The  total  admissions 
(excluding  transfers)  to  reformatory  schools  to  the  end  of  1883 
amounted  to  42,669,  viz.,  34,640  boys  and  8029  girls.  The  total 
discharges  (excluding  transfers)  were  36,111,  viz.,  29,235  boys  and 
6876  girls.  They  were  disposed  of  as  follows  : — 


Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

Employment  or  service  

9,962 

3814 

13,776 

Placed  out  through  relatives   .  . 

9  663 

2115 

11  778 

Emigrated  

2  317 

148 

2  465 

Sent  to  sea  .  . 

4  291 

4  211 

Enlisted  . 

693 

693 

Discharged  from  disease    . 

374 

181 

555 

Discharged  as  incorrigible    .  . 

213 

91 

304 

Died    6 

781 

299 

1  080 

Absconded,  and  not  recovered 

941 

228 

1  169 

29,235 

6S76 

36,111 

The  total  admissions  to  industrial  schools  (excluding  transfers) 


to  the  end  of  1883  were  61,260,  viz.,  48,959  boys  and  12,301  girls. 
The  total  discharges  (excluding  transfers)  were  42,412,  viz.,  33,877 
boys  and  8535  gins.  They  were  disposed  of  as  follows  : — 


Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

Employment  or  service  

12,513 

5248 

17  761 

To  friends  

10,212 

1995 

12  207 

Emigrated  

737 

130 

867 

Sent  to  sea  

5  325 

5  325 

Enlisted  

921 

921 

Discharged  as  diseased,  or  on  special 
grounds  

859 

281 

1  140 

Committed  to  reformatories    

885 

153 

1  038 

Died  

1,405 

557 

1  962 

Absconded,  and  not  recovered    

1,020 

171 

1  191 

33,877 

8535 

42,412 

Ireland. — Reformatory  schools  were  established  in  Ireland  in 
1858,  and  ten  years  afterwards  were  placed  mainly  on  their  present 
footing  (Irish  Reformatory  Schools  Act,  1868) ;  whilst  the  estab- 
lishment and  regulation  of  industrial  schools  were  provided  for  by 
the  Industrial  Schools  Act  (Ireland),  1868,  extending  to  Ireland, 
with  certain  modifications,  the  English  Act  of  1866.  The  differ- 
ences between  the  Acts  applicable  in  Ireland  and  Great  Britain 
relate  chiefly  to  minor  matters.  The  rule  requiring  a  young  offender 
or  a  child  to  be  sent  to  a  school  under  the  same  religious  manage- 
ment is  much  more  rigid  in  Ireland  than  in  Great  Britain,  and  the- 
Irish  Act  does  not  limit  the  power  of  sending  a  child  under  ten 
to  a  reformatory  school  where  the  child  has  not  been  previously 
charged  with  an  offence  punishable  with  penal  servitude  or  im- 
prisonment. The  power  to  contract  with  managers  for  the  recep- 
tion and  maintenance  of  young  offenders  is  in  general  vested  in 
grand  juries  and  in  some  town  councils.  The  number  of  reforma- 
tory schools  in  Ireland  at  the  close  of  1883  was  9,  viz.,  5  for 
boys  and  4  for  girls,  with  907  boys  and  192  girls.  Of  industrial 
schools  there  were  62,  viz.,  17  for  boys,  44  for  girls,  and  1  for  young 
boys  and  girls,  with  a  total  of  2409  boys  and  3759  girls.  The 
disposal  on  discharge  follows  the  lines  given  in  the  tables  for  Great 
Britain.  Much  the  larger  proportion  of  girls  in  industrial  schools 
in  Ireland,  as  might  be  anticipated,  find  their  subsequent  career  in 
employment  or  service,  or  are  placed  out  through  friends.  Emigra- 
tion also  is  absolutely  far  larger  (and  has  been  from  the  establish- 
ment of  industrial  schools)  in  the  case  of  girls  than  of  boys.  The 
reported  results  of  the  training  of  girls  discharged  from  reformatory 
schools  are  very  satisfactory,  and  among  the  1526  girls  discharged 
during  the  three  years  1880-82  there  was  only  one  conviction  for 
crime  during  1883.  The  total  receipts  for  the  maintenance  of 
reformatory  schools  in  1883  were  £28,116,  of  which  £17,555  was 
contributed  by  the  treasury  vote  and  £7920  from  local  rates.  The 
average  cost  per  head  for  maintenance  (including  rent  and  dis- 
posal) was  £23,  9s.  for  boys  and  £27,  2s.  2d.  for  girls.  For  in- 
dustrial schools  the  receipts  in  1883  were  £126,820,  of  which  the 
treasury  contributed  £77,259  and  rates  £27,960.  Parental  con- 
tributions to  reformatory  and  industrial  schools  were  £1018. 

United  States. — The  institutions  in  the  United  States  and  of 
other  civilized  countries,  having  for  their  object  or  effort  the 
reclamation  of  the  young,  are  too  closely  connected  with  the  educa- 
tion of  poor  and  destitute  children  generally  to  allow  of  examination 
here,  or  of  useful  comparison  with  the  reformatory  and  industrial 
schools  of  Great  Britain  under  state  control. 

In  1882  a  royal  commission  was  issued  to  inquire  into 
the  management  generally  of  all  certified  reformatories  and 
industrial  schools  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  commission, 
in  the  following  year,  suggested  a  simplification  of  the  law 
and  the  removal  of  some  anomalies  and  defects,  including 
the  vexed  question  as  to  the  treatment  of  boys  and  girls 
in  relation  to  imprisonment,  and  the  distinctions  already  ad- 
verted to.  The  commissioners  expressed  their  "opinion  that 
these  schools  were  having  a  salutary  effect  in  reducing  the 
amount  both  of  juvenile  and  of  adult  crime.  The  memor- 
anda of  the  earl  of  Dalhousie  and  Lord  Norton  attached  to 
the  Report  are  worthy  of  special  attention.  (j.  E.  D.) 

REFORMED  'CHURCHES,  the  designation  of  those 
Protestant  bodies  who  adopted  the  tenets  of  Zwingli  (and 
later  of  Calvin),  as  distinguished  from  those  of  the  Lutheran 
or  Evangelical  divines.  Compare  PRESBYTERIANISM,  RE- 
FORMATION, and  GERMANY,  vol.  x.  p.  469. 

REFORMED  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA  (DUTCH), 
formerly  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church,  a  reli- 
gious denomination  which  arose  in  Holland  in  the  16th 
century.  See  PRESBYTERIANISM,  vol.  xix.  p.  698  sq. 

REFRACTION.     See  LIGHT  and  OPTICS. 

REFRIGERATION.     See  ICE  and  PRESERVED  FOOD. 


340 


R  E  G  — R  E  G 


REGALIA,  insignia  of  royalty  used  at  the  coronation 
of  the  sovereign  and  other  great  state  ceremonials.  The 
regalia  of  England  were  in  very  early  times  deposited  for 
security  in  some  religious  house  dependent  on  the  crown, 
most  generally  in  the  treasury  of  the  Temple.  The  first 
mention  of  their  being  deposited  in  the  Tower  of  London 
is  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  who  on  his  return  from 
France  in  1230  commanded  the  bishop  of  Carlisle  to 
replace  the  jewels  in  the  Tower  as  they  had  been  before. 
From  his  time  down  to  the  present  the  regalia  (with  the 
exception  of  the  ancient  crown  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
long  retained  in  Westminster  Abbey)  have  been  generally  in 
the  Tower  under  the  care  of  a  keeper,  but  both  Henry  III. 
and  several  of  his  successors,  when  in  money  difficulties, 
had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of  pawning  the  crown 
jewels  to  raise  a  loan.  Originally  the  keeper  was  appointed 
by  letters  patent  at  a  stated  salary  of  £50  per  annum, 
which  was  so  largely  increased  by  perquisites  that  in  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.  it  amounted  to  about  £1500.  The 
office  had  attached  to  it  important  privileges,  and  was 
frequently  held  by  persons  of  distinction.  At  the  Restora- 
tion many  of  the  perquisites  were  abolished,  and  since 
that  period  the  duties  have  been  merged  in  those  of  the 
lord  chamberlain,  who  appoints  a  person  to  have  charge  of 
the  regalia  in  the  Tower.  To  make  up  for  the  decrease  in 
the  perquisites  of  the  office,  the  regalia  were  first  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  allowed  to  be  exhibited  in  public, 
the  profits  accruing  being  given  to  the  person  appointed 
by  the  lord  chamberlain  to  have  charge  of  the  regalia. 
They  were  originally  kept  in  a  small  building  in  the  south 
side  of  the  White  Tower,  till  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  when 
they  were  transferred  to  a  strong  chamber  in  the  Martin 
Tower,  afterwards  called  the  Jewel  Tower.  During  the 
Civil  War  they  were  nearly  all  carried  off  by  the  Puritans 
and  destroyed,  and  in  1671  an  attempt  made  to  steal  the 
new  regalia  by  Colonel  BLOOD  (g.v.)  was  nearly  successful. 
During  the  fire  of  1841  they  were  removed  for  safety  to 
the  house  of  the  governor,  and  afterwards  a  new  room 
within  the  Wakefield  Tower  was  constructed  for  their 
reception.  The  regalia  now  contained  in  this  room  include 
St  Edward's  crown,  made  for  the  coronation  of  Charles  II. 
to  replace  the  one  broken  up  and  sold  during  the  Civil 
War ;  the  new  state  crown  made  for  the  coronation  of 
Queen  Victoria ;  the  prince  of  Wales's  crown  ;  the  queen 
consort's  crown  ;  the  queen's  diadem  or  circlet  of  gold  made 
for  the  coronation  of  Marie  d'Este,  consort  of  James  II. ; 
St  Edward's  staff  of  beaten  gold ;  the  royal  sceptre  or 
sceptre  with  the  cross  ;  the  rod  of  equity  or  sceptre  with 
the  dove ;  the  queen's  sceptre  with  the  cross ;  the  queen's 
ivory  sceptre,  made  for  Marie  d'Este ;  an  ancient  sceptre 
supposed  to  have  been  made  for  Queen  Mary,  consort  of 
William  III. ;  the  orb ;  the  queen's  orb ;  the  Koh-i-Noor 
diamond  ;  the  sword  of  mercy  or  curtana  ;  the  sword  of 
justice;  the  armilUe  or  coronation  bracelets;  the  royal 
spurs ;  the  ampulla  for  the  holy  oil ;  the  gold  coronation 
spoon  (supposed  to  be  the  only  relic  of  the  ancient  regalia 
now  remaining)  ;  the  golden  salt  cellar ;  the  baptismal 
font ;  and  the  silver  wine  fountain  presented  to  Charles 
II.  by  the  corporation  of  Plymouth. 

The  regalia  of  Scotland,  of  which  there  is  a  very  complete  account 
in  Pajjcrs  relative  to  tJte  Regalia  of  Scotland  published  by  the 
Bannatyne  Club  (1829),  consist  of  the  crown,  the  sceptre,  and  the 
sword  of  state.  The  ancient  regalia  were  carried  off  or  destroyed 
by  Edward  I.  of  England  in  1296,  and  Robert  Bruce  was  crowned 
at  Scone  with  a  temporary  crownlet,  which  also  shortly  afterwards 
fell  into  the  bands  of  the  English.  The  present  crown,  from  the 
character  of  a  portion  of  its  workmanship,  is  supposed  to  be  that 
made  by  the  orders  of  Robert  Brace  and  first  used  at  the  coronation 
of  David  II.  in  1329.  Two  concentric  circles  were  added  to  it  in 
the  reign  of  James  V.,  surmounted  at  tbe  point  of  intersection  witli 
n  mound  of  gold  enamelled  and  a  Inrge  cross  patee,  upon  which 
nrc  the  characters  J.  R.  V.  Tbe  sceptre  was  made  in  the  reign  of 


James  V.,  and  tbe  sword  of  state  was  presented  to  King  James  IV. 
in  1507  by  Pope  Julius  II.  When  Cromwell  invaded  Scotland  the 
regalia  were  removed  for  greater  security  by  the  earl  marisclml 
from  the  crown  room  in  Edinburgh  Castle  to  his  castle  of  Dunnottar, 
one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Scotland.  During  its  siege  by 
Cromwell  they  were  carried  from  it  by  a  stratagem  devised  by  (h. 
wife  of  the  governor  and  the  wife  of  the  minister  of  Kinneff,  and 
buried  under  the  flagstones  in  Kinneff  church,  where  they  remained 
till  the  Restoration.  From  the  Restoration  till  the  Union  they 
were  deposited  in  the  crown  room  of  Edinburgh  Castle.  After  the 
Union  they  lay  locked  in  a  chest  until  1818,  when  they  were  liist 
publicly  exhibited.  See  also  the  articles  CORONATION,  CKOWN, 
and  SCEPTRE. 

REGENSBURG.     See  RATISBON. 

REGENT.  The  position  of  a  regent  as  an  administrator 
of  the  realm  during  the  minority  or  incapacity  of  the  king 
is  one  unknown  to  the  common  law.  "  In  judgment  of  law 
the  king,  as  king,  cannot  be  said  to  be  a  minor,  for  when 
the  royal  body  politic  of  the  king  doth  meet  with  the 
natural  capacity  in  one  person,the  whole  body  shall  have 
the  quality  of  the  royal  politic,  which  is  the  greater  and 
more  worthy  and  wherein  is  no  minority.  For  omne  ma  jus 
continet  in  se  minus"  (Coke  upon  Littleton,  43a).  For 
reasons  of  necessity  a  regency,  however  anomalous  it  may 
be  in  strict  law,  has  frequently  been  constituted  both  in 
England  and  Scotland.  There  are  fifteen  instances  in 
English  history,  the  earliest  of  which  is  the  appointment 
of  the  earl  of  Pembroke  with  the  assent  of  the  loyal  barons 
on  the  accession  of  Henry  III.  Whether  or  not  the 
sanction  of  parliament  is  necessary  for  the  appointment  is 
a  question  which  has  been  much  discussed.  Lord  Coke 
recommends  that  the  office  should  depend  on  the  will  of 
parliament  (Inst.,  vol.  iv.  p.  58),  and  it  is  certain  that  in 
modern  times  provision  for  a  regency  has  always  been 
made  by  Act  of  Parliament.  In  Scotland  the  appointment 
of  regents  was  always  either  by  the  assent  of  a  council  or  of 
parliament.  Thus  in  1315  the  earl  of  Moray  was  appointed 
regent  by  Robert  I.  in  a  council.  At  a  later  period 
appointment  by  statute  was  the  universal  form.  Thus  by 
1542  c.  1  the  earl  of  Arran  was  declared  regent  during 
the  minority  of  Mary.  By  1567  c.  1  the  appointment  by 
Mary  of  the  earl  of  Moray  as  regent  was  confirmed.  As 
late  as  1704  c.  3  provision  was  made  for  a  regency  after 
the  death  of  Anne.  The  earliest  regency  in  England  resting 
upon  an  express  statute  was  that  created  by  28  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  17,  under  which  the  king  appointed  his  executors  to 
exercise  the  authority  of  the  crown  till  the  successor  to 
the  crown  should  attain  the  age  of  eighteen  if  a  male  or 
sixteen  if  a  female.  They  delegated  their  rights  to  the 
protector  Somerset,  with  the  assent  of  the  lords  spiritual 
and  temporal.  No  other  example  of  a  statutory  provi- 
sion for  a  regency  occurs  till  1751.  In  that  3Tear  the 
Act  of  24  Geo.  II.  c.  24  constituted  the  princess  dowager 
of  Wales  regent  of  the  kingdom  in  case  the  crown  should 
descend  to  any  of  her  children  before  such  child  attained 
the  age  of  eighteen.  A  council  called  the  council  of 
regency  was  appointed  to  assist  the  princess.  A  prescribed 
oath  was  to  l>e  taken  by  the  regent  and  members  of  the 
council.  Their  consent  was  necessary  for  the  marriage  of 
a  successor  to  the  crown  during  minority.  It  was  declared 
to  be  unlawful  for  the  regent  to  make  war  or  peace,  or 
ratify  any  treaty  with  any  foreign  power,  or  prorogue, 
adjourn,  or  dissolve  any  parliament  without  the  consent  of 
the  majority  of  the  council  of  regency,  or  give  her  assent 
to  any  bill  for  repealing  or  varying  the  Act  of  Settlement, 
the  Act  of  Uniformity,  or  the  Act  of  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment for  securing  the  Protestant  religion  and  Presbyterian 
church  government  in  Scotland  (1707  c.  G).  The  last 
is  an  invariable  provision,  and  occurs  in  all  subsequent 
Regency  Acts.  The  reign  of  George  III.  affords  examples 
of  provision  for  a  regency  during  both  the  infancy  and 
incapacity  of  a  king.  The  Act  of  5  Geo.  III.  c.  27  vested 


11  E  G  — R  E  G 


341 


in  the  king  power  to  appoint  a  regent  under  the  sign 
manual,  such  regent  to  be  one  of  certain  named  members 
of  the  royal  family.  The  remaining  provisions  closely 
followed  those  of  the  Act  of  George  II.  In  1788  the 
insanity  of  the  king  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  Eegency 
Bill.  In  the  course  of  the  debate  in  the  House  of  Lords 
the  duke  of  York  disclaimed  on  behalf  of  the  prince  of 
Wales  any  right  to  assume  the  regency  without  the  consent 
of  parliament.  The  necessity  for  the  authority  of  parlia- 
ment in  the  particular  circumstances  was  much  discussed, 
as  a  reference  to  the  parliamentary  history  of  the  time  will 
show.  Owing  to  the  king's  recovery  the  bill  ultimately 
dropped.  On  a  return  of  the  malady  in  1810  the  Act  of 
51  Geo.  III.  c.  1  was  passed,  appointing  the  prince  of 
Wales  regent  during  the  king's  incapacity.  The  royal 
assent  was  given  by  commission  authorized  by  resolution 
of  both  Houses.  By  this  Act  no  council  of  regency  was 
appointed.  There  was  no  restriction  on  the  regent's 
authority  over  treaties,  peace  and  war,  or  parliament,  as  in 
the  previous  Acts,  but  his  power  of  granting  peerages, 
offices,  and  pensions  was  limited.  At  the  accession  of 
William  IV.  the  duchess  of  Kent  Avas,  by  1  Will.  IV.  c.  2, 
appointed  regent,  if  necessary,  until  the  Princess  Victoria 
should  attain  the  age  of  eighteen.  No  council  of  regency 
was  appointed.  By  1  Viet.  c.  72  lords  justices  were  nomin- 
ated as  a  kind  of  regency  council  without  a  regent  in  case 
the  successor  to  the  crown  should  be  out  of  the  realm  at 
the  queen's  death.  They  were  restricted  from  granting 
peerages,  and  from  dissolving  parliament  without  directions 
from  the  successor.  The  last  Eegency  Act  was  passed 
after  the  marriage  of  the  queen.  By  3  &  4  Viet.  c.  52 
Prince  Albert  was  appointed  regent  in  case  any  of  the 
queen's  children  should  succeed  to  the  crown  under  the 
age  of  eighteen.  The  only  restraint  on  his  authority  was 
the  usual  prohibition  to  assent  to  any  bill  repealing  the 
Act  of  Settlement,  &c.  By  10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7  the  office  of 
regent  of  the  United  Kingdom  cannot  be  held  by  a  Roman 
Catholic.  A  similar  disability  is  imposed  in  most,  if  not 
all,  Regency  Acts. 

REGGIO  DI  CALABRIA,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  its  own  name,  formerly  Calabria  Ulteriore  Prima, 
is  admirably  situated  on  the  Strait  of  Messina  some  miles 
farther  south  than  the  city  of  Messina  on  the  other  side. 
It  is  the  terminus  of  the  railway  round  the  south-east 
coast  from  Bari ;  a  scheme  for  a  line  along  the  west  coast 
to  Naples  received  legislative  sanction  in  1879.  The 
luxuriant  gardens  and  orchards  of  Reggio  have  been  cele- 
brated for  centuries,  and  the  climate  is  so  warm  that  even 
the  date-palm  occasionally  ripens  its  fruit.  The  old  city 
was  in  great  part  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of  1783,  and 
it  is  now  built  on  a  regular  plan,  with  broad  streets  run- 
ning north  and  south  and  cross  streets  climbing  the  hill 
from  the  seaside.  Besides  the  cathedral  (rebuilt  since  the 
earthquake),  the  principal  edifices  are  the  chamber  of  com- 
merce, the  new  comizio  agrario,  the  castle  on  the  height, 
the  Renaissance  Palazzo  Musitano  Guerrera,  and  the 
Gothic  Villa  Leo.  Local  manufactures  are  essences, 
scented  waters,  silks,  and  byssus  gloves,  caps,  and  shoes. 
Extensive  improvements  have  since  1870  been  made  on 
the  port  of  Reggio  both  by  the  municipality  and  the 
Government;  in  1883  787  vessels  (209,717  tons)  entered 
and  713  (207,179)  cleared.  Oil,  lemons,  and  similar  fruits, 
essences,  silk,  and  grain  are  the  staple  exports.  The 
population  of  Reggio  was,  in  1881,  23,853  in  the  city,  or 
including  the  various  suburban  villages— Sbarre  (3622), 
Santa  Catarina  (1147),  &c.— 35,437.  and  in  the  commune 
39,296. 

A  colony,  mainly  of  Chalcklians,  partly  of  Messenians  from  the 
Peloponnesus,  settled  at  Rhegium  (Rcgium)  in  the  8th  century  B.C. 
About  494  B.  c.  Anaxilas,  a  member  of  the  Messenian  party,  made 


himself  master  both  of  Regium  and  Zancle  (Messina).  In.  427  it 
joined  the  Athenians  against  Syracuse,  but  in  415  it  remained 
neutral.  An  attack  which  it  made  on  Dionysius  of  Syracuse 
in  399  was  the  beginning  of  a  great  struggle  which  in  387  re- 
sulted in  its  complete  destruction  and  the  dispersion  of  its  in- 
habitants as  slaves.  Eestored  by  the  younger  Dionysius  under 
the  name  of  Phoebias,  the  colony  soon  recovered  its  prosperity 
and  resumed  its  original  designation.  In  280,  when  Pyrrhus  in- 
vaded Italy,  the  Regines  admitted  within  their  walls  a  Roman 
garrison  of  Campanian  troops ;  these  mercenaries  revolted, 
massacred  the  male  citizens,  and  held  possession  of  the  city  till 
in  270  they  were  besieged  and  destroyed  by  the  Roman  consul 
Geuucius.  Though  one  of  the  cities  promised  by  the  triumvirs 
to  the  veterans,  Regium  escaped  through  the  favour  of  Octavius 
(hence  Regium  Julium).  Alaric  (410  A. p.),  Totila  (549),  and 
Robert  Guiscard  (1060)  all  occupied  the  city.  It  was  at  Reggio 
that  Joseph  Bonaparte  received  the  title  of  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
In  1860  the  Bourbon  garrison  surrendered  to  the  Garibaldians. 

REGGIO  NELL'  EMILIA,  a  city  and  episcopal  see  of 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Reggio  nelF  Emilia  (up  till 
1859  part  of  the  duchy  of  Modena),  is  situated  on  the 
line  of  the  old  Via  ^Emilia,  17  miles  by  rail  south-east  of 
Parma.  It  is  a  large,  well-built,  and  flourishing  place 
with  a  population  in  1881  of  18,634  (commune  56,031) 
within  the  circuit  of  its  walls.  Among  the  points  of 
principal  interest  are  the  Piazza  Maggiore,  with  the  statue 
of  the  river  Crostolo ;  the  cathedral,  which  was  founded  in 
857  A.D.  but  dates  mainly  from  the  15th  century;  the  co- 
cathedral  basilica  of  San  Prospero,  with  its  six  old  Lom- 
bard lions  in  front ;  the  public  library,  which  contains  the 
published  and  unpublished  works  of  Spallanzani;  the 
museum,  in  which  are  preserved  the  same  naturalist's 
collections;  the  large  municipal  theatre,  famous  for  its 
operas  throughout  Italy;  and  the  municipal  "  palace,"  with 
the  statue  of  Caacilius  Metellus.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  city  there  is  an  extensive  model  lunatic  asylum  as 
well  as  a  large  poorhouse.  The  house  in  which  Ariosto 
was  born  in  the  Corso  della  Ghiara  is  now  municipal 
property.  Horse-races  are  held  at  Reggio  every  year. 

Regium  Lepidi  or  Regium  Lepidium  was  probably  founded  by 
jEmilius  Lepidus  at  the  time  of  the  construction  of  the  ^Emilian 
Way.  It  was  during  the  Koman  period  a  flourishing  municipium, 
but  never  became  a  colony  ;  and,  though  the  name  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  course  of  the  civil  war,  it  is  associated  with  no 
event  more  interesting  than  the  assassination  of  M.  Brutus,  the 
father  of  Cresar's  friend  and  foe.  The  bishopric  dates  from  450  A.IX. 
Under  the  Lombards  the  town  was  the  scat  of  dukes  and  counts  ;  in 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries  it  formed  a  flourishing  republic,  busied 
in  surrounding  itself  with  walls  (1209),  controlling  the  Crostolo 
and  constructing  navigable  canals  to  the  Po,  coining  money  of  its 
own,  and  establishing  prosperous  schools.  About  1290  it  first  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Obizzo'd'Este,  and  the  authority  of  the  same 
family  was  after  many  vicissitudes  more  formally  recognized  in 
1409.  In  the  contest  for  liberty  which  began  in  1796  and  closed 
with  annexation  to  Piedmont  in  1859  Reggio  took  vigorous  part. 
Besides  Ariosto,  the  city  has  given  birth  to  Secchi  the  astronomer 
and  Prospero  Clementi  the  sculptor ;  and  the  poet  Boiardo  was 
governor  of  Reggio  for  many  years  before  his  death  in  1494. 

REGIOMONTANUS  (1436-1476).  The  real  name  of 
this  astronomer  was  JOHANN  MULLER,  but  from  his  birth- 
place, Konigsberg,  a  small  town  in  Francgnia,  he  called 
liimself  JOH.  DE  MONTEREGIO.  The  name  Regiomontanus 
occur  for  the  first  time  on  the  title  page  of  his  Scripta,  pub- 
lished in  1544,  but  he  has  since  become  best  known  by  it. 
He  was  born  in  June  1436  and  became  the  pupil  of  Purbach 
at  the  university  of  Vienna,  and  jointly  with  him  endea- 
voured, with  such  imperfect  instruments  as  they  could 
onstruct,  to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  Alphonsine  tables 
of  the  motions  of  the  planets.  After  Purbach's  death 
Regiomontanus  finished  and  published  his  Epitome  in 
Ptolemsei  Almac/estum,  but,  having  in  the  meantime  become 
acquainted  with  Cardinal  Bessarion,  who  was  anxious  to 
spread  the  knowledge  of  the  Greek  literature  among  the 
Western  nations,  he  proceeded  with  him  to  Italy  in  1462, 
and  for  the  following  eight  years  devoted  a  great  deal  of 
time  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  language  and  to  collecting 


342 


R  E  G  — R  E  G 


Greek  manuscripts.  He  returned  from  Italy  in  1471  and 
settled  at  Nuremberg,  at  that  time  one  of  the  chief  centres 
of  German  industry  and  literary  life.  Here  he  became 
associated  with  Bernhard  Walther  (1430-1504),  a  wealthy 
patrician  and  an  enthusiastic  astronomer.  An  observatory 
was  erected,  and  the  finest  instruments  the  skilful  artisans 
of  Nuremberg  could  make  were  regularly  used  by  the  two 
friends  for  observing  the  heavens.  Clocks  driven  by 
weights  were  here  used  for  the  first  time  for  scientific 
purposes,  the  influence  of  refraction  in  altering  the 
apparent  places  of  the  stars  better  appreciated,  Venus 
substituted  for  the  moon  as  a  connecting  link  between 
observations  of  the  sun  and  of  stars,  and  other  improve- 
ments introduced  in  practical  astronomy.  Regiomontanus 
also  published  a  number  of  calendars  and  ephemerides, 
which  induced  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  to  summon  him  to  Rome 
to  assist  in  reforming  the  confused  calendar.  He  died 
very  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Rome,  July  6,  1476. 

la  1464  Regiomontanus  finished  a  work  on  trigonometry,  which 
science  had  made  considerable  progress  among  the  Arabians  but 
had  to  be  reinvented  in  Europe.  The  work  was,  however,  never 
printed  till  1533  (De  Triangulis  libri  quinque),  probably  because 
the  author,  after  introducing  the  use  of  tangents,  had  wished  to 
re-write  his  book,  but  was  prevented  from  doing  so  by  his  early 
death.  In  his  Tabulee  Directionum  (Nuremberg,  1475)  there  is 
a  table  of  tangents  (tabula  fecunda).  His  instruments  and  obser- 
vations at  Nuremberg  are  described  in  a  posthumous  work, — Scripta 
darissimi  mathematics  Joh.  Regiomontani  (Nuremberg,  1544). 
The  ephemerides  and  calendars  were  published  partly  in  German 
(Magister  Johann  von  Kunsperk's  teutscher  Kalender),  partly  in 
Latin  (Ephemerides  Astronomies^,  Nuremberg,  1473  or  1475,  for 
the  years  1475-1506  ;  Kalcndarium  Novum,  Nuremberg  1474,  re- 
issued many  times  and  translated  into  German  and  Italian).  The 
German  geographer  Martin  Behem  made  these  calendars  known 
among  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  navigators,  and  they  became 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  guiding  Columbus,  Diaz,  Vasco  da 
Garna,  and  many  others  over  the  trackless  ocean.  The  life  of 
Regiomontanus  was  written  by  Gassendi  (The  Hague,  1654) ; 
among  modern  works  see  Regiomontanus,  ein  geistiger  Vorlaufer 
des  Copernicus,  by  Zeigler  (Dresden,  1874),  Die  Vorgcschichte  der 
•Gregorianischen  Kalenderreform,  by  Kaltenbrunner  (Vienna,  1876), 
and  Rudolph  Wolfs  Geschichte  der  Astronomie  (Munich,  1877). 

REGISTRATION.  In  all  systems  of  law  the  registra- 
tion of  certain  legal  facts  has  been  regarded  as  necessary, 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  ensuring  publicity  and  simplify- 
ing evidence.  Registers,  when  made  in  performance  of  a 
public  duty,  are  as  a  general  rule  admissible  in  evidence 
merely  on  the  production  from  the  proper  custody  of  the 
registers  themselves  or  (in  most  cases)  of  examined  or  cer- 
tified copies.  The  extent  to  which  registration  is  carried 
varies  very  much  in  different  countries.  For  obvious 
reasons  judicial  decisions  are  registered  in  all  countries 
alike.  In  other  matters  no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down, 
except  perhaps  that  on  the  whole  registration  is  not  as 
fully  enforced  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United 
States  as  in  Continental  states.  The  most  important  uses 
of  registration  occur  in  the  case  of  judicial  proceedings, 
land,  ships,  bills  of  sale,  births,  marriages,  and  deaths, 
companies,  friendly  and  other  societies,  newspapers,  copy- 
rights, patents,  designs,  trade  marks,  and  professions  and 
•occupations.  The  registration  of  qualified  voters  in  par- 
liamentary elections  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  treated  in 
a  separate  section  below. 

Judicial  Proceedings. — In  England  registrars  are  attached  to  the 
privy  council,  the  Supreme  Court,  and  the  county  courts.  In  the 
-Queen's  Bench  Division  (except  in  its  bankruptcy  jurisdiction)  the 
duty  of  registrars  is  performed  by  the  masters.  Besides  exercising 
limited  judicial  authority,  registrars  are  responsible  for  the  drawing 
Tip  and  recording  of  various  stages  of  the  proceedings  from  the 
petition,  writ,  or  plaint  to  the  final  decision.1  With  them  are 
tiled  affidavits,  depositions,  pleadings,  &c.,  when  such  filing  is 


1  The  antiquity  of  registration  of  this  kind  is  proved  by  the  age  of 
the  Registrum  Lrevium,  or  register  of  writs,  called  by  Lord  Coke  "  a 
most  ancient  book  of  the  Common  Law  "  (Coke  upon  Littleton,  159a). 


necessary.  The  difference  between  filing  and  registration  is  that 
the  documents  filed  are  filed  without  alteration,  while  only  an 
epitome  is  usually  registered.  The  Judicature  Act,  1873,  created 
district  registries  in  the  chief  towns,  the  district  registrar  having  an 
authority  similar  to  that  of  a  registrar  of  the  Supreme  Court.  In 
the  Admiralty  Division  cases  of  account  are  usually  referred  to  the 
registrar  and  merchants.  The  registration  in  the  central  office  of 
the  supreme  court  of  judgments  affecting  lands,  writs  of  execution, 
recognizances,  and  lites  pendentes  in  England,  and  the  registration 
in  Scotland  of  abbreviates  of  adjudications  and  of  inhibitions,  are 
governed  by  special  legislation.  All  these  are  among  the  incum- 
brances  for  which  search  is  made  on  investigating  a  title.  Their 
satisfaction  and  discharge  is  also  registered.  The  Conveyancing 
Act,  1882,  provides  for  a  certificate  by  the  proper  officer  of  the 
existence  or  non-existence  of  entries  of  judgments,  deeds,  and  other 
matters  or  documents  made  in  the  central  office.  The  certificate  is 
conclusive  in  favour  of  a  purchaser.  Decisions  of  criminal  courts 
are  said  to  be  recorded,  not  registered,  except  in  the  case  of  courts 
of  summary  jurisdiction,  in  which,  by  the  Summary  Jurisdiction 
Act,  1879,  a  register  of  convictions  is  kept.  Probates  of  wills  and 
letters  of  administration,  which  are  really  judicial  decisions,  are 
registered  in  the  principal  or  district  registries  of  the  Probate 
Division.  In  Scotland  registration' is  used  for  giving  a  summary 
remedy  on  obligations  without  action  by  means  of  the  fiction  of  a 
judicial  decision  having  been  given  establishing  the  obligation. 
A  clause  of  registration  is  introduced  in  deeds  importing  obliga- 
tion. The  various  registers  available  for  this  kind  of  registraton 
will  be  found  in  Watson,  Law  Diet.,  s.v.  "  Registration." 

Land.  — Registration  in  its  relation  to  land  is  either  of  title  or  of 
assurances.  A  register  of  title  bears  on  the  face  of  it  the  name  and 
description  of  a  plot  of  land  with  more  or  less  particularity,  the 
name  of  the  owner,  and  the  charges  and  easements  to  which  the  land 
is  subject.  No  one  can  go  behind  the  entry  except  in  case  of  fraud. 
A  register  of  assurances  or  deeds  contains  only  a  copy  of  documents 
affecting  title,  or  a  memorial  qr  other  epitome  of  such  documents, 
without  any  authentication  of  the  title  as  such.  Thus  a  register 
of  title  would  show  that  A  was  owner  subject  to  a  mortgage  to  B, 
and  the  purchaser  would  purchase  such  a  title.  A  register  of 
assurances  would  show  in  the  same  circumstances  that  a  conveyance 
had  been  made  to  A,  and  that  subsequently  A  had  mortgaged  to  B, 
but  the  purchaser  would  have  to  make  sure  for  himself  that  A  and 
B  had  the  right  to  convey  and  mortgage.  It  will  be  obvious  that 
the  object  of  registration  of  deeds  is  quite  different  from  that  of 
registration  of  title.  The  former  aims  at  facilitating  the  search 
for  incumbrances,  the  latter  at  abolishing  search  by  making  it 
unnecessary.  The  requisites  of  a  registry  of  title  are  thus  stated 
by  Sir  H.  Maine  (Early  Law  and  Custom,  353) : — 

"The  land  registries  which  have  the  highest  commendation  from  judicial 
writers  are  those  of  certain  small  Teutonic  communities,  e.g.,  the  state  of  Iltsse- 
Darmstadt  and  the  Swiss  canton  of  Zurich.  I  can  hers  give  but  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  the  mechanism.  The  land  of  the  community  is  divided  into  a  number  of 
circumscriptions  of  no  great  area.  For  each  of  these  a  central  office  is  established, 
with  a  staff  of  functionaries  who  are  to  some  extent  experts,  and  at  eacli  office  a 
register  is  opened  in  which  separate  portions  or  groups  of  pages  are  appropriated 
to  separate  masses  of  land  .  .  .  When  the  register  has  once  been  opened,  the 
legal  history  of  every  parcel  of  every  area  is  thenceforward  recorded  in  it,  and 
every  transfer  or  mortgage  must  be  registered  in  it,  under  pain  of  invalidity. 
Whether  a  person  wishing  to  sell  or  mortgage  has  the  right  to  do  so,  it  is  the 
business  of  the  staff  of  experts  to  ascertain.  It  is  absolutely  essential  to  the 
system  that  the  register  should  be  easily  accessible,  and  the  formalities  of 
registration  simple  and  cheap." 

It  will  appear  on  referring  to  REAL  ESTATE  that  before  the 
Conquest  publicity  of  transfer  was  secured  by  a  system  of  record 
in  the  shire-book  or  church-book.  After  the  Conquest  this  pub- 
licity, continued  for  a  time  in  the  Domesday  survey,  from  various 
causes  gradually  gave  way  to  that  secrecy  of  transfer  which  is  now 
one  of  the  peculiar  features  of  English  law.  Publicity  was  to  a 
certain  extent  secured  by  the  court  rolls  in  the  case  of  copyhold 
lands,  by  the  local  statutes  mentioned  below,  and  by  the  Act 
enforcing  the  registration  of  rent  charges  and  annuities  charged  on 
land  (18  Viet.  c.  15).  There  was  a  tendency  in  the  same  direction 
in  those  statutes  which  made  the  enrolment  of  deeds  necessary  for 
their  validity.  Such  are  the  Statute  of  Enrolments,  27  Henry  VIII. 
c.  16,  the  Mortmain  Act,  9  Geo.  II.  c.  36,  the  Fines  and  Recoveries 
Act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74,  under  which  an  estate  tail  may  be  barred 
by  an  enrolled  deed,  ard  Acts  affecting  Queen  Anne's  Bounty,  1 
Geo.  I.,  st.  2,  c.  10,  and  the  Charity  Commissioners,  18  &  19  Viet. 
c.  124.  No  general  registry  has  as  yet  been  established  in  England, 
though  many  attempts  have  been  made  in  that  direction.  The 
question  was  debated  as  far  back  as  the  Long  Parliament.  General 
Ludlow  mentions  the  characteristic  incident  "that  upon  the  debate 
of  '  registering  deeds  in  each  county  for  want  of  which,  within  a 
certain  time  fixed  after  the  sale,  such  sales  should  be  void,  and, 
being  so  regarded,  that  lands  should  not  be  subject  to  any  incum- 
brance,'  this  word  incumbrance  was  so  managed  that  it  took  up 
three  months'  time  before  it  could  be  ascertained  by  the  com- 
mittee" (Memoirs,  i.  436).  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  a  registry 
of  deeds  was  established  for  the  Bedford  Level  by  15  Car.  II.  c.  17. 
In  the  reign  of  Anne  registries  of  deeds  and  wills  were  established 


III 


REGISTRATION 


343 


for  the  county  of  Middlesex  (7  Anne  c.  20),  for  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire  (2  &  3  Anne  c.  4),  and  for  the  East  Riding  and 
Kingston-upon-Hull  (6  Anne  c.  35).  Similar  provisions  were  not 
applied  to  the  North  Riding  until  8  Geo.  II.  c.  6.  The  Yorkshire 
Acts  were  consolidated  and  amended  by  the  Yorkshire  Registries 
Act,  1884.  "  Under  these  Acts,  all  deeds  are  to  be  adjudged 
fraudulent  and  void  against  any  subsequent  purchaser  or  mort- 
gagee for  valuable  consideration,  unless  a  memorial  of  such  deeds 
be  duly  registered  before  the  registering  of  the  memorial  of  the 
deed  under  which  such  subsequent  purchaser  or  mortgagee  shall 
claim"  (Williams,  Real  Property,  pt.  i.  ch.  x. ).  Priority  thus 
depends  upon  the  date  of  registration.  The  Acts  do  not  extend  to 
copyholds,  to  leaseholds  for  a  term  not  exceeding  twenty-one  years, 
or  to  chambers  in  an  Inn  of  Court.  The  full  operation  of  the 
Registry  Acts  has  been  to  a  certain  extent  affected  by  the  doctrines 
of  equity  that  an  equitable  mortgage  by  deposit  of  deeds  is  valid 
without  registration,  and  that  notice  of  a  prior  unregistered  deed 
is  within  limits  equivalent  to  registration.  "  It  shall  only  be  in 
cases  where  the  notice  is  so  clearly  proved  as  to  make  it  fraudu- 
lent in  the  purchaser  to  take  and  register  a  conveyance  in  pre- 
judice to  the  known  title  of  another  that  we  will  suffer  the  registered 
deed  to  be  affected"  (Sir  William  Grant  in  Wyatt  v.  Barwell, 
19  Vesey's  Reports,  438).  On  this  subject  the  Yorkshire  Registries 
Act,  1884,  provides  by  §  14  that  "  all  priorities  given  by  this  Act 
shall  have  full  effect  in  all  cases  except  in  cases  of  actual  fraud,  and 
all  persons  claiming  thereunder  any  legal  or  equitable  interests 
shall  be  entitled  to  corresponding  priorities,  and  no  such  person 
shall  lose  any  such  priority  merely  in  consequence  of  his  having  been 
affected  with  actual  or  constructive  notice,  except  in  cases  of  actual 
fraud. "  The  Act  provides  for  an  official  search  of  the  same  nature 
as  that  introduced  by  the  Conveyancing  Act,  1882,  and  for  the 
entry  of  a  caveat  against  registration  -by  any  person  interested. 
Passing  to  general  registration,  a  general  registry  of  deeds  was 
recommended  by  the  real  property  commissioners  in  1830.  The 
royal  commission  of  1854  reported  in  1857  in  favour  of  general 
registration  of  title.  In  pursuance  of  this  report  the  Land 
Registry  Act,  1862  ("Lord  Westbury's  Act"),  was  passed.  It 
provided  for  the  optional  registration  of  such  titles  to  freeholds 
and  leaseholds  in  freeholds  as  a  court  of  equity  should  hold  to  be 
marketable.  It  was  of  little  importance  in  practice  on  account  of  its 
making  a  marketable  title  (i.e.,  such  a  title  as  the  court  would 
compel  an  unwilling  purchaser  to  accept)  and  a  definition  of 
boundaries  necessary,  and  of  its  not  giving  an  indefeasible  title  in 
effect,  though  it  does  so  in  name,  until  there  had  been  dealing  with 
the  land  for  valuable  consideration  subsequent  to  registration. 
The  Act  is  still  law  as  to  titles  registered  under  it  and  not  re- 
registered under  the  Act  of  1875.  On  the  same  day  as  the  Laud 
Registry  Act  was  passed  the  Declaration  of  Title  Act,  1862,  under 
which  power  is  given  to  any  person  entitled  to  apply  for  the 
registration  of  an  indefeasible  title  under  the  Land  Registry  Act  to 
apply  to  the  Court  of  Chancery  for  a  declaration  of  title,  and  the 
court,  on  proof  of  a  marketable  title,  is  to  issue  a  certificate  of  title 
under  the  seal  of  the  court.  The  Land  Registry  Act  was  con- 
demned by  the  report  of  a  royal  commission  in  1870.  In  1875 
some  of  the  recommendations  of  the  commission  were  adopted  in 
the  Land  Transfer  Act,  1875  ("Lord  Cairns's  Act"),  the  latest 
general  enactment  on  the  subject.  The  Act  of  1875  allows  the 
optional  registration  of  a  title  less  than  marketable,  and  the  land 
certificate  delivered  to  the  proprietor  is  to  state  whether  his  title 
be  absolute,  qualified,  or  possessory.  Two  or  more  persons  may  be 
registered  as  joint  proprietors.  No  notice  of  any  trust  is  to  appear 
on  the  register.  To  be  registered  land  must  be  either  freehold  or 
leasehold  for  an  unexpired  term  of  at  least  twenty- one  years. 
Land  in  Middlesex  or  Yorkshire  registered  under  the  Act  ceases  to 
be  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local  registries.  A  caution  against 
registration  may  be  lodged  by  any  person  interested.  The  Act 
established  an  office  of  land  registry  under  a  registrar  appointed  by 
the  lord  chancellor.  There  was  also  a  power  of  creating  district 
registries,  if  necessary.  The  Act,  like  its  predecessor,  has  been 
very  little  used.  A  compulsory  system  of  registration  of  title  in 
England  has  been  so  universally  recognized  as  expedient  that  its 
adoption  can  only  be  a  question  of  time.  The  chief  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  a  reform  are  the  objection  of  the  landowners  to  pub- 
licity of  transactions  in  land,  the  expense,  greater  than  in  other 
countries  or  in  the  colonies,  arising  from  the  complexity  of  the 
English  law  of  real  property,  and,  not  least,  the  conservative 
instincts  of  the  legal  profession.  One  effect  of  registration  will 
be  to  much  diminish  the  importance  of  the  legal  doctrines  of 
POSSESSION  and  LIMITATION  (q.v.).  "It  is  a  grave  question 
whether  the  establishment  of  titles  by  long  possession  is  consistent 
with  a  complete  and  efficient  system  of  registration.  In  Scotland, 
where  there  is  such  a  system,  there  is  nothing  answering  to  our 
Statute  of  Limitations  as  regards  land"  (Pollock,  Land  Laws,  169). 1 

1  §  21  of  the  Act  of  1ST  5  in  fact  provides  that  "  a  title  to  any  land  adverse  to 
or  in  derogation  of  the  title  of  the  registered  proprietor  shall  not  be  acquired  by 
any  length  of  possession,"  with  an  exception  in  favour  of  an  adverse  claim  where 
the  registered  title  is  possessory  only. 


Another  effect  will  be  the  recurrence  to  the  primitive  legal  con- 
ception of  the  transfer  of  land  as  a  matter  of  public  notoriety.  In 
Ireland  a  registry  of  assurances  was  established  by  6  Anne  c.  2  (Ir. ). 
28  &  29  Viet.  c.  88  constitutes  a  limited  registry  of  title  in  the 
record  of  title  to  land  which  has  been  the  subject  of  conveyance  or 
declaration  by  the  Landed  Estates  Court.  In  Scotland  the  present 
system  of  registration  of  assurances  has  existed  since  the  reign  of 
James  VI.  The  Act  1617  c.  16  created  a  public  register  for 
registering  within  three-score  days  instruments  of  sasine  as  well  as 
reversions  and  other  writs  affecting  heritable  property.  The  Act 
established  a  general  register  of  sasines  at  Edinburgh  and  local 
registers.  The  latter  were  abolished  by  31  &  32  Viet.  c.  64. 
Modern  Acts  commencing  in  1845  and  consolidated  in  1868  by  31 
&  32  Viet.  c.  101  dispense  with  sasine  and  the  instrument 
of  sasine.  The  recording  of  a  conveyance  with  a  warrant  of 
registration  indorsed  now  constitutes  infeftment.  Either  the 
whole  or  part  of  a  deed  may  be  registered.  Probative  leases  of 
thirty-one  or  more  years  may  be  registered  under  20  &  21  Viet. 
c.  26.  As  to  entails  see  ENTAIL.  Writs  affecting  land  held  in 
burgage  before  1874  must  be  registered  in  the  burgh  register 
of  sasines  (37  &  38  Viet.  c.  94,  §  25).  The  lord  clerk  register's 
duties  under  the  Act  of  1617  were  transferred  to  the  deputy  clerk 
register  by  42  &  43  Viet.  c.  44  (see  Watson,  Law  Diet.,  s.vv.  "Deeds," 
"  Registration").  In  most  of  the  British  colonies  land  registration 
of  some  kind  exists.  The  Indian  Registration  Act,  1866,  steers  a 
middle  course  between  compulsory  and  optional  registration.  The 
registration  of  some  assurances  is  compulsory,  of  others  optional. 
In  Australia  a  system  of  compulsory  registration  of  title  was 
introduced  by  Sir  R.  R.  Torrens,  and,  after  having  been  first 
adopted  by  the  legislature  of  South  Australia  in  1858,  has  been 
generally  applied  by  the  other  Australian  colonies  since  that  time. 
Under  the  South  Australian  Act  a  certificate  of  title  is  cancelled  and 
regranted  on  transfer.  Instruments  are  not  effectual  until  registra- 
tion and  indorsement  according  to  statutory  forms.  Mortgages 
have  priority  according  to  the  date  of  registration,  irrespective  of 
notice.  The  registrar  may  demand  the  deposit  of  a  map.  In  the 
United  States  registration  of  assurances  is  universal,  but  registration 
of  title  is  not  so  generally  adopted.  At  the  date  of  writing,  a  bill 
for  the  compulsory  registration  of  title  is  before  the  New  York 
legislature.  For  the  purpose  of  dealing  with  public  lands  of  the 
United  States  a  register  of  the  land  office  is  appointed  in  each  land 
district.  Returns  from  each  land  office  are  made  to  the  general 
land  office. 

Ships. — The  registration  of  ships  in  the  British  empire  (other 
than  fishing  boats,  the  registration  of  which  is  governed  by  special 
legislation)  now  depends  upon  the  Merchant  Shipping  Acts.  The 
register  is  open  only  to  British  ships,  and  not  more  than  sixty-four 
persons  can  be  registered  as  owners  of  any  ship.  One  registered 
owner  may,  however,  represent  the  beneficial  title  of  any  number 
of  persons.  No  notice  of  a  trust  can  be  entered  on  the  register. 
Mortgages  must  be  registered  in  the  statutory  form  in  order  to  be 
good  against  registered  transferees  and  mortgagees.  The  registrar 
is  generally  in  the  United  Kingdom  the  principal  officer  of  customs 
for  any  port,  abroad  such  person  as  may  be  named  by  order  in 
council.  The  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  1854,  established  a  "  general 
register  and  record  of  seamen  "  under  a  registrar-general  of  seamen. 
The  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  1872,  extended  both  the  name  and 
authority  of  this  officer.  Since  that  Act  he  has  been  called  the 
registrar-general  of  shipping  and  seamen.  Returns  of  shipping 
and  seamen  are  transmitted  to  him  by  the  local  registrars.  In  the 
United  States  the  registration  of  ships  depends  upon  a  series  of 
Acts  of  Congress  beginning  in  1792.  See  Revised  Statutes,  §  4131. 
A  register  of  seamen  is  kept  by  the  shipping  commissioner  (Act  of 
7th  June  1872,  c.  322). 

Bills  of  Sale.—  By  the  Bills  of  Sale  Acts,  1878  and  1882,  every 
bill  of  sale  is  to  be  registered  within  seven  clear  days  after  the 
execution  thereof,  or,  if  it  is  executed  in  any  place  out  of  England, 
then  within  seven  clear  days  after  the  time  at  which  it  would  in 
the  ordinary  course  of  post  arrive  in  England  if  posted  immediately 
after  execution.  A  bill  must  be  re-registered  every  five  years,  if 
still  existing.  An  affidavit  of  the  time  of  its  execution,  of  its  due 
execution  and  attestation,  and  containing  a  description  of  the 
residence  and  occupation  of  the  person  making  the  bill  and  of  every 
attesting  witness,  must  be  filed  with  the  registrar  within  seven 
days.  A  transfer  or  assignment  of  a  registered  bill  of  sale  need 
not  be  registered.  The  duties  of  registrar  are  performed  by  a 
master  of  the  Supreme  Court  attached  to  the  Queen's  Bench  Division 
of  the  High  Court  of  Justice.  Provision  is  made  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  bills  of  sale  made  by  persons  or  affecting  goods  outside  the 
London  bankruptcy  district  to  the  registrars  of  the  proper  county 
courts.  The  register  may  be  searched  by  any  person  on  payment 
of  a  fee  of  one  shilling.  Similar  provisions  are  contained  in  the 
Irish  Acts  of  1879  and  1883.  Bills  of  sale  are  unknown  in 
Scotland. 

Births,  Baptisms,  Marriages,  Deatlis,  Burials. — The  registration 
of  baptisms,  marriages,  and  burials  is  said  to  have  been  first  intro- 
duced by  Thomas  Cromwell  when  vicar-general  in  1522,  but  it  is 


344 


REGISTRATION 


only  in  comparatively  modem  times  that  the  registration  has  been 
fully  carried  out.  The  registration  of  births,  &c.,  iu  the  United 
Kingdom  depends  upon  a  large  body  of  statutory  law.  Baptisms, 
marriages,  and  burials  are  usually  registered  at  the  time  of  their 
occurrence,  births  and  deaths  within  a  certain  time  afterwards. 
The  English  Act  35  &  36  Viet.  c.  36  forbids  the  charging  of  any 
fee  for  registration  of  baptism.  The  law  of  registration  of  births 
and  deaths  is  consolidated  for  England  by  37  &  38  Viet  c.  88,  for 
Ireland  by  43  &  44  Viet.  c.  13.  In  Scotland  it  depends  upon  17 
&  18  Viet.  c.  80,  as  amended  by  later  Acts.  The  registration  of 
marriages  in  England  depends  chiefly  upon  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  76,  and 
6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  85  ;  iu  Ireland  upon  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  81  (as  to 
Protestants),  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  90  (as  to  Roman  Catholics);  in 
Scotland  ujwn  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  80.  The  chief  official  charged 
with  the  administration  of  the  Acts  is  the  registrar-general  of 
births,  deaths,  and  marriages  ;  in  Scotland  the  office  is  held  by 
the  deputy  clerk-register.  In  the  United  States  the  registration 
of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths  is,  with  a  few  exceptions  such  as 
births  and  deaths  at  sea  and  marriages  abroad,  the  subject  of 
State  and  not  United  States  legislation.  Burials  are  regulated  in 
England  by  the  Burial  Acts,  especially  the  Registration  of  Burials 
Act,  1864,  in  Scotland  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  68.  Chapels  belonging 
to  nonconformist  bodies  may  be  certified  to  the  registrar-general 
(see  NONCONFORMITY).  There  are  few  enactments  dealing  with 
the  subject  of  this  paragraph  which  extend  to  the  United  Kingdom. 
Those  which  do  so  are  of  a  special  nature,  such  as  Acts  affecting 
friendly  societies  and  officers  and  soldiers  abroad.  A  Registration 
Act  embracing  the  United  Kingdom  is  much  needed. 

Companies. ---Under  the  Companies  Act,  1862,  and  subsequent 
Companies  Acts  (most  of  which  apply  to  the  United  Kingdom), 
commercial  companies  as  distinguished  from  associations  of  other 
kinds  must  be  registered.  Any  company  requiring  to  be  registered 
and  not  registered  is  an  illegal  association,  and  its  members 
cannot  take  advantage  of  the  limitation  of  liability  and  other 
benefits  conferred  by  the  Acts.  The  register  is  under  the  charge  of 
the  registrar-general  of  joint  stock  companies  or  such  other  registrar 
as  the  Board  of  Trade  may  appoint.  The  register  must  contain  (1) 
the  memorandum  of  association,  including  the  name  and  objects  of 
the  proposed  company  and  the  place  where  its  registered  office  is 
situate  ;  (2)  the  articles  of  association  ;  (3)  a  list  of  members  and 
shareholders  (or  directors  where  there  are  no  shareholders),  and  a 
statement  of  the  amount  held  by  each  shareholder,  and  other 
particulars  ;  (4)  any  order  of  court  confirming  the  reduction  of  the 
capital  of  a  company  ;  (5)  any  contract  duly  made  in  writing  by 
which  a  share  is  issued  otherwise  than  for  cash  ;  (6)  proceedings  in 
winding  up.  No  trust  is  to  appear  on  the  register  in  the  case  of 
companies  registered  in  England  or  Ireland.  Every  company  must 
keep  at  its  registered  office  a  register  of  its  members,  and,  if  a 
company  not  divided  into  shares,  a  register  of  its  directors  or 
managers,  and,  in  addition,  if  a  limited  company,  a  register  of 
mortgages  and  charges  affecting  the  property  of  the  company. 

Friciidly  Societies.  —  A  friendly  society  consisting  of  seven 
members  at  least  may  be  registered  under  the  Friendly  Societies 
Act,  1875.  The  name  of  the  society  and  of  its  secretary,  and  of 
every  trustee  or  other  officer  authorized  to  sue  or  to  be  sued  in  the 
name  of  the  society,  and  also  a  copy  of  its  rules,  are  entered  on  the 
register.  There  is  a  chief  registrar  of  friendly  societies  with  assist- 
ant registrars  for  Scotland  and  Ireland.  Every  registered  society 
is  to  have  a  registered  office.  In  the  same  registry  are  now 
registered  building  societies,  industrial  and  provident  societies,  and 
trade  unions. 

Newspapers.— By  the  Newspapers  Libel  and  Registration  Act, 
1881,  the  registrar  of  joint  stock  companies  is  to  keep  a  register  of 
the  titles  of  newspapers  and  the  names  of  their  proprietors  (see 
NEWSPAPERS,  PRESS  LAWS). 

Copyrights,  Patents,  Designs,  Trade  Marks. — See  COPYRIGHT, 
PATENTS,  TRADE  MARK. 

Professions  and  Occupations. — The  effect  of  recent  legislation  has 
been  that  solicitors,  medical  men,  dentists,  veterinary  surgeons, 
chemists  and  druggists,  seamen,  lodging-house  keepers,  cow  keepers, 
milk  retailers,  and  others  must  be  registered  in  accordance  with 
various  statutory  provisions.  Unless  duly  registered  they  cannot 
as  a  rule  recover  for  their  services.  In  certain  other  cases  registra- 
tion is  not  in  name  necessary,  but  it  is  practically  enforced  by  the 
law  regarding  the  entry  in  certain  official  books  and  documents  as 
prima  facie  evidence  of  qualification.  Thus  the  roll  of  the  House 
of  Lords  is  evidence  that  a  person  appearing  upon  it  is  a  peer,  the 
army  list  that  a  name  contained  in  it  is  that  of  an  officer. 

Among  other  matters  of  less  importance  which  are  registered  arc 
crown  debts,  acknowledgments  by  married  women,  colonial  stock 
under  40  &  41  Viet.  c.  59,  schemes  under  the  Regulation  of 
Railways  Act,  1867,  hospitals  where  lunatics  are  received,  and  (in 
Scotland)  lunatics  confined  in  asylums.  In  this  place  may  be 
mentioned  the  peculiar  privilege  enjoyed  by  the  Channel  Islands  : 
orders  in  council  or  Acts  of  Parliament  in  which  they  are  not 
named  do  not  become  law  in  those  islands  until  after  registration 
in  the  royal  courts.  (j.  wt.) 


PARLIAMENTARY  REGISTRATION. 

England. — Prior  to  1832  the  right  of  parliamentary  electors  was 
determined  at  the  moment  of  the  tender  of  the  vote  at  the  election, 
or,  in  the  event  of  a  petition  against  the  return,  by  a  scrutiny,  n. 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  striking  off  those  whose 
qualification  was  held  to  be  insufficient,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
adding  those  who,  having  tendered  their  votes  at  the  poll,  with  a 
good  title  to  do  so,  were  rejected  at  the  time.  A  conspicuous 
feature  of  the  Reform  Act  of  that  year  was  the  introduction  of  a 
new  mode  of  ascertaining  the  rights  of  electors  by  means  of  an 
entirely  new  system  of  published  lists,  subject  to  claims  and 
objections,  and  after  due  inquiry  and  revision  forming  a  register  of 
voters.  In  forming  a  register  the  services  of  overseers,  already 
existing  in  every  parish,  were  called  into  requisition.  As  regards 
electors  in  counties,  principally  freeholders  and  long-lease-holders 
and  £50  tenant  farmers,  under  the  Chandos  clause,  overseers  have 
no  official  knowledge  of  the  persons  qualified  to  vote.  Their  duty 
towards  providing  a  register  of  county  electors  consisted  in  giving 
public  notice,  receiving  claims  and  objections,  and  making  out 
lists  of  them  and  forwarding  them  to  the  clerk  of  the  peace. 
In  boroughs  their  primary  duty  was  to  make  out  lists,  their  rate 
Looks  as  overseers  giving  them  tho*  "knowledge  of  persons  entitled 
under  the  Reform  Act  to  vote  as  £10  rated  occupiers,  to  which 
subsequent  claims  were  added  or  objections  made.  In  old 
boroughs  where  freemen  were  entitled,  independently  of  the 
then  new  occupation  franchise,  the  town  clerk  prepared  the  lists. 
Barristers  were  appointed  to  revise  the  lists,  which  eventually 
formed  the  register  of  voters  for  the  ensuing  year  for  counties  and 
boroughs. 

This  procedure  still  forms  the  basis  of  registration,  but  subject 
to  important  alterations  since  made.  Although  the  Act  of  1832 
was  most  carefully  drawn,  its  provisions  minutely  indicating  every 
step  to  be  taken  for  the  formation  of  a  register,  accompanied  by 
precise  forms,  it  was  found  insufficient  in  practice  ;  and  accord- 
ingly a  Registration  Act  was  passed  in  1843  (6  &  7  Viet.  c.  15),  by 
which  forms  of  precept  were  issued  by  clerks  of  the  peace  and 
town  clerks  to  overseers,  telling  them  in  a  compendious  form  what 
they  were  to  do,  and  providing  them  with  the  necessary  forms  for 
all  cases.  The  Representation  of  the  People  Act  in  1867  introduced 
very  important  changes  in  the  franchise, — in  counties  by  introduc- 
ing an  occupation  qualification  distinct  from  any  previous  descrip- 
tion of  franchise  either  in  county  or  borough,  but  having  somewhat 
closer  affinity  to  the  £10  occupation  iu  boroughs  under  the  Reform 
Act  of  1832  than  to  the  £50  tenant  occupation  in  counties  under 
that  Act.  This  county  franchise  was  an  occupation  as  owner  or 
tenant  of  lands  or  tenements  oithe  rateable  value  of  £]2,  with  the 
concomitants  of  rating  to  the  poor  rates  and  payment  of  rates;  but 
the  £12  occupation  practically  merged  within  it  a  large  proportion 
of  £50  tenant  occupiers.  The  alterations  effected  by  the  Act  of 
1S67  in  the  borough  franchise  were  much  more  extensive.  In  the 
first  place,  the  franchise  was  given  to  every  inhabitant  occupier  as 
owner  or  tenant  of  any  dwelling  house  within  the  borough ;  but 
rating  and  payment  of  poor  rates  were  made  essential  conditions  of 
this  franchise  :  part  of  a  house  occupied  as  a  separate  dwelling,  if 
separately  rated,  was  a  sufficient  dwelling  house  to  confer  the 
franchise.  Notwithstanding  the  apparent  effect  of  the  general 
enfranchisement  of  inhabitant  occupiers,  a  very  considerable  body 
still  depended  on  the  former  £10  franchise  in  consequence  of  the 
distinction  between  residence  and  inhabitancy.  Secondly,  the  Act 
gave  the  franchise  to  occupiers  of  lodgings  of  a  yearly  value  (irre- 
spective of  furniture)  of  £10.  A  Registration  Act  of  the  following 
year  was  in  several  important  respects  defective.  With  respect  to 
two  of  the  three  new  classes  enfranchised  in  1867  many  doubts  were 
indeed  removed  by  it.  The  overseers  were  required  to  make  out  a 
list  of  £12  occupiers  in  counties  ;  on  the  other  hand  lodgers  in 
boroughs  were  required  under  the  Act  of  1867  to  claim  to  be 
registered.  But  with  respect  to  the  third  class,  the  most  numerous 
of  all — the  inhabitant  occupiers  in  boroughs — the  Act  contained  no 
direction.  Notwithstanding  attempts  to  meet  these  and  various 
other  defects,  several  years  elapsed  without  any  alteration  being 
effected.  In  the  meantime  important  electoral  changes  occurred. 
The  alterations  effected  by  the  Act  of  1867,  besides  those  of  qualifi- 
cation, the  redistribution  of  seats,  and  the  representation  of  mino- 
rities, followed  by  the  Ballot  Act  of  1872,  were  succeeded  by  the 
innovation  of  mixing  up  regulations  for  the  exercise  of  parlia- 
mentary with  the  municipal  franchise,  and  led  up  to  the  fusion 
of  the  registration  of  the  two  franchises  and  the  Parliamentary 
and  Municipal  Registration  Act  of  1878,  introducing  important 
changes  both  as  regards  the  definition  of  the  franchise  in  boroughs 
and  the  procedure  in  relation  to  registration.  As  regards 
the  latter  the  changes  recognized  the  combination  of  borough 
registration  for  the  double  purpose  of  parliamentary  and  municipal 
registration,  and  also  the  more  ready  preparation  of  accurate  registers 
irrespective  of  the  combination. 

The  legislation  of  1884  and  1885  in  relation  to  registration  next 
requires  notice.  The  Representation  of  the  People  Act,  1884, 


REGISTRATION 


345 


enacted  that  a  uniform  household  franchise  and  a  uniform  lodger 
franchise  at  elections  shall  be  established  in  all  counties  and 
boroughs  throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  and  every  man  pos- 
sessed of  a  household  qualification  or  a  lodger  qualification  shall,  if 
the  qualifying  premises  be  situated  in  a  county  in  England  or  Scot- 
land, be  entitled  to  be  registered  as  a  voter,  and,  when  registered, 
to  vote  at  an  election  for  such  county,  and,  if  the  qualifying  pre- 
mises be  situated  in  a  county  or  borough  in  Ireland,  be  entitled  to 
be  registered  as  a  voter  and,  when  registered,  to  vote  at  an  election 
for  such  county  or  borough. 

A  main  practical  effect  of  the  Act  of  1884  was  to  extend  to 
counties  the  franchise  previously  confined  to  boroughs  in  respect 
of  inhabitant  occupiers  of  dwelling  houses,  and  in  respect  of  the 
occupation  of  lodgings.  At  the  same  time  the  franchise  in  respect 
of  occupation  of  lands  and  tenements  (other  than  a  household 
franchise)  was  assimilated  in  boroughs  and  counties  and  fixed  at 
£10  a  year.  Independently  of  this  extension  to  counties  and 
assimilation  of  the  household  and  lodger  franchise,  provision  was 
made  for  extending  the  franchise  to  many  cases  of  the  inhabitancy 
of  houses  by  persons  who,  in  consequence  of  filling  offices  or  serving 
others  or  of  the  tenure  of  the  house,  were  deprived  of  the  franchise, 
not  being  in  law  occupiers.  This  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
service  franchise.  On  the  other  hand  restrictions  were  placed  on 
faggot  votes  in  respect  of  rent  charges.  Moreover,  a  man  is  not 
entitled  by  virtue  of  the  Act  to  be  registered  as  a  county  voter  in 
respect  of  the  occupation  of  any  dwelling  house,  land,  or  tenement 
situate  in  a  borough.  This  Act  was  shortly  followed  by  the 
Registration  Act,  1885,  assimilating  the  registration  law  applicable 
to  the  borough  and  county  occupation  franchises. 

The  procedure  for  the  formation  of  the  register,  as  well  in 
counties  as  in  boroughs,  is  still  very  complicated.  In.  counties 
there  are  two  classes  of  persons  entitled  to  be  registered — the  one 
ownership  voters,  the  other  occupation  voters.  General  but 
detailed  instructions  are  sent  by  the  clerk  of  the  peace  to  overseers, 
accompanied  by  forms  and  copies  of  the  existing  register.  On  or 
before  the  20th  June  the  overseers  publish  the  ownership  portion 
of  the  then  existing  register  for  the  parish,  at  the  same  time  giving 
notice  in  a  prescribed  form  that  all  persons  entitled  to  be  registered 
in  counties  in  respect  of  the  ownership  of  property  within  the  parish 
and  not  upon  the  register,  or  whose  qualification  or  address  has 
changed,  who  are  desirous  of  having  their  names  inserted  in  the 
register,  must  give  notice  to  the  overseers  in  a  prescribed  published 
form  by  the  20th  July.  A  list  of  such  ownership  claimants  is  pub- 
lished by  the  end  of  July.  The  occupation  voters  now  entitled  in 
counties  to  be  on  the  register  comprise  a  £10  occupation  qualifica- 
tion and  principally  a  household  qualification,  and  also  a  lodger 
qualification.  The  occupation  list  other  than  that  of  lodgers  is 
made  out  and  published  by  the  overseers.  They  are  required  to 
get  the  information,  and  as  this  information  cannot  be  gathered  in 
many  cases  from  the  rate  books,  they  may  require  rated  persons  to 
supply  them  with  the  names  of  all  inhabitant  occupiers  of  their 
dwelling  houses  so  that  such  persons  (including  chieily  the  ser- 
vice franchise  already  mentioned)  may  be  entered  in  a  separate 
column  of  the  rate  book.  The  lodger  list  is  made  out  by  the 
overseers  from  an  existing  list,  if  there  be  one  (for  in  counties 
there  can  be  no  existing  list  before  1886),  and  by  claims.  In  cities 
and  boroughs  the  franchises  (where  there  are  no  freemen)  are  chiefly 
occupation  franchises,  and  the  same  general  system  of  registration 
prevails  as  in  counties  in  relation  to  the  registration  or  occupation 
franchises. 

With  the  exception  of  the  provisions  relating  to  the  so-called 
service  franchise  already  noticed,  registration  procedure  has  not 
been  much  changed  by  the  legislation  of  1884  and  1885,  and  in 
counties  as  well  as  in  boroughs  it  mainly  rests  still  on  the  Regis- 
tration Act  of  1843.  Overseers  receive  their  precepts  in  boroughs 
from  the  town  clerk,  as  they  do  in  counties  from  the  clerks  of  the 
peace,  and  the  town  clerk  deals  with  the  lists  of  freemen  where  that 
description  of  franchise  exists.  As  the  household  occupation  and 
lodger  franchises  were  introduced  into  boroughs  in  1867,  the  pre- 
paration and  publication  of  lists  as  to  occupation  franchises  rests 
principally  on  the  same  procedure  in  counties  and  boroughs. 

Ample  facilities  are  given  for  fresh  and  amended  claims  and  for 
objections  made  (by  any  one  on  the  register)  to  the  overseers  by  the 
20th  August  and  published  by  them  in  lists ;  and,  where  payment  of 
poor  rates  is  essential,  not  necessarily  by  the  voter,  but  by  some 
one  (as  in  some  occupation  franchises  it  is),  a  list  of  persons  dis- 
qualified is  made  out  and  open  to  inspection.  While  the  actual 
exercise  of  the  franchise  is  governed  by  the  duration  of  the  register 
(which  in  the  absence  of  special  legislation,  as  adopted  for  1868  and 
for  1885,  is  in  force  for  the  ordinary  year,  viz.,  from  1st  January), 
every  period  of  qualification  is  computed  by  reference  to  the  15th 
July;  the  qualification  must  be  complete  on  that  day,  whether  or  I 
not  it  comprises  a  possession  or  occupation  for  a  previous  definite 
fixed  period.  When  payment  of  poor  rates  is  part  of  a  qualification, 
payment  before  the  15th  July  of  rates  payable  to  the  15th  January 
is  sufficient.  Disqualifications  generally  refer  to  their  existence  at 
the  same  date.  As  regards  parochial  relief,  any  relief  within  twelve 


months  of  the  15th  July  disqualifies.  Even  with  regard  to  dis- 
qualification by  office,  which  may  be  transitory  and  disconnected  with 
the  qualifying  franchise,  the  existence  of  the  disqualification  on  the 
15th  July  is  a  bar  to  registration.  Where  a  man  is  registered  by 
virtue  of  one  qualification  he  cannot  be  also  registered  to  vote  by 
reason  of  another  in  respect  of  the  same  property,  and  a  qualification 
franchise  under  the  Representation  of  the  People  Act,  1884,  gene- 
rally overrides  another  description  of  qualification  ;  but  fine  distinc- 
tions sometimes  exist  between  inhabitancy  and  residence  in  relation 
to  different  qualifications  affecting  the  right  to  be  on  the  register 
in  respect  of  one  description  of  occupation  franchise  rather  than 
another.  In  a  borough  divided  under  the  Redistribution  of  Scats 
Act,  1885,  a  person  cannot  be  registered  in  more  than  one  division. 
The  duties  of  overseers  in  reference  to  registration  extend  from 
spring  to  autumn.  By  the  25th  of  August  the  lists  are  delivered 
by  them  to  the  clerk  of  the  peace  in  counties,  and  in  boroughs  to 
the  town  clerk.  Barristers  are  appointed  to  revise  the  lists  and 
hold  courts  for  that  purpose  (and  also  for  revising  the  municipal 
franchise)  between  the  15th  September  and  31st  October,  giving 
notice  to  the  clerks  of  the  peace  in  counties  and  town  clerks  of 
boroughs,  who  publish  notice  of  the  sittings  appointed  and  attend 
and  deliver  the  lists,  the  overseers  also  attending.  They  hold  open 
courts  (the  localities  including  all  polling  places  in  counties)  on 
appointed  days,  with  evening  sittings  in  populous  places,  with 
general  powers  of  adjournment.  A  right  of  appeal  exists  from  a 
revising  barrister's  decision  on  the  points  of  law,  by  a  claimant 
or  objector,  to  judges  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice.  Whether  the 
right  of  appeal  is  exercised  or  not,  the  lists,  as  settled  and  signed 
by  the  barrister,  are  transmitted  by  him  to  the  clerk  of  the  peace 
or  town  clerk  as  the  case  may  be.  The  lists  are  copied  and  printed 
in  such  manner  and  form  that  the  list  of  voters  for  every  parish 
appeals  separately  and  with  reference  to  polling  places.  By  the 
end  of  December  the  printed  lists  signed  by  the  clerk  of  the  peace 
are  delivered  to  the  sheriff  of  the  county,  and  signed  borough  lists 
are  delivered  by  the  town  clerk  to  the  returning  officer.  The 
register  is  thus  completed,  and  the  book  constitutes  the  register  of 
persons  entitled  to  vote  for  the  county  or  borough  to  which  it 
relates  at  any  election  which  takes  place  during  the  year  commenc- 
ing on  the  1st  January  next  after  such  register  is  made. 

For  some  years  after  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Act,  1832,  an 
elector  was  allowed,  previous  to  voting,  to  be  interrogated  as  to 
the  possession  of  the  qualification  for  which  his  name  was  inserted 
on  the  register;  but  since  1843  no  inquiry  is  permitted  at  the 
time  of  polling  as  to  the  right  of  any  person  to  vote,  except  as 
to  his  identity  with  the  name  appearing  on  the  register  and  as  to 
his  having  already  voted  ;  he  may  be  required  to  give  his  answers 
on  oath,  but  without  an  oath  a  false  answer  wilfully  made  is 
an  indictable  misdemeanour.  With  this  exception  it  is  unlawful 
to  require  any  voter  to  take  an  oath  in  proof  of  his  qualification 
or  right  to  vote,  or  to  reject  any  vote  tendered  by  any  person 
whose  name  is  upon  the  register  ;  and  no  scrutiny  is  allowed  by 
or  before  any  returning  officer  with  regard  to  any  vote  given  or 
tendered  at  an  election.  A  great  effort,  partially  successful,  was 
made  in  1885  to  transfer  the  cost  of  forming  the  register  from 
local  to  imperial  funds.  A  part  of  the  cost  is  now  borne  by 
the  state.  The  remuneration  of  revising  barristers  is  paid  by  the 
treasury. 

Scotland. — In  Scotland  as  in  England  a  system  of  registration 
was  established  in  1832  (2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  65),  and,  passing  over 
amendments  on  the  extension  and  assimilation  of  county  and 
burgli  franchises  by  the  Representation  of  the  People  Act,  1884, 
establishing  a  general  household  qualification  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  principles  of  registration  adopted  in  England  by  the 
Registration  Act,  1885,  were  applied  with  some  modifications  to 
Scotland  by  the  Registration  Amendment  (Scotland)  Act,  1885. 
An  annual  revision  of  the  register  (founded  on  the  valuation  roll) 
is  made  by  appointed  officers,  with  the  publication  of  lists  and  of 
names  of  parties  interested  making  claims  and  objections.  .Instead, 
however,  of  the  duties  of  publication  and  primary  correction  being 
in  the  hands  of  the  parish  officers,  as  in  England,  those  duties 
devolve  as  before  on  assessors  (aided  in  burghs  by  the  town  clerks), 
who  make  up  the  register.  The  duties  of  final  revision  devolve  on 
the  sheriff,  who  authenticates  the  register,  and  it  is  delivered  to 
the  sherilT  clerk  with  the  names  duly  arranged.  The  principal 
expenses  of  registration  are  provided  from  local  or  county  sources, 
with  a  contribution  from  imperial  funds. 

Ireland. — In  Ireland  also  the  registration  of  voters  was  a  feature 
of  the  reform  in  parliament  effected  in  1832,  and  the  same  gene;al 
features  as  to  the  formation  and  amendment  of  the  register  prevail 
as  in  England.  The  extension  and  assimilation  of  the  franchise 
by  the  Representation  of  the  People  Act,  1884,  is  carried  out  by 
the  Parliamentary  Registration  (Ireland)  Act,  1885,  on  the  same 
lines  as  before,  only  adapted  to  peculiar  exigencies.  Clerks  of 
poor-law  unions  have  still  many  of  the  duties  of  parochial  officers 
in  England.  Prominent  among  recent  divergencies  is  the  proviso- 
that  temporary  eviction  for  non-payment  of  rent  followed  by 
reinstalment  does  not  disqualify  a  claim  to  occupation  franchise. 

XX.  —  44 


346 


R  E  G  —  B  E  G 


Revision  is  made  at  special  sessions  before  assistant  barristers, 
or,  in  counties,  before  the  chairman.  The  register,  when  com- 
pleted, is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  sheriff  in  counties  and 
of  the  returning  officer  in  boroughs.  The  expenses  of  registration 
are  defrayed  from  local  sources,  with  a  contribution  from  imperial 
funds. 

Universities.  —  The  Reform  Act  of  1832  made  no  change  in  the 
university  representation.  Special  provisions  affect  the  electoral 
roll  of  universities  returning  members  of  parliament. 

London  Freemen. — There  are  also  special  provisions  as  to  the 
registration  of  freemen  in  the  City  of  London.  (J.  E.  D.) 

REGNARD,  JEAN  FRANCOIS  (1656-1709),  who  in 
general  estimation  ranks  next  to  Moliere  among  French 
comic  dramatists,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1656,  and  during 
at  least  the  earlier  part  of  his  life  had  a  singularly  adven- 
turous career  considering  his  time,  station,  and  country. 
His  father  was  a  rich  shopkeeper,  who  educated  his  son 
carefully,  and  died  when  he  was  about  twenty,  leaving 
Regnard  master  of  what  was  for  the  time  a  considerable 
fortune.  Regnard,  who  was  apparently  beyond  his  day  in 
affection  for  travelling,  set  off  at  once  for  Italy  and  there 
gambled  perseveringly.  A  young  tradesman's  son  in  such 
circumstances  ought,  according  to  precedent  and  poetical 
justice,  to  have  been  fleeced  to  his  last  penny;  but 
Regnard,  according  to  the  story,  increased  his  fortune  by 
ten  thousand  crowns.  In  Italy  (on  his  second  visit  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities)  he  met  and  fell  in  love  with  a 
young  married  lady  of  Proven9al  birth.  With  her  and  her 
husband  (it  is  difficult  not  to  believe  that  biographers  have 
taken  the  facts  of  a  short  autobiographical  romance  which 
Regnard  wrote,  under  the  title  of  La  Provencale,  rather 
literally)  he  set  out  for  France  on  board  an  English  frigate. 
This  was  attacked  by  two  Algerian  rovers;  the  captain  and 
the  crew  were  cut  to  pieces,  and  the  passengers  taken  to 
Algiers  and  sold.  Regnard,  who,  being  skilful  in  cookery, 
was  a  valuable  slave,  is  said  to  have  been  taken  by  his 
master  to  Constantinople,  but  after  about  two  years'  cap- 
tivity he  was  ransomed  with  his  lady  love  for  twelve 
thousand  livres.  The  husband  was  supposed  to  be  dead,  and 
Regnard  was  preparing  to  marry  the  widow  when  a  proper 
time  of  mourning  had  elapsed,  but  the  husband  reappeared 
and  the  lover  was  disappointed.  The  disappointment  set 
him  once  more  on  a  roving  life,  and  he  journeyed  by 
Holland,  Denmark,  and  Sweden  to  Lapland,  and  thence  by 
Poland,  Turkey,  Hungary,  and  Germany  back  to  France, 
having  commemorated  what  was  then  the  somewhat  extra- 
ordinary feat  of  visiting  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  by 
a  Latin  inscription  on  the  rocks,  which  was  visible  thirty 
years  later.  He  returned  to  Paris  at  the  end  of  1683.  He 
now  appears  to  have  entirely  exhausted  his  roving  inclina- 
tions, and  for  the  second  half  of  his  life  (for  this  date  of 
December  1683  nearly  bisects  it)  his  existence,  if  not 
exactly  sedentary,  was  divided  between  luxury  and  letters. 
He  bought  the  place  of  treasurer  of  France  in  the  Paris 
district;  he  had  a  house  at  Paris  in  the  Rue  Richelieu;  and 
he  acquired  the  small  estate  of  Grillon  near  Dourdan  (about 
equidistant  between  Rambouillet  and  Fontainebleau),  where 
he  hunted,  feasted,  and  wrote  comedies.  This  latter 
amusement  he  began  in  1688  with  a  piece  called  Le 
Divorce,  which  was  performed  at  the  Theatre  Italien,  and 
followed  it  up  with  many  other  small  pieces,  which  are 
not,  however,  his  titles  to  fame.  He  gained  access  to  the 
Theatre  Fra^ais  in  1694  with  a  slight  piece  called  Attendez- 
moi  sous  I'Orme,  and  two  years  later  produced  there  the 
masterly  comedy  of  Le  Joueur,  in  reference  to  which  his 
ally  Dufresny  attempted  to  make  out  a  charge  of  plagiar- 
ism, Le  Distrait  (1697),  Le  Retour  Imprevu  (1700),  Les 
Folies  Amoureuses  (1704),  Les  Menechmes  (1705),  a  clever 
following  of  Plautus,  and,  lastly,  his  masterpiece,  Le 
Lfyataire  Universel  (1708),  with  one  or  two  less  meritorious 
pieces,  were  also  produced  at  the  Francois. 

Regnard's  death,  after  a  quarter  of  a  century  of  quiet 


living,  renews  the  doubtful  and  romantic  circumstances  of 
his  earlier  life.  Some  hint  at  poison ;  there  is  a  wild  and 
wonderful  story  of  his  having  deliberately  made  up  a  pre- 
scription of  horse  medicine  for  himself  and  taken  it  with 
fatal  consequences ;  while  other  more  prosaic  accounts  give 
as  the  cause  of  death  his  having  gone  out  hunting  while 
under  an  ordinary  course  of  treatment,  and  on  his  return, 
when  much  heated,  having  swallowed  a  large  quantity  of 
iced  water.  At  any  rate  he  died  on  the  4th  September 
1709. 

Besides  the  plays  noticed  above  and  others,  Regnard  wrote  a  cer- 
tain number  of  miscellaneous  poems,  the  above-mentioned  novel  of 
La  Provencale,  and  several  short  accounts  in  prose  of  his  travels. 
He  quarrelled  with  Boileau  and  was  reconciled  with  him,  owing  to 
which  fact  the  expressions  of  that  critic  concerning  Regnard's 
literary  merit  were  not  wholly  consistent.  The  saying,  however, 
which  is  attributed  to  him  when  some  one,  thinking  to  curry  favour, 
remarked  that  Regnard  was  only  a  mediocre  pqet,  "11  n'est  pas 
mediocrement  gai, "  is  both  true  and  very  appropriate.  Regnard's 
verse  is  not  particularly  good  (in  his  non-dramatic  work  it  is  some- 
times positively  bad),  and  his  French  style,  especially  in  his  purely 
prose  works,  is  not  considered  faultless.  He  is  often  unoriginal  in 
his  plots,  and,  whether  Dufresny  was  or  was  not  justified  in  his  com- 
plaint about  Le  Joueur,  it  seems  likely  that  Regnard  owed  not  a 
little  to  him  and  to  others  ;  but  he  had  a  thorough  grasp  of  comic 
situation  and  incident  and  a  most  amusing  faculty  of  dialogue.  He 
is  often  not  far  from  the  verge  of  farce,  but  he  certainly  might 
plead  Moliere's  example  in  this  respect.  There  is  no  trace  in  him 
of  Moliere's  ethical  value,  and  he  is  seldom  a  serious  critic  of  society 
and  life,  while  in  point  of  refinement  of  incident  and  language  his 
drama  is  a  distinct  relapse  from  his  master's.  But  there  are  few 
things  in  artificial  comedy  more  amusing  and  more  dexterously 
managed  than  the  series  of  devices  whereby  the  miserly  uncle  of  Le 
Lfyataire  Universel  is  brought  to  make  his  nephew  rich  and  happy. 
The  first  edition  of  Reynard's  complete  works  was  published  in  1731  (5  vols., 
Paris),  one  of  the  last  in  1854  (2  vols.).  There  is  a  good  selection  of  almost  every- 
thing important  in  the  Collection  Didot. 

REGNAULT,  HENRI  (1843-1871),  French  painter,  born 
at  Paris  on  the  31st  October  1843,  was  the  son  of  Henri 
Victor  Regnault  (noticed  below).  On  leaving  school  he 
successively  entered  the  studios  of  Montfort,  Lamothe,  and 
Cabanel,  was  beaten  for  the  Great  Prize  (1863)  by  Layraud 
and  Montchablon,  and  in  1864  exhibited  two  portraits  in 
no  wise  remarkable  at  the  Salon.  Nothing,  in  short, 
produced  by  Regnault  up  to  1866  led  men  to  suspect  the 
brilliancy  of  his  endowments,  but  in  that  year  he  made  a 
mark,  carrying  off  the  Great  Prize  with  a  work  of  unusual 
force  and  distinction — Thetis  bringing  the  Arms  forged  by 
Vulcan  to  Achilles  (School  of  the  Fine  Arts).  The  past 
and  the  works  of  the  past  in  Italy  did  not  touch  him,  but 
his  illustrations  to  Wey's  Rome  show  how  observant  he 
was  of  actual  life  and  manners ;  even  his  Automedon 
(School  of  Fine  Arts),  executed  in  obedience  to  Academical 
regulations,  was  but  a  lively  recollection  of  a  carnival 
horse  race.  At  Rome,  moreover,  Regnault  came  into 
contact  with  the  modern  Hispano-Italian  school,  a  school 
highly  materialistic  in  its  aims  and  tendencies,  and 
inclined  to  regard  even  the  human  subject  only  as  one 
amongst  many  sources  whence  to  obtain  amusement  for 
the  eye.  The  vital,  if  narrow,  energy  of  this  school  told 
on  Regnault  with  ever-increasing  force  during  the  few 
remaining  years  of  his  life.  In  1868  he  had  sent  to  the 
Salon  a  life-size  portrait  of  a  lady  in  which  he  had  made 
one  of  the  first  attempts  to  render  the  actual  character  of 
fashionable  modern  life,  and,  on  his  return  from  a  visit  to 
the  exhibition,  he  seized  the  opportunity  of  making  a  tour 
in  Spain.  There  he  saw  Prim  pass  at  the  head  of  his 
troops,  and  received  that  lively  image  of  a  military 
demagogue  which  he  afterwards  put  on  canvas  somewhat 
to  the  displeasure  of  his  subject.  But  this  work  made 
an  appeal  to  the  imagination  of  the  public,  whilst  all  the 
later  productions  of  Regnault  were  addressed  exclusively 
to  the  eye.  After  a  further  flight  to  Africa,  abridged  by 
the  necessities  of  his  position  as  a  pensioner  of  the  school 
of  Rome,  he  painted  Judith,  then  (1870)  Salome,  and,  as 


R E  G  — E  E  G 


347 


.a  work  due  from  the  Roman  school,  despatched  from 
Tangiers  the  large  canvas,  Execution  without  Hearing 
under  the  Moorish  Kings,  in  which  the  painter  had  played 
with  the  blood  of  the  victim  as  were  he  a  jeweller  toying 
with  rubies.  The  war  arose,  and  found  Regnault  foremost 
in  the  devoted  ranks  of  Buzenval,  where  he  fell  on  January 
19,  1871. 

See  Corrcspondanw  de  H.  Regnault ;  Duparc,  H.  Regnault,  sa  vie 
ctsonauvrc;  Cazalis,  H.  Regnault,  1843-1871 ;  Bailliere,  Les  artistes 
.de  mon  temps  ;  C.  Blanc,  H.  Regnault ;  P.  Mantz,  Gazette  du 
Beaux  Arts,  1872. 

REGNAULT,  HENRI  VICTOR  (1811-1878),  was  born 
on  July  21,  1811,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  His  early  life  was 
a  struggle  with  poverty.  When  a  boy  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  after  a  time  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  situation  in  a 
large  drapery  establishment,  where  he  remained,  occupying 
every  spare  hour  in  study,  until  he  was  in  his  twentieth 
year.  Then  he  entered  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  and,  after 
making  the  best  use  of  his  increased  opportunities,  passed 
in  1832  to  the  Ecole  des  Mines,  where  he  developed  an 
aptitude  for  experimental  chemistry. 

A  few  years  later  he  was  appointed  to  a  professorship 
of  chemistry  at  Lyons,  and  devoted  himself  to  research 
.amongst  organic  compounds.  He  paid  little  attention  to 
theories  and  cared  only  for  facts ;  but,  by  his  unequivocal 
proof  of  the  substitution  of  chlorine  for  hydrogen  in  hydro- 
carbons, he  greatly  assisted  his  countrymen  Laurent  and 
Dumas  in  establishing  the  type-theory  of  organic  com- 
pounds. Regnault's  most  important  chemical  work  was  a 
.series  of  researches,  commenced  in  1835,  on  the  haloid  and 
other  derivatives  of  unsaturated  hydrocarbons.  This  made 
him  the  discoverer  of  the  vinyl  group  of  compounds,  car- 
bon tetrachloride  (CC14),  and  of  perchlorether  (C4C110O). 
He  studied  many  of  the  natural  alkaloids  and  organic 
acids,  introduced  a  classification  of  the  metals  according  to 
the  facility  with  which  they  or  their  sulphides  are  oxidized 
by  steam  at  high  temperatures,  and  effected  a  comparison 
of  the  chemical  composition  of  atmospheric  air  from  all 
parts  of  the  world. 

In  1840  Regnault  was  recalled  to  Paris  by  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  Ecole  Polytechnique ; 
at  the  same  time  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academic 
des  Sciences,  in  the  chemical  section,  in  room  of  M. 
Robiquet ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  became  professor  of 
physics  in  the  College  de  France,  there  succeeding  Dulong, 
his  old  master,  and  in  many  respects  his  model.  From 
this  time  Regnault  devoted  almost  all  his  attention  to 
practical  physics;  but  in  1847  he  published  a  four- volume 
treatise  on  Chemistry  which  was  highly  esteemed  and  has 
been  translated  into  many  languages. 

Regnault  is  perhaps  best  known  by  his  careful  redeter- 
mination  of  the  specific  heats  of  all  the  elements  obtainable, 
and  of  many  compounds — solids,  liquids,  and  gases — by 
which  he  was  enabled  to  correct  the  values  obtained  by 
Dulong  and  Petit,  and  to  reduce  the  number  of  exceptions 
to  their  law  that  the  specific  heat  of  an  element  varies 
inversely  as  its  atomic  weight,  and  of  a  compound  as  its 
molecular  weight.  He  investigated  the  expansibility  of  gases 
by  heat,  determined  the  coefficient  for  air  as  0'03663,  and 
showed  that,  contrary  to  previous  opinion,  no  two  gases 
had  precisely  the  same  rate  of  expansion.  By  numerous 
delicate  experiments  he  proved  Boyle's  law  that  the  volume 
of  a  gas  is  inversely  as  the  pressure  it  supports  to  be  only 
approximately  true,  and  that  those  gases  which  are  most 
readily  liquefied  diverge  most  widely  from  obedience  to  the 
law.  Regnault  studied  the  whole  subject  of  thermometry 
critically;  he  introduced  the  use  of  an  accurate  air-ther- 
mometer, and  compared  its  indications  with  those  of  a 
mercurial  thermometer,  determining  the  absolute  dilatation 
of  mercury  by  heat  as  a  step  in  the  process.  He  also  paid 


attention  to  hygrometry  and  devised  a  hygrometer  in  which 
a  cooled  metal  surface  is  used  for  the  deposition  of 
moisture. 

In  1854  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  Ebelman  as  director 
of  the  celebrated  porcelain  manufactory  at  Sevres.  He 
carried  on  the  great  research  on  the  expansion  of  gases 
in  the  laboratory  at  Sevres,  but  all  the  results  of  his  latest 
work  were  destroyed  during  the  Franco-German  War,  in 
which  also  his  son  Henri  (noticed  above)  was  killed. 
Regnault  never  recovered  the  double  blow,  and,  although 
he  lived  until  January  19,  1878,  his  scientific  labours 
ended  in  1872.  He  wrote  more  than  eighty  papers  on 
scientific  subjects,  and  he  made  fine  researches,  many  of 
them  of  importance,  in  conjunction  with  other  workers. 
His  greatest  work,  bearing  on  the  practical  treatment  of 
steam-engines,  forms  vol.  xxi.  of  the  Memoires  de  I' Academic 
des  Sciences. 

Regnault  was  great  as  a  laborious  worker ;  in  all  his  researches 
lie  overcame  every  difficulty  by  his  determined  perseverance,  his  un- 
usual natural  ingenuity  in  devising  apparatus,  and  his  rare  power  of 
manipulation.  Although  few  discoveries  are  associated  with  his 
name,  the  mass  of  physical  constants  which  he  determined  with 
the  utmost  accuracy  constitutes  a  powerful  instrument  of  further 
advance,  and  the  thorough  training  which  he  gave  his  students  has 
provided  many  painstaking  and  exact  workers  in  the  field  of 
physics. 

REGNAULT,  JEAN  BAPTISTS,  French  painter,  was  born 
at  Paris  on  9th  October  1754,  and  died  in  the  same  city 
on  November  12,  1829.  He  began  life  at  sea  in  a  mer- 
chant vessel,  but  at  the  age  of  fifteen  his  talent  attracted 
attention  and  he  was  sent  to  Italy  by  M.  de  Monval  under 
the  care  of  Bardin.  After  his  return  to  Paris,  Regnault,  in 
1776,  obtained  the  Great  Prize,  and  in  1783  he  was  elected 
Academician.  His  diploma  picture,  the  Education  of 
Achilles  by  Chiron,  is  now  in  the  Louvre,  as  also  the 
Christ  taken  down  from  the  Cross,  originally  executed  for 
the  royal  chapel  at  Fontainebleau,  and  two  minor  works — 
the  Origin  of  Painting  and  Pygmalion  praying  Venus  to 
give  Life  to  his  Statue.  Besides  various  small  pictures 
and  allegorical  subjects,  Regnault  was  also  the  author  of 
many  large  historical  paintings ;  and  his  school,  which 
reckoned  amongst  its  chief  attendants  Guerin,  Crepin, 
Lafitte,  Blondel,  Robert  Lefevre,  and  Menjaud,  was  for  a 
long  while  the  rival  in  influence  of  that  of  David. 

REGNIER,  MATHURIN  (1573-1613),  the  greatest 
satirist  of  France,  was  born  at  Chartres  on  the  21st 
December  1573.  His  father,  Jacques  Regnier,  was  a 
bourgeois  of  good  means  and  position ;  his  mother, 
Simonne  Desportes,  was  the  sister  of  the  poetical  Abbe" 
Desportes,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  disciples 
of  Ronsard.  Desportes,  who  was  richly  beneficed  and  in 
great  favour  at  court,  seems  to  have  been  regarded  at  once 
as  Mathurin  Regnier's  natural  protector  and  patron,  and 
the  boy  himself,  with  a  view  to  his  following  in  his  uncle's 
steps,  was  tonsured  at  nine  years  old.  It  appears  that 
Jacques  Regnier,  at  any  rate  for  a  time,  encouraged  his  son 
to  imitate  his  uncle  in  poetry  also,  though  he  afterwards 
changed  his  views.  The  boy  was  somewhat  early  introduced 
to  general  society  of  the  jovial  kind,  for  his  father  built  a 
tennis  court  at  the  end  of  his  garden  which  became  semi- 
public  and  was  much  frequented.  The  poet's  enemies  said 
that  his  father  had  been  a  common  gaming-house  keeper, 
and  that  the  court  was  built  with  the  ruins  of  some  church 
property ;  but  this  seems  to  be  mere  scandal.  Little  is 
known  of  his  youth,  and  it  is  chiefly  conjecture  which  fixes 
the  date  of  his  visit  to  Italy  in  the  suite  of  the  Cardinal 
de  Joyeuse  in  1586.  Others  give  1583  and  1593,  but 
the  former  date  is  certainly  too  early,  and  the  latter  pro- 
bably too  late.  Indeed  the  greatest  uncertainty  exists  as 
to  the  dates  and  incidents  of  Regnier's  short  life,  and  his 
biographers  hitherto  have  chiefly  busied  themselves  in 


348 


R  E  G  — R  E  I 


upsetting  each  others'  facts  without  supplying  fresh  details 
of  an  authentic  character.  It  is  commonly  said  that  the 
poet,  finding  Joycuse  an  inactive  or  unwilling  patron,  trans- 
ferred his  services  to  Philippe  do  Bethune,  Sully's  brother, 
who  went  as  ambassador  to  Rome  in  1601 ;  but  this  seems 
doubtful,  for  one  of  the  very  few  positive  documents  con- 
cerning Regnier  speaks  of  him  as  still  in  Joyeuse's  service 
a  year  later.  What  is  generally  certain  is  that  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  youth  he  lived  partly  in  Paris  and  partly 
in  Italy,  after  a  somewhat  idle  and  very  dissipated  fashion. 
He  early  began  the  practice  of  satirical  writing,  and  the 
enmity  which  existed  between  his  uncle  Desportes  and  the 
poet  Malherbe  gave  him  occasion  to  attack  the  latter  in 
some  of  his  very  best  verses.  It  has  been  generally  said  that 
Regnier  obtained  full  possession  of  a  canonry  at  Chartres,  to 
the  reversion  of  which  he  had  been  appointed  when  a  child, 
in  1604,  and  a  singular  legend  is  told  of  the  immediate 
circumstances  ;  but  the  formal  registry  of  admission  signed 
by  himself  is  extant,  and  is  dated  1609,  a  further  instance 
of  the  uncertainty  which  prevails  respecting  him.  In  1606 
Desportes  died,  leaving  nothing  to  Regnier,  though  they 
seem  to  have  been  on  excellent  terms  to  the  last.  The 
poet  was  even  disappointed  of  the  succession  to  Desportes's 
abbacies,  but  he  obtained  a  pension  (the  amount  as  usual 
variously  stated  at  2000  and  6000  livres)  chargeable  upon 
one  of  them,  by  the  influence  of  the  Marquis  de  Cceuvres, 
afterwards  Marechal  d'Estrdes,  the  brother  of  Henry  IV. 's 
Gabrielle.  He  also  became  a  great  favourite  with  his 
bishop,  Philippe  Hurault,  at  whose  abbacy  of  Royaumont 
Regnier  spent  much  time  in  the  later  years  of  his  life. 
On  the  other  hand  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  deprived  him 
of  his  last  hope  of  great  preferments,  and  appears  to  have 
considerably  soured  his  temper.  He  did  not  long  survive 
the  king.  His  life  had  always  been  one  of  dissipation,  or,  to 
speak  frankly,  debauchery,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1613  he 
went  to  Rouen  to  put  himself  under  the  care  of  a  quack 
doctor.  An  apparent  cure  was  followed  by  a  feast  at 
which  the  patient  drank  his  physician's  health  too  freely 
in  strong  Spanish  wine,  and  died  of  pleurisy  or  fever  at 
his  hotel,  the  Ecu  d'Orleans,  on  the  13th  October.  His 
body  was  disembowelled  and  the  entrails  deposited  in  the 
parish  church,  that  of  St  Marie  Mineure,  the  other  remains 
being  carried  to  Royaumont  and  buried  there. 

Such  is  the  meagre  amount  of  positive  knowledge  respecting  one 
of  the  greatest  poets  of  France.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  liegnier's 
literary  history  is  quite  accurately  ascertained,  though  it  is  less 
dubious  thaii  his  persoiial.  The  period  immediately  preceding 
and  following  his  death  was  a  period  of  numerous  collections  of 
licentious  and  satirical  poems,  some  published,  some  still  remaining 
in  manuscript.  Gathered  from  these  there  has  been  a  floating  mass 
of  epigrams,  &c.,  attributed  to  liegnier,  few  of  which  are  certainly 
authentic,  and  most  of  which  do  no  particular  credit  to  his  memory. 
On  these  editors  of  his  works  have  exercised  freely  the  right  of 
acceptance  or  rejection,  so  that  it  is  very  rare  to  find  two  editions 
of  Regnier  which  exactly  agree  in  contents.  His  acknowledged  or 
undoubted  work,  however,  is  that  on  which  his  fame  rests,  and  it 
falls  into  three  classes  : — regular  satires  in  alexandrine  couplets, 
serious  poems  in  various  metres,  and  satirical  or  jocular  epigrams 
and  light  pieces,  which  often,  if  not  always,  exhibit  considerable 
licence  of  language.  This  latter  class  is,  however,  much  the  least 
important  in  every  way.  The  real  greatness  of  liegnier  consists  in 
the  vigour  and  polish  of  his  satires,  contrasted  and  heightened  as 
that  vigour  is  with  the  exquisite  feeling  and  melancholy  music  of 
some  of  his  minor  poems.  In  the  latter  Regnier  is  a  disciple  of 
Ronsard  (whom  he  defended  brilliantly  against  Malherbe),  without 
the  occasional  pedantry,  the  affectation,  or  the  undue  fluency  of  the 
Pleiade,  but  in  the  satires  he  had  hardly  any  master  (Vauquelin 
de  la  Fresnaye  and  Agrippa  d'Aubigne,  who  preceded  him  in  point 
of  composition,  did  not  publish  their  satires  until  later)  except  the 
ancients.  He  has  sometimes  followed  Horace  closely,  but  always 
in  an  entirely  original  spirit.  His  vocabulary  is  varied  and 
picturesque,  but  is  not  marred  by  the  maladroit  classicism  of  some 
of  the  Ronsardists.  His  verse  is  extraordinarily  forcible  and 
nervous,  but  what  distinguishes  him  especially  from  most 
satirists  is  the  way  in  which  he  gets  the  better  of  what  may  be 
called  the  commonplaces  of  satire,  and  to  a  great  extent  at  any 


rate  avoids  the  tendency  of  all  French  poetry  to  run  into  t\\  es. 
His  keen  and  accurate  knowledge  of  human  nature  and  even  his 

purely   literary  qualities   extorted   the    admiration   of    ISoileau 

usually  the  severest  of  critics  in  regard  to  all  poets  of  the  j>n.rcdmg 
age  except  Malherbe.  Rcgnier,  moreover,  in  respect  of  ,M;i 
has  himself  displayed  remarkable  independence  and  arutt-ness  of 
literary  criticism,  and  the  famous  passugc  in  which  he  satirizes  the 
poet  of  Caen  contains  the  best  denunciation  of  the  merely  "  correct " 
theory  of  poetry  that  has  ever  been  written.  Lastly,  Regnier  had  a 
most  unusual  descriptive  faculty,  and  the  vividness  of  what  may  bo 
called  his  narrative  satires  w;ts  not  approached  in  France  i'l'r  at 
least  two  centuries  after  his  death.  All  his  merits  are  displayed  in 
the  masterpiece  entitled  Maccttc  ou  I'Hypocrisie  d&onccrUe,  but 
hardly  any  one  of  the  sixteen  satires  which  he  has  left  falls  below 
even  a  very  high  standard.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  l: 
is  the  last  poet  who  shows  the  poetic  faculties  of  the  French  tongue 
before  the  classical  reforms  of  the  17th  century  had  cramped  and 
curtailed  them,  and  that  he  shows  these  faculties  in  something  like 
perfection. 

The  first  edition  of  Regnier's  satires  appenral  in  1C08  published  l>y  Gabriel 
Bnon.  Th«re  was  another  In  1K09,  and  another  in  1612.  The  author  had  also 
contributed  to  two  collection.'— Les  Afuses  Gaillartles  in  1C09  and  Le  Temple 
d'Apollon  in  1611.  In  the  year  of  hi*  death  (1613)  a  complete!'  collection 
appeared, and  another  in  IfjlC.  The  chief  editions  of  the  18th  C(  ntury  are  that  of 
lirossette  (1729),  which  supplies  the  standard  commentary  on  Hi-piTicr.  and  that  of 
Lenglet  Dufresnoy  (1733).  Recently  the  poet  has  been  frequently  mid  carefully 
reprinted.  The  editions  of  Prosper  Poitevin  in  1SOO,  of  51.  de  Barthe'leniy  in  1862, 
and  of  .51.  Courbet  in  1875  may  be  specially  mentioned.  The  last,  printed  after  the 
original*  in  italic  type,  and  well  edited,  is  perhaps  the  best,  as  51.  de  JJartlielemy's 
is  the  lullest,  of  recent  copies. 

REGULUS,  MARCUS  ATILIUS,  was  consul  for  the  second 
time  in  the  ninth  year  of  the  First  Punic  War  (256  B.C.),  and 
so  was  one  of  the  commanders  in  the  great  naval  expedi- 
tion which  shattered  the  Carthaginian  fleet  and  success- 
fully lauded  an  army  on  Carthaginian  territory  at  Clupea. 
At  first  the  invaders  had  such  success  that  half  the  army 
and  the  other  consul  Manlius  could  be  recalled  to  Rome, 
and  yet  leave  good  hope  that  Regulus  with  the  insurgent 
Numidiau  subjects  of  the  Phoenicians  would  finish  the 
war  in  the  second  campaign.  But  Carthage,  which  had 
found  an  able  general  in  the  Spartan  Xanthippus,  used  the 
winter  to  such  good  account  that  in  the  spring  of  255 
Regulus  was  decidedly  inferior  in  strength,  and,  hazarding 
a  pitched  battle  on  ground  favourable  to  the  enemy,  had 
his  army  cut  to  pieces  and  was  himself  taken  captive. 
Regulus  perished  in  captivity,  and  was  supposed  at  Rome 
to  have  been  done  to  death  :  according  to  the  common  story 
he  was  sent  to  Rome  on  parole  to  negotiate  a  peace  or  ex- 
change of  prisoners,  but  on  his  arrival  strongly  urged  the 
senate  to  refuse  both  proposals,  and  returning  to  Carthage 
was  slain  with  horrid  tortures.  This  is  the  story  so  elo- 
quently told  by  Horace  (Carm.  iii.  5),  and  which  made 
Regulus  to  the  later  Romans  the  type  of  heroic  endurance 
in  misfortune  ;  but  most  critical  historians  regard  it  as 
insufficiently  attested,  Polybius  being  silent. 

REICHA,  ANTON  JOSEPH  (1770-1836),  musical 
theorist  and  teacher  of  composition,  was  born  at  Prague, 
February  27,  1770,  and  educated  chiefly  by  his  uncle, 
Joseph  Reicha  (1746-1795),  a  clever  violoncellist,  who 
first  received  him  into  his  house  at  Wallerstein  in 
Bohemia,  and  afterwards  carried  him  to  Bonn.  He 
studied  hard,  and  began  to  compose  at  a  very  early  age, — 
producing,  during  the  course  of  a  long  and  active  life,  a 
vast  quantity  of  church  music,  five  operas,  a  number  of 
symphonies,  oratorios,  and  many  miscellaneous  works. 
Though  clever  and  ingenious,  his  compositions  are  more 
remarkable  for  their  novelty  than  for  the  beauty  of  the 
ideas  upon  which  they  are  based,  and  display  but  little  of 
the  divine  fire  which  alone  can  render  works  of  art 
immortal.  His  fame  is,  indeed,  more  securely  based  uj/on 
his  didactic  works  than  upon  the  results  of  his  theories 
as  exemplified  in  his  own  productions.  His  Traitt  de 
Melodic  (Paris,  1814),  Cours  de  Composition  Musicalc.  (Paris, 
1818),  Traite  de  Haute  Composition  ALiisicale  (Paris,  1824- 
1826),  and  Art  du  Compositeur  Dramatique  (Paris,  1833) 
are  valuable  and  instructive  essays,  containing  much  that  is 
new  and  interesting ;  and,  though  many  of  the  theories  they 


R  E  I  —  E  E  I 


349 


set  forth  are  now  condemned  as  erroneous,  they  can  scarcely 
be  read  without  profit  to  the  student. 

Eeicha  first  visited  Paris  in  1799.  In  1802  he  removed 
to  Vienna,  where  he  spent  some  happy  years  in  close 
intercourse  with  Beethoven,  and  the  veteran  Haydn.  His 
permanent  settlement  at  Paris  took  place  in  1808.  In 
1817  he  succeeded  Mehul  as  professor  of  counterpoint  at 
the  Conservatoire.  In  1831  he  was  made  a  knight  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour;  and  in  1835  he  was  admitted  as  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  the  place  of  Boieldieu.  He 
died  at  Paris,  May  28,  1836. 

REICHENAU,  a  picturesque  island  in  the  Untersee  or 
western  arm  of  the  lake  of  Constance,  is  3  miles  in  length 
by  1  in  breadth,  and  is  connected  with  the  east  bank  by  a 
causeway  three  quarters  of  a  mile  long.  It  belongs  to  the 
duchy  of  Baden,  and  comprises  the  three  parishes  of  Ober- 
zell,  Mittelzell,  and  Unterzell,  with  a  joint  population  of 
1463  in  1880.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  excellent  wine 
is  produced  in  sufficient  quantity  for  exportation.  The 
Benedictine  abbey  of  Reichenau,  founded  in  724,  was  long 
celebrated  for  its  wealth  and  for  the  services  rendered  by 
its  monks  to  the  cause  of  learning.  In  1538  the  abbey, 
which  had  previously  been  independent,  was  subordinated 
to  the  see  of  Constance,  and  in  1799  it  was  secularized. 
The  abbey  church,  dating  in  part  from  the  9th  century, 
contains  the  tomb  of  Charles  the  Fat,  who  retired  to  this 
island  in  887,  after  losing  the  empire  of  Charlemagne. 
It  now  serves  as  the  parish  church  of  Mittelzell,  and  the 
churches  of  Oberzell  and  Unterzell  are  also  interesting 
buildings  of  the  Carlovingian  era. 

REICHENBACH,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Saxony,  in 
the  province  of  Zwickau,  lies  in  the  hilly  district  known  as 
the  Voigtland,  50  miles  to  the  south  of  Leipsic.  The  chief 
industrial  products  are  woollen  cloth,  merino,  cashmere, 
flannel,  and  shawls.  Its  importance  is  of  recent  origin, 
and  the  population,  amounting  to  16,509  in  1880,  has 
trebled  itself  within  the  last  fifty  years.  The  earliest 
notice  of  the  town  occurs  in  a  document  of  1212,  and  it 
acquired  municipal  rights  in  1367. 

REICHENBACH,  a  cotton-manufacturing  town  of  Prus- 
sian Silesia,  with  7225  inhabitants  (1880)  and  an  old 
castle,  lies  30  miles  to  the  south-south-west  of  Breslau,  and 
demands  mention  chiefly  from  its  connexion  with  several 
important  historical  events.  In  1762  Frederick  the  Great 
gained  a  victory  here  over  the  Austrians ;  by  the  Reichen- 
bach  convention  of  1790  England  and  the  other  powers 
guaranteed  the  subsistence  of  the  Turkish  empire;  and 
in  1813  a  treaty,  afterwards  ratified  at  Prague,  was  con- 
cluded here  between  Austria  and  the  allies. 

REICHENBACH,  GEORG  VON  (1772-1826),  astrono- 
mical instrument  maker,  was  born  at  Durlach  in  Baden 
on  August  24,  1772.  He  first  served  as  an  officer  of 
artillery,  and  afterwards  held  several  civil  appointments 
in  Bavaria.  Already  from  1796  he  was  occupied  with 
the  construction  of  a  dividing  engine;  in  1804  he 
founded,  with  Liebherr  and  Utzschneider,  an  instrument- 
making  business  in  Munich ;  and  in  1809  he  established, 
with  Fraunhofer  and  Utzschneider,  equally  important 
optical  works  at  Benedictbeuern,  which  were  moved  to 
Munich  in  1823.  He  withdrew  from  both  enterprises  in 
1814,  and  founded  with  Ertel  a  new  optical  business,  from 
which  also  he  retired  in  1820.  He  died  at  Munich  on 
May  21,  1826. 

Reich enbach's  principal  merit  is  his  having  introduced  into 
observatories  the  meridian  or  transit  circle,  combining  the  transit 
instrument  and  the  mural  circle  into  one  instruinent.  This  had 
already  been  done  by  Roemer  about  1704,  but  the  idea  had  not 
5een  adoptnd  by  any  one  else,  the  only  exception  being  the  transit 
circle  constructed  by  Trough  ton  for  Groombridge  in  1806.  The 
transit  circle  in  the  form  given  it  by  Reiehenbach  bad  one  fmely- 
divulcd  circle  attached  to  one  end  of  the  horizontal  axis  and  read 


by  four  verniers  on  an  "Alhidade  Circle,"  the  unaltered  position 
of  which  was  tested  by  a  spirit  level.  The  instrument  carne  almost 
at  once  into  universal  use  on  the  Continent  (the  first  one  was  made 
for  Bessel  in  1819),  but  in  England  the  mural  circle  and  transit 
instrument  were  not  superseded  for  many  years. 

REICHENBERG  (Bohem.  Liberec),  a  town  of  Bohemia, 
with  an  independent  jurisdiction,  lies  on  the  Neisse,  about 
50  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Prague  and  not  far  from 
the  Saxon  and  Prussian  frontiers.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
important  cloth  manufacture  of  northern  Bohemia,  and  is 
the  third  town  of  Bohemia  in  size  and  the  second  in 
industrial  importance.  Its  cloth  factories  employ  about 
7000  workpeople  and  produce  goods  to  the  annual  value 
of  upwards  of  a  million  sterling,  while  weaving  is  also 
extensively  prosecuted  as  a  domestic  industry.  Other 
important  manufactures  are  cotton,  yarn,  machinery,  and 
liqueur.  Trade  is  carried  on  in  the  raw  materials  and 
finished  products  of  the  various  industries.  The  most 
prominent  buildings  are  the  town-house,  of  1601;  the 
chateau  of  Count  Clam  Gallas ;  the  Dekanalkirche,  of 
the  16th  century;  the  Protestant  church,  a  handsome 
modern  Romanesque  edifice ;  the  hall  of  the  cloth-workers  ; 
the  new  law  courts;  the  new  theatre;  and  the  weaving 
school.  The  population  in  1880  was  28,090. 

Reichenberg  is  first  mentioned  in  a  document  of  1348,  and  from 
1622  to  1634  was  among  the  possessions  of  the  great  Wallenstein, 
since  whose  death  it  lias  belonged  to  the  Gallas  and  Clam  Gallas 
families.  The  woollen  industry  was  introduced  about  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century.  In  1866  Reichenberg  was  the  headquarters 
of  Prince  Charles  Frederick  of  Prussia. 

REICHENHALL,  a  small  town  and  watering-place  of 
Upper  Bavaria,  is  finely  situated  in  an  amphitheatre  of 
lofty  mountains,  on  the  river  Saale  or  Saalach,  1570  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea  and  9  miles  to  the  south-west  of 
Salzburg.  As  indicated  by  its  name,  in  which  the  syllable 
kail  corresponds,  according  to  a  well-known  linguistic 
law,  to  the  Latin  sal,  Reichenhall  possesses  several  copious 
saline  springs,  producing  upwards  of  11,500  tons  of  salt 
per  annum.  The  water  of  some  of  the  springs,  the  sources 
of  which  are  50  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  is  so 
strongly  saturated  with  salt  (up  to  24  per  cent.)  that  it  is 
at  once  conducted  to  the  boiling  houses,  while  that  of  the 
others  is  first  submitted  to  a  process  of  evaporation. 
Reichenhall  is  the  centre  of  the  four  chief  Bavarian  salt- 
works, which  are  connected  with  each  other  by  brine  con- 
duits having  an  aggregate  length  of  60  miles.  The  surplus 
brine  of  Berchtesgaden  is  conducted  to  Reichenhall,  and 
thence,  in  increased  volume,  to  Traunstein  and  Rosenheim, 
which  possess  larger  supplies  of  timber  for  use  as  fuel  in 
the  process  of  boiling.  Since  1846  Reichenhall  has 
become  one  of  the  most  fashionable  spas  in  Germany,  and 
it  is  now  visited  annually  by  about  five  thousand  patients, 
besides  many  thousand  passing  tourists.  The  resident 
population  in  1880  was  3271,  almost  all  Roman  Catholics. 
The  saline  springs  are  used  both  for  drinking  and  bathing, 
and  are  said  to  be  efficacious  in  scrofula  and  incipient 
tuberculosis.  In  addition  to  numerous  large  hotels,  the 
most  prominent  edifices  are  the  Romanesque  church, 
recently  restored,  and  the  handsome  and  extensive  build- 
ings of  the  salt-works. 

The  brine  springs  of  Reichenhall  are  mentioned  in  a  document 
of  the  8th  century,  and  were  perhaps  known  to  the  Romans  ;  but 
almost  all  trace  of  the  antiquity  of  the  town  was  destroyed  by  a 
conflagration  in  1834.  The  brine  conduit  to  Traunstein  dates 
from  1618.  The  environs  abound  in  numerous  charming  Alpine 
excursions. 

REICHSTADT,  DUKE  OF.  See  NAPOLEOX  II.  (vol. 
xvii.  p.  226).  The  title  is  derived  from  the  little  town  of 
Reichstadt  in  northern  Bohemia. 

REID,  MAYNE  (1818-1883),  captain  in  the  United 
States  army,  was  in  his  generation  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  writers  of  stories  of  adventure.  His  own  early  life  was 


350 


REID 


as  adventurous  as  any  boy  reader  of  his  novels  could  desire. 
He  was  a  native  of  Ulster,  born  in  1818,  and  was  educated 
for  the  church,  but,  disliking  the  prospect  of  a  regular  pro- 
fession, went  to  America  at  the  age  of  twenty  in  search  of 
excitement  and  fortune.  Among  other  experiences  he  made 
trading  excursions  on  the  Red  River,  and  studied  the  ways 
of  the  retiring  red  man  and  the  white  pioneer  on  the  spot. 
He  made  acquaintance  with  the  Missouri  in  the  same  prac- 
tical manner,  and  roved  about  through  all  the  States  of  the 
Union.  When  the  war  with  Mexico  broke  out  in  1845  he 
obtained  a  commission,  was  present  at  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Vera  Cruz,  and  led  a  forlorn  hope  at  Chapultepec.  In  one 
of  his  novels  he  says  that  he  believed  theoretically  in  the 
military  value  of  untrained  troops,  and  that  he  had  found 
his  theories  confirmed  in  actual  warfare.  But,  though  he 
saw  a  good  deal  of  service  in  America,  he  was  disappointed 
in  his  plans  for  taking  part  in  a  conflict  with  the  regular 
troops  of  a  European  country.  An  enthusiastic  republican, 
he  offered  his  services  to  the  Hungarian  insurgents  in 
1849,  raised  a  body  of  volunteers,  and  sailed  for  Europe, 
but  arrived  too  late.  Thereafter  he  settled  in  England, 
and  began  his  career  of  a  novelist  in  1849  with  the  Rifle 
Rangers.  This  was  followed  next  year  by  the  Scalp 
Hunters.  He  never  surpassed  his  first  productions,  except 
perhaps  in  The  White  Chief  (1855)  and  The  Quadroon 
(1856);  but  he  continued  to  produce  tales  of  self-reliant 
enterprise  and  exciting  adventure  with  great  fertility. 
Simplicity  of  plot  and  easy  variety  of  exciting  incident 
are  among  the  merits  that  contribute  to  his  popularity 
with  boys.  His  reflexions  are  not  profound,  but  are 
frequently  more  sensible  than  might  be  presumed  at  first 
sight  from  his  aggressive  manner  of  expressing  them. 
He  died  in  London,  October  22,  1883. 

REID,  THOMAS  (1710-1796),  the  chief  founder  of 
what  is  generally  designated  the  Scottish  school  of  philo- 
sophy, was  born  at  Strachan  in  Kincardineshire,  about 
20  miles  from  Aberdeen,  on  the  26th  April  1710.  His 
father  was  minister  of  the  place  for  fifty  years,  and  traced 
his  descent  from  a  long  line  of  Presbyterian  ministers  on 
Deeside.  His  mother  belonged  to  the  brilliant  family  of 
the  Gregorys,  which  gave  so  many  representatives  to 
literature  and  science  in  Scotland  last  century.  After  two 
years  at  the  parish  school  of  Kincardine,  Thomas  Reid 
entered  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1722.  He  was 
instructed  in  philosophy  by  Dr  George  Turnbull,  in  his 
day  a  voluminous  and  versatile  writer,  but  now  almost 
entirely  forgotten.  TurnbulPs  teaching  would  appear, 
from  the  account  given  of  it  by  M'Cosh,  to  have  antici- 
pated and  suggested  certain  characteristics  of  Reid's  sub- 
sequent theory.  Reid  graduated  in  1726  at  the  early  age 
of  sixteen,  but  remained  in  Aberdeen  as  librarian  to  the 
university  for  ten  years  longer.  This  may  be  looked  upon 
as  his  real  student-time,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  largely 
devoted  to  mathematical  reading.  In  1737  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  living  of  Newmachar  near  Aberdeen.  The 
parishioners,  being  violently  excited  at  the  time  about  the 
law  of  patronage,  received  Reid  with  open  hostility ;  and 
tradition  asserts  that,  during  the  preaching  of  his  first 
sermon,  an  uncle  who  lived  near  defended  him  on  the 
pulpit  stair  with  a  drawn  sword.  But  before  he  left  the 
parish  he  was  completely  successful  in  winning  the 
affections  of  his  people.  He  was,  however,  nowise  dis- 
tinguished as  a  preacher,  being  accustomed  "  from  a  dis- 
trust in  his  own  powers,"  as  Stewart  puts  it,  "  to  preach 
the  sermons  of  Dr  Tillotson  and  of  Dr  Evans."  The 
greater  part  of  his  time  was  given  to  study ;  and,  insti- 
gated by  the  publication  of  Hume's  treatise,  he  now 
turned  his  chief  attention  to  philosophy,  and  in  particular 
to  the  theory  of  external  perception.  His  first  publica- 
tion, however,  which  dealt  with  a  question  of  philosophical 


method  suggested  by  the  reading  of  Hutcheson,  was  more 
nearly  allied  to  his  mathematical  studies.  The  "Essay 
on  Quantity,  occasioned  by  reading  a  Treatise  in  which 
Simple  and  Compound  Ratios  are  applied  to  Virtue  and 
Merit,"  denies  that  a  mathematical  treatment  of  moral 
subjects  is  possible.  The  essay  appeared  in  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Royal  Society  for  the  year  1748.  Before  this, 
in  1740,  Reid  had  married  a  cousin  of  his  own,  the 
daughter  of  a  London  physician.  In  1752  the  professors 
of  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  elected  him  to  the  chair  of 
philosophy,  which  he  held  for  the  next  twelve  years. 
The  foundation  of  the  Aberdeen  Philosophical  Society, 
which  numbered  among  its  members  Campbell,  Beattie, 
Gerard,  and  Dr  John  Gregory,  was  mainly  owing  to  the 
exertions  of  Reid,  who  was  secretary  for  the  first  year 
(1758).  Many  of  the  subjects  of  discussion  were  drawn 
from  Hume's  speculations ;  and  during  the  last  years  of 
his  stay  in  Aberdeen  Reid  propounded  his  new  point  of 
view  in  several  papers  read  before  the  society.  Thus  we 
find  from  the  minutes  that  on  the  13th  and  26th  of  July 
1758  Mr  Reid  "handled"  the  following  questions: — 
"Are  the  objects  of  the  human  mind  properly  divided 
into  impressions  and  ideas  1  And  must  every  idea  be  a 
copy  of  a  preceding  impression  1 "  The  reply  to  Hume 
which  these  titles  foreshadow  was  embodied  by  Reid  in 
his  Enquiry  into  the  Human  Mind  on  the  Principles  of 
Common  Sense,  published  in  1764.  The  Enquiry  does  not 
go  beyond  an  analysis  of  sense  perception,  and  is  therefore 
more  limited  in  its  scope  than  the  later  Essays ;  but  if 
the  latter  are  sometimes  more  mature,  there  is  more 
freshness  about  the  earlier  work.  The  same  year  saw 
Reid's  removal  from  Aberdeen  to  the  professorship  of 
moral  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Glasgow,  where  he 
succeeded  Adam  Smith.  This  position  he  continued  to 
hold  till  1781,  when  he  resigned  his  chair  in  order  to 
give  his  undivided  energies  to  completing  a  systematic 
exposition  of  his  philosophy.  As  a  public  teacher,  Reid 
did  not  possess  the  eloquence  and  charm  of  manner 
which  afterwards  characterized  both  Stewart  and  Brown. 
Stewart's  account  of  his  lecturing,  which  may  be  pre- 
sumed to  be  favourable,  mentions  only  the  "  silent  and 
respectful  attention "  which  was  accorded  to  "  the  sim- 
plicity and  perspicuity  of  his  style  "  and  "  the  gravity 
and  authority  of  his  character."  Reid's  philosophical 
influence  was  mainly  exerted  through  his  writings,  and,  at 
second  hand,  through  the  eloquent  treatment  which  his 
doctrines  received  at  the  hands  of  Dugald  Stewart,  and 
the  learning  which  Hamilton  subsequently  devoted  to 
their  elucidation.  The  Essays  on  the  Intellectual  Powers 
of  Man  appeared  in  1785,  and  their  ethical  complement, 
the  Essays  on  the  Active  Powers  of  the  Human  Mind,  in 
1788.  These,  with  an  account  of  Aristotle's  Logic 
appended  to  Lord  Kames's  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man 
(1774),  conclude  the  list  of  works  published  in  Reid's  life- 
time. Hamilton's  edition  of  Reid  also  contains  an  account 
of  the  university  of  Glasgow  and  a  selection  of  Reid's 
letters,  chiefly  addressed  to  his  Aberdeen  friends  the  Skenes, 
to  Lord  Kames,  and  to  Dr  James  Gregory.  With  the  two 
last-named  he  discusses  the  materialism  of  Priestley  and 
the  theory  of  necessitarianism.  He  reverted  in  his  old 
age  to  the  mathematical  pursuits  of  his  earlier  years,  and 
his  ardour  for  knowledge  of  every  kind  remained  fresh  to 
the  last.  But  in  1792  the  serenity  which  marked  the 
concluding  years  of  his  life  was  clouded  by  the  death  of 
his  wife.  All  the  children  of  their  marriage  except  one 
daughter  had  died  many  years  before.  In  other  respects 
Reid's  life  pursued  its  equable  and  uneventful  course  till 
within  a  few  weeks  of  his  death,  which  took  place  on  the 
7th  October  1796. 

The  key  to  Reid's  whole  philosophy  is  to  be  found  in 


REID 


351 


his  revulsion  from  the  sceptical  conclusions  of  Hume.  In 
several  passages  of  his  writings  he  expressly  dates  his 
philosophical  awakening  from  the  appearance  of  the 
Treatise  of  Human  Nature.  "  I  acknowledge,"  he  says 
in  the  dedication  of  the  Enquiry,  "  that  I  never  thought 
of  calling  in  question  the  principles  commonly  received 
with  regard  to  the  human  understanding  until  the 
Treatise  of  Human  Nature  was  published  in  the  year 
1739.  The  ingenious  author  of  that  treatise  upon  the 
principles  of  Locke — who  was  no  sceptic — hath  built  a 
system  of  scepticism  which  leaves  no  ground  to  believe 
any  one  thing  rather  than  its  contrary.  His  reasoning 
appeared  to  me  to  be  j  ust ;  there  was,  therefore,  a  necessity 
to  call  in  question  the  principles  upon  which  it  was 
founded,  or  to  admit  the  conclusion."  Reid  thus  takes 
Hume's  scepticism  as,  on  its  own  showing,  a  reductio 
ad  impossibile  of  accepted  philosophical  principles,  and 
refuses,  accordingly,  to  separate  Hume  from  his  intellec- 
tual progenitors.  From  its  origin  in  Descartes  and 
onwards  through  Locke  and  Berkeley,  modern  philosophy 
carried  with  it,  Reid  contends,  the  germ  of  scepticism. 
That  scepticism,  "  inlaid  in  it  and  reared  along  with  it," 
Hume  did  but  bring  to  light.  Embracing  the  whole 
philosophic  movement  under  the  name  of  "  the  Cartesian 
system,"  Reid  detects  its  Trpwrov  if/evBo?  in  the  unproved 
assumption  shared  by  these  thinkers  "that  all  the  objects 
of  my  knowledge  are  ideas  in  my  own  mind."  This  doctrine 
or  hypothesis  he  usually  speaks  of  as  "  the  ideal  system  " 
or  "the  theory  of  ideas";  and  to  it  he  opposes  his  own 
analysis  of  the  act  of  perception.  In  view  of  the  results  of 
this  analysis,  Reid's  theory  (and  the  theory  of  Scottish 
philosophy  generally)  has  been  dubbed  natural  realism  or 
natural  dualism  in  contrast  to  theories  like  subjective 
idealism  and  materialism  or  to  the  cosmothetic  idealism  or 
hypothetical  dualism  of  the  majority  of  philosophers.  But 
this  is  unduly  to  narrow  the  scope  of  Scottish  philosophy, 
which  does  not  exhaust  itself,  as  it  is  sometimes  supposed 
to  do,  in  uncritically  reasserting  the  independent  existence 
of  matter  and  its  immediate  presence  to  mind.  The  real 
significance  of  Reid's  doctrine  lies  in  its  attack  upon  the 
principles  which  Hume  explicitly  lays  down  as  the  alpha 
and  the  omega  of  his  system,  viz.,  the  principles  that  all 
our  perceptions  are  distinct  existences,  and  that  the  mind 
never  perceives  any  real  connexion  among  distinct  exist- 
ences (cf.  Appendix  to  the  third  volume  of  the  Treatise, 
1740).  It  is  here  that  the  danger  of  "  the  ideal  system  " 
really  lies  —  in  its  reduction  of  reality  to  "  particular 
perceptions,"  momentary  or  "perishing"  existences  essen- 
tially unconnected  with  each  other.  If  the  ultimate 
elements  of  experience  are  unrelated  units  or  sense- 
atoms,  called  impressions,  then  it  only  remains  to  be 
shown,  as  Hume  attempts  to  show,  how  the  illusion  of 
supposed  necessary  connexion  arises.  But  Reid  meets 
this  scepticism  by  combating  the  principle  on  which  it  is 
based.  In  logical  language,  he  denies  the  actuality  of  the 
abstract  particular :  unrelated  impressions  and  ideas  nowhere 
exist.  The  unit  of  knowledge  is  not  an  isolated  impression 
but  a  judgment ;  and  in  such  a  judgment  is  contained, 
even  initially,  the  reference  both  to  a  permanent  subject 
and  to  a  permanent  world  of  thought,  and,  implied  in 
these,  such  judgments,  for  example,  as  those  of  existence, 
substance,  cause  and  effect.  Such  principles  are  not 
derived  from  sensation,  bujb  are  "  suggested  "  on  occasion 
of  sensation,  in  such  a  way  as  to  constitute  the  necessary 
conditions  of  our  having  perceptive  experience  at  all. 
Thus  we  do  not  start  with  "ideas,"  and  afterwards  refer 
them  to  objects ;  we  are  never  restricted  to  our  own 
minds,  but  are  from  the  first  immediately  related  to  a 
permanent  world.  Reid  has  a  variety  of  names  for  the 
principles  which,  by  their  presence,  lift  us  out  of  subjec- 


tivity into  perception.  He  calls  them  "natural  judgments," 
"natural  suggestions,"  "judgments  of  nature,"  "judg- 
ments immediately  inspired  by  our  constitution,"  "prin- 
ciples of  our  nature,"  "first  principles,"  "principles  of 
common  sense."  The  last  designation,  which  became  the 
current  one,  was  undoubtedly  unfortunate,  and  has  conveyed 
to  many  a  false  impression  of  Scottish  philosophy.  It  has 
been  understood  as  if  Reid  had  merely  appealed  from  the 
reasoned  conclusions  of  philosophers  to  the  unreasoned 
beliefs  of  common  life.  The  tirades  of  men  like  Beattie 
and  Oswald,  and  many  unguarded  utterances  of  Reid 
himself,  lent  countenance  to  this  notion.  But  Reid's 
actions  are  better  than  his  words ;  his  real  mode  of 
procedure  is  to  redargue  Hume's  conclusions  by  a 
refutation  of  the  premises  inherited  by  him  from  his 
predecessors.  For  the  rest,  as  regards  the  question  of 
nomenclature,  Reid  everywhere  unites  common  sense 
and  reason,  making  the  former  "only  another  name  for 
one  branch  or  degree  of  reason."  Reason,  as  judging  of 
things  self-evident,  is  called  common-sense  to  distinguish  it 
from  ratiocination  or  reasoning.  And  in  regard  to  Reid's 
favourite  proof  of  the  principles  in  question  by  reference 
to  "  the  consent  of  ages  and  nations,  of  the  learned  and 
unlearned,"  it  is  only  fair  to  observe  that  this  argument 
assumes  a  much  more  scientific  form  in  the  Essays,  where 
it  is  almost  identified  with  an  appeal  to  "  the  structure 
and  grammar  of  all  languages."  "The  structure  of  all 
languages,"  he  says,  "is  grounded  upon  common  sense." 
To  take  but  one  example,  "  the  distinction  between  sen- 
sible qualities  and  the  substance  to  which  they  belong, 
and  between  thought  and  the  mind  that  thinks,  is  not  the 
invention  of  philosophers ;  it  is  found  in  the  structure  of 
all  languages,  and  therefore  must  be  common  to  all  men  who 
speak  with  understanding"  (Hamilton's  Reid,  pp.  229  and 
454). 

The  principles  which  Reid  insists  upon  as  everywhere 
present  in  experience  evidently  correspond  pretty  closely 
to  the  Kantian  categories  and  the  unity  of  apperception. 
Similarly,  Reid's  assertion  of  the  essential  distinction 
between  space  or  extension  and  feeling  or  any  succession 
of  feelings  may  be  compared  with  Kant's  doctrine  in  the 
^Esthetic.  "Space,"  he  says,  "whether  tangible  or  visible, 
is  not  so  properly  an  object  [Kant's  "  matter  "]  as  a  neces- 
sary concomitant  of  the  objects  both  of  sight  and  touch." 
Like  Kant,  too,  Reid  finds  in  space  the  source  of  a 
necessity  which  sense,  as  sense,  cannot  give  (Hamilton's 
Reid,  323).  In  the  substance  of  their  answer  to  Hume, 
the  two  philosophers  have  therefore  much  in  common. 
But  Reid  lacked  the  art  to  give  due  impressiveness  to  the 
important  advance  which  his  positions  really  contain. 
Although  at  times  he  states  his  principles  with  a  wonder- 
ful degree  of  breadth  and  insight,  he  mars  the  total  effect 
by  frequent  looseness  of  statement,  and  by  the  amount  of 
irrelevant  psychological  matter  with  which  they  are 
overlaid.  And,  if  Kant  was  overridden  by-  a  love  of 
formal  completeness  and  symmetry,  Reid's  extreme 
indifference  to  form  and  system  is  an  even  more  danger- 
ous defect  in  a  philosopher.  It  has  also  to  be  admitted 
that  the  principles  frequently  appear  in  Reid  more  as 
matter  of  assertion  than  as  demonstrated  necessities  for 
the  constitution  of  experience.  The  transcendental  deduc- 
tion, or  proof  from  the  possibility  of  experience  in  general, 
which  forms  the  vital  centre  of  the  Kantian  scheme,  is 
wanting  in  Reid;  or,  at  all  events,  if  the  spirit  of  the 
proof  is  occasionally  present,  it  is  nowhere  adequately  stated 
and  emphasized.  But,  when  these  defects  are  ackno  wledged, 
Reid's  insistence  on  judgment  as  the  unit  of  knowledge  and 
his  sharp  distinction  between  sensation  and  perception  must 
still  be  recognized  as  philosophical  results  of  the  highest 
importance.  They  embody  the  only  possible  answer  to 


352 


R  E  I  — K  E  I 


Hume's  sceptical  dissolution  of  knowledge.  Reid's  theory 
of  sensation,  indeed,  deserves  more  attention  than  has  been 
generally  bestowed  upon  it  According  to  this  theory, 
sensations  are  not  the  objects  of  our  perception,  not  even, 
as  Kant  maintained,  the  "  matter "  of  our  perceptions  on 
which  the  "  form "  is  superinduced ;  they  are  merely  the 
"signs"  which  introduce  us  to  the  knowledge  of  real 
objects.  The  latter  "are  presented  to  the  mind"  by 
means  of,  or  on  occasion  of,  certain  corresponding  sensa- 
tions ;  but  the  sensation  and  the  perception  "  appear  upon 
accurate  reflexion  not  only  to  be  different  things,  but  as 
unlike  as  pain  is  to  the  point  of  a  sword"  (Hamilton's 
Reid,  122).  Sensation,  it  might  be  expressed,  is  the 
condition  of  perception,  but  there  is  no  sort  of  community 
between  the  two.  They  are  distinct  in  kind,  and  therefore 
the  possibility  of  deriving  the  one  from  the  other — 
of  melting  down  the  real  world  into  subjective  sensations 
— is  once  for  all  shut  out.  Reid's  position  here  enables 
him  to  escape  also  from  the  phenomenalism  of  the  Kantian 
theory.  Inasmuch  as  the  permanent  objects  presented  to 
us  in  perception  are  not  in  any  sense  a  manipulation  of 
subjective  sensations,  there  is  not  even  an  apparent 
warrant  for  branding  them  as  "  merely "  phenomenal. 
They  are  real  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word ;  we  know  the 
world  as  it  really  exists. 

The  relativism  or  phenomenalism  which  Hamilton 
afterwards  adopted  from  Kant  and  sought  to  engraft  upon 
Scottish  philosophy  is  thus  wholly  absent  from  the 
original  Scottish  doctrine.  One  or  two  passages  may 
certainly  be  quoted  from  Reid  in  which  he  asserts  that  we 
know  only  properties  of  things  and  are  ignorant  of  their 
essence.  But  the  exact  meaning  which  he  attaches  to 
such  expressions  is  not  quite  clear;  and  they  occur, 
moreover,  only  incidentally  and  with  the  air  of  current 
phrases  mechanically  repeated.  In  Dugald  Stewart, 
however,  the  merely  qualitative  nature  of  our  knowledge 
is  consciously  emphasized,  and  made  the  foundation  of 
philosophical  arguments ;  so  that  Stewart  in  this  respect 
paves  the  way  for  the  more  thoroughgoing  philosophy  of 
nescience  elaborated  by  Hamilton.  But  since  Hamilton's 
time  the  most  typical  Scottish  thinkers  have  repudiated 
his  relativistic  doctrine,  and  returned  to  the  original 
tradition  of  the  school. 

Authorities. — For  the  life,  the  Memoir  by  Dugald  Stewart, 
prefixed  to  Hamilton's  edition  of  Reid's  works,  may  be  consulted, 
along  with  the  account  given  by  Dr  M'Cosh  in  his  Scottish  Philo- 
sophy (1875).  The  complete  edition  of  the  works  by  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  published  in  two  volumes  with  notes  and  supplement- 
ary dissertations  by  the  editor  (6th  ed.  1863),  has  superseded  all 
others.  (A.  SE.) 

REID,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1797-1858),  administrator  and 
man  of  science,  was  born  in  1797  at  the  manse  of  Kin- 
glassie,  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  and  entered  the  army  in  1809 
as  a  lieutenant  of  royal  engineers.  He  saw  active  service 
in  the  Peninsula  under  Wellington,  and  afterwards  took 
part  in  the  bombardment  of  Algiers  in  1816.  It  was 
while  governor  of  Bermuda  that  in  1838  he  published  the 
work  by  which  he  is  now  known,  T/ie  Law  of  Storms, 
which  obtained  a  wide  popularity  and  did  good  service  in 
furthering  the  progress  of  this  department  of  meteorology. 
In  1851  he  was  chairman  of  the  executive  committee  of 
the  Gr3at  Exhibition ;  on  the  completion  of  the  work  he 
was  made  a  K.C.B.  and  appointed  governor  of  Malta.  He 
died  in  October  1858,  shortly  after  his  return  to  England. 

REIGATE,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough  of 
Surrey,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  long  valley  of  Holms- 
dale  Hollow,  on  three  railway  lines,  23  miles  south  of 
London.  It  consists  principally  of  one  long  street,  with 
surrounding  houses  and  villas  inhabited  chiefly  by  persons 
having  their  occupations  in  London.  Of  the  old  castle, 
supposed  to  have  been  built  before  the  Conquest,  to  com- 


mand the  pass  through  the  valley,  there  only  remains  the 
entrance  to  a  cave  beneath,  150  feet  long  and  from  10  to 
12  feet  high,  excavated  in  the  sand,  which  the  barons 
used  as  a  guardroom.  The  grounds  have  been  laid  out  as 
a  public  garden.  Near  the  market  house  is  the  site  of  an 
ancient  chapel  dedicated  to  Thomas  a  Becket.  In  the 
chancel  of  the  parish  church  of  St  Mary,  a  building  rang- 
ing from  Transition  Norman  to  Perpendicular,  which  dates 
from  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  were  buried 
Archbishop  Ussher  and  Lord  Howard,  the  commander  of 
the  English  navy  against  the  Spanish  Armada.  Above 
the  vestry  there  is  a  library  containing  some  choice  manu- 
scripts and  rare  books.  The  grammar  school  was  founded 
in  1675.  Among  the  other  public  buildings  are  the  town- 
hall,  the  public  hall,  the  market-hall,  and  the  working 
men's  institute.  The  town  has  some  agricultural  trade, 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  are  quarries  for  freestone,  hearth- 
stone, and  white  sand.  The  area  of  the  municipal  borough 
is  6015  acres,  with  a  population  in  1871  of  15,916,  and 
in  1881  of  18,662. 

In  Domesday  the  town  was  called  "  Churchfelle,"  or  "  the  church 
in  the  field,"  and  afterwards  it  was  called  Churchfield  in  Reigate, 
the  earlier  reading  of  the  latter  name  being  "Ridgegate."  The 
castle  was  taken  by  Louis  the  Dauphin  in  the  reign  of  John.  In 
the  time  of  the  Confessor  the  manor  belonged  to  his  queen  Edith. 
A  market  was  granted  by  Edward  III.  The  town  returned  two 
members  to  parliament  from  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  to  the  reign  of 
William  IV.,  and  one  from  1832  to  1867,  when  it  was  disfranchised 
for  corrupt  practices. 

REIMARUS,  HERMANN  SAMUEL  (1694-1768),  known 
to  history  chiefly  as  the  author  of  the  WolferibiMel 
Fragments,  was  born  at  Hamburg,  December  22,  1694. 
His  father,  the  son  of  a  clergyman  and  married  into  a 
patrician  family  of  that  city,  was  one  of  the  masters 
in  the  Johanneum  college,  a  good  scholar  and  excellent 
teacher.  Until  his  twelfth  year  the  son  received  his 
education  almost  entirely  from  his  father.  He  passed 
from  his  father's  tuition  into  the  class  of  the  famous 
scholar  Johann  Albrecht  Fabricius,  whose  son-in-law  he 
subsequently  became.  In  his  twentieth  year  he  entered 
the  university  of  Jena,  where  he  studied  theology,  ancient 
languages,  and  philosophy.  After  making  a  tour  in 
Holland  and  England  (1720),  he  became  privat-docent  in 
the  university  of  Wittenberg ;  and  in  1723  he  accepted  the 
post  of  rector  of  the  high,  school  at  Wismar  in  Mecklen- 
burg, which  he  exchanged  four  years  afterwards  for  that  of 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  languages  in  the  high 
school  of  his  native  city.  This  post  he  held  till  his  death, 
though  offers  of  more  lucrative  and  distinguished  positions 
were  at  various  times  made  to  him.  His  professional 
duties  were  but  light,  and  he  employed  his  ample  leisure 
in  the  study  of  philology,  mathematics,  philosophy, 
history,  political  economy,  natural  science,  and  natural 
history,  for  which  he  made  expensive  collections.  Philo- 
sophy and  theology,  however,  became  with  his  advancing 
years  the  chief  subjects  of  pursuit.  From  1744  to  1768 
he  had  in  hand  the  theological  work  from  which  Lessing 
published  the  notorious  Fragments  in  1774-78.  Reimarus 
was  held  by  his  contemporaries  in  the  highest  esteem  as  a 
scholar,  a  thinker,  an  author,  and  a  man.  His  house  was 
the  centre  of  the  highest  culture  of  Hamburg,  and  a 
monument  of  his  influence  in  that  city  still  remains  in  the 
Haus  der  patriotischen  Gesettschaft,  where  the  learned  and 
artistic  societies  partly  founded  by  him  still  meet.  His 
wife  bore  him  seven  children,  three  only  of  whom  lived  to 
grow  up,  namely  his  only  surviving  son — the  distinguished 
physician  Johann  Albrecht  Heinrich — and  two  daughters, 
one  of  them  being  Elise,  Lessing's  friend  and  correspondent. 
Ten  days  before  his  death  he  invited  a  select  number  of 
friends  to  dine  with  him,  and,  with  his  wonted  cheerfulness 
and  amiability,  declared  to  them  solemnly  that  this  was  his 


E  E  I  — E  E  I 


353 


farewell  meal  with  them.  Three  days  after  he  was  taken 
seriously  ill,  and  died  March  1,  1768. 

Reimarus's  reputation  as  a  classical  and  historical  scholar 
rests  on  the  valuable  edition  of  Dio  Cassius  (1750-52) 
which  he  prepared  from  the.  materials  collected  by  his 
father-in-law,  J.  A.  Fabricius.  In  the  department  of 
philosophy  he  published  a  work  on  logic  (  Vernunftlehre  als 
Amveisung  zum  richtigen  Gebrauche  der  Vernunft,  1756, 
fifth  edition  1790),  and  two  very  popular  books  bearing 
on  the  great  religious  questions  of  the  day.  The  first  of 
these  works  was  a  collection  of  essays  on  the  principal 
truths  of  natural  religion  (Abhandlungenvondenvornehmst- 
en  Wahrheiten  der  naturlichen  Religion,  1754,  6th  ed. 
1791) ;  the  second  (Betrachtungen  iiber  die  Kunsttriebe  der 
T/tiere,  1762,  4th  ed.  1798)  dealt  with  one  particular 
branch  of  the  same  subject.  In  these  works  he  appears  as 
a  powerful  opponent  of  French  materialism  and  Spinoza's 
pantheism,  a  zealous  teleologist  and  able  wielder  of  the 
argument  from  design.  His  philosophical  position  is 
essentially  that  of  Christian  Wolff.  But  it  is  the  work 
(carefully  kept  back  during  his  lifetime,  strangely  enough) 
from  which  Lessing  published  certain  chapters  after  the 
author's  death  with  which  his  name  is  most  widely  asso- 
ciated. Lessing's  relation  to  this  work  has  been  stated  in 
the  article  LESSING.  Its  title  in  the  MS.  is  Apologie  oder 
Schutzschrift  fur  die  verniinftigen  Verehrer  Gottes.  The 
original  MS.  is  in  the  Hamburg  town  library ;  a  copy  was 
made  for  the  university  library  of  Gottingen,  1814,  and 
other  copies  are  known  to  exist.  In  addition  to  the  seven 
fragments  published  by  Lessing,  a  second  portion  of  the 
work  was  issued  in  1787  by  C.  A.  E.  Schmidt  (a  pseudo- 
nym), under  the  title  Uebrige  nock  ungedruclcte  Werke  des 
Wolf enbiitt else/ten  Fragmentisten,  and  a  further  portion  by 
D.  W.  Klose  in  Niedner's  Zeitschrift  fur  historische  Theo- 
logie,  1850-52.  Two  of  the  five  books  of  the  first  part 
and  the  whole  of  the  second  part,  as  well  as  appendices 
on  the  canon,  remain  still,  and  will  probably  always  remain, 
imprinted.  But  D.  F.  Strauss  has  given  an  exhaustive 
analysis  of  the  whole  work  in  his  book  on  Reimarus. 

The  standpoint  of  Reimarus  in  his  Apologie  is  that  of  pure  natu- 
ralistic deism.  Miracles  and  mysteries  are  denied,  and  natural 
religion  is  put  forward  as  the  absolute  contradiction  of  revealed. 
The  essential  truths  of  the  former  are  the  existence  of  a  wise  and 
good  Creator  and  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  These 
truths  are  discoverable  by  reason,  and  are  such  as  can  constitute  the 
basis  of  a  universal  and  rational  religion.  A  revealed  religion  could 
never  obtain  universality,  as  it  could  never  be  made  intelligible 
and  credible  to  all  men.  Even  supposing  its  possibility,  the  Bible 
does  not  present  such  a  revelation.  It  abounds  in  error  as  to 
matters  of  fact,  contradicts  human  experience,  reason,  and  morals, 
and  is  one  tissue  of  folly,  deceit,  enthusiasm,  selfishness,  and  crime. 
Moreover,  it  is  not  a  doctrinal  compendium,  or  catechism,  which  a 
revelation  would  have  to  be.  What  the  Old  Testament  says  of  the 
worship  of  God  is  little,  and  that  little  worthless,  while  its  writers 
are  unacquainted  with  the  second  fundamental  truth  of  religion, 
the  immortality  of  the  soul.  The  design  of  the  Avriters  of  the 
New  Testament,  as  well  as  that  of  Jesus,  was  not  to  teach  true 
rational  religion,  but  to  serve  their  own  selfish  ambitions,  in  pro- 
moting which  Reimarus  makes  them  exhibit  an  inconceivable 
combination  of  conscious  fraud  and  enthusiasm.  With  all  his 
acuteness  as  a  rationalistic  critic,  and  the  destructive  force  of  his 
attack  upon  the  old  orthodox  conception  of  the  nature  of  the  Bible 
and  revelation,  Reimarus  must  be  regarded  simply  as  the  classical 
representative  of  rationalism  in  its  absolute  inability  to  form  any 
remotely  just  conception  of  God,  religion,  revelation,  the  Bible,  and 
Christianity.  His  Apologie  is  the  historical  monument  to  the  in- 
capacity of  rationalism  with  regard  to  philosophy,  religion,  and 
true  historical  and  literary  criticism.  By  the  higher  and  profounder 
ideas  and  historical  insight  of  Lessing,  Herder,  Semler,  Kant,  and 
Schleiermacher,  his  entire  position  was  rendered  antiquated,  and  the 
permanently  valid  portions  of  his  criticism  of  the  Bible  are  of  value 
only  as  destructive  of  a  theory,  now  outlived,  of  it  and  religion. 
But  as  a  learned,  acute,  and  logical  assailant  of  that  theory  he 
must  l)e  honoured  with  a  place  amongst  the  pioneers  of  truer  views 
of  both. 

See  the  "  Fragments"  as  published  by  Lessing,  reprinted  in  vol.  xv.  of  Les- 
siny's  Werke,  Hempel's  edition  ;  D.  F.  Strauss,  Hermann  Samuel  Reimarus  und 
seine  Schutzschrift  fur  die  verniinftigen  Verehrer  Gottes,  1861,  2d.  ed.  1877;  Rev. 


Charles  Voysey,  Fragments  from  Reimarus,  London,  1879  (a  translation  of  the 
life  of  Reimarus  by  Strauss,  with  the  second  part  of  the  seventh  fragment,  on  the 
"Object of  Jesus  and  his  Disciples");  the  Lives  of  Lessing  by  Danzel  and  G.  E. 
Guhrauer,  Sime,  and  Zimmern  ;  Kuno  Fischer,  Geschichte  derneuern  Philosophic, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  759-772,  2d  ed.  18G7;  Zeller,  Geschichte' der  deutschen  Philosophic, 
2d  ed.  1875,  pp.  243-6. 

REIMS.     See  RHEIMS. 

REINAUD,  JOSEPH  TOUSSAINT  (1795-1867),  a  distin- 
guished French  Orientalist,  was  born  in  1795  at  Lambesc, 
Bouches  du  Rhone,  and  began  to  study  for  the  church, 
but,  being  drawn  towards  Eastern  learning,  he  came  to  Paris 
in  1815  and  became  a  pupil  of  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  In  1818 
and  the  following  year  he  was  at  Rome  as  an  attache  to  the 
French  minister,  and  studied  under  the  Maronites  of  the 
Propaganda,  but  gave  special  attention  to  Mohammedan 
coins.  In  1824  he  entered  the  department  of  Oriental 
MSS.  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris,  and  in  1838,  on  the 
death  of  De  Sacy,  he  succeeded  to  his  chair  in  the  school 
of  living  Oriental  languages.  In  1847  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Societe  Asiatique,  and  in  1858  conservator  of 
Oriental  MSS.  in  the  Imperial  Library.  In  all  these  func- 
tions Reinaud  maintained  the  great  reputation  of  the 
French  Oriental  school,  -and  he  also  did  good  service  with 
his  pen.  His  first  important  work  was  his  classical  descrip- 
tion of  the  collections  of  the  Due  de  Blacas  (1828).  To 
history  he  contributed  an  essay  on  the  Arab  invasions 
of  France,  Savoy,  Piedmont,  and  Switzerland  (1836),  and 
various  collections  for  the  period  of  the  crusades ;  he 
edited  (1840)  and  in  part  translated  (1848)  the  geography 
of  Abulfeda;  to  him  too  is  due  a  useful  edition  of  the  very 
curious  records  of  early  Arabic  intercourse  with  China  of 
which  Renaudot  had  given  but  an  imperfect  translation 
(-Relation  des  Voyages,  &c.,  1845)  and  various  other  essays 
illustrating  the  ancient  and  mediaeval  geography  of  the 
East.  His  chief  quality  was  indefatigable  industry. 

REINDEER.     See  DEER. 

REINEKE  VOS.  See  GERMAN  LITERATURE,  vol.  x. 
pp.  522,  527,  and  ROMANCE. 

REINHOLD,  KARL  LEONHARD  (1758-1823),  who 
played  a  considerable  part  in  the  early  spread  and  develop- 
ment of  the  Kantian  philosophy,  was  born  at  Vienna  in 
1758.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  entered  the  Jesuit 
College  of  St  Anna  with  the  intention  of  becoming  a 
priest  of  the  order.  The  order  was  dissolved  by  the  pope 
in  the  following  year ;  but  young  Reinhold,  being  full  of 
Catholic  and  monastic  zeal,  joined  a  similar  college  of  the 
order  of  St  Barnabas  in  1774.  There  he  remained  nine 
years,  before  the  end  of  which  his  scientific  and  philosophic 
studies  had  completely  estranged  him  from  the  life  and 
aims  of  the  cloister.  In  1783  he  fled  to  North  Germany, 
and  settled  in  "Weimar,  where  he  became  Wieland's  col- 
laborateur  on  the  German  Mercury,  and  eventually  his 
son-in-law.  In  the  German  Mercury  he  published,  in  the 
years  1786-87,  his  Brief e  iiber  die  Kantische  Philosophic, 
which,  by  their  clear  and  eloquent  exposition  were  most 
important  in  making  Kant  known  to  a  wider  circle  of 
readers.  Reinhold  himself  had  read  the  Critique  five 
times  without  a  single  ray  of  light ;  in  the  end  it  was 
the  ethical  side  of  the  system  by  which  he  found  him- 
self attracted  and  convinced.  As  a  result  of  the  Letters, 
Reinhold  at  once  received  a  call  to  the  neighbouring 
university  of  Jena,  where  he  taught  from  1787  to  1794, 
and  largely  contributed  to  make  Jena,  after  Konigsberg, 
the  second  home  of  the  Kantian  philosophy.  In  1789 
he  published  his  chief  work,  the  Versitch  einer  neuen 
Theorie  des  menschlichen  Vorstellungsvermdgens,  in  which 
he  attempted  to  simplify  the  Kantian  theory  and  make  it 
more  of  a  unity.  In  1794  he  accepted  a  call  to  Kiel,  but 
his  departure  from  Jena  marks  the  zenith  of  his  reputa- 
tion. He  taught  at  Kiel  till  his  death  in  1823,  but  his 
independent  activity  was  at  an  end.  His  essentially 
receptive  and  impressible  nature  yielded  first  to  the 

XX.  —  45 


354 


R  E  I  — R  E  I 


powerful  impulse  of  Fichte,  and  then  gravitated,  on 
grounds  of  religious  feeling,  towards  Jacobi,  whom  he  in 
turn  deserted  for  the  so-called  "rational  idealism"  of 
Bardili. 

Reinholdls  historical  importance  belongs  entirely  to  his  earlier 
activity.  The  development  of  the  Kantian  standpoint  contained 
in  the  Xew  2'fieory  of  the  Human  Faculty  of  Ideas  (1789),  and  in 
the  Fundament  des  philosophischcn  Jfissens  (1791),  was  called  by 
its  author  "Elcmentarphilosophie."  Endeavouring  to  build  up 
the  s3Tstem  out  of  simpler  elements,  Rcinhold  starts  from  the  mere 
fact  of  consciousness  of  the  existence  of  mental  states  ("Yorstel- 
lungen "  or  ideas).  Every  idea  carries  with  it  the  reference  to  a 
subject,  whose  idea  it  is,  and  to  an  object,  of  which  it  is  the  idea. 
This  double  reference  explains  why  every  idea  consists,  as  Kant 
maintained,  of  "form"  nnd  "matter."  In  its  "form  "lies  the 
reference  to  the  subject,  in  its  "matter"  the  reference  to  an 
object  Hence,  too,  we  see  why  the  thing-in-itself,  though  neces- 
sarily existent,  is  at  the  same  time  necessarily  unknowable,  seeing 
that  all  knowledge  implies  a  subject-derived  element.  The  rest  of 
Reinhold's  emendations  to  Kant  are  little  more  than  suggested 
improvements  in  terminology. 

REISKE,  JOHANX  JACOB  (1716-1774),  scholar  and 
physician,  was  born  25th  December  1716,  in  the  little 
town  of  Zorbig  in  Electoral  Saxony.  From  the  Waisen- 
haus  at  Halle  he  passed  in  1733  to  the  university  of 
Leipsic,  and  there  spent  five  years.  He  lived  alone  with- 
out teacher  or  friend,  heard  no  lectures,  but  studied  con- 
tinually without  order  or  aim.  He  tried  to  find  his  own 
way  in  Greek  literature,  to  which  German  schools  then 
gave  little  attention ;  but,  as  he  had  not  mastered  the 
grammar,  he  soon  found  this  a  sore  task  and  took  up 
Arabic.  He  was  very  poor,  having  almost  nothing  beyond 
his  allowance,  which  for  the  five  years  was  only  two 
hundred  thalers.  But  everything  of  which  he  could  cheat 
his  appetite  was  spent  on  Arabic  books,  and  when  he  had 
read  all  that  was  then  printed  he  thirsted  for  manuscripts, 
and  in  March  1738  started  on  foot  for  Hamburg,  joyous 
though  totally  unprovided,  on  his  way  to  Leyden  and  the 
treasures  of  the  Warnerianum.  At  Hamburg  he  got  some 
money  and  letters  of  recommendation  from  the  Hebraist 
Wolf,  and  took  ship  to  Amsterdam.  Here  D'Orville,  to 
whom  he  had  an  introduction,  proposed  to  re'tain  him  as  his 
amanuensis  at  a  salary  of  six  hundred  guilders.  Eeiske 
refused,  though  he  thought  the  offer  very  generous  ;  he  did 
not  want  money,  he  wanted  manuscripts.  But  when  he 
reached  Leyden  (6th  June  1738)  he  found  that  the  lectures 
were  over  for  the  term  and  that  the  MSS.  were  not  open  to 
him.  His  money  too  was  gone,  and  he  passed  a  miserable 
summer.  By  and  by  things  mended :  D'Orville  and  A. 
Schultens  helped  him  to  private  teaching  and  reading  for 
the  press,  by  which  he  was  able  to  live,  and  his  great  power 
of  work  enabled  him  still  to  find  time  enough  for  his  own 
studies.  He  heard  the  lectures  of  A.  Schultens,  and 
practised  himself  in  Arabic  with  his  son  J.  J.  Schultens. 
Through  Schultens  too  he  got  at  Arabic  MSS.,  and  was 
even  allowed  sub  rosa  to  take  them  home  with  him. 
Ultimately  he  seems  to  have  got  free  access  to  the  collec- 
tion, which  he  recatalogued — the  work  of  almost  a  whole 
summer,  for  which  the  curators  rewarded  him  with  nine 
guilders. 

In  spite  of  his  hardships  Reiske's  first  years  in  Leyden 
•were  not  unhappy,  till  he  got  into  serious  trouble  by  intro- 
ducing divers  emendations  of  his  own  into  the  second 
edition  of  Burmann's  PetroniiM,  which  he  had  to  see 
through  the  press.  His  patrons  withdrew  from  him,  and 
his  chance  of  perhaps  becoming  professor  was  gone. 
D'Orville  indeed  soon  came  round,  for  he  could  not  do 
without  Reiske,  who  did  work  of  which  his  patron,  after 
dressing  it  up  in  his  own  style,  took  the  credit.  But  A. 
Schultens  was  never  the  same  as  before  to  him ;  Reiske 
indeed  was  too  independent,  and  hurt  him  by  his  open 
criticisms  of  his  master's  way  of  making  Arabic  mainly  a 
handmaid  of  Hebrew.  Reiske,  however,  himself  admits  that 


Schultens,  though  he  had  reason  to  complain  of  his  scholar 
want  of  respect  towards  him,  always  behaved  honourably 
to  him.  In  1742  by  Schultens's  -advice  Reiske  took  up 
medicine  as  a  study  by  which  he  might  hope  to  live  if 
he  could  not  do  so  by  philology,  and  at  medicine  he  worked 
hard  for  four  years,  still  continuing  the  tasks  that  brought 
him  bread  as  well  as  his  Greek  and  Arabic  studies.  In 
1746  he  graduated  as  M.D.,  the  fees  being  remitted  at 
Schultens's  intercession.  It  was  Schultens  too  who  con- 
quered the  difficulties  opposed  to  his  graduation  at  the 
last  moment  by  the  faculty  of  theology  on  the  ground  that 
some  of  his  theses  had  a  materialistic  ring.  On  June  10, 
1746,  he  left  Holland  and  settled  in  Leipsic,  where  he 
hoped  to  get  medical  practice. 

But  his  shy  proud  nature  was  not  fitted  to  gain  patients, 
and  the  Leipsic  doctors  would  not  recommend  one  who 
was  not  a  Leipsic  graduate.  In  1747  an  Arabic  dedication 
to  the  electoral  prince  of  Saxony  got  him  the  title  of 
professor,  but  did  not  better  his  circumstances.  Neither 
the  faculty  of  arts  nor  that  of  medicine  was  willing  to 
admit  him  among  them,  and  he  never  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures.  He  had  still  to  go  on  doing  literary  task-work,  but 
his  labour  was  much  worse  paid  in  Leipsic  than  in  Leyden. 
Still  he  could  have  lived  and  sent  his  old  mother,  as  his 
custom  was,  a  yearly  present  of  a  piece  of  leather  to  be 
sold  in  retail  if  he  had  been  a  better  manager.  But,  care- 
less for  the  morrow,  he  was  always  printing  at  his  own 
cost  great  books  which  found  no  buyers.  And  so  for  many 
years  he  lived  in  such  misery  that  he  often  did  not  know 
where  to  find  bread  to  still  his  hunger.  His  academical 
colleagues  were  hostile;  and  Ernesti,  under  a  show  of  friend- 
ship, secretly  hindered  his  promotion.  His  slashing  and 
unsparing  reviews  made  bad  blood  with  the  pillars  of  the 
university. 

At  length  in  1758  the  magistrates,  of  Leipsic  rescued 
him  from  his  misery  by  giving  him  the  rectorate  of  St 
Nicolai,  and,  though  he  still  made  no  way  with  the  leading 
men  of  the  university  and  suffered  from  the  hostility  of 
men  like  Ruhnken  and  J.  D.  Michaelis,  he  was  compensated 
for  this  by  the  esteem  of  Frederick  the  Great,  of  Lessing, 
Karsten  Niebuhr,  and  many  foreign  scholars.  The  last 
decade  of  his  life  was  made  cheerful  by  his  marriage  with 
Ernestine  Miiller,  who  shared  all  his  interests  and  learned 
Greek  to  help  him  with  collations.  In  proof  of  his 
gratitude  her  portrait  stands  beside  his  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  Oratores  Grseci.  Reiske  died  August  14,  1774, 
and  his  MS.  remains  passed,  through  Lessing's  mediation, 
to  the  Danish  minister  Suhm,  and  are  now  in  the  Copen- 
hagen library. 

Reiske  certainly  surpassed  all  his  predecessors  in  the  range  and 
quality  of  his  knowledge  of  Arabic  literature.  It  was  the  history, 
the  realm  of  the  literature,  that  always  interested  him  ;  he  did  not 
care  for  Arabic  poetry  as  such,  and  the  then  much  praised  Hani -i 
seemed  to  him  a  grammatical  pedant.  He  read  the  poets  for' their 
bearing  on  history,  and  cared  less  for  their  verses  than  for  such 
scholia  as  supplied  historical  notices.  Thus  for  example  the 
scholia  on  Janr  furnished  him  with  a  remarkable  notice  of  the 
prevalence  of  Buddhist  doctrine  and  asceticism  in  'Irak  under  the 
Omayyads.  In  the  Adnotatioiics  Histories?,  to  his  Abulfcik  (Abulf. 
Annales  Moslemici,  5  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1789-91)  he  collected  a 
veritable  treasure  of  sound  and  original  research  ;  he  knew  the 
Byzantine  writers  as  thoroughly  as  the  Arabic  authors,  and  was 
alike  at  home  in  modern  works  of  travel  in  all  languages  and 
in  ancient  and  mediieval  authorities.  He  was  interested  too  in 
numismatics,  and  his  letters  on  Arabic  coinage  (in  Eichhorn's 
Repertorium,  vols.  ix.-xi.)  form,  according  to  De  Sacy,  the  basis 
of  that  branch  of  study.  To  comprehensive  knowledge  and  very 
wide  reading  he  added  a  sound  historical  judgment.  He  was 
not,  like  Schultens,  deceived  by  the  pretended  antiquity  of  the 
Yemenite  Kasidas.1  Errors  no  doubt  he  made,  as  in  the  attempt 
to  ascertain  the  date  of  the  breach  of  the  dam  of  Marib. 

Though  Abulfcda  as  a  late  epitomator  did  not  afford  a  starting- 

1  "Animadvers.  criticae  in  Hamzae  hist,  regni  Joctanidaruni,"  in 
Eichhorn's  Afon.  Ant.  Hist.  Ar.,  1775. 


K  E  L  — R  E  L 


355 


point  for  methodical  study  of  the  sources,  Reiske's  edition  with 
his  version  and  notes  certainly  laid  the  foundation  for  research  in 
Arabic  history.  The  foundation  of  Arabic  philology,  however,  was 
laid  not  by  him  but  by  De  Sacy.  Reiske's  linguistic  knowledge 
was  great,  but  he  used  it  only  to  understand  his  authors  ;  he  had 
no  feeling  for  form,  for  language  as  language,  or  for  metre.  He  was 
diligent  in  lexicographic  collections,  but  cared  nothing  for  etymology 
or  for  any  speculations  that  transcended  the  historical  data  before 
him.  This  narrowness  of  interest  was  the  counterpart  of  his 
hatred  for  pedantry  and  strong  love  of  reality.  His  greed  for 
historical  facts  made  his  studies  a  sort  of  vast  foray  in  Arabic 
literature,  but  with  this  he  is  not  to  be  reproached. 

In  Leipsic  Reiske  worked  mainly  at  Greek,  though  he  continued 
to  draw  on  his  Arabic  stores  accumulated  in  Leyden.  Yet  his 
merit  as  an  Arabist  was  sooner  recognized  than  the  value  of  his 
Greek  work,  partly  perhaps  because  his  talents  were  really  at  their 
best  in  dealing  with  a  literature  which  suffers  little  injustice 
through  lack  of  interest  in  its  form,  but  mainly  because  his  con- 
temporaries in  Greek  learning  were  narrow  and  had  not  the  judg- 
ment to  appreciate  him.  Reiske  the  Greek  scholar  has  been 
rightly  valued  only  in  recent  years,  and  it  is  now  recognized  that 
he  was  the  first  German  since  Sylburg  who  had  a  living  knowledge 
of  the  Greek  tongue.  His  reputation  does  not  rest  on  his  numer- 
ous editions,  often  hasty  or  even  made  to  booksellers'  orders.  The 
text  was  never  his  main  concern,  and  he  often  let  received  readings 
stand  against  his  own  judgment.  The  valuable  matter  lies  in  his 
remarks,  especially  his  conjectures.  He  himself  designates  the 
Animadversationes  in  Scri2)tores  Grsecos  as  flos  ingenii  sui,  and  in 
truth  these  thin  booklets  outweigh  his  big  editions.  Closely 
following  the  author's  thought  he  removes  obstacles  whenever  he 
meets  them,  but  he  is  so  steeped  in  the  language  and  thinks  so 
truly  like  a  Greek  that  the  difficulties  he  feels  often  seem  to  us 
to  lie  in  mere  points  of  style.  His  criticism  is  empirical  and 
unmethodic,  based  on  immense  and  careful  reading,  and  applied 
only  when  he  feels  a  difficulty  ;  and  he  is  most  successful  when  he 
has  a  large  mass  of  tolerably  homogeneous  literature  to  lean  on, 
whilst  on  isolated  points  he  is  often  at  a  loss.  Phonetics,  dialects, 
orthography  were  indifferent  to  him;  metre  he  did  not  understand. 
His  corrections  are  often  hasty  and  false,  but  a  surprisingly  lai'ge 
proportion  of  them  have  since  received  confirmation  from  MSS. 
And,  though  his  merits  as  a  Grecian  lie  mainly  in  his  conjectures, 
his  realism  is  felt  in  this  sphere  also  ;  his  German  translations 
especially  show  more  freedom  and  practical  insight,  more  feeling 
for  actual  life,  than  is  common  with  the  scholars  of  that  age.1 

Reiske  was  essentially  a  pioneer,  who  neither  left  any  complete 
performance  behind  him  nor  marked  out  for  others  a  sharply 
defined  method  of  research.  This  was  partly  due  to  his  unhappy 
circumstances,  but  mainly  to  his  passionate  interest  in  all  history 
and  all  letters,  which  never  allowed  him  to  linger  in  any  one  field. 
The  son  of  the  Zorbig  tanner,  driven  by  a  natural  instinct  to  Arabic 
lore,  devoured  by  eager  desire  to  view  the  unknown  treasures  of 
distant  ages  and  lands,  is  an  attractive  figure  amidst  the  pedants  of 
learned  Germany  as  it  then  was.  Reiske  was  not  amiable,  but  he 
was  a  real  character — a  character,  too,  sustained  by  genuine  piety 
when  the  deep  waters  threatened  to  close  over  his  head. 

For  a  list  of  Rciske's  writings  see  Mouse],  xi.  192  sq.  His  chief  Arabic  works 
(all  posthumous)  have  been  mentioned  above.  In  Greek  letters  his  chief  works 
are  Constantini  Porphyrogeniti  libri  II.  de  ceremoniis  aulie  Byzant.,  vols.  i.  ii., 
Leipsic,  1751-GG,  vol.  iii. ,  Bonn,  1829 ;  Animadv.  ad  Grxcos  auctores. 5  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1751-66  (the  rest  lies  imprinted  at  Copenhagen);  Oratorum  Griec.  qux  supersunt, 
8  vols.,  Leipsic,  1770-73;  App.  crit.  ad  Demosthenem,  3  vols.,  ib.  1774-75; 
Maximus  Titr.,ib.,  1774  ;  Plutarchus,ll  vols.,  ib..  1774-79;  Dionys  Italic.,  6  vols., 
ib.,  1774-77;  Lilanius,  4  vols.,  Altenburg,  1784-97.  Various  reviews  in  the 
Acta  Eruditorum  and  Zuverl.  Nachrichten  are  characteristic  and  worth  reading. 
Compare  D.  Johann  Jacob  Reiskens  von  ihm  selbst  aufgesetzte  Lebensbeschreibunq, 
Leipsic,  1783.  (J_  \VE.) 

RELAND,  ADRIAN,  a  meritorious  Dutch  Orientalist, 
was  born  at  Ryp,  July  17,  1676,  studied  at  Utrecht  and 
Leyden  and  successively  professed  Oriental  languages  with 
great  success  at  Harderwijk  (1699)  and  Utrecht  (1701). 
In  the  latter  chair,  from  which  he  also  lectured  on  sacred 
antiquities,  he  remained  till  he  died  of  small-pox  February 
5,  1718. 

Reland's  most  important  work  is  Palsestina  ex  vcteribus  monu- 
mentis  illustrate,  Utrecht,  1714,  an  admirable  collection  which  is 
still  the  most  valuable  book  on  the  historical  geography  of  the 
Holy  Land.  His  Antiquitates  sacraz  veterum  Hebrseorum,  learned, 
clear,  and  compact,  is  also  a  most  useful  book ;  and  his  other  writings 
and  collections— for  he  reprinted  many  curious  and  useful  tracts  of 
other  scholars  on  Biblical  and  Rabbinical  topics— all  show  judg- 
ment as  well  as  knowledge.  His  works  are  enumerated  by 
Barman,  Tmj.  Erud.,  p.  296  sq. 

RELICS.  Relics,  in  what  may  be  called  their  merely 
human  and  historic  aspect,  appeal  to  many  of  the  most 

1  For  this  estimate  of  Reiske  as  a  Greek  scholar  the  writer  is  indebted 
to  Prof.  U.  v.  Wilaniowitz-Moellendorff. 


obvious  and  most  deeply  seated  principles  of  human  nature 
— to  that  power  of  connexion  with  the  past  which  has 
been  justly  called  one  of  the  divinest  elements  of  our  being, 
to  the  law  of  association,  and  to  that  love  of  something 
like  ocular  testimony  which  so  notoriously  affects  the 
mind  more  forcibly  than  "  the  hearing  of  the  ear."  The 
Russian  general  Suwaroff,  "  albeit  unused  to  the  melting 
mood,"  is  reported  to  have  been  deeply  touched  by  the 
relics  of  departed  greatness  laid  bare  by  the  discovery  of  a 
palace  in  the  Crimea  which  had  been  built  by  Mithradates. 
Many  of  those  who  were  present  at  the  opening  of  the 
tomb  of  Robert  the  Bruce  at  Dunfermline  were  quite 
unmanned  at  the  sight  of  the  skull  that  had  toiled  for  Scot- 
land's weal,  and  the  arm  that  had  struck  down  Sir  Henry 
de  Bohun  on  the  eve  of  the  battle  of  Bannockburn ;  and  at 
the  funeral  of  the  duke  of  Wellington,  in  1852,  the 
pathetic  part  of  the  processional  ceremonial  was  found  te 
lie  in  the  riderless  charger,  bearing  relics  of  the  deceased 
warrior.  In  1802  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  while  making  his 
preparations  at  Boulogne  for  the  invasion  of  England,  pro- 
fessed to  have  found  a  coin  of  Julius  Caesar  and  a  weapon 
which  had  belonged  to  one  of  the  soldiers  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  Napoleon  had  a  profound  belief  in  the  power 
of  the  imagination.  It  is  needless  to  dwell  upon  his  object 
in  ostentatiously  announcing  these  discoveries. 

It  is  obvious,  however,  that,  apart  from  designs  such  as 
that  of  Napoleon,  pretended  relics,  sometimes  associated 
with  real  sometimes  with  legendary  events,  would  be  sure 
to  spring  from  human  credulity,  from  love  of  the  marvel- 
lous, and  from  hopes  of  gain.  Perhaps  all  settled  Govern- 
ments exhibit  relics,  such  as  regalia  and  the  like,  of  which 
many  are  perfectly  authentic,  while  some  would  not  bear 
close  examination.  The  same  may  be  said  of  family 
treasures.  We  read  of  ancient  Romans  exhibiting  curiosi- 
ties, such  as  fragments  of  the  ship  "  Argo."  Again,  relics 
are  apt  to  gather  round  a  great  name.  The  town  of 
Lutterworth  possessed  an  ancient  chair  and  a  piece  of  a 
cope.  Each  became,  despite  of  want  of  evidence,  and 
indeed  against  evidence,  associated  with  the  name  of 
Wickliffe. 

It  would  be  strange  indeed  if  religion  (which,  alike  in 
its  good  features  and  in  its  abuses,  penetrates  more  deeply 
than  anything  else  into  the  human  heart)  were  found  to  be 
dissociated  from  relics.  Probably  all  the  more  widely 
spread  creeds  claim  some  such  material  links  with  the  past. 
Let  it  suffice  to  mention  here  the  Ka'ba  at  Mecca,  and  the 
tooth  of  Buddha  exhibited  in  Ceylon. 

We  turn  to  the  pre-Christian  and  Christian  dispensa- 
tions. The  Old  Testament  contains  allusions  to  relics  too 
numerous  to  mention.  We  may  refer  to  the  language  of 
the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which  speaks  of  the  holy  of 
holies  as  containing  the  golden  censer,  and  the  ark  of  the 
covenant,  wherein  were  the  golden  pot  that  had  manna  and 
Aaron's  rod  that  budded  and  the  tables  of  the  covenant 
(Heb.  ix.  4,  9;  Exod.  xxv.  10,  16;  Num.  xvii.  10). 
These  were  believed  to  have  been  lost  at  the  destruction  of 
the  temple  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  We  also  read  of  the 
sword  of  Goliath  being  preserved-  as  something  sacred 
(1  Sam.  xxi.  9). 

Certainly,  however,  in  one  respect,  perhaps  in  two 
(though  of  seemingly  opposite  tendencies),  Judaism  stands 
in  this  matter  distinguished  from  contemporary  religions. 
Nowhere  else  should  we  read  of  a  valued  and  most  interest- 
ing relic  being  destroyed  by  a  devout  ruler  because  it  was 
found  to  have  been  abused  and  to  have  led  to  idolatry,  as 
was  done  to  the  brazen  serpent  by  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xviii. 
4).  But  it  may  also  be  questioned  whether  the  records  of 
any  other  people  contain  an  account  of  a  miracle  wrought 
by  the  relics  of  a  deceased  prophet.  We  may  indeed  read 
of  a  miracle  wrought  in  heathendom  for  the  defence  of 


356 


RELICS 


innocence  unjustly  accused,  and  we  also  find  the  possession 
of  the  bones  of  a  departed  hero  made  the  condition  of  a 
successful  war.1  But  the  second  book  of  Kings  relates  the 
revival  of  a  dead  man  by  the  bones  of  Elisha, — a  narrative 
rendered  the  more  remarkable  by  the  fact  that,  as  a  rule, 
the  contact  with  a  corpse,  a  bone,  or  a  grave  made  a  man 
unclean  for  seven  days  (Num.  xix.  11-22). 

The  New  Testament  does  not  relate  any  case  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  Elisha.  The  remains  of  the  protomartyr 
Stephen  are  simply  committed  to  the  tomb,  with  much 
lamentation  by  devout  men  (Acts  viii.  2)  ;  and  of  the 
funeral  of  the  first  martyred  apostle,  James,  we  have  no 
record.  It  is  not,  however,  to  be  denied  that  the  book  of 
Acts  tells  of  miracles  of  healing  resembling  that  of  her  who 
was  cured  by  the  touch  of  our  Lord's  garment  (Matt.  ix. 
20-22).  Even  the  shadow  of  Peter,  it  is  implied,  may 
have  healed  the  sick ;  and  handkerchiefs  or  aprons  which 
had  been  worn  by  Paul  relieved  not  only  the  diseased  but 
the  possessed  (Acts  v.  15;  xix.  12). 

To  a  great  extent  the  homage  paid  to  the  tombs  and  the 
remains  of  patriot,  sage,  or  bard  was  transferred,  at  an 
early  period  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  church,  to 
those  of  its  own  heroes,  more  especially  to  those  of 
martyrs.  Such  a  result  was  natural,  and  almost  inevitable. 
The  intercession  of  the  departed  on  behalf  of  the  living 
was  everywhere  recognized,  and  that  of  martyrs  naturally 
believed  to  be  especially  powerful.  But  it  was  further 
inferred  from  the  instance  of  Elisha  and  from  the  passages 
of  the  book  of  Acts  already  cited  that  it  might  please  the 
Almighty  to  repeat  similar  manifestations  of  miraculous 
power.  Whether  the  fathers  who  maintain  this  view 
would  have  written  so  freely  if  they  could  have  foreseen 
the  abuses  which  were  to  arise  may  perhaps  be  doubted.2 
But  three  or  four  features  in  the  history  of  early  Christen- 
dom conspired  to  spread  the  cultus  of  relics.  These  were 
the  heathen  persecutions,  the  rise  of  Gnosticism,  the  strong 
and  exaggerated  feeling  about  possession  and  witchcraft, 
— to  which  may  probably  be  added  the  sense  of  a  sort  of 
education  connected  with  visible  and  tangible  links  of 
connexion  with  the  past. 

The  way  in  which  these  elements  of  the  case  would 
operate  is  tolerably  obvious.  If,  as  at  Lyons  and  Vienne, 
pagan  persecutors  burnt  the  ashes  of  the  martyrs,  and 
threw  them  into  the  Rhone,  exulting  in  the  idea  that  they 
were  disproving  one  of  the  most  important  articles  of  the 
Christian  creed,  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  with  still 
more  fervid  zeal  would  the  faithful  seize  every  opportunity 
of  honouring  those  remains  which  their  opponents  sought 
to  vilify.  Then,  again,  the  other  great  foe  of  early  Christen- 
dom, the  heresy  of  Gnosticism  (often  denounced  as  a  more 
subtle  and  dangerous  evil  than  the  open  hostility  of 
heathendom),  amidst  all  its  varied  forms  was  consistent 
in  representing  matter  as  something  essentially  evil.  The 
counter  teaching,  implied  in  the  central  doctrine  of  the 


1  We  allude  to  the  miracle  claimed  by  two  poets,  Ovid  (Fast.,  iv. 
310)  and  Propertius  (Eleg.,  iv.  14,  51),  as  also  by  Livy,  Cicero,  and 
Pliny,  to  have  been  wrought  by  Cybele  on  behalf  of  the  Vestal  Claudia, 
and  to  the  oracular  injunction  from  Delphi  to  the  Spartans  to  find  and 
carry   with  them   the  bones  of  Orestes   as  a    condition  of  success 
against  the  men  of  Tegea  (Herodotus,  i.  67-68). 

2  A  set  of  passages  is  given  by  Petavius  (De  Dogmatibus  Theologicis, 
"  De  Incarnatione,"  xiv.  11).     It  certainly  includes  most  of  the  leading 
post-Nicene  patristic   names, — such  as  Eusebius  and  many  fathers 
commonly  honoured  with  the  prefix  of  saint,  as  Gregory  of  Nazianzus, 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Chrysostom,  both  the  Cyrils,  Ambrose,  Jerome, 
and  others.     Of  these  St  Jerome  is  the  most  extreme  and  vehement  ; 
but  this  is  accounted  for,  not  only  by  the  author's  temperament,  but 
by  the  fact  of  his  writing  against  an  opponent  whom  he  specially  dis- 
liked on  personal  as  well  as  theological  grounds  (Contra  Vigilantium 
liber  unus).      Later  writers  on  the  same  side  with  Vigilantius  are 
Claudius  of  Turin  and  Agobard  of  Lyons,  but  our  limits  forbid  us  to 
discuss  their  views.     Some  sectaries  (e.g.,  the  Novatianists)  appear  to 
have  been  as  anxious  as  their  opponents  to  collect  relics. 


Christian  faith,  the  mystery  of  the  incarnation,  and  in  the 
sacraments,  might  seem  to  gain  some  aid  from  the  venera- 
tion shown  to  what  was  regarded  as  another  form  of 
hallowed  matter,  the  bodies  of  the  saints  or  the  material 
instruments  of  Christ's  passion.  And,  thirdly,  the  dread  of 
possession  found  some  alleviation  in  the  check  to  satanic 
malice  which  relics  were  believed  to  effect. 

It  is  also  conceivable  that  the  interest  created  by  such 
memorials  might  have  its  share  in  that  education  of  the 
earlier  Middle  Ages  which  was  so  powerfully  assisted  by 
pilgrimages  and  by  biographies.  Guizot,  in  a  well-known 
chapter  of  his  Civilisation  en  France  has  dwelt  largely  on 
the  value  of  even  the  legends  of  this  period.  He  main- 
tains that,  in  a  world  full  of  violence,  disorder,  and 
oppression,  the  legends  of  the  saints  found  food  for  some 
of  the  most  powerful  instincts  and  invincible  needs  of  the 
human  mind — that  exaggeration  of  details,  or  even  failure 
in  material  truth,  did  not  prevent  them  from  being  a  moral 
relief  and  a  protest  on  behalf  of  many  of  the  rights  of  man. 
Material  memorials,  or  even  supposed  memorials,  would 
certainly  help  to  impress  such  stories  upon  the  mind,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  facts  and  the  legends  of  secular  history. 
Leibnitz,  among  the  large  concessions  in  his  Systema  Theo- 
logicum  to  the  Roman  Catholic  view  of  these  questions,  in 
some  degree  anticipates  the  language  of  Guizot  concerning 
pious  legends. 

In  any  case,  alike  for  good  and  for  evil, — and  it  will 
be  necessary  to  speak  presently  of  the  sadder  aspects  of 
the  question, —  relics  from  the  4th  to  the  16th  century 
occupied  a  large  space  in  the  mind  of  Christendom.  The 
word  relics  (reliquiae,  Actual/a)  became  almost  restricted, 
in  theological  language,  to  the  bodies  (or  parts  of  the 
bodies)  of  saints,  or,  as  has  been  intimated,  to  memorials  of 
Christ's  passion,  or  instruments  which  had  been  used  in 
the  torture  and  execution  of  martyrs.  Inquiries  con- 
nected with  their  genuineness  are,  as  is  well  known  to 
students  of  ecclesiastical  history,  conspicuous  in  the  life  of 
the  mother  of  Constantino,  St  Helena,  who  claimed  to 
have  discovered  the  true  cross  on  which  our  Lord  suffered, 
and  in  the  career  of  St  Ambrose  at  Milan.  Once  at 
least  a  really  glorious  series  of  campaigns,  those  of  the 
emperor  Heraclius  against  the  barbarian  Avars  and  the 
Persians  (622-628),  is  connected  with  a  successful  en- 
deavour to  regain  the  cross  (see  PERSIA,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  614- 
615).  It  is  remarkable  that  the  Persians  are  reported  to 
have  kept  the  cross  in  its  case  with  the  seals  unbroken. 

Thus  far  relics  have  been  regarded  as  evidencing  two 
marks  of  a  very  powerful  element  of  life,  namely,  the 
capacity  of  evoking  enthusiasm  and  of  influencing  even 
bystanders  or  opponents.  But  it  is  time  to  turn  to  the 
more  painful  features  of  their  history  in  connexion  with 
Christian  thought  and  practice.  It  must  not  be  supposed 
that  the  recognition  of  such  phases  is  by  any  means  a 
purely  Protestant  sentiment,  although  it  is  no  doubt  a  pro- 
minent feature  in  the  Reformation  of  the  16th  century. 
Thus,  for  example,  one  of  the  most  credulous  biographies 
of  a  saint  of  the  4th  century,  that  of  St  Martin  by 
Sulpicius  Severus,  mentions  (chap,  viii.)  an  instance  where 
the  supernatural  insight  of  Martin  was  exerted  in  the  way 
of  repression  of  such  homage.  The  country  people  were 
exhibiting  veneration  at  the  tomb  of  a  supposed  saint,  but 
it  was  revealed  to  the  bishop  of  Tours  that  it  was  that  of 
a  robber  executed  for  his  crimes.  St  Augustine,  in  his 
severe  and  satiric  tractate  against  certain  unworthy  mt>nk> 
who  made  their  profession  a  mere  cloak  for  idleness,  clearly 
insinuates  the  sale  of  questionable  relics  as  one  of  their 
faults.  "Alii  membra  martyrum,  si  tamen  martyrum, 
venditant."  The  traffic  in  relics  became  part  of  the  recog- 
nized commerce  of  Christendom  and  was  countenanced  by 
sovereigns  of  undoubted  excellence.  Thus  Athel-stan  was 


RELICS 


357 


a  great  donor  of  relics  to  the  monastery  at  Exeter.  A  list 
occupying  more  than  three  columns  is  given  in  the  Leofric 
missal.  It  includes  fragments  of  the  candle  which  the 
angel  of  the  Lord  lit  in  the  tomb  of  Christ,  of  the  burning 
bush  whence  Jehovah  spoke  to  Moses,  and  of .  one  of  the 
stones  which  slew  the  protomartyr  Stephen.  Edward  the 
Confessor  and  Louis  IX.  of  France  may  be  named  among 
the  saintly  patrons  of  a  commerce  which  they  at  least  con- 
sidered meritorious. 

The  mention  of  this  last  name  involves  a  reference  to 
an  event  which,  above  all  others  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
spread,  fostered,  and  ultimately  injured  the  veneration  of 
relics.  The  crusades  created  a  profound  excitement  in 
this  matter.  Pilgrims  had  already  thought  it  a  default 
to  return  from  Palestine  without  some  such  evidence  that 
they  had  actually  visited  the  Holy  Land.  Relics,  at  first 
probably  bought  and  sold  in  good  faith,  became  multi- 
plied ;  and  rival  possessions  of  most  sacred  memorials  (as, 
for  instance,  the  crown  of  thorns,  exhibited  both  by  the 
abbey  of  St  Denys  and  by  St  Louis)  were  by  no  means 
uncommon.  Even  the  crime  of  theft  seems  to  have  been 
condoned  when  a  relic  was  in  question,  and  mutilation 
of  a  saint's  body  to  have  been  hardly  thought  irreverent. 
To  swear  by  these  relics  became  the  most  binding  of  oaths, 
as  will  be  remembered  by  those  who  have  read  the  life 
of  King  Robert  II.  of  France,  and  the  ruse  practised  on 
Harold  by  William,  duke  of  Normandy.  Marauding 
campaigns  between  monastery  and  monastery  were  by  no 
means  uncommon ;  but  these  sink  into  insignificance  com- 
pared with  the  spoliation  exercised  by  the  crusaders  from 
the  West  who  captured  and  sacked  Constantinople  in 
1203-4.  The  shameful  behaviour  of  the  conquering  army 
is  admitted  by  the  Latins  themselves ;  but  the  condemna- 
tion freely  uttered  against  licence,  brutality,  and  profane 
irreverence  seems  generally  (though  not  quite  universally) 
hushed  when  the  spoliation  concerns  treasure  in  the  way 
of  relics.  The  fact  of  their  abundance  shows  an  agree- 
ment on  this  point,  amidst  their  differences,  between  the 
Latin  and  Greek  Churches  ;  but  Constantinople  must  have 
been  greatly  impoverished  by  the  immense  supply  of  relics 
"  that  were  scattered  by  this  revolution  over  the  churches 
of  Europe."1 

The  next  two  centuries  saw  no  diminution  of  such  zeal, 
and  there  grew  up,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted,  an  increase 
of  lower  motives  and  of  fraud.  By  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  the  condition  of  matters  was  such  as  in  many 
respects  to  offer  a  mark  for  all  assailants  of  the  existing 
state  of  things,  and  a  practical  admission  on  the  part  of 
those  in  authority  that  it  was  to  a  large  extent  simply 
indefensible.  Erasmus,  on  this  as  on  so  many  other 
kindred  subjects,  is  found  leading  the  van  of  satirists. 
One  of  his  Colloyuia,  entitled  Peregrinatio  Religionis  Ergo, 
contains  within  some  thirty  pages  a  mass  of  sarcasm 
against  the  abuses  of. the  age.  The  discharge  of  vows 
through  an  agent,  the  localism  of  particular  favours,  the 
earthly  (and  sometimes  evil)  character  of  the  petitions 
offered  to  saints  and  specially  to  the  Virgin  Mother,  the 
strange  character  of  the  relics,  one  of  the  most  common 
and  abundant  being  the  "  caeleste  lac  beatse  Virginis," 
the  enormous  amount  of  wealth  lying  idle  at  the  shrine  of 
St  Thomas  a  Becket — these  and  similar  topics  are  treated  in 
this  author's  caustic  and  elegant  Latinity.  The  Colloquia 
were  published  in  1522,  and  from  this  date  a  mass  of  similar 
literature  in  the  vernacular  tongue  of  various  countries, 
of  a  coarser  kind  and  more  adapted  to  the  popular  taste, 
seems  to  have  been  circulated  freely  throughout  Europe. 

Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  chap.  Ix.  sub  fin.  ;  comp.  Milman, 
Latin  Christianity,  bk.  ix.  chap.  vii.  Milman  quotes  from  Gunther's 
words  concerning  the  abbot  Martin,  one  of  the  spoilers:  "Indignum 
(lucens  sacrileginm,  nisi  in  re  sacra,  committere. " 


The  reaction  against  the  homage  paid  to  relics  was 
immense.  A  practice  which  has  not  only  been  extensively 
abused,  but  which  appears  from  its  very  nature  to  involve 
a  fatal  facility  of  abuse,  can  never  stand  quite  where  it 
did  after  such  an  exposure  as  that  to  which  reference 
has  been  made.  Yet  it  seems  doubtful  whether  the 
Reformers  in  all  cases  intended  to  dp  more  than  check  the 
prominent  abuses  connected  with  relics.  Those  who 
claimed  Holy  Scripture  as  the  sole  authority  could  not 
deny  that  it  might  please  the  Almighty  to  convey 
blessings  through  the  instrumentality  of  such  material 
things,  as  in  the  cases  already  referred  to  in  the  second 
book  of  Kings  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Even 
Luther  seems  rather  to  denounce  mistakes  concerning 
particular  relics  than  the  respect  paid  to  recognized  ones. 
In  like  manner  the  English  Church,  while  using  severe  and 
contemptuous  language  in  the  Homilies  with  reference  to 
such  practices  as  those  satirized  by  Erasmus,  has  preserved 
in  its  calendar,  among  minor  festivals,  the  days  respect- 
ively chosen  by  the  earlier  niediasval  church  for  the 
discovery  of  the  cross  by  St  Helena  (May  3rd)  and  its 
recovery  by  Heraclius  (September  14th).  Mosheim  and 
other  learned  foreign  Protestants  also  speak  gently  on  such 
themes.  Thus  the  devout  Lutheran  Neander,  while 
mentioning  in  his  Church  History  some  cases  of  deliberate 
fraud,  and  holding  that  the  superstition  concerning  saints 
and  relics  bordered  nearly  on  paganism,  is  yet  unable 
to  approve  of  the  extreme  reaction  which  in  some  quarters 
arose  out  of  it. 

As  regards  the  Church  of  Rome,  although  in  theory  the 
events  of  the  16th  century  may  have  left  its  teaching 
untouched,  yet  it  can  hardly  be  questioned  but  that  this 
is  one  of  the  many  departments  of  religious  life  in  which 
that  great  commotion,  as  De  Maistre  calls  it,  has  in  his 
words,  even  among  Roman  Catholics,  opere  une  revolution 
tres  sensible.  The  council  of  Trent,  which  must  be 
regarded  as,  from  its  own  point  of  view,  a  reforming 
council,  treated  the  subject  of  relics  in  its  twenty-fifth 
session,  held  in  December  1563.  It  expressed  its  earnest 
desire  for  the  removal  of  abuses,  for  the  abolition  of 
unworthy  gain  in  the  veneration  of  relics,  and  of  revelry 
on  occasion  of  their  visitation.  It  forbade  the  acceptance 
by  any  church  of  new  relics,  without  the  approbation  of 
the  bishop,  given  after  consultation  with  theologians 
and  other  devout  men,  and  referred  grave  and  difficult 
questions  concerning  the  extirpation  of  abuses  to  the 
judgment  of  local  councils,  of  metropolitans,  and  ulti- 
mately to  the  Roman  see  itself. 

By  these  steps  a  great  change  has  been  effected.  We 
hear  nothing  more  of  the  sale  of  relics  (which  had  indeed 
been  forbidden  by  the  fourth  Lateran  council  in  1215),  of 
theft  or  of  war  in  connexion  with  them.  Some  of  those 
most  strange  memorials  to  which  a  passing  allusion  has 
been  made  above  have  seemingly  disappeared  from  history. 
And,  although  leading  writers  of  the  Roman  obedience  in 
France  and  Italy  do  not  often  make  concessions,  the 
Freiburg  Encyclopedia  admits  the  non-authenticity  of  num- 
bers of  relics  brought  home  from  the  crusades,  and  from 
the  conquest  of  Constantinople ;  and  Addis  and  Arnold 
(Roman  Catholic  Dictionary,  1884)  say  that  "abuses  no 
doubt  have  occurred  in  all  ages  with  regard  to  relics." 
No  shock  less  great  than  that  caused  by  the  Reformation 
would  probably  have  effected  so  much  as  has  been  done. 

Still,  however,  the  Church  of  Rome  stands  alone,  we 
believe,  in  considering  the  possession  of  relics  an  indis- 
pensable condition  of  the  performance  of  the  highest  acts 
of  public  Christian  worship.  Every  altar  used  for  the 
celebration  of  mass  must,  according  to  Roman  Catholic 
rule,  contain  some  authorized  relics.  These  are  inserted 
into  a  cavity  prepared  for  their  reception,  called  "the  tomb," 


R  E  L  — R  E  L 


by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  and  sealed  up  with  the  epis- 
copal seal.  A  collect  iu  the  Ordo  Musx  assumes  their 
presence,  and  makes  reference  to  the  saints  whose  relics 
are  thus  preserved. 

Authoritim.— Many  of  the  leading  authorities  have  already  been 
named.  To  these  may  be  added  on  the  Roman  Catholic  side  Perrone, 
Prxlectioncs  Thcologiae,  vol.  ii.  "  De  Cultu  Sanctorum,"  cap.  iv. 
(cd.  Paris,  1863),  aud  Martigny,  Dictionnaire  dcs  Antiquites  Chrc- 
tienncs  (s.  v.  "  Reliques ").  On  the  other  side  the  followers  of 
Calvin  (on  this  as  on  so  many  other  topics)  are  usually  more 
fiercely  anti-Roman  than  those  of  Luther.  Among  Anglican 
divines  those  who  have  published  treatises  on  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  are  necessarily  brought  across  the  subject.  The  work  of 
the  bishop  of  Winchester  (Dr  Harold  Browne)  will  hero  be  found 
the  fullest  and  most  able  as  well  as  the  most  candid  and  temperate. 
Compare  also  Bp.  Pearson,  Minor  Works,  vol.  ii.  ( J.  G.  C. ) 

BELIEF.     See  SCULPTURE. 

RELIGIONS.  Religions,  by  which  are  meant  the 
modes  of  divine  worship  proper  to  different  tribes,  nations, 
or  communities,  and  based  on  the  belief  held  in  common 
by  the  members  of  them  severally,  were  not  before  the 
present  century  the  subject  of  original  scientific  research 
and  comparative  study.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
good  books  containing  useful  information  on  some  ancient 
religions  and  on  the  religious  customs  of  uncivilized 
nations,  nothing  written  on  this  subject  in  former  cen- 
turies can  be  said  to  possess  any  scientific  value.  It  is  not 
that  the  old  books  are  antiquated,  as  all  works  of  learning 
must  become  with  the  lapse  of  time :  they  were  worth 
nothing  even  when  published.  There  were  huge  collec- 
tions, containing  descriptions  of  all  the  religions  in  the 
world,  so  far  as  they  were  known,  laboriously  compiled, 
but  without  any  critical  acumen,  and  without  the  least 
suspicion  that  unbiblical  religions  are  not  mere  curiosities. 
There  was  a  philosophy  of  religion,  but  it  was  all  but 
purely  speculative,  and  it  could  not  be  otherwise,  as  then 
it  had  but  scanty  means  to  work  with,  and  was  obliged  to 
draw  the  facts  it  required  from  very  troubled  and  insuffi- 
cient sources.  Attempts  were  made  to  explain  the  mytho- 
logies of  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  and  even  of  some 
Oriental  nations,  but  for  the  same  reason  they  could  not 
but  fail  Then  there  was  the  theological  bias,  which 
caused  all  religions  except  one  to  be  regarded  as  utterly 
false;  the  philosophical  bias,  which  caused  all  religions, 
except  the  arbitrary  abstraction  then  called  natural  religion, 
to  be  decried  as  mere  superstitions,  invented  by  shrewd 
priests  and  tyrants  for  selfish  ends ;  and,  finally,  the  total 
lack  of  a  sound  method  in  historical  investigation,  which 
was  one  of  the  prominent  characteristics  of  the  18th 
century.-  It  was  only  after  the  brilliant  discoveries  which 
marked  the  end  of  that  century  and  the  first  half  of  this, 
and  after  the  not  less  brilliant  researches  to  which  they 
gave  rise ;  after  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Chinese,  the 
Indians,  the  Persians,  and  some  other  ancient  nations 
could  be  studied  in  the  original ;  after  the  finding  of  the 
key  to  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  and  the  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  cuneiform  writing  had  lifted  the  veil  which 
for  many  centuries  had  covered  the  history  of  these  most 
ancient  civilizations — it  was  then  only  that  a  history  of 
religion  ceuld  be  thought  of  and  that  something  like  a 
science  of  religion  could  be  aimed  at,  if  not  yet  founded. 

The  comparative  historical  study  of  religions  is  one  of 
the  means  indispensable  to  the  solution  of  the  difficult 
problem  What  is  religion?— the  other  being  a  psychological 
study  of  man.  It  is  one  of  the  pillars  on  which  not  a 
merely  speculative  and  fantastic,  and  therefore  worth- 
less, but  a  sound  scientific  philosophy  of  religion  should 
rest.  Still,  like  every  department  of  study,  it  has  its  aim 
in  itself.  This  aim  is  not  to  satisfy  a  vain  curiosity,  but 
to  understand  and  explain  one  of  the  mightiest  motors  in 
the  history  of  mankind,  which  formed  as  well  as  tore 
asunder  nations,  united  as  well  as  divided  empires,  which 


sanctioned  the  most  atrocious  and  barbarous  deeds,  the 
most  cruel  and  libidinous  customs,  and  inspired  the  most 
admirable  acts  of  heroism,  self-renunciation,  and  devotion, 
which  occasioned  the  most  sanguinary  wars,  rebellions, 
and  persecutions,  as  well  as  brought  about  the  freedom, 
happiness,  and  peace  of  nations — at  one  time  a  partisan  of 
tyranny,  at  another  breaking  its  chains,  now  calling  into 
existence  and  fostering  a  new  and  brilliant  civilization, 
then  the  deadly  foe  to  progress,  science,  and  art. 

Religions,  like  living  organisms,  have  a  history,  and 
therefore  this  is  to  be  studied  first,  so  far  as  it  can  be 
known, — how  they  rise  and  spread,  grow  and  fade  away ; 
how  far  they  are  the  creations  of  individual  genius,  and 
how  far  of  the  genius  of  nations  and  communities ;  by  what 
laws,  if  it  is  possible  to  discover  them,  their  development  is 
ruled ;  what  are  their  relations  to  philosophy,  science,  and  art, 
to  the  state,  to  society,  and  above  all  to  ethics;  what  is  their 
mutual  historical  relation,  thai  is,  if  one  of  them  sprang 
from  another,  or  if  a  whole  group  are  to  be  derived  from  a 
common  parent,  or  if  they  only  borrowed  from  one  another 
and  were  subject  to  one  another's  influence ;  lastly,  what 
place  is  to  be  assigned  to  each  of  those  groups  or  single 
religions  in  the  universal  history  of  religion.  The  first 
result  of  this  historical  inquiry  must  be  an  attempt  at  a 
genealogical  classification  of  religions,  in  which  they  are 
grouped  after  their  proved  or  probable  descent  and  affinity. 

However,  like  every  genuine  scientific  study,  historical 
investigations,  if  they  are  to  bear  fruit,  must  be  compara- 
tive. Not  only  has  every  religion  as  a  whole,  aud  every 
religious  group,  to  be  compared  with  others,  that  we  may 
know  in  what  particular  qualities  it  agrees  with  or 
differs  from  them,  and  that  we  may  determine  its  special 
characteristics,  but,  before  this  can  be  done,  compara- 
tive study  on  a  much  larger  scale  must  precede.  Every 
religion  has  two  prominent  constituent  elements,  the  one 
theoretical,  the  other  practical — religious  ideas  and  religious 
acts.  The  ideas  may  be  vague  conceptions,  concrete 
myths,  precise  dogmas,  either  handed  over  by  tradition  or 
recorded  in  sacred  books,  combined  or  not  into  systems  of 
mythology  and  dogmatics,  summarized  or  not  in  a  creed 
or  symbol,  but  there  is  no  living  religion  without  some- 
thing like  a  doctrine.  On  the  other  hand,  a  doctrine, 
however  elaborate,  does  not  constitute  a  religion.  Scarcely 
less  than  by  its  leading  ideas  a  religion  is  characterized 
by  its  rites  and  institutions,  including  in  the  higher  phases 
of  development  moral  precepts,  in  the  highest  phases 
ethical  principles.  It  happens  but  very  seldom,  if  ever, 
that  those  two  elements  balance  each  other.  In  different 
religions  they  are  commonly  found  in  very  different 
proportions,  some  faiths  being  pre-eminently  doctrinal 
or  dogmatic,  others  pre-eminently  ritualistic  or  ethical; 
but  where  one  of  them  is  wanting  entirely  religion  no 
longer  exists.  Not  that  dogma  and  ritual  are  religion ; 
they  are  only  its  necessary  manifestations,  the  embodi- 
ment of  what  must  be  considered  as  its  very  life  and 
essence,  of  that  which  as  an  inner  conviction  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  a  doctrine  or  creed — a  belief.  But  we 
cannot  get  a  knowledge  of  the  belief  which  lies  at  the  base 
of  a  particular  doctrine  and  which  prompts  peculiar  rites 
and  acts,  without  studying  the  mythical  and  dogmatical 
conceptions  and  the  ritual  or  ethical  institutions  in  which 
it  takes  its  shape,  and  without  comparing  these  with 
others.  This  then  is  the  task  of  what  is  called  compara- 
tive theology  in  its  widest  sense,  of  which  comparative 
mythology  is  only  a  branch,  and  in  which  more  space  and 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  hitherto  much  neglected 
comparative  study  of  religious  worship  and  of  ethics  in 
their  relation  to  religion.  It  is  then  only  that  we  can 
proceed  to  characterize  and  mutually  compare  religions 
themselves,  regarded  as  a  whole,  and  that  we  may  come 


KELIGIONS 


359 


to  what  must  be  the  final  result  of  this  historical  as  well 
as  comparative  study,  a  morphological  classification  of 
religions.  Here  the  study  of  religions  reaches  its  goal, 
and  the  task  of  the  philosophy  of  religion,  the  other  main 
branch  of  the  so-called  science  of  religion  or  general 
theology,  begins. 

It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  the  basis  of  the  compara- 
tive historical  study  of  religions  must  be  a  patient  and 
critical  examination  of  the  sources  from  which  the  know- 
ledge of  the  various  religions  of  the  world  is  to  be  drawn, 
viz.,  written  documents  and  traditions,  monuments  and 
works  of  art,  sacred  writings  and  heretical  books,  and, 
when  we  wish  to  inquire  into  the  religions  of  the  uncivi- 
lized tribes  that  have  no  history  at  all,  an  impartial 
weighing  of  the  evidence  brought  by  travellers  and  settlers 
from  different  parts  of  the  globe, — in  short,  an  unbiassed 
ascertaining  of  facts. 

Genealogical  Classification. — There  is  no  difficulty  in 
determining  the  descent  and  relationship  of  religions 
which  have  taken  rise  in  historical  times,  such  as  Con- 
fucianism, Buddhism,  Judaism,  Christianity,  Mohamme- 
danism, and  some  others  of  minor  importance.  But  the 
great  majority  of  ancient  religions  had  their  origin  in  pre- 
historic times,  of  which  neither  documents  nor  trustworthy 
traditions  are  extant.  In  that  case  their  mutual  relation 
has  to  be  established  by  reasoning  from  the  myths,  ideas, 
rites,  and  characteristics  common  to  them.  Professor  Max 
M tiller  (Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Religion,  pp.  154  sq.) 
suggests  that,  whatever  classification  has  been  found 
most  useful  in  the  science  of  language  ought  to  prove 
equally  useful  in  the  science  of  religion.  Now  it  may  be 
true  in  general,  at  least  for  the  most  ancient  times,  that 
where  the  languages  of  a  group  of  nations  are  proved  to 
belong  to  one  family  their  religions  too  most  probably 
"hold  together  by  the  same  relationship."  But  this 
hypothesis  requires  proof,  and  that  proof  is  not  to  be 
obtained  otherwise  than  by  the  comparative  study  of  the 
religions  themselves.  Only  when  the  religions  of  two 
independent  nations  agree  in  doctrine  and  mode  of  wor- 
ship, above  all  in  the  notion  of  the  relation  between  God 
and  man,  between  the  divine  and  the  human,  to  such  a 
degree  and  in  such  a  manner  that  this  agreement  cannot 
be  accounted  for  by  the  universal  aspirations  and  wants  of 
human  nature,  then  only  may  we  feel  sure  that  the  one  of 
these  religions  is  the  parent  of  the  other,  or  that  both 
have  come  from  a  common  stock.  If  not  only  two  but 
several  religions  agree  in  like  manner,  or  nearly  so,  we  get 
a  family  of  religions.  At  present  we  can  go  no  farther. 
The  mutual  relations  of  the  different  families  cannot  be 
determined  yet ;  the  problem  is  too  difficult  and  too  com- 
plicated to  be  solved  in  the  present  state  of  science.  That 
religions  belonging  to  different  families  have  borrowed 
myths  and  customs  from  one  another  and  have  been  sub- 
jected to  one  another's  influence  may  easily  be  proved. 
But  whether  the  families  themselves  are  branches  of  one 
and  the  same  old  tree  is  an  open  question  to  which  a 
satisfactory  answer  cannot  be  given  now. 

It  would  be  equally  premature  to  venture  on  drawing 
up  a  complete  genealogical  table  of  religions.  For  some 
families  of  religions  such  a  classification  may  be  sketched 
with  tolerable  certainty;  the  genealogy  of  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  them  can  be  given  in  mere  outlines 
only,  leaving  the  fixing  of  details  for  further  inquiry.  We 
start  from  what  may  be  held  the  most  certain. 

Aryan  or  Indo- Germanic  Family. — Comparative  mytho- 
logy and  the  history  of  religion  leave  no  doubt  that  all  the 
religions  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-Germanic  nations,  viz., 
Eastern  Aryans  (or  Indians,  Persians,  and  Phrygians)  and 
Western  Aryans  (or  Greeks,  Romans,  Germans,  Norsemen, 
Letto-Slavs,  and  Celts),  are  the  common  offspring  of  one 


primitive  OLD-ARYAN^-  religion.  That  the  same  name  of 
the  highest  heaven-god,  Dyaus,  Zeus,  Ju(piter),  Zio  (Ty), 
is  met  with  among  Indians,  Greeks,  Italiotes,  Germans, 
and  Norsemen,  however  great  the  difference  of  the  attri- 
butes and  dignity  ascribed  by  each  of  them  to  the  god 
thus  named  may  be,  is  a  fact  now  generally  known. 
Where  this  name  has  been  lost,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
Persians,  the  Slavs,  and  the  Celts,  there  are  other  divine 
names  which  they  have  in  common  with  their  kindred 
nations.  Still  more  important  is  the  fact  that  most 
Aryans  show  a  tendency  to  call  their  supreme  god 
"  father,"  as  is  proved  by  the  very  common  forms  Dyaus 
pitar,  Zeus  -n-ar^p,  Jupiter,  Diespiter,  Marspiter,  Alfocfr. 
The  supreme  god  in  the  Avesta,  Ahuramazda,  is  often 
called  father.  Moreover  many  divine  names  used  by 
different  Aryan  nations,  though  varying  in  form,  are 
derived  from  the  same  root, — which  proves  the  original 
unity  of  their  conception.  Takp  as  examples  the  root  di 
(div),  "to  shine,"  and  its  derivatives  Dyaus,  Deva,  and 
their  family,  Diti,  Aditi,  Dione,  Pandion,  Dionysos,  Diovis, 
Dianus  (Janus),  Diana,  Juno  ;  or  the  root  man,  "  to  think  " 
(perhaps  equally  signifying  originally  "  to  shine  "),  and  its 
derivatives  Manu,  Minos,  Minerva,  (Juno)  Moneta ;  or  the 
roots  sur  (svar),  sar,  mar,  vas.  Especially  startling  is  the 
use  of  the  same  general  word  for  "  god "  among  several 
Aryan  nations,  viz.,  Skr.  deva,  Iran,  daeva,  Lat.  deus, 
Litth.  dewas  (deiwys),  Old  Norse  tivar  (plur.),  to  which 
belong  perhaps  also  Greek  0eos,  Irish  dia,  Cymr.  dew. 
Daeva  and  deiwys  are  used  in  a  bad  sense,  but  this  cannot 
be  original.  So  too  the  word  asura  (ahura),  which, 
though  it  too  was  used  by  the  Indians  in  relatively  modern 
times  in  a  bad  sense,  was  the  name  which  the  East-Aryans 
gave  to  their  highest  gods,  and  the  Norse  asa,  pi.  sesir 
(orig.  ans),  are  both  to  be  derived  from  the  root  as,  anh. 
If  we  add  to  this  the  remarkable  conformity  of  the  myths 
and  customs  in  all  Aryan  religions, — if,  above  all,  by  com- 
paring them  with  those  of  other  races,  especially  of  the 
Semites,  we  find  that  the  leading  idea  embodied  in  these 
Aryan  myths  and  rites  is  everywhere  the  same,  however 
different  the  peculiar  character  of  each  religion  may  be, 
namely,  the  close  relation  between  God  and  man,  the  real 
unity  between  the  divine  and  the  human  economy,2  so 
that  we  may  call  them  the  "  theanthropic  "  religions. — if 
we  remember  this,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  all  of  them 
have  sprung  from  one  primitive  OLD-ARYAN  religion. 

However,  the  degree  in  which  the  Aryan  religions  are 
mutually  related  is  not  always  the  same.  None  of  them 
came  directly  from  the  OLD-ARYAN  religion.  They  consist 
of  five  pairs,  each  of  which  must  have  been  first  a  unity: — 
the  Indo-Persian,  the  Graeco-Roman,  the  Letto-Slavic,  the 
Norse-Teutonic,  and  the  Gaelo-Cymric.  The  fact  that  the 
members  of  those  pairs  are  more  closely  allied  with  one 
another  than  with  the  other  members  of  the  family  obliges 
us  to  assume  five  prehistoric  Aryan  religions : — the  OLD 
EAST-ARYAN,  the  OLD  PELASGIC?  the  OLD  WINDIC,  the 
OLD  GERMAN,  and  the  OLD  CELTIC  religions,  forming 
so  many  links  between  those  historical  religions  and  the 
common  parent  of  all, — the  primeval  ARYAN  worship. 

Space  forbids  us  to  give  the  complete  proof  of  this  con- 
clusion. We  only  mention  that  the  Indian  and  Iranian 
religions  havemanygods  incommon,  unknown  to  the  Western 
Aryans,  and  therefore  probably  such  as  arose  after  the 
eastern  and  western  branch  of  the  family  had  separated,  e.g., 
Mitra — Mithra,  Aryaman — Airyaman,  Bhaga — Bagha — 
Baga  (comp.  also  Aramati — Armaiti,  Sarasvati — Hara- 

1  This  special  type  indicates  prehistoric  religions. 

3  This  is  why  they  call  the  Godhead  "father,"  or  even  "brother, 
friend,  companion."  Compare  the  names  Mitra — Mithra,  "friend," 
Aryaman — Airyaman,  "companion,"  &c. 

3  The  name  is  not  exact.     It  is  only  chosen  as  the  most  convenient. 


360 


RELIGIONS 

Genealogical  Table  of  the  Aryan  Religions.1 


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Old-  Persian  rel.  of  )     _, 
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PH       ^-M 

Manichfeism  (mixed  with  Christian  and  Buddhistic 
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—  Phrygian  religion  (?).              Mithra    and    Anahita 

worship   spread   to 

the  West. 

be 

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1 

f 

ELIGIO] 

RELIGION 

1  Grecian 

f  Grecian    religions    of  ~|  Hellenic  rel.,  mixed  f  Homeric  rel.                   -\ 
Asia  Minorand  Crete.  [     with      Phrygian,  j  Hesiodic  rel. 
|  AchiEan  rel.                   j      Lycian,  and  Phoe-j  Apollinic  (Delphic)  rel. 
LPelasgic  rel.                  j      nician  elements.     (^Athenian  rel. 

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™Ji£.         f                                      Tarquiuii  and  more  and  more 

T 

SPREAD  OF  BUDDHISM. 

o 

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j  ^aiiii 

iiiiiu 

1 

mixed  ^ 

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rites. 

j 
o 

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LEtru 

Southern  Buddhism.     NortJwrn  Buddhism. 

* 

O 

Ceylon.                         Indian    Peninsula    in 

* 

Arakan.                            the    Middle    Ages, 

o 

Burmah.                          now  driven  out. 

j  ** 

Siam.                            Kashmir. 

U  3  /  Cymric  branch  (Welsh,  Gauls). 
~~o  3  t  Gadhelic  branch  (Irish,  Scotch). 

s« 

„•                                                Nepal. 
Bactria. 
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Mongols. 

Tartar  tribes  and  Si- 

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Kamboja. 

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°  g  t  Vanir  :  Njcirdh,  Frey,  Freya. 

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•|  ,a  f  High  German  branch  :  Tio  highest,  Wuotan. 

02 

o     = 

i  1 

TLow  Germans  :   Woden,  Goden. 

EH  -=  1  Low  German  branch  <  Frisians  :   Woda. 

\  Anglo-Saxon  :  Vuoden  (?) 

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f  Religion  of  the  Baltic  Slavs  or  Wends  proper. 
.H  -g  |  Old  -Russian  or  Eastern  branch  (Svarog,  Dajbog,  Ogonu). 
a  §  <  Religion  of  the  Poles  and  Czechs,  all  but  unknown. 
<-CG  fe     Religion  of  the  Servians  and  their  nearest  relations,  not  much 

* 

I 

better  known. 

I  Prehistoric  religions  are  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*). 


qaiti,  &c.),  and  that  the  Soma — Haoma  sacrifice,  equally 
unknown  in  Europe,  at  least  in  that  form,  was  the  prin- 
cipal sacrifice  as  well  in  India  as  in  Iran.  The  close 
relation  of  the  Teutonic  and  Norse  religions,  and  of  the 
mythology  and  rites  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  even  if 
we  carefully  except  all  that  the  latter  took  from  the  former 
in  historical  times,  is  sufficiently  proved.  It  is  not  so 
evident,  but  still  highly  probable,  that  the  religions  of  the 
north-western  and  the  south-eastern  Celts,  though  differing 
from  one  another  in  historical  times,  are  daughters  of  one 
ancient  CELTIC  religion.  When  we  presuppose  such  a 
common  parent,  an  ancient  WINDIC  religion,  for  the 
Letto-Slavic  religions,  we  do  so  by  way  of  an  hypothesis, 
based  on  the  analogy  with  the  other  branches  of  the 
family.  What  we  know  about  these  and  about  the  Celtic 
forms  of  worship  is  so  defective  that  we  cannot  speak 
more  positively.  As  for  the  Phrygian  religion,  it  seems 
to  belong  to  the  Iranian  stock,  and  to  form  the  transition 
from  the  Persian  to  the  Greek  or  Pelasgic  worship. 

There  may  have  been  some  other  intermediate  stages, 
besides  those  which  we  have  been  compelled  by  the  facts 
to  assume,  between  the  historical  Aryan  religions  and  the 
prehistoric  OLD-ARYAN.  Thus,  e.g.,  the  Vedic  religion  as 
well  as  the  Zarathustric  cannot  be  considered  as  having 
sprung  directly  from  the  EAST-ARYAN.  The  Rig- Veda 
appears  to  be  far  less  primitive  than  has  been  generally 
thought  until  now.  It  contains  ancient  elements,  but  it  is 
itself  the  product  of  relatively  modern  speculations,  and 
belongs  to  a  period  in  which  a  complicated  and  mystical 
sacrificial  theory  was  upheld  by  priests  of  various  func- 
tions and  ranks.  On  the  other  hand  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  Zarathustric  dogmas  are  pure  old  Aryan  myths  in 
a  new  shape — this  is  what  M.  Jas.  Darmesteter  has  proved 
— but  it  was  doubtless  a  reformer,  or,  if  Zarathustra  was 
no  historical  person,  a  body  of  reformers,  who  called  the 
Zarathustric  religion  into  existence.  Therefore,  between 
the  Vedic  and  Zarathustric  religions  and  their  common 
ancestor  the  EAST-ARYAN,  there  must  have  existed  an 
OLD  INDIAN  and  an  OLD-IRANIAN  religion. 

This  may  suffice  to  justify  the  genealogical  table  of  the 
Aryan  religions  given  on  last  page. 

Semitic  Religions. — Though  there  is  so  much  wanting 
in  our  knowledge  of  the  Semitic  religions,  especially  as 
regards  those  of  the  pre-Christian  Aramaeans,  of  the  pre- 
Islamic  Arabs,  and  of  the  old  Hebrews,  all  we  know  about 
them  tends  to  prove  that  they  too  must  have  descended 


361 

from  a  common  source.  When  wo  find  that  the  same 
divinities  were  worshipped  by  several  North-Semitic  nations 
it  might  be  contended  that  they  were  borrowed  from  one 
of  them,  as  trade  and  conquest  had  brought  them  from 
ancient  times  into  close  contact  with  one  another.  But 
no  such  relation  existed  till  the  very  last  centuries  of  the 
Assyrian  empire  between  the  Northern  Semites  and  the 
various  tribes  of  the  Arabian  desert:  Therefore  gods  and 
religious  ideas  and  customs  prevailing  alike  among  the 
northern  and  the  southern  or  Arabic  branch  of  the  race 
may  be  safely  regarded  as  the  primeval  property  of  the 
whole  family.  Such  are  the  general  name  for  the  godhead, 
Ilu,  El,  Ilah  (in  Allah),  and  the  gods  Serakh  or  Sherag 
(Sepa^os,  Assyr.,  Arab.,  Cypr.),  Keivan  (Kaivanu,  Babyl., 
Assyr.,  Arab.,  cf.  Amos  v.  26),  Al-Lat,  the  moon-goddess 
(Babyl.,  Assyr.,  Arab.),  as  one  of  three  different  forms,  of 
which  another,  the  Al-'Uzza  of  the  Arabs,  is  met  with 
as  eUza  or  'Aza  in  Phoenician  inscriptions,  while  the 
corresponding  male  god  Aziz  is  found  among  the 
Aramaeans,  and  the  third,  Mamat,  corresponds  to  Meni, 
the  "  minor  Fortune,"  the  planet  Venus  of  the  Hebrews, 
perhaps  also  with  the  Babylonian  Manu.  The  myth  of 
the  dying  and  reviving  Thammuz,  Dumuzi,  common  to  all 
Northern  Semites,  seems  not  to  have  been  current  among 
the  ancient  Arabs,  though  some  scholars  (Krehl,  Lenor- 
mant)  think  there  are  traces  of  it  left  in  their  traditions 
and  rites.  Tree  worship  and  stone  worship  have  been 
pretty  general  in  prehistoric  times,  and  not  a  few  remains 
of  both  have  survived  in  all  ancient  faiths  and  modern 
superstitions;  but  the  latter  was  particularly  developed 
among  both  Northern  and  Southern  Semites,  which  is 
proved  by  the  use  of  Betyles  (?X'ni|3)>  by  the  black  stone 
in  the  Ka'ba,  the  stone  at  Bethel,  that  in  the  temple  of 
the  great  goddess  of  Cyprus  at  Paphos,  at  Edessa,  and 
elsewhere,  by  the  seven  black  stones  representing  the 
planet-gods  at  Erech  (Uruk)  in  Chalda^a,  &c.  Holy 
mountains  too  are  very  frequent  among  the  Semites, 
alike  in  Arabia  (Ka9i,  Dhu-1-shera,  Horeb,  Sinai — the  two 
last-named  still  worshipped  by  the  Saracens  in  the  6th 
century  of  our  era)  and  in  Canaan  (Hermon,  Tabor,  comp. 
the  Tabyrios  and  Zeus  Atabyrios  in  Cyprus,  Karmel, 
Peniel,  Sion,  Moriah,  i.e.,  Gerizim),  in  Syria  (Lebanon, 
Anti-Libanus,  Amanus ;  comp.  the  istirdt,  the  heights  of 
modern  Syria),  and  in  Mesopotamia,  where  the  zigurrats  or 
terrace  towers  represent  the  holy  mountains  as  the  abodes 
of  the  gods.  Finally,  all  Semitic  religions  without  a  single 


Genealogical  Table  of  the  Semitic  Religions? 
*OLD  SEMITIC  RELIGION. 


Southern  Branch. 
*OLD  ARABIC  RELIGION. 


Northern  Branch. 


Religions  of  the 

Sabsean  or   Him- 

North  of 

yaritic  rel.,  per- 

Arabia. 

haps    not    free 

from  Mesopota- 

mian  e 

lements. 

Western  Branch. 


Hebrew  religion. 

Old-Israelitic 
rel. 

Mosaic  reform. 


Eastern  Branch. 

Babylonian  rel., 
probably  mixed 
with  foreign 
elements. 


Assyrian  rel. 


Rel.  of 
Israel. 


Rel.  of 
Judah. 


Hanfis 

T 

Mohammed  •«—€• 

Islam. 


Reform  of  the 
Prophets. 

| 

(     Judaism. 

I 

Preaching 

of  the 

gospel. 

Primitive 

Christianity. 


C3     — ' 

-.as 


?  s  £° 


1  Prehistoric  religions  are  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*). 


XX.  —  46 


KELIGIONS 


exception  understand  the  relation  between  God  and  man 
as  one  between  the  supreme  lord  and  king  (El  the  mighty, 
Ba'al,  Bel,  Adon,  Malik,  Sar)  and  his  subject  or  slave 
('Abd,  'Obed,  Bod),  his  client  or  protected  one  (Jar,  Ger). 
They  are  eminently  theocratic,  and  show  a  marked  tendency 
to  monotheism,  which,  both  in  Israel  and  in  Arabia,  is  the 
last  word  of  their  religious  development. 

It  is  not  so  easy  to  determine  the  grade  of  relationship 
between  the  different  Semitic  religions  as  it  is  to  show 
that  they  all  descend  from  a  common  parent.  Moreover 
the  question  is  complicated  by  another  problem — Whether 
the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  borrowed  the  greater  part 
of  their  religious  conceptions  and  institutions  from  a 
foreign,  non-Semitic  people,  the  primitive  inhabitants  of 
their  country,  and  if  this  be  the  case  what  they  then  have 
of  their  own  and  what  is  due  to  the  influence  of  that 
ancient  civilization.  Whatever  may  be  the  final  solution 
of  this  question,  we  shall  not  go  far  wrong  if  we  distin- 
guish the  Semitic  religions  into  two  principal  groups — the 
one  comprising  the  southern  or  Arabic,  with  perhaps  the 
most  ancient  Hebrew,  the  other  all  the  Northern  Semitic 
religions  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Mediterranean, — leaving 
it  undecided  whether  the  undeniable  relationship  between 
the  north-eastern  and  the  north-western  Semitic  religions 
be  that  of  parent  and  children  or  that  of  sisters — in 
other  words,  whether  it  be  due  to  the  influence  of  the 
superior  culture  of  the  former  or  to  the  fact  that  they  all 
have  radiated  from  a  common  centre.  This  only  is  beyond 
doubt,  that  the  Assyrian  religion  is  a  daughter  of  the 
Babylonian,  and  that  the  Canaanitic  and  Phcenician 
modes  of  worship  are  closely  allied. 

WThat  we  give  on  last  page  is  no  more  than  a  rough 
genealogical  table  of  the  Semitic  religions. 

A  detailed  and  accurate  genealogical  classification  of 
the  religions  which  do  not  belong  to  either  of  those  two 
principal  families  is  out  of  the  question.  Their  mutual 
relation  can  be  fixed  only  in  a  general  way. 

ifrican.  African  Religions. — The  first  problem  to  be  solved  is 
the  classification  of  the  Egyptian  religion.  It  is  neither 
Semitic  and  theocratic  nor  Aryan  and  theanthropic.  But 
it  has  many  elements  that  belong  to  the  former,  and  also 
a  few  elements  that  belong  to  the  latter  category,  which 
might  lead  to  the  supposition  that  it  represents  a  stage  in 
the  development  of  the  great  Mediterranean,  commonly 
called  the  Caucasian,  race,  anterior  to  the  separation  of  the 
Aryan  family  from  the  Semitic.  But  this  is  no  more  than 
a  supposition,  as  the  existence  of  such  a  Mediterranean  race, 
embracing  the  so-called  Hamites,  Semites,  and  Japhetites  or 
Aryans,  is  itself  a  pure  hypothesis.  All  we  know  is  that 
the  Egyptians  themselves  mention  a  people  called  Punt  (the 
Phut  of  the  Bible),  with  whom  they  had  commercial  rela- 
tions and  whose  religion  was  akin  to  their  own,  so  much 
so  that  they  called  the  country  of  Punt,  on  the  western 
Arabian  and  on  the  opposite  African  coast,  the  Holy  Land 
(la  neter).  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Cushites,  the 
southern  neighbours  of  Egypt,  the  ancient  pre-Semitic 
Ethiopians;  and  a  pre-Semitic  population  also  may  have 
lived  in  Canaan,  allied  to  the  Egyptians  and  ethnologically 
or  genealogically  combined  with  them,  with  Gush,  and  with 
Phut  in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis.  But,  as  we  know 
next  to  nothing  about  their  religions,  a  Hamitic  family  of 
religions,  including  these  four,  is  still  purely  hypothetical. 

That  the  primitive  religion  of  southern  Mesopotamia, 
commonly  called  Accadian  or  Sumerian,  was  related  to  the 
Egyptian,  is  also  a  mere  conjecture,  which  does  not  seem 
to  be  favoured  by  the  newly  discovered  facts.  Finally, 
the  scanty  remains  of  the  pre-Islamic  religion  of  the 
Imoshagh  or  Berbers,  the  ancestors  of  the  Libyans  (in 
Egyptian  Ribu),  the  Gaetulians,  the  Mauretanians,  and  the 
Numidians  resemble  in  some  degree  Egyptian  customs 


and  notions;  but,  whether  they  point  to  genealogical 
relationship  or  are  due  to  early  Egyptian  influence,  it  is 
hard  to  say. 

This,  however,  cannot  be  denied,  that  there  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Egyptian  religion  a  great  many  magical  rites 
and  animistic  customs,  closely  resembling  those  which 
prevail  throughout  the  whole  African  continent.  If  then, 
as  is  generally  supposed,1  the  dominant  race  sprang  from 
Asiatic  settlers  and  conquerors,  who  long  before  the  dawn 
of  history  invaded  the  country,  subjugated  the  dark- 
coloured  inhabitants,  and  mixed  with  them,  and  if  it  is 
to  these  foreigners  that  the  more  elevated  elements  in  the 
Egyptian  religion  are  due,  the  basis  of  this  religion  is  of  a 
purely  Nigritian  character. 

All  we  can  say  about  the  other  original  religions  of  the 
dark  continent  is  that  they  resemble  one  another  in  many 
respects.  We  may  distinguish  four  principal  groups  :— (1) 
the  Cushite,  inhabiting  the  north-eastern  coast  region 
south  of  Egypt ;  (2)  the  Nigritian  proper,  including  all 
the  Negro  tribes  of  inner  Africa  and  the  west  coast ;  (3) 
the  Bantu  or  Kaffrarian  (Kafir) ;  and  (4)  the  Khoi-Khoin 
or  Hottentot,  including  the  Bushmen,  in  South  Africa. 
Before  we  can  come  to  decision  with  regard  to  the  first- 
named  group,  we  must  receive  better  and  more  certain 
information  than  we  now  possess.  The  prominent  char- 
acteristic of  the  second  group  of  religions,  those  of  the 
Negroes  proper,  is  their  unlimited  fetichism,  combined  as 
usual  with  tree  worship,  animal  worship,  especially  that  of 
serpents,  with  a  strong  belief  in  sorcery  and  with  the 
most  abject  superstitions,  which  even  Islam  and  Chris- 
tianity are  not  able  to  overcome.  They  have  next  to  no 
mythology,  at  all  events  a  very  poor  one,  which  may  be  one 
of  the  causes  of  what  is  called  euphemistically  their  ten- 
dency to  monotheism.  A  theistic  tendency,  as  Dr  Tylor 
calls  it,  cannot  be  denied  to  them.  Almost  all  tribes 
believe  in  some  supreme  god,  without  always  worshipping 
him,  generally  a  heaven-  and  rain-god,  sometimes,  as  among 
the  Cameroons  and  in  Dahomey,  a  sun-god.  But  the  most 
widely  spread  worship  among  Negroes  and  Negroids,  from 
west  to  north-east  and  south  to  Loango,  is  that  of  the  moon, 
combined  with  a  great  veneration  for  the  cow. 

Among  the  Abantu  or  Kaffrarians  (Ama-Khosa,  Ama- 
Zulu,  Be-Chuana,  Ova-Herero),  which  form  the  third 
group,  fetichism  is  not  so  exuberant.  Their  religion  is 
rather  a  religion  of  spirits.  The  spirits  they  worship, 
not  sharply  distinguished  from  the  souls  of  the  departed 
ancestors  (Imi-shologu,  Barimi),  are  conjured  up  by  a 
caste  of  sorcerers  and  magicians,  Isintonga  (Isinyanga, 
Nyaka),  and  are  all  subordinate  to  a  ruling  spirit,  re- 
garded as  the  ancestor  of  the  race,  the  highest  lawgiver 
who  taught  them  their  religious  rites,  but  who  seems  to 
have  been  originally  a  moon-god  as  the  lord  of  heaven. 
The  four  tribes  give  him  different  names — the  Ghost  (Mu- 
kuro),  the  very  High  (Mo-limo),  the  Great-great  (Unku- 
lunkulu)  or  grandfather ;  but  that  the  Bantu  religions  are 
four  branches  of  one  and  the  same  faith  cannot  be  doubted. 
They  agree  in  many  respects  with  those  of  the  Negroes, 
but  differ  from  them  in  others,  especially  in  the  cardinal 
characteristic  of  the  latter,  their  fetichism.  Possibly  the 
difference  is  for  the  greater  part  due  to  the  influence  of 
•  the  Hottentots,  to  whom  the  country  now  inhabited  by 
the  Abantu  formerly  belonged,  and  who  seem  to  have  been 
at  the  time  of  the  invasion  more  civilized  than  the  latter. 

The  Khoi-Khoin  or  Hottentots,  who  are  not  black  but 
brown,  and  who  now  live  in  and  near  the  Cape  Colony, 

1  Even  Rob.  Hartmann,  Die  Nigritier,  Berlin,  1876,  pp.  192  sq., 
who  denies  the  existence  of  a  Hamitic  race,  and  considers  the 
Egyptians  as  Nubian  Cushites,  separated  from  the  others  in  early 
times,  ascribes  their  higher  civilization  to  their  intercourse  with 
Semitic  settlers. 


RELIGIONS 


363 


also  "have  a  supreme  deity,  called  Tsui-  or  Tsuni-Koab  (the 
wounded  knee)  by  the  colonial  Hottentots,  Heitsi-eibib 
(wooden  face)  by  the  Namaqua.  He,  too,  like  the  highest 
god  of  the  Bantu,  is  the  ancestor  of  the  race  and  the  chief 
of  souls  and  spirits.  But  the  primitive  myth  current 
about  him  shows  that  he  was  originally  a  moon-god,  con- 
tending with  the  spirit  of  darkness.  The  altars  intended 
for  sacrifices  to  this  god  are  now  called  his  graves,  and  the 
Bantu,  who  do  not  use  them,  call  them  chiefs'  graves. 
The  great  dili'erence  between  the  religions  of  the  Khoi- 
Khoin  and  the  other  Nigritians  is  the  total  absence  of 
animal  worship  and  of  fetichism  by  which  it  is  character- 
ized. Even  sorcery  and  magic  are  still  very  primitive 
among  them.  Therefore  they  must  be  considered  as  a 
distinct  family  among  the  African  tribes,  only  allied  to 
the  so-called  Bushmen  (Ba-tua,  Ba-roa,  or  Soaqua,  Sonqua), 
who  seem  to  be  a  degraded  race,  sunk  to  the  lowest  degree 
of  savagery,  but  Avho  likewise  worship  a  highest  god  and 
by  whom  likewise  fetichism  is  not  practised. 
•>r  The  Chinese  Religions,  and  their  delation  to  the  Mongolia 
ii!-  and  Ural-Altaic. — This  is  perhaps  the  most  knotty  point 
in  the  genealogical  classification  of  religious.  There  are 
ethnologists  (as  Oscar  Peschel)  who  bring  not  only  the 
Chinese,  with  their  nearest  relatives  the  Japanese  and 
Coreans, — all  Ural-Altaic  or  Turanian  nations, — but  also 
the  whole  Malay  race,  including  the  Polynesians  and 
Micronesians,  and  even  the  aboriginal  Americans,  from 
the  Eskimo  to  the  Patagonians  and  Fuegians,  under  one 
and  the  same  vast  Mongoloid  family.  There  is  indeed 
some  similarity  in  the  religious  customs  of  the  Americans 
and  of  the  so-called  Turanians ;  and  even  in  the  Polynesian 
religions  some  points  of  contact  with  those  of  the  former 
might  be  discovered.  Still,  such  conformities  are  but  few 
and  not  very  important,  and  do  not  justify  our  going  so 
far.1  Other  ethnologists,  like  Friedrich  Miiller,  do  not 
admit  the  Americans,  including  the  Hyperboreans  of 
North  America  and  the  north-west  of  Asia,  nor  the 
Malayans  and  the  Polynesians  as  members  of  the  Mongol- 
ian race.  This,  according  to  them,  only  comprises  the 
Chinese  and  their  relatives  in  Tibet  and  the  Transgangetic 
peninsula,  the  Japanese  and  Coreans,  and  the  Ural-Altaic 
or  Turanian  nations.  Now  Prof.  Max  Miiller  2  tries  to 
.  show  that  the  religions  of  all  those  groups  of  nations — let 
us  say,  of  this  Mongolian  race — are  also  bound  together  by 
a  close  relationship,  because  not  only  their  character  is 
fundamentally  the  same,  but  even  the  same  name  of  the 
highest  god,  Tien,  Tengre,  Tangara,  &c.,  is  met  with 
among  most  of  them.  Putting  aside  the  argument  taken 
from  the  common  name  of  the  supreme  deity,  which  is  all 
but  general  among  the  members  of  this  ethnical  family 
and  seems"  to  have  come  from  the  Chinese  to  some  of  the 
Mongolians,3  we  cannot  deny  the  fact  that  not  only  in  the 
Ural-Altaic  and  Japanese  but  also  in  the  highly-developed 
Chinese  religions  the  relation  between  the  divine  powers 
and  man  is  purely  patriarchal.  Just  as  the  chief  of  the 
horde — nay,  even  the  son  of  heaven,  the  Chinese  emperor — 
is  regarded  as  the  father  of  all  his  subjects,  whom  they 
are  bound  to  obey  and  to  venerate,  so  are  the  gods  to 
their  worshippers.  The  only  difference  is  that  the  Chinese 
heaven-god  Tien  is  an  emperor  like  his  earthly  representa- 
tive, ruling  over  the  other  spirits  of  heaven  and  earth  as 
does  the  latter  over  the  dukes  of  the  empire  and  their 
subjects,  while  the  Ural-Altaic  heaven-god  is  indeed  the 
most  powerful  being,  invoked  in  the  greatest  difficulties, 
when  he  only  is  able  to  save,  but  no  supreme  ruler,—  not 

1  They  are  enumerated  by  Waitz,  Anthropologie  der  Natur  milker, 
in.,  56  sq.  2  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Religion,  190  sq. 

3  The  resemblance  of  the  Mongolian  Tengre,  Tangara,  to  the 
Sumerian  or  Accadian  Dingiva  appears  to  be  equally  fortuitous  as  that 
of  the  Polynesian  Tangaroa  (Taaroa)  to  the  Melanesian  Ndengei. 


anything  more  than  a  primus  inter  pares,  every  .other  god 
being  absolute  lord  and  master  in  his  own  domain.  Now 
this  difference  is  not  one  of  character  but  of  progress,  and 
answers  fully  to  the  difference  of  the  political  institutions 
of  which  it  is  the  reflex. 

The  high  veneration  for  the  spirits  of  the  deceased 
fathers,  which  are  devoutly  worshipped  among  all  the 
members  of  this  religious  family,'  is  a  necessary  conse- 
quence of  its  patriarchal  type.  But  this  feature  is  not 
less  predominant  among  nations  belonging  to  wholly 
different  races.  Another  striking  characteristic  of  the 
Mongolic  religions  is  their  extensive  magic  and  sorcery 
(Shamanism).  One  might  say  that  even  the  gods  and  the 
heroes  of  epic  poetry  are  sorcerers,  and  that  what  their 
worshippers  value  above  all  are  the  magical  powers  they 
possess.  Shamans  are  most  highly  honoured.  One  of  the 
Chinese  religions,  and  in  fact  that  which  contains  the  most 
ancient  elements,  we  mean  Taoism,  involves  the  most 
implicit  belief  in  sorcery,  and  even  Buddhism,  as  it  was 
adopted  by  the  Mongols  and  the  Chinese,  has  degenerated 
to  all  but  pure  Shamanism. 

We  are  thus  fully  justified  in  assuming  a  Mongolian  or 
patriarchal  family  of  religions,  of  which  the  following  aru 
the  principal  subdivisions  :— 

1.  Chinese  Religions,  being  (a)  the  ANCIENT  NATIONAL  Chinese, 
religion,  now  superseded  partly  by  (6)  Confucianism  and 

(c)  Taoism,  partly,  though  only  several  centuries  later,  by 
Chinese  Buddhism.  What  the  ancient  national  religion 
was  can  only  be  gathered  from  its  survivals  in  the  still 
existing  faiths.  Confucianism  claims  to  be  a  restoration  of 
the  old  and  pure  institutions  of  the  fathers,  though  it  may 
just  as  well  be  said  to  be  a  thorough  reform,  and  Taoism 
is,  according  to  some  European  scholars,  the  original 
Chinese  religion  in  its  latest  development — we  should  say, 
in  its  most  miserable  degradation.  At  all  events,  in  some 
form  or  another,  it  is  much  older  than  Lao-tsze  (6th  century 
B.C.,  see  LAO-TSZE),  though  it  has  availed  itself  of  his 
mystical  treatise  Tao-te-King  as  a  sacred  book.  There 
may  be  some  truth  in  both  these  conflicting  assertions. 
Without  venturing  to  speculate  on  the  origin  of  the 
Chinese  nationality,  which  according  to  some  is  a  mixture 
of  autochthons  with  more  civilized  foreign  invaders  (the 
Hundred  Families),  nor  on  the  possibility  that  this  ethnic 
dualism  may  be  the  source  of  the  two  streams  of  religious 
development  in  China,  we  have  some  ground  to  hold  Con- 
fucius's  reform  as  the  renewal  of  a  much  older  reform 
(Chowkung's  or  even  earlier),  limited  to  the  learned  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  upper  classes, — Taoism  on  the  con- 
trary being  a  revival  of  the  ancient  popular  Chinese 
religion,  to  which  the  Tao-te-King  had  to  give  the  appear- 
ance of  a  philosophical  basis.  Chinese  Buddhism  does  not 
differ  much  from  the  latter,  and  is  now  equally  despised. 

2.  Japanese  Religions,  where  we  have  again  the  same  Japanese, 
triad,  nearly  parallel  to  the  Chinese  :  (a)  the  old  national 
religion  Kami-no-madsu  (the  way,  i.e.,  the  wprship,  of  the 
gods),    called   frequently   Sin-to    (Chinese    Shin-tao,    the 

way  or  worship  of  the  spirits),  with  the  mikado  as  its 
spiritual  head,  just  as  Chinese  Taoism  had  its  popes ;  (6) 
Confucianism,  imported  from  China  in  the  7th  century; 
and  (c)  Buddhism,  imported  from  Corea  and  nearly  ex- 
terminated in  the  6th  century,  but  reviving,  and  at  last, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century,  triumphant. 

3.  The  Finnic  branch  of  the  Ural-Altaic  religions,  all  recog-  Finnic, 
nizing  the  same  heaven-god  Num,  Yum,  Yummal,  Yubmel, 
Yumala,   as  supreme.     The  primitive  unity  of  this  sub- 
division has  been  demonstrated  by  Castren,  the  highest 
authority  upon  it.     By  far  the  best  known  of  this  family 

are  its  North-European  members,  the  religions  of  the 
Lapps,  the  Esthonians,  and  the  Finns,  but  the  two  last 
named  are  not  pure  specimens  of  Ural-Altaic  worship,  as 


364 


KELIGIONS 


they  borrowed  much  from  the  Germanic,  especially  from 
the  Scandinavian,  mythology. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  other  branches  of  the 
same  ethnic  family,  the  Mongolian  and  the  Turkish,  and 
the  other  members  of  the  same  branch,  e.g.,  the  Magyars, 
originally  did  not  differ  much  from  the  Finnic  in  religious 
ideas  and  customs.  Unfortunately  we  are  here  able  to 
judge  only  by  analogy,  partly  because  we  are  but  imper- 
fectly informed,  partly  because  most  of  these  nations  have 
long  been  converted  to  Buddhism,  Mohammedanism,  and 
Christianity.  Nor  do  we  know  in  how  far  the  Tibetans, 
Burmese,  Siamese,  and  other  peoples  nearly  related  to  the 
Chinese  had  originally  a  similar  worship,  as  all  of  them 
are  now  faithful  Buddhists. 

The  question  whether  the  religion  of  the  primitive 
inhabitants  of  Mesopotamia  (Sumer-Akkad)  has  any  genea- 
logical relation  to  that  of  the  Chinese  and  the  Ural-Altaic 
family,  as  some  scholars  now  try  to  prove,  is  not  yet  ripe 
for  solution. 

Iskimo.  The  Aboriginal  Religions  of  America. — The  religions  of 
the  Eskimo  (Esquimantsic,  Ashkimeg,  as  their  Redskin 
neighbours  call  them)  or  Innuyt  (i.e.,  "men,"  as  they  call 
themselves)  should  be  clearly  distinguished  from  those  of 
the  other  American  nations.  Though  some  of  their  cus- 
toms and  notions  resemble  those  of  the  latter,  there  are 
others,  and  it  would  seem  the  most  important,  which  are 
of  the  same  character  as  those  prevailing  among  the  Ural- 
Altaians  and  Mongols.  Now,  as  they  belong  ethnically 
to  the  Hyperborsean  or  Arctic  nations,  who  inhabit  not 
only  the  extreme  north  of  America  from  east  to  west,  but 
also  the  islands  between  the  two  continents  and  besides  a 
part  of  the  east  of  Siberia,  and  as  these  Hyperboreans  are 
physically  akin  to  the  Mongolian  race,  we  might  suppose 
that  the  American  elements  in  the  Eskimo  religion  have 
been  borrowed,  and  that  it  must  be  considered  to  have 
been  originally  a  member  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family.  Their 
division  of  the  world  of  spirits  into  those  of  the  sea,  the 
fire,  the  mountains,  and  the  winds,  with  Torngarsuk  (chief 
of  spirits),  the  heaven-god,  as  the  highest,  and  their  belief 
in  the  magical  power  of  their  sorcerers,  the  Angekoks,  do 
not  differ  from  those  which  characterize  the  Ural-Altaic 
religions.  At  any  rate  the  religion  of  the  Eskimo  is  the 
connecting  link  between  the  latter  and  those  of  the 
American  aborigines. 

•ther  That  all  the  other  religions  of  North  and  South  America 
imeri"  are  most  closely  allied  is  generally  admitted,  and  is  indeed 
eions  t)ey°nd  doubt.  Several  myths,  like  those  of  the  sun-hero, 
of  the  moon-goddess,  of  the  four  brothers  (the  winds),1  are 
found  in  their  characteristic  American  form  among  the 
most  distant  tribes  of  both  continents.  Some  religious 
customs,  scarcely  less  characteristic,  such  as  the  sweating 
bath,  intended  to  cause  a  state  of  ecstasy,  the  ball-play,  a 
kind  of  ordeal,  the  sorcery  by  means  of  the  rattle,  are  all 
but  generally  practised.  Fetichism  and  idolatry  are  much 
less  developed  among  the  Americans  than  among  other 
uncivilized  and  semi-civilized  races,  but  a  marked  tendency 
to  gloomy  rites  and  bloody  self-torture  is  common  to  all. 

The  American  family  of  religions  may  be  divided  into 
the  following  principal  groups.  (1)  Those  of  the  Redskins 
of  North  America,  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  all 
of  whom  have  in  common  the  worship  of  the  great  spirit 
(Kitche  Manitoo,  Michabo,  Wahcon[da],  Anduagni,  Oki) 
who  is  the  ghost  of  heaven,  the  highest  wind-god,  to  whom 
all  other  spirits,  even  those  of  the  sun  and  the  moon,  are 

1  The  myth  of  the  four  brothers  is  met  with,  e.g.,  among  the 
Algonkins,  the  Mayas  in  Yucatan,  the  Tzendal  branch  of  the  Maya 
race,  the  Tarascos  in  Michoacan  near  Mexico,  the  Aztecs,  by  whom  it 
is  combined  with  that  of  Quetzalcoatl,  all  through  North  America, 
and  even  in  Peru.  See  Brinton,  Hero  Myths,  pp.  44,  162,  216,  208, 
73,  179. 


subordinate;  also  the  hero  myth  which  has  sprung  from 
that  belief,  and  the  so-called  totetnism,  i.e.,  the  adoption 
of  a  special  tutelar  genius,  usually  in  animal  form,  for 
every  individual  family.  (2)  Those  of  the  Aztec  nuv, 
comprising  the  Aztecs,  Toltecs,  and  Nahuas,  who  are 
spread  from  Vancouver's  Island  to  Nicaragua.  To  this 
branch  belongs  that  strange  mixture  of  more  elevated 
religious  ideas  and  barbarous  rites  which  was  the  state 
worship  of  the  Mexican  empire,  but  which  for  its  purer 
elements  was  indebted  to  the  conquered  race,  the  Mayas 
(see  MKXICO).  (3)  Those  of  the  original  inhabitants  of  the 
Antilles,  to  whom  the  Mayas  in  Yucatan  and  the  Natchez 
between  the  Red  River  and  the  Mississippi  seem  to  be 
nearly  related.  They  are  one  of  the  most  gifted  nations 
of  the  American  race,  with  an  interesting  mythology  and 
highly-developed  religious  ideas,  but  perhaps  weakened  by 
civilization  and  therefore  unable  to  withstand  the  more 
warlike  barbarous  tribes,  by  whpm  they  were  finally  sub- 
jugated. (4)  That  of  the  Muyscas  (Chibchas)  in  South 
America.  Originally  they  seem  to  have  had  the  same 
worship  as  the  Nicaraguans.  At  least  the  Nicaraguan 
god  Fomagazdad,  the  creator  of  mankind  and  the  consort 
of  the  moon-goddess,  acts  a  part  in  the  principal  myth  of 
the  Muyscas,  under  the  name  of  Fomagata.  But  after 
the  latter  had  reached  a  higher  stage  of  civilization  they 
adored  the  god  Bochika  as  its  principal  founder,  and 
Fomagata  became  a  dethroned  tyrant,  while  the  moon- 
goddess,  now  an  evil  deity,  tried  to  spoil  the  beneficent 
works  of  Bochika.  There  is  some  likeness  between  their 
hierarchical  political  institutions  and  those  of  Peru,  but 
they  were  never  subjected  to  the  power  of  the  Incas,  and 
it  is  not  proved  that  they  borrowed  their  culture  from 
them.  (5)  Those  of  the  Quichua,  Aymara,  and  their  rela- 
tives, which  culminated  in  the  sun  worship  of  the  Incas  in 
Peru,  spread  by  them  throughout  all  the  countries  they 
conquered,  and  even  reformed  by  some  of  them  to  a  toler- 
ably pure  and  elevated  theism  (not  monotheism,  as  Dr 
Brinton  contends).  This  most  interesting  religion  ranks 
highest  among  all  the  faiths  of  the  two  American  con- 
tinents, those  of  Central  America  not  excepted.  This 
remarkable  progress  is  not  to  be  derived  from  the  influence 
of  foreign  settlers,  come  from  Asia  or  Europe,  but  is  here, 
as  well  as  in  Central  America,  the  product  of  natural 
growth  favoured  by  happy  circumstances.  (6)  Those  of 
the  warlike  Caribs  and  Arowaks,  extending  along  the 
whole  of  the  north  coast  of  South  America,  who  subjugated 
the  peaceful  inhabitants  of  the  Antilles  to  their  rule. 

The  Brazilian  aborigines  (Tupi-guaranos,  Indios  mansos), 
who  form  a  distinct  group,  and  the  south-eastern  and 
southern  tribes  (Abipones,  Pampas  Indians,  Puelches,  Pata- 
gonians  or  Tehuelches,  Fuegians)  have  religious  notions 
and  customs  quite  in  accordance  with  the  low  degree  of 
their  civilization.  Only  the  Araucanians,  though  ethnic- 
ally the  nearest  relations  of  the  Fuegians  and  perhaps  of 
the  Pampas  Indians,  have  a  somewhat  advanced  sun  wor- 
ship, but  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by  the  ascendency 
of  Peruvian  culture. 

Lastly  we  come   to  the  Malayo-Folynesian   family   of  Ma 
religions.      The    primitive   ethnic   unity   of   this   widely p 
scattered   race,    which,    including   the   Micronesians   and ne 
Melanesians,  inhabits  the  islands  in  th&  Great  Pacific  from 
Easter  Island  to  the  Pelew  Archipelago,  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  to  which  belong 
the  Hovas  of  Madagascar,  has  been  established  on  sufficient 
evidence.     As  to  their  primitive  religious  unity  we  cannot 
be  equally  positive.     The  original  religions  of  the  Malay 
archipelago   have   given   place   first  to   Brahmanism   and 
Buddhism,  afterwards  to  Mohammedanism,  lastly,  though 
only  sporadically,  to  Christianity.     But,  so  far  as  we  can 
judge    from   what   has   still   survived   of   the   aboriginal 


RELIGIONS 


365 


worship  and  from  what  is  known  of  the  religious  customs  j 
of  the  Malagasy,  especially  the  Hovas,  the  ancient  Malay 
religions  did  not  differ  more  from  the  Polynesian  and  the 
Melanesian  than  do  the  languages.  There  is  one  institu- 
tion especially  which,  though  in  principle  and  to  a  certain 
degree  common  to  all  ancient  religions,  has  nowhere 
acquired  that  importance  and  that  peculiar  development 
which  it  has  grown  to  in  the  Polynesian  and  the  Melane- 
sian religions,  the  institution  of  the  taboo,  a  kind  of 
interdict  laid  on  objects  and  persons,  by  which  they  are 
made  sacred  and  inviolable.  Now  this  taboo,  which  more 
than  anything  else  characterizes  these  religions,  was  equally 
important  in  Madagascar  before  Radama's  reforms,  and 
exists  also  among  the  Malays,  who  call  it  Pamali,  nay, 
even  among  the  Australians,  who  call  it  Kuinyunda, 
There  are  some  other  customs  common  to  all  these  nations, 
as  the  particular  worship  of  the  ghosts  of  the  deceased, 
some  ordeals,  &c.,  but  this  is  of  minor  importance.  The 
general  observance  of  such  a  peculiar  custom  as  the  taboo 
by  all  the  peoples  belonging  to  this  ethnic  family,  a  custom 
which  rules  their  whole  religion,  gives  us  the  right  to 
speak  of  a  Malayo-Polynesian  family  of  religions. 

One  distinct  branch  of  this  family  is  the  Polynesian, 
which  has  everywhere  the  same  myths  with  only  local 
varieties,  and  the  same  supreme  god  Taaroa  or  Tangaroa. 
The  Micronesian  branch  is  only  a  subdivision  of  it.  The 
Melanesian  branch  differs  more  widely,  but  agrees  in  the 
main,  and  the  supreme  god  Ndengei,  whether  original  or 
borrowed,  is  evidently  the  same  as  Tangaroa.  That  the 
Malay  branch  had  its  marked  subdivisions  is  very  pro- 
bable ;  but  the  settlement  of  this  difficult  question  must 
be  left  to  further  research.  According  to  ethnologists  the 
Australians  and  the  now  extinct  Tasmauians  do  not  belong 
to  the  Malayo-Polynesian  race.  But,  as  their  religion 
shows  the  same  prominent  characteristic  as  the  Polynesian, 
and,  moreover,  agrees  with  it  in  other  respects,  they  must 
be  in  some  way  related. 

These  are  the  rough  outlines  of  a  genealogical  classifica- 
tion of  religions.  It  embraces  nearly  all  of  them.  Only 
a  few  have  been  purposely  left  out,  such  as  those  of  the 
Dravidas,  the  Munda  tribes,  and  the  Sinhalese  in  India, 
partly  for  want  of  trustworthy  information,  partly  because 
it  is  not  yet  certain  what  belongs  to  them  originally  and 
what  is  due  to  Hindu  influence.  At  any  rate  we  cannot 
consider  their  religions  as  allied  to  the  Ural-Altaic.  We 
have  also  omitted  the  religions  of  the  Basque  or  Euscal- 
dunac,  of  which  nothing  particular  is  known,  and  for 
obvious  reasons  the  Etrurian.  Even  if  the  intricate  pro- 
blem with  regard  to  their  language  could  be  solved,  the 
Etrurians  borrowed  so  much  from  the  Greek  mythology 
that  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  state  what  kind  of 
religion  they  originally  had  as  their  own. 

Morphological  Classification  of  Religions. — In  his  Lec- 
Jta  tures  on  the  Science  of  Religion,  pp.  123-143,  Prof.  Max 
,,  Miiller,  who  has  done  so  much  to  raise  the  comparative 
study  of  religions  to  the  rank  of  a  science,  criticizes  the 
most  usual  modes  of  classification  applied  to  religions,  viz., 
(1)  that  into  true  and  false,  (2)  that  into  revealed  and 
natural,  (3)  that  into  national  and  individual,  (4)  that 
into  polytheistic,  dualistic,  and  monotheistic,  and  dis- 
misses each  and  all  of  them  as  useless  and  impracticable. 
In  this  we  cannot  but  acquiesce  in  his  opinion  and  hold  his 
judgment  as  decisive.  The  only  exception  we  should  like 
to  take  refers  to  the  classification  under  (3),  which,  as  we 
shall  presently  show,  contains  more  truth  than  he  is  dis- 
posed to  admit.  And  when  he  winds  up  his  argument 
with  the  assertion  that  "the  only  scientific  and  truly 
genetic  classification  of  religions  is  the  same  as  the  classi- 
fication of  languages  "  we  must  dissent  from  him.  Even 
the  genealogical  classification  of  religions  does  not  always 


run  parallel  with  that  of  languages.  Prof.  Max  Miiller 
says  that,  "  particularly  in  the  early  history  of  the  human 
intellect,  there  exists  the  most  intimate  relationship 
between  language,  religion,  and  nationality."  This  may 
be  generally  true ;  we  do  not  deny  it.  But  the  farther 
history  advances  the  more  does  religion  become  inde- 
pendent of  both  language  and  nationality.  And  that  the 
stage  of  development  a  religion  has  attained  to — the  one 
thing  to  be  considered  for  a  morphological  classification — 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  language  of  its  adherents  is 
obvious.  Now  for  a  really  scientific  study  of  religions 
such  a  morphological  classification  is  absolutely  necessary, 
and  therefore  we  are  bound  by  our  subject  to  give  our 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  truly  scientific  principle  on 
which  it  ought  to  be  based. 

First  let  us  see  what  has  already  been  done  to  this 
effect  by  one  of  the  best  authorities.  Prof.  W.  D. 
Whitney,  in  an  interesting  article  "On  the  so-called 
Science  of  Religion, "  declares  for  the  well-known  classifica- 
tion of  religions  into  national  and  individual.  To  quote 
his  own  words,  "  There  is  no  more  marked  distinction 
among  religions  than  the  one  we  are  called  upon  to  make 
between  a  race  religion — which,  like  a  language,  is  the 
collective  product  of  the  wisdom  of  a  community,  the 
unconscious  growth  of  generations — and  a  religion  pro- 
ceeding from  an  individual  founder,  who,  as  leading  repre- 
sentative of  the  better  insight  and  feeling  of  his  time  (for 
otherwise  he  would  meet  with  no  success),  makes  head 
against  formality  and  superstition,  and  recalls  his  fellow- 
men  to  sincere  and  intelligent  faith  in  a  new  body  of 
doctrines,  of  specially  moral  aspect,  to  which  he  himself 
gives  shape  and  coherence.  Of  this  origin  are  Zoroas- 
trianism,  Mohammedanism,  Buddhism ;  and,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  general  historian  of  religions,  what- 
ever difference  of  character  and  authority  he  may  recognize 
in  its  founder,  Christianity  belongs  in  the  same  class  with 
them,  as  being  an  individual  and  universal  religion,  grow- 
ing out  of  one  that  was  limited  to  a  race."  We  hardly 
think  that  this  reasoning  can  be  unconditionally  assented 
to.  At  any  rate  we  must  put  it  in  another  way.  Before 
the  American  scholar's  essay  was  published,  it  had  already 
been  judiciously  observed  by  Prof.  Max  Miiller  that, 
though  neither  a  Brahman,  nor  a  Greek,  nor  a  Roman 
could  name  the  name  of  the  founder  of  his  religion,  we 
discover  even  there  the  influence  of  individual  minds  or 
schools  or  climates.  So  he  thinks  that  this  classification 
is  useful  for  certain  purposes,  but  fails  as  soon  as  we 
attempt  to  apply  it  in  a  more  scientific  spirit.  This  is 
partially  true.  What  is  the  wisdom  of  a  community  but 
the  wisdom  of  its  more  enlightened  members,  that  is,  of 
individuals'?  Religions  of  which  the  origin  and  history 
lies  in  the  dark  may  be  called  the  unconscious  growth  of 
generations,  but  in  a  figurative  sense  only.  If  they  have 
a  mythology  and  a  ritual  of  their  own,  it  may  be  the 
result  of  something  like  natural  selection  ;  but  every  myth 
meant  to  explain  natural  phenomena,  every  rite  meant  to 
still  the  wrath  or  to  win  the  favour  of  the  higher  powers 
and  accepted  as  an  integral  part  of  their  faith  and  worship, 
perhaps  first  by  some  more  advanced  members  of  a  tribe 
or  nation  or  community  only,  afterwards  by  all  of  them, 
was  originally  the  creation  of  one  single  human  mind. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  founders  of  higher  religions  are 
themselves  "the  leading  representatives  of  the  better 
insight  and  feeling  of  their  time,"  then  here  too  there  is 
only  growth  ;  they  are  at  the  head  of  their  contemporaries, 
because  the  better  insight  and  feeling  of  the  latter  culmin- 
ate_  in  them,  and  because  they  are  able  to  lend  them  a 
shape  which  makes  the  more  advanced  ideas  and  senti- 
ments agreeable  to  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  many ; 
but  they  meet  with  success  only  when  that  which  they 


366 


RELIGIONS 


preach  lies  hidden  and  lives  unspoken  in  the  minds  and 
hearts  of  their  generation.  It  is  clear  then,  that  on  both 
sides  of  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two  categories 
of  religions  there  are  individuals  at  work,  and  that  on 
both  sides  there  is  growth.  The  only  remaining  difference 
is,  that  on  this  side  there  is  consciousness,  on  that  side 
there  is  not.  But  this  too  cannot  serve  us.  Much  in  the 
growth  of  the  so-called  race  religions  was  unconscious  and 
therefore  anonymous  and  forgotten ;  much,  however,  was 
not  so.  We  know  of  many  changes  for  better  or  worse  in 
national  religions,  either  reforms  or  reactions,  made  with 
full  consciousness,  because  intentionally ;  and  we  know  the 
names  of  the  kings  or  tyrants  or  other  individuals  who 
made  them.  Who  knows  if  the  same  was  not  the  case 
when  these  religions  were  born — if  what  now  seems  to  be 
the  collective  product  of  the  wisdom  of  the  community 
was  not  simply  the  product  of  a  tyrant's,  a  mighty  chief- 
tain's bon  plaisir,  or  of  a  renowned  magician's  influence  1 
Finally,  if  by  "  founder  of  a  religion  "  is  meant  he  whom 
the  professors  of  that  religion  revere  as  a  heaven-born 
messenger  of  the  truth  or  as  the  greatest  of  prophets,  or 
adore  as  the  son  of  God,  the  incarnation  of  the  highest, 
— then  what  Prof.  Whitney  says  they  all  did,  namely,  "  give 
shape  and  coherence  to  a  body  of  doctrines  of  specially 
moral  aspect,"  does  not  apply  to  the  most  of  them.  The 
new  body  of  doctrines  in  its  coherence  was  never  shaped 
by  them,  but  by  the  leaders  of  the  community  to  which 
their  preaching  gave  rise.  We  call  them  founders  of  a 
new  religion,  not  because  they  always  intended  to  found 
one,  but  because,  perhaps  involuntarily,  they  laid  the 
foundations  of  it  in  the  new  and  pregnant  principles  they 
revealed  to  the  world  by  their  word  and  life. 

Still,  whatever  we  may  have  to  criticize  in  Prof. 
Whitney's  proposition,  there  is  indeed  no  more  marked 
distinction  among  religions  than  the  one  he  makes  between 
what  he  calls  race  religions  and  religions  proceeding  from 
an  individual  founder,  and  no  other  than  this  should  be 
the  basis  of  a  morphological  classification.  For  between 
those  two  great  categories  or  orders  to  one  or  other  of 
which  all  known  religions  belong  and  every  religion  must 
belong  there  is  a  difference  not  only  of  degree  but  of  an 
essential  kind,  a  difference  of  principle,  the  one  great  all- 
important  difference.  The  principle  of  the  one  category 
is  nature,  that  of  the  other  ethics. 

In  the  nature  religions  the  supreme  gods  are  the  mighty 
powers  of  nature,  be  they  demons,  spirits,  or  man-like 
beings,  and  ever  so  highly  exalted.  There  are  great  mutual 
differences  between  these  religions,  though  they  belong  to 
the  same  order, — e.g.,  a  great  difference  between  the 
Finnic  Ukko  and  the  Norse  Odin,  between  the  thunder- 
god  of  the  Brazilian  aborigines  and  the  Vedic  Indra 
or  the  Olympian  Zeus,  but  it  is  only  a  difference  of 
degree;  fundamentally  they  are  the  same.  Nobody 
denies  that  one  nature  religion  stands  on  a  much  higher 
level  than  another.  Not  only  are  they  either  uncon- 
sciously and  by  the  drift  of  public  opinion  or  consciously 
and  intentionally  altered,  enriched,  combined  with  foreign 
modes  of  worship,  but  in  some  of  them  a  constant  and 
remarkable  progress  is  also  to  be  noticed.  Gods  are  more 
and  more  anthropomorphized,  rites  humanized.  For  they 
are  not  by  any  means  inaccessible  to  the  influence  of  moral 
progress.  From  an  early  period  moral  ideas  are  com- 
bined with  religious  doctrines,  and  the  old  mythology  is 
modified  by  them.  Ethical  attributes  are  ascribed  to  the 
gods,  especially  to  the  highest.  Nay,  ethical  as  well  as 
intellectual  abstractions  are  personified  and  worshipped  as 
divine  beings.  But  as  a  rule  this  happens  only  in  the  most 
advanced  stages  of  nature  worship ;  and,  moreover,  these 
ethical  personifications  are  simply  incorporated  in  the  old 
system,  and  not  only  not  distinguished  from  the  nature 


f  gods,  but  even  subordinated  to  them.  If  some  individuals — 
philosophers,  sages,  prophets — have  risen  to  the  conscious- 
ness that  the  moral  ought  to  have  predominance  over  the 
natural,  yet  nature  religion,  though  strongly  mixed  with 
ethical  elements,  does  not  recognize  this,  and  those  who 
are  called  to  represent  and  defend  it  abhor  such  inde- 
pendent thinkers  and  persecute  them  as  dangerous  enemies 
to  the  faith  of 'the  fathers.  Nature  religions  cannot  do 
otherwise,  at  least  if  they  do  not  choose  to  die  at  once. 
They  can  for  a  long  time  bear  the  introduction — let  us  say, 
infiltration — of  moral,  as  well  as  aesthetic,  scientific,  and 
philosophical  notions  into  their  mythology;  they  suffer  from 
it,  indeed,  and  this  is  instinctively  felt  by  the  headstrong 
defenders  of  the  pure  old  tradition ;  but  they  are  unable 
to  shut  them  out,  and  if  they  did  so  they  would  be  left 
behind  and  lose  their  hold  on  the  minds  and  the  hearts  of 
the  leading  classes  among  more  civilized  nations.  So  they 
are  obliged  to  let  them  in,  were  it  only  for  self-preservation. 
But  the  reform  must  not  exceed  certain  limits.  If  the 
ethical  elements  acquire  the  upper  hand,  so  that  they 
become  the  predominating  principle,  then  the  old  forms 
break  in  twain  by  the  too  heavy  burden  of  new  ideas,  and 
the  old  rites  become  obsolete  as  being  useless.  If  the 
majority  has  at  last  outgrown  the  traditional  worship  and 
mythology — if  it  comes  to  the  conclusion,  which  was 
already  the  conviction  of  philosophers,  that  the  old  numina 
are  only  nomina,  Zeus,  Hera,  Hestia  only  names  for  the 
sky,  the  aether,  the  fire,1  to  which  moral  attributes  can  be 
ascribed  only  in  a  tropical  sense — then  nature  religion 
inevitably  dies  of  inanition.  No  political  power,  no 
mighty  priesthood,  no  poetry,  no  mysticism  like  that  of 
the  Neo-Platonists,  no  romanticism  like  that  of  Julian,  not 
even  an  attempt  to  imitate  the  organization  and  the  rites 
of  an  ethical  religion,  can  save  it  any  longer  from  utter 
decay. 

When  this  culminating  point  has  been  reached,  the  way 
is  prepared  for  the  preaching  of  an  ethical  religious 
doctrine.  Ethical  religions  do  not  exclude  the  old 
naturistic  elements  altogether,  but  subordinate  them  to 
the  ethical  principle  and  lend  them  something  of  an  ethical 
tinge,  that  they  may  be  more  in  accordance  with  the  now 
prevailing  system.  The  old  nature-gods,  at  least  the  most 
important  among  them,  survive,  and,  though  first  neglected 
and  thrown  into  the  background  by  the  new  ideal  or 
abstract  divine  beings,  come  again  to  the  front,  but  only  as 
serving  spirits,  ministers,  angels  (dyyeAoi,  yazatas,  <fcc),  or 
even  saints,  as  all  nature  now  stands  under  the  control  of 
one  supernatural  ruler  in  whom  the  supremacy  of  moral 

|  law  is  personified.  Now  the  prominent  characteristics  of 
ethical  religions  are  just  the  reverse  of  that  which 
characterizes  the  naturistic.  Nature  religions  are  polydse- 
monistic  or  polytheistic ;  under  favourable  circumstances 
they  may  rise  at  best  to  monolatry.  Ethical  religions,  on 
the  other  hand,  though  not  all  of  them  strictly  monotheistic 
or  pantheistic,  all  tend  to  monotheism  and  are  at  least 
monarchic.  In  nature  religions,  though  they  are  not 
exempt  from  the  control  of  individuals,  and  even  have  in 
part  received  from  them  their  particular  shape  or  been 
reformed  by  them,  the  ethical  or  national  aspect  prevails 
over  the  individual,  spontaneous  growth  over  conscious 
speculation,  imagination  over  reflexion.  Ethical  religions 
on  the  contrary  are  communities  brought  together,  not 
by  the  common  belief  in  national  traditions,  but  by  the 
common  belief  in  a  doctrine  of  salvation,  and  organized 
with  the  aim  of  maintaining,  fostering,  propagating,  and 

1  This  conclusion  as  such  is  utterly  false.  The  gods  are  no  mere 
nomina.  They  are  not  the  natural  phenomena  themselves,  but 
spirits,  lords,  ruling  them.  The  fact  is  that  their  worshippers  at  last 
become  conscious  of  the  naturistic  basis  of  their  religion  and  then 
reject  it. 


RELIGIONS 


367 


practising  that  doctrine.  So  they  are  founded  by  indi- 
viduals— founded,  not  instituted  or  organized,  for  that  as 
a  rule  is  done  by  the  generation  which  follows  that  of  the 
founder — and  not  always  by  one  single  person,  but  in 
some  cases  by  a  body  of  priests  or  teachers.  This  funda- 
mental doctrine  and  the  system  based  on  it  are  considered 
by  the  adherents  to  be  a  divine  revelation,  and  he  who 
first  revealed  it,  or  is  thought  to  have  revealed  it,  is  con- 
sidered as  an  inspired  prophet  or  a  son  of  God.  Nay,  even 
if  the  primitive  teaching  had  an  atheistic  tendency,  as  in 
the  case  of  Buddhism,  it  is  this  real  or  mythical  teacher 
whom  they  not  only  revere,  but  worship  as  their  supreme 
deity. 

We  now  come  to  the  subdivisions  of  each  of  the  two 
principal  categories.  And  here  we  cannot  silently  pass  by 
the  classification  of  the  least  advanced  religions  proposed 
by  Prof.  Pfleiderer  (Reliyionsphilosophie  auf  geschichtlicher 
Grundlage,  2d  ed.  1884,  vol.  ii.),  which  supersedes  the 
complete  classification  of  religions  given  by  him  in  an 
earlier  work  (Die,  Religion,  ihr  Wesen  und  Hire  Geschtchte). 
The  latter  was  based  on  his  conception  of  religion  as  the 
fusion  of  dependence  and  liberty,  but  has  now  been  aban- 
doned by  the  author. 

According  to  Pfleiderer  the  original  religion  must  have 
been  a  kind  of  indistinct,  chaotic  naturism,  being  an 
adoration  of  the  natural  phenomena  as  living  powers; 
and,  as  primitive  man  cannot  have  had  consciousness  of 
his  superiority  over  the  animals,  nor  of  his  personality  and 
his  spiritual  nature,  he  could  not  conceive  these  divine 
powers  as  personal,  or  spiritual,  or  anthropomorphic,  but 
only  as  living  beings. 

Then  from  this  primitive  naturism  sprang  : — (1)  anthro- 
pomorphic polytheism,  which  is  decidedly  an  advance  on 
mythopoeic  naturism,  as  it  brings  the  personal  gods  into 
relation  with  the  moral  life  of  man,  but  at  the  same  time 
has  its  drawback  since  it  attributes  all  human  passions, 
faults,  and  sins  to  the  gods;  (2)  spiritism  (animism], 
combined  with  a  primitive  idolatry,  fetichism,  each  of 
them  not  an  advance  but  rather  a  depravation  of  religion, 
caused  by  the  decadence  of  civilization,  which  inevitably 
followed  the  dispersion  and  isolation  of  tribes  previously 
united;  (3)  henotheism,  not  the  henotheism  of  Max 
Miiller,  or  of  Hartmann,  or  of  Asmus,  but  a  practical 
henotheism,  i.e.,  the  adoration  of  one  God  above  others  as 
the  specific  tribal  god  or  as  the  lord  over  a  particular 
people,  a  national  or  relative  monotheism,  like  that  of  the 
ancient  Israelites,  the  worship  of  an  absolute  sovereign 
who  exacts  passive  obedience.  This  practical  monotheism 
is  totally  different  from  the  theoretical  monotheism,  to 
which  the  Aryans,  with  their  monistic  speculative  idea 
of  the  godhead,  are  much  nearer. 

Passing  by  the  primitive  naturism,  which  is  only  a 
matter  of  speculation,  we  are  bound  to  admit  the  real  exist- 
ence of  the  other  three  classes  specified  by  Pfleiderer.  Only 
the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged  must  be  changed. 
For,  if  spiritism  or  animism  sprang  from  a  primitive  not 
yet  animistic  naturism,  at  the  same  time  with,  though 
under  different  circumstances  from,  anthropomorphic  poly- 
theism and  henotheism,  how  then  shall  we  explain  so 
many  traces  and  remains  of  a  previous  animistic  belief  in 
each  of  the  latter  religious  developments  1  They  too  must 
have  gone  through  an  animistic  stage.  And,  on  the  other 
hand,  some  traces  even  of  anthropomorphic  mythology  are 
not  totally  wanting  in  the  animistic  religions  of  uncivilized 
tribes  and  barbarous  nations, — though,  of  course,  in  this 
mythology  manlike  beings  still  stand  on  the  same  level 
as,  if  not  much  lower  than,  those  having  the  shape  of 
animals. 

The  different  stages  of  religious  development  have  been 
characterized  by  C.  P.  Tiele  (Outlines  of  the  History  of 


Religion,  §  3)  as  follows  : — (a)  a  period  in  which  animism 
generally  prevailed,  still  represented  by  the  so-called  nature 
religions  (in  the  narrower  sense),  or  rather  by  the  polydse- 
monistic  magical  tribal  religions ;  (b)  polytheistic  national 
religions  resting  on  a  traditional  doctrine  ;  (c)  nomistic  (or, 
as  Prof.  Carlo  Puini  proposes  to  call  them,  nomothetic) 
religions,  or  religious  communities  founded  on  a  law  or 
sacred  writing  and  subduing  polytheism  more  or  less  com- 
pletely by  pantheism  or  monotheism ;  (d)  universal  or 
world-religions,  which  'start  from  principles  and  maxims. 
Though  in  general  maintaining  this  division,  at  least  for 
practical  use,  if  we  wish  to  draw  up  a  morphological  classi- 
fication of  religions,  we  shall  have  to  modify  and  to  com- 
plete it,  and  to  arrange  the  different  stages  under  the  two 
principal  categories  of  nature  religions  and  ethical  religions. 

Nature  Religions. — 1.  To  the  philosophy  of  religion  we  Nature 
leave  the  solution  of  the  difficult  problem, — What  may  religions, 
have  been  the  state  of  religion  before  the  oldest  religion 
known  to  us  sprang  into  being,  and  even  before  that 
animistic  stage  of  development  which  we  know  only  by 
its  survivals  in  the  higher  and  its  ruins  in  the  still 
existing  lower  religions  ?  Certain  it  is  that  the  oldest 
religions  must  have  contained  the  germs  of  all  the  later 
growth,  and,  though  perhaps  more  thoroughly  naturistic 
than  the  most  naturistic  now  known,  must  have  shown 
some  faint  traces  at  least  of  awakening  moral  feelings. 
Man,  we  think,  in  that  primitive  stage,  must  have  regarded 
the  natural  phenomena  on  which  his  life  and  welfare 
depend  as  living  beings,  endowed  with  superhuman 
magical  power ;  and  his  imagination,  as  yet  uncontrolled 
by  observation  and  reasoning,  must  frequently  have  given 
them  the  shape  of  frightful  animals,  monsters,  portentous 
mythical  beings,  some  of  which  still  survive  in  the  later 
mythologies.  Perhaps  the  best  name  for  this  first  stage  of 
religious  development  might  be  the  "polyzoic"  stage. 

2.  The  following  naturistic  stages  are  to  be  classified 
under  three  distinct  heads  : — (a)  polydsemonistic  magical 
religions  under   the   influence  of   animism;    (b)  purified 
magical  religions,  in   which  animistic  ideas  still   play  a 
prominent  part,  but  which  have  grown  up  to  a  therian- 
thropic  polytheism ;  (c)  religions  in  which  the  powers  of 
nature  are  worshipped  as  manlike  though  superhuman  and 
semi-ethical  beings,  or  anthropomorphic  polytheism. 

3.  Animism,  which  exercises  a  prominent  influence  on  Animism 
the  religions  of  the  first  stage  (a)  mentioned  above,  is  a 
system  by  which  man,  having  become  conscious  of  the 
superiority  of  the  spirit  over  the  body  and  of  its  relative 
independence,    tries   to   account   for   the   phenomena    of 
nature,    which    he,    not   having    the    slightest   scientific 
knowledge   either   of   nature   or   of   mind,    is   unable  to 
explain  otherwise.     It  is  not  itself  a  religion,  but  a  sort 

of  primitive  philosophy,  which  not  only  controls  religion, 
but  rules  the  whole  life  of  man  in  the  childhood  of  the 
world.  All  things  living  and  moving,  or  startling  him  by 
something  strange  and  extraordinary,  and  of  which  he 
does  not  know  the  natural  causes,  he  ascribes  to  the 
working  of  mighty  spirits,  moving  freely  through  earth 
and  air,  and,  now  of  their  own  accord  now  under  com- 
pulsion, taking  up  their  abode  either  temporarily  or 
permanently  in  some  living  or  some  lifeless  object.  Only 
the  powerful  among  these  spirits,  "those  on  which  man 
feels  himself  dependent,  and  before  which  he  stands  in 
awe,  acquire  the  rank  of  divine  beings,"  and  either  as 
invisible  or  as  embodied  spirits  become  objects  of  worship 
(spiritism  and  fetichism).  As  the  principal  characteristics 
of  those  religions  we  have  to  consider — (1)  a  confused 
and  indeterminate  polydaemonistic  mythology,  though 
some  spirits,  especially  those  directing  heavenly  pheno- 
mena, are  held  to  be  more  powerful  than  the  others,  and 
the  supreme  spirit  of  heaven  is  generally  the  mightiest  of 


368 


RELIGIONS 


all ;  (2)  au  implicit  belief  in  the  power  of  magic,  which 
accounts  for  the  high  veneration  in  which  sorcerers  and 
fetich-priests  are  held ;  (3)  the  predomination  of  fear  over 
all  other  feelings,  and  the  performance  of  religious  acts 
mostly  for  selfish  ends.  For  a  somewhat  more  copious 
exposition  of  the  character  and  the  development  of 
religions  under  the  control  of  animism  we  must  refer  to 
Outlines  of  the  History  of  Religion,  §§  7-17,  and  the  works 
there  cited. 

'heri-  4.  Purified  magical  religions  (b)  are  the  connecting  link 

nthropic  between  the  polydsemonistic  magic  religions  (a)  and  the 
anthropomorphic  polytheistic  (c),  and  ought  to  be  distin- 
guished from  each.  The  gods,  though  sometimes  repre- 
sented in  a  human  form,  more  frequently  in  that  of  an 
animal,  are  really  spiritual  beings,  embodying  themselves 
in  all  kinds  of  things,  but  principally  in  animals.  Most 
images  of  the  gods  are  either  human  bodies  with  heads  of 
animals  or  the  bodies  of  animals  with  human  heads.  It 
is  therefore  we  call  these  religions  therianthropic.  The 
worship  of  animals  is  one  of  the  principal  characteristics 
of  most  of  them.  In  a  subsequent  stage,  though  surviving 
sporadically,  it  is  much  more  restricted.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  widespread  worship  paid  to  the  souls  of  the 
departed,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  constituent 
elements  of  the  religions  in  this  stage  of  development, 
though  it  survives  in  the  next  stage  as  well.  It  is 
frequently  combined,  as,  e.g.,  in  Egypt,  with  an  elaborate 
eschatology.  Magic  and  sorcery,  though  forbidden  and  even 
entailing  prosecution  if  exercised  by  private  sorcerers,  are 
still  held  in  high  esteem  when  in  the  hands  of  the  lawful 
priests.  They  are  now  organized  as  a  traditional  ritual 
and  gradually  developed  into  a  boundless  mysticism. 
Some  of  the  ancient  nature  myths  have  already  become 
legends  and  supposed  primeval  history.  As  might  be 
expected,  some  of  the  religions  belonging  to  the  therian- 
thropic stage  stand  nearer  to  the  primitive  animism, 
whilst  others  draw  very  nigh  to  the  anthropomorphic 
stage;  and  so  it  would  seem  that  we  ought  to  make  a 
distinction  between  such  therianthropic  religions  as  belong 
to  federations  and  such  as  belong  to  united  empires — let 
us  say,  the  unorganized  and  the  organized.  In  the  latter 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  monotheism  and  a  kind  of 
theocracy,  the  king  being  regarded  as  the  living  representa- 
tive of  the  supreme  deity,  both  of  which  characteristics  are 
not  so  prominent  in  the  former. 

nthro-  5.  In  the  anthropomorphic  polytheism  of  the  highest 
amor-  nature  religions  (c)  there  are,  as  in  all  subsequent  stages, 
>oly"  many  survivals  of  what  was  common  in  the  preceding, 
but  so  far  as  this  could  be  done  they  have  been  adapted 
to  the  new  system  and  disguised  under  new  names  or 
by  means  of  new  explanations.  We  call  this  polytheism 
anthropomorphic  because  the  gods  are  now  all  of  them 
superhuman  but  manlike  beings,  lords  over  the  powers  of 
nature  and  reigning  over  its  departments,  workers  of  good 
and  of  evil.  As  manlike  beings  they  show  more  ethical 
tendencies  and  attributes  than  those  of  the  previous 
periods.  But,  being  indeed  the  old  nature  gods  themselves, 
only  remodelled  and  humanized,  and  their  myths  being 
originally  fantastic  and  even  animistic  descriptions  of 
natural  phenomena,  represented  as  wars  and  wooings, 
quarrels  and  revelries,  robberies  and  tricks  of  the  giant 
powers  of  nature,  their  mythology  is  full  of  disgusting 
narratives,  and  they  are  frequently  represented  as  indulging 
the  lowest  passions  and  performing  the  most  degrading 
acts.  Pious  poets  and  grave  philosophers  felt  shocked  by 
such  myths,  and  either  tried  to  mend  them  or  boldly 
denied  them ;  but  they  constituted  nevertheless  the  faith 
of  the  majority  till  the  fall  of  nature  religion.  Only, 
though  essentially  nature  myths  and  still  felt  to  be  so,  they 
are  now  no  longer  considered  as  an  explanation  of  ever- 


returning  phenomena,  but,  in  accordance  with  the  manlike 
character  of  the  gods,  as  a  kind  of  divine  history,  nay, 
are  worked  out  into  what  may  be  called  an  imposing  epic, 
beginning  with  the  origin  of  life  and  ending  only  with 
the  fall  of  the  present  cosmic  economy.  The  gods  them- 
selves are  no  longer  represented  as  animals  or  trees  or 
stones;  these  have  now  become  their  symbols  and  attributes, 
and  are  only  looked  upon  as  being  sacred  to  them.  Of 
the  power  they  possessed,  in  their  old  quality  of  spirits,  to 
assume  all  shapes  at  will  the  myths  of  their  metamorphoses 
still  bear  witness,  myths  now  told  by  elegant  poets  for  the 
amusement  of  their  readers,  but  despised  by  serious  philo- 
sophers. The  real  therianthropic  beings  of  the  old  mytho- 
logy, monsters  like  centaurs,  harpies,  fauns,  satyrs,  and 
others  which  could  not  be  banished  from  ancient  lore,  now 
represent  a  lower  order  and  are  suffered  to  act  only  as 
followers  or  ministers  or  even  as  enemies,  of  the  gods. 
Not  one  of  the  religions  in  the  polytheistic  stage  was  able 
to  elevate  itself  to  the  purely  ethical  standpoint ;  but,  as 
moral  consciousness  went  on  increasing,  deeper  and  more 
ethical  religious  ideas  gathered  round  the  persons  of  the 
most  humane  gods,  the  beloved  son  or  daughter  of  the 
supreme  deity,  and  gave  rise  to  purer  modes  of  worship 
which  seemed  to  be  forebodings  of  a  time  to  come. 

Ethical  Religions. — 1.  With  regard  to  the  ethical  religions 
the  question  has  been  mooted — and  a  rather  puzzling 
question  it  is — What  right  have  we  to  divide  them  into 
nomistic  or  nomothetic  communities,  founded  on  a  law  or 
Holy  Scripture,  and  universal  or  world  religions,  Avhich 
start  from  principles  and  maxims,  the  latter  being  only 
three — Buddhism,  Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism? 
The  division  has  been  adopted,  among  others  by  Prof. 
Kuenen,  in  his  Hibbert  Lectures,  though  with  the  import- 
ant restriction  that  Islam,  as  being  essentially  par- 
ticularistic, ought  to  be  excluded  from  the  class  of  univer- 
salistic  religions.  In  an  interesting  paper  (in  the  Leyden 
Theol.  Tijdschrift,  1885,  No.  1)  Prof.  Rauwenhoff  rejects 
the  whole  class  and  particularly  disapproves  of  the  term 
"  world  religions,"  for  which  he  substitutes  that  of 
"  world  churches. "  The  question  deserves  to  be  discussed 
thoroughly,  but  for  that  this  is  not  the  place.  Here  we 
can  only  state  the  results  to  which  a  conscientious  review 
of  our  own  opinion  and  an  impartial  consideration  of  our 
opponents'  arguments  have  led  us. 

2.  We  now  think  that  the  term  "  world  religions  "  must 
be  sacrificed,  though  indeed  "world  churches"  would  do 
no  better,  perhaps  even  worse.     Without  serving  longer  to 
determine   the   character   of   certain   religions,  the   term 
"  world  religions  "  might  still  be  retained  for  practical  use, 
to  distinguish  the  three  religions  which  have  found  their 
way  to  different  races  and  peoples  and  all  of  which  profess 
the  intention  to  conquer  the  world,  from  such  communities 
as  are  generally  limited  to  a  single  race  or  nation,  and, 
where  they  have  extended  farther,  have  done  so  only  in 
the  train  of,  and  in  connexion  with,  a  superior  civilization. 
Strictly  speaking,  there  can  be  no  more  than  one  universal 
or  world  religion,  and  if  one  of  the  existing  religions  is  so 
potentially  it  has  not  yet  reached  its  goal.      This   is  a 
matter  of  belief  which  lies  beyond  the  limits  of  scientific 
classification. 

3.  Still  there  is  a  real  difference  between  two  at  least 
of  the  three  above  named,  which  are  still  contending  with 
one  another  for  supremacy  over  the  nations  of  the  globe, 
and  the  other  religious  communities  which  no  longer  try 
to  make  proselytes — between  Buddhism  and  Christianity 
on  the  one  hand,  and  Confucianism,  Brahmanism,  Jainism, 
Mazdaism,  and  Judaism  on  the  other.    And  this  difference, 
which  ought  to  be  maintained,  is  indeed  one  of  principle, 
not  of  fact  only.     If  the  latter,  after  having  been  adopted 
by  a  nation,  have  remained  stationary  for  centuries  and 


•.if 


RELIGIONS 


369 


even  are  continuously  fading  away,  while  the  former  now 
embrace  many  millions  of  adherents  belonging  to  various 
nations  and  races,  and  ever  go  on  increasing  more  or  less 
rapidly,  this  cannot  be  due  to  some  fortuitous  or  external 
circumstances  only,  but  must  have  its  principal  cause  in 
the  very  nature  of  each  sort  of  religions. 

4.  When  we  call  the  one  particularistic  the  others 
universalistic  (not  universal),  the  one  national  the  other 
human,  when  we  describe  the  one  as  bound  to  special 
doctrines  and  rites,  the  others,  though  equally  embodying 
themselves  in  doctrines  and  rites  wherever  they  were 
organized  into  churches  or  state  religions,  as  nevertheless 
really  free  from  them  and  starting  from  principles  and 
maxims,  we  possibly  use  words  apt  to  be  misunderstood 
and  perhaps  wanting  some  qualification,  but  the  meaning 
of  them  on  the  whole  is  sufficiently  clear.  In  calling 
nomistic  religions,  like  Judaism  and  Mazdaism,  particular- 
istic or  national,  we  do  not  mean  to  say  that  they  are 
exclusive  in  character  and  that  they  have  not  tried  to 
spread  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  race  and  the  nation 
to  which  they  belonged  originally.  They  have  done  so 
indeed ;  they  hoped  to  extend  their  dominion,  but  they 
succeeded  only  where  they  could  impose  the  nationality 
or  the  civilization  with  which  they  had  grown  together, 
like  the  Chinese  in  Corea  and  Japan,  or  the  Brahmans  in 
several  parts  of  India  ;  and  it  is  known  that  the  proselytes  of 
Judaism  always  ranked  below  the  born  sons  of  Abraham. 

Now  Buddhism,  Islam,  and  Christianity  were  neither 
national  nor  parh'cularistic.  All  of  them  were  the  repre- 
sentatives of  ideas  surpassing  so  to  say  the  national 
horizon ;  all  of  them  had  in  view,  not  the  special  religious 
wants  of  the  nation,  but  more  general  aspirations  of  the 
human  heart  and  mind.  Two  of  them,  therefore,  were 
rejected,  after  a  shorter  or  longer  struggle,  by  the  peoples 
to  which  their  founders  belonged  by  birth ;  and  it  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  Mohammedanism,  though  founded 
by  an  Arab,  took  its  fundamental  ideas  from  Judaism  and 
Christianity,  and  that  not  the  Arabs,  but  foreign  nations, 
especially  the  Persians,  raised  it  to  the  high  position 
which  it  would  not  have  occupied  in  the  world  without 
them.  The  national  form  of  the  Buddhistic  idea  was 
Jainism,  that  of  the  Christian  idea  Ebionitism,  and 
perhaps  the  Wahhabites  may  be  considered  as  the  national 
reformers  of  Mohammedanism  ;  and  it  is  only  natural  that 
none  of  these  sects  found  adherents  except  among  the 
peoples  in  the  midst  of  which  they  arose.  Nor  were 
Buddhism,  Islam,  and  Christianity  particularistic.  Bud- 
dhism "  looks  for  the  man  ;  the  miseries  of  existence  beset 
all  alike,  and  its  law  is  a  law  of  grace  for  all." — So  too  in 
its  way  does  Islam ;  in  the  beginning  it  spreads  by  con- 
quest, but  the  faithful  of  every  nationality,  whether 
converted  by  the  force  of  arms  or  by  the  preaching  of 
missionaries,  acquire  the  same  rights  and  dignity  as  the 
Arabs.  The  universalism  of  Christianity  needs  no  proof. 
Here,  however,  the  difference  begins.  We  class  these 
three  religions  under  one  head,  because  they  resemble  one 
another  in  so  many  respects,  and  because  they  differ  from 
the  other  religious  communities  founded  by  individuals 
precisely  in  that  in  which  they  are  mutually  alike.  But 
we  are  far  from  placing  them  on  the  same  level.  Islam, 
e.g.,  is  not  original,  not  a  ripe  fruit,  but  rather  a  wild 
offshoot  of  Judaism  and  Christianity.  Buddhism,  though 
the  most  widely  spread,  has  never  been  victorious  except 
where  it  had  to  contend  with  religions  standing  on  no 
very  high  degree  of  development.  For  a  short  time  it 
had  a  footing  in  Persian  countries,  but  there  its  influence 
was  neither  deep  nor  durable,  and  in  China  it  was  not 
even  able  to  overcome  Confucianism  and  Taoism  ;  it  seems 
to  have  been  driven  from  India  by  Brahmanism,  without 
being  actually  persecuted.  Both  Islam  and  Buddhism,  if 


not  national,  are  only  relatively  universalistic,  and  show 
the  one-sidedness,  the  one  of  the  Semitic,  the  other  of  the 
Aryan  race.  The  former  represents  an  important  religious 
idea — the  absolute  sovereignty  of  the  one  God,  towards 
whom  man,  being  nothing  himself,  has  only  one  duty, 
that  of  tacit  obedience ;  it  exalts  the  divine,  not  com- 
bining it  with,  but  opposing  it  to,  the  human,  which  it 
despises,  and  therefore  neglects  the  -development  of  ethics. 
Buddhism  on  the  contrary  neglects  the  divine,  preaches 
the  final  salvation  of  man  from  the  miseries  of  existence 
through  the  power  of  his  own  self-renunciation ;  and 
therefore,  as  it  is  atheistic  in  its  origin,  it  very  soon 
becomes  infected  by  the  most  fantastic  mythology  and  the 
most  childish  superstitions.  If  religion  really  is  the 
synthesis  of  dependence  and  liberty,  we  might  say  that 
Islam  represents  the  former,  Buddhism  the  latter  element 
only,  while  Christianity  does  full  justice  to  both  of  them. 
Christianity,  the  pure  and  unalloyed  at  least,  has  fused 
dependence  and  liberty,  the  divine  and  the  human,  religion 
and  ethics  into  an  indivisible  unity. 

5.  There  are  still  some  other  points  of  difference.  Thus, 
to  mention  one  point  only,  Mohammedanism  in  its  external 
features  is  little  better  than  an  extended  Judaism.  Spread 
over  many  countries,  adopted  by  various  nations  differing 
in  culture,  speech,  and  race,  nevertheless  it  has  its  holy 
language,  its  unvarying  rites,  its  central  sanctuary  round 
which  the  pilgrims  from  every  part  of  the  Mohammedan 
world  assemble  every  year.  Not  so  with  Buddhism  and 
Christianity.  If  Christian  crusaders  tried  to  reconquer 
their  Holy  Land  from  the  infidels,  and  in  fact  possessed  it 
for  a  time,  if  mediaeval  Buddhist  pilgrims  desired  to  see, 
and  some  Christian  pilgrims  even  now  visit,  the  places 
where  the  cradle  of  their  faiths  once  stood,  all  this  makes 
no  longer  an  integral  part  of  their  worship,  which  is  not 
necessarily  bound  to  place  or  time.  The  divisions  of 
Buddhism  and  Christianity  are  mutually  much  more  in- 
dependent than  those  of  Mohammedanism.  Still,  though 
in  this  respect  Buddhism  comes  nearer  to  Christianity, 
this  alone  preaches  a  worship  in  spirit  and  in  truth ; 
and  in  that  which  Rothe  called  its  greatest  excellence,  in 
its  variety,  its  changeableness,  its  power  of  adapting 
itself  to  the  religious  wants  of  various  generations,  peoples, 
and  individuals,  in  a  word,  in  its  elasticity,  which  is  the 
natural  result  of  its  purely  spiritual  character,  Christianity 
ranks  incommensurably  high  above  both  its  rivals.1  But 
we  cannot  pursue  this  matter  any  further. 

We  now  give  the  following  sketch  of  a  morphological 
classification  of  religions  : — 

I.  NATURE  RELIGIONS. 
(a)  Polydajmonistic  Magical  Religions  under  the  control 

of  Animism. 

To  this  class  belong  the  religions  of  the  so-called  savages  or 
uncivilized  peoples,  but  they  are  only  degraded  remnants  of  what 
they  once  must  have  been. 

(b)  Purified  or  organized  Magical  Religions. 
Therianthropic  Polytheism. 


1.    Unorganized. 

Japanese  Kanii-no-madsu. 

The  non-Aryan  (Dravidian)  reli- 
gions of  India,  principally  in 
the  Deccan. 

Religion  of  the  Finns  and  Ehsts. 

The  old  Arabic  religions. 

Old  Pelasgic  religion. 

Old  Italiote  religions. 

Etruscan  religion  before  its  ad- 
mixture with  Greek  elements  (?) 

The  old  Slavonic  religions. 


2.   Organized. 
The   semi-civilized    religions   of 

America :      Maya,      Natchez, 

Toltecs-Aztecs,  Muyscas,  Incas 

in  Peru. 
The    ancient     religion     of    the 

Chinese  empire. 
Ancient  Babylonian  (Chaldaean) 

religion. 
Religion  of  Egypt. 


1  To  prevent  misconstruction,  it  is  perhaps  not  superfluous  to  state 
that  we  are  giving  here  neither  a  confession  of  faith  nor  an  apology, 
but  that  we  have  here  to  treat  Christianity  simply  as  a  subject  of 
comparative  study,  from  a  scientific,  not  from  a  religious  point  of 
view. 

XX.  -  47 


370 


RELIGIONS 


(c)  Worship  of  manlike  but  superhuman  ami  semi-ethical  beings. 
Anthropomorphic  PolytheiMii. 

The  ancient  Vaidic  religion  (India). 

The  pre-Zarathustrian  Iranii:  religion  (Ractria,  Media,  Persia). 

The  younger  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  religion. 

The  religions  of  the  other  civilized  Semites  (Phoenicia,  Canaan, 

Aramsea,  Sabaeans  in  South  Arabia). 
The  Celtic,  Germanic,  Hellenic,  and  Grajco-Roman  religions. 

II.  ETHICAL  RELIGIONS. 

(a)  National  Nomistic  (Nomothetic)  religious  communities. 
Taoism  and  Confucianism  in  China. 
Brahmanisra,  with  its  various  ancient  and  modern  sects. 
Jainism  and  primitive  Buddhism. 
Mazdaism  (Zarathustriauism),  with  its  sects. 
Mosaisin. 
Judaism. 

(b)  Universalistic  religious  communities. 
Islam,  Buddhism,  Christianity. 

Bistory  We  conclude  with  a  few  remarks  on  the  history  and 
spread  of  religions.  Between  the  history  of  religions  and 
0  that  of  religion  in  general  there  is  no  real  difference.  A 
'  history  of  religions  must  be  something  other  and  more 
than  a  collection  of  the  histories  of  the  principal  religions, 
arranged  after  a  chronological  or  an  ethnological  scheme. 
The  connecting  links  and  historical  relations  between  them 
must  be  kept  in  view.  It  ought  to  be  shown  how  every 
religion  coming  to  the  front  on  the  stage  of  history  is 
rooted  in  the  past,  has  been  fostered  so  to  speak  by  one 
or  more  of  its  predecessors,  and  cannot  be  maintained 
without  taking  up  and  assimilating  the  still  living 
elements  of  the  old  faith.  Special  attention  must  be  paid 
to  the  spread  and  intermixture  of  religions  and  systems, 
myths  and  rites,  the  cause  of  so  many  changes,  of  thorough 
reforms  as  well  as  of  corruption  and  decay.  Thus,  even 
undesignedly  the  history  of  religions  exhibits  the  progress 
of  the  religious  idea  in  the  history  of  mankind. 

The  oldest  historical  documents,  contemporaneous  with 
the  facts  they  record,  are  undoubtedly  those  of  ancient 
Egypt  and  Babylonia ;  perhaps  the  latter  may  in  the  end 
prove  the  more  ancient  of  the  two.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
documentary  history  begins  in  western  Asia  and  north- 
eastern Africa.  And  it  is  remarkable  that  even  in  that 
remote  past  we  find  the  religions  both  of  ancient  Babylonia 
and  of  Egypt  in  anything  but  a  primitive  state — remark- 
able, but  only  natural,  as  civilization  must  have  reached  a 
rather  elevated  standpoint  to  produce  such  written  docu- 
ments and  works  of  art.  Many  centuries,  at  all  events  a 
long  period,  of  religious  evolution  must  have  preceded  the 
dawn  of  religious  history.  Even  then  and  there,  just  as 
elsewhere,  that  which  lies  behind  can  only  be  conjectured, 
but  conjecture  may  be  raised  to  a  high  degree  of 
probability  by  comparing  the  myths  and  rites  surviving 
in  the  historical  religions,  though  they  really  belong  to  a 
former  state  of  development,  with  those  still  prevailing 
among  uncivilized  tribes.  For  several  centuries  these  two 
religions,  whatever  may  have  been  their  genealogical 
relation,  were  developed  independently,  and  the  task  of 
the  historian  is,  by  studying  the  most  ancient  records,  to 
give  a  notion  of  their  earliest  state  and  to  point  out  the 
faint  traces  of  their  internal  changes  which  are  still 
extant.  There  are  some  vague  allusions  to  an  early 
Babylonian  conquest  of  western  Asia,  which  might  account 
for  the  agreement  of  some  ancient  modes  of  worship  in  the 
Western  countries  with  those  of  Babylonia;  but  before  the 
XVIIIth  Dynasty  of  Egypt  (15th  or  16th  century  B.C.)  the 
empires  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  and 
that  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  seem  not  yet  to  have  come 
into  contact.  From  that  time,  at  least  during  the  rule 
of  the  XlXth  Dynasty,  not  a  few  Semitic  deities  were 
admitted  into  the  Egyptian  pantheon.  In  a  well-known 
hymn  the  victorious  Egyptian  king  is  compared  to  the 


Semitic  Ba'al  as  well  as  to  the  national  god  Mentu. 
the  other  hand,  but  much  later,  some  Egyptian  religious 
emblems  find  their  way  into  Assyria,  and  several  Egyptian 
gods  with  Egyptian  modes  of  worship  into  Phoenicia. 
Assyrian  religion,  being  an  early  offshoot  of  the  Babylonian, 
and  with  the  lapse  of  time  more  and  more  imbued  with 
younger  Babylonian  elements,  spreads  westwards  with 
the  extension  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  penetrates  into 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  and  finds  followers  even  among  the 
kings  of  Judah.  But  there  the  prophets,  true  to  their 
national  god  Jahveh,  and  reforming  his  worship  on  purely 
ethical  principles,  wrestle  with  unbending  perseverance 
against  those  foreign  idolatrous  customs  and  lay  the 
foundations  of  that  monotheistic  community  which  sur- 
vives the  Babylonian  exile,  and,  having  been  organized  as 
Judaism,  becomes  the  cradle  of  Christianity. 

Did  space  permit  we  would  fain  pursue  the  rapid 
historical  sketch,  which  tends  to  show  how  even  in 
ancient  times  there  was  a  continuous  interchange  of  ideas 
and  rites  between  the  leading  religions,  those  even  which 
are  commonly  considered  as  being  purely  national — that  is, 
so  entirely  fused  with  the  social  and  political  life  of  a 
nation  that  they  seem  unfit  for  adoption  by  peoples 
widely  different.  But  a  general  survey  of  the  history  of 
religions  cannot  be  given  here.  All  that  can  be  done  is 
to  indicate  in  a  few  words  its  further  course,  not  without 
hinting  that  the  same  interchange  as  we  have  observed  in 
western  Asia  and  Egypt  is  to  be  found  everywhere. 

In  eastern  Asia  the  dominating  religions  are  those  of 
China  and  of  India.  They  too  have  been  developed  inde- 
pendently, each  radiating  from  its  centre,  China  proper 
and  Hindustan,  so  far  as  either  the  vast  Chinese  empire 
or  the  Aryan  dominion  over  the  Indian  peninsula  extended. 
The  Chinese  civilization  seems  to  be  much  older  than  the 
Indian.  But  the  sources  from  which  a  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  Chinese  religion  might  be  drawn  have  come  down 
to  us  thoroughly  revised  and  expurgated  either  by  Con- 
fucius himself  or  by  some  of  his  followers.  The  ancient 
religious  literature  of  India  is  very  extensive,  and  in  it 
three  or  four  stages  of  religious  thought  may  without 
difficulty  be  found ;  but  the  real  ancient  history  of  Indian 
religion  is  not  to  be  gathered  from  it.  Neither  Chinese  nor 
Indian  religions  have  exercised  any  influence  on  the  pro- 
gress of  religion  in  the  west  of  Asia  or  in  Europe.  They 
form  a  world  apart.  The  Chinese  religion  was  adopted  by 
some  Mongolian  tribes  and  was  introduced  into  Corea  and 
Japan ;  Indian  settlers,  Vaishnavas,  (^aivas,  or  Bauddhas, 
carried  Indian  thought  and  Indian  worship  with  them  to 
some  parts  of  Further  India  and  of  the  Indian  archipelago, 
but  this  happened  in  relatively  recent  times.  For  ages 
and  ages  they  lived  quite  isolated  and  self-sufficient — the 
Chinese  either  with  Lao-tsze  seeking  the  veritable  Tao  in 
the  highest  ideal  of  absolute  isolation,  or  with  Confucius 
amiably  moralizing  on  the  duties  of  "the  perfect  man"; 
the  Indian  dreaming  his  monotonous  and  fantastic  dreams 
and  longing  for  absorption  in  the  eternal  Brahm ;  neither 
of  them  suspecting  that  without  them,  among  what  they 
would  have  called  Western  barbarians  if  they  had  known 
of  their  existence,  the  world's  history  was  going  on  as  a 
mighty  stream  of  which  they  did  not  even  hear  the  distant 
roar.  It  was  not  until  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  but 
chiefly  Alexander  the  Great,  had  opened  the  gates  of  India 
to  Western  civilization  that  an  Indian  sovereign,  converted 
to  Buddhism,  could  think  of  benefiting  foreign  nations  by 
the  message  of  salvation  from  the  miseries  of  existence, 
and  that  Buddhist  missionaries  went  ou£  to  nearly  every 
part  of  Asia. 

Meanwhile  Medo-Persian  supremacy  had  supplanted  the 
Assyrian  and  Neo-Babylonian,  and  with  it  the  Zarathus- 
trian  religion  (Mazdaism)  had  come  in  contact  with  those 


RELIGIONS 


371 


of  western  Asia.  This  too  had  its  distinct  place  in  the 
general  history  of  religion.  For  though  it  seems  not  to 
have  spread  much  farther  than  the  Iranian  languages,  and 
the  attempts  of  Mazdayagnan  missionaries  to  convert 
certain  Tartar  or  Mongolish  tribes  were  not  crowned  with 
extraordinary  success,  its  tenets  deeply  influenced  the 
post-exilian  angelology  and  demonology  of  the  Jews,  and 
through  it  the  belief  on  these  subjects  current  among 
mediaeval  Christians.  Moreover,  not  indeed  the  whole 
system,  but  still  some  of  its  semi-spurious  offshoots, 
remnants  of  the  OLD  EAST  ARYAN  mythology,  neglected 
by  the  Zarathustrian  reformers,  but  afterwards  revived  and 
mixed  up  with  Semitic  elements,  the  worship  of  Mithra 
and  Anahita,  wandered  from  Asia  Minor  through  Greece 
and  Italy  to  Germany  and  found  adherents  everywhere. 

The  final  and,  if  we  except  that  of  Mosaism,  the  most 
interesting  chapter  of  the  ancient  history  of  religions  is 
that  which  narrates  the  growth,  the  transformations  and 
vicissitudes,  the  decline  and  corruption  of  the  worship 
belonging  to  Greece  and  Rome.  Its  importance  to  general 
history  needs  no  exposition.  But  its  real  purport  is  in  the 
main  not  realized,  or  at  least  misunderstood.  It  is  indeed 
the  history  of  the  spread  of  that  rich  and  composite 
mythological  system  which  is  called  Hellenic  religion 
over  the  whole  civilized  world  of  Europe  and  part  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  of  the  total  transformation  of  the  ancient 
Roman  religion  by  its  influence.  But,  studied  in  the 
true  historical,  that  is,  genetic  and  comparative,  spirit — 
not  with  the  jealous  narrow-mindedness  of  the  old  classi- 
cal school,  whose  idol,  the  self-sufficient  and  self-educated 
Greek,  has  already  been  broken  to  pieces,  nor  with  the 
one-sidedness  of  some  comparative  mythologists,  who  have 
substituted  the  self-sufficient  Aryan  for  that  imaginary 
Greek — Hellenic  religion  appears  to  be  rooted,  not  only 
in  the  old  national  worship,  but  also,  and  even  deeper,  in 
the  religions  of  some  Eastern  peoples,  as  is  the  case  with 
Hellenic  art  and  all  the  other  branches  of  that  splendid 
civilization.  It  would  never  have  risen  so  high  above  the 
level  of  old  Pelasgic  faith  and  worship,  never  have  spread 
over  so  wide  an  area,  never  have  reigned  with  ever 
increasing  authority  in  Etruria  and  in  Rome,  had  not  the 
deeper  religious  ideas  of  Semitic  and  other  Eastern  nations, 
which  prevailed  in  the  Phoenician  colonies  on  the  islands 
and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  above  all  in  that 
focus  of  all  kinds  of  worship,  Asia  Minor,  become  assimi- 
lated with  it,  and — for  this  too  must  be  acknowledged — 
had  it  not  after  all  impressed  those  ideas  with  the  stamp 
of  Aryan  fancy  and  Hellenic  taste,  the  stamp  of  its  own 
genius.  The  great  stream  of  religious  development  which 
had  its  sources  in  Egypt,  in  Babylon,  and  in  Iran,  and 
many  less  important  affluents,  finishes  its  course  in  the 
Graeco-Roman  religion.  With  this  the  old  world  dies 
away.  But  then  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  had  already 
laid  the  foundations  of  a  new  and  higher  world  of  religious 
life,  which  no  more  belongs  to  ancient  history. 

Modern  history  of  religions  is  chiefly  the  history  of 
Buddhism,  Christianity,  and  Islam,  and  of  their  wrestling 
with  the  ancient  faiths  and  primitive  modes  of  worship, 
which  slowly  fade  away  before  their  encroachments,  and 
which,  where  they  still  survive  in  some  parts  of  the  world 
and  do  not  reform  themselves  after  the  model  of  the 
dominant  religion,  draw  nearer  and  nearer  to  extinction. 

But  the  subject  is  too  vast  to  be  treated  of  in  detail 
here.  It  has  been  our  object  only  to  show,  even  for  the 
ancient  history  of  religions,  the  continuity  and  coherence 
which  nobody  will  deny  with  regard  to  the  modern.  In 
both  ancient  and  modern  times,  religions  spread  (1)  by  the 
influence  of  superior  civilization,  (2)  by  conquest,  (3)  by 
colonization  or  commerce,  (4)  by  missions.  Examples  are  too 
numerous  and  too  well  known  to  require  mention  here. 


Literature. — The  numerous  monographs  on  special  religions,  as 
well  as  treatises  on  the  philosophy  of  religion,  on  mythology,  on 
comparative  mythology  even,  must  be  excluded  from  this  notice. 
Only  the  most  important  collections  of  historical  monographs,  and 
those  philosophical  works  which  are  not  purely  or  principally 
speculative,  but  are  based  on  the  comparative  study  of  the  religions 
themselves,  will  be  mentioned. 

For  the  so-called  science  of  religion  in  general  see  Benjamin 
Constant,  De  la  Religion  considtree  dans  sa  source,  ses  formes,  et 
ses  decclo2}pemcnts,  5  vols.,  Paris,  1824-31;  E.  Spiess,  De  religio- 
num  indayationis  comparative  viac  dignitate  theologica,  Jena,  1871; 

F.  Max  Miiller,  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  vol.  i. ,  London, 
1867;  Id.,  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Religion,  London,   1873; 
Ernile   Burnouf,  La  Science  des  Religions,  4th  ed.,  Paris,  1885; 
Daniel  G.  Brinton,  The  Religious  Sentiment,  its  Source  and  Aim, 
New  York,  1876  ;  A.   Reville,   Froleyomincs  de  I'Histoire  dcs  Re- 
ligions, Paris,  1881  ;  W.  D.  Whitney,   "On  the  so-called  Science 
of  Religion,"  in  the  Princeton  Review  ;  Id.,  Oriental  and  Linguistic 
Studies,  1st  and  2d  series,  New  York,  1873-74;  L.  Vezes,  De  la 
Religion  ct  dcs  Religions,  Montauban,  s.a. 

A  more  or  less  complete  history  of  religions  (narrative  and  de- 
scriptive) was  attempted  by  Meiners,  Allg.  kritische  Geschichte  dcr 
Religionen,  2  vols.,  Hanover,  1806-7;  A.  v.  Colin,  Lehrbuch  der 
vorchristl.  Religionsgeschichte,  Lemgo,  1855;  J.  H.  Scholten,  Geschie- 
denis  der  godsdienst  en  wijsbcgeerte,  3d  ed. ,  Leyden,  1863 ;  J.  Gardner, 
The  Religions  of  the  World,  London,  1872 ;  C.  P.  Tiele,  Outlines  of 
the  History  of  Religion  to  the  spread  of  the  Universal  Religions, 
transl.  by  J.  p].  Carpenter,  London,  1877  (a  totally  re-written  Dutch 
edition  is  in  preparation).  The  history  of  the  principal  religions  of 
the  world  is  described  in  the  series  of  monographs  published  at 
Haarlem  entitled  De  Voornaamste  Godsdicnsten(Islamism,  by  Dozy, 
1863;  Pars-ism,  by  Tiele,  18G±;  Buddhism,  by  Kern,  1883-84;  Greek 
Religion,  by  Van  Oordt,  1864;  Norse  Religion,  by  Meyboom,  1868; 
Israel,  2  vols.,  by  Kuenen,  1869-70;  Roman  Catholicism,  by  Pierson, 
4  vols.,  1868-74;  Protestantism,  by  Rauwenhoff,  2  vols.,  1865-71). 
See,  too,  C.  P.  Tiele,  Hist,  comparvc  des  religions  de  I'Egypte  ct  dcs 
pcuplcs  Semitiques,  trans,  by  G.  Collins,  Paris,  1882 ;  A.  Reville,  Les 
•religions  dcs  peuples  non-civilises,  Paris,  1883  ;  Id.,  Les  religions  du 
Mexique,  de  VAmer.  centrale,  ct  du  Perou,  Paris,  1885  (compare 
the  Hibbert  Lectures  for  1884).  Of  another  series,  under  the  title 
Oriental  Religions  and  their  relation  to  Universal  Religion,  by 
Samuel  Johnson,  three  volumes  only  are  published  (India,  2d 
ed.,  London,  1873;  China,  Boston,  1877;  Persia,  1885).  P.  D. 
Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye  published  four  popular  sketches  of  the 
religions  of  Confucius,  Lao-tsze,  Zarathustra,  and  Buddha,  but  with 
copious  notes  and  references,  Utrecht,  1883.  Equally  popular  is 

G.  Rawlinson's  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,  London,  s.a. 

To  the  comparative  study  of  religions  and  to  the  philosophy  of 
the  history  of  religions  belong  0.  Pfleiderer,  Die  Religion,  ihr 
Wesen  und  ihre  Geschichte,  Berlin,  1869  ;  Id.,  Rcligionsphilosophie 
auf  geschichtlicher  Grundlage,  1878  ^(2d  ed.  revised  and  enlarged, 
in  2  vols.,  1883-84);  E.  Renan,  Etudes  d'histoire  rcligieuse,  2d 
ed. ,  Paris,  1857  ;  Jas.  Freeman  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions,  an 
Essay  in  Comparative  Theology,  Boston,  1871  (called  by  Prof. 
Whitney  an  industrious  collector  and  an  impartial  reporter)  ;  E.  F. 
Langhans,  Das  Christenthurn  und  seine  Mission  im  Lichle  der 
Weltgcschichte,  Zurich,  1875  ;  A.  M.  Fairbairn,  Studies  in  the 
Philosophy  of  Religion  and  History,  1876;  Chas.  Newton  Scott.  The 
Foregleams  of  Christianity,  London,  1877  ;  J.  Stuart  Blackie,  The 
Natural  History  of  Atheism,  London,  1877;  C.  Puini,  Saggi  di  storia 
della  Religione,  Florence,  1882 ;  E.  von  Hartmann,  Das  rclig. 
Bewusstsein  der  Menschheit  im  Stufcngange  seiner  Entwickelung, 
Berlin,  1882  ;  Jul.  Happel,  Das  Christcnthum  und  die  hcutiyc  ver- 
gleichende  Religionsgeschichte,  Leipsic,  1882.  See,  too,  the  Hibbert 
Lectures  of  F.  Max  Miiller,  1878,  and  of  A.  Kuenen,  National 
Religions  and  Universal  Religions,  1 882.  The  connexion  between 
religion  on  the  one  side  and  state  and  society  on  the  other  is 
discussed  by  J.  C.  Bluntschli,  Altasiatische  Gottcs-  und  Weltideen, 
Nordlingen,  1866  ;  C.  Twesten,  Die  rcligids.,  polii',  und  socialen 
Ideen  der  asiat.  Culturvolker  und  der  Aegypter,  2  vols. ,  Berlin,  1872 
(ed.  by  M.  Lazarus) ;  Gilliot,  Etudes  histor.  et  c.-it.  sur  les  religions 
et  institutions  compares,  Paris,  1883.  E.  Wippermanu's  Altorient. 
Religionsstaaten,  Marburg,  1851,  is  now  antiquated. 

The  views  of  the  present  writer  on  various  subjects  relating  to  the 
science  of  religion  have  been  expounded  in  several  volumes  of  the 
Theol.  Tijdschrift  and  De  Gids.  Only  a  few  of  these  papers  have 
been  translated  into  German  or  French.  See,  e.g.,  Revue politique 
et  litteraire,  12th  August  1876  and  12th  January  1878.  In  the 
Theol.  Tijdschrift  are  to  be  found  some  articles  on  cognate  sub- 
jects by  Profs.  Kuenen  and  Rauwenhoff  and  by  Dr  A.  Bruining. 
Valuable  contributions  to  the  history  of  religious  are  given  by  the 
Revuo  de  I'Histoire  des  Religions,  edited  by  Vernes,  1880-84,  and 
by  Jean  Reville,  1885.  Prof.  Max  Miiller  is  rendering  an  im- 
portant service  to  the  comparative  study  of  religions  by  his  col- 
lection of  translations  entitled  Sacred  Books  of  the  Eait,  of  which 
some  twenty-four  volumes  have  appeared,  and  which  is  still  in 
course  of  publication.  (C.  P.  T. ) 


372 


REMAINDER 


REMAINDER,  REVERSION.  In  the  view  of  English 
law  a  remainder  or  reversion  is  classed  either  as  an 
incorporeal  hereditament  or,  with  greater  correctness,  as  an 
estate  in  expectancy  (see  REAL  ESTATE).  That  is  to 
say,  it  is  a  present  interest  subject  to  an  existing  estate 
in  possession  called  the  particular  estate,  which  must 
determine  before  the  estate  in  expectancy  can  become  an 
estate  in  possession.  A  remainder  or  reversion  is  in 
strictness  confined  to  real  estate,  whether  legal  or 
equitable,  though  a  similar  interest  may  exist  in  personalty. 
The  particular  estate  and  the  remainder  or  reversion 
together  make  up  the  whole  estate  over  which  the  granter 
has  power  of  disposition.1  Accordingly  a  remainder  or 
reversion  limited  on  an  estate  in  fee  simple  is  void.  The 
difference  between  a  remainder  and  a  reversion,  stated  as 
simply  as  possible,  is  that  the  latter  is  that  undisposed-of 
part  of  the  estate  which  after  the  determination  of  the 
particular  estate  will  fall  into  the  possession  of  the  original 
grantor  or  his  representative,  while  a  remainder  is  that 
part  of  the  estate  which  under  the  same  circumstances  will 
fall  into  the  possession  of  a  person  other  than  the  original 
grantor  or  his  representative.  A  reversion  in  fact  is  a 
special  instance  of  a  remainder,  distinguishable  from  it  in 
two  important  respects  : — (1)  a  reversion  arises  by  opera- 
tion of  law  on  every  grant  of  an  estate  where  the  whole 
interest  is  not  parted  with,  whereas  a  remainder  is  created 
by  express  words  ;  (2)  tenure  exists  between  the  reversioner 
and  the  tenant  of  the  particular  estate,  but  not  between  the 
latter  and  the  remainderman.  Accordingly  rent  service 
is  said  to  be  an  incident  of  a  reversion  but  not  of  a 
remainder,  and  a  reversioner  could  distrain  for  it  at 
common  law  (see  RENT).  A  reversion  may  be  limited 
upon  any  number  of  remainders,  each  of  them  as  it  falls 
into  possession  becoming  itself  a  particular  estate.  Thus 
A  may  grant  an  estate  for  life  or  for  years  to  B,  with 
remainder  to  C,  with  remainder  to  D,  with  a  reversion  or 
ultimate  remainder  to  himself.  A  remainder  or  reversion 
may  be  alienated  either  by  deed  or  by  will.  A  conveyance 
by  the  tenant  of  a  particular  estate  to  the  remainderman 
or  reversioner  is  called  a  surrender ;  a  conveyance  by  the 
remainderman  or  reversioner  to  the  tenant  is  a  release. 

Remainder. — Remainders  are  either  vested  or  contingent.  "An 
estate  is  vested  in  interest  when  there  is  a  present  fixed  right  of 
future  enjoyment.  An  estate  is  contingent  when  a  right  of  enjoy- 
ment is  to  accrue  on  an  event  which  is  dubious  and  uncertain.  A 
contingent  remainder  is  a  remainder  limited  so  as  to  depend  on  an 
event  or  condition  which  may  never  happen  or  be  performed,  or 
which  may  not  happen  or  be  performed  till  after  the  determination 
of  the  preceding  estate  "  (Fearne,  Contingent  Remainders,  2,  3). 
Contingent  remainders  are  of  two  kinds,  those  limited  to  uncertain 
persons  and  those  limited  on  uncertain  events.  A  grant  by  A  to  B 
for  life,  followed  by  a  remainder  in  fee  to  the  heir  of  C  is  an 
example  of  a  contingent  remainder.2  Until  the  death  of  C  he  can 
have  no  heir.  If  C  die  during  the  lifetime  of  B,  the  contingent 
remainder  of  his  heir  becomes  vested ;  if  C  survive  B,  the 
remainder  is  at  common  law  destroyed  owing  to  the  determination 
of  the  particular  estate,  for  every  remainder  must  have  a  particular 
estate  to  support  it.  In  the  case  of  a  contingent  remainder,  it 
must  become  vested  during  the  continuance  of  the  particular  estate 
or  at  the  instant  of  its  determination.  This  rule  of  law  no  doubt 
arose  from  the  disfavour  shown  by  the  law  to  contingent  remainders 
on  their  first  introduction.  They  were  not  firmly  established  even 
when  Littleton  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  (see  Williams, 
Real  Property,  pt.  ii.  ch.  ii.).  The  inconveniences  resulting  from 
this  liability  of  contingent  remainders  to  destruction  were  for- 
merly overcome  by  the  device  of  appointing  trustees  to  preserve 
contingent  remainders  at  law.  Equitable  contingent  remainders, 
it  should  be  noticed,  were  indestructible,  for  they  were  supported 
by  the  legal  estate.  In  recent  times  the  matter  has  been  dealt 
with  by  Act  of  Parliament.  By  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  106,  §  8,  a  con- 
tingent remainder  is  rendered  capable  of  taking  effect  notwith- 
standing the  determination  by  forfeiture,  surrender,  or  merger 
of  any  preceding  estate  of  freehold  in  the  same  manner  as  if  such 

1  Compare  the  life-rent  and  fee  of  Scotch  law. 

a  A  contingent  remainder  amounting  to  a  freehold  cannot  be  limited 
on  a  particular  estate  less  than  a  freehold. 


determination  had  not  happened.  The  case  of  determination  by 
any  other  means  is  met  by  40  &  41  Viet.  c.  33.  The  Act  provides 
that  a  contingent  remainder  which  would  have  been  valid  as  a 
springing  or  shifting  use  or  executory  devise  or  other  limitation 
had  it  not  had  a  sufficient  estate  to  support  it  as  a  contingent 
remainder  is,  in  the  event  of  the  particular  estate  determining 
before  the  contingent  remainder  vests,  to  be  capable  of  taking  oil') .  t 
as  though  the  contingent  remainder  had  originally  been  created  as 
a  springing  or  shifting  use  or  executory  devise  or  other  executory 
limitation.  It  will  accordingly  only  be  good  if  the  springing  use, 
&c.  (for  which  see  TRUST),  would  be  good.  If  the  springing  use  he 
void  as  a  breach  of  the  rule  against  perpetuities  (see  REAL,ESTATK), 
the  remainder  will  likewise  be  void.  It  may  be  noticed  that, 
apart  from  this  Act,  there  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  application 
of  the  rule  against  perpetuities  to  remainders.  The  better  opinion 
is  that  it  applies  to  equitable  remainders  and  to  legal  remainders 
expectant  upon  an  estate  for  life  limited  to  an  unborn  person.  In 
the  latter  case  the  rule  as  applied  to  contingent  remainders  is 
somewhat  different  from  that  affecting  executory  interests.  The 
period  is  different,  the  remainder  allowing  the  tying  up  of  property 
for  a  longer  time  than  the  executory  interest.  There  is  also  the 
further  difference  that  the  rule  dpes  not  affect  a  contingent 
remainder  if  it  become  vested  bef6re  the  determination  of  the 
particular  estate.  An  executory  interest  is  void  if  it  may  trans- 
gress the  rule,  even  though  it  do  not  actually  do  so.  The  subject 
of  remainders  would  not  be  complete  without  a  reference  to  the 
famous  rule  in  "Shelley's  Case  "  (1  Coke's  Reports,  93  b).  The  rule  is 
that  when  the  ancestor  by  any  gift  or  conveyance  takes  an  estate 
of  freehold,  and  in  the  same  gift  or  conveyance  an  estate  is  limited, 
either  mediately  or  immediately,  to  his  heirs  or  the  heirs  of  his 
body,  in  such  a  case  the  word  "  heirs  "  is  a  word  of  limitation  and 
not  of  purchase  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  estate  of  the  ancestor  is  not 
a  life  or  other  freehold  estate  with  remainder  to  the  heirs  or  heirs  of 
the  body,  but  an  estate  in  fee  or  an  estate  tail  according  to  circum- 
stances. The  rule  is  a  highly  technical  one,  and  has  led  to  much 
litigation  and  in  many  cases  without  a  doubt  to  the  defeat  of  a 
testator's  intentions.  It  is  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  wish 
of  the  law  to  preserve  to  the  lords  their  right  of  wardship,  which 
would  have  been  ousted  by  the  heir  taking  as  purchaser  and 
not  as  successor. 

The  State  laws  of  the  United  States  affecting  remainders  will 
be  found  in  Washburn,  Real  Property,  vol.  ii.  bk.  ii.  ch.  iv.  §  7. 
As  a  general  rule  contingent  remainders  have  been  rendered  of  little 
practical  importance  by  enactments  that  they  shall  take  effect  as 
executory  devises  or  shall  not  determine  on  determination  of  the 
particular  estate.  The  rule  in  "Shelley's  Case"  is  the  common 
law  where  it  is  not  repealed  by  statute.  The  prevailing  spirit  of 
legislation  in  the  States  is  unfavourable  to  its  continuance. 

Reversion. — Unlike  remainders,  all  reversions  are  present  or 
vested  estates.  The  law  of  reversion,  like  that  of  remainder,  has 
been  considerably  modified  by  statute.  It  was  formerly  considered 
that  on  the  grant  of  the  reversion  the  tenant  should  have  the 
opportunity  of  objecting  to  the  substitution  of  a  new  landlord. 
It  was  therefore  necessary  that  he  should  attorn  tenant  to  the 
purchaser.  Without  such  attornment  the  grant  was  void,  unless 
indeed  attornment  were  compelled  by  levying  a  fine.  The  neces- 
sity of  attornment  was  abolished  by  4  &  5  Anne  c.  16.  Its  only 
use  at  present  seems  to  be  in  the  case  of  mortgage.  A  mortgagor 
in  possession  sometimes  attorns  tenant  to  the  mortgagee  in  order 
that  the  latter  may  treat  him  as  his  tenant  and  distrain  for  his 
interest  as  rent.  The  legal  view  that  rent  was  incident  to  the 
reversion  led  at  common  law  to  a  destruction  of  the  rent  by  de- 
struction of  the  reversion.  This  would  of  course  chiefly  happen  in 
the  case  of  an  under-tenant  and  his  immediate  reversioner,  if  the 
intermediate  became  merged  in  the  superior  reversion.  To  obviate 
this  difficulty  it  was  provided  by  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  106,  §  9,  that,  on 
surrender  or  merger  of  a  reversion  expectant  on  a  lease,  the  rights 
under  it  should  subsist  to  the  reversion  conferring  the  next  vested 
right.  The  question  as  to  what  covenants  run  with  the  reversion 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  in  law.  The  rule  of  common  law  seems 
to  have  been  that  covenants  ran  with  the  land  but  not  with  the 
reversion,  that  is  to  say,  the  benefit  of  them  survived  to  a  new 
tenant  but  not  to  a  new  landlord.  The  effect  of  the  Act  of  32 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  34,  and  of  the  Conveyancing  Act,  1881  (44  &  45 
Viet.  c.  41,  §§  10,  Il,^i8),  has  been  to  annex  to  the  reversion  as  a 
general  rule  the  benefit  of  the  rent  and  the  lessee's  covenants  and 
the  burden  of  the  lessor's  covenants.  Merely  collateral  covenants, 
however,  do  not  run  with  the  reversion,  but  are  regarded  as  per- 
sonal contracts  between  lessor  and  lessee.  At  common  law  on  the 
severance  of  a  reversion  a  grantee  of  part  of  the  reversion  could  not 
take  advantage  of  any  condition  for  re-entry,  on  the  ground  that 
the  condition  was  entire  and  not  severable.  This  doctrine  was 
abolished  by  one  of  Lord  St  Leonard's  Acts  in  1859.  The  Con- 
veyancing Act,  1881,  §  12,  now  provides  in  wider  terms  than  those 
of  the  Act  of  1859  that  on  severance  of  the  reversion  every  con- 
dition capable  of  apportionment  is  to  be  apportioned.  In  order  to 
guard  against  fraudulent  concealment  of  the  death  of  a  ccstui  que 


B,  E  M  — R  E  M 


373 


vie,  or  person  for  whose  life  any  lands  are  held  by  another,  it  was 
provided  by  6  Anne  c.  18  that  on  application  to  the  Court  of 
Chancery  by  the  person  entitled  in  remainder,  reversion,  or  expect- 
ancy, the  cestui  que  vie  should  be  produced  to  the  court  or  its  com- 
missioners, or  in  default  should  be  taken  to  be  dead.  The  purchase 
of  a  reversionary  interest  might  formerly  have  been  set  aside  in  a 
court  of  equity  on  the  ground  of  inadequacy  of  price.  This  rule  of 
equity  no  longer  exists.  It  was  enncted  by  31  Viet.  c.  4  (which 
extends  to  the  United  Kingdom)  that  no  purchase  made  bonafide 
of  a  reversionary  interest  in  real  or  personal  estate  shall  be  set 
aside  merely  on  the  ground  of  under-value.  The  Act  does  not 
affect  those  cases  in  which  the  courts  relieve  against  such  purchases 
on  the  ground  of  fraud  or  duress — the  cases,  for  instance,  of  exorbit- 
ant bargains  made  by  money-lenders  with  expectant  heirs.  In 
Scotland  reversion  is  generally  used  in  a  sense  approaching  that 
of  the  equity  of  redemption  of  English  law.  A  reversion  is  either 
legal,  as  in  an  adjudication,  or  conventional,  as  in  a  wadset. 
Reversions  are  registered  under  the  system  established  by  the  Act 
1617  c.  16  (see  REGISTRATION). 

In  the  United  States  the  Act  of  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  34  "is  held 
to  be  in  force  in  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  and  Con- 
necticut, but  was  never  in  force  in  New  York  till  re-enacted " 
(Washburn,  Real  Property,  vol.  i.  432).  (J.  Wf.) 

REMBRANDT  (1607-1669).  REMBRANDT  HARMENS 
VAN  RUN,  the  chief  of  the  Dutch  school  of  painting 
and  one  of  the  greatest  painters  the  world  has  seen,  was 
born  in  Leyden  on  the  15th  July  1607. x  It  is  only 
within  the  past  thirty  years  that  we  have  come  to  know 
anything  of  the  real  history  of  the  man.  Up  to  that 
time  we  had  but  a  tissue  of  fables  connected  with  his 
name  and  representing  him  as  ignorant,  boorish,  and 
avaricious.  These  fictions,  resting  on  the  loose  assertions 
of  Houbraken  (De  Groote  Schoulnirgh,  1718),  have  been 
cleared  away  by  the  untiring  researches  of  Scheltema 
and  other  Dutchmen,  notably  by  C.  Vosmaer,  whose 
elaborate  work  (Rembrandt,  sa  Vie  et  ses  (Euvres,  1868, 
2d  ed.  1877)  will  remain  as  the  basis  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  man  and  of  the  chronological  development  of  the 
artist.2  Rembrandt's  high  position  in  European  art 
rests  on  the  originality  of  his  mind,  the  power  of  his 
imagination,  his  profound  sympathy  with  his  subjects, 
the  boldness  of  his  system  of  light  and  shade,  the  thorough- 
ness of  his  modelling,  his  subtle  colour,  and  above  all  on 
the  intense  humanity  of  the  man.  He  Avas  great  in  con- 
ception and  in  execution,  a  poet  as  well  as  a  painter, 
an  idealist  and  also  a  realist ;  and  this  rare  union  is  the 
secret  of  his  power.  From  his  dramatic  action  and 
mastery  of  expression  Rembrandt  has  been  well  called 
"the  Shakespeare  of  Holland."  To  understand  aright 
his  position  in  art,  we  must  consider  rapidly  his  sur- 
roundings and  note  the  influences  which  affected  him ;  we 
shall  thus  find  what  he  had  in  common  with  his  time  and 
understand  better  how  far  he  was  really  a  new  power,  an 
original  genius. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century  Holland  had  risen  to  great  power.  Though 
not  yet  formally  free  from  the  Spanish  yoke,  she  had  broken 
the  fetters  by  the  heroic  efforts  of  the  former  generation,  and 
had  entered  on  her  grand  career  of  national  enterprise. 
Science  and  literature  flourished  in  her  universities,  poetry 
and  the  stage  were  favoured  by  her  citizens,  and  art  found 
a  home  not  only  in  the  capital  but  in  the  provincial  towns. 
It  was  a  time  also  of  new  ideas.  Old  conventional  forms 
in  religion,  philosophy,  and  art  had  fallen  away,  and  liberty 
was  inspiring  new  conceptions.  It  is  with  those  of  art 
that  we  have  to  deal.  Here  there  were  no  church 
influences  at  work  to  fetter  the  painter  in  the  choice  and 
treatment  of  his  subject,  no  academies  to  prescribe  rules. 

1  This  is  now  generally  accepted  as  the  year  of  his  birth,  though 
some  hold  it  should  be  1606  or  1608. 

2  Vosmaer's  first  volume,  on  the  precursors  and  apprenticeship  of 
Rembrandt,  was  published  in  1863.     New  light  has  since  been  thrown 
on  important  points  by  Dr  Bode  (Holldndische  Malerei,  1883),  De 
Roever,  De  Vries,  and  others. 


Left  to  himself,  therefore,  the  artist  painted  the  life  of  the 
people  among  whom  he  lived  and  the  subjects  which 
interested  them.  It  was  thus  a  living  history  that  he 
painted, — scenes  from  the  everyday  life  and  amusements 
of  the  people,  often  mean  and  vulgar  it  must  be  confessed, 
the  civic  rulers,  the  regents  of  the  hospitals  and  the  heads 
of  the  guilds,  and  the  civic  guards  who  defended  their 
towns.  So  also  with  the  religious  pictures  which  were 
produced  under  the  influence  of  these  environments.  The 
dogmas  and  legends  of  the  Church  of  Rome  were  no  longer 
of  interest  to  such  a  nation  ;  but  the  Bible  was  read  and 
studied  with  avidity,  and  from  its  page  the  artist  drew 
directly  the  scenes  of  the  simple  narrative.  The  Old  and 
New  Testaments  and  the  Apocrypha  were  the  sources  from 
which,  without  any  interference  of  Jesuit  inquisitors,  he 
drew  his  inspiration.  This  change  had  been  coming  on 
steadily  since  the  Reformation,  a  change  that  implied  a 
growing  freedom  from  trammels  and  a  larger  and  more 
human  view  of  the  subjects  treated.  Perhaps  the  earliest 
trace  of  this  new  aspect  of  Bible  story  is  to  be  found  in  the 
pictures  painted  in  Rome  about  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  by  Adam  Elsheimer  of  Frankfort,  who  had 
undoubtedly  a  great  influence  on  the  Dutch  painters 
studying  in  Italy.  These  in  their  turn  carried  back  to 
Holland  the  simplicity  and  the  picturesque  effect  which  they 
found  in  Elsheimer's  work.  Among  these,  the  precursors 
of  Rembrandt,  may  be  mentioned  Moeyaert,  Ravesteyn, 
Lastman,  Pinas,  Honthorst,  and  Bramer.  Influenced  doubt- 
less by  these  painters,  Rembrandt  determined  to  work  out 
his  own  ideas  of  art  on  Dutch  soil,  resisting  apparently 
every  inducement  to  visit  Italy.  Though  an  admirer  of 
the  great  Italian  masters,  he  yet  maintained  his  own 
individuality  in  the  most  marked  manner.  It  is  strange 
that  we  have  no  evidence  that  he  ever  met  his  greatest 
Dutch  rival,  the  brillant  Frans  Hals,  his  senior  by  some 
fifteen  years. 

Rembrandt  was  born  in  the  house  No.  3  Weddesteg,  on 
the  rampart  at  Leyden  overlooking  the  Rhine.  The 
house  belonged  to  his  father  Gerrit  Harmen  van  Rijn,  a 
well-to-do  miller,  and  still  exists,  but  the  windmill  is  no 
more.  He  was  the  fourth  son,  and,  as  the  older  boys  had 
been  sent  to  trade,  his  parents  resolved  that  he  should 
enter  a  learned  profession.  With  this  view  he  was  sent 
to  the  High  School  at  Leyden ;  but  the  boy  soon  mani- 
fested his  dislike  of  the  prospect  and  determined  to  be  a 
painter.  Accordingly  he  was  placed  for  three  years  under 
Swanenburch,  a  connexion  of  the  Van  Rijn  family. 
This  master  was  a  painter  of  no  great  merit,  but  he 
enjoyed  some  reputation  from  his  having  studied  in  Italy. 
His  next  master  was  Lastman  of  Amsterdam,  a  painter  of 
very  considerable  power.  In  Lasttnan's  works  we  can 
trace  the  germs  of  the  colour  and  sentiment  of  his  greater 
pupil,  though  his  direct  influence  cannot  have  been  great, 
as  it  is  said  by  Orlers  that  Rembrandt  remained  with  him 
only  six  months,  after  which  time  he  returned  to  Leyden, 
about  1623.  During  the  early  years  of  his  life  at  Leyden 
Rembrandt  seems  to  have  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
studies,  painting  and  etching  the  people  around  him,  the 
beggars  and  cripples,  every  picturesque  face  and  form  he 
could  get  hold  of.  Life,  character,  and  above  all  light 
were  the  aims  of  these  studies.  His  mother  was  a  fre- 
quent model,  and  we  can  trace  in  her  features  the  strong 
likeness  to  her  son,  especially  in  the  portraits  of  himself 
at  an  advanced  age.  So  far  as  we  know  there  is  no 
likeness  of  his  father,  who  died  about  1632.  The  last 
portrait  of  his  mother  is  that  of  the  Belvidere  Gallery  of 
Vienna,  painted  the  year  before  her  death  in  1640.  One 
of  his  sisters  also  frequently  sat  to  him,  and  Bode  suggests 
that  she  must  have  accompanied  him  to  Amsterdam  and 
kept  house  for  him  till  he  married.  This  conjecture  rests 


374 


REMBRANDT 


on  the  number  of  portraits  of  the  same  young  woman 
paintoil  in  the  early  years  of  his  stay  in  Amsterdam  and 
before  he  met  his  bride.  Then,  again,  in  the  many 
portraits  of  himself  painted  in  his  early  life  we  can  see 
with  what  zeal  he  set  himself  to  master  every  form  of 
expression,  now  grave  now  gay,  at  one  time  with  a  smile 
at  another  with  a  frown, — how  thoroughly  he  learned  to 
model  the  human  face  not  from  the  outside  but  from  the 
inner  man.  Careful  in  detail  and  thorough  in  work,  these 
studies  were  the  foundation  of  his  later  triumphs.  Dr 
Bode  gives  fifty  as  the  number  of  the  portraits  of  himself, 
most  of  them  painted  iu  youth  and  in  old  age,  the  times 
when  he  had  leisure  for  such  work. 

Rembrandt's  earliest  pictures  were  painted  in  the  last 
four  years  of  his  stay  at  Leyden,  from  1627  to  1631. 
Bode  mentions  about  nine  pictures  as  known  to  belong  to 
these  3rears,  chiefly  paintings  of  single  figures,  as  St  Paul 
in  Prison  and  St  Jerome ;  but  now  and  then  compositions  of 
several,  as   Samson  in   Prison  and  Presentations   in    the 
Temple.     The   prevailing  tone  of  all  these  pictures  is  a 
greenish-grey,  the  effect  being  somewhat  cold  and  heavy. 
The  gallery  at  Cassel  gives  us  a  typical  example  of  his  studies 
of  the  heads  of  old  men,  firm  and  hard  in  workmanship 
and  full   of  detail,  the   effects  of  light  and  shade  being 
carefully  thought  out.     His  work  was  now  attracting  the 
attention  of  the  lovers  of  art  iu  the  great  city  of  Amster- 
dam :  and,  urged  by  their  calls,  he  removed  about  1631  to 
live  and  die  there.     His  life  has  few  incidents  and  these 
only   personal,    for   he  lived   among  the  simple  burgher 
citizens,  moving  in  an  excellent  circle  of  men  of  science, 
divines,  poets,  artists,  and  friends  of  art.     At  one  bound 
he  leaped  into  the  position  of  the  first  portrait  painter  of 
the  city,  and  received  numerous  commissions.     During  the 
early  years  of  his  residence  there  are  at  least  forty  known 
portraits   from  his  hand,  firm   and  solid  in  manner  and 
staid  in  expression.     It  has  been  remarked  that  the  fantasy 
in  which  he  indulged  through  life  was  reserved  only  for  the 
portraits  of  himself  and  his  immediate  connexions.     The 
excellent  painter  Thomas  De  Keyser  was  then  in  the  height 
of  his  power,  and  his  influence  is  to  be  traced  in  some  of 
Rembrandt's  smaller  portraits.     Pupils  also  now  flocked  to 
his  house  in  the  Bloemgracht,  among  them  Gerard  Douw, 
who  was  nearly  of  his  own  age.     The  first  important  work 
executed  by  Rembrandt  in  Amsterdam  is  Simeon  in  the 
Temple,  of  the  Hague  Museum,  a  fine  early  example  of 
his  treatment  of  light  and  shade  and  of  his  subtle  colour. 
The  concentrated   light  falls  on  the  principal  figure,  his 
favourite  way  of  arresting  attention,  while  the  background 
is  full  of  mystery.     The  surface  is  smooth  and  enamelled, 
and  all  the  details  are  carefully  wrought  out,  while  the 
action  of  light  on  the  mantle  of  Simeon  shows  how  soon 
he   had   felt  the   magical   effect   of   the   play  of   colour. 
Between   the   small   Simeon   of    1631    and  the  life-sized 
Lesson  in  Anatomy  of  1632  there  is  a  great  difference.     In 
the  latter  we  have  the  first  of  the  great  portrait  subjects, 
— Tulp  the  anatomist,  the  early  friend  of  Rembrandt,  dis- 
coursing to  his  seven  associates,  who  are  ranged  with  eager 
heads  round  the  foreshortened  body.     The   subject   was 
not  new,  for  it  had  been  treated  in  former  years  by  the 
Miere velds,  A.  Pietersen,  and  others,  for  the  Hall  of  the 
Surgeons.     But  it  was  reserved  for  Rembrandt  to  make  it 
a  great  picture  by  the  grouping  of  the  expressive  portraits 
and  by  the  completeness  of  the  conception.     The  colour 
is  quiet  and  the  handling  of   the  brush  timid  and  pre- 
cise, while  the  light  and  shade  are  somewhat  harsh  and 
abrupt.     But  it  is  a  marvellous  picture  for  a  young  man 
of   twenty-five,  and   it  is  generally  accepted  as  the  first 
milestone  in  the  career  of  the  painter,  and  as  marking  a 
new  departure. 

In  the  forty  long  years  of  Rembrandt's  incessant  activity 


as  an  artist  about  seven  hundred  pictures  are  known  to 
have  come  from  his  own  hand.  It  is  therefore  clearly 
impossible  within  the  space  at  our  disposal  to  notice  more 
than  the  prominent  works  in  their  order.  Besides  the 
Pellicorne  family  portraits  of  1632,  we  have  the  caligra- 
phist  Coppenol  of  the  Cassel  Gallery,  interesting  in  the  1ii  t 
place  as  an  early  example  of  Rembrandt's  method  of  giving 
permanent  interest  to  a  portrait  by  converting  it  into  a 
picture.  He  invests  it  with  a  sense  of  life  by  a  momen- 
tary expression  as  Coppenol  raises  his  head  towards  the 
spectator  while  he  is  mending  a  quill.  The  same  motive 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Shipbuilder,  1633  (of  Buckingham 
Palace),  who  looks  up  from  his  work  with  a  sense  of 
interruption  at  the  approach  of  his  wife.  But  the  worthy 
Coppenol,  "the  Phoenix  of  the  Pen,"  has  another  charm  for 
us ;  he  was  one  of  Rembrandt's  earliest  friends  in  his  new 
abode  and  remained  true  to  the  end,  being  painted  thrice 
and  etched  twice  by  the  artist,  the  last  of  whose  portrait 
etchings  (1661)  was  the  Coppenol  of  large  size.  The  two 
small  pictures  of  the  Philosopher  of  the  Louvre  date  from 
1633,  delicate  in  execution  and  full  of  mysterious  effect. 
The  year  1634  is  especially  remarkable  as  that  of  his 
marriage  with  Saskia  van  Ulenburgh,  a  beautiful,  fair-haired 
Frisian  maiden  of  good  connexions.  Till  her  death  in 
1642  she  was  the  centre  of  his  life  and  art,  and  lives  for 
us  in  many  a  canvas  as  well  as  in  her  own  portraits.  On 
her  the  painter  lavished  his  magical  power,  painting  her 
as  the  Queen  Artemisia  or  Bathsheba,  and  as  the  wife  of 
Samson, — always  proud  of  her  long  fair  locks,  and  covering 
her  with  pearls  and  gold  as  precious  in  their  play  of  colour 
as  those  of  the  Indies.  A  joyous  pair  as  we  see  them  in 
the  Dresden  Gallery,  Saskia  sitting  on  his  knee  while  he 
laughs  gaily,  or  promenading  together  in  a  fine  picture 
of  1636,  or  putting  the  last  touches  of  ornament  to  her 
toilette,  for  thus  Bode  interprets  the  so-called  Burgo- 
master Pancras  and  his  Wife.  These  were  his  happy  days 
when  he  painted  himself  in  his  exuberant  fantasy,  and 
adorned  himself,  at  least  in  his  portraits,  in  scarfs  and 
feathers  and  gold  chains.  Saskia  brought  him  a  marriage 
portion  of  forty  thousand  guilders,  a  large  sum  for  those 
times,  and  she  brought  him  also  a  large  circle  of  good 
friends  in  Amsterdam.  She  bore  him  four  children,  Rum- 
bartus  and  two  girls  successively  named  Cornelia  after  his 
beloved  mother,  all  of  whom  died  in  infancy,  and  Titus, 
named  after  Titia  a  sister  of  Saskia.  We  have  several 
noble  portraits  of  Saskia,  a  good  type  of  the  beauty  of 
Holland,  all  painted  with  the  utmost  love  and  care,  at 
Cassel  (1633),  at  Dresden  (1641),  and  a  posthumous  one 
(1G43)  at  Berlin.  But  the  greatest  in  workmanship  and 
most  pathetic  in  expression  seems  to  us,  though  it  is  decried 
by  Bode,  that  of  Antwerp  (1641),  in  which  it  is  impossible 
not  to  trace  declining  health  and  to  find  a  melancholy  pre- 
sage of  her  death,  which  took  place  in  1642.  Then  truly 
went  out  the  light  of  Rembrandt's  life. 

Returning  to  Rembrandt's  work,  we  find  one  of  the 
greatest  portraits  of  1634  to  be  the  superb  full  length 
portrait  of  Martin  Daey,  which  with  that  of  Madame  Dacy, 
painted  according  to  Vosmaer  some  years  later,  formed  one 
of  the  ornaments  of  the  Van  Loon  collection  at  Amsterdam. 
Both  now  belong  to  Baron  Gustavo  de  Rothschild.  From 
the  firm  detailed  execution  of  this  portrait  one  turns  with 
wonder  to  the  broader  handling  of  the  Old  Woman,  aged 
eighty-three,  in  the  National  Gallery,  of  the  same  year, 
remarkable  for  the  effect  of  reflected  light  and  still  more 
for  the  sympathetic  rendering  of  character. 

The  life  of  Samson  supplied  many  subjects  in  these 
early  days.  The  so-called  Count  of  Gueldres  Threatening 
his  Father-in-law  of  the  Berlin  Gallery  has  been  restored 
to  its  proper  signification  by  M.  Kolloff,  who  finds  it  to  be 
Samson.  It  is  forced  and  violent  in  its  action.  But  the 


REMBRANDT 


375 


greatest  of  this  series,  and  one  of  the  prominent  pictures  of 
Rembrandt's  work,  is  the  Marriage  of  Samson  of  the 
Dresden  Gallery,  painted  in  1638.  Here  Rembrandt  gives 
the  rein  to  his  imagination  and  makes  the  scene  live 
before  us.  Except  the  bride  (Saskia),  who  sits  calm  and 
grand  on  a  dais  in  the  centre  of  the  feast,  with  the  full 
light  again  playing  on  her  flowing  locks  and  wealth  of 
jewels,  all  is  animated  and  full  of  bustle.  Samson, 
evidently  a  Rembrandt  of  fantasy,  leans  over  a  chair  pro- 
pounding his  riddle  to  the  Philistine  lords.  In  execution 
it  is  a  great  advance  on  former  subject  pictures ;  it  is 
bolder  in  manner,  and  we  have  here  signs  of  his  ap- 
proaching love  of  warmer  tones  of  red  and  yellow.  It  is 
also  a  fine  example  of  his  magic  play  of  colour. 

The  story  of  Susannah  also  occupied  him  in  these  early 
years,  and  he  returned  to  the  subject  in  1641  and  1653. 
The  Bather  of  the  National  Gallery  may  also  be  another 
interpretation  of  the  same  theme.  In  all  of  these  pictures 
the  woman  is  coarse  in  type  and  lumpy  in  form,  though  the 
modelling  is  soft  and  round,  the  effect  which  Rembrandt 
always  strove  to  gain.  Beauty  of  form  was  outside  his 
art.  But  the  so-called  Danae  (1636)  at  St  Petersburg  is 
a  sufficient  reply  to  those  who  decry  his  nude  female 
forms.  As  flesh  painting  it  glows  with  colour  and  life, 
and  the  blood  seems  to  pulsate  under  the  warm  skin.  In 
the  picturesque  story  of  Tobit  Rembrandt  found  much  to 
interest  him,  as  we  see  in  the  beautiful  small  picture  of  the 
Arenberg  collection  at  Brussels.  Sight  is  being  restored 
to  the  aged  Tobias,  while  with  infinite  tenderness  his  wife 
holds  the  old  man's  hand  caressingly.  The  momentary 
action  is  complete,  and  the  picture  goes  straight  to  the 
heart.  In  the  Berlin  Gallery  he  paints  the  anxiety  of  the 
parents  as  they  wait  the  return  of  their  son.  In  1637  he 
painted  the  fine  picture  now  in  the  Louvre  of  the  Flight 
of  the  Angel ;  and  the  same  subject  is  grandly  treated  by 
him,  apparently  about  1645,  in  the  picture  exhibited  in 
the  winter  exhibition  at  Burlington  House  in  1885. 
Reverence  and  awe  are  shown  in  every  attitude  of  the  Tobit 
family.  A  similar  lofty  treatment  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Christ  as  the  Gardener  appearing  to  Mary  of  1638 
(Buckingham  Palace). 

We  have  now  arrived  at  the  year  1640,  the  threshold  of 
his  second  manner,  which  extended  to  1654,  the  middle 
age  of  Rembrandt.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  previous 
decade  we  find  the  shadows  more  transparent  and  the 
blending  of  light  and  shade  more  perfect.  There  is  a 
growing  power  in  every  part  of  his  art.  The  coldness  of 
his  first  manner  had  disappeared,  and  the  tones  were 
gradually  changing  into  golden-brown.  He  had  passed 
through  what  Bode  calls  his  "  Sturm-und-Drang "  period 
of  exaggerated  expression,  as  in  the  Berlin  Samson,  and 
had  attained  to  a  truer,  calmer  form  of  dramatic  expression, 
of  which  the  Manoah  of  Dresden  is  a  good  example 
(16-U).  Whether  it  was  that  he  was  getting  tired  of 
painting  commissioned  portraits,  that  he  was  independent 
of  them,  or  that  he  aimed  at  higher  flights,  it  is  certain 
that  these  portraits  painted  "to  order"  became  more  rare 
about  this  time,  and  that  those  which  we  have  are  chiefly 
friends  of  his  circle,  such  as  the  Mennonite  Preacher 
(C.  C.  Ansloo)  and  the  Gilder  (Le  Doreur),  a  fine  example 
of  his  golden  tone,  formerly  in  the  Moray  collection  and 
now  in  America.  His  own  splendid  portrait  (1640)  in  the 
National  Gallery  illustrates  the  change  in  his  work.  It 
describes  the  man  well, — strong  and  robust,  with  powerful 
head,  firm  and  compressed  lips  and  determined  chin,  with 
heavy  eye-brows,  separated  by  a  deep  vertical  furrow,  and 
with  eyes  of  keen  penetrating  glance, — altogether  a  self- 
reliant  man  that  would  carry  out  his  own  ideas,  careless 
whether  his  popularity  waxed  or  waned.  The  fantastic 
rendering  of  himself  has  disappeared;  he  seems  more 


conscious  of  his  dignity  and  position.  He  has  now  many 
friends  and  pupils,  and  numerous  commissions,  even  from 
the  stadtholder;  he  has  bought  a  large  house  in  the 
Breedstraat,  in  which  during  the  next  sixteen  years  of  his 
life  he  gathered  his  large  collection  of  paintings,  engrav- 
ings, armour,  and  costume  which  figure  afterwards  in  his 
inventory.  His  taste  was  wide  and  his  purchases  large, 
for  he  was  joint  owner  with  picture  dealers  of  paintings  by 
Giorgione  and  Palma  Vecchio,  while  for  a  high-priced  Marc- 
antonio  Raimondi  print  he  gave  in  exchange  a  fine 
impression  of  his  Christ  Healing  the  Sick,  which  has  since 
been  known  as  the  Hundred  Guilder  Print.  The  stadt- 
holder was  not  a  prompt  payer,  and  an  interesting  corre- 
spondence took  place  between  Rembrandt  and  Constantin 
Huygens,  the  poet  and  secretary  of  the  prince.  The 
Rembrandt  letters  which  have  come  down  to  us  are  few, 
and  these  are  therefore  of  importance.  Rembrandt  puts  a 
high  value  on  the  picture,  which  he  says  had  been  painted 
"  with  much  care  and  zeal,"  but  he  is  willing  to  take  what 
the  prince  thinks  proper;  while  to  Huygens  he  sends  a 
large  picture  as  a  present  for  his  trouble  in  carrying 
through  the  business.  There  is  here  no  sign  of  the 
grasping  greed  with  which  he  has  been  charged,  while  his 
unselfish  conduct  is  seen  in  the  settlement  of  the  family 
affairs  at  the  death  of  his  mother  in  1640. 

The  year  1642  is  remarkable  for  the  great  picture 
formerly  known  as  the  Night  WTatch,  but  now  more 
correctly  as  the  Sortie  of  the  Banning  Cock  Company, 
another  of  the  landmarks  of  Rembrandt's  career,  in  which 
twenty-nine  life-sized  civic  guards  are  introduced  issuing 
pell-mell  from  their  club  house.  Such  guilds  of  arque- 
busiers  had  been  painted  admirably  before  by  Ravesteyn 
and  notably  by  Frans  Hals,  but  Rembrandt  determined  to 
throw  life  and  animation  into  the  scene,  which  is  full  of 
bustle  and  movement.  One  can  almost  hear  the  beating 
of  the  drum  and  the  barking  of  the  dog.  The  dominant 
colour  is  the  citron  yellow  uniform  of  the  lieutenant,  wearing 
a  blue  sash,  while  a  Titian-like  red  dress  of  a  musketeer, 
the  black  velvet  dress  of  the  captain,  and  the  varied  green 
of  the  girl  and  drummer,  all  produce  a  rich  and  harmonious 
effect.  The  background  has  become  dark  and  heavy  by 
accident  or  neglect,  and  the  scutcheon  on  which  the  .names 
are  painted  is  scarcely  to  be  seen. 

But  this  year  of  great  achievement  was  also  the 
year  of  his  great  loss,  for  Saskia  died  in  1642.  leaving 
Rembrandt  her  sole  trustee  for  her  son  Titus,  but  with 
full  use  of  the  money  till  he  should  marry  again  or  till 
the  marriage  of  Titus.  The  words  of  the  will  express 
her  love  for  her  husband  and  her  confidence  in  him. 
With  her  death  his  life  was  changed.  Bode  has  remarked 
that  there  is  a  pathetic  sadness  in  his  pictures  of  the  Holy 
Family, — a  favourite  subject  at  this  period  of  his  life.  All 
of  these  he  treats  with  the  naive  simplicity  of  Reformed 
Holland,  giving  us  the  real  carpenter's  shop  and  the  mother 
watching  over  the  Infant  reverently  and  lovingly,  with  a 
fine  union  of  realism  and  idealism.  It  is  true  indeed  that 
the  circumstances  of  his  time  and  country  made  it  impos- 
sible for  him  to  attempt  to  realize  the  ancient  forms  of 
Hebrew  life,  or  to  revive  the  bye-past  race  of  Judaea.  He 
was  content,  as  the  old  Italians  were,  with  the  types  around 
him.  The  street  in  which  he  lived  swarmed  with  Dutch 
and  Portuguese  Jews,  and  many  a  Jewish  rabbi  sat  to  him. 
He  accepted  their  turbans  and  local  dress  as  character- 
istic of  the  people.  But  in  his  religious  pictures  it  is 
not  the  costume  we  look  at ;  what  strikes  us  is  the  pro- 
found perception  of  the  sentiment  of  the  story,  making 
them  true  to  all  time  and  independent  of  local  circum- 
stance. A  notable  example  of  this  feeling  is  to  be  found  in 
the  Woman  Taken  in  Adultery  of  the  National  Gallery, 
painted  in  1644  in  the  manner  of  the  Simeon  of  the  Hague. 


376 


REMBRANDT 


Beyond  the  ordinary  claims  of  art,  it  commands  our  atten- 
tion from  the  grand  conception  of  the  painter  who  here  as 
in  other  pictures  and  etchings  has  invested  Christ  with  a 
majestic  dignity  which  recalls  Leonardo  and  no  other.  A 
similar  lofty  ideal  is  to  be  found  in  his  various  renderings 
of  the  Pilgrims  at  Emmaus,  notably  in  the  Louvre  picture 
of  1648,  in  which,  as  Mrs  Jameson  says,  "he  returns  to 
those  first  spiritual  principles  which  were  always  the  dowry 
of  ancient  art.  Here  we  have  before  us  a  countenance  pale 
and  tender,  meek  and  lowly  of  heart,  adorned  only  with 
holiness  and  a  glorified  life."  From  the  same  year  we 
have  the  Good  Samaritan  of  the  Louvre,  the  story  being 
told  with  intense  pathos.  The  helpless  suffering  of  the 
wounded  man,  the  curiosity  of  the  boy  on  tiptoe,  the 
excited  faces  at  the  upper  window,  are  all  conveyed  with 
masterly  skill.  In  these  two  last  pictures  we  find  a 
broader  touch  and  freer  handling,  while  the  tones  pass 
into  a  dull  yellow  and  brown  with  a  marked  predilection 
for  deep  rich  red.  Whether  it  was  that  this  scheme  of 
colour  found  no  favour  with  the  Amsterdamers,  who,  as 
Hoogstraten  tells  us,  could  not  understand  the  Sortie,  it 
seems  certain  that  Rembrandt  was  not  invited  to  take 
any  leading  part  in  the  celebration  of  the  congress  of 
Westphalia  of  this  year  (1648),  a  year  famous  in  Dutch 
history  for  the  European  declaration  of  the  independence 
of  Holland,  and  in  Dutch  art  as  the  subject  of  Terburg's 
picture  in  the  National  Gallery  and  of  Van  der  Heist's 
famous  Banquet  of  the  Civic  Guard  at  Amsterdam. 

Rembrandt  touched  no  side  of  art  without  setting  his 
mark  on  it,  whether  in  still  life,  as  in  his  dead  birds  or 
the  Slaughtered  Ox  of  the  Louvre,  or  in  his  drawings  of 
elephants  and  lions,  all  of  which  are  instinct  with  life. 
But  at  this  period  of  his  career  we  come  upon  a  branch  of 
his  art  on  which  he  left,  both  in  etching  and  in  painting, 
the  stamp  of  his  genius,  viz.,  landscape.  Roeland  Roghman, 
but  ten  years  his  senior,  evidently  influenced  his  style,  for 
the  resemblance  between  their  works  is  so  great  that,  as  at 
Cassel,  there  has  been  confusion  of  authorship.  Hercules 
Seghers  also  was  much  appreciated  by  Rembrandt,  for  at 
his  sale  eight  pictures  by  this  master  figure  in  the  inven- 
tory, and  Vosmaer  discovered  that  Rembrandt  had  worked 
on  a  plate  by  Seghers  and  had  added  figures  to  an  etched 
Flight  into  Egypt.  The  earliest  pure  landscape  known  to 
us  from  Rembrandt's  hand  is  the  Winter  Scene  of  Cassel 
(1646),  silvery  and  delicate.  As  a  rule  in  his  painted 
landscape  he  aims  at  grandeur  and  poetical  effect,  as  in  the 
Repose  of  the  Holy  Family  of  1647  (till  recently  called  the 
Gipsies),  a  moonlight  effect,  clear  even  in  the  shadows.  The 
Canal  of  Lord  Lansdowne,  and  the  Mountain  Landscape 
with  the  Approaching  Storm,  the  sun  shining  out  behind 
the  heavy  clouds,  are  both  conceived  and  executed  in  this 
spirit.  A  similar  poetical  vein  runs  through  the  Castle 
on  the  Hill  of  Cassel,  in  which  the  beams  of  the  setting 
sun  strike  on  the  castle  while  the  valley  is  sunk  in  the 
shades  of  approaching  night.  More  powerful  still  is  the 
weird  effect  of  Lord  Lansdowne's  Windmill,  with  its  glow 
of  light  and  darkening  shadows.  In  all  these  pictures 
light  with  its  magical  influences  is  the  theme  of  the  poet- 
painter.  From  the  number  of  landscapes  by  himself  in 
the  inventory  of  his  sale,  it  would  appear  that  these  grand 
works  were  not  appreciated  by  his  contemporaries.  The 
last  of  the  landscape  series  dates  from  1655  or  1656,  the 
close  of  the  middle  age  or  manhood  of  Rembrandt,  a  period 
of  splendid  power.  In  the  Joseph  Accused  by  Potiphar's 
Wife  of  1654  we  have  great  dramatic  vigour  and  perfect 
mastery  of  expression,  while  the  brilliant  colour  and 
glowing  effect  of  light  and  shade  attest  his  strength.  To 
this  period  also  belongs  the  great  portrait  of  himself  in 
the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  at  Cambridge. 

But  evil  days  were  at  hand.     The  long-continued  wars 


and  civil  troubles  had  worn  out  the  country.  Trade  anc 
commerce  languished,  and  in  Amsterdam  hundreds  of 
houses  were  empty.  Rembrandt's  brothers  had  suffered, 
and  money  was  scarce.  His  own  and  doubtless  Saskia's 
means  were  tied  up  in  his  house  and  in  his  large  collection 
of  valuable  pictures,  and  we  find  Rembrandt  borrowing  con- 
siderable sums  of  money  on  the  security  of  his  house  to 
keep  things  going.  Perhaps,  as  Bode  suggests,  this  was  the 
reason  of  his  extraordinary  activity  at  this  time.  Then, 
unfortunately,  in  this  year  of  1654,  we  find  Rembrandt 
involved  in  the  scandal  of  having  a  child  by  his  servant 
Hendrickie  Jaghers  or  Stoffels,  as  appears  by  the  books  of 
the  Reformed  Church  at  Amsterdam.  He  recognized  the 
child  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Cornelia  after  his  much- 
loved  mother,  but  there  is  no  proof  that  he  married  the 
mother,  and  the  probability  is  against  such  a  marriage,  as 
the  provisions  of  Saskia's  will  would  in  that  case  have  come 
into  force,  and  her  fortune  would  have  passed  at  once  to 
her  son  Titus.  Hendrickie  seems  to  have  continued  to 
live  with  him,  for  we  find  her  claiming  a  chest  as  her 
property  at  his  sale  in  1658.  Doubtless  she  is  the  peasant 
girl  of  Rasdorf  to  whom  Houbraken  says  Rembrandt  was 
married.  Sad  as  the  story  is,  Hendrickie  has  an  interest 
for  us.  Bode  asserts  that  in  his  art  there  was  always  a 
woman  in  close  relationship  to  Rembrandt  and  appearing 
in  his  work — his  mother,  his  sister,  and  then  Saskia.  Are 
there  any  traces  of  Hendrickie  ?  What  if  the  little  servant 
maid  of  ten  years,  painted  about  1645  (Dulwich  Gallery), 
and  again  in  the  Demidoff  picture  of  the  same  year,  in 
which  the  girl  is  painted  in  the  red  dress  of  a  Dutch 
orphan,  in  both  cases  smiling  and  leaning  over  a  window, 
were  the  maidservant  of  his  house  in  1654?  The  ages 
would  correspond.  Bode  suggests  that  the  beautiful  por- 
trait of  the  Lady  in  the  Salon  Carre1  of  the  Louvre  and 
the  Amor  and  Cupid  of  the  same  gallery  may  represent 
Hendrickie  and  her  child.  Both  pictures  belong  to  this 
date,  and  by  their  treatment  are  removed  from  the  category 
of  Rembrandt's  usual  portraits.  But  if  this  is  conjecture, 
we  get  nearer  to  fact  when  we  look  at  the  picture  exhibited 
at  Burlington  House  in  1883  to  which  tradition  has 
attached  the  name  of  "Rembrandt's  Mistress."  At  a 
glance  one  can  see  that  it  is  not  the  mere  head  of  a 
model,  as  she  lies  in  bed  raising  herself  to  put  aside  a 
curtain  as  if  she  heard  a  well-known  footstep.  It  is 
clearly  a  woman  in  whom  Rembrandt  had  a  personal 
interest.  The  date  is  clearly  165  ,  the  fourth  figure  being 
illegible ;  but  the  brilliant  carnations  and  masterly  touch 
connect  it  with  the  Potiphar's  Wife  of  1654  and  the 
Jaghers  period.  It  is  painful  to  turn  from  this  attempt 
to  trace  the  life  of  Rembrandt  in  his  work  to  the  sadder 
side  of  the  story.  In  1656  his  financial  affairs  became 
more  involved,  and  the  Orphans'  Chamber  transferred  the 
house  and  ground  to  Titus,  though  Rembrandt  was  still 
allowed  to  take  charge  of  Saskia's  estate.  Nothing,  how- 
ever, could  avert  the  ruin  of  the  painter,  who  was  declared 
bankrupt  in  July  1656,  an  inventory  of  all  his  property 
being  ordered  by  the  Insolvency  Chamber.  The  first  rale 
took  place  in  1657  in  the  Keizerskroon  hotel,  Thomas 
Jacobz  Haring,  a  well-known  name  in  connexion  with 
Rembrandt's  art,  being  auctioneer;  and  the  second,  at 
which  the  larger  part  of  the  etchings  and  drawings  were 
disposed  of,  in  1658 — "collected  by  Rembrandt  himself 
with  much  love  and  care,"  says  the  catalogue.  The  sum 
realized,  under  5000  guilders,  was  but  a  fraction  of  their 
value.  The  time  was  unfavourable  over  the  whole  of 
Europe  for  such  sales,  the  renowned  collection  of  Charles 
I.  of  England  having  brought  but  a  comparatively  small 
sum  in  1653.  Driven  thus  from  his  house,  stripped  of 
everything  he  possessed  even  to  his  table  linen,  Rembrandt 
took  a  modest  lodging  in  the  same  Keizerskroon  hostelry 


REMBRANDT 


377 


(the  amounts  of  his  bills  are  in  record),  apparently  without 
friends  and  thrown  entirely  on  himself.  But  there  was  no 
failure  here,  for  this  dark  year  of  1656  stands  out  pro- 
minently as  one  in  which  some  of  his  greatest  works  were 
produced,  as,  for  example,  John  the  Baptist  Preaching 
in  the  Wilderness,  belonging  to  Lord  Dudley,  and  Jacob 
Blessing  the  Sons  of  Joseph,  of  the  Cassel  Gallery.  It 
is  impossible  not  to  respect  the  man  who,  amid  the  utter 
ruin  of  his  affairs,  could  calmly  conceive  and  carry  out 
such  noble  work.  Yet  even  in  his  art  one  can  see  that  the 
tone  of  his  mind  was  sombre.  Instead  of  the  brilliancy 
of  1654  we  have  for  two  or  three  years  a  preference  for 
dull  yellows,  reds,  and  greys,  with  a  certain  measure  of 
uniformity  of  tone.  The  handling  is  broad  and  rapid, 
as  if  to  give  utterance  to  the  ideas  which  crowded  on  his 
mind.  There  is  less  caressing  of  colour  for  its  own  sake, 
even  less  straining  after  vigorous  effect  of  light  and  shade. 
Still  the  two  pictures  just  named  are  among  the  greatest 
works  of  the  master.  To  the  same  year  belongs  the 
Lesson  in  Anatomy  of  Johann  Deyman,  another  of  the 
many  men  of  science  with  whom  Rembrandt  was  closely 
associated.  The  subject  is  similar  to  the  great  Tulp  of 
1632,  but  his  manner  and  power  of  colour  had  advanced 
so  much  that  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  his  visit  to  Holland 
in  1781,  was  reminded  by  it  of  Michelangelo  and  Titian.1 
Vosmaer  ascribes  to  the  same  year,  though  Bode  places  it 
later,  the  famous  portrait  of  Jan  Six,  the  future  burgo- 
master, consummate  in  its  ease  and  character,  as  Six 
descends  the  steps  of  his  house  drawing  on  his  glove. 
The  connexion  between  Rembrandt  and  the  great  family 
of  Six  was  long  and  close,  and  is  honourable  to  both. 
Jan  married  a  daughter  of  Tulp  the  anatomist,  one  of 
Rembrandt's  earliest  friends.  In  1641  the  mother  of  Six, 
Anna  Wymer,  had  been  painted  with  consummate  skill  by 
Rembrandt,  who  also  executed  in  1647  the  beautiful 
etching  of  Six  standing  by  a  window  reading  his  tragedy 
of  "Medea,"  afterwards  illustrated  by  his  friend.  Now 
he  paints  his  portrait  in  the  prime  of  manhood,  and  in  the 
same  year  of  gloom  paints  for  him  the  masterly  John  the 
Baptist.  Six,  if  he  could  not  avert  the  disaster  of 
Rembrandt's  life,  at  least  stood  by  him  in  the  darkest 
hour,  when  certainly  the  creative  energy  of  Rembrandt 
was  in  full  play.  The  same  period  gives  us  the  Master 
of  the  Vineyard,  and  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi  of  Bucking- 
ham Palace. 

After  the  sale  of  the  house  in  the  Breedstraat  Rembrandt 
retired  to  the  Rosengracht,  an  obscure  quarter  at  the  west 
end  of  the  city.  Vosmaer  thinks  he  has  traced  the  very 
house,  but  some  doubts  have  been  thrown  on  this  dis- 
covery by  De  Roever.  We  are  now  drawing  to  the  splendid 
close  of  his  career  in  his  third  manner,  in  which  his  touch 
became  broader,  his  impasto  more  solid,  and  his  knowledge 
more  complete.  Hastening  on  by  quicker  steps,  we  may 
mention  the  Old  Man  with  the  Grey  Beard  of  the  National 
Gallery  (1657),  and  the  Bruyningh,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Insolvents'  Chamber,  of  Cassel  (1658),  both  leading 
up  to  the  great  portraits  of  the  Syndics  of  the  Cloth 
Hall  of  1661.  Nearly  thirty  years  separate  us  from  the 
Lesson  in  Anatomy,  years  of  long-continued  observation 
and  labour.  Tho  knowledge  thus  gathered,  the  problems 
solved,  the  mastery  attained,  are  shown  here  in  abundance. 
Rembrandt  returns  to  the  simplest  gamut  of  colour,  but 
shows  his  skill  in  the  use  of  it,  leaving  on  the  spectator  an 

1  This  picture  has  had  a  strange  history.  It  had  suffered  by  fii-e 
und  was  sold  to  a  Mr  Chaplin  of  London  in  1841,  was  exhibited  in 
Leeds  in  1868,  and  again  disappeared,  ultimately  to  be  found  in  the 
magazines  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum  as  a  doubtful  Rembrandt. 
The  patriotism  of  some  Dutch  lovers  of  art  restored  it  to  its  native 
country  ;  and  it  now  hangs,  a  magnificent  fragment,  in  the  Museum 
of  Amsterdam. 


impression  of  absolute  enjoyment  of  the  result,  unconscious 
of  the  means.  The  plain  burghers  dealing  with  the  simple 
concerns  of  their  guild  arrest  our  attention  as  if  they  were 
the  makers  of  history.  They  live  for  ever. 

In  his  old  age  Rembrandt  continued  to  paint  his  own 
portrait  as  assiduously  as  in  his  youthful  and  happy  days. 
About  twenty  of  these  portraits  are  known,  a  typical  one 
being  found  in  the  National  Gallery.  All  show  the  same 
self  reliant  expression,  though  broken  down  indeed  by  age 
and  the  cares  of  a  hard  life.  There  is  in  Stockholm  a  large 
and  unfinished  picture  which,  if  painted  by  Rembrandt, 
belongs  to  the  late  years  of  his  life  (etched  by  Waltner, 
Gaz.  des  Beaux-Arts,  Nov.  1874).  It  is  catalogued  as  the 
Oath  of  John  Ziska,  certainly  a  strange  subject  for  Rem- 
brandt. Bode  accepts  the  more  natural  interpretation  of 
Prof.  Anton  Springer,  viz.,  the  Feast  of  Judas  Maccabseus, 
and  ascribes  the  picture  to  an  earlier  date  than  that  given 
by  Vosmaer.  Havard,  however,  after  careful  examination, 
attributes  the  work  to  Carel  Fabritius. 

About  the  year  1663  Rembrandt  painted  the  (so-called) 
Jewish  Bride  of  the  Van  der  Hoop  Gallery  and  the  Family 
Group  of  Brunswick,  the  last  and  perhaps  the  most  brilliant 
works  of  his  life,  bold  and  rapid  in  execution  and  marvel- 
lous in  the  subtle  mixture  and  play  of  colours  in  which  he 
seems  to  revel.  The  woman  and  children  are  painted  with 
such  love  that  the  impression  is  conveyed  that  they  repre- 
sent a  fancy  family  group  of  the  painter  in  his  old  age. 
This  idea  received  some  confirmation  from  the  supposed  dis- 
covery that  he  left  a  widow  Catherine  Van  Wyck  and  two 
children,  but  this  theory  falls  to  the  ground,  for  De 
Roever  has  shown  (Oud  Holland,  1883)  that  Catherine  was 
the  widow  of  a  marine  painter  Theunisz  Blanckerhoff,  who 
died  about  the  same  time  as  Rembrandt.  The  mistake 
arose  from  a  miscopying  of  the  register.  The  subject  of 
these  pictures  is  thus  more  mysterious  than  ever. 

In  1668  Titus,  the  only  son  of  Rembrandt,  died,  leaving 
one  child,  and  on  8th  October  1669  the  great  painter  him- 
self passed  away,  leaving  two  children,  and  was  buried  in 
the  Wester  Kerk.  He  had  outlived  his  popularity,  for  his 
manner  of  painting,  as  we  know  from  contemporaries,  was 
no  longer  in  favour  with  a  people  who  preferred  the  smooth 
trivialities  of  Van  der  Werff  and  the  younger  Mieris,  the 
leaders  of  an  expiring  school. 

We  must  give  but  a  short  notice  of  Kembrandt's  achievements  in 
etching.  Here  he  stands  out  by  xinivcrsal  confession  as  first, 
excelling  all  by  his  unrivalled  technical  skill,  his  mastery  of 
expression,  and  the  lofty  conceptions  of  many  of  his  great  pieces, 
as  in  the  Death  of  the  Virgin,  the  Christ  Preaching,  the  Christ 
Healing  the  Sick  (the  Hundred  Guilder  Print),  the  Presentation 
to  the  People,  the  Crucifixion,  and  others.  So  great  is  his  skill 
simply  as  an  etcher  that  one  is  apt  to  overlook  the  nobleness  of  the 
etcher's  ideas  and  the  depth  of  his  nature,  and  this  tendency  has 
been  doubtless  confirmed  by  tho  enormous  difference  in  money 
value  between  "  states  "  of  the  same  plati>,  rarity  giving  in  many 
cases  a  fictitious  worth  in  the  eyes  of  collectors.  The  points  of 
difference  between  these  states  arise  from  the  additions  and  changes 
made  by  Rembrandt  on  the  plate  ;  and  the  prints  tajcen  off  by  him 
have  been  subjected  to  the  closest  inspection  by  Bartsch,  Gersaint, 
Wilson,  Daulby,  De  Claussin,  C.  Blanc,  Willshire,  Seymour  Haden, 
Middleton,  and  others,  who  have  described  them  at  great  length  and 
to  whom  the  reader  is  referred.  The  classification  of  Rembrandt's 
etchings  adopted  till  lately  was  the  artificial  one  of  treating  them 
according  to  the  subject,  as  Biblical,  portrait,  landscape,  and  so  on; 
and  to  Vosmaer  must  be  ascribed  the  credit  of  being  the  first  to 
view  Rembrandt's  etched  work,  as  he  has  done  his  work  in  painting, 
in  the  more  scientific  and  interesting  line  of  chronology.  This 
method  has  been  developed  by  Mr  Seymour  Haden  and  Mr 
Middleton,  and  is  now  universally  accepted.  But  even  so  recently 
as  1873  M.  C.  Blanc,  in  his  fine  work  L'CEuwc  completde  Rembrandt, 
still  adheres  to  the  older  and  less  intelligent  arrangement,  resting 
his  preference  on  the  frequent  absence  of  dates  on  the  etchings  and 
more  strangely  still  on  the  equality  of  the  work.  Mr  Seymour 
Haden's  reply  is  conclusive,  "that  the  more  important  etchings  which 
may  be  taken  as  types  are  dated,  and  that,  the  style  of  the  etchings 
at  different  periods  of  Rembrandt's  career  being  fully  as  marked  as 
that  of  his  paintings,  no  more  difficulty  attends  the  classification 

XX.  —  48 


378 


K  E  M  —  R  E  M 


of  one  than  of  the  other."  Indeed  M.  Vosmacr  points  out  in  his 
life  of  ReinbraiK.lt  that  there  is  a  marked  parallelism  between 
Rembrandt's  painted  and  etched  work,  his  early  work  in  both  cases 
being  timid  and  tentative,  while  he  gradually  gains  strength  and 
character  both  with  the  brush  and  the  graver's  tools.  M. 
Vosmaer's  scheme  of  chronological  order  has  doubtless  been 
challenged  in  some  respects,  but  it  gave  the  deathblow  to  the  older 
svstem.  Mr  Seymour  Haden  has  started  the  theory  that  many  of 
the  etchings  ascribed  to  Rembrandt  up  to  1640  were  the  work  of  his 
pupils,  and  seems  to  make  out  his  case,  though  it  may  be  carried 
too  Jar.  He  argues  (in  his  monograph  on  the  Etched  Work  of 
Rembrandt,  1877)  that  Rembrandt's  real  work  in  etching  brgan 
after  Saskia's  death,  when  he  assumes  that  Rembrandt  betook  him- 
self to  Elsbroek,  the  country  house  of  his  "powerful  friend"  Jan 
Six.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  future  burgomaster  was 
then  but  a  young  student  of  twenty-four,  a  member  of  a  great 
family  it  is  true,  but  unmarried  and  taking  as  yet  no  share  in 
public  life.  That  Rembrandt  was  a  frequent  visitor  at  Elsbroek, 
and  that  the  Three  Trees  and  other  etchings  may  have  been  pro- 
duced there,  may  be  admitted  without  requiring  us  to  believe  that 
he  had  left  Amsterdam  as  his  place  of  abode.  The  great  period  of 
his  etching  lies  between  1639  and  1661,  after  which  the  old  painter 
seems  to  have  renounced  the  needle.  In  these  twenty  years  were 
produced  his  greatest  works  in  portraiture,  landscape,  and  Bible 
story.  They  bear  the  impress  of  the  genius  of  the  man. 

In  addition  to  the  nutliors  name!,  the  reader  Is  referred  to  W.  P>iirger  (the 
nom  dt  plume  of  Th.  Thore),  Museei  de  la  lloltande,  1858-1800;  E.  Fromentin, 
ttaitres  d'autrr/ois;  II.  Havard,  L'Ecole  Ifo/landaise;  Scheltema,  ntmbrand, 
2)iscoursturta  Vie,  1866;  Atli.  Cocquerel  flls,  Rembrandt,  sonindividiialismedans 
I'art,  Paris,  1869. — Since  the  foregoing  was  put  in  type,  a  new  and  valuable  work 
on  Rembrandt,  chiefly  as  the  etcher,  has  tippeared  fioin  tlie  pen  of  M.  Eugene 
Dutait  (L'CEuvre  coniplet  de  Rembrandt,  1'aris,  1885).  M.  inituit  rejects  the 
classification  of  M.  C.  Blanc  as  dubious  and  unwarranted,  dismisses  the  chrono- 
logical arrangement,  proposed  by  M.  Vosmaer  and  adopted  by  Mr  Seymour 
Haden  anl  Mr  Middleton  as  open  to  discussion  and  lucking  in  possibility  of 
proof,  and  reverts  to  the  order  established  by  Gcrsaint,  ranging  his  materials 
under  twelve  heads:— Portraits  (real  and  supposed),  Old  Testament  and  New 
Testament  subjects,  histories,  landscapes,  <tc.  (J.  F.  \V. 

REMIGIUS  (or  REMEDIES,  as  the  name  is  spelt  in 
Fredegarius  and  elsewhere),  or  REMI,  was  born  of  noble 
parents  and,  according  to  a  later  tradition,  in  the  district 
of  Laon.  In  one  of  his  own  letters,  written  apparently 
about  512  A.D.,  Remigius  speaks  of  himself  as  having 
been  a  bishop  for  fifty-three  years.  This  throws  back  his 
election  to  about  459;  and,  as  all  his  earlier  biographers 
agree  in  making  him  twenty-one  years  of  age  on  his 
appointment  to  this  office,  the  date  of  his  birth  may  be 
fixed  at  somewhere  about  the  year  438.  The  bishop- 
ric was  forced  upon  the  young  recluse  by  the  townspeople 
of  Rheims,  who  in  this  century  had  not  yet  lost  the  right 
of  electing  their  own  pastor.  For  the  next  thirty-seven 
years  of  Remigius's  life  we  have  no  clue  excepting  one,  or 
at  most  two,  allusions  in  the  letters  of  Sidonius  Apollin- 
aris  (Ep.  viii.  14  ;  ix.  7,8), — both  of  which  epistles  M. 
Baret  has  assigned  to  from  472  to  474.  It  is  true  that 
Fredegarius  (Du  Chesne,  i.  728),  writing  about  658,  and 
the  later  biographers  associate  the  name  of  Remigius  with 
that  of  Clovis  in  the  story  of  the  famous  vase  of  Sois- 
sons.  But  the  earlier  account  of  Gregory  (c.  590)  lends 
no  sanction  to  this  association ;  and  it  is  not  till  496 
that  Remigius  figures  definitely  in  history.  On  the 
Christmas  day  of  this  year  he  baptized  Clovis  at  Rheims 
with  the  greatest  pomp.  "  Bow  thy  head  meekly,  O 
Sicambrian,"  were  his  words  to  the  royal  convert ;  "  adore 
what  thou  hast  burnt  and  burn  what  thou  hast  adored." 
Two  of  the  king's  sisters  were  baptized  about  the  same 
time ;  and  on  the  death  of  one  of  these,  Albofledis,  Remi- 
gius wrote  Clovis  a  letter  of  consolation  that  is  still  pre- 
served (Dom.  Bouq.  iv.  51).  The  traditions  and  perhaps 
the  documents  of  Hincmar's  time  enumerated  the  immense 
possessions  conferred  by  Clovis  upon  his  favourite  pre- 
late. Hemigius,  in  his  turn,  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
slack  in  urging  the  orthodox  king  to  undertake  the 
deliverance  of  his  fellow  believers  who  in  southern  Gaul 
reluctantly  submitted  to  the  yoke  of  the  Aryan  Burgun- 
dians  and  Visigoths.  His  intrigues  with  the  discontented 
bishops  of  Burgundy  are  said  to  have  paved  the  way  for 
Clevis's  invasion  (500).  Hincmar  has  preserved  the 
tradition  that  Remigius  blessed  Clovis  before  he  set  out 


on  his  war  against  the  Visigoths  (507) ;  r.nd  wo  still  have 
the  letter  in  which  he  recommends  the  king  to  be  merciful 
in  his  new  conquests  (Bouquet,  iv.  52 ;  see,  however, 
Junghans's  remarks  on  the  probable  date  of  this  letter). 

It  is  not,  however,  solely  as  a  statesman  or  as  the 
mentor  of  a  barbarian  king  that  Remigius  claims  atten- 
tion. In  Hincmar's  time  he  was  recognized  as  the  second 
founder  of  the  church  of  Rheims,  to  whose  influence  that 
see  owed  the  greater  part  of  its  possessions ;  and  in 
such  a  matter  the  popular  tradition  can  hardly  have  been 
entirely  wrong.  One  of  his  few  remaining  letters  is 
directed  in  the  most  vigorous  terms  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  a  neighbouring  bishop,  Falco  of  Maastricht 
(Bouq.,  iv.  53).  He  is  said  to  have  established  a  bishopric 
at  Laon,  his  native  place.  So  great  was  his  fame  that  it 
reached  the  ears  of  Alaric  and  his  Gothic  counsellors  at 
Toulouse,  and  that,  at  last,  Pope  Hormisdas  or  one  of 
his  immediate  predecessors  appointed  him  his  vicar 
throughout  the  Frankish  domains.  Of  Remigius's  writ- 
ings only  a  few  verses  and  the  letters  alluded  to  above 
have  been  preserved ;  but  his  credit  for  learning  and 
eloquence  is  amply  attested  by  Sidonius  Apollinaris  and 
Gregory  of  Tours.  The  former,  writing  to  Remigius 
(c.  472),  declares  him  to  be  unsurpassed  by  any  living 
orator. 

Gregory  has  also  preserved  the  tradition  that  Remigius 
was  bishop  of  Rheims  for  more  than  seventy  years  (De 
Gloria  Conf.,  89),  a  fact  which  inclines  us  to  lay  some 
confidence  on  the  more  detailed  statement  of  Hincmar 
that  he  died  on  January  13,  in  the  ninety-sixth  year  of  his 
age,  after  an  episcopate  of  seventy-four  years.  Hence 
we  may  fix  upon  533  as  the  date  of  his  decease,  more 
especially  as  this  conclusion  coincides  well  enough  with  the 
little  that  is  known  as  to  the  chronology  of  his  two  imme- 
diate successors  (Ste  Marthe,  ix.  10-13).  In  882,  when 
the  Northmen  were  threatening  a  descent  upon  the  un- 
walled  city  of  Rheims,  Hincmar  had  the  body  of  St  Remi 
removed  from  its  first  resting-place  in  the  little  church  of 
St  Christopher  to  lipernay.  Next  year  it  was  brought  back 
to  Rheims,  but  it  was  not  restored  to  its  original  home, 
till  some  years  later.  "NVe  learn  from  Gregory  of  Tours 
that,  even  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Chiklebert  II.  (575-596) 
the  first  of  October  was  held  sacred  to  the  memory  of 
the  saint.  During  the  Carlovingian  times  this  day  became 
one  of  the  great  feasts  of  the  year,  its  observance  being 
sanctioned  by  the  council  of  Mainz  in  81 3  and  a  capitulary 
of  Louis  le  Uebonnaire  in  821  (Dessailly).  In  1049  Pope 
Leo  IX.  assisted  at  the  removal  of  the  relics  and  issued  a 
decree  for  the  observation  of  the  fete. 

The  authorities  for  the  life  of  St  Rcmi  are  very  meagre.  An 
almost  contemporary  Vita  Remigii,  written  in  the  popular 
Latin  of  the  period  (cothurno  Gallicano),  and  known  to  Gregory  of 
Tours,  was,  according  to  Hincmar,  almost  entirely  destroyed  in  the 
troubled  times  of  Charles  Martel,  but  not  before  it  had  been 
abbreviated  and  stripped  of  nearly  all  historic  value  by  Fortunatus 
between  the  years  565  and  590.  This  abridgment,  which  still 
exists,  formed  the  basis  of  the  Vita  Ilcmigii  written  by  Hincmar, 
archbishop  of  liheims  from  845  to  882,  who,  however,  professes  to 
incorporate  with  his  work  some  fragments  of  the  original  Vita 
and  other  ancient  documents,  as  he  has  most  certainly  incorporated 
the  living  traditions  of  his  own  age.  In  the  course  of  the  next 
century  Flodoard,  a  canon  of  Rheims  (ob.  966),  compiled  his  account 
of  St  Remi,  by  making  a  very  free  use  of  his  predecessors'  labours, 
with,  however,  some  traditional  information  of  his  own.  The  above 
works  are  all  in  Mignc's  Patrologia,  vols.  Ixxxviii.,  cxxv.,  &c. 
See  also  Fredcgarins  and  Gregory  of  Tours,  whose  authority  is 
only  second  to  that  of  Fortunatus.  The  scattered  documents  of 
the  Merovingian  period  are  to  be  found  in  the  great  collections 
of  A.  J)u  Chesne,  Bouquet,  and  Labbe.  Lc  Cointe's  Annalcs 
Ecclesiastici ,  vol.  i. ;  Miihillon's  Annales  Ordinis  JBcncd.,  vol.  i. ; 
Ste  Marthe's  Gallia  Christiana,  vol.  ix. ;  and  the  Ada  Sanctorum 
(October  1),  which  contains  the  best  modern  life  of  St  liemi,  may 
be  consulted  with  advantage.  Of  French  lives  see  that  by  the 

Erior  Armand.     The  so-called   Testamcntum  Rcmigii,  which  has 
cen  preserved  in  a  longer  and   shorter  form   by  Flodoard  and 


E  M  —  R  E  M 


379 


Hinemar,  has  lately  found  an  able  champion  of  its  authenticity 
in  the  Abbe  Dessailly.  For  Remigius's  connexion  with  Vcdastus 
(who  assisted  in  the  conversion  of  Clovis),  St  Medard,  St  Elcutherius, 
&c.,  see  the  Bollandist  Vila  Rf.migii  alluded  to  above  and  the  Ada 
Sanctorum  for  Feburary  6,  June  8,  and  February  20. 

KEMIREMONT,  the  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement 
of  the  department  of  the  Vosges,  France,  17  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Epinal  by  rail,  on  the  banks  of  the  Moselle 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Moselotte.  It  is  a  pretty  and 
well-built  town  picturesquely  surrounded  by  forest-clad 
mountains,  and  commanded  by  Fort  Parmont,  one  of  the 
line  of  defensive  works  along  the  Moselle.  Besides  a 
great  cotton  spinning-mill  (30,000  spindles)  brought  from 
Miilhausen  after  the  war  of  1870,  it  possesses  tanneries, 
weaving-factories,  and  saw-mills  ;  and  it  trades  in  timber, 
cattle,  cheese,  coopers'  wares,  &c.  The  more  interesting 
buildings  belong  to  the  ancient  abbey,  to  which  the  town 
owes  most  of  its  fame.  The  abbey  church  was  consecrated 
to  Pope  Leo  IX.  in  person  in  1051.  The  abbatial  resi- 
dence (which  now  contains  the  mairie,  the  court-house, 
and  the  public  library)  has  been  twice  rebuilt  in  modern 
times  (in  1750,  and  again  after  the  fire  of  1871),  but  the 
original  plan  and  style  have  been  preserved  in  the  imposing 
front,  the  vestibule,  and  the  grand  staircase.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  town  was  6212  in  1871,  and  7857  in  1881; 
that  of  the  commune  6510  and  8126. 

Reniiremont  has  its  name  from  St  Romaric,  one  of  the  com- 
panions of  St  Columban  of  Luxeuil,  who  founded  a  monastery  and 
a  convent  on  the  hills  above  the  site  where  the  town  now  stands. 
On  the  destruction  of  these  establishments  by  the  Hungarians  in 
910  A.D.  the  nuns  took  refuge  at  Reiniremont,  and  their  new 
convent  became  famous  under  an  abbess  who  "carried  not  a  crosier 
but  a  sceptre."  Enriched  by  dukes  of  Lorraine,  kings  of  France, 
and  emperors  of  Germany,  the  ladies  of  Reiniremont  ultimately 
attained  to  great  power.  The  abbess  was  a  princess  of  the  empire, 
and  received  consecration  at  the  hands  of  the  pope  at  Rome.  The 
canonesses  (fifty  in  number)  were  selected  only  from  those  who 
could  give  proof  of  noble  descent.  Their  property  comprised  fifty- 
two  signiories  and  twenty-two  petty  lordships.  On  "Whitsun  Mon- 
day the  neighbouring  parishes  paid  homage  to  the  chapter  in  a 
ceremony  called  the  "Kyrioles";  and  on  their  accession  dukes  of 
Lorraine  had  to  come  to  Remiremont  with  great  pomp  to  swear  to 
continue  their  protection.  The  "  War  of  the  Scutcheons  "  (Panon- 
ceaux)  in  1566  between  the  duke  and  the  abbess  ended  in  favour 
of  the  duke  ;  and  the  abbess  never  recovered  her  former  position. 
The  townsfolk  took  advantage  of  this  and  similar  contests  to 
extend  their  municipal  privileges.  In  the  17th  century  the  ladies 
of  Reniiremont  fell  away  so  much  from  the  original  monastic  rule 
as  to  take  the  title  of  countesses,  renounce  their  vows,  and  marry. 
The  town  was  attacked  by  the  French  in  1638,  and  ruined  by  the 
earthquake  of  1682.  With  the  rest  of  Lorraine  it  was  joined  to 
France  in  1760.  The  monastery  on  the  hill  (Mont  dc  Romeric  or 
Saint  Mont)  and  the  nunnery  in  the  town  were  both  suppressed  in 
the  Revolution. 

REMONSTRANTS  meant  originally  those  Dutch  Pro- 
testants who,  after  the  death  of  ARMINIUS  (q.v.),  continued 
to  maintain  the  views  associated  with  his  name,  and  in 
1610  presented  to  the  states  of  Holland  and  Friesland  a 
"remonstrance"  in  five  articles  formulating  their  points  of 
departure  from  stricter  Calvinism.  Their  adversaries  met 
them  with  a  "  counter  remonstrance, "  and  so  were  known 
as  the  Counter  Remonstrants.  The  conflict  continued  to 
rage  till  1618-19,  when  the  synod  of  Dort  (see  DORT, 
SYNOD  or)  established  the  victory  of  the  stricter  school. 
The  judgment  of  the  synod  was  enforced  by  the  deposition 
and  in  some  cases  the  banishment  of  Remonstrant  ministers; 
but  the  Government  soon  became  convinced  that  their  party 
was  not  dangerous  to  the  state,  and  in  1630  they  were 
formally  allowed  liberty  to  reside  in  all  parts  of  Holland 
and  build  churches  and  schools.  In  1621  they  had  also 
received  liberty  to  make  a  settlement  in  Schleswig,  where 
they  built  themselves  the  town  of  Friedrichstadt.  This 
colony  still  exists.  The  doctrine  of  the  Remonstrants  was 
embodied  in  1621  in  a  confessio  written  by  EPISCOPIUS 
(q.v.),  their  great  theologian,  while  Wytenbogaert  gave  them 
a  catechism  .and  regulated  their  churchly  order.  The 


Remonstrants  adopted  a  simple  synodical  constitution  ;  but 
their  importance  was  henceforth  more  theological  than 
ecclesiastical.  Their  seminary  in  Amsterdam  has  boasted 
of  many  distinguished  names — Curcellaeus,  Limborch, 
Wetstein,  Le  Clerc ;  and  their  liberal  school  of  theology, 
which  naturally  grew  more  liberal  and  even  rationalistic, 
reacted  powerfully  on  the  state  church.  The  Remon- 
strants are  now  a  small  body  (see  HOLLAND,  vol.  xii.  p.  66), 
but  respected  for  their  traditions  of  scholarship  and  liberal 
thought. 

REMSCHEID,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  in  the  district  of  Diisseldorf,  sometimes  dignified 
with  the  title  of  the  "  Rhenish  Sheffield,"  is  situated  about 
20  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Cologne,  at  a  height  of  1120 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  German  hard- 
ware industry,  and  large  quantities  of  tools,  scythes, 
skates,  and  other  small  articles  in  iron,  steel,  and  brass 
are  annually  made  here  for  exportation  to  all  parts  of 
Europe,  the  East,  and  North  and  South  America.  In  1880 
the  commune  contained  30,029  inhabitants  (26,844  Pro- 
testants), of  whom  11,000  belonged  to  Remscheid  proper 
and  the  rest  to  the  manufacturing  villages  with  which  it  is 
grouped.  The  name  of  Remscheid  occurs  in  a  document 
of  1132,  and  the  town  received  the  first  impulse  to  its 
industrial  importance  through  the  immigration  of  Pro- 
testant refugees  from  France  and  Holland. 

REMUSAT,     ABEL     (1788-1832),     a     distinguished 

Chinese  scholar,  was  born  at  Paris,  5th  September  1788. 

His  father,  a  surgeon,  superintended  his  early  education  in 

person  and  designed  him  for  the  medical  profession.     Jean 

Pierre  Abel  Remusat  graduated  with  distinction  as  M.D. 

in  1813,  and  for  a  short  time  held  a  hospital  appointment, 

but  his  heart  had  long  been  in  other  studies.     A  Chinese 

herbal  in  the  collection  of  the  Abbe  Tersan  had  attracted 

his  attention  when  he  was  still  a  lad  ;  he  taught  himself  to 

!  read  by  great  perseverance  and  with  very  imperfect  helps, 

j  and  at  the  end  of  five  years'  study  he  produced  in  1811  an 

j  Essai  sur  la  langue  et  la  litterature  Chinoises,  and  a  paper 

on  foreign  languages  among  the  Chinese,  which  procured 

him  the  patronage  of  De  Sacy.     In  1814  a  chair  of  Chinese 

was  founded  at  the  College  de  France,  and  Remusat  was 

placed  in  it.     From  this  time  he  gave  himself  wholly  to 

the  languages  of  the  Extreme  East,  and  published  a  long 

series  of  useful  works,  among  which  his  contributions  from 

Chinese  sources  to  the  history  of  the  Tartar  nations  claim 

special  notice.     Remusat  became  an  editor  of  the  Journal 

':  de  Savants  in  1818,  and  founder  and  first  secretary  of  the 

Paris  Asiatic  Society  in  1822  ;  he  held  also  in  the  course 

of  his  life  various  honourable  and  lucrative  Government 

I  appointments.     He  married  in  1830,  but  had  no  children. 

!  He  died  at  Paris,  4th  June  1832,  and  his  eloge  was  written 

\  by  De  Sacy. 

REMUSAT,   CHARLES   FRANCIS    MARIE,    COMTE  DE 
(1797-1875),  French  politician  and  man  of  letters,   was 
born   at  Paris   on   the    13th   March    1797^     His  father, 
also  Comte  de  Remusat,  of  a  good  though  not  very  dis- 
tinguished family  in  the  district  of  Toulouse,  was  a  man  of 
considerable  literary  taste,  of  much  administrative  ability, 
and    of    moderate   Liberal    views   in   politics.     He   was 
chamberlain  to  Napoleon,  but  disapproved  of  the  emperor's 
absolutist  government  and  aggressive  policy,  and  after  the 
restoration  became  prefect  first  of  the  Haute  Garonne  and 
then  of  the  Nord.     His  wife  (mother  of  Charles)  was  a 
!  still  more  remarkable  person,  whose  full  abilities  have  only 
1  recently  been  made  known.     Her  maiden  name  was  Claire 
!  Elisabeth  Jeanne  Gravier  de  Vergennes.     She  was  born 
1  in  1780,  and  was  early  introduced  to  the  salons,  which 
I  reopened  after  the  cessation  of  the  Terror.     She  married 
'  the  Comte  de  Remusat  when  she  was  very  yoiing,  and  was 
|  long  attached  to  the  service  of  Josephine,  to  whom  she  was 


R  E  N  — R  E  N 


finally  damedu  palais.  Talleyrand  was  a  particular  admirer 
of  hers,  and  she  was  generally  recognized  as  a  woman  of 
great  intellectual  capacity  as  well  as  of  much  personal  grace 
anl  charm.  After  her  death  (1824)  an  Essai  sur 
I'L  'ucation  des  Femmes  was  published  and  received  an 
academic  couronne.  But  it  was  not  till  1879,  when  her 
grandson  M.  Paul  de  Re"musat  published  her  memoirs, 
which  have  since  been  followed  by  some  correspondence 
with  her  son,  that  justice  could  be  generally  done  to  her 
literary  talent.  The  light  thrown  on  the  Napoleonic  court 
by  this  remarkable  book  was  great,  and  Madame  de 
Remusat  appeared  as  hardly  the  inferior  of  the  best 
memoir  and  letter  writers  of  the  previous  century.  The 
same  documents  contained  much  information  on  the  youth 
and  education  of  her  son  Charles.  He  very  early  developed 
political  views  more  decidedly  Liberal  than  those  of  his 
parents,  and,  being  bred  to  the  bar,  published  in  1820 
a  short  pamphlet  on  jury  trial.  He  was  also  an  active 
journalist,  showing  in  philosophy  and  literature  the  special 
influence  of  Cousin.  He  was,  however,  at  the  same  time 
a  thorough  man  of  the  world,  and  is  said  to  have  furnished 
to  no  small  extent  the  original  of  Balzac's  brilliant  egoist 
Henri  de  Marsay.  He  took  no  active  part  in  politics 
till  the  revolution  of  July,  when  he  signed  the  journalists' 
protest  against  the  Ordinances,  and  in  the  following 
October  was  elected  deputy  for  Toulouse.  He  then 
ranked  himself  with  the  "doctrinaires,"  and  supported 
(being  a  speaker  of  no  small  power)  most  of  those 
measures  of  restriction  on  popular  liberty  which  rapidly 
made  the  July  monarchy  unpopular  with  French  Radicals. 
In  1836  he  became  under-secretary  of  state  for  the  interior, 
but  did  not  hold  the  post  lojig.  He  then  became  an  ally  of 
Thiers,  and  in  1840  held  the  ministry  of  the  interior  for  a 
short  time.  In  the  same  year  he  became  an  Academician. 


For  the  rest  of  Louis  Philippe's  reign  he  was  in  opposition 
till  he  joined  Thiers  in  his  brief  and  hopeless  attempt  at  a 
ministry  in  the  spring  of  1848.  During  this  time  Ilemusat 
constantly  spoke  in  the  chamber,  but  was  still  more  active 
in  literature,  especially  on  philosophical  subjects, — the  most 
remarkable  of  his  works  being  his  book  on  Abelard  (1845). 
In  1848  he  was  elected,  and  in  1849  re-elected,  for  the 
department  of  Haute  Garonne  and  sat  on  the  Conservative 
side.  But  he  Avould  not  support  Louis  Napoleon,  and  had 
to  leave  France  after  the  coup  d'etat ;  nor  did  he  re-enter 
political  life  at  all  during  the  second  empire,  though  his  son 
M.  Paul  de  Remusat  stood  for  the  Haute  Garonne,  and  was 
very  nearly  elected,  in  1869.  Nor  would  he  at  first  accept 
the  advances  made  him  after  the  establishment  of  the  third 
republic.  In  1871  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  and  accepted  the  post.  Although  minister  he  was 
not  a  deputy,  and  on  standing  for  Paris  in  September  1873 
he  was  beaten  by  M.  Barodet.  f,  A  month  later  he  was 
elected  (having  already  resigned  with  Thiers)  for  the  Haute 
Garonne  by  a  very  great  majority.  He  died  at  Paris  on 
the  6th  April  1875. 

During  his  long  abstention  from  political  life  Remusat  continued 
to  write  on  his  favourite  subjects  of  philosophical  history  and 
especially  English  philosophical  history.  Saint  Ansclme  de  Cantor- 
b&ry  appeai'ed  in  1854;  L' Anyleterre  au  XVIIIeme  siecle  in  1856 
(2d  ed.  enlarged,  1865);  Bacon,  sa  vie,  son  teirqis,  <bc.,  in  1858; 
Channing,  sa  vie  ct  ses  ceuvres,  in  1862;  John  Wesley  in  1870; 
Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  in  1874  ;  Histoire  de  la  philosophic  en 
Angldcrre  dcpuis  Bacon  jusqu'a  Locke,  in  1875  ;  besides  other  and 
minor  works.  The  impression  derived  from  these  and  from  the 
political  records  of  his  life  is  that  he  was  on  the  whole  one  of  those 
men  whose  performances  are  unequal  to  their  powers.  He  wrote 
well,  was  a  forcible  speaker,  and  an  acute  critic  ;  but  his  adoption 
of  the  indeterminate  eclecticism  of  Cousin  in  philosophy  and  of  the 
somewhat  similarly  indeterminate  liberalism  of  Thiers  in  politics 
probably  had  a  bad  effect  on  him,  though  both  no  doubt  accorded 
with  his  critical  and  uneuthusiastic  turn  of  mind. 


EENAISSANCE 


)efinition  T)  ENAISSANCE  is  a  term  which  has  recently  come  into 
703  JL\)  use  to  indicate  a  well-known  but  indefinite  space 
ance  and  °^  ^me  an(l  a  certain  phase  in  the  development  of  the 
tevival  European  races.  On  the  one  hand  it  denotes  the  transi- 
f  Learn-  tion  from  that  period  of  history  which  we  call  the  Middle 
Ages  to  that  which  we  call  Modern.  On  the  other  hand 
it  implies  those  changes  in  the  intellectual  and  moral 
attitude  of  the  Western  nations  by  which  the  transition 
was  characterized.  If  we  insist  upon  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  word,  the  Renaissance  was  a  re-birth  ;  and  it  is 
needful  to  inquire  of  what  it  was  the  re-birth.  The 
metaphor  of  Renaissance  may  signify  the  entrance  of  the 
European  nations  upon  a  fresh  stage  of  vital  energy  in 
general,  implying  a  fuller  consciousness  and  a  freer  exercise 
of  faculties  than  had  belonged  to  the  mediaeval  period.  Or 
it  may  mean  the  resuscitation  of  simply  intellectual  activi- 
ties, stimulated  by  the  revival  of  antique  learning  and  its 
application  to  the  arts  and  literatures  of  modern  peoples. 
Upon  our  choice  between  these  two  interpretations  of  the 
word  depend  important  differences  in  any  treatment  of  the 
subject.  The  former  has  the  disadvantage  of  making  it 
difficult  to  separate  the  Renaissance  from  other  historical 
phases — the  Reformation,  for  example — with  which  it  ought 
not  to  be  confounded.  The  latter  has  the  merit  of  assign- 
ing a  specific  name  to  a  limited  series  of  events  and  group 
of  facts,  which  can  be  distinguished  for  the  purpose  of 
analysis  from  other  events  and  facts  with  which  they  are 
intimately  but  not  indissolubly  connected.  In  other 
words,  the  one  definition  of  Renaissance  makes  it  denote 
the  whole  change  which  came  over  Europe  at  the  close  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  other  confines  it  to  what  was 
known  "by  our  ancestors  as  the  Revival  of  Learning.  Yet, 


when  we  concentrate  attention  on  the  recovery  of  antique 
culture,  we  become  aware  that  this  was  only  one  pheno- 
menon or  symptom  of  a  far  wider  and  more  comprehen- 
sive alteration  in  the  conditions  of  the  European  races. 
We  find  it  needful  to  retain  both  terms,  Renaissance  and 
Revival  of  Learning,  and  to  show  the  relations  between  the 
series  of  events  and  facts  which  they  severally  imply. 
The  Revival  of  Learning  must  be  regarded  as  a  function 
of  that  vital  energy,  an  organ  of  that  mental  evolution, 
which  brought  the  modern  world,  with  its  new  conceptions 
of  philosophy  and  religion,  its  re-awakened  arts  and 
sciences,  its  firmer  grasp  on  the  realities  of  human  nature 
and  the  world,  its  manifold  inventions  and  discoveries,  its 
altered  political  systems,  its  expansive  and  progressive 
forces,  into  being.  Important  as  the  Revival  of  Learning 
undoubtedly  was,  there  are  essential  factors  in  the  com- 
plex called  the  Renaissance  with  which  it  can  but  remotely 
be  connected.  When  we  analyse  the  whole  group  of  pheno- 
mena which  have  to  be  considered,  we  perceive  that  some 
of  the  most  essential  have  nothing  or  little  to  do  with  the 
recovery  of  the  classics.  These  are,  briefly  speaking,  the 
decay  of  those  great  fabrics,  church  and  empire,  which 
ruled  the  Middle  Ages  both  as  ideas  and  as  realities ;  the 
appearance  of  full-formed  nationalities  and  languages ;  the 
enfeeblement  of  the  feudal  system  throughout  Europe ;  the 
invention  and  application  of  paper,  the  mariner's  compass, 
gunpowder,  and  printing;  the  exploration  of  continents 
beyond  the  ocean ;  and  the  substitution  of  the  Copernican 
for  the  Ptolemaic  system  of  astronomy.  Europe  in  fact 
had  been  prepared  for  a  thorough-going  metamorphosis 
before  that  new  ideal  of  human  life  and  culture  which 
the  Revival  of  Learning  brought  to  light  had  been  mado 


RENAISSANCE 


381 


manifest.  It  had  recovered  from  the  confusion  conse- 
quent upon  the  dissolution  of  the  ancient  Roman  empire. 
The  Teutonic  tribes  had  been  Christianized,  civilized,  and 
assimilated  to  the  previously  Latinized  races  over  whom 
they  exercised  the  authority  of  conquerors.  Compara- 
tive tranquillity  and  material  comfort  had  succeeded 
to  discord  and  rough  living.  Modern  nationalities,  defined 
as  separate  factors  in  a  common  system,  were  ready  to 
cooperate  upon  the  basis  of  European  federation.  The 
ideas  of  universal  monarchy  and  of  indivisible  Christendom, 
incorporated  in  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  the  Roman 
Church,  had  so  far  lost  their  hold  that  scope  was  offered 
for  the  introduction  of  new  theories  both  of  state  and  church 
which  would  have  seemed  visionary  or  impious  to  the 
mediaeval  mind.  It  is  therefore  obvious  that  some  term, 
wider  than  Revival  of  Learning,  descriptive  of  the  change 
which  began  to  pass  over  Europe  in  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries,  has  to  b^  adopted.  That  of  Renaissance, 
Rinascimento,  or  Renascence  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose, 
though  we  have  to  guard  against  the  tyranny  of  what  is 
after  all  a  metaphor.  "We  must  not  suffer  it  to  lead  us 
into  rhetoric  about  the  deadness  and  the  darkness  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  or  hamper  our  inquiry  with  preconceived 
assumptions  that  the  re-birth  in  question  was  in  any  true 
sense  a  return  to  the  irrecoverable  pagan  past.  Nor  must 
we  imagine  that  there  was  any  abrupt  break  with  the 
Middle  Ages.  On  the  contrary,  the  Renaissance  was 
rather  the  last  stage  of  the  Middle  Ages,  emerging  from 
ecclesiastical  and  feudal  despotism,  developing  what  was 
original  in  mediaeval  ideas  by  the  light  of  classic  arts  and 
letters,  holding  in  itself  the  promise  of  the  modern  world. 
It  was  therefore  a  period  and  a  process  of  transition, 
fusion,  preparation,  tentative  endeavour.  And  just  at 
this  point  the  real  importance  of  the  revival  of  learning 
may  be  indicated.  That  rediscovery  of  the  classic  past 
restored  the  confidence  in  their  own  faculties  to  men 
striving  after  spiritual  freedom ;  revealed  the  continuity 
of  history  and  the  identity  of  human  nature  in  spite  of 
diverse  creeds  and  different  customs ;  held  up  for  emula- 
tion master-works  of  literature,  philosophy,  and  art; 
provoked  inquiry ;  encouraged  criticism ;  shattered  the 

;  narrow  mental  barriers  imposed  by  mediaeval  orthodoxy. 
Humanism,  a  word  which  will  often  recur  in  the  ensuing 
paragraphs,  denotes  a  specific  bias  which  the  forces 
liberated  in  the  Renaissance  took  from  contact  with  the 
ancient  world, — the  particular  form  assumed  by  human 
self-esteem  at  that  epoch, — the  ideal  of  life  and  civilization 
evolved  by  the  modern  nations.  It  indicates  the  endeavour 
of  man  to  reconstitute  himself  as  a  free  being,  not  as  the 
thrall  of  theological  despotism,  and  the  peculiar  assistance 
he  derived  in  this  effort  from  Greek  and  Roman  literature, 
the  litterse,  humaniores,  letters  leaning  rather  to  the  side  of 
man  than  of  divinity. 

It  is  now  apparent  in  what  sense  the  Renaissance  has 

i(iat-  to  be  treated  in  this  article.  It  will  be  considered  as 
implying  a  comprehensive  movement  of  the  European 
intellect  and  will  toward  self-emancipation,  toward  re- 
assertion  of  the  natural  rights  of  the  reason  and  the 
senses,  toward  the  conquest  of  this  planet  as  a  place  of 
human  occupation,  and  toward  the  formation  of  regula- 
tive theories  both  for  states  and  individuals  differing  from 
those  of  mediaeval  times.  The  revival  of  learning  will  be 
treated  as  a  decisive  factor  in  this  process  of  evolution  on 
a  new  plan.  To  exclude  the  Reformation  and  the  Counter- 
Reformation  wholly  from  the  survey  is  impossible,  as  will 
appear  more  plainly  in  the  sequel.  These  terms  indicate 
moments  in  the  whole  process  of  modern  history  which 
were  opposed,  each  to  the  other,  and  both  to  the  Renais- 
sance ;  and  it  is  needful  to  bear  in  mind  that  they  have, 
scientifically  speaking,  a  quite  separate  existence.  Yet  if 


the  history  of  Europe  in  the  16th  century  of  our  era  came  to 
be  written  with  the  brevity  with  which  we  write  the  history 
of  Europe  in  the  6th  century  B.C.,  it  would  be  difficult  at 
the  distance  of  time  implied  by  that  supposition  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Italian  movement  of  the  Renaissance  in  its 
origin  from  the  German  movement  of  the  Reformation. 
Both  would  be  seen  to  have  a  common  starting-point  in  the 
reaction  against  long  dominant  idfeas  which  were  becoming 
obsolete,  and  also  in  the  excitation  of  faculties  which  had 
during  the  same  period  been  accumulating  energy. 

The  Renaissance,  if  we  try  to  regard  it  as  a  period,  Chrono- 
was  essentially  the  transition  from  one  historical  stage  to  logical 
another.  It  cannot  therefore  be  confined  within  strict  limits- 
chronological  limits.  This  indecision  inherent  in  the 
nature  of  a  process  which  involved  neither  a  political 
revolution  nor  the  promulgation  of  a  new  religious  creed, 
but  was  a  gradual  metamorphosis  of  the  intellectual  and 
moral  state  of  Europe,  is  further  augmented  by  the 
different  epochs  at  which  the  several  nations  were  prepared 
to  bear  their  share  in  it.  England,  for  example,  was  still 
feudal  and  mediaeval  when  Italy  had  socially  and  mentally 
entered  on  the  modern  stadium.  A  brother  of  the  Black 
Prince  banqueted  with  Petrarch  in  the  palace  of  Galeazzo 
Visconti.  That  is  to  say,  the  founder  of  Italian  humanism, 
the  representative  of  Italian  despotic  state-craft,  and  the 
companion  of  Froissart's  heroes  met  together  at  a  marriage 
feast.  The  memories  which  these  names  evoke  prove  how 
impossible  it  is  to  fix  boundaries  in  time  for  a  movement 
which  in  1368  had  reached  nearly  the  same  point  in  Italy 
as  it  afterwards  attained  at  the  close  of  the  16th  century 
in  England.  The  Renaissance  must  indeed  be  viewed 
mainly  as  an  internal  process  whereby  spiritual  energies 
latent  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  developed  into  actuality 
and  formed  a  mental  habit  for  the  modern  world.  The  pro- 
cess began  in  Italy,  and  gradually  extended  to  the  utmost 
bounds  of  Europe,  producing  similar  results  in  every  nation, 
and  establishing  a  common  civilization. 

There  is  one  date,  however,  which  may  be  remembered  The  date 
with  advantage  as  the  starting-point  in  time  of  the  1453. 
Renaissance,  after  the  departure  from  the  Middle  Ages 
had  been  definitely  and  consciously  made  by  the  Italians. 
This  is  the  year  1453,  when  Constantinople,  chosen  for 
his  capital  by  the  first  Christian  emperor  of  Rome,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turk.  One  of  the  survivals  of  the 
old  world,  the  shadow  of  what  had  been  the  Eastern 
empire,  now  passed  suddenly  away.  Almost  at  the  same 
date  that  visionary  revival  of  the  Western  empire,  which 
had  imposed  for  six  centuries  upon  the  imagination  of 
mediaeval  Europe,  hampering  Italy  and  impeding  the 
consolidation  of  Germany,  ceased  to  reckon  among  political 
actualities  ;  while  its  more  robust  rival,  the  Roman  Church, 
seemed  likely  to  sink  into  the  rank  of  a  petty  Italian 
principality.  Three  lights  of  mediaeval  Christendom,  the 
Eastern  empire,  the  Holy  Roman  empire,  and  the  papacy, 
at  this  point  of  time  severally  suffered  extinction,  mortal 
enfeeblement,  and  profound  internal  transformation.  It 
was  demonstrated  by  the  destruction  of  the  Eastern  and 
the  dotage  of  the  Western  empire,  and  by  the  new  papal 
policy  which  Nicholas  V.  inaugurated,  that  the  old  order  of 
society  was  about  to  be  superseded.  Nothing  remained 
to  check  those  centrifugal  forces  in  state  and  church 
which  substituted  a  confederation  of  rival  European 
powers  for  the  earlier  ideal  of  universal  monarchy,  and 
separate  religious  constitutions  for  the  previous  Catholic 
unity.  At  the  same  time  the  new  learning  introduced  by 
the  earlier  humanists  awakened  free  thought,  encouraged 
curiosity,  and  prepared  the  best  minds  of  Europe  for 
speculative  audacities  from  which  the  schoolmen  would 
have  shrunk,  and  which  soon  expressed  themselves  in  acts 
of  cosmopolitan  importance.  The  new  learning  had  been 


382 


RENAISSANCE 


received  gladly.  Its  vast  significance  was  hardly  under- 
stood. Both  secular  and  spiritual  potentates  delighted  in 
the  beauty  and  fascination  of  those  eloquent  words  which 
scholars,  poets,  and  critics  uttered — "  words  indeed,  but 
words  which  drew  armed  hosts  behind  them  !  " 
»ates  If  we  look  a  little  forward  to  the  years  1492-1500,  we 

492-  obtain  a  second  date  of  great  importance.  In  these  years 
500  the  expedition  of  Charles  VIII.  to  Naples  opened  Italy  to 
ml  1530.  Fj-g,^  Spanish,  and  German  interference.  The  leading 
nations  of  Europe  began  to  compete  for  the  prize  of  the 
peninsula,  and  learned  meanwhile  that  culture  which  the 
Italians  had  perfected.  In  these  years  the  secularization 
of  the  papacy  was  carried  to  its  final  point  by  Alexander 
VI.,  and  the  Reformation  became  inevitable.  The  same 
period  was  marked  by  the  discovery  of  America,  the 
exploration  of  the  Indian  seas,  and  the  consolidation  of 
the  Spanish  nationality.  It  also  witnessed  the  application 
of  printing  to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  the  revolution 
effected  in  military  operations  by  the  use  of  gunpowder, 
and  the  revolution  in  cosmology  which  resulted  from  the 
Copernican  discovery.  Thus,  speaking  roughly,  the  half 
century  between  1450  and  1500  may  be  termed  the 
culminating  point  of  the  Renaissance.  The  transition 
from  the  mediaeval  to  the  modern  order  was  now  secured 
if  not  accomplished,  and  a  Rubicon  had  been  crossed 
from  which  no  retrogression  to  the  past  was  possible. 
Looking  yet  a  little  farther,  to  the  years  1527  and  1530,  a 
third  decisive  date  is  reached.  In  the  first  of  these  years 
happened  the  sack  of  Rome,  in  the  second  the  pacification 
of  Italy  by  Charles  V.  under  a  Spanish  hegemony.  The 
age  of  the  Renaissance  was  now  closed  for  the  land  which 
gave  it  birth.  The  Reformation  had  taken  firm  hold  on 
northern  Europe.  The  Counter-Reformation  was  already 
imminent. 

•recur.  It  must  not  be  imagined  that  so  great  a  change  as  that 
ors  of  implied  by  the  Renaissance  was  accomplished  without  pre- 
ie  Re-  monitory  symptoms  and  previous  endeavours.  In  the 
ice-  main  we  mean  by  it  the  recovery  of  freedom  for  the  human 
spirit  after  a  long  period  of  bondage  to  oppressive  ecclesias- 
tical and  political  orthodoxy, -*-a  return  to  the  liberal  and 
practical  conceptions  of  the  world  which  the  nations  of 
antiquity  had  enjoyed,  but  upon  a  new  and  enlarged  plat- 
form. This  being  so,  it  was  inevitable  that  the  finally  suc- 
cessful efforts  after  self-emancipation  should  have  been 
anticipated  from  time  to  time  by  strivings  within  the  ages 
that  are  known  as  dark  and  mediaeval.  It  is  therefore  part 
of  the  present  inquiry  to  pass  in  review  some  of  the  claim- 
ants to  be  considered  precursors  of  the  Renaissance.  First 
of  all  must  be  named  the  Frank  in  whose  lifetime  the  dual 
conception  of  universal  empireand  universal  church,  divinely 
appointed,  sacred,  and  inviolable,  began  to  control  the  order 
of  European  society.  Charles  the  Great  lent  his  forces  to 
the  plan  of  resuscitating  the  Roman  empire  at  a  moment 
when  his  own  power  made  him  the  arbiter  of  western 
Europe,  when  the  papacy  needed  his  alliance,  and  when  the 
Eastern  empire  had  passed  .under  the  usurped  regency  of  a 
female.  He  modelled  a  spurious  Roman  empire,  which  was 
surnamed  "Holy,"  in  consequence  of  the  diplomatic  contract 
struck  by  him  with  the  bishop  of  Rome,  and  in  obedience 
to  the  prevailing  theological  beliefs  of  Latin  Christianity. 
The  Holy  so-called  Roman  but  essentially  Teutonic  empire 
owed  such  substance  as  the  fabric  possessed  to  Frankish 
armies  and  the  sinews  of  the  German  people.  As  a  struc- 
ture composed  of  divers  ill-connected  parts  it  fell  to  pieces 
at  its  builder's  death,  leaving  little  but  the  incubus  of  a 
memory,  the  fascination  of  a  mighty  name,  to  dominate 
the  mind  of  mediaeval  Europe.  As  an  idea,  the  empire 
grew  in  visionary  power,  and  remained  one  of  the  chief 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  both  Italian  and  German  national 
coherence.  Real  force  was  not  in  it,  but  rather  in  that 


counterpart  to  its  unlimited  pretensions,  the  church,  whic 
had  evolved  it  from  barbarian  night,  and  which  used  her 
own  more  vital  energies  for  undermining  the  rival 
of  her  creation.  Charles  the  Great,  having  proclaimed 
himself  successor  of  the  Caesars,  was  obscurely  ambitious 
of  imitating  the  Augusti  also  in  the  sphere  of  letters.  He 
caused  a  scheme  of  humanistic  education  to  be  formulated, 
and  gave  employment  at  his  court  to  rhetoricians,  of  whom 
Alcuin  was  the  most  considerable.  But  very  little  came  of 
the  revival  of  learning  which  Charles  is  supposed  to  have 
encouraged ;  and  the  empire  he  restored  was  accepted  by 
the  mediaeval  intellect  in  a  crudely  theological  and  vaguely 
mystical  spirit.  AVe  should,  however,  here  remember 
that  the  study  of  Roman  law,  which  was  one  important 
precursory  symptom  of  the  Renaissance,  owed  much  to 
mediaeval  respect  for  the  empire  as  a  divine  institution. 
This,  together  with  the  municipal  Italian  intolerance  of 
the  Lombard  and  Frankish  codes,  kept  alive  the  practice 
and  revived  the  science  of  Latin  jurisprudence  at  an  early 
period. 

Philosophy  attempted  to  free  itself  from  the  trammels  Spec 
of  theological  orthodoxy  in  the  hardy  speculations  of tion 
some  schoolmen,  notably  of  Scotus  Erigena  and  Abclard.  .^ 
These  innovators  found,  however,  small  support,  and  were  Ages 
defeated  by  opponents  who  used  the  same  logical  weapons 
with  authority  to  back  them.  Nor  were  the  rationalistic 
opinions  of  the  Averroists  without  their  value,  though  the 
church  condemned  these  deviators  from  her  discipline  as 
heretics.  Such  mediaeval  materialists,  moreover,  had 
but  feeble  hold  upon  the  substance  of  real  knowledge. 
Imperfect  acquaintance  with  authors  whom  they  studied 
in  Latin  translations  made  by  Jews  from  Arabic  com- 
mentaries on  Greek  texts,  together  with  almost  total 
ignorance  of  natural  laws,  condemned  them  to  sterility. 
Like  the  other  schiomachists  of  their  epoch,  they  fought 
with  phantoms  in  a  visionary  realm.  A  similar  judg- 
ment may  be  passed  upon  those  Paulician,  Albigensian, 
Paterine,  and  Epicurean  dissenters  from  the  Catholic 
creed  who  opposed  the  phalanxes  of  orthodoxy  with  frail 
imaginative  weapons,  and  alarmed  established  orders  in 
the  state  by  the  audacity  of  their  communistic  opinions. 
Physical  science  struggled  into  feeble  life  in  the  cells  of 
Gerbert  and  Roger  Bacon.  But  these  men  were  accounted 
magicians  by  the  vulgar ;  and,  while  the  one  eventually 
assumed  the  tiara,  the  other  was  incarcerated  in  a 
dungeon.  The  schools  meanwhile  resounded  still  to  the 
interminable  dispute  upon  abstractions.  Are  only  universals 
real,  or  has  each  name  a  corresponding  entity  ?  From  the 
midst  of  the  Franciscans  who  had  persecuted  Roger  Bacon 
because  he  presumed  to  know  more  than  was  consistent 
with  human  humility  arose  John  of  Parma,  adopting  and 
popularizing  the  mystic  prophecy  of  Joachim  of  Flora. 
The  reign  of  the  Father  is  past ;  the  reign  of  the 
Son  is  passing ;  the  reign  of  the  Spirit  is  at  hand.  Such 
was  the  formula  of  the  Eternal  Gospel,  which,  as  an 
unconscious  forecast  of  the  Renaissance,  has  attracted 
retrospective  students  by  its  felicity  of  adaptation  to 
their  historical  method.  Yet  we  must  remember  that 
this  bold  intuition  of  the  abbot  Joachim  indicated  a 
monastic  reaction  against  the  tyrannies  and  corruptions  of 
the  church,  rather  than  a  fertile  philosophical  conception. 
The  Fraticelli  spiritualists,  and  similar  sects  who  fed  their 
imagination  with  his  doctrine,  expired  in  the  flames  to 
which  Fra  Dolcino,Longino,and  Margharitawere  consigned. 
To  what  extent  the  accusations  of  profligate  morals 
brought  against  these  reforming  sectarians  were  justified 
remains  doubtful ;  and  the  same  uncertainty  rests  upon 
the  alleged  iniquities  of  the  Templars.  It  is  only  certain 
that  at  this  epoch  the  fabric  of  Catholic  faith  was 
threatened  with  various  forms  of  prophetic  and  Oriental 


RENAISSANCE 


383 


1  i 

ire 


°rdic 


mysticism,  symptomatic  of  a  widespread  desire  to  grasp 
at  something  simpler,  purer,  and  less  rigid  than  Latin 
theology  afforded.  Devoid  of  criticism,  devoid  of  sound 
learning,  devoid  of  a  firm  hold  on  the  realities  of  life, 
these  heresies  passed  away  without  solid  results  and  were 
forgotten. 

We  are  too  apt  to  take  for  granted  that  the  men  of  the 
Middle  Ages  were  immersed  in  meditations  on  the  other 
world,  and  that  their  intellectual  exercises  were  confined  to 
abstractions  of  the  schools,  hallucinations  of  the  fancy, 
allegories,  visions.  This  assumption  applies  indeed  in  a 
broad  sense  to  that  period  which  was  dominated  by 
intolerant  theology  and  deprived  of  positive  knowledge. 
Yet  there  are  abundant  signs  that  the  native  human 
instincts,  the  natural  human  appetites,  remained  unaltered 
and  alive  beneath  the  crust  of  orthodoxy.  In  the  person 
of  a  pope  like  Boniface  VIII.  those  ineradicable  forces  of 
the  natural  man  assumed,  if  we  may  trust  the  depositions 
of  ecclesiastics  well  acquainted  with  his  life,  a  form  of 
brutal  atheistic  cynicism.  In  the  person  of  an  emperor, 
Frederick  II.,  they  emerged  under  the  more  agreeable 
garb  of  liberal  culture  and  Epicurean  scepticism.  Frederick 
dreamed  of  remodelling  society  upon  a  mundane  type, 
which  anticipated  the  large  toleration  and  cosmopolitan 
enlightenment  of  the  actual  Renaissance.  But  his  efforts 
were  defeated  by  the  unrelenting  hostility  of  the  church, 
and  by  the  incapacity  of  his  contemporaries  to  understand 
his  aims.  After  being  forced  in  his  lifetime  to  submit  to 
authority,  he  was  consigned  by  Dante  to  hell.  Frederick's 
ideal  of  civilization  was  derived  in  a  large  measure  from 
Provence,  where  a  beautiful  culture  had  prematurely 
bloomed,  filling  southern  Europe  with  the  perfume  of 
poetry  and  gentle  living.  Here,  if  anywhere,  it  seemed 
as  though  the  ecclesiastical  and  feudal  fetters  of  the 
Middle  Ages  might  be  broken,  and  humanity  might  enter 
on  a  new  stage  of  joyous  unimpeded  evolution.  This 
was,  however,  not  to  be.  The  church  preached  Simon 
de  Montfort's  crusade,  and  organized  Dominic's  Inquisi- 
tion; what  Quinet  calls  the  "Renaissance  sociale  par 
I'Amour  "  was  extirpated  by  sword,  fire,  famine,  and  pesti- 
lence. Meanwhile  the  Provengal  poets  had  developed 
their  modern  language  with  incomparable  richness  and 
dexterity,  creating  forms  of  verse  and  modes  of  emotional 
expression  which  determined  the  latest  mediaeval  phase  of 
literature  in  Europe.  The  naturalism  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking  found  free  utterance  now  in  the  fabliaux 
of  jongleurs,  lyrics  of  minnesingers,  tales  of  trouveres, 
romances  of  Arthur  and  his  knights,-  —  compositions 
varied  in  type  and  tone,  but  in  all  of  which  sincere 
passion  and  real  enjoyment  of  life  pierce  through  the  thin 
veil  of  chivalrous  mysticism  or  of  allegory  with  which 
they  were  sometimes  conventionally  draped.  The  tales 
of  Lancelot  and  Tristram,  the  lives  of  the  troubadours 
and  the  Wachtlieder  of  the  minnesingers,  sufficiently 
prove  with  what  sensual  freedom  a  knight  loved  the  lady 
whom  custom  and  art  made  him  profess  to  worship  as  a 
saint.  We  do  not  need  to  be  reminded  that  Beatrice's 
adorer  had  a  wife  and  children,  or  that  Laura's  poet  owned 
a  son  and  daughter  by  a  concubine,  in  order  to  perceive 
that  the  mystic  passion  of  chivalry  was  compatible  in  the 
Middle  Ages  with  commonplace  matrimony  or  vulgar 
illegitimate  connexions.  But  perhaps  the  most  con- 
vincing testimony  to  the  presence  of  this  ineradicable 
naturalism  is  afforded  by  the  Latin  songs  of  wandering 
students,  known  as  Carmina  Burana,  written  by  the  self- 
styled  Goliardi.  In  these  compositions,  remarkable  for 
their  facile  handling  of  mediaeval  Latin  rhymes  and 
rhythms,  the  allegorizing  mysticism  which  envelops  chival- 
rous poetry  is  discarded.  Love  is  treated  from  a  frankly 
carnal  point  of  view.  Bacchus  and  Venus  go  hand  in 


hand,  as  in  the  ancient  ante-Christian  age.  The  open- 
air  enjoyments  of  the  wood,  the  field,  the  dance  upon 
the  village  green,  are  sung  with  juvenile  lightheartedness. 
No  grave  note,  warning  us  that  the  pleasures  of  this 
earth  are  fleeting,  that  the  visible  world  is  but  a  symbol 
of  the  invisible,  that  human  life  is  a  probation  for  the 
life  beyond,  interrupts  the  tinkling  music  as  of  castanets 
and  tripping  feet  which  gives  a  novel  charm  to  these 
unique  relics  of  the  13th  century.  Goliardic  poetry  is 
further  curious  as  showing  how  the  classics  even  at  that 
early  period  were  a  fountainhead  of  pagan  inspiration. 
In  the  taverns  and  low  places  of  amusement  haunted  by 
those  lettered  songsters,  on  the  open  road  and  in  the 
forests  trodden  by  their  vagrant  feet,  the  deities  of  Greece 
and  Rome  were  not  in  exile,  but  at  home  within  the 
hearts  of  living  men.  Thus,  while  Christendom  was  still 
preoccupied  with  the  crusades,  two  main  forces  of  the 
Renaissance,  naturalism  and  enthusiasm  for  antique  modes 
of  feeling,  already  brought  their  latent  potency  to  light, 
prematurely  indeed  and  precociously,  yet  with  a  promise 
that  was  destined  to  be  kept. 

When  due  regard  is  paid  to  these  miscellaneous  evi-  Mediaeval 
dences  of  intellectual  and  sensual  freedom  during  the  attitude 
Middle  Ages,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  were  by  no  means  mind- 
lacking  elements  of  native  vigour  ready  to  burst  forth. 
What  was  wanting  was  not  vitality  and  licence,  not 
audacity  of  speculation,  not  lawless  instinct  or  rebellious 
impulse.  It  was  rather  the  right  touch  on  life,  the  right 
feeling  for  human  independence,  the  right  way  of  approach- 
ing the  materials  of  philosophy,  religion,  scholarship,  and 
literature,  that  failed.  The  courage  that  is  born  of 
knowledge,  the  calm  strength  begotten  by  a  positive 
attitude  of  mind,  face  to  face  with  the  dominant  over- 
shadowing Sphinx  of  theology,  were  lacking.  We  may 
fairly  say  that  natural  and  untaught  people  had  more  of 
the  just  intuition  that  was  needed  than  learned  folk 
trained  in  the  schools.  But  these  people  were  rendered 
licentious  in  revolt  or  impotent  for  salutary  action  by 
ignorance,  by  terror,  by  uneasy  dread  of  the  doom  declared 
for  heretics  and  rebels.  The  massive  vengeance  of  the 
church  hung  over  them,  like  a  heavy  sword  suspended  in 
the  cloudy  air.  Superstition  and  stupidity  hedged  them 
in  on  every  side,  so  that  sorcery  and  magic  seemed  the 
only  means  of  winning  power  over  nature  or  insight  into 
mysteries  surrounding  human  life.  The  path  from  dark- 
ness to  light  was  lost;  thought  was  involved  in  alle- 
gory ;  the  study  of  nature  had  been  perverted  into  an 
inept  system  of  grotesque  and  pious  parable-mongering ; 
the  pursuit  of  truth  had  become  a  game  of  wordy 
dialectics.  The  other  world  with  its  imagined  heaven 
and  hell  haunted  the  conscience  like  a  nightmare.  How- 
ever sweet  this  world  seemed,  however  fail-  the  flesh,  both 
world  and  flesh  were  theoretically  given  over  to  the  devil. 
It  was  not  worth  while  to  master  and  economize  the 
resources  of  this  earth,  to  utilize  the  goods  and  ameliorate 
the  evils  of  this  life,  while  every  one  agreed,  in  theory  at 
any  rate,  that  the  present  was  but  a  bad  prelude  to  an 
infinitely  worse  or  infinitely  better  future.  To  escape 
from  these  preoccupations  and  prejudices  except  upon  the 
path  of  conscious  and  deliberate  sin  was  impossible  for 
all  but  minds  of  rarest  quality  and  courage ;  and  these 
were  too  often  reduced  to  the  recantation  of  their  supposed 
errors  no  less  by  some  secret  clinging  sense  of  guilt  than 
by  the  church's  iron  hand.  Man  and  the  actual  universe 
kept  on  reasserting  their  rights  and  claims,  announcing 
their  goodliness  and  delightfulness,  in  one  way  or  another ; 
but  they  were  always  being  thrust  back  again  into 
Cimmerian  regions  of  abstractions,  fictions,  visions,  spectral 
hopes  and  fears,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  intellect 
somnambulistically  moved  upon  an  unknown  way. 


384 


RENAISSANCE 


ftaly— 
;he  Re- 
rival  of 
Learnin' 


It  is  just  at  this  point  that  the  Revival  of  Learning  inter- 
vened to  determine  the  course  of  the  Renaissance.  Medi- 
jeval  students  possessed  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Latin 
'  classics,  though  Greek  had  become  in  the  fullest  sense  of 
the  phrase  a  dead  language.  But  what  they  retained  of 
ancient  literature  they  could  not  comprehend  in  the  right 
spirit.  Between  them  and  the  text  of  poet  or  historian 
hung  a  veil  of  mysticism,  a  vapour  of  misapprehension. 
The  odour  of  unsanctity  clung  around  those  relics  of  the 
pagan  past.  Men  bred  in  the  cloister  and  the  lecture- 
room  of  the  logicians,  trained  in  scholastic  disputations, 
versed  in  allegorical  interpretations  of  the  plainest  words 
and  most  apparent  facts,  could  not  find  the  key  which 
might  unlock  those  stores  of  wisdom  and  of  beauty. 
Petrarch  first  opened  a  new  method  in  scholarship,  and  re- 
vealed what  we  denote  as  humanism.  In  his  teaching  lay 
the  twofold  discovery  of  man  and  of  the  world.  For  human- 
ism, which  was  the  vital  element  in  the  Revival  of  Learning, 
consists  mainly  of  a  just  perception  of  the  dignity  of  man 
as  a  rational,  volitional,  and  sentient  being,  born  upon  this 
earth  with  a  right  to  use  it  and  enjoy  it.  Humanism 
implied  the  rejection  of  those  visions  of  a  future  and 
imagined  state  of  souls  as  the  only  absolute  reality,  which 
had  fascinated  the  imagination  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
involved  a  vivid  recognition  of  the  goodliness  of  man  and 
nature,  displayed  in  the  great  monuments  of  human  power 
recovered  from  the  past.  It  stimulated  the  curiosity  of 
latent  sensibilities,  provoked  fresh  inquisition  into  the 
groundwork  of  existence,  and  strengthened  man's  self- 
esteem  by  knowledge  of  what  men  had  thought  and  felt 
and  done  in  ages  when  Christianity  was  not.  It  roused  a 
desire  to  reappropriate  the  whole  abandoned  provinces  of 
mundane  energy,  and  a  hope  to  emulate  antiquity  in  works 
of  living  loveliness  and  vigour.  The  Italians  of  the  14th 
century,  more  precocious  than  the  other  European  races, 
were  ripe  for  this  emancipation  of  enslaved  intelligence. 
In  the  classics  they  found  the  food  which  was  required 
to  nourish  the  new  spirit ;  and  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances, among  which  must  be  reckoned  the  pride  of  a 
nation  boasting  of  its  descent  from  the  Populus  Romanus, 
rendered  them  apt  to  fling  aside  the  obstacles  that  had 
impeded  the  free  action  of  the  mind  through  many  cen- 
turies. Petrarch  not  only  set  his  countrymen  upon  the 
right  method  of  studying  the  Latin  classics,  but  he  also 
divined  the  importance  of  recovering  a  knowledge  of  Greek 
literature.  To  this  task  Boccaccio  addressed  himself ;  and 
he  was  followed  by  numerous  Italian  enthusiasts,  who 
visited  Byzantium  before  its  fall  as  the  sacred  city  of  a  new 
revelation.  The  next  step  was  to  collect  MSS.,  to  hunt 
out,  copy,  and  preserve  the  precious  relics  of  the  past. 
In  this  work  of  accumulation  Guarino  and  Filelfo,  Aurispa 
and  Poggio,  took  the  chief  part,  aided  by  the  wealth  of 
Italian  patricians,  merchant-princes,  and  despots,  who  were 
inspired  by  the  sacred  thirst  for  learning.  Learning  was 
then  no  mere  pursuit  of  a  special  and  recluse  class.  It  was 
fashionable  and  it  was  passionate,  pervading  all  society 
with  the  fervour  of  romance.  For  a  generation  nursed  in 
decadent  scholasticism  and  stereotyped  theological  formulse 
it  was  the  fountain  of  renascent  youth,  beauty,  and 
freedom,  the  shape  in  which  the  Helen  of  art  and  poetry 
appeared  to  the  ravished  eyes  of  mediaeval  Faustus.  It 
was  the  resurrection  of  the  mightiest  spirits  of  the  past. 
"  I  go,"  said  Cyriac  of  Ancona,  the  indefatigable  though 
uncritical  explorer  of  antiquities,  "I  go  to  awake  the 
dead  ! "  This  was  the  enthusiasm,  this  the  vitalizing  faith, 
which  made  the  work  of  scholarship  in  the  15th  century 
so  highly  strung  and  ardent.  The  men  who  followed  it 
knew  that  they  were  restoring  humanity  to  its  birthright 
after  the  expatriation  of  ten  centuries.  They  were  instinc- 
tively aware  that  the  effort  was  for  liberty  of  action, 


thought,  and  conscience  in  the  future.  This  conviction 
made  young  men  leave  their  loves  and  pleasures,  grave  men 
quit  their  counting-houses,  churchmen  desert  their  missals, 
to  crowd  the  lecture  rooms  of  philologers  and  rhetoricians. 
When  Greek  had  been  acquired,  MSS.  accumulated, 
libraries  and  museums  formed,  came  the  age  of  printers 
and  expositors.  Aldus  Manutius  in  Italy,  Froben  in  Basel, 
the  Etiennes  in  Paris,  committed  to  the  press  what  the 
investigators  had  recovered.  Nor  were  there  wanting  at 
the  same  time  men  who  dedicated  their  powers  to  Hebrew 
and  Oriental  erudition,  laying,  together  with  the  Grecians, 
a  basis  for  those  Biblical  studies  which  advanced  the 
Reformation.  Meanwhile  the  languages  of  Greece  and 
Rome  had  been  so  thoroughly  appropriated  that  a  final  race 
of  scholars,  headed  by  Politian,  Pontano,  Valla,  handled 
once  again  in  verse  and  prose  both  antique  dialects,  and 
thrilled  the  ears  of  Europe  with  new-made  pagan  melodies. 
The  church  itself  at  this  epoch  lent  its  influence  to  the 
prevalent  enthusiasm.  Nicholas  'V.  and  Leo  X.,  not  to 
mention  intervening  popes  who  showed  themselves  tolerant 
of  humanistic  culture,  were  heroes  of  the  classical  revival. 
Scholarship  became  the  surest  path  of  advancement  to 
ecclesiastical  and  political  honours.  Italy  was  one  great 
school  of  the  new  learning  at  the  moment  when  the  Ger- 
man, French,  and  Spanish  nations  were  invited  to  her 
feast. 

It  will  be  well  to  describe  briefly,  but  in  detail,  what 
this  meeting  of  the  modern  with  the  ancient  mind  effected 
over  the  whole  field  of  intellectual  interests.  In  doing 
so,  we  must  be  careful  to  remember  that  the  study  of  the 
classics  did  but  give  a  special  impulse  to  pent-up  energies 
which  were  bound  in  one  way  or  another  to  assert  their 
independence.  Without  the  Revival  of  Learning  the  direc- 
tion of  those  forces  would  have  been  different ;  but  that 
novel  intuition  into  the  nature  of  the  world  and  man 
which  constitutes  what  we  describe  as  Renaissance  must 
have  emerged.  As  the  facts,  however,  stand  before  us,  it 
is  impossible  to  dissociate  the  rejection  of  the  other  world 
as  the  sole  reality,  the  joyous  acceptance  of  this  world  as 
a  place  to  live  and  act  in,  the  conviction  that  "  the  proper 
study  of  mankind  is  man,"  from  humanism.  Humanism, 
as  it  actually  appeared  in  Italy,  was  positive  in  its  con- 
ception of  the  problems  to  be  solved,  pagan  in  its  con- 
tempt for  mediaeval  mysticism,  invigorated  for  sensuous 
enjoyment  by  contact  with  antiquity,  yet  holding  in 
itself  the  germ  of  new  religious  aspirations,  profounder 
science,  and  sterner  probings  of  the  mysteries  of  life  than 
had  been  attempted  even  by  the  ancients.  The  operation 
of  this  humanistic  spirit  has  now  to  be  traced. 

It  is  obvious  that  Italian  literature  owed  little  at  the 
outset  to  the  revival  of  learning.  The  Divine  Comedy, 
the  Canzoniere,  and  the  Decameron  were  works  of  monu- 
mental art,  deriving  neither  form  nor  inspiration  imme- 
diately from  the  classics,  but  applying  the  originality  of 
Italian  genius  to  matter  drawn  from  previous  mediaeval 
sources.  Dante  showed  both  in  his  epic  poem  and  in  his 
lyrics  that  he  had  not  abandoned  the  sphere  of  contem- 
porary thought.  Allegory  and  theology,  the  vision  and  the 
symbol,  still  determine  the  form  of  masterpieces  which  for 
perfection  of  workmanship  and  for  emancipated  force  of  in- 
tellect rank  among  the  highest  products  of  the  human  mind. 
Yet  they  are  not  mediaeval  in  the  same  sense  as  the  song 
of  Roland  or  the  Arthurian  cycle.  They  proved  that, 
though  Italy  came  late  into  the  realm  of  literature,  her 
action  was  destined  to  be  decisive  and  alterative  by  the 
introduction  of  a  new  spirit,  a  firmer  and  more  positive 
grasp  on  life  and  art.  These  qualities  she  owed  to  her 
material  prosperity,  to  her  freedom  from  feudalism,  to  her 
secularized  church,  her  commercial  nobility,  her  political 
independence  in  a  federation  of  small  states.  Petrarch 


Natv, 
Itali; 

lllllll, 


RENAISSANCE 


385 


and  Boccaccio,  though  they  both  held  the  mediaeval  doctrine 
that  literature  should  teach  some  abstruse  truth  beneath 
a  veil  of  fiction,  differed  from  Dante  •  in  this  that  their 
poetry  and  prose  in  the  vernacular  abandoned  both  alle- 
gory and  symbol.  In  their  practice  they  ignored  their 
theory.  Petrarch's  lyrics  continue  the  Provengal  tradition 
as  it  had  been  reformed  in  Tuscany,  with  a  subtler  and 
more  modern  analysis  of  emotion,  a  purer  and  more 
chastened  style,  than  his  masters  could  boast.  Boccaccio's 
tales,  in  like  manner,  continue  the  tradition  of  the  fabliaux, 
raising  that  literary  species  to  the  rank  of  finished  art, 
enriching  it  with  humour,  and  strengthening  its  substance 
by  keen  insight  into  all  varieties  of  character.  The 
Canzoniere  and  the  Decameron  distinguish  themselves 
from  mediaeval  literature,  not  by  any  return  to  classical 
precedents,  but  by  free  self-conscious  handling  of  human 
nature.  So  much  had  to  be  premised  in  order  to  make 
it  clear  in  what  relation  humanism  stood  to  the  Renais- 
sance, since  the  Italian  work  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and 
Boccaccio  is  sufficient  to  indicate  the  re-birth  of  the  spirit 
after  ages  of  apparent  deadness.  Had  the  Revival  of 
Learning  not  intervened  it  is  probable  that  the  vigorous 
efforts  of  these  writers  alone  would  have  inaugurated  a  new 
age  of  European  culture.  Yet,  while  noting  this  reserva- 
tion of  judgment,  it  must  also  be  remarked  that  all  three 
felt  themselves  under  some  peculiar  obligation  to  the 
classics.  Dante,  mediaeval  as  his  temper  seems  to  us,  chose 
Virgil  for  his  guide,  and  ascribed  his  mastery  of  style  to 
the  study  of  Virgilian  poetry.  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio  were, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  pioneers  of  the  new  learning.  They 
held  their  writings  in  the  vernacular  cheap,  and  initiated 
that  contempt  for  the  mother  tongue  which  was  a  note  of 
the  earlier  Renaissance.  It  may  further  be  observed  that 
Giovanni  Villani,  the  first  chronicler  who  used  Italian  for 
the  compilation  of  a  methodical  history,  tells  us  how  he 
was  impelled  to  write  by  musing  on  the  ruins  of  Rome 
and  thinking  of  the  vanished  greatness  of  the  Latin  face. 
We  have  therefore  to  recognize  this  fact  that  the  four 
greatest  writers  of  the  14th  century,  while  the  Revival 
of  Learning  was  yet  in  its  cradle,  each  after  his  own 
fashion  acknowledged  the  vivifying  touch  upon  their  spirit 
of  the  antique  genius.  They  seem  to  have  been  conscious 
that  they  could  not  give  the  desired  impulse  to  modern 
literature  and  art  without  contact  with  the  classics;  and, 
in  spite  of  the  splendour  of  their  achievements  in  Italian, 
they  found  no  immediate  followers  upon  that  path. 

The  fascination  of   pure  study  was  so   powerful,   the 
'•  Italians  at  that  epoch  were  so  eager  to  recover  the  past,  j 

that  during  the  15th  century  we  have  before  our  eyes 
ij  n,i  the  spectacle  of  this  great  nation  deviating  from  the  course 
ei  of  development  begun  in  poetry  by  Dante  and  Petrarch,  in 
rf  prose  by  Boccaccio  and  Villani,  into  the  channels  of  scholar- 
ship and  antiquarian  research.  The  language  of  the 
Canzoniere  and  Decameron  was  abandoned  for  revived  Latin 
and  discovered  Greek.  Acquisition  supplanted  invention  ; 
imitation  of  classical  authors  suppressed  originality  of 
style.  The  energies  of  the  Italian  people  were  devoted  to 
transcribing  codices,  settling  texts,  translating  Greek 
books  into  Latin,  compiling  grammars,  commentaries, 
encyclopaedias,  dictionaries,  epitomes,  and  ephemerides. 
During  this  century  the  best  histories  —  Bruno's  and 
Poggio's  annals  of  Florence,  for  example  —  were  composed 
in  Latin  after  the  manner  of  Livy.  The  best  dissertations, 
Landino's  Camaldunenses,  Valla's  De  Voluptate,  were 
laboured  imitations  of  Cicero's  Tusculans.  The  best  verses, 
Pontano's  elegies,  Politian's  hexameters,  were  in  like  manner 
Latin  ;  public  orations  upon  ceremonial  occasions  were 
delivered  in  the  Latin  tongue  ;  correspondence,  official  and 
familiar,  was  carried  on  in  the  same  language  ;  even  the 
fabliaux  received,  in  Poggio's  Faceting  a  dress  of  elegant 


*° 


Latinity.  The  noticeable  barrenness  of  Italian  literature 
at  this  period  is  referable  to  the  fact  that  men  of  genius 
and  talent  devoted  themselves  to  erudition  and  struggled 
to  express  their  thoughts  and  feelings  in  a  speech  which 
was  not  natural.  Yet  they  were  engaged  in  a  work  of 
incalculable  importance.  At  the  close  of  the  century  the 
knowledge  of  Greece  and  Rome  had  been  reappro- 
priated  and  placed  beyond  the  possibility  of  destruction ; 
the  chasm  between  the  old  and  new  world  had  been 
bridged ;  mediaeval  modes  of  thinking  and  discussing  had 
been  superseded;  the  staple  of  education,  the  common 
culture  which  has  brought  all  Europe  into  intellectual 
agreement,  was  already  in  existence.  Humanism  was 
now  an  actuality.  Owing  to  the  uncritical  veneration  for 
antiquity  which  then  prevailed,  it  had  received  a  strong 
tincture  of  pedantry.  Its  professors,  in  their  revolt  against 
the  Middle  Ages,  made  light  of  Christianity  and  paraded 
paganism.  What  was  even  worse  from  an  artistic  point  of 
view,  they  had  contracted  puerilities  of  style,  vanities  of 
rhetoric,  stupidities  of  wearisome  citation.  Still,  at  the 
opening  of  the  16th  century,  it  became  manifest  what 
fruits  of  noble  quality  the  Revival  of  Letters  was  about  to 
bring  forth  for  modern  literature.  Two  great  scholars, 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  Politian,  had  already  returned  to 
the  practice  of  Italian  poetry.  Their  work  is  the  first 
absolutely  modern  work, — modern  in  the  sense  of  having 
absorbed  the  stores  of  classic  learning  and  reproduced  those 
treasures  in  forms  of  simple,  natural,  native  beauty. 
Boiardo  occupies  a  similar  position  by  the  fusion  of  classic 
mythology  with  chivalrous  romance  in  his  Orlando 
Innamorato.  But  the  victor's  laurels  were  reserved  for 
Ariosto,  whose  Orlando  Furioso  is  the  purest  and  most 
perfect  extant  example  of  Renaissance  poetry.  It  was  not 
merely  in  what  they  had  acquired  and  assimilated  from  the 
classics  that  these  poets  showed  the  transformation  effected 
in  the  field  of  literature  by  humanism.  The  whole  method 
and  spirit  of  mediaeval  art  had  been  abandoned.  That  of 
the  Cinque  Cento  is  positive,  defined,  mundane.  The 
deity,  if  deity  there  be,  that  rules  in  it,  is  beauty. 
Interest  is  confined  to  the  actions,  passions,  sufferings,  and 
joys  of  human  life,  to  its  pathetic,  tragic,  humorous,  and 
sentimental  incidents.  Of  the  state  of  souls  beyond  the 
grave  we  hear  and  are  supposed  to  care  nothing.  In  the 
drama  the  pedantry  of  the  Revival,  which  had  not  injured 
romantic  literature,  made  itself  perniciously  felt.  Rules 
were  collected  from  Horace  and  Aristotle.  Seneca  was 
chosen  as  the  model  of  tragedy;  Plautus  and  Terence 
supplied  the  groundwork  of  comedy.  Thus  in  the  plays 
of  Rucellai,  Trissino,  Sperone,  and  other  tragic  poets,  the 
nobler  elements  of  humanism,  considered  as  a  revelation  of 
the  world  and  man,  obtained  no  free  development.  Even 
the  comedies  of  the  best  authors  are  too  observant  of  Latin 
precedents,  although  some  pieces  of  Machiavelli,  Ariosto, 
Aretino,  Cecchi,  and  Gelli  are  admirable  for  vivid  delinea- 
tion of  contemporary  manners. 

The  relation  of  the  plastic  arts  to  the  revival  of  learning  to  the 
is  similar  to  that  which  has  been  sketched  in  the  case  of  fine  ar*s ; 
poetry.  Cimabue  started  with  work  which  owed  nothing 
directly  to  antiquity.  At  about  the  same  time  Niccola 
Pisano  studied  the  style  of  sculpture  in  fragments  of  Greeco- 
Roman  marbles.  His  manner  influenced  Giotto,  who  set 
painting  on  a  forward  path.  Fortunately  for  the  unim- 
peded expansion  of  Italian  art,  little  was  brought  to 
light  of  antique  workmanship  during  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries.  The  classical  stimulus  came  to  painters, 
sculptors,  and  architects  chiefly  through  literature.  There- 
fore there  was  narrow  scope  for  imitation,  and  the  right 
spirit  of  humanism  displayed  itself  in  a  passionate  study 
of  perspective,  nature,  and  the  nude.  Yet  we  find  in  the 
writings  of  Ghiberti  and  Alberti,  we  notice  in  the  master- 

XX.  -  49 


386 


RENAISSANCE 


sophy; 


pieces  of  these  men  and  their  compeers  Brunelleschi  and 
Donatello,  how  even  in  the  15th  century  the  minds  of 
artists  were  fascinated  by  what  survived  of  classic  grace 
and  science.  Gradually,  as  the  race  became  penetrated 
with  antique  thought,  the  earlier  Christian  motives  of  the 
arts  yielded  to  pagan  subjects.  Gothic  architecture,  which 
had  always  flourished  feebly  on  Italian  soil,  was  supplanted 
by  a  hybrid  Roman  style.  The  study  of  Vitruvius  gave 
strong  support  to  that  pseudo-classic  manner  which,  when 
it  had  reached  its  final  point  in  Palladio's  work,  overspread 
the  whole  of  Europe  and  dominated  taste  during  two 
centuries.  But  the  perfect  plastic  art  of  Italy,  the  pure 
art  of  the  Cinque  Cento,  the  painting  of  Raphael,  Da 
Vinci,  Titian,  and  Correggio,  the  sculpture  of  Donatello, 
Michelangelo,  and  Sansovino,  the  architecture  of  Bra- 
mante,  Omodeo,  and  the  Venetian  Lombardi,  however  much 
imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  classical  revival,  takes  rank 
beside  the  poetry  of  Ariosto  as  a  free  intelligent  product 
of  the  Renaissance.  That  is  to  say,  it  is  not  so  much  an 
outcome  of  studies  in  antiquity  as  an  exhibition  of 
emancipated  modern  genius  fired  and  illuminated  by  the 
masterpieces  of  the  past.  It  indicates  a  separation  from 
the  Middle  Ages,  inasmuch  as  it  is  permanently  natural. 
Its  religion  is  joyous,  sensuous,  dramatic,  terrible,  but  in 
each  and  all  of  its  many-sided  manifestations  strictly 
human.  Its  touch  on  classical  mythology  is  original, 
rarely  imitative  or  pedantic.  The  art  of  the  Renaissance 
was  an  apocalypse  of  the  beauty  of  the  world  and  man  in 
unaffected  spontaneity,  without  side  thoughts  for  piety  or 
erudition,  inspired  by  pure  delight  in  loveliness  and 
harmony  for  their  own  sakes. 

to  science  ln  the  fields  of  science  and  philosophy  humanism  wrought 
5i,?r -  °~  similar  important  changes.  Petrarch  began  by  waging  re- 
lentless war  against  the  logicians  and  materialists  of  his  own 
day.  With  the  advance  made  in  Greek  studies  scholastic 
methods  of  thinking  fell  into  contemptuous  oblivion.  The 
newly  aroused  curiosity  for  nature  encouraged  men  like 
Alberti,  Da  Vinci,  Toscanelli,  and  Da  Porta  to  make  prac- 
tical experiments,  penetrate  the  working  of  physical  forces, 
and  invent  scientific  instruments.  Anatomy  began  to  be 
studied,  and  the  time  was  not  far  distant  when  Titian 
should  lend  his  pencil  to  the  epoch-making  treatise  of 
Vesalius.  The  Middle  Ages  had  been  satisfied  with  absurd 
and  visionary  notions  about  the  world  around  them,  while 
the  body  of  man  was  regarded  with  too  much  suspicion 
to  be  studied.  Now  the  right  method  of  interrogating 
nature  with  patience  and  loving  admiration  was  instituted. 
At  the  same  time  the  texts  of  ancient  authors  supplied 
hints  which  led  to  discoveries  so  far-reaching  in  their 
results  as  those  of  Copernicus,  Columbus,  and  Galileo.  In 
philosophy,  properly  so-called,  the  humanistic  scorn  for 
mediaeval  dulness  and  obscurity  swept  away  theological 
metaphysics  as  valueless.  But  at  first  little  beyond  empty 
rhetoric  and  clumsy  compilation  was  substituted.  The 
ethical  treatises  of  the  scholars  are  deficient  in  substance, 
while  Ficino's  attempt  to  revive  Platonism  betrays  an 
uncritical  conception  of  his  master's  drift.  It  was  some- 
thing, however,  to  have  shaken  ofi  the  shackles  of  ecclesi- 
astical authority ;  and,  even  if  a  new  authority,  that  of  the 
ancients,  was  accepted  in  its  stead,  still  progress  was  being 
made  toward  sounder  methods  of  analysis.  This  is  notice- 
able in  Pomponazzo's  system  of  materialism,  based  on  the 
interpretation  of  Aristotle,  but  revealing  a  virile  spirit  of 
disinterested  and  unprejudiced  research.  The  thinkers  of 
southern  Italy,  Telesio,  Bruno,  and  Campanella,  at  last 
opened  the  two  chief  lines  on  which  modern  speculation 
has  since  moved.  Telesio  and  Campanella  may  be  termed 
the  predecessors  of  Bacon.  Bruno  was  the  precursor  of  the 
idealistic  schools.  All  three  alike  strove  to  disengage  their 
minds  from  classical  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  authority, 


proving  that  the  emancipation  of  the  will  had  been  accom- 
plished. It  must  be  added  that  their  writings,  like  evrrv 
other  product  of  the  Renaissance,  except  its  purest  poetry 
and  art,  exhibit  a  hybrid  between  mediaeval  and  modern  ten- 
dencies. Childish  ineptitudes  are  mingled  with  intuitions 
of  maturest  wisdom,  and  seeds  of  future  thought  germinate 
in  the  decaying  refuse  of  past  systems. 

Humanism  in  its  earliest  stages  was  uncritical.  It  to  cri 
absorbed  the  relics  of  antiquity  with  omnivorous  appetite,  cism; 
and  with  very  imperfect  sense  of  the  distinction  between 
worse  and  better  work.  Yet  it  led  in  process  of  time  to 
criticism.  The  critique  of  literature  began  in  the  lecture 
room  of  Politian,  in  the  printing-house  of  Aldus,  and  in  the 
school  of  Vittorino.  The  critique  of  Roman  law  started, 
under  Politian's  auspices,  upon  a  more  liberal  course  than 
that  which  had  been  followed  by  the  powerful  but  narrow- 
sighted  glossators  of  Bologna.  Finally,  in  the  court  of 
Naples  arose  that  most  formidable  of  all  critical  engines, 
the  critique  of  established  ecclesiastical  traditions  and 
spurious  historical  documents.  Valla  by  one  vigorous 
effort  destroyed  the  False  Decretals  and  exposed  the  Dona- 
tion of  Constantino  to  ridicule,  paving  the  way  for  the 
polemic  carried  on  against  the  dubious  pretensions  of  the 
papal  throne  by  scholars  of  the  Reformation.  A  similar 
criticism,  conducted  less  on  lines  of  erudition  than  of 
persiflage  and  irony,  ransacked  the  moral  abuses  of  the 
church  and  played  around  the  very  foundations  of  Chris- 
tianity. This  was  tolerated  with  approval  by  men  who 
repeated  Leo  X.'s  witty  epigram :  "  What  profit  has 
not  that  fable  of  Christ  brought  us  !  "  The  same  critical 
and  philosophic  spirit  working  on  the  materials  of  history 
produced  a  new  science,  the  honours  of  which  belong  to 
Machiavelli.  He  showed,  on  the  one  side,  how  the  history 
of  a  people  can  be  written  with  a  recognition  of  fixed  prin- 
ciples, and  at  the  same  time  with  an  artistic  feeling  for 
personal  and  dramatic  episodes.  On  the  other  side,  he 
addressed  himself  to  the  analysis  of  man  considered  as  a 
political  being,  to  the  anatomy  of  constitutions  and  the 
classification  of  governments,  to  the  study  of  motives  under- 
lying public  action,  the  secrets  of  success  and  the  causes  of 
failure  in  the  conduct  of  affairs.  The  unscrupulous  rigour 
with  which  he  applied  his  scientific  method,  and  the 
sinister  deductions  he  thought  himself  justified  in  drawing 
from  the  results  it  yielded,  excited  terror  and  repulsion. 
Nevertheless,  a  department  had  been  added  to  the  intellec- 
tual empire  of  mankind,  in  which  fellow-workers,  like 
Guicciardini  at  Florence,  and  subsequently  Sarpi  at  Venice, 
were  not  slow  to  follow  the  path  traced  by  Machiavelli. 

The  object  of  the  foregoing  paragraphs  has  been  to  to 
show  in  what  way  the  positive,  inquisitive,  secular,  explor-  tit 
atory  spirit  of  the  Renaissance,  when  toned  and  controlled 
by  humanism,  penetrated  the  regions  of  literature,  art, 
philosophy,  and  science.  It  becomes  at  this  point  of  much 
moment  to  consider  how  social  manners  in  Italy  were 
modified  by  the  same  causes,  since  the  type  developed 
there  was  in  large  measure  communicated  together  with 
the  new  culture  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  first  subject 
to  be  noticed  under  this  heading  is  education.  What  has 
come  to  be  called  a  classical  education  was  the  immediate 
product  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  The  universities  of 
Bologna,  Padua,  and  Salerno  had  been  famous  through  the 
Middle  Ages  for  the  study  of  law,  physics,  and  medicine  ; 
and  during  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  the  two  first  still 
enjoyed  celebrity  in  those  faculties.  But  at  this  period  no 
lecture-rooms  were  so  crowded  as  those  in  which  professors 
of  antique  literature  and  language  read  passages  from  the 
poets  and  orators,  taught  Greek,  and  commented  upon  the 
systems  of  philosophers.  The  mediaeval  curriculum  offered 
no  defined  place  for  the  new  learning  of  the  Revival,  which 
had  indeed  no  recognized  name.  Chairs  had  therefore  to 


II 
I 


RENAISSANCE 


387 


be  founded  under  the  title  of  rhetoric,  from  which  men 
like  Chrysoloras  and  Guarino,  Filelfo  and  Politian, 
expounded  orally  to  hundreds  of  eager  students  from  every 
town  of  Italy  and  every  nation  in  Europe  their  accumu- 
lated knowledge  of  antiquity.  One  mass  of  Greek  and 
Roman  erudition,  including  history  and  metaphysics,  law 
and  science,  civic  institutions  and  the  art  of  war,  mythology 
and  magistracies,  metrical  systems  and  oratory,  agriculture 
and  astronomy,  domestic  manners  and  religious  rites, 
grammar  and  philology,  biography  and  numismatics, 
formed  the  miscellaneous  subject  matter  of  this  so-styled 
rhetoric.  Notes  taken  at  these  lectures  supplied-  young 
scholars  with  hints  for  further  exploration ;  and  a  certain 
tradition  of  treating  antique  authors  for  the  display  of 
general  learning,  as  well  as  for  the  elucidation  of  their 
texts,  came  into  vogue,  which  has  determined  the  method 
of  scholarship  for  the  last  three  centuries  in  Europe.  The 
lack  of  printed  books  in  the  first  period  of  the  Revival,  and 
the  comparative  rarity  of  Greek  erudition  among  students, 
combined  with  the  intense  enthusiasm  aroused  for  the  new 
gospel  of  the  classics,  gave  special  value  to  the  personal 
teaching  of  these  professors.  They  journeyed  from  city  to 
city,  attracted  by  promises  of  higher  pay,  and  allured  by 
ever-growing  laurels  of  popular  fame.  Each  large  town 
established  its  public  study,  academy,  or  university,  similar 
institutions  under  varying  designations,  for  the  exposition 
of  the  litterse  humaniores.  The  humanists,  or  professors  of 
that  branch  of  knowledge,  became  a  class  of  the  highest 
dignity.  They  were  found  in  the  chanceries  of  the 
republics,  in  the  papal  curia,  in  the  council  chambers  of 
princes,  at  the  headquarters  of  condottieri,  wherever 
business  had  to  be  transacted,  speeches  to  be  made,  and 
the  work  of  secretaries  to  be  performed.  Furthermore, 
they  undertook  the  charge  of  private  education,  opening 
schools  which  displaced  the  mediaeval  system  of  instruction, 
and  taking  engagements  as  tutors  in  the  families  of 
despots,  noblemen,  and  wealthy  merchants.  The  academy 
established  by  Vittorino  da  Feltre  at  Mantua  under  the 
protection  of  Gian  Francesco  Gonzaga  for  the  training  of 
pupils  of  both  sexes,  might  be  chosen  as  the  type  of  this 
Italian  method.  His  scholars,  who  were  lodged  in  appro- 
priate buildings,  met  daily  to  hear  the  master  read  and 
comment  on  the  classics.  They  learned  portions  of  the 
best  authors  by  heart,  exercised  themselves  in  translation 
from  one  language  to  another,  and  practised  composition 
in  prose  and  verse.  It  was  Vittorino's  care  to  see  that, 
while  their  memories  were  duly  stored  with  words  and 
facts,  their  judgment  should  be  formed  by  critical  analysis, 
attention  to  style,  and  comparison  of  the  authors  of  a 
decadent  age  with  those  who  were  acknowledged  classics. 
During  the  hours  of  recreation  suitable  physical  exercises, 
as  fencing,  riding,  and  gymnastics,  were  conducted  under 
qualified  trainers.  From  this  sketch  it  will  be  seen  how 
closely  the  educational  system  which  came  into  England 
during  the  reigns  of  the  Tudors,  and  which  has  prevailed 
until  the  present  time,  was  modelled  upon  the  Italian 
type.  English  youths  who  spend  their  time  at  Eton 
between  athletic  sports  and  Latin  verses,  and  who  take 
an  Ireland  with  a  first  class  in  "  Greats "  at  Oxford,  are 
pursuing  the  same  course  of  physical  and  mental  discipline 
as  the  princes  of  Gonzaga  or  Montefeltro  in  the  15th 
century. 

sal  The  humanists  effected  a  deeply  penetrating  change 
1  ls-  in  social  manners.  Through  their  influence  as  tutors, 
professors,  orators,  and  courtiers,  society  was  permeated 
by  a  fresh  ideal  of  culture.  To  be  a  gentleman  in  Italy 
meant  at  this  epoch  to  be  a  man  acquainted  with  the 
rudiments  at  least  of  scholarship,  refined  in  diction, 
capable  of  corresponding  or  of  speaking  in  choice  phrasesj 
open  to  the  beauty  of  the  arts,  intelligently  interested  in 


archaeology,  taking  for  his  models  of  conduct  the  great 
men  of  antiquity  rather  than  the  saints  of  the  church. 
He  was  also  expected  to  prove  himself  an  adept  in 
physical  exercises  and  in  the  courteous  observances  which 
survived  from  chivalry.  The  type  is  set  before  us  by 
Castiglione  in  that  book  upon  the  courtier  which  went 
the  round  of  Europe  in  the  16th  century.  It  is  further 
emphasized  in  a  famous  passage  of  the  Orlando  Innamorato 
where  Boiardo  compares  the  Italian  ideal  of  an  accom- 
plished gentleman  with  the  coarser  type  admired  by 
nations  of  the  north.  To  this  point  the  awakened 
intelligence  of  the  Renaissance,  instructed  by  humanism, 
polished  by  the  fine  arts,  expanding  in  genial  conditions 
of  diffused  wealth,  had  brought  the  Italians  at  a  period 
when  the  rest  of  Europe  was  comparatively  barbarous. 

This  picture  has  undoubtedly  a  darker  side.     Human-  The  moral 
ism,  in  its  revolt  against  the  Middle  Ages,  was,  as  we  defects  of 
have  seen  already,  mundane,  pagan,  irreligious,  positive.  ^e  ^ 
The   Renaissance   can,  after   all,  be   regarded  o'nly  as  a  " 

period  of  transition,  in  which  much  of  the  good  of  the 
past  was  sacrificed  while  some  of  the  evil  was  retained,  and 
neither  the  bad  nor  the  good  of  the  future  was  brought 
clearly  into  fact.  Beneath  the  surface  of  brilliant  social 
culture  lurked  gross  appetites  and  savage  passions, 
unrestrained  by  mediaeval  piety,  untutored  by  modern 
experience.  Italian  society  exhibited  an  almost  unex- 
ampled spectacle  of  literary,  artistic,  and  courtly  refinement 
crossed  by  brutalities  of  lust,  treasons,  poisonings,  assas- 
sinations, violence.  A  succession  of  worldly  pontiffs 
brought  the  church  into  flagrant  discord  with  the  principles 
of  Christianity.  Steeped  in  pagan  learning,  emulous  of 
imitating  the  manners  of  the  ancients,  used  to  think  and 
feel  in  harmony  with  Ovid  and  Theocritus,  and  at  the 
same  time  rendered  cynical  by  the  corruption  of  papal 
Rome,  the  educated  classes  lost  their  grasp  upon  morality. 
Political  honesty  ceased  almost  to  have  a  name  in  Italy. 
The  Christian  virtues  were  scorned  by  the  foremost  actors 
and  the  ablest  thinkers  of  the  time,  while  the  antique 
virtues  were  themes  for  rhetoric  rather  than  moving- 
springs  of  conduct.  This  is  apparent  to  all  students  of 
Machiavelli  and  Guicciardini,  the  profoundest  analysts  of 
their  age,  the  bitterest  satirists  of  its  vices,  but  themselves 
infected  with  its  incapacity  for  moral  goodness.  Not 
only  were  the  Italians  vitiated ;  but  they  had  also  become 
impotent  for  action  and  resistance.  At  the  height  of  the 
Renaissance  the  five  great  powers  in  the  peninsula  formed 
a  confederation  of  independent  but  mutually  attractive 
and  repellent  states.  Equilibrium  was  maintained  by 
diplomacy,  in  which  the  humanists  played  a  foremost  part, 
casting  a  network  of  intrigue  over  the  nation  which 
helped  in  no  small  measure  to  stimulate  intelligence  and 
create  a  common  medium  of  culture,  but  which  accustomed 
statesmen  to  believe  that  everything  could  be  achieved  by 
wire-pulling.  Wars  were  conducted  on  a  showy  system 
by  means  of  mercenaries,  who  played  a  safe  game  in  the 
field  and  developed  a  system  of  bloodless  campaigns, 
Meanwhile  the  people  grew  up  unused  to  arms.  When 
Italy  between  the  years  1494  and  1530  became  the  battle- 
field of  French,  German,  and  Spanish  forces,  it  was  seen 
to  what  a  point  of  helplessness  the  political,  moral,  and 
social  conditions  of  the  Renaissance  had  brought  the 
nation. 

It  was  needful  to  study  at  some  length  the  main  pheno-  Diffusion 
mena  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  because  the  history  of  of  the 
that  phase  of  evolution  in  the  other  Western  races  turns  new  . 
almost  entirely  upon  points  in  which  they  either  adhered  from™8 
to  or  diverged  from  the  type  established  there.     Speaking  Italy 
broadly,    what    France,    Germany,    Spain,    and    England  through- 
assimilated  from  Italy  at  this  epoch  was  in  the  first  place  °,ut 
the  new  learning,  as  it  was  then  called.     This  implied  the    ' 


;;ss 


RENAISSANCE 


new  conception  of  human  life,  the  new  interest  in  the 
material  universe,  the  new  method  of  education,  and  the 
new  manners,  which  we  have  seen  to  be  inseparable  from 
Italian  humanism.  Under  these  forms  of  intellectual 
enlightenment  and  polite  culture  the  renascence  of  the 
human  spirit  had  appeared  in  Italy,  where  it  was  more 
than  elsewhere  connected  with  the  study  of  classical 
antiquity.  But  that  audacious  exploratory  energy  which 
formed  the  motive  force  of  the  Renaissance  as  distinguished 
from  the  Revival  of  Learning  took,  as  we  shall  see,  very 
different  directions  in  the  several  nations  who  now  were 
sending  the  flower  of  their  youth  to  study  at  the  feet  of 
Italian  rhetoricians. 

The  Renaissance  ran  its  course  in  Italy  with  strange 
indifference  to  consequences.  The  five  great  powers,  held 
in  equilibrium  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  dreamed  that  the 
peninsula  could  be  maintained  in  statu  quo  by  diplomacy. 
The  church  saw  no  danger  in  encouraging  a  pseudo- 
pagan  ideal  of  life,  violating  its  own  principle  of  existence 
by  assuming  the  policy  of  an  aggrandizing  secular  state, 
and  outraging  Christendom  openly  by  its  acts  and 
utterances.  Society  at  large  was  hardly  aware  that  an 
intellectual  force  of  stupendous  magnitude  and  incalculable 
explosive  power  had  been  created  by  the  new  learning. 
Why  should  not  established  institutions  proceed  upon  the 
customary  and  convenient  methods  of  routine,  while  the 
delights  of  existence  were  augmented,  manners  polished, 
arts  developed,  and  a  golden  age  of  epicurean  ease  made 
decent  by  a  state  religion  which  no  one  cared  to  break 
with  because  no  one  was  left  to  regard  it  seriously  ?  This 
was  the  attitude  of  the  Italians  when  the  Renaissance, 
which  they  had  initiated  as  a  thing  of  beauty,  began  to 
operate  as  a  thing  of  power  beyond  the  Alps. 
Revival  Germany  was  already  provided  with  universities,  seven 
>f  Learn-  of  which  had  been  founded  between  1348  and  1409. 
>in  In  these  haunts  of  learning  the  new  studies  took  root 
3'  after  the  year  1440,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  tra- 
velling professors,  Peter  Luder  and  Samuel  Karoch. 
German  scholars  made  their  way  to  Lombard  and  Tuscan 
lecture-rooms,  bringing  back  the  methods  of  the  humanists. 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew  erudition  soon  found  itself  at 
home  on  Teutonic  soil.  Like  Italian  men  of  letters, 
these  pioneers  of  humanism  gave  a  classic  turn  to  their 
patronymics;  unfamiliar  names,  Crotus  Rubeanus  and 
Pierius  Graecus,  Capnion  and  Lupambulus  Ganymedes, 
CEcolampadius  and  Melanchthon,  resounded  on  the  Rhine. 
A  few  of  the  German  princes,  among  whom  Maximilian, 
the  prince  cardinal  Albert  of  Mainz,  Frederick  the  Wise 
of  Saxony,  and  Eberhard  of  Wiirtemberg  deserve  mention, 
exercised  a  not  insignificant  influence  on  letters  by  the 
foundation  of  new  universities  and  the  patronage  of 
learned  men.  The  cities  of  Strasburg,  Nuremberg,  Augs- 
burg, Basel,  became  centres  of  learned  coteries,  which 
gathered  round  scholars  like  Wimpheling,  Brant,  Peutinger, 
Schedel,  and  Pirckheimer,  artists  like  Diirer  and  Holbein, 
printers  of  the  eminence  of  Froben.  Academies  in 
imitation  of  Italian  institutions  came  into  existence,  the 
two  most  conspicuous,  named  after  the  Rhine  and  Danube, 
holding  their  headquarters  respectively  at  Heidelberg  and 
Vienna.  Crowned  poets,  of  whom  the  most  eminent  was 
Conrad  Celtes  Protucius  (Pickel !),  emulated  the  fame  of 
Politian  and  Pontano.  Yet,  though  the  Renaissance  was 
thus  widely  communicated  to  the  centres  of  German 
intelligence,  it  displayed  a  different  character  from  that 
which  it  assumed  in  Italy.  Gothic  art,  which  was  indi- 
genous in  Germany,  yielded  but  little  to  southern  influ- 
ences. Such  work  as  that  of  Diirer,  Vischer,  Cranach, 
Schongauer,  Holbein,  consummate  as  it  was  in  technical 
excellence,  did  not  assume  Italian  forms  of  loveliness,  did 
not  display  the  paganism  of  the  Latin  races.  The  modi- 


fication of  Gothic  architecture  by  pseudo-Roman  elements 
of  style  was  incomplete.  What  Germany  afterwards  took 
of  the  Palladian  manner  was  destined  to  reach  it  on  a 
circuitous  route  from  France.  In  like  manner  the  IH-W 
learning  failed  to  penetrate  all  classes  of  society  with  the 
rapidity  of  its  expansion  in  Italy,  nor  was  the  new  ideal 
of  life  and  customs  so  easily  substituted  for  the  mediaeval. 
The-  German  aristocracy,  as  ^Eneas  Sylvius  had  noticed, 
remained  for  the  most  part  barbarous,  addicted  to 
gross  pleasures,  contemptuous  of  culture.  The  German 
dialects  were  too  rough  to  receive  that  artistic  elabora- 
tion under  antique  influences  which  had  been  so  facile 
in  Tuscany.  The  doctors  of  the  universities  were  too 
wedded  to  their  antiquated  manuals  and  methods,  too 
satisfied  with  dulness,  too  proud  of  titles  and  diplomas, 
too  anxious  to  preserve  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  to 
repress  mental  activity,  for  a  genial  spirit  of  human- 
ism to  spread  freely.  Not  in  Cologne  or  Tubingen 
but  in  Padua  and  Florence  did  'the  German  pioneers  of 
the  Renaissance  acquire  their  sense  of  liberal  studies. 
And  when  they  returned  home  they  found  themselves 
encumbered  with  stupidities,  jealousies,  and  rancours. 
Moreover,  the  temper  of  these  more  enlightened  men 
was  itself  opposed  to  Italian  indifference  and  immor- 
ality; it  was  pugnacious  and  polemical,  eager  to  beat 
down  the  arrogance  of  monks  and  theologians  rather 
than  to  pursue  an  ideal  of  sesthetical  self-culture.  To  a 
student  of  the  origins  of  German  humanism  it  is  clear 
that  something  very  different  from  the  Renaissance  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  Leo  X.  was  in  preparation  from 
the  first  upon  Teutonic  soil.  Far  less  plastic  and  forni- 
loving  than  the  Italian,  the  German  intelligence  was 
more  penetrative,  earnest,  disputative,  occupied  with  sub- 
stantial problems.  Starting  with  theological  criticism, 
proceeding  to  the  stage  of  solid  studies  in  the  three 
learned  languages,  German  humanism  occupied  the  atten- 
tion of  a  widely  scattered  sect  of  erudite  scholars ;  but  it 
did  not  arouse  the  interest  of  the  whole  nation  until  it  was 
forced  into  a  violently  militant  attitude  by  Pfefferkorn's 
attack  on  Reuchlin.  That  attempt  to  extinguish  honest 
thought  prepared  the  Reformation ;  and  humanism  after 
1518  was  absorbed  in  politico-religious  warfare. 

The  point  of  contact  between  humanism  and  the  Reforma-  Rel 
tion  in  Germany  has  to  be  insisted  on ;  for  it  is  just  here  h«" 
that  the  relation  of  the  Reformation  to  the  Renaissance  in  *? 
general  makes  itself  apparent.  As  the  Renaissance  had  Re) 
its  precursory  movements  in  the  mediaeval  period,  so  the  tioi 
German  Reformation  was  preceded  by  Wickliffe  and  Huss, 
by  the  discontents  of  the  Great  Schism,  and  by  the 
councils  of  Constance  and  Basel.  These  two  main  streams 
of  modern  progress  had  been  proceeding  upon  different 
tracks  to  diverse  issues,  but  they  touched  in  the  studies 
stimulated  by  the  Revival,  and  they  had  a  common  origin 
in  the  struggle  of  the  spirit  after  self-emancipation. 
Johann  Reuchlin,  who  entered  the  lecture-room  of  Argyro- 
poulos  at  Rome  in  1482,  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  who 
once  dwelt  at  Venice  as  the  house  guest  of  the  Aldi,  applied 
their  critical  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  of  Greek  to  the 
elucidation  and  diffusion  of  the  Bible.  To  the  Germans, 
as  to  all  nations  of  that  epoch,  the  Bible  came  as  a  new 
book,  because  they  now  read  it  for  the  first  time  with 
eyes  opened  by  humanism.  The  touch  of  the  new  spirit 
which  had  evolved  literature,  art,  and  culture  in  Italy 
sufficed  in  Germany  to  recreate  Christianity.  This  new 
spirit  in  Italy  emancipated  human  intelligence  by  the 
classics ;  in  Germany  it  emancipated  the  human  conscience 
by  the  Bible.  The  indignation  excited  by  Leo  X.'s  sale 
of  indulgences,  the  moral  rage  stirred  in  Northern  hearts 
by  papal  abominations  in  Rome,  were  external  causes 
which  precipitated  the  schism  between  Teutonic  ami 

m 


RENAISSANCE 


389 


Latin  Christianity.  The  Reformation,  inspired  by  the 
same  energy  of  resuscitated  life  as  the  Renaissance, 
assisted  by  the  same  engines  of  the  printing-press  and 
paper,  using  the  same  apparatus  of  scholarship,  criticism, 
literary  skill,  being  in  truth  another  manifestation  of  the 
same  world-movement  under  a  diverse  form,  now  posed 
itself  as  an  irreconcilable  antagonist  to  Renaissance  Italy. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  draw  any  comparison  between 
German  and  Italian  humanists  to  the  disparagement  of 
the  former.  Reuchlin  was  no  less  learned  than  Pico ; 
Melanchthon  no  less  humane  than  Ficino  ;  Erasmus  no  less 
witty,  and  far  more  trenchant,  than  Petrarch ;  Ulrich 
von  Hutten  no  less  humorous  than  Folengo ;  Paracelsus 
no  less  fantastically  learned  than  Cardano.  But  the 
cause  in  which  German  intellect  and  will  were  enlisted 
was  so  different  that  it  is  difficult  not  to  make  a  formal 
separation  between  that  movement  which  evolved  culture 
in  Italy  and  that  which  restored  religion  in  Germany, 
establishing  the  freedom  of  intelligence  in  the  one  sphere 
and  the  freedom  of  the  conscience  in  the  other.  The  truth 
is  that  the  Reformation  was  the  Teutonic  Renaissance. 
It  was  the  emancipation  of  the  reason  on  a  line  neglected 
by  the  Italians,  more  important  indeed  in  its  political 
consequences,  more  weighty  in  its  bearing  on  rationalistic 
developments  than  the  Italian  Renaissance,  but  none  the 
less  an  outcome  of  the  same  ground-influences.  We  have 
already  in  this  century  reached  a  point  at  which,  in  spite 
of  stubborn  Protestant  dogmatism  and  bitter  Catholic 
reaction,  we  can  perceive  how  the  ultimate  affranchisement 
of  man  will  be  the  work  of  both. 

hi  The  German  Reformation  was  incapable  of  propagating 
ii'lic  itself  in  Italy,  chiefly  for  the  reason  that  the  intellectual 
j.  forces  which  it  represented  and  employed  had  already 
found  specific  outlet  in  that  country.  It  was  not  in  the 
nature  of  the  Italians,  sceptical  and  paganized  by  the 
Revival,  to  be  keenly  interested  about  questions  which 
seemed  to  revive  the  scholastic  disputes  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  It  was  not  in  their  external  conditions,  suffering  as 
they  were  from  invasions,  enthralled  by  despots,  to  use  the 
Reformation  as  a  lever  for  political  revolution.  Yet  when 
a  tumultuary  army  of  so-called  Lutherans  sacked  Rome  in 
1527  no  sober  thinker  doubted  that  a  new  agent  had 
appeared  in  Europe  which  would  alter  the  destinies  of  the 
peninsula.  The  Renaissance  was  virtually  closed,  so  far 
as  it  concerned  Italy,  when  Clement  VII.  and  Charles  V. 
struck  their  compact  at  Bologna  in  1530.  This  compact 
proclaimed  the  principle  of  monarchical  absolutism,  sup- 
ported by  papal  authority,  itself  monarchically  absolute, 
which  influenced  Europe  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. A  reaction  immediately  set  in  both  against  the 
Renaissance  and  the  Reformation.  The  council  of  Trent, 
opened  in  1545  and  closed  in  1563,  decreed  a  formal  pur- 
gation of  the  church,  affirmed  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  Catholicism,  strengthened  the  papal  supremacy,  and 
inaugurated  that  movement  of  resistance  which  is  known 
as  the  Counter-Reformation.  The  complex  onward  effort 
of  the  modern  nations,  expressing  itself  in  Italy  as  Renais- 
sance, in  Germany  as  Reformation,  had  aroused  the  forces 
of  conservatism.  The  four  main  instruments  of  the  reac- 
tion were  the  papacy,  which  had  done  so  much  by  its  sym- 
pathy with  the  revival  to  promote  the  humanistic  spirit  it 
now  dreaded,  the  strength  of  Spain,  and  two  Spanish 
institutions  planted  on  Roman  soil — the  Inquisition  and  the 
Order  of  Jesus.  The  principle  contended  for  and  estab- 
lished by  this  reaction  was  absolutism  as  opposed  to 
freedom — monarchical  absolutism,  papal  absolutism,  the 
suppression  of  energies  liberated  by  the  Renaissance  and 
Reformation.  The  partial  triumph  of  this  principle  was 
secure,  inasmuch  as  the  majority  of  established  powers  in 
church  and  state  felt  threatened  bv  the  revolutionary 


opinions  afloat  in  Europe.  Renaissance  and  Reformation 
were,  moreover,  already  at  strife.  Both  too  were  spiritual 
and  elastic  tendencies  toward  progress,  ideals  rather  than 
solid  organisms. 

The  part  played  by  Spain  in  this  period  of  history  was  Spain  in 

determined  in   large   measure  by  external   circumstance. tlie  Re~ 
mi        <-^        •      i     i  j  •         i       ^1  e  naissance 

The   Spaniards  became   one   nation  by  the   conquest   or  perj0(i_ 

Granada  and  the  union  of  the"  crowns  of  Castile  and  arts  and 
Aragon.  The  war  of  national  aggrandizement,  being  in  letters, 
its  nature  a  crusade,  inflamed  the  religious  enthusiasm  of 
the  people.  It  was  followed  by  the  expulsion  of  Jews  and 
Moors,  and  by  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition  on  a 
solid  basis,  with  powers  formidable  to  the  freedom  of  all 
Spaniards  from  the  peasant  to  the  throne.  These  facts 
explain  the  decisive  action  of  the  Spanish  nation  on  the 
side  of  Catholic  conservatism,  and  help  us  to  understand 
why  their  brilliant  achievements  in  the  field  of  culture 
during  the  16th  century  were  speedily  followed  by  stag- 
nation. It  will  be  well,  in  dealing  with  the  Renaissance 
in  Spain,  to  touch  first  upon  the  arts  and  literature,  and 
then  to  consider  those  qualities  of  character  in  action 
whereby  the  nation  most  distinguished  itself  from  the  rest 
of  Europe.  Architecture  in  Spain,  emerging  from  the 
Gothic  stage,  developed  an  Early  Renaissance  style  of 
bewildering  richness  by  adopting  elements  of  Arabic  and 
Moorish  decoration.  Sculpture  exhibited  realistic  vigour 
of  indubitably  native  stamp ;  and  the  minor  plastic  crafts 
were  cultivated  with  success  on  lines  of  striking  originality. 
Painting  grew  from  a  homely  stock,  until  the  work  of 
Velazquez  showed  that  Spanish  masters  in  this  branch  were 
fully  abreast  of  their  Italian  compeers  and  contemporaries. 
To  dwell  here  upon  the  Italianizing  versifiers,  moralists,  and 
pastoral  romancers  who  attempted  to  refine  the  vernacular 
of  the  Romancero  would  be  superfluous.  They  are  mainly 
noticeable  as  proving  that  certain  coteries  in  Spain  were 
willing  to  accept  the  Italian  Renaissance.  But  the  real 
force  of  the  people  was  not  in  this  courtly  literary  style. 
It  expressed  itself  at  last  in  the  monumental  work  of  Don 
Quixote,  which  places  Cervantes  beside  Rabelais,  Ariosto, 
and  Shakespeare  as  one  of  the  four  supreme  exponents  of 
the  Renaissance.  The  affectations  of  decadent  chivalry 
disappeared  before  its  humour ;  the  lineaments  of  a  noble 
nation,  animated  by  the  youth  of  modern  Europe  emerging 
from  the  Middle  Ages,  were  portrayed  in  its  enduring  pic- 
tures of  human  experience.  The  Spanish  drama,  mean- 
while, untrammelled  by  those  false  canons  of  pseudo- 
classic  taste  which  fettered  the  theatre  in  Italy  and 
afterwards  in  France,  rose  to  an  eminence  in  the  hands  of 
Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon  which  only  the  English,  and 
the  English  only  in  the  masterpieces  of  three  or  four  play- 
wrights, can  rival.  Camoens,  in  the  Lusiad,  if  we  may 
here  group  Portugal  with  Spain,  was  the  first  modern  poet 
to  compose  an  epic  on  a  purely  modern  theme,  vying  with 
Virgil,  but  not  bending  to  pedantic  rules,  and  breathing 
the  spirit  of  the  age  of  heroic  adventures  and- almost  fabu- 
lous discoveries  into  his  melodious  numbers.  What  has 
chiefly  to  be  noted  regarding  the  achievements  of  the 
Spanish  race  in  arts  and  letters  at  this  epoch  is  their 
potent  national  originality.  The  revival  of  learning  pro- 
duced in  Spain  no  slavish  imitation  as  it  did  in  Italy,  no 
formal  humanism,  and,  it  may  be  added,  very  little  of 
fruitful  scholarship.  The  Renaissance  here,  as  in  England, 
displayed  essential  qualities  of  intellectual  freedom,  delight 
in  life,  exultation  over  rediscovered  earth  and  man.  The 
note  of  Renaissance  work  in  Germany  was  still  Gothic. 
This  we  feel  in  the  penetrative  earnestness  of  Diirer,  in  the 
homeliness  of  Hans  Sachs,  in  the  grotesque  humour 
of  Eulenspiegd  and  the  Narrenschiff,  the  sombre  pregnancy 
of  the  Faust  legend,  the  almost  stolid  mastery  of  Holbein. 
It  lay  not  in  the  German  genius  to  escape  from  the  pre- 


390 


RENAISSANCE 


occupations  and  the  limitations  of  the  Middle  Ages,  for  this 
reason  mainly  that  what  we  call  mediaeval  was  to  a  very 
large  extent  Teutonic.  But  on  the  Spanish  peninsula,  in 
the  masterpieces  of  Velazquez,  Cervantes,  Camoens, 
Calderon,  \ve  emerge  into  an  atmosphere  of  art,  definitely 
national,  distinctly  modern,  where  solid  natural  forms 
stand  before  us  realistically  modelled,  with  light  and 
shadow  on  their  rounded  outlines,  and  where  the  airiest 
creatures  of  the  fancy  take  shape  and  weave  a  dance  of 
rhythmic,  light,  incomparable  intricacy.  The  Spanish 
Renaissance  would  in  itself  suffice,  if  other  witnesses  were 
wanting,  to  prove  how  inaccurate  is  the  theory  that  limits 
this  movement  to  the  revival  of  learning.  Touched  by 
Italian  influences,  enriched  and  fortified  by  the  new 
learning,  Spanish  genius  walked  firmly  forward  on  its  own 
path.  It  was  only  crushed  by  forces  generated  in  the 
nation  that  produced  it,  by  the  Inquisition  and  by  despotic 
Catholic  absolutism. 

Explora-  In  the  history  of  the  Renaissance,  Spain  and  Portugal 
tion  of  represent  the  exploration  of  the  ocean  and  the  colonization 
of  the  other  hemisphere.  The  voyages  of  Columbus  and 
Vespucci  to  America,  the  rounding  of  the  Cape  by  Diaz  and 
the  discovery  of  the  sea  road  to  India  by  Vasco  da  Gama, 
Cortes's  conquest  of  Mexico  and  Pizarro's  conquest  of  Peru, 
marked  a  new  era  for  the  human  race  and  inaugurated  the 
modern  age  more  decisively  than  any  other  series  of  events 
has  done.  It  has  recently  been  maintained  that  modern 
European  history  is  chiefly  an  affair  of  competition  between 
confederated  states  for  the  possession  of  lands  revealed  by 
Columbus  and  Da  Gama.  Without  challenging  or  adopt- 
ing this  speculation,  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  nothing 
so  pregnant  of  results  has  happened  as  this  exploration  of 
the  globe.  To  say  that  it  displaced  the  centre  of  gravity 
in  politics  and  commerce,  substituting  the  ocean  for  the 
Mediterranean,  dethroning  Italy  from  her  seat  of  central 
importance  in  traffic,  depressing  the  eastern  and  elevating 
the  western  powers  of  Europe,  opening  a  path  for  Anglo- 
Saxon  expansiveness,  forcing  philosophers  and  statesmen  to 
regard  the  Occidental  nations  as  a  single  group  in  counter- 
poise to  other  groups  of  nations,  the  European  community 
as  one  unit  correlated  to  other  units  of  humanity  upon 
this  planet,  is  truth  enough  to  vindicate  the  vast  signi- 
ficance of  these  discoveries.  The  Renaissance,  far  from 
being  the  re-birth  of  antiquity  with  its  civilization  confined 
to  the  Mediterranean,  with  its  Hercules'  Pillars  beyond 
which  lay  Cimmerian  darkness,  was  thus  effectively  the 
entrance  upon  a  quite  incalculably  wider  stage  of  life,  in 
which  mankind  at  large  has  since  enacted  one  great  drama. 
Dogmatic  While  Spanish  navies  were  exploring  the  ocean,  and 
Catholi-  Spanish  paladins  were  overturning  empires,  Charles  V. 
sm'  headed  the  reaction  of  Catholicism  against  reform. 
Stronger  as  king  of  Spain  than  as  emperor,  for  the  empire 
was  little  but  a  name,  he  lent  the  weight  of  his  authority 
to  that  system  of  coercion  and  repression  which  enslaved 
Italy,  desolated  Germany  with  war,  and  drowned  the  Low 
Countries  in  blood.  Philip  II.,  with  full  approval  of  the 
Spanish  nation,  pursued  the  same  policy  in  an  even 
stricter  spirit.  He  was  powerfully  assisted  by  two  institu- 
tions, in  which  the  national  character  of  Spain  expressed 
itself,  the  Inquisition  and  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Of  the  former 
it  is  not  needful  to  speak  here.  But  we  have  to  observe 
that  the  last  great  phenomenon  of  the  Spanish  Renaissance 
was  Ignatius  Loyola,  who  organized  the  militia  by  means 
of  which  the  church  worked  her  Counter-Reformation. 
His  motto,  Perinde  ac  cadaver,  expressed  that  recognition 
of  absolutism  which  papacy  and  monarchy  demanded  for 
their  consolidation. 

The  logical  order  of  an  essay  which  attempts  to  show 
how  Renaissance  was  correlated  to  Reformation  and 
Counter-Reformation  has  necessitated  the  treatment  of 


Italy,  Germany,  and  Spain  in  succession ;  for  these  three  From 
nations  were  the  three  main  agents  in  the  triple  process  to  thl  |: 
be  analysed.  It  was  due  to  their  specific  qualities,  and  to 
the  diverse  circumstances  of  their  external  development, ' c 
that  the  re-birth  of  Europe  took  this  form  of  duplex  action 
on  the  lines  of  intellectual  and  moral  progress,  followed  by 
reaction  against  mental  freedom.  We  have  now  to  speak 
of  France,  which  earliest  absorbed  the  influence  of  the 
Italian  revival,  and  of  England,  which  received  it  latest. 
The  Renaissance  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  France 
with  Charles  VIII. 's  expedition  to  Naples,  and  to  have  con- 
tinued until  the  extinction  of  the  house  of  Valois.  Louis 
XIL  and  Francis  I.  spent  a  considerable  portion  of  their 
reigns  in  the  attempt  to  secure  possession  of  the  Italian 
provinces  they  claimed.  Henry  II. 's  queen  was  Catherine 
of  the  Medicean  family  ;  and  her  children,  Charles  IX.  and 
Henry  III.,  were  Italianated  Frenchmen.  Thus  the  con- 
nexion between  France  and  Italy  during  the  period  1494- 
1589  was  continuous.  The  French  passed  to  and  fro 
across  the  Alps  on  military  and  peaceful  expeditions. 
Italians  came  to  France  as  courtiers,  ambassadors,  men  of 
business,  captains,  and  artists.  French  society  assumed 
a  strong  Italian  colouring,  nor  were  the  manners  of  the 
court  very  different  from  those  of  an  Italian  city,  except 
that  externally  they  remained  ruder  and  less  polished. 
The  relation  between  the  crown  and  its  great  feudatories, 
the  military  bias  of  the  aristocracy,  and  the  marked 
distinction  between  classes  which  survived  from  the  Middle 
Ages,  rendered  France  in  many  vital  points  unlike  Italy. 
Yet  the  annals  of  that  age,  and  the  anecdotes  retailed  by 
Brantome,  prove  that  the  royalty  and  nobility  of  France 
had  been  largely  Italianized. 

It  is  said  that  Louis  XIL  brought  Fra  Giocondo  of  Fn 
Verona  back  with  him  to  France,  and  founded  a  school  of  arc  : 
architects.  But  we  need  not  have  recourse  to  this  legend 
for  the  explanation  of  such  Italian  influences  as  were  already 
noticeable  in  the  Renaissance  buildings  on  the  Loire. 
Without  determining  the  French  style,  Italian  intercourse 
helped  to  stimulate  its  formation  and  development.  There 
are  students  of  the  15th  century  in  France  who  resent 
this  intrusion  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  But  they  forget 
that  France  was  bound  by  inexorable  laws  of  human 
evolution  to  obey  the  impulse  which  communicated  itself  to 
every  form  of  art  in  Europe.  In  the  school  of  Fontainebleau, 
under  the  patronage  of  Francis  I.,  that  Italian  influence 
made  itself  distinctly  felt ;  yet  a  true  French  manner  had 
been  already  formed,  which,  when  it  was  subsequently 
applied  at  Paris,  preserved  a  marked  national  quality. 
The  characteristic  of  the  style  developed  by  Bullant,  Do 
1'Orme,  and.  Lescot,  in  the  royal  or  princely  palaces  of 
Chenonceaux,  Chambord,  Anet,  Ecouen,  Fontainebleau, 
the  Louvre,  and  elsewhere,  is  a  blending  of  capricious 
fancy  and  inventive  richness  of  decoration  with  purity  of 
outline  and  a  large  sense  of  the  beauty  of  extended  masses. 
Beginning  with  the  older  castles  of  Touraine,  and  passing 
onward  to  the  Tuileries,  we  trace  the  passage  from  the 
mediaeval  fortress  to  the  modern  pleasure  house,  and  note 
how  architecture  obeyed  the  special  demands  of  that  new 
phenomenon  of  Renaissance  civilization,  the  court.  In  the 
general  distribution  of  parts  these  monumental  buildings 
express  the  peculiar  conditions  which  French  society 
assumed  under  the  influence  of  Francis  I.  and  Diane  de 
Poitiers.  In  details  of  execution  and  harmonic  combina- 
tions they  illustrate  the  precision,  logic,  lucidity,  and 
cheerful  spirit  of  the  national  genius.  Here,  as  in 
Lombardy,  a  feeling  for  serene  beauty  derived  from  study 
of  the  antique  has  not  interrupted  the  evolution  of  a  style 
indigenous  to  France  and  eminently  characteristic  of  the 
French  temperament. 

During  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  several  Italian  painters 


RENAISSANCE 


391 


:m 


of  eminence  visited  France.  Among  these  Del  Rosso, 
Primaticcio,  Del  Sarto,  and  Da  Vinci  are  the  most  famous. 
But  their  example  was  not  productive  of  a  really  great 
school  of  French  painting.  It  was  left  for  the  Poussins 
and  Claude  Lorraine  in  the  next  century,  acting  under 
mingled  Italian  and  Flemish  influences,  to  embody  the 
still  active  spirit  of  the  classical  revival.  These  three 
masters  were  the  contemporaries  of  Corneille,  and  do  not 
belong  to  the  Renaissance  period.  Sculpture,  on  the 
contrary,  in  which  art,  as  in  architecture,  the  mediaeval 
French  had  been  surpassed  by  no  other  people  of  Europe, 
was  practised  with  originality  and  power  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  II.  and  Francis  I.  Ponzio  and  Cellini,  who  quitted 
Italy  for  France,  found  themselves  outri  vailed  in  their  own 
sphere  by  Jean  Goujon,  Cousin,  and  Pilon.  The  decorative 
sculpture  of  this  epoch,  whether  combined  with  architec- 
ture or  isolated  in  monumental  statuary,  ranks  for  grace 
and  suavity  with  the  best  of  Sansovino's.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  unmistakably  inspired  by  a  sense  of  beauty  dif- 
ferent from  the  Italian,  —  more  piquant  and  pointed,  less 
languorous,  more  mannered  perhaps,  but  with  less  of 
empty  rhythmical  effect.  All  this  while,  the  minor  arts 
of  enamelling,  miniature,  glass-painting,  goldsmith's  work, 
jewellery,  engraving,  tapestry,  wood-carving,  pottery,  <fec., 
were  cultivated  with  a  spontaneity  and  freedom  which 
proved  that  France,  in  the  middle  point  between  Flanders 
and  Italy,  was  able  to  use  both  influences  without  a 
sacrifice  of  native  taste.  It  may  indeed  be  said  in  general 
that  what  is  true  of  France  is  likewise  true  of  all  countries 
which  felt  the  artistic  impulses  of  the  Renaissance. 
Whether  we  regard  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  or  Germany  at 
this  epoch,  we  find  a  national  impress  stamped  upon  the 
products  of  the  plastic  and  the  decorative  arts,  notwith- 
standing the  prevalence  of  certain  'forms  derived  from  the 
antique  and  Italy.  It  was  only  at  a  later  period  that  the 
formalism  of  pseudo-classic  pedantry  reduced  natural  and 
national  originality  to  a  dead  unanimity. 

French  literature  was  quick  to  respond  to  Renaissance 

influences.     De  Comines,  the  historian  of  Charles  VIII.  's 

expedition    to    Naples,    differs    from    the    earlier    French 

chroniclers  in  his  way  of  regarding  the  world  of  men  and 

affairs.     He  has  the  perspicuity  and  analytical  penetration 

of  a  Venetian  ambassador.     Villon,  his  contemporary,  may 

rather   be   ranked,  so   far   as   artistic   form  and   use   of 

knowledge  are  concerned,  with  poets  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

and  in  particular  with  the  Goliardi.     But  he  is  essentially 

modern  in  the   vividness  of  his  self-portraiture,   and  in 

what  we  are  wont  to  call  realism.     Both  De  Comines  and 

Villon  indicate  the  entrance  of  a  new  quality  into  litera- 

ture.     The    Rhetoriqueurs,    while   protracting   mediaeval 

traditions  by  their  use  of  allegory  and  complicated  metrical 

systems,    sought   to   improve    the   French    language   by 

introducing   Latinisms.     Thus   the   Revival  of   Learning 

began  to  affect  the  vernacular  in  the  last  years  of  the  15th 

century.     Marot   and    his    school    reacted    against    this 

pedantry.     The  Renaissance  displayed  itself  in  their  effort 

to  purify  the  form  and  diction  of  poetry.     But  the  decisive 

revolution  was  effected  by  Ronsard  and  his  comrades  of 

the  Pleiade.     It  was  their  professed  object  to  raise  French 

to  a  level  with   the  classics,   and  to  acclimatize  Italian 

species  of   verse.      The  humanistic  movement   led  these 

learned  writers  to  engraft  the  graces  of   the  antique  upon 

their  native  literature,  and  to  refine  it  by  emulating  the 

lucidity  of  Petrarch.     The  result  of  their  endeavour  was 

immediately  apparent  in  the  new  force  added  to  French 

rhythm,  the  new  pomp,  richness,  colouring,  and  polish  con- 

ferred upon  poetic  diction.     French  style  gradually  attained 

to  fixity,  and  the  alexandrine  came  to  be  recognized  as 

the  standard  line  in  poetry.     D'Aubigne's  invective  and 

Regnier's  satire,  at  the  close  of  the  16th  century,  are  as 


modern  as  Voltaire's.  Meanwhile  the  drama  was  emerging 
from  the  medieval  mysteries;  and  the  classical  type,  made 
popular  by  Garnier's  genius,  was  elaborated,  as  in  Italy, 
upon  the  model  of  Seneca  and  the  canons  of  the  three  unities. 
The  tradition  thus  formed  was  continued  and  fortified  by  the 
illustrious  playwrights  of  the  17th  century.  Translation 
from  Greek  and  Latin  into  French  progressed  rapidly  at 
the  commencement  of  this  period.  It  was  a  marked 
characteristic  of  the  Renaissance  in  France  to  appropriate 
the  spoils  of  Greece  and  Rome  for  the  profit  of  the  mother 
tongue.  Amyot's  Plutarch  and  his  Daphnis  and  Chloe 
rank  among  the  most  exquisite  examples  of  beautiful 
French  prose.  Prose  had  now  the  charm  of  simplicity 
combined  with  grace.  To  mention  Brantome  is  to 
mention  the  most  entertaining  of  gossips.  To  speak  of 
Montaigne  is  to  speak  of  the  best  as  well  as  the  first 
of  essayists.  In  all  the  literary  work  which  has  been 
mentioned,  the  originality  and  freshness  of  the  French 
genius  are  no  less  conspicuous  than  its  saturation  with  the 
new  learning  and  with  Italian  studies.  But  the  greatest 
name  of  the  epoch,  the  name  which  is  synonymous  with  the 
Renaissance  in  France,  has  yet  to  be  uttered.  That,  of 
course,  is  Rabelais.  His  incommensurable  and  indescrib- 
able masterpiece  of  mingled  humour,  wisdom,  satire,  erudi- 
tion, indecency,  profundity,  levity,  imagination,  realism, 
reflects  the  whole  age  in  its  mirror  of  hyper- Aristophanic 
farce.  What  Ariosto  is  for  Italy,  Cervantes  for  Spain, 
Erasmus  for  Holland,  Luther  for  Germany,  Shakespeare  for 
England,  that  is  Rabelais  for  France.  The  Renaissance 
cannot  be  comprehended  in  its  true  character  without 
familiarity  with  these  six  representatives  of  its  manifold 
and  many-sided  inspiration. 

The  French  Renaissance,  so  rich  on  the  side  of  arts  and  French 
letters,  was  hardly  less  rich  on  the  side  of  classical  studies,  scholar- 
The  revival  of  learning  has  a  noble  muster-roll  of  names  ^^'^ 
in  France  :  Turnebe,  the  patriarch  of  Hellenistic  studies ;  forma. 
the  Ltiennes  of  Paris,  equalling  in  numbers,  industry,  and  tion  in 
learning  their  Venetian  rivals  ;  the  two  Scaligers  ;  impas-  France, 
sioned  Dolet ;  eloquent  Muret ;  learned  Cujas ;  terrible 
Calvin ;  Ramus,  the  intrepid  antagonist  of  Aristotle ;  De 
Thou  and  De  Beze ;  ponderous  Casaubon ;  brilliant 
young  Saumaise.  The  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
French  humanism  are  vivid  intelligence,  critical  audacity 
and  polemical  acumen,  perspicuity  of  exposition,  learning 
directed  in  its  applications  by  logical  sense  rather  than  by 
artistic  ideals  of  taste.  Some  of  the  names  just  mentioned 
remind  us  that  in  France,  as  in  Germany  and  Holland, 
the  Reformation  was  closely  connected  with  the  revival  of 
learning.  Humanism  has  never  been  in  the  narrow  sense 
of  that  term  Protestant ;  still  less  has  it  been  strictly 
Catholic.  In  Italy  it  fostered  a  temper  of  mind  decidedly 
averse  to  theological  speculation  and  religious  earnestness. 
In  Holland  and  Germany,  with  Erasmus,  Reuchlin,  and 
Melanchthon,  it  developed  types  of  character,  urbane, 
reflective,  pointedly  or  gently  critical,  which,  left  to 
themselves,  would  not  have  plunged  the  north  of  Europe 
into  the  whirlpool  of  belligerent  reform.  Yet  none  the 
less  was  the  new  learning,  through  the  open  spirit  of 
inquiry  it  nourished,  its  vindication  of  the  private  reason, 
its  enthusiasm  for  republican  antiquity,  and  its  proud 
assertion  of  the  rights  of  human  independence,  linked  by 
a  strong  and  subtle  chain  to  that  turbid  revolt  of  the 
individual  consciousness  against  spiritual  despotism  draped 
in  fallacies  and  throned  upon  abuses.  To  this  rebellion 
we  give  the  name  of  Reformation.  But,  while  the 
necessities  of  antagonism  to  papal  Rome  made  it  assume 
at  first  the  form  of  narrow  and  sectarian  opposition,  it 
marked  in  fact  a  vital  struggle  of  the  intellect  towards 
truth  and  freedom,  involving  future  results  of  scepticism 
and  rationalistic  audacity  from  which  its  earlier  champions 


392 


RENAISSANCE 


would  have  shrunk.  It  marked,  moreover,  in  the  con- 
dition of  armed  resistance  against  established  authority 
which  was  forced  upon  it  by  the  Counter-Reformation, 
a  firm  resolve  to  assert  political  liberty,  leading  in  the 
course  of  time  to  a  revolution  with  which  the  rebellious 
spirit  of  the  Revival  was  sympathetic.  This  being  the  rela- 
tion of  humanism  in  general  to  reform,  French  learning  in 
particular  displayed  such  innovating  boldness  as  threw 
many  of  its  most  conspicuous  professors  into  the  camp  at 
war  with  Rome.  Calvin,  a  French  student  of  Picard  origin, 
created  the  type  of  Protestantism  to  which  the  majority  of 
French  Huguenots  adhered.  This  too  was  a  moment  at 
which  philosophical  seclusion  was  hardly  possible.  In  a 
nation  so  turnultuously  agitated  one  side  or  the  other  had 
to  be  adopted.  Those  of  the  French  humanists  who  did 
not  proclaim  Huguenot  opinions,  found  themselves  obliged 
with  Muretus  to  lend  their  talents  to  the  Counter-Reforma- 
tion, or  to  suffer  persecution  for  heterodoxy,  like  Dolet. 
The  church,  terrified  and  infuriated  by  the  progress  of 
reform,  suspected  learning  on  its  own  account.  To  be  an 
eminent  scholar  was  to  be  accused  of  immorality,  heresy, 
and  atheism  in  a  single  indictment ;  and  the  defence  of 
weaker  minds  lay  in  joining  the  Jesuits,  as  Heinsius  was 
fain  to  do.  France  had  already  absorbed  the  earlier  Re- 
naissance in  an  Italianizing  spirit  before  the  Reformation 
made  itself  felt  as  a  political  actuality.  This  fact,  together 
with  the  strong  Italian  bias  of  the  Valois,  serves  to  explain 
in  some  degree  the  reason  why  the  Counter-Reformation 
entailed  those  fierce  entangled  civil  wars,  massacres  of  St 
Bartholomew,  murders  of  the  Guises,  regicides,  treasons, 
and  empoisonments  that  terminated  with  the  compromise  of 
Henry  IV.  It  is  no  part  of  the  present  subject  to  analyse 
the  political,  religious,  and  social  interests  of  that  struggle. 
The  upshot  was  the  triumph  of  the  Counter-Reformation, 
and  the  establishment  of  its  principle,  absolutism,  as  the 
basis  of  French  government.  It  was  a  French  king  who, 
when  the  nation  had  been  reduced  to  order,  uttered  the 
famous  word  of  absolutism,  "  L'Etat,  c'est  moi." 
•he  The  Renaissance  in  the  Low  Countries,  as  elsewhere,  had 

tether-  its  brilliant  age  of  arts  and  letters.  During  the  Middle 
"Usmish  ^es  *^e  wealtny  free  fcowns  of  Flanders  flourished  under 
nd  '  conditions  not  dissimilar  to  those  of  the  Italian  republics.. 
)utch  They  raised  miracles  of  architectural  beauty,  which  were 
lainting.  modified  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  by  characteristic 
elements  of  the  new  style.  The  Van  Eycks,  followed  by 
Memling,  Metsys,  Mabuse,  Lucas  van  Leyden,  struck  out 
a  new  path  in  the  revival  of  painting  and  taught  Europe 
the  secret  of  oil-colouring.  But  it  was  reserved  for  the 
17th  century  to  witness  the  flower  and  fruit  time  of  this 
powerful  art  in  the  work  of  Porbus,  Rubens,  and  Vandyck, 
in  the  Dutch  schools  of  landscape  and  home-life,  and  in 
the  unique  masterpieces  of  Rembrandt.  We  have  a  right 
to  connect  this  later  period  with  the  Renaissance,  because 
the  distracted  state  of  the  Netherlands  during  the  16th 
century  suspended,  while  it  could  not  extinguish,  their 
aesthetic  development.  The  various  schools  of  the  17th 
century,  moreover,  are  animated  with  the  Renaissance 
spirit  no  less  surely  than  the  Florentine  school  of  the  15th 
or  the  Venetian  of  the  16th.  The  animal  vigour  and 
carnal  enjoyment  of  Rubens,  the  refined  Italianizing 
beauty  of  Vandyck,  the  mystery  of  light  and  gloom  on 
Rembrandt's  panels,  the  love  of  nature  in  Ruysdael,  Cuyp, 
and  Van  Hooghe,  with  their  luminously  misty  skies, 
silvery  daylight,  and  broad  expanse  of  landscape,  the 
interest  in  common  life  displayed  by  Terburg,  Van  Steen, 
Douw,  Ostade,  and  Teniers,  the  instinct  for  the  beauty  of 
animals  in  Potter,  the  vast  sea  spaces  of  Vanderveldt,  the 
grasp  on  reality,  the  acute  intuition  into  character  in 
portraits,  the  scientific  study  of  the  world  and  man,  the 
robust  sympathy  with  natural  appetites,  which  distinguish 


the  whole  art  of  the  Low  Countries,  are  a  direct  emanation 
from  the  Renaissance. 

The  vernacular  in  the  Netherlands  profited  at  first  but  Fiera 
little  by  the  impulse  which  raised  Italian,  Spanish,  and 
French,  and  English  to  the  rank  of  classic  languages.  Dutcl 
But  humanism,  first  of  all  in  its  protagonist  Erasmus,  *? 
afterwards  in  the  long  list  of  critical  scholars  and  editors, 
Lipsius,  Heinsius,  and  Grotius,  in  the  printers  Elzevir  and 
Plantin,  developed  itself  from  the  centre  of  the  Leyden 
university  with  massive  energy,  and  proved  that  it  was 
still  a  motive  force  of  intellectual  progress.  In  the  fields 
of  classical  learning  the  students  of  the  Low  Countries 
broke  new  ground  chiefly  by  methodical  collection,  classi- 
fication, and  comprehensive  criticism  of  previously  accumu- 
lated stores.  Their  works  were  solid  and  substantial 
edifices,  forming  the  substratum  for  future  scholarship. 
In  addition  to  this  they  brought  philosophy  and  scientific 
thoroughness  to  bear  on  studies  which  had  been  pursued  in 
a  more  literary  spirit.  It  would,  iiowever,  be  uncritical  to 
pursue  this  subject  further ;  for  the  encyclopaedic  labours 
of  the  Dutch  philologers  belong  to  a  period  when  the  Re- 
naissance was  overpast.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  inadmis- 
sible to  do  more  than  mention  the  name  of  Spinoza  here. 

The  Netherlands  became  the  battlefield  of  Reformation  Dut< 
and  Counter-Reformation  in  even  a  stricter  sense  than wars 
France.  Here  the  antagonistic  principles  were  plainly m' 
posed  in  the  course  of  a  struggle  against  foreign  despotism. 
The  conflict  ended  in  the  assertion  of  political  independence 
as  opposed  to  absolute  dominion.  Europe  in  large  measure 
owes  the  modern  ideal  of  political  liberty  to  that  spirit 
of  stubborn  resistance  which  broke  the  power  of  Spain. 
Recent  history,  and  in  particular  the  history  of  democracy, 
claims  for  its  province  the  several  stages  whereby  this 
principle  was  developed  in  England  and  America,  and  its 
outburst  in  the  frenzy  of  the  French  Revolution.  It  is 
enough  here  to  have  alluded  to  the  part  played  by  the  Low 
Countries  in  the  genesis  of  a  motive  force  which  may  be 
described  as  the  last  manifestation  of  the  Renaissance 
striving  after  self -emancipation. 

The  insular  position  of  England,  combined  with  the  Eng  1 
nature  of  the  English  people,  has  allowed  us  to  feel  the  in  t 
vibration  of  European  movements  later  and  with  less  of  * 
shock  than  any  of  the  Continental  nations.  Before  a  wave 
of  progress  has  reached  our  shores  we  have  had  the 
opportunity  of  watching  it  as  spectators,  and  of  consider- 
ing how  we  shall  receive  it.  Revolutions  have  passed 
from  the  tumultuous  stages  of  their  origin  into  some 
settled  and  recognizable  state  before  we  have  been  called 
upon  to  cope  with  them.  It  was  thus  that  England  took 
the  influences  of  the  Renaissance  and  Reformation  simul- 
taneously, and  almost  at  the  same  time  found  herself 
engaged  in  that  struggle  with  the  Counter-Reformation 
which,  crowned  by  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada, 
stimulated  the  sense  of  nationality  and  developed  the 
naval  forces  of  the  race.  Both  Renaissance  and  Reforma- 
tion had  been  anticipated  by  at  least  a  century  in  England. 
Chaucer's  poetry,  which  owed  so  much  to  Italian  examples, 
gave  an  early  foretaste  of  the  former.  Wickliffe's  teaching 
was  a  vital  moment  in  the  latter.  But  the  French  wars, 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  and  the  persecution  of  the  Lollards 
deferred  the  coming  of  the  new  age;  and  the  year  1536, 
when  Henry  VIII.  passed  the  Act  of  Supremacy  through 
Parliament,  may  be  fixed  as  the  date  when  England 
entered  definitively  upon  a  career  of  intellectual  develop- 
ment abreast  with  the  foremost  nations  of  the  Continent. 
The  circumstances  just  now  insisted  on  explain  the  specific 
character  of  the  English  Renaissance.  The  Reformation 
had  been  adopted  by  consent  of  the  king,  lords,  and 
commons ;  and  this  change  in  the  state  religion,  though  it 
was  not  confirmed  without  reaction,  agitation,  and  blood- 


per 


KENAISSANCE 


393 


Jit  :es 

i;,-is- 
:i  i  ml 
fo;  .a- 
o.1 


cost  the  nation  comparatively  little  disturbance. 
Humanism,  before  it  affected  the  bulk  of  the  English 
people,  had  already  permeated  Italian  and  French  litera- 
ture.  Classical  erudition  had  been  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  modern  thought.  The  hard  work  of  collecting,  print- 
ing, annotating,  and  translating  Greek  and  Latin  authors 
had  been  accomplished.  The  masterpieces  of  antiquity 
had  been  interpreted  and  made  intelligible.  Much  of  the 
learning  popularized  by  our  poets  and  dramatists  was 
derived  at  second  hand  from  modern  literature.  This 
does  not  mean  that  England  was  deficient  in  ripe  and 
sound  scholars.  More,  Colet,  Ascham,  Cheke,  Camden 
were  men  whose  familiarity  with  the  classics  was  both 
intimate  and  easy.  Public  schools  and  universities  con- 
formed to  the  modern  methods  of  study ;  nor  were  there 
wanting  opportunities  for  youths  of  humble  origin  to 
obtain  an  education  which  placed  them  on  a  level  with 
Italian  scholars.  The  single  case  of  Ben  Jon  son  suffi- 
ciently proves  this.  Yet  learning  did  not  at  this  epoch 
become  a  marked  speciality  in  England.  There  was  no 
class  corresponding  to  the  humanists.  It  should  also  be 
remembered  that  the  best  works  of  Italian  literature  were 
introduced  into  Great  Britain  together  with  the  classics. 
Phaer's  Virgil,  Chapman's  Homer,  Harrington's  Orlando, 
Marlowe's  Hero  and  Leander,  Fairfax's  Jerusalem  Delivered, 
North's  Plutarch,  Hoby's  Courtier — to  mention  only  a  few 
examples — placed  English  readers  simultaneously  in  pos- 
session of  the  most  eminent  and  representative  works  of 
Greece,  Rome,  and  Italy.  At  the  same  time  Spanish 
influences  reached  them  through  the  imitators  of  Guevara 
and  the  dramatists ;  French  influences  in  tha  versions  of 
romances;  German  influences  in  popular  translations  of 
the  Faust  legend,  Eulenspiegel,  and  similar  productions. 
The  authorized  version  of  the  Bible  had  also  been  recently 
given  to  the  people, — so  that  almost  at  the  same  period  of 
time  England  obtained  in  the  vernacular  an  extensive 
library  of  ancient  and  modern  authors.  This  was  a  privi- 
lege enjoyed  in  like  measure  by  no  other  nation.  It  suffi- 
ciently accounts  for  the  richness  and  variety  of  Elizabethan 
literature,  and  for  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  English 
language  was  cultivated. 

Speaking  strictly,  England  borrowed  little  in  the  region 
of  the  arts  from  other  nations,  and  developed  still  less  that 
was  original.  What  is  called  Jacobean  architecture  marks 
indeed  an  interesting  stage  in  the  transition  from  the 
Gothic  style.  But,  compared  with  Italian,  French,  Spanish, 
German,  and  Flemish  work  of  a  like  period,  it  is  both 
timid  and  dry.  Sculpture  was  represented  in  London  for 
a  brief  space  by  Torrigiani ;  painting  by  Holbein  and 
Antonio  More ;  music  by  Italians  and  Frenchmen  of  the 
Chapel  Royal.  But  no  Englishmen  rose  to  European 
eminence  in  these  departments.  With  literature  the  case 
was  very  different.  Wyat  and  Surrey  began  by  engrafting 
the  forms  and  graces  of  Italian  poetry  upon  the  native 
stock.  They  introduced  the  sonnet  and  blank  verse. 
Sidney  followed  with  the  sestine  and  terza  rima  and  with 
various  experiments  in  classic  metres,  none  of  which  took 
root  on  English  soil.  The  translators  handled  the  octave 
stanza.  Marlowe  gave  new  vigour  to  the  couplet.  The 
first  period  of  the  English  Renaissance  was  one  of  imita- 
tion and  assimilation.  Academies  after  the  Italian  type 
were  founded.  Tragedies  in  the  style  of  Seneca,  rivalling 
Italian  and  French  dramas  of  the  epoch,  were  produced. 
Attempts  to  Latinize  ancestral  rhythms,  similar  to  those 
which  had  failed  in  Italy  and  France,  were  made.  Tenta- 
tive essays  in  criticism  and  dissertations  on  the  art  of 
poetry  abounded.  It  seemed  as  though  the  Renaissance 
ran  a  risk  of  being  throttled  in  its  cradle  by  superfluity  of 
foreign  and  pedantic  nutriment.  But  the  natural  vigour 
of  the  English  genius  resisted  influences  alien  to  itself, 


and  showed  a  robust  capacity  for  digesting  the  varied  diet 
offered  to  it.  As  there  was  nothing  despotic  in  the  temper 
of  the  ruling  classes,  nothing  oppressive  in  English  culture, 
the  literature  of  that  age  evolved  itself  freely  from  the 
people.  It  was  under  these  conditions  that  Spenser  gave 
his  romantic  epic  to  the  world,  a  poem  which  derived  its 
allegory  from  the  Middle  Ages,  its  decorative  richness 
from  the  Italian  Renaissance,  its  sweetness,  purity,  har- 
mony, and  imaginative  splendour  from  the  most  poetic 
nation  of  the  modern  world.  Under  the  same  conditions 
the  Elizabethan  drama,  which  in  its  totality  is  the  real 
exponent  of  the  English  Renaissance,  came  into  existence. 
This  drama  very  early  freed  itself  from  the  pseudo-classic 
mannerism  which  imposed  on  taste  in  Italy  and  France. 
Depicting  feudalism  in  the  vivid  colours  of  an  age  at  war 
with  feudal  institutions,  breathing  into  antique  histories 
the  breath  of  actual  life,  embracing  the  romance  of  Italy 
and  Spain,  the  mysteries  of  German  legend,  the  fictions  of 
poetic  fancy  and  the  facts  of  daily  life,  humours  of  the 
moment  and  abstractions  of  philosophical  speculation,  in 
one  homogeneous  amalgam  instinct  with  intense  vitality, 
this  extraordinary  birth  of  time,  with  Shakespeare  for  the 
master  of  all  ages,  left  a  monument  of  the  Renaissance 
unrivalled  for  pure  creative  power  by  any  other  product 
of  that  epoch.  To  complete  the  sketch,  we  must  set 
Bacon,  the  expositor  of  modern  scientific  method,  beside 
Spenser  and  Shakespeare,  as  the  third  representative  of 
the  Renaissance  in  England.  Nor  should  Raleigh,  Drake, 
Hawkins,  the  semi-buccaneer  explorers  of  the  ocean,  be 
omitted.  They,  following  the  lead  of  Portuguese  and  English 
Spaniards,  combating  the  Counter-Reformation  on  the  seas,  reaction 
opened  for  England  her  career  of  colonization  and  planta-  cttholi- 
tion.  All  this  while  the  political  policy  of  Tudors  and  cism> 
Stewarts  tended  towards  monarchical  absolutism,  while  monarch- 
the  Reformation  in  England,  modified  by  contact  with  ic^  ab- 
the  Low  Countries  during  their  struggles,  was  narrowing  a°^tlsm' 
into  strict  reactionary  intolerance.  Puritanism  indicated  Renais- 
a  revolt  of  the  religious  conscience  of  the  nation  against  sance 
the  arts  and  manners  of  the  Renaissance,  against  the  culture, 
encroachments  of  belligerent  Catholicism,  against  the 
corrupt  and  Italianated  court  of  James  I.,  against  the 
absolutist  pretensions  of  his  son  Charles.  In  its  final 
manifestation  during  the  Commonwealth,  Puritanism  won 
a  transient  victory  over  the  mundane  forces  of  both 
Reformation  and  Renaissance,  as  these  had  taken  shape  in 
England.  It  also  secured  the  eventual  triumph  of  con- 
stitutional independence.  Milton,  the  greatest  humanistic 
poet  of  the  English  race,  lent  his  pen  and  moral  energies 
during  the  best  years  of  his  life  to  securing  that  principle 
on  which  modern  political  systems  at  present  rest.  Thus 
the  geographical  isolation  of  England,  and  the  comparatively 
late  adoptrfjn  by  the  English  of  matured  Italian  and  Ger- 
man influences,  give  peculiar  complexity  to  the  phenomena 
of  Reformation  and  Renaissance  simultaneously  developed 
on  our  island.  The  period  of  our  history  between  1 536  and 
1642  shows  how  difficult  it  is  to  separate  these  two  factors 
in  the  re-birth  of  Europe,  both  of  which  contributed  so 
powerfully  to  the  formation  of  modern  English  nationality. 

It  has  been  impossible  to  avoid  an  air  of  superficiality,  New 
and  the  repetition  of  facts  known  to  every  schoolboy,  in  political 
this  sketch  of  so  complicated  a  subject  as  the  Renaissance, —  relatio 
embracing  many  nations,  a  great  variety  of  topics,  and  an  datino. 
indefinite  period  of  time.     Yet  no  other  treatment  wasfromthe 
possible  upon  the  lines  laid  down  at  the  outset,  where  it  Renais- 
was  explained  why  the  term  Renaissance  cannot  now  be  sance. 
confined  to  the  Revival  of  Learning  and  the  effect  of  antique 
studies  upon  literary  and  artistic  ideals.     The  purpose  of 
this  article  has  been  to  show  that,  while  the  Renaissance 
implied  a  new  way  of  regarding  the  material  world  and 
human  nature,  a  new  conception  of   man's  destiny  and 

XX.  —  50 


R  E  N  — 11  E  N 


duties  on  this  planet,  a  new  culture  and  new  intellectual 
perceptions  penetrating  every  sphere  of  thought  and  energy, 
it  also  involved  new  reciprocal  relations  between  the  mem- 
bers of  the  European  group  of  nations.  The  Renaissance 
closed  the  Middle  Ages  and  opened  the  modern  era, — not 
merely  because  the  mental  and  moral  ideas  which  then 
sprang  into  activity  and  owed  their  force  in  large  measure 
to  the  revival  of  classical  learning  were  opposed  to  mediaeval 
modes  of  thinking  and  feeling,  but  also  because  the  politi- 
cal and  international  relations  specific  to  it  as  an  age 
were  at  variance  with  fundamental  theories  of  the  past. 
Instead  of  empire  and  church,  the  sun  and  moon  of  the 
mediaeval  system,  a  federation  of  peoples,  separate  in  type 
and  divergent  in  interests,  yet  bound  together  by  common 
tendencies,  common  culture,  and  common  efforts,  came 
into  existence.  For  obedience  to  central  authority  was 
substituted  balance  of  power.  Henceforth  the  hegemony 
of  Europe  attached  to  no  crown  imperial  or  papal,  but  to 
the  nation  which  was  capable  of  winning  it,  in  the  spiritual 
region  by  mental  ascendency,  and  in  the  temporal  by  force, 
loiiserva-  That  this  is  the  right  way  of  regarding  the  subject 
ive  aud  appears  from  the  events  of  the  first  two  decades  of  the 
16th  century,  those  years  in  which  the  humanistic  revival 
>arties  attained  its  highest  point  in  Italy.  Luther  published  his 
i  modern  theses  in  1517,  sixty-four  years  after  the  fall  of  Constanti- 
hirope.  nople,  twenty-three  years  after  the  expedition  of  Charles 
VIII.  to  Naples,  ten  years  before  the  sack  of  Rome,  at  a 
moment  when  France,  Spain,  and  England  had  only  felt 
the  influences  of  Italian  culture  but  feebly.  From  that 
date  forward  two  parties  wrestled  for  supremacy  in  Europe, 
to  which  may  be  given  the  familiar  names  of  Liberalism 
and  Conservatism,  the  party  of  progress  and  the  party  of 
established  institutions.  The  triumph  of  the  former  was 
most  signal  among  the  Teutonic  peoples.  The  Latin  races, 
championed  by  Spain  and  supported  by  the  Papacy,  fought 
the  battle  of  the  latter,  and  succeeded  for  a  time  in  rolling 


back  the  tide  of  revolutionary  conquest.  Meanwhile  that 
liberal  culture  which  had  been  created  for  Europe  by  the 
Italians  before  the  contest  of  the  Reformation  began  con- 
tinued to  spread,  although  it  was  stifled  in  Italy  and  Spain, 
retarded  in  France  and  the  Low  Countries,  well  nigh  extir- 
pated by  wars  in  Germany,  and  diverted  from  its  course  in 
England  by  the  counter-movement  of  Puritanism.  The 
auto  da  fes  of  Seville  and  Madrid,  the  flames  to  which 
Bruno,  Dolet,  and  Paleario  were  flung,  the  dungeon  of 
Campanella  and  the  seclusion  of  Galileo,  the  massacre  of  St 
Bartholomew  and  the  faggots  of  Smithfield,  the  desolated 
plains  of  Germany  and  the  cruelties  of  Alva  in  the  Nether- 
lands, disillusioned  Europe  of  those  golden  dreams  which 
had  arisen  in  the  earlier  days  of  humanism,  and  which  had 
been  so  pleasantly  indulged  by  Rabelais.  In  truth  the  Re- 
naissance was  ruled  by  no  Astrsea  redux,  but  rather  by  a 
severe  spirit  which  brought  not  peace  but  a  sword,  remind- 
ing men  of  sternest  duties,  testing  what  of  moral  force  and 
tenacity  was  in  them,  compelling  them  to  strike  for  the  old 
order  or  the  new,  suffering  no  lukewarm  halting  between 
two  opinions.  That,  in  spite  of  retardation  and  retro- 
gression, the  old  order  of  ideas  should  have  yielded  to  the 
new  all  over  Europe, — that  science  should  have  won  firm 
standing-ground,  and  political  liberty  should  have  struggled 
through  those  birth-throes  of  its  origin, — was  in  the  nature 
of  things.  Had  this  not  been,  the  Renaissance  or  re-birth 
of  Europe  would  be  a  term  without  a  meaning. 

Literature. — The  special  articles  on  the  several  arts  and  the 
literatures  of  modern  Europe,  and  on  the  biographies  of  great  men 
mentioned  in  this  essay,  will  give  details  of  necessity  here  omitted. 
It  may  be  useful  to  indicate  a  few  works  upon  the  Renaissance  in 

feneral.  Burckhardt's  Die  Cultur  der  Renaissance  in  Italien, 
lichelet's  "  Renaissance  "  (7th  vol.  of  Histoire  de  France),  Voigt's 
Wicderbelebung  des  Classischen  Altcrthums  ;  Symonds's  Renaissance 
in  Italy,  Marc  Monnier's  Renaissance  de  Dante  a  Luther,  Miintz's 
Precurseurs  dc  la  Renaissance  and  Renaissance  en  Italic  ct  en  France, 
and  Geiger's  Humanism/us  und  Renaissance  in  Italien  und  Dculsch- 
land  are  among  the  most  comprehensive.  (J.  A.  S.) 


RENAIX,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Belgium,  in  the 
province  of  East  Flanders,  eight  miles  by  rail  south  of 
Oudenarde,  with  a  communal  population  of  14,089  in 
1876.  It  contains  the  ruins  of  a  castle  built  in  1638  by 
Count  John  of  Nassau-Siegen,  and  a  church  with  the  tomb 
of  St  Hermes,  to  whom  it  is  dedicated. 

RENAUDOT,  EusfcBE  (1646-1720),  theologian  and 
Orientalist,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1646,  and  was  educated 
for  the  church.  Notwithstanding  his  taste  for  theology 
and  his  title  of  abbe,  he  never  took  orders,  and  much  of 
his  life  was  spent  at  the  French  court,  where  he  attracted 
the  notice  of  Colbert  and  was  often  employed  in  con- 
fidential affairs.  The  unusual  learning  in  Eastern  tongues 
which  he  had  acquired  in  his  youth  and  continued  to 
maintain  amidst  the  distractions  of  court  life  did  not  bear 
fruit  till  he  was  sixty-two  years  old.  His  best-known 
books,  which  are  still  valuable,  are  the  Historic/,  Patri- 
archarum  Alexandrinorum  (Paris,  1713),  and  the  collection 
of  Eastern  liturgies  (2  vols.,  1715-16).  The  latter  work 
was  designed  to  supply  proofs  of  the  "perpetuity  of  the 
faith"  of  the  church  on  the  subject  of  the  sacraments,  the 
topic  about  which  most  of  his  theological  writings  turned, 
and  which  was  then,  in  consequence  of  the  controversies 
attaching  to  Arnauld's  Perpetuite  de  la  Foi,  a  burning  one 
between  French  Catholics  and  Protestants.  R6naudot  was 
not  a  very  fair  controversialist,  but  his  learning  and 
industry  are  unquestionable,  and  his  piety  shone  the  more 
brightly  that  it  did  not  withdraw  itself  from  contact  with 
the  world.  He  died  in  1720. 

RENDSBURG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  is  situated  on  the  Eider,  in  a  flat  and 


sandy  district,  20  miles  to  the  west  of  Kiel.  It  consists  of 
three  parts : — the  crowded  Altstadt,  on  an  island  in  the 
Eider;  the  Neuwerk,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river;  and 
the  Kronwerk,  on  the  north  bank.  Rendsburg  is  the  chief 
place  in  the  basin  of  the  Eider,  and  when  in  the  possession 
of  Denmark  was  maintained  as  a  strong  fortress,  guarding 
the  approach  to  the  Cimbric  peninsula.  Its  present  import- 
ance, however,  rests  on  the  commercial  facilities  afforded  by 
its  connexion  with  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic  through 
the  Eider  and  the  Eider  Canal,  by  which  a  brisk  transit 
trade  is  carried  on  in  grain,  timber,  Swedish  iron,  and  coals. 
The  principal  industries  are  cotton-weaving,  tanning,  and 
the  manufacture  of  artificial  manures  ;  and  there  is  a  large 
iron  foundry  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  The  popu- 
lation in  1880  was  12,776,  including  a  strong  garrison. 

The  town  of  Rendsburg  came  into  existence  under  the  shelter 
of  a  castle  founded  by  the  Danes  about  the  year  1100  on  an  island 
of  the  Eider,  and  was  at  first  an  object  of  dispute  between  the 
Danish  kings  and  the  coinits  of  Holstein.  In  1252  it  was  finally 
adjudged  to  the  latter,  and  it  has  since  shared  their  fortunes.  The 
town  was  surrounded  with  ramparts  in  1539,  but  the  important 
fortifications  of  the  Kronwerk  were  not  constructed  till  the  end  of 
the  17th  century.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  Eeudsburg  w;is 
taken  both  by  the  Imperialists  and  the  Swedes,  but  in  1645  it 
successfully  resisted  a  second  siege  by  the  latter.  The  war  of 
1848-50  began  with  the  capture  of  Rendsburg  by  the  Holsteiners 
by  a  coup  de  inain,  and  it  formed  the  centre  of  the  German  opera- 
tions. On  the  departure  of  the  German  troops  in  1852  the  Danes 
at  once  set  to  work  to  demolish  the  fortifications. 

RENti  I.  (1409-1480),  duke  of  Anjou,  count  of 
Provence,  and  titular  king  of  Naples,  was  the  second  son 
of  Louis  II.  of  Aragon,  king  of  Naples,  and  Yolande, 
daughter  of  John  I.  of  Aragon,  and  was  born  16th 


R  E  N  — R  E  N 


395 


January  1409.  Although  his  father  was  crowned  king  of 
Naples  at  Avignon  by  Pope  Clement  VII.  in  1384,  he  was 
unable  to  make  good  his  claims.  After  his  death  Louis 
III.,  the  elder  son,  assumed  the  title,  and  in  1423  was 
adopted  by  Johanna  II.  of  Naples,  and  obtained  possession 
of  the  throne.  Dying  15th  November  1434,  he  left  his 
claims  to  his  brother  Rene",  who  was  also  appointed  heir 
by  Johanna  II.  at  her  death  in  the  following  year. 
Meantime  Rene"  had  been  imprisoned  by  the  count  of 
Vaudemont  for  contesting  his  claims  to  the  dukedom  of 
Lorraine,  and  therefore  appointed  his  wife  Isabella  regent 
in  his  stead.  In  1437  he  procured  his  freedom  and  the 
acknowledgment  of  his  right  to  Lorraine  for  400,000 
florins,  and  in  the  following  year  landed  at  Naples  and 
rejoined  Isabella.  Finding,  however,  that  the  task  of 
conquering  the  kingdom  from  Alphonso  of  Aragon  was 
beyond  his  power,  he  returned  in  1442  to  Lorraine,  which 
he  afterwards  gave  over  to  his  son  John,  titular  duke  of 
Calabria.  In  1444  he  took  part  at  Tours  in  the  peace 
negotiations  between  England  and  France  ;  and,  to  cement 
the  alliance,  Henry  VI.  espoused  his  daughter  Margaret 
of  Anjou.  Subsequently  he  ceased  to  concern  himself 
with  politics,  and  devoted  his  chief  attention  to  literature. 
He  also  took  a  special  interest  in  painting  and  sculpture, 
although  there  appears  to  have  been  no  foundation  for 
the  statement  that  he  practised  either  of  these  arts.  His 
closing  years  were  spent  in  the  company  of  his  daughter 
the  exiled  queen.  He  died  10th  July  1480. 

His  (Euvrcs  Completes,  with  a  biography  and  notes  by  the  count 
of  Quatrebarbes,  were  published  at  Paris,  4  vols.,  1844-46.  See  also 
De  Villeneuve-Bargemont,  Histoire  de  Rent  d' Anjou,  3  vols.,  Paris, 
1825  ;  Renouvier,  Lcs  pdntrcs  et  Ics  cnlumineurs  du  roi  Rent,  1851; 
and  Lecoy  de  la  Marche,  Lc  roi  Rene,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1875. 

RENFREW,  a  county  of  Scotland,  skirting  the  Firth  of 
Clyde,  lies  between  55°  40'  34"  and  55°  57'  45"  N.  lat., 
and  between  4°  13'  and  4°  54'  W.  long.,  and  is  bounded 
N.  by  the  Clyde,  N.E.  by  Dumbarton  and  by  Lanark,  E. 
by  Lanark,  S.  by  Ayr,  and  \V.  by  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  Its 
greatest  length  from  west-north-west  to  east-south-east 
is  30J  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  at  right  angles  to 
this  13J  miles.  The  area  is  253-793  square  miles  or 
162,427-958  acres,  of  which  2021-179  acres  are  foreshore 
and  3621-342  are  water.  Except  a  small  portion  opposite 
the  burgh  of  Renfrew,  the  whole  county  lies  to  the  south 
of  the  Clyde.  Twenty-seventh  among  the  Scottish 
counties  as  regards  extent,  it  is  fifth  in  point  of  population, 
and  Midlothian  alone  is  as  densely  populated,  the  number 
of  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  in  1881  having  been 
1075  in  both.  For  local  purposes  the  county  is  divided 
into  an  upper  and  a  lower  ward,  the  former  embracing  the 
two-thirds  lying  to  the  east,  and  having  its  district  centre 
at  Paisley,  Avhile  the  latter  contains  the  parishes  of  Innerkip, 
Greenock,  Port  Glasgow,  and  Kilmalcolm,  and  has  its  dis- 
trict centre  at  Greenock.  The  southern  border  and  western 
part  of  the  county  are  hilly,  but  none  of  the  heights  rise 
very  much  above  sea-level,  the  highest  points  being  Misty 
Law  (1663),  East  Girt  Hill  (1673),  Hill  of  Stake  (1711), 
and  Burnt  Hill  (1572),  all  along  the  border  of  Ayrshire. 
The  central  part  is  undulating  and,  as  much  of  the  higher 
portion  of  it  is  well  wooded,  the  scenery  is  in  some  places 
picturesque.  Along  the  greater  part  of  the  northern  border 
is  a  flat  tract  of  clayey  carse-land  known  locally  as  the 
"laich  lands,"  and  very  fertile  in  favourable  seasons. 

The  principal  river  is  the  Clyde,  which  forms  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  northern  boundary  ;  and  the  other  chief  streams  are 
the  White  Cart,  Black  Cart,  and  Gryfe.  The  first  has  its  chief 
sources  in  the  extreme  south-east  of  the  county,  and  flows  north- 
ward—forming for  most  of  the  way  the  boundary  with  Lanarkshire — 
to  Cathcart,  south  of  Glasgow,  whence  it  has  a  westerly  course  to 
Paisley,  and  then  again  a  northerly  course  till  it  joins  the  Clyde  a 
mile  north-west  of  the  burgh  of  Renfrew.  The  Black  Cart  issues 
from  Castle  Semple  Loch  near  the  centre  of  the  southern  border  of 


the  county,  and  follows  a  general  north-easterly  course  to  its  junc- 
tion with  the  "White  Cart  at  Inchinnan  church  a  mile  west  of  the 
burgh  of  Renfrew.  Its  most  important  headwater  is  the  river 
Calder,  which,  with  smaller  streams  flowing  to  it,  drains  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  southern  border  and  flows  into  Castle  Semple 
Loch  at  Lochwinnoch.  The  Gryfe,  which,  with  a  large  number  of 
streams  flowing  to  it,  drains  nearly  all  the  western  half  of  the 
county,  rises  at  Gryfe  Reservoir,  2£  miles  south  of  Greenock,  and  has 
a  winding  easterly  course  to  its  junction  with  the  Black  Cart  at 
Walkinshaw,  2  miles  north-west  of  Paisley.  A  number  of  smaller 
streams  flow  direct  to  the  Clyde,  the  most  important  being  the 
Kip  and  the  Kelly  Burn  in  the  west  of  the  county.  The  principal 
lochs  are  Loch  Thorn  and  Gryfe  Reservoir,  2£  miles  south  of 
Greenock ;  Castle  Semple  Loch,  near  the  centre  of  the  southern 
border  ;  Long  Loch  and  Loch  Coin,  farther  east  near  the  same 
border;  and  Balgray  and  Glen  Reservoirs,  connected  with  the 
Glasgow  water  supply  near  the  centre  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
county.  The  Glasgow,  Paisley,  and  Johnstone  Canal,  which  for- 
merly united  these  three  towns,  has  since  1882  been  laid  dry  along 
the  greater  part  of  its  course  and  the  bed  converted  into  a  railway 
line. 

The  rocks  throughout  the  county  are  Carboniferous,  and  almost 
the  whole  of  the  Lower  Carboniferous  or  Calciferous  Sandstone 
series  is  here  represented  by  a  thick  set  of  volcanic  deposits.  The 
oldest  beds  are  the  red  sandstones,  cornstones,  and  conglomerates 
which  occupy  the  extreme  west  corner  between  Jnnerkip  and  Loch 
Thorn.  Overlying  these  is  the  upper  portion  of  the  Lower  Car- 
boniferous— the  cement-stone  group — which  runs  from  the  hills 
behind  Greenock  on  the  west,  south-eastward  by  the  high  ground 
south  of  Paisley,  and  so  on  to  the  south-east  corner  of  the  county 
and  thence  into  Lanarkshire.  The  cement-stones  form  the  under- 
lying deposits  over  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  county  to  the  south, 
west  and  west ;  but,  though  the  base  of  this  subdivision  here  con- 
sists of  the  usual  white  sandstones  and  cement-stones,  yet  the  great 
mass  of  the  rocks  are  contemporaneous  lava-flows—basalts,  mela- 
phyres,  and  porphyrites — with  interbedded  tuffs  and  volcamc 
agglomerates  which  have  all  issued  from  a  line  of  vents  the  posi- 
tions of  which  may  still  be  traced  by  the  volcanic  necks  which 
remain  at  several  points.  In  the  south-east  there  are  intercalated 
beds  of  sandstone,  shale,  and  impure  limestone.  In  some  places 
this  series  of  beds  passes  conformably  up  into  the  overlying  Car- 
boniferous Limestone  series,  which  occupies  a  basin  covering  nearly 
one-third  of  the  county  to  the  north-east ;  but  the  two  subdivisions 
are  oftener  brought  into  contact  by  faults,  a  double  line  of  which 
along  the  valley  of  the  Black  Cart  brings  a  narrow  tract  of  the 
limestones  right  across  the  volcanic  beds  just  described.  The  base 
of  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  subdivision  consists  of  limestones, 
the  middle  portion  of  a  series  of  valuable  seams  of  coal  and  iron- 
stone, which  are  extensively  worked,  and  the  upper  part  of  lime- 
stones. Masses  of  intrusive  volcanic  rocks  occur  to  the  south  of 
Johnstoiie  and  the  north-east  of  Paisley,  and  to  the  north  of  John- 
stone  and  north- west  of  Paisley  are  oil-producing  shales,  which  are 
worked  at  Clippens  and  Walkinshaw.  Near  Pollokshields,  at 
Thornliebank,  and  to  the  east  of  Barrhead  there  are  small  outliers 
of  millstone  grit  consisting  of  yellow  sandstones  ;  and  along  the 
extreme  north-east  corner  of  the  county  to  the  south  of  Glasgow 
the  true  Coal  Measures  of  the  great  Lanarkshire  arid  Stirlingshire 
basin  are  brought  in  by  a  fault  which  throws  them  down  against 
the  Carboniferous  Limestone  series.  Volcanic  dykes  of  Tertiary 
age  run  across  the  older  rocks  at  various  points,  some  very  well 
marked  examples  occurring  near  the  centre  of  the  southern  border. 
The  Glacial  deposits  are  well  marked  and  interesting,  the  clays  at 
Jordanhill  to  the  north  of  the  Clyde  and  near  Paisley  having 
yielded  numerous  species  of  Foraminifcra  and  arctic  shells.  The 
beds  of  economic  value  are  all  extensively  worked.  In  1882  the 
eighteen  collieries  within  the  county  produced  114,324  tons  of  coal 
out  of  a  total  of  20,515,134  tons  for  all  Scotland,  164,523  tons  of 
ironstone  out  of  a  total  of  2,404,177  tons,  90,804  tons  of  oil-shale 
out  of  a  total  of  994,487  tons,  and  22,554  tons  of  fireclay  out  of  a 
total  of  435,457  tons.  Limestones  are  also  quarried  in  large 
quantities  for  smelting  purposes  and  for  the  manufacture  of  lime, — 
one  thin  but  valuable  bed  at  Orchard,  4  miles  south  of  Glasgow, 
producing  a  cement  that  ' '  sets  "  under  water.  Copperas  is  obtained 
from  the  iron  pyrites  got  in  the  shale,  and  at  one  time  alum-shale 
was  worked  at  Hurlet  in  the  north-east  and  copper  in  the  volcanic 
rocks  about  Lochwinnoch. 

Farming  operations  do  not  differ  in  detail  from  those  earned  on 
in  the  adjoining  middle  and  lower  wards  of  Lanarkshire.  The 
climate  is  very  variable  ;  and,  as  the  prevailing  west  and  south-west 
winds  come  in  from  the  Atlantic  warm  and  full  of  moisture,  con- 
tact with  the  colder  land  causes  very  heavy,  rains,  and  the  western 
part  of  Renfrewshire  is  one  of  the  wettest  districts  in  Scotland,  the 
mean  annual  rainfall  amounting  to  over  60  inches.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  is  about  48°.  The  hilly  district  has  a  good 
deal  of  moss  and  moorland,  but  the  soil,  which  is  a  light  earth,  is 
also  over  considerable  areas  deep  enough  to  produce  good  pasture. 
In  the  undulating  middle  district  the  soil  is  generally  deeper  and 


396 


E  N  — R  E  N 


better,  particularly  along  the  streams,  where  there  are  tracts  of  good 
haughland,  but  it  is  also  in  many  places  thin  and  poor.  There  is 
a  considerable  amount  of  pasture,  and  the  principal  crops  are  oats 
and  barley.  On  the  flat  lands  adjoining  the  Clyde  the  soil  is  a 


duces  very  heavy  crops,  a  large  extent  being  under  wheat.  Although 
mineral  workings  have  injured  agriculture  in  several  localities,  the 
large  towns  in  the  county  and  neighbourhood  have  stimulated  im- 
provements, and  the  arable  area  has  steadily  increased.  The  fullow- 


rich  alluvium  which,  except  when  soured  by  excessive  rain,  pro-  |  ing  table  gives  a  classification  of  holdings  in  1875  and  1880  :— 


uO  Acres  and  under. 

50  to  100  Acres. 

100  to  300  Acres. 

300  to  500  Acres. 

500  to  1000  Acres. 

Above  1000  Acres. 

Total. 

No. 

Acres. 

No. 

Acres. 

No. 

Acres. 

No. 

Acres. 

No. 

Acres. 

No. 

Acres. 

No. 

Acres. 

1875 
1830 

088 
581 

10,633 
8,904 

300 
326 

23,094 
25,078 

399 
329 

45,296 
50,830 

15 
12 

5488 
4710 

9 

5 

5580 
3308 

T 

1031 

1311 
1254 

90,091 
93,801 

According  to  the  agricultural  returns  for  1884  the  total  area 
under  crops  was  95,353,  a  percentage  of  60'8  (57 '3  in  1874).  The 
area  under  com  crops  in  1884  was  17,502  acres  ;  under  green 
crops,  6,683  acres  ;  under  rotation  of  grasses,  22,997  acres  ;  under 
permanent  pasture,  47,880  acres;  orchards  and  market-gardens,  158 
acres  ;  and  woodland,  5424.  Of  the  corn  land  more  than  four-fifths 
was  under  oats,  which  occupied  14,132  acres,  while  2229  were  under 
wheat,  and  only  178  under  barley.  Potatoes  were  grown  on  4351 
acres,  and  turnips  and  swedes  on  2332  ;  while  under  beans,  rye, 
vetches,  &c.,  there  are  about  1300  acres  annually.  The  total 
number  of  horses  in  1884  was  3331  ;  the  number  of  cattle  to  every 
100  acres  under  cultivation  was  28  "8,  the  average  for  Scotland 
being  23 '6.  The  large  towns  in  the  county  and  neighbourhood 
account  for  a  great  number  of  cattle  being  kept  for  dairy  and 
feeding  purposes.  The  number  of  sheep  to  every  100  acres  under 
cultivation  was  33 '1,  the  average  for  Scotland  being  145 '1.  The 
number  of  pigs  was  1952.  According  to  the  Miscellaneous  Statistics 
of  the  United  Kingdom  (1879)  5735  proprietors  owned  155,321  acres 
with  an  estimated  gross  rental  of  £990,898.  Sir  M.  R.  Shaw 
Stewart  possessed  24,951  acres,  Allan  Gilmour  of  Eaglesham  16,516, 
A.  A.  Spiers  of  Elderslie  11,259,  H.  Lee  Harvey  of  Castlesemple 
6500,  Sir  W.  Stirling  Maxwell  4773,  Lord  Blantyre  4449,  Duncan 
Darroch  of  Gourock  4248,  and  W.  Mure  of  Caldwell  3624. 

Besides  the  coal,  iron,  and  oil  industries  already  mentioned,  the 
county  has  extensive,  varied,  and  valuable  manufactures,  of  which 
the  chief  are  noticed  in  the  separate  articles  on  Greenock  and 
Paisley.  Elsewhere  there  are  chemical  works,  engineering  works, 
foundries,  and  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  weaving  works.  There  are 
throughout  the  shire  a  large  number  of  excellent  roads ;  and  numer- 
ous lines  and  branches  of  the  Caledonian  and  the  Glasgow  and  South- 
Western  systems  afford  ample  railway  communication  along  the 
centre,  north,  and  west  for  both  general  traffic  and  minerals.  The 
population  has  risen  from  7?,501  in  1801  to  216,947  in  1871 
and  to  263,374  in  1881  (126,743  males,  136,631  females),  more  than 
100,000  of  the  increase  having  taken  place  between  1851  and  1881. 
Of  the  whole  number  49,681  men  and  21,734  women  were  engaged 
in  industrial  handicrafts  or  dealt  in  manufactured  substances,  and 
of  these  7741  men  and  15,547  women  were  connected  with  the 
making  of  textile  fabrics,  while  7986  men  and  172  women  were 
connected  with  the  working  of  mineral  substances. 

The  Redistribution  Act  passed  in  1885  extended  the  parliament- 
ary representation  of  the  county  from  one  to  two  members.  The 
only  royal  burgh  is  Renfrew,  which  is  separately  noticed,  as  are 
also  the  parliamentary  burghs  of  Greenock  and  Paisley.  The 
county  also  contains  part  of  the  south  side  of  Glasgow  and  its 
suburbs,  the  parliamentary  burgh  of  Port  Glasgow,  the  police 
burghs  of  Pollokshaws,  Gourock,  and  Johnstone,  and  a  number  of 
small  towns  and  villages. 

Historically  Renfrewshire  first  appears  as  part  of  the  territory 
of  the  Damnonii,  and  thereafter  it  was  part  of  the  British  kingdom 
of  Strathclyde.  The  western  part,  then  known  as  Strathgryfe,  was 
granted  by  David  I.  to  Walter,  the  first  high  steward  of  Scotland, 
and  the  Stewarts  had  long  a  local  connexion  with  it.  Somerled, 
Lord  of  the  Isles,  was  defeated  and  slain  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  burgh  of  Renfrew  in  1164  ;  and  Marjory  Bruce  is  said  to  have 
been  killed  by  a  fall  from  her  horse  at  Knock  Hill  between  Paisley 
and  Renfrew  in  1316.  In  1404  the  county,  which  had  previously 
ibrmed  part  of  Lanark,  was  erected  into  a  separate  jurisdiction  by 
Robert  III.,  who  created  his  son  James  baron  of  Renfrew,  a  title 
still  held  by  the  eldest  son  of  the  reigning  sovereign.  In  the  end 
of  the  17th  century  the  district  was  famous  for  its  witches  ;  and 
in  1685,  after  the  failure  of  the  earl  of  Argyll's  ill-conducted  enter- 
prise, the  earl  himself  was  taken  prisoner  on  the  bank  of  the 
White  Cart  opposite  Inchinnan  church,  at  the  spot  marked  by 
the  "  Argyll  Stone,"  now  within  the  policies  of  Blythswood  House. 
See  Crawfurd,  Description  of  the  Shire  of  Renfrew  (1710) ;  Hamilton  of  Wishaw, 
Description  of  the  Sheriffdvm  of  Lanark  and  Renfrew  (Maitland  Club,  1831); 
Hector,  Selection*  from  the  Judicial  Records  of  Renfrewshire  (1876-78) ;  and 
A  Jliitory  of  the  Witchet  of  Renfrewthire  (Paisley,  1809  and  1877). 

RENFREW,  a  royal  and  parliamentary  burgh  and  the 
county  town  of  the  above  county,  is  situated  in  the  north- 
east near  the  south  bank  of  the  Clyde,  connected  with 
which  is  a  small  harbour.  The  main  part  of  the  town  is 
gathered  round  four  streets  branching  out  from  an  open 


space  called  the  cross.  The  town-hall,  erected  iii  1871-73, 
and  restored  after  partial  destruction  by  fire  in  1878,  has 
a  massive  square  tower  rising  to  a  height  of  105  feet. 
The  railway  station  is  6  miles  west  of  Glasgow.  The 
industries  are  connected  with  two  shipbuilding  yards,  a 
chemical  work,  a  forge,  a  dye  work,  and  weaving.  Popula- 
tion in  1881,  5115. 

The  town,  which  is  spoken  of  as  a  burgh  in  11GO,  seems  to  have 
been  in  the  16th  and  early  in  the  17th  century  the  principal  port 
on  the  Clyde,  one  branch  of  which  ran  in  a  channel,  now  silted  up, 
close  behind  the  houses  on  the  north  side  of  High  Street.  The 
original  castle  of  the  Stewards  seems  to  have  stood  on  the  island 
called  "The  King's  Inch,"  between  the  two  channels  of  the  river. 
Renfrew  is  one  of  the  Kilmarnock  group  of  parliamentary  burghs. 

RENT,  GUIDO  (1575-1642),  a  prime  master  in  the 
Bolognese  school  of  painting,  and  one  of  the  most  admired 
artists  of  the  period  of  incipient  decadence  in  Italy,  was 
born  at  Calvenzano  near  Bologna  on  4th  November  1575. 
He  is  most  usually  named  Guido.  His  father  was  a 
musician  of  repute,  a  player  on  the  flageolet ;  he  wished 
to  bring  the  lad  up  to  perform  on  the  harpsichord.  At  a 
very  childish  age,  however,  Guido  displayed  a  determined 
bent  towards  the  art  of  form,  scribbling  some  attempt  at 
a  drawing  here,  there,  and  everywhere.  He  was  only 
nine  years  of  age  when  Denis  Calvart  took  notice  of  him, 
received  him  into  his  academy  of  design  by  the  father's 
permission,  and  rapidly  brought  him  forward,  so  that  by 
the  age  of  thirteen  Guido  had  already  attained  marked 
proficiency.  Albani  and  Domenichino  became  soon  after- 
wards pupils  in  the  same  academy.  With  Albani  Guido 
was  very  intimate  up  to  the  earlier  period  of  manhood, 
but  they  afterwards  became  rivals,  both  as  painters  and  as 
heads  of  ateliers,  with  a  good  deal  of  asperity  on  Albani's 
part;  Domenichino  was  also  pitted  against  Reni  by  the 
policy  of  Annibale  Caracci.  Guido  was  still  in  the 
academy  of  Calvart  when  he  began  frequenting  the  opposi- 
tion school  kept  by  Lodovico  Caracci,  whose  style,  far  in 
advance  of  that  of  the  Flemish  painter,  he  dallied  with. 
This  exasperated  Calvart.  Him  Guido,  not  yet  twenty 
years  of  age,  cheerfully  quitted,  transferring  himself 
openly  to  the  Caracci  academy,  in  which  he  soon  became 
prominent,  being  equally  skilful  and  ambitious.  He  had 
not  been  a  year  with  the  Caracci  when  a  work  of  his 
excited  the  wonder  of  Agostino  and  the  jealousy  of 
Annibale.  Lodovico  cherished  him,  and  frequently  painted 
him  as  an  angel,  for  the  youthful  Reni  was  extremely 
handsome.  After  a  while,  however,  Lodovico  also  felt 
himself  nettled,  and  he  patronized  the  competing  talents 
of  Guercino.  On  one  occasion  Guido  had  made  a  copy  of 
Annibale's  Descent  from  the  Cross ;  Annibale  was  asked 
to  retouch  it,  and,  finding  nothing  to  do,  exclaimed 
pettishly,  "  He  knows  more  than  enough  "  ("  Costui  ne  sa 
troppo ").  On  another  occasion  Lodovico,  consulted  as 
umpire,  lowered  a  price  which  Reni  asked  for  an  early 
picture.  This  slight  determined  the  young  man  to  be  a 
pupil  no  more.  He  left  the  Caracci,  and  started  on  his 
own  account  as  a  competitor  in  the  race  for  patronage  and 
fame.  A  renowned  work,  the  story  of  Callisto  and  Diana, 
had  been  completed  before  he  left. 

Guido   was   faithful   to   the   eclectic   principle   of  the 
Bolognese  school  of  painting.     He  had  appropriated  some- 


R  E  N  I 


397 


thing  from  Calvart,  much  more  from  Lodovico  Caracci ; 
studied  with  much  zest  after  Albert  Diirer  ;  he  adopted 
massive,  sombre,  and  partly  uncouth  manner  of 
iravaggio.  One  day  Annibale  Caracci  made  the  remark 
mt  a  style  might  be  formed  reversing  that  of  Caravaggio 
in  such  matters  as  the  ponderous  shadows  and  the  gross 
common  forms  ;  this  observation  germinated  in  Guide's 
mind,  and  he  endeavoured  after  some  such  style,  aiming 
constantly  at  suavity.  Towards  1602  he  went  to  Home 
with  Albani,  and  Home  remained  his  headquarters  for 
twenty  years.  Here,  in  the  pontificate  of  Paul  V. 
(Borghese),  he  was  greatly  noted  and  distinguished.  In 
the  garden-house  of  the  Rospigliosi  Palace  he  painted  the 
vast  fresco  which  is  justly  regarded  as  his  masterpiece — 
Phoebus  and  the  Hours  preceded  by  Aurora.  This  exhibits 
his  second  manner,  in  which  he  had  deviated  far  indeed 
from  the  promptings  of  Caravaggio.  He  founded  now 
chiefly  upon  the  antique,  more  especially  the  Niobe  group 
and  the  Venus  de'  Medici,  modified  by  suggestions  from 
Raphael,  Correggio,  Parmigiano,  and  Paul  Veronese.  Of 
this  last  painter,  although  on  the  whole  he  did  not  get 
much  from  him,  Guido  was  a  particular  admirer ;  he  used 
to  say  that  he  would  rather  have  been  Paul  Veronese  than 
any  other  master — Paul  was  more  nature  than  art.  The 
Aurora  is  beyond  doubt  a  work  of  pre-eminent  beauty  and 
attainment ;  it  is  stamped  with  pleasurable  dignity,  and, 
without  being  effeminate,  has  a  more  uniform  aim  after 
graceful  selectness  than  can  readily  be  traced  in  previous 
painters,  greatly  superior  though  some  of  them  had  been 
in  impulse  and  personal  fervour  of  genius.  The  pontifical 
chapel  of  Montecavallo  was  assigned  to  Reni  to  paint ; 
but,  being  straitened  in  payments  by  the  ministers,  the 
artist  made  off  to  Bologna.  He  was  fetched  back  by 
Paul  V.  with  ceremonious  eclat,  and  lodging,  living,  and 
equipage  were  supplied  to  him.  At  another  time  he 
migrated  from  Rome  to  Naples,  having  received  a  commis- 
sion to  paint  the  chapel  of  S.  Gennaro.  The  notorious 
cabal  of  three  painters  resident  in  Naples — Corenzio, 
Caracciolo,  and  Ribera — offered,  however,  as  stiff  an 
opposition  to  Guido  as  to  some  other  interlopers  who 
preceded  and  succeeded  him.  They  gave  his  servant  a 
beating  by  the  hands  of  two  unknown  bullies,  and  sent  by 
him  a  message  to  his  master  to  depart  or  prepare  for 
death  ;  Guido  waited  for  no  second  warning,  and  departed. 
He  now  returned  to  Rome ;  but  he  finally  left  that  city 
abruptly,  in  the  pontificate  of  Urban  VIII.,  in  consequence 
of  an  offensive  reprimand  administered  to  him  by  Cardinal 
Spinola.  He  had  received  an  advance  of  400  scudi  on 
account  of  an  altarpiece  for  St  Peter's,  but  after  some  lapse 
of  years  had  made  no  beginning  with  the  work.  A  broad 
reminder  from  the  cardinal  put  Reni  on  his  mettle ;  he  re- 
turned the  400  scudi,  quitted  Rome  within  a  few  days,  and 
steadily  resisted  all  attempts  at  recall.  He  now  resettled  in 
Bologna.  He  had  taught  as  well  as  painted  in  Rome,  and 
he  left  pupils  behind  him ;  but  on  the  whole  he  did  not 
stamp  any  great  mark  upon  the  Roman  school  of  painting, 
apart  from  his  own  numerous  works  in  the  papal  city. 

In  Bologna  Guido  lived  in  great  splendour,  and  estab- 
lished a  celebrated  school,  numbering  more  than  two 
hundred  scholars.  He  himself  drew  in  it,  even  down  to 
his  latest  years.  On  first  returning  to  this  city,  he 
charged  about  £21  for  a  full-length  figure  (mere  portraits 
are  not  here  in  question),  half  this  sum  for  a  half-length, 
and  £5  for  a  head.  These  prices  must  be  regarded  as 
handsome,  when  we  consider  that  Domenichino  about  the 
same  time  received  only  £10,  10s.  for  his  very  large  and 
celebrated  picture,  the  Last  Communion  of  St  Jerome. 
But  Guide's  reputation  was  still  on  the  increase,  and  in 
process  of  time  he  quintupled  his  prices.  He  now  left 
Bologna  hardly  at  all ;  in  one  instance,  however,  he  went 


off  to  Ravenna,  and,  along  with  three  pupils,  he  painted 
the  chapel  in  the  cathedral  with  his  admired  picture  of 
the  Israelites  Gathering  Manna.  His  shining  prosperity 

is  not  to  last  till  the  end.  Guido  was  dissipated, 
generously  but  indiscriminately  profuse,  and  an  inveterate 
gambler.  The  gambling  propensity  had  been  his  from 
youth,  but  until  he  became  elderly  it  did  not  noticeably 
damage  his  fortunes.  It  grew  upon  him,  and  in  a  couple 
of  evenings  he  lost  the  enormous  sum  of  14,400  scudi. 
The  vice  told  still  more  ruinously  on  his  art  than  on  his 
character.  In  his  decline  he  sold  his  time  at  so  much  per 
hour  to  certain  picture  dealers ;  one  of  them,  the  Shylock 
of  his  craft,  would  stand  by,  watch  in  hand,  and  see  him 
work.  Half-heartedness,  half-performance,  blighted  his 
product :  self -repetition  and  mere  mannerism,  with  affecta- 
tion for  sentiment  and  vapidity  for  beauty,  became  the 
art  of  Guido.  Some  of  these  trade-works,  heads  or  half- 
figures,  were  turned  out  in  three  hours  or  even  less.  It  is 
said  that,  tardily  wise,  Reni  left  off  gambling  for  nearly 
two  years ;  at  last  he  relapsed,  and  his  relapse  was  followed 
not  long  afterwards  by  his  death,  caused  by  malignant 
fever.  This  event  took  place  in  Bologna  on  18th  August 
1642  ;  he  died  in  debt,  but  was  buried  with  great  pomp 
in  the  church  of  S.  Domenico. 

Guido  was  personally  modest,  although  he  valued  himself  on  his 
position  in  the  art,  and  would  tolerate  no  slight  in  that  relation  ; 
he  was  extremely  upright,  temperate  in  diet,  nice  in  his  person  and 
his  dress.  He  was  fond  of  stately  houses,  but  could  feel  also  the 
charm  of  solitude.  In  his  temper  there  was  a  large  amount  of 
suspiciousness ;  and  the  jealousy  which  his  abilities  and  his 
successes  excited,  now  from  the  Caracci,  now  from  Albani,  now  from 
the  monopolizing  league  of  Neapolitan  painters,  may  naturally 
have  kept  this  feeling  in  active  exercise.  Of  his  numerous  scholars, 
Simone  Contarini,  named  II  Pesarese,  counts  as  the  most  distin- 
guished ;  he  painted  an  admirable  head  of  Reni,  now  in  the 
Bolognese  Gallery.  The  portrait  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery  of  Florence  is 
from  Reni's  own  hand.  Two  other  good  scholars  were  Giacomo 
Semenza  and  Francesco  Gessi. 

The  character  of  Guide's  art  is  so  well  known  as  hardly  to  call 
for  detailed  analysis,  beyond  what  we  have  already  intimated.  His 
most  characteristic  style  exhibits  a  prepense  ideal,  of  form  rather 
than  character,  with  a  slight  mode  of  handling,  and  silvery,  some- 
what cold,  colour.  In  working  from  the  nude  he  aimed  at  perfec- 
tion of  form,  especially  marked  in  the  hands  and  feet.  But  he  was 
far  from  always  going  to  choice  nature  for  his  model ;  he  trans- 
muted ad  libitum,  and  painted,  it  is  averred,  a  Magdalene  of 
demonstrative  charms  from  a  vulgar-looking  colour-grinder.  His 
best  works  have  beauty,  great  amenity,  artistic  feeling,  and  high 
accomplishment  of  manner,  all  alloyed  by  a  certain  core  of  common- 
place ;  in  the  worst  pictures  the  commonplace  swamps  everything, 
and  Guido  has  flooded  European  galleries  with  trashy  and  empty 
pretentiousness,  all  the  more  noxious  in  that  its  apparent  grace  of 
sentiment  and  form  misleads  the  unwary  into  approval,  and  the 
dilettante  dabbler  into  cheap  raptures.  Both  in  Rome  and  Avhere- 
ever  else  he  worked  he  introduced  increased  softness  of  style,  which 
was  then  designated  as  the  modern  method.  His  pictures  are 
mostly  Scriptural  or  mythologic  in  subject,  and  between  two  and 
three  hundred  of  them  are  to  be  found  in  ,  various  European 
collections— more  than  a  hundred  of  these  containing  life-sized 
figures.  The  portraits  which  he  executed  are  few,— those  of  Sixtus 
V.,  Cardinal  Spada,  and  the  so-called  Beatrice  Cenci  being  among 
the  most  noticeable.  The  identity  of  the  last-named  portrait  is 
very  dubious  ;  it  certainly  cannot  have  been  painted  direct  from 
Beatrice,  who  had  been  executed  in  Rome  before  Guido  ever  resided 
there.  Many  etchings  are  attributed  to  him — some  from  his  own 
works,  and  some  after  other  masters  ;  they  are  spirited,  but  rather 
negligent. 

Of  other  works  not  already  noticed,  the  following  should  be 
named  : — in  Rome  (the  Vatican),  the  Crucifixion  of  St  Peter,  an 
example  of  the  painter's  earlier  manner  ;  in  Forli,  the  Conception ; 
in  Bologna,  the  Alms  of  St  Roch  (early),  the  Massacre  of  the 
Innocents,  and  the  Pieta,  or  Lament  over  the  Body  of  Christ  (in  the 
church  of  the  Mendicanti),  which  is  by  many  regarded  as  Guido's 
prime  executive  work  ;  in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  an  Ecce  Homo  ; 
in  Milan  (Brera  Gallery),  Saints  Peter  and  Paul ;  in  Genoa  (church 
of  S.  Ambrogio),  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  ;  in  the  Berlin 
Gallery,  St  Paul  the  Hermit  and  St  Anthony  in  the  Wilderness. 
The  celebrated  picture  of  Fortune  (in  the  Capitol)  is  one  of  Reni's 
finest  treatments  of  female  form  ;  as  a  specimen  of  male  form,  the 
Samson  Drinking  from  the  Jawbone  of  an  Ass  (Turin  Gallery) 
might  be  named  beside  it.  One  of  his  latest  works  of  mark  is  the 


398 


R  E  N  —  R  E  N 


Ariadne,  which  used  to  be  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Capitol.  The 
Louvre  contains  twenty  of  his  pictures,  the  National  Gallery  of 
London  seven,  and  others  were  once  there,  now  removed  to  other 
public  collections.  The  most  interesting  of  the  seven  is  the  small 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  painted  on  copper,  an  elegantly  finished 
work,  more  pretty  than  beautiful.  It  was  probably  painted  before 
the  master  quitted  Bologna  for  Rome. 

For  the  life  and  works  of  Ki-ni,  see  Passeri,  Vite  de"  Pittori,  and  Malvnsia, 
Felsinn  Pittriee  ;  also  Lanzi.  Storia  Pittorica.  (W.  M.  It.) 

RENNELL,  JAMES  (1742-1830),  probably  the  most 
celebrated  of  English  geographers,  was  born  oil  3d  Decem- 
ber 1742,  near  Chudleigh  in  Devonshire,  where  his 
father  John  Rennell,  a  man  apparently  of  gentle  blood, 
was  the  owner  of  a  small  farm  called  Waddon.1  The 
register  of  Chudleigh  records  the  baptism  of  James 
Rennell  on  21st  December.  John  Rennell,  who  had 
married  Ann  Clark  in  1738,  seems  to  have  fallen  into 
embarrassed  circumstances,  and  to  have  taken  service  in  the 
artillery,  with  which  he  served  in  the  duke  of  Cumberland's 
campaign  in  Flanders  of  1747-48.  The  date  of  his  death 
is  uncertain,  but  he  appears  never  to  have  rejoined  his 
family.  As  a  boy  the  son  James  found  a  valuable  friend 
in  the  then  vicar  of  Chudleigh,  Gilbert  Burrington,  by 
whose  advice  and  assistance  he  entered  the  navy  in  the 
beginning  of  1756.  Throughout  his  Indian  career  Rennell 
kept  up  a  regular  correspondence  with  Mr  Burrington, 
and  always  regarded  him  with  affection  and  gratitude. 

The  earliest  of  Rennell's  existing  letters  show  him,  in 
March  1758,  as  an  acting  midshipman  on  board  the  "  Bril- 
liant," 36,  Captain  Parker,  afterwards  the  famous  Admiral 
Sir  Hyde  Parker,  the  elder  of  two  of  that  name.  When 
attached  to  the  "  Brilliant "  James  Rennell  was  present 
at  several  of  those  desultory  expeditions  against  the  French 
coast  and  shipping  on  which  so  much  strength  was  squan- 
dered in  the  wars  with  France.  Among  these  was  a 
landing  directed  against  the  works  and  ships  at  Cherbourg 
(August  1758),  and  two  other  expeditions  to  the  vicinity  of 
St  Malo,  which  were  more  futile,  and  the  last  of  which 
ended  somewhat  disastrously.  A  MS.  plan  of  the  Bay  of 
St  Cast,  where  the  re-embarkation  took  place  (September 
1 1,  1758),  executed  by  James  Rennell  at  the  age  of  sixteen, 
and  probably  his  first  attempt  at  topographical  work,  is 
now  before  us.  It  bears  the  inscription  "  Plan  of  St  Gas 
Bay,  J.- Rennel  feet.  1758.  To  the  Rt.  Honble.  Lord 
Howe  this  plan  is  dedicated  by  his  obedient  humble 
servant,  J.  Rennel."2 

In  1760  Captain  Parker,  leaving  the  "Brilliant,"  took 
the  "Norfolk"  to  India,  and  Rennell  was  to  have  gone 
with  him,  but  through  some  accident  missed  his  ship  and 
went  out  in  the  "  America,"  50,  Captain  Haldane.  On 
reaching  India  he  rejoined  Captain  Parker,  now  in  com- 
mand of  the  "  Graf  ton,"  58,  with  the  fleet  engaged  in 
the  blockade  of  Pondicherry,  which  Coote  was  besieging 
on  the  landward  side. 

The  Annual  Register  for  1830,  in  a  sketch  of  Rennell's 
career,  gives  an  anecdote  for  which  we  cannot  vouch, 
finding  no  allusion  to  it  in  his  letters.  It  is  to  the  effect 

1  There  were  several  branches  of  the  family  round  Chudleigh,  and 
the  name  occurs  on  several  monuments  in  Chudleigh  church.     Four 
generations   of    Thomas   Rennells,    clergymen   of    some   note,    were 
reckoned  as  relations  by  James  Rennell :— (1)  T.  Rennell,  fellow  of 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  M.A.  of  1699,  rector  of  Bishop's  Leighton ; 
(2)  T.  R.,  rector  of  Barnack,  called  "a  very  profound  scholar  .  .  . 
with  a  rich  library  ;"  (3)  T.  R.,  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  master 
of  the  Temple,  and  dean  of  Winchester ;   (4)  T.  R.,  editor  of  the 
British  Critic,  Christian  advocate  at  Cambridge,  vicar  of  Kensington. 
As  Rennell  calls  the  second  his  cousin,  the  first   was  probably  his 
grandfather's  brother  ;  he  could  hardly  have  been  his  father's  brother 
on  account  of  the  dates. 

2  He  writes  the  name  indifferently  Rennel  and  Rennell  till  February 
2,  1760,  when  he  says  to  Mr  Burrington  : — "You  desired  that   in 
future  I  would  write  my  name  with  a  double  I.     I  shall  in  the  future, 
but  am  inclined  to  think  it  will  be  of  little  use  to  me."     There  is, 
we  believe,  here  some  reference  to  the  clerical  relations,  whom  he 
at  that  time  thought  neglectful 


that,  some  sloops  of  war  belonging  to  the  enemy  being 
moored  in  shallow  water,  Rennell  asked  the  use  of  a  boat. 
Accompanied  by  one  sailor  he  reconnoitred  the  sloops,  and 
ascertained  what  he  had  surmised  to  be  true,  viz.,  that 
owing  to  an  unusually  high  tide  it  was  possible  to  reach 
those  vessels.  This  information  was  acted  on  with  com- 
plete success.  Whatever  amount  of  truth  there  may  be 
in  this  anecdote,  we  know,  at  least,  from  his  letters  that 
he  took  part  in  -the  cutting  out  of  the  "  Baleine  "  and 
"Hermione,"  the  former  a  40-gun  frigate,  the  latter  an 
armed  Indiaman,  both  at  anchor  before  Pondicherry, 
within  a  half  musket-shot  of  the  place,  and  that  he  was  a 
volunteer  in  one  of  the  boat  divisions  which  attacked  the 
"  Baleine."  This  vessel  had  no  sails  bent,  and  the  captors, 
being  exposed  for  an  hour  to  a  very  heavy  fire  from  the 
ramparts,  lost  severely. 

We  do  not  know  what  good  guidance  had  first  turned 
the  lad's  attention  to  surveying,  but  his  letters  show  that 
he  went  to  India  provided  with  useful  books  and  instru- 
ments, and  they  contain  from  time  to  time  notices  of 
various  surveys  executed  by  him,  e.y.,  of  the  harbour  of 
Trinconomale"  (or  Trincomalee,  as  we  now  call  it),  and  of  the 
bay  and  roads  of  Diego  Rayes,3  whither  the  East  Indian 
fleet  had  gone  as  the  rendezvous  of  an  intended  attack  on 
Mauritius,  which  did  not  come  off. 

Captain  Parker  appears  to  have  been  friendly  to  Rennell, 
but  had  little  hope  of  obtaining  promotion  in  the  navy 
for  him,  and  counselled  him  to  try  his  fortune  in  the 
Company's  service.  Rennell  acquiesced,  and  in  the  summer 
of  1762  went,  apparently  as  a  surveyor,  on  board  a 
Company's  vessel  which  was  despatched  on  a  reconnais- 
sance to  Manila  and  the  neighbouring  islands.  The  only 
trace  we  have  'been  able  to  find  of  this  voyage  consists  in 
sundry  charts  and  coast-views  published  by  Alexander 
Dalrymple,  a  friend  of  Rennell's  in  after  days.  Such  are 
the  Bay  of  Camorta  in  the  Nicobar  Islands,  1762; 
View  of  Quedah;  Chart  of  Sambeelan  Islands  in  the 
Straits  of  Malacca,  1763  ;  View  of  Malacca,  July,  1762; 
Chart  of  Abai  Harbour,  on  north-west  of  Borneo,  1762. 

Of  the  expedition  we  have  no  particulars,  but  we  gather  that 
Rennell  looked  back  on  his  treatment  and  service  on  Doard  with 
dissatisfaction,  though  his  performance  of  the  duties  assigned  him 
recommended  him  as  a  man  of  merit  to  the  authorities  at  Fort 
St  George.  He  had  missed  a  great  chance  in  the  navy,  for  during 
his  absence  orders  came  for  the  expedition  against  Manila,  which 
ended  in  the  capture  of  that  place  in  1762, — an  expedition  in 
which  Captain  Parker  took  the  "Santissima  Trinidad,"  a  prize  of 
enormous  value.  Kennell,  however,  made  many  friends  at  Madias, 
and  had  several  offers  of  employment,  though  he  did  not  think 
himself  at  liberty  to  accept  any  till  the  return  of  Captain  Parker 
and  his  final  discharge  from  the  "Graftoii's"  books  (July  1763). 
He  now  obtained  the  command  of  a  vessel  in  the  Government 
service,  but  whilst  she  lay  oiF  Madras,  shortly  afterwards,  a  cyclone 
destroyed  every  ship  save  one  in  the  roads,  and  Rennell's  among 
them.  Fortunately  he  was  on  shore  when  the  gale  came  on  ;  but 
he  lost  everything. 

The  city  of  Madura  was  then  being  besieged  by  a  British  force 
in  combination  with  one  sent  by  the  nawab  of  the  Carnatic  ;  and 
Mr  Palk,  governor  of  Fort  St  George,  employed  Rennell 4  to 
superintend  the  landing  of  troops  and  stores  for  that  operation. 
For  his  conduct  of  this  service  he  received  the  thanks  of  the 
Government  and  a  handsome  present.  Apparently  about  this  time 


8  From  Rennell's  notice  of  its  size  and  position  this  is  evidently  the 
island  now  called  Rodriguez,  about  350  miles  north-east  of  Mauritius. 

4  This  siege  of  Madura  belongs  to  an  obscure  passage  of  Indian 
history,  an  account  of  which  must  be  sought  in  Nelson's  Manual  nf 
Madura  (Madras,  1868),  and  Bishop  Caldwell's  History  of  Tinncn-lly 
(Madras,  1881).  Mohammed  Yusuf  Khan,  a  man  of  great  ability, 
who  had  been  "  commander  of  all  the  Company's  sepoys"  (at  Madras), 
and  afterwards  governor  of  Madura  for  the  nawab  and  the  Company, 
threw  off  his  allegiance  in  the  beginning  of  1763.  A  joint  expedition 
was  sent  against  him,  and  for  a  long  time  had  indifferent  si. 
Eventually  Marchand,  the  chief  of  a  French  contingent  in  Yusuf  s 
service,  betrayed  him  to  the  English  commandant,  and  in  the  lattiT 
part  of  1764  it  is  said  that  ho  was  hanged,  whether  by  order  of  the 
Fort  St  George  Government  or  of  the  nawab  is  doubtful. 


399 


also  he  made  surveys  of  the  coast  about  Cape  Calymere,  and  of 
the  Paumben  Passage.  Shortly  afterwards,  having  gone  to 
Calcutta,  he  found  in  Captain  Tinker,  the  officer  commanding  the 
king's  squadron  there,  a  gentleman  with  whom  he  had  been 
slightly  acquainted  in  the  navy.  There  was  evidently  something 
very  engaging  in  Reimell's  manner,  aspect,  and  character,  for 
others  as  well  as  Captain  Tinker  immediately  endeavoured  to 
interest  in  his  fortunes  the  governor  of  the  presidency.  This  was 
Henry  Vansittart,  the  successor  of  Clive,  and  father  of  Nicolas 
Vansittart,  who  was  so  long  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  (1812- 
1823),  and  died  Lord  Bexley.  The  result  was  the  appointment  of 
Kennell  as  surveyor  of  the  E.  I.  Company's  dominions  in  Bengal, 
"before,"  as  he  writes,  "  I  was  scarcely  apprised  of  the  matter." 
A  few  days  later  he  received  a  commission  ' '  for  practitioner 
engineer  in  the  citadel  erecting  at  Calcutta  near  Fort  William" — 
the  fortress,  in  fact,  now  so  well  known  by  the  latter  name. 

Rennell,  in  a  letter  announcing  his  appointment,  calls  it  that  of 
"  surveyor-general,"  but  this  term  is  not  used  in  the  official  record, 
dated  April  9,  1764. J  The  date  of  his  commission  in  the  corps  of 
engineers,  as  ensign  (or  "practitioner  engineer,"  as  the  junior 
rank  was  termed),  is  the  same.  The  corps  of  Bengal  Engineers, 
which  after  a  creditable  existence  of  just  about  a  century  was 
amalgamated  with  the  Royal  Engineers  in  1862,  was  then  in  its 
infancy.  Only  four  officers  appear  as  having  had  commissions 
earlier  than  James  Kennell,  though  the  subsequent  introduction  of 
several  officers  with  higher  rank  eventually  placed  more  than  this 
number  over  his  head. 

Practically,  though  he  was  sometimes  engaged  in  works  of  con- 
struction or  demolition,2  Rennell's-work  as  a  surveyor  occupied 
the  whole  of  his  Indian  service,  which  extended  to  thirteen  years 
only.  In  the  course  of  this  employment  he  reduced  to  order  and 
substantial  accuracy  the  map  of  Bengal,  and  accumulated  a  great 
part  of  the  material  which  he  afterwards  utilized  in  the  determina- 
tion of  all  the  important  points  embraced  in  the  first  approxi- 
mately correct  map  of  India.  His  merits  were  highly  appreciated, 
and  his  rise  was  rapid.  In  January  1767  his  position  was  raised 
to  that  of  surveyor-general,  and  at  the  same  time  he  was  promoted 
to  captain. 

In  their  letter  to  the  court  of  directors,  reporting  this  promotion, 
the  council  at  Fort  William  say : — 

"  \Ve  have  appointed  Captain  Rennell,  a  young  man  of  distinguished  merit  in 
this  branch,  surveyor-general,  and  directed  him  to  form  one  general  chart  from 
those  already  made,  and  such  as  are  now  on  hand,  as  they  can  be-collected  in. 
This,  though  attended  with  great  labour,  does  not  prevent  his  prosecuting  his 
own  surveys,  the  fatigue  of  which,  with  the  desperate  wounds  he  has  lately 
received  in  one  of  them,  have  already  left  him  but  a  shattered  constitution."3 

This  passage  refers  to  a  memorable  passage  in  Rennell's  career, 
which  had  nearly  proved  its  tragical  termination.  Bengal  proper 
was  in  those  early  days  of  the  Company's  administration  very  far 
from  being  the  tranquil  country  that  we  have  known  it  for  so 
many  years  (except  indeed  (luring  its  partial  share  in  the  agitations 
of  1857,  from  the  mutiny  of  several  regiments  within  its  bound- 
aries). And  it  was  about  a  year  before  the  promotion  just 
mentioned  that  Rennell,  on  one  of  his  surveying  campaigns  in 
northern  Bengal,  met  with  the  adventure  in  question. 

The  districts  in  that  quarter  (Purniah,  Dinajpur,  Rangpur, 
&c. )  were  at  that  time  habitually  ravaged  by  bodies  of  marauders, 
who  had  their  headquarters  in  the  forest-tracts  at  the  foot  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  beyond  British  jurisdiction.  From  these  forests 
they  used  to  issue  annually  in  large  bands,  plundering  and  levying 
exactions  far  and  wide,  and  returning  to  their  jungle-asylum  when 
threatened  with  pursuit.  A  few  years  before  (1763)  a  large  body  of 
them  had  plundered  the  city  of  Dacca.  They  professed  to  belong  to 
a  religious  fraternity  and  were  commonly  known  as  the  Sanydsis,  a 
name  under  which  they  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  corre- 
spondence of  Warren  Hastings,  sometimes  as  Fakirs.  The  affair 
took  place  in  the  semi-independent  state  of  Kuch  Behar,  near  the 
border  of  Bhutan.  Hearing  that  a  party  of  native  soldiers  had 
been  sent  to  put  down  one  of  those  bands,  which  had  just  taken 
and  plundered  the  capital  of  the  state,  Rennell  hastened  to 
join  the  detachment  with  his  own  small  escort,  and  came  up  with 
it  just  after  the  banditti  had  received  a  beating.  The  next  day 
(21st  February  1766)  was  spent  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  and  in 
the  afternoon  Rennell  and  two  other  officers,  who  had  gone  forward 
to  reconnoitre,  found  themselves  in  presence  of  a  large  body  of  the 
Sanyusis.  Their  small  escort  of  native  horse  rode  off,  and  the 
officers  were  surrounded.  Rcnnell's  Armenian  assistant  was  killed, 
his  engineer  subaltern  fought  his  way  clear  with  a  slight  wound, 

a  Extract  from  Beni3al  P^lic  Consultations  of  that  date  (Records  in  India 
Office).  "  Mr  Hugh  Cameron,  who  was  employed  on  this  establishment  as 
surveyor  of  the  new  lands,  being  deceased  16th  ultimo,  it  is  agreed  to  appoint 
Mr  Jumes  Renall  (sic)  in  his  room,  who  is  recommended  to  us  as  a  capable  person, 
id  by  specimens  of  some  surveys  made  by  him  which  the  President  now  lays 
before  the  Board,  promises  to  be  a  very  useful  servant." 

One  of  his  exceptional  employments  (July  1768)  was  the  demolition  of  for- 
mcations  round  Chandernagore,  which  the  French  had  commenced  "expressly 


tin 


contrary  to  the  treaty  of  Paris." 
3  Printed  in  Long's  Extracts . 
1869). 


pressly 
from  the  Fort  William  Records,  p.  487  (Calcutta, 


Rennell  himself  retreated  fighting  to  the  detachment,  and  was 
put  in  a  palankin,  covered  with  sabre-wounds.  One  blow  had  cut 
into  his  right  shoulder  blade  and  through  several  ribs  ;  his  left 
arm  was  severely  cut  in  three  places,  and  he  had  other  wounds 
besides.  For  surgical  help  he  had  to  be  sent  to  Dacca,  300  miles 
off,  in  an  open  boat,  which  he  had  to  direct  himself,  as  he  lay  on 
his  face,  whilst  the  natives  applied  onions  as  a  cataplasm  to  his 
shoulder.  He  was  long  given  up,  but,  under  the  tender  care  of 
his  friend  Dr  Russell,  he  recovered,  though  his  health  was  long 
affected  by  the  loss  of  blood  and  severity  of  the  injuries. 

On  two  later  occasions  Rennell's  letters  speak  of  his  being 
attacked  or  waylaid  whilst  on  survey,  in  one  case  by  irregulars  in 
the  employment  of  the  "jemitdars,"  i.e.,  "zemindars,"  in  districts 
remote  from  Calcutta,  and  on  another  occasion  by  the  "  Bootese," 
or  Bhutias,  as  we  now  call  them.  In  a  letter  dated  30th  October 
1770  he  says  in  his  brief  way  : — 

"I  must  not  forget  to  tell  you  that  about  a  month  ago  a  large  leopard  jumped 
at  me,  and  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  kill  him  by  thrusting  my  bayonet  down 
his  throat.  Five  of.  my  men  were  wounded  by  him,  lour  of  them  very  danger- 
ously. You  see  I  am  a  lucky  fellow  at  all  times." 

We  gather  from  this  passage  that  it  was  common  in  those  days 
for  officers  to  carry  bayonets, — a  circumstance  which  is  also  set 
forth  in  one  of  the  best  known  portraits  of  General  Wolfe. 

Shortly  after  this  last  adventure  Rennell  was  allowed  to  carry 
out,  with  a  force  under  his  command,  a  project  that  he  had 
formed  for  the  suppression  of  the  banditti  in  the  north.  Writing 
on  the  3d  March  1771,  he  speaks  of  having  returned  successful 
from  this  expedition,  after  marching  320  miles  in  fifteen  days, 
which  he  justly  observes  was  "pretty  good  travelling  in  that 
climate,  especially  for  soldiers."  This  did  not,  however,  put  an 
end  to  the  Sanyasis,  for  they  are  spoken  of  by  Hastings  as  still  a 
pest  in  1773  and  1774. 

Rennell's  usual  residence  was  at  Dacca,  though  his  visits  to 
Calcutta  were  at  least  annual.  On  one  of  these  he  married  (October 
15,  1772)  Miss  Jane  Thackeray,  one  of  the  sixteen  children  of 
Archdeacon  Thackeray,  who  had  been  headmaster  of  Harrow  from 
1746  to  his  death  in  1760,  and  who  has  been  called  by  Dr  Butler 
the  "second  founder"  of  the  school.4  Among  Dr  "Thackeray's 
descendants  are  to  be  counted  many  distinguished  Anglo-Indians  ; 
and  William  Makepeace  Thackeray  of  the  Civil  Service,  the 
grandfather  of  the  great  writer  who  has  made  that  combination  of 
names  familiar  and  illustrious,  was  a  friend  of  Rennell's  and  the 
brother  of  his  wife. 

Indian  careers  were  not  in  those  days  generally  prolonged. 
Fortunes  were  reaped  more  rapidly  than  in  later  years,  and  death 
likewise  mowed  with  swifter  strokes.  In  the  list  of  Bengal 
engineers  there  are  thirteen,  including  Rennell,  who  received  com- 
missions prior  to  1770,  the  earliest  in  1761.  Of  these  thirteen, 
before  1780,  six  were  dead,  four  had  resigned,  one  had  been  dis- 
missed, and  two  only  in  the  year  named  remained  in  the  service. 

Rennell's  health  had  been  remarkably  good  up  to  his  encounter 
with  the  Sanyasis,  but  from  that  time  it  became  permanently 
deteriorated,  and  in  1777  he  resigned,  having  attained  the  rank  of 
major  two  years  earlier  (January  1775).  In  those  days  no  regular 
pension-system  existed  ;  but,  when  permission  for  Rennell's  retire- 
ment was  given,  in  December  1776,  by  the  governor  and  council, 
it  was  accompanied  by  the  grant  of  a  pension  of  500>  rupees  a 
month  from  the  Calcutta  treasury,  till  the  court's  pleasure  should 
be  known.  In  passing  this  resolution  the  board  remark  that  they 
"  think  fit  to  adopt  this  mode  as  most  satisfactory  to  Major  Rennell, 
whose  fortune  will  not  permit  him  to  leave  India  without  some 
certainty  of  support  in  the  decline  of  life."8  It  is  impossible,  in 
reading  this  last  phrase,  to  withhold  a  smile  at  the  proverbial 
longevity  of  pensioners,  when  we  remember  that  the  illustrious 
subject  of  the  resolution  drew  the  allowance  for  fifty-three  years 
after  his  retirement.  The  court  of  directors,  after  his  arrival  in 
England,  conferred  a  pension  of  £600  a  year  in  lieu  of  the  Calcutta 
one. 

Major  Rennell  and  his  wife,  with  a  daughter  born  at  St  Helena 
during  a  stoppage  on  the  way  home,  reached  England,  12th 
February  1778.  For  the  rest  of  his  long  life  he  lived  in  London, 
and  for  much  the  greater  part  of  the  'time  in  Nassau  Street 
(formerly  called  Suffolk  Street)  near  the  Middlesex  Hospital,  a 
quarter  then  inhabited  by  gentlefolks,  though  now  quite  deserted 
by  fashion. 

When  applying  in  1776  for  permission  to  retire,  Rennell  had 
written — "I  desire  not  to  eat  the  bread  of  idleness,  but  rather  to 
make  myself  as  useful  as  possible,  even  after  my  return  to  England," 
and  went  on  to  submit  a  scheme  for  the  utilization  of  the  large  mass 
of  geographical  material  laid  up  and  perishing  in  the  India  House.6 
He  cannot  have  been  long  in  England  before  he  buckled  to  this 
task.  He  is  said  to  have  been  offered  employment  of  a  considerable 
character  and  to  have  declined  it.  Of  this  we  know  no  more  ;  but 
apparently  he  had  laid  out  his  own  course  of  life,  in  devoting  him- 

4  Rennell,  in  announcing  his  marriage  to  Mr  Burrington,  speaks  of  his  wife  as 
the  "daughter  of  the  late  Mr  Thackeray  who  kept  Harrow  School." 

s  MS.  Records  in  the  India  Office.  s  India  Office  Records. 


400 


R  E  N  N  E  L  L 


self  to  the  laborious  literary  elucidation  of  geography,  and  to  that 
enjoyment  of  the  society  of  his  friends  to  which  he  often  refers  in 
his  corres]>ondence  as  the  chief  happiness  to  which  he  looked  for- 
ward iii  his  retirement. 

His  first  publication  after  his  return  was  A  Chart  of  the  Banks 
and  Currents  at  the  Lagullas  in  South  Africa  (1778),  accompanied 
by  a  memoir.  In  the  same  year  appeared  A  Description  of  the 
Roads  in  Bengal  and  Bahar,  <t-c.,  printed  by  order  of  the  Court  of 
Directors.  This  is  a  small  12mo,  and  only  a  book  of  routes.  In 
1781  came  out  his  B&igal  Atlas,  containing  Maps  of  the  Tfaatrc  of 
War  and  Commerce  on  that  side  of  Hindustan,  compiled  from  the 
original  Surveys,  with  Tables  of  Routes  and  Distances  from  Calcutta, 
through  the  principal  Internal  Navigations.  This  is  in  folio,  and 
contains  twenty-one  maps,  a  work  leaving  far  behind  everything  in 
Indian  cartography  published  up  to  that  date.  In  the  same  year 
Rennell  read  before  the  Royal  Society,  to  which  he  had  been  elected 
March  8,  "  An  Account  of  the  Ganges  and  Burrampootur  Rivers." 

These  were  preliminary  flights.  His  great  work  on  Indian 
geography  was  the  Memoir  of  a  Map  of  Hindustan  ;  and  even  this 
was  of  gradual  growth.  In  its  first  form,  as  published  in  1783,  it 
contained  only  pp.  xiv  and  132.  A  second  edition  in  1785  had  con- 
siderable additions.  In  1788  a  Memoir  was  issued  altogether  en- 
larged in  scope,  and  of  this  again  a  second  edition  appeared  in  1792, 
and  a  third,  still  enlarged,  in  1793,  which  contains  pp.  cxli  +  428 
+  51,  pp.  820  in  all.  The  work,  which  thus  went  through  five  de- 
velopments in  all,  was  that  which  especially  established  Rennell's 
reputation, — though  his  knowledge  and  ability  were  appreciated  in 
London  from  an  early  date  after  his  return  to  Europe,  and  the  con- 
tinued scries  of  works  which  he  issued  from  time  to  time  during 
some  five  and  thirty  years  spread  and  augmented  his  fame  as  a  geo- 
grapher. After  a  brief  interval  of  extreme  old  age,  the  series  was 
resumed  in  the  publication  of  valuable  posthumous  works. 

But,  to  return  to  earlier  days,  Rennell  speedily  found  a  place  in 
the  most  intelligent  circles  of  society,  counting  among  his  friends, 
as  years  passed  on,  not  only  men  of  science  and  literature  like  Sir 
Joseph  Banks,  Sir  Everard  Home,  Bishop  Horsley,  Sir  George 
Staunton,  Dr  Robertson  the  historian,  Dean  Vincent,  Mr  Alexander 
Dalrymple,  Mr  William  Marsden,  &c.,  but  also  such  men  as  Lord 
Mornington  (afterwards  the  famous  Marquis  Wellesley),  Lord 
Spencer  (first  lord  of  the  Admiralty  1794-1801),  and  Lord  Holland. 
His  closest  friends  appear  to  have  been  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  Lord 
Spencer,  and  Dr  Gillies  the  historian,  and  in  later  years  Captain 
(afterwards  Sir  Francis)  Beaufort. 

In  1791  he  received  from  the  Royal  Society,  at  the  hands  of  the 
president  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  the  Copley  medal,  assigned  him  for 
his  geographical  labours,  and  especially  for  his  paper  "  On  the 
Camel's  Rate,  as  applied  to  Geographical  Purposes."  The  follow- 
ing passage,  perhaps  not  quite  free  from  exaggeration,  occurs  in 
the  president's  address  on  this  occasion  :  — 

"  1  should  rejoice  could  I  say  that  Britons  .  .  .  could  boast  a  general  map  of 
their  island  as  well  executed  as  the  Major's  delineation  of  Bengal  and  Bahar, 
a  tract  of  countries  considerably  larger  in  extent  than  the  whole  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  ;  but  it  would  be  injustice  to  the  Major's  industry,  were  I  not  here  to 
state  that  the  districts  he  has  perambulated  and  planned  exceed  probably  in 
extent  the  whole  tract  of  surveyed  country  to  be  found  in  the  maps  of  the 
Euroi>ean  kingdoms  put  together;  while  the  accuracy  of  his  particular  surveys 
stands  yet  unrivalled  by  the  most  laborious  performance  of  the  best  county  maps 
this  nation  has  hitherto  been  able  to  produce." 

In  1792  Rennell  published  TJic  Marches  of  the  British  Army  in 
the  Peninsula  of  India  during  the  Campaign  of  1790-91,  illustrated 
and  explained  by  a  map  and  other  plates  ;  and  in  1794  an  8vo 
pamphlet  entitled  War  with  France  the  only  security  of  Britain, 
by  an  "  Old  Englishman. "  Some  years  before  this  time  Rennell  had 
also  turned  his  attention  to  African  geography,  in  connexion  with 
the  African  Association,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  members. 
Of  this  body,  which  was  the  progenitor,  though  not  the  immediate 
parent,  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,1  an  account  may  be  read 
in  Mr  Clements  Markham's  most  interesting  record  of  the  fifty  years' 
work  of  that  society.  The  association  was  established  in  1788, 
and  sent  out  several  travellers  of  note.  Maps  and  geographical 
memoirs  from  Renuell's  pen  were  issued  on  various  occasions  ;  and 
especially  were  his  African  labours  associated  with  the  name  and 
first  journey  of  Mungo  Park.  Rennell  published  in  all  some  five 
or  six  dissertations  on  African  geography.  And  this  branch  of  his 
work  may  account,  after  a  fashion,  for  an  odd  confusion  made  in 
a  public  report  of  Livingstone's  burial  in  Westminster  Abbey.2 

The  Philosophical  Transactions,  whose  atmosphere  in  those  days 
was  not  confined  to  the  same  rarefied  altitudes  as  at  present,  con- 
tain occasional  papers  from  Rennell's  hand.  We  have  mentioned  the 
paper  on  "  Camel's  Rate  "  in  1791  ;  in  1793  we  have  "  Observations 
on  a  Current  that  often  prevails  to  the  westward  of  Scilly,  and 
endangers  the  safety  of  ships"  (the  current  in  question  has  since 
been  known  by  Rennell's  name),  in  1809  "  On  the  Effect  of  Westerly 
Winds  in  raising  the  Level  of  the  British  Channel."  In  the 

1  There  was  an  intermediate  body  called  the  Raleigh  Club,  founded  in  182C-27, 
which  actually  developed  into  the  R.  G.  S.  Rennell's  great  age  doubtless  pre- 
vented his  joining  the  club.  The  society  was  founded  the  month  after  his  death. 

!  "  At  Livingstone's  feet  lies  the  head  of  Major  Reynell  (sic),  himself  a  noted 
African  traveller."—  Times,  April  20,  1874. 


Archseologia  we  find  the  following: — in  vol.  xvii.  p.  242, 
"Observations  on  the  Topography  of  Ancient  Babylon,"  and  in  vol. 
xxi.  three  dissertations: — (1)  p.  92,  "On  the  Voyage  and  Place  of 
Shipwreck  of  St  Paul";  (2)  p.  138,  "Concerning  the  Identity  of  the 
Remains  at  Jerash,  whether  they  are  those  of  Gerasa  or  Pella  "  ;  (3) 
p.  501,  read  May  1826,  when  the  venerable  author  was  in  his 
eighty-fourth  year,  "  Concerning  the  place  where  Julius  Caesar 
landed  in  Britain."  This  does  not,  we  believe,  exhaust  the  list  of 
his  occasional  writings,  and  he  gave  much  incidental  help  to  other 
writers  who  touched  his  own  subjects,  e.g.,  to  Dean  Vincent  in  his 
well-known  work  on  the  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  Ancients. 
The  detail  of  these  minor  works  has  carried  us  away  from  the 
chronological  order  of  his  productions.  That  which  added  most 
largely  to  the  reputation  acquired  as  the  geographer  of  India  was 
his  book  on  the  Geographical  System  of  Herodotus,  4to,  with  eleven 
maps  (1800).  Another  great  task  undertaken  by  him  was  a  Treatise 
on  the  Comparative  Geography  of  Western  Asia.  On  this  field  he 
had  formed  a  most  comprehensive  project,  too  vast  indeed  for  the 
time  of  life  at  which  he  undertook  it,  when  probably  he  had  already 
reached  threescore.  Of  this  project  his  Herodotus  was  indeed 
itself  a  portion,  and  others  were  his  separate  publications  of  a  Dis- 
sertation on  the  Topography  of  the  Plain  of  Troy  (4to,  1811),  and 
of  the  Illustrations  of  the  Expeditions  oft  Cyrus  and  the  Retreat  of 
the  Ten  Thousand,  and  an  additional  mass  of  matter,  prepared  with 
many  years'  labour,  and  left  behind  him  in  a  very  perfect  state  of 
transcription,  was  published  after  his  death  by  his  daughter,  in  2 
vols.  8vo,  with  an  atlas  (1831). 

Another  posthumous  work  was  An  Investigation  of  the  Currents 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  of  those  which  prevail  between  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  the  Atlantic.  For  this  work  Rennell  had  examined  and 
collated  the  logs  of  a  vast  number  of  the  ships  of  war  and  Indiamen 
which  had  traversed  those  seas  during  thirty  or  forty  years,  re-com- 
puting observations,  and  reducing  them  to  one  general  system.  The 
results  of  this  toil  were  left  ready  for  the  press,  and  were  published 
in  large  charts,  with  a  thin  volume  of  text,  under  the  editorship  of 
Mr  John  Purdy,  in  1832.  The  first  contributions  to  the  scientific 
knowledge  of  currents  had  been  Rennell's  papers  on  the  Lagullas, 
and  on  the  Scilly  Currents,  and  the  present  work  contained  nearly 
all  that  existed  in  the  generalization  of  such  data  till  more  than 
twenty  years  after  his  death.3 

"Major  Rennell,"  says  an  account  of  him,  in  a  work  privately 
printed  by  a  member  of  his  wife's  family,4  "was  of  middle  size, 
well  proportioned,  with  a  grave  yet  sweet  expression  on  his  coun- 
tenance, which  is  said  to  have  conciliated  the  regard  of  all  he 
spoke  with." 

The  existence  of  this  happy  faculty  we  have  already  noticed  as 
deducible  from  his  earlier  history  in  India.  The  sweet  gravity  of 
which  the.  writer  speaks  is  very  recognizable  in  his  portraits,  alike 
in  middle  life  and  in  extreme  old  age.5  A  contemporary,  quoted  in 
the  work  just  referred  to,  said  of  him  : — "  In  his  intercourse  with 
his  friends  he  possesses  a  remarkable  flow  of  spirits,  and  abounds 
with  interesting  subjects  of  conversation  ;  at  the  same  time,  as  to 
what  relates  to  himself,  he  is  one  of  the  most  diffident,  unassuming 
men  in  the  world." 

One  of  the  obituary  notices  at  the  time  of  his  death  says  that 
Rennell's  "political  and  religious  feelings  are  said  to  have  operated 
in  causing  him  to  decline  the  acceptance  of  an  invitation  to  become 
a  member  of  the  French  National  Institute."  This  can  hardly  have 
had  any  basis  of  fact.  Rennell,  in  politics,  was  always  attached  to 
what  would  be  called,  in  present  language,  the  Liberal  party;  though 
his  Liberalism,  as  we  may  gather  from  the  title  of  his  pamphlet  of 
1794,  and  from  expressions  used  in  the  dedication  to  Earl  Spencer 
of  his  Herodotus,  had  nothing  of  that  character  which  loves  to  dis- 
parage those  who  are  jealous  for  the  greatness  of  England.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  he  was  elected  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Institute 
during  the  peace  of  Amiens,  in  1802,  and  accepted  the  honour  with 
unmistakable  cordiality  and  satisfaction,  as  his  reply,  which  we 
have  seen,  testifies.  In  his  eighty-third  year  a  gold  medal  was 
awarded  to  Rennell  by  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature  ;  and,  as 
his  infirmities  prevented  his  attendance  at  their  place  of  meeting,  a 
deputation,  headed  by  the  president,  visited  him  for  the  purpose  of 
presenting  it  at  his  own  house  in  Nassau  Street. 

When  more  than  eighty-seven  years  of  age  Major  Rennell  slipped 
from  a  chair,  and  broke  his  thigh.  He  hardly  ever  left  his  lied 
afterwards,  and  died  29th  March  1830.  He  was  buried  in  the  nave 
of  Westminster  Abbey  on  the  6th  April.  A  tablet  to  his  memory, 
with  a  bust,  stands  in  the  north-west  angle  of  the  nave. 

Mrs  Rennell  had  died  in  1810.     Three  children  of  the  marriage 

3  See  Mr  A.  G.  Findlay  in  the  Jour.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.,  vol.  xxlii. 

4  Memorialt  of  the  Thackeray  Family,  by  the  late  Mrs  liayne. 

s  Among  portraits  we  may  mention  one  engraved  by  Cardon  from  a  drawing 
by  Scott,  of  which  impressions  were  published  in  the  European  Magazine  for 
1802.  and  in  both  the  posthumous  editions  of  the  Herodotus.  There  to  another 
profile,  engraved  by  Daniel  after  Dance,  in  a  collection  of  portraits  by  these 
artists,  and  a  medallion  in  porcelain  executed  at  Paris,  probably  after  liis  ilc.-itli, 
and  showing  him  In  old  age.  There  is  also  the  bust  by  Baily  in  Westminster 
Abbey ;  and  an  admirable  wax  relief  of  him  in  old  age  is  in  the  possession  of 
Major  Rodd,  his  gnimlsdii. 


R  E  N  — R  E  N 


401 


grew  up.  Of  these,  Thomas,  the  second,  died  in  1846  ;  William, 
the  third,  went  to  India  in  the  Civil  Service,  and  died  some  years 
before  his  father  (1819)  ;l  Jane,  the  eldest,  married  Captain  Rodd, 
afterwards  Vice- Admiral  Sir  John  Tremayne  Rodd,  K.C.B.,  and 
survived  both  her  brothers,  dying  in  1863.  It  was  through  Lady 
Rodd's  active  filial  zeal  that  Rennell's  posthumous  works  were  pub- 
lished, including,  besides  the  two  already  named,  a  second  edition 
of  the  Herodotus. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  enumeration  of  his  writings  sufficiently 
shows  how  laboriously  he  worked.  But  to  this  great  industry  were 
joined  in  all  his  works  sagacity,  excellent  judgment,  and  a  love 
of  truth  which  made  him  never  ashamed  to  confess  a  difficulty, 
and  always  ready  to  do  justice  to  other  writers.  The  man  whom 
we  find  already  at  fourteen  serving  as  a  midshipman  in  time  of  war 
could  have  grown  up  with  little  instruction  but  what  he  sought,  and 
found  for  himself,  in  the  course  of  his  career.  On  mauy  of  the  sub- 
jects on  which  he  wrote,  fresh  light  has  been  so  abundant  that  the 
value  of  his  works  as  guides  has  in  great  measure  passed  away,  yet 
even  now  no  one  can  deal  with  Herodotus  or  Xenophon  without  cou- 
sulting  Rennell's  views,  directly  or  indirectly.  Obliged  to  depend,  as 
regards  the  former,  for  his  text  on  the  inaccurate  translation  of 
Beloe,  it  has  been  shown  that  Rennell's  sagacity  often  discerned 
the  true  meaning  of  the  historian  when  his  interpreter  had  gone 
astray.  What  he  did  for  the  geography  of  India,  not  by  his  own 
surveys  merely,  but  by  his  labour  on  the  often  remoulded  Memoir, 
in  coordinating  the  information  gathered  during  forty  years,  may 
be  best  appreciated  by  a  comparison  of  the  celebrated  D'Anville's 
ficlairtissemcns  Geographiques  sur  la  Carte  de  TInde  (1753)  with 
the  final  edition  of  the  Memoir  (1793).  Putting  aside  the  great 
additions  to  positive  knowledge  which  favoured  the  later  writer, 
we  are  mistaken  if  the  perusal  of  both  works  will  not  leave  the  im- 
pression that,  in  most  of  the  qualities  of  a  geographer,  Rennell's 
place  is  not  in  any  respect  behind  that  of  the  famous  Frenchman, 
for  whom  he  himself  always  entertained  and  expressed  the  deepest 
respect. 

We  conclude  with  an  extract  from  a  tribute  to  his  memory  which 
appeared  in  the  Times  of  the  day  after  his  funeral  in  the  Abbey: — 

"Another  characteristic  of  this  amiable  philosopher  was  the  generous  facility 
with  which  he  imparted  his  stores  of  learning  in  conversation.  A  memory 
remarkably  tenacious,  and  so  well  arranged  as  to  be  equally  ready  for  the  recep- 
tion or  for  the  distribution  of  knowledge,  made  him  a  depository  of  facts  to  which 
few  ever  applied  in  vain;  adapting  himself  to  the  level  of  all  who  consulted  him, 
he  had  the  happy  art  of  correcting  their  errors  without  hurting  their  feelings, 
and  of  leading  them  to  truth  without  convicting  them  of  ignorance." 

Till  Rennell's  time  it  could  hardly  be  said  that  England  could 
boast  of  any  geographer  of  the  first  class.  His  pre-eminence  in  that 
character  is  still  undisputed,  like  that  of  D'Anville  in  France,  and 
of  Ritter  in  Germany. 

In  this  sketch  of  Rennell's  career,  use  has  been  made  of  a  mass  of  letters 
addi'essed,  during  his  service  in  the  navy  and  in  India,  to  the  Rev.  G.  Burrington, 
kindly  lent  by  Mr  C.  Langley  of  Chudleigh  ;  of  papers  courteously  communicated 
by  Rennell's  descendants;  of  the  "Memorials"  quoted  above;  and  of  India 
Office  records ;  supplemented  by  a  good  deal  of  other  research.  (H.  Y.) 

EENNES,  a  town  of  France,  formerly  the  capital  of 
Brittany  and  now  the  chief  town  of  the  department  of 
Ille-et-Vilaine,  is  situated  at  the  meeting  of  the  Ille  and 
the  Vilaine  and  at  the  junction  of  several  lines  of  railway 
connecting  it  with  Paris  (232  miles  east-north-east),  St 
Malo  (51  miles  north),  Brest  (147  west-north-west),  &c. 
It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop  and  the  headquarters  of 
the  10th  corps  d'arm^e  (with  a  large  arsenal  and  bar- 
racks). For  the  most  part  rebuilt  on  a  regular  plan 
since  the  seven  days'  fire  of  1720,  the  town  is  rendered 
more  monotonous  by  the  houses  being  of  dark-coloured 
granite  and  nearly  all  after  the  same  type.  Of  trade 
and  industry  there  is  little  trace  in  the  dull  and  de- 
serted streets.  The  main  portion  of  the  old  town  occu- 
pies a  hill  which  looks  down  on  the  confluence  of  the 
streams.  Along  the  north  side  flows  the  Vilaine  in  a  deep 
hollow  bordered  with  quays  and  crossed  by  four  bridges 
leading  to  the  new  town  near  the  railway  station.  The 
canalized  Ille  forms  the  first  section  of  the  Ille  and  Ranee 
Canal  which  unites  St  Malo  to  Rennes,  and  then  descends 
the  Vilaine  to  Redon,  and  the  canal  from  Nantes  to  Brest. 
The  cathedral  of  Rennes  is  rebuilt  in  a  pseudo-Ionic  style 
on  the  site  of  two  churches  dating  originally  from  the 
4th  century.  The  archbishop's  palace  occupies  in  part 
the  site  of  the  abbey  of  St  Melaine,  whose  church  is  the 
sole  specimen  in  the  town  of  11-1 3th  century  architec- 


1  There  is  in  the  B.  M.  Catalogue  "Experimental  Philosophy,  or 
the  Effects  of  Chemistry  ;  A  Play  in  Three  Acts,  by  William  Kennell, 
Calcutta,  1807-8." 


ture.  A  colossal  statue  of  the  Virgin  was  placed  above 
the  dome  of  this  church  in  1867.  In  the  palace  is  pre- 
served the  old  altar  screen  from  the  cathedral,  perhaps  the 
finest  in  all  France.  The  Mordelaise  Gate,  by  which  the 
dukes  and  bishops  used  to  make  their  state  entry  into  the 
town,  is  a  curious  example  of  15th  century  architecture, 
and  accidentally  preserves  a  Latin  inscription  of  the  3d 
century,  a  dedication  by  the  Redones  to  the  emperor 
Gordianus.  Architecturally  the  finest  building  in  the 
town  is  the  old  parliament  house  (now  the  court-house), 
designed  by  Jacques  Debrosse  in  the  17th  century,  and 
decorated  with  statues  of  legal  celebrities,  carved  work, 
and  paintings  by  Coypel  and  Jouvenet.  The  town-house 
was  erected  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century  by 
Gabriel,  the  architect- of  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  in  Paris. 
In  the  modern  building  occupied  by  the  faculties  of  law, 
science,  and  literature  there  are  scientific  collections  of 
various  kinds,  and  one  of  the  finest  picture  galleries  out- 
side of  Paris,  with  pieces  by  Paul  Veronese,  Tintoretto, 
Vandyck,  Rembrandt,  Rubens,  &c.,  and  sketches  by 
Michelangelo,  Titian,  and  other  great  masters.  The  town 
library  contains  50,000  volumes  and  220  MSS.;  and  the 
municipal  archives  are  of  primary  importance  for  the 
history  of  Brittany.  The  Promenade  du  Thabor,  with  a 
statue  of  Duguesclin,  the  adjoining  botanic  gardens,  the 
Promenade  de  la  Motte  a  little  lower  down,  and  the  Mail, 
a  fine  avenue  planted  in  1657  by  the  duke  of  Chaulnes, 
add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  Rennes.  About  2  miles 
from  the  town  is  the  castle  of  La  Prevalaye.  The  local 
industries  are  varied  but  not  extensive.  The  population 
of  the  town  in  1881  numbered  57,430;  that  of  the  com- 
mune 60,974. 

Rennes,  the  chief  city  of  the  Redones,  was  formerly  (like  some 
other  places  in  Gaul)  called  Condate  (hence  Condat,  Conde),  pro- 
bably from  its  position  at  the  confluence  of  two  streams.  Under  the 
Roman  empire  it  was  included  in  Lugdunensis  Tertia,  and  became 
the  centre  of  various  Roman  roads  still  recognizable  in  the  vicinity. 
The  name  Urbs  JRubra  given  to  it  in  the  oldest  chroniclers  is 
explained  by  the  bands  of  red  brick  still  found  in  the  foundations 
of  its  first  circuit  of  walls.  In  843  A.D.  Nomenoe,  Charles  the 
Bald's  lieutenant,  declared  himself  independent  and  took  the  title 
of  king  of  the  Bretons  ;  but  the  country  was  afterwards  torn  to 
pieces  by  the  struggles  of  the  various  counts  who  wished  to  make 
themselves  masters  of  it  and  by  the  invasions  of  the  Normans. 
About  the  close  of  the  10th  century  Conan  le  Tort,  count  of  Rennes, 
subdued  the  whole  province,  and  it  was  his  son  and  successor 
Geoffrey  who  first  took  the  title  duke  of  BRITTANY  (q.  v. ).  It  was  at 
Rennes  the  dukes  were  crowned,  and  before  entering  the  city  by  the 
Mordelaise  Gate  they  had  to  swear  to  preserve  the  privileges  of  the 
church,  the  nobles,  and  the  commons  of  Brittany.  During  the  War 
of  Succession  the  city  was  captured  by  Jean  de  Montfort  in  1341, 
by  Charles  of  Blois  in  1342,  and  again  by  Jean  de  Montfort. 
During  the  troubles  of  the  League  the  duke  of  Mercceur  attempted 
to  make  himself  independent  at  Rennes  (1589),  but  his  scheme  was 
defeated  by  the  loyalty  of  the  local  parliament.  Henry  IV. 
entered  the  city  in  state  on  May  9,  1598.  An  insurrection  at 
Rennes  caused  by  the  taxes  imposed  by  Louis  XIV.,  in  spite  of 
the  advice  of  the  parliament,  was  cruelly  suppressed  by  the  duke 
of  Chaulnes,  governor  of  the  province.  The  parliament  was 
banished  to  Vannes  till  1689,  and  the  inhabitants  crushed  with 
forfeits  and  in  great  numbers  put  to  death.  The  fire  of  1720 
which  destroyed  eight  hundred  hoiises  completed  the  ruin  of  the 
town.  During  the  last  year  of  the  monarchy  Rennes  more  than 
once  resisted  the  imposition  of  taxes  not  authorized  by  the  states 
of  Brittany.  In  1765  the  celebrated  procureur-general  La  Chalotais 
was  imprisoned,  and  in  1788  the  parliament  was  suspended  from 
May  to  October.  At  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution  Rennes 
was  again  the  scene  of  bloodshed  caused  by  the  discussion  about 
doubling  the  third  estate  for  the  convocation  of  the  states-general. 
On  January  26,  1789,  the  students,  with  Moreau  (afterwards  general) 
at  their  head,  broke  into  the  hall  where  the  nobles  sat  in  council  in 
defiance  of  the  decree  of  suspension  issued  against  them  by  the 
Government.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror  Rennes  suffered  less  than 
Nantes,  partly  through  the  courage  and  uprightness  of  the  mayor 
Leperdit.  It  was  soon  afterwards  the  centre  of  the  operations  of 
the  republican  army  against  La  Vendee.  After  the  10th  of 
Brumaire  it  was  accused  of  royalism  and  put  to  ransom  by  Brune. 
Besides  La  Chalotais,  Gerbier  the  advocate  and  Admiral  De  la 
Motte-Piequet  were  born  at  Rennes. 

XX.  -  51 


402 


R  E  N-^R  E  N 


RENNIE,  JOHN  (1761-1821),  engineer  and  architect, 
was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  was  born  at  Phantassie,  East 
Lothian,  7th  June  1761.  While  attending  the  parish 
school  of  East  Linton  he  had  to  pass  the  workshop  of 
Andrew  Meikle,  the  inventor  of  the  thrashing  machine, 
and  evinced  such  a  strong  interest  in  the  operations 
there  in  progress  that  the  workmen  were  in  the  habit  of 
lending  him  their  tools  and  teaching  him  their  various 
uses.  In  his  twelfth  year  he  left  school  and  placed  him- 
self under  Meikle,  but  at  the  end  of  two  years  he  went  to 
a  school  at  Dunbar,  in  order  to  obtain  a  more  thorough 
knowledge  of  mathematics  and  mechanical  drawing.  After- 
wards he  occasionally  assisted  Meikle,  but  before  his 
eighteenth  year  he  had  erected  several  corn  mills,  on  his 
own  account,  while  in  the  winter  months  he  visited  Edin- 
burgh to  attend  the  classes  of  physical  science  at  the 
university.  By  Prof.  Robison  of  Edinburgh  he  was  intro- 
,  duced  to  Messrs  Boulton  &  Watt  of  Soho  near  Birming- 
ham, for  whom  in  1786  he  superintended  the  construction 
,  of  the  Albion  flour  mills  near  Blackfriars  Bridge,  London. 
It  is  believed  that  the  difficulties  which  occurred  at  the 
Albion  mills  in  regard  to  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  first 
led  Rennie  to  the  study  of  that  branch  of  civil  engineering 
connected  with  hydraulics  and  hydrodynamics,  in  which 
he  became  so  celebrated  as  to  have  no  rival  after  the  death 
of  Smeaton.  Immediately  after  the  completion  of  the 
Albion  mills  Rennie's  reputation  was  so  firmly  established 
in  everything  connected  with  mill  work  that  he  found 
himself  in  a  very  extensive  line  of  business.  In  the  con- 
struction of  sugar  mills  in  Jamaica  and  the  other  West 
Indian  Islands  he  soon  had  almost  a  monopoly,  and  among 
•other  mills  constructed  by  him  in  England  mention  may 
be  made  of  the  powder  mill  at  Tunbridge,  the  great  flour 
mill  at  Wandsworth,  and  the  rolling  and  triturating  mills 
at  the  Mint  on  Tower  Hill.  Wherever  the  machinery 
of  his  mills  was  impelled  by  steam,  the  engines  of  his 
friends  Messrs  Boulton  &  Watt  supplied  the  motive  power. 
It  is,  however,  on  his  achievements  as  an  architect  and 
civil  engineer  that  the  fame  of  Rennie  chiefly  rests.  Of 
the  bridges  connecting  the  banks  of  the  Thames  at  London, 
three  have  been  built  from  his  designs, — Southwark  Bridge, 
in  the  construction  of  which  he  introduced  a  method  of 
-employing  cast  iron  which  formed  a  new  epoch  in  the 
history  of  bridge-building ;  Waterloo  Bridge,  which  then 
had  no  parallel  for  its  magnitude,  elegance,  and  solidity ; 
and  London  Bridge,  on  the  model  of  Waterloo  Bridge. 
Bridges  at  Leeds,  Musselburgh,  Kelso,  Newton-Stewart, 
Boston,  New  Galloway,  and  numerous  other  places  bear 
similar  testimony  to  his  skill  and  taste.  His  earliest  canal 
project  was  that  of  the  Crinan  Canal,  and  following  it  was 
the  Lancaster  Canal,  which  besides  other  difficulties  pre- 
sented that  of  an  aqueduct  over  the  Lune.  His  execution 
of  these  works  so  established  his  reputation  that  his  opinion 
and  assistance  were  required  from  all  quarters  in  regard 
to  similar  undertakings,  among  others  the  construction  of 
the  Great  Western  Canal  in  Somersetshire,  the  Polbrook 
Canal  in  Cornwall,  the  Portsmouth  Canal,  and  the  Avon 
and  Kennet  Canal.  But  more  important  than  these  were 
his  works  in  connexion  with  docks  and  harbours,  his 
designs  embracing  the  London  Docks,  the  East  and  West 
India  Docks  at  Blackwall,  and  docks  at  Hull,  Greenock, 
Leith,  Liverpool,  and  Dublin.  The  harbours  of  Queens- 
ferry,  Berwick,  Howth,  Holyhead,  Kingstown,  Newhaven, 
and  several  others  owe  their  security  and  convenience  to 
his  labours.  But  even  these  works  must  yield  to  what  he 
executed  in  connexion  with  the  Government  dockyards  at 
Portsmouth,  Chatham,  Sheerness,  and  Plymouth.  One 
other  effort  of  his  genius  falls  to  be  mentioned,  the  drain- 
age of  that  vast  tract  of  marsh-land  bordering  upon  the 
rivers  Trent,  Witham,  Welland,  and  Ouse  which  for  cen- 


turies had  baffled  the  skill  of  some  of  the  ablest  men  in 
that  department  of  civil  engineering.  Rennie'a  industry 
was  very  extraordinary ;  though  fond  of  the  society  of  his 
select  friends  and  of  rational  conversation,  he  never  suffered 
amusement  of  any  kind  to  interfere  with  his  business, 
which  seldom  engaged  him  less  than  twelve  hours  and 
frequently  fifteen  in  the  day.  His  conversation  was 
always  amusing  and  instructive.  In  person  he  was  of 
great  stature  and  strength ;  and  his  noble  bust  by  Chantrey, 
when  exhibited  in  Somerset  House,  obtained  the  name  of 
Jupiter  Tonans.  He  died  16th  October  1821 . 

His  son  SIR  JOHN  RENNIE  (born  August  30,  1794,  died  Sept. 
1874)  succeeded  him  as  engineer  to  the  Admiralty,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  in  the  same  line  of  business  as  his  father.  On  the 
completion  of  the  London  Bridge  from  his  father's  designs  in  1831, 
he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  He  was  the  author  of 
The  Theory,  Formation,  and  Construction  of  British  and  Foreign 
Harbours,  4  vols.,  1851-54. 

RENT  is  classed  in  English  law  as  an  incorporeal  heredi- 
tament, that  is,  a  profit  issuing  out, of  a  corporeal  heredi- 
tament (see  REAL  ESTATE).  A  rent  issuing  but  of  an 
incorporeal  hereditament  can  only  be  possessed  by  the 
crown,  or  by  a  subject  under  statutory  authority.  Rent  is 
said  to  lie  in  render,  as  distinguished  from  profits  a  prendre 
in  general,  which  are  said  to  lie  in  prender.  At  the  present 
day  rent  is  generally  a  sum  of  money  paid  for  the  occupa- 
tion of  land.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  this  concep- 
tion of  rent  is  attained  at  a  comparatively  late  period  of 
history.  The  earliest  rent  seems  to  have  been  a  form  of 
personal  service,  generally  labour  on  the  land,  and  was-  at 
the  same  time  fixed  by  custom.  The  exaction  of  a  com- 
petition or  rack  rent  beyond  that  limited  by  custom  was,  if 
one  may  judge  from  the  old  Brehon  law  of  Ireland,  due  to 
the  presence  upon  the  land  of  strangers  in  blood,  probably 
at  first  outcasts  from  some  other  group.1  The  strict 
feudal  theory  of  rent  admitted  labour  on  the  lord's  land  as 
a  lower  form,  and  at  the  same  time  developed  the  military 
service  due  to  the  crown  or  a  lord  as  a,  higher  form.  Rent 
service  is  at  once  the  oldest  and  the  most  dignified  kind  of 
existing  rent.  It  is  the  only  one  to  which  the  power  of 
distress  attaches  at  common  law,  giving  the  landlord  a 
preferential  right  over  other  creditors  exercisable  without 
judicial  authority  (see  DISTRESS).  In  course  of  time  the 
increasing  importance  of  socage  tenure,  arising  in  part  from 
the  convenience  of  paying  a  certain  amount,  whether  in 
money  or  kind,  rather  than  comparatively  uncertain  ser- 
vices, led  to  the  gradual  evolution  of  the  modern  view  of 
rent  as  a  sum  due  by  contract  between  two  independent 
persons.  At  the  same  time  the  primitive  feeling  which 
regarded  the  position  of  landlord  and  tenant  from  a  social 
rather  than  a  commercial  point  of  view  is  still  of  importance. 

Rents  as  they  now  exist  in  England  are  divided  into 
three  great  classes — rent  service,  rent  charge,  and  rent 
seek.  A  rent  service  is  so  called  because  by  it  a  tenure 
by  means  of  service  is  created  between  the  landlord  and 
the  tenant.  The  service  is  now  represented  by  fealty,  and 
is  nothing  more  than  nominal.  Rent  service  is  said  to  be 
incident  to  the  reversion,  that  is,  a  grant  of  the  reversion 
carries  the  rent  with  it  (see  REMAINDER).  A  power  of 
distress  is  incident  at  common  law  to  this  form  of  rent. 
Copyhold  rents  and  rents  reserved  on  lease  fall  into  this 
class.  A  rent  charge  is  a  grant  of  an  annual  sum  payable 
out  of  lands  in  which  the  grantor  has  an  estate.  It  may 
be  in  fee,  in  tail,  for  life,  or  for  years.  It  must  be  created 
by  deed  or  will,  and  may  be  either  at  common  law  or 
under  the  Statute  of  Uses.  The  grantor  has  no  reversion, 
and  the  grantee  has  at  common  law  no  power  of  distress. 

1  "The  three  rents,  viz.,  rack  rent  from  a  person  of  a  strange  tribe, 
a  fair  rent  from  one  of  the  tribe,  and  the  stipulated  rent  which  is 
paid  equally  by  the  tribe  and  the  strange  tribe." — Senchua  Mor,  p. 
159,  cited  by  Maine,  Village  Communities,  p.  180. 


RENT 


403 


Such  power  must  have  been  given  him  by  the  instrument 
creating  the  rent  charge.  The  Statute  of  Uses,  27  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  10,  gave  a  power  of  distress  for  a  rent  charge 
created  under  the  statute.  The  Conveyancing  Act,  1881, 
44  &  45  Viet.  c.  41,  §  44,  now  gives  a  power  of  distress 
for  a  sum  due  on  any  rent  charge  which  is  twenty-one 
days  in  arrear.  By  §  45  a  power  of  redemption  of  certain 
perpetual  rents  in  the  nature  of  rent  charges  is  given  to 
the  owner  of  the  land  out  of  which  the  rent  issues.  Kent 
charges  granted  since  April  26,  1855,  otherwise  than  by 
marriage  settlement  or  will  for  a  life  or  lives  or  for  any 
estate  determinable  on  a  life  or  lives  must,  in  order  to 
bind  lands  against  purchasers,  mortgagees,  or  creditors, 
be  registered  in  the  central  office  of  the  Supreme  Court 
(18  &  19  Viet.  c.  15).  In  certain  other  cases  it  is  also 
necessary  to  register  rent  charges,  for  instance,  under  the 
Improvement  of  Land  Act,  1864,  and  the  Land  Transfer 
Act,  1875.  Forms  of  rent  charge  of  special  interest  are 
tithe  rent  charge  (see  TITHES),  ground  rents,  and  the 
rent  charges  for  the  purpose  of  conferring  votes  usually 
called  "  faggot  votes."  Ground  rents  are  rent  charges  in 
fee  simple  issuing  out  of  land  sold  for  building  purposes. 
The  lessee  erects  buildings  according  to  the  terms  of  the 
lease,  making  his  profit  by  subletting  either  at  a  rack  rent 
or  on  the  terms  of  a  fine  on  entrance  into  possession, 
with  an  annual  rent  slightly  larger  than  the  ground  rent. 
In  the  latter  case  the  rent  is  called  an  improved  ground 
rent.  Ground  rents  are  regarded  as  particularly  eligible 
investments  owing  to  the  extent  of  the  security  afforded. 
Rent  charges  of  the  annual  value  of  40s.  for  the  purpose 
of  creating  votes  are  now  rendered  ineffective  by  the 
Eepresentation  of  the  People  Act,  1884,  48  Viet.  c.  3, 
§  4,  which  enacts  (subject  to  a  saving  for  existing  rights 
and  an  exception  in  favour  of  owners  of  tithe  rent  charge) 
that  a  man  shall  not  be  entitled  to  be  registered  as  a  voter 
in  respect  of  the  ownership  of  any  rent  charge.  A  rent 
seek  (reddiius  siccus)  is  a  rent  charge  reserved  without 
power  of  distress.  But,  as  power  of  distress  for  rent  seek 
was  given  by  4  Geo.  II.  c.  28,  the  legal  effect  of  such  rent 
has  been  since  the  Act  the  same  as  that  of  a  rent  charge. 
There  are  varieties  of  these  main  divisions  of  rent  to  which 
special  names  are  given.  Rents  of  assize  or  quit  rents 
are  a  relic  of  the  old  customary  rents.  They  are  pre- 
sumed to  have  been  established  by  usage,  and  cannot  be 
increased  or  diminished.  They  are  found  only  in  manors. 
Those  paid  by  the  freeholders  are  also  called  chief  rents. 
Fee  farm  rents  are  rents  reserved  on  grants  in  fee.  Accord- 
ing to  some  authorities  they  must  be  at  least  one-fourth  of 
the  value  of  the  lands.  They,  like  quit  rents,  now  occur 
only  in  manors,  unless  existing  before  the  Statute  of  Quid 
Emptores  or  created  by  the  crown  (see  REAL  ESTATE). 
A  rent  which  is  equivalent  or  nearly  equivalent  in  amount 
to  the  full  annual  value  of  the  land  is  a  rack  rent.  A 
dead  rent  is  a  fixed  annual  sum  paid  by  a  person  working 
a  mine  or  quarry,  in  addition  to  royalties  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  minerals  taken.  Rents  in  kind  still 
exist  to  a  limited  extent ;  thus  the  corporation  of  London 
is  tenant  of  some  lands  in  Shropshire  by  payment  to  the 
crown  of  an  annual  rent  of  a  faggot.  All  pepper-corn  or 
nominal  rents  seem  to  fall  under  this  head.  Services 
rendered  in  lieu  of  payment  by  tenants  in  grand  and  petit 
serjeanty  may  also  be  regarded  as  examples  of  rents  in 
kind.  Labour  rents  are  represented  by  those  cases,  not 
unfrequent  in  agricultural  leases,  where  the  tenant  is 
bound  to  render  the  landlord  a  certain  amount  of  team 
work  or  other  labour  as  a  part  of  his  rent.  It  was  held 
in  the  Queen's  Bench  in  1845  that  tenants  who  occupied 
houses  on  the  terms  of  sweeping  the  parish  church  and  of 
ringing  the  church  bell  paid  rent  within  the  meaning  of 
the  Limitation  Act  of  3  &  4  Will.  IV.,  c.  27. 


^Apportionment. — In  regard  to  estate  a  rent  service  is  apportion- 
able  at  common  law,  as  well  as  under  certain  Acts  of  Parliament, 
such  as  the  Land  Clauses  Act.  A  rent  charge  was  formerly  not 
apportionable,  for  it  issued  out  of  every  part  of  the  land  and  was 
at  the  same  time  in  contemplation  of  law  against  common  right  as 
not  being  incident  to  tenure.  The  legal  effect  of  this  was  that 
(with  some  exceptions)  a  release  of  part  of  the  land  out  of  which  a 
rent  charge  issued  was  a  release  of  the  whole.  It  was  provided  by 
22  &  23  Viet.  c.  35,  §  10,  that  the  release  from  a  rent  charge  of 
part  of  the  hereditaments  charged  does  not  extinguish  the  whole 
rent  charge,  but  operates  only  to  bar  the  right  to  recover  any  part 
of  the  rent  charge  out  of  the  hereditaments  released.  In  regard  to 
time,  at  common  law  no  kind  of  rent  was  apportionable.  The  effect 
of  this  was  that  if  the  person  entitled  to  the  rent  died  between  rent 
days  no  rent  was  due  to  the  succeeding  reversioner  for  the  inter- 
mediate period.  This  was  remedied  by  11  Geo.  II.  c.  19,  and  other 
Acts,  which  are  now  practically  superseded  by  the  Apportionment 
Act,  1870,  33  &  34  Viet.  c.  35.  By  this  Act  all  rents  are,  in  the 
absence  of  stipulation  to  the  contrary,  to  be  considered  as  accruing 
from  day  to  day,  and  apportionable  in  respect  of  time  accordingly. 

Remedies. — Rent  is  due  in  the  morning  of  the  day  appointed  for 
payment,  but  is  not  in  arrear  until  after  midnight.  It  should  be 
demanded  just  before  sunset.  The  landlord  has  besides  distress  his 
ordinary  remedy  by  action.  In  addition  special  statutory  remedies 
are  given  in  the  case  of  tenants  holding  over  after  the  expiration 
of  their  tenancy.  By  11  Geo.  II.  c.  19  any  tenant  giving  notice 
to  quit  and  holdihg  over  is  liable  to  pay  double  rent  for  such  time 
as  he  continues  in  possession.  By  1  &  2  Viet.  c.  74  a  tenant  at  a 
rent  not  exceeding  £20  per  annum  who  fails  to  deliver  up  possession 
after  his  interest  has  ended  may  be  ejected  by  summary  pro- 
ceedings before  justices.  By  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  108  a  similar 
remedy  is  given  in  the  county  court  where  the  rent  does  not  exceed 
£50  per  annum.  Analogous  provisions  are  contained  in  Acts 
dealing  with  the  metropolitan  district.  It  should  be  noticed 
that,  since  the  writing  of  the  article  DISTRESS,  the  landlord's 
power  of  distress  has  been  considerably  limited  in  the  case  of 
agricultural  tenancies  falling  within  the  Agricultural  Holdings  Act, 
1883,  46  &  47  Viet.  c.  61.  §  44  confines  the  right  of  distress  to  one 
year's  arrears  of  rent  instead  of  six  years'  arrears,  which  could  be 
distrained  for  before  the  Act.  An  extension  of  time  is  allowed  in 
cases  where  in  the  ordinary  course  of  dealing  between  landlord  and 
tenant  the  payment  of  rent  has  been  allowed  to  be  deferred  for  a 
quarter  or  half  year  after  the  rent  became  legally  due.  By  §  45 
live  stock  belonging  to  another  person  and  taken  in  by  a  tenant  to 
be  fed  has  a  qualified  privilege  from  distress  ;  that  is,  it  is  not 
distrainable  where  there  is  other  sufficient  distress  to  be  found.  If 
so  distrained  for  want  of  other  sufficient  distress,  it  may  be  re- 
deemed by  the  owner  on  payment  of  any  sum  due  for  the  feeding. 
Agricultural  or  other  machinery  on  the  premises  of  the  tenant  for 
hire  or  use  and  live  stock  on  the  premises  solely  for  breeding  pur- 
poses are  absolutely  privileged  from  distress.  The  Act  further 
makes  appraisement  before  sale  unnecessary,  and  enacts  that  bailiffs 
to  'levy  distress  are  to  be  appointed  by  county  court  judges.  For 
other  provisions  of  the  Act  dealing  with  procedure,  see  REPLEVIN. 

Ireland. — The  main  differences  between  Irish  and  English  law 
have  been  caused  by  legislation  (see  LANDLORD  AND  TENANT).  One 
of  the  most  noticeable  is  the  power  of  ejectment  for  non-payment 
of  rent  given  by  23  &  24  Viet.  c.  154.  In  England  such  a  power 
can  only  be  conferred  by  express  agreement. 

Scotland. — Rent  is  properly  the  payment  made  by  tenant  to 
landlord  for  the  use  of  lands  held  under  lease.  The  rent  paid  by 
vassal  to  superior  is  called  feu-duty  (see  FEU).  Its  nearest  English 
equivalent  is  the  fee  farm  rent  Rents  are  recovered  by  an  action 
of  maills  and  duties  in  the  Sheriff  Court  or  the,  Court  of  Session, 
and  in  non-agricultural  tenancies  by  hypothec.  The  right  of 
hypothec  over  land  exceeding  2  acres  in  extent  let  for  agriculture 
or  pasture  has  been  abolished  as  from  November  11,  1881  (see  HYPO- 
THEC). The  Agricultural  Holdings  (Scotland)  Act,  1883,  46  &  47 
Viet,  c.  62,  provides  by  §  27  that  when  six  months'  rent  of  the  hold- 
ing is  due  and  unpaid  the  landlord  may  raise  an  action  of  removing 
before  the  sheriff  against  the  tenant,  concluding  for  his  removal 
at  the  term  of  Whitsunday  or  Martinmas  next  ensuing  ;  and,  unless 
the  arrears  are  paid  or  caution  is  found,  the  sheriff  may  decern  the 
tenant  to  remove.  The  tenant  so  removed  has  the  rights  of  an 
outgoing  tenant.  Labour  or  service  rents  were  at  one  time  very 
frequent  in  Scotland.  The  events  of  1715  and  1745  showed  the 
vast  influence  over  the  tenantry  that  the  great  proprietors  ac- 
quired by  such  means.  Accordingly  the  Acts  of  1  Geo.  I.,  sess. 
2,  c.  54,  and  20  Geo.  II.  c.  50,  provided  for  the  commutation  of 
services  into  money  rents.  Such  services  may  still  be  created  by 
agreement,  subject  to  the  summary  power  of  commutation  by  the 
sheriff  given  by  the  Conveyancing  Act,  1874,  37  &  38  Viet.  c.  94, 
§§  20,  21.  "  In  the  more  remote  parts  of  Scotland  it  is  understood 
that  there  still  exist  customary  returns  in  produce  of  various  kinds, 
which  being  regulated  by  the  usage  of  the  district  or  of  the  barony 
or  estate  cannot  be  comprehended  under  any  general  rule  ' 
(Hunter,  Landlord  and  Tenant,  vol.  ii.  298).  Up  to  within  forty 


404 


R  E  P  —  R  E  P 


years  ago  existed  steelbow  leases,  by  which  the  landlord  stocked 
the  farm  with  com,  cattle,  implements,  &c.,  the  tenant  returning 
similar  articles  at  the  expiration  of  his  tenancy  and  paying  in 
addition  to  the  ordinary  rent  a  steelbow  rent  of  5  per  cent,  on  the 
value  of  the  stock. 

United  States. — Agricultural  rents  are,  from  the  different  position 
of  the  cultivators  of  the  land,  of  less  importance  than  in  England. 
The  law  is  in  general  accordance  with  that  of  England.  The 
tendency  of  modern  State  legislation  is  unfavourable  to  the 
continuance  of  distress  as  a  remedy.  In  some  States,  such  as  Ohio 
and  Tennessee,  it  never  existed.  Fee  farm  rents  exist  in  some 
States,  like  Pennsylvania,  which  have  not  adopted  the  Statute  of 
Quia  Emptores  as  a  part  of  their  common  law.  (J.  Wt.) 

KEPLEVIN.  Since  the  article  DISTRESS  (q.v.)  was 
written  the  Agricultural  Holdings  Act,  1883,  has  made 
some  changes  in  the  law  of  replevin  in  England.  The 
period  of  five  days  during  which  the  tenant  or  owner  of 
goods  may  replevy  by  2  Will.  <fc  Mary  c.  5,  §  1,  is  extended 
in  the  case  of  holdings  within  the  Act  to  fifteen  days,  on  the 
tenant  or  owner  making  a  request  in  writing  to  that  effect 
and  giving  security  for  additional  costs.  A  summary 
remedy  in  the  nature  of  replevin  is  given,  a  court  of 
summary  jurisdiction  having  a  jurisdiction  concurrent 
with  that  of  the  county  court  conferred  upon  it  in  the 
case  of  distress  on  a  holding  within  the  Act. 

REPORTING.  The  curious  among  those  who  seek  to 
trace  political  developments  may,  without  any  great  strain 
on  the  imagination,  find  an  intimate  relation  between  the 
growth  of  newspaper  reporting  and  the  growth  of  demo- 
cratic institutions;  at  any  rate  the  two  have  always  been 
found  together.  The  history  of  reporting  in  Great  Britain 
brings  out  the  relationship  with  much  clearness.  There 
was  no  truly  systematic  reporting  until  the  beginning  of 
this  century,  and  not  until  many  years  afterwards  did  it 
grow  to  be  a  most  important,  if  not  the  most  important, 
feature  in  newspapers.  There  was  parliamentary  reporting 
of  a  kind  almost  from  the  time  when  parliaments  began. 
Single  speeches,  and  even  some  consecutive  account  of 
particular  proceedings  in  parliament,  were  prepared.  But 
long  after  newspapers  were  commonly  published  no  effort 
had  been  made  to  give  reports  either  of  the  proceedings 
of  parliament  or  of  those  of  any  other  assembly  dealing 
with  the  public  interests.  The  first  attempts  at  parliamen- 
tary reporting,  in  the  sense  of  seeking  to  make  known  to 
the  public  what  was  done  and  said  in  parliament,  began 
in  a  pamphlet  published  monthly  in  Queen  Anne's  time 
called  The  Political  State.  Its  reports  were  mere  indica- 
tions of  speeches.  Later,  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  began 
to  publish  reports  of  parliamentary  debates.  Access  to 
the  Houses  of  Parliament  was  obtained  by  Cave,  the 
publisher  of  the  magazine,  and  some  of  his  friends,  and 
they  took  surreptitiously  what  notes  they  could.  These 
were  subsequently  transcribed  and  brought  into  shape  for 
publication  by  another  hand.  There  was  a  strict  prohibi- 
tion of  all  public  reporting ;  but  the  Gentleman's  Magazine 
appears  to  have  continued  its  reports  for  some  time 
without  attracting  the  attention  or  rousing  the  jealousy  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  The  publisher,  encouraged  by 
immunity  from  prosecution  by  parliament,  grew  bolder,  and 
began  in  his  reports  to  give  the  names  of  the  speakers. 
Then  he  was  called  to  account.  The  latest  standing  order 
on  the  subject  at  that  time  was  one  passed  in  1728,  which 
declared  "  that  it  is  an  indignity  to,  and  a  breach  of,  the 
privilege  of  this  House  for  any  person  to  presume  to  give,  in 
written  or  printed  newspapers,  any  account  or  minute  of  the 
debates  or  other  proceedings ;  that  upon  discovery  of  the 
authors,  printers,  or  publishers  of  any  such  newspaper  this 
House  will  proceed  against  the  offenders  with  the  utmost 
severity."  Under  this  and  other  standing  orders,  Cave's 
reports  were  challenged,  as  were  those  of  other  publishers 
in  other  magazines.  They  were  denounced  by  resolution  ; 
and  threats  of  prosecution  were  made,  with  the  result  that 


the  reports  appeared  still,  but  without  the  proper  names 
the  speakers,  and  under  the  guise  of  "Debates  in  the  Senate 
of  Lilliput "  or  some  other  like  title.  Long  afterwards,  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  century,  the  newspapers  began  to  report 
parliamentary  debates  more  fully,  with  the  result  that,  in 
1771,  several  printers,  including  those  of  the  Morning 
Chronicle  and  the  London  Evening  Post,  were  ordered  into 
custody  for  publishing  debates  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
A  long  and  bitter  struggle  between  the  House  and  the 
public  ensued.  John  Wilkes  took  part  in  it.  The  lord 
mayor  of  London  and  an  alderman  were  sent  to  the  Tower 
for  refusing  to  recognize  the  Speaker's  warrant  for  the  arrest 
of  certain  printers  of  parliamentary  reports.  But  the  House 
of  Commons  was  beaten.  In  1 772  the  newspapers  published 
the  reports  as  usual ;  and  their  right  to  do  so  has  never  since 
been  really  questioned.  Both  Houses  of  Parliament,  indeed, 
now  show  as  much  anxiety  to  have  their  debates  fully  re- 
ported as  aforetime  they  showed  resentment  at  the  intrusion 
of  the  reporter.  Provision  has  been  made  in  the  House  of 
Lords  and  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  reporters.  There 
are  galleries  in  which  they  may  take  notes,  and  writing  rooms 
in  which  those  notes  may  be  extended.  In  short,  reporting 
is  now  one  of  the  best  marked  of  parliamentary  institutions. 
But  parliamentary  reporting  is  only  a  small  part  of 
such  work  in  newspapers.  The  newspapers  in  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century  rarely  contained  more  than  the 
barest  outline  of  any  speech  or  public  address  delivered 
in  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  towns  where  they  were 
published.  As  parliamentary  reporting  began  to  grow,  so 
did  local  reporting.  After  the  peace  of  1815  a  period 
of  much  political  fermentation  set  in,  and  the  newspapers 
began  to  report  the  speeches  of  public  men  at  greater 
length.  All  the  attempts  that  were  made  from  time  to 
time  to  repress  public  meetings  and  demonstrations  of 
dissatisfaction  with  the  existing  order  of  things  did  but 
increase  the  demand  for  reporting.  It  grew  as  the  fetters 
were  struck  off  public  institutions.  With  the  Reform  Act 
of  1832  it  got  a  great  start  forward;  and  the  Municipal 
Reform  Acts  gave  it  a  still  stronger  impulse.  Then 
the  proceedings  of  town  councils  could  be  reported,  and 
every  local  newspaper  took  care  that  this  was  done.  It 
was  not,  however,  until  well  into  what  may  be  called 
the  railway  era  that  any  frequent  effort  was  made  by 
newspapers  to  go  out  of  their  own  district  for  the 
work  of  reporting.  The  London  newspapers  had  before 
this  led  the  way.  In  London  alone  were  there  daily 
newspapers.  The  proprietors  of  these  papers  had  been 
compelled  by  the  requirements  of  the  public  to  make 
provision  for  the  systematic  reporting  of  the  proceedings 
of  parliament.  For  many  years  after  the  right  to  report 
those  proceedings  had  been  practically  established,  the 
work  was  done  in  a  dilatory  and  clumsy  fashion.  Early 
in  the  present  century,  however,  greater  freedom  of 
access  to  both  Houses  was  given,  and  the  manager  of 
the  Morning  Chronicle  established  a  staff  of  reporters. 
They  began  the  system  which  with  improvements  has 
continued  to  this  time.  Each  reporter  took  his  "  turn " 
— that  is,  he  took  notes  of  the  proceedings  for  a  certain 
time,  and  then  gave  place  to  a  colleague.  The  reporter 
who  was  relieved  at  once  extended  his  notes,  and  thus 
prompt  publication  of  the  debates  was  made  possible. 
Reporters  had  been  found  to  supply  the  demand,  and 
it  had  become  the  habit  of  the  proprietors  of  the  London 
newspapers  to  employ  these  men,  out  of  the  session  of 
parliament,  in  reporting  the  speeches  of  public  men  in 
the  country.  The  practice  grew  until  there  was  a  good 
deal  of  competition  among  the  papers  as  to  which  should 
first  issue  a  report  of  any  speech  of  note.  Railways  were 
not ;  and  reporters  had  frequently  to  ride  long  distances 
in  post  chaises,  doing  their  best  as  they  jolted  along  the 


REPORTING 


405 


roads  to  transcribe  their  notes,  so  that  they  might  be  ready 
for  the  printer  on  arrival  at  their  destination.  Charles 
Dickens  used  to  tell  several  stories  of  his  adventures  of 
this  kind  while  he  held  an  engagement  on  the  Morning 
Chronicle.  He  was,  indeed,  perhaps  the  best  reporter  of 
his  time,  and  he  was  most  successful  in  outstripping  many 
of  his  rivals.  One  result  of  the  efforts  thus  made  was 
that  the  provincial  newspapers  were  stimulated  to  greater 
efforts,  lleporters  were  rapidly  trained,  and  in  all  direc- 
tions reporting  grew.  There  were  none  but  weekly  news- 
papers ;  but  they  devoted  much  of  their  space  to  report- 
ing, and  public  men  became  more  ready  to  speak  as  they 
found  that  what  they  said  would  be  more  widely  made 
known.  As  railways  were  extended,  the  newspapers  were 
able  to  extend  the  sphere  of  their  work  of  this  kind,  and 
reporting  spread  apace.  Then,  with  changes  in  the  fiscal 
policy  of  the  country,  daily  newspapers  sprang  up  in  all 
directions ;  the  electric  telegraph  was  being  improved  and 
developed  so  that  greater  facilities  were  given  for  report- 
ing ;  and  in  a  few  years  the  old  supremacy  of  the  London 
journals  in  this  department  of  newspaper  work  had  well- 
nigh  disappeared.  The  country  newspapers  did  more 
reporting  of  speeches  and  public  meetings  than  the  metro- 
politan papers.  No  public  man  made  a  speech  but  it  was 
faithfully  reproduced  in  print.  Local  governing  bodies, 
charitable  institutions,  political  associations,  public  com- 
panies— all  these  came  in  a  short  time  to  furnish  work  for 
the  reporter,  and  had  full  attention  paid  to  them.  Curiously 
enough,  while  the  country  newspapers  have  thus  cultivated 
reporting,  and  have  made  it  one  of  their  chief  features, 
the  London  newspapers,  for  reasons  into  which  this  article 
need  not  enter,  have  fallen  behind,  and  have  for  some 
years  past  given  little  attention  to  the  work  of  which  they 
were  the  originators.  This  fact  explains  a  development  of 
reporting  which  may  be  more  fully  described. 

When  the  second  half  of  this  century  began,  par- 
liamentary reporting  was  a  leading  feature  of  the  Lon- 
don newspapers.  They  had  a  monopoly  of  it.  All  the 
reporting  arrangements  in  the  House  of  Lords  and  in 
the  House  of  Commons  were  made  with  sole  regard  to 
their  requirements.  There  had  indeed  been  a  long  battle 
between  the  Times  and  some  of  the  other  London  news- 
papers as  to  which  should  have  the  best  parliamentary 
report,  and  the  Times  had  established  its  supremacy, 
which  has  never  been  shaken.  But,  while  its  reporting 
was  fuller  than  that  of  other  London  daily  newspapers, 
they  did  not  neglect  the  work,  and  they  gave  in  shorter 
compass  admirable  digests  of  the  proceedings,  with  full 
reports  of  the  most  important  speeches.  The  provincial 
newspapers  were  in  the  main  obliged  to  copy  the  reports 
thus  provided,  and  rarely  made  any  attempt  to  get 
reports  of  their  own.  When  the  electric  telegraph  came 
into  use  for  commercial  purposes  a  change  began.  The 
company  which  first  carried  wires  from  London  to  the 
principal  towns  in  the  country  started  a  reporting  service 
for  the  country  newspapers.  It  gathered  up  scraps 
of  news  and  sent  them  to  the  journals  that  subscribed 
for  the  service.  In  addition,  it  procured  admission  to 
the  parliamentary  galleries  for  reporters  in  its  employ- 
ment, and  began  to  send  short  accounts  of  the  debates 
to  the  newspapers  in  the  country.  These  newspapers 
were  thus  enabled  to  publish  in  the  morning  some 
account  of  the  parliamentary  proceedings  of  the  previous 
night,  instead  of  having  to  take  like  reports  a  day  later 
from  the  London  journals.  The  effect  was  greatly  to 
stimulate  the  appetite  of  the  provincial  public  for  parlia- 
mentary reporting.  The  telegraph  companies  for  a  long 
time  could  or  would  do  no  more  than  they  had  begun  by 
doing ;  and  they  offered  no  inducements  to  the  provincial 
newspapers  to  telegraph  speeches.  The  public  meanwhile 


wanted  to  know  more  fully  what  their  representatives 
were  saying  in  parliament,  and  gradually  the  leading  pro- 
vincial newspapers  adopted  the  practice  of  employing 
reporters  in  the  service  of  the  London  journals  to  report 
debates  on  subjects  of  special  interest  in  localities ;  and 
these  reports,  forwarded  by  train  or  by  post,  were  printed 
in  full,  but  of  course  a  day  late. .  The  London  papers  paid 
little  attention  to  such  debates,  and  thus  the  provincial 
papers  had  parliamentary  reporting  which  was  not  to  be 
found  elsewhere.  Bit  by  bit  this  feature  was  developed.  It 
was  greatly  accelerated  by  a  movement  which  the  Scotsman 
was  the  first  to  bring  about.  The  telegraph  companies 
had  increased  in  number,  but  they  had  not  given  more 
facilities  for  newspaper  reporting.  About  1865,  however, 
a  new  company  having  come  into  existence,  it  was  agreed 
that  wires  from  London  should  be  put  at  the  disposal  of 
such  newspapers  as  desired  them.  Each  newspaper  was 
to  have  the  use  of  a  wire — of  course  on  payment  of  a 
large  subscription — from  six  o'clock  at  night  till  three 
o'clock  in  the  morning.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
"  special  wire "  which  now  plays  so  important  a  part  in 
the  production  of  almost  all  newspapers.  The  arrangement 
was  first  made  by  the  Scotsman  and  by  other  newspapers 
in  Scotland.  The  immediate  result  was  that  the  parlia- 
mentary reporting  in  these  papers  was  greatly  increased, 
and  was  no  longer  confined  to  debates  on  local  affairs.  The 
special  wires  were  used  to  their  utmost  capacity  to  con- 
vey reports  of  the  speeches  of  leading  statesmen  and 
politicians ;  and,  instead  of  bare  summaries  of  what  had 
been  done,  the  newspapers  contained  pretty  full  reports. 

When  the  telegraphs  were  taken  over  by  the  state,  the 
facilities  for  reporting  were  increased  in  every  direction. 
But  now,  as  to  parliamentary  reporting,  a  new  difficulty 
arose.  The  London  papers,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Times,  had  given  less  and  less  attention  to  parliamentary 
debates.  There  were,  indeed,  fairly  long  reports  in  one 
or  two  other  newspapers  in  London,  but  the  tendency  was 
to  shorten  them,  while  on  the  other  hand  several  of  the 
provincial  newspapers  were  giving  more  space  than  ever 
to  the  debates.  These  newspapers  had  to  get  their 
reports  as  best  they  could.  The  demand  for  such  report- 
ing had  led,  on  the  passing  of  the  telegraphs  into  the 
hands  of  the  state,  to  the  formation  of  news  agencies  which 
undertook  to  supply  the  provincial  papers.  These  agencies 
were  admitted  to  the  reporters'  galleries  in  the  Houses  of 
Parliament,  and  they  provided  longer  or  shorter  reports  of 
the  debates,  to  meet  the  wishes  of  their  clients.  But  the 
reports  which  any  agency  supplied  were  identical ;  that  is 
to  say,  all  the  newspapers  taking  a  particular  class  of 
report  had  exactly  the  same  material  supplied  to  them — 
the  reporter  producing  the  number  of  copies  required  by 
means  of  manifold  copying  paper.  It  is  easy  to  see  that, 
though  this  might  serve  the  purpose  of  most  of  them,  it 
could  not  meet  the  requirements  of  all ;  and  accordingly 
attempts  were  made  to  get  separate  reports  by  engaging 
the  services  of  some  of  the  reporters  employed  by  the 
London  papers.  Nothing  else  indeed  was  possible.  The 
"  gallery "  was  shut  to  all,  save  the  London  papers  and 
the  news  agencies.  The  Scotsman  sought  in  vain  to  break 
through  this  exclusiveness.  The  line,  it  was  said,  must 
be  drawn  somewhere,  and  the  proper  place  to  draw  it  was 
at  the  London  press.  Once  that  line  was  departed  from 
every  newspaper  in  the  kingdom  must  have  admission. 
But  in  1880  a  select  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
was  appointed  to  consider  the  question.  It  took  evidence, 
and  it  reported  in  favour  of  the  extension  of  the  gallery 
and  of  the  admission  of  provincial  papers.  The  result  was 
that  some  of  the  papers  entered  into  combinations  to 
procure  reports  ;  that  is  to  say,  three  or  four  papers  which 
would  be  satisfied  with  the  same  report  joined  in  providing 


406 


REPORTING 


the  necessary  reporting  staff.  In  other  cases  individual 
newspapers  put  themselves  on  the  same  footing  as  the 
London  newspapers  by  engaging  separate  staffs  of  reporters. 
This  is  the  arrangement  now.  Parliamentary  reporting  is 
much  fuller  in  the  leading  provincial  newspapers  than  it  is 
in  most  of  the  London  papers,  though  the  reports  for  the 
former  have  in  all  cases  to  be  telegraphed  to  them. 

The  mode  in  which  parliamentary  reporting  is  carried 
out  deserves  some  description.  It  has  been  said  that  the 
manager  of  the  Morning  Chronicle  early  in  the  century 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  present  system  when  he  divided 
the  work  of  reporting  debates  among  a  staff  of  reporters. 
That  is  exactly  what  is  done  now.  The  "  gallery,"  as  it  is 
familiarly  called,  is  arranged  with  boxes  for  note-takers 
overlooking  the  floor  of  the  House,  and  with  seats  behind 
for  other  note-takers  who  are  waiting  to  take  their  turn. 
The  Times  has  three  of  the  front  boxes — one  for  the  chief 
of  its  staff  of  reporters,  one  for  a  summary  writer,  and  one 
for  the  note-taker  engaged  in  the  full  report.  Most  of  the 
other  London  papers  have  each  two  boxes — one  for  a 
summary  writer,  the  other  for  a  reporter.  Each  of  the 
press  agencies  has  two  boxes.  Hansard  has  one.  The 
rest  are  occupied  by  provincial  newspapers  or  by  combina- 
tions of  those  newspapers.  The  staff  of  reporters  attached 
to  each  paper  or  combination  of  papers  numbers  from  six 
to  sixteen  shorthand  writers.  If,  for  the  purpose  of 
describing  the  work  of  parliamentary  reporting,  a  staff  of 
eight  be  assumed,  the  process  can  be  made  clear.  One 
other  preliminary  point  should  be  kept  in  mind :  an 
expert  and  intelligent  reporter  can  transcribe  from  his 
notes  as  much  matter  as  that  contained  in  a  column  of 
the  Times  in  rather  less  than  an  hour  and  a  half.  The 
staff  of  eight  men  may  have  turns  of  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  or  of  half  an  hour,  or  of  any  other  length  of 
time  that  may  be  agreed  upon.  The  House  of  Commons 
begins  its  ordinary  sitting  at  a  quarter  to  four.  At  that 
time  reporter  No.  1  takes  his  place  in  the  box  and  notes 
all  that  passes  in  the  House.  At  four,  assuming  quarter 
hour  turns,  No.  2  relieves  him ;  at  a  quarter  past  four 
No.  3  relieves  No.  2,  and  at  half  past  four  No.  4  relieves 
No.  3.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  eight  reporters  will 
cover  a  period  of  two  hours,  and  that  each  of  them  has  an 
hour  and  three  quarters  in  which  to  extend  his  notes.  If  he 
has  had  a  quarter  of  an  hour's  note-taking  of  an  important 
speaker  he  will  have  about  three-quarters  of  a  column  of 
matter  to  write,  and  this  he  can  do  easily  and  have  some 
time  for  rest  before  he  has  to  take  another  "turn."  In 
the  case  of  an  important  debate  extending  far  into  the 
night,  or  into  the  morning,  the  "  turns "  are  shortened. 
Instead  of  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  each  reporter  takes  ten 
minutes,  or  five,  or  even  three.  The  reporters  go  from  the 
box  to  a  writing  room  and  there  transcribe  their  notes, 
their  "  copy  "  being  gathered  by  messengers  attached  to 
their  paper,  and  carried  by  them  to  the  printers.  In  the 
case  of  the  provincial  newspapers,  the  "  copy  "  has  to  be 
telegraphed  over  the  "  special "  or  other  wires,  before  it 
can  reach  the  hands  of  sub-editors  or  compositors.  That, 
however,  is  no  affair  of  the  reporter's.  He  has  to  produce 
his  report  with  as  much  rapidity  as  he  can.  In  the  case 
of  the  Times  his  efforts  are  seconded  by  what  is  in  practice 
an  annihilation  of  the  space  between  the  House  of 
Commons  and  the  office  of  the  paper.  The  reporter 
reads  out  from  his  notes  to  an  operator  on  a  telephonic 
wire,  who  speaks  what  he  hears  through  that  wire  to 
the  office  of  the  paper.  When  it  is  received  there 
it  is  spoken  off  again  to  a  compositor  at  a  composing 
machine;  and  thus  it  is  most  commonly  in  type  and 
ready  for  printing  long  before  the  reporter's  "copy" 
could  have  been  received  from  the  House  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  telephone  is  also  used  in  a  similar  way  by 


some  of  the  newspapers  which  have  special  wires.  The 
latest  parts  of  the  report  of  a  night's  sitting  are  spoken 
through  the  telephone  to  the  point  from  which  the  special 
wire  starts,  and  they  are  promptly  telegraphed  to  the 
newspaper  for  which  they  are  intended.  Thus  it  often 
happens  that  the  finishing  passages  of  a  report  of  a  late 
sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons  are  actually  in  type  in 
a  newspaper  office  400  miles  away,  before  the  members 
who  have  taken  part  in  the  proceedings  have  got  on  their 
greatcoats  for  their  walk  home. 

Parliamentary  reporting,  important  as  it  is,  yet  forms 
a  small  part  of  the  reporting  which  is  done  by  the  news- 
papers. All  the  public  expositions  of  our  complicated 
and  busy  social  and  national  system  are  reported  with 
a  fulness,  and  on  the  whole  with  an  amount  of  accuracy, 
that  are  surprising.  Every  newspaper  of  importance  in 
the  provinces  has  a  more  or  less  numerous  staff  of 
reporters  at  its  command.  In  some  cases,  papers  have 
separate  staffs  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  the 
business  of  these  gentlemen  to  report  all  that  is  worth 
reporting  for  their  journal.  In  the  case  of  a  long  and 
important  speech  or  meeting  they  will  take  turns  in  the 
reporting  of  it  in  the  same  way  as  turns  are  taken  in  the 
Houses  of  Parliament.  But  no  newspaper  is  able  to 
confine  its  reporting  to  events  in  its  own  neighbourhood. 
It  must  give  to  the  public  full  accounts  of  speeches  of 
prominent  public  men,  no  matter  where  they  are  delivered. 
Sometimes  a  reporter  is  sent  far  away  to  do  this  work. 
In  such  a  case  he  usually  joins  for  the  occasion  the  staff 
of  one  of  the  newspapers  of  the  neighbourhood ;  or  he  and 
other  reporters  from  a  distance  make  up  a  staff  to  do  the 
work.  Again  the  system  of  turns  comes  in.  But,  for  the 
most  part,  speeches  of  statesmen  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  are  reported  for  newspapers  at  a  distance  by  one 
or  other  of  the  news  agencies,  which  send  down  staffs  of 
reporters  for  the  work.  In  some  cases,  all  these  modes  of 
working  are  seen  together — there  are  representatives  of 
individual  newspapers  from  far  and  near,  and  there  are 
the  staffs  of  the  news  agencies.  During  Mr  Gladstone's 
Midlothian  campaign  he  had  seldom  fewer  than  seventy 
reporters  in  his  train. 

As  a  rule,  reporters  are  shorthand  writers.  That  became 
a  necessity  when  the  demand  for  reporting  greatly  in- 
creased, and  when  the  very  words  of  a  speaker  had  to  be 
given.  But  what  is  spoken  of  as  verbatim  reporting  is  in 
no  sense  the  best.  It  is  a  necessity,  but  to  a  great  extent 
is  merely  mechanical.  The  reporter  has  acquired  dexterity 
in  shorthand  writing,  and  he  can  read  his  notes  fluently. 
Far  more  is  required  for  that  better  reporting  which 
conveys  to  the  public  the  full  sense  of  what  a  speaker  has 
said  without  giving  all  his  superfluous  words.  This  is  an 
art  which  is  not  universally  acquired  by  reporters.  They 
have  learned  to  depend  so  much  upon  their  notes  that  they 
do  not  learn  to  exercise  their  brains.  There  is  much  report- 
ing which  shortens  speeches  by  wholesale  excisions  rather 
than  by  judicious  and  intelligent  compression.  It  would, 
however,  be  unjust  to  pass  over  the  many  proofs  of  high 
intelligence  which  the  reporting  in  our  newspapers  contains. 
The  task  of  the  reporter  is  often  not  easy.  He  has,  to  use 
a  familiar  adage,  to  make  many  silk  purses  out  of  so\vs' 
ears ;  and  he  does  it  patiently  and  well — so  well  that  the 
author  of  the  material  operated  upon  is  often  inclined  to 
take  all  the  credit  to  himself. 


So  far,  the  reporting  which  has  been  spoken  of  is  that  by  which 
speeches  and  debates  are  produced  in  print  for  the  public  informa- 
tion. But  there  is  another  kind  of  reporting  which  ought  not  to 
be  passed  over.  What  is  commonly  called  "  descriptive  reporting  " 
has  in  some  cases  nearly  shouldered  the  reporting  of  speeches  out 
of  newspapers.  Is  there  a  royal  progress,  or  a  military  display,  or 
a  pageant  of  any  kind — the  descriptive  reporter  is  called  into 
requisition.  He  has  to  describe  as  best  he  can  all  that  happens. 


R  E  P  — R  E  P 


407 


It  is  a  simple  statement  of  fact  to  say  that  newspapers  have  on 
many  occasions  had  word  pictures  from  their  descriptive  reporters 
which  have  never  been  surpassed  in  prose  writing  for  elegance  and 
vividness  and  force.  The  special  correspondent  is  a  "descriptive 
reporter."  He  goes  to  war  to  describe  what  he  sees.  The  electric 
telegraph  has  made  a  great  change  in  the  manner  and  perhaps  in 
the  character  of  his  work  ;  but  he  is  still  among  those  who  help  in 
newspaper  reporting. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  connexion  of  the  electric 
telegraph  with  reporting  ;  and  it  has  been  said  that,  since  the 
telegraphs  have  been  extended  and  telegraphing  has  been 
cheapened,  the  sphere  of  reporting  has  been  widened  and  the 
demand  for  it  has  increased.  No  daily  newspaper  now  confines  its 
reporting  to  the  affairs  of  the  part  of  the  country  in  which  it  is 
published.  The  electric  telegraph  brings  the  most  distant  places 
within  easy  reach  of  every  newspaper.  It  has  also  made  the  work 
of  the  reporter  more  arduous  and  his  responsibility  greater.  He 
cannot  postpone  the  transcription  of  his  notes  to  another  day.  The 
speech  that  is  not  finished  in  Manchester  at  midnight  must  be 
printed  in  full  in  the  London  newspaper  which  goes  to  press  before 
three  o'clock  in  the  morning.  The  meeting  which  does  not  finish 
at  Wick  till  midnight  must  be  reported  in  the  next  day's  papers  in 
Edinburgh.  All  this  means  that  the  reporter  must  work  under 


great  pressure,  and  that  he  must  exercise  the  greatest  care  in 
extending  his  notes.  He  has  no  time  for  revision,  no  opportunity 
of  amending  any  doubtful  passage.  When  these  drawbacks  are 
considered,  it  will  most  likely  be  felt  that  the  work  of  reporting  is 
not  easy.  Yet  its  importance  could  not  well  be  overrated.  Rc- 
portiug  is  the  feature  in  the  journalism  of  to-day  which  the  public 
could  least  afford  to  lose.  The  editor  of  a  newspaper  may  influence 
public  opinion,  but  the  reporter  furnishes  the  material  for  its  for- 
mation. Fair  reporting  is  indeed  a  great  security  for  freedom  and 
for  moderation.  It  enables  all  who  can  read  to  see  the  arguments 
for  and  against  any  proposal ;  it  shows  how  public  bodies  dis- 
charge their  duties  ;  it  indicates  the  wants  and  wishes,  the  hopes 
and  fears  of  the  public  ;  it  puts  within  easy  reach  the  means  of 
combating  wild  and  foolish  propositions,  however  superficially 
attractive  they  may  be  ;  in  short,  it  makes  the  whole  country  au 
open  council  on  all  questions  affecting  the  souls  and  bodies,  the 
education  and  the  government,  of  the  people.  It  is  but  fair  to  add 
that  reporting  is  done  as  a  rule  with  great  ability  and  fairness. 
The  reporter  rarely  carries  his  likes  or  his  dislikes  into  his  work.  He 
is  scrupulously  just,  and  as  scrupulously  impartial,  though  it  may 
be  that  this  is  not  always  the  opinion  of  some  men  who  make 
speeches  of  which  little  is  seen  in  the  shape  of  reporting.  (C.  CO.) 
REPOUSS&  See  METAL-WORK  and  PLATE. 


REPRODUCTION 


I.  ANIMAL  REPRODUCTION. 

§  1.    ASEXUAL  REPRODUCTION. 

AS  a  general  account  of  this  process  has  already  been 
given  (see  BIOLOGY,  vol.  iii.  p.  686),  and  the  details 
of  its  occurrence  in  the  various  groups  are  described  in  the 
articles  devoted  to  them  (see  PROTOZOA,  HYDROZOA, 
TAPEWORM,  &c.),  it  suffices  here  to  recall  the  very  broadest 
aspect  of  the  phenomena, — that  asexual  reproduction  is 
simply  discontinuous  growth,  and  that,  as  we  make  an 
ascending  survey  of  the  Metazoa,  that  simple  form  of 
discontinuous  growth  which  we  term  asexual  reproduction 
becomes  more  and  more  subordinated  to,  and  at  last  wholly 
replaced  by,  that  more  differentiated  or  "sexual"  form  of 
reproduction  characterized  by  the  union  of  two  hetero- 
geneous cell-elements—never  to  reappear  save  in  degenerate 
forms.  See  SEX. 

§  2.    SEXUAL   REPRODUCTION. 

In  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life  the  process  of  sexual 
reproduction  is  found  in  its  simplest  imaginable  expression 
unassociated  with  any  of  those  complexities  which  arise 
among  the  higher  animals  and  plants.  All  that  is  to  be 
observed  is  the  growth  of  the  reproductive  organs,  the 
maturation  of  their  products,  and  the  passive  liberation  of 
these, — the  fecundation  of  the  ovum  and  the  fate  of  the 
embryo  being  entirely  left  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
environment.  In  higher  forms,  however,  not  only  does 
this  process  of  maturation  become  more  complex  and  of 
far  more  marked  influence  over  the  other  functions  of  the 
organism,  but  the  attraction  of  the  sexes  becomes  distinct 
and  leads  to  new  specializations  of  function  and  structure. 

Maturation. — The  maturation  of  the  sexes  acquires,  as 
has  been  said,  increasing  definiteness  in  the  higher  forms, 
where  it  is  associated  with  various  characteristic  accom- 
paniments. The  profound  reaction  of  reproductive  maturity 
upon  the  whole  system  is  best  marked  in  Birds  and 
Mammals,  and  perhaps  most  of  all  in  Man. 

Thus  in  a  young  male  Bird  the  circulation  in  the  testes 
is  greatly  increased,  and  these  organs  increase  greatly  in 
size  and  weight  and  commence  to  develop  spermatozoa. 
Meanwhile  the  "  secondary  sexual  characters "  of  the 
adult — gayer  plumage  for  alluring  the  female,  or  weapons 
for  contest  with  other  males — make  their  appearance,  the 
voice  and  note  may  alter,  and  a  marked  increase  of 
strength  and  courage  may  appear.  Among  Mammals  the 
changes  are  of  similar  order,  the  secondary  sexual  char- 


acters of  course  differing  in  detail.  The  minor  changes  at 
puberty  in  Man  associated  with  the  commencement  of 
spermatogenesis  are  (besides  the  reflex  excitation  of  erec- 
tion due  to  distension  of  the  seminal  vesicles,  and  the 
more  or  less  periodic  expulsion  of  their  contents  during 
sleep)  the  growth  of  hair  on  the  pubic  region  and  later  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  face,  and  the  rapid  modification  of 
the  laryngeal  cartilages  and  the  lengthening  of  the  vocal 
chords,  so  rendering  the  voice  harsh  and  broken  during  the 
change  and  ultimately  deepening  it  by  about  an  octave. 
The  marked  strengthening  of  bones  and  muscles  and  the 
profound  psychical  changes  which  accompany  the  whole 
series  of  processes  are  also  familiar.  See  SEX. 

The  local  and  cellular  activity  within  the  ovary,  which 
is  the  fundamental  part  of  maturation  in  the  female,  is 
not  less  remarkable  than  that  in  the  testes.  That  even  in 
lower  Invertebrates  the  enlargement  and  escape  of  the  ova 
are  part  of  a  normal  cellular  rhythm  is  interestingly  shown 
by  their  not  unfrequent  relapse  to  the  amoeboid  state,  or  by 
the  fatty  degeneration  and  death  of  ova  which  have  not 
accomplished  their  destiny.  The  escape  of  ripe  ova  in 
the  Vertebrate  ovary  is  especially  remarkable :  each  Graafian 
follicle,  as  it  ripens,  bursts,  expelling  its  ovum ;  its  cavity 
contracts ;  it  is  filled  up  by  blood,  of  which  the  white  cor- 
puscles form  a  -framework  resembling  connective  tissue,  in 
which  the  solids  and  corpuscles  of  the  serum  with  colour- 
ing matter  derived  from  the  haemoglobin  of  the  latter  are 
retained ;  and  the  whole  constitutes  the  "corpus  luteum," 
which,  should  pregnancy  occur,  may  persist  and  undergo 
further  retrogressive  changes,  or  otherwise  gradually  dis- 
appear. 

The  direct  causes  of  this  process  of  ovulation  have  been 
sometimes  ascribed  to  the  congestion  of  the  blood-vessels 
of  the  ovary  and  to  its  own  internal  turgidity,  or  to  the 
existence  of  a  slight  contractility  of  its  stroma ;  it 
seems,  however,  rather  to  depend  upon  the  growth  and 
turgescence  of  the  individual  follicle.  The  question  of 
the  relation  of  ovulation  to  the  process  of  copulation  in 
the  higher  animals  has  also  been  much  discussed.  Though 
we  certainly  know  that  ovulation  is  of  regular  occurrence 
whether  fecundation  takes  place  or  not,  it  seems  that  in 
many  cases  copulation  is  speedily  followed  by  the  libera- 
tion of  an  ovum;  nor  is  it  difficult  to  see  how  the  profound 
nervous  and  circulatory  excitement  associated  with  the 
former  process  might  accelerate  the  bursting  of  a  follicle. 
Leopold  has  conclusively  shown,  however,  that  ovulation 
may  also  long  precede  impregnation. 


408 


KEPKODUCTION 


[ANIMAL. 


In  many  forms  it  is  not  easy  to  see  bow  the  ova  once 
liberated  into  the  body-cavity  find  their  way  safely  into 
the  small  opening  of  the  discontinuous  oviduct.  In  the 
Frog,  however,  tracts  of  the  peritoneal  epithelium  become 
ciliated,  so  propelling  the  ova  in  the  right  direction.  In 
Reptiles,  Birds,  and  Mammals  the  open  end  of  the  oviduct 
is  widened  and  fringed,  and  lies  close  to  or  even  touching 
the  ovary ;  muscular  fibres  too  are  present,  and  more  or 
less  active  movements  of  this  dilated  end  over  the  ovarian 
surface  have  been  alleged  to  occur.  The  oviduct  once 
reached,  the  downward  progress  of  the  ovum  is  ensured  by 
the  cilia  of  the  epithelial  lining,  and  probably  also  by 
peristaltic  movements  of  its  muscular  coat.  (I)1 

Menstruation. — The  process  of  menstruation  (menses, 
catamenia),  although  from  the  earliest  times  the  subject 
of  medical  inquiry,  is  by  no  means  yet  clearly  understood. 
It  occurs  usually  at  intervals  of  a  lunar  month  in  all  women 
during  their  period  of  potential  fertility  (fecundity),  and, 
so  far  from  being  confined  to  the  human  species,  has  been 
observed  at  the  period  of  "heat"  in  a  large  number  of 
Mammals.  Though  thus  clearly  a  normal  physiological 
process,  it  yet  evidently  lies  on  the  borders  of  pathological 
change,  as  is  evidenced  not  only  by  the  pain  which  so  fre- 
quently accompanies  it,  and  the  local  and  constitutional 
disorders  which  so  frequently  arise  in  this  connexion,  but 
by  the  general  systemic  disturbance  and  local  histological 
changes  of  which  the  discharge  is  merely  the  outward 
expression  and  result.  The  histological  facts  are  briefly 
as  follows.  The  mucous  lining  of  the  uterus  consists  of  a 
loose  vascular  connective  tissue  covered  by  ciliated  epithe- 
lium and  containing  numerous  glands  of  clear  alkaline 
secretion.  This  mucous  lining  before  the  outset  of  men- 
struation becomes  loose  and  cedematous,  its  lymphatics 
being  greatly  distended ;  it  thus  thickens  considerably, 
pressing  against  the  cervix  of  the  uterus.  An  extrava- 
sation of  blood  from  the  capillaries  next  takes  place  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  mucous  layer,  and  the  discharge 
is  thus  set  up.  This  consists  at  first  of  blood  largely 
diluted  with  the  secretion  of  the  uterine  glands,  but  soon 
becomes  mixed  with  detritus  from  the  disintegration  of  the 
mucous  coat,  of  which  not  only  the  general  epithelial  cells 
but  those  of  the  neck  of  the  glands,  and  even  part  of  the 
subjacent  connective  tissue,  undergo  fatty  degeneration 
and  fall  off,  occasionally  even  in  a  mass.  After  from  three 
to  six  days  the  blood  ceases  to  appear,  and  the  lost  epithe- 
lium is  rapidly  replaced,  apparently  by  proliferation  from 
the  necks  of  the  glands.  By  the  ninth  or  tenth  day  the 
mucous  coat  is  fully  healed  and  the  beginnings  of  the 
next  menstrual  process  recommence. 

The  age  at  which  the  process  commences  varies  with 
race  and  climate,  with  nutrition  and  growth,  with  habit  of 
life  (e.g.,  with  differences  between  town  and  country  life), 
and  with  mental  and  moral  characteristics.  Of  these, 
however,  climate  seems  most  important ;  thus,  while  in 
northern  Europe  the  average  age  is  reckoned  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  year,  in  the  tropics  it  seems  to 
commence  in  the  ninth  or  tenth.  The  cessation  of  men- 
struation usually  takes  place  between  the  age  of  forty-five 
and  fifty,  and,  somewhat  as  the  secondary  characteristics 
of  female  puberty  coincide  with  its  appearance,  a  less 
distinct  reduction  of  these  is  associated  with  its  close ;  in 
many  cases  secondary  resemblances  to  the  masculine  type 
may  supervene. 

The  old  theories  of  menstruation  were  that  it  served  to 
rid  the  system  of  impure  blood,  that  it  simply  corre- 
sponded to  the  period  of  "  heat "  observed  in  lower 
animals,  or,  later,  that  it  was  associated  with  ovulation, — 
which  indeed  seems  broadly  to  correspond  with  the  end  of 

1  These  numbers  refer  to  the  bibliography  at  p.  422. 


the  menstrual  period.  At  present  there  may  be  said  to  be 
two  rival  theories.  According  to  the  first  of  these  the  pro- 
cess is  viewed  as  a  kind  of  surgical  "freshening  "of  the  uterus 
for  the  reception  of  the  ovum,  whereby  the  latter  during 
the  healing  process  can  be  attached  safely  to  the  uterine 
wall.  The  other  view  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  this.  Its 
upholders  regard  the  growth  of  the  mucous  coat  before 
the  commencement  of  the  flow  as  a  preparation  for  the 
reception  of  an  ovum,  if  duly  fertilized,  and  the  menstrual 
process  itself  as  the  expression  of  the  failure  of  these  pre- 
parations, in  short  as  a  consequence  of  the  non-occurrence 
of  pregnancy.  A  decided  majority  of  gynaecologists  appear 
to  incline  to  the  latter  view.  (1) 

Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Reproductive  Organs.  — The 
multicellular  animals  afford  a  remarkable  series  of  grada- 
tions from  the  simplest  imaginable  case  in  which  certain 
cells,  independently  of  accessory  organs,  and  even  isolated 
from  each  other,  develop  into  ova  and  spermatozoa.  In 
the  vast  majority  of  cases,  however,  definite  groups  of  cells 
are  set  apart  as  the  essential  reproductive  glands — the  ovary 
and  the  testis.  The  contents  of  these  may  simply  break 
loose,  but  definite  excretory  ducts  are  very  frequently 
present,  and  upon  these  very  varied  complications  may 
arise.  To  the  male  ducts  a  seminal  reservoir  may  be 
added.  More  or  less  specialized  glandular  regions  may 
contribute  their  secretion  to  the  seminal  fluid,  and  a  more 
or  less  complicated  copulatory  apparatus  may  also  be 
superadded. 

The  female  accessory  organs  are  equally  simple  in  prin- 
ciple and  complex  in  detail.  Nutritive  material  may  be 
furnished  to  the  ova  by  special  yolk  glands,  or  by  the 
walls  of  the  oviduct ;  this  too  may  supply  special  enve- 
lopes, and  may  exhibit  dilatations  for  the  preservation  or 
development  of  the  ova  (uterus),  for  the  reception  of  the 
male  copulatory  organ  (vagina),  or  for  the  temporary 
storage  of  the  seminal  fluid  thus  introduced  (receptaculum 
seminis).  It  is  necessary  therefore  briefly  to  outline  the 
most  important  facts  of  the  comparative  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  these  organs  in  the  various  groups. 

Passing  over  the  little-understood  Orthonectida  and 
Dicyemida  (see  PARASITISM,  vol.  xviii.  p.  259),  the  Sponges 
present  the  very  simplest  case  above  referred  to.  Here 
and  there  throughout  the  mesoderm  a  cell  may  be  observed 
enlarging  to  form  an  ovum,  or  segmenting  to  form  a  mass 
of  spermatozoa,  but  no  definite  reproductive  glands,  much 
less  any  duct  or  accessory  organ,  are  present,  and  at  most 
the  ovum  forms  for  itself  a  kind  of  nest  among  the  sur- 
rounding cells,  an  approach  towards  the  epithelial  follicle 
of  higher  forms  being  thus  presented. 

Ccelentera. — In  Anthozoa  the  generative  organs  are 
developed  as  ridges  on  the  gastric  septa,  their  products 
passing  out  by  the  mouth ;  and  in  the  Ctenophora  each 
radial  canal  bears  an  ovarian  ridge  on  one  side  and  a 
testicular  on  the  other.  Keen  controversy  has  raged  over 
the  state  of  matters  in  the  Hydromedusx.  Kleinenberg 
derived  both  ovum  and  sperms  in  Hydra  from  the  ecto- 
derm, while  Van  Beneden  endeavoured  to  prove  the 
invariable  origin  of  the  ovarian  tract  from  the  endoderm 
and  that  of  the  testicular  from  the  ectoderm ;  but  sub- 
sequent observers,  so  far  from  confirming  the  constancy  of 
this  arrangement,  have  affirmed  in  many  forms  the  ecto- 
dermic  and  in  others  the  endodermic  origin  in  both  cases. 
Weismann  and  De  Varenne  have  recently  very  completely 
demonstrated  the  more  remarkable  fact  that  in  a  great 
number  of  forms  the  generative  elements  do  not  arise  in 
the  so-called  generative  buds  or  gonophores  at  all,  but 
actually  migrate  thither  from  the  parenchyma  (cceuen- 
chyma)  of  the  nutritive  polyp  or  trophosome — the  latter 
observer  indeed  going  so  far  as  to  allege  the  primitive 
origin  by  ova  and  spermatozoa  in  all  cases  from  the  endo- 


ANIMAL.] 


REPRODUCTION 


409 


derm  of  the  nutritive  polyp.  These  conclusions  not  only 
invalidate  Van  Beneden's  attractive  theory,  but  tend  to 
overthrow  the  ordinary  view  of  the  alternation  of  genera- 
tions in  the  Hydromedusse. 

Vermes. — The  incipient  ovary  and  testis  are  seen  in 
their  simplest  expression  in  such  a  case  as  that  of  the 
hermaphrodite  Bryozoa,  or  even  better  in  the  low  Chseto- 
pod  Worm  Tomopteris  (fig.  1),  in  which  a  patch  of  cells 
of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
coelom  proliferate  and  enlarge 
into  ova,  or  divide  into  sperma- 
tozoa, fall  off,  and  become  ex- 
truded. In  higher  Worms  (e.g., 
Lumbricus)  the  glands  become 
localized  in  definite  segments,  _ 

,  , ,  '  FIG.  1  (from  Gegenbaur).— Ova  ongi- 

and    excretory   ducts,  apparently     natiug  from  the  lining  epithelium 

specialized  segmental  organs,  ap-  of  a  P'™?""'™  of  TomopuH,. 
pear.  Among  the  Platyhelminthes,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
most  extraordinary  specializations  occur.  The  generative 
apparatus  reaches  a  complexity  which  in  some  respects 
even  excels  that  of  the  higher  Vertebrates,  and  which,  since 
it  occurs  not  only  among  the  parasitic  forms  but  also  in 
their  less  modified  free-living  allies  (if  not  ancestors),  the 
Turbellarians,  must  be  regarded,  not  as  any  mere  adapta- 
tion to  parasitic  life,  but  as  an  important  factor  in 
explaining  (by  the  peculiar  advantage  which  such  increased 
reproductive  efficiency  affords ;  see  PARASITISM)  the  wide 
prevalence  of  parasitism  in  the  Platyhelminthes. 

Echinodermata. — Here  the  reproductive  organs  are  of 
extreme  simplicity — mere  lobed  glands  usually  provided 
with  a  duct  or  pore,  or  sometimes  merely  bursting  into  the 
body-cavity. 

Arthropoda. — The  essential  organs  never  exceed  one 
pair, — a  simple  median  germ-gland  being  probably,  as 
Gegenbaur  suggests,  the  primitive  condition.  The  acces- 
sory organs,  however,  reach  great  complexity,  especially 
among  the  higher  Insecta. 

Mollusca. — The  lower  Lamellibranchs  have  paired  herm- 
aphrodite glands  opening  in  relation  to  the  excretory 
organs ;  in  the  hermaphrodite  Gasteropoda,  however,  high 
complexity  of  the  accessory  organs  occurs  (e.g.,  Helix).  In 
the  dioecious  Cephalopoda  the  oviduct  is  single,  and  there 
are  remarkable  accessory  female  glands,  while  in  the  male 
the  formation  of  the  spermatophores  and  the  curious  modi- 
fication of  an  arm  for  copulatory  purposes  are  noteworthy. 

Tunicata, — In  this  group  (so  frequently  hermaphrodite) 
the  reproductive  apparatus  is  again  greatly  reduced,  the 
paired  or  single  sexual  glands  being  sometimes  even  duct- 
less, while  accessory  organs  are  absent. 

Vertebrata. — Starting  again,  in  the  lowest  Vertebrates, 
with  organs  of  an  exceedingly  simple  and  primitive  kind, 
we  find  the  series  presenting  all  gradations  up  to  a  very 
high  complexity.  Thus  in  Amphioxus  the  reproductive 
glands  are  little  modified  patches  of  the  lining  epithelium 
of  the  ccelom,  and  arise  in  a  paired  series, — an  arrange- 
ment recalling  that  of  the  simpler  segmented  Worms.  In 
other  Vertebrates,  however,  the  essential  organs  are  most 
distinctly  localized  in  origin,  never  exceeding  a  single  pair, 
and  are  also  much  more  evolved  in  structure.  In  its 
earliest  recognizable  state  the  generative  gland  is  a  slight 
thickening  of  the  peritoneal  epithelium  and  the  subjacent 
connective  tissue  on  each  side  of  the  mesentery,  lying  near 
and  parallel  to  the  incipient  renal  apparatus. 

Leaving  the  histological  details  of  the  process  by  which 
this  "germinal  epithelium,"  with  the  subjacent  connective 
tissue  of  the  "  genital  ridges,"  develops  into  ovary  and 
testis  with  their  characteristic  products  to  the  sections 
dealing  with  oogenesis  and  spermatogenesis  respectively, 
and  confining  ourselves  to  the  gross  anatomy  of  these 
essential  organs,  we  may  note  their  very  simple  character 


in  the  Marsijwbranchii,  where  in  the  Lampreys  they  extend 
for  a  great  length  along  the  coelom,  and  exhibit  a 
number  of  tolerably  regular  lamellar  folds,  recalling  the 
segmental  arrangement  of  lower  forms.  In  the  remain- 
ing Vertebrates  these  organs  are  usually  less  elongated 
and  relatively  smaller  and  more  compact,  though  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  some  Amphibians  (notably  many 
C&cilix)  exhibit  traces  of  a  more  or  less  discontinuous, 
perhaps  serial,  arrangement. 

In  Plagiostome  Fishes  the  sexual  glands  arise  along  only 
a  portion  of  the  genital  ridge,  the  remainder  having  its 
stroma  mainly  enlarged,  and  forming  the  so-called  epigonal 
gland.  In  many  of  the  higher  Amphibians  accessory  organs 
of  unknown  function,  the  so-called  fatty  bodies  or  corpora 
adiposa,  are  attached  to  the  ovaries  and  testes ;  and  in  the 
Toad  and  other  Anura  another  organ  in  close  relation  to 
the  testis,  and  in  histological  structure  resembling  a  rudi- 
mentary ovary,  has  also  been  described. 

A  considerable  tendency  towards  loss  of  symmetry 
appears  in  the  essential  organs,  particularly  the  ovaries,  of 
many  Vertebrates.  Thus  in  Myxine  neither  ovary  nor 
testis  is  present  on  the  left  side,  and  in  many  Sharks  and 
Dogfish  the  left  ovary  is  rudimentary.  In  Snakes  the  left 
ovary  is  smaller  than  the  right  and  usually  lies  behind  it, 
while  in  Birds  the  left  ovary  is  alone  functional,  that  of 
the  right  side  becoming  so  completely  atrophied  at  an 
early  stage  of  development  that  traces  of  it  in  the  adult 
are  only  found  surviving  in  a  few  forms,  especially  some 
of  the  diurnal  birds  of  prey.  Among  Mammals  symmetrical 
development  is  the  rule,  yet  in  the  curiously  Bird-like 
Ornithorhynckus  the  left  ovary  is  much  smaller  than  the 
right. 

The  relative  size  of  the  ovaries  varies  greatly  throughout 
the  Vertebrate  series,  in  relation  partly  to  the  relative 
proportion  of  stroma  to  germinal  tissue  in  the  histological 
structure  of  the  organ,  to  the  fecundity  of  the  species,  and 
to  the  number  of  ova  produced,  partly  also  to  the  presence 
or  absence  of  a  food  yolk,  and  the  consequent  size  of  the 
ova.  In  many  forms  a  great  increase  of  size  takes  place 
at  breeding-time. 

In  the  majority  of  Vertebrates,  as  in  lower  forms,  the 
essential  organs  remain  throughout  life  in  the  position  in 
which  they  develop,  or  at  most  depend  into  the  ccelom 
supported  by  a  mesenteric  fold.  In  most  Mammals,  how- 
ever, a  certain  change  of  position  takes  place,  the  ovaries 
usually  shifting  more  or  less  backwards  towards  the  pelvis. 
The  testes  too  in  the  Monotremata  leave  their  embryonic 
position  at  the  inner  edge  of  the  primitive  kidneys  and 
travel  backwards.  In  Edentates,  Hyrax,  Elephants,  and 
Cetaceans  they  remain  near  or  a  little  below  the  kidneys, 
but  they  usually  reach  the  abdominal  wall,  which  they 
may  more  or  less  completely  pass  through  in  the  inguinal 
region  (as  in  many  of  the  lower  Eodents  and  Carnivores),  or 
even  descend  into  a  more  or  less  distinct  diverticulum  or 
hernial  protrusion  of  the  integuments  of  .the  abdominal 
wall,  the  scrotum.  This  protrusion  arises  usually  at  the 
posterior  margin  of  the  primitive  urinogenital  opening, 
but,  by  exception,  in  Marsupials  in  front  of  it.  The  cavity 
of  the  scrotal  pouch  may  remain  throughout  life  in  con- 
tinuity with  that  of  the  abdomen,  so  enabling  the  testes 
to  pass  backwards  and  forwards  at  each  breeding  season 
(Marsupials,  Rodents,  Insectivora,  Bats,  &c.),  while  in  the 
higher  forms,  e.g.,  Ungulates,  Primates,  &c.,  the  scrotum 
retains  the  testes  permanently  shut  off  from  the  abdominal 
cavity. 

The  origin  and  homologies  of  the  genital  ducts  in 
Vertebrates,  and  the  accessory  organs  in  relation  to  them, 
may  now,  after  a  very  great  amount  of  anatomical  and 
embryological  inquiry,  be  considered  as  tolerably  settled, 
at  least  in  their  main  outlines. 

XX.  -  52 


410 


REPKODUCTION 


[ANIMAL. 


In  Myxine  and  the  Lampreys  no  ducts  are  present,  but 
the  generative  organs  void  their  contents  into  the  coelom, 
whence  they  pass  out  by  the  abdominal  pore;  some 
Teleosteans  too  (Salmonidse)  and  at  least  one  Elasmobranch 
(Lxmaryus)  exhibit  the  same  primeval  simplicity  of 
structure  and  function.  Even  here  the  exit  of  the  sexual 
products  is  hardly  independent  of  the  aid  of  the  excretory 
system,  since  there  is  reason  to  regard  the  abdominal  pores 
as  the  least  modified  survivals  of  segmental  organs ;  and 
in  all  higher  forms  the  definite  efferent  ducts  which  are 
present  in  more  or  less  close  relation  to  the  essential 
generative  organs  develop  in  the  closest  relation  to,  and  in 
fact  at  the  expense  of,  the  renal  excretory  apparatus.  For 
an  account  of  the  complex  details  of  this  process  in  the 
higher  Vertebrates,  however,  the  reader  must  consult  the 
classical  monographs  of  Balfour  and  Semper,  or  the  larger 
manuals.  (2) 

Copulation. — We  have  noted  above  the  importance  of 
the  copulatory  process  to  secure  fertilization  of  the  ovum, 
and  can  thus  readily  understand  its  occurrence  in  the 
higher  members  of  all  the  more  complex  animal  groups. 
Though  the  result  is  in  all  cases  the  same,  the  process 
presents  curious  variations  in  principle  as  well  as  detail. 
Thus  (e.g.}  the  hermaphrodite  Earthworms  become  firmly 
attached  by  their  characteristic  thickened  band  of  fused 
rings  (ditellum).  Among  the  higher  Crustaceans  the  sper- 
matozoa are  conducted  to  the  ova  along  the  grooves  of  a 
modified  pair  of  the  appendages  of  the  male,  while  in  In- 
sects the  modifications  of  the  posterior  abdominal  segments 
and  their  limbs  for  copulatory  purposes  are  often  extra- 
ordinarily complex  and  varied.  In  Spiders,  again,  the 
spermatic  fluid  is  passed  into  a  receptacle  in  the  chela,  and 
thence  pushed  into  the  cloaca.  In  the  higher  Mollusca, 
the  complex  copulatory  apparatus  of  the  Common  Snail 
and  the  process  of  hectocotylization  among  the  Cephalo- 
pods,  so  curiously  analogous  to  the  process  in  Spiders,  are 
too  familiar  to  need  more  than  mention  (see  MOLLUSCA, 
CUTTLE-FISH).  In  many  Fishes  no  copulatory  process 
exists  ;  thus  in  any  of  our  Salmon  rivers  the  male  fish  can 
be  seen  voiding  the  milt  upon  the  ova  after  their  deposi- 
tion. In  many  Elasmobranchs  a  portion  of  the  posterior 
pair  of  limbs,1  presenting  very  peculiar  cartilaginous 
and  glandular  structures,  though  known  as  "  claspers," 
seems  to  be  introduced  into  the  cloaca  during  fertilization. 
But  it  is  among  Amphibians  that  we  find  the  earliest  trace 
of  a  true  penis  ;  a  portion  of  the  cloaca  is  distinctly  ever- 
sible  in  Caecilians ;  in  Snakes  and  Lizards  paired  eversible 
processes  arise  from  the  posterior  cloacal  wall,  while  in 
Chelonians,  Crocodiles,  and  most  Birds  it  is  the  anterior 
wall  which  bears  these  processes.  In  Monotremes,  too,  the 
organ  is  distinctly  double;  in  higher  Mammals  it  is  single  ; 
but  the  function  is  in  all  cases  essentially  the  same.  The 
nervous,  muscular,  and  circulatory  mechanisms  of  the  pro- 
cess are  described  in  works  on  human  physiology.  (3) 

Gestation  and  Birth. — While  in  the  majority  of  lower 
forms  the  offspring  leaves  the  parent  as  an  unfertilized 
ovum,  we  have  seen  even  among  Sponges  the  impregna- 
tion and  development  of  the  embryo  in  its  primitive 
position,  and  thus  almost  from  the  outset  of  an  ascending 
zoological  survey  we  can  recognize  the  passage  from 
oviparous  to  viviparous  forms.  The  Invertebrates,  how- 
ever, are  mainly  oviparous,  despite  a  few  exceptions,  of 
which  perhaps  the  most  surprising  and  aberrant  are  that  of 
Entoconcha  mirabilis,  which  exhibits  an  ordinary  Molluscan 
development  within  the  body  of  its  Holothurian  host,  and 
that  in  what  resembles  a  special  ovarian  tube,  but  is  really 
the  body  of  its  utterly  degenerate  parasitic  parent.  Among 

1  In  the  curious  Holocephalous  Fish  Callorhynchus,  Jeffery  Parker 
has  recently  adduced  arguments  for  regarding  the  claspers  as  the 
surviving  rudiments  of  a  third  pair  of  limbs. 


Insects  a  certain  degree  of  viviparous  development  may 
be  reached ;  and  this  goes  curiously  far  in  the  Dipterous 
Insect  Cecidomyi.a,  in  which  larvze  develop  within  the  body 
of  their  parents  (themselves  at  the  larval  stage),  the  cavity 
of  which  they  destroy  and  burst  in  order  to  become  free. 
Thus  within  the  same  species  there  comes  about  exactly  the 
state  of  things  in  which  the  ova  of  a  parasite  develop  at  the 
expense  of  its  host. 

Among  Fishes  viviparous  birth  occurs  more  commonly ; 
in  some  Teleosteans  the  young  develop  within  the  ovaries ; 
in  many  Sharks  and  Dogfish  the  development  takes  place 
within  the  oviduct,  and  in  one  case  (Mustdus  /am)  an 
actual  placenta  is  formed  by  the  interdigitation  of  folds  of 
the  yolk  sac  with  those  of  the  oviduct.  Even  the  terres- 
trial Amphibians  usually  lay  their  eggs  in  water,  yet  in 
some  types,  notably  the  Alpine  Salamander  (Salamandra 
atra),  development  takes  place  within  the  oviduct.  That 
this  is  a  clear  case  of  adaptation  to  the  eminently  terrestrial 
environment  has  indeed  been  well  shown  by  experiments  in 
which  the  young  larvae  taken  from  the  parent  and  trans- 
ferred to  pond  water  developed  like  ordinary  Newts.  To 
all  such  forms,  viviparous  in  the  sense  of  bringing  forth 
their  young  alive,  the  somewhat  confusing  term  "  ovovivi- 
parous"  is  often  applied.  Birds,  and  also  Reptiles,  with 
few  exceptions,  of  which  the  Ichthyosaiiria  seem  to  have 
presented  a  striking  case,  are  oviparous ;  so  too,  as  has  been 
recently  established  by  Caldwell,  is  the  in  all  respects  so 
curiously  Bird-like  Mammal  Echidna.  Its  congener  Orni- 
tJwrhynchus  probably  agrees  in  this  ;  but  in  Marsupials  the 
embryo  is  not  born  until  it  has  reached  a  comparatively 
advanced  state  of  development,  when  it  is  transferred  to 
the  brood  pouch  or  marsupium,  where  the  process  is  com- 
pleted. In  the  remaining  Mammalia  intra-uterine  develop- 
ment goes  much  farther,  the  nutrition  of  the  embryo  being. 
in  absence  of  the  abundant  food  yolk  of  lower  forms, 
effected  by  the  aid  of  a  placenta  analogous  but  not  homolo- 
gous to  that  of  Mustelus,  since  developed,  not  from  the  yolk- 
sac,  but  from  the  allantois  (see  ANATOMY  and  MAMMALIA). 

The  physiological  processes  of  birth  show  a  similar  rise 
in  complexity, — due  chiefly  to  the  increasing  strain  upon 
the  parental  organization  which  this  progress  in  the 
nutrition  and  protection  of  the  embryo  during  its  develop- 
ment involves ;  for,  while  an  ovum  can  be  extruded  by 
simple  ciliary  action,  or  at  most  by  the  gentle  contractions 
of  the  oviduct,  the  expulsion  of  the  relatively  enormous 
Mammalian  foetus  involves  mechanical  difficulties  of  the 
most  serious  kind.  And,  besides  these  stresses  and  strains 
upon  the  pelvic  basin  itself  or  the  muscular  and  connective 
tissues  of  the  uterus,  vagina,  and  its  outlet,  the  inevitable 
rending  asunder  of  the  large  closely  interwoven  and  highly 
vascular  placenta  must  evidently  occasion  an  additional 
physiological  disturbance.  (4) 

Parental  Care. — Not  to  mention  cases  of  mere  conceal- 
ment of  the  ova  or  construction  of  egg  cases,  the  lowest 
forms  exhibiting  such  parental  care  are  probably  certain 
Holothurians  and  Starfishes  described  by  Sir  Wyville 
Thomson  during  the  voyage  of  the  "  Challenger,"  in  which 
the  developing  young  are  borne  upon  the  dorsal  surface  of 
the  parent.  Many  Crustaceans  carry  about  their  ova  during 
development,  and  an  Amphipod  has  been  described  as  fol- 
lowed by  its  newly-hatched  young  like  a  hen  by  its  chickens. 
The  female  Spider  too,  though  ferocious  towards  the  male, 
frequently  spins  a  nest  and  shows  some  maternal  solicitude; 
but  such  cases  are  far  commoner  among  even  the  lower 
Vertebrates  than  the  highest  Invertebrates.  Thus  among 
Fishes  the  case  of  the  nest-building  Stickleback  is  especially 
familiar ;  some  Siluroids  and  Lophobranchs  (and  usually 
the  males)  carry  about  their  young, — the  latter  in  ventral 
pouches,  the  former  in  the  mouth. 

But  the  quaintest  examples  of  care  of  offspring  are  those 


ANIMAL.] 


REPRODUCTION 


411 


presented  by  some  of  the  Amphibians,  notably  by  the  Frog 
Alytes  obstetricans,  where  the  male  winds  the  string  of  ova 
as  laid  round  his  body,  sits  in  concealment  until  their 


Fro.  2  (after  Sir  Wyville  Thomson,  and  Murray,  ''  Challenger  "  Narrative).— Sea- 
urchin  (ffemiaster  cavernosim,  Kerguelun  Islands)  and  Sea- cucumber  (Clado- 
dactyla  rosea,  Falkland  Islands),  bearing  their  young. 

development  is  sufficiently  advanced,  and  then  takes  to 
the  water,  or  in  the  grotesque  Surinam  Toad  (Pipa  suri- 
namensis),  where  the  male  places  the  ova  one  by  one  in 
hollows  in  the  loose  skin  of  the  back  of  the  female,  where 
they  accomplish  their  development.  Reptiles  rarely  show 
any  care  beyond  at  most  burying  their  ova,  but  in  Birds 
the  evolution  of  parental  care  (no  doubt  associated  with 
the  need  of  high  temperature  for  development)  approaches 
its  highest  and  most  general  evolution.  The  case  of  Mam- 
malia is  also  too  familiar  to  need  any  description;  but 
there  is  evidently  good  ground  for  the  idea  (of  late  ably 
popularized  by  Miss  Buckley)  that  the  marked  success  of 
Birds  and  Mammals  in  the  struggle  for  existence  is  to  be 
attributed  perhaps  not  less  to  their  peculiar  care  of  offspring 
than  to  any  advance  in  organization.  (5) 

The  Spermatozoon. 

History. — In  1677  Leeuwenhoek's  attention  was  drawn 
by  Hamm,  one  of  his  pupils,  to  the  active  moving  con- 
stituents of  the  seminal  fluid,  and  he  described  these  as 
animalcula  spermatica  or  spermatozoa  (o-7re'p//,a,  seed ;  £wov, 
animal).  Although  known  to  be  of  constant  occurrence, 
they  were  long  regarded  as  parasites,  and  classified  as 
Hdminthes  or  as  Infusoria  (see  also  article  "  Zoophytes," 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  8th  ed.),  even  Von  Baer  main- 
taining this  view  as  late  as  1835.  Soon  after  this  date 
R.  Wagner  demonstrated  their  constant  presence  in  fertile 
males  and  their  absence  in  infertile  bastards.  Von  Siebold 
discovered  them  in  many  Vertebrates,  while  Kolliker 
recognized  them  as  definite  histological  elements  arising 
within  the  testes.  The  old  name,  however,  has  persisted 
despite  various  proposals  to  replace  it  (e.g.,  spermatozoids, 
Von  Siebold  ;  fila  spermatica,  Kolliker).  (.6) 

Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Spermatozoa. — Without 
attempting  completeness  it  is  necessary  to  note  a  few  of 
the  best  marked  forms  of  spermatozoa.  The  familiar 
type,  that  of  a  small  more  or  less  ovoid  "head,"  with 
delicate  thread-like  cilium  or  "tail,"  is  of  the  commonest 
occurrence  throughout  the  animal  kingdom  ;  it  is  seen  with 
specific  modifications  in  1-4  and  12-16  in  fig.  3.  Much 
less  differentiated  forms,  however,  occur,  especially  among 
the  Branchiate  Arthropods,  of  which  some  exhibit  almost 
amoeboid  forms,  as  in  the  Daphnoid  Moina,  or  in  Crabs  (7  in 
fig.  3);  others  are  rigid,  with  radiating  processes,  as  in  the 
Lobster  (8  in  fig.  3).  That  of  Ascaris  is  a  small  nucleated 
cell  without  tail  or  process,  but  bearing  a  cap  of  protoplasm ; 


this,  like  the  lateral  process  in  the  spermatozoon  of  the 
Cheetopod  Cleta  (4  in  fig.  3),  is  not,  as  might  at  first  appear, 
an  additional  or  accessory  portion,  but  a  mere  persistent 


FIG.  3. — Forms  of  Spermatozoa.  1,  Sponge;  2,  Medusa;  3,  BothriocepJtalus; 
4,  Cleta  (CliEetopod);  5,  Ascaris;  6,  Moina  (Daphnid);  7,  Crab;  8,  Lobster; 
(9-11),  Playiostomuin  forms  with  elongated  nucleus;  12,  Salamander;  13, 
Kay;  14,  Man ;  15,  Cobitis;  16,  Mole. 

embryonic  structure,  as  will  be  understood  from  the  out- 
line of  the  facts  of  development  given  below.  In  a  large 
number  the  nucleus  is  more  or  less  drawn  out  to  form 
either  a  continuous  rod  or  a  series  of  fine  granules,  the 
protoplasm  in  such  cases  forming  a  delicate  film  with 
lateral  fringes,  which  may  also  be  produced  on  one  or  both 
ends  into  a  filament.  This  form  is  seen  in  many  Planarians 
(compare  9-11  in  fig.  3).  In  the  Newt  the  head  is  elon- 
gated, and  the  tail  bears  a  vibratile  membrane.  In  Man 
a  middle  piece  separates  the  peculiarly  shaped  head  from 
the  tail,  and  this  seems  to  end  in  a  still  finer  filament  (14 
in  fig.  3).  Miescher  and  others  describe  their  minute  struc- 
ture with  yet  greater  detail,  distinguishing  in  the  head  a 
wall  enclosing  peculiarly  differentiated  contents,  in  the 
middle  piece  a  similar  structure,  and  even  an  axial  fila- 
ment in  the  tail. 

The  movements  of  spermatozoa  have  attracted  consider- 
able attention,  their  action  being  mechanically  comparable 
to  that  of  cilia,  and  being  affected  similarly  by  reagents. 
Their  great  activity  and  prolonged  vitality  are  note- 
worthy ;  thus  not  only  do  they  remain  in  movement  for 
many  hours — indeed  until  the  onset  of  putrefaction — after 
their  ejaculation  from  the  body,  but  in  many  of  the  higher 
animals  they  may  remain  active  in  the  oviducal  passages 
for  weeks.  In  the  Bat  the  spermatozoa  lie  in  the  uterus 
awaiting  the  ovum  from  autumn  till  spring;  while  a 
queen  Bee  may  go  on  laying  the  fertilized  eggs  (from 
which  workers  arise)  for  swarm  after  swarm  for  three 
years  after  her  first  and  only  fertilization,  without  entirely 
exhausting  the  supply  of  active  and  mobile  spermatozoa  in 
the,  receptaculum,  and  such  cases  forcibly  suggest  that  the 
spermatozoon  has  not  only  a  vast  intrinsic  store  of  energy, 
but  must  also  absorb  nutritive  matter  from  the  environing 
tissues  or  secretions,  much  in  fact  as  would  an  Infusorian 
parasite.  (6) 

The  chemical  analysis  of  spermatozoa,  though  as  yet 
but  rude,  yields  results  of  interest.  Thus,  not  only  is  the 
proportion  of  solid  matter  to  water  extremely  high,  but 
the  small  quantity  of  ordinary  albumens  and  the  high 
percentage  of  ethereal  extractives  are  to  be  noted,  the 
whole  composition  being  more  analogous  to  that  of  brain 
and  nerve  than  of  any  other  tissues.  In  round  numbers, 
nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  Salmon  milt  is  nuclein,  more 
than  25  per  cent,  is  protamin,  10  per  cent,  is  a  mixture  of 
ordinary  albumens,  and  less  than  5  per  cent,  is  fat ;  while 
7ij  per  cent,  of  lecithin,  2^  per  cent,  of  cholesterin,  with 
traces  of  other  products  of  metabolism,  make  up  the 
rest.  (7) 

Development  of  Spermatozoa  (Spermatogcnesis). — Probably  no 
subject  within  the  whole  range  of  histology  (at  least  if  we 
except  that  of  the  structure  of  striped  nrascular  tissue)  presents  so 
many  difficulties,  or  has  been  the  subject  of  more  prolonged 
research  and  controversy ;  and  it  is  thus  essential  to  clearness  to 
recapitulate  the  history  of  the  inquiry  in  some  detail.  The  modern 


412 


REPRODUCTION 


[ANIMAL. 


period  of  investigation,  despite  a  few  observations  by  Wagner  and 
others,  practically  opens  with  Kbllikcr's  fundamental  observation 
(1841)  that  the  head  of  each  spermatozoon  arose  from  the  meta- 
morphosis of  a  seminal  cell. 

In  1844  Haeckel  described  in  Helix  the  cells  destined  to  become 
spermatozoa  as  arising  on  the  surface  of  an  epithelial  cell  of  the 
germ  follicle.  In  a  more  elaborate  paper  (Z.  W.  Z.,  1856)  Kb'lliker 
compared  the  process  of  spermatogenesis  in  the  Bull,  Dog,  and  Rabbit 
with  considerable  detail,  distinguishing  in  all  cases  the  lining  of 
the  tubule  into  two  kinds  of  cells, — the  outer  having  large  nuclei 
and  nucleoli,  and  undergoing  rapid  multiplication,  while  the  thick 
inner  layer  of  smaller  cells  was  becoming  differentiated  into  the 
true  sperm-cells,  which  might  be  either  unicellular  or  multicellular 
"cysts."  "He  also  described  the  origin  of  the  head  of  the  sperma- 
tozoon (and  indeed  also  that  of  its  tail)  from  the  nucleus  of  this 
parent  cell,  and  the  breaking  loose  of  the  spermatozoon  from  its 
parent. 

Henle  (1865)  showed  that  the  tail  was  developed  from  a  portion 
of  the  protoplasm,  thus  preparing  for  the  comparison  with  ciliated 
epithelial  .cells  soon  afterwards  instituted  by  Schweigger-Seidel. 
Sertoli  (1865)  described  certain  " ramified  cells"  in  the  seminal 
tubules,  and  Merkel  (1871)  regarded  these  as  forming  a  framework 
(Stutzzelleri)  for  other  cells  from  which  the  spermatozoa  developed. 
In  the  same  year,  however,  appeared  the  important  researches  of 
Von  Ebner,  whose  views  will  be  understood  by  the  aid  of  fig.  4. 
He  described  the  large  cells  just  mentioned  as  provided  with  a 
large  and  well-defined  nucleus  and  nucleolus,  and  as  being  con- 
fluent at  their  base  with  each  other,  so  forming  a  protoplasmic 
layer  (Keimnetz),  but  stretching  forwards  into  the  lumen  of  the 
duct  as  irregular  prolongations  ;  these  become  lobed  or  fingered, 
each  lobe  independently  developing  a  nucleus,  the  large  primitive 
nucleus  remaining  unchanged.  To  the  whole  prolongation  with 
its  lobes  he  applies  the  term  spermatoblast.  From  each  lobe  a 
spermatozoon  develops,  the  nucleus  lengthening  to  form  the  main 
portion  of  the  head,  while  a  thin  film  of  the  protoplasm  elongates 
into  the  cilium  or  tail.  The  young  spermatozoa  at  first  press 


I.  III.  IV.  II. 

FIG.  4. — Spermatogenesis  (after  Landois).  I.,  cross  section  through  a  seminal 
tubule;  II.,  unripe  spermatoblast,  with  blunt  rounded  lappets,  the  young 
sperms;  III.,  spermatoblast  with  ripe  ciliated  heads;  IV.,  spermatoblast  after 
separation  of  sperms. 

downwards  into  the  body  of  the  spermatoblast,  so  as  to  form 
bundles,  but,  when  ultimately  liberated,  curl  themselves  up  to  roll 
down  the  seminal  tubule,  the  more  or  less  branched  stump  of  the 
spennatoblast  alone  remaining  along  with  the  smaller  cells  of  the 
tubules,  which,  according  to  him,  take  no  part  in  the  process,  but 
merely  perform  nutritive  or  mechanical  functions. 

A  vigorous  controversy  at  once  arose,  but  Merkel  claimed  these 
spermatoblasts  as  being  simply  his  "  Stiitzzellen,"  and  described 
the  spermatozoa  as  arising  from  the  small  round  cells,  and  as  being 
only  secondarily  received  into  cavities  of  the  former,  a  view  which 
Henle  also  adopted.  Sertoli  also  regarded  Ebner's  spermato- 
blasts as  his  "ramified  cells,"  and  ascribed  all  spermatogenetic 
functions  to  the  round  cells,  which  he  distinguished  in  their 
youngest  state  as  "germinative,"  and  later  as  "seminiferous"  cells, 
which  then  divided  to  form  "  nematoblasts, "  these  directly 
developing  into  spermatozoa.  Blumberg  (1873)  attempted  to 
reconcile  the  disputants  by  ascribing  spermatogenetic  functions 
both  to  the  spermatoblasts  and  to  the  round  cells.  Neumann, 
while  supporting  Von  Ebner  in  the  main,  describes  his  spermato- 
blasts as  not  processes  of  the  nutritive  network  ("Keimnetz"),  but 
as  modified  from  the  ordinary  epithelium  of  the  seminal  tubule,  and 
disputed  the  existence  of  Merkel's  framework  altogether  ;  and  this 
essential  confirmation  of  Von  Ebner's  view  was  supported  by 
Mihalkovicz,  Landois,  and  others.  In  a  later  paper  he  attempted 
to  show  that  the  lobes  of  Von  Ebner's  spermatoblasts  might 
become  separated  off  as  the  small  round  cells,  and  might  then 
either  break  up  or  develop  into  spermatozoa.  Krause  (1876),  while 
otherwise  supporting  Von  Ebner,  graphically  described  the  sperma- 
toblasts as  ciliated  cells  with  ramified  and  even  anastomosing 
processes,  so  doing  away  with  any  connective-tissue  system 
altogether.  Sertoli,  however,  continued  to  support  his  own  view 
with  greater  elaborateness  than  ever. 

Semper's  well-known  researches  (1875)  on  the  urinogenital 
system  of  Elasmobranchs  included  an  important  contribution  on 


spermatogenesis.  He  described  an  invagination  of  the  germinal 
epithelium  or  of  the  primitive  ova  into  the  subjacent  stroma,  win-re 
they  form  a  primitive  follicle,  which  again  comes  into  relation 
with  the  incipient  tubule.  The  central  cell  of  the  follicle  undergoes 
mucous  degeneration  and  becomes  absorbed,  leaving  a  cavity  lined 
by  a  single  layer  of  epithelial  cells,  which  divide  rapidly,  becoming 
cylindrical,  with  large  round  nuclei.  These  divide  into  a  "  cover- 
cell"  and  a  "mother-cell";  the  nucleus  of  the  latter  divides 
repeatedly  until  about  sixty  sperm  nuclei  are  formed,  which 
elongate  to  form  the  heads  of  the  spermatozoa.  As  these  develop 
they  come  to  lie  in  a  bunch,  lying  into  the  cavity  of  the  follicle, 
their  expulsion  being  effected  by  the  swelling  of  the  nucleus  of  the 
cover-cell. 

An  important  series  of  researches  by  Von  La  Valette  St  George 
on  spermatogenesis  among  Vertebrates  was  meanwhile  in  progress. 
In  his  final  paper  (1878)  he  describes  the  seminal  tubules  as  con- 
taining two  distinct  types  of  cell.  One  kind,  resembling  young 
ovules,  which  he  terms  primitive  seminal  cells  or  spermatogonia, 
divide  into  a  mass  or  spennalogcmma  of  small  cells  (sperma- 
tocytcs).  These  spermatocytes  may  either  («)  all  develop  into 
spermatozoa  (Mammals),  or  (b)  a  single  spermatocyte  may  become 
modified  as  a  basilar  cell  (Plagiostome  Fishes),  or  (c)  a  number  may 
form  an  envelope  or  cyst  around  the  qthers  (Amphibians  and 
Fishes).  The  second  kind  of  primitive  cells  he  terms  "follicle- 
cells,"  and  regards  as  non-essential ;  these  are  united  into  a  loose 
tissue  and  envelop  the  spermatogonia  and  spermatogemma. 

In  this  view  we  have  a  marked  divergence  from  both  preceding 
theories,  as  the  author  does  not  hesitate  to  point  out.  He  regards 
Von  Ebner's  "Keimnetz"  and  "  spermatoblasts "  as  confounding 
both  his  follicle  cells  with  their  included  spermatogemmce,  and 
interprets  Neumann's  figures  confirmatory  of  Von  Ebner  in  the 
same  way.  Merkel's  "  Stiitzzellen  "  he  identifies  as  his  "  follicle- 
cells  "  altered  by  reagents. 

The  subsequent  researches  of  Helman  (1880),  Krause,  and 
Nussbaum  among  Vertebrates  need  only  be  mentioned  as  essenti- 
ally confirmatory  of  the  observations  of  La  Valette.  Meyer's  careful 
observations  (1880)  also  led  him  to  the  same  general  view,  with  the 
important  difference,  suggested  by  one  of  the  preceding  authors, 
that  the  "  follicle  cells  "  of  La  Valette  were  not  inert  as  he  supposed, 
but  the  earliest  stages  of  his  spermatogonia  and  spermatogcmmce. 
Klein's  views  (1881)  have  perhaps  most  relation  to  those  of  Sertoli. 

Some  important  work  was  meanwhile  being  done  among  Inverte- 
brates. In  1877  F.  E.  Schultze  described  spermatogenesis  in  the 
Sponge  Halisarca,—a.  germinal  cell,  analogous  to  that  which  gives 
rise  to  an  ovum,  becoming  covered  by  an  epithelium,  and  divid- 
ing into  a  multitude  of  segments,  each  of  which  becomes  drawn 
out  into  a  spermatozoon.  In  1844  Meckel  had  described  the  sper- 
matozoa of  the  Snail  as  arising  superficially  from  a  mother-cell, 
and  this  view  had  been  confirmed  by  various  authors.  In  1879 
Duval  described  in  the  same  animal  the  spermatocytes  as  arising 
by  the  endogenous  division  of  a  mother-cell,  and  subsequently 
coming  to  its  surface,  and  Halle/  described  an  essentially  similar 
process  in  some  Flanarians.  Graff,  however,  found  in  other  species 
that  no  remnant  survived,  but  that  the  whole  of  the  spermatogonia 
became  converted  into  spermatocytes.  In  1880  Blomfield  investi- 
gated the  process  in  the  Earthworm,  his  results  resembling  rather 
those  of  Von  Ebner  (fig.  4)  than  those  of  La  Valette.  Strongly  em- 
phasizing, however,  the  importance  of  the  nutritive  basal  cell  or 
spermatoblast  of  Von  Ebner,  he  proposed  yet  another  nomenclature. 
In  a  subsequent  paper  (1882)  he  describes  the  process  in  the  Snail  and 
the  Frog.  The  former  agrees  substantially  with  the  Worm,  but  in 
the  Frog  a  hollow  spermatogemma  arises;  each  of  its  cells  elongates 
to  form  a  spermatozoon  ;  these  while  still  immature  arrange  them- 
selves in  bundles  round  one  of  the  more  superficial  cells,  which 
"  become  blastophoral  corpuscles," — a  view  which  recalls  Merkel's 
explanation  of  Von  Ebner's  spermatoblasts,  mentioned  above,  viz., 
that  the  spermatozoa  only  became  temporarily  lodged  in  their 
recesses  after  completing  their  development. 

In  this  respect  the  view  of  Renson  (1882)  is  especially  interesting. 
He  describes  the  follicular  cells  of  La  Valette  as  segmenting  into 


FIG.  5  (after  Renson.)—!,  folliculur  cells ;  2,  spermatogemma ;  3-8,  separate 
ncmatoblasts  developing  into  spermatozoa ;  9,  nematoblasts  grouped  on  sup- 
porting cell ;  10-11,  successive  stages  of  the  penetration  of  the  young  sper- 
matozoa. 

" multinuclear  cysts"  (spermatogemmse),  of  which  the  constituent 
"  nematoblasts  "  develop  into  young  spermatozoa.     These  immature 


ANIMAL.] 


REPRODUCTION 


413 


nematoblasts  group  themselves  round  the  extremity  of  certain  long 
projecting  epithelial  cells,  the  supporting  cells  (or  "cellules  de 
soutien,"  obviously  the  spermatoblasts  of  Von  Ebner),  and  actually 
sink  into  their  protoplasm  to  complete  their  development.  When 
fully  developed,  the  heads  of  the  young  spermatozoa  have  attained 
the  base  of  the  supporting  cell,  but  this  now  elongates  and  bears 
them  anew  to  the  lumen  of  the  duct,  where  new  nematoblasts  are 
by  this  time  waiting  to  take  their  place  (fig.  5). 

The  researches  of  Hermann  (1882)  in  Elasmobranchs  are  broadly 
confirmatory  of  those  of  Semper,  while  those  of  Jensen  and  of 
Swaeu  and  Masquelin  (1883)  are  especially  corroborative  of  the  views 
of  La  Valette.  The  latter  are,  however,  of  importance  as  tend- 
ing towards  reconciliation.  The  primitive  ampullae  being  formed, 
the  "  male  ovules  "  and  the  follicular  cells  are  henceforth  distinct : 
the  former  segment  into  spermatogemmae  ;  the  latter  (at  first  form- 
ing incomplete  envelopes  to  the  male  ovule)  mostly  disappear, 
save  one  which  travels  downwards  until  it  lies  between  the  wall 
of  the  ampulla  and  the  spermatogemma,  thus  constituting  its 
"basilar  cell."  The  spermatogemma  meanwhile  is  developing  a 
central  cavity  ("loge  caudale"),  from  which  the  tails  of  the 
incipient  spermatozoa  or  "nematoblasts"  project  into  the  lumen  of 
the  duct.  The  basilar  cell  has  also  been  enlarging,  and  fusing 
with  the  intercellular  substance  of  the  spermatogemma ;  the 
nematoblasts  thus  come  to  be  plunged  into  the  basilar  cell,  and 
sink  downwards  towards  its  nucleus  ;  but  this  again  elongates  to 
expel  them.  In  the  Salamander  these  follicular  cells  form  a 
complete  envelope  to  the  male  ovules  during  their  whole  segmenta- 
tion and  subsequent  evolution.  In  Mammals  the  male  ovule 
divides  into  an  active  and  a  temporarily  inert  portion  (follicular 
cell  of  La  Valette,  germinative  cell  of  Sertoli  and  Renson)  ;  the 
former  segments  into  the  spermatogemma,  of  which  the  resultant 
nematoblasts  plunge  into  the  basilar  cells,  much  as  described  by 
Renson.  They  compare  the  intercellular  substance  of  the  sper- 
matogemma to  the  blastophor  described  by  Blomfield  in  Worms, 
and  regard  the  follicular  cells  as  a  secondary  addition  peculiar 
to  Vertebrates,  and  homologous  with  the  follicular  ( cells  of 
their  ova. 

The  first  step  towards  any  understanding  of  the  process  of 
spermatogenesis  amid  this  maze  of  controversy  is  to  collate  the 
various  observations  ;  hence  the  present  attempt  to  summarize  the 
main  observations  on  the  subject,  and  afford  a  key  to  the  nomencla- 
ture. But  how  shall  we  reconcile  the  different  theories  ?  Each  author 
formulates  his  own  view  of  spermatogenesis,  and  sometimes  even 
admits  only  a  single  method  (e.g.,  Von  Ebner,  Blomfield,  &c.);  yet, 
unless  we  attach  considerably  greater  weight  to  the  observations  of 
at  least  a  majority  of  all  these  workers  than  they  sometimes  incline 
to  grant  to  those  of  each  other,  the  literature  and  iconography 
of  histology  become  of  little  worth.  Since  La  Valette,  however, 
most  observers  have  admitted  the  existence  of  several  methods  ; 


FIG.  6. — Hypothetical  comparison  of  oogenesis  and  spermatogenesis.     The  forms 


the  homology — indeed  the  primordial  identity  of  the  primitive 
germinal  cells — of  male  ovule  with  female  ovule  has  been 
often  pointed  out,  and  the  general  resemblance  of  the  process 
of  spermatogenesis  to  that  of  segmentation  has  been  noted,  and 
even  accented  by  the  use  of  terms  like  sperm-morula,  sperm-blastula, 
&c.  But  it  is  not  enough  to  make  such  a  comparison  in  general 
terms  ;  it  must  be  either  susceptible  of  definite  refutation  or  con- 
firmation by  appeal  to  details  ;  and  the  present  writer  has  hence 
elsewhere  attempted  to  compare  the  various  modes  of  spermato- 
genesis with  the  corresponding  modes  of  segmentation  of  the  ovum, 
and  so  reconcile  the  conflict  of  testimony  and  opinion  upon  the 
subject.  (8) 

Ontogeny  of  the  Spermatozoon.  — The  origin  of  the  spermatozoon 
from  the  spermatocyte  is,  as  we  have  seen  above,  a  phenomenon  of 
considerable  complexity.  It  has  long  been  known  to  arise  from  the 
nucleus  and  the  tail  from  the  protoplasm,  and  Flemming  in  1880 
gave  further  precision  to  our  knowledge  by  tracing  the  head  of  the 


spermatozoon  of  Salamandra  from  the  chromatiu  of  the  nucleus. 
Various  observers  had  also  noted,  besides  the  nucleus,  the  appear- 
ance of  a  small  denser  mass  of  protoplasm  within  the  spermatocyte, 
the  "  accessor}'  corpuscle"  (Nelcnkern,  corpuscle  precurseur),  but  its 
origin  and  fate  have  scarcely  yet  been  settled  with  complete  clear- 
ness. It  appears,  however,  to  arise  from  the  nucleus,  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  nucleus  going  to  form  the  main  portion  of  the  head, 
while  a  film  of  superjacent  protoplasm  stretches  over  it,  thickens 
somewhat  to  form  the  middle  piece,  and  becomes  drawn  out  into 
the  filamentous  tail,  which  frees  itself  from  the  remains  of  its  sper- 
matocyte and  swims  away  (3  to  8  in  fig.  5).  Von  Brunn  has  recently 
described  in  Birds  the  origin  of  this  accessory  corpuscle  with  especial 
clearness  by  the  division  of  the  nucleus  of  the  developing  spermato- 
zoon. In  Mammalia  the  "  cap  "  of  the  young  spermatozoon  is  de- 
scribed by  Renson  as  nucleus,  and  by  others  as  protoplasm,  and  it 
has  been  compared  by  many  authors  to  the  polar  vesicle  of  the 
ovum.  In  Plagiostome  Fishes  Semper  describes,  and  others  con- 
firm, the  existence  of  an  additional  nucleus,  or  "problematic 
body,"  which  appears  to  correspond  to  the  sum  of  the  accessory 
corpuscles  of  all  the  spermatozoa,  and  this,  after  their  escape, 
has  been  shown  by  Swaen  and  Masquelin  to  fuse  with  the  nucleus 
of  the  basilar  cell.  The  resemblance  of  this  embryonic  and  transi- 
tory structure  to  the  permanent  post-nuclear  segment  of  the 
curious  almost  amoeboid  spermatozoon  of  Ascaris  is  closely  sugges- 
tive of  their  homology,  and  it  is  also  interesting  to  note,  in  figures 
of  the  developing  spermatozoa  of  Selachians,  their  considerable 
resemblance  to  the  fringed  adult  spermatozoa  of  many  Platyhel- 
minthcs.  (8) 

The  Ovum. 

History. — From  the  earliest  times  naturalists  have  of 
course  been  familiar  with  the  form  and  function  of  the  ova 
of  a  great  number  of  animals ;  the  only  seriously  disput- 
able question  (excepting  that  of  spontaneous  generation) 
has  been  that  of  the  like  origin  of  the  embryo  in  Mammals. 
The  history  of  the  discovery  is  a  curious  one.  Galen  had 
described  the  human  ovaries  as  testes  muliebres,  but  the 
term  ovary  is  due  to  Steno  (1664),  who  like  our  most 
modern  investigators  started  in  his  comparisons  from  the 
corresponding  organs  in  Sharks  and  Eays.  In  1672  Regner 
de  Graaf,  in  a  remarkable  work  upon  the  structure  of  the 
ovary  and  its  accessory  organs,  not  only  described  in  the 
ovary  in  Birds  and  Mammals  the  follicles  which  now  bear 
his  name,  and  which  he  regarded  as  the  ova,  but  made  the 
generalization  of  the  universal  occurrence  of  ova  through- 
out the  animal  kingdom,  and  even  observed  the  ovum  in 
the  oviduct  of  the  Rabbit.  His  opinion,  however,  was 
overborne  by  the  authority  of  his  more  famous  countryman 
Leeuwenhoek,  who  regarded  not  the  oviduct  but  the  ovary, 
and  more  precisely  the  corpus  luteum,  as  the  seat  of  de- 
velopment of  the  embryo.  The  observation  of  De  Graaf 
was  repeated  at  the  end  of  last  century  by  Cruikshank,  and 
again  by  PreVost  and  Dumas.  The  definite  establishment 
of  our  present  knowledge  of  the  Mammalian  ovum  dates 
only  from  1827,  when  Von  Baer  clearly  traced  the  ovum 
from  the  uterus  back  to  its  earliest  appearance  in  the  ovi- 
duct, and  thence  to  its  origin  within  the  Graafian  follicle. 
Piirkinje  had  meanwhile  (1825)  described  the  "germinal 
vesicle  "  in  the  Chick,  Coste  showed  its  occurrence  in  the 
Mammalian  ovum,  and  Wagner  discovered  (1836)  the 
"  germinal  spot "  in  Mammalian  and  other  ova.  (9) 

Mass  and  Chemical  Composition  of  the  Ovum. — The 
absence  of  any  extensive  measurements  of  the  ovum  in 
the  various  groups,  either  absolutely  or  in  comparison 
with  the  bulk  of  the  parent,  renders  it  impossible  to 
generalize  with  any  great  degree  of  definiteness.  While 
from  some  comparisons  it  is  at  once  apparent  that  the 
higher  the  organization  the  larger  the  ovum,  many  inde- 
pendently variable  factors  affect  this,  e.g.,  the  size,  organi- 
zation, or  maturity  of  the  parent,  the  duration  of  stay  in 
the  oviduct,  and  the  climate  and  other  surroundings. 
Examples  of  such  variation  are  readily  seen ;  it  is  natural 
that  self-supporting  larval  forms  should  start  with  smaller 
food-yolk  than  those  which  develop  before  leaving  the 
egg,  and  among  placental  Mammals  that  the  continuous 
supply  of  nutriment  from  the  parental  resources  should 


414 


REPRODUCTION 


[ANIMAU 


supersede  what  would  otherwise  require  to  be  a  gigantic 
store  of  yolk. 

Our  as  yet  crude  analyses  of  ova  of  course  reveal  the 
presence  of  numerous  highly  nutritive  substances,  both 
albuminous  and  fatty — none,  however,  characteristic  of 
the  ovum  alone.  The  general  analysis  of  the  Fowl's  yolk 
is  quoted  by  Hensen  as  follows: — water  47 '2  percent., 
albumin  stuffs  15*6,  ethereal  extracts  31*4,  alcoholic 
extract  4 '8,  ash  1  =  100, — these  results  of  course  covering 
an  unknown  degree  of  complexity.  Thus  numerous  more 
or  less  distinct  albuminoid  substances  have  been  described 
by  different  authors — vitellin,  ichthin,  ichthidin,  emydin, 
•fee.,  while  nuclein  seems  to  be  of  special  importance ;  the 
ethereal  extract  yields  very  distinct  fats,  not  only  non- 
nitrogenous,  but  nitrogenous  (e.g.,  lecithin) ;  cholesterin 
and  many  other  complex  products  of  anabolic  and  kata- 
bolic  change  are  also  present ;  and  so  on.  The  subject  is 
at  present  peculiarly  unfit  for  profitable  summarization, 
and  details  must  be  sought  from  the  bibliography.  (10) 

Oogenesis. — Since  the  different  modes  of  origin  of  the  ova  in  the 
various  groups  are  at  once  less  complicated  and  in  general  outline 
less  debateable  than  the  corresponding  process  of  spermatogenesis, 
in  regard  to  which  the  state  of  opinion  is  so  unsettled,  a  much  less 
detailed  account  must  here  suffice,  especially  since  a  review  of  the 
different  processes  in  any  detail  would  involve  an  unwieldy  com- 
pression of  the  available  summaries  of  Balfour  and  others.  Only 
a  few  of  the  more  interesting  aud  suggestive  examples  can  be  here 
mentioned. 

The  origin  of  the  ova  within  the  mesoderm  of  the  Sponge,  which 
has  been  already  referred  to,  is  obviously  one  of  the  simplest  cases, 
recalling  the  occurrence  of  reproductive  cells  in  such  a  sub- 
Metazoan  form  as  Volvox.  In  regard  to  the  Ccelentera  the  con- 
troversy over  Van  Beneden's  hypothesis  of  the  endodermic  origin 
of  the  ova  has  been  already  mentioned  ;  and  in  connexion  with 
this  "Weismann's  theory  may  be  noted,  according  to  which  in  most 
Hydroids  the  reproductive  cells  are  only  differentiated  late  in  life, 
so  that  the  actual  germinal  substance  or  mother-protoplasm  is  not 
present  from  the  first  in  cellular  form  but  in  molecule  groups, 
scattered  among  the  somatic  cells  and  spread  perhaps  over  various 
asexual  generations,  to  be  gathered  up  at  some  favourable  epoch 
and  in  the  most  convenient  situation  in  the  definite  form  of  ova. 

In  the  group  of  Vermes  the  general  history  is  that  some  favour- 
ably situated  cells  of  the  epithelial  lining  of  the  ccelom  proliferate, 
enlarge,  assume  the  characters  of  ova,  and  fall  off  into  the  body- 
cavity.  A  simple  instance  of  this  in  Tomopteris  has  been  already 
referred  to  (fig.  1). 

Sagitta  furnishes  a  very  suggestive  illustration  of  oogenesis — where 
one  half  of  the  primitive  reproductive  cell  goes  to  form  the  ovary 
and  the  other  half  the  testis.  In  Bonellia  we  find  a  beautiful 
example  of  the  very  frequent  subordination  of  several  reproductive 
cells  to  the  perfecting  of  one.  In  each  mass  of  possible  ova  (which 
arise  from  the  division  of  primitive  germinal  cells  situated  round 
the  ventral  vessel  just  above  the  nerve  cord)  only  one — adjoining 
the  stalk  and  therefore  near  the  source  of  nutrition — becomes  a 
differentiated  ovum,  while  the  others  atrophy.  In  Platyhelminthes 
the  later  stages  of  oogenesis  are  especially  interesting,  because  the 
nutritive  equipment  of  the  ovarian  ova  is  in  many  cases  partially 
furnished  by  the  direct  absorption  of  some  of  the  cells  of  the  yolk- 
gland  or  vitellarium,  which  is  itself  probably  a  degenerate  portion 
of  the  ovarian  tract  in  which  over-nutrition  has  checked  repro- 
duction. Thus  the  ovum  comes  to  be  the  result  of  a  number  of 
cells.  Weismann's  interesting  observations  on  the  winter-eggs  of 
some  Crustaceans  afford  beautiful  illustration  of  the  subordination 
of  a  large  number  of  germinal  cells  to  the  nutrition  of  a  few,  while 
in  Alollusca  this  nutrition  of  the  ovum  is  otherwise  effected  by  the 
direct  passage  of  food-material  from  the  ordinary  epithelial  cells 
of  the  ovarian  pouches. 

The  oogenesis  of  Insects,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  so  much 
discussion,  is  chiefly  characterized  by  the  very  frequent  presence  in 


Fio.  7.— Formation  of  follicular  nuclei  (after  Will).  A,  B,  division  of  nucleus 
in  morula  fashion ;  C,  nuclei  have  travelled  to  periphery ;  D,  germinal 
vesicle  formed  from  residue  of  division. 

the  ovarian  tube  of  a  large  number  of  germinal  cells  which  are 
•wholly  nutritive,  and  which  serve  to  equip  the  minority  of  truly 
reproductive  cells.  Such  cases  inevitably  raise  the  long-standing 
dispute  as  to  the  unicellular  character  of  the  ovum,  — some  authors 


(e.g.,  Brandt)  describing  the  ovum  as  a  cell  of  the  second  order, 
formed  from  a  cemplexof  the  primitive  nuclei  or  "ooblaste/'wliich 
are  combined  in  the  terminal  chamber  of  the  ovarian  tube,  and 
which  unite  to  form  on  the  one  hand  the  germinal  vesicle  of  the  ovum 
with  enveloping  protoplasm,  and  on  the  other  the  surrounding  folli- 
cular cells.  One  of  the  most  recent  discussions  of  Insect  oogenesis  is 
that  of  Will,  who  maintains  the  origin  of  the  follicular  nuclei  from 
a  multiple  division  of  the  original  primitive  nucleus  or  ooblasr,  the 
residue  forming  the  germinal  vesicle,  a  mode  of  origin  pre\  iously 
maintained  by  other  investigators  both  of  oogenesis  and  spermato- 
genesis (fig.  7).  In  some  Echinodermata,  and  in  other  groups,  it 
has  been  repeatedly  observed  that  the  undifferentiated  germinal  cells 
form  the  elements  of  the  follicular  epithelium  round  the  ova. 

A  debateable  but  suggestive  theory  of  oogenesis  has  been  pro- 
pounded, especially  by  Nussbaum  and  Weismann,  who  maintain 
that  in  many  cases  the  reproductive  cells  do  not  arise  as  differentia- 
tions of  somatic  cells,  but  are  marked  off  from  the  first,  in  some 
cases  even  before  the  formation  of  the  germ-layers.  According  to 
this  ingenious  hypothesis, — supported,  however,  by  little  direct 
observation — the  reproductive  elements  would  form  a  continuous 
immortal  chain  connecting  the  highest  forms  with  their  Protozoan 
ancestry,  whose  direct  protoplasmic  continuity  has  been  of  late 
also  strongly  insisted  upon  (see  PKOTOZUA). 

Dispute  has  also  arisen  as  to  the  origin  of  the  follicular  cells  of 
the  Tunicata,  some  deriving  them  from  external  juxtaposition  of 
germinal  cells,  and  others  from  migration  of  nuclei  from  within 
outwards,  as  in  some  J/isecta  ;  and  a  similar  uncertainty  prevails  as 
to  the  nature  and  origin  of  certain  cell-like  bodies  ("test-cells") 
which  appear  within  the  yolk. 

In  the  Craniata  the  ova  appear  in  the  germinal  epithelium  of 
the  ovarian  ridge,  which  is  always  in  contact  with  .the  stroma. 
They  differ  from  the  surrounding  cells  at  first  mainly  in  their 
greater  size,  being  possessed  of  abundant  protoplasm  and  a  large 
granular  nucleus.  Increasing  in  number  by  division  or  by  con- 
tinued differentiation  of  other  epithelial  cells,  the  primitive  ova 
usually  form  into  masses,  as  the  result  of  which  some  atrophy  and 
others  predominate.  The  permanent  ova  once  formed  and  defined 
are  surrounded  by  a  special  follicle,  probably  resulting  in  most  cases 
from  superjacent  epithelial  cells. 

None  of  the  disputes  above  referred  to  can  be  said  to  invalidate 
the  general  view  of  the  essentially  unicellular  nature  of  the  ovum 
(see  below) ;  and  a  discussion  of  the  numerous  speculations  on  the 
more  fundamental  problem  of  the  stages  of  sexual  differentiation  is 
deferred  to  the  article  SEX.  (11) 

Structure  of  the  Ovum. — While  the  structure  of  a  suffi- 
ciently young  ovum  is  simply  that  of  an  ordinary  embry- 
onic cell,  its  protoplasm  being  naked  and  often  amoeboid, 
and  provided  with  a  nucleus  and  nucleolus,  the  developed 
ovum  has  usually  a  quite  characteristic  appearance.  Not 
only  have  its  parts  usually  undergone  considerable  enlarge- 
ment in  size,  but  also  in  details  of  minute  structure ;  the 
nucleus  and  nucleolus  are,  however,  still  recognizable  as  the 
germinal  vesicle  and  germinal  spot,  while  the  protoplasm 
has  usually  become  modified  by  the  presence  of  a  more 
or  less  considerable  quantity  of  food-yolk,  and  by  the  de- 
velopment of  an  external  membrane. 

The  young  amoeboid  phase  of  so  many  (perhaps  all)  ova 
was  first  well  described  in  the  egg  of  Hydra  (fig.  8,  6),  in 
which  the  nucleus  and  nucleolus,  the  lobed  pseudopodial 
processes  of  the  protoplasm,  and  the  abundant  yolk 
spherules  can  be  well  made  out.  A  somewhat  later  phase 
of  development  is  well  shown  in  the  next  figure  of  the 
egg  of  a  Sea-Urchin,  in  which  the  process  of  encystment 
has  begun,  and  the  protoplasm  is  seen  with  its  amooboid 
processes  radiating  through  the  incipient  egg-membrane, 
while  in  fig.  8,  d  the  protoplasm  has  no  longer  an  amoeboid 


FIG.  8. — a,  diagram  of  ovum  showing  granular  protoplasm,  nucleus  (germinal 
vesicle),  and  nucleolus  (germinal  spot) ;  b,  amoeboid  ovum  of  llijdra  (from 
Balfour — after  Kleinenberg) ;  c,  early  ovum  of  Toxopneustes  variegatus,  with 
pseudopodia-llke  processes  (from  Hulfour  after  Selenka) ;  d,  ovum  of  Toxo- 
pneuites  lividus,  more  nearly  ripe  (from  Balfour — after  Hertwig.) 

character — the   investing   membrane   or   zona  radiata  is 
regularly  perforated   by  radiating  canals,   of  which  the 


ANIMAL.] 


KEPKODUCTION 


415 


pseudopodial  origin  and  the  nutritive  function  are  equally 
obvious.  The  resemblance  of  such  stages  to  definite 
Protozoan  types  is  not  a  little  remarkable;  thus,  while, 
in  fig.  8,  b  is  perfectly  amoeboid,  the  resemblance  of  c  to 
a  Heliozoon  or  of  d  to  a  Gregarine  is  almost  equally 
striking. 

The  ovum  is  rarely  destitute  of  egg-membranes,  but 
these  may  be  of  very  various  kinds  :  thus  we  may  have  a 
vitelline  membrane  proper,  formed  by  the  protoplasm  of 
the  ovum,  or  a  chorion  formed  by  the  cells  of  the  follicle ; 
or  secondary  membranes  may  be  present  (alone  or  in  addi- 
tion to  the  primary  membrane)  like  the  shell  of  a  Bird's 
egg,  which  is  formed  by  the  walls  of  the  oviduct,  or  the 
shell  of  many  Trematode  ova,  which  is  secreted  by  a 
special  gland. 

Any  or  all  of  these  membranes  may  be  provided  with  a 
special  aperture,  the  micropyle,  first  discovered  by  Keber, 
but  this  is  by  no  means  universally  present,  as  he  supposed. 
This  may  correspond  to  the  point  of  attachment  of  the 
immature  ovum,  or  may  arise  elsewhere  ;  in  the  first  case 
its  function  is  obviously  nutritive,  though  later  it  may  also 
serve  for  the  entrance  of  the  spermatozoon. 

The  identification  of  the  ovum  as  a  cell,  and  of  its 
germinal  vesicle  and  spot  as  nucleus  and  nucleolus, 
although  a  result  only  established  after  prolonged  contro- 
versy, and  of  capital  importance,  is  sufficiently  familiar. 
The  invaluable  labours  of  the  older  generation  of  embryo- 
logists  from  Von  Baer  to  Allen  Thomson,  and  even  the 
still  classical  monographs  of  such  recent  workers  as 
Waldeyer  or  Ludwig  (1874),  can  only  be  alluded  to; 
this  department  of  the  subject  is,  however,  of  peculiarly 
easy  access,  thanks  to  the  exceptionally  excellent  state  of 
its  bibliography,  and  to  the  recent  discussions  of  Balfour, 
Hensen,  and  others.  Much,  however,  remains  to  be  ascer- 
tained respecting  the  finer  histology  of  the  ovum,  and 
many  investigations  are  at  present  in  active  progress,  along 
the  lines  of  that  more  general  inquiry  into  the  minute 
structure  of  cells  in  general  which  has  of  recent  years 
been  again  becoming  of  paramount  interest  in  morpho- 
logical research. 

The  protoplasm  of  the  ovum  may,  as  has  been  said, 
acquire  a  very  varying  quantity  of  food  yolk, — may 
become,  that  is  to  say,  more  or  less  closely  packed  with 
highly  refracting  spherules  of  modified  protoplasm  (see 
egg  of  Hydra,  fig.  8,  &),  which  may  again  present  various 
morphological  differentiations,  as  in  Ascaris  (fig.  11). 
And,  as  explained  below  under  segmentation,  it  is  with 
regard  to  the  presence,  amount,  and  position  of  the  food- 
yolk  that  the  important  varieties  of  that  process  are  to  be 
understood. 

The  great  differentiation  both  of  protoplasm  and  of 
yolk  in  the  animal  series,  as  might  be  expected,  appears 
to  exhibit  all  gradations  from  the  most  simple  amoeboid 
state  of  a  more  or  less  granulated  or  semi-fluid  mass  to  the 
most  problematical  complexity.  Of  this  the  best  known 
instance  is  probably  that  of  the  egg  of  Ascaris,  described 
by  Van  Beneden  (vide  infra,  pp.  416  sq.).  Not  only 
has  a  protoplasmic  network  been  frequently  described"  in 
both  holoblastic  and  meroblastic  ova,  but  a  radiate  struc- 
ture as  well,' — the  former  evidently  corresponding  to  the 
stroma  first  described  by  Frommann  and  Heitzmann  and 
subsequently  by  so  many  authors  in  both  animal  and 
vegetable  cells,  while  the  latter  appearance  recalls  the 
striated  appearance  of  the  ectoplasm  of  certain  amoeboid 
organisms  described  by  Strasburger.  The  concentric 
differentiation  of  the  ovum  has  also  often  been  described, 
and  is  lately  well  discussed  by  Flemming,  Brass,  and 
others.  Thus  Pfliiger,  in  the  half-ripe  ovum  of  the  Cat, 
describes  the  central  mass  as  clear,  the  cortical  layer  as 
rich  in  granules;  Van  Beneden  in  the  egg  of  the  Bat 


enumerates  two  similar  layers  surrounded  by  an  almost 
granular  cortical  layer ;  while  Flemming  himself,  in  the 
ovum  of  the  Rabbit,  describes  a  coarsely  granular  region 
around  the  nucleus,  a  clearer  central  region  finely  granular 
and  with  a  reticulated  structure,  and  a  coarsely  granular 
cortical  region.  We  have  still,  however,  to  learn  how  far 
such  differentiations  in  structure — reticulate,  radial,  and 
concentric — are  constant  for  individual  or  general  cases, 
and  how  far  they  may  be  permanent  or  merely  incidental 
to  certain  phases  of  development. 

In  these  regards  the  recent  publications  of  Carnoy  and 
Brass  are  of  special  interest — the  former  on  account  of  its 
minuteness  of  micrographic  detail,  the  latter  in  its  attempt 
at  physiological  interpretation.  The  results  of  the  former 
will  be  best  understood  from  his  own  figures  (fig.  9). 


FIG.  9  (after  Carnoy). — A,  two  cells  from  the  leaf  parenchyma  of  Allium  Cepa, 
showing  on  the  right  the  nucleus  uninjured,  with  its  nuclear  network  and  two 
nucleoli,  and  on  the  left  a  nucleus  in  which  the  razor  has  unrolled  or  dragged 
away  the  coiled  filament  of  nuclein,  but  left  a  protoplasmic  reticulum  with 
nucleolus;  B,  intestinal  epithelium  cell  of  an  Insect,  showing  in  the  proto- 
plasm a  radiating  reticulum  with  granular  semifluid  contents,  and  in  the 
nucleus  a  similar  structure,  but  with  a  convoluted  nuclein  filament  which  has 
shrunk  together ;  C,  cell  of  the  larval  genital  gland  of  a  parasitic  Fly,  show- 
ing various  forms  of  protoplasmic  network  formed  in  different  cells,  and  in 
the  nucleus  the  same  distinctness  of  its  finely  granular  protoplasmic  reticulum 
and  its  contained  striated  nuclein  filament;  D,  young  ovum  of  beetle,  in 
which  nucltin  filament  has  broken  down  into  spherules. 

Brass,  starting  from  the  familiar  structure  of  an  amoeba, 
with  its  clear  and  granular  ectoplasm,  from  which  the 
pseudopodia  are  emitted,  its  semi-fluid  and  highly  granular 
endoplasm  around  the  nucleus,  and  the  less  granular 
intermediate  zone,  assigns  to  these  definite  physiological 
functions, — to  the  first  that  of  contractility  (Bewegungs- 
plasma),  to  the  second  that  of  nutrition  (Emdhrungs- 
plasma),  and  to  the  third  that  mainly  of  respiration 
(Athmungsplasma,  Nahrungsschichf).  He  holds  that  some 
such  concentric  disposition  of  the  protoplasm  is  a  normal 
and  constant  fact  of  cell-structure,  and  insists  upon  it  with 
special  reference  to  the  ovum.  From  his  somewhat  vague 
and  diffuse  development  of  these  views,  it  must  suffice  here 
to  note  his  opinion  that  the  chromatin  of  the  nucleus,  as 
well  as  the  protoplasmic  reticulum,  and  in  fact  all  the 
former  constituents  of  the  cell,  are  of  quite  secondary 
importance  to  the  colourless  protoplasm.  The  former  is 
to  him  in  fact  no  more  than  reserve  material,  while  to  the 
latter  he  assigns  all  active  functions, — thus'  substantially 
reviving  the  view  so  long  and  energetically  maintained  by 
Beale.  The  recent  observations  of  Wielowiejski  may  also 
be  noted  in  this  connexion,  as  he  not  only  brings  his  con- 
tribution to  the  ontogeny  of  the  ovum,  but  to  some  extent 
also  distinguishes  a  regional  adaptation  of  its  protoplasmic 
structure -to  its  functions. 

From  the  rapid  succession  of  new  contributions  to  the 
solution  of  the  problem  of  egg  and  cell  structure  might  be 
gathered  many  other  points  of  interest,  morphological  and 
physiological,  empirical  and  speculative.  Thus,  for  in- 
stance, Sabatier  describes  senile  degeneration  in  Ascidian 
ova,  an  observation  of  wide  suggestiveness ;  while,  again, 
on  the  important  problem  of  the  relation  of  nucleus  to 
protoplasm  there  are  many  recent  discussions,  e.g.,  from 


416 


REPRODUCTION 


[ANIMAL. 


Flemming  and  Strasburger,  Pfluger  and  Hertwig;  the 
solution,  however,  is  not  complete.  Again,  can  we 
recognize  in  the  ovum  any  indication  of  the  position  of 
the  future  embryo — any  fixed  points,  anterior  and  pos- 
terior, lateral  or  even  polar — further,  of  course,  than  the 
obvious  distinction  due  to  the  presence  of  yolk?  After 
the  old  theory  of  "  evolution  "  of  the  embryo,  according 
to  which  the  egg  contained  the  complete  organism  in 
miniature,  had  been  finally  replaced  by  that  of  epigenesis, 
the  wholly  undifferentiated  form  of  the  ovum  seems  to 
have  become  tacitly  assumed.  Recent  observers,  e.g., 
Van  Beneden  (see  below),  have,  however,  been  so  far 
reviving  the  old  view  in  that  they  endeavour  to  distin- 
guish, even  in  the  unfertilized  ovum,  the  position  of  the 
ends  and  sides  of  the  embryo;  others  dispute  this,  and 
an  interesting  controversy  is  in  progress.  The  specula- 
tion that  a  more  or  less  considerable  share  in  the  differen- 
tiation of  the  ovum  might  be  due  to  the  separation  of  its 
various  constituents  according  to  their  different  specific 
gravities — at  first  apparently  emitted  by  Jager, — has  also 
reappeared  in  this  regard.  Pfluger  has  observed  the 
segmentation  of  Frogs'  ova  fixed  in  various  positions,  and 
describes  the  plane  of  first  segmentation  as  constantly 
vertical,  whatever  might  be  its  angle  to  the  morphological 
axis  of  the  ovum,  uniting  black  and  white  poles.  Devel- 
opment too  was  usually  normal,  save  that  when  the  upper 
hemisphere  was  entirely  white  abnormality  and  death 
followed,  and  even  if  inversion  was  less  complete  segmenta- 
tion often  stopped.  Further  experiments  led  him  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  nervous  system,  and  correspondingly 
other  organs,  may  develop  from  any  portion  of  the  egg- 
substance — that  the  egg  in  short  is  "isotropic."  Certain 
limitations,  however,  appeared  :  the  blastopore  never  arose 
on  the  upper  hemisphere,  nor  (like  the  nervous  system) 
ever  on  the  black  region,  but  both  always  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  white  area  with  the  third  equatorial  plane  of 
segmentation.  This  he  terms  the  point  of  crystallization 
of  the  specialized  organism,  and  goes  on  to  speculate  as  to 
the  molecular  structure  of  the  ovum. 

These  results  have,  however,  been  the  subject  of  keen 
criticism.  Thus  Roux  showed  that  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  black  pole  is  distinctly  less  than  that  of  the  white, 
and  found  that  on  eliminating  the  action  of  gravity  by 
the  use  of  a  centrifugal  machine  the  development  remained 
normal,  and  on  repeating  Pfliiger's  own  fundamental 
observations  described  the  axis  of  segmentation  as  coincid- 
ing with  that  of  the  ovum.  After  similarly  eliminating 
light,  heat,  and  earth-magnetism,  he  sums  .up  in  precisely 
opposite  terms  to  Pfluger,  who  had  laid  all  stress  on  the 
influence  of  the  forces  of  the  environment,  and  regards 
development  as  purely  a  process  of  self-differentiation. 
O.  Hertwig  also  maintains  that  the  influence  of  gravity  is 
only  a  secondary  one,  the  plane  of  division  being  for  him 
determined  by  the  position  of  the  axis  of  the  dividing 
nucleus,  and  this  again  having  a  definite  relation  to  the 
form  and  state  of  differentiation  of  the  surrounding  proto- 
plasm. He  admits,  however,  the  indirect  importance  of 
gravity  on  eggs  having  a  yolk,  and  so  leaves  the  question 
still  to  a  considerable  extent  open.  In  another  paper  he 
adopts  Pfliiger's  conception  of  the  isotropy  of  the  ovum, 
holding  that  the  yolk  is  not  so  organized  that  from  any 
definite  region  of  it  a  definite  organ  arises,  but  that  the 
nucleus  is  the  sole  centre  of  activity  and  control.  It  is 
thus  evident  that  a  reinvestigation  is  needed  which  would 
embrace  the  whole  question  of  geotropism.  See  PHYSIO- 
LOGY (VEGETABLE).  (12) 

Maturation  of  the  Ovum. — Polar  Bodies. — The  period  of 
development  and  nutrition  of  the  ovum  may  be  regarded 
as  complete  when  the  full  size  and  complex  structure 
above  described  have  been  reached,  and  in  this  state  it 


most  frequently  leaves  the  body  of  the  parent.  In  the 
majority  of  cases  at  least,  new  changes  have  still  to  be 
gone  through  before  fertilization  takes  place,  still  more 
development ;  and  a  series  of  important  structural  modi- 
fications, doubtless  the  expression  of  extensive  functional 
rearrangements,  takes  place.  To  this  new  and  obscure 
phase  of  the  life-history  of  the  ovum  the  term  maturation 
has  conveniently  been  applied. 

Although  some  of  these  phenomena  have  long  been 
familiar  to  embryologists,  the  classical  investigations  are 
the  comparatively  recent  ones  of  Blitschli,  Oscar  Hertwig, 
and  especially  Fol  (1877) ;  more  lately  those  of  Sabatier,  of 
Flemming,  and  above  all  of  Van  Beneden.  If  we  postpone 
details,  the  main  facts  of  the  process  as  until  recently 
understood  can  be  most  readily  grasped  from  Fol's  figures 
of  the  ovum  of  the  Starfish,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  copied  in  fig.  10.  In  the  new-laid  egg  the  germinal 


FIG.  10. — A,  ripe  ovum  of  Asterias  glacialis,  with  excentric  geiminal  vesicle 
and  spot;  B-E,  gradual  metamorphosis  of  germinal  vesicle  and  spot;  F,  de- 
tachment of  first  polar  body  and  withdrawn!  of  remaining  part  of  nuclear 
spindle  within  the  ovum;  G,  portion  of  living  ovum  with  first  polar  body; 
H,  formation  of  second  polar  body;  I,  after  formation  of  do.,  showing  the 
remaining  internal  half  of  the  spindle  in  the  form  of  two  clear  vesicles; 
K,  ovum  with  two  polar  bodies  and  radial  striae  round  female  pronucleus; 
L,  expulsion  of  polar  body.  (A-K  after  Fol ;  L  after  Hertwig.) 

vesicle  is  at  first  a  clearly  defined  sphere,  with  well- 
marked  membrane,  reticulum,  and  germinal  spot.  It 
begins,  however,  to  become  irregular  and  changeful  in 
form,  its  membrane  and  reticulum  meanwhile  disappear- 
ing, with  the  apparent  dissolution  of  a  portion  of  its  con- 
tents in  the  yolk.  The  germinal  spot  also  vanishes,  and 
two  ill-defined  clear  spots  are  alone  distinguishable  in  the 
yolk.  Treatment  with  reagents  shows  these  clear  spots 
to  correspond  to  two  star-like  figures  like  those  of  a 
certain  stage  of  the  division  of  nucleus  of  an  ordinary  cell, 
while  in  a  somewhat  later  stage  a  nuclear  spindle  is  shown 
near  the  surface  of  the  egg.  The  upper  portion  of  this  is 
segmented  off  (surrounded  by  very  little  of  the  protoplasm 
of  the  ovum)  as  a  polar  body,  while  the  lower  portion  of 
the  body  remains  as  the  "  female  pronucleus,"  and  may  be 
seen  surrounded  by  radial  striaB.  Two  or  even  more  polar 
bodies  may  be  formed,  but  they  never  take  any  part  in 
the  subsequent  life-history  of  the  ovum,  and  sooner  or 
later  disappear. 

In  view  of  the  profound  theoretic  importance  of  this  subject,  it 
is  necessary  to  summarize  some  of  the  most  important  recent 
observations.  Thus  Balbiani  and  Weismann  (1882)  describe  the 
occurrence  of  polar  vesicles  in  the  ova  of  Insects,  in  which  they 
had  long  been  supposed  not  to  occur,  and  Flemming  (1885)  repre- 
sents a  nuclear  figure  which  he  regards  as  corresponding  to  at  any 
rate  the  first  stage  of  the  formation  of  a  polar  vesicle,  in  the  ova 
of  Mammals,  at  the  period  of  bursting  of  the  Graafian  follicle. 
Such  researches  practically  complete  the  chain  of  evidence  for 
the  generalization  that  the  process  of  maturation  of  the  ovum  is 
essentially  similar  in  all  classes  of  Metazoa,  and  this  not  only  in  its 
initial  stages  of  internal  rearrangement  or  modification,  but  even 
in  its  later  stage  of  polar  vesicle  formation.  The  absence  of  polar 
vesicles  in  parthenogenetic  ova  (predicted  on  theoretic  grounds) 
seems,  however,  possible  in  some  cases,  but  is  by  no  means  certain 
in  all. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  process  of  maturation  has  been  much 
extended  and  modified  by  the  recent  elaborate  monograph  of 
E.  Van  Beneden  (1883).  He  finds  the  egg  of  Ascaris  to  show  not 
only  two  definite  poles — a  "  pole  of  impregnation  "  and  an  opposite 
"neutral  pole"— but  some  indication  of  the  anterior  and  posterior 
regions  and  consequently  of  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the  embryo. 
The  substance  of  the  ovum  is  also  remarkably  differentiated, — that 


ANIMAL.] 


REPRODUCTION 


417 


of  the  "  polar  disk "  alone  exhibiting  a  vertical  striation,  and 
differentiating  into  two  layers,  superficial  and  subjacent  (termed 
achromophilous  and  chromophilous  respectively).  The  subjacent 
vitellus  is  distinguished  into  several  layers,  (central,  intermediate, 
and  cortical),  and  contains  yolk  elements  of  three  distinct  kinds, 
while  the  enveloping  protoplasm  has  a  distinctly  reticulated  and 
'fibrillar  structure,  like  the  stroma  of  so  many  animal  and  vegetable 
cells.  The  germinal  vesicle  is  practically  homogeneous  save  that 
the  portion  surrounding  its  eccentric  germinal  spot  is  distinguished 
into  an  investing  portion  or  spherical  envelope,  the  "  prothyalo- 
soma,"  and  an  "  accessory  portion,"  which  usually  contains  one  or 
two  "  pseudo-nucleoli. "  In  the  ripe  egg  Van  Beneden  describes 
new  complexities  within  the  germinal  spot ;  this  consists  of 
two  juxtaposed  quadrilateral  disks,  each  containing  four  chromatin 
globules,  united  by  a  substance  having  less  affinity  for  colouring 
matter.  Kadiating  from  these  two  disks,  achromatin  threads 
arise  in  the  prothyalosoma,  but  stress  is  laid  on  the  fact  that  no 
grouping  of  the  chromatin  elements  into  a  star-like  figure  takes 
place.  The  spherical  shape  of  the  germinal  spot  is  now  modified 
by  the  intrusion  on  each  side  of  a  large  homogeneous  droplet  from 
the  vitellus  into  the  prothyalosoma,  so  that  in  optical  section  it 
comes  to  have  a  T-shape,  the  accessory  portion  being  mainly 
compressed  to  form  the  stalk  of  the  T.  At  this  stage  the 
spermatozoon  usually  commences  to  work  its  way  into  the  ovum, 
but  does  not  yet  affect  the  germinal  vesicle  or  germinal  spot,  which 
proceed  to  the  formation  of  polar  globules.  The  T-shaped  gradually 
passes  into  the  "ypsiliform  "  figure,  so  called  from  its  resemblance 
to  the  Greek  T.  Its  steadily  diverging  branches,  which  are  formed 
from  the  prothyalosoma,  move  upwards  till  they  reach  the  surface 
of  the  vitellus,  their  librillar  structure  already  noted  meanwhile 
becoming  well  marked.  Each  bundle  bears  one  of  the  two  groups 
of  four  chromatiu  globules  which  compose  the  germinal  spot. 


FIG.  11.— Fecundation  of  ovum  (after  Van  Beneden).  A,  ovum  before  entrance 
of  spermatozoon  (showing  complexity  of  structure)  ;  B,  deformation  of  ger- 
minal vesicle  on  penetration  of  spermatozoon  s;  C,  prothyalosoma  with  two 
chromatin  disks  and  axial  fibres;  D,  E,F,  later  stages  of  the  ypsiliform  figure; 
G,  second  pseudo-karyokinetic  figure  ;  H.  I,  J,  K,  expulsion  of  first  polar 
globule. 

Next  the  vertical  branch  of  the  ypsiliform  figure  swings  upwards 
to  the  surface,  and  a  new  branch  is  formed  as  a  continuation  of 
the  same  line  ;  the  whole  figure  is  thus  cross-shaped,  with  the 
prothyalosoma  in  the  centre,  but  this  cross  soon  disappears,  leaving 
the  prothyalosoma  with  its  two  chromatin  groups.  These  are 
now  divided,  by  a  plane  tangential  to  the  surface  of  the  vitellus, 
into  two  equal  parts,  and  the  upper  of  these,  containing  of  course 
half  the  prothyalosoma  with  half  of  each  of  the  two  chromatin 

lisks,  becomes  the  first  polar  globule.  Van  Beneden  lays  great 
stress  on  the  fact  that  this  plane  of  division  is  not  transverse  to 
the  oblique  spindle  formed  by  the  diverging  branches  of  the  T,  as 
was  to  be  expected  from  the  views  of  all  previous  observers,  but  on 
the  contrary  is  parallel  to  it. 

The  remaining  portion  of  the  prothyalosoma  with  its  two 
Chromatin  disks,  together  with  the  surrounding  protoplasm,  now 
proceeds  to  the  separation  of  the  second  polar  vesicle.  Despite 
differences  in  detail,  the  essential  facts  are  the  same  :  a  spindle 

nth  a  star-like  figure  at  each  end  is  formed;  this  at  first  lies  radially 
m  the  vitellus,  but  afterwards  becomes  superficial,  and  its  division 
takes  place  as  before  by  an  axial  not  an  equatorial  plane. 

1  late-r  ancl  also  elaborate  discussion   is  due  to  Sabatier 
While     combating    the    peculiar    views    suggested    by 


Weismann  and  others  as  to  the  polar  globules  of  Insects  (as  that 
they  re-enter  the  ovum  to  form  the  rudiments  of  the  future  repro- 
ductive organs),  he  admits  that  they  may  be  emitted  at  both  poles 
of  the  ovum,  and  may  either  break  up,  be  reabsorbed,  or  even  in 
some  cases  form  peculiar  structures  surrounding  the  ovum(e.<7.,  the 
follicular  cells  ol  Ascidians).  He  describes  in  Buccinum,  &c.,  the 
extrusion  of  somewhat  amcsboid  masses  of 
clear  protoplasm  at  several  distinct  points 
and  frequently  without  the  appearance  of 
any  nuclear  spindle  ;  and  these  may  even  re- 
peatedly divide.  He  holds  that  the  centri- 
fugal extrusion  of  elements  from  ova  is  much 
more  general  than  is  usually  recognized,  and  Fl°-  12  (after  Sabatier).— 
distinguishes  these  into  three  kinds  :-(!)  £?£*£*%£££ 
"globules  precoces,'  which  usually  go  to  Of  polar  globules  and  the 
form  the  elements  of  the  follicle  ;  (2)  "glob-  associated  elevation  of 
ules  tardifs,"  which  appear  later;  and  (3)  clear  protoplasm, 
true  polar  vesicles,  which  alone  are  associated  with  karyokinetic 
changes  of  the  nucleus. 

Like  Van  Beneden,  he  notes  that  polar  vesicle  formation  is  not 
strictly  comparable  to  ordinary  cell-division  in  being  not  trans- 
verse but  longitudinal  to  the  nuclear  spindle. 

From  this  point  little  advance  has  been  made,  though  careful 
reviews  of  the  subject  are  due  to  Flemming,  J.  T.  Cunningham,  and 
others.  (13) 

Fertilization  or  Impregnation  of  the  Ovum. — The  funda- 
mental generalization  now  so  familiar — that  the  process  of 
fertilization  for  plant  and  animal  alike  lies  in  the  material 
union  of  both  sexual  products — although  said  to  have 
been  propounded  by  Alcmaeon  (580  B.C.),  and  even  described 
by  Hartsoeker  (1750),  is  pointed  out  by  Hensen  to  be 
essentially  due  in  the  first  place  to  the  experimental  re- 
searches on  plant  hybridization  of  Kolreuter  (1761).  Jacobi 
soon  afterwards  artificially  fertilized  the  eggs  of  Trout  and 
Salmon,  but  the  most  important  and  really  convincing 
work  was  that  of  Spallanzani  (1780),  who  experimented  on 
the  Frog,  Tortoise,  and  Bitch.  He  unfortunately,  however, 
concluded  that  spermatozoa  might  be  absent  without  pre- 
venting fertilization,  and  ascribed  all  fertilizing  powers  to 
their  fluid  medium,  so  establishing  an  error  which  required 
for  its  elimination  many  successive  researches.  Provost 
and  Dumas  (1824)  showed  that  filtration  really  deprived 
the  seminal  fluid  of  its  powers.  Martin  Barry  (1843) 
actually  observed  spermatozoa  within  the  zona  pellucida 
of  the  Rabbit's  ovum ;  Leuckart  (1849)  repeated  both  pre- 
ceding observations  in  the  Frog;  Nelson  (1852)  observed 
the  entrance  of  the  spermatozoa  into  the  ovum  of 
Ascaris ;  while  Keber  (1853)  discovered  the  micropyle  in 
the  ovum  of  the  Mussel,  and  watched  the  passage  of  the 
spermatozoon  through  it  into  the  yolk.  It  only  remained 
for  these  results  to  be  confirmed  by  the  high  authority  of 
Bischoff  and  Allen  Thomson  (1854);  and  the  knowledge 
of  the  subject  thus  reached  its  second  stage,  where  it 
practically  remained  for  nearly  twenty  years. 

Aided  by  the  advance  of  histological  technique,  a  new 
plane  was  reached  (1875-76)  by  the  brilliant  researches 
of  Van  Beneden  on  the  ovum  of  the  Rabbit,  and  of  O. 
Hertwig  and  Fol  on  Echinoderm  ova.  The  spermato- 
zoon1 was  thus  shown  not  to  disappear  into  the  yolk,  but 
to  form  from  its  head  or  nucleus  the  "  male  pronucleus," 
which  meets  and  fuses  with  the  "female  pronucleus,"  as 
the  germinal  vesicle  is  termed,  after  the  extrusion  of  the 
polar  body,  This  new  "  conjugation-nucleus  "  soon  ex- 
hibits karyokinetic  changes  and  divides,  and  the  segmenta- 
tion of  the  ovum  rapidly  progresses. 

As  a  full  account  of  these  and  other  papers  up  to  1880  is  given 
by  Balfour  (Embryology,  vol.  i.),  it  will  suffice  to  note  the  more 
important  subsequent  researches,  especially  as  those,  though  with 


1  That,  though  more  than  one  spermatozoon  may  pass  through  the 
vitelline  membrane,  only  one  normally  enters  the  vitellus  and  becomes 
a  male  pronucleus  has  been  well  made  out  by  Hertwig,  Fol,  and 
others.  In  the  rare  cases  where  more  spermatozoa  than  one  force 
an  entrance,  Fol  has  observed  the  monstrous  double  segmentation  of 
the  ovum,  and  argues  forcibly  for  the  hypothesis  that  we  have  to 
look  in  this  process  of  "  polyspermy  "  for  the  explanation  of  numer- 
ous teratological  and  pathological  changes. 

XX.  -  53 


418 


REPRODUCTION 


[AMI  MAX. 


one  exception  confirmatory,  penetrate  somewhat  further  into  details. 
The  general  process  can  be  made  out  with  especial  clearness  in  fig.  13. 
B  c  D 


Fio.  13  (after  Fol). — A,  spermatozoa  in  mucilaginous  coat  of  ovum  of  Astcrias 
ylacialif,  a  prominence  rising  from  surface  of  ovum  towards  a  spermatozoon;  in 
B  they  have  all  but  met,  and  in  C  they  have  met ;  D,  spermatozoon  enters  ovum 
through  distinct  opening ;  H,  ovum  showing  polar  vesicles,  and  approach  of 
male  and  female  pronuclel;  E,  K,  G,  later  stages  in  coalescence  of  the  two 
nuclei. 

Oscar  Hertwig  had  clearly  enunciated  in  1875  that  "  fertilization 
depends  upon  the  conjugation  of  two  sexually  differentiated  nuclei." 
This  view  has,  however,  lately  (1883)  been  controverted  by  A. 
Schneider,  who  regards  the  radii  which  are  seen  in  the  ovum  about 
the  pronuclei  as  arising  from  the  substance  of  the  germinal  vesicle 
alone,  and  who  maintains  the  origin  of  the  male  pronucleus 
independently  of  the  spermatozoon,  which  he  believes  to  disappear. 
As  Van  Beneden,  Nussbaum,  and  Flemming  have  since,  however, 
successively  controverted  these  views,  Hertwig's  account  of  the 
process  may  safely  be  retained,  at  any  rate  with  the  slight  modi- 
fication insisted  on  by  Flemming,  who  prefers  to  describe  the  con- 
jugation-nucleus as  arising  from  the  union  of  "the  chromatin  of 
a  male  with  that  of  a  female  nuclear  body. " 

In  Van  Beneden's  work  on  the  fecundation  of  Ascaris  the 
penetration  of  a  single  spermatozoon  into  the  vitellus  and  its 
transmutation  into  the  male  pronucleus  are  copiously  figured  and 
described.  Most  important,  however,  is  perhaps  his  account  of  the 
formation  and  segmentation  of  the  conjugation-nucleus.  The. 
female  pronucleus  undergoes  changes  resembling  those  preceding 
ordinary  nuclear  division ;  so  also  does  the  male ;  and  the 
chromatin  of  each  breaks  up  from  the  state  of  a  single  continuous 
and  convoluted  fibril  into  two  V-shaped  loops.  The  two  pro- 
nuclear  membranes  now  fuse  ;  and  the  resultant  conjugation-nucleus 
thus  contains  four  loops  of  chromatin,  of  which  two  are  male  and 
two  female.  Each  loop  now  undergoes  longitudinal  division  ;  a 
nuclear  spindle  is  meanwhile  forming  from  the  achromatin  substance 
of  the  segmentation-nucleus,  and  this  now  proceeds  to  divide,  but 
in  such  wise  that  each  of  the  two  daughter  nuclei  receives  two  of 
its  four  half  loops  of  chromatin  from  the  female  and  two  from  the 
male  pronucleus.  A  circular  furrow  appears,  dividing  the  ovum 
equatorially  ;  a  cell  plate  like  that  of  a  vegetable  cell  arises  in  the 
same  plane  ;  and  the  two  first  blastomeres  are  soon  completely 
formed,  and  proceed  to  redivide  in  the  same  way. 

The  results  of  Nussbaum  are  essentially  similar  so  far  as  they 
go ;  Strasburger's  recent  work  summarized  below  contains  a 
thorough  confirmation  of  these  accounts  of  the  process  of  fecunda- 
tion so  far  as  plants  are  concerned ;  while  most  recently  (1885) 
0.  Hertwig  has  re-stated  his  original  theorem  with  a  discussion  of 
its  physiological  aspects  and  consequences.  (14) 

Segmentation  of  tlie  Ovum. — The  process  of  segmenta- 
tion has  already  been  repeatedly  mentioned.  As  with 
the  other  histological  problems  presented  by  the  ovum, 
our  knowledge  of  its  minute  details  is  in  a  somewhat 
unsettled  yet  rapidly  advancing  state,  due  to  the  pro- 
gress of  the  wider  inquiry  into  cell  structure  and  cell 
division  in  general.  The  essential  correspondence  of  the 
changes  to  be  observed  in  the  conjugation-nucleus  and 
yolk  with  those  of  ordinary  cell-division  (see  PROTOZOA, 
vol.  xix.  p.  833,  fig.  1)  has  been  worked  out  by  many 


FIG.  14.— Regular  segmentation  of  ovum  (after  Gegenbaur). 

observers,  and  Van  Beneden's  more  minute  account  of 
the  process  is  summarized  above.  Our  knowledge  of  its 
external  features  is  of  much  older  date,  and  has  been  com- 
paratively recently  brought  together  by  Balfour  (Embryo- 
logy, i.,  chap,  iii.);  the  present  limits  permit  only  the 
briefest  summary. 

In  the  simplest  case — that  of  small  ova  destitute  of 
food-yolk, — the  ovum  divides  by  a  vertical  plane  into  two 
segments  or  blastomeres,  each  of  these  again  into  two,  and 


so  on,  and  a  mass  of  4,  8,  16,  32,  G4,  &c.,  cells  is  thus 
formed,  but  in  the  resultant  mulberry-mass  or  morula  the 
cells  are  all  equal  and  similar.  Such  segmentation  is 
termed  regular ;  commonly,  however,  the  regularity  and 
equality  of  ordinary  cell-division  is  more  or  less  interfered 
with  by  the  presence  of  food-yolk.  In  this  regard  Balfour 
enunciates  the  valuable  general  law  "  that  the  velocity  of 
segmentation  in  any  part  of  the  ovum  is,  roughly  speak- 
ing, proportional  to  the  concentration  of  the  protoplasm 
there,  and  that  the  size  of  the  segments  is  inversely  pro- 
portional to  the  concentration  of  the  protoplasm."  Bear- 
ing this  in  mind,  the  varieties  of  segmentation  are  intelli- 
gible enough  ;  thus  the  unequal  segmentation  of  the  Frog's 
ovum  (fig.  15)  needs  no  further  explanation.  These  two 


FIG.  15. — Unequal  segmentation  of  Frog's  egg.    (From  Balfour — after  Ecker.) 

preceding  types,  in  which  segmentation  is  complete,  were 
distinguished  by  Remak  as  "  holoblastic,"  and  were  long 
looked  upon  as  wholly  distinct  from  "  meroblastic "  ova 
like  that  of  Fowls  or  most  Fishes,  in  which  segmentation 
is  partial,  i.e.,  confined 
to  a  small  area  of  the 
surface  of  the  yolk. 
Balfour's  law,  how- 
ever, explains  these 
cases  as  only  an  ex- 

flo-trpratinn  nf  tliP   nrP   Fl«- 1<5  (after  Balfour).— A,  section  of  developing 
'      ovum  of  an  Elasmobrancli,  showing  meroblastic 

Ceding     Case,     due     to     segmentation;  B,  optical  section  of  centroleci- 
,         thai  Crustacean  ovum. 

the  greater  accumula- 
tion of  food-yolk,  and  the  consequent  check  to  segmenta- 
tion at  the  lower  or  vegetative  pole.  Another  form  of 
partial  segmentation  is  presented  by  many  Arthropods,  in 
which  the  yolk  occupies  a  central  position  within  the  ovum, 
and  three  varieties  of  this  "  centrolecithal "  process  are  dis- 
tinguished— equal,  unequal,  and  superficial. 

While  the  ontogenetic  process  of  segmentation  in 
general  and  of  regular  segmentation  in  particular  is  usu- 
ally regarded  as  being  a  recapitulation  of  the  phylogenetic 
development  of  the  primitive  Metazoon  from  its  Protozoan 
ancestor,  the  vast  nutritive  importance  of  the  food-yolk, 
and  the  consequent  high  variability  of  its  quantity  in 
relation  to  the  habits  and  circumstances  both  of  parent 
and  offspring,  render  its  wide  variations  in  detail  a  totally 
unsafe  guide  to  affinities.  A  single  genus  may,  in  fact, 
exhibit  extreme  forms.  (11) 

§  3.    SYSTEMATIC  AND  GENERAL  EMBRYOLOGY. 

While  it  is  impossible  to  compress  within  the  limits  of 
the  present  article  the  subject-matter  of  a  full  treatise  on 
embryology,  an  attempt  must  be  made  to  touch  in  turn 
upon  (1)  the  empirical  facts,  (2)  the  concrete  inductions, 
and  (3)  the  abstract  generalizations  of  development. 

1.  A  sketch  of  the  history  of  this  branch  of  the  science 
is  given  under  EMBRYOLOGY  (q.v.),  while  for  detailed  infor- 
mation as  to  the  division  and  differentiation  of  the  ovum 
in  each  group,  and  as  to  the  more  or  less  marked  changes 
by  which  the  resulting  embryonic  forms  assume  the  adult 
organization,  the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  separate 
articles  (SPONGES,  HYDROZOA,  MOLLUSCA,  &c.),  as  well  as 
to  the  classical  work  of  Balfour.  The  more  important 
empirical  facts  need  thus  only  the  briefest  outline. 

Protozoa.  —Since  the  young  Protozoan,  whatever  its  mode  of 
origin  from  the  parent  form  may  be,  rarely  differs  from  the  latter 


ANIMAL,] 


REPRODUCTION 


419 


except  in  size  and  phase  of  cell-life,  there  is  little  to  be  noted  here 
in  regard  to  the  development  of  the  group,  except  in  such  cases  as 
Katallacta,  and  Volvocinese,  where  a  primitive  attempt  towards  a 
more  or  less  temporary  multicellular  form  affords  us  a  first  hint  of 
the  Metazoan  segmentation  of  the  ovum. 

IHcyemida. — In  this  degenerate  and  still  somewhat  problematical 
intermediate  group  the  asexually  produced  ovum  segments  to 
form  an  embryo  of  great  simplicity,  where  a  few  outer  (ectodermal) 
cells  cluster  round  a  single  inner  (endodermal)  one,  and  where  \ve 
thus  find  the  first  differentiation  of  the  embryo  into  the  cell-layers 
constantly  exhibited  in  the  succeeding  groups,  though  it  is  unsettled 
whether  this  represent  the  incipient  or  the  degenerate  Metazoan 
type. 

Porifcra.  — In  a  calcareous  Sponge,  such  as  Sycandra,  the  fertilized 
amoeboid  ovum  segments  within  the  parent  to  form  a  hollow 
blastosphere,  most  of  the  cells  of  which  are  clear  and  ciliated,  and 
partially  cover  a  number  of  larger  granular  cells, — the  future 
endoderm  and  ectoderm  respectively.  In  the  free-swimming 
embryo  the  latter  nutritive  cells  increase  rapidly  in  size,  and, 
growing  ultimately  over  the  locomotor  and  respiratory  ciliated 
cells,  cause  them  to  become  invagiuated  to  form  the  endoderm. 
This  invaginatiou  resulting  in  the  obliteration  of  the  "segmen- 
tation cavity"  and  the  formation  of  the  "gastrula"  stage  is 
perfected  as  the  young  Sponge  settles  down  and  becomes  fixed 
by  processes  from  the  amoeboid  ectoderm  cells.  The  cilia  of 
the  endoderm  disappear  ;  the  blastopore  is  obliterated  ;  between 
ectoderm  and  endoderm  there  appears. a  third  germinal  layer  or 
mesoderm,  and  in  it  the  calcareous  spicules  of  the  Sponge  are 
developed.  A  perforation  at  the  top  of  the  inverted  gastrula 
forms  the  exhalent  aperture  ;  peripheral  inhalent  pores  also  arise  ; 
and  this  renewed  exposure  of  the  endoderm  cells  to  direct  contact 
with  the  water  is  followed  by  their  return  to  the  ciliated  form.  See 
SPONGES. 

Ccelentera. — The  generally  equal  segmentation  of  the  ovum  re- 
sults as  usual  in  a  solid  or  hollow  morula.  The  formation  of  the 
two  layers,  as  in  some  other  groups,  may  occur  either  by  invagina- 
tion,  as  above  described,  or  by  a  process  of  separation  of  inner  from 
outer,  termed  delamination.  In  most  Ccelentera  the  tissues  which 
in  higher  groups  are  strictly  mesodermal  originate  from  the  direct 
differentiation  of  the  two  primary  layers.  The  larval  form  most 
constant  in  the  Ccelentera  is  the  planula  (see  HTDROZOA,  vol.  xii. 
p.  557).  It  is  ciliated,  two-layered,  almost  cylindrical,  with  a  rudi- 
mentary digestive  cavity,  generally  closed.  For  discussion  of  the 
alternation  of  generations  so  characteristic  of  many  Ccelenterates 
see  HYDROZOA  and  SEX. 

Vcrmes. — The  development  of  the  unjointed  Worms  is  too  varied 
to  admit  of  general  summary.  In  some  we  find  illustration  of 
that  mode  of  gastrula  formation  (epibolic),  so  common  in  higher 
groups,  where,  owing  to  the  large  size  of  the  food-packed  endoderm 
cells,  an  actual  invagination  is  impossible,  but  the  ectoderm  cells 
grow  round  the  others  and  thus  come  to  enclose  them  as  in  the 
more  primitive  process.  In  such  a  typical  higher  Worm  as 
Lumbricus,  the  segmentation,  which  varies  in  regularity  according 
to  the  species,  results  in  the  formation  of  a  blastosphere  with 
readily  distinguishable  ectoderm  and  endoderm  ;  the  invagination  of 
the  latter  results  in  a  somewhat  cylindrical  gastrula.  The  blasto- 
pore narrows  anteriorly  to  form  the  permanent  mouth,  while  in 
some  other  Chaetopods  a  similar  narrowing  in  the  opposite  direction 
forms  not  the  mouth  but  the  anus.  The  mesoderm  appears  very 
early  in  the  form  of  posteriorly  situated  cells  on  each  side  of  the 
middle  line,  and  soon  two  inesoblastic  bands  are  formed  extend- 
ing to  the  rnouth.  These  are  subsequently  divided  into  blocks  or 
somites,  the  anterior  and  posterior  walls  of  two  adjacent  blocks 
uniting  to  form  the  cross  partitions  of  the  adult  Worm,  while  the 
outer  and  inner  walls  form  respectively  the  somatic  and  splanchnic 
layers.  The  ventral  nerve  cord  results  from  the  sinking  in  and 
union  of  two  epiblastic  thickenings,  developed  one  on  each  side  of 
a  ventral  furrow,  while  the  supra-oesophageal  ganglion  has  a 
distinct  origin  from  a  dorsal  thickening.  The  somewhat  isolated 
Sagittct  affords  good  illustration  of  the  formation  of  the  body- 
cavity  from  two  lateral  lobes  of  the  archenteron.  The  simple 
enteric  cavity  normally  formed  exhibits  anteriorly  a  division  into 
a  middle  lobe  and  two  side  pouches  uniting  behind  in  the  single 
cavity.  The  middle  lobe  is  separated  off  from  lateral  and 
posterior  cavities  as  a  blind  tube  which  afterwards  forms  the 
alimentary  canal ;  the  side  pouches  form  the  body-cavity  (see 
TAPEWORMS,  PLANAIUANS,  NEMERTINES,  ANNELIDA,  &c.). 

Echinodcrmata. — The  generally  uniform  segmentation  results  in 
a  blastosphere,  usually  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of 
invagination.  A  gastrula  is  formed  by  normal  invagination,  in  the 
course  of  which  amreboid  cells  are  budded  off  from  the  two  sides 
of  the  advancing  depression  to  form  the  mesodermic  musculature 
and  connective  tissue  of  the  adult.  The  blastopore  forms  the 
larval  anus,  which  does  not  always  persist ;  the  larval  mouth  is  per- 
manent, and  is  the  result  of  an  independent  ectodermic  invagina- 
tion meeting  the  archenteron.  The  cralom  or  body-cavity,  with 
its  mesodermic  lining,  arises  from  a  paired  or  single  outgrowth 


of  the  archenteron,  and  the  water- vascular  vesicle  which  comes 
to  lie  round  the  oesophagus  has  a  similar  origin.  For  an  outline 
of  the  nature  of  the  larval  forms  and  the  passage  of  the  embryonic 
organs  into  those  of  the  adult  the  reader  is  referred  to  ECHINO- 

DERMATA. 

Arthropoda.—The  interesting  Pcripatus  (see  MYRIAPODA,  vol. 
xvii.  p.  116)  exhibits  in  its  development  phenomena,  such  as  that 
of  the  elongated  blastopore  gradually  closing  from  the  middle,  so  as 
to  leave  mouth  and  anus,  and  that  of  the  surrounding  nerve  cord, 
which  suggest  affinities  through  the  whole  animal  kingdom  from 
Ccelentera  on  the  one  hand  to  Vertebrata  on  the  other  ;  but  of 
these  discussion  is  still  far  from  ended.  The  development  of  the 
Insect  ovum  illustrates  what  is  termed  centrolecithal  segmentation, 
where  a  single  uniform  layer  of  superficial  cells  encloses  a  nucleated 
but  undivided  central  yolk  mass.  The  blastoderm  becomes 
thickened  ventrally;  and  along  the  middle  line  of  the  ventral 
plate  there  appears  a  groove  which  is  the  seat  of  the  mesoderm 
formation.  The  development  of  the  Vertebrate  amnion  is  recalled 
by  the  formation  of  two  enveloping  membranes  from  folds  of 
the  blastoderm,  which  arch  over  and  coalesce  over  the  ventral 
plate,  and  at  the  same  time  spread  upwards  to  cover  the  dorsal 
integument  from  which  they  are  eventually  separated.  Both 
disappear  through  absorption  or  rupture  either  before  or  during 
hatching.  The  mesoderm  is  divided  into  two  lateral  bands,  and 
these  into  hollow  somites,  which  together  form  the  perivisceral 
cavity.  As  usual  the  outer  layer  of  mesoderm  follows  the  ecto- 
derm, the  inner  the  endoderm,  which  probably  arises  from  a 
secondary  segmentation  of  the  yolk.  The  ventral  plate  extends 
to  a  slight  extent  dorsally  both  before  and  behind,  and  on  it 
the  appendages  appear  as  hollow  outgrowths  of  ectoderm  and  endo- 
derm. The  ventral  nerve  cord  arises  from  two  sunken  thickenings 
of  ectoderm,  the  tracheae  as  invaginations  of  the  same.  The 
middle  section  of  the  alimentary  tract  is  formed  from  endoderm, 
the  anterior  and  posterior  portions  from  ectodermic  invaginations. 
For  an  account  of  larval  metamorphosis,  &c. ,  see  INSECTS. 

Crustacea. — In  these  the  segmentation  is  usually  centrolecithal, 
and  results  in  a  uniform  blastoderm  enclosing  a  central  yolk  mass 
without  traces  of  division.  The  gastrula  stage  is  represented  by 
an  invagination  of  a  patch  of  the  blastoderm,  which  forms  the 
endoderm,  and  from  which  the  mesodermic  cells  seem  also  to  arise. 
A  ventral  thickening  of  ectoderm  continuous  with  the  invaginated 
portion  forms  the  ventral  plate  on  which  the  embryo  is  mapped 
out.  Along  it  the  nerve  cord  appears  as  a  median  thickening,  and 
the  sense  organs  have  as  usual  a  similar  ectodermic  origin.  The 
mesoderm  appears  to  form  the  usual  tissues  (muscles,  heart,  &c. ), 
but  has  apparently  less  definiteness  of  arrangement  into  layers  and 
somites  than  is  usually  the  case.  The  original  invagination  forms 
the  mesenteron,  and  the  lining  endoderm  cells  absorb  the  yolk 
The  anterior  and  posterior  portions  of  the  alimentary  tract  are 
formed  as  usual  by  subsequent  independent  invaginations.  Much 
less  proportionally  is  known  of  the  organogeny  than  of  the  very 
interesting  and  suggestive  larval  forms,  for  which  see  CRUSTACEA. 

Mollusca. — The  typical  Molluscan  segmentation  is  markedly 
unequal,  the  disproportion  between  ectoderm  and  endoderm  cells 
varying  according  to  the  proportion  of  food-yolk.  The  gastrula 
stage  is  more  frequently  reached  by  the  growth  of  the  ectoderm 
cells  over  the  larger  and  fewer  endoderm  cells  than  by  any  actual 
invagination.  The  blastopore  may  close  apparently  towards  either 
the  oral  or  the  anal  extremity,  forming  mouth  or  anus  or  neither. 
In  Ceplwlopoda  the  segmentation  is  confined  to  a  germinal  disk  of 
formative  material  as  in  partially  segmenting  Vertebrate  ova, 
though  there  are  besides  cells  from  the  yolk  which  underlie  the 
germinal  region  of  the  blastoderm  and  also  accompany  it  in,  its 
growth  round  the  yolk,  forming  the  inner  blastodermic  layer  or 
yolk  membrane.  The  mesoderm  appears  at  the  lips  of  the  blasto- 
pore, or  in  an  equivalent  position ;  it  forms  a  complete  layer  between 
ectoderm  and  endoderm,  and  within  it  the  body  cavity  is  formed 
usually  by  a  definite  splitting  into  two  layers.  The  invaginated 
endoderm  forms  the  mesenteron  ;  and  the  history  of  the  formation 
of  the  anterior  and  posterior  portions  of  the  tract  varies  with  the 
fate  of  the  blastopore.  In  the  Cephalopoda  at  least,  the  nervous 
system  appears  not  as  usual  from  the  ectoderm  but  from  the  meso- 
derm. The  characteristic  larval  organs,  the  shell  gland  and  the 
foot,  are  ectodermic  in  origin — the  former  arising  as  a  thickened 
invagination  on  the  posterior  and  dorsal  side  of  the  embryo,  and 
the  latter  as  a  ventral  protuberance.  Further  details  and  larval 
changes  are  thoroughly  treated  under  MOLLUSCA. 

Tunicata. — The  complete  and  generally  quite  equal  segmenta- 
tion results  in  the  formation  of  a  blastosphere  with  a  large  segmenta- 
tion cavity.  The  cavity  is  obliterated  by  a  normal  invagination, 
and  a  typical  gastrula  is  formed.  In  the  formation  of  the  nerve  cord 
from  the  closure  of  a  medullary  groove  and  of  the  notochord  from 
a  cord  of  cells  on  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  archenteron,  in  the  appear- 
ance of  respiratory  slits  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  enteric 
cavity  and  of  a  cerebral  eye,  and  in  fact  in  all  the  essential  features 
of  their  development  they  present  the  amplest  evidence  of  their 
Vertebrate  affinities  and  degenerate  origin  (see  TUNICATA). 


420 


REPRODUCTION 


[ANIMAL. 


Vertcbrata.  — The  segmentation  is  total  and  equal  in  Amphioxua, 
total  and  not  markedly  unequal  in  Mammalia,  total  and  unequal 
in  Amphibia,  Acipenser,  Petromyzon,  partial  in  Birds  and  Reptiles, 
Teleosteaus  and  Elasmobranchs,  but  the  limits  between  these  types 
are  not  sharply  defined,  being  mainly  determined  by  the  store  of 
food-yolk.  In  Amphioxus  there  is  no  interference  with  the  forma- 
tion of  the  typical  gastrula,  and  this  form  is  also  readily  recogniz- 
able in  the  Amphibia,  Acipenser,  and  Petromyzon,  where,  however, 
the  process  of  formation  is  less  simple.  At  a  point  corresponding 
to  the  future  hiud  end  of  the  embryo  a  true  invagination  takes 
place,  forming,  however,  only  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  archenteron,  at 
the  same  time  the  ectoderm  cells  have  been  growing  round  the 
yolk,  and  the  floor  of  the  enteric  cavity  is  formed  from  yolk-cells. 
The  blastopore  is  eventually  closed,  but  a  communication  between 
the  archeuteron  and  the  neural  canal  persists  for  some  time  as  the 
neurenteric  canal.  In  the  Elasmobranchs  and  Teleosteans,  though 
there  is  no  true  invagination  nor  recognizable  gastrula  form,  there 
are  not  wanting  hints  of  its  ancestral  occurrence  and  of  homologies 
with  the  typical  form.  The  comparison  of  the  different  Ichthyop- 
sidau  gastruke  with  the  typical  form  and  with  that  of  the  Saurop- 
sida,  and  such  problems  as  the  occurrence  of  an  epibolic  gastrula 
in  Mammalia  are  still  under  discussion.  The  most  important 
stages  in  the  further  Vertebrate  development,  the  formation  of 
the  medullary  groove  and  canal,  the  appearance  of  the  notochord 
as  an  axial  differentiation  of  hypoblast,  the  origin  of  the  body- 
cavity  from  paired  outgrowths  from  the  archenteron,  the  occur- 
rence of  gill-pouches  opening  externally  from  the  throat,  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  medullary  cord  anteriorly  to  form  the  vesicles  of  the 
brain,  the  outpushing  of  a  cerebral  eye,  and  so  on,  are  described 
in  all  text-books.  (11) 

2.  But  it  is  not  enough  empirically  to  record  the  ob- 
served phenomena  of  reproduction  in  the  various  groups, 
primarily  essential  though  such  labours  are ;  it  is  further 
necessary  to  generalize  them.  We  should  ascertain,  that 
is  to  say,  from  a  comprehensive  and  a  comparative  sur- 
vey, what  degree  of  unity  of  structure  is  discovered 
actually  to  prevail  within  and  among  the  various  groups. 
Were  this  knowledge  once  definitely  reached  and  incor- 
porated with  the  results  of  comparative  anatomy  and 
palaeontology,  that  complete  conspectus  of  the  animal 
kingdom  which  is  the  goal  to  which  all  morphological 
inquiries  converge  would  come  clearly  into  view.  Such 
an  exposition  of  the  contributions  of  the  study  of  de- 
velopment to  morphological  knowledge  may  evidently  pro- 
ceed in  either  of  two  ways, — either  by  starting  from  the 
later  and  more  superficial  similarities  which  are  expressed 
in  the  classification  of  the  different  groups,  and  working 
downwards  towards  earlier  and  deeper  unities  in  the 
various  organs  and  tissues ;  or  by  starting  from  the  most 
primitive  homology,  and  working  upwards,  so  demonstrat- 
ing the  unities  which  are  observed  to  obtain  in  the  suc- 
cessive stages,  from  segmentation  and  layer  differentiation 
onwards.  For  our  present  purpose,  it  is  more  convenient 
to  follow  the  latter  course,  and  to  note  the  main  concrete 
generalizations  of  development  in  ascending  order  from 
the  deepest  and  most  general  to  the  more  superficial  and 
specific. 

1.  Ovum  Theory. — The  most  fundamental  unity  upon  which  all 
the  others  really  depend  is  the  familiar  fact  that  all  organisms, 
plant  and  animal  alike,  develop  from  a  single  germinal  cell  or 
ovum  essentially  comparable  with  any  ordinary  cell.  The  import- 
ance of  these  results  may  be  best  expressed  by  a  quotation  from 
Agassiz's  once  famous  Essay  on  Classification: — Von  Baer  "thus 
showed  for  the  first  time  that  there  is  no  essential  difference  in 
the  mode  of  reproduction  of  the  so-called  viviparous  and  oviparous 
animals,  and  that  Man  himself  developed  in  the  same  manner  as 
animals.  It  was  indeed  a  gigantic  step  to  demonstrate  such  an 
identity  in  the  material  basis  of  the  development  of  all  animals, 
when  their  anatomical  structure  was  already  known  to  exhibit  such 
radically  different  forms.  The  universal  presence  of  eggs  in  all 
animals,  and  the  unity  of  their  structure,  which  was  soon  after- 
wards fully  ascertained,  constitute  in  my  opinion  the  greatest 
discovery  in  the  natural  science  of  modern  times."  The  ovum 
has  long  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  a  mysterious  microorganism,  and, 
while  in  some  cases  a  number  of  cells  unite  to  nourish  and 
perfect  it,  the  generalization  remains  unshaken,  that  the  ovum  of 
every  organism  is  a  simple  cell.  The  minute  structure  of  the 
ovum,  its  differentiations  and  variations,  its  fertilization  and 
development,  must  be  expressible  in  terms  of  the  morphology 


and  physiology  of  the  ordinary  cell.  The  elucidation  will  be 
obviously  mutual,  for  the  analysis  of  the  phenomena  observnl  in 
the  case  of  the  highly  differentiated  reproductive  cells,  with  their 
consequent  greater  physiological  simplicity,  will  shed  light  on 
analogous  phenomena  in  ordinary  cellular  and  Protistau  life  \\lu-iv, 
with  less  differentiation,  there  is  greater  physiological  complexity, — 
while  such  problems  as  the  origin  and  import  of  polar  globule 
extrusion,  fertilization,  &c.,  receive  some  elucidation  from  sugges- 
tive analogies  among  the  Protozoa.  See  SEX.  (11) 

2.  Segmentation. — The  segmentation  of  the  ovum  of  the  Metazoa 
varies  in  regularity  and  completeness  throughout  the  groups,  but 
the  different  types  are  not  sharply  defined  from  one  another  and 
are,  as   has  been  already  noted,  partially  at   least  explicable  as 
mechanically  conditioned  by  the  quantity  of  nutritive  as  opposed 
to  formative  material.     Segmentation  being  only  a  special  case  of 
ordinary  cell-multiplication  (to  which  in  behaviour  of  nuclei,  &c., 
it  fully  corresponds),  it  awaits  whatever  elucidation  may  arise  out 
of  the  present  conflict  of  speculation  as  to  the  physical  and  physio- 
logical causes  of  division  in  general.     It  has  further  to  be  compared 
on  the  one  hand  with  such  cases  of  multiple  division  as  are  observed 
in  spermatogenesis,  and  on  the  other  hand,  and  more  especially, 
with  the  earliest  attempts  to  form  cell  aggregates  and  so  elf'ect  the 
passage  from  Protozoa  to  Metazoa.    (11) 

3.  Gastraea    Theory. — We    have   seen   in  the  development  of 
the  various  groups  how  the  result  of  segmentation  is  not  a  mere 
aggregate  of  cells  but  an  integrated  two-layered  individual  with  a 
distinct  enteric  cavity.     In  1872  Haeckel  emphasized  the  import- 
ance of  this  form,  and  in  1875  he  elaborated  his  "gastrcea"  theory, 
according  to  which  all  animals  pass  through  a  gastrula  stage  which, 
in  its  typical  form,  resembles  the  ancestral  Metazoon.     He  showed 
how  the  variously  modified   quasi-gastrula  forms  of  the  higher 
groups  might  be  derived  from  the  normal  type,  and  corroborated 
his  theory  by  reference  to  the  persistence  of  the  gastrula  stage  in 
certain  Porifera,  as  well  as  in  those  Godentera  and  Vermes  where 
the  adult  animal  is  not  far  above  the  level  of  the  gastrula  organi- 
zation.    The  occurrence  of  the  planula  and  the  delamination  pro- 
cess in  some  cases  alongside  of  the  invaginate  gastrula  is  a  diffi- 
culty in  the  way  of  his  theory  so  far  as  it  defines  the  primitive 
Metazoan  ancestor,  and  this  has  given  rise   to  Lankester's  rival 
planula  theory.     The  case  on  either  side  is  fairly  stated  in  Balfour's 
Embryology  (vol.  ii.  chap.  xiii. ).     (Recent  researches  on  Hydrozoa 
seem  to  show  that  delamination  is  an  extreme  form  of  immigra- 
tion, which  is  itself  a  modified  invagination.)     The  passage  from 
Protozoa  to  Metazoa  was,  according  to  Biitschli,  effected  neither  by 
planulan  nor  gastrula  but  by  a  disk-like  "placula."    The  ingenious 

'coelom  theory"  of  the  Hertwigs  is  an  attempt  to  divide  all  the 
Metazoa  with  three  germinal  layers  into  two  distinct  groups 
characterized  by  different  modes  of  formation  of  body-cavity  and 
mesoderm,  and  by  other  minor  differences.  In  the  Enteroccela, 
which  include  the  Chsetopoda,  Gephyrea,  Brachiopoda,  Nematoda, 
Arthropoda,Echinodermata,,  Enter opneusta,  and  Chordata,  the  body- 
cavity  is  formed  in  the  fashion  noted  in  the  case  of  Sagitta  by  two 
ingrowths  from  the  archenteron,  the  bulk  of  the  mesoderm  arising 
from  the  differentiation  of  the  epithelium  of  these  diverticula,  though 
sometimes  partially  also  from  amoeboid  cells  budded  off  into  the 
gelatinous  tissue  between  ectoderm  and  endoderm.  In  the  smaller 
group  of  Pseudoccela,  including  the  Mollusca,  Polyzoa,  Rotifera, 
and  Platyhelminthcs,  the  mesoderm  originates  in  the  second  of  these 
ways,  and  the  body-cavity  is  formed  by  a  split  in  this  "mesen- 
chyme."  This  theory  has  been  criticized  by  Balfour  (Emir. ,  ii.  13), 
and  more  recently  ably  defended  by  Haeckel  and  others  ;  further 
detailed  studies  are  at  least  needed  before  it  can  claim  full  con- 
firmation. (15) 

4.  Unity  of  Tissues  and  Homology  of  Layers. — Since  it  is  impos- 
sible that  all  the  cells  resulting  from  segmentation  can  continue  to 
occupy  the  same  position,  a  certain  lamination  or  layer  formation 
with  consequent  division   of  labour  and  structural   modification 
invariably  occurs,  finding  its  first  expression  in  the   two-layered 
gastrula  stage  to  which  we  have  referred.     Just  as  in  the  embryo 
of  the  higher  plants  there  arise  an  outer  dermatogcn,    an   inner 
plerome,  and  a  middle  layer  or  pcriblem,  so  in  the  animal  embryo 
there  constantly  occur  three  germ  layers,  the  ectoderm,  the  endo- 
derm, and  the  intermediate  layer  formed  from  them — the  meso- 
derm.    As   early  as   1768  Wolff   seems   to   have  had  a  definite 
presentiment  of  the  formation  of  the  different  systems  from  distinct 
germ  layers  ;  in  1817  Pander  distinguished  in  the  embryo  chick 
the  outer  or  "serous"  from  the  inner  or  "mucous"  layer,  and  You 
Baer  in  1828  yet  more  definitely  distinguished  them  as  animal  and 
vegetative  respectively.     A  great  step  towards  the  recognition  of 
the  full  significance  of  these  germ  layers  was  due  to  the  brilliant 
insight  of  Huxley   (1859)   in   comparing  them  to  the   ectoderm 
and  endoderm  which  he  had   demonstrated  in   Ccelentera.     Tin- 
researches  of  Remak,  Rathke,  Kowalevsky,  and  others  led  to  their 
general  recognition  throughout  the  Metazoa.     Modern  progress  is 
marked  by  the  demonstration  of  the  general  homology  of  all  the 
three  germ  layers  and  consequently  of  the  systems  of  organs  which 
arise  from  them.     While  much  uncertainty  still  obtains  as  to  the. 


ANIMAL.] 


REPRODUCTION 


421 


origin  of  the  mesoderm,  and  while  the  different  layers  undoubtedly 
exhibit  in  some  cases  the  possibility  of  differentiation  into  tissues 
different  from  those  to  which  they  usually  give  origin,  yet  the 
general  homology  of  the  layers  is  now  indisputable.  The  ectoderm, 
which  is  indeed  the  primitive  sensory  and  protective  organ,  forms 
the  epidermis,  sense  organs,  and  nervous  system  of  the  adult ;  the 
nutritive  endoderm  lines  the  enteric  cavity,  &c. ;  and  from  the 
mesoderm  are  derived  the  muscular,  vascular,  and  lymphatic 
systems  and  the  greater  part  of  the  connective  tissue,  as  also  the 
excretory  and  generally  also  the  generative  system.  Not  only 
then  is  the  occurrence  of  these  three  layers  constant,  but,  with  few 
exceptions,  so  is  the  differentiation  of  each  into  definite  systems  of 
organs.  This  correspondence,  which  is  of  high — in  most  cases  of 
final— importance  in  determining  homologies,  may  be  termed 
homodermic.  See  MORPHOLOGY.  (15) 

5.  Unity  of  Anatomical  Structure. — The  study  of  development 
leads,  however,  to  the  recognition  of  a  more  detailed  and  specific 
iinity   than  the   general  one   of  homodermy.     For,  just  as   the 
development  of  the  flower  reveals  the   original  resemblance   of 
organs  which  become  subsequently  widely  differentiated,  so  organs 
which  in  their  adult  modification  seem  hardly  comparable  are  seen 
to  be  moulded  from  one  pattern  when  compared  in  their  embryonic 
simplicity.     The  same  holds  good  obviously  of  the  comparison  of 
organs  in  different  animals  ;  organogeny  is  the  necessary  foundation 
of  comparative  anatomy.     Thus  of  late  years  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  the  nervous  system  and  sense  organs,  throughout  at 
any  rate  the  vast  majority  of  Metazoan  forms,  not  only  constantly 
arise  from  the  ectoderm — that  is  to  say,  are  homodermic — but  their 
development   exhibits   correspondences   even   in    detail.      Recent 
studies  of  the  development  of  the  Vertebrate  skeleton,  and  more 
especially  of  the  skull,  afford  vivid  instances  of  that  fundamental 
unity  of  structure  of   which,    in   another   department,  the   final 
unravelment   of   the   complex  problem   of    the   structure   of  the 
urinogenital   organs   of   Vertebrates  through    the    researches    of 
Balfour  and   Semper  is   one   of  the  most  recent  and  admirable 
instances.    (11) 

6.  Unity  of  Type. — It  has  been  the  general  history  of  classifica- 
tion both  of  plants  and  animals  that  arrangements  based  on  super- 
ficial resemblance  were  superseded  by  those  founded  on  internal 
organization,  while  the  latter  have  been  in  turn  either  corroborated 
or  amended  by  the  relationships  revealed  by  the  study  of  develop- 
ment, as  from  the  preceding  generalizations  must  indeed  be  obvious. 
Just  as  the  separation  of  the  Monocotyledons  and  Dicotyledons  into 
two  great  alliances  was  anatomically  recognized  by  Ray,  and  em- 
bryologically  corroborated   by  De  Jussieu,  so  the   developmental 
studies  of  Von  Baer  led  him  independently  to  the  establishment  of 
the  four  great  types  which  had  been  previously  distinguished  by 
the  anatomical  labours  of  Cuvier.     And,  apart  from  the  recognition 
of  the  morphological  unities  of  the  greater  groups,  it  is  familiarly 
known  how  in  the  case  of  problematical  forms,  such,  for  instance, 
as  Cirripedes  or  Ascidians,  where  the  adult  organization  is  obscured 
by  degeneration,  the  detection  of  the  true  relationship  is  due  to  em- 
bryology.    In  proportion,  too,  as  the  recapitulation  during  develop- 
ment of  adult  structure  becomes  shortened  and  effaced,  so  does  the 
determination  of  their  real  affinities  become  difficult ;  hence  the 
relatively  slow  progress  of  the  botanist  towards  a  knowledge  of  the 
deeper  affinities  of  his  "natural  orders."    (11) 

As  the  preceding  outline  of  embryological  detail  is 
being  rapidly  filled  up,  and  the  resultant  concrete  gene- 
ralizations are  being  more  and  more  clearly  defined,  and 
also  united  with  those  of  comparative  anatomy  and  palae- 
ontology, the  embryologist  is  rapidly  approximating  that 
tolerably  adequate  knowledge  of  the  morphological  rela- 
tions of  plants  and  animals  alike  which  finds  its  graphic 
expression  in  the  "  family  tree "  of  the  Organisata. 
While,  for  instance,  the  discrepant  speculations  of  Semper, 
Hubrecht,  Sedgwick,  and  others,  as  to  the  ancestral  form 
of  the  Chordata,  afford  illustration  of  how  far  we  are 
from  being  able  to  construct  a  thoroughly  definite  genea- 
logical tree,  on  the  other  hand  no  better  evidence  alike 
of  the  rapid  stages  by  which  our  knowledge  has  advanced 
and  of  the  utility  of  such  a  method  of  graphic  nota- 
tion can  be  obtained  than  by  comparing  the  necessarily 
vague  and  hypothetical  tree  sketched  by  Haeckel  only 
twenty  years  ago  with  any  of  its  numerous  and  shortlived 
successors.  (16) 

3.  The  result  of  the  study  of  development  is  not,  how- 
ever, merely  to  establish  the  existence  of  such  concrete 
structural  unities  as  those  just  indicated,  but  leads  further 
to  the  recognition  of  certain  abstract  generalizations,  ex- 
pressive of  the  most  comprehensive  conclusions  which  can 


be  drawn  from  the  observed  succession  of  developmental 
phenomena. 

(a)  Heredity.— It  is  an  every-day  observation  that  the 
offspring  of  any  organism  repeats  the  organization  of  the 
parent;  and  the  very  familiarity  of  the  fact  is  apt  to 
conceal  the  marvellousness  of  the  process  in  which  every 
egg  cell  develops,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  into  a  form 
which  not  only  resembles  the  parent  in  general  and  specific 
characters,  but  may  even  repeat  those  individual  character- 
istics which  arose  by  so-called  spontaneous  variation,  or 
which  were  even  impressed  upon  the  parent  by  the  direct 
influence  of  the  external  environment.  The  difficulty  of 
analysing  the  factors  which  give  rise  to  this  result, — that 
is,  of  understanding  how  the  history  of  the  developing  ovum 
is  determined  by  its  constitution — the  uncertainty  as  to 
the  degree  in  which  acquired  parental  characteristics  can 
be  said  to  be  transmitted,  the  absence  in  fact  of  any 
established  causal  explanation  of  the  resemblance  between 
offspring  and  parent,  in  specific  and  individual  characters, 
does  not  of  course  affect  the  fact.  Although,  in  analysing 
the  popular  generalization  that  "  like  begets  like,"  it  may 
eventually  be  shown  how  much  of  that  likeness  may  be 
due  to  the  hammering  of  the  same  environmental  forces 
which  formerly  played  upon  the  parent,  a  mysterious 
transmission  of  properties  has  still  to  be  accounted  for,  and 
interpreted  in  terms  of  the  physiological  and  morphological, 
the  chemical  and  physical,  composition  and  properties  of 
the  germinal  matter  of  parent  and  offspring.  To  explain 
this  mystery,  various  "theories  of  heredity"  have  been  from 
time  to  time  propounded ;  from  the  present  purely  morpho- 
logical point  of  view  it  suffices  here,  however,  to  note  the 
fact  of  heredity,  leaving  the  discussion  of  its  rationale  to 
its  more  natural  place  at  the  outset  of  the  article  VARIA- 
TION AND  SELECTION.  (6) 

(6)  Von  Baer's  Law. — In  comparing  the  degree  of 
organization  attained  by  different  forms,  we  are  accustomed 
to  distinguish  the  general  morphological  ground-plan  con- 
stant throughout  the  group  from  the  detailed  histological 
differentiation  or  elaboration  of  the  various  organs.  Great 
histological  simplicity  may  co-exist  with  a  high  general 
morphological  plan,  and  vice  versa.  A  survey  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdom  reveals  a  branching  and 
ascending  series  of  increasingly  complex  ground-plans, 
while,  in  any  of  the  groups  determined  by  these,  similar 
branching  series  more  and  more  highly  differentiated  in 
detail  are  to  be  distinguished.  Von  Baer  (1828)  was  the 
first  to  discern  the  embryological  aspect  of  this  law  of  pro- 
gress, and  to  show  that,  in  the  development  alike  of  the 
organism  and  of  its  component  parts,  there  was  a  progress 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  general  to  the 
special.  Thus,  in  the  development  of  one  of  the  higher 
Mammalia,  those  characters  which  are  common  to  the  low- 
est Vertebrates  are  at  first  alone  distinguishable.  Thence 
the  embryo  passes  through  stages  resembling  those  of 
successively  higher  forms,  till  the  general  Mammalian  type 
is  reached,  this  again  passing  through  higher  and  less 
general  stages  till  the  specific  characters  finally  make  their 
appearance;  and  this  progressive  differentiation  from  gene- 
ral to  special  holds  equally  of  the  histological  differentia- 
tion of  the  organs.  Von  Baer  guarded  against  the  error 
involved  in  many  popular  versions  of  his  generalization, 
by  maintaining  that  the  developing  embryo  resembled,  not 
the  adults,  but  merely  the  embryos  of  lower  forms ;  and, 
although  he  narrowed  his  proposition  to  the  limits  of  the 
great  groups,  denying,  for  example,  any  resemblance 
between  Vertebrate  embryos  and  those  of  any  Invertebrate 
type,  this  must  be  admitted  a  thoroughly  legitimate 
reserve  when  we  consider  the  actual  state  and  practical 
possibilities  of  embryological  research  at  the  time.  The 
real  value  and  import  of  Von  Baer's  law,  however,  could 


REPRODUCTION 


[-VNIMAL. 


not  be  appreciated  until  the  parallel  between  this 
developmental  progress  and  the  advance  of  anatomical  type 
which  had  been  exposed  by  Cuvier  received  its  rational 
explanation  at  the  hands  of  Darwin.  (17) 

(c)  HaeckeUs  "Biogenetic  Law" — While  Von  Baer  was  the 
first  to  appreciate  the  value  of  embryology  in  its  relation 
to  classification  and  comparative  anatomy,  we  are  indebted 
to  Haeckel  for  the  detailed  application  of  the  Darwinian 
theory  to  the  phenomena  of  embryology  and  the  conse- 
quent restatement  of  Von  Uaer's  law  in  its  developed  form. 
In  his  Generelle  Morphologie  (18G6)  he  formulates  the 
"  fundamental  law  of  development "  (biogenetisches  Grund- 
(jesetz).  Introducing  the  term  "ontogeny"  to  denote  the 
development  of  the  individual  organism,  and  "  phylogeny  " 
to  express  the  historic  evolution  of  the  "  phylon"  or  tribe, 
he  affirms  that  "  ontogeny  is  an  epitome  of  phylogeny,"  or, 
more  explicitly,  "  the  organism  recapitulates  in  the  short 
^nd  rapid  course  of  its  individual  development  the  most 
important  of  those  form-modifications  undergone  by  the 
successive  ancestors  of  the  species,  in  the  course  of  their 
long  and  slow  historic  evolution,  and  the  causal  relation  of 
the  two  histories  is  to  be  explained  in  terms  of  heredity 
and  adaptation.  When  these  are  thoroughly  analysed,  it 
will  be  possible  to  say  that  the  phylogeny  is  the  mechanical 
cause  of  the  ontogeny." 

Much  as  Von  Baer  had  distinguished  the  general 
morphological  ground-plan  from  the  more  detailed  differ- 
entiations of  the  organs,  Haeckel  analysed  ontogeny  into 
(a)  the  "  palingenetic  "  process,  in  which  the  truly  ancestral 
characters  conserved  by  heredity  are  reproduced  in  de- 
velopment, and  (6)  the  "  kenogenetic  "  process,  or  modified 
evolution,  to  which  are  due  those  non-primitive  characters 
which  have  resulted  in  consequence  of  a  secondary  adapta- 
tion of  the  embryo  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of  its  own 
environment.  The  true  recapitulation  is  constantly  liable 
to  be  disguised,  not  only  by  the  frequent  occurrence  of  that 
abbreviated  and  more  direct  ontogeny  which  the  need  for 
economy  tends  alike  to  originate  and  to  conserve,  but  by 
the  action  of  these  kenogenetic  processes.  Hence  the 
corollary  that  "the  ontogeuetic  recapitulation  of  the 
phylogeny  is  the  more  perfect  the  more  the  palingenetic 
process  is  conserved  by  heredity,  and  the  more  imperfect 
in  proportion  as  the  later  modified  evolution  (kenogenesis) 
is  introduced  by  adaptation." 

While  this  distinction  between  adaptive  characters  and 
underlying  morphological  type  is  not  only  legitimate  but 
indispensable,  it  must  not,  however,  be  forgotten  that 
the  difference  between  these  is  nowhere  absolute, — the 
deepest  morphological  characters  being  but  the  most 
ancient  results  of  adaptation  (cf.  MORPHOLOGY,  vol.  xvi. 
p.  845).  Yet  it  is  only  by  the  careful  application  of  this 
principle  that  the  embryologist  can  unravel  the  perplexing 
entanglement  of  primitive  and  adaptive  characters  pre- 
sented by  so  many  larval  forms,  or  solve  the  scarcely  less 
difficult  problems  of  organogeny.  In  this  regard  Balfour's 
dissertation  on  the  origin  and  affinities  of  larval  forms  is 
especially  valuable,  while  a  vivid  illustration  of  the  em- 
ployment of  the  biogenetic  law,  in  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult departments  of  ontogeny,  may  be  borrowed  from  Prof. 
Parker.  Reviewing  the  development  of  the  skull  in  the 
Chick,  he  says — 

"  Whilst  at  work  I  seemed  to  myself  to  have  been  endeavouring 
to  decipher  a  palimpsest,  and  that  not  erased  and  written  upon 
again  just  once,  but  live  or  six  times  over. 

"  Having  erased,  as  it  were,  the  characters  of  the  culminating 
type — those  of  the  gaudy  Indian  Bird — I  seemed  to  be  amongst  the 
sombre  Grouse,  aud  then,  towards  incubation,  the  characters  of 
the  Sand-Grouse  and  Hemipod  stood  out  before  me.  Rubbing 
these  away,  in  my  downward  walk,  the  form  of  the  Tiiiamou 
looked  me  in  the  face  ;  then  the  aberrant  Ostrich  seemed  to  lie 
described  in  large  archaic  characters ;  a  little  while  and  these  faded 
into  what  could  just  be  read  off  as  pertaining  to  the  Sea  Turtle  ; 


whilst,  underlying  the  whole,  the  Fish  in  its  simplest  Myxinoid 
form  could  be  traced  in  morphological  hieroglyphics."   (17) 

(d)  Spencer  on  Development. — The  most  generalized 
treatment  of  embryology  is  that  of  Spencer,  who,  after 
carefully  distinguishing  mere  growth  in  bulk  from  de- 
velopment of  structure,  points  out  that  development  takes 
place  primarily  around  a  central  point,  as  in  the  lowest 
and  chiefly  unicellular  organisms.  Central  development 
is  either  uuicentral  or  multicentral,  while,  according  as  the 
insubordination  to  a  single  centre,  implied  in  the  latter 
case,  is  more  or  less  thorough,  the  organism  is  of  irregular 
form  (e.g.,  many  Algae),  and  so  may  readily  even  become 
discontinuous.  From  central  we  pass  insensibly  to  n.nnl 
development,  and  this  may  be  uniaxial  or  multiaxial. 
Here,  too,  development  may  be  continuous  or  discontinuous, 
familiar  instances  of  both  being  furnished  by  many  animals 
and  plants.  The  fundamental  importance  of  these  simple 
conceptions  to  the  adequate  treatment  alike  of  the  pro- 
blems of  individuality  (cf.  MORPHOLOGY)  and  of  the  nature 
of  the  reproductive  process  is  justly  to  be  insisted  upon, 
for  the  definition  of  reproduction  as  but  a  discontinuous 
growth  and  development  finds  here  its  origin  and  justi- 
fication. 

Spencer,  moreover,  expresses  Von  Baer's  essential  law  in 
yet  more  general  phrase  : — "Development  is  a  change  from 
an  incoherent  indefinite  homogeneity  to  a  coherent  definite 
heterogeneity."  The  relation  of  ontogeny  to  phylogeny  is 
not  overlooked,  and  a  yet  farther  parallel  advance  in  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  organism  from  its  environment  is  illus- 
trated alike  in  structure  and  form,  in  chemical  composition 
and  specific  gravity,  in  temperature  and  self-mobility.  The 
deductive  interpretation  of  these  laws  is  also  cautiously 
suggested.  (17) 

Bibliography. — Without  any  attempt  to  deal  with  the  very 
copious  literature  of  the  subject,  it  is  sufficient  to  name  some  of 
the  more  important  general  and  special  works,  from  which  full 
details  can  in  turn  be  obtained.  From  the  time  of  Haller  perhaps 
no  eminent  anatomist  or  physiologist  has  omitted  a  more  or  less 
general  treatment  of  the  subject,  and  such  discussions  as  those  to 
be  found  in  the  well-known  works  of  Johannes  Mu'ller,  Milne- 
Ed  wards,  Owen,  or  Carpenter  are  still  valuable,  especially  as 
embodying  the  past  development  of  the  subject.  More  recent  dis- 
cussions are  to  be  found  in  the  leading  text-books,  alike  morpho- 
logical (Huxley,  Gegenbauer,  Glaus)  and  physiological  (Hermann, 
Foster,  Landois,  &c.).  The  embryological  movement  can  be 
followed  by  the  aid  of  the  article  EMBRYOLOGY,  and  the  valuable 
systematic  treatise  of  Balfour,  while  the  most  generalized  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  must  at  first  be  sought  in  the  works  of  Spencer 
and  Haeckel.  For  almost  all  purposes,  however,  the  recent  careful 
monograph  of  Hensen  (Physiologic  d.  Zeugung,  forming  the  second 
part  of  vol.  vi.  of  Hermann's  Handbuch  d.  Physiologic,  Leipsic, 
1881),  although,  of  course,  by  no  means  completely  satisfactory, 
will  be  found  not  merely  serviceable  but  indispensable  to  the 
student.  The  various  Jalircsbcrichte  must  be  also,  of  course,  con- 
stantly appealed  to,  especially  for  progress  in  detail.  The  present 
state  of  the  theory  of  reproduction  is  discussed  in  Heiisen,  op.  dt. 

(1)  c/.  Hensen,  op.  cil.,  general  manuals,  and  pyriMcological  work-. 
Williams,  "On  the  Structure  of  the  Mucous  Membrane  of  the  Uterus,"  Ubftrtr. 
Journ.,  1875;  Barnes,  System  of  Midwifery,  1885;  Lusk,  Sci.  and  Art.  of  Mid- 
wifery, 1882.  (2)  Huxley,  Anal,  oj  Invert.  Animals,  1879;  Gegenbaur,  Comp. 
Anal.,  London,  1882;  Wiertersheim,  Lehrb.  d.  Comp.  Anat.  d.  WirMtMtrf, 
Jena,  1883;  Semper,  D.  Urinogenital  Syst.  d.  PlagioBtomen,  in  his  Arbeiten, 
vol.  ii.;  Balfour,  Comp.  Embryology,  1882.  (3)  Hensen,  op.  cil.;  Foster's  and 
Landois's  manuals  of  physiology.  (4)  Wertli,  "  1'hvMologie  d.  Geburt,"  in  chap, 
xiii.  of  Hensen,  op.  cit.;  Spiegelberg,  Lehrb.  d.  Geburtshiilfe,  Lahr,  1878.  (5) 
Milne-Edwards,  Lemons  *.  la  /'hi/sioloyie,  and  later  manuals.  (6)  Hensen,  op.  cit. 
(7)  Uamgee,  Pliysiol.  C'hem.  of  Anim.  Body,  1880,  and  Heiisen,  op.  cit.  (8)  V.  La 
Valrite,  "  Ueh.  d.  Genese  d.  Sanicnkoiper,"  Archiv  f.  Mikr.  Anat.,  xv. ;  Blom- 
field,  Quart.  Journ.  Micro.  Set.,  1880;  Kenson,  Arch.  <l.  liiol.,  1882;  Swn-n  UM 
Masquelin,  Arch.  d.  liiol.,  1883  ;  Gfddcs  and  Arthur  Thomson,  "  On  the  History 
and  Theory  of  Spermatogcnrsis,'1  /'roc.  Hoy.  Soc.  Edin.,  1885-80.  (9)  See 
EMBRYOLOGY,  and  article  "Ovum"  (by  Allen  Thomson),  in  Todd-'s  Cyclop,  of 
Anat.  and  Physiol.  (10)  Gamgee,  op.  cit.;  Hensen,  op.  cil.  (11)  Balfour,  cj'.  <•'!., 
and  manuals.  (12)  Balfour,  op.  cit.;  Flemming,  Zellstibstanz,  &c.,  Leipsic,  l?l 
Strasburger,  Zeltbilduny,  <fcc.,  Leipsic,  1882,  and  Neue  Untersuch.,  4c.,  1884; 


elude  d.  ylob'ute*  polaires,  llontpellier,  1884.  (14)  Work*  above  cited  and 
Hertwig,  Jena.  Zeitschr.,  1885.  (15)  IJalfour,  op. cit.;  Haeckel,  "  Ursprunu  u.  Kut- 
wick.  d.  thicr.  Gcwebc,"  Jena.  Zeitschr.,  xviii.,  1885.  (16)  Haeckel,  Gi-n.  iforjmof., 
186G;  Herdman,  Phytogeny  of  Animal  Kingdom,  Liverpool,  1885.  (17)  Spencer, 
I'rinc.  of  Riol.,  1880 ;  Haeckel,  Gen.  Morphol.,  1866 ;  Parker,  Moi-pholoyy  <>t  the 
Mult,  1877.  C1'-  Cib") 


VEGETABLE.] 


REPRODUCTION 


423 


II.  EEPKODUCTION  OF  PLANTS. 

The  various  modes  by  which  plants  are  reproduced  may 
be  conveniently  classified  in  two  groups,  namely,  vege- 
tative multiplication  and  true  reproduction,  the  distinction 
between  them  being  this,  that,  whereas  in  the  former  the 
production  of  the  new  individual  may  be  effected  by 
organs  of  the  most  various  kinds,  in  the  latter  it  is  always 
effected  by  means  of  a  specialized  reproductive  cell.  This 
distinction  will  become  apparent  in  the  following  discus- 
sion. 

il  Vegetative  Multiplication. — The  simplest  case  of  vege- 

":°n    tative   multiplication   is   afforded   by   unicellular   plants. 
When  the  cell  which  constitutes  the  body  of  the  plant  has 
,„  rjjv  attained  its  limit  of  size,  it  gives  rise  to  two,  either  by 
iin;   division  or  gemmation;  the  two  cells  then  grow,  and  at 
the  same  time  become  separated  from  each  other,  so  that 
eventually  two  new  distinct  individuals  are  produced,  each 
of  which  precisely  resembles  the   original   organism.     A 
good  example  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  gemmation  of 
the  Yeast  plant.     This  mode  of  multiplication  is  simply 
the  result  of  the  ordinary  processes  of  growth.     All  plant- 
cells  thus  grow  and  divide  at  some  time  of   their  life; 
but,  whereas   in   a   multicellular   plant   the   products  of 
division  remain  coherent,  and  add  to  the  number  of  the 
cells  of  which  the  plant  consists,  in  a  unicellular  plant  they 
luer  separate  and  constitute  new  individuals.     In  more  highly 
'.  by  organized  plants  vegetative  multiplication  may  be  effected 
-K'~      by  the  separation  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body  from 
•"ere.  eacn  other,   each  such  part  subsequently  developing  the 
missing  members  and  thus  constituting  a  new  individual. 
This  takes  place  spontaneously,  and  in  a  marked  manner 
in  Mosses.     The  main  stem  gradually  dies  away  from  be- 
hind forwards ;  the  lateral  branches  thus  become  isolated, 
and  constitute  new  individuals. 

The  remarkable  regenerative  capacity  of  plant-members 
is   largely  made  use   of  for  the   artificial  propagation  of 
>luc"  plants.     A    branch    removed   from   a   parent-plant   will, 
jJL    under  appropriate  conditions,  develop  roots,  and  so  con- 
stitute a  new  plant ;  this  is  the  theory  of  propagation  by 
"cuttings."     A  portion  of  a  root  will  similarly  develop 
one  or  more  shoots,  and  thus  give  rise  to  a  new  plant. 
An  isolated  leaf  will,  in  many  cases,  produce  a  shoot  and 
a  root,  in  a  word,  a  new  plant ;    it  is  in  this  way  that 
Begonias,  for  instance,  are  propagated.     The  production 
of  new  plants  from  the  leaves  occurs  also  in  nature,  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  so-called  "  viviparous  "  plants,  of  which 
"is      Bryophyllum   calycinum  (Crassulacese)    and  many    Ferns 
(Nephr  odium  \_Lastr  sed\  Filix-mas,  Asplenium  \Athynwni\ 
Filix-fcemina,     and    other    species    of    Asplenium)    are 
examples.     An  interesting  case  of  the  vegetative  develop- 
ment of  new  individuals  from  other  plant-organs  is  afforded 
by    Strasburger's    observations   on    Coelebogyne   ilicifolia, 
Funkia;  Nothoscordum  fragrans,  and    Citrus ;    he  found, 
toryos   namely,  that  in  these  plants,  an  adventitious  formation  of 
ned  by  embryos  takes  place  by  budding  from  the  tissue  of  the 
mS-    nucellus   bounding   the   embryo-sac.      But   it    is   in  the 
Mosses,   of   all  plants,  that   the   capacity  for   vegetative 
propagation  is  most  widely  diffused.     Any  part  of  a  moss, 
whether  it  be  the  stem,  the  leaves,  the  rhizoids,  or  the 
sporogonium,  is  capable,  under  appropriate  conditions,  of 
giving  rise  to  filamentous  protonema  on  which  new  moss- 
plants  are  then  developed  as  lateral  buds. 

In  a  large  number  of  plants  we  find  that  provision  is 
made  for  vegetative  multiplication  by  the  development  of 
'<~diaof  more  or  less  highly  specialized  organs.  In  Lichens,  for 
instance,  there  are  the  soredia,  which  are  minute  buds  of 
the  thallus  containing  both  algal  and  fungal  elements ; 
these  are  set  free  on  the  surface  in  large  numbers,  and 
each  grows  into  a  thallus.  In  the  Characese  there  are  the 


bulbils  or  "  starch-stars  "  of  Chara  stelligera,  which  are  Bulbils, 
underground  nodes,  and  the  branches  with  naked  base 
and  the  pro-embryonic  branches  found  by  Pringsheim  on  old 
nodes  of  Chara  fragilis.  In  the  Mosses  small  tuberous 
bulbils  frequently  occur  on  the  rhizoids,  and  in  many 
instances  (Bryum  annotinum,  Aulacomnion  androgynum, 
Tetraphis  pellucida,  &c.)  stalked  fusiform  or  lenticular 
multicellular  bodies  containing-  chlorophyll,  termed  gemmse,  Gemmae, 
are  produced  on  the  shoots,  either  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves 
or  in  special  receptacles  at  the  summit  of  the  stem. 
Gemmae  of  this  kind  are  produced  in  vast  numbers  in 
Marchantia  and  Lunularia  among  the  Liverworts. 
Similar  gemmae  are  also  produced  by  the  prothallia  of 
Ferns.  In  some  Ferns  (e.g.,  Nephrolepis  tuberosa  and  JV. 
undulata)  the  buds  borne  on  the  leaves  or  in  their  axils 
become  swollen  and  filled  with  nutritive  materials,  con- 
stituting bulbils  which  fall  off  and  give  rise  to  new  plants. 
This  conversion  of  buds  into  bulbils  which  subserve 
vegetative  multiplication  occurs  also  occasionally  among 
Phanerogams,  as,  for  instance,  in  Lilium  bulbiferum.  But 
many  other  adaptations  of  the  same  kind  occur  among 
Phanerogams,  notably  among  annuals.  Bulbous  plants,  Bulbs, 
for  instance,  produce  each  year  at  least  one  bulb  or  corm  conns, 
from  which  a  new  plant  is  produced  in  the  succeeding  *n^ 
year.  In  other  cases,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Potato,  tubers 
are  developed  from  subterranean  shoots,  each  of  which 
in  the  following  year  gives  rise  to  a  new  individual.  In 
other  cases,  again,  as  in  Dahlia,  Thladiantha  dubia,  &c., 
tuberous  swellings  are  found  on  the  roots,  from  each  of 
which  a  new  individual  may  spring. 

True  Reproduction. — It  was  mentioned  above  that  the  Structure 
true  reproduction  of  plants  is  effected  by  specialized  cells  ;  of  spores, 
these  cells  may  be  generally  designated  spores.  The 
structure  of  a  spore  is  essentially  this  :  it  consists  of  a 
nucleated  mass  of  protoplasm,  enclosing  starch  or  oil  as 
reserve  nutritive  material,  usually  enclosed  by  a  cell-wall. 
In  those  cases  in  which  the  spore  is  capable  of  germinating 
immediately  on  its  development  the  cell-wall  is  a  single 
delicate  membrane  consisting  of  cellulose ;  but  in  those 
cases  in  which  the  spore  may  or  must  pass  through  a 
period  of  quiescence  before  germination  the  wall  becomes 
thickened  and  may  consist  of  two  layers,  an  inner,  the 
endospore,  which  is  delicate  and  consists  of  cellulose,  and 
an  outer,  the  exospore,  which  is  thick  and  rigid,  frequently 
darkly  coloured  and  beset  externally  with  spines  or  bosses, 
and  which  consists  of  cutin.  In  some  few  cases  among 
the  Fungi  multicellular  spores  are  produced ;  these 
approximate  somewhat  to  the  gemmas  mentioned  above  as 
highly  specialized  organs  for  vegetative  multiplication. 
In  some  cases,  particularly  among  the  Algas  and  also  in 
some  Fungi  (Peronosporeae,  Saprolegnieae,  Myxornycetes, 
Chytridiacese),  spores  are  produced  which  are  for  a  time 
destitute  of  any  cell-wall,  and  are  further  peculiar  in  that 
they  are  motile,  and  are  therefore  termed  zoospores ;  they  Zoosporei 
move,  sometimes  in  an  amoeboid  manner  by  the  protrusion 
of  pseudopodia,  but  more  frequently  they  are  provided 
with  one,  two,  or  many,  delicate  vibratile  protoplasmic 
filaments,  termed  cilia,  by  the  lashing  of  which  the  spore 
is  propelled  through  the  water.  The  zoospore  eventually 
comes  to  rest,  withdraws  its  cilia,  surrounds  itself  with  a 
cell-wall,  and  then  germinates. 

Spores  are  developed  in  various  ways,  and  a  prefix  is  in 
many  cases  added  to  the  word  "  spore  "  to  indicate  the 
nature  of  the  process  of  development.     Leaving  details  for  Spor«» 
subsequent  discussion,  we  will  now  confine  our  attention  formed 

to  the  main  fact  that  all  spores  are  developed  in  one  or  other  either 

»    .  ..i  7;  77         T      J.-L     r  sexually 

of  two  ways,  either  asexually  or  sexually.     In  the  former  or 

case  a  single  reproductive  organ  gives  rise  to  cells  which  asexnallj 
are   capable,  each   by  itself,  of   developing   into   a   new 
organism ;  such  an  organ  is  an  asexual  reproductive  organ, 


424 


REPRODUCTION 


[VEGETABLE. 


sxual  and  such  cells  are  asexually  produced  spores.  In  the 
latter  case  the  reproductive  organs  are  such  that  they  do 
not  singly  give  rise  to  cells  capable,  each  by  itself,  of 

ms*  developing  into  a  new  organism.  These  are  sexual  repro- 
ductive organs.  In  some  instances  the  sexual  organ  does 
not  give  rise  to  reproductive  cells  at  all  until  it  has 
received  into  itself  more  or  less  of  the  protoplasmic 
contents  of  another  different,  at  least  physiologically, 
sexual  organ ;  and  the  cells  which  it  then  produces  are 
capable,  each  by  itself,  of  developing  into  a  new  organism. 
In  others  the  sexual  organ  produces  reproductive  cells 
without  any  such  previous  fusion  of  protoplasm,  but  the 
cells  thus  produced  are  incapable,  each  by  itself,  of 
developing  into  a  new  organism.  Such  cells  are  sexual 
reproductive  cells.  It  is  only  by  the  fusion  of  two  such 
cells,  physiologically  different,  that  a  reproductive  cell  is 
formed  which  is  capable  of  developing  into  a  new  organism. 
The  fusion  either  of  the  protoplasmic  contents  of  two 
different  sexual  organs  or  of  two  different  sexual  cells 
constitutes  the  sexual  process.  It  may  take  place, 
according  to  circumstances,  either  within  the  organs  or, 
in  those  cases  in  which  sexual  cells  are  produced  and  are 
set  free,  externally  to  them.  The  resulting  cells  are 
sexually  produced  spores. 

In  some  exceptional  cases  the  normal  production,  sexual  or 
asexual,  of  spores  does  not  take  place,  but  the  new  organism  is 
developed  vegetatively  from  the  parent.  When  the  sexual 

ogamy  production  of  spores  is  suppressed,  the  case  is  one  of  apogamy  ; 

[  when  the  asexual  production  of  spores  is  suppressed,  the  case  is  one 

spory.  of  apospory.  The  following  are  instances  of  apogamy  :  in  curtain 
Ferns  (Pteris  cretica,  Aspidium  falcatum)  the  pro  thallium  produces 
no  sexual  organs,  but  the  fern-plant  rises  vegetatively  as  a  bud 
upon  it.  Apospory  has  been  observed  to  occur  in  Mosses  and  in 
some  Ferns  (Athyrium  Filix-fcemina,  Polystichum  angulare) :  in 
Mosses  a  new  plant  may  be  developed  vegetatively  from  the 
tissue  of  the  sporogonium  ;  in  Athyrium  the  sporangium,  instead 
of  producing  spores,  develops  into  a  fern-prothallium.  In  the 
Characeae  apospory  appears  to  be  the  rule.  Apogamy  and  apospory 
•will  be  more  fully  discussed  subsequently  in  connexion  with  the 
subject  of  alternation  of  generations. 

Asexual  Reproduction. — Reproduction  by  means  of 
asexually  produced  spores  is  common  to  nearly  all 
families  of  plants.  It  is  wanting,  among  the  Algae,  in 
the  Conjugatae,  the  Fucacese,  and  the  Characeae ;  among 
the  Fungi,  in  a  few  Peronsporese  (Pythium  vexans,  Arto- 
trogus),  in  Ancylistes  Closterii,  in  Aplanes  Braunii,  among 
the  Saprolegnieae ;  and,  among  the  Ascornycetes,  in  Ere- 
mascus,  Sordaria  (Hypocopra),  Ascobolus  furfuraceus, 
Pyronema  (Peziza)  confluens,  Gymnoascus,  the  Collemaceae, 
and  most  other  Lichen-Fungi. 

relop-       In  the  simplest  case   the  spore  is   developed  from  a 
ntof    single  cell  of  the  plant,  which  surrounds  itself  with  the 
res-      characteristic  thick  wall.     This  occurs  only  in  plants  of 
low  organization ;  Nostoc  and  Bacillus  are  examples  of  it. 
In  other  cases  the  contents  of  the  cell  undergo  division, 
each   portion   of    the   protoplasm   constituting    a   spore. 
Examples  of  this  are  afforded,  among  unicellular  plants, 
by  Yeast  and  Protococcus,  and  in  multicellular  plants  by 
the  Confervacese,  the  Ulvaceae,  and  some  Floridese. 
>r-  In  this  case  each  cell,  the  protoplasm  of  which  divides 

jia.  to  form  spores,  may  be  regarded  as  a  rudimentary 
reproductive  organ  of  the  nature  of  a  sporangium.  In 
more  highly  organized  plants  special  organs  are  differen- 
tiated for  the  production  of  spores.  In  the  majority  of 
cases  the  special  organ  is  a  sporangium,  that  is,  a  hollow 
capsule  in  the  interior  of  which  the  spores  are  developed. 
In  the  Thallophytes  the  sporangium  is  a  single  cell.  In 
the  Muscineae  it  is  a  multicellular  capsule ;  in  Riccia,  in 
which  the  structure  of  the  capsule  is  simple,  the  whole  of 
the  internal  cells  give  rise  by  division  to  spores ;  in  other 
Liverworts,  and  in  the  Mosses,  in  which  the  structure  of 
the  capsule  becomes  progressively  more  and  more  complex, 
a  portion  only  of  the  internal  cells  give  rise  to  spores.  In 


the  Ferns,  Equisetaceic,  and  Lycopodiaceaj  the  sporangium 
is  multicellular,  but  simple  in  structure.     This  is  true  also 
in   the    Rhizocarpos   and   in   the    Ligulatos    (Selaginella, 
Isoetes),  but  in  these  plants  there  is  this  peculiarity  that 
there  are  sporangia  of  two  kinds, — some,  namely,  which 
produce  one,  or  a  few,  large  spores,  macrospores,  and  are 
hence  termed  macrosporangia,  and  others  which  give  rise  to 
a  large  number  of  small  spores,  microspores,  and  are  hence 
termed  microsporangia.     The  Phanerogams  also  bear  two 
kinds  of  sporangia,  which  have  received  special  names  : — 
the  macrosporangium,   which   produces  only  one  mature 
spore,  is  termed  the  ovule ;  the  microsporangium,  which 
produces  a  large  number  of   microspores,  is  termed  the 
pollen-sac.     In  some  cases  among  the  Fungi  the  spores  are  Forma- 
not  produced  in  the  interior  of  a  sporangium,  but  are tion  of 
formed   by  abstriction.     This   occurs  in  some   Mucorini,  sP°r< 
such  as  Chaetocladium,  in  the  Ustilagineae,  the  Entomoph-  ^Oan' 
thorete,    the   Peronosporese,  the   Ascomycetes,  the   Rusts 
(Uredineae),  and  the  Basidiomycetes. 

These   asexually  produced  reproductive  cells  are  com 
mouly  spoken  of  simply  as  spores,  but  in  many  cases  some 
addition  has  been  made  to  the  word,   or  an  altogether 
different  name  is  applied  to  them,  in  order  to  mark  some 
peculiarity  in  their  mode  of  origin,  to  indicate  their  order 
of  development,  or  to  assign  them  without  periphrasis  to 
a  particular  group  of  plants.     Thus,  as  has  been  mentioned,  Tennir 
zoospores  are  motile  spores  unprovided,  for  a  time  at  least,  ology  t 
with  a  cell- wall;  stylospores  are  spores  which  are  developed,  8P°res- 
not  in  sporangia,  but  by  abstriction  as  mentioned  above ; 
tetraspores  is  the  name  given  to  the  spores  of  the  Florideae 
to  denote  the  fact  that  four  spores  are  produced  by  the 
division    of    the     mother-cell.      The   uredospores   of    the 
Uredineae   are    those   which    are   produced    during    the 
summer,  whereas  the  teleutospores  of  these  plants  are  those 
which  are  formed  in  the  autumn,  at  the  end  of  the  period 
of  growth.     It  was  the  custom,  at  one  time,  to  speak  of 
the  spores  of  Fungi  as  conidia;  and  at  the  present  time  the 
macrospores  and  the  microspores  of  Phanerogams  are  better 
known  as  embryo-sacs  and  pollen-grains  respectively. 

The  organs  which  give  rise  to  the  asexually  produced 
spores  are  usually  not  confined  to  a  particular  part  of  the 
plant  in  the  Thallophytes.  Instances  of  this  do,  however, 
occur  among  the  Ascomycetous  Fungi — namely,  in  the 
Pyrenomycetes.  Here  the  production  of  the  stylospores  Pycnii 
takes  place  in  definite  receptacles  known  as  pycnidia. 
In  the  vascular  plants  (Pteridophyta,  Phanerogams),  the 
development  of  sporangia,  speaking  generally,  is  confined 
to  the  leaves.  In  many  of  the  Pteridophyta  the  sporan- 
giferous  leaves  do  not  differ  in  appearance  from  the 
foliage-leaves ;  but  in  other  cases  they  undergo  consider- 
able modification,  as  in  the  Equisetacese,  Marsiliaceae,  some 
species  of  Lycopodium  and  Selaginella,  and  notably  in  the 
Phanerogams.  In  the  Phanerogams  the  modification  is  so  Natur 
great  that  the  sporaugiferous  leaves  have  received  special  a  flow 
names ;  those  which  bear  the  microsporangia  (pollen-sacs) 
are  termed  the  stamens,  and  those  which  bear  the  macro- 
sporangia  (ovules)  are  termed  the  carpels.  When  the 
sporangiferous  leaves  are  thus  modified  they  are  usually 
aggregated  together,  and  such  an  aggregate  of  sporangi- 
ferous leaves  constitutes  a  flower. 

Sexual  Reproduction. — In  nearly  all  classes  of  plants  No  se 
above  the  Protophyta  spores  are  formed  by  a  sexual 
process ;  and  in  those  in  which  no  such  process  can  be 
detected  its  absence  is  due,  not,  as  in  the  Protophyta,  to 
the  fact  that  sexuality  has  not  yet  been  developed,  but  to 
its  gradual  disappearance.  The  phenomena  of  sexual 
reproduction  will  be  most  intelligibly  stated  by  tracing 
them  in  the  different  main  divisions  of  the  Vegetable 
Kingdom — the  Algre,  the  Fungi,  the  Archegoniata,  and  the 
Phanerogams. 


VEGETABLE.] 


REPRODUCTION 


425 


fcn- 

i  of 
u 
01  a. 


The  protophytic  Algee  are  reproduced  by  asexually  developed 
spores,  but  in  some  forms  an  indication  is  already  given  of  the 
differentiation  of  these  spores  into  sexual  reproductive  cells  which 
takes  place  in  the  higher  forms  of  the  group.  In  Protococcus,  for 
instance,  zoospores  are  produced,  but  the  zoospores  are  not  all 
precisely  similar.  In  some  cases  the  protoplasm  of  the  cell  divides 
only  once  or  twice,  the  result  being  the  formation  of  two  or  four 
relatively  large  zoospores,  macrozoospores ;  in  other  cases  the 
protoplasm  divides  a  greater  number  of  times  so  that  a  considerable 
number  of  relatively  small  zoospores,  microzoospores,  are  pro- 
duced. Functionally  these  zoospores  are  alike ;  they  all  come  to 
rest,  and  form  new  Protococci.  Amongst  the  Confervoidae,  which 
are  more  highly  organized  plants  than  the  protophytic  Algae,  we 
find  forms,  of  which  Ulothrix  may  be  taken  as  the  type, 
which  likewise  produce  macrozoospores  and  mierozoospores  in  their 
cells.  The  macrozoospores  of  Ulothrix  simply  come  to  rest  and 
germinate ;  they  are  distinctly  asexual  spores.  The  microzoospores 
may  also  do  this,  but  not  uufrequently  they  coalesce  in  pairs  ;  the 
product  of  fusion,  the  zygospore,  as  it  is  termed,  then  develops  into  a 
Ulothrix  filament.  This  fusion  of  two  similar  reproductive  cells — 
this  conjugation,  as  it  is  termed — is  one  of  the  simplest  forms  of  the 
sexual  process  ;  the  zygospore  is  then  a  sexually  produced  spore, 
and  the  two  cells  which  conjugate  to  form  it  are  spoken  of  as 
gametes,— planogametes  when  they  possess  cilia,  aplanogamctes  when 
they  do  not. 

Comparing  Ulothrix  with  Protococcus,  we  see  that  in  both  the 
macrozoospores  are  asexual  reproductive  cells,  whereas  the  micro- 
zoospores of  Ulothrix  exhibit  an  imperfect  sexuality,  inasmuch  as 
they  may  germinate  without  previous  conjugation.  The  piano- 
gametes  of  Ulothrix  are,  however,  to  be  directly  connected  with 
the  microzoospores  of  Protococcus ;  that  is  to  say,  the  gametes  are 
to  be  traced  back  to  asexual  spores.  This  is  a  point  of  fundamental 
importance. 

Similarly,  in  Botrydium,  one  of  the  Siphoneas,  there  are  two  kinds 
of  zoospores,  some  of  which  are  asexual  and  others  sexual ;  the 
visible  difference  between  them  is,  in  this  case,  not  one  of  size, 
but  the  gametes  have  two  cilia  and  the  zoospores  only  one. 

In  the  conjugation  which  takes  place  in  the  above-mentioned 
plants  the  gametes  are  quite  similar  in  form  and  size,  and  take  an 
equal  part  in  the  formation  of  the  zygospore.  The  first  indication 
of  the  differentiation  of  sexual  gametes  is  afforded  by  Edo- 
carpus  siliculofius  and  Scytosiphon,  belonging  to  the  Phseosporeae. 
The  zoospores  of  these  plants  are  produced  in  well-defined  sporangia, 
some  of  which  are  multilocular  and  others  unilocular.  Inasmuch 
as  only  the  zoospores  developed  in  the  multilocular  sporangia  have 
been  observed  to  conjugate,  that  is,  to  be  gametes,  those  developed 
in  the  unilocular  sporangia  are  probably  asexual.  This  being  so, 
the  multilocular  sporangia  are  to  be  regarded,  not  as  mere 
sporangia,  but  as  sexual  organs  (Gametangia)  producing  sexual 
reproductive  cells.  The  process  of  conjugation  of  the  gametes  is, 
according  to  Berthold,  as  follows  : — the  gametes  are  at  first  quite 
similar  in  every  respect;  some  of  them,  however,  soon  withdraw 
their  cilia  and  come  to  rest,  whereas  others  remain  actively 
motile  ;  one  of  the  still  motile  gametes  then  coalesces  with  one 
which  has  come  to  rest  to  form  a  zygospore.  The  gametes  in  this 
case  behave  differently  in  the  process  of  conjugation  :  the  one  is 
passive,  the  other  active  ;  the  former  is  to  be  regarded  as  the 
female,  and  the  latter  as  the  male  reproductive  cell.  But  even  in 
this  case  the  gametes,  if  they  fail  to  conjugate,  can  germinate 
independently. 

In  Cutleria  the  sexual  differentiation  of  the  reproductive  cells  is 
more  marked  ;  the  male  and  female  cells  are  developed  in  distinct 
sporangia,  which  may  be  termed  respectively  antheridia  and 
oogonia,  two  male  cells  being  formed  in  each  antheridium,  and  one 
female  cell  in  each  oogonium  ;  the  female  cell  is  considerably 
larger  than  the  male,  but  they  are  both  planogametes,  that  is, 
conjugating  cells  which  swim  by  means  of  cilia  ;  the  female  cell, 
however,  soon  withdraws  its  cilia  and  comes  to  rest,  and  then 
conjugation  takes  place,  with  the  formation  of  a  zygospore,  much 
in  the  same  way  as  in  Ectocarpus  described  above. 

The  next  stage  in  the  sexual  differentiation  of  the  Algae  is  to  be 
found  in  such  forms  as  Volvox,  Vaucheria,  (Edogonium,  Fucus,  and 
the  Characeae.  In  these  plants,  as  in  Cutleria,  the  reproductive 
cells  are  entirely  incapable  of  independent  germination  ;  they  have 
lost  altogether  that  characteristic  property  of  spores  ;  as  in  Cutleria 
also  they  are  developed  in  two  kinds  of  sporangia — antheridia  and 
oogouia — and  they  are  very  different  from  each  other  in  their  form, 
size,  and  behaviour.  In  most  cases  the  oogbniiuu  gives  rise  to  a 
single  relatively  large  cell ,  the  oosphere,  which  is  at  no  time  provided 
with  cilia,  and  is  not  set  free  from  the  oogouium  ;  in  some  of  the 
Fucacese,  there  may,  however,  be  two  (Pelvetia),  four  (Ozothallia 
[Ascophyllum]),  or  eight  (Fucus)  oospheres  produced  in  each 
oogouium,  and  in  all  the  Fucaceae  the  oospheres  are  set  free  from 
the  oogonium.  The  antheridium  gives  rise  to  a  large  number  of 
small  ciliated  cells,  the  antherozoids,  one  of  which  subsequently  fuses 
with  the  oosphere.  The  coalescence  of  two  such  highly  differen- 
tiated sexual  cells  is  termed  fertilization,  to  distinguish  it  from 


the  conjugation  of  similar  sexual  cells,  and  the  product  of  fertiliza- 
tion is  termed  an  oospore,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  product  of 
conjugation,  the  zygospore.  In  these  plants  the  antherozoids 
still  retain  the  essential  characters  of  planogametes,  whereas  the 
oospheres  have  lost  them. 

But  it  is  not  in  all  Alga?  that  sexual  reproduction  is  effected  by  Sexual 
the  fusion  of  well-defined  sexual  cells.  In  the  Florideae  the  sexual  reproduc- 
reproductive  organs  are  well  differentiated.  The  male  organ  is  an  tion  of 
antheridium  which  produces  antherozoids  ;  but  these  antherozoids  Floridese. 
are  peculiar  in  that  they  have  no  cilia,  and  are  surrounded  by  a 
cell-wall ;  they  are  frequently,  on  this  account,  termed  spermatia. 
The  female  organ  is  termed  a  procarpium  or  carpogonium ;  it  may 
consist  of  one  or  many  cells,  but  in  all  cases  it  consists  of  a  pro- 
jecting filament,  the  trichogyne,  and  a  more  expanded  basal 
portion.  It  is  peculiar  in  that  no  well-defined  oosphere  exists 
within  it.  Fertilization  is  effected  by  the  antherozoid  (spermatium) 
being  passively  brought  into  contact  with  the  trichogyne  ;  complete 
fusion  then  takes  place,  the  contents  of  the  spermatium  passing 
into  the  trichogyne ;  the  trichogyne  now  withers,  and  changes  take 
place  in  the  basal  portion  of  the  procarpium,  one  or  more  of  the  cells 
termed  carpogenous  cells  divide,  and  by  a  process  of  budding  give 
rise  to  a  cluster  of  cells  which  are  capable  of  germinating,  and  pro- 
duce new  plants ;  these  are  termed  carpospores.  At  the  same  time 
the  cluster  of  spores  frequently  becomes  surrounded  by  an  up- 
growth of  tissue  ;  the  mature  fructification  is  termed  a  cystocarp. 
From  the  female  organ  of  the  Floridese  there  are,  then,  formed,  in 
consequence  of  fertilization,  a  number  of  reproductive  cells,  the 
carpospores,  each  of  which  corresponds  to  the  oospore  of  plants 
like  Fucus,  Vaucheria,  &c.  A  more  detailed  comparison  with 
Fucus  makes  this  correspondence  at  once  apparent.  In  Fucus  the 
contents  of  the  female  organ  (oogonium),  which  is  a  single  cell, 
divide  into  eight  oospheres,  which  are  subsequently  fertilized  ;  in 
the  Florideae  there  is,  before  fertilization,  no  differentiated  oosphere, 
but  the  organ,  as  a  whole,  is  fertilized  by  the  spermatium,  and  it 
is  in  this  case  after,  and  not  before,  fertilization,  as  in  the  case  of 
Fucus,  that  a  process  of  cell -formation  takes  place  in  the  female 
organ  ;  hence  the  reproductive  cells  formed  by  the  fertilized  female 
organ  of  the  Florideae  are  at  once  fertile,  and  correspond  to  the 
fertilized  oospheres  (oospores)  of  Fucus. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  sexual  reproduction  of  some  of  the 
Floridese  are  of  sufficient  general  interest  to  be  mentioned  here. 

In  the  Corallines,  according  to  Solms-Laubach,  the  procarpia 
are  produced  several  together  in  a  conceptacle  ;  it  is,  however,  only 
the  central  procarpia  of  the  group  which  are  capable  of  being 
fertilized,  and  the  peripheral  procarpia  which  produce  carpospores. 
After  the  fertilization  of  the  central  procarpia,  the  carpogenous 
cells  of  the  whole  of  the  procarpia  fuse  together  to  form  one  large 
cell  from  the  periphery  of  which  the  carpospores  are  produced  by 
budding. 

This  physiological  division  of  labour  is  more  marked  in  Dud- 
resnaya,  and  a  few  other  Florideae.  In  these  plants  some  of  the 
procarpia  are  destitute  of  a  trichogyne,  whereas  others  possess  that 
organ.  The  spermatia  fertilize  those  procarpia  which  possess  a 
trichogyne,  but  these  procarpia  do  not  produce  carpospores  ;  but 
there  grow  out  from  them  filaments  which  fertilize  the  procarpia 
destitute  of  a  trichogyne,  and  these  then  give  rise  to  carpospores. 

The  development  of  the  carpospores  in  the  Bangiacese  (Bangia, 
Porphyra)  is  peculiar.  The  carpogenous  cell  does  not  in  this  case, 
as  in  other  Florideaa,  produce  spores  by  budding,  but  its  proto- 
plasm divides  into  eight  portions  ;  these  are  set  free  as  naked 
masses  of  protoplasm,  which  move  about  for  a  time  in  an  amoeboid 
manner  and  then  come  to  rest  and  surround  themselves  with  a  cell- 
wall. 

In  some  of  the  higher  Algse,  namely,  in  the  Sphacelarieae  and  in  No  sexual 
the  Laminariese,  families  belonging  to  the  Phasosporeas,  no  sexual  process 
process  has  been  observed  as  yet ;  but,  as  our  knowledge  of  the  observed 
life-history  of  these  plants  is  imperfect,  it   cannot  be  definitely  in  some 
stated  at  present  that  they  are  entirely  asexual.        .  Algfc. 

In  the  somewhat  aberrant  group  of  the  Conjugatae  the  sexual  Con- 
process  is  peculiar.  In  the  Desmidieae  and  the  Mesocarpese  it  is  jugatse. 
effected  in  this  way,  that  two  adjacent  cells,  belonging  usually  to 
different  filaments,  throw  out  corresponding  lateral  protuberances 
which  meet,  and,  the  intervening  walls  being  absorbed,  form  a 
canal  placing  the  cavities  of  the  two  cells  in  direct  communication  ; 
the  protoplasm  of  each  cell  contracts,  forming  an  aplanogamete, 
and  travels  into  the  canal,  where  the  two  masses  meet  and  fuse. 
This  is  clearly  a  process  of  conjugation,  similar  to  that  of  piano- 
gametes,  and  the  product  is  likewise  a  single  cell  which  is  termed 
a  zygospore.  In  the  Zygnemeae,  of  which  Spirogyra  is  a  familiar 
example,  the  process  is  slightly  different.  Here  the  protoplasm  of 
one  of  the  two  conjugating  organs  contracts  first  and  passes  over 
into  the  cavity  of  the  other,  there  to  fuse  with  its  protoplasm. 

Turning  now  to  the  Fungi,  we  find  that  in  the  simplest  forms  Fungi. 
(Schizomycetes,    Sacchaiomycetes)   there    is    no   trace   of    sexual 
reproduction,  whereas  in  the  higher  forms,  with  some  exceptions, 
sexual  reproductive  organs  are  present,  though  they  are  in  many 
cases  functionless. 

XX  —  54 


426 


REPRODUCTION 


[VEGETABLE. 


The  lowest  Fungi  in  which  a  sexual  process  has  been  observed 
are  the  Chytridiaceae  (Polyphagua  Englcnte),  the  Mucorini,  and  the 
Entomophthorene.  In  these,  when  it  occurs,  it  takes  the  form  of 
conjugation,  with  the  production  of  zygospores.  Conjugation  is 
here  effected  in  essentially  the  same  manner  as  that  described 
above  for  the  conjugation  among  the  Algae,  by  the  fusion  of  two 
similar  sexual  organs.  Conjugation  of  planogametes  has  been 
observed  by  Sorokin  in  Tetrachytrium  and  in  Haplocystis,  pro- 
bably belonging  to  the  Chytridiacere,  a  fact  of  some  interest  as  it 
is  the  only  case  of  this  form  of  the  sexual  process  known  in  the 
Fungi 

In  Protomyces  and  the  Ustilaginece  a  process  takes  place  which 
appears  to  be  of  a  sexual  nature,  resembling  the  conjugation  of  the 
Mucorini.  Certain  reproductive  cells  of  an  elongated  form,  termed 
sporidia,  are  produced,  which  become  connected  by  a  transverse 
canal  so  that  they  then  resemble  the  letter  H.  No  zygospore  is 
formed,  but  the  conjugated  sporidia  are  its  equivalent.  The 
question  of  the  sexual  nature  of  this  process  is  still  under  discus- 
sion, but  it  is  made  highly  probable  by  the  fact  that,  in  all  fully 
investigated  cases,  the  sporidia  are  incapable  of  independent 
germination. 

In  the  allied  groups  of  the  Peronosporese  and  Saprolegnieae  two 
kinds  of  sexual  organs  are  present,  male  and  female,  which  corre- 
spond to  the  antheridia  and  oogonia  of  the  Algae.  The  female 
organ  is  here  also  termed  an  oogonium,  and,  like  that  of  the  Alga, 
it  may  produce  one  oosphere  (Peronosporece)  or  many  (most 
Saprolegniese).  The  male  organ  is  also  usually  termed  an  anthe- 
ridium,  but  it  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  pollinodium  on  account 
of  the  mode  in  which  it  effects  the  fertilization  of  the  oosphere. 
In  one  of  the  plants  allied  to  these  groups — namely,  in  Monoble- 
pharis  sphserica,  according  to  Cornu — the  protoplasm  of  the 
antheridium  becomes  differentiated  into  motile  antherozoids  ;  this 
is  the  only  case  of  the  kind  known  among  the  Fungi.  In  the 
other  members  of  these  groups  in  which  fertilization  takes  place 
the  antheridium  lies  in  contact  with  the  oogonium,  and  produces 
at  its  apex  a  delicate  tubular  outgrowth,  which  bores  its  way  through 
the  wall  of  the  oogonium  and  comes  into  contact  with-an  oosphere  ; 
the  tube  then  opens,  and  protoplasm  from  the  antheridium  passes 
through  into  the  oosphere  and  fuses  with  it  to  form  an  oospore. 
Sexual  In  the  Ascomycetes  sexual  organs  are  very  commonly  present, 
organs  of  but  it  is  only  in  a  few  cases  that  a  sexual  process  has  been  observed 
Ascomy-  actually  to  take  place.  The  sexual  organs  differ  considerably  in 
cetes.  their  form  in  the  different  genera.  In  some  (e.g.,  Gymnoascus, 
Eremascus,  Eurotium,  Penicillium)  the  sexual  organs  are  similar  ; 
they  are  unicellular  or  multicellular  hyphae,  but  in  some  the 
female  organ,  termed  in  the  Ascomycetes  the  ascogonium  or  carpo- 
gonium,  may  be  distinguished  from  the  male  organ,  which  is  a 
pollinodial  antheridium  like  that  of  the  Peronosporese,  in  that  it 
is  wound  into  a  close  spiral.  In  others  (e.g.,  Erysipheae,  Ascobolus, 
Pyronema  [Peziza]  conftuens)  the  sexual  organs  are  readily  dis- 
tinguishable. In  the  Erysipheae  and  in  Pyronema  the  ascogonium 
is  a  single  relatively  large  ovoid  cell  ;  that  of  Pyronema  produces 
a  delicate  tubular  outgrowth,  the  trichogyne  ;  the  antheridium 
also  is  unicellular,  but  it  is  more  slender.  In  Ascobolus  the 
ascogonium  consists  of  a  row  of  five  or  six  relatively  large  cells ; 
the  antheridium  is  a  slender  multicellular  hypha.  In  all  these 
cases  the  sexual  organs  are  developed  in  such  close  proximity  to 
each  other  that  they  come  into  contact.  In  other  Ascomycetes 
l>elonging  to  the  Discomycetous  Lichens  (Colleina,  Synechoblastus, 
Leptogium,  Physma),  and  to  the  Pyrenomycetes  (Polystigma),  the 
antheridial  filaments,  termed  sterigmata,  are  developed  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  female  organ  in  separate  receptacles,  spermogonia. 
In  this  case  the  formation  of  male  cells  is  a  necessity.  Accordingly 
cells,  termed  spermatia,  are  produced  from  the  sterigmata  by 
abstriction,  which  resemble  the  male  cells  of  the  Floridese  in  that 
they  are  non-motile  and  have  a  cell-wall. 

With  regard  to  the  process  of  fertilization,  it  must  be  premised 
that  in  no  Ascomycete  is  the  protoplasm  of  the  ascogonium  ever 
differentiated  into  an   oosphere.     When   the    sexual  organs   are 
ascogonia  and  pollinodial  antheridia,  fertilization  takes  place  by 
the  fusion  of  the  undifferentiated  protoplasmic  contents  of  the  two 
organs,  a  mode  of  fertilization  which  recalls  the  conjugation  in  the 
Mucorini,  and  in  the  Conjugate  among  the  Algae.     This  has  only 
been  observed  to  take  place  in  Eremascus  and  in  Pyronema;  in 
the  latter  the  antheridium  applies  its  apex  to  the  trichogyne  of 
the  ascogonium,  the  intervening  walls  are  absorbed,  and  the  pro- 
toplasm of  the  two  organs  coalesces.     Although  this  process  of 
fertilization  resembles  the  conjugation  occurring  in  the  Mucorini, 
the  product  is  very  different.     The  product  of  conjugation  in  the 
Mucorini  is  a  single  cell,  the  zygospore  ;  the  product  of  fertiliza- 
Asco-       tion  in  the  Ascomycetes  is  a    number  of  cells,  termed  ascospores  or 
spores      carpospores.     Thus  in  Eremascus  the  product  of  fertilization  is  a 
the  pro-   unicellular    capsule,   the  ascus,    in  which  eight    ascospores    are 
duct  of    formed.     In   Pyronema  the   fertilized  ascogonium   enlarges  and 
fertiliza-  gives  rise  to  a  number  of  outgrowths  which  produce  asci ;  at  the 
tion.         same  time  a  number  of  hyphaj  grow  up  from  below  around  the 
developing  asci,  some  of  which  produce  delicate  filaments,  termed 


paraphyscs,  which  lie  amongst  the  asci,  whereas  others  form  an 
investing  wall.     The  result  is  the  formation  of  a  fructification 
termed  an    apothcciiim.     Within    each    ascus    eight    spores   are 
formed. 

In  those  Ascomy retes  which  have  spermatia  fertilization  is 
effected,  as  in  the  Floridere  among  the  Algae,  by  the  fusion  of  a 
spcrmatium  with  the  trichogyue.  The  result  is  the  saino  as  in 
Pyronema  :  the  fertilized  ascogonium  gives  rise  to  hyj>lui>  which 
bear  asci,  and  these,  together  with  sterile  hyphre,  form  a  fructi- 
fication. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  similarity  between  the  products  of 
fertilization  in  these  Ascomycetes  and  in  the  Floridese.  In  both 
cases  the  female  organ  produces  no  differentiated  oosphere,  and  in 
both  cases  the  product  of  its  fertilization  is  a  many-spored  fructi- 
fication. It  was  pointed  out,  in  speaking  of  the  Floridese,  that 
each  carpospore  is  the  equivalent  of  a  fertilized  oosphere  (oospore)  ; 
this  holds  good  also  with  regard  to  the  carpospores  (ascospores)  of 
the  Ascomycetes. 

It  may  be  that  a  similar  sexual  process  takes  place  in  the  other 
forms  mentioned  above,  viz.,  the  Erysipheae,  Penicillium,  Sordaria, 
&c.,  but  it  has  not  been  observed  ;  in  any  case,  the  ascogonium  in 
all  these  plants  gives  rise  to  asci  and  ascospores,  and  a  more  or  less 
complex  fructification  is  produced.     But  th^ere  is  also  some  ground  Seru; 
for  believing  that  in  some  at  least  of  these  cases  the  sexual  organs,  clegei  - 
though  morphologically  differentiated,  are  functionless.     For  there  tion 
are  clear  indications  of  sexual  degeneration  in  the  Ascomycetes.  Asco 
In  some  cases,  for  instance  (e.g.,  Chsetomium,  Melanospora),  no  cetes 
antheridium  can  be  distinguished,  but  the  ascogonium  eventually 
produces   asci  nevertheless.     In   others   (e.g.,  Xylaria,    as  far  as 
known   at  present)  no  male  organ  is  produced,  but   there  is  an 
ascogonium  which  does  not,  however,  give  rise  to  asci ;  the  asci, 
as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  fructification,  arise  from  the  vegetative 
hyphae.     In  others,  again  (e.g.,  Claviceps,  Cordiceps,  Pleospora), 
all  trace  of  the  sexual  organs  has  disappeared,  but  a  fructification 
containing  ascospores  is  produced,  as  in  Xylaria,  from  the  vegeta- 
tive hyphos.     In  others,  finally,  no  ascospores  are  known,  the  only 
reproductive  cells   being  the    characteristic    asexually  produced 
stylospores. 

In  the  remaining  groups  of  Fungi,  the  Uredinese  and  the  Basidio-  Fun  a! 
mycetes,  no  sexual  reproduction  is  known.     In  the  Basidiomycetes  whi.    , 
no  kind  of  sexual  organ  has  been  discovered.     In  the  Uredinea?  sexi    ' 
spermatia  are  commonly  produced,  as  in  the  Ascomycetes  mentioned  repi  c- 
above,    but  no  female  organ  is  known  ;  however,  fructifications  tion  u 
termed  eecidia  are   in   some   cases    developed.      These    resemble  kno    j 
somewhat  those  of  the  Ascomycetes,  but  differ  in  that  here  the 
spores  (ascidiospores)  are  formed  by  abstriction,  and  not  in  asci  as 
in  the  Ascomycetes. 

It  may  be  suggested  that  the  ascospores  of  the  asexual  Ascomy- 
cetes and  the  aecidiospores  of  the  Uredineae  should  not  be  included 
in  an  account  of  the  sexual  reproduction  of  the  Fungi.  It  is  true 
that  these  spores  are  asexually  produced,  but  their  evident  homo- 
logy  with  the  sexually  produced  spores  makes  it  inconvenient  to 
treat  of  them  apart.  They  differ  from  the  sexually  produced  spores 
in  that  they  are  developed  apogamously. 

Under  the  name  Archegoniata  we  may  conveniently  group  An 
together  the  Muscineae  and  the  Vascular  Cryptogams  ( Plerido-  goi  .  1 
phyta).  The  sexual  organs,  as  also  the  process  of  fertilization,  are 
essentially  the  same  throughout.  The  female  organ  produces  a 
single  oosphere,  and  is  termed  an  ctrchcgonium ;  it  is  essentially 
similar  to  the  oogonium  of  the  Thallophytes,  the  only  difference 
being  that,  whereas  the  archcgonium  is  multicellular,  the  oogonium 
is  unicellular.  The  male  organ,  here  also  termed  the  antheridium, 
is  likewise  multicellular,  and  gives  rise  to  a  larger  or  smaller 
number  of  motile  antherozoids.  Fertilization  is  effected  by  the 
fusion  of  an  antherozoid  with  the  oosphere,  which  then  clothes 
itself  with  a  cell-wall  and  becomes  an  oospore. 

In  the  Phanerogams  the  sexual  organs  are  essentially  of  the  Ph  > 
nature  of  archegonia  and  of  antheridia,  but  they  are  somewhat  gai 
modified  and  are  called  by  other  names.  The  female  organ  of  the 
Gynmosperms,  termed  a  corpusculum,  closely  resembles  the  archc- 
gonium of  the  Archegoniata,  and  produces  a  single  oosphere.  In 
the  Angiosperms,  the  female  organ  is  much  reduced,  consisting 
only  of  three  cells,  one  of  which  is  the  oosphere,  the  other  two 
being  the  syncrgidas  which  assist  in  the  process  of  fertilization  ; 
the  organ  is  termed  the  egg-apparatus.  The  male  organ  in  the 
Phanerogams  is  a  unicellular  filament  termed  the  pollen-tube  ;  its 
protoplasm  does  not  undergo  differentiation  into  antherozoids. 
The  sexual  organs  of  the  Phanerogams  recall  those  of  the  Perono- 
sporese and  the  SaprolegnietE  ;  in  both  cases  the  female  organ  pro- 
duces an  oosphere,  and  in  neither  does  the  protoplasm  of  the 
antheridium  produce  antherozoids.  The  process  of  fertilization 
will  be  described  subsequently. 

Physiology  of  Reproduction. — From  the  fact  that  in 
even  the  most  highly  organized  plants  an  isolated  portion 
of  one  member  is  capable  of  producing,  not  merely  a 
member  like  itself,  but  other  members  also,  so  that  a  new 


VEGETABLE.] 


REPRODUCTION 


427 


individual  is  constituted,  it  is  clear  that  the  protoplasm  of 
plants  is  imperfectly  differentiated  physiologically.  Never- 
theless all  plants  produce  cells  to  which  the  work  of  repro- 
duction is  especially  assigned.  It  is  of  interest  to  recall  the 
fact  that  a  suppression  of  spore-formation,  either  asexual  or 
sexual,  may  occur,  and  vegetative  multiplication  be  reverted 
to,  as  in  aposporous  and  some  apogamous  plants. 

It  has  been  shown  above  that  the  reproductive  cells  of 
plants  are  of  two  kinds — those,  namely,  which  are  indivi- 
dually capable,  and  those  which  are  individually  incapable, 
of  giving  rise  to  a  new  organism  ;  the  former  are  the 
:.e:nl  asexual,  the  latter  the  sexual  reproductive  cells.  It  has 
'•!  also  been  indicated  that  the  latter  are  to  be  regarded  as 
derivatives  of  the  former,  a  point  which  may  now  be 
xia]f  somewhat  more  fully  established.  It  was  pointed  out, 
namely,  that  the  gametes  of  Ulothrix  will,  if  they  fail  to 
conjugate,  germinate  independently;  the  sexual  differen- 
tiation of  these  gametes  is  clearly  imperfect,  and  they 
differ  but  little  from  asexual  zoospores.  The  same  thing 
has  been  observed  in  Botrydium,  and  this  is  a  specially 
interesting  case  inasmuch  as  it  throws  some  light  upon  the 
conditions  which  determine  sexual  differentiation  of  the 
reproductive  cells  in  these  lowly  organized  plants.  It  has 
been  ascertained  that  the  nature  of  the  cells  produced  from 
the  resting-spore,  in  the  manner  described  above,  depends 
upon  the  age  of  the  spore  producing  them  :  when  the  spore 
is  young,  the  cells  produced  by  it  are  sexual  gametes ;  if 
they  fail  to  conjugate  they  perish ;  when  the  spore  is  old, 
the  cells  produced  by  it  are  entirely  asexual  zoospores ;  they 
never  conjugate,  but  each  by  itself  gives  rise  to  a  new  indi- 
vidual. The  imperfect  sexual  differentiation  of  the  gametes 
has  also  been  observed  in  Ectocarpus ;  if  they  fail  to  con- 
jugate they  germinate  independently.  The  occurrence  of 
this  in  Ectocarpus  is  rather  surprising  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  the  gametes  of  this  plant  are  to  some  extent 
sexually  differentiated  as  male  and  female  (see  above). 

From  these  cases  in  which  the  typically  sexual  repro- 
ductive cells  still  possess  the  properties  of  asexual  spores 
we  pass  to  others,  like  Acetabularia,  in  which  they  have 
entirely  lost  these  properties.  The  planogametes  of  this 
plant  are  definitely  sexual ;  but  they  are  quite  similar,  as 
far  as  external  appearance  goes,  to  each  other ;  there  is  no 
perceptible  distinction  between  male  and  female  cells.  This 
is  the  case  also  in  the  Mesocarpeae  and  the  Desmidiese 
among  the  Conjugate ;  here  the  non-ciliated  conjugating 
masses  of  protoplasm  (aplanogametes)  are  externally  similar 
Dn-en-  and  take  an  equal  part  in  the  sexual  process.  In  Cutleria 
°^  the  planogametes,  and  in  the  Zygnemeae  the  aplanogametes, 
to  ile  £iye  indications  of  further  sexual  differentiations  ;  in  Cut- 
3e,.  leria  the  female  gamete  is  much  larger  than  the  male  and 
comes  sooner  to  rest ;  in  the  Zygnemese  the  one  aplanoga- 
mete  passes  over  into  the  cell  producing  the  other  aplano- 
gamete  and  fuses  with  it ;  the  former  is  to  be  regarded  as 
male,  the  latter  as  female.  Finally,  in  the  oosporous 
Algas,  in  the  Muscineae,  and  in  the  Pteridophyta  the  two 
cells  are  quite  distinct  in  form,  size,  and  behaviour ;  the 
male  cell  (antherozoid)  alone  retains  the  character  of  a 
planogamete,  the  female  (oosphere)  is  non-motile  and  is 
many  times  larger  than  the  antherozoid.  In  this  series  the 
gradual  differentiation  of  the  highly  differentiated  sexual 
cells  from  asexual  cells  can  be  clearly  traced. 

If  the  sexual  reproductive  cells  are  to  be  traced  back  to 

lived    af:<3xual  sP°res,  then  the  organs  which  produce  the  sexual 

fia       reproductive  cells  are  also  to  be  forced  back  to  those  which 

produce  the  asexual  spores,  namely,  the  sporangia;  the 

a'a.      most  highly  differentiated  sexual  organ — the  antheridium, 

the   oogonium,    the    archegonium,    the    carpogonium — is 

derived  from  the  sporangium. 

The  question  now  arises  as  to  the  nature  of  the  differ- 
ence between  sexual  and  asexual  reproductive  cells.     It 


would  appear  that  the  former  are  in  some  way  incomplete, 
that  something  is  lacking  to  them  which  the  latter  possess, 
and  that  this  lack  is  supplied  in  the  sexual  process.     In 
many  cases  facts  have  been  observed  in  connexion  with 
the  development  of  the  sexual  cells  which  indicate  that 
they  are  thus  incomplete.     In  Acetabularia  the  whole  of  Difference 
the  protoplasm  of  the  gametangium  is  not  used  up  in  the  between 
formation  of  the  gametes,  and-  in  the  Peronosporeae  only  a  !^ual 
portion  of  the   protoplasm   of   the  oogonium  forms  the  asexual 
oosphere ;    the  remainder  is    simply  the   periplasm.     In  cells. 
Vaucheria  and  other  Algae  a  mass  of  protoplasm  escapes 
from  the  oogonium  when  it  opens.     In  other  cases  a  pro- 
cess of  cell-division  has  been  observed  to  accompany  the 
formation  of  the  oosphere  which  recalls  the  production  of 
the  "  polar  bodies  "  in  the  developing  eggs  of  animals.     In 
the  Archegoniata  the  central  cell  of  the  archegonium  does 
not  directly  give  rise  to  the  egg,  but  a  portion,  the  ventral 
canal-cell,  is  first  cut  off ;  this  takes  place  also  in  the  cor- 
pusculum  of  most  Gymnosperms.    Similarly  in  the  develop- 
ment of  antherozoids,  the  whole  of  the  protoplasm  of  the 
mother-cell  is  never  used  up  in  their  formation. 

In  the  germinating  microspore  of  most  of  the  Heterosporous 
Vascular  Cryptogams  and  of  the  Phanerogams  a  process  of  cell- 
division  takes  place  which  Strasburger  interprets  as  the  formation 
of  a  polar  body.  The  protoplasm  of  the  microspore  undergoes 
division  so  that  two  cells  are  formed,  which  may  be  distinguished 
as  the  vegetative  and  the  generative,  the  former  being  much  smaller 
than  the  latter  in  the  Vascular  Cryptogams  and  in  the  Gymno- 
sperms, whereas  in  the  Angiosperms  the  converse  is  the  case ; 
usually  the  separation  of  the  two  cells  is  permanent,  but  in  most 
Angiosperms  it  is  transitory,  the  only  permanent  indication  of  the 
cell-division  being  the  presence  of  two  nuclei  in  the  pollen -grain; 
in  some  Gymnosperms  two  or  three  more  vegetative  cells  may  be 
cut  off  from  the  generative  cell.  The  antheridium  is  in  all  cases 
formed  from  the  generative  cell.  These  vegetative  cells  Stras- 
burger regards  as  o'f  the  nature  of  polar  bodies.  The  nucleus  of 
the  generative  cell  undergoes  division,  to  form  in  the  Heterosporous 
Vascular  Cryptogams  the  nuclei  of  the  mother-cells  of  the  anthero- 
zoids, and  in  the  Phanerogams  the  nuclei  which  take  part  in  the 
sexual  process,  as  will  be  more  fully  described  below. 

The  assumption  of  the  incompleteness  of  the  sexual 
cells  may  be  extended  to  those  sexual  reproductive  organs 
which,  like  the  procarpia  of  the  Flor ideas,  the  pollinodial 
antheridia  of  the  Peronosporeae,  the  ascogonium  and  pol- 
linodial antheridia  of  the  sexual  Ascomycetes,  do  not  give 
rise  to  differentiated  sexual  cells. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  sexual  reproductive 
cells  are  spores  which,  by  the  loss  of  certain  of  their  con- 
stituents, have  undergone  sexual  differentiation,  and  that 
those  sexual  organs  which  directly  take  part  in  the  sexual 
process  without  the  intervention  of  reproductive  cells  are 
sporangia  which  have  undergone  sexual  differentiation  in 
the  same  way.  This  is  finally  proved  by  the  fact  that  in 
cases  in  which  the  normal  phenomena  of  sexual  differen- 
tiation do  not  take  place  the  reproductive  cells  can  ger-  Partheno- 
minate  without  fertilization,  and  the  female  sexual  organ  genesis, 
can  produce,  without  fertilization,  cells  capable  of  germina- 
tion. These  cases  are  examples  of  that  form  of  apogamy 
which  is  known  as  parthenogenesis.  Parthenogenesis  in 
plants  producing  differentiated  sexual  cells  has  been  observed 
in  the  Mucorini,  the  Entomophthorece,  and  the  Saproleg- 
nieae  among  the  Fungi,  and  in  Chara  crinita  among  the 
Algse.  In  some  Mucorini  (occasionally  in  Absidia  septata, 
A.  capillata,  Muco  fusiger,  Sporodinia,  always  in  Mucor 
tenuis)  and  in  some  Entomophthorese,  namely,  the  conjugat- 
ing hyphaa  remained  closed,  and  the  protoplasmic  contents 
of  each  surrounds  itself  with  a  cell-wall,  the  cells  thus  pro- 
duced being  quite  similar  to  the  normal  zygospore ;  these 
cells  are  termed  azygospores.  In  the  Saprolegnieas  and 
in  Chara  crinita  the  oospheres  behave  like  oospores  and 
germinate  in  the  same  manner.  The  details  of  the 
development  of  these  asexual  sexual  reproductive  cells 
has  been  fully  investigated  by  De  Bary  in  the  case  of  the 


428 


REPRODUCTION 


[VEGETABLE. 


oospheres  of  the  Saprolegnieae.  In  this  case  that  differen- 
tiation of  the  protoplasm  of  the  oogonium  into  ooplasm 
and  peripiasm  which  has  been  described  above  as  occurring 
in  the  closely  allied  and  completely  sexual  Peronosporeae 
does  not  take  place,  but  the  whole  is  used  in  the  formation 
of  the  oospheres.  It  is  quite  clear  also  that  in  the  Sapro- 
legnieae  no  sexual  process  takes  place.  In  some  species  of 
Saprolegnia  the  antheridia  are  altogether  absent,  in  others 
they  are  rudimentary,  and  even  in  those  Saprolegnieae 
(some  species  of  Saprolegnia,  Achlya,  Aphanomyces)  in 
which  the  antheridia  are  well-developed  they  remained 
closed.  No  case  is  known  of  male  parthenogenesis,  that 
is,  of  the  development  of  an  individual  from  a  male  repro- 
ductive cell,  among  plants  in  which  the  sexual  differentia- 
tion of  the  reproductive  cells  is  well-marked,  but  there  are 
instances  of  the  kind  in  more  lowly  organized  plants. 
Thus  in  the  Mucorini,  mentioned  above,  one  of  the  azygo- 
spores  produced  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  male 
organ ;  again,  in  Ectocarpus  the  male  planogamete  germi- 
nates independently  as  well  as  the  female.  Among  plants 
the  sexual  organs  of  which  do  not  produce  specialized  re- 
productive cells  instances  of  parthenogenesis  also  occur. 
Thus  the  spores  (ascospores)  which  are  produced  by  the 
female  organ  (ascogonium)  of  those  Ascomycetes,  such  as 
the  Erysiphese,  Penicillium,  Melanospora,  Xylaria,  in  which 
the  male  organ  is  f  unctionless  or  absent  can  only  be  regarded 
as  being  parthenogenetically  produced. 

Admitting,  then,  that  sexual  differ  from  asexual 
reproductive  cells  in  the  lack  of  something  which  the 
latter  possess,  and  which  was  thrown  off  either  from  the 
former  or  from  the  organs  which  produce  them,  we  may 
go  on  to  inquire  what  this  something  may  be.  Our  in- 
formation on  this  point  is  very  scanty,  but  Strasburger's 
ise  of  views  throw  some  light  upon  it.  He  considers,  namely, 
uality.  that  the  formative  processes  of  the  cell  are  regulated  by 
the  hyaline  plasma  of  the  nucleus — the  nucleo-idioplasma, 
as  he  terms  it ;  the  richer  the  nucleus  is  in  this  substance 
the  more  capable  is  the  cell  of  producing  new  cells.  The 
asexual  reproductive  cells  are  then  cells  the  nuclei  of  which 
are  especially  rich  in  this  substance.  He  considers  that 
the  differences  between  asexual  and  sexual  reproductive 
cells  is  quantitative  and  not  qualitative — that  the  nuclei  of 
the  former  are  rich  in  nucleo-idioplasma,  those  of  the  latter 
poor,  either  originally  or  by  the  throwing  off  of  part  of 
their  substance  in  the  mode  described  above.  In  en- 
deavouring to  account  for  the  further  differentiation  of 
sexual  reproductive  cells  into  male  and  female,  it  seems 
natural  to  suggest  that  the  respective  nuclei  have  under- 
gone a  qualitative  differentiation,  and  that  in  the  sexual 
process  the  qualitative,  as  well  as  the  quantitative, 
incompleteness  of  each  is  made  good.  Strasburger  is, 
however,  strongly  of  opinion  that  this  is  not  so,  but  that 
the  difference  is  purely  quantitative.  But  it  must  be 
pointed  out  that,  according  to  this  view,  there  is  no 
reason  why  a  sexual  process  should  not  take  place,  either 
between  two  male  cells  or  organs,  or  between  two  female 
cells  or  organs,  a  possibility  which  is  never  realized,  nor  is 
it  possible  to  account  for  the  fact  to  be  subsequently  dis- 
cussed that  in  many  cases  a  sexual  process  cannot  take  place 
between  sexual  cells  or  organs  of  a  closely-allied  origin. 

The  nature  of  the  sexual  process  will  be  better  under- 
stood by  a  detailed  description  of  it  in  some  particular 
case.  The  following  is  a  brief  account  of  the  results  of 
Strasburger's  observations  on  the  process  of  fertilization  in 
Angiosperms. 

xual         At  the  period  of  the  dehiscence  of  the  anther,  the  protoplasm  of 

ocess     the  pollen-grain  undergoes  division  into  two  cells— a  smaller,  the 

Angio-  generative  cell,  and  a  larger,  the  vegetative  cell.     At  the  time  of 

errns.    pollination,  when  the  pollen-grain  is  mature,  it  is  usually  the 

case  that  the  only  persisting  indication  of  the  previous  cell-division 

is  the  presence  of  two  nuclei  in  the  protoplasm.     In  many  cases 


the  two  nuclei  were  found  to  differ  qualitatively,  inasmuch  as  the 
generative  nucleus  stained  readily  when  treated  with  carmine, 
picro-carmine,  methyl-green,  &c.,  whereas  the  vegetative  nucleus 
stained  imperfectly  or  not  at  all.  On  the  formation  of  the  pollen- 
tube,  the  generative  nucleus,  and  sometimes  the  vegetative  nucleus 
also,  is  carried  down  into  it,  and  the  former  then  undergoes  division 
into  two ;  occasionally  one  of  the  new  nuclei  divides  again.  The 
pollen-tube  grows  down  the  style,  enters  the  ovary,  and  is  directed 
to  the  micropyle  of  an  ovule.  In  the  ovule  the  egg-apparatus  lies 
at  the  micropylar  end  of  the  embryo-sac,  and  the  delicate  wall  of 
the  embryo-sac  covering  it  undergoes  absorption.  In  its  further 
growth  the  pollen-tube  comes  into  contact  with  the  synergidaj ;  in 
some  cases  its  growth  now  stops,  and  a  portion  of  its  protoplasm, 
with  one  or  both  of  the  generative  nuclei,  passes  through  the 
mucilaginous  wall  at  the  apex  of  the  tube,  without  leaving  any 
opening  behind  it,  and  travels  to  the  oosphere  ;  in  other  cases  the 
pollen-tube  grows  between  the  synergidre  to  the  oosphere,  and  at 
once  pours  a  portion  of  its  protoplasm  with  a  generative  nucleus 
into  it.  This  is  followed  by  the  appearance  of  a  second  nucleus  in 
the  oosphere  (the  male  pronudeus},  which  is  the  generative  nucleus 
derived  from  the  pollen-tube,  which  now  travels  towards  the 
nucleus  of  the  oosphere  (female  pronucleus)  and  fuses  with  it ;  when 
the  two  pronuclei  have  each  a  nucleolus  these  also  eventually  fuse. 
Fertilization  is  now  complete. 

The  synergidte  take  no  direct  share  in  the  process  of  fertilization, 
but  become  disorganized ;  their  disorganization  usually  begins 
when  the  pollen-tube  first  comes  into  contact  with  them.  They 
serve  merely  to  direct  the  pollen-tube  or  its  escaped  contents  to  the 
oosphere  and  to  provide  nourishment  for  them. 

The  fusion  of  the  male  and  female  pronuclei  has  been  observed 
also  in  the  oosphere  of  the  Gymnosperms,  and  in  the  conjugation 
of  Spirogyra. 

Since  plants  are  so  commonly  able  to  reproduce  vege-  Signifi 
tatively,  the  question  arises  as  to  the  necessity  of  the 
production,  either  sexually  or  asexually,  of  spores.     The 


true  re 

ductio 


biological  importance  of  these  cells  is  very  great.  They  are 
capable,  namely,  of  retaining  their  vitality  under  external 
conditions,  such  as  long  drought,  absence  of  food,  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  which  would  prove  fatal  to  the  plant, 
and  they  therefore  are  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
species.  Further  they  are  of  importance  in  the  distribution 
of  the  species;  they  are  light,  readily  transportable  by 
wind  or  water,  in  some  cases  themselves  actively  motile. 
In  this  way  they  serve  to  prevent  that  close  aggregation  of 
individuals  of  the  same  species  which  would  result  from  a 
continued  vegetative  multiplication,  and  would  prove  in- 
jurious to  the  species.  In  the  case  of  Phanerogams,  in 
which  the  macrospore  is  not  set  free  from  its  sporangium, 
the  same  ends  are  obtained  by  the  production  of  seeds. 

The  further  question  now  arises  as  to  the  importance  of 
the  sexual  process. 

It  appears  that,  if  any  given  species,  at  least  among  Impo: 
the  higher  plants,  is  reproduced  through  a  long  series  of  ance ' 
generations  in  a  non-sexual  manner,  the  individuals  tend 
to  degenerate,  and  the  original  well-developed  form  can 
only  be  reattained  by  the  formation  of  a  sexually  produced 
spore.    This  result  is  to  some  extent  realized  by  the  fusion 
of  two  sexual  cells  or  organs  belonging  to  the  same  indi- 
vidual— that  is,  by  self-fertilization — but  more  completely 
when  the  fusion  takes  place  between  sexual  cells  or  organs 
belonging  to  distinct  individuals — that  is,  by  cross-fertiliza- 
tion.   In  some  plants,  as  in  the  Peronosporeae  and  in  those  Cross 
sexual  Ascomycetes  which  have  pollinodial  antheridia,  self- tiuza 
fertilization  alone  is  possible  ;  this  is  also  the  case  in  certain 
Phanerogams  in  which  the  arrangements  are  such  (notably 
in  cleistogamous  flowers)  that  only  pollen  from  its  own 
!  anthers  can  reach  the  stigma  of  the  flower.    In  most  cases, 
however,  the  conditions  under  which  the  sexual  process  is 
carried  on,  such  as  the  formation  of  free -swimming  gametes 
and  antherozoids,  and  of  spermatia  and  pollen-grains  which 
can  be  readily  conveyed  from  place  to  place,  are  such  as  to 
favour  the  occurrence  of  cross-fertilization.     In  some  there  Dicec 
are  special  arrangements  for  the  attainment  of  this  end, 
the  most  general  of  which  is  dioecism,  that  is,  the  produc- 
tion of  the  male  and  female  organs  by  distinct  organisms. 
Thus  in  certain  Fucacese  (Fucus  vesiculosus,  F.  nodosus, 

« 


VEGETABLE.] 


REPRODUCTION 


429 


F.  serratus,  Himanthalia  lorea)  some  individuals  bear  only 
antheridia,  and  others  only  oogonia;  among  the  Muscineae 
the  plants  are  frequently  either  male  or  female;  in  the 
Isosporous  Vascular  Cryptogams  the  prothallia  are  usually 
hermaphrodite  ;  but  exclusively  male  and  female  prothallia 
occur  not  unfrequently  in  the  Filices  and  as  a  rule  in  the 
Equisetaceoe.  In  the  Heterosporous  Vascular  Cryptogams 
dioecism  is  brought  about  in  a  somewhat  different  manner : 
these  plants  have,  as  mentioned  above,  two  kinds  of  spores, 
macrospores  and  microspores ;  the  former  on  germination 
always  give  rise  to  a  female  (archegoniate)  prothallium,  the 
latter  to  a  male  (antheridial)  prothallium;  hence  the  male 
and  female  organs  are  necessarily  borne  on  distinct  organ- 
isms. In  some  Phanerogams  even  the  two  kinds  of  spores 
are  produced  by  separate  individuals,  the  flowers  of  the  one 
producing  pollen-grains  (microspores)  but  no  embryo-sacs, 
those  of  the  other  producing  embryo-sacs  (macrospores)  but 
no  pollen-grains.  More  special  arrangements  are  to  be  found 
in  the  flowers  of  Phanerogams  for  ensuring  cross-fertiliza- 
tion, and  preventing  self-fertilization,  e.g.,  the  development 
of  highly-coloured  perianth-leaves  and  the  secretion  of 
nectar  to  attract  insects,  dichogamy,  heterostylism,  &c. ; 
but  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  mention  these  here. 

But  besides  these  obvious  structural  arrangements  for 
ensuring  cross-fertilization  and  preventing  self-fertilization 
there  are  in  some  cases  imperceptible  physiological  con- 
ditions which  even  more  certainly  lead  to  the  same  results. 
It  appears,  namely,  that  in  such  cases  no  sexual  process 
can  take  place  between  reproductive  cells  or  organs  of 
closely-allied  origin.  Thus,  among  the  Algae,  in  Ecto- 
carpus  and  in  Acetabularia,  conjugation  only  takes  place 
between  planogametes  derived  from  distinct  gametangia, 
and  in  Dasycladus  it  only  takes  place  between  piano- 
gametes  derived  from  gametangia  borne  by  different  indi- 
viduals. Again,  in  many  Phanerogams,  as  Darwin  has 
shown,  the  pollen  of  one  flower  is  quite  incapable  of 
fertilizing  the  oospheres  of  its  own  ovules,  and  the  pollen- 
grains  from  another  flower  borne  by  the  same  plant  is 
but  slightly,  if  at  all,  more  potent.  The  pollen  from  the 
flower  of  another  individual  of  the  same  species  is  potent, 
and  this  the  more  so  the  wider  the  difference  between 
the  individuals ;  the  pollen  from  an  individual  of  a 
different  variety  is  more  potent  than  that  from  an  indi- 
vidual of  the  same  variety. 

The  effect  of  the  sexual  process  is  not  necessarily  con- 
fined to  the  cells  or  organs  which  directly  take  part  in  it ; 
not  infrequently  it  makes  itself  felt  in  adjoining  organs, 
stimulating  them  to  active  growth,  giving  rise  to  the 
formation  of  a  fruit  or  fructification.  Thus  in  the  Mu- 
corini  an  outgrowth  of  filaments,  forming  an  incomplete 
or  complete  (Mortierella)  investment  to  the  zygospore, 
takes  place  from  the  sexual  organs  after  conjugation ;  in 
Coleochsete  the  oogonium  becomes  surrounded,  after  the 
fertilization  of  the  oosphere,  by  an  investment  formed  by 
outgrowths  from  the  adjacent  vegetative  cells ;  a  cellular 
investment  is  formed  in  the  same  way  round  the  fertilized 
procarpium  in  most  Florideae,  and  round  the  fertilized 
ascogonium  in  the  Ascomycetes.  The  most  familiar  case 
of  fruit-formation  is  that  occurring  in  the  Phanerogams ; 
here  in  many  instances  the  carpels,  in  some  the  floral 
leaves  of  the  perianth,  and  in  some  the  floral  receptacle 
(torus)  grow  actively  after  the  fertilization  of  the  oospheres 
has  taken  place,  giving  rise  to  a  mass  of  succulent 
parenchymatous  tissue.  In  the  Orchideae  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ovules  does  not  take  place  at  all  until  the 
flower  has  been  pollinated. 

Germination  of  the  Spores  and  Alternation  of  Generations. 
—The  spores  of  plants  may  either  germinate  immediately 
on  their  production,  or  they  may  undergo  a,  longer  or 
shorter  period  of  quiescence ;  those  which  are  destined  for 


immediate  germination  have,  as  described  above,  a  thin 
cell-wall,  whereas  those  which  are  capable  of  undergoing 
a  period  of  quiescence  have  a  thick  cell-wall  In  some 
cases  the  spores  are  incapable  of  immediate  germination, 
notably  sexually  produced  spores;  for  instance,  among 
the  Algae,  immediate  germination  is  only  known  to  take 
place  in  the  case  of  the  zygospores  of  Botrydium  and 
Ectocarpus,  and  of  the  oospore  of  Fucus ;  among  the 
Fungi  the  zygospores  of  the  Mucorini  and  the  oospores  of 
the  Peronosporeae  and  Saprolegnieae  pass  through  a  period 
of  quiescence. 

The  mode  of  germination  is  not  always  the  same.  In  Germina- 
most  cases  the  spore  gives  rise  directly  to  a  new  organism,  tion  of 
either  by  protruding  one  or  more  filamentous  outgrowths,  sP°res- 
or  by  the  division  of  its  protoplasm  to  form  the  tissue  of 
the  embryo.  In  some  cases  the  spore  behaves  like  a 
reproductive  organ ;  from  its  protoplasm  are  formed  a 
larger  or  smaller  number  of  cells,  either  motile  or  non- 
motile,  which  are  set  free.  In  Acetabularia,  and  under 
certain  circumstances  in  Botrydium,  the  asexually  pro- 
duced spore  behaves  like  a  sexual  reproductive  organ 
(gametangium),  giving  rise  to  a  number  of  planogametes ; 
similarly  the  spore  of  Protomyces  produces  within  itself  a 
number  of  conjugating  sporidia.  In  some  Peronosporeae 
(always  in  Cystopus ;  occasionally,  according  to  circum- 
stances, in  Pythium,  Phytophthora,  and  Peronospora)  the 
asexually  produced  spore  behaves  like  a  sporangium,  and 
gives  rise  to  a  number  of  zoospores  from  each  of  which  a 
new  individual  is  developed.  This  happens  occasionally 
also  in  sexually  produced  spores.  Among  the  Fungi,  the 
formation  of  zoospores  in  the  oospore  occurs  in  various 
species  of  Peronosporeae  and  Saprolegniese.  Among  the 
Algae,  zoospores  are  formed  in  the  zygospores  of  Pandorina 
and  Ulothrix,  and  in  the  oospores  of  CEdogonium  and 
Sphaeroplea.  Cases  of  a  similar  kind  are  known  also  in 
the  Phanerogams ;  thus  in  some  Coniferae,  and  notably  in 
the  Gnetaceous  Epliedra  altissima,  a  process  of  cell-forma- 
tion goes  on  in  the  oospore,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  a  Polyem- 
a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  cells  from  each  of  which  an  bryony. 
embryo  plant  is  developed.  These  cases,  in  which,  namely, 
the  spore,  whether  sexually  or  asexually  produced,  gives 
rise  to  a  number  of  cells,  each  of  which  is  capable,  by  itself, 
of  developing  into  a  new  individual,  are  instances  of  what 
is  known  as  polyembryony. 

In  some  cases  the  cells  formed  in  the  sexually  produced  spore  do 
not  each  give  rise  to  a  new  individual ;  this  obtains  in  the  Hydro- 
dictyeae.  In  Hydrodictyon  utriculatum  the  protoplasm  of  the 
zygospore  gives  rise  to  two  or  four  large  zoospores  which  eventu- 
ally come  to  rest  and  remain  quiescent  for  several  months  ;  these 
resting  spores  are  termed,  on  account  of  their  form,  polyhedra. 
On  germination,  the  protoplasm  of  the  polyhedron  gives  rise  to  a 
number  of  small  zoospores,  the  endospore  protruding  as  a  delicate 
vesicle,  within  which  the  zoospores  are  in  active  movement ;  the 
zoospores  eventually  come  to  rest,  without  escaping  from  the  en- 
dospore, and  arrange  themselves  so  as  to  form  the  meshes  of  a 
small  sac-like  net,  which  is  a  young  Hydrodictyon  ;  the  endospore 
is  then  disorganized,  and  the  young  net  is  set  free  a^  an  independ- 
ent ccenobium. 

Occasionally  it  happens  that  a  portion  only  of  the  spore  gives 
rise  to  the  embryo.  This  is  the  case  in  the  sexually  produced 
spores  (oospores)  of  the  Characese,  and  in  those  of  the  Coniferse ; 
in  Selaginella  and  in  the  Angiospermous  Phanerogams  one-half  of 
the  oospore  gives  rise  to  a  filamentous  structure,  the  suspensor,  the 
other  half  to  the  main  body  of  the  embryo. 

It  is  very  commonly  the  case  that  the  spore,  on  germina- 
tion, gives  rise  to  an  organism  unlike  that  by  which  the 
spore  was  produced.     In  a  Moss,  for  example,  the  asexu-  Alterna- 
ally  produced  spores  are  developed  by  an  organism,  the  tion  of 
sporogonium,  consisting  typically  of  a  longer  or  shorter  £.e 
stalk,  the  seta,  bearing  a  capsule  (theca)  which  produces 
the  spores.     When  one  of  these  spores  germinates,  it  does 
not  give  rise  to  another   sporogonium,  but  to  an  incon- 
spicuous,   usually  filamentous,  structure,    the  protonema, 


430 


REPRODUCTION 


[VEGETABLE. 


upon  which  are  developed,  as  lateral  buds,  moss-plants 
consisting  of  stem  and  leaves  and  bearing  the  sexual 
reproductive  organs.  Similarly,  when  the  oospore  has 
been  formed  by  fertilization  in  the  archegonium,  it  does 
not  give  rise  to  the  sexual  moss-plant,  but  to  the  asexual 
sporogonium.  There  is  thus  in  the  life-history  of  a  Moss 
a  regular  alternation  of  a  sexual  with  an  asexual  genera- 
tion ;  the  former  may  be  conveniently  termed  the  oophore, 
the  latter  the  sporophore ;  the  asexually  produced  spore 
always  gives  rise  to  the  oophore  (moss-plant),  the  sexually 
produced  spore  (oospore)  of  the  moss-plant  always  gives 
rise  to  the  sporophore  (sporogonium). 

This  kind  of  life-history  is  not  peculiar  to  the  Muscinese, 
but  it  can  be  traced,  more  or  less  clearly,  in  all  the 
vascular  plants  (Pteridophyta,  Phanerogams).  In  the 
Isosporous  Vascular  plants,  those,  namely,  which  produced 
spores  of  one  kind  only  (Filices,  Equisetaceae,  Lycopo- 
diacese),  the  asexually  produced  spore  gives  rise,  on 
germination,  to  a  small  inconspicuous  organism  consisting 
entirely  of  cellular  tissue,  termed  the  prothallium,  on 
which  the  sexual  reproductive  organs,  the  antheridia  and 
archegonia,  are  borne ;  the  oospore  produced  by  fertiliza- 
tion in  the  archegonium  gives  rise  to  the  well-developed 
plant,  consisting  of  stem,  root,  and  leaves,  which  produces 
the  sporangia  and  spores.  The  prothallium,  derived  from 
the  asexually  produced  spore,  is  clearly  the  sexual  genera- 
tion or  oophore ;  the  fully-developed  plant  derived  from 
the  sexually  produced  spore  is  the  asexual  generation  or 
sporophore.  In  the  Heterosporous  Vascular  plants,  those, 
namely,  which  produce  spores  of  two  kinds  (Rhizocarpae, 
Ligulatae,  Phanerogams),  the  spores  likewise  give  rise  to 
prothallia,  though  they  may  be  rudimentary.  The  micro- 
spore  gives  rise  to  a  prothallium  which  is  reduced  to  a 
single  antheridium,  and  which,  with  the  exception  of 
Salvinia  among  the  Rhizocarps,  and  of  the  Phanerogams, 
does  not  project  from  the  spore ;  in  Salvinia  and  in  the 
Phanerogams  it  projects  from  the  spore  in  the  form  of  a 
closed  tube,  which  is  known  in  the  Phanerogams  as  the 
pollen-tube.  Similarly  the  macrospore  of  these  plants 
gives  rise  to  a  small  cellular  prothallium  bearing  one  or 
more  archegonia,  which  in  the  Rhizocarps  extends  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  spore,  but  does  not  become  free  from  it ; 
in  the  Ligulatae  (Selaginella  and  Isoetes)  the  prothallium 
is  only  partially  exposed  by  the  rupture  of  the  coats  of 
the  spore,  and  in  the  Phanerogams,  where  it  is  termed  the 
endosperm,  it  remains  permanently  and  completely  enclosed 
within  the  spore  (embryo-sac).  In  the  Heterosporous 
Vascular  plants,  then,  as  in  the  Isosporous,  the  asexual 
generation  or  sporophore  is  that  which  is  termed  the  plant, 
which  is  highly  differentiated  morphologically  and  histolo- 
gically,  and  which  produces  the  sporangia  and  the  spores ; 
the  sexual  generation  or  oophore  is  here  represented  by 
two  prothallia,  the  one  exclusively  male,  the  other  exclu- 
sively female,  derived  respectively  from  the  microspores 
and  the  macrospores. 

Such  a  life-history  can  be  stated  generally  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : — twice  in  its  course  the  individual  consists 
of  a  single  cell,  the  spore,  which  in  the  one  case  has  been 
produced  asexually,  in  the  other  sexually;  the  sexual 
generation  (oophore)  springs  from  the  asexually  produced 
spore,  and  gives  rise  to  the  sexually  produced  spore 
(oospore)  from  which  the  asexual  generation  (sporophore) 
is  developed.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in  most 
cases  the  organism  developed  from  the  sexually  produced 
spore  is  much  more  highly  organized  than  that  developed 
from  the  asexually  produced  spore. 

orraa-        A  peculiarity  of  the  macrospores  of  the  Phanerogams  is  worthy 

on  of     of  mention  here,  as  it  leads  to  the  production  of  that  structure,  the 

sed.        seed,  which  is  characteristic  of  Phanerogams;  the  production  of 

a  seed  constitutes,  in  fact,  the  only  real  and  constant  distinction 

between  Phanerogams  and  Cryptogams. 


As  a  rule  the  asexually  produced  spores  of  plants  become  free 
from  the  sporangium  in  which  they  have  been  formed.  In 
Phanerogams  this  is  true  only  of  the  microspores  (pollen-grains), 
the  macrospores  (embryo-sacs)  remaining  permanently  enclosed  in 
the  sporangia  (mucellus)  producing  them.  This  being  the  case, 
their  germination,  i.e. ,  the  formation  of  endosperm,  must  take  place 
within  them  whilst  enclosed  in  the  sporangium  ;  and,  further,  tin- 
formation  of  the  female  reproductive  organs  and  the  development 
of  the  embryo  must  take  place  under  these  circumstances  also. 
The  result  is  the  production  of  a  seed.  In  a  typical  seed  three 
generations  of  the  plant  are  represented ;  they  are  as  follows  : — 
sporangial  tissue  belonging  to  the  parent  sporophore  =  perisperm  ; 
tissue  belonging  to  the  oophore  =  endosperm  ; 

the  new  sporophore  =  embryo. 

In  the  seed  the  development  of  the  new  asexual  plant  proceeds 
to  a  certain  limit  When  this  is  reached  the  development  ceases, 
and  it  is  only  when  the  seed  is  placed  under  favourable  conditions 
that  the  further  development  of  the  embryo,  i.e.,  the  germination 
of  the  seed,  can  take  place. 

It  has  now  been  shown  that  in  the  life-history  of  the  Alterm 
Muscineae  and  in  plants  above  them  in  the  vegetable  tion  of 
kingdom  there  is  a  regular  alternation  ,of  generations,  and  ge 
the  question  now  arises  as  to  how  far  this  is  true  of  the  TJ^I" 
life-history  of  plants  lower  than  the  Mosses,  that  is,  in  the  phytes 
Thallophytes.  It  is  clear  that  no  such  alternation  can  take 
place  in  the  life-history  of  those  which  are  known  to 
reproduce  only  either  sexually  or  asexually,  nor  in  that  of 
those  individuals  which  produce  spores  both  sexually  and 
asexually,  either  simultaneously  or  at  different  times. 

The  following  are  instances  of  the  above-mentioned 
possible  cases : — 

TJudlophytes  reproduced  only  by  asexually  produced  sjwres : — 

Algx:  Cyanophycete  or  Phycochromacere  ;  Protococcaceae ; 
Sphacelarioe  and  Laminarieae  so  far  as  known  at  present 

Fungi  :  Schizomycetes  ;  Saccharomycetes  ;  Myxomycetes  ; 
some  Chytridieae ;  probably  many  Mucoriui ;  a  few 
Peronosporeae  (probably  Phytophthora  infestans  and 
Pythium  intermedium)  ;  some  Ascomycetes  and  Ure- 
dinese  ;  Basidiomycetes. 
Thallophytes  reproduced  only  by  sexually  produced  spores : — 

Algse, :  Conjugate  ;  Fucaceae  ;  Sphceropleae.  The  case  of  the 
Characeae  will  be  subsequently  discussed. 

Fungi  :  a  few  Peronosporeae  (Pythium  vexans,  Artotrogus) ; 
Ancylistes  Closterii  ;  Aplanes  Braunii  among  the  Sapro- 
legnieae ;    some    Ascomycetes,      Eremascus,     Sorclaria 
(Hypocopra),  Ascobolusfurfuraceus,  Pyroncma  conflucns, 
Gymnoascus,    Collemaceae    and    other    Lichen- Fungi ; 
some  Uredineae  in  which  only  aecidiospores  are  known. 
Thallophytes  in    which  the  same  form   produces    spores    both 
asexually  and  sexually  : — 

Algse :  Vaucheria,  Hydrodictyon,  Ulothrix,  (Edogonium, 
some  Floridese  (e.g.,  Polysiphonia  variegata). 

Fungi :  Mucorini ;  most  Peronosporeae  and  Saprolegniese ; 
Monoblepharis ;  among  the  Ascomycetes,  the  Erysi- 
pheae,  Eurotium,  Penicillium,  Nectria ;  some  Uredinese 
(Uromyces  appendiculatus,  U.  Bchenis,  U.  Scrophulariie, 
U.  Oestri,  Pucdnia  Berberidis). 

In  some  of  the  Algae,  as  in  the  Volvocineae,  in  the  life-  in  Al 
history  of  which  distinct  sexual  and  asexual  forms  occur, 
no  alternation  of  generations  can  be  traced,  since  there  is  no 
certainty  as  to  the  nature  of  the  form  arising  from  any 
given  spore ;  the  form  developed  from  the  asexually  pro- 
duced spore  is  not,  as  in  the  typical  life-history  of  the 
Mess,  necessarily  sexual,  nor  is  the  individual  produced 
from  the  sexually  produced  spore  necessarily  asexual.  But 
in  the  life-history  of  some  others  an  alternation  of  genera- 
tions is  traceable.  Thus  in  the  Siphonaceous  Acetabularia 
the  plant  produces  spores;  these,  as  mentioned  above, 
behave  on  germination  as  gametangia ;  the  gametes  con- 
jugate to  form  a  zygospore,  and  from  the  zygospore  the 
asexual  Acetabularia  springs.  Here  there  is  a  distinct 
and  regular  alternation  of  generations ;  the  Acetabularia- 
plant  is  the  asexual  generation  (sporophore),  the  gamet- 
angia alone  representing  the  sexual  generation  (oophore). 
The  life-history  of  Botrydium,  another  Siphonaceous  Alga, 
is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  Acetabularia,  but  it  is 
frequently  less  regular ;  thus  the  resting-spores,  instead  of 
producing  gametes,  may  directly  germinate  to  form  a 


VEGETABLE.] 


KEPBODUCTION 


431 


Botrydium-plant,  a  process  which  is  clearly  a  case  of 
apogamy ;  and,  further,  the  Botrydium-plant  does  not 
necessarily  produce  resting-spores,  but  may  produce 
zoospores  by  which  it  is  directly  reproduced.  In  Coleo- 
chsete,  too,  alternation  of  generations  is  indicated.  The 
oospore  produces  by  division  a  small  individual  which  is 
always  asexual,  giving  rise  to  zoospores  which  likewise 
produce  asexual  individuals ;  this  asexual  reproduction 
may  continue  through  a  number  of  generations  until 
eventually  a  sexual  individual  is  developed.  In  Coleo- 
chsete  it  is  only  in  the  case  of  the  sexually  produced  spore 
that  the  nature  of  the  resulting  organism  is  known ;  it 
always  gives  rise  to  an  asexual  form,  whereas  the  asexually 
produced  spores  give  rise  to  an  individual  which  may  be 
either  sexual  or  asexual.  In  the  Characese  the  oospore 
always  gives  rise  to  an  imperfectly  developed  form,  the 
proembryo,  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  sporophore ; 
however,  it  never  produces  spores,  but  gives  rise  to  the 
sexual  Chara-plant  (oophore)  vegetatively  by  budding. 

The  study  of  the  life-history  of  the  Fungi  is  attended 
with  considerable  difficulty,  partly  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  in  many  cases  the  development  of  the  sexual  organs 
is  dependent  upon  a  combination  of  external  circumstances 
which  may  but  rarely  present  itself,  and  partly  on  account 
of  there  being  frequently  a  great  difference  in  habit 
between  the  sexual  and  asexual  forms  of  the  same  plant, 
a  difference  which  is  sometimes  accentuated,  in  parasitic 
Fungi,  by  the  occurrence  of  the  two  forms  on  different 
plants  as  hosts  (hetercecisni).  But  there  are  Fungi  in  the 
life-history  of  which  alternation  of  generations  has  been 
ascertained.  Before  entering  upon  an  account  of  these,  it 
must  be  stated  that  the  term  "sexually  produced  spore" 
will  be  applied  not  only  to  those  the  formation  of  which 
is  known  to  be  preceded  by  a  sexual  process,  but  also  to 
those  which  are  formed  probably  or  actually  without  a 
sexual  process — in  a  word,  apogamously — but  which  may 
be  considered,  as  pointed  out  above,  to  be  homologous 
with  those  which  are  actually  sexually  produced. 

In  Mucor  Mucedo  and  Phycomyces  nitens  among  the 
Mucorini,  for  instance,  the  zygospore  gives  rise  on 
germination  to  an  imperfectly  developed  individual  (pro- 
mycelium)  which  is  entirely  asexual  and  produces  spores ; 
one  of  these  spores,  in  turn,  gives  rise  to  an  individual 
which  produces  spores  asexually  but  may  also  bear  sexual 
reproductive  organs.  Essentially  the  same  life-history  may 
be  traced  in  certain  Peronosporese  (Phytophthora  omnivora, 
Pythium  proliferum).  In  these  cases  the  form  developed 
from  the  sexually  produced  spore  is  always  asexual,  where- 
as that  derived  from  the  asexually  produced  spore  may  be 
sexual,  but  it  always  produces  spores  asexually ;  hence 
there  is  not  a  strict  alternation  of  an  asexual  and  a  sexual 
generation.  In  others  the  alternation  is  complete.  In 
the  Ustilaginese,  for  instance,  the  asexually  produced 
spore  gives  rise  to  an  imperfectly  developed  mycelium 
(promycelium),  which  is  the  sexual  generation;  it  produces 
the  sporidia,  which  conjugate  in  pairs,  and  from  the 
product  of  conjugation  springs  the  mycelium,  which  bears 
asexually  produced  spores. 

Essentially  the  same  life-history  has  been  traced  in 
some  Ascomycetes  and  Uredineae.  In  Claviceps  (Ascomy- 
cete) the  sexually  produced  spore  (ascospore)  gives  rise  to 
an  asexual  form,  long  regarded  as  a  distinct  genus  under 
the  name  of  Sphacelia,  from  the  spores  of  which  the  sexual 
form  is  reproduced.  In  Sclerotinia  (Peziza)  Fuckeliana 
(Ascomycete),  a  similar  regular  alternation  of  generations 
occasionally  but  not  always  occurs ;  the  ascospore  may  give 
rise  to  an  asexual  form,  long  known  as  Botrytis  cinerea, 
and  when  it  does  so  the  alternation  of  generations  is 
complete ;  but  it  may  give  rise  to  another  sexual  genera- 
+'—  in  which  case  no-  alternation  takes  place.  In 


tion. 


Polystigma  (Ascomycete),  the  ascospore  gives  rise  to  a 
promycelium  which  bears  sporidia,  and  these  sporidia  give 
rise  to  the  sexual  form.  In  Endophyllum  (Uredinese)  the 
life-history  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  Polystigma: 
the  promycelium  is  the  sporophore  generation,  the  myce- 
lium developed  from  the  sporidium  the  oophore.  In 
other  Uredinese  the  life-history  is  slightly  modified  in 
that  asexually  produced  spores  of  at  least  two  kinds 
make  their  appearance.  The  sexually  produced  spore 
(aecidiospore)  gives  rise  to  a  mycelium  which,  in  Gymno- 
sporangium  and  Hemipuccinia,  bears  asexually  produced 
spores,  teleutospores ;  in  Puccinia  Graminis  the  formation 
of  teleutospores  is  preceded  by  that  of  somewhat  different 
spores,  the  uredospores;  in  any  case  the  teleutospore 
gives  rise,  on  germination,  to  a  second  asexual  generation, 
the  promycelium,  which  bears  sporidia ;  from  these  the 
sexual  aecidium-bearing  generation  is  developed. 

The  rule  that,  in  the  alternation  of  generations,  the  alter-  Alterna- 
nate  generations  are  developed  from  spores  produced  either  tion  of 
sexually  or  asexually  is  not,  however,  without  exceptions,  &€ 
for  in  some  instances  the  one  generation  may  spring  vege-  terfered" 
tatively  from  the  other  without  the  intervention  of  a  spore,  with  by 
This  is  brought  about  by  the   suppression  either  of  theapogamy 
sexually  produced  spore  or  of  the  asexually  produced  spore;  or  aP°s" 
the  former  is  an  instance  of  apogamy,  the  latter  of  apospory. 

Thus  in  the  apogamous  Ferns  mentioned  above,  the 
asexual  generation  (sporophore)  is  developed  as  a  bud  upon 
the  sexual  generation  (oophore) ;  and  in  Botrydium  the 
gametangium  which  is  the  representative  of  the  sexual 
generation  may,  instead  of  producing  gametes,  produce 
zoospores,  in  which  case  the  new  asexual  individual  is  not 
developed  from  a  sexually  produced  zygospore,  but  from 
an  asexually  produced  zoospore.  Similarly,  in  the  apo- 
sporous  Ferns  and  Mosses  and  in  the  Characese  the  oophore 
is  developed  as  a  bud  from  the  sporophore. 

The  alternation  of  generations  may  be  also  interfered 
with  by  a  combination  of  apogamy  and  apospory.  This  is 
the  case,  namely,  when  one  generation  gives  rise  to  its  like 
by  vegetative  budding,  sporophore  to  sporophore,  oophore 
to  oophore.  For  instance,  when,  as  in  the  Phanerogams 
mentioned  above  (Ccelebogyne,  Funkia,  Nothoscordum, 
Citrus),  embryos  are  produced  vegetatively  from  the  tissue 
of  the  nucellus,  that  is,  sporophore  from  sporophore,  the 
typically  intervening  formation  of  spores,  first,  by  the 
asexual  method  and,  secondly,  by  the  sexual  method  is 
suppressed.  This  is  necessarily  always  the  case  among 
Phanerogams  when  one  plant  is  produced  vegetatively  from 
another.  A  striking  instance  of  the  same  thing  has  been 
observed  by  Goebel  in  some  species  of  Isoetes,  in  which  an 
Isoetes  plant  was  produced  on  the  leaf  in  place  of  a 
sporangium.  Similarly  when  oophore  springs  vegetatively 
from  oophore,  the  typically  intervening  formation,  first, 
of  the  sexually  produced  spore  and,  secondly,  of  the  asexu- 
ally produced  spore,  is  suppressed.  This  occurs  when,  as 
mentioned  above,  a  Moss-plant  gives  rise  by  budding  or  by 
means  of  gemmse  to  another  Moss-plant,  and  when  a  Fern- 
prothallium  gives  rise  to  another  by  means  of  gemmae. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — General:  Sachs,  Text-book,  2d  English  edition, 
1882;  Goebel,  Gfrundzuge  dor  Systematik,  1882;  Vines,  Alternation 
of  Generations  in  Thallophy  tes, "  Journal  .of  Botany,  1879; 
Pringsheim,  "  Ueber  den  Generationswechsel  bei  den  Thallophyten," 
Jahrb.  f.  Wiss.  Sot.,  xi.,  1877.  Algae, :  Falkenberg,  in  Schenk's 
Handbuch  der  Botanik,  ii.,  1882;  Vines,  "The  Pro-embryo  of 
Chara, "  Journal  of  Botany,  1878.  Fungi:  De  Bary,  Vergleichende 
Morphologic  und  Biologic  der  Pilze,  1884.  Ferns:  Cramer,  "  Ueber 
die  gescblechtslose  Vermehrung  des  Farn-prothaliums,"  in  Denk- 
schriften  der  Schweitz.  naturforsch.  Gesellschaft,  xxviii.,  1880; 
Bower,  "On  Apospory  in  Ferns,"  Jour.  Linn.  Soc.,  Botany,  vol. 
xxi.,  1885.  Mosses:  Pringsheim,  MonatsbericM  d.  Akad.  d.  Wiss. 
in  Berlin,  1876  ;  Stahl,  Botanische  Zeitung,  1876.  Physiology  : 
Strasburger,  Ueber  Befruchtung  und  Zelltheilung,  1878,  and  Neue 
Untersuchungen  uber  den  Befruchtungsvorgang  bei  den  Phanero- 
gamen,  1884.  (S.  H.  V.) 


432 


K  E  P  —  R  E  P 


REPSOLD,  a  family  of  German  instrument  makers. 
JOHANN  GEORG  REPSOLD  (1771-1830),  was  born  at 
Wremen  in  Hanover  on  September  23,  1771,  became  an 
engineer  and  afterwards  chief  of  the  fire  brigade  in 
Hamburg,  where  he  started  business  as  an  instrument 
maker  early  in  the  present  century.  He  was  killed  by  the 
fall  of  a  wall  during  a  fire  on  January  14,  1830.  The  busi- 
ness has  been  continued  by  his  sons  Georg  and  Adolf  and 
his  grandsons  Johannes  and  Oscar. 


J.  O.  Repsold  introduced  essential  improvements  in  the  meridian 
circles  by  substituting  microscopes  (on  Ramsden'a  plan)  lor  the  \vr- 
i  niers  to  read  the  circles,  and  by  making  the  various  parts  perfc< -tlv 
symmetrical.  For  a  number  of  years  the  lirm  was  foremost  in  this 
special  branch  and  furnished  meridian  circles  to  the  observatories  at 
Hamburg,  Kbnigsberg,  Pulkova,  &c. ;  later  on  the  activity  in  this 
direction  declined,  while  Pistor  and  Martins  of  Berlin  rose  to  emi- 
nence in  the  manufacturing  of  transit  circles.  But  after  the  discon- 
tinuance of  this  firm  that  of  Repsold  has  again  come  to  the  front, 
not  only  in  the  construction  of  transit  circles,  but  also  of  equatorial 
mountings  and  more  especially  of  heliometers  (see  MICROMETER). 


REPTILES 


A  NTELINN^EAN  writers  comprised  the  animals  which 
JTjL  popularly  are  known  as  Tortoises  and  Turtles,  Croco- 
diles, Lizards  and  Snakes,  Frogs  and  Toads,  Newts  and  Sala- 
manders, under  the  name  of  Oviparous  Quadrupeds  or  four- 
limbed  animals  which  lay  eggs.  Linnaeus,  desirous  of 
giving  expression  to  the  extraordinary  fact  that  many  of 
these  animals  pass  part  of  their  life  in  the  water  and  part 
on  land,1  substituted  the  name  of  Amphibia  for  the  ancient 
term.  Subsequent  French  naturalists  (Lyonnet2  and 
Brisson3)  considered  that  the  creeping  mode  of  locomotion 
was  a  more  general  characteristic  of  the  class  than  their 
amphibious  habits,  and  consequently  proposed  the  scarcely 
more  appropriate  name  of  Reptiles. 

As  naturalists  gradually  comprehended  the  wide  gap 
existing  between  Frogs,  Toads,  <fcc.,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  other  Oviparous  Quadrupeds  on  the  other,  they  either 
adopted  the  name  of  Batrachia  for  the  former  and  that 
of  Amphibia  for  the  latter,  or  they  restricted  the  term 
Amphibia  to  Batrachians,  calling  the  remainder  of  these 
creatures  Reptiles.  Thus  the  term  Amphibia,  as  used  by 
various  authors,  may  apply  (1)  to  all  the  various  animals 
mentioned,  or  (2)  to  Batrachians  only — and  thus  it  has 
been  used  in  the  article  AMPHIBIA  in  the  present  work. 
The  term  Reptiles  is  used  (1)  by  some  for  all  the  animals 
mentioned  above,  and  (2)  by  others,  as  in  the  present 
article,  for  the  same  assemblage  of  animals  after  the  ex- 
clusion of  Batrachians.  Other  terms  more  or  less  synony- 
mous with  Amphibians  and  Reptiles  in  their  different 
senses  have  been  used  by  the  various  systematists,  as  we 
shall  see  hereafter. 

Equally  varying  are  the  limits  of  the  term  "  Saurians," 
which  occurs  so  frequently  in  every  herpetological  treatise. 
At  first  it  comprised  living  Crocodiles  and  Lizards  only, 
with  which  a  number  of  fossil  forms  were  gradually  associ- 
ated. As  the  characters  and  affinities  of  the  latter  became 
better  known,  some  of  them  were  withdrawn  from  the  Sau- 
rians, and  at  present  it  is  best  to  abandon  the  term  alto- 
gether. 

HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE. 

a.  T/te  Gemral  Subject. 

By  some  feature  of  their  organization  or  some  peculiarity 
in  their  economy  Reptiles  have  always  forced  themselves 
upon  the  observation  of  man  or  excited  his  imagination, 
so  that  certain  kinds  are  mentioned  in  the  earliest  written 
records  or  have  found  a  place  among  the  fragments  of  the 
oldest  relics  of  human  art.  Such  evidences  of  a  popular 
knowledge  of  Reptiles,  however,  form  no  part  of  a  succinct 
review  of  the  literature  of  the  subject  such  as  it  is  proposed 
to  give  here.  We  distinguish  in  it  five  periods  : — (1)  the 
Aristotelian ;__  (2)  the  Linnaean  (formation  of  a  class 
Amphibia,  in  which  Reptiles  and  Batrachians  are  mixed); 
(3)  the  period  of  the  elimination  of  Batrachians  as  one  of 

Polymorpha  in  his  amphibiis  natura  duplicem  vitam  plerisque 
concessit." 

2  Theologie  des  Insectes  de  Lesser  (Paris,  1745),  i.  91,  note  5. 

3  Regne  animal  divise  en  tituf  classes  (Paris,  1756). 


the  Reptilian  orders  (Brongniart) ;  (4)  that  of  the  separa- 
tion of  Reptiles  and  Batrachians  as  distinct  subclasses ;  (5) 
that  of  the  recognition  of  a  class  Keptilia  as  part  of  the 
Sauropsida  (Huxley). 

1.  The  Aristotelian  Period. — As  in  other  branches  of  Aristoi 
zoology,  we  have  to  start  with  ARISTOTLE,  who  was  the 
first  to  deal  with  the  Reptiles  known  to  him  as  members 
of  a  distinct  portion  of  the  animal  kingdom,  and  to  point 
out  the  characteristics  by  which  they  resemble  each  other 
and  differ  from  other  vertebrate  and  invertebrate  animals. 
As  the  plan  of  his  work,  however,  was  rather  that  of  a 
comparative  treatise  of  the  anatomical  and  physiological 
characters  of  animals  than  their  systematic  arrangement 
and  definition,  his  ideas  about  the  various  groups  of 
Reptiles  are  not  distinctly  expressed,  but  must  be  gleaned 
from  the  terms  which  he  employs.  And  even  when  we 
make  due  allowance  for  the  fact  that  we  are  in  posses- 
sion of  only  a  part  of  his  writings,  we  cannot  but  per- 
ceive that  he  paid  less  attention  to  the  study  of  Reptiles 
than  to  that  of  other  classes ;  this  is  probably  due  to  the 
limited  number  of  kinds  with  which  he  could  be  ac- 
quainted from  the  fauna  of  his  own  country,  and  to  which 
only  very  few  extra-European  forms,  like  the  Crocodile, 
were  added  from  other  sources.  And,  whilst  we  find  in 
some  respects  a  most  remarkable  accuracy  of  knowledge, 
there  is  sufficient  evidence  that  he  neglected  every-day  op- 
portunities of  information,  as  if  Reptiles  had  not  been  a 
favourite  study.  Thus,  he  has  not  a  single  word  about 
the  metamorphoses  of  Batrachians,  which  he  treats  of  in 
connexion  with  Reptiles. 

Aristotle  makes  a  clear  distinction  between  the  scute 
or  scale  of  a  Reptile,  which  he  describes  as  </>oAis, 
and  that  of  a  Fish,  which  he  designates  as  XeTrt's.  He 
mentions  Reptiles  (1)  as  oviparous  quadrupeds  with  scutes, 
viz.,  Saurians  and  Chelonians ;  (2)  as  oviparous  apodals, 
viz.,  Snakes ;  (3)  as  oviparous  quadrupeds  without  scutes, 
viz.,  Batrachians.  He  considered  the  first  and  second  of 
these  three  groups  as  much  more  nearly  related  to  each 
other  than  to  the  third.  He  says  :— 

"The  genus  of  Snakes  resembles  that  of  Lizards,  nearly  all  the 
characters  being  common  to  both,  if  the  Lizard  be  conceived  of  as 
prolonged  and  without  legs.  They  possess  scutes,  and  arc  similar 
to  Lizards  above  and  below,  but  they  lack  testicles ;  and,  like  Fishes, 
they  possess  two  excretory  ducts  which  coalesce,  and  the  uterus  is 
large  and  bipartite.  In  other  respects  their  internal  parts  are  like 
those  of  Lizards,  save  that  all  the  intestines  are  long  and  narrow. 
The  tongue  is  narrow,  long,  black,  and  very  exsertile.  It  is  a 
peculiarity  of  Snakes  and  Lizards  that  they  possess  a  bifid  tongue  ; 
but  the  points  of  the  tongue  of  Snakes  are  fine  like  hairs.  All 
Snakes  are  "  carcharodont "  (have  acute  teeth) ;  they  havens  many 
ribs  as  there  are  days  in  the  month,  viz.,  30.  Some  say  that 
Snakes  recover  the  loss  of  an  eye  ;  the  tail  is  reproduced  in  Lizards 
and  Snakes  when  cut  off,"  &c. 

Thus  accurate  statements  and  descriptions  are  sadly 
mixed  with  errors  and  stories  of,  to  our  eyes,  the  most 
absurd  and  fabulous  kind.  The  most  complete  accounts 
are  those  of  the  Crocodile  (chiefly  borrowed  from  Herodo- 
tus) and  of  the  Chamaeleon,  which  Aristotle  evidently 
knew  from  personal  observation,  and  which  he  had  dis- 


HISTORY.] 


REPTILES 


433 


sected  himself.  The  other  Lizards  mentioned  by  him  are 
the  common  Lizards  (a-avpa),  the  common  Seps 
or  £tyns),  and  the  Gecko  (do-KaAa/Jwrr;?  or 
Of  Snakes  (of  which  he  generally  speaks  as  o<£ts)  he  knew 
the  Vipers  («xts  or  fX1^01)'  ^he  common  Snake  (vSpos), 
and  the  Blindworm  (Tv<j>\ivr)<;  o</>ts),  which  he  regards  as 
a  Snake;  he  further  mentions  the  Egyptian  Cobra  and 
Dragons  (SpaKwv) — North- African  Serpents  of  fabulous  size. 
Of  Chelonians  he  describes  in  a  perfectly  recognizable 
manner  Land  Tortoises  (xeAwviy),  Freshwater  Turtles 
,  and  Marine  Turtles  (xeXwvrj  rj  6aXa.rrl.a). 

Passing  over  eighteen  centuries  we  find  the  knowledge 
of  Reptiles  to  have  remained  as  stationary  as  other  branches 
of  natural  history,  perhaps  even  more  so.  The  Reptile 
fauna  of  Europe  was  not  extensive  enough  to  attract  the 
energy  of  a  Belon  or  Rondelet ;  popular  prejudice  and  the 
difficulty  of  preserving  these  animals  deterred  from  their 
study ;  nor  was  the  mind  of  man  sufficiently  educated 
not  to  give  implicit  credence  to  the  fabulous  tales  with 
which  every  account  of  Reptiles  in  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries  was  replete.  The  art  of  healing,  however,  was 
developing  into  a  science  based  upon  rational  principles, 
and  consequently  not  only  those  Reptiles  which  formed 
part  of  the  materia  medica  but  also  the  venomous  Snakes 
became  objects  of  study  to  the  physician.  Snakes,  and 
especially  the  Viper,  were  treated  of  in  distinct  divisions 
of  general  works,  or  in  separate  monographs.  It  is  true 
that  these  treatises  were  written  less  with  the  view  of 
elucidating  the  natural  history  of  the  animals  than  with 
that  of  describing  their  poisonous  nature  and  indicating 
the  manner  in  which  they  should  be  used  as  medicaments, 
the  majority  of  the  writers  being  ignorant  of  the  structure 
of  the  venom-apparatus,  and  of  the  distinction  between 
non-venomous  and  venomous  Snakes. 

o>n.  Nothing  can  show  more  clearly  the  small  advance  made 
by  herpetology  in  this  long  post-Aristotelian  period  than 
a  glance  at  the  celebrated  work,  De  Differentiis  Animalium 
Libii  decem  (Paris,  1552),  by  EDWARD  WOTTON  (1492- 
1555).  Wotton  treats  of  the  Reptiles  which  he  designates 
as  Quadrupedes  oviparx  et  Serpentes  in  the  sixth  book  of  his 
work.  They  form  the  second  division  of  the  Quadrupedes 
gux  sanguinem  habent,  and  are  subdivided  in  the  following 
"  genera  "  : — 

Crocodihis  etsdncus  (cap.  cv.) ;  Testudinum  genera  (cvi.) ;  Ran- 
arum  genera  (cvii. ) ;  Lacertas  (cviii. ) ;  Solamandra  et  seps  quad- 
rupcs  (cix.)  ;  Stellio  (ex.);  Chamseleo  (cxi.)  ;  Serpentes  (cxii. ),  a 
general  account,  the  following  being  different  kinds  of  Serpents  : 
— Hydrus  et  alii  quidam  serpentes  aquatiles  (cxiii.)  ;  Serpentes 
terrestres  et  primo  aspidum  genera  (cxiv. ) ;  Vipera,  dipsas,  cer- 
astes, et  kammodytes  (cxv. )  ;  Hwmorrhus,  sepedon,  seps,  cenchris, 
et  cenchrites  (cxvi.) ;  Easiliscus  et  alii  quidam  serpentes  quorum 
venenum  remedio  caret  (cxvii.) ;  Draco,  amphisb&na,  et  alii  quidam 
serpentes  quorum  morsus  minus  affert  periculi  (cxviii. ). 

As  regards  the  treatment  of  the  subject,  Wotton's  work 
might  with  propriety  be  termed  "  Aristoteles  redivivus." 
The  plan  is  the  same,  and  the  observations  of  the  Greek 
naturalist  are  faithfully,  sometimes  literally,  reproduced. 
It  is  surprising  that  even  the  Reptiles  of  his  native  country 
were  most  imperfectly  known  to  the  author. 

A  new  impetus  for  the  cultivation  of  the  study  of 
natural  history  was  given  through  the  observations  and 
writings  of  travellers  in  India,  Africa,  and  America. 
With  the  enlargement  of  geographical  knowledge  that  of 
Reptiles  was  also  advanced,  as  is  sufficiently  apparent  from 
the  large  encyclopaedic  works  of  GESNER,  ALDROVANDI,  and 
JOHNSTON.  The  last-named  author  especially,  who  published 
the  various  portions  of  his  natural  history  in  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century,  was  able  to  embody  in  his  compila- 
tions notices  of  numerous  Reptiles  observed  by  Francisco 
Hernandez  in  Mexico  and  by  Marcgrave  and  Piso  in  Brazil. 
As  the  author  had  no  definite  idea  of  the  Ray-Linnsean 
term  "  species,"  it  is  not  possible  to  give  the  exact  number 


Linnaeus. 


of  Reptiles  mentioned  in  his  work.  But  it  may  be 
estimated  at  about  fifty,  not  including  some  marine  fishes 
and  fabulous  creatures.  He  figures  (or  rather  reproduces 
the  figures  of)  about  forty, — some  species  being  represented 
by  several  figures. 

2.  Linnsean  Period  :  Formation  of  a  Class  Amphibia. —  Precur- 
Within  the  century  which  succeeded  these  compilatory sors 
works  (1650-1750)  fall  the  'labours  which  prepared  the 
way  for  and  exerted  the  greatest  influence  on  Ray  and 
Linna3us.  Although  original  researches  in  the  field  of 
herpetology  were  limited  in  extent  and  in  number,  the 
authors  had  freed  themselves  from  the  purely  literary  or 
scholastic  tendency.  Men  were  no  longer  satisfied  with 
reproducing  and  commenting  on  the  writings  of  their  pre- 
decessors ;  the  pen  was  superseded  by  the  eye,  the  micro- 
scope, and  the  knife,  and  statements  were  tested  by 
experiment.  This  spirit  of  the  age  manifested  itself,  so 
far  as  the  Reptiles  are  concerned,  in  CHARA'S  and  REDI'S 
admirable  observations  on  the  Viper,  in  MAJOR'S  and  VAL- 
LISNIERI'S  detailed  accounts  of  the  anatomy  of  the  Chamse- 
leon,  in  the  researches  of  JACOB^ETJS  into  the  metamor- 
phoses of  the  Batrachians  and  the  structure  of  Lizards,  in 
DUFAY'S  history  of  the  development  of  the  Salamander  (for 
Batrachians  are  invariably  associated  with  Reptiles  proper); 
in  TYSON'S  description  of  the  anatomy  of  the  Rattlesnake, 
&c.  The  natural  history  collections  formed  by  institutions 
and  wealthy  individuals  now  contained  not  merely  skins 
of  Crocodiles  or  Serpents  stuffed  and  transformed  into  a 
shape  to  correspond  with  the  fabulous  descriptions  of  the 
ancient  dragons ;  but,  with  the  discovery  of  alcohol  as  a 
means  of  preserving  animals,  Reptiles  entire  or  dissected 
were  exhibited  for  study ;  and  no  opportunity  was  lost  of 
obtaining  them  from  travellers  or  residents  in  foreign 
countries.  Fossils  also  were  now  acknowledged  to  be  re- 
mains of  animals  which  had  lived  before  the  flood,  and 
some  of  them  were  recognized  as  those  of  Reptiles. 

The  contributions  to  a  positive  knowledge  of  the  animal 
kingdom  became  so  numerous  as  to  render  the  need  of  a 
methodical  arrangement  of  the  abundance  of  new  facts 
more  and  more  pressing.  Of  the  two  principal  systematic 
attempts  made  in  this  period  the  first  ranks  as  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  steps  of  the  progress  of  natural  history, 
whilst  the  second  can  only  be  designated  as  a  signal  failure, 
which  ought  to  have  been  a  warning  to  all  those  who  in  after 
years  classified  animals  in  what  is  called  an  "artificial  sys- 
tem." As  the  latter  attempt,  originating  with  KLEIN  (1685— 
1759),  did  not  exercise  any  further  influence  on  herpeto- 
logy, it  will  be  sufficient  to  have  merely  mentioned  it. 
JOHN  RAY  (1628-1705)  had  recognized  the  necessity  of  in-  Ray. 
troducing  exact  definitions  for  the  several  categories  into 
which  the  animals  had  to  be  divided,  and  he  maintained 
that  these  categories  ought  to  be  characterized  by  the 
structure  of  animals,  and  that  all  zoological  knowledge 
had  to  start  from  the  "  species  "  as  its  basis.  His  defini- 
tion of  Reptiles  as  "  animalia  sanguinea  pulmohe  respirantia 
cor  unico  tantum  ventriculo  instructum  habentia  ovipara  " 
fixed  the  class  in  a  manner  which  was  adopted  by  the 
naturalists  of  the  succeeding  hundred  and  fifty  years. 
Nevertheless,  Ray  was  not  a  herpetologist ;  he  never 
made  these  animals  his  special  study,  as  is  evident  from 
the  way  in  which  he  subdivides  the  class,  as  well  as  from 
his  imperfect  treatment  of  the  species.  His  knowledge  of 
Reptiles  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  researches  of  others, 
from  whose  accounts,  however,  everything  not  based  upon 
reliable  demonstration  is  critically  excluded.  He  begins 
with  a  chapter  treating  of  Frogs  (Rana,  with  two 
species),  Toads  (Bufo,  with  one  species),  and  Tortoises1 

1  In  associating  Tortoises  with  Toads  Ray  could  not  disengage  him- 
self from  the  general  popular  view  as  to  the  nature  of  these  animals, 
which  found  expression  in  the  German  Schildkrote  ("  Shield-toad  "). 

XX.  -  55 


434 


REPTILES 


[HISTORY. 


(Testudo,  with  fourteen  species).  The  second  group  com- 
prises the  Lacertse,  twenty-five  in  number,  and  includes 
the  Salamander  and  Newts ;  and  the  third  the  Serpentes, 
nine  species,  among  which  the  Limbless  Lizards  are 
enumerated. 

.innseus.  Except  in  so  far  as  he  made  known  and  briefly  char- 
acterized a  number  of  Reptiles,  our  knowledge  of  this 
class  was  not  advanced  by  LINNJSUS.  His  notions  as  to 
the  relation  of  the  various  types  among  themselves  and  to 
the  other  vertebrates  were  the  same  as  those  of  Ray, 
and  the  progress  made  by  herpetology  in  the  various 
editions  of  the  Systema  Naturx  is  therefore  of  a  merely 
formal  character.  That  Linnaeus  associated  in  the  12th 
edition  cartilaginous  and  other  Fishes  with  the  Reptiles 
under  the  name  of  Amphibia  Nantes  was  the  result  of 
some  misunderstanding  of  an  observation  by  Garden,  and 
is  not  to  be  taken  as  a  premonitory  token  of  the  recent 
^discoveries  of  the  relation  between  Batrachians  and  Fishes. 
Linnaeus  places  Reptiles,  which  he  calls  Amphibia,  as  the 
third  class  of  the  animal  kingdom ;  he  divides  the  genera 
thus  : — 

ORDER!.  REPTILES.  —  Testudo  (15  species);  Rana  (17  sp.); 
Draco  (2  sp. ) ;  Lacerta  (48  sp.,  including  6  Batrachians). 

ORDER  2.  SERPENTES. — Crotalus  (5  species);  Boa  (10  sp.); 
Coluber  (96  sp.) ;  Anguis  (15  sp.) ;  Amphisb&na  (2  sp.) ;  Caecilia 
(2sp.). 

None  of  the  naturalists  who  under  the  direction  or 
influence  of  Linnaeus  visited  foreign  countries  possessed 
any  special  knowledge  of  or  predilection  for  the  study  of 
Reptiles ;  all,  however,  contributed  to  our  acquaintance 
with  tropical  forms,  or  transmitted  well-preserved  speci- 
mens to  the  collections  at  home,  so  that  GMELIN,  in  the 
13th  edition  of  the  Systema  Natures,  was  able  to  enumerate 
three  hundred  and  seventy -one  species. 

lurenti.  The  man  who,  with  the  advantage  of  the  Linnsean 
method,  first  treated  of  Reptiles  monographically,  was 
LAURENTI.  In  a  small  book 1  he  proposed  a  new  division 
of  these  animals,  of  which  some  ideas  and  terms  have  sur- 
vived into  our  times,  characterizing  the  orders,  genera, 
and  species  in  a  much  more  precise  manner  than  Linnaeus, 
giving,  for  his  time,  excellent  descriptions  and  figures  of 
the  species  of  his  native  country.  Laurenti  might  have 
become  for  herpetology  what  Artedi  was  for  ichthyology, 
but  his  resources  were  extremely  limited.  He  himself 
complains  that  he  had  no  literary  intercourse  with  foreign 
naturalists,  and  access  to  but  a  few  works  (he  especially 
mentions  Seba's  Thesaurus)  and  one  collection  only. 

The  circumstance  that  Chelonians  are  entirely  omitted 
from  his  Synopsis  seems  due  rather  to  the  main  object 
with  which  he  engaged  in  the  study  of  herpetology,  viz., 
that  of  examining  and  distinguishing  Reptiles  reputed  to 
be  poisonous,  and  to  want  of  material,  than  to  his  convic- 
tion that  Tortoises  should  be  relegated  to  another  class. 
He  divides  then  the  class  into  three  orders  : — 

1.  SALIENTIA,  with  the  genera  Pipa,  Bufo,  Rana,  Hyla,  and  one 

species  of  "  Proteus"  viz.,  the  larva  of  Pseudis  paradoxa. 
GRADIENTIA,  the  three  first  genera  of  which  are  Tailed  Batrach- 
ians, viz.,  two  species  of  Proteus  (one  being  the  P.  anguinus), 
Triton,  and  Salarnandra ;  followed  by  true  Saurians — 
Caudiverbera,  Gecko,  Chamseleo,  Iguana,  Basiliscus,  Draco, 
Cordylus,  Crocodilus,  Scincus,  Stellio,  Seps. 

3.  SERPENTIA,  among  which  he  continues  to  keep  AmpMsbsena, 
G'secilia,  and  Anguis,  but  the  large  Linnaean  genus  Coluber 
is  divided  into  twelve,  chiefly  from  the  scutellation  of  the 
head  and  form  of  the  body. 

The  work  concludes  with  an  account  of  the  experiments 
made  by  Laurenti  to  prove  the  poisonous  or  innocuous 
nature  of  those  Reptiles  of  which  he  could  obtain  living 
specimens. 

1  Specimen  medicum  exhibens  Synopsin  Reptilium  emendatam 
cum  experimentis  circa  vtneni  et  antidota  Reptilium  Austriacorum, 
Vienna,  1768  (8vo,  pp.  214,  with  5  plates). 


The  next  general  work  on  Reptiles  is  by  LACEP£DE. 
It  appeared  in  the  years  1788  and  1790  under  the  title 
Histoire  Naturelle  des  Quadruples  Ovipares  et  des  Sei-pi'ita 
(Paris,  2  vols.  4to).  Although  as  regards  treatment  of 
details  and  amount  of  information  this  work  far  surpasses 
the  modest  attempt  of  Laurenti,  it  shows  no  advance 
towards  a  more  natural  division  and  arrangement  of  the 
genera.  The  author  depends  entirely  on  conspicuous 
external  characters,  and  classifies  the  Reptiles  into  (1) 
oviparous  quadrupeds  with  a  tail,  (2)  oviparous  quad- 
rupeds without  a  tail,  (3)  oviparous  bipeds  (Chirotes  and 
Pseudopus),  (4)  Serpents, — an  arrangement  in  which  the 
old  confusion  of  Batrachians  and  Reptiles  and  the  imper- 
fect definition  of  Lizards  and  Snakes  are  continued,  and 
which  it  is  worthy  of  remark  we  find  also  adopted  in 
Cuvier's  Tableau  filementaire  de  VHistoire  Naturelle  des 
Animaux  (1798),  and  nearly  so  by  LATREILLE  in  his 
Histoire  Naturelle  des  Reptiles  (Paris,  1801,  4  vols.  12 mo). 
Lacepede's  monograph,  however,  remained  for  many  years 
deservedly  the  standard  work  on  Reptiles,  on  account  of 
the  ability  with  which  the  author  collected  all  reliable 
information  on  the  various  species,  and  on  account  of  the 
facilities  which  it  afforded  for  determining  them.  The 
numerous  plates  with  which  the  work  is  illustrated  are, 
for  the  time,  well  drawn,  and  the  majority  readily  recog- 
nizable. 

3.  The  Period  of  Elimination  of  Batrachians  as  one  of  the 
Reptilian  Orders. — A  new  period  for  herpetology  com- 
mences with  ALEX.  BRONGNIART,  2  who  in  1799  first  recog- 
nized the  characters  by  which  Batrachians  differ  from  the 
other  Reptiles,  and  by  which  they  form  a  natural  passage 
to  the  class  of  Fishes.  Cxcilia  (as  also  Langaha  and 
Acrochordus)  is  left  by  Brongniart  with  hesitation  in  the 
order  of  Snakes,  but  Newts  and  Salamanders  henceforth 
are  no  more  classed  with  Lizards.  He  leaves  the  Batra- 
chians, however,  in  the  class  of  Reptiles  as  the  fourth 
order.  The  first  order  comprises  the  Chelonians,  the 
second  the  Saurians  (including  Crocodiles  and  Lizards), 
the  third  the  Ophidians — terms  which  have  been  adopted 
by  all  succeeding  naturalists.  Here,  however,  Brongniart's 
merit  on  the  classification  of  Reptiles  ends,  the  definition 
and  disposition  of  the  genera  remaining  much  the  same  as 
in  the  works  of  his  predecessors. 

The  activity  in  France  in  the  field  of  natural  science 
was  at  this  period,  in  spite  of  the  political  disturbances, 
so  great  that  only  a  few  years  after  Lac6pede's  work 
another,  almost  identical  in  scope  and  of  the  same  extent, 
appeared,  viz.,  the  Histoire  Naturelle  Generale  et  Parti- 
culiere  des  Reptiles  of  F.  M.  DAUDIN  (Paris,  1802-3,  8 
vols.  8vo).  Written  and  illustrated  with  less  care  than 
that  by  Lace"pede,  it  is  of  greater  importance  to  the 
herpetologists  of  the  present  day,  as  it  contains  a  consider- 
able number  of  generic  and  specific  forms  described  for 
the  first  time.  Indeed,  at  the  end  of  the  work,  the  author 
states  that  he  has  examined  more  than  eleven  hundred 
specimens,  belonging  to  five  hundred  and  seventeen  species, 
all  of  which  he  has  described  from  nature.  The  system 
adopted  is  that  of  Brongniart,  giving  to  the  work  a 
character  by  which  the  modern  herpetologist  is  most 
favourably  impressed.  The  genera  are  well  defined,  but 
ill  arranged ;  it  is,  however,  noteworthy  that  Csecilia 
takes  now  its  place  at  the  end  of  the  Ophidians,  and 
nearest  to  the  succeeding  order  of  Batrachians. 

The  next  step  in  the  development  of  the  herpeto- 
logical  system  was  the  natural  arrangement  of  the  genera. 
This  involved  a  stupendous  amount  of  labour ;  by  a 
careful  thorough  examination  of  all  the  types  of  Reptiles 
then  known,  reliable  characters  had  to  bo  discovered, 
and  by  means  of  the  principle  of  the  subordination  of 
2  Bull.  Acad.  Sci.,  1800,  Nos.  35,  36. 


Brong 
iiiart. 


Dau< 


HISTORY.] 


REPTILES 


435 


characters  the  genera  had  to  be  grouped  into  families 
within  Brongniart's  orders.  Although  many  isolated  con- 
tributions were  made  by  various  workers,  this  task  could 
be  successfully  undertaken  and  completed  in  the  Paris 
Museum  only,  in  which,  besides  Seba's  and  Lacepede's 
collections,  many  other  herpetological  treasures  from  other 
museums  had  been  deposited  by  the  victorious  generals  of 
the  empire,  and  to  which  through  Cuvier's  reputation 
objects  from  every  part  of  the  world  were  attracted  in  a 
more  peaceful  and  voluntary  manner.  The  men  who 
itril,  devoted  themselves  to  this  task  were  A.  M.  C.  DUMERIL, 
>9  OPPEL,  and  CUVIER  himself.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  bio- 
grapher rather  than  the  historian  to  ascertain  what  share 
IV  '  of  the  merit  in  building  up  the  new  system  should  be 
allotted  to  each  of  these  three.  Oppel  was  a  German 
who,  during  his  visit  to  Paris  (1807-8),  attended  the 
lectures  of  Dumeril  and  Cuvier,  and  at  the  same  time 
studied  the  materials  to  which  access  was  given  to  him  by 
the  latter  in  the  most  liberal  manner.  Dumeril1  main- 
tains that  Oppel's  ideas  and  information  were  entirely 
derived  from  his  lectures,  and  that  Oppel  himself  avows 
this  to  be  the  case.  The  passage,2  however,  to  which  he 
refers  is  somewhat  ambiguous  ;  and  it  is  certain  that  there 
is  the  greatest  possible  difference  between  the  arrange- 
ment published  by  Dumeril  in  1806  (Zoologie  Analytique, 
Paris,  8vo)  and  that  proposed  by  Oppel  in  his  Ordnun- 
gen,  Familien,  und  Gattungender  Reptilien  (Munich,  1811, 
4to).  There  is  no  doubt  that  Oppel  profited  largely  by 
the  teaching  of  Dumeril ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  sufficient  internal  evidence  in  the  works  of  both  authors, 
not  only  that  Oppel  worked  independently,  but  also  that 
Dumeril  and  Cuvier  owed  much  to  their  younger  fellow- 
labourer,  as  Cuvier  himself  indeed  acknowledges  more  than 
once. 

Oppel's  classification  may  be  shortly  indicated  thus  : — 

ORDER  1.  TESTUDINATA  OR  CH^LONIENS. 
Fam.  1.  CHELONII  (gen.  Mydas,  Coriacca). 
Fam.  2.  AMYD^E  (gen.  Trionyx,  Chelys,  Testudo,  Emys). 

ORDER  2.  SQUAMATA. 

Sect.  A.  SAURII. 

Fam.  1.  CROCODILINI  (gen.  Crocodilus,  Gavialis,  Alligator). 
Fam.  2.  GECKOIDES  (gen.  Gecko,  Stellio,  Agama). 
Fam.  3.  IGUANOIDES   (gen.   Cam&leo,  Draco,  Iguana,  Basiliscus, 

Lopliyrus,  Anolis). 
Fam.  4.  LACERTINI  (gen.  Tupinambis,  Dracsena,  Lacerta,  Tacliy- 

dromus). 

Fam.  5.  SCINCOIDES  (gen.  Scincus,  Seps,  Scheltopusik,  Anguis). 
Fam.  6.  CHALCIDICI     (gen.    Chalcides,    Bimanus,    Bipes,     Oplii- 

sauriis). 

Sect.  B.  OPIUDII. 

Fam.  1.  AKGTJIFORMES  (gen.  Tortrix,  AmpJiisbxna,  Typhlops). 
Fam.  2.  CONSTRICTOIIES  (gen.  Boa,  Eryx). 
Fam.  3.  HYDRI  (gen.  Platurus,  Hydrophis). 

iFam.  4.  PSEITDO-VIPERJE  (gen.  Acrochordus,  Erpetori). 
Fam.  5.  CROTALIKI  (gen.  Crotalus,  Trigonocephalus). 
Fain.  6.  VIPERINI  (gen.  Vipera,  Pseudoboa). 
Fam.  7.  COLUBRINI  (gen.  Coluber,  Bungarus). 

ORDER  3.  NUDA  OR  BATRACII. 

In  this  classification  we  notice  three  points,  which 
indicate  a  decided  progress  towards  a  natural  system.  (1) 
The  four  orders  proposed  by  Brongniart  are  no  more 
considered  cosubordinate  in  the  class,  but  the  Saurians 
and  Ophidians  are  associated  as  sections  of  the  same 
order,  a  view  held  by  Aristotle  but  abandoned  by  all 
following  naturalists.  The  distinction  between  Lizards 


1  Erpet.  gener.,  i.  p.  259. 

"  Ware  es  nicht  die  Ermunterung  .  .  .  dieser  Freunde  gewesen, 
so  wiirde  ich  iiberzeugt  von  den  Mangeln,  denen  eine  solche  Arbeit 
bei  aller  mbglichen  Vorsicht  doch]  xinterworfen  1st,  es  nie  gewagt 
haben,  meine  Eintheilung  bekaimt  zu  niachen,  obwohl  selbe  Herr 
Dumeril  in  seinen  Lectionen  vom  Jahre  1809  schon  vorgetragen,  und 
die  Thiere  im  Cabinet  darnach  bszeichnet  hat  "  (preface,  p.  viii).  A 
few  lines  further  on  he  emphatically  declares  that  the  classification  is 
based  upon  his  own  researches. 


and  Snakes  is  carried  out  in  so  precise  a  manner  that  one 
genus  only,  Amphisbxna,  is  wrongly  placed.  (2)  The 
true  Eeptiles  have  now  been  entirely  divested  of  all 
heterogeneous  elements  by  relegating  positively  Cxcilia  to 
the  Batrachians,  a  view  for  which  Oppel  had  been  fully 
prepared  by  Dumeril,  who  pointed  out  in  1807  that  "les 
ce"cilies  se  rapprochent  considerablement  des  batraciens 
auxquels  elles  semblent  lier  1'ordre  entier  des  serpens."3 
(3)  An  attempt  is  made  at  arranging  the  genera  into 
families,  some  of  which  are  still  retained  at  the  present 
day. 

In  thus  giving  a  well-merited  prominence  to  Oppel's 
labours,  we  are  far  from  wishing  to  detract  from  the 
influence  exercised  by  the  master  spirit  of  this  period, 
Cuvier.  Without  his  guidance  Oppel  probably  never 
would  have  found  a  place  among  the  promoters  of 
herpetological  science.  But  Cuvier's  principal  researches 
on  Reptiles  were  incidental  or  formed  part  of  some  more 
general  plan ;  Oppel  concentrated  his  on  this  class  only. 
The  latter  acquired  a  more  correct  view  as  regards  the 
higher  divisions,  while  Cuvier  was  enabled  by  a  more 
detailed  study  of  the  genera  to  define  certain  families 
more  precisely  and  arrange  them  in  a  more  natural  manner, 
and  to  add  not  a  few  to  the  generic  forms.  Cuvier  adopts 
the  four  orders  of  Reptiles  proposed  by  Brongniart  as 
equivalent  elements  of  the  class,  and  restores  the  Blind- 
worms  and  allied  Lizards,  and,  what  is  worse,  also  the 
Csecilias,  to  the  Ophidians.  The  Chamaeleons  and  Geckos 
are  placed  in  separate  groups,  and  the  mode  of  dividing 
the  latter  has  been  retained  to  the  present  day.  Also  a 
natural  division  of  the  Snakes,  although  the  foreign  ele- 
ments mentioned  are  admitted  into  the  order,  is  sufficiently 
indicated  by  his  arrangement  of  the  "vrais  serpens  propre- 
ment  dits"  as  (1)  non-venomous  Snakes,  (2)  venomous 
Snakes  with  several  maxillary  teeth,  and  (3)  venomous 
Snakes  with  isolated  poison-fangs.  Without  entering  into 
those  long  descriptions  of  the  species  which  continue  to  be 
the  bane  of  modern  zoology,  he  distinguishes  the  species 
of  Reptiles  with  a  precision  not  attained  in  any  previous 
work,  critically  examining  the  literature  and  adding  the 
principal  references. 

Cuvier's  researches  into  the  osteology  of  Reptiles  had 
not  only  the  object  of  forming  the  basis  for  their  arrange- 
ment, but  also  of  discovering  the  means  of  understanding 
the  fossil  remains  which  now  claimed  the  attention  of 
French,  English,  and  German  naturalists.  Extinct  Chelo- 
nian  and  Crocodilian  remains,  Pterodactylus,  Mosasaurus, 
Iguanodon,  Ichthyosaurus,  Teleosaurus,  became  the  subjects 
of  Cuvier's  classical  treatises  which  form  the  contents  of 
the  5th  volume  (part  2)  of  his  Recherches  sur  les  Ossemens 
Fossiles,  oti  Von  retablit  les  caracteres  des  plusieurs  animaux 
dont  les  revolutions  du  globe  ont  detruit  -les  especes  (new 
ed.,  Paris,  1824,  4to). 

All  the  succeeding  herpetologists  adopted  either  Oppel's  Blain- 
or  Cuvier's  view  as  to  the  number  of  orders  of  Reptiles,  ville- 
or  as  to  the  position  Batrachians  ought  to'  take  in  their 
relation  to  Reptiles  proper,  with  the  single  exception  of 
D.  DE  BLAINVILLE.  He  divided  the  "  oviparous  subtype" 
of  Vertebrates  into  four  classes,  Birds,  Reptiles,  Amphi- 
bians, and  Fishes,4  a  modification  of  the  system  which  is 
all  -  the  more  significant  as  he  designates  the  Reptiles 
"  Squammiferes  Ornithoides,  ecailleux"  and  the  Amphibians 
"  Nudipelliferes,  Ichthyoides  nus."  In  these  terms  we 
perceive  clear  indications  of  the  relations  which  exist  to  the 
class  of  Birds  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  that  of  Fishes  on 
the  other ;  they  are  signs  which  cast  their  shadow  before 
them,  but,  unfortunately,  Blainville  himself  did  not  follow 

3  Memoires  de  Zoologie  et  d' Anatomic  Comparte,  Paris,  1807,  8vo, 
p.  45. 

4  Bull.  Sci.  Soc.  Philomat.,  July  1816. 


436 


REPTILES 


[HISTORY. 


up  the  ideas  thus  expressed,  and  abandoned  even  the  terms 
in  a  later  edition  of  his  systematic  tables. 

The  direct  or  indirect  influence  of  the  work  of  French 
anatomists  manifested  itself  in  the  systems  of  the  other 
herpetologists  of  this  period.  The  Crocodiles,  especially, 
which  hitherto  (strange  to  say,  even  in  Cuvier's  classifica- 
tion) had  been  placed  as  one  of  the  families  of  Saurians, 
rrem.  now  commence  to  be  separated  from  them.  MERREM 
(Versueh  eines  Systems  der  Amphibien,  Marburg,  1820, 
8vo)  distinguishes  two  classes  of  "Amphibians,"  Pko- 
lidota  and  Batrachia. 

The  Pholidota  (or  Reptiles)  are  divided  into  three  orders,  dis- 
tinguished chiefly  by  osteological  and  splanchnological  characters: — 

1.  TESTUDINATA  ; 

2.  LORICATA  ( =  Crocodiles) ; 

3.  SQUAMATA  ( =  Oppel's  Squamata,  excluding  Crocodiles). 
Merrem's    subdivision  of   the   Squamata    into  (1)    Gradientia 

(  =  limbed  Lacertilia),  (2)  Kepentia  (  =  limbless  Lacertilia),  (3) 
Serpentia  (  =  Snakes  and  Amphisbsena),  (4)  Incedentia  (  =  Chirotes), 
and  (5)  Predentia  ( -=  Chamaeleons)  was  based  chiefly  on*  the 
modifications  of  the  limbs,  and  not  adopted  by  his  successors.  The 
greater  part  of  his  work  is  occupied  with  a  synopsis  of  all  the 
species  of  Reptiles  known,  each  being  shortly  characterized  by  a 
diagnosis  ;  but,  as  only  a  small  proportion  (about  one  hundred  and 
seventy)  were  known  to  him  from  autopsy,  this  synopsis  has  all 
the  faults  of  a  compilation. 

reille.  LATREILLE,  who  commenced  the  study  of.  Reptiles  as 
early  as  1801,  had  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  science 
when  he  published,  in  1825,  his  Families  Naturelles  du 
Regne  Animal  (Paris,  1825,  8vo).  He  separated  the 
Batrachians  as  a  class  from  the  Reptiles,  and  the  latter  he 
divides  into  two  sections  only,  Cataphracta  and  Squamosa, — 
in  the  former  Crocodiles  being  associated  with  the  Che- 
lonians.  He  bases  this  view  on  the  development  of  a 
carapace  in  both,  on  the  structure  of  the  feet,  on  the  fixed 
quadrate  bone,  on  the  single  organ  of  copulation.  None 
of  the  succeeding  herpetologists  adopted  a  combination 

y.  founded  on  such  important  characters  except  J.  E.  GRAY, 
who,  however,  destroyed  Latreille's  idea  of  Cataphracta  by 
adding  the  Amphisbsenians x  as  a  third  order. 

Cuvier's  account  of  the  genera  and  species  of  Reptiles  in 
the  Regne  Animal  was  too  succinct,  and  Merrem's  bore  too 
much  the  character  of  a  compilatory  list,  to  furnish  efficient 
aid  in  the  arrangement  of  the  mass  of  new  materials  which 
began  to  accumulate  from  all  parts  of  the  world  in 
European  museums.  Among  others,  Spix  had  brought 
from  his  travels  in  Brazil  a  rich  spoil  to  the  Munich 

gler.  Museum,  and  the  Bavarian  Academy  charged  JOH.  WAGLER, 
who  was  engaged  in  working  out  these  materials,  to  pre- 
pare a  general  system  of  Reptiles  and  Batrachians.  His 
work,2  the  result  of  ten  years'  labour,  is  a  simple  but 
lasting  monument  to  a  young  naturalist,3  who,  endowed 
with  an  ardent  imagination,  only  too  frequently  misin- 
terpreted the  evidence  of  facts,  or  forced  it  into  the 
service  of  preconceived  ideas.  Cuvier  had  drawn  attention 
to  certain  resemblances  in  some  parts  of  the  osseous 
structure  of  Ichthyosaurus  and  Pterodactylus  to  Dolphins, 
Birds,  Crocodiles,  &c.  Wagler,  seizing  upon  such  ana- 
logical resemblances,  separated  those  extinct  Saurians  from 
the  class  of  Reptiles,  and  formed  of  them  and  the 
Monotremes  a  distinct  class  of  Vertebrates,  intermediate 
between  Mammals  and  Birds,  which  he  called  Gryphi. 
When  we  consider  that  the  discovery  of  the  mode  of  pro- 
pagation of  the  Monotremes  is  probably  reserved  for  the 
present  decennium,  and  that  the  propagation  of  those 
extinct  Reptiles  may  remain  an  unsolved  mystery,  we  must 

1  Catalogue  of  the  Tortoises,  Crocodiles,  and  Amphisbaenians  in  the 
Collection  of  the  British  Museum,  London,  1844,  16mo,  p.  2. 

8  JfatUrliches  System  der  A  mphibien  mit  vorangehender  Classifica- 
tion der  Sdugethiere  und  Vogel, — ein  Bettrag  zur  vergleichenden 
Zoologie,  Munich,  1830,  8vo. 

8  Wagler  was  accidentally  killed  three  years  after  the  publication 
of  his  System. 


admit  that  Wagler  has  made  free  use  of  his  imagination 
by  defining  his  class  of  Gryphi  as  "  vertebrates  with  lungs 
lying  free  in  the  pectoral  cavity;  oviparous;  development 
of  the  embryo  (within  or)  without  the  parent ;  the  young 
fed  (or  suckled  1)  by  the  parents. "  By  the  last  character 
this  Waglerian  class  is  distinguished  from  the  Reptiles. 

Reptiles  (in  which  Wagler  includes  Batrachians)  ar 
divided  into  eight  orders  : — Testudines,  Crocodili,  Lacertx, 
Serpentes,  Angues,  Caecilix,  Ramz,  and  Ichthyodi.  He  has 
great  merit  in  having  employed,  for  the  subdivision  of  the 
families  of  Lizards,  the  structure  of  the  tongue  and  the 
mode  of  insertion  of  the  teeth  in  the  jaws.  On  the  other 
hand,  however  well  the  genera  of  Snakes  are  defined  by 
him — and  their  number  has  been  increased  to  ninety-six — 
Wagler  has  entirely  failed  in  arranging  them  in  natural 
families,  venomous  and  non-venomous  types  being  mixed 
in  the  majority  of  his  groups. 

L.  FITZINGER  was  Wagler's  contemporary ;  his  first  Fitzingei 
work4  preceded  Wagler's  system  by  four  years.  As  he 
says  in  the  preface,  his  object  was  to  arrange  the  Reptiles 
in  "  a  natural  system,  a  system  in  which  the  objects  are 
arranged  in  accordance  with  their  greatest  similarity,  with 
their  natural  affinities.  Such  a  system  is  a  faithful  image 
of  the  gradual  progress  of  nature,  expressed  in  words." 
Unfortunately,  in  order  to  attain  this  object,  Fitzinger  paid 
regard  to  the  most  superficial  points  of  resemblance;  and 
in  the  tabula  affinitatum  generum  which  he  constructed  to 
demonstrate  "  the  progress  of  nature  "  he  has  been  much 
more  successful  in  placing  closely  allied  generic  forms  in 
contiguity  than  in  tracing  the  relationships  of  the  higher 
groups.  That  table  is  prepared  in  the  form  of  a  genealogical 
tree,  but  Fitzinger  wished  to  express  thereby  merely  the 
amount  of  morphological  resemblance,  and  there  is  no 
evidence  whatever  in  the  text  that  he  had  a  clear  idea  of 
genetic  affinity.  The  Batrachians  are  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  scheme,  leading  through  Hyla  to  the  Geckos  (clearly 
on  account  of  the  digital  dilatations)  and  through  Ctecilia 
to  Amphisbsena.  At  the  top  Draco  leads  through  Ptero- 
dactylus to  the  Bats  (Pteropus),  Ichthyosaurus  to  the 
Cetaceans  (Delphinus),  Emys  to  the  Monotremes,  Testudo 
to  Manis,  and  the  Marine  Turtles  to  the  Divers  and 
Penguins. 

In  Fitzinger's  system  the  higher  groups  are,  in  fact,  identical  with 
those  proposed  by  Merrem,  while  greater  originality  is  shown  in 
the  subdivision  of  the  orders.  He  differed  also  widely  from  Wagler 
in  his  views  as  to  the  relations  of  the  extinct  forms.  The  order 
of  Loricata  consists  of  two  families,  the  Ichthyosauroidea  and 
Crocodiloidea,  the  former  comprising  Iguanodon,  Flesiosaurus, 
Saurocephalus,  and  Ichthyosaurus.  In  the  order  Squamata  Lacer- 
tilians  and  Ophidians  are  combined  and  divided  into  twenty-two 
families,  almost  all  based  on  the  most  conspicuous  external 
characters  :  the  first  two,  viz.,  the  Geckos  and  Chameleons,  are 
natural  enough,  but  in  the  three  following  Iguanoids  and  Agarnoids 
are  sadly  mixed,  Pterodactyles  and  Draco  forming  one  family ; 
Megalosaurus,  Mosasaurus,  Varamis,  Tcjus,  &c.,  are  associated  in 
another  named  Ameivoidca ;  the  Amphisbeenidx  are  correctly 
denned  ;  the  Colubroidea  are  a  heterogenous  assemblage  of  thirty 
genera ;  but  with  his  family  of  Bungaroidea  Fitzinger  makes  an 
attempt  to  separate  at  least  a  part  of  the  venomous  Colubrine 
Snakes  from  the  Viperines,  which  again  are  differentiated  from 
the  last  family,  that  of  Crotaloidea. 

There  is  sufficient  evidence  in  this  early  publication 
that  Fitzinger  had  at  that  time  a  good  eye  for  seizing  upon 
those  characters  by  which  the  creation  of  small  groups, 
such  as  genera,  is  regulated,  and  if  this  little  work  had 
been  his  only  performance  in  the  field  of  herpetology  his 
name  would  have  been  honourably  mentioned  among  his 
fellow-workers.  But  the  promise  of  his  early  labours  was 
not  justified  by  his  later  work,  and  if  we  take  notice  of 
the  latter  here  it  is  only  because  his  name  has  become 
attached  to  many  a  Reptile  through  the  pedantic  rules  of 


4  Jfeue   Classification  der  Reptilien  nock  ihren  natiirlichen  Ver- 
wandtschaften,  Vienna,  1826,  4to. 


HISTORY, 


EEPTILES 


437 


zoological  nomenclature.  The  labours  of  Wiegmann,  Miiller, 
Dumeril,  and  Bibron  exercised  no  influence  on  him,  and 
when  he  commenced  to  publish  a  new  system  of  Reptiles 
in  1843,1  of  which  fortunately  one  fasciculus  only  appeared, 
he  exhibited  a  classification  in  which  morphological  facts 
are  entirely  superseded  by  fanciful  ideas  of  the  vaguest 
kind  of  physiosophy,  each  class  of  vertebrates  being  divided 
into  five  "  sense  "  series,  and  each  series  into  three  orders, 
one  comprising  forms  of  superior,  the  second  of  medium, 
and  the  third  of  inferior  development.  In  the  generic 
arrangement  of  the  species,  to  which  Fitzinger  devoted 
himself  especially  in  this  work,  he  equally  failed  to 
advance  science.  From  a  superficial  study  of  such  species 
as  were  accessible  to  him,  but  chiefly  from  the  descriptions 
of  other  authors,  he  selected  any  characters  for  the 
.  establishment  of  genera,  and,  abandoning  entirely  the  value 
of  a  genus  as  a  systematic  category,  he  introduced  a 
number  of  names,  under  the  cloak  of  which  he  hid  the 
superficiality  of  his  work ;  many  were  adopted  by  his  suc- 
cessors, who,  however,  had  to  substantiate  their  validity 
by  a  deeper  study  of  the  taxonomic  characters. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  a  period  distinguished  by  the 
appearance  of  a  work  which,  by  the  ability  of  its  authors, 
by  the  comprehensiveness  of  its  scope,  by  the  treatment 
of  the  general  subject  as  well  as  of  the  details,  superseded 
all  its  predecessors,  which  formed  the  basis  for  the  labours 
of  many  succeeding  years,  and  which  will  always  remain 
one  of  the  classical  monuments  of  descriptive  zoology, — 
the  Erpetologie  Generale  ou  Histoire  Naturelle  complete  des 

eril  Reptiles  of  A.  M.  C.  DUMERIL  and  G.  BIBRON  (Paris,  8vo). 
The  first  volume  appeared  in  1834,  and  the  ninth  and  last 

)U-  in  1854.  No  naturalist  of  that  time  could  have  been  better 
qualified  for  the  tremendous  undertaking  than  C.  Dumeril, 
who  almost  from  the  first  year  of  half  a  century's  con- 
nexion with  the  then  largest  collection  of  Reptilia  had 
chiefly  devoted  himself  to  their  study.  The  task  would 
have  been  too  great  for  the  energy  of  a  single  man  ;  it  was, 
therefore,  fortunate  for  Dumeril  that  he  found  a  most 
devoted  fellow-labourer  in  one  of  his  assistants,  G.  Bibron, 
whose  abilities  equalled  those  of  the  master,  but  who, 
to  the  great  loss  of  science,  died  (in  1848)  before  the 
completion  of  the  work.  Dumeril  had  the  full  benefit  of 
Bibron's  knowledge  for  the  volumes  containing  the  Snakes, 
but  the  last  volume,  which  treats  of  the  Tailed  Batrachians, 
had  to  be  prepared  by  Dumeril  alone. 

The  work  is  the  first  which  gives  a  comprehensive 
scientific  account  of  Reptiles  generally,  their  structure, 
physiology,  and  literature.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  first 
volume  is  devoted  to  these  chapters.  And  again  each  of 
the  four  orders  admitted  by  the  authors  is  introduced  by 
a  similar  general  account.  In  the  body  of  the  work  121 
Chelonians,  468  Saurians,  586  Ophidians,  and  218  Batra- 
chians are  described  in  detail  and  with  the  greatest  pre- 
cision. On  the  principles  of  arrangement  of  the  various 
orders  we  shall  have  to  speak  subsequently,  and  we  men- 
tion here  only  that,  singularly  enough,  the  authors  revert 
to  Brongniart's  arrangement,  in  which  the  Batrachians 
are  co-ordinate  with  the  other  three  orders  of  Reptiles.2 
This  must  appear  all  the  more  strange  as  Von  Baer 3  in 
1828,  and  J.  Miiller4  in  1831,  had  urged,  besides  other 
essential  differences,  the  important  fact  that  no  Batrachian 

1  Systema  Reptilium,  Vienna,  1843,  8vo. 

2_The  author  of  the  article  AMPHIBIA  in  the  present  work  (vol.  i. 
p.  750)  states  that  Gunther,  like  Dumeril  and  Bibron,  in  his  Catalogue, 
in  substance,  adopts  Brongniart's  "  arrangement."  There  is  no  founda- 
tion whatever  for  this  statement,  the  relation  of  the  Batrachians  to  the 
class  of  Reptiles  not  being  even  alluded  to  in  that  work.  In  a  later 
division  of  the  Reptilia  by  Giinther  (Phil.  Trans.,  1867)  the 
Batrachians  are  likewise  excluded. 

3  Entwicklunrjfsrji>schichtK  der  Thiere,  p.  262. 

4  Tiedemann's  Zeitschrift  fur  Physioloyie,  vol.  iv.  p.  200. 


embryo  possesses  either  an  ammon  or  an  allantois,  like  a 
Reptile. 

4.  Period  of  the  /Separation  of  Reptiles  and  Batrachians 
as  Distinct  Classes  or  Subclasses. — In  the  chronological  order 
which  we  have  adopted  for  these  historical  notes,  we  had 
to   refer   in  their   proper   places   to   two   herpetologists, 
Blainville   and  Latreille,  who   advocated  a   deeper   than 
merely   ordinal  separation  of  Reptiles  from  Batrachians, 
and  who  were   followed  by   F.  S.    Leuckart.     But   thi 

view  only  now  began  to  find  more  general  acceptance.     J.  J.  Miiller 
HOLLER  and  STANNIUS  were  guided  in  their  classification  and 
entirely  by  anatomical  characters,  and  consequently  recog-  stannius- 
nized  the  wide  gap  which  separates  the  Batrachians  from 
the  Reptiles ;   yet  they  considered   them  merely  as  sub- 
classes of  the  class  Amphibia.     The  former  directed  his 
attention   particularly  to   those   forms  which   seemed  to 
occupy  an  intermediate  position  between  Lacertilians  and 
Ophidians,   and   definitely   relegated  Anguis,   Pseudopus> 
Acontias  to  the  former,  and  Typhlops,  Rhinophis,  Tortrix, 
but   also   the   Amphisbaanoids   to   the  latter.      Stannius 
interpreted  the  characteristics  of  the  Amphisbaenoids  dif- 
ferently, as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  abstract  of  his 
classification  5  : — 

SUBCLASSIS  :  AMPHIBIA  MONOPNOA  (Leuckart). 
SECT.    1.  STREPTOSTYLICA  (Stann.).    Quadrate   bone  arti- 
culated to  the  skull ;  copulatory  organs  paired,  placed  out- 
side the  cloacal  cavity. 
ORDO  1.  OPHIDIA. 

Subordo    1.    EURYSTOMATA  or  MACROSTOMATA  (Mull.). 
The  facial  bones  are   loosely  connected  to  admit  of 
great  extension  of  the  wide  mouth. 
Subordo  2.  ANGIOSTOMATA  or  MICROSTOMATA  (Miill.). 
Mouth    narrow,     not    extensile ;      quadrate     bone 
attached  to  the  skull  and  not  to  a  mastoid. 
ORDO  2.  SAURIA. 

Subordo  1.  AMPHISB^NOIDEA. 
Subordo  2.   KIONOCRANIA  (Stann. )  =  Lizards. 
Subordo  3.  CHAM^LEONIDEA. 

SECT.  2.  MONIMOSTYLICA  (Stann.).  Quadrate  bone  suturally 
united  with  the  skull ;    copulatory  organ   simple,  placed, 
within  the  cloaca. 
ORDO  1.  CHELONIA. 
ORDO  2.  CKOCODILIA. 

This  classification  received  the  addition  of  a  fifth  Rep- 
tilian order  which  with  many  Lacertilian  characters  com- 
bined important  Crocodilian  affinities,  and  in  certain 
other  respects  differed  from  both,  viz.,  the  New  Zealand 
ffatteria,  which  by  its  first  describers  had  been  placed  to 
the  Agamoid  Lizards.  GuNTHER,6  who  pointed  out  the 
characteristics  of  this  Reptile,  considered  it  to  be  coordi- 
nate with  the  other  four  orders  of  Reptiles,  and  charac- 
terizes it  thus : — 

Rhynchocephalia. — Quadrate  bone  suturally  and  immov- 
ably united  with  the  skull  and  pterygoid ;  columella 
present.  Rami  of  the  mandible  united  as  in  Lacertilians. 
Temporal  region  with  two  horizontal  bars.  Vertebrae 
amphicoelian.  Copulatory  organs  none. 

5.  Period  of  the  Recognition  of  a  Class  of  Reptilia  as 
part  of  the  Sauropsida. — Although  so  far  the  discovery  of 
every  new  morphological  and  developmental  fact  had  pre- 
pared naturalists  for  a  class  separation  of  Reptiles  and 
Batrachians,  it  was  left  to  T.  H.  Huxley  to  demonstrate, 
not  merely  that  the  weight  of  facts  demanded  such  a  class 
separation,  but  that  the  Reptiles  hold  the  same  relation  to 
Birds   as  the  Batrachians  to    Fishes.     In  his  Hunterian 
Lectures  (1863)  he  divided  the  vertebrates  into  Mammals, 
Sauroids,  and  Ichthyoids,  subsequently  substituting  for  the 
last  two  the  terms  Sauropsida  and  Ic/ithyopsida.7     The 

5  Siebold   and    Stannius,    Handbuch  der   Zootomie — Zootomie   der 
Amphibie-n,,  2d  ed.  Berlin,  1856,  8vo. 

6  "  Contribution  to   the  Anatomy  of  ffatteria  (Rhynchocephalus, 
Owen),"  in  Phil.  Trans.,  1867,  part  ii. 

7  An  Introduction  to  the  Classification  of  Animals,  London,  1869, 
8vo,  pp.  104  sq. 


REPTILES 


[HISTOI 


Sauropsida  contain  the  two  classes  of  Birds  and  Reptiles, 
the  Ichthyopsida  those  of  Batrachians  and  Fishes.  The 
position  thus  assigned  to  lleptiles  in  the  system  is  now 
adopted  by  the  majority  of  zoologists. 

>wen.  R.  OWEN,  while  fully  appreciating  the  value  of  the 
osteological  characters  on  which  Huxley  based  his  division, 
yet  admitted  into  his  consideration  those  taken  from  the 
organs  of  circulation  arid  respiration,  and  reverted  to 
I-atreille's  division  of  warm-  and  cold-blooded  (hsemato- 
thermal  and  haernatocryal)  vertebrates,  thus  approximat- 
ing the  Batrachians  to  Reptiles,  and  separating  them  from 
Birds.  He  says1 — 

"Although  the  Aves  and  Mammalia  agree  as  hot-blooded 
vertebrates  in  their  higher  cerebral  development  and  in  the  more 
complex  heart  and  lungs,  Birds,  by  genetic  and  developmental 
characters  as  well  as  by  the  general  plan  of  their  organization,  are 
more  intimately  and  naturally  allied  to  the  Oviparous  Saurians  than 
to  the  Viviparous  Mammals.  In  their  generation  and  development 
modern  Batrachians  differ  from  other  cold-blooded  air-breathers, 
and  agree  with  Fishes.  Present  knowledge  of  extinct  forms  more 
clearly  exposes  the  artificial  nature  of  the  primary  groups  of  the 
oviparous  vertebrates.  An  important  link,  the  Pterosaicria,  or 
Flying  Reptiles,  with  wings  and  air-sacs,  more  closely  connecting 
Birds  with  the  actual  remnant  of  the  Reptilian  class,  has  passed 
away.  Other  extinct  orders  (Ganocepliala  and  Labyrinthodontia) 
have  demonstrated  the  artificial  nature  of  the  distinction  between 
Fishes  and  Reptiles,  and  the  close  transitions  that  connect  together 
all  the  cold-blooded  Vertebrates." 

The  Reptiles  (or  Monopnoa,  Leuck.),  then,  form  the  high- 
est of  the  five  sub-classes  into  which,  after  several  previous 
classifications,  Owen2  finally  divides  the  Hxmatocrya.    The 
sub-class  is  composed  of  the  following  nine  orders  : — 
a.   ICHTHYOPTEKYGIA  (extinct) — Ichthyosaurus. 
6.  SAUROPTERYGIA  (extinct) — Plesiosauncs,  Pliosaurus,  Notho- 
saurus,  Placodus. 

c.  ANOMODONTIA  (extinct) — Dicynodon,  lihynckosaurus,  Ouden- 

odon. 

d.  CiiELONIA. 

e.  LACERTILIA  (with  the  extinct  Mosasaurus). 

f.  OPillDIA. 

g.  CROCODILIA  (with  the  extinct  Teleosaurus  and  Streptospon- 

dylus). 
h.  DiNOSAuniA  (extinct) — Iguanodon,  Scelidosaurus,  and  Megalo- 

saurus. 
i.  PTEUOSAUIUA  (extinct)  —  Dimorphodon,  Ehamplwrhynchus, 

and  Plcrodactylus. 

As  this  ordinal  arrangement  deals  in  a  uniform  measure 
with  extinct  as  well  as  living  Reptiles,  it  is  more  complete 
than,  and  marks  as  great  a  progress  in  the  history  of 
herpetology  as,  any  of  the  classifications  recorded  hitherto. 

The  study  of  fossil  Reptiles  had  been  continued  after 
Cuvier  by  many  workers,  as  Goldfuss,  E.  Geoffroy  St 
Hilaire,  Harlan,  Mantell,  G.  F.  Jager,  Phillips,  Leidy, 
Falconer,  Cautley,  Alton,  Bronn,  Kaup,  Quenstedt,  and 
especially  H.  von  Meyer,  who  devoted  the  whole  of  his 
extra-official  time  to  drawing  with  his  own  hand  numerous 
treasures  preserved  in  Continental  collections.  But  none 
contributed  more  to  the  knowledge  of  fossil  Reptiles  than 
Owen  himself.  Indefatigable  in  collecting  materials,  and 
able  to  bring  to  bear  upon  the  subject  an  unsurpassed 
knowledge  ranging  over  the  whole  field  of  comparative 
anatomy,  he  was  unrivalled  in  elucidating  the  affinities  of 
fossil  remains  as  well  as  in  the  production  of  graphic 
descriptions.  He  showed  that  the  number  of  living  Rep- 
tilian types  bears  but  a  small  proportion  to  that  of  extinct 
forms,  and,  therefore,  that  a  systematic  arrangement  of  the 
entire  class  must  be  chiefly  based  upon  dental  and  osteo- 
logical characters. 

In  this  he  was  followed  by  HUXLEY  and  COPE  who, 
however,  have  restricted  still  more  the  selection  of  classi- 
ficatory  characters  by  relying  for  the  purposes  of  arrange- 
ment on  a  few  parts  of  the  skeleton  only.  This  is  a 
matter  of  necessity  in  dealing  with  fossil  remains,  but  a 

1  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,  London,  ]  866,  8vo,  vol.  i.  p.  6. 
*  Op.  cit.,  p.  16. 


tendency  has  thereby  been  fostered  in  our  times  of  apply. 
ing  the  same  principles  in  the  subdivision  of  living 
Reptiles  to  the  greater  or  less  exclusion  of  the  considera- 
tion of  other  parts  of  their  organization. 

Huxley  and  Cope  attempted  a  further  grouping  of  the 
orders  which  in  Owen's  system  were  merely  serially 
enumerated  as  cosubordinate  groups.  Huxley  used  for 
this  purpose  almost  exclusively  the  position  and  character 
of  the  rib-articulations  to  the  vertebral  centre,  the  orders 
themselves  being  the  same  as  in  Owen's  system  : — 

A.  PLEUROSPONDYLIA.     Dorsal  vertebrae  devoid  of  transverse 

processes  and  not  movable  upon  one  another,  nor  are  the  ribs 
movable  upon  the  vertebrae.    A  plastron.    Order  1,  CHELONIA. 

B.  The  dorsal  vertebrae  (which  have  either  complete  or  rudiment- 

ary transverse  processes)  are  movable  upon  one  another,  and 
the  ribs  upon  them.     No  plastron. 

a.  The   dorsal  vertebrae   have   transverse  processes  which   are 

either  entire   or  very  imperfectly  divided  into   terminal 
facets  (ERPETOSPONDYLIA). 

a.  Transverse  processes  long ;  limbs* well  developed,  pad- 
dles ;   sternum  and  sternal  ribs  absent  or  rudiment- 
ary.   Order  2,  PLESIOSAURIA  ( =  Sauropterygia,  Ow.). 
/3.  Transverse  processes  short. 

aa.  A  pectoral  arch  and  urinary  bladder.     Order  3, 

LACERTILIA. 

bb.  No  pectoral  arch  and  no  urinary  bladder.     Order 
4,  OPHIDIA.     • 

b.  The  dorsal  vertebrae  have  double  tubercles  in  place  of  trans- 

verse processes  (PEROSPONDYLIA).      Limbs  paddle-shaped. 
OrderS,  ICHTHYOSAURIA  (=*  Ichthyoptcryyia,  Ow.). 

c.  The  anterior   dorsal  vertebras   have   elongated  and  divided 

transverse  p'rocesses,  the  tubercular  being  longer  than  the 
capitular  division  (SUCHOSPOXDYLIA). 
a.  Only  two  vertebrae  in  the  sacrum.     Order  6,  CROCO- 
DILIA. 
ft.  More  than  two  vertebrae  in  the  sacrum. 

aa.   Manus  without  a  prolonged  ulnar  digit. 

aa.   Hind-limb  Saurian.     Order  7,  DiCYXODON- 

TIA  (  =  Anomodontia,  0\v. ). 
£0.   Hind-limb  Ornithic.      Order  8,   ORNITHO- 

SCELIDA  (  =  Dinosauria,  Ow.). 

bb.  Manus  with  an  extremely  long  uluar  digit.    Order 
9,  PTEROSAURIA. 

Finally,  Cope,3  by  combining  the  modifications  of  the  Cojie. 
quadrate  and  supporting  bones  with  the  characters  used 
by  Huxley  further  developed  Owen's  classification,  separat- 
ing the  Pythonomorpha  and  Rhynchocephalia  as  distinct 
orders  from  the  Lacertilia.  Whenever  practicable  he  wa.s 
guided  in  his  nomenclature  by  priority.  The  following  is 
an  abstract  of  his  classification  : — 

I.  Extremities  beyond  proximal  segment  not  differentiated 
to  form. 

Order  1.  ICHTHYOPTERYGIA  (Ow.). 
II.   Extremities  differentiated. 

A.  STREPTOSTYLICA  (Stann.). 

Order  2.  LACERTILIA. 

Order  3.  PYTHOXOMOKPHA  (Cope). 

Order  4.  OPHIDIA. 

B.  SYNAPTOSAURIA  (Cope). 

Order  5.  I.'HYXCHOCEPHALIA  (Gthr.). 

Order  6.  TESTUDIXATA. 

Order  7.  SAUROPTERYGIA  (Ow.). 

C.  ARCHOSAURIA  (Cope). 

Order  8.  ANOMODONTIA  (Ow.). 
Order  9.  DINOSAURIA  (Ow.). 
Order  10.  CROCODILIA  (Ow.). 
Order  11.  ORNITIIOSAURIA  (Fitz.). 

The  most  recent  general  work  on  Reptiles  is  from  the  Hofl 
pen  of  Dr  C.  K.  HOFFMANN,  and  appears  since  the  year  «nau 
1879  in  Brown's  Klassen  und  Ordnungen  des  Thien-eic/is. 
The  author  treats  with  predilection  the  parts  which  relate 
to  the  anatomy  of  Reptiles,  and  which  will  prove  to  be  of 
the  greatest  help  to  the  student;  each  chapter  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  list  of  the  most  important  publications.  The 
systematic  part  is  composed  with  less  critical  discernment, 
and  its  usefulness  for  scientific  purposes  will  scarcely  be 


3  Proc.  Amer.  Assoc.  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  19th  meeting, 
Cambridge,  1871,  8vo,  pp.  230  sq. 


LITEKATURE.] 


REPTILES 


439 


V«.s  on 

•'•18 


commensurate  with  the  amount  of  labour  bestowed  on  its 
compilation. 

6.  Special  Systematic  Works. 

After  having  followed  the  general  history  of  herpetology 
to  the  present  period,  we  have  to  mention  the  works  by 
which  our  knowledge  of  certain  orders  or  of  the  various 
Eeptilian  faunae  has  been  specially  advanced. 

Crocodilia  and  Lacertilia.  —  We  have  already  shown  that 
the  animals  of  these  two  orders  were  by  the  earlier  authors 
thrown  together  in  one  group,  of  which  a  natural  subdivi- 
sion  into  families  was  attempted  by  Oppel  and  Cuvier, 
that  Merrem  (1820)  was  the  first  to  recognize  in  the  Cro- 
codiles a  separate  group  for  which  he  proposed  the  name  of 
Loricata,  being  followed  therein  by  Blainville,  who  named 
the  group  Emydo-sauriens,  and  that  Latreille  actually  recog- 
nized their  affinities  to  the  Chelonians,  uniting  them  under 
the  name  of  Cataphracta.  In  Wagler's  and  Fitzinger's 
systems  a  distinct  advance  is  manifested  by  the  employ- 
ment of  the  tongue  and  also  of  the  dentition  as  important 
characters.  These,  combined  with  the  scutellation,  the  form 
of  the  toes,  and  the  entire  habitus,  were  also  the  characters 
on  which  the  subsequent  classifications  by  Wiegmann, 
Dumdril  and  Bibron,  Gray,  and  Stannius  were  based,  the 
classifications  varying  according  to  the  manner  in  which 
those  characters  are  subordinated  to  one  another.  But, 
while  the  German  and  English  herpetologists  assign  to  the 
Amphisbaenians,  Chamaeleons,  and  Crocodiles  a  rank  more 
or  less  above,  and  distant  from,  the  Lacertilian  families, 
Dumeril  and  Bibron  take  a  singularly  retrograde  step  in 
dividing  Lizards  into  eight  equivalent  families,  of  which  the 
first  comprises  the  Crocodiles,  and  the  second  the  Chamte- 
leons,  the  Amphisbsenians  forming  part  of  the  family 
Chalcididse.  Gray  was  the  last  who  dared  to  place  the 
narrow-mouthed  Snakes  such  as  Typhlops  and  Rhinophis 
among  Lizards. 

In  the  two  most  recent  classifications  of  the  families  of 
Lizards  osteological  (or  rather  craniological)  characters 
supersede  almost  entirely  those  previously  employed. 
COPE,1  who  had  led  the  way  in  this  direction,  still  allows 
subordinal  value  to  the  dentition  as  well  as  to  the  form 
of  the  tongue,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
scheme  :  — 

Suborder  1.  HHIPTOGLOSSA. 

Fain.  1.   Cham&leontidae. 
Suborder  2.  PACHYGLOSSA. 

Fam.  2.  Agamidse. 
Suborder  3.  NYCTISAURA. 

Fam.  3.  Gecconidie. 
Suborder  4.  PLEURODONTA. 

a.  Iguania. 

Fam.  4,  Anolidx;  5,  lyuanidx. 

b.  Diploglossa. 

Fam.  6,  Anguidas  ;   7,  Gerrhonolidas  ;   8,  Xcnosauridse  ;  9, 
Helodermidas. 

c.  Thecaglossa. 
Fam.  10.    Voranidae. 

d.  Leptoglossa. 

Fam.  11,  Teiidse;  12,  Lacertidx;  13,  Zonuridse;  14,  CJuil- 
cididse;  15,  Scincidie;  16,  Sepsidas. 

e.  Typhlophthalmi. 

Fam.  17,  Anelytropidae  ;  18,  Acontiidse  ;  19,  Aniellidx. 
Suborder  5.  OPHIOSAURI. 

Fain.  20,  Amphisbaenidas  ;  21,  Trogonophidx. 

Finally,  whilst  adopting  in  principle  Cope's  classification, 
G.  A.  BouLENGER,2  partly  by  extending  his  examination  on 
types  not  seen  by  Cope,  partly  by  differently  valuing  the 
various  craniological  characters,  introduced  considerable 
modifications  :  — 

1  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1864,  pp.  224  s?.,  and 
Proc.  Amer.  Assoc.  far  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1870  (1871),  pp. 
236  sq. 

8  For  an  outline  of  his  classification  consult  Ann.  and  Mag.  2fat. 
Hist.,  Aug.  1884,  or  Catalogue  of  Lizards,  vol.  i.,  1885,  p.  1. 


Suborder  1.  LACERTILIA  VERA. 

A.  Tongue  smooth  or  with  villose  papillae  ;  clavicle  dilated, 

loop-shaped  proximally ;    no  postorbital   or  postfrouto- 
squamosal  arches. 

Fam.  1,  Geckonidae.  ;  2,  Eublepharidae. 

B.  Tongue  smooth  or  with  villose  papillae  ;  clavicle  not  dilated 

proximally. 

Fam.  3,'  Uroplatidae ;  4,  Pygopodidas  ;  5,  Agamidse, ;  6, 
Iguanidae ;  7,  Xenosauridse ;  8,  Zonuridse ;  9, 
Anguidx  ;  10,  Aniellidas  ;  11,  Helodermatidae ; 
12,  Varanidas. 

C.  Tongue  covered  with  imbricate,  scale-like  papilla  or  with 

oblique  plicae ;    clavicle   dilated  proximally,   frequently 
loop-shaped. 

Fam.  13,  Xantusiidx  ;  14,  Tciidae;  15,  Amphisbaenidae  ; 
16,  Lacertidaz;  17,  Gerrhosauridaz ;  18,  Seineidae  ; 
19,  AnelylropidiK  ;  20,  Dibamidae. 
Suborder  2.  RHIPTOGLOSSA. 

Fam.  21.   Chamzeleontidae. 

The  principal  works  to  be  consulted  by  the  student  of 
recent  Crocodilians  are  the  following  : — 

Cuvier,  Ossemcns  fossiles,  vol.  v.  part  2  (1824)  ;  Geoffroy  St 
Hilaire,  "Descriptions  des  Crocodiles  du  Nil,"  in  Mem.  del'Institut 
d'Egypte  (1813)  ;  Dumeril  and  Bibron,  Erpttologie  ge'ne'rale,  Paris, 
8vo,  vols.  ii. ,  iii.  (1835-36)  ;  Huxley,  "  On  the  dermal  armour  of 
Jacare  and  Caiman,  with  notes  on  the  generic  and  specific  characters 
of  recent  Crocodilia,"  in  Jour.  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.,  Zoology,  vol.  iv. 
pp.  1-28  (1860)  ;  Briihl,  Das  Skclett  der  Krokodiliner,  dargestellt 
in  20  Tafeln  (1862) ;  Strauch,  "Synopsis  der  gegenwartig lebenden 
Crocodiliden,"  in  Mem.  Acad.  St  Petersburg,  vol.  x.  (1866) ; 
Rathke,  Untcrsuchungcn  uber  die  Entwickelung  und  den  Korperbau 
der  Crocodile,  Brunswick,  4to  (1866)  ;  Gray,  Catalogue  of  Shield- 
Reptiles  in  the  Collection  of  the  British  Museum, — part  ii.,  Eniydo- 
saurians,  Pihynchocephalia,  and  Amphisbaenians,  London,  4to 
(1872)  ;  Parker,  On  the  Structure  and  Development  of  the  Skull  in 
the  Crocodiles,  London,  4to  (1883). 

The  principal  special  works  to  be  consulted  by  the 
student  of  recent  Lacertilians  are  the  following  : — 

Wiegmann,  Herpetologia  mexicana, — Pars  1,  Saurorum  species 
am]}lectens,  Berlin,  fol.  (1834) ;  Dumeril  and  Bibron,  Erpelologie 
generate,  Paris,  8vo,  vols.  2-5  (1836-39)  ;  Gray,  Catalogue  of  the 
Specimens  of  Lizards  in  the  Collection  of  the  British  Museum,, 
London,  16rno  (1845)  ;  Briicke,  Bcitrdge  zur  vcrgleichenden  Ana- 
tomic und  Physiologic  des  Gcf ass- Systems  der  Amphibien,  Vienna, 
4to  (1852)  ;  Kathke,  Uebcr  den  Bau  und  die  Entwicklung  des 
Brustbeins  der  Sauricr  (1854) ;  Fritsch,  Zur  vergleichenden  Ana- 
tomie  des  Amphibien-Iferzcns,  Berlin,  8vo  (1869);  Fiirbringer,  Die 
Knochcn  und  Muskeln  der  Extremitdten  bei  den  schlangcndhitlichen 
Sauricrn,  Leipsic,  4to  (1870) ;  Braun,  Das  Urogenitalsystcm  der 
cinheimiscJien  Reptilien,  Wiirzburg,  8vo  (1877) ;  Parker,  On  the 
Structure  and  Development  of  the  Skull  in  the  Lacertilia,  (1879) ; 
Boulenger,  Catalogue  of  the  Lizards  in  the  British  Museum,  2d 
edition,  London,  8vo  (vol.  i.  in  progress,  1885). 

In  a  short  sketch  like  the  present  it  would  be  impossible 
to  refer  even  to  a  small  part  only  of  the  immense  number 
of  contributions  by  which  our  knowledge  of  Lizards  has 
been  advanced  within  the  last  forty  years,  either  by  adding 
to  that  of  species  previously  imperfectly  known,  or  by  de- 
scribing new  generic  and  specific  forms.  But  an  idea  of 
this  increase  may  be  formed  by  a  comparison  of  Gray's 
and  Boulenger's  catalogues  ;  whilst  the  former  enumerated 
186  species  out  of  the  families  Geckonidse.  and  Agamidse, 
Boulenger  describes  not  less  than  490  belonging  to  the 
same  groups. 

Ophidia. — We  have  already  mentioned  that  in  Oppel's  on  OpLi- 
system  (1811)  the  first  step  is  taken  towards  a  natural  diarw ; 
classification  of  Snakes.  Neither  C.  Dumeril  nor  Merrem, 
Fitzinger  nor  Wagler,  indicated  the  way  towards  a  more 
natural  arrangement ;  it  seemed  almost  as  if  with  the 
increase  of  the  number  of  distinct  genera  their  arrange- 
ment became  more  and  more  hopeless.  In  the  meantime 
the  Rijks  Museum  of  Leyden  had  enriched  itself  under  the 
able  direction  of  Temminck,  through  the  efforts  of  traveller- 
naturalists  like  Eeinwardt,  Kuhl,  Van  Hasselt,  Boie,  and 
Siebold  from  the  Dutch  colonies  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  with  materials  fairly  rivalling  those  accumulated 
in  Paris.  They  were  at  first  studied  by  the  brothers 
Friederich  Boie  and  Heinrich  Boie,  who  well  characterized 


440 


REPTILES 


a  number  of  genera  but  failed  in  the  attempt  to  arrange 
them  in  a  natural  or  logical  system.  All  the  more  remark- 
able, therefore,  is  the  production  by  H.  SCHLEGEL  of  an 
Essai  sur  la  Physionomie  des  Serpens  (Leyden,  1837;  2  vols. 
8vo,  with  atlas  in  fol.).  In  this  classical  work  the  whole  of 
the  subject  is  treated  throughout  in  a  scientific  manner ;  the 
species  are  described  with  a  clear  discernment  of  really  dis- 
tinctive characters,  the  description  being  generally  accom- 
panied with  a  faithful  outline  figure  of  the  head,  and  with 
a  critical  examination  of  the  literature.  Schlegel,  besides, 
has  the  merit  of  having  recognized  the  great  importance  of 
exactness  with  regard  to  localities,  and  of  giving  a  general 
account  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  Snakes.  The 
principle  of  classification  adopted  by  Schlegel,  indeed,  is 
not  one  which  will  be  recognized  as  final  or  even  as 
legitimate  at  the  present  time,  but  it  is  one  which  is  pre- 
ferable to  that  employed  by  Miiller,  Dumeril,  and  Bibron, 
which  led,  as  we  shall  see  presently,  to  the  most  artificial 
grouping  of  species.  He  divided  the  Snakes  into  families 
according  to  their  "  physiognomy,"  that  is  "  1'impression 
totale  que  fait  sur  nous  1'ensemble  d'un  etre  quelconque, 
impression  que  Ton  peut  sentir,  mais  qu'il  est  impossible 
de  rendre  au  moyen  de  paroles  ;  elle  est  le  re"sultat  de 
I'harmonie  de  toutes  les  parties  isolees,  dont  on  embrasse 
la  confirmation  d'un  coup  d'oeil,  et  dans  leurs  rapports 
mutuels."  Schlegel  had  no  training  in,  or  knowledge  of, 
anatomy;  he,  therefore,  ignored  Miiller's  researches  which 
appeared  a  few  years  before  his  work;  yet  it  is  note- 
worthy that  his  classification  stands  in  the  main,  and 
has  not  yet  been  superseded.  He  divides  Snakes  as 
follows : — 

I.  Non-venomous  Snakes. 

Fam.  1.   Burrowing. 

Gen.  Tortrix. 
Fam.  2.  Worm -like. 

Gen.   Calamaria. 
Fam.  3.  Terrestrial. 

Gen.  Coronella,  Xenodon,  Hcterodon,  Lycodon,  Coluber, 

Herpetodryas,  Psammophis. 
Fam.  4.  Arboreal. 

Gen.  Dcndrophis,  Dryophis,  Dipsas. 
Fam.  5.  Freshwater. 

Gen.  Tropidonotus,  Homalopsis. 
Fam.  6.   Boas. 

Gen.  Boa,  Python,  Acrochordus. 

II.  Venomous  Snakes. 

Fam.  7.  Colubriform. 

Gen.  Elaps,  Bungarus,  Naja. 
Fam.  8.  Marine 

Gen.  Hydrophis. 
Fam.  9.  Venomous  Snakes  proper. 

Gen.  Trigonocephalus,  Crotalus,  Vipera. 

Already  in  1832  J.  MIJLLER  had  proposed  "a  natural 
classification  of  Snakes  on  anatomical  principles,"1  in 
which  he  paid  particular  attention  to  the  osteology  of 
the  hitherto  dubious  forms  of  Ophidians,  but  in  the  end 
based  his  arrangement  entirely  on  the  structure  of  the 
jaws  and  on  the  dentition.  As  he  did  not  extend  his 
examination  into  other  parts  of  the  organization  of  the 
various  genera,  it  may  suffice  here  to  state  that  he  divided 
all  Snakes  into  two  sections,  the  first  of  which  (Ophidia 
microstomata)  comprised  the  four  families  Amphisbxnoidea, 
Typhlopina,  Uropeltacea,  and  Tortricina,  and  the  second 
(Ophidia  macrostomata)  all  the  other  Snakes,  which  he 
referred  to  seven  families. 

The  direction  thus  indicated  by  Miiller  was  followed  by 
DUMERIL  and  BIBROX,  who,  however,  by  their  much  more 
detailed  knowledge  of  Snakes,  were  enabled  to  subdivide 
the  unwieldy  categories  formed  by  Miiller;  also  the 
genera  which  in  Schlegel's  system  comprised  Snakes  with 
very  different  dentition  had  to  be  subdivided,  and  were 
defined  with  greater  precision  than  had  been  done  by  any 

1  Tiedemann's  Zeitschr.  /.  Physiologic,  vol.  iv.  p.  263  sq. 


[LITERATUI 
They   divide   Snakes   into   fi\ 

in  one  of  .the  jaws  only  :  2  famil 
Teeth  in  both  jaws,  none  grooved:  12  famil 
Posterior  maxillary  teeth  grooved :  6  fa 


previous   herpetologist. 
equivalent  sections  2 : — 

1.  OPOTERODONTES.     Teeth 

and  8  genera. 

2.  AGLTPHODONTES. 

and  86  genera. 

3.  OPISTHOGLYPHES. 

and  37  genera. 

4.  PROTEROGLYPHES.     Anterior  maxillary  tooth  grooved  and  fo 

lowed  by  other  smooth  teeth  :  2  families  and  16  genera. 

5.  SOLENOGLYPHES.     Anterior  maxillary  teeth  perforated  and 

lated  :  2  families  and  13  genera. 

The  progress  made  in  ophiology  from  the  time  of  the 
appearance  of  this  work  down  to  the  present  period 
consists  rather  in  the  increase  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
great  variety  of  species  and  genera  than  in  the  further 
development  of  the  system.  Gray,  Reinhardt,  Peters, 
Giinther,  Cope,  Bocage,  Jan,  Krefft,  and  others  described 
a  large  number  of  forms,  so  that  the  number  of  those 
known  to  Dumeril  and  Bibron  has  now  been  perhaps 
trebled  or  quadrupled.  Unfortunately,  no  general  work 
corresponding  to  the  present  state  of  science  exists.  But 
two  works  published  subsequently  to  the  jfirpetologie 
generate  are  indispensable  to  the  student. 

The  first  is  the  Catalogue  of  the  Specimens  of  Snakes 
in  the  Collection  of  the  British  Museum,  of  which  the  first 
part,  containing  the  Viperine  Snakes,  Water-Snakes,  and 
Boas,  by  J.  E.  GRAY,  appeared  in  1849,  and  the  second, 
containing  the  Colubrines,  by  A.  GUNTHER  in  1858.  The 
classification,  which  was  much  behind  its  time,  was  fixed 
by  the  former  of  the  two  authors,  so  that  the  latter  had 
to  accommodate  the  arrangement  of  his  part  to  that  of 
his  predecessor.  However,  he  strongly  opposed  the 
application  of  the  character  of  grooved  posterior  teeth  to 
the  formation  of  large  sections,  and  generally  adopted  the 
principle  advocated  by  Schlegel,  whose  generic  groups  were 
raised  into  families.  A  great  number  of  Snakes  unknown 
to  Dumeril  are  described  in  these  catalogues,  whilst  others 
which  happened  not  to  be  represented  in  the  British 
Museum  are  omitted. 

G.  JAN  in  his  Elenco  sistematico  degli  Ofidi  descritti  e 
disegnatiper  V Iconografia  generale  (Milan,  1863,  8vo)  gene- 
rally adopts  the  families  created  by  Giinther,  but  institutes 
under  each  two  divisions,  Aglyphodonta  and  Glyphodonta. 
Jan's  great  merit  is  the  publication  of  his  Iconographie 
generale  des  Ophidiens  (Milan,  1 8 60-7 6 3),  in  which  he 
figures  all  species  which  were  in  the  Milan  Museum  or 
lent  to  him  by  other  institutions,  and  which  thus  forms 
an  invaluable  aid  in  the  determination  of  species.  The 
author  died  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  but  it  was 
continued  by  his  artist,  Sordelli.  No  descriptive  letter- 
press worthy  of  the  name  accompanies  this  work. 

The  anatomy  of  Ophidians  has  hitherto  received  less 
attention  than  that  of  the  other  Reptilian  orders.  Be- 
sides the  information  contained  in  general  works,  we 
refer  here  only  to  two  important  special  treatises  : — 

Rathke,  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  Natter,  Kbnigsberg,  1839, 
4to  ;  and  Parker,  On  the  Structure  and  Development  of  the  Skull  in 
the  Common  Snake  (Tropidonotus  natrix),  London,  1879,  4to. 

Chelonians. — Of     ante-Cuvierian    authors    who     paid  °n  f*£ 
special  attention  to  this  suborder  the  following  deserve lomau 
special  mention  : — J.  G.  WALBAUM,4  J.  G.  SCHNEIDER,5 
J.  D.  ScHOEPF,6  and  A.  F.  SCHWEIGGERJ     Five  or  six 


2  Dumeril  changed  the  nomenclature  adopted  in  his  sixth  volume 
when,  eight  years  afterwards,  he  published  the  seventh  after  the  death 
of  Bibron.  We  give  here  the  revised  nomenclature. 

8  The  latest  parts  were  issued  without  date  between  1876  and  1882. 

4  Chelonographia,  oder  Beschreibung  einiger  Schildkroten,  Liibeck, 
1782,  4to. 

8  A  llgemeine  Naturgeschichte  der  Schildkroten,  Leipsic,  1783,  8vo. 

6  Historia  Testudinum  iconibus  illustrata,  Erlangen,   1792-1801, 
4to  (left  incomplete  by  the  death  of  the  author). 

7  Prodromi  Monographise  Cheloniorum  sect,  la  et  2a,  Konigsberg, 
1814,  8vo. 


LITERATURE.] 


REPTILES 


441 


distinct  types  of  Chelonians  were  soon  recognized,  and 
appear  also  in  Cuvier's  Regne  Animal,  viz.,  Testudo,  Emys, 
Chelys,  Trionyx,  Chelonia,  with  Sphargis.  These  types 
were  at  first  recognized  as  genera,  and  raised  by  the  sub- 
sequent authors  to  the  rank  of  families,  in  which  many 
more  genera  were  distinguished,  the  arrangements  merely 
differing  in  the  various  methods  of  subordination  of  the 
different  families. 

The  anatomy  of  Tortoises  was  investigated  chiefly  by 
C.  Perrault,  who  gave  a  detailed  description  of  one  of  the 
Gigantic  Land  Tortoises  in  Mem.  Ac.  Sc.  Paris,  iii.  (1666- 
69) ;  by  Cuvier  in  the  Ossemens  fossiles ;  by  Wiedemann 
in  Arch.  f.  Zool.  und  Zoot.,  1802  ;  by  Geoffrey  St  Hilaire 
in  Ann.  Mus.,  xiv. ;  and  especially  by  L.  H.  Bojanus,1  who 
published  an  anatomical  monograph  of  Emys  europ&a,  in 
which  all  parts  are  illustrated  in  detail,  the  plates  being 
accompanied  by  an  explanatory  text.  H.  Rathke2  studied 
their  development,  and  L.  Agassiz3  and  W.  K.  Parker4 
that  of  the  Turtles. 

The  most  complete  systematic  and  descriptive  work  is 
that  by  J.  E.  GRAY.  He  engaged  in  the  study  of  Tortoises 
at  various  times,  subdividing  the  principal  groups,  as  the 
materials  grew  under  his  hands,  at  first  principally  on  the 
ground  of  external  characters,  and  afterwards  of  such 
craniological  features  as  seemed  to  him  of  generic  value.5 
ALEXANDER  STRAUCH  contributed  two  painstaking  me- 
moirs,6 the  second  of  which  is  especially  valuable  as  it 
contains  a  collection  of  all  the  published  facts  concerning 
the  distribution  of  Tortoises  over  the  globe.  The  authors 
mentioned  associated  Sphargis  with  Chelonia,  the  later 
ones  generally  as  the  type  of  a  distinct  family,  all  the  marine 
Turtles  being  comprised  in  a  section  Pinnata  or  Euereta 
(Stannius) ;  and  it  was  only  COPE  who  recognized  in  the 
want  of  specialization  of  the  skeleton  of  the  Leathery 
Turtle  sufficient  grounds  for  separating  it  into  a  distinct 
section,  Athecae. 

c.  Faunistic  Works. 

ii.n      In  noticing  the  principal  faunistic  works,  we  omit  the 

a    majority  of  the  older  and   antiquated   publications,  and 

almost  all  treatises  which  appeared  in  periodicals,  as  their 

existence  can  be  readily  ascertained  by  reference  to  works 

of  more  modern  date  or  of  a  more  general  scope. 

Europe. — (1)  T.  Bell,  A  History  of  British  Reptiles;  2d  ed., 
London,  1849,  8vo.  (2)'  S.  Nilsson,  Scandinavisk  Fauna,,  pt.  iii.  ; 
Amfibierne,  2d  ed.,  London,  1860,  8vo.  (3)  A.  Strauch,  "Die 
Schlangen  des  Russischen  Reichs, "  Mem.  Ac.  Sc.  St  Petersburg,  xxi. 
1873,  4to.  (4)  H.  Sehlegel,  De  Dieren  van  Nederland :  Kruipende 
Dieren,  Haarlem,  1862,  8vo.  (5)  F.  Leydig,  Die  in  Deutschland 
lebenden  Arten  der  Sanrier,  Tubingen,  1872,  4to  ;  and  Ueber  die 
einlieimisclien  Schlangen,  Frankfort,  1883,  8vo.  (6)  E.  Schreiber, 
Herpetologia  Uuropsea,  Brunswick,  1875,  8vo.  (7)  V.  Fatio,  Faune 
des  Vcrtebres  de  la  Suisse,  vol.  iii.  of  Hist.  nat.  des  Reptiles  et  des 
Batraciens,  Geneva,  1872,  8vo.  (8)  C.  L.  Bonaparte,  Iconografia 
della  Fauna  italica,  vol.  ii.,  "  Amfibi, "  Rome,  1832-41,  fol.  (9)  E.  de 
Betta,  Erpetologia  delle  provincie  Venete  e  del  Tirolo  meridionale, 
Verona,  1857,  8vo.  (10)  A.  Strauch,  "  Essai  d'tine  Erpetologie  de 
1'Algerie,"  Mem.  Acad.  Sci.  St  Petersburg,  1862,  4to.  (11)  F. 
Lataste,  Essai  (Tune  Faune  Herpetologique  de  la  Gironde,  Bordeaux, 
1876,  8vo.  (12)  J.  von  Bedriaga,  Die  Amphibian  und  Rcptilien 
Griechenlands,  Moscow,  1882,  8vo. 

Persia. — W.  T.  Blanford,  Eastern  Persia,  vol.  ii.,  London, 
1876,  8vo. 

1  Anatome  Testudinis  europseie,  Vilna,  1819-21,  fol. 

2  Ueber  die  Entwicklung  der  Schildkrb'ten,  Brunswick,  1848,  4to. 

3  "Embryology  of  the  Turtle,"  in   Contributions  to  the  Natural 
History  of  the  United  States  of  America,  vol.  i.,  Boston,  1857,  4to. 

4  "The  Development  of  the  Green  Turtle,"  in  Voy.    "Challenger," 
Zoology,  vol.  i.,  London,  1880,  4to. 

5  Catalogue   of  Shield- Reptiles  in   the    Collection  of  the   British 
Museum,—  part   1,    Testudinata,    London,   1855,    4to  ;    followed   by 
Supplement  to  the  Catalogue,  <kc.,  1870,    and  by  Appendix  to  the 
Catalogue,  <Lc.,  1872. 

8  "  Chelonologische  Studien "  and  "Die  Verbreitung  der  Schild- 
kroten  liber  den  Erdball,"  in  Memoires  de  I' Acad.  de  St  Petersb.,  1862 
and  1865. 


Japan. — H.  Sehlegel,  Fauna  Japenica — Reptiles,  Leyden,  fol. 

East  Indies. — (1)  P.  Russel,  Account  of  Indian  Serpents,  collected 
on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  containing  Dcscrij)tions  and  Drawings  of 
each  Species,  London,  1796,  fol.,  and^4  Continuation  of  an  Account  of 
Indian  Serpents,  London,  1801-3,  fol.  (2)  H.  Sehlegel,  Abbildungen 
neuer  oder  unvollstandig  bekannter  Amphibien,  Diisseldorf,  1837-44, 
text  8vo,  atlas  fol.  (3)  J.  E.  Gray  and  Hardwicke,  Illustrations 
of  Indian  Zoology,  London,  1830-32,  fol.  (4)  T.  Cantor,  Catalogue 
of  Reptiles  inhabiting  the  Malayan  Peninsula  and  Islands,  Calcutta, 
1847,  8vo.  (5)  A.  Giinther,  Reptiles  of  British  India,  London,  1864, 
fol.  (6)  W.  Theobald,  Catalogue  of  the  Reptiles  of  British  India, 
Calcutta,  1876,  8vo.  (7)  J.  Fayrer,  Hie  TJianatophidia  of  India, 
London,  1874,  fol.  (8)  J.  Anderson,  Anatomical  and  Zoological 
Researches,  comprising  an  account  of  the  Zoological  Results  of  the  two 
Expeditions  to  Western  Yunnan,  London,  1878,  4to. 

Africa. — (1)  Description  de  VEgypte — Histoire  naturelle — Reptiles, 
Paris,  fol.,  1809,  &c.  (2)  A.  Smith,  Illustrations  of  tJie  Zoology  of 
South  Africa,  London,  8vo,  1849.  (3)  W.  Peters,  Naturwissen- 
schaftliche  Reise  nach  Mossambique — Zoologie,  iii.,  "Amphibien," 
Berlin,  1882,  4to. 

North  America. — (1)R.  Harlan,  American  Herpetology,  or  Genera 
of  the  North  American  Reptilia,  with  a  Synopsis  of  the  Species, 
Philadelphia,  1827,  8vo.  (2)  J.  E.  Holbrook,  North  American  Her- 
petology, or  a  Description  of  the  Reptiles  inhabiting  the  United  States, 
5  vols.,  with  numerous  col.  plates,  Philadelphia,  1836-43,  4to.  (3) 
D.  H.  Storer,  "  Report  on  the  Reptiles  of  Massachusetts,"  in  Boston 
Jour.  Nat.  Hist.,  iii.,  1841,  pp.  1-65.  (4)  J.  E.  De  Kay,  Zoology  of 
New  York,  vol.  iii.,  "Reptiles  and  Amphibia,"  Albany,  1842,  4to. 
(5)  S.  F.  Baird  and  S.  Girard,  Catalogue  of  North  American  Reptiles 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  pt.  i.  "Serpents," 
Washington,  1853,  8vo.  (6)  Id.,  Reports  upon  Reptiles  in  Reports 
of  Explorations  for  a  Railroad  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  Washington,  1859,  4to.  (7)  L.  Agassiz,  Contributions  to  the 
Natural  History  of  the  United  States  of  America,  vol.  ii.,  "North 
American  Testudinata,"  Boston,  1857,  4to.  (8)  S.  Garman,  "On 
the  Reptiles  and  Batrachians,"  Mem.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool. ,  Cambridge, 
1883,  4to.  (9)  H.  C.  Yarrow,  Check-List  of  the  North  American 
Reptiles  and  Batrachians,  with  Catalogue  of  the  Specimens  in  the 
U.  S.  National  Museum,  Washington,  1883,  8vo.  (10)  E.  D.  Cope 
is  the  author  of  numerous  memoirs  and  papers  in  the  various  North 
American  periodicals. 

Tropical  America.  —(1)  Prince  Maximilian  von  Wied,  Abbildungen 
zur  Naturgeschichte  Brasiliens,  Weimar,  1822-31,  fol.,  and Beitrdge 
zur  Naturgeschichte  von  Brasilien,  i.  "Amphibien,"  Weimar, 
1825,  8vo.  (2)  J.  B.  Spix,  Serpentum  Brasiliensium  species  novae, 
Munich,  1824,  fol.;  Id.,  Ranae  et  Testudinis  Brosiliensis  species 
novae,  Munich,  1825,  fol.;  Id.,  Animalia  nova  sive  species  novas 
Lacertarum  quas  in  itinere  per  Brasiliam  annis  1817-20,  jussu  et 
auspiciis  Maximiliani  Josephi  L,  Bavarian  regis,  suscepto  collegit  et 
descripsit,  <kc.,  Munich,  1825,  fol.  (3)  A.  F.  A.  Wiegmann,  Herpeto- 
logia mexicana,  pars  i.,  Saurorum  species  amplectens,  Berlin,  1834, 
fol.  (4)  J.  J.  v.  Tschudi,  Untersuchungen  uber  die  Fauna peruana 
auf  einer  Reise  in  Peru  wahrend  der  Jahrc  1838-42,  St  Gall,  1846, 
fol.  (5)  Guichenot,  in  C.  Gay's  Historia  fisica  y  politica  de  Chile, 
ii.,  "Reptiles,"  Paris,  1848,  8vo,  atlas  fol.  (6)  Cocteau  and  Bibron, 
in  Ramon  de  la  Sagra's  Histoire  physique,  politique,  et  naturelle  de 
Vile  de  Cuba — Reptiles,  Paris,  text  8vo,  atlas  fol.  (7)  F.  de 
Castelnau's  Expedition  dans  Ics  parties  centrales  de  VAmerique  du 
Sud — Zoologie — Reptiles,  by  A.  Guichenot,  Paris,  1855,  4to.  (8)  C. 
Girard,  Reptiles  (from  Chili)  in  U.  S.  Naval  Astronomical  Expedition 
to  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  vol.  ii.,  Washington,  1855,  4to.  (9)  S. 
F.  Baird,  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition,  vol.  xx.,  "Herpetology," 
Philadelphia,  1858,  atlas  fol.  (10)  Dumeril  and  Bocourt,  Mission 
scientifique  au  Mexique  et  dans  V  Amerique  Centrale — Etudes  sur  les 
Re.ptiles  et  les  Batraciens,  Paris,  1870,  4to  (in  progress).  (11)  A. 
Giinther,  in  Salvin  and  Godman's  Biologia  Centrali- Americana — 
Reptiles,  London,  1885,  4to  (in  progress).  (12)  E.  D.  Cope,  numerous 
papers  in  the  various  North  American  periodicals. 

Australia. — (1)  J.  E.  Gray  and  A.  Giinther  treat  of  the  Lizards 
in  Zoology  of  the  Voyage  of  H.  M.S.  "Erebus  "  and  "  Terror,"  London, 
1844,  1875,  4to.  (2)  G.  Krefft,  The  Snakes  of  Australia,  Sydney, 
1869,  4to.  (3)  W.  Peters  and  J.  Doria,  in  Ann.  Mus.  Genov.,  xiri., 
1878,  Svo. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  THE  CLASS  REPTILIA. 

Reptiles  are  vertebrate  animals,  the  skin  of  which  is 
covered  with  horny  or  bony  plates  (scales  or  scutes).  The 
heart  has  two  auricles,  but  with  the  ventricular  chamber 
generally  incompletely  divided ;  two  arterial  trunks  emerge 
from  the  right  portion  of  the  ventricle ;  the  blood  of  the 
arterial  and  venous  systems  mixes  either  in  the  heart  or  at 
the  origin  of  the  aortic  arches.  Respiration  takes  place  by 
lungs,  never  by  bronchias  ;  portions  of  the  lungs  are  simple 
without  minute  subdivision  of  the  cavity  ;  and  the  respira- 

XX.  —  56 


442 


REPTILES 


[CLASSIFICATION. 


tory  movements  are  slow  and  irregular.  In  consequence, 
Reptiles  are  cold-blooded  animals.  Their  blood-corpuscles 
are  red  and  nucleated.  The  thoracic  and  abdominal 
viscera  are  never  separated  by  a  complete  diaphragm. 
The  intestinal  tract  and  the  urogenital  organs  open  into  a 
common  cloaca;  the  oviducts  are  developed  from  the 
Miillerian  ducts,  and  dilated  in  their  lower  course  for  the 
reception  of  the  ova;  all  Reptiles  are  oviparous  or 
ovoviviparous. 

The  vertebral  column  articulates  with  the  skull  almost 
invariably  by  means  of  a  single  convex  occipital  condyle. 
The  mandible  consists  of  several  distinct  pieces,  of  which  the 
articular  bone  articulates  with  a  quadrate  bone,  interposed 
between  skull  and  mandible.  When  the  appendicular 
parts  of  the  skeleton  are  present,  the  sternum  is  never 
replaced  by  membrane  bone,  and  the  posterior  sternal 
ribs  are  attached  to  a  median  prolongation  of  the  sternum. 
The  ilia  are  prolonged  farther  behind  the  acetabulum  than 
in  front  of  it;  the  pubic  bones  directed  downward  and 
forward,  and,  like  the  ischia,  forming  a  median  symphysis. 
The  metatarsal  bones  are  not  anchylosed  among  them- 
selves or  with  the  distal  tarsal  bones. 

As  in  Birds  and  Mammals,  the  foetus  of  Reptiles  is 
enclosed  in  an  amnion  and  allantois  (Amniota),  and 
nourished  from  the  vitellus  of  the  egg. 

In  some  of  the  most  important  characters  mentioned 
above  Reptiles  agree  with  Birds,  as  in  the  presence  of  a 
single  occipital  condyle,  a  complex  lower  jaw  articulated 
to  the  skull  by  a  quadrate  bone,  and  nucleated  blood  cor- 
puscles. The  majority  of  naturalists,  therefore,  consider 
the  two  classes  to  constitute  one  of  the  main  divisions  of 
Vertebrates,  the  Sauropsida.  At  the  present  epoch,  indeed, 
Birds  are  strikingly  differentiated  from  Reptiles,  but  the 
discoveries  within  recent  years  of  a  number  of  extinct  Birds 
with  Reptilian  characters  offer  ample  evidence  that  Birds 
are  the  descendants  of  some  branch  or  branches  of  the 
Reptilian  type,  in  which  the  power  of  flight  was  developed, 
and  with  it  other  anatomical  peculiarities  by  which  Birds 
are  now  distinguished  from  living  Reptiles. 


THE  DIVISION  OF  REPTILIA  INTO  ORDERS. 

Of  the  various  modifications  that  have  been  proposed 
in  the  classification  of  Reptiles  the  more  important  are 
mentioned  in  the  historical  part  of  this  article.  We 
adopt  here  a  serial  arrangement  of  those  orders  which  seem 
to  be  well  established,  having  already  referred  to  the 
attempts  that  have  been  made  to  arrange  these  orders  into 
higher  groups. 

Order  1.  ICHTHYOPTERYGIA  (extinct).  Marine  Reptiles 
with  a  Cetacean-like  naked  body  and  with  four  limbs 
formed  into  paddles,  the  parts  of  which  after  the  humerus 
are  not  differentiated  as  to  form  or  function.  Tail  long. 
Vertebrae  numerous,  biconcave ;  no  sacrum.  Dorsal 
vertebras  with  double  tubercles;  ribs  movable,  the  anterior 
with  bifurcate  heads.  Head  large,  with  long  powerful 
snout,  joined  to  the  trunk  without  neck.  Quadrate  bone 
immovably  articulated  to  squamosal.  A  foramen  parietale 
is  present.  Orbits  very  large  with  a  ^'circle  of  sclerotic 


Flo.  1. —  Skeleton  of  Iguanodon  bemissartensis  (after  Dollo). 


plates.  A  pair  of  clavicles  rest  upon  an  interclavicle  and 
pass  laterally  to  the  scapulas ;  a  pair  of  broad  not  over- 
lapping coracoids  form  the  posterior  part  of  the  pectoral 
arch.  A  sternum  is  replaced  by  a  series  of  abdominal 
splints. 

Fam.  a.  Sauranodontidas.  Edentulous.  Genus :  Sauranodon, 
from  the  Jurassic  formations  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

Fam.  b.  Ichthyosauridaz.  Teeth  numerous,  implanted  in  a  com- 
mon alveolar  groove.  Genus:  Ichthyosaurus,  from  Mesozoic  strata 
up  to  the  Chalk. 

Order  2.  ANOMODONTIA  (extinct).  Lacertiform  Reptiles, 
the  skull  and  four  limbs  of  which  are  Lacertilian  in  most 
of  their  characters.  Vertebrae  biconcave,  four  or  five  of 
them  anchylosed  together  and  forming  a  sacrum.  The 
tubercular  and  capitular  articulations  are  separated,  the 
former  and  longer  being  on  the  diapophysis,  the  latter 
and  shorter  on  the  centrum ;  ribs  movable,  the  anterior 
with  a  bifurcate  head.  Os  quadratum  suturally  connected 
with  the  skull.  A  foramen  parietale  is  present.  Jaws 
Chelonian  and  probably  cased  in  horny  sheaths ;  either 


edentulous  or  each  maxillary  bone  was  armed  with  a  long 
evergrowing  tusk,  which  sometimes  was  accompanied  by 
other  smaller  teeth.  The  pectoral  arch  consisted  of 
scapula  and  coracoid,  but  a  clavicle  seems  to  have  been 
absent.  Pelvis  very  strong,  with  continuous  ischio-pubic 
symphysis. 

Genera :  Dicynodon,  Galesaurus. 

Order  3.  DINOSAURIA  (extinct).  This  comprises  Reptiles 
of  a  great  diversity  of  form  and  size,  some  adapted  for  a 
terrestrial,  others  for  an  aquatic  life,  some  carnivorous, 
the  majority  herbivorous,  but  all  distinguished  by  charac- 
ters leading  more  or  less  closely  from  the  Reptilian  up  to 
the  Avian  type.  The  majority  of  trunk  vertebrae  have 
flat  or  slightly  concave  articular  ends,  sometimes  a  few  of 
the  anterior  are  convex  in  front ;  cervical  vertebras  numer- 
ous; a  sacrum  is  formed  by  more  than  two  coalesced 
vertebras.  Neural  arches  united  to  the  centra  by  sutures. 
Thoracic  ribs  movable,  with  a  bifurcate  head;  cervical 
ribs  united  to  the  vertebrae  either  by  suture  or  anchylosed. 


CLASSIFICATION.] 


REPTILES 


443 


Os  quadratum  suturally  connected  with  the  skull.  The 
premaxillary  bones  are  separate,  and  the  rami  of  the 
lower  jaw  united  in  front  by  cartilage  only.  Form  of  the 
teeth  variable ;  they  are  not  anchylosed  to  the  bone.  Two 
pairs  of  limbs  are  present,  of  which  the  hinder  pair  is  the 
longer  and  larger,  and  generally  ambulatory.  The  struc- 
ture of  the  pelvis  and  hind  limbs  partly  Ornithic  ;  the 
pelvic  bones  are  not  coalesced  with  each  other  or  with  the 
sacrum  ;  the  pubis  enters  into  the  formation  of  the  ace- 
tabulum,  and,  the  ilium  is  prolonged  forwards  in  front  of 
the  acetabulum ;  ischia  united  in  a  median  ventral 
symphysis.  The  head  of  the  femur  is  placed  at  a  right 
angle  to  the  condyles  ;  tibia  with  a  procnemial  crest,  and  a 
ridge  for  the  fibula,  which  is  complete.  The  proximal 
row  of  tarsals  is  formed  by  the  astragalus  and  calcaneum 
only,  and  the  former  sometimes  anchylosed  with  the  tibia, 
thus  forming  the  upper  portion  of  the  ankle-joint.1 

1  In  the  case  of  no  other  group  of  Reptiles  lias  knowledge,  within  the 
last  few  years,  advanced  so  much  as  in  that  of  Dinosaurians.  It  has 
supplied,  on  the  part  of  the  Reptilian  type,  the  remarkable  forms  by 
which  the  chasm  between  living  Birds  and  Reptiles  is  bridged  over. 
Huxley's  interpretation  as  to  the  affinities  of  these  fossils,  which  was 
at  first  based  on  very  imperfect  materials,  but  on  sufficient  evidence 
to  lead  him  to  substitute  the  name  of  Ornithoscelida  for  the  older  one 
of  Dinosauria,  has  been  fully  verified  by  the  astonishing  discoveries 
of  most  perfect  remains  at  Beruissart  in  Belgium  and  in  Jurassic 
formations  of  the  United  States.  Compared  with  these  recent  dis- 
coveries, the  materials  upon  which  Von  Meyer,  Owen,  Leidy,  Hulke, 
and  Sceley  based  their  researches  must  appear  very  fragmentary. 
The  specimens  found  in  the  Wealden  of  Bernissart  were  those  of 
different  species  of  fguanodon,  the  skeletons  of  which  were  almost 
complete,  the  bones  being  preserved  in  their  natural  position  and 
connexion  ;  they  have  formed  the  subject  of  a  series  of  memoirs  by  L. 
Dollo  (Lull.  Mus.  R.  d'Hist.  Nat.  Bdg.,  1882-84).  But  these  materials 
are  far  surpassed,  as  regards  number  and  diversity  of  forms,  by  the 
discoveries  in  America,  which  have  been  made  known  by  Cope  and 
especially  by  0.  C.  Marsh. 

All  the  Dinosaurian  remains  known  at  present  belong  to  the  Mesozoic 
age  ;  they  appear  first  in  the  Triassic,  but  the  majority  from  these 
formations  are  so  fragmentary  that  their  classification  is  subject  to 
much  uncertainty.  Some  at  least  of  the  celebrated  three-toed  foot- 
prints which  were  discovered  some  fifty  years  ago  in  the  United 
States,  and  about  the  origin  of  which  much  uncertainty  existed,  are 
evidently  those  of  Dinosaurs.  In  the  Jurassic  these  Reptiles  attained 
their  greatest  development,  Marsh  distinguishing  among  the  fossils  of 
this  period  four  orders  with  numerous  families.  The  largest  exceeded 
any  other  land  animal  in  size,  and  measured  from  50  to  80  feet. 
Dinosaurs  continued  to  the  end  of  the  Cretaceous  period,  and  some 
genera  became  highly  specialized,  although  none  attained  to  the  same 
large  size  as  some  of  the  Jurassic  forms. 

The  disproportion  in  length  and  strength  between  the  fore  and  hind 
limbs  clearly  shows  that  the  mode  of  progression  differed  widely  from 
that  of  ordinary  Reptiles,  and  was  bipedal  at  least  in  some  of  the  genera. 
In  assuming  an  erect  position,  their  long  tail  assisted  them  in  balanc- 
ing the  body.  Some  possessed  a  dermal  armour,  the  scutes  being 
sometimes  produced  into  enormous  spines ;  others  were  provided  with 
defensive  weapons  in  the  shape  of  spines  attached  to  the  fore-feet. 
The  teeth  vary  exceedingly  :  in  some  of  the  carnivorous  genera  they  are 
sharp,  pointed,  serrated,  and  recurved,  in  others  flat,  in  others  broad 
and  molar-like  ;  in  some  the  premaxillasare  toothed,  in  others  toothless 
and  beak-like. 

Marsh  compares  the  Dinosaurs,  as  regards  diversity  of  form,  with 
the  Marsupials,  and  thinks  that,  like  these  latter,  they  should  take 
the  rank  of  a  subclass  rather  than  order.  The  following  is  an 
abstract  of  his  latest  classification  of  the  proposed  subclass  Dino- 
sauria : — 

Order  1.  SAUROPODA.  Feet  plantigrade,  ungulate  ;  five  digits  in 
manus  and  pes  ;  second  row  of  tarsals  and  carpals  unossified.  Pubes 
united  distally  by  cartilage  ;  no  post-pubis.  Anterior  vertebrae 
opisthoccelian.  Presacral  vertebra  hollow.  Fore  and  hind  limbs 
nearly  equal ;  limb  bones  solid.  Sternal  bones  paired.  Premaxillaries 
with  teeth.  Anterior  nares  at  top  of  the  skull. — Herbivorous. 

Fam.  a.  Atlantosauridse.  Ischia  directed  downwards,  with  ex- 
panded extremities  meeting  on  median  line.  Anterior  caudal  verte- 
brae with  lateral  cavities.  Genera:  Atlanta  saur  us,  Apatosaurus,  Bronto- 
saurus.  Gigantic  Dinosaurians  from  Upper  Jurassic  deposits  of 
Colorado,  species  of  the  first  genus  having  attained  to  the  enormous 
length  of  80  feet.  They  are  the  least  specialized  forms  of  the  subclass, 
and  approach  in  some  respects  Mesozoic  Crocodilians. 

Fam.  b.  Diplododdee.  Ischia  with  a  straight  shaft,  not  expanded 
distally,  directed  downward  and  backward,  with  the  ends  meeting  in  the 
median  line.  Caudal  vertebrae  deeply  excavated  below. — One  genus: 


Order  4.  ORNITHOSAURIA  (extinct).  Reptiles  with 
the  fore  limb  adapted  to  support  a  flying  membrane,  and 

Diplodocus,  from  the  same  formation  as  the  preceding,  with  very 
weak  dentition,  limited  to  the  fore  part  of  the  jaws. 

Fain.  c.  Morosauridas.  Ischia  slender,  with  twisted  shaft,  directed 
backward,  and  with  the  sides  meeting  in  the  median  line.  Anterior 
caudal  vertebrae  solid.  Genera,  occurring  in  Europe  as  well  as 
America  :  Bothriospondylus,  Celiosaurus,  Chondrosteosaurus,  Euca- 
vierotus,  Ornithopsis,  Pelorosaurus.  • 

Order  2.  STEGOSAURIA.  Feet  plantigrade,  ungulate  ;  five  digits  in 
manus  and  pes  ;  second  row  of  carpals  unossified.  Post-pubis  present. 
Fore  limbs  very  small ;  locomotion  mainly  on  hind  limbs.  Vertebrae 
and  limb  bones  solid.  An  osseous  dermal  armour. — Herbivorous. 

Fam.  a.  Stegosauridas.  Vertebrae  biconcave.  Ischia  directed  back- 
ward, with  the  sides  meeting  in  the  median  line.  Astragalus  coalesced 
with  tibia.  Metatarsal  short.  Genera  :  Stegosaurus  (Hypsirhophus), 
some  30  feet  long,  from  the  Jurassic  beds  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  well  armed  with  enormous  bucklers,  some  of  which  bore 
spines;  Diracodon;  Amosaurus,  from  British  formations  (Kimme- 
ridge  Clay). 

Fam.  6.  Scelidosauridaz.  Astragalus  not  coalesced  with  tibia ; 
metatarsals  elongate.  Genera  European  :  Scelidosaurus,  from  the  Lias  ; 
A  canthopholis,  from  the  Chalk  ;  Cratseomus  ;  Hyleeosaurus,  from  the 
Wealden  ;  and  Polacanthus. 

Order  3.  ORNITHOPODA.  Feet  digitigrade  with  five  functional 
digits  in  manus  and  three  or  four  in  pes.  Post-pubis  present. 
Vertebras  solid.  Fore  limbs  small ;  hind-limbs  hollow.  Premaxil- 
laries edentulous  in  front. — Herbivorous. 

Fam.  a.  Hadrosauridse.  Several  series  of  teeth,  forming  with  use 
a  tessellated  grinding  surface.  Anterior  vertebrae  opisthoccelous. 
Genera  American:  lladrosaurus,  Agatliaumas {?),  C'ionodon. 

Fam.  b.  Hypsilophodontidse.  A  single  series  of  teeth.  Four 
functional  digits  in  pes.  A  single  rhomboidal  sternal  ossification. 
Genus  :  Hypsilophodon,  from  the  Wealden  of  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

Fam.  c.  Iguanodontidse.  A  single  row  of  teeth.  Three  functional 
digits  in  pes.  Two  symmetrical  sternal  ossifications.  Two  genera 
from  Europe  :  lyuanodon  and  Vectisaurus  ;  and  three  comparatively 
small  forms  from  the  Dinosaurian  deposits  in  North  America  : 
Camptonotus,  Laosaurus,  Nanosdurus.  Of  these  Iguanodon  is  the 
one  which  was  first  discovered  (1825),  and  of  which  skeletons  have 
been  obtained  a3  complete  as  we  can  ever  hope  to  see  of  these 
creatures.  The  remains  occur  in  formations  from  the  Kimmeridge 
Clay  to  the  Upper  Greensand,  and  have  been  referred  to  three  species, 
varying  in  size  from  10  to  35  feet  in  length.  They  most  probably 
were  aquatic  in  their  habits,  using  their  powerful  tail  as  a  propelling 
organ,  like  the  Crocodiles ;  but  they  differed  from  them  in  their  mode  of 
locomotion  on  shore,  walking  on  their  hind  legs  like  a  Struthious  Bird. 
(See  fig.  1.) 

Order  4.  THEROPODA.  Feet  digitigrade ;  digits  with  prehensile 
claws.  Pubes  distally  coalesced.  Vertebrae  more  or  less  cavernous. 
Fore  limbs  very  small ;  limb  bones  hollow.  Premaxillaries  with 
teeth. — Carnivorous.  This  order,  although  on  the  whole  comprising 
less  gigantic  fossils  than  the  preceding,  includes  some  very  large  forms 
which  are  believed  to  have  preyed  upon  the  weaker  herbivorous 
members  of  Dinosaurians. 

Fam.  a.  Megalosauridse.  Vertebras  biconcave.  Pubes  slender  and 
united  distally.  Astragalus  with  ascending  process.  Five  digits  in 
mauus  and  four  in  pes.  Genera:  Meyalosaurus  (European) ;  Allosaurus, 
Coelosaurus,  Creosaurus,  Dryptosaurus  (L&laps)  (American). 

Fam.  b.  Zanclodontidse.  Vertebrae  biconcave.  Pubes  broad, 
elongate  plates  with  anterior  margins  united.  Astragalus  without 
ascending  process.  Five  digits  in  manus  and  pes.  Genera  :  Zanclodon, 
Teratosaurus  (? )  from  the  European  Trias. 

Fam.  c.  Amphisauridas.  Vertebras  biconcave.  Pubes  rod-like ; 
five  digits  in  manus  and  three  in  pes.  Genera  :  Amphisaurus  (Mega- 
dactylus],  Bathygnathus(^),  Clepsysaurus(!)  (American);  Pal&osaurus 
and  Thecodontosaurus,  European  Trias. 

Fam.  d.  Labrosauridae.  Anterior  vertebras  opisthocoelous  and 
cavernous.  Metatarsals  much  elongated.  Pubes  slender,  with  anterior 
margins  united.  Genus  :  Labrosaurus,  from  America. 

Fam.  e.  (or  suborder)  Ccduria.  Bones  pneumatic  or  hollow. 
Anterior  cervical  vertebras  opisthoccelous,  the  other  biconcave. 
Metatarsals  very  long  and  slender.  Genus  :  Ccelurus,  from  America. 
Very  imperfectly  known  ;  the  remains  indicate  animals  not  larger 
than  a  wolf,  and  possibly  of  arboreal  habits. 

Fam.  /.  (or  suborder)  Compsognatha.  Anterior  vertebras  opis- 
thoccelous. Three  functional  digits  in  manus  and  pes.  Ischia  with  a 
long  symphysis  in  the  median  line.  One  genus  :  Compsognathus,  from 
Solenhofen  ;  a  small  form,  with  long  neck,  lightly  built  head,  strongly 
toothed  jaws,  small  fore  and  very  long  hind  limbs  ;  its  femur  was 
shorter  than  the  tibia. 

Order  5.  HALLOPODA.  Feet  digitigrade,  unguiculate  ;  three  digits 
in  pes ;  metatarsals  much  elongate ;  calcaneum  much  produced 
backwards.  Fore  limbs  very  small ;  vertebrae  and  limb  bones  hollow  ; 
vertebrae  biconcave.  Genus  :  Hallqpus.  Its  pertinence  to  the  Dino- 
sauriaus  is  doubtful.  The  hind  feet  were  adapted  for  leaping. 


444 


R  E  P  T  I  L  E  S 


[CLASSIFICATION. 


with  the  remainder  of  the  skeleton  secondarily  modified 
for  aerial  progression.  Vertebrae  not  numerous,  procoel- 
ous;  from  three  to  six  forming  a  sacrum;  cervical 
vertebrae  exceeding  in  size  the  others.  No  neuro-central 
suture.  Anterior  ribs  with  bifurcate  heads.  Skull  large, 
bird-like,  with  long  jaws.  Os  quadratum  suturally  con- 
nected with  the  skull.  Orbits  very  large,  with  a  ring  of 
sclerotic  plates.  Sternum  broad,  completely  ossified,  with 
a  median  crest  anteriorly.  Scapula  and  coracoid  slender, 
Bird-like;  no  clavicle.  Phalanges  of  the  ulnar  digit 
exceedingly  elongate.  Pelvis  weak;  hind  limb  smaller 
than  fore  limb.  Bones  generally  hollow,  many  with 
pneumatic  foramina. 

Fam.  a.  Pterosauria.  Jaws  toothed ;  scapula  and  coracoid 
separate.  Genera :  Ptcrodactylus,  lUuimpJwrhynchus,  Dimorphodon, 
from  Jurassic  formations  of  Europe  ;  of  small  or  moderate  size. 

Fam.  b.  Pteranodontia.  Edentulous ;  scapula  and  coracoid 
solidly  united,  the  former  articulating  with  the  common  neural 
spine  of  the  vertebrae.  Genus :  Ptcranodon,  from  Cretaceous  strata 
of  Kansas  ;  specimens  with  a  spread  of  wing  of  some  20  feet. 

Order  5.  CKOCODILIA.  Reptiles  with  Lizard-like  body, 
and  long  powerful  tail  adapted  for  swimming.  Iambs 
short,  especially  the  anterior;  five  digits  in  manus  and 
four  in  pes ;  only  three  of  the  digits  are  clawed.  A  dermal 
armour,  consisting  of  flattened  bony  scutes,  covers  the 
back,  and  in  some  genera  the  abdomen.  Teeth  in  a  single 
row,  implanted  in  distinct  sockets.  Nostrils  generally  at 


or  near  the  end  of  the  snout  Vertebras  with  the  neuro- 
central  suture  persistent.  Two  sacral  vertebras  only.  The 
majority  of  the  cervical  and  trunk  ribs  double-headed, 
attached  to  the  diapophysis  and  centrum  of  the  vertel >]•:<•. 
From  seven  to  nine  of  the  anterior  dorsal  ribs  are  united 
with  the  sternum  by  sternal  ribs.  Bones  of  the  skull  very 
solid,  firmly  united  by  sutures,  as  is  also  the  quadrate 
bone.  Heart  with  a  double  ventricle.  Copulatory  orgar 
single,  situated  in  the  cloaca. 

Fam.  a.  (or  suborder)  Proccdia.     "With  proccelous  vertebrae, 
living  genera  and  the  extinct  forms  down  to  the  Chalk  belong 
this  division. 

Fam.  b.  (or  suborder)  Amphiccelia.  With  amphiccelous  vertebr 
All  the  genera  are  pre-Cretaceous  :  Tcleosaurus,  Goniopholis,  Stre 
tospondylus,  Stcganotyris,  Galcsaurus  (?),  JBclodon. 

Order  6.  SAUROPTERYGIA  (extinct).  Marine  Reptile 
with  long  neck,  small  head,  long  tail,  natatory  limbs,  anc 
a  naked  skin.  Hind  and  fore  limbs  identical  in  structure 
and  form,  transformed  into  Cetacean-like  paddles  with  five 
digits,  which  were  composed  of  numerous  phalanges  and 
enclosed  in  a  common  skin.  Teeth  in  a  single  row  in  both 
jaws,  implanted  in  distinct  sockets.  Vertebrae  amphicoel- 
ous,  with  the  neuro-central  suture  persistent;  single 
headed  ribs  are  attached  to  the  long  diapophyses  of  the 
dorsal  vertebrae.  Sacral  vertebrae  two.  Quadrate  bone 
suturally  united  with  the  skull.  A  parietal  foramen. 
No  sclerotic  ring.  Neither  sternal  ribs  nor  sternum  are 


Fio.  2.— Skeleton  of  Clidastes  (after  Cope). 


present;  but  a  system  of  free  abdominal  ribs  is  developed. 
The  pectoral  arch  consists  of  a  pair  of  large  coracoids, 
meeting  in  the  median  line,  and  clavicular  elements 
extending  from  one  scapula  to  the  other.  Pelvis  large, 
with  the  ilia,  pubes,  and  ischia  not  coalesced,  and  all 
sharing  in  the  formation  of  the  acetabulum. 

These  characters  may  not  fully  apply  to  all  the  genera 
which  have  been  referred  to  this  order,  as  some  are  known 
from,  their  skulls  or  other  fragments  only. 

The  best  known  are  the  PI.ESIO.SAUIUANS  (q.v.)  proper  : — Ncusti- 
cosaunis,  from  the  Trias,  with  paddles  in  front  and  ordinary  limbs 
behind ;  gigantic  forms  from  the  Trias,  as  Nothosaunis,  Simo- 
saurus,  Pistosaurus,  or  post-Triassic,  as  Plesiosaurus,  and  Plio- 
saurus,  Polycotylus,  and  Elasmosaurus  (or  Discosaurus)  from  the 
Lias  and  Chalk.1 

Order  7.  RHYNCHOCEPHALIA.  Lacertiform  Reptiles, 
with  four  limbs.  Vertebrae  with  flat  ends;  two  in  the 
sacrum ;  the  tubercular  and  articular  surfaces  are  united  ; 
ribs  single-headed.  Os  quadratum  suturally  united 
with  the  skull  and  pterygoid;  an  osseous  infra-temporal 
bar.  Foramen  parietale  present.  Sternum  and  a  system 
of  abdominal  ribs  well  developed.  Copulatory  organs 
absent ;  urinary  bladder  present. 

One  recent  genus :  Hatteria.    Represented  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous 


1  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  Placodus,  originally  described  as  a 
Fish,  belongs  to  this  order.. 


and  Lower  Eocene  by  Champsosaurus,  in  the  Trias  by  Rhyncho- 
saurus,    Hyperodapedon,  and   in  the   Permian  by  Protcrosaur 
Sphenosaurus,  Telerpcton  •(?),  Saurostcrnum  (?). 

Order  8.  LACERTILIA.  Lizards.  Vertebrae  generally 
procoelous,  with  short  or  rudimentary  transverse  processes; 
sacral  vertebrae  not  exceeding  two;  ribs  single- headed. 
Os  quadratum  articulated  with  the  skull.  Parts  of  the  ali- 
and  orbito-sphenoid  regions  fibro-cartilaginous.  Temporal 
region  without,  or  with  only  one,  osseous  bar.  Limbs 
four,  two,  or  absent ;  when  they  are  present,  a  sternum 
with  sternal  ribs  and  a  pelvis  are  developed.  Copulatory 
organs  paired ;  urinary  bladder  present.  Integuments 
with  horny  or  sometimes  bony  scutes. 

For  the  numerous  recent  genera  see  LIZARDS.  Distinguishable 
representatives  of  the  order  appear  first  in  Jurassic  formations  and 
thence  downward  to  our  period  :  Acrosaurus,  Ardcosaunis,  Phuro- 
saurus,  Saphiosaurus,  Atoposaurus,  and  Homceosaurus  from  the 
Oolite ;  Nuthetcs,  Saurillus,  Macellodon  from  the  Weald  en  ;  Dolicho- 
saurus,  Adeosaurus,  Coniosaurus,  Ehaphiosaurus  from  the  Chalk. 
From  Tertiary  formations  in  Europe  numerous  small  remains  are 
known,  whilst  those  described  from  Australia  belonged  to  much 
larger  forms,  showing  more  or  less  affinities  to  the  Lizards  of  the 
present  Australian  fauna. 

A  distinct  division  of  this  order  includes  the  extinct 
Mosasaurians,  which  are,  in  fact,  the  Pinnipedes  among 
Lacertilians.  Their  limbs,  of  which  they  had  two  pairs, 
are  transformed  into  paddles ;  by  their  long  Snake-like 


ANATOMY.] 


REPTILES 


445 


body  and  large  size  the  marine  Reptiles  form  the  nearest 
approach  in  nature  to  the  modern  creature  of  imagination, 
the  "  Sea-Snake."  There  is  no  question  that  they  deviate 
more  from  the  Lacertilian  type  than  any  of  the  other 
fossil  forms  mentioned  above,  especially  in  some  of  their 
cranial  characters,  which  are  more  Ophidian.  Hence 
Cope  placed  them  into  a  distinct  order  of  Reptiles, 
Pythonomorpha.  Their  body  was  covered  with  osseous 
scutes. 

Besides  Mosasaunis,  remains  of  which  have  been  known  and 
described  since  the  year  1766,  a  number  of  other  genera  from 
Cretaceous  rocks  of  Europe  and  North  America  have  been  distin- 
guished by  Owen,  Cope,  Marsh,  and-Dollo  :  Liodon,  Clidastes(fig.  2), 
Sironedes,  Platccarpus,  Baptosaurus,  Diplotomodon,  Edestosaurus, 
Holosaurus,  Lcstosaurus,  Tylosaurus,  Pterycollasaurus,  Plioplate- 
carpus. 

Order  9.  OPHIDIA.  Snakes.  Vertebrae  procoelous, 
extremely  numerous ;  no  sacrum  ;  ribs  single-headed.  No 
chevron  bones  on  any  of  the  vertebrae.  Not  only  the 
quadrate  bone  is  movably  articulated  to  the  skull,  but 
also  the  suspensorium  and  the  bones  of  the  palatal 
maxillary  apparatus  are  movable ;  brain  capsule  entirely 
osseous.  No  quadrato-jugal  arch.  No  foramen  parietale. 
Rami  of  the  mandible  united  by  ligament.  No  trace  of 
anterior  extremities,  and  posterior  only  sometimes  rudi- 
mentally  indicated.  Copulatory  organs  paired ;  urinary 
bladder  absent.  Integuments  folded  into  regularly  ar- 
ranged scales. 

For  the  numerous  recent  genera  see  SNAKES.  Fossil  forms  are 
scarce,  and  do  not  appear  before  the  Eocene  (Laophis,  Paleeophis, 
Palei~yx). 

Order  10.  CHELONIA.  Tortoises  and  Turtles.  Cervical 
and  dorsal  vertebrae  not  numerous.  The  dorsal  vertebrae 
and  expanded  ribs  (with  the  exception  of  Sphargis)  are 
united  into  a  carapace,  the  elements  of  which  are  immov- 
able, and  which  is  completed  ventrally  by  a  number  of 
dermal  bones,  a  true  sternum  being  absent  and  replaced 
by  a  plastron.  All  the  bones  of  the  skull  are  suturally 
united,  with  the  exception  of  the  mandible  and  hyoid; 
the  dentary  portion  of  the  mandible  consists  of  one  bone 
only.  Pectoral  arch  consisting  of  the  scapula,  with  which 
the  precoracoid  is  united,  and  the  coracoid.  Clavicles  are 
represented  by  the  anterior  elements  of  the  plastron.  The 
pelvis  consists  of  the  usual  bones,  but  is  not  attached  to 
a  sacrum.  Two  pairs  of  limbs.  No  teeth,  these  being 
replaced  by  horny  sheaths  of  the  jaws.  Copulatory  organ 
single.  Integuments  consisting  of  horny  scutes  covering 
the  carapace,  and  of  scales  and  tubercles  on  the  soft 
parts. 

For  the  numerous  living  genera  see  TORTOISES.  Kemains  of 
extinct  Tortoises  are  found  from  the  Trias  downwards,  but  they  do 
not  show  any  approximation  to  some  other  Reptilian  type,  or 
indicate  a  successive  development.  The  most  generalized  type, 
Sphargis,  is  not  older  (according  to  present  evidence)  than  some  of 
the  more  specialized  genera,  its  earliest  representative  being  the 
remarkable  Protostega  from  North-American  Cretacean  formations. 
Some  of  the  Tertiary  fossils  exceeded  in  size  the  largest  of  living 
forms,  such  as  the  Plimalayan  Colossochelys,  the  German  Macrochelys, 
the  North-American  Atlantochdys.  (A.  C.  G.) 

THE  ANATOMY  OF  REPTILES. 

As  the  principal  features  known  of  the  anatomy  of 
extinct  Reptiles  have  been  sufficiently  noticed  in  the 
several  separate  articles  devoted  to  them,  this  chapter  will 
deal  almost  exclusively  with  the  general  structure  of  living 
forms. 

Inasmuch  as  the  class  of  Reptiles  is  one  of  the  classes 
which  make  up  that  great  primary  zoological  division 
known  as  "vertebrate  animals,"  they  of  course  possess 
all  those  structural  characters  which  are  common  to  that 
division  (see  VERTEBRATA).  They  also  possess  in  common 
a  certain  number  of  structures  which  they  share  with 


Birds  (see  SAUROPSIDA),  and  which  will  be  indicated  in  our  Geneial 
notice  of  the  different  sets,  or  systems,  of  organs  which  cnar- 
compose  the  bodies  of  the  animals  of  which  this  article  acters- 
treats. 

Every  Reptile  has  a  body  made  up  of  a  head,  a  trunk, 
and  a  tail,  though,  as  in  some  Lacertilia  and  many  Ophidia, 
these  regions  are  not  marked  off  one  from  another  by  any 
constriction  or  noticeable  alteration  of  diameter.  The 
posterior  aperture  of  the  alimentary  tube  always  marks 
the  termination  of  the  trunk  and  the  commencement  of 
the  tail.  In  some  kinds  of  Reptiles — as,  e.g.,  in  the  genera 
Anguis  and  Amphisbsena  amongst  the  Lacertilia,  and  in 
such  forms  as  Typhlops  and  Uropeltis  amongst  the  Ophidia 
— the  whole  body  consists  of  little  more  than  a  very  elon- 
gated trunk  with  a  small  head  at  one  end  and  a  short  or 
even  quite  rudimentary  tail  at  the  other.  A  neck  may 
be  interposed  between  the  head  and  the  trunk;  this,  how- 
ever, is  generally  short,  as  in  the  Lacertilia  and  Crocodilia, 
but  may  be  more  or  much  elongated,  as  in  the  Chelonia. 
It  was  extraordinarily  long  in  the  extinct  Sauropterygia — 
like  that  of  a  Swan. 

The  head  may  be  very  large,  as  in  the  Crocodilia  and 
extinct  Ichthyo2)terygia,  or  small,  as  in  the  Sauropterygia, 
or  very  small  indeed,  as  in  Typhlops  and  Uropeltis.  It 
always  contains  the  organs  of  taste,  smell,  hearing,  and 
sight,  but  there  may  be,  as  in  many  Lizards  and  all 
Snakes,  no  external  indication  of  an  ear,  and  the  eyes  are 
almost  hidden  by  the  skin  in  Snakes  such  as  Typhlops, 
and  certain  Lizards  such  as  Amphisbaenians  and  some 
Skinks.  The  mouth  may  be  very  large,  as  in  the  Crocodiles, 
or  very  small,  as  in  Typhlops. 

The  trunk  may  be  exceedingly  elongated,  as  in  the 
instances  just  above  referred  to,  or  relatively  very  short 
and  broad,  as  in  the  Chelonia. 

The  tail  may  vary  in  development  from  its  rudimen- 
tary condition  in  Typhlops  to  a  length  which  exceeds  that 
of  the  body  several  times,  as  in  not  a  few  Lacertilia.  Its 
distal  end  may  be  prehensile  and  form  an  important 
grasping  organ,  as  in  almost  all  Chamaeleons. 

Besides  these  regions,  there  are  generally  two  pairs  of 
limbs,' — one  pectoral,  the  other  pelvic, — though  these  may 
be  altogether  wanting  as  far  as  regards  any  external  mani- 
festation, as  in  all  Ophidians  and  certain  Lacertilians  like 
Anguis  and  Ophisaurus.  Internal  rudiments  of  limbs  may, 
however,  be  present  when  there  is  no  external  indication 
of  them,  as  will  be  pointed  out  when  describing  the  appen- 
dicular  skeleton. 

There  may  be  but  one  pair  of  limbs,  and  these  pectoral, 
as  in  the  Lizard  Chirotes;  or  there  may  be  but  one  pair, 
whicli  are  pelvic,  as  in  the  Lizards  Pseudopus,  Lialis, 
and  Ophiodes. 

The  pectoral  and  pelvic  limbs  are,  as  a  rule,  pretty 
equal  in  development,  and  they  may  be  very  much  so,  as 
in  Chelonians  and  the  Sauropterygia.  Both  may  be 
exceedingly  small,  as  in  many  Lizards,  such  as  a  number  of 
the  Scincidse,  or  both  may  be  relatively  large,  as  in  Cheloni- 
ans. In  no  existing  Reptile  with  four  limbs  does  either 
pair  very  greatly  exceed  the  other  in  length  and  size,  but 
in  extinct  Dinosauria  the  pelvic  limbs  were  greatly  in 
excess,  while  the  reverse  was  the  case  with  the  extinct 
Ornithosauria. 

The  extremities  never  terminate  in  more  than  five 
distinct  digits,  and  the  number  may  be  reduced  to  one  in 
front,  as  in  Rhodona,  or  one  behind,  as  in  Dibamus.  The 
extremities  may  end  bluntly  and  be  undivided,  as  in  land 
and  marine  Chelonians,  and  as  in  the  extinct  Ichthyop- 
terygia  and  Sauropterygia.  The  pectoral  and  pelvic  limbs 
are  generally  not  very  divergent  in  form  and  structure, 
and  they  may  be  wonderfully  alike,  as  in  the  existing 
Tortoises  and  in  the  extinct  Ichthyopterygia  and  Sauro- 


440 


REPTILES 


[ANATOM-S 


pterygia.  They  were,  on  the  contrary,  extremely  divergent 
in  certain  Dinosauria,  and  still  more  in  the  Ornithosauria. 
Every  Reptile  has  a  body  composed  of  organs  of 
nutrition,  circulation,  respiration,  secretion,  reproduction, 
sensation,  and  motion,  supported  internally  by  a  solid 
framework,  the  internal  skeleton  or  endoskeleton,  and 
enclosed  in  a  firm  investment,  constituting  the  external 
skeleton  or  exoskeleton. 

The  External  Skeleton. 

The  external  investment  of  the  body  consists  of  two 
layers.  The  outer  of  these,  the  epidermal  layer,  or  epidermis, 
is  of  an  epithelial  horny  nature  and  never  becomes  bony. 
The  deeper  or  dermal  layer,  the  dermis,  is  a  fibrous 
structure  which  may  become  bony.  Neither  hairs  nor 
feathers  are  developed. 

The  exoskeleton  is  characterized  in  this  class  of  animals 
by  being  composed  of  distinct  superficial  thickenings 
placed  side  by  side  and  separated  one  from  another  by 
thinner  interspaces.  According  to  the  size  and  form  of 
these  thickenings  they  are  known  by  different  names.  If 
they  are  very  small  and  rounded  they  are  called  "tubercles," 
and  such  we  see  on  the  body  of  the  Chamseleons  and  Geckos. 
If  they  are  large,  flat,  and  not  overlapping,  they  are  called 
shields,  and  such  we  see,  e.g.,  on  the  head  of  the  true 
Lizards.  If  the  hinder  part  of  each  thickening  is  more  or 
less  prolonged  over  the  anterior  part  of  one  or  more  next 
behind  it,  structures  of  this  kind  are  called  scales,  such  as 
we  find  dorsally  clothing  the  bodies  of  most  Lizards  and 
many  Serpents.  If  the  median  part  of  each  such  scale  is 
still  more  thickened  longitudinally,  then  such  a  scale  is 
said  to  be  carinate.  In  most  of  these  cases  the  epidermis 
itself  is  also  more  or  less  thickened  locally,  as  well  as  the 
subjacent  dermis,  remaining  thin  in  the  folds  or  interspaces. 
The  dermis  may  be  ossified,  forming  dense  bony  plates,  or 
scutes,  beneath  the  epidermal  investment.  The  whole  body 
may  be  thus  clothed,  as  in  the  Lizard  Cyclodus  and  others, 
or  the  bony  plates  may  be  confined  to  parts  of  the  back, 
as  in  some  Crocodilians.  The  development  of  the  exo- 
skeleton is  carried  to  the  highest  degree  in  Chelonians, 
when  large  osseous  plates  form,  in  the  Land  Tortoises  and 
Terrapins,  a  complete  and  continuous  bony  case  for  the 
body,  invested  externally  by  a  rich  corneous  epidermis, 
and  becoming  internally  anchylosed  with  the  endoskeleton 
itself. 

xoskele-  In  most  Ophidians  the  body  is  clothed  with  scales 
above  and  with  large  transversely  elongated  shields  beneath 
(single  or  double  beneath  the  tail),  though  the  body  may 
be  entirely  invested  by  small  scales  except  the  head,  as  in 
Typhlops,  or  by  tubercles,  as  in  Acrochordus. 

Sometimes,  as  in  Cerastes  and  the  River  Jack,  two 
horny  appendages  are  erectly  developed  over  the  nose 
and  sometimes,  as  in  Herpeton  tentaculatum,  cutaneous 
appendages  project  from  the  snout,  or  the  snout  may  be 
exceptionally  produced.  The  skin  of  the  side  of  the  body 
just  behind  the  head  may  form  a  distensible  fold,  as  in 
Naja,  and  there  may  be,  as  in  Python,  a  claw  on  each  side 
of  the  vent,  which  claw  is  a  rudiment  of  the  pelvic  limb, 
as  will  be  explained  in  describing  the  appendicular  skeleton. 
A  peculiar  cutaneous  depression  exists  between  the  nostril 
and  the  eye  in  Crotalus  and  the  other  Pit-Vipers.  For 
full  details  on  these  subjects  see  the  separate  articles  on 
the  orders. 

Lacer-  In  the  Lacertilia  we  find  a  number  of  different 
ians;  cutaneous  conditions  which  have  been  already  noticed 
in  describing  the  various  groups  systematically.  It  will 
then  suffice  here  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  Amphis- 
baenians  have  quadrate  shields  over  the  entire  body  except 
the  head,  arranged  in  transverse  rings,  and  that  in  such 
forms  as  Chalcis  the  scales  are  also  verticillate,  while  in 


m  of 
phi- 
ans : 


the  Scincoidea  and  Anguidse,  they  are  imbricate,  and  on 
the  Chamseleons  granulate.  The  head  may  be  covered 
with  large  shields,  as  in  the  Lacertidy,  or  with  small 
scales  like  those  of  the  body,  as  in  the  Monitors,  and 
there  are  often  long  sharp  spines  on  the  head  and  body, 
as  in  Grammatophora,  Phrynosoma,  and  Moloch.  The  in- 
tegument may  also  extend  out  from  the  body  along  the 
back  and  tail,  as  in  Basiliscus  and  Loplmra,  or  from  beneath 
the  throat,  as  in  Iguana,  or  largely  across  the  neck,  as  in 
Chlamydosaurus,  or  on  cither  side  of  the  tail,  as  in 
Ptychozoon,  or  from  each  side  of  the  body  so  as  to  be 
distensible  and  to  serve  as  a  parachute,  as  in  Draco ;  while 
in  the  Ornithosauria  it  passed  from  the  elongated  hand  to 
the  body  and  leg  as  in  the  wing  of  the  existing  Bats.  It 
has  also  been  before  stated  that  in  certain  cases  different 
genera  are  distinguished  by  pores,  i.e.,  the  apertures  of 
small  cutaneous  sacs  placed  on  the  inner  side  of  each  thigh 
or  in  front  of  the  cloacal  aperture.  Folds  of  skin  may 
invest  the  digits  and  constitute  webbe(d  feet,  as  in  some 
Geckos,  as  well  as  in  Crocodiles  and  Terrapins,  or  may 
bind  the  digits  in  two  opposite  bundles,  as  in  each  ex- 
tremity of  the  Chamseleons.  Normally  each  digit  is  ter- 
minated by  a  claw. 

In  Crocodilia  the  epidermal  thickenings  do  not  overlap  of  Cro 
as  in  some  Lizards,  but  form  conspicuous  prominences  in 
the  dorsal  region,  which  serve  as  specific  characters,  and 
which  have  bony  plates  beneath, — which  plates  may,  as 
in  Alligators,  exist  on  the  belly  as  well  as  the  back,  and 
may  form  continuous  rings  round  the  tail,  those  of  each 
anterior  row  overlapping  those  of  the  row  next  behind. 
Not  all  the  digits  are  provided  with  claws.  The  feet  are 
webbed. 

The  Chelonia  present  considerable  differences  as  to  the  of  Ch 
exoskeleton.  The  Mud  Tortoises,  Trionyx,  have  a  softloniai 
epidermis,  and  Sphargis  has  a  coriaceous  outer  layer  of 

\ 


Fio.  3. — A  portion  of  the  osseous  plates  of  the  carapace  of  Sphargis  eoriacea, 
showing  three  large  keeled  plates  of  one  of  the  longitudinal  ridges  of  the 
carapace,  with  a  number  of  the  small  irregular  plates  on  either  side  of  them. 
(From  nature.) 

integument  covering  a  carapace  divided  into  small  sub- 
hexagonal  shields.  In  the  other  Chelonians  there  are  large 
epidermal  shields,  which  may  overlap,  as  in  the  Tortoise- 
shell  Turtle  (C.  imbricata)  and  others,  or  may  be  conter- 
minous, as  in  Testudo  and  Emys.  These  shields  form  a 
mid-dorsal  series  and  two  lateral  rows  on  either  side,  while 
there  are  two  longitudinal  series  on  the  ventral  side  of  the 
body. 

Beneath  the  epidermal  layer  of  the  integument  osseous 
plates  are  found,  which  plates  do  not  coincide  either  in 


SKELETON.] 


REPTILES 


447 


number,  size,  or  shape  with  the  epidermal  shields  which  (save 
in  Trionyx  and  Spliargis)  cover  them.  Their  condition  in 
Sphargis  is  quite  peculiar.  In  the  skin  of  its  back  there  are 
imbedded  a  great  number  of  small  plates  flexibly  united  in 
a  mosaic-like  pattern.  Seven  longitudinal  rows  of  these 
plates  (one  median,  six  lateral)  differ  from  the  rest  by  their 
large  size  and  raised  surfaces.  On  the  ventral  surface  of 
the  body  there  is  one  large  thin  median  plate — the  epister- 
mim,  together  with  other  very  slender  ossifications  forming 
a  very  imperfect  bony  framework.  All  these  latter  bony 
plates,  however,  are  very  imperfectly  ossified,  with  numerous 
vacuities.  In  the  Land  Tortoises  and  Terrapins,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  have  the  exoskeleton  in  its  greatest  perfec- 
tion. On  the  back  there  is  a  series  of  ten  median  plates, 
the  first  one  of  which  is  called  nuchal  and  the  last  one 
pygal.  On  each  side  of  these  series  and  suturally  connected 
therewith  is  a  series  of  large  lateral  plates  also  suturally 
united  together  and  with  the  median  plates.  Finally,  a 
series  of  marginal  plates  suturally  connected  together  and 
with  the  foregoing  complete  a  bony  investment  of  the  back 
which  is  complete  and  continuous,  and  which  is  known  as 
the  carapace.  On  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body  nine 
other  bony  plates  form  another  continuous  shield  termed 
the  plastron.  The  most  anterior  pair  correspond  with  the 
bones  known  as  clavicles  in  Man  and  many  other  animals. 
The  azygous  plate  between  and  behind  them  answers  to  the 
episternum  of  many  animals.  The  carapace  and  plastron 
are  united  at  the  sides  of  the  body,  but  are  separated 
medianly  in  front  and  behind  to  allow  the  protrusion  and 
retraction  of  the  head  and  the  four  limbs  and  tail.  In 
Chelonia  similar  plates  exist,  but  they  are  less  developed, 
and  merely  form  an  imperfect  species  of  investment,  with 
many  vacuities  between  the  plates.  The  same  is  the 
case  in  Trionyx,  wherein  the  marginal  plates  are  also 
wanting. 

The  skin  of  the  neck  and  limbs  is  covered  with  scales. 
The  skin  of  the  neck  may  develop  fimbriated  processes  and 
caruncles,  as  in  Chelys,  and  the  nose  may  be  produced  into 
a  short  proboscis,  as  in  Trionyx.  True  claws  may  be 
absent,  as  in  Sjthargis,  or  there  may  be  but  one  on  each  foot, 
as  in  Chelone,  or  two,  as  in  Caretta,  or  three,  as  in  Trionyx, 
or  four  or  five,  as  in  Testudo  and  Emys.  The  claws  may 
approximate  in  form  to  hoofs  in  some  of  the  large  Land 
Tortoises.  There  may  be  a  web  between  the  digits,  as  in 
Emys,  or  the  whole  extremity  may  be  united  into  a  solid 
paddle,  as  in  Chelone. 

In  all  cases  the  skin  of  the  jaws  is  found  thickened 
and  condensed  so  as  to  form  a  horny  beak  with  a  cutting 
edge. 

In  many  Chelonians  there  are  two  pairs  of  glands  on 
each  side  just  in  front  of  the  junction  of  the  plastron 
and  carapace,  while  in  the  Mud  Tortoises,  Trionyx,  there 
is  yet  another  gland  on  each  side  in  front  of  the  margin 
of  the  plastron. 

The  Internal  Skeleton. 

The  endoskeleton  of  Reptiles,  as  of  most  Vertebrate 
animals,  consists  of  parts  which  are  divisible  into  two 
categories : — (a)  those  which  form  the  skeleton  of  the 
head  and  trunk,  i.e.,  the  axial  skeleton ;  (6)  the  parts 
which  form  the  skeleton  of  the  limbs,  i.e.,  the  appendi- 
cular  skeleton. 

THE  AXIAL  SKELETON. — In  describing  the  axial  skeleton 

it  will  be  well  to  begin  with  that  part  of  it  which  belongs 

to  the  trunk,  leaving  the  more  complex  skeleton  of  the  head, 

i.e.,  the  skull,  for  subsequent  consideration. 

:'ton      Skeleton  of  the  Trunk. — The  backbone,   spinal  column, 

^    or  spine  consists  in  all  adult  Reptiles  of  a  series  of  ossi- 

'    fied  vertebrae,   many,  almost  all,   of  which  are  separate 

and  not  anchylosed  one  to  another.      Nevertheless   the 


spinal  or  vertebral  column  varies  in  its  structure  much 
more  in  the  class  of  Reptiles  than  even  in  the  Mamma, 
lia,  and  very  much  more  than  in  the  class  of  Birds,  with 
which  the  Reptiles  are  so  much  allied.  This  variation 
consists  in  differences  not  only  as  regards  the  number  of 
regions  or  vertebral  categories  and  the  extent  and  struc- 
ture of  each  region,  but  also  as  regards  the  form  of  the 
individual  vertebrae  and  notably  the  form  of  the  vertebral 
centra. 

There  may  or  may  not  be  distinct  cervical  vertebrae 
with  or  without  movable  ribs.  The  first  two  vertebrae  are 
differentiated  as  axis  and  atlas,  and  in  front  of  the  latter 
there  may  be  a  rudiment  of  another  vertebra,  which  has 
been  distinguished  as  the  proatlas.1  There  are  always 
dorsal  vertebrae,  some  of  the  ribs  of  which  may  not,  but 
more  generally  do,  join  a  sternum.  These  dorsal  ribs  are 
generally  movable,  and  may  be,  as  in  Serpents,  organs  of 
locomotion.  They  may,  on  the  contrary,  be  firmly  fixed 
by  suture  one  to  another  as  in  Chelonians.  There  may 
or  may  not  be  lumbar  vertebrae,  and  two  or  more  (in  some 
extinct  forms  many)  vertebrae  may  unite  to  form  a  sacrum. 
There  are  always  caudal  vertebrae,  and  these  generally 
have  chevron  bones  beneath  them.  Sometimes  vertebrae 
which  are  not  sacral  become  anchylosed  together,  as  in  the 
dorsal  vertebrae  of  Chelonians.  Articular  processes  always 
connect  together  adjacent  vertebrae  which  are  not  thus 
anchylosed,  and  there  may  be  accessory  articular  processes 
peculiar  to  the  class,  and  which  will  be  shortly  described 
later.  As  to  the  form  of  the  vertebral  centra,  they  may  bo 
flat  in  front  and  behind,  or  biconcave  (amphiccelous),  or 
biconvex,  or  with  a  ball  behind  and  a  cup  in  front  (pro- 
ccelous),  .or  with  a  ball  in  front  and  a  cup  behind  (opistho- 
ccelous). 

In  the  Crocodilia  all  the  above-mentioned  regions  are  in  Croco- 
distinct,  there  being  usually  9  cervical,  11  to  12  dorsal,  2  dlhans; 
to  3  sacral,  and  about  40  caudal  vertebrae.  In  existing 
species  all  the  vertebrae  are  procoelous  except  the  atlas, 
axis,  sacral,  and  first  caudal  vertebrae.  The  adjacent  sur- 
faces of  the  centra  of  the  sacral  vertebrae  are  flat,  and  the 
centrum  of  the  first  caudal  is  biconvex.  The  atlas  consists 
of  five  pieces,2  and  the  odontoid  bone  is  not  anchylosed 
to  the  axis.  The  caudal  vertebrae  are  elongated  and  com- 
pressed, and,  except  the  most  anterior  and  posterior,  support 
chevron  bones.  Ribs  are  very  generally  present.  Those 
attached  to  the  atlas  and  axis  are  single  in  origin.  Each 
rib  of  the  other  cervical  vertebrae  bifurcates  at  its  upper  end 
into  a  tubercular  and  a  capitular  process,  which  respec- 
tively articulate  with  the  neural  arch  and  centrum  of 
their  supporting  vertebra,  and  the  interval  thus  left  in  the 
succeeding  vertebras  forms  a  canalis  centralis.  The  ribs  of 
the  middle  five  cervical  vertebrae  so  expand  distally  as  to 
impede  the  lateral  flexion  of  the  neck.  The  neural  arches 
articulate  by  suture  with  the  vertebral  bodies.  The  dorsal 
ribs  become  attached  to  processes  which  pass  out  from 
each  vertebra  to  the  tubercular  and  capitular  processes  of 
the  ribs  respectively,  and  their  situation  with  respect  to 
the  neuro-central  suture  changes  by  degrees,  through  the 
vertebral  series,  till  in  the  twelfth  dorsal  one  long  trans- 
verse process,  passing  out  above  the  neural  central  suture, 
supports  both  processes.  Thence  backwards  these  arti- 
culating surfaces  approximate  till  at  last  there  is  but  a 
single  articular  surface  between  each  rib  and  its  sup- 
porting vertebra,  as  was  the  case  in  those  of  the  atlas  and 
axis. 

The  dorsal  ribs  consist  of  two  pieces — the  distal  piece 
remaining  cartilaginous ;  and  most  ribs  support  an  imper- 
fectly ossified  processw  uncinatus,  nearly  as  in  Birds,  which 
extends  backwards  from  the  distal  portion  of  its  ossified 

1  Discovered  by  Prof.  Paul  Albrecht. 

2  In  front  of  it  a  rudimentary  proatlas  has  been  found. 


448 


REPTILES 


[ANATOMY. 


hypapo 

Fio.  4.  —  Lateral  aspect  of  three  thoracic  vertebrae 
are     of  Crocodilus  vulgaris  (from  nature).  c,cnp  on  the 
anterior  surface  of  centrum  ;  cp,  capitula  of  ribs; 

neural  spines  .  ^  rfb  „„$£"£  .  £  tubercuia  Of 


piece  (fig  4).    From  seven  to  nine  of  these  ribs  have  ossified 

sternal  ribs  which  serve  to  connect  them  with  the  sternum. 

The  lumbar  vertebrae  have  only 

long  transverse  processes  which 

arise   above    the  neuro-central 

suture.      The    sacral   vertebrae 

support  very  stout   transverse 

processes,     each     of 

which  includes  a  rib 

element  and  becomes 

anchylosed     to    the 

centra  only  at  a  late 

period  of  life,  as  do 

the       comparatively 

long     and     slender 

caudal        transverse 

processes.       Inferior 

processes, 

*  ,  i  . 

p/iyses,      WHICH 

arvrrnnci    rJp«r»Anr1  nnp 

azygous,  a<  - 

from      beneath      the     ribs  ;  u,  uocinate  processes  ;  vr,  vertebral  ribs. 

centrum  of  each  of  the  more  posterior  cervical  and  anterior 
dorsal  vertebrae. 

The  sternum  consists  of  an  ossified  rhomboidal  plate, 
with  the  hinder  side  of  which  two  pairs  of  costal  cartilages 
articulate.  A  narrower  piece  extends  backwards  from 
this  plate  (connected  with  it  by  ligament),  and  ends  in  two 
diverging  processes.  With  this  the  other  sternal  ribs 
articulate.  A  long  slender  bone,  the  interclavicle,  or 
episternum,  lies  in  a  median  groove  of  the  sternal  plate, 
and  extends  forwards  beyond  it. 

There  is  a  so-called  abdominal  sternum  made  up  of  a 
series  of  seven  or  eight  slender  bones  which  lie  in  the 
aponeurosis  of  the  external  oblique  muscle  of  the  abdomen 
behind  the  true  sternum  and  in  front  of  the  pelvis.  It 
lies  at  a  lower  level  than  the  sternum,  and  has  no  direct 
connexion  with  the  vertebral  column. 

In  Hatteria,  the  only  living  member  of  the  order 
Rhynchocephalia,  as  well  as  in  the  extinct  species,  the 
vertebral  bodies  have  flat  or  concave  surfaces  in  front  and 
behind.  There  are  8  cervical,  14  dorsal,  3  lumbar,  2  sacral, 
and  36  caudal  vertebrae.  There  is  no  persistent  neuro- 
central  suture  in  Hatteria,  though  there  may  be  in  some 
extinct  forms  of  the  order.  Eudiments  of  the  proatlas  are 
sometimes  present.  The  atlas  consists  but  of  three  pieces, 
and  the  odontoid  bone  is  anchylosed  with  the  atlas,  and 
is  concave  anteriorly.  An  autogenous  hypapophysis  is 
wedged  into  the  inferior  interspace  between  the  centrum 
of  the  axis  and  the  third  vertebrae,  and  similar  parts  are 
developed  thence  backwards  to  beneath  the  seventh  and 
eighth  vertebrae.  Hatteria  has  the  faculty  of  reproducing 
its  tail  after  mutilation.  When  the  tail  is  broken  the 
fracture  takes  place  in  the  middle  of  one  of  its  centra  and 
not  between  two  adjacent  centra.  This  is  owing  to  the 
fact  that  each  caudal  vertebra  is  divided  into  an  anterior 
and  a  posterior  part  (fig.  5), 
and  is  weakest  at  this  line  of 
junction  which  passes  behind 
the  transverse  process. 

The  first  rib  is  attached  to 
the  fourth  vertebra.      Those  FIO.  c.—  Vertical  section  of  four  (7th 
of  the  ninth  and  the  following    ^>C%S*Z«rfi  ffi 

Vertebrae   attain   the   Sternum,      middle  of  centrum.   (  After  Giinther.) 

The  more  posterior  ribs  become  connected  with  the  abdo- 
minal sternum.  All  the  ribs  are  single  at  their  proximal 
ends,  a  bifurcation  being  scarcely  indicated  even  at  the 
most  anterior  one.  Processus  uncinati  are  fully  developed. 
The  sternum  is  a  rhomboidal,  semi-cartilaginous  plate, 
with  a  medianly  situated  long  and  slender  episternum  which 
unites  with  a  pair  of  clavicles.  An  abdominal  sternum  is 


more  fully  developed  than  in  any  other  living  Reptile.  It 
consists  of  about  twenty-five  transverse  rods,  each  of 
which  is  composed  of  three  pieces.  These  rods  are  con- 
nected and  disconnected  with  the  ribs  in  an  alternate 
manner,  every  other  rod  being  suspended  from  a  pair  of 
the  true  ribs. 

Lacertilia. — In  this  extensive  order  of  living  Reptiles,  jn  ^  j 
the  vertebrae  are  proccelous  except  in  the  Geckotidx  and  tiliai 
Uropeltidss,  where  they  are  biconcave.  There  may  or  may 
not  be  distinct  cervical,  lumbar,  and  sacral  regions,  and  the 
number  of  vertebrae,  generally  considerable,  may  be  very 
large.  The  distinctness  of  the  vertebral  regions  depends 
on  the  development  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  limbs. 
When  a  cervical  region  can  be  distinguished,  there  are 
never  more  than  nine  such  vertebrae.  Only  in  rare 
instances  are  there  distinct  lumbar  vertebrae.  The  sacral 
vertebrae  are  never  more  than  two.  The  neural  arch  is 
always  anchylosed  to  the  centrum  in  adults.  The  atlas 
consists  of  three  parts,  and  the  axis  may  or  may  not  have 
the  odontoid  bone  anchylosed  to  it  and  convex  in  front. 
Ribs  are  attached  to  most  of  the  cervical  as  well  as  to  the 
dorsal  vertebrae ;  but  the  former  are  not  expanded  distally 
as  in  the  Crocodile,  and  thus  the  latter  do  not  support 
uncinate  processes.  The  more  anterior  ribs  show  two 
proximal  articular  surfaces,  but  these  never  diverge  into 
distinct  capitular  and  tubercular  processes  as  in  the  Croco- 
diles, nor,  as  in  the  latter,  do  any  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae 
develop  double,  superimposed  transverse  processes.  The 
more  anterior  (usually  the  first  three  or  four)  dorsal  ribs 
are  connected  with  the  sternum  by  sternal  cartilages. 
Those  behind  may  be  similarly  connected  with  the  diverg- 
ing backward  prolongations  of  the  sternum,  or  may  be 
directly  connected  with  their  fellows  of  the  opposite  side, 
as  in  the  Chamaeleon,  a  median  cartilage  being  joined  on 
either  side  by  the  sternal  cartilage  continuous  with  an 
ossified  rib.  In  Acontias  and  other  limbless  Lacertilians 
which  have  but  a  rudimentary  sternum,  or  none,  the  corre- 
sponding ribs  of  the  right  and  left  sides  are  connected 
across  the  mid-ventral  line  as  they  are  in  Chamseleo.  In 
Draco  the  more  posterior  ribs  are  greatly  prolonged,  and 
their  distal  cartilages  are  bent  backwards.  This  is  to 
enable  them  to  support  the  wing-like  membrane  which 
extends  from  either  side  of  the  body  to  serve  as  a 
parachute.  In  those  Lizards  which  have  a  lumbar  region, 
transverse  processes  are  there  developed.  The  caudal 
vertebrae  (except  the  most  anterior  and  the  small  posterior 
ones)  have  chevron  bones,  which  are  not  generally  anchy- 
losed to  the  vertebrae  which  support  them. 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  articular  processes,  there  are 
in  Iguana  certain  accessory  articulating  structures  such  as 
are  commonly  found  in  the  vertebrae  of  Serpents;  these  will 
be  described  in  the  next  section. 

The  sternum  consists  of  a  rhomboidal  semi-ossified  or 
cartilaginous  plate,  which  is  sometimes  continued  back- 
wards into  a  pair  of  long  diverging  processes.  There  is 
generally  an  episternum,  which  is  often  T-shaped,  but  it 
may  be  absent,  as  in  Chamaeleons.  In  the  limbless  Lizards 
the  sternum  is  cartilaginous,  and  there  is  none  whatever  in 
some  forms,  as,  e.g.,  in  Amphisbsena  and  Typldine. 

In  many  Lizards,  notably  in  the  commonest  English 
Lizard,  the  tail  if  broken  off  can  be  reproduced.  In  them 
the  centra  of  the  caudal  vertebrae  have  a  vertical  median 
division  similar  to  that  already  described  in  Hatteria. 

In  Ophidians  the  number  of  vertebrae  is  generally  very  in  hi- 
large,  and  may  exceed  four  hundred.  They  are  all  proccel- 
ous,  and  the  ball  behind  each  is  nearly  hemispherical.  There 
is  no  distinction  of  cervical,  lumbar,  or  sacral  vertebrae ; 
but  all  the  vertebrae  after  the  atlas  may  be  considered  as 
either  dorsal  or  caudal.  The  mode  of  articulation  between 
the  vertebrae  is  more  complex  than  in  almost  any  Lizards. 


SKELETON.] 


REPTILES 


449 


In  addition  to  the  ordinary  articular  processes  (or  zygapo- 
physes),  which  are  here  broad  and  flattened,  often  with  an 
accessory  process,  there  are  two  noteworthy  structures. 
The  first  of  these  is  called  the  zygosphene,  and  consists  of 
a  wedge-shaped  process  with  two  articular  surfaces,  which 
projects  forward  from  the  anterior  surface  of  each  neural 
arch.  The  other  is  called  the  zyg-  ns  ns 

antrum,  and  is  a  corresponding 
excavation  with  two  articular  sur- 
faces on  the  hinder  side  of  the 
neural  arch,  and  receives  the  zygo- 
sphene of  the  vertebra  next  behind 
it.  It  was  structures  such  as  these 
that  were  referred  to  in  the  last 
paragraph  as  existing  so  exception-  trunk  vertebra  o 

ally  amongst  Lacertilians  in  Iguana,      nature),   a.  articularprocesses; 
mi  ,  i  1-1  £  na,  neural  arches ;  ns,  neural 

I  he    atlas  and   axis    have  a  form     spines;  i.transverseprocesses; 

similar  to  that  already  described    zs>  zygosphene. 
as  existing  in  the  Lacertilia.    Long  azygous  hypapophyses 
nearly  always  depend  from  the  centre  of  the  anterior  trunk 
vertebrae,  or  even  from  the  whole 
of  them,  being  especially  large  and 
numerous    in   some    of    the   most 
poisonous   Serpents,  e.g.,   Crolalus 
and  Naja.      In  Dasypeltis  scaber 
some  of  these  processes  in  the  ante- 
rior   dorsal   region    are    made    to 
minister    to     alimentation, — their 

tips    being   COated  with    tooth    Sub-Fl«-   7— Posterior   aspect  of   a 

°,  .  .  ,  .         ,         trunk  vertebra  of  Python  (from 

Stance,  and  penetrating  Within   the     nature),   a,  articular  processes; 

nliinpntirv   pannl     n«   will    VIP  no-nin     6'  bal1  on  tlle   sul'face  of  tne 

alimentary  canal,  as  win    >e  again    centrum.  ,Wi  neural  arch .  nSj 

mentioned  further  On.  neural  spine  \t,  transverse  pro- 

mi         •[  j-i       f         L'  c     cess;  zg  zygantrum. 

Ihe  ribs  assume  the  function  of 

locomotion,  and  are  therefore  very  movably  articulated  to 
short  transverse  processes.  Each  has  two  proximal  articu- 
lar surfaces,  but  they  are  close  to- 
gether, there  being  no  diverging 
articular  and  tubercular  processes. 
Each  rib  terminates  in  a  short  car- 
tilage. The  caudal  vertebrae  may, 
in  rare  instances,  be  very  few,  and 
they  may  be  very  numerous — from 


five  to  two  hundred.      They  do  not  FIG.    8.— Anterior   aspect  of 

s,  but  bifold 
depending  hypapophyses,  and  they 


possess    Chevron   bones,    but    bifold     trunk  vertebra  of  PythonQram 

nature),    a,  articularprocesses; 


cup  on   the  surface  of  the 

£835?  WSSESfJZ 

cess  :  ".  zygosphene, 


have  transverse  processes  which  also 
are  generally  bent  downwards. 

Sometimes,  at  the  limit  between  the  body  and  "the  tail, 
the  transverse  process,  or  the  rib,  as  the  case  may  be, 
bifurcates  or  develops  an  ascending  process,  as,  e.g.,  in  Boa, 
Naja,  and  Echidna. 

No  Ophidian  has  any  sternum. 

Ckelonia.  —  The  Tortoises  and  Turtles  present  a  spinal 
structure  remarkably  divergent  from  that  of  all  other 
Reptiles,  and  especially  divergent  from  that  of  Ophidians. 
Nevertheless  the  Chelonia  agree  with  the  Ophidia,  in 
having  no  sternum,  and  in  having  at  least  a  portion  of  the 
vertebral  column  formed  for  extreme  mobility,  in  spite  of 
the  excessive  rigidity  and  immobility  of  the  trunk.  Only 
in  Sphargis  do  we  find  a  structure  generally  resembling 
that  of  other  Reptiles  and  diverging  from  that  common  to 
other  Chelonians.  With  the  exception  of  Sphargis,  the 
structure  of  the  vertebral  column  of  which  will  be  sub- 
sequently noticed,  the  Chelonians  present  the  following 
characters.  The  endoskeleton  of  the  dorsal  region  is 
intimately  united  with  those  ossified  exoskeletal  plates 
which  have  been  already  described  (supra,  p.  447)  as 
investing  both  dorsally  and  ventrally  the  entire  trunk. 
The  median  series  of  plates  are  united  with  the  neural 
spines  and  arches,  and  the  lateral  plates  are  similarly 


united  with  the  ribs,  so  that  the  carapace  is  formed  both 
of  endoskeletal  and  exoskeletal  elements  intimately  united. 
The  constancy  of  the  number  of  vertebrae  is  very  excep- 
tional, as  is  a'lso  the  very  small  number  of  those  of  the 
body.  There  are  always  8  cervical,  12  dorsal,  and  2 
sacral  vertebrae.  The  number  of  caudal  vertebrae  varies, 
but  is  never  great.  The  cervical  vertebrae  have  very  small 
processes,  whereby  they  are  better  fitted  for  great  mobility. 
They  vary  greatly  as  to  the  form  of  their  centra,  some 
being  opisthocoelous,  others  procoelous,  others  biconvex, 
while  one  at  least  is  flattened  both  in  front  and  behind — 
the  arrangement  differing  even  in  different  species  of  the 
same  genus.  The  atlas  consists  of  three  pieces,  and  the  os 
odontoideum  is  separate.  The  neuro-central  suture  per- 
sists. The  centra  of  the  first  ten  dorsal  vertebra  are 
amphicoelous,  and  but  loosely  connected  with  twin  neural 
arches,  each  neural  arch  being  superimposed  over  the 
posterior  half  of  one  vertebra  and  the  anterior  half  of  the 
vertebra  next  behind.  The  sacral  vertebrae  have  either 
stout  ribs  suturally  attached  or  transverse  processes  anchy- 
losed  to  the  vertebrae.  The  caudal  vertebrae  are  proccelous, 
and  generally  have  a  pair  of  separate  descending  processes, 
which  may  (as  in  Chdydra)  unite  distally  and  form 
chevron  bones. 

In  Sphargis  the  endoskeleton  is  quite  distinct  from  the 
exoskeleton.     Its  neural  arches  are  very  loosely  united  to 
the  centra,  so  that  they  can  be  separated  with  the  greatest 
ease.      The  trans- 
verse   processes  of 
the  caudal  vertebrae 
also  remain  unan- 
chylosed    to    their 
centra.    The  dorsal 
vertebrae    pass    so 
gradually  into  the 
caudal     that     the 
boundary  can  only 

be  determined  by  pJG_  g_ — Three  vertebra!  of  Sphargis  coriacea  (from 
the  Somewhat  in-  nature),  c,  vertebral  centra;  n,  neural  arches;  r,  ribs. 

creased  thickness  of  the  transverse  process  of  the  two  sacral 
vertebrae.  The  summits  of  the  neural  arches  are  somewhat 
dilated  (as  if  from  superincumbent  pressure)  or  obtusely 
keeled.  The  ribs  are  not  much  expanded,  their  heads 
fitting  into  a  hollow  formed  by  the  centra  of  two  vertebrae 
together  with  the  neural  arch  superimposed  upon  the  two. 
They  become  shorter  and  narrower  behind,  that  of  the 
tenth  dorsal  vertebra  being  even  smaller  than  the  sacral 
ribs. 

The  Skull. — The  anterior  portion  of  the  axial  skeleton,  Tlie 
or  cranium,  differs  markedly  from  that  of  every  other  skull ; 
class  of  Vertebrates,  while  it  presents  a  much  greater 
diversity  of  structure  than  does  the  cranium  of  Mammals 
or  of  Birds.  It  differs  from  the  cranium  of  the  lower 
Vertebrate  classes  by  its  more  complete  ossification  and  by 
a  greater  prolongation  backwards  of  the^  nasal  cavity, 
which  causes  a  greater  expanse  and  density  of  the  palatal 
structure.  The  skull,  however,  is  not  so  much  ossified  as 
in  Mammals,  and  the  bones  do  not  become  anchylosed 
together  so  quickly  and  certainly  as  in  Birds.  The 
occipital  region  always  consists  of  four  occipital  elements, 
and  there  is  an  ossified  basisphenoid  in  front  of  a  well- 
developed  basioccipital.  The  skull  almost  always  arti- 
culates with  the  atlas  by  a  single  occipital  condyle.  The 
lower  jaw  is  always  suspended  to  the  skull  by  the  inter- 
vention of  a  quadrate  bone  with  which  the  os  articulare 
of  the  mandible  articulates.  Besides  the  last-mentioned 
bone  the  mandible  consists  of  as  many  bones  as  in  Fishes, 
with  the  addition  of  a  supra-angular  and  a  complementary 
bone. 

The  bones  of  the  cranium  may  form  a  very  solid  and 

XX.  -  57 


450 


REPTILES 


[ANATOMY. 


very  continuous  open  case,  with  no  mobility  save  that  of 
the  lower  jaw;  or  it  may  consist  of  bones  several  of 
which  are  so  conditioned  as  to  allow  much  mobility  to 
several  other  parts.  In  all  cases,  however,  the  side  wall 
of  the  anterior  part  of  tho  cranial  cavity  is  very  imperfectly 
ossified. 

inCroco-  The  skull  of  the  Crocodilia  is  distinguished  from  that 
lilians ;  of  an  other  Reptiles  by  its  very  extensive  bony  palate, 
which  exceeds  in  completeness  that  of  even  any  Mammal 
save  the  Anteaters  and  Cetaceans,  for  not  only  the 
maxillse  and  palatines  but  also  the  pterygoids — all  as 
expanded  bony  plates  suturally  united — concur  in  its  com- 
position in  all  existing  Crocodilians  (though  not  in  the 
extinct  Teleosaunis  or  Belodon],  and  the  pterygoids  sur- 
round the  posterior  nares.  The  skull  forms  a  solid  whole 
composed  of  bones  united  by  suture  except  at  the  antero- 
lateral  and  median  boundaries  of  the  cranial  cavity,  where 
it  is  cartilaginous  or  membranous.  There  is  an  interorbital 
septum.  The  quadrate  bone  is  immovably  fixed  and  of 
large  size,  and  unites  with  the  pterygoid,  but  by  its  upper 
and  inner  surface  only.  The  alisphenoid  is  a  large  broad 
bone.  The  tympanic  cavity  is  completely  enclosed  by  the 
prootic  and  opisthotic  (the  latter  being  united  with  the 
exoccipital),  the  squamosal,  the  postfrontal,  and  the  basioc- 
cipital  and  basisphenoid.  It  opens  into  the  mouth  by  three 
apertures,  one  median  and  two  lateral,1  which  terminate 
complex  canals  having  communications  among  each  other. 
There  are  two  lateral,  quasi-zygomatic  arches  to  the  skull 
— an  upper  one  formed  by  the  postfrontal  and  squamosal, 
and  a  lower  one  by  the  maxilla,  jugal,  quadra to-jugal,  and 
quadrate.  There  is  no  foramen  in  the  parietal  region  of 
the  skull,  and  there  is  an  azygous  parietal  bone  and  frontal. 
On  either  side  of  the  hinder  region  of  the  skull  the  periotic 
and  exoccipital  bones  form  large  parotic  processes.  There 
is  a  distinct  perforated  lachrymal.  There  are  two  vomers, 
which  are  generally  hidden  in  the  palate  by  the  junction 
of  the  extensive  maxillae  and  palatines.  There  are  a  pair 
of  nasal  bones.  Various  cranial  bones  are  pneumatic, 
including  the  os  articulare  of  the  mandible.  The  hyoid  is 
very  simple,  and  consists  only  of  a  broad  cartilaginous  or 
partly  osseous  basihyal,  with  two  bony  cornua,  not  directly 
connected  with  the  skull.  There  is  a  very  small  carti- 
laginous stylohyal  on  the  upper  hinder  part  of  the  quad- 
rate. 

a  Hat-  Hatteria. — The  skull  of  this  living  type  of  an  extinct 
ena  >  order  resembles  that  of  the  Crocodilia  in  that  there  is  a 
lower  zygomatic  arcade  formed  by  the  quadrato-jugal  bone 
interposed  between  the  malar  and  the  quadrate,  as  well 
as  a  superior  zygomatic  arcade  formed  by  the  squamosal 
and  postfrontal,  and  in  that  the  quadrate  bone  is  immov- 
ably fixed  between  the  pterygoid,  squamosal,  and  quadrato- 
jugal.  The  palate  is  pretty  complete  with  wide  plate-like 
ossifications,  still  it  is  much  less  so  than  in  the  Crocodiles ; 
but  the  posterior  nares  are  much  more  anteriorly  situated 
— very  near  the  anterior  end  of  the  palate — and  are  on  each 
side,  being  each  bounded  by  the  premaxilla  in  front,  the 
vomer  internally,  the  maxilla  externally,  and  the  palatine 
behind.  At  the  side  of  the  skull  we  find  a  bone  distin- 
guished as  the  "columella,"  which  passes  upwards  from 
above  the  suture  between  the  pterygoid  and  quadrate  to 
the  parietal,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  slip  of  cartilage. 
It  is  a  flattened  bone,  somewhat  expanded  above  and  below, 
and  constricted  towards  its  middle.  The  lateral  wall  of 
the  skull  at  the  part  which  in  the  Crocodile  is  occupied 
by  the  alisphenoid,  and  in  front  of  that  part  is  not  osseous 
but  fibro-cartilaginous.  There  is  an  interorbital  septum. 
The  postero-lateral  region  of  the  skull  consists,  as  in  the 

1  For  a  full  description  with  good  figures  of  this  very  complex 
structure,  see  Owen,  Phil.  Trans.,  February  28,  1850,  vol.  cxl. 
p.  521,  pis.  40-42. 


Crocodiles,  of  two  outstanding  "  parotic  processes,"  made 
up  of  the  exoccipital,  prootic,  and  opisthotic  bones, — 
beneath  which  is  the  "columella  auris."  The  basi- 
sphenoid sends  down  two  processes  to  abut  against  the 
pterygoids.  The  parietal  is  perforated  by  a  small  median 


•ft 


FIG.  10. — Skull  of  Hatteria  (after  Gunther).    1,  ventral  aspect;  2,  lateral  aspect; 


fontanelle.  The  premaxillae  are  separate,  and  together  form 
a  sort  of  beak,  their  large  teeth  becoming  thoroughly 
anchylosed  and  united  with  the  bones  supporting  them. 
The  nasals  are  double,  and  each  sends  forth  a  process  (some- 
what as  in  Birds)  from  its  outer  anterior  angle. 

The  Lacertilian  skull  is  formed  mainly  upon  one  of  two  in  I 
diverging  types  of  structure — (1)  that  of  ordinary  Lizards,  tilit 
and  (2)  that  of  Chamseleons.  In  both  the  quadrate  bone 
is  almost  always  movable  and  the  inferior  zygomatic  arcade 
is  wanting,  though  generally  represented  by  a  ligament ; 
the  palate  is  incompletely  ossified,  and  the  rather  anteriorly 
situated  posterior  nares  bounded  internally  by  the  bifold 
vomers.  In  the  ordinary  Lizard  type  the  skull  has  the 
appearance  of  consisting  of  a  system  of  osseous  bars  con- 
necting the  solid  occipital  parts  (with  its  pair  of  parotic 
processes)  with  a  flattened  cranial  roof  and  the  more  or  less 
well  ossified  snout.  The  skull  has  an  interorbital  septum. 
The  lateral  walls  of  the  cranium  are,  as  in  Hatteria, 
fibro-cartilaginous,  though  they  may  contain  some  insig- 
nificant ossifications ;  and  a  "  columella,"  as  in  Hatteria, 
generally  ascends  from  the  pterygoid  to  the  parietal. 
The  last-named  bone  sends  a  backward  prolongation  to 
the  parotic  process  and  squamosal,  and  is  movably  united 
to  the  occipital ;  and  thus,  through  the  imperfect  ossifica- 
tion of  the  cranial  parietes,  the  facial  part  of  the  skull  is 
capable  of  more  or  less  flexion  upon  the  occipital  part 


SKULL.] 


REPTILES 


451 


There  is  generally  a  superior  zygomatic  arcade  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  postfrontal  with  the  squamosal ;  and, 
very  generally,  the  orbit  is  enclosed  posteriorly  by  a 
junction  of  this  postfrontal  with  the  malar.  The  basi- 
sphenoid  sends  down  (as  in  Hatteria)  two  processes  to  abut 
against  the  pterygoids,  which  again  join  the  quadrate 
bones.  An  os  transversum  unites  the  pterygoid,  palatine, 
and  maxilla  of  either  side.  The  maxilla  is  thus  a  fixed 
bone ;  the  premaxilla  is  generally  single,  and  sends  a  median 
process  backwards.  The  nasals,  frontals,  and  parietals 
may  be  single  or  double.  There  is  generally  a  parietal 
fontanelle. 

By  very  rare  exception,  as  in  Monopeltis,  there  may  be 
two  occipital  condyles,  that  (median)  portion  which  is 
formed  from  the  basioccipital  aborting. 


FIG.  11.  —  Skull  of  Monopeltis  sphenorhynchus  (from  nature).  1,  dorsal  aspect  ;  2, 
ventral  aspect  ;  3,  lateralj  aspect  ;  4,  posterior  aspect,  ar,  articular  ;  6s, 
basisplienoid  ;  d,  dentary;/,  frontal;  m,  maxilla;  n,  nasal;  oc,  uc,  occipital 
condyles  ;  of,  occipital  foramen  ;  pal,  palatine  ;  pa,  parietal  ;  pm,  premaxilla  ; 
ptg,  pterygoid;  q,  quadrate  ;  so,  supraoccipital  ;  sq,  squamosal;  v,  vomer. 

The  hyoid  consists  of  two  pairs  of  cornua,  whereof  the 
anterior  is  generally  the  longer,  attached  to  a  median 
portion  from  which  azygous  a 
bifold  process  may  proceed 
both  anteriorly  and  poste- 
riorly. 

In  the  Amphisbaenians  the 
skull  is  more  solidly  and  con- 
tinuously ossified  than  is  usual 
in  Lizards,  though  there  is 
no  columella  and  though  the 
low  ali-  and  orbito-sphenoidal 
regions  are  membranous.  The 
parietal  is  not  movably  arti- 
culated to  the  exoccipital,  and 
the  facial  part  is  solidly  ossi- 
fied and  not  movable  upon  the 
hinder  portion  of  the  skull. 
The  orbits  are  not  enclosed 
behind,  and  there  is  no  superior  FIG.  12.—  Dorsal  aspect  of  skuiiof  ffeio- 

nrparlp  derma  horridum.  f,  f  rental  ;  j,  jugal  ; 

arcaae.        - 


/.lachrymal;  m,  maxilla;  n,  nasal; 
The    Skull    of    Heloderma  is     Pa>   Parietal;    pm,   premaxilla;   pr, 
.     .  .  ,         .    .  pref  rental  ;  ps,  postfrontal  ;  pt,  ptery- 

Very  remarkable  in  that  it  has     gold  ;  q,  quadrate  ;  s,  squamosal  ;  so, 

no  zygomatic  arch  whatever,    "upraoccipitai. 

and  in  that  the  pre-  and  postfrontal  bones  unite  and  exclude 

the  frontal  bone  from  the  margin  of  the  orbit. 

The  skull  of  the  Chamseleons  has  even  more  the  aspect 
of  an  osseous  scaffolding  than  has  that  of  ordinary  Lizards 
in  spite  of  the  absence  of  a  columella.  This  is  owing 
to  the  presence  of  a  long  supraoccipital  arcade  formed  by 


ps 


a  long  posteriorly  and  inwardly  extending  process  of  the 
squamosal,  which  joins  the  adjacent  side  of  the  singularly 
prolonged  and  upwardly  and  backwardly  extending  pro- 
cess of  the  parietal, 
which  itself  is  solid- 
ly united  to  an  up- 
wardly extending 
process  of  the  supra- 
occipital.  Thus  the 
facial  part  of  the 
skull  is  not  movable 
upon  its  occipital 
portion.  The  orbits 
are  enclosed  by 
bone,  and  there  is  a 
superior  zygomatic 

arcade,      the      post-  FIG.  13.— Skull  of  Chamxleonvulgaris  (from  nature), 
frontal    im'nintr    thp      a9>  angular;   "''.  articular;  bs,  basisphenoid ;  d, 
Ontai   joining    I  dentary;  j,  jngal;   m,  maxilla;  me,  median  eth- 

SquaniOSal       behind      moid;   pi  and  p2,    parietals;  pt,    palatine;   pr, 
•     ,i  i          •         prefrontal;    ps,   postfrontal;    pt,    pterygoid;    q, 

and.     tiie     Hialar  quadrate;  sy,  surangular;  so,  supraoccipital;  sq, 


front.  The  frontal 
bone  is  small  and  single.  There  are  a  pair  of  narrow  nasals, 
but  these  do  not  form  the  boundary  of  any  part  of  the  an- 
terior nares,  but  are  excluded  therefrom  by  the  junction  of 
the  prefrontals  with  the  maxilla,  and  these  two  bones  may 
be  prolonged  so  as  to  form  great  horn-like  processes.  The 
pterygoids  do  not  articulate  with  the  quadrates,  and  there 
is  no  interorbital  septum.  The  hyoid  has  its  posterior 
cornua  much  the  longer,  and  a  bony  median  basihyal.  . 

The  Ophidians,  like  the  Lizards,  have  skulls  which  are  iu  Opli 
formed    on    more    than   one    type : — (1)    those   of    the dians  '•> 
ordinary  wide-mouthed  Serpents;   and  (2)  those  of  the 
Serpents  with  a  very  narrow  gape,  such  as  we  find,  e.g.,  in 
Typhlops  and  Uropeltis. 

The  wide-mouthed  Serpents,  or  Eurystomata,  have  a 
skull  which  in  some  respects  is  much  less  completely 
ossified  and  more  movable  than  in  ordinary  Lizards,  while 
in  other  respects  it  is  more  ossified  and  less  movable. 
Thus  the  lateral  walls  of  the  anterior  parts  of  the  cranial 


FIG.  14. — Skull  of  Python  seox  (from  nature),  ar,  articular;  ca,  columella  auris, 
d,  dentary  ;  /,  frontal;  m,  maxilla  ;  p,  parietal ;  pm,  premaxilla ;  po,  prootic ; 
pr,  prefrontal;  ps,  postfrontal ;  pt,  pterygoid;  q,  quadrate;  s,  squamosal;  t, 
transversum  ;  tb,  turbinal. 

cavity  are  well  ossified,  so  that  the  anterior  part -of  the 
skull  is  no  longer  movable  on  the  occipital  segment, 
while  on  the  contrary  the  total  absence  of  both  zygomatic 
arcades,  the  non-union  directly  of  the  palatine  with  the 
vomer,  the  laxity  of  union  of  the  premaxilla  and  maxilla, 
and  especially  the  movable  condition  not  only  of  the 
quadrate  but  also  of  the  squamosal  (often  an  elongated 
bone)  from  which  it  is  suspended,  all  give  an  excessive 
mobility  to  the  facial  part  of  the  skull.  To  this  it  may  be 
added  that,  at  the  symphysis,  the  rami  of  the  mandible 
are  only  united  by  soft,  very  extensible  tissue.  There 
is  usually  but  one  premaxilla,  and  that  is  edentulous.  The 
palatines  are  usually  connected  with  the  maxilla  by 
transverse  bones,  while  the  pterygoids  connect  them  with 
the  quadrate  bones.  There  is  no  interorbital  septum,  and 


452 


KEPTILES 


[ANATOMY. 


no  fontanelle  in  the  cranial  roof.  The  basisphenoid  is 
prolonged  forwards  into  a  long  bony  rostrum,  on  the  upper 
surface  of  which 
the  cartilaginous 
rods  (the  per- 
sistent trabecu- 
lae  cranii)  ex- 
tend forwards  to 
blend  with  the 
median  cartilage 
of  the  ethmoi- 
dal  region.  The 
supraoccipital  is 
excluded  from 


the 
the 


ol 


margin     ui  Fl(J  15  __gkuU  of  yipera  nasicomn  (from  nature),    ar, 
foramen     articular;  ca,  columella  auris;  d,  dentary;  /,  frontal; 
larrnnm  V.IT   tVio     '"•  maxilla;  *>/•  P°ison  fang;  pm,  premaxilla;  pr,  pre- 
L  uy    l     /     frontal  ;  ps,  post  frontal  ;  pt,  pterygoid  ;  q,  quadrate  ;  s, 
eXOCcipital.    The     squamosal;  <,  transversum. 

frontal  bones  descend  laterally  to  the  dorsum  of  this  basi- 
sphenoidal  rostrum  and  then  turn  inwards  to  meet  together 
in  the  median  lines  on  the  floor  of  the  cranial  cavity.  The 
parietals  also  descend  laterally  but  unite  with  the  basi- 
sphenoid by  suture.  There  are  a  pair  of  nasals,  and  also 
lachrymals  and  postfrontals,  but  there  is  no  jugal  or  quad- 
rate jugal.  The  palatines  do  not  bound  the  posterior  nares 
behind.  They  are  widely  separated,  and  their  long  axes  are 
longitudinal.  The  maxillae  may  be  long  and  may  support  a 
number  of  teeth,  as  in  most  non  -venomous  Snakes,  or  maybe 
very  short  and  support  a  single  large  fang,  as,  e.g.,  in  Vipers. 

The  small-mouthed  Serpents,  or  Angiostomata,  have  the 
pterygoids  separated  from  the  quadrates.  The  squamosal 
is  small  or  absent,  the  quadrate  being  attached  directly  to 
the  cranium.  They  have  no  postfrontal  and  no  transverse 
bone,  while  the  palatine  bones  have  their  long  axis  trans- 
verse, and  meet,  or  nearly  meet,  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  skull.  The  two  rami  of  the  mandible  are  also  closely 
united  together.  In  other  details  of  cranial  structure  they 
agree  generally  with 
the  Eurystomata. 

The  hyoid  is  rudi- 
mentary, and  only 
consists  of  a  pair  of 
cartilaginous  threads, 
medianly  united  and 
lying  side  by  side  be- 
neath the  trachea. 

In  the  Chelonians 
the  skull  presents  cer- 
tain resemblances  to 
that  of  the  Crocodil- 
ians.  Thus  the  qua- 
drate is  immovably6^ 
fixed  and  its  upper 
part  is  joined  by  the 
pterygoid,  and  there 
is  a  quadrato-jugal 
bone.  The  pterygoids 
and  palatines  unite 
by  suture  and  form 

horizontal    plates    be-Fl°-  16.—  Dorsal  aspect  of  skull  of  Testudo  tabu- 
i    ,1      ,       .  ..      la  ta  (from  nature),  an,  anterior  nares;/,  frontal, 

neata  tne  basis  cranii.     on  either  side  of  which  are  the  orbits,  bounded 
fhpcp     behind  by  ps,  the  postfrontal  ;  bo,  ba.sioccipital  ; 

' 


ep,  epiotic;    so,  supraoccipital  ;   g,  quadrate  ;    , 
bones      differ     Widely     squamosal  ;  pa,  parietal  ;  po,  periotic  bones. 

from  their  homologues  in  the  Crocodiles  inasmuch  as  the 
posterior  nares  open  in  front  of  the  pterygoids  and  are 
bounded  by  the  palatines  and  the  azygous  vomer.  The 
epiotic  bone  is  generally  quite  distinct  from  the  exoccipital. 
There  are  large  parietals,  which  send  down  a  process  that 
serves  the  purpose  of  the  absent  alisphenoid.  In  front  of 
this,  the  sides  and  front  of  the  cranial  cavity  are  unossified. 


There  are  a  pair  of  frontals,  and  in  front  of  them  a  pair  of 
bones  which  bound  the  anterior  nares  above.     There  may 


: 


* 


jpnv 


an  d 

FIG.  17.—  Side  view  of  skull  of  Testudo  tabulata  (from  nature),  an,  angular  ;  m; 
articular;  d,  dentary;/,  frontal;  j,  jugal;  m,  mandible;  n,  naso-pref  rental  ; 
pa,  parietal;  pi,  palatine  ;  ps,  postfrontal;  q,  quadrate  ;  gj,  quadrato-jugal. 

be  one  or  two  premaxillae.     Sometimes,  as  e.g.,  in  Chelone, 

the    parietal,    post- 

frontal,    j  ugal,    and 

squamosal  send  out 

plate-like"  processes 

which     unite     and 

form  a  sort  of  false 

outer  skull  covering 

in      the      temporal 

fossa,  and  quite  ex- 

ternal   to    the   real 

outer   wall    of    the 

cranial  cavity.  Thus 

the  cranium  of  these 

Reptiles    is,    as    it 

were,  at  the  opposite 

extreme  to  that  of  the 

Serpents  as  regards 

massiveness,     solid- 

ity, and  the  immov- 

ability of  its  several 

parts  one  on  another. 

It  maybe  excessively 

flat    and  depressed, 

as  in  Chelydra.  FIG.  18.-  Ventral  surface  of  skull  of  Testudo  tabu- 

The  dentary  bone     ^a^a  (from  nature),    bo,  basloccipital  ;  bs,  basisphe- 

-      ,  vi  i       •       noid  ;  «p,  epiotic  ;  m,  maxilla;  pi,  palatine;   pm, 

Ol    tne    mandible    IS     premaxilla  ;  pt,  pterygoid  ;  g,  quadrate  ;  gj,  quad- 

azygOUS,  as  in  Birds.     rato-Jugal  J  *>,  supraoccipital. 

The  hyoid  consists  of  two  pairs  of  cornua,  whereof  the 
pm 


*P 


•ps 


W 

Fio.  19.— Dorsal  aspect  of  skull  of  CheJys  matamata  (from  nature),  bo, 
basioccipital ;  eo,  exoccipital;  /,  frontal;  j,  jugal;  m,  maxilla;  pm,  premaxilla; 
pa,  parietal;  pr,  prefrontal ;  ps,  postfrontal ;  pt,  pterygoid  ;  g,  quadrate ;  *, 
squamosal ;  so,  supraoccipital. 

anterior  may  or   may  not  be   the  larger,  attached  to  a 


SKELETON.] 


REPTILES 


453 


broad,    more   or   less  cartilaginous,  or   variously  ossified 
median  portion. 

THE    APPENDICTTLAR    SKELETON. — The    appendicular 
skeleton  of  Reptiles,  like  that  of   Vertebrates  generally, 


FIG.  20.— Lateral  aspect  of  skull  of  Clielys  matamata  (from  nature),  an,  angular ; 
ar,  articular;  bo,  basioccipital ;  d,  dentary;  ep,  epiotic ;  m,  maxilla;  pa, 
parietal ;  pin,  premaxilla  ;  pi;  prefrontal ;  ps,  postfrontal ;  ft,  pterygoid  ;  q, 
quadrate ;  s,  squamosal ;  sg,  surangular. 

consists  of  a  pair  of  limb  girdles  (pectoral  and  pelvic), 
with  a  pair  of  skeletal  appendages  proceeding  from  either 
girdle.  Each  such  skeletal  appendage  has  also,  normally, 
the  typical  differentiation  into  (1)  a  single  upper  limb 
bone,  (2)  a  pair  of  lower  limb  bones,  (3)  a  group  of  small 
foot-root  bones  or  cartilages  (carpus  or  tarsus),  (4)  a  series 
of  middle  foot  bones  (metacarpus  or  metatarsus),  and  (5) 
pm 


•mdl 


Fio.  21. — Ventral  aspect  of  skull  of  Clielys  matamata  (from  nature),  bo, 
basioccipital  ;  bs,  basisphenoid  ;  mdl,  mandible;  oh,  opisthotic  ;  pi,  palatine; 
pm,  premaxilla  ;  po,  prootic ;  pt,  pterygoid  ;  q,  quadrate  ;  s,  squamosal. 

a  group  of  small  bones  (phalanges)  arranged  in  series 
according  to  the  number  of  digits,  but  the  number  in 
each  digit  varying  in  different  digits  and  in  different 
groups  of  Reptiles. 

Every  trace  of  an  appendicular  skeleton  may,  however, 
be  wanting,  as  is  the  case  in  most  Ophidians. 

There  may  be  a  pectoral  limb  girdle  without  any  rudi- 
ment of  a  fore-limb  skeleton,  as  in  Anguis,  Acontias,  and 
Amphisbsena.  There  may  be  a  pelvic  girdle  without  any 
rudiment  of  a  hind-limb  skeleton,  as  in  at  least  some,  if 
not  all,  Typhlopidx,.  Very  rarely  there  may  be  both 
rudimentary  pectoral  and  pelvic  girdles  without  any  trace 
of  limb  skeleton,  as  in  Amphisbxna.  Thus,  of  the  two 
categories,  (1)  limb  girdles,  and  (2)  girdle  appendages 
or  limbs,  the  former  is  the  more  constant,  as  we  never 
find  rudimentary  extremities  and  limbs  without  any  trace 
of  a  girdle,  while  the  contrary  we  do  find  here  and  there.1 

The  Limb  Girdles. — Each  girdle  consists  of  two  lateral 
halves,  and  each  such  lateral  half  further  consists  of  two 

1  This  is  interesting  because  it  is  probable  that  genetically  the  limb 
i  ;  prior,  to  the  limb  giivlle,  which  v.'as  an  ingrowth  from  the  former. 
See  Trans.  '/•,  1.  Soc.,  1879,  vol.  x.  p.  439. 


divisions  which  diverge  from  the  articular  surface  offered 
to  the  limb  by  such  lateral  half.  From  that  articular 
surface  one  division  descends  dorsally  and  does  not  con- 
nect itself  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side.  The  other 
ventral  division  passes  inwards  and  somewhat  downwards 
and  normally  does  connect  itself,  directly  or  indirectly, 
with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side.  The  dorsal  ascending 
division  is  generally  single,  and  consists  of  two  parts  in 
serial  succession.  The  ventral  division  consists  normally 
of  two  or  more  parts,  which,  though  diverging,  pass  ven- 
trally  side  by  side,  or  one  in  front  of  the  other.  Each 
girdle  normally  connects  itself  with  the  axial  skeleton 
either  towards  the  dorsal  or  ventral  aspect  of  the  latter. 

The  Pectoral  Girdle. — This   girdle  only   becomes  con-  Pector 
nected  (except  in  Chelonians)  with  the  ventral  part  of  the  girdle- 
appendicular  skeleton, — to   wit,    where  it   abuts   against 
either  side  of  the  sternum.     In  its  most  complex  condition 
— that  found  in  some  Saurians,  e.g.,  Iguana — the  dorsal 
division  consists  of  a  scapula  (with  a  forwardly  extending 


FIG.  22. — Sternum  and  shoulder  girdle  of  AmUyrhynchus  tubcristatus  (after  Stein, 
dachner).  cl,  clavicle;  co,  coracoid  ;  h,  humerus;  ic,  intcrclavicle  ;  me,  meso- 
coracoid ;  ms,  mesoscapula;  pc,  prccoracoid;  s,  scapula;  tt,  sternum. 

process — the  mesoscapular),  and  is  continued  upwards  into 

a  suprascapular  ;  while  the  ventral  division  consists  of  a 

coracoid,  which  abuts  against 

the  sternum,  and  from  which    \^ 

three   parts  (the   precoracoid,      o  t 

the  epicoracoid,  and  the  meso-  FlG  23.-Rudiments  of  pectoral  arch- 

COraCoid  )       diverge        forwards      I,  of  Acontias  meJeagns ;  2,  of  Typhlo- 
,  ,  °,       .  ,.  saurtis  aurantiaeus(aiterliiibinger). 

and   inwards,   and  also   of   a 

clavicle,  between  which  and  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side 
an  interclavicle  is  interposed.  This  girdle  normally  in 
Reptiles,  as  in  all  other  Vertebrates,  embraces  more  or  less 
of  the  axial  skeleton  externally ;  only  in  adult  Chelonians 
it  becomes  drawn  in  within  the  circuit  of  the  ribs. 

In  the  Ophidia,  as  has  been  said,  there  is  no  pectoral 
girdle. 

In  certain  Sauria  it  is  in  its  simplest  possible  form,  as, 
e.g.,  in  Acontias  and  Typhlosaurus,  where  each  lateral  half 
consists  of  a  minute  ossification  representing  the  clavicle 
and  coracoid,  which  is  not  connected  with  its  fellow  of  the 
opposite  side  by  any  hard  structure,  as  both  sternum  and 
interclavicle  are  wanting.  It  is  also  quite  rudimentary  in 
Amphisbxna,  but  it  is  fairly  developed  in  Chirotes.  Its 
most  complex  condition  in  Saurians  has  been  already 
described.  The  Chamscleons  have  a  simple  girdle  consist- 
ing of  a  long  and  narrow  scapula  with  suprascapula  and  a' 
long  and  narrow  coracoid,  the  anterior  part  of  which 


454 


REPTILES 


[ANATOMY. 


envelops  (or  is  overlapped  by)  its  fellow  of  the  opposite 
aide,  while  its  hinder  part  joins  the  sternum.  There  is 
no  clavicle  or  interclavicle. 

Hatteria  has  both  a  scapula  with  a  mesoscapular  pro- 
cess and  a  cartilaginous  suprascapula,  also  a  coracoid  with 
a  large  cartilaginous  epicoracoid.  There  is  an  inter- 
clavicle,  the  diverging  anterior  arms  of  which,  as  clavicles, 
are  connected  by  ligament  with  the  scapula. 

The  Crocodilia  have  a  simple  girdle,  consisting  only 
of  a  scapula  with  a  cartilaginous  suprascapula  and  a  cora- 
coid without  processes  or  epicoracoid,  nor  are  there  any 
clavicles  but  only  a  median  anteroposteriorly  directed 
interclavicle. 

In  the  Chelonia  the  girdle  lies  between  the  dorsal  and 
ventral  shields.  The  dorsal  division  is  a  columnar  scapula, 
•which  ascends  to  be  connected  by  ligament  or  cartilage, 
•which  sometimes  contains  points  of  ossification,  with  the 
transverse  process  of  the  first  thoracic  vertebra.  Of  the 
bifold  ventral  division,  the  anterior  bone  is  a  direct  con- 
tinuation of  the  scapula,  and  connects  itself  with  the  inter- 
clavicle of  the  plastron,  whilst  the  posterior  bone  is  a 
coracoid  and  ends  freely  (there  being  no  sternum).  In 
Sphargis  the  end  of  the  right  coracoid  underlies  that  of  the 
left  coracoid. 

TJie  Pelvic  Girdle. — This  girdle  only  becomes  connected 
with  the  dorsal  part  of  the  appendicular  skeleton — to  wit, 
where  it  abuts  against  the  sacral  vertebra?. 

In  general  each  of  its  halves  consists  of  a  dorsal  divi- 
sion more  or  less  simple  and  columnar,  the  ilium,  united  to 
the  vertebral  column  by  cartilage,  and  of  a  bifold  ventral 
•division,  the  parts  of  which,  pubis  and  ischium,  unite  in 
the  middle  line  by  the  intervention  of  a  median  longi- 
tudinal cartilage  or  ligament,  a  process  extending  forwards 
from  the  front  margin  of  the  more  anterior  part — the 
pubis — while  an  azygous  bone,  the  os  cloacae,  extends  back- 
wards from  behind  the  symphysis  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  more  posterior  part,  the  ischium,  with  its  fellow 
of  the  opposite  side.  The  ilium,  pubis,  and  ischium  form 
the  acetabulum. 

Although  it  has  been  elsewhere  already  described, 
it  may  be  well  again  to  mention  here  that  in  certain  ex- 
tinct Reptiles  not  only  is  the  ilium  greatly  expanded 
above  antero-posteriorly  but  the  pubis  sends  back  a  long 
slender  post-pubis  nearly  parallel  with  the  ischium  and 
closely  resembling  the  so-called  pubis  of  Birds.1 

In  the  Ophidin  the  pelvic  girdle  is  generally  entirely 
absent,  and,  when  a  rudiment  is  present,  that  rudiment  is 
never  united  with  the  axial  skeleton.  It  may  consist 
merely  of  a  pair  of  subparallel  slender  pubic  spicules  or 
cartilages,  as  in  Typldops,  or  of  a  rudimentary  ilium, 
pubis,  and  ischium  on  each  side,  as  in  Cylindropkis,  Ilyaia, 
Stenostoma,  and  Bon.  A  rudimentary  pelvis  also  exists  in 
Python,  Eryx,  and  Tortrix. 

In  Saurians  the  girdle  may  also  be  detached  from  the 
axial  skeleton  and  most  rudimentary,  as  in  Lepidostemon, 
where  it  consists  of  no 
more  than  in  Typh- 
lops,  and  in  Anguis, 
where  each  half  of  it 
consists  of  an  elon- 
gated ossicle  with  three 

processes    Correspond-  FIG-  24.— Rudiments  of  pelvic  limb— 1.  of  Lialit 
•,   *~    4-1,-    it,   ,  Bartonii;  2,  of  Anguis  fragilis;  3,  of  Amphis- 

ing  to  the  three  nor-    blKna  fungittosa.  ^femwTw,  ffium;  i>,  nio- 

mal  pelvic  bones.       It      Perineum;  P,  pubis;  t,  tibia. 

may  be  even  more  simple  and  yet  attached  to  the  verte- 
bral column,  as  in  Acontias,  Pseudopus,  and  Ophisaurus. 

1  See  especially  a  paper  by  Professor  Marsh  in  Amer.  Jour,  of 
Sci.  and  Arts,  vol.  xvii.  (January  1879),  pi.  8,  and  one  by  Dollo 
in  the  Bull.  Mus.  Roy.  d'Hist.  Lot.  de  Belgirjue,  vol.  ii.,  1883, 
"  Troisieme  note  sur  les  Dinosaurs,  pi.  3. 


« 


J 


In  all  Saurians  with  ordinary  hind  limbs  the  pelvic  girdle 
is  fully  developed. 

The  Chelonians  have  long  ilia  nearly  vertical  in  posi- 
tion and  with  a  cartila- 
ginous margin.  The 
pubis  and  ischium  form 
an  acute  angle,  and 
are  only  connected  with 
their  fellows  of  the 
opposite  side  by  liga- 
ment. There  is  no  os 
cloacae. 

Hatteria     has    a    la- 
certilian    pelvis.        The  FIG. 
pubis   has   a   small   for- 
wardly    extending     pro- 


25. —  1 


1,  Rudimentary  pelvis  and  limb  of 
Stenoitoma  niacrolepis.  2,  The  same  parts 
of  Boa  (after  Furbinger).  /,  femur;  iV, 
ilium  ;  ip,  bone  'culled  "  iliopectineum  "  by 
Fiirbinger;  p,  pubis  ;  /,  tibia. 


cess,    and    the    ischium 

a  much  more  prominent  backwardly  extending  one. 

In  the  Crocodilia  the  acetabulum  is  ^formed  by  the 
ilium  and  ischium  only,  and  is  imperfectly  ossified  inter- 
nally. The  two  ischia  are  united  by  synchondrosis,  and 
each  develops  a  forwardly  extending  process  contributing 
to  close  the  acetabulum,  from  which  the  pubic  bone 
extends  forwards,  downwards,  and  inwards.  The  two 
pubic  bones  are  only  united  together  by  membrane. 

The  Chelonia  have  the  pelvic  girdle,  like  the  pectoral 
one,  enclosed  between  the  carapace  and  plastron.  In  most 
forms  it  is  not  united  with  either  shield,  the  ilium  being 
merely  attached  to  the  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral 
vertebrae.  In  some  forms,  however,  as  in  Chelys, 
Chelodina,  Pelomedusa,  and  others,  the  ilia  firmly  unite  Avith 
the  posterior  plates  of  the  carapace,  while  the  ischia  and 
pubes  unite  with  the  plastron.  The  three  bones  concur  to 
form  the  acetabulum,  and  the  two  pubes  and  the  two  ischia 
respectively  unite  in  ventral  symphyses.  The  space  be- 
tween the  pubis  and  ischium  of  either  side,  the  obturator 
foramen,  is  in  Chelone  and  Sphargis  separated  from  that  of 
the  other  side  by  a  ligament  only,  which  proceeds  from  the 
ischiatic  symphysis  forwards  to  the  pubic  symphysis.  In 
the  Land  Tortoises,  however,  the  pubes  and  ischia  so 
expand  .ventrally  that  the  obturator  foramen  is  (on  each 
side)  enclosed  by  the  junction  of  the  pubis  and  ischium  of 
either  side  at  their  distal  ends.  Each  pubis  has  ordinarily 
a  downwardly  bent  spinous  process  at  its  anterior  margin, 
and  the  ischium  often  has  a  process  projecting  from  its 
hinder  margin.  The  pubes  are  generally  widely  expanded 
bones,  very  much  larger  than  either  the  ischia  or  the  ilia. 

The  Pectoral  Limb. — The  skeleton  of  this  limb  in  its  full  Pec 
and  normal  differentiation  resembles  in  its  main  features  lini1 
that  of  Mammals;  it  may,  however,  be  simplified  to  a  greater 
extent  than  in  any  other  air-breathing  Vertebrate  class,  and 
this  according  to  two  modes  of  simplification.  Thus  it  may 
be  a  relatively  minute  member  ending  in  what  is  (at  least 
practically)  but  a  single  digit,  as  in  Rhodona?  It  may,  on 
the  contrary,  be  simplified  by  being  made  up  of  parts  all  so 
exceedingly  similar  that  the  typical  differentiation  of  the 
limb  can  be  with  difficulty  traced,  while  the  digital  elements 
seem  to  indicate  more  than  pentadactylism,  as  in  the  extinct 
Ichthyosauri. 

A  peculiar  complexity  and  extreme  differentiation  of  this 
limb,  however,  exists,  as  is  well  known,  in  another  extinct 
group,  the  Pterodactyles,  wherein  the  outermost  or  ulnar 
digit  is  enormously  elongated  so  as  to  support  the  wing 
membrane  as  do  the  four  digits  of  existing  Bats. 

The  following  are  the  main  conditions  of  the  limb  met 
with  in  the  existing  Reptilian  orders.  In  most  Lacertili'i 
there  is  an  elongated  humerus,  the  proximal  end  of  which 
is  compressed  and  furnished  with  two  tuberosities.  Of  the 

2  See  Gray,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii.  335  ;  and  Giinther,  Ann.  end 
Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  1867,  xx.  p.  46. 


SKELETON.] 


KEPTILES 


455 


lower  arm  bones,  the  ulna  is  stronger  than  the  radius,  and 
its  olecranon  forms  a  short  projection.  The  carpus  consists 
of  nine  bones,  one  at  the  end  of  each  loAver  limb,  one  at 
the  base  of  each  metacarpal,  one — the  os  centrale — between 
these  five  and  the  two  at  the  end  of  the  midlimb  bones,  and 
one — the  pisiforme — outside  these  latter  two.  There  are 
five  metacarpals  and  five  digits,  the  latter  composed  of  pha- 
langes, which  for  the  most  part  number  two  for  the  inner- 
most digit  or  pollex,  three  for  the  next  or  index,  four  for  the 
third  digit,  five  for  the  fourth  (generally  the  longest) 
digit,  and  three  for  the  outermost  or  ulnar  digit.  In  the 
Chamaileons  the  five  proximal  carpals  coalesce  with  the 
metacarpals,  and  the  phalanges  are  2,  3,  4,  4,  and  3 
respectively;  the  digits,  moreover,  are  very  exceptionally 
disposed,  the  three  inner  or  radial  digits  being  opposed  to 
the  two  outer  or  ulnar  ones.  The  digits  may  be  but  four 
in  number,  as  in  Saurophis,  GymnopJithalmus,  Tetradactyhis, 
and  others ;  or  but  three,  as  in  Chalcis,  Seps,  and  others ;  or 
but  two,  as  in  Ileteromeles,  Chelomeles,  and  others;  or,  finally, 
but  one,  as  in  Rhodona,  &c.,  as  we  have  already  seen.  The 
limb  may  be  entirely  wanting,  as  in  Pygopus,  Delma,  Lialis, 
Anguis,  Acontias,  and  others. 

In  the  Oplddia  the  pectoral  limb  is  entirely  absent,  not 
even  a  rudiment  of  it  being  found. 

In  Hatteria  the  limb  is  Lacertilian  in  form  but  has  ten 
carpals. 

The  Crocodilia  have  the  long  limb  bones  well  developed. 
The  carpus  has  two  large  long  ossicles  articulated  with  the 
radius  and  ulna  respectively,  and  a  pisiforme;  and  an  oblong 
bone  and  disk  of  cartilage  lie  between  the  large  carpals 
and  the  five  metacarpals.  The  third  digit  is  the  longest, 
and  the  number  of  phalanges  of  the  digit  from  within  out- 
wards (as  before)  is  2,  3,  4,  4,  3. 

In  the  Chelonia  the  humerus  may  be  nearly  straight,  as 
in  Chelone,  or  very  much  curved,  as  in  Testudo.  The 
radius  and  ulna,  which,  though  susceptible  of  very  little 
motion,  are  generally  distinct,  may  become  anchylosed  to- 
gether towards  their  distal  ends,  as  in  Chelone.  The  carpus 
has  generally  nine  ossicles.  The  pisiforme  may  be  very 
large,  as  in  Chelone.  There  are  always  five  digits,  which 
• — both  their  metacarpals  and  phalanges — may  be  very  long, 
as  in  Chelone,  or  exceedingly  short,  as  in  Testudo.  The 
number  of  the  phalanges  may  be  but  two  to  each  digit,  as 
in  Testudo,  but  generally  it  is  2,  3,  3,  3,  2,  from  pollex  to 
the  ulnar  digit. 

Fdc  The  Pelvic  Limb. — The  skeleton  of  this  limb,  like  that 
1'k  of  the  pectoral  one,  is  in  its  main  features  normally  con- 
ditioned as  is  that  of  Mammals,  save  as  to  the  mobility  of 
the  tarsus,  as  will  be  shortly  explained.  It  may,  however, 
be  simplified  in  two  ways  like  the  pectoral  limb — namely, 
by  the  great  similarity  and  want  of  differentiation  of  its 
numerous  parts,  as  in  Ichthyosaurus,  or  by  excessive  redac- 
tion in  the  number  of  its  parts,  as  in  certain  Ophidians, 
and  in  Saurians  such  as  Pseudopus  and  Lialis. 

Its  resemblance  to  the  pectoral  limb,  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  so  exceedingly  close  in  Ichthyosaurus  and  Plesio- 
saurus,  may  be,  in  other  conditions,  hardly  less  complete 
in  some  Chelonians,  such,  e.g.,  as  Chelydra.  When  all 
four  limbs  are  fairly  developed,  the  pelvic  ones  are  in  no 
existing  forms  so  inferior  in  size  to  the  pelvic  ones  as  in 
the  extinct  Ornithosauria,  or  so  superior  in  size  to  the 
latter  as  in  some  of  the  extinct  Dinosauria,  as,  e.g.,  in 
Compsognathus. 

Amongst  existing  Reptiles  the  Lacertilians  present  us 
with  very  varied  conditions.  Generally  there  is  an  elon- 
gated femur  furnished  proximally  with  a  trochanter  on  its 
inner  side.  Of  the  lower  limb  bones  the  tibia  is  larger 
than  the  fibula.  A  knee-pan  bone,  or  patella,  is  placed  in 
front  of  the  junction  of  the  upper  and  lower  limb  bones. 
The  tarsus  consists  of  a  proximal  segment  made  up  of 


two  large  ossicles  more  or  less  firmly  and  immovably 
united  by  fibrous  tissue  to  the  tibia  and  fibula  and  of  a 
distal  segment,  which  consists  of  a  cuboid  bone  and  which 
is  capable  of  motion  upon  the  proximal  segment,  while 
it  is  firmly  connected  with  the  five  metatarsals.  Thus 
the  flexion  of  the  foot  upon  the  leg  takes  place,  not  as  in 
Mammals  between  the  whole  tarsus  and  the  leg-bone,  but 
between  the  distal  and  proximal  segments  of  the  tarsus 
itself.  The  outermost  or  peroneal  metatarsal  is  more  or 
less  bent  toward  its  proximal  end.  The  fourth  digit  is 
the  longest,  and  the  number  of  the  phalanges  of  the 
digits,  from  within  outwards,  is  2,  3,  4,  5,  4.  In  the 
Chamseleons  the  distal  tarsals  coalesce  with  the  ineta- 
tarsals,  and  two  inner  or  tibial  digits  are  opposed  to  the 
three  outer  or  peroneal  ones.  The  foot  may  nave  but  four 
digits,  as  in  Campsodactylus,  Tetradactylus,  and  others  ;  or 
but  three  digits,  as  in  Se]ist  Heteromeles,  and  others ;  or 
only  two,  as  in  Chelomeles,  Rhodona,  and  others ;  or  but  a 
single  one,  as  in  Chalcis.  There  may  be  but  a  very  small 
and  slender  femur,  to  which  a  still  smaller  tibia  unites  a 
rudiment  of  a  tarsal  ossicle  at  its  distal  end,  as  in  Lialis, 
or  but  a  rudiment  of  a  femur  and  tibia  only,  as  in  Pseudo- 
pus;  or  the  limb  may  be  entirely  wanting,  as  in  Anguis, 
Acontias,  Chirotes,  Amphisbsena,  and  Lepidosternon. 

In  the  Ophidia  the  limb  is  generally  wanting,  and  there 
is  never  any  rudiment  of  the  tarsus  or  digits,  but  there 
may  be  a  rudiment  of  a  femur,  as  in  Stenostoma,  or  of  a 
tibia  as  well  as  a  femur,  the  tibia  ending  in  a  hooked  pro- 
cess, as  in  Cylindrophis,  Ilysia,  and  Boa. 

In  Hatteria  the  limb  is  as  it  normally  is  in  Lacertilians. 

In  the  Crocodilia  there  is  a  well-developed  femur,  and 
also  a  tibia  and  a  fibula.  The  tarsus  has  two  proximal  bones 
(less  closely  united  than  in  Lizards),  whereof  that  adjoining 
the  fibula  has  a  large  calcaneal  process.  The  distal  seg- 
ment of  the  tarsus  consists  of  two  rounded  ossicles  on  the 
peroneal  side  and  a  thin  plate  of  cartilage  on  the  tibial 
side.  There  are  four  long  tibial  metatarsals  supporting 
digits  and  a  rudimentary  fifth  one  to  which  no  rudiment 
of  a  digit  is  attached.  Of  the  four  digits  the  third  is 
generally  the  longest,  and,  like  the  fourth  digit,  has  four 
phalanges.  The  second  digit  has  three,  and  the  inner- 
most, or  hallux,  but  two. 

In  Chelonians  the  femur  has  a  strong,  rounded  articular 
head,  which  forms  a  marked  angle  with  the  body  of  the  bone. 
Sometimes,  as  in  Emys  and  Trionyx,  there  are  two  troch- 
anters  separated  by  a  groove.  The  lower  limb  bones  are 
always  distinct.  They  are  longest  in  the  Land  Tortoises, 
and  shortest  in  the  Marine  Turtles.  There  is  no  patella. 
The  tarsal  bones  vary  by  coalescence  from  eight  to  six  in 
number.  They  are  exceptionally  flattened  in  Chelone. 
In  Testudo  the  metatarsals  are  short,  but  are  longer  than 
are  the  metacarpals,  whereas  the  reverse  is  the  case  in 
Chelone.  There  are  always  five  digits,  except  in  Testudo, 
where  the  fifth  is  only  represented  by  a  rudimentary 
metatarsal.  The  metatarsals  are  shortest, in  Testudo  and 
its  allies,  though  they  are  not  so  short  as  are  the  digits  of 
the  hand.  They  are  longest  in  the  aquatic  forms,  though 
they  are  not  so  long  in  Chelone  as  are  the  digits  of  its 
hand.  The  number  of  phalanges,  counting  from  within 
outwards,  may  be  2,  2,  2,  2,  as  in  Testudo,  or  2,  3  3  3, 
2,  as  in  Trionyx,  or  2,  3,  3,  3,  3,  as  in  CJielone. 

Myology. 

The  muscles  of  four-footed  Reptiles  other  than  the  Muscles. 
Chelonians  are  arranged  in  a  general  way  on  the  same 
fundamental  plan  as  in  the  Mammals,  though  the  deter- 
mination of  the  true  homology  of  many  of  them  is  more  or 
less  difficult  if  not  impossible  now  to  determine.  The 
muscular  masses  are  thus  arranged  in  a  similar  longitudinal 
manner  on  the  dorsum  of  the  trunk,  and  expand  into  large 


456 


REPTILES 


[ANATOMY. 


continuous  horizontal  sheets  of  fibres  in  the  ventral  region, 
while  for  a  greater  or  less  extent  longitudinal  bundles  of 
fibres  underlie  the  vertebral  bodies  in  different  parts  of  the 
neck  and  trunk,  and  prolongations  backwards  of  the  dorsal 
and  ventral  muscles  clothe  the  skeleton  of  the  caudal 
region.  Muscles  like  the  temporal,  masseter,  pterygoid, 
and  digastric  of  Mammals  help  to  open  and  shut  the  jaws 
of  Reptiles.  Others  descend  from  the  dorsal  region  of  the 
spine  to  the  pectoral  and  pelvic  girdles  and  to  the  limb 
bones,  which  latter  are  furnished  with  flexors  and  exten- 
sors, abductors  and  adductors,  in  essentially  the  same  way 
as  are  the  limbs  of  birds. 

There  are  two  special  deviations  from  this  more  normal 
type  of  structure.  We  find  one  of  these  in  the  Serpents, 
which,  being  limbless  and  without  a  neck,  and  requiring 
an  extraordinary  mobility  in  the  parts  of  the  axial  skele- 
ton, have  the  muscles  which  clothe  the  trunk  raised  to 
their  highest  degree  of  multiplication  and  differentiation. 
The  other  exceptional  type  is  furnished  us  by  the 
Chelonians,  which,  having  a  perfectly  rigid  body  and  long 
neck  and  limbs  singularly  situated,  have  the  muscles  of  the 
trunk  atrophied  to  an  extreme  degree,  the  neck  richly 
supplied  with  muscles,  and  also  the  limbs,  while  the  limb 
muscles  are  so  strangely  different,  in  either  origin  or  inser- 
tion, from  those  of  other  animals  that  their  true  nature 
and  correct  designations  do  not  ssem  as  yet  to  admit  of 
precise  and  accurate  determination. 

luscles  The  Muscles  of  the  Trunk  and  Tail. — In  Saurians  the  caudal 
f  trunk  muscles  often  take  the  form  of  a  series  of  hollow  cones  successively 
ad  tail;  enclosed  one  within  the  other,  while  their  continuations  forward 
in  the  trunk  become  the  longissirnus  dorsi,  sacro-lumbalis,  spinalis, 
levatores  costarum,  and  the  other  muscles  familiar  to  anatomists. 
Subvertebral  continuations  form  muscles  which  proceed  from  the 
vertebral  bodies  to  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  ribs,  which  they  tend 
to  pull  back — retrahentes  costarum — and  further  forwards,  such 
muscles  as  answer  to  the  longus  colli,  rectus  capitis,  &c.,  of 
Mammals.  Ventral  muscles  take  the  form  of  the  two  obliques 
and  transversalis,  but  the  differentiation  may  be  greater  than  in 
Mammals,  as  e.g.,  in  Iguana,  where  the  obliquus  externus  consists 
of  three  distinct  layers.  Tendinous  or  harder  structures  may 
produce  a  segmentation  in  the  abdominal  muscles,  which,  under 
special  names,  are  prolonged  to  the  hyoidian  cornua  and  mandible. 
In  Serpents  the  dorsal  muscles  are  essentially  the  same  as  in 
Lizards,  but  are  more  developed,  while  small  superficial  muscles 
run  from  the  ribs  to  the  inside  of  the  abdominal  shields  which  are 
agents  of  locomotion.  The  limbless  Serpent  is  practically  some- 
what like  a  Centipede,  and  moves  by  the  successive  protrusion  and 
retraction  of  each  pair  of  ribs,  which  serve  as  two  feet.  For  each 
pair  is  attached  to  a  ventral  shield  the  edge  of  which  is  applied  to 
and  removed  from  the  ground  by  the  ribs  attached  to  it,  according 
as  these  are  protruded  or  retracted — the  shields  thus  serving  as  a 
number  of  small  levers  to  propel  the  body  along.  The  subvertebral 
muscle  may  also  be  very  largely  developed,  as  in  Naja  and  Crotalus, 
the  long  hypapophyses  of  which  have  been  already  noted,  and  which 
serve  for  the  attachment  of  such  muscles.  By  their  contraction 
the  force  of  the  downward  flow  of  the  poison  fangs  is  greatly 
increased.  That  subvertebral  series  already  mentioned  as  the 
retrahentes  costarum  is  very  extensively  developed  in  the  Ophidia. 
In  the  Crocodtliathe  arrangement  is  substantially  as  in  Saurians, 
but  the  so-called  abdominal  ribs  induce  certain  differences.  Some 
muscles  lie  above,  some  below,  and  some  between  these  "ribs." 
Subvertebral  muscles  extend  beneath  the  cervical  and  anterior 
dorsal  vertebrae,  and  farther  back  there  are  retrahentes  costarum. 

Hattcria  has  special  muscles  inserted  into  the  distal  expansions 
of  its  ribs,  which  may  sometimes  aid  its  motions  in  a  very 'subordi- 
nate degree,  as  those  of  Serpents  are  so  helped  in  the  highest 
degree.1 

In  the  Chelonians  the  dorsal  muscles  are  well  developed  in  the 
neck  and  tail.  Bifold  muscles  pass  from  within  the  hindmost 
lateral  plates  of  the  carapace  to  the  dorsum  of  the  caudal  vertebrae. 
Other  muscles  extend  between  the  articular  and  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  the  caudal  vertebrae.  Dorsal  muscles  are  entirely  wanting 
in  the  thorax  of  Tcstudo,  but  in  JSmys  and  Chclj/dra  a  longitudinal 
muscle  lies  upon  the  transverse  processes  of  the  trunk  vertebrae. 
In  the  neck  there  are  a  number  of  muscles  extending  with  various 
degrees  of  complexity  between  the  transverse  ami  articular  pro- 
cesses. The  neck  is  retracted  partly  by  a  muscle  passing  from  it 
to  the  procoracoid  and  partly  by  a  long  muscle  passing  to  the 

1  See  Phil.  Trans.,  pt.  ii.  for  1867,  p.  17. 


head  and  neck  from  a  greater  or  less  number  of  the  spines  and 
neural  arches  of  the  more  posterior  trunk  vertebra1.  Pyramidal 
muscles  pass  from  the  pelvis  to  the  plastron,  and  oblique  muscles 
arise  from  inside  the  costal  marginal  plates  of  the  carapace  anil 
pass  to  the  pelvis  and  plastron,  and  a  transversalis  extends  from 
within  the  costal  plates  and  also  passes  to  the  plastron.  A  dia- 
phragm springs  from  the  bodies  of  certain  dorsal  vertebrae  and 
one  or  more  ribs,  and  invests  the  surface  of  the  lungs. 

The  Muscles  of  the  Head. — In  ordinary  Saurians,  the  temporal  of  he;.  ; 
muscle  is  embraced  by  the  upper  (in  them  the  only)  zygomatic 
arch,  and  descends  from  the  side  of  the  head  to  the  coronoid  process 
of  the  mandible.  The  masseter  takes  origin  from  the  quadrate  and 
coluiuella.  Of  the  two  pterygoid  muscles  one  arises  from  the  uppr.r 
surface  of  the  pterygoid  bone  and  the  other  from  the  os  transversum. 
The  digastric  descends  from  the  hinder  part  of  the  cranium  to  the 
posterior  end  of  the  mandible. 

In  the  Ophidia  the  muscular  apparatus  is  much  more  complex, 
as  might  be  predicted  from  the  great  mobility  of  their  jaws.  There 
are  on  each  side  three  elevators  and  several  depressors  of  the  lower 
jaw,  and  sometimes,  as,  e.g.,  in  Trigonoccphalus,  a  muscular  belly 
connected  with  one  of  the  elevators  is  so  arranged  as  to  be  able  to 
compress  the  poison  gland.  In  poisonous  Serpents  also  a  tendon 
goes  from  the  external  pterygoid  to  the  short  maxilla,  so  that  the 
latter  can  be  erected  by  its  intervention.  The  suspensorium  is 
drawn  upwards  and  backwards  by  a  muscle  arising  from  the  neural 
spines  of  the  anterior  trunk  vertebrae,  and  downwards  and  forwards 
by  another  arising  from  the  basisphenoid.  Four  other  muscles  oil 
either  side  of  the  head  are  devoted  to  moving  the  palatine  apparatus. 

The   Crocodilia  have   a   temporalis,    an  internal   and   external 

Eterygoid,  and  a  digastric.     There  are  also  a  pair  of  sternomandi- 
ular  muscles,  and  of  hyomandibulars  (from   the  cornua  of  the 
hyoid),  a  pair  of  genioglossi,  and  a  superficial  mylohyoid. 

The  Chclonia  have  only  an  internal  pterygoid,  besides  the  temporal 
and  digastric.  But  they  have  also  a  geniohyoid  and  genioglossus 
as  well  as  a  mylohyoid. 

The  Muscles  of  the  Pectoral  Girdle  and  Limb. — In   ordinary  of  pe 
Saurians  and  in   Crocodiles  the  scapula  is  drawn  forwards   and  toral 
upwards  by  a  trapezius  and  levator,  and  there  are  also  a  serratus  girdle 
magnus  and  a  sternoscapular  muscle,   a  cleidomastoid  or  sterno-  and 
mastoid,    and    generally    an    omohyoid.       In   the    Chclonia    the  lira 
shoulder-girdle  muscles   are   very  reduced   and   peculiar,  and   no 
muscle  draws  it  towards  the  skull,  but  a  muscle  arises  from  the 
sides  of  the   cervical  vertebrae   and   is  inserted  into  the  scapula. 
Another  (smaller)  passes   from  the  second  dorsal  transverse  pro- 
cess and   the   part  of  the  carapace   therewith  connected   to  the 
scapula,  which  it  draws  backwards.     Another  muscle  goes  from  the 
coracoid  to  the  hyoid,  and  yet  another — a  sort  of  sternomastoid — 
from  the  plastron  to  the  skull. 

Lacertilians  have  an  ordinary  pectoralis  and  generally  a  subjacent 
small  muscle  passing  from  the  coracoid  to  the  great  tuberosity  of 
the  humerus.  There  is  a  latissimus  dorsi  going  to  the  lesser 
tuberosity  and  a  large  subscapularis.  A  triceps  ends  by  a  tendon 
inserted  into  the  olecranon,  often  containing  an  ossicle  analogous 
to  a  patella.  There  is  also  a  biceps,  coracobrachialis  and  brachialis, 
anticus,  with  other  Mammalian  muscles,  flexors,  and  extensors  of 
the  digits,  with  even  lumbricnl  muscles,  but  not  with  that  perfect 
arrangement  of  perforating  and  perforated  tendons  which  character- 
izes the  highest  class. 

The  muscles  of  the  pectoral  limb  of  Crocodiles,  though  showing 
many  minor  differences  from  those  of  Saurians,  yet  present  a 
fundamental  general  resemblance  to  the  latter. 

It  is  otherwise  with  Chelonians.  In  them  the  pectoralis  major 
is  represented  by  two  muscles,  one  a  muscle  extending  from  tlie 
median  plastron  plate  and  external  border  of  the  carapace  to  the 
inner  of  the  two  tubcrosities  of  the  humerus,  and  another  muscle 
inserted  beside  the  former  and  taking  rise  from  the  most  anterior 
plate  of  the  plastron.  There  is  also  a  superior  pectoralis,  which 
arises  from  the  coracoid  and  coracoacromial  ligaments,  and  which 
is  partly  inserted  into  the  same  tubcrosity  and  partly  extends 
beyond  it.  There  are  also  a  coracobrachialis  and  a  deltoid,  but  no 
snprascapular.  All  the  muscles  which  arise  from  the  scapula  are 
inserted  into  the  external  tuberosity  of  the  humerus.  There  is  a 
muscle  which  represents  the  latissimus  dorsi.  It  arises  beneath 
the  most  anterior  plate  of  the  carapace,  and  is  inserted  into  the 
external  tuberosity.  The  muscles  of  the  forearm  and  extremity 
are  less  exceptional. 

Muscles  of  the  Pelvic  Girdle  and  Limb.  — In  Lacertilians  there  are  of 
several  hind-lirnb  muscles  which  have  a  subcaudal  origin;  some  of  gii 
these  end  at  the  thigh,  while  others  extend  to  the  feet.     There  arc  and 
numerous  flexors  of  the  leg.     A  powerful  muscle  arises  beneath  the  liml 
tail,  and  is  inserted  by  a  broad  tendon  into  the  femur.     From  the 
inferior   margin   of  that  tendon   another  slender  tendon   arises, 
sometimes  ending  (as,  e.g.,  in  Iguana)  in  the  interarticular  cartilage 
of  the  knee-joint.     The  muscles  of  the  thigh,  leg,  and  foot  have  a 
general  similarity  to  those  of  Mammals  generally,  as  have  those  of 
the  arm  and  hand,  but  those  which  represent  the  ham-string  muscles 
have  generally  much  complexity  and  intricacy  of  arrangement  of 


MUSCLES.] 


REPTILES 


457 


their   tendons  and  much  connexion  with   other  muscles  in  the 
popliteal  space. 

The  Crocodilia  have  an  adductor  femoris,  which  arises  from  beneath 
the  transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar  region  and  is  inserted  by  a 
broad  tendon  into  the  femur.  An  iliacus  arises  from  the  inner 
side  of  the  ilium  and  ischium,  and  goes  to  the  inner  side  of  the 
femur.  Several  adductors  proceed  to  the  femur  from  the  ischium. 
A  long  muscle  arises  from  the  chevron  bones  and  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  the  anterior  third  of  the  tail,  and  is  inserted  by  a  strong 
tendon  into  the  trochanter  ;  thence  descends  another  tendon  along 
the  flexor  side  of  the  femur  to  join  the  tendon  of  origin  of  the 
gastrocnemius,  which  springs  from  the  external  condyle. 

The  Chelonia  possess  an  abductor  femoris,  which  passes  from 
beneath  the  transverse  processes  of  the  thoracic  vertebrae,  and  also  a 
sort  of  psoas  extending  from  their  transverse  processes  to  the  ilium. 
Another  muscle  goes  from  the  hindmost  thoracic  transverse  processes 
to  the  femur.  A  muscle,  attrahens  pelvim,  arises  from  within  the 
plastron  and  goes  to  the  outer  process  of  the  pubis.  Another  muscle 
which  antagonizes  this,  the  retrahens  pelvim,  springs  from  the 
hindermost  part  of  the  plastron  and  goes  to  the  pubis.  Other 
retractors  pass  from  the  caudal  chevron  bones  to  the  front  border  of 
the  obturator  foramen,  and  another  muscle  with  a  similar  origin  is 
inserted  into  the  ischial  symphysis.  The  muscles  of  the  more 
distal  part  of  the  limb  are  less  peculiar,  and  need  not  be  described 
here.  ^ 

The  Alimentary  System. 

All  Reptiles  agree  in  having  an  alimentary  tract  which 
begins  with  jaws  armed  mostly  with  teeth,  rarely  with  horny 
sheaths,  but  never  in  existing  Reptiles  with  both,  though  (as 
has  been  elsewhere  described)  such  a  combination  is  found  in 
some  fossil  forms.  Moreover,  teeth  are  mostly  found  not 
only  at  the  margins  of  the  jaws  but  also  on  the  palate. 

Almost  always  there  is  a  tongue,  and  glandular  structures 
around  the  mouth  pour  their  secretion  into  that  cavity, 
which  communicates,  by  tubular  prolongation,  with  the  ears, 
the  eyes,  and  the  nostrils.  The  mouth  opens  posteriorly 
into  the  commencement  of  a  more  or  less  prolonged  ali- 
mentary canal,  the  anterior  part  of  which  is  not,  while  the 
greater  and  less  posterior  part  is,  embraced  by  the  peri- 
toneum. At  its  hinder  end  this  canal  opens  into  a  chamber 
called  the  cloaca,  into  which  the  urinary  and  generative 
ducts  also  open,  and  which  itself  opens  beneath  the  hinder 
part  of  the  trunk  by  a  roundish  longitudinal  or  transversely 
extended  aperture.  Two  accessory  glands  aid  digestion 
by  the  products  they  pour  into  the  canal.  These  are  the 
pancreas  and  the  liver,  and  the  latter  is  always  provided 
with  a  gall-bladder.  A  spleen  is  also  always  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  stomach  or  specially  digestive  dilatation  of 
the  alimentary  canal  towards  its  anterior  end  and  separated 
from  the  mouth  only  by  the  oesophagus. 

Oplii-       The  several  main  groups  of  existing  Reptiles  present  the 
ins  >     following  characters  : — 

The  Ophulia  all  possess  teeth,  mostly  well  developed  and 
anchylosed  to  the  bones  which  support  them.  By  rare  excep- 
tion, as  in  DasypeUis  scaber,  the  teeth  may  be  quite  minute, — the 
hypapophyses  of  the  anterior  trunk  vertebra  penetrating  the  dorsal 
wall  of  the  alimentary  canal  and  being  tipped  with  tooth  substance, 
and  taking  the  place  of  teeth,  as  already  mentioned  in  describ- 
ing the  axial  skeleton.  Teeth  generally  exist  on  the  palatines  and 
pterygoids  as  well  as  on  the  maxillse  and  mandible,  and  in  Python 
and  Tortrix  in  the  premaxilla.  They  may  bo  absent  from  the 
palate,  as  in  Uropdtis.  But  the  various  conditions  as  to  the  dis- 
position of  the  teeth  have  already  been  given  in  the  systematic  part 
of  this  article. 

In  the  majority  of  Serpents  the  teeth  are  solid  or  have  but  their 
pulp  cavity,  but  in  some  harmless  ones  one  or  more  of  the  hind- 
most teeth  which  are  set  on  the  maxilla  are  longitudinally  grooved 
along  their  convex  side.  In  poisonous  Serpents  each  maxilla 
supports  a  poison  fang  or  tooth  so  deeply  grooved  that  the  margins 
of  the  groove  meet  and  so  convert  the  grooved  tract  into  a  canal, 
down  which  the  duct  of  a  poison  gland  passes.  This  fang  may  be 
the  only  functional  maxillary  tooth,  as  in  Crotalus  and  Vipera,  or 
there  may  be  other  teeth  behind  it,  also  grooved,  as  in  Naja,  or 
entire,  as  in  Bungarus.  Almost  all  Ophidians  have  a  row  of  small 
labial  salivary  glands  along  either  margin  of  each  jaw,  their  secretion 
escaping  into  the  mouth  by  numerous  small  apertures.  In  addition 
to  this,  some  apparently  innocuous  snakes  with  grooved  teeth  have 
an  additional  glandular  mass  connected  with  the  upper  labial  gland 
and  pouring  its  secretion  by  a  duct  into  the  dental  groove.  The 
truly  poisonous  Serpents  possess  a  gland  placed  above  the  maxilla 


and  os  transversum  and  beneath  and  behind  the  ball  of  the  eye,  and 
of  different  size  and  extent  in  different  genera.  In  Naja  it  may 
extend  for  about  one-sixth  the  length  of  the  body,  but  in  Callaphis 1 
it  may  be  yet  greater  and  extend  throughout  nearly  half  the  length 
of  the  entire  body  of  the  animal.  The  poison  gland  has  a  fibrous 
investment,  which  is  often  contractile  from  the  presence  in  it  of 
muscular  fibres,  and  often  jaw  muscles  are  so  arranged  (as  already 
mentioned)  as  to  exert  pressure  on  the  gland  by  their  contraction. 
A  nasal  gland  and  a  lachrymal  gland  also  convey  their  secretion 
into  the  mouth. 

The  tongue  is  long,  bifurcated  anteriorly,  and  extremely  mobile, 
being  capable  of  protrusion  from  and  retraction  into  a  membranous 
sheath,  placed  on  the  floor  of  the  mouth  beneath  the  ventral  wall 
of  the  larynx. 

The  oesophagus  is  long.  The  stomach  begins  by  a  well-defined 
limit  beside  the  liver,  and  may  or  may  not  form  a  curve,  but  is  always 
simple.  A  valve  at  its  pyloric  end  marks  the  commencement  of  the 
duodenum.  The  small  intestine  varies  much  as  to  the  number  of 
its  convolutions,  which  are  connected  by  bands  of  fibrous  tissue  and 
are  not  followed  by  foldings  of  the  mesentery.  A  circular  protuber- 
ance generally  marks  its  junction  with  the  shorter  large  intestine, 
and  sometimes  there  is  a  caicum,  as  in  Typhlops,  2'ortrix,  Python, 
and  others.  The  large  intestine  may  be  simple,  and  its  internal 
cavity  may  be  augmented  by  valves  or  partial  partitions.  The  cloaca 
opens  externally  by  a  transverse  aperture.  The  liver  is  not  sub- 
divided into  conspicuous  lobes.  The  gall-bladder  lies  separate  from 
the  liver  and  posterior  to  it.  The  ductus  choledochus  passes 
through  the  pancreas,  which  lies  behind  the  pylorus  at  the  right 
side  of  the  duodenum  and  is  pyramidal  (or  rounded),  or  compact, 
or  in  separate  parts,  as  in  Hydrophis.  The  spleen  lies  immediately 
behind  the  pancreas.  It  is  rounded,  small,  and  generally  entire, 
not  lobed. 

The  Lacertilia  all  possess  teeth  along  the  margins  of  the  jaws  in  Lacei 
and  very  often  in  the  palatines  also ;  but  it  is  only  by  rare  tilians  ; 
exception,  as,  e.g.,  in  Iguana,  that  the  pterygoids  bear  teeth.  In 
the  Chamseleons  the  teeth  are  very  rudimentary,  little  more  than 
an  enamelled  dentated  ridge  on  the  margin  of  either  jaw.  The 
teeth  of  most  Saurians  are  either  acrodont,  i.e.,  anchylosed  to  the 
free  margins  of  the  jaws  (as,  e.g.,  in  Psammosaurus),  or  pleuro- 
dont,  i.e.,  anchylosed  to  the  inner  side  of  the  jaws,  their  crowns 
projecting  above  the  margin  (as,  e.g.,  in  Iguana).  Generally  more 
or  less  conical,  the  teeth  may  be  acutely  pointed,  or  extremely 
obtuse,  as  the  hinder  teeth  of  Cydodus.  Sometimes,  as,  e.g. ,  in 
Iguana,  the  teeth  may  be  compressed  with  a  median  external 
vertical  ridge  and  a  serrated  margin.  By  rare  exception,  as,  e.g., 
in  Chlamydosaurus,  the  teetli  of  either  jaw  may  be  much  dif- 
ferentiated. Here  we  have  a  simulation,  or  anticipation,  of  that 
division  of  the  teeth  into  incisors,  canines,  and  molars  which  is 
so  general  in  the  class  Mammalia. 2  In  the  genus  Heloderma  the 
teeth  are  vertically  grooved  so  as  to  remind  us  of  their  structure 
in  Serpents.  The  teeth  indeed  are  more  grooved  than  in  them,  for 
one  vertical  groove  passes  down  on  the  antero-inner  side  and 
another  on  the  postero-outer  side  of  each  tooth.  Labial  salivary 
glands  generally  exist,  but  are  small.  In  Hdodcrma,  however,  and 
in  no  other  known  Lizard,  there  is  a  very  large  salivary  gland  on 
either  side  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  quality  of  its  saliva  is  distinctly 
poisonous,  small  animals  bitten  by  Heloderma  in  our  zoological 
gardens  dying  as  if  bitten  by  a  venomous  Serpent.  No  other  such 
case  is  known  to  exist  amongst  the  Lacertilia. 

The  tongue  presents  a  number  of  variations  of  form  which  have 
been  already  referred  to  as  diagnostic  characters  in  the  systematic 
part  of  this  article.  It  will  suffice  here  to  remind  the  reader  that 
it  may  be  broad  and  fiat  without  any  sheath,  and  with  a  pair  of 
anterior  and  of  posterior  processes,  as  in  Arnphisbsena  ;  or  short, 
broad,  and  slightly  notched  in  front,  as  in  Gecko  ;  or  short  with  a 
slight  bifurcation  in  front  and  two  long  processes  behind,  as  in 
CJialcis ;  or  with  a  sheath,  and  much  like  that  of  Serpents,  as  in 
Psammosaurus ;  or  cylindrical  and  wonderfully  extensile,  as  in 
Chameeleo. 

The  oesophagus  passes  into  a  stomach,  which  is  generally  elon- 
gated and  curved.  The  small  intestine  may  be  hardly  at  all 
convoluted  (as  in  Amphisbasna)  or  very  much  so,  but  if  so  the 
mesentery  here  follows  its  folds.  Similarly  the  large  intestine  may 
be  short  and  straight,  or  long  and  with  internal  folds.  There  may 
be  a  caecum,  as,  e.g.,  in  AmphisbtKna  and  some  Chamaeleons.  The 
cloaca  opens  externally  by  a  transverse  aperture. 

The  liver  is  but  little  lobed,  and  its  gall-bladder  lies  in  a  fissure 
on  its  left  side.  The  pancreas  and  spleen  usually  lie  between  the 
folds  of  the  mesentery  at  the  junction  of  the  small  intestine  with 
the  stomach.  There  is  generally  a  pair  of  anal  glands. 

In  Hatteria  the  large  teeth  in  the  premaxillse  become  completely  in  Hat- 
anchylosed  with  those  bones,  reminding  us  of  the  extinct  JRhyncho-  teria  ; 
saurus  and  Hyperodapedon.     Most  of  the  teeth  which  lie  along  the 

1  See  A.  B.  Meyer,  Monatsb.  der  Akad.  d.  Wissen.  z.  Berlin,  1869. 

2  This  fact  thus  affords  an  interesting  illustration  of  the  independent 
origin  of  similar  structures. 

XX.  —  58 


458 


REPTILES 


, 

[ANATOMY. 


margin  of  the  jaws  ami  the  palatines  soon  wear  down  to  form  mere 
enamelled  cutting  edges  to  the  bones,  with  which  they  become 
immediately  anchylosed.  The  extinct  Dicynodonts,  with  their  large 


iliaus 


FIG.  26. — Skull  of  Chlamydosawus  kingii  (old  male,  from  nature),  showing  jnucli 
differentiated  teeth.  1,  ventral  aspect;  2,  posterior;  3,  profile,  showing  the 
enormous  process  at  the  hinder  end  of  Hie  lower  jaw. 

canine-like  teeth,  growing  from  permanent  pulps,  behind  the 
edentulous  beak-like  front  part  of  the  mouth,  and  those  Ornitho- 
sauria  which  similarly  have  an  edentulous  beak  in  front  of  the 
toothed  parts  of  their  jaws,  may  but  have 
carried  out  further  and  more  completely 
that  process  of  tooth  reduction  which  we 
find  to  be  effected  with  age  in  Hatteria. 
The  liver  consists  of  two  lateral  lobes. 
There  is  a  pair  of  anal  glands. 
a  Croco-  The  Crocodilia  have  teeth  in  the  max- 
illae, premaxillre,  and  mandible,  but  none 
in  the  palatines  or  pterygoids.  They  are 
implanted  in  distinct  alveoli.  The  tongue 
is  so  flat  and  closely  attached  to  the  floor 
of  the  mouth  that  it  can  hardly  be  con-  Fin  l7--Tw° 
sidered  as  having  a  distinct  existence.  A  to°'h  °f  fle'°derma 
transverse  fold  of  membrane  extends  along 
its  hinder  border  and  another  similar  fold 
descends  in  front  of  the  posterior  nares. 
There  are  no  salivary  glands. 

The  oesophagus  is  wide,  and  the  stomach 

nearly  circular  and  gizzard-like,  having  thick  muscular  walls  formed 
of  fibres  radiating  from  central  tendons.  The  small  intestine  con- 
sists of  two  parts,— an  anterior  part  much  convoluted,  thin-walled, 
and  lined  with  villi,  which  is  succeeded  by  a  thicker-walled  part 
with  internal  zig-zag  folds.  There  is  no  caecum,  but  a  circular  pro- 
minence marks  the  commencement  of  the  large  intestine,  which  is 
short  and  wide  with  a  smooth  lining.  It  is  funnel-shaped,  and 
opens  by  a  very  narrow  aperture  into  a  very  elongated  cloaca,  the 
external  opening  of  which  is  rather  longitudinal. 

The  liver,  like  that  of  Hatteria,  is  in  two  lobes,  and  the  gall- 
bladder is  beside  the  right  lobe.     The  spleen   lies  behind  the 


ridum  (after  Bocourt).  1, 
antcro-internal  aspect  of  the 
tooth,  showing  a  very  deep 
longitudinal  groove ;  2,  pos- 
tero-extemal  aspect  of  the 
masc  tooth,  showing  a  very 
faint  longitudinal  groove. 


pancreas  between  the  folds  of  the  duodenum.     The  various  vi 
of  the  abdominal  cavity  lie,  as  in  Birds,  in  separate  serous  sacs.1 

In  the  Chclonia  there  are  horny  sheaths  to  the  jaws  but  no  teeth,  in  C1n 
though   numerous   rudiments  of  teeth   have  been  found   in    the  Ionian 
embryo  of  Trionyx*      The  tongue  is  not  extensible,  but  is  differ- 
ently conditioned  in  different  genera.     There  appears  to  be  only  a 
sublingual  salivary  gland,  though  the  palate  of  the  Land  T<>! 
exhibits  the  apertures  of  numerous  cutaneous  follicles. 

The  oesophagus  leads  to  the  left  part  of  the  transversely  placed 
stomach.  The  extent  of  both  the  small  and  the  large  intestine 
varies;  the  latter  is  at  its  shortest  in  Trionyx.  The  cloaca  opens 
externally  by  a  somewhat  rounded  aperture. 

The  liver  is  mostly  large,  and  in  two  lobes  connected  by  one  or 
more  transverse  bands  of  its  substance.  The  gall-bladder  lies  on 
its  right  and  may  be  sunk  within  its  substance.  The  pancreas  has 
often  several  excretory  ducts,  and  the  spleen  is  generally  of  large 
size. 

The  Respiratory  System. 

All  the  Keptilia  breathe  air  from  the  first  moment  of  Rrspj 
their  separate  existence,    and  are  never  furnished   with™torj 
anything  in  the  shape  of  gills.     The  apparatus  by  which  systet 
their  respiration  is  effected  is  always  a  pair  pf  sacs  or  lungs 
— Avhereof  one  sometimes  aborts — into   dnd  from  which 
air  is  introduced  and  removed  by  the  intervention  of  an 
azygous  tube,  the  trachea,  which,  passing  forwards  ventrally 
to  the  oesophagus,  or  beside  it,  opens  in  the  floor  of  the 
mouth  behind  the  tongue.     The  more  or  less  dilated  most 
anterior  portion  of  the  azygous  tube  is  the  larynx,  which 
may  become  a  vocal  organ. 

In  the  Lacertilia  the  external  opening  of  the  larynx  mny,  by  in  La 
rare  exception,  as  in  Phrynosoma,  be  placed  in  front  of  the  hind-  tilian 
most  margin  of  the  tongue,  so  that  the  larynx  seems  to  per- 
forate that  organ,  but  is  in  fact  merely  enclosed  by  the  posterior, 
exterior,  and  median  junction  of  two  lingual  processes.  A  mem- 
branous or  cartilaginous  epiglottis  may  protect  the  entrance  to 
the  larynx  as  in  Mammals.  The  larynx  may  be  composed  of 
one  cartilage,  which  is  produced  anteriorly  into  two  arytenoid 
processes,  but  generally  these  latter  are  distinct  cartilages.  Folds 
of  membrane  or  vocal  cords  may  exist,  as  in  the  Geckos  and 
Chameleons,  and  the  latter  have  also  a  wide  membranous  sac 
connected  with  the  larynx.  The  trachea  is  generally  short,  but 
may  be  long,  as  in  Amphislsena  and  Lepidostcrnon.  It  is  never 
convoluted,  and  its  cartilages  may  or  may  not  form  complete  rings. 
It  ends  posteriorly  by  dividing  into  two  bronchi,  which  are  usually 
very  short,  but  majr  be  of  moderate  length,  as  in  Psammosaurus. 
The  lungs  are  generally  of  about  equal  size,  but  in  the  Snake-like 
Lizards  the  right  lung  is  the  longer,  and  sometimes,  as  in  Tyjildine 
and  Acontias,  the  left  lung  may  be  quite  rudimentary.  The  lungs 
may  be  simple  bags  or  may  give  out  lateral  processes  or  pouches 
of  varying  extent.  In  the  Chameleons  their  hinder  halves  arc 
prolonged  into  narrow  tubular  processes.  Each  lung  is  enclosed 
in  a  fold  of  peritoneum. 

The  Ophidla  have  the  opening  of  the  larynx  behind  the  tongue  in 
rather  prominent,  with  only  a  rudimentary  epiglottis.  The  nature  dian 
of  their  prey  and  their  mode  of  eating  do  not  readily  expose  them 
to  the  danger  of  small  particles  of  food  finding  their  way  into  the 
trachea.  The  cartilaginous  framework  of  the  larynx  is  very 
elongated.  The  trachea  has  its  more  anterior  cartilages  in  the  form 
of  complete  rings.  The  lungs  are  unsymmetrical  in  all  the  genera, 
but  much  more  so  in  some  than  in  others — one  lung  entirely  abort- 
ing in  Typhlops,  Acrochordus,  and  Vipcra  amongst  others.  The 
two  lungs  are  both  of  tolerable  size  in  Python,  Boa,  and  Eryx, 
which  have  the  bronchi  leading  from  the  trachea  to  the  two 
pulmonary  sacs.  These  sacs  may  or  may  not  be  divided  info 
subordinate  cells  towards  the  hinder  end  of  each.  Sometimes  part 
of  the  trachea  itself  may  be  dilated  dorsally  into  cellular  promin- 
ences like  an  accessory  lung,  as  in  Hydroiiliis,  or  ventrally,  as  in 
Acrocliordus.  A  pulmonary  sac  may  extend  not  only  far  back- 
wards but  also  forwards  to  the  hyoidean  region,  as  in  Hcterodon. 

In  the  Chclonia  the  opening  of  the  larynx  or  glottis  is  longi-  in  C 
tudinal.  It  may  be  furnished  with  a  membranous  epiglottis,  orlmi 
may  have  none,  as  in  Tcstudo.  There  may  be  cricoid  and  arytenoid 
cartilages  in  addition  to  main  cartilages,  but  the  details  of  structure 
differ  in  different  genera.  There  arc  no  vocal  cords.  The  trachea 
and  bronchi  vary  in  length,  the  former  being  long  in  most  forms, 
the  latter  in  Tcstudo.  In  Cinixys  the  trachea  and  bronchi  arc 
contorted.  The  lungs  are  invested  anteriorly  and  on  their  ventral 
side  by  peritoneum,  and  also  by  the  diaphragm  as  they  lie  between 
it  and  the  carapace,  and  therefore  they  do  not  project  freely  into 
the  abdominal  cavity. 

1  Stannius  pointed  out  emphatically,  as  long  ago  as  1856,  tlie  resem- 
blance which  exists  in  many  points  between  Crocodiles  and  Birds.  See 
his  Amphibien,  p.  193,  note  1.  2  See  Owen,  Odontoy.,  p.  179. 


VASCULAR   SYSTEM,] 


REPTILES 


459 


-, ,-  The  Crocodilia  have  no  epiglottis,  but  the  larynx  is  attached  by 
u  tendinous  fibres  to  the  front  part  of  the  shield-like  basihyal.  The 
larynx  consists  of  a  ring-shaped  principal  cartilage  and  arytenoid 
cartilages.  There  are  folds  which  serve  for  vocal  cords.  The 
trachea  is  long,  with  two  short  bronchi.  The  former  is  generally 
straight,  but  may  be  contorted.  The  more  anterior  tracheal 
cartilages  are  incomplete  dorsally  ;  those  of  the  hinder  part  and  of 
the  bronchi  are  generally  complete.  Each  lung  consists  of  pouches 
or  cells,  the  cavities  of  which  open  into  each  other,  and  com- 
municate with  the  cavity  of  the  bronchus  by  the  lateral  openings 
just  mentioned.  The  lungs  are  enclosed  in  pouches  of  peritoneum, 
and  lie,  freely  suspended,  in  the  body  cavity. 

The  Vascular  System. 

r  The  vascular  system  of  Reptiles  consists  of  a  sanguine- 
ous and  a  lymphatic  system,  and  the  former  is  further 
subdivided  into  an  arterial  and  a  venous  system,  as  in  the 
higher  Vertebrates,  though  the  latter  two  are  less  completely 
differentiated.  In  all  there  is  a  heart,  which  consists  of  at 
least  three  distinct  cavities,  namely,  two  auricles  (which 
are  almost  always  distinct)  and  a  ventricle,  which  latter 
may  or  may  not  be  completely  subdivided  into  two  dis- 
tinct chambers,  a  right  and  a  left  ventricle.  Reptiles  differ 
from  the  higher  Vertebrates  in  the  heart  always  giving 
rise  to  at  least  two  great  vessels,  which  ultimately  join 
to  form  a  single  vessel,  and  from  these  all  the  arteries  are 
given  off.  Most  of  the  blood  of  the  hind  limbs  and  tail 
passes  either  through  a  portal  system  in  the  liver,  or  else 
in  the  kidney,  on  its  road  to  the  heart.  That  which  goes 
to  the  liver  goes  to  it  for  the  most  part  through  the  anterior 
abdominal  veins  or  vein.  The  venous  blood  is  conveyed 
to  the  right  ventricle  through  a  rhythmically  contractile 
sinus  venosus.  The  lymphatic  system  is  well  developed, 
with  large  reservoirs,  and  communicates  freely  with  the 
venous  system  by  a  pair  of  rhythmically  contractile  so- 
called  "lymphatic  hearts." 

The  Heart  and  Arterial  Si/stem. — In  all  the  existing  Reptiles 
except  the  Crocodilia — that  is  to  say,  in.  the  Rhynchoccphalia, 
Laci'.rtilia,  Ophidia,  and  Chelonia — the  two  auricles  are  divided  by 
a  complete  septum  (except  in  some  Chelonians),  but  the  ventricle 
is  only  imperfectly  divided  into  aright  and  left  chamber.  Of  these 
the  latter  is  the  narrower,  the  more  dorsal  in  position,  and  mostly 
lias  thicker  walls,  and  communicates  directly  with  the  left  auricle. 

ie  right  chamber  of  the  ventricle  is  broader,  more  ventral,  and 

>sterior,  and  mostly  with  thinner  walls,  and  communicates 
irectly  with  the  right  auricle.  No  arteries  proceed  from  the  left 
chamber,  but  three  proceed  from  the  right  chamber,  one  of  which, 
the  pulmonary  artery,  goes  to  the  lungs,  and  the  other  two  con- 
stitute the  trunk  roots  of  the  whole  systemic  set  of  arteries  or  the 
two  aortae.  Between  the  mouths  of  their  trunk  root  and  that  of 
the  pulmonary  artery  a  muscular  ridge  or  valve  extends,  which 
Imperfectly  divides  the  right  chamber  of  the  ventricle  into  two 
cavities,  which,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  ventricle's  contrac- 
tion, become  completely  divided  by  it  so  as  to  shut  off  the  con- 
tained blood  from  any  further  access  to  the  pulmonary  artery. 
These  great  arterial  vessels  thus  leaving  the  heart  are  at  first 
closely  connected  together  and  are  invested  with  the  pericardium, 
and  sometimes,  in  Chelonians,  their  investment  has  been  observed 
to  contain  striated  muscular  fibres,  thus  reminding  us  of  the 
"  bulbus  arteriosus  "  of  Amphibians.  Afterwards  the  great  arteries 
proceed  in  diverging  and  opposite  directions,  one  aorta  arching 
over  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left,  and  then  meeting  and 
uniting  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  heart  to  form  by  their  junction 
the  single  great  dorsal  aorta. 

Amongst  the  Laccrtilia,  the  Monitors  are  remarkable  for  the 
almost  complete  septum  between  their  ventricular  chambers.  In 
many  Lizards  the  great  arteries  going  to  the  head  may  be  so  con- 
nected with  the  two  primitive  arterial  roots  as  to  form  two  arches 
called  aortic  arches  on  either  side,  but  in  the  Monitors,  Chameleons, 
and  Amphisbssna  these  complications  are  wanting,  there  being  but 
a  single  aortic  arch  on  cither  side.  Generally  the  right  trunk  root, 
or  right  fundamental  aortic  arch,  after  supplying  small  arteries  to 
the  heart  itself,  gives  off  a  common  carotid  artery,  which  divides 
into  a  right  and  a  left  carotid,  and  these  subdivide  to  supply  the 
head  and  neck.  It  also  gives  off  the  snbclavian  arteries  for  the 
fore  limbs- and  arteries  to  the  trunk.  The  left  trunk  root,  or  left 
fundamental  aortic  arch,  gives  off  arteries  to  the  viscera,  and  then 
anastomoses  with  the  right  trunk  root,  the  two  anastomosing  to 
form  the  single  dorsal  aorta,  which  passes  backwards  beneath  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebra?,  and  gives  off  branches  to  the'stomach  and 
the  viscera,  and  to  the  kidneys,  sexual  glands,  hind  limbs,  and  tail. 


a  and 
es. 


In  the  Ophidia  the  heart  is  elongated  and  very  distant  from  the 
head,  and  there  are  of  course  no  linib  arteries  given  off  from  the 
aortae. 

The  heart  is  also  distant  from  the  head  in  the  Chelonia,  but  it  is 
broad  in  shape  and  lies  above  the  coracoids.  Striated  muscular 
fibres  invest  the  aortic  roots  in  Emys. 

In  the  Crocodilia  the  ventricle  is  subdivided  by  a  complete 
septum  into  two  thoroughly  distinct  chambers,  and  a  trunk  root 
or  fundamental  aorta  proceeds  forth  from  each, — the  left  aorta  and 
the  pulmonary  artery  proceeding  from  the  right  chamber,  and  the 
right  aorta  from  the  left  ventricle.  Nevertheless,  though  there  is 
here  no  communication  between  the  chambers  whence  these  two 
aortre  arise,  there  is  a  communication  between  these  two  aortae 
themselves,  and  that  not  only  when  they  anastomose  after  arching 
different  ways,  as  in  all  other  Reptiles,  but  also  by  a  direct  com- 
munication between  them.  When  they  cross  one  another,  as  the 
aorta  from  the  right  chamber  arches  to  the  left  and  that  from  the 
left  chamber  arches  to  the  right,  a  small  aperture  places  their 
cavities  in  communication  just  outside  the  heart  and  close  to  their 
respective  origins. 

The  Venous  System. — The  systemic  veins  arising  in  all  parts  of  Veins, 
the  body  collect  together  and  anastomose  till  their  three  finally 
formed  trunks  open  into  a  more  or  less  capacious  contractile  cavity, 
the  sinus  venosus,  which  communicates  with  the  right  auricle. 
The  anterior  two  of  these  three  final  trunks  are  called  venae 
anonynise,  and  the  single  posterior  one  is  called  the  vena  cava. 
The  former  are  formed  by  the  gradual  junction  of  the  veins  of  the 
head,  neck,  fore  limbs,  and  vertebral  region  (jugular  veins,  sub- 
clavian  azygons  veins,  &c.),  and  the  vena  cava  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  iliac  veins  or  those  of  the  hind  limbs,  together 
with  the  veins  of  the  rest  of  the  body. 

The  veins  of  the  alimentary  canal,  spleen,  and  pancreas,  and  the 
abdominal  veins  (running  between  the  peritoneum  and  the 
abdominal  muscles)  or  vein — there  being  one  in  the  Ophidia — 
commonly  collect  and  unite  to  enter  the  liver  to  form  a  portal 
system. 

In  the  Ophidia  the  veins  of  the  alimentary  canal,  generative 
organs,  fatty  appendages,  pancreas,  and  spleen  thus  unite,  while 
the  caudal  vein  with  some  veins  of  the  generative  organs  and 
intestine  go  to  form  a  subordinate  secondary  circulation  in  the 
kidney  or  reni-portal  system.  In  the  Lacertilia  the  veins  of  the 
hind  limbs  collect  in  part  to  form  a  reni-portal  system,  and  also 
communicate  with  the  abdominal  veins,  which  join  the  ordinary 
visceral  veins  to  form  the  true  portal  system.  In  the  Chelonia 
the  veins  of  the  tail  and  hind  limbs  join  the  abdominal  veins 
above  the  plastron,  and  there  with  others  from  the  bladder  and 
viscera  go  to  form  the  portal  system,  while  small  branches  from 
the  abdominal  veins  join  others  from  the  generative  organs  and 
vertebral  veins  to  form  a  reni-portal  system.  In  the  Crocodilia 
the  caudal  vein  divides  on  entering  the  trunk  and  joins  the 
posterior  limb  and  body  veins,  and  goes  on  to  form,  with  the 
visceral  veins,  a  portal  system,  giving  off  in  this  way  veins  to  the 
kidneys  to  form  the  reni-portal  system. 

In  all  Reptiles  the  veins  of  the  lungs  collect  together  and  empty 
themselves  into  the  left  auricle  as  they  do  in  all  other  air-breathing 
Vertebrates. 

The   Lymphatic    System  and    Vascular    Glands. — In    Reptilia  Lym- 
generally   there   is  a   pair   of  lymphatic   hearts   placed  over   the  phatic 
transverse  processes  of  the  vertebra  at  the  junction  of  the  tail  Avitli  system, 
the  trunk.     Each  usually  opens  with  a  small  vein  which  communi- 
cates  with   the   iliac   vein.     Besides  these   bodies,   more   or  less 
considerable  lymphatic  canals  follow  the  course  of  the  great  arterial 
trunks  in  the  body  and  tail,  and,  when  there  are  limbs,  communi- 
cate  with   the   iliac  veins.     Other  canals  accompany   the   aortic 
arches  and  approach  and  open  into  the  venre  anonymse,  and  others 
extend  backwards  towards  these  from  the  head  and  anterior  limbs. 

A  pair  of  bodies  which  answer  to  the  thymus  gland  of  Mammals 
lie  close  to  the  jugular  veins  and  lymphatics  at  the  anterior  part  of 
the  thoracic  cavity.  They  arc  elongated  in  Ophidians  and  roundish 
in  other  Reptiles,  and  they  are  much  larger  in  young  than  in  old 
individuals. 

A  thyroid  exists  in  front  of  the  pericardium  on  the  ventral  side  of 
the  great  arterial  trunks.  It  is  bilobed  in  the  Crocodiles. 

The  supra-renal  capsules  are  yellowish  bodies  which  lie  more  in 
connexion  with  the  generative  glands  than  the  kidneys.  They  are 
very  elongated  in  the  Ophidia,  flattened  in  the  Chelonia,  and 
roundish  in  the  Crocodilia. 

The  Nervous  System  and  Organs  of  Sense. 

Reptiles,   in  common   with   other  Vertebrates,  have  a  Nervous 
nervous  system  divisible  into  an  axial  portion  or  neural  system. 
axis   made  up  of  brain  and  spinal  marrow,   and  a  peri- 
pheral portion  made  up  of  the  multitude  of  nerves  which 
proceed  from  or  are  connected  with  this,  and  one  portion 
of  which  is  more  or  less  distinctly  separable  and  known  as 


460 


REPTILES 


LA. NATO 


the  sympathetic  system.  Reptiles  also  generally  possess 
three  distinct  organs  of  sense — (1)  ears,  (2)  eyes,  and  (3) 
nasal  organs — though  one  or  more  of  them  may  be  excep- 
tionally rudimentary  and  defective. 

Axial  The,  Neural  Axis. — The  spinal  marrow  extends  through 

portion,  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  neural  canal  of  the  skeleton 
in  the  form  of  a  long  nervous  cylinder  with  a  small  central 
cavity,  with  a  deep  furrow  along  the  middle  of  its  dorsal 
and  a  shallow  one  on  the  middle  of  its  ventral  aspect.  It 
becomes  more  or  less  augmented  in  volume  about  the 
region  of  the  shoulders  and  loins,  where  the  nerves  of  the 
limbs  are  given  off  from  it.  Even  where  most  enlarged, 
however,  the  tracts  on  either  side  of  the  dorsal  furrow  do 
not  diverge  and  leave  a  space  or  sinus  as  they  do  in  the 
lumbar  enlargement  of  Birds.  Where  the  spinal  marrow 
comes  to  join  the  brain  it  enlarges  considerably.  At  the 
medulla  oblongata  it  is  bent  down  at  a  marked  angle  with 
the  more  posterior  part  of  the  neural  axis.  The  two 
halves  of  its  dorsal  portion  also  diverge  so  as  to  expose 
the  dorsal  surface  of  the  more  ventral  portion  in  a  space 
which  is  known  as  the  fourth  ventricle  or  ventricle  of  the 
medulla.  This  medulla  advances  forward,  expanding  and 
becoming  locally  differentiated  to  form  the  brain,  its 
ventricle  being  continued  on  into  a  more  anterior  and 
more  completely  enclosed  cavity  known  as  the  third  ven- 
tricle. The  nervous  roof  of  the  hinder  part  of  this  latter 
ventricle  is  produced  into  two  smooth  prominences  placed 
side  by  side  and  called  the  optic  globes  or  corpora  bigemina 
(which  may  themselves  contain  a  cavity),  immediately 
behind  which  is  an  azygous  nervous  structure,  the  cerebel- 
lum, which  more  or  less  roofs  over  the  hindmost  or  fourth 
ventricle.  In  front  of  the  optic  lobes  are  the  larger  rounded 
smooth  neural  masses — the  cerebral  hemispheres,  each  of 
which  contains  a  cavity — the  lateral  or  first  and  second 
ventricles,  which  both  communicate  with  the  anterior  end 
of  the  third  ventricle  through  an  aperture  termed  the 
foramen  of  Munro.  Between  the  hinder  ends  of  these 
hemispheres  an  azygous  structure  projects  upwards — the 
pineal  gland — while  from  beneath  the  floor  of  the  third 
ventricle  another  azygous  structure  projects  downwards — 
the  pituitary  body.  In  front  of  the  hemispheres  are  the 
other  rounded  and  smaller  neural  masses,  the  olfactory 
lobes,  which  are  generally  elongated  and  contain  cavities 
that  are  continuations  forwards  of  the  lateral  ventricles. 
Three  transverse  bands  of  nervous  tissue  connect  the  struc- 
tures which  bound 
the  third  ventricle 
laterally ;  the  first 
of  these,  placed 
just  behind  the 
lamina  terminalis 
or  the  front  boun- 
dary of  that  ven- 
tricle, is  called 
the  anterior  com- 
missure, and  the 
nervous  masses  it 

joins   are  the  COr  FIG.  23.— Rraln  of  LaceHa   agHis  (after  Leydig).    1, 

r>r>ri  ctriata        An       I'orsal   aspect ;  2,   vertical   lonKitudin;il  section.     r&, 

"     cerebellum;  eh,   cerebral  hemisphere;   m,   medulla 

Other     more     pOS-     oblongatn;   olf,  olfactory  lobes;  on,  optic  nerve;  opt, 
i  . ,       ,    j     optic  lobes;  p.  pineal  gland  ;py,  base  of  pituitary  body. 

tenorly    situated 

band  is  called  the  soft  commissure ;  and  the  third,  a  little 
farther  back  still,  is  the  posterior  commissure.  The  masses 
joined  by  those  last  two  commissures  are  called  the  optic 
thalami.  The  brain  is  invested  with  membranes  in  the 
same  general  way  as  it  is  in  Mammals. 

In  the  Lasertilia  tlic  cerebellum  is  a  thin  very  small  body 
projecting  rather  upwards,  and  may  he  transversely  segmented, 
as  in  Platydactyl'us.  In  the  Chameleons  the  optic  lobes  and 
hemispheres  are  of  nearly  equal  size,  and  the  olfactory  lobes  nre 
neither  separated  off  nor  hollow.  In  the  Ophidia  the  cerebellum 


nearly  covers  the  fourth  ventricle,  the  hemispheres  are  of  consider- 
able size,  and  the  olfactory  lobes  may  be  immediately  annexed  to 
them.  In  the  Chelonia  the  cerebellum  is  rather  large,  but  it  is 
only  in  the  Crocodilia  that  it  is  marked  by  transverse  grooves,  as 
is  the  central  part  of  the  cerebellum  or  dermis  in  Mammals ;  the 
hemispheres  also  are  of  considerable  volume. 

In  some  extinct  Rcptilia,  e.g.,  in  the  Dinosaurian  Stcgosaurus, 
the  brain  was  exceedingly  small,  probably  weighing  but  the 
hundredth  part  of  that  of  the  Alligator  compared  with  the  weight 
of  the  bodies  of  the  two  animals.  Moreover,  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres but  little  exceeded  the  optic  lobes  in  size,  while  the  transverse 
diameter  of  these  lobes  only  slightly  exceeded  that  of  the  medulla. 
The  cerebellum  also  was  very  small.  In  the  Ornilhosaiirin,  how- 
ever, the  optic  lobes  were  unlike  in  their  situation  those  of  any 
existing  Reptiles,  they  being  depressed  and  placed  laterally  instead 
of  on  the  dorsum  of  the  brain,  thus  resembling  the  optic  lobes  of 
Birds. 

The  Peripheral  System. — As  in  the  higher  Mammals,  so  Pa 
also  in  Reptiles,  the  neural  axis  gives  off  a  series  of  special  rhi 
nerves,  which  in  a  general  way  correspond  in  number  with  ^°T  *• 
the  vertebrae  they  pass  out  between.     Each  also  arises  by 
a  superior  and  inferior  root,  whereof  the  former  is  furnished 
with  a  ganglion.     After  the  junction  of  these  two  roots 
the  whole  nerve  thus  formed  divides  into  ascending  and 
descending   branches — the  latter,  in  the   trunk,  running 
between  the  internal  oblique  and  transverse  muscles. 

The  cranial  nerve  which  comes  forth  from  the  brain  nearest  the 
spinal  marrow  is  the  hypoglossal.  It  passes  out  through  a  condy- 
loid  foramen  in  the  occipital  bone,  and  goes  to  the  tongue,  hyoid, 
and  larynx.  A  more  anteriorly  placed  nerve,  called  the  spinal 
accessory,  exists  except  in  Ophidia.  It  arises  between  the  superior 
and  inferior  roots  of  the  more  anterior  spinal  nerves,  and  then 
enters  the  cranium,  which  it  leaves  again  in  company  with  that 
next  to  be  noted.  It  supplies  certain  dorsal  muscles  of  the  neck 
or  anterior  part  of  the  trunk.  The  next  or  pneumogastric  nerve 
passes  out  into  the  spinal  accessory.  It  is  distributed  to  the  lungs, 
stomach,  and  heart.  To  these,  next  in  advance,  succeeds  theglosso- 
pharyngeal  for  the  tongue  and  pharynx.  Very  distinct  from  the 
foregoing  is  the  facial  nerve,  which  passes  out  at  a  distinct  foramen 
and  turns  rather  backwards  to  supply  the  sides  of  the  head.  Next 
is  to  be  distinguished  the  acoustic  nerve,  which  goes  to  the  internal 
ear,  and  in  front  of  that  again  is  the  trigeminal,  which  is  wont  to 
make  its  exit  at  two  distinct  places,  and  diverges  into  three  branches, 
which  go  respectively  to  the  orbit,  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  lower  jaw. 
Then  come  three  small  nerves  destined  to  supply  the  muscles  which 
move  the  eyeball  ;  and  foremost  but  one  is  the  optic  nerve;  this 
crossing  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side  beneath  the  brain,  the  fibres 
of  the  two  nerves  blend  at  their  point  of  intersection  and  so  form 
what  is  called  the  chiasma.  Most  anterior  of  all  are  the  olfactory 
nerves,  which  proceed  from  the  olfactory  lobes  to  the  nasal  organs 
themselves. 

In  the  Chelonia  the  spinal  accessory  may  take  origin  as  far  back 
as  the  root  of  the  fourth  cervical  nerve.  The  pneumogastvic 
and  glosso-pharyngeal  pass  out  from  the  skull  separately  as  in 
Saurians,  and  not  through  one  foramen  as  in  Ophidians  and 
Crocodilians. 

Those  spinal  nerves  which  continue  to  supply  the  limbs  form 
certain  more  or  less  complex  unions  with  each  other  termed 
plexuses,  and  from  each  plexus  the  nerves  of  the  fore  or  hind  limbs, 
as  the  case  may  be,  proceed.  The  plexus  which  supplies  the  nerves 
of  the  fore  limb  is  called  the  brachial  plexus.  It  is  formed  by  the 
blending  of  about  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  spinal  nerves 
in  the  Turtle  and  Crocodile,  and  the  nerves  it  gives  forth  are  tho 
axillary,  ulnar,  radial,  musculo-spiral.  and  median  as  in  Mammals. 
Certain  of  the  more  posterior  nerves  unite  to  form  a  crural  plexus 
and  others  just  behind  the  former  blend  to  form  a  sacral  plexus, 
and  from  these  the  nerves  of  the  leg  and  pelvic  region  proceed. 
Amongst  these  nerves  are  the  crural,  obturator,  and  especially  the 
great  sciatic  nerve,  which  passes  to  the  back  of  the  thigh  and 
divides  into  the  libial  nerves. 

As  to  the  particular  spinal  nerves  which  go  to  form  these 
plexuses  respectively,  and  as  to  the  mode  of  their  interlacement  and 
mode  of  giving  origin  to  the  limb  nerves,  there  is  not  only  diversity 
between  different  genera  of  the  same  order  and  species  of  the  same 
genus,  but  also  between  different  individuals  of  the  same  genus, 
and  even  between  the  two  sides  of  the  same  individual  Keptile. 

The    Sympathetic    Nervous    System — nerves    which    copiously 
supply  the  viscera — is   least   marked   in   the  Ophidia,    in  which  p>    " 
this  system   is  not  distinct,   in   the  greater  part  of  the   body,  \'    "• 
from  the  spinal  nerves.     Essentially  the   system  consists  of  two 
antero-posteriorly  extending  nervous  cords,  which  run  on  eithiT 
side  of  the  axial  skeleton  in  its  ventral  aspect.     Each  of  these  two 
cords  is  joined  by  fibres  from  the  spinal  and  cranial  nerves  adjacent 
to  it  except  the  nerves  of  the  nose,  eye,  and  ear.     At  the  points  of 


EHVES  AND  SKNSE  ORGANS.] 


REPTILES 


461 


junction  between  the  spinal  nerves  and  the  sympathetic  cords  there 
are  ganglia,  and  from  these  sympathetic  nerves  proceed  to  the 
•iscera,  the  heart,  and  the  various  blood-vessels. 

The  Ear. — The  auditory  organ  may  consist  of  three 
parts — the  external,  median,  and  internal  ear.  The  ex- 
ternal ear,  however,  hardly  exists  in  Reptiles,  for  there  is 
no  external  fold  of  skin  representing  the  external  ear  of 
Mammals  in  any  save  in  the  Crocodiles,  and  in  them  it  is 
little  more  than  a  rudiment. 

The  true  internal  ear  always  exists,  and  is  composed  of 
two  parts — (1)  a  membranous  labyrinth,  containing  fluid, 
enclosed  in  (2)  a  bony  labyrinth,  which  has  also  fluid  con- 
tents. The  former  consists  of  three  membranous  semi- 
circular canals  which  open  into  a  membranous  sac,  the 
vestibule,  which  is  connected  with  a  tubular  structure, 
the  membranous  cochlea.  It  is  to  these  parts  that  the 
ultimate  fibres  of  the  auditory  nerve  are  distributed.  The 
bony  labyrinth  is  formed  of  the  otic  bones  (prootic,  epiotic, 
and  opisthotic),  which  enclose  it  completely  save  at  the 
points  where  openings  are  left  called  the  fenestra  ovalis 
and  the  fenestra  rotunda.  The  latter  is  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  the  opisthotic.  The  fenestra  ovalis  is  partly 
enclosed  by  the  prootic  and  partly  by  the  opisthotic.  The 
prootic  specially  protects  and  shelters  the  anterior  vertical 
semicircular  canal  of  the  membranous  labyrinth,  and  cor- 
respondingly constitutes  that  of  the  bony  labyrinth.  The 
posterior  vertical  semicircular  canal  is  similarly  related 
to  the  epiotic,  and  the  external  horizontal  semicircular 
canal  is  sheltered  by  the  prootic  and  opisthotic.  The 
membranous  cochlea  helps  to  almost  divide  the  bony 
chamber  in  which  it  lies  into  two  parts  called  scake,  which 
communicate  at  the  apex  of  the  cavity. 

Such  being  the  innermost  ear  of  Reptiles  and  an  outer- 
most ear  existing  only  in  rudiment  in  Crocodiles,  there  is 
also  a  median  ear  which  may  or  may  not  exist  in  this 
class  of  animals.  This  median  ear  is  the  tympanic  cavity 
or  chamber.  It  is  into  this  cavity  when  present  that  the 
fenestra  ovalis  looks,  while  the  fenestra  rotunda  looks  into 
the  cochlea.  Both  fenestrse  are  closed  with  membrane, 
so  that  the  fluid  in  which  the  membranous  labyrinth  is 
suspended  cannot  escape  through  them.  The  fenestra 
ovalis  has  fitted  to  the  outer  side  of  its  closing  membrane 
a  small  ossicle  of  similar  shape  to  itself,  which  generally 
has  projecting  from  its  outer  side  a  more  or  less  elongated 
and  slender  ossicle,  the  stapes  or  columella  auris.  This 
rod  may  be  wanting,  however,  as  in  Typhlops,  Rhinophis, 
and  Tortrix.  When  a  middle  or  tympanic  cavity  exists, 
the  stapes  traverses  it  from  the  ossicle,  closing  the  fenestra 
ovalis  to  become  attached  to  a  membrane,  the  tympanic 
membrane,  which  forms  part  of  the  external  wall  of  the 
tympanum.  Where  there  is  no  tympanic  cavity,  the  stapes 
simply  extends  outwards  amongst  the  muscles  which  lie 
external  to  the  internal  ear.  In  the  Oplddia  and  Amphis- 
bsenians  and  some  other  Snake-like  Lacertilians  there  is  no 
tympanic  cavity,  and  there  is  none  in  Hatteria.  Its  pres- 
ence is  sometimes  inconstant  in  those  Lizards ;  thus  in 
the  Slow  Worm,  Anguis  fragilis,  it  may  exist  in  some  in- 
dividuals and  not  in  others.  When  it  exists,  it  may  not 
show  any  external  indication  of  its  presence  as  in  the 
Chamseleons  and  some  Chelonians,  Generally,  however, 
the  tympanic  membrane  is  covered  by  a  scale  of  correspond- 
ing size,  so  that  its  presence  is  plainly  marked  externally. 

The  tympanic  cavity  communicates  with  the  back  of 
the  mouth  by  a  wide  opening  in  Lacertilians ;  but  in 
Chelonians  this  communication  is  contracted  into  a 
narrow  passage,  the  Eustachian  tube,  which  opens  (one 
from  each  tympanum)  by  a  separate  aperture  on  the  roof 
of  the  mouth.  In  the  Crocodilia  these  passages  become 
further  complicated  and  connected  so  that,  in  addition  to 
the  aperture  on  either  side  of  the  mouth,  there  is  also  a 


median  aperture  which  is  connected  with  both  the  Eustachian 
tubes,  that  of  the  right  ear  and  that  of  the  left. 

The  Eye. — All  Reptiles  have  eyes,  although   in   some  Eye. 
forms  they  are  quite  rudimentary  and  hidden  beneath  the 
skin,  which  is  not  at  all  or  but  very  slightly  modified  in 
structure  where  it  passes  over  them,  as,  e.g.,  in  Typhlops 
and  Typhline. 

The  eye  consists  of  the  same  parts  as  in  other  Verte- 
brates, namely,  of  a  nervous  expansion  at  the  back  (the 
retina)  derived  from  the  optic  nerve,  a  coloured  lining 
(the  choroid),  a  transparent  medium  (the  vitreous  humour) 
separated  from  one  more  anterior  (the  aqueous  humour) 
by  a  sort  of  diaphragm  (the  iris),  and  a  solid,  transparent 
body  (the  crystalline  lens),  whilst  the  whole  structure  is 
enclosed  by  a  fibrous  membrane,  the  sclerotic,  to  form  the 
"  ball  of  the  eye,"  a  superficial  part  of  the  sclerotic  being 
transparent  and  distinguished  as  the  cornea. 

The  ball  may  have  the  skin  which  invests  it  externally 
separated  in  front  of  it  into  two  folds,  the  eyelids.  When 
the  skin  is  not  so  separated,  then  a  closed  sac  of  delicate 
transparent  membrane,  the  conjunctiva,  lies  over  the 
cornea  between  it  and  the  skin,  and  when  the  skin  is 
divided  into  folds  or  eyelids  then  the  conjunctiva  is  divided 
also,  one  layer  lying  as  before  next  to  the  cornea,  and  the 
other  layer  being  reflected  from  the  outer  margin  of  the 
cornea  into  the  inside  of  the  eyelids  which  it  lines.  There 
is  often  a  third  eyelid,  which  can  be  drawn  obliquely  over 
the  eye,  and  is  called  the  nictitating  membrane.  A 
glandular  structure,  the  lacrymal  gland,  lies  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  front  of  the  eyeball,  its  secretion  passing  into 
the  mouth  by  the  lacrymal  canal ;  another  gland,  the 
Harderian  gland,  may  lie  on  the  inner  side  of  the  eyeball. 
The  sclerotic  may  be  strengthened  by  bony  plates  being 
formed  within  it.  A  vascular  coloured  membrane,  the 
pecten,  may  project  into  the  vitreous  humour  from  near  the 
entrance  of  the  optic  nerve.  The  ball  of  the  eye  is  moved 
by  four  straight  and  two  oblique  muscles,  and  may  also 
be  suspended  by  a  funnel-shaped  muscular  sheath,  the 
choanoid  muscle.  There  are  also  special  muscles  of  the 
eyelids. 

In  the  Ophidia  the  eye  is  generally  rather  large,  but  very  small 
in  the  Typhlopidss  and  Uropeltidw.  In  no  Ophidians  is  the  skin 
over  the  eyes  divided  into  eyelids,  so  that  the  sac  of  the  con- 
junctiva beneath  it  is  never  subdivided.  In  the  Eurystomatous 
Ophidians,  however,  the  skin,  when  it  passes  over  the  eyeball,  is 
transparent.  The  outer  (or  epidermal)  layer  of  the  skin  is  cast 
with  the  rest  of  the  skin  of  the  body.  The  lacrymal  canal  is 
wide,  but  opens  into  the  mouth  by  a  narrow  aperture  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  palatine  bone.  In  some  Trigonocephali  the  lacrymal 
gland  extends  almost  all  round  the  eyeball.  The  sclerotic  never 
develops  bony  plates  in  any  Serpent. 

Amongst  the  Laccrtilia,  many,  such  as  the  Amphisbaenians,  the 
Geckos,  and  many  Skinks,  have  the  eyelids  undivided,  as  they  are 
in  Ophidians.  Most  Lizards,  however,  have  an  upper  and  an  under 
eyelid,  and  also  a  nictitating  membrane,  and  there  may  be  a 
cartilaginous  or  bony  disk  in  the  lower  eyelid.  Many  Skinks  have 
the  lower  eyelid  more  or  less  transparent.  The  eye  of  the 
Chameeleon  is  most  peculiar.  The  larger  eyelids  have  .  but  a 
minute  aperture,  and  the  two  eyeballs  can  be  rotated  independently, 
so  that  their  axes  may  be  differently  directed  simultaneously. 
There  is  a  rudiment  of  a  third  eyelid,  and  there  is  a  bony  plate  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  large  eyelid.  The  Harderian  gland  is  large, 
but  the  lacrymal  is  small.  The  lacrymal  canal  opens  below  in 
the  outer  wall  of  the  posterior  nares.  In  most  Lacertilians  there 
are  overlapping  bony  plates  in  the  sclerotic,  but  these  are  wanting 
in  Chamseleons  and  Geckos.  There  is  mostly  a  pecten.  In  some 
species  the  lacrymal  gland  appears  to  be  wanting.  The  nictitat- 
ing or  third  eyelid  is  drawn  over  the  eye  by  the  simultaneous  action 
of  two  curiously  arranged  structures.  One  of  these  is  a  muscle 
which  takes  origin  from  the  postero-inner  orbital  wall  and  ends  by 
forming  a  fibrous  loop.  The  other  is  a  tendon  which  passes 
through  the  loop  to  be  attached  at  one  end  to  the  nictitating 
membrane,  and  at  the  other  to  the  inner  wall  of  the  orbit. 

In  Hatteria  there  are  eyelids — the  lower  with  a  cartilaginous 
disk — and  a  nictitating  membrane.  The  sclerotic  contains  osseous 
lamellae,  and  there  is  no  pecten. 

The  Crocodilia  have  three  eyelids,  and  no  bony  plate  in  any  part 


REPTILES 


[ANATOMY. 


of  the  eye.  A  muscle  arises  from  the  surface  of  the  sclerotic  on  its 
inner  side  and  ends  in  a  tendon  which  passes  backwards  and  down- 
wards over  the  optic  nerve  to  attach  itself  to  the  margin  of  the 
nictitating  membrane.  There  is  a  rudimentary  pecten. 

In  the  Chelonia  the  sclerotic  is  furnished  with  bony  plates.  The 
Harderian  gland  is  small,  but  the  lacrymal  is  considerable. 
There  are  three  eyelids,  and  the  nictitating  one  has  the  muscle 
which  moves  it  combined  with  the  elevator  muscle  of  the  eyelids. 
Both  arise  from  the  inner  side  of  the  sclerotic.  One  arches  over  the 
optic  nerve  and  goes  to  the  third  eyelid,  and  the  other  goes  from 
the  outer  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  lower  eyelid.  The  fibres  of  these 
two  muscles  arc  closely  interrelated  at  their  origin. 
Nasal  The  Olfactory  Organ. — There  are  two  olfactory  organs 

organ.  fn  every  Reptile,  consisting  of  tracts  or  foldings  of 
mucous  membrane  richly  supplied  with  nerves  and 
supported  and  protected  by  cartilaginous  or  bony 
structures.  In  existing  Eeptiles  they  always  lie  at, 
and  extend  near  to,  the  anterior  end  of  the  muzzle, 
though  in  the  Ichthyosauri  and  Plesiosauri  they  opened 
anteriorly  far  back  and  near  the  orbits.  The  olfactory 
membranes  are  always  enclosed  or  supported  by  carti- 
lages which  proceed  out  from  an  azygous  septum  which 
divides  them  one  from  the  other.  Each  nasal  organ  has 
an  anterior  and  posterior  opening,  though  the  anterior 
openings  may  so  meet  as  to  form  but  one  superficial 
aperture,  as  in  the  Crocodilia,  and  the  two  posterior 
apertures  may  open,  not  directly  into  the  mouth,  but  into 
an  azygous  forwardly-extending  diverticulum  from  it,  the 
posterior  opening  of  which  diverticulum  forms  practi- 
cally a  common  posterior  termination  for  both  the  organs 
of  smell.  The  nasal  passages  are  short  in  all  existing 
Reptiles  save  the  Crocodilia,  and  open  posteriorly  far 
forwards — as  has  been  already  noticed  in  describing  the 
skull,  when  the  prolongation  backwards  of  the  posterior 
nares  in  the  Crocodiles  was  also  described.  In  the  Chelonia 
the  anterior  external  apertures  of  the  nostrils  are  distinct 
though  near  together.  Sometimes,  as  in  Chelys  and  Trionyx, 
they  are  tubular,  and  open  externally  at  the  end  of  a  short 
proboscis. 

A  structure  called  the  nasal  gland  exists  and  is  well- 
developed  in  the  Ophidia.  It  is  a  peculiar  rather  soft 
body,  often  shaped  like  a  mushroom  with  a  very  short 
stalk.  It  lies  immediately  beneath  the  floor  of  the  nasal 
capsule,  and  the  membranous  Avail  of  the  cavity  on  which 
it  lies  is  covered  and  protected  by  a  bone,  commonly  called 
the  "turbinal,"  which  extends  out  from  the  median  nasal 
septum  to  the  maxilla.  These  cavities  open  on  the  palate 
by  narrow  apertures  placed  in  front  of  the  posterior  nares. 
In  the-  Chelonians  we  find  a  soft,  egg-shaped,  whitish, 
azygous  body  (without  any  internal  cavity),  also  placed  in 
front  of  the  posterior  nares  in  the  skin  of  the  palate, 
behind  the  palatine  part  of  the  premaxillas.  It  is  supplied 
with  palatine  nerves. 

The  Urogenital  System. 

In  Reptiles  the  urinary  and  generative  systems  are 
distinct,  save  as  regards  the  approximation  of  their  pos- 
terior terminations,  thus  agreeing  with  higher  Vertebrates 
and  differing  from  Amphibians,  in  which  the  renal  and 
secreting  organs  generally  continue  throughout  life  more 
or  less  connected. 

Urinary  The  Urinary  System. — The  urinary  system  of  the  Rep- 
system.  tilia  always  consists  of  a  pair  of  renal  glands  or  kidneys, 
with  excretory  ducts  which  pass  down  to  the  cloaca.  There 
may  or  may  not  be  a  urinary  bladder,  also  opening  into  the 
cloaca.  Besides  these  parts  there  are  also  a  pair  of  Wolffian 
bodies,  which  are  more  or  less  aborted  remnants  of  large 
organs  which  are  always  developed  during  embryonic  life. 

The  Kidneys. — The  kidneys  are  more  or  less  symmetrically 
placed  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  peritoneum,  in  the  hinder  half  of 
the  trunk.  Each  consists  of  a  mass  of  crecal  tubules  into  the  distal 
end  of  which  a  tuft  of  minute  vessels  projects,  thus  forming  what 
is  called  a  glomerulns  or  Malpighian  body. 


In  the  Ophidia  the  kidneys  are  least  symmetrical,  the  right  one 
extending  the  farthest  forwards.  They  are  elongated  and  lobed,  and 
sometimes  in  such  a  way  as  to  appear  spirally  twisted.  Each  ter- 
minates behind  considerably  in  front  of  the  cloaca.  The  duct  of 
each  ureter  begins  at  the  anterior  end  of  the  kidney  and  thence 
proceeds  along  its  inner  border,  and  accessory  ducts  open  into  it 
from  the  interspaces  of  the  lobes  of  the  kidneys.  The  two  ureters 
open  into  the  sides  of  the  cloaca.  In  the  males  each  opens  upon 
a  papilla  in  close  proximity  to  the  opening  of  the  male  sexual  duet 
or  va's  deferens.  In  the  females  the  ureter  opens  beside  the  mouth 
of  the  female  sexual  duct  or  oviduct.  There  is  never  any  urinary 
bladder. 

In  Lacertilians  the  kidneys  are  more  posteriorly  placed  than  in 
Serpents.  They  lie  at  the  hindmost  part  of  the  body  cavity  above 
the  cloaca,  and  they  generally  much  approximate  together.  They 
are  also  more  symmetrically  placed;  only  in  the  Amphisbaeniana 
the  right  kidney  extends  the  more  forward,  thus  resembling 
Ophidians.  There  is  always  a  urinary  bladder,  which  is  a  veutral 
diverticulum  of  the  cloaca.  The  kidneys  are  usually  transversely 
furrowed.  The  ureters  run  along  the  inner  side  of  the  kidneys,  and 
open  into  the  sides  of  the  cloaca,  not  into  the  bladder. 

In  Chelonians  the  kidneys  lie  near  the  cloaca  in  the  cavity  of  the 
pelvis.  They  are  rather  short  and  thick,  and  more  or  less  trihedral. 
Their  surface  is  marked  with  many  shallow  meandering  grooves  and 
fewer  deeper  furrows.  The  ureters  proceed  as  usual  along  the  inner 
sides  of  the  kidneys,  and  several  large  canals  successively  open  from 
them  into  the  ureters,  which  extend  backwards,  but  to  a  trifling 
extent,  beyond  the  kidneys.  They  open  rather  anteriorly  into  the 
cloaca  close  to  the  neck  of  the  urinary  bladder,  which  vessel  is 
always  present  and  voluminous,  and  is  often  two-horned. 

The  Crocodilia  also  have  posteriorly  situated  pelvic  kidneys,  but 
they  have  no  urinary  bladder.  The  kidney  is  concave  dorsally 
and  flatter  ventrally.  Its  surface  has  meandering  convolutions 
separated  by  furrows.  The  ureters  for  the  greater  part  of  their 
length  run  deeply  sunk  in  the  substance  of  the  kidneys.  The 
ureters  leave  the  hinder  ends  of  the  kidneys  and  run  freely  for  a 
short  distance  to  the  cloaca,  which  they  enter  close  behind  the 
rectum. 

The  Wolffian  Bodies. — These  bodies  lie  one  on  each  side  on  the 
dorsum  of  the  body  cavity,  and  each  consists  of  a  series  of  crecal 
tubes  with  vascular  balls  or  glomeruli  like  those  of  the  kidney,  the 
various  tubes  always  opening  at  first  into  a  common  excretory  duct 
which  leads  towards  the  cloaca.  In  adults  they  arc  but  small 
organs.  In  a  Python  10  feet  long  they  measure  but  about  an  inch. 
In  Serpents  generally  they  are  slender  and  lobed  bodies  which  lie 
close  to  the  veins  in  front  of  the  kidneys. 

The  Generative  Organs. — Reptiles,  like  all  the  higher 
Vertebrates,  have  the  sexes  divided,  with  two  sets  of  organs 
which  respectively  characterize  male  and  female  indivi- 
duals. In  both  sexes,  as  in  Birds,  there  is  a  pair  of  sexual 
glands,  each  furnished  with  a  passage  for  the  exit  of  its 
product,  together  with,  almost  always,  external  organs 
destined  to  effect  and  facilitate  impregnation.  Unlike 
Mammals,  however,  all  Reptiles  have  the  sexual  glands 
placed  within  the  abdominal  cavity,  and,  also  unlike  Mam- 
mals, the  male  external  organ  or  agent  for  copulation  may 
be  either  azygous  or  bifold  according  to  the  group  to  which 
any  Reptile  may  belong.  Unlike  the  more  inferior  Verte- 
brates, however,  Reptiles,  with  the  solitary  exception  of 
Hatteria,  always  possess  such  a  copulating  organ,  and  im- 
pregnation is  invariably  effected  internally. 

The  male  organs  consist  of  a  pair  of  glands,  the  testes, 
with  their  ducts,  the  vasa  deferentia,  and  the  external 
organs,  penis  or  penes.  The  female  organs  consist  of  a  pair 
of  glands,  the  ovaries,  with  their  ducts,  the  oviducts,  to- 
gether with  rudimentary  representatives  of  the  external 
sexual  organs  of  the  males. 

The  Testes  and  Vasa  Deferentia. — These  are  two  compact  and 
rather  small  glands,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  caecal  convoluted  tul  >es, 
lying  in  the  dorsal  region  of  the  abdominal  cavity  and  completely 
invested  by  peritoneum,  and  with  a  dense  albugineal  coat  of  their 
own.  From  the  mass  of  tubules  a  certain  variable  number  of 
efferent  tubes,  vasa  elferentia,  come  forth  and  soon  unite  in  the 
single  excretory  duct  of  the  gland,  the  vas  deferens. 

In  the  Ophidia  the  testes  are  not  symmetrically  placed,  the 
right  one  being  somewhat  more  voluminous  and  also  in  front  of 
the  other.  Consequently  the  right  vas  deferens  is  larger  than  the 
left  one.  Each  testis  lies  in  front  of  the  kidney  of  its  own  side, 
and  is  more  or  less  elongated  in  form.  The  vas  deferens  proceeds 
along  the  inner  margin  of  the  testicle,  and  is  a  convoluted  tnl>u 
which  narrows  as  it  proceeds  backwards.  The  opening  into  tliu 


UBOGENITAL   SYSTEM.] 


REPTILES 


463 


cloaca  is  somewhat  oblique,  and  is  situated  in  a  somewhat  funnel- 
shaped  depression  beside  the  opening  of  the  ureter. 

In  the  Lacertilia  the  testes  are  spheroidal  and  almost  symmetri- 
cally placed.  The  vasa  efferentia  come  forth  from  their  inner  side 
and  pass  into  a  canal  lying  in  a  fold  of  peritoneum.  This  canal, 
the  vas  deferens,  begins  caecally  much  in  front  of  the  union  of 
the  vasa  efforentia  with  it,  and  this  anterior  portion  runs  along  the 
ventral  side  of  the  kidney  in  a  fold  of  peritoneum  and  lias  the 
appearance  of  a  knot  of  tubuli  or  of  a  body  transversely  convoluted. 
The  vas  deferens  passes  backwards  in  numerous  close-set  convolu- 
tions, and  often  dilates  towards  its  hinder  end.  It  ultimately 
narrows,  and  opens  on  the  cloaca,  beside  the  ureter,  on  a  small 
papilla. 

The  Clielonia  have  testes  which  lie  somewhat  external  to  the 
kidneys  as  well  as  behind  them.  The  vas  defereiis  terminates  upon 
a  small  papilla  in  the  cloaca,  but  its  proximal  end — anterior  to  the 
junction  with  it  of  the  vasa  efferentia — is  wide,  and  consists  of  a 
very  complicated  mass  of  tubes,  and  it  may  have  (as  in  Chelodina) 
five  or  six  short  caecal  diverticula. 

The  testes  of  the  Crocodilia  are  of  an  elongated  oval  form,  and 
lie  partly  in  front  of  and  partly  on  the  inner  side  of  the  kidneys. 
The  testis  may  be  divided  into  two  portions  connected  together 
dorsally.  The  vasa  efferentia  pass  from  the  outer  border  of  the 
testis  to  a  vas  deferens,  which  has  rather  thick  walls  with  a  marked 
dilatation  towards  its  hinder  end.  It  lies  above  the  peritoneum, 
and  opens  at  its  distal  end  into  a  groove  at  the  base  of  the  penis. 

The  Ovaries  ami  Oviducts. — The  ovaries  are,  as  in  the  class 
Mammals,  the  glands  which  correspond  with  the  testes,  but  which, 
unlike  the  latter,  are  not  composed  of  a  mass  of  tubules,  while  each 
does  not  discharge  its  product  into  a  tube  directly  continuous  with 
it  (as  does  the  testis  into  the  vas  deferens)  but  into  a  tube,  the 
oviduct,  the  distal  end  of  which  is  open  and  discontinuous  with  the 
ovary  save  for  a  broad  fold  of  peritoneum  which  connects  them. 
The  ovaries  always  lie  in  the  dorsal  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity 
enclosed  in  peritoneum. 

In  the  Ophidia  the  ovaries  are,  like  the  testes,  elongated  and 
placed  one  in  advance  of  the  other.  The  right  ovary  is  more 
voluminous,  and  the  right  oviduct  is,  of  course,  the  longer  one. 
The  ova  are  so  arranged  within  them  as  to  form  a  longitudinal 
series.  The  proximal  end  of  each  oviduct  shows  a.  transversely 
expanded  wide  opening.  The  oviduct  passes  backwards  in  con- 
volutions which  are  often  spirally  arranged,  and  it  is  very  extensible, 
being  lined  with  numerous  close-set  effaceable  folds.  The  oviducts 
open  into  the  cloaca  by  a  crescentic  fissure  behind  the  opening  of 
the  rectum. 

In  the  Lacertilia,  except  the  Amphisbrenians  and  probably  some 
other  Serpentiform  Lizards,  the  ovaries  have  not  their  contained 
ova  serially  arranged.  They  may  or  may  not  be  symmetrically 
disposed.  The  oviducts  are  usual!}'  broad  and  spirally  disposed. 
Unstriated  muscular  fibres  often  exist  in  the  folds  of  membrane 
which  support  their  convolutions. 

The  Chelonia  have  ovaries  symmetrically  placed,  often  of  a 
broad  and  flattened  shape.  The  oviduct  varies  much  in  capacity 
in  different  parts  of  its  course.  The  ovaries  of  the  Crocodilia  are  com- 
pact in  structure  and  somewhat  more  advanced  in  position  than  in 
most  Reptiles.  The  oviduct  is  more  uniform  in  diameter  than  in 
the  Chdonia. 

The  External  Generative  Organs.  — As  has  been  already  mentioned, 
all  Reptiles  have  such  external  organs  with  the  exception  of 
Hatteria.  In  the  rest  of  the 
class  we  always  find  such  organs 
connected  with  the  cloaca,  and 
capable  of  being  everted  for  use 
or  retracted  and  hidden  within 
or  behind  that  chamber.  The 
whole  class  is  thus  divisible 
into  two  groups  according  to 
the  bifold  or  azygous  condition 
of  these  parts. 

In  the  Lacertilice and  Ophidia 
they  are  bifold,  and  consist  in 
the  males  of  two  hollow,  inver- 
tible,  imperforate,  cutaneous 
cones  placed  one  on  each  side  of 
the  cloaca,  containing  erectile 
tissue  and  capable  of  being  pro- 
truded or  retracted  by  appro- 
priate muscles.  The  lining  of 
each  cone  is  continuous  both 

with  the  external  skin  of  the  „ 

,      .  .  ,   FIG.  29.—  Male  copulatory  organs  of  Lacer- 

adjacent  parts  and  also  with  *„«?*«<  (after  Lcydijr)  P,Tp2,  organs  of 
the  mucous  lining  of  the  clonca.  right  and  left  sides — between  them  is  the 
A  tortuous  groove  which  begins  anal  aPei't"J'e ;  pp,  preanal  plate, 
within  the  cloaca,  at  the  aperture  of  the  vas  deferens,  is  continued 
on  to  the  apex  of  the  cone.  When  erected  for  use  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  cones,  with  its  grooves,  becomes  the  external  coat 
of  each  copulatory  organ.  In  the  females  there  are  rudimentary 


r 


but  quite  similar  organs,  just  as  in  Mammals  the  clitoris  of  the 
female  is  present  as  the  rudimentary  representative  of  the  penis  of 
the  male.  In  the  Ophidia  these  hollow  penes  may  or  may  not 
bifurcate  distally,  and  if  they  bifurcate  then  the  groove  bifurcates 
also.  The  lining  membrane  of  the  cone  may  be  smooth,  as  in 
Python,  or  spiny,  as  in  Trigonocephalus  and  Crotalus,  or  may  have 
transverse  rows  of  soft  lamellae,  as  in  Boa  marina.  The  Lacertilia, 
like  the  Ophidia,  may  have  each  penis  single  to  its  apex  or  bifur- 
cating distally  with  various  other  minor  modifications  as  to  relative 
size,  the  form  of  the  apex,  and  the  appendages  borne  upon  it.  The 
cones  are  exceptionally  short  in  the  Chamseleons. 

The  male  Chelonia  and  Crocodilia  have  an  azygous  penis,  and  a 
corresponding  rudimentary  structure  exists  in  the  females.  This 
organ  lies  at  the  ventral  wall  of  the  cloaca ;  it  is  not  hollow  or 
evertible,  but  purely  distensible  and  so  erectile.  It  is  therefore  its 
external  coat  which  is  continuous  with  the  lining  of  the  cloaca. 
Muscles  proceeding  from  beneath  the  hinder  trunk  vertebra  are 
inserted  into  it.  The  penis  is  imperforate,  but  two  ridges  are 
continued  on  to  it  from  the  wall  of  the  cloaca,  and  so  form  a  groove, 
and  during  erection  a  temporary  canal,  which  passes  along  it  from 
root  to  apex.  At  its  distal  end  there  is  a  prominence  which, 
though  imperforate,  may  remind  us  of  the  "glans"  of  the  Mam- 
malian penis.  The  whole  body  of  the  organ,  including  this  distal 
prominence,  contains  erectile  tissue.  In  the  Chelonia  the  penis 
may  divide  distally,  and  if  so  the  groove  it  bears  divides  also. 
In  Chelodina  it  has  an  undivided  distal  end  and  two  lateral  pro- 
cesses. In  Trionyx  it  subdivides  distally  into  four  terminal  parts. 
The  penis  of  the  Crocodile  has  a  deep  groove  which  reaches  to 
the  extreme  end  of  the  penis,  a  quasi-glans  projecting  freely 
beneath  it. 

A  few  Reptiles  have  secondary  sexual  characters — notably  the 
Chamseleons,  the  males  of  which  alone  have  the  horns  and  other 
cephalic  appendages 'which  characterize  certain  species.  In  most 
Reptiles,  however,  the  two  sexes  have  hardly  any  distinctive 
external  characters. 

Embryology. 

Most  of  the  Reptilia  are  oviparous,  but  certain  of  the 
Lacertilians  and  many  Ophidians,  notably  Vipers  and 
Sea-Snakes,  hatch  their  eggs  before  they  are  laid  ;  that 
is,  they  are  ovoviviparous.  The  oviduct  supplies  the 
ovum  during  its  exit  with  an  albuminous  investment,  the 
white  of  the  egg,  and  with  a  shell,  or  testa,  which  may  be 
thin  and  flexible,  as  in  the  Lacertilia  and  Ophidia,  or 
hard  and  calcareous,  as  in  the  Crocodilia  and  Chelonia, 
the  eggs  of  which  animals  much  resemble  those  of  Birds. 

.  The  embryo  Reptile  closely  resembles  in  its  general 
features  the  embryo  Bird,  and,  as  the  process  of  develop- 
ment of  the  chick  (which  can  be  so  conveniently  studied) 
is  now  comparatively  thoroughly  well  known  (see  REPRO- 
DUCTION), we  cannot  here  make  more  than  a  cursory 
mention  of  the  leading  structural  changes.  Inasmuch  as 
embryonic  Reptiles  thus  resemble  embryonic  Birds,  it  of 
course  follows  that  they  present  all  those  features  which 
embryonic  Birds  share  with  Vertebrate  animals  generally, 
such  as  the  segmentation  of  the  yolk,  the  resulting  forma- 
tion on  its  surface  of  the  blastoderm,  and  its  division  into 
the  three  germinal  layers.  As  in  Birds,  the  yolk  segmen- 
tation is  meroblastic. 

The  blastoderm  spreads  rapidly  over  the  yolk,  but  before 
it  has  half  enclosed  it  a  pyriform  patch,  the  embryonic 
shield,  or  area  pellucida,  appears  at  its  centre.  The  head 
of  the  embyro  is  formed  at  the  broader  end  of  the  pyriform 
patch.  Towards  its  hinder  end  a  streak  of  the  epiblast 
is  formed,  the  primitive  groove,1  and  then  in  front  of  it 
another  longitudinal  indentation,  the  "  medullary  groove," 
the  walls  of  which  are  the  "  medullary  plates  " ;  and  it  is 
this  groove  and  plates  with  the  parts  immediately  sub- 
jacent which  lay  the  foundation  of  the  developing  body. 
The  lining  of  the  medullary  groove  becomes  the  cerebro- 
spinal  axis,  while  a  longitudinal  cellular  rod  which  is 
formed  beneath  it,  and  which  is  called  the  notochord,  lays 
the  foundation  of  the  future  axial  skeleton  as  far  forward 
as  the  hinder  margin  of  the  cranial  support  of  the  pituitary 
body  of  the  brain.  The  anterior  end  of  the  medullary 

1  Supposed  to  be  an  indication  of  a  form  of  iuvagination  of  the 
germinal  layers  characteristic  of  lower  forms. 


464 


REPTILES 


[ANATOMY. 


groove  shows  serial  enlargements  corresponding  with  the 
successive  portions  of  the  adult  brain,  while  the  medullary 
plates  close  over  the  medullary  groove  and  convert  it  into 
a  canal  which  ultimately  persists  as  the  central  canal  of  the 
spinal  cord  and  the  ventricles  into  which  that  canal  opens 
anteriorly.  The  eyes  arise  as  outgrowths  from  the  brain 
aided  and  modified  by  ingrowths  from  the  surface  of  the 
embryo.  The  ears  and  nasal  organs  arise  mainly  from 
supsrficial  ingrowths.  From  the  tissue  on  either  side  of 
the  notochord  and  medullary  groove  are  gradually  formed 
the  axial  skeleton  of  the  trunk  and  the  muscles  and  other 
structures  adjacent  to  it.  The  sides  of  the  medullary 
plates  bend  down  on  either  side  and  form  the  ventral 
laminae  which  split  longitudinally,  or  they  descend — the 
inner  layer  joining  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side  to 
form  the  alimentary  tube.  The  two  outer  layers  form  the 
lateral  walls  of  the  trunk,  the  space  between  the  two  inner 
and  the  two  outer  layers  constituting  the  first  condition 
of  what  is  subsequently  the  first  peritoneal  cavity. 

The  limbs  first  appear  as  outgrowths  from  the  external 
layers  of  the  ventral  laminae,  but  no  rudiment  of  the 
limbs  seems  ever  to  be  developed  in  the  apodal  Ophidians. 
On  each  side  of  that  region  which  subsequently  becomes 
the  head  and  neck  a  series  of  perforations  successively 
appear,  and  for  the  most  part  disappear,  known  as  the 
visceral  clefts,  while  their  intervals  are  known  as  the 
visceral  arches.  The  only  visceral  cleft  which  ever  per- 
sists in  the  Reptilia  is  that  which  becomes  the  passage 
from  the  inner  end  of  the  Eustachian  tube  to  the  outer 
surface  of  the  tympanic  cavity.  The  foundations  of  the 
skull  are  laid  in  a  cartilaginous  investment  of  the  anterior 
end  of  the  notochord  and  of  the  incipient  membranous 
labyrinth,  whence  two  columnar  prolongations,  the  tra- 
beculae,  pass  forwards  on  either  side  of  the  support  of  the 
pituitary  body.  We  have  seen  the  persistent  nature  of 
these  trabeculaj  in  the  cranium  of  Ophidians.  The  central 
part  of  the  facial  region  of  the  skull  is  formed  by  a  car- 
tilaginous ethmoidal  process  at  the  anterior  end  of  the 
trabecule.  Hence  and  from  the  side  of  the  auditory 
cartilage  cartilaginous  processes  go  forth  which  lay  the 
foundation  of  the  jaws,  palatine  structures,  and  hyoid 
apparatus.  The  circulating  system  in  its  earliest  condition 
is  very  different  from  that  which  ultimately  exists.  At 
first  the  heart  is  not  a  tubular  structure,  but  it  gradually 
folds  and  subdivides  itself.  The  arteries  proceeding  from 
it  (and  the  veins  converging  to  it)  at  first  follow  the 
general  course  of  the  arteries  (and  veins)  of  Fishes  and 
aquatic  breathing  Amphibians.  The  arteries  ascend  within 
the  visceral  arches  to  meet  in  a  dorsal  aorta,  as  they  must 
needs  do  in  the  animals  just  mentioned,  seeing  that  in 
them  it  is  the  visceral  arches  which  become  the  gill-bearing 
structures  wherein  alone  the  blood  is  aerated. 

The  urinary  organs  are  at  first  represented  by  Wolffian 
bodies  only,  which  are  formed  from  beneath  the  dorsal 
region  of  the  body  cavity,  but  subsequently,  as  has  been 
mentioned,  they  become  replaced  by  the  two  kidneys. 
The  sexual  glands  themselves  arise  in  connexion  with  the 
Wolffian  bodies. 

At  a  very  early  stage  of  development  the  embryo  as  it 
were  sinks  into  the  surface  of  the  ovum,  while  a  membrane 
arises  on  all  sides  of  it  meeting  dorsally  over  it,  consti- 
tuting the  embryonic  envelope  known  as  the  amnion. 
From  the  hind  part  of  the  abdominal  region  of  the  embryo 
there  also  grows  forth  a  vesicle  which,  becoming  greatly 
enlarged  and  richly  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  spreads 
itself  out  on  all  sides  just  within  the  egg  shell,  and  serves 
as  the  organ  of  respiration  for  the  embryo.  This  directly 
respiratory  structure  is  the  allantois.  The  ventral  surface 
of  the  embryo  remains  long  open  and  connected  with  the 
ever-diminishing  remains  of  the  food  yolk.  As  this 


ventral  surface  closes  in,  the  remains  of  the  yolk  or  vitellus 
become  connected  with  the  alimentary  canal,  but  l»y  a 
very  narrow  tube  called  the  vitelline  duct.  Before  the 
process  of  development  is  complete,  however,  the  last 
remains  of  the  yolk  become  absorbed  and  taken  up,  and  * 
the  abdominal  wall  is  finally  closed. 

Space  does  not  here  allow  of  more  than  this  brief  indication  of 
some  of  the  leading  facts  of  bodily  development.  "We  cannot 
attempt  to  describe  the  complex  processes  of  ossification  by  which 
the  first  foundations  of  the  skeleton,  and  especially  of  the  skull, 
become  differentiated  into  its  manifold  component  bones.  For  an 
account  of  this  process,  and  of  all  the  other  details  of  embryonic 
development,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  valuable  treatises  to  be 
found  enumerated  in  the  following  list  of  herpetological  works. 

GENERAL  WORKS  ON  THE  ANATOMY  OF  REITILES.— Cuvier,  Lecons  d'Anat. 
Comp.,  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1835;  Meckel,  System  d.  Vergl.  Anal.,  Halle,  1821;  Dumdiil 
and  liibron,  Erpe'tologie  Generate,  Paris,  1834-54;  Joh.  Miiller,  "  Beitriigc  zur 
Anat.  u.  Karurgcsfh.  d.  Ampliibicn, '  in  Ztschr.  f.  Physiologic,  vol.  iv.  pt.  2.  1  ^•'•••2; 
Rymer  Jones,  art.  "Reptilia,"  in  Todd's  Cyclopxdia,  vol.  iv.,  1852;  Staniiiiis, 
Amphibian,  Devlin,  1856;  Owen,  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,  vol.  i.,  1866;  Huxley, 
Anatomy  of  Vertebrate  Animals,  1871;  C.  K.  Hoffmann,  in  Bronn's  Thierreich, 
vol.  vi.,  div.  3;  Gegenbaur,  Grundrifs  d.  Vergl.  Anat.,  2d  ed.,  1877  (Eng.  tr., 
Elements  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  1878). 

OSTEOLOGY. — Cuvier,  Ossemens  Fossiles,  4th  ed.,  Paris,  1834;  De  Blainville, 
Osteographie — Crocodilus,  <fec.,  1855;  K.  Hnllmann,  Vergl.  Osteolog.  des  Schld- 
fenbeins,  1837  ;  Rbstlin,  Der  Ilau  des  knochemen  Kopfes,  StJttgart,  1844  ;  Giebel, 
"Skeletd.  Kvokodile,"  in  Giebel's  Ztsch.  f.  d.  Ges.  Naturw.,  1877;  Klein,  "Skull 
of  Crocodile,"  in  Jahreshefte  d.  Vereins  fur  Vaterl.  Naturk.  in  Wiirttemberg,  19ter 
Jahvg.;  Pavker,  Shoulder  Girdle  of  Vertebrates,  Ray  Society,  1868  ;  Id.,  "  Skull 
of  Lacertilia,"  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  clxx.,  1879;  Id.,  "Skull  of  Snake," Phil.  Trans., 
vol.  clxix.,  pt.  2,  1878  ;  Id.,  "Skull  of  Turtle,"  Proc.  Hoy.  Soc.,  vol.  xxviii.,  1879, 
and  Challenger  Reports,  vol.  i.,  1880;  Id.,  "Skull  of  Chamscleo,"  Trans.  Zoo}. 
Soc.,  vol.  xi.,  18SO ;  B.  Balfour,  "Skull  of  Mecistops,"  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1857,  p.57, 
pi.  25 ;  C.  Gegenbaur,  Untersuch.  z.  Vergl.  Anat.  d.  Wirbelthiere  (1  lift.,  "  Carpus 
und  Tarsus,"  1864 ;  2  lift.,  "  Schultergiirtel,"  1865) ;  Id.,  "  Gliedmassen  d.  Wirbel- 
tliieve,"  in  Aforph.  Jahrb.,  ii.,  p.  397,  1876;  If.  FUvbringer,  D.  Knochen  u. 
Alusteln  v.  d.  schlangenahnlichen  Sauriern,  Leipsic,  1870;  Id.,  Morph.  Jahrb., 
i.  p.  631,  1876  ;  Gorski,  Ueber  das  Becken  der  Saurier,  Dorpat,  1852 ;  C.  H. 
IJrUlil,  Skelet  der  Krokodiliner  dargesteltt  in  SO  Tafeln,  1862 ;  C.  Bora, 
"  Cavpus  und  Tarsus  d.  Sauvier,"  in  Morphol.  Jahrb.,  ii.,  p.  1,  1870;  H. 
Steckev,  "Carpus  und  Tarsus  v.  Chameleon."  in  Sitzb.  d.  Kaiserl.  Akad.  d.  Wis- 
sensch. Wien,  Ixxv.,  1  Abth.,  1877;  P.  Albrccht,  "  Dinosauvia,"  in  Hull,  du  Mus. 
Roy.  dllist.  Nat.  de  Belgique,  1883-84;  P.  Gevvais,  "  Ostdol.  du  Sphargis," 
in  Nouv.  Archives  du  Mas.,  1872,  viii. ;  C.  K.  Hoffmann,  "  Beitvage  z.  Kenntniss 
d.  Beckens  bei  den  Reptilicn,"  in  Niederl.  Archiv  f.  Zool.,  iii.,  1876 ;  H. 
Rathke,  Ueber  d.  Ban  u.  Entwickl.  d.  Brustbeins  d.  Saurier,  1854  ;  W.  Peters, 
"On  the  Ear  Bones,"  in  Monatsb.  d.  Konigl.  Preuss.  Akad.  d.  Wissench.  z. 
Berlin,  1868-69-70-74 ;  Huxley,  "  Ear  Bones,"  in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  I860,  p.  391 ; 
Id.,  "Dinosauria,"  in  Quart.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  July  1870;  Id.,  "  Archceopteryx," 
Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  No.  98,  ISC  ;  Id.,  "Malleus  and  Incus,"  Proc.  Geol.  Soc.,  1869,  391; 
Owen,  A  History  of  British  Fossil  Reptiles,  1849;  Id.,  "Carapace  and  Plastron 
of  Chelonians,"  Phil.  Trans.,  1849,  pt.  1 ;  Id.,  Pterodactyles  (volume  of  Palteontp- 
praphieal  Society  for  1869);  Id.,  Catalogue  of  Fossil  Reptilia  of  S.  Africa  in  Brit. 
Mus.,  1876;  Id.,  "Tympanum  and  Palate  of  Crocodilia," Phil.  Trans.,  1850  ;  Id., 
"  Archseoptevyx,"  Phil.  Trans.,  1863  ;  Id.,  "  Permian  Theriodonts,"  Quart.  Jour. 
Geol.  Soc.,  August  1876;  " Mosasauridx,"  ibid.,  Nov.  1877  ;  Id.,  "  Cynodraco," 
ibid..  May  1876  ;  Id.,  "Dinosaurian  Vertebra;,"  ibid.,  July  1876;  H.  Seeley,  "  Limb 
of  Ophthalmosaurus,"  Quart.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  Dec.  1874;  Id.,  "  Plesiosauvian 
Pectoral  Arch,"  ibid.,  Nov.  1874;  Id..  "Chelonians,"  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist., 
Oct.  1871;  Id.,  "On  Dimorphodon,"  ibid.,  Oct.  1871;  A.  Gaudvy,  "Permian 
Reptiles,"  in  Bull.  Soc.  Geol.  France.  3  ser.,  vii.  p.  62,  1873;  Cope,  "Extinct 
Reptilia,"  Trans.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  1868-69;  Id.,  "  Homologies  of  Cranial  Bones 
of  Reptilia,"  B.  Nat.  Hist.,  p.  194;  Vogt,  "  Avchaeoptevyx,"  Rev.  Sci.,  ser.  2, 
ix.  p.  241,  1879;  0.  C.  Marsh,  "  Mosasauroid  Reptiles,"  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  and 
Art,  vol.  iii.,  1872,  and  vol.  xix.,  Jan.  18SO  ;  Id.,  "Ptcvosauria,"  ibid.,  April  1872  ; 
Id.,  "Dinosaurs,"  Und.,  vol.  xvi.,  Nov.  1878,  vol.  xvii.,  Jan.  1879,  vol.  xix.,  March 
and  May  1880,  and  vol.  xxi.,  July  1881. 

MYOLOGY. — H.  Buttmann.  De  Musculis  Crocodili  (Diss.  Inaug.),  Halle,  1826 ; 
S.  Haughton,  "  Muscles  of  Crocodile,"  Proc.  Roy.  Irish  Acad.,  vol.  ix.,  1866  ;  G. 
Rolleston,  "Shoulder  Muscles,"  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.,  vol.  xxvi.  p.  009,  1868;  N. 
Furbrineer,  D.  Knochen  11.  Muskeln  v.  d.  schlangenahnlichen  Sauriern,  Leipsic, 
1870;  Id.,  Morph.  Jahrb.,  i.  p.  631,  1876;  Hans  Gadow,  "  Bauchmuskcln 
d.  Kvokodile,"  Aforphol.  Jahrb.,  vii.  p.  67;  Gorski,  Ueber  das  Becken  der 
Saurier,  Dorpnt,  1852  ;  St  G.  Mivart,  "Muscles  of  Iguana,"  in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc., 
1867,  p.  766;  Id.,  "Muscles  of  Chamseleo,"  in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1870,  p.  850; 
A.  Sanders,  "Muscles  of  Platydactylus,"  in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1870,  p.  413;  Id., 
"  Muscles  of  Liolepis,"  in  Proc.  Zool.  Socn  1872,  p.  154 ;  Id.,  "  Sluscles  of  Pteryo- 
sauva,"  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1874,  p.  71  ;  Humphrey,  "  Muscles  of  Pscudopus,"  i" 
Jour,  of  Anat.  and  Physiol.,  vol.  vi.,  1872. 

VISCEHAL  ANATOMY.— Ilulke,  "  Retina  of  Reptiles,"  Jour.  A nat.  and  PJitifioL, 
vol.  i.,  1867;  C.  Stewart,  "  Lacrymal  Gland  of  Turtle,"  Monthly  Microsc.  Jotir., 
1877,  p.  241;  M.  Braun,  "  Urogenitnl  System  d.  einheimischen  Reptilien,"  in 
Arbeit  en  und  Zool.  Jour.  Inst.  Wurzburg.  iv.  113-228.  1877;  Briioke,  "  Me- 
chanik  d.  Kreislaufes  b.  d.  S<-hildkroten,"  (iitzb.  der  Kaiserl.  Akad.  d,  Wissensch. 
Wien,  416,  1850 ;  Id.,  Denkschrift  d.  Wiener  Akad.,  Iii.,  1852,  p.  335 ;  G. 
I-'iitsch,  "Amphibienherzen,"  in  Rcirhert  und  Dubois  Reymond's  Archiv,  p.  i!54, 
1869  ;  Jacquart,  "  Coeur  de  la  Tortue,"  Ann.  des  Sc.  Nat.,  4th  sev.,  vol.  xvi.  p. 
303,  1861;  J.  Miiller,  "Die  Lymphherzen  der  Schildkroten,"  in  Abhandl.  d. 
Kb'nigl.  Akad.  d.  Wissensch.  z.  Berlin,  1839,  p.  31  ;  M.  Braun,  "  Ban  u.  Entwick. 


Physiol. ;  P.  Gervais,  "Dents  de  I'HclodeiTncs  et  des  Ophidiens,"  in  Archiir*  <l. 
Zool.  Experim.,  1873,  pi.  6;  Ch.  S.  Minot,  "Studies  on  the  Tongue  of  Rcptil.-s 
and  Birds,"  in  Annivers.  Mem.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist..  1880  ;  Bischoff,  "  Bau  des 
Crocodilherzens,"  in  Muller's  Archir,  1836;  G.  Fritsch,  "Verglcich.  Anar.  d. 
Amphibienherzen,"  in  Reichert  und  Dubois  Reymond's  Archiv,  1869;  C.  S. 
Tomes,  "Development  of  Teeth  in  Reptiles,"  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  93  ; 
Id.,  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  clxv.,  pt.  1;  Id.,  ibid.,  vol.  clxvi.,  pt.  2. 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  ORGANS  OF  SENSE.— R.  Ruckherd,  "  Ccntralnerven- 
Bystem  d.  Alligators,"  in  Ztsch.  f.  Wissensch.  Zool.,  xxx.  p.  336,  1878;  C. 
Vogt,  "  Neurologic  d.  Reptilien,"  in  Neue  Denkschr.  d.  AUgem.  Schweiz. 
Gesellsch.  f.  d.  Gesammten  Wissensc>,aften,  xiv.,  Neuohfttel,  1840 ;  J.  G. 
Fischer,  Gehirnnerven  d.  Saurier,  Hamburg,  1852;  St  G.  Mivart  and  R.  Clarke, 
"  Sacralplexus  of  Lizards,"  &c.,  in  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.,  2d  ser..  Zool.,  vol.  i.,  1877 ; 


DISTRIBUTION   IN   TIME.] 


REPTILES 


465 


Deiters,  "Gehb'rorgan  d.  Amphibien,"  in  Archiv  f.  Anat.  und  Physiol.,  1862; 
Kuhn,  "Hautige  Labyrinth  d.  Reptilien,"  Archiv  f.  Mikroskop.  Anat.,  xx., 
p.,271, 1881 ;  B.  Solger,  "  Nasen-Wandung  u.  Nasen-Muscheln  d.  Rcptilien,''  in 
Morphol.  Jahrb.,  i.  p.  467,  1876;  E.  Clason,  "Morphol.  d.  Gehororgans  <d. 
Eideclisen,"  in  C.  Hasse's  Anat.  Studien,  p.  300,  1879;  C.  Hasse,  in  his  Anat. 
Studien,  p.  679,  1873. 

EMBRYOLOGY. — F.  Balfour,  Comparative  Embryology,  vol.  ii.  pp.  167-176;  Id., 
"  Development  of  Lacertilia,"  Quart.  Jour.  Micr.  Sci.,  vol.  xix.,  1879  ^Eimer, 
"Unters.  d.  Eier  der  Reptilien,"  Archiv  f.  Mikros.  Anat.,  viii.,  1872; 
Kupffer  and  Benecke,  "Die  Erste  Entwickiung  am  Ei  d.  Reptilien,  Kb'nigsberg, 
1878 ;  Emmert  and  Hoclutetter,  "  Unters.  iib.  d.  Entwick.  d.  Eiclechsen,"  lieil's 
;  Archiv,  vol.  x.,  1811;  Lereboullet,  "  Embryologie  du  Le"zard,"  Ann.  Sc.  Nat., 
ser.  4,  vol.  xxvii.,  1862  ;  H.  Rathke,  Entwickl.  d.  Natter,  Konigsberg,  1839  ;  Id., 
Ueber  d.  Entwickelung  d.  Schildkroten,  Brunswick,  1848 ;  Id.,  Ueber  d.  Entwickelung 
d.  Krokodile,  Brunswick,  1866  ;  Id.,  Die  Entwickelung  u.  Korperbau  d.  Crocodile, 
Brunswick,  18(56;  L.  Agassiz,  "Embryology  of  the  Turtle,"  in  Contrib.  Nat. 
Hist.  United  States,  vol.  ii.,  1857. 

MONOGRAPHS. — Bojanus,  Anatome  Testudinis  Europium,  1819;  Tiedemann, 
Anat.  u.  Natwgesch.  des  Drachens,  Nuremberg,  1811;  Gunther,  "  Hatteria,"  Phil. 
Trans.,  18t;7,  pt.  2;  Id.,  "Gigantic  Land  Tortoises,"  Phil.  Trans.,  clxv.,  pt. 
1  ;  Id.,  Gigantic  Land  Tortoises  in  British  Museum,  1877  ;  A,  Fritsch,  "Anat.  d. 
Elephanten-Scliildkrote,"  in  Abhand.  d.  Konigl.  Bbhm.  Gesellsch.  d.  Wissen- 
schaften ;  M.  Salverda,  Vergel.  Ontleedk.  Aanieekeningen  over  Calotes,  1863  ;  J. 
H.  Troschel,  "  Heloderma  horridum,"  in  Archie  f.  Naturg.,  Jahrg.  19, 1853,  p.  294; 
Peters,  De  Serpentum  Familia  Uropeltaceorum,  Berlin,  1861.  (ST  G.  M.) 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  REPTILES  IN  TIME. 

ai  m-       The  first  appearance  of  Reptiles  on  the  surface  of  the 

ons    globe  is  indicated  by  very  fragmentary  remains.     Speci- 

'r;>     mens  of  deeply  biconcave  vertebrae  of  Carboniferous  age 

from  Nova  Scotia  are  believed  to  be  those  of  a  marine 

Saurian    (Eosaurus  acadianus);   if   this   view  is  correct, 

this  oldest  of  Reptiles  would  bear  the  stamp  of  one  of  the 

most  Fish-like  of  the  class. 

run.  Formations  of  Permian  age  in  North  America  as  well 
as  in  Europe  contain  fossils  with  undoubtedly  Reptilian 
characters ;  they  are  still  associated  with  true  Labyrintho- 
donts,  and  with  remains  which  are  too  fragmentary  to 
be  assigned  with  certainty  either  to  Labyrinthodonts  or 
Reptiles.  The  vertebrae  of  all  are  amphicoelous.  These 
Reptiles  are  Rhynchocephalians, — the  oldest  and  best 
preserved  being  Proterosaurus  from  the  Copper-Slate  of 
Thuringia,  a  Reptile  about  six  feet  in  length,  with  a  com- 
paratively long  neck  (which,  however,  was  composed  of 
seven  or  nine  vertebrae  only),  with  numerous  abdominal 
splints,  a  long  tail,  and  well  developed  and  differentiated 
limbs. 

i  .oic.  In  the  Mesozoic  times  the  Reptilian  type  appears  in 
such  variety  and  in  such  a  high  state  of  development  that 
this  era  has  been  distinguished  as  the  "  Reptilian  age." 
Yet  we  know  chiefly  such  forms  only  as  possessed  bones  of 
a  size  and  solidity  sufficient  to  ensure  their  preservation. 
Of  small  Reptiles,  animals  under  or  scarcely  exceeding 
two  feet  in  length,  comparatively  few  have  been  discovered, 
although  they  too  must  have  existed  in  abundance.  In 
i;ic.  the  Trias  there  appear  first  of  the  marine  Saurians  large 
Sauropterygians  with  narrow  ossifications  between  the 
vacuities  of  the  skull,  such  as  Simosaurus,  Nothosaurus, 
and  Pistosaurus  from  the  German  Muschelkalk.  The 
highly  interesting  genus  Neusticosaurus,  the  smallest  of 
the  group,  with  the  four  limbs  modified  into  paddles,  but 
with  the  hind  limbs  retaining  the  structure  of  those  of  a 
terrestrial  animal,  seems  to  afford  evidence  of  this  order 
having  been  developed  from  a  terrestrial  type.  Fragments 
of  true  Plesiosaurus  and  Ichthyosaurus  begin  to  appear  in 
the  Rhaetic  bone  beds  of  England.  Also  the  Placodonts, 
the  systematic  affinities  of  which  are  not  yet  satisfactorily 
understood,  are  contemporaries  of  these  early  Enalio- 
saurians.  The  precursors  of  our  Crocodiles  were  two 
genera,  Belodon  and  Steganolepis,  with  dorsal  scutes,  but 
with  amphiccelian  vertebrae  and  anterior  choanae,  neither 
palatines  nor  pterygoids  being  dilated  into  the  osseous 
palate  which  is  characteristic  of  later  Crocodiles.  Another 
order,  the  Anomodontia,  flourished  and  died  in  this  epoch  ; 
some  fifteen  genera  have  been  distinguished,  all  from  the 
South-African  Trias ;  however,  this  type  is  probably  also 
represented  in  Russian  formations  of  the  same  age. 
Rhynchocephalians  continue  in  several  genera  in  Euro- 
pean and  American  strata.  But  the  largest  of  terrestrial 


Reptiles  belonged  to  the  Dinosaurs,  whose  presence  in 
numerous  species  belonging  to  distinct  groups,  some  with 
three,  others  with  five  toes  to  the  hind  feet,  is  testified  by 
their  osseous  remains  as  well  as  by  the  tracks  of  their  hind 
feet,  which  they  left  during  their  bipedal  progression  over 
stiff  mud.  These  Triassic  Dinosaurs  were  chiefly  herbi- 
vorous, arid  already  much  more  numerous  in  North  America 
than  in  Europe  (Zandodon). 

This  Reptilian  fauna  continued  to  flourish  in  the  Jurassic  Jurassic, 
period ;  the  types  of  the  Trias  increased  in  variety ;  still 
more  gigantic  forms  were  developed ;  and  new  orders  which 
were  absent  in  the  preceding  period  were  added.  Of  the 
marine  Saurians  alone  some  fifty  species  are  known  from 
European  formations :  the  Ichthyosauri  inhabited  chiefly 
the  northern  seas  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  were  re- 
placed in  the  western  by  Reptiles  of  similar  structure  and 
size,  but  without  teeth  (Sauranodon) ;  the  Sauropterygians 
have  considerably  advanced  beyond  their  Triassic  precursors 
in  having  more  solidly  ossified  skulls,  and  are  also  repre- 
sented by  a  greater  number  of  genera  in  America  as  well 
as  Europe ;  of  Plesiosaurus  alone  some  twelve  species  are 
known  from  the  Lias  and  seven  from  the  Oolite.  Ptero-  , 

dactyles  make  their  first  appearance.  Crocodilians  have 
developed  into  the  "  Mesosuchian "  type,  their  palatine 
bones  being  prolonged,  pushing  the  choanae  backwards  to 
the  middle  of  the  under  surface  of  their  skull,  but  their 
vertebrae  are  still  amphiccelian ;  they  appear  in  numerous 
genera  (Teleosaurus)  and  species.  Terrestrial  Reptiles  keep 
pace  in  development  with  the  marine  and  freshwater  types  ; 
the  giants  of  the  order  of  Dinosaurs  have  left  their  remains 
in  a  more  or  less  perfect  condition  in  the  Jurassic  strata 
of  both  hemispheres  (Cetiosaurus,  Atlantosaurus,  Iguan- 
odon,  Morosaurus,  Apatosaurus)  ;  forms  with  three  toes  on 
the  hind  feet  lived  simultaneously  with  four-  or  five-toed 
ones ;  carnivorous  types  (Megalosaurus,  Creosaurus,  &c.) 
represent  in  habit  as  well  as  relative  size  Mammalian  Carni- 
vora;  they  preyed  upon  the  gigantic  but  weaker  members 
of  the  order.  The  Dinosaurian  type  extended  also  into  the 
southern  hemisphere,  as  is  testified  by  the  West- Australian 
genus  Deuterosaurus.  The  Chelonians,  which  appear  first 
in  the  Upper  Keuper,  are  in  the  Lias  of  highly  advanced 
types,  and  not  essentially  different  from  recent  families ; 
they  occur  in  many  localities  of  Europe  as  Freshwater 
Turtles,  chiefly  ChelydidsK ;  but  Emydidse,  are  also  repre- 
sented, showing,  however,  a  less  solid  ossification  of  the 
carapace  than  the  recent  forms.  No  distinct  evidence  of 
the  presence  of  Marine  Turtles  and  Trionyx  has  been 
found  hitherto  in  Jurassic  formations. 

This  abundance  of  Reptilian  life  not  only  continues  in  Creta- 
the  Cretaceous  period,  but  is  still  more  increased  in  ceous. 
variety  and  reaches  its  highest  point  of  culmination.  Ich- 
thyopterygians  and  Sauropterygians  reached  an  enormous 
size  ;  Discosaurus,  with  a  neck  22  feet  long  and  composed 
of  sixty  vertebrae,  must  have  been  the  most  formidable 
enemy  to  the  Fishes  of  the  sea.  Moreover  these  large 
Saurians  which  survived  from  the  preceding  period  were 
now  joined  by  a  new  type  of  marine  monsters  with  a 
Snake-like  body  and  very  short  extremities,  the  Mosa- 
saurians,  which  attained  to  a  length  of  from  10  to  80  feet 
and  veritably  filled  the  place  of  Sea-Serpents.  Although 
their  skull  exhibits  not  a  few  Ophidian  characters,  their 
genetic  relation  to  that  order  is  not  by  any  means  proved. 
They  were  most  numerous  in  the  western  hemisphere, 
some  forty  American  species  referable  to  many  genera 
having  been  described  by  North- American  authors ;  in 
Europe  they  are  comparatively  scarce.  On  the  other  hand 
no  less  than  fifteen  species  of  Pterodactyles  are  known 
from  European  formations,  all  armed  with  formidable 
teeth,  whilst  the  gigantic  Pterodactyles  of  North  America 
are,  with  one  exception,  toothless.  Together  with  the  sur- 

XX.  -  59 


REPTILES 


[GEOGRAPHICAL 


viving  Mesosuchian  Crocodiles  of  the  Jurassic  period 
Gavial-like  forms  existed,  and  genera  with  posterior  choanie 
and  proccelous  vertebrae  (Eusuchians), — among  them  a 
true  Crocodile  from  the  Cambridge  Upper  Greensand. 
The  western  hemisphere  exceeded  the  eastern  as  regards 
the  abundance  of  Dinosaurians  in  this  period  still  more 
than  in  the  preceding,  although  it  should  be  remembered 
that  of  the  latter  part  of  the  globe  in  fact  only  a  small 
portion  has  been  opened  up,  and  that  the  little  we  know 
of  the  geology  of  Central  Asia  and  western  China  points 
to  the  probability  of  vast  palseontological  treasures  being 
reserved  for  the  study  of  future  generations.  Rhynchoce- 
phalian  genera  continue  in  considerable  variety,  whilst 
other  small-sized  forms  are  referred  to  the  Lacertilians. 
The  types  of  Freshwater  Turtles  which  lived  in  the 
Jurassic  period  pass  into  the  Cretaceous.  They  appear 
now  also  in  North- American  strata :  CJielydidas  first,  ac- 
companied or  immediately  followed  by  Emydidse,  a  few 
Trionyx  and  Chtlonia,  and  the  remarkable  Protostega,  a 
precursor  of  Sphargis.  Towards  the  end  of  the  Cretaceous 
period  its  abundant  Reptilian  life  is  swept  away,  and  not 
only  every  species  but  almost  every  Mesozoic  genus  dis- 
appears, a  wide  gap  being  left  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
succession  of  Reptilian  life  between  this  period  and  the 
Tertiary  era. 

ertiary.  In  the  lowermost  strata  of  Tertiary  age  a  few  isolated 
remains  remind  us  still  of  the  extinct  Mesozoic  fauna ;  such 
are  one  or  two  genera  allied  to  the  Dinosaurians  (Agathau- 
mas)  from  the  Laramic  beds  of  North  America.  In  other 
respects  the  Tertiary  Reptiles  bear  already  the  character 
of  the  present  fauna ;  although  families  or  genera  which 
are  distinct  from  the  living  predominate  in  the  Eocene, 
from  the  Miocene  Reptiles  gradually  approach  more  and 
more  the  specific  forms  of  our  time.  True  Crocodiles 
(of  which  one  species  occurred  already  in  the  Cretaceous 
period),  Gavials,  Alligators  have  now  entirely  superseded 
the  "Mesosuchian"  type.  The  remains  of  Lacertilians 
are  fragmentary  and  generally  indistinct,  so  as  to  offer  a 
wide  field  for  generic  distinctions.  Anguidae  have  been 
distinctly  traced  back  to  the  Miocene  of  North  America. 
With  a  single  exception,  that  of  a  poisonous  Serpent, 
apparently  a  Viperct,  the  remains  of  which  have  been 
found  in  Miocene  deposits  at  Sansan  (south  of  France), 
Snakes  do  not  appear  before  the  Eocene,  in  England  as  well 
as  North  America  ;  they  are  mostly  large  species,  with  un- 
certain affinities,  but  all  innocuous  (Palseophis,  Dinophis, 
Boavus,  Lithophis).  Their  remains  are  scarce,  and  even 
those  of  the  later  Tertiary  formations  show  a  greater 
resemblance  to  genera  which  are  now-a-days  locally  far 
removed  than  to  those  living  in  the  same  geographical 
district.  Chelonian  remains  are  numerous  throughout, 
probably  on  account  of  the  resistance  which  their  solid 
carapaces  offered  to  destructive  agencies.  Chelydidsz, 
Emydidx,  and  Trionycidx  and  also  Marine  Turtles  con- 
tinue to  exist  in  an  almost  uninterrupted  series,  and 
approach  so  much  the  modern  genera  that,  for  instance,  in 
Trionyx,  if  specific  distinctions  existed  between  Miocene 
and  recent  species,  they  cannot  be  determined  in  those 
parts  of  their  skeleton  which  have  been  preserved.  A 
peculiar  type  intermediate  between  the  Marine  Turtles  and 
Emys  existed  in  the  English  Eocene  (Chelone).  Land 
Tortoises,  the  most  specialized  type  of  the  order,  probably 
did  not  appear  before  the  Miocene.  A  number  of  smaller 
forms  are  referable  to  the  genus  Testudo,  but  gigantic 
forms  existed  then  as  now  in  isolated  localities,  and 
exceeded  in  size  the  living,  like  the  Colossochelys  of  the 
Shvalik  Hills,  with  a  carapace  computed  to  be  20  feet 
long,  and  the  smaller  Macrochelys  from  the  German 
Molasse.  It  is  extremely  singular  that  the  existence  of 
these  colossal  Chelonians  would  seem  to  coincide  with  the 


period  of  the  first  appearance  of  the  type  of  Land  Tor- 
toises. 

Of  the  first  appearance  of  most  of  the  families  of  the  Qnater 
recent  fauna,  and  of  their  distribution  in  the  Quaternary  "-iry. 
period,1  we  know  next  to  nothing.     With  few  exceptions 
the  Reptilian  type  had  dwindled  to  forms  of  such  small 
size  that  their  remains,  if  preserved,  escape  observation  cr 
are  too  indistinct  for  determination. 

THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  EXISTING  REPTILES  OVER  THE 
EARTH'S  SURFACE. 

Serious  obstacles  present  themselves  at  the  present  time  Geo- 
to  a  satisfactory  treatment  of  the  geographical  distribution  graphs 
of  Reptiles.  We  have  mentioned  at  the  end  of  the  ^! 
preceding  section  that  the  geological  record  is  much  too 
incomplete  to  permit  a  comparison  to  be  drawn  between 
their  distribution  in  the  present  and  next  preceding 
periods,  and  that  we  are  therefore  ignorant  as  to  the 
modes  in  which  their  dispersal  was  brought  about,  and 
unable  to  account  otherwise  than  hypothetically  for  the 
numerous  instances  of  apparently  anomalous  distribution. 
And,  when  we  limit  ourselves  merely  to  the  task  of  describ- 
ing the  facts  of  their  distribution  at  the  present  day,  it  is 
necessary  for  such  an  attempt  that  the  whple  class  should 
have  previously  undergone  a  thorough  rearrangement  in 
accordance  with  the  present  state  of  science,  and  that  the 
scattered  contributions  to  the  various  faunae  should  have 
been  critically  examined  and  treated  by  the  same  uniform 
method.  This  is  unfortunately  not  the  case  with  the  class 
of  Reptilia.  The  systems  and  lists  of  Lacertilia  and  Ophidia 
which  formed  the  bases  for  the  treatises  on  the  geographi- 
cal distribution  of  these  orders  by  Schlegel,  Giinther,  and 
Wallace  are  buried  under  an  accumulation  of  an  immense 
number  of  additions  of  very  different  value,  which  require 
a  uniform  critical  revision  before  they  can  be  used  in  an 
inquiry  of  a  general  biological  scope.2 

In  the  following  notes  we  have  been  able  to  include  the  majority 
of  the  genera  of  Chelonians  and  Ophidians,  with  an  approximate 
estimate  of  the  species  of  each  that  are  known  at  present.  As 
regards  the  former  Strauch3  has  done  much  to  clear  the  way, 
although  the  small  amount  of  materials  known  to  him  from 
autopsy  interfered  much  with  his  critical  judgment.  Not  many 
additions  have  been  made  to  this  order  since  the  time  of  the 
publication  of  his  memoirs.  Of  the  numerous  Ophidian  genera 
and  species  we  have  eliminated  all  which  are  based  on  trivial 
distinctions,  or  are  named  by  authors  without  special  acquaintance 
with  the  subject.  We  have  not  entered  into  a  full  consideration 
of  Lacertilian  genera,  as  this  would  have  been  useless  at  a  time 
when  they  are  undergoing  a  revision,  but  have  restricted  ourselves 
to  the  families  recently  proposed  by  Boulenger. 

One  of  the  most  important  results  obtained  by  this 
inquiry  is  that  the  same  arrangement  of  the  so-called 
primary  zoological  regions  is  not  applicable  to  all  orders 
of  Reptiles,  and  that  the  differences  in  their  distribution 
are  so  fundamental  that  they  can  be  accounted  for  only 
on  the  assumption  of  the  various  orders  and  families 
having  appeared  and  spread  over  the  globe  at  very  distant 
periods,  when  land  and  water  were  differently  distributed 
over  the  surface  of  the  globe.  At  the  end  of  this  section 
we  shall  show  in  a  short  re'sume^  the  mutual  relations 
between  the  various  regions  with  respect  to  the  several 
orders  of  Reptiles. 

The  means  of  dispersal  of  Reptiles  are   very  limited. 

1  An  important  memoir  on  Indian  Chelonia  is  published  whilst  this 
article  is  passing  through  the  press,  "  Siwalik  and  Narbada  Chelonia, " 
by  B.  Lydekker,  in  Palseontol.  Ind.,  vol.  iii.  ser.  x.,  1885. 

2  Whilst  this  article  is  being  written,  the  Lacertilia  are  undergoing 
the  much-needed  arrangement  by  Boulenger  (as  mentioned  at  p.  439), 
who  also  has  recently  published  preliminary  notes  on  the  distribution 
of  the  families  of  Lacertilians,  which  have  been  of  great  use  to  the 
present  writer  (Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  August  1885,  p.  77). 

8  " Chelonologische  Studieu,"  and  "Die  Verbreitung  der  Schild- 
kroten  iiber  den  Erdball,"  in  M$moires  de  PAcad.  de  St  PStersb.,  1862 
and  1865. 


DISTRIBUTION.] 


REPTILES 


467 


They  are  much  specialized  in  their  mode  of  life  and  pro- 
pagation, and  ill  adapted  to  accommodate  themselves  to 
a  change  of  external  conditions.  As  air-breathing  cold- 
blooded animals  they  are  unable  to  withstand  prolonged 
cold ;  they  are  therefore  entirely  absent  in  the  arctic  and 
antarctic  zones  ;  and  such  as  escape  the  effect  of  the  winter 
months  in  temperate  zones  by  passing  them  in  a  torpid 
condition  in  well-sheltered  places  are  not  peculiarly 
organized  forms,  but  offshoots  from  those  inhabiting 
warmer  climes.  The  tropical  and  subtropical  zones  are  the 
real  home  of  the  Eeptilian  type,  which  there  has  reached 
its  greatest  development  as  regards  size  and  variety  of 
forms.  In  the  north  Chelonians  advance  only  to  50°  lat.  in 
the  western  and  to  56°  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  Lizards 
to  about  56°  in  British  Columbia,  and  close  to  the  Arctic 
Circle  in  Europe,  whilst  Snakes  disappear  some  degrees 
before  the  Lizards.  Also  in  the  south  Lizards  extend  into 
higher  latitudes  than  Snakes,  viz.,  to  the  Straits  of  Ma- 
gellan, whilst  the  latter  do  not  seem  to  have  advanced 
beyond  40°  S.  lat.  and  Chelonians  only  to  36°. 

We  exclude  from  our  account  of  the  distribution  of 
terrestrial  Reptiles  those  few  forms  which  pass  almost  the 
whole  of  their  life  in  the  sea,  and  therefore  belong  to  the 
marine  faunae,  viz.,  the  Marine  Turtles  and  Sea-Snakes. 

1.  The  shores  of  the  continents  and  islands  of  the  equatorial 
zone   are   the  home   of  the  Marine   Turtles.      Endowed  with   a 
wonderful  power  of  locomotion,  the  several  species  are  now  distri- 
buted over  the  greater  part  of  this  zone,  occurring  in  the  Atlantic  as 
well  as  the  Indo-Pacific  ;  and,  although  some  of  them  are  common 
in  certain  districts  and  scarcer  or  even  absent  in  others,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  in  the  course  of  time  their  distribution  will  be  still 
more  general  and  uniform,  as  far  as  other  conditions  (such  as  access 
to  a  suitable  locality  for  the  successful  propagation  of  their  kind) 
will   permit.      Frequently    Marine    Turtles    stray  far    into    the 
temperate  zones,  and   it  thus  happens   that   one  and  the   same 
species  (Sphargis  coriacea)  has  been  found  on  the  south  coast  of 
England,  near  Cape  Cod  in  North  America,  and  on  the  coast  of 
Chili.     In  short  the  geographical  distribution  of  these  Reptiles  is 
that  of  pelagic  animals  generally,  although  by  their  mode  of  pro- 
pagation they  are  compelled  to  sojourn  near  land  during  a  certain 
period  of  the  year. 

2.  The  Sea-Snakes  are  restricted  to,  and  highly  characteristic  of, 
the  fauna  of  the  tropical  Indo-Pacific  Ocean,  and  more  especially 
of  parts  between  Arabia  and   North  Australia.     They  prefer  the 
vicinity  of  laud,  but  never  leave  the  water,  with,  perhaps,  the 
single  exception  of  Platurus.     Their  distribution  is  not  erratic; 
only  one  species,  Pelamys  bicolor,  a  Sea-Snake  which  more  than 
any  other  is  organized  for  a  marine  life,  has  spread  far  beyond  the 
original   home  of  its  kindred,   viz.,  westwards   to   the   coasts  of 
Madagascar  and  south-eastern  Africa,  and  eastwards  to  the  further- 
most limits  of  the  region,  viz.,  to  the  coasts  of  central  and  northern 
South  America. 

All  other  Reptiles1  are  terrestrial,  and,  as  they  are 
chiefly  developed  in  the  tropics,  we  begin  our  account 
with  the  regions2  of  the  equatorial  zone.  The  scope  of  this 
article  does  not  allow  us  to  enter  into  an  examination  of  the 
subregions  which  have  been  proposed  by  various  authors. 

1.  The  Indian  Region. — Of  the  four  principal  groups 
of  terrestrial  Chelonians,  the  Emydidse,  and  Trionycidae 
(Freshwater  Tortoises  and  Freshwater  Turtles)  predomi- 
nate over  the  Testudinidse,  which  are  scarce  and  restricted, 
the  fourth  (Chelydidse)  being  absent  altogether.  We 
know  fifty-seven  species  from  this  region  : — 

Testudo,  4  species 

Manouria,   1 

Cistudo  (Cuora),  3 

Emys  with  its  subgenera,  30 

Platysternum,  1 

Trionyx,  15 

Emyda,  3 


IS 


1  The  fact  that  Oreocepholus  enters  the  sea  habitually  and  Cher- 
sydrus  frequently  does  not  entitle  these  Reptiles  to  be  classed  among 
marine  animals  ;  they  pass  the  greater  part_of  their  life  on  land,  and 
never  leave  its  close  vicinity. 

2  As  regards  the  general  boundaries  of  the  zoo-geographical  regions 
we  refer  to  Wallace's  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals  (London, 
1870,  4to)  or  to  the  article  ICHTHYOLOGY  (vol.  xii.  pp.  668  sq.). 


Three  of  these  genera  are  peculiar  to  the  region,  viz.,  Manouria,3 
Platysternum,  and  Emyda.  Characteristic  is  the  scanty  repre- 
sentation of  Testudo.  One  species  which  is  common  in  the  Indian 
peninsula  ( T.  stellata)  is  so  similar  to  an  African  species  as  to  have 
been  considered  identical  with  it ;  the  Burmese  Tortoise  is  also 
closely  allied  to  it,  and  the  two  others  extend  far  into  western 
Central  Asia.  Thus  this  type  is  to  be  considered  rather  an  immi- 
grant from  its  present  headquarters,  Africa,  than  a  survivor  of  the 
Indian  Tertiary  fauna,  which  comprised  the  most  extraordinary 
forms  of  Land  Tortoises.  Wallace's  line  marks  the  eastern  bound- 
ary of  Trionyx ;  species  "of  this  genus  are  common  in  Java  and 
Borneo,  and  occur  likewise  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  but  are  not 
found  in  Celebes,  Amboyna,  or  any  of  the  other  islands  east  of 
Wallace's  line.4 

Of  Crocodilidss  true  Crocodiles  are  represented  by  four,  Croco- 
and  Gavials  by  two  species.  Alligators  are  absent.  dilians. 

Although  the  region  is  characterized  by  numerous  highly  Lacer- 
specialized  genera  of  Lacertilia,  not  one  of  the  families  is  tilians. 
peculiar  to  it. 

Agamidas  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  are  represented  chiefly 
by  arboreal  forms  ;  terrestrial  forms,  like  Agama  and  Uromastix, 
inhabit  the  hot  and  sandy  plains  in  the  north-west,  and  pass  unin- 
terruptedly into  the  fauna  of  western  Central  Asia  and  Africa. 
The  Geckonidse,  Scincidse,,  and  Varanidx  are  likewise  well  repre- 
sented, but  without  giving  a  characteristic  feature  to  the  region  by 
special  modification  of  the  leading  forms.  The  Lacertidas  are  repre- 
sented by  one  characteristic  genus,  Tachydromus, — Ophiops  and 
Cabrita  being  more  developed  beyond  the  limits  assigned  to  this 
region.  Finally,  the  Eublcpliaridx  and  Anguidse,  families  whose 
living  representatives  are  probably  the  scattered  remains  of  once 
widely  and  more  generally  distributed  types,  have  retained  respec- 
tively two  species  in  western  India,  and  one  in  Khassia  (Khasi 
Hills),  whilst  the  presence  of  a  single  species  of  Chamseleon  in 
Southern  India  and  Ceylon  reminds  us  again  of  the  relations  of 
this  part  of  the  fauna  to  that  of  Africa. 

The  Indian  region  excels  all  the  other  equatorial  regions  Ophi- 
in  the  great  variety  of  generic  types  and  number  of  dians. 
species  of  Snakes.  The  latter  amount  to  no  less  than  four 
hundred  and  fifty,  which  is  nearly  one-third  of  the  total 
number  of  species  known.  They  are  referable  to  about 
one  hundred  genera,  of  which  the  majority  do  not  range 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  region.  Of  higher  groups  (termed 
families  for  the  sake  of  convenience),  the  Xenopeltidse, 
Rhinophidse,  Oligodontidse,  Xenodermidx,  and  Acrochordidss 
are  peculiar  to,  and  characteristic  of,  this  fauna, — but  not 
more  so  than  a  number  of  genera  which  will  be  mentioned 
presently. 

Of  Typhlopidse,  more  than  twentj'  species  are  known. 

Of  Tortricidee,  the  genus  Cylindrophis  is  spread  over  several  if 
the  subregions. 

The  Calamariidie  are  represented  by  a  whole  string  of  genera,  of 
which  thirteen  are  peculiar  to  the  region.  The  most  characteristic 
and  geographically  most  important  types  are  Calamaria,  with 
twenty-four  species,  spread  over  the  archipelago  and  the  eastern 
parts  of  the  continent,  and  Aspidura  and  Haplocercus,  with  four 
species,  which  are  limited  to  Ceylon  and  southern  India. 

Species  of  those  generalized  forms  which  are  termed  Coronellidte 
and  Colubridx  are  likewise  numerous  (sixty-six  species),  and 
referable  to  seventeen  genera,  of  which  ten  are  limited  to  this 
region.  In  the  north-western  and  northern  parts  the  genus 
Zamenis,  which  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  types  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  Europe-Asiatic  fauna,  is  represented  by  six  species. 

Freshwater  Snakes  are  abundant  in  genera,-species,  and  indivi- 
duals. Of  Tropidonotus  alone  some  forty  very  distinct  species  have 
been  described,  besides  three  others  which  are  sufficiently  differen- 
tiated to  deserve  generic  separation.  Of  the  so-called  Homalopsidse 
all  the  genera,  twelve  in  number,  are  peculiar,  and  the  great 
development  of  these  Snakes  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  striking 
features  of  this  region. 

Besides  two  species  of  Psammophis  allied  to  African  forms,  a  dis- 
tinct genus  Psammodynastes  has  a  wide  range  over  the  eastern  parts 
of  the  continent  and  the  archipelago. 

Tree  Snakes  are  represented  by  eight  genera  and  twenty-six 
species,  mostly  characteristic  forms. 


3  Its  existence  in  Australia  is  extremely  doubtful. 

4  The  statement  that  specimens  of  Trionyx  had  been  obtained  by 
Ida  Pfeiffer  in  Amboyna  rests  upon  a  misunderstanding,  like  that  of 
the  discovery  of  a  Barbel  by  the  same  traveller  in  the  same  island. 
Dr  Jentink  also  informs  us  :hat  none  of  the  Freshwater  Turtles  in  the 
Leyden  Museum  came  froir  islands  east  of  Java  and  Borneo. 


4(58 


REPTILES 


[GEOGRAPHICAL 


Dipsadidse,  are  more  numerous  (eighteen  species)  than  in  the 
other  equatorial  regions. 

Elachistodon  and  Hologerrhum  may  be  mentioned  as  remarkable 
tyj»es  not  found  elsewhere,  but  with  a  very  local  distribution. 

The  development  of  Lycodonts  India  has  in  common  with  Africa ; 
but  the  genera,  six  in  number,  are  distinct. 

Also  the  presence  of  gigantic  Snakes  of  the  genus  Python  is  a 
feature  which  India  shares  with  Africa. 

Of  Erycidx  three  species  are  Indian,  Gongylophis  and  Cursoria 
being  peculiar  to  the  region. 

Poisonous  Snakes  are  numerous,  the  proportion  to  innocuous 
Snakes  being  as  1  : 10.  Out  of  forty-six  species,  only  two  belong 
to  the  family  of  true  Vipers,  and  they  are  restricted  to  the  Indian 
peninsula  with  Ceylon,  oue  (Echis)  being  even  specifically  identical 
with  the  African  species,  and  the  other  (Daboia)  having  its  only 
congener  in  the  Mediterranean  district.  The  remainder  of  the 
poisonous  Snakes  belong  to  the  Elapidas  and  Crotalidaz  or  Pit 
Vipers.  The  former  are  represented  by  six  genera,  of  which  no  less 
than  five  are  highly  characteristic  of  the  region,  whilst  the  Cobras 
(Naja)  are  equally  distributed  over  Africa.  Of  Pit  Vipers  five 
genera  have  been  distinguished,  the  most  characteristic  being  an 
arboreal  form,  Trimeresurus,  with  seventeen  species.  Also  the 
other  five  genera  are  peculiar  to  India,  with  the  exception  of  the 
genus  Halys  which  is  Central- Asiatic. 

>tiles  The  relations  of  the  Indian  region  to  the  others  will  be  considered 
Fapan.  as  we  proceed  with  the  accounts  of  those  faunas.  Japan,  with 
regard  to  its  Reptilian  fauna  as  a  whole,  must  be  referred  to  this 
region.  This  is  clearly  shown  by  the  presence  of  species  of  Ophites, 
Callophis,  Trimeresurus,  Tachydromus, — characteristically  Indian 
forms,  with  which  species  of  Clemmys,  Trionyx,  Gecko,  Halys,  and 
some  Colubrines  closely  allied  to  Chinese  or  Central- Asiatic  species 
are  associated.  The  few  Reptiles  inhabiting  the  northern  part  of 
Japan  are  probably  Palrearctic  species. 

ican  2.  The  African  Region. — Owing  to  its  strictly  continental 
ion-  character  and  diminished  variety  of  physical  features,  this 
region  is  inhabited  by  a  much  smaller  number  of  Reptiles 
than  one  might  be  led  to  expect  from  the  large  extent  of 
its  geographical  area.  There  are  but  few  small  outlying 
islands,  furnishing  a  small  number  of  interesting  additions 
to  this  fauna.  Madagascar,  indeed,  would  supply  a  con- 
siderable contingent  of  distinct  forms,  but  it  is  questionable 
whether  this  large  island  should  be  united  with  the  African 
region,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter. 

,.  The  African  region  is  characterized  by  the  development 

ians.  of  three  of  the  four  principal  divisions  of  terrestrial 
Chelonians,  viz.,  Testudinidx,  C/ielydidx,  and  Trionycidse ; 
the  Emydidse  are  absent,  being  represented  by  one  species 
only,  in  the  north-western  corner  of  the  region  (Emys 
platyceps).  The  thirty-seven  species  are  distributed 
thus  : — 


Testudo,   with  16  species  \ 


21 


Chersine, 

Pyxis,  

Cinyxis.  

Emys,  

Dumeriiia,  ... 
Sternotherus, 
Pelomedusa,  . 

Trionyx,  

Cycloderma, 

The  majority  of  the  genera  are  peculiar,  viz. ,  Chersine,  Pyxis, 
Cinyxis,  Dumeriiia,  Sternothcrus,  Pelomedusa,  and  Cycloderma ; 
and  no  other  region  shows  a  similar  development  of  Land  Tortoises. 
This  last  type  has  not  only  diverged  into  four  genera,  but  is  also 
represented  by  several  of  those  gigantic  forms  which  survived  into 
geologically  recent  times.  In  the  African  region  they  inhabited 
only  the  neighbouring  oceanic  islands,  viz.,  the  Aldabra  group, 
Mauritius,  and  Rodriguez  ;  out  of  the  eight  species,  which  have 
been  recognized  chiefly  from  their  osseous  remains,  one  only  sur- 
vives at  the  present  day.  Also  in  Madagascar  fossil  remains  of 
gigantic  species,  which  must  have  been  contemporaries  of^Spyornis, 
have  been  discovered  by  Grandidier ;  but  on  the  continent  no  trace 
of  these  large  creatures  has  been  found  hitherto.  The  Chelonians 
of  the  eastern  and  western  halves  of  the  continent  do  not  essenti- 
ally differ  from  each  other,  but  Trionyx  does  not  extend  southwards 
beyond  the  tropic. 

ico-  Of  Crocodilidse,  Crocodilus  is  represented  by  three  or 

ans.  four  species.     Alligators  are  absent. 

*r-  Of  the  families  of  Lizards  inhai  >iting  Africa  the  majority 

"is.  occur  in  the  southern  portion.     Agamidx  are  numerous, 


and  represented  chiefly  by  terrestrial  forms.  The  Gecko- 
nidss,  Sdncidfe,  Lacertides,  and  Varanidas  are  likewise  well 
represented ;  Eublepharidx  by  a  single  genus  and  species 
in  West  Africa.  The  presence  of  several  genera  of 
Ampkisbacnidse,  some  of  which  are  even  identical  with 
South-American,  is  highly  suggestive.  Gerrhosauridss, 
Zonuridse,  and  Anelytropidx  are  peculiar  to  tropical 
Africa ;  but  the  most  important  feature  of  this  Lacertilian 
fauna  is  the  almost  universal  distribution  of  Chamaeleons 
in  numerous  and  highly  specialized  species. 

Leaving  aside,  for  the  present,  the  island  of  Madagascar,  Ophi- 
we  estimate  that  the  number  of  species  of  African  Snakes 
does  not  exceed  two  hundred,  which  are  referable  to  about 
seventy  genera,  of  which  no  less  than  fifty  do  not  range 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  region.  On  the  whole  the  east 
coast  genera  are  different  from  those  of  the  west  coast,  but 
in  the  southern  parts  no  such  differentiation  can  be  shown. 
Very  little  is  known  as  regards  the  range  of  the  species 
and  genera  towards  the  central  districts.  As  regards 
higher  groups  only  two  families,  the  Dctsypeltidse  and 
Dinophidx,  are  peculiar  to  Africa;  and,  although  they 
have  a  wide  range  over  the  region,  they  consist  of  very 
few  species  only.  Other  families  show  a  greater  variety 
of  genera  and  species  here  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
globe.  The  almost  entire  absence  of  the  genus  Tropi- 
donotus  and  the  scanty  representation  of  Colubers  are  very 
noticeable  features.  Poisonous  Snakes  are  numerous,  all 
the  various  families  being  well  represented,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Pit  Vipers ;  singularly  enough  innocuous 
Colubrine  Snakes  with  facial  pits  occur  (Bothrophthalmus, 
Bothrolycus). 

Of  Typhlopidas  nearly  forty  species  have  been  described,  and, 
besides,  the  Stenoslomatida&  are  represented  by  seven  species. 

Eight  out  of  ten  Calamaroid  genera  are  peculiar  to  this  fauna, 
and  remarkable  is  the  frequency  with  which  among  them  the 
sub-caudal  shields  coalesce  into  a  single  series. 

The  Caronellidae  are  represented  by  some  twenty  species,  but 
no  true  Coluber  occurs,  the  four  species  which  approach  this  type 
most  closely  belonging  to  distinct  genera  (S'caphiophis,  Xenurophis, 
Herpetaethiops). 

Almost  entire  absence  of  Tropidonotus  is  a  characteristic  feature 
of  this  fauna.  Also  of  other  Freshwater  Snakes  only  six  genera 
with  seven  species  are  known. 

The  small  family  of  Psammophidse  is  well  represented  by  three 
genera  and  nine  species,  of  which  six  belong  to  Psammophis. 

Of  Tree-Snakes  there  are  six  genera,  of  which  Ah&tulla  (Philo- 
thamnus)  is  most  generally  distributed,  in  twelve  species. 

Of  Dipsadidse  there  are  five  genera  and  ten  species,  four  of  which 
belong  to  Dipsas  proper. 

The  Lycodonts  are  as  well  developed  as  in  India,  by  seven 
genera  and  fourteen  species  ;  all  the  genera  are  peculiar  to  Africa, 
and  some  of  them  are  modified  for  an  arboreal  mode  of  life. 

Of  Pythons  three  species  are  distinguishable ;  but,  besides,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Booid  family  (Pelophilus  fordii)  occurs  on  the  west  coast. 

Two  species  of  Eryx  occur. 

Poisonous  Snakes  are  extremely  numerous,  the  proportion  to 
innocuous  Snakes  being  as  1  :  5.  Of  Elapidas  four  genera  occur, 
among  which  Naja  figures  with  at  least  two  species  ;  besides  this 
family  the  Dinophidse  are  a  remarkable  and  characteristic  type, 
having  assumed  entirely  the  appearance  and  mode  of  life  of  Tree 
Snakes.  The  Atractaspididse,  with  three  genera  and  thirteen 
species,  are  likewise  almost  entirely  African,  only  one  other  type 
(Dinodipsas)  having  been  recently  discovered  in  Venezuela. 
Pit  Vipers  are  absent,  but  the  largest  forms  of  Viperidss  are 
developed  in  this  region,  this  family  being  represented  by  four 
genera  and  twelve  species.  The  singular  genus  Atheris  is  a  real 
Tree  Viper  with  prehensile  tail. 

The  Reptilian  fauna  of  Madagascar  is  a  most  remarkable  mixture 
of  types  belonging  to  different  regions,  which  cannot  be  accounted 
for  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  the  geological  changes 
that  have  taken  place  whilst  the  present  fauna  was  already  in 
existence. 

The  Chelonians1  offer  a  marked  point  of  distinction  from  those  of 


1  The  Chelonians  of  Madagascar  require  a  thorough  critical  examina- 
tion ;  some  of  the  species  which  are  recorded  as  having  been  brought 
from  that  island  have  been  evidently  introduced  from  the  African 
continent.  Others,  as  also  certain  species  of  Snakes,  are  certainly  not 
natives  of  Madagascar. 


DISTBIBUTJON.] 


KEPTILES 


469 


la- 

tis  of 
1  lea  to 
lia. 


opical 
.ciftc 


nans. 


Africa :  no  Trionyx  occurs  in  Madagascar.  On  the  other  hand 
species  are  found  of  Tesludo,  Chersinc,  Sternothcrus,  and  Pelomedusa, 
which  are  spread  also  over  a  greater  or  lesser  area  of  the  continent. 
Two  Chelonians,  Pyxis  and  Dumerilia,  are  peculiar  to  Madagascar, 
the  latter  nearly  allied  to  the  South -American  Peltocephalus.  The 
Madagascar  Crocodile  is  closely  allied  to  the  common  African 
species.;  and  its  presence  in  the  island  can  be  easily  accounted  for. 

Among  the  Lizards  we  find  a  distinctly  South-American  element 
in  two  Iguanoid  genera,  Hoplurus  and  Chalarodon,  replacing  the 
Old  World  Agamidss.  The  absence  of  Vamnidaz,  Locerlidee,  and 
AmpltisbiRnidee,  removes  Madagascar  from  Africa,  whilst  the  extra- 
ordinary development  of  Cham&lconidse  (more  than  twenty  species) 
and  the  presence  of  Gerrhosauridas  and  Zonuridae,  are  important 
features  common  to  both.  A  very  small  family  (Uroplatidse)  is 
peculiar  to  Madagascar.  No  special  relation  to  the  Indian  region 
is  shown  by  this  Lacertilian  fauna. 

With  regard  to  Ophidians,  Madagascar  has  hardly  anything  in 
coiumon  with  Africa.  The  African  fauna  is  characterized  by  the  great 
development  of  Lycodonts, — they  are  absent  in  Madagascar ;  and  of 
the  four  families  of  African  poisonous  Snakes  Madagascar  does 
not  possess  a  single  one.  When  we  analyse  the  affinities  of  the 
twenty-seven  species  known  at  present  from  Madagascar,  we  arrive 
at  the  following  conclusions  : — • 

1.  Snakes  without  distinct  relations  to  any  particular  region  : — 
Typhlops  (six    species),    Ablabes   (one  species),    Ithycyphus    (one 
species),  Dipsadoboa  (one  species). 

2.  Snakes  with  affinities  to  the  African  fauna  : — Mimophis  (one 
species),  Pelaphilus  (one  species). 

3.  Snakes   with  affinities  to    the   Indian    fauna : — Ptyas   (one 
species),  Langaha  (one  species). 

4.  Snakes  with  affinities  to  the  South-American  fauna : — Liophis 
(one    species),    Tachymenis    (one    species),    Pseudoxyrhopus    (two 
species),  Heterodon  (two  species),  Dromicus  (one  species),  Herpeto- 
dryas  (one  species),  Philodryas  (one  species),  Dipsas  (two  species), 
Xiphosoma  (one  species). 

Africa  shows  affinities  to  all  the  three  other  equatorial 
regions,  but  chiefly  to  the  Indian.  No  sharply  defined 
boundary  exists  between  the  two  regions,  the  intervening 
parts  of  Asia  being  inhabited  by  a  desert  fauna  which 
penetrates  into  districts  of  similar  nature  in  Africa  as  well 
as  in  India.  Certain  genera  and  species  belonging  to  this 
desert  fauna  are  therefore  common  to  both  regions.  But 
there  are,  besides,  other  points  of  affinity  of  deeper  signifi- 
cance, such  as  the  development  in  both  of  a  distinct 
Trionycoid  genus,  besides  the  typical  Trionyx,  the  general 
distribution  of  Agamoids  and  Varanidse,1  the  presence  of 
the  remarkable  family  of  Lycodonts,  which  do  not  occur 
anywhere  else,  of  the  large  forms  of  Python  with  con- 
comitant absence  of  Booids,  and  of  the  Elapidx,  of  which 
one  genus  (Najci)  extends  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa  to 
Borneo.  But  these  resemblances  are  fully  counterbalanced 
by  great  differences  in  other  portions  of  the  Reptilian 
fauna  :  the  Indian  Emydoids  are  replaced  by  Chelydidse  in 
Africa,  a  type  which  it  has  in  common  with  Australia  and 
South  America,  whereas  India  possesses  no  Amphisbsenidse, 
no  Chamaeleons.2  With  regard  to  Ophidians,  the  number 
of  forms  generally  is  greatly  diminished  in  Africa,  but  the 
proportion  of  poisonous  Snakes  is  doubled.  The  Pit 
Vipers  of  India  are  wholly  absent,  and  are  replaced  by 
true  Vipers.  In  the  Indian  region  arboreal  Agamoid 
Lizards  prevail ;  in  Africa  the  Snakes  show  a  greater 
tendency  towards  a  modification  of  the  habitus  and 
structure  for  arboreal  life.  The  Freshwater  Snakes  and 
Colubers  which  are  so  numerous  in  India  are  much 
reduced  in  numbers  in  Africa,  Tropidonoti  being  almost 
entirely  absent. 

3.  The  Tropical  Pacific  Region. — So  far  as  Reptiles  are 
concerned,  Tasmania  has  to  be  included  in  this  region. 
No  Trionyx  or  Emys  goes  eastwards  beyond  Wallace's 
line.  In  fact,  the  Chelonian  type  disappears  in  the 
islands  between  this  line  and  the  Australian  continent — 
with  two  exceptions.  A  species  of  Tesludo  (T.  forstenii) 
occurs  in,  and  is  limited  to,  the  island  of  Gilolo ;  and 

1  Both  these  Lacertilian  families  extend  into  the  Australian  region  ; 
in  fact  they  replace  the   Iguanoids  of  the  western  hemisphere  and 
Madagascar. 

2  With  the  single  exception  mentioned  nbove. 


Cuora  amboinensis,  the  most  common  Tortoise  of  Malaya, 
occurs  in  many  of  the  eastern  islands,  but  it  has  probably 
been  imported  by  man,  and  by  the  same  means  may  be 
still  extending  its  range.  On  the  continent  of  Australia 
Chelydidx  only  occur,  viz.,  eight  species  of  Chelemys 
and  five  of  CJielodina.  In  Tasmania,  again,  Chelonians 
are  absent. 

Besides  the  common   Indian  Crocodilus  porosw,  which  Croco- 
may  be  considered  an  immigrant  into  this  region,  one  or  Lilians, 
two  other  species  of   the  same   genus  inhabit  the   fresh 
waters   of   the   truly  tropical  parts,  and  are   peculiar  to 
Australia. 

The  bulk  of  the  Lacertilian  fauna  is  composed  of  Skinks,  Lacer- 
Geckos,  Agamoids,  and  Varanidse,  with  the  addition  of  a  tilians. 
small  family  which  is  peculiar  to  the  region,  the  Pygo- 
podidse.  A  peculiar  type,  Dibarmts,  has  been  found  in 
New  Guinea;  and,  finally,  a  single  Iguanoid,  Brachylophus, 
is  common  in  the  Fiji  Islands ;  how  it  came  there,  or  how 
it  survived  its  severance  from  the  American  stock,  is  a 
mystery.  The  Skinks  are  in  this  region  more  highly 
developed  and  more  specialized  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  world;  they  exceed  in  numbers  the  Geckos,  which 
generally  accompany  the  Skinks  in  their  range  over  the 
smaller  islands  of  the  Pacific;  in  these  islands  members 
of  these  two  families  represent  the  whole  of  the  Lacer- 
tilian fauna.  The  Australian  Agamoids  are  chiefly  peculiar 
and  partly  much  differentiated  forms,  but  some  have 
distinct  affinities  to,  or  are  even  identical  with,  Indian 
genera.  The  Varanidse  are  also  closely  allied  to  Indian 
species. 

The  total  number  of  Snakes  amount  to  ninety  species,  Ophi- 
of   which   twelve   are   Typhlops,    eight    other   innocuous  dians. 
Colubrines,  fifty  Elapidse,  one  Erycine,  fourteen  Pythonidx, 
and  five  Boidse.     The  number  of  poisonous  Snakes,  there- 
fore, exceeds   that  of   innocuous,  a  proportion  quite  un- 
paralleled  in   any  other   part   of    the   world.     The   few 
innocuous  Colubrine  Snakes  belong  to  Indian  genera,  and 
evidently   have   spread   from   that    region ;   but   all   the 
genera  of   Elapidx   (twelve),    Erycidee,  (one),  Pythonidy 
(five),  and  Boidx  (three)  are  peculiar  to  this  region. 

In  Australia  we  meet,  therefore,  with  the  interesting 
fact  that,  whilst  it  is  closely  allied  to  South  America,  but 
totally  distinct  from  India,  by  its  Chelonians,  its  Lizards 
and  Colubrine  Snakes  connect  it  with  this  latter  region. 
With  regard  to  the  other  Ophidians,  they,  although 
peculiar  genera,  have  their  nearest  allies  partly  in  India 
] tartly  in  South  America;  and  the  character  of  the 
Australian  Snake  fauna  consists  chiefly  in  its  peculiar 
composition,  differing  thereby  more  from  the  other 
equatorial  regions  than  these  do  among  themselves. 
Wallace's  line  marks  the  boundary  between  India  and 
Australia  only  as  far  as  Chelonians  are  concerned,  but  it 
is  quite  effaced  by  the  distribution  of  Lizards  and  Snakes. 
Thus  in  New  Guinea  Lizards  of  the  Indian  region  are 
mixed  with  Pygojwdidss,  and  an  island  as  far  east  as 
Timorlaut  is  inhabited  by  six  Snakes,  three  of  which  are 
peculiarly  Indian,  whilst  the  other  three  are  as  decidedly 
Australian.  The  islands  north  of  New  Guinea  and  of 
Melanesia  are  not  yet  occupied  by  the  Ophidian  type,  and 
only  species  of  Enygrus  have  penetrated  eastwards  as  far 
as  the  Low  Archipelago,  whilst  the  Fiji  Islands  and  the 
larger  islands  of  Melanesia  have  sufficiently  long  been 
raised  above  the  level  of  the  sea  to  develop  quite  peculiar 
genera  of  Snakes.  Tasmania  is  tenanted  by  poisonous 
Snakes  only. 

4.   The  Tropical  American  Region. — An  examination  of  Tropical 
the  distribution  of  Chelonians  in  the  New  World  leads  to  America 
a  different  division  of  its  regions  from  that  of  the  other  Q^°n' 
Reptiles.     Central   America  and  the  West  Indies,   withiom-ans> 
regard  to  Chelonians,  cannot  be  united  with  the  Southern 


470 


REPTILES 


[GEOGRAl'IilrAL 


continent.     The  Chelonians  of  South  America  proper  are 
the  following  (forty-three  species)  :— 

Testudo, 

Emys, 

Cinosternum,   

Peltocephalus, 

Podocnemis, 

Platemys,  

Hydromedusa,  

Chelys, 

The  Chclydidx  thus  predominate  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
Emydidse.  They  belong  to  five  distinct  genera,  of  which  one, 
Chehjs,  is  the  most  specialized  of  the  family.  They  do  not  extend 
to  the  western  side  of  the  Andes,  and  cease  in  the  south  with  the 
system  of  the  Plate  River.  Northwards  they  penetrate  to  Trinidad, 
but  become  scarcer  in  the  degree  in  which  their  place  is  occupied 
by  the  Emydidse,  which  have  spread  from  Central  America  over 
the  northern  parts  of  this  region.  One,  Emys  cTorbignii,  following 
the  course  of  the  Uruguay,  has  penetrated  southwards  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Plate  River. 

Land  Tortoises  (Testudo)  are  at  the  present  day  almost  extinct 
in  this  region,  two  species  only  (Testudo  tabulate,  or  carbonaria 
and  T.  argentina)  being  found  on  the  continent  of  South  America. 
The  six  other  species  belong  to  the  Oceanic  Island  Tortoises  of 
gigantic  size,  and  inhabit  or  inhabited  the  Galapagos  group. 
Trionyx'ia  entirely  absent. 

The  Crocodilian  order  is  more  developed  in  this  region 
than  in  any  other.  Besides  at  least  three  species  of 
Crocodilus,  six  Alligators  occur.  The  former  occupy 
Central  America,  with  Mexico,  the  coast  of  Florida,  the 
West  Indies,  Ecuador,  and  the  system  of  the  Orinoco  ; 
the  latter  extend  much  farther  southwards,  throughout 
the  system  of  the  Plate  River,  whilst  in  North  America 
this  genus  \s>  represented  by  a  distinct  species,  A.  missis- 
sipperisis.1  Alligators  found  in  some  of  the  West  Indian 
islands  are  believed  to  be  immigrants  from  the  continent. 
The  Lacertilian  fauna  connects  Central  with  South 
America, — all  the  six  families  found  in  the  latter  area, 
viz.,  Geckonidaz,  Anguidx,  Amphisbxnidx,  Tejidae,  Igua- 
nidae,  and  Sdnddx,  being  represented  in  Central  America. 
But  Central  America  possesses,  besides,  five  other  families, 
small  in  species  and  restricted  in  range  (some  belonging 
to  the  fauna  of  great  elevations),  but  highly  interesting 
types.  These  are  the  JZublepharulas,  Xenosauridse,  Aniel- 
lid&,  Helodermatidx,  and  Lepidophymatidas.  Their  locali- 
zation and  differentiation  can  be  accounted  for  on  the 
hypothesis  that  they  are  the  remains  of  the  fauna  of  the 
various  islands  into  which  Central  America  was  broken 
up  at  a  former  period. 

By  far  the  larger  number  of  Lizards  of  the  Tropical  American 
region  are  Iguanidie,  a  family  which  in  the  New  World  repeats  the 
Old- World  Agamidw.  They  are  spread  over  the  whole  of  the 
region,  having  adapted  themselves  in  their  mode  of  life  and 
structure  to  every  variety  of  ground.  One  species  (Liolsemus 
magellanicus)  ranges  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  largest 
Iguanoids  inhabit  the  Galapagos  Islands,  where  they  live  on  the 
rocks  of  the  shore,  one  species  (Oreocephalus  cristatus)  entering  sea- 
water  and  feeding  on  sea-weeds.  The  next  numerous  family  is 
the  Tejidse,  the  New- World  representatives  of  the  Old- World 
Lacertidx ;  Geckonidee,  Scinddse,  AmphisbsBnidee,  and  Anguidsz  are 
less  numerous,  but  have  also  a  wide  range  over  the  region.  The 
Lacertilian  fauna  of  the  West  Indies  is  wholly  South-American ; 
it  does  not  comprise  any  peculiar  family,  and  only  a  few  character- 
istic genera,  of  which  Anolisis,  perhaps,  the  most  highly  specialized 
and  the  one  which  is  composed  of  the  greatest  number  of  species  ; 
this  genus,  however,  is  also  well  represented  on  the  continent, 
especially  in  Central  America. 

With  regard  to  Ophidians  the  Tropical  American  region 
approaches  the  Indian  in  the  number  of  species,  which 
amounts  to  about  four  hundred,  but  it  exhibits  a  com- 
paratively less  variety  of  generic  and  peculiar  forms ;  of 
the  eighty  genera  only  about  fifty  do  not  range  beyond 
its  limits.  However,  a  boundary  line  which  would 
separate  the  Ophidian  fauna  of  South  America  from  that 
of  the  north  does  not  exist.  In  Central  America  and 

1  We  may  mention  here,  in  anticipation,  that  a  species  of  Alligator 
has  recently  been  discovered  in  China. 


Mexico  the  generic  types  of  the  south  and  north  are 
intermingled,  and  as  the  climate,  in  accordance  with 
latitude  and  altitude,  assumes  a  more  temperate  character 
the  specifically  tropical  Snakes  disappear  and  arc  in  part 
replaced  by  those  of  North  America.  This  mixture  of 
the  two  faunai  and  the  great  variety  of  physical  conditions 
within  a  small  area  account  for  the  relatively  very  large 
number  of  Snakes  of  Central  America.  About  one 
hundred  and  fifty  out  of  the  four  hundred  species  attri- 
buted to  the  whole  region  belong  to  this  district.  The  West- 
Indian  Ophidians  belong  to  the  Tropical  American  fauna  ; 
many  continental  generic  forms  of  the  latter  occur  in  the 
islands,  and  such  genera  as  are  peculiar  to  the  West 
Indies  do  not  exhibit  a  common  feature,  or  are  founded 
on  slight  characters.  The  exact  limits  to  which  Snakes 
extend  southwards  are  not  known  ;  they  seem  to  be  very 
scarce  on  the  southern  confines  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 
Quite  recently  a  Crotaline  Snake,  Rhinocerophis,  has  been 
discovered  in  eastern  Patagonia.2 

Of  families  peculiar  to  or  highly  characteristic  of  this 
fauna  we  can  mention  one  only,  viz.,  the  small  family 
Scytalidae,  which  replaces  the  Lycodonts  of  the  Old 
World.  The  JBoidx  are  likewise  a  prominent  feature, 
although  not  exclusively  confined  to  South  America ;  of 
eleven  genera  eight  are  Tropical  American,  and  three 
Australian.  The  true  Boas  include  the  most  gigantic  of 
Snakes,  and  replace  the  Old- World  Pythons. 

In  this  fauna  a  peculiar  and  highly  ornamental  pattern 
of  coloration,  which  consists  of  more  or  less  regularly 
alternate  rings  of  black,  red,  and  yellow,  seems  to  be  the 
more  worthy  of  notice,  as  it  occurs  in  very  distinct  families, 
viz.,  the  Ccdamariidx,  Coronellidx,  Natriddx,  Leptognath- 
idse,  Scytalidse,  Tortricidee,  Elapidx. 

Of  TyjMopidae,  more  than  twenty  species  have  been  described, 
and,  besides,  the  Stenostomatidse,  are  represented  by  seven  species. 

Of  Tortricidse  one  species  occurs. 

The  Calamariid&  are  represented  by  thirteen  genera,  of  which 
ten  are  peculiar.  The  most  characteristic  and  geographically 
important  are  Elapomorphus  with  ten,  Humalocranium  with 
sixteen,  Ninia  with  four  species.  The  Indian  genus  GeopJn's  is 
represented  in  Tropical  America  by  twenty-five  species. 

CoronellidsR  are  extremely  numerous  (sixty-six  species  referable 
to  thirteen  genera).  Of  these  Xenodon  with  twelve  species,  Lio- 
pliis  with  sixteen,  JErythrolamprus,  and  Pliocercus  deserve  special 
mention. 

Of  Colubers  forms  with  elongate  compressed  body,  approaching 
arboreal  forms  (Spilotcs),  are  not  scarce. 

Freshwater  Snakes  are  not  abundant,  but  a  genus  peculiar  to  the 
region,  Hclicops,  occurs  in  eight  species.  Tropidonotus  might  be 
regarded  as  absent,  but  for  three  or  four  species  which  occur  north 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  in  the  West  Indies  ;  also  the  allied 
genus  Tretanorhimis  is  confined  to  Central  America  and  the  West 
Indies. 

Tree  Snakes  are  extremely  abundant — some  seventy  species  refer- 
able to  six  gen  era,  of  which  Dromicus,  Philodryas,  and  Hcrpetodryas 
are  very  characteristic  forms.  Of  Ah&tulla  some  seventeen  species 
are  known. 

Of  Dipsas  and  allied  genera  only  four  species  occur,  but  of  the 
peculiarly  South-American  Lepioynathidaz  some  twenty-five  spivii-s 
have  been  distinguished. 

In  Central  America  there  occur  two  extremely  singular  forms 
which,  however,  are  imperfectly  known  and  seem  to  be  restricted  to 
a  very  limited  area.  One,  Loxocemus,  is  considered  a  representa- 
tive of  the  family  Pythonidse,  and  the  other,  Notopsis,  is  stated  to 
be  the  type  of  a  distinct  family  allied  to  the  Indian  Xcnodcnnid®. 

Of  the  twenty  species  of  fioidse  the  West  Indian  contingent 
amounts  to  no  less  than  eight  or  nine,  a  fact  which  clearly 
demonstrates  the  pertinence  of  the  West  Indies  to  this  region. 

Eryeidie  are  absent 

Poisonous  Snakes  are  numerous,  the  proportion  to  innocuous 
Snakes  being  as  1  :  8.  Besides  the  singular  occurrence  in  Venezuela 
of  a  member  of  the  Atraetaspididie,  Dinodipsas,  the  Colubriform 
poisonous  Snakes  are  represented  by  one  genus  only,  EJcps,  which, 
however,  shows  numerous  varieties  or  species,  and  is  extremely 
common  and  widely  spread  over  the  region.  Vlperida  arc  aWnt  ; 
but  the  largest  forms  of  Pit  Vipers  (Crotalidse)  arc  developed  in  this 

2  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  Euophrys,  which  has  been  placed 
among  the  Psamtnophidee,,  is  likewise  a  Patagonian  form. 


DISTRIBUTION.] 


REPTILES 


471 


region,  and  represented  by  five  genera,  which,  if  not  peculiar  to 
Tropical  America,  are  at  least  confined  to  the  New  World,  like 
Cencliris  and  Crotalus. 

The  Reptilian  fauna  of  tropical  America  thus  shows 
relations  to  the  other  equatorial  regions  in  three  of  its 
constituent  parts  only,  viz.,  in  the  Chelydidee,  Amphis- 
Isenidx,  and  Crotcdidx.  It  has  the  former  type  in 
common  with  Africa  and  Australia;  but,  whilst  the 
presence  of  Trionyx  on  the  African  continent  forms  an 
important  distinctive  feature,  the  resemblance  of  South 
America  to  Madagascar  is  as  great  as,  or  even  greater 
than,  that  to  Australia,  which  lacks  Testudo. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Lacertilian  fauna  is  essentially 
distinct  from  that  of  the  Old  World,  with  the  exception 
of  Amphisb&nidse,  (and  of  species  of  Eublepharidse),  whose 
presence  in  South  America  and  Africa  is  a  most  remark- 
able fact,  and  very  strong  evidence  of  the  former  existence 
of  intervening  land.  The  Skinks  and  Geckos,  which  are 
generally  distributed  over  the  warmer  parts  of  the  globe, 
cannot  come  into  consideration. 

The  Snakes  of  Tropical  America  differ  also  much  more 
from  those  of  the  Old- World  regions  than  certain  other 
portions  of  its  fauna,  as,  for  instance,  its  Batrachians  and 
Freshwater  Fishes.  A  distinct  affinity  with  India  is 
expressed  only  by  the  development  of  the  family  of  Pit 
Vipers, — the  presence  in  both  regions  of  numerous  Tree 
Snakes,  of  species  of  the  genus  Geophis,  of  the  family 
Tortricidx,  &c.,  being  less  significant  points  of  resemblance. 
But  these  resemblances  are  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
the  absence  in  South  America  of  Lycodonts,  Tropidonoti, 
Pythonidae,  Eryddse.  The  African  Ophidian  fauna l  is 
still  further  removed  by  CrotaMdse  being  entirely  wanting 
and  replaced  by  Viperidse. ;  only  a  few  genera,  like  Steno- 
stoma,  Coronella,  Leptodira,  Dipsas,  Ahsetulla,  are  examples 
in  which  species  are  found  in  both  regions.  In  both 
Tropidonotus  is  almost  absent. 

As  all  the  innocuous  Colubrine  Snakes  of  Australia  are 
derived  from  the  Indian  region,  they  form  no  part  in  a 
comparison  between  the  Australian  and  South-American 
faunse.  Of  the  other  Ophidian  types  these  regions  have 
not  a  single  genus  in  common,  nor  a  family  which  would 
not  be  represented  also  either  in  Africa  or  India  or  both. 

5.  The  North- American  Region. — While  the  Chelonians 
of  the  North-American  or  Nearctic  region  (in  which,  so  far 
as  this  Reptilian  order  is  concerned,  Central  America  and 
the  West  Indies  have  to  be  included)  are  essentially 
different  from  those  of  South  America,  the  Lizards  and 
Snakes  of  both  belong  to  the  same  family  types,  and  pass 
in  an  unbroken  series  from  the  northern  to  the  southern 
parts  of  the  New  World. 

In  this  region  the  Emydidse,  have  attained  to  as  great  a 
development  as  in  the  Indian,  and  are  associated  with  a 
few  representatives  of  Testudo  and  Trionyx.  The  species, 
which  are  altogether  about  fifty  in  number,  and  of  which 
a  few  are  common  to  the  Central-American  and  North- 
American  sections,  are  distributed  as  follows  : — 

Central  America,  „  A  „.„_,„,  2 

including  Mexico.  *•  America. 

Testudo 0  1 

fCistudo 1  1 

Clemmys 13  10 

Dermatemys 1  0 

Macroclemmvs 0  1 

1  Chelydra ". 2  1 

Staurotypus 3  0 

Aromochelys 0  2 

'-Cinosternum 10  3 

Trionyx 0  2 

30  21 


1  Of  the  relations  existing  between  the  Snakes  of  South  America  and 
Madagascar  we  have  spoken  above,  p.  469. 

2  In  a  Check-list  published  by  the  U.S.  National  Museum  in  1883 


dians. 


It  may  be  seen  from  this  list  that  no  Chelydoid  passes  northward 
beyond  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  ;  the  Chelonians  of  Central  America 
belong  exclusively  to  the  Emydidx,  which  are  represented  by  some 
thirty  species  ;  the  majority  do  not  extend  either  into  South  or 
North  America ;  two  of  the  genera,  Dermatemys  and  Staurotypus 
are  peculiar  to  it,  and  Cinosternum  has  its  headquarters  in  this 
section.  Neither  Trionyx  nor  Testudo  occurs.  Proceeding  beyond 
the  Mexican  boundary,  we  find  still  the  Emydidee  predominating, 
a  few  of  the  species  of  Central  America  ranging  northwards  into  the 
United  States  ;  distinct  species  of  Clcmmys,*  Cinosternum,  Chelydra, 
&c. ,  appear,  with  the  wonderful  genus  Macroclcmmys.  An  instance 
of  the  isolated  occurrence  of  a  Testudo  ( T.  polyphemus)  is  met  with 
here  ;  and  from  the  lower  part  of  the  Mississippi  northward  one  of 
the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  North -American  fauna  makes 
.its  appearance,  viz. ,  two  species  of  Trionyx,  of  which  one  at  least 
follows  the  ramifications  of  that  river  northward  and  has  found  its 
way  into  Lake  Winnipeg  (51°  N.  lat. ).  West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
Tortoises  are  scarce  and  of  distinct  species. 

In  the  West  Indies  the  following  species  have  been  found  : — 
1,  Testudo  tdbulata  •  2,  Podocnemis  dumeriliana ;  3,  Emys  concinna ; 
4,  E.  decussata ;  5,  E:  rugosa.  Of  these  the  first  two  are  identical 
with  South-American,  and  the  third  with  a  North-American  species, 
and,  therefore,  may  be  regarded  as  strangers  which  in  compara- 
tively recent  times  have  been  introduced  into  the  West  Indies.  On 
the  other  hand  the  last  two  are  species  peculiar  to  the  islands,  and, 
as  they  belong  to  a  North- American  generic  type,  clearly  prove  the 
pertinence  of  this  island  district  to  the  northern  continent,  so  far 
as  Tortoises  are  concerned. 

The  south-eastern  parts  of  North  America  are  inhabited  Croco- 
by  an  Alligator  which  is  specifically  distinct  and  locally  Lilians, 
separated  from  the  southern  species. 

The  tropical  Lacertilian  and  Ophidian  faunae  gradually  Lacer- 
merge  into  that  of  the  temperate  north,  and  any  boundary  tilians 
line  drawn  between  the  north  and  south  is  more  or  less  ^?  _  p 
arbitrary.  As  a  matter  of  fact  so  many  truly  tropical 
forms  advance  north  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer  (which  by 
many  authors  is  taken  as  the  boundary  line)  that  we  are 
inclined  to  restrict  the  limits  of  this  region  to  the  district 
about  the  Rio  Grande,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
northern  fauna  extends  to  a  lower  latitude  on  the  plateau 
of  Mexico.  Thus  restricted,  the  North-American  fauna 
includes  about  fifty  species  of  Lizards,  belonging  to  genera 
which  with  very  few  exceptions  are  already  represented  in 
Central  America,  or  even  farther  southwards.  By  far  the 
greatest  number  are  Iguanidee, ;  the  Scincidx,  Anguidse, 
and  Tejidse,  are  represented  by  several,  the  Geckonidse 
by  fewer  species,  whilst  single  species  occur  of  the 
Amphisbxnidse,  Aniellidx,  Lepidophymidx,  and  Heloder- 
matidse, — all  Central-American  types.  In  fact,  North 
America  does  not  possess  one  family  of  Lizards  peculiar 
to  it. 

1 1  is  worthy  of  notice  that  Lizards  do  not  extend  so  far  north- 
wards in  the  western  as  in  the  eastern  hemisphere  ;  one  species 
(Gcrrhonotus  cceruleus)  ranges  into  British  Columbia,  another  into 
Minnesota  (Eumeces  septentrionalis),  and  a  third  into  Massachusetts 
( Eumeces  fasciahis). 

Of  Snakes  about  one  hundred4  species  could  be  enumerated,  with 
a  proportion  of  1  : 14  of  poisonous  to  innocuous  Snakes.  All  the 
families  represented  in  this  fauna  occur  also  in  tropical  America, 
and  there  is  a  great  agreement  of  the  genera  with  those  of  the  Cen- 
tral-American district,  so  that  less  than  one-half  can  be  considered 
as  peculiar  to  this  region,  viz.,  Conocephalus,  Carphophis,  Contia, 
Cemophora,  Hypsiglena,  Chersodromtts,  EMnochilus,  Pituophis, 
Isclmognathus,  CJtarina,  Wcnona,  Lichanura.  Calamariidw  and 

a  much  larger  number  of  "  North- American"  terrestrial  Chelonians  is 
given,  viz.,  forty-three.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  southern  boundary 
of  "  North  America"  being  extended  to  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  partly  to 
the  fact  that  species  are  admitted  in  a  different  sense  from  those  of  the 
herpetologists  of  the  Old  World.  By  adopting  these  species  a  very 
erroneous  impression  would  be  created  as  regards  the  comparative 
numbers  of  the  groups  in  the  several  regions.  That  check-list 
includes  three  species  of  Testudo,  three  of  Cistudo,  twenty-one  of 
Emys  and  its  subgeuera,  five  of  Cinosternum,  two  of  Aromochelys,  one 
each  of  Macroclemmys  and  Chelydra,  and  six  of  Trionyx. 

3  Emys  blandingii  may  be  erased  from  the  list  of  species  ;  we  have 
recently  examined  a  specimen  ;  it  is  identical  with  Emys  lutaria,  and 
has  evidently  been  introduced  from  Europe. 

4  One  hundred  and  eighty,  according  to  some  authors,  who  include 
a  great  part  of  Mexico,  and  adopt  every  variation  to  which  a  binomial 
term  has  been  applied. 


472 


REPTILES 


[DISTKIBUTIOX. 


Coronellulae  are  numerous;  so  arc  Colubers,  of  which  Pituoplns  is 
the  most  characteristic.  Freshwater  Snakes  abound,  especially  of 
the  genus  Tropidonotus.  Of  Tortricidse  three  genera  have  been 
distinguished.  No  true  Vipers  occur,  but  Pit  Vipers  are  represented 
by  three  genera,  of  which  two  are  Rattlesnakes. 

After  what  has  been  stated  already,  the  affinities  of  this 
to  other  regions  can  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words.  The 
Reptilian  fauna  of  North  and  South  America  forms,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Chelonians,  a  homogeneous  whole  by 
which  the  Neogean  division  proposed  by  Sclater  for 
Passerine  Birds  is  well  characterized.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Chelonian  fauna  of  North  America  is  entirely  distinct 
from  that  of  South  America,  and  most  closely  allied  to 
that  of  India. 

6.  Tlie  Europo- Asiatic  Region. — Whilst  the  north  of  the 
western  hemisphere  has  at  least  one  order  of  Reptiles,  the 
Chelonians,  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from  the  south, 
the  temperate  region  of  the  eastern  hemisphere  possesses 
no  important  distinguishing  type  of  Reptile.  Its  Reptilian 
fauna  is  merely  an  offshoot  of  those  of  the  two  adjoining 
tropical  regions ;  and,  if  we  were  to  add  the  genera  most 
characteristic  of  the  Palaearctic  fauna  to  either  Africa  or 
India,  the  character  of  neither  would  be  modified  or 
changed.  Thus,  so  far  as  Reptiles  are  concerned,  a  False- 
arctic  region  does  not  deserve  to  rank  with  the  other 
primary  regions. 

The  Chelonians  are  represented  by  nine  species  only,  viz.  : — 

Testudo,  4  species 

Emys,  3      „ 

Trionyx,  2      ,, 

— types  which  are  only  specifically  distinct  from  those  of  the  two 
southern  tropical  regions.  The  Land  Tortoises  are  confined  to  the 
warmer  districts  of  the  western  portion,  penetrating  into  the  centre 
of  the  Siberian  sub-region,  and  entirely  absent  in  the  northern  and 
eastern  parts  ;  of  Emys  one  species  (E.  lutaria]  is  still  found  in 
north-eastern  Germany  as  far  north  as  54°  N.  lat.1 ;  and  probably 
some  other  species  will  be  found  in  similar  latitudes  in  the  little 
explored  Amur  country,  where  also  a  species  of  Trionyx  ( T.  maackii) 
occurs.  The  second  species  of  this  latter  genus  which  is  referable 
to  this  region  inhabits  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris. 

The  recent  discovery  of  an  Alligator  in  central  China  is  a  highly 
interesting  fact,  but  not  surprising,  when  we  remember  the  occur- 
rence in  China  of  not  a  few  North- American  types  of  Batrachians 
and  Freshwater  Fishes.  The  common  African  Crocodile  still  lingers 
in  the  Mediterranean  district, — its  presence  in  Syria  having  been 
placed  beyond  doubt,  and  its  occurrence  in  Sicily  having  been 
asserted  on  very  good  authority. 

The  Lacertilians  include  the  only  family  type  which  this  region 
has  not  derived  from  either  Africa  or  India,  viz. ,  the  Anguidse.  Two 
genera  of  this  family,  Anguis  and  Pseudopus,'2  are  widely  spread  in 
Europe,  and  closely  allied,  the  former  to  the  South-American 
Ophiodes,  and  the  latter  to  the  North-American  Ophiosaurus. 
Lacertidse  are  abundant  as  in  Africa,  and  Amphisb&nidfe  and 
Chamasleontidee  represented  at  least  in  the  Mediterranean  district. 
Towards  the  central  parts  of  Asia  the  terrestrial  Agamidae  are  con- 
tinued from  north-western  Africa,  partly  with  but  slight  modifica- 
tions, Phrynocephalus  being  a  specifically  Central- Asiatic  genus.  In 
the  Manchurian  sub-region  these  African  types  are  replaced  by  some 
Indian  forms,  such  as  Gecko  and  Tachydromus.  The  northern  range 
of  Lizards  in  this  region  extends  as  far  as  Lapland  (Lacerta  vivipara 
and  Anguis  fragilis). 

The  most  characteristic  Ophidian  genus  of  the  region  is  Zamenis, 
a  Colubrine  form  which  is  very  widely  spread,  and  includes  more 
species  (eleven)  than  any  other  Palsearctic  genus.  This  genus 
extends  over  Arabia,  and  even  into  the  island  of  Socptra,  without 
being  associated  there  so  far  as  is  known  at  present  with  Snakes  of 
an  either  peculiarly  African  or  Indian  type.  The  total  number  of 
Palaearctic  Snakes  amounts  to  sixty,  of  which  twelve  are  poisonous 
Snakes,  viz.,  nine  Viperines  and  three  Halys.  The  majority 
inhabit  the  Mediterranean  district  and  western  Asia. 

Four  Typhlops  and  a  single  Slcnostoma  have  been  found  in  the 
Mediterranean  district  and  Persia. 

Of  the  small  number  of  Calamariidss  and  Coronellidse,  Rhyncho- 


1  Emys  lutaria  is  one  of  the  Tortoises   the  range  of  which  has 
become  much  restricted  in  post-Glacial  times,  its  remains  having  been 
found  in  peat  beds  in  Norfolk,  Belgium,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  where 
it  is  now  completely  extinct. 

2  The  isolated  occurrence  of  a  species  of  Pseudopus  in  Khassia  has 
been  mentioned  above. 


calamus,  Psilosoma,  Lytorliynchus,   and  Dityixiphis  (Socotra)   are 
genera  not  found  beyond  this  region. 

Colubridss  are  comparatively  numerous,  and  show  less  affinity 
to  African  than  Indian  forms.  Besides  Zamenis,  Coluber  and 
Elaphis  occur  in  four  species  each,  and  Rhinechis  and  AcowbiopMs 
(Afghanistan)  are  peculiar  genera. 

Three  or  four  species  of  Tropidonotus  represent  the  groups  of 
Freshwater  Snakes. 

The  Psammophidse  are  well  developed ;  besides  two  species  of 
Psammophis,  Taphromctopon  and  Ceelopeltis  are  peculiar  genera, 
but  not  extending  into  eastern  Asia. 

There  is  one  species  of  Eryx. 

One  species  oiNctja  reaches  the  Caspian. 

The  three  species  of  Halys  are  Central-Asiatic.3 
.  Of  the  nine  species  of  Viperines  six  belong  to  Vipera  and 
Cerastes.  Daboia  and  Echis  may  be  considered  to  have  their  head- 
quarters in  this  region,  but  they  extend  into  southern  India,  and 
Echis  has  spread  east  and  west  along  the  barren  plains  or  deserts  of 
North  Africa  and  north-western  India. 

7.  Neio  Zealand. — The  southernmost  parts  of  South  New 
America,  Africa,  and  Australia  are  not  inhabited  by  aZeal 
sufficiently  differentiated  fauna  to  be  separated  from  the 
tropical  regions  of  which  they  are  the  continuation.  None 
of  the  small  oceanic  islands  south  of  40°  or  Tierra  del 
Fuego  possess  any  Reptiles.  On  the  other  hand  New 
Zealand  is  by  the  possession  of  ffatteria,  the  sole  living 
remnant  of  the  extinct  order  Rhynchocephalia  (not  to 
mention  other  scarcely  less  important  parts  of  its  fauna), 
so  much  distinguished  from  the  other  regions  that  it  can- 
not be  associated  with  any  of  them.  Although  the  climate 
and  other  physical  conditions  seem  to  be  well  adapted  for 
the  existence  of  the  Chelonian  and  Ophidian  types,  neither 
is  represented ;  and  of  Lizards  only  representatives  of  the 
ubiquitous  Skinks  and  Geckos  have  reached  its  shores ;  but 
some  of  the  latter  must  have  inhabited  New  Zealand  for  a 
long  period,  as  they  belong  to  a  distinct  genus,  Naultinus, 
which  is  peculiar  to  this  group  of  islands. 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  section  it  will  be  useful  first  Res 
to   recapitulate   the   principal   features  of   the  Reptilian  °f  K* 
faunae  for  each  of   the  primary  regions  into  which  the  jr 
land  of  the  globe  has  been  divided  by  zoologists,  and  which 
nearly  coincide  with  the  geographical  divisions,  and  secondly 
to  arrange  the  regions  according  to  the  natural  relations  as 
expressed  by  this  class  of  animals.     A  division  into  zones 
comprising  the  corresponding  parts  of  both  hemispheres 
cannot  be  maintained  for  Reptiles,  since  the  greater  portion 
of  the  faunae  of  the  temperate  are  merely  the  offshoots  of 
tropical  faunae,  no  peculiar  types  of  a  higher  than  generic 
rank  being  developed  in  them. 

1.  The   INDIAN  REGION   is  characterized  by  Trionycidss  and 
Emydidsa,  but  few  Tcstudinidas.    Crocodilidee,  with  Gavials.    Lacer- 
tilians and  Ophidians  very  numerous.     Agamidie  chiefly  arboreal 
(Draco),  and   Varanidte.     Pythonidse  and  Lycodontidee.     Ground 
Snakes,  Colubers,  Tree  Snakes,  and  Freshwater  Snakes  abundant 
in  genera.     Tropidonotus.     Poisonous  Snakes  in  the  proportion  of 
species  as  1  :  10,  and  comprising  Crotalidas  and  Elapidse,  but  only 
two  Vipcridss. 

2.  The  AFRICAN  REGION  (exclusive  of  Madagascar)  is  characterized 
by  Land  Tortoises,  Trionycidss,  and  Chclydidaz.    Species  of  Crocodi- 
lus  only.    Lacertilians  and  Ophidians  rather  numerous.    Agamidae 
chiefly  terrestrial ;  Lacertidze  and  Varanidw  are  well  represented. 
Amphisbtenidie,  Gerrhosauridae,  and  Zonuridse  are  peculiar  to  the 
region.      Cliam&lcontidx.       Pythonidx  and  Lycodontidae.      True 
Colubers  and  Tropidonotus  almost  absent.    Psammophidse.    Poison- 
ous Snakes  in  the  proportion  of  1  :  5,  comprising  Viperidse,  and 
numerous  venomous  Colubrines. 

3.  The  Eunoro-AsTATic  REGION  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of 
Indian  and  African  generic  and  family  types  ;   and  only  a  few 
peculiar  genera  have  their  centre  of  distribution  in  this  part,  such  as 
Anguis,  Pseudopus,  Phrynocephalus,  Uromastyx,  Stenodactylus,  Also- 
phylax,  Ceramodactylus,  Scincus,  Zamenis,  Ceelopeltis,  Taphromcto- 
pon, Daboia,  'Echis,  Halys.     The  majority  inhabit  the  sub-tropical 
and  warmer  parts  abutting  upon  the  neighbouring  tropical  regions, 
and  are  rapidly  reduced  in  number  in  the  more  temperate  portion. 

4.  The  TROPICAL  PACIFIC  REGION  possesses  one  of  the  terrestrial 
CheLonian    types,    Chelydidae,   and    species    of    Crocodilus    only. 

8  Viperine  and  Crotaline  Snakes  meet  in  the  centre  of  the  Siberian 
sub  region  (Peters,  Monatsber.  lierl.  Ak.,  1877,  p.  730). 


K  E  Q  —  R  E  S 


473 


Besides  Skinks  and  Geckos,  terrestrial  Agamidse,  and  Varanidae 
are  well  represented  ;  Pygopodidse.  Erycidw,  Pythonidae,  and  Boidse 
are  autochthonous,  whilst  a  small  number  of  innocuous  Colubrines 
are  immigrants  from  the  East  Indies.  The  poisonous  Snakes  sur- 
pass in  number  the  non-poisonous,  and  belong  to  the  Elapidas. 

5.  MADAGASCAR  possesses  Chelydidse  and  Testudinidse  without 
Trionyx,  like  South  America.     A  species  of  Crocodile.     Chamse- 
leontidse  more  differentiated  here  than  in  Africa,  with  which  it  has 
also   Gerrhosauridse  and   Zonuridas   in   common ;    Agamidse,  are 
replaced  by  the  South- American  Iguanidae.     Snakes  chiefly  South- 
American  ;  no  poisonous  Snake. 

6.  The  TROPICAL  AMERICAN  REGION  is  characterized  by  the  full 
development  of  Testudinidas  and  Chelydidse  and  absence  of  Trionyx ; 
Emydoids  are  immigrants  from  the  north.     Crocodiles  and  Alli- 
gators.    Lacertilians  numerous  in  families  and  species,  the  majority 
being  Iguanidae  ;  the  Old-World  Lacertidae  replaced  by  Tejidse. 
Other  families,  Anguidas,  Amphisbasnidae,  Eublepharidas,  Heloder- 
funatidsA,    &c.,  well  represented.      Snakes   numerous :    JBoidse  and 
Scytalidss  ;  Ground  Snakes,  Colubers,  and  Tree  Snakes  abundant, 
less  so  Freshwater  Snakes  ;  Tropidonotus  almost  absent.     Poison- 
ous Snakes  in  the  proportion  of  species  as  1  :  8,  and  comprising 
CrotaKdee  and  Elaps. 

7.  The  NORTH-AMERICAN  REGION  differs  from  the  Tropical  in 
possessing  the  Emydidse,  in  their  full  development  and  Trionyx  ; 
only  one  Testudo.     One   Alligator.     As   regards  Lacertilians  and 
Ophidians  this  region  occupies  the  same  relation  to  tropical  South 
America  as  the  Palsearctic  region  does  to  Africa  and  India. 

8.  NEW  ZEALAND  is   characterized  by  the   possession   of  the 
Rhynchocephalian  type,   without    any  other    Reptile    with    the 
exception  of  certain  Skinks  and  Geckos. 

Arranging  these  primary  divisions  of  the  globe  in 
accordance  with  the  distribution  of  the  several  orders  of 
Reptiles,  we  find  that  with  regard  to  CHELONIANS  the 
regions  stand  in  the  following  relation  to  each  other  : — 

I.   Emydidse  fully  developed. 

A.  Trionycidse  fully  developed. 

1.   Testudinidse  in  small   numbers  or  immigrants  : 
a.  Indian-Pala&arctic    regions,    and    b.    North- 
American  region  (including  Central  America). 
II.  Chelydidos  fully  developed. 

A.  Trionycidfe  fully  developed. 

1.  Testudinidse  fully  developed :  African  region. 

B.  Trionycidse  absent. 

1.  Testudinidse  fully  developed  :  a.  Tropical  American 

region,  and  b.  Madagascar. 

2.  Testudinidse  absent :  Tropical  Pacific  region. 
III.  Chelonians  entirely  absent :  New  Zealand. 

The  types  of  CROCODILIAN  and  RHYNCHOCEPHALIAN 
orders  are  too  few  in  number  and  either  very  widely  or 
very  locally  distributed,  so  that  no  general  division  of  the 
globe's  surface  can  be  based  upon  them  alone. 

The  two  large  LACERTILIAN  families  Geckonidse  and 
Scincidse,  are  generally  distributed  over  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  globe,  and  therefore  not  well  adapted  for  the  distinc- 


tion of  the  primary  regions.  Nevertheless,  in  a  more 
detailed  account  many  of  the  genera  would  have  to  come 
into  consideration,  being  confined  to  more  or  less  limited 
areas.  Both  families  are  represented  in  great  variety  in 
Australia,  but  scantily  in  South  America.  With  regard  to 
other  families  the  regions  can  be  arranged  thus  : — 

I.  Agamidse  and  Yaranidse  fully  developed. 

A.  Chamseleontidse,  Lacertidse,  and  Amphisbsenidse:  African 

region  (including  as  sub-region  the  Western  Palsearctic 
portion,  characterized  by  Anguidae). 

B.  Amphisbsenidse   and  Chamseleons  (except  one    species) 

absent ;  Lacertidte  few  :  Indian  region  with  Manchurian 
sub-region. 

C.  Pygopodidse  :  Tropical  Pacific  region. 

II.  Iguanidse  fully  developed. 

A.  Chamseleontidae. :  Madagascar. 

B.  Tejidse,  Amphisbsenidse,  and  Anguidse  :  South-American 

and  North-American  regions. 

III.  Skinks  and  Geckos  only  :  New  Zealand. 

Of    the   families   of    OPHIDIANS   the    Pythonidse,    and  as  to 
Boidx,  the  Crotalidse,  and    Viperidse,  the  Lycodontidx  and  Ophi- 
ScytalidsR  replace  each  other  in  their  distribution,  and  are,    ans' 
therefore,  best  adapted  for  determining  the  relations  of 
the  zoological  regions.     Although  the  first  two  are  so  far 
as  we  know  at  present  the  geologically  oldest  types,  and 
therefore  might  be  employed  in  the  first  instance  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  regions,  their  distribution  is  limited  to 
the  equatorial  zone,  and  fails  to  show  the  close  relations 
existing  between  the  temperate  and  equatorial  parts  of  the 
Old  World  on  the  one  hand  and  those  of  the  New  on  the 
other.     The  relations  of  Madagascar  to  Tropical  America 
are  in  the  following  scheme  less  distinctly  expressed  than 
they  are  in  nature. 

I.   Viperidse  fully  developed. 

A.  Pythonidse  and  Lycodontidae  :  African  region. 

B.  Tropidonoti  and  true  Colubers  :    western  portion  of  the 

Europo- Asiatic  region. 
II.  CrotalidiB  fully  developed. 

A.  Pythonidse    and    Lycodontidse    in  the  tropical  parts ; 

Tropidonoti  and  true  Colubers  ;  none  of  the  Crotalines 
with  rattles  :  Indian  region  (including  Manchuria). 

B.  Tropidonoti  and  true  Colubers  ;  some  of  the  Crotalines 

with  rattles  ;  intermediate  between  the  Manchurian 
sub-region  and  tropical  America :  North-American 
region. 

C.  Boidte  and  Scytalidse :   Tropical- American  region 

III.  Colubrine  venomous  Snakes  only. 

A.  Pythonidse  and  Boidna :  Tropical  Pacific  region. 

IV.  Venomous  Snakes  entirely  absent. 

A.  Boidse  :  Madagascar. 
V.  Snakes  entirely  absent :  New  Zealand.  (A.  C.  G. ) 


REQUENA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Valencia,  41  miles  to  the  west  of  that  city  on  the  road  to 
Cuenca,  occupies  a  strong  position  near  the  river  Oleana 
in  the  rocky  mountainous  district  called  Las  Cabrillas 
separating  Valencia  from  Castile.  It  is  commanded  by  a 
castle,  and  still  has  traces  of  the  walls  that  anciently  en- 
circled it.  The  tower  of  the  church  of  San  Salvador  is  the 
only  other  feature  of  architectural  interest.  The  principal 
industries  are  those  connected  with  the  culture  of  grain, 
fruit,  wine,  saffron,  and  silk.  The  population  of  the  muni- 
cipality in  1877  was  13,527. 

RESERVOIR.     See  WATERWORKS. 

RESHAL,  i.e.,  RABBENU  SHELOMOH  LORI  A  (or  Luria, 
vulgo  Lurye),  was  one  of  the  famous  "  Five x  Sages " 
(Rabbis)  of  the  16th  century.  His  father's  name  was 

1  The  other  four  were — (1)  K.  Mosheh  Isserls  of  Cracow  (the 
celebrated  "  Rema")  ;  (2)  E.  Lewa  b.  Besaleel  (the  great  Halakhist  and 
Cabbalist),  chief  rabbi  of  Prague;  (3)  R.  Mordekhai  Yaphe  (the 
author  of  the  Lebushim),  chief  rabbi  of  Posen,  &c.  ;  and  (4),  last  but 
not  least,  R.  Yoseph  Caro,  principal  of  the  academy  of  Safed  in 
Palestine,  and  compiler  of  the  normative  Shulhan  'Arukh. 


R.  Yehiel  of  Ostroff  (S.  W.  Russia),  a  descendant  of 
RASHi2  (q.v.).  He  is  also  known  under  the  name  of 
Rashal,  or  Maharshal  (i.e.,  Morenu  Harab  R.  Shelomoh 
Loria).  He  himself  was  chief  rabbi  of  Lublin,  where  he 
died  in  1573.  His  works  are  of  importance  on  account  of 
the  numerous,  though  only  incidental,  notices  they  contain 
in  connexion  with  the  history  of  Jewish  literature.  We 
name  six  of  these  works — one  edition  of  each  :— 

(1)  Hokhmath  Shelomoh,  discussions  on  the  Babylonian  Talmud, 
Eashi,  the  Tosaphoth,  &c.  This  work  is  now  an  integral  part  of 
the  Talmud  editions.  (2)  Yarn  shel  Shelomoh : — (a)  on  Yomtob  (or 
Besah),  Lublin,  1636,  and  reprints  ;  (b}  on  Yebamoth,  Altona,  1739  ; 
(e)  on  Kethuboth  (first  four  perakim),  Stettin,  1862  ;  (d)  on  Kiddu- 
shin,  Berlin,  1766  ;  (e)  on  Gittin',  Berlin,  1761,  and  reprint ;  (/)  011 
Bobo  Kammo,  Prague,  1616,  and  reprint ;  (g)  on  Hullin,  Cracow, 
1646,  a'nd  reprints.  All  these  are  in  folio.  (3)  Yeri'oth  Shelomoh, 
supercommentary  on  Rashi  on  the  Pentateuch,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  Mizrahi's  supercommentary,  Prague,  1608,  4to.  (4)  'Atereth 
Shelomoh,  on  the  lllicita  et  Licita  of  R.  Yishak  of  Diiren,  Basel. 
1599,  and  reprint,  folio.  (5)  'Ammude  Shelomoh,  on  the  Sepher 
Hammisvoth  of  R.  Mosheh  of  Coney,  Basel,  1599,  4to.  (6)  Ee- 
sponsa,  Lublin,  1574,  4to,  and  reprints  in  folio.  (S.  M.  S.-S.) 

2  Yam  shel  Shelomoh,  on  Yebamotli,  iv.  33. 

XX.  —  60 


474 


R  E  S  —  R  E  S 


RESHD.     See  RASHT. 

RESIN  A,  a  town  of  Italy,  6  miles  south-east  of  Naples 
and  practically  a  southern  continuation  of  Portici,  is  well 
known  as  the  usual  starting  place  for  tourists  on  their 
way  up  Vesuvius,  and  as  the  nearest  town  to  the  buried 
city  of  Herculaneum.  It  had  13,626  inhabitants  in  1881 
(commune  15,593). 

RESINS.  A  resin  is  a  secretion  formed  in  special 
resin  canals  or  passages  of  plants,  from  many  of  which,  such 
as,  for  example,  coniferous  trees,  it  exudes  in  soft  tears 
hardening  into  solid  masses  in  the  air.  Otherwise  it  may 
be  obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark  or  wood  of 
the  secreting  plant.  Resin  can  also  be  extracted  from 
almost  all  plants  by  treatment  of  the  tissue  with  alcohol, 
and  it  is  formed  by  the  oxidation  of  essential  oils,  many 
authorities  being  of  opinion  that  all  true  resins,  which  are 
in  chemical  composition  oxidized  hydrocarbons,  result 
primarily  from  the  action  of  oxygen  on  essential  oils. 
Resinous  substances  are  further  produced  by  the  dry 
distillation  of  numerous  organic  compounds  and  by  the 
drying  of  fatty  drying  oils.  Certain  resins  are  obtained 
in  a  fossilized  condition,  amber  being  the  most  notable 
instance  of  this  class,  and  African  copal  and  the  kaurie 
gum  of  New  Zealand  are  also  procured  in  a  semi-fossil  condi- 
tion. The  resins  which  are  obtained  as  natural  exudations 
are  in  general  compound  bodies  containing  more  than  one 
simple  resin  and  varying  proportions  of  essential  oil.  These 
compounds  when  soft  are  known  as  oleo-resins,  and  when 
imperfectly  fluid  they  are  called  balsams.  Other  resinous 
products  are  in  their  natural  condition  mixed  with  gum  or 
mucilaginous  substances  and  known  as  gum-resins.  Vary- 
ing in  constitution  as  these  bodies  do,  they  also  differ 
widely  in  physical  properties ;  but  the  general  conception 
of  a  resin  is  a  noncrystallinQ  body,  insoluble  in  water, 
mostly  soluble  in  alcohol,  essential  oils,  ether,  and  hot  fatty 
oils,  combining  with  alkalies  to  form  resin  soap,  soften- 
ing and  melting  under  the  influence  of  heat,  not  capable 
of  sublimation,  and  burning  with  a  bright  but  smoky 
flame.  A  typical  resin  is  a  transparent  or  translucent 
mass,  with  a  vitreous  fracture  and  a  faintly  yellow  or  brown 
colour,  inodorous  or  having  only  a  slight  turpentine  odour 
and  taste.  Many  compound  resins,  however,  from  their 
admixture  with  essential  oils,  are  possessed  of  distinct  and 
characteristic  odours.  A  series  of  gradations  among  resins 
may  be  traced  from  the  hard  glassy  transparent  copals 
through  soft  elemis  and  oleo-resins,  semi-fluid  balsams  and 
fluid  wood  oils,  to  the  most  limpid  essential  oils.  The 
hard  transparent  resins  are  principally  used  for  varnishes 


and  cement,  while  the  softer  odoriferous  oleo-resins  and 
gum-resins  containing  essential  oils  are  more  largely  used 
for  pharmaceutical  purposes  and  incense.  No  systematic 
classification  of  resins  has  yet  been  attempted,  and  there 
is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  botanical  source  of  some 
well-known  commercial  varieties,  while  the  chemical  con- 
stitution and  relations  of  many  still  require  elucidation. 
The  following  list  embraces  the  principal  resins  of 
commerce,  and  particulars  regarding  the  more  important  of 
these  will  be  found  under  their  respective  headings, 
also  ROSIN,  GUM,  and  BALSAM. 

I.  Copallinc  or  Varnish  Rosins : — African  Copal  or  Gum  Aniim 
(see  COPAL,  vol.  vi.  p.   342) ;  Mexican  Copal,  from  Hymenca  sp. ; 
Brazilian  Copal,  from  Hymenea s\\  and  Trachylubium  Afarlianitut  ; 
Piney  Resiu,  or  White  Dammar,  Valeria  indica  and  V.  acuminata  ; 
Sal  Dammar,  Shorca  robusta  and  other  species  ;  Dammar  of  Ilopca 
robusta ;  Black  Dammar,  from  Canariitm  strictum ;  Mastic,  P-istacia 
Lentiscus  (vol.  xv.  p.  621) ;  Lac  (vol.  xiv.  p.   181)  ;  East  Indian 
Dammar  (see  DAMMAR,  vol.  vi.  p.   795) ;  Kaurie  or  Coudie  Resin, 
Dammara  australis  (see  TURPENTINE)  ;  Sandarach,  from  Callitris 
quadrivalvis  (see  SANDARACH)  ;  Dragon's  Blood  (v»ol.  vii.  p.  389). 

II.  Soft   or   Oleo-Eesins  : — Manila  Elemi,  from  Canarium  com- 
mune (see  ELEMI,  vol.  viii.  p.  122) ;  Mexican  Elemi,  Amijris  demi- 

fera;  Brazilian  Elemi,  Idea  Icicariba  and  other  sp. ;  Tacamahac 
(American),  Elaplirium  tomentosum  ;  Tacamahac  (East  Indian), 
Calophyllum  Inophyllum ;  Wood  Oil,  Diptcrocarpus  turbinatus ; 
Chian  Turpentine,  Pistacia  Terebinthus ;  Turpentine,  Common 
Frankincense,  and  Thus  from  various  Coniform  (see  FRANKINCENSE, 
TURPENTINE,  and  ROSIN)  ;  Balsam  of  Canada,  Abies  canadcnsis  (see 
BALSAM). 

III.  Fragrant  Olco-Resins  and  Gum-Resins : — Myrrh,  Balsamo- 
dcndron  Myrrha  (vol.  xvii.  p.  121) ;  Bdellium  or  Googul,  Balsamo- 
dendron  Roxburghii ;  Balsam  of  Gilead  or  Mecca  Balsam,  Balsamo- 
dcndron  Berryi  ;  Olibanum  or  Frankincense,  Bosiocllia  Carteri,  &c. 
(see  FRANKINCENSE,  vol.  ix.  p.  709) ;  Benzoin,  Styrax  Benzoin  and 
Balsamodendron  Miikul  (vol.   iii.   p.  581)  ;  Solid  Styrax,  Styrax 
officinalis  (see   STORAX)  ;  Liquid   Storax,  Liquidambar  orientalis 
(see   STORAX)  ;    Balsam   of  Peru,   Myrospermum  peruiferum  (see 
BALSAM)  ;  Balsam  of  Tolu,  Myrospermum  toluiferum ;  Labdanum 
or  Ladanum,  Cistus  creticus,  var.  labdaniferus. 

IV.  Fetid   Gum  Resins  : — Ammoniacum,  Dorema  ammoniacum 
(vol.  i.  p.  742)  ;  Asaftetida,  Ferula  Narthex  and  F.  Scorodosma  (vol. 
ii.  p.  675) ;  Galbanum,  Ferula  galbaniflua  and  F.  rubricaulis  (vol. 
x.  p.  22) ;  Opoponax,  Opoponax  Chironium  ;  Sagapenum,  Ferula 
sp.  ;  Sarcocol. 

V.  Medicinal  Resins : — Gamboge,  Garcinia  sp.  (vol.  x.  p.  60)  ; 
Guaiacum,   Guaiacum  ojjkinale  (vol.   xi.   p.   230)  ;  Euphorbium, 
Euphorbia  resinifera  ;  Balsam  of  Copaiba,  Copaifera  officinalis  (see 
BALSAM). 

VI.  Extract  Resins  form  a  class  of  products  principally  important 
from  a  medicinal  point  of  view.     They  embrace  Scammony  from 
Convolvulus  Scammonia,  Jalap  Resin  from  Ipomca  Jalapa,   Podo- 
phyllum  Resiu  from  Podophyllum  peltatum,  Churrus  from  Indian 
Hemp  (Cannabis  sativa),  Cubeb  Resiu  from  Cubeba  officinalis  ;  and 
many  other  medicinal  products  owe  their  virtues  to  resinous  bodies 
present  in  them. 


RESPIRATION 


nnHE  continued  existence  of  an  amceba  in  a  pool  of  water, 
JL  or  of  a  white  blood-cell  in  the  liquor  sanguinis,  de- 
pends upon  a  continual  interchange  of  substances  between 
the  organism  and  the  surrounding  medium.  The  substances 
in  question  pass  from  the  medium  into  the  organism  in  a 
certain  chemical  form ;  they  pass  from  the  organism  into 
the  surrounding  medium  with  their  chemical  form  modi- 
fied. Regarding  merely  the  initial  and  final  stages  of  this 
reconstitution  of  chemical  form,  we  may  speak  of  it  as 
being  of  the  nature  of  an  oxidation.  This  view  does  not 
profess  to  be  comprehensive ;  nevertheless,  it  is  true  that 
the  metabolic  and  anabolic  processes  of  cells,  taken  as  a 
whole,  resemble  combustion  at  least  to  this  extent  that 
oxygen  and  oxidizable  carbon  take  part  in  them,  and  that 
carbon  dioxide  results  from  them.  Partly  as  a  matter  of 
tradition,  and  partly  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  physio- 
logists have  described  the  introduction  of  oxygen  into  the 


organism  and  the  emission  of  carbon  dioxide  from  it  as 
the  complemental  portions  of  one  process  of  resjriratimt. 
Although  such  a  combined  consideration  is  not  strictly 
philosophical,  inasmuch  as  it  leaves  out  of  view  the  intro- 
duction of  the  carbon  into  the  organism,  yet  it  is  extremely 
convenient  because  the  two  processes  referred  to  do,  in  all 
classes  of  the  animal  kingdom  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  involve  the  same  organs  and  tissues  in  their  per- 
formance. Respiration  may  therefore  be  denned  as  the 
aggregate  of  those  processes  which  are  concerned  in  the 
introduction  of  oxygen  into  the  system  and  the  escape  of 
carbon  dioxide  from  it. 

Respiration  in  such  an  organism  as  an  amoeba  is  ex- 
tremely simple.  The  medium  surrounding  it  contains  a 
practically  unlimited  supply  of  oxygen,  and  is  so  vast  that 
the  carbon  dioxide  put  out  into  the  medium  is  quickly 
removed  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  organism.  The 


RESPIRATION 


475 


interchange  of  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  takes  place  at 
the  surface  of  the  organism,  so  far  as  we  know,  continu- 
ously. In  the  higher  animals,  constituted  as  they  are  of  a 
vast  number-of  structural  units  accurately  packed  together, 
each  resembling  more  or  less  in  its  physiological  instincts 
the  unicellular  amoeba,  respiration  presents  a  much  more 
intricate  problem.  The  fine  interstices  which  exist  between 
the  structural  elements  do  indeed  contain  a  small  quantity 
of  a  fluid  medium  which  serves  the  function  of  the  water 
bathing  the  amoeba ;  but  the  store  of  oxygen  in  the  medium 
would  speedily  become  exhausted,  and  the  emitted  carbon 
dioxide  would  quickly  accumulate  to  a  dangerous  degree, 
if  the  medium  were  not  continually  restored  to  its  original 
purity.  This  revival  is  effected  by  the  circulating  blood 
which  is  brought  by  its  capillaries  into  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  remotest  cells  of  the  body.  But  even  the 
mass  of  the  blood  is  small  compared  with  that  of  the  cells 
it  nourishes ;  unless  it  be  itself  purified  and  restored  in 
turn  the  interstitial  juices  which  depend  upon  it  for  their 
purification  must  soon  fail  to  support  the  respiration  of  the 
cells.  Such  restoration  of  the  blood  takes  place  in  certain 
organs  called  lungs  or  gills,  where  the  blood  acquires  a  fresh 
store  of  oxygen  and  parts  with  its  excess  of  carbon  dioxide. 

Respiration  in  the  higher  animals  may  therefore  be 
divided  into  (1)  internal  respiration,  or  the  interchange  of 
oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  between  the  cells  of  the  body 
and  the  fluid  drenching  them,  and  (2)  external  respiration, 
or  the  gaseous  interchange  taking  place  in  the  special  re- 
spiratory organs  (lungs,  gills).  The  first  is  really  a  part  of 
NUTRITION  (q.v.) ;  the  second,  or  respiration  proper,  is  the 
subject  of  the  present  article. 

It  will  be  evident  on  reflection  that  the  process  of 
respiration  naturally  falls  to  be  described  under  two 
divisions,  the  first  of  which  is  concerned  with  the  move- 
ments of  the  chest  in  inspiration  and  expiration  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  brought  about,  and  the  second 
with  the  interchange  of  gases  which  takes  place  between 
the  blood  and  the  air  in  the  lungs. 

THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  RESPIRATION. 
Structure  of  the  Organs  of  ^Respiration. 
In  order  to  understand  the  movements  it  is  necessary 
first  to  know  the  structure  of  the  air  passages  and  thorax. 

Anatomy  of  the  Air  Passages. — The  essential  organs  of  respira- 
tion consist  of  an  air  tube  called  the  trachea,  communicating  at  its 
upper  end  with  the  mouth  and  bifurcating  below  into  two  bronchi, 
one  on  the  right  hand  and  one  on  the  left.  Each  bronchus  divides 
and  subdivides,  diminishing  in  calibre  at  every  division  until  a 
diameter  of  about  1  mm.  is  attained  ;  such  a  diminutive  bronchial 
tube  is  called  a  bronchiole.  Every  bronchiole  is  a  cylindrical  tube 
which  divides  dichotomously  and  rapidly  several  times,  and  finally 
terminates  in  irregular  alveolar  jmssages.  The  sides  of  the  alveolar 
passages,  and  of  the  subdividing  bronchioles  in  less  abundance,  are 
studded  with  hemispherical  dilatations  called  air  cells  or  alveoli. 
The  terminal  portion  of  an  alveolar  passage,  with  its  air  cells,  is 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  an  infundibulum — a  term  we  may  wisely 
forget  at  once,  since  it  points  to  a  distinction  where  no  essential 
difference  exists.  The  alveoli  cluster  in  great  abundance  about 
the  alveolar  passages,  and,  although  we  have  spoken  of  them  as 
hemispherical,  they  are  in  reality  made  polygonal  by  mutual  com- 
pression. They  are  surrounded  by  connective  tissue  of  a  very 
elastic  quality,  which  gives  to  their  delicate  walls  a  firm  support, 
and  is  so  disposed  about  them  that  all  the  alveoli  derived  from  one 
bronchiole  are  more  closely  knit  together  than  they  are  bound  to 
those  of  a  neighbouring  bronchiole  ;  hence  we  may  speak  of  a 
bronchiole  with  the  assemblage  of  its  members  as  a  lobule,  a  term 
of  peculiar  importance  since  it  will  be  evident  on  reflection  that 
each  lobule  contains  all  the  essential  parts  of  a  lung — is  in  fact  a 
lung  in  miniature.  By  connecting  tissue  the  lobules  are  compacted 
to  form  lobes,  of  which  two  on  the  left  side  and  three  on  the  right 
go  to  make  lip  the  respective  lungs. 

The  trachea  and  larger  bronchi  are  composed  of  a  series  of  super- 
posed crcscentic  pieces  or  imperfect  rings  of  hyaline  cartilage 
which  with  a  tough  fibrous  and  elastic  membrane  form  a  tube  ;  in 
the  trachea  the  incomplete  cartilage-rings  are  so  placed  that  their 
hiatuses  are  at  the  back.  In  the  bronchial  tubes,  especially  the 


smaller  ones',  the  cartilages  are  fewer,  and  less  regular  in  shape, 
being  in  fact  mere  nodules  in  the  bronchial  walls.  In  the 
bronchioles  there  is  no  cartilage.  There  is  an  external  fibrous  and 
elastic  layer  investing  the  trachea  and  bronchi ;  and  stretching 
from  tip  to  tip  of  the  imperfect  cartilaginous  rings  are  bands  of 
involuntary  muscular  fibres.  The  function  of  the  cartilages  is 
doubtless  to  maintain  the  patency  of  the  primary  air  passages  by 
resisting  external  compression  ;  that  of  the  muscular  fibres  is  pro- 
bably to  resist  unusual  distension  of  the  tubes,  as  in  the  strain  of 
coughing,  &c.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  trachea  consists  of  a 
mucosa  of  fine  connective  tissue,  mixed  with  some  tissue  of  the  ade- 
noid sort,  and  with  elastic  fibres,  disposed  in  longitudinal  bundles. 
Beneath  the  mucosa  is  the  slight  submucosa,  which  supports  large 
blood-vessels,  lymphatics,  and  mucous  glands,  and  unites  the 
mucosa  to  the  cartilages.  Above  the  mucosa  lies  the  basement 
membrane,  supporting  a  stratified  epithelium,  the  upper  cells  of 
which  are  columnar  and  ciliated  and  may  include  amongst  them 
the  well-known  goblet-cells,  while  the  deeper  layers  are  squamous 
and  capable  of  regenerating  the  upper  stratum  if  this  be  lost.  The 
epithelium  is  pierced  by  the  ducts  of  glands.  Blood-capillaries, 
lymphatics,  and  fine  nerves  have  all  been  shown  to  exist  in  the 
tracheal  mucosa. 

The  same  structural  elements  as  are  found  in  the  trachea  con- 
tinue to  be  found  in  all  the  series  of  bronchial  tubes  above  1  mm. 
in  diameter  ;  they  are  arranged  in  much  the  same  order,  save  that 
the  muscular  fibres  are  relatively  increased  and  that  they  surround 
the  whole  tube  (within  the  zone  occupied  by  the  cartilaginous 
nodiiles)  somewhat  like  the  tunica  media  of  an  artery.  The 
mucous  membrane  is  still  ciliated,  but  its  surface-cells  are 
squat.  On  the  other  hand  the  bronchioles  and  alveolar  passages 
have  a  different  structure  :  cartilage  and  glands  are  no  longer 
found  ;  the  epithelium  is  flat  and  ciliated ;  and  the  muscular  fibres 
gradually  thin  out  on  the  walls  of  the  alveolar  passages. 

It  is,  however,  the  air-cells  which  have  most  interest  for  the 
physiologist.  They  are  about  roirth  inch  in  diameter,  and  their  walls 
are  made  up  of  a  delicate  film-like  basement  membrane,  on  tho 
outside  of  which  are  numerous  elastic  fibres.  Elastic  connective 
tissue  intervenes  between  neighbouring  alveoli,  and  mingled  with 
it  are  not  a  few  involuntary  muscular  fibres.  The  alveoli  are 
lined  with  flat  cells  in  a  single  layer,  some  cells  being  large,  clear, 
and  polygonal,  while  others  are  small  and  granular,  and  are  found 
singly  or  in  groups  of  two  or  three  inserted  between  the  edges  of 
the  clear  sort.  The  cells  are  united  together  by  cement  in  which 
fine  holes  are  sometimes  to  be  seen  ;  through  these  holes,  or  pseudt- 
stomata,  migratory  leucocytes  can  make  their  way  into  and  out  of 
the  alveoli. 


FKI.  1. — Histology  of  the  hing-ve*icles.  V,  V,  blood-vessels  bordering  on  the 
alveoli;  c,  c,  blood  capillaries  of  an  alveolus;  /, /,  alveolar  epithelium  shown 
separately;  E,E,  relative  position  of  alveolar  epithelium  and  blood-capillaries  ; 
e,  e,  elastic  texture  of  lung-substance.  (From  Hermann's  Handbuch  der 
Physiologic.) 

The  blood-vessels  of  the  lung  are  of  two  sorts,  nutritive  and 
functional,  i.e.,  concerned  in  the  function  of  the  organs.  The 
former  are  called  bronchial,  and  arise  from  the  aorta  or  intercostal 
arteries.  They  serve  to  nourish  the  tissues  of  the  lung,  and  the 
blood  they  contain  finds  its  way,  in  part  into  the  bronchial  veins  and 
thence  into  the  vena  azygos,  intercostal  vein,  or  superior  vena  cava, 
and  in  part  into  veins  of  the  functional  system.  The  latter  system 
of  vessels  consists  of  the  pulmonary  arteries,  which  arise  in  the 


476 


EESPIEATION 


right  ventricle  and  run  through  the  lung  substance  pari  passu  with 
the  bronchial  tubes  to  the  lobules.  Here  they  branch  into  a  dense 
network  of  capillaries  which  spread  over  the  outside  of  the  alveoli, 
enmeshing  them  so  tightly  as  to  indent  their  walls.  From  the 
capillaries  the  blood  Hows  into  pulmonary  venules  which  run 
together  to  form  the  large  pulmonary  veins,  which  open  into  the 
left  auricle.  The  pulmonary  venules  may  anastomose  freely,  but 
the  arteries  never  do  so.  The  veins  possess  no  valves. 

The  lymphatic  vessels  of  the  lung  abound  in  all  parts,  but  are 
usually  described  as  having  a  threefold  distribution, — (a)  in  the 
layer  of  tissue  beneath  the  membrane  investing  the  whole  lung,  (6) 
in"  the  perivascular  tissue,  and  (c)  in  the  peribronchial  tissue. 
When  fine  carbon  particles  are  introduced  into  the  alveoli  of  the 
lung  they  find  their  way  with  the  greatest  ease  into  the  inter- 
alveolar  tissues,  and  finally  come  to  lie  in  the  three  positions  just 
referred  to,  as  may  be  demonstrated  in  the  lung  of  any  coal  miner. 
The  lymphatics  of  the  membrane  investing  the  lung  communicate 
with  the  free  surface  of  that  membrane  by  means  of  openings  not 
unlike  the  stomata  of  leaves. 

The  lungs,  with  the  heart  and  great  vessels,  are  the  chief  organs 
contained  in  the  thorax,  or  that  division  of  the  great  body  cavity 
which  lies  above  the  diaphragm.  Each  lung  is  invested  with  a 
membrane  called  pleura,  which  plays  a  most  important  part  in  the 
mechanism  of  respiration. 

The  Pleural  Membrane.  — Let  us  imagine  a  bag  shaped  like  an 
hour  glass,  and  let  us  suppose  one  half  of  this  bag  to  be  packed  up 
small  and  pushed  through  the  constricted  portion  of  the  hour  glass 
into  the  interior  of  the  other  half.  We  should  then  have  a  bag 
shaped  like  one  half  of  an  hour  glass  but  provided  with  double  walls 
— a  more  or  less  globular  double-walled  bag  with  a  narrow  opening 
into  it.  If  further  we  imagine  the  interior  of  this  double-walled  bag 
(not  the  interior  of  the  hour  glass)  to  be  entirely  filled  with  one  lung, 
we  shall  have  an  exact  conception  of  the  relationship  of  the  lung  to 
the  pleura.  The  lung  so  covered  is  placed  in  its  proper  half  of  the 
thorax,  which  in  circumstances  of  health  it  accurately  fills.  The 
outer  layer  of  the  double-walled  bag  is  closely  glued  to  the  inner 
wall  of  the  thorax.  The  inner  layer  is  as  firmly  adherent  to  the 
surface  of  the  lung.  The  space  between  the  double  walls,  i.e.,  the 
interior  of  the  original  hour  glass,  is  called  the  pleural  cavity  ;  it 
is  vacuous  in  health,  being  moistened  by  a  mere  trace  of  fluid.  The 
substance  of  the  pleural  membrane  is  mainly  connective  tissue  ; 
and  the  interior  of  the  pleural  cavity  is  lined  with  a  single  layer  of 
flat  epithelial  cells  exhibiting  the  stomata  already  referred  to. 

The  Thorax. — The  chest  or  thorax  is  formed  by  the  dorsal  section 
of  the  spinal  column  behind,  with  the  ribs  that  spring  from  it  on 
each  side,  and  the  sternum,  which  lies  between  the  ends  of  the  ribs, 
in  front.  The  dorsal  spine  is  bowed,  so  that  its  concavity  looks 
forward.  The  ribs,  speaking  generally,  are  bowed  with  their  con- 
cavity turned  towards  the  interior  of  the  chest ;  and  if  we  consider 
the  plane  of  each  rib,  i.e.,  that  plane  in  which  the  arched  rib  would 
(approximately)  lie  flat,  we  shall  find  that  it  declines  from  the  hori- 
zontal in  a  twofold  manner — first  the  rib-plane  slopes  from  behind 
downwards  and  forwards,  and  secondly  it  slopes  on  each  side  from 
the  mesial  plane  of  the  body  downwards  and  outwards.  The  ribs 
1-7  are  connected  with  the  sternum  by  means  of  pieces  of  cartilage 
which  really  form  the  anterior  portion  of  each  rib  arch  ;  these  ribs 
are  called  "  true  "  ;  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  ribs  are  united  by 
cartilage,  not  to  the  sternum,  but  to  the  cartilages  of  the  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  ribs  respectively  ;  these  ribs  are  called  "false"  ; 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  ribs  are  called  "floating "  because  they  are 
unattached  anteriorly.  Each  rib  has  a  head,  by  which  it  is  joined  to 
the  vertebral  bodies  constituting  the  spinal  column  ;  a  tubercle  or 
shoulder  at  a  little  distance  away  from  the  head,  by  which  in  all 
cases,  except  those  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  ribs,  it  is  joined  to  the 
transverse  process  of  a  vertebra ;  an  angle  or  rough  line  a  little 
beyond  the  tubercle,  where  the  rib,  rather  suddenly,  begins  to  sweep 
forwards  ;  and  a  neck,  the  part  intervening  between  the  head  and 
tubercle.  The  space  between  the  ribs  is  filled  up  by  two  layers  of 
muscles  called  intercostal— an  outer  or  superficial  layer,  whose  fibres 
run  from  above  downwards  and  forwards,  and  a  deeper  or  internal 
layer,  whose  fibres  cross  those  of  the  former.  The  outer  layer  is  not 
fouud  between  the  costal  cartilages  in  front,  nor  the  inner  layer 
between  the  costal  necks  behind.  The  upper  opening  of  the  thorax 
is  filled  by  the  windpipe  blood-vessels  and  other  structures  pass- 
ing into  or  out  of  the  thorax.  The  floor  of  the  thorax  is  formed 

ty 

The  Diaphragm. — This  consists  of  a  thin  arched  muscular  partition, 
whose  fibres  spring  from  the  edge  of  the  lower  opening  of  the  thorax 
and  converge  towards  a  sheet  of  tendon  in  the.  centre,  which  is  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  trefoil  leaf.  We  may  group  the  muscular  fibres  of 
the  diaphragm  according  to  the  quadrant  from  which  tlu-y  spring  : — 
(1)  a  vertebral  portion,  whose  fibres  stretch  down  to  be  attached  in 
two  well-marked  columns  or  pillars  to  the  bodies  of  some  of  the 
lumber  vertebrae  and  by  tendinous  arches  to  the  transverse  processes 
of  the  first  lumbar  vertebra  and  the  twelfth  rib ;  (2)  a  sternal  portion, 
which  springs  •from  the  back  of  the  tip  of  the  sternum,  and  from  the 
sheath  of  the  rectus  abdominis  muscles  below  it ;  (3)  and  (4)  two 


lateral  or  costal  portions,  which  spring  from  the  lower  edge  of  the 
thorax  all  round  from  the  tip  of  the  twelfth  rib  to  the  junction 
between  the  sixth  and  seventh  costal  cartilage  where  the  sternal 
portion  begins.  The 
whole  diaphragm 
forms  a  dome  or  cu- 
pola projecting  so  far 
into  the  thorax  that 
the  lateral  vertical 
portions  of  the  dome 
lie  in  close  apposition 
to  the  walls  of  the 
thorax,  as  is  shown 
in  fig.  2.  The  top  of 
the  dome  is  somewhat 
flat  and  the  right 
moiety  of  the  top  is 
on  a  higher  level  than 
the  left,  the  highest 
point  corresponding 
with  the  level  of  the 
junction  of  the  right 
fifth  rib  with  the 
sternum. 

Other  Muscles  of  Re- 
spiration.— The  ribs 
are  movable  in  the 
sense  that  each  rib 
plane,  which  has  been 
described  as  declining 
in  two  ways  from  the 
horizontal  plane,  may 
be  made  to  approach 
the  horizontal,  and 
may  afterwards  _  re-  F,O.  2.— Section  through  tip  of  12th  rib. 

turn   to   its    original  (From  Hermann.) 

position.  To  accomplish  these  movements  various  muscles  are 
provided,  the  exact  position  of  which  need  not  be  very  fully  de- 
scribed. Suffice  it  to  say  that  in  general  they  arise  from  the  verte- 
bral axis,  or  from  some  extra-thoracic  fixed  point,  and  take  hold 
of  the  movable  parts  of  the  thorax  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can 
pull  them  up  or  pull  them  down.  Such  muscles  are  the  following 
(enumerated  without  reference  to  their  function  as  inspiratory  or 
expiratory  muscles ;  particular  descriptions  of  them  must  be  sought 
in  the  article  ANATOMY)  : — levatores  costarum  ;  the  three  scalene 
muscles  ;  the  sterno-cleidomastoid ;  serratus  posticns  superior ; 
parts  of  the  great  erector  spinfe  muscle  ;  possibly  serratus  magmis  ; 
pectoralis  minor  and  major  in  certain  positions  of  the  arm  ;  obli- 
quus  externus  ;  obliquus  interims  ;  transversalis  abdominis  ;  trian- 
gularis  sterni ;  serratus  posticus  inferior ;  quadratus  lumboruin. 
In  addition  to  these  muscles  many  others  may  lend  occasional  aid 
in  respiration  by  fixing  points,  such  as  the  scapula,  otherwise  too 
freely  movable  to  act  as  a  point  d'appui  ;  such  are  trapezius,  latis- 
simus  dorsi,  rhomboidei,  and  levator  anguli  scapuli. 

Dimensions  of  the  Thorax. — The  circumference  of  the  chest  just 
below  the  level  of  the  arms  is  about  34J  inches  in  men,  and  32 
inches  in  women.  At  the  level  of  the  tip  of  the  sternum  it  is  32 
and  30^  inches  respectively.  The  measurement  from  clavicle  to 
lower  edge  of  thorax  varies  very  much  in  different  cases.  The 
transverse  diameter  above  the  nipple  is  about  10  to  10^  inches  in 
men,  and  about  9£  to  9|  inches  in  women.  The  antero-posterior 
diameter,  measured  from  the  spines  of  the  vertebra  behind  to  the 
surface  of  the  chest  in  front  is  in  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  about 
6£  inches,  and  in  the  lower  7^  inches.  The  right  half  of  the  chest 
is  generally  somewhat  larger  than  the  left,  because  its  muscles  are 
usually  better  developed.  Instruments  .for  measuring  the  exact 
circumference  of  the  chest  at  a  given  level  are  called  cyrtometers ; 
the  best  of  these  is  a  strip  of  lead  which  can  be  laid  along  the  side  of 
the  chest  from  the  spine  round  to  the  sternum,  and  which  is  pliable 
enough  to  follow  the  inequalities  of  the  chest  wall,  yet  resisteut 
enough  to  keep  the  shape  imparted  to  it. 

For  other  figures  illustrating  the  structure  of  thorax  and  lungs, 
see  ANATOMY. 

The  Physiological  Actions  of  the  Respiratory  Organs. 

The  organs  above  described  perform  during  the  whole 
of  life  certain  movements.  The  commonest  are  the  move- 
ments of  ordinary  quiet  respiration,  but  we  must  include 
under  the  head  of  physiological  actions,  as  distinguished 
from  those  provoked  by  disease,  other  movements,  viz., 
forced  respiration,  such  as  accompanies  strenuous  muscular 
exertion,  and  those  modifications  of  the  respiratory  act 
called  coughing,  hawking,  sneezing,  snoring,  crying,  sigh- 
ing, laughing,  yawning,  and  hiccoughing. 


RESPIRATION 


477 


Normal  Respiration. — If  the  naked  body  of  a  person 
asleep  or  in  perfect  inactivity  be  carefully  watched,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  anterior  and  lateral  Avails  of  the  chest 
move  rhythmically  up  and  down,  while  air  passes  into  and 
out  of  the  nostrils  (and  mouth  also  if  this  be  open)  in 
correspondence  with  the  movement.  If  we  look  more 
closely  we  shall  find  that  with  every  uprising  of  the  chest 
walls  the  membranous  intercostal  portions  sink  slightly  as 
if  sucked  in,  while  at  the  same  time  the  flexible  walls  of 
the  abdomen  bulge  as  if  protruded  by  some  internal  force. 
If  respiration  be  in  the  slightest  degree  hurried  these 
motions  become  so  marked  as  to  escape  the  attention  of 
no  one.  The  elevation  of  the  chest  walls  is  called  inspira- 
tion, their  depression  expiration.  Inspiration  is  slightly 
shorter  than  expiration,  and  usually  there  is  a  slight  pause 
or  momentary  inaction  of  the  chest  between  expiration 
and  the  following  inspiration.  Apparatuses  for  measuring 
the  excursion  of  a  given  point  of  the  chest  wall  during 
respiration  are  called  thoracometers  or  stethometers.  Appa- 
ratuses for  recording  the  movements  of  the  chest  are  called 
stetkograp/is  or  pneumographs. 

Frequency  of  Respiration. — The  frequency  of  respiration 
during  perfect  rest  of  the  body  is  16  to  24  per  minute,  the 
pulse  rate  being  usually  four  times  the  rate  of  respiration ; 
but  the  respiratory  rhythm  varies  in  various  conditions  of 
life.  The  following  are  the  means  of  many  observations 
made  by  Quetelet :  at  the  age  of  one  year  the  number  of 
respirations  is  44  per  minute ;  at  5  years,  26 ;  from  15  to 
20  years,  20;  from  25  to  30,  16;  from  30  to  50,  18'1. 
Muscular  exertion  always  increases  the  frequency  of  respira- 
tion. The  higher  the  temperature  of  the  environment  the 
more  frequent  is  the  respiration.  Bert  has  shown  that  with 
higher  atmospheric  pressures  than  the  normal  the  frequency 
of  respiration  is  diminished  while  the  depth  of  each  inspira- 
tion is  increased.  The  frequency  of  respiration  diminishes 
until  dinner  time,  reaches  its  maximum  within  an  hour  of 
feeding,  and  thereafter  falls  again  ;  if  dinner  is  omitted,  no 
rise  of  frequency  occurs.  The  respiratory  act  can  be  inter- 
rupted at  any  stage,  reversed,  quickened,  slowed,  and  vari- 
ously modified  at  will,  so  long  as  respiration  is  not  stopped 
entirely  for  more  than  a  short  space  of  time ;  beyond  this 
limit  the  will  is  incapable  of  suppressing  respiration. 

Depth  of  Respiration. — The  depth  of  respiration  is 
measured  by  the  quantity  of  air  inspired  or  expired  in  the 
act ;  but  the  deepest  expiration  possible  does  not  suffice  to 
expel  all  the  air  the  lungs  contain.  The  following  measure- 
ments have  been  ascertained,  and  are  here  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  convenient  terminology  proposed  by  Hutchinson. 
(1)  Residual  air,  the  volume  of  air  remaining  in  the  chest 
after  the  most  complete  expiratory  effort,  ranges  from  100 
to  130  cubic  inches.  (2)  Reserve  or  supplemental  air,  the 
volume  of  air  which  can  be  expelled  from  the  chest  after 
an  ordinary  quiet  expiration,  measures  about  100  cubic 
inches.  (3)  Tidal  air,  the  volume  of  air  taken  in  and 
given  out  at  each  ordinary  respiration  may  be  stated  at 
about  20  cubic  inches.  (4)  Complemental  air,  the  volume 
of  air  that  can  be  forcibly  inspired  over  and  above  what 
is  taken  in  at  a  normal  inspiration,  ranges  from  about 
100  to  130  cubic  inches.  By  vital  capacity,  which  once 
had  an  exaggerated  importance  attached  to  it,  is  meant  the 
quantity  of  air  which  can  be  expelled  from  the  lungs  by 
the  deepest  possible  expiration  after  the  deepest  possible 
inspiration ;  it  obviously  includes  the  complemental,  tidal, 
and  reserve  airs,  and  measures  about  230  cubic  inches  in 
the  Englishman  of  average  height,  i.e.,  5  feet  8  inches 
(Hutchinson).  It  varies  according  to  the  height,  body 
weight,  age,  sex,  position  of  the  body,  and  condition  as 
to  health  of  the  subject  of  observation. 

Vital  capacity  is  estimated  by  means  of  a  spiromcter,  a  grad- 
uated gasometer  into  which  air  may  be  blown  from  the  lungs. 


The  residual  air,  which  for  obvious  reasons  cannot  be  actually 
measured,  may  be  estimated  in  the  following  way  (Harless, 
Grehant).  At  the  end  of  ordinary  expiration,  apply  the  moutk 
to  a  mouth-piece  communicating  with  a  vessel  filled  with  pure 
hydrogen,  and  breathe  into  and  out  of  this  vessel  half  a  dozen 
times  —  until,  in  fact,  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  the  air  in  the 
lungs  at  the  time  of  the  experiment  has  become  evenly  mixed  with 
hydrogen.  Then  ascertain  by  analysis  the  proportion  of  hydrogen 
to  expired  air  in  the  vessel  and  estimate  the  amount  of  the  air 
which  the  lungs  contained  by  the  following  formula  :— 
=p  :  100; 


where  V=volume  of  air  in  the  lungs  at  the  time  of  experiment,  u= 
volume  of  the  vessel  containing  hydrogen,  p  =  proportion  of  air  to 
hydrogen  in  the  vessel  at  the  end  of  the  experiment.  V,  then,  is 
the  volume  of  air  in  the  lungs  after  an  ordinary  expiration  ;  that 
is,  it  includes  the  residual  and  the  reserve  air  ;  if  we  subtract  from 
this  the  amount  of  reserve  air  ascertained  by  direct  measurement, 
we  obtain  the  100-130  cubic  inches  which  Hutchinson  arrived  at 
by  a  study  of  the  dead  body. 

Volume  of  Respiration.  —  It  is  clear  that  the  ventilation  of 
the  lungs  in  ordinary  breathing  does  not  merely  depend  on 
the  quantity  of  air  inspired  at  each  breath,  but  also  on  the 
number  of  inspirations  in  a  given  time.  If  these  two  values 
be  multiplied  together  we  get  what  might  be  called  the 
volume  of  respiration  (Athmungsgrosse,  Eosenthal)  in  contra- 
distinction to  depth  of  respiration  and  frequency  of  respira- 
tion. Various  instruments  have  been  devised  to  measure 
the  volume  of  respiration,  all  more  or  less  faulty  for  the 
reason  that  they  compel  respiration  under  somewhat  ab- 
normal conditions  (Rosenthal,  Gad,  Panum,  Bering).  From 
the  data  obtained  we  may  conclude  that  the  respiratory 
volume  per  minute  in  man  is  about  366  cubic  inches  (6000 
cubic  centim.).  In  connexion  with  this  subject  it  may  be 
stated  that,  after  a  single  ordinary  inspiration  of  hydrogen 
gas,  6-10  respirations  of  ordinary  air  must  occur  before 
the  expired  air  ceases  to  contain  some  trace  of  hydrogen. 

Types  of  Respiration.  —  The  visible  characters  of  respira- 
tion in  man  vary  considerably  according  to  age  and  sex. 
In  men,  while  there  is  a  moderate  degree  of  upheaval  of  the 
chest,  there  is  a  considerable  although  not  preponderating 
degree  of  excursion  of  the  abdominal  walls.  In  women 
the  chest  movements  are  decidedly  most  marked,  the  excur- 
sion of  the  abdominal  walls  being  comparatively  small. 
Hence  we  may  distinguish  two  types  of  respiration,  the 
costal  and  the  abdominal,  according  to  the  preponderance 
of  movement  of  one  or  the  other  part  of  the  body  wall. 
In  forced  respiration  the  type  is  costal  in  both  sexes,  and 
so  it  is  also  in  sleep.  The  cause  of  this  difference  between 
men  and  women  has  been  variously  ascribed  (a)  to  con- 
striction of  the  chest  by  corsets  in  women,  (6)  to  a  natural 
adaptation  to  the  needs  of  childbearing  in  women,  and  (c) 
to  the  greater  relative  flexibility  of  the  ribs  in  women  per- 
mitting a  wider  displacement  under  the  action  of  he 
inspiratory  muscles. 

Certain  Concomitants  of  Normal  Respiration.  —  If  the 
ear  be  placed  against  the  chest  wall  during  ordinary 
respiration  we  can  hear  with  every  inspiration  a  sighing 
or  rustling  sound,  called  "vesicular,"  which  is  pro- 
bably caused  by  the  expansion  of  the  air  vesicles  ;  and 
with  every  expiration  a  sound  of  a  much  softer  sighing 
character.  In  children  the  inspiratory  rustle  is  sharper 
and  more  pronounced  than  in  adults.  If  a  stethoscope  be 
placed  over  the  trachea,  bronchi,  or  larynx,  so  that  the 
sounds  generated  there  may  be  separately  communicated 
to  the  ear,  there  is  heard  a  harsh  to-and-fro  sound  dur- 
ing inspiration  and  expiration  which  has  received  the 
name  of  "  bronchial." 

In  healthy  breathing  the  mouth  should  be  closed  and 
the  ingoing  current  should  all  pass  through  the  nose. 
When  this  happens  the  nostrils  become  slightly  expanded 
with  each  inspiration,  probably  by  the  action  of  the  M. 


478 


RESPIRATION 


dilatatores  naris.  In  some  people  this  movement  is  hardly 
perceptible  unless  breathing  be  heavy  or  laboured.  As 
the  air  passes  at  the  back  of  the  throat  behind  the  soft 
palate  it  causes  the  velum  to  wave  very  gently  in  the 
current ;  this  is  a  purely  passive  movement.  If  we  look 
at  the  glottis  or  opening  into  the  larynx  during  respira- 
tion, as  we  may  readily  do  with  the  help  of  a  small  mirror 
held  at  the  back  of  the  throat,  we  may  notice  that  the 
glottis  is  wide  open  during  inspiration  and  that  it  becomes 
narrower  by  the  approximation  of  the  vocal  chords  during 
expiration.  This  alteration  is  produced  by  the  action  of 
the  laryngeal  muscles.  Like  the  movements  of  the  nostril, 
those  of  the  larynx  are  almost  imperceptible  in  some 
people  during  ordinary  breathing,  but  are  very  well  marked 
in  all  during  forced  respiration. 

The  Mechanics  of  Respiration. 

In  the  description  of  the  anatomy  of  the  thorax  it  has 
been  shown  that  the  thorax  is  practically  a  closed  box 
entirely  filled  by  the  lungs,  heart,  and  other  structures 
contained  within  it.  If  we  were  to  freeze  a  dead  body 
until  all  its  tissues  were  rigid,  and  then  were  to  remove  a 
portion  of  the  chest  wall,  we  should  observe  that  every 
corner  of  the  thorax  is  accurately  filled  by  some  portion 
or  other  of  its  contents.  If  we  were  to  perform  the  same 
operation  of  removing  a  part  of  the  chest  wall  in  a  bsdy 
not  first  frozen  we  should  find,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
the  contents  of  the  thorax  are  not  by  any  means  in  such 
circumstances  bulky  enough  to  fill  up  the  space  provided 
for  them.  If  we  were  to  measure  the  organs  carefully  we 
should  find  that  those  which  are  hollow  and  whose  cavities 
communicate  with  the  regions  outside  the  thorax  are  all 
larger  in  the  frozen  corpse  than  in  that  which  was  not 
frozen.  In  other  words,  the  organs  in  the  thorax  are 
distended  somewhat  in  order  that  they  may  completely 
fill  the  chest  cavity ;  and  the  nature  of  this  curious  and 
important  condition  may  best  be  illustrated  by  the  simple 
diagrams,  figs.  3  and  4  (from  Hermann's  Physiologic  des 

t  1  t 


Fig.  3  Fig.  4. 

Menscken), — where  t  is  the  trachea,  I  the  lung,  v  the  auricle 
of  the  heart,  k  the  ventricle,  i  an  intercostal  space  with  its 
flexible  membranous  covering.  When  the  interior  of  the 
vessel  is  rendered  vacuous  by  exhaustion  through  the  tube 
o,  the  walls  of  the  lungs  and  heart  are  expanded  until 
the  limits  of  the  containing  vessel  are  accurately  filled, 
while  all  flexible  portions  of  the  walls  of  the  vessel  (corre- 
sponding to  the  intercostal  membranes  and  the  diaphragm 
of  the  thorax)  are  sucked  inwards. 

From  this  description  it  follows  that  the  lungs,  even 
when  the  thorax  is  most  contracted,  are  constantly  over- 


distended,  and  that,  when  the  cause  of  this  over-distension 
is  removed,  the  lungs,  being  elastic,  collapse.  It  further 
follows  that  if  the  thorax  is  dilated,  the  flexible  hollow 
organs  it  contains  must  perforce  be  still  more  distended, 
— a  distension  which  in  the  case  of  the  lungs  is  followed  l>y 
an  indrawing  of  air  through  the  trachea  in  all  cases  where 
the  trachea  is  open.  Thus,  as  the  act  of  respiration  is 
primarily  a  dilatation  of  the  thorax,  the  part  played  by 
the  lungs  is,  as  Galen  knew,  a  purely  passive  one. 

How  is  dilatation  of  the  thorax  effected  1  It  has  been 
pointed  out  that  the  rib-planes  decline  from  the  horizont 
in  two  directions,  viz.,  from  behind  forwards,  and  fror 
the  antero-posterior  mesial  plane  outwards ;  a  glance 
fig.  5  will  make  this  double  sloping  clear  to  the  reader. 
It  has,  moreover,  been  explained  that  the 
diaphragm  arches  upwards  into  the  thorax  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  lateral  parts  of  the 
arch  are  vertical  and  in  contact 
with  the  inner  face  of  the  tho- 
racic walls  (see  fig.  2).  This 
being  the  structure  of  the  thorax, 
the  enlargement  of  its 
cavity  is  brought  about 
(1)  by  raising  the  rib- 
planes  until  they  ap- 
proach the  horizontal, 
and  (2)  by  depressing 
the  diaphragm  and 
making  its  rounded 
dome  more  cone-like  in 
outline.  A  moment's 
consideration  will  show 
how  these  actions  en- 
large the  boundaries 
of  the  thorax.  (a) 
When  the  postero-an- 
terior  slope  of  the  rib- 
planes  is  diminished 
by  the  raising  of  the 
anterior  ends  of  the 
ribs,  the  whole  ster- 
num is  thrust  upwards  and  forwards,  and  the  antero- 
posterior  diameter  of  the  thorax  is  increased,  (b)  When 
the  lateral  slope  of  the  rib-planes  is  diminished  by  the 
ribs  being  moved  upwards  about  an  axis  passing  through 
their  sternal  and  vertebral  extremities,  it  is  evident  that 
the  lateral  diameter  of  the  thorax  must  be  increased,  (c) 
When  the  muscular  portion  of  the  diaphragm  contracts, 
the  curves  of  its  dome-like  shape  are  straightened,  the 
whole  diaphragm  comes  to  look  more  conical  on  section, 
and  the  apposition  of  its  lateral  parts  to  the  inner  surface 
of  the  thorax  is  destroyed ;  the  two  apposed  surfaces  are 
drawn  apart  much  as  the  leaves  of  a  book  might  be,  and 
a  space  is  formed  between  them,  into  which  some  portion 
of  the  lung  slips,  (d)  When  the  diaphragm  descends  it 
draws  with  it  the  whole  contents  of  the  thorax ;  inasmuch 
as  the  contents  as  a  whole  are  conical  in  shape  with  the 
apex  upward  and  are  fitted  into  the  conical  space  of  the 
thoracic  cavity,  it  is  clear  that  the  descent  of  the  contents 
will  tend  to  create  a  space  between  them  and  the  thoracic 
walls ;  for  each  stratum  of  lung,  &c.,  which  is  adapted  to 
fit  a  certain  level  of  thorax,  will  thereby  be  brought  into  a 
lower  and  (as  the  thorax  is  conical)  a  more  spacious  level. 
Hence  the  descent  of  the  diaphragm  causes  a  much  greater 
enlargement  of  the  thorax  than  is  measured  by  the  mere 
elongation  of  the  vertical  diameter.  In  this  manner  the 
thorax  is  distended  and  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs.  The 
contraction  of  the  thorax  in  expiration  is  brought  about 
by  the  return  of  the  ribs  and  diaphragm  to  their  original 
position  of  rest. 


FIG.  5.— Showing  slope  of  ribs.     (From 
Hermann's  Handbuch.) 


RESPIKATION 


479 


We   must   now   explain   how  the   respiratory   muscles 
effect  these  movements. 

How  the  Inspiratory  Movements  are  Produced.  —  The  Rib 
Movements.  —  These  are  caused  by  the  contraction  of  muscles 
which  are  fixed  either  to  the  central  axis  of  the  body 
(including  under  that  term  the  head  and  vertebral  column) 
or  to  some  point  rendered  sufficiently  stable  for  the  pur- 
pose by  the  action  of  other  adjuvant  muscles.  Thus  the 
M.  levatores  costarum  arise  from  the  transverse  processes  of 
the  7th  cervical  and  eleven  upper  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  are 
attached  to  the  ribs  below  in  series  ;  the  M.  scaleni  spring 
from  the  cervical  vertebrae,  and  are  attached  to  the 
anterior  parts  of  the  first  and  second  ribs  ;  he  M.  sterno- 
cleido-mastoidei  arise  from  the  side  and  back  of  the  skull, 
and  are  inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  sternum  and  the 
clavicle  ;  the  M.  pectoralis  minor  arises  from  the  coracoid 
process  of  the  scapula,  and  is  inserted  into  the  anterior 
ends  of  some  of  the  ribs  ;  the  M.  serratus  posticus  superior 
arises  from  certain  of  the  cervical  and  dorsal  vertebne,  and 
is  inserted  into  the  posterior  part  of  certain  of  the  ribs  ; 
the  M.  cervicalis  ascendens  (part  of  the  M.  erector  spinae) 
arises  from  certain  of  the  cervical  vertebrae,  and  is  inserted 
into  the  posterior  part  of  certain  ribs.  The  M.  serratus 
magnus  and  the  M.  pectoralis  major,  which  are  affixed  on 
the  one  hand  to  the  upper  arm  and  to  the  scapula  respec- 
tively and  on  the  other  to  the  ribs  and  to  the  sternum 
respectively,  may  in  certain  elevated  positions  of  the  arm 
and  shoulder  act  as  in- 
spiratory  muscles.  When 
all  these  muscles  contract,  A 
the  ribs  are  raised  in  the 
twofold  way  already  de- 
scribed, some  pulling  up 
the  anterior  ends  of  the 
ribs,  and  others  causing 
the  arched  ribs  to  rotate  B 
about  an  axis  passing 
through  their  vertebral 
and  sternal  joints. 

In  addition  to  the  muscles 
just  enumerated  the  M.  in- 
tercostales  extern!  are  undoubtedly  inspiratory  muscles.  Every  ex- 
ternal intercostal  muscular  fibre  between  a  pair  of  ribs  must,  when 
it  contracts,  of  necessity  raise 
both  ribs,  as  is  clearly  shown 
by  the  "accompanying  diagram 
(fig.  6).  Here  a'b'  must  be 
shorter  than  ab,  for  if  BAa  =  x, 
then 


Fig.  6. 


+  2AB  (B6-Aa)  cos  a:  ; 
hence   ab  will   be  larger   the 
smaller   the   angle  x,  for  the 
cosine  increases  as  the  angle  B 
diminishes. 

By  a  similar  geometrical 
treatment  of  the  question  it 
may  be  shown  that  the  in- 
tel'nal  intercostal  muscles 
when  they  contract  must  of 


Fig.  7. 


necessity  depress  both  the  ribs  to  which  they  are  attached.     If  the 
angle  BAc'=x  (fig.  7),  then 


hence  c'd'  will  be  larger  the  larger  the  angle  x. 

The  case,  however,  is  not  so  clear  with  reference  to  the  anterior 

Eortions  of  the  internal  intercostals  which  lie  between  the  carti- 
iges ;  for  it  is  evident  that  these  fibres  have  the  same  direction  with 
regard  to  the  sternum  as  an  axis  as  the  external  intercostals  have 
with  regard  to  the  vertebral  column  as  an  axis  ;  that  is  to  say, 
the  geometrical  diagram  in  fig.  6  applies  to  the  intercartilaginous 
internal  intercostals  as  perfectly  as  it  does  to  the  interosseous  parts 
of  the  external  intercostals,  the  inference  being  that  the  inter- 
cartilaginous  internal  intercostals  tend  to  elevate  the  pair  of  ribs 
between  which  they  stretch.  The  geometrical  argument  is,  how- 
ever, overborne  by  physiological  experiment :  Martin  and  Hartwell 
have  observed  in  the  dog  and  the  cat  that  the  internal  intercostals 


throughout  their  whole  extent  contract  (not  synchronously)  but 
alternately  with  the  diaphragm  ;  hence  we  must  conclude  that 
their  function  throughout  is  not  iuspiratory  like  that  of  the 
diaphragm,  but  expiratory. 

The  Movements  of  the  Diaphragm. — The  muscular  fibres 
of  the  diaphragm  are  arranged  in  a  radial  manner,  or  more 
strictly  speaking  in  a  manner  like  the  lines  of  longitude 
on  a  terrestrial  globe.  The  central  tendon  of  the  diaphragm 
corresponds  to  the  pole  of  such  a  globe.  The  contraction 
of  the  fibres  is  expended  on  straightening  the  longitudinal 
curves  rather  than  on  pulling  down  the  central  tendon  to  a 
lower  level ;  in  fact  the  central  tendon  moves  very  little  in 
ordinary  respiration. 

How  the  Expiratory  Movements  are  Produced. — The  action. 
of  inspiration  disturbs  many  organs  from  the  position  of 
rest  into  which  gravity  and  their  own  physical  properties 
have  thrown  them.  The  ribs  and  sternum  are  raised  from 
the  position  of  lowest  level ;  the  elastic  costal  cartilages 
are  twisted ;  the  elastic  lungs  are  put  upon  the  stretch ; 
the  abdominal  organs,  themselves  elastic,  are  compressed 
and  thrust  against  the  elastic  walls  of  the  belly,  causing 
these  to  bulge  outwards.  In  short  the  very  act  of  inspira- 
tion stores  up,  as  it  were,  in  sundry  ways  the  forces  which 
make  for  expiration.  As  soon  as  the  inspiratory  muscles 
cease  to  act  these  forces  come  into  play,  and  the  position 
of  rest  or  equilibrium  is  regained.  It  is  very  doubtful 
whether  any  special  expiratory  muscles  are  called  into 
action  during  ordinary  respiration.  The  internal  intercos- 
tals may  in  man  be  exercised  in  ordinary  expiration  (al- 
though they  are  certainly  not  so  exercised  in  the  dog  and 
the  cat);  but  in  laboured  expiration  many  muscles  assist 
in  the  expulsive  effort.  The  muscles  forming  the  belly 
walls  contract  and  force  the  abdominal  contents  against  the 
relaxed  diaphragm  in  such  a  manner  as  to  drive  it  farther 
and  farther  into  the  thorax.  At  the  same  time  by  their 
attachment  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  thorax  these-  same 
muscles  pull  down  the  ribs  and  sternum.  The  M.  triangu- 
laris  sterni,  which  arises  from  the  back  or  thoracic  aspect 
of  the  sternum  and  lower  costal  cartilages  and  is  inserted 
into  the  costal  cartilages  higher  up,  can  obviously  depress 
the  ribs.  So  also  can  the  M.  serratus  posticus  inferior, 
which  arises  from  the  thick  fascia  of  the  loins  and  is  in- 
serted into  the  last  four  ribs.  So  also  can  the  M.  quadratus 
lumborum,  which  springs  from  the  pelvis  and  is  attached 
to  the  last  rib.  Indeed  there  is  hardly  a  muscle  of  the 
body  but  may  be  called  into  play  during  extremely  laboured 
respiration,  either  because  it  acts  on  the  chest,  or  because 
it  serves  to  steady  some  part  and  give  a  better  purchase 
for  the  action  of  direct  respiratory  muscles. 

Certain  Abnormal  Forms  of  Respiration. 

Coughing. — There  is  first  a  deep  inspiration  followed  by  closure  of 
the  glottis.  Then  follows  a  violent  expiratory  effort  which  bursts 
open  the  glottis  and  drives  the  air  out  of  the  lungs  in  a  blast 
which  carries  away  any  light  irritating  matter  it  may  meet  with. 
The  act  is  commonly  involuntary,  but  may  be  imitated  exactly  by 
a  voluntary  effort. 

Hawking,  or  Clearing  the  Throat. — In  this  acj;  a  current  of  air  is 
driven  from  the  lungs  and  forced  through  the  narrow  space  between 
the  root  of  the  tongue  and  the  depressed  soft  palate.  This  action 
can  only  be  caused  voluntarily. 

Sneezing. — There  is  first  an  inspiration  which  is  often  unusually 
rapid  ;  then  follows  a  sudden  expiration  and  the  blast  is  directed 
through  the  nose.  The  glottis  remains  open  all  the  time.  The  act 
is  generally  involuntary,  but  may  be  more  or  less  successfully 
imitated  by  a  voluntary  effort. 

Snoring  is  caused  by  unusually  steady  and  prolonged  inspirations 
and  expirations  through  the  open  mouth, — the  soft  palate  and  uvula 
being  set  vibrating  by  the  currents  of  air. 

Crying  consists  of  short  deep  inspirations  and  prolonged  expira- 
tions with  the  glottis  partially  closed.  Long-continued  crying 
leads  to  sobbing,  in  which  sudden  spasmodic  contractions  of  the 
diaphragm  cause  siidden  inspirations  and  inspiratory  sounds 
generated  in  larynx  and  pharynx. 

Sighing  is  a  sudden  and  prolpnged  inspiration  following  an 
unusually  long  pause  after  the  last  expiration. 


480 


RESPIRATION 


Laughing  is  caused  by  a  series  of  short  expiratory  blasts  which 
provoke  a  clear  sound  from  the  vocal  chords  kept  tense  for  the 
purpose,  and  at  the  same  time  other  inarticulate  but  very  character- 
istic sounds  from  the  vibrating  structures  of  the  larynx  and  pharynx. 
The  face  has  a  characteristic  expression.  This  act  is  essentially 
involuntary,  and  often  is  beyond  control ;  it  can  only  be  imitated 
very  imperfectly. 

Yawning  is  a  long  deep  inspiration  followed  by  a  shorter 
expiration,  the  mouth,  fauces,  and  glottis  being  kept  open  in  a 
characteristic  fashion.  It  is  involuntary,  but  may  be  imitated. 

Hiccough  is  really  an  inspiration  suddenly  checked  by  closure 
of  the  glottis ;  the  inspiration  is  due  to  a  spasmodic  contraction  of 
the  diaphragm.  The  closure  of  the  glottis  generally  leads  to  a 
characteristic  sound. 

Innermtion  of  the  Respiratory  Movements. 

The  respiratory  actions  are  seen  from  the  above  description  to 
be  very  complicated  :  their  regular  performance  depends  upon  the 
coordination  of  a  great  number  of  factors  ;  and,  inasmuch  as  the 
respiratory  movements  do  not  happen  invariably  after  one  stereo- 
typed pattern,  but  admit  of  various  modifications,  such  as  sighing, 
hiccoughing,  &c.,  we  must  infer  that  the  coordination  is  such  as 
to  admit  of  corresponding  variations.  The  coordination  of  the 
inspiratory  and  expiratory  movements  is  brought  about  through 
the  nervous  system,  the  connexion  of  which  with  the  organs  of 
respiration  already  described  must  now  be  stated. 

Speaking  very  generally,  there  is  a  nervous  centre  in  the 
cerebro-spinal  axis  from  which  certain  nerve  fibres  proceed  to  the 
muscles  of  respiration  ;  these  are  called  the  efferent  or  centrifugal 
fibres.  There  are  other  fibres  which  run  from  the  peripheral  parts 
of  the  body  towards  the  same  centre  and  exert  a  control  over  it ; 
these  are  called  afferent  or  centripetal.  The  impulses  to  movement 
start  from  the  centre  and  travel  down  the  efferent  fibres  to  the 
muscles,  while  impressions  arising  in  the  periphery  of  the  body  are 
carried  along  the  afferent  fibres  to  the  centre  and  modify  its  action. 

The  Respiratory  Centre. — There  is  a  portion  of  the  medulla 
oblongata  destruction  of  which  causes  immediate  and  permanent 
cessation  of  all  respiratory  movements.  This  spot  has  been  found 
to  lie  in  the  grey  substance  near  the  tip  or  nib  of  the  calamus 
scriptorius ;  it  extends  on  both  sides  of  the  middle  line,  and  has  re- 
ceived the  name  of  "  le  noeud  vital "  (Flourens).  If  the  spinal  cord 
be  severed  immediately  below  the  spot,  all  respiratory  movements 
in  the  parts  of  the  body  below  the  level  of  section  cease  at  once, 
while  movements  of  respiration  in  parts  situated  above  the  level  (e.  g. , 
in  the  face)  continue  momentarily.  If  the  severance  be  made 
above  the  vital  knot,  the  facial  movements  of  respiration  cease, 
while  those  of  the  trunk  continue.  The  nervous  centre  is  bilateral, 
each  half  serving  its  proper  side  of  the  body ;  if  the  medulla 
oblongata  be  split  longitudinally  in  the  middle  line,  through  the 
nceud  vital,  respiration  goes  on  unchecked  ;  but  if  one  lateral  half 
of  the  vital  area  be  destroyed,  respiration  at  once  ceases  on  the 
same  side  of  the  body. 

While  the  above  hypothesis  of  a  respiratory  centre  in  the  medulla 
presiding  over  the  movements  of  respiration  is  in  all  probability 
substantially  correct,  it  must  be  stated  that,  in  certain  circum- 
stances of  experiment  (e.g.,  when  the  animal  is  young  and  has  been 
poisoned  with  strychnia,  or  is  kept  in  a  warm  chamber),  respira- 
tory movements  do  occur  even  when  the  medulla  oblongata  with 
the  noeud  vital  has  been  removed.  That  is  to  say,  there  are  centres 
in  the  cord  of  a  lower  order  than  the  medullary  respiratory  centre 
which  are  under  ordinary  circumstances  dependent  on  the  main 
centre  but  which  may  act  independently. 

The  respiratory  centre  must  be  regarded  as  the  seat  of  origin  of 
the  impulses  which  cause  the  muscular  movements  of  inspiration 
and  expiration.  During  the  whole  of  intra-uterine  life  the  centre 
is  inactive,  but  almost  immediately  after  the  child  is  born,  or  the 
placental  circulation  is  interrupted  by  compression  of  the  umbilical 
blood-vessels,  the  centre  becomes  quickened,  and  fails  not  to  yield 
the  appropriate  stimulus  at  short  intervals  during  the  whole  after- 
period  of  life.  It  is  impossible  to  resist  the  conclusion  that  the 
immediate  cause  of  the  activity  of  the  respiratory  centre  is  the 
impure  and  impoverished  state  of  the  blood,  which  it  is  the 
function  of  respiration  to  remedy.  So  long  as  the  placenta  performs 
the  function  of  purifying  the  blood  of  the  foetus  and  supplying 
it  with  oxygen  the  respiratory  centre  is  quiescent ;  the  moment 
the  placenta  becomes  incapable  of  purifying  the  foetal  blood,  as, 
for  example,  when  the  mother  is  suffocated  or  asphyxiated,  the 
respiratory  centre  prepares  to  act  and  respiratory  movements  follow. 

If  it  is  true  that  the  presence  of  impure  or  venous  blood  in  the 
respiratory  centre  is  the  cause  of  the  first  respiratory  act  of  an 
animal,  it  is  also  true  that  the  presence  of  highly  arterialized 
blood  is  sufficient  to  render  the  centre  absolutely  inactive  again. 
If  air  or  oxygen  gas  be  driven  through  the  lungs  of  an  animal  and 
allowed  to  escape  through  holes  made  in  the  chest  walls,  the 
blood  becomes  so  rapidly  and  perfectly  purified  that  the  whole 
vascular  system  is  filled  with  tne  pure  blood  which  is  commonly 
found  in  the  arteries  only.  In  this  case  the  movements  of  respira- 


tion cease  until  such  time  as  the  blood  has  again  lost  its  purity, 
when  respiration  begins,  as  one  might  say,  da  capo.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  essential  cause  of  the  inactivity  of  the  respiratory 
centre  in  this  experiment  is  the  presence  in  excess  of  oxygen  gas, 
and  that  the  absence  of  a  certain  proportion  of  oxygen  in  the  blood 
circulating  in  the  body  endows  the  blood  with  a  power  of  stimulat- 
ing directly  or  indirectly  the  respiratory  centre.  To  this  subject 
we  shall  return. 

The  Efferent  Fibres. — The  fibres  proceeding  from  the  respiratory 
centre  run  down  the  spinal  chord  and  emerge  for  the  most  part 
in  the  cervical  and  dorsal  region.  Some  fibres  are  collected  into  a 
nerve  trunk  which  takes  its  rise  in  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
cervical  nerves  ;  this  is  the  phrenic  nerve,  which  supplies  that 
half  of  the  diaphragm  lying  on  the  corresponding  side  of  the  body. 
Section  of  one  phrenic  nerve  causes  paralysis  of  the  corresponding 
half  of  the  diaphragm.  Other  fibres  run  in  the  intercostal  nerves 
for  the  supply  of  the  intercostal  muscles,  levatores  costarum,  &c.; 
others  again  run  in  the  cervical  nerves  for  the  supply  of  the  sterno- 
mastoid,  scaleni,  &c.  Section  of  these  nerves  leads  to  paralysis  of 
the  muscles  supplied  by  them.  The  facial  muscles  of  respiration 
are  supplied  by  efferent  fibres  from  the  seventh  cranial  nerve,  and 
the  laryugeal  muscles  by  the  laryngeal  branches  of  the  vagus. 

In  addition  to  the  nerves  which  supply  the  respiratory  muscles, 
there  are  efferent  fibres  which  run  in  the  course  of  the  vagus  to 
the  muscles  supplying  the  larynx  and  the  broncllial  tubes.  The 
vagi  (also  called  the  pneumogastric  nerves)  are  two  important 
trunks  which  arise  from  the  medulla  oblongata,  and,  after  receiving 
communications  for  neighbouring  nerves,  run  down  by  the  side  of 
the  windpipe  to  reach  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  By  means  of 
appropriate  apparatus,  of  which  several  varieties  have  been  devised , 
contraction  of  the  small  bronchial  tubes  may  be  readily  made 
sensible  and  even  graphically  recorded.  A  study  of  the  experi- 
mental results  obtained  after  electrical  stimulation  of  the  pneumo- 
gastric nerves  leaves  no  doubt  that  these  nerves  contain  motor 
fibres  for  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  exact  distribution  of  the 
superior  and  inferior  laryngeal  branches  of  the  vagus  to  the  muscles 
of  the  larynx  is  described  under  ANATOMY. 

The  Afferent  Fibres. — Many  nerve  fibres  have  been  ascertained  by 
physiological  experiment  to  have  communication  with  the  respira- 
tory centre.  For  example,  the  nerves  of  the  skin  of  the  chest, .when 
stimulated  by  the  application  of  cold  water,  cause  a  gasping 
inspiration  ;  the  nerves  of  the  skin  of  the  sides  of  the  body  and 
of  the  soles  of  the  feet,  when  stimulated  by  tickling,  cause  that 
peculiar  series  of  spasms  of  the  diaphragm  which  constitute  laugh- 
ing ;  and  so  on.  But  the  vagus  nerve  is  that  which  contains  the 
afferent  fibres  of  chief  importance  to  the  respiratory  movements. 
The  vagus  fibres  proceeding  from  larynx,  trachea,  lung,  and 
stomach  certainty,  and  possibly  also  those  proceeding  from  other 
organs  of  the  abdomen,  are  all  capable  of  influencing  the  activity 
of  the  main  respiratory  centre.  If  the  trunk  of  the  vagus  nerve  on 
each  side  of  the  neck  be  laid  bare  and  divided  in  an  animal  such 
as  a  rabbit,  the  respiratory  movements  become  much  less  frequent 
but  at  the  same  time  deeper.  If  the  end  of  the  nerve  above  the 
point  of  section  be  carefully  stimulated  by  a  weak  electric  current, 
respiration  again  becomes  quicker  and  proportionately  shallow  until 
in  fact  the  natural  type  is  restored.  If  the  strength  of  stimulus  be 
still  further  increased,  the  rapidity  and  the  shallowness  of  breath- 
ing become  still  more  remarkable,  until  a  degree  of  stimulation  is 
reached  when  there  is  no  longer  any  rhythmical  character  in 
respiration,  which  is  reduced  to  a  feeble  inspiratory  spasm.  These 
facts  are  conveniently  grouped  and  explained  by  the  following 
hypothetical  statement.  The  vagus  nerve  contains  fibres  running 
up  to  the  respiratory  centre  which  have  the  function  of  modifying 
the  native  tendencies  of  the  centre  in  such  a  manner  as  to  accelerate 
its  explosions  of  activity  and  at  the  same  time  render  them  less 
formidable.  These  fibres  are  constantly  in  action  during  healthy 
life ;  hence,  on  dividing  the  vagus  trunk  including  these  fibres, 
the  respiratory  centre  reverts  to  its  natural  type  of  slow  and  deep 
action.  On  stimulating  these  fibres  artificially  they  may  be  brought 
to  spur  on  the  centre  once  more,  or  even  carry  the  accelerating 
process  to  the  point  of  producing  continuous  inspiration. 

Experiment  has,  however,  shown  that  the  influence  of  the  vagus 
nerve  is  not  so  simple  as  is  here  supposed.  There  are  other  fibres 
in  the  vagus  which  seem  to  arise  in  the  larynx  and  run  in  the 
trunk  of  the  two  laryngeal  (but  chiefly  in  the  superior  laryngeal) 
branches  of  the  nerve  ;  these  have  powers  exactly  opposed  to  those 
ascribed  to  the  main-trunk  fibres.  If  the  superior  laryngeal  nerve 
be  divided  and  the  higher  end  at  the  point  of  division  be  stimu- 
lated, respiration  becomes  less  frequent  and  more  powerful. 
These  fibres  of  opposite  tendencies  run  side  by  side  in  the  vagus 
trunk,  and  must  be  alike  excited  when  an  electrical  stimulus  is 
thrown  into  the  nerve.  The  fact  that  the  total  result  of  stimulation 
is  in  favour  of  the  first-described  accelerating  nerves  may  be 
hypothetically  explained  by  supposing  the  accelerating  fibres  to 
be  more  numerous,  or  more  potent  with  the  given  stimulus,  than 
the  slowing  fibres. 

Nature  of  the  Activity  of  the  Respiratory  Centre. — Various  interest- 


KESP  I  RATION 


481 


ing  questions  arise  as  to  tiie  exact  mode  of  action  of  the  respiratory 
centre.  Is  there  an  expiratory  centre  apart  from  the  inspiratory  ? 
In  ordinary  quiet  breathing  expiration  is  not  a  muscular  act  in  the 
sense  that  inspiration  is  ;  but  in  laboured  breathing  many  muscles 
are  coordinated  to  help  in  the  act ;  we  may  therefore  assume  that 
there  is  an  expiratory  coordinating  mechanism  as  well  as  an  inspira- 
tory. Another  inquiry  touches  the  question  of  the  stimulation  of 
the  respiratory  centre.  We  have  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  a 
certain  impoverished  or  impure  state  of  the  blood  is  the  cause  of 
the  activity  of  the  respiratory  centres.  Is  it  by  a  direct  action  of 
the  blood  on  the  nerve  centre,  or  is  it  by  an  action  of  the  blood 
upon  the  end-organs  of  nerves  in  the  peripheral  parts  of  the  body 
which  indirectly  induce  the  respiratory  centre  to  act  ?  In  other 
words,  would  the  respiratory  centre  act  under  the  stimulus  of  a 
certain  degree  of  impurity  of  its  blood  if  it  were  cut  off  absolutely 
from  its  afferent  fibres  ?  This  is  not  a  question  which  admits  of  an 
absolutely  decisive  experimental  answer ;  but  this  may  be  said  in 
reference  to  it,  that,  if  the  cerebrum  be  extirpated,  the  pneumo- 
gastric  nerves  divided,  and  the  spinal  chord  severed  at  a  point 
below  that  from  which  the  main  respiratory  efferent  nerves 
emerge,  notwithstanding  that  the  respiratory  centre  is  thus 
separated  from  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  sensory  nerves 
of  the  body,  respiration  still  goes  on.  Further,  if  the  spinal  axis  is 
divided  at  a  level  immediately  above  that  of  the  respiratory  centre, 
respiration  goes  on  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  body  but  ceases  in 
the  upper — that  is,  the  facial  movements  cease  ;  while,  if  the 
division  be  carried  through  a  point  immediately  below  the  level 
of  the  respiratory  centre,  although  chest  movement  ceases  and 
respiration  may  in  strictness  be  said  to  be  permanently  stopped, 
yet  the  facial  movements,  which  are  just  as  essential  to  the 
complete  idea  of  respiration,  .and  which  are  innervated  from  the 
common  respiratory  centre,  continue  to  be  performed  so  long  as  any 
life  remains  in  the  mutilated  animal.  There  is  therefore  a  very 
strong  presumption  that  the  respiratory  centre  is  automatic,  that 
is,  that  it  has  within  itself  the  spring  of  its  own  activity,  and  that 
the  impurity  of  the  blood  which  sets  the  respiratory  mechanism 
agoing  does  so  by  acting  upon  the  respiratory  nervous  centre 
directly.  However  started,  the  inspiratory  stimulus  is  discharged 
rhythmically  down  the  efferent  respiratory  nerve  during  healthy 
life.  The  rhythm  is  capable  of  wide  variation,  both  by  the 
exercise  of  the  will  and  by  the  operation  of  external  conditions, 
such  as  heat  and  muscular  exercise  of  the  body,  which  accelerate 
respiration  independently  of  the  will.  The  question  why  the  dis- 
charge is  rhythmical  is  one  of  the  deeper  problems  of  physiology, 
and  touches  the  essential  nature  of  nervous  actions  in  general. 
It  is  customary  in  physiological  treatises  to  illustrate  it  by 
supposing  a  mechanism  which  offers  a  resistance  to  the  discharges 
of  its  own  energy  ;  when  the  energy  reaches  a  certain  degree  of 
tension  resistance  is  overcome  and  the  discharge  takes  place,  but 
a  certain  time  must  elapse  before  energy  can  again  accumulate  to 
the  extent  of  overcoming  resistance.  It  is  further  supposed  that 
resistance  is  capable  of  being  varied  by  external  agencies  ;  when 
it  is  increased  the  discharges  occur  at  longer  intervals,  because 
more  energy  must  be  accumulated  before  resistance  can  be  over- 
borne, but  at  the  same  time  they  are  more  violent  ;  when 
resistance  is  diminished,  the  discharges  are  more  rapid  but  less 
powerful,  until,  when  resistance  becomes  nil,  the  discharge  is 
continuous.  Such  illustrations  are,  however,  of  very  doubtful 
value  ;  they  impart  a  sense  of  clearness  to  our  views  of  nervous 
action  by  turning  attention  from  the  problem  we  wish  elucidated 
to  another  and  altogether  different  problem.  There  is  in  fact  no 
probability  whatever,  so  far  as  facts  yet  go,  that  nervous  rhyth- 
mical action  is  brought  about  in  any  such  way. 

CHEMISTRY  OF  RESPIRATION. 

The  mechanism  which  has  just  been  described  has  for 
its  object  an  interchange  of  substances  between  the  body 
and  the  external  medium.  Certain  substances  pass  out 
of  the  body  at  the  lungs,  and  others  are  taken  into  the 
body.  The  discussion  of  this  interchange  pertains  to 
what  is  called  the  Chemistry  of  Respiration. 

Comparison  of  Inspired  and  Expired  Air. — ISTo  incon- 
siderable knowledge  of  this  exchange  of  matters  may  be 
obtained  at  once  by  a  simple  comparison  of  inspired  and 
expired  air.  The  air  we  breathe  varies  somewhat  accord- 
ing to  the  various  circumstances  of  season,  time  of  day, 
height  above  sea  level,  prevailing  wind,  &c.;  but  all 
samples  of  pure  atmospheric  air  have  substantially  the 
following  composition  : — 
1.  Gases  : — 

Oxygen 20'84  to  20'92  vols.  p.c. 

Nitrogen 79'00  to  79'05       „ 

Carbon  dioxide ..  0'04 


2.  Aqueous  vapour.  —  The  absolute  amount  of  this  ingredient 
varies  very  much,  and  must  be  distinguished  carefully  from  the 
relative  or  sensible  moisture,  which  depends  more  upon  the 
temperature  of  the  air  than  upon  the  absolute  'quantity  of  watery 
vapour  it  contains. 

Air  which  is  expired  from  the  lungs  has  approximately 
the  following  composition  :  — 

1.  Gases  :  — 

Oxygen  ..............  ...  ......................  16'03  vols.  p.c. 

Nitrogen  ............  :  .....................  79'02       „ 

Carbon  dioxids  .....................  3'3  to  5'5         ,, 

Probably  there  is  an  exceedingly  small  excess  of  nitrogen  in 
expired  air  as  compared  with  inspired  air. 

2.  Aqueous  vapour.  —  The  absolute  amount  is  always  such    as 
to  saturate  the  air  at  the  temperature  which  it  has  on  expiration, 
i.e.,  36°  -3  C. 

3.  Organic  matter  of  uncertain  composition  but  hurtful  when 
reinhaled. 

On  an  average  (subject,  however,  to  considerable  varia- 
tions) it  appears  that  the  body  takes  up  in  respiration 
oxygen  gas  to  the  amount  of  4-78  vols.  per  cent,  of  the 
air  inhaled,  and  it  gives  off  carbon  dioxide  to  the  average 
amount  of  4'38  vols.  per  cent.,  besides  traces  of  nitrogen, 
ammonia,  hydrogen,  and  light  carburetted  hydrogen. 
Leaving  out  of  calculation  the  minute  traces  of  the  latter 
bodies,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  volume  of  oxygen 
taken  into  the  body  is  larger  than  the  volume  of  carbon 
dioxide  given  off  ;  and,  since,  under  like  conditions  of 
pressure  and  temperature,  equal  volumes  of  oxygen  gas 
and  carbon  dioxide  gas  contain  the  same  quantity  of 
oxygen,  it  is  clear  that  more  oxygen  enters  the  body  at 
the  lungs  than  escapes  from  it;  therefore  the  whole  of  the 
oxygen  taken  into  the  body  does  not  leave  it  as  carbonic 
acid  or  expired  air.  The  ratio  of  CO2  expired  to  O 
absorbed  is  called  the  "respiratory  quotient"  — 
C0_2_4'38 

~ 


Composition  of  Air  in  the  Air  Cells.  —  The  whole  of  the 
air  of  the  lungs  is  not  expelled  at  each  breath,  some  remain- 
ing in  the  depths  as  residual  air  lodged  in  the  alveoli  or  air 
cells.  Hence  we  cannot  assume,  from  an  examination  of 
expired  air,  that  we  know  the  constitution  of  the  air  in  the 
recesses  of  the  lungs  where  it  comes  most  intimately  into 
contact  with  the  blood.  To  attain  such  knowledge  it  is 
necessary  to  examine  the  deeper  air  directly,  and  the  air  is 
obtained  for  such  purposes  by  means  of  a  lung  catheter.1 
In  this  way  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  alveolar 
air  of  a  dog's  lung  contained  about  3  '8  per  cent,  of  CO., 
at  a  time  when  the  expired  air  contained  about  2*8  per 
cent.  As  to  the  amount  of  O  we  may  safely  assume  that 
the  alveolar  air  never  in  ordinary  circumstances  contains 
less  than  10  per  cent,  when  the  expired  air  contains  16 
per  cent. 

Daily  Quantity  of  Substances  Exchanged.  —  During  24 
hours  an  average  person  would  take  in  about  10,000 
grains  of  oxygen  in  respiration,  and  give  out  about  12,000 
grains  of  carbon  dioxide,  corresponding  to  3300  grains 
of  carbon  ;  at  the  same  time  about  9  oz.  of  water  would 
be  exhaled.  These  quantities  vary,  however,  within  wide 
limits  according  to  the  conditions  of  age,  sex,  atmospheric 
pressure,  and  the  like.  Thus,  for  example,  in  young  per- 
sons the  O  absorbed  is  relatively  greater  than  the  CO.2 
given  off,  and  a  child  gives  off  twice  as  much  CO2  in 
relation  to  its  body  weight  as  an  adult.  Again,  males 

1  This  is  a  flexible  tube  so  thin  as  to  pass  readily  into  a  small 
bronchial  tube.  It  is  provided  with  an  india-rubber  collar,  which  is 
capable  of  inflation.  The  apparatus  is  passed  (with  the  collar  col- 
lapsed) through  a  hole  in  the  trachea  and  guided  into  one  of  the  finer 
bronchial  tubes  ;  the  collar  is  then  inflated,  and  serves  to  fix  the 
catheter  hermetically  in  the  bronchial  tube  and  to  place  that  tube 
with  its  tributary  tubes  and  alveoli  in  direct  communication  with  the 
outer  air  through  the  fine  catheter.  Breathing  is  unimpeded  ;  and 
air  may  be  collected  from  the  recesses  of  the  lung  for  aualysis. 

XX.  —  61 


482 


RESPIRATION 


after  the  first  few  years  of  life  give  off  more  CO2  than 
females.  When  the  external  temperature  is  so  low  as 
to  depress  the  body  temperature,  less  C02  is  given  off  ; 
if  it  is  so  high  as  to  raise  the  body  temperature,  the 
CO.,  is  increased.  If,  however,  the  surrounding  medium 
is  cooler  than  the  body  but  not  cold  enough  to  lower  the 
body  temperature,  more  O  is  taken  in,  and  more  CO2  is 
given  out;  and  vice  versa.  Muscular  exercise  also  increases 
considerably  the  C02  given  off ;  and  more  CO2  is  given  off 
a  short  time  after  a  meal  than  during  fasting,  especially 
when  the  meal  includes  substances  rich  in  carbon.  Speak- 
ing generally,  alcohols,  ethers,  tea,  &c.,  diminish  the  CO2 ; 
but  the  results  are  not  constant.  Again,  while  the 
number  and  depth  of  the  respirations  do  not  influence  the 
formation  of  C02  in  the  body,  they  affect  the  removal  of 
that  which  is  already  formed.  Increased  rate  of  respira- 
tion and  increased  depth  of  respiration  both  cause  an 
absolute  increase  in  the  quantity  of  CO2  expired,  although 
with  reference  to  the  total  amount  of  air  which  passes 
into  and  out  of  the  lungs  during  such  laboured  breathing 
the  C02  is  relatively  diminished.  Lastly,  when  the  atmo- 
spheric pressure  is  diminished,  as  in  ballooning,  respira- 
tion becomes  difficult,  CO2  is  imperfectly  removed  from 
the  body,  and  the  blood  contains  less  O.  When  pressure 
is  increased,  respiration  is  easy  and  slow  (2-4  per  minute), 
the  capacity  of  the  lungs  increases,  the  activities  of  the 
tissues  are  marked,  and  as  a  result  of  this  more  O  is 
absorbed  and  more  CO2  is  excreted. 

Tlie  Blood  in  Respiration. 

Having  ascertained  the  nature  and  quantity  of  the 
materials  exchanged  in  the  lungs,  we  may  now  ask  con- 
cerning the  method  of  the  exchange.  There  is  no  difficulty 
in  understanding  how  the  cold  air  introduced  into  the  lungs 
is  warmed  and  saturated  with  moisture  by  contact  with 
the  moist  walls  of  the  air  passages  and  bronchi.  As  to 
the  gaseous  substances  which  appear  in  traces  in  the 
expired  air  nothing  definite  is  known ;  they  may  in  part 
arise  in  the  decomposition  of  the  solid  organic  impurities 
of  expired  air,  and  may  in  part  escaps  from  the  blood  itself. 
The  origin  of  the  solid  poisonous  organic  substances,  which 
are  of  such  vital  interest  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  is 
also  a  matter  of  great  obscurity.  Some  portions  of  it 
doubtless  consist  of  effete  particles  of  tissue  from  the  walls 
of  the  bronchial  tubes  and  cavity  of  the  mouth  and 
nose;  for  example,  epithelial  scales  may  be  discovered 
in  the  condensed  moisture  of  the  air  expired  into  an 
ice-cold  globe,  and  so  also  may  the  organized  bacilli  of 
tubercle  when  the  subject  of  experiment  happens  to  be 
phthisical.  Other  portions  may  spring  directly  from  the 
blood.  The  chief  inquiry,  however,  centres  about  the 
origin  of  the  carbon  dioxide  and  the  absorption  of  the 
oxygen,  for  the  understanding  of  which  a  knowledge  of 
the  blood  is  necessary. 

The  Blood. — This,  as  it  circulates  in  the  vessels  of  man 
and  vertebrates  generally,  is  a  viscous  and  to  the  naked 
eye  homogeneous  liquid  of  red  colour, — the  blood  of  the 
pulmonary  veins,  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  and  of  the 
systemic  arteries  being  normally  of  a  bright  scarlet  hue, 
and  the  blood  of  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  of  the 
systemic  veins,  and  of  the  pulmonary  artery  being  of  a 
brownish-red  colour.  In  other  words  the  blood  enters  the 
capillaries  of  the  lungs  of  a  brownish-red  colour,  and 
leaves  them  bright  scarlet  in  hue ;  it  enters  the  general 
capillaries  of  the  body  as  a  bright  scarlet  fluid  and  leaves 
them  as  a  brownish-red  fluid.  Although  homogeneous  to 
the  naked  eye,  the  blood  is  found  on  microscopic  examina- 
tion to  consist  of  a  colourless  fluid,  called  liquor  sanguinis 
or  plasma,  holding  in  suspension  large  numbers  of  solid 
bodies,  the  corpuscles  of  the  blood;  the  more  numerous  of 


these  are  red,  the  others  are  colourless  and  are  commonly 
spoken  of  as  white.  The  specific  gravity  of  blood  probably 
varies  between  1045  and  1075.  Fresh  blood  is  feebly 
alkaline  in  reaction. 

When  blood  is  shed  it  remains  for  a  minute  or  two  as 
fluid  as  it  is  in  the  blood-vessels ;  but  in  2-6  minutes  it 
begins  to  pass  into  the  state  of  a  soft  red  jelly,  which 
gradually  acquires  greater  consistence,  and  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  one  of  its  constituents  at  length  expresses  a  fluid ; 
the  contracted  jelly  is  called  the  clot,  or  crassamentum ;  the 
expressed  fluid  is  the  serum ;  and  the  whole  process  is 
denominated  coagulation.  Contraction  of  the  clot  may  go 
on  for  10-48  hours.  This  process  of  coagulation  is  due 
to  the  separation  from  the  plasma  of  a  body  called  fibrin, 
which  entangles  in  its  meshes  the  corpuscles  of  the  blood. 
When  coagulation  is  delayed  for  several  minutes  (as  it 
always  is  in  horse's  blood,  and  as  it  usually  is  in  the  blood 
of  men  suffering  from  inflammatory  diseases),  the  blood 
corpuscles,  being  specifically  heavier  than  the  plasma,  have 
time  to  subside  a  little  way  before  coagulation  jcommences. 
Hence  the  uppermost  layers  of  such  blood  become  nearly 
free  from  coloured  corpuscles  ;  and  subsequently,  when  the 
blood  coagulates,  the  clot  exhibits  the  phenomenon  of  the 
buffy  coat, — that  is,  the  upper  part  of  the  clot  is  of  a 
yellowish  colour.  If,  instead  of  allowing  blood  to  coagulate 
undisturbed,  it  be  stirred  or  whipped  with  twigs,  the  fibrin 
does  not  entangle  the  corpuscles  but  separates  as  a  stringy 
mass  which  adheres  to  the  twigs ;  the  corpuscles  remain 
in  the  serum  and  constitute  defibrinated  blood.  Coagula- 
tion is  promoted  (a)  by  exposure  to  a  temperature  slightly 
higher  than  that  of  the  living  body ;  (b)  by  contact  with 
foreign  matter ;  (c)  by  the  addition  of  minute  quantities 
of  common  salt  or  other  neutral  salts.  It  is  delayed  or 
suspended  (a)  by  exposure  to  an  ice-cold  temperature ;  (b} 
by  contact  with  the  living  blood-vessels  ;  (c)  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  sodium  chloride,  sodium 
sulphate,  or  some  other  neutral  salts. 

Reviewing  all  the  facts  which  have  been  ascertained 
respecting  coagulation,  it  would  appear  that  the  process  is 
dependent  upon  the  presence  in  the  liquor  sanguinis  of  a 
proteid  body  called  fibrinogen,  which  under  favourable- 
circumstances  undergoes  conversion,  or  perhaps  decomposi- 
tion, into  fibrin.  This  conversion,  when  it  occurs  outside 
the  body,  appears  to  be  connected  with  the  action  of  a 
ferment  produced  in  the  colourless  corpuscles,  and  pro- 
bably only  set  free  when  they  break  down. 

The  red  corpuscles  of  man  and  the  Mammalia  gener- 
ally, except  the  Camelidse,  are  biconcave  disks,  possessing 
neither  skin  nor  nucleus  or  interior  body.  In  birds, 
reptiles,  and  most  fishes  they  are  nucleated,  elliptical,  and 
biconvex.  In  the  camel  the  red  corpuscles  are  oval.  The 
average  diameter  of  the  disk  in  man  is  ^^7  inch  and  the 
thickness  about  Y^XTJTJ  inch. 

The  substance  of  which  the  red  disks  is  composed  is 
elastic ;  the  disks  may  therefore  be  squeezed  through  fine 
chinks  smaller  than  their  own  diameter  and  may  after- 
wards regain  their  original  shape.  When  in  the  blood- 
vessels the  red  corpuscles  are  hurried  along  indiscrimately 
in  the  blood  current,  but  when  the  blood  stands  the  red 
corpuscles  cling  together  in  rows  like  piles  of  coin,  which 
are  technically  called  rouleaux;  this  is  a  physical, pheno- 
menon entirely  due  to  the  shape  of  the  corpuscles.  The 
white  or  colourless  corpuscles  are  globular  masses  of 
granular  protoplasm,  provided  with  one  or  more  interior 
bodies  called  nuclei,  but  destitute  of  a  skin.  They  have 
the  power  of  independent  movement,  which  the  red  cells 
have  not,  resembling  in  this  respect  the  amoaba.  They 
can  send  out  processes,  change  their  outline,  and  move 
from  place  to  place  by  laying  hold  on  resistent  objects  by 
means  of  a  projected  process  and  dragging  their  bodies 


RESPIRATION 


483 


along.  They  have  a  diameter  of  ^rV^  inch  when  at  rest 
and  globular.  They  are  far  less  numerous  than  the  red 
corpuscles ;  the  proportion  of  white  and  red  corpuscles  in 
various  conditions  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : — 

In  the  morning  fasting  state 1:716 

Half  an  hour  after  breakfast V ....1  :  347 

Three  hours  after  breakfast 1  : 1514 

In  the  splenic  vein 1  :  60 

In  the  splenic  artery 1  :  2260 

In  the  hepatic  vein 1  : 170 

In  the  portal  vein 1  :740 

In  addition  to  typical  white  and  red  corpuscles  there 
are  others,  provisionally  called  intermediate  corpuscles,  red 
granular  corpuscles,  or  hsematoblasts,  which  are  granular  and 
nucleated.  Probably  these  corpuscles  are  involved  in  a 
special  manner  in  the  development  of  the  fibrin-ferment. 
It  has  been  calculated  that  one  cubic  millimetre  (i.e.,  a 
cube  whose  side  measures  about  ^T  inch)  contains  five 
million  corpuscles  of  all  kinds. 

The  chief  constituents  of  the  blood  may  now  be  dis- 
cussed seriatim  : — 

Constituents  of  the  Liquor  Sanguinis. 

Fibrin. — When  fresh  this  is  an  elastic  substance  belonging 
to  the  group  of  proteid  bodies  ;  it  is  insoluble  in  pure  water,  but 


A 


B    C 


D 


FIG.  8.— Blood  corpuscles.  A,  Moderately  magnified;  red  corpuscles  in  roul- 
eaux ;  white  corpuscles  at  a,  a.  B,  C,  J),  Red  corpuscles  more  highly 
magnified.  E,  Red  corpuscle  swollen  to  a  sphere  by  imbibition  of  water. 
F,  While  corpuscle,  magnified  same  as  B;  G,  the  same,  throwing  out  blunt 
processes ;  K,  the  same,  treated  with  acetic  acid,  and  showing  nucleus  magnified 
same  as  D.  If,  J,  Red  corpuscles  puckered  or  crenate — //,  all  over,  I,  at  edge 
only.  (From  Huxley's  Elementary  Physiology.) 

is  soluble  in  solutions  of  common  salt  and  in  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid  at  the  temperature  of  the  body.  Human  venous  blood  yields 
from  2 '2  to  2 '8  parts  per 
thousand  of  fibrin.  So  far 
as  we  know,  fibrin  does 
not  exist  as  such  in  the 
plasma  before  it  is  coagu- 
lated; but  there  does  exist 
a  body,  fibrinogen,  which 
is  the  precursor  of  fibrin. 
It  may  be  separated  from 
plasma  by  diluting  the 
plasma  freely  with  water 
at  an  ice-cold  tempera- 
ture, and  passing  for  a 
long  time  a  stream  of  C03 
through  it ;  or  by  adding 
common  salt  to  plasma 
until  the  plasma  contains 
12  to  16  per  cent,  of  salt 


posed  that  fibrin  arises  in  the  union  of  the  two  bodies  fibrinogen 
and  para-globulin. 

Serum-albumin. — This  is  a  proteid  body  which  coagulates  on 
heating. 

Certain  extractive  matters. — These  include  neutral  fats,  lecithin, 
and  cholesterin  ;  sugar ;  urea,  uric  acid,  creatine,  creatinine,  &c. ; 
and  a  yellow  pigment. 

Inorganic  Salts. — These  are  the  chlorides,  phosphates,  and 
sulphates  of  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and  magnesium  ;  sodium 
and  chlorides  are  the  main  constituents. 

Gases. — Especially  C02";  but  see  below. 

Constituents  of  the  Red  Corpuscles. 

Ozy  haemoglobin. — This  interesting  substance  has  the  general 
chemical  composition  of  an  albuminous  body  with  the  addition  oi 
the  element  iron:— C,  54'00;  H,  7'25;  N,  16'25;  Fe,  0'42;  S, 
0-63;  0,  21-45  =  100-00. 

It  is  the  cause  of  the  red  colour  of  the  corpuscles.  It  may  be 
obtained  in  the  form  of  beautiful  crystals  by  a  variety  of  methods, 
which  all  have  the  following  steps  in  common  : — (1)  to  effect  the 
solution  of  the  oxy- 
hsemoglobin of  the 
red  corpuscles  in  the 
serum  or  in  water, 
and  (2)  to  effect  the 
crystallization  of  it 
from  solution  either 
by  adding  alcohol,  or 
by  cold,  or  by  both 
combined.  The  forms 
of  the  crystals  differ 
in  different  animals ; 
the  chief  forms  are 
given  in  fig.  9.  Oxy- 
hsemoglobin has  the 
property  of  giving 
up  a  portion  of  its 
oxygen  on  very  slight 
provocation,  e.g., 
when  treated  with 
easily  oxidizable  sub- 
stances, or  when  sub- 
mitted to  moderate 
heat  in  a  vacuum. 
The  resulting  sub- 
stance is  called  re- 
duced haemoglobin 
or,  shortly,  hsemo- 
globin  ;  it  is  capable 
of  reproducing  the 
original  oxyhajmo- 
globin  on  simple  ex- 
posure to  oxygen  or  Fm-  9._Crystals  of  oxyhtemoglobin ;  a,  6,  <-,  e, 
to  air.  This  property  forms  from  blood  of  man  and  majority  of  mammals : 
is  of  the  highest  im-  d>  tetraliedral  crystals  from  blood  of  guinea-pig;  /, 
portance  in  the  func-  hexag°nal  crystals  from  squirrel  blood, 
tion  of  respiration,  as  will  be  explained  in  the  section  on  the  gases 
of  the  blood. 

Solutions  of  oxyhsemoglobin  of  moderate  strength  have  the  fine 
scarlet  hue  of  arterial  blood.  When  interposed  between  the  sun 
and  a  spectroscope  they  cause  the  absorption  of  definite  portions 

E  t>  F  G  H 


FIG.  10. — 1,  2,  Spectra  of  solutions, — 1  containing  less  than  0-01  per  cent,  and  2  containing  0-37  per  cent,  of  oxyhsemoglobin  ; 
3,  spectrum  of  solution  containing  about  0-2  per  cent,  of  haemoglobin. 


the  fibrinogen  is  precipitated  in  a  flaky  form.  Besides  fibrinogen, 
liquor  sanguinis  contains  another  proteid  body  intimately  concerned 
in  the  formation  of  fibrin  ;  this  is  serum-globulin  or  para-globulin. 
It  also  may  be  precipitated  from  diluted  plasma  by  a  stream  of 
C02 ;  but  it  may  be  much  more  perfectly  eliminated  by  adding 
magnesium  sulphate  until  the  plasma  is  saturated.  It  is  a  body 
the  presence  of  which  greatly  facilitates  or  promotes  the  develop- 
ment of  fibrin  from  fibrinogen  ;  indeed  some  observers  have  sup- 


of  the  spectrum,  and  give  a  characteristic  appearance  to  it.  After 
the  solution  has  been  reduced  (as  it  may  be  very  readily  by  means 
of  an  alkaline  solution  of  a  ferrous  salt,  in  which  precipitation  of 
ferrous  hydrate  is  prevented  by  the  presence  of  tartaric  or  citric 
acid),  it  assumes  a  brownish  colour  and  the  absorption  spectrum 
becomes  changed.  The  spectra  of  oxyhsemoglobin  and  of  reduced 
haemoglobin  when  the  solutions  are  of  moderate  strength  are  given 
in  fig.  10. 


484 


KESPIRATION 


It  has  been  determined  that  1  gramme  of  haemoglobin  can  link  to 
itself  1-671  cc.  of  oxygen  gas  (at  0°  C.  and  760  mm.  pressure) 
in  the  above-described  loose  manner, — that  is,  in  such  a  manner 
that  when  admitted  to  a  vacuous  space  at  a  moderate  temperature 
the  two  become  again  dissociated. 

When  blood  or  a  solution  of  oxyhaemoglobin  is  shaken  up  with 
carbon  monoxide,  the  " dissociable "  or  "respiratory"  oxygen  is 
displaced,  and  a  new  compound  of  CO  and  haemoglobin  is  formed 
which  has  a  spectrum  very  like  that  of  oxyhaemoglobin,  but  is 
incapable  of  reduction  by  the  means  which  are  sufficient  to  reduce 
oxyhjemoglobin.  In  like  manner  (with  certain  precautions)  a  com- 
pound of  haemoglobin  with  NO  may  be  formed. 

Various  products  of  the  destructive  decomposition  of  haemoglobin 
are  known,  possessing  characteristic  spectra  and  properties  ;  these 
need  not  be  further  described. 

Proteid  Substances. — Besides  oxyhaemoglobin,  the  red  corpuscles 
contain  other  proteid  substances,  probably  for  the  most  part  para- 
globulin. 

Lecithin. 

Cholesterin. 

Inorganic  Salts. — Potassium  and  phosphates  are  the  main  con- 
stituent ;  sodium,  calcium,  and  magnesium  are  also  found  as 
chlorides  and  sulphates. 

Gases. — See  below. 

Constituents  of  the  IVTiile  Corpuscles. 

Proteid  Substances. — Several  varieties  have  been  separated. 
Lecithin. 

Certain  extractives,  including  glycogen. 
Inorganic  Salts. — Especially  potassium  and  phosphates. 

The  Gases  of  the  Blood. 

The  blood  when  admitted  into  a  vacuous  space  readily  gives  up 
more  than  half  its  volume  of  mixed  gases,  consisting  of  oxygen, 
carbon  dioxide,  and  nitrogen.  The  oxygen  is  present  in  much 
larger  quantities  than  could  be  held  in  simple  solution  by  the  water 
of  the  blood ;  it  is  in  fact  mainly  held  in  feeble  combination  by  the 
haemoglobin  of  the  coloured  corpuscles  ;  only  a  trace  of  it  is,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  held  in  true  solution.  The  carbon  dioxide, 
whilst  not  existing  in  larger  quantity  in  blood  than  would  be 
possible  if  it  were  simply  dissolved  by  the  water  of  that  fluid,  is 


From  100  vols.  of  Blood. 

O. 

C02. 

N. 

Arterial  

22  vols. 
8-12  vols. 

36  vols. 
40-50  vols. 

1-2  vols. 
1-2  vols. 

Venous  

FIG.  11. — Pump  for  extracting  gases  of  the  blood,  a,  filling-globe ;  6,  barometer 
bulb  ;  d,  three-way  stopcock  (B  C  D,  the  same  enlarged,  A,  its  plug)  ;  e,  gas- 
deliyery  tube ;  /,  mercurial  gauge ;  g,  drying  apparatus,  containing  sulphuric 
acid  ;  ft,  froth-chamber  ;  t,  bulb  in  which  the  blood  is  boiled. 

nevertheless  to  a  small  extent  in  a  state  of  loose  chemical  combina- 
tion in  which  both  plasma  and  corpuscles  share.  The  nitrogen  is 
held  in  a  state  of  simple  solution  in  the  liquor  sanguinis.  These 
gases  are  yielded  in  different  proportions  by  arterial  and  venous 
blood,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table : — 


The  method  of  extracting  the  gases  of  the  blood  which  lias  been 
found  to  be  most  convenient  is  one  in  which  the  blood  is  introduced 
into  the  Torricellian  vacuum  existing  above  the  column  of  mercury 
in  a  barometer.  Blood  is  collected  over  mercury  in  such  a  way  as 
to  avoid  all  access  of  air  ;  it  is  then  introduced  by  an  appropriate 
mechanism  into  the  space  above  the  barometric  mercury.  At  once 
the  gases  froth  up  and  fill  the  space  ;  the  aqueous  vapour  which  at 
the  same  time  arises  is  absorbed  by  a  special  drying  apparatus  com- 
municating with  the  vacuum.  Means  exist  of  warming  the  vacu- 
ous space  up  to  about  45°  C.  ,  which  is  a  temperature  sufficient  to 
cause  the  escape  of  nearly  all  the  gases  of  the  blood  ;  the  last  por- 
tions of  carbonic  acid  are,  however,  more  rapidly  evolved  by 
allowing  a  small  volume  of  a  thoroughly  boiled-out  solution  of 
phosphoric  acid  to  enter  the  blood  receptacle  near  the  close  of  the 
operation. 

How  the  Gaseous  Exchanges  are  Effected  in  Respiration. 

For  the  purposes  of  description,  and  in  reference 
exclusively  to  its  respiratory  function,  the  blood  may  be 
looked  upon  as  a  watery  solution  of  certain  substances 
having  respectively  a  slight  chemical  attraction  for  oxygen 
and  for  carbon  dioxide.  The  chief  of  these  substances  is 
haemoglobin,  which  is  concerned  solely  with  the  oxygen  ; 
others,  less  perfectly  known,  are  concerned  with  the  carbon 
dioxide,  and  include  certain  saline  constituents  of  the 
plasma  (NaHCOg)1  and  perhaps  also  certain  constituents 
of  the  corpuscles.  The  affinity  of  these  substances  for 
oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  respectively  is  of  so  slight  a 
nature  that  the  mere  exposure  of  the  substances  to  a 
vacuum  at  a  certain  moderate  temperature  is  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  affinity,  and  dissociate  the  captive  gases. 
Granted  such  a  solution  in  the  blood-vessels  of  the  lungs, 
separated  from  the  air  of  the  air  cells  by  the  thin  moist 
membranes  of  the  alveolar  walls,  how  are  the  gaseous 
exchanges  of  respiration  brought  about  ?  In  the  first  place 
we  must  premise  certain  physical  relationships  which  exist 
between  gases  and  fluids  in  contact  with  one  another.  If 
a  definite  quantity  of  pure  water  be  exposed  to  the  air  it 
will  at  a  given  temperature  dissolve  a  definite  volume  of 
air.  If  the  air  be  compressed  to  one-half  (or  one-quarter) 
of  its  original  bulk  the  water  will  still  absorb  the  same 
volume  of  it,  albeit  that  volume  now  contains  twice  (or 
four  times)  the  former  quantity  of  gas.  If  the  pressure  be 
diminished  again  the  air  will  escape  from  the  water  exactly 
in  proportion  to  the  diminished  pressure.  This  is  a  con- 
crete example  of  Dalton's  law  that  the  quantity  of  a  gas 
dissolved  by  a  liquid  varies  directly  as  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  What  is  true  of  the  air 
is  true  of  its  constituents.  In  the  above  example  the 
quantity  of  the  constituent  oxygen  absorbed  after  the 
compression  of  the  air  is  twice  (or  four  times)  the  quantity 
absorbed  before  compression.  But  the  quantity  which  is 
absorbed  of  any  constituent  of  a  gaseous  mixture  depends, 
not  upon  the  total  pressure  exerted  on  the  liquid  by  all 
the  gases  of  the  mixture  in  contact  with  its  surface,  but  by 
the  partial  pressure,  or  fraction  of  the  total  pressure, 
exerted  by  the  constituent  in  question.  To  take  an  ex- 
ample, let  us  suppose  that  a  solution  of  oxygen  in  water 
made  at  a  certain  definite  pressure  is  exposed  to  an  atmo- 
sphere of  pure  nitrogen  exerting  as  great  a  pressure,  or 
even  a  greater,  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid  ;  notwithstand- 
ing this  pressure  the  oxygen  would  escape  from  solution 
as  readily  as  if  the  solution  had  been  placed  in  a  perfectly 
vacuous  space.  If  water  be  exposed  in  a  certain  space  of 
air  (which  is,  roughly,  a  mixture  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen), 
the  oxygen  which  it  is  capable  of  absorbing  would  be 


In  a  vacuum  2HNaC08  splits  up  into 


+  C02  +  II2O. 


RESPIRATION 


485 


equally  well  absorbed  if  all  the  nitrogen  were  removed 
from  the  space  and  the  oxygen  alone  left  to  fill  it.  These 
remarks  are  equally  true  of  a  liquid  separated  from  a  gas 
by  moist  membranes.  "In  short,  the  blood  of  the  pulmonary 
vessels,  regarded  as  a  simple  liquid  capable  of  absorbing 
O  and  CO,,  and  apart  from  the  remarkable  chemical  bodies 
contained  in  it,  obeys  Dalton's  law  like  any  other  liquid. 

The  blood  is,  however,  not  a  simple  fluid,  but  contains 
substances  having  a  peculiar  affinity  for  certain  of  the 
gases  of  the  atmosphere ;  especially  does  it  contain  heemo- 
globin.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  "  dissociable "  or 
"  respiratory  "  oxygen  of  oxy haemoglobin  is  all  yielded  to 
a  vacuum  at  the  temperature  of  the  body.  This  yield 
differs  from  the  yield  of  a  gas  simply  dissolved  in  a  liquid 
(which  also  is  perfect  in  a  vacuum)  in  not  proceeding  part 
passu  as  the  pressure  approaches  nil.  On  the  contrary  in 
the  case  of  solutions  of  haemoglobin,  as  the  oxygen  pres- 
sure is  diminished  at  the  surface  of  the  solution,  no 
changes  occur  in  the  oxyhaemoglobin  until  the  oxygen 
pressure  reaches  25  mm.  (about  1  inch)  of  mercury ;  then 
the  oxy haemoglobin  yields  up  its  respiratory  oxygen. 
If  the  steps  are  retraced,  and  oxygen  is  gradually  read- 
mitted to  exercise  pressure  upon  the  haemoglobin  solution, 
the  latter  takes  up  oxygen  once  more  as  soon  as  the  oxygen 
pressure  reaches  or  exceeds  25  mm.  of  mercury. 

We  may  now  consider  the  actual  physical  conditions  of 
the  blood  in  the  lungs.  Venous  blood  is  hurried  into  the 
capillaries  surrounding  the  air  cells ;  much  of  its  haemo- 
globin has  been  "  reduced  "  (or  deprived  of  its  dissociable 
oxygen),  and  further  it  is  rich  in  carbon  dioxide,  which  it 
has  obtained  from  the  active  tissues  in  distant  organs.  In 
the  alveolar  walls  it  comes  into  relationship  with  the  air  of 
the  alveoli ;  probably  these  are  filled  with  air  which  never 
contains  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  oxygen,  and  which  (in 
the  dog,  be  it  remembered)  contains  3*8  per  cent,  of  CO2 
at  a  time  when  the  expired  air  contains  2 -8  per  cent.  Are 
these  conditions  such  that,  owing  to  the  physical  laws 
described,  oxygen  must  pass  into  the  blood,  and  carbon 
dioxide  out  of  it1?  First,  as  regards  the  oxygen.  An 
atmosphere  containing  10  per  cent,  of  oxygen  implies  a 
partial  O-pressure  of  76  mm.  of  mercury  (10  per 
cent,  of  760  mm.) ;  as  this  is  far  above  the  dissocia- 
tion point  (25  mm.)  of  oxyhaemoglobin,  it  is  clear  that 
any  reduced  haemoglobin  present  would  greedily  absorb 
oxygen  from  such  an  atmosphere.  When  the  air  breathed 
is  much  rarefied,  the  case  is  different ;  the  partial  O-pres- 
sure in  the  alveoli  may  be  so  far  reduced  that  the  absorp- 
tion of  O  by  the  blood  becomes  most  difficult  or  impos- 
sible. As  regards  the  carbon  dioxide  the  matter  is  not  so 
clear ;  but,  inasmuch  as  air  drawn  from  the  depth  of  the 
lung  by  means  of  a  catheter  contains  (in  a  dog)  3'8  per 
cent,  of  C0.2,  while  at  the  same  time  the  venous  blood  of 
the  right  side  of  the  heart  possesses  a  CO2  tension  of 
approximately  the  same  percentage,  we  may  assume  that 
C02  escapes  from  the  pulmonary  capillaries  into  the  alveoli 
until  equilibrium  ensues.  It  is,  however,  conceivable  that 
the  epithelium  of  the  air  cells  may  assist  the  elimination 
of  CO2  from  the  blood  by  a  process  of  true  excretion 
independently  of  the  above  merely  physical  considerations. 

So-called  Internal  Respiration. 

Venous  blood  yields  up  its  carbon  dioxide  and  takes  up 
oxygen  in  the  capillaries  of  the  lungs ;  arterial  blood 
passes  to  the  general  capillaries  of  the  tissues  and  there 
yields  up  its  oxygen  and  receives  carbon  dioxide.  To  this 
act,  which  in  its  issues  is  complementary  to  the  inter- 
changes of  pulmonary  respiration,  the  term  internal  respira- 
tion, or  respiration  of  the  tissues,  has  been  applied.  With 
as  much  propriety  we  might  speak  of  internal  urination  in 
reference  to  the  nitrogenous  effete  matters  which  the  tissues 


cast  into  the  blood.  We  are  in  fact  not  in  a  position  to 
form  any  clear  picture  of  the  interchanges  which  occur 
between  the  blood  and  the  tissues  other  than  that  which 
is  sketched  under  NUTRITION  (vol.  xvii.  pp.  678-682). 
Muscle  is  the  tissue  whose  metabolic  processes  are  most 
clearly  understood.  Living  muscle  yields  no  oxygen  to  a 
vacuum,  although  it  gives  up  carbon  dioxide  freely ;  there- 
fore it  is  presumably  itself  in  a  condition  to  take  up  oxy- 
gen from  arterial  blood  and  to  give  up  carbon  dioxide  to  it. 
But  the  absorption  of  oxygen  is  not  immediately  necessary 
to  the  escape,  or  the  formation,  of  the  carbon  dioxide,  how- 
ever much  it  is  so  in  the  last  instance.  In  other  words, 
the  oxygen  passes  into  the  tissue  and  is  at  once  combined 
into  some  intermediate  compound  which  only  at  a  later 
stage  decomposes  and  yields  carbon  dioxide.  Whenever  an 
organ  is  active  its  blood-vessels  dilate  and  permit  a  more 
copious  flow  of  blood  through  it  than  when  it  is  at  rest.  In 
the  salivary  glands  the  blood  may  even  pulsate  in  the  veins 
and  look  like  true  arterial  blood  in  colour.  After  passing 
through  active  muscles  the  blood  contains  both  more  CO2 
and  less  O  than  after  passing  through  resting  muscle. 

Dyspnoea  and  Asphyxia. 

When  the  entrance  of  air  to  the  lungs  is  entirely  pre- 
vented the  phenomena  of  dyspnoea  and  asphyxia  begin  to 
appear.  At  first  respiration  is  deeper  and  more  frequent 
than  usual  (dyspncea),  the  extraordinary  muscles  being 
called  into  play  in  both  inspiration  and  expiration ;  the 
heart  beats  more  quickly  at  first,  but  afterwards  more 
slowly ;  this  is  the  first  stage.  It  is  succeeded  by  the 
second  stage,  in  which  the  violence  of  respiration  is  less 
marked,  although  the  coordination  of  the  act  is  more 
irregular ;  indeed  towards  the  end  of  the  stage  respiratory 
movements  merge  in  general  convulsions  of  the  whole  body. 
Throughout  this  stage  expiration  is  more  marked  than 
inspiration,  and  the  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the  blood- 
vessels is  very  great.  The  third  stage  is  one  of  exhaustion, 
which  supervenes  suddenly,  and  is  marked  by  loss  of  con- 
sciousness, dilated  pupils,  and  absence  of  the  powers  of 
reflex  action.  The  animal  seems  dead,  except  that  at  long 
intervals  feeble  inspiratory  gasps  occur.  Finally  there 
comes  one  great  inspiratory  effort:  the  mouth  is  fixed 
wide  open,  the  head  thrown  back,  the  body  arched  back- 
wards, the  nostrils  dilated,  and  the  pulse  after  a  second  or 
two  is  indistinguishable  (asphyxia).  The  whole  series  of 
events  lasts  from  three  to  five  minutes  if  the  interruption 
to  the  entrance  of  air  has  been  absolute.  After  death  the 
right  side  of  the  heart,  with  the  vessels  immediately  open- 
ing into  it,  viz.,  the  venae  cavae  and  veins  of  the  neck  and 
the  pulmonary  artery,  are  engorged  with  black  blood  con- 
taining little  or  no  oxyhaemoglobin.  The  left  side  of  the 
heart  and  the  systemic  arteries  are  contracted  and  empty. 
All  these  phenomena  are  best  explained  by  the  known 
power  of  venous  blood  to  stimulate  the  nervous  centres. 
As  the  blood  becomes  more  and  more  venous  it  stimulates 
more  powerfully  the  great  nerve-centres  of  the  medulla 
oblongata.  The  respiratory  centre  is  stimulated,  especially 
its  expiratory  portion ;  and,  finally,  the  whole  muscular 
centres  of  the  spinal  system  are  excited,  causing  general 
convulsions.  The  vaso-motor  centre  is  stimulated,  causing 
the  rise  of  blood  pressure  in  the  early  stage.  The  slowing 
of  the  heart  during  the  close  of  the  first  and  second  stages 
is  due  to  stimulation  of  the  vagus  cardio-inhibitory  centre 
in  the  medulla.  Finally  the  centres  become  exhausted 
from  the  impurity  of  the  blood  bathing  them,  and  their 
activity  fails  altogether. 

Stimulation  of  the  Respiratory  Centre. 

It  remains  to  ask  what  property  of  venous  blood  confers 
upon  it  the  power  of  stimulating  nerve  centres.  Venous 


486 


R  E  S  — R  E  S 


blood  differs  from  arterial  blood  chiefly  in  the  relative 
amounts  of  O  and  CO2  it  contains.  Which  of  these 
substances  is  it  whose  deviation  from  the  arterial  standard 
causes  stimulation?  It  so  happens  that  we  can  experi- 
mentally separate  the  two  factors.  If  an  animal  be  placed 
in  a  chamber  of  some  inert  gas,  such  as  nitrogen,  the 
escape  of  CO.,  from  the  lungs  is  unimpeded  and  no  accumu- 
lation of  CO2  in  the  blood  is  brought  about ;  nevertheless 
dyspnoea  and  asphyxia  follow  as  if  the  entrance  of  air  to 
the  windpipe  had  been  interrupted.  Here  there  is  no 
accumulation  of  C(X  in  the  blood,  but  total  deficiency  of  O. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  an  animal  be  placed  in  a  chamber 
containing  a  large  excess  of  CO2  beyond  the  standard  of 
expired  air,  but  at  the  same  time  a  superabundant  supply 
of  O,  no  dyspnoea  supervenes,  and  no  asphyxia  threatens. 
The  animal  may  suffer  from  drowsiness  (for  CO2  is  narcotic 
in  its  effects),  but  true  dyspnoea  never  occurs  so  long  as 
the  supply  of  O  is  sufficient.  There  is  little  doubt  there- 
fore that  the  absence  of  0  from  venous  blood  is  the  essen- 
tial condition  of  its  stimulating  property. 

Diversity  of  Modes  in  which  the  Function  is  Carried  en. 

Kespiration,  if  we  assume  the  essential  fact  of  that 
process  to  be  the  absorption  of  O  and  the  elimination  of 
CO2  by  the  animal  body,  is  coextensive  with  the  whole 


animal  kingdom.  It  is  not,  however,  in  every  case  served 
by  special  air-containing  organs  or  lungs.  Indeed  the 
essential  interchange  of  respiration  goes  on  wherever  the 
blood  comes  into  sufficiently  close  contact  with  oxygen. 
For  example,  the  air  which  happens  to  be  swallowed  with 
our  food  is  so  closely  in  contact  with  the  blood  of  the 
intestinal  vessels  that  an  interchange  of  gases  occurs,  con- 
stituting a  true  intestinal  respiration.  The  Mammalia  all 
possess  true  lungs.  In  birds  also  there  are  lungs,  but  the 
mechanism  of  respiration  is  unlike  that  of  man,  since  the 
diaphragm  is  wanting.  There  are,  in  birds,  besides  lungs, 
"  air  sacs "  lying  among  the  viscera  and  communicating 
with  cavities  in  the  bones,  these  sacs  being  supplied  with 
air  from  the  lungs.  Reptiles  and  some  amphibians  breathe 
by  lungs,  other  amphibians  breathe  by  gills,  as  also  do  the 
young  of  some  of  the  air-breathing  Amphibia  (frogs). 
Fishes  breathe  by  gills,  using  the  O  dissolved  in  water. 

Many  invertebrates  respire  in  air,  which  is  carried  into 
the  midst  of  their  tissues  in  tracheae  or  air-tubes  branched 
like  a  tree ;  other  invertebrates  breathe  by  gills  in  water ; 
others  again  have  lungs.  In  some  the  oxygenized  water 
is  carried  into  the  body  along  a  series  of  tubes — the 
water-vascular  system ;  and  in  still  simpler  animals  the 
general  surface  of  the  body  seems  to  serve  the  respiratory 
function.  (A.  G.*) 


RESTIF,  NICOLAS  EDME  (1734-1806),  called  RESTIF 
DE  LA  BRETONNE  (the  form  RETIF,  though  occasionally 
used  by  the  author  himself,  and  adopted  by  M.  Monselet, 
has  the  less  authority),  was  born  at  Sacy  in  the  present 
department  of  the  Yonne,  France,  on  23d  October  1734. 
His  father  was  a  farmer  of  not  the  lowest  rank,  and  the 
vanity  of  Restif  has  preserved  or  invented  an  extraordinary 
genealogy  (supposed  to  date  from  his  grandfather's  time) 
in  which  the  family  is  traced  to  the  Roman  emperor 
Pertinax.  This  Restif  did  not  take  very  seriously,  but  he 
is  himself  almost  the  only  authority  for  the  details  of  his 
own  career,  which  he  has  voluminously  recorded,  and  these 
details  are  in  part  so  incredible,  in  part  so  obviously  dis- 
torted by  various  motives,  that  it  is  very  hard  to  do  more 
than  discover  the  general  outline  of  his  life.  He  was 
well  educated — partly  if  not  chiefly  by  his  own  devotion 
to  books — he  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  at  Auxerre,  and, 
having  served  his  time,  went  to  Paris.  Here  he  worked 
as  a  journeyman  printer  for  some  time  (indeed  he  con- 
tinued his  manual  work  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life), 
and  in  1760  he  married  Anne  or  Agnes  Lebegue,  a 
relation  of  his  former  master  at  Auxerre.  He  soon 
tired  of  her,  and  has  left  the  most  unfavourable  pictures 
of  her  morals  and  temper.  In  the  early  years  of  their 
married  life  they  were  but  little  together,  and  for  the  last 
twenty  they  never  saw  each  other;  but  Restif 's  own 
account  is  sufficient  to  show  that  certainly  not  all,  and  pro- 
bably very  few,  of  the  faults  were  on  the  wife's  side.  It 
was  not  till  five  or  six  years  after  his  marriage  that  Restif, 
who  by  his  own  account  had  written  voluminously  from 
his  earliest  youth  but  had  published  nothing,  appeared  as 
an  author,  and  from  that  time  to  his  death  on  February 
2,  1806,  he  produced  a  bewildering  multitude  of  books 
(amounting  to  something  like  two  hundred  volumes,  and 
many  of  them  printed  with  his  own  hand)  on  almost  every 
conceivable  variety  of  subject.  The  most  noteworthy  are 
Le  Pied  de  Fanchette,  a  novel  (1769) ;  Le  Pornographe 
(same  date),  a  plan  for  regulating  prostitution  which  is  said 
to  have  been  actually  carried  out  by  the  emperor  Joseph 
IL,  while  not  a  few  detached  hints  have  been  adopted 
by  Continental  nations;  Le  Paysan  Perverti  (1774),  a 
novel  in  which  much  of  his  own  experience  is  worked  in ; 


La  Vie  de  Mon  Pere  (1779),  a  really  remarkable  monu- 
ment of  filial  piety;  Les  Contemporaines  (42  vols.,  1780-85), 
a  vast  collection  of  short  stories  showing  at  once  Restif's 
fertility  of  invention,  his  narrative  faculty,  and  his  accurate 
observation  of  the  manners  of  Paris ;  Ingenue  Saxancom\ 
also  a  novel  (1789) ;  and,  lastly,  the  extraordinary  autobio- 
graphy of  Monsieur  Nicolas  (16  vols.,  1794-97;  the  last  two 
are  practically  a  separate  and  much  less  interesting  work), 
in  which  at  the  age  of  sixty  he  has  set  down  voluminously 
his  remembrances,  his  notions  on  ethical  and  social  points, 
his  hatreds,  and  above  all  his  numerous  or  innumerable 
loves  real  and  fancied.  The  original  editions  of  these,  and 
indeed  of  all  his  books,  have  long  been  bibliographical 
curiosities  owing  to  their  rarity,  the  beautiful  and  curious 
illustrations  which  many  of  them  contain,  and  the  quaint 
typographic  system  in  which  most  are  composed.  The 
author's  life  during  this  long  period  was  a  singular  mixture 
of  hard  work  and  perpetual  falling  in  love.  He  seems  to 
have  really  seen  society  of  the  most  varied  kind,  though 
in  this  as  in  all  other  matters  he  certainly  exaggerates  and 
perhaps  invents  in  a  way  which  makes  it  impossible  to  dis- 
cern the  exact  truth.  Some  of  his  books  sold  well,  and,  as 
has  been  said,  he  was  always  industrious  as  an  author  or 
a  printer  and  sometimes  as  both.  But  he  had  repeated 
losses,  and  though  never  in  actual  want  was  never  in  easy 
circumstances.  He  was  arrested  once  during  the  Revolu- 
tion but  had  no  difficulty  in  getting  off;  indeed  he  seems  to 
have  been  a  convinced  republican.  In  1795  he  received  a 
gratuity  of  2000  francs  from  the  Government,  and  just 
before  his  death  Napoleon  gave  him  a  place  in  the  ministry 
of  police,  which  he  did  not  live  to  take  up.  After  his 
death  Cubieres  Palmeaux,  a  gentleman  literary-hack  of  the 
day,  wrote  his  life. 

Restif  do  la  Bretonne  undoubtedly  holds  a  remarkable  place  in 
French  literature,  though  the  rarity  and  curious  character  of  his 
books  have  sometimes  induced  his  editors  and  commentators  to 
take  too  high  a  view  of  his  merits.  He  was  inordinately  vain,  of 
extremely  relaxed  morals,  and  perhaps  not  entirely  sane.  His 
books  were  written  with  such  haste  and  in  such  bulk  that  they  can 
only  be  praised  with  great  allowance.  Their  licence  of  subject  and 
language  renders  some  if  not  most  of  them  quite  unfit  for  general 
perusal.  But  when  every  deduction  is  made  there  will  remain  on 
a  just  estimate  the  facts  that  Restif  had  a  singular  and  profound 
knowledge  of  the  human  heart  'the  second  title  of  his  Monsieur 


R  E  S  —  R  E  T 


487 


Nicolas  is  Le  Cosier  Ilumain  DtvoiU],  tliat  among  his  random  and 
often  chimerical  speculations  on  social,  ethical,  and  political 
matters  thoughts  of  extraordinary  justness  now  and  then  occur, 
that  his  observation  of  manners  was  keen,  and  that  his  narrative 
faculty,  at  least  in  short  tales  and  detached  passages,  was  exception- 
ally good. 

Original  editions  of  Restif  are,  as  has  been  said,  bibliographical  curiosities. 
The  works  of  Oh.  Monselet  (1853)  and  P.  Lacroix  (1875),  Assdzat's  selection  from 
the  Contemporaries,  with  excellent  introductions  (3  vols.,  1875),  and  the  valuable 
reprint  of  Monsieur  Nicolas  (14  vols.,  1883-84),  will  be  sufficient  to  enable  even 
curious  readers  to  form  a  judgment  of  him.  The  selection  from  the  Contem- 
foraines  preserves  Restif's  curious  printing  and  spelling. 

EESTOUT,  JEAN  (1692-1768),  French  painter,  born 
at  Kouen,  March  26,  1692,  was  the  son  of  Jean  Restout, 
the  first  of  that  name,  and  of  Marie  M.  Jouvenet,  sister 
and  pupil  of  the  well-known  Jean  Jouvenet.  Jean 
Restout's  father  died  young,  and  his  son  was  placed  at 
Paris  with  his  uncle  Jean  Jouvenet.  In  1717,  the  Royal 
Academy  having  elected  him  a  member  on  the  work  which 
he  had  executed  for  the  Great  Prize,  he  remained  in  Paris, 
instead  of  proceeding  to  Italy,  exhibited  at  all  the  salons, 
and  filled  successively  every  post  of  academical  distinction. 
He  died  on  January  1,  1768.  He  left  several  pupils,  none 
of  whom  were  of  great  distinction.  His  works,  chiefly  of 
vast  size — altarpieces  (Louvre  Museum),  ceilings,  designs 
for  Gobelin  tapestries — were  much  engraved  by  Cochin, 
Drevet,  and  others ;  his  diploma  picture  may  still  be  seen 
at  St  Cloud. 

RESTOUT,  JEAN  BERNARD,  son  of  the  above,  was  born 
at  Paris,  February  22,  1732,  and  died  in  the  same  city  on 
July  18,  1797.  In  1758  he  won  the  Great  Prize,  and  on 
his  return  from  Italy  was  received  into  the  Academy ;  but 
his  refusal  to  comply  with  rules  led  to  a  quarrel  with  that 
body  which  alienated  him  from  his  profession.  Roland 
brought  him  into  notice  by  appointing  him  keeper  of  the 
Garde  Meuble,  but  this  piece  of  favour  nearly  cost  him  his 
life  during  the  Terror :  he  was  cast  into  prison  and  was 
only  saved  from  the  guillotine  by  the  reaction  of  Thermidor. 
The  St  Bruno  painted  by  him  at  Rome  is  in  the  Louvre. 

RETFORD,  EAST,  a  market  town  and  borough  of 
Nottinghamshire,  is  situated  on  the  Idle  and  on  the  Great 
Northern  and  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire 
Railways,  36  miles  north-east  of  Nottingham  by  rail,  and 
eight  south-west  of  Gainsborough.  The  church  of  St 
Swithin,  a  large  cruciform  structure  with  a  square  em- 
battled tower,  dates  from  the  13th  century,  but  was  rebuilt 
in  1658  by  a  brief  granted  by  Richard  Cromwell.  Among 
the  modern  buildings  are  the  town-hall,  the  corn  exchange, 
the  court-house,  and  the  covered  markets.  There  is  a  large 
trade  in  corn,  cheese,  and  hops,  and  the  town  possesses  iron 
foundries,  paper  and  corn  mills,  and  india-rubber  works. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  in  1871  was 
3194,  but  in  1878  the  area  was  extended  to  4532  acres, 
and  in  1881  the  population  was  9748. 

The  town  derives  its  name  from  an  ancient  ford  over  the  Idle. 
In  Domesday  it  is  written  Redcford,  and  early  in  the  13th  century 
it  is  called  Este  Reddfurthc.  It  is  a  borough  by  prescription,  and 
was  granted  in  1279  to  the  burgesses  by  Edward  I.  at  a  fee  farm 
rent  of  £10,  with  the  right  of  choosing  a  bailiff.  Its  rights  were 
confirmed  and  extended  by  Edward  III.,  Henry  IV.,  and  James  I. 
It  sent  two  members  to  parliament  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  but 
the  privilege  was  dormant  from  1330  to  1571.  The  parliamentary 
borough,  which  was  largely  rural,  having  been  extended  in  1829 
to  include  the  whole  wapentake  of  Bassetlaw,  and  comprising 
207,906  acres  in  1881,  ceased  to  exist  as  a  borough  in  1885.  The 
municipal  borough  is  divided  into  three  wards,  and  is  governed  by 
a  mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  eighteen  councillors. 

RETHEL,  ALFRED  (1816-1859),  historical  painter,  was 
born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1816.  He  very  early  showed  an 
interest  in  art,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  he  executed  a 
drawing  which  procured  his  admission  to  the  academy  of 
Diisseldorf.  Here  he  studied  for  several  years,  and  pro- 
duced, among  other  works,  a  figure  of  St  Boniface  which 
attracted  much  attention.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he 
removed  to  Frankfort  where  he  studied  under  Philip  Veit ; 


and,  having,  in  common  with  so  many  of  the  German 
artists  of  the  period,  manifested  an  aptitude  for  fresco-paint- 
ing, he  was  selected  to  decorate  the  walls  of  the  imperial 
hall  at  Rorner  with  figures  of  famous  men.  At  the  same 
period  he  produced  a  series  of  designs  illustrative  of  Old 
Testament  history.  Four  years  later  he  was  the  successful 
competitor  for  the  work  of  ornamenting  the  restored  council 
house  of  his  native  city  with  frescos  depicting  prominent 
events  in  the  career  of  Charlemagne,  but  various  discussions 
and  delays  prevented  the  execution  of  this  work  for  some 
six  years.  Meanwhile  Rethel  occupied  himself  with  the 
production  of  easel  pictures,  and  of  drawings ;  and  in  1842 
he  began  a  most  striking  and  important  series  of  designs 
dealing  with  the  Crossing  of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal,  in 
which  the  weird  power  which  animates  his  later  art 
becomes  first  apparent.  In  1844  Rethel  visited  Rome, 
occupying  his  time  both  in  study  and  in  production,  and 
executing,  along  with  other  subjects,  an  altarpiece  for  one 
of  the  churches  of  his  native  land.  In  1846  he  returned 
to  Aix,  and  commenced  his  Charlemagne  frescos.  But 
the  strain  of  production,  aggravated  by  a  lack  of  sympathy, 
and  by  vexatious  delays  and  interferences,  produced  a  most, 
injurious  effect  upon  both  the  health  and  the  spirits  of  the 
artist.  Symptoms  of  mental  derangement,  remotely  attri- 
butable, it  is  believed,  to  an  accident  from  which  he 
suffered  in  childhood,  began  to  manifest  themselves  in 
strange  and  groundless  suspicions  against  his  friends  and 
brother  artists.  While  he  hovered  between  madness  and 
sanity,  "  with  a  mind  " — as  Mr  Ruskin  has  said  in  reference 
to  the  very  parallel  case  of  William  Blake — "disturbed,  but 
not  deceived,  by  its  sickness,  nay,  partly  exalted  by  it," 
Rethel  produced  some  of  the  most  striking,  individual,  and 
impressive  of  his  works.  Strange  legends  are  told  of  the 
effect  produced  by  some  of  his  weird  subjects.  He  painted 
Nemesis  pursuing  a  Murderer — a  flat  stretch  of  landscape, 
with  a  slaughtered  body  relieved  against  the  flushing 
evening  sky,  while  in  front  is  the  assassin  speeding  away 
into  the  darkness,  clutching  his  blood-stained  knife,  thorns 
and  thistles  springing  up  around  his  path,  and  above,  hover- 
ing over  his  head,  with  unhasting  but  ceaseless  flight,  an 
angel  of  vengeance,  holding  an  hour-glass  from  which  the 
last  sands  are  escaping,  and  a  sword  which  is  slowly 
descending  upon  the  fated  head.  The  picture,  so  the  story 
goes,  was  won  in  a  lottery  at  Frankfort  by  a  personage  of 
high  rank,  who  had  been  guilty  of  an  undiscovered  crime, 
and  the  contemplation  of  his  prize  drove  him  to  distraction, 
and  he  became  a  lunatic.  Another  design  which  Rethel 
executed  was  Death  the  Avenger,  a  skeleton  appearing  at  a 
masked  ball,  scraping  daintily,  like  a  violinist,  upon  two 
human  bones.  The  drawing  haunted  the  memory  of  his 
artist  friends  and  disturbed  their  dreams ;  and,  in  expia- 
tion, he  produced  his  pathetic  design  of  Death  the  Friend, 
a  skeleton  draped  in  long  monk's  robes,  tolling  solemnly 
the  passing  bell  in  a  church  tower,  while  beside  the  open 
window,  lit  by  the  last  sunset  radiance,  sits  an  old  sexton, 
with  the  peaceful  face  of  a  quiet  departure.  Rethel  also 
executed  a  powerful  series  of  drawings — the  Dance  of 
Death — suggested  by  the  Belgian  insurrections  of  1848. 
It  is  by  such  designs  as  these,  executed  in  a  technique 
founded  upon  that  of  Diirer,  and  animated  by  an  imagina- 
tion akin  to  that  of  the  elder  master,  that  Rethel  is  most 
widely  known.  Certainly  his  fame  can  rest  very  securely 
upon  such  works  as  Death  the  Avenger  and  Death  the 
Friend, — those  "  inexpressibly  noble  and  pathetic  wood- 
cut grotesques,"  as  Mr  Ruskin  has  so  justly  styled  them. 
Rethel  died  at  Diisseldorf  on  December  1,  1859. 

His  picture  of  Peter  and  John  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the 
Temple,  is  preserved  in  the  Leipsic  Museum,  and  his  St  Boniface 
and  several  of  his  cartoons  for  the  frescos  at  Aix  in  the  Berlin 
National  Gallery.  His  life  by  Wolfgang  Miiller  von  Kbnigswinter 
has  been  published.  See  also  Art  Journal,  November  1865. 


488 


R  E  T  Z 


RETZ,  JEAN  FRANCOIS  PAUL  DE  GONDI,  CARDINAL  DE 
(1614-1679),  was  born  at  Montmirail  in  1614.  The 
family  was  one  of  those  which  had  been  introduced  into 
France  by  Catherine  de'  Medici,  but  it  had  acquired  great 
estates  in  Brittany  and  had  been  connected  with  the 
noblest  houses  of  the  kingdom.  It  may  be  added  that 
Retz  himself  always  spelt  his  designation  "Rais,"  and  the 
spelling  is  not  inconvenient  for  foreigners.  He  was  the 
third  son,  and  according  to  Tallemant  des  Reaux  was 
made  a  knight  of  Malta  on  the  very  day  of  his  birth. 
The  death  of  his  second  brother,  however,  destined  him 
for  a  closer  connexion  with  the  church.  The  family  of 
Retz  had  military  traditions,  for  the  cardinal's  father, 
Philippe  Emmanuel,  was  general  of  the  galleys,  and  his 
grandfather  Albert  was  marshal  of  France.  But  it  had  also 
much  church  influence,  Retz's  uncle  being  archbishop  of 
Paris,  and,  despite  the  very  unclerical  leanings  of  the  future 
cardinal,  which  were  not  corrected  by  the  teachings  of  St 
Vincent  de  Paul,  who  was  his  tutor,  the  intentions  of  his 
family  never  varied  respecting  him.  It  was  in  vain  that, 
as  he  has  recounted  with  some  vanity  in  his  famous 
memoirs,  he  flirted,  fought  duels,  and  endeavoured  in 
every  way  to  show  that  he  had  no  vocation.  His  friends 
might  have  some  excuse  for  doubting  his  aptitude  for  a 
•more  active  career  despite  his  vivacious  temperament,  for 
by  unanimous  consent  his  physical  appearance  was  not 
that  of  a  soldier.  He  was  short,  near-sighted,  ugly 
(though  his  ugliness  had  much  in  common  with  that  of 
Wilkes),  and  exceptionally  awkward  of  hand  and  gesture. 
Retz,  however,  despite  the  little  inclination  which  he  felt 
towards  clerical  life,  was  not  a  man  to  leave  any  kind  of 
career  to  which  he  had  access  untried.  He  entered  into 
the  disputes  of  the  Sorbonne  with  vigour,  and  when  he 
was  scarcely  eighteen  wrote  the  remarkable  Conjuration  de 
Fiesque,  a  little  historical  essay  of  which  he  drew  the 
material  from  the  Italian  of  Mascardi,  but  which  is  all  his 
own  in  the  negligent  vigour  of  the  style  and  the  audacious 
insinuation,  if  nothing  more,  of  revolutionary  principles. 
It  is  said,  though  the  anecdotes  of  this  time  are  always 
suspicious,  that  Richelieu's  verdict  after  reading  the 
pamphlet  was  "  voila  un  homme  dangereux."  However 
this  may  be,  Retz  received  no  preferment  of  importance 
during  Richelieu's  life,  and  even  after  the  minister's  death, 
though  he  was  presented  to  Louis  XIII.  and  well  received 
(the  king  offered  him  a  bishopric),  he  found  a  difficulty  in 
attaining  the  object  of  his  wishes,  that  is  to  say,  the 
coadjutorship  with  reversion  of  the  archbishopric  of  Paris. 
But  almost  immediately  after  the  king's  death  Anne  of 
-Austria  appointed  him  to  the  coveted  post  on  All  Saints' 
Eve,  1643.  Retz,  who  had  according  to  some  accounts 
already  plotted  against  Richelieu,  set  himself  to  work  to 
make  the  utmost  political  capital  out  of  his  position.  His 
uncle,  who  was  old,  indolent,  and  absurdly  proud,  had 
lived  in  great  seclusion ;  Retz,  on  the  contrary,  by 
assiduously  cultivating  the  parish  cures  and  distributing 
large  sums  in  alms,  gradually  acquired  a  very  great  influ- 
ence with  the  populace  of  the  city.  This  influence  he 
gradually  turned  against  Mazarin — partly  from  the  general 
dislike  which  the  French  nobles  had  to  that  low-born 
adventurer,  but  partly  also,  it  would  appear,  because  he 
himself  was  not  in  Mazarin's  place.  No  one  had  more  to 
do  than  Retz  with  the  outbreak  of  the  Fronde  in  October 
1648,  and  his  history  for  the  next  four  years  is  the  history 
of  that  confused  and,  as  a  rule,  much  misunderstood 
movement.  Of  the  two  parties  who,  sometimes  in  union 
and  sometimes  at  variance  with  each  other,  opposed  the 
system  of  absolute  monarchy  carried  on  by  an  omnipotent 
minister,  Retz  could  only  depend  on  the  bourgeoisie,  not 
on  the  nobles,  and  even  in  the  case  of  the  bourgeoisie 
he  had  little  influence  out  of  Paris.  The  fact,  more- 


over, that  although  he  had  some  speculative  tendencies 
in  favour  of  popular  liberties,  and  even  perhaps  of  re- 
publicanism, he  represented  no  real  political  principle,  as 
the  parliament  of  Paris  did  and  as  did  great  nobles  like 
La  Rochefoucauld,  inevitably  weakened  his  position.  His 
adroitness  of  intrigue  and  his  boldness  in  action  (which 
was  even  shown  on  the  field  of  battle)  served  him  little  in 
the  long  run,  and  when  the  break  up  of  the  Fronde  came 
he  was  left  in  the  lurch,  having  more  than  once  in  the 
meanwhile  been  in  no  small  danger  from  his  own  party. 
One  stroke  of  luck,  however,  fell  to  him  before  his  down- 
fall. He  was  made  cardinal  almost  by  accident,  and  under 
a  misapprehension  on  the  pope's  part.  Then,  in  1652,  he 
was  arrested  and  imprisoned,  first  at  Vinccnues,  then  at 
Nantes ;  he  escaped,  however,  after  two  years'  captivity, 
and  for  some  time  wandered  about  in  England  and  else- 
where. He  made  his  appearance  at  Rome  more  than 
once,  and  had  no  small  influence  in  the  election  of 
Alexander  VII.  He  was  at  last,  in  1662,  received  back 
again  into  favour  by  Louis  XIV.  and  on  more  than  one 
occasion  formally  served  as  envoy  to  Rome, — commissions 
which  have  left  abundant  records  in  the  shape  of  official 
documents.  Retz,  however,  was  too  shrewd,  and  perhaps 
too  weary  of  political  intrigue  to  attempt  any  interference 
with  the  new  order  of  things  at  home,  and  he  was  glad  in 
making  his  peace  to  resign  his  claims  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Paris.  The  terms  were,  among  other  things,  his 
appointment  to  the  rich  abbacy  of  St  Denis  and  his 
restoration  to  his  other  benefices  with  the  payment  of 
arrears. 

The  last  seventeen  years  of  Retz's  life  were  compara- 
tively quiet,  and  were  passed  partly  in  his  diplomatic 
duties  (he  was  again  in  Rome  at  the  papal  election  of 
1668),  partly  at  Paris,  partly  at  his  estate  of  Commercy, 
but  latterly  at  St  Mihiel  in  Lorraine.  His  retirement 
to  this  place  was  made  under  circumstances  which  were 
unusual  for  the  age.  His  debts  were  as  enormous  as  his 
revenues  were  large,  and,  as  the  latter  were  almost  entirely 
derived  from  ecclesiastical  appointments,  his  creditors  had 
no  remedy.  In  167 5  he  resolved  to  make  over  to  them  all 
his  income  except  twenty  thousand  livres,  and,  as  he  said, 
to  "live  for  his  creditors."  This  plan  he  carried  out, 
though  he  did  not  succeed  in  living  very  long,  for  he  died 
at  Paris  on  the  24th  August  1679.  One  of  the  chief 
authorities  for  the  last  years  of  Retz  is  Madame  de  Sevigne, 
whose  connexion  he  was  by  marriage.  Great  friendship 
existed  between  them,  and  the  cardinal  was  especially 
devoted  to  Madame  de  Grignan,  who  seems  to  have  treated 
him  with  her  usual  selfish  indifference. 

Retz  and  La  Rochefoucauld,  the  greatest  of  the  Frondeurs 
in  literary  genius,  were  personal  and  political  enemies, 
and  each  has  left  a  portrait  of  the  other.  La  Rochefou- 
cauld's character  of  the  cardinal  is  on  the  whole  harsh  but 
scarcely  unjust,  and  one  of  its  sentences  formulates, 
though  in  a  manner  which  has  a  certain  recoil  upon  the 
writer,  the  great  defect  of  Retz's  conduct, — "  II  a  suscite 
les  plus  grands  desordres  dans  1'etat  sans  avoir  un  dessein 
forme  de  s'en  prevaloir. "  The  last  two  words  indicate 
but  too  clearly  the  self-seeking  which  was  the  bane  of  the 
Fronde  and  of  the  French  noblesse  generally.  But  it  is 
perfectly  true  that  no  general  design  of  benefiting  either 
himself  or  his  country,  or  even  any  party  or  order  in  his 
country,  can  be  traced  in  Retz's  conduct,  and  that  he 
seems  to  have  kindled  the  fires  of  civil  war  in  pure  gaiety 
of  heart.  He  would  have  been  less,  and  certainly  less 
favourably,  remembered  if  it  had  not  been  for  his  Memoirs, 
which,  with  Madame  de  Sevigne's  notices,  give  a  rather 
high  idea  of  the  amiability  of  his  character  at  the  same 
time  that  they  confirm  its  levity,  and  above  all  prove  his 
possession  of  remarkable  literary  faculty.  They  were 


R  E  U  — R  E  U 


489 


certainly  not  written  till  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  and 
they  do  not  go  further  than  the  year  1655.  They  are 
addressed  in  the  form  of  narrative  to  a  lady  who  is  not 
known,  though  guesses  have  been  made  at  her  identity. 
In  the  beginning  there  are  some  gaps.  They  display,  in  a 
rather  irregular  style  and  with  some  oddities  of  dialect 
and  phrase,  extraordinary  narrative  skill  and  a  high  degree 
of  ability  in  that  special  art  of  the  17th  century — the 
drawing  of  verbal  portraits  or  characters.  Few  things 
of  the  kind  are  superior  to  the  sketch  of  the  early  barri- 
cade of  the  Fronde  in  which  the  writer  had  so  great  a 
share,  the  hesitations  of  the  court,  the  bold  adventure 
of  the  coadjutor  himself  into  the  palace,  and  the  final 
triumph  of  the  insurgents.  Dumas,  who  has  drawn 
from  this  passage  one  of  his  very  best  scenes  in  Vingt 
Ans  apres,  has  done  little  but  throw  Retz  into  dialogue 
and  amplify  his  language  and  incidents.  Besides  these 
memoirs  and  the  very  striking  youthful  essay  of  the 
Conjuration  de  Fiesque,  Retz  has  left  diplomatic  papers, 
sermons,  Mazarinades,  and  correspondence  in  some  con- 
siderable quantity. 

The  Memoirs  of  the  Cardinal  de  Retz  were  first  published  in  a 
very  imperfect  condition  in  1717  at  Nancy.  The  first  satisfactory 
edition  was  that  which  appeared  in  the  twenty -fourth  volume  of 
the  collection  of  Michaud  and  Poujoulat  (Paris,  1836).  They  were 
then  re-edited  from  the  autograph  manuscript  by  Geruzez  (Paris, 
1844),  and  by  Champollion-Figeac  with  the  Mazarinades,  &c.  (Paris, 
1859).  In  1870  a  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Retz  was  begun 
by  M.  Feillet  in  the  collection  of  Grands  ficri-vains.  The  editor 
dying,  this  passed  into  the  hands  of  M.  Gourdault  and  then  into 
those  of  M.  Chantelauze,  who  had  already  published  studies  on  the 
connexion  of  St  Vincent  de  Paul  with  the  Gondi  family,  &c.  The 
edition  is  still  incomplete,  and  the  critical  biography  of  Retz  which 
it  may  be  expected  to  contain  is  much  wanted.  (G.  SA. ) 

REUBEN  (13-lsn,  'Povpw  €P<w0tX),  eldest  son  of  Jacob 
and  of  Leah  (Gen.  xxix.  32).  Reuben  plays  no  great  part 
in  the  patriarchal  legend ;  in  the  Elohistic  version  of  the 
story  of  Joseph  he  appears  in  a  somewhat  favourable  light, 
but  in  Gen.  xxxv.  22  he  is  charged  with  a  grave  offence, 
which  in  Gen.  xlix.  4  is  given  as  a  reason  why  the  tribe 
which  called  him  father  did  not  take  in  Hebrew  history  the 
place  proper  to  its  seniority.  The  Reubenites  settled  east 
of  the  Jordan  on  the  Moabite  border.  In  Judges  v.  they 
are  described  as  a  pastoral  tribe  which  took  no  share  in 
the  patriotic  movement  under  Barak  and  Deborah.  The 
Moabites  soon  proved  too  strong  for  them  (comp.  MOAB, 
vol.  xvi.  p.  534)  and  overspread  their  country  (comp.  Isa. 
chap.  xv.  sq.  with  Josh.  xiii.  16  sq.);  in  Deut.  xxxiii.  6  the 
tribe  appears  as  threatened  with  extinction.  Dathan  and 
Abiram  (Num.  xvi. ,  Deut.  xi.  6),  whom  the  earth  swal- 
lowed up  for  rebellion  against  Moses,  were  Reubenites. 
After  this  time  only  the  book  of  Chronicles  has  any- 
thing considerable  to  relate  of  the  tribe  (1  Chron.  v.  1  sq., 
18  sg.). 

REUCHLIN,  JOHN  (1455-1522),  the  first  great  German 
humanist  and  the  restorer  of  Hebrew  and  in  large  measure 
also  of  Greek  letters  among  his  countrymen,  was  born 
February  22,  1455,  at  Pforzheim  in  the  Black  Forest,  where 
his  father  was  intendant  of  the  Dominican  monastery.  In 
the  pedantic  taste  of  his  time  the  name  was  Grsecized  by 
his  Italian  friends  into  Capnion,  a  form  which  Reuchlin 
himself  uses  as  a  sort  of  transparent  mask  when  he 
introduces  himself  as  an  interlocutor  in  the  De  Verbo 
Mirifico.  For  his  native  place  Reuchlin  always  retained 
an  affection  ;  he  constantly  writes  himself  Phorcensis,  and 
in  the  De  Verbo,  when  he  tells  how  he  had  sojourned  at 
Paris  and  almost  all  the  great  schools  of  France  and 
Germany,  as  well  as  at  several  Italian  seats  of  learning 
and  finally  at  Rome,  the  "caput  studiorum,"  he  does  not 
forget  to  ascribe  to  Pforzheim  his  first  disposition  to 
letters.  Here  he  began  his  Latin  studies  in  the  monastery 
school,  and,  though  in  1470  he  was  a  short  time  in  Freiburg, 


that  university  seems  to  have  taught  him  little.  Reuchlin's 
career  as  .a  scholar  appears  to  have  turned  almost  on  an 
accident;  his  fine  voice  gained  him  a  place  in  the 
household  of  the  margrave  of  Baden,  and  by  and  by, 
having  already  some  reputation  as  a  Latinist,  he  was 
chosen  to  accompany  to  the  university  of  Paris  the  third 
son  of  the  prince,  a  lad  some  years  his  junior,  who  was 
destined  for  an  ecclesiastical  career.  This  new  connexion 
lasted  but  a  year  or  so,  but  it  determined  the  course  of 
Reuchlin's  life.  He  now  began  to  learn  Greek,  which  had 
been  taught  in  the  French  capital  since  1470,  and  he  also 
attached  himself  to  the  leader  of  the  Paris  realists,  John 
a  Lapide,  a  really  worthy  and  learned  man,  whom  he 
presently  followed  to  the  vigorous  young  university  of 
Basel  (1474).  At  Basel  Reuchlin  took  his  master's 
degree  (1477),  and  began  to  lecture  with  success,  teaching 
a  more  classical  Latin  than  was  then  common  in  German 
schools,  and  also  explaining  Aristotle  in  Greek.  His 
studies  in  this  language  had  been  continued  at  Basel 
under  Andronicus  Contoblacas,  and  here  too  he  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  the  bookseller  Amorbach,  for  whom  he 
prepared  a  Latin  lexicon  ( Vocabularius  Breviloquus,  1st 
ed.  1475-76),  which  did  good  service  in  its  time  and 
ran  through  many  editions.  This  first  publication  and 
Reuchlin's  account  of  his  teaching  at  Basel  in  a  letter  to 
Cardinal  Hadrian,  February  1518,  show  that  he  had 
already  found  the  work  which  in  a  larger  sphere  occupied 
his  whole  life.  He  was  no  original  genius,  but  a  born 
teacher.  He  had  neither  brilliant  literary  power  like 
Erasmus  nor  epoch-making  ideas  like  Luther,  but  he  was 
the  great  master  of  all  Germany,  guiding  his  countrymen 
to  sound  learning,  first  in  Latin  and  then  in  Greek  and  in 
Hebrew.  But  this  work  of  teaching  was  not  to  be  done 
mainly  from  the  professor's  chair.  Reuchlin  soon  left 
Basel  to  seek  further  Greek  training  with  George 
Hieronymus  at  Paris,  and  learn  to  write  a  fair  Greek  hand 
that  he  might  support  himself  by  copying  MSS.  And 
now  he  felt  that  he  must  choose  a  profession.  His  choice 
fell  on  law,  and  he  was  thus  led  to  the  great  school  of 
Orleans  (1478),  and  finally  to  Poitiers,  where  he  became 
licentiate  in  July  1481,  and  so  could  look  forward  to 
honourable  office  in  his  native  country,  where  he  could 
pursue  his  scholarly  tastes  in  an  independent  position. 
From  Poitiers  Reuchlin  came  in  December  1481  to 
Tiibingen.  There  he  found  friends  to  recommend  him  to 
Count  Eberhard  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  was  about  to 
journey  to  Italy  and  required  an  interpreter.  Reuchlin 
was  selected,  and  in  February  1482  left  Stuttgart  for 
Florence  and  Rome.  The  journey  lasted  but  a  few 
months,  but  it  brought  the  German  scholar  into  contact 
with  several  learned  Italians,  and  his  connexion  with  the 
count  became  permanent.  On  his  return  to  Stuttgart  he 
was  named  Geheimrath,  and  soon  after  he  became  doctor 
of  laws  and  assessor  in  the  high  court.  About  this  time 
he  appears  to  have  married,  but  little  is  known  of  hit; 
married  life.  He  left  no  children ;  but  in  later  years  his 
sister's  grandson  Melanchthon  was  almost  as  a  son  to  him 
till  the  Reformation  estranged  them.  Reuchlin's  life  at 
Stuttgart  was  often  broken  by  important  missions,  and  in 
1490  he  was  again  in  Italy.  Here  he  saw  Pico,  to  whose 
Cabbalistic  doctrines  he  afterwards  became  heir,  and  also 
made  the  friendship  of  the  pope's  privy  secretary, 
Questemberg,  which  was  of  service  to  him  in  his  later 
troubles.  Again  in  1492  he  was  employed  on  an  embassy 
to  the  emperor  at  Linz,  and  here  he  began  to  read  Hebrew 
with  the  kaiser's  Jewish  physician  Loans.  He  knew 
something  of  this  language  before,  but  Loans's  instruction 
laid  the  basis  of  that  thorough  knowledge  which  he 
afterwards  improved  on  his  third  visit  to  Rome  in  1498  by 
the  instruction  of  Obadiah  Sforno  of  Ceseno.. 

XX.  —  62 


490 


KEUCHLIN 


In  1496  Count  Eberhard  died,  and  enemies  of  Reuchlin 
had  the  ear  of  the  new  prince.  He  was  glad  therefore 
hastily  to  follow  the  invitation  of  John  of  Dalburg  the 
scholarly  bishop  of  Worms,  and  flee  to  Heidelberg,  which 
was  then  the  seat  of  the  "  Rhenish  Society,"  a  lively  and 
active  circle  of  humanists  under  Dalburg's  presidency, 
equally  zealous  in  the  service  of  Apollo  and  Bacchus.  In 
this  court  of  letters  Reuchlin's  appointed  function  was  to 
make  translations  from  the  Greek  authors,  in  which  his 
reading  was  already  extremely  wide.  Many  of  these 
versions  were  never  printed,  but  a  considerable  number  of 
pieces  Avere  given  to  the  press  at  intervals  down  to  the 
year  1519,  and  formed  an  important  element  in  his  efforts 
to  spread  a  knowledge  of  Greek.  For,  though  Reuchlin 
had  no  public  office  as  teacher,  and  even  at  Heidelberg 
was  prevented  from  lecturing  openly,  he  was  during  a 
great  part  of  his  life  the  real  centre  of  all  Greek  teach- 
ing as  well  as  of  all  Hebrew  teaching  in  Germany.  No 
young  man  of  promise  who  came  to  him  for  help  was 
rejected ;  he  taught  many  and  found  teachers  for  others, 
or  gave  direction  and  solution  of  difficulties  to  more 
advanced  scholars.  Thus  he  was  a  sort  of  unofficial 
general  director  of  the  studies  of  Germany,  and  to  carry 
out  this  work  he  found  it  necessary  to  provide  a  series 
of  helps  for  beginners  and  others.  He  never  published 
a  Greek  grammar,  though  he  had  one  in  MS.  for  use 
with  his  pupils,  but  he  put  out  several  little  elemen- 
tary Greek  books ;  and  these  with  the  series  of  transla- 
tions were  in  fact  the  text  books  of  the  German  youth. 
Reuchlin,  it  may  be  noted,  pronounced  Greek  as  his  native 
teachers  had  taught  him  to  do,  i.e.,  in  the  modern  Greek 
fashion.  This  pronunciation,  which  he  defends  in  Dia- 
logus  de  Recta  Lot.  Grzecique  Serm.  Pron.,  1519,  came  to 
be  known,  in  contrast  to  that  used  by  Erasmus,  as  the 
Reuchlinian. 

At  Heidelberg  Reuchlin  had  many  private  pupils, 
among  whom  Franz  von  Sickingen  is  the  best  known 
name ;  and  all  his  relations,  except  with  the  monks  who 
stopped  his  attempt  to  lecture  on  Hebrew,  were  very 
pleasant.  With  the  monks  he  had  never  been  well;  at 
Stuttgart  also  his  great  enemy  was  the  Augustinian 
Holzinger.  On  this  man  he  took  a  scholar's  revenge  in 
his  first  Latin  comedy  Sergius,  a  satire  on  worthless  monks 
and  false  relics  which  his  young  Heidelberg  friends  were 
eager  to  act.  But,  Dalburg  thinking  this  unsafe,  he 
wrote  for  them  a  new  piece,  Scenica  Progymnasmata  or 
Hennot  based  on  the  old  French  play  of  Maitre  Pathelin, 
which  is  not  without  humour  and  sparkle  of  language,  and 
much  better  constructed  than  the  French  piece. 

Through  Dalburg,  Reuchlin  came  into  contact  with 
Philip  of  the  Pfalz,  who  employed  him  to  direct  his  son's 
studies,  and  in  1498  gave  him  the  mission  to  Rome 
which  has  been  already  noticed  as  fruitful  for  Reuchlin's 
progress  in  Hebrew.  He  came  back  laden  with  Hebrew 
books,  and  found  when  he  reached  Heidelberg  that  a 
change  of  Government  had  opened  the  way  for  his  return 
to  Stuttgart.  His  wife  had  remained  there  all  along ;  so 
that  we  may  assume  that  he  never  looked  on  his  exile 
as  more  than  temporary.  His  friends  were  the  party  of 
order  and  good  government,  who  could  not  long  remain 
powerless.  They  had  now  again  the  upper  hand,  and 
knew  Reuchlin's  value.  In  1500,  or  perhaps  in  1502,  he 
was  named  "triumvir  of  Swabia,"  a  very  high  judicial 
office  in  the  Swabian  League,  which  he  held  till  1512,  when 
he  retired  to  a  small  estate  near  Stuttgart.  By  this  time 
the  long  conflict  which  gives  Reuchlin's  life  its  chief 
interest  had  already  begun. 

For  many  years  Reuchlin  had  been  increasingly 
absorbed  in  Hebrew  studies,  which  had  for  him  more  than 
a  mere  philological  interest.  Though  he  was  always  a 


good  Catholic,  and  even  took  the  habit  of  an  Augustinian 
monk  when  he  felt  that  his  death  was  near,  he  was  too 
thorough  a  humanist  to  be  a  blind  Catholic.  He  knew 
the  abuses  of  monkish  religion,  and  was  interested  in  the 
reform  of  preaching  (De  Arte  Predicandi,  1503 — a  book 
which  became  a  sort  of  preacher's  manual) ;  but  above  all 
as  a  scholar  he  was  eager  that  the  Bible  should  be  better 
known,  and  could  not  tie  himself  to  the  authority  of  the 
Vulgate.  To  him  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  meant 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  this  he  was  determined  to  study 
with  an  independent  love  for  truth  :  "  I  honour  St  Jerome 
as  an  angel;  I  value  Lira  as  a  master;  but  I  worship 
truth  as  my  God."  The  key  to  the  Hebrew  veritas  was 
the  grammatical  and  exegetical  tradition  of  the  mediaeval 
rabbins,  especially  of  Kimhi,  and  when  he  had  mastered 
this  himself  he  was  resolved  to  open  it  to  others.  In 
1506  appeared  his  Rudimenta  Hebraica — grammar  and 
lexicon — mainly  after  Kimhi,  yet  not  a  mere  copy  of  one 
man's  teaching.  The  edition  was  costly  and  sold  slowly. 
In  1510  he  was  glad  to  offer  Amorbach  seven  hundred 
and  fifty  copies  at  the  reduced  price  of  a  florin  for  three 
copies.  Even  then  Amorbach  could  hardly  find  purchasers, 
but  Reuchlin  bade  him  be  patient,  "  for  if  I  live  Hebrew 
must  with  God's  help  come  to  the  front."  One  great 
difficulty  was  that  the  wars  of  Maximilian  in  Italy  pre- 
vented Hebrew  Bibles  coming  into  Germany.  But  for 
this  also  Reuchlin  found  help  by  printing  the  Penitential 
Psalms  with  grammatical  explanations  (1512),  and  other 
helps  followed  from  time  to  time.  But  Reuchlin  had 
yet  another  interest  in  Hebrew  letters.  His  Greek  studies 
had  interested  him  in  philosophy,  and  not  least  in  those 
fantastical  and  mystical  systems  of  later  times  with  which 
the  Cabbala  has  no  small  affinity.  Following  Pico,  he 
seemed  to  find  in  the  Cabbala  a  profound  theosophy 
which  might  be  of  the  greatest  service  for  the  defence  of 
Christianity  and  the  reconciliation  of  science  with  the 
mysteries  of  faith — an  unhappy  delusion  indeed,  but  one 
not  surprising  in  that  strange  time  of  ferment,  when  the 
old  and  the  new  intellectual  life  had  not  yet  clearly  dis- 
criminated themselves,  and  when  men  of  progress  sought 
less  to  free  themselves  from  mere  tradition  than  to  find 
an  ancient  tradition  of  truth  which  had  been  lost  in  the 
darkness  of  mediaeval  ignorance.  Reuchlin's  mystico- 
cabbalistic  ideas  and  objects  were  expounded  in  the 
De  Verbo  Mirifico,  1494,  and  finally  in  the  De  Arte  Cabba- 
listica,  1517.  We  see  therefore  that  not  only  the  philo- 
logical tradition  but  the  most  esoteric  wisdom  of  the 
rabbins  was  in  his  eyes  of  the  greatest  value. 

Unhappily  many  of  his  contemporaries  held  other  views, 
and  thought  that  the  first  step  to  the  conversion  of  the 
Jews  was  to  conquer  their  obstinacy  by  taking  from  them 
their  books.  This  view  had  for  its  chief  advocate  the 
bigoted  John  Pfefferkorn,  himself  a  baptized  Hebrew. 
Pfefferkorn's  plans  were  backed  by  the  Dominicans  of 
Cologne;  and  in  1509  he  got  from  the  emperor  authority 
to  confiscate  all  Jewish  books  directed  against  the  Christian 
faith.  Armed  with  this  mandate,  he  visited  Stuttgart 
and  asked  Reuchlin's  help  as  a  jurist  and  expert  in  putting 
it  into  execution.  Reuchlin  evaded  this  demand,  mainly 
because  the  mandate  lacked  certain  formalities,  but  he 
could  not  long  remain  neutral.  The  execution  of  Pfeffer- 
korn's  schemes  led  to  difficulties  and  to  a  new  appeal  to 
Maximilian.  It  was  resolved  to  call  in  the  opinion  of 
experts,  and  in  1510  Reuchlin  was  summoned  in  the  name 
of  the  emperor  to  give  his  formal  opinion  on  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Jewish  books.  His  answer  is  dated  from 
Stuttgart,  November  6,  1510  ;  in  it  he  divides  the  books 
into  six  classes — apart  from  the  Bible  which  no  one  pro- 
posed to  destroy — and,  going  through  each  class,  he  shows 
that  the  books  openly  insulting  to  Christianity  are  very 


R  E  U  —  R  E  U 


491 


few  and  viewed  as  worthless  by  most  Jews  themselves, 
while  the  others  are  either  works  necessary  to  the  Jewish 
worship,  which  was  licensed  by  papal  as  well  as  imperial 
law,  or  contain  matter  of  value  and  scholarly  interest 
which  ought  not  to  be  sacrificed  because  they  are  con- 
nected with  another  faith  than  that  of  the  Christians. 
Instead  of  destroying  a  whole  literature,  which  was  what 
Pfefferkoru  proposed,  he  proposed  that  the  emperor  should 
decree  that  for  ten  years  there  be  two  Hebrew  chairs 
at  every  German  university  for  which  the  Jews  should 
furnish  books.  The  other  experts  and  all  the  universities 
consulted,  except  Heidelberg,  proposed  that  all  books 
except  Bibles  should  be  taken  from  the  Jews  to  be  investi- 
gated by  a  commission  ;  and,  as  the  emperor  still  hesitated, 
the  bigots  threw  on  Reuchlin  the  whole  blame  of  their 
ill  success.  Pfefferkorn  circulated  at  the  Frankfort  fair 
of  1511  a  gross  libel  (the  Handspiegel}  declaring  that 
Reuchlin  had  been  bribed;  and  Reuchlin,  burning  with 
the  indigation  of  a  man  of  unsullied  integrity,  retorted  as 
warmly  in  the  Augensjrieyel  (1511).  His  adversary's  next 
move  was  to  declare  the  Auc/enspiegel  a  dangerous  book ; 
the  Cologne  faculty,  with  their  clean  the  grand  inquisitor 
Hochstraten,  took  up  this  cry,  and,  encouraged  perhaps  by 
some  signs  of  timidity  in  letters  from  Reuchlin  to  two  of 
the  Cologne  theologians,  they  called  on  him  to  recant  not 
a  few  dangerous  utterances  and  misapplications  of  Scripture. 
Reuchlin  was  timid,  but  he  was  honesty  itself.  He  was 
willing  to  receive  corrections  in  theology,  which  was  not 
his  subject,  but  he  could  not  unsay  what  he  had  said  ;  and 
as  his  enemies  tried  to  press  him  into  a  corner  he  at 
length  turned  and  met  them  with  open  defiance  in  a 
Defensio  contra  Calumniatores,  1513.  The  universities 
were  now  appealed  to  for  opinions,  and  were  all  against 
Reuchlin.  Even  Paris  (August  1514)  condemned  the 
Augenspiegel,  and  called  on  Reuchlin  to  recant.  Meantime 
a  formal  process  had  begun  at  Mainz  before  the  grand 
inquisitor,  but  Reuchlin  by  an  appeal  succeeded  in  trans- 
ferring the  question  to  Rome.  It  is  needless  to  follow 
the  long  windings  of  ecclesiastical  process ;  judgment 
was  not  finally  given  till  July  1516  ;  and  then,  though  the 
decision  was  really  for  Reuchlin,  the  trial  was  simply 
quashed.  The  result  had  cost  Reuchlin  years  of  trouble 
and  no  small  part  of  his  modest  fortune,  but  it  was  worth 
the  sacrifice.  For  far  above  the  direct  importance  of  the 
issue  was  the  great  stirring  of  public  opinion  which  had 
gone  forward.  All  who  loved  learning  and  progress  were 
banded  together  as  they  had  never  been  before  against 
the  bigots  and  the  stupid  universities ;  and  all  humanists 
felt  that  the  victory  was  theirs.  And  if  the  obscurantists 
escaped  easily  at  Rome,  with  only  a  half  condemnation, 
they  received  a  crushing  blow  in  Germany.  No  party 
could  survive  the  ridicule  that  Avas  poured  on  them  in  the 
Epistolse,  Obscurorum  Virorum.  Reuchlin  did  not  long  enjoy 
his  victory  in  peace.  In  1519  Stuttgart  was  visited  by 
famine,  civil  war,  and  pestilence.  FrOm  November  of  this 
year  to  the  spring  of  1521  the  veteran  statesman,  whom  the 
universal  respect  felt  for  his  scholarship  could  not  secure 
against  the  dangers  involved  in  his  political  relations, 
sought  refuge  in  Ingolstadt  and  taught  there  for  a,  year 
as  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew.  It  was  forty-one 
years  since  at  Poitiers  he  had  last  spoken  from  a  public 
chair;  but  the  old  man  of  sixty-five  had  not  lost  his  gift 
of  teaching,  and  hundreds  of  scholars  crowded  round  him. 
This  gleam  of  autumn  sunshine  was  again  broken  by  the 
plague ;  but  now  he  was  called  to  Tubingen  and  again 
spent  the  winter  of  1521-22  teaching  in  his  own  system- 
atic solid  way.  But  he  was  now  in  shaken  health ;  in  the 
spring  he  found  it  necessary  to  visit  the  baths  of  Liebenzell, 
and  here  he  was  seized  with  jaundice,  of  which  he  died 
30th  June  1522,  leaving  in  the  history  of  the  new  learning 


a  name  only  second  to  that  of  his  younger  contemporary 
Erasmus. 

The  authorities  for  Reuchlin's  life  are  enumerated  in  L.  Geiger, 
Johann  lieuchlin,  1871,  which  is  the  standard  biography.  The 
controversy  about  the  books  of  the  Jews  is  well  sketched  by  Strauss, 
Ulrich  von  Hutten.  Some  interesting  details  about  Eeuchlin  are 
given  in  the  autobiography  of  PELLICANUS  (q.v.),  which  was  not 
published  when  Geiger's  book  appeared.  (W.  R.  S.) 

REUNION,  formerly  BOURBON,  an  island  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  belonging  to  France  and  considered  one  of  her 
more  important  colonies.  St  Denis,  the  capital,  stands  on 
the  north  side  in  20°  51'  S.  lat.  and  53°  9'  E.  long.  Physi- 
cally it  may  be  described  as  the  southmost  subaerial  summit 
of  the  great  submarine  ridge  which,  running  north-east 
by  Mauritius,  Albatross  Island,  &c.,  and  curving  round 
by  the  Seychelles,  connects  with  the  platform  of  Mada- 
gascar at  its  north-eastern  extremity.  The  great  submarine 
valley  which  is  thus  enclosed  between  Madagascar  and  the 
Mascarene-Seychelles  ridge  has  a  depth  of  from  2000  to 
2400  fathoms.  In  a  straight  line  Reunion  lies  115  miles 
from  the  east  coast  of  Madagascar ;  and  Mauritius,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  optic  signalling  since  1882,  is 
115  miles  to  the  north-east.  The  island  has  an  area  of 
721,314  acres  or  1127  square  miles.  It  is  usual  to  regard 
it  as  divided  into  a  windward  and  a  leeward  district  by 
a  line,  practically  the  watershed,  running  in  the  direction 
of  the  greater  axis.  The  whole  island  is  the  result  of  a 


Island  of  Reunion. 

double  volcanic  action.  First  there  arose  from  the  sea 
a  mountain  whose  summit  is  approximately  represented 
by  Piton  des  Neiges  (10,069  feet),  and  at  a  later  date 
another  crater  opened  towards  the  east,  which,  piling  up 
the  mountain  mass  of  Le  Volcan,  turned  what  was  till  then 
a  circle  into  an  ellipse  44  miles  by  3-1.  In  the  older 
upheaval  the  most  striking  features  are  now  three  areas  of 
subsidence — the  cirques  of  Salazie,  Riviere  des  Galets,  and 
Cilaos — which  lie  north-west  and  south  of  the  Piton  des 
Neiges  and  form  the  gathering  grounds  respectively  of  the 
Riviere  du  Mat,  the  Riviere  des  Galets,  and  the  Riviere  de 
St  Etienne.  The  first,  which  may  be  taken  as  typical,  is 
surrounded  by  high  almost  perpendicular  walls  of  basaltic 
lava,  and  its  surface  is  rendered  irregular  by  hills  and 
hillocks  of  debris  fallen  from  the  heights.  Towards  the  south 
lies  the  vast  stratum  of  rocks  (150  to  200  feet  deep)  which, 
on  the  26th  November  1875,  suddenly  sweeping  down  from 
the  Piton  des  Neiges  and  the  Gros  Morne,  buried  the  little 
village  of  Grand  Sable  and  nearly  a  hundred  of  its  in- 
habitants. A  considerable  piece  of  ground,  with  its  trees, 


492 


REUNION 


crops,  and  houses  practically  intact,  along  with  the  pro- 
prietor, who  was  seated  at  his  own  door,  was  carried 
a  distance  of  nearly  1£  miles.  Along  the  whole  eastern 
side  of  the  cirque  between  the  village  of  Salazie  and 
Hellbourg  is  a  series  of  waterfalls  issuing  at  a  great 
height  from  above  a  vast  bank  of  lava.  They  are  probably 
the  overflow  of  a  subterranean  basin  connected,  it  may  be, 
with  the  sources,  on  the  other  side  of  the  wall,  of  the  Riviere 
du  Bras  de  Caverne.  At  the  source  of  the  Riviere  du 
Mat,  which  escapes  from  the  cirque  by  a  narrow  and 
precipitous  gorge,  is  a  magnificent  sheaf  of  basaltic 
columns  boldly  curving  out  over  the  bed  of  the  torrent. 
Having  climbed  up  the  eastern  side  of  the  cirque,  the 
traveller  reaches  the  well-wooded  plain  of  the  Sakzes ; 
farther  east,  and  separated  from  it  by  ridges  of  rock  is  the 
Plaine  des  Caff  res  at  a  height  of  5250  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  by  a  descent  of  1500  feet  this  dips  north-eastward 
into  the  Plaine  des  Palmistes.  The  eastern  summit  or 
Piton  de  Fournaise  is  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  island  by 
two  curious  enclosures,  each  about  500  or  600  feet  deep. 
The  traveller  approaching  the  present  craters  from  the 
west  has  consequently  to  descend  upwards  of  1000  feet 
by  two  abrupt  stages  before  he  begins  the  ascent  of  the 
cones.  •  The  outer  "  enclosure  "  runs  across  the  island  in 
a-  north  and  south  direction  ;  but  the  inner  forms  a  rude 
kind  of  parabola  with  its  arms  (Rempart  du  Tremblet  on 
the  south  and  Rempart  du  Bois  Blanc  on  the  north) 
stretching  eastwards  to  the  sea  and  embracing  not  only 
the  volcano  proper  but  also  the  great  eastward  slope  known 
as  the  Grand  Brule.  There  are  two  principal  craters, 
each  on  an  elevated  cone, — the  more  westerly,  now  extinct, 
known  as  the  Bory  Crater  after  Bory  de  St  Vincent,  the 
eminent  geologist,  and  the  more  easterly,  simply  called  the 
Burning  Crater  or  Fournaise.  The  latter  is  partially 
surrounded  by  an  "  enclosure "  on  a  small  scale  with 
precipices  200  feet  high.  Eruptions,  though  not  in- 
frequent (thirty  were  registered  between  1735  and  1860) 
are  seldom  serious;  the  more  noteworthy  are  those  of 
1745,  1778,  1791,  1812,  1860,  1870,  1881.  Basaltic  or 
vitreous  lavas  rich  in  chrysolite  are  the  usual  products,  and 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  conceive  of  a  discharge  sufficient  in 
volume  to  overflow  the  "  ramparts  "  and  carry  destruction 
to  the  rest  of  the  island.1  Besides  the  Piton  des  Neiges 
(10,069  feet  high),  the  Bory  Peak  (8612  feet),  and  the  Burn- 
ing Peak  (8294),  the  principal  summits  in  Reunion  are  the 
Grand  Benard  (9490),  Morne  L' Angevin  (7845),  and  Cim- 
andef  (7300).  The  streams  which  radiate  out  in  all  direc- 
tions from  the  central  highlands  are  for  the  most  part  com- 
paratively small  except  during  the  rainy  season,  when  they 
become  impetuous  and  destructive  torrents.  Hot  mineral 
springs  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  island :  the  Source 
de  Salazie  (discovered  in  1831)  lies  2860  feet  above  sea- 
level,  has  a  temperature  of  90°,  and  discharges  200  to  220 
gallons  per  hour  of  water  impregnated  with  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  and  carbonates  of  magnesium  and  lime,  iron,  <fcc. ; 
that  of  Cilaos  (discovered  in  1826)  is  3650  feet  above  the 
sea  with  a  temperature  of  100° ;  and  that  of  Mafate  2238 
feet  and  87°.  At  the  first  there  are  a  military  hospital 
and  a  group  of  dwelling  houses  and  villas. 

Vertically  Reunion  may  be  divided  into  five  zones.  The 
first  or  maritime  zone  contains  all  the  towns  and  most  of  the 
villages,  built  on  the  limited  areas  of  level  alluvium  occurring 
at  intervals  round  the  coast  (128  miles).  In  the  second, 
which  lies  between  2600  and  4000  feet,  the  sugar  planta- 


1  The  geology  and  volcanoes  of  Reunion  were  the  object  of  elaborate 
study  by  Bory  de  St  Vincent  in  1801  and  1802  (Voyages  dans  Us 
quatre  principals  iles  des  Alers  d'Afrique,  Paris,  1804),  and  have 
recently  been  examined  by  Drasche  (see  Bericht  K.  -K.  Geol.  Reich- 
sanstalt,  Vienna,  1875-76)  and  Velain  (thesis  presented  to  the  Faculto 
des  Sciences,  Paris,  1878). 


tions  make  a  green  belt  round  the  island  and  country  houi 
abound.     The  third  zone  is  that  of  the  forests  ;  the  fourth 
that  of  the  plateaus,  where  European  vegetables  can  be 
cultivated;  and   above   this   extends   the   region   of   the 
mountains,  which  occupies  more  space  than  any  of  the  others. 

The  following  statements  in  regard  to  climate  refer  more  particu- 
larly  to  the  lower  zones.  The  year  divides  into  two  seasons — that 
of  heat  and  rain  from  November  to  April,  that  of  dry  and  more 
bracing  weather  from  May  to  October. 

According  to  observations  taken  at  St  Denis  between  1863  nnd 
1870,  and  reduced  to  sea-level,  the  mean  monthly  temperature 
varies  as  follows : — January,  80°'36  ;  February,  80°'36  ;  March 
80°'12;  April,  78°'62  ;  May,  75°'30  ;  June,  72°'53;  July,  7l°'22  ; 
August,  70°'59  ;  September,  71°'6;  October,  73°'43  ;  November, 
76°'62 ;  December,  78°'92  ;  and  the  rainfall  was  distributed  thus  : — 
January,  8'2  inches;  February,  10 '9  ;  March,  517;  April,  478; 
May  2'9  ;  June,  6'1  ;  July,  0'27  ;  August,  17  ;  September,  0'80  ; 
October,  1'67;  November,  3'09  ;  December,  5'25 ;  making  an 
annual  average  of  45 '57  inches,  falling  in  797  days.  The  prevailing 
winds  are  from  the  south-east,  sometimes  veering  round  to  the 
south,  and  more  frequently  to  the  north-cast ;  the  west  winds  are 
not  so  steady  (three  hundred  and  seven  days  of  east  to  fifty-eight  of 
west  in  the  course  of  the  year).  It  is  seldom  calm 'during  the  day, 
but  there  is  usually  a  period  of  complete  repose  before  the  land  wind 
begins  in  the  evening.  Several  years  sometimes  pass  without  a 
cyclone  visiting  the  island  ;  at  other  times  they  occur  more  than 
once  in  a  single  "winter."  From  April  till  October  there  is  little 
fear  of  them.  That  of  March  1879  was  particularly  destructive. 
The  raz  de  inaree  occasionally  does  great  damage.  On  the  leeward 
side  of  the  island  the  temperature  is  higher  than  at  St  Denis.  The 
winds  are  generally  from  the  west  and  south-west,  and  bring  little 
rain.  Mist  hangs  almost  all  day  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains, 
but  usually  clears  off  at  night.  The  mean  annual  temperature  at 
Salazie  is  66°  and  at  the  Plaine  des  Palmistes  61°7. 

The  fauna  of  Reunion  is  not  very  rich  in  variety  of  species  ;  it  Anima 
lies  midway  between  the  Indian  and  the  African  type.  The  mam- 
mals are  a  brown  maki  (Lemur  mongoz,  Linn.)  from  Madagascar, 
Pteropus  cdicardsii  now  nearly  extinct,  several  bats,  a  wild  cat,  the 
tang  or  tamec  (Centctcs  setosus,  Demi.),  several  rats,  the  hare,  and 
the  goat.  Among  the  more  familiar  birds  are  the  "  oiseau  de  la 
vierge "  (Muscipeta  borboitica),  the  tee-tec  (Pratincola  sybilla), 
Certhia  borbonica,  the  cardinal  (Foudia  madagascariensis),  various 
swallows,  ducks,  &c.  The  visitants  from  Madagascar,  Mauritius, 
and  even  India,  are  very  numerous.  Lizards  and  frogs  of  more  than 
one  species  are  common,  but  there  is  only  one  snake  known  in  the 
island.  Various  species  of  Gobius,  a  native  species  of  mullet,  Ncstis 
cyprinoides,  Osplironamus  olfax,  and  Doules  rupestris  are  among 
the  freshwater  fishes. 

In  the  forest  region  of  the  island  there  is  a  belt,  4500-5000  feet  Veget 
above  the  sea,  characterized  by  the  prevalence  of  Bambusa  alpina  ;  tion. 
and  above  that  is  a  similar  belt  of  Accwia  hcterophylla.  Besides 
this  last  the  best  timber-trees  are  Casuarina  lalerifolia,  Fcetida 
mauritiana,  Imbricaria  pctiolaris,  Elseodendron  orientalc,  Calo- 
phyllum  spurium  (red  tacamahac),  Terminalia  borbonica,  Parkin 
spcciosa.  The  gardens  of  the  coast  districts  display  a  marvellous 
wealth  of  flowers  and  shrubs,  partly  indigenous  and  largely  gathered 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Fruits  grown  in  the  island  arc — tho 
banana,  the  cocoa-nut,  bread-fruit,  and  jack-fruit,  the  bilimbi,  the 
carambola,  the  guava,  the  litchi,  the  Japanese  medlar,  the  mango- 
steen,  the  tamarind,  the  Abdmoschus  csculentus,  the  chirimoya, 
the  papaya,  &c. 

Sugar,  introduced  in  1711  by  Pierre  Parat,  is  now  the  staple  crop  In- 
in  Reunion,  a  greater  proportion  of  the  soil  being  devoted  to  it  tlustr 
than  to  all  other  objects  of  cultivation.  The  methods  employed 
in  growing  and  manufacturing  are  not  up  to  the  Mauritius  standard, 
and  since  1878  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera  have  ruined  many 
of  the  plantations.  In  the  18th  century  the  first  place  belonged 
to  coffee  (introduced  from  Arabia  in  1715)  and  to  the  clove  tree, 
brought  from  the  Dutch  Indies  by  Poivrc  at  the  risk  of  his  life. 
Both  are  now  cultivated  on  a  very  limited  scale.  Vanilla,  intro- 
duced in  1818,  though  it  occupies  only  about  1500  acres,  some- 
times produces  a  crop  worth  from  £40,000  to  £65,000.  The 
average  produce  of  the  sugar  crop  in  the  five  years  1873-77  was 
35,493  tons  of  sugar  with  777,710  gallons  of  syrup  and  treacle; 
from  1878  to  1883  the  averages  were  35,580  tons  (40,176  in  1883) 
and  816,455  gallons.  Rum  is  largely  distilled,  and  is  the  favourite 
drink  of  all  classes. 

While  potatoes,  beans,  manioc,  sweet  potatoes,  and  yams  of  Imp' 
local  growth  furnish  a  considerable  amount  of  food,  the  far  more 
important  article  rice  has  to  be  imported  from  India  and  Madagascar. 
India  also  sends  castor-oil,  wheat,  and  lard  ;  Australia,  flour  and 
wheat ;  England,  coals ;  the  Cape  and  Muscat,  salt  fish  ;  Buenos 
Ayres  and  Montevideo,  mules  and  horses ;  the  United  States 
petroleum  (largely  used  throughout  the  island),  lard,  pork,  and 
pitch-pine. 


i 


R  E  U  — R  E  U 


493 


The  complete  absence  of  natural  harbours  has  all  along  been 
a  great  hindrance  to  the  commercial  development  of  Reunion. 
"Whenever  a  storm  is  observed  to  be  brewing  an  alarm  gun  is  fired, 
and  the  vessels  in  the  roadsteads  make  off  from  the  dangerous 
coast.  Since  1848  an  artificial  harbour  capable  of  containing  forty 
vessels  has  been  constructed  at  Pointc  des  Galets  at  the  north- 
west corner  of  the  island.  The  port  is  connected  by  rail  with  La 
Possession  on  the  one  hand  and  with  the  Riviere  des  Galets  on  the 
other,  and  thus  communicates  with  the  railway  which  was  com- 
pleted in  1881  round  the  coast  from  St  Pierre,  by  S"t  Paul,  St  Denis, 
&c.,  to  St  Benoit,  a  distance  of  83^  miles.  This  line  is  carried 
through  a  tunnel  nearly  6^  miles  long  between  La  Possession  and 
St  Denis. 

The  windward  arrondissement  or  division  of  Reunion  comprises 
the  eight  communes  of  St  Denis,  Ste  Marie,  Ste  Suzanne,  St  Andre, 
St  Benoit,  Salazie,  Ste  Rose,  and  Plaine  des  Palmistes  ;  and  the 
leeward  division  the  six  communes  of  St  Paul,  St  Leu,  St  Louis, 
St  Pierre,  St  Joseph,  and  St  Philippe.  St  Denis,  the  capital  of 
the  island,  lies  on  the  north  coast.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  an 
amphitheatre  and  presents  a  most  attractive  appearance  from  the 
sea.  Covering  as  a  commune  an  area  of  37,065  acres,  it  has  a 
population  of  30,835  according  to  the  census  of  1881,  an  increase 
of  18,000  since  1837.  It  has  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water. 
Though  the  harbour  is  only  an  open  roadstead,  it  has  hitherto 
been  the  most  frequented  in  the  island.  St  Pierre,  the  chief  town 
of  the  leeward  arrondissement,  has  a  communal  area  of  98,190  acres 
and  a  population  of  27,748.  Its  artificial  harbour,  commenced  in 
1854  but  afterwards  interrupted,  and  resumed  in  1881,  has  room 
for  five  or  six  vessels  besides  coasting  craft. 

The  population  was  185,179  in  1872,  183,529  in  1878,  and 
170,734  in  1882.  The  males  are  largely  in  excess  of  the  females 
(97,961  to  72,773  in  1882),  owing  to  the  number  of  agricultural 
labourers  introduced  from  abroad  for  a  term  of  years.  Among  the 
whites  born  on  the  island  an  infusion  of  alien  blood  is  so  com- 
mon that  in  Mauritius  the  phrase  Bourbon  white  is  applied  to 
linen  of  doubtful  cleanness ;  the  original  settlers  frequently  married 
Malagasy  wives.  The  name  Petits  Blancs  is  in  Reunion  given  to 
a  class  of  small  farmers  who  lead  an  independent  kind  of  life  in  the 
upper  districts,  supporting  themselves  by  their  garden-plots  and 
hunting.  By  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  the  number  of 
Negro  slaves  in  the  island  was  64,000,  four  times  that  of  their 
masters  ;  they  were  all  (to  the  number  of  20,000)  emancipated  in 
1848,  and  have  gradually  acquired  a  large  measure  of  social  equality 
with  the  Creoles.  Various  elements  have  been  added  to  the  popu- 
lation since  the  middle  of  the  century — -coolies  from  India  in  large 
numbers,  Africans  from  the  east  coast,  Chinese  and  Anamites, 
Malays,  &c.  The  immigration  of  the  Indian  coolies  is  controlled 
by  a  convention  between  the  British  and  French  Governments  of 
date  July  1,  1881. 

Reunion  is  usually  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  in  April 
1513  by  Mascarenhas,  whose  name  is  still  applied  to  the  archipelago 
of  which  it  forms  a  part ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  it  must  be 
identified  with  the  island  of  Santa  Apollonia  discovered  by  Diego 
Fernandas  Pereira  on  February  9,  1507.  When  in  1638  the  island 
was  taken  possession  of  by  Captain  Gaubert  or  Gobert  of  Dieppe,  it 
was  still  uninhabited  ;  a  more  formal  annexation  in  the  name  of 
Louis  XIII.  was  effected  in  1643  by  Pronis,  agent  of  the  "Compagnie 
des  Indes"  in  Madagascar ;  and  in  1649  Flacourt,  Pronis's  more  emi- 
nent successor,  repeated  the  ceremony  at  La  Possession,  and  changed 
the  name  from  Mascarenhas  to  Bourbon.  By  decree  of  the  Con- 
vention in  1793,  Bourbon  in  turn  gave  place  to  Reunion,  and, 
though  during  the  empire  this  was  discarded  in  favour  of  lie 
Bonaparte,  and  at  the  Restoration  people  naturally  went  back  to 
Bourbon,  it  has  remained  the  official  designation  since  1848. 
Between  July  8,  1810,  and  April  6,  1815,  the  island  was  in  the 
possession  of  England.  It  is  now  practically  almost  a  department 
of  France,  sends  a  representative  to  the  chamber  of  deputies,  is 
governed  by  means  of  laws  and  not  of  decrees,  and  possesses  a 
council-general  and  municipal  councils  elected  by  universal  suf- 
frage. In  the  general  budget  for  1881  the  expenditure  amounted 
to  6,866,272  francs,  including  1,916,143  contributed  by  the  home 
Government;  in  1883  the  total  was  7,468,426,  iipwardsof  3,420,000 
being  for  communal  expenses. 

See,  besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Demanet,  Nouv.  hist,  de  I'Afrique 
franjaise,  1767;  Thomas,  Essai  de  statistic/tie  de  Vile  Bourbon,  1828;  Dejean  de 
la  Batie,  Notice  sur  We  Bourbon,  1847  ;  J.  Mauran,  Impressions  dans  un  wy.  de 
Paris  a  Bourbon,  1850  ;  Maillard,  Notes  sur  I'ile  de  la  Reunion,  1862;  Azema, 
Hist,  de  Vile  Bourbon,  18fi2 ;  Roussin,  Album  de  Vile  de  la  Reunion,  1867-69,  and 
1879  ;  an  elaborate  article  in  Encyclopedie  des  Sciences  Medicales ;  Bionne,  "  La 
Reunion,"  in  Exploration,  1879.  Most  maps  are  based  on  Maillard's;  one  by  Paul 
Lepervanche  in  four  sheets  was  published  in  1885  by  Dufrenoy.  (H.A.  W.) 

REUS,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Tarragona, 
is  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  chain  of  hills  in  a  fertile  plain 
about  four  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  connected  by  rail 
with  Tarragona,  9J  miles  to  the  east,  and  with  Lerida, 
54J  miles  to  the  north-west.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
old  and  the  new,  separated  by  the  boulevard-like  Calle 


Arrabal,  which  occupies  the  site  of  the  old  wall,  some 
vestiges  of  which  still  remain  :  the  old  town  centres  in  the 
Plaza  del  Mercado,  from  which  narrow  and  tortuous  lanes 
radiate  in  various  directions ;  the  new  dates  from  about 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  and  its  streets  are  wide 
and  straight.  The  public  buildings  have  no  special  archi- 
tectural or  historical  interest,  but  the  view  from  the  tower 
of  the  church  of  San  Pedro  is  exceptionally  fine.  Reus, 
next  to  Barcelona  itself,-  is  the  most  flourishing  manufac- 
turing centre  in  Catalonia,  the  staples  being  silk  and 
cotton ;  imitations  of  French  wines  are  also  extensively 
made,  and  the  miscellaneous  industries  include  tanning, 
distilling,  and  the  like.  The  cotton  factories  exceed 
eighty  in  number,  and  one  of  them  employs  upwards  of 
six  hundred  hands.  Most  of  the  traffic  of  Reus  passes 
through  the  comparatively  sheltered  port  of  Salou,  four 
miles  distant.  The  population  of  Reus  in  1877  was 
27,595. 

The  earliest  records  of  Reus  date  from  about  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century.  Its  modern  prosperity  is  traced  to  about  the  year 
1750,  when  a  colony  of  English  settled  there  and  established  a  trade 
in  woollens,  leather,  wine,  and  spirits.  The  principal  incidents  in 
its  political  history  arose  out  of  the  occurrences  of  1843,  in  con- 
nexion with  which  the  "  villa  "  became  a  "  ciudad  "  and  Generals 
Zurbano  and  Prim  each  received  the  title  of  count  of  Reus. 

REUSS  is  the  name  of  two  small  sovereign  principali- 
ties of  the  German  empire,  with  a  joint  area  of  440  square 
miles,  forming  part  of  the  complex  of  Thuringian  states, 
and  consisting,  roughly  speaking,  of  two  principal  masses 
of  territory,  separated  by  the  Neustadt  district  of  the 
duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar.  The  more  southerly  and  much 
the  larger  of  the  two  portions  belongs  to  the  bleak  moun- 
tainous region  of  the  Frankenwald  and  the  Voigtland, 
while  the  northern  portion  is  hilly  but  fertile.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Elster  and  Saale.  About  37  per  cent,  of 
the  total  surface  is  occupied  by  forests,  while  40  per  cent. 
is  under  tillage  and  19  per  cent,  in  meadow  and  pasture. 
Since  1616  the  lands  of  Reuss  have  been  divided  between 
an  elder  and  a  younger  line  (Reuss  dlterer  Linie  and  Reuss 
jungerer  Linie)  of  the  ancient  princely  house.  The  male 
members  of  both  branches  of  the  family  all  bear  the  name 
of  Henry  (Heinrich),  the  individuals  being  distinguished 
by  numerals.  In  the  older  line  the  enumeration  begins 
again  when  the  number  one  hundred  is  reached,  while  in 
the  younger  house  it  opens  and  closes  with  the  century. 
Thus  the  reigning  prince  of  Reuss  jungerer  Linie,  born  in 
1832,  is  styled  Henry  XIV.,  and  he  succeeded  his  father 
Henry  LXVIL,  born  in  1789.  The  princes  of  Reuss  are 
very  wealthy,  and  their  private  domains  comprise  great 
part  of  the  territory  over  which  they  rule.  In  the  event 
of  the  extinction  of  either  line,  its  possessions  fall  to  the 
other.  The  troops  of  Reuss  furnish  a  few  companies  to 
the  seventh  regiment  of  Thuringian  infantry. 

RETJSS-GKEIZ,  or  REUSS  ALTEKER  LINIE,  with  an  area  of 
122  square  miles,  belongs  to  the  larger  of  the  two  main 
divisions  above  mentioned,  within  which  it  consists  of 
three  large  and  several  smaller  parcels  of  land,  bordering 
on  Saxony,  Reuss  jungerer  Linie,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 
and  the  Prussian  exclave  of  Ranis.  The  soil  is  on  the 
whole  little  favourable  for  agriculture,  but  cattle-rearing 
is  carried  on  with  some  success.  No  less  than  63  per 
cent,  of  the  inhabitants  are  supported  by  industrial 
pursuits,  the  chief  products  of  which  are  the  woollen 
fabrics  of  Greiz,  the  capital,  and  the  stockings  of  Zeulen- 
roda,  both  largely  exported.  The  population  of  the  prin- 
cipality in  1880  was  50,782,  of  whom  only  450  were 
Roman  Catholics  and  60  Jews.  The  constitution  of 
Reuss-Greiz  dates  from  1867,  and  provides  for'  a  repre- 
sentative chamber  of  twelve  members,  of  whom  three  are 
appointed  by  the  prince,  while  two  are  elected  by  the 
nobles,  three  by  the  towns,  and  four  by  the  rural  districts. 


U  —  K  E  U 


The  revenue  and  expenditure  for  1885  were  each  estimated 
at  £36,254,  while  the  public  debt  in  1884  was  £46,886. 

REUSS-SCHLEIZ,  or  REUSS  JCNGERER  LINIE,  with  an  area 
of  318  square  miles,  includes  part  of  the  southern  and  the 
whole  of  the  northern  of  the  two  main  divisions  above 
indicated,  touching  Bavaria  on  the  south  and  Prussian 
Saxony  on  the  north.  The  former  portion  is  known  as 
the  Oberland,  the  latter  as  the  Unterland.  Owing  to  the 
fertility  of  the  Unterland,  agriculture  is  carried  on  here 
with  greater  success  than  in  Reuss-Greiz,  fully  one  quarter 
of  the  population  being  supported  by  tillage  and  cattle- 
breeding.  The  industrial  activity  is,  however,  also  large, 
supporting  one-half  of  the  population.  The  principal  pro- 
duct consists,  as  in  Reuss-Greiz,  of  woollen  goods,  and  the 
manufacture  centres  in  the  capital,  Gera,  a  busy  town 
with  27,118  inhabitants.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on 
in  the  products  of  the  manufactories,  and  in  timber,  cattle, 
and  slate.  The  iron  mining  of  the  Oberland  is  limited  by 
the  want  of  sufficient  railway  communication.  Large 
quantities  of  salt  are  yielded  by  the  brine  springs  of 
Heinrichshall.  In  1880  Reuss-Schleiz  contained  101,330 
inhabitants,  including  442  Roman  Catholics  and  69  Jews. 
The  annual  revenue  and  expenditure  for  1885-1886  were 
calculated  at  £66,060;  the  public  debt  in  1884  was 
£61,780. 

The  history  of  Reuss  stretches  back  to  the  times  when  the  Ger- 
man emperors  appointed  voigts,  or  bailiffs,  to  represent  them  in 
lands  conquered  from  the  Sorbs  or  other  Slavonic  races.  The 
forefathers  of  the  present  princes  of  Reuss  appear  in  this  capacity 
at  an  early  period,  and  the  historical  head  of  the  family  is  generally 
recognized  in  Henry,  voigt  of  Weida,  who  flourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century.  The  name  of  Reuss  came  to  be  applied 
to  the  territory  ruled  over  by  his  descendants  from  the  sobriquet 
of  "Der  Russe,"  or  the  Russian,  which  one  of  them  acquired  about 
1280  from  the  nationality  of  his  mother.  The  district  embraced 
by  the  name  was  at  one  time  much  more  extensive  than  at  present, 
taking  in  the  Bavarian  town  of  Hof  and  the  whole  of  the  Saxon 
Voigtland.  Of  the  numerous  lines  and  sub-lines  into  which  the 
family  was  divided  nearly  all  became  sooner  or  later  extinct,  till 
in  1616  none  were  left  except  the  two  that  still  subsist.  Since 
1616  numerous  subdivisions  have  again  taken  place  within  these 
families,  and  it  was  not  till  1848  that  Reuss  jiingerer  Linie  became 
again  a  united  whole.  The  rulers  of  Reuss  were  created  counts  of 
the  German  empire  in  1671  and  sovereign  princes  in  1778.  In 
1807  both  principalities  joined  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and 
in  1866  Reuss-Greiz  had  to  atone  for  its  active  sympathy  with 
Austria  by  the  payment  of  a  fine.  Since  1871  both  principalities 
have  been  members  of  the  German  empire,  each  sending  one  member 
to  the  federal  council  and  one  representative  to  the  Reichstag. 

REUTER,  FRITZ  (1810-1874),  the  greatest  writer  in 
Platt  Deutsch,  was  born  on  the  7th  November  1810,  at 
Stavenhagen,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  a  small  country 
town  which  had  few  means  of  communication  with  the  rest 
of  the  world.  His  father  was  burgomaster  and  sheriff 
(Stadtrichter),  and  in  addition  to  his  official  duties  carried 
on  the  work  of  a  farmer.  Until  his  fourteenth  year 
Reuter  was  educated  at  home  by  private  tutors.  He  was 
then  sent  to  the  gymnasium  at  Friedland,  in  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  and  afterwards  he  passed  through  the  higher 
classes  of  the  gymnasium  at  Parchim.  He  had  a  con- 
siderable talent  for  drawing,  and  wished  to  become  an 
artist;  but,  as  his  father  decided  that  he  should  be  a 
lawyer,  he  began  in  1831  to  attend  lectures  on  juris- 
prudence at  the  university  of  Rostock.  In  the  following 
year  he  went  to  the  university  of  Jena.  The  German 
Governments,  alarmed  by  the  revolutionary  agitation  of 
1830,  were  on  the  alert  to  detect  symptoms  of  popular 
discontent;  and  a  formidable  riot  at  Frankfort  in  1833 
gave  them  an  excuse  for  treating  the  universities  with 
great  harshness.  Reuter,  as  a  member  of  the  Burschen- 
schaft  "  Germania  "  at  Jena,  was  arrested  by  the  Prussian 
Government ;  and,  although  the  only  charge  which  could 
be  proved  against  him  was  that  he  had  been  seen  wearing 
the  German  colours,  he  was  condemned  to  death  for  high 


treason.  This  monstrous  sentence  was  commuted  by  Kin 
Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia  to  imprisonment  foi 
thirty  years  in  a  Prussian  fortress.  Reuter  accepted  his 
fate  calmly,  and  he  had  need  of  all  his  courage,  for  during 
the  next  few  years  he  was  taken  from  one  Prussian  fortress 
to  another,  in  each  of  which  he  was  kept  in  close  confine- 
ment. In  1838,  through  the  personal  intervention  of  the 
grand-duke  of  Mecklenburg,  he  was  delivered  over  to  the 
authorities  of  his  native  state,  but  on  condition  that  he 
should  still  be  a  prisoner.  The  next  two  years  he  spent 
in  the  fortress  of  Domitz.  In  1840  to  his  great  joy 
was  set  free,  an  amnesty  having  been  proclaimed  aft 
the  accession  of  Frederick  William  IV.  to  the  Prussii 
throne. 

Although  Reuter  was  now  thirty  years  of  age,  he  wen 
to  Heidelberg  to  resume  his  legal  studies;  but  he  soo: 
found  it  necessary  to  return  to   Stavenhagen,  where   h 
aided  in  the  management  of  his  father's  farm.     During 
his  imprisonment  he  had  studied  many  works  on  agricul 
ture  and  on  the  sciences  related  to  it,  and  he  was  able 
make  good  use  of  the  knowledge  he  had  thus  obtained. 
After  his  father's  death,  however,  he  was  compelled   b; 
want   of   capital   to   abandon   farming,  and   in  1850 
settled  as  a  private  tutor  at  the  little  town  of  Treptow  in 
Pomerania.     Here  he  married  Luise  Kunze,  the  daughter 
of   a   Mecklenburg    pastor.     They   had    been   betrothed 
when  Reuter  was  at  Stavenhagen,  and  their  union  proved 
to  be  one  of  uninterrupted  happiness. 

At  Treptow  he  had  to  work  hard  as  a  private  tutor  for 
small  pay,  but  in  the  evenings  he  found  time  to  amuse 
himself  by  writing,  in  Platt  Deutsch,  in  prose  and  verse,  a 
number  of  tales  and  anecdotes.  This  collection  of  mis- 
cellanies was  published  in  1853  in  a  volume  entitled 
Lauschen  und  Riemels.  The  book  contains  many  lively 
sketches  of  manners  in  North  Germany,  and  it  was  received 
with  so  much  favour  that  Reuter  was  encouraged  to  make 
new  ventures  in  literature.  Fortunately  he  decided  to  go 
on  writing  in  Platt  Deutsch.  There  are  so  many  abstract 
terms  in  High  German  that  few  writers  succeed  in  the 
attempt  to  use  it  as  a  vehicle  for  the  powerful  utterance 
of  simple  and  natural  feeling.  Platt  Deutsch,  on  the 
contrary,  although  limited  in  its  range,  is  fresh  and 
vigorous,  and  in  direct  contact  with  the  motives  which  give 
unfading  charm  to  old  popular  songs  and  ballads.  All  the 
resources  of  this  strong  and  expressive  dialect  were  at 
Renter's  service.  He  thought  in  Platt  Deutsch,  and  in 
his  greatest  efforts  was  always  able  to  find  the  right  word 
for  that  exquisite  blending  of  humour  and  pathos  which 
is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  notes  of  his  writings. 

The  work  which  succeeded  Lauschen  und  Riemels  was 
Polterabendgedichte,  and  in  the  same  year  (1855)  appeared 
De  Reis  nach  Belligen,  a  humorous  poem  describing  the 
adventures  of  some  Mecklenburg  peasants  who  resolve  to 
go  to  Belgium  (which  they  never  reach)  to  learn  the 
secrets  of  an  advanced  civilization.  These  writings 
attracted  much  attention,  and  Reuter  was  so  confident  of 
success  that  in  1856  he  left  Treptow  and  established  him- 
self at  Neubrandenburg,  resolving  to  devote  his  whole 
time  to  literary  work.  His  next  book  (published  in  1858) 
was  Kein  Husung,  a  poem  in  which  he  presents  wr 
great  force  and  vividness  some  of  the  least  attractivi 
aspects  of  village  life  in  Mecklenburg.  This  was  followed, 
in  1859,  by  Hanne  Niite  un  de  lutte  Pudel,  the  best  of  the 
works  written  by  Reuter  in  verse.  The  qualities  of  those 
who  have  a  part  to  play  in  the  story  are  brought  out  with 
remarkable  distinctness,  and  the  action  provides  the  poet 
with  many  opportunities  of  giving  free  expression  to  his 
ardent  love  of  nature. 

In  1861  Renter's  popularity  was  largely  increased  by 
Schurr-Murr,  a  collection  of  tales,  some  of  which  arc  in 


E  E  U  — E  E  V 


495 


High  German,  but  this  work  is  of  slight  importance  in 
comparison  with  the  series  of  stories  which  he  had  already 
begun,  and  by  which  he  was  to  establish  his  fame  as  one 
of  the  foremost  writers  of  his  age.  To  this  series  he  gave 
the  general  title  Olle  Kamellen.  The  first  volume,  Zwei 
Lustige  Geschichte,  published  in  1860,  contained  Woans 
ik  tau  'ne  Fru  Icamm  and  Ut  de  Franzosentid.  Ut  mine 
Feslungstid  (1861)  formed  the  second  volume ;  Ut  Mine 
Stromtid  (1864)  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  volumes;  and 
Ddrchlauchting  (1866)  the  sixth  volume.  Woans  ik  tau 
'ne  Fru  kamm  is  a  bright  little  tale,  in  which  Keuter 
tells,  in  a  half  serious  half  bantering  tone,  how  he  wooed 
the  lady  who  became  his  wife.  In  Ut  de  Franzosentid 
he  undertook  a  more  difficult  task,  which  enabled  him 
for  the  first  time  to  do  full  justice  to  his  genius.  The 
scene  is  laid  in  and  near  Stavenhagen  (Platt  Deutsch, 
Stemhagen)  in  the  year  1813,  and  the  principal  complica- 
tions spring  from  the  disappearance  of  a  Frenchman, 
which  gives  rise  to  suspicions  of  foul  play.  In  this 
powerful  tale  the  characters  are  depicted  by  means  of  a 
few  bold  and  rapid  strokes,  and  our  interest  in  them  is 
heightened  by  the  fact  that  their  personal  fortunes  are 
associated  with  the  great  events  which  at  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century  stirred  the  heart  of  Germany  to  its 
depths.  Ut  mine  Festungstid  is  of  less  general  interest 
than  Ut  de  Franzosentid,  but  it  is  not  less  vigorous  either 
in  conception  or  in  style.  It  contains  a  narrative  of 
Reuter's  hardships  during  the  term  of  his  imprisonment, 
and  it  awakens  sympathy  all  the  more  effectually  because 
it  is  brightened  by  many  a  gleam  of  kindly  and  humorous 
feeling.  Ut  mine  Stromtid  is  by  far  the  greatest  of 
Reuter's  writings,  and  ranks  with  the  most  famous  master- 
pieces of  modern  fiction.  He  records  few  incidents  which 
might  not  happen  in  the  lives  of  ordinary  men  and 
women,  yet  he  never  loses  his  hold  over  the  imagination 
of  his  readers,  so  full  of  vitality  are  the  characters  of  his 
story,  and  so  deep  is  his  insight  into  the  enduring  facts  of 
human  nature.  The  most  original  character  in  the  book 
is  Brasig,  an  eccentric  old  bachelor,  fond  of  gossip  and 
apt  to  interfere  too  much  in  the  affairs  of  his  neighbours, 
but  humorous,  loyal  to  the  core,  and  coming  out  most 
brightly  when  his  good  qualities  are  put  to  the  severest 
test.  There  is  a  touch  of  romance,  too,  in  this  simple 
and  genial  nature,  for  he  retains  to  the  last  his  love  for  the 
woman  who  had  fascinated  him  in  his  youth,  and  is 
always  at  hand  to  serve  her  when  she  needs  his  help. 
Another  powerfully  conceived  character  is  Havermann,  a 
man  of  solid  and  serious  judgment,  calm  and  undemonstra- 
tive, of  sterling  rectitude,  and  revealing  at  the  great  crises 
of  life  infinite  depths  of  love  and  pity.  Equally  attractive 
in  their  own  way  are  the  good  pastor  and  his  wife,  who 
bring  up  Havermann's  daughter,  Louise,  in  their  quiet 
parsonage;  and  we  come  to  know  intimately  every 
member  of  the  pleasant  household  in  which  Havermann's 
frank  and  comely  sister  (whom  Brasig  secretly  loves)  is 
the  central  figure.  In  this  great  book  Reuter  displays 
imaginative  power  of  the  highest  order  in  the  expression 
of  every  mood  and  passion  within  the  proper  range  of  his 
art ;  and  he  fails,  or  at  least  does  not  perfectly  succeed, 
only  when  he  deals  with  characters  belonging  to  classes  he 
had  never  had  an  opportunity  of  studying  closely.  As  in 
Ut  de  Franzosentid  he  describes  the  deep  national  impulse 
m  obedience  to  which  Germany  rose  against  Napoleon,  so 
in  Ut  mine  Stromtid  he  presents  many  aspects  of  the 
revolutionary  movement  of  1848.  He  shows  little  sym- 
pathy with  some  of  the  most  characteristic  aspirations  of 
the  period,  but  in  many  passages  he  indicates  by  slight 
but  significant  touches  the  strength  of  the  forces  which 
had  begun  to  make  for  social  as  distinguished  from  merely 
political  reorganization. 


In  1863  Reuter  transferred  his  residence  from  Neubran- 
denburg  to  Eisenach;  and  here  he  died  on  the  12th 
June  1874.  In  the  works  produced  at  Eisenach  he  did 
not  maintain  the  high  level  of  his  earlier  writings. 
Dorchlauchting,  although  it  contains  some  striking  passages, 
lacks  the  freshness  and  spontaneity  of  the  other  tales  of 
the  series  to  which  it  belongs ;  and  admirers  of  his  genius 
found  little  to  interest  them  in  Die  Montechi  und  Capuleti 
in  Konstantinopel,  which  he  wrote  after  a  visit  to  the 
Turkish  capital. 

Reuter  is  the  most  realistic  of  the  great  German  writers.  To 
the  dreamers  of  the  romantic  school  he  has  not  the  faintest  resem- 
blance, nor  does  he  ever  attempt  to  describe  ideally  perfect 
characters.  The  men  and  women  of  his  stories  are  the  men  and 
women  he  knew  ill  the  villages  and  farmhouses  of  Mecklenburg, 
and  the  circumstances  in  which  he  places  them  are  the  circum- 
stances by  which  they  were  surrounded  in  actual  life.  His  fidelity 
to  facts  is  as  exact  as  that  of  the  Dutch  school  of  painters,  and, 
like  them,  he  thinks  nothing  too  minute  for  his  use,  if  by  small 
details  he  can  give  variety  and  animation  to  his  pictures.  But  he 
does  not  merely  glide  over  the  surface  of  life  ;  he  penetrates  to  the 
inmost  springs  of  feeling,  and  in  simple  peasant  folk  finds  char- 
acteristics which  in  his  hands  become  types  of  universal  qualities. 
The  sources  of  tears  and  the  sources  of  laughter  he  touches  with 
equal  ease  ;  but,  while  his  humour  is  sometimes  rather  extra- 
vagant, his  pathetic  passages  are  always  marked  by  perfect  truth 
and  delicacy.  His  description  of  the  death  of  the  old  pastor  in  Ut 
mine  Stromtid  is  one  of  the  gems  of  modern  literature,  and  the 
scene  in  which  Brasig  dies,  holding  the  hand  of  the  woman  he 
has  loved  all  his  life,  is  in  a  different  way  not  less  impressive. 
Reuter's  only  serious  defect  as  an  artist  is  that  he  fails  to  main- 
tain the  due  proportion  between  the  different  parts  of  his  stories. 
If  an  idea  attracts  him,  he  cannot  resist  the  temptation  to  unfold 
its  full  significance,  whether  or  not  it  is  in  organic  relation  with 
his  scheme  as  a  whole.  To  some  extent,  however,  the  reader  is 
compensated  for  these  interruptions  by  happy  strokes  of  humour 
which  would  have  been  rendered  impossible  had  Reuter  forced 
himself  to  adopt  a  more  rigid  method. 

Renter's  Sammtliche  Werke  in  thirteen  volumes  (edited  by  Ad.  Wildbrandt) 
were  published  in  18C3-68.  To  these  were  added  in  1875  two  volumes  of  Nach- 
gelassene  Schriften,  with  a  biography;  and  in  1878  a  comedy,  Die  drei  Langhanse. 
See  Glagau,  Fritz  Reuter  und  Seine  Dichtungen,  1866 ;  Ebert,  Fritz  Reuter,  1874 ; 
and  Zeil,  "  Fritz  Reuter,"  in  Unsere  Zeit,  1875.  (J.  SI.) 

REUTLINGEN,  a  manufacturing  town  of  "Wurtemberg, 
situated  in  a  fertile  and  pretty  district  on  the  Echatz,  an 
affluent  of  the  Neckar,  near  the  base  of  the  Achalm, 
and  20  miles  to  the  south  of  Stuttgart.  It  is  a  quaint 
but  well-built  town,  with  numerous  picturesque  houses 
and  a  fine  Gothic  church  of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries, 
overtopped  by  a  lofty  spire.  The  tanneries  of  Reutlingen 
are  extensive,  producing  large  quantities  of  leather ;  and 
its  other  industrial  products  are  very  multifarious,  includ- 
ing cotton,  woollen,  and  knitted  goods,  lace,  ribbons,  hats, 
shoes,  paper,  machinery,  hardware,  and  lime.  To  fruit- 
growers Reutlingen  is  interesting  as  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
pomological  institute,  while  the  Christian-socialist  refuges 
of  Pastor  Werner  are  widely  known  in  philanthropic 
circles.  In  1880  the  town  contained  16,609  inhabitants, 
of  whom  809  were  Roman  Catholics  and  44  Jews. 

Reutlingen  was  made  a  free  imperial  town  by  Frederick  II.  in 
1240,  and  was  unflinching  in  its  loyalty  to  the  emperors  of  his  line. 
It  successfully  resisted  a  siege  by  Heinrich  Raspe,  the  rival  of 
Conrad  IV.,  and  in  1377  its  citizens  defeated  Count  UMch  of 
Wurtemberg  at  the  Achalm.  At  a  later  period  Reutlingen  became 
a  member  of  the  Swabian  League,  and  it  was  among  the  first 
Swabian  towns  to  embrace  the  Reformation.  It  was  annexed  to 
Wurtemberg  in  1802. 

REVAL,  or  REVEL  (Russian  Revel,  formerly  Kolywan ; 
Esthonian  Tallina),  a  seaport  of  Russia,  capital  of  Esthonia, 
is  situated  in  a  bay  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  in  59°  27'  N.  lat.  and  24°  45'  E.  long.,  230  miles 
west  of  St  Petersburg  by  rail.  The  city  consists  of  two 
parts — the  "Domberg"  or  "Dom,"  which  occupies  a  hill, 
and  the  lower  town  on  the  beach — and  is  surrounded 
by  pleasant  suburban  houses  with  gardens.  The  "  Dom  " 
contains  the  castle,  where  the  provincial  administration 
has  its  seat,  and  the  slopes  of  the  hill  are  covered  with 
the  well-built  houses  of  the  German  aristocracy.  It  has 


490 


R  E  V  —  R  E  V 


its  own  administration,  separate  from  that  of  the  lower 
town.  This  last  retains  a  mediaeval  character,  with 
narrow  tortuous  streets  and  high  tile-roofed  houses  often 
enclosing  large  storehouses  within  their  thick  walls. 
Reval  has  more  interesting  antiquities  than  any  other 
town  of  the  Russian  Baltic  provinces.  The  old  church  of 
St  Nicholas,  built  in  1317,  contains  many  antiquities  of 
the  old  Catholic  times  and  old  German  paintings,  of 
which  a  Dance  of  Death  is  especially  worthy  of  notice. 
It  contains  also  the  graves  of  Holstein  Beck  and  of  the 
Due  de  Croy,  who  was  denied  burial  for  his  debts,  and 
whose  mummy,  dressed  in  velvet  and  fine  lace,  was  exposed 
until  1862.  The  "Domkirche"  contains  many  interest- 
ing shields,  as  also  the  graves  of  the  circumnavigator 
Krusenstern,  of  Pontus-de-la-Gardie,  Henry  Matthias,  Karl 
Horn,  &c.  The  church  of  St  Olai,  first  erected  in  1240, 
and  often  rebuilt,  was  completed  in  1840  in  Gothic  style; 
it  has  a  bell  tower  429  feet  high.  The  oldest  church  is 
the  Esthonian,  built  in  1219.  Water  is  brought  from 
Lake  Jarvakyla  by  an  aqueduct.  The  pleasant  situation 
of  the  town,  surrounded  by  beautiful  parks,  attracts  in 
summer  thousands  of  people  for  sea-bathing. 

The  population  of  Reval  has  increased  rapidly  since  it  has 
been  connected  by  rail  with  St  Petersburg  and  with  Baltic 
Port,  30  miles  distant;  it  reached  50,490  in  1881,  against 
27,325  in  1867,  of  whom  one-third  are  Germans,  the  re- 
mainder Esthonians,  with  a  few  Russians  and  Jews.  Nearly 
15,000  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Greek  Church.  The 
manufactures  are  not  important,  but  trade  grows  steadily. 
In  1882  the  exports  (grain,  spirits,  &c.)  were  £1,746,244, 
the  imports  (coal,  iron,  chemicals,  &c.)  £6,858,247.  In 
1882  Reval  was  visited  by  589  foreign  ships  (291,450 
tons),  mostly  English,  German,  and  Scandinavian,  and  by 
802  coasters  (103,000  tons).  It  has  regular  steam  com- 
munication with  St  Petersburg,  Helsingfors,  Konigsberg, 
&c. 

The  high  Silurian  crag  now  known  as  Domberg  was  early 
occupied  by  an  Esthonian  fort,  Lindanissa.  In  1219  or  1233  the 
Danish  king  Waldemar  II.  erected  there  a  strong  castle  and 
founded  the  first  clmrch  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  1228  the  castle 
was  taken  by  the  Livoniau  knights,  but  nine  years  later  it  returned 
to  the  Danes.  About  the  same  time  Liibeck  and  Bremen 
merchants  settled  there  under  the  protection  of  the  castle,  and 
their  settlement  soon  became  an  important  seaport  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.  It  was  fortified  early  in  the  14th  century,  and  in  1343 
sustained  the  siege  of  the  revolted  Esthonians.  Waldemar  III. 
sold  Reval  and  Esthonia  to  the  Livonian  knighthood  for  19,000 
silver  marks,  and  the  town  belonged  to  the  knighthood  till  its  dis- 
solution in  1561,  when  Esthonia  and  Reval  surrendered  to  the 
Swedish  king  Erik  XVI.  A  great  conflagration  in  1433,  the  pesti- 
lence of  1532,  the  bombardment  by  the  Danes  in  1569,  and  still 
more  the  Russo-Livoniau  War,  broke  down  its  formerly  wealthy 
trade.  The  Russians  not  only  devastated  the  neighbouring  country 
but  also  besieged  Reval  twice,  in  1570  and  1577.  It  was  still, 
however,  an  important  fortress,  the  forts  and  walls  having  been 
enlarged  and  fortified  by  the  Swedes.  In  1710  the  commander 
Patkull  surrendered  it  to  Peter  I.,  who  immediately  began  there 
the  erection  of  a  military  port  for  his  Baltic  fleet.  The  successors 
of  Peter  I.  continued  to  fortify  the  access  to  Reval  from  the  sea, 
large  works  being  undertaken  especially  in  the  first  part  of  the 
present  century.  During  the  Crimean  War  the  suburb  Reperbahn, 
situated  on  a  low  slip  of  coast,  was  destroyed  in  view  of  a  possible 
landing  of  the  allies. 

REVELATION,  BOOK  OF.  The  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment called  "  Revelation  of  John  "  ('ATroKaXvi/as  'I<adwov) 
so  long  passed  for  the  most  obscure  and  difficult  document 
of  early  Christianity  that  scholars  hesitated  to  apply  to  it 
the  historico-critical  method  of  investigation.  Since  this 
hesitation  has  been  overcome,  it  appears  that  the  matter 
of  the  book  is  neither  obscure  nor  mysterious,  although 
many  special  points  still  remain  to  be  cleared  up.  With- 
out being  paradoxical  we  may  affirm  that  the  Apocalypse  is 
the  most  intelligible  book  in  the  New  Testament,  because 
its  author  had  not  the  individuality  and  originality  of 
Paul  or  of  the  author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  and  because 


historically  we  can  trace  and  comprehend  its  author's  posi- 
tion much  better  than  we  can,  for  instance,  the  theology  of 
Paul.  But  all  interpretations  not  strictly  historical  must 
be  excluded.  The  ethico-spiritualistic,  rationalistic,  and 
dogmatic  explanations,  such  as  were  first  attempted  by  the 
Alexandrine  theologians,  are  fatal  to  the  understanding  of 
the  book,  as  are  also  the  explanations  drawn  from  church 
history  which  were  first  put  forward  by  mediaeval  sects. 
To  see  with  Hengstenberg  "  demagogy  "in  "  Gog  am 
Magog"  (xx.  8),  to  identify  "Apollyon"  (ix.  11)  witl 
"  Napoleon,"  or  in  antichrist  to  detect  the  emperor 
the  pope  or  Mohammed  or  Luther  or  Calvin — the 
interpretations  are  not  a  bit  worse  than  those  which  turt 
the  book  into  a  compendium  of  morality  or  dogma  whereir 
is  set  forth  by  means  of  imagery  and  allegories  the  triumpt 
of  virtue  over  vice  or  of  orthodoxy  over  heterodoxy.  The 
justification  of  the  interpretation  which  explains  the  book 
entirely  in  the  light  of  the  historical  circumstances  attend- 
ing its  origin  and  of  the  views  current  amongst  primith 
Christians  follows,  above  all,  from  observing  that  as  a 
literary  production  the  Revelation  of  John  is  by  no  means 
unique,  but  belongs  to  a  class  of  literature  (comp. 
APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE,  vol.  ii.  p.  174)  which  then  had 
a  very  wide  currency  amongst  the  Jews,  and  the  numeroi 
remains  of  which  even  the  most  orthodox  theologians  do 
not  hesitate  to  interpret  by  the  help  of  the  history  of  the 
time.  The  apocalyptic  literature,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  began  with  the  Jews  in  the  2d  century  B.C.  ;  in  fact 
it  developed  as  an  aftergrowth  of  the  prophetical  literature, 
from  Avhich  it  differs  less  in  kind  than  in  degree.  For 
more  than  three  centuries  it  had  sought  to  revive  the 
drooping  spirit  of  the  people  by  revelations  of  a  near  future 
when,  after  one  last  dreadful  onset  of  a  hostile  world, 
Jahveh  would  appear  in  the  person  of  His  Messiah  to  con- 
quer the  nations  of  the  world  and  to  set  up  the  kingdom 
of  glory  for  Israel.  Every  time  the  political  situation  cul- 
minated in  a  crisis  for  the  people  of  God  the  apocalypses 
appeared  stirring  up  the  believers.  In  spirit,  form,  plan, 
and  execution  they  closely  resembled  each  other.  Their 
differences  sprang  only  from  the  difference  of  the  times,  for 
every  apocalyptic  writer  painted  the  final  catastrophe  after 
the  model  of  the  catastrophes  of  his  day,  only  on  a  vaster 
scale  and  with  deepened  shadows.  They  all  spoke  in  riddles ; 
that  is,  by  means  of  images,  symbols,  mystic  numbers,  forms 
of  animals,  &c.,  they  half  concealed  what  they  meant  to 
reveal.  The  reasons  for  this  procedure  are  not  far  to  seek  : — 
(1)  clearness  and  distinctness  would  have  been  too  profane — 
only  the  mysterious  appears  divine ;  (2)  it  was  often  danger- 
ous to  be  too  distinct.  The  apocalyptic  writers  in  their 
works  supplied  revelations  on  all  possible  questions,  but 
their  principal  achievement  was  regularly  a  revelation  of 
the  history  of  mankind  in  general  and  of  the  people  of 
Israel  in  particular;  in  their  most  essential  features  the 
apocalypses  are  political  manifestos.  It  is  characteristic  of 
all  apocalypses  that  they  pass  under  false  names,  being 
attributed  to  the  most  celebrated  persons  of  the  Old 
Testament ;  thus  we  still  possess  apocalypses  under  the 
names  of  Daniel,  Baruch,  Ezra,  Moses,  and  Enoch.  These 
old  heroes  are  represented  in  the  respective  works  as 
speaking  in  the  first  person,  and  exhorting  their  readers 
to  await  with  hope  and  patience  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah.  Usually  the  apocalypse  contains  a  brief  summary 
of  history,  beginning  with  the  time  of  the  nominal  and 
ending  with  that  of  the  actual  author,  in  order  that  the 
reader,  perceiving  how  much  of  the  prophecy  has  already 
been  fulfilled  to  the  letter,  may  look  with  assured  con- 
fidence for  the  fulfilment  of  the  rest.  Lastly,  the  particular 
features  in  the  descriptions  as  well  as  the  images  and 
metaphors  are  usually  borrowed  in  great  measure  from 
the  books  of  the  old  prophets,  but  they  are  painted  in 


REVELATION 


497 


heightened  colours  on  an  ampler  canvas.  "  The  imagery 
is  alive  with  the  burning  breath  of  the  East ;  a  luxuriant 
fancy  sacrifices  beauty  to  boldness  and  sets  proportion  at 
defiance ;  all  that  is  sweet  and  human  yields  to  all  that  is 
monstrous  and  repulsive.  A  flow  of  metaphors,  an  inter- 
minable personification  of  abstractions,  animates  these 
strange  creations  with  the  weird  and  awful  life  of  some 
fantastic  resurrection  scene.  At  the  same  time  none  of  the 
descriptions  are  clear  and  intelligible ;  the  outlines  of  the 
pictures  melt  and  fade  away  in  tremulous  lines  despite 
the  coarseness  of  the  material  on  which  they  are  drawn." 

As  Jesus  Christ  had  promised  to  come  again,  the 
Jewish  expectations  of  a  Messiah  who  should  be  revealed 
continued  unabated  among  many  of  His  disciples;  that 
which  as  Jews  they  had  hoped  from  the  first  and  only 
advent  they  now  deferred  till  the  second.  True,  the 
kingdom  of  God  which  He  had  promised  did  not  tally 
with  the  materialistic  hopes  of  the  people,  but  on  the 
other  hand  He  had  not  infrequently  Himself  employed  the 
figurative  language  of  the  prophets  and  apocalyptic  writers; 
and,  after  He  had  left  the  earth,  many  sayings  borrowed 
from  the  Jewish  apocalypses  were  put  in  His  mouth  by  a 
vitiated  tradition.1  In  the  expectations  of  Christians  of 
the  1st  century  spiritual  and  material  elements  were 
strangely  blent.  Hence  not  only  were  the  Jewish 
apocalypses,  the  genuineness  of  which  no  one  doubted, 
read  in  the  Christian  communities  and  transmitted  to  the 
Gentile  converts,  but  soon  there  appeared  new  apocalypses 
written  by  Christians.  We  cannot  wonder  at  this,  for  all 
conditions  favourable  to  the  production  of  such  writings 
were  to  be  found  in  the  churches  also ;  above  all,  men 
were  conscious  of  possessing  the  spirit  of  prophecy  in  a 
far  fuller  measure  than  ever  before,  and  this  spirit 
necessarily  manifested  itself  not  only  in  signs  and  wonders 
but  also  in  revelations  and  predictions.  Of  the  Christian 
apocalypses  written  between  70  and  170  A.D.  only  a  very 
small  portion  is  known  to  us ;  for  the  later  church  viewed 
them  as  dangerous  and  got  rid  of  them.  Even  of  the 
apocalypse  of  Peter,  written  in  the  1st  century  and 
regarded  as  canonical  in  some  provinces  as  late  as  the  3d, 
only  a  very  few  fragments  have  come  down  to  us.2  But 
the  great  Apocalypse  which  bears  the  name  of  John  has 
been  preserved.  It  is  to  its  reception  into  the  canon  that 
we  owe  the  preservation  of  this  precious,  indeed  unique, 
monument  of  the  earliest  Christian  times. 

Form,  Contents,  and  Purpose.— -If  we  leave  out  of  view 
chapters  i.  to  iii.  the  Apocalypse  of  John  does  not  differ  very 
materially  in  form  from  the  Jewish  apocalypses;  but 
undoubtedly  its  arrangement  is  better,  and  its  execution 
simpler  and  grander,  and  therefore  more  tasteful.3  In  its 
contents,  however,  the  distinction  between  this  Christian 
apocalypse  and  its  Jewish  fellows  is  marked ;  for,  while 
the  latter  have  not  and  could  not  have  any  actual  know- 
ledge of  the  Messiah  whom  they  promise,  the  Apocalypse 
of  John  centres  round  the  crucified  and  risen  Jesus,  the 
Lamb  that  was  slain.  The  author  knows  whom  he  and 
the  Christian  community  have  to  expect ;  to  him  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  alpha  and  the  omega,  the  first  and  the  last ; 
he  is  the  Lord  of  the  world  and  of  history.  And  this  faith 


1  E.g.,  the  saying  of  Jesus  handed  down  by  Papias  in  Iren,  v.  38  ; 
compare  with  it  Apoc.  Baruch,  29.     In  the  eschatological  speeches 
of  Jesus  reported  by  the  synoptical  writers  there  is  no  doubt  that 
sayings  are  introduced  which  are  derived  not  from  Jesus  but  from  the 
Jewish  apocalyptic  writers.     See  the  discussions  in  Weiffenbach,  Der 
Wiederkunftsgedanke  Jesu,  1873. 

2  See  Hilgenfeld,  Nov.  Test,  extra  Can.  recept.,  fasc.  iv. 

3  The  literary  value  of  the  Apocalypse  of  John  is  much  higher  than 
that   of  any  of  the  Jewish  apocalypses.     The  author  possessed  the 
art  of  keeping  Lis  readers  enthralled  and  excited  from  first  to  last ;  by 
a  suitable  arrangement  he  has  really  reduced  'his  motley  material  to 
order,  and  by  skilful  description  he  has  contrived  to  make  even  the 
repulsive  endurable. 


gives  to  the  Apocalypse  of  John  a  tone  of  assured  con- 
fidence and  hope  such  as  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  Jewish 
apocalypses.  On  the  other  hand,  however  firm  and  sure  the 
Christian  faith  of  the  author  appears,  he  was  still  com- 
pletely hide-bound  in  the  old  forms ;  it  is  really  a  case  of 
new  wine  in  old  bottles.  But  this  very  circumstance 
gives  to  the  book  its  peculiar  charm,  for  in  no  other  early 
Christian  writing  are  new  and  old  to  be  found  so  com- 
pletely mingled  as  in  this.  The  author's  attitude  towards 
the  world  and  the  state  is  still  entirely  the  Jewish  attitude 
of  surly  hate — this  disciple  of  the  gospel  has  not  yet 
learned  that  we  are  bound  to  love  our  enemies ;  but  his 
attitude  towards  God  and  his  view  of  the  value  of  a  man's 
own  works  show  no  longer  the  Jewish  but  the  new 
Christian  belief,  for  he  sees  God  in  Christ,  he  has  accepted 
the  doctrine  of  the  forgiveness  of  sins  through  the  blood  of 
the  Lamb,  and  regards  himself  as  a  priest  and  king  before 
God.  Hence  too  he  lives  and  moves  no  longer  in  the  law 
but  in  the  prophets  and  the  psalms.  From  them, 
especially  from  the  prophets  Ezekiel,  Zechariah,  and 
Daniel,  he  borrowed  most  of  his  imagery  and  symbols. 
What  he  has  done  in  his  book  is  to  create  a  great  apoca- 
lyptic painting  or  rather  a  drama  worked  out  in  different 
acts.  Impatient  longing  for  the  end,  a  deep  abhorrence 
of  the  heathen  state,  a  firm  faith  in  Christ  and  His  second 
coming,  a  minute  and  painstaking  study  of  the  old 
prophecies — these  are  the  sources  from  which  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  future  are  drawn.  The  purpose  is  the  same 
as  that  of  all  apocalypses — to  confirm  and  strengthen  the 
little  family  of  believers  in  their  patience,  their  courage, 
and  their  confidence,  by  pointing  out  that  the  sufferings 
of  the  time  will  last  but  a  brief  span  and  that  the  present 
troubles  are  already  the  beginning  of  that  end  when 
sorrow  and  suffering  will  in  a  moment  be  transformed  into 
glory  unspeakable.4 

The  revelation  proper  begins  with  iv.  1, — the  first  three 
chapters  forming  an  introduction  (the  seven  letters  to  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia  Minor,  which  are  prefixed,  are  marked  by  poeti- 
cal beauty  and  power  of  language).  The  future  is  written  in  a 
book  with  seven  seals,  which  the  Lamb  opens  one  after  the  other 
(iv.,  v.).  The  opening  of  each  seal  brings  a  plague  upon  the 
earth  (vi. ).  Before  the  seventh  seal  is  opened,  the  church  of  the 
latter  days  is  itself  sealed  that  it  may  be  preserved  harmless  from 
the  assaults  of  the  powers  of  hell  (vii.).  At  the  opening  of  the 
seventh  seal  seven  angels  with  trumpets  appear  on  the  scene,  each 
of  whom  blows  a  trumpet- blast  as  a  prelude  to  new  horrors  on  the 
earth  (viii. ,  ix. ).  With  the  sixth  trumpet  the  preliminary  judg- 
ments are  at  an  end  (hence  the  episode,  ch.  x.).  The  judgment 
proper  begins  with  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (xi. ).  Then  the  seventh 
trumpet  sounds  as  the  signal  for  the  last  dread  horrors  and  for 
the  final  judgment  of  the  world  and  of  all  wickedness.  This  is 
preceded,  however,  by  a  description  of  the  preservation  of  the 
church  of  the  latter  days  (xii. ),  forming  one  of  those  pauses  in  the 
narrative  which  give  the  reader  breathing  time  and  relieve  the 
horror  of  the  description  by  the  introduction  of  scenes  of  peace 
and  words  of  comfort.  The  power  of  the  world  that  opposes 
Christ  (the  Roman  empire)  is  described  along  with  all  its  devilish 
accomplices  (xiii.),  and  (xiv.)  its  destruction  is  by  anticipation  set 
forth  in  figures.  The  seven  angels  follow  with  the  seven  vials  of 
wrath,  which  are  poured  forth  and  represent  the  beginning  of  the 
final  catastrophe  (xv.,  xyi. ).  This  final  catastrophe,  involving  the 
imperial  citv,  the  antichristian  emperor,  his  governors,  and,  last 
of  all,  the  devil  himself,  is  described  in  xvii.-xx.  3, — xix.  11  sq. 
forming  the  climax,  when  Christ  himself  appears  on  a  white  horse 
and  vanquishes  all  his  foes.  The  devil  is  chained  in  the  bottom- 
less pit  for  a  thousand  years  ;  during  this  time  the  saints  of  the 
latter  days — not  all  believers — reign  with  Christ.5  After  the  devil 

4  The  way  in  which  the  author  has  given  expression  to  this  practical 
purpose  by  means  of  scenes  and  images  reveals  the  great  artist. 

5  This  idea,  germs  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  Jewish  apo- 
calypses,  is  easily  explained  when  we  remember  that  two  different 
views  of  the  resurrection  and  of  the  future  kingdom  prevailed  amongst 
the  Jews.     According  to  the  one  view  only  favoured  persons,  accord- 
ing to  the  other  every  one  would  rise  from  the  dead ;  according  to 
the  one  view  the  future  kingdom  would  have  only  a  limited  duration, 
according  to  the  other  it  would  be  eternal.     In  the  Revelation  of  John 
the  two  suppositions  are  combined. 

XX.  —  63 


498 


REVELATION 


has  been  released  once  more  and  lias  made  war  on  the  holy  city 
he  is  for  ever  overthrown  and  the  last  judgment  follows  (xx. ).  In 
xxi-xiii.  5  the  glory  of  the  heavenly  and  eternal  Jerusalem  is  set 
forth.  In  xxii.  6-21  several  epilogues  may  be  detected. 

Unity  and  Integrity. — The  above  analysis  will  have 
shown  the  essential  unity  of  the  book.  The  more  atten- 
tively we  scan  the  connexion  of  the  descriptions  with  each 
other  the  more  clearly  do  we  perceive  the  unity,  the 
artistic  and  systematic  arrangement,  of  the  book.  This  is 
completely  overlooked  by  those  who  fancy  that  in  the 
seven  seals,  the  seven  trumpets,  the  seven  vials  of  wrath, 
the  whole  course  of  the  judgment  is  simply  repeated  in 
ever  new  imagery.  Leaving  all  other  objections  out  of 
account,  this  supposition  is  refuted  by  the  simple  observa- 
tion that  the  author  has  not  merely  placed  the  different 
scenes  side  by  side  but  has  linked  them  together  in  such 
a  way  that  each  scene  follows  as  a  consequence  from  the 
scene  before.  A  correct  perception  of  the  plan  of  the 
book  further  negatives  the  opinion  of  older  scholars  and 
of  Volter  in  modern  times  (Die  Entstehung  der  Apokalypse, 
1882)  that  the  book  consists  of  different  parts  by  different 
authors.1  But  it  is  probable  enough  that  the  work  has 
been  interpolated  and  touched  up  in  various  places 
(certainly  in  i.  1-3) ;  and  several  verses  of  the  epilogue 
(xxii.  6-21)  are  not  by  the  author  of  the  book,  as  indeed 
the  language  itself  is  sufficient  to  prove.  Unless  we  are 
utterly  deceived,  the  book  underwent  systematic  if  not 
very  radical  revisions  even  before  the  middle  of  the  2d 
century.2  To  the  additions  then  made  belong,  amongst 
others,  the  famous  words  (xix.  13)  icat  Ke/cA^rat  TO  6Vo/za 
avrov  6  Xoyos  TOV  6eov,  which  do  not  fit  into  the  passage. 
An  exact  investigation  of  the  extent  of  the  alterations  and 
additions  would  be  a  very  useful  work.3 

Language. — The  language  is  more  Hebraic  than  that  of 
any  other  New  Testament  book.  The  author  thought  in 
Hebrew  and  wrote  in  Greek.  But  the  gross  violations  of 
Greek  grammar  are  not  to  be  explained  from  ignorance. 
"  In  the  language  of  the  Apocalypse  there  is  nothing  of  the 
bungling  and  happy-go-lucky  style  of  a  beginner ;  indeed 
it  bears  the  stamp  of  consistency  and  purpose."  The 
author  writes,  e.g,  xapts  KOI  flprfvr]  airo  6  wv  KOL  6  TJV  KCU  6 
epxo/icvos  Ka'  BTTO  T^v  cirra  Tn/cu/mToov  .  .  .  /cat  O.TTO  'Irjcrov 
Xptcrroi),  6  ftdprvs,  6  TTICTTOS  (i.  4,  5),  although  he  has  shown 
in  a  hundred  passages  that  he  knew  very  well  the  rules 
which  he  has  here  broken.  He  must  have  deliberately 
intended  to  break  them  in  order  to  give  to  the  words  of 
his  greeting  a  certain  elevation  and  solemnity.  Of  course 
only  to  a  foreigner  could  it  have  occurred  to  employ  those 
means  for  this  end. 

Author's  Standpoint. — That  the  book  is  not  written  by  a 
disciple  of  the  apostle  Paul,  that  its  author  is  filled  with 
Jewish  hatred  and  abhorrence  of  the  heathen  state,  that  in 
other  ways  traces  of  the  Jewish  spirit  crop  up  here  and 
there  in  the  Apocalypse,  is  beyond  question.  But  many 
critics,  especially  the  so-called  Tubingen  school,  as  well  as 
Eenan,  Mommsen,  and  others,  have  gone  still  farther ;  the 
author  of  the  Apocalypse,  say  they,  was  an  Ebionite  and  a 
decided  opponent  of  the  apostle  Paul.  In  support  of  this 
hypothesis,  which  they  put  forward  as  if  it  were  an 

1  See  Theol.  Lit.-Zeitung,  1882,  No.  24. 

2  The  redaction  of  the  Apocalypse  took  place  long  before  Irenauts 
(before  185  A.D.),  for  it  can  be  shown  that  the  o-irovticua  ical  dpx«<« 
av6.ypa(j>a.  to  which  he  appeals  already  exhibited  the  Apocalypse  in 
the  form  in  which  we  now  read  it  (Iren. ,  v.  30). 

8  The  state  of  the  text  is  much  more  uncertain  than  in  most  of  the 
New  Testament  books,  because  there  are  far  fewer  uncial  MSS.  of  our 
book  than  of  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  ;  in  fact  there  are  only  five,  of 
which  only  three  are  complete.  The  best  MSS.  are  the  Sinaitic,  the 
Alexandrine,  and  the  Ephraemi  Parisiensis  (incomplete).  The  so- 
called  textus  receptus  of  the  Apocalypse  is  especially  bad,  owing  to 
causes  which  Delitzsch  was  the  first  to  point  out  (Handschriftliche 
Funde,  1861-62). 


established  truth,  they  appeal  chiefly  to  the  following 
observations  : — (1)  in  ch.  vii.  only  144,000  Jews  are  sealed, 
therefore  the  author  regarded  only  born  Jews  as  full 
members  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom;  consequently  (ver.  9  sq.} 
the  multitude  which  is  not  numbered  forms  a  wider  circle, 
viz.,  the  proselytes,  who  are  not  counted  and  also  not 
sealed,  and  are  therefore  of  lower  rank ;  (2)  in  ii.-iii.  the 
author  displays  the  greatest  abhorrence  of  those  who  eat 
meat  which  has  been  offered  to  idols  and  who  practise 
"  fornication  " ;  by  these  none  but  disciples  of  Paul  can 
meant ;  (3)  in  xxi.  14  the  author  speaks  only  of  tweh 
apostles,  and  thereby  undoubtedly  excludes  Paul ;  (4)  the 
author  praises  (ii.  2)  the  Ephesians  because  they  have 
found  the  false  apostles  to  be  liars  and  have  rejected 
them,  but  by  these  false  apostles  only  Paul  could  be 
meant;  (5)  the  author  cannot  conceive  (xi.  1,  2)  that  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  should  ever  be  destroyed,  and  proves 
by  this  how  much  he  himself  still  clung  to  the  temple 
worship. 

The  point  in  dispute  is  of  the  highest  importance  for 
the  proper  understanding  of  the  history  of  primitive 
Christianity.  If  the  Tubingen  school  is  right,  the 
Pauline  epoch  was  followed  in  Asia  Minor  by  an  Ebionitic 
epoch,  and  in  this  case  Catholicism  may  very  well  be  the 
product  of  a  compromise  between  Paulinism  and  Jewish 
Christianity.  But  on  this  very  point  it  can  be  clearly 
shown  that  the  Tubingen  school  is  in  the  wrong;  for  the 
above  arguments  amount  to  nothing. 

(1)  The  12x12,000  (vii.  4  sq.}  can  only,  like  James  i.  1,  be  in- 
terpreted allegorically  and  referred  to  Christians  generally  without 
respect  of  nationality  ;  the  twelve  tribes  are  the  Christians.  This 
interpretation  is  the  only  possible  one,  because  (a)  in  xiv.  3  it 
is  said  of  the  144,000  that  they  are  bought  from  the  earth,  and 
because  (b)  besides  the  144,000  who  are  sealed  no  one  survives  the 
horrors  of  the  last  time.  We  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  iu 
ch.  vii.  two  entirely  different  visions  are  presented,  which  are  not 
to  be  fused  into  a  single  vision:  the  144,000  are  on  earth,  the 
unnumbered  multitude  (ver.  9  sq. )  are  not  a  supplement  of  these 
144,000,  but  are  already  in  heaven  and  represent  the  sum  of  all  the 
children  of  God  from  the  beginning.  Thus,  if  the  144,000  were 
exclusively  Jews,  in  the  last  time  there  would  be  no  Christian  at  all 
from  among  the  heathen  ;  that  is,  no  heathen  would  be  saved.  But 
that  this  is  the  author's  meaning  not  even  the  Tubingen  critics  can 
maintain.  Thus  the  "twelve  tribes "  are  to  be  understood  allegori- 
cally. As  Abraham  is  the  father  of  all  believers,  so  all  believers 
make  up  the  nation  of  the  twelve  tribes.  (2)  The  polemic  against 
the  eating  of  meat  offered  to  idols  and  against  "fornication "  is  not 
peculiar  to  the  author,  but  is  to  be  found  in  several  early  Christian 
writings.  It  is  not  a  polemic  against  Paul ;  at  most  it  is  a  polemic 
against  lax  disciples  of  Paul ;  further  it  is  no  sign  of  Ebionitism,  for 
very  many  Gentile  Christian  writers  of  the  2d  century  (e.g.,  Justin) 
combated'the  eating  of  meat  offered  to  idols.  The  rule  mentioned 
in  Acts  xv.  29  may  really  have  been  made  between  58  and  70  A.D., 
and  may  have  been  a  condition  of  intercourse  between  Jewish  and 
Gentile  Christians.  After  that  time  it  gradually  prevailed  all  over 
Christendom.  (3)  In  the  ideal  description  of  the  new  Jerusalem  it 
would  have  been  impossible  for  the  author  to  speak  of  thirteen 
apostles.  (4)  The  plural  air6(rTo\oi  (ii.  2)  shows  that  Paul  is  not 
meant,  and  the  comparison  with  ii.  9  and  iii.  9  makes  it  probable 
that  Jewish  emissaries  are  intended.  But,  apart  from  this,  we  see 
better  than  heretofore  by  the  newly  discovered  Teaching  of  the 
Apostles  thab  the  name  "apostle"  was  not  confined  to  the  twelve 
apostles  and  Paul.  If  the  author  had  wished  to  express  abhorrence 
of  Paul  he  could  not  have  done  it  more  obscurely  than  he  has  done 
it  in  ii.  2.  (5)  The  author  says  expressly  (xxi.  22)  that  he  saw  no 
temple  in  the  new  Jerusalem,  "  for  the  Lord  is  her  temple  and  the 
Lamb "  ;  hence  he  felt  that  the  temple  worship  was  no  longer 
needed  to  satisfy  his  religious  wants ;  in  excepting  the  temple 
buildings  from  the  universal  destruction  (xi.  1)  he  follows  a  Jewish 
notion,  to  which  in  his  heart  he  has  already  risen  superior. 

The  arguments  to  prove  the  Ebionitism  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse are  therefore  insufficient;  rather,  we  should  say,  the 
Apocalypse  shows  us  a  Christianity  free  from  the  law,  free 
from  national  prejudices,  universal,  and  yet  a  Christianity 
which  is  quite  independent  of  Paul.  It  is  this  that  consti- 
tutes the  high  importance  of  the  book.  The  author  speaks 
not  at  all  of  the  law — the  word  does  not  occur  in  his  work ; 
he  looks  for  salvation  from  the  power  and  grace  of  God  and 


KEVELATION 


Christ  alone,  and  knows  that  to  be  clean  a  man  must  wash 
his  robes  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb ;  nowhere  has  he  made 
a  distinction  between  Gentile  aud  Jewish  Christians ;  in 
this  respect  he  is  even  more  liberal  than  Paul,  for  Paul 
believes  in  a  continued  preference  accorded  to  the  people 
of  Israel,  while  our  author  knows  of  no  such  thing; 
in  his  view  preference  is  given  only  to  the  martyrs  and 
confessors  of  the  latter  days ;  they  alone  shall  reign  with 
Christ  a  thousand  years  ;l  the  people  of  Israel,  so  far  as  it 
has  rejected  Christ,  is  to  our  author  simply  a  "  synagogue 
of  Satan  "  (ii.  9  ;  iii.  9).  In  this  respect  it  clearly  appears 
that  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse  has  cast  aside  all  national 
religious  prejudices.2  Accordingly  to  him  Jesus  is  not  the 
Messiah  of  the  Jews — of  this  there  is  no  mention  in  the 
book — but  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  the  Lord  of  heaven 
and  of  earth,  the  disposer  and  director  of  history.  The 
Christology  of  the  Apocalypse  is  nowhere  Ebionitic; 
rather  it  stands  midway  between  that  of  Paul  and  that  of 
the  Fourth  Gospel,  and  is  more  elevated  than  the  former  : 
Christ  is  made  almost  equal  with  God  and  has  the  same 
predicates  and  names  as  God.3 

The  Apocalypse  teaches  us  that  even  in  the  apostolic 
age  the  conceptions  of  Paulinism  and  Ebionitism  do  not 
explain  everything ;  it  is  neither  Pauline  nor  Ebionitic. 
It  shows  us  that  at  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age  there  was 
a  Christianity  which  was  free  from  the  law  and  universal, 
and  yet  continued  to  adhere  to  Jewish  modes  of  expres- 
sion ;  it  shows  us  that  it  was  possible  to  think  and  feel  like 
a  Jew  in  politics,  and  yet  in  religious  thoughts  and  feelings 
to  be  evangelical  and  superior  to  all  earthly  limitations. 
These,  however,  are  glaring  contradictions  which  could  not 
last.  But  the  fact  that  in  the  Apocalypse  we  possess  a 
document  exhibiting  these  contradictions  imparts  to  the 
book  its  high  importance.  From  Paul's  epistles  we  can  only 
learn  how  a  great  mind  has  worked  its  way  from  the 
letter  of  the  law  up  to  freedom ;  from  the  Apocalypse  we 
can  learn  how  from  the  Jewish  fusion  of  religion,  nation- 
ality, and  politics  thousands  were  gradually  led  upwards 
to  the  gospel,  and  we  can  further  learn  that  the  step  from 
the  premises  to  the  conclusion  is  one  of  the  hardest  to  take. 
The  author  of  the  Apocalypse  has  in  many  points  not  yet 
drawn  the  conclusions. 

Date  and  Historical  Position. — All  impartial  scholars 
are  now  agreed  that  in  chapters  xiii.  and  xviii.  of  the 
Apocalypse  we  must  look  for  the  key  to  the  comprehension 
of  the  book  as  well  as  to  the  question  of  the  date  of  its 
composition.  That  the  beast  (xiii.  1  sq. ;  xvii.  3  sq.)  is 
the  Roman  empire,  that  the  seven  heads  are  seven 
emperors,  that  the  woman  (xvii.  3-9)  is  the  city  of 
Rome,  that  the  ten  horns  (xiii.  1  ;  xvii.  3,  12  sq.)  are 
imperial  governors — all  this  is  now  beyond  dispute.4  Also 
it  is  settled  that  a  Roman  emperor  will  be  the  antichrist, 
and  that  the  author  abhorred  nothing  so  much  as  the 
worship  of  the  emperor.  Hence  it  is  very  probable,  and 
has  been  maintained  by  Mommsen  especially  on  good 
grounds,  that  the  second  beast  (xiii.  11)  is  meant  to 
describe  the  imperial  representatives  in  the  provinces, 
especially  the  Roman  governors  in  the  Asiatic  continent. 
Finally,  almost  every  one  regards  the  year  64  as  the 
terminus  a  quo  of  the  composition  of  the  book,  inasmuch 
as  the  bloody  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  Rome  (xiii. 

1  Observe  that  in  his  brief  description  of  the  railleninm  (ch.  xx.) 
the  author  neither  speaks  of  the  Jewish  people  nor  introduces  any 
grossly  material  conception.      This  is  the  strongest  proof  that  he  was 
not  an  Ebionite. 

2  Compare  also   xi.    8,    where  Jerusalem   is   called  "Sodom  and 
Egypt." 

3  The  Christological  conceptions  and  formulas  which  occur  in  the 
book  are  not  always  consistent.     This  is  not,  however,  in  itself  a  proof 
of  interpolation. 

4  Diisterdieck  alone  regards  the  ten  horns  as  emperors. 


7;  xvii.  6;  xviii.  20-24)  is  presupposed  in  the  narra- 
tive.5 

But,  while  scholars  are  at  one  on  these  points,  they 
still  differ  on  the  question  of  the  person  of  antichrist. 
The  one  side  affirm  that  the  author  regarded  Nero  returned 
from  the  grave  as  antichrist  (so  Ewald,  Liicke,  De  Wette, 
Credner,  Reuss,  Volckmar,  Mommsen,  Renan,  &c.) ;  the 
other  side  deny  this  (so  Weiss,  Diisterdieck,  Bruston, 
&c.),  and  try  to  identify  antichrist  either  with  Domitian 
or  with  an  emperor  not  defined.  But  the  grounds  on 
which  they  combat  the  former  hypothesis  are  of  little 
moment.  That  the  antichrist  of  the  Apocalypse  is  Nero 
returned  to  life  results  from  the  following  considerations  : — 

(1)  In  ch.  xiii.  3  it  is  said  that  one  of  the  heads  of  the  beast 
received  a  deadly  wound  but  was  afterwards  healed  to  the  astonish- 
ment of  the  world.  Now  if  it  is  settled  that  the  beast  is  the  Roman 
empire,  and  that  by  the  heads  are  designated  the  emperors,  the 
statement  is  only  applicable  to  Nero,  in  whose  death  it  is  well 
known  that  the  people  did  not  believe,  many  persons  expecting 
that  he  would  return  from  the  East.6  (2)  In  xvii.  8,  11  one  head 
is  identified  with  the  whole  animal,  aud  of  the  animal  it  is  said 
that  "it  was  and  is  uot  and  will  come  again,"  meaning  that  the 
eighth  head  is  not  a  new  one  but  one  of  the  seven.  From  this  it 
necessarily  follows  that  in  the  author's  view  the  antichrist  will  be- 
an emperor  who  has  reigned  once  already  and  who  represents  the 
whole  wickedness  of  the  empire  (the  beast)  concentrated  and 
embodied  in  himself ;  but  this  can  only  be  Nero,  for  of  no  other 
emperor  was  the  report  current  in  the  empire  that  he  would  come 
again,  and  no  emperor  but  Nero  had  instituted  a  persecution  of  the 
Christians.  (3)  In  xiii.  18  it  is  said  that  the  number  of  the  beast 
— that  is,  according  to  the  Hebrew  art  of  Gematria,  the  sum  of  the 
numerical  values  of  the  letters  of  his  name — is  the  number  of  a 
man,  and  is  666.  Down  to  1835  this  saying  was  a  riddle  which  no 
man  could  read,  though  Irenseus  (v.  30)  had  attempted  an  explana- 
tion :  he  thought  of  Teitan,  Evanthes,  Lateiuos.  But  in  1835 
Fritzsche,  Benary,  Reuss,  and  Hitzig  discovered  simultaneously 
that  the  numerical  values  of  the  words  }1"U  ~lDp  ("Emperor 
Neroii ")  =  100  +  60  +  200  +  50  +  200  +  6  -f  50  =  666.  The  old  variant 
616  must  be  regarded  as  a  confirmation  of  this  explanation,  for  616 
is  =113  IDp  ("Emperor  Nero").  It  may  certainly  appear  strange 
that  the  calculation  is  made  according  to  the  numerical  value  of  the 
Hebrew  letters,  while  the  book  is  written  in  Greek  ;  but,  as  there- 
is  no  doubt  that  the  author  has  thought  as  a  Semite  from  first  to 
last,  it  is  not  surprising  that  he  has  set  forth  his  great  secret  in 
Hebrew  letters  (comp.  ' Appayfticbv,  xvi.  16).  (4)  Down  to  the  5th. 
century  it  was  believed  by  Western  Christians  that  Nero  would 
come  again  and  be  the  antichrist  or  his  precursor.7  In  the  East 
also  this  belief  can  be  shown  (see  the  Sibylline  oracles)  to  have  still 
existed  in  the  2d  century. 

For  these  four  reasons  it  is  certain  that  the  author  of 
the  Apocalypse  believed  that  Nero  would  come  again,  and 
regarded  him  as  the  antichrist.  He  wrote  under  the 
impression  of  the  story  current  in  the  East  that  Nero  had 
gone  to  the  Parthiaus  and  would  return  with  them  to 
reclaim  his  empire. 

Hence  the  Apocalypse  was  written  after  the  summer 
of  68  A.D.,8  but  the  question  still  remains  whether  it  was 
written  under  Galba  or  Vespasian  or  Domitian.  Most  of 
the  scholars  who  accept  the  right  explanation  of  the 
antichrist  suppose  it  to  have  been  written  under  Galba ; 
the  beginning  of  Vespasian's  reign  is  preferred  by  Liicke 
(whose  earlier  opinion  was  different),  Bleek,  Bohnier,  and 
also  Diisterdieck  and  Weiss  ;  Mommsen"  upholds  the  later 
years  of  Vespasian ;  but  the  old  tradition  of  the  church 


5  The  statement  of  Epiphanius  (Hazr.,  li.  12)  that  the  Apocalypse 
was  written  under  Claudius  is  untenable. 

6  Bruston  refers  the    wounded   head   to    Caesar ;  but    what    could 
have  induced  the  author  to  mention  and   put  in  the  foreground  an 
event  which  had  taken  place  about  one  hundred  years  before  ? 

7  See   the    Carm.    Apolog.    of    Commodian  ;    the    commentary   of 
Victorinus   on  the   Apocalypse  ;  Lactantius,    De   Mort.    Persee.,   2  ; 
Martin  of  Tours  in  Snip.  Severus,  Dial.,  ii.   14  ;  Sulp.  Sev.,  Chron., 
ii.  28,  29,  &c. 

8  Against  Bruston,  who  supposes  that  it  was  written  between  64 
and  68  A.D.,  by  reckoning  the  emperors  (xvii.  10)  from  Csesar,  and 
hence  taking  the  reigning  emperor  to  be  Nero.     But  Bruston  is  thus 
compelled  to  reject  the  explanation  that  the   returned  Nero    is  the 
antichrist,  and  he  cannot  account  for  the  mention  in  the  Apocalypse 
of  numerous  martyrs  at  Rome. 


500 


REVELATION 


represents  the  work  as  written  under  Domitian  and  even 
towards  the  close  of  his  reign.  This  tradition  rests  on 
very  ancient  testimony,  that  of  Irenseus,1  but  has  met 
with  no  approval  from  critics  of  the  present  century; 
only  the  traditionalists  who  reject  the  historical  interpreta- 
tion accept  it.  It  is  the  only  case  in  the  whole  range  of 
the  New  Testament  where  criticism  assigns  to  a  writing  a 
higher  antiquity  than  is  allowed  it  by  tradition.  Whether 
criticism  has  not  been  too  hasty  in  setting  aside  the 
statement  of  Irenaeus  will  appear  in  the  sequel. 

In  support  of  the  supposition  that  the  Apocalypse 
was  written  before  August  70  A.D.,  the  chief  argument 
adduced  is  that  ch.  xi.  assumes  that  Jerusalem  and  the 
temple  are  still  uninjured.  Mommsen  (Rom.  Gesch.,  v. 
521)  has  not  succeeded  in  satisfactorily  disposing  of  this 
argument.  The  Apocalypse  is  cognizant  of  the  flight  of 
the  Jewish  Christians  into  the  country  beyond  Jordan 
towards  Pella  (ch.  xii.);  it  expects  the  partial  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  immediate  future.2  But  this  very 
expectation  as  well  as  the  confidence  that  the  temple 
would  remain  uninjured  shows  that  at  that  time  city  and 
temple  were  still  standing.  Hence,  as  ch.  xi.  was  written 
before  August  70,  most  critics,  assuming  that  the  whole 
book  dates  from  one  and  the  same  time,  conclude  that 
it  was  composed  under  Galba,  —  that  is,  between  autumn 
68  and  spring  69.  In  their  view  the  five  emperors  who 
have  fallen  are  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Claudius,  Caligula, 
and  Nero,  therefore  the  reigning  emperor  is  Galba,3  and 
the  reason  why  the  author  does  not  make  antichrist  (the 
returning  Nero)  immediately  succeed  Galba  is  a  wish  to 
carry  on  the  number  seven,  and  because  "  even  a  prophet 
owes  some  consideration  to  the  powers  that  be  "  ;  but  he 
allows  this  unknown  successor  only  a  short  reign,  and  then 
comes  the  returned  Nero  and  the  end  of  the  world.4 
Lastly,  these  critics  point  to  the  fact  that  a  false  Nero 
appeared  immediately  after  the  death  of  the  real  Nero 
(Tacitus,  Hist.,  ii.  8,  9).  This  position  is  very  strong,  but 
there  are  two  objections  to  it,  —  in  the  first  place,  it  is 
uncertain  whether  Galba  should  be  included  in  the  list  of 
emperors  at  all  —  so  eminent  an  authority  as  Mommsen  is 
against  including  him,  and  reckons  Vespasian  as  the  sixth, 
and,  secondly,  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse  thinks  of  a  false 
Nero  who  will  ally  himself  with  the  Parthians  (see  ch.  ix. 
and  elsewhere).  Therefore  his  false  Nero  appears  not  to 
be  that  of  Tacitus,  but  the  one  who  in  the  last  years  of 
Vespasian  found  a  following  in  the  Euphrates  district  and 
was  acknowledged  in  the  reign  of  Titus  by  King  Artabanus, 
who  prepared  to  restore  him  at  Rome  by  force  of  arms, 
but  was  at  last  surrendered  by  the  Parthians,  about  88, 
to  Domitian  (so  Mommsen  ;  compare  PERSIA,  vol.  xviii.  p. 
603).  On  this  view  the  Apocalypse  was  written  about 
75-79.  Thus  we  see  that  we  have  here  two  discrepant 
calculations  (autumn  68  to  spring  69  ;  about  75-79)  ; 
each  has  much  in  favour  of  it,  but  also  at  least  one  strong 
argument  against  it  :  —  against  the  first  calculation  there 
is  the  argument  that  the  false  Nero  who  best  suits  the  case 
did  not  appear  till  about  75,  while  against  the  second  cal- 
culation there  is  the  argument  that  according  to  ch.  xi.  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  had  not  yet  taken  place.5  In  these 

1  Ireu.   v.  30,   3  :  i)  airoK<i\vfyis  ov  irpb  wo\\ov  yjiovov  twpdOri, 
a\\a.  crx*fibv  litl  TTJJ  rjnerepasyeiffas,  irpbs  T<£  T«'\ei  TTJS  Aofj.tr  tavou 


2  The  three  and  a  half  years  in  xi.  2,  xii.  14,  xiii.  5  are  taken 
from  the  Apocalypse  of  Daniel,  and  no  deeper  meaning  is  to  be  sought 
in  them. 

8  Hildebrand  regards  the  sixth  as  Vitellius  (Ztsch.  f.  iviss.  TheoL, 
1874,  p.  76  a?.). 

4  So  Reuss,  Volckmar,  Credner,  De  Wette,  also  Renan  (Antechrist), 
but  the  last-mentioned,  though  he  put  the  Apocalypse  in  the  reign 
of  Galba,  begins  the  enumeration  of  the  heads  with  Julius  Caesar,  and 
hence  gets  into  difficulties. 

5  The  view  that  the  Apocalypse  was  written  between  the  spring  of 


circumstances  it  appears  perhaps  best  to  assume  that  the 
Apocalypse  was  written  under  Galba,  that  is,  that  the  con- 
ception and  the  first  draught  of  it  date  from  this  time, 
but  that  the  seventeenth  chapter  was  afterwards  revised 
in  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  about  75- 
79.  Now  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  Irenseus  asserts 
most  explicitly  that  it  was  revealed  in  the  last  years  of 
Domitian.  Such  a  statement  is  not  to  be  simply  set  aside, 
especially  when  it  seems  to  make  a  writing  later,  and  not 
earlier,  and  when  there  is  internal  evidence  that  the  book 
underwent  revisions.  Further  exact  investigation  of  the 
details  of  the  Apocalypse  will  perhaps  supply  positive 
proofs ;  at  present  the  following  can  be  put  forward  merely 
as  an  hypothesis,  for  which  only  a  certain  probability  is 
claimed : — the  Apocalypse  was  written  under  Galba,  but 
afterwards  underwent  revisions  under  Vespasian,  about 
75-79,  and  perhaps  in  Domitian's  reign  of  terror,  about 
93-96  (compare  what  has  been  said  above  on  the  unity 
and  integrity). 

Place  of  Composition — Authorship. — That  the  Apocalypse 
was  written  at  some  place  on  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
has  never,  so  far  as  known  to  the  present  writer,  been 
doubted  by  any  critic  of  note. 

The  tradition  of  the  church  ascribes  the  Apocalypse  to 
the  apostle  John,6  and  the  Tubingen  school  has  felt  bound 
in  this  case  to  agree  with  tradition.  Within  the  last 
twenty  years  or  so  the  question  has  been  much  complicated 
by  being  mixed  up  with  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel;  all,  however,  agree  that  the  book  was 
written  by  a  born  Jew.  At  present  the  following  views 
are  maintained : — (1)  the  Gospel  and  the  Apocalypse  of  John 
are  by  the  apostle  John  (Ebrard,  Hengstenberg  and  his 
school,  Hofmann  and  his  school,  Kliefoth) ;  (2)  the  Gospel 
is  by  an  unknown  author,  the  Apocalypse  is  by  the  apostle 
John  (Baur,  Schwegler,  Kostlin,  Hilgenfeld) ;  (3)  the 
Gospel  is  by  the  apostle  John,  the  Apocalypse  is  by  a  man 
called  John,  the  otherwise  known  presbyter,  who  had  no 
wish  to  be  taken  for  the  apostle  (Liicke,  Bleek,  Ewald, 
Credner,  De  Wette,  Neander,  Reuss,  Diisterdieck,  Keim, 
Holtzmann,  &c.) ; 7  (4)  the  Apocalypse  is  by  another  John, 
one  of  the  apostle's  disciples,  who  afterwards  received  the 
tacit  approval  of  the  apostle,  so  that  the  Revelation  passed 
in  the  church  as  a  work  of  the  apostle  (Renan) ;  (5)  the 
Apocalypse  was  foisted  on  the  apostle  John  without  his 
knowledge  (Volckmar,  &c.).  Of  these  views  the  first  and 
fourth  may  be  summarily  dismissed,  the  latter  because 
Renan  has  not  brought  forward  even  the  shadow  of  a  proof, 
the  former  because  the  differences  between  the  Apocalypse 
and  the  Gospel  in  language  and  opinions  are  too  great  to 
allow  us  to  suppose  that  the  books  are  by  the  same  author.8 
It  is  true  that  on  the  other  hand  both  writings  have  much 
in  common,  nay,  even  that  there  is  a  profound  affinity 
between  them,  but  this  only  proves  that  their  authors 
lived  in  the  same  country,  and  were  to  some  extent  subject 
to  the  same  intellectual  influences.  Even  Hase,  who 
formerly  thought  it  possible  to  refer  Gospel  and  Apocalypse 
to  the  apostle  John  (see  his  work,  Die  Tubinger  Schule, 
1855),  has  renounced  this  view.  But  what  is  to  prevent 
us  from  ascribing  at  least  the  Apocalypse  to  the  apostle 

69  and  August  70,  hence  in  the  beginning  of  Vespasian's  reign, 
has  least  to  recommend  it.  Some  of  the  critics  who  have  maintained 
it  are  much  biased.  Thus  Diisterdieck  regards  the  sixth  emperor 
(xvii.  10)  as  Vespasian,  the  seventh,  who  is  to  remain  for  oily  a 
short  time,  as  Titus,  and  the  eighth  as  Nero.  But,  as  the  book  was 
written,  according  to  Diisterdieck,  shortly  before  70,  it  follows  that 
"  we  have  here  a  prophecy  which  definitely  announces  certain  historical 
events  beforehand."  Thus  the  claim  of  the  Apocalypse  to  be  an  actual 
prophecy  is  justified,  though  only  in  one  verse. 

6  So  Justin  ;  see  Dial.  c.  Try  ph.,  81. 

7  Some  of  these  scholars  also  deny  that  the  Gospel  is  by  John. 

8  This  was  observed  by  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (in  Euseb.,  //.  E., 
vii.  27). 


R  E  V  — R  E  W 


501 


John  ?  Certainly  the  external  testimony  is  very  good,1  the 
doubts  entertained  by  the  Alexandrians,  by  Eusebius,  and 
by  Byzantine  theologians  as  to  the  apostolic  authorship  of 
the  book  have  not  much  weight,  the  book  being  little  to 
their  mind,  and  the  substance  of  the  Revelation  would  in 
many  respects  suit  John  Boanerges.  But  the  following 
considerations  speak  against  the  apostle  John  as  author  : — 

(1)  the  so-called  "Alogi"  (Epiph.,  Jfger.,  li.)  denied  that 
the  work  was  by  the  apostle,  and  declared  that  it  came 
from  Corinth  and   hence  was  a  forgery ;   but  the  Alogi 
were  in  Asia  Minor  about    160   and   their  negative,   if 
not  their  positive,  evidence  has  therefore  great  weight  ;2 

(2)  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse  does  not  style  himself  an 
apostle,  and  nowhere  does  he  designate  himself  as  a  per- 
sonal  disciple  of   Jesus   or   as   an  eye-witness ;    (3)   the 
author  speaks  (xxi.  14)  in  such  an  objective  way  of  the 
twelve  apostles  of  the  Lamb  that  it  is  scarcely  credible  that 
he   himself   belonged   to   them;  (4)  the   descriptions    of 
Christ  in  the  Apocalypse  are  psychologically  scarcely  intel- 
ligible on  the  assumption  that  they  were  written  by  a  per- 
sonal disciple  of  the  Lord.    On  these  grounds  we  must  say 
that,  though  not  quite  impossible,  it  is  very  improbable  that 
the  apostle  John  was  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse.     But 
not  less  improbable  is  the  supposition  that  the  real  author 
wished  to  pass  for  the  apostle  John  and  fathered  the  work 
on  him.     It  is  true  that  amongst  the  Jews  apocalypses 
were  fathered  by  their  authors  on  famous  men ;  but  the 
fraud  is  always  very  patent.     But  in  this  case  the  name  of 
John  occurs  only  four  times  (i.  1,  4,  9 ;  xxii.  8),  and  in  the 
whole  book  there   is   nothing   that   reveals   the  author's 
intention   to  pass   for  the  apostle   John.     And  we  have 
further  to  remember  that,  according  to  trustworthy  evi- 
dence, the  apostle  John  was  still  living  at  the  time  in  Asia 
Minor.     It  is  at  least  improbable  that  another  dweller  in 
Asia  Minor  should  have  fathered  a  book  on  him  under  his 
very  eyes. 

In  these  circumstances  only  one  hypothesis  seems  left 
— that  started  by  the  Alexandrians  in  order  to  get  rid  of 
the  inconvenient  authority  of  the  Apocalypse — that  the 
book  is  from  the  pen  of  another  John  in  Asia  Minor, 
namely,  the  presbyter.  But,  though  this  hypothesis  has 
had  much  acceptance  in  our  time,  it  is  far  from  probable ; 
for — and  here  Zahn  and  Renan  are  right — the  existence  of 
a  conspicuous  presbyter  John  in  distinction  from  the 
apostle  is  very  uncertain.  The  Apocalypse,  as  the  tradi- 
tional text  of  the  first  chapter  now  runs,  is  certainly  not 
the  work  of  any  ordinary  person  of  the  name  of  John  :  it  is 
by  a  John  who  enjoyed  the  highest  consideration  in  the 
churches  (see  i.  1,  4).  If  besides  the  apostle  John  there 
was  no  second  John  who  possessed  such  authority  in  Asia 
Minor  in  the  1st  century,  and  if  it  is  impossible  that  the 
Apocalypse  can  be  the  work  either  of  the  apostle  John  or 
of  a  literary  forger,  the  only  supposition  left  is  that  the 
name  of  John  was  interpolated  in  the  last  revision  (after 
the  death  of  the  apostle  John).  Observe  once  more  that 
this  name  occurs  only  in  the  first  verses  of  the  first  chapter, 
and  in  a  verse  of  the  last.  No  hypothesis  solves  the  pro- 
blem so  well  as  this.  Whether  originally  a  different  name 
appeared  in  i.  9,  and  how  ch.  i.  gradually  arose,  are  ques- 
tions into  which  we  cannot  enter  here.  In  this  difficult  sub- 
ject absolute  certainty  is  unattainable,  but  the  supposition 
that  the  Revelation  was  written  by  an  unknown  Christian 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  that  the  name  of  John  is  a  later  addition 

1  Appeal,  however,  must  not  be  made  to  the  fact  that  according  to 
tradition  the    apostle  John  was    banished   to  Patmos,   and  that   the 
author  of  the  Apocalypse  says  of  himself  (i.  9),  "  I  was  in  the  isle  that 
is  called  Patmos  for  the  word  of  God,"  for  the  tradition  is  based  on  the 
Apocalypse,  and,  what  is  more,  on  a  misunderstanding  of  it. 

2  From  Eusebius,  //.  E.,   iii.    28,  1  many  have  assumed  that  the 
Roman  presbyter  Caius  (about  200  A.D.)  was  of  the  same  opinion  as 
the  Alogi,  but  this  is  improbable. 


in  order  to  ascribe  the  Revelation  to  the  apostle  John, 
labours  under  fewer  difficulties  than  any  other  that  has 
hitherto  been  started.  That,  thus  introduced,  John  is  not 
expressly  designated  as  apostle  need  not  surprise  us,  for  at 
the  beginning  of  the  2d  century  every  one  in  Asia  Minor 
knew  who  "  John  the  servant  of  God  "  was.  The  epistles 
also  with  the  heading  "  the  elder "  are  meant  to  be 
regarded  as  written  by  the  apostle  John,  although  they  do 
not  contain  the  title  apostle.3 

Authority  in  the  Church. — The  Apocalypse,  which  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Justin  and  Papias  enjoyed  a  high  re- 
putation as  the  work  of  the  apostle  John,  was  admitted 
into  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  (see  Murat.  fragm., 
Irenaeus,  Tertullian).  In  the  West  it  has  always  been 
retained  in  the  canon,  but  in  the  East  it  was  discredited 
through  Montanism,  and  the  spiritualistic  Alexandrians  who 
gave  the  tone  threw  more  and  more  doubts  upon  it,  so  that 
towards  the  end  of  the  3d  century  it  began  to  be  omitted 
from  the  New  Testament.  For  nearly  a  thousand  years 
the  Apocalypse  was  not  recognized  by  the  majority  of  the 
Greek  Church  as  a  canonical  book  (and  hence  it  is  that 
we  possess  so  few  ancient  Greek  MSS.  of  the  Apocalypse), 
but,  as  no  formal  condemnation  was  pronounced  against  it, 
the  book  was  never  suppressed,  and  regained  its  footing 
towards  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Greek  Church 
following  the  example  of  the  Latin.  At  present  the 
Apocalypse  forms  part  of  the  New  Testament  all  over 
Christendom,  and  rightly  so,  for  it  is  one  of  the  most 
instructive  documents  of  early  Christianity.  Narrow  or 
dogmatic  spirits,  it  is  true,  will  never  be  able  to  value  it 
aright,  and  will  therefore  either  reject  it  or  seek  to  correct 
it  by  false  interpretations. 

Literature. — Liicke,  Versucli  ciner  vollsttindigen  Einleitung  in 
die  Offenb.  Joh.,  2d  ed.,  1852  ;  comp.  the  introductions  to  the 
New  Testament  by  Reuss,  Credner,  Bleek-Mangold,  Hilgenfeld, 
Davidson,  &c.  ;  Gebhardt,  Der  Lchrbegriff  der  Apok.,  1873  ;  Renan, 
L' Antcchrisi,  1873  ;  Mommsen,  Rom.  Geschichtc,  v.  p.  520  sq. 
Commentaries  by  Ewald,  1828,  1862 ;  De  Wette,  1848,  1862  ; 
Hengstenberg,  1861,  1863  ;  Ebrard,  1859  ;  Diisterdieck,  1865  ; 
Volckmar,  1862  ;  Bleek,  1862  ;  Lange,  1871  ;  Fuller,  1874  ; 
Kliefoth,  1874-75  ;  Bisping,  1876.  Schneckenburger,  De  Falsa 
Neronis  Fama,  1846;  Weiss,  "Apokal.  Studien,"  in  Studien  und 
Kritikcn,  1869,  i.  ;  Bruston,  Le  chiffre  666  et  Vhypothese  du 
rctour  de  Neron,  1880  ;  Boehmer,  Verfasscr  u.  Abfassungszcit  der 
joh.  Apoc.,  1855;  Hilgenfeld,  "Nero  der  Antichrist,"  in  Zeit- 
schrift  f.  wisscnsch.  Theol.,  1869,  iv.  ;  Hildebrandt,  "Das  rom. 
Antichristenthnm  zur  Zeit  der  Offenb.  Joh.,"  in  Zeitschr.  f.  wiss. 
Theol.,  1874,  i.  ;  Ronsch,  "  Gematrisches  zu  Apoc.  xiii.  18," 
in  Zeitschr.  f.  wiss.  Theol.,  1873,  p.  258  sq.  ;  Tubing.  Theol. 
Quartalschr.,  1872,  i.  ;  Hausrath  in  Schenkel's  Bibellexicon,  i.  p. 
153  sq.  (A.  HA.) 

REVERSION.     See  REMAINDER. 

REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING.     See  RENAISSANCE". 

REWAH,  the  principal  native  state  in  Baghelkhand, 
under  the  political  superintendence  of  the  Baghelkhand 
and  Central  India  Agencies.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
10,000  square  miles,  and  lies  between  22°  39'  and  25°  12' 
N.  lat.,  and  between  80°  46'  and  82°  51'  E.  long.;  it  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  British  districts  of  Banda, 
Allahabad,  and  Mirzapur  in  the  North- Western  Provinces ; 
on  the  E.  by  Mirzapur  district  and  by  native  states  in 
Chutia-Nagpur  ;  on  the  S.  by  the  districts  of  Chhatisgarh, 
Mandla,  and  Jabalpur  in  the  Central  Provinces ;  and  on 
the  W.  by  other  native  states  of  Bhagelkhand.  Rewah 
state  is  divided  into  two  well-defined  portions.  The 
northern  and  smaller  division  is  the  plateau  lying  between 
the  Kaimur  range  of  hills  and  that  portion  of  the  Vindhyas 

3  The  view  here  put  forward  as  to  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse  is 
further  recommended  by  its  agreement  with  the  general  history  of  early 
Christian  literature  in  the  church.  Originally  writings  derived  their 
authority  from  the  nature  of  their  contents,  afterwards  from  their 
author.  When  writings  by  obscure  persons  were  intended  to  attract 
attention,  it  was  necessary  to  pass  them  off  under  the  names  of  celebri- 
ties ;  see  Harnack,  Die  Lehre  der  12  Apostel,  p.  106  sq. 


502 


R  E  Y  — R  E  Y 


known  as  Binjh,  which  overlook  the  valley  of  the  Ganges. 
This  plateau  is   for   the   most  part   cultivated  and  well 
peopled;    the   soil  varies  from  a  rich  black  loam   to   a 
sandy  laterite ;  but  in  the  greater  part  of  this  area  good 
land  predominates,  and  rich  harvests  both  of  kharif  and 
rabi  crops  are  generally  obtained.     Water  is  plentiful,  and 
the  country  is  full  of  large  tanks  and  reservoirs,  which, 
however,  are  not  used  for  irrigation  purposes;  the  only 
system  of  wet  cultivation  which  has  any  favour  with  the 
villagers  is  that  of  bandhs,  or  mounds  of  earth  raised  at 
the  lower  ends  of  sloping  fields  to  retain  the  rain  water 
for  some  time  after  the  monsoon  rains  cease.     The  Rewah 
plateau  is  reported  to  possess  every  natural  advantage,  and 
the  whole  of  its  area  could  be  brought  under  rich  culti- 
vation.    The  country  to  the  south  of  the  Kaimur  Hills 
comprises  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  state;   but 
here   cultivation  is  restricted   to  the  valley  between  the 
hills  and  the  Sone  river,  and  to  a  few  isolated  patches  in 
scattered  parts  of  the  wild  and  magnificent  forest  wastes. 
Rewah  is  rich  in  minerals  and  forests.     Operations  lately 
undertaken  to  determine  the  extent  of  its  coal  fields  have 
proved   highly  successful.      Until   very   recently  Rewah 
possessed  no  roads  to  speak  of  or  means  of  internal  com- 
munication ;   but  good  progress  is  now  being  made,  and 
by  this  means  it  is  anticipated  that  the  state  will  soon 
develop   its   rich  resources.     The  principal   river  is  the 
;Sone,  which,  receiving  the  Mahanadi  from  the  south,  flows 
through  the  state  in  a  north  and  north-easterly  direction 
into  Mirzapur  district ;    another  important  river  is  the 
Tons  ;  but  none  of  the  rivers  are  navigable.     The  average 
rainfall  at  Rewah  is  about  57^  inches. 

*>  The  population  of  the  state  in  1881  was  1,305,124  (654,182 
tnales,  650,942  females)  ;  Hindus  in  the  same  year  numbered 
971,788,  Mohammedans  31,107,  and  aboriginals  302,107.  The 
inhabitants  of  Rewah  are  reported  to  be  a  singularly  simple, 
pleasant,  and  well-disposed  race,  and  they  greatly  appreciate  the 
efforts  which  are  now  being  made  to  benefit  them.  The  revenue 
of  the  state  in  1882-83  amounted  to  £110,946,  of  which  the  land 
contributed  £71,798.  The  chief  town  is  Rewah,  situated  in 
24°  31'  30"  N.  lat.  and  81°  20'  E.  long.,  and  containing  in  1S81  a 
population  of  22,016. 

The  state  came  under  British  influence  in  1812,  when  the  first 
formal  treaty  was  made  with  Jai  Sink  Deo,  by  which  he  was 
acknowledged  as  ruler  of  his  dominions  and  was  brought  under 
the  protection  of  the  British  Government.  The  raja,  however, 
failed  to  fulfil  his  obligations,  and  a  second  treaty  was  made  con- 
firming the  first  and  defining  more  clearly  his  relations  with  the 
British  Government.  The  administration  of  Rewah  is  now  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  British  owing  to  the  death  of  the  maharaja 
Raghuraj  Sinh  and  the  succession  of  his  infant  son. 

REYNOLDS,  SIR  JOSHUA  (1723-1792),  English  por- 
"trait-painter,  was  born  at  Plympton  Earl,  in  Devon- 
shire, on  July  16,  1723.  He  was  educated  by  his 
father,  a  clergyman  and  the  master  of  the  free  grammar 
school  of  the  place,  who  designed  his  son  for  the  medical 
profession.  But  the  boy  showed  a  distinct  preference 
for  painting.  He  was  constantly  copying  the  plates  in 
Dryden's  Plutarch  and  Cat's  Emblems,  and  poring  over 
Jonathan  Richardson's  Treatise  on  Art.  At  the  age  of 
eight,  aided  by  the  instructions  in  The  Jesuit's  Perspective, 
he  made  a  sufficiently  correct  drawing  of  the  Plympton 
schoolhouse,  which  greatly  astonished  his  father.  It  was 
at  length  decided  that  the  lad  should  devote  himself  to  art, 
and  in  October  1741  he  proceeded  to  London  to  study 
under  Thomas  Hudson,  a  mediocre  artist,  a  native  of  Devon- 
shire, who  was  popular  in  the  metropolis  as  a  portrait 
painter.  Reynolds  remained  with  Hudson  for  only  two 
years,  acquiring  with  uncommon  aptitude  the  technicalities 
of  the  craft,  and  in  1743  he  returned  to  Devonshire, 
where,  settling  at  Plymouth  Dock,  he  employed  himself  in 
portrait  painting.  By  the  end  of  1744  he  was  again  in 
London.  He  was  well  received  by  his  old  master,  from 
whom  he  appears  previously  to  have  parted  with  some  cold- 


ness on  both  sides.  Hudson  introduced  him  to  the  artists' 
club  that  met  in  Old  Slaughters,  St  Martin's  Lane,  and  gave 
him  much  advice  as  to  his  work.  Reynolds  now  painted 
his  portraits  of  Captain  Hamilton,  father  of  the  marquis 
of  Abercorn,  of  Mrs  Field,  of  Alderman  Tracey,  now  in  the 
Plymouth  Athenaeum,  and  of  the  notorious  Miss  Chudleigh, 
afterwards  duchess  of  Kingston.  To  this  period,  or  per- 
haps to  one  slightly  later,  is  referable  the  artist's  excellent 
oval  bust  portrait  of  himself,  which  was  included  in  the 
Grosvenor  Gallery  Exhibition  of  1884.  At  Christmas 
1746  he  was  recalled  to  Plympton  to  attend  the  last  hours 
of  his  father,  after  whose  death  he  again  established  him- 
self, now  with  two  of  his  sisters,  at  Plymouth  Dock,  where 
he  painted  portraits,  and,  as  he  has  himself  recorded, 
derived  much  instruction  from  an  examination  of  some 
works  by  William  Gandy  of  Exeter,  whose  broad  and 
forcible  execution  must  have  been  an  excellent  corrective 
to  the  example  of  Hudson's  dry  and  hard  method. 

Meanwhile  the  pleasant  urbanity  of  manner  which  dis- 
tinguished Reynolds  throughout  life  had  been  .winning  for 
him  friends.  He  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Lord 
Edgcumbe,  and  by  him  was  introduced  to  Captain  (after- 
wards Viscount  Keppel),  who  was  to  play  an  important  and 
helpful  part  in  the  career  of  the  young  painter.  Keppel  was 
soon  made  aware  of  Reynolds's  ardent  desire  to  visit  Italy ; 
and,  as  he  had  just  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Mediterranean  squadron,  he  gracefully  invited  the  artist  to 
accompany  him  in  his  own  ship,  the  "  Centurion."  The 
offer  was  gladly  accepted.  While  Keppel  was  conducting 
his  tedious  negotiations  with  the  dey  of  Algiers,  relative 
to  the  piracy  with  which  that  potentate  was  charged, 
Reynolds  resided  at  Port  Mahon,  the  guest  of  the  governor 
of  Minorca,  painting  portraits  of  the  principal  inhabitants ; 
and,  in  December  1749,  he  sailed  for  Leghorn,  and  thence, 
with  all  eagerness,  made  his  way  to  Rome. 

He  has  confessed  that  his  first  sight  of  the  works  of 
Raphael  was  a  grievous  disappointment,  and  that  it 
required  lengthened  study  before  he  could  appreciate  the 
correctness  and  grace  of  the  master.  By  the  dignity  and 
imagination  of  Michelangelo  he  was  deeply  impressed  ; 
to  the  end  of  life  the  great  Florentine  remained  for 
Reynolds  the  supreme  figure  in  art ;  his  name  was  con- 
stantly upon  his  lips,  and,  as  he  had  wished,  it  was  the  last 
that  he  pronounced  to  the  students  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
Of  the  influence  of  Correggio,  of  his  sweetness  of  expression, 
of  his  method  of  chiaroscuro,  we  find  frequent  traces  in  the 
works  of  Sir  Joshua,  especially  in  his  paintings  of  children  ; 
but  after  all  it  was  from  the  Venetians  that  the  English 
painter  learned  most.  His  own  strongest  instincts  were 
towards  richness  and  splendour  of  colour,  and  in  these 
qualities  he  found  unsurpassable  examples  in  the  produc- 
tions of  Titian  and  Veronese. 

While  in  Rome  he  avoided,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
temptation  to  spend  his  time  in  copying  specific  pictures, 
which  he  considered  "  a  delusive  kind  of  industry,"  by 
which  "  the  student  satisfies  himself  with  an  appearance  of 
doing  something,  and  falls  into  the  dangerous  habit  of 
imitating  without  selecting."  His  method  of  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  old  masters,  and  of  assimilating  their 
excellences,  was  by  diligent  examination  and  comparison, 
aided  by  studies  of  general  effect  and  of  individual  parts. 
His  knowledge  of  the  Roman  art  treasures  was  dearly 
purchased.  While  working  in  the  corridors  of  the  Vatican 
he  caught  a  severe  cold,  which  resulted  in  the  deafness 
that  clung  to  him  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  rendered 
necessary  the  ear-trumpet  which  he  used  in  conversation. 

After  a  residence  of  two  years  in  Rome,  Reynolds,  in 
the  spring  of  1752,  spent  four  months  in  visiting  Parma, 
Florence,  Venice,  and  other  important  cities  of  Italy;  and, 
after  a  brief  stay  in  Devonshire,  he  established  himself  as 


REYNOLDS 


503 


a  portrait  painter  in  St  Martin's  Lane,  London,  whence 
he  afterwards  removed  to  Great  Newport  Street,  and 
finally,  in  1760,  to  Leicester  Square,  where  he  continued 
to  paint  till  his  death. 

His  first  reception  on  his  return  was  hardly  a  favourable 
one.  Hudson  called  to  see  his  productions  and  told 
him,  "  Reynolds,  you  don't  paint  so  well  as  when  you 
left  England."  Ellis,  another  accepted  portrait  painter 
of  the  time,  who  had  studied  under  Kneller,  exclaimed, 
"  This  will  never  answer.  Why,  you  don't  paint  in  the 
least  like  Sir  Godfrey," — adding,  as  he  abruptly  left  the 
room,  "  Shakespeare  in  poetry,  Kneller  in  painting."  The 
verdict  of  the  public,  however,  was  all  on  the  side  of  the 
young  innovator.  Lord  Edgcumbe  played  the  part  of 
the  generous  patron,  and  exerted  himself  to  obtain  com- 
missions for  his  protege,  of  whose  ability  the  portraits 
which  he  now  produced — of  the  duchess  of  Hamilton, 
the  countess  of  Coventry,  Lord  Holderness,  and  especially 
of  his  old  friend  Keppel — were  sufficient  guarantee.  The 
artist's  painting-room  was  thronged  with  the  wealth  and 
fashion  of  London,  "  with  women  who  wished  to  be  trans- 
mitted as  angels,  and  with  men  who  wished  to  appear  as 
heroes  and  philosophers  " ;  and  he  was  already  afloat  upon 
that  tide  of  prosperity  which  never  ebbed  till  the  day  of 
his  death.  Various  other  artists  contested  with  him  for 
popular  applause.  First  the  Swiss  Liotard  had  his 
moment  of  popularity ;  and  at  a  later  period  there  was 
Opie,  and  the  more  formidable  and  sustained  rivalry  of 
Gainsborough  and  of  Romney ;  but  in  the  midst  of  all, 
then  as  now,  Reynolds  maintained  an  admitted  supremacy. 
And,  if  the  magic  of  his  brush  brought  him  crowds  of 
sitters,  his  charm  qf-  manner  gathered  round  him  numerous 
friends.  During  the  first  year  of  his  residence  in  London 
he  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Dr  Johnson,  which, 
diverse  as  the  two  men  were,  became  a  friendship  for  life. 
To  him  Burke  and  Goldsmith,  Garrick,  Sterne,  Bishop 
Percy,  and,  it  seems,  Hogarth,  were  before  long  added. 
At  the  hospitable  dinner  table  of  Reynolds  such  distin- 
guished men  enjoyed  the  freest  and  most  unconstrained 
companionship,  and  most  of  them  were  members  of  the 
"Literary  Club,"  established,  at  the  painter's  suggestion, 
in  1764. 

In  1760  the  London  world  of  art  was  greatly  interested 
by  the  novel  proposal  of  the  Society  of  Artists  to  exhibit 
their  works  to  the  public.  The  hall  of  the  society  was  at 
their  disposal  for  the  purpose ;  and  in  the  month  of  April 
an  exceedingly  successful  exhibition  was  opened,  the  pre- 
cursor of  many  that  followed.  To  this  display  Reynolds 
contributed  four  portraits.  In  1765  the  association 
obtained  a  royal  charter,  and  became  known  as  "  The 
Incorporated  Society  of  Artists";  but  much  rivalry  and 
jealousy  was  occasioned  by  the  management  of  the  various 
exhibitions,  and  an  influential  body  of  painters  withdrew 
from  the  society,  and  proceeded  to  consider  the  steps  that 
should  be  taken  in  order  that  their  corporate  existence 
might  be  recognized.  They  had  access  to  the  young  king, 
George  III.,  who  promised  his  patronage  and  help.  In 
December  1768  the  Royal  Academy  was  founded,  and 
Reynolds  was  elected,  by  acclamation,  its  first  president, 
an  honour  which  more  than  compensated  for  his  failure  to 
obtain  the  appointment  of  king's  painter,  which,  the  pre- 
vious year,  had  been  bestowed  on  Allan  Ramsay,  a  more 
courtly  but  more  commonplace  artist.  In  a  few  months 
the  king  signified  his  approval  of  the  election  by  knighting 
the  new  president,  and  intimating  that  the  queen  and 
himself  would  honour  him  with  sittings  for  portraits  to  be 
presented  to  the  Academy. 

Reynolds  was  fitted  for  his  new  position  no  less  by  his 
urbane  and  courteous  manner  and  by  his  wide  general 
culture  than  by  his  eminence  as  an  artist.  With  unwearied 


assiduity,  with  unfailing  tact,  he  devoted  himself  to 
furthering  the  interests  of  the  new  Academy.  It  was  at 
his  suggestion  that  the  annual  banquet  was  instituted. 
To  the  specified  duties  of  his  post  he  added  the  delivery 
of  a  presidential  address  at  the  distribution  of  the  prizes, 
and  his  speeches  on  these  occasions  form  the  well-known 
"  discourses "  of  Sir  Joshua.  Expressed  as  they  are 
with  simple  *  elegance  and  perspicuous  directness,  these 
discourses  alone  would  be  sufficient  to  entitle  their  author 
to  literary  distinction ;  indeed,  when  they  were  first 
delivered,  it  was  thought  impossible  that  they  could  be 
the  production  of  a  painter,  and  Johnson  and  Burke  have 
been  credited  with  their  composition,  in  spite  of  the 
specific  denials  of  both,  and  of  Dr  Johnson's  indignant 
exclamation — "Sir  Joshua,  sir,  would  as  soon  get  me  to 
paint  for  him  as  to  write  for  him  ! " 

In  the  unwearied  pursuit  of  his  art,  and  in  the  calm 
enjoyment  of  his  varied  friendships,  Sir  Joshua's  life 
flowed  on  peacefully  and  happily  enough.  He  was  too 
prosperous  and  successful  an  artist  altogether  to  escape 
the  jealousy  of  his  less  fortunate  and  less  capable  brethren, 
and  he  suffered  in  this  way  sometimes,  especially  from 
the  attacks  of  Barry,  a  painter  who  lived  long  enough 
to  regret  and,  so  far  as  he  was  able,  to  rectify  his 
fault.  In  1784,  on  the  death  of  Ramsay,  Reynolds  was 
appointed  painter  to  the  king.  Two  years  previously  he 
had  suffered  from  a  paralytic  attack ;  but,  after  a  month 
of  rest,  he  was  able  to  resume  his  painting  with  unabated 
energy  and  power.  In  the  summer  of  1789  his  sight 
began  to  fail ;  he  was  affected  by  the  gutta  serena,  but  the 
progress  of  the  malady  was  gradual,  and  he  continued 
occasionally  to  practise  his  art  till  about  the  end  of  1790. 
His  last  years  were  embittered  by  a  most  unfortunate 
disagreement  with  the  Royal  Academy,  relative  to  the 
appointment  of  a  professor  of  perspective.  Under  the 
impression  that  there  was  a  conspiracy  against  him  among 
the  various  members,  he  signified  his  intention  of  leaving 
the  presidential  chair,  a  resignation  which  he  was  after- 
wards induced  to  withdraw,  and  his  final  discourse  was 
delivered  on  the  10th  December  1790.  He  was  still  able 
to  enjoy  the  companionship  of  his  friends,  and  he  exerted 
himself  in  an  effort  to  raise  funds  for  the  erection  of  a 
monument  in  St  Paul's  to  Dr  Johnson,  who  had  died  in 
1784.  Towards  the  end  of  1791  it  was  evident  to  the 
friends  of  Reynolds  that  he  was  gradually  sinking.  For  a 
few  months  he  suffered  from  extreme  depression  of  spirits, 
the  result  of  a  severe  form  of  liver  complaint,  and  on  the 
23d  February  1792  this  great  artist  and  blameless  gentle- 
man passed  peacefully  away. 

Reynolds' s  first  discourse  deals  with  the  establishment  of  an 
academy  for  the  fine  arts,  and  of  its  value  as  being  a  repository 
of  the  traditions  of  the  best  of  bygone  practice,  of  "  the  principles 
which  many  artists  have  spent  their  lives  in  ascertaining. "  In  the 
second  lecture  the  study  of  the  painter  is  divided  into  three  stages, 
— in  the  first  of  which  he  is  busied  with  processes  and  technicalities, 
with  the  grammar  of  art,  while  in  the  second  he  examines  what 
has  been  done  by  other  artists,  and  in  the  _last  compares  these 
results  with  nature  herself.  In  the  third  discourse  Reynolds  treats 
of  "the  great  and  leading  principles  of  the  grand  style";  and 
succeeding  addresses  are  devoted  to  such  subjects  as  "Moderation," 
"Taste,"  "Genius,"  and  "Sculpture."  The  fourteenth  has  an 
especial  interest  as  containing  an  appreciative  but  discriminating 
notice  of  Gainsborough,  who  had  died  shortly  before  its  delivery  ; 
while  the  concluding  discourse  is  mainly  occupied  with  a  panegyric 
on  Michelangelo. 

The  other  literary  works  of  the  president  comprise  his  three 
essays  in  The  Idler  for  1759-60  ("  On  the  Grand  Style  in  Painting," 
and  "  On  the  True  Idea  of  Beauty  "),  his  notes  to  Du  Fresnoy's  Art 
of  Painting,  his  I&marks  on  the  Art  of  the  Low  Countries,  his 
brief  notes  in  Johnson's  Shak&yxarc,  and  two  singularly  witty  and 
brilliant  fragments,  imaginary  conversations  with  Johnson,  whicli 
were  never  intended  by  their  author  for  publication,  but,  found 
among  his  papers  after  his  death,  were  given  to  the  world  by  his 
niece,  the  marchioness  of  Thomond. 

But  the  literary  works  of  Reynolds,  excellent  as  these  arc,  were 


504 


R  H  A  — R  H 


the  occupation  of  his  mere  bye  hours  and  times  of  leisure.  The  main 
effort  of  his  life  was  directed  to  painting,  a  pursuit  which,  as  he  was 
never  weary  of  impressing  on  younger  artists,  was  enough  to  occupy 
a  man's  whole  time,  even  were  it  longer  than  it  is,  and  to  call  forth 
his  utmost  energy.  The  unceasing  application,  perseverance,  and 
assiduity  which  form  the  recurrent  burden  of  Reynold's  discourses 
found  the  most  complete  illustration  in  his  own  career.  He  laid 
it  down  as  a  distinct  principle  that  each  fresh  portrait  to  which 
he  set  his  hand  should  excel  the  last,  arid  no  effort  was  wanting 
to  realize  this  aim.  In  his  search  for  perfection  he  would  paint 
and  repaint  a  subject ;  when  a  visitor  asked  how  a  certain  portion 
of  the  infant  Hercules  had  been  executed,  he  replied,  "  How  can  1 
tell !  There  are  ten  pictures  below  this,  some  bettor,  some  worse." 
A  method  like  this  contrasts  curiously  with  the  swift  certainty  of 
Gainsborough's  practice,  but  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  produc- 
tions of  Reynolds  have  an  abiding  charm  that  is  wanting  in  the 
exquisite  but  slighter  and  more  mannered  work  of  his  great  rival. 
In  range,  too,  of  subject,  as  well  as  of  method,  the  art  of  Sir  Joshua 
has  by  far  the  wider  reach.  "How  various  the  man  is,"  said 
Gainsborough  once,  after  he  had  been  examining  the  president's 
portraits  hung  in  an  Academy  exhibition  ;  and  the  remark  gains 
an  added  point  and  emphasis  when  we  compare  the  paintings  of 
Reynolds  with  Gainsborough's  own. 

In  the  work  which  the  painter  produced  shortly  after  his  return 
from  Italy — in  the  Lady  Cathcart  and  her  Daughter  of  1755,  the 
Lady  Elizabeth  Montague  and  the  George,  Earl  of  Warwick,  of 
1756,  and  the  Countess  of  Hyndford  of  1757 — we  find  a  certain 
dignity  and  elegance  of  pose  and  arrangement  which  bears  witness 
to  his  foreign  studies,  joined  to  some  coldness  of  colour,  hardness 
of  execution,  and  insistance  on  definiteness  of  outline,  which  con- 
trasts with  the  sweet  felicity  and  tenderness  of  his  fully  developed 
manner,  with  its  perfect  colour,  and  its  form  which  is  lost  and 
found  again  in  an  exquisite  mystery.  But  soon  all  that  is  tenta- 
tive and  immature  disappears  from  his  works.  In  1758  we  have 
the  gracious  and  winning  full-length  of  Elizabeth  Gunning, 
Duchess  of  Hamilton,  and  the  stately  Duke  of  Cumberland,  followed 
in  1760  by  the  Kitty  Fisher,  and  a  host  of  admirable  portraits  in 
which  the  men  and  women  and  children  of  the  time  live  still  before 
our  eyes,  each  possessed  with  a  nameless  dignity,  or  grace,  or 
sweetness.  As  the  artist  advanced  towards  old  age  his  hand  only 
gained  in  power,  his  colour  in  richness  and  splendour ;  his 
works  show  no  decadence  till  the  day  when  he  finally  laid  aside  his 
brush.  We  have  nothing  finer  from  his  hand  than  the  Mrs  Nesbitt 
as  Circe  of  1781,  the  Mrs  Siddons  as  The  Tragic  Muse  of  1784,  the 
Duchess  of  Devonshire  and  her  Child  of  1786,  and  the  Infant 
Hercules  and  the  Miss  Gawtkin  as  Simplicity  of  1788. 

In  the  midst  of  his  constant  practice  as  a  portrait-painter 
Reynolds  was  true  to  his  early  admiration  of  "the  grand  style," 
to  his  veneration  for  the  old  masters  of  Italy,  to  his  belief  that  the 
imaginative  paths  which  these  men  pursued  were  the  highest  ways 
of  art.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  last  Academy  discourse,  while 
speaking  of  Michelangelo,  he  breaks  forth  with  uncontrollable 
emotion,  "Were  I  now  to  begin  the  world  again,  I  would  tread 
in  the  steps  of  that  great  master  ;  to  kiss  the  hem  of  his  garment, 
to  catch  the  slightest  of  his  perfections,  would  be  glory  and  dis- 
tinction enough  for  an  ambitious  man." 

From  the  Italians  Reynolds  conveyed  into  his  own  portrait- 
subjects  a  dignity  and  a  grace,  along  with  a  power  of  colour,  which 
were  previously  unknown  in  English  art  ;  but  he  essayed  also  to 
follow  them  into  their  own  exalted  and  imaginative  paths,  to  paint 
Holy  Families  and  Nativities,  to  picture  the  cardinal  virtues,  and 
to  realize  the  conceptions  of  the  poets.  But  the  English  portrait- 
painter  wanted  the  visionary  power  necessary  for  such  tasks ;  his 
productions  of  this  class  form  the  least  interesting  portion  of  his 
work.  They  are  most  successful  when  the  symbolism  and  the 
allegory  in  them  are  of  the  slightest,  when  the  human  element  is 
the  main  attraction,  when  he  paints  as  cherub  faces  five  different 
views  of  the  countenance  of  one  living  English  girl,  or  titles  as 
"Simplicity"  his  portrait  of  Offy  Gawtkin  or  as  "Hebe"  his 
portrait  of  Miss  Meyer.  His  series  of  "  The  Virtues,"  designed  for 
the  window  of  New  College,  Oxford,  show  simply  studies  of  grace- 
ful women,  lightly  draped,  and  pleasantly  posed.  His  Macbeth 
and  his  Cardinal  Beaufort  have  no  real  impressiveness,  no  true 
terror  ;  and  the  finest  of  the  subjects  that  he  painted  for  Boydell's 
Shakespeare  is  the  Puck,  in  which  the  artist's  inspiration  was 
caught,  not  from  the  realms  of  imagination  or  fancy,  but  from 
observation  of  the  child  nature  which  he  knew  and  loved. 

Much  has  been  said  regarding  the  recklessness  and  want  of  care 
for  permanency  which  characterized  the  technical  methods  of  Sir 
Joshua.  While  he  insisted  that  his  pupils  should  follow  only  sucli 
ways  of  work  as  were  well  known  anil  had  been  tested  by  time,  he 
was  himself  most  varying  and  unsettled  in  his  practice.  In  his 
earnest  desire  for  excellence  he  tried  all  known  processes,  and  made 
all  kiuds  of  fantastic  experiments.  He  was  firmly  convinced  that 
the  old  masters  were  possessed  of  technical  secrets  which  had  been 
lost  in  later  times,  and  he  even  scraped  the  surfaces  from  portions 
of  valuable  works  by  Titian  and  Rubens  in  the  vain  attempt  to 


probe  the  mystery.  In  his  efforts  to  attain  the  utmost  possible 
power  and  brilliancy  of  hue  he  made  use  of  pigments  which  are 
admittedly  the  reverse  of  stable  and  permanent,  he  worked  with 
dangerous  vehicles,  he  employed  both  colours  and  varnishes  which 
in  combination  are  antagonistic.  Orpiment  was  mingled  with 
white  lead  ;  wax-medium,  egg-varnish,  and  asphaltum  were  freely 
used  ;  and,  when  we  read  the  account  of  his  strangely  Imp-hazard 
methods,  we  are  ready  to  echo  Haydon's  exclamation — "The 
wonder  is  that  the  picture  did  not  crack  beneath  the  brush  !"  and 
are  prepared  for  such  a  sight  of  the  vanishing  ghosts  of  master- 
pieces as  was  afforded  by  so  many  works  in  the  Reynolds  Exhibition 
at  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  in  1884.  Our  only  consolation  lies  in 
the  truth  expressed  by  Sir  George  Beaumont,  when  his  recommen- 
dation of  Sir  Joshua  for  the  execution  of  a  certain  work  was  met 
by  the  objection  that  his  colours  faded,  that  he  "  made  his  pictures 
die  before  the  man."  "Never  mind,"  said  Sir  George,  "  a  faded 
portrait  by  Reynolds  is  better  than  a  fresh  one  by  anybody  else." 

See  Malone,  The  Works  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Knight  (3  vols.,  1798);  North- 
cote,  Memoirs  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Knight,  <tc.  (1813);  Farrir.gton,  Memoirs 
of  the  Life  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  (1819) ;  Beechy,  Literary  Works  of  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  (1835);  Cotton,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and  his  Workt  (edited  by  Burnet, 
1856);  Leslie  and  Taylor,  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Joshua  Jleynoldt  (2  vols.  1865); 
and  Redgrave,  A  Century  of  English  Painters,  vol.  i.  (1S6G).  (J.  M.  G.) 

KHADAMANTHUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of  Zeus 
and  Europa  and  brother  of  Minos,  king  of  Crete.  At  first 
he  helped  his  brother  to  rule  his  island  empire.  His  justice 
earned  him  the  admiration  of  his  subjects  and  the  jealousy 
of  his  brother,  wherefore  he  fled  to  Boeotia,  where  he  wedded 
Alcmene.  On  account  of  his  inflexible  integrity  he  was 
made  one  of  the  judges  of  the  dead  in  the  other  world. 
According  to  Plato,  Rhadamanthus  judged  the  souls  of 
Asiatics,  while  ./Eacus  judged  those  of  Europeans,  and 
when  they  could  not  agree  Minos  had  a  casting  vote. 

RELETIA  was  the  name  given  in  ancient  times  to  a 
province  of  the  Roman  empire,  which  included  a  consider- 
able tract  of  the  Alpine  regions  that  separated  the  great 
valleys  of  the  Po  and  the  Danube,  comprising  the  districts 
occupied  in  modern  times  by  the  Grisons  and  the  Austrian 
province  of  Tyrol.  Before  their  subjugation  by  Rome  the 
Rhsetians  are  described  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  and 
warlike  of  the  Alpine  tribes;  but  little  or  nothing  is  known 
as  to  their  origin  and  history.  It  is  indeed  stated  distinctly 
by  Livy  (v.  33)  that  they  were  of  Etruscan  origin,  and  a 
tradition  reported  by  Justin  (xx.  5)  and  Pliny  (H.N.,  iii. 
24,  133)  affirmed  that  they  were  a  portion  of  that  people 
who  had  been  settled  in  the  plains  of  the  Po  and  were 
driven  into  the  mountains  by  the  irruption  of  the  Gauls, 
when  they  assumed  the  name  of  Rhsetians  from  a  leader 
of  the  name  of  Rhsetus.  Very  little  value  can,  however,  be 
attached  to  such  traditions,  and  the  attempts  of  some 
modern  writers  to  support  them  by  philological  researches 
have  led  to  no  satisfactory  result.  But  the  ethnical 
connexion  of  the  Rhaetians  with  the  Etruscans  has  been 
accepted  by  Nisbuhr,  and  its  general  reception  by  the 
Romans  would  seem  to  prove  that  they  were  a  distinct 
race  from  their  neighbours  the  Ligurians  as  well  as  from 
the  Gauls  and  Germans. 

The  name  of  the  Rhsetians  is  first  mentioned  by 
Polybius,  but  merely  incidentally,  and  they  played  no  part 
in  Roman  history  till  after  the  fall  of  the  republic.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  they  continued  virtually  independent 
until  Augustus  undertook  their  subjugation,  in  common 
with  that  of  the  neighbouring  Alpine  tribes  bordering  upon 
Italy.  The  importance  he  attached  to  this  task  is  shown 
by  his  having  deputed  its  execution  to  his  two  step-sons, 
Drusus  and  Tiberius,  who  in  a  single  campaign  reduced 
them  all  to  subjection  (15  B.C.),  so  that  their  territory  was 
shortly  after  incorporated  as  a  province  in  the  Roman 
empire  and  their  name  never  again  appears  in  history. 
The  exploits  of  the  imperial  youths  on  this  occasion  have 
been  immortalized  in  two  well-known  odes  of  Horace  (Od., 
iv.  4  and  14).  In  the  time  of  Strabo  their  territory  was 
considered  as  extending  from  the  Lakes  of  Como  and  Garda 
to  that  of  Constance  (the  Lacus  Brigantinus),  while  the 
allied  people  of  the  Vindelici,  who  had  shared  in  their 


R  H  A  — R  H  E 


505 


contest  against  the  Roman  arms,  as  well  as  in  their  final 
subjugation,  extended  down  the  northern  slope  of  the  Alps 
as  far  as  the  Danube.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  this 
extensive  region  was  occupied  by  rugged  mountains,  the 
inhabitants  of  which,  when  compelled  to  abandon  their 
predatory  habits,  subsisted  principally  upon  the  produce 
of  their  flocks.  Some  of  the  valleys,  however,  which 
extended  on  the  south  side  down  to  the  plains  of  Italy, 
were  rich  and  fertile,  and  produced  excellent  wine,  which 
was  considered  equal  to  any  of  those  grown  in  Italy  itself. 
The  most  important  of  these  valleys  was  that  of  the  Adige, 
which  descends  from  the  high  Alps  adjoining  the  Brenner 
to  Verona ;  of  this  the  upper  portions  were  held  by  the 
Breuni,  whose  name  is  still  perpetuated  in  that  of  the 
Brenner,  while  the  lower  and  more  fertile  region  was 
occupied  by  the  Tridentini,  whose  chief  town  of  Tridentum 
was  the  same  as  the  now  celebrated  city  of  Trent.  The 
next  people  towards  the  west  were  the  Triumpilini,  in  the 
valley  still  known  as  Val  Trompia ;  the  Camuni  in  Val 
Camonica ;  the  Orobii,  who  appear  to  have  occupied  the  Val 
Tellina  and  adjoining  districts ;  and  the  Lepontii,  between 
the  Lago  Maggiore  and  the  Pennine  Alps/  The  tribes  in 
the  interior  and  heart  of  the  mountain  ranges  cannot  be  for 
the  most  part  assigned  to  definite  localities.  The  Genauni, 
mentioned  by  Horace  as  well  as  by  Strabo,  are  supposed 
to  have  occupied  the  Val  di  Non,  and  the  Vennones  or 
Venostes  the  lofty  ranges  near  the  source  of  the  Adige. 

The  boundaries  of  the  Roman  province  were  repeatedly 
changed.  At  first  it  appears  to  have  comprised  all  Vinde- 
licia,  so  as  to  have  extended  to  the  Danube  from  its 
sources  to  its  confluence  with  the  Inn,  which  constituted  its 
eastern  boundary  on  the  side  of  Noricum.  But  at  a  later 
period  this  northern  tract  was  separated  from  the  central 
mountain  region,  and  the  two  were  named  Rhaetia  Prima  and 
Rhaetia  Secunda,  in  which  form  they  appear  in  the  Notitia. 
At  the  same  time  the  southern  valleys  were  gradually 
incorporated  with  Italy  and  assigned  to  the  territory  of  the 
neighbouring  municipal  towns.  Thus  Tridentum,  which 
was  originally  a  Rhastian  town,  came  to  be  included  in 
Venetia,  and  is  ass.igned  by  Pliny  to  the  tenth  region  of 
Italy.  The  only  important  town  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
province  was  the  Roman  colony  of  Augusta  Vindelicorum, 
which  still  retains  the  name  of  Augsburg.  The  same  is 
the  case  with  Curia,  now  Chur  or  Coire,  the  capital  of  the 
Grisons,  and  Brigantia(Bregenz),  which  gave  name  in  ancient 
times  to  the  lake  now  called  the  Lake  of  Constance. 

The  province  of  Rhaetia  was  traversed  by  two  great 
lines  of  Roman  roads, — the  one  leading  from  Verona  and 
Tridentum  (Trent)  across  the  pass  of  the  Brenner  to  Inns- 
bruck (Pons  (Eni),  and  thence  to  Augsburg  (Augusta  Vin- 
delicorum), and  the  other  from  Bregenz  on  the  Lake  of 
Constance,  by  Coire  and  Chiavenna,  to  Como  and  Milan. 

RHAPSODIST.     See  HOMER,  vol.  xii.  p.  109  sq. 

RHAZES.     See  MEDICINE,  vol.  xv.  p.  805. 

RHEA,  the  name  given  in  1752  by  Mohring l  to  a 
South-American  bird  which,  though  long  before  known  and 
described  by  the  earlier  writers — Nieremberg,  Marcgrave, 
and  Piso  (the  last  of  whom  has  a  recognizable  but  rude 
figure  of  it) — had  been  without  any  distinctive  scientific 
appellation.  Adopted  a  few  years  later  by  Brisson,  the 
name  has  since  passed  into  general  use,  especially  among 
English  authors,  for  what  their  predecessors  had  called  the 
American  Ostrich ;  but  on  the  European  continent  the 
bird  is  commonly  called  Nandu?  a  word  corrupted  from  a 

1  What  prompted  his  bestowal  of  this  name,  so  well  known  in 
classical  mythology,  is  not  apparent. 

2  The  name  Touyou,  also  of  South-American  origin,  was  applied  to 
it  by  Brisson  and  others,  but  erroneously,  as  Cuvier  shews,  since  by 
that   name,  or  something  like  it,    the  JABIRU  (vol.  xiii.  p.  529)  is 
properly  meant. 


name  it  is  said  to  have  borne  among  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  Brazil,  where  the  Portuguese  settlers  called 
it  Ema  (cf.  EMEU,  vol.  viii.  p.  171).  The  resemblance  of 
the  Rhea  to  the  OSTRICH  (vol.  xviii.  p.  62)  was  at  once 
perceived,  but  the  differences  between  them  were  scarcely 
less  soon  noticed,  for  some  of  them  are  very  evident.  The 
former,  for  instance,  has  three  instead  of  two  toes  on  each 
foot,  it  has  no  apparent  tail  nor  the  showy  wing-plumes  of 
the  latter,  and  its  head  and  neck  are  clothed  with  feathers, 
while  internal  distinctions  of  still  deeper  significance 
have  since  been  dwelt  upon  by  Prof.  Huxley  (Proc.  Zool. 
Society,  1867,  pp.  420-422)  and  the  late  Mr  W.  A.  Forbes 
(op.  cit.,  1881,  pp.  784-787),  thus  justifying  the  separation 
of  these  two  forms  more  widely  even  than  as  Families ; 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  should  be  regarded 
as  types  of  as  many  Orders — Stmthiones  and  Rhese, — of 


Rhea. 

the  Subclass  Ratitx?  Structural  characters  no  less  im- 
portant separate  the  Rheas  from  the  Emeus,  and,  apart  from 
their  very  different  physiognomy,  the  former  can  be  readily 
recognized  by  the  rounded  form  of  their  contour-feathers, 
which  want  the  hyporrhachis  or  after-shaft  that  in  the  Emeus 
and  Cassowaries  is  so  long  as  to  equal  the  main  shaft,  and 
contributes  to  give  these  latter  groups  the  appearance  of 
being  covered  with  shaggy  hair.  Though  the  Rhea  is  not 
decked  with  the  graceful  plumes  which  adorn  the  Ostrich, 
its  feathers  have  yet  a  considerable  market  value,  and  for 
the  purpose  of  trade  in  them  it  is  annually  killed  by 
thousands,  so  that  it  has  been  already  extirpated  from 
much  of  the  country  it  formerly  inhabited,4  and  its  total 


3  Ann.  Nat.  History,  ser.  4,  xx.  p.  500. 

4  Mr  Harting,  in  his  and  Mr  De  Mosenthal's  Ostriches  and  Ostrich 
Farming,  from  which  the  woodcut  here  introduced  is  by  permission 
copied,  gives  (pp.  67-72)  some  portentous  statistics  of  the  destruction  of 
Rheas  for  the  sake  of  their  feathers,  which,  he  says,  are  known  in  the 
trade  as  "  Vautour  "  to  distinguish  them  from  those  of  the  African  bird. 

XX.  --  64 


506 


K  H  E  A 


extinction  as  a  wild  animal  is  probably  only  a  question  of 
time.  Its  breeding  habits  are  precisely  those  which  have 
been  already  described  in  the  case  of  other  Ratite  birds. 
Like  most  of  them  it  is  polygamous,  and  the  male 
performs  the  duty  of  incubation,  brooding  more  than  a 
score  of  eggs,  the  produce  of  several  females — facts  known 
to  Nieremberg  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
since,  but  hardly  accepted  by  naturalists  until  recently. 
From  causes  which,  if  explicable,  do  not  here  concern  us, 
no  examples  of  this  bird  seem  to  have  been  brought  to 
Europe  before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and 
accordingly  the  descriptions  previously  given  of  it  by 
systematic  writers  were  taken  at  second  hand  and  were 
mostly  defective  if  not  misleading.  In  1803  Latham 
issued  a  wretched  figure  of  the  species  from  a  half-grown 
specimen  in  the  Leverian  Museum,  and  twenty  years  later 
said  he  had  seen  only  one  other,  and  that  still  younger,  in 
Bullock's  collection  (Gen.  Hist.  Birds,  viii.  p.  379).1  A 
bird  living  in  confinement  at  Strasburg  in  1806  was, 
however,  described  and  figured  by  Hammer  in  1808  (Ann. 
du  Museum,  xii.  pp.  427-433,  pi.  39),  and,  though  he 
does  not  expressly  say  so,  we  may  infer  from  his  account 
that  it  had  been  a  captive  for  some  years.  In  England 
the  Report  of  the  Zoological  Society  for  1833  announced 
the  Rhea  as  having  been  exhibited  for  the  first  time  in  its 
gardens  during  the  preceding  twelvemonth.  Since  then 
many  other  living  examples  have  been  introduced,  and  it 
has  bred  both  there  and  elsewhere  in  Britain,  but  the 
young  do  not  seem  to  be  very  easily  reared.2 

Though  considerably  smaller  than  the  Ostrich,  and,  as 
before  stated,  wanting  its  fine  plumes,  the  Rhea  in  general 
aspect  far  more  resembles  that  bird  than  the  other  Ratitx. 
The  feathers  of  the  head  and  neck,  except  on  the  crown 
and  nape,  where  they  are  dark  brown,  are  dingy  white,  and 
those  of  the  body  ash-coloured  tinged  with  brown,  while 
on  the  breast  they  are  brownish-black,  and  on  the  belly 
and  thighs  white.  In  the  course  of  the  memorable  voyage 
of  the  "Beagle,"  Darwin  came  to  hear  of  another  kind  of 
Rhea,  called  by  his  informants  A vestruz  petise,  and  at  Port 
Desire  on  the  east  coast  of  Patagonia  he  obtained  an 
example  of  it,  the  imperfect  skin  of  which  enabled  Mr 
Gould  to  describe  it  (Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1837,  p.  35)  as  a 
second  species  of  the  genus,  naming  it  after  its  discoverer. 
Rhea  darwini  differs  in  several  well-marked  characters  from 
the  earlier  known  R.  americana.  Its  bill  is  shorter  than 
its  head  ;  its  tarsi  are  reticulated  instead  of  scutellated  in 
front,  with  the  upper  part  feathered  instead  of  being  bare  ; 
and  the  plumage  of  its  body  and  wings  is  very  different, 
each  feather  being  tipped  with  a  distinct  whitish  band, 
while  that  of  the  head  and  neck  is  greyish-brown.  A 
further  distinction  is  also  asserted  to  be  shewn  by  the 
eggs — those  of  R.  americana  being  of  a  yellowish-white, 
while  those  of  R.  darwini  have  a  bluish  tinge.  Some 
years  afterwards  Mr  Sclater  described  (op.  cit.,  1860,  p. 
207)  a  third  and  smaller  species,  more  closely  resembling 
the  R.  americana,  but  having  apparently  a  longer  bill, 
whence  he  named  it  R.  macrorhyncha,  more  slender  tarsi, 
and  shorter  toes,  while  its  general  colour  is  very  much 
darker,  the  body  and  wings  being  of  a  brownish-grey 
mixed  with  black.  The  precise  geographical  range  of 
these  three  species  is  still  undetermined.  While  R. 
americana  is  known  to  extend  from  Paraguay  and 
southern  Brazil  through  the  state  of  La  Plata  to  an 
uncertain  distance  in  Patagonia,  R.  darwini  seems  to  be 
the  proper  inhabitant  of  the  country  last  named,  though 

1  The  ninth  edition  of  the  Companion  to  this  collection  (1810,  p. 
121)  states  that  the  specimen  "was  brought  alive"  [?  to  England]. 

3  Interesting  accounts  of  the  breeding  of  this  bird  in  confinement 
are  given,  with  much  other  valuable  matter,  by  Mr  Harting  in  the 
work  already  cited. 


M.  Claraz  asserts  (op.  cit.,  1885,  p.  324)  that  it  is  occasion- 
ally found  to  the  northward  of  the  Rio  Negro,  which  had 
formerly  been  regarded  as  its  limit,  and,  moreover,  that 
flocks  of  the  two  species  commingled  may  be  very 
frequently  seen  in  the  district  between  that  river  and  the 
Rio  Colorado.  On  the  "  pampas  "  R.  americana  is  said  to 
associate  with  herds  of  deer  (Cariacus  campestris),  and  R. 
darwini  to  be  the  constant  companion  of  guanacos  (Lama 
huanaco) — just  as  in  Africa  the  Ostrich  seeks  the  society 
of  zebras  and  antelopes.  As  for  R.  macrorhyncha,  it  was 
found  by  Forbes  (Ibis,  1881,  pp.  360,  361)  to  inhabit  the 
dry  and  open  "  sertoes "  of  north-eastern  Brazil,  a 
discovery  the  more  interesting  since  it  was  in  that  part  of 
the  country  that  Marcgrave  and  Piso  became  acquainted 
with  a  bird  of  this  kind,  though  the  existence  of  any 
species  of  Rhea  in  the  district  had  been  long  overlooked 
by  or  unknown  to  succeeding  travellers. 

Besides  the  works  above  named  and  those  of  other  recognized 
authorities  on  the  ornithology  of  South  America  such  as  Azara, 
Prince  Max  of  Wied,  Prof.  Burmeister,  and  others,  more  or  less  valu- 
able information  on  the  subject  is  to  be  found  in  Darwin's  Voyage  ; 
Dr  Booking's  "  Monographic  des  Nandu"  in  (Wiegmann's)  Arthfa 
fiir  Naturgescliichte  (18(53,  i.  pp.  213-241);  Prof.  R.  0.  Cunning- 
ham's Natural  History  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan  and  paper  in  the 
Zoological  Society's  Proceedings  for  1871  (pp.  105-110),  as  well  as 
Dr  Gadow's  still  more  important  anatomical  contributions  in  the 
same  journal  for  1885  (pp.  308  sq. }.  (A.  N.) 

RHEA  (or  RHEEA)  FIBRE  is  a  textile  material  yielded 
by  one  or  more  species  of  Bohmeria  (nat.  ord.  Urticacese), 
plants  found  over  a  wide  range  in  India,  China,  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  islands,  and  Japan.  Rhea  is  also  capable 
of  being  grown  in  temperate  latitudes,  and  has  been  experi- 
mentally introduced  into  the  south  of  France  and  Algeria. 
The  most  important  source  of  rhea  fibre,  known  also  very 
inappropriately  as  China  grass,  or  by  its  Malay  name 
Ramie,  is  B.  nivea.  It  is  a  shrubby  plant  growing  to  the 
height  of  from  5  to  8  feet  with  foliage  and  inflorescence 
like  the  common  nettle,  but  destitute  of  stinging  hairs. 
Some  authorities  consider  the  variety  cultivated  in  China 
to  be  specifically  distinct  from  the  Indian  plant.  An  allied 
plant  called  Pooah  or  Puya,  B.  Puya,  found  growing 
wild  in  the  north  of  India,  is  also  a  source  of  rhea  fibre. 
Among  the  Chinese  much  care  is  bestowed  on  the  cultiva- 
tion of  Chu  or  Tchou  Ma,  as  rhea  is  called  by  them,  and 
they  prepare  the  fibre  by  a  tedious  and  costly  process  of 
selection  and  manual  labour.  The  plant  thrives  in  hot, 
moist,  shaded  situations ;  propagated  from  slips  or  root 
cuttings,  it  throws  up  from  three  to  five  crops  of  stems  in 
the  course  of  a  season,  although  not  more  than  three  crops 
are  commonly  reckoned  on.  Each  such  crop  may  yield 
about  250  R)  of  marketable  fibre  per  acre,  that  total  output 
being  exceeded  only  by  the  jute  crop.  The  stems  when 
ripe  are  cut  down,  stripped  of  leaves  and  branchlets,  and, 
either  split  or  whole,  are  freed  from  their  cortical  layers 
till  the  bast  layer  is  exposed.  In  this  state  they  are  made 
up  in  small  bundles  and  placed  where  they  receive  strong 
sunlight  by  day  and  dews  by  night  for  several  days,  after 
which  the  fibrous  bast  layer  is  peeled  with  ease  off  the 
woody  core,  and  the  separated  fibres  arc  thereafter  treated 
with  boiling  water  to  remove  as  far  as  possible  adherent 
gummy  and  resinous  matter  in  which  the  fibres  are  em- 
bedded in  the  stalks.  The  fibre  so  obtained  is  usually 
bleached  by  exposure  on  the  grass,  and  it  comes  into  the 
market  as  brilliant  white  filaments  with  a  fine  silky  gloss, 
having  a  strength,  lustre,  and  smoothness  unequalled  by 
any  other  vegetable  fibre. 

The  fibre  first  appeared  in  the  European  market  in  1810,  and  a 
cord  then  spun  from  it  was  found  to  sustain  a  weight  of  252  lt>, 
while  a  similar  cord  of  Russian  hemp  was  estimated  by  Admiralty 
test  not  to  bear  more  than  87  lb.  A  fibre  possessed  of  such  strength 
and  beauty  immediately  attracted  great  attention,  and  throughout 
the  early  half  of  the  century  numerous  efforts  were  made  by  the  East 
India  Company  to  introduce  it  as  a  textile  staple.  But  many  difii- 


R  H  E  — R  H  E 


507 


culties  have  been  encountered  in  its  working,  some  of  which  are  not 
yet  overcome.  The  fibre  itself  is  very  difficult  of  extraction  owing 
to  the  large  amount  of  adhesive  matter  in  which  it  is  embedded, 
and  it  is  proportionately  so  expensive  that  it  practically  comes  into 
competition  only  with  silk  and  wool.  Further,  rhea  is  hard  and  in- 
elastic, and  on  the  machinery  adapted  for  spinning  other  textiles  it 
can  only  be  spun  into  a  rough,  harsh,  and  hairy  yarn,  while  fabrics 
into  which  it  is  woven  are  rigid,  and  show  permanent  creases  at 
every  fold.  In  the  form  of  cordage,  moreover,  it  cuts  and  gives 
way  at  sharp  knots  and  twists.  Notwithstanding  all  disappoint- 
ments and  drawbacks,  the  Indian  Government  considered  the  fibre 
of  such  importance  that  in  1869  two  prizes  of  £5000  and  £2000 
and  again  in  1877  prizes  of  £5000  and  £1000  were  offered  for 
machinery  or  processes  by  which  the  fibre  could  be  prepared  at  such 
a  cost  per  ton  as  would  render  its  introduction  into  the  market  prac- 
ticable. Competitive  trials  were  made  at  Saharanpur  in  1872  and 
1879,  but  no  machine  was  found  to  satisfy  the  conditions  of  success, 
although  in  1872  a  reward  of  £1500  was  granted  to  Mr  John  Greig, 
jun.,  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1879  £500  and  £100  respectively  were 
paid  to  two  of  the  competitors.  The  extraction  of  rhea  continues 
to  attract  attention,  and  quite  recently  (1885)  it  has  been  announced 
that  Prof.  Fremy  of  Paris,  assisted  by  M.  Urbain,  has  success- 
fully overcome  all  difficulties.  The  raw  material  used  by  Prof. 
Fremy  is  obtained  by  a  process  devised  by  M.  Fevier,  which  con- 
sists in  submitting  the  newly  cut  stems  to  low-pressure  steam  for 
twenty  minutes,  after  which  the  whole  rind  is  separated  in  ribands 
from  its  woody  core  with  the  utmost  ease.  These  ribands  are  then 
dried,  and  on  them  Prof.  Fremy  operates  with  alkaline  solutions 
which  are  varied  in  strength  according  to  the  appearance  of  the 
material  dealt  with,  a7id  a  pure  fibre  in  fine  working  condition  is 
thus  obtained.  Rhea  has  yet  to  establish  its  position  among  Euro- 
pean textiles,  but  in  the  East  its  value  is  well  recognized.  It  is 
extensively  used  for  cordage,  fishing  nets,  &c.  ;  and  it  is  very  little 
affected  by  water.  The  Chinese  prepare  an  exceedingly  fine  "grass 
cloth"  from  single  filaments  of  rhea,  knotted  or  gummed  end  to 
end  in  the  way  they  employ  the  finest  filaments  of  Manila  hemp 
for  making  "  Piria"  gauze. 

RHEGIUM.     See  KEGGIO. 

RHEIMS,  a  city  of  France,  chief  town  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  of  the  department  of  Marne,  lies  81  miles  east-north- 
east of  Paris  (99  miles  by  rail)  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Vesle,  a  tributary  of  the  Aisne,  and  on  the  canal  which 
connects  the  Aisne  with  the  Marne.  To  the  south  and 
west  rise  the  "  montagne  de  Rheims "  and  the  vine-clad 
hills  where  the  wine  is  grown  which  constitutes  the  chief 
object  of  the  industry  and  commerce  of  the  town.  Rheims 
has  been,  since  the  last  Franco-Prussian  War,  surrounded 
with  detached  forts  that  render  it  a  great  entrenched 
camp,  and  it  still  preserves  eleven  of  the  gates  of  its  old 
enceinte,  that  of  Paris,  constructed  on  occasion  of  the 
coronation  of  Louis  XVI.,  being  specially  noticeable. 
Beyond  the  boulevards  the  town  spreads  out  in  several 
suburbs — the  faubourgs  of  St  Anne  on  the  south,  Vesle  on 
the  west,  Laon  on  the  north-west,  and  Ce'res  on  the  north- 
east. The  town  is  well  planned  and  built,  and  its  streets 
are  traversed  by  tramways. 

The  spinning  and  weaving  of  wool  is  carried  on  in 
seventy  factories,  employs  10,000  hands,  and  annually 
turns  .£3,500,000  worth  of  the  raw  material  into  flannels, 
merinoes,  cloth,  blankets,  &c.  Dyeing  and  "  dressing " 
are  carried  on  in  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  Fifty  firms 
with  2000  workmen  are  employed  in  the  champagne 
manufacture ;  the  cellars  are  vast  excavations  in  the  chalk 
rock.  Rheims  is  also  famous  for  its  biscuits,  ginger- 
bread, and  dried  pears.  Machinery,  chemical  products, 
candles,  soap,  stained  glass,  common  glass,  and  paper  are 
also  manufactured.  In  respect  of  population  (93,683  in 
1881)  Rheims  ranks  as  the  eleventh  city  of  France. 

The  oldest  monument  in  Rheims  is  the  Mars  Gate  (so  called 
from  a  temple  to  Mars  in  the  neighbourhood),  a  triumphal  arch 
108  feet  in  length  by  43  in  height  erected  by  the  Remi  in  honour 
of  Cfesar  and  Augustus  when  Agrippa  made  the  great  roads  ter- 
minating at  the  town.  In  its  vicinity  a  curious  mosaic  measuring 
35  feet  by  26,  with  thirty-five  medallions  representing  animals 
and  gladiators,  was  discovered  in  1861.  But  by  far  the  most 
interesting  architectural  feature  of  the  town  is  the  cathedral  of 
Notre  Dame,  where  the  kings  of  France  used  to  be  crowned.  It 
replaced  an  older  church  burned  in  1211,  which  had  been  built  on 
the  site  of  the  basilica  where  Clovis  was  baptized  by  St  Remigius. 


The  whole  cathedral,  with  the  exception  of  the  fagadc,  was  com- 
pleted by  1231  ;  but  it  has  undergone  numerous  alterations.  The 
present  fa9ade  was  erected  in  the  14th  century  after  13th-century 
designs, — the  nave  having  in  the  meantime  been  lengthened  so  as 
to  afford  room  for  the  vast  crowds  that  attended  the  coronations. 
In  1481  a  terrible  fire  destroyed  the  roof  and  also  the  spires,  which 
have  never  been  restored  to  their  original  state.  In  1875  the 
National  Assembly  voted  £80,000  for  repairs  of  the  facade  and 
balustrades.  This  fagade  is  the  finest  portion  of  the  building,  and 
one  of  the  most  perfect  masterpieces  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
portals  and  the  rose  window  are  laden  with  statues  and  statuettes  ; 
the  "gallery  of  the  kings  "  above  has  the  baptism  of  Clovis  in  the 
centre,  and  also  has  statues  of  Charlemagne  and  his  father  Pippin 
the  Short.  The  towers,  267  feet  high,  were  originally  designed  to 
rise  394  feet ;  that  on  the  south  contains  two  great  bells,  one  of 
which,  named  by  Cardinal  de  Lorraine  in  1570,  weighs  more  than 
11  tons.  The  transepts  are  also  decorated  with  sculptures, — that 
on  the  north  with  statues  of  the  principal  bishops  of  Rheims,  a 
representation  of  the  last  judgment,  and  a  figure  of  Christ,  while 
that  on  the  south  side  has  a  beautiful  rose  window  with  the 


Plan  of  Rheims. 


prophets  and  apostles.  Of  the  four  towers  which  formerly  flanked 
the  transepts  nothing  remains  above  the  height  of  the  roof  since 
the  fire  of  1481.  Above  the  choir  rises  an  elegant  bell-tower  in 
timber  and  lead,  59  feet  high,  reconstructed  in  the  15th  century. 
The  interior  of  the  cathedral  is  455  feet  long,  9S|  feet  wide  in  the 
nave,  and  125  feet  high  in  the  centre.  It  has  a  profusion  of 
statues  similar  to  those  of  the  outside,  and  is  further  adorned  with 
stained  glass  of  the  13th  century  and  with  tapestries.  The  rose 
window  over  the  main  portal  and  the  gallery  beneath  arc  of  rare 
magnificence.  Forty  pieces  of  tapestry  bestowed  in  1530  by  Robert 
de  Lenoncourt,  and  devoted  to  the  history  of  the  Virgin,  are 
remarkable  for  the  richness  of  colour  and  the  variety  of  costume 
they  display.  Of  six  pieces  presented  by  Cardinal  do  Lorraine  in 
1570,  only  three  have  been  preserved  ;  one  of  them  representing 
the  coronation  of  Clovis  and  the  battle  of  Soissons  affords  valuable 
evidence  relating  to  the  military  costumes  of  the  16th  century. 
Archbishop  Henry  of  Lorraine  also  presented  seventeen  large  pieces 
of  tapestry  representing  the  life  of  Christ,  in  1633  ;  they  are  called 
Pepersack's  tapestries  after  the  maker,  a  celebrated  tapestry 


508 


B  H  E  — R  H  E 


weaver  of  Charleville.  The  Canticles  tapestries,  four  pieces  repre- 
senting scenes  in  Louis  XIV. 's  youth,  originally  belonged  to  the 
castle  of  Hauteville.  In  the  right  transept  are  two  great  Gobelins 
tapestries  executed  after  Raphael's  designs,  and  dealing  with  the 
life  of  St  Paul.  The  left  transept  contains  a  fine  organ  in 
flamboyant  Gothic  with  3516  pipes  and  53  stops.  The  choir 
clock  is  ornamented  with  curious  mechanical  devices.  Several 
paintings,  by  Titian,  Tintoretto,  Nicolas  Poussin,  and  others,  and 
the  carved  woodwork  and  the  railings  of  the  choir,  also  deserve  to 
be  mentioned;  and  among  the  numerous  objects  of  antiquarian 
interest  in  the  cathedral  "  treasury  "  is  the  reliquary  of  the  sacred 
phial  which  contained  the  oil  used  in  anointing  the  kings,  but 
was  broken  during  the  devolution.  The  archiepiscopal  palace, 
built  between  1498  and  1509,  and  in  part  rebuilt  in  1675,  was 
occupied  by  the  kings  on  the  occasion  of  their  coronation.  The 
saloon  chamber,  where  the  royal  banquet  was  held,  has  an  immense 
stone  chimney  of  the  15th  century,  medallions  of  the  archbishops 
of  Rheims,  and  portraits  of  fourteen  kings  crowned  in  the  city. 
Among  the  other  rooms  of  the  royal  suite,  all  of  which  are  of  great 
beauty  and  richness,  is  that  now  used  for  the  meetings  of  the 
Rheiins  Academy  ;  the  building  also  contains  a  library  of  16,000 
volumes.  The  chapel  of  the  archiepiscopal  palace  consists  of  two 
stories,  the  upper  of  which  still  serves  as  a  place  of  worship,  while 
the  lower  is  occupied  by  an  antiquarian  museum,  in  which  is  pre- 
served the  marble  cenotaph  (almost  entire)  of  the  consul  Jovinus, 
who  in  the  4th  century  led  his  fellow-townsmen  at  Rheims  to 
embrace  Christianity.  After  the  cathedral  the  most  celebrated 
church  is  that  of  St  Remi,  built  in  the  llth  and  12th  centuries 
on  the  site  of  an  older  place  of  worship.  The  valuable  monuments 
with  which  it  was  at  one  time  iilled  were  pillaged  during  the 
Revolution,  and  even  the  tomb  of  the  saint  is  a  modern  piece  of 
work  ;  but  there  still  remain  the  13th-century  glass  windows  of 
the  apse  and  tapestries  representing  the  history  of  St  Remigius. 
The  churches  of  St  Jacques,  St  Maurice  (partly  rebuilt  in  1867), 
St  Andre,  and  St  Thomas  (erected  in  1847,  under  the  patronage  of 
Cardinal  Gousset,  now  buried  within  its  walls),  as  well  as  the 
chapels  of  the  lycee  and  of  several  monasteries,  are  all  more  or  less 
interesting.  There  are  also  in  the  city  two  Protestant  churches 
and  a  synagogue. 

The  town-house,  erected  in  the  17th  century  and  enlarged  in 
1880,  has  a  pediment  with  an  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XV.  and 
a  tall  and  elegant  campanile.  It  contains  a  picture  gallery,  a 
natural  history  museum,  and  a  library  of  60,000  volumes  and 
1500  MSS.  Of  the  many  curious  old  houses  which  still  exist  in 
the  town  it  is  enough  to  mention  the  House  of  the  Musicians,  so 
called  from  the  seated  figures  of  musicians  which  decorate  the 
front.  Rheiins  is  the  seat  of  an  academy  of  science,  arts,  and 
literature,  founded  in  1841  and  composed  of  forty-five  members,  a 
preparatory  school  of  medicine  and  pharmacy,  several  hospitals, 
and  a  modern  theatre.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  one  of  the 
divisions  of  the  6th  corps  d'armee  (Chalons).  Colbert's  statue 
adorns  the  Cours  ;  Louis  XV. 's  (in  bronze)  stands  in  the  centre 
of  the  handsome  Place  Royale  ;  and  Marshal  Drouet  d'Erlon's  is 
in  another  of  the  public  squares. 

History. — Rheims  (Durocortorum),  an  important  town  in  the  time 
of  Ca;sar,  made  voluntary  submission  to  the  Romans  and  by  its 
fidelity  throughout  the  various  Gallic  insurrections  secured  the 
special  favour  of  its  conquerors.  Christianity  was  introduced 
about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century.  Jovinus,  already  mentioned 
as  an  influential  supporter  of  the  new  faith,  repulsed  the  barbarians 
who  invaded  Champagne  in  336  ;  but  the  Vandals  captured  the 
town  in  406  and  slew  St  Nicasus,  and  Attila  afterwards  put 
everything  to  fire  and  sword.  Clovis,  after  his  victory  at  Soissons 
(486),  was  baptized  at  Rheims  in  496  by  St  REMIGIUS  (q.v.}.  From 
this  period  the  see  acquired  new  lustre.  The  kings  of  the  second 
and  third  dynasties  desired  to  be  consecrated  at  lihcims  with  the 
oil  of  the  sacred  phial  which  was  believed  to  have  been  brought  from 
heaven  by  a  dove  for  the  baptism  of  Clovis  and  was  preserved  in 
the  abbey  of  St  Remi.  Historical  meetings  of  Pope  Stephen  III. 
with  Pippin  the  Short,  and  of  Leo  III.  with  Charlemagne,  took  place 
at  Rheims ;  and  there  Louis  the  Debonnaire  was  crowned  by  Stephen 
IV.  In  the  10th  century  Rheims  had  become  a  centre  of  intellec- 
tual culture,  Archbishop  Adalberon,  seconded  by  the  monk  Gerbert 
(Sylvester  II.),  having  founded  schools  where  the  "liberal  arts"  were 
taught.  Adalberon  was  also  one  of  the  prime  authors  of  the  revolu- 
tion which  put  the  Capet  house  in  the  place  of  the  Carlovingians. 
The  archbisnops  of  Rheims  held  the  temporal  lordship  of  the  city 
and  coined  money  till  the  close  of  the  14th  century.  But  their 
most  important  prerogative  was  the  consecration  of  the  king, — a 
privilege  which  was  regularly  exercised  from  the  time  of  Philip 
Augustus  to  that  of  Charles  X.  Louis  VII.  granted  the  town  a 
communal  charter  in  1139.  Councils  met  within  its  walls  in  1119 
and  1148.  The  treaty  of  Troyes  (1420)  ceded  it  to  the  English,  who 
had  made  a  futile  attempt  to  take  it  by  siege  in  1360  ;  but  they 
were  expelled  on  the  approach  of  Joan  of  Arc,  who  in  1429  caused 
Charles  VII.  to  bo  duly  consecrated  in  the  cathedral.  A  revolt  at 
Rheims  caused  by  the  Rait  tax  in  1461  was  cruelly  repressed  by 


Louis  XI.  The  town  sided  with  the  League  (1585),  but  submitted 
to  Henry  IV.  after  the  battle  of  Ivry.  In  the  foreign  invasions  of 
1814  it  was  captured  and  recaptured;  in  1870-71  it  was  made  by 
the  Germans  the  seat  of  a  governor-general  and  impoverished  by 
heavy  requisitions. 

KHEINGAU.     See  RHINE. 

RHENANUS,  BEATUS  (c.  1485-1547),  German  human- 
ist, was  born  about  1485  at  Schlettstadt  in  Alsace,  where 
his  father,  a  native  of  Rheinau,  was  a  prosperous  butcher. 
He  received  his  early  education  in  Schlettstadt,  and 
afterwards  (1503)  went  to  Paris,  where  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Faber  Stapulensis ;  here,  among  his  other 
learned  pursuits,  we  must  include  that  of  correcting  the 
press  for  Henry  Estienne.  In  1511  he  removed  to  Basel, 
where  he  became  intimate  with  Erasmus,  and  took  an 
active  share  in  the  publishing  enterprises  of  Frobenius. 
Some  time  after  1520  he  became  a  comparatively  wealthy 
man  through  the  death  of  his  father;  returning  to 
Schlettstadt  he  devoted  himself  to  a  life  of  learned  leisure, 
enlivened  with  free  epistolary  and  personal  intercourse 
with  Erasmus,  Reuchlin,  Pirckheimer,  Lasky,  and  many 
other  scholars  of  his  time.  He  died  at  Strasburg,  while 
returning  from  Baden  in  Switzerland,  whither  he  had  gone 
for  his  health,  in  1547,  leaving  behind  him  a  high  reputa- 
tion not  only  for  sound  learning  but  also  for  singular 
gentleness,  modesty,  and  simplicity. 

His  earliest  publication  was  a  life  of  Geiler  of  Strasburg  (1510). 
Of  his  subseqiient  works  the  principal  are  llerum  Germanicarum 
Libri  III.  (1531),  and  editions  of  Velleius  Paterculus  (ed.  princeps, 
from  a  MS.  discovered  by  himself,  1520)  ;  Tacitus  (1533,  exclusive 
of  the  Histories) ;  Livy  (1535) ;  and  Erasmus  (with  a  life,  9  vols.  fol., 
1540-41). 

RHENISH  PRUSSIA.     See  PRUSSIA,  RHENISH. 

RHETICUS,  or  RH^TICUS,  a  surname  given  to  GEORGE 
JOACHIM  (1514-1576)  from  his  birth  at  Feldkirch  in  that 
part  of  Tyrol  which  was  anciently  the  territory  of  the 
Rhseti.  Born  in  1514,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Wittenberg  in  1537.  His  first  appearance 
before  the  public  was  in  the  character  of  an  enthusiastic 
convert  to  the  newly  broached  opinions  of  Copernicus.  No 
sooner  had  he  adopted  these  opinions  than,  resigning  his 
chair,  he  repaired  to  Frauenberg  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  their 
great  promulgator.  All  his  energy  was  forthwith  devoted  to 
the  new  system,  and,  as  has  been  mentioned  under  COPER- 
NICUS, it  was  he  who  superintended  the  printing  of  the  De 
Orbium  Revolutione.  Rheticus  now  commenced  his  great 
treatise,  Opus  Palatinum  de  Triangulis,  and  continued  to 
work  at  it  while  he  occupied  his  old  chair  at  Wittenberg, 
while  he  taught  mathematics  at  Leipsic,  while  he  travelled 
over  different  parts  of  the  Continent,  and  indeed  up  to  his 
death  in  Hungary  in  1576.  The  Opus  Palatinum  of 
Rheticus  was  published  by  Otho  in  1596.  It  gives  tables 
of  sines  and  cosines,  tangents,  etc.,  for  every  10  seconds, 
calculated  to  ten  places.  He  had  projected  a  table  of  the 
same  kind  to  fifteen  places,  but  did  not  live  to  complete  it. 
The  sine  table,  however,  was  afterwards  published  on  this 
scale  under  the  name  of  Thesaurus  Matkematicus  (Frankfort, 
1613)  by  Pitiscus,  who  himself  carried  the  calculation  of  a 
few  of  tne  earlier  sines  to  twenty-two  places. 

RHETORIC.  A  lost  work  of  Aristotle  is  quoted  by 
Diogenes  Laertius  (viii.  57)  as  saying  that  Empedocles 
"  invented  "  (evpflv)  rhetoric  ;  Zeno,  dialectic.  This  is  cer- 
tainly not  to  be  understood  as  meaning  that  Empedocles 
composed  the  first  "art"  of  rhetoric.  It  is  rather  to  be 
explained  by  Aristotle's  own  remark,  cited  by  Laertius 
from  another  lost  treatise,  that  Empedocles  was  "  a  master 
of  expression  and  skilled  in  the  use  of  metaphor  " — quali- 
ties which  may  have  found  scope  in  his  political  oratory, 
when,  after  the  fall  of  Thrasydaeus  in  472  B.C.,  he  opposed 
the  restoration  of  a  tyranny  at  Agrigentum.  The  founder 
of  rhetoric  as  an  art  was  Corax  of  Syracuse  (c.  466 
B.C.).  In  466  Thrasybulus  the  despot  of  Syracuse  was 


RHETORIC 


509 


rlioric 
—  irax 


T 
tc.c  of 


las. 


Crgias. 


iti- 
on. 


overthrown,  and  a  democracy  was  established.  One  of 
the  immediate  consequences  was  a  mass  of  litigation  on 
claims  to  property,  urged  by  democratic  exiles  who  had 
been  dispossessed  by  Thrasybulus,  Hiero,  or  Gelo.  If. 
twenty  years  after  the  Cromwellian  settlement  of  Ireland, 
an  opportunity  had  been  afforded  to  aggrieved  persons  for 
contesting  every  possession  taken  under  that  settlement  in 
the  ten  counties,  such  persons  being  required  to  plead  by 
their  own  mouths,  the  demand  for  an  "  art "  of  forensic 
rhetoric  in  Ireland  would  have  been  similar  to  that  which 
existed  in  Sicily  at  the  moment  when  Corax  appeared. 
If  we  would  understand  the  history  of  Greek  rhetoric 
before  Aristotle,  we  must  always  remember  these  circum- 
stances of  its  origin.  The  new  "  art "  was  primarily 
intended  to  help  the  plain  citizen  who  had  to  speak  before 
a  court  of  law.  "Ten  years  ago,"  a  Syracusan  might 
urge,  "  Hieron  banished  me  from  Syracuse  because  I  was 
suspected  of  popular  sympathies,  and  gave  my  house  on 
the  Epipoke  to  his  favourite  Agathocles,  who  still  enjoys 
it.  I  now  ask  the  people  to  restore  it."  Claims  of  this 
type  would  be  frequent.  Such  a  claim,  going  many  years 
back,  would  often  require  that  a  complicated  series  of 
details  should  be  stated  and  arranged.  It  would  also,  in 
many  instances,  lack  documentary  support,  and  rely 
chiefly  on  inferential  reasoning.  The  facts  known  as  to 
the  "  art "  of  Corax  perfectly  agree  with  these  conditions. 
He  gave  rules  for  arrangement,  dividing  the  speech  into 
five  parts, — proem,  narrative,  arguments  (dyoives),  sub- 
sidiary remarks  (7rape'/</3ao-is),  and  peroration.  Next  he 
illustrated  the  topic  of  general  probability  (CIKO?),  showing 
its  two-edged  use  :  e.g.,  if  a  puny  man  is  accused  of  assault- 
ing a  stronger,  he  can  say,  "Is  it  likely  that  I  should 
have  attacked  him?"  If  vice  versa,  the  strong  man  can 
argue,  "  Is  it  likely  that  I  should  have  committed  an 
assault  where  the  presumption  was  sure  to  be  against 
me?"  This  topic  of  eiKos,  in  its  manifold  forms,  was  in 
fact  the  great  weapon  of  the  earliest  Greek  rhetoric.  It 
was  further  developed  by  Tisias,  the  pupil  of  Corax,  as  we 
see  from  Plato's  Phgedrus,  in  an  "  art "  of  rhetoric  which 
antiquity  possessed,  but  of  which  we  know  little  else. 
Aristotle  gives  the  ft/cos  a  place  among  the  topics  of  the 
fallacious  enthymeme  which  he  enumerates  in  Rftet.  ii.  24, 
remarking  that  it  was  the  very  essence  of  the  treatise  of 
Corax,  and  points  out  the  fallacy  of  omitting  to  distin- 
guish between  abstract  and  particular  probability,  quoting 
the  verses  of  Agatho, — "  Perhaps  one  might  call  this  very 
thing  a  probability,  that  many  improbable  things  will 
happen  to  men."  Gorgias  of  Leontini,  who  visited 
Athens  as  an  envoy  from  his  fellow-citizens  in  427  B.C., 
captivated  the  Athenians  by  his  oratory,  which,  so  far  as 
the  only  considerable  fragment  warrants  a  judgment,  was 
characterized  by  florid  antithesis.  But  he  has  no  definite 
place  in  the  development  of  rhetoric  as  a  system.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  he  left  a  written  "art";  and  his  mode 
of  teaching  was  based  on  learning  prepared  passages  by 
heart, — diction  (A.e'£is),  not  invention  or  arrangement, 
being  his  great  object. 

The  first  extant  Greek  author  who  combined  the  theory 
with  the  practice  of  rhetoric  is  the  Athenian  Antiphon, 
the  first  on  the  list  of  the  Attic  orators.  His  works 
belong  to  the  period  from  421  to  411  B.C.  Among 
them  are  the  three  "  tetralogies."  Each  tetralogy  is 
a  group  of  four  speeches,  supposed  to  be  spoken  in  a 
trial  for  homicide.  Antiphon  was  the  earliest  repre- 
sentative at  Athens  of  a  new  profession  created  by  the 
new  art  of  rhetoric — that  of  the  Aoyoypa<£os  or  writer  of 
forensic  speeches  for  other  men  to  speak  in  court.  The 
plain  man  who  had  not  mastered  the  newly  invented 
weapons  of  speech  was  glad  to  have  the  aid  of  an  expert. 
The  tetralogies  show  us  the  art  of  rhetoric  in  its  transi- 


tion from  the  technical  to  the  practical  stage,  from  the 
school  to  the  law-court  and  the  assembly.  The  four 
skeleton  speeches  of  each  tetralogy  are  ordered  as  follows  : 
— A,  the  accuser  states  his  charge ;  B,  the  accused  makes 
his  defence  ;  C,  the  accuser  replies ;  D,  the  accused  rejoins 
to  the  reply.  The  imaginary  case  is  in  each  instance 
sketched  as  slightly  as  possible;  all  details  are  omitted; 
only  the  framework  for  discussion  is  supplied.  The 
organic  lines  of  the-  rhetorical  pleader's  thought  stand  out 
in  bold  relief,  and  we  are  enabled  to  form  a  clear  notion 
of  the  logographer's  method.  We  find  a  striking  illustra- 
tion of  the  fact  noticed  above,  that  the  topic  of  "pro- 
bability," so  largely  used  by  Corax  and  Tisias,  is  the 
staple  of  this  early  forensic  rhetoric.  Viewed  generally, 
the  works  of  Antiphon  are  of  great  interest  for  the  history 
of  Attic  prose,  as  marking  how  far  it  had  then  been  influ- 
enced by  a  theory  of  style.  The  movement  of  Antiphon's 
prose  has  a  certain  grave  dignity,  "impressing  by  its 
weight  and  grandeur,"  as  a  Greek  critic  in  the  Augustan 
age  says,  "  not  charming  by  its  life  and  flow. "  Verbal 
antithesis  is  used,  not  in  a  diffuse  or  florid  way,  but  with  a 
certain  sledge-hammer  force,  as  sometimes  in  the  speeches 
of  Thucydides.  The  imagery,  too,  though  bold,  is  not 
florid.  The  structure  of  the  periods  is  still  crude ;  and 
the  general  effect  of  the  whole,  though  often  powerful  and 
impressive,  is  somewhat  rigid. 

As  Antiphon  represents  what  was  afterwards  named 
the  "austere"  or  "rugged"  style  (avcrrtjpa  dp//,ovta),  so 
Lysias  was  the  model  of  an  artistic  and  versatile  sim- 
plicity. But  the  tetralogies  give  Antiphon  a  place  in 
the  history  of  rhetoric  as  an  art,  while  Lysias,  with 
all  his  more  attractive  gifts,  belongs  only  to  the  history 
of  oratory.  Ancient  writers  quote  an  "art"  of  rhetoric 
by  Isocrates,  but  its  authenticity  was  questioned.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  Isocrates  taught  the  art  as  such".  Isocrate 
He  is  said  to  have  defined  rhetoric  "  as  the  science 
of  persuasion "  (eu-icm?/^  Tret^oOs,  Sextus  Empir.,  Adv. 
Mathem.,  ii.  §  62,  p.  301  sq.).  Many  of  his  particular 
precepts,  both  on  arrangement  and  on  diction,  are  cited, 
but  do  not  suffice  to  give  us  a  complete  view  of  his 
method.  The  </>tAocroc£ia,  or  "theory  of  culture,"  which  Iso- 
crates expounds  in  his  discourses  "  Against  the  Sophists  " 
and  on  the  "Antidosis,"  was  in  fact  rhetoric  applied  to 
politics.  First  came  technical  expositions  :  the  pupil  was 
introduced  to  all  the  artificial  resources  which  prose  com- 
position employs  (TOLS  iSeas  aTrao-a?  ats  6  Aoyo9  Tvy^avei 

w/ievos,  Antid.,  §  183).  The  same  term  (tSeai)  is  also 
used  by  Isocrates  in  a  narrower  sense,  with  reference 
to  the  "figures"  of  rhetoric,  properly  called  (r\^fj.aTa 
(Panatk.,  §  2) ;  sometimes,  again,  in  a  sense  still  more 
general,  to  the  several  branches  or  styles  of  literary  com- 
position (Antid.,  §  11).  When  the  technical  elements  of 
the  subject  had  been  learned,  the  pupil  was  required  to 
apply  abstract  rules  in  actual  composition,  and  his  essay 
was  revised  by  the  master.  Isocrates  was  unquestionably 
successful  in  forming  speakers  and  writers.  This  is  proved 
by  the  renown  of  his  school  during  a  period  of  some  fifty 
years,  from  about  390  to  340  B.C.  Among  the  states- 
men whom  it  could  claim  were  Timotheus,  Leodamas 
of  Acharnae,  Lycurgus,  and  Hyperides.  Among  the 
philosophers  or  rhetoricians  were  Speusippus,  Plato's  suc- 
cessor in  the  Academy,  and  Isseus  ;  among  the  historians, 
Ephorus  and  Theopompus. 

In  the  person  of  Isocrates  the  art  of  rhetoric  is  thus 
thoroughly  established,  not  merely  as  a  technical  method, 
but  also  as  a  practical  discipline  of  life.  If  Plato's  mildly 
ironical  reference  in  the  EutJiydemus  to  a  critic  "on  the 
borderland  between  philosophy  and  statesmanship  "  was 
meant,  as  is  probable,  for  Isocrates,  at  least  there  was 
a  wide  difference  between  the  measure  of  acceptance 


510 


RHETORIC 


accorded  to  the  earlier  Sophists,  such  as  Protagoras,  and 
the  influence  which  the  school  of  Isocrates  exerted  through 
the  men  whom  it  had  trained.  Rhetoric  had  won  its  place 
in  education.  It  kept  that  place,  through  varying  for- 
tunes, to  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  resumed  it, 
for  a  while,  at  the  revival  of  learning. 

iris-  Aristotle's    Rhetoric   belongs   to   the   generation   after 

stle's  Isocrates,  having  been  composed  between  330  and  322 
"ietonc-  B.C.  As  controversial  allusions  sometimes  hint,  it  holds 
Isocrates  for  one  of  the  foremost  exponents  of  the  subject. 
From  a  merely  literary  point  of  view,  Aristotle's  Rhetoric 
(with  the  partial  exception  of  book  iii.)  is  one  of  the 
driest  works  in  the  world.  From  the  historical  or  scientific 
point  of  view,  it  is  one  of  the  most  curious  and  the  most 
interesting.  If  we  would  seize  the  true  significance  of  the 
treatise,  it  is  better  to  compare  rhetoric  with  grammar 
than  with  its  obvious  analogue,  logic.  A  method  of 
grammar  was  the  conception  of  the  Alexandrian  age, 
which  had  lying  before  it  the  standard  masterpieces  of 
Greek  literature,  and  deduced  the  "  rules  "  of  grammar 
from  the  actual  practice  of  the  best  writers.  Aristotle, 
in  the  latter  years  of  the  4th  century  B.C.,  held  the  same 
position  relatively  to  the  monuments  of  Greek  oratory 
which  the  Alexandrian  methodizers  of  grammar  held  rela- 
tively to  Greek  literature  at  large.  Abundant  materials 
lay  before  him,  illustrating,  in  the  greatest  variety  of 
forms,  how  speakers  had  been  able  to  persuade  the  reason 
or  to  move  the  feelings.  From  this  mass  of  material,  said 
Aristotle,  let  us  try  to  generalize.  Let  us  deduce  rules, 
by  applying  which  a  speaker  shall  always  be  able  to  per- 
suade the  reason  or  to  move  the  feelings.  And,  when  we 
have  got  our  rules,  let  us  digest  them  into  an  intelligent 
method,  and  so  construct  a  true  art.  Aristotle's  practical 
purpose  was  undoubtedly  real.  If  we  are  to  make  persua- 
sive speakers,  he  believed,  this  is  the  only  sound  way  to 
set  about  it.  But,  for  us  moderns,  the  enduring  interest 
of  his  Rhetoric  is  mainly  retrospective.  It  attracts  us  as  a 
feat  in  analysis  by  an  acute  mind — a  feat  highly  character- 
istic of  that  mind  itself,  and  at  the  same  time  strikingly 
illustrative  of  the  field  over  which  the  materials  have  been 
gathered. 

nalysis.  Rhetoric  is  properly  an  art.  This  is  the  proposition  from 
ook  I.  which  Aristotle  sets  out.  It  is  so  because,  when  a  speaker 
persuades,  it  is  possible  to  find  out  why  he  succeeds  in  doing  so. 
Rhetoric  is,  in  fact,  the  popular  branch  of  logic.  Now  hitherto, 
Aristotle  says,  the  essence  of  rhetoric  has  been  neglected  for  the 
accidents.  Writers  on  rhetoric  have  hitherto  concerned  themselves 
mainly  with  "the  exciting  of  prejudice,  of  pity,  of  anger,  and  such- 
like emotions  of  the  soul."  All  this  is  very  well,  but  "it  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  matter  in  hand  ;  it  has  regard  to  the 
judge."  The  true  aim  should  be  to  prove  your  point,  or  seem  to 
prove  it. 

Here  we  may  venture  to  interpolate  a  comment  which  has  a 
general  bearing  on  Aristotle's  JKhetoric.  It  is  quite  true  that,  if 
we  start  from  the  conception  of  rhetoric  as  a  branch  of  logic,  the 
phantom  of  logic  in  rhetoric  claims  precedence  over  appeals  to 
passion.  But  Aristotle  does  not  sufficiently  regard  the  question — 
What,  as  a  matter  of  experience,  is  most  persuasive  ?  The  phantom 
of  logic  may  be  more  persuasive  with  the  more  select  hearers  of 
rhetoric ;  but  rhetoric  is  not  for  the  more  select ;  it  is  for  the 
many,  and  with  the  many  appeals  to  passion  will  sometimes, 
perhaps  usually,  be  more  effective  than  the  semblance  of  the 
syllogism.  And  here  we  seem  to  touch  the  basis  of  the  whole 
practical  vice — it  was  not  strictly  a  theoretical  vice — in  the  old 
world's  view  of  rhetoric,  which,  after  Aristotle's  day,  was 
ultimately  Aristotelian.  No  formulation  of  rhetoric  can  corre- 
spond with  fact  which  does  not  leave  it  absolutely  to  the  genius  of 
the  speaker  whether  reasoning  (or  its  phantom)  is  to  be  what 
Aristotle  calls  it,  the  "body  of  proof"  (<ro>/ia  ir/erreeoy),  or  whether 
the  stress  of  persuading  effort  should  not  be  rather  addressed  to  the 
emotions  of  the  hearers.  This  is  a  matter  of  tact,  of  instinct,  of 
oratorical  genius. 

But  we  can  entirely  agree  with  Aristotle  in  his  next  remark, 
which  is  historical  in  its  nature.  The  deliberative  branch  of  rhe- 
toric had  hitherto  been  postponed,  he  observes,  to  the  forensic. 
We  have  already  seen  the  primary  cause  of  this,  namely,  that 
the  very  origin  of  rhetoric  in  Hellas  was  forensic.  The  most 


urgent  need  which  the  citizen  felt  for  this  art  was  not  when 
he  had  to  discuss  the  interests  of  the  city,  but  when  he  had  to 
defend  (perhaps)  his  own  property  or  his  own  life.  The  relative 
subordination  of  deliberative  rhetoric,  however  unscientific,  had 
thus  been  human.  Aristotle's  next  statement,  that  the  master  of 
logic  will  be  the  master  of  rhetoric,  is  a  truism  if  we  concede  the 
essential  primacy  of  the  logical  element  in  rhetoric.  Otherwise  it 
is  a  paradox  ;  and  it  is  not  in  accord  with  experience,  which  teaches 
that  speakers  incapable  of  showing  even  the  ghost  of  an  argument 
have  sometimes  been  the  most  completely  successful  in  carrying 
great  audiences  along  with  them.  Aristotle  never  assumes  that 
the  hearers  of  his  rhetorician  are  as  of  xap'if"r(^>  the  cultivated 
few  ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  apt  to  assume  tacitly  —  and  here  his 
individual  bent  conies  out  —  that  these  hearers  are  not  the  great 
surging  crowd,  the  t>x*-°s>  but  a  body  of  persons  with  a  decided, 
though  imperfectly  developed,  preference  for  sound  logic. 

"What  is  the  use  of  an  art  of  rhetoric  ?  It  is  fourfold,  Aristotle  Uses  of 
replies.  Rhetoric  is  useful,  first  of  all,  because  truth  and  justice  rhetoric 
are  naturally  stronger  than  their  opposites.  When  awards  are 
not  duly  given,  truth  and  justice  must  have  been  worsted  by  their 
own  fault.  This  is  worth  correcting.  Rhetoric  is  then  (1) 
corrective.  Next,  it  is  (2)  instructive,  as  a  popular  vehicle  of 
persuasion  for  persons  who  could  not  be  reached  by  the  severer 
methods  of  strict  logic.  Then  it  is  (3)  suggestive.  (  Logic  and 
rhetoric  are  the  two  impartial  arts  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  a  matter 
of  indifference  to  them,  as  arts,  whether  the  conclusion  which  they 
draw  in  any  given  case  is  affirmative  or  negative.  Suppose  that  I 
am  going  to  plead  a  cause,  and  have  a  sincere  conviction  that  I  am 
on  the  right  side.  The  art  of  rhetoric  will  suggest  to  me  what 
might  be  urged  on  the  other  side  ;  and  this  will  give  me  a  stronger 
grasp  of  the  whole  situation.  Lastly,  rhetoric  is  (4)  defensive. 
Mental  effort  is  more  distinctive  of  man  than  bodily  effort  ;  and  "it 
would  be  absurd  that,  while  incapacity  for  physical  self-defence  is 
a  reproach,  incapacity  for  mental  defence  should  be  no  reproach." 
Rhetoric,  then,  is  corrective,  instructive,  suggestive,  defensive.  But 
what  if  it  be  urged  that  this  art  may  be  abused  ?  The  objection, 
Aristotle  answers,  applies  to  all  good  things,  except  virtue,  and 
especially  to  the  most  useful  things.  Men  may  abuse  strength, 
health,  wealth,  generalship. 

The  function  of  the  medical  art  is  not  necessarily  to  cure,  but  to 
make  such  progress  towards  a  cure  as  each  case  may  admit. 
Similarly  it  would  be  inaccurate  to  say  that  the  function  of 
rhetoric  was  to  persuade.  Rather  must  rhetoric  be  defined  as 
"the  faculty  of  discerning  in  every  case  the  available  means  of 
persuasion."  Suppose  that  among  these  means  of  persuasion  is  Rhetoric 
some  process  of  reasoning  Avhich  the  rhetorician  himself  knows  to  defined. 
be  unsound.  That  belongs  to  the  province  of  rhetoric  all  the 
same.  In  relation  to  logic,  a  man  is  called  a  "sophist"  with 
regard  to  his  moral  purpose  (irpoa/pecm),  i.e.,  if  he  knowingly 
uses  a  fallacious  syllogism.  But  rhetoric  takes  no  account  of  the 
moral  purpose.  It  takes  account  simply  of  the  faculty  (8iW/m) 
—  the  faculty  of  discovering  any  means  of  persuasion. 

The  "available  means  of  persuasion,"  universally  considered,  The 
may  be  brought  under  two  classes.     (1)  First,  there  are  the  proofs  viarta 
external  to  the  art,-  —  not  furnished  by  rhetoric,  —  the  "  inartificial  classifitt 
proofs"    (&Texvot   irlffrfts).     Such   are   the   depositions   made  by 
witnesses,  documents,  and  the  like.     (2)  Secondly,  there  are  the 
proofs,  i.e.,  the  agents  of  persuasion,   which  the  art  of  rhetoric 
itself  provides,  the  "artificial  proofs"  (evrtx^oi  via-reis).     These 


are  of  three  kinds  :  —  (a)  logical  (\oyiK^  irio-Tts)  —  demonstration, 
or  seeming  demonstration,  by  argument  ;  (b)  ethical  (yOuc})  irlaris), 
when  the  speaker  succeeds  in  conveying  such  an  impression  of  his 
own  character  as  may  lead  the  hearers  to  put  trust  in  him  ;  (c) 
emotional  (iraB-qrin^  nitnis),  when  the  speaker  works  persuasively 
on  the  feelings  of  the  hearers.  It  follows  that,  besides  logical 
skill,  the  rhetorician  should  possess  the  power  of  analysing 
character,  in  order  to  present  himself  in  the  ethical  light  which 
will  be  most  effective  with  his  audience.  He  must  also  under- 
stand the  sources  of  the  emotions,  and  the  means  of  producing 
them.  Hence  rhetoric  has  a  double  relationship.  While  in  one 
aspect  —  the  most  important  to  it  as  an  art  —  it  may  be  regarded  as 
popular  logic,  in  another  aspect  it  is  related  to  ethics.  And  hence, 
.says  Aristotle,  political  science  (iro\triK'fi)  being  a  branch  of 
ethical,  as  the  citizen  is  one  aspect  of  the  man,  "rhetoric  and  its 
professors  slip  into  the  garb  of  political  science  (uiroSvcrai  rb 
o-X*)Ma  T*>  TW  iroAiTiKijs),  cither  through  want  of  education,  or 
from  pretentiousness,  or  from  other  human  causes.  " 

Aristotle  now  proceeds  to  analyse  the  first  of  the  "  artificial  The 
proofs,"    the   logical   (\oymri   ir'urns).     Answering  to   the   strict  logical 
syllogism  of  logic,  rhetoric  has  its  popular  syllogism,  to  which  i>r""4 
Aristotle    gives   the   name   of  "enthymeme"   (^flu^Tj/ua).     This 
term  (from  the  verb  ivQvp.tiffea.i,  "  to  revolve  in  the  mind  "),  means 
properly  "a  consideration"   or    "reflection."     It  occurs  first  in 
Isocrates,  who  uses  it  simply  of  the  "thoughts"  or  "sentiments" 
with  which  a  rhetorician  embellishes  his  work  (TO?S  ivdv^fnaat 
TrptTrti/Tws  8\ov  rlv  \6yov  Ka.-rairoiKi\a.i,  Or.,  xiii.  §  16).     Whether 
the  technical  sense  was  or  was  not  known  before  Aristotle,  it  is  to 


him  at  least  that.the  first  extant  definition  is  due.  He  defines  the 
enthymeme  as  a  species  of  syllogism,  namely,  as  "a  syllogism 
from  probabilities  and  signs"  (e£  etWrwi/  Kal  (rri/jietwv).  The 
"probability"  (elic6s)  is  a  general  proposition,  expressing  that 
which  usually  happens,  as,  "wise  men  are  usually  just."  The 
' '  sign  "  (ai]fj.€iov)  is  a  particular  proposition,  as,  "  Socrates  is  just. " 
The  "sign"  may  be  fallible  or  infallible.  If  we  say,  "wise  men 
are  just ;  for  Socrates  was  wise  and  just,"  this  is  an  enthymeme 
from  a  fallible  "sign,"  the  implied  syllogism  being  "Socrates  was 
wise;  Socrates  was  just  (<n)nt'iov)  ;  .'.  all  wise  men  are  just"; 
and  here  the  "sign"  is,  in  Aristotle's  phrase,  "as  a  particular  to 
.•i  universal,"  because  from  the  one  case  of  Socrates  we  draw  an 
inference  about  all  men.  If,  again,  we  say, — "Here  is  a  sign  that 
he  is  ill — he  is  feverish";  our  enthymeme  is  using  an  infallible 
sign,  the  syllogism  being,  "All  who  are  feverish  are  ill;  he  is 
feverish  (<rr)juetoi>)  ;  . '.  he  is  ill."  Here,  again,  the  "  sign  "  is  "  as 
a  particular  to  a  universal."  AA7heu  the  "sign"  is  thus  infallible, 
it  is  properly  called  tekmerion  (reK/j.^piov),  the  matter  having  been 
demonstrated  and  concluded  (ireirtpacrfjievov) — "for  tekmar  and 
peras  mean  the  same  thing  ('limit')  in  the  old  language." 
Sometimes,  again,  the  fallible  sign  is  "as  universal  to  particular," 
e.g.,  "  Here  is  a  sign  that  he  has  a  fever  —he  breathes  quick,"  the 
syllogism  being,  ' '  Feverish  men  breathe  quick  ;  he  breathes  quick 
(cr-r]fji.flov}  ;  . '.  he  has  a  fever,"  where  a  particular  cause  is  unsoundly 
inferred  from  an  effect  (the  "universal")  which  might  have  other 
causes. 

AYhen  Aristotle  thus  describes  the  enthymeme,  or  rhetorical 
syllogism,  as  dealing  with  "probabilities"  and  "signs,"  he  is 
describing  its  ordinary  or  characteristic  materials,  qua  rhetorical 
syllogism.  He  does  not  mean  to  say  that  rhetoric  cannot  use 
syllogisms  formed  with  other  material.  It  would  be  hardly  need- 
ful to  point  this  out,  were  it  not  that,  in  spite  of  his  own  clear 
words,  his  meaning  has  sometimes  been  misunderstood.  "The 
premises  of  rhetorical  syllogisms,"  he  says,  "seldom  belong  to 
the  class  of  necessary  facts.  The  subject  matter  of  judgments  and 
deliberations  is  usually  contingent ;  for  it  is  about  their  actions 
that  men  debate  and  take  thought ;  but  actions  are  all  cpntingent, 
no  one  of  them,  so  to  say,  being  necessary.  And  results  which  are 
merely  usual  and  contingent  must  be  deduced  from  premises  of 
the  same  kind,  as  necessary  results  from  necessary  premises.  It 
follows  that  the  propositions  from  which  enthymemes  are  taken 
will  be  sometimes  necessarily  true,  but  more  often  only  contin- 
gently true. "  Among  the  materials  of  the  enthymeme,  the  "sign  " 
which  is  infallible  (the  enj/teroi/  which  is  also  a  TtKfiA\piov)  is  so 
because  it  is  to  some  necessary  truth  as  part  to  whole. 

Aristotle  did  not  regard  the  suppression  of  one  premiss  in  the 
statement  as  essential  to  the  enthymeme.  The  syllogism,  of  which 
the  enthymeme  is  merely  a  kind,  was  regarded  by  him  "not  in  re- 
lation to  the  expression  "  (  ou  irpos  rbv  e£a>  Koyov),  but  to  the  process 
in  the  mind  (a\\a  irp<>s  ri>i>  ev  TTJ  ^v^rj  \6yov,  Anal.  Post.,  i.  10). 
As  Sir  W.  Hamilton  has  justly  said,  he  could  not  then  have  intended 
to  distinguish  a  class  of  syllogisms  by  a  verbal  accident.  The 
distinction  of  the  rhetorical  syllogism,  in  Aristotle's  view,  was  in 
its  matter,  not  in  its  form.  This  is,  indeed,  made  sufficiently  clear 
by  his  own  remark  that  the  enthymeme  may  "often"  be  more 
concisely  stated  than  the  full,  or  normal,  syllogism  (Khet.,  i.  2). 
There  is  obviously  no  reason  why  the  rhetorical  reasoner  should 
not  state  both  his  premisses,  if  he  finds  it  convenient  or  effective 
to  do  so.  Since,  however,  one  of  the  premisses  is  often  left  to  be 
mentally  supplied,  some  of  the  later  writers  on  rhetoric  came  to 
treat  this  as  part  of  the  essence  of  the  enthymeme.  It  was  then 
that  the  word  dreAijs  was  interpolated  after  <rv\\oytfffj.6s  in 
Aristotle,  Analyt.  Prior.,  ii.  27,  where  the  enthymeme  is  defined 
as  avXXoyifffjibs  e'£  ej/c0Ta>j/  Kal  <rr\fj.eitav.1  Hence  Quintilian  says 
of  the  enthymeme  (v.  10),  "alii  rhetoricum  syllogismum,  alii 
imperfedum  syllogismum  vocant"  ;  hence,  too,  Juvenal's  "curium 
enthymema." 

The  other  branch  of  the  "logical  proof"  in  rhetoric  corresponds 
to  the  induction  of  strict  logic,  and  consists  in  giving  the  semblance 
of  inductive  reasoning  by  the  use  of  one  or  two  well-known 
examples.  As  Aristotle  calls  the  enthymeme  a  rhetorical  syllo- 
gism, so  he  calls  the  example  (irapd5eiyfj.a)  ' '  a  rhetorical  induction. " 
Thus  if  a  man  has  asked  for  a  body-guard,  and  the  speaker  wishes 
to  show  that  the  aim  is  a  tyranny,  he  may  quote  the  ' '  examples  " 
of  Dionysius  and  Pisistratus. 

Aristotle  next  distinguishes  the  "universal  "  from  the  ' '  special " 
topics,  or  commonplaces  of  rhetoric.  The  word  r6itns,  "place," 
means  in  this  context  "  that  place  in  which  a  proposition  of  a  given 
kind  is  to  be  sought."  The  r6irot,  then,  are  classifications  of 
propositions  and  arguments  which  rhetoric  makes  beforehand, 
with  a  view  to  readiness  in  debate.  Cicero  well  illustrates  the 
phrase—"  As  it  is  easy  to  find  hidden  things  when  the  place  has 
been  pointed  out  and  marked,  so,  when  we  want  to  track  out  an 
argument,  we  ought  to  know  the  places,  as  Aristotle  has  called 
these  seats,  abodes,  as  it  were,  from  which  arguments  are  drawn. 

1  On  this  interpolation,  see  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  Discussions,  p.  154. 


511 

So  a  commonplace,  or  topic,  may  be  defined  as  the  abode  of  an 
argument  (licet  definire  locum  esse  argumenti  scdem  ;  Cic.,  Topica, 
ii.    7).     So    elsewhere    he  describes    the    roirof   of    rhetoric    as 
"regiones    iritra   quas    venere    et    pervestiges    quod    quseras" — 
"haunts   in   which  one  may  hunt  and  track  out   the  object  of 
quest"  (De  Oral.,  ii.  34).     The  "universal  commonplaces"  (KOIVOI  universal 
T(5iroi)  are  general  heads   of  argument   applicable  to   all  subjects  and 
whatsoever— as,  e.g.,  on  the  "possibility"  or  "impossibility"  of  special, 
anything.     The  special  commonplaces  (-r6iroi  -rtav  fiSuv,  Mhet.,  ii. 
22,  more   briefly   called   etSri)   are  those  which   are   drawn  from 
special  branches  of  knowledge,  as  from  politics,  ethics,  &c.     Here 
Aristotle   observes   that  the  more  a  rhetorician    enters    on   the 
subject-matter  of  any  particular  science  the  more  will  he  tend  to 
pass   out  of  the  domain  which   properly  belongs  to   the   art  of 
rhetoric. 

In  that  domain  three  provinces  are  distinguished.     Deliber-  The  three 
ative  rhetoric   (ffvp.^ov\evriKj]}  is   concerned  with   exhortation  or  kinds  of 
dissuasion,  and  with  future  time;  its  "end"  (re'Aos) — that  which  rhetoric, 
it  keeps  in  view,  or  its  standard — is  advantage  (or  detriment)  to  the 
persons  addressed.     Forensic  rhetoric  (5i/c<wKV?)  is  concerned  with 
accusation  or  defence,  and  with  time  past ;  its  standard  is  justice 
or    injustice.     Epideictic    rhetoric — the    ornamental    rhetoric   of 
"display"  (^mSei/cTi/dj) — is  concerned  with  praise  or  blame,  and 
usually  with  time  present ;  its  standard  is  honour  or  sjhame. 

1.  Lotus  begin  with  deliberative  rhetoric,  says  Aristotle,  and  see  Delibera 
what  things  a  deliberative  speaker  ought  to  know.     The  subjects  tive. 
with  which,  in  a  public  assembly,  he  will  have  to  deal  are  mainly 

these  five  : — (1)  finance,  (2)  foreign  war,  (3)  home  defence,  (4) 
commerce,  (5)  legislation.  Under  all  these  heads,  he  ought  to  be 
provided  with  some  ettir},  or  special  commonplaces.  Further,  all 
his  suasion  or  dissuasion  has  reference  to  the  happiness  of  those 
whom  he  addresses.  Hence  he  must  be  acquainted  with  the 
popular  notions  of  happiness  which  are  actually  prevalent.  Here 
Aristotle  gives  a  series  of  popular  definitions  of  happiness,  and  a 
list  of  the  elements  which  are  generally  regarded  as  constituting  it. 
A  similar  analysis  of  "good"  (ayaBdv)  follows. 

The  scientific  spirit  of  the  rhetoric  is  strongly  accentuated  by  the 
unscientific  character  of  these  and  subsequent  analyses.  Aristotle 
never  forgets  that  his  rhetorician  wants  to  know,  not  what  a  thing 
is,  but  what  it  is  generally  thought  to  be.  There  is  nothing  of 
cynicism  or  sarcasm  in  all  this.  He  is  simply  going  through  his 
prescribed  task.  He  is  making  rhetoric,  as  such,  into  a  method. 
But  suppose  the  question  arises — "Of  two  good  things  which  is 
the  better  ?"  Our  deliberative  speaker  must  be  able  to  treat  the 
' '  universal  commonplace  "  of  degree  GuaAAoj/  «al  ^TTOJ/).  Then,  he 
must  also  know  something  about  the  chief  forms  of  government, — 
democracy,  oligarchy,  aristocracy,  monarchy, — not  as  they  are  or 
should  be,  but  as  they  are  popularly  conceived. 

2.  The  ornamental  rhetoric   (firiSftK-riK-li),  which  is  taken  next,  Epideic- 
is  somewhat  briefly  dismissed.     It  might  be  conjectured,  in  ex-  tic. 
planation  of  its  place  in  the  treatment — we  should  have  expected 

it  to  come  third — that  Aristotle  was  the  first  writer  who  recog- 
nized it  as  an  independent  kind,  and  that  he  viewed  it  as  an  off- 
shoot from  the  deliberative  branch.  The  epideictic  speaker  must 
know  what  most  men  think  ' '  honour  "or  "  shame, "  ' '  virtue  " 
or  ' '  vice. "  At  this  point  a  verbal  distinction  of  some  interest 
occurs :— praise  (eiraivos)  implies  moral  approbation  ;  but  an  "en- 
comium" (e'yKcfyiioc)  is  given  to  "  achievements "  (epya)  as  such. 
The  most  generally  useful  "  topic  "  for  the  ornamental  speaker  is 
avfra-is  (magnifying), — as  the  rhetorical  induction  (irapdSfiyft.a) 
most  helps  the  deliberative  speaker,  and  the  rhetorical  syllogism 
(tv6vfj.n/jia)  is  most  useful  to  the  forensic. 

3.  In  forensic  rhetoric,  we  must  begin  by  analysing  injustice.  Forensic. 
And  first,   "What  are  the   motives  and  aims   of  wrong-doing?" 
Actions  are  either  voluntary  from  habit,  reason,  anger,  lust,  or  in- 
voluntary from  chance,  nature,  force.     In  reference  to  the  voluntary 
actions,  it  is  needful  to  know  the  popular  conception  of  pleasure. 
Secondly,  "What  is  the  character  which  disposes  a  man  to  do  wrong, 

or  which  exposes  him  to  suffering  it  ?"  These  topics  must  be  familiar, 
in  a  popular  way,  to  the  forensic  speaker.  He  must  also  know  the 
general  grounds  on  which  actions  are  classed  as  just  or  unjust. 
Actions  must  be  considered,  first,  in  reference  to  law,  which  is 
either  special  (5f8«os),  whether  written  or  unwritten,  the  law  of 
particular  places  and  communities,  or  else  universal  (KOIVOS),  the 
law  of  nature.  The  second  question  about  an  "unjust"  action  is 
whether  it  hurts  an  individual  or  the  community.  The  definition 
of  "being  wronged"  (aSi/ceto-eaj)  is,  "to  be  unjustly  treated  by  a 
voluntary  agent."  Further,  the  definition  of  a  particular  offence 
(fTtiypan/j.a)  sometimes  raises  a  legal  issue.  A  man  may  admit  an 
act,  and  deny  that  it  corresponds  to  the  description  given  of  it  by 
the  accuser.  It  is  needful,  then,  to  know  the  definitions  of  the 
principal  crimes.  It  may  be  noticed  that  Aristotle  here 
anticipates  a  topic  which  played  a  large  part  in  the  later 
rhetoric.  The  contested  issues  which  he  calls  djU(J>iff/37jT^<reis  The 
(Rliet.,  iii.  16)  were  the  a-rda-fis  (constitutiones  or  status)  of  later  "issues.5 
days.  Thus  the  issue  as  to  the  proper  definition  of  an  offence,  to 
which  he  refers  here  (RJwt.,  i.  13),  coincides  with  the  later 


512 


KHETORIC 


bpurl).  The  distinction  between  justice  and  equity  (r& 
OIKO.IOV  and  rb  tirteiicts)  is  noticed.  Equity  is  "a  kind  of  justice, 
but  goes  beyond  the  written  law,"  as  in  the  Ethics  (v.  10) 
equity  is  said  to  be  a  corrective  of  the  law,  where  the  latter  fails 
through  generality, — i.e.,  through  the  lawmaker's  inability  to 
frame  a  general  rule  which  should  precisely  fit  the  circumstances 
of  every  particular  case.  True  to  his  conception  of  a  method, 
Aristotle  next  applies  "the  topic  of  degree"  to  injustice, — as,  in 
an  earlier  chapter  (Rhet.,  i.  7)  he  had  applied  it  to  the  idea  of 
"good." 

The  analysis  of  the  three  branches  of  rhetoric — deliberative, 
epideictic,  forensic — is  now  finished.  In  the  closing  chapter  of 
his  first  book,  Aristotle  briefly  considers  and  dismisses  the  "  inarti- 
ficial proofs," — the  means  of  persuasion,  that  is,  which  arise  from 
matters  external  to  the  art  itself,  though  the  art  uses  them.  These, 
having  regard  to  the  actual  circumstances  of  his  time  and  country, 
he  declares  to  be  five  :  (1)  laws  ;  (2)  witnesses  ;  (3)  evidence  given 
under  torture — fidcravos ;  (4)  documents ;  (5)  oaths,  meaning 
chiefly  treaties  between  states.  With  regard  to  (3)  it  may  be  re- 
marked that  the  rhetorical  theory  of  torture  in  the  ancient  world 
was,  that  a  person  under  torture  will  tell  the  truth  because  it  is 
his  interest  to  do  so.  This  is  stated,  e.g.,  in  the  Rhetorica  ad 
Alexandrum,  xv.  §  1.  Among  the  Attic  orators,  Isseus  gives  his 
emphatic  adhesion  to  this  view  (Or.,  viii.  §  12).  On  the  other 
hand,  the  common-sense  view  of  the  matter  is  very  well  put  by 
another  Attic  orator,  Antiphon,  in  his  speech  De  Csedc  Hcrodis 
(§§31-33),  when  he  remarks  that  "in  the  torturers  is  the  hope 
of  the  tortured."  "So  long,  then,"  Antiphon  proceeds,  "as  the 
slave  felt  that  his  prospects  in  slandering  were  hopeful,  he  was 
obstinate  in  the  calumny  ;  but,  when  he  saw  that  he  was  to  die, 
then  at  last  he  told  the  truth,  and  said  that  he  had  been  per- 
suaded by  the  persecutors  to  slander  me."  It  would  have  been 
interesting  if  Aristotle  had  given  some  indication  of  his  view  on 
this,  his  third,  &rtxv°s  irtffrts  ;  but  he  simply  accepts  it  as  a  fact 
of  his  day,  and,  taking  it  along  with  the  rest,  gives  a  number  of 
general  arguments  which  may  be  used  on  either  side,  according  as 
the  particular  Hrex*0*  irlaris  is  for  us  or  against  us.  Here  the 
first  book  ends. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  book,  Aristotle  returns  to  the 
"artificial  proofs"  (eWex"°«  iri<rreis) — those  which  rhetoric  itself 
provides.  Of  these,  the  logical  proof  has  already  been  in  part 
discussed  (i.  2).  He  therefore  turns  to  the  "  ethical "  proof.  The 
speaker's  character  may  be  so  indicated  by  his  speech  as  to  pre- 
possess the  hearers  ;  and  this  result  depends  chiefly  on  three 
things.  He  should  make  them  feel  that  he  possesses  (1)  Qpitvriais 
— intelligence  ;  (2)  Aper-ft— virtue  ;  and  (3)  fdi/ota — good-will  to 
them.  Aristotle  then  proceeds  to  furnish  the  speaker  with  the 
materials  for  seeming  intelligent  and  good,  referring  for  these  to 
his  previous  analysis  of  the  virtues  (i.  9).  As  to  the  means  of 
seeming  friendl}',  these  will  be  furnished  by  an  analysis  of  the 
affections  (irddi)).  Here  we  are  already  on  the  boundary  line 
between  the  "ethical  proof"  and  the  third  of  the  (vrtxv°l  ttiffreis, 
the  "emotional  proof."  In  regard  to  each  affection  (vddos),  we 
have  to  see  (1)  what  it  is  ;  (2)  what  things  predispose  men  to  it ; 
(3)  the  objects  and  conditions  of  its  manifestation.  The  next  ten 
chanters  of  the  second  book  (2-11)  are  accordingly  devoted  to  an 
analysis  of  those  emotions  which  it  is  most  important  for  the 
rhetorician  to  understand  : — viz.  (1)  anger,  and  its  opposite,  mild- 
ness ;  (2)  love  and  hatred  ;  (3)  fear  and  boldness  ;  (4)  compassion, 
envy,  emulation ;  (5)  shame  and  shamelessness ;  (6)  gratitude 
(x<fy>»s) ;  (7)  righteous  indignation  (vepeais).  But,  in  appealing  to 
these  various  emotions,  the  speaker  must  have  regard  to  the  general 
character  of  his  audience,  according,  e.g.,  as  they  are  young  or 
old,  rich  or  poor,  &c.  Hence  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  character- 
istics of  the  various  periods  and  conditions  of  life.  Aristotle 
therefore  delineates  the  chief  traits  of  the  young,  of  the  old,  and 
of  men  in  their  prime  ;  of  the  well-born,  the  rich,  and  the  power- 
ful. With  regard  to  the  well-born,  he  makes  a  remark  which  seems 
equally  true  of  the  rich  :  "  the  possessor  of  good  birth  is  the  more 
ambitious ;  for  all  men,  when  they  have  got  anything,  are  wont 
to  add  to  the  heap"  (ch.  12-17).  The  analysis  of  the  "ethical" 
and  the  ' '  emotional "  proof  is  now  finished. 

After  a  concise  retrospect,  Aristotle  passes  to  the  treatment  of  a 
subject  barely  indicated  in  the  first  book  (ch.  2).     The  KOIVO\  r6iroi, 
or   "universal    commonplaces,"  applicable  to    all  materials,   are' 
mainly   four: — (1)  rd  $uvar6i>  and   rb  aSiivarov — possibility   and 
impossibility  ;  (2)  rb  yeyovSs  and  rb  nf\\ov — past    and   future ; 

(3)  rb  aG£ftr  ical  fittovv  (or  futytOos  and  /j.iicpdrr)s) — great  and  small  ; 

(4)  rb  fia\\oi>  teal  fyrrov — greater  and  less.     Aristotle  means  that 
all  subjects  whatsoever  admit  of  arguments  into  which  these  ideas 
enter.     The  first  comes  into  play  when  we  argue,  "since  this  is 
possible,  that  must  be  so  also";  the  second,  when  we  say,  "if  this 
has  been,  that  has  been  also,"  or  "if  this  is  to  happen,  that  will 
happen  also."     For  the  third  and  fourth  of    the  Kotvol    r6irot, 
magnitude  and  degree,  we  are  referred  back  to  bk.  i.  ch.  7  and  8, 
where  they  have  already  been  handled.     The  second  book  is  com- 
pleted by  a  sort  of  appendix,  intended  to  supplement  the  sketch  of 


the  "logical  proof"  given  in  bk.  i.  ch.  2.     The   "example,"  or  "The 
rhetorical  induction,  had  been  rather  cursorily  treated  there,  and  ample 
is  now  illustrated  more   fully  (ii.  20).     There   are  two  kinds  of'con- 
" example" — the  historical  (rb  irpdynara  \tyfiv)  and  the  artificial  tinued 
(rb  avrbv  iroielv).     The  artificial  example,  again,  has  two  species — 
— (1)   comparison,  tfapa$o\i], — as  when  Socrates  said  that  magis- 
trates ought  not  to  be   chosen  by  lot,   for  this  is  like  choosing 
athletes  by  lot,  rather  than  for  athletic  power  ;  (2)  fiction,  or  fable 
in  the  special  sense — \6yot ;  as  when  Stesichorus  warned  the  people 
of  Himera  against  establishing  a  despot  by  telling  them  the  fable 
of  the  horse  who  asked  the  man  to  help  him  against  a  deer.      If 
you  have  no  arguments  of  a  logical  kind   (enthymemes),    says 
Aristotle,  the  "  example "  must  do   duty  as  proof ;   if  you  have 
enthymemes,  it  can  serve  as  illustration. 

The  use  of  yvwpai,  or  general  moral  sentiments,  next  claims  The  us 
attention  (ch.  21).  These  are  of  two  classes — those  which  arc  self-  ofyvui 
evident,  and  those  which,  not  being  so  obviously  true,  require 
some  confirmatory  comment  (tvi\oyos),  as  when  Medea  says  that 
no  sensible  man  should  allow  his  children  to  be  exquisitely 
educated,  because  it  makes  them  fastidious  and  unpopular.  Sucli 
maxims  with  an  "epilogue"  are,  in  fact,  virtually  enthymemes. 
Apropos  of  yvtoftat,  Aristotle  remarks  that  spurious  generalization 
is  particularly  useful  in  the  utterance  of  bitter  complaint  (e.g., 
"  frailty,  thy  name  is  woman ").  Then  it  is  often  effective  to 
controvert  received  maxims,  e.g. ,  "It  is  not  well ,  to  'know 
oneself  ;  for  if  this  man  had  known  himself,  he  would  never  have 
become  a  general "  (ch.  21). 

Some  precepts  on  the  enthymeme  follow.  The  rhetorical  reasoner  On  the 
must  not  have  too  many  links  in  the  chain  of  his  argument ;  and  use  of 
he  must  omit  those  propositions  which  his  hearers  can  easily  the  ent 
supply.  Also,  it  is  highly  important  to  know  the  special  topics  rneme. 
(e?5T/)  from  which  enthymemes  can  be  drawn  in  each  subject.  The 
enthymeme  is  either  (1)  SetxTiicSi',  demonstrative,  establishing  a 
point,  or  (2)  e\fyKriic6i>,  refutative,  destroying  a  position  by  a 
comparison  of  conflicting  statements  (rb  ra  avo^oXoyov^eva  <rvvd- 
yeiv).  Aristotle  now  gives  (ii.  23)  an  enumeration  of  classes  or 
heads  of  argument  (fv6vfj.rinariKol  r6iroi)  from  which  enthymemes 
can  be  constructed.  These  apply  nominally  to  all  three  branches 
of  rhetoric,  but  in  fact  chiefly  to  the  deliberative  and  the  forensic. 
The  demonstrative  enthymeme  is  almost  exclusively  treated,  since 
the  refutative  form  can,  of  course,  be  inferred  from  the  other.  A 
chapter  (24),  answering  to  the  treatise  on  fallacies  in  logic  (irepl 
ffo<pi(rriKwv  f\tyx<av),  is  devoted  to  the  fallacious  (<j>aii>6/j.evov) 
enthymeme,  of  which  ten  "topics"  are  explained  and  illustrated. 
Another  chapter  is  given  to  the  two  general  types  of  \vvis,  or 
refutation  (ch.  25),  viz.,  (1)  direct  counter-argument  (rb  O.VTKTV\- 
\oyt(effOai),  opposing  one  enthymeme  to  another  ;  (2)  objection  to 
a  particular  point  in  the  adversary's  case  (rb  IviarraffQai).  The 
second  book  then  concludes  with  some  supplementary  remarks, 
meant,  seemingly,  to  correct  errors  made  by  previous  writers  on 
rhetoric  (ch.  26). 

In  his  first  two  books  Aristotle  has  thus  dealt  with  invention  Book  I 
(evpea-ts) — the  discovery  of  means  of  persuasion.  In  the  third  book 
he  deals  with  expression  and  arrangement  (Ae'fis  and  rafts).  The 
subject  is  prepared  by  some  remarks  on  the  art  of  delivery  ( inroKpta-is),  Delivei 
which  Aristotle  defines  as  the  management  of  the  voice.  It  is 
the  art  of  knowing  how  to  use  the  voice  for  the  expression  of  each 
feeling,  of  knowing  when  it  should  be  loud,  low,  or  moderate,  of 
managing  its  pitch  —shrill,  deep,  or  middle — and  of  adapting  the 
cadences  to  the  theme."  Aristotle  says  nothing  on  gesture  or  play 
of  feature,  which  Cicero  and  Quintilian  recognize  as  important. 
He  includes  them  by  implication,  however,  in  saying  that  the  art 
of  delivery,  whenever  it  is  reduced  to  method,  "  will  perform  the 
function  of  the  actor's  art,"  adding  that  "the  dramatic  faculty  is 
less  a  matter  of  art  than  of  nature.' 

But  verbal  expression,  at  least,  is  clearly  in  the  province  of  art, 
and  to  that  he  now  turns.  He  deals  first  with  diction  (As£ is)  in  Dictio 
the  proper  sense,  as  concerned  with  the  choice  of  words  and  phrases. 
The  first  excellence  of  diction  is  clearness  (ffa^vtia),  which  is 
attained  by  using  words  in  their  proper  sense  (Kvpia).  Next,  the 
diction  must  be  "neither  too  low  nor  too  grand,  but  suitable  to  the 
subject."  In  prose  (Iv  rols  fyi\o?s  \6yois)  there  is  less  scope  for 
ornament  than  in  poetry,  though  in  the  latter,  too,  much  depends 
on  the  speaker  or  the  theme.  And  here  Aristotle  remarks  that 
Euripides  was  the  first  poet  who  produced  a  happy  illusion  by  taking 
his  words  from  the  language  of  daily  life  (tic  rys  diaOvias  SiaAe/crou). 
With  a  view  to  adorning  prose,  and  giving  it  "distinction"  (the 
term  which  best  represents  Aristotle's  phrase  £ tvov  or  £fviK\>v  iroitiv), 
nothing  is  more  important  than  the  judicious  use  of  metaphor. 
Aristotle  admits  that  "the  art  of  metaphor  cannot  be  taught"; 
but  he  gives  some  sensible  hints  on  the  subject,  and  on  the  use  of 
epithets.  The  poet  Simonides,  he  tells  us,  when  the  winner  of  a 
mule  race  offered  him  a  small  fee,  declined  to  write  an  ode  on  "half- 
asses,  "but,  when  the  price  was  raised,  sang  "Hail,  daughters  of 
windswift  steeds."  The  perceptions  which  made  the  best  Greek 
prose  so  good  are  illustrated  by  Aristotle's  next  chapter  (iii.  3)  on 
\l>vxpd,  "frigidities,"  " faults  of  style. "  He  traces  these  to  four 


RHETORIC 


513 


chief  sources, — the  use  of  tawdry  or  ungainly  compounds  (5nr\a 
ov6fjLa.ro.},  the  use  of  rare  or  obsolete  words  (y\wrrai),  and  infelicity 
of  epithet  or  metaphor. 

A  simile  (ei/ccoi/)  is  a  metaphor  with  an  explanation  (\6yos):  e.g., 
in  speaking  of  Achilles,  "he  sprang  on  them  like  a  lion"  is 
simile  ;  "  the  lion  sprang  on  them  "  is  metaphor.  Simile  is  less 
available  than  metaphor  for  prose,  being  more  poetical.  The 
"  proportional "  metaphor  mentioned  here  requires  a  passing  com- 
ment. Aristotle  used  the  term  "  metaphor  "  (/meratyopd)  in  a  larger 
sense  than  ours.  He  meant  by  it  "  any  transference  of  a  word  to 
a  sense  different  from  its  proper  sense. "  Thus  he  can  distinguish 
(Poet.,  c.  21)  four  classes  of  metaphor: — (1)  "from  genus  to 
species,"  as  when  "vessel"  means  "ship";  (2)  from  species  to 
genus,  as  when  "the  lilies  of  the  field"  stand  for  flowers" 
generally.  These  two  kinds  are  not  what  we  call  "metaphors," 
but  are  examples  of  the  figure  which  was  afterwards  named  "synec- 
doche." Aristotle's  third  class  of  metaphor  is  (3)  "from  species 
to  species,"  under  which  head  come  almost  all  familiar  metaphors, 
as  to  "  scent  a  plot, " — the  generic  notion,  "find  out,"  being  common 
to  the  special  terms,  "scent"  and  "detect";  (4)  then  lastly  there 
is  the  "proportional"  metaphor  (?/  avaKoyov),  when  A  is  not  simply 
compared  with  B  (on  the  strength  of  something  obviously  common 
to  both),  but  A's  relation  to  C  is  compared  with  B's  relation  to  D. 
To  call  old  age  "  the  evening  of  life  "  implies  that  old  age  is  to  life 
as  the  evening  to  the  day.  Obviously  a  proportion  "  of  this  kind 
is  implicit  in  the  metaphors  of  Aristotle's  third  class  ;  but  in  the 
fourth  class  proportion  is  expressly  indicated  by  the  mention  of 
the  second  term  ("life"  in  our  example). 

The  first  four  chapters  having  thus  dealt  with  expression  in  the 
narrower  sense  of  diction  (Ae|ts  proper),  Aristotle  devotes  the  next 
eight  (iii.  5-12)  to  composition,  which  would  be  properly  called 
avvOfffis.  •  After  remarks  on  the  first  requisites — grammatical  cor- 
rectness, and  purity  of  idiom  (rb  e\\r,vi£fii') — we  have  some  hints 
on  "dignity"  of  style  (oyKos).  "  Propriety  "  (rb  TrpeVoj/)  is  defined 
as  depending  chiefly  on  three  qualities  : — (1)  expression  of  the  feel- 
ings which  it  is  desired  to  move  in  the  hearer ;  (2)  fitness  to  the 
character  and  position  of  the  speaker  ;  and  (3)  congruity  with  the 
level  of  the  subject.  A  certain  "rhythm"  (pv0/j.6s),  or  harmonious 
movement,  should  be  sought  in  prose  ;  but  this  must  not  be  so  pre- 
cise as  to  give  the  effect  of  metre.  The  elements  of  rhythm  are 
"times,"  i.e.,  in  writing,  long  or  short  syllables,  the  short  syllable 
being  the  unit.  Here,  following  the  early  writers  on  music  (comp. 
Plato,  Rep.,  400  B),  Aristotle  recognizes  three  "rhythms"  :  (1)  the 
"  heroic  "  or  dactylic,  — ^—^-',  which  is  in  the  ratio  of  equality, 

since  —  =  -— -*~^,    or   1  : 1  ;  (2)    the   iambic   or   trochaic  (- or 

—  — ),  which  has  the  ratio  of  2  to  1  ;  (3)  the  pseonic,  — -^^^, 
which  has  the  ratio  of  3  :  2.  Of  these,  the  heroic  is  too  grand  for 
prose  ;  the  iambic  is  too  commonplace,  being  the  very  cadence 
of  ordinary  talk  (avr-fj  e<rriv  77  Ae|is  r&v  Tro\\a>v) ;  the  trochee  is 
too  comic.  The  p;eon  remains.  It  is  the  best  rhythm  for  prose, 
since  it  will  not,  by  itself,  produce  a  metrical  effect  (/j.a\\ov 
\av0dvei).  The  "first"  pseon  ( — ^-^^)  is  most  suitable  to  the 
beginning  of  sentences,  the  "  fourth  "  pseon  (  —  ^— - — )  to  the 
close.  Rhythm  having  been  attained,  a  framework  is  supplied  by 
the  period  (wepioSos).  A  "compact"  or  periodic  style  (Ka.reffrpa.fji- 
lic  yueVij  A.e£is)  is  so  called  in  contrast  with  that  "  running "  style 
(elpoij.fl/r]  \e£is)  which  simply  strings  clause  to  clause,  having 
no  necessary  end  until  the  thought  is  finished,"  and  is  unpleasing 
because  it  is  unlimited  ;  "  for  all  men  wish  to  descry  the  end. 
The  periodic  style  pleases  for  the  opposite  reason,  because  the 
nearer  always  fancies  that  he  has  grasped  something  and  has  got 
something  denned.  The  period  may  consist  of  several  parts  or 
members  (/caJA.a),  or  it  may  be  "simple,"  forming  a  unit  (d0eA.ijs, 
^oj/0/ccoA.os).  The  rhetorical  use  of  antithesis  is  then  noticed  in 
its  application  to  the  period.  Two  kindred  figures  are  also  men- 
tioned,— jjarisosis,  a  parallelism  of  structure  between  clauses  of 
equal  length, — and  iMromoiosis,  a  resemblance  in  sound,  when  the 
last  (or  first)  word  of  one  clause  has  an  echo,  as  it  were,  in  the  same 
place  of  the  next  clause. 
.vity.  Two  chapters  (10,  11)  are  now  given  to  the  sources  of  vivacity  in 

(speaking.  Those  "smart  sayings"  (ra.  affrela)  which  win  applause 
"  must  be  invented  by  the  clever  or  practised  man  ;  the  business  of 
this  treatise  is  to  point  out  their  use."  They  come  chiefly  from  (1) 
metaphor,  (2)  antithesis,  and  (3)  vividness — i.e.,  placing  the  thing 
described  "before  the  eyes  of  the  hearer"  (rb  irpb  ofn^arcav  iroielv). 
This  is  called  by  Aristotle  evepyeia.,  "actuality"  (which  must  be 
carefully  distinguished  from  fvdpyeia,  another  term  for  "  vivid- 
ness "),  since  things  are  represented  not  merely  in  their  potentiality 
(Svvafjits),  but  as  living  and  moving.  One  of  the  most  effective 
kinds  of  point  (says  Aristotle)  is  "a  metaphor  with  a  surprise," 
i.e.,  with  the  disclosure  of  a  likeness  not  perceived  before,  the 
source  of  the  pleasure  being  the  same  as  in  riddles. 

The  whole  subject  of  expression  is  concluded  by  a  chapter  on  the 

61 'al     general  types  of  style,  in  their  relation  to  the  three  branches  of 

7s  of  rhetoric  (ch.  12).  There  is. a  literary  style  (ypa<piK^  A.«=|is)  and  a 

t).       style  suited  to  oral  contest  or  debate  (aytavurriK-fi).     The  literary 

style  is  that  which  admits  of  the  highest  finish  (aKpifteffrdrt}),  and 


is  best  suited  to  the  epideictic  branch  of  rhetoric,  since  the  latter  is 
properly  addressed  to  readers.  The  other,  or  "agonistic,"  style 
is  best  adapted  to  delivery  (vTroKpiriKwrdr-ri).  It  is  so  mainly 
through  two  things — adaptation  to  the  character  of  speaker  and 
hearer,  and  skilful  appeals  to  feeling.  Forensic  and  deliberative 
rhetoric  both  use  it ;  but  the  forensic  branch  admits  of  higher 
finish,  and  so  far  approximates  to  the  literary  style.  Deliberative 
rhetoric,  on  the  other  hand,  is  like  drawing  in  light  and  shade 
(without  colours),  arKiaypaobia — like  scene-painting,  we  should 
rather  say,  i.e.,  it  is  meant  to  produce  its  effects  at  a  distance, 
and  will  not  bear  looking  at  too  closely. 

From  expression  we  now  pass  to  the  other  subject  announced  at  Arrange- 
the  opening  of  the  third  book,  arrangement  (ra^ty),  which  occupies  ment. 
the  last  seven  chapters  (13-19).  The  received  system,  which  had 
been  popularized,  if  not  originated,  by  Isocrates,  recognised  four 
divisions  of  a  speech  :  (1)  exordium  (or  proem),  vpoolfjuov  ;  (2) 
narrative,  Si^y^tns ;  (3)  proof,  iriffrfis  ;  (4)  peroration,  firl\oyos. 
Aristotle  adopts  this  fourfold  'partition  as  his  basis, — with  the 
preliminary  remark,  however,  that  only  two  elements  are  neces- 
sarily present  in  every  case,  viz.,  "statement"  of  one's  subject, 
Trp6dearis,  and  "argument"  in  its  support,  iriffreis.  He  then  takes 
the  four  divisions  in  order.  The  contents  of  the  proem  usually  1.  Proem, 
come  under  one  of  two  heads — (1)  exciting  or  allaying  prejudice  ; 
(2)  amplifying  or  detracting.  In  epideictic  rhetoric  the  connexion 
of  proem  with  sequel  may  be  comparatively  loose  ;  it  is  like  a  flute- 
player's  prelude  (irpoav\iov\  which  he  deftly  links  on  to  the  key- 
note (ev$6ffi/j.ov)  of  his  principal  theme.  The  forensic  proem,  on 
the  other  hand,  may  be  likened  to  the  prologue  of  an  epic  or  a 
tragedy  (ch.  14,  15).  Narrative  is  least  needed  in  deliberative  2.  Nairn- 
speaking,  since  this  deals  chiefly  with  the  future.  In  forensic  nar-  tive. 
rative,  the  object  must  be  to  bring  out  clearly  the  issues  on  which 
accuser  or  accused  relies,  with  an  effective  colouring  of  ethos  and 
pathos.  In  the  epideictic  branch,  the  narrative  should  not  form  a 
continuous  whole,  but  should  be  divided  and  varied  by  comments 
(ch.  16).  The  rhetorician's  proofs  (trio-Ten)  will,  in  the  forensic  3.  Proof. 
branch,  be  relevant  to  one  of  four  issues : — (1)  fact :  was  the  alleged 
act  done,  or  not  ?  (2)  damage  :  if  done,  was  it  hurtful  ?  (3)  crimin- 
ality :  if  hurtful,  was  the  hurt  justifiable  ?  (4)  quantity  or  degree. 
Aristotle's  four  "issues  "  (a/j.(f>i<Tprir-f)(reis)  here  correspond  with  the 
<rrd<Teis,  "positions"  or  "questions,"  usually  three,  of  later  legists 
and  rhetoricians:  (1)  ara-ais  a-roxao-riic-fi,  status  conjecturalis,  the 
question  of  fact;  (2)  ffrdffts  bpinJ),  status  definitimis,  nomen,  or 
finitio,  the  question  of  legal  definition ;  (3)  ffruais  iroidrriTos 
status  qualitatis  or  juridicialis,  the  question  of  justice  or  injustice. 
Thus  Cicero  says,  "res  (controversiam  facit)  aut  de  vero  (1),  aut 
de  recto  (3),  aut  de  nomine"  (2),  Orat.,  xxxiv.  121.  In  delibera- 
tive rhetoric,  the  four  "issues"  can  be  applied  to  the  future,  since, 
if  a  speaker  anticipates  certain  results  from  a  course  of  a  policy,  his 
adversary  can  deny  their  (1)  probability,  (2)  expediency,  (3)  justice, 
or  (4)  importance.  The  enthymeme  is  most  useful  in  the  delibera- 
tive branch,  as  the  "example,"  or  rhetorical  induction,  is  most 
useful  in  the  forensic.  The  "ethical"  proof  from  the  speaker's 
indicated  character  is  always  a  most  important  adjunct  to  the 
logical  proof  (ch.  17).  A  chapter  is  now  given  to  one  special  re- 
source by  which  a  proof  can  often  be  enforced,  viz.,  interrogation 
of  the  adversary  (ep^rrjens),  which  has  usually  one  of  two  objects — 

(1)  rediwtio  ad  absurdum,  or  (2)  to  entrap  him  into  a  fatal  admis- 
sion (ch.   18).     The  last  chapter  of  the  book,  and  of  the  treatise,  4.  Epi- 
deals  with  the  peroration  or  "epilogue"    (eirl\oyos).     This  aims  logue. 
usually   at   one   of  four   things  : — (1)   to  conciliate  the  hearers  ; 

(2)  to  magnify  or  lower  the  importance  of  topics  already  treated ; 

(3)  .to  excite  emotion  in  the  hearers  ;  (4)  to  refresh  their  memories 
by  a  short  recapitulation.     Remarking  that  asyndeton  gives  force 
to  the  close  of  an  epilogue,  Aristotle  ends  his  rhetoric  with  the 
last  words  (not  quite  accurately  quoted)  of  the  great  speech  in  which 
Lysias  denounced   Eratosthenes — Traiiffo/jiai   KaTijyopwv.   dKijK^are, 
ewpdicaTe,  iretr6vQare,  e^ere,  Sucd^ere. 

Aristotle's  Rhetoric  is  incomparably  the  most  scientific 
work  which  exists  on  the  subject.     It  may  also  be  regarded 
as  having  determined  the  main  lines  on  which  the  subject 
was  treated  by  nearly  all  subsequent  writers.     The  extant 
treatise   on  rhetoric   entitled  'P^Topi/c?/   Trpos  'AAe£ai/8/ooi/ 
was  undoubtedly  by  Anaximenes  of  Lampsacus,  and  was  The  Rhe- 
probably  composed  about  340-330  B.C.,  a  few  years  before  toric  °f 
Aristotle's  work.     The  introductory  letter  prefixed  to  it  is    n; 
a  late  forgery.     If  the  treatise  of  Anaximenes  is  compared  compared 
with  that  of  Aristotle  the  distinctive   place  of  the  latter  with  Aris- 
in  this  field  becomes  clearer.     Anaximenes,  who  knew  the  totle's, 
treatise  of  Isocrates,  and  could  profit  by  all  the  preceding 
Greek  "arts,"  is,  for  us,  the  sole  representative  of  technical 
rhetoric  before  Aristotle,  and  probably  represents  it  at  its 
best.     We   miss   the   intellectual   power,    the    grasp    of 
principles,  and  the  subtle  discrimination  which  belong  to 

XX. -65 


514 


RHETORIC 


The 
period 
from 

Alexander 
to  Augus- 
tus. 


the  work  of  Aristotle.  On  the  other  hand,  the  practical 
character  is  more  strongly  marked.  It  might,  indeed,  be 
said  of  Aristotle's  treatise  that  it  is  rather  a  Philosophy 
of  Rhetoric  than  a  Rhetoric  proper.  It  is  a  body  of 
abstract  principles  and  general  rules.  These  will  enable 
the  student  to  dissect  a  good  speech  ;  but,  by  themselves, 
they  will  not  go  far  towards  enabling  him  to  make  one. 
Aristotle's  purpose  was  to  annex  rhetoric  to  the  realm  of 
science.  He  succeeded,  as  far  as  success  was  possible. 
But  the  new  province  was  somewhat  of  a  Poland.  The 
rigid  system  which  was  found  necessary  for  holding  the 
unruly  dependency  did  not  leave  much  scope  for  spon- 
taneous vigour  or  native  exuberance. 

During  the  three  centuries  from  the  age  of  Alexander  to 
that  of  Augustus  the  fortunes  of  rhetoric  were  governed 
by  the  new  conditions  of  Hellenism.  Aristotle's  scientific 
method  lived  on  in  the  Peripatetic  school.  Meanwhile,  how- 
ever, the  fashion  of  florid  declamation  or  strained  conceits 
prevailed  in  the  rhetorical  schools  of  Asia,  where,  amid 
mixed  populations,  the  pure  traditions  of  the  best  Greek 
taste  had  been  dissociated  from  the  use  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage. The  "  Asianism  "  of  style  which  thus  came  to  be 
contrasted  with  "  Atticism "  found  imitators  at  Rome, 
among  whom  must  be  reckoned  the  orator  Hortensius  (c. 
95  B.C.).  Hermagoras  of  Temnos  in  vEolis  (c.  110  B.C.) 
claims  mention  as  having  done  much  to  revive  a  higher  con- 
ception. Using  both  the  practical  rhetoric  of  the  time  before 
Aristotle  and  Aristotle's  philosophical  rhetoric,  he  worked 
up  the  results  of  both  in  a  new  system, — following  the 
philosophers  so  far  as  to  give  the  chief  prominence  to 
"invention."  He  thus  became  the  founder  of  a  rhetoric 
which,  as  distinguished  from  the  practical  and  the  philo- 
sophical, may  be  called  the  scholastic.  Through  the 
influence  of  his  school,  Hermagoras  did  for  Roman  elo- 
quence very  much  what  the  school  of  Isocrates  had  done  for 
Athens.  Above  all,  he  counteracted  the  view  of  "Asian- 
ism,"  that  oratory  is  a  mere  knack  founded  on  practice, 
and  recalled  attention  to  the  study  of  it  as  an  art.1 

Cicero's  rhetorical  works  are  to  some  extent  based  on  the 
technical  system  to  which  he  had  been  introduced  by 
Molon  at  Rhodes,  and  by  other  contemporary  teachers. 
But  Cicero  further  made  an  independent  use  of  the  best 
among  the  earlier  Greek  writers,  as  Isocrates,  Aristotle,  and 
Theophrastus.  Lastly,  he  could  draw,  at  least  in  the  later 
of  his  treatises,  on  a  vast  fund  of  reflection  and  experience. 
Indeed,  the  distinctive  interest  of  his  contributions  to  the 
theory  of  rhetoric  consists  in  the  fact  that  his  theory  can 
be  compared  with  his  practice.  The  result  of  such  a  com- 
parison is  certainly  to  suggest  how  much  less  he  owed  to 
his  art  than  to  his  genius.  Some  consciousness  of  this  is 
perhaps  implied  in  the  idea  which  pervades  much  of  his 
writing  on  oratory,  that  the  perfect  orator  is  the  perfect 
man.  The  same  thought  is  present  to  Quintilian,  in  whose 
great  work,  De  Institutions  Oratorio,,  the  scholastic 
rhetoric  receives  its  most  complete  expression  (c.  90  A.D.). 
Quintilian  treats  oratory  as  the  end  to  which  the  entire 
mental  and  moral  development  of  the  student  is  to  be 
directed.  Thus  he  devotes  his  first  book  to  an  early 
discipline  which  should  precede  the  orator's  first  studies, 
and  his  last  book  to  a  discipline  of  the  whole  man  which 
lies  beyond  them.  Some  notion  of  his  comprehensive 
method  may  be  derived  from  the  circumstance  that, 
in  connexion  with  precepts  for  storing  the  speaker's 
mind,  he  introduces  a  succinct  estimate  of  the  chief 
Greek  and  Roman  authors,  of  every  kind,  from  Homer 
to  Seneca  (bk.  x.  §§  46-131).  After  Quintilian,  the  next 
name  which  deserves  to  be  signalized  in  the  history  of 
the  art  is  that  of  Hermogenes,  who  about  170  A.D. 

1  See  Professor  Jebb's  A  ttic  Orators,  vol.  ii.  p.  445. 


made  a  complete  digest  of  the  scholastic  rhetoric  from 
the  time  of  Hermagoras  of  Temnos  (110  B.C.).  It  is 
contained  in  five  extant  treatises,  which  are  remarkable 
for  clearness  and  acuteness,  and  still  more  remarkable  as 
having  been  completed  before  the  age  of  twenty-five. 
Hermogenes  continued  for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  to 
be  one  of  the  chief  authorities  in  the  schools.  Longinus  Other 
(c.  260  A.D.)  published  an  Art  of  Rhetoric  which  is  still  writei 
extant ;  and  the  more  celebrated  treatise  On  Sublimity 
(•n-e/n  {tyovs),  if  not  his  work,  is  at  least  of  the  same  period. 
About  315  A.D.  Aphthonius  composed  the  "exercises" 
(Trpo-YVfj.vda-p.aTa)  which  superseded  the  work  of  Hermogenes. 
At  the  revival  of  letters  the  treatise  of  Aphthonius  once 
more  became  a  standard  text-book.  Much  popularity  was 
enjoyed  also  by  the  exercises  of  ^Elius  Theon  (380  A.D.). 
Space  would  fail  if  we  attempted  to  enumerate  the  writers 
on  rhetoric  who,  during  these  centuries,  attained  to  more 
or  less  repute.  In  the  editions  of  the  Rhetores  Gr&ci  by 
Spengel  and  by  Walz  the  fecundity  of  the  literature  can 
be  seen. 

The  theory  of  rhetoric  engaged  this  industry,  because  the 
practice  of  the  art  was  in  greater  vogue  than  ever  before 
or  since.  During  the  first  four  centuries  of  the  empire  Pract 
several  causes  contributed  to  this  result.  First,  there  was  of  rhi 
a  general  dearth  of  the  higher  intellectual  interests ;  politics t01 
gave  no  scope  to  energy ;  philosophy  was  stagnant,  and  empj 
literature,  as  a  rule,  either  arid  or  frivolous.  Then  the 
Greek  schools  had  poured  their  rhetoricians  into  Rome, 
where  the  same  tastes  which  revelled  in  coarse  luxury 
welcomed  tawdry  declamation.  The  law-courts  of  the 
Roman  provinces  further  created  a  continual  demand  for 
forensic  speaking.  Asia,  Gaul,  and  Africa  are  now  the 
regions  which  supply  the  largest  proportion  of  successful 
orators.  The  passion  for  rhetoric  was  everywhere.  "  Thule 
talks  of  engaging  an  orator,"  says  Juvenal.  "You  call 
a  man  a  thief,"  says  Persius;  "he  answers  you  with 
finished  tropes."  Athens,  Smyrna,  Rhodes,  Tarsus, 
Antioch,  Alexandria,  Massilia,  and  many  other  cities  had 
seats  of  learning  at  which  rhetoric  was  taught  by  pro- 
fessors who  enjoyed  the  highest  consideration.  The  public 
teacher  of  rhetoric  was  called  "sophist,"  which  was  now  The' 
an  academic  title,  similar  to  "professor"  or  "  doctor." 
In  the  4th  century  B.C.  Isocrates  had  taken  pride  in 
the  name  of  <ro(f>io-T-rjs,  which,  indeed,  had  at  no  time 
wholly  lost  the  good,  or  neutral,  sense  which  originally 
belonged  to  it.  The  academic  meaning  which  it  acquired 
under  the  early  empire  lasted  into  the  Middle  Ages  (see 
Ducange,  s.v.,  who  quotes  from  Baldricus,  "Egregius 
Doctor  magnusque  Sophista  Geraldus ").  While  the 
word  rhetor  still  denoted  the  -faculty,  the  word  KplwAn 
denoted  the  office  or  rank  to  which  the  rhetor  might  hope 
to  rise.  So  in  Lucian's  piece  (160  A.D.),  the  "  Teacher  of 
Rhetoricians"  says  (§  1), — "You  ask,  young  man,  how 
you  are  to  become  a  rhetor,  and  attain  in  your  turn 
to  the  repute  of  that  most  impressive  and  illustrious  title, 
sophist." 

Vespasian  (70-79  A.D.),  according  to  Suetonius,  was  the 
first  emperor  who  gave  a  public  endowment  to  the  teach- 
ing of  rhetoric.  But  it  was  under  Hadrian  and  the 
Antonines  (117-180  A.D.)  that  the  public  chairs  ofcimi 
rhetoric  were  raised  to  an  importance  which  made  them  rl'et' 
objects  of  the  highest  ambition.  The  complete  constitu- 
tion of  the  schools  at  Athens  was  due  to  Marcus  Aurelius. 
The  Philosophical  School  had  four  chairs  (Opovoi), — Platonic, 
Stoic,  Peripatetic,  Epicurean.  The  Rhetorical  School  had 
two  chairs,  one  for  "sophistic,"  the  other  for  "political" 
rhetoric.  By  "sophistic"  was  meant  the  academic  teach- 
ing of  rhetoric  as  an  art,  in  distinction  from  its  "  politi- 
cal" application  to  the  law-courts.  The  "sophistical" 
chair  was  superior  to  the  "  political "  in  dignity  as  in 


RHETORIC 


515 


emolument,  and  its  occupant  was  invested  with  a  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  youth  of  Athens  similar  to  that  of  the  vice- 
chancellor  in  a  modern  university.  Thus  it  is  said  of 
Theodotus,  the  first  holder  of  the  chair  of  sophistic  as 
constituted  by  Marcus  Aurelius,  Trpoeo-n?  8e  /cat  TIJS  TWV 
'AQrjvaiuv  vedr^ros  Trpwros  (Philostr.,  Vit.  Soph.,  II.  ii.  p. 
566).  The  Antonines  further  encouraged  rhetoric  by 
granting  immunities  to  its  teachers.  Three  "  sophists  " 
in  each  of  the  smaller  towns,  and  five  in  the  larger,  were 
exempted  from  taxation  (Dig.,  xxvii.  1,  6,  §  2).  The 
wealthier  sophists  affected  much  personal  splendour. 
One  of  them,  Polemon  (c.  130  A.D.),  was  attended  on 
his  journeys  by  an  enormous  retinue — slaves,  beasts  of 
burden,  horses,  and  hounds — while  he  himself  drove  in  a 
costly  equipage.  Another,  Adrian  of  Tyre  (c.  170  A.D.), 
was  drawn  to  his  lectures  by  horses  "  with  silver  bits," 
wore  the  richest  attire  and  the  rarest  jewels,  and  en- 
deared himself  to  the  Athenian  students  by  the  entertain- 
ments which  he  provided  for  them.  In  all  this  foppery 
there  was  calculation.  The  aim  of  the  sophist  was  to 
impress  the  multitude.  Popular  applause  was  the  breath 
of  life  to  him.  His  whole  stock  in  trade  was  style,  and 
this  was  directed  to  astonishing  by  tours  de  force.  The 
scholastic  declamations  were  chiefly  of  two  classes.  (1) 
The  suasoriee  were  usually  on  historical  or  legendary 
subjects,  in  which  some  course  of  action  was  commended 
or  censured ;  thus  Juvenal,  alluding  to  his  school  days, 
cries — 

"  I,  too,  have  counselled  Sulla  to  resign, 
And  taste  those  joys  for  which  dictators  pine." 

These  suasoriae  belonged  to  deliberative  rhetoric  (the 
(3ov\evTt.Kov  ytvos,  deliberativum  genus).  (2)  The  contro- 
versies turned  especially  on  legal  issues,  and  represented 
the  forensic  rhetoric  (Si/caj/iKov  yeVos,  judiciole  genus). 
But  it  was  the  general  characteristic  of  this  period  that 
all  subjects,  though  formally  "deliberative  "  or  "forensic," 
were  treated  in  the  style  and  spirit  of  that  third  branch 
which  Aristotle  distinguished,  the  rhetoric  of  e7n.'8ei£is  or 
"display."  The  oratory  produced  by  the  age  of  the 
academic  sophists  can  be  estimated  from  a  large  extant 
literature.  It  is  shown  under  various  aspects,  and  pre- 
sumably at  its  best,  by  such  writers  as  Dion  Chrysostom 
at  the  end  of  the  1st  century,  ^Elius  Aristides  in  the 
2d,  Themistius,  Himerius,  and  Libanius  in  the  4th. 
It  would  be  unjust  to  deny  that,  amid  much  which  is  tawdry 
or  vapid,  these  writings  occasionally  present  passages  of 
true  literary  beauty,  while  they  constantly  offer  matter  of 
the  highest  interest  to  the  student  of  the  past. 

In  the  mediaeval  system  of  academic  studies,  grammar, 
logic,  and  rhetoric  were  the  subjects  of  the  trivium,  or 
course  followed  during  the  four  years  of  undergraduateship. 
Music,  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy  constituted  the 
quadrivium,  or  course  for  the  three  years  from  the  B.A.  to 
the  M.  A.  degree.  These  were  the  seven  liberal  arts.  Accord- 
ing to  Hallam  (Lit.  Eur.,  vol.  i.),  the  idea  of  a  trivium  and 
quadrivium  dates  from  the  6th  century.  The  well-known 
memorial  couplet  can  be  traced  to  c.  1420  A.D.  : — 

Gram,  loquitur,  Dia.  vera  docet,  Rhet.  verba  colorat : 
Mus.  canit,  Ar.  numerat.  Gco.  ponderat,  As.  colit  astra. 

A  shorter  formula  was — "  lingua,  tropus,  ratio  ;  numerus, 
tonus,  angulus,  astra."  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  chief 
authorities  on  rhetoric  were  the  latest  Latin  epitomists, 
such  as  Martianus  Capella  (5th  century),  Cassiodorus  (5th 
century),  or  Isidorus  (7th  century). 

After  the  revival  of  learning,  the  better  Roman  and 
Greek  writers  gradually  returned  into  use.  Some  new 
treatises  were  also  produced.  Leonard  Cox  (died  1549) 
wrote  The  Art  or  Craft  of  Rhetoryke,  partly  compiled, 
partly  original,  which  was  reprinted  in  Latin  at  Cracow. 


The  Art  of  Rhetorique  by  Thomas  Wilson  (1553),  after- 
wards secretary  of  state,  embodied  rules  chiefly  from 
Aristotle,  with  help  from  Cicero  and  Quintilian.  About 
the  same  time,  treatises  on  rhetoric  were  published  in 
France  by  Tonquelin  (1555)  and  Courcelles  (1557).  The 
general  aim  at  this  period  was  to  revive  and  popularize 
the  best  teaching  of  the  ancients  on  rhetoric.  The  subject  Rhetoric 
was  regularly  taught  at  the  universities,  and  was,  indeed,  at  * 
important.  At  Cambridge  in  1570  the  study  of  rhetoric  tieg 
was  based  on  Quintilian,  Hermogenes,  and  the  speeches  of 
Cicero  viewed  as  works  of  art.  An  Oxford  statute  of  1588 
shows  that  the  same  books  were  used  there.  In  1620 
George  Herbert  was  delivering  lectures  on  rhetoric  at  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  held  the  office  of  public  orator.  The 
decay  of  rhetoric  as  a  formal  study  at  the  universities  set 
in  during  the  18th  century.  In  1712  Steele  regrets  that 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  have  "grown  dumb  in  the  study  of 
eloquence."  The  function  of  the  rhetoric  lecturer  passed 
over  into  that  of  correcting  written  themes ;  but  his  title 
remained  long  after  his  office  had  lost  its  primary  meaning 
If  the  theory  of  rhetoric  fell  into  neglect,  the  practice 
however,  was  encouraged  by  the  public  exercises  ("acts' 
and  "  opponencies  ")  in  the  schools.  The  college  prizes  fo 
"declamations"  served  the  same  purpose. 

The  fortunes  of  rhetoric  in  the  modern  world,  as  briefly  Modem 
sketched  above,  may  suffice  to  suggest  why  few  modern  writers  01 
writers  of  ability  have  given  their  attention  to  the  subject,  rhetoric. 
Perhaps  one  of  the  most  notable  modern  contributions  to 
the  art  is  the  collection  of  commonplaces  framed  (in  Latin) 
by  Bacon,  "  to  be  so  many  spools  from  which  the  threads 
can  be  drawn  out  as  occasion  serves,"  a  truly  curious 
work  of   that  acute  and  fertile  mind.     He  called  them 
"  Antitheta."     A  specimen  is  subjoined  : — 


UXOR  ET  LlBERI. 


For. 

' '  Attachment    to    the 
begins  from  the  family. " 


state 


"Wife  and  children  are  a  dis- 
cipline in  humanity.  Bachelors 
are  morose  and  austere." 

"The  only  advantage  of  celi- 
bacy and  childlessness  is  in  case 
of  exile." 


Against. 

"  He  who  marries,  and  has 
children,  has  given  hostages  to 
fortune. " 

"  The  immortality  of  brutes  is 
in  their  progeny ;  of  men,  in 
their  fame,  services,  and  institu- 
tions. " 

"Regard  for  the  family  too 
often  overrides  regard  for  the 
state. " 


This  is  quite  in  the  spirit  of  Aristotle's  treatise.  The 
popularity  enjoyed  by  Blair's  Rhetoric  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th  and  the  earlier  part  of  the  present  century 
was  merited  rather  by  the  form  than  by  the  matter. 
Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  which  found  less  wide 
acceptance  than  its  predecessor,  was  superior  to  it  in  depth, 
though  often  marred  by  an  imperfect  comprehension  of 
logic.  But  undoubtedly  the  best  modern  book  on  the 
subject  is  Whately's  Elements  of  Rhetoric.  Starting  from  wiiately. 
Aristotle's  view,  that  rhetoric  is  "  an  offshoot  from  logic," 
Whately  treats  it  as  the  art  of  "  argumentative  composi- 
tion." He  considers  it  under  four  heads  : — (1)  the  address 
to  the  understanding  (  =  Aristotle's  Aoyt/o;  TTIO-TIS)  ;  (2)  the 
address  to  the  will,  or  persuasion  (  =  Aristotle's  ^$1/07  and 
TraOrjTLKrj  Trtcms) ;  (3)  style ;  (4)  elocution,  or  delivery. 
At  the  outset  he  makes  some  judicious  remarks  on  the 
popular  objections  to  the  art.  "It  has  been  truly  observed 
that  '  genius  begins  where  rules  end.'  But  to  infer  from 
this,  as  some  seem  disposed  to  do,  that,  in  any  depart- 
ment wherein  genius  can  be  displayed,  rules  must  be 
useless,  or  useless  to  those  who  possess  genius,  is  a  very 
rash  conclusion.  What  I  have  observed  elsewhere  con- 
cerning logic,  that  'a  knowledge  of  it  serves  to  save  a 
waste  of  ingenuity,'  holds  good  in  many  other  depart- 
ments also."  "A  drayman,  we  are  told,  will  taunt  a 
comrade  by  saying,  '  you  're  a  pretty  fellow,'  without 


516 


R  H  E  —  R  H  E 


having  learnt  that  he  ia  employing  the  figure  called 
irony."  But  when  it  is  thus  urged  that — 

"All  a  rhetorician's  rules 
"  But  teach  him  how  to  name  his  tools," 

the  assumption  is  tacitly  made  that  an  accurate  nomen- 
clature and  classification  of  these  tools  must  be  devoid  of 
practical  use.  The  conditions  of  modern  life,  and  especially 
the  invention  of  printing,  have  diminished  the  importance 
which  belonged  in  antiquity  to  the  art  of  speaking.  But 
few  would  deny  that  a  large  measure  of  value  may  still  be 
claimed  for  rhetoric  in  the  more  comprehensive  sense 
which  Whately  gives  to  it,  as  the  art  of  argumentative 
composition.  His  treatise,  the  work  of  an  able  and  also 
witty  man,  will  be  found  instructive  and  entertaining  even 
by  those  who  do  not  go  to  it  for  a  discipline.  Nor  can  it 
fail  to  suggest  a  further  remark.  While  abounding  in 
fresh  thought  and  modern  illustration,  it  constantly  reminds 
us  that,  in  almost  all  essentials,  the  art  of  rhetoric  must  be 
regarded  as  the  creation  of  Aristotle.  (R.  c.  J.) 

RHEUMATISM,  a  constitutional  disease  having  for  its 
chief  manifestations  inflammatory  affections  of  the  fibrous 
textures  of  joints  and  other  parts,  together  with  a  liability 
to  various  complications.  Two  forms  of  rheumatism  are 
recognized,  and  will  be  now  briefly  described,  namely,  the 
acute  and  the  chronic,  the  latter  either  resulting  from  the 
former  or  arising  independently.  In  addition  to  these,  a 
disease  which  has  received  the  name  of  chronic  rheumatic 
(or  rheumatoid)  arthritis,  and  which  presents  many  resem- 
blances to  chronic  rheumatism,  although  the  relation 
between  them  is  questionable,  may  be  noticed  here. 

ACUTE  RHEUMATISM,  frequently  called  RHEUMATIC 
FEVER,  is  mainly  characterized  by  inflammation  affecting 
various  joints,  with  a  tendency  to  spread  in  an  erratic 
manner,  and  accompanied  with  much  pain,  febrile  disturb- 
ance, and  perspiration. 

The  nature  of  this  disease  has  been  extensively  discussed 
by  pathologists  and  physicians;  but,  although  numerous, 
and  many  of  them  ingenious,  theories  have  been  advanced 
and  supported  by  evidence  drawn  from  experimentation  as 
well  as  clinical  observation,  it  cannot  yet  be  said  that  any 
one  of  them  has  gained  general  acceptance.  It  has  been  held 
that  rheumatism  is  produced  by  an  excess  of  lactic  acid  in 
the  system  in  connexion  with  morbid  states  of  the  nutritive 
functions.  Support  to  this  view  was  given  experimentally 
by  Dr  Richardson,  but  experiments  by  others  have  led  to 
a  different  conclusion.  Again,  it  has  been  held  that  the 
disease  is  a  textural  inflammation  due  to  chill  acting  upon 
the  parts,  either  locally  through  the  circulation  or  through 
the  agency  of  the  nervous  system,  whereby  the  nutrition 
of  the  joints  and  -other  structures  is  lowered.  Another 
view  regards  it  as  arising  primarily  in  a  profound  disturb 
ance  of  the  heat-regulating  mechanism  of  the  body  by  chill, 
which  specially  affects  the  muscular  system,  causing  heat 
to  be  generated  without  work,  one  of  the  consequences 
being  that  impressions  of  pain  are  conveyed  to  the  brain 
by  the  articular  nerves  instead  of  those  of  work  performed 
(see  PATHOLOGY).  The  view  has  been  held,  too,  that 
rheumatism  is  to  be  referred  to  a  germ  or  parasite,  or  a 
miasm  analogous  to  the  poison  of  malaria. 

Without  attempting  to  discuss  the  relative  probability 
of  these  and  other  theories,  it  may  be  stated  that  those 
which  point  in  the  direction  of  a  nutritional  change  in  the 
special  tissues  affected  (the  fibrous)  as  the  result  of  chill 
or  other  depressing  cause  operating  through  the  agency 
of  the  nervous  system  appear  more  consonant  with  the 
pathological  evidences  of  the  disease  itself  than  those 
which  would  refer  the  morbid  process  to  the  influence  of 
any  poison  circulating  in  the  blood. 

There  are  certain  points  of  importance  in  connexion 
with  the  causation  of  this  form  of  the  disease  which  are 


generally  agreed  upon.  Thus  an  hereditary  tendency  is 
recognized  as  among  the  causes  predisposing  to  acute 
rheumatism.  The  extent  of  this  has  been  variously  esti- 
mated, but  it  would  appear  to  be  well  established  that  it 
shows  itself  in  about  one-fourth  of  the  cases.  Age  is 
another  important  predisposing  condition,  the  acute  form 
of  rheumatism  being  much  more  a  disease  of  youth  than 
of  later  life.  The  period  of  adolescence,  from  sixteen  to 
twenty,  is  that  in  which  probably  the  greater  number  of  the 
cases  occur ;  but  even  in  early  childhood  the  disease  may 
manifest  itself,  or  at  any  period  of  life,  although  it  is  rarely 
observed  in  old  age.  Persons  much  exposed  to  all  kinds 
of  weather  are  specially  liable  to  suffer,  and  hence  the 
disease  is  more  common  among  the  poorer  classes.  Any 
depressing  cause  acting  upon  the  general  health,  such  as 
overwork  or  anxiety,  or  any  habitual  drain  upon  the 
system,  such  as  overlactation,  in  like  manner  has  a  similar 
effect.  Climate,  too,  is  a  factor  of  great  importance,  for, 
although  not  unfrequently  met  with  in  temperate  or  even 
warm  climates,  the  disease  is  unquestionably  of.  more  com- 
mon occurrence  in  cold  and  damp  regions.  Attacks  of 
acute  rheumatism  are  brought  on  in  most  instances  by 
exposure  to  cold,  by  getting  wet  through,  sometimes  also 
by  excessive  fatigue  such  as  in  walking  long  distances, 
especially  if  in  addition  there  have  been  overheating  of  the 
body  and  subsequent  chill.  Persons  who  have  once  suffered 
from  this  disease  are  very  liable  to  a  recurrence  on  a  renewal 
of  the  exciting  cause,  and  even  apparently  independently 
of  this  from  such  causes  as  digestive  disturbances. 

An  attack  of  acute  rheumatism  is  usually  ushered  in  by 
chilliness  or  rigors  followed  with  f everishness  and  a  feeling 
of  stiffness  or  pain  in  one  or  more  joints,  generally  those 
of  larger  or  medium  size,  such  as  the  knees,  ankles,  wrists, 
shoulders,  <fcc.,  which  soon  becomes  intense,  and  is  accom- 
panied with  severe  constitutional  disturbance  and  prostra- 
tion. The  patient  lies  helpless  in  bed,  restless,  but  afraid 
to  move  or  to  be  touched,  and  unable  to  bear  even  the 
weight  of  the  bed-clothes.  The  face  is  flushed,  and  the 
whole  body  bathed  in  perspiration,  which  has  a  highly 
acid  reaction  and  a  sour  disagreeable  odour.  The  tempera- 
ture is  markedly  elevated  (103°  to  105°),  the  pulse  rapid, 
full,  and  soft;  the  tongue  is  coated  with  a  yellow  fur; 
and  there  are  thirst,  loss  of  appetite,  and  constipation. 
The  urine  is  diminished  in  quantity,  highly  acid,  and 
loaded  with  urates.  At  first  the  pain  is  confined  to  only 
one  or  two  joints,  but  soon  others  become  affected,  and 
there  is  often  a  tendency  to  symmetry  in  the  manner  in 
which  they  suffer,  the  inflammation  in  one  joint  being 
shortly  followed  by  that  of  the  same  joint  in  the  opposite 
limb.  The  affected  joints  are  red,  swollen,  hot,  and  ex- 
cessively tender.  The  inflammation  seldom  continues  long 
in  one  articulation,  but  it  may  return  to  those  formerly 
affected.  In  severe  cases  scarcely  a  joint  large  or  small 
escapes,  and  the  pain,  restlessness,  and  fever  render  the 
patient's  condition  extremely  miserable. 

An  attack  of  acute  rheumatism  is  of  variable  duration, 
sometimes  passing  away  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  but 
more  frequently  lasting  for  many  weeks.  Occasionally, 
when  the  disease  appears  to  have  subsided,  relapses  occur 
which  bring  back  all  the  former  symptoms  and  prolong  the 
case,  it  may  be  for  months.  Again,  after  all  acute  symp- 
toms have  disappeared,  the  joints  may  remain  swollen,  stiff, 
and  painful  on  movement,  and  the  rheumatic  condition 
thus  becomes  chronic. 

After  an  attack  of  rheumatism,  the  patient  is  much 
reduced  in  strength  and  pale-looking  for  a  considerable 
time,  but  should  no  complication  have  arisen  there  may 
be  complete  recovery,  although  doubtless  there  remains 
a  liability  to  subsequent  attacks.  This  disease  derives 
much  of  its  serious  import  from  certain  accompaniments 


RHEUMATISM 


517 


or  complications  which  are  apt  to  attend  its  progress. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  excessive  fever  (hyper- 
pyrexia),  which  is  sometimes  developed  in  a  sudden  and 
alarming  manner,  the  temperature  rising  quickly  to 
108°-110°  or  more,  and  thus  endangering  life.  Indeed 
in  most  of  such  instances  death  speedily  follows  unless 
prompt  treatment  be  resorted  to.  Another  danger  is 
the  occurrence  of  serious  head  symptoms  in  the  form  of 
delirium  or  excitement,  which  may  exist  in  conjunction 
with  hyperpyrexia  or  independently.  Chorea  or  St  Vitus's 
dance  is  also  an  occasional  accompaniment  of  acute 
rheumatism.  Besides  these,  other  complications  pertaining 
to  the  respiratory  organs,  such  as  pleurisy,  pneumonia, 
bronchitis,  &c.,  sometimes  arise  in  the  course  of  the  disease, 
as  well  as  certain  disorders  of  the  skin.  But  the  most 
frequent  and  important  of  all  are  those  affecting  the  heart. 
These  cardiac  affections  are  regarded  by  some  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  rheumatic  disease  rather  than  as  results  of  it, 
especially  as  it  would  seem  that  occasionally  they  are  the 
only  local  manifestation  of  the  attack. 

Pericarditis  (inflammation  of  the  investing  membrane 
of  the  heart)  and  endocarditis  (inflammation  of  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  heart)  are  the  two  most  common  forms 
which  these  heart  complications  assume,  and  it  is  the 
latter  which  is  specially  important  as  tending  to  lay  the 
foundation  for  valvular  heart  disease  (see  HEART).  It  is 
the  liability  to  these  inflammatory  heart  affections  that 
causes  special  anxiety  during  the  earlier  stages  of  an 
attack  of  acute  rheumatism,  when  it  would  appear  they 
are  more  apt  to  occur.  The  risk  of  cardiac  complications 
seems  to  be  greater  the  younger  the  patient,  and  doubt- 
less the  foundation  of  organic  heart  disease  is  often  laid  in 
early  childhood,  when,  as  is  now  well  known,  rheumatism 
is  by  no  means  uncommon. 

The  name  subacute  rheumatism  is  sometimes  applied  to 
attacks  of  the  disease  of  less  severe  type  than  that  now 
described,  but  where  yet  the  symptoms  exist  in  a  well- 
marked  degree.  Cases  of  this  kind  may  be  of  even  longer 
duration  and  more  intractable  than  the  more  acute  variety, 
although  probably  the  danger  to  the  heart  is  less. 

CHRONIC  RHEUMATISM  appears  occasionally  to  be  deve- 
loped as  the  result  of  the  acute  form,  but  is  more  frequently 
an  independent  constitutional  affection,  and  is  usually  a 
complaint  of  later  life.  The  causes  associated  with  its 
occurrence  are  habitual  exposure  to  cold  and  damp;  hence 
its  frequency  among  outdoor  workers.  It  is  also  apt  to 
arise  in  persons  debilitated  by  overwork  or  privation. 
Certain  poisons  introduced  into  the  system  are  often 
attended  with  symptoms  of  chronic  rheumatism,  e.g.,  lead, 
syphilis,  &c.  This  disease  is  often  hereditary.  It  differs 
from  acute  rheumatism  in  being  less  frequently  attended 
with  fever  and  constitutional  disturbance  and  less  liable  to 
dangerous  complications,  but  on  the  other  hand  it  is  much 
more  apt  to  produce  permanent  alterations  in  the  joints 
and  parts  affected.  The  joints  tend  to  become  swollen 
both  from  effusion  of  fluid  and  from  chronic  inflammatory 
thickening  of  the  textures,  and  the  result  is  stiffness  and 
sometimes  complete  immobility.  But  in  addition  the 
sheaths  of  muscles  and  of  nerves  are  apt  to  be  affected  by 
chronic  rheumatism,  causing  much  suffering.  This  form 
of  rheumatism  is  less  migratory  in  its  progress  than  the 
acute,  and  tends  to  remain  fixed  in  a  few  joints,  often  in 
those  which  are  specially  exposed  to  atmospheric  influences 
or  to  overwork.  The  chief  symptoms  are  pain  and  stiffness 
in  movement,  more  particularly  when  the  efforts  begin  to 
be  made,  becoming  less  after  the  limbs  and  body  have 
been  in  exercise.  Creaking  or  crackling  noises  accompany 
the  movements.  The  pain  is  apt  to  be  increased  during 
the  night,  and  is  besides  markedly  influenced  by  the  state 
of  the  atmosphere,  cold  and  damp  aggravating  it. 


This  form  of  rheumatism,  although  not  directly  danger- 
ous to  life,  tends  to  lower  the  health  and  render  the  patient 
more  vulnerable  to  other  morbid  influences.  Besides  this, 
by  long  continuance  it  may  lead  to  great  deformity  and 
disablement  of  the  frame,  in  some  instances  resulting  in  a 
condition  of  utter  helplessness. 

Treatment. — Few  diseases  have  had  so  many  remedies 
recommended  for  their  alleviation,  and  vaunted  as  specifics, 
as  rheumatism ;  and,  when  it  is  remembered  how  many  are 
the  theories  of  the  nature  of  the  malady,  it  is  obvious  that 
even  as  regards  principles  the  methods  proposed  must  be 
numerous  and  diverse.  Nevertheless,  there  are  certain 
well-recognized  systems  of  treatment  which  in  most 
instances  will  be  found  to  be  of  benefit.  The  treatment 
differs  in  the  two  forms  of  the  disease.  As  regards  acute 
rheumatism  the  general  management  of  the  case  from  the 
outset  requires  attention.  The  patient  should  be  placed 
in  bed  between  blankets,  and  should  wear  a  flannel  shirt, 
the  front  and  arms  of  which  should  be  opened  to  admit  of 
the  examination  of  the  heart  and  of  the  joints.  Move- 
ments of  all  kinds  should  be  as  far  as  possible  avoided. 
The  affected  joints  should  be  enveloped  in  cotton  wool, 
kept  in  position  by  a  light  bandage.  Sometimes  the 
bathing  of  these  parts  with  warm  water  containing  opium 
or  other  sedative  affords  relief.  The  local  application  of 
blisters  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  painful  joints,  as  pro- 
posed by  Dr  Herbert  Davies,  is  in  some  instances  followed 
with  benefit,  but  is  obviously  applicable  only  where  the 
rheumatism  is  limited  in  its  extent.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  local  application  of  electricity  to  the  joints. 
Constitutional  remedies  are  of  undoubted  value  in  this 
disease,  and  the  number  of  available  agents  for  this 
purpose  is  so  large  that  mention  can  only  be  briefly  made 
of  some  of  the  more  approved.  For  long  the  alkalis, 
especially  the  salts  of  potassium,  were  the  chief  remedies 
resorted  to,  and  for  them  it  was  claimed  that  they 
shortened  the  attack,  relieved  pain,  and  prevented  heart 
complications.  They  are  certainly  very  valuable  in  many 
instances.  Of  late  a  new  series  of  substances  has  been 
tried  with  great  success,  namely  salicin  (first  suggested  for 
acute  rheumatism  by  Dr  T.  J.  Maclagan),  salicylic  acid, 
and  salicylate  of  soda.  These  remedies,  which  are  known 
to  have  a  powerful  effect  in  reducing  febrile  temperatures, 
appear  to  exercise  a  special  influence  in  acute  rheumatism, 
not  merely  by  lowering  the  fever,  but  by  relieving  pain  and 
cutting  short  the  attack,  thereby  lessening  the  risk  of 
complications.  From  20  to  30  grains  of  these  drugs 
every  two  hours  require  to  be  given  for  about  twenty-four 
hours  in  order  to  produce  the  desired  effect,  and  the 
quantity  is  reduced  as  the  acute  symptoms  subside. 
Although  they  do  not  succeed  in  all  cases,  and  sometimes 
give  rise  to  symptoms  (delirium,  sickness,  &c.)  which 
necessitate  their  suspension,  it  will  be  admitted  by  most 
physicians  that  cases  which  appeared  likely  to  be  of  a 
severe  character  have  under  this  treatment  been  cut  short 
in  a  few  days,  and  that  even  where  this  result  was  not 
attained  the  pain  and  other  distressing  symptoms  were 
materially  alleviated.  Tonics,  such  as  iron  and  quinine, 
have  also  been  employed  in  acute  rheumatism,  but  their 
advantage  is  more  apparent  in  the  convalescence,  when 
there  are  anaemia  and  debility,  rather  than  in  the  height 
of  the  disease.  The  pain  and  sleeplessness  may  render 
necessary  the  administration  of  opiates,  but  in  many 
instances  both  are  completely  overcome  by  the  remedies 
previously  mentioned.  In  the  dangerous  complication  of 
hyperpyrexia  the  cold  bath  (in  which  the  water  is  quickly 
cooled  down  from  94°  to  68°)  has  frequently  been  suc- 
cessful in  speedily  lowering  the  temperature  and  saving 
life.  Persons  who  have  suffered  from  acute  rheumatism 
should  ever  afterwards  be  careful  to  avoid  exposure  to 


518 


R  H  E  — R  HI 


damp  and  chill,  and  to  protect  the  skin  by  suitable  under- 
clothing. 

In  chronic  rheumatism  the  remedies  are  innumerable. 
This  form  of  the  disease  is  less  under  the  power  of 
medicinal  agents  than  the  acute,  although  much  may  be 
done  to  alleviate  the  suffering  produced  by  it  as  well  as  to 
limit  its  extension.  Salicin  and  the  salicylates  so  useful  in 
acute  rheumatism  are  not  found  as  a  rule  to  be  of  much 
service,  while  on  the  other  hand  alkalis  in  combination  with 
sulphur,  iodine,  arsenic,  and  tonics,  such  as  iron,  quinine, 
cod-liver  oil,  <fcc.,  are  the  most  serviceable  remedies.  Turpen- 
tine is  also  recommended.  Friction  of  the  affected  parts 
with  stimulating  or  soothing  liniments,  counter-irritation 
with  blisters,  iodine,  or  the  button  cautery  are  useful  local 
applications,  as  is  also  galvanism.  Hot  baths  or  Turkish 
baths  may  occasionally  be  used  with  advantage.  The 
mineral  waters  and  baths  of  various  well-known  resorts  are 
of  undoubted  benefit,  especially  those  of  Buxton,  Bath, 
Strathpeffer,  or  Harrogate  in  Great  Britain,  or  those  of  Aix- 
les-Bains,  Wiesbaden,  Homburg,  Ems,  Wildbad,  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  many  others  on  the  Continent.  Changes  to 
warmer  climates  during  the  colder  season  where  practicable 
are  also  to  be  recommended,  as  well  as  every  other  measure 
calculated  to  improve  the  general  health. 

RHEUMATOID  ARTHRITIS. — This  term  (syn.  chronic  rheu- 
matic arthritis,  arthritis  deformans)  is  employed  to  desig- 
nate a  chronic  inflammatory  affection  of  joints,  involving 
specially  the  sy  no  vial  membranes  and  articular  cartilages, 
of  slow  development  and  progressive  character,  resulting  in 
stiffening  and  deformity  of  the  parts. 

This  disease  is  held  by  some  to  partake  of  the  nature  of 
both  rheumatism  and  gout  (hence  occasionally  termed 
rheumatic  gout) ;  others  regard  it  as  simply  a  variety  of 
chronic  rheumatism ;  while  in  the  opinion  of  several 
eminent  authorities  it  is  an  independent  constitutional 
affection  occurring  in  persons  with  a  strumous  or  tubercular 
tendency.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  hereditary.  It  is 
more  common  in  women  than  in  men,  and  occurs  at  all 
ages.  It  is  closely  connected  with  conditions  of  ill  health  ; 
and  hence  its  frequent  occurrence  among  those  whose  blood 
is  impoverished  by  insufficient  food,  by  hardship,  or  by  any 
drain  upon  the  system.  It  occasionally  follows  an  attack 
of  acute  rheumatism ;  hence  the  supposed  connexion. 

The  disease  in  most  cases  is  slowly  developed,  and  shows 
itself  first  by  pain  and  swelling  in  one  joint  (knee,  wrist, 
finger,  &c.),  which  soon  subside  and  may  remain  absent  for 
a  considerable  time.  Sooner  or  later,  however,  another 
attack  occurs  either  in  the  joint  formerly  affected  or  in 
some  other,  and  it  is  noticed  that  the  affected  articulation 
does  not  now  regain  its  normal  size  but  remains  somewhat 
swollen.  The  attacks  recur  with  increasing  frequency, 
gradually  involving  more  joints,  until,  in  course  of  time  (for 
its  progress  is  very  chronic),  scarcely  an  articulation  in 
the  body  is  free  from  the  disease.  Thickening  of  the 
textures,  with  stiffness,  is  the  result,  and  often  considerable 
deformity  from  the  joints  being  fixed  in  certain  positions. 
The  muscles  of  the  affected  limbs  undergo  atrophy  and 
contrast  strikingly  with  the  abnormally  enlarged  joints. 
Painful  inflammatory  attacks  often  occur  in  the  affected 
joints,  and  the  patient  is  much  reduced  in  strength  by  the 
constant  irritation  of  the  disease.  In  the  young  the  hands 
are  very  liable  to  suffer,  and  the  disease  gradually  extends 
to  involve  other  parts ;  while  in  old  persons  it  is  apt  to 
fasten  upon  one  joint,  often  the  hip,  and  is  not  so  apt  to 
spread.  The  chief  changes  in  the  joints  are  (1)  in  the 
synovial  membrane,  which  is  at  first  simply  inflamed  and 
contains  fluid,  but  ultimately  becomes  much  thickened,  and 
(2)  in  the  articular  cartilage,  which  tends  to  split  up  and 
become  gradually  absorbed,  leaving  the  articular  ends  of 
the  bone  exposed.  The  osseous  surfaces  thus  brought  into 


contact  become  hard  and  polished  by  friction.  These 
changes  and  others  affecting  the  ligaments  are  apt  to 
produce  partial  dislocation  as  well  as  stiffening  of  the  joint, 
rendering  it  deformed  and  useless.  This  disease  often 
lasts  for  many  years,  sometimes  continuing  for  a  lengthened 
period  without  much  change,  but  tending  gradually  to 
progress  and  to  render  the  patient  more  and  more  helpless. 
It  is  not  attended  with  the  complications  of  rheumatism, 
and  is  not  inconsistent  with  long  life,  but  its  weakening 
effects  upon  the  system  and  the  ill  health  with  which  it  is 
usually  associated  render  the  subject  of  it  more  liable  to 
the  inroads  of  other  diseases.  Rheumatoid  arthritis  is  less 
amenable  to  treatment  than  rheumatism,  the  remedies  for 
which  are  not  found  to  be  of  much  value  in  this  disease. 
Most  success  is  obtained  if  it  is  recognized  early  and 
measures  are  taken  to  strengthen  the  patient's  general 
health.  The  best  medicinal  agents  are  iron,  quinine,  cod- 
liver  oil,  arsenic.  Chalybeate  mineral  waters,  such  as  those 
of  Schwalbach,  Spa,  Pyrmont,  &c.,  are  often  of  service. 
Locally  blisters  or  milder  counter-irritation  to  the  affected 
joints,  as  well  as  the  employment  of  galvanism,  may  be 
advantageously  resorted  to.  (j.  o.  A.) 

RHEYDT,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
is  situated  on  the  Niers,  14  miles  to  the  west  of  Diissel- 
dorf.  The  principal  products  of  its  numerous  factories 
are  silk,  cotton,  woollen,  and  mixed  fabrics,  iron  goods, 
machinery,  lamp  wicks,  and  roofing  pasteboard.  Dyeing 
and  finishing  are  also  carried  on.  The  most  prominent 
buildings  are  the  old  parish  church  and  a  new  one  erected 
in  1866.  Rheydt  is  an  ancient  place,  but  its  industrial 
importance  is  of  very  recent  growth.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century  it  did  not  contain  more  than  2000  to 
3000  inhabitants,  whereas  in  1880  the  population  of  the 
municipal  commune  Avas  19,087,  two-thirds  of  whom  were 
Protestants. 

RHIN,  HAUT-,  a  department  of  France  before  1871. 
See  FRANCE,  vol.  ix.  p.  508. 

RHINE  (Lat.  Ithenw,  Germ,  Shein,  Fr.  Shin,  Dutch 
Shijn),  the  chief  river  of  Germany  and  one  of  the  most 
important  in  Europe,  is  about  800  miles  in  length  and 
drains  an  area  of  75,000  square  miles.1  The  distance  in 
a  direct  line  between  its  source  in  the  Alps  and  its  mouth 
in  the  German  ocean  is  460  miles.  Its  general  course  is 
north-north-west,  but  it  makes  numerous  deflexions  and 
at  one  point  is  found  running  in  a  diametrically  opposite 
direction.  About  250  miles  of  its  length  are  in  Switzer- 
land, 450  in  Germany,  and  100  in  Holland;  but  the 
German  half  is  in  every  respect  so  much  the  more  import- 
ant that  it  is  no  misnomer  to  call  the  Rhine  a  German 
river,  even  if  the  word  German  be  confined  to  its 
modern  political  signification.  The  name  Rhine,  which 
is  apparently  of  Celtic  origin,  is  of  uncertain  import,  but 
has  been  supposed  to  mean  "flowing"  or  "clear."  The 
sources  of  the  Rhine  are  found  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Grisons,  where  the  drainage  of  at  least  150  glaciers  unites 
to  form  its  headwaters.  Among  these  streams,  all  of 
which  are  termed  Rhin  in  the  Ladine  dialect  of  the 
district,  two  are  generally  recognized  as  the  main  sources 
of  the  river,  viz.,  the  Vorder  Rhein  and  the  Hinter  Rhein. 
The  chief  feeder  of  the  former  rises  in  the  small  Lake  of 
Toma,  situated  on  the  south-east  slope  of  the  St  Gotthard,2 
at  a  height  of  7690  feet  above  the  sea  and  at  no  great 
distance  from  the  source  of  the  Rhone,  which  rises  on  the 
west  side  of  the  same  mountain  mass.  It  first  flows  to 
the  east,  receiving  the  waters  of  the  Medelser  Rhein  and 
several  other  glacier  streams,  and  after  a  course  of  about 


1  This  is  the  current  estimate,  but  Strelbitzki,  the  latest  authority, 
does  not  allow  the  Rhine  a  length  of  more  than  710  miles. 

2  "  Rseticarum     Alpium    inaccesso     ac    prsecipiti    vertice,"    says 
Tacitus. 


RHINE 


519 


45  miles  unites  with  the  Hinter  Khein  at  Reichenau.     As 
far  as  Ilanz  the  Vorder  Rhein  is  simply  a  mountain  torrent, 
descending  1200  feet  in  the  first  12  miles  of  its  course. 
At  Disentis,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Medelser  Rhein,  it 
is  15  feet  wide,  and  at  Ilanz  it  is  about  thrice  as  large. 
The  Hinter  Rhein  has  its  cradle  in  the  Rheinwald  glacier, 
near  the   St  Bernardino  Pass,   7270  feet  above  the  sea 
and  40  miles  south  of  Reichenau.     The  Vorder  Rhein  con- 
tributes the  greater  volume  of  water  to  the  joint  stream, 
but  the  Hinter  Rhein  belongs  to  a  more  developed  system. 
Beyond  Reichenau  the  united  stream,  150  feet  in  width, 
bears  the  name  of  Rhine  without  any  qualifying  epithet. 
It  is  now  navigable  for  rafts,  and  small  boats  begin  to  be 
seen  a  little  further  on,  at  Coire,  where  it  turns  to  the 
north.     On  reaching  the  Lake  of  Constance  the  Rhine 
deposits  the  debris  that  it  has  brought  down  from  its 
mountain  sources,  and  the  stream  that  emerges  from  the 
west  end  of  the  Untersee  is  of  a  clear  deep  green  colour. 
Between  the  Lake  of  Constance  and  Basel  the  Rhine  flows 
towards  the  west  and  practically  forms  the  boundary  be- 
tween Germany  and  Switzerland.      At  Schaffhausen,  in 
penetrating  the  barrier  of  the  Jura,  it  forms  the  imposing 
falls  of  the  Rhine,  where  it  is  precipitated  over  a  ledge  of 
rock  in  three  leaps  50  or  60  feet  in  height.     Near  Lauter- 
burg,  where  the  river  encounters  the  gneiss  of  the  Black 
Forest,  is  a  series  of  formidable  cataracts,  and  about  15 
miles  lower  down  are  the  rapids  of  Rheinfelden.     At  Basel, 
which  it  reaches   after   a  tortuous  course  of  250  miles, 
though  it  is  only  about  a  third  of  that  distance  from  its 
source  in  a  direct  line,  the  Rhine  turns  once  more  to  the 
north  and  enters  Germany.     Its  breadth  here  is  between 
550  and  600  feet,  while  its  surface  now  lies  not  more  than 
800  feet  above  the  sea,  showing  that  the  river  has  made  a 
descent  of  6900  feet  by  the  time  it  has  traversed  a  third  of 
its  course.     From  Basel  to  Mainz  the  Rhine  flows  through 
a  wide  and  shallow  valley,  bordered  on  the  east  and  west 
by  the  parallel  ranges  of  the  Black  Forest  and  the  Vosges. 
Its  banks  are  low  and  flat,  and  numerous  islands  occur. 
The  tendency  to  divide  into  parallel  branches  has  been 
curbed  in  the  interests  of  navigation,  and  many  windings 
have  been  cut  off  by  leading  the  water  into  straight  and 
regular  channels.     At  Mannheim  the  river  is  nearly  1500 
feet  in  width,  and  at  Mainz,  where  it  is  diverted  to  the 
west  by  the  barrier  of  the  Taunus,  it  is  still  wider.     It 
follows  the  new  direction  for  about  20  miles,  but  at  Bingen 
it  again  turns  to  the  north  and  begins  a  completely  new 
stage  of  its  career,  entering  a  narrow  valley  in  which  the 
enclosing  rocky  hills  abut  so  closely  on  the  river  as  often 
barely  to  leave  room  for  the  road  and  railway  on  the  bank. 
This  is  the  most  beautiful  part  of  the  whole  course  of  the 
river,  abounding  in  the  ruined  castles,  the  romantic  crags, 
the  sunny  vineyards,  and  the  picturesque  lateral  ravines 
that  have  combined  to  make   the  Rhine   so  favourite  a 
resort  of  lovers  of  natural  beauty.     At  Coblentz  the  valley 
widens  and  the  river  is   1200  feet  broad,  but  the  hills 
close  in  again  at  Andernach,  and  this  ravine-like  part  of  its 
course  cannot  be  considered  as  ending  till  below  the  Seven 
Mountains,  where  the  river  once  more  expands  to  a  width  of 
1300-1600  feet.     Beyond  Bonn  and  Cologne  the  banks 
are  again  flat  and  the  valley  wide,  though  the  hills  on  the 
right  bank  do  not  completely  disappear  till  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Diisseldorf.     Further  on  the  country  traversed  by 
the  Rhine  is  perfectly  level,  and  the  current  becomes  more 
and  more  sluggish.     On  entering  Holland,  which  it  does 
below  Emmerich,  its  course  is  again  deflected  to  the  west. 
Within  Holland  the  banks  are  so  low  as  to  require  at  places 
to    be    protected    by    embankments   against    inundations. 
The  river  now   loses   its  individuality   in    a  number    of 
separate  branches,  and  the  name  of  Rhine  has  often  arbi- 
trarily clung  to  the  smaller  arm  after  a  bifurcation.    Almost 


immediately  after  entering  Holland  the  stream  divides 
into  two  arms,  the  larger  of  which,  carrying  off  about 
two-thirds  of  the  water,  diverges  to  the  west,  is  called 
the  Waal,  and  soon  unites  with  the  Maas.  The  smaller 
branch  to  the  right  retains  the  name  of  Rhine  and  sends 
off  another  arm,  called  the  Yssel,  to  the  Zuyder  Zee.  The 
Rhine  now  pursues  a  westerly  course  almost  parallel  with 
that  of  the  Waal.  At  Wijk  another  bifurcation  takes 
place,  the  broad  Lek  diverging  on  the  left  to  join  the 
Maas,  while  the  "Kromme  Rhijn"  to  the  right  is  com- 
paratively insignificant.  Beyond  Utrecht,  where  it  is 
again  diminished  by  the  divergence  of  the  Vecht  to  the 
Zuyder  Zee,  the  river  under  the  name  of  the  "  Oude  Rhijn  " 
or  Old  Rhine  degenerates  into  a  sluggish  and  almost 
stagnant  stream,  which  requires  the  artificial  aid  of  a 
canal  and  sluices  in  finding  its  way  to  the  sea.  In 
Roman  times  the  Rhine  at  this  part  of  its  course  seems  to 
have  been  a  full  and  flowing  river,  but  by  the  9th  century 
it  had  lost  itself  in  the  sands  of  Katwijk,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  that  its  way  to  the  sea 
was  re-opened.  Though  the  name  Rhine  thus  at  last 
attaches  to  a  very  insignificant  stream,  the  entire  district 
between  the  Waal  on  one  side  and  the  Yssel  on  the  other, 
the  Insula  Batavorum  of  Caesar,  in  reality  belongs  to  the 
delta  of  the  famous  river.1  See  vol.  xii.  Plate  I. 

The  Rhine  is  said  to  receive,  directly  or  indirectly,  the 
waters  of  upwards  of  12,000  tributaries  of  all  sizes. 
Leaving  out  of  account  the  innumerable  glacier  streams 
that  swell  its  volume  above  the  Lake  of  Constance,  the 
most  important  affluents  to  its  upper  course  are  the 
Wutach,  the  Alb,  and  the  Wiese,  descending  on  the  right 
from  the  Black  Forest,  and  the  Aar,  draining  several 
Swiss  cantons  on  the  left.  In  the  Upper  Rhenish  basin, 
between  Basel  and  Mainz,  the  tributaries,  though  numerous, 
are  mostly  short  and  unimportant.  The  111  and  the  Nahe 
on  the  left  and  the  Neckar  and  the  Main  on  the  right  are, 
however,  notable  exceptions.  Before  joining  the  Rhine 
the  111  runs  almost  parallel  with  it  and  at  no  great  distance 
for  upwards  of  50  miles.  In  the  narrow  part  of  the 
valley,  between  Bingen  and  Cologne,  the  Rhine  receives 
the  waters  of  the  Lahn  and  the  Sieg  on  the  right,  and 
those  of  the  Moselle2  (bringing  with  it  the  Saar)  and  the 
Ahr  on  the  left.  Still  lower  down,  but  before  the  Dutch 
frontier  is  reached,  come  the  Ruhr  and  the  Lippe  on  the 
right,  and  the  Erft  on  the  left.  The  numerous  arms  into 
which  the  Rhine  branches  in  Holland  have  already  been 
noticed. 

The  Rhine  connects  the  highest  Alps  with  the  mud  banks  of 
Holland,  and  touches  in  its  course  the  most  varied  geological 
periods  ;  but  the  river  valley  itself  is,  geologically  speaking,  of 
comparatively  recent  formation.  Rising  amid  the  ancient  gneiss 
rocks  of  the  St  Gotthard,  the  Rhine  finds  its  way  down  to  the  Lake 
of  Constance  between  layers  of  Triassic  and  Jurassic  formation  ;  and 
between  that  lake  and  Basel  it  penetrates  the  chalk  barrier  of  the 
Jura.  The  upper  Rhenish  valley  is  evidently  the  bed  of  an  ancient 
lake,  the  shores  of  which  were  formed  by  the  gneiss  and  granite 
of  the  Black  Forest  on  the  one  side  and  the  granite  and  sandstone 
of  the  Vosges  on  the  other.  Within  the  valley  all  the  alluvial 

1  The  nomenclature  of  the  Rhine  branches  in  the  Netherlands  is, 
according  to  Mr  J.  Dirks,  a  singular  but  historic  system,  by  which 
the  rivers  are  chopped  up,  as  it  were,  into  longitudinal  pieces. 

2  The  Moselle  rises  in  France,  in  the  canton  of  Ramonchamp,  at  a 
height  of  2379  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Vosges.     Its 
length  is  315  miles  (of  which  190  are  in  France),  but  the  direct  line 
from  source  to  confluence  is  only  about  170  miles.     At  Spinal  (1040 
feet)  the  Moselle  passes  out  of  the  rocky  mountain-glen  where    its 
course  has  hitherto  been.      It  enters  the  Lorraine  plateau,   but   the 
sides  of  the  valley  still  remain  high  and  steep.     Below  Metz  (550  feet) 
the  bottom-lands  spread  out  to  a  considerable  width  ;  iu  the  section 
between  Sierck  and  Coblentz  the  hills  again  close  in  upon  the  river. 
Rafts  can  generally  be  floated  from  Arches  down  to    Frouard,   and 
there,  by  the  junction  of  the  Meurthe  (itself  navigable,  though  with 
difficulty,  from  Nancy),  the  depth  becomes  sufficient  for  boats.     Since 
1840  steamboats  have  plied  between  Troves  and  Coblentz. 


520 


RHINE 


deposits  are  recent  Between  Bingen  and  Bonn  the  Rhine  forces 
its  way  through  a  hilly  and  rocky  district  belonging  to  the 
Devonian  formation.  The  contorted  strata  of  slate  and  grey  wacke 
rock  must  have  been  formed  at  a  period  vastly  anterior  to  that  in 
which  the  lake  of  the  upper  valley  managed  to  force  an  outlet 
through  the  enclosing  barriers.  Probably  this  section  may  be 
looked  upon  aa  the  oldest  portion  of  the  river  course  proper,  con- 
necting tne  upper  Rhenish  lake  with  the  primeval  ocean  at  Bonn. 
In  this  district  too,  as  has  already  been  remarked,  is  the  finest 
scenery  of  the  Rhiue,  a  fact  due  in  great  part  to  the  grotesque 
shapes  of  the  quartzose  rocks,  left  denuded  of  the  less  durable  slate 
and  sandstone.  All  the  strata  intersected  by  the  Rhine  between 
Bingen  and  Bonn  contain  fossils  of  the  same  classes.  The  deposits 
of  the  actual  valley  here,  belonging  to  the  Miocene  group  of  the 
Tertiary  system,  are  older  than  the  deposits  either  farther  up  or 
farther  down  the  river ;  but  they  are  contemporaneous  with  the 
basalts  of  the  Rhiue,  which  at  Coblentz  and  in  the  peaks  of  the 
Seven  Mountains  also  contribute  to  the  scenic  charm  of  the  river. 
The  very  extensive  pumice  deposits  at  Neuwied  and  the  lava  and 
other  volcanic  rocks  belong  to  a  more  recent  epoch.  Below  Bingen 
the  formations  belong  almost  entirely  to  the  Post-Tertiary  period. 
Numerous  extinct  volcanoes  rise  near  Neuwied.  In  the  flatter 
parts  of  the  valley  occur  large  beds  of  loam  and  rubble,  sometimes 
in  terraces  parallel  with,  but  several  hundred  feet  above,  the 
river, — proving  by  their  disposition  and  appearance  that  the  valley 
has  been  formed  by  the  action  of  water. 

The  Rhine  has  been  one  of  the  chief  waterways  of  Europe  from 
the  earliest  times ;  and,  as  its  channel  is  not  exposed  to  the  danger 
of  silting  up  like  those  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder,  it  has  always  been 
comparatively  easy  to  keep  it  open.  The  Romans  exerted  them- 
selves to  improve  the  lower  navigation  of  the  river,  and  appointed 
prefects  of  the  Rhine  to  superintend  the  shipping  and  to  exact  the 
moderate  dues  imposed  to  keep  the  channel  in  repair.  The  Franks 
continued  the  same  policy  and  retained  a  system  of  river-dues. 
Afterwards  as  the  banks  became  parcelled  out  among  a  host  of  petty 
princelings,  each  of  whom  arrogated  the  right  of  laying  a  tax  on 
passing  vessels,  the  imposts  became  so  prejudicial  as  seriously  to 
hamper  the  development  of  the  shipping.  Many  of  the  riparian 
potentates  derived  the  bulk  of  their  revenue  from  this  source,  and 
it  is  calculated  that  in  the.lSth  century  the  Rhine  yielded  a  total 
revenue  of  £200,000,  in  spite  of  the  comparatively  insignificant 
amount  of  the  shipping.  The  first  proposal  for  a  free  Rhine  was 
mooted  by  the  French  at  the  congress  of  Rastatt  (1797-1799),  but 
Holland,  commanding  the  mouth  of  the  river,  placed  every  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  the  suggestion.  In  1831,  on  the  separation  of 
Holland  and  Belgium,  the  former  had  become  more  amenable  to 
reason  ;  and  a  system  was  agreed  upon  which  practically  gave  free 
navigation  to  the  vessels  of  the  riverine  states,  while  imposing  a 
moderate  tariff'  upon  foreign  ships.  It  was  not,  however,  till 
1869  that  the  last  vestige  of  a  toll  disappeared  and  the  river  was 
thrown  open  without  any  restriction.  The  management  of  the 
channel  and  navigation  is  now  vested  in  a  Central  Commission, 
meeting  at  Mannheim.  The  channel  has  been  greatly  improved 
and  in  many  places  made  more  direct  since  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century, — large  sums  being  annually  spent  in  keeping  it 
in  order.  Capacious  river  harbours  have  been  formed  at  various 
points,  about  twenty-five  of  these  being  in  Germany  and  eight  or 
ten  more  in  Holland.  The  total  weight  of  the  goods  forwarded 
each  year  on  the  Rhine  has  of  late  amounted  to  nearly  1,000,000 
tons,  the  chief  articles  being  timber,  coal,  iron,  agricultural 
produce,  and  manufactured  goods  of  various  kinds.  The  position 
of  the  river  is  highly  favourable  for  the  development  of  its  trade. 
It  flows  through  the  most  populous  regions  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  to  discharge  into  one  of  the  most  frequented  seas  opposite 
Great  Britain,  and,  besides  serving  as  a  natural  outlet  for  Ger- 
many, Belgium,  and  Holland,  is  connected  Avith  a  great  part  of 
central  and  southern  France  by  the  Rhine-Rhone  and  the  Rhine- 
Marne  Canals,  and  with  the  basin  of  the  Danube  by  the  Ludwigs- 
Canal. 

The  introduction  of  steam  has  greatly  increased  the  shipping  on 
the  Rhine  ;  and  small  steamers  ply  also  on  the  Main,  the  Neckar, 
the  Maas,  and  the  Moselle.  The  first  Rhine  steamer  was  launched 
in  1817  ;  and  now  the  river  is  regularly  traversed  by  upwards  of  a 
hundred,  from  the  small  tug  up  to  the  passenger  saloon-steamer. 
The  steamboat  traffic  has  especially  encouraged  the  influx  of 
tourists,  and  the  number  of  passing  travellers  may  now  be  reckoned 
as  between  one  and  two  millions  annually.  The  river  is  navigable 
without  interruption  from  Basel  to  its  mouth,  a  distance  of  550 
miles,  of  which  450  lie  within  Germany.  Above  Spires,  how- 
ever, the  river  craft  are  comparatively  small,  but  lower  down 
vessels  of  500  and  600  tons  burden  find  no  difficulty  in  plying. 
Between  Basel  and  Strasburg  the  depth  of  water  is  sometimes  not 
more  than  3  feet ;  between  Strasburg  and  Mainz  it  varies  from 
5  to  25  feet ;  while  below  Mainz  it  is  never  less  than  9  or  10  feet. 
The  deepest  point  is  opposite  the  Lurlei  Rock  near  St  Goar,  where 
it  is  75  feet  in  depth  ;  at  Uiisseldorf  the  depth  is  about  50  feet. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  Rhine  navigation  is 


afforded  by  the  huge  rafts  of  timber  that  are  floated  down  the  river. 
Single  tree  trunks  sent  down  to  the  Rhine  by  the  various  tributaries 
are  united  into  small  rafts  as  they  reach  the  main  stream  ;  and 
these  again  are  fastened  together  to  form  one  large  raft  about 
Andernach.  Though  not  so  large  as  formerly,  these  timber-rafts 
are  still  sometimes  400  or  500  feet  in  length,  and  are  navigated  by 
200  to  400  men,  who  live  in  little  huts  on  the  raft,  forming  actual 
floating  villages.  On  reaching  Dort  the  rafts  are  broken  up  and 
sold,  a  single  raft  sometimes  producing  as  much  as  £30,000.  The 
voyage  from  Bingen  to  Dort  takes  from  one  to  six  weeks,  and  the 
huge  unwieldy  structures  require  to  be  navigated  with  great  care. 
The  commerce  carried  on  by  the  river  itself  is  supplemented  by 
the  numerous  railways,  which  skirt  its  banks  and  converge  to  its 
principal  towns.  Before  the  introduction  of  railways  there  were 
no  permanent  bridges  across  the  Rhine  below  Basel  ;  but  now 
trains  cross  it  at  about  a  dozen  different  points  in  Germany  and 
Holland. 

The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Rhine,  lying  mainly  between  Bach- 
arach  and  St  Goar,  have  long  been  famous  ;  but  their  produce  has 
been  seriously  diminished  since  the  advent  of  the  steamer.  Pike, 
carp,  and  other  white  fish  are  also  caught.  A  little  gold  is 
brought  down  by  the  Rhine  from  the  Alps  and  the  heights  of  the 
Black  Forest,  but  not  in  sufficient  amount  to  make  its  collection 
of  economic  value.  The  white  wines  of  the  Rhiue  are  the  finest  in 
the  world,  though  the  palm  in  red  wines  must  be  given  to  the 
vineyards  of  Bordeaux.  The  vineyards  lie  mainly  between  Mainz 
and  Bonn,  a  distance  of  90  miles, — the  choicest  varieties  of  wine 
being  produced  in  the  Rheingau,  a  picturesque  district  on  the 
right  bank  between  Rudesheim  and  Biebrich,  about  12  miles  long 
and  5  broad.  The  well  known  brands  Johamiisberger,  Steinberger, 
Marcobrunner,  and  Assmannshauser  are  all  grown  in  this  narrow 
compass.  The  valleys  of  the  Neckar,  the  Moselle,  the  Nahe,  and 
other  tributaries  of  the  Rhine  also  yield  good  wine  ;  and  the  valley 
of  the  Ahr  may  be  indicated  as  the  northern  limit  of  the  wine 
culture.  The  total  annual  value  of  the  Rhenish  wines  is  about 
£2,400,000. 

The  long  array  of  ancient  and  flourishing  towns  along  its  banks 
bear  witness  to  the  great  importance  of  the  river.  These  are  most 
frequent  in  the  upper  Rhenish  basin  and  again  below  Bonn,  the 
places  in  the  narrower  part  of  the  valley  being  generally  more 
remarkable  for  their  picturesque  situation  than  for  their  commercial 
or  political  influence.  Beyond  the  borders  of  Germany  the  only 
large  towns  on  the  Rhine  are  Basel  in  Switzerland,  and  Arnheim, 
Utrecht,  and  Leydeu  in  Holland.  Within  Germany,  as  we  trace 
the  course  of  the  river  form  south  to  north,  we  come  successively 
to  Spires,  Mannheim,  Mainz,  Coblentz,  Bonn,  Cologne,  Diisseldorf, 
and  Wesel.  Worms,  which  was  formerly  washed  by  the  Rhine, 
lies  about  f  mile  distant  from  the  present  course  ;  and  Strasburg, 
which  lies  on  the  111,  2  miles  from  the  Rhiue,  may  also  be  reckoned 
as  one  of  its  towns. 

Politically  the  Rhine  has  always  played  a  great  part ;  and  it 
would  require  no  great  straining  to  write  a  history  of  this  majestic 
river  which  would  also  be  a  history  of  the  western  half  of  conti- 
nental Europe.  The  whole  valley  seems  to  have  been  originally 
occupied  by  Celtic  tribes,  who  have  left  traces  of  their  presence  on 
the  contents  of  tombs  and  in  the  forms  of  names  (Moguutiacum 
or  Mainz,  Borbetomagus  or  Worms,  &c.);  but  at  the  beginning  of 
the  historical  period  we  find  the  Celts  everywhere  in  retreat  before 
the  advancing  Teutons.  Probably  the  Teutonic  pressure  began  as 
early  as  the  4th  century  before  Christ,  and  the  history  of  the 
next  few  hundred  years  may  be  summed  up  as  the  gradual 
substitution  of  a  Germanic  for  a  Celtic  population  along  the  banks 
of  the  Rhine.  Its  second  historical  period  begins  with  the  advent 
of  the  Romans,  who  stemmed  the  advancing  Teutonic  tide. 
Augustus  and  his  successors  took  good  care  to  fortify  the  Rhine 
carefully,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  Roman  legions  were  con- 
stantly in  garrison  here.  For  two  hundred  years  the  Rhine  formed 
the  boundary  between  the  Roman  empire  and  the  Teutonic  hordes  ; 
and  during  that  period  the  left  or  Roman  bank  made  prodigious 
strides  in  civilization  and  culture.  The  wonderful  Roman  re- 
mains at  Treves  and  elsewhere,  the  Roman  roads,  bridges,  and 
aqueducts,  are  convincing  proofs  of  what  the  Rhine  gained  from 
Roman  domination.  This  Roman  civilization  was,  however,  des- 
tined to  be  swamped  by  the  cun-ent  of  Teutonic  immigration, 
which  finally  broke  down  the  barriers  of  the  Roman  empire  and 
overwhelmed  the  whole  of  the  Rhenish  district.  Under  Charlc- 
magne,  whose  principal  residence  was  in  Aix-la-Chapellc,  the  cul- 
ture of  the  Rhine  valley  again  began  to  flourish,  its  results  being 
still  to  be  traced  in  the  important  architectural  remains  of  this 
period.  Atthe  partition  of  the  domains  of  Charlemagne  in  843  A.D. 
the  Rhine  formed  the  boundary  between  Germany  and  the  middle 
kingdom  of  Lotharingia ;  but  by  870  it  lay  wholly  within  the  former 
realm.  For  nearly  eight  hundred  years  it  continued  in  this  position, 
the  frontier  of  the  German  empire  coinciding  more  or  less  with 
the  line  of  the  Rhone.  During  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  bank  of 
the  Rhine  formed  the  most  cultured  part  of  Germany,  basing  its 
civilization  on  its  Roman  past  The  Thirty  Years'  War  exercised 


R  H  I  —  R  H  I 


521 


a  most  prejudicial  effect  upon  the  district  of  the  Rhine  ;  and  the 
peace  of  Westphalia  gave  France  a  footing  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
hitherto  exclusively  German  river  by  the  acquisition  of  Alsace. 
The  violent  seizure  of  Strasburg  by  France  in  1681  was  ratified  by 
the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697,  which  recognized  the  Rhine  as  the 
boundary  between  Germany  and  France  from  Basel  to  about 
Germersheim.  It  was  an  easy  inference  for  the  French  mind  that 
the  Rhine  should  be  the  boundary  .throughout  and  the  Gaul  of 
Cresar  restored.  This  ideal  was  realized  in  1801,  when  the  whole 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  was  formally  ceded  to  France.  The 
congress  of  Vienna  (1815)  restored  the  lower  part  of  the  Rhenish 
valley  to  Germany,  but  it  was  not  till  the  war  of  1870-71  that  the 
recovery  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  made  the  Rhine  once  more 
"Germany's  river,  not  Germany's  frontier."  In  the  military 
history  of  all  these  centuries  constant  allusion  is  made  to  the 
Rhine,  its  passages,  and  its  fortresses.  Every  general  who  has 
fought  in  its  neighbourhood  has  at  one  time  or  another  had  to 
provide  for  a  crossing  of  the  Rhine,  from  Julius  Caesar,  who 
crossed  it  twice,  down  to  our  own  time.  The  wars  carried  on  here 
by  his  Most  Christian  Majesty  Louis  XIV.  are  still  remembered  in 
the  Rhine  district,  where  the  devastations  of  his  generals  were  of 
the  most  appalling  description  ;  and  scarcely  a  village  or  town  but 
has  a  tale  to  tell  of  the  murder  and  rapine  of  this  period. 

The  Rhine  has  always  exercised  a  peculiar  sort  of  fascination 
over  the  German  mind,  in  a  measure  and  iu  a  manner  not  easily 
paralleled  by  the  case  of  any  other  river.  "  Father  Rhine  "  is  the 
centre  of  the  German's  patriotism  and  the  symbol  of  his  country. 
In  his  literature  it  has  played  a  prominent  part  from  the 
Nibelungcnlied  to  the  present  day ;  and  its  weird  and  romantic 
legends  have  been  alternately  the  awe  and  the  delight  of  his 
childhood.  The  Rhine  was  the  classic  river  of  the  Middle  Ages  ; 
and  probably  the  Tiber  alone  is  of  equal  historical  interest  among 
European  rivers.  Victor  Hugo  has  perhaps  best  described  the 
mingled  feelings  which  the  Rhine  awakens.  "  Le  Rhin,"  he  says, 
"  reuuit  tout.  Le  Rhin  est  rapide  comme  le  Rhone,  large  comme  la 
Loire,  encaisse  comme  la  Mouse,  tortueux  comme  la  Seine,  limpide 
et  vert  comme  la  Sonime,  historique  comme  le  Tibre,  royal  comme 
le  Danube,  mysterieux  comme  le  Nil,  paillete  d'or  comme  un  ileuve 
d'Amerique,  couvert  de  fables  et  de  fantomes  comme  nn  fieuve 
d'Asie."  (J.  F.  M.). 

RHINOCEROS,  a  name  applied  by  the  ancients  to 
an  animal  the  most  striking  external  peculiarity  of  which 
is  certainly  the  horn  growing  above  its  nose  (ptvoKepws, 
nose-horn). 

The  various  existing  and  extinct  species  are  grouped 
into  a  family,  Rhinocerotidx,  which  is  a  division  of  the 
Perissodactyle  (odd-toed)  section  of  the  great  order  of 
Ungulata  or  hoofed  mammals,  of  which  section  the  tapirs 
and  horses  are  the  only  other  surviving  members  (see 
MAMMALIA,  vol.  xv.  p.  428). 

The  following  are  the  general  characters  applicable  to 
all  the  members  of  the  family. 

First,  as  regards  dentition.  Incisors  variable,  generally 
reduced  in  number  and  often  quite  rudimentary,  and  early 
deciduous.  Canines,  in  existing  species,  absent.  Molar 
series,  consisting  of  the  full  number  of  four  premolars 
and  three  molars  above  and  below,  all  in  contact  and 
closely  resembling  each  other,  except  the  first,  which  is 


A. 


B. 


dorsum) ;  5,  antero-internal  pillar  or  cusp  ;  6,  postt-ro-internal  pillar  or  cusp  ; 
7,  anterior  sinus ;  8,  median  sinus  ;  9,  posterior  sinus ;  10,  accessory  sinus 
or  valley ;  11,  crista  (anterior  combing  plate);  12,  crochet  (posterior  combing 
plate). 

much  smaller  than  the  rest  and  often  deciduous.  The 
others  gradually  increasing  in  size  up  to  the  penultimate. 
The  upper  molars  have  a  very  characteristic  pattern  of 
crown,  having  a  much-developed  flat  or  more  or  less 
sinuous  outer  wall,  and  two  transverse  ridges  running 


obliquely  inwards  and  backwards  from  it,  terminating 
internally  in  conical  eminences  or  columns,  and  enclosing 
a  deep  (middle)  sinus  between.  The  posterior  sinus  is 
formed  behind  the  posterior  transverse  ridge,  and  is 
bounded  externally  by  a  backward  continuation  of  the 
outer  wall  and  behind  by  the  cingulurn.  The  anterior 
sinus  is  formed  in  the  same  manner,  but  is  much  smaller. 
The  middle  sinus  is  often  intersected  by  vertical  laminae 
("  combing  plates  ")  projecting  into  it  from  the  anterior  sur- 
face of  the  posterior  transverse  ridge  or  from  the  wall,  the 
development  of  which  is  a  useful  guide  in  discriminating 
the  species,  especially  those  no  longer  existing  and  known 
only  by  the  teeth  and  bones.  The  depressions  between  the 
ridges  are  not  filled  up  with  cernentum  as  in  the  horse. 
The  lower  molars  have  the  crown  formed  by  a  pair  of 
crescents ;  the  last  has  no  third  lobe  or  talon. 

Head  large,  skull  elongated,  elevated  posteriorly  into  a 
transverse  occipital  crest.  No  post-orbital  processes  or 
any  separation  between  orbits  and  temporal  fossae. 
Nasal  bones  large  and  stout,  co-ossified,  and  standing  out 
freely  above  the  premaxillas,  from  which  they  are  separated 
by  a  deep  and  wide  fissure ;  the  latter  small,  generally  not 
meeting  in  the  middle  line  in  front,  often  quite  rudimen- 
tary. Tympanics  small,  not  forming  a  bulla.  Brain  cavity 
very  small  for  the  size  of  the  skull.  Vertebrae  : — cervical, 
7  ;  dorsal,  19-20  ;  lumbar,  3  ;  sacral,  4;  caudal,  about  22. 
Limbs  stout,  and  of  moderate  length.  Three  completely 
developed  toes,  with  distinct  broad  rounded  hoofs  on  each 
foot.1  Mammae  two,  inguinal.  Eyes  small.  Ears  of 
moderate  size,  oval,  erect,  prominent,  placed  near  the 
occiput.  Skin  very  thick,  in  many  species  thrown  into 
massive  folds.  Hairy  covering  •  scanty.  All  existing 
species  have  one  or  two  median  horns  on  the  face. 
When  one  is  present  it  is  situated  over  the  conjoined 
nasal  bones ;  when  two,  the  hinder  one  is  over  the  frontals. 
These  horns,  which  are  of  a  more  or  less  conical  form 
and  usually  recurved,  and  often  grow  to  a  great  length 
(three  or  even  four  feet),  are  composed  of  a  solid  mass  of 
hardened  epidermic  cells  growing  from  a  cluster  of  long 
dermal  papillse.  The  cells  formed  on  each  papilla  consti- 
tute a  distinct  horny  fibre,  like  a  thick  hair,  and  the  whole 
are  cemented  together  by  an  intermediate  mass  of  cells 
which  grow  up  from  the  interspaces  between  the  papillae. 
It  results  from  this  that  the  horn  has  the  appearance  of  a 
mass  of  agglutinated  hairs,  which,  in  the  newly  growing 
part  at  the  base,  readily  fray  out  on  destruction  of  the 
softer  intermediate  substance ;  but  the  fibres  differ  from 
true  hairs  in  growing  from  a  free  papilla  of  the  derm,  and 
not  within  a  follicular  involution  of  the  same. 

The  Rhinocerotidx  are  all  animals  of  large  size,  but  of 
little  intelligence,  generally  timid  in  disposition,  though 
ferocious  when  attacked  and  brought  to  bay,  using  the 
nasal  horns  as  weapons,  by  which  they  strike  and  toss 
their  assailant.  Their  sight  is  dull,  but  their  hearing  and 
scent  are  remarkably  acute.  They  feed  on  herbage,  shrubs, 
and  leaves  of  trees,  and,  like  so  many  other  large  animals 
which  inhabit  hot  countries,  sleep  the  greater  part  of  the 
day,  being  most  active  in  the  cool  of  the  evening  or  even 
during  the  night.  They  are  fond  of  bathing  and  wallowing 
in  water  or  mud.  None  of  the  species  have  been  domesti- 
cated. Animals  of  the  group  have  existed  in  both  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds  since  the  beginning  of  the  Miocene 
period.  In  America  they  all  became  extinct  before  the 
end  of  the  Pliocene  period.  In  the  Old  World  their 
distribution  has  become  greatly  restricted,  being  no  longer 
found  in  Europe  and  North  Asia,  but  only  in  Africa  and 
in  portions  of  the  Indian  and  Indo-Malayan  regions. 

1  In  some  extinct  species  a  small  outer  toe  is  present  on  the 
forefoot. 

XX.  —  66 


522 


RHINOCEROS 


The  existing  species  of  rhinoceros  are  naturally  grouped 
into  three  sections,  which  some  zoologists  consider  of 
generic  value. 

I.  Rhinoceros  proper.  The  adults  with  a  single  large 
compressed  incisor  above  on  each  side,  and  occasionally  a 
small  lateral  one;  below,  a  very  small  median,  and  a 
very  large,  procumbent,  pointed  lateral  incisor.  Nasal 
bones  pointed  in  front.  A  single  nasal  horn.  Skin  very 
thick,  and  raised  into  strong,  definitely  arranged  ridges 
or  folds. 

There  are  two  well-marked  species  of  one-horned  rhino- 
ceroses. (1)  The  Indian  Rhinoceros,  R.  unicomis  of  Lin- 
naeus,1 the  largest  and  best  known,  from  being  the  most 
frequently  exhibited  alive  in  England,  is  at  present  only 


Fia.  2. — Indian  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  unicornis).  This  and  the 
following  woodcuts  are  reduced  from  drawings  by  J.  Wolf,  from 
animals  living  in  the  London  Zoological  Society's  Gardens. 

met  with  in  a  wild  state  in  the  terai  region  of  Nepal  and 
Bhutan,  and  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra  or 
province  of  Assam,  though  it  formerly  had  a  wider  range. 


FIG.  3.  — Javan  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  sondaicus). 

The  first  rhinoceros  seen  alive  in  Europe  since  the  time 
when  they,  in  common  with  nearly  all  the  large  remarkable 
beasts  of  both  Africa  and  Asia,  were  exhibited  in  the 

1  Many  authors  use  Cuvier's  name,  R.  indicus,  in  preference  to  this, 
on  the  ground  that  there  are  more  than  one  species  with  one  horn, 
forgetting  that  the  name  substituted  is  equally  inconvenient,  as  more 
than  one  species  live  in  India.  The  fact  of  a  specific  name  being 
applicable  to  several  members  of  a  genus  is  no  objection  to  its 
restriction  to  the  first  to  which  it  was  applied  ;  otherwise  changes  in 
old  and  well-received  names  would  constantly  have  to  be  made  in 
consequence  of  nsw  discoveries. 


Roman  shows,  was  of  this  species.  It  was  sent  from  India 
to  Emmanuel,  king  of  Portugal,  in  1513  ;  and  from  a  sketch 
of  it,  taken  in  Lisbon,  Albert  Diirer  composed  his  cele- 
brated but  rather  fanciful  engraving,  which  was  repro- 
duced in  so  many  old  books  on  natural  history.  (2)  The 
Javan  Rhinoceros,  R.  sondaicus,  Cuvier,  is  distinguished 
by  smaller  size,  special  characters  of  the  teeth  and  skull, 
and  different  arrangement  of  the  plications  of  the  skin  (as 
seen  in  the  figures) ;  the  horn  in  the  female  appears  to  be 
very  little  developed,  if  not  altogether  absent.  This  has 
a  more  extensive  geographical  range,  being  found  in  the 
Bengal  Sunderbans  near  Calcutta,  Burmah,  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  Java,  Sumatra,  and  probably  Borneo. 

II.  Ceratorhinus.     The   adults  with   a    moderate-sized 
compressed  incisor  above,  and  a  laterally  placed,  pointed, 
procumbent  incisor  below,  which  is  sometimes  lost  in  old 
animals.     Nasal  bones  narrow  and  pointed  anteriorly.     A 
well-developed  nasal,  and  a  small  frontal  horn  separated 
by  an  interval.     The  skin  thrown  into  folds,  but  these  not 
.so  strongly  marked  as  in  the  former  section.     The  smallest 
living  member  of  the  family,  the  Sumatran   Rhinoceros, 
R.  sumatrensis,  Cuv.,   belongs    to    this    group.     Its   geo- 
graphical range  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Javan 
species,  though   not   extending   into  Bengal;  but  it  has 
been   found  in  Assam,  Chittagong,  Burmah,  the   Malay 
Peninsula,    Sumatra,    and    Borneo.     It    is    possible   that 
more  than  one  species  have  been  confounded  under  this 
designation,   as  two   animals  now  living  in  the  London 
Zoological  Gardens  present  considerable  differences  of  form 
and  colour.     One   of   them,   from    Chittagong,  has  been 
named  by  Sclater  R.  lasiotis,  the  Hairy-Eared  Rhinoceros, 
but  until  an  opportunity  is  afforded  for  anatomical  ex- 
amination, it  is  difficult  to  pronounce  upon  the  value  of 
the  distinction. 

III.  Atelodus.     In  the  adults,  the  incisors  are  quite  rudi- 
mentary or  entirely  wanting.     Nasal  bones  thick,  rounded 
and  truncated  in  front.     Well-developed  anterior  and  pos- 
terior horns  in  close  contact.     Skin  without  any  definite 
permanent  folds. 

The  two  well-marked  existing  species  are  peculiar  to 
the  African  continent. 

1.  The  common  Two-Horned  Rhinoceros,  R.  bicornis, 
Linn.,  is  the  smaller  of  the  two,  with  a  pointed  prehensile 
upper  lip,  and  a  narrow  compressed  deep  symphysis  of  the 


\ 


FIG.  4. — Common  African  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  bicornis). 

lower  jaw.  It  ranges  through  the  wooded  and  watered 
districts  of  Africa,  from  Abyssinia  in  the  north  to  the  Cape 
Colony,  but  its  numbers  are  yearly  diminishing,  owing  to 


VOL.  XX 


RHODE  ISLAND 


I 'LATE  IV 


"„ 

•<*»                                                          |- 

V 

IB 

I.     0     C     ^ 

P 

I 

•rr 

F 

L 

S     ® 

Longitude    H»»t      5"  2O'    from     ^.-mlimoii 

V 


5"40 


BLOCK  ISLAND 

Part  of  Newport  County 

i 

Soavij  Soviai         -.»^c 


E  H  0  —  E  H  0 


523 


the  inroads  of  European  civilization,  and  especially  of 
English  sportsmen.  It  feeds  exclusively  upon  leaves  and 
branches  of  bushes  and  small  trees,  and  chiefly  frequents 
the  sides  of  wood-clad  rugged  hills.  Specimens  in  which  the 
posterior  horn  has  attained  a  length  as  great  as  or  greater 
than  the  anterior  have  been  separated  under  the  name  of 
R.  keitloa,  but  the  characters  of  these  appendages  are  too 
variable  to  found  specific  distinctions  upon.  The  two- 
horned  African  rhinoceros  is  far  more  rarely  seen  in  mena- 
geries in  Europe  than  either  of  the  three  Indian  species, 
but  one  has  lived  in  the  gardens  of  the  London  Zoological 
Society  since  1868.  Excellent  figures  from  life  of  this  and 
the  other  species  are  published  in  the  ninth  volume  of  the 
Transactions  of  the  society,  from  which  the  accompanying 
woodcuts  are  reduced. 

2.  Burchell's  or  the  Square-Mouthed  Rhinoceros  (R. 
simus),  sometimes  called  the  White  Rhinoceros,  though  the 
colour  (dark-slate)  is  not  materially  different  from  that  of 
the  last  species,  is  the  largest  of  the  whole  group,  and 
differs  from  all  the  others  in  having  a  square  truncated 
upper  lip  and  a  wide,  shallow,  spatulate  symphysis  to  the 
lower  jaw.  In  conformity  with  the  structure  of  the 
mouth,  this  species  lives  entirely  by  browsing  on  grass, 
and  is  therefore  more  partial  to  open  countries  or  districts 
where  there  are  broad  grassy  valleys  between  the  tracts 
of  bush.  It  is  only  found  in  Africa  south  of  the  Zambesi, 
and  of  late  years  has  become  extremely  scarce,  owing  to 
the  persecutions  of  sportsmen ;  indeed,  the  time  of  its 
complete  extinction  cannot  be  far  off.  No  specimen  of 
this  species  has  ever  been  brought  alive  to  Europe.  Mr 
F.  C.  Selous  gives  the  following  description  of  its  habits 
from  extensive  personal  observation  : — 

"  The  square-mouthed  rhinoceros  is  a  huge  ungainly-looking 
beast,  with  a  disproportionately  large  head,  a  large  male  standing 
6  feet  6  inches  at  the  shoulder.  Like  elephants  and  buffaloes  they 
lie  asleep  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  feed  during  the  night  and 
in  the  cool  hours  of  early  morning  and  evening.  Their  sight  is 
very  bad  ;  but  they  are  quick  of  hearing,  and  their  scent  is  very 
keen;  they  are,  too,  often  accompanied  by  rhinoceros  birds,  which, 
by  running  about  their  heads,  flapping  their  wings,  and  screeching 
at  the  same  time,  frequently  give  them  notice  of  the  approach  of 
danger.  When  disturbed  they  go  off  at  a  swift  trot,  which  soon 
leaves  all  pursuit  from  a  man  on  foot  far  behind  ;  but  if  chased  by 
a  horseman  they  break  into  a  gallop,  which  they  can  keep  up  for 
some  distance.  However,  although  they  run  very  swiftly,  when 
their  size  and  heavy  build  is  considered,  they  are  no  match  for  an 
average  good  horse.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  very  easy  to  shoot  on 
horseback,  as,  if  one  gallops  a  little  in  front  of  and  on  one  side  of 
them,  they  will  hold  their  course,  and  come  sailing  past,  offering  a 
magnificent  broadside  shot,  Avhile  under  similar  circumstances  a 
prehensile-lipped  rhinoceros  will  usually  swerve  away  in  such  a 
manner  as  only  to  present  his  hind-quarters  for  a  shot.  When 
either  walking  or  running,  the  square-mouthed  rhinoceros  holds 
its  head  very  low,  its  nose  nearly  touching  the  ground.  When 
a  small  calf  accompanies  its  mother,  it  always  runs  in  front 
and  she  appears  to  guide  it  by  holding  the  point  of  her  horn 
upon  the  little  animal's  rump  ;  and  it  is  perfectly  wonderful 
to  note  how  in  all  sudden  changes  of  pace,  from  a  trot  to 
a  gallop  or  vice  versa,  the  same  position  is  always  exactly  main- 
tained. During  the  autumn  and  winter  months  (i.e.,  from  March 
to  August)  the  square-mouthed  rhinoceros  is  usually  very  fat ;  and 
its  meat  is  then  most  excellent,  being  something  like  beef,  but  yet 
having  a  peculiar  flavour  of  its  own.  The  part  in  greatest  favour 
among  hunters  is  the  hump,  which,  if  cut  off  whole  and  roasted 
just  as  it  is  in  the  skin,  in  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground,  would,  I 
think,  be  difficult  to  match  either  for  juiciness  or  flavour." — Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.,  1381,  p.  726 

Extinct  Species  of  Rhinoceros. — The  family  once  contained  many 
more  species,  which  were  far  more  widely  distributed  than  at 
present.  As  in  similar  cases,  our  knowledge  of  them  is  as  yet  but 
fragmentary,  though  constantly  augmenting,  especially  by  dis- 
coveries made  in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  North  America,  a 
region  in  which  they  all  died  out  long  ago,  though,  judging 
from  the  evidence  at  present  available,  this  was  the  locality  in 
which  they  first  made  their  appearance.  In  the  Eocene  formations 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  found  the  remains  of  numerous 
modifications  of  the  primitive  Perissodactyle  type,  from  which  the 
rhinoceroses  may  have  originated.  In  the  Lower  Miocene  a  form 
called  Ifyracodon  by  Leidy  already  presented  many  of  the 


characteristics  of  the  family,  though,  especially  as  regards  the 
dentition,  in  a  very  generalized  condition.  The  next  stage  of 
specialization  is  represented  by  Aceratherium.  found  in  the  Miocene 
of  both  Europe  and  America,  which  still,  like  the  last,  shows  no 
sign  of  having  possessed  a  nasal  horn.  It  differed  from  the 
existing  species  also  in  having  four  toes  on  the  anterior  limb, 
instead  of  only  three.  At  the  same  period  forms  occurred  (Dicera- 
therium,  Marsh)  which  show  a  pair  of  lateral  tubercles  on  the 
nasal  bones,  apparently  supporting  horns  side  by  side.  These,  how- 
ever, soon  disappeared  and  gave  way  in  the  Old  World  to  species 
with  one  or  two  horns  in  the  median  line,  a  stage  of  development 
which  apparently  was  never  reached  in  America.  In  the  Pliocene 
and  Pleistocene  of  Europe  and  Asia  numerous  modifications  of  the 
existing  types  have  been  found.  The  present  African  two-horned 
type  was  represented  in  the  Early  Pliocene  of  Greece  by  R.  pachy- 
gnathus,  the  skeleton  of  which  is  described  by  Gaudry  as  intermediate 
between  the  existing  R.  bicornis  and  R.  simus.  As  many  as  three 
species  were  inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles,  of  which  the  best 
known  is  the  Tichorhine  or  Woolly  Rhinoceros,  R.  antiquitatis  of 
Blumenbach,  nearly  whole  carcases  of  which,  with  the  thick  woolly 
external  covering,  have  been  discovered  associated  with  those  of 
the  mammoth,  preserved  in  the  frozen  soil  of  the  north  of  Siberia, 
and  which,  in  common  with  some  other  extinct  species,  had  a  solid 
median  wall  of  bone  supporting  the  nasals,  from  which  it  is  in- 
ferred that  the  horns  were  of  a  size  and  weight  surpassing  that  of 
the  modem  species.  The  one-horned  Indian  type  was  well  repre- 
sented under  several  modifications  (R.  sivalensis,  palssindicus,  &c.), 
in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  the  sub-Himalayan  region,  and  forms 
more  allied  to  the  African  bicorn  species  have  also  been  found  in 
India.  R.  schleirmacheri  of  the  late  European  Miocenes  was  in 
some  respects  allied  to  the  existing  Sumatran  rhinoceros,  possessing 
incisor  teeth  and  two  horns.  ( W.  H.  F. ) 

RHODE  ISLAND,  one  of  the  six  New  England  States,  Plate  FV 
and  the  smallest  in  extent  of  all  the  States,  is  one  of  the 
original  thirteen  which  formed  the  American  Union.  It 
has  an  actual  land  area  of  only  1054'6  square  miles,  the 
waters  of  Narragansett  Bay,  its  chief  physical  feature, 
comprising  an  additional  area  of  not  far  from  360  square 
miles.  It  lies  between  41°  18'1  and  42°  3'  N.  lat.,  and 
71°  6'  and  71°  55'  W.  long.,  its  greatest  length  from  north 
to  south  being  about  48  miles,  and  its  greatest  width  from 
east  to  west  about  35  miles.  It  is  shut  in  on  the  east  and 
north  by  Massachusetts,  and  on  the  west  by  Connecticut, 
while  its  southern  shores  are  washed  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

Physical  Characteristics. — The  geological  formation  of 
the  western  portion  of  the  State  is  chiefly  that  of  the 
Montalban  gneiss,  which  characterizes  a  great  part  of 
southern  New  England  (see  geological  sketch  map  of  New 
England,  in  article  NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  vol.  xvii.  p.  391), 
but  under  the  bay  and  to  the  east  of  it  is  an  extensive 
coal-bearing  formation,  from  which  at  different  times 
upwards  of  750,000  tons  of  coal  have  been  taken.  The 
only  other  important  deposit  is  one  of  magnetic  oxide  of 
iron.  The  climate  of  Rhode  Island,  though  variable, 
differs  from  that  of  the  exposed  coast  of  Massachusetts 
Bay  in  the  absence  of  harassing  east  winds ;  while  the 
proximity  of  the  southern  parts  of  the  State  (Newport 
and  vicinity)  to  the  Gulf  Stream  results  in  an  atmosphere 
of  unusual  warmth  and  moisture,  and  at  the  same  time 
comparatively  equable.  No  great  extremes,  either  of  heat 
or  of  cold,  are  experienced  in  the  State. 

Population. — The  earliest  authentic  estimate  of  population  is 
that  of  7181  in  1708.  The  War  of  Independence  (1775-83)  had 
the  effect  of  reducing  it  from  59,707  in  1774  to  52,347  in  1782. 
The  subsequent  United  States  censuses  show  steady  gains,  as 
follows :— 1790,  68,825  ;  1800,  69,122 ;  1810,  77,031  ;  1820, 
83,059;  1830,  97,210;  1840,  108,830;  1850,  147,545;  1860, 
174,620;  1870,  217,353;  1880,  276,531  (143,501  males,  133,030 
females) ;  while  a  State  census  in  1885  (advance  returns)  gives 
304,419.  The  census  of  1880  showed  Rhode  Island  to  be  surpassed 
in  aggregate  population  by  all  except  Colorado,  Oregon,  Delaware, 
and  Nevada,  but  in  density  it  was  surpassed  by  none  (254 '9  per 
square  mile,  the  average  for"  the  whole  United  States  being  13  '92). 
By  the  same  census  the  number  of  persons  of  foreign  birth  was 
73,993,  or  26 '8  percent,  no  State  east  of  Lake  Michigan  showing 

1  The  town  of  New  Shoreham,  which  lies  on  an  island  10  miles  from 
shore,  is  beyond  this  limit. 


524 


KHODE      ISLAND 


a  higher  percentage;  of  these  30,973  (over  41  per  cent.)  were 
natives  of  the  United  Kingdom  or  its  colonies.  About  100,000 
of  the  population  are  Roman  Catholics  ;  of  the  remainder,  the 
Baptists  (who  have  been  in  Rhode  Island  from  its  earliest  settle- 
ment) are  most  numerous,  while  the  communicants  of  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  church,  with  the  Cougregationalists  and  Methodists, 
have  also  a  large  representation. 

Industries. — No  portion  of  the  State  can  be  described  as  excep- 
tionally fertile ;  and  only  3  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  engaged 
in  agriculture.  The  favourable  situation  of  Newport  and  Provi- 
dence, at  the  two  extremities  of  Narragausett  Bay,  led  to  the 
development  in  the  last  century  of  a  flourishing  trade.  This  was 
long  ago  greatly  reduced,  and  the  tonnage  of  these  ports  is  now 
chiefly  that  of  a  coasting  trade.  With  the  final  check  given  to 
foreign  commerce  in  the  war  of  1812-14,  manufactures  gained  at 
once  that  prominence  in  the  local  industries  of  the  State  which  they 
have  ever  since  held.  The  census  of  1880  returned  the  total  number 
of  persons  in  Rhode  Island  engaged  in  "  gainful  and  reputable  " 
occupations  as  116,979,  of  whom  66,160,  or  more  than  55  per 
cent.,  were  classed  under  the  heading  "manufactures,  mechanics, 
and  mining."1  From  Samuel  Slater's  efforts  at  Providence  and 
Pawtucket  Falls,  in  1790-93,  may  in  fact  be  dated  the  real 
development  of  the  cotton  manufacturing  industry  in  America, 
Slater,  who  had  served  an  apprenticeship  in  England  with  a 
partner  of  Arkwright,  having  then  been  able  from  memory  to  set 
up  in  Rhode  Island  the  whole  set  of  recently  improved  spinning 
machinery.  In  1791  only  5858  yards  of  cotton  cloth  were  made  in 
Providence  and  vicinity,  but  in  1810  in  Rhode  Island  735,319 
were  made.  Two  years  later,  in  1812,  there  were  fifty-three 
cotton  mills  within  a  radius  of  30  miles  of  Providence,  nearly 
three-fifths  of  them  being  in  Rhode  Island.  The  number  of  cotton 
mills  in  Rhode  Island  was  33  in  1812,  116  in  1831,  and  139  in 
1870.  Owing  to  the  widespread  depression  in  business  the  number 
was  greatly  reduced  throughout  the  country  during  the  next 
decade,  but  even  in  1880  the  number  in  Rhode  Island  was  sur- 
passed by  that  of  no  other  State  except  Massachusetts.  Accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1880,  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  goods  was  $24,609,461  ;  woollen  goods 
$15,410,450  ;  dyeing  and  finishing  textiles,  $6,874,254  ;  foundry 
and  machine-shop  products,  $6,281,707  ;  worsted  goods,  $6,177,754  ; 
jeweller}',  $5,650,133  ;  slaughtering  and  meat-packing,  $3,876,740  ; 
mixed  textiles,  $2,718,822;  rubber  and  elastic  goods,  $2,217,000. 
Thus  Rhode  Island  is  second  to  but  one  other  State — Massa- 
chusetts— in  its  aggregate  production  of  cotton  goods  ;  and  in 
the  total  amount  of  capital  invested  in  all  manufactures  it  ranks 
ninth.  In  each  of  the  five  following  industries — cotton,  woollen, 
worsted,  mixed  textiles,  and  dyeing  and  finishing — it  stands  at 
the  head  of  all  the  States  in  amount  of  production  per  head  of 
population.  In  jeAvellery  the  yearly  product  of  a  single  city,  Pro- 
vidence, exceeds  that  of  every  other  city  in  the  country  ($5,444,092 
in  1880).  The  same  city  ranks  ninth  in  the  value  of  its  foundry 
and  machine-shop  products,  $4,522,179;  Pawtucket,  closely  ad- 
joining, adds  about  $1,600,000. 

Wealth  and  Finances. — The  assessed  valuation  of  the  State 
was— in  1850,  $80,508,794  ;  in  1860,  $135,337,588  ;  in  1870, 
$296,965,646;  and  in  1880,  upwards  of  $420,000,000— a  gain  of 
500  per  cent,  in  thirty  years.  In  aggregate  valuation  it  was  sur- 
passed in  1880  by  twenty-four  States  (its  population  in  the  same 
year  being  exceeded  by  that  of  thirty-two  States),  but  in  valuation 
per  head  it  ranked  third  ($1518'82  in  1880).  Notwithstanding 
the  large  foreign-born  population,  the  number  of  persons  classed  as 
paupers  is  very  small, — only  553  in  1880,  as  compared  with  15,217 
in  New  York.  In  1884  thirty-eight  savings  banks  contained  deposits 
to  the  amount  of  $51, 079, 160 '66,  with  115,752  depositors  (more 
than  40  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population).  The  number  of  other 
banks  in  the  State  was,  in  1883,  seventy- three,  with  a  capital  of 
$22,330,579-00.  The  State  tax  in  1880  amounted  to  $383,439'23 ; 
and  in  the  same  year  the  rate  of  taxation  per  head  for  all  purposes 
($974)  was  exceeded  only  by  that  of  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and 
California.  The  debt  of  the  State,  held  in  bonds  issued  during  the 
war  of  1861-65,  'has  for  the  last  few  years  been  steadily  diminishing. 
In  1880  it  stood  at  $2,534,500,  and  in  1884  at  $1,372,000. 

Cities  and  Towns. — The  five  counties  into  which  Rhode  Island  is 
divided  contain  in  all  thirty-six  towns  and  cities,  of  which  six  lie 
on  the  narrow  strip  bordering  the  eastern  shore  of  the  bay,  five  on 
islands  in  the  bay  and  ocean,  and  the  remaining  twenty-five  on 
the  mainland,  to  the  west  and  north-west  of  the  bay.  By  the 
State  census  of  1885  six  cities  and  towns  had  a  population  exceed- 
ing 10,000  :— Providence,  117,607  ;  Pawtucket,  22,873  ;  Newport, 
20,339  ;  Lincoln,  17,262  ;  Woonsocket,  16,005  ;  Warwick,  13,281. 
Only  two  of  these  places,  Providence  and  Newport,  have  hitherto 
been  organized  as  cities  ;  but  a  third,  Pawtucket  (the  largest  in 
the  country  under  a  town  government),  is  also  now  (1885)  about 
to  be  organized  under  a  city  charter.  The  quaint  old  city  of 
Newport,  situated  at  the  southern  end  of  the  island  (Rhode 

1  Mining  has  long  been  unrepresented  among  Rhode  Island  industries. 


Island)  from  which  the  State  receives  its  name,2  has  for  many 
years  been  nearly  stationary  as  regards  the  development  of  its 
population  and  industries,  but  is  well  known  on  both  sides  of 
the  Atlantic  for  its  social  attractions.  In  1880  the  "urban" 
population  of  Rhode  Island  constituted  77  per  cent,  of  the 
total — a  percentage  surpassed  only  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Yet  the  growth  of  manufacturing  industries  in  the  State  has 
resulted  in  building  up  compact  settlements  (in  not  a  few 
instances  almost  continuous),  with  little  regard  to  town  lines 
and  boundaries.  On  the  Blackstone  river  are  sixteen  of 
"  villages "  situated  within  five  different  towns ;  on  the  Woonas- 
quatucket  river  twelve,  in  four  cities  and  towns  ;  and  on  the 
Pawtuxet  river  and  its  branches  thirty-two,  in  five  towns.  In 
1875  there  were  186  "villages." 

Education. — It  was  not  until  1828  that  the  present  public 
school  system  was  established ;  but,  owing  largely  to  the  excep- 
tional organizing  ability  of  the  first  commissioner  of  public  schools, 
Henry  Barnard,  a  most  efficient  system  was  securely  built  up. 
From  various  causes  (including  the  presence  of  a  large  foreign- 
born  element),  illiteracy  is  a  serious  problem  in  this  State, 
— the  percentage  unable  to  write  (11 -2)  being  in  1880  higher 
than  in  any  other  Northern  State.  Imperfect  attendance  is  also  a 
serious  difficulty  in  the  manufacturing  villages.  While  the  number 
of  children  registered  by  the  school  census  of  1880  as  of  "school 
age"  was  52,273,  only  33,504  of  these  were  actually  enrolled  as 
pupils  in  the  public  schools.  Even  after  counting  those  who-attcud 
private  and  parochial  schools,  those  ' '  not  attending  any  school " 
comprise  so  large  a  number  as  12,279.  Under  the  operation  of  a 
newly  enacted  compulsory  law  encouraging  progress  has  been  made. 
The  public  school  funds  in  1884  amounted  to  $659, 585 '50.  Educa- 
tional institutions,  other  than  public,  include  Brown  Univer.Mty, 
the  Friends'  School,  and  various  others  at  Providence.  Brown 
University  was  founded  in  1764,  under  the  name  of  Rhode  Island 
College,  and  was  the  seventh  college  established  in  America. 

Libraries. — The  Redwood  Library,  at  Newport,  still  in  existence, 
incorporated  in  1747,  was  the  fourth  public  library  founded  in  New 
England.  The  Providence  Library  was  founded  only  a  few  years 
later,  and  is  still  perpetuated  in  the  Providence  Athenaeum,  an 
admirably  conducted  shareholders'  library  (43,656  volumes  in 
1884).  The  Brown  University  Library,  founded  1772,  had  in  June 
1885  more  than  62,000  volumes,  including  several  special  collec- 
tions of  great  rarity  and  value.  There  were,  moreover,  in  the  same 
year  thirty-two  "public  libraries"  in  the  State  (free  to  all  readers), 
with  a  total  of  about  100,000  volumes.  The  largest  of  these  (31,650 
volumes  in  1885)  is  the  Providence  Public  Library. 

History  and  Constitution.  — The  planting  of  the  three  scattered  and 
independent  settlements  (Providence,  1636  ;  Portsmouth,  1638  ; 
Newport,  1639)  by  Roger  Williams  and  others  whose  views  of 
church  polity  and  doctrine  had  been  found  unpalatable  to  the 
Massachusetts  Puritans,  was  not  in  the  outset  a  movement  for  the 
establishment  of  a  colony.  The  need  of  mutual  protection, 
however,  led  to  their  combination ;  and  the  first  general  union  of 
these  three  towns  (together  with  a  fourth,  Warwick),  was  secured 
in  1647,  under  the  charter  of  March  14,  1643-44.  The  union 
effected  by  this  instrument  was  of  the  very  loosest  description,  but 
under  the  pressure  of  causes  which  threatened  the  very  existence  of 
the  colony  a  ivew  and  much  more  comprehensive  charter  was 
obtained  in  1663.  This  extraordinarily  liberal  instrument  consti- 
tuted the  fundamental  law  of  Rhode  Island  for  the  next  hundred 
and  eighty  years,  through  a  succession  of  remarkable  vicissitudes. 
The  charters  of  Massachusetts  and  other  American  colonies  were 
withdrawn  in  1686,  but  the  efforts  of  the  royal  agent  were  frus- 
trated in  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  ;  and  in  this  colony  the 
government  was  simply  committed  temporarily  to  the  separate 
towns  which  had  constituted  the  colony,  the  charter  government 
being  peacefully  resumed  three  years  later,  in  1689.  Rhode 
Island  was  hardly  free,  during  the  next  seventy  years,  from  some 
form  of  conflict  with  the  mother  country  over  the  question  of 
charter  rights ;  and  in  the  steps  which  served  to  precipitate  the 
War  of  Independence  (1775-83),  as  well  as  in  the  war  itself,  it  was 
among  the  foremost.  In  the  military  operations  of  this  war 
Nathanael  Greene,  a  Rhode  Island  officer,  ranks  easily  second  to 
Washington  in  generalship.  Reluctant  as  Rhode  Island  was  to 
acknowledge  other  authority  than  that  of  its  own  colonial  charter, 
even  after  the  close  of  the  war,  it  did  not  accede  to  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States  until  June  1790,  more  than  a  twelvemonth 
after  the  new  government  had  gone  into  operation  under 
Washington  as  president.  Nor  did  it  even  then  follow  the  example 
of  the  other  States  in  framing  a  State  constitution  for  the  govern- 
ment of  its  local  affairs,  but  retained  its  colonial  charter  of  1663 
until  almost  the  middle  of  the  present  century.  In  1841  and  1842 
the  dissatisfaction  with  this  mode  of  government  culminated  in  a 
series  of  revolutionary  movements ;  and  a  convention  called  by 
citizens  of  the  State  adopted  what  was  known  as  the  "people's 

2  The  official  name  of  the  State  is  "  the  State  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence 
Plantations." 


R  H  0  — R  H  O 


525 


constitution,"  under  whose  provisions  it  was  claimed  that 
Thomas  Wilson  Dorr  was  chosen  governor.  Later  in  the  year 
1842  a  convention  called  by  the  regularly  constituted  authorities 
adopted  the  present  constitution,  under  whose  provisions  the  State 
government  was  organized  in  1843.  The  governor  (chosen  annu- 
ally) has  no  veto  power.  The  legislative  body,  known  as  the 
General  Assembly,  comprises  a  senate  and  a  house  of  representa- 
tives, each  one  of  the  thirty-six  cities  and  towns  choosing  a  single 
senator.  The  General  Assembly  begins  its  annual  sessions  in  May 
at  Newport,  adjourning,  after  a  few  days,  for  a  much  more  extended 
session  at  Providence  beginning  in  the  following  January.  The 
judicial  body  consists  of  one  supreme  court,  with  subordinate  courts 
for  the  respective  counties,  the  justices  being  chosen  by  vote  of  the 
General  Assembly.  The  suffrage  is  a  limited  one,  a  property 
qualification  being  required  in  certain  instances.  The  State  is 
represented  in  the  national  Congress  by  two  senators  and  two 
representatives.  In  the  quadrennial  election  of  president,  Rhode 
Island  has  four  votes  in  the  "electoral  college."  In  the  Civil 
War  of  1861-65  Rhode  Island  took  an  active  part,  furnishing  for 
the  defence  of  the  Union  24,042  men.  (W.  E.  F.) 

ERODES,  an  island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  belonging  to 
the  Turkish  empire,  lying  off  the  south-west  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  between  35°  52'  and  36°  28'  N.  lat.  and  27°  40'  and 
28°  15'  E.  long.,  about  10  miles  south  of  Cape  Alepo.  Its 
length  is  about  45  niiles  from  north-east  to  south-west,  its 
greatest  breadth  22  miles,  and  its  area  nearly  424  square 
miles. 

The  island  is  diversified  in  its  surface,  and  is  traversed 
from  north  to  south  by  an  elevated  mountain  range,  the 
highest  point  of  which,  named  in  ancient  times  Atabyris 
or  Atabyrium,  and  still  called  Atairo,  rises  to  an  elevation 
of  4560  feet.  It  commands  a  view  of  the  elevated  coast 
of  Asia  Minor  towards  the  north,  and  of  the  Archipelago, 
studded  with  its  numerous  islands,  on  the  north-west; 
while  on  the  south-west  is  seen  Mount  Ida  in  Crete,  often 
veiled  in  clouds,  and  on  the  south  and  south-east  the  vast 
expanse  of  waters  which  wash  the  African  shore.  The 
rest  of  the  island  is  occupied  in  great  part  by  ranges  of 
moderately  elevated  hills,  on  which  are  found  extensive 
woods  of  ancient  pines,  planted  by  the  hand  of  nature. 
These  forests  were  formerly  very  thick,  but  they  are  now 
greatly  thinned  by  the  Turks,  who  cut  them  down  and 
take  no  care  to  plant  others  in  their  place.  Beneath  these 
hills  the  surface  of  the  island  falls  lower,  and  several  hills 
in  the  form  of  amphitheatres  extend  their  bases  as  far  as 
the  sea. 

Rhodes  was  famed  in  ancient  times  for  its  delightful 
climate,  and  it  still  maintains  its  former  reputation.  The 
air  is  pure  and  salubrious,  and  it  is  said  that  there  is 
hardly  a  day  throughout  the  year  in  which  the  sun  is  not 
visible.  The  winds  are  liable  to  little  variation ;  they 
blow  from  the  west,  often  with  great  violence,  for  nine 
months  in  the  year,  and  at  other  times  from  the  north ; 
and  they  moderate  the  summer  heats,  which  are  chiefly 
felt  during  the  months  of  July  and  August,  when  the  hot 
winds  blow  from  the  coast  of  Anatolia. 

Rhodes,  in  addition  to  its  fine  climate,  is  blessed  with 
a  fertile  soil,  and  produces  a  variety  of  the  finest  fruits 
and  vegetables.  Numerous  streams  and  rivulets,  which 
take  their  rise  in  the  central  range,  water  the  surround- 
ing plains  and  valleys  of  the  island.  The  inhabitants 
have  a  great  taste  for  gardens ;  and  around  the  villages 
are  extensive  cultivated  fields  and  orchards,  containing 
fig,  pomegranate,  and  orange  trees.  On  the  sloping  hills 
carob-trees,  and  others  both  useful  and  agreeable,  still  grow 
abundantly ;  the  vine  also  holds  its  place,  and  produces  a 
species  of  wine  which  was  highly  valued  by  the  ancients, 
though  it  seems  to  have  degenerated  greatly  in  modern 
times.  The  valleys  afford  rich  pastures,  and  the  plains 
produce  every  species  of  grain ;  the  wheat  is  of  an  excel- 
lent quality  ;  and,  but  for  the  extortions  of  its  barbarian 
rulers,  the  island  might  be  the  seat  of  agriculture  as  well 
as  commerce,  and  might  export  large  quantities  of  corn. 


The  commerce  of  the  island  has  been  of  late  years  in- 
creasing at  a  rapid  rate.  Many  British  manufactures  are 
imported  by  indirect  routes,  through  Smyrna,  Constanti- 
nople, Beyrout,  and  other  places.  Cotton  stuffs,  calicoes, 
and  grey  linen  are  among  the  goods  most  in  demand.  It 
is  not  so  much,  however,  the  peasantry  of  the  island  who 
use  these  British  goods,  for  they  prefer  their  own  home- 
made stuffs ;  but  they  are  exported  to  the  neighbouring 
coast  of  Anatolia,  between  Budrum  and  Adalia,  and  thence 
conveyed  into  the  interior.  The  expansion  of  the  trade 
has  been  very  much  owing  to  the  establishment  of  steam 
navigation  direct  to  the  island,  which  is  now  visited  regu- 
larly by  French  and  Austrian  steamers,  as  well  as  by  some 
from  England  to  Smyrna. 

The  only  town  of  any  importance  in  the  island  is  the 
capital,  Rhodes,  which  stands  at  the  north-east  extremity. 
It  rises  in  an  imposing  manner  from  the  sea,  on  a  gentle 
slope  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre.  It  is  surrounded 
with  walls  and  towers,  and  defended  by  a  large  moated 
castle  of  great  strength.  These  fortifications  are  all  the 
work  of  the  Knights  of  St  John.  Above  them  rise  the 
domes  and  minarets  of  the  mosques,  and  the  tufted  stems 
of  the  palm  trees,  which  adorn  this  like  most  other  Oriental 
towns.  The  interior  of  the  city  does  not  correspond  to  its 
outward  appearance.  No  trace  exists  of  the  splendour  of 
the  ancient  city,  with  its  regular  streets,  well-ordered  plan, 
and  numerous  public  buildings.  The  modern  city  of 
Rhodes  is  in  general  the  work  of  the  Knights  of  St  John, 
and  has  altogether  a  mediaeval  aspect,  the  streets  being 
for  the  most  part  narrow  and  winding,  though  the  houses, 
as  well  as  the  public  edifices,  are  in  general  solidly  built 
of  stone,  and  present  at  almost  every  step  some  memorial 
of  the  past  in  the  escutcheons  and  coats  of  arms  with 
which  they  are  adorned.  The  picturesque  fortifications 
also  by  which  'the  city  is  surrounded  remain  almost 
unaltered  as  they  were  in  the  15th  century,  and  it  has 
been  remarked  by  numerous  travellers  that  scarcely  any 
city  of  western  Europe  has  preserved  its  mediaeval  aspect 
so  unchanged  as  this  last  refuge  of  European  civilization 
in  the  East.  The  principal  buildings  which  remain  are 
the  church  of  St  John,  which  is  become  the  principal 
mosque ;  the  hospital,  whence  the  charity  of  the  knights 
was  liberally  dispensed  to  the  faithful  from  all  quarters  of 
the  world,  and  which  has  been  transformed  into  public 
granaries ;  the  palace  of  the  grand  master,  now  the  resi- 
dence of  the  pasha ;  and  the  senate-house,  which  still  con- 
tains some  marbles  and  ancient  columns.  Of  the  streets, 
the  best  and  widest  is  a  long  street  which  is  still  called 
the  Street  of  the  Knights.  It  is  perfectly  straight,  and 
formed  of  old  houses,  on  which  remain  the  armorial  bearings 
of  the  members  of  the  order.  On  some  of  these  buildings 
are  still  seen  the  arms  of  the  popes  and  of  some  of  the 
royal  and  noble  houses  of  Europe. 

The  only  relics  of  classical  antiquity  are  the  numerous 
inscribed  altars  and  bases  of  statues,  as  well  as  architectural 
fragments,  which  are  found  scattered  in  the  courtyards 
and  gardens  of  the  houses  in  the  extensive  suburbs  which 
now  surround  the  town,  the  whole  of  which  were  comprised 
within  the  limits  of  the  ancient  city.  The  foundations 
also  of  the  moles  that  separate  the  harbours  are  of 
Hellenic  work,  though  the  existing  moles  were  erected  by 
the  Knights  of  St  John. 

Rhodes  has  at  present  two  harbours.  The  least  of  these 
lies  towards  the  east,  and  its  entrance  is  obstructed  by  a 
barrier  of  rocks,  so  as  to  admit  the  entrance  of  but  one  ship 
at  a  time.  It  is  sufficiently  sheltered,  but  by  the  negligence 
of  the  Turks  the  sand  has  been  suffered  to  accumulate 
until  it  has  been  gradually  almost  choked  up.  The  other 
harbour  is  larger,  and  also  in  a  bad  condition  ;  here  frigates 
of  thirty  guns  may  anchor,  and  are  sheltered  from  the  west 


526 


R  H  0  — R  H  0 


winds,  though  they  are  exposed  to  the  north  and  north-east 
winds.  The  two  harbours  are  separated  by  a  mole  which 
runs  obliquely  into  the  sea.  At  the  eastern  entrance  is 
the  fort  of  St  Elmo,  with  a  lighthouse ;  but  the  light  is 
very  feeble,  and  visible  only  a  few  miles. 

History. — The  numerous  poetical  legends  current  among  the 
Greeks  with  respect  to  Rhodes  bear  testimony  to  the  importance 
which  it  attained  in  very  early  times.  Of  these  the  most  familiar 
is  that  celebrated  by  Pindar  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  his 
odes  (01.  vii.),  according  to  which  the  island  was  raised  from  the 
depths  of  the  sea  by  Helios,  the  god  of  the  sun,  who  always  con- 
tinued to  be  its  tutelary  deity,  and  whose  image  is  found  upon  all 
its  coins.  The  poet  as  usual  derives  its  name  from  a  nymph 
Rhoda,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  was  really  derived  from 
f>65oi>,  a  rose,  the  symbol  that  invariably  accompanies  the  head  of 
Helios  on  its  coins.  Another  set  of  legends  connected  it  with  the 
Telchines,  a  mythical  people  celebrated  for  their  skill  as  workers 
in  bronze  and  other  metals,  while  another  version  of  the  same  tale 
represented  these  Telchines  as  themselves  expelled  by  the  Heliadee, 
who  became  the  first  introducers  of  civilization.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  both  traditions  had  some  reference  to  the 
Phoenicians,  who  may  well  have  been  the  first  to  establish  settle- 
ments in  an  island  that  lay  so  directly  on  their  way  to  the  ^Egean. 
But  the  first  record  that  can  claim  anything  like  an  historical 
character  is  that  of  the  occupation  of  the  island  by  a  body  of  Doric 
emigrants  from  the  Peloponnesus,  who  founded  the  three  cities  of 
Lindus,  lalysus,  and  Camirus,  which  long  continued  to  divide  the 
island  among  them,  and  together  with  those  of  Cos,  Cnidus,  and 
Halicarnassus  formed  the  Doric  Hexapolis  or  league  of  six  cities. 
These  cities,  like  the  more  important  Ionic  confederacy,  had  a 
common  sanctuary  on  the  Triopian  Promontory  near  Cnidus,  but 
they  do  not  appear  to  have  formed  a  political  union,  though  the 
distinct  predominance  in  them  all  of  the  Doric  element  would 
naturally  lead  to  a  community  of  interest  as  well  as  of  feeling. 
Nothing  is  known  of  their  history  for  several  centuries,  during 
which  they  appear  to  have  developed  a  remarkable  amount  of  mari- 
time power  and  enterprise,  and  became  the  founders  of  numerous 
colonies  in  distant  parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  including  Gela  in 
Sicily,  as  well  as  Rhoda  on  the  coast  of  Spain,  and  Salapia  on  the 
Adriatic  coast  of  Italy.  Towards  the  east  also  they  were  the  recog- 
nized founders  of  Corydalla  and  Phaselis  in  Lycia  and  Soli  in  Cilicia. 

Notwithstanding  these  evidences  of  early  prosperity  and  power, 
we  meet  with  very  scanty  notices  of  the  Rhodian  cities  in  the  first 
period  of  Greek  history.  After  the  Persian  War  they  appear  to 
have  passed  into  the  condition  of  tributaries  to  Athens,  and  were 
compelled  as  such  to  join  in  the  Athenian  expedition  to  Sicily,  but 
in  412  B.C.  they  deserted  the  Athenian  cause  and  joined  that  of  the 
Peloponnesians.  It  was  shortly  after  this  (in  408)  that  they  adopted 
a  resolution  which  became  the  foundation  of  their  future  greatness, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  three  cities  having  agreed  to  abandon  their 
homes  and  found  a  new  city  on  the  site  which  has  ever  since  con- 
tinued to  be  the  capital  of  the  island. 

The  architect  was  Hippodamus  of  Miletus,  who  had  planned  and 
embellished  the  Piraeus  at  Athens  ;  and  the  new  city  soon  became 
one  of  the  most  splendid  in  the  world,  adorned  with  magnificent 
buildings  and  exquisite  works  of  art.  When  Conon  and  his  fleet 
restored  the  Athenian  power  by  his  victory  off  Cnidus  (394  B.C.), 
Rhodes  again  embraced  the  victorious  cause  ;  but  her  fidelity  during 
the  subsequent  contests  was  not  very  great.  Sparta  afterwards 
received  the  allegiance  of  the  island ;  and  in  the  Social  War  (357-5) 
it  joined  the  alliance  against  Athens,  and,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  Carian  monarch  Mausolus,  succeeded  in  achieving  independ- 
ence. But,  finding  the  power  of  that  king  dangerous  to  their 
liberties,  the  Rhodians  once  more  sued  for  the  Athenian  protection, 
which  they  obtained  through  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes.  But 
neither  they  nor  the  rest  of  Greece  could  resist  the  overwhelming 
power  of  Macedonia,  though  Memnon,  a  Rhodian,  was  one  of  the 
ablest  generals  under  the  last  Persian  king,  and  attempted  to  check 
the  career  of  Alexander.  Rhodes  received  a  Macedonian  garrison ; 
but  it  was  expelled  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  and  a  resolute 
resistance  was  begun  to  the  Macedonian  power.  This  formed  one 
of  the  most  illustrious  periods  in  the  history  of  the  island.  The 
capital  was  besieged  in  304  B.  c.  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  with  a 
large  army  and  a  complete  train  of  the  artillery  of  that  age. 
Although  a  breach  was  effected  in  the  walls,  the  desperate  valour 
of  the  defenders  foiled  all  the  attempts  to  carry  it  by  assault,  and 
cost  the  besiegers  the  lives  of  some  of  their  generals  and  a  great 
number  of  their  soldiers.  This  heroic  resistance  obtained  for  the 
Rhodians  great  renown  ;  and  the  period  which  followed  was  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  the  city.  They  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Rome,  and  obtained  possession  of  some  of  the  adjacent 
Islands  and  coasts,  including  a  considerable  district  on  the  main- 
land which  was  known  as  the  Rhodian  Persea.  For  arts  as  well  as 
arms  the  island  was  then  renowned  ;  the  Rhodian  laws,  especially 
on  maritime  affairs,  were  reckoned  the  best  in  antiquity,  and 


many  of  them  adopted  into  the  Roman  code.  JEschines,  who  had 
contended  in  eloquence  with  the  greatest  of  orators,  opened  a 
school  of  rhetoric  here,  which  became  the  parent  of  a  new  school  of 
oratory,  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  possessing  a  Grseco-Asiatic 
character.  Protogenes  embellished  the  city  with  his  paintings, 
and  Chares  of  Lindus  with  the  celebrated  colossal  statue.  The 
Colossus,  erroneously  supposed  to  have  occupied  a  position  striding 
over  the  entrance  to  the  narbour,  stood  for  fifty-six  years,  till  an 
earthquake  prostrated  it  in  224  B.C.  Its  enormous  fragments  con- 
tinued to  excite  wonder  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  and  were  not  removed 
till  656  A.D.,  when  Rhodes  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  who  sold 
the  remains  for  old  metal  to  a  dealer  who  employed  nine  hundred 
camels  to  carry  them  away.  Besides  this  not  less  than  three 
thousand  statues  are  said  to  have  adorned  the  city,  which  was  said 
by  Strabo  to  surpass  all  others  in  beauty  and  ornamental  character. 
Being  the  sovereigns  of  the  seas,  the  Rhodians  by  their  fleets  ren- 
dered good  service  to  Rome,  with  whom  they  were  in  alliance,  and 
retained  their  independence  for  a  long  time.  The  severest  blow 
they  suffered  was  from  Cassius  in  42  B.C.,  who  plundered  the  island 
even  to  the  bare  temple  walls  in  the  nominal  cause  of  liberty,  for  it 
Lad  embraced  the  side  of  Caesar.  Under  the  empire  the  liberty  of 
Rhodes  was  repeatedly  permitted  and  withdrawn  according  to  the 
caprice  of  the  sovereign  ;  but  ultimately  it  became  a  part  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and,  after  its  partition,  of  the  Eastern,  till  616 
A.D.,  when  Chosroes  the  Persian  obtained  possession  of  it  for  a 
short  time.  It  was  subsequently  conquered  by  Moawiyah,  one 
of  Othman's  generals  ;  but,  recovered  by  the  Byzantine  empire,  it 
proved  the  last  of  their  Asiatic  possessions  that  succumbed  to  the 
infidel.  In  1308  it  was  granted  by  the  emperor  Emmanuel  to  the 
Knights  of  St  John,  who  soon  after  resisted  a  siege  by  the  sultan 
Othman.  They  strengthened  the  natural  advantages  of  the  place 
by  skilful  fortifications,  and  by  discipline  and  equipments  made 
themselves  nearly  a  match  for  the  superior  numbers  of  the  Turks. 
Nor  did  the  knights  restrict  their  efforts  to  self-defence  ;  they 
conquered  Smyrna,  and  established  an  outpost  there  in  1344,  and 
at  a  later  period  formed  a  league  against  the  common  enemy  of 
Christendom.  But  in  1 401  Smyrna  was  taken  by  Timur  ;  in 
1480  Mohammed  II.  besieged  Rhodes  with  a  vast  train  of  artillery; 
and,  though  then  averted  by  the  courage  of  its  few  defenders,  the 
downfall  of  the  place  could  not  long  be  delayed.  The  last  and 
most  famous  siege  of  Rhodes  took  place  in  1522,  when,  after  a 
desperate  resistance  for  four  months  to  the  overwhelming  numbers 
of  the  Ottomans,  the  knights,  being  left  unassisted  by  all  the 
European  powers,  capitulated  on  honourable  terms,  and  evacuated 
the  island.  On  the  first  day  of  1523  iVilliers  de  Lisle  Adam,  the 
grandmaster,  embarked  the  last  of  the  small  band,  carrying  away 
all  the  property  of  the  order,  and  leaving  the  ruins  of  their  city  to 
the  enemy.  The  knights  subsequently  settled  in  Malta,  where 
they  also  gained  great  renown.  Rhodes  has  since  been  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Turks,  and  is  now  the  residence  of  the  pasha  of  the 
Archipelago,  The  sites  of  Lindus,  lalysus,  and  Camirus,  which  in 
the  most  ancient  times  were  the  principal  towns  of  the  island,  are 
clearly  marked,  and  the  first  of  the  three  is  still  occupied  by  a 
small  town  with  a  mediaeval  castle,  both  of  them  dating  from  the 
time  of  the  knights,  though  the  castle  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  acropolis,  of  the  walls  of  which  considerable  remains  are 
still  visible.  There  are  no  ruins  of  any  importance  on  the  site  of 
either  lalysus  or  Camirus,  but  excavations  at  the  latter  place  have 
produced  valuable  and  interesting  results  in  the  way  of  ancient 
vases  and  other  antiquities,  which  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  population  of  the  island  is  estimated  at  about  27,000,  of 
whom  6000  are  Turks,  3000  Jews,  and  the  remainder  Greeks.  Of 
these  nearly  20,000  are  cortained  in  the  city  and  its  suburbs  ; 
the  rest  of  the  island  is  very  thinly  peopled,  though  numerous 
small  villages  are  scattered  over  its  whole  extent. 

A  large  mass  of  matter  relating  to  the  ancient  history  and  institutions  of  Rhodes 
are  collected  by  Meursius  in  his  dissertation  (Opera,  vol.  iii.)i  the  present  con- 
dition of  the  island,  and  the  objects  of  interest  still  visible  there,  are  fully 
described  by  Ross  (Reisen  avf  den  Griechischen,  Inseln,  vol.  iii.,  Stuttgart,  1840) 
and  Newton  (Travels  and  Discoveries  in  the  Levant,  vol.  i.,  London,  1865).  The 
inscriptions  that  have  been  discovered  there,  which  are  very  numerous,  have  un- 
fortunately been  published  in  a  very  irregular  manner,  and  are  scattered  through 
a  number  of  works,  many  of  them  not  easy  of  access.  By  far  the  most  com- 
plete collection  of  all  that  relates  to  the  ancient  condition  of  the  island,  as  wrll 
as  its  history  and  antiquities,  will  be  found  in  a  treatise  by  Mr  C.  Torr,  entitled 
Rhodes  in  Ancient  Times,  which  is  passing  through  the  Cambridge  University 
Press  while  this  article  has  been  in  preparation.  (K.  H.  B.) 

RHODIUM.     See  PLATINUM. 

RHODODENDRON.  Classical  writers,  such  as  Dios- 
corides  and  Pliny,  seem,  from  what  can  be  ascertained,  to 
have  called  the  oleander  (Nerium  Oleander}  by  this  name, 
but  in  modern  usage  it  is  applied  to  a  large  genus  of 
shrubs  and  trees  belonging  to  the  order  of  heaths 
(Ericaceae).  No  adequate  distinction  can  be  drawn  be- 
tween this  genus  and  Azalea, — the  proposed  marks  of  dis- 
tinction, however  applicable  in  particular  cases,  breaking 
down  when  tested  more  generally.  The  rhododendrons, 


R  H  0  —  R  H  0 


527 


then,  are  trees  or  shrubs,  never  herbs,  with  simple,  ever- 
green or  deciduous  leaves,  and  flowers  in  terminal  clusters 
surrounded  in  the  bud  by  bud-scales  but  not  as  a  rule  by 
true  leaves.  The  flowers  are  remarkable  for  the  frequent 
absence  or  reduced  condition  of  the  calyx.  The  funnel-  or 
bell-shaped  corolla,  on  the  other  hand,  with  its  five  or 
more  lobes,  is  usually  conspicuous,  and  in  some  species  so 
much  so  as  to  render  these  plants  greatly  prized  in  gardens. 
The  free  stamens  are  usually  ten,  with  slender  filaments 
and  anthers  opening  by  pores  at  the  top.  The  ovary  is 
five-  or  many-celled,  ripening  into  a  long  woody  pod  which 
splits  from  top  to  bottom  by  a  number  of  valves,  which 
break  away  from  the  central  placenta  and  liberate  a  large 
number  of  small  bran-like  seeds  provided  with  a  mem- 
branous wing-like  appendage  at  each  end.  The  species 
are  for  the  most  part  natives  of  the  mountainous  regions 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  extending  as  far  south  as  the 
Malay  Archipelago  and  New  Guinea,  but  not  hitherto 
found  in  South  America  or  Australia.  None  are  natives 
of  Britain.  They  vary  greatly  in  stature,  some  of  the 
alpine  species  being  mere  pigmies  with  minute  leaves  and 
tiny  blossoms,  while  some  of  the  Himalayan  species  are 
moderate  sized  trees  with  superb  flowers.  Some  are  epi- 
phytal, growing  on  the  branches  of  other  trees,  but  not 
deriving  their  sustenance  from  them.  The  varieties  grown 
in  gardens  are  mostly  derived  from  the  Pontic  species  (R. 
ponticum)  and  the  Virginian  _/?.  catawbiense.  These  are 
mostly  hardy  in  England.  The  common  Pontic  variety  is 
excellent  for  game-covert  from  its  hardiness,  the  shelter  it 
affords,  and  the  fact  that  hares  and  rabbits  rarely  eat  it. 
Variety  of  colour  has  been  infused  by  crossing  or  hybridiz- 
ing the  species  first-named,  or  their  derivatives,  with  some 
of  the  more  gorgeously-coloured  Indian  varieties.  In  many 
instances  this  has  been  done  without  sacrifice  of  hardihood, 
but  even  where  the  infusion  of  Indian  blood  has  brought 
about  a  tenderness  of  constitution  the  magnificence  of  the 
bloom  amply  repays  the  very  slight  shelter  which  is  re- 
quisite in  winter. 

What  are  termed  greenhouse  rhododendrons  are  derivatives  from 
certain  Malayan  and  Javanese  species,  and  are  consequently  much 
more  tender.  They  are  characterized  by  the  possession  of  a 
cylindrical  (not  funnel-shaped)  flower-tube  and  other  marks  of  dis- 
tinction. Azaleas  now  referred  to  Rhododendron  are  derived  from 
Chinese  and  Japanese  species  chiefly.  The  "  Indian  "  azaleas,  so- 
called,  have  nearly  evergreen  foliage  like  a  rhododendron,  but 
with  stiff  hairs  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  the  flower-buds 
comprise  leaves  and  not  bud-scales  only  as  in  true  rhododendrons. 
Rhododendron  (Azalea)  indicum  is  truly  a  native  of  China  and 
Japan,  but  not  of  India.  What  are  called  in  gardens  Ghent  azaleas 
are  hardy  varieties  with  deciduous  gummy  foliage  and  tufts  of 
fragrant,  brilliantly-coloured  flowers.  These  are  derivatives  from 
A.  calendulacea,  A.  viscosa,  and  other  north-east  American  species. 
Another  group  of  garden  azaleas  are  derivatives  from  Rhododendron 
(Azalea)  sincnse  (of  which  R.  mollis  is  a  form).  These  are  scarcely 
less  hardy  than  the  preceding.  Azalea  amcena  of  gardens  is  a 
dwarf  form  of  R.  indicum,  remarkable  for  having  "  hose  in  hose  " 
flowers,  a  state  of  things  brought  about  by  the  fact  that  the  calyx 
in  this  variety  becomes  petaloid  like  the  corolla.  The  foliage  of 
rhododendrons  contains  much  tannin,  and  has  been  used  medicin- 
ally. Whether  the  honey  mentioned  by  Xenophon  as  poisonous 
was  really  derived  from  plants  of  this  genus  as  alleged  is  still  an 
open  question. 

RHONE  (Fr.  Rhone),  the  largest  European  river  flow- 
ing directly  into  the  Mediterranean,  rises  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Valais,  passes  through  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  strikes 
across  the  line  of  the  Jura,  and  turning  southward  through 
France  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Lyons.  It  has  a  length  of 
447  miles  according  to  Strelbitzky  (505  according  to  other 
authorities),  and  its  principal  affluent  the  Saone  has  a 
length  of  268  miles  above  the  confluence,  which  is  200 
miles  inland.  The  drainage  area  of  the  whole  river- 
system  is  38,000  square  miles,  and  the  mean  discharge  at 
the  river  mouth  is  60,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  maxi- 
mum being  428,840  cubic  feet  and  the  minimum  19,426. 


The  natives  give  the  name  of  source  of  the  Rhone  (locally 
Rotten  or  Rodden)  to  three  warm  springs  that  rise  in  a 
circular  stone  basin  near  the  Hotel  du  Glacier  du  Rhone ; 
but  the  real  beginning  of  the  river  is  the  well-known 
glacier.  According  to  M.  Gosset,1  a  Swiss  engineer,  the 
Rhone  glacier,  which  at  present  measures  about  9  miles 
in  length  by  about  3200  feet  in  width,  is  proved  to  have 
retreated  3028  feet  between  1856  and  1881  and  sunk 
upwards  of  300  feet.  In  geological  time  the  Rhone  glacier 
filled  the  whole  valley  to  a  depth  of  4800  feet  and 
spread  out  over  the  Swiss  plain  now  partly  occupied  by 
the  Lake  of  Geneva.  Obstructed  by  the  Jura,  it  divided 
into  two  branches,  one  of  which  found  its  way  (as  the 
river  does  still)  by  the  "  ecluse "  between  the  Jura  and 
the  western  Alps  to  deposit  its  erratic  blocks  on  the 
heights  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lyons,  while  the  other 
branch,  bending  northward,  widened  out  so  as  to  distribute 
its  burden  at  Freiburg,  Bern,  Soleure,  and  even  Aarburg.2 
In  the  first  30  miles  from  the  foot  of  the  glacier  (5751 
feet)  to  Brieg  (2214  feet)  the  stream  has  a  fall  of  1  in 
46  ;  in  the  next  70  miles  to  Villeneuve  it  descends  at  the 
rate  of  1  in  378.3  It  passes  between  the  Bernese  and  the 
Pennine  Alps,  receiving  the  tribute  of  260  glaciers,  of  which 
the  Aletsch  is  one  of  the  most  important.  At  Martigny, 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Drance  (a  glacier-fed  stream 
memorable  for  the  terrible  inundation  of  1818  caused  by 
the  sudden  bursting  of  the  ice  barrier  by  which  its  waters 
had  been  dammed  back),  the  Rhone  turns  suddenly  north- 
west, and  below  the  defile  of  St  Maurice  (about  90  miles 
from  its  source)  it  enters  the  wide  alluvial  plain  formerly 
occupied  by  the  south-eastern  arm  of  the  Lake  of  GENEVA 
(q.v.),  which  has  now  retreated  about  12  miles  northward. 
The  limpid  character  of  the  Rhone  water  as  it  issues  from 
the  south-western  end  of  this  great  settling  vat  has  become 
a  commonplace  of  geographical  illustration,  and  equally 
well-known  is  the  contrast  afforded  at  the  confluence 
about  a  mile  below  Geneva  between  the  current  of  the 
main  river  and  that  of  its  turbulent  affluent  the  Arve, 
which  has  found  no  resting  place  in  its  2000  feet  descent 
by  a  course  of  60  miles  from  the  valley  of  Charnouni  and 
the  glaciers  of  Mont  Blanc.  It  is  the  Arve  that  is 
mainly  responsible  for  the  dangerous  inundations  of  the 
Rhone  valley  farther  down ;  while  its  volume  is  sometimes 
not  more  than  1235  per  second,4  at  other  times  it  pours  into 
the  Rhone  (whose  maximum  at  this  point  is  2000  cubic 
feet)  no  less  than  24,700  cubic  feet,  sometimes  causing  the 
river  to  flow  backwards  towards  the  Lake  of  Geneva.5  To 
obviate  the  evils  of  their  irregularity  it  has  been  proposed 
to  divert  the  lower  course  of  the  Arve  into  the  Lake  of 
Geneva.  The  annual  maximum  of  the  Rhone  at  Geneva, 
according  to  observations  between  1806  and  1880,  occurs 
on  the  7th  of  August.  Since  1862  there  has  been  an 
increase  of  high  levels  owing  to  the  dyking  of  the  river 
and  the  destruction  of  forests  (see  Plantamour,  "Obs. 
limniinetriques,"  in  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  de  Geneve,  1880). 
The  defile  or  "  ecluse "  by  which  the  Rhone  passes 
between  Grand  Credo,  the  terminal  bastion  of  the  Jura, 
and  Mont  Vouache,  one  of  the  Alps  of  Savoy,  is  com- 
manded by  one  of  the  great  frontier  fortresses  of  France, 

1  A  sketch  of  M.  Gosset's  remarkable  labours  is  given  in  the  Alpine 
Journal,  1878-80. 

2  See  Falsan  and  Chantre,  Monographic  geologique  des  anciens  glaciers 
et  du  terrain  erratique  de   la  partie  moyenne  du  bassin  du  RMne, 
1880.     See  also  the  map  illustrating  Auguste  Jaccard's  paper  in  Bull, 
de  la  Soc.  Vaudoise,  Feb.  1885. 

3  A  large-scale  profile  of  the  upper  Rhone  accompanies  Gerlach's 
paper  "  Die  Penniuischen  Alpen"  in  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  Helv.,  1869. 

4  Professors  Paul  Chaix  and  Plantamour,  on  one  occasion  in  March, 
found  the  volume  of  the  Arve  as  low  as  812  cubic  feet  per  second,  and 
that  of  the  Rhone  1612. 

B  See  the  annual  Observations  hydrometriques  suisses  sur  le  bassin 
du  Rh6ne  issued  by  the  Bureau  federal  des  travaux  publics. 


RHONE 


Fort  de  1'F.cluse.  About  5  J  miles  farther  down  occurs  the 
famous  Perte  du  Rhone,  a  "partially  subterranean  passage, 
now  considerably  modified  by  blasting. 

"  The  rocks  forming  the  funnel  come  so  close  at  one  place  that 
there  is  only  a  distance  of  about  two  feet  from  bank  to  bank,  and  a 
man  of  moderate  height  could  stand  with  one  foot  on  the  French 
side  and  the  other  on  the  Savoy  side  and  sec  between  the  beautiful 
river  trembling  as  it  were  with  rage  and  hastening  to  escape  from 
the  defile  through  which  it  is  doomed  to  pass.  A  little  way  farther 
down  the  river  has  hollowed  out  a  passage  about  30  feet  wide,  which 
retains  this  width  for  a  depth  of  from  30  to  35  feet,  when  it  con- 
tracts considerably.  At  this  depth  a  stratum  of  harder  rock  has 
resisted  the  action  of  the  water,  which,  however,  has  scooped  out 
beneath  it  almost  as  much  as  above  it.  Along  each  side  of  the 
ravine  the  harder  rock  projects  for  eight  or  ten  feet  like  a  cornice. 
At  first  the  water  is  seen  through  the  opening  down  the  middle  ; 
but  farther  on  great  masses  of  rock  from  the  walls  of  the  ravine 
have  fallen  down,  and,  resting  on  the  double  cornice,  conceal  the 
river  for  a  distance  of  some  60  paces."1 

During  the  summer  floods  the  water  filled  the  ravine 
far  above  the  level  of  the  fallen  blocks,  and  the  Perte 
du  Rh6ne  was  no  longer  visible.2  The  rocks  through 
which  the  "  perte "  is  cut  belong  to  the  Urgonian  sub- 
division of  the  Cretaceous  system, — the  stratum  which  has 
been  hollowed  out  being  described  as  calcaire  gris.  Just 
below  the  ravine  the  Rhone  is  joined  by  the  Valserine, 
which  a  little  above  Bellegarde  passes  through  a  "  perte  " 
of  a  similar  character.  Since  1871  the  motive  power  of 
the  main  river  has  been  utilized  for  the  industries  of  Belle- 
garde  ;  a  large  tunnel  20  feet  high  and  more  than  half  a 
kilometre  long  brings  the  water  from  the  south  side  of  the 
perte  to  turbine  wheels  placed  in  the  bed  of  the  Valserine, 
and  wire  ropes  transmit  the  power  to  the  Bellegarde 
workshops  on  the  plateau  400  feet  above.3  Below  Belle- 
garde  the  river  is  deflected  southwards  by  the  western 
chain  of  the  Jura.  It  receives  from  the  left  the  Usses, 
the  Fiar  (which  drains  the  lake  of  Annecy),  and  the 
emissary  of  the  Lake  of  Bourget,  the  largest  of  the  purely 
French  lakes,  and  then  at  the  junction  of  the  Guiers  (from 
the  Grande  Chartreuse)  it  turns  north-west  round  the 
southern  end  of  the  Jura.  The  Ain  (118  miles  long), 
which  joins  it  from  the  right,  is  navigable  in  the  direction 
of  the  current,  and  in  its  upper  waters  has  a  "  perte "  of 
some  interest.  Farther  down  the  main  river  meanders 
for  a  time  with  shifting  channels  in  a  bed  about  two 
miles  broad,  but  it  gathers  into  a  single  stream  before 
its  junction  with  the  Saone.  This  important  confluent 
(the  ancient  Arar,  which  according  to  Caesar  flows 
"  incredibili  lenitate ")  has  its  source  at  Viomenil  in  the 
Vosges  1300  feet  above  the  sea,  and  has  been  joined  by 
the  Doubs,  which,  rising  in  the  district  between  the  Jura 
and  the  Vosges,  is  famous  for  the  beauty  of  its  upper 
gorges  and  for  the  waterfall  (70  feet)  known  as  the  Saut 
du  Doubs.4  Southwards  from  Lyons,  where  it  is  530  feet 
above  the  sea,  the  united  river  continues  to  be  still  the 
"arrowy  Rhone";  in  the  61  miles  from  the  Saone 
mouth  to  the  Ise>e  it  falls  180  feet,  in  the  18  from  the 
Isere  to  the  Drome  56  feet,  in  the  38  from  the  Drome  to 
the  Ardeche  164,  and  in  the  34  from  the  Ardeche  to  the 
Durance  88£.  Those  affluents,  all  except  the  last  from 
the  Savoy  and  Maritime  Alps,  are  in  general  of  little 
importance,  but  at  times  become  formidable  torrents. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  much  shorter  streams  which  bring 
down  the  waters  from  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cevennes. 
During  the  inundation  of  the  10th  September  1857,  which 
has  been  frequently  exceeded,  the  three  streams  the  Doux, 

1  De  Saussure,  Voyage  dans  les  Alpes  (1780-1796),  ii.  90  sq. 

a  See  the  elaborate  papers,  with  maps  and  sections,  by  Renevier  in 
Mtm.  de  la  Soc.  HeMtique,  1855  ("  Mem.  Geol.  sur  la  Perte  du  Rhone 
et  sea  environs"),  and  in  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Qeologique,  1874-5,  3d  ser. 
vol.  iii. 

3  See  Reclus,  Nouv.  Qeogr.  Univ.,  "La  France,"  p.  215. 

4  See  "La  Saut  du  Doubs,"  in  Tour  du  Monde,  1880. 


the  firieux,  and  the  Ardeche  poured  into  the  Rhone 
49,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  Fourques  d'Arles,  25 
miles  from  the  sea,  the  river  begins  to  form  its  delta, 
breaking  up  into  two  main  branches,  the  Grand  Rhone 
passing  from  Aries  south-east  towards  the  Gulf  of  Fos, 
and  the  Petit  Rhone  south-west  towards  the  Little  Cam- 
argue.  With  all  its  rapidity  of  current  and  mass  of  waters 
it  is  not  able  to  keep  a  clear  passage  to  the  sea  through 
its  own  alluvium,  which,  according  to  M.  Reclus's  estimate, 
has  since  the  Gallo-Roman  period  added  from  75  to  100 
square  miles  to  the  area  of  its  delta. 

From  the  time  that  Alarms  caused  his  soldiers  to  excavate  the 
Fossae  Marianse  which  have  left  the  name  of  Fos  to  the  bay  already 
mentioned  the  endeavour  to  maintain  a  navigable  channel  inland 
from  the  sea  has  perplexed  successive  generations.  Vauban 
himself  declared  "  Les  embouchures  du  Rh6ne  sont  incorrigibles. " 
The  method  of  contracting  and  embanking  a  principal  channel 
right  out  to  sea  failed,  either  because  the  embankments  were 
not  carried  out  far  enough,  or  more  probably  because  the  tides 
of  the  Mediterranean  are  not  sufficiently  strong  to  aid  in  removing 
the  alluvium.  A  canal  constructed  in  1802-1832  from  Aries 
to  Bouc  (on  the  east  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Fos)  proved  too  shallow 
for  the  new  steam  traffic.  At  length  in  1863  a  scheme  brought 
forward  by  Hippolyte  Pent  in  1846  was  adopted  for  the  making 
of  a  canal,  11,480  feet  long,  210  feet  wide  and  19£  feet  deep 
at  low  tide,  from  Tour  St  Louis  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Grand 
Rhone  to  the  Anse  de  Repos  in  the  Gulf  of  Fos.  The  canal  was 
completed  in  1871,  and  the  quays  of  the  port  of  St  Louis  by  the 
close  of  1878,  at  a  cost  of  26,000,000  francs.  Hostile  critics  main- 
tain that  it  will  be  possible  to  keep  this  channel  open  at  the 
seaward  end  only  by  continual  and  costly  dredging,  but  hitherto 
their  fears  seem  exaggerated.  The  new  port  has  been  very  success- 
ful, 1261  vessels  (313,745  tons)  entering  in  1881  and  23i7  vessels 
(448,757  tons)  in  1882.  The  regulation  of  the  river  itself  is  still 
a  problem.  The  rapidity  of  the  current  from  Lyons  downwards, 
the  extremely  shifting  character  of  the  channel,  and  the  varia- 
tions that  take  place  in  the  volume  of  water  are  the  great  obstacles 
to  be  overcome.  Two  months  of  the  year  are  lost  for  navigation 
through  floods  or  lack  of  water  or  fogs  or  ice.  At  present  (1885) 
a  scheme  combining  the  two  systems  of  regularization  and  canaliza- 
tion is  being  carried  out  for  the  purpose  of  securing  everywhere 
at  low  water  a  depth  of  5  feet  3  inches. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  even  passenger  boats 
used  to  be  hauled  up  the  river  by  towing  ropes,  and  when  steam 
was  introduced  it  was  found  that  the  vessels  had  to  be  specially 
constructed  to  make  head  against  the  current.  The  laying  of  a 
continuous  chain  all  the  way  from  Lyons  to  Aries  is  impracticable 
through  the  shifting  character  of  the  bed  ;  but  several  methods 
have  been  adopted  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  the  ascent.  Thus 
some  boats  advance  by  means  of  long  jointed  levers  which  catch 
into  the  ground.  Or  a  steel  wire  cable  with  one  of  its  ends  fixed  at 
a  given  spot  is  unwound  as  a  steam  tug  descends  the  stream  and 
then  the  tug  with  its  convoy  of  boats  makes  its  way  up  again  by 
simply  winding  in.  Or  two  tugs  are  employed,  the  first  going  in 
advance  of  the  other  so  far  that  the  cable  which  it  pays  out  takes 
a  sufficient  hold  of  the  bottom  to  enable  the  second  to  haul  by  it. 
Or,  lastly,  Dupuy  de  Lome's  system  is  adopted,  by  which  the 
boat  grips  the  river  bottom  by  means  of  two  continuous  chains 
perpetually  sunk  in  front  and  emerging  behind.  The  SaSne  is 
much  more  easily  dealt  with  than  the  Rhone.  It  is  navigable  as 
far  up  as  Port-sur-Sa6ne,  and  a  system  of  movable  dams  and  sluices 
has  been  established  to  secure  a  depth  of  6  to  7  feet  at  low  water. 

The  basin  of  the  Rhone  communicates  with  the  Loire  by  the 
Canal  du  Centre  (joining  the  SaSne  at  Chalons),  with  the  Seine  by  the 
Burgundy  Canal  (joining  the  Saone  at  St  Jean  de  Losne),  with  the 
Rhine  by  a  canal  (1783-1834)  which  passes  from  the  Saone  at  Saint 
Symphorien  to  the  Doubs,  and  finally  ends  at  Strasburg,  and  with 
the  Meuse  and  the  Belgian  system  by  a  canal  (Canal  de  1'Est) 
constructed  since  1875  from  the  Saone  to  the  Moselle. 

See  Boisscl,  Voy.  pitt.  et  navigation  executee  *«;•  unepartie  du  Rhdne  reptite'e 
non-navigable,  1795,  and  works  on  the  river  by  Hippolyte  Pent  (184C),  Snrell 
(1847),  Desjardins  (1866),  Adrian  German  (1872),  and  De  la  Rochette.  Also 
Lentheric,  Let  villes  morles  du  Oolfe  de  Lyon,  1875,  and  a  paper  in  Rev.  tics  Deux 
tfoncles,18$0;  Blerzy,  Torrent t,fleuve»,et  canauxde  la  France,  1878.  (H.  A.  W.) 

RHONE,  a  department  of  south-eastern  France,  deriv- 
ing its  name  from  the  great  river  on  which  Lyons,  its  chief 
town,  is  situated,  was  formed  in  1793  from  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  department  Rh6ne-et-Loire,  comprising  parts  of 
Lyonnais  and  Beaujolais.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Saone-et-Loire,  on  the  E.  by  Ain  and  by  Isere,  on  the  S. 
and  W.  by  Loire,  and  lies  between  45°  27'  and  46°  18' 
N.  lat.  and  4°  15'  and  4°  53'  E.  long.  The  Saone  and  the 
Rhone,  each  for  a  distance  of  26  miles,  form  its  natural 


R  H  U  —  K  H  U 


529 


boundary  on  the  east.  The  department  belongs  almost 
entirely  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhone,  to  which  it  sends  its 
waters  by  the  Saone  and  its  tributary  the  Azergues,  and 
by  the  Gier.  The  watershed  between  the  Rhone  and  the 
Loire  rises  to  the  west  of  the  department,  and  from  north 
to  south  forms  four  successive  groups— the  Beaujolais 
Mountains,  the  highest  peak  of  which  is  3320  feet;  the 
Tarare  group  ;  the  Lyonnais  Mountains  (nearly  3000  feet) ; 
and  Mont  Pilat,  the  highest  peak  of  which  belongs  to  the 
department  of  Loire.  The  lowest  point  of  the  department, 
where  it  is  left  by  the  Rhone,  is  460  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  meteorological  conditions  vary  greatly 
with  the  elevation  and  exposure.  Snow  sometimes  lies  in 
the  mountains  from  November  to  April,  whilst  at  Lyons 
and  in  the  valleys  the  mean  temperature  in  winter  is  36° 
Fahr.,  and  in  summer  70°,  the  annual  mean  being  53°. 
The  average  rainfall  is  somewhat  higher  than  is  general 
over  France  owing  to  the  amount  of  the  precipitation  on 
the  hilly  region. 

Of  a  total  area  of  689,545  acres,  286,000  are  arable,  120,000  are 
pasture  meadow  land,  79,000  under  vines,  79,000  wood,  and  66,000 
moorland.  From  1874  to  1883  the  average  annual  harvests 
yielded  253,869  quarters  of  wheat,  7509  of  meslin,  114,468  of  rye, 
3035  of  barley,  and  98,803  of  oats.  In  1883  there  were  pro- 
duced 5,390,000  bushels  of  potatoes,  106,650  bushels  of  buck- 
wheat, 41,320  tons  of  beetroot,  12  of  hemp  seed,  and  83  of  hemp. 
Between  1874  and  1883  the  average  annual  yield  of  the  vines  was 
16,533,956  gallons  of  wine;  in  1883  it  was  only  11,918,084.  In 
1881  the  live  stock  numbered  12,350  horses,  2000  asses,  600  mules, 
9000  oxen  or  bulls,  65,000  cows,  12,500  calves,  49,000  sheep  (pro- 
ducing 110  tons  of  wool),  16,000  pigs,  36,000  goats,  8000  bee- 
hives (producing  48  tons  of  honey  and  16  tons  of  wax) ;  78  cwts. 
of  cocoons  were  produced  in  1882,  while  in  1883  there  were  only  47 
cwts.  The  soil  of  the  department  is  for  the  most  part  stony  and 
only  moderately  fertile.  Fruit  trees,  such  as  peaches,  apricots, 
walnuts,  and  chestnuts,  grow  well,  but  the  wood  in  general  is  little 
more  than  copse  and  brushwood.  The  wealth  of  the  department  is 
mainly  derived  from  its  industries.  Its  transactions  with  the  Bank 
of  France  at  Lyons  in  1882  amounted  to  £30,398,960— a  figure 
only  exceeded  by  the  departments  Seine  and  Nord.  The  popula- 
tion is  principally  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  chemicals, 
of  machinery,  and  of  silk.  In  1881  324  factories,  with  18,500 
spindles,  700  power-looms,  and  43,000  hand-looms,  were  employed 
in  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  silk;  58  works,  with  35,800  hack- 
ling and  reeling  machines,  in  the  preparation  of  the  raw 
material ;  7  works,  with  450  spindles,  230  power-looms,  and  1250 
hand-looms,  in  the  manufacture  of  mixed  goods,  and  800  looms  in 
the  manufacture  of  lace  ;  80  dyeworks  employ  4000  workmen.  In 
1879  it  was  calculated  that  the  turnover  for  silk  articles  amounted 
to  £15,000,000  (£5,000,000  for  labour  and  £10,000,000  for  the  raw 
material).  LYONS  (q.v. )  is  the  centre  for  the  silk  manufacture  and 
Tarare  for  that  of  muslins,  velvets,  plush,  calicoes,  and  prints,  there 
being  26  factories,  with  33, 000  spindles,  540  power-looms,  4800  hand- 
looms  ;  2000  workmen  are  also  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
counterpanes.  In  1882  88,115  tons  of  iron  were  produced.  The 
chief  workshops  for  repairing  the  locomotives  of  the  Paris,  Lyons,  and 
Mediterranean  line  are  in  this  department.  There  are  also  foundries 
of  copper,  bronze,  and  bell-metal,  as  also  gold,  silver,  and  steel  wire 
works.  The  manufacture  of  gold  and  silver  plate  and  jewellery  has 
an  annual  turnover  of  £320,000,  that  of  edible  pastes  amounts  to 
£480,000,  and  that  of  paper  to  £54,000.  The  manufacture  of 
wall  papers  is  only  second  to  that  of  Paris.  In  addition  there  are 
15  chemical  works.  8  glass  works  employing  1000  workmen  with  a 
turnover  of  £190,000  in  1879,  9  candle  works  (£268,800),  12  soap 
works  (£102,200),  and  700  mills.  In  1881  there  were  in  the 
department  1448  industrial  establishments,  employing  1558  steam 
engines  with  an  aggregate  horse  power  of  13,077.  Coal  and 
anthracite  are  found  (36,169  tons  in  1882),  as  well  as  argentiferous 
lead,  manganese,  and  copper  pyrites  ;  there  are  also  large  stone 
quarries.  The  cold  mineral  spring  of  Charbonniere,  containing 
bicarbonates,  iron,  and  sulphur,  is  19  miles  west  of  Lyons.  The 
means  of  communication  include  76  miles  of  navigable  river,  5  of 
canal  (the  canal  of  Givors),  141  miles  of  Government  road,  3685 
miles  of  other  roads,  and  165  miles  of  railway  connecting,  Lyons 
with  Paris,  with  Koanne  by  Tarare,  with  Montbrison,  St  Etienne, 
Nimes,  Marseilles,  Grenoble,  Chambery,  Geneva,  Bourg,  and 
Trevoux,  Beaujeu  with  Belleville  (on  the  Lyons  and  Macon  line), 
and  Thizy  with  Cours  (two  manufacturing  towns  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Tarare  on  the  line  from  Lyons  to  Roanne).  The  popula- 
tion, which  owing  to  the  development  of  industries  has  doubled 
since  1801,  was  741,470  in  1881—266  per  square  kilometre,  the 
average  in  France  being  71.  There  are  two  arrondissements,  Lyons 


and  Villefranche,  29  cantons,  and  264  communes.  Rhcme  belongs 
to  the  diocese  of  Lyons,  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  superior 
court  of  Lyons,  and  is  divided  between  the  corps  d'armee  of 
Clermont  and  of  Grenoble.  The  chief  towns  are  LYONS  (?.».); 
Tarare  (13,352);  Villeurbane  (11,176);  Caluire-et-Cuire  (9740) 
and  Oullins  (7536),  suburbs  of  Lyons;  Givors  (11,470),  a  stirring 
town  on  the  Rhone,  at  the  junction  of  the  canal  by  which  coal  is 
brought  from  St  Etienne  to  the  Rhone,  with  glass  works,  blast 
furnaces,  foundries,  brick  and  tile  works,  and  potteries  ;  Amplepius 
(7118) ;  and  Cours  (6929). 

RHUBARB.  This  name  is  applied  both  to  a  drug  and 
to  a  vegetable. 

1.  The  drug  has  been  used  in  medicine  from  very  early 
times,  being  described  in  the  Chinese  herbal  Pen-king, 
which  is  believed  to  date  from  2700  B.C.  The  name  seems 
to  be  a  corruption  of  RJieum  barbarum  or  Reu  barbarum,  a 
designation  applied  to  the  drug  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the 
6th  century,  and  apparently  identical  with  the  pyov  or  pa 
of  Dioscorides,  described  by  him  as  a  root  brought  from 
beyond  the  Bosphorus.  Rha  is  said  by  Ammianus  Mar- 
cellinus  to  take  its  name  from  the  river  Rha  (Volga),  on 
the  banks  of  which  a  species  of  Rheum  (R.  Rhaponticum) 
grows.  It  is  not,  however,  known  whether  the  root  of 
this  species  was  the  article  used  under  the  name  of  Rha 
ponticum  or  Rha  barbarum,  or  whether  these  names  were 
applied  to  the  drug  brought  overland  from  China  by  way 
of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  in  the 
early  part  of  the  llth  century  Chinese  rhubarb  was  dis- 
tinguished as  superior  to  the  Rha  barbarum.  In  the 
14th  century  rhubarb  appears  to  have  found  its  way  to 
Europe  by  way  of  the  Indus  and  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Red 
Sea  and  Alexandria,  and  was  therefore  described  as  "  East 
Indian  "  rhubarb.  Some  also  came  by  way  of  Persia  and 
the  Caspian  to  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and  reached  Europe 
from  the  ports  of  Aleppo  and  Smyrna,  and  became  known 
as  "Turkey"  rhubarb.  Subsequently  to  the  year  1653, 
when  China  first  permitted  Russia  to  trade  on  her  fron- 
tiers, Chinese  rhubarb  reached  Europe  chiefly  by  way  of 
Moscow;  and  in  1704  the  rhubarb  trade  became  a  mono- 
poly of  the  Russian  Government,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  term  "Russian"  or  "crown"  rhubarb  came  to  be 
applied  to  it.  Urga  was  the  great  dep6t  for  the  rhubarb 
trade  in  1719,  but  in  1728  the  dep6t  was  transferred  to 
Kiachta.  All  rhubarb  brought  to  the  depot  passed  through 
the  hands  of  the  Government  inspector,  acting  under  the 
instructions  of  the  Russian  minister  of  war,  and  all  pieces 
except  those  of  good  quality  were  rejected.  Hence  Russian 
rhubarb  was  invariably  good  and  obtained  a  remarkably 
high  price.  This  severe  supervision  naturally  led,  as 
soon  as  the  northern  Chinese  ports  were  thrown  open  to 
European  trade,  to  a  new  outlet  being  sought ;  and  the 
increased  demand  for  the  drug  at  these  ports  resulted  in 
less  care  being  exercised  by  the  Chinese  in  the  collection 
and  curing  of  the  root,  so  that  the  rhubarb  of  good  quality 
offered  at  Kiachta  rapidly  dwindled  in  quantity,  and  after 
1860  Russian  rhubarb  ceased  to  appear  in  European 
commerce.  The  drug  from  that  date  became  known 
as  Chinese  rhubarb,  although  the  older  names  still  con- 
tinue in  domestic  use  in  England.  '  Owing  to  the  expense 
of  carrying  the  drug  across  the  whole  breadth  of  Asia  and 
the  difficulty  of  preserving  it  from  the  attacks  of  insects, 
rhubarb  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  costly  of  drugs.  In 
1542  it  was  sold  in  France  for  ten  times  the  price  of  cin- 
namon and  four  times  that  of  saffron,  and  in  an  English 
price  list  bearing  date  of  1657  it  is  quoted  at  16s.  per  Ib, 
opium  being  at  that  time  only  6s.  and  scammony  12s. 
per  Ib. 

Rhubarb  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  mild  purgative  and 
cholagogue,  promoting  digestion  and  improving  the  appe- 
tite when  given  in  small  doses,  probably  by  stimulating 
the  intestinal  secretions.  It  has  a  subsequent  astringent 
effect  due  to  the  rheotannic  acid  it  contains  bat  this  can 

XX.  —  67 


530 


R  H  Y  — R  H  Y 


be  counteracted  by  giving  it  with  alkaline  preparations. 
It  is  especially  valuable  in  the  treatment  of  duodenal 
catarrh  or  catarrh  of  the  biliary  ducts  with  jaundice  ;  and 
in  certain  skin  diseases  it  has  proved  to  be  a  valuable 
medicine,  the  results  obtained  being  probably  due  to  the 
chrysophan  contained  in  it. 

The  botanical  source  of  Chinese  rhubarb  cannot  be  said  to  have 
been  as  yet  definitely  cleared  up  by  actual  identification  of  plants 
observed  to  be  used  for  the  purpose.  Rheum  palmatum,  R. 
officinale,  R.  palmatum  (var.  tanguticum),  R.  colinianum,  and 
Jl.  Franzenbachii  have  been  variously  stated  to  be  the  source  of 
it,  but  the  roots  produced  by  these  species  tinder  cultivation  in 
Europe  do  not  present  the  characteristic  network  of  white  veins 
exhibited  by  the  best  specimens  of  the  Chinese  drug  (see  Goebel 
and  Kunze,  pt.  ii.,  pi.  i.  figs.  2fc,  36). 

Chemistry. — The  chief  chemical  constituents  of  Cliinese  rhubarb 
are  chrysophan  (C15H1004),  rheotannic  acid  (C£0H2(!0U),  einodin 
(C15H100S),  a  neutral  colourless  crystalline  substance  having  the 
formula  C^H^O^,  a  white  and  a  dark  brown  crystalline  resin;  it 
also  contains  mucilage  in  the  proportion  of  11  to  17  per  cent., 
and  a  considerable  quantity  of  oxalate  of  lime.  An  albuminoid 
principle  containing  nitrogen  and  sulphur  is  also  found  in  the 
root,  which,  in  the  presence  of  water,  as  recently  shown  by 
Kubli,1  decomposes  the  chrysophan  into  chrysophanic  acid  and 
glucose,  and  apparently  exerts  a  similar  action  on  rheotannic 
acid,  giving  rise  to  the  formation  of  rheumic  acid  (C20H1609)  and 
a  fermentable  sugar.  Rheumic  acid  is  a  reddish-brown  powder, 
sparingly  soluble  iu  cold  water.  The  albuminoid  principle  is  in- 
soluble in  rectified  spirit  of  wine  ;  consequently  a  preparation  of 
the  root  made  with  that  menstruum  contains  the  active  principles 
of  the  drug  in  the  natural  state,  whilst  an  aqueous  extract  contains 
them  in  an  altered  condition. 

Production  and  Commerce, — Rhubarb  is  produced  in  the  four 
northern  provinces  of  China  proper  (Chih-li,  Shan-se,  Shen-se,  and 
Ho-uan),  in  the  north-west  provinces  of  Kan-suh  formerly  included 
in  Shen-se,  but  now  extending  across  the  desert  of  Gobi  to  the 
frontier  of  Tibet,  in  the  Mongolian  province  of  Tsing-hai, 
including  the  salt  lake  Koko-nor,  and  the  districts  of  Tangut, 
Sifan,  and  Turfan,  and  in  the  mountains  of  the  western  provinces 
of  Sze-chuen.  According  to  Richthofen  the  best  rhubarb  is 
collected  exclusively  from  wild  plants  in  the  high  mountains  of 
•western  Sze-chuen  between  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-ho  and  the 
rivers  Ya-lung  Keang  and  Min-keang,  and  conies  into  trade  under 
the  name  of  Shen-se  rhubarb.2  Two  of  the  most  important  centres 
of  the  trade  are  Sining-fu  in  the  province  of  Kan-suh  and  Kwan- 
hien  in  Sze-chuen.  From  Shen-se,  Kan-suh,  and  Sze-chuen  the 
rhubarb  is.forwarded  to  Hankow,  and  thence  carried  to  Shanghai, 
whence  it  is  shipped  to  Europe.  Lesser  quantities  are  shipped 
from  Tien-tsin,  and  occasionally  the  drug  is  exported  from  Canton, 
Amoy,  Fuli-chow,  and  Ning-po. 

Very  little  is  known  concerning  the  mode  of  preparing  the  drug 
for  the  market.  According  to  Mr  Bell,  who  on  a  journey  from  St 
Petersburg  to  Peking  had  the  opportunity  of  observing  the  plant  in  a 
growing  state,  the  root  is  not  considered  to  be  mature  until  it  is  six 
years  old.  It  is  then  dug  up,  usually  in  the  autumn,  and  deprived 
of  its  cortical  portion  and  smaller  branches,  and  the  larger  pieces 
are  divided  in  half  longitudinally  ;  these  pieces  are  bored  with 
holes  and  strung  up  on  cords  to  dry,  in  some  cases  being  previously 
subjected  to  a  preliminary  drying  on  stone  slabs  heated  by  fire 
underneath.  In  Bhutan  the  root  is  said  to  be  hung  up  in  a  kind 
of  drying  room,  in  which  a  moderate  heat  is  regularly  maintained. 
The  effect  produced  by  the  two  drying  processes  is  very  different ; 
when  dried  by  artificial  heat,  the  exterior  of  the  pieces  becomes 
hardened  before  the  interior  has  entirely  lost  its  moisture,  and 
consequently  the  pieces  decay  in  the  centre,  although  the  surface 
may  show  no  change.  These  two  varieties  are  technically  known 
as  kiln-dried  and  sun-dried  ;  and  it  was  on  account  of  this 
difference  in  quality  that  the  Russian  officer  at  Kiachta  had  every 
piece  examined  by  boring  a  hole  to  its  centre.  The  best  rhubarb 
occurs  in  pieces  of  a  yellowish  colour  externally,  more  or  less 
marked  with  a  network  of  whitish  veins,  the  surface  being  convex 
and  smooth.  Internally  it  presents  no  signs  of  decay,  but  is 
compact,  marbled  with  reddish-brown  and  white,  mixed  sometimes 
with  iron  grey.  The  smaller  cylindrical  sections  of  the  root  which 
have  not  been  divided  longitudinally  are  technically  known  as 
"rounds,"  and  have  usually  a  hole  with  a  piece  of  string  left  in 
it ;  the  flat  pieces  are  more  rarely  pierced.  Inferior  qualities  are 

1  Jour.  Pharm.  Soc.,  [3],  vi.  p.  65. 

3  According  to  Mr  F.  Newcombe,  Mea.  Press  and  Circ.,  August 
2,  1882,  the  Chinese  esteem  the  Shen-se  rhubarb  as  the  best,  that 
coming  from  Kanchow  being  the  most  prized  of  all;  Sze-chuen  rhubarb 
has  a  rougher  surface  and  little  flavour,  and  brings  only  about  half 
the  price  ;  Chung-chi  rhubarb  also  is  greatly  valued,  while  the  Chi- 
chuang,  Tai-huang,  and  Shan-huang  varieties  are  considered  worthless. 


shrunken  and  shrivelled  on  the  surface,  and  externally  of  a 
brownish  tint,  showing  traces  of  the  darker  bark,  and  when  broken 
open  are  frequently  decayed  in  the  centre. 

European  Rhubarb. — As  early  as  1608  Prosper  Alpiuus  of  Padua 
cultivated  as  the  true  rhubarb  a  plant  which  is  now  known  as 
Rheum  Rhaponticum,  L.,  a  native  of  southern  Siberia  and  the  basin 
of  the  Volga.  This  plant  was  introduced  into  England  through 
Sir  Matthew  Lister,  physician  to  Charles  I.,  who  gave  seed  obtained 
by  him  in  Italy  to  the  botanist  Parkinson.  The  culture  of  this 
rhubarb  for  the  sake  of  the  root  was  commenced  in  1777  at  Banlmry 
in  Oxfordshire,  by  an  apothecary  named  Hayward,  the  plants 
being  raised  from  seed  sent  from  Russia  in  1762,  and  with  such 
success  that  the  Society  of  Arts  awarded  him  a  silver  medal  in 
1789  and  a  gold  one  in  1794.  The  cultivation  subsequently  ex- 
tended to  Somersetshire,  Yorkshire,  and  Middlesex,  but  is  now 
chielly  carried  on  at  Banbury.  English  rhubarb  root  is  sold 
at  a  cheaper  rate  than  the  Chinese  rhubarb,  and  forms  a  con- 
siderable article  of  export  to  America,  and  is  said  to  be  used  in 
Britain  in  the  form  of  powder  which  is  of  a  finer  yellow  colour 
than  that  of  Chinese  rhubarb.  The  Banbury  rhubarb  appears  to 
be  a  hybrid  between  R.  RJiaponticum  and  R.  undulatum, — the 
root,  according  to  E.  Colin,  not  presenting  the  typical  microscopic 
structure  of  the  former.  During  the  last  few  years  very  good 
rhubarb  has  been  grown  at  Banbury  from  Rheum  officinale,  but 
these  two  varieties  are  not  equal  in  medicinal  strength  to  the 
Chinese  article,  yielding  less  extract, — Chinese  rhubarb  affording, 
according  to  H.  Seier,  58  per  cent.,  English  rhubarb  21  per  cent, 
and  R.  officinale  17  per  cent.  In  France  the  cultivation  of  rhubarb 
was  commenced  in  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century, — R.  com- 
pactum,  R.  palmatum,  R.  Rhaponticum,  and  R.  undulatum,  L., 
being  the  species  grown.  The  cultivation  has,  however,  now 
nearly  ceased,  small  quantities  only  being  prepared  at  Avignon 
and  a  few  other  localities. 

The  culture  of  Rheum  compactum  was  begun  in  Moravia  in  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  by  Prikyl,  an  apothecary  in 
Austerlitz,  and  until  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago  the  root  was 
largely  exported  to  Lyons  and  Milan,  where  it  was  used  for  dyeing 
silk.  As  a  medicine  5  parts  are  stated  to  be  equal  to  4  of  Chinese 
rhubarb.  Rhubarb  root  is  also  grown  at  Auspitz  in  Moravia  and 
at  Ilmitz,  Kremnitz,  and  Frauenkircheu  in  Hungary;  R.  Emodi  is 
said  to  be  cultivated  for  the  same  purpose  in  Silesia. 

The  cultivation  of  Rheum  palmatum,  var.  tanguticum,  has  been 
begun  within  the  last  few  years  in  the  United  States. 

Rhubarb  is  also  prepared  for  use  in  medicine  from  wild  species 
in  the  Himalayas  and  Java. 

2.  The  rhubarb  used  as  a  vegetable  consists  of  the 
leaf  stalks  of  several  hybrids  between  the  species  R. 
rhaponticum,  R.  undulatum,  R.  palmatum.  The  petioles 
of  R.  officinale  have  also  been  proved  to  be  edible ; 
but  that  plant  is  grown  more  frequently  on  account  of 
its  ornamental  foliage  (see  HORTICULTURE,  vol.  xii.  p. 
287).  (E.  M.  H.) 

RHYL,  a  watering-place  of  North  Wales,  in  the  county 
of  Flint,  is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Clwyd,  30 
miles  north-west  of  Chester  and  10  north-north-west  of 
Denbigh,  a  railway  line  to  which  here  joins  that  from 
Chester  to  Holyhead.  Only  recently  it  was  a  small  fishing 
village.  Its  chief  advantages  as  a  watering-place  are  the 
pure  air  and  extensive  firm  sands.  Although  the  situation 
of  the  town  was  formerly  bare  and  cheerless,  much  has  been 
done  to  improve  it.  There  are  many  handsome  houses, 
and  the  neighbouring  country  is  interesting  both  from  its 
scenery  and  from  its  castles  and  other  ancient  buildings. 
The  town  possesses  a  town-hall,  extensive  winter  gardens, 
racquet  courts,  lawn-tennis  grounds,  and  other  attractions. 
The  east  and  west  parades  face  the  sea,  and  the  pier,  con- 
structed of  iron,  is  700  feet  in  length.  There  is  daily 
communication  by  steamer  with  Liverpool,  Llandudno, 
Bangor,  &c.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  600  acres)  in  1871  was  4500,  and  in  1881  it  was  6029. 

RHYMER,  THOMAS  THE.    See  THOMAS  OF  ERCELDOUNE. 

RHYMNEY,  an  urban  sanitary  district  of  Monmouth- 
shire, on  the  borders  of  Glamorganshire,  is  situated  in  the 
valley  of  the  Rumney  river,  20  miles  west  of  Abergavenny, 
and  22  north  of  Cardiff.  It  owes  its  importance  to  the 
neighbouring  coal  mines  and  to  its  iron  and  steel  works, 
which  employ  nearly  the  whole  population.  The  works  of 
the  Rhymney  Iron  Company,  including  blast  furnaces  and 


R  I  A  — R  I  B 


531 


rolling  mills,  are  among  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  England. 
The  town  consists  chiefly  of  plain  houses  inhabited  by 
workpeople,  the  principal  building  being  the  church,  a 
handsome  structure  in  the  Doric  style  erected  in  1842. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  2890 
acres)  in  1871  was  8138,  and  in  1881  it  was  8663. 

RIAZAN.     See  RYAZAN. 

RIBAULT,  or  RIBAUT,  JEAN  (c.  1520-1565),  a  French 
navigator  rendered  famous  by  his  connexion  with  the 
early  settlement  of  FLORIDA  (q.v.),  was  born  at  Dieppe, 
probably  about  1520.  Appointed  by  Coligny  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  colonizing  expedition  (from  which  the  admiral 
was  not  deterred  by  the  failure  of  Nicolas  Durand  de 
Villegagnon  on  a  similar  mission),  Ribault  sailed  on  18th 
February  1562  with  two  vessels,  and  on  1st  May  landed 
at  St  John's  river,  or,  as  he  called  it,  Riviere  de  Mai. 
Having  settled  his  colonists  at  Port  Royal  Harbour  and 
built  Fort  Charles  for  their  protection,  he  returned  to 
France  to  find  the  country  in  the  throes  of  the  civil  war. 
In  1563  he  appears  to  have  been  in  England  and  to  have 
issued  The  whole  and  true  discoverie  of  Terra  Florida.  In 
April  1564  Coligny  was  in  a  position  to  despatch  another 
expedition  under  Laudonniere;  but  meanwhile  Ribault's 
colony  had  come  to  an  untimely  end,  the  unfortunate 
adventurers,  destitute  of  supplies  from  home,  having 
revolted  against  their  governor  and  attempted  to  make 
their  way  back  to  Europe  in  a  boat  which  was  happily 
picked  up,  when  they  were  in  the  last  extremities,  by  an 
English  vessel.  In  1565  Ribault  was  again  sent  out  to 
satisfy  the  admiral  as  to  Laudonniere's  management  of  his 
new  settlement,  Fort  Caroline,  on  the  Riviere  de  Mai. 
While  he  was  still  there  the  Spaniards  under  Menendez  de 
Avila,  though  their  country  was  at  peace  with  France, 
attacked  the  French  ships  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
Ribault  set  out  to  retaliate  on  the  Spanish  fleet,  but  his 
vessels  were  wrecked  by  a  storm  near  Cape  Canaveral  and 
he  had  to  attempt  to  return  to  Fort  Caroline  by  land.  The 
fort  had  by  this  time  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards, 
who  had  slaughtered  all  the  colonists  except  a  few  who  got 
off  with  two  ships  under  Ribault's  son.  Induced  to  sur- 
render by  false  assurances  of  safeguard,  Ribault  and  his 
men  were  also  put  to  the  sword  in  October  1565.  The 
massacre  was  avenged  in  kind  by  Dominique  de  Gourgues 
two  years  later. 

See  Haag,  La  France  Protcstantc,  s.v.  ;  French,  Hist.  Collections 
of  Louisiana  and  Florida ;  Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France  in  the 
New  World. 

RIBBON-FISHES  (Trachypteridx),  a  family  of  marine 
fishes  readily  recognized  by  their  long,  compressed  tape- 
like  body,  short  head,  narrow  mouth,  and  feeble  denti- 


deviates  in  its  direction  from  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the 
body.  The  pectoral  fins  are  small,  the  ventrals  composed 
of  several  rays,  or  of  one  long  ray  only.  Ribbon-fishes 
possess  all  the  characteristics  of  fishes  living  at  very  great 
depths.  They  are  extremely  fragile  when  found  floating 
on  the  surface  or  thrown  ashore,  and  rarely  in  an  uninjured 
condition ;  the  rays  of  their  fins  especially,  and  the  mem- 
brane connecting  them,  are  of  a  very  delicate  and  brittle 
structure.  In  young  ribbon-fishes  some  of  the  fin-rays 
are  prolonged  in  an  extraordinary  degree,  and  sometimes 
provided  with  appendages  (see  fig.  2).  The  largest  of 


FIG.  1. — Trachypterus  tsenia. 

tion.     A  high  dorsal  fin  occupies  the  whole  length   of 
the  back ;  an  anal  is  absent,  and  the  caudal,  if  present, 


FIG.  2. — Young  Trachypterus. 

ribbon-fishes  are  the  species  of  Regahcus  (see  OAR-FISH), 
of  which  specimens  some  20  feet  long  by  12  inches  in 
depth  of  body  and  2  inches  in  thickness  have  been  found. 
Like  all  deep  sea  fishes  they  occur  in  all  seas.  The  most 
common  of  the  British  seas  is  the  Vagmaer  or  Deal-Fish 
(Trachypterus  arcticus)  from  3  to  5  feet  long,  of  which 
almost  every  year  after  the  equinoctial  gales  specimens  are 
picked  up  on  the  coasts  of  North  Britain,  of  the  Orkneys, 
Scandinavia,  and  Iceland  (see  also  ICHTHYOLOGY,  voL  xii. 
pp.  684,  691). 

RIBBONS.  By  this  name  are  designated  narrow  webs, 
properly  of  silk,  not  exceeding  nine  inches  in  width,  used 
primarily  for  binding  and  tying  in  connexion  with  dress, 
but  also  now  applied  for  innumerable  useful,  ornamental, 
and  symbolical  purposes.  Along  with  that  of  tapes, 
fringes,  and  other  smallwares,  the  manufacture  of  ribbons 
forms  a  special  department  of  the  textile  industries.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  weaving  of  very  narrow  fabrics,  piece  by 
piece,  on  separate  looms  would  be  a  tedious  and  expensive 
process ;  yet  for  ages  such  was  the  only  method  of  making 
ribbons.  The  essential  feature  of  a  ribbon  loom  is  the 
simultaneous  weaving  in  one  loom  frame  of  two  or  more 
webs,  going  up  to  as  many  as  forty  narrow  fabrics  in 
modern  looms.  To  effect  the  conjoined  throwing  of  all  the 
shuttles  and  the  various  other  movements  of  the  loom  the 
automatic  action  of  the  power-loom  is  necessary ;  and  it  is 
a  remarkable  fact  that  the  self-acting  ribbon  loom  was 
known  and  extensively  used  more  than  a  century  before 
the  famous  invention  of  Cartwright.  A  loom  in  which 
several  narrow  webs  could  be  woven  at  one  time  is  men- 
tioned as  having  been  working  in  Dantzic  towards  the  end 
of  the  16th  century.  Similar  looms  were  at  work  in 
Leyden  in  1620,  where  their  use  gave  rise  to  so  much  dis- 
content and  rioting  on  the  part  of  the  weavers  that  the 
states  general  had  to  prohibit  their  use.  The  prohibition 
was  renewed  at  various  intervals  throughout  the  century, 
and  in  the  same  interval  the  use  of  the  ribbon  loom  was 
interdicted  in  most  of  the  principal  industrial  centres  of 
Europe.  About  1676,  under  the  name  of  the  Dutch  loom 
or  engine  loom,  it  was  brought  to  London ;  and,  although 
its  introduction  there  caused  some  disturbance,  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  prohibited.  In  1745  the  celebrated 
John  Kay,  the  inventor  of  the  fly-shuttle,  obtained,  con- 


532 


R  I  B  — R  I  B 


jointly  with  Joseph  Stell,  a  patent  for  improvements  in 
the  ribbon  loom;  and  since  that  period  it  has  benefited 
by  the  inventions  applied  to  weaving  machinery  generally. 
Ribbon  weaving  is  known  to  have  been  established  near  St 
Et  ien  ne  (dep.  Loire)  so  early  as  the  llth  century,  and  that  town 
to  the  present  day  continues  to  be  the  headquarters  of  the 
industry.  In  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  the  ribbon  trade  there  gave 
employment  to  about  6000  persons  ;  now  about  17,000  looms  are 
in  operation  in  the  district,  1500  of  which  are  power-looms  in 
factories.  Statistics  compiled  in  1881  give  the  annual  value  of 
the  trade  at  63,400,000  francs,  of  which  45,000,000  francs  was  the 
ralue  of  ribbons  proper,  the  remainder  being  represented  by  scarfs, 
trimmings,  elastic  web,  chenille,  &c.  During  the  Huguenot 
troubles,  ribbon  weavers  from  St  Etienne  settled  at  Basel  and 
there  established  an  industry  which  now  rivals  that  of  the  original 
seat  of  the  trade.  In  the  Basel  district  the  looms  number  8000  ; 
but  one-half  of  these  are  power-looms  in  factories,  which  have 
a  much  greater  productive  capacity  than  the  domestic  looms. 
Crefeld  is  the  centre  of  the  German  ribbon  industry,  the  manufac- 
ture of  black  velvet  ribbon  being  there  a  specialty.  In  Vienna 
about  2000  looms  are  employed.  Next  to  St  Etienne  and  Basel, 
Coventry  is  the  most  important  seat  of  ribbon  making,  and  to  some 
extent  the  industry  is  also  prosecuted  at  Norwich  and  Leicester. 
The  average  annual  value  of  the  ribbon  trade  of  western  Europe 
and  America  is  £16,000,000.  A  large  proportion  of  the  ribbons 
now  made  are  mixed  fabrics  of  silk  and  cotton. 

EIBERA,  JUSEPE,  or,  in  Italian,  GIUSEPPE  (1588- 
1656),  commonly  called  Lo  SPAGNOLETTO,  or  the  Little 
Spaniard,  a  leading  painter  of  the  Neapolitan  or  partly  of 
the  Spanish  school,  was  born  near  Valencia  in  Spain,  at 
Xativa,  now  named  S.  Felipe,  on  12th  January  1588. 
His  parents  intended  him  for  a  literary  or  learned  career ; 
but,  having  an  innate  tendency  to  design,  he  neglected  the 
regular  studies,  and  entered  the  school  of  the  Spanish 
painter  Francisco  Rlbalta.  Fired  with  a  longing  to  study 
art  in  its  Italian  headquarters,  he  somehow,  while  still 
quite  a  youth,  made  his  way  to  Rome,  worked  vehemently, 
and  struggled  with  hunger  and  destitution.  Early  in  the 
17th  century  a  cardinal  noticed  him  in  the  streets  of 
Rome  drawing  from  the  frescos  on  a  palace  fagade ;  he 
took  up  the  ragged  stripling  and  housed  him  in  his 
mansion.  Artists  had  then  already  bestowed  upon  the 
alien  student,  who  was  perpetually  copying  all  sorts  of 
objects  in  art  and  in  nature,  the  nickname  of  Lo  Spagno- 
letto.  In  the  cardinal's  household  Ribera  was  comfortable 
but  dissatisfied;  he  found  his  studies  in  abeyance,  and 
one  day  he  decamped.  He  then  betook  himself  to  the 
famous  painter  Michelangelo  da  Caravaggio,  the  head  of 
the  naturalist  school,  called  also  the  school  of  the  Tene- 
brosi,  or  shadow-painters,  owing  to  the  excessive  contrasts 
of  light  and  shade  which  marked  their  style.  In  this 
method  of  art  Ribera,  though  not  claiming  the  first  place 
as  initiator,  was  destined  to  rank  as  hardly  second  to 
Caravaggio  himself.  The  Italian  master  gave  every 
encouragement  to  the  Spaniard,  but  not  for  long,  as  he 
died  in  1609.  Ribera,  who  had  in  the  first  instance 
studied  chiefly  from  Raphael  and  the  Caracci,  had  by 
this  time  acquired  so  much  mastery  over  the  tenebroso 
style  that  his  performances  were  barely  distinguishable 
from  Caravaggio's  own.  He  now  went  to  Parma,  and 
worked  after  the  frescos  of  Correggio  with  great  zeal  and 
efficiency ;  in  the  museum  of  Madrid  is  his  Jacob's  Ladder, 
which  is  regarded  as  his  cftef-d'oeuvre  in  the  Correggesque 
manner.  From  Parma  Spagnoletto  returned  to  Rome, 
where  he  resumed  the  style  of  Caravaggio,  which  was 
doubtless  more  conformable  to  his  natural  bent,  and  shortly 
afterwards  he  migrated  to  Naples,  which  became  his  per- 
manent home. 

Ribera  was  as  yet  still  poor  and  inconspicuous,  but  a 
rich  picture-dealer  in  Naples  soon  discerned  in  him  all  the 
stuff  of  a  successful  painter,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage.  This  was  the  turning  point  in  the  Spaniard's 
fortunes.  He  painted  a  Martyrdom  of  St  Bartholomew, 
which  the  father-in-law  exhibited  from  his  balcony  to  a 


rapidly  increasing  and  admiring  crowd.  The  popular 
excitement  grew  to  so  noisy  a  height  as  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  Spanish  viceroy  the  Count  de  Monterey. 
From  this  nobleman  and  from  the  king  of  Spain,  Philip 
IV.,  commissions  now  flowed  in  upon  Ribera.  Various 
professional  honours  followed;  he  painted  with  incessant 
vigour;  his  house  became  a  centre  of  fashionable  concourse; 
and  he  made  vast  sums  of  money.  In  the  streets  he  only 
appeared  in  his  carriage — then  a  sure  criterion  of  affluence. 
After  a  while  he  found  it  necessary  to  curb  his  own  and 
his  patrons'  appetite  for  work,  and  he  limited  himself  to 
six  hours  in  the  day,  ending  towards  noon.  With  pro- 
sperity came  grasping  and  jealous  selfishness.  Spagno- 
letto, chief  in  a  triumvirate  of  greed,  his  abettors  being  a 
Greek  painter,  Belisario  Corenzio,  and  a  Neapolitan, 
Giambattista  Caracciolo,  determined  that  Naples  should 
be  an  artistic  monopoly ;  by  intrigue,  terrorizing,  and 
personal  violence  on  occasion  they  kept  aloof  all  com- 
petitors. Annibale  Caracci,  the  Cavalier  d'Arpino,  Guido, 
Domenichino,  all  of  them  successively  invited  to  work  in 
Naples,  found  the  place  too  hot  to  hold  them.  Domoni- 
chino  was  so  persecuted  and  victimized  that  his  life  was 
probably  abridged  by  these  truly  "tenebrous"  machina- 
tions. The  cabal  ended  at  the  time  of  Caracciolo's  death 
in  1641. 

The  close  of  Ribera's  triumphant  career  has  been 
variously  related.  If  we  are  to  believe  Dominici,  the 
historian  of  Neapolitan  art,  he  totally  disappeared  from 
Naples  in  1648  and  was  no  more  heard  of, — this  being  the 
sequel  of  the  abduction,  by  Don  John  of  Austria,  son  of 
Philip  IV.,  of  the  painter's  beautiful  only  daughter  Maria 
Rosa.  Dominici  indeed  will  not  even  allow  that  Ribera 
was  a  Spaniard  by  birth :  he  alleges  that  the  painter, 
though  of  Spanish  descent,  was  born  at  Gallipoli,  in  the 
province  of  Lecce,  kingdom  of  Naples.  But  these  as- 
sertions have  not  availed  to  displace  the  earlier  and  well- 
authenticated  statement  that  Ribera,  a  genuine  Spaniard 
in  the  fullest  sense,  died  peaceably  and  wealthy  in  Naples 
in  1656.  His  own  signature  on  his  pictures  is  constantly 
"  Jusepe  de  Ribera,  Espaiiol."  His  daughter,  so  far  from 
being  disgraced  by  an  abduction,  married  a  Spanish  noble- 
man who  became  a  minister  of  the  viceroy. 

The  pictorial  style  of  Spagnoletto  is  extremely  powerful ;  or  one 
might  better  define  its  special  quality  as  immensely  forcible, 
equally  sustaining  the  test  of  a  distant  and  general  or  of  a  close  and 
scrutinizing  view.  In  his  earlier  style,  founded  (as  we  have  seen) 
sometimes  on  Caravaggio  and  sometimes  on  the  wholly  diverse 
method  of  Correggio,  the  study  of  Spanish  and  Venetian  masters 
can  likewise  be  traced.  Along  with  his  massive  and  predominat- 
ing shadows,  he  retained  from  first  to  last  great  strength  of  local 
colouring.  His  forms,  though  ordinary  and  partly  gross,  are  cor- 
rect ;  the  impression  of  his  works  gloomy  and  startling.  He 
delighted  in  subjects  of  horror :  an  agonizing  martyrdom — the  grid- 
iron of  Lawrence,  the  flaying  knife  of  Bartholomew,  or  the  vulture  of 
Prometheus— had  for  him  no  repulsion  but  a  grim  fascination.  He 
had  many  imitators,  his  influence  extending  from  Naples  to  other 
parts  of  Italy,  and  also  to  his  native  Spain.  Salvator  Rosa  and 
Luca  Giordano  were  his  most  distinguished  pupils  ;  also  Giovanni 
Do,  Enrico  Fiammingo,  Michelangelo  Fracanzani,  and  Aniello 
Falcone,  who  was  the  first  considerable  painter  of  battle-pieces. 
Among  Ribera's  principal  works  should  be  named  St  Januarius 
Emerging  from  the  Furnace,  in  the  cathedral  of  Naples ;  the  Descent 
from  the  Cross,  in  the  Neapolitan  Certosa,  generally  regarded  as 
his  masterpiece ;  the  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds  (a  late  work,  1650), 
now  in  the  Louvre ;  the  Martyrdom  of  St  Bartholomew,  in  the 
museum  of  Madrid ;  the  Pieta  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Martino,  Naples. 
His  mythologic  subjects  are  generally  unpleasant — such  as  the 
Silenus,  in  the  Studi  Gallery  of  Naples,  and  Venus  Lamenting  over 
Adonis,  in  the  Corsini  Gallery  of  Rome.  The  Louvre  contains  alto- 
gether twenty-five  of  his  paintings  ;  the  London  National  Gallery 
two — one  of  them,  a  Pieta,  being  an  excellent  though  not  exactly  a 
leading  specimen.  He  executed  several  fine  male  portraits  ;  among 
others  his  own  likeness,  now  in  the  collection  at  Alton  Towers.  He 
also  produced  twenty -six  etchings,  ably  treated.  For  the  use  of  his 
pupils,  he  drew  a  number  of  elementary  designs,  which  in  1650 
were  etched  by  Francisco  Fernandez,  and  which  continued  much  in 


R I B— K I C 


533 


vogue  for  a  long  while  among  Spanish  and  French  painters  and 
students. 

Besides  the  work  of  Dominici  already  referred  to  (1840-46),  the  Diccionario 
Jfistorico  of  Ccan  Bermudez  is  a  principal  authority  regarding  Ribera  and  his 
works.  (W.  M.  R.) 

RIBES.     See  CURRANT  and  GOOSEBERRY. 

RICARDO,  DAVID  (1772-1823),  a  celebrated  political 
economist,  was  born  at  London  19th  April  1772.  He 
was  the  third  son  of  his  father,  a  Jewish  gentleman  of 
Dutch  birth,  whose  family,  it  is  said,  had  formerly  resided 
in  Portugal.  The  elder  Ricardo  bore  an  honourable 
character,  and  was  a  successful  member  of  the  Stock 
Exchange.  The  son  was  placed  for  two  years  at  a  com- 
mercial school  in  Holland,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
entered  his  father's  office,  where  he  showed  much  aptitude 
for  business.  About  the  time  when  he  attained  his 
majority  he  abandoned  the  Hebrew  faith,  and  conformed 
to  the  Anglican  Church,  a  change  which  seems  to  have 
been  connected  with  his  marriage  to  Miss  Wilkinson, 
which  took  place  in  1793.  In  consequence  of  the  step 
thus  taken  he  was  separated  from  his  family  and  thrown 
on  his  own  resources.  His  ability  and  uprightness  were 
known,  and  he  at  once  entered  on  such  a  successful  career 
in  the  profession  to  which  he  had  been  brought  up  that  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five,  we  are  told,  he  was  already  rich. 
He  now  began  to  occupy  himself  with  scientific  pursuits, 
and  gave  some  attention  to  mathematics  as  well  as  to 
chemistry  and  mineralogy ;  but,  having  met  with  Adam 
Smith's  great  work  in  1799  at  Bath,  whither  he  had  gone 
for  his  wife's  health,  he  threw  himself  with  ardour  into 
the  study  of  political  economy. 

His  first  publication  (1809)  was  The  High  Price  of 
Bullion  a,  Proof  of  the  Depreciation  of  Bank  Notes.  This 
tract  was  an  expansion  of  a  series  of  articles  which  the 
author  had  contributed  to  the  Morning  Chronicle.  It 
gave  a  fresh  stimulus  to  the  controversy,  which  had  for 
some  time  been  discontinued,  respecting  the  resumption  of 
cash  payments.  Ricardo  argued  that  the  premium  on  bul- 
lion and  the  unfavourable  state  of  the  exchanges  could  only 
be  explained  by  the  depreciation  of  the  inconvertible  paper 
money  then  in  circulation,  which  had  fallen  25  per  cent, 
below  the  value  of  specie  in  consequence  of  its  over-issue. 
A  committee  to  consider  the  whole  question,  commonly 
known  as  the  Bullion  Committee,  was  nominated  by  the 
House  of  Commons  in  February  1810.  Amongst  the 
members  were  Francis  Horner,  who  was  appointed  chair- 
man, Alexander  Baring  (afterwards  Lord  Ashburton), 
William  Huskisson,  and  Henry  Thornton,  author  of  the 
well  known  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Effects  of  the  Paper 
Credit  of  Great  Britain  (1802).  The  report,  which  was 
presented  to  parliament  in  June  of  the  same  year,  was 
the  joint  production  of  Horner,  Huskisson,  and  Thornton. 
It  asserted  the  same  views  which  Ricardo  had  put  forward, 
and  recommended  the  repeal  of  the  Bank  Restriction  Act. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  House  of  Commons  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  on  the  motion  of  Mr  Vansittart  (afterwards 
Lord  Bexley),  declared  in  the  teeth  of  the  facts  that  paper 
had  undergone  no  depreciation,  and  negatived  Homer's 
resolutions  founded  on  the  report  of  the  committee. 
One  of  the  strongest  opponents  of  Ricardo's  opinions 
was  Mr  Bosanquet ;  he  published  in  1811  a  pamphlet 
entitled  Practical  Observations  on  the  Report  of  the  Bullion 
Committee,  and  this  drew  forth  from  Ricardo  an  elaborate 
reply.  Both  this  tract  and  its  predecessor  attracted  much 
attention.  They  propound  no  new  economic  principles, 
but  are  based  on  the  doctrines  of  Smith.  They  do  not 
give  such  a  systematic  and  complete  view  of  the  subject 
as  Huskisson's  well-known  tract  (The  Question  respecting 
the  Depreciation  of  the  Currency  Stated  and  Examined, 
1810),  but  they  are  well  reasoned,  and,  as  to  their  main 
conclusions,  convincing.  It  has,  however,  been  maintained 


that  there  were  features  of  the  case  which  Ricardo  did 
not  sufficiently  take  into  account,  especially  the  demand 
for  bullion  created  by  the  necessity  of  meeting  the  foreign 
payments  of  England,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  Con- 
tinental system,  could  not  be  otherwise  discharged. 

In  1811  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  James  Mill, 
whose  introduction  to  him  arose  out  of  the  publication  of 
Mill's  tract  entitled  Commerce  Defended.  The  conversation 
of  Ricardo's  new  -  friend  seems  to  have  largely  influenced 
his  views  ;  Bentham  indeed  declared  him  to  be  Mill's  intel- 
lectual child ;  but,  whilst  Mill  doubtless  largely  affected  his 
political  ideas,  he  was,  on  his  side,  under  obligations  to 
Ricardo  in  the  purely  economic  field ;  Mill  said  in  1823  that 
he  himself  and  J.  R.  M'Culloch  were  Ricardo's  disciples, 
and,  he  added,  his  only  genuine  ones. 

In  1815,  when  the  Corn  Laws  were  under  discussion, 
he  published  his  Essay  on  the  Influence  of  a  Low  Price  of 
Corn  on  the  Profits  of  Stock.  This  was  directed  against  a 
recent  tract  by  Malthus  entitled  Grounds  of  an  Opinion 
on  the  Policy  of  Restraining  the  Free  Importation  of  Foreign 
Corn.  The  reasonings  of  the  essay  are  based  on  the 
theory  of  rent  which  has  often  been  called  by  the  name  of 
Ricardo ;  but  the  author  distinctly  states  that  it  was  not 
due  to  him.  "In  all  that  I  have  said  concerning  the 
origin  and  progress  of  rent  I  have  briefly  repeated,  and 
endeavoured  to  elucidate,  the  principles  which  Malthus 
has  so  ably  laid  down  on  the  same  subject  in  his  Inquiry 
into  the  Nature  and  Progress  of  Rent. "  We  now  know 
that  the  theory  had  been  fully  stated,  before  the  time  of 
Malthus,  by  Anderson ;  it  is  in  any  case  clear  that  it  was 
no  discovery  of  Ricardo.  Even  the  conception  of  the  soils 
of  a  country  as  comparable  to  a  series  of  machines  of 
different  original  powers,  though  capable  of  improvement 
by  the  application  of  capital,  is  quoted  from  Malthus. 
Ricardo  states  in  this  essay  a  set  of  propositions,  most  of 
them  deductions  from  the  theory  of  rent,  which  are  in 
substance  the  same  as  those  afterwards  embodied  in  the 
Principles,  and  regarded  as  characteristic  of  his  system, 
such  as  that  increase  of  wages  does  not  raise  prices ;  that 
profits  can  be  raised  only  by  a  fall  in  wages  and  diminished 
only  by  a  rise  in  wages ;  and  that  profits,  in  the  whole 
progress  of  society,  are  determined  by  the  cost  of  the  pro- 
duction of  the  food  which  is  raised  at  the  greatest  expense. 
It  does  not  appear  that,  excepting  the  theory  of  foreign 
trade,  anything  of  the  nature  of  fundamental  doctrine,  as 
distinct  from  the  special  subjects  of  banking  and  taxation, 
is  laid  down  in  the  Principles  which  does  not  already 
appear  in  this  tract.  We  find  in  it,  too,  the  same  exclu- 
sive regard  to  the  interest  of  the  capitalist  class,  and  the 
same  identification  of  their  interest  with  that  of  the 
whole  nation,  which  are  generally  characteristic  of  his 
writings.  "  Rent,"  he  says,  "  is  in  all  cases  a  portion  of 
the  profits  previously  obtained  on  the  land,"  a  proposition 
by  which,  for  the  sake,  it  is  to  be  feared,  of  creating  a 
political  prejudice,  he  obscures  his  own  doctrine  that  true 
rent  can  never  be  a  part  of  profit ;  and  he  alleges  what 
is  in  a  sense  true,  but  has  a  most  invidious  effect, — that 
"the  interest  of  the  landlord  is  always  opposed  to  the 
interest  of  every  other  class  in  the  community,"  though 
the  existence  of  a  distinct  landlord  class  is  by  no  means  a 
necessity,  and  the  owner  of  rent,  which  somebody  must 
own,  could  not,  even  by  entirely  remitting  it,  alter  the 
price  of  food,  or  increase  the  profits  of  the  capitalist, 
except  by  presenting  him  with  a  gift  to  which  he  has  no 
economic  claim.  At  the  close  of  the  tract  he  endeavours 
to  show  in  opposition  to  Malthus  that  the  danger  of 
dependence  on  foreign  supply  for  a  large  part  of  our  food, 
and  the  losses  on  invested  capital  which  would  result  from 
a  legislative  change,  could  not  be  so  serious  as  to  counter- 
balance the  advantages  arising  from  a  free  importation. 


534 


RICARDO 


Both  parts  of  this  proposition  are  probably  true ;  but  he 
does  not  establish  the  first  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner. 

In  the  Proposals  for  an  Economical  and  Secure  Currency 
(1816)  he  first  disposes  of  the  chimera  of  a  currency 
without  a  specific  standard,  and  pronounces  in  favour  of  a 
single  metal,  with  a  preference  for  silver,  as  the  standard. 
He  then  puts  forward  a  scheme  which  had  been  already 
briefly  indicated  in  the  appendix  to  the  4th  edition  (1811) 
of  his  High  Price  of  Bullion.  This  was  that  the  bank 
should  be  obliged  to  deliver  on  demand,  not  coin,  but 
uncoined  bullion  or  gold  standard  bars,  in  exchange  for 
its  notes,  whenever  the  notes  presented  together  for 
payment  reached  a  moderate  fixed  amount.  The  con- 
sequence would  be  that,  all  the  smaller  payments  being 
made  in  the  cheap  medium,  paper,  the  country  would 
enjoy  the  profit  derivable  from  the  metallic  currency  used 
as  a  capital ;  the  wear  of  the  coinage,  too,  would  be  pre- 
vented, and  a  saving  thus  effected.  By  this  method  the 
public  would  secure  itself  against  any  variations  in  the 
value  of  the  currency  beyond  those  to  which  the  standard 
itself  is  necessarily  subject ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
circulation  would  be  carried  on  in  the  least  expensive  way. 
Thus,  whilst  the  use  of  the  precious  metals  as  the  medium 
of  exchange  was,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  social  life,  one  of 
the  most  important  steps  towards  the  improvement  of 
commerce  and  the  advancement  of  civilization,  it  is  pro- 
posed to  us,  and  on  grounds  which  it  is  difficult  to  gain- 
say, to  banish  them  once  more  from  such  employment  in 
almost  all  the  internal  transactions  of  a  country.  A 
kindred  revolution,  tending  to  the  further  elimination  of 
metallic  money,  Jevons  has  spoken  of  as  "a  return  to 
barter";  but  that  expression  is  misleading,  for  in  the 
modern  system  of  settlement  by  writing  off  liabilities 
against  each  other  a  metallic  standard  is  always  supposed, 
and  lies  at  the  basis  of  every  transaction,  whereas  in  the 
primitive  method  of  dealing  commodities  were  directly 
compared.  Ricardo's  plan  was  in  operation  for  some 
time,  but  was  then  given  up  on  the  ground,  urged  by  the 
bank,  of  the  frequent  forgery  of  one  pound  notes,  and  the 
consequent  necessity  of  replacing  them  with  coin — a  very 
insufficient  reason,  as  experience  demonstrates,  though 
a  good  argument  in  favour  of  such  an  improved  manu- 
facture of  notes  as  would  effectually  defeat  fraudulent  imi- 
tation. In  a  later  tract  (Plan  for  a  National  Bank)  Ricardo 
proposes  that  one  pound  notes  should  be  confined  to  the 
country  districts.  The  general  plan  has  been  objected  to 
on  the  ground  that  it  would  not  provide  for  a  sufficient 
metallic  reserve  to  meet  sudden  emergencies  arising  from 
the  necessity  of  foreign  payments. 

Ricardo's  chief  work,  Principles  of  Political  Economy 
and  Taxation,  appeared  in  1817.  A  full  account  of  the 
general  theory  expounded  in  this  treatise  has  been  given 
under  POLITICAL  ECONOMY  ;  a  very  brief  statement  must 
here  suffice.  The  fundamental  doctrine  is  that,  on  the 
hypothesis  of  free  competition,  exchange  value  is  deter- 
mined by  the  labour  expended  in  production, — a  proposi- 
tion not  new,  nor,  except  with  considerable  limitation  and 
explanation,  true,  and  of  little  practical  use,  as  "  amount 
of  labour  "  is  a  vague  expression,  and  the  thing  intended 
is  incapable  of  exact  estimation.  Ricardo's  theory  of  dis- 
tribution has  been  briefly  enunciated  as  follows: — "(1) 
the  demand  for  food  determines  the  margin  of  cultivation  ; 
(2)  this  margin  determines  rent ;  (3)  the  amount  necessary 
to  maintain  the  labourer  determines  wages ;  (4)  the  dif- 
ference between  the  amount  produced  by  a  given  quantity 
of  labour  at  the  margin  and  the  wages  of  that  labour 
determines  profit."  These  theorems  are  too  absolutely 
stated,  and  require  much  modification  to  adapt  them 
to  real  life.  His  theory  of  foreign  trade  has  been  em- 
bodied in  the  two  propositions — "(1)  international  values 


are  not  determined  in  the  same  way  as  domestic  values ; 
(2)  the  medium  of  exchange  is  distributed  so  as  to  bring 
trade  to  the  condition  it  would  be  in  if  it  were  conducted 
by  barter."  His  views  on  currency  and  banking  will  be 
gathered  from  the  present  article. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  a 
study  of  taxation,  which  requires  to  be  considered  as  a 
part  of  the  problem  of  distribution.  A  tax  is  not  always 
paid  by  those  on  whom  it  is  imposed;  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  determine  the  ultimate,  as  distinguished 
from  the  immediate,  incidence  of  every  form  of  taxation. 
Smith  had  already  dealt  with  this  question ;  Ricardo 
develops  and  criticizes  his  results.  The  conclusions  at 
which  he  arrives  are  deduced  from  the  theory  of  rent  and 
from  the  assumptions  of  a  uniform  rate  of  profits  and  of  a 
rate  of  wages  coincident  with  the  necessary  subsistence  of 
the  labourer.  They  are  in  the  main  as  follows  : — a  tax  on 
raw  produce  falls  on  the  consumer,  but  will  also  diminish 
profits ;  a  tax  on  rents  on  the  landlord ;  taxes  on  houses 
will  be  divided  between  the  occupier  and  the  ground  land- 
lord ;  taxes  on  profits  will  be  paid  by  the  consumer,  end 
taxes  on  wages  by  the  capitalist.  These  propositions  of 
course  participate  in  the  infirmity  of  the  premises  from 
which  they  are  deduced,  or  must  at  least  be  taken  with 
limitations  corresponding  to  those  to  which  the  premises 
are  subject.  Ricardo  adopts  and  even  extols  as  a  "  golden 
maxim  "  the  shallow  dictum  of  Say,  that  "  the  very  best 
of  all  plans  of  finance  is  to  spend  little,  and  the  best  of  all 
taxes  is  that  which  is  of  least  amount." 

In  1819  Ricardo,  having  retired  from  business  and 
become  a  landed  proprietor,  entered  parliament  as  member 
for  Portarlington.  He  was  at  first  diffident  and  embarrassed 
in  speaking,  but  gradually  overcame  these  difficulties,  and 
was  heard  with  much  attention  and  deference,  especially 
when  he  addressed  the  house  on  economic  questions.  He 
probably  contributed  in  a  considerable  degree  to  bringing 
about  the  change  of  opinion  on  the  question  of  free  trade 
which  ultimately  led  to  the  legislation  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 
on  that  subject. 

In  1820  he  contributed  to  the  supplement  of  the  Ency- 
clopaedia Bntannica  (6th  ed.)  an  Essay  on  the  Funding 
System.  In  this,  besides  giving  an  historical  account 
(founded  on  Dr  Robert  Hamilton's  valuable  work  On  the 
National  Debt,  1813,  3d  ed.,  1818)  of  the  several  succes- 
sive forms  of  the  sinking  fund,  he  urges  that  nations 
should  defray  their  expenses,  whether  ordinary  or  extra- 
ordinary, at  the  time  when  they  are  incurred,  instead  of 
providing  for  them  by  loans  ;  and,  not  believing  that  the 
system  of  a  sinking  fund  would  ever  be  consistently  and 
perseveringly  carried  out,  he  maintains  that  the  national 
debt  should  be  paid  off  by  a  tax  on  property — an  operation 
which  he  thought  might  be  completed  in  two  or  three 
years  during  peace.  Thus,  by  a  single  effort  we  might, 
he  says,  get  rid  of  those  great  sources  of  demoralization, 
the  customs  and  the  excise,  and  our  commerce  would  be 
freed  from  "  all  the  vexatious  delays  and  interruptions 
which  our  present  artificial  system  imposes  upon  it." 

In  1822  he  published  a  tract  On  Protection  to  Agricul- 
ture, which  is  an  able  application  to  controversy  of  the 
general  principles  laid  down  in  his  systematic  work.  Its 
arguments  and  conclusions  are  therefore  subject  to  the 
same  limitations  which  those  fundamental  principles  re- 
quire. He  does  not  advocate  an  absolutely  free  importa- 
tion of  corn,  but  proposes,  in  consideration  of  the  special 
burdens  on  agriculture,  to  impose  on  the  foreign  commodity 
a  duty  equivalent  to  the  exclusive  taxes  imposed  on  home 
growers,  as  well  as  to  allow  a  drawback  on  exportation 
equal  to  the  duty.  The  only  point  of  much  interest  in 
the  tract,  apart  from  the  question  of  protection,  is  the 
assertion  of  the  doctrine  that  a  high  rate  of  interest  is 


R I C— R I G 


535 


beneficial  to  a  country — a  view  curiously  opposed  to  that 
held  by  Child  and  others  in  the  17th  century.  "Profits 
and  interest,"  he  says,  "cannot  be  too  high.  Nothing 
contributes  so  much  to  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  a 
country  as  high  profits."  It  seems  to  follow  that,  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  labour  being  given,  wages  cannot  be  too  low, 
which  can  only  be  true  on  the  supposition,1  tacitly  assumed 
by  Bicardo  in  many  places,  that  wages  coincide  with  the 
cost  of  the  labourer's  maintenance.  The  proposition,  too, 
appears  to  lead  to  economic  pessimism,  for,  according  to 
his  own  doctrines,  the  rate  of  profits  must  inevitably  decline 
in  the  course  of  the  history  of  any  society. 

In  his  Plan  for  the  Establishment  of  a  National  Bank, 
published  posthumously  in  1824,  he  proposes  that  the 
issue  of  the  paper  currency  should  be  taken  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  vested  in  commissioners 
appointed  by  the  Government,  but  not  removable  except 
on  an  address  from  one  or  both  Houses  of  Parliament. 
These  functionaries  should  in  no  case  lend  money  to  the 
ministers  of  the  crown,  who,  when  they  wanted  it,  should 
raise  it  by  taxation  or  have  recourse  to  the  general  market. 
The  commissioners  would  act  as  bankers  to  all  the  public 
departments,  but  would  be  precluded  from  fulfilling  the 
same  office  for  any  corporation  or  individual  whatever. 
Their  great  business  would  be  to  regulate  the  issue  of 
paper  by  the  price  of  bullion,  so  as  to  keep  the  value  of 
the  former  equal  to  that  of  the  coins  it  would  represent. 
The  tract  describes  in  detail  the  measures  to  be  adopted 
for  the  introduction  and  working  of  the  new  system.  A 
certain  step  towards  realizing  the  objects  of  this  scheme, 
though  on  different  lines  from  Ricardo's,  was  taken  in  Sir 
Robert  Peel's  Act  of  1844,  by  which  the  discount  business 
of  the  bank  was  separated  from  the  issue  department. 

Ricardo  died  on  the  llth  September  1823,  at  his  seat 
(Gatcomb  Park)  in  Gloucestershire.  He  was  only  fifty- 
one  years  of  age,  and  there  had  been  nothing  in  his 
general  health  to  give  rise  to  apprehension ;  the  cause  of 
death  was  a  cerebral  affection  resulting  from  disease  of 
the  ear.  He  was  much  regretted,  as  he  had  been  highly 
esteemed,  both  in  public  and  private  life.  His  character  is 
represented  in  very  favourable  colours  by  those  who  knew 
him  best.  He  is  described  as  modest,  candid,  and  ever 
open  to  conviction, — as  affectionate  in  his  family,  steady 
in  his  friendships,  and  generous  and  kind  in  his  wider  per- 
sonal relations.  James  Mill,  who  was  intimately  acquainted 
with  him,  says  (in  a  letter  to  Napier  of  November  1818) 
that  he  knew  not  a  better  man,  and  on  the  occasion  of  his 
death  published  a  highly  eulogistic  notice  of  him  in  the 
Morning  Chronicle.  A  lectureship  on  political  economy, 
to  exist  for  ten  years,  was  founded  in  commemoration  of 
him,  M'Culloch  being  chosen  to  fill  it. 

In  forming  a  general  judgment  respecting  Ricardo,  we  must  have 
in  view  not  so  much  the  minor  writings,  to  which  this  article  has 
been  in  great  part  devoted,  as  the  Principles,  in  which  his  economic 
system  is  expounded  as  a  whole.  By  a  study  of  this  work  we  are 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  he  was  an  economist  only,  not  at  all  a 
social  philosopher  in  the  wider  sense,  like  Adam  Smith  or  John 
Mill.  He  had  great  acuteness,  but  little  breadth.  For  any  large 
treatment  of  moral  and  political  questions  he  seems  to  have  been 
alike  by  nature  and  preparation  unfitted  ;  and  there  is  no  evidence 
of  his  having  had  any  but  the  most  ordinary  and  narrow  views  of 
the  great  social  problems.  His  whole  conception  of  human  society 
is  material  and  mechanical,  the  selfish  principle  being  regarded, 
after  the  manner  of  the  Benthamites,  as  omnipotent,  not  merely  in 
practical  economy,  but,  as  appears  from  his  speech  on  the  ballot 
and  his  tract  on  reform,  in  the  whole  extent  of  the  social  field. 
Koscher  calls  him  "ein  tiefer  Menschenkenner  ";  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  characterize  him  more  inaptly.  The  same  writer  remarks 
on  his  "  capitalistic  "  tone,  which,  he  says,  becomes  "  mammonistic  " 

1  The  same  assumption  had  been  previously  made  by  the  Physio- 
crats. Turgot  says,  "  En  tout  genre  de  travail,  il  doit  arriver  et  il 
arrive  que  le  salaire  de  1'ouvrier  se  borne  a  ce  qui  est  necessaire  pour 
se  procurer  sa  subsistance." 


in  some  of  his  followers  ;  but  the  latter  spirit  is  already  felt  as  the 
pervading  atmosphere  of  Ricardo's  works.  He  shows  no  trace  of 
that  hearty  sympathy  with  the  working  classes  which  breaks  out  in 
several  passages  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations  ;  we  ought,  perhaps,  with 
Held,  to  regard  it  as  a  merit  in  Ricardo  that  he  does  not  cover  with 
fine  phrases  his  deficiency  in  warmth  of  social  sentiment.  The  idea 
of  the  active  capitalist  having  any  duties  towards  his  employes  never 
seems  to  occur  to  him  ;  the  labourer  is,  in  fact,  merely  an  instru- 
ment in  the  hands  of  the  capitalist,  a  pawn  in  the  game  he  plays. 
His  principal  work  is  the  ultimate  expression  of  what  Comte  calls 
"1'ignoble  metaphysique  qui  pretend  etudier  les  lois  generales  de 
1'ordre  materiel  en  1'isolant  de  tout  autre."  Against  such  a  picture 
of  industrial  life  as  a  mere  sordid  struggle  of  conflicting  interests 
contemporary  socialism  is  the  necessary,  though  formidable,  pro- 
test ;  and  the  leaders  of  that  movement  have  eagerly  seized  his  one- 
sided doctrines  and  used  them  for  their  own  ends. 

He  first  introduced  into  economics  on  a  great  scale  the  method  of 
deduction  from  a  priori  assumptions.  The  conclusions  so  arrived 
at  have  often  been  treated  as  if  they  were  directly  applicable  to  real 
life,  and  indeed  to  the  economic  phenomena  of  all  times  and  places. 
But  the  trxith  of  Ricardo's  theorems  is  now  by  his  warmest 
admirers  admitted  to  be  hypothetical  only,  and  they  are  stated  as 
applying,  at  most,  to  the  existing  highly-developed  condition  of 
European,  and  especially  of  English,  commerce.  Bagehot,  however, 
seems  right  in  believing  that  Ricardo  himself  had  no  consciousness 
of  the  limitations  to  which  his  doctrines  are  subject.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  we  now  see  that  the  only  basis  on  which  these  doctrines  could 
be  allowed  to  stand  as  a  permanent  part  of  economic  science  is  that 
on  which  they  are  placed  by  Reseller,  namely,  as  a  stage  in  the 
preparatory  work  of  the  economist,  who,  beginning  with  such 
abstractions,  afterwards  turns  from  them,  not  in  practice  merely, 
but  in  the  completed  theory,  to  real  life  and  men  as  they  actually 
are  or  have  been.  But  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  it  is  not 
tetter  to  discard  them  altogether,  and  begin,  as  we  end,  with  an 
historical  method,  which,  it  may  be  added,  will  of  necessity  lead  to 
the  introduction  of  those  moral  and  social  considerations  which 
would  otherwise  be  almost  certainly  overlooked. 

The  criticisms  to  which  Ricardo's  general  economic  scheme  is 
open  do  not  hold  with  respect  to  his  treatment  of  the  subjects  of  cur- 
rency and  banking.  These  form  precisely  that  branch  of  economics 
into  which  moral  ideas  (beyond  the  plain  prescriptions  of  honesty) 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  enter,  and  where  the  operation  of  purely  mer- 
cantile principles  is  most  immediate  and  invariable.  They  were, 
besides,  the  departments  of  the  study  to  which  Ricardo's  early  train- 
ing and  practical  habits  led  him  to  give  special  attention  ;  and  they 
have  a  lasting  value  independent  of  his  systematic  construction. 

Ricardo's  collected  works  were  published,  with  a  notice  of  his  life  and  writings, 
by  J.  R.  M'Culloch  in  1846.  A  French  translation  of  the  Principles  by  Constancio, 
with  notes  by  Say,  appeared  in  1818;  the  whole  works,  translated  by.Constancio 
and  Fonteyraud,  form  vol.  xiii.(1847)  of  the  Collection  des  Principaux  Economises, 
where  they  are  accompanied  by  the  notes  of  Say,  Malthus,  Sismondi,  Rossi,  Ac. 
The  Principles  was  first  "naturalized"  in  Germany,  says  Roscher  (though  another 
version  by  Von  Schmid  had  previously  appeared),  by  Edward  Banmstaik  in  his 
David  Ricardo's  Grundgesetze  der  Volkswirthschaft  und  der  Besteuerung  iibersetzt 
und  erliiutert(l837),  which  Roscher  highly  commends,  not  only  for  the  excellence 
of  the  rendering,  but  for  the  value  of  the  explanations  and  criticisms  which  are 
added.  (J.  K.  I.) 

RICCATI,  JAMES,  COUNT  (1676-1754),  a  celebrated 
Italian  mathematician,  was  born  at  Venice,  May  8,  1676, 
and  died  at  Treviso,  April  15,  1754.  He  studied  at  the 
university  of  Padua,  where  he  graduated  in  1696.  RiccatL 
was  deeply  read  in  history,  belles  lettres,  architecture,  and 
poetry — in  fact,  was  a  highly  cultivated  man ;  his  favourite 
pursuits,  however,  were  scientific,  and  his  authority  on 
all  questions  of  practical  science  was  referred  to  by  the 
senate  of  Venice.  He  corresponded  with  many  of  the 
European  savants  of  his  day,  and  contributed  largely  to 
the  Ada  Eruditorum  of  Leipsic.  He  was  offered  the  pre- 
sidency of  the  academy  of  science  of  St  Petersburg ;  but 
this  high  distinction  he  declined,  preferring  the  leisure 
and  independence  of  life  in  Italy.  Riccati's  name  is  best 
known  and  will  be  preserved  by  mathematicians  in  con- 
nexion with  his  celebrated  problem  called  Riccati's  equa- 
tion, published  in  the  Ada  Eruditorum,  September  1724. 
A  very  valuable  and  complete  account  of  this  equation  and 
its  various  transformations  has  been  recently  given  by  Mr 
J.  "W.  L.  Glaisher,  F.R.S.,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society  (1881,  pp.  759-829). 

After  Riccati's  death  his  works  were  collected  by  his  sons  and 
published  in  four  volumes.  His  sons,  Vincenzo  (1707-1775)  and 
Giordano  (1709-1790),  inherited  his  talents.  The  former  was 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Bologna,  and  published,  among  other 
works,  a  large  treatise  on  the  calculus.  Giordano  was  distinguished 
both  as  a  mathematician  and  an  architect. 


530 


RICCI 


RICCI,  MATTEO  (1552-1610),  is  eminent  as  practically 
the  founder  of  Christian  missions  in  modern  China. 

He  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Macerata  in  the 
March  of  Ancona  on  7th  October  1552,  two  months 
before  Francis  Xavier,  burning  with  the  desire  to  carry 
his  message  into  China,  died  at  its  gates.  After  some 
education  at  a  Jesuit  college  in  his  native  town,  Ricci,  at 
the  age  of  sixteen,  was  sent  by  his  father  to  study  law  at 
Rome.  But  the  youth  had  already  contemplated  entering 
the  Jesuit  Company,  and  this  purpose  he  accomplished 
about  1571,  without  informing  his  father,  of  whose 
opposition  he  was  aware,  until  the  step  had  been  taken. 
The  father  instantly  started  for  Rome,  but  was  stopped 
by  illness,  and  abandoned  opposition. 

In  1577  Ricci  and  several  other  Italian  students  of 
noble  birth  offered  themselves  for  the  East  Indian  mis- 
sions ;  and  Ricci,  without  visiting  his  family  to  take  leave, 
proceeded  to  Portugal.  His  comrades,  were  Rudolf o 
Acquaviva,  Nicolas  Spinola,  Francesco  Pasio,  and  Michele 
Ruggieri,  all  afterwards,  like  Ricci  himself,  famous  in  the 
Jesuit  annals.  They  arrived  at  Goa  in  September  1578. 
After  four  years  spent  in  India,  Ricci  was  summoned  to 
the  task  of  opening  China  to  evangelization. 

Several  attempts  had  been  made  by  Xavier,  and  since 
his  death,  to  introduce  the  church  into  China, — as  by 
Melchior  Nunes  of  the  Jesuit  society  operating  from 
Sanchian1  in  1555 ;  by  Gaspar  da  Cruz,  a  Dominican,  in 
that  or  the  following  year ;  by  the  Augustinians  under 
Martin  Herrada,  1575;  and  in  1579  by  the  Franciscans 
led  by  Pedro  d'Alfaro;  but  all  these  attempts  proved 
abortive.  In  1571  a  house  of  the  Jesuits  had  been  set 
up  at  Macao  (where  the  Portuguese  were  established  in 
1557),  but  their  attention  was  then  occupied  with  Japan, 
and  it  was  not  till  the  arrival  at  Macao  of  Alessandro 
Valignani  on  a  visitation  in  1582  that  work  in  China  was 
really  taken  up.  For  this  object  he  had  obtained  the 
services  first  of  M.  Ruggieri  and  then  of  Ricci.  After 
various  disappointments  they  found  access  to  Chau-king- 
fu  on  the  Si-Kiang  or  West  River  of  Canton,  where  the 
viceroy  of  the  two  provinces  of  Kwang-tung  and  Kwang-si 
then  had  his  residence,  and  by  favour  of  this  personage 
they  were  enabled  to  establish  themselves,  and  there  spent 
several  years.  Their  proceedings  were  very  cautious  and 
tentative ;  they  excited  the  curiosity  and  interest  of  even 
the  more  intelligent  Chinese  by  their  clocks,  their  globes 
and  maps,  their  books  of  European  engravings,  and  by 
Ricci's  knowledge  of  mathematics,  including  dialling  and 
the  like,  and  the  projection  of  maps.  They  conciliated 
some  influential  friends,  and  their  reputation  spread  pretty 
widely  in  China.  This  was  facilitated  by  the  Chinese 
system  of  transfer  of  public  officers  from  one  province  of 
the  empire  to  another,  and  in  the  later  movements  of  the 
missionaries  they  frequently  met  with  one  and  another  of 
their  old  acquaintances  in  office,  who  were  more  or  less 
well  disposed.  Eventually  troubles  arose  at  Chau-king 
which  compelled  them  to  seek  a  new  locality ;  and  in 
1 589,  with  the  viceroy's  sanction,  they  migrated  to  Chang- 
chau  in  the  northern  part  of  Kwang-tung,  not  far  from 
the  well  known  Meiling  Pass. 

During  his  stay  here  Ricci  was  convinced  that  a  mistake 
had  been  made  in  adopting  a  dress  resembling  that  of  the 
bonzes,  thus  identifying  the  missionaries  with  a  class  who 
were  the  objects  either  of  superstition  or  of  contempt. 
With  the  sanction  of  the  visitor  it  was  ordered  that  in 
future  the  missionaries  should  adopt  the  costumes  of 
Chinese  literates.  And,  in  fact,  they  before  long  adopted 
Chinese  manners  altogether. 


1  The  island  (properly  Shang-chuan)  on  which  the  Portuguese  had  a 
temporary  settlement  before  they  got  Macao,  and  on  which  F.  Xavier 
died. 


Chang-chau,  as  a  station,  did  not  prove  a  happy  selec- 
tion, but  it  was  not  till  1595  that  an  opportunity  occurred 
of  travelling  northward.  We  cannot  follow  Ricci's  move- 
ments in  detail,  or  the  vicissitudes  of  favour  and  trouble 
which  attended  his  plans.  The  latter  were,  on  the  whole, 
never  very  grave.  For  some  time  his  residence  was  at 
Nan-chang-fu,  the  capital  of  Kiang-si ;  but  in  1598  he  was 
enabled  to  proceed  under  favourable  conditions  to  Nan- 
king, and  thence,  for  the  first  time,  to  Peking,  which  had 
all  along  been  the  goal  of  his  missionary  ambition.  But 
circumstances  were  not  then  propitious,  and  the  party  had 
to  return  to  Nanking.  The  fame  of  the  presents  which 
they  carried  had,  however,  reached  the  court,  and  the 
Jesuits  were  summoned  north  again,  and  on  the  24th 
January  1601  they  entered  the  capital.  Wan-lieh,  the 
emperor  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  in  those  days  lived  in  seclu- 
sion, and  saw  no  one  but  his  women  and  the  eunuchs. 
But  the  missionaries  were  summoned  to  the  palace ;  their 
presents  were  immensely  admired ;  and  the  emperor  had 
the  curiosity  to  send  for  portraits  of  the  fathers  them- 
selves. 

They  obtained  a  settlement,  with  an  allowance  for  sub- 
sistence, in  Peking,  and  from  this  time  to  the  end  of  his 
life  Ricci's  estimation  among  the  Chinese  was  constantly 
increasing,  as  was  at  the  same  time  the  amount  of  his  labours. 
Visitors,  who  were  never  turned  away,  thronged  the  mission 
residence  incessantly;  inquiries  coming  to  him  from  all 
parts  of  the  empire,  from  strangers  as  well  as  acquaint- 
ances, respecting  the  doctrines  which  he  taught,  or  the 
numerous  Chinese  publications  which  he  issued,  had  to  be 
answered.  This  in  itself  was  a  great  burden,  as  Chinese 
composition,  if  wrong  impressions  are  to  be  avoided, 
demands  extreme  care  and  accuracy.  As  head  of  the 
mission,  which  now  had  four  stations  in  China,  he  also 
devoted  much  time  to  answering  the  letters  of  the  priests 
under  him,  a  matter  on  which  he  spared  no  pains  or  detail. 
The  new  converts  had  to  be  attended  to — always  welcomed, 
and  never  hustled  away.  Besides  these  came  the  composi- 
tion of  his  Chinese  books,  the  teaching  of  his  people,  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  record  of  the  mission  history  which 
had  been  enjoined  upon  him  by  the  general  of  the  order, 
and  which  he  kept  up  to  the  most  recent  dates.  Thus  his 
labours  were  wearing  and  incessant.  In  May  1610  he 
broke  down,  and  after  an  illness  of  eight  days  died  on 
the  llth  of  that  month,  aged  fifty-eight.  His  coadjutor 
Pantoja  applied  to  the  emperor  for  a  burying-place  outside 
the  city.  This,  after  due  consideration  by  the  boards 
concerned,  was  granted,  with  the  most  honourable  official 
testimonies  to  the  reputation  and  character  of  Ricci ;  and 
a  large  building  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  was  at  the 
same  time  bestowed  upon  the  mission  for  their  residence. 

Ricci's  character,  his  acquirements,  and  the  use  he  made  of 
them  were  certainly  worthy  of  all  honour.  We  do  not  know 
what  amount  of  success  in  conversion  had  rewarded  his  labours 
during  his  life,  but  some  eminent  and  creditable  converts  there 
were,  and  his  work  was  the  foundation  of  the  considerable  spread 
which  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  since  attained  in  China. 
"When  the  missionaries  of  other  Roman  Catholic  orders  made  their 
way  into  China,  some  twenty  years  after  the  death  of  Ricci,  they 
found  great  fault  with  the  manner  in  which  certain  Chinese 
practices  had  been  dealt  with  by  the  Jesuits,  a  matter  in  which 
Ricci's  action  and  policy  had  given  the  tone  to  the  mission  in 
China, — though  in  fact  that  tone  was  rather  inherent  in  the  Jesuit 
system  than  the  outcome  of  individual  character,  for  controversies 
of  an  exactly  parallel  nature  arose  two  generations  later  in  southern 
India,  between  the  Jesuits  and  Capuchins,  regarding  what  \\vn- 
called  "Malabar  rites."  The  controversy  thus  kindled  in  China 
burned  for  considerably  more  than  a  century  with  great  fierceness,8 
and  we  can  here,  in  connexion  with  the  career  of  Ricci,  but 
indicate  its  existence.  The  chief  points  of  controversy  were  (1) 
the  lawfulness  and  expediency  of  certain  terms  employed  by  the 

8  The  list  of  the  literature  of  this  controversy  occupies  forty-one 
columns  in  M.  Cordier's  excellent  Bibliographic  de  la  Chine. 


E  I  C  -  B  I  C 


537 


Jesuits  in  naming  God  Almighty,  such  as  Tien,  "Heaven,"  and 
Shang-ti,  "Supreme  Ruler"  or  "Emperor,"  instead  of  Tien-Chu, 
"Lord  of  Heaven,"  and  in  particular  the  erection  of  inscribed 
tablets  in  the  churches,  on  which  these  terms  were  made  use  of;1 
(2)  in  respect  to  the  ceremonial  offerings  made  in  honour  of 
Confucius,  and  of  personal  ancestors,  which  Ricci  had  recognized 
as  merely  "civil"  observances;  (3)  the  erection  of  tablets  in 
honour  of  ancestors  in  private  houses  ;  and  (4),  more  generally, 
sanction  and  favour  accorded  to  ancient  Chinese  sacred  books 
and  philosophical  doctrine,  as  not  really  trespassing  on  Christian 
faith. 

Probably  no  European  name  of  past  centuries  is  so  well  known 
in  China  as  that  of  Li-ma-teu,  the  form  in  which  the  name  of 
our  missionary  (Ei-cci  Mat-tco)  was  adapted  to  Chinese  usage,  and 
by  which  he  appears  in  Chinese  records.2  The  works  which  he 
composed  in  Chinese  are  numerous  ;  a  list  of  them  (apparently 
by  no  means  complete,  however)  will  be  found  in  Kircher's  Chiiia 
Illustrata,  and  also  in  Abel  Remusat's  Nouveaux  Melanges 
Asiatiques  (ii.  pp.  213-215).  They  are  said  to  display  an  aptitude 
for  clothing  ideas  in  a  Chinese  dress  very  rare  and  remarkable  in 
a  foreigner.  One  of  the  first  which  attracted  attention  and  re- 
putation among  Chinese  readers  was  a  Treatise  upon  Friendship,  in 
the  form  of  a  dialogue  containing  short  and  pithy  paragraphs  ;  this 
is  stated  in  the  De  Expcditione  to  have  been  suggested  during 
Ricci's  stay  at  Nan-chang  by  a  conversation  with  the  prince  of 
Kien-ngan,  who  asked  questions  regarding  the  laws  of  friendship 
in  the  West. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  residence  at  Peking,  when  enjoying  con- 
stant intercourse  with  scholars  of  high  position,  Ricci  brought  out 
the  T'ien-chu  shih-i,  or  "  Veritable  doctrine  of  the  Lord  of  Heaven," 
which  deals  with  the  divine  character  and  attributes  under  eight 
heads.  "This  work,"  says  Mr  A.  Wylie,  "contains  some  acute 
reasoning  in  support  of  the  propositions  laid  down,  but  the  doctrine 
of  faith  in  Christ  is  very  slightly  touched  upon.  The  teachings  of 
Buddhism  are  vigorously  attacked,  whilst  the  author  tries  to  draw 
a  parallel  between  Christianity  and  the  teachings  of  the  Chinese 
literati." 

In  1604  Ricci  completed  the  Erh-shih-wu  yen,  a  series  of  short 
articles  of  moral  bearing,  but  exhibiting  little  of  the  essential 
doctrines  of  Christianity.  Chi- j in  sliih  pien  is  another  of  his  pro- 
ductions, completed  in  1608,  and  consisting  of  a  record  of  ten  con- 
versations held  with  Chinese  of  high  position.  The  subjects  are  :  — 
(1)  Years  past  no  longer  ours  ;  (2)  Man  a  sojourner  on  earth  ;  (3) 
Advantage  of  frequent  contemplation  of  eternity ;  (4)  Prepara- 
tion for  judgment  by  such  contemplation  ;  (5)  The  good  man  not 
desirous  of  talking ;  (6)  Abstinence,  and  its  distinction  from  the 
prohibition  to  take  life  ;  (7)  Self-examination  and  self-reproof 
inconsistent  with  inaction ;  (8)  Future  reward  and  punishment ; 
(9)  Prying  into  futurity  hastens  calamity ;  (10)  Wealth  with 
covetousness  more  wretched  than  poverty  with  contentment.  To 
this  work  is  appended  a  translation  of  eight  European  hymns, 
with  elucidations,  written  in  1609. 

Some  of  the  characteristics  briefly  indicated  here  may  have 
suggested,  though  probably  they  are  far  from  justifying,  the 
bitterness  of  attacks  made  upon  Ricci's  theology,  long  after  he  had 
been  in  his  grave,  by  some  of  the  opponents  of  the  Jesuits  in  the 
controversies  to  which  we  have  referred.  An  example  of  these  is 
found  in  the  work  called  Anecdotes  sur  I'fitat  de  Religion  dans  let 
Chine,  Paris,  1733-35,  the  author  of  which  (Abbe  Villers)  speaks 
of  the  T'ien-chu  shih-i  in  this  fashion — "  The  Jesuit  was  also  so  ill 
versed  in  the  particulars  of  the  faith  that,  as  the  holy  bishop  of 
Conon,  Monsgr.  Maigrot,  says  of  him,  one  need  merely  read  his 
book  on  the  true  religion  to  convince  oneself  that  he  had  never 
imbibed  the  first  elements  of  theology".  .  .  .  The  writer  goes 
on  to  say  other  things  even  much  more  bitter. 

Ricci's  pointed  attacks  on  Buddhism,  and  the  wide  circulation 
of  his  books,  called  forth  the  opposition  of  the  Buddhist  clergy. 

1  Compare    Browning,    The  Riny  and   the   Book,   x.,    The    Pope, 
1589-1603. 

2  The  name  conies  forward  prominently  in  the  mouth  of  the  emperor 
Kang-hi,  in  a  dialogue  which  took  place  between  him  and  Monsgr. 
Maigrot,    the    leader    of    the    anti-Jesuit   movement    (mentioned   in 
Browning's  lines  referred  to  above),  at  the  summer  residence  in  Tar- 
tary,    August   1706, — a   dialogue  which  the   Jesuits    have   reported 
with  not  a  little  malice  : — • 

"Emperor,  'Tell  me  why  do  the  people  call  me  Van-sui  (10,000  years).' 
The  Most  Reverend  {i.e.,  Maigrot),  '  To  express  their  desire  for  your  Majesty's 
long  life.'  Emp.  '  Good.  You  see,  then,  Chinese  words  are  not  always  to  be 
taken  literally.  We  pay  cult  to  Confucius  and  to  the  dead  to  express  our  respect 
for  them.  How  is  that  inconsistent  with  your  religion  ?  When  did  it  begin  to 
be  so?  Is  it  since  Ly-Mattheu's time?  Hast  thou  ever  read  Ly-Mattheu?'  The 
Most  Reverend,  turning  to  P.  Parenin,  whispers,  "Who's  he?"  and  learning 
that  it  was  P.  Matteo  Ricci,  .  .  .  answered  the  emperor:  'I  have  not  read 
that  book.'  Emp.  '  Ly-Mattheu  and  his  fellows  came  hither  some  two  centuries 
iigo;  and  before  their  time  China  never  heard  anything  of  the  Incarnation,  any- 
thing of  Tien-chu,  who  had  not  become  incarnate  in  this  part  of  the  world. 
Why  then,  if  it  was  lawful  to  c  ill  God  Tien  before  Ly-Mattheu's  time,  should  it 
be  improper  now?" — Epistola  de  Erentu  Apoftolicx  Legationis,  fcripta  a  PP. 
Missionariis  ...  ad  Prieposilum  Generalem  S.  J.,  An.  1706,  1  Novembris. 


One  of  the  ablest  who  took  their  part  was  Chu-hang,  a  priest  of 
Hang-chau,  who  had  abandoned  the  literary  status  for  the  Bud- 
dhist cloister.  He  wrote  three  articles  against  the  doctrine  of  the 
missionaries.  These  were  brought  to  Ricci's  notice  in  an  ostensible 
tone  of  candour  by  Yu-chun-he,  a  high  mandarin  at  the  capital. 
This  letter,  with  Ricci's  reply,  the  three  Buddhist  declamations, 
and  Ricci's  confutation,  were  published  in  a  collected  form  by  the 
Christian  Sen-Kwang-K'e. 

Another  work  of  Ricci's  which  attracted  attention  was  the 
Hsi-kuofa,  or  "Art  of  Memory  as  practised  in  the  West."  Ricci 
was  himself  a  great,  expert  in  memoria  technica,  and  astonished 
the  Chinese  by  his  performances  in  this  line.  He  also  wrote  or 
edited  various  Chinese  works  on  geography,  the  celestial  and 
terrestrial  spheres,  geometry,  and  arithmetic.3  And  the  detailed 
history  of  the  mission  was  drawn  out  by  him,  which  after  his 
death  was  brought  home  by  P.  Nicolas  Triganlt,  and  published  at 
Augsburg,  and  in  a  complete  form  at  Lyons  a  year  later  under  the 
name  DC  Expcditione  Christiana  apud  Sinas  Suscepta,  ab  Soc.  Jesu, 
Ex  P.  Mat.  Ricci  ejusdem  Societatis  Commentariis,  in  which  Tri- 
gault  himself  added  a  large  amount  of  interesting  matter  respecting 
China  and  the  Chinese. 

Among  the  scientific  works  of  his  time  which  Ricci  took  with 
him  into  China,  there  was  a  fine  set  of  maps,  which  at  first 
created  great  interest,  but  disgust  afterwards  when  the  Chinese 
came  to  perceive  the  insignificant  place  assigned  therein  to  the 
"Middle  Kingdom,"  thrust,  as  it  seemed,  into  a  corner,  instead  of 
being  set  in  the  centre  of  the  world  like  the  gem  in  a  ring.  Ricci, 
seeing  their  dissatisfaction,  set  about  constructing  a  map  of  the 
hemisphere  on  a  great  scale,  so  adjusted  that  China,  with  its 
subject  states,  filled  the  central  area,  and,  without  deviating  from 
truth  of  projection,  occupied  a  large  space  in  proportion  to  the 
other  kingdoms  gathered  round  it.  All  the  names  were  then 
entered  in  Chinese  calligraphy.  This  map  obtained  immense 
favour,  and  was  immediately  engraved  at  the  expense  of  the  viceroy, 
and  widely  circulated. 

In  the  accompanying  cut  we  have  endeavoured  to  realize  this 
Jesuitical  map,  as  we  fear  it  must  be  called.  The  projection  we 
have  adopted  is 
a  perspective  of 
the  hemisphere, 
as  viewed  from 
a  point  at  the 
distance  of  one 
diameter  from 
the  surface,  and 
situated  on  the 
production  of 
the  radius  which 
passes  through 
the  intersec- 
tion of  115°  E. 
long.  (Green- 
wich) with  30° 
N.  lat.  Some- 
thing pretty 
near  this  must 
have  been  Li- 
ma-ten's projec- 
tion. With  a 

vertex  much  more  distant  the  desired  effect  would  be  impaired,  and 
with  one  nearer  neither  of  the  poles  would  be  seen,  whilst  the 
exaggeration  of  China  would  have  been  too  gross  for  a  professed 
representation  of  the  hemisphere. 

The  chief  facts  of  Ricci's  career  are  derived  from  Trigault ;  some  contemporary 
works  on  the  rites  controversy  have  also  been  consulted  ;  in  the  notice  of  Ricci's 
Chinese  writings  valuable  matter  lias  been  derived  from  Notes  on  Chinese  Litera- 
ture by  Mr  A.  Wylie,4  an  indefatigable  scholar,  and  perhaps  our  only  contem- 
porary who  can  speak  of  these  from  actual  examination.  The  projection  of  the 
sphere  by  the  present  writer  appeared  in  the  (now  defunct)  Geographical 
Magazine  for  July  1874.  A  number  of  Ricci's  letters  are  extant  in  the  possession 
of  the  family,  and  access  to  them  was  afforded  to  Giuseppe  La  Farina,  author  of 
the  work  called  La  China,  considerata  nella  sua  Storia,  <fcc.,  Florence,  1843,  by 
the  Murchese  Amico  Ricci  of  Macerata,  livfng  at  Bologna  (see  vol.  i.  p.  112  sq.). 
La  Farina's  quotations  contain  nothing  of  interest.  There  is  a  curious  Chinese 
account  of  Ricci  published  by  Dr  Breitschneider  in  the  China  Review,  iv. 
391  sq.  (H.  Y.) 

RICCIARELLI,  DANIELE  (1509-1566),  Italian  artist, 
generally  called,  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  DANIELE  DA 

3  In  the  catalogue  of  the  London  Mission  Library,  Shanghai,  1857, 
we  find  the  following  entries  : — "197.  Chi'ho  yuan  pen,  Elements  of 
Geometry  (MS.).     This  is  the  first  six  books  of  Euclid,  translated 
by  Matthew  Ricci  and  his  disciple  Sen-Kwang-K'e,  1607."     "198. 
Fung-wen  suan-chih.     Guide  to  Arithmetic,  9  vols.  incomplete  ;  this 
treatise  was  drawn  up  by  Ricci,  with  the  aid  of  his  disciple  Le-Che- 
tsaou,   and  published   in   1613."     "199.    Chi-jen  shih  pien"   (see 
above). 

4  Shanghai  and  London,  1867. 

XX.  —  68 


538 


11  I  C  —  R  I  C 


VOLTERRA,  was  born  in  1509,  and  studied  painting  under 
Razzi  and  Peruzzi.  Tlie  young  artist,  settling  in  Rome, 
strove  most  unweariedly  to  attain  eminence  in  his  profes- 
sion. No  efforts  were  spared  on  his  pictures.  He  pro- 
ceeded with  a  careful  slowness,  attempting  to  reach  his 
ideal  by  a  close  imitation  of  Michelangelo.  It  is  even  said 
that  he  sometimes  in  a  difficulty  had  recourse  to  the  more 
direct  aid  of  that  great  master's  own  hand.  The  result  of 
this  earnest  labour  was  that  Ricciarelli  obtained  abund- 
ant encouragement.  His  constant  friend,  Michelangelo, 
recommended  him  on  all  possible  occasions.  He  had  the 
honour  to  beautify  with  works  of  art  a  chapel  in  the 
church  of  the  Trinita,  to  paint  in  the  Farnese  Palace,  to 
execute  certain  decorations  in  the  Palazzo  de'  Medici  at 
Navona,  and  to  begin  the  stucco  work  and  the  pictures  in 
the  Hall  of  the  Kings.  Nor  was  he  less  highly  patronized 
when,  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  statuary.  His  last  work  was  a  bronze  horse 
intended  for  an  equestrian  statue  of  Henry  II.  of  France. 
He  died  in  1566.  The  principal  extant  works  of  Ric- 
ciarelli are  at  Rome.  These  are  a  St  John  the  Baptist 
in  the  picture  gallery  of  the  Capitol,  a  Saviour  bearing 
the  Cross  in  the  Palazzo  Rospigliosi,  and  a  Descent  from 
the  Cross,  his  masterpiece,  in  the  church  of  Trinitk  de 
Monti.  There  is  also  an  Elijah  at  Volterra. 

RICCOBONI,  MADAME  (1714-1792),  whose  maiden 
name  was  Marie  Jeanne  Laboras  de  Mezieres,  and  who 
married  and  was  deserted  by  an  actor  and  author  of  little 
merit,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1714.  She  herself  was  an 
actress,  but  did  not  succeed  on  the  stage.  She  then  took 
to  novel  writing  and  deserves  a  considerable  place  in  the 
history  of  the  sentimental  novel.  Her  first  work  was  the 
remarkable  Histoire  du  Marquis  de  Cressy  (1758).  This 
was  followed  by  Milady  Catesby,  Fanny  Butler  (both  of 
them,  as  indeed  are  almost  all  her  books,  in  letter  form), 
Ernestine  (sometimes  thought  her  masterpiece),  three 
series  of  Lettres  in  the  names  of  Adelaide  de  Dammartin 
(often  quoted  as  Madame  de  Sancerre\  Elizabeth  Sophie  de 
Valliere,  Milord  Rivers,  and  others.  These  books  were 
much  admired,  but  brought  their  author  little  money. 
She  obtained,  however,  a  small  pension  from  the  crown,  but 
the  Revolution  deprived  her  of  it,  and  she  died  in  1792  in 
great  indigence.  Besides  the  works  named  she  translated 
Fielding's  Amelia,  and  tried  a  continuation  (but  not  the 
conclusion  sometimes  erroneously  ascribed  to  her)  of 
Marivaux's  unfinished  Marianne. 

All  Madame  Riccoboni's  work  is  very  clever,  and  there  is  real 
pathos  in  it.  But  it  is  among  the  most  eminent  examples  of  the 
'  sensibility  "  novel,  of  which  no  examples  but  Sterne's  have  kept 
their  place  in  England,  and  that  not  in  virtue  of  their  sensibility. 
A  still  nearer  parallel  may  be  found  in  the  work  of  Mackenzie. 
Madame  Kiccoboni  is  an  especial  offender  in  the  use  of  mechanical 
aids  to  impressiveness — italics,  dashes,  rows  of  points,  and  the  like. 
The  principal  edition  of  her  complete  works  is  that  of  Paris, 
1818.  The  chief  novels  appear  in  a  volume  of  Garnier's  Biblio- 
thkque  Amusante,  Paris,  1865. 

RICE.  According  to  Roxburgh  the  cultivated  rice 
with  all  its  numerous  varieties  has  originated  from  a  wild 
plant  called  in  India  Newaree  or  Nivara  (Oryza  sativa). 
It  is  said  to  grow  on  the  borders  of  lakes  in  the  Circars 
and  elsewhere  in  India,  and  is  also  native  in  tropical 
Australia.  The  rice  plant  is  an  annual  grass  with  long 
linear  glabrous  leaves,  each  provided  with  a  long  sharply- 
pointed  ligule.  The  spikelets  are  borne  on  a  compound 
or  branched  spike,  erect  at  first  but  afterwards  bent  down- 
wards. Each  spikelet  contains  a  solitary  flower  with  two 
outer  small  glumes  and  two  inner,  larger  and  folded 
lengthwise,  the  outer  one  of  the  two  rather  larger  and 
sometimes  provided  with  an  awn.  Within  these  are  six 
stamens,  a  hairy  ovary  surmounted  by  two  feathery  styles 
which  ripens  into  the  fruit  (grain),  and  which  is  invested 


by  the  husk  formed  by  the  persistent  glumes.  The  culti- 
vated varieties  are  extremely  numerous,  some  kinds  being 
adapted  for  marshy  land,  others  for  growth  on  the  hill-sides. 
The  cultivators  make  two  principal  divisions  according  as 
the  sorts  are  early  or  late.  Other  subdivisions  depend 
upon  the  habit  of  the  plant,  the  presence  or  absence  of  an 
awn,  the  colour  of  the  grain,  and  other  particulars.  Rice 
has  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial  in  tropical 
countries.  According  to  Stanislas  Julien  a  ceremonial 
ordinance  was  established  in  China  by  the  emperor  Chin- 
nung  2800  years  B.C.,  in  accordance  with  which  the 
emperor  sows  the  rice  himself  while  the  seeds  of  four 
other  kinds  may  be  sown  by  the  princes  of  his  family. 
This  fact,  joined  to  other  considerations,  induced  Alphonse 
de  Candolle  to  consider  rice  as  a  native  of  China.  It  was 
very  early  culti- 
vated in  India,  in 
some  parts  of  which 
country,  as  in  tro- 
pical Australia,  it 
is,  as  we  have  seen, 
indigenous.  It  is 
not  mentioned  in 
the  Bible,  but  its 
culture  is  alluded 
to  in  the  Talmud. 
There  is  no  evi- 
dence of  the  exist- 
ence of  rice  in 
Egyptian  remains, 
nor  is  there  any 
trace  of  it  as  a 
native  plant  among 
the  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, or  ancient 
Persians.  There  is 
proof  of  its  culture 
in  the  Euphrates 
valley  and  in 
Syria  four  hundred 
yearsbefore  Christ. 
Crawfurd  on  phi- 
lological grounds 
considers  that  rice 
was  introduced 
into  Persia  from 
southern  India. 
The  Arabs  carried 
the  plant  into 
Spain  under  the  name  "  aruz,"  the  arros  of  the  Spanish, 
the  rizo  of  the  Italian,  whence  our  word  rice.  Rice 
was  first  cultivated  in  Italy  near  Pisa  in  1468.  It  was 
not  introduced  into  Carolina  until  1700,  and  then,  as  it 
is  said,  by  accident,  although  at  one  time  the  southern 
United  States  furnished  a  large  proportion  of  the  rice 
introduced  into  commerce.  Rice,  says  Crawfurd,  sports 
into  far  more  varieties  than  any  of  the  corns  familiar 
to  Europeans,  for  some  varieties  grow  in  the  water  and 
some  on  dry  land ;  some  come  to  maturity  in  three 
months,  while  others  take  four  and  six  months  to  do 
so.  The  Hindus,  however,  are  not  content  with  such 
broad  distinctions  as  might  be  derived  from  these  obvious 
sources,  but  have  names  for  varieties  the  distinctions 
between  which  are  unappreciable  by  Europeans ;  besides 
terms  for  this  corn  founded  on  variety,  on  season,  and 
on  mode  of  culture,  the  grain  itself  bears  one  name  in 
the  straw,  another  when  threshed,  one  name  in  the  husk 
and  another  when  freed  from  it,  and  a  fifth  when  cooked. 
A  similar  abundance  of  terms  is  found  in  the  languages  of 
the  Malay  and  Philippine  Islands.  Such  minute  nomen- 


Rice  (Oryza  sativa). 

A,  spikelet  (enlarged) ;  B,  bearded  variety ; 
C,  spikelet  of  B  (enlarged). 


R  I  C— R  I  C 


539 


clatures  seem  to  point  to  a  great  antiquity  in  the  culture 
of  this  cereal. 

Rice  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  articles  of  food  in 
all  tropical  and  subtropical  countries,  and  is  one  of  the  most  prolific 
of  all  crops.  The  rice  yields  best  on  low  lands  subject  to  occasional 
inundations,  and  thus  enriched  by  alluvial  deposits.  An  abundant 
rainfall  during  the  growing  season  is  also  a  desideratum.  Rice  is 
sown  broadcast,  and  in  some  districts  is  transplanted  after  a  fort- 
night or  three  weeks.  No  special  rotation  is  followed  ;  indeed  the 
soil  best  suited  for  rice  is  ill  adapted  for  any  other  crop.  In  some 
cases  little  manure  is  employed,  but  in  others  abundance  of  manure 
is  used.  No  special  tillage  is  required,  but  weeding  and  irrigation 
are  requisite.  Rice  in  the  husk  is  known  as  "paddy."  On  cut- 
ting across  a  grain  of  rice  and  examining  it  under  the  microscope, 
first  the  flattened  and  dried  cells  of  the  husk  are  seen,  and  then  one 
or  two  layers  of  cells  elongated  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  length 
of  the  seed,  Avhich  contain  the  gluten  or  nitrogenous  matter. 
Within  these,  and  forming  by  far  the  largest  part  of  the  seed, 
are  large  polygonal  cells  filled  with  very  numerous  and  very 
minute  angular  starch  grains.  Rice  is  not  so  valuable  as  a  food 
as  some  other  cereals,  inasmuch  as  the  proportion  of  nitrogenous 
matter  (gluten)  is  less.  Payen  gives  only  7  per  cent,  of  gluten 
in  rice  as  compared  with  22  per  cent,  in  the  finest  wheat,  14  in 
oats,  and  12  in  maize.  The  percentage  of  potash  in  the  ash  is 
as  18  to  23  in  wheat.  The  fatty  matter  is  also  less  in  proportion 
than  in  other  cereals.  Rice,  therefore,  is  chiefly  a  farinaceous 
food,  and  requires  to  be  combined  with  fatty  and  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances, such  as  milk  or  meat  gravy,  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of 
the  system. 

The  imports  of  rice  into  the  United  Kingdom  range  from 
7,000,000  cwt.  to  8,000,000  cwt.  annually,  having  an  estimated 
value  of, from  £3,000,000  to  £3,500,000.  Nearly  the  whole  of  this 
comes  from  British  Burmah  and  Bengal.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  rice  brought  to  Europe  is  used  for  starch-making,  and  some  is 
taken  by  distillers  of  alcohol.  Rice  is  also  the  source  of  a  drinking 
spirit  in  India,  and  the  national  beverage  of  Japan — sake— is  pre- 
pared entirely  from  the  fermented  grain. 

KICE  PAPER.  The  substance  which  has  received  this 
name  in  Europe,  through  the  mistaken  notion  that  it  is 
made  from  rice,  consists  of  the  pith  of  a  small  tree  Aralia 
papyri/era  cut  into  thin  slices.  The  tree  grows  in  the 
swampy  forests  of  Formosa  and  apparently  nowhere  else, 
and  large  quantities  of  the  stems  are  conveyed  to  Chin- 
chew,  where  the  snow-white  delicate  pith  is  carefully  sliced 
by  spiral  cuts  into  uniform  sheets  of  a  fine  ivory-like 
texture.  It  is  dyed  various  colours,  and  extensively  used 
for  the  preparation  of  artificial  flowers,  while  the  white 
sheets  are  employed  by  native  artists  for  water-colour 
drawings. 

RICH,  CLAUDIUS  JAMES  (1787-1821),  Eastern  traveller 
and  scholar,  was  born  near  Dijon,  March  28,  1787. 
While  still  an  infant  he  was  taken  to  Bristol,  where  he 
spent  his  youth.  At  a  very  early  age  he  developed  a 
wonderful  capacity  for  the  acquisition  of  languages,  soon 
becoming  familiar  not  only  with  Latin  and  Greek  but 
also  with  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Persian,  Turkish,  and  other 
Eastern  tongues.  His  unusual  intelligence  and  extraordi- 
nary acquirements  in  Oriental  languages  procured  for  him 
in  1803  a  nomination  to  a  writership  in  the  Bombay 
establishment  of  the  East  India  Company.  In  1804  Rich 
proceeded  to  Constantinople,  where,  and  at  Smyrna,  he 
stayed  a  considerable  time,  perfecting  himself  in  the 
Turkish  language.  Proceeding  to  Alexandria  as  assistant 
to  the  British  consul-general  there,  he  devoted  himself  to 
Arabic  and  its  various  dialects,  and  made  himself  master 
of  Eastern  manners  and  usages.  On  leaving  Egypt  he 
proceeded  by  land  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  disguised  as  a 
Mameluke,  visiting  Damascus,  and  entering  the  great 
mosque  undetected.  At  Bombay,  which  he  reached  in 
September  1807,  he  was  the  guest  of  Sir  James  Mack- 
intosh, whose  eldest  daughter  he  married  in  January 
1808,  proceeding  soon  after  to  Baghdad  as  resident. 
While  gaining  the  respect  of  Turks  of  all  classes,  as 
well  as  of  Europeans,  he  now  began  his  investiga- 
tions into  the  geography,  history,  and  antiquities  of  the 
vastly  interesting  region  in  the  midst  of  which  he  was 


placed,  the  results  of  which  give  him  a  high  place 
among  Eastern  students.  He  made  collections  of  all 
kinds,  visited  and  examined  the  remains  of  Babylon,  and 
projected  a  geographical  and  statistical  account  of  the 
pashalic  of  Baghdad.  The  results  of  his  investigations  at 
Babylon  appeared  first  in  the  Vienna  serial  the  Mines  de 
I' Orient,  and  in  1811  in  England,  under  the  title  Narra- 
tive of  a  Journey  to  the  Site  of  Babylon  in  1811.  In  1839 
this  was  republished  by  his  widow,  with  Major  Rennell's 
remarks  upon  it,  and  a  second  memoir  by  Rich  in  reference 
to  these  remarks,  together  with  the  narrative  of  a  journey 
to  Persepolis.  In  1813-14  Rich  spent  some  time  in 
Europe,  and  on  his  return  to  Baghdad  paid  special  atten- 
tion to  the  geography  of  Asia  Minor,  and  collected  much 
information  in  Syrian  and  Chaldsean  convents  concerning 
the  Yezzidis.  He  continued,  too,  to  collect  manuscripts  of 
all  kinds,  his  collections  being  probably  the  most  extensive 
and  valuable  brought  together  by  any  private  person  up  to 
that  time.  His  collection  of  coins — Greek,  Parthian, 
Sasanian,  and  Moslem — as  well  as  of  gems  and  engraved 
stones,  was  much,  enlarged.  During  this  period  he  made  a 
second  excursion  to  Babylon,  and  in  1820  he  undertook 
an  extensive  tour  to  Kurdistan — from  Baghdad  north  to 
Sulimania,  eastward  to  Sinna,  then  west  to  Nineveh,  and 
thence  down  the  Tigris  to  Baghdad.  The  narrative  of  this 
journey,  which  for  the  first  time  furnished  accurate  know- 
ledge (from  scientific  observation)  regarding  the  topography 
and  geography  of  the  region  traversed,  was  published  by 
his  widow  in  1836.  It  abounds  with  information  on  the 
country  and  the  people,  their  history  and  traditions,  the 
ruins  and  inscriptions  met  with,  characterized  by  the  pro- 
fundity and  thoroughness  of  the  real  scholar  and  trained 
observer.  He  visited  many  of  the  ancient  Christian 
churches  in  Chaldsea,  adding  largely  to  his  stock  of  manu- 
scripts, including  ancient  Syrian  and  Chaldaean  versions 
of  the  Scriptures.  In  1821  Rich  went  to  Basora,  whence 
he  made  an  excursion  to  Shiraz,  visiting  the  ruins  of  Per- 
sepolis and  the  other  remains  of  antiquity  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. An  account  of  these  excursions  is  given  in  the  post- 
humous publication  referred  to,  which  also  contains  many 
notes  on  Rich's  collections  and  minor  excursions  as  well  as 
a  brief  memoir.  At  Shiraz  he  was  struck  down  by  cholera 
on  October  5,  1821.  His  early  death  was  a  vast  loss  to 
Oriental  investigation.  The  work  he  did  accomplish  was 
of  great  value  for  Eastern  archaeology  and  history. 

RICHARD  I.  (1157-1199),  king  of  England,  called 
even  before  his  death  "  the  Lion"  or  "  Coeur  de  Lion,"  was 
the  third  son  of  Henry  II.  and  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine.  He 
was  born,  probably  at  Oxford,  on  September  8,  1157. 
When  little  more  than  eleven  years  old  he  was  invested 
with  the  duchy  of  Aquitaine,  and  imbibed  in  southern 
France  the  spirit  of  the  adventurer  and  the  troubadour 
which  characterized  him  through  life.  In  1173  he  joined 
the  league  against  Henry  II.,  but  when  the  rebellion 
was  suppressed  in  117i  he  was  pardoned  by  his  father. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  was  affianced  to  Alice,  the  daughter 
of  Louis  VII.  The  death  of  his  brother  Henry  in  1184 
made  Richard  heir  to  the  throne.  From  this  time  he  was 
the  centre  of  the  disturbances  which  troubled  the  last  five 
years  of  Henry  II. 's  reign.  The  pretext  for  his  quarrel 
with  his  father  was  the  refusal  of  the  latter  to  allow  the 
barons  to  do  fealty  to  Richard  as  heir,  and  Henry's  wish  to 
transfer  Aquitaine  to  his  younger  son  John.  War  was 
for  some  time  averted  by  the  preparations  for  the  third 
crusade,  and  Richard  himself  took  the  cross  (1187). 
Next  year,  however,  a  quarrel  between  Richard  and  his 
neighbour  the  count  of  Toulouse  led  to  the  final  breach. 
Philip,  king  of  France,  took  advantage  of  this  quarrel  to 
invade  Berri,  whence  he  was  driven  out  again  by  Richard, 
who  so  far  was  acting  in  concert  with  his  father.  A  truce 


540 


RICHARD      I 


was  made  between  the  two  kings,  and  Philip  used  the 
opportunity  to  separate  Henry  from  his  son.  In  November 
1188  Richard  did  homage  to  Philip  for  his  French  pro- 
vinces, and  the  latter  demanded  that  Henry  should 
acknowledge  him  as  heir.  Henry  hesitated,  and  Richard 
openly  joined  Philip.  In  the  spring  of  1189  the  allies 
overran  Maine  and  Touraine,  and  forced  Henry,  in  a 
meeting  at  Colombieres,  to  submit  to  their  demands. 
Two  days  later  Henry  died  at  Chinon  (July  G,  1189),  and 
Richard  became  king  of  England. 

Richard's  reign  falls  into  two  equal  divisions — the  one 
comprising  his  crusade  and  captivity,  the  other  his  wars 
against  Philip  in  France.  On  his  father's  death  he  was 
at  once  acknowledged  as  duke  of  Normandy  and  count  of 
Anjou.  On  September  3,  1 189,  he  was  crowned  with  great 
pomp  at  Westminster.  This  is  the  first  English  corona- 
tion of  which  we  have  a  full  account,  and  the  formalities 
then  adopted  have  been  followed  with  little  alteration 
ever  since.  Richard  at  once  set  to  work  to  collect  funds 
for  the  crusade.  He  sold  ecclesiastical  and  temporal 
offices,  released  the  king  of  Scotland  from  the  vassalage  to 
which  Henry  II.  had  subjected  him ;  and,  having  by  these 
means  and  by  taxation  collected  a  large  sum  of  money,  he 
crossed  to  Calais  on  December  12.  Soon  afterwards  he 
met  Philip  at  St  Remy  and  made  a  treaty  with  him  for  a 
joint  crusade.  On  June  27,  1190,  the  two  armies  assembled 
at  Vezelai,  whence  they  marched  together  as  far  as  Lyons. 
There  Philip  took  the  route  to  Genoa,  while  Richard  went 
by  Marseilles.  Visiting  Naples  on  the  way,  he  landed  at 
Messina  on  September  23,  where  he  found  the  French 
army  and  his  own  fleet  awaiting  him.  The  two  kings 
remained  in  Sicily  during  the  winter.  William  II.,  king 
of  Sicily,  husband  of  Richard's  sister  Joanna,  had  died 
shortly  before,  and  Tancred,  nephew  of  William,  had  seized 
the  throne.  During  the  negotiations  for  the  recovery  of 
Joanna  and  her  dowry,  disturbances  broke  out  which 
ended  in  Richard's  forcing  his  way  into  Messina  at  the 
head  of  his  army.  His  real  enemy  was,  however,  not 
Tancred,  but  Philip.  The  natural  jealousy  of  the  two 
kings  grew  into  mutual  hatred  during  their  stay  in  Sicily, 
and  Tancred  informed  Richard  of  French  intrigues.  In 
March  1191  Richard  made  a  treaty  with  Tancred,  and 
recognized  him  as  king  of  Sicily.  At  the  same  time  he 
repudiated  Alice,  Philip's  sister,  and  betrothed  himself  to 
Berengaria  of  Navarre.  Philip  was  the  first  to  leave 
Sicily.  He  arrived  at  Acre  early  in  April.  On  April  10 
Richard  set  sail,  and  a  month  later  reached  Cyprus,  where 
he  married  Berengaria  (May  12).  He  then  proceeded  to 
conquer  Cyprus,  took  Isaac  Comnenus  and  his  daughter 
prisoners,  and  set  out  again  for  the  Holy  Land,  reaching 
Acre  on  June  8.  Guy  of  Lusignan,  who  claimed  the 
throne  of  Jerusalem,  had  besieged  that  fortress  since  1189, 
but  the  Christian  army  was  itself  hemmed  in  by  the  forces 
of  Saladin.  Richard's  arrival  encouraged  the  besiegers, 
and  on  July  11  Acre  surrendered.  The  two  kings  now 
settled  the  dispute  between  Guy  of  Lusignan  and  Conrad 
of  Montferrat  about  the  throne  of  Jerusalem  and  on 
August  3  Philip  left  the  Holy  Land.  Saladin  having 
failed  to  fulfil  the  terms  on  which  Acre  had  surrendered, 
Richard  ordered  the  massacre  in  cold  blood  of  some  three 
thousand  Mohammedan  prisoners.  Soon  afterwards  he 
set  out  for  Jaffa,  and  on  the  way  thither  won  the  battle 
cf  Arsuf.  Having  rebuilt  Jaffa,  he  started  for  Jerusalem. 
About  Christmas  1191  he  arrived  at  Beit-nuba,  within  sight 
of  the  Holy  City,  but,  owing  to  the  reluctance  or  desertion 
of  his  French  allies,  he  found  it  impossible  to  besiege  it, 
and  therefore  withdrew  to  the  coast.  In  April  1192,  at 
the  instance  of  his  followers,  he  recognized  Conrad  as  king 
of  Jerusalem,  indemnifying  Guy  with  the  crown  of 
Cyprus.  The  murder  of  Conrad  immediately  afterwards 


was  laid,  probably  without  sufficient  ground,  to  the  charge 
of  Richard,  who  conferred  the  vacant  throne  on  Henry, 
count  of  Champagne.  Bad  news  from  England  now 
made  him  anxious  to  go  home,  but  he  resolved  on  one 
more  attempt  to  save  Jerusalem.  He  set  out  on  June  4, 
arrived  again  within  sight  of  the  city,  and  again  retired 
without  venturing  to  attack.  Jaffa,  which  had  been 
taken  by  Saladin,  was  retaken  on  August  1.  This  was 
Richard's  last  exploit  in  the  East.  On  September  1  he 
made  a  three  years'  truce  with  Saladin,  on  the  basis  of  the 
status  quo ;  and  on  October  9  he  sailed  for  home,  leaving 
behind  him  a  name  long  remembered  by  the  Saracens, 
but,  beyond  the  capture  of  Acre,  having  accomplished 
none  of  the  objects  with  which  he  set  out. 

Fearing  to  go  through  France,  Richard  sailed  up  the 
Adriatic,  and  made  his  way  on  foot,  as  a  pilgrim  and 
almost  alone,  to  Erdburg  near  Vienna.  Here  he  was  dis- 
covered (December  21,  1192)  by  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria, 
of  whom,  while  at  Ascalon,  he  had  made  a  bitter  enemy. 
After  being  confined  for  some  time  at  Diirrenstein  on  the 
Danube,  he  was  surrendered  in  March  1193  to  the 
emperor  Henry  VI.,  who  imprisoned  him  first  at  Trif  jls 
and  afterwards  at  Worms.  Legend  was  already  rife  about 
him,  but  the  story  of  his  discovery  by  Blondel  only  dates 
from  the  following  century,  and  is  of  French  origin.  In 
order  to  liberate  himself,  Richard  resigned  his  crown  to 
Henry  VI.  as  overlord  of  Christendom,  promised  to  pay  a 
yearly  tribute,  and  received  back  the  crown  as  a  vassal  of 
the  emperor.  At  Easter  a  diet  was  held  at  Spires,  at 
which  Richard  was  charged  with  various  misdoings, — the 
recognition  of  Tancred,  the  conquest  of  Cyprus,  the 
murder  of  Conrad,  even  with  the  betrayal  of  the  Holy 
Land  to  Saladin.  He  defended  himself  eloquently,  and 
the  charges  were  dropped.  Shortly  afterwards  a  treaty 
was  made  at  Worms  (July  29)  for  Richard's  release  on 
payment  of  a  ransom  of  150,000  marks,  with  other  condi- 
tions.  Great  efforts  were  made  in  England  to  collect  the 
money,  two-thirds  of  which  was  paid  over  to  Henry, 
hostages  being  given  for  the  rest.  Philip  and  John  were 
able,  however,  by  offers  of  money  and  other  means,  to 
induce  the  emperor  to  detain  Richard  till  the  following 
spring.  At  length  he  was  liberated.  On  March  13, 
1194,  he  set  foot  again  in  England.  He  found  his 
dominions  in  great  confusion  owing  to  the  intrigues  of 
Philip  and  John.  He  rapidly  made  himself  master  of  the 
castles  which  held  out  for  John,  and  on  April  17,  1194,  he 
was  crowned  a  second  time.  He  then  collected  more 
money  from  the  impoverished  country  for  the  rest  of  his 
ransom  and  for  an  expedition  to  France,  and  on  May  12 
left  England  again  never  to  return.  Philip  retired  before 
him ;  John  submitted  and  was  pardoned.  For  the 
remaining  five  years  of  his  reign  Richard  kept  up  an 
intermittent  struggle  with  Philip,  a  struggle  marked  by  no 
great  battles,  and  interrupted  only  by  fruitless  negotiations 
and  truces  which  were  never  kept.  Neither  party  was 
strong  enough  to  inflict  a  severe  blow  upon  the  other.  In 
the  autumn  of  1198  the  war  went  decidedly  against  Philip, 
but  in  January  1199  a  peace  for  five  years  was  made, 
each  side  retaining  what  it  held.  Shortly  afterwards 
Richard,  while  besieging  the  castle  of  Chaluz  near  Limoges, 
which  was  held  against  him  by  one  of  his  vassals,  was 
wounded  by  an  arrow.  He  died  on  April  6,  1199,  and 
was  buried  at  Fontevraud.  His  brother  John  succeeded 
him. 

In  person  Richard  was  tall,  muscular,  ruddy,  with  light 
brown  hair.  He  was  lavish,  generous,  and  fearless;  a 
skilful  commander,  but  incapable  of  extensive  combina- 
tions or  far-reaching  plans ;  more  religious  than  his  father 
or  brothers,  but  equally  vicious ;  a  bad  husband  and  a  bad 
son,  with  much  of  the  ferocity  that  characterized  his  race ; 


RICHARD 


541 


in  fact,  a  typical  representative  of  the  faults  as  well  as  the 
virtues  of  the  chivalry  of  his  day.  His  reign  was  sig- 
nalized by  no  great  legal  or  administrative  reform,  and 
England  owes  him  nothing  but  barren  fame. 

Chief  Authorities. — Hoveden,  Chronica;  Kalph  de  Diceto, 
Imagines  Historiarum ;  Gervase  of  Canterbury,  Chronica,  &c.  ; 
Chronicles  and  Memorials  of  the  Reign  of  Richard  I.  ;  Gesta  Regis 
Henrici  II.,  &c.  (ascribed  to  Benedict  of  Peterborough)  ;  all  the 
above  have  been  edited,  with  most  valuable  prefaces,  by  Dr  Stubbs 
for  the  Rolls  Series ;  also  William  of  Newburgh,  Historia  Rerum 
Anglicarum,  edited  for  the  Engl.  Hist.  Society  by  H.  C.  Hamil- 
ton, and  for  the  Rolls  Series  by  R.  Hewlett;  Richard  of  Devizes, 
Chronicon,  &c. ,  edited  for  the  Engl.  Hist.  Society  by  J.  Stevenson  ; 
Pauli,  GeschicMe  von  England,  vol.  iii.;  Stubbs,  Early  Plantagenets ; 
Lingard,  History  of  England,  vol.  ii.  (G-.  W.  P.) 

KICHARD  II.  (1366-1400),  king  of  England,  the 
only  son  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince  and  Joan  of  Kent, 
was  born  at  Bordeaux,  April  13,  1366.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather  Edward  III.,  on 
June  21,  1377.  He  was  crowned  on  July  16.  During  the 
first  eleven  years  of  his  reign,  Richard  was  in  a  position  of 
tutelage.  His  uncles,  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster, 
and  Thomas,  duke  of  Gloucester,  were  the  most  influential 
persons  in  the  kingdom.  The  evils  naturally  inherent  in 
a  minority  were  intensified  by  war  abroad,  religious  and 
social  troubles  at  home,  the  existence  of  a  turbulent 
nobility,  and  the  intrigues  and  rivalries  which  broke  up 
the  royal  house.  Under  the  incapable  rule  of  Lancaster, 
the  southern  coasts  were  ravaged  by  French  fleets,  the 
northern  frontier  was  harried  by  the  Scots,  and  the  taxes 
collected  for  national  purposes  were  wasted  or  embezzled. 
The  weakness  and  unpopularity  of  the  Government  pro- 
duced a  ferment  among  the  lower  classes,  which,  aggravated 
by  the  heavy  taxation  of  1379  and  1380,  culminated  in 
the  Peasants'  Revolt  of  June  1381.  This  revolt  gave 
Richard,  then  a  lad  of  fifteen,  his  first  opportunity  of  dis- 
tinguishing himself.  On  June  14  he  met  the  rebels  at 
Mile  End,  and,  by  promising  the  abolition  of  villenage, 
induced  the  Essex  contingent  to  return  home.  Next  day 
he  met  the  Kentish  men  at  Smithfield.  In  the  parley 
which  followed,  their  leader,  Wat  Tyler,  was  killed.  The 
mob  were  about  to  avenge  his  death  when  the  young  king, 
riding  forward  alone,  calmed  their  irritation  and  induced 
them  to  follow  him  to  Islington.  Here  a  body  of  troops 
came  to  the  king's  aid,  but  Richard  prevented  a  conflict, 
and  persuaded  the  rioters  to  disperse.  His  presence  of 
mind,  extraordinary  in  one  so  young,  not  only  saved  his 
own  life  but  averted  a  general  disaster.  In  January  1382 
he  married  Anne  of  Bohemia,  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Charles  IV.  Meanwhile  the  influence  exerted  by  John  of 
Gaunt  was  becoming  more  and  more  irksome  to  him. 
Charges  of  conspiracy  brought  against  his  uncle  in  1384, 
though  denied  by  Lancaster,  so  worked  upon  Richard  that 
he  attempted  to  seize  him,  but  a  reconciliation  was  soon 
afterwards  effected.  In  1385  the  king  led  an  expedition 
to  Scotland.  His  refusal  to  allow  the  army  to  penetrate 
beyond  Edinburgh  is  said  to  have  caused  another  quarrel 
with  the  duke  of  Lancaster.  The  efforts  made  by  Richard 
to  form  a  party  of  personal  adherents,  in  opposition  to  his 
uncles,  are  to  be  seen  in  the  elevation  of  De  Vere  to  the 
marquisate  of  Dublin  and  of  De  la  Pole,  the  chancellor,  to 
the  earldom  of  Suffolk.  After  John  of  Gaunt's  departure 
to  Portugal  (July  1386)  the  quarrel  between  the  king's 
party  and  the  opposition  headed  by  Gloucester  came  to  a 
head.  Gloucester,  supported  by  a  strong  majority  in 
parliament,  demanded  the  dismissal  of  the  chancellor  and 
the  treasurer,  to  which  Richard  was  obliged  reluctantly  to 
consent.  The  blow  was  followed  up  by  the  appointment 
of  a  committee  of  government  which,  like  the  baronial 
committee  of  1258,  practically  superseded  the  monarchy. 
Richard  submitted,  but  immediately  set  about  making  plans 
for  the  recovery  of  his  authority.  In  November  1387  he 


came  to  London  in  order  to  overthrow  the  committee,  but 
was  anticipated  by  Gloucester,  who,  with  Henry  of  Derby 
and  three  others,  "appealed,"  or  impeached  the  king's 
chief  adherents  of  high  treason.  The  party  in  power 
always  found  it  easy  to  manipulate  the  elections,  and  the 
parliament  which  met  in  February  1388  was  altogether  on 
the  side  of  the  "  appellants."  The  leaders  of  the  king's 
party  were  executed,  banished,  or  imprisoned,  and  Glou- 
cester won  a  complete  triumph.  He  failed,  however,  to 
establish  his  power  on  a  firm  basis,  and  in  May  1389 
Richard  threw  off  the  yoke.  On  the  ground  that  he  was 
now  of  full  age,  he  suddenly  informed  his  council  that  he 
intended  to  rule  alone.  Gloucester  made  no  resistance; 
the  nation  acquiesced;  and  Richard  was  at  last  really  king. 

Richard  did  not  for  some  time  abuse  his  power.  The 
'( appellants "  were  not  punished,  and  even  remained 
members  of  the  council.  William  of  Wykeham,  however, 
became  chancellor,  and  it  was  apparently  by  his  advice 
and  that  of  John  of  Gaunt,  who  returned  to  England  in 
1389,  that  Richard  regulated  his  conduct.  For  eight 
years  he  ruled  constitutionally.  The  country  was  at 
peace  at  home  and  abroad.  In  June  1394  the  queen 
died.  In  October  of  the  same  year  Richard  went  to 
Ireland  and  received  the  submission  of  some  of  the  chiefs. 
He  remained  in  Ireland  till  May  1395.  Next  year  he 
concluded  a  twenty-five  years'  truce  with  France,  and 
engaged  to  marry  Isabella,  the  French  king's  daughter. 
In  September  1396  he  went  to  Calais  and  returned  with 
his  bride,  a  child  of  eight  years  old.  This  alliance  seems 
to  have  encouraged  Richard  to  carry  out  a  stroke  of  policy 
which  he  had  probably  long  contemplated.  In  July  1397 
he  suddenly  seized  the  "  appellants,"  Warwick,  Arundel, 
and  Gloucester.  The  parliament,  which  met  in  September, 
repealed  the  acts  of  1386,  and  declared  the  "appellants" 
guilty  of  high  treason.  Arundel  was  executed,  Warwick 
imprisoned  Gloucester  died,  probably  by  violence,  in 
prison.  Next  year  the  parliament  conferred  on  Richard 
tonnage  and  poundage  for  life,  and  delegated  their  authority 
to  a  committee  of  eighteen,  practically  chosen  by  the  king, 
thus  making  him  an  absolute  monarch.  A  treasonable 
conversation  between  Hereford  and  Norfolk,  reported  by 
the  former,  gave  a  pretext  for  the  banishment  of  both. 
In  February  1399  John  of  Gaunt  died,  and  Richard 
seized  the  Lancaster  estates,  thus  reducing  Hereford 
to  desperation.  The  latter  at  once  began  to  prepare  to 
recover  his  inheritance,  and  Richard,  apparently  ignor- 
ant of  the  danger,  went  over  to  Ireland  (May  29),  thus 
leaving  the  kingdom  open  to  his  rival.  Henry  landed  in 
Yorkshire  early  in  July,  and  rapidly  collected  an  over- 
powering force.  Richard  returned  to  find  Henry  in 
possession  of  power  and  himself  deserted  by  the  nation. 
He  surrendered  to  Henry  at  Flint  (August  19)  and  was 
conveyed  to  London.  On  September  29  he  executed  a 
deed  by  which  he  resigned  the  crown.  Next  day  the  deed 
was  read  in  parliament.  Formal  sentence  of  deposition 
was  pronounced,  and  Henry  claimed  and  received  the 
crown.  A  month  afterwards  the -late  king  was  sentenced 
to  perpetual  imprisonment,  and  was  removed  to  Pontefract. 
The  conspiracy  against  Henry  IV.,  which  was  discovered 
in  January  1400,  sealed  Richard's  fate.  The  manner  of 
his  death  is  unknown,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
he  died  by  violence.  He  is  said  to  have  been  buried  at 
Langley,  February  14,  1400. 

In  person  Richard  was  slight,  fair-haired,  beardless,  with 
rounded  face  and  elegant  but  rather  feminine  features.  His 
character,  a  strange  mixture  of  strength  and  weakness, 
courage  and  irresolution,  indolence  and  energy,  remains  an 
enigma  to  the  historian.  He  protected  Wickliffe,  encouraged 
Chaucer,  and  made  a  serious  attempt  to  establish  an  abso- 
lute monarchy.  His  reign,  whether  we  regard  it  from 


542 


K  I  C  H  A  R  D 


the  religious,  the  political,  or  the  social  point  of  view,  is 
one  of  very  great  importance,  and  its  history  has  as  yet 
been  by  no  means  fully  elucidated. 

Chief  Authorities. — Knighton,  De  Eventibus  Angliae,  ed.  Twysden 
in  the  Deeem  Scriptores,  1652  ;  Walsinghain,  Historia  Anglicana, 
ed.  Riley  (Rolls  Series) ;  Adam  de  Usk,  Chronicon,  ed.  Thompson, 
1876  ;  Chronicon  Anglise,  by  a  monk  of  St  Albans,  ed.  Thompson 
(Rolls  Series) ;  Historia  Vitx  et  Rcgni  Ricardi  II. ,  by  a  monk  of 
Evesham,  ed.  Hearne,  1729  ;  Cronicque  de  la  traison  ct  mort  de 
Richart  deux,  &c.,  ed.  Williams  (Engl.  Hist.  Society);  Histoire  du 
Roi  d'Angletcrre  Richard,  ed.  Webb,  in  Archeeol.  Brit.,  vol.  xx. ; 
Froissart,  Chronicles ;  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History,  vol.  ii.  ; 
Pauli,  Geschichte  von  England,  vol.  iv.  (G.  W.  P.) 

RICHARD  III.  (1452-1485),  king  of  England,  third 
son  of  Richard,  duke  of  York,  and  Cicely  Nevil,  was  born 
at  Fotheringay  on  October  2,  1452.  Having  been  sent 
out  of  England  for  safety  on  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1460,  he  was  recalled  next  year  by  his  brother  Edward 
IV.,  who  created  him  duke  of  Gloucester  and  appointed 
him  lord  high  admiral.  He  remained  faithful  to  his 
brother  during  the  latter's  reign,  sharing  in  his  flight  in 
1470,  and  aiding  him  on  his  return  in  the  victories  of 
Barnet  and  Tewkesbury.  In  1474  he  married  Anne, 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Warwick  and  widow  of  Prince 
Edward.  In  1482  he  led  an  army  into  Scotland  to  aid 
the  duke  of  Albany  against  James  III.,  occupied  Edin- 
burgh and  captured  Berwick.  On  the  death  of  Edward 
IV.  (April  9,  1483)  Richard  at  once  made  himself  master 
of  the  situation  by  seizing  Prince  Edward,  his  nephew. 
Having  assumed  the  title  of  Protector,  he  rapidly  deve- 
loped his  plans  for  securing  the  crown.  Under  the  pre- 
text of  a  plot  against  his  life,  he  seized  and  beheaded 
Hastings,  Grey,  and  others  (June  13),  forced  the  queen 
mother  to  give  up  her  younger  son  Richard,  and,  on  June 
26,  1483,  assumed  the  crown.  The  children  of  Edward 
IV.  were  set  aside  on  the  plea  that  their  father  was 
illegitimate.  On  July  6  Richard  was  crowned  king. 
Shortly  afterwards  it  was  publicly  reported  that  the  sons 
of  Edward  IV.  were  dead;  their  actual  fate  is  to  the 
present  day  unknown.  In  October  1483  the  rebellion  of 
the  duke  of  Buckingham  was  put  down ;  the  duke  himself 
was  executed  on  November  2.  A  parliament  which  met 
in  January  1484  acknowledged  Richard  as  king,  in  return 
for  which  he  assented  to  an  Act  abolishing  benevolences. 
His  only  legitimate  son,  Edward,  died  on  April  9,  1484, 
and  in  March  1485  the  boy  was  followed  by  his  mother. 
To  strengthen  his  position  Richard  had  made  treaties  with 
Scotland  and  Brittany  (1484),  and  he  now  proposed  to 
marry  his  niece  Elizabeth.  From  this  course,  however, 
he  was  dissuaded.  His  short  reign  was  mainly  occupied 
in  preparing  to  resist  the  invasion  of  Henry  of  Richmond. 
Unable  to  prevent  Henry's  landing  (August  7,  1485), 
Richard  met  his  rival  in  battle  at  Bosworth  (August  22), 
and  at  the  same  moment  lost  his  crown  and  his  life. 

Tradition  is  divided  as  to  Richard's  personal  appear- 
ance, and  the  story  of  his  deformity  is  possibly  derived 
from  Lancastrian  malignity  and  from  a  misunderstanding 
of  his  nickname  Crouchback.  His  courage,  energy,  and 
ability  would  have  made  a  great  and  honoured  name  had 
not  those  qualities  been  matched  by  extreme  ferocity  and 
unscrupulousness,  and  perverted  to  an  evil  use  by  the  tur- 
bulenfce  of  the  time  and  his  own  nearness  to  the  throne. 

Chief  Authorities. — Fabyan,  Concordance  of  Histories,  ed.  Ellis, 
T811  ;  Historia  Croylandensis,  ed.  Fell,  Quinque  Scriptores,  1687  ; 
Ross,  Historia  Regum  Anglise  ;  Fasten  Letters,  ed.  Gairdner,  1875  ; 
Letters  and  Papers  illustrative  of  the  reigns  of  Richard  III.  and 
Henry  VII.,  ed.  Gairdner  (Rolls  Series) ;  Sir  T.  More,  Histories  of 
Edward  V.  and  Richard  III.,  1556;  H.  Walpole,  Historic  Doubts 
on  Richard  III.,  1768  ;  Gairdner,  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  III., 
1878.  (G.  W.  P.) 

RICHARD,  earl  of  Cornwall  and  king  of  the  Romans 
(1209-1272),  second  son  of  John,  king  of  England,  and 
Isabella,  was  born  at  Winchester,  January  5,  1209.  In 


1225  he  undertook  the  government  of  Gascony.  In  1240 
he  went  on  a  crusade,  returning  in  1241,  after  concluding  a 
treaty  with  the  sultan  of  Egypt.  In  1242  he  accompanied 
his  brother  on  his  unsuccessful  expedition  to  Poitou. 
In  1244  and  1246  we  find  him  heading  the  parliamentary 
opposition  against  Henry  III.,  and  a  few  years  afterwards  he 
befriended  Simon  de  Montfort  against  his  accusers.  When 
Henry  went  to  France  in  1253,  Richard,  together  with  the 
queen,  acted  as  regent.  He  had  already  (1252)  declined 
the  pope's  offer  of  the  kingdom  of  Sicily,  but  in  January 
1257  he  was  elected  emperor  by  a  majority  of  the  electors, 
and  soon  afterwards  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
In  1259  he  returned  to  England  and  swore  to  observe 
the  Provisions  of  Oxford.  Next  year  he  acted  as  peace- 
maker between  Henry  and  the  barons,  and,  after  spend- 
ing another  year  in  Germany,  he  returned  to  England  in 
1263.  It  was  largely  owing  to  his  mediation  that  the 
two  parties  submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  Louis  IX.,  but 
on  the  renewal  of  the  civil  war  he  took  his  brother's  side. 
Taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Lewes,  he  was  kept  in 
confinement  by  De  Montfort  for  a  year,  but  released  after 
the  battle  of  Evesham.  One  of  his  last  known  acts  was 
his  mediation  between  the  earl  of  Gloucester  and  the 
king.  In  1269  he  went  to  Germany  again  for  a  short 
time,  and  returned  to  England  to  die  at  Kirkham  in  1272. 
He  was  thrice  married — (1)  to  Isabella,  sister  of  the  earl 
of  Pembroke ;  (2)  to  Sancia,  daughter  of  Raymond,  count 
of  Provence ;  (3)  to  Beatrice  of  Falkenstein. 

For  authorities,  see  under  Henry  III.  (G.  W.  P.) 

RICHARD,  duke  of  Normandy.  See  NORMANDY,  vol. 
xvii.  p.  541  sq. 

RICHARD  OP  BURY.     See  ATTNGERVYLE,  RICHARD. 

RICHARD  OF  CIRENCESTER  (1335-1401),  historical 
writer,  was  a  member  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  at  West- 
minster, and  his  name  ("  Circestre ")  first  appears  on 
the  chamberlain's  list  of  the  monks  of  that  foundation 
drawn  up  in  the  year  1355.  In  the  year  1391  he  obtained 
a  licence  from  the  abbot  to  go  to  Rome,  his  design  being 
to  visit  limina  Apostolorum,  and  in  this  licence  the  abbot 
gives  his  testimony  to  Richard's  perfect  and  sincere  ob- 
servance of  religion  for  upwards  of  thirty  years.  In  1400 
Richard  was  in  the  infirmary  of  the  abbey,  where  his 
death  took  place  in  the  following  year.  His  only  known 
extant  work  is  Speculum  Historiale  de  Gestis  Regum 
Anglise,  44^-1066.  The  manuscript  of  this  is  in  the 
university  library  at  Cambridge,  and  has  been  edited  for 
the  Master  of  the  Rolls  by  Professor  John  E.  B.  Mayor 
(2  vols.,  1863-1869).  It  is  in  four  books,  and  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  fourth  book  Richard  expresses  his  intention 
of  continuing  his  narrative  from  the  accession  of  William 
I.,  and  incorporating  a  sketch  of  the  Conqueror's  career 
from  his  birth.  This  design  he  does  not,  however,  appear 
to  have  carried  into  effect.  The  value  of  the  Speculum  as 
a  contribution  to  our  historical  knowledge  is  but  slight, 
for  it  is  mainly  a  compilation  from  Rodger  Wendover, 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  William  of  Malmesbury,  Florence, 
Asser,  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  and  other  writers;  while 
even  in  transcribing  these  the  compiler  is  guilty  of  great 
carelessness.  He  gives,  however,  numerous  charters  relat- 
ing to  Westminster  Abbey,  and  also  a  very  complete 
account  of  the  saints  whose  tombs  were  in  the  abbey 
church,  and  especially  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  with 
whose  reign  the  fourth  book  is  entirely  occupied.  The 
work  was,  notwithstanding,  largely  used  by  historians  and 
antiquaries,  until,  with  the  rise  of  a  more  critical  spirit, 
its  value  became  more  accurately  estimated.  Besides  the 
Speculum  Richard  also  wrote,  according  to  the  statement 
of  William  Woodford  in  his  Answer  to  Wickliffe  (Brown, 
Fasciculus  Rerum  expetendarum,  p.  193),  a  treatise  De 
Officiis ;  and  there  was  formerly  in  the  cathedral  library 


R  I  C  — K  I  G 


543 


at  Peterborough  another  tractate  from  his  pen,  entitled 
Super  Symbolum.  Of  neither  of  these  works,  however, 
does  any  known  copy  now  exist. 

Of  the  Speculum  the  main  value  may  be  said  to  be  of  a 
negative  character,  in  that  it  affords  the  most  conclusive 
proof  of  the  spuriousness  of  another  work  attributed  to 
Richard  and  long  accepted  by  the  learned  world  as  his. 
This  was  the  De  Situ  Britannix,  an  elaborate  forgery 
relating  to  the  antiquities  of  Roman  Britain  which  first 
appeared  at  Copenhagen  in  the  year  1758.  It  was  printed 
along  with  the  works  of  Gildas  and  Nennius,  under  the 
editorship  of  Charles  Julius  Bertram,  professor  of  English 
in  the  academy  of  Copenhagen  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  with  the  following  special  title : — "  Rlchardi 
Corinensis  monachi  Westmonasteriensis  de  situ  Britannise 
libri  duo.  E  Codici  MS.  descripsit,  Notisque  et  Indice 
adornavit  Carolus  Bertram." 

This  forgery  was  accepted  as  genuine  \>j  a  well-known  antiquary 
of  the  last  century,  Dr  William  Stukeley,  and  under  the  sanction 
of  his  authority  continued  for  a  long  time  to  be  regarded  in  the 
same  light  by  numerous  scholars  and  antiquaries.  Among  their 
number  were  Gibbon,  John  Whitaker,  Richard  Gougli,  and 
Lingard.  On  the  other  hand,  critics  of  a  later  date,  such  as 
J.  J.  Conybeare,  Dr  Guest,  Wex,  Raine,  and  Woodward,  from  time 
to  time  gave  expression,  on  various  grounds,  to  a  contrary  con- 
clusion. All  doubt  on  the  subject  may,  however,  be  held  to  have 
been  effectually  set  at  rest  by  the  masterly  and  exhaustive  exposure 
of  the  whole  fraud  drawn  up  by  Professor  Mayor  in  the  preface  to 
the  edition  above  referred  to  of  the  Speculum.  He  has  there  not 
only  demonstrated,  from  the  external  and  internal  evidence  alike, 
the  spuriousness  of  the  whole  treatise,  but  in  a  collation  (extending 
to  nearly  a  hundred  pages)  of  numerous  passages  with  corresponding 
passages  in  classical  mediaeval  authorities,  has  also  traced  out  the 
various  sources  from  whence  Bertram  derived  the  terminology  and 
the  facts  which  he  reproduced  in  the  De  Situ.  "To  say  nothing," 
says  Professor  Mayor,  ' '  of  antiquaries  whose  canons  of  criticism  are 
so  lax  that  they  cite  a  supposed  monk  of  1400  A.D.  as  authority  for 
events  of  1000  B.C.,  we  find  a  forger  alike  contemptible  as  penman, 
Latinist,  historian,  geographer,  critic,  imposing  upon  members  of 
the  Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies,  and  of  the  two  ancient 
universities,  of  the  youthful  Society  D.  U.  K.,  on  the  writers  of 
Germany  and  Denmark,  of  England,  and  of  Scotland, — the  last 
bribed  by  the  invention  of  Vespasiana."  (J.  B.  M. ) 

RICHARD  OP  ST  VICTOR  (ob.  c.  1173),  a  Scot  by  birth, 
was  subprior  of  his  convent  in  1159  and  prior  in  1162, 
and  was  a  friend  of  St  Bernard,  to  whom  some  of  his 
books  are  dedicated.  The  tendency  of  his  mysticism  has 
been  characterized  in  vol.  xvii.  p.  132.  Of  his  works, 
which  embrace  exegesis,  moral  and  dogmatic  subjects,  and 
mystical  contemplation,  the  first  edition  appeared  at  Paris 
in  1528,  the  best  at  Rouen  in  1650. 

RICHARDSON,  SIB  JOHN  (1787-1865),  naturalist, 
was  born  at  Dumfries  on  November  5,  1787,  and  died 
near  Grasmere  on  June  5,  1865.  He  became  a  surgeon  in 
the  navy  in  1807,  and  is  known  by  his  share  in  the  arctic 
explorations  of  Parry  and  Franklin,  1819-22  and  1825-26 
(see  POLAR  REGIONS,  vol.  xix.  p.  319),  and  in  the  Franklin 
search  expedition  of  1848-49  (ib.,  p.  321),  but  especially  by 
his  Fauna  £  or  eali- Americana  (1829-37,  4  vols.  4to). 
He  also  wrote  Arctic  Searching  Expedition  (1851),  and 
other  works  on  the  zoology  of  the  Arctic  regions.  He  was 
knighted  in  1846. 

RICHARDSON,  SAMUEL  (1689-1761),  as  the  inventor 
or  the  accidental  discoverer  of  a  new  literary  form,  the 
modern  novel  of  domestic  life  and  manners,  is  entitled  to  a 
more  prominent  place  in  history  than  his  powers,  whether 
of  thought  or  style,  would  justify.  He  stumbled  on  novel 
writing  by  accident  and  late  in  life.  The  son  of  a  Derby- 
shire joiner  (born  in  1689),  he  had  been  apprenticed  at  the 
age  of  seventeen  to  a  London  printer  (Wilde  of  Stationers' 
Hall),  had  spent  some  years  as  a  press  reader  or  proof 
corrector — not  a  bad  position  for  acquiring  some  know- 
ledge of  literature — had  married  his  master's  daughter, 
and  acquired  an  extensive  business,  trying  his  hand 
occasionally  in  composition  as  a  writer  of  prefaces  and 


dedications  to  the  books  that  he  printed.  When  he  was 
near  the  age  of  fifty  some  bookseller  friends  of  his,  struck 
perhaps  by  the  excellence  of  his  letters,  had  suggested  to 
him  that  he  should  compose  a  "familiar  letter- writer " — 
"  a  little  volume  of  letters,  in  common  style,  on  such  sub- 
jects as  might  be  of  use  to  those  country  readers  who  were 
unable  to  indite  for  themselves. "  Richardson  improved 
upon  the  suggestion.  As  it  happened,  he  had  had  a 
singular  experience  in  the  way  of  writing  letters  for 
others.  When  he  was  a  boy  of  thirteen  three  young 
women  who  could  not  write  had  employed  him  to  conduct 
their  correspondence  with  their  sweethearts,  which  he  did, 
he  tells  us,  much  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  employers  and 
without  betraying  their  confidence.  It  occurred  to  him, 
turning  over  the  project  of  the  booksellers  in  his  mind, 
and  reverting  to  this  early  experience,  that  he  might  tell 
a  story  in  a  series  of  letters  which  would  serve  equally 
well  as  models  for  letter-writing  and  at  the  same  time 
cultivate  the  principles  of  virtue  and  religion  in  the  minds 
of  the  youth  of  both  sexes.  Accordingly,  the  publication 
being  for  country  readers,  he  chose  a  country  girl,  Pamela, 
in  the  service  of  a  young  squire  Mr  B.  (Fielding  after- 
wards expanded  the  initial  to  "  Booby "),  and  made-  her 
relate  in  letters  to  her  friends  her  experiences  from  day  to 
day  and  week  to  week  in  very  trying  circumstances. 
Friends  write  to  advise  Pamela  in  her  difficulties,  and  so 
the  story  is  carried  on  with  circumstantial  minuteness, 
Pamela  describing  with  the  most  careful  elaboration  every 
particular  of  what  happens  to  her,  and  adding  her  own 
reflexions,  surmises,  and  appeals  for  approbation  and 
counsel.  The  natural  effect  of  this  method  is  that,  if  We 
have  any  sympathy  with  the  heroine,  we  get  intensely 
interested  in  her  perplexities, — the  very  fulness  of  the 
details  and  the  close  truth  to  nature  with  which  the 
novelist  follows  every  turn  in  the  girl's  thoughts  com- 
pelling us  to  read  on.  This  effect  was  fully  realized  in 
days  when  the  voluminous  moralizing  was  more  in  har- 
mony with  the  general  taste  than  it  is  now,  and  the,  kind 
of  thing  was  new  and  fresh.  The  success  of  Pamela  was 
immediate  and  widespread,  and  extended  at  once  far 
beyond  the  circle  of  country  cousins  for  whom  it  was 
designed.  It  is  said  that  ladies  at  Ranelagh  Gardens 
were  to  be  seen  holding  up  one  to  another  their  copies  of 
Pamela  to  show  that  they  had  in  their  possession  the  most 
popular  book  of  the  day.  The  industrious  antiquary  has 
cast  doubt  upon  this  anecdote,  pointing  out  that  Ranelagh 
Gardens  were  not  open  to  the  public  till  eighteen  months 
after  Pamela  had  begun  to  run  through  many  editions. 
Vauxhall,  however,  was  open  if  Ranelagh  was  not,  and 
the  incident  may  have  been  observed  there.  At  any  rate 
the  fact  expressed  by  the  anecdote  is  true  enough,  that 
the  novel  was  at  once  and  universally  popular.  Pamela, 
the  first  of  one  long  line  of  novels,  was  published  in 
November  1740.  In  January  1741  the  following  appeared 
in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  : — '"Several  encomiums  on  a 
series  of  Familiar  Letters,  published  but  last  month, 
entitled  Pamela,  or  Virtue  Rewarded,  came  too  late  for 
this  magazine,  and  we  believe  there  will  be  little  occasion 
for  inserting  them  in  our  next,  because  a  second  edition 
will  then  come  out  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  country, 
it  being  judged  in  town  as  great  a  sign  of  want  of  curiosity 
not  to  have  read  Pamela  as  not  to  have  seen  the  French 
and  Italian  Dancers."  This  testimony  is  hardly  less 
quaint  and  significant  than  the  accredited  anecdote. 

It  was  thus  that  this  industrious  prosperous  printer,  a 
stout,  rosy,  vain,  precise  little  man,  carrying  himself  with 
sensitive  dignity,  not  at  all  the  kind  of  man  that  might 
have  been  expected  to  be  a  fashionable  novelist,  stumbled 
in  the  natural  course  of  his  business  upon  a  new  species 
of  composition  for  which  he  had  an  unsuspected  genius. 


544 


R I C  — R I C 


The  fame  of  Pamela  made  him  a  great  personal  favourite, 
especially  with  women,  of  whose  hearts  and  fancies  he  had 
shown  a  knowledge  so  intimate.  Several  ladies  of  quality 
made  a  pet  of  him,  deluged  him  with  questions  and  con- 
fidences, and  urged  him  to  write  more.  Under  this  flatter- 
ing encouragement,  the  sedate  author,  still  keeping  his 
head  and  following  his  own  plans  amidst  a  multitude  of 
counsellors,  produced  Clarissa  Harlowe  (1749),  a  model  of 
every  virtue  in  higher  life,  and  Sir  Charles  Grandison 
(1753),  his  ideal  of  a  perfect  gentleman.  Clarissa  is 
universally  acknowledged  to  be  his  masterpiece.  An  anec- 
dote was  given  by  Macaulay  which  shows  how  entrancing 
the  story  may  become  to  readers  once  fairly  caught  by  the 
current  of  it.  He  took  the  whole  eight  volumes  with  him, 
when  he  was  in  India,  to  a  hill  station  during  the  hot  sea- 
son, and  one  day  lent  the  first  volume  to  the  governor's 
wife.  She  read  it  and  lent  it  to  the  governor's  secretary, 
and  went  to  Macaulay  for  the  second.  Thus  all  the  eight 
volumes  passed  from  hand  to  hand,  and  for  a  week  or 
more  the  whole  station  was  in  a  ferment  over  the  fortunes 
of  Clarissa,  the  readers  anxiously  waiting  their  turn  for 
the  successive  volumes.  Bichardson  is  long-winded  and 
prolix  to  a  degree ;  but  that,  in  spite  of  all  his  faults,  he 
had  the  art  of  interesting  his  own  generation  was  abun- 
dantly proved,  and  apparently  his  greatest  novel  is  still 
capable  in  favourable  circumstances  of  exerting  its  spell. 

Richardson  has  long  received  the  honour  of  being  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  English  novel,  but  of  late  it  has  been  customary  to 
go  a  little  farther  back  and  trace  the  beginnings  of  the  novel  in  the 
papers  of  Addison  and  Steele  in  the  Tatter  and  the  Spectator.  The 
novel,  it  is  said,  was  developed,  not  created,  by  Richardson.  Now 
this  is  hardly  fair  to  the  ingenious  printer,  if  it  is  meant  to  deny 
him  any  of  the  credit  generally  given  to  originators  of  new  forms 
in  literature.  It  is  true  that  the  novel  was  developed  and  not 
created,  but  it  is  not  more  true  of  Richardson's  novel  than  of  any 
other  new  species  of  composition,  such  as  Marlowe's  tragedy,  or 
Scott's  romantic  tale,  or  Byron's  personal  epic.  All  alike  are  not 
created  but  developed  in  this  sense  that  they  have  strongly  marked 
affinities  with  kinds  of  writing  immediately  anterior  to  them. 
Thus  in  the  novel  of  manners  there  are  two  elements — there  is 
description  of  ordinary  character,  and  there  is  plot-interest,  i.  e. , 
there  is  a  story.  Both  of  these  elements  are  found  in  the  genera- 
tion before  Richardson.  But  not  in  combination.  It  was  he  that 
combined  them  in  his  novel  of  manners,  and  therefore  he  is  entitled 
to  the  praise  of  being  the  father  of  a  new  species  of  composition. 
There  is  abundance  of  description  of  manners  in  the  Spectator  and 
there  are  many  delicate  studies  of  character.  And  the  general  reader 
in  the  days  of  Queen  Anne  and  of  George  I.  had  abundance  of  stories 
to  choose  from — tales  of  scandal,  of  crime,  of  high-flown  romance. 
But  it  had  not  occurred  to  anybody  before  Richardson  to  make  a 
heroine  out  of  such  a  character  as  Jenny  Simper,  or  a  hero  out  of 
her  baronet  Sir  Anthony  Love,  or  a  story  out  of  incidents  within 
the  probabilities  of  ordinary  life.  The  epistolary  form  in  which  his 
stories  were  cast,  and  which  remains  as  a  memorial  of  their  first 
suggestion,  was  abandoned  by  Richardson's  first  great  follower  and 
satirist,  Fielding ;  but  it  was  Richardson  that  led  the  way  into 
the  new  field  of  literature.  He  lived  long  enough  to  see  many 
imitators.  Within  twelve  years  of  the  publication  of  Pamela,  the 
Monthly  Review  began  to  complain  of  the  labour  of  reading  the 
multitude  of  novels  submitted  to  its  judgment,  and  the  master- 
pieces of  Fielding,  Smollett,  and  Sterne  were  produced  before  his 
death  in  1761.  His  correspondence  was  published  in  six  volumes 
in  1804.  (W.  M.) 

EICHELIEU,  ARMAND  DU  PLESSIS,  CARDINAL  DE 
(1585-1642),  the  greatest  French  statesman  of  the  17th 
century.  As  the  chief  events  of  his  life  have  been 
recorded  in  connexion  with  the  sketch  of  his  political 
career  in  the  article  FRANCE  (vol.  ix.  pp.  567-570),  it  only 
remains  briefly  to  mention  here  some  matters  of  second- 
ary importance.  In  the  early  days  of  his  courtiership 
when  he  retired  for  a  time  to  Avignon  Richelieu  wrote 
two  religious  works  which  attained  to  considerable  popu- 
larity— Principaux  points  de  la  foy  defendus  contre  Vescrit 
adresse  au  roy  par  les  quatre  ministres  de  Charenton 
(1617),  and  La  methods  la  plus  facile  et  assuree  de  convertir 
ceux  qui  sont  separes  de  VEglise  (Paris,  1651).  After  he 
became  master  of  France,  his  desire  for  distinction  as  a 


man  of  letters  and  especially  as  a  dramatic  author  led 
him  to  resort  to  various  devices  that  were  as  undignified 
and  ludicrous  as  they  were  high-handed  and  arbitrary. 
In  the  life  of  Corneille  it  has  already  been  told  how  he 
employed  "  five  poets "  to  "  wash  his  dirty  linen "  (as 
Voltaire  described  the  similar  service  he  rendered  to 
Frederick  the  Great),  and  how  he  attempted  to  revenge 
himself  on  Corneille,  the  greatest  of  the  five,  by  causing 
the  French  Academy  to  pass  a  hostile  verdict  on  the  Cid. 
Even  this  high  treason  against  art  may  perhaps  be  for- 
given in  consideration  of  the  practical  services  the  cardinal 
rendered  to  the  cause  of  literature.  Les  Thuileries,  La 
Grande  Pastorale,  Mirame,  and  the  other  plays,  over  whose 
fate  he  trembled  as  over  the  result  of  an  embassy  or  a 
campaign,  have  long  been  forgotten ;  but  a  permanent 
interest  attaches  to  his  Memoires  and  correspondence 
(though  owing  to  his  way  of  working  with  substitutes  and 
assistants  it  has  been  a  difficult  task  to  settle  how  much 
of  what  passes  under  his  name  is  authentic) : — Memoire 
d'Armand  du  Plessis  de  Richelieu,  eveque  de  Lucon  ecrit 
de  sa  main,  Vannee  1607  ou  1610,  alors  qu'il  meditait  de 
paraUre  d,  la  cour, 'edited  by  Armand  Baschet,  1880; 
L'Histoire  de  la  Mere  et  du  Fils,  (i.e.,  of  Mary  de'  Medici 
and  Louis  XIII. ),  Amsterdam,  1730,  extending  from 
1610  to  1624,  frequently  attributed  to  M6zeray ;  Memoires 
from  1624-1638,  published  in  Petitot's  collection  (Paris, 
1823) ;  Journal  de  M.  le  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,  1630- 
1631  (Amsterdam,  1664,  2  vols.);  Testament  politique  du 
Cardinal  de  Richelieu  (Paris,  1764);  Les  lettres,  instruc- 
tions diplomatiques,  et  papiers  d'etat  du  Cardinal  de 
RicJielieu,  collected  and  edited  by  M.  Avenel,  and  forming 
five  volumes  of  the  Collection  de  documents  inedits  sur 
Vhistoire  de  France  (Paris,  1853-56). 

Besides  the  older  works  of  Aubery  (1660)  and  Leclerc  (1694)  see 
A.  Jay,  Hist,  du  minister ede  Richelieu,  1815  ;  Capefigue,  Richelieu, 
Mazarin,  la  Fronde,  &c.,  1844  ;  Caillet,  L' administration  en  France 
sous  Richelieu,  1860;  Martineau,  Le  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,  1865; 
Topin,  Louis  XIII.  et  Richelieu,  1877  ;  Sainte-Beauve,  Causeries 
du  lundi,  vol.  vii. 

RICHELIEU,  Louis  FRANCOIS  ARMAND  DU  PLESSIS, 
Due  DE,  marshal  of  France  and  grand-nephew  of 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  was  born  in  Paris,  13th  March  1696, 
and  died  in  the  same  city  8th  August  1788.  Besides 
his  reputation  as  the  most  scandalous  Lovelace  of  a 
scandalous  age,  he  attained,  in  spite  of  a  deplorably  defec- 
tive education,  distinction  as  a  diplomatist  and  general. 
As  ambassador  to  Vienna  (1725-1729)  he  settled  in 
1727  the  preliminaries  of  peace;  in  1745  he  helped  to 
gain  the  victory  of  Fontenoy  ;  three  years  afterwards  he 
made  a  brilliant  defence  of  Genoa;  in  1756  he  expelled 
the  English  from  Minorca  by  the  capture  of  the  San 
Felipe  fortress;  and  in  1757-1758  he  closed  his  military 
career  by  those  pillaging  campaigns  in  Hanover  which  pro- 
cured him  the  sobriquet  of  Petit  Pere  de  la  Maraude.  In 
his  early  days  he  was  thrice  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille, — 
in  1711  at  the  instance  of  his  stepfather,  in  1716  in 
consequence  of  a  duel,  and  in  1719  for  his  share  in 
Alberoni's  conspiracy  against  the  Regent.  He  was  thrice 
married  :  first,  against  his  will,  at  the  age  of  fourteen  to 
Mademoiselle  de  Noailles ;  secondly,  in  1734,  by  the  in- 
trigues (according  to  the  witty  Frenchman's  own  account) 
of  Voltaire,  to  Mademoiselle  de  Guise  ;  and  thirdly,  when 
he  was  eighty-four  years  old,  to  an  Irish  lady.  Marshal 
Richelieu's  Memoires  published  by  Soulavie  in  nine 
volumes  (1790)  are  partially  spurious. 

RICHELIEU,  ARMAND  EMMANUEL  DU  PLESSIS,  Due 
DE  (born  25th  September  1766,  died  17th  May  1822), 
grandson  of  the  marshal,  is  remembered  mainly  as  the 
enlightened  and  heroic  governor  of  Odessa  (1803-1813) 
who  guided  the  city  through  the  terrible  years  of  the 
plague,  and  as  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs  under  Louis 


R I C— R I C 


545 


XVIII  to  whom  it  fell  to  sign  the  treaty  of  1815.  A 
pension  of  50,000  francs,  voted  to  him  by  the  two 
chambers,  he  bestowed  on  the  public  charities  of  Bor- 
deaux. 

BICHERUS,  a  chronicler  of  the  10th  century,  son  of 
Rodulf,  a  trusty  councillor  and  captain  of  Louis  IV., 
studied  at  Rheims  under  Gerbert,  afterwards  Pope 
Silvester  II.  His  intimacy  with  this  famous  man  gave 
him  many  opportunities  of  knowing  the  history  of  his 
time,  and  when  Gerbert  became  archbishop  of  Rheims  he 
charged  Richerus  with  the  task  of  writing  a  history  of  the 
Gauls.  This  history  in  four  books  begins  with  Charles 
the  Fat  and  Eudes,  and  goes  down  to  the  year  995.  From 
969  onwards  Richerus  had  no  earlier  history  before  him, 
and  his  work  is  the  chief  source  for  the  period  when  the 
Capets  superseded  the  Carlovingians.  It  was  first  edited 
in  Pertz's  Monumenta  Germanise,  vol.  iii.,  and  there  have 
since  been  several  separate  editions. 

RICHMOND,  a  town  of  Surrey,  is  situated  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Thames,  here  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  of  five 
arches,  8|  miles  west  of  Hyde  Park  Corner  by  road,  and 
Of-  from  the  Waterloo  station  of  the  South- Western  Rail- 
way. The  town,  anciently  called  Syenes  and  afterwards 
Schene  and  Sheen,  until  the  name  was  in  1500  changed 
to  Richmond  by  command  of  Henry  VIL,  grew  up  round 
the  royal  manor  house,  which  became  a  frequent  residence 
of  different  sovereigns,  but  of  which  nothing  more  than 
a  gateway  now  remains.  Edward  I.  received  the  Scotch 
commissioners  at  his  manor  of  Sheen  in  1300.  The 
palace  was  rebuilt  by  Edward  III.,  who  died  there  in  1377. 
It  was  frequently  resided  in  by  Richard  II.,  and  here  his 
wife  Anne  of  Bohemia  died,  upon  which  he  cursed  the 
place  and  "caused  it  to  be  thrown  down  and  defaced." 
By  Henry  V.  it  was,  however,  rebuilt,  and  a  great  tourna- 
ment was  held  at  it  in  1492  by  Henry  VIL,  who  after  its 
destruction  by  fire  in  1499  restored  it  and  named  it  Rich- 
mond. Henry  VIII.  gave  it  to  Wolsey  to  reside  in,  after 
the  latter  presented  him  with  the  new  palace  of  Hampton 
Court.  James  I.  settled  it  on  his  son  Henry,  prince  of 
Wales,  who  restored  and  embellished  it  at  great  expense. 
Charles  I.  added  to  it  the  new  deer  park  generally  known 
as  Richmond  Park,  2253  acres  in  extent,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  1 1  miles  in  length.  After  the  execu- 
tion of  the  king,  .the  parliament  presented  the  park  to  the 
citizens  of  London,  who  again  presented  it  to  Charles  II. 
at  the  Restoration.  Though  partly  dismantled,  the  palace 
was  the  residence  of  the  queen  dowager  till  1665,  and  by 
James  II.  it  was  used  as  a  nursery  for  the  young  prince ; 
but,  gradually  falling  into  decay,  it  was,  about  1720, 
parcelled  into  tenements.  In  the  old  deer  park  extending 
northwards  from  the  site  of  the  palace  towards  Kew  an 
observatory  was  erected  in  1769,  occupying  the  site  of  a 
Carthusian  convent  founded  by  Henry  V.,  and  a  dwelling 
house  in  which  Swift  for  some  time  resided.  To  the 
south-east  of  the  town,  at  the  entrance  to  Richmond  Park, 
is  Richmond  Hill,  from  which  is  the  famous  view  of  the 
Thames  with  the  surrounding  country  to  the  west.  The 
White  Lodge  in  Richmond  Park  is  usually  the  residence 
of  some  member  of  the  royal  family.  The  town  itself  is 
without  special  interest,  and  consists  chiefly  of  one  long 
and  irregular  street  running  north  and  south.  The  church 
of  St  Mary  Magdalen  is  of  considerable  antiquity,  but  has 
been  almost  entirely  rebuilt ;  it  contains  a  large  number 
of  monuments  to  celebrated  persons.  The  theatre,  first 
established  in  1719,  was  during  his  later  years  leased  by 
Edmund  Kean.  The  town  has  a  Wesleyan  theological 
college  founded  in  1834,  a  free  public  library,  and  public 
baths.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area 
1210  acres)  in  1871  was  15,113,  and  in  1881  it  was 
19,066. 


RICHMOND,  a  borough  in  the  North  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  is  finely  situated  on  the  Swale,  at  the  terminus 
of  the  Richmond  branch  of  the  North-Eastern  Railway,  44 
miles  north-west  of  York  and  15  south-west  of  Darlington. 
The  interest  of  the  town  centres  in  the  castle,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Alan  Rufus,  son  of  Hoel,  count  of 
Bretagne,  who  is  also  said  to  have  rebuilt  the  town  on  his 
obtaining  the  estates  of  the  Saxon  Earl  Edwin,  embracing 
two  hundred  manors  of  Richmond  and  extending  over 
nearly  a  third  of  the  North  Riding.  When  Henry  VII. 
came  to  the  throne  these  possessions  reverted  to  the  crown. 
Henry  VIII.  gave  it  to  his  son  Henry  by  a  daughter  of  Sir 
John  Blount,  and  Charles  II.  bestowed  the  title  of  duke  of 
Richmond  on  his  son  by  the  duchess  of  Portsmouth.  The 
castle  is  situated  on  a  perpendicular  rock  rising  about  100 
feet  above  the  Swale,  and  from  its  great  strength  was  con- 
sidered inaccessible.  Originally  it  covered  an  area  of  5  acres, 
but  the  only  portions  of  it  now  remaining  are  the  Norman 
keep,  with  pinnacled  tower  and  walls  100  feet  high  by  11 
feet  thick,  and  some  other  smaller  towers.  A  portion  of 
it  is  now  occupied  by  the  North  York  Rifles  militia.  The 
old  church  of  St  Mary,  chiefly  in  the  Gothic  style,  though 
with  some  traces  of  Norman,  has  been  restored  under  the 
direction  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott.  For  the  free  grammar 
school  founded  by  Elizabeth  a  Gothic  building  was  erected 
in  1850,  in  memory  of  the  Rev.  James  Tate,  a  former 
master.  The  tower  of  the  Franciscan  abbey  founded  in 
1258  still  remains.  The  chief  modern  buildings  are  the 
town-hall,  the  masonic  hall,  and  the  workmen's  hall.  The 
principal  trade  is  in  agricultural  produce,  but  there  are  a 
paper  mill  and  an  iron  and  brass  foundry.  The  town 
received  its  first  charter  from  Elizabeth.  Under  the 
Municipal  Corporations  Act  it  is  governed  by  a  mayor, 
four  aldermen,  and  twelve  councillors.  Up  to  1885,  when 
it  ceased  to  be  separately  represented,  Richmond  was  a 
parliamentary  borough,  returning  two  members  till  1868, 
and  one  after  that  date.  The  population  of  the  municipal 
borough  (area  2520  acres)  in  1871  was  4443,  and  in  1881 
it  was  4502. 

RICHMOND,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  county 
seat  of  Wayne  county,  Indiana,  is  situated  in  a  fine 
agricultural  region  on  the  east  branch  of  the  White 
Water  River  (a  sub-tributary  of  the  Ohio),  68  miles  east 
of  Indianapolis.  It  is  an  important  railway  junction,  has 
a  city  park  135  acres  in  extent,  manufactures  machinery, 
agricultural  implements,  &c.,  and  contains  a  public  library 
(15,000  volumes),  a  museum,  two  theatres,  and  two  edu- 
cational institutions  (Earlham  College,  1859)  belonging  to 
the  Society  of  Friends,  which  is  strongly  represented  in 
the  city.  The  population  was  9445  in  1870,  and  12,742 
in  1880.  The  city  obtained  its  charter  in  1845. 

RICHMOND,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital 
of  Virginia,  is  situated  in  Henrico  county,  on  the  north 
side  of  the  James  River,  at  the  point  where  the  lower  falls 
(100  feet  in  6  miles)  mark  the  limit  of  the  tide  ascending 
from  Chesapeake  Bay.  On  the  other  side  of  the  river, 
and  in  the  county  of  Chest,erfield,  but  connected  with 
Richmond  by  bridges,  is  Manchester.  By  rail  the  city  is 
116  miles  south-south-west  of  Washington.  At  mean 
high  tides  vessels  drawing  14  feet  of  water  can  come  up 
to  Rocketts,  as  the  lower  district  is  called.  The  town 
proper  occupies  a  group  of  hills — Gamble's  Hill,  Shockoe 
Hill,  Church  Hill,  &c. — and  looks  down  over  the  river, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strip  of  flat  ground. 
Main  Street  is  a  typical  street  after  the  old  Southern  style, 
the  large  portion  burned  in  1865  having  been  rebuilt  in 
keeping  with  the  remnant  that  escaped.  By  far  the  most 
conspicuous  edifice  in  the  city  is  the  Capitol,  on  the 
summit  of  Shockoe  Hill,  designed  by  Thomas  Jefferson, 
after  the  Maison  Carrde  of  Nimes.  Beneath  the  dome  of 

XX.  —  69 


546 


R  I  C  —  R  I  C 


the  central  hall  stands  Houdon's  marble  life-size  statue  of 
Washington  in  the  uniform  of  a  pre-Revolutionary  Ameri- 
can general,  and  in  the  esplanade  near  the  west  gates  of 
Capitol  Square  is  Crawford's  famous  bronze  equestrian 
statue  of  the  same  hero  (1858),  surrounded  by  bronze 
figures  of  Patrick  Henry,  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Marshall, 
George  Mason,  Thomas  Nelson,  and  Andrew  Lewis. 
North  of  the  Capitol  stands  Foley's  bronze  statue  of 
General  "  Stonewall "  Jackson,  the  gift  of  English  ad- 
mirers of  that  great  Confederate  leader.  A  governor's 
house,  a  State  penitentiary,  a  custom-house  and  post 
office,  a  city-hall  and  almshouse,  and  two  market-houses 
are  among  the  principal  public  buildings.  Libby  prison, 
in  which  thousands  of  Federal  prisoners  were  confined 
during  the  Civil  War,  was  originally  a  disused  tobacco 
factory,  and  is  now  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the 
other  dilapidated  brick  warehouses  in  its  vicinity.  St 
John's  Episcopal  church  on  Church  Hill  was,  in  1775,  the 
meeting-place  of  the  Virginia  convention  to  which  Patrick 
Henry  addressed  his  famous  "  Give  me  liberty  or  give  me 
death,"  and  in  1788  of  another  convention  summoned 
to  discuss  the  ratification  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
Monumental  Church  (Episcopal)  commemorates  the  disas- 
trous burning  in  1811  of  the  theatre  which  then  occupied 
the  site.  The  State  Library,  the  Virginia  Historical 
Society,  Southern  Historical  Society,  Richmond  College, 
and  the  Medical  College  (1838)  are  institutions  of  note. 
Holywood  Cemetery,  occupying  a  district  of  great  natural 
beauty  to  the  west  of  the  city,  contains  the  graves  of 
thousands  of  Confederate  soldiers  and  the  monuments  of 
President  Monroe  and  General  J.  E.  B.  Stuart,  and  the 
Confederate  soldiers'  monument.  Previous  to  the  Civil 
War  Richmond  was  the  commercial  capital  of  the  South 
and  a  great  entrep6t  for  the  produce  of  the  Southern 
States,  Cuba,  South  America,  and  Great  Britain.  Its 
clipper  ships  made  fast  voyages  to  the  Pacific  for  tea,  silk, 
and  other  Eastern  wares.  Its  auction  sales  (monthly  or 
even  fortnightly)  drew  buyers  from  every  part  of  the 
Union,  even  from  the  northern  cities  which  now  supply  it 
with  the  very  commodities  they  then  visited  it  to  pur- 
chase. When  the  war  was  over  Richmond  was  without 
ships,  merchants,  or  capital.  The  tea  trade  had  gone  to 
London,  the  South-American  to  New  York  and  Boston, 
In  recent  years,  however,  a  new  period  of  commercial  pro- 
sperity appears  to  have  set  in,  and,  while  several  of  the  old 
sources  of  wealth  have  disappeared,  the  city  still  remains 
the  natural  centre  of  some  of  the  principal  trades  of  the 
South.  Before  the  war  more  tobacco  was  sold  in  Rich- 
mond than  perhaps  in  any  city  of  the  Union  (fifty-six 
manufacturers  were  numbered  in  1857),  and  this  still 
remains  an  important  staple.  The  flour  trade  is  also  of 
great  extent.  There  are  a  large  number  of  iron  works, 
including  those  of  the  Tredegar  Company;  and  granite 
quarries  are  worked  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city.  In 
1857  the  real  estate  of  Richmond  was  assessed  at 
$18,259,816,  and  the  personal  property  at  $10,287,278. 
By  1885  the  corresponding  figures  were  $34,502,903  and 
$15,000,000.  The  city  is  the  owner  of  both  gas  and 
water  works.  The  population,  which  was  only  5737 
in  the  beginning  of  the  century,  has  increased  as 
follows :— 9785  in  1810;  12,067  in  1820;  16,060  in 
1830;  20,153  in  1840;  27,570  in  1850;  37,910  in 
1860;  51,038  in  1870;  63,600  in  1880  (27,832  coloured). 

The  first  settlement  on  part  of  the  site  of  Richmond  is  said  to 
date  from  1609  ;  and  Fort  Charles  was  erected  as  a  defence  agaiast 
the  Indians  in  1644-45.  But  the  real  origin  of  the  town,  which  was 
incorporated  in  1745,  was  Byrd's  warehouse,  erected  by  Colonel 
William  Byrd  in  the  close  of  the  17th  century.  It  was  still  a  small 
nllage  when  in  1779  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the  State  of 
Virginia.  From  May  1861  till  April  1865,  when  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Federal  army,  Richmond  was  the  seat  of  government  of  the 


Confederate  States.  On  the  capture  of  Petersburg  by  Geueial 
Grant  the  Confederate  leaders  thought  it  impossible  to  hold  the  city, 
iu  spite  of  the  strength  of  its  fortifications  ;  and  Kwell,  who  com- 
manded the  rear-guard  of  the  retreating  army,  set  the  great  tobacco 
factories  and  Hour-mills  and  the  arsenal  on  fire  ;  the  conflagra- 
tion lasted  till  the  evening  of  the  following  day.  In  September 
1870  part  of  the  city  was  laid  under  water  by  the  Hoods  of  the 
James  river. 

RICHMOND,  LEGH  (1772-1827),  writer  of  tracts,  was 
born  29th  January  1772  at  Liverpool,  where  his  father 
was  a  physician.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1794  and  M.A. 
in  1797.  In  1798  he  was  appointed  to  the  joint  curacies 
of  Brading  and  Yaverland  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  Through 
the  perusal  of  Wilberforce's  Practical  View  an  evangeli- 
cal bias  was  given  to  his  mind,  which  led  him  to  devote 
himself  with  great  earnestness  to  the  reclamation  of 
the  masses.  He  took  a  prominent  interest  in  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  and  various  other  institutions  of  a  similar 
kind.  In  1805  he  became  chaplain  to  the  Lock  Hospi- 
tal, London,  and  in  the  same  year  was  presented  to 
the  rectory  of  Turvey,  Bedfordshire,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death,  8th  May  1827.  He  was  also  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  duke  of  Kent.  The  best  known  of  the 
tracts  of  Legh  Richmond  is  the  Dairyman's  Daughter,  cf 
which  as  many  as  four  millions  in  nineteen  languages 
were  circulated  before  1849.  A  collected  edition  of  his 
tracts  was  first  published  in  1814  under  the  title  of 
Annals  of  the  Poor.  He  was  also  the  author  of  Domestic 
Portraiture,  and  Memoirs  of  his  Three  Children;  and  he 
edited  a  series  of  the  Fathers  of  the  English  Church. 

See  Memoirs  by  Grimshawe,  1828  ;  Life  by  Bedell,  1829. 

RICHTER,  ERNST  FEIEDRICH  EDUARD  (1808-1879), 
writer  on  musical  theory  and  composition,  was  born  at 
Grosschonau  in  Saxony,  on  October  24,  1808.  He  first 
studied  music  at  Zittau,  and  afterwards  at  Leipsic,  where 
he  attained  so  high  a  reputation  that  in  1843  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  harmony  and  counterpoint  at  the 
conservatorium  of  music,  then  newly  founded  by  Men- 
delssohn. On  the  death  of  Hauptmann,  January  3, 
1868,  he  was  elected  cantor  of  the  Thomasschule,  which 
office  he  retained  until  his  death,  April  9,  1879.  He  is 
best  known  by  three  theoretical  works  —  Lehrfaich  der 
ffarmonie,  Lehre  vom  Contrapunct,  and  Lehre  von  der 
Fuge — originally  written  for  the  use  of  his  pupils  at  the 
Conservatorium,  but  now  everywhere  accepted  as  valuable 
text-books,  and  well  known  to  English  students  through 
the  excellent  translation  by  Mr  Franklin  Taylor. 

RICHTER,  JOHANN  PAUL  FRIEDRICH  (1763-1825), 
usually  called  JEAN  PAUL,  the  greatest  German  humorist, 
was  born  at  Wunsiedel,  in  Bavaria,  on  the  21st  March  1763. 
His  father  was  a  schoolmaster  and  organist  at  Wunsiedel, 
but  in  1765  he  became  a  pastor  at  Joditz,  and  in  1776  at 
Schwarzenbach,  where  he  died  in  1779.  Having  attended 
the  gymnasium  at  Hof  for  two  years,  Richter  went  in 
1780  to  the  university  of  Leipsic.  His  original  intention 
was  to  enter  his  father's  profession,  but  theology  did  not 
interest  him,  and  he  soon  devoted  himself  wholly  to  the 
study  of  literature.  Unable  to  maintain  himself  at 
Leipsic,  he  secretly  left  it  in  1784  and  lived  with  his 
mother  at  Hof.  From  1787  to  1789  lie  served  as  a  tutor 
at  Topen,  a  village  near  Hof ;  and  afterwards  he  taught 
the  children  of  several  families  at  Schwarzenbach.  During 
all  these  years  he  had  to  struggle  with  extreme  poverty, 
but  he  never  lost  the  buoyancy  of  his  temper,  nor  did  ho 
doubt  for  a  moment  that  his  genius  would  in  the  end  be 
generally  recognized.  His  hardships  left  no  trace  of 
bitterness  on  his  frank  and  manly  spirit. 

Richter  began  his  career  as  a  man  of  letters  by  writing 
the  Gronldndische  Processe  and  Auswahl  aus  des  Teufels 


R  I  C  — R  I  C 


547 


Papieren,  the  former  of  which  was  issued  in  1783-84,  the 
latter  in  1789.  These  works  were  not  received  with  much 
favour,  and  in  later  life  Richter  himself  had  little  sympathy 
with  their  satirical  tone.  His  next  book,  Die  Unsichtbare 
Loge,  a  romance,  published  in  1793,  had  all  the  qualities 
which  were  soon  to  make  him  famous,  and  its  power  was 
immediately  recognized  by  some  of  the  best  critics  of  the 
day.  Soon  after  the  appearance  of  this  book  he  abandoned 
his  work  at  Schwarzenbach,  and  lived  again  with  his 
mother  at  Hof,  occasionally  paying  long  visits  to  a  friend 
at  Baireuth.  Encouraged  by  the  reception  of  Die  Unsicht- 
bare Loge,  he  sent  forth  in  rapid  succession  Hesperus 
(1794),  Biographische  Belustigungen  unter  der  Gehirnschale 
einer  Riesin  (1796),  Leben  des  Quintus  Fixlein  (1796), 
Blumen-,  Frucht-,  und  Dornenstucke,  oder  Ehestand,  Tod, 
und  Hochzeit  des  Armenadvocaten  Siebenkds  (1796-97), 
Der  Jubelsenior  (1797),  and  Das  Kampaner  Thai  (1798). 
This  series  of  writings  secured  for  Eichter  a  great  place  in 
German  literature,  and  during  the  rest  of  his  life  every 
work  he  produced  was  welcomed  by  a  wide  circle  of 
admirers. 

After  his  mother's  death  he  went  in  1797  to  Leipsic, 
and  in  the  following  year  to  Weimar,  where  he  had  much 
pleasant  intercourse  with  Herder,  by  whom  he  was  warmly 
appreciated.  He  did  not  become  intimate  with  Goethe 
and  Schiller,  to  both  of  whom  his  literary  methods  were 
repugnant;  but  in  Weimar  as  elsewhere  his  remarkable 
conversational  powers  and  his  genial  manners  made  him  a 
favourite  in  general  society.  He  was  especially  liked  by 
women,  and  Frau  von  Kalb,  who  has  also  a  place  in  the 
biography  of  Schiller,  even  offered  to  obtain  a  divorce  in 
order  to  marry  him.  In  1801,  however,  he  married 
Caroline  Mayer,  a  bright,  accomplished,  and  amiable  lady 
whom  he  met  in  Berlin  in  1800.  They  lived  first  at 
Meiningen,  then  at  Coburg;  and  finally,  in  1804,  they 
settled  at  Baireuth.  Here  Richter  spent  a  quiet,  simple, 
and  happy  life,  constantly  occupied  with  his  work  as  a 
writer.  In  1808  he  was  fortunately  delivered  from 
anxiety  as  to  outward  necessities  by  the  kindness  of  the 
prince  primate,  who  gave  him  a  pension  of  a  thousand 
florins.  Before  settling  at  Baireuth,  Richter  had  published 
Das  heimliche  Klaglied  der  jetzigen  Manner  (1801),  and 
Titan  (1800-3) ;  and  these  were  followed  by  Flegeljahre 
(1804-5).  Titan  and  Flegeljahre  he  regarded  as  his 
masterpieces,  and  this  judgment  has  been  confirmed  by 
posterity.  His  later  imaginative  works  were  Dr  Katzen- 
berger's  Badereise  (1809),  Des  Feldpredigers  Schmelze 
Reise  nach  Fldtz  (1809),  Leben  Fibels  (1812),  and  Der 
Komet,  oder  Nikolaiis  Marggraf  (1820-22).  In  Vorschule 
der  Aesthetik  (1804)  he  expounded  his  ideas  on  art;  he 
discussed  the  principles  of  education  in  Levana,  oder 
Erziehungslehre  (1807) ;  and  the  opinions  suggested  by 
current  events  he  set  forth  in  Friedenspredigt  (1808), 
Dammerungm  fur  Deutschland  (1809),  Mars  und  Phdbus 
Thronwechsel  im  J.  1814  (1814),  and  Politische  Fasten- 
predigten  (1817).  In  his  last  years  he  began  Wahrheit 
aus  Jean  Paul's  Leben,  to  which  additions  from  his  papers 
and  other  sources  were  made  after  his  death  by  C.  Otto 
and  E.  Forster.  In.  1821  Richter  lost  his  only  son,  a 
youth  of  the  highest  promise  ;  and  he  never  quite  recovered 
from  this  shock.  He  died  of  dropsy  on  the  14th 
November  1825. 

Schiller  said  of  Richter  that  he  would  have  been  worthy  of 
admiration  "  if  he  had  made  as  good  use  of  his  riches  as  other  men 
made  of  their  poverty. "  And  it  is  true  that  in  the  form  of  his 
writings  he  never  did  full  justice  to  his  great  powers.  In  working 
out  his  conceptions  he  found  it  impossible  to  restrain  the  expres- 
sion of  any  powerful  feeling  by  which  he  might  happen  to  be 
moved.  He  was  equally  unable  to  resist  the  temptation  to  bring 
in  strange  facts  or  notions  which  occurred  to  him  ;  and  of  such 
facts  and  notions  he  had  a  vast  store,  for  he  was  an  omnivorous 


reader,  and  forgot  nothing  that  had  ever  touched  his  fancy  or 
awakened  his  sympathies.  Hence  every  one  of  his  works  is 
irregular  in  structure,  and  in  some  of  them  it  is  hard  to  dete'ct  the 
governing  idea  by  which  the  relation  of  the  parts  to  the  whole 
is  supposed  to  be  controlled.  His  style,  too,  lacks  directness, 
precision,  and  grace.  "With  the  main  idea  of  a  sentence  he  almost 
invariably  associates  a  crowd  of  subordinate  ideas ;  and  they  are 
often  grouped  in  an  order  so  capricious  and  so  fantastic  that  the 
meaning  can  be  made  out  only  by  the  closest  study.  The 
splendour  of  Eichter's  genius,  however,  makes  it  easy  for  the  class 
of  readers  to  whom  he  appeals  to  forgive  even  these  grave  defects. 
His  imagination  was  one  of  extraordinary  fertility,  and  he  had  a 
surprising  power  of  suggesting  great  thoughts  by  means  of  the 
simplest  incidents  and  relations.  No  German  prose  writer  has 
presented  more  fascinating  pictures  of  childhood  and  youth,  of 
friendship  and  love ;  nor  has  any  one  shown  more  finely  how 
sordid  circumstances  may  evoke  the  noblest  qualities  of  loyal  and 
generous  minds.  The  love  of  nature  was  one  of  Richter's  deepest 
pleasures,  and  he  communicates  his  own  delight  in  its  beauty  by 
many  a  description  glowing  with  all  the  colour  and  the  radiance 
of  the  real  world.  His  expressions  of  religious  feelings  are  also 
marked  by  a  truly  poetic  spirit,  for  to  Richter  visible  things  were 
but  the  symbols  of  the  invisible,  and  in  the  unseen  realities  alone 
he  found  elements  which  seemed  to  him  to  give  significance  and 
dignity  to  human  life.  His  humour,  the  most  distinctive  of  his 
qualities,  cannot  be  dissociated  from  the  other  characteristics  of 
his  writings.  It  mingled  with  all  his  thoughts,  and  to  some  extent 
determined  the  form  in  which  he  embodied  even  his  most  serious 
reflections.  That  it  is  sometimes  extravagant  and  grotesque 
cannot  be  disputed,  but  it  is  never  harsh  nor  vulgar,  and  generally 
it  springs  naturally  from  the  perception  of  the  incongruity  between 
ordinary  facts  and  ideal  laws.  There  are  works  of  imaginative 
genius  which  we  may  read  and  enjoy  without  necessarily  thinking 
of  the  author.  The  writer  may  reflect  nature  with  so  much  fidelity 
that  at  first  sight  no  element  may  seem  to  be  imported  into  his 
conceptions  from  his  personal  peculiarities.  But  we  appear  always 
to  see  Richter's  face  and  to  hear  his  voice  behind  the  printed 
page  ;  and  his  creations  are  true  and  suggestive  only  in  so  far  as 
they  are  [manifestations  of  his  own  inward  life.  This  means,  of 
course,  that  his  genius  was  not  in  any  important  sense  dramatic, 
and  tliat  he  was  much  more  closely  akin  to  the  romantic  than  to 
the  classic  school ;  but  it  does  not  imply  that  his  works  produce  a 
monotonous  impression.  Richter's  personality  was  so  deep  and 
many-sided  that  in  every  new  book  he  had  some  fresh  secret  to 
disclose.  And  the  more  he  is  known  through  his  unconscious  self- 
revelation  the  more  he  is  loved  and  honoured ;  for  we  soon  learn 
that  with  all  his  wilfulness  and  eccentricity  he  was  a  man  of  a  pure 
and  sensitive  spirit,  with  a  passionate  scorn  for  pretence  and  an 
ardent  enthusiasm  for  truth  and  goodness. 

In  1826-38  a  complete  edition  of  Richter's  works  was  published  in  sixty-five 
volumes,  including  several  posthumous  works.  The  second  edition  (1840-42) 
was  in  thirty-three  volumes,  the  third  (1860-63)  in  thirty-four.  There  are  also 
a  good  many  volumes  of  I'ichter's  correspondence.  See  Coring,  Leben  und 
Charakteristik  Richter's  (1826);  Kunz,  Jean  Paul  Friedrich  Eichter  (1839) ;  and 
Nerrlich,  Jean  Paul  und  seine  Zeitgenossen  (1876).  There  are  two  admirable 
articles  on  Richter  in  Carlyle's  Miscellanies. 

RICIMER,  created  "  comes "  of  the  empire  under 
Valentinian  III.,  was  the  son  of  "a  chief  of  the  Suevi,  who 
had  married  a  daughter  of  Wallia  king  of  the  Visigoths. 
He  was  brought  up  at  Valentinian's  court,  and  served 
with  distinction  under  Aetius.  In  456  a  decisive  naval 
victory  over  the  Vandals  off  Corsica,  followed  soon  after- 
wards by  the  defeat  of  their  land  forces  near  Agrigentum, 
earned  for  him  the  title  of  "  Deliverer  of  Italy "  and 
brought  him  within  sight  of  the  goal  of  his  ambition. 
Having  vanquished  and  deposed  the  emperor  Avitus  in 
October  of  that  year,  he  for  some  time  exercised  every 
function  of  sovereignty  over  Italy  under  the  title  of 
"  patrician,"  which  he  received  from  Leo  in  February  457. 
Precluded  by  his  barbarian  origin  from  aspiring  to  the 
imperial  title,  he  consented  to  the  elevation  of  Majorian 
in  April  457,  but,  encouraged  by  the  misfortunes  of  that 
brave  but  simple-minded  soldier,  he  was  equally  ready  to 
force  his  deposition  four  years  afterwards  (August  461). 
The  puppet  on  whom  the  imperial  dignity  was  now 
bestowed  was  Libius  Severus,  but  Ricimer  continued  to 
command  armies,  negotiate  alliances,  and  wield  an  inde- 
pendent and  despotic  authority  over  the  Italian  peninsula, 
although  his  power  throughout  the  rest  of  the  Western 
empire  was  practically  neutralized  by  the  influence  of 
Marcellinus  in  Dalmatia  and  ^Egidius  in  Gaul.  When 
Anthemius,  invested  with  the  purple  by  Leo,  arrived  at 


548 


R  I  C  —  R  I  C 


Rome  iu  467,  Ricimer  was  politic  enough  to  acquiesce 
with  a  good  grace,  and  was  rewarded  by  being  made  the 
son-in-law  of  the  new  emperor ;  but  subsequently  a 
quarrel  with  his  father-in-law  occasioned  his  withdrawal 
to  Milan,  whence  he  marched  at  the  head  of  an  army 
upon  Rome,  which  he  besieged  and  sacked,  Anthemius 
being  among  the  slain  (July  11,  472).  Olybrius  was 
next  made  emperor  at  the  instance  of  the  Roman 
"  kingmaker,"  who  died  of  a  malignant  fever  on  August 
18,  472. 

RICKETS,  a  disease  of  childhood  characterized  chiefly 
by  a  softened  condition  of  the  bones  and  by  other  evidences 
of  perverted  nutrition.  As  regards  its  nature  and  causa- 
tion rickets  has  been  so  fully  considered  under  PATHOLOGY 
that  all  that  appears  now  necessary  is  to  give  a  few  details 
as  to  its  chief  manifestations,  and  to  refer  briefly  to  some 
points  in  relation  to  its  prevention  and  treatment. 

Although,  as  already  indicated,  rickets  may  have  its 
origin  (at  least  in  some  instances)  during  intra-uterine 
life,  it  is  seldom  that  it  can  be  recognized  until  several 
months  after  birth,  and  it  most  commonly  attracts  atten- 
tion at  about  the  end  of  the  first  year.  The  symptoms 
which  precede  the  outward  manifestation  of  the  disease  are 
marked  disorders  of  the  digestive  and  alimentary  functions. 
The  child's  appetite  is  diminished,  and  there  is  frequent 
vomiting  together  with  diarrhoea  or  irregularity  of  the 
bowels,  the  evacuations  being  clay-coloured  and  unhealthy. 
Along  with  this  there  is  a  falling  away  in  flesh.  Import- 
ance is  to  be  attached,  as  pointed  out  by  Sir  William 
Jenner,  to  certain  other  symptoms  present  in  the  early 
stages,  namely,  profuse  sweating  of  the  head  and  upper 
parts  of  the  body,  particularly  during  sleep,  with  at  the 
same  time  dry  heat  of  the  lower  parts  and  a  tendency  in 
the  child  to  kick  off  all  coverings  and  expose  the  limbs. 
At  the  same  time  there  is  great  tenderness  of  the  bones, 
as  shown  by  the  pain  produced  on  moving  or  handling  the 
child.  The  urine  contains  a  large  amount  of  calcareous 
salts.  Gradually  the  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  bones 
become  visible,  at  first  chiefly  noticed  at  the  ends  of  the 
long  bones,  as  in  those  of  the  arm,  causing  enlargements 
at  the  wrists,  or  in  the  ribs,  producing  a  knobbed  appear- 
ance at  the  junction  t>f  their  ends  with  the  costal  carti- 
lages. The  bones  also  from  their  softened  condition  tend 
to  become  distorted  and  misshapen,  both  by  the  action  of 
the  muscles  and  by  the  superincumbent  weight  of  the  body. 
Those  of  the  limbs  are  bent  outwards  and  forwards,  and 
the  child  becomes  "  bow-legged  "  or  "  in-kneed  "  often  to  an 
extreme  degree.  The  trunk  of  the  body  likewise  shows 
various  alterations  and  deformities  owing  to  curvatures  of 
the  spine,  the  flattening  of  the  lateral  curves  of  the  ribs, 
and  the  projection  forwards  of  the  sternum.  The  cavity 
of  the  chest  may  thus  be  contracted  and  the  development 
of  the  thoracic  organs  interfered  with  as  well  as  their  func- 
tions more  or  less  embarrassed.  The  pelvis  undergoes  dis- 
tortion, which  may  reduce  its  capacity  to  a  degree  that  in 
the  female  may  afterwards  lead  to  serious  difficulties  in 
parturition.  The  head  of  the  rickety  child  is  large-looking 
in  its  upper  part,  the  individual  bones  of  the  cranium 
sometimes  remaining  long  ununited,  while  the  face  is  small 
and  ill-developed,  and  the  teeth  appear  late  and  fall  out  or 
decay  early.  The  constitutional  conditions  of  ill-health 
continue,  and  the  nutrition  and  development  of  the  child 
are  greatly  retarded. 

The  disease  may  terminate  in  recovery,  with  more  or  less 
of  deformity  and  dwarfing,  the  bones  although  altered  in 
shape  becoming  firmly  ossified,  and  this  is  the  common 
result  in  the  majority  of  instances.  On  the  other  hand, 
during  the  progress  of  the  disease,  various  intercurrent 
ailments  are  apt  to  arise  which  may  cause  death,  such  as 
the  infectious  fevers,  bronchitis  and  other  pulmonary  affec- 


tions, chronic  hydrocephalus,  convulsions,  laryngismus  stri- 
dulus,  <fcc. 

An  acute  form  of  rickets  of  rare  occurrence  has  been 
described  by  writers  on  diseases  of  children,  in  which  all 
the  symptoms  are  of  more  rapid  development  and  progress, 
the  result  in  many  instances  being  fatal. 

The  treatment  of  rickets  is  necessarily  more  hygienic  than  medi- 
cinal, and  includes  such  preventive  measures  as  may  be  exercised 
by  strict  attention  to  personal  health  and  nutrition  on  the  part  of 
mothers,  especially  where  there  appears  to  be  any  tendency  to  a 
rickety  development  in  any  members  of  the  family.  Very  important 
also  is  the  avoidance  of  too  prolonged  nursing,  which  not  only  tends 
directly  to  favour  the  development  of  rickets  in  the  infant  nursed, 
but  by  its  weakening  effects  upon  the  mother's  health  is  calculated 
to  engender  the  disease  in  any  succeeding  children.  At  the  same 
time  it  must  be  admitted  that,  when  the  mother  is  healthy,  her 
milk  abundant,  and  nursing  discontinued  before  the  lapse  of  the 
first  year,  there  is  no  better  means  of  preventing  the  occurrence  of 
rickets  than  this  method  of  feeding  an  infant,  the  disease,  as  is  well 
known,  being  far  more  frequently  met  with  in  children  brought  up 
by  hand.  The  management  of  the  child  exhibiting  any  tendency 
to  rickets  is  of  great  importance,  but  can  only  be  alluded  to  in 
general  terms.  The  digestive  disorders  characteristic  of  the  setting 
in  of  the  disease  render  necessary  the  greatest  care  and  watch- 
fulness as  to  diet.  Any  one  system  of  feeding  the  infant  may 
at  times  be  found  to  disagree,  and  may  require  to  be  changed  or 
modified  in  some  particulars.  Thus,  if  the  child  be  not  nursed 
but  fed  artificially,  milk,  either  fresh  or  condensed,  should  be 
almost  the  only  article  of  diet  for  at  least  the  first  year,  and  the 
chief  element  for  the  next.  When  not  digested  well,  as  may  at 
times  be  shown  by  its  appearance  as  a  curd  in  the  evacuations, 
it  may  be  diluted  with  water  or  lime  water,  or  else  discontinued 
for  a  short  time,  carefully-made  gruel  or  barley  water  being  sub- 
stituted. Many  of  the  so-called  "  infant's  foods  "  which  are  now 
so  extensively  used  appear  to  be  well  adapted  for  their  purpose, 
but  when  employed  too  abundantly  and  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
due  amount  of  milk  are  often  productive  of  digestive  and  in- 
testinal disorders,  probably  from  their  containing  a  greater  amount 
of  starchy  matter  than  can  be  utilized.  From  the  end  of  the  first 
year  light  animal  soups  may  occasionally  be  given  with  advantage. 
The  medicinal  remedies  most  to  be  relied  on  are  those  which 
improve  the  digestive  functions  and  minister  to  nutrition,  and 
include  such  agents  as  the  preparations  of  iron,  quinine,  and 
especially  cod -liver  oil.  The  administration  of  lime  salts  in  large 
quantity  has  been  proposed  by  some  physicians  under  the  idea  that 
in  this  way  the  deficient  earthy  matter  might  be  supplied  to  the 
bones.  M.  Piorry  recommended  for  this  purpose  powdered  fresh 
bones  which  contain  a  large  amount  of  phosphate  of  lime.  No  great 
success  can  be  claimed  for  this  plan,  and  it  is  generally  recognized 
that  the  most  useful  method  of  treatment  is  that  which  is  directed 
to  the  feeble  assimilative  powers,  and  seeks  to  supply  food  of  a  kind 
which  will  be  at  once  readily  digested  and  nutritious.  Of  no  less 
importance,  however,  are  abundance  of  fresh  air,  cleanliness,  warm 
clothing,  and  attention  to  the  general  hygiene  of  the  child  and 
to  regularity  in  all  its  functions. 

When  the  disease  is  showing  evidence  of  advancing,  it  is  desir- 
able to  restrain  the  child  from  walking,  as  far  as  possible.  But  this 
precaution  may  be  to  some  extent  rendered  unnecessary  by  the  use 
of  splints  and  other  apparatus  as  supports  for  the  limbs  and  body, 
enabling  the  child  to  move  about  without  the  risk  of  bending  and 
deformity  of  the  bones  which  otherwise  would  probably  be  the 
result.  '  (J.  0.  A.) 

RICKMAN,  THOMAS  (1776-1841),  architect  and  writer 
on  the  styles  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  born  in  1776 
at  Maidenhead,  Berkshire,  where  his  father  practised  as 
a  surgeon,  and  was  brought  up  as  a  member  of  -the  Society 
of  Friends.  In  1797  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  London 
druggist  as  a  step  towards  entering  his  father's  profession, 
but  finding  the  work  distasteful  he  gave  it  up,  and  for 
several  years  tried  one  employment  after  another  with 
little  success.  He  married  early,  and  lost  his  wife,  who 
was  his  cousin,  in  1808.  At  that  time  he  was  a  partner 
in  a  corn-factor's  business  in  London,  but  he  afterwards 
went  to  live  in  Liverpool  as  assistant  to  an  insurance 
broker,  and  was  soon  led  to  take  a  very  keen  interest  in 
the  study  of  ancient  buildings,  especially  churches.  All 
his  spare  time  was  spent  in  sketching  and  making  careful 
measured  drawings,  till  he  gained  a  knowledge  which  was 
very  remarkable  at  a  time  when  but  little  taste  existed  for 
the  beauties  of  the  Gothic  styles.  In  this  way  Rickman 


R  I  D  — R  I  D 


549 


was  led  to  make  designs  of  his  own,  founded  upon  his 
study  of  old  examples  ;  and,  when  a  large  grant  of  money 
was  made  by  the  Government  to  build  new  churches,  he 
sent  in  a  design  of  his  own  which  was  successful  in  an 
open  competition;  thus  he  was  fairly  launched  upon  the 
profession  of  an  architect,  for  which  his  natural  gifts 
strongly  fitted  him.  Rickman  then  moved  to  Birmingham, 
and  at  first  worked  at  his  new  profession  with  Mr  H. 
Hutchinson  as  managing  clerk  ;  and  when  he  died  in  1830 
Rickman  entered  into  partnership  with  Mr  Hussey,  having 
become  one  of  the  most  successful  architects  of  his  time. 
He  built  an  immense  number  of  churches,  chapels,  and 
other  buildings,  among  which  some  of  the  chief  are 
churches  at  Hampton  Lucy,  Ombersley,  and  Stretton-on- 
Dunsmore,  St  George's  at  Birmingham,  St  Philip's  and  St 
Matthew's  both  in  Bristol,  two  in  Carlisle,  St  Peter's  and 
St  Paul's  at  Preston,  St  David's  in  Glasgow,  Grey  Friars 
at  Coventry,  and  many  others.  He  also  designed  the  new 
court  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  a  palace  for  the 
bishop  of  Carlisle,  and  several  large  country  houses.  These 
are  all  in  the  Gothic  style,  but,  though  superior  perhaps  to 
the  buildings  of  his  predecessors,  they  show  more  know- 
ledge of  the  outward  form  of  the  mediaeval  style  than 
any  real  acquaintance  with  its  spirit,  and  are  little  better 
than  dull  copies  of  old  work,  disfigured  by  much  poverty 
of  detail.  Rickmann  nevertheless  was  an  important  stage 
in  the  revival  of  taste  for  mediae  valism,  perhaps  in  that 
respect  only  second  to  Pugin.  His  book  entitled  An  Attempt 
to  Discriminate  the  Styles  of  Architecture  in  England  is 
a  work  which  deserves  great  credit  for  its  painstaking 
research  ;  a  great  many  editions  of  it  were  published,  and 
it  was  eventually  much  improved  and  enlarged.  Rickman 
died  in  1841. 

RIDDLES  are  probably  the  oldest  extant  form  of 
humour.  They  spring  from  man's  earliest  perception 
that  there  are  such  things  as  analogies  in  nature.  Man 
observes  an  example  of  analogy,  puts  his  observations  in 
the  form  of  a  question,  and  there  is  the  riddle  ready  made. 
Some  Boeotian  humorist,  for  example,  detected  the  ana- 
logy between  the  life  of  humanity — the  child  on  all  fours, 
the  man  erect  on  two  legs,  old  age  with  its  staff — on  one 
side,  and  on  the  other  the  conception  of  an  animal  with 
a  varying  number  of  limbs.  Put  this  in  a  question,  and  it 
is  the  riddle  of  the  Sphinx.  Another  instance  is  the  ques- 
tion— "  What  we  caught  we  threw  away,  what  we  could 
not  catch  we  kept. "  Homer  is  said  to  have  died  of  vexation 
at  not  being  able  to  discover  the  answer  to  this  riddle, 
still  current  on  the  coast  of  Brittany,  in  Germany,  and 
in  Gascony.  After  inventing  the  riddle,  men  began  to  use 
it  in  a  kind  of  game ;  bets  were  staked  on  the  answer, 
and  sides  were  made,  each  side  backing  its  champion. 
These  sports  in  Marriner's  time  were  common  in  Tonga ; 
they  are  no  lass  popular  among  the  African  Woloffs.  The 
example  of  Samson's  riddle  set  to  the  Philistines  is  an 
instance  of  the  sport  in  a  Semitic  country.  In  mahrchen 
and  ballads,  the  hero's  chance  of  winning  his  beloved,  or 
of  escaping  threatened  punishment,  is  often  made  to  turn 
on  his  power  of  answering  riddles.  It  follows  from  the 
artbss  and  primitive  character  of  the  riddle  that  regular 
popular  riddles  (Devinettes)  are  widely  distributed,  like 
popular  tales,  popular  songs,  and  popular  customs.  The 
Woloffs  ask,  "  What  flies  for  ever  and  rests  never?"  Answer, 
The  Wind.  The  Basutos  put  this  riddle — "  What  is  wing- 
less and  legless,  yet  flies  fast  and  cannot  be  imprisoned  1 " 
Answer,  The  Voice.  The  German  riddle  runs — "What 
can  go  in  face  of  the  sun  yet  leave  no  shadow  1 "  Answer, 
The  Wind.  In  riddles  may  perhaps  be  noticed  the  ani- 
mistic or  personalizing  tendency  of  early  human  thought, 
just  beginning  to  be  conscious  of  itself.  The  person  who 
asked  these  riddles  had  the  old  sense  of  wind,  for  example, 


as  a  person,  yet  probably,  unlike  the  Bushmen,  he  would 
never  expect  to  see  the  personal  wind.  He  knew  the 
distinction  between  the  personal  and  impersonal  well 
enough  to  be  sure  that  his  enigma  would  present  some 
difficulty.  The  riddle,  to  be  brief,  is  an  interrogatory 
form  of  the  fable,  and  like  the  fable  originates  among 
rude  people,  and  is  perpetuated  in  the  folklore  of 
peasantry. 

Probably  the  best  book  on  the  riddle  (a  subject  less 
frequently  studied  than  the  mahrchen  or  the  myth)  is 
Eugene  Rolland,  Devinettes  ou  finigmes  Populaires,  with  a 
preface  by  M.  Gaston  Paris.  The  power  of  answering 
riddles  among  the  people  who  invented  the  legend  of 
Solomon  and  the  queen  of  Sheba  seems  to  have  been 
regarded  as  a  proof  of  great  sagacity.  The  riddle  proper 
is  all  but  extinct  outside  folklore  and  savage  life,  and 
has  been  replaced  by  the  conundrum,  which  is  a  pun  in 
the  interrogative  form. 

RIDING.     See  HORSEMANSHIP,  vol.  xii.  p.  195. 

RIDLEY,  NICHOLAS  (c.  1500-1555),  bishop  of  London, 
and  a  martyr  to  the  Reformation,  was  descended  from  a 
family  long  seated  in  Northumberland.  The  second  son  of 
Nicholas  Ridley  of  Unthank  near  Willimoteswick  in  that 
county,  he  was  born  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. From  the  grammar  school  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne 
he  was  sent  to  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  about  1518, 
being  supported  there  by  his  uncle,  Dr  Robert  Ridley,  fellow 
of  Queen's  College.  At  the  university  he  specially  distin- 
guished himself  in  Greek.  He  proceeded  B.A.  1522-23, 
became  a  fellow  of  his  college,  and,  having  taken  orders, 
was  sent  about  1527  at  the  expense  of  his  uncle  to 
study  on  the  Continent,  first  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  and 
afterwards  at  Louvain.  On  his  return  to  Cambridge  he 
was  in  1530  chosen  under-treasurer of  the  university;  and 
in  1534  he  was  senior  proctor,  when  along  with  the 
vice-chancellor  and  the  other  proctor  Richard  Wilkes  he 
signed  the  decree  of  the  university  against  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  pope  in  England.  About  this  time  he  began  to  dis- 
tinguish himself  as  an  orator  and  disputant,  and  was 
chosen  chaplain  of  the  university,  and  "  Magister  Glo- 
meriae," — an  office  in  which  most  probably  (for  its 
duties  have  been  much  disputed)  he  had  to  instruct  the 
university  entrants  in  Latin.  Cranmer,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  after  Ridley  had  proceeded  B.D.  in  1537, 
appointed  him  one  of  his  chaplains,  and  in  April  1538 
collated  him  to  the  vicarage  of  Herne,  Kent,  where  he 
began  to  preach  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation.  In 
1540,  having  commenced  doctor  of  divinity,  he  was  made 
king's  chaplain ;  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  elected 
master  of  his  college  in  Cambridge.  Soon  after  he  was 
appointed  a  canon  of  Canterbury.  At  the  instigation  of 
Bishop  Gardiner  he  was  accused  in  the  bishop's  court 
of  preaching  against  the  doctrine  of  the  Six  Articles, 
but  after  the  matter  had  been  referred  to  com- 
missioners specially  appointed  by  the  king  he  was 
acquitted.  In  1545  he  renounced  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation,  and  was  made,  a  canon  of  Westminster.  In 
1547  he  was  presented  by  the  fellows  of  Pembroke  Hall  to 
the  living  of  Soham,  Cambridgeshire,  and  the  same  year 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Rochester.  In  1550  he  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  for  examining  Bishops  Gardiner  and 
Bonner.  He  concurred  in  their  deprivation,  and  succeeded 
the  latter  in  the  see  of  London.  In  1552,  returning  from 
Cambridge,  he  paid  a  visit  to  the  princess,  afterwards 
Queen  Mary,  at  Hunsdon,  Hertfordshire.  On  account  of 
her  unqualified  condemnation  of  the  Reformed  doctrines,  he 
from  this  time  concurred  in  the  proposals  to  exclude  her 
from  the  throne,  and  he  signed  the  will  of  Edward  VI. 
settling  the  crown  on  Lady  Jane  Grey.  On  the  death 
of  the  king,  he,  in  a  sermon  at  St  Paul's  Cross,  16th  July 


550 


R  I  E  — R  I  E 


1553,  affirmed  that  Mary  was  illegitimate,  and  predicted 
that  her  accession  would  be  disastrous  to  the  religious 
interests  of  England.  After  the  proclamation  of  Mary  he  set 
out  for  Framlingham  to  confess  his  offences  against  her,  but 
was  met  with  a  warrant  for  his  arrest  and  was  committed 
to  the  Tower.  In  March  1554  he  was  sent  down,  along 
with  Cranmer  and  Latimer,  to  Oxford  to  be  tried  before  a 
committee  of  convocation.  He  was  convicted  of  heresy, 
and  after  refusing  to  recant  was  sentenced  to  death.  The 
trial  having  been  declared  irregular,  he  was,  in  September 
1555,  along  with  Cranmer  and  Latimer,  tried  by  special  com- 
missioners, and  on  the  16th  October  he,  in  company  with 
Latimer,  was  burnt  at  the  stake  at  Oxford. 

The  collected  edition  of  the  works  of  Ridley,  published  in  1841 
with  a  biographical  notice  by  Rev.  Henry  Christmas,  includes  A 
Treatise  concerning  Images  in  Churches  ;  A  brief  Declaration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  ;  Certain  godly  and  comfortable  Conferences  between 
Bishop  Ridley  and  Mr  Hugh  Latimer  during  their  imprisonment ; 
A  Comparison  between  tJie  amifortable  Doctrine  of  the  Gospel  and  the 
Traditions  of  the  Popish  Religion;  and  a  variety  of  other  pamphlets. 
His  life  by  his  relative  Dr  Gloucester  Ridley  appeared  in  1763. 
See  also  Foxe's  Acts  and  Monuments  ;  Strype's  Cranmer  ;  Burnet's 
History  of  the  Reformation ;  Wood's  Athense  Oxon. ;  Cooper's 
Athenie  Cantab.  ;  and  Froude's  History  of  England. 

EIEMANN,  GEORG  FRIEDEICH  BERNHARD  (1826- 
1866),  mathematician,  was  born  on  the  17th  September 
1826,  at  Breselenz,  near  Dannenberg  in  Hanover.  His 
father  Friedrich  Bernhard  Riemann  came  from  Mecklen- 
burg, had  served  in  the  war  of  freedom,  and  had  finally 
settled  as  pastor  in  Quickborn.  Here  with  his  five  brothers 
and  sisters  Riemann  spent  his  boyhood  and  received,  chiefly 
from  his  father,  the  elements  of  his  education.  He 
showed  at  an  early  age  well-marked  mathematical  powers, 
and  his  progress  was  so  rapid  in  arithmetic  and  geometry 
that  he  was  soon  beyond  the  guidance  not  only  of  his 
father  but  of  schoolmaster  Schulz,  who  assisted  in  the 
mathematical  department  of  his  training. 

In  1840  he  went  to  live  with  his  grandmother  at 
Hanover,  where  he  attended  the  lyceurn.  After  her  death, 
two  years  later,  he  entered  the  Johanneum  at  Liineburg, 
where  he  finished  in  four  years  more  his  gymnasial  educa- 
tion. Notwithstanding  some  disadvantages  due  to  defects 
in  his  earlier  training,  and  more  particularly  to  shyness 
arising  from  his  rustic  upbringing,  he  speedily  distinguished 
himself  in  all  the  branches  of  the  gymnasial  course,  and 
was  already  known  by  the  school  authorities  as  a  mathe- 
matician of  great  promise.  The  director,  Schmalfuss, 
encouraged  him  in  his  mathematical  studies  by  lending 
him  books  (among  them  Euler's  works  and  Legendre's 
Theory  of  Numbers),  and  readily  understood  that  he  had 
no  ordinary  schoolboy  to  deal  with  when  he  found  that 
works  of  such  profoundity  were  read,  mastered,  and 
returned  within  a  few  days.  In  1846,  in  his  twentieth 
year,  Riemann  entered  himself  as  a  student  of  philology 
and  theology  in  the  university  of  Gottingen.  This  choice 
of  a  university  career  was  dictated  more  by  the  natural 
desire  of  his  father  to  see  his  son  enter  his  own  profession, 
and  by  the  poverty  of  his  family,  which  rendered  the 
speedy  earning  of  his  living  a  matter  of  importance,  than 
by  his  own  preference.  He  sacrificed  so  far  to  the  bent 
of  his  genius  as  to  attend  lectures  on  the  numerical 
solution  of  equations  and  on  definite  integrals  by  Stern, 
on  terrestrial  magnetism  by  Goldschmidt,  and  on  the 
method  of  least  squares  by  Gauss.  It  soon  became 
evident  that  his  mathematical  studies,  undertaken  at  first 
probably  as  a  relaxation,  were  destined  to  be  the  chief 
business  of  his  life ;  and  he  obtained  his  father's  permis- 
sion to  devote  himself  entirely  to  a  scientific  career.  By 
this  time  he  had  exhausted  the  resources  of  Gottingen  in 
the  shape  of  mathematical  lectures ;  and  he  proceeded  in 
the  beginning  of  1847  to  Berlin,  attracted  thither  by  that 
brilliant  constellation  of  mathematical  genius  whose  prin- 


cipal stars  were  Dirichlet,  Jacobi,  Steiner,  and  Eisenstein. 
He  appears  to  have  attended  Dirichlet's  lectures  on  theory 
of  numbers,  theory  of  definite  integrals,  and  partial  dif- 
ferential equations,  and  Jacobi's  on  analytical  mechanics 
and  higher  algebra.  It  was  during  this  period  that  he 
first  formed  those  ideas  on  the  theory  of  functions  of  a 
complex  variable  which  led  to  most  of  his  great  discoveries. 
One  stirring  social  incident  at  least  marked  this  part  of 
his  life,  for,  during  the  revolutionary  insurrection  in 
March  1848,  the  young  mathematician,  as  a  member  of  a 
company  of  student  volunteers,  kept  guard  in  the  royal 
palace  from  9  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  24th  March 
till  1  o'clock  on  the  afternoon  of  the  following  day. 

In  1850  he  returned  to  Gottingen  and  began  to  prepare 
his  doctor's  dissertation,  busying  himself  meanwhile  with 
"  Naturphilosophie  "  and  experimental  physics.  In  pur- 
suit of  the  latter  he  entered  the  mathematical  and  physical 
seminary,  then  newly  started  by  Weber,  Ulrich,  Stern, 
and  Listing.  This  double  cultivation  of  his  scientific 
i  powers,  doubtless  due  more  to  the  influence  of  GiJttingen 
as  represented  by  Gauss  than  to  Berlin,  had  the  happiest 
effect  on  his  subsequent  work ;  for  the  greatest  achieve: 
ments  of  Riemann  were  effected  by  the  application  in  pure 
mathematics  generally  of  a  method  (theory  of  potential) 
which  had  up  to  this  time  been  used  solely  in  the  solution 
of  certain  problems  that  arise  in  mathematical  physics. 

In  November  1851  he  obtained  his  doctorate,  the 
thesis  being  "  Grundlagen  fur  eine  allgemeine  Theorie  der 
Functionen  einer  veranderlichen  complexen  Grosse. "  This 
memoir  excited  the  admiration  of  Gauss,  and  at  once 
marked  its  author's  rank  as  a  mathematician.  The  funda- 
mental method  of  research  which  Riemann  employed  has 
just  been  alluded  to ;  the  results  will  be  best  indicated  in 
his  own  words  : — 

"  The  methods  in  use  hitherto  for  treating  functions  of  a  complex 
variable  always  started  from  an  expression  for  the  function  as  its 
definition,  whereby  its  value  was  given  for  every  value  of  the 
argument ;  by  our  investigation  it  has  been  shown  that,  in 
consequence  of  the  general  character  of  a  function  of  a  complex 
variable,  in  a  definition  of  this  sort  one  part  of  the  determining 
conditions  is  a  consequence  of  the  rest,  and  the  extent  of  the  deter- 
mining conditions  has  been  reduced  to  what  is  necessary  to  effect 
the  determination.  This  essentially  simplifies  the  treatment  of 
such  functions.  Hitherto,  in  order  to  prove  the  equality  of  two 
expressions  for  the  same  function,  it  was  necessary  to  transform 
the  one  into  the  other,  i.  e. ,  to  show  that  both  expressions  agreed 
for  every  value  of  the  variable  ;  now  it  is  sufficient  to  prove  their 
agreement  to  a  far  less  extent "  [merely  in  certain  critical  points 
and  at  certain  boundaries]. 

The  time  between  his  promotion  to  the  doctorate  and 
his  habilitation  as  privat-docent  was  occupied  by  re- 
searches undertaken  for  his  Habilitationsschrift,  by 
"Naturphilosophie,"  and  by  experimental  work  partly  as 
Weber's  assistant  in  the  mathematical  physical  seminary, 
and  partly  as  collaborates  with  Weber  and  Kohlrausch  in 
special  researches  on  electricity.  In  connexion  with  the 
results  of  Kohlrausch  regarding  the  residual  discharge  of 
condensers,  Riemann  worked  out  a  theory  of  this  pheno- 
menon which  he  intended  to  have  published  in  Poggen- 
dorfs  Annalen.  For  some  reason  not  fully  explained  it 
was  not  published  at  all  during  his  lifetime,  and  its  place 
in  the  Annalen  was  taken  by  an  elegant  little  paper  on 
Nobili's  rings. 

The  subject  he  had  chosen  for  his  Habilitationsschrift  was 
the  "  Representation  of  a  Function  by  means  of  a  Trigono- 
metrical Series,"  a  subject  which  Dirichlet  had  made  his 
own  by  a  now  well-known  series  of  researches.  It  was 
fortunate  no  doubt  for  Riemann  that  he  had  the  kind 
advice  and  encouragement  of  Dirichlet  himself,  who  was 
then  on  a  visit  at  Gottingen  during  the  preparation  of  his 
essay ;  but  the  result  was  a  memoir  of  such  originality  and 
refinement  as  showed  that  the  pupil  was  fully  the  equal 
of  the  master.  Of  the  customary  three  themes  which  he 


R  I  E  — R  I  E 


551 


suggested  for  his  trial  lecture,  that  "  On  the  Hypo- 
theses which  form  the  Foundation  of  Geometry "  was 
chosen  at  the  instance  of  Gauss,  who  Avas  curious  to  hear 
what  so  young  a  man  had  to  say  on  this  difficult  subject, 
on  which  he  himself  had  in  private  speculated  so  pro- 
foundly (see  PARALLELS,  vol.  xviii.  p.  254).  Dedekind 
tells  us  that  Riemann's  lecture,  which  surpassed  his 
utmost  expectation,  filled  him  with  the  greatest  astonish- 
ment, and  that  on  the  way  back  from  the  faculty  meeting 
he  spoke  to  Wilhelm  Weber  with  the  highest  apprecia- 
tion, and  with  an  excitement  rare  with  him,  regarding 
the  depth  of  the  thoughts  to  which  Riemann  had  given 
utterance. 

In  1855  Gauss  died  and  was  succeeded  by  Dirichlet, 
who  along  with  others  made  an  effort  to  obtain  Riemann's 
nomination  as  extraordinary  professor.  In  this  they  were 
not  successful ;  but  a  Government  stipendium  of  200 
thalers  was  given  him,  and  even  this  miserable  pittance 
was  of  great  importance,  so  straitened  were  his  circum- 
stances. But  this  small  beginning  of  good  fortune  was 
embittered  by  the  deaths  of  his  father  and  his  eldest 
sister,  and  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  home  at  Quickborn, 
where  he  had  so  often  found  solace  when  ill  and  dejected. 
Meantime  he  was  lecturing  and  writing  the  great  memoir 
(Borchardt 's  Journal,  vol.  liv.,  1857)  in  which  he  applied 
the  theory  developed  in  his  doctor's  dissertation  to  the 
Abelian  functions.  It  is  amusing  to  find  him  speaking 
jubilantly  of  the  unexpectedly  large  audience  of  eight 
which  assembled  to  hear  his  first  lecture  (in  1854)  on 
partial  differential  equations  and  their  application  to 
physical  problems.  The  rustic  shyness  which  had  troubled 
his  schoolboyhood  seems  still  to  have  haunted  him ;  for  he 
says,  speaking  of  these  lectures,  "  The  nervousness  which  I 
had  at  first  has  pretty  well  subsided,  and  I  accustom  my- 
self to  think  more  of  my  hearers  than  of  myself,  and  to 
read  in  their  faces  whether  I  may  go  on,  or  whether  the 
matter  requires  further  explanation." 

Riemann's  health  had  never  been  strong.  Even  in  his 
boyhood  he  had  shown  symptoms  of  consumption,  the 
disease  that  was  working  such  havoc  in  his  family ;  and 
now  under  the  strain  of  work  he  broke  down  altogether, 
and  had  to  retire  to  the  Harz  with  his  friends  Patter 
and  Dedekind,  where  he  gave  himself  up  to  excursions 
and  "  Naturphilosophie."  After  his  return  to  Gottingen 
(November  1857)  he  was  made  extraordinary  professor,  and 
his  salary  raised  to  three  hundred  thalers.  As  usual  with 
him,  misfortune  followed  close  behind  ;  for  he  lost  in  quick 
succession  his  brother  Wilhelm  and  another  sister.  In 
1859  he  lost  his  friend  Dirichlet;  but  his  reputation  was 
now  so  well  established  that  he  was  at  once  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  It  now  seemed  for  a  little  as  if  the  world 
was  to  go  smoothly  with  him.  Well-merited  honours 
began  to  reach  him ;  and  in  1860  he  visited  Paris,  and 
met  with  a  warm  reception  there.  He  married,  and 
married  happily,  Fraulein  Elise  Koch  in  June  1862,  but 
the  following  month  he  had  an  attack  of  pleurisy  which 
proved  the  beginning  of  a  long  illness  that  ended  only  with 
his  death.  His  physician  recommended  a  sojourn  in  Italy, 
for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  and  Weber  and  Sartorius  von 
Waltershausen  obtained  from  the  Government  leave  of 
absence  and  means  to  defray  the  cost  of  the  journey.  At 
first  it  seemed  that  he  would  recover ;  but  on  his  return 
in  June  1863  he  caught  cold  on  the  Spliigen  Pass,  and  in 
August  of  the  same  year  had  to  go  back  to  Italy.  In 
November  1865  he  returned  again  to  Gottingen,  but, 
although  he  was  able  to  live  through  the  winter,  and  even 
to  work  a  few  hours  every  day,  it  became  clear  to  his 
friends,  and  clearest  of  all  to  himself,  that  he  was  dying. 
He  was  very  desirous  to  finish  some  of  the  many  investi- 
gations which  had  presented  themselves  to  him,  and 


eagerly  asked  his  doctors  to  tell  him  how  long  he  might 
reasonably  expect  to  live,  so  that  he  might  take  up  what 
he  had  most  chance  of  finishing.  In  order  to  husband  his 
few  remaining  days  he  resolved  in  June  1866  to  return 
once  more  to  Italy.  Thither  he  journeyed  through  the 
confusion  of  the  first  days  of  the  Austro-Prussian  war,  and 
settled  in  a  villa  at  Selasca  near  Intra  on  Lago  Maggiore. 
Here  his  strength  rapidly  ebbed  away,  but  his  mental 
faculties  remained  brilliant  to  the  last.  On  the  19th  of 
July  1866,  attended  by  his  wife,  he  lay  under  a  fig-tree 
greatly  enjoying  the  beautiful  landscape  and  working  at  his 
last  unfinished  investigation  on  the  mechanism  of  the  ear. 
The  day  following  he  died. 

There  are  few  more  pathetic  stories  than  the  life  of 
Riemann,  few  finer  instances  of  victory  gained  by  inborn 
genius  over  a  host  of  adverse  circumstances.  Few  as  were 
the  years  of  work  allotted  to  him,  and  few  as  are  the 
printed  pages  covered  by  the  record  of  his  researches,  his 
name  is,  and  will  remain,  a  household  word  among  mathe- 
maticians. Most  of  his  memoirs  are  masterpieces — full  of 
original  methods,  profound  ideas,  and  far-reaching  imagina- 
tion. Few  sources,  we  imagine,  have  been  fuller  of  inspira- 
tion for  the  younger  mathematicians  of  our  day  than  the 
octavo  volume  of  five  hundred  pages  or  so  that  contains  his 
works ;  and  many  an  advance  in  mathematical  science 
will  yet  be  made,  with  increase  of  reputation  to  the  maker, 
by  carrying  out  his  suggestions. 

The  collected  works  of  Riemann  were  published  by  H.  Weber 
assisted  by  R.  Dedekind  (Svo,  Leipsic,  1876).  At  the  end  of  this 
volume  there  is  a  touching  account  of  Ins  life  by  the  latter,  from 
which  the  above  sketch  is  almost  entirely  taken. "  (G.  CH.) 

RIENZI,  COLA  DI  (1313-1354).     See  ROME. 

RIESENER,  JEAN  HENRI  (1725-1806),  the  celebrated 
cabinet-maker  of  Louis  XVL,  was  born  at  Gladbeck  near 
Cologne  in  1725.  He  was  employed  by  Jean  Frai^ois 
Oeben  in  the  arsenal,  and  in  1769  married  Oeben's  widow, 
by  whom  he  had  one  son.  A  number  of  fine  examples 
of  Riesener's  cabinets  are  described  in  the  catalogue  of 
furniture  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  He  employed 
tulip,  rosewood,  holly,  maple,  laburnum,  and  purple  wood 
in  their  construction.  Wreaths  and  bunches  of  flowers 
form  the  centres  of  his  panels ;  on  the  sides  are  diaper 
patterns  in  quiet  colours.  The  name  of  Riesener  is 
stamped  sometimes  on  the  panel  itself,  sometimes  on  the 
oak  lining  of  the  furniture  made  by  him.  The  best  pieces 
at  the  South  Kensington  Museum  are  from  the  collection 
of  Sir  Richard  Wallace ;  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  bureau  made  for  Stanislaus,  king  of  Poland,  which 
is  signed  by  the  maker,  as  is  also  a  similar  piece  in  the 
Louvre  which  is  accompanied  by  gilt  bronze  candle 
branches  by  Gouthiere.  This  last  Avork,  which  bears  the 
date  1769,  it  is  believed  that  Riesener  only  finished;  and 
indeed  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  after  his  second 
marriage  (1782)  to  Marie  A.  C.  Grezel  (from  whom  he 
was  divorced),  he  ceased  to  produce  anything,  and  became 
a  collector,  buying  up  his  own  Avorks.  He  died  January 
6,  1806.  His  son,  HENRI  FRANCOIS  (1767-1828),  was 
one  of  the  most  noted  portrait-painters  of  the  first  empire. 
The  portrait  of  M.  Ravrio,  a  Avorker  in  bronze  (Louvre), 
is  a  good  example  of  his  talent. 

RIESENGEBIRGE  (Bohemian  Krlconose),  or  Giant 
Mountains,  a  lofty  and  rugged  group  on  the  common 
boundary  of  Silesia  and  Bohemia,  between  the  upper 
courses  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder.  They  form  the  highest 
portion  of  the  Sudetic  system,  which  separates  south-east 
Prussia  from  the  Austrian  empire,  and  finds  its  natural 
continuation  towards  the  north-Avest  in  the  Erzgebirge,  the 
Thuringian  Forest,  and  the  Harz  Mountains.  Adjoining 
the  Isergebirge  and  the  Lausitzergebirge  on  the  Avest,  and 
the  Eulengebirge  and  the  Adlergebirge  on  the  east  and 


552 


R  I  E  — R  I  E 


south-east,  the  Riesengebirge  proper  run  south-east  and 
north-west  between  the  sources  of  the  Zacken  and  the 
Bober,  for  a  distance  of  23  miles,  with  a  breadth  of  14 
miles.  They  cover  an  area  of  about  425  square  miles,  three- 
fourths  of  which  is  in  Austrian  and  the  remainder  in 
Prussian  territory.  The  boundary  line  follows  the  crest 
of  the  principal  chain  or  ridge  (Riesenkamm),  with  the 
highest  summits,  which  stretches  along  the  northern 
side  of  the  group,  with  an  average  height  of  over  4000 
feet.  Its  principal  peaks  are  the  Reiftrager  (4430  feet), 
the  Hohe  Rad  (4968  feet),  the  Great  Sturnihaube  (4862 
feet),  the  Little  Sturmhaube  (4646  feet),  and,  near  the  east 
extremity,  the  Schneekoppe  or  Riesenkoppe  (5266  feet), 
the  loftiest  mountain  in  northern  or  central  Germany. 
Roughly  parallel  to  this  northern  ridge,  and  separated 
from  it  by  a  long  narrow  valley  known  as  the  Sieben- 
griinde,  there  extends  on  the  south  a  second  and  lower 
chain,  of  broad  massive  "  saddles,"  with  comparatively 
few  peaks.  The  chief  heights  here  are  the  Kesselkoppe 
(4708  feet),  the  Krkonose  (4849  feet),  the  Ziegenriicken, 
and  the  Brunnenberg  (5072  feet).  From  both  ridges 
spurs  of  greater  or  less  length  are  sent  off  at  various 
angles, — those  from  the  Bohemian  ridge  being  longer, 
broader,  and  less  abrupt  than  those  from  the  Riesenkamm. 
On  its  northern  side  this  mountain  group  rises  ruggedly 
and  precipitously  from  the  Hirschberg  valley ;  but  on  its 
southern  side  its  slope  towards  Bohemia  is  very  much 
more  gradual.  The  scenery  is  in  general  bold  and  wild, — 
the  projecting  crags  and  deep  rocky  gorges  and  precipices 
often  presenting  striking,  sometimes  even  sublime,  land- 
scapes. The  Bohemian  ridge  is  cleft  about  the  middle 
by  a  deep  gorge  through  which  pour  the  headwaters  of 
the  river  Elbe,  which  finds  its  source  in  the  Siebengriinde. 
The  Iser,  Bober,  Aupa,  Zacken,  Queiss,  and  a  great  number 
of  smaller  streams  also  rise  among  these  mountains  or  on 
their  skirts ;  and  small  lakes  and  tarns  are  not  unfrequent 
in  the  valleys.  The  Great  and  Little  Schneegruben, — two 
deep  rocky  gorge-like  valleys  in  which  snow  remains  all  the 
year  round — lie  to  the  north  of  the  Hohe  Rad.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  the  Riesenkamm  and  the  western  portion  of  the 
southern  chain  are  granite ;  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
main  ridge  and  several  mountains  to  the  south-east  are 
formed  of  a  species  of  gneiss ;  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
Bohemian  chain,  especially  its  summits,  consists  of 
mica-slate.  Blocks  of  these  minerals  lie  scattered  on  the 
sides  and  ridges  of  the  mountains  and  in  the  beds  of  the 
streams ;  and  extensive  turf  moors  occupy  many  of  the 
mountain  slopes  and  valleys.  The  lower  parts  of  the 
Riesengebirge  are  clad  with  forests  of  oak,  beech,  pine,  and 
fir;  above  1600  feet  only  the  last  two  kinds  of  trees  are 
found,  and  beyond  about  3950  feet  only  the  dwarf  pine 
(Pinus  Pumilio).  Various  alpine  plants  are  found  on  the 
Riesengebirge, — some  having  been  artificially  introduced* 
on  the  Schneekoppe.  Wheat  is  grown  at  an  elevation  of 
1800  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  oats  as  high  as  2700 
feet.  The  inhabitants  of  this  mountain  region,  who 
are  tolerably  numerous,  especially  on  the  Bohemian  side, 
live  for  the  most  part,  not  in  villages,  but  in  scattered 
huts  called  "Bauden."  They  support  themselves  by  the 
rearing  of  cattle,  tillage,  glass-making,  and  linen-weaving. 
Mining  is  carried  on  only  to  a  small  extent  for  arsenic, 
although  there  are  traces  of  former  more  extensive  workings 
for  other  metals.  Several  spots  in  the  Riesengebirge  are  a 
good  deal  frequented  as  summer  resorts ;  and  the  Schnee- 
koppe and  other  summits  are  annually  visited  by  a  con- 
siderable number  of  travellers,  who  find  shelter  in  the 
Bauden.  The  Riesengebirge  is  the  legendary  home  of 
Number  Nip  (Riibezahl),  a  half -mischievous  half-friendly 
goblin  of  German  folklore;  and  various  localities  in  the 
group  are  more  or  less  directly  associated  with  his  name. 


RIETI,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  18| 
miles  south-east  of  Terni,  which  is  69  miles  by  rail  from 
Rome.  It  occupies  a  fine  position  1 396  feet  above  the  sea 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Velino  (a  torrent  sub-tributary  to 
the  Tiber),  which  at  this  point  issues  from  the  limestone 
plateau ;  the  old  town  occupies  the  declivity  and  the  new 
town  spreads  out  on  the  level.  While  with  its  quaint  red- 
roofed  houses,  its  old  town  walls  (restored  about  1250),  its 
castle,  its  cathedral  (13th  and  15th  centuries),  its  episcopal 
palace  (1283,  Andrea  Pisano),  and  its  various  churches  and 
convents  Rieti  has  no  small  amount  of  mediaeval  pictur- 
esqueness,  it  also  displays  a  good  deal  of  modern  activity 
in  wine-growing,  cattle-breeding,  and  sugar-boiling.  The 
fertility  of  the  neighbourhood  is  celebrated  both  by  Virgil 
and  by  Cicero.  A  Roman  bridge  over  the  Velino, 
Thorwaldsen's  monument  to  Isabella  Alfani,  and  a  statue 
of  St  Barbara  by  Berdini,  both  in  the  cathedral,  and  the 
Palazzo  Vincentini  by  Vignola  deserve  to  be  mentioned. 
The  population  was  7875  in  1871,  and  9618  (with  suburbs, 
13,679;  in  the  commune,  16,822)  in  1881. 

According  to  Tcrentius  Varro  (himself  perhaps  of  Reatine 
birth)  and  others  who  have  followed  him,  the  people  who  founded 
Cures,  and  afterwards  settled  on  the  Palatine  at  Rome,  were  natives 
of  the  Reatine  territory  ;  but  this  is  of  somewhat  the  same 
questionable  character  as  the  other  story  about  the  companion  of 
Hercules  who  was  buried  at  this  point  near  the  Via  Salaria.  About 
the  Via  Salaria  itself,  there  is  no  doubt  it  led  from  the  sea  to 
Reate  and  onwards  towards  Ancona,  and  was  from  a  very  early  date 
the  great  route  for  the  conveyance  of  salt  to  the  Sabine  country. 
While  hardly  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  Punic  or  Civil 
Wars,  Reate  is  described  by  Strabo  as  exhausted  by  those  long 
contests.  Its  inhabitants  received  the  Roman  franchise  at  the 
same  time  with  the  rest  of  the  Sabines  (290  B.C.),  but  it  appears 
as  a  pnefectura  and  not  as  a  municipium  down  to  the  beginning 
of  the  empire.  It  was  never  made  a  colonia,  though  veterans  of 
the  Praetorian  and  of  the  legions  Octava  and  Decima  Augusta 
were  settled  there  by  Vespasian,  who  belonged  to  a  Eeatine  family 
and  was  born  in  the  neighbourhood.  For  the  contests  of  the 
Reatines  with  the  people  of  Interamna  see  TERNI.  About  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century  the  town  was  besieged  and  captured  by 
Roger  I.  of  Sicily.  In  the  struggle  between  church  and  empire  it 
always  held  with  the  former ;  and  it  defied  the  forces  of  Frederick 
II.  and  Otho  IV.  Pope  Nicholas  IV.  long  resided  at  Reati,  and 
it  was  there  he  crowned  Charles  II.  of  Anjou  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  In  the  14th  century  Robert,  and  afterwards  Joanna, 
of  Naples  managed  to  keep  possession  of  Reati  for  many  years, 
but  it  returned  to  the  States  of  the  Church  tinder  Gregory  IX. 
About  the  year  1500  the  liberties  of  the  town,  long  defended 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  popes,  were  entirely  abolished. 
An  earthquake  in  1785  was  in  1799  followed  by  the  much  more 
disastrous  pillage  of  Reati  by  the  papal  troops  for  a  space  of 
fourteen  days. 

See  Aldus  Manutiiis,  "Dissert,  epistolica  de  Reati,"  in  Nor.  Thet.  Antiq.  Rom., 
\. ;  Angelottl,  Descrizione,  1635  ;  Schenardi,  Antic/ie  lapidi,  1820 ;  and  Michaeli, 
Note  per  la  storia  di  Rieti,  1868,  1870. 

RIETSCHEL,  ERNST  FKIEDEICH  AUGUST  (1804-1861), 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  modern  German  sculp- 
tors. Born  at  Pulsnitz  in  Saxony  in  1804,  at  an  early  age 
he  became  an  art  student  at  Dresden,  and  subsequently 
a  pupil  of  Rauch  in  Berlin.  He  there  gained  an  art 
studentship,  and  studied  in  Rome  in  1827-28.  After 
returning  to  Saxony  he  soon  brought  himself  into  notice 
by  a  colossal  statue  of  Frederick  Augustus,  king  of 
Saxony,  was  elected  a  member  of  the  academy  of  Dres- 
den, and  thenceforth  became  one  of  the  chief  sculptors  of 
his  country.  In  1832  he  was  elected  to  the  Dresden 
professorship  of  sculpture,  and  had  many  foreign  orders 
of  merit  conferred  on  him  by  the  Governments  of 
different  countries.  His  death  occurred  at  Dresden  in 
1861. 

Rietschel's  style  was  very  varied  ;  he  produced  works  imbued 
with  much  religious  feeling,  and  to  some  extent  occupied  the  same 
place  as  a  sculptor  that  Overbeck  did  in  painting.  Other  import- 
ant works  l>y  Rietschel  were  purely  classical  in  style.  He  was 
specially  famed  for  his  portrait  figures  of  eminent  men,  treated 
with  much  idealism  and  dramatic  vigour  ;  among  the  latter  class 
his  chief  works  were  colossal  statues  of  Goethe  and  Schiller  for  the 
town  of  Weimar,  of  Weber  for  Dresden,  and  of  Lessing  for  Bruns- 


K  I  F  -  E  I  G 


553 


wick.  He  also  designed  the  memorial  statue  of  Luther  for  Worms, 
but  died  before  he  could  carry  it  out.  The  principal  among 
Rietschel's  religious  pieces  of  sculpture  are  the  well-known  Christ- 
Angel,  and  a  life-sized  Pieta,  executed  for  the  king  of  Prussia. 
He  also  worked  a  great  deal  in  rilievo,  and  produced  many  grace- 
ful pieces,  especially  a  fine  series  of  bas-reliefs  representing  Night 
and  Horning,  Noon  and  Twilight,  designed  with  much  poetical 
feeling  and  imagination. 

For  a  good  biography  of  Rietschel  and  account  of  his  works  see  Appermann, 
Ernst  Rietschel,  Leipsic,  1863.  (J.  II.  M.) 

RIFLE.     See  GUNMAKING,  vol.  xi.  p.  281-5. 

RIFLEMAN-BIRD,  or  RIFLE-BIRD,  names  given  by 
the  English  in  Australia  to  a  very  beautiful  inhabitant  of 
that  country,1  probably  because  in  coloration  it  resembled 
the  well-known  uniform  of  the  rifle-regiments  of  the  British 
army,  while  in  its  long  and  projecting  hypochondriac 
plumes  and  short  tail  a  further  likeness  might  be  traced 
to  the  hanging  pelisse  and  the  jacket  formerly  worn  by 
the  members  of  those  corps.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  cock 
bird  is  clothed  in  velvety-black  generally  glossed  with 
rich  purple,  but  having  each  feather  of  the  abdomen 
broadly  tipped  with  a  chevron  of  green  bronze,'  while  the 
crown  of  the  head  is  covered  with  scale-like  feathers  of 
glittering  green,  and  on  the  throat  gleams  a  triangular 
patch  of  brilliant  bluish  emerald,  a  colour  that  reappears 
on  the  whole  upper  surface  of  the  middle  pair  of  tail-quills. 
The  hen  is  greyish-brown  above,  the  crown  striated  with 
dull  white;  the  chin,  throat,  and  a  streak  behind  the  eye  are 
pale  ochreous,  and  the  lower  parts  deep  buff,  each  feather 
bearing  a  black  chevron.  According  to  James  Wilson  (III. 
Zoology,  pi.  xi.),  specimens  of  both  sexes  were  obtained 
by  Sir  T.  Brisbane  at  Port  Macquarie,  whence,  in  August 
1823,  they  were  sent  to  the  Edinburgh  Museum,  where 
they  arrived  the  following  year ;  but  the  species  was  first 
described  by  Swainson  in  January  1825  (Zool.  Journal,  i. 
p.  481)  as  the  type  of  a  new  genus  Ptiloris,  more  pro- 
perly written  Ptilorrhis,2  and  it  is  generally  known  in  orni- 
thology as  P.  paradisea.  It  inhabits  the  northern  part  of 
New  South  Wales  and  southern  part  of  Queensland  as  far  as 
Wide  Bay,  beyond  which  its  place  is  taken  by  a  kindred 
species,  the  P.  victorise  of  Gould,  which  was  found  by  John 
Macgillivray  on  the  shores  aud  islets  of  Rockingham  Bay. 
Further  to  the  north,  in  York  Peninsula,  occurs  what  is 
considered  a  third  species,  P.  alberti,  very  closely  allied  to 
and  by  some  authorities  thought  to  be  identical  with  the 
P.  magnified  (Vieillot)  of  New  Guinea — the  "  Promerops  " 
of  many  writers.  From  that  country  a  fifth  species, 
P.  tvilsoni,  has  also  been  described  by  Mr  Ogden  (Proc. 
Acad.  Philadelphia,  1875,  p.  451,  pi.  25).  Little  is 
known  of  the  habits  of  any  of  them,  but  the  Rifleman-bird 
proper  is  said  to  get  its  food  by  thrusting  its  somewhat 
long  bill  under  the  loose  bark  on  the  boles  or  boughs  of 
trees,  along  the  latter  of  which  it  runs  swiftly,  or  by  search- 
ing for  it  on  the  ground  beneath.  During  the  pairing- 
season  the  males  mount  to  the  higher  branches  and  there 
display  and  trim  their  brilliant  plumage  in  the  morning 
sun,  or  fly  from  tree  to  tree  uttering  a  note  which  is 
syllabled  "yass"  greatly  prolonged,  but  at  the  same  time 
making,  apparently  with  their  wings,  an  extraordinary 
noise  like  that  caused  by  the  shaking  of  a  piece  of  stiff 
silk  stuff.  Verreaux  informed  Mr  Elliot  that  he  believed 
they  breed  in  the  holes  of  trees  and  lay  white  eggs;  but  on 
that  score  nothing  is  really  known.  The  genus  Ptilorrhis, 
thought  by  Gould  to  be  allied  to  Climacteris,  has  been 
generally  placed  near  Epimaclius,  which  is  now  considered, 

1  Curiously  enough  its  English  name  seems  to  be  first  mentioned  in 
ornithological  literature  by  Frenchmen — Lesson  and  Garnot — in  1828, 
who  say  (  Voy.  "  Coquille,"  Zoologie,  p.  669)  that  it  was  applied  "pour 
rappelo.r  que  ce  fut  un  soldat  de  la  garnison  [of  New  South  Wales]  qui 
le  tua  le  premier," — which  seems  to  be  an  insufficient  reason,  though 
the  statement  as  to  the  bird's  first  murderer  may  be  true. 

2  Some  writers  have  amended  Swainson's  faulty  name  in  the  form 
Ftilornis,  but  that  is  a  mistake. 


with  Drepanornis  and  Seleucides,  to  belong  to  the  Para- 
diseidze,  or  Birds-of-Paradise,  and  in  his  Monograph  of 
that  Family  all  the  species  then  known  are  beautifully 
figured  by  Mr  Elliot.  (A.  N.) 

RIGA  (Esth.  Ria-Lin),  a  seaport  of  Russia,  in  56°  57' 
N.  lat.  and  24°  6'  E.  long.,  375  miles  south-west  of  St 
Petersburg,  is  in  population  the  fifth  city  of  the  empire, 
while  in  foreign  trade  it  ranks  next  to  St  Petersburg  and 
Odessa.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  governor-general  of  the 
Russian  Baltic  provinces,  and  also  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Livonia.  The  Gulf  of  Riga,  115  miles  long 
and  100  miles  in  width,  with  shallow  waters  of  inconsider- 
able salinity  (greatest  depth  27  fathoms),  freezes  to  some 
extent  every  year.  The  town  is  situated  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  gulf,  8  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Diina 
(Dwina),  which  brings  Riga  into  water  communication  with 
an  extensive  region,  as  also  with  the  basins  of  the  Dnieper 
and  Volga.  Below  the  town  the  Diina,  from  580  to  2300 
yards  in  breadth,  divid6s  into  several  branches,  among 
islands  and  sand  banks,  receiving  before  it  enters  the  sea 
the  Bolderaa  river,  and  expanding  towards  the  east  into 
wider  lacustrine  basins.  At  its  sea  entrance  the  water 


riaii  of  Iliga. 

on  the  bar  has  an  average  depth  of  only  14  feet,  and  the 
entrance  of  the  river  is  protected  by  the  fortress  of  Diina- 
miinde,  connected  by  rail  with  Riga,  while  another  line 
on  the  right  bank  connects  the  city  with  the  Miihlgraben 
village  opposite.  As  the  Diina  freezes  at  Riga  for  an 
average  of  127  days  annually,  the  port  remains  closed  for 
navigation  from  December  to  March.  The  roadstead  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  though  now  protected  by  a  mole, 
is  still  too  much  exposed,  so  that  only  such  vessels  as 
cannot  pass  the  bar  remain  there,  the  others  discharging 
part  of  their  cargo  at  Bolderaa  or  Miihlgraben  and  then 
entering  the  Diina,  which  also  they  leave  only  partially 
laden.  Improvements  designed  to  obviate  these  incon-^ 
veniences  are  now  going  on  both  at  the  outer  harbour  and 
at  the  new  one,  the  "  Zollhafe'n." 

Riga  consists  of  four  parts — the  old  town  and  the  St 
Petersburg  and  the  Moscow  suburbs  standing  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Diina,  and  the  Mitau  suburb  on  the  left  bank, 
connected  by  a  floating  bridge  which  is  removed  in  winter, 
and  by  a  viaduct,  820  feet  long,  resting  on  light  piers  of 
solid  stone,  and  leaving  a  passage  for  ships.  The  old  town 
still  preserves  its  Hanseatic  features — high  storehouses, 
with  spacious  granaries  and  cellars,  lining  the  narrow, 
winding,  and  busy  streets.  The  only  open  spaces  are  the 
market-place  and  two  other  squares,  one  of  which,  facing 
the  citadel,  is  ornamented  by  a  granite  column  erected  in 
commemoration  of  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  I.  The  old 

XX.  —  70 


554 


K I G— R I G 


city  is  so  limited  that  its  population  increases  very  slowly. 
The  so-called  suburbs  on  the  other  hand,  with  their  broad 
and  quiet  boulevards  on  the  site  of  the  former  fortifications, 
are  steadily  growing  and  undergoing  new  improvements. 
The  St  Petersburg  suburb,  connected  with  the  city  by  an 
avenue  of  trees,  is  the  seat  of  the  wealthy  German 
aristocracy  and  merchant  community.  The  rich  "poly- 
technicum"  and  the  new  theatre  are  situated  there. 

Few  antiquities  of  the  mediaeval  town  still  remain. 
The  oldest  church,  the  "Domkirche,"  founded  in  1204, 
was  burned  in  1547,  and  the  present  building  dates  from 
the  second  half  of  the  16th  century.  Its  organ,  with  a 
:;as-engine  of  4-horse  power,  and  6826  pipes — dating 
from  1883 — is  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  world.  St 
Peter's  church,  with  a  beautiful  tower  440  feet  high,  was 
erected  in  1406.  The  castle,  built  in  1494-1515  by  the 
master  of  the  Knights  of  the  Sword,  Walter  von  Pletten- 
berg — a  spacious  building  often  rebuilt — is  now  the  seat 
of  the  governor-general  and  the  Russian  authorities.  The 
"  House  of  the  Black  Heads "  (opposite  the  elegant  new 
town-house),  which  was  the  seat  of  a  military  corpora- 
tion founded  in  1232,  and  subsequently  became  the  meet- 
ing place  of  the  wealthier  youth  of  the  place,  has  some 
valuable  contents.  Of.  the  recent  erections,  the  poly- 
technic, the  exchange,  the  municipal  picture  gallery,  the 
monument  of  Herder,  who  lived  at  Riga  towards  the  end 
of  the  last  century,  the  gymnasiums  of  Lomonossoff  and 
Alexander  I.,  and  the  large  bonded  warehouse  are  worthy 
of  notice.  The  esplanade  (where  a  Greek  cathedral  now 
stands),  the  quiet  Wohrmann's  Park,  and  the  well- 
shaded  "  Kaiserliche"  Park  are  much  visited.  The  environs 
of  Riga  are  undergoing  constant  improvement,  and  some  of 
them,  such  as  Dubbeln  and  the  sea-bathing  resorts  of  Bilder- 
liugshof  and  Majorenhof,  have  numerous. visitors  in  summer. 

In  1867  Riga  had  a  population  of  102,590  (city,  18,246  ;  St 
Petersburg  suburb,  27,155 ;  Moscow  suburb,  41,318 ;  Mitau 
suburb,  15,871).  On  December  25,  1881  it  had  168,728  inhabi- 
tants, the  suburbs  alone  showing  an  increase  of  64,263  (city, 
20,091;  suburb  of  St  Petersburg,  45,345;  of  Moscow,  73,705; 
and  of  Mitau,  29,587).  About  one  half  of  the  population  is 
German,  the  remainder  being  Russian  and  Lettish  in  nearly  equal 
proportions,  with  some  2000  Esthonians  and  nearly  5000  foreigners. 
The  life  of  the  city  has  a  German  character  throughout,  but  the 
Russians  (many  of  whom  were  serfs  until  18(51),  and  still  more  the 
Letts  and  Esthonians,  also  display  a  steadily  progressive  intellectual 
life.  Both  are  seeking  to  counteract  the  German  influence  by 
increasing  the  number  of  their  educational  institutions,  the  Letts 
also  by  the  stage  and  the  press.  The  larger  commerce  is  wholly 
in  German  and  (to  a  less  extent)  English  hands.  Owing  to  its 
communication  by  water  and  rail  with  the  forests  of  White  Russia 
and  Volhynia,  Riga  is  a  great  mart  for  timber,  which  in  value 
stands  third  among  the  exports.  Flax  and  linseed  occupy  the 
first  place,  Riga  being  the  chief  Russian  port  for  the  extensive 
flax-producing  region  of  north-west  K  ussia.  Owing  to  the  great  rail- 
way which  crosses  the  country  from  Iliga  to  Smolensk,  afterwards 
dividing  into  two  branches,  to  Orenburg  and  Tsaritsyn  on  the 
lower  Volga  respectively,  Riga  is  also  the  great  storehouse  and 
place  of  export  for  hemp  coming  by  rail  from  west  central  Russia, 
and  for  corn,  Riga  merchants  sending  their  buyers  as  far  east 
as  Tamboff.  Oats,  in  particular,  are  extensively  exported  to  Eng- 
land from  the  central  provinces.  Tallow,  leather,  tobacco,  rugs, 
feathers,  and  other  minor  items  add  considerably  to  the  total 
value  of  the  exports.  The  competition  of  the  port  of  Libau  (with 
exports  amounting  in  1882  to  31,473,590  roubles)  is  counter- 
balanced by  the  steady  development  of  the  Russian  railway 
system,  so  that  the  exports  of  Riga,  which  in  1851-1860  averaged 
17,737,000  roubles,  and  were  23,964,000  in  1866,  amounted  in  1882 
to  64,159,076  roubles  or  £6,415,900  (food  stufl's,  £1,706,300  ;  raw 
produce,  £4,690,170,  including  timber,  £1,295,520  ;  and  manu- 
factured wares,  £19,436).  The  imports,  consisting  chiefly  of  salt, 
fish,  wine,  and  cotton,  with  metals,  machinery,  coal,  oils,  fruits, 
tobacco,  and  other  minor  articles,  are  also  rapidly  increasing 
(1,876,000  roubles  in  1851-1860,  6,751,000  roubles  in  1866,  and 
34,304,100  roubles  in  1882).  The  food  stuffs  (salt,  fish,  tobacco, 
wine,  oils,  &c.)  reached  £514,847;  raw  produce  (chiefly  cotton, 
coal,  and  metal),  £2,043,804  ;  and  manufactured  wares,  £871,132. 
In  1882  the  port  was  visited  by  2347  foreign  vessels  of  906,200 
tons  burden  ;  of  these  537  (367,110  tons)  were  from  Great  Britain; 


161  vessels  of  89,990  tons,  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade,  also 
entered  the  port.  Riga  is  in  railway  communication  with  Lilian 
(via  Mitau),  and  with  St  Petersburg  (via  Diinaburg),  Warsaw,  and 
central  Russia  ;  the  traffic  is  very  active, — no  less  than  11,247,000 
cwts.  of  various  wares  having  been  brought  to  Riga  by  rail,  and 
844,000  cwts.  shipped  on  the  Diina. 

The  manufactures  of  the  town  and  neighbourhood  are  yearly 
developing  ;  the  chief  items  are  woollen  cloth,  cottons,  machinery, 
metal  wares,  cigars,  corks,  glass,  and  paper. 

The  educational  institutions  include,  besides  the  polytechnic, 
a  Greek  seminary,  four  gymnasiums,  some  ten  private  schools  for 
secondary  education  of  boys  and  girls,  and  a  comparatively  large 
number  of  primary  schools.  The  municipal  library  contains  very 
interesting  materials  relating  to  the  history  of  the  Baltic  provinces. 
The  book  trade  is  rapidly  extending. 

History. — Riga  was  founded  in  1158,  as  a  storehouse  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Diina,  by  a  few  Bremen  merchants.  Its  name  is 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  Righ-o,  an  island  formerly  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  a  branch  of  the  Diina.  About  1190  the 
Augustinian  monk  Meinhard  erected  a  monastery  there,  and  in 
1199-1201  Bishop  Albert  I.  of  Livonia  obtained  from  Innocent  III. 
permission  for  German  merchants  to  land  at  the  new  settlement, 
and  chose  it  for  his  seat,  exercising  his  power  over  the  neighbour- 
ing district  in  connexion  with  the  Teutonic  Knights.  As  early 
as  the  first  half  of  the  13th  century  the  young  city  obtained  the 
right  of  electing  its  own  magistracy,  and  enlarged  the  walls  erected 
during  Albert  I.  's  time.  It  joined  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  from 
1'253  refused  to  recognize  the  rights  of  the  bishop  and  the  knights. 
Early  in  the  14th  century  Riga  repelled  the  attack  of  the  Kuron 
ruler  Lamehiuas,  and  during  the  next  century  it  had  to  contend 
with  the  knights.  In  1420  it  fell  once  more  under  the  rule  of  the 
bishop,  who  maintained  his  authority  until  1566,  when  it  was 
abolished  in  consequence  of  the  Reformation.  Sigismund  III. ,  king 
of  Poland,  took  Riga  in  1547,  and  in  1558  the  Russian  commander 
Prince  Serebryanyi  reached  the  tswn,  burned  its  suburbs  and  many 
ships  on  the  Diina,  and  remained  for  three  days  under  the  walls  of 
the  fort.  In  1561  Gotthard  Kettler  publicly  abdicated  his  master- 
ship of  the  order  of  Knights  of  the  Sword,  and  Riga,  together  with 
southern  Livonia,  became  a  Polish  possession  ;  after  some  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  to  reintroduce  Roman  Catholicism,  Stephen  Batory 
recognized  the  religious  freedom  of  the  Protestant  population. 
Throughout  the  17th  century  Riga — which  for  nearly  three  centuries 
had  been  a  wealthy  centre  of  the  commerce  of  the  whole  region, 
and  was  at  this  time  visited  by  from  three  to  five  hundred 
ships  annually— became  a  bone  of  contention  between  Sweden, 
Poland,  and  Russia.  In  1621  Gustavus  Adolphus  took  it  from 
Poland,  and  held  it  against  the  Poles  and  the  Russians  Avho  besieged 
it  in  1656.  During  the  Northern  War  it  was  courageously  defended, 
but  after  the  battle  of  Poltava  it  succumbed,  and  was  taken  in  July 
1710  by  Sheremetyeff.  In  1781  it  was  made  by  Russia  the  capital 
of  the  Riga  viceroyalty,  but  fifteen  years  later,  the  viceroyalty  having 
been  abolished,  it  was  made  and  still  remains  the  capital  of  Livonia. 
In  1812,  the  approach  of  the  French  being  apprehended,  the  sub- 
urbs were  burnt.  Riga  still  maintains  many  of  its  old  municipal 
institutions.  The  "magistrate"  of  Riga  exercises  patrimonial 
rights  over  a  district  comprising  several  communes  around  the 
city.  (P.  A.  K.) 

RIGAUD,  HYACINTHE  (1659-1743),  French  painter, 
born  at  Perpignan  20th  July  1G59,  was  the  descendant  of  a 
line  of  painters.  Having  early  lost  his  father,  he  was  sent 
by  his  mother  to  Montpellier,  where  he  studied  under  Pezet 
and  was  helped  by  Ranc,  then  to  Lyons,  and  in  1681 
to  Paris.  There,  whilst  following  the  regular  course  of 
academical  instruction,  Rigaud  produced  a  great  number  of 
portraits  so  good  that  Lebrun  advised  him  to  give  up  going 
to  Rome  and  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  this  class  of 
work.  Rigaud,  although  he  had  obtained  the  Great  Prize, 
"followed  this  advice,  and  for  sixty-two  years  painted  at  the 
rate  of  thirty  to  forty  portraits  a  year,  all  carried  through 
with  infinite  care  by  his  own  hand.  He  had  a  magnificent 
emphatic  manner  appropriate  to  the  rendering  of  the 
pompous  types  of  the  age,  but,  although  some  of  his  most 
famous  works  belong  to  the  class  of  official  portraiture,  his 
talent  showed  to  even  greater  advantage  in  the  painting  of 
subjects  whose  life  and  position  admitted  of  less  formal 
treatment.  His  portraits  of  himself,  of  the  sculptor  Dcs- 
jardins  (Louvre),  of  Mignarcl,  and  of  Lebrun  (Louvre)  may 
be  cited  as  triumphs  of  a  still  more  attractive,  if  less  impos- 
ing, character  than  that  displayed  in  his  grand  repre- 
sentations of  Bossuet  (Louvre)  and  Louis  XIV.  (Louvre), 
while  his  beautiful  portraits  of  his  mother,  Marie  Serre 


RIM 


555 


(Louvre),  must  for  ever  remain  amongst  the  masterpieces 
of  French  art.  Rigaud,  although  the  great  successes  to 
which  he  owed  his  fame  were  won  without  exception  in 
portrait  painting,  persisted  in  pressing  the  Academy  to 
admit  him  as  an  historical  painter.  This  delayed  his 
reception,  and  it  was  not  until  January  2,  J700,  that  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  his  desire.  He  presented  as  his 
diploma  works  a  St  Andrew  (Louvre)  and  the  portrait  of 
Desjardins  already  mentioned,  exhibited  at  the  salon  of 
1 704,  and  filled  in  turn  all  the  various  posts  of  academical 
distinction.  Having  attained  a  professional  position  of 
unsurpassed  eminence,  Rigaud  died  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
four  on  27th  December  1743,  having  never  recovered  from 
the  shock  of  losing  his  wife  in  the  year  previous.  He  had 
many  pupils,  and  his  numerous  works  had  the  good  fortune 
to  be  reproduced  by  the  greatest  of  French  engravers — 
Edelinck,  Drevet,  Wille,  Audran,  and  others. 

RIGGING.     See  SEAMANSHIP. 

RIGHT,  PETITION  OF.    See  PETITION,  vol.  xviii.  p.  705. 

RIGHTS,  BILL  OF.  On  the  13th  February  1688-89 
the  Declaration  of  Right  was  delivered  by  the  Lords  and 
Commons  to  the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange.  In 
October  1689  the  rights  claimed  by  the  declaration  were 
enacted  with  some  alterations  by  the  Bill  of  Rights,  1  Will, 
and  M.,  sess.  2,  c.  2,  next  to  Magna  Charta  the  greatest 
landmark  in  the  constitutional  history  of  England  and  the 
nearest  approach  to  the  written  constitutions  of  other 
countries.  The  Act  (the  full  name  of  Avhich  is  "  An  Act 
declaring  the  Rights  and  Liberties  of  the  Subject,  and 
settling  the  Succession  of  the  Crown  "),  after  reciting  the 
unconstitutional  proceedings  of  James  II.,  the  abdication 
of  that  king,  the  consequent  vacancy  of  the  crown,  and 
the  summons  of  the  convention  parliament,  declared,  on 
the  part  of  the  Lords  and  Commons,  "  for  the  vindicating 
and  asserting  their  ancient  rights  and  liberties — 

"1.  That  the  pretended  power  of  suspending  of  laws  or  the  execu- 
tion of  laws  by  regal  authority  without  consent  of  parliament  is  illegal. 
2.  That  the  pretended  power  of  dispensing  with  laws  or  the  execu- 
tion of  laws  by  regal  authority,  as  it  hath  been  assumed  and  exer- 
cised of  late,  is  illegal.  3.  That  the  commission  for  erecting  the 
late  court  of  commissioners  for  ecclesiastical  causes,  and  all  other 
commissions  and  courts  of  like  nature,  are  illegal  and  pernicious. 
4.  That  levying  money  for  or  to  the  iise  of  the  crown,  by  pretence 
of  prerogative,  without  grant  of  parliament,  for  longer  time  or  in 
other  manner  than  the  same  is  or  shall  be  granted,  is  illegal.  5. 
That  it  is  the  right  of  the  subjects  to  petition  the  king,  and  all 
commitments  and  prosecutions  for  such  petitioning  are  illegal.  6. 
That  the  raising  or  keeping  a  standing  army  within  the  kingdom  in 
time  of  peace,  unless  it  be  with  consent  of  parliament,  is  against 
law.  7.  That  the  subjects  which  are  Protestants  may  have  arms 
for  their  defence  suitable  to  their  conditions,  and  as  allowed  by  law. 
8.  That  elections  of  members  of  parliament  ought  to  be  free.  9. 
That  the  freedom  of  speech,  and  debates  or  proceedings  in  parlia- 
ment, ought  not  to  be  impeached  or  questioned  in  any  court  or 
place  out  of  parliament.  10.  That  excessive  bail  ought  not  to  be 
required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punish- 
ments inflicted.  11.  That  jurors  ought  to  be  duly  impanelled  and 
returned,  and  jurors  which  pass  upon  men  in  trials  for  high  treason 
ought  to  be  freeholders.  12.  That  all  grants  and  promises  of  fines 
and  forfeitures  of  particular  persons  before  conviction  are  illegal 
and  void.  13.  And  that  for  redress  of  all  grievances,  and  for  the 
amending,  strengthening,  and  preserving  of  the  laws,  parliament 
ought  to  be  held  frequently.  And  they  do  claim,  demand,  and 
insist  upon  all  and  singular  the  premises,  as  their  undoubted  rights 
and  liberties." 

The  further  provisions  of  the  Act  were  concerned  with 
the  settlement  of  the  crown  upon  the  prince  and  princess 
of  Orange,  with  the  exception  of  §  12,  which  negatived  the 
right  of  dispensation  by  non  obstante  to  or  of  any  statute 
or  any  part  thereof,  unless  a  dispensation  be  allowed  in  the 
statute  itself  or  by  bill  or  bills  to  be  passed  during  the  then 
session  of  parliament.  An  example  of  an  Act  giving  a 
dispensing  power  is  7  &  8  Will.  III.,  c.  37,  by  which  the 
crown  is  empowered  to  grant  licences  to  hold  in  mortmain 
non  obstante  the  Mortmain  Acts. 


Et  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  Declaration  of  Right  and  the 
Bill  of  Rights  introduced  no  new  principle  into  the  English 
constitution.  In  the  words  of  Lord  Macaulay,  "the 
Declaration  of  Right,  though  it  made  nothing  law  which 
had  not  been  law  before,  contained  the  germ  of  every  good 
law  which  has  been  passed  during  more  than  a  century  and 
a  half,  of  every,  good  law  which  may  hereafter  in  the  course 
of  ages  be  found  necessary  to  promote  the  public  weal,  and 
to  satisfy  the  demands  of  public  opinion "  (History  of 
England,  vol.  ii.  p.  396).  In  the  United  States,  the  main 
provisions  of  the  Bill  of  Rights,  so  far  as  they  are  applicable, 
have  been  adopted  both  in  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States  and  in  the  State  constitutions. 

RIMINI.  The  city  of  Rimini  is  bounded  on  three 
sides  by  water.  It  faces  the  Adriatic  to  the  north,  has 
the  torrent  Aprusa,  now  called  Ausa,  on  the  east,  and 
has  the  river  Marecchia,  the  Arimnum  of  the  ancients 
and  later  known  as  the  Ariminum,  on  the  west.  It  stands 
in  a  fertile  plain,  which  on  the  southern  side  soon  swells 
into  pleasant  slopes  backed  by  the  jagged  peaks  of  the 
Umbrian  Apennines.  The  foremost  foothill  of  the  range  is 
the  steep  crag  of  Mons  Titanus  crowned  by  the  towers  of 
San  Marino.  This  oldest  and  smallest  of  republics  com- 
mands a  prospect  of  almost  unrivalled  beauty  over  hill  and 
plain — to  Ravenna  on  one  side,  Pesaro  on  the  other,  the 
mountains  of  Montefeltro,  Rimini  and  its  rivers,  and  across 
the  Adriatic  to  the  Dalmatian  coast. 

Of  the  foundation  of  Rimini  nothing  certain  is  known. 
It  was  first  inhabited  by  the  Umbrians,  then  by  the 
Etruscans  for  many  centuries.  In  the  4th  century  B.C.  it 
was  invaded  by  the  Senones,  who  advanced  as  far  as 
Sinigaglia.  Brennus  established  himself  in  Rimini,  and 
marched  thence  upon  Rome,  which  he  destroyed  by  fire 
in  390  B.C.  After  more  than  a  century  of  dominion  the 
Senones  were  expelled  by  the  Romans,  who  founded  a 
military  colony  in  Rimini  and  made  it  the  seat  of  the 
praetor  governing  the  province  designated  as  Ariminumior 
Gallia  Togata.  Owing  to  its  position,  Rimini  rose  to 
increased  importance  under  its  new  masters.  The  Romans 
reopened  the  mint  formerly  established  by  the  Gauls, 
which  had  issued  the  "  0es  grave,"  the  heaviest  Italic  coin 
that  has  been  preserved.  Rimini  was  the  starting  point 
of  the  Flaminian  Way  leading  to  Rome,  and  of  the  Emilian 
Way  to  Piacenza.  Later,  134  B.C.,  the  Popilian  Way  lead- 
ing as  far  as  Venice  was  made.  In  82  B.C.  Rimini  was 
withdrawn  from  the  province  of  Gaul  and  included  in 
Italy,  of  which  the  frontier  was  now  extended  from  the 
Esino  to  the  Rubicon,  about  ten  miles  from  Rimini  near 
Cesena.  This  added  to  the  city's  importance.  We  find 
continual  mention  of  it  in  the  wars  of  Marius  and  Sulla, 
and  by  the  latter  it  was  afterwards  sacked.  In  49  B.C. 
Julius  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon  with  the  13th  legion, 
entered  Rimini,  and  harangued  his  troops  in  the  great 
square  that  still  bears  his  name.  A  pillar  marks  the 
spot  on  which,  according  to  tradition,  he  delivered  his 
address.1  From  Rimini,  after  having  assembled  the  tri- 
bunes of  the  people  and  summoned  the  other  legions,  he 
went  forth  on  the  great  expedition  that  was  to  lead  to  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia  and  ultimately  to  the  foundation  of  the 
empire. 

Rimini  was  highly  favoured  under  Augustus.  That 
emperor  restored  the  Flaminian  Way,  and  the  senate 
decreed  the  erection  in  his  honour  of  the  famous  arch  that 
is  still  one  of  the  grandest  of  ancient  monuments.  It 
seems  that  this  arch  was  originally  crowned  by  a  statue 
of  Augustus  mounted  on  a  triumphal  car  (quadriga). 

1  A  stone  originally  stood  there,  mentioned  by  15th-century  writers 
as  "the  big  stone  (petrone),  on  which  he  (Caesar)  stood  to  make  his 
speech."  But  this  stone,  vetustate  collapsum  was  replaced  in  1555 
by  the  existing  column. 


556 


RIMINI 


But  in  the  Middle  Ages  this  was  removed  and  replaced 
by  the  turrets  which  remain  still.  Contemporaneously 
with  the  arch  was  built  the  beautiful  bridge  over  the 
Marecchia,  the  only  other  ancient  monument  to  be  found 
in  Rimini,  since  of  the  amphitheatre  scarcely  a  stone  is 
left. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  the  history  of  Rimini  has  no 
importance.  Alternately  captured  by  Byzantines  and 
Goths,  it  was  rigorously  besieged  by  the  latter  in  538 
A.D.  They  were,  however,  compelled  to  retreat  before  the 
reinforcements  sent  by  Belisarius  and  Narses ;  thus  the 
Byzantines,  after  various  vicissitudes,  became  masters  of 
the  town,  appointed  a  duke  as  its  governor,  and  included 
it  in  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  It  afterwards  fell  into 
the  power  of  the  Longobards,  and  then  of  the  Franks,  who 
yielded  it  to  the  pope,  for  whom  it  was  governed  by 
counts  to  the  end  of  the  10th  century.  Soon  after,  this 
period  the  imperial  power  became  dominant  in  Rimini. 
In  1157  Frederick  I.  gave  it,  by  imperial  patent,  the 
privilege  of  coining  money  and  the  right  of  self-govern- 
ment ;  and  in  the  1 3th  century  we  find  Rimini  an  inde- 
pendent commune  waging  war  on  the  neighbouring  cities. 
But  throughout  these  times  the  main  feature  of  its  history 
is  its  alternate  subjection  to  pope  and  emperor.  And, 
weak  as  the  sway  of  either  was,  it  was  strong  enough  to  pre- 
vent any  genuine  local  prosperity.  During  the  continued 
struggle  between  church  and  empire,  the  withdrawal 
of  the  one  was  the  signal  for  the  other  to  advance,  and 
these  speedy  mutations  gave  the  commune  no  chance  of 
achieving  independence.  This  state  of  things  went  on 
until  the  rise  of  the  despots,  who,  for  similar  reasons,  were 
powerless  to  establish  themselves  on  a  firm  and  inde- 
pendent footing.  Such  indeed  was  the  fate  of  nearly 
every  city  of  Romagna  excepting  Bologna. 

In  the  year  1216  Rimini,  being  worsted  by  Cesena, 
adopted  the  desperate  plan  of  granting  citizenship  to  two 
members  of  the  powerful  Malatesta  tribe,  Giovanni  and 
Malatesta,  for  the  sake  of  their  aid  and  that  of  their 
vassals  in  the  defence  of  the  state  and  the  conduct  of  the 
war.  This  family  quickly  struck  root  in  the  town  and 
gave  birth  to  future  tyrants;  for  in  1237  Giovanni  was 
named  podesta,  and  this  office  was  the  first  step  towards 
the  sovereign  power  afterwards  assumed  by  his  descendants. 
Meanwhile  Rimini  was  torn  by  the  feuds  of  Guelf  and 
Ghibelline.  The  latter  were  the  dominant  party  in  the 
days  of  Frederick  II.,  although  very  unpopular  on  account 
of  the  grievous  taxes  imposed  by  the  empire.  Accordingly 
the  majority  of  the  urban  nobles  joined  the  Guelfs  and 
were  driven  into  exile.  But  before  long,  as  the  Svvabian 
power  declined  in  Italy,  the  Guelf  party  was  again  pre- 
dominant. 

Then  followed  a  long  period  of  confusion  in  which,  by 
means  of  conspiracies  and  crimes  of  every  kind,  the 
Malatesta  succeeded  in  becoming  masters  and  tyrants 
of  Rimini.  And,  albeit  this  string  of  events  is  of  no 
historic  value,  it  may  serve  nevertheless  to  give  an  idea 
of  what  was  occurring  throughout  Romagna  at  that  time. 
Giovanni  Malatesta  had  died  in  1247  and  been  succeeded 
by  his  son  Malatesta,  born  in  1212,  and  surnamed 
Malatesta  da  Verrucchio.  This  chieftain,  who  lived  to 
be  a  hundred  years  old,  had  ample  time  to  mature  his 
ambitious  designs,  and  was  the  real  founder  of  his  house. 
Seizing  the  first  suitable  moment,  he  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  exiled  Guelfs  and  restored  them  to 
Rimini.  Then,  as  the  empire  acquired  fresh  strength  in 
Italy,  he  quietly  bided  his  time  and,  on  the  descent  of  the 
Angevins,  again  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  Guelfs,  who 
now  had  the  upper  hand  for  a  long  time.  Being  re- 
peatedly elected  podestk  for  lengthy  terms  of  office,  he  at 
last  became  the  virtual  master  of  Rimini.  Nor  was  he 


checked  by  Rome.  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  was  fully  aware 
of  the  rights  and  traditional  pretensions  of  the  Holy  See, 
but  preferred  to  keep  on  good  terms  with  one  who  had 
so  largely  contributed  to  the  triumph  of  the  Guelfs  in 
Romagna.  Accordingly  he  not  only  left  Malatesta  un- 
molested, but.  in  1299  conferred  on  him  fresh  honours 
and  estates,  so  that  his  power  went  on  increasing  to  the 
day  of  his  death  in  1312. 

Four  sons  had  been  born  to  Malatesta — Malatestino, 
Giovanni  the  Lame,  Paolo  the  Handsome,  and  Pandolfo ; 
but  only  the  oldest  and  youngest  survived  him.  Giovanni 
the  Lame  (Sciancato),  a  man  of  a  daring  impetuosity  only 
equalled  by  his  ugliness,  had  proved  so  useful  a  general  to 
Giovanni  da  Polenta  of  Ravenna  as  to  win  in  reward  the 
hand  of  that  potentate's  beautiful  daughter,  known  to 
history  as  Francesca  da  Rimini.  But  her  heart  had  been 
won  by  the  handsome  Paolo,  her  brother-in-law ;  and  the 
two  lovers,  being  surprised  by  Giovanni,  were  murdered 
by  him  on  the  spot  (1285).  This  episode  of  the  story  of 
the  Malatesta  has  been  immortalized  in  Dante's  Infei°no. 
Giovanni  died  in  1304.  Thus  in  1312  Malatestino  became 
lord  of  Rimini,  and  on  his  decease  in  1317  bequeathed 
the  power  to  his  brother  Pandolfo.  Even  in  his  father's 
lifetime  the  new  lord  had  helped  to  extend  the  dominions 
of  his  house  in  Pesaro,  Fano,  Sinigaglia,  and  Fossombrone. 
He  quickly  perceived  that,  however  willing  Boniface  VIII. 
might  have  been  to  tolerate  the  increased  power  of  a 
chief  who,  like  Malatesta  da  Verrucchio,  had  rendered 
such  excellent  service  to  the  Holy  See,  it  could  not  be 
expected  that  the  papacy  would  really  sanction  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  strong  and  independent  state  in  Romagna. 
He  accordingly  turned  to  the  empire,  and,  siding  with 
Louis  the  Bavarian,  won  that  monarch's  favour  for  him- 
self and  his  sons,  who  in  1342  were  appointed  imperial 
vicars. 

Pandolfo  died  in  1326,  leaving  two  heirs,  Malatesta  and 
Galeotto.  The  former  was  nicknamed  Guastafamiglia, 
because,  although  at  first  willing  to  let  his  brother  share  his 
power,  he  rid  himself  by  violence  and  treachery  of  other 
kinsmen  who  claimed  their  just  rights  to  a  portion  of  the 
state.  His  intent  was  to  become  sole  lord  and  to  aggrandize 
his  tiny  principality.  But  the  reigning  pope  Innocent  VI. 
despatched  the  terrible  Cardinal  Albornoz  to  Romagna  and 
it  was  speedily  reduced  by  fire  and  sword.  In  1355  the 
Malatesta  shared  the  fate  of  the  other  potentates  of  the 
land.  Nevertheless  it  was  the  cardinal's  policy  to  let 
existing  Governments  stand,  provided  they  promised  to 
act  in  subordination  to  the  papal  see.  Thus,  he  granted 
the  Malatesta  brothers  the  investiture  of  Rimini,  Pesaro, 
Fano,  and  Fossombrone,  and  they  arranged  a  division  of 
the  state.  Guastafamiglia  took  Pesaro,  which  was  held 
by  his  descendants  down  to  the  brothers  Carlo  and  Galeazzo. 
The  former  of  these,  who  died  in  1439,  was  father  to  the 
Parisiua  beheaded  in  Ferrara,  whose  tragic  love  story  has 
been  sung  by  Byron.  The  latter  won  the  title  of 
"  1'Inetto  "  (the  Incapable)  by  the  foolish  sale  of  his  rights 
over  Pesaro  to  the  Sforza  in  1447. 

Galeotto,  on  the  other  hand,  retained  the  lordship  of 
Rimini,  ruling  tranquilly  and  on  good  terms  with  the 
popes,  who  allowed  him  to  add  Cervia,  Cesena,  and 
Bertinoro  to  his  states.  Dying  in  1385  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  he  left  two  sons — Carlo,  who  became  lord  of 
Rimini,  and  Pandolfo,  who  had  Fano  for  his  share.  Carlo 
(1364-1429)  was  energetic,  valiant,  and  a  friend  of  the 
popes,  who  named  him  vicar  of  the  church  in  Romagna.  He 
was  a  patron  of  letters  and  the  arts,  and  during  his  reign 
his  court  began  to  be  renowned  for  its  splendour.  As  he 
left  no  issue,  his  inheritance  was  added  to  that  of  his 
brother  Pandolfo,  and  Fano  was  once  more  united  to 
Rimini.  Pandolfo  (1370-1427)  had  led  the  life  of  a 


m 


E  I  M  I  N  I 


557 


condottiere,  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the  Lombard  wars 
following  on  the  death  of  Galeazzo  Maria  Visconti,  and 
held  rule  for  some  time  in  Brescia  and  Bergamo.  He 
left  three  natural  sons,  who  were  declared  legitimate  by 
Pope  Martin  V.  The  eldest,  Galeotto  (1411-32),  was  an 
ascetic,  gave  little  or  no  attention  to  public  business,  and, 
dying  early,  bequeathed  the  state  to  his  brother  Sigismondo 
Pandolfo.  The  third  son,  Novello  Malatesta  (1418-65), 
ruled  over  Cesena. 

Sigismondo  (1417-68)  is  the  personage  to  whom  Rimini 
owes  its  renown  during  the  Renaissance,  of  which  indeed 
he  was  one  of  the  strangest  and  most  original  representa- 
tives. He  was  born  in  Brescia,  and  when  called  to  the 
succession,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  had  already  given  proofs 
of  valour  in  the  field.  Of  a  robust  and  handsome  person, 
he  was  a  daring  soldier  and  an  astute  politician.  His 
knowledge  of  antiquity  was  so  profound  as  to  excite  the 
admiration  of  all  the  learned  men  with  whom  he  discoursed, 
even  when,  as  in  the  case  of  Pius  II.,  they  chanced  to  be 
his  personal  enemies.  A  captain  of  renown  and  a  skilful 
military  engineer,  he  was  also  a  generous  patron  of  the 
fine  arts  and  of  letters.  To  him  is  due  the  erection  of 
the  church  of  St  Francis,  or  temple  of  the  Malatesta,  one 
of  the  rarest  gems  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  greatest  of 
Rimini's  treasures.  Sigismondo  devoted  enormous  sums 
of  money  and  much  time  and  care  to  this  building,  giving 
it  so  original  a  stamp  and  one  so  thoroughly  expressive 
of  his  own  mind  and  character  that,  to  a  great  extent,  it 
may  be  considered  his  work.  But  he  too  was  a  man 
devoid  of  all  faith  and  conscience,  of  all  respect  human 
or  divine.  Of  so  dissolute  a  life  that,  although  married, 
he  had  children  by  several  mistresses  at  the  same  time, 
he  gave  vent  to  all  his  passions  with  a  ferocity  that  was 
bestial  rather  than  human.  And — as  the  crowning  con- 
tradiction of  his  strange  nature — from  his  youth  to  the 
day  of  his  death  he  remained  the  devoted  lover  of  the 
woman  for  whose  sake  he  became  a  poet,  whom  he  finally 
made  his  wif  e7  and  whom  he  exalted  in  every  way,  even 
to  the  point  of  rendering  her  almost  divine  honours. 
Yet  this  love  never  availed  to  check  his  excesses.  The 
blood  in  his  veins  resembled  that  of  the  Borgia;  and 
of  him,  as  of  that  iniquitous  race,  tradition  has  added 
much  to  the  evil  recorded  by  history,  and  truth  and  false- 
hood have  been  so  subtly  mingled  that  it  is  often  diffi- 
cult, sometimes  impossible,  to  distinguish  the  one  from 
the  other. 

On  assuming  power  in  1432  Sigismondo  was  already 
affianced  to  the  daughter  of  Count  Carrnagnola,  but  when 
that  famous  leader  was  arraigned  as  a  traitor  by  the 
Venetians,  and  ignominiously  put  to  death,  he  promptly 
withdrew  from  his  engagement,  under  the  pretext  that  it 
was  impossible  to  marry  the  child  of  a  criminal.  In  fact 
he  aimed  at  a  higher  alliance,  for  he  espoused  Ginevra 
d'Este,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Ferrara,  and  his  entry  into 
Rimini  with  his  bride  in  1434  was  celebrated  by  splendid 
festivities.  In  1437  a  son  was  born  to  him,  but  died 
within  the  year,  and  in  1440  the  young  mother  followed 
it  to  the  grave.  Every  one  declared  that  she  died  by 
poison  administered  by  her  husband.  This,  however,  was 
never  proved.  The  duke  of  Ferrara  remained  his  friend, 
nor  is  it  known  what  motive  Sigismondo  could  have  for 
wishing  to  get  rid  of  his  wife.  Two  years  afterwards  he 
married  Polissena,  daughter  of  the  famous  condottiere 
Francesco  Sforza,  who  in  1443  bore  him  a  son  named 
Galeotto  Roberto.  But  by  this  time  he  was  already  madly 
in  love  with  Isotta  degli  Atti,  and  this  was  the  passion 
that  endured  to  his  death.  The  lady  succeeded  in  gaining 
an  absolute  ascendency  over  him,  which  increased  with 
time.  She  bore  him  several  children,  but  this  did  not 
prevent  his  having  others  by  different  concubines.  Nor 


was  this  the  sum  of  his  excesses.  He  presently  conceived 
a  frantic  passion  for  a  German  lady,  the  wife  of  a  certain 
Borbona,  who  repulsed  his  advances.  Thereupon  he 
planned  an  ambuscade  on  the  road  to  Fano  in  order 
to  seize  her  by  force.  The  lady  arrived  escorted  by 
armed  men,  but  Sigismondo  attacked  her  so  furiously  that 
she  was  killed  in  the  struggle,  and  it  is  said  that  he  then 
wreaked  his  lust  on  her  corpse  (19th  December'  1448). 
Such  being  the  nature  of  the  man,  it  is  not  astonishing 
that,  as  his  ardour  for  Isotta  increased,  he  should  have 
little  scruple  in  ridding  himself  of  his  second  wife.  On 
the  1st  June  1450  Polissena  died  by  strangling,  and  on  the 
30th  of  the  same  month  Isotta's  offspring  were  legitimated 
by  Nicholas  V. 

It  is  only  just  to  record  that,  although  Malatesta's 
intrigue  with  Isotta  had  long  been  notorious  to  all,  and  he 
had  never  sought  to  conceal  it,  no  one  ever  accused  her  of 
either  direct  or  indirect  complicity  in  her  lover's  crimes. 
Isotta's  history,  however,  is  a  strange  one,  and  opens  up 
many  curious  questions.  She  was  of  noble  birth  and 
seems  to  have  attracted  Sigismondo's  notice  as  early  as 
1438,  for  at  the  age  of  twenty  he  produced  verses  of 
some  merit  in  praise  of  her  charms.  She  was  indeed 
widely  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  intellect,  culture, 
firmness,  and  prudence ;  and  even  Pope  Pius  II.  proclaimed 
her  worthy  to  be  greatly  loved.  When  Sigismondo  was 
absent  she  governed  Rimini  wisely  and  well,  and  proved 
herself  a  match  for  the  statesmen  with  whom  she  had  to 
deal.  The  leading  poets  of  the  court  dedicated  to  her 
a  collection  of  verses  entitled  Isottsei,  styled  her  their 
mistress  and  the  chosen  of  Apollo.  Artists  of  renown 
perpetuated  her  features  on  canvas,  on  marble,  and  on 
many  exquisite  medals,  one  of  which  has  a  closed  book 
graven  on  the  reverse,  with  the  inscription  "  Elegiae  "  in 
allusion  to  poems  she  was  said  to  have  written.  Never- 
theless M.  Yriarte,  in  his  well-known  book  on  the 
Malatesta  and  Rimini,  asserts  that  there  is  documentary 
evidence  to  prove  that  Isotta  was  unable  to  sign  her  own 
name.  He  has  arrived  at  this  conclusion  on  the  strength 
of  certain  documents  found  in  the  archives  of  Siena. 
These  consist  mainly  of  two  letters  addressed  to  Malatesta 
in  1454,  when  he  was  encamped  near  Siena,  and  both 
written  and  signed  by  the  same  hand.  The  first,  signed 
Isotta,  gives  him  news  of  his  children,  affectionately 
reproaches  him  with  having  betrayed  her  for  the  daughter 
of  one  Messer  Galeazzo,  and  winds  up  by  saying  that  she 
cannot  be  happy  until  he  fulfils  his  often  renewed  promise, 
i.e.,  to  make  her  his  wife.  The  second,  bearing  the  same 
date,  is  signed  with  the  initials  of  another  woman  :  "  De 
la  V.  S.  serva"  (Your  Highness's  servant)  "S.  de  M." — 
probably  one  of  the  Malatesta.  This  correspondent  says 
that  she  had  already  written  to  him  that  day,  by  command 
of  Isotta,  who  had  gone  with  her  to  see  Messer  Galeazzo's 
daughter,  and  freely  vented  her  just  indignation.  Therefore 
M.  Yriarte  maintains  that,  had  Isotta  been  able  to  write 
herself,  she  would  not  have  employed  another  to  speak  of 
her  love  and  jealousy  and  of  the  desired  marriage.  He 
feels  assured  that  Isotta  must  have  been  altogether 
illiterate,  since  even  the  signature  was  written  by  another.1 
But,  as  the  second  letter  proves  that  Isotta  went  with 
her  confidant  to  vent  her  rage  on  her  rival,  it  is  plain 
that  she  had  no  secrets  from  that  friend.  It  is  also 
possible  that  S.  de  M.  (particularly  if  a  Malatesta)  had 


1  The  two  letters  are  dated  respectively  20th  and  21st  December ; 
but  tins  must  be  an  error,  inasmuch  as  the  second  begins  thus — 
"To-day  Madonna  Isotta  made  me  write  to  you."  The  year  is  not 
given,  but  it  must  have  been  1454,  since  it  was  then,  as  we  shall 
presently  see,  that  the  Sienese  seized  the  papers  of  their  general 
Malatesta,  who,  after  betraying  them,  had  hastily  fled  from  the  camp. 
Thus  these  letters,  and  other  Malatestian  documents,  came  to  be  pre- 
served among  the  archives  of  Siena  where  they  are  still  to  be  seen. 


558 


RIMINI 


been  charged  by  Sigismondo  to  watch  over  Isotta,  and 
therefore  not  only  acted  as  her  amanuensis,  but  also  wrote 
privately  to  explain  or  confirm  that  which  she  had 
already  written  to  him  by  Isotta's  wish.  For  the  tyrant 
of  Rimini  was  of  a  brutally  jealous  nature.  At  any  rate 
the  second  letter  solves  the  doubts  suggested  by  the  first. 
Nor  is  it  at  all  surprising  that  Isotta  should  have  her 
letters  written  and  signed  by  another  hand,  when  such  was 
by  no  means  an  uncommon  practice  among  the  princes 
and  nobilities  of  her  day.  Lucrezia  Borgia,  for  instance, 
frequently  did  the  same.  It  is  besides  simply  incredible 
that  a  woman  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  of  Isotta's 
birth,  standing,  and  reputation,  should  have  been  unable  to 
write. 

Her  marriage  with  Malatesta  did  not  take  place  until 
1456 ;  but  of  the  ardent  affection  that  had  long  bound 
them  together  there  are  stronger  proofs  than  the  lover's 
juvenile  verses,  or  than  even  the  children  Isotta  had  borne 
to  him.  For,  more  than  all  else,  the  temple  of  St  Francis 
has  served  to  transmit  to  posterity  the  history  of  their 
loves.  Malatesta  decided  on  building  this  remarkable 
church  as  a  thankoffering  for  his  safety  during  a  danger- 
ous campaign  undertaken  for  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  about 
the  year  1445. 

The  first  stone  was  laid  in  1446,  and  the  work  was  carried  on  with 
so  much  alacrity  that  mass  was  performed  in  it  by  the  close  of  1450. 
Sigismondo  entrusted  the  execution  of  his  plans  to  L.  B.  Alberti, 
who  had  to  encase  in  a  shell  of  classic  architecture  a  13th-century 
Franciscan  church.  The  original  edifice  being  left  intact,  it  was 
a  difficult  question  how  to  deal  with  the  windows  and  the  Gothic 
arches  of  the  interior.  Alberti  solved  the  problem  with  marvel- 
lous skill,  blending  the  old  architecture  with  the  new  style  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  giving  it  variety  without  destroying  its  unity  of 
effect. 

Being  eager  to  adorn  his  temple  with  the  most  precious  marbles, 
Sigismondo's  veneration  for  antiquity  did  not  prevent  him  from 
pillaging  many  valuable  classical  remains  in  Rimini,  Ravenna,  and 
even  in  Greece.  Such  was  the  zeal  with  which  Alberti  pursued 
his  task  that  the  exterior  of  the  little  Rimini  church  is  one  of  the 
finest  and  purest  achievements  of  the  Renaissance,  and  surpasses 
in  beauty  and  elegance  all  the  rest  of  his  works.  But  it  is  much 
to  be  deplored  that  he  should  have  left  the  upper  part  of  the 
facade  unfinished.  Alberti  came  to  Rimini,  made  his  design,  saw 
the  work  begun,  and  then  left  it  to  be  carried  out  by  very  skilful 
artists,  on  whom  he  impressed  the  necessity  of  faithfully  preserv- 
ing its  general  character  so  as  "not  to  spoil  that  music." 

The  internal  decorations,  especially  the  enormous  quantity  of 
wall  ornaments,  consisting  chiefly  of  scrolls  and  bas-reliefs,  were 
executed  by  different  sculptors  under  the  personal  direction  of 
Malatesta,  who,  even  when  engaged  in  war,  sent  continual  instruc- 
tions about  their  work.  It  is  difficult  to  give  an  exact  idea  of 
this  extraordinary  church  to  those  who  have  no  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  it.  The  vault  was  never  finished,  and  still  shows  its 
rough  beams  and  rafters.  The  eight  side  chapels  alone  are  com- 
plete, and  their  pointed  arches  spring  from  Renaissance  pilasters 
planted  on  black  marble  elephants,  the  Malatesta  emblems,  or  on 
baskets  of  fruit  held  by  children.  The  surface  of  the  pilasters  is 
divided  into  compartments  encrusted  with  bas-reliefs  of  various 
subjects  and  styles.  Everywhere — on  the  balustrades  closing  the 
chapels, Around  the  base  of  the  pilasters,  along  the  walls,  beneath 
the  cornice  of  both  the  exterior  and  the  interior  of  the  church — there 
is  one  ornament  that  is  perpetually  repeated,  the  interwoven  initials 
of  Sigismondo  and  Isotta.  This  monogram  is  alternated  with 
the  portrait  and  arms  of  Malatesta ;  and  these  designs  are 
euwreathed  by  festoons  linked  together  by  the  tyrant's  second 
emblem,  the  rose.  The  most  singular  and  characteristic  feature 
of  this  edifice  is  the  almost  total  absence  of  every  sacred  emblem. 
Rather  than  to  St  Francis  and  the  God  of  the  Christians  it  was 
dedicated — and  that  while  Sigismondo's  second  wife  still  lived — 
to  the  glorification  of  an  unhallowed  attachment.  Nature,  science, 
and  antiquity  were  summoned  to  celebrate  the  tyrant's  love  for 
Isotta.  The  bas-reliefs  of  one  of  the  chapels  represent  Jupiter, 
Venus,  Saturn,  Mars,  and  Diana,  together  with  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  And  these  subjects  are  derived,  it  appears,  from  a  poem 
in  which  Sigismondo  had  invoked  the  gods  and  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac  to  soften  Isotta's  heart  and  win  her  to  his  arms.  The 
pageants  of  Mars  and  Diana  seem  to  have  been  suggested  by  the 
Trionfi  of  Petrarch.  Elsewhere  we  see  prophets  and  sibyls,  per- 
sonifications of  the  theological  virtues  and  of  the  sciences.  The 
delicate  bas-reliefs  of  botany  and  medicine,  history  and  astronomy, 
have  been  judged  by  some  writers  to  be  Grecian,  on  account  of  the 


ancient  appearance  of  their  marble,  their  inscriptions  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  and  others  that  have  never  been  deciphered.  But  a  moment's 
examination  of  the  sculptures  is  enough  to  destroy  this  hypothesis. 
Besides,  some  of  the  inscriptions  are  very  easily  read  and  record 
"Apollo  Ariminaeus"  and  "Jupiter  Ai-iminseus.5' 

In  the  first  chapel  on  the  left  is  the  family  tomb  of  the  Malatesta, 
with  sculptured  records  of  their  triumphs  and  of  their  alleged 
descent  from  Scipio  Africanus.  Better  worthy  of  notice  is  the  third 
chapel  to  the  right,  known  as  that  of  the  Angels,  on  account  of  the 
angels  and  children  carved  on  its  pillars.  It  is  nominally  dedicated 
"to  the  archangel  Michael,  whose  statue  is  enshrined  in  it ;  but  the 
figure  has  the  face  of  Isotta,  the  ruling  deity  of  this  portion  of  the 
church.  For  here  is  the  splendid  and  fantastic  tomb  erected  to 
this  lady,  during  her  life  and  previous  to  the  death  of  Sigismondo's 
'second  wife.  No  monument,  be  it  remarked,  is  raised  over  tin- 
burial-place  of  Ginevra  and  Polissena.  The  urn  of  Isotta's  sarco- 
phagus is  supported  by  two  elephants,  and  bears  the  inscription, 
"D.  Isotfee  Ariminensi  B.  M.  Sacrum,  MCCCCL."  The  "D." 
has  been  generally  interpreted  as  "Divje"  and  the  "B.  M."  as 
"  Beatffi  Memorial  "  But  some,  unwilling  to  credit  such  profanity, 
allege  that  the  letters  stand  for  "  Bonse  Memorise."  Nevertheless 
all  who  have  seen  the  church  must  admit  the  improbability  of  simi- 
lar scruples. 

The  numerous  artists  employed  on  the  interior  of  the  church 
were  under  the  direction  of  the  proto-macstro  Matteo  de  Pasti,  the 
celebrated  medallist.  And  indeed  the  peculiar  and  fantastic 
character  of  the  sculptures  in  this  chapel  frequently  recalls  the 
designs  of  his  famous  works.  All  this  decoration  is  in  strange  con- 
trast with  the  grandly  austere  simplicity  of  the  facade  and  outer 
walls  of  the  church.  There  no  ornament  disturbs  the  harmony  of 
the  lines.  The  frieze  beneath  the  cornice,  reproducing  the  lovers' 
initials  and  the  Malatestian  ensigns,  is  in  such  very  low  relief  that 
it  only  enhances  the  perfection  of  "that  music"  produced  by  the 
marvellous  skill  of  Leo  Battista  Alberti.  Also  the  colour  of  the 
stone,  a  soft  creamy  white,  adds  to  the  general  beauty  of  effect. 
And  everything  both  within  and  without  contributes  to  the  profane 
and  pagan  character  which  it  was  Sigismondo's  purpose  to  impress 
on  the  Christian  church.  On  each  of  its  outer  walls  are  seven 
arched  recesses,  intended  to  contain  the  ashes  of  the  first  literati 
and  scientists  of  his  court.  In  the  first,  to  the  right,  is  the  urn  of 
the  poet  Basinio,  one  of  his  pensioners,  in  the  second  that  of  Giusto 
de'  Conti,  author  of  some  rhymes  on  the  Bella  Mano,  while  the 
third  bore  the  more  famous  name  of  Gemisthus  Pletho.  This  well- 
known  Byzantine  philosopher  was  the  diffuser  of  Platonism  in 
Florence  during  the  time  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici,  and  had  faith  in 
the  revival  of  paganism.  Returning  to  his  own  people,  he  had 
died  in  the  Morea.  Sigismondo,  having  gone  tfiere  in  command 
of  the  Venetian  expedition  against  the  Turks,  exhumed  the  philo- 
sopher's bones  as  holy  relics,  and  brought  them  to  Rimini  for 
worthy  sepulture  in  his  Christian  pantheon.  All  this  is  soleninly 
recorded  in  the  inscription,  which  is  dated  1465.  The  fourth 
sarcophagus  was  that  of  Roberto  Valturio,  the  engineer,  author  of 
DC  Ea  Militari,  who  had  been  Sigismondo's  minister  and  had  aided 
him  in  the  construction  of  the  castle  of  Rimini.  The  other  urns  on 
this  side  were  placed  by  Malatesta's  successors,  and  the  arches  on 
the  left  wall  remained  untenanted. 

Sigismondo  understood  the  science  of  fortification.  He 
was  also  the  first  to  discard  the  use  of  wooden  bomb 
shells,  and  substitute  others  cast  in  bronze.  As  a  soldier 
his  numerous  campaigns  had  shown  him  to  be  possessed  of 
all  the  best  qualities  and  worst  defects  of  the  free  captains 
of  his  time.  He  began  his  military  career  in  1432  in  the 
service  of  Eugenius  IV. ;  but,  when  this  pope  doubted  his 
good  faith  and  transferred  the  command  to  another,  he 
sided  with  the  Venetians  against  him,  though  at  a  later  date 
he  again  served  under  him.  On  the  decease  of  Filippo 
Maria  Visconti  in  1447,  he  joined  the  Aragonese  against 
Venice  and  Florence,  but,  presently  changing  his  flag, 
fought  valiantly  against  Alphonso  of  Aragon  and  forced 
him  to  raise  the  siege  of  Piombino.  In  1454  he  accepted 
a  command  from  the  Sienese,  but  suddenly,  after  his 
usual  fashion,  he  made  peace  with  the  enemies  of  the 
republic,  and  had  to  save  himself  by  flight  from  arrest 
for  his  perfidy.  It  was  then  that  the  letters  from  Isotta 
were  confiscated.  After  this  he  began  scheming  to  hasten 
the  coming  of  the  Angevins,  and  took  part  in  new  and 
more  hazardous  campaigns  against  adversaries  such  as  the 
duke  of  Urbino,  Sforza  of  Milan,  Piccinino,  and,  worst 
of  all,  the  Sienese  pope,  Pius  II.,  his  declared  and 
mortal  foe.  This  time  Sigismondo  had  blundered ;  for 
the  cause  of  Anjou  was  hopelessly  ruined  in  Italy.  Ho 


RIMINI 


559 


was  therefore  driven  to  make  his  submission  to  the  pope 
but,  again  rebelling,  was  summoned  to  trial  in  Rome  (1460) 
before  a  tribunal  of  hostile  cardinals.  All  the  old  charges 
against  him  were  now  revived  and  eagerly  confirmed.  He 
was  pronounced  guilty  of  rapine,  incendiarism,  incest, 
assassination,  and  heresy.  The  murder  and  violation  of 
Borbona's  wife  was  brought  up  ;  he  was  accused  of  having 
tortured  his  former  preceptor,  in  revenge  for  punishments 
received  in  his  youth,  and  of  having  killed  three  wives — 
although  it  seems  that  he  had  only  two  besides  his  ever- 
beloved  Isotta,  who  survived  him.  He  was  also  severely 
blamed  for  the  erection  of  a  temple  which,  as  the  pope 
justly  remarked,  was  better  adapted  for  the  worship  of 
pagan  demons  than  of  the  Christian  God.  Nor  was  it 
forgotten  how,  when  Pius  II.  had  proclaimed  a  crusade 
against  the  infidels  at  the  assembly  at  Mantua,  Sigismondo 
had  secretly  invited  the  Grand  Turk  to  make  a  descent 
upon  Italy.  Consequently  he  was  sentenced  to  the  depriva- 
tion of  his  state  (which  was  probably  the  main  object 
of  the  trial),  and  to  be  burnt  alive  as  a  heretic. 

This  sentence,  however,  could  not  easily  be  executed, 
and  Sigismondo  was  only  burnt  in  effigy.  But  the  pope 
marked  the  intensity  of  his  hatred  by  causing  the  dummy 
to  be  carved  and  dressed  with  such  life-like  resemblance 
that  he  was  almost  able  to  persuade  himself  that  his  hated 
enemy  was  really  consumed  in  the  flames.  Malatesta 
could  afford  to  laugh  at  this  farce,  but  he  nevertheless 
prepared  in  haste  for  a  desperate  defence  (1462).  He 
knew  that  the  bishop  Vitelleschi,  together  with  the  duke  of 
Urbino  and  his  own  brother  Novello  Malatesta,  lord  of 
Cesena,  were  advancing  against  him  in  force ;  and,  being 
defeated  by  them  at  Pian  di  Marotta,  he  was  driven  to 
Rome  in  1463  to  again  make  submission  to  the  pope. 
This  time  he  was  stripped  of  all  his  possessions  excepting 
the  city  of  Rimini  and  a  neighbouring  castle,  but  the 
sentence  of  excommunication  was  withdrawn.  For,  now 
that  Malatesta's  power  was  crushed,  the  object  of  the  war 
was  attained.  Its  continuance  would  have  been  inex- 
pedient, and  might  have  too  suddenly  roused  the  fears  of 
the  other  potentates  of  Romagna,  who  were  all  destined, 
sooner  or  later,  to  share  the  same  fate.  The  once  mighty 
tyrant  of  Rimini  found  himself  reduced  to  penury  with 
a  state  chiefly  composed  of  a  single  town.  He  there- 
fore took  service  with  the  Venetians,  and  in  1464  had  the 
command  of  an  expedition  to  the  Morea.  Here  his 
movements  were  so  hampered  by  the  interference  of  the 
commissioners  of  the  republic  that,  with  all  his  valour, 
he  could  achieve  no  decisive  success.  In  1466  he  was 
able  to  return  to  Rimini,  for  Pius  II.  was  dead,  and  the 
new  pope,  Paul  II.,  was  less  hostile  to  him.  Indeed  the 
latter  offered  to  give  him  Spoleto  and  Foligno,  taking 
Rimini  in  exchange ;  but  Malatesta  was  so  enraged  by  the 
proposal  that  he  went  to  Rome  with  a  dagger  concealed 
on  his  person,  on  purpose  to  kill  the  pope.  But,  being 
forewarned,  Paul  received  him  with  great  ceremony,  and 
surrounded  by  cardinals  prepared  for  defence ;  whereupon 
Sigismondo  changed  his  mind,  fell  on  his  knees  and  im- 
plored forgiveness.  His  star  had  now  set  for  ever.  For 
sheer  subsistence  he  had  to  hire  his  sword  to  the  pope  and 
quell  petty  rebellions  with  a  handful  of  men.  At  last,  his 
health  failing,  he  returned  to  his  family,  and  died  in  Rimini 
on  the  7th  October  1468,  aged  fifty-one  years. 

He  was  succeeded,  according  to  his  desire,  by  Isotta 
and  his  son  Sallustio.  But  there  was  an  illegitimate 
elder  son  by  another  mother,  named  Roberto  Malatesta,  a 
valiant  and  unscrupulous  soldier.  Befriended  by  the 
pope,  this  man  undertook  to  conquer  Rimini  for  the  Holy 
See,  but  came  there  to  further  his  own  ends  instead 
(20th  October  1469),  and,  while  feigning  a  desire  to  share 
the  government  -with  Isotta  and  her  son,  resolved,  sooner 


or  later,  to  seize  it  for  himself.  This  aroused  the  pope's 
wrath,  and  Roberto  instantly  prepared  for  defence.  Find- 
ing an  ally  in  the  duke  of  Urbino,  whose  eyes  were  now 
opened  to  the  aggressive  policy  of  the  church,  he  was 
able  to  repulse  its  forces.  Paul  II.  died  soon  after,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Sixtus  IV.  Roberto's  position  was  now  more 
secure,  and  in  order  to  strengthen  his  recent  alliance  he 
betrothed  himself  to  the  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Urbino. 
The  next  step  was  to  dispose  of  his  rival  kindred.  On  the 
8th  August  1470  Isotta's  son  was  found  murdered  in  a 
well  belonging  to  the  Marcheselli  family;  and  a  blood- 
stained sword,  placed  in  their  courtyard  by  Roberto, 
made  it  appear  as  though  they  had  been  guilty  of  the 
crime.  Towards  the  end  of  the  same  year  Isotta  died 
also,  apparently  of  a  slow  fever,  but  really,  it  was  believed, 
by  poison.  Another  of  her  sons,  Valerio,  born  in  1453, 
still  lived,  but  he  was  openly  put  to  death  by  Roberto 
on  a  trumped-up  charge  of  treason.  In  1475  the  new 
tyrant  celebrated  his  nuptials  with  the  duke  of  Urbino's 
daughter,  and,  being  again  taken  into  favour  by  the  pope, 
valiantly  defended  him  in  Rome  against  the  attacks  of 
the  duke  of  Calabria,  and  died  there  in  1482  of  the 
hardships  endured  in  the  war.  His  widow  was  left 
regent  during  the  minority  of  his  son  Pandolfo,  who  was 
nicknamed  Pandolfaccio  on  account  of  his  evil  nature. 
Directly  he  was  of  age,  he  seized  the  reins  of  government 
by  killing  some  relations  who  had  plotted  against  him,  and 
crushed  another  conspiracy  in  the  same  way.  A  daring 
soldier,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  the  Taro 
against  the  French ;  but  his  tyranny  made  him  hated  by  his 
subjects.  In  1500,  when  Cesare  Borgia  fell  on  Romagna 
with  violence  and  fraud,  this  Malatesta  shared  the  fate  of 
other  petty  tyrants  and  had  to  fly  for  his  life.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Borgia  he  returned,  but,  being  bitterly  detested 
by  his  people,  decided  to  sell  his  rights  to  the  Venetians,  who 
had  long  desired  to  possess  Rimini,  and  who  gave  him  in 
exchange  the  town  of  Cittadella,  some  ready  money,  and  a 
pension  for  life. 

This  arrangement  was  naturally  disapproved  by  Rome, 
and  especially  by  Julius  II.,  who  had  already  repeatedly 
vowed  that,  unless  Venice  restored  the  cities  she  had  so 
unjustly  seized — Cervia,  Ravenna,  and  Rimini — he  would 
turn  the  world  upside  down  to  regain  them.  And  he 
kept  his  word.  For  he  contrived  the  league  of  Cambray 
on  purpose  to  ruin  the  Venetians,  who  were  crushingly 
defeated  in  1509.  Thereupon  the  pope,  having  accom- 
plished his  own  ends,  made  alliance  with  the  Venetians, 
who  were  now  prostrate  at  his  feet,  and,  with  them,  the 
Spaniards,  and  the  Swiss,  fought  against  the  French  at 
Ravenna  in  1512.  Here  the  French  were  victors,  but 
owing  to  their  heavy  losses  and  the  death  of  their  renowned 
leader,  Gaston  de  Foix,  were  compelled  to  retreat.  Thus 
Julius  became  master  of  Rimini  and  the  other  coveted 
lands.  Malatesta  made  more  than  one  attempt  to  win 
back  his  city,  but  always  in  vain,  for  his  subjects. preferred 
the  papal  rule.  He  returned  there  for  the  last  time  while 
Marshal  Bourbon  was  laying  .siege  to  Rome;  but  in  1528 
Pope  Clement  VII.  became  definitive  master  of  the  town. 
Thus,  after  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  the  sway  of  the 
Malatesta  came  to  an  end,  and  Pandolfo  was  reduced  to 
beggary.  In  fact,  we  find  him  petitioning  the  duke  of  Fer- 
rara  for  the  gift  of  a  couple  of  crowns  and  promising  to  ask 
for  no  more.  He  died  in  1534,  leaving  a  daughter  and  two 
sons  in  great  poverty.  The  elder,  Sigismondo,  after  various 
military  adventures,  died  at  Reggio  d'Emilia  in  1543  ;  and 
Malatesta,  the  younger,  went  to  fight  in  the  Scotch  and 
English  wars,  and  was  never  heard  of  again.  Sigismondo 
had  left  male  heirs  who  made  another  attempt  to  regain 
Rimini  in  1555,  but  Pope  Paul  IV.  declared  them  deposed 
in  perpetuity  in  punishment  of  Pandolfaccio's  misdeeds. 


560 


K  I  N  — R  I  N 


From  that  time  the  Malatesta  became  citizens  of 
Venice ;  their  names  wore  inscribed  in  the  Golden  Book, 
and  they  were  admitted  to  the  grand  council.  With  the 
death,  in  1716,  of  Christina  Malatesta,  the  wife  of  Niccolo 
Boldu,  the  Rimini  branch  of  the  family  became  extinct. 
The  descendants  of  Giovanni,  brother  of  Malatesta  da 
Verrucchio,  who  married  one  of  the  Sogliano,  were  known 
as  the  Sogliano-Malatesta.  The  representatives  of  this 
branch  settled  in  Rome. 

The  history  of  Rimini  practically  ends  with  its  inde- 
pendence. It  fell  into  obscurity  under  the  rule  of  the 
popes,  and  was  not  again  mentioned  in  history  until,  in 
1831  and  1845,  it  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revolu- 
tionary movements  against  papal  despotism  and  in  favour 
of  Italian  independence.  Although  Rimini,  like  many 
other  cities  of  Romagna,  is  now  harassed  by  republican  and 
socialistic  sects,  it  is  a  thriving  town  and  enjoys  increasing 
prosperity.  It  had  in  1881  a  population  of  37,248  souls, 
being  the  centre  of  a  district  containing  88,110  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  part  of  the  province  of  Forli,  which,  divided 
into  the  three  districts  of  Cesena,  Forli,  and  Rimini,  has  a 
total  population  of  252,883  souls.  Many  small  manufac- 
tures are  carried  on  at  Rimini,  but  agriculture  is  its 
principal  resource,  and  its  produce  in  corn  and  wine  is 
considerably  in  excess  of  the  local  consumption.  Its  sea- 
bathing establishment  attracts  many  visitors  during  the 
summer  months,  and  conduces  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
town.  Rimini  also  boasts  a  good  public  library  of  28,000 
volumes,  inclusive  of  850  MSS. ;  and  it  has  a  record 
office  containing  several  thousand  ancient  MSS. 

Authorities. — Moroni,  Dizionario  di  crudizionc  storico-ecclcsi- 
astica  (vol.  Ivii.,  s.v.  "Rimini");  Ch.  Yriarte,  Rimini:  Un  Con- 
dottierc  ait  XV.  Siicle :  £t tides  sur  les  lettres  ct  Ics  arts  d  la  cour 
des  Malatesta  (Paris,  1882) ;  Tonini,  Storia  di  Rimini  (Rimini, 
1848-82).  (P.  V.) 

RINDERPEST.     See  MURRAIN,  vol.  xvii.  p.  59. 

RING  (Gr.  £a.KTv\io<s,  Lat.  annulus).1  At  an  early 
period,  when  the  art  of  writing  was  known  to  but  very  few, 
it  was  commonly  the  custom  for  men  to  wear  rings  on 
which  some  distinguishing  sign  or  badge  was  engraved 
(lirLo-rjfjiov),  so  that  by  using  it  as  a  seal  the  owner  could 
give  a  proof  of  authenticity  to  letters  or  other  documents. 
Thus,  when  some  royal  personage  wished  to  delegate  his 
power  to  one  of  his  officials,  it  was  not  unusual  for  him 
to  hand  over  his  signet  ring,  by  means  of  which  the  full 
royal  authority  could  be  given  to  the  written  commands  of 
the  subordinate.  The  enlarged  part  of  a  ring  on  which  the 
device  is  engraved  is  called  the  "  bezel,"  the  rest  of  it  being 
the  "  hoop." 

The  earliest  existing  rings  are  naturally  those  found  in 
the  tombs  of  ancient  Egypt.  The  finest  examples  date 
from  about  the  18th  to  the  20th  dynasty ;  they  are  of  pure 
gold,  simple  in  design,  very  heavy  and  massive,  and  have 
usually  the  name  and  titles  of  the  owner  deeply  sunk  in 
hieroglyphic  characters  on  an  oblong  gold  bezel.  Rings 
worn  in  Egypt  by  the  poorer  classes  were  made  of  less 
costly  materials,  such  as  silver,  bronze,  glass,  or  pottery 
covered  with  a  siliceous  glaze  and  coloured  brilliant  blue 
or  green  with  various  copper  oxides.  Some  of  these  had 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions  impressed  while  the  clay  was 
moist.  Other  examples  have  been  found  made  of  ivory, 
amber,  and  hard  stones,  such  as  carnelian.  Another  form 
of  ring  used  under  the  later  dynasties  of  Egypt  had  a 
scarab  in  place  of  the  bezel,  and  was  mounted  on  a  gold 
hoop  which  passed  through  the  hole  in  the  scarab  and 
allowed  it  to  revolve. 

In  ancient  Babylonia  and  Assyria  finger  rings  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  used.  In  those  countries  the  signet 
took  a  different  form,  namely,  that  of  a  cylinder  cut  in 

1  Compare  GEMS,  vol.  x.  p.  136. 


crystal  or  other  hard  stone,  and  perforated  from  end  to  end. 
A  cord  was  passed  through  it,  and  it  was  worn  on  the 
wrist  like  a  bracelet.  This  way  of  wearing  the  signet  is 
more  than  once  alluded  to  in  the  Old  Testament  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  18,  Revised  Version,  and  Cant.  viii.  6). 

The  Etruscans  used  very  largely  the  gold  swivel  ring  Etruso 
mounted  with  a  scarab,  a  form  of  signet  probably  intro-  rings. 
duced  from  Egypt.  Some  found  in  Etruscan  tombs  have 
real  Egyptian  scarabs  with  legible  hieroglyphs ;  others, 
probably  the  work  of  Phoenician  or  native  engravers,  have 
rude  copies  of  hieroglyphs,  either  quite  or  partially  illegible. 
A  third  and  more  numerous  class  of  Etruscan  signet  rings 
have  scarabs,  cut  usually  in  sard  or  carnelian,  which  are  a 
link  between  the  art  of  Egypt  and  that  of  Greece,  the 
design  cut  on  the  flat  side  being  Hellenic  in  style,  while  the 
back  is  shaped  like  the  ordinary  Egyptian  scarabseus  beetle. 

Among  the  Greeks  signet  rings  were  very  largely  worn,  Greek 
and  were  usually  set  with  engraved  gems.  In  Sparta  a  rings, 
sumptuary  law  was  passed  at  an  early  time  to  forbid  any 
substance  more  valuable  than  iron  to  be  used  for  signet 
rings ;  but  in  other  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world  there 
appears  to  have  been  no  restriction  of  this  sort.  In  some 
of  the  numerous  tombs  of  Etruria  and  Kertch  (Panti- 
capseum)  in  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus  gold  rings  of  great 
magnificence  have  been  discovered,  apparently  of  the  finest 
Greek  workmanship.  One  from  Etruria,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  is  formed  by  two  minutely  modelled 
lions  whose  bodies  form  the  hoop,  while  their  paws  hold 
the  bezel,  a  scarab  engraved  with  a  lion  of  heraldic  char- 
acter. Many  other  examples  of  this  design  have  been 
found,  some  of  which  are  among  the  finest  existing  speci- 
mens of  Hellenic  or  Grseco-Etruscan  jewellery.  Another 
remarkable  specimen  from  an  Etruscan  tomb  is  of  Etrusco- 
Latin  work.  The  hoop  of  the  ring  is  formed  by  two 
minute  gold  figures  of  Hercules  and  Juno  Sospita,  the  stone 
being  set  between  their  heads.  Many  of  the  Greek  rings 
are  of  thin  repousse  gold,  so  as  to  make  the  most  show  for 
the  least  cost ;  one  fine  example,  early  in  date,  has  its  hoop 
formed  of  two  dolphins,  holding  a  plain  white  stone. 

The  Romans  appear  to  have  imitated  the  simplicity  of  Roman 
Lacedsemonia.  Throughout  the  republic  none  but  iron  rings, 
rings  were  worn  by  the  bulk  of  the  citizens.  Ambassadors 
were  the  first  who  were  privileged  to  wear  gold  rings,  and 
then  only  while  performing  some  public  duty.  Next 
senators,  consuls,  equites,  and  all  the  chief  officers  of  state 
received  the  jus  annuli  aurei.  One  early  Roman  ring  of 
the  highest  historical  interest  still  exists ;  it  belonged  to 
Cornelius  Scipio  Barbatus,  consul  in  298  B.C.,  in  whose 
sarcophagus,  now  in  the  Vatican,  it  was  found  in  1780.2 
It  is  of  plain  rudely  hammered  gold,  and  is  set  with  an 
intaglio  on  sard  of  a  figure  of  Victory,  purely  Roman  in 
style,  dating  before  300  B.C.  In  the  Augustan  age  many 
valuable  collections  of  antique  rings  were  made,  and  were 
frequently  offered  as  gifts  in  the  temples  of  Rome.  One 
of  the  largest  and  most  valuable  of  the  dactyliotfacse,  was 
dedicated  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Palatinus  by  Augustus's 
nephew  Marcellus,  who  had  formed  the  collection  (Pliny, 
//.  N.,  xxxvii.  5).  The  temple  of  Concord  in  the  Forum 
contained  another;  among  this  latter  collection  was  the 
celebrated  ring  of  Polycrates,  king  of  Samos,  the  story  of 
which  is  told  by  Herodotus  (see  vol.  xix.  p.  417);  Pliny, 
however,  doubts  the  authenticity  of  this  relic  (II.  N., 
xxxvii.  2). 

Different  laws  as  to  the  wearing  of  rings  existed  during 
the  empire :  Tiberius  made  a  large  property  qualification 
necessary  for  the  wearing  of  gold  rings  ;  Severus  conceded 
the  right  to  all  Roman  soldiers;  and  later  still  all  free 
citizens  possessed  the  jus  annuli  aurei,  silver  rings  being 

2  This  ring  afterwards  passed  into  the  Beverley  collection. 


KING 


561 


worn  by  freedmen  and  iron  by  slaves.     Under  Justinian 
even  these  restrictions  passed  away. 

In  the  3d  and  4th  centuries  Roman  rings  were  made 
engraved  with  Christian  symbols.  Fig.  1  shows  two  silver 
rings  of  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century, 
which  were  found  in  1881  concealed  in  a 
hole  in  the  pavement  of  a  Koman  villa  at 
Fifehead  Neville,  Dorset,  together  with 
some  coins  of  the  same  period.  Both 
have  the  monogram  of  Christ,  and  one 
has  a  dove  within  an  olive  wreath  rudely 
cut  on  the  silver  bezel.  These  rings  are 
of  special  interest,  as  Roman  objects  with 
any  Christian  device  have  very  rarely  FIG.  i.— Roman  silver 
been  found  in  Britain. 

Large  numbers  of  gold  rings  have  been  found  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  in  the  tombs  of  early  Celtic  races.  They  are 
usually  of  very  pure  gold,  often  penannular  in  form — with 
a  slight  break,  that  is,  in  the  hoop  so  as  to  form  a  spring. 
They  are  often  of  gold  wire  formed  into  a  sort  of  rope,  or 
else  a  simple  bar  twisted  in  an  ornamental  way.  Some  of 
the  quite  plain  penannular  rings  were  used  in  the  place 
of  coined  money. 

Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the  signet  ring  was  a 
thing  of  great  importance  in  religious,  legal,  commercial, 
and  private  matters. 

The  episcopal  ring a  was  solemnly  conferred  upon  the 
•  newly  made  bishop  together  with  his  crozier,  a  special 
formula  for  this  being  inserted  in  the  Pontifical.  In  the 
time  of  Innocent  III.  (1194)  this  was  ordered  to  be  of 
pure  gold  mounted  with  a  stone  that  was  not  engraved  ;  but 
this  rule  appears  not  to  have  been  strictly  kept.  Owing 
to  the  custom  of  burying  the  episcopal  ring  in  its  owner's 
coffin  a  great  many  fine  examples  still  exist.  Among  the 
splendid  collection  of  rings  formed  by  the  distinguished 
naturalist  Edmund  Waterton,  and  now  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  is  a  fine  gold  episcopal  ring  decorated 
with  niello,  and  inscribed  with  the  name  of  Alhstan,  bishop 
of  Sherbornefrom824  to  867  (see  fig.  2).2  In  many  cases 
an  antique  gem  was  mounted  in  the 
bishop's  ring,  and  often  an  inscrip- 
tion was  added  in  the  gold  setting 
of  the  gem  to  give  a  Christian 
name  to  the  pagan  figure.  The 
monks  of  Durham,  for  example, 
made  an  intaglio  of  Jupiter  Serapis 
into  a  portrait  of  St  Oswald  by 
adding  the  legend  CAPVT  s.  OSWALDI.  In  other  cases  the 
engraved  gem  appears  to  have  been  merely  regarded  as  an 
ornament  without  meaning,  as,  for  example,  a  magnificent 
gold  ring  found  in  the  coffin  of 
Seffrid,  bishop  of  Chichester  (1125- 
1151),  in  which  is  mounted  a  Gnos- 
tic intaglio.  Another  in  the  Water- 
ton  collection  bears  a  Roman  cameo 
in  plasma  of  a  female  head  in  high 
relief ;  the  gold  ring  itself  is  of  the 
12th  century.  More  commonly  the 
episcopal  ring  was  set  with  a  large 
sapphire,  ruby,  or  other  stone  cut 
en  cabochon,  that  is,  without  facets, 
and  very  magnificent  in  effect  (see  FIG.  3.— 13th-century  episco- 

fio\      TJ.  ,-1      -i  .  -i        ,          pal  ring  of  Italian  work- 

g.  3).    It  was  worn  over  the  bishop's      manship,  of  gold,  set  with 
gloves,  usually  on  the  fore-finger  of      a  »ppJ»ire  m  cabochon. 
the  right  hand ;  and  this  accounts  for  the  large  size  of  the 
hoop  of  these  rings.      In  the   15th  and  16th  centuries 
bishops  often  wore  three  or  four  rings  on  the  right  hand 


FIG.  2. — Ring  of  Bishop 
Alhstan. 


1  See  a  paper  by  Edm.  Waterton,  in  Arch.  Jour.,  xx.  p.  224. 

2  See  NIELLO  (vol.  xvii.  p.  494)  for  a  cut  of  another  specimen  of 
an  early  ring  decorated  in  a  similar  way. 


in  addition  to  a  large  jewel  which  was  fixed  to  the  back 
of  each  glove. 

Cramp  rings  were  much  worn  during  the  Middle  Ages  Cramp 
as   a    preservative   against   cramp.     They   derived    their  rings, 
virtue  from  being  blessed  by  the  king ;  a  special  form  of 
service  was  used  for  this,  and  a  large  number  of  rings  were 
consecrated   at    one   time,    usually    when    the   sovereign 
touched  patients  for  the  king's  evil. 

Decade  rings-were  not  uncommon,  especially  in  the  15th  Decade 
century ;    these   were   so   called   from   their   having   ten  rings, 
knobs  along  the  hoop  of  the  ring,  and  were  used,  after 
the  manner  of  rosaries,  to  say  nine  aves  and  a  paternoster. 
In  some  cases  there  are  only  nine  knobs,  the  bezel  of  the 
ring  being  counted  in,  and  taking  the  place  of  the  gaude 
in  a  rosary.     The  bezel  of  these  rings  is  usually  engraved 
with  a  sacred  monogram  or  word. 

Gemel  or  gimmel  rings,  from  the  Latin  gemellus,  a  twin,  Qemel 
were  made  with  two  hoops  fitted  together,  and  could  be  rings, 
worn  either  together  or  singly ;  they  were  common  in  the 
16th  and  17th  centuries,  and  were  much  used  as  betrothal 
rings. 

Posy  rings,3  so  called  from  the  "  poesy "  or  rhyme  en-  posy 
graved  on  them,  were  specially  common  in  the  same  cen-  rings, 
turies.  The  name  posy  ring  does  not  occur  earlier  than 
the  16th  century.  A  posy  ring  inscribed  with  "love  me 
and  leave  me  not "  is  mentioned  by  Shakespeare  (Mer.  of 
Ven.,  act  v.  sc.  1).  The  custom  of  inscribing  rings  with 
mottoes  or  words  of  good  omen  dates  from  a  very  early 
time.  Greek  and  Roman  rings  exist  with  words  such  as 
ZHCAIC,  XAIPE,  KAAH,  or  votis  meis  Claudia  vivas.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  many  rings  were  inscribed  with  words  of  cabal- 
istic power,  such  as  anam  zapta,  or  Caspar,  Melchior,  and 
Balthasar,  the  supposed  names  of  the  Magi.  In  the  17th 
century  they  were  largely  used  as  wedding  rings,  with  such 
phrases  as  "love  and  obaye,"  "fear  God  and  love  me," 
or  "  mulier  viro  subjecta  esto." 

In  the  same  century  memorial  rings  with  a  name  and  Memo 
date  of   death   were   frequently  made  of   very  elaborate  rings, 
form,  enamelled  in  black  and  white ;  a  not  unusual  design 
was  two  skeletons  bent  along  the  hoop,  and  holding  a 
coffin  which  formed  the  bezel. 

In  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  signet  rings  engraved  Mer- 
with  a  badge  or  trademark  were  much  used  by  merchants  chants 
and  others ;  these  were  not  only  used  to  form  seals,  but  rin8s- 
the  ring  itself  was  often  sent  by  a  trusty  bearer  as  the 
proof  of  the  genuineness  of  a  bill  of  demand.4     At  the  same 
time  private  gentlemen  used  massive  rings  wholly  of  gold 
with  their  initials  cut  on  the  bezel,  and  a  graceful  knot 
of  flowers  twining  round   the   letters.      Of  this  kind  is 
Shakespeare's  ring,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  which  was 
found  near  the  church  of  Stratford ;  on  it  is  cut  a  cord 
arranged  in   loops  between  the  letters  W  and  S.     Other 
fine  gold  rings  of  this  period  have  coats  of  arms  or  crests 
with  graceful  lambrequins. 

Poison  rings  with  a  hollow  bezel  were  used  in  classical  Poisor 
times ;  as,  for  example,  that  by  which  Hannibal  killed  rings. 
himself,  and  the  poison  ring  of  Demosthenes.  Pliny 
records  that,  after  Crassus  had  stolen  the  gold  treasure 
from  under  the  throne  of  Capitoline  Jupiter,  the  guardian 
of  the  shrine,  to  escape  torture,  "  broke  the  gem  of  his  ring 
in  his  mouth  and  died  immediately."  The  mediaeval 
anello  della  morte,  supposed  to  be  a  Venetian  invention, 
was  actually  used  as  an  easy  method  of  murder.  Among 
the  elaborate  ornaments  of  the  bezel  a  hollow  point  made 
to  work  with  a  spring  was  concealed ;  it  communicated 
with  a  receptacle  for  poison  in  a  cavity  behind,  in  such  a 

3  See  Waterton,  in  Arch.  Jour.,  xvi.  p.  307. 

4  The  celebrated  ring  given  to  Essex  by  Queen  Elizabeth  was  meant 
to  be  used  for  a  similar  purpose.     It  is  set  with  a  fine  cameo  por- 
trait of  Elizabeth  cut  in  sardonyx,  of  Italian  workmanship. 

XX  —71 


562 


R  I  N  — R  I  O 


way  that  the  murderer  could  give  the  fatal  scratch  while 
shaking  hands  with  his  enemy.  This  device  was  probably 
suggested  by  the  poison  fang  of  a  snake. 

The  so-called  papal  rings,  of  which  many  exist  dating 
from  the  15th  to  the  17th  centuries,  appear  to  have 
been  given  by  the  popes  to  new-made  cardinals.  They 
are  very  large  thumb  rings,  usually  of  gilt  bronze  coarsely 
worked,  and  set  with  a  foiled  piece  of  glass  or  crystal. 
On  the  hoop  is  usually  engraved  the  name  and  arms  of 
the  reigning  pope,  the  bezel  being  without  a  device. 
They  are  of  little  intrinsic  value,  but  magnificent  in 
appearance. 

Another  very  large  and  elaborate  form  of  ring  is  that 
used  during  the  Jewish  marriage  service.  Fine  examples 
of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  exist.  In  the  place  of  the 
bezel  is  a  model,  minutely  worked  in  gold  or  base  metal, 
of  a  building  with  high  gabled  roofs,  and  frequently 
movable  weathercocks  on  the  apex.  This  is  a  conven- 
tional representation  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 

Perhaps  the  most  magnificent  rings  from  the  beauty  of 
the  workmanship  of  the  hoop  are  those  of  which  Benvenuto 
Cellini  produced  the  finest  examples.  They  are  of  gold, 
richly  chased  and  modelled  with  caryatides  or  grotesque 
figures,  and  are  decorated  with  coloured  enamels  in  a  very 
skilful  and  elaborate  way.  Very  fine  jewels  are  sometimes 
set  in  these  magnificent  pieces  of  16th-century  jewellery. 

Thumb  rings  were  commonly  worn  from  the  14th  to  the 
17th  century.  Falstaff  boasts  that  in  his  youth  he  was 
slender  enough  to  "creep  into  any  alderman's  thumb 
ring"  (Shakes.,  Hen.  IV.,  Pt.  /.,  act  ii.  sc.  4). 

The  finest  collections  of  rings  formed  in  Britain  have 
been  those  of  Lord  Londesborough,  Edmund  Waterton 
(now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum),  and  those  still  in 
the  possession  of  Mr  A.  W.  Franks  and  Mr  Drury 
Fortnum. 

See  Gorlaeus,  Dactyliotheca,  Lyons,  1601  ;  King,  Antique  Gems 
and  Eings,  1872  ;  Jones,  Finger-Rings,  1878 ;  Edwards,  History 
of  Rings,  New  York,  1875  ;  and  various  articles  by  Waterton  and 
others  in  the  Archxological  Journal.  (J.  H.  M. ) 

RINGWORM.  See  PARASITISM,  vol.  xviii.  p.  269,  and 
SKIN  DISEASES. 

EIOBAMBA,  or  ROYABAMBA,  a  town  in  the  South- 
American  republic  of  Ecuador,  situated  on  the  road  from 
Guayaquil  to  Quito  in  "a  sand  valley  or  plain  of  the 
great  central  highland  of  the  Andes — Chimborazo,  Car- 
guairazo,  Tunguragua,  and  Altar  all  being  visible  from  its 
plaza."  The  town  has  occupied  its  present  site  only  since 
the  close  of  the  18th  century;  in  1797  the  old  town,  which 
lay  about  12  miles  to  the  west  at  Cajabamba,  was  com- 
pletely destroyed  by  a  vast  landslip  (still  recognizable) 
from  Mount  Cicalfa  in  one  of  the  most  terrific  convulsions 
recorded  even  in  that  region  of  volcanic  activity.  Ruins 
still  remain  to  show  that  Riobamba  was  a  much  larger 
and  finer  place  then  than  at  the  present  day.  Though 
said  to  have  16,000  inhabitants,  and  to  manufacture 
woollen  gloves,  sacking,  and  coverlets,  the  town  is  poorly 
built  and  comparatively  lifeless. 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO  (in  full  form  SAO  SEBASTIAO  DO 
Rio  DE  JANEIRO,  and  colloquially  shortened  to  Rio),  the 
capital  of  Brazil,  and  one  of  the  principal  seaports  of 
South  America,  is  situated  on  the  western  side  of  one  of 
the  finest  natural  harbours  in  the  world  in  25°  54'  23" 
S.  lat.  and  43°  8'  34"  W.  long,  (the  position  of  the 
observatory).  Along  with  its  environs  it  is  separated 
from  the  province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  (whose  chief  town  is 
Nitherohi)  and  constitutes  an  independent  municipality 
(municipio  neutro),  with  an  area  of  about  540  square 
miles,  divided  into  nineteen  (formerly  sixteen)  parishes  or 
frequezias.  Most  of  the  streets  are  narrow  and  mean- 
looking  ;  even  the  fashionable  Rua  do  Ouvidor,  which  is 


lined  on  both  sides  with  handsome  shops,  is  a  mere  alley. 
The  Rua  Direita,  or,  as  it  is  now  called  officially,  Rua 
Primeiro  de  Manjo,  is  the  principal  business  street,  and  is 
wide  and  pleasant. 
It  runs  from  the 
gate  of  the  royal 
palace  (a  building 
of  small  preten- 
sions) to  the  con- 
vent of  Sao  Bento, 
and  contains  the 
exchange,  the  post 
office,  and  the 
custom-house,  as 
well  as  the  impe- 
rial chapel  (1761) 
and  several  other 
churches.  The 

churches  and  mo- 
nastic buildings  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro 
number  upwards  of 
fifty,  mostly  built 
in  the  "Jesuit"  Harbour  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 

style,  but  striking  from  their  size  and  the  barbaric  mag- 
nificence of  their  decorations,  as  well  as  on  account  of 
their  well-chosen  sites.  La  Candellaria  (17th  century)  is 
conspicuous  from  the  height  of  its  towers,  and  La  Gloria 
crowns  a  beautiful  eminence  on  the  bay.  The  monastery 
of  Sao  Bento  is  reputed  to  be  the  wealthiest  in  the  empire, 
with  large  possessions  in  land  and  mines ;  and  its  chapel 
is  not  unworthy  of  that  reputation.  Besides  the  famous 


Rio  de  Janeiro  and  its  Environs. 

hospital  of  Dom  Pedro  II.,  better  known  as  La  Miseri- 
cordia,  because  built  (1841)  on  ground  belonging  to  the 
fraternity  of  that  name,  there  are  several  smaller  institu- 
tions of  the  same  class  in  the  city ;  and  a  large  and  hand- 
some lunatic  asylum,  founded  in  1841  with  funds  obtained 
by  selling  titles  of  nobility  at  a  fixed  tariff,  occupies  a  good 
position  in  the  Botafogo  suburb.  The  military  hospital  is 
also  an  extensive  establishment.  Among  the  literary  and 
scientific  institutions  of  the  city,  the  College  Dom  Pedro 


E  I  0  — K  I  O 


563 


II.  (which  is  well  organized),  national  museum,  institute 
of  history,  geography,  and  ethnology  (1838),  polytechnic 
institute,  national  educational  museum,  polytechnic  school, 
military,  naval,  and  normal  schools,  lyceum  of  arts,  musical 
conservatory,  geographical  society,  and  astronomical  and 
meteorological  observatory  deserve  special  mention.  The 
great  national  library  owes  its  foundation  to  the  bequest  of 
Joao  VI.,  and  now  numbers  upwards  of  120,000  volumes 
open  to  the  public  daily  (see  LIBRARIES,  vol.  xiv.  p.  530, 
where  the  lesser  libraries  are  also  mentioned).  One  of 
the  pleasant  features  of  the  city  is  the  abundant  supply 
of  excellent  water  distributed  to  numerous  stately  fountains 
in  the  streets  and  public  squares.  The  chief  aqueduct, 
begun  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  starts  at  Tijuca, 
about  12  miles  distant,  and  crosses  the  valley  (740  feet 
wide  and  90  feet  deep)  between  Monte  de  Santa  Theresa 
and  Monte  de  Santo  Antonio  by  a  beautiful  double  tier 
of  arches  (erected  in  1750),  which  form  a  striking  feature 
in  some  of  the  finest  views  of  the  city.  Its  entire  length 
being  covered  in  with  stone  work,  the  water  is  kept  remark- 
ably cool.  As  the  city  has  extended,  other  aqueducts  of 
less  architectural  pretensions  have  had  to  be  constructed ; 
and  a  good  deal  has  been  done  by  an  English  company 
in  recent  years  to  provide  a  proper  system  of  sewers. 
The  bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  has  been  the  subject  of  poetic 
panegyric  ever  since  it  was  discovered ;  and  the  traveller 
who  comes  to  it  after  a  voyage  round  the  world  seems  as 
susceptible  to  its  charm  as  if  it  were  his  first  tropical 
experience.1  The  actual  entrance,  between  Fort  St  Juan 
and  Fort  Santa  Cruz,  is  1700  yards  wide.  Within  there 
are  fifty  square  miles  of  anchorage,  or  even  more  for 
vessels  of  light  draught,  the  bay  having  a  width  varying 
from  2  to  7  miles  and  stretching  inland  from  the  sea  for 
16  miles.  Its  coast-line,  neglecting  minor  indentations, 
measures  60  miles.  Such  a  sheet  of  water  would  be 
beautiful  anywhere ;  but,  when  on  all  sides  it  is  surrounded 
by  hills  of  the  most  varied  contour,  the  beauty  is  enhanced 
a  thousandfold.  Its  surface  is  broken  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  islands — from  the  Ilha  do  Governador  (6  miles 
long  and  2  broad;  population  2500)  down  to  the  little 
cluster  of  the  Jerubahibas. 

Rio  is  the  seat  of  the  principal  arsenal  in  the  empire,  and  most 
of  the  Brazilian  cruisers  have  been  built  in  its  dockyards.  The 
roadstead  for  vessels  of  war  is  between  Villegagnon  Island,  with 
its  fort,  and  the  islands  at  the  north-east  angle  of  the  town  called 
respectively  Ilha  das  Cobras  (Snake  Island)  and  Ilha  dos  Katos 
(Rat  Island).  On  the  north  side  of  Ilha  das  Cobras  is  the  naval 
arsenal  with  two  large  docks.  On  Ilha  das  Enchadas  (Coaling 
Island)  there  is  a  fine  commercial  dock  385  feet  long,  on  keel 
blocks,  45  feet  wide  at  the  entrance  and  23  feet  deep.  Between 
1846  and  1855  the  average  number  of  vessels  that  cleared  from  the 
port  of  Rio  was  over  680  with  an  average  total  burden  of  221,280 
tons.  In  1867  1311  vessels  (522,407  tons)  entered  and  1032 
(596,663  tons)  cleared  ;  in  1883  1218  (1,220,330  tons)  entered  and 
1067  cleared,  while,  besides,  the  coasting  trade  was  represented 
by  1414  vessels  (454,739)  entering.  England  has  the  greatest 
share  of  the  foreign  shipping  trade,  Germany  ranking  next,  and 
France  third.  How  completely  (in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Santos 
and  Rio  Grande  have  become  more  independent)  Rio  de  Janeiro 
is  the  commercial  as  well  as  the  political  capital  of  Brazil  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  the  exports  from  Rio  are  on  the  average 
fully  equal  in  value  to  those  from  the  rest  of  Brazil ;  for  instance, 
the  value  of  the  exports  from  the  capital  in  1859-60  was 
£5,933,850  out  of  £11,826,121  from  the  empire,  in  1879-80 
£10,566,800  out  of  £18,928,635,  and  in  1881-82  £7,550,966  out  of 

1  "This  bay,"  says  Mr  Gallenga,  "is  the  very  gate  to  a  tropical 
paradise.  There  is  nowhere  so  bold  a  coast,  such  a  picturesque  cluster 
of  mountains,  such  a  maze  of  inlets  and  outlets,  such  a  burst  of  all- 
pervading  vegetation.  The  city  itself  is  like  Lima  or  Buenos  Ayres, 
a  mere  chess-board  of  shabby  narrow  streets.  But  the  environs  all 
round — the  Botafogo  Bay,  the  vale  of  Larangerias,  the  height  of  Tejuca, 
San  Cristoval,  Santa  Teresa,  and  others  ....  may  well  challenge 
comparison  with  any  of  the  loveliest  localities  of  either  hemisphere. 
You  are  bidden  drive  out  to  the  Botanic  Gardens  (at  Botafogo),  but 
the  whole  road  inland  or  along  the  water  is  nothing  but  a  continuous 
garden. " 


£18, 522,050.  To  this  large  total  coffee  has  long  contributed  40-50 
per  cent.,  and  in  1880-81  (an  exceptional  year)  the  ratio  rose  to  86 
per  cent.  Though  the  coffee  plant  was  not  introduced  till  1770, 
Brazil  is  the  greatest  coffee-producing  country  in  the  world,  and  Rio 
de  Janeiro  is  consequently  the  largest  coffee-exporting  city.  The 
other  exports  of  moment  are  brandy  (in  decreasing  quantities),  sugar, 
hides,  diamonds,  tapioca  (mainly  to  France),  tobacco  and  cigars, 
medicinal  herbs,  gold  dust,  and  jacaranda,  rosewood,  and  other 
timbers.  The  imports  comprise  cotton  goods,  machinery,  pitch 
pine,  and  petroleum.  Among  the  comparatively  few  local  industries 
are  the  weaving  of  coloured  buckskins  (by  a  German  firm)  and 
other  woollen  and  half  woollen  stuffs,  the  extensive  manufacture 
of  artificial  mineral  waters  and  liquors,  brewing,  carriage-building, 
and  hat-making.  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  the  terminus  of  the  .Dom  Pedro 
II.  Railway,  and  thus  of  nearly  the  whole  railway  system  of  the 
country  ;  and  it  communicates  regularly  by  steamer  with  Nitherohi 
on  the  other  side  of  the  bay,  which  is  the  terminus  of  another  line. 
The  population  of  the  municipality  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  in  1850 
stated  at  266,466,  of  which  205,906  were  in  the  town  proper  ;  but 
this,  like  most  of  the  earlier  figures,  appears  to  be  an  exaggeration, 
as  the  census  in  1872  gave  only  274,972,  of  which  about  190,000 
were  in  the  town  and  suburbs,  the  slaves  numbering  48,939  and 
the  foreigners  (mainly  Germans,  French,  and  Italians)  84,279.  The 
Italian  element  has  been  rapidly  increasing.  The  bulk  of  the 
population  is  Portuguese  with  a  mixture  of  Negro  blood.  The 
native  Indian  races  are  scarcely  represented. 

The  annual  rainfall  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  about  60  inches,  the 
greatest  precipitation  taking  place  in  February  (12  inches),  and 
the  least  in  August  (under  1  inch).  The  monthly  ranges  of  tem- 
perature for  1882  were— January  97°-68° ,  February  95°-68° ;  March 
95°-69° ;  April  87°-64° ;  May  84°-60° ;  June  82°-59° ;  July  85°- 
59°;  August  98°-54°;  September  80°-50°;  October  92°-59°  ;  No- 
vember 97°-59° ;  December  96°-62°. 

The  bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  Nitherohi  or  "Hidden  Water" 
of  the  natives,  was  first  observed  on  1st  January  (hence  the  name) 
by  Alphonso  de  Souza,  who  supposed,  as  the  Rio  indicates,  that  he 
had  discovered  the  mouth  of  a  large  river.  How  Villegagnon  in 
1558  took  possession  of  the  island  which  now  bears  his  name  but 
was  then  called  after  his  patron  Coligny,  and  how  his  colony  was 
destroyed  by  the  Portuguese,  has  been  told  in  the  article  BRAZIL 
(vol.  iv.  p.  229).  The  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  did  not  become  the 
capital  of  the  vioeroyalty  till  1763,  when  Jose  I.  chose  it  in 
preference  to  Bahia  because  it  was  a  better  centre  for  defensive 
operations  against  the  Spaniards.  In  1711  it  had  been  captured 
by-  Dugnay-Trouin,  who  exacted  70,000  cruzados  as  ransom.  It 
became  the  residence  of  the  Portuguese  royal  family  in  1808  ;  in 
the  same  year  its  port  was  declared  free  to  foreign  trade  ;  and  in 
the  course  of  a  short  time  it  was  made  by  Dom  Joao  VI.  the  seat 
of  so  many  important  institutions  that  Portugal  became  jealous  at 
finding  the  relation  between  mother  country  and  colony  practically 
reversed.  When  Joao  VI.  returned  to  Portugal  and  Pedro  was 
declared  emperor  of  Brazil  in  1822,  Rio  de  Janeiro  naturally 
remained  the  capital  of  the  new  state.  Ecclesiastically  the  city 
was  at  first  (from  the  foundation  of  the  church  of  Sao  Sebastiao  by 
Mendo  de  Sa  in  1567)  subject  to  the  diocese  of  Bahia  (San 
Salvador).  It  was  made  a  suffragan  bishopric  of  Bahia  by  papal 
bull  of  19th  July  1576  ;  and  when  Bahia  was  by  the  bull  of  16th 
November  1676  created  the  metropolitan  archbishopric  of  Brazil, 
Rio  de  Janeiro  was  (along  with  Pernambuco)  declared  a  bishopric, 
the  bishop's  authority  extending  over  the  province  of  Espirito 
Santo  northwards  and  southwards  to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  (Rio  da 
Prata).  The  first  bishop  relinquished  his  dignity  without  taking 
possession  ;  and  the  second  did  not  reach  his  diocese  till  1682, 
when  he  made  the  church  of  St  Sebastian  on  the  Castle  Hill 
his  cathedral.  This  distinction  was  in  1734  transferred  to  the 
Church  of  the  Cross  and  in  1738  to  that  of  the  Rosary.  A  new 
cathedral  was  begun  in  1749  by  D.  Frei  Antonio  do  Desterro,  but 
the  works  were  discontinued  on  his  death,  and  in  1840  the  materials 
served  for  the  military  academy. 

See  Milliet  de  Saint- Adolphe,  Diccionario  .  ...  do  Imp.  do  Brazil,  Paris,  1845 ; 
G.  Gardiner,  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Brazil,  1846 ;  Burmeister,  Reise  nach 
Brasilien,  Berlin,  1853  ;  Herbert  H.  Smith,  Brazil,  1880 ;  C.  F.  van  Delden  Laerne, 
Brazil  and  Java,  1885.  (H.  A.  W.) 

KIO  GEANDE  (that  is,  "  Great  River  "  in  both  Spanish 
and  Portuguese),  a  descriptive  epithet  which  in  a  vast 
number  of  cases  has  become  a  proper  name.  (1)  Rio 
GRANDE  (or  Rio  BRAVO)  DEL  NORTE,  which  rises  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  between  the  La  Plata  and  San  Juan 
ranges  in  the  south-west  of  Colorado,  has  a  total  course  of 
about  1800  miles,  and  forms  for  1100  miles  the  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  but  owing  to 
the  shallowness  of  its  ordinary  current  is  navigable  for 
steamers  only  to  Kingsbury's  Rapids,  450  miles  from  the 
sea.  (2)  Rio  GRANDE  DO  NORTE,  or  Potengi,  or  Potingi, 


R  I  0  —  R  I  O 


which  gives  its  Portuguese  name  to  a  northern  province  of 
Brazil,  rises  in  the  Serra  dos  Cairiris-Novos,  passes  Natal, 
the  capital  of  the  province,  and  falls  into  the  sea  to  the 
south  of  Sao  Roque.  (3)  Rio  GRANDE  DO  SUL,  the  out- 
let of  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos,  wrongly  supposed  by  the 
early  explorers  to  be  the  mouth  of  a  great  river,  gives  its 
name  to  a  city  and  province  of  Brazil  (see  below).  (4) 
Rio  GRANDE,  a  river  of  Western  Africa,  enters  the  sea 
opposite  the  Bissagos  Archipelago  (see  SENEGAMBIA). 

RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL,  or  in  full  SAO  PEDRO  DO  Rio 
GRANDE  DO  SUL,  a  city  of  Brazil,  in  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  near  the  mouth  of  the  estuary  of  Rio  Grande. 
Including  the  suburbs  it  is  a  place  of  from  30,000  to 
35,000  inhabitants  (1880),  with  a  considerable  trade  and 
various  manufactures.  The  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the 
"Rio"  does  not  admit  vessels  of  full  10-feet  draught; 
but  dredging  operations  undertaken  by  the  Government  in 
1882  are  considerably  increasing  the  depth.  In  1881-84 
a  railway  was  constructed  from  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  to 
Bage,  125  miles  inland.  The  average  annual  value  of  the 
imports  in  the  six  official  years  ending  June  30,  1882, 
was  about  £589,043,  reckoning  the  milreis  at  2s.  In 
1881  651  vessels  (133,779  tons)  crossed  the  bar  inwards, 
and  555  (133,276)  outwards.  Among  the  foreign  vessels 
the  British  are  most  numerous.  The  imports  are  very 
various,  to  supply  the  colonies  of  Germans,  Italians,  &c., 
settled  throughout  the  province;  the  exports  on  the  other 
hand  are  mainly  hides,  skins,  bones,  hair,  tallow,  <kc. 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul  was  a  long  time  the  chief  town  of  the 
captaincy  of  El  Rei  (which  included  both  the  present  province  of 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul  and  that  of  Santa  Catharina).  It  was  first 
founded  as  an  encampment  of  Portuguese  troops  in  1 737  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The  settlement  was  removed  to  its  present 
site  by  Gomes  Freire  d'Andrade  in  1745.  The  Spaniards  occupied 
this  part  of  the  country  from  1763  to  1776.  In  1807  the  two 
districts  of  Sao  Pedro  and  Santa  Catharina  were  united  and  erected 
into  a  province  with  Sao  Jose  do  Porto  Alegre  for  its  chief  town  ; 
and,  though  Rio  Grande  was  declared  a  city  in  1809,  Porto  Alegre 
retained  its  position  even  after  the  separation  into  two  comarcas  in 
1812.  The  name  of  the  province  has  been  rendered  familiar  in 
Europe  through  the  remarkable  success  which  has  attended  the 
establishment  of  German  and  Italian  agricultural  colonies.  In 
1872  there  were  36,458  foreigners  in  the  province  to  330,564  free- 
born  Brazilians  and  67,791  slaves;  and  by  1882  it  was  estimated 
that  the  German  population  alone  amounted  to  102,000,  while  the 
Italians,  who  began  to  immigrate  in  1875,  were  rapidly  approaching 
50,000.  The  first  German  settlement  was  that  of  Sao  Leopoldo  on 
the  Rio  do  Sino,  founded  by  Dom  Pedro  I.  in  1825.  By  1830  the 
inhabitants  numbered  5000,  and  in  1854  the  town  was  made  a 
municipium.  Others  of  the  same  nationality  are  Novo  Mundo 
(1850),  Nova  Petropolis  (1858),  Santa  Maria  da  Soledade,  Marato, 
Sao  Benedicto,  Sao  Salvador,  Montenegro,  Feliz,  Teutonia  (1858), 
Estrella  (1856),  Santa  Cruz  (1849),  Mont  Alverne,  Germania,  Sao 
Lorenzo  (1858),  Santa  Clara,  Sao  Silvano,  Domingos,  &c.  The 
principal  Italian  colonies  are  Caxias,  Conde  d'Eu,  Douna  Isabel,  and 
Silviera  Mar  tins,  which  in  1884  had  respectively  13,680,  6287,  9595, 
and  6000  inhabitants.  The  success  of  these  colonies  is  one  of  the 
most  important  elements  in  the  development  of  the  Brazilian 
empire. 

See  works  by  Hormeyer  (Coblentz,  1854);  Mulhall  (London,  1873);  Cantatt 
(Berlin,  1877);  H.  Lange  (Leipsic,  1881);  Richard  Dilthey  (Berlin,  1882);  for 
the  Italian  colonies,  Breitenbach's  paper  in  Olobus  (1885) ;  and,  for  the  Lagoa 
dog  Patos,  Ihering  in  Deuttche  geogr.  Blatter  (Bremen,  1885). 

RIOM,  a  town  of  France,  with  9590  inhabitants,  at  the 
head  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Puy-de- 
Dome,  8  miles  north  of  Clermont-Ferrand  on  the  railway 
to  Paris,  occupies  an  eminence  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ambene  (a  left-hand  tributary  of  the  Allier)  rising  above 
the  fertile  plain  of  Limagne.  It  is  surrounded  with  boule- 
vards and  has  wide  streets,  but  the  houses,  being  built  of 
black  lava,  have  a  rather  sombre  appearance.  Some  date 
from  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  with  turrets  and  ancient 
carved  work.  The  church  of  St  Amable  goes  back  to  the 
12th  century,  but  has  suffered  by  repeated  restorations. 
The  old  ducal  palace  (now  occupied  by  the  court  of  appeal, 
<fec.)  has  a  collection  of  portraits  of  Auvergne  celebrities. 
A  feature  in  the  town  is  the  fountains,  of  which  some  are 


of  the  Renaissance  period.  Riom  trades  in  the  products 
of  Limagne — grain,  wine,  hemp,  preserved  fruits,  and 
especially  a  conserve  of  apricots — and  has  a  tobacco  manu- 
factory. 

Riom  (Ricomagiis  or  Ricoinum  of  the  Romans)  was  long  the  rival 
of  Clermont.  Along  with  Auvergne  it  was  seized  for  the  crown  by 
Philip  Augustus,  and  it  was  the  capital  of  this  province  under 
the  Jukes  of  Berri  and  Bourbon.  During  the  religious  wars  it 
long  held  with  the  League.  Its  courts  of  law,  always  famous,  are 
associated  with  the  memory  of  D'Aguesseau.  ,  • 

RIONERO  IN  VOLTURE,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Potenza,  4  miles  from  Atella,  is  pleasantly  situated 
at  the  foot  of  Monte  Volture,  has  the  repute  of  being  the 
best  built  and  best  kept  of  the  towns  of  the  Basil  icata,  and 
has  long  been  distinguished  by  the  industrious  character 
of  its  inhabitants  (11,383  in  1881).  It  does  not  seem  to 
be  older  than  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century.  In  1851 
it  suffered  severely  from  the  earthquake. 

RIOT  is  "an  unlawful  assembly  which  has  actually 
begun  to  execute  the  purpose  for  which  it  assembled  by  a 
breach  of  the  peace  and  to  the  terror  of  the  public.  A 
lawful  assembly  may  become  a  riot  if  the  persons  assembled 
form  and  proceed  to  execute  an  unlawful  purpose  to  the 
terror  of  the  people,  although  they  had  not  that  purpose 
when  they  assembled  "  (Stephen,  Digest  of  the  Criminal 
Law,  art.  73).  The  above  is  the  definition  of  a  riot  at 
common  law  in  England.  The  offence  is  the  most  grave 
kind  of  breach  of  the  peace  known  to  the  law,  short  of 
treason.  In  its  previous  stages  it  may  be  an  affray,  an  un- 
lawful assembly,  or  a  riot,  according  to  circumstances,  and 
it  may,  if  carried  far  enough,  become  treason.  An  affray 
is  the  fighting  of  two  or  more  persons  in  the  public  street. 
An  unlawful  assembly  is  an  assembly  of  three  or  more 
persons  with  intent  to  commit  a  crime  by  force  or  carry  out 
a  common  purpose,  lawful  or  unlawful,  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  reasonable  grounds  for  fearing  a  breach  of  the  peace. 
A  rout  is  an  unlawful  assembly  which  has  made  a  motion 
towards  the  execution  of  its  common  purpose.  If  the 
unlawful  assembly  should  begin  to  demolish  a  particular 
inclosure,  that  would  be  a  riot;  if  it  should  proceed  to 
pull  down  all  inclosures,  that  would  be  treason.  It  was 
considered  as  early  as  the  14th  century  that  the  common 
law  gave  an  insufficient  remedy  against  riot.  In  1360  the 
statute  of  34  Edw.  III.  c.  1  gave  jurisdiction  to  justices 
to  restrain,  arrest,  and  imprison  rioters.  In  1393  the 
statute  of  17  Ric.  II.  c.  8  conferred  similar  powers  on  the 
sheriff  and  posse  comitatus.  Numerous  other  Acts  extend- 
ing the  common  law  were  passed,  especially  in  the  Tudor 
reigns  (see  Stephen,  History  of  the  Criminal  Law,  vol.  i. 
p.  202).  The  effect  of  existing  legislation  is  to  constitute 
certain  statutory  offences  similar  to  riot  at  common  law. 
The  earliest  Act  now  in  force  is  one  commonly  called  the 
Riot  Act,  1  Geo.  I.  st.  2,  c.  5.  That  Act  makes  it  the  duty 
of  a  justice,  sheriff,  mayor,  or  other  authority,  wherever 
twelve  persons  or  more  are  unlawfully,  riotously,  and 
tumultuously  assembled  together  to  the  disturbance  of  the 
public  peace,  to  resort  to  the  place  of  such  assembly 
and  read  the  following  proclamation  : — "  Our  Sovereign 
Lady  the  Queen  chargeth  and  commandeth  all  persons 
being  assembled  immediately  to  disperse  themselves,  and 
peaceably  to  depart  to  their  habitations  or  to  their  lawful 
business,  upon  the  pains  contained  in  the  Act  made  in  the 
first  year  of  King  George  for  preventing  tumultuous  and 
riotous  assemblies.  God  save  the  Queen."  It  is  a  felony 
punishable  with  penal  servitude  for  life  to  obstruct  the 
reading  of  the  proclamation  or  to  remain  or  continue 
together  unlawfully,  riotously,  and  tumultuously  for  one 
hour  after  the  proclamation  was  made  or  for  one  hour 
after  it  would  have  been  made  but  for  being  hindered. 
The  Act  requires  the  justices  to  seize  and  apprehend  all 
persons  continuing  after  the  hour,  and  indemnifies  them 


R I P— R I P 


565 


and  those  who  act  under  their  authority  from  liability  for 
injuries  caused  thereby.  Any  prosecution  for  an  offence 
against  the  Act  must  be  commenced  within  twelve  months 
after  the  offence. 

By  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  97,  §  11,  it  is  a  felony  punishable 
with  penal  servitude  for  life  for  persons  riotously  and 
tumultuously  assembled  together  to  the  disturbance  of  the 
public  peace  to  unlawfully  and  with  force  demolish  or 
begin  to  demolish  or  pull  down  or  destroy  any  building, 
public  building,  machinery,  or  mining  plant.  By  §  12  it 
is  a  misdemeanour  punishable  with  seven  years'  penal  ser- 
vitude to  injure  or  damage  such  building,  &c.  A  riotous 
assembly  of  three  or  more  seamen  unlawfully  and  with 
force  preventing,  hindering,  or  obstructing  the  loading  or 
unloading  or  the  sailing  or  navigation  of  any  vessel,  or 
unlawfully  and  with  force  boarding  any  vessel  with  intent 
to  do  so,  constitutes  a  misdemeanour  punishable  with 
twelve  months'  hard  labour,  33  Geo.  III.  c.  67.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  Acts,  there  are  others  aimed  at  crimes  of  a 
somewhat  similar  nature,  such  as  assembly  for  the  purpose 
of  smuggling,  going  armed  in  pursuit  of  game  by  night, 
forcible  entry  and  detainer,  political  meetings  in  the  city  of 
Westminster,  tumultuous  petitioning,  and  unlawful  drilling. 
For  these  offences  see  Stephen,  Digest  of  the  Criminal  Law, 
art.  76-82. 

It  is  the  duty  of  a  magistrate  at  the  time  of  a  riot  to  assemble 
subjects  of  the  realm,  whether  civil  or  military,  for  the  purpose  of 
quelling  a  riot.  In  this  duty  he  is  aided  by  the  common  law,  under 
which  all  subjects  of  the  realm  are  bound  to  assist  on  reasonable 
warning,  and  by  various  enactments  enabling  the  authorities  to  call 
out  the  auxiliary  and  reserve  forces  for  the  suppression  of  riot,  and 
to  close  public  houses  where  a  riot  is  apprehended.  It  is  his  duty  to 
keep  the  peace  ;  if  the  peace  be  broken,  honesty  of  intention  will 
not  avail  him  if  he  has  been  guilty  of  neglect  of  duty.  The 
question  is  whether  he  did  all  that  he  knew  was  in  his  power  and 
which  could  be  expected  from  a  man  of  ordinary  prudence,  firm- 
ness, and  activity.  The  law  as  thus  stated  is  gathered  from  the 
opinions  of  the  judges  on  the  trials  of  the  lord  mayor  of  London 
and  the  mayor  of  Bristol  on  indictments  for  neglect  of  duty  at  the 
time  of  the  Gordon  riots  of  1780  and  the  Bristol  riots  in  1831. 1  In 
addition  to  his  liability  to  an  indictment  at  common  law,  a 
defaulting  magistrate  is  subject  under  the  provisions  of  13  Hen. 
IV.  c.  7  and  2  Hen.  V.  st.  1,  c.  8,  to  a  penalty  of  £100  for  every 
default,  the  default  to  be  inquired  of  by  commission  under  the 
great  seal.  A  matter  of  interest  is  the  extent  of  the  protection 
afforded  by  the  Riot  Act  to  soldiers  acting  under  the  commands  of 
their  officers.  The  soldier  is  at  the  same  time  a  citizen,  and  the 
mere  fact  of  his  being  a  soldier  is  not  sufficient  to  exonerate  him 
from  all  responsibility.  No  case  in  which  the  question  has  called 
for  decision  seems  to  have  arisen.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Mr  Justice 
Stephen  that  a  soldier  would  be  protected  by  orders  for  which  he 
might  reasonably  believe  his  superior  officer  to  have  good  grounds 
(History  of  the  Criminal  Law,  vol.  i.  206).  On  the  other  hand,  he 
would  probably  not  be  protected  by  an  order  plainly  unnecessary, 
such  as  an  order  to  fire  into  a  crowd  of  women  and  children  when 
no  violence  was  observable. 

_  The  civil  remedy  given  to  those  whose  property  has  suffered  by 
riot  is  of  an  exceptional  character.  The  action  is  brought  against 
the  hundred  in  which  the  riot  took  place.  This  liability  of  the 
hundred  is  a  survival  of  the  pre-Conquest  obligation  of  the  hundred 
and  tithing  to  pursue  and  do  justice  on  the  thief :  the  hundred  is 
supposed  to  guarantee  the  orderly  conduct  of  its  inhabitants,  and 
is  liable  to  damages  for  its  failure  to  preserve  order.  The  liability 
of  the  hundred  in  case  of  robbery  was  enacted  as  early  as  the 
Statute  of  Winchester,  13  Edw.  I.  st.  2.  That  and  subsequent 
Acts  were  repealed  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  27,  and  their  provisions 
were  consolidated  and  amended  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  31.  The  Act 
gives  a  remedy  against  the  hundred  in  the  case  of  any  church, 
chapel,  house,  machinery,  &c. ,  being  "  feloniously  demolished, 
pulled  down,  or  destroyed,  wholly  or  in  part,  by  any  persons 
riotously  and  tumultuously  assembled  together."  A  summary 
remedy  is  given  for  damage  not  exceeding  £30.  The  remedy  is 
extended  to  injury  to  threshing  machines  by  2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c. 
72.  It  has  been  held  that  damage  to  a  house  will  not  entitle  the 
owner  to  compensation  from  the  hundred  unless  the  intention  of 
the  rioters  was  to  totally  destroy  the  house. 

The  Riot  Act  does  not  extend  to  Ireland.  But  similar  provisions 
are  contained  in  the  Act  of  the  Irish  Parliament  of  27  Geo.  III.  c. 

1  Reports  of  these  trials  will  be  found  in  Carringtoa  and  Payne's 
Reports,  vol.  v.,  p.  254. 


15,  as  amended  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  28.  An  offence  peculiar  to 
Ireland  and  punishable  with  penal  servitude  for  life  under  the 
provisions  of  the  Acts  above  mentioned  is  the  sending  of  a  notice, 
letter,  or  message  exciting  or  tending  to  excite  a  riot.  The 
Prevention  of  Crimes  Act,  1882,  enabled  summary  proceedings  to 
be  taken  against  rioters.  The  Act  was  temporary  only,  expiring 
with  the  session  of  Parliament  1885. 

In  Scotland  a  riot  may  be  either  rioting  and  mobbing  or  rioting 
and  breach  of  the  peace.  The  first  is  much  the  same  as  the  riot  of 
English  law.  "  Mobbing  consists  in  the  assembling  of  a  number 
of  people  and  their  combining  against  order  and  peace  to  the  alarm 
of  the  lieges"  (Macdonald,  Criminal  Law,  180).  The  second 
offence  occurs  where  concourse  or  a  common  purpose  are  wanting. 
Numerous  Acts  against  riot  and  unlawful  convocation  were  passed 
by  the  Scottish  parliament  at  different  times,  beginning  as  early  as 
1457.  The  Riot  Act  (1  Geo.  I. )  applies  to  Scotland.  The  liability 
of  the  county  or  burgh  for  destruction  of  property  by  riot  is  pro- 
vided for  by  the  Riot  Act  and  by  several  Acts  of  Parliament  of  the 
reign  of  George  III. 

In  the  United  States  the  law  is  based  upon  that  of  England. 
In  some  States  there  is  a  statutory  proclamation  for  the  dispersion 
of  rioters  in  words  almost  identical  with  those  of  the  British  Riot 
Act.  The  city,  town,  or  county,  according  to  circumstances,  is 
liable  for  the  damage  caused  by  rioters.  In  some  cases  a  remedy 
over  against  the  rioters  is  given  by  legislation.  (J.  Wt.) 

RIPARIAN  LAWS.  By  the  law  of  England  the 
property  in  the  bed  and  water  of  a  tidal  river  as  high  as 
the  tide  ebbs  and  flows  at  a  medium  spring  tide  is  pre- 
sumed to  be  in  the  crown  or  a  grantee  of  the  crown, 
generally  the  lord  of  a  manor,  and  the  bed  and  water  of  a 
non-tidal  river  are  presumed  to  belong  to  the  person  through 
whose  land  it  flows,  or,  if  it  divide  two  properties,  to  the 
riparian  proprietors,  the  rights  of  each  extending  to  mid- 
stream (ad  medium  filum  aquee).  In  order  to  give 
riparian  rights,  the  river  must  flow  in  a  defined  channel, 
or  at  least  above  ground.  The  diminution  of  underground 
water  collected  by  percolation  does  not  give  a  cause  of 
action  to  the  owner  of  the  land  in  which  it  collects,  though 
he  is  entitled  to  have  it  unpolluted  unless  a  right  of  pol- 
lution be  gained  against  him  by  prescription.  As  a  general 
rule  a  riparian  proprietor,  whether  on  a  tidal  or  a  non-tidal 
river,  has  full  rights  of  user  of  his  property.  The  most 
important  limitations  of  these  rights  will  be  found  under 
the  headings  FISHERIES  and  NAVIGATION  LAWS.  In  both 
these  cases  the  rights  of  the  riparian  proprietors  are  subject 
to  the  intervening  rights  of  other  persons.  These  rights 
vary  according  as  the  river  is  navigable  or  not,  or  tidal  or 
not.  For  instance,  all  the  riparian  proprietors  might 
combine  to  divert  a  non-navigable  river,  though  one  alone 
could  not  do  so  as  against  the  others,  but  no  combination 
of  riparian  proprietors  could  defeat  the  right  of  the  public 
to  have  a  navigable  river  maintained  undiverted.  It  is 
proposed  in  this  place  to  consider  shortly  the  rights 
enjoyed  by,  and  the  limitations  imposed  upon,  riparian 
proprietors,  in  addition  to  those  falling  under  the  head  of 
fishery  or  navigation.  In  these  matters  English  law  is  in 
substantial  accordance  with  the  law  of  other  countries, 
most  of  the  rules  being  deduced  from  Koman  law.  Perhaps 
the  main  difference  is  that  running  water  is  in  Roman  law 
a  res  communis,  like  the  air  and  the  sea.  In  England, 
owing  to  the  greater  value  of  river  water  for  manufacturing 
and  other  purposes,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  common  property, 
even  though  it  may  be  used  for  navigation.  The  effect  of 
this  difference  is  that  certain  rights,  public  in  Roman  law, 
such  as  mooring  and  unloading  cargo,  bathing  and  towing, 
are  only  acquirable  by  prescription  or  custom  in  England. 
A  hut  might  lawfully  be  built  on  the  shore  of  a  tidal  river 
by  Roman  law ;  in  England  such  a  building  would  be  a 
mere  trespass. 

The  principal  rights  enjoyed  by  riparian  owners  as  such 
are  the  right  of  increase  of  property  by  means  of  alluvion 
and  the  right  of  use  of  the  water. 

Alluvion  is  the  gradual  and  imperceptible  increase  of  land  by 
deposit;  a  sudden  and  violent  changing  of  the  course  of  a  stream 
by  a  flood  does  not  change  the  property.  The  addition  to  property 


566 


R  I  P  —  R  I  P 


by  alluvion  is  occasionally  of  considerable  practical  importance. 
In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  the  estate  of  Lord  Berkeley  was  increased 
by  300  acres  left  dry  by  the  Severn.  The  land  was  claimed  for  '.ae 
crown,  but  judgment  was  given  in  favour  of  Lord  Berkeley.  If  an 
island  be  formed  in  the  stream,  it  belongs  to  the  proprietor  to 
whose  land  it  is  nearest;  if  it  be  exactly  in  mid-stream,  it  belongs 
to  the  riparian  proprietors  equally.  The  right  of  use  of  the  water 
of  a  natural  stream  cannot  be  better  described  than  in  the  words 
of  Lord  Kingsdown  : — "  By  the  general  law  applicable  to  running 
streams,  every  riparian  proprietor  has  a  right  to  what  may  be  called 
the  ordinary  use  of  water  flowing  past  his  land, — for  instance,  to 
the  reasonable  use  of  the  water  for  domestic  purposes  and  for  his 
cattle,  and  this  without  regard  to  the  effect  which  such  use  may 
have  in  case  of  a  deficiency  upon  proprietors  lower  down  the 
stream.  But,  further,  he  has  a  right  to  the  use  of  it  for  any  purpose, 
or  what  may  be  deemed  the  extraordinary  use  of  it,  provided  he 
does  not  thereby  interfere  with  the  rights  of  other  proprietors, 
either  above  or  below  him.  Subject  to  this  condition,  he  may 
dam  up  a  stream  for  the  purposes  of  a  mill,  or  divert  the  water  for 
the  purpose  of  irrigation.  But  he  has  no  right  to  intercept  the 
regular  flow  of  the  stream,  if  he  thereby  interferes  with  the  lawful 
use  of  the  water  by  other  proprietors,  and  inflicts  upon  them  a 
sensible  injury,"  (Miners.  Gilmour,  12  Moore' 's  Privy  Council  Cases, 
156).  The  rights  of  riparian  proprietors  where  the  flow  of  water 
is  artificial  rest  on  a  different  principle.  As  the  artificial  stream 
is  made  by  a  person  for  his  own  benefit,  any  right  of  another 
person  as  a  riparian  proprietor  does  not  arise  at  common  law,  as 
in  the  case  of  a  natural  stream,  but  must  be  established  by  grant 
or  prescription.  The  rights  of  a  person  not  a  riparian  proprietor 
who  uses  land  abutting  on  a  river  by  the  licence  or  grant  of  the 
riparian  proprietor  are  not  as  full  as  though  he  were  a  riparian 
proprietor,  for  he  cannot  be  imposed  as  a  riparian  proprietor  upon 
the  other  proprietors  without  their  consent.  The  effect  of  this 
appears  to  be  that  he  is  not  entitled  to  sensibly  affect  their  rights, 
even  by  the  ordinary  as  distinguished  from  the  extraordinary  use 
of  the  water. 

The  limitations  to  which  the  right  of  the  riparian  proprietor  is 
subject  may  be  divided  into  those  existing  by  common  right,  those 
imposed  for  public  purposes,  and  those  established  against  him  by 
crown  grant  or  by  custom  or  prescription.  Under  the  first  head 
comes  the  public  right  of  navigation,  of  anchorage  and  fishery  from 
boats  (in  tidal  waters),  and  of  taking  shell-fish  (and  probably  other 
fish  except  royal  fish)  on  the  shore  of  tidal  waters  as  far  as  any 
right  of  several  fishery  does  not  intervene.  Under  the  second  head 
would  fall  the  right  of  eminent  domain  by  which  the  state  takes 
riparian  rights  for  public  purposes,  compensating  the  proprietor, 
the  restrictions  upon  the  fishery  rights  of  the  proprietor,  as  by  Acts 
forbidding  the  taking  of  fish  in  close  time,  and  the  restrictions  on 
the  ground  of  public  health,  as  by  the  Rivers  Pollution  Act,  1876. 
The  jurisdiction  of  the  state  over  rivers  in  England  may  be  exer- 
cised by  officers  of  the  crown,  as  by  commissioners  of  sewers  or 
by  the  Board  of  Trade  under  the  Crown  Lands  Act,  1866.  A  bridge 
is  erected  and  supported  by  the  county  authorities,  and  the  riparian 
proprietor  must  bear  any  inconvenience  resulting  from  it.  An 
example  of  an  adverse  right  by  crown  grant  is  a  FERRY  (q.v.)  or 
a  port.  The  crown,  moreover,  as  the  guardian  of  the  realm,  has 
jurisdiction  to  restrain  the  removal  of  the  foreshore,  the  natural 
barrier  of  the  sea,  by  its  owner  in  case  of  apprehended  danger  to  the 
coast.  The  rights  established  against  a  riparian  proprietor  by 
private  persons  must  as  a  rule  be  based  on  prescription  or  custom, 
only  on  prescription  where  they  are  in  the  nature  of  profits  ft 
prcndre  (see  PRESCRIPTION).  Among  such  rights  are  the  right  to 
bathe,  to  land,  to  discharge  cargo,  to  tow,  to  dry  nets,  to  beach 
boats,  to  take  sand,  shingle,  or  water,  to  have  a  sea-wall  main- 
tained, to  pollute  the  water  (subject  to  the  Rivers  Pollution  Act). 
In  some  cases  the  validity  of  local  riparian  customs  has  been  re- 
cognized by  the  legislature.  The  right  to  enter  on  lands  adjoining 
tidal  waters  for  the  purpose  of  watching  for  and  landing  herrings, 
pilchards,  and  other  sea-fish  was  confirmed  to  the  fishermen  of 
Somerset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall  by  1  Jac.  I.  c.  23.  The  digging 
of  sand  on  the  shore  of  tidal  waters  for  use  as  manure  on  the  land 
was  granted  to  the  inhabitants  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  by  7  Jac.  I. 
c.  18.  The  public  right  of  taking  or  killing  rabbits  in  the  day- 
time on  any  sea  bank  or  river  bank  in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  so  far 
as  the  tide  extends,  or  within  one  furlong  of  such  bank,  was  pre- 
served by  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  96,  §  17.  It  should  be  noticed  that 
rights  of  the  public  may  be  subject  to  private  rights.  Where  the 
river  is  navigable,  although  the  right  of  navigation  is  common  to 
the  subjects  of  the  realm,  it  may  be  connected  with  a  right  to 
exclusive  access  to  riparian  land,  the  invasion  of  which  may  form 
the  ground  for  legal  proceedings  by  the  riparian  proprietor  (see 
Lyon  v.  The  Fishmongers'  Company,  Law  lleports — Appeal  Cases, 
vol.  i.,  662). 

A  freshwater  lake  appears  to  be  governed  by  the  same  law  as  a 
non-tidal  river.  The  preponderance  of  authority  is  in  favour  of  the 
right  of  the  riparian  proprietors  as  against  the  crown. 

Unlawful  and  malicious  injury  to  sea  and  river  banks,  towing 


paths,  sluices,  floodgates,  milldams,  &c.,  or  poisoning  fish  is  a  crime 
under  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  97. 

Scotland. — The  law  of  Scotland  is  in  general  accordance  with  that 
of  England.  One  of  the  principal  differences  is  that  in  Scotland, 
if  a  charter  state  that  the  sea  is  the  boundary  of  a  grant,  the  fore- 
shore is  included  in  the  grant,  subject  to  the  burden  of  crown 
rights  for  public  purposes.  Persons  engaged  in  the  herring  fishery 
off  the  coast  of  Scotland  have,  by  11  Geo.  III.  c.  31,  the  right  to 
use  the  shore  for  100  yards  from  high- water  mark  for  landing 
and  drying  nets,  erecting  huts,  and  curing  fish.  Similar  powers 
were  given  to  those  engaged  in  any  white  fisn  fishery  by  29  Geo.  II. 
c.  23  ;  but  the  section  of  the  Act  giving  these  powers  was  repealed 
by  the  Sea  Fisheries  Act,  1868. 

United  States. — In  the  United  States  the  common  law  of  England 
was  originally  adopted,  the  State  succeeding  to  the  right  of  the 
crown.  This  was  no  doubt  sufficient  in  the  thirteen  original 
States,  where  rivers  of  the  largest  size  do  not  occur,  but  was  not 
generally  followed  in  later  times  when  it  had  become  obvious  that 
English  law  was  insufficient  to  meet  the  case  of  the  vast  rivers  and 
lakes  of  North  America.  "  In  Pennsylvania,  North  Carolina,  Soutli 
Carolina,  Iowa,  Mississippi,  and  Alabama,  it  has  been  determined 
that  the  common  law  does  not  prevail,  and  that  the  ownership  of 
the  bed  or  soil  of  all  rivers  navigable  for  any  useful  purpose  of  trade 
or  agriculture,  whether  tidal  or  fresh  water,  is  in  the  State" 
(Bouvier,  Law  Diet.,  s.v.  "River").  The  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States  in  1857  declared  constitutional  an  Act  of  Congress  of 
1845,  extending  the  admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  to 
all  public  navigable  rivers  and  lakes  where  commerce  is  earned  on 
between  different  States  or  with  foreign  nations  (The  Propeller 
Genesee  Chief  v.  Fitzhugh,  12  Hoivard's  Reports,  443).  The  right 
of  eminent  domain  has  been  exercised  to  a  much  greater  extent  than 
in  England  in  the  acquisition  of  sites  for  mills  under  the  powers  of 
State  legislation  in  encouragement  of  trade.  Such  a  course  has 
never  been  necessary  in  England  (see  Angell,  Law  of  Watercourses, 
§  478).  The  law  as  to  subterranean  water  seems  to  be  still 
unsettled.  Some  State  decisions  have  recognized  a  public  right  to 
moor  vessels  and  place  cargo  on  the  shore.  ( J.  Wt. ) 

RIPH  (*!•*")  or  T^l),  i-e->  RABBENU  YISHAK  B.  YA'AKOB 
HAKKOHEN  x  AL-PHASI  or  AL-FEZI,  after  the  death  of  his 
teachers  the  greatest  rabbi  of  Africa,  and  subsequently  of 
the  Peninsula,  in  the  llth  and  12th  centuries,  was  born 
in  1013  at  Karat-Ibn-Hammad  near  Fez,  and  died  at 
Lucena  in  1103.  His  teachers  were  the  great  rabbins 
Eabbenu  Nissim  and  Rabbenu  Hananeel,  both  of  Kairawan 
(ob.  1055).  What  RASHI  (q.v.)  was  to  the  Ashkenazic 
Riph  was  for  the  Sepharadic  Jews,2  not  only  a  teacher  of 
the  deepest  learning,  but  also  one  who  made  new  paths 
altogether  for  the  students  of  the  Talmud.  Otherwise 
these  two  great  men  differed  widely  from  one  another  in 
their  activity.  Rashi  left  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  correc- 
tions of  the  text  excepted  (which  he,  however,  confined  to 
his  own  commentary,  and  by  which  his  own  disciples  and 
publishers  corrected  the  Talmud  text),  in  its  old  state. 
Al-phasi,  however,  first  separated  from  it  the  Agadah,  which 
he  cast  aside  almost  entirely,  and  then  he  sifted  the  Hala- 
khah3  thoroughly,  retaining  only  the  practical  part  of  it. 
Thus  either  title  his  book  has  received  is  correct,  the  Little 
Talmud  or  the  Decisions  of  Rob  Al-phez.  Late  in  the  12th 
century  and  in  the  13th  a  host  of  rabbins  respectively 
attacked  and  defended  Al-phasi  (see  RABAD  III.,  and 
RAMBAN),  whilst  others  commented  on  him  (see  below). 
One  of  the  commentaries  accompanying  the  Riph  is  by 
Rashi.  This  commentary,  however,  which  is  now  an 
integral  part  of  the  book,  was  not  written  for  it  by  Rashi 
himself,  who  could  scarcely  have  known  of  Riph's  exist- 
ence, and  much  less  of  his  work.  The  fact  is  the  enter- 
prising publisher  of  the  second  edition  (Venice,  1521-22, 
fol.),  the  famous  Daniel  Bombergi,  had  one  of  the  three 
recensions  which  Rashi  had  made  on  the  Talmud  excerpted 
and  applied  to  corresponding  parts  of  the  Riph  which  has 
the  very  wording  of  the  Talmud,  or  something  near  it. 
Where  no  Rashi  was  to  be  found  in  the  passages  of  the 

1  That  Riph  was  a  Kohen,  or  Aaronite,  will  be  seen  from   the 
epitaph    given   in   Haggahoth   Hariph   in  the   collection    Tummath 
Yesharim  (Venice,  1622,  fol.). 

2  On  these  names  see  MAHZOR,  vol.  xv.  p.  293. 

3  On  these  terms  see  MIDRASH,  vol.  xvi.  p.  285,  and  MISHNAH,  p. 
503. 


R I P_R I 


567 


Talmud  (see  RASHI)  RASHBAM  (q.v.)  was  utilized.  Riph 
was  not  only  a  great  Talmudist,  but  also  a  man  of  the 
greatest  magnanimity  and  highest  morality,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  two  facts.  When  R.  Yishak  Ibn 
Albalia,  who  had  been  his  bitterest  enemy,  lay  at  the 
point  of  death,  he  recommended  his  son  to  Riph,  who 
received  him  with  the  greatest  kindness,  and  at  once 
adopted  him  as  son.1  Again,  when  Riph  himself  was  at 
the  point  of  death  he  recommended  to  the  congregation 
of  Lucena  for  successor,  not  his  own  learned  and  virtuous 
son  Ya'akob,  but  the  yet  more  learned,  though  not  more 
virtuous,  R.  Yoseph  Ibn  Migash,2  who  became  the  teacher 
of  the  teachers  of  MAIMOKIDES  (q.v.). 

Although  Riph's  works  which  are  known  are  only  two,  the 
editions  of  one  of  these  and  the  commentaries  thereon  are  very 
numerous  ;  we  can  only  mention  a  few  of  them. 

I.  Hilekhoth  Rob  Al-phez.     (1)  With  the  Novellas,  of  Rabbenu 
Nissimb.  Reuben,  the  Decisions  of  R.  Mordekhaib.  Hillel  (seeRosn), 
the  Novellas  of  one  of  the  disciples  of  Rabbenu  Yonah,  the  com- 
mentaries of  R.  Yehonathan  Hakkohen  of  Lunel  and  R.  Yoseph 
Habibo  (Constantinople,   1509,  fol.).     (2)  The  second  edition  we 
liave  already  mentioned.     (3)  With  the  Strictures  by  R.  Zerahyah 
Hallevi  (author  of  the  Maor)  and  ISTachmanides's  defence  called 
Milhamoth  Adonai  (see  RAMBAN),  &c.  (Venice,  1552,  fol.).     Each 
subsequent  edition  contains  additional  matter. 

II.  Responsa,   originally  some,  if  not  all   of  them,  written  in 
Arabic  (Leghorn,  1781,  and  reprint,  Vienna  1794,  both  in  4to). 

For  more  literature  by  andon  Riph  see  Temim  Se'im  in  the  collection  Turn- 
math  Yesharim.  (S.  M.  S.-S.) 

RIPLEY,  a  well-built  market  town  of  Derbyshire,  situ- 
ated near  the  river  Derwent  and  the  Cromford  Canal,  and 
on  a  branch  line  of  the  Midland  Railway  10  miles  north 
of  Derby  and  10  south  of  Chesterfield.  The  principal 
public  building  is  the  market-hall  erected  in  1880.  In" 
the  neighbourhood  there  are  extensive  collieries,  and  coke 
is  largely  manufactured.  Besides  the  large  concern  of  the 
Butterley  Iron  Company,  which  includes  foundries,  blast 
furnaces,  and  boiler  works,  the  town  possesses  silk  and 
cotton  mills.  The  charter  for  the  market  was  granted 
by  Henry  III.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  1211  acres)  in  1871  was  5639,  and  in  1881 
it  was  6087. 

RIPLEY,  GEORGE  (1802-1880),  critic  and  man  of 
letters,  was  born  at  Greenfield,  in  western  Massachusetts, 
on  October  3,  1802.  He  was  educated  at  local  schools  and 
at  Harvard  College,  where  he  took  his  degree  in  1823, 
ranking  first  in  his  class,  and  then  studying  theology  was 
in  1826  ordained  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  in  Boston. 
Here  his  success  as  a  thoughtful  preacher  was  marked ; 
but  in  1840  he  resigned  his  charge,  and  he  subsequently 
retired  from  the  active  ministry  altogether. 

It  was  during  those  years  that  there  grew  up  in  New 
England  that  form  of  thought  or  philosophy  known  as 
Transcendentalism — a  name,  as  Emerson  said,  "  given  no- 
body knows  by  whom,  or  when  it  was  applied."  Its 
growth  was  part  of  what  Dr  Holmes  has  termed  the  "  in- 
tellectual or,  if  we  may  call  it  so,  spiritual  revival "  which 
during  the  period  from  1820  to  1840  was  so  strongly 
marked  in  the  New  England  "churches,  in  politics,  in 
philanthropy,  in  literature."  Ripley  was  prominent,  if 
not  the  leader,  in  all  practical  manifestations  of  the 
movement;  and  it  was  by  his  earnestness  and  practical 
energy  that  certain  of  its  more  tangible  results  were 
directed.  The  first  meeting  of  the  Transcendental  Club 
was  held  at  his  house  in  September  1836.  He  was 
a  founder  and  a  chief  supporter  of  the  famous  magazine 
The  Dial,  which  was  the  organ  of  the  school  from  1840 
to  1844.  Most  important  of  all,  however,  he  was  the 
originator  and  conductor  of  an  experiment  which  was  the 
most  interesting  practical  result  of  the  thought  and  ten- 


1  See  Sepher  Hakkabbalah  of  RABAD  II.  (q.v.}. 

2  See  Hemdah  Genuzah  (Konigsberg,  1856,  8vo),  leaf  30a. 


dencies  of  the  time, — the  foundation  of  "  The  Brook  Farm 
Association  for  Education  and  Agriculture."  This  project, 
in  the  words  of  its  originator,  was  intended  "  to  insure  a 
more  natural  union  between  intellectual  and  manual  labour 
than  now  exists ;  to  combine  the  thinker  and  the  worker, 
as  far  as  possible,  in  the  same  individual ;  to  guarantee 
the  highest  mental  freedom  by  providing  all  with  labour 
adapted  to  their  tastes  and  talents,  an<i  securing  to  them 
the  fruits  of  their  industry ;  to  do  away  with  the  necessity 
of  menial  services  by  opening  the  benefits  of  education  and 
the  profits  of  labour  to  all;  and  thus  to  prepare  a  society  of 
liberal,  intelligent,  and  cultivated  persons  whose  relations 
with  each  other  would  permit  a  more  simple  and  wholesome 
life  than  can  be  led  amidst  the  pressure  of  our  competitive 
institutions."  In  short,  its  aim  was  to  bring  about  the 
best  conditions  for  an  ideal  civilization,  reducing  to  a 
minimum  the  labour  necessary  for  mere  existence,  and  by 
this  and  by  the  simplicity  of  its  social  machinery  saving 
the  maximum  of  time  for  mental  and  spiritual  education 
and  development.  At  a  time  when  Emerson  could  write 
to  Carlyle,  "  We  are  all  a  little  wild  here  with  numberless 
projects  of  social  reform;  not  a  reading  man  but  has  a 
draft  of  a  new  community  in  his  waistcoat  pocket," — the 
Brook  Farm  project  certainly  did  not  appear  as  impossible 
a  scheme  as  many  others  that  were  in  the  air.  At  all 
events  it  enlisted  the  co-operation  of  men  whose  subse- 
quent careers  show  them  to  have  been  something  more  than 
visionaries.  The  association  bought  a  tract  of  land  in 
West  Roxbury,  some  ten  miles  from  Boston,  and  with  about 
twenty  members  actually  began  its  enterprise  in  the 
summer  of  1841. 

For  three  years  the  undertaking  went  on  quietly  and 
simply,  subject  to  few  outward  troubles  other  than  financial 
difficulties,  the  number  of  associates  increasing  to  seventy 
or  eighty.  Pictures  of  the  life  they  led  have  been  preserved 
by  many  hands.  It  was  during  this  period  that  Haw- 
thorne had  his  short  experience  of  Brook  Farm,  of  which 
so  many  suggestions  appear  in  the  JBlithedale  Romance, 
though  his  preface  to  later  editions  effectually  disposed  of 
the  idea — which  gave  him  great  pain — that  he  had  either 
drawn  his  characters  from  persons  there,  or  had  meant 
to  give  any  actual  description  of  the  colony.  Emerson, 
though  he  refused  in  a  kind  and  characteristic  letter  to 
join  in  the  undertaking,  and  though  he  afterwards  wrote 
of  Brook  Farm  with  not  uncharitable  humour  as- "a  per- 
petual picnic,  a  French  Revolution  in  small,  an  age  of 
reason  in  a  patty-pan,"  yet  spoke  of  the  design  as  "  noble 
and  generous,"  and  among  its  founders  were  many  of  his 
near  friends. 

In  1844  the  growing  need  of  a  more  scientific  organiza- 
tion, and  the  influence  which  Fourier's  doctrines  had 
gained  in  the  minds  of  Ripley  and  many  of  his  associates, 
combined  to  change  the  whole  plan  of  the  community. 
It  was  transformed,  with  the  strong  approval  of  all  its  chief 
members  and  the  consent  of  the  rest,  into  a  Fourierist 
"phalanx"  in  1845.  There  was  an  accession  of  new 
members,  a  momentary  increase  of  prosperity,  a  brilliant 
new  undertaking  in  the  publication  of  a  journal,  The  Har- 
binger, in  which  Ripley,  Charles  A.  Dana,  Francis  G. 
Shaw,  and  John  D wight  were  the  chief  writers,  and  to 
which  Lowell,  Whittier,  George  William  Curtis,  Parke 
Godwin,  Story,  Channing,  Higginson,  Horace  Greeley,  and 
many  more  now  and  then  contributed.  But  the  individu- 
ality of  the  old  Brook  Farm  was  gone.  The  association 
was  not  rescued  even  from  financial  troubles  by  the 
change.  With  increasing  difficulty  it  kept  on  till  the 
spring  of  1846,  when  a  fire  which  destroyed  its  building 
or  "  phalanstery  "  brought  losses  which  caused,  or  certainly 
gave  the  final  ostensible  reason  for,  its  dissolution.  Its 
failure  left  Ripley  poor  and  feeling  keenly  the  defeat  of 


508 


R I P— R I S 


his  project ;  but  the  event  forced  him  at  last  to  devote 
himself  to  that  career  of  literary  labour  in  which  the  real 
success  of  his  life  was  achieved.  He  wrote  for  The  Har- 
binger during  the  year  of  its  continuance,  but  in  1849  he 
joined  the  staff  of  The  Tribune,  founded  eight  years  before 
by  Horace  Greeley  in  New  York,  and  in  a  short  time 
became  its  literary  editor.  This  position,  which,  through 
his  steadiness,  scholarly  conservatism,  and  freedom  from 
caprice  as  a  critic,  soon  became  one  of  great  influence,  he 
held  until  his  death  on  July  4,  1880. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  time  of  his  connexion  with  The 
Tribune,  Ripley  was  also  the  adviser  of  a  leading  publishing  house, 
an  occasional  contributor  to  the  magazines,  and  a  co-operator  in 
several  literary  undertakings.  The  chief  of  these,  and  the  most 
lasting  work  that  bears  his  name,  was  the  American  Cyclopaedia. 
Begun  under  the  editorship  of  Ripley  and  Charles  A.  Dana  in  1857, 
the  first  edition  was  finished  in  1862,  under  the  title  of  the  New 
American  Cyclopaedia — distinguishing  it  from  its  only  import- 
ant American  predecessor  in  the  field,  the  small  Encyclopaedia 
Americana  of  many  years  before,  which  Dr  Francis  Lieber  had 
edited,  and  which  had  been  largely  an  adaptation  of  Brockhaus's 
Conversations- Lexikon.  The  new  undertaking  was  upon  a  much 
larger  scale,  and  enlisted  a  great  number  of  well-known  contribu- 
tors. It  proved  exceedingly  popular  ;  and  its  commercial  success 
led  the  publishers  to  undertake  a  complete  revision  of  it  ten  years 
later — still  under  the  same  editors — tne  result  of  which,  with  the 
dropping  of  the  word  "  new "  from  the  title,  was  the  American 
Cyclopaedia  now  before  the  public. 

Ripley's  Life,  written  by  the  Rev.  0.  B.  Frothingham,  forms  one  of  the  volumes 
of  the  series  American  Men  of  Letters.  (E.  L.  B.) 

RIPON,  a  cathedral  city  and  borough  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Ure  with  the  Laver  and  the  Skell,  and  on  the  Great 
Northern  Railway,  22  miles  north-west  of  York  and  11 
north  of  Harrogate.  The  Ure  is  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge 
of  9  arches.  The  streets  are  for  the  most  part  narrow  and 
irregular,  and,  although  most  of  the  houses  are  compara- 
tively modern,  some  of  them  still  retain  the  picturesque 
gables  characteristic  of  earlier  times.  In  the  spacious 
market-place  there  is  a  modern  cross,  erected  in  1781.  The 
cathedral,  although  not  ranking  among  those  of  the  first 
class,  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  proportions,  and  is  of  great 
interest  from  the  various  styles  of  architecture  which  it 
includes.  Its  entire  length  from  east  to  west  is  266  feet, 
the  length  of  the  transepts  130  feet,  and  the  width  of  the 
nave  and  aisles  87  feet.  Besides  a  large  square  central 
tower,  there  are  two  western  towers.  The  cathedral  was 
founded  on  the  ruins  of  St  Wilfrid's  abbey  about  680  A.D. 
in  the  reign  of  Egfrid,  but  of  this  Saxon  building  nothing 
now  remains  except  the  crypt,  called  St  Wilfrid's  Needle. 
The  present  building  was  begun  by  Archbishop  Roger 
(1154-81),  and  to  this  Transition  period  belong  the  tran- 
septs and  portions  of  the  choir.  The  western  front  and 
towers,  fine  specimens  of  Early  English,  were  probably  the 
work  of  Archbishop  Gray  (1215-55),  and  about  the  close 
of  the  century  the  eastern  portion  of  the  choir  was  rebuilt 
in  the  Decorated  style.  The  nave  and  portions  of  the 
central  tower  were  rebuilt  towards  the  close  of  the  15th 
century  in  the  Perpendicular  style.  The  whole  building 
underwent  renovation  under  the  direction  of  Sir  G.  G. 
Scott  from  1862  to  1876  at  a  cost  of  £40,000.  There 
are  a  number  of  monuments  of  historical  and  antiquarian 
interest.  The  bishop's  palace,  a  modern  building  in  the 
Tudor  style,  is  situated  in  extensive  grounds  about  a  mile 
from  the  town.  The  principal  secular  buildings  are  the 
town-hall,  the  public  rooms,  and  the  mechanics'  institution. 
There  are  several  old  charities,  including  the  hospital  of  St 
John  the  Baptist  founded  by  the  archbishop  of  York  in 
1 109,  the  hospital  of  St  Mary  Magdalene  for  women  founded 
by  the  archbishop  of  York  in  1341,  and  the  hospital  of 
St  Anne  founded  about  the  time  of  Edward  IV.  by  an 
unknown  benefactor.  From  an  early  period  till  the  16th 
century  Ripon  was  celebrated  for  its  manufactures  of 
woollen  cloth.  After  this  industry  declined  the  town 


became  so  well  known  for  its  spurs  that  "  as  true  steel  as 
Ripon  rowels "  became  a  current  phrase ;  and  both  Ben 
Jonson  and  Davenant  refer  to  Ripon  spurs  in  their  verses. 
This  manufacture,  with  those  of  buttons  and  various  kinds 
of  hardware,  continued  to  prosper  till  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  when  the  rise  of  the  mechanical  industries 
in  the  large  towns  caused  it  to  decline.  The  population 
of  the  borough  (area  1580  acres)  in  1871  was  6806,  and 
in  1881  it  was  7390. 

The  city  is  first  mentioned  under  the  name  of  Inhrypum  in  con- 
nexion with  the  establishment  of  a  monastery  in  660  by  Abbot  Eata 
of  Melrose.  A  few  years  after  it  was  bestowed  on  St  Wilfrid,  who 
was  elevated  to  the  see  of  Northurnbria.  After  the  division  of  the 
bishopric  in  678,  a  see  was  erected  at  Ripon.  The  city  suffered 
severely  in  connexion  with  the  incursions  of  the  Danes  and  the 
invasion  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  was  burnt  by  Robert  Bnice 
in  1319  and  1323.  During  the  Civil  War  it  was  for  a  time  occu- 
pied by  the  Parliamentary  forces,  but  it  was  retaken  by  the  Royalists 
in  1643.  It  was  first  represented  in  parliament  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.  It  lost  one  of  its  two  members  in  1868,  and  ceased  to 
be  separately  represented  in  1885.  Surrounding  the  town  is  an 
extensive  district  called  the  liberty  of  Ripon,  over  which  the  arch- 
bishop of  York  at  one  time  exercised  special  jurisdiction,  not  yet 
altogether  annulled. 

RIPPERDA,  JOHN  WILLIAM,  BARON  (1680-1737),  a 
political  adventurer,  was  born  of  noble  parents  in  the 
province  of  Groningen  in  the  Netherlands,  in  1680,  and 
was  educated  in  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at  Cologne. 
Shortly  after  leaving  the  college  he  married  a  Protestant, 
and  assumed  the  Protestant  creed.  In  1715  he  was  sent 
by  the  states  on  an  embassy  to  Spain.  Having  gained 
the  favour  of  Philip  V.,  he  resigned  the  office  of  Dutch 
ambassador,  became  a  penitent  convert  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  and  took  up  his  permanent  residence  in  Madrid. 
He  made  use  of  every  influence  to  advance  himself  to 
the  first  position  at  court,  and  if  possible  to  supplant 
Alberoni,  who,  provoked  by  his  intrigues,  deprived  him  of 
his  pension  and  estate.  After  the  fall  of  Alberoni  he  suc- 
ceeded in  ingratiating  himself  with  the  queen,  Elizabeth  of 
Parma.  Returning  from  an  embassy  to  Vienna  in  1725, 
he  pretended  to  the  queen  that  he  had  effected  her 
favourite  scheme  of  betrothing  her  son  Don  Carlos  to  the 
eldest  archduchess.  His  immediate  elevation  to  a  duke- 
dom and  to  the  office  of  prime  minister  compelled  him  to 
persist  in  this  imposture.  Lie  was  backed  up  by  lie ; 
the  nation  was  impoverished  to  furnish  him  with  hush- 
money  ;  and  he  continued  to  try  every  bungling  shift  until, 
in  May  1726,  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices,  and  sent  a 
prisoner  to  Segovia.  Making  his  escape  after  two  years' 
imprisonment,  he  went  to  England.  His  hopes  of  in- 
fluence there  having  been  overthrown  by  the  treaty  of 
Seville  in  1729,  he  finally  collected  his  property  and  set 
sail  for  Holland,  arriving  at  The  Hague  in  November  1731. 
Thence  he  sailed  to  Morocco,  where  he  was  welcomed  by 
the  emperor  Muley  Abdallah,  and,  becoming  a  Moham- 
medan, was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  administration  of 
the  country.  But  his  royal  patron  was  soon  driven  from 
the  throne,  and  he  himself  was  glad  to  escape  with  his  head 
to  Tetuan,  where  he  could  find  no  better  employment  for 
his  restless  spirit  than  that  of  asserting  himself  to  be  the 
last  and  greatest  of  the  prophets.  He  died  at  Tetuan 
towards  the  end  of  1737. 

SeeMafier,  HistoriadelDuquede  Riperdd  (2ded.,  Madrid,  1796); 
Memoirs  of  the  Duke  de  Ripperda  (2d  ed.,  London,  1740) ;  Moore, 
Lives  of  Cardinal  Alberoni,  the  Duke  of  Ripperda,  and  Marquis  of 
Pombal  (2d  ed.,  London,  1814). 

RIPUARIAN  LAW.     See  SALIC  LAW. 

RIST,  JOHANN  (1607-1667),  German  hymn-writer,  was 
born  at  Ottensen  in  Holstein  on  March  8,  1607,  and  edu- 
cated at  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  Leipsic. 
In  1635  he  became  a  preacher  at  Wedel  on  the  Elbe,  and 
there  he  died  on  31st  August  1667  (see  HYMNS,  vol.  xii. 
pp.  586-7). 


RITSCHL 


569 


RITSCHL,  FEIEDRICH  WILHELM  (1806-1876),  an 
eminent  German  scholar,  was  born  in  1806  in  Thuringia. 
His  family,  in  which  culture  and  poverty  were  hereditary, 
were  Protestants  who  had  immigrated  several  generations 
earlier  from  Bohemia.  Eitschl  was  fortunate  in  his  school 
training,  at  a  time  when  the  great  reform  in  the  higher 
schools  of  Prussia  had  not  yet  been  thoroughly  carried 
out.  His  chief  teacher,  Spitzner,  a  pupil  of  Gottfried 
Hermann,  divined  the  boy's  genius  and  allowed  it  free 
growth,  applying  only  so  much  either  of  stimulus  or  of 
restraint  as  was  absolutely  needful.  After  a  wasted  year 
at  the  university  of  Leipsic,  where  Hermann  stood  at  the 
zenith  of  his  fame,  Ritschl  passed  in  1826  to  Halle.  Here 
he  came  under  the  powerful  influence  of  Eeisig,  a  young 
"  Hermannianer "  with  exceptional  talent,  a  fascinating 
personality,  and  a  rare  gift  for  instilling  into  his  pupils 
his  own  ardour  for  classical  study.  The  great  controversy 
between  the  "Kealists"  and  the  "Verbalists"  was  then 
at  its  height,  and  Kitschl  naturally  sided  with  Hermann 
against  Boeckh.  The  early  death  of  Reisig  in  1828  did 
not  sever  Ritschl  from  Halle,  where  he  brilliantly  attained 
the  doctorate,  and  in  1829  became  privat-docent,  in  1832 
an  extraordinary  professor.  He  began  his  professorial 
career  with  a  great  reputation  and  brilliant  success,  but 
soon  hearers  fell  away,  and  the  pinch  of  poverty  compelled 
his  removal  to  Breslau,  where  he  reached  the  rank  of 
"  ordinary  "  professor  in  1834,  and  held  other  offices.  The 
great  event  of  Ritschl's  life  was  a  sojourn  of  nearly  a  year 
in  Italy  (1836-37),  spent  in  libraries  and  museums,  and 
more  particularly  in  the  laborious  examination  of  the 
Ambrosian  palimpsest  of  Plautus  at  Milan.  From  this 
journey  Ritschl's  whole  temperament  and  intellect  received 
a  new  and  richer  colouring,  and  the  remainder  of  his  life 
was  largely  occupied  in  working  out  the  material  then 
gathered  and  the  ideas  then  conceived.  Bonn,  whither  he 
removed  on  his  marriage  in  1839,  and  where  he  remained 
for  twenty-six  years,  was  the  great  scene  of  his  activity 
both  as  scholar  and  as  teacher.  The  philological  seminary 
which  he  controlled,  although  nominally  only  joint  director 
with  Welcker,  became  a  veritable  qfficina  litterarum,  a 
kind  of  Isocratean  school  of  classical  study ;  in  it  were 
trained  many  of  the  foremost  scholars  of  the  last  forty 
years.  The  names  of  Georg  Curtius,  Ihne,  Schleicher, 
Bernays,  Ribbeck,  Lorenz,  Vahlen,  Hiibner,  Biicheler,  Hel- 
big,  Benndorf,  Riese,  Windisch,  Brugmann,  who  were  his 
pupils  either  at  Bonn  or  at  Leipsic,  attest  his  fame  and 
power  as  a  teacher.  In  1854  Otto  Jahn  took  the  place 
of  the  venerable  Welcker  at  Bonn,  and  after  a  time  suc- 
ceeded in  dividing  with  Ritschl  the  empire  over  the  philo- 
logical school  there.  The  two  had  been  friends,  but  after 
gradual  estrangement  a  violent  dispute  arose  between 
them  in  1865,  which  for  many  months  divided  into  two 
hostile  forces  the  universities  and  the  press  of  Germany. 
Both  sides  were  steeped  in  fault,  but  Ritschl  undoubtedly 
received  harsh  treatment  from  the  Prussian  Government, 
and  pressed  his  resignation.  He  renounced  not  only 
Bonn  but  Prussia,  though  strongly  attached  to  his 
country,  which  he  had  often  refused  to  leave  when  plied 
with  advantageous  offers.  He  accepted  a  call  to  Leipsic, 
where  he  died  in  harness  in  1876. 

Ritschl's  character  was  strongly  marked.  The  spirited  element 
in  him  was  powerful,  and  to  some  at  times  he  seemed  overbearing, 
but  his  nature  was  noble  at  the  core  ;  and,  though  intolerant  of 
inefficiency  and  stupidity,  he  never  asserted  his  personal  claims  in 
any  mean  or  petty  way.  He  was  warmly  attached  to  family  and 
friends,  and  yearned  continually  after  sympathy,  yet  he  established 
real  intimacy  with  only  a  few.  Both  at  Breslau  and  at  Bonn  he 
complained  of  isolation,  which  (though  he  was  himself  unconscious 
of  the  fact)  was  in  part  the  natural  fruit  of  his  own  superiority. 
The  interests  of  his  pupils  were  at  all  times  dear,  perhaps  even  too 
dear,  in  his  eyes.  He  was  far  from  being  a  dreamy  scholar ;  his 
talent  for  practical  affairs  would  have  secured  him  eminence  in 


almost  any  walk  of  life,  and  he  waa  credited  with  diplomatic 
finesse.  That  Ritschl  had  a  great  faculty  for  organization  is  shown 
by  his  administration  of  the  university  library  at  Bonn,  and  by  the 
eight  years  of  labour  which  carried  to  success  a  work  of  infinite 
complexity,  the  famous  Priscse  Latinitatis  Monumenta  JEpigraphica 
(Bonn,  1862).  This  volume  presents  in  admirable  facsimile,  with 
prefatory  notices  and  indexes,  the  Latin  inscriptions  from  the 
earliest  times  to  the  end  of  the  republic.  It  forms  an  intro- 
ductory volume  to  the  Berlin  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Latinarum, 
the  excellence  of  which  is  largely  due  to  the  precept  and  example 
of  Ritschl,  though  he  had  no  hand  in  the  later  volumes. 

In  all  that  he  did  Ritschl  exhibited  rare  genius  combined  with 
a  precision  unsurpassed.  But  to  bring  out  to  the  full  his  great 
powers  the  zest  of  discovery  was  indispensable.  When  he  was  on 
the  track  of  a  new  idea,  he  worked  with  a  fiery  energy  which 
triumphed  over  his  almost  life-long  physical  weakness,  and  left  him 
no  peace  till  every  difficult}'  was  cleared  away.  But  the  toil  of 
carrying  his  discoveries  to  their  consequences  he  was  only  too  apt 
to  leave  to  feebler  hands  than  his  own.  He  was  fertile  in  great 
projects,  and  struck  out  the  main  ideas  which  should  guide  them, 
but  one  only  did  he  pursue  to  absolute  completion,  the  Priscaz 
Latinitatis  Monumenta, — precisely  because,  from  the  nature  of  this 
work,  he  was  buoyed  up  from  first  to  last  by  the  occurrence  or  the 
expectation  of  novelty.  The  results  of  Ritschl's  life  are  mainly 
gathered  up  in  a  long  series  of  monographs,  for  the  most  part 
of  the  highest  finish,  and  rich  in  ideas  which  have  leavened  the 
scholarship  of  the  time. 

As  a  scholar,  Ritschl  was  of  the  lineage  of  Bentley,  to  whom  he 
looked  up,  like  Hermann,  with  fervent  admiration.  His  best  efforts 
were  spent  in  studying  the  languages  and  literatures  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  rather  than  the  life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  He  was 
sometimes,  but  most  unjustly,  charged  with  taking  a  narrow  view 
of  ' '  Philologie. "  That  he  keenly  appreciated  the  importance  of 
ancient  institutions  and  ancient  art  both  his  published  papers 
and  the  records  of  his  lectures  amply  testify.  He  had  in  reality 
no  prejudice  against  any  department  of  learning.  He  was  ever 
anxious  to  discern  precisely  the  work  for  which  each  pupil  was 
fitted,  and  he  despatched  many  explorers  into  fields  where  he 
could  not  labour  himself.  Ritschl  for  the  most  part  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  ancient  poetry,  and  in  particular  of  the 
early  Latin  drama.  This  formed  the  centre  from  which  his 
investigations  radiated.  Starting  from  this  he  ranged  over  the 
whole  remains  of  pre-Ciceronian  Latin,  and  not  only  analysed  but 
augmented  the  sources  from  which  our  knowledge  of  it  must 
come.  Before  Ritschl  the  acquaintance  of  scholars  with  early  Latin 
was  so  dim  and  restricted  that  it  would  perhaps  be  hardly  an 
exaggeration  to  call  him  its  real  discoverer. 

To  the  world  in  general  Eitschl  was  best  known  as  a  student  of 
Plautus.  When  he  began  his  studies,  the  text  of  that  author  was 
like  some  ancient  picture,  defaced  alike  by  time  and  by  much 
repainting.  He  cleared  away  the  accretions  of  ages,  and  by  efforts 
of  that  real  genius  which  goes  hand  in  hand  with  labour,  brought 
to  light  many  of  the  true  features  of  the  original.  It  is  infinitely 
to  be  regretted  that  Ritschl's  results  were  never  combined  to  form 
that  monumental  edition  of  Plautus  of  which  he  dreamed  in  his 
earlier  life.  For  one  such  palace  from  the  master  builder's  hand 
we  could  well  have  sacrificed  some  of  the  abundant  material  which 
he  left  for  punier  architects  to  handle.  Ritschl's  examination  of 
the  Plautine  MSS.  was  both  laborious  and  brilliant,  and  greatly 
extended  the  knowledge  of  Plautus  and  of  the  ancient  Latin  drama. 
Of  this  two  striking  examples  may  be  cited.  By  the  aid  of  the 
Ambrosian  palimpsest  he  recovered  the  name  T.  llaccius  Plautus, 
for  the  vulgate  M.  Accius,  and  proved  it  correct  by  strong  extraneous 
arguments.  On  the  margin  of  the  Palatine  MSS.  the  marks  C  and 
DV  continually  recur,  and  had  been  variously  explained.  Ritschl 
proved  that  they  meant  "  Canticum"  and  "  Diverbium,"  and  hence 
showed  that  in  the  Roman  comedy  only  the  conversations  in  iambic 
senarii  were  not  intended  for  the  singing  voice.  Thus  was  brought 
into  strong  relief  a  fact  without  which  there  can  be  no  true  appre- 
ciation of  Plautus,  viz.,  that  his  plays  were  comic  operas  rather 
than  comic  dramas. 

In  conjectural  criticism  RitSchl  was  inferior  not  only  to  his  great 
predecessors  but  to  some  of  his  contemporaries.  His  emendations 
do  not  often  present  that  perfect  wedding  of  art  and  fortune  which 
we  see  in  the  best  work  of  Madvig  or  Cobet.  His  imagination  was 
in  this  field  (but  in  this  field  only)  hampered  by  erudition,  and  his 
judgment  was  unconsciously  warped  by  the  desire  to  find  in  his 
text  illustrations  of  his  discoveries.  His  remedies  were  often  need- 
lessly violent.  But  still  a  fair  proportion  of  his  textual  labours 
has  stood  the  test  of  time,  and  he  forged  the  weapons  which  are 
destined  to  conquer  for  us  the  true  text  of  Plautus,  so  far  as  an 
envious  fate  permits.  Ritschl  rendered  immense  service  by  his 
study  of  Plautine  metres,  a  field  in  which  little  advance  had  been 
made  since  the  time  of  Bentley.  In  this  matter  Ritschl  was 
aided  by  an  accomplishment  rare  (as  he  himself  lamented)  in 
Germany — the  art  of  writing  Latin  verse. 

In  spite  of  the  incompleteness,  on  many  sides,  of  his  work, 

XX.  —  72 


570 


R I T  — R I T 


Ritschl  must  be  assigned  a  place  in  the  history  of  learning  among 
a  yery  select  few.  His  studies  are  presented  principally  in  his 
Opuscufa  collected  partly  before  and  partly  since  his  death.  The 
Trinummus  (twice  edited)  was  the  only  specimen  of  his  contem- 
plated edition  of  Plautus  which  he  completed.  The  edition  has 
been  continued  by  some  of  his  pupils — Goetz,  Loewe,  and  others — 
and  is  still  (1885)  in  progress. 

The  facts  of  Ritschl's  life  may  be  best  learned  from  the  elaborate  biography  by 
Otto  Rlbbeck  (Leipsic,  1879).  An  interesting  and  discriminating  estimate  of 
Kitschl's  work  is  that  by  Lucian  Mueller  (Berlin,  1877).  (J.  S.  R.) 

RITSON,  JOSEPH  (1752-1 803),  was  the  most  militant  and 
ill-tempered,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  learned 
and  accurate,  of  the  antiquaries  of  the  18th  century.  Born 
at  Stockton-on-Tees,  of  a  Westmoreland  yeoman  family, 
in  1752,  he  was  bred  to  the  law,  and  settled  in  London 
as  a  conveyancer  at  the  age  of  twenty-two.  Already  he 
had  shown  eccentricity  of  temper,  had  become  a  fierce 
apostle  of  vegetarianism,  and  a  zealous  student  of  anti- 
quities. His  first  notable  publication  was  in  1782,  an  attack 
on  Warton's  History  of  English  Poetry.  The  fierce  and 
insulting  tone  of  his  Observations,  in  which  Warton  was 
treated  as  a  showy  pretender,  and  charged  with  cheating 
and  lying  to  cover  his  ignorance,  made  a  great  sensation 
in  literary  circles.  In  nearly  all  the  small  points  with 
which  he  dealt  Ritson  was  in  the  right,  and  his  corrections 
have  since  been  adopted,  but  the  unjustly  bitter  language 
of  his  criticisms  roused  great  anger  at  the  time,  much,  it 
would  appear,  to  Ritson's  delight.  In  the  following  year 
Johnson  and  Steevens  were  assailed  in  the  same  uncere- 
monious fashion  for  their  text  of  Shakespeare.  Bishop 
Percy  was  next  subjected  to  a  furious  onslaught  in  the 
preface  to  a  collection  of  Ancient  Songs  (printed  1787, 
dated  1790,  published  1792).  The  only  thing  that  can 
be  said  in  extenuation  of  Ritson's  unmatchable  acrimony 
is  that  he  spared  no  pains  himself  to  ensure  accuracy  in 
the  texts  of  old  songs,  ballads,  and  metrical  romances  that 
he  edited.  His  collection  of  the  Robin  Hood  ballads  is 
perhaps  his  greatest  single  achievement.  Scott,  who 
admired  his  industry  and  accuracy  in  spite  of  his  temper, 
was  almost  the  only  man  who  could  get  on  with  him.  On 
one  occasion,  when  he  called  in  Scott's  absence,  he  spoke 
so  rudely  to  Mrs  Scott  that  Leyden,  who  was  present, 
threatened  to  "  thraw  his  neck  "  and  throw  him  out  of  the 
window.  Spelling  was  one  of  his  eccentricities,  his  own 
name  being  an  example :  Ritson  is  short  pronunciation 
for  Richardson.  He  died  in  1803. 

RITTENHOUSE,  DAVID  (1732-1796),  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  on  April  8,  1732. 
First  a  watchmaker,  he  afterwards  became  treasurer  of 
Pennsylvania  and  (from  1792)  master  of  the  United  States 
mint ;  he  was  largely  occupied  in  settling  the  boundaries 
of  several  of  the  States.  As  an  astronomer,  Rittenhouse's 
principal  merit  is  that  he  introduced  the  use  of  spider  lines 
in  the  focus  of  a  transit  instrument.  His  priority  with 
regard  to  this  useful  invention  was  acknowledged  by 
Troughton,  who  brought  spider  lines  into  universal  use  in 
astronomical  instruments  (see  Von  Zach's  Monatliche  Cor- 
respondenz,  vol.  ii.  p.  215),  but  Felice  Fontana  (1730- 
1805)  had  already  anticipated  the  invention,  though  no 
doubt  this  fact  was  unknown  to  Rittenhouse.  He  died  on 
26th  June  1796. 

RITTER,  CARL  (1779-1859),  the  greatest  geographer 
of  modern  times,  was  born  at  Quedlinburg  on  August  7th, 
1779,  and  died  in  Berlin,  September  29th,  1859.  His 
father,  a  physician  of  some  local  eminence,  having  died, 
leaving  his  family  in  somewhat  straitened  circumstances, 
Carl,  along  with  an  elder  brother  and  a  young  man, 
Johann  Gutsmuths,  who  had  been  his  private  tutor,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Schnepfenthal  institution  then  just  founded 
by  Salzmann  for  the  purpose  of  putting  his  educational 
theories  to  the  test  of  experience.  Gutsmuths,  who  had 
continued  to  teach  his  pupils  without  remuneration  after 


their  father's  death,  remained  their  special  guardian  and 
instructor  at  Schnepfenthal,  and  in  his  letters  to  their 
mother  every  little  detail  of  their  mental  development  is 
affectionately  recorded.  The  Salzmann  system  was  practi- 
cally that  of  Rousseau :  conformity  to  natural  law  and  en- 
lightenment were  its  watchwords ;  great  attention  was  given 
to  practical  life ;  and  the  modern  languages  were  carefully 
taught  to  the  complete  exclusion  of  Latin  and  Greek.  In 
1787  Gutsmuths  reports  about  Carl  that,  "while  not  much 
of  a  hand  at  making  money  [trading  with  counters  for  coin 
was  a  regular  branch  of  the  Schnepfenthal  education],  he 
draws  better  maps  than  the  biggest  boys,  and  is  making 
great  strides  towards  becoming  a  professor  of  geography." 
When  his  school  days  were  drawing  to  a  close  his  future 
course  was^determined  in  a  curious  way  by  an  introduction 
to  Bethmann  Hollweg,  a  banker  in  Frankfort.  It  was 
arranged  that  Ritter  should  become  tutor  to  Hollweg's 
children,  but  that  in  the  meantime  he  should  attend  the 
university  at  his  patron's  expense.  In  October  1796  he 
accordingly  bade  adieu  to  Schnepfenthal,  and  his  next  two 
winters  were  spent  at  Halle,  where  he  resided  in  the  house 
of  Professor  Niemayer,  then  at  the  height  of  his  fame,  and 
attended  the  lectures  of  Riidiger  on  statistics  and  science, 
Sprengel  on  European  history,  Meinert  on  scientific  agri- 
culture, &c.  His  duties  as  tutor  in  the  Hollweg  family 
began  at  Frankfort  in  1798  and  continued  for  the  next 
fifteen  years.  In  one  matter  he  went  directly  counter  to 
the  Salzmann  theory  :  he  gave  a  large  place  to  the  study  of 
the  ancient  classics,  of  which  he  had  grown  passionately 
fond.  The  years  1814-1819,  which  he  spent  at  Gottingen 
in  order  still  to  watch  over  the  welfare  of  his  pupils,  were 
those  in  which  he  began  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to 
geographical  inquiries.  In  accordance  with  a  promise 
exacted  by  Pestalozzi  (with  whom  he  had  become  acquainted 
at  Yverdun  on  one  of  his  many  tutorial  tours)  he  had  several 
years  previously  drawn  up  a  manual  of  physical  geography 
in  which  many  features  of  his  later  work  are  to  be  traced, 
but  the  book  was  not  published.  He  now  brought  out  his 
first  masterpiece,  Die  Erdkunde  im  Verhdltniss  zur  Natur 
undzurGeschichte  des  Menschen  (Berlin,  2  vols.,  1817-1818). 
In  1820  he  was  called  to  be  professor  extraordinarius  of 
history  at  Berlin,  where  shortly  afterwards  he  began  also  to 
lecture  on  statistics  at  the  military  college.  He  remained 
in  this  position  till  his  death. 

The  service  rendered  to  geography  by  Ritter  was  mainly  three- 
fold. His  personal  influence,  due  largely  to  the  moral  character 
of  the  man  and  partly  to  the  skill  of  the  teacher,  was  unusually 
potent  on  those  who  came  within  its  range  during  the  long  years 
that  he  acted  as  a  professor.  Had  he  done  nothing  more  than  use 
this  influence  in  disseminating  the  geographical  ideas  of  his  time 
he  would  have  stood  high  with  his  own  generation.  But,  secondly, 
his  investigations  and  teaching  were  informed  by  a  fresh  concep- 
tion of  his  subject  which  imparted  life  to  what  had  been  its  dry 
bones  and  dust.  Geography  was,  to  use  his  own  expression,  a  kind 
of  physiology  and  comparative  anatomy  of  the  earth  :  rivers,  moun- 
tains, glaciers,  &c. ,  were  so  many  distinct  kinds  of  organs,  each  with 
its  own  appropriate  functions  ;  and,  as  his  physical  frame  is  the 
basis  of  the  man,  determinative  to  a  large  extent  of  his  life,  so  the 
structure  of  each  country  is  a  leading  element  in  the  historic  pro- 
gress of  the  nation.  This  naturally  led  him  to  attach  great  import- 
ance to  the  vertical  as  distinguished  from  the  horizontal  develop- 
ment of  the  earth's  surface,  and  also  to  give  perhaps  quite  as  much 
attention  to  the  history  of  civilization  and  of  the  individual 
animals  and  plants  by  which  civilization  has  been  affected  as  to 
questions  of  purely  physical  geography.  And,  thirdly,  he  was  a 
scientific  compiler  of  the  first  rank.  Such  portions  of  his  universal 
geography  as  he  completed  remain  each  the  standard  thesaurus  for 
its  territory.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  sections  devoted 
to  Palestine  and  to  Central  Asia.  Among  Hitter's  minor  works 
may  be  mentioned  VorhaUc  europaischcr  VolkcrgeschicMen  wr 
Herodot  (Berlin,  1820)  ;  Die  Stupas  .  .  .  .  an  dcr  indobaktrischen 
Konigsstrasse  u.  d.  Kolosse  von  Bamiyan  (1838)  ;  Einleitung  zur 
allgemeincn  vergleichendcn  Geographic  (Berlin,  1852)  ;  "  Bemerk- 
ungen  iiber  Veranschaulichuugsmittel  raumlicher  Verhliltnisse  bei 
graphischen  Darstellungen  durch  Form  u.  Zahl,"  in  the  Trans,  of 
the  Berlin  Academy,  1828.  After  his  death  Daniel  published  selec- 


VOL .  XX. 


RIVER  E 


Datiuu  Lui«  60  Feet  balow  Ijn* 


FIG.  10 

Surwv  of   188O 


RIVER    SEINE 

Scmle  to  Plan  *  HornopMl  Scale  t 

^  Vr  Ulr  ^  .S  .•  «J  r    I . .  .-,  r 


FIG.  12      TRAINING    WALL 
l/t_  WaUr  Sp 


Datum  Luae  SO  Feel  below  the  Lrrel  of  Ute  »« j  a 


MOUTH    OF    RIVER    MAAS 


RIVER    MAAS 


SECTION    OF    SOUTH    JETTY 


SECTIONOf  OVERFALL  WEIR  OttlHC  SEVERN 
FIG.l     i»"~i       o  «         ~ft 


OBLIQUE  WEIR  ON  THE  RIVER  SEVERN 


FIG   7       DRUM   WEIR 


HYDRAULIC    SHUTTER   WE 
FIG    4 


[NCYCLOP/iDIA 


PLATE  V. 


FIG. 16 

MOUTH   OF   RIVER    ADOUR 


S  U  L  L   I  V  A  N  S 
I  S  L  A  N"  D 


CHARLESTON    JETTIES 


DELTA     OF     THE      MISSISSIPPI 

Scale 


mn  n    P 

Scalr  to  Fiji.    7,    4,5.6,3 


iNNICA     NINTH    EDITION. 


W  t  A  K  . 


K  I  V  — R  I  V 


571 


tions  from  his  lectures  under  the  titles  Geschichte  der  Erdkunde 
(1851),  Allgemeine  Erdkunde  (1862),  and  Europa  (1863).  Several  of 
his  works  (e.g.,  the  "Palestine"  volumes  of  his  Erdkunde)  have  been 
translated  into  English. 

See  Kramer,  Carl  Hitter,  (in  ZebensbiJd  (18G4  and  1870,  2d  ed.  1875);  Gage, 
The  Life  of  Carl  Ritter  (Edinburgh,  1867);  Guyot,  Carl  Hitter,  an  address  to  the 
American  Geogr.  and  Stat.  Soc.  (Princeton,  1860);  F.  Marine,  "Was  bedeutet 
Carl  Ritter  fin-  die  Geographic,"  in  Zeitsch.  der  Ges.  f.  Erdk.,  Berlin,  1879. 

RIVAROL,  ANTOINE  DE  (1753-1801),  was  born  at 
Bagnols  in  Languedoc  on  the  26th  June  1753,  and  died 
at  Berlin  on  the  13th  April  1801.  It  seems  to  be 
undisputed  that  his  father  was  an  innkeeper,  but  no 
researches  have  thrown  any  certain  light  on  the  question 
of  his  origin ;  later  he  assumed  the  title  of  Comte  de 
Rivarol,  and  attributed  himself  to  a  noble  family  of  Italian 
origin.  His  enemies  declared  that  the  family  name  was 
really  Riverot,  and  that,  whether  Italian  or  not,  it  had 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  countship.  It  is  certain  that 
he  bore  several  names,  and  that  when  he  was  among  the 
foremost  defenders  of  aristocracy  his  claim  to  share  in  it 
was  by  no  means  allowed  by  his  associates.  He  was  well 
educated,  and  is  said  to  have  been  admitted  by  the  bishop 
of  Uzes  to  a  theological  seminary,  then  to  have  held  a 
tutorship  at  Lyons  under  the  name  of  Longchamps,  then 
to  have  appeared  in  Paris  under  the  further  travesty  of 
Chevalier  de  Parcieux  with  no  better  reason  than  that  his 
mother  was  related  to  a  man  of  science  of  that  name.  All 
this,  however,  is  of  very  little  consequence ;  it  is  sufficient 
that  he  appeared  in  Paris  in  1780  (just  when  the  operation 
of  liberal  ideas  was  throwing  society  most  freely  open  to 
men  of  letters),  with  youth,  good  address,  fair  knowledge, 
and  a  very  unusual  stock  of  wit  and  literary  ability.  After 
competing  for  and  sometimes  winning  several  of  the  aca- 
demic prizes  then  in  greatest  vogue,  Rivarol  distinguished 
himself  in  the  year  1784  by  a  treatise  Sur  Vuniversalite  de 
la  langue  Franchise  (which  shows,  if  not  much  learning,  the 
utmost  critical  acumen  and  a  very  happy  faculty  of  expres- 
sion), and  by  a  translation  of  the  Inferno,  very  free  but  of 
no  small  merit.  The  year  before  the  Revolution  broke  out 
he,  with  some  assistance  from  a  man  of  similar  but  lesser 
talent,  Champcenetz,  compiled  a  lampoon  entitled  Petit 
Almanack  de  nos  grands  Hommes  pour  1788,  in  which  some 
writers  of  actual  or  future  talent  and  a  great  many  nobodies 
were  ridiculed  in  the  most  pitiless  manner.  It  made  him 
many  enemies,  but  scarcely  more  than  his  speeches  in 
society  had  made.  When  the  Revolution  developed  the 
importance  of  the  press,  Rivarol  at  once  took  up  arms  on 
the  royalist  side.  The  Journal  Politique  of  Sabatier  de 
Castres  and  the  Actes  des  Apotres  of  Peltier  were  the  chief 
papers  in  which  he  wrote.  But  he  emigrated  early  in 
June  1792,  and  established  himself  at  Brussels,  whence  he 
removed  successively  to  London,  Hamburg,  and  Berlin. 
For  ten  years  he  occupied  himself  not  too  strenuously  with 
political  pamphlets  and  literary  projects,  receiving  pensions 
for  his  services  to  the  royalist  cause.  He  had  married  an 
Englishwoman,  but  had  quarrelled  with  her,  and  during 
his  later  years  had  for  his  companion  a  pretty  but  totally 
uneducated  girl  named  Manette,  to  whom  he  addressed 
certain  often-quoted  verses  which  are  nearly  poetry. 
Rivarol's  genius,  however,  was  essentially  a  genius  of  prose, 
though  not  a  prosaic  genius.  No  single  work  of  his  of 
any  length  has  very  great  merit,  and  he  is  accordingly  only 
known  to  posterity  by  volumes  of  "  beauties  "  and  selec-  j 
tions,  composed  of  epigrammatic  remarks,  short  passages  of 
criticism,  and  the  like.  Rivarol  could  not  tell  an  anecdote  ; 
with  quite  the  point  of  his  contemporary  and  rival  Cham- 
fort  ;  but  he  has  had  no  rival  in  France  except  Piron,  and  ' 
none  in  England  except  Sydney  Smith,  in  sharp  isolated 
conversational  sayings.  These  were  mostly  ill-natured,  and 
in  some  cases  the  full  appreciation  of  them  demands  a  more 
considerable  acquaintance  with  the  facts  and  men  of  the 
time  than  most  readers  possess.  The  brilliancy  of  Rivarol's 


phrase,  however,  can  escape  no  one.  Burke  was  hyperboli- 
cal, and  not  altogether  happily  hyperbolical,  in  calling  him 
the  Tacitus  of  the  Revolution,  because  the  description  sug- 
gests a  power  of  historical  portrait  painting  which  Rivarol 
did  not  possess.  But  the  expression  no  doubt  really  re- 
ferred to  the  detached  phrases  which  are  so  striking  in 
Tacitus,  and  which  Rivarol  did  in  truth  sometimes  equal. 

The  works  of  Rivarol  were  published  in  five  volumes  by  his  friend 
Chenedolle  (who  has.  reported  much  remarkable  conversation  of  his 
in  his  last  days)  and  Fayolle  (Paris,  1805) ;  but  their  perusal  as  a 
whole  can  only  be  recommended  to  the  student  of  literature. 
Selections  are  frequent:  that  published  by  De  la  Hays  (Paris,  1858), 
with  introductory  matter  by  Sainte-Beuve  and  others,  and  that 
edited  in  1862  by  M.  de  Lescurc,  may  be  specified.  The  last- 
i  named  editor  published,  in  1883,  a  study  on  Rivarol  et  la  Soctttt 
Franqaise,  which  is  the  fullest  treatment  of  the  subject. 

RIVE  DE  GIER,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Loire,  situated  13  miles  to  the  east-north-east  of  St 
Etienne,  on  the  Lyons  Railway  at  the  head  of  the  canal 
of  Givors  on  the  Gier.  The  town,  which  is  constantly 
enveloped  in  a  dense  cloud  of  smoke,  and  presents  a  dirty 
and  unattractive  appearance,  is  principally  dependent  on  the 
coal  industry,  there  being  fifty  pits  in  the  basin  of  the  Gier, 
with  an  annual  output  of  over  19,000,000  bushels.  There 
are  twenty-two  coke  and  lamp  black  furnaces,  and  five  glass 
works,  the  products  of  which — coloured  glass  and  so-called 

i  Nuremberg  mirrors — are  celebrated,  on  account  of  the 
fineness  and  purity  of  the  sand  found  on  the  banks  of  the 

|  Rhone  and  the  Saone.  Mining  machinery,  railway  plant, 
and  coarse  ironmongery  are  also  manufactured,  and  there 
are  iron  and  steel  works.  A  large  number  of  persons  are 
also  employed  in  winding  and  spinning  silk  and  in  tape- 
weaving.  The  population  in  1881  was  15,760. 

Rive  de  Gier  is  a  place  of  some  antiquity,  as  appears  from  remains 
of  Gallo-Roman  buildings,  and  mosaics  and  coins  found  at  various 
times.  In  the  llth  century  the  canons  of  Lyons  were  its  superiors. 
At  a  later  period  the  town  was  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  protected 
by  a  fortress,  of  which,  however,  but  few  traces  are  visible.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  IV.  the  working  of  the  mines  had  already  given  to 
the  locality  a  measure  of  importance  which  has  steadily  increased. 
At  one  time  it  was  feared  that  the  coal  basin,  which  was  considered 
distinct  from  that  of  St  Etienne,  would  soon  be  exhausted,  but 
it  has  now  been  proved  that  the  two  are  in  reality  one,  and  that 
they  have  a  long  future  before  them. 

RIVER.     See  GEOLOGY,  vol.  x.  p.  272-278. 

RIVER  ENGINEERING.  The  improvement  of  rivers  Plate  V. 
may  be  considered  under  two  aspects,  for  rivers  form  the 
natural  channels  for  conveying  the  surplus  rainfall  from  the 
districts  through  which  they  pass  to  the  sea,  and  they  can 
also  be  utilized  for  the  purposes  of  inland  navigation.  If 
a  river,  owing  to  the  small  section  of  its  channel,  or  the 
slight  inclination  of  its  bed,  is  incapable  of  discharging  the 
whole  volume  of  water  which  drains  into  it  in  rainy  seasons, 
the  lands  along  its  banks  become  flooded,  frequently  to  the 
great  detriment  of  the  crops,  and  sometimes  with  disastrous 
results  to  life  and  property.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  river 
is  impeded  by  rapids,  by  shoals,  or  by  a  bar  at  its  mouth, 
it  is  prevented  from  serving  as  a  natural  highway  for  the 
traffic  of  the  district  through  which  it  flows.  Accordingly 
the  mitigation  of  floods  and  the  regulation  of  rivers  are 
the  problems  which  have  'to  be  grappled  with  in  the 
engineering  of  rivers.  The  first  aims  at  remedying  an 
existing  evil,  and  the  second  deals  with  the  development 
of  the  resources  and  trade  of  a  country  by  the  improve- 
ment of  its  water  communications. 

Floods. — Floods  are  of  two"  kinds,  according  to  the  nature  Two 
of  the  country  traversed  by  the  rivers  producing  them.    Tor-  kinds  of 
rential  rivers,  flowing  over  impermeable  strata  and  having    c 
a  rapid  fall,  rise  rapidly  after  a  heavy  rainfall,  and  produce 
a   high   flood   which   quickly   subsides.     Gently   flowing 
rivers  on  the  contrary  rise  slowly,  and  do  not  attain  the 
same  height  as  torrential  rivers ;  but  their  floods  subside 
slowly,  and  consequently,  though  less  high,  remain  longer 


572 


KIVEE      ENGINEERING 


imer 
ds. 


on  the  land  than  torrential  floods.  The  valleys,  moreover, 
of  torrential  rivers  are  steeper  and  less  fertile  than  the 
alluvial  plains  of  gently  flowing  rivers ;  and,  consequently, 
the  high  short  floods  of  the  former  are  less  injurious  than 
the  long  continuing  lower  floods  of  the  latter.  The  long 
duration  of  a  flood  is  also  the  more  prejudicial,  as  some- 
times a  flood  remains  long  enough  on  the  land  for  a  second 
flood  to  come  down  before  the  first  has  subsided,  thereby 
producing  an  increased  rise. 

iter  Floods  are  generally  largest  in  the  winter  months,  for, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  evaporation,  a  much  larger  pro- 
portion of  rainfall  finds  its  way  into  the  rivers  at  that 
period ;  and  the  greatest  floods  occur  when  rain  falls  on 
melting  snow.  High  floods,  however,  sometimes  occur  in 
the  summer  after  an  exceptionally  heavy  rainfall;  and 
they  are  necessarily  far  more  injurious  at  that  time  of  the 
year,  devastating  the  crops  on  the  land  which  they 
inundate. 

ises  Floods  are  due  to  the  inadequacy  of  the  river  channel 
oods.  to  carry  off  the  water  poured  into  it  within  a  given  period. 
The  bed  of  a  river,  being  formed  and  maintained  by  its 
stream,  is  merely  adequate  to  carry  the  ordinary  dis- 
charge. Large  floods  occur  at  too  distant  intervals  to 
scour  a  sufficient  channel  for  their  passage,  and  conse- 
quently they  overflow  the  banks  and  inundate  the  adjacent 
districts.  Other  causes,  moreover,  tend  to  aggravate  this 
evil. 

A  river  carries  down  a  large  amount  of  solid  matter 
which  has  been  either  ground  from  the  mountain  rocks  by 
glaciers,  washed  from  the  land  by  the  inflowing  streams, 
or  thrown  into  it  as  refuse  from  towns  and  manufactories. 
This  material  tends  to  settle  in  the  channel  wherever  the 
current  is  checked,  and  consequently  raises  its  bed  and 
impedes  the  flow  of  the  stream.  Moreover,  a  river  flow- 
ing through  a  plain  gradually  increases  its  serpentine 
course,  thereby  diminishing  its  fall  and  reducing  its  velo- 
city. Accordingly  the  tendency  of  rivers  is  to  deteriorate 
when  left  to  themselves ;  and  the  discharging  capacity  of 
their  channels  becomes  less,  whilst  the  extension  of  subsoil 
drainage  causes  the  rain  to  flow  more  rapidly  and  com- 
pletely into  the  river  upon  whose  basin  it  falls. 

The  available  fall  of  the  river  is  frequently  diminished 
by  the  erection  of  fixed  weirs  across  the  channel,  at  various 
places,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  head  of  water  for  mills, 
or  of  providing  still-water  navigation.  These  weirs  are 
generally  constructed  with  high  sills,  and  of  inadequate 
width;  and  where  flood  openings  closed  by  draw-doors 
are  adopted  the  doors  are  frequently  not  fully  raised  till 
a  flood  has  actually  arrived.  These  weirs  consequently 
not  merely  reduce  the  discharging  capacity  of  the  channel 
by  diminishing  the  available  fall  of  the  water  surface,  but 
also  actually  restrict  the  section  of  the  channel.  The 
result  is  that  floods  occur  more  frequently,  rise  higher, 
and  remain  on  the  land  for  a  longer  period, 
ent  Prevention  of  Floods. — The  entire  prevention  of  floods 
*e"  would  entail  a  larger  expenditure  than  the  results  would 
lon*  justify.  In  most  cases,  the  prevention  of  summer  floods 
and  the  mitigation  of  winter  floods  would  suffice;  for, 
whilst  summer  floods  are  always  very  injurious,  winter 
floods  prove  sometimes  beneficial  in  depositing  the  mud 
which  they  bring  down,  provided  they  do  not  remain  very 
long  upon  the  land.  Occasionally,  however,  where  large 
tracts  of  low-lying  country  are  exposed  to  inundation,  and 
especially  where  portions  of  towns  are  below  the  flood 
level,  it  is  necessary  to  extend  the  protection  so  as  to 
ensure  entire  immunity  from  floods. 

;hods      There  are  three  methods  by  which  floods  may  be  pre- 
*e'     vented  or  mitigated,  namely, — (1)  improvement  of  channel ; 
I0n*   (2)  embankment  of  channel ;  (3)  pumping. 

(1)  Improvement  of  Channel. — The  discharging  capacity 


of  a  river  may  be  increased  by  enlarging  the  section  of  its 
channel ;  by  the  formation  of  straight  cuts,  which  reduce 
its  length,  and  consequently  increase  its  fall ;  by  dredging 
away  shoals,  and  thus  rendering  the  fall  of  its  bed  more 
uniform ;  and  by  removing  obstacles  to  its  flow  at  weirs. 

The  channels  of  the  English  Fen  rivers  have  been  enlarged 
and  straightened,  and  additional  straight  drains  have  been 
excavated  for  the  more  effectual  drainage  of  the  low-lying 
Fen  country.  Catchwater  drains  have  also  been  formed 
to  collect  the  rainfall  of  the  higher  lands  and  convey  it 
into  the  river  lower  down,  thus  gaining  a  better  fall  than 
could  be  obtained  if  the  upland  waters  were  allowed  to 
flow  down  to  the  low  lands,  besides  relieving  the  low 
lands  of  this  additional  discharge. 

Straight  cuts  are  very  useful  when  the  fall  is  slight  and 
the  velocity  of  flow  is  consequently  small ;  but  they  are  not 
so  suitable  for  more  rapid  streams,  and,  besides  modifying 
the  flow,  and  thus  tending  to  produce  shoals  below,  their 
straight  course  is  liable  to  be  altered  by  the  irregularities 
of  the  current,  especially  if  joining  a  sharp  bend  above. 
The  banks  in  such  cases  need  protection  against  erosion, 
which  adds  considerably  to  the  cost  of  the  works.  The 
improvement  of  the  upper  Mississippi  by  cut-offs  has  not 
proved  satisfactory ;  and  it  has  been  found  preferable  to 
train  the  river  by  brushwood  mattresses  and  dykes. 

Solid  weirs  across  a  river  form  serious  impediments  to 
its  flow ;  and  draw-door  or  movable  weirs  should  be  pro- 
vided with  adequate  waterways,  and  sills  level  with  the  bed 
of  the  river.  Old  bridges,  also,  with  wide  piers  and 
narrow  arches  retard  the  discharge  of  a  river,  and  their 
rebuilding  with  wide  openings  would  afford  considerable 
relief.  All  obstacles  in  the  river  bed,  such  as  weeds, 
fallen  trees,  and  refuse,  should  be  periodically  removed; 
and  fish-traps  at  weirs  should  be  discarded,  as  they  collect 
floating  leaves  and  rubbish  in  their  meshes  and  thus  soon 
become  entirely  blocked  up. 

(2)  Embankment  of  Channel. — When  it  is  essential  that 
the  lands  bordering  a  river  should  be  absolutely  protected 
from  inundation,  the  enlargement  of  a  river  bed  to  an 
adequate  extent  for  discharging  the  greatest  floods  would 
be  too  costly,  especially  when  the  fall  is  small;  and  it 
becomes  necessary  to  resort  to  the  expedient  of  increasing 
the  channel,  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  by  forming 
embankments  along  each  side.  By  making  the  banks  with 
material  excavated  from  the  channel,  the  earthwork  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  enlarging  the  river  bed  and  forming 
a  bank.  A  flood  channel  of  considerable  dimensions  can 
be  readily  obtained  by  placing  the  embankments  some 
distance  back  from  the  margin  of  the  river,  thus  greatly 
enlarging  the  section  when  the  waters  rise  above  the  level 
of  the  land,  whilst  leaving  the  natural  river  bed  unaltered 
for  the  ordinary  flow.  In  some  cases  merely  low  embank- 
ments are  constructed,  which  retain  small  floods  but  are 
submerged  when  large  floods  come  down.  Embankments, 
however,  formed  to  secure  the  surrounding  country  from 
inundation  must  be  high  enough  to  exceed  the  highest 
flood  level  of  the  river,  strong  enough  to  resist  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water  at  that  level,  and  perfectly  watertight. 
If  water  can  percolate  through  the  bank,  a  breach  is 
readily  formed ;  and  if  a  high  bank  is  overtopped  by  the 
river,  the  rush  of  the  stream  over  it  soon  destroys  a  portion 
of  the  embankment  and  produces  a  disastrous  inundation 
from  the  large  volume  of  water  suddenly  liberated.  The 
Fens  of  Lincolnshire,  a  large  portion  of  Holland,  the  valley 
of  the  Po,  and  large  tracts  of  low-lying  land  bordering  the 
Mississippi  are  protected  by  embankments. 

The  defects  in  the  system  of  embanking  rivers  are — that 
weak  points  in  the  banks  are  liable  to  be  breached ;  that 
the  banks  are  liable  to  be  overtopped  by  unusually  high 
floods ;  and  that  the  muddy  waters  of  the  river  in  flood 


573 


deposit  their  sediment  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  instead  of 
spreading  it  over  the  adjacent  land,  and  thus  gradually 
raise  the  river  bed  and  consequently  the  height  of  the 
floods.  The  remedies  for  these  defects  are  strong  high 
banks  made  of  the  best  materials,  and  a  periodical  cleans- 
ing of  the  river  bed.  Neglect  of  these  precautions  has 
led  to  serious  disasters.  Large  tracts  in  the  Fens  have 
been  occasionally  flooded  by  the  bursting  or  overtopping 
of  badly  constructed  banks.  Numerous  breaches  have 
occurred  in  the  embankments  of  the  Po,  resulting  in  the 
devastation  of  its  valley;  and  the  flood  level  of  the  Po 
has  been  so  much  raised  that  it  has  been  decided  not  to 
heighten  the  embankments  for  fear  of  occasioning  still 
greater  disasters.  The  gradual  silting  up  of  the  river 
Theiss,  near  Szegedin,  produced  a  rise  in  its  flood  level 
which  led  to  the  overtopping  of  the  protecting  embank- 
ment in  1879,  and  the  formation  of  a  breach;  and  the 
water  thus  set  free  destroyed  a  portion  of  Szegedin,  and 
inundated  a  tract  of  200  square  miles.  The  rise  of  the 
bed  of  some  rivers  in  Japan,  from  the  deposit  of  silt,  has 
been  followed  up  by  the  gradual  raising  of  the  embank- 
ments ;  and  this  system  has  been  carried  out  to  such  a 
degree,  and  the  accumulated  deposit  is  so  great,  that  some 
of  these  embanked  rivers  have  their  beds  as  much  as  forty 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  plains  over  which  they  flow. 
These  high  embankments  necessarily  require  constant 
attention ;  and  any  failure  is  attended  with  serious  in- 
undations. They  serve  as  a  warning  against  the  extensive 
raising  of  embankments  to  counteract  the  silting  up  of 
a  river. 

(3)  Pumping. — When  lands  are  very  flat  and  low,  lying 
sometimes  actually  below  the  general  drainage  level  of  the 
district  and  the  waterlevel  of  the  streams,  it  is  impossible 
for  rivers  to  perform  their  ordinary  function  of  draining 
the  land  by  gravitation.  It  is  necessary  in  such  cases  to 
create  an  artificial  fall  by  pumping  the  drainage  waters  up 
so  as  to  be  discharged  into  the  adjacent  streams.  This 
method  has  the  advantage  of  ensuring  the  effectual  drain- 
age of  the  lands,  provided  adequate  pumping  power  is 
supplied ;  but  it  forms  an  additional  tax  on  the  land,  as 
steam  has  to  be  applied  to  do  what  is  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions effected  by  nature,  and  the  land  has  also  to  be 
surrounded  by  banks. 

This  system  has  been  adopted  for  the  drainage  of  the 
Haarlem  Meer  reclamation,  and  also  for  the  lands  re- 
claimed from  Lake  Y  in  the  construction  of  the  Amster- 
dam ship  canal.  The  drainage  of  the  Fens  is,  in  several 
instances,  supplemented  by  pumping ;  and  a  portion  of 
the  Witham  basin  has  been  secured  against  floods  by  this 
means. 

lood  The  formation  of  large  reservoirs  in  river  valleys  has 
orage  been  proposed  for  storing  the  surplus  waters  till  a  flood 
has  subsided.  A  reservoir  has  indeed  been  formed,  by 
constructing  a  high  masonry  dam  across  a  narrow  gorge 
of  the  Furens  valley,  which  both  supplies  the  town  of  St 
Etienne  with  water  and  preserves  it  from  inundation.  It 
is  also  proposed  to  prevent  the  floods  of  the  river  Chagres 
from  interfering  with  the  Panama  Canal,  by  impounding 
its  flood  waters  in  an  extensive  reservoir  to  be  formed  by 
building  a  high  dam  across  a  suitable  point  of  its  valley. 
In  these  cases,  however,  the  deep  valleys  with  their 
narrow  gorges  are  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  the  forma- 
tion of  reservoirs  having  a  considerable  capacity,  whereas 
most  river  valleys  are  unsuitable  for  reservoirs,  and  the 
construction  of  the  long  lengths  of  the  banks  that  would 
be  required  would  entail  a  very  large  expenditure,  so  that 
this  system  could  only  have  a  very  restricted  application, 
'analiza-  Improvements  of  the  Upper  Portions  of  Rivers. — Most 
iver°f  *  rivers.  are  not  suitable  by  nature  for  navigation  in  their 
non-tidal  portion,  or,  in  the  case  of  tideless  rivers,  at 


a  considerable  distance  from  their  mouths,  as  the  fall  of 
their  bed  increases  towards  their  source,  and  they  gene- 
rally present  irregularities  in  depth  and  flow,  with  occa- 
sional sharp  bends.  Even  where  the  depth  is  adequate,  an 
irregular  or  rapid  flow  offers  a  great  obstacle  to  up-stream 
traffic.  Moreover,  the  fall  of  the  waterlevel  in  dry  seasons 
would  often  make  a  river  too  shallow  for  navigation. 
Accordingly,  whilst  improving  the  worst  bends  and  remov- 
ing shoals,  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  retain  the  water, 
when  the  flow  is  small,  so  as  to  maintain  a  sufficient  depth. 
This  is  accomplished  by  dividing  the  river  into  a  series  of 
sections  or  reaches,  and  pounding  up  the  water  at  the  end 
of  each  reach  by  means  of  a  dam  or  weir. 

Formerly  rivers  used  to  be  penned  in  by  a  series  of  Stanc 
stanches  near  shoal  places,  which  held  up  the  water,  and, 
when  several  boats  were  collected  in  the  pool  above  a 
stanch,  it  was  suddenly  opened,  and  the  sudden  rush  of 
water  floated  the  boats  over  the  shallows  below.  This 
primitive  method  of  navigation,  termed  flashing,  was 
formerly  practised  on  the  Thames  and  the  Severn,  and 
also  on  some  of  the  rapidly  flowing  rivers  in  France,  such 
as  the  Yonne.  The  stanches  on  the  Severn  were  removed 
in  1842;  but  a  few  still  exist  across  the  Thames  above 
Oxford,  where  the  barge  navigation  follows  a  lateral  canal. 
These  stanches,  consisting  of  beams  swung  across  the  river 
and  supporting  a  series  of  spars  and  paddles,  were  easily 
removed  in  flood  time  or  for  the  passage  of  boats.  The 
stanches  on  the  Yonne,  which  were  more  recently  erected, 
were  of  a  more  elaborate  description,  known  as  needle 
weirs,  and  are  still  retained  as  weirs  for  holding  up  the 
water,  though  the  process  of  flashing  has  been  discon- 
tinued. 

As  the  demands  of  navigation  increased,  these  primitive  Introi 
methods  proved  inadequate,  and,  moreover,  they  were  -10 
quite  unsuited  for  up-stream  traffic.  Accordingly  weirs 
were  substituted  for  stanches,  to  hold  up  the  water  in 
each  reach ;  and  locks  were  constructed,  in  suitable  side 
channels,  for  enabling  vessels  to  be  passed  from  one  reach 
to  the  next  with  little  loss  of  water,  and  with  equal  facility 
either  up  or  down.  Rivers  have  been  thus  converted  into 
still-water  navigations,  with  level  reaches  forming  a  series 
of  steps,  having  a  fall  at  each  lock,  in  place  of  the  natural 
inclination  of  the  river  bed ;  so  that  the  up-river  traffic  is 
in  a  great  measure  relieved  from  the  serious  hindrance  of 
an  opposing  current.  In  order  that  the  water  held  back 
by  the  weir  may  be  retained  within  the  channel,  it  is 
necessary  to  raise  the  banks  on  each  side  for  some  distance 
above  the  weir ;  and,  as  the  gradual  rise  in  the  river  bed 
towards  the  upper  end  of  the  reach  reduces  the  depth,  it 
is  necessary  to  deepen  the  river  along  the  upper  portion  of 
the  reach  to  secure  a  uniform  draught  of  water.  A  river 
is  thus  practically  converted  into  a  canal,  with  this  sole 
difference  that  it  has  still  to  discharge  the  drainage  waters 
of  its  basin.  This  primary  object  of  rivers,  to  which 
indeed  they  owe  their  existence,  was  in  many  instances 
somewhat  overlooked  when  rivers  were  utilized  for  naviga- 
tion ;  and  weirs  appear  to  have  been  often  regarded  merely 
as  dams  for  retaining  the  water,  rather  than  as  regulators 
of  its  flow. 

Weirs. — Locks  have  been  already  considered  in  the  article  on 
CANALS  (q.v.);  so  that  it  will  suffice  here  to  describe  briefly  the 
different  forms  of  weirs,  which  are  essentially  river  works. 

Weirs  have  been  divided  into  three  classes,  namely,  overfall 
weirs,  draw-door  weirs,  and  movable  weirs.1 

Overfall  Weirs. — An  overfall  weir  is  a  solid  barrier  placed  across  Overf 
a  stream  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the  waterlevel  (Plate  V.  fig.  I2),  weirs, 
and  only  affords  an  outlet  for  the  discharge  of  the  river  when  the 
water  rises  above  its  crest.     The  waterlevel  of  the  river  is  thus  per- 
manently raised,  not  merely  in  dry  seasons,  but  also  in  flood  time, 

1  L.  F.  Vernon-Harcourt,  Rivers  and  Canals,  p.  112. 

2  The  fig.  references  in  the  present  article  all  indicate  Plate  V. 


574 


RIVER      ENGINEERING 


aw- 
>r 

irs. 


Iding- 
iweir. 


56 

lers 

draw- 

>rs. 

>vable 
irs. 


line 
ir. 


and  its  fall  i3  correspondingly  reduced.  Accordingly,  the  dis- 
charging capacity  of  a  river  is  materially  diminished  by  the  erection 
of  overfall  weirs ;  and  this  is  only  partially  remedied  by  the 
deepening  of  the  channel  for  navigation,  especially  as  deposit  more 
readily  accumulates  in  the  lower  part  of  a  reach,  owing  to  the 
reduction  in  velocity  of  the  current  by  the  conversion  of  the  river 
into  level  reaches.  Endeavours  have  been  made  to  alleviate  this 
defect  by  placing  the  weir  in  a  wide  place  on  the  river,  and  at  an 
angle  to  the  cross  section  of  the  channel,  thereby  increasing  the 
length  of  its  sill,  and  consequently  the  discharge  over  it  for  any 
definite  height  of  the  river  (fig.  2).  The  gain  in  length  of  an 
oblique  weir  is  somewhat  neutralized  by  the  weir  not  being  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  current ;  and,  even  if  the  cross 
section  of  the  channel  above  the  sill  of  the  weir  is  as  large  as  the 
average  section  of  the  river  bed,  the  change  in  shape,  and  the  small 
hydraulic  radius  of  the  section  over  the  weir,  check  the  discharge 
of  the  stream. 

Draw-door  Weirs. — In  order  to  afford  a  freer  flow  than  is  attain- 
able with  the  best-designed  overfall  weir,  draw-door  weirs  are 
sometimes  adopted,  which  serve  equally  well  to  retain  the  water 
above  during  dry  weather,  and  provide  a  large  opening  for  the 
discharge  of  the  stream  in  floods.  Draw-door  weirs  consist  of  a  row 
of  doors,  or  sluice  gates,  sliding  vertically  in  grooves  formed  at  the 
sides  of  frames,  piles,  or  piers,  which  are  shut  down  when  the  flow 
is  small,  but  are  raised  to  admit  the  passage  of  flood  waters.  These 
weirs  generally  serve  to  supplement  an  ordinary  overfall  weir  ;  and, 
whilst  the  overfall  weir  regulates  the  flow  in  dry  weather,  the 
draw-door  weir  provides  for  its  more  rapid  discharge  in  flood  time. 
The  relief,  however,  afforded  by  draw-door  weirs  depends  entirely 
on  the  opening  they  furnish  ;  they  are  rarely,  if  ever,  made  equal 
in  section  to  the  river  channel,  and  their  sills  are  usually  raised 
some  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river ;  but,  nevertheless,  they  are 
much  superior  to  overfall  weirs  in  respect  of  drainage,  especially 
when  the  river  has  a  small  fall  and  low  banks. 

A  large  oblique  overfall  and  draw-door  weir  has  been  erected 
across  the  Thames,  by  Mr  Leach,  at  the  limit  of  its  tidal  flow  at 
Teddington,  having  a  total  length  of  480  feet.  This  weir  is 
divided  into  four  bays,  the  two  side  bays  being  overfalls,  whilst 
the  two  central  bays,  172J  feet  and  69|  feet  wide  respectively,  are 
closed  by  large  iron  draw-doors  sliding  in  grooves  at  the  sides 
of  strong  iron  frames  supporting  a  foot  bridge  from  which  the  doors 
are  raised.  The  frames  rest  upon  piles,  and  on  the  top  of  a  rubble 
mound  raised  about  a  foot  above  low-tide  level.1 

The  friction  of  large  draw-doors  against  the  grooves,  in  being 
lifted,  is  considerable  when  there  is  a  head  of  water  on  one  side  ; 
but  this  has  been  much  reduced  by  Mr  F.  Stoney,  in  a  large  weir 
in  Brazil,  by  making  the  doors,  20  feet  in  width,  bear  on  each  side 
against  a  row  of  free  rollers  suspended  in  the  grooves. 2 

Movable  Weirs. — Although  draw-door  weirs  afford  a  much  freer 
discharge  for  a  river  than  overfall  weirs,  the  vertical  frames  or 
piers  in  which  the  doors  slide  offer  more  or  less  impediment  to  the 
flow.  This  defect  is  avoided  by  movable  weirs,  which,  whilst 
equally  efficient  in  retaining  the  water  when  raised,  can  be  entirely 
lowered  or  removed  so  as  to  leave  the  channel  quite  open  in  flood- 
time. 

There  are  three  types  of  movable  weirs  which  have  been  regularly 
adopted  abroad,  whilst  other  forms  have  been  occasionally  tried. 
The  two  types  most  extensively  used  are  the  frame  or  needle  weir 
and  the  shutter  weir,  whereas  the  drum  weir  has  been  only  erected 
on  the  Marne. 

The  frame  weir  consists  of  a  series  of  movable  iron  frames,  placed 
at  intervals  across  the  channel  of  a  river  end  on  to  the  current, 
carrying  a  foot  bridge  at  the  top,  and  supporting  a  wooden  water- 
tight barrier  which  forms  the  actual  weir.  Till  recently  the 
barrier  was  always  composed  of  a  series  of  long  square  wooden 
spars,  or  needles,  placed  close  together  and  nearly  vertical,  resting 
against  a  sill  at  the  bottom  and  against  a  horizontal  bar  con- 
necting the  frames  near  the  top  (fig.  3).  This  type  of  weir  has, 
accordingly,  been  very  commonly  called  a  needle  weir  (barrage  a 
aiguilles) ;  but  this  term  would  not  now  include  every  form  of  the 
frame  weir.  The  first  needle  weir  was  erected  across  the  Yonne  in 
1834  ;  and  till  1881  all  the  weirs  on  the  Seine  below  Paris  were  of 
this  form.  The  needle  weir  is  opened  by  lifting  each  needle 
successively  from  the  foot  bridge  ;  one  of  the  end  frames  is  then 
disconnected  from  the  rest  by  unfastening  and  withdrawing  the 
connecting  bars,  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  foot  bridge  is 
taken  up,  and  the  frame,  which  is  hinged  at  the  bottom,  is  lowered 
by  chains  on  to  the  apron  of  the  weir,  and  the  whole  of  the  frames 
are  similarly  lowered  in  succession,  leaving  the  passage  quite 
clear.  The  weir  is  closed  again  by  a  precisely  reverse  series  of 
operations. 

As  the  weight  of  the  needle,  which  should  be  readily  lifted  by 
one  man,  imposes  a  limit  to  the  height  of  the  weir,  the  large  frame 
weir  recently  erected  at  Port-Villez  near  Vernon,  having  a  height 


1  L.  F.  Vernon- Harcourt,  op.  cit.,  plate  iv.  figs.  9  and  10. 
-  Minutes  of  Proceedings  Inst.  C.  E.t  vol.  Ix.  p.  88. 


of  18  feet,  has  been  closed  by  a  sort  of  wooden  hinged  shutter 
which  spans  the  interval  of  3£  feet  between  each  frame,  and  can  be 
rolled  up  from  the  bottom  and  removed  when  the  weir  is  to  be 
opened. 

A  series  of  similar  hinged  shutters  are  designed  to  close  double 
intervals  between  the  frames,  about  7  feet  wide,  of  the  frame  weir  in 
progress  at  Poses,  the  next  weir  above  Martot  weir  which  is  at  the 
boundary  of  the  tidal  Seine  above  Rouen.  Poses  weir  has  a  form 
quite  distinct  from  all  frame  weirs  hitherto  constructed,  for  its 
vertical  frames  are  suspended  from  an  overhead  girder,  and  rest 
against  a  sill  at  the  bottom  when  down,  but  can  be  raised  entirely 
out  of  water  into  a  horizontal  position  when  the  weir  is  open.  The 
girders  carry  a  foot  bridge,  from  which  the  frames  and  hinged 
shutters  are  raised  and  lowered,  and  rest  on  masonry  piers  dividing 
the  river  in  to  seven  bays,  the  two  navigable  passes  being  106J  feet 
and  the  five  shallower  passes  99  feet  wide.  The  girders  spanning 
the  two  navigable  passes  leave  a  clear  headway  of  17£  feet  above 
the  navigable  high  water,  whilst  the  rest  of  the  girders  are  merely 
placed  above  flood  level.  The  fall  at  the  weir  is  13  feet.  The 
system  is  costly,  with  its  girders  and  piers,  but  it  secures  all  the 
movable  parts  of  the  weir  from  injury  in  flood,  and  enables  the 
weir  to  be  worked  with  perfect  ease  and  safety. 

Sliding  panels  have  been  adopted  for  closing  the  frame  weir 
across  the  Rhone  at  Mulatiere,  near  Lyons,  erected  in  1882;  and  a 
comparison  is  being  made  of  the  relative  durability  of  sliding 
panels  and  hinged  shutters  by  placing  the  two  systems  side  by  side 
at  Suresnes  weir  just  below  Paris. 

The  earliest  form  of  shutter  weir  consisted  of  a  gate,  or  shutter,  Shutter 
turning  on  a  horizontal  axis  at  the  bottom,  supported  by  a  prop  wen-, 
when  raised  against  the  stream,  and  falling  flat  on  the  apron  of  the 
weir  when  the  prop  was  withdrawn.  As  considerable  force  would 
be  required  to  raise  such  a  shutter  against  a  strong  stream,  a 
second  up-stream  gate  is  usually  provided,  which,  rising  with 
the  stream  and  being  retained  by  chains,  relieves  the  pressure  on 
the  down -stream  gate,  and  enables  it  to  be  readily  raised  and 
propped  up.  The  waterlevel  is  then  equalized  on  both  sides  of 
the  upper  gate,  which  is  then  lowered  ;  and  the  lower  gate  forms 
the  actual  weir,  which  can  be  opened  by  merely  releasing  the  prop. 
In  India,  where  this  form  of  shutter  weir  has  been  adopted  on  a 
large  scale,  the  strain  on  the  retaining  chains  was  so  great,  when 
the  upper  shutter  was  raised  in  a  strong  current  to  shut  off  the 
river  from  the  irrigation  canals,  that  hydraulic  brakes  have  been 
substituted,  by  Mr  Fouracres,  for  controlling  the  motion  of  the 
up-stream  shutters.  A  closed  cylinder  full  of  water  is  fixed  on  the 
apron  of  the  weir  above  the  upper  shutter,  in  which  a  piston, 
attached  to  the  upper  side  of  the  shutter,  is  fitted.  Directly  the 
current  tends  to  lift  the  shutter,  the  piston  is  drawn  against  the 
cushion  of  water  in  the  cylinder,  which  controls  its  motion.  The 
pressure  of  the  piston  forces  the  water  gradually  out  of  some  small 
orifices  along  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  so  that  the  piston  is  enabled 
to  travel  slowly  along  the  cylinder.  In  its  progress,  however,  it 
passes  by  some  of  the  orifices,  whereby  the  rate  of  efflux  of  the 
remaining  water  is  reduced,  and  a  greater  resistance  offered  to  the 
motion  of  the  piston.  Whilst  therefore  the  shutter  in  rising 
presents  a  greater  surface  to  the  stream,  and  consequently  exerts  a 
greater  pull  upon  the  piston,  the  retarding  force  is  similarly 
increased,  and  the  shutter  is  thus  gradually  raised  without  any  jar. 

At  Brulee  Island  weir,  on  the  Yonne,  the  up-stream  shutter 
has  been  dispensed  with;  and  the  shutter  forming  the  weir  is 
raised  against  the  stream  by  a  piston  working  in  a  hydraulic  press 
(fig.  4),  the  water  pressure  being  supplied  from  an  accumulator 
which  is  charged  by  means  of  a  turbine  worked  by  the  fall  of 
water  at  the  weir.  The  weir  is  closed  by  seven  shutters,  11J  feet 
long  and  6  feet  high,  which  can  be  raised  in  five  minutes  ;  and  the 
power  for  damming  up  the  stream  is  actually  obtained  from  the 
stream  itself. 

The  form  of  shutter  weir  most  commonly  adopted  in  France  is 
shown  in  fig.  5,  representing  a  section  of  the  largest  and  most 
recent  weir  of  this  type,  erected  at  Port-a-1'Anglais  weir  on  the 
Seine,  two  or  three  miles  above  Paris  ;  and  weirs  on  the  same 
system  have  been  erected  across  the  Great  Kanawha  river  in  the 
United  States.  The  shutter  revolves  upon  a  horizontal  axis  placed 
just  above  the  centre  of  pressure  on  the  down-stream  side  of  the 
shutter.  The  axis  is  fastened  on  an  iron  tressel  hinged  to  the 
apron  of  the  weir ;  and  the  shutter  and  tressel  are  supported  in 
position  by  a  wrought-iron  prop  resting  against  a  cast-iron  shoe 
fixed  on  the  apron.  When  the  weir  is  closed,  the  shutter  butts 
against  a  sill  at  the  bottom,  as  is  shown  on  fig.  5.  The  weir  can  be 
more  or  less  opened,  from  the  foot  bridge,  by  means  of  chains 
fastened  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  shutter;  and  it  can  be 
completely  lowered  in  flood  time  by  releasing  the  prop  from  its 
shoe,  when  the  prop,  tressel,  and  shutter  fall  flat  upon  the  apron, 
their  fall  being  regulated  by  aid  of  the  chains ;  the  frames  also 
supporting  the  foot  bridge,  being  hinged  to  the  apron,  can  be 
lowered  as  in  the  ordinary  frame  weir.  The  weir  is  raised  by  first 
reinstating  the  foot  bridge,  and  then  raising  the  shutters,  with 
the  connected  tressels  and  props,  by  means  of  the  chains.  Each 


RIVER      ENGINEERING 


575 


shutter  of  the  navigable  pass  at  Port-a-1'Anglais  is  3J  feet  wide, 
and  rises  12J-  feet  above  the  sill  of  the  weir.  Smaller  shutter 
weirs,  of  a  similar  form,  are  placed  on  the  top  of  overfalls  to 
regulate  the  discharge,  being  so  adjusted  that  the  shutters  dip 
when  the  water  attains  a  certain  height  above  them.  Sometimes 
the  regulation  of  the  flow  is  effected  through  the  large  shutters  by 
means  of  small  shutters  fixed  in  their  upper  panels,  called  butterfly 
valves,  which  open  spontaneously  when  the  water  rises  above  the 
required  height.  The  smaller  shutters  on  the  overfalls  are  entirely 
lowered  in  flood-time,  like  the  large  shutters,  but,  being  un- 
provided with  a  foot-bridge,  they  are  raised  by  aid  of  boats  on  the 
approach  of  the  dry  season.  The  earlier  shutters  erected  across  the 
navigable  passes  were  similarly  raised ;  but,  though  a  foot  bridge 
adds  considerably  to  the  cost  of  a  shutter  weir,  it  greatly  facilitates 
its  working. 

The  navigable  passes  in  French  rivers,  which  are  always  closed 
either  by  frame  or  shutter  weirs,  serve  for  the  passage  of  vessels 
during  floods  when  the  locks  are  submerged. 

With  the  exception  of  the  primitive  movable  stanches,  there  is 
only  one  example  of  a  movable  weir  in  England.     This  self-acting 
shutter  weir  has  been  erected  across  the  Irwell  at  Thostlencst  near 
Manchester ;    and  a  section  of  it  is   given  in   fig.  6.     The  weir 
consists  of  a  series  of  shutters  turning  on  a  central  horizontal  axis. 
"When  the  weir  is  closed,  each  shutter  is  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
35°  to  the  vertical,  as  shown  in  fig.  6,  and  revolves  to  a  horizontal 
position  for  opening  the  weir.     It  resembles  in  fact  the   French 
shutter  weirs,  except  that  the  shutters  and  their  supports  are  not 
removed  from  the  channel,  so  that  the  waterway  at  Thostlenest  is 
not  so  unimpeded  as  in  the  French  system.     The  shutters  are  so 
adjusted  that  they  open  when  the  river  rises  2f  feet  above  its  ordi- 
nary level ;  but,  lest  the  rush  of  water,  which  would  result  from 
their  sudden  opening,  should  injure  the  river  bed,  an  arrangement 
has  been  made  for  opening  any  of  the  shutters  by  means  of  a  set  of 
chains  worked  by  crabs  from  each  bank,  so  as  to  release  the  pent-lip 
waters   more  gradually.1      This   weir,   designed   by   Mr   Wiswall, 
consists  of  fourteen  shutters,  each  10  feet  wide  above  the  axis  and 
9  feet  below,  and   12  feet  long.     The  actual  height  of  the  weir 
above  the  floor  is  only  10  feet,  owing  to   the  inclination  of  the 
shutters,  so  that  it  presents  a  surface  of  1400  square  feet  to  the 
stream  when  closed,  which  is  reduced  to  293  feet  when  open. 
)rum          The  drum  weir,  which  has  been  adopted  in  several  instances  on 
reir.        the  river  Marne,  consists  of  an  upper  and  an  under  iron  paddle 
capable  of  making  a  quarter  of  a  revolution  round  a  horizontal 
central  axis.     The  upper  paddle  forms  the  weir,  and  the  under  one 
revolves  in  a  closed  recess,  shaped  like  the  quadrant  of  a  cylinder, 
laid  below  the  sill  of  the  weir,   from  which  the  term  drum  is 
derived  (fig.  7).     The  under  paddle  and  the  drum  are  so  formed 
that  a  space  is  left  between  the  upper  face  of  the  paddle  and  the  top 
of  the  drum  when  the  paddles  are  horizontal ;  and  a  similar  space 
exists  between  the  down-stream  face  of  the  paddle  and  the  vertical 
wall  of  the  drum  when  the  paddles  are  vertical,  as  represented  in 
fig.  7.     These  spaces  serve  as  sluiceways  by  which  water  can  be 
admitted  into  the  series  of  drums  on  the  upper  or  under  side  of  the 
under  paddles.     The  weir  is  closed  by  placing  the  upper  sluiceway 
in  communication  with  the  upper  pool,  when  the  pressure  of  water 
on  the  upper  faces  of  the  under  paddles  overcomes  the  pressure  of 
the  stream  upon  the  upper  paddles,    causing  them  to  rise,   and 
closing  the  weir  against  the  stream.     The  weir  is  readily  opened 
by  shutting  off  communication  between  the  upper  pool  and  the 
upper  sluiceway,  and  opening  communication  with  the  lower  pool ; 
the  stream  then  depresses  the  upper  paddles,  or  the  action  can  be 
quickened  by  opening  communication  between  the  upper  pool  and 
lower  sluiceway.     The  pressure  on  either  side  of  the  under  paddles 
can  be   easily  adjusted  with  the  utmost  precision,  enabling  the 
paddles  to  be  placed  at  any  angle,    so  that  the  most  absolute 
control  is  obtained  over  the  discharge  at  the  weir.     The  largest 
example  of  this  type  of  weir  is  at  Joinville,  on  the  Marne,  only  a  few 
miles  above  Paris.     The  weir  is  formed  by  forty-two  paddles,  3| 
feet  high  and  4|  feet  wide,  which  are  worked  with  great  ease  by 
means  of  sluice  gates  on  the  left  bank,  being  opened  or  closed  in 
three  or  four  minutes  by  one  man.     This  type  of  weir  has  the 
defect  of  not  being  suited  for  navigable  passes,  owing  to  the  depth 
of  the  foundations  for  the  drum  below  the  floor  of  the  weir  having 
to  exceed  the  height  of  the  actual  weir. 

Warn-  Movable  weirs  possess  the  great  merit  over  other  forms  of  weirs 
ings  of  of  offering  little  or  no  impediment  to  the  passage  of  floods  ;  and  this 
floods,  advantage  is  still  further  enhanced  by  the  system  of  warnings, 
organized  for  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  and  other  French  rivers,  whereby 
timely  information  of  the  approach  of  a  flood  is  telegraphed  to  the 
various  weir  keepers,  so  that  they  may  fully  open  the  weirs  before 
its  arrival,  and  thus  aid  in  facilitating  its  descent.  By  telegraphic 
intimation  of  the  rise  in  the  upper  tributaries,  and  of  the  rainfall 
in  the  basin,  it  is  possible  to  predict  with  remarkable  accuracy  the 
probable  rise  of  the  river  at  places  lower  down,  and  to  afford  valu- 
able warning  of  a  coming  flood  to  the  riparian  proprietors. 


1  The  Engineer,  Sept.  1,  1882. 


Tidal  and  Tideless  Rivers. 

Elvers  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two  classes  in 
respect  of  the  lower  portion  of  their  course,  for  the  tide  is 
propagated  up  some  rivers  to  a  considerable  distance  from 
their  mouth,  commingling  with  the  fresh  water  and  pro- 
ducing an  ebb  and  flow  far  into  the  interior ;  whilst  rivers 
flowing  into  tideless  seas  descend  with  an  unimpeded 
current  to  their  outlet.  Tidal  and  tideless  rivers,  possess- 
ing very  distinct'  physical  characteristics,  necessarily  pre- 
sent different  features  and  require  different  methods  of 
improvement,  and  will  be  therefore  separately  considered. 
Tidal  rivers  are  the  more  numerous,  owing  to  the  greater 
extent  of  tidal  seas.  The  great  differences  also  in  the 
tidal  rise  introduce  numerous  variations  in  the  tidal  influ- 
ence on  rivers,  and  the  rise  of  the  river  bed  determines 
the  distance  to  which  the  tidal  flow  extends.  Accord- 
ingly, tidal  rivers  exhibit  a  greater  diversity  in  their 
natural  condition  than  tideless  rivers,  which  are  only 
affected  by  the  volume  of  their  fresh-water  discharge,  the 
amount  of  sediment  carried  in  suspension,  and  the  inclina- 
tion of  their  bed.  These  latter  conditions  affect  also  the 
state  of  tidal  rivers,  but  their  influence  is  greatly  modified 
by  the  ebb  and  flow  of  a  large  volume  of  tidal  waters. 
The  effect  of  the  tidal  ebb  and  flow  is  most  readily  per- 
ceived in  contrasting  the  mouths  of  tidal  and  tideless 
rivers.  The  mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Nile,  the 
Danube,  and  the  Ehone  present  very  marked  differences 
to  the  outlets  of  the  St  Lawrence,  the  Seine,  the  Thames, 
and  the  Severn.  Tideless  rivers  divide  into  a  number  of 
mouths,  whereas  tidal  rivers  are  confined  to  a  single  out- 
let ;  and  the  effect  of  tidal  influence  on  this  difference  is 
still  further  confirmed  by  the  instance  of  the  Maas,  which, 
with  a  very  slight  tidal  range,  exhibits  a  tendency  to 
deteriorate  into  the  dispersion  of  mouths  of  a  tideless 
river.  The  value  of  tidal  flow  in  maintaining  a  river  is 
fully  manifested  by  comparing  the  navigable  condition  of 
the  Thames  or  of  the  muddy  Humber  with  the  delta  of 
the  Nile  or  the  Rhone,  though  the  latter  rivers  possess  a 
much  larger  fresh-water  discharge.  The  tidal  rise  also 
frequently  allows  of  the  access  of  vessels  to  a  river  whose 
entrance  is  barred  at  low  water. 

The  general  improvements  of  the  upper  portions  of  Reg 
both  tidal  and  tideless  rivers  may  be  carried  out  on  ** 
similar  principles,  though  on  approaching  their  mouths 
they  need  a  totally  different  treatment.  To  give  a  river  a 
uniform  depth,  its  channel  and  flow  require  regulation. 
Hard  shoals  may  be  permanently  removed  by  dredging;  but 
silty  shoals,  even  when  dredged  away,  will  re-form  unless 
the  channel  is  contracted.  Formerly  rivers  were  regulated 
by  building  out  jetties  at  intervals  at  right  angles  to  the 
banks,  especially  in  wide  shoal  places,  in  order  to  contract 
the  channel  and  concentrate  the  stream,  so  as  to  scour 
a  deeper  central  channel.  These  cross  jetties,  however, 
whilst  effecting  a  deepening  in  front  of  their  extremities, 
caused  irregularities  in  the  flow  of  the  current  in  the 
intervals  between  them,  thus  producing  differences  in 
depth.  Continuous  longitudinal  jetties,  or  training  banks, 
though  more  costly,  are  much  more  efficient  in  regulating 
a  river,  and  are  now  generally  adopted  for  procuring  a 
uniform  width,  and,  consequently,  a  regular  depth.  Where 
the  fall  alters,  a  corresponding  variation  must  be  made  in 
the  section  of  the  channel ;  and,  in  the  case  of  tidal  rivers, 
the  section  should  gradually  increase  as  it  approaches  the 
sea,  so  as  to  admit  the  increasing  volume  of  sea  water 
which  enters  but  does  not  pass  far  up  the  estuary  whose 
upper  portion  has  been  filled  by  the  earlier  flow. 

Most  rivers,  whether  tidal  or  tideless,  are  more  or  less  Cau 
impeded  for  navigation  by  a  bar  at  their  mouth.  A  bar tari 
is  a  ridge  or  shoal  extending  across  the  navigable  channel, 


576 


RIVER      ENGINEERING 


over  which  there  is  a  less  depth  than  either  above  or  below 
it.  The  lowering  of  such  a  bar  forms  one  of  the  main 
objects  of  river  improvement,  as  upon  the  depth  that  can 
be  obtained  over  the  bar  depend  the  class  of  vessels  that 
can  enter  the  river,  and,  in  tidal  rivers,  the  period  of  time 
during  which  the  entrance  can  be  navigated.  A  bar  may 
result  from  the  action  of  the  sea,  which  tends  to  form  a 
continuous  beach  across  any  inlet,  and  would  obliterate 
the  mouths  of  rivers  if  the  channels  were  not  maintained 
by  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  and  the  fresh-water  dis- 
charge ;  or  it  may  be  formed  by  the  conflict  of  the  sea 
and  river  water,  which  checks  the  current  at  the  mouth 
and  causes  the  river  to  deposit  the  sediment  which  it  held 
in  suspension.  The  bars  at  the  mouths  of  the  Mersey,  the 
Liffey,  and  the  Adour  are  due  to  the  first  cause;  whilst  the 
bars  at  the  mouths  of  tideless  rivers,  such  as  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Danube,  and  the  Rhone,  are  mainly  due  to  the 
second. 

Improvement  of  Tidal  Rivers. 

idal  Tidal  rivers   differ   greatly  in   their  natural  character- 

ed!- istics,  owing  to  the  variety  in  the  different  conditions 
f  which  affect  them.  Thus  the  Mersey,  with  an  extreme 
tidal  rise  of  30  feet  at  its  mouth,  is  only  tidal  for  46 
miles,  whilst  the  Seine,  with  a  rise  of  22  feet,  is  tidal  for. 
91  miles,  and  the  Scheldt,  with  a  rise  of  only  13|  feet,  is 
tidal  up  to  Ghent,  a  distance  of  105  miles.  These  differ- 
ences are  mainly  due  to  the  different  falls  of  the  river- 
beds, but  they  are  also  affected  by  the  facility  of  entry 
afforded  to  the  flood  tide,  and  the  form  of  the  channel  up 
which  it  flows.  The  tidal  capacity  of  a  river  depends  on 
the  rise  of  the  tide  and  the  configuration  of  the  banks. 
The  tidal  flow  into  the  Mersey  amounts  to  710,000,000 
cubic  yards  at  a  high  spring  tide,  whilst  the  flow  into  the 
Scheldt  at  Flushing,  with  less  than  half  the  tidal  rise, 
reaches  475,000,000  cubic  yards.  The  tidal  capacity  of 
the  Seine,  together  with  its  estuary,  formerly  exceeded 
that  of  the  Mersey,  but  it  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the 
training  works  which  have  been  carried  out  on  it  since 
1848. 

ifluence  The  tidal  ebb  and  flow  passing  and  returning  through 
tides.  the  entrance  channels  of  a  river  twice  a  day  exercise  a 
very  important  influence  on  its  maintenance.  The  effect 
of  tidal  scour  is  manifested  in  the  history  of  the  harbours 
of  Calais  and  Ostend,1  which  in  old  times  possessed  deep 
outlet  channels,  but  were  injured  by  reclamation,  and  in 
the  deterioration  of  the  outfalls  of  the  Fen  rivers  as  soon 
as  the  tidal  flow  was  curtailed  by  the  erection  of  sluices. 
The  power  of  the  tidal  scour  necessarily  varies  with  the 
volume  of  water  producing  it,  and  therefore  one  of  the 
first  principles  of  tidal  river  improvement  is  that  the  tide 
should  be  admitted  as  far  up  a  river  as  possible,  and  all 
obstructions  to  its  flow  removed.  If,  however,  the  main- 
tenance of  an  estuary  depended  solely  upon  the  tidal  ebb 
and  flow,  the  estuary  would  gradually  silt  up,  for  the 
flood  tide  brings  in  matter  in  suspension  which  it  washes 
from  the  adjacent  shores  and  sandbanks,  especially  during 
rough  weather,  when  the  waves  stir  up  the  sand  and  silt. 
The  impetus  of  the  tide  running  up  the  rising  bed  of  an 
estuary  is  gradually  checked,  till  at  last  slack  water 
occurs,  and  the  silt  begins  to  deposit,  which  the  ebb  tide, 
enfeebled  by  the  friction  of  the  tidal  water  in  its  passage 
up  and  down  the  estuary,  would  of  itself  be  unable  com- 
pletely to  remove.  The  erection  of  any  obstructions  to 
the  tidal  flow,  such  as  sluices  and  weirs,  increases  the 
period  of  slack  tide,  and  consequently  not  only  reduces  the 
volume  of  ebb  and  flow  but  also  promotes  the  deposit  of 
silt,  to  the  further  detriment  of  the  estuary.  The  main- 
tenance of  estuaries  is  secured  by  the  aid  of  their  fresh- 

1  L.  F.  Vernon-Harcourt,  Harbours  and  Docks,  pp.  149  and  155. 


water  discharge,  which,  being  penned  up  during  the  flood 
tide,  reinforces  the  ebb  and  preserves  an  equilibrium. 

The  fresh-water  discharge  of  a  river,  depending  upon  Value  ( 
the  area  of  the  basin  and  the  available  rainfall,  naturally  fresh 
varies  greatly  in  different  rivers — being,  for  instance,  greater 
in  the  Tyne  and  the  Clyde  than  in  the  Mersey,  though 
these  rivers  have  little  more  than  one-thirteenth  of  the 
tidal  capacity  of  the  Mersey.  The  Seine,  with  a  drainage 
area  of  30,500  square  miles,  nearly  six  times  the  size  of 
the  Thames  basin,  has  a  discharge  of  28,000,000  cubic 
yards,  on  the  average,  each  tide  (about  twenty-eight  times 
that  of  the  Mersey),  though  this  volume  sinks  into  insigni- 
ficance when  compared  with  the  flow  of  the  Danube  with 
a  basin  of  ten  times  the  size,  or  still  more  of  the  Missis- 
sippi with  a  basin  forty  times  as  large.  A  large  fresh- 
water discharge  is  of  great  value  to  the  maintenance  of  an 
estuary,  especially  when,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Seine,  it 
carries  little  silt  in  suspension;  whilst  a  small  discharge  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  an  estuary,  of  which  the  Mersey 
is  a  notable  instance,  renders  the  state  of  the  estuary  very 
delicate,  and  necessitates  great  vigilance  in  maintaining  its 
tidal  capacity,  to  which  its  existence  is  almost  wholly  due. 
The  silt  brought  down  by  tidal  rivers,  instead  of  being 
carried  to  their  mouths  and  there  deposited,  is  met  by  the 
incoming  tide  at  points  varying  daily  with  the  states  of 
the  tides ;  and,  moreover,  except  during  slack  tide,  it  is 
maintained  in  constant  motion  up  and  down  the  estuary, 
till  at  length  it  gets  to  the  sea.  Accordingly,  though  the 
sediment  of  tidal  rivers  is  more  or  less  deposited  wherever 
the  velocity  of  the  current  is  checked,  it  does  not  tend  to 
accumulate  in  one  particular  part,  as  in  the  case  of  tideless 
rivers,  and  therefore  the  formation  of  a  bar  at  the  mouth 
is  mainly  due  to  the  drift  by  waves  along  the  beach.  A 
flood  also,  though  more  largely  charged  with  silt,  by  giving 
additional  power  to  the  ebb,  scours  the  channel  and  lowers 
the  bar.  The  Humber,  whose  waters  are  densely  burdened 
with  mud  which  is  readily  deposited  in  still  water,  is 
nevertheless  free  from  a  bar. 

The  best  form  of  estuary  for  a  tidal  river  is  when  it  Forms 
enlarges  gradually  as  it  approaches  the  sea,  thus  affording  estuat 
an  increasing  capacity  for  the  admission  of  the  tide,  and 
promoting  a  regular  flow.  The  estuaries  approximating  to 
such  a  form  are  generally  free  from  bars — as,  for  instance, 
the  Thames,  the  Severn,  and  the  Scheldt.  When,  how- 
ever, a  river  expands  abruptly  into  a  wide  estuary  on  a 
sandy  coast,  it  winds  through  the  enlarged  estuary  in  an 
unstable  shallow  channel,  owing  to  the  reduced  velocity  of 
the  ebb  in  expanding  out,  and  the  checking  of  the  flood 
tide  on  reaching  the  head  of  the  wide  estuary.  Thus  the 
Seine,  with  a  deep  stable  channel  from  Rouen  to  La 
Mailleraye,  had  formerly  a  shallow  shifting  dangerous 
channel  from  thence  to  the  sea ;  the  Ribble,  with  a  good 
depth  at  Preston,  has  a  shoal  irregular  channel  towards 
its  mouth ;  and  the  Dee,  with  a  moderate  channel  at 
Chester,  is  almost  barred  to  vessels,  except  at  high  tide, 
below  Connah's  Quay.  These  estuaries  do  not  possess  a 
well-defined  bar,  but  their  long  shallow  winding  channels 
offer  a  still  more  serious  impediment  to  navigation.  The 
worst  form  is  a  very  irregular  estuary  with  abrupt  expan- 
sions and  contractions,  of  which  the  Mersey  is  a  pro- 
minent example,  for,  in  spite  of  its  large  rise  of  tide,  it 
possesses  a  shallow,  irregular,  and  shifting  channel  above 
Liverpool,  and  is  encumbered  by  a  wide  bar  below. 

There  are  three  obstructions  to  which  tidal  rivers  are  Met! 
subject,  namely,  a  bar,  a  shifting  channel,  and  inadequacy  of  in 
of  depth ;  and  there  are  three  general  methods  which  may 
be  resorted   to   for   their   improvement,    namely,  jetties, 
training  walls,  and  dredging,  in  addition  to  the  regulation 
of  their  upper  portion  by  longitudinal  jetties,  or  banks,  as 
previously  mentioned. 


RIVER      ENGINEERING 


Jties. 


Jetties.  —  A  bar  being  caused  by  the  littoral  drift,  and 
by  the  impotence  of  the  expanded  current  to  scour  the 
channel  over  it  to  the  same  depth  as  elsewhere,  it  is  neces- 
sary either  to  arrest  the  drift  or  to  concentrate  the  current 
across  the  bar.  The  drift,  which  comes  from  the  direction 
of  the  prevalent  winds,  might  be  temporarily  arrested  by 
projecting  a  groyne,  or  jetty,  from  the  shore  on  the  wind- 
ward side  of  the  outlet.  The  material,  however,  carried 
along  the  coast  would  accumulate  against  the  jetty,  and 
eventually  form  a  bar  beyond,  or,  sweeping  round  the  end 
of  the  jetty,,  deposit  in  the  channel  under  its  shelter. 
Accordingly  a  second  jetty  is  added,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  outlet,  to  direct  and  concentrate  the  current  over 
the  bar,  and  thus  increase  the  depth  of  the  channel,  and 
also  to  drive  into  deep  water  any  material  that  may  be 
carried  round  the  windward  jetty,  or  convey  it  within  the 
influence  of  any  littoral  current  farther  out.  The  jetties 
are  either  made  parallel,  or  slightly  diverging,  so  as  to 
form  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the  banks  of  the  river 
across  the  beach,  or  they  are  commenced  far  apart  and 
made  to  converge  towards  their  extremities,  so  as  to  admit 
a  larger  volume  of  tidal  water  and  concentrate  the  flow 
into  a  narrow  channel  over  the  bar.  The  parallel  jetty 
system  has  been  adopted  for  the  new  outlet  of  the  Maas 
(fig.  13),  the  mouth  of  the  Adour  near  Bayonne  (fig.  16), 
and  the  mouths  of  the  Wear  at  Sunderland,  the  Yare  at 
Yarmouth,  and  the  Ouse  at  Newhaven  ;  whilst  the  con- 
verging jetty  system  has  been  carried  out  at  Charleston 
(figs.  17  and  18)  and  Aberdeen,  and  at  the  mouths  of  the 
Liffey,  the  Tyne  (fig.  8),  and  the  Tees. 

The  ordinary  form  of  jetty  is  a  timber  pier  resting  upon 
a  kase  of  rubble  stone,  like  the  jetties  of  the  North  Sea 
jetty  harbours  of  Calais,  Dunkirk,  and  Ostend,  so  that  the 
solid  lower  portion  may  concentrate  the  ebb,  whilst  the  open 
upper  portion  permits  the  passage  of  the  littoral  currents 
in  order  that  a  rapid  advance  of  the  foreshore  may  be  pre- 
vented. Such  structures,  however,  simply  delay,  and  do 
not  stop,  the  advance  of  the  foreshore,  as  manifested  at 
Newhaven  and  Dunkirk,  where  the  accumulation  of  shingle 
in  the  one  case  and  of  sand  in  the  other  brought  low- 
water  mark  out  to  the  extremities  of  their  western  jetties. 
The  solid  northern  jetties  of  the  Wear  and  the  Yare  have 
naturally  produced  a  similar  advance  of  their  northern 
beaches,  both  being  exposed  to  a  north-easterly  drift. 

A  special  form  of  jetty  has  been  constructed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Adour  to  combine  the  advantages  of  open 
and  closed  jetties.  These  jetties  consist  of  a  row  of 
cylindrical  columns  placed  at  intervals  and  carrying  iron 
girders  on  the  top.  Grooves  are  formed  at  the  sides  of 
the  columns,  down  which  panels  can  be  lowered  from  the 
roadway  above  to  confine  the  issuing  current,  whilst  when 
the  panels  are  open  the  spaces  between  the  columns 
admit  the  flood  tide  and  the  passage  of  the  currents. 
Nevertheless  there  are  indications  of  an  advance  of  the 
foreshore  ;  the  sand  passing  through  the  spaces  in  the 
northern  jetty  has  encroached  upon  the  channel,  and  the 
depths  are  reduced  beyond  the  end  of  the  jetties  (fig.  16). 

The  most  important  examples  of  training  jetties,  includ- 
ing converging  jetties,  have  been  made  solid,  though 
sometimes  they  have  not  been  raised  to  high-water  level 
at  their  outer  ends,  in  order  to  provide  for  the  freer  admis- 
sion of  the  flood  tide.  The  converging  jetties,  or  walls, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Liffey  consist  of  mounds  of  rubble 
stone,  and  the  outer  portion  of  the  northern  jetty  is  only 
raised  to  half  -tide  level.  The  jetties  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Maas  (figs.  13  and  15)  are  formed  of  fascine  mattresses; 
and  the  Charleston  jetties  (figs.  17  and  18)  are  similar  in 
construction  ;  in  both  these  cases  the  outer  portions  have 
not  been  raised  above  half-tide  level.  The  converging 
jetties  or  piers  at  Aberdeen,  the  Tyne  (fig.  8),  and  the 


Tees  are  in  reality  breakwaters,1  though  they  serve  the 
same  purpose  of  protecting  the  entrance  channels  from 
the  littoral  drift,  and  promoting  scour  over  the  bar,  as  the 
less  solid  structures  at  Dublin  and  Charleston.  The 
Tees  breakwaters  are  random  mounds  of  slag ;  the  Aber- 
deen breakwaters  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dee  are  upright 
walls  of  concrete ;  and  the  Tynemouth  piers  are  masonry 
and  concrete-block  walls  upon  a  rubble  foundation.  The 
breakwaters  afford  a  much  better  shelter  for  vessels  and 
for  dredging  operations,  but  the  lower  fascine-work  jetties 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Maas  are  equally  effective  in  directing 
the  current. 

Training  Walls. — The  wandering  shallow  channel  of  a  Objec 
river  through  a  wide  sandy  estuary  may  be  improved  by  traini: 
training  the  channel,  in  a  suitable  direction,  by  means  of  waUs< 
longitudinal  mounds  of  rubble   stone,  commonly  termed 
training  walls.     These  walls  fix  the  channel  and  prevent 
the  current  eroding  the  sandbanks  and  thus  changing  its 
course.     Moreover,  by  guiding  the  channel  into  a  more 
direct  line,    making   the  ebb  and   flow  follow  the   same 
course,  and  concentrating  the  current,  the  scouring  capa- 
city of  the  stream  is  increased  and  the  channel  is  deepened. 
The  flood  tide  ascends  the  trained  channel  more  readily, 
and  therefore  is  able  to  extend  its  influence  farther  up ; 
whilst  the  ebb  tide  flows  out  of  the  improved  and  deepened 
channel   earlier,  and  thus  lowers  the  low-water  line  and 
increases  the  tidal  capacity  in  the  channel. 

The  trained  channel  must  be  gradually  widened  out  and  Form 
carried  into  deep  water,  otherwise  the  abrupt  expansion  traini: 
which  occurs  beyond  the  ends  of  the  training  walls  would       s' 
so  enfeeble   the  ebbing   current   that  a  shallow  shifting 
channel  would   be   formed   only  a  short  distance  below. 
Training  walls  which  stop  in  the  middle  of  a  wide  sandy 
estuary,  like  the  walls  carried  out  on  the  Seine  (fig.  10) 
and   the   Kibble,    can    be   only   regarded   as   incomplete 
works,  which  sooner  or  later  will  have  to  be  extended  if 
the  full   benefit  of  a  trained  channel  is  to  be  realized. 
When  the  channel  is  to  follow  close  along  one  shore  of  the 
estuary,  a  single  training  wall  on  the  outer  side  is  suffi- 
cient ;  and  a  single  wall  is  sometimes  adequate  for  main- 
taining  a   channel   in   the  middle   of  an  estuary,  when 
placed  along  the  concave  side  of  a  bend. 

The  proper  width  between  the  training  walls  depends 
upon  the  fall,  the  tidal  range,  and  the  fresh-water  dis- 
charge, and  should  gradually  increase  down  stream  so  as 
to  admit  as  much  tidal  water  as  possible  with  a  steady 
flow.  As  the  scour  of  the  fresh-water  discharge  is  greater 
with  a  contracted  channel,  the  tendency  is  to  place  the 
training  walls  too  close  together,  which,  though  improving 
the  depth  in  the  channel  between  the  walls,  reduces  the 
volume  of  tidal  water  that  can  get  up  the  channel  and 
thus  compromises  the  maintenance  of  the  outlet  beyond  the 
walls.  The  training  walls  on  the  Seine  and  on  the  Kibble, 
whilst  improving  the  trained  channels,  have  been  preju- 
dicial to  the  channels  beyond ;  and  an  extension  of  the 
works  has  been  authorized  on  the  Kibble.  The  widths  also 
adopted  between  these  walls  are  not  compatible  with  an 
adequate  widening  out  towards  their  outlet  for  the  free 
admission  of  the  flood  tide,  so  that  these  estuaries  will 
eventually  be  deficient  in  tidal  capacity. 

The  training  of  a  wandering  channel  is  always  beneficial  Effect 
to    the   maintenance   and   depth    of   the   channel.     The  traini] 
wanderings,  however,    of   the   channel,   which    are    thus walls- 
arrested,  though  very  prejudicial  to  navigation, "are  advan- 
tageous in  preventing  the  silting  up  of  an  estuary  by  the 
constant  erosion  and  stirring  up  of  the  sandbanks  which 
they  effect  in    shifting   their   position,   and  which    they 
carry  by   gradual   stages   throughout   the   whole   of  the 

1  L.  F.  Veraon  Harcourt,  Harbours  and  Docks,  pp.  200,  317,  341. 

XX.  -  73 


578 


RIVER      ENGINEERING 


estuary.  The  scouring  current  predominates  at  one  time  [ 
in  one  part  and  at  another  time  elsewhere,  so  that  slack  : 
water  is  never  permanent  in  any  part  of  the  estuary,  and 
accretion  cannot  progress  for  a  long  period  without  dis- 
turbance. When,  however,  a  channel  is  permanently  fixed 
by  training  walls,  the  condition  of  the  estuary  is  com- 
pletely transformed.  The  flood  tide,  indeed,  conies  in  with 
its  burden  of  silt  as  before,  rising  sooner  up  the  improved 
channel,  and  therefore  dispersing  with  a  somewhat  gentler 
flow  over  the  rest  of  the  estuary.  The  ebb  tide,  however, 
is  mainly  concentrated  along  the  trained  channel,  especi- 
ally when  it  attains  its  maximum  scouring  efficiency 
towards  low  water.  Accordingly,  whilst  the  flow  in  the 
trained  channel  is  increased,  stagnation  occurs  more  or 
less  over  the  rest  of  the  estuary,  and  silting-up  inevitably 
occurs,  resulting  eventually  in  a  large  reduction  of  tidal 
capacity.  The  accretion,  moreover,  is  not  confined  to  the 
portion  of  the  estuary  behind  the  training  walls,  but 
gradually  creeps  down,  on  each  side  of  the  estuary,  for  a 
considerable  distance  beyond  the  ends  of  the  walls.  Low 
training  walls  hardly  rising  above  the  adjacent  sandbanks 
have  been  tried  with  the  object  of  preventing  this  accre- 
tion, but  the  improved  flow  in  the  trained  channel  and 
the  reduced  velocity  elsewhere  still  promote  accretion 
behind  the  low  walls,  and  the  deposit,  rising  first  along 
the  shores  of  the  estuary,  gradually  attains  high-water 
level  over  a  great  portion  of  the  area  at  the  back  of  the 
training  walls,  and  from  thence  slopes  down  to  the  top  of 
the  walls  on  each  side  of  the  channel.  Though  the  pro- 
cess of  accretion  is  less  rapid  with  low  training  walls,  the 
ultimate  result  is  only  delayed  and  not  prevented,  as 
clearly  manifested  by  observations  on  the  Seine  and  other 
rivers,  so  that  the  view  formerly  entertained  by  some 
engineers,  that  if  training  walls  were  kept  down  to  the 
level  of  the  existing  sandbanks  no  accretion  would  take 
place,  has  been  proved  to  be  erroneous  by  the  results  of 
experience ;  and  it  may  be  accepted  as  a  general  law  that 
training  walls,  whether  high  or  low,  inevitably  lead  to 
accretion  if  the  flood  tide  is  charged  with  silt. 
Remarks  The  most  careful  consideration  should  be  given  to  all 
retrain-  ^ne  conditions  of  an  estuary  before  training  works  are 
commenced,  for  when  once  begun  they  must  be  eventually 
carried  out  to  deep  water ;  and,  if  ports  exist  along  the 
shores  of  the  estuary,  they  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  the 
accretion  resulting  from  the  works  unless  the  trained 
channel  can  be  led  close  along  them.  The  training  works 
of  the  Seine  estuary,  though  very  advantageous  to  the 
inland  port  of  Rouen,  are  compromising  the  approach 
channels  to  Honfleur  and  Havre,  and  have  silted  up  the 
port  of  Harfleur,  so  that  the  extension  of  the  training 
walls  to  Honfleur  has  been  urged  in  the  interests  of  that 
port,  whilst  large  works  have  been  executed  to  preserve 
its  entrance,  and  a  new  direct  channel  into  the  sea  is  being 
proposed  for  Havre.  Though  the  training  works  on  the 
Dee  have  not  been  carried  out  hitherto  in  a  judicious 
direction,  having  been  formed  mainly  with  a  view  to  land 
reclamation,  it  would  be  advantageous  for  the  ports  of 
Chester  and  Connah's  Quay  to  extend  these  works  towards 
the  sea,  as  there  are  no  ports  below  the  present  limits  of 
the  training  walls  to  be  injured  by  the  effects  of  their  pro- 
longation, and  the  navigable  channel  would  be  much 
improved,  provided  the  works  were  carried  out  to  deep 
water.  The  training  walls  in  the  Ribble  estuary  must 
eventually  be  extended,  even  beyond  the  limits  at  present 
authorized,  if  a  good  navigable  channel  is  to  be  secured  to 
Preston,  but  these  works  will  produce  an  entire  trans- 
formation in  the  estuary,  of  which  large  portions  have 
been  already  reclaimed  as  a  consequence  of  the  works 
already  accomplished.  The  Mersey  estuary  would  need  a 
very  comprehensive  scheme  for  its  improvement,  owing  to 


falls. 


the  very  defective  natural  condition  of  the  estuary,  and 
the  situation  of  the  ports  along  its  banks.  The  mere 
training  of  the  channel  in  the  upper  estuary,  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  up-river  ports,  would  result  in  the  reclamation 
of  the  wide  estuary  between  Runcorn  and  Liverpool,  and 
thus  deprive  the  channels  between  Liverpool  and  the  sea 
of  their  natural  scouring  reservoir  of  tidal  water ;  whilst 
the  training  of  a  channel  below  Liverpool  out  to  the  bar 
would  necessitate  very  extensive  works  in  deep  water  and 
in  an  exposed  situation. 

Dredging. — The  improvements  effected  within  recent  Dredgh 
years  in  the  ordinary  dredging  machinery,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  the  sand-pump  dredger,  have  facilitated  and 
cheapened  dredging  operations  to  such  an  extent  that 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  river  improvements  have 
been  effected  by  dredging.  The  great  increase  in  depth 
realized  on  the  Tyne  and  the  Clyde  has  been  effected  by 
means  of  steam  bucket-dredgers  aided  by  hopper  barges, 
whilst  the  maintenance  of  the  entrance  channel  to  St 
Nazaire  on  the  Loire,  and  the  deepening  of  the  approaches 
to  Dunkirk  and  Calais,  have  been  accomplished  by  sand 
pumps,  which  have  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  work 
when  exposed  to  moderate  waves.  Dredging  merely  con- 
sists in  removing  material  from  the  river  bed  and  thus 
enlarging  and  deepening  it ;  and  the  extent  to  which  this 
method  of  improvement  may  be  carried  simply  depends 
upon  the  economical  consideration  as  to  how  far  the 
improvement  of  the  traffic  on  the  river  by  an  increase  of 
depth  will  afford  an  adequate  return  for  the  outlay. 
Dredging,  however,  furnishes  a  cheap  method  of  excava- 
tion owing  to  the  small  cost  of  carriage  by  water.  Dredg- 
ing, being  a  purely  artificial  means  of  improvement, 
generally  necessitates  regular  maintenance ;  whereas  the 
improvement  from  scour  effected  by  jetties  and  training 
walls  is  permanent,  being  realized  by  natural  means. 
Frequently,  however,  training  walls  and  jetties  are  supple- 
mented by  dredging,  for  the  walls  and  jetties  render  the 
deepening  by  dredging  easier  and  more  permanent;  whilst, 
on  the  other  hand,  dredging  enables  a  greater  depth  to 
be  attained,  and  even  maintained,  than  could  have  been 
effected  by  scour  alone. 

The  improvements  on  the  Tyne  and  on  the  Clyde  have 
mainly  resulted  from  very  extensive  dredging  operations, 
but  they  have  been  aided  by  training  walls  on  the  Clyde, 
and  by  the  Tynemouth  piers  on  the  Tyne,  which  protect 
the  entrance  channel  from  drift  and  the  dredgers  from 
waves,  and  concentrate  the  scour  over  the  bar.  The  three 
methods  of  improvement  described  above  have  been  re- 
sorted to  on  the  Tees  :  for  training  walls  have  been  formed 
through  the  wide  estuary  below  Middlesborough  for  fixing 
the  channel ;  converging  jetties  are  being  constructed  for 
sheltering  the  channel  from  wave-borne  sand,  and  for 
directing  the  scour  over  the  bar ;  and  dredging  is  being 
employed  for  deepening  the  trained  and  sheltered  channel. 
On  the  Maas  also,  and  at  Charleston,  dredging  is  being 
used  for  attaining  a  depth  for  navigation  which  the  jetties 
alone  were  unable  to  produce. 

River  Tyiie  Improvement  Works. 

The  Tyne  has  a  drainage  area  of  1053  square  miles ;  its  tidal  Plat< 
flow  extends  18  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  the  range  of  spring  figs. 
tides  at  its  outlet  is  14f  fret.  Being  by  nature  a  small  winding 
irregular  river,  with  little  tidal  capacity  and  no  estuary,  its  depth 
was  small  a7id  variable,  and  a  bar  existed  at  its  mouth,  which  opens 
directly  on  to  the  sea-coast.  The  first  improvement  works,  com- 
menced in  1843,  consisted  in  training  the  river  by  cross  jetties, 
subsequently  connected  by  low  training  walls,  so  as  to  regulate  the 
width  and  consequently  the  depth  of  the  river.  As,  however,  the 
volume  of  water  in  the  river  was  small,  the  scour  was  not  adequate 
to  eflect  a  great  improvement  in  the  depth  ;  the  bed  of  the  river 
between  Newcastle  and  the  sea,  in  1860,  was  in  many  places  above 
low-water  level ;  and  the  depth  on  the  bar  at  low  tide  was  only  6 
feet  (fig.  9).  The  piers  at  the  mouth  were  commenced  in  1856, 


RIVER      ENGINEERING 


579 


for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  tlie  removal  of  the  bar  and  for 
sheltering  vessels  entering  the  river,  and  were  originally  designed 
to  terminate  iu  a  depth  of  13  feet  at  low  water  ;  but  eventually  a 
larger  scheme  was  adopted  for  forming  a  refuge  harbour  in  com- 
bination with  the  improvement  of  the  river,  and  the  piers,  which 
are  still  in  progress,  are  to  extend  into  a  depth  of  30  feet.  In 
1861  extensive  dredging  operations  were  commenced  for  improving 
the  depth  of  the  river,  and  a  maximum  of  3,515,000  cubic  yards 
was  removed  in  1866  ;  the  work  has  been  regularly  continued,  and 
the  total  amount  dredged  since  the  commencement,  in  1838,  reached 
49,668,000  cubic  yards  in  1884,  being  an  average  of  nearly  2,000,000 
cubieyards  annually  since  1861,  when  systematic  dredging  operations 
were  begun.  The  improvement  in  depth  that  was  eifected  between 
1860  and  1884  is  shown  on  the  longitudinal  section  of  the  river 
(fig.  9) ;  and  the  deepening  of  the  river  between  Newcastle  and 
Hedwin  Streams,  a  distance  of  8J  miles,  is  in  progress,  being  carried 
on  by  six  dredgers.  The  river  has  also  been  regulated  by  making 
a  straight  cut  across  Lemington  Point,  and  widening  the  channel 
from  150  feet  to  400  feet  opposite  Blaydon  ;  the  obstruction  offered 
to  the  Tyne  by  the  old  Newcastle  Bridge  has  been  removed  by 
rebuilding  the  bridge  with  larger  openings  ;  and  a  sharp  bend  in 
the  river  has  been  eased  by  removing  the  high  projecting  rock 
at  Bill  Point  (fig.  8).  The  tidal  capacity  of  the  river  has  been  in- 
creased by  14,000,000  cubic  yards;  the  bar  has  been  lowered  14 
feet  since  1860  ;  and  the  least  depth  at  low  water  up  to  Newcastle 
is  20  feet,  and  18  feet  for  3  miles  above.  The  deepening  of  the 
channel  has  produced  a  very  beneficial  lowering  of  the  flood  line  in 
the  river,  thereby  preserving  the  adjacent  lands  from  inundation.1 
The  improvement  of  the  river  has  led  to  a  great  increase  in  the 
tonnage  of  the  vessels  frequenting  it,  and  a  large  development  of 
its  trade.  The  average  tonnage  of  the  vessels,  which  was  163  tons 
in  1863,  had  risen  to  396  tons  in  1883  ;  and  the  total  tonnage  of 
the  vessels  entering  and  clearing  the  Tyue  ports  rose  from 
4,382,000  tons  in  1863  to  13,043,000  tons  in  1883. 

River  Clyde  Improvement  Works. 

The  Clyde  is  a  small  river,  with  a  drainage  area  of  only  945 
square  miles,  and  a  tidal  flow  of  about  20  miles  ;  it  opens,  however, 
into  a  deep  well-sheltered  estuary,  or  arm  of  the  sea,  called  the  Firth 
of  Clyde,  and  is  free  from  a  bar.  The  rise  of  spring  tides  at  its 
mouth  is  about  10  feet.  The  Clyde  was  by  nature  an  insignificant 
stream,  with  numerous  hard  gravel  shoals,  and  a  ford  12  miles 
below  Glasgow  which  could  be  crossed  on  foot.  The  regulation  of 
the  river  by  cross  jetties,  and  the  removal  of  hard  shoals,  was 
commenced  in  1773.  Early  in  the  present  century  the  jetties  were 
made  more  uniform,  others  were  added,  and  their  ends  were 
eventually  connected  by  low  training  walls  which  were  gradually 
raised  as  deposits  formed  behind.  The  river  had  to  be  subsequently 
widened  to  accommodate  the  increasing  trade  and  a  larger  size  of 
vessels.  As  scour  alone  could  only  produce  a  very  moderate  depth, 
systematic  dredging  operations  were  commenced  in  1844,  and 
reached  a  total  of  28,648,000  cubic  yards  by  the  middle  of  1884, 
the  maximum  accomplished  in  a  single  year  (1878-79)  reaching 
1,502,000  cubic  yards.  Dredging  is -still  being  continued  with  six 
dredgers  in  order  to  maintain  as  well  as  deepen  the  river ;  for  the 
channel  up  to  Glasgow  has  been  deepened  so  far  beyond  its  natural 
limit  that  any  matter  in  suspension  which  enters  the  river  is 
readily  deposited.  Of  the  1,041,000  cubic  yards  dredged  in  1883-84, 
as  much  as  703,000  cubic  yards  consisted  of  deposit,  or  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  whole  quantity  removed.  The  river  has  a  depth 
of  24  feet  at  high  water  from  Glasgow  to  Port  Glasgow,  and  from  13 
to  15  feet  at  low  water.  The  tide  falls  8  feet  lower  at  Glasgow 
than  it  did  before  any  works  were  begun,  which  not  merely  adds 
to  the  tidal  capacity  of  the  river,  but  also  prevents  the  fresh-water 
floods  which  formerly  inundated  the  low-lying  portions  of  Glasgow. 
The  improved  depth  has  caused  the  average  tonnage  of  the  vessels 
frequenting  the  port  of  Glasgow  to  rise  from  199  tons  in  1863  to 
315  tons  in  1883  ;  whilst  the  total  tonnage  entered  and  cleared  has 
increased  from  1,757,000  tons  in  1863  to  5,544,000  tons  in  1883. 

River  Tees  Improvement  Works. 

The  Tees  was  formerly  a  very  irregular  winding  river  between 
Stockton  and  Middlesborough,  and  after  passing  that  town  it  opens 
out  into  a  wide  sandy,  estuary  about  6  miles  long  and  3  miles  across 
at  its  widest  part.  It  is  tidal  for  about  17  miles,  and  the  rise  of 
spring  tides  at  its  mouth  is  15  feet.  The  improvement  of  the  river 
between  Stockton  and  the  estuary  was  commenced  in  1810  by 
making  a  straight  cut  near  Stockton  ;  another  cut  was  made  in 
1830,  and  the  river  was  also  regulated  by  cross  jetties.  These 
works  provided  a  more  direct  channel,  and  increased  the  depth  by 
about  from  2  to  5  feet.  The  channel,  however,  between  the  jetties 
was  irregular  in  depth  ;  and  the  navigable  channel  through  the 
estuary  was  shallow  and  variable,  with  a  rocky  shoal  across  it,  and 
a  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Accordingly,  in  1853  training 
walls  were  commenced,  both  for  connecting  the  ends  of  the  cross 

1  P.  J.  Messent.  C.E.,  River  Tyne  Improvement,  1882. 


jetties,  and  also  for  guiding  the  channel  through  the  estuary. 
Dredging  was  commenced  in  1854  for  removing  shoals  and  deepen- 
ing the  channel ;  and  the  ridge  of  rock  across  the  estuary  channel 
lias  been  removed  by  blasting.  The  total  amount  dredged  up  to 
Oct.  31,  1884,  reached  13,145,000  cubic  yards,  and  a  maximum  of 
1,220,000  cubic  yards  was  dredged  in  1883-84.  Vessels  of  3000  tons, 
drawing  21  feet  of  water,  can  leave  Middlesborough  fully  laden  ; 
the  average  tonnage  of  vessels  frequenting  the  Tees  has  risen 
from  169  tons  in  1873  to  303  tons  in  1883;  and  the  total  ton- 
nage entered  and  cleared  has  increased  from  1, 212,000  tons  in  1873 
to  2,528,000  tons  in  1883.  It  is  proposed  at  present  to  deepen  the 
channel  by  dredging,  so  as  to  obtain  a  depth  at  low  water  of  12 
feet  up  to  Middlesborough,  and  10  feet  from  thence  up  to  Stock- 
ton ;  and  it  is  hoped  that  eventually  2  feet  additional  depth 
may  be  attained  by  the  same  means.  Two  breakwaters  have  been 
designed,  starting  from  opposite  sides  of  the  estuary  and  con- 
verging over  the  bar,  in  order  to  protect  the  entrance,  to  facilitate 
dredging,  and  to  keep  out  drifting  sand.  The  southern  break- 
water has  been  completed,  and  the  northern  breakwater  is  in  pro- 
gress. The  breakwaters  and  the  training  walls  are  constructed  of 
slag  obtained  free  of  charge  from  the  neighbouring  iron-works. 

Training  Walls  on  the  Tidal  Seine. 

The  Seine  has  a  very  winding  course  between  Rouen  and  the  sea,  Plate  V, 
as  well  as  in  its  upper  portion,  but  it  possesses  a  good  natural  figs.  10, 
depth  between  Rouen  and  La  Mailleraye,  a  distance  of  about  37  11,  12. 
miles.  Below  this  point,  however,  the  natural  condition  of  the 
river  was  very  unsatisfactory,  for  the  channel  through  the  estuary 
was  constantly  shifting,  and  high  shoals  existed  at  Aizier  and 
Villequier  with  a  depth  over  them  of  only  10  feet  at  spring  tides, 
so  that  vessels  of  from  100  to  200  tons  found  the  passage  difficult, 
and  even  dangerous  at  times.  Training  walls,  formed  of  mounds 
of  chalk  obtained  from  the  neighbouring  clitfs,  were  commenced 
in  1848,  and  were  gradually  extended  along  both  sides  of  the 
channel,  as  shown  in  fig.  10>  and  were  terminated  at  Berville 
in  1869,  a  further  extension  of  the  northern  wall  for  1|  miles 
having  been  refused  in  1870  for  fear  of  endangering  Havre.  These 
works  have  effected  a  remarkable  increase  in  depth  in  the  channel 
between  the  walls,  as  shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  longi- 
tudinal sections  of  the  river  in  1824  and  1875  (fig.  11);  for 
dredging  has  only  been  used  for  deepening  the  worst  shoals. 
The  improvement,  however,  ceases  beyond  the  termination  of  the 
works  ;  and  the  channel  between  Berville  and  the  sea  is  still 
changeable  and  shallow.  High  walls  were  for  the  most  part 
adopted  down  to  Tancarville  on  the  right  bank  and  to  La  Roque 
on  the  left  bank.  These  walls,  however,  produced  such  rapid 
accretion  behind  them  that  low  walls,  raised  only  from  3  to  5  feet 
above  low  water  of  spring  tides,  were  adopted  below  these  points. 
This  precaution,  however,  has  not  arrested  the  accretion  in  the 
estuary,  which  is  still  proceeding,  though  sixteen  years  have  elapsed 
since  the  works  were  stopped.  The  accretion  resulting  from  the 
training  works  had  reduced  the  tidal  capacity  of  the  estuary  by 
274,000,000  cubic  yards  in  1875  ;  and  a  survey  in  1880  showed 
that  a  still  further  loss  of  over  40,000,000  cubic  yards  had  occurred 
between  1875  and  1880.  More  than  28,000  acres  of  land  have 
been  reclaimed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  estuary,  as  shown  by 
cross  lines  on  the  plan  ;  whilst  large  tracts  have  been  raised  to 
high-water  level,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines,  extending  as  much 
as  8|  miles  below  the  ends  of  the  training  walls.  The  walls  were 
originally  merely  rubble  chalk  mounds  ;  but  the  bore  and  the 
currents  injured  the  mounds,  so  that  the  walls  are  being  strength- 
ened by  pitching  or  concrete  on  the  river  slope,  with  an  apron 
of  concrete,  and  piling  at  the  toe  (fig.  12).  The  regulation  of  the 
river,  by  bringing  deep  water  about  25  miles  nearer  the  sea, 
enables  vessels  of  about  2000  tons,  and  drawing  about  20  feet,  to 
pass  the  shallow  estuary  between  the  sea  and  Berville  at  high  tide 
and  thus  reach  Rouen.  The  prolongation  of  the  training  walls  has 
been  frequently  urged  ;  but  the  fear  of  injuring  Havre,  and  the 
difficulty  of  devising  a  suitable  channel  which  would  effectually 
serve  both  Honfleur  and  Havre  on  opposite  sides  of  the  estuary, 
have  hitherto  prevented  the  continuation  of  the  work.  The 
Tancarville  Canal  is  in  progress  for  connecting  Havre  with  the 
Seine  at  Tancarville  (fig.  10),  so  as  to  enable  river  craft  to  avoid 
the  dangers  of  the  lower  estuary  ;  and  the  canal  is  being  made 
so  as  to  be  capable  of  being  readily  converted  into  a  ship-canal 
if  the  growing  accretions  should  impede  access  between  Berville 
and  the  sea. 

Works  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Maas. 

The  Scheur  branch  of  the  Maas,   which  forms  the  most  direct  Plate  V. 
channel  to   Rotterdam,  gradually  silted  up  at  its  outlet,  so  that  figs.  13, 
vessels  had  to  seek  more  southern  and  circuitous  channels.     The  14,  15. 
length    of  the   deepest   channel   was   shortened   in    1829   by   the 
construction  of  the  Voorne  Canal,  but  even  this  course   became 
inadequate  for  the  increasing  draught  of  vessels.     Accordingly,  in 
1862  works  were  commenced  for  providing  a  new  direct  outlet  for 
the  Scheur  branch  of  the  river  by  a  straight  cut  across  the  Hook  of 
Holland,   with  fascine- work  jetties  for  training   and  maintaining 


r>so 


RIVER      ENGINEERING 


the  channel  across  the  sandy  beach  into  deep  water  (fig.  13)'.  The 
cut,  three  miles  long,  was  only  partially  excavated,  its  completion 
being  effected  by  damming  up  the  old  channel  and  directing 
the  Fresh-water  discharge  and  tidal  current  through  the  new  cut. 
The  scour  soon  deepened  the  narrow  cut  ;  but  some  of  the  sand 
washed  from  the  cut  settled  in  the  wider  channel  formed  by  the 
jetties.  The  cut  also,  being  scoured  deeper  than  the  adjacent  channel 
above  and  below,  was  not  adequately  widened,  and  consequently 
impedes  the  entry  of  the  flood  tide  up  the  river  (figs.  13  and 
14).  The  desired  depth  of  23  feet  at  high  water  not  having 
been  attained  as  anticipated  from  the  works,  dredging  has  been 
resorted  to  for  deepening  "the  outlet  ;  and  the  widening  out  of  the 
cut  to  the  proper  full  width  would  improve  the  tidal  influx.  The 
jetties  consist  of  fascine  mattresses  secured  by  piles  and  stakes  and 
weighted  with  stone  (  fig.  1  5)  ;  and  their  outer  portions  have  been 
kept  down  to  half-tide  level  to  promote  the  freer  admission  of  the 
flood  tide,  whilst  serving  equally  to  concentrate  the  latter  part  of 
the  ebb. 

Charleston  Jetties. 

late  V.  The  largest  jetty  works  in  the  world  for  lowering  a  bar  in  front 
gs.  17,  of  a  tidal  estuary  are  being  constructed  at  the  entrance  to  Charles- 
3.  ton  harbour  (fig.  17).  The  jetties  are  being  formed  after  the 

type  of  the  Haas  jetties,  with  log  and  fascine  mattresses  weighted 
with  rubble  stone  (fig.  18).  They  start  from  the  shore  about 
2£  miles  apart  and  converge  to  a  width  of  about  2000  feet  over 
the  bar,  which  stretches  across  the  entrance  to  the  harbour  at  If 
miles  from  the  shore.  The  object  of  the  works  is  to  concentrate  the 
tidal  and  fresh-water  current  from  the  land-locked  estuary,  having 
an  area  of  15  square  miles,  into  which  the  Ashley  and  Cooper 
rivers  flow,  and  whose  mouth  forms  the  entrance  to  Charleston 
harbour.  The  northern  jetty,  which  was  commenced  in  1878, 
attained  the  present  length  of  14,860  feet  in  1881  ;  and  the 
southern  jetty  had  been  carried  out  14,130  feet  towards  the  end  of 
1883.  The  outer  portions,  lying  in  the  direction  of  the  flood  cur- 
rent, are  to  be  raised  ;  but  the  inner  portions  are  to  be  kept  low,  in 
order  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the  littoral  drift  and 
thus  avoid  an  advance  of  the  foreshore,  and  also  in  order  to  admit 
freely  the  flood  tide.  Though  scour  has  already  commenced,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  aid  it  by  dredging  in  order  to  attain  a  depth  of  21 
feet  in  place  of  the  former  depth  of  11^  feet. 


Improvement  of  Tideless  Rivers. 

(eltas.  Tideless  rivers  on  entering  the  sea  have  their  velocity 
checked,  and  consequently  deposit  the  silt  which  they 
previously  carried  in  suspension.  In  process  of  time  this 
accumulated  deposit  forms  a  tract  of  low-lying  land 
protruding  into  the  sea,  through  which  the  river  flows  in 
several  shallow  channels  to  the  sea  owing  to  the  impedi- 
ments offered  to  its  flow  by  the  sediment  which  it  deposits. 
The  form  which  these  diverging  channels  assume  has  led 
to  the  term  delta  being  applied  to  the  mouths  of  tideless 
rivers  and  the  tract  of  land  which  they  create  (figs.  19 
and  22).  These  deltas  are  always  advancing,  and  con- 
sequently reducing  the  very  small  fall  of  the  channels 
through  them  by  prolonging  their  course.  The  rate  of 
advance  varies  with  the  amount  of  sediment  brought  down, 
the  depth  of  the  sea  in  front,  and  the  extent  to  which  the 
delta  spreads  out.  The  Rhone  delta  has  at  present  a 
yearly  average  progression  of  1  40  feet  ;  the  Kilia  mouths 
of  the  Danube  delta  have  been  estimated  to  advance  200 
feet  annually  ;  whilst  the  Mississippi  delta,  extending  220 
miles  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
four  thousand  four  hundred  years  in  forming,  which  would 
be  equivalent  to  an  average  annual  advance  of  264  feet, 
the  present  advance  being  about  207  feet  in  a  year. 

etties.  The  only  method  of  improving  the  outlet  of  a  tideless 
river  is  to  concentrate  the  current  flowing  through  one  of 
the  channels,  and  to  prolong  the  banks  of  the  regulated 
channel  into  deep  water  by  means  of  parallel  jetties. 

ateral        The  only  other  way  of  remedying  the  impediments  to 

mal.  navigation  at  the  mouths  of  tideless  rivers  is  by  avoiding 
the  delta  channels  altogether,  and  constructing  a  canal 
connecting  the  deep  river  above  the  delta  with  the  sea  at 
some  suitable  place  beyond  the  influence  of  the  river 
alluvium.  This  expedient  has  been  resorted  to  for  the 
trade  of  the  Rhone  ;  for,  though  the  discharge  of  the  river 
was  concentrated  into  a  single  outlet  by  forming  embank- 
ments on  each  side,  between  1852  and  1857,  which  shut 


off  the  other  three  outlets  and  extended  into  the  sea  at 
its  mouth,  the  increased  discharge  brought  down  the  whole 
sediment  of  the  river,  and  a  bar  formed  again  farther  out. 
Accordingly  the  St  Louis  Canal  was  formed,  between  1863 
and  1873,  going  from  the  head  of  the  delta  into  the  Bay 
of  Foz  beyond  the  limits  of  the  delta.  A  similar  plan  was 
proposed  for  the  Mississippi,  but  was  abandoned  in  favour 
of  the  jetty  system.  The  canal  constructed  by  the  emperor 
Claudius  for  connecting  the  Tiber  with  the  harbour  of 
Ostia  proved  a  failure,  as  its  outlet  at  Ostia  was  not 
sufficiently  removed  from  the  delta,  so  that  it  gradually 
silted  up  and  is  now  2  miles  from  the  coast. 

The  success  of  the  jetty  system  depends  upon  the  exist-  Require 
ence  of  a  littoral  current  to  carry  away  the  sediment  in  the  ments  o 
stream  conveyed  by  aid  of  the  jetties  into  deep  water,  or  Jetptv 
upon  the  gradual  prolongation  of  the  jetties  to  keep  pace  sy 
with  the  progression   of  the   delta.     The  outlets  of   the 
Danube  and  the  Mississippi  have  both  been  improved  by 
training  one  of  their  minor  delta  channels  into  deep  water  ; 
and  hitherto  the  depth  over  the  bars  has  been  maintained. 
In  the  case  of  the  Danube,  the  southerly  current  sweeping 
across  the   outlet  carries  away  a  portion   of  the  issuing 
sediment.     The  Mississippi  jetties  direct  the  discharge  into 
such  deep  water,  and  with  so  much  velocity,  that  it  may 
be  premature  to  decide  to  what  extent  the  maintenance  of 
the  depth  may  be  due  to  a  westerly  current  in  the  gulf  ; 
but  hitherto  from  one  cause  or  the  other,  or  probably  from 
both  combined,  the  bar  has  not  formed  again  in  front  of 
the  jetties. 

Sulina  Piers  of  the  Danube  Delta. 

The  delta  of  the  Danube  commences  about  45  miles  from  the  Pla 
Black  Sea,  and  has  an  area  of  1000  square  miles.  The  river  divides  figs.  1! 
into  three  main  branches;  the  northern  or  Kilia  branch  conveys  more  20,  2 
than  three-fifths  of  the  discharge,  but  it  forms  an  independent  delta 
near  its  outlet  and  is  consequently  unsuitable  for  improvement  (fig. 
19).  The  southern  or  St  George  branch  is  the  next  largest,  and 
possesses  the  best  channel,  but  it  divides  near  its  outlet  into  two 
channels,  which  are  both  barred.  The  central  or  Sulina  branch, 
though  narrower  and  less  good  than  the  St  George  branch,  and 
conveying  less  than  one-thirteenth  of  the  total  discharge,  possessed 
the  only  navigable  outlet  in  1858,  and  was  therefore  selected  for 
the  provisional  improvement  works  begun  in  that  year.  The  works 
designed  by  Sir  Charles  Hartley  consist  of  piers,  starting  on  each 
side  of  the  Sulina  outlet,  which  converge  till  the  width  between 
them  is  600  feet,  and  are  then  carried  parallel  across  the  bar 
(fig.  20).  The  piers  were  at  first  constructed  of  rubble  mounds 
with  piles  carrying  a  platform  strengthened  at  intervals  by  timber 
cribs ;  but  subsequently  they  were  consolidated  with  concrete 
blocks  (fig.  21).  These  piers  serve  to  concentrate  the  discharge 
across  the  bar,  and  increased  the  least  depth  at  the  outlet  from  9 
feet  in  1857  to  20  feet  in  1872,  a  year  after  the  final  completion 
of  the  works  ;  and  this  depth  has  been  since  maintained.  The 
sediment-bearing  current,  moreover,  is  carried  within  the  influence 
of  the  southern  littoral  current,  which,  diverting  a  portion  of  the 
deposit,  has  reduced  the  rate  of  advance  of  the  Sulina  delta  from 
94  feet  to  44  feet  in  a  year.  This  progression,  however,  will  event- 
ually necessitate  the  extension  of  the  piers. 

The  Mississippi  Jetties. 

Though   the   Gulf  of  Mexico   is   in   communication   with    the  Plat 
Atlantic  Ocean,  it  is  almost  tideless,  for  the  average  rise  of  tide  in  figs, 
front  of  the  Mississippi  delta  is  only  14  inches,  and  there  is  only  23. 
one  tide  in  a  day.     The  Mississippi,  accordingly,  is  a  tideless  river, 
and  forms  a  delta  which  has  an  area  of  12,300  square  miles,  and 
has  three  main  channels,  or  passes,  leading  the  discharge  of  the 
river  into  the  gulf  (fig.  22).     The  general  features  of  the  delta 
have  been  already  described,  and  the  various  schemes  for  improving 
the  outlet  referred  to  (see  MISSISSIPPI).     In  flood  time  the  river 
brings  down  in   suspension  2800   cubic  feet  of  solid  matter   per 
second  ;  and  before  the  jetties  were  commenced  the  annual  advance 
of  the  bars  at  the  mouths  of  the  passes  was  300  feet  at  the  South- 
West  Pass,  260  feet  at  Pass  a  1'Outre,  and  110  feet  at  the  South 
Pass. 

In  1874  Mr  Eads  offered  to  make  and  maintain  a  channel  28  feet 
deep  across  the  bar  of  the  South-West  Pass,  which  had  only  13  feet 
of  water  over  it.  The  South  Pass  is  narrower,  having  a  width  of 
from  600  to  800  feet ;  it  conveys  only  about  a  tenth  of  the  total  dis- 
charge of  the  river  ;  it  was  impeded  by  a  shoal  at  the  head  of  the 
pass  with  a  depth  of  only  15  feet  over  it ;  and  the  depth  on  the  bar 
at  its  mouth,  where  it  expanded  to  2  miles  in  width,  was  only  8 


K  I  V  — R  J  E 


581 


feet.  The  South  Pass,  however,  was  selected  by  Congress  for 
improvement,  partly  on  account  of  the  smaller  cost  of  the  works 
required,  and  partly  because  it  was  the  pass  which  had  been  pre- 
ferred by  a  previous  commission.  The  depth  of  the  South  Pass 
through  the  delta,  a  distance  of  about  13  miles,  was  30  feet ;  so  that 
the  obstructions  to  be  removed  were  restricted  to  the  head  and 
mouth  of  the  pass.  Dredging  had  been  tried  for  deepening  the 
outlet  of  the  South- West  Pass,  and  had  necessarily  failed  in  pro- 
ducing any  permanent  improvement,  for  sediment  soon  filled  up 
again'the  portion  of  the  channel  which  had  been  enlarged  beyond 
its  natural  limits  of  maintenance.  The  object  aimed  at  in  the 
South  Pass  was  to  contract  the  width  of  the  channel  at  the  head 
and  outlet,  so  that  the  current  might  be  forced  to  regain  its 
required  section  of  channel  by  scouring  out  in  depth  what  it  lost 
in  width.  At  the  mouth  of  the  South  Pass  this  result  could  be 
effected  by  concentrating  the  current  over  the  bar  with  parallel 
jetties,  thus  prolonging  the  banks  of  the  pass  artificially  into  deep 
water,  and  contracting  the  current  sufficiently  to  ensure  the 
requisite  depth.  At  the  head,  however,  of  the  South  Pass,  the 
conditions  were  more  complicated  ;  for,  as  soon  as  the  entrance 
channel  there  was  contracted,  a  portion  of  the  discharge  tended  to 
desert  the  impeded  pass  for  the  other  more  open  passes,  and  the 
head  works  by  themselves  would  therefore  have  deprived  the  South 
Pass  of  a  portion  of  its  natural  flow,  which  would  have  necessarily 
led  to  a  reduction  of  the  channel  below  the  head.  Accordingly  the 
entrances  to  the  other  passes  had  to  be  correspondingly  reduced, 
so  as  not  to  absorb  more  than  their  former  proportion  of  the  dis- 
charge and  thus  leave  the  discharge  through  the  South  Pass  un- 
diminished. 

The  works  consist  mainly  of  willow  mattresses,  which  are 
specially  suitable  where  osiers  are  abundant,  and  where  settlement 
on  the  soft  alluvial  bottom  is  inevitable.  The  funnel-shaped 
entrance  at  the  head  of  the  South  Pass  was  contracted  across  the 
shoal  into  a  uniform  channel,  800  feet  wide,  by  means  of  mattress 
dykes  ;  and  mattress  sills,  30  to  40  feet  wide,  60  to  70  feet  long, 
and  2  feet  thick,  were  laid  right  across  the  entrances  to  the  other 
two  passes  to  restrict  the  volume  of  their  discharge  to  its  normal 
amount. 

The  parallel  jetties  on  each  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  South  Pass 
consist  of  tiers  of  willow  mattresses,  100  feet  long,  from  20  to  50 
feet  wide,  and  about  2  feet  thick,  consolidated  with  rubble  stone, 
and  capped  at  the  outer  ends  with  concrete  blocks  to  secure  them 
against  waves  (fig.  23).  They  have  beeu  raised  to  flood-tide  level 
to  within  1000  feet  of  their  extremities.  The  east  jetty  is  2£ 
miles  long,  and  the  west  jetty  1|  miles;  they  terminate  at  the 
same  distance  out,  in  a  depth  of  thirty  feet.  They  are  placed  about 
1000  feet  apart,  and  are  curved  slightly  towards  their  extremities, 
so  as  to  bring  the  channel  at  right  angles  to  the  westerly  littoral 
current  in  the  gulf.  The  jetty  channel  has  been  contracted  to  a 
width  of  700  feet  by  mattress  spurs,  in  order  to  promote  the  scour 
in  the  central  channel,  which  was  lessened  at  first  by  leakage 
through  the  mattresses  owing  to  their  want  of  consolidation  from 
difficulties  in  the  supply  of  stone. 

The  works  were  commenced  in  1875,  and  completed  in  1879. 
The  channel  was  to  be  made,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  con- 
tract, 26  feet  deep  and  200  feet  wide,  with  a  central  depth  of  30 
feet.  According  to  a  survey  made  in  May  1884,  the  least  central 
depth  through  the  jetty  channel  is  33  feet,  and  the  width  of  the 
26-foot  channel  is  290  feet ;  and  beyond  the  jetties  the  least  central 
depth  is  31 -8  feet,  and  the  least  width  of  the  30-foot  channel  is 
70  feet.  At  the  head  of  the  South  Pass  there  now  exists  a  straight 
channel  with  a  minimum  central  depth  of  35  feet ;  and  the  30- 
foot  channel  has  a  minimum  width  of  275  feet.  There  is  now  a 
depth  of  30  feet  right  through  the  South  Pass. 

The  latest  surveys  indicate  only  a  slight  shoaling  beyond  the 
outlet,  showing  that  hitherto  the  accelerated  current,  being  pro- 
truded into  deep  water  and  aided  by  the  littoral  current,  has  not 
created  a  fresh  bar  by  the  deposit  of  its  sediment.  As  the  littoral 
current  cannot  be  expected  to  convey  away  more  than  a  portion 
of  the  sediment  brought  down,  the  material  must  be  accumulating 
beyond  the  outlet,  and  after  having  filled  up  the  deep  places  in 
front,  will  gradually  rise  beyond  the  ends  of  the  jetties,  where  the 
dispersed  river  current  will  be  unable  to  carry  it  away.  This 
shoaling,  however,  may  be  delayed  for  a  considerable  time  by  the 
distance  to  which  the  velocity  of  the  trained  current  carries  the 
sediment,  and  the  depth  in  which  the  sediment  is  deposited  ;  and 
when  it  becomes  prejudicial  to  navigation,  it  can  be  readily  removed 
by  an  extension  of  the  jetties. 

Conclud-  The  method  of  lowering  a  bar  at  the  mouths  of  rivers 
ing  re-  by  means  of  jetties  has  been  applied,  as  indicated  above, 
to  both  tidal  and  tideless  rivers  ;  but  the  systems  employed 
for  each  type  of  river  are  based  on  different  principles 
which  must  not  be  confounded  together.  A  tideless  river 
is  maintained  solely  by  its  discharge,  and  therefore  the 
more  its  channel  is  contracted  the  greater  is  the  depth 


marks. 


attained.  As,  however,  a  tidal  river  depends  largely  for 
its  maintenance  on  its  tidal  flow,  a  contraction  at  its  mouth 
checks  the  entrance  of  the  flood  tide  and  reduces  the  tidal 
flow.  The  contracted  width  between  the  Adour  jetties 
(fig.  16)  has  reduced  the  tidal  rise  at  Bayonne  in  spite 
of  the  openings  formed  in  them  for  the  admission  of  the 
tide;  and  the  narrow  width  of  the  cut  at  the  Maas 
outlet  (figs.  13  and  14),  whilst  affording  an  improved 
depth  in  the  cut;  is  prejudicial  to  the  depth  elsewhere.  A 
parallel  channel  with  high  jetties  is  suitable  for  tideless 
river  mouths ;  but  a  slightly  diverging  channel,  with  the 
outer  ends  of  the  jetties  below  high-water  level,  is  expe- 
dient for  tidal  rivers.  Converging  jetties,  like  those  of 
Dublin  and  Charleston  (fig.  17),  would  be  perfectly  use- 
less at  tideless  outlets ;  but  these  jetties,  by  not  being 
unduly  contracted  at  their  extremities,  and  by  being  kept 
low  towards  their  ends,  freely  admit  the  tidal  flow,  whilst 
the  increased  capacity  obtained  by  their  enlarged  form 
increases  the  tidal  scour  at  the  outlet.  The  comparatively 
small  improvement  in  depth  over  Charleston  bar,  as  com- 
pared with  the  magnitude  of  the  works,  may  be  due  to 
the  want  of  concentration  of  tidal  scour,  owing  to  the 
small  elevation  of  the  inner  portions  of  the  jetties,  which 
allows  of  the  dispersion  of  part  of  the  ebb. 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  training  tidal  rivers  is  so  to 
adjust  the  width  of  channel  that  the  free  admission  of  the 
flood  tide  may  be  secured  whilst  affording  adequate 
scouring  power  for  the  current.  If  the  influx  of  the  tide 
is  checked  by  a  sufficient  reduction  of  width  to  ensure 
improvement  in  depth  by  scour,  the  capacity  of  the 
estuary  is  eventually  reduced,  and  a  portion  of  the  scouring 
power  is  lost,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Seine.  It  is  better, 
therefore,  to  regulate  the  width  so  as  to  ensure  a  free 
admission  of  the  tide,  and  to  provide  for  any  deficiency 
in  scour  and  depth  by  dredging.  Deepening  by  dredging 
can  be  easily  and  economically  effected  to  any  desired 
extent,  as  shown  by  the  Tyne  and  Clyde  improvements ; 
whereas  tidal  capacity  in  an  estuary,  when  once  lost,  can 
never  be  regained. 

For  further  information  about  the  works  described,  reference  may 
be  made  to  Rivers  and  Canals,  by  L.  F.  Vernon-Harcourt ;  River 
Tyne  Improvements,  by  P.  J.  Messent ;  "The  River  Clyde,"  by 
James  Deas,  Proc.  Inst.  0.  E. ,  vol.  xxxvi. ;  ' '  The  Delta  of  the 
Danube,"  by  Sir  Charles  Hartley,  Proc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  vols.  xxi.  and 
xxxvi. ;  A  History  of  the  Jetties  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
by  E.  L.  Corthell.  (L.  F.  V.-H.) 

RIVIERA  OF  GENOA.  See  ITALY,  vol.  xiii.  p.  437. 
It  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Riviera  (Riviera  di  Levante  and  Riviera  di  Ponente),  which 
meet  at  Genoa. 

RIXDORF,  a  large  village  to  the  south-east  of  Berlin, 
and  practically  an  outlying  suburb  of  that  city,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  tramway,  is  chiefly  interesting  as  a 
foundation  of  Moravian  Brethren  from  Bohemia,  who 
settled  here  in  1737,  under  the  protection  of  King  Frederick 
William  I.  German  Rixdorf,  which  is  now  united  with 
Bohemian  Rixdorf,  was  a  much  more  ancient  place,  and 
appears  as  Richardsdorf.  in  1630  and  as  Riegenstorp  in 
1435.  The  inhabitants  of  the  united  community  (who 
numbered  18,729  in  1880,  though  only  3421  in  1852)  are 
engaged  chiefly  in  weaving,  in  the  manufacture  of  india- 
rubber  goods,  and  in  the  various  industries  of  the  neigh- 
bouring capital. 

RIZZIO,  DAVID,  a  servant  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots, 
was,  according  to  Buchanan,  a  native  of  Turin,  and  came 
to  Scotland  in  1561  in  the  train  of  the  Piedmontese 
ambassador.  He  entered  the  queen's  service  as  a  musician 
in  1564,  and  was  also  employed  by  her  as  private  foreign 
secretary.  He  was  murdered  in  1566,  as  has  been  related 
in  the  article  MARY  (vol.  xv.  p.  596). 

RJEV.     See  RZHEFF. 


5S-2 


R  0  A  — R  0  A 


ROACH  (Leuciscw  rutilus),  a  fish  of  the  family  of  Carps 
(Cyprinidae.)  and  of  the  genus  Leuciscus,  which  comprises 
also  the  Rudd,  Chub,  and  Dace.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
common  freshwater  fishes  of  Europe  north  of  the  Alps, 
and  extends  northwards  as  far  as  Lapland.  Its  pharyngeal 
teeth  are  in  a  single  series,  five  or  six  on  each  side.  The 
body  is  generally  rather  deep,  its  greatest  depth  being 
about  one-third  of  the  total  length,  the  caudal  fin  not 
included.  The  scales  are  large,  from  forty-two  to  forty- 
four  along  the  lateral  line,  seven  or  eight  series  being 
above  it,  and  three  between  the  lateral  line  and  ventral  fin. 
The  first  dorsal  rays  are  inserted  vertically  above,  but  not 
in  advance  of  the  root  of  the  ventral  fin.  The  anal  fin 
is  supported  by  from  twelve  to  fourteen  rays.  The 
general  colour  is  silvery,  in  adult  fishes  with  a  red  tinge 
about  the  lower  fins.  Roach  spawn  from  April  to  May, 
and  frequently  produce  hybrids  with  other  allied  fishes, 
such  as  the  rudd  and  the  bream.  They  never  attain  to  a 
large  size,  a  roach  of  1  £  ft>  being  considered  an  unusually 
large  fish.  As  a  food-fish  this  species  is  not  held  in  esteem ; 
but  by  the  pleasure  it  affords  to  a  large  class  of  humble 
anglers  it  rivals  any  of  the  freshwater  fishes  which  give 
more  pretentious  sport,  and  has  properly  been  made  the 
subject  of  a  special  work,  Tlie  Book  of  the  Roach,  by 
Greville  Fennell  (London,  1870). 

ROADS  AND  STREETS.  The  earliest  roads  about 
which  anything  definite  is  known  are  those  of  ancient 
>man  Rome,  one  of  the  oldest  of  which  and  the  most  celebrated 
ids.  for  the  grandeur  of  its  works— the  Appian  Way — was  com- 
menced in  312  B.C.  Roman  roads  are  remarkable  for  pre- 
serving a  straight  course  from  point  to  point  regardless  of 
obstacles  which  might  have  been  easily  avoided.  They 
appear  to  have  been  often  laid  out  in  a  line  with  some  pro- 
minent landmark,  and  their  general  straightness  is  perhaps 
due  to  convenience  in  setting  them  out.  In  solidity  of 
construction  they  have  never  been  excelled,  and  many  of 
them  still  remain,  often  forming  the  foundation  of  a  more 
modern  road,  and  in  some  instances  constituting  the  road 
surface  now  used.  It  is  consequently  possible,  with  the 
help  of  allusions  of  ancient  writers,  to  follow  the  mode  of 
construction.  Two  parallel  trenches  were  first  cut  to  mark 
the  breadth  of  the  road ;  loose  earth  was  removed  until  a 
solid  foundation  was  reached ;  and  it  was  replaced  by 
proper  material  consolidated  by  ramming,  or  other  means 
were  taken  to  form  a  solid  foundation  for  the  body  of  the 
road.  This  appears  as  a  rule  to  have  been  composed  of  four 
layers,  generally  of  local  materials,  though  sometimes  they 
were  brought  from  considerable  distances.  The  lowest 
layer  consisted  of  two  or  three  courses  of  flat  stones,  or, 
when  these  were  not  obtainable,  of  other  stones,  generally 
laid  in  mortar ;  the  second  layer  was  composed  of  rubble 
masonry  of  smaller  stones,  or  a  coarse  concrete ;  the  third 
of  a  finer  concrete,  on  which  was  laid  a  pavement  of  poly- 
gonal blocks  of  hard  stone  jointed  with  the  greatest  nicety. 
The  four  layers  are  found  to  be  often  3  feet  or  more  in 
thickness,  but  the  two  lowest  were  dispensed  with  on  rock. 
The  paved  part  of  a  great  road  appears  to  have  been  about 
16  feet  wide,  and  on  either  side,  and  separated  from  it  by 
raised  stone  causeways,  were  unpaved  side-ways,  each  of 
half  the  width  of  the  paved  road.  Where,  as  on  many 
roads,  the  surface  was  not  paved,  it  was  made  of  hard 
concrete,  or  pebbles  or  flints  set  in  mortar.  Sometimes 
clay  and  marl  were  used  instead  of  mortar,  and  it  would 
seem  that  where  inferior  materials  were  used  the  road  was 
made  higher  above  the  ground  and  rounder  in  cross  section. 
Streets  were  paved  with  large  polygonal  blocks  laid  as 
above  described  and  footways  with  rectangular  slabs. 
Specimens  are  still  to  be  seen  in  Rome  and  Pompeii. 
There  are  no  traces  of  Roman  influence  in  the  later  roads 
in  England,  but  in  France  the  Roman  method  appears  to 


have  been  followed  to  some  extent  when  new  roads  were 
constructed  about  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  A 
foundation  of  stones  on  the  flat  was  laid,  and  over  that 
two  layers  of  considerable  thickness,  of  larger  and  smaller 
stones,  bordered  by  large  stones  on  edge,  which  appeared 
on  the  surface  of  the  road.  In  1764  Tresaguet  set  the 
foundation-stones  on  edge  and  reduced  the  thickness  of 
the  upper  layers,  and  his  method  was  generally  followed 
until  the  influence  of  Macadam  began  to  be  felt.  A  French 
chaussee  with  accotements  still  retains,  some  resemblance 
to  the  old  Roman  roads. 

The  almost  incredibly  bad  state  of  the  roads  in  England  English 
towards  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century  appears  fromroa(l3> 
the  accounts  cited  by  Macau  lay  (Hist.,  c.  iii.).  It  was  due  J^.* 
chiefly  to  the  state  of  the  law,  which  compelled  each  parish 
to  maintain  its  own  roads  by  statute  labour,  but  the  estab- 
lishment of  turnpike  trusts  and  the  maintenance  of  roads 
by  tolls  do  not  appear  to  have  effected  any  great  improve- 
ment. At  the  time  of  Arthur  Young's  six  months'  tour 
in  1770  the  roads  would  seem  to  have  been  almost  as  bad 
as  ever,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  there  was  much  improvement 
up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  The  turnpike 
roads  were  generally  managed  by  ignorant  and  incompetent 
men  until  Telford  and  Macadam  brought  scientific  prin- 
ciples and  regular  system  to  their  construction  and  repair. 
The  name  of  Telford  is  associated  with  a  pitched  foundation, 
which  he  did  not  always  use,  but  which  closely  resembled 
that  which  had  been  long  in  use  in  France,  and  the  name 
of  Macadam  often  characterizes  roads  on  which  all  his 
precepts  are  disregarded.  Both  insisted  on  thorough 
drainage  and  on  the  use  of  carefully  prepared  materials, 
and  adopted  a  uniform  cross  section  of  moderate  curvature 
instead  of  the  exaggerated  roundness  given  before;  but, 
while  Telford  paid  particular  attention  to  a  foundation  for 
the  broken  stone,  Macadam  disregarded  it,  contending  that 
the  subsoil,  however  bad,  would  carry  any  weight  if  made 
dry  by  drainage  and  kept  dry  by  an  impervious  covering. 
Macadam  was  engaged  more  with  the  repair  of  old  roads 
than  with  the  construction  of  new  ones,  and,  though  it  is 
not  possible  to  agree  with  all  his  doctrines,  the  improve- 
ment which  he  effected  in  road  management  and  main- 
tenance was  great  and  lasting. 

Construction  of  Roads. — A-  road  should  be  as  short  as  possible  CON- 
between  two  points  to  be  connected,  but  straightness  must  often  STHUC- 
be  sacrificed  to  avoid  difficulties  and  expense  and  to  secure  good  TIONC-  , 
gradients.  The  latter  should  be  as  easy  as  practicable,  having  re-  ROADS 
gard  to  the  country  to  be  traversed,  and  it  is  desirable  that  there  Gradie 
should  be  a  ruling  gradient  than  which  none  should  be  stci-pcr. 
On  a  level  macadamized  road  in  ordinary  repair  the  force  which 
the  horse  has  to  put  forth  to  draw  a  load  may  be  taken  as  one- 
thirtieth  of  the  load.  But  in  going  uphill  the  horse  has  also  to 
lift  the  load,  and  the  additional  force  to  be  put  forth  on  this 
account  is  very  nearly  equal  to  the  load  drawn  divided  by  the  rate 
of  gradient.  Thus  on  a  gradient  of  1  in  30  the  force  spent  in 
lifting  is  one-thirtieth  of  the  load,  and  in  ascending  a  horse  has  to 
exert  twice  the  force  required  to  draw  the  load  on  a  level.  In  de- 
scending, on  the  other  hand,  on  such  a  gradient,  the  vehicle,  when 
once  started,  would  just  move  of  itself  without  pressing  on  the 
horse.  A  horse  can  without  difficulty  exert  twice  his  usual  force 
for  a  time,  and  can  therefore  ascend  gradients  of  1  in  30  on  a  mac- 
adamized surface  without  sensible  diminution  of  speed,  and  can  trot 
freely  down  them.  These  considerations  have  led  to  1  in  30  being 
generally  considered  as  the  ruling  gradient  to  be  aimed  at  on  first- 
class  roads,  though  1  in  40  has  been  advocated.  Telford  adopted 
1  in  30  as  the  ruling  gradient  on  the  Holyhead  road  through  North 
Wales,  and  there  are  only  two  gradients  steeper,  in  places  where 
they  were  unavoidable.  All  unnecessary  rises  and  falls  should  be 
avoided,  but  a  dead  level  is  unfavourable  for  drainage,  and  on  this 
account  1  in  100  to  1  in  150  is  the  flattest  gradient  that  is  desirable. 
Such  slight  rises  and  falls  are  probably  rather  favourable  than  other- 
wise to  ease  of  draught  by  horses. 

In  transverse  section,  roads  in  the  United  Kingdom  generally  Cross 
comprise  the  carriage- way,  a  space  on  each  side,  on  one  or  both  of  sectioi 
which  there  may  be  a  footpath,  then  the  fences,  and  outside  all 
the  ditches.  The  width  of  the  carriage-way  may  be  from  15  feet, 
which  allows  of  the  easy  passage  of  two  vehicles,  to  30  or  50  feet 


ROADS 


583 


iiick- 


fnr  roads  of  importance  near  towns.     The  side  spaces  may  be  from 

4  or  5  to  8  or  10  feet  wide  ;  wide  sides  give  the  sun  and  air  access 
to  the  road,  and  tend  to  keep  it  dry,  and  also  afford  space  for  the 
deposit  of  road  materials  and  scrapings.     In  cuttings  or  on  em- 
bankments the  transverse  section  has  of  course  to  be  modified.     The 
road  surface  should  have  just  enough  convexity  to  throw  the  wet 
off  freely,  and  a  very  moderate  amount  is  sufficient  when  a  good 
surface  is  maintained.     On  a  too  convex  road  the  traffic  keeps  to 
the  middle,  and  wears  ruts  which  retain  the  water,  so  that  the 
surface  is  not  so  dry  as  with  a  natter  section  which  allows  the 
traffic  to  distribute  itself  over  the  whole  width.     Telford  used  a 
cross  section  differing  slightly  from  an  arc  of  a  circle  in  being  more 
convex  in  the  middle  than  at  the  sides.     Walker  recommended 
two  straight  lines  joined  in  the  middle  of  the  road  by  a  curve, 
and  inclined  about  1  in  24  towards  the  sides,  the  objection  to  which 
is  that  the  flat  sides  are  liable  to  wear  hollow.     An  arc  of  a  circle 
is  often  used,  and  is  a  good  form,  but  on  the  whole  a  curve  more 
convex  at  the  centre  than  towards  the  sides  is  the  best.     The  rise 
in  the  curve  from  the  sides  to  the  centre  need  not  exceed  one- 
fortieth  of  the  width,   and  one -sixtieth  is  generally  enough  on 
well-kept  roads,  and  if  seven-eighths  of  the  total  rise  are  given  at 
one-fourth  the  distance  from  the  centre  to  the  sides  and  five-eighths 
at  half  that  distance  a  curve  of  suitable  form  will  be  obtained.     It 
is  generally  best  to  obtain  the  requisite  convexity  by  rounding 
the  formation  surface  or  seat  of  the  road  and  giving  a  uniform 
thickness  to  the  coating  of  stone.     When  there  is  not  a  kerb  there 
should  be  a  "  shouldering"  of  sods  and  earth  on  each  side  to  keep 
the  road  materials  in  place,  and  to  form  with  the  finished  surface 
the  water  tables  or  side  channels  in  which  the  surface  drainage  is 
collected,  to  be  conveyed  by  outlets  at  frequent  intervals  to  the 
side  ditches.     The  outlets  are  open  cuts  through  the  sides  or  drains 
beneath  the  footpaths.     The  side  ditches  should  be  deep  enough  to 
thoroughly  drain  the  foundation  of  the  road,  and  cross  or  mitre 
drains  under  the  road  communicating  with  the  side  ditches  may 
be  required  in  wet  soil.     A  thorough  drainage  of  the  subsoil  is  of 
the  greatest  importance,  and  it  is  economical  in  the  end  to  go  to 
considerable  expense  to  secure  it.     In  a  cutting,  or  where  there  are 
no  side  ditches,  the  surface  water  may  be  taken  off  by  gratings  and 
under  drains  beneath  the  side  channels. 

The  thickness  to  be  given  to  a  road  made  altogether  of  broken 
;ss.  stone  will  depend  on  the  traffic  it  is  intended  for.  On  a  good  well- 
drained  soil  a  thickness  of  6  inches  will  make  an  excellent  road  for 
ordinary  traffic,  and  Macadam's  opinion  that  10  inches  of  well-con- 
solidated material  was  sufficient  to  carry  the  heaviest  traffic  on  any 
substratum  if  properly  drained  has  proved  to  be  generally  correct. 
In  a  new  road  the  loss  of  thickness  during  consolidation  must  be 
allowed  for,  and  the  materials  should  be  laid  about  one-half  thicker 
than  the  coating  is  intended  to  be.  When  the  materials  are  not 
rolled,  a  thickness  of  3  to  6  inches  should  be  laid  first,  and  when 
that  has  partly  consolidated  under  the  traffic  other  coats  may  be 
added  to  make  up  the  full  thickness.  There  is  great  wear  and  waste 
of  the  materials  in  consolidating  if  they  are  laid  too  thickly  at  once. 
Inferior  material  is  sometimes  used  in  the  lower  part  of  the  road 
coating,  especially  when  the  surface  is  to  be  of  granite  or  other  hard 
expensive  stone.  Thus  flints  or  gravel  may  be  used  for  the  lower 

5  or  6  inches  of  a  road  to  be  coated  with  3  or  4  inches  of  granite, 
liudiug.  Telford  covered  the  broken  stone  of  new  roads  with  1^  inches  of 

gravel  to  act  as  a  binding  material.  Macadam  absolutely  inter- 
dicted the  use  of  any  binding  material,  leaving  the  broken  stone 
to  work  in  and  unite  by  its  own  angles  under  the  traffic.  An  un- 
sound road  may  be  made  by  the  improper  use  of  a  binding  material, 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  broken  stone  consolidates  more  quickly, 
and  without  losing  its  angular  form,  when  binding  is  moderately 
used.  About  one  half  the  volume  of  broken  stone  is  void  space, 
and,  as  the  results  of  examinations  into  the  composition  of  the  coat- 
ings of  roads  when  thoroughly  consolidated  prove  that  a  very  large 
proportion  must  necessarily  be  small  stones  and  detritus,  it  is 
much  better  to  give  some  portion  of  this  at  first  rather  than  to 
obtain  it  by  the  crushing  and  grinding  of  the  materials  by  the 
traffic.  The  binding  material — fine  gravel,  saud,  or  road  scrapings — 
should  be  spread  over  the  surface  after  the  broken  stone  is  laid  and 
not  be  mixed  with  it.  Uniform  consolidation  is  much  aided  by 
raking. 

Whenever  it  is  possible  a  new  road  should  be  finished  with  a 
roller.  The  materials  are  consolidated  with  less  waste,  and  wear 
and  tear  of  vehicles  and  horses  is  saved.  Horse-rollers,  if  heavy 
enough  to  be  efficient,  require  a  number  of  horses  to  draw  them  and 
are  cumbersome  to  use.  A  ton  or  a  ton  and  a  half  weight  per  foot 
of  width  is  desirable,  and  to  obtain  it  a  roller  4  feet  wide  must  be 
loaded  to  5  or  6  tons,  and  will  require  as  many  horses  to  draw  it. 
In  Great  Britain  horse-rollers  have  to  a  great  extent  been  super- 
seded by  steam  road  rollers  in  consequence  of  the  superiority  and 
economy  in  the  work  done.  A  15-ton  roller,  7  feet  wide,  giving 
upwards  of  2  tons  weight  per  foot,  can  thoroughly  consolidate 
1000  to  2000  square  yards  of  newly-laid  materials  per  day.  The 
materials  should  be  formed  to  the  proper  section,  and  not  more 
than  4  or  5  inches  in  thickness  ;  if  a  greater  thickness  is  required 


tolling. 


it  is  better  to  roll  two  coats  separately.  After  several  passages  of 
the  roller  any  hollows  must  be  filled  up  with  small  materials,  and 
the  rolling  must  be  continued  until  it  causes  no  motion  among  the 
stones.  When  -this  result  has  been  attained  the  binding  material 
may  be  added.  It  should  be  spread  dry  and  uniformly  in  moderate 
quantities  and  should  be  rolled  into  the  interstices  with  the  aid  of 
watering  and  sweeping.  Provided  that  all  the  interstices  in  the 
upper  stratum  of  stones  are  filled  after  the  stones  are  thoroughly 
consolidated,  the  less  binding  that  is  used  the  better.  By  using 
binding  in  larger  quantity,  and  before  the  stone  is  thoroughly  con- 
solidated, the  amount  of  rolling  required  is  lessened,  but  at  the 
expense  of  durability  in  the  road.  Watering  is  necessary  from 
the  commencement  of  the  rolling  unless  the  weather  is  wet,  but 
excessive  watering,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages,  tends  to  soften 
the  foundation. 

A  pitched  foundation  like  that  used  by  Telford  is  always  desir-  Founda- 
able  for  a  road  that  is  siibject  to  heavy  traffic.  It  consists  of  flat  tion. 
stones  carefully  set  on  edge  in  courses  across  the  road  with  the 
broadest  edges  downwards.  The  upper  edges  should  not  exceed  4 
inches  in  breadth,  to  hold  the  broken  stone  well.  All  inequalities 
must  be  knocked  off,  and  small  stones  and  chips  must  be  firmly 
pinned  into  the  interstices  with  a  hammer,  so  as  to  form  a  regular 
convex  surface,  with  every  stone  firmly  fixed  in  place.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  pitching  is  generally  6  or  7  inches ;  it  should  not  be  less 
than  4,  and  it  may  generally  be  thicker  without  any  sensible 
increase  of  cost.  At  least  4  inches  of  broken  stone  are  required  over 
the  pitched  foundation,  and,  when  consolidated,  6  are  always  suffi- 
cient. A  foundation  of  cement  concrete  6  inches  thick  was  used 
by  Sir  J.  Macneill  on  the  Highgate  Archway  (London)  road  on  a 
bad  clay  bottom,  and  common  lime  concrete  was  subsequently  used 
elsewhere.  A  bed  of  lias  lime  concrete  12  inches  thick  was  laid  as 
a  foundation  in  Southwark  Street  and  on  the  Thames  Embankment, 
but  it  is  too  expensive  for  a  macadamized  road  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances. Burned  clay,  gravel,  or  even  sand  may  be  usefully 
employed  as  a  foundation  oil  a  clay  bottom,  to  cut  off  the  road 
material  from  the  clay. 

The  qualities  required  in  a  good  road  stone  are  hardness,  tough-  Material 
ness,  and  ability  to  resist  the  action  of  the  weather,  and  these  are 
not  always  found  together  in  the  same  stone.  Limestones  possess 
another  quality,  that  of  furnishing  a  mortar-like  detritus  which 
binds  the  stone  together,  and  enables  it  to  wear  better  than  a 
harder  material  that  does  not  bind.  For  heavy  traffic  the  best 
materials  are  traps,  basalts,  greenstones,  and  syenite  ;  quartzose 
grits  and  cherty  sandstones  are  also  excellent  materials.  For 
moderate  traffic  the  harder  limestones  are  sufficiently  durable  and 
make  the  smoothest  and  pleasantest  roads.  Coefficients  of  quality 
for  various  road  materials  have  been  obtained  by  the  engineers  of 
the  French  "  Administration  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees."  The  quality 
was  assumed  to  be  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  quantity  consumed 
on  a  length  of  road  with  the  same  traffic,  and  measurements  of 
traffic  and  wear  were  systematically  made  to  arrive  at  correct  results. 
These  processes  requiring  great  care  and  considerable  time,  direct 
experiments  on  resistance  to  crushing  and  to  rubbing  and  collision 
have  also  been  made  on  673  samples  of  road  materials  of  all  kinds. 
The  coefficients  obtained  by  these  experiments,  which  were  found 
to  agree  fairly  well  with  those  arrived  at  by  actual  wear  in  the  roads, 
are  summarized  in  the  following  table.  The  coefficient  20  is  equiva- 
lent to  "excellent,"  10  to  "sufficiently  good,"  and  5  to  "bad." 


Materials. 

Coefficient  of  Wear. 

Coefficient  of  Crushing. 

Basalt          ... 

12-5  t 
14-1 
10-3 
7-3 
11-6 
14-5 
13-8 
14-3 
12-9 
9'8 
3-5 
6-6 

024-2 
22-9 
19 
18 
12-7 
15-3 
30 
26-2 
17-8 
21-3 
16-8 
15-7 

12-1  t 
8-3 
13-4 
7-7 
12-4 
7-2 
12-3 
9-9 
12-3 
14-2 
17-8 
6-5 

o!6 
16-3 
14-8 
15-8 
13 
11-1 
21-6 
16-6 
13-2 
17-6 
25-5 
13-5 

Porphyry     

Granite    

Slag    

Quartzite     

Quartzose  sandstone    

Silex     

Chalk  flints    

Limestone  

Stone  for  a  new  road  should  be  evenly  broken  to  a  size  that  will 
pass  every  way  through  a  ring  1\  inches  in  diameter.  For  repairs, 
especially  when  the  material  is  tough,  a  gauge  of  2J  or  2  inches 
may  be  used  with  advantage,  as  the  stone  covers  a  larger  surface, 
consolidates  sooner,  and  makes  a  smoother  surface.  Stone  is  best 
broken  by  hand,  but  stone-breaking  machines  have  been  introduced 
which  supersede  hand-breaking  to  some  extent,  especially  where 
large  quantities  of  hard  stone  are  to  be  broken.  There  is  always  a 
certain  amount  of  crushing  in  breaking  by  a  machine,  from  which 
softer  stones  suffer  more,  and  machine-broken  stone  is  never  nearly 
so  cubical,  uniform  in  size,  or  durable  as  stone  well  broken  by 
hand.  Broken  road  material  contains  about  55  per  cent,  of  solid 
stone  to  45  of  void  space.  In  a  well-consolidated  road  the  void  is 
filled  up  by  small  fragments,  detritus,  and  mud,  the  result  of  wear, 
and  specimens  of  good  road  surfaces  weigh  from  93  to  95  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  the  solid  stone  of  which  they  are  made.  In  the 


584 


ROADS 


coating  of  a  well-maintained  road  the  proportion  of  stones  of  various 
sizes  varies,  but  generally  from  one-third  to  one-half  is  found  to 
consist  of  detritus  under  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
there  is  a  very  constant  proportion  of  about  one-fifth  of  mud  and 
detritus  under  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  appears 
to  be  the  amount  necessary  to  fill  the  voids  between  the  fragments 
of  stone  when  compacted  together.  In  an  ill-kept  road,  from  which 
the  mud  is  not  removed,  the  proportion  of  detritus  is  much  higher, 
and  mud  may  constitute  nearly  one-half  of  the  coating.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  detritus  and  mud  are  kept  down  to  the  minimum  by 
constant  removal  from  the  surface,  so  will  the  road  be  able  to  resist 
the  action  of  wet  and  frost  and  the  wear  of  the  traffic, 
rear.  The  wear  of  materials,  resulting  in  their  gradual  reduction  to 
detritus,  is  due  to  the  joint  action  of  the  traffic  and  the  weather, 
which  cause  surface  wear,  wear  arising  from  cross  breaking,  and 
from  rubbing  of  the  stones  together.  When  there  is  no  movement 
in  the  body  of  the  road,  and  the  wear  is  confined  to  the  crushing 
and  grinding  at  the  surface,  it  is  the  least  possible  ;  but,  when  a 
road  is  weak  from  insufficient  thickness  or  solidity  on  a  yielding 
foundation,  bending  and  cross  breaking  of  the  coating  take  place 
under  passing  loads  in  addition  to  the  surface  wear,  and  the  effects 
are  aggravated  by  the  softening  action  of  water  finding  its  way  into 
the  road  through  cracks  formed  in  the  surface  and  by  the  disinte- 
grating action  of  frost.  The  wear  and  waste  are  thus  far  larger  than 
on  roads  of  sufficient  strength,  properly  maintained.  The  destruc- 
tive effect  of  wheels  is  greater  as  the  diameter  is  less,  and  to  a  much 
greater  degree  as  the  tire  is  narrower.  On  hard  and  strong  roads 
no  greater  width  of  wheel  than  4£  inches  is  useful,  as  a  wider  tire 
does  not  bear  evenly,  but  on  yielding  roads  a  greater  width  is  of 
some  advantage,  though  it  does  not  prevent  damage  from  bending 
and  cross  breaking  of  the  whole  coating  under  excessive  loads. 
A  good  deal  of  attention  has  been  given  by  French  engineers  to 
the  measurement  of  traffic,  wear,  and  the  consumption  of  road 
materials.  Without  a  knowledge  of  the  amount  of  traffic  accurate 
comparisons  of  wear  are  impossible,  and  an  account  of  the  traffic  on 
the  roads  of  France  is  taken  periodically  in  "collars"  or  horses 
drawing  loads,  and  in  the  weight  drawn.  Traffic  as  measured  by 
weight  drawn  has  of  late  been  observed  in  some  of  the  streets  of 
London  and  Liverpool,  and  has  been  reduced  for  comparison  to  the 
weight  per  foot  or  yard  of  width  of  the  carriage-way.  Wear  may 
be  measured  by  loss  of  thickness  in  the  coating;  but  the  loss  of 
stone  in  proportion  to  detritus  must  also  be  ascertained  before  all 
the  effects  of  wear  can  be  determined.  The  accurate  measurement 
of  wear  as  practised  by  the  French  engineers  is  a  complicated  process, 
and  it  must  suffice  here  to  state  that  measured  by  thickness  the 
wear  is  seldom  found  to  exceed  half  an  inch,  or  on  the  most  fre- 
quented roads  of  France  one  inch,  of  consolidated  surface  per  year, 
and  that  about  100  cubic  yards  of  good  materials  per  mile  per  year 
are  considered  as  the  average  consumption  under  100  collars  of  traffic 
per  day.  Observations  in  the  United  Kingdom  on  roads  well  and 
systematically  maintained  have  confirmed  these  results, 
fainte-  The  new  materials  may  be  added  to  the  road  either  in  thin  coats 
ance.  and  small  patches  year  by  year  or  in  a  thick  coat  consolidated  by 
rolling.  The  first  method,  by  which  the  wear  is  replaced  annually 
and  the  traffic  is  depended  on  to  work  the  materials  into  the  road, 
can  be  followed  with  excellent  results,  and  at  no  great  inconveni- 
ence to  the  public  under  proper  management  when  the  traffic  is  not 
excessive.  Considerable  care  in  the  use  of  materials  is  required 
that  none  may  be  unnecessarily  applied.  The  annual  employment 
of  one-fifth  or  one-sixth  the  quantity  which  it  would  take  to  cover 
the  whole  surface  one  stone  in  thickness  is  often  sufficient  to  replace 
wear,  and  it  will  then  take  five  or  six  years  to  coat  every  part  of  the 
road  if  it  is  covered  regularly.  It  is  therefore  important  to  apply 
the  new  materials  only  where  they  are  needed,  and  not  to  use  them 
where  the  road  is  already  sufficiently  thick.  The  irregularity  of 
wear  and  of  thickness  enables  a  good  roadman  to  judge  where  new 
materials  must  be  applied,  and  he  will  apply  them  in  small  quanti- 
ties wherever  weak  places  appear.  To  facilitate  this  the  materials 
should  be  placed  in  heaps  by  the  roadside  in  the  summer,  and  they 
should  be  carefully  spread  in  the  autumn  and  attended  to  after- 
wards to  ensure  consolidation  without  waste.  By  good  manage- 
ment a  large  quantity  of  materials  may  be  incorporated  in  a  road 
before  the  middle  of  the  winter  without  harassing  the  traffic,  and 
the  strength  may  not  only  be  maintained  but  increased.  On  a 
hard  strong  road  consolidation  may  be  aided  by  loosening  the  sur- 
face with  a  pick  ;  generally  only  the  margin  of  a  patch  need  be 
picked  up.  But  if  the  road  is  soft  or  weak  it  is  better  not  to  disturb 
the  surface  at  all.  Binding  may  sometimes  be  used  to  aid  con- 
solidation, but  it  is  seldom  necessary  if  the  materials  are  properly 
laid  and  attended  to,  as  the  coating  already  contains  detritus  enough. 
In  the  second  method  a  coating  of  materials  is  laid  on  at  once 
sufficient  to  endure  the  wear  of  several  years  with  such  slight 
repairs  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  a  good  surface,  and,  when  the 
wear  has  gone  as  far  as  it  can  be  safely  allowed  to  go,  the  process  is 
repeated.  Unless  the  wear  is  very  considerable  there  is  no  economy 
in  this  method,  though  the  convenience  to  the  public,  especially  in 
towns,  is  undeniable.  Consolidation  by  rolling  (after  the  manner 


already  described)  is  essential,  and  it  is  generally  desirable  to  loosen 
the  old  surface  to  ensure  the  incorporation  of  the  new  coating  with 
it.  Scraping  and  attention  are  required  between  one  coating  and 
another  and  also  slight  repairs  to  the  surface,  as,  however  well  the 
materials  may  be  laid  and  rolled,  the  wear  of  the  ordinary  traffic 
will  search  out  places  which  have  escaped  the  full  pressure  of  the 
roller  and  produce  inequalities. 

Besides  a  regular  application  of  new  materials  to  replace  wear, 
there  must  be  in  road  maintenance  on  proper  principles  a  systematic 
removal  of  the  detritus  by  scraping  or  sweeping,  which  must  be 
regarded  as  keeping  the  whole  coating  in  proper  condition,  and  not 
as  mere  surface  cleansing.  The  wear  should  also  be  reduced  as  far 
as  possible  by  providing  sufficient  thickness  to  carry  the  traffic,  by 
keeping  an  even  surface  on  which  water  can  never  stand  and  soak, 
and  by  good  drainage  both  of  surface  and  subsoil.  An  adequate 
amount  of  skilled  manual  labour  is  necessary  for  economy  of  main- 
tenance, and  this  and  the  constant  attention  which  is  required  to 
keep  a  road  in  good  order  are  best  secured  by  putting  a  man  in 
permanent  charge  of  a  defined  length.  In  the  autumn  and  winter, 
when  more  labour  is  wanted,  extra  men  should  work  under  the 
directions  of  the  permanent  road  labourer,  whose  knowledge  of  his 
length  of  road  will  enable  him  to  employ  them  to  the  best  ad  vantage. 

Concrete  macadam,  formed  by  grouting  with  lime  or  cement  Concret 
mortar  a  coat  of  broken  stone  laid  over  a  bed  of  stone  previously  and  tar 
well  rolled,  has  been  tried  as  an  improvement  on  an  ordinary  mac- 
macadamized  surface,  but  not  hitherto  with  much  success.  When  adara. 
cleanliness  is  of  importance,  and  great  durability  is  not  required,  tar 
macadam  or  bituminous  concrete  may  be  usefully  employed.  It 
is  sometimes  made  by  first  spreading  a  coating  of  broken  stone  and 
consolidating  it  by  a  roller,  and  then  pouring  over  it  a  mixture  of 
coal-tar,  pitch,  and  creasote  oil,  upon  which  a  layer  of  smaller 
stone  is  spread  and  rolled  in,  and  the  surface  finished  with  stone 
clappings  rolled  in.  More  usually  the  broken  stone  and  bituminous 
mixture  are  well  incorporated  together  before  they  are  spread,  the 
stone  sometimes  being  previously  heated.  The  lower  layer,  about 
4  inches  thick,  may  be  of  stone  broken  to  2^  inches  gauge,  and  the 
next  layer,  about  2  inches  thick,  may  be  of  smaller  stone.  Each 
layer  must  be  well  rolled,  and  when  perfectly  solid  a  thin  coating 
of  fine  stone  or  granite  drippings  is  spread  over  the  surface  and 
rolled  in.  Hard  limestone  is  found  to  be  more  suitable  than  sili- 
cious  or  igneous  rocks  for  this  material.  A  road  surface  well  made 
in  this  manner  will  last  several  years  under  light  traffic  without 
any  repairs,  and  it  can  easily  be  patched  when  necessary. 

Stone  Pavements.  — Early  pitched  roadways  consisted  of  pebbles  STONB 
or  rounded  boulders,  bedded  in  the  natural  surface  or  in  sand  or  PAVn- 
gravel.  The  next  step  in  advance  was  to  employ  roughly- squared  MESTB. 
blocks  ;  but  the  wide  and  irregular  joints  admitted  the  water  to 
the  subsoil,  and  the  mud  worked  up  and  the  stones  sank  irregu- 
larly under  the  traffic.  Telford,  who  was  called  upon  to  report  on 
the  street  pavements  of  the  parish  of  Hanover  Square  in  1824,  saw 
the  necessity  of  cutting  off  all  connexion  between  the  subsoil  and 
the  paving  stones.  He  recommended  a  bed  of  about  6  inches  of  Found 
clean  river  ballast,  rendered  compact  by  being  travelled  upon  for  tton. 
some  time  before  the  paving  was  laid,  but  he  subsequently  con- 
sidered that  nothing  short  of  12  inches  of  broken  stone,  put  on 
in  layers  4  inches  thick  and  completely  consolidated  by  carriages 
passing  over  them,  would  answer  the  purpose.  He  recommended 
paving  stones  of  considerable  depth  and  of  from  4£  to  6  or  7^ 
inches  in  breadth  for  the  greatest  thoroughfares,  and  he  pointed 
out  the  importance  of  working  the  stones  flat  on  the  face  and  square 
on  all  sides,  so  as  to  joint  close  and  preserve  the  bed  or  base  as 
nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  size  as  the  face,  and  of  carefully 
placing  together  in  the  same  course  stones  of  equal  breadth.  Many 
pavements  thus  laid  with  stones  of  considerable  breadth  still  re- 
main, but  experience  proved  that  it  was  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
broad  stones  having  a  larger  base  would  support  better  the  weight 
and  shocks  of  heavy  traffic  ;  on  the  contrary,  a  wide  stone  has  a 
tendency  to  rock  on  its  bed,  and  also  to  wear  round  on  the  top  and 
become  slippery.  To  obtain  an  evener  surface  and  a  better  foot- 
hold for  the  horses  the  stones  were  reduced  in  width,  and  in  1840 
a  granite  pavement  was  laid  by  Walker  on  Blackfriars  Bridge, 
which  may  be  considered  the  first  of  modern  set  pavements.  The 
stones  were  3  inches  broad  and  9  deep  ;  they  were  laid  on  a  bed 
of  concrete  1  foot  thick  and  were  jointed  with  mortar.  The  reduc- 
tion of  breadth  to  about  3  inches  was  generally  followed,  but  it  is 
only  of  late  years  that  a  concrete  foundation  has  been  employed  to 
any  great  extent,  the  frequent  breaking  up  to  which  streets  are 
subject  having  prevented  it.  In  London  a  foundation  of  broken 
stone  has  been  continued  in  the  chief  thoroughfares,  the  sets  being 
evenly  bedded  in  gravel  upon  it  and  rammed  with  a  heavy  wooden 
rammer.  Hard  core — a  mixture  of  broken  stone,  clinker,  brick 
rubbish,  and  old  building  materials — has  also  been  largely  used  to 
form  a  foundation.  In  the  northern  towns  of  England  cinders 
have  been  employed,  and  where  the  traffic  is  exceptionally  heavy 
a  pitched  foundation  of  stones  on  edge  has  been  laid  when  the 
sets  were  not  paved  upon  an  old  macadamized  surface.  The  con- 
crete for  a  foundation  to  a  paved  street  should  be  made  with  the 


ROADS 


585 


best  Portland  cement,  thoroughly  mixed  in  proper  proportions 
with  the  sand  and  gravel  or  other  materials  used,  water  being 
added  as  sparingly  as  possible.  A  thickness  of  6  inches  of  well- 
made  cement  concrete  is  sufficient  for  the  heaviest  traffic,  and  it 
can  be  cut  out  in  slabs  for  pipe-laying  or  repairs  and  can  be  relaid 
and  cemented  in  its  place.  To  obtain  the  best  result  a  new 
foundation  should  not  be  paved  upon  for  a  week.  A  foundation 
of  bituminous  concrete  is  sometimes  used  where  only  a  thin  bed 
can  be  laid,  in  consequence  of  there  being  an  old  foundation  which 
it  is  undesirable  to  disturb.  It  is  made  by  pouring  a  composition 
of  coal-tar,  pitch,  and  creasote  oil  while  hot  over  broken  stone 
levelled  and  rolled  to  the  proper  form,  and  then  spreading  a  thin 
layer  of  smaller  broken  stone  over  the  surface  and  rolling  it  in. 
It  has  the  advantage  that  it  can  be  paved  upon  a  few  hours  after 
it  has  been  laid. 

aterials.  The  best  materials  for  pavement  sets  are  the  hard  igneous  and 
metamorphic  rocks,  though  millstone  grit  and  other  hard  sedi- 
mentary rocks  of  the  same  nature  are  used  when  the  traffic  is  com- 
paratively light.  Excessively  hard  stone  which  wears  smooth  and 
slippery  is  objectionable  in  spite  of  its  durability.  Penmaen-Mawr 
stone,  which  is  much  used  in  many  of  the  large  Lancashire  towns, 
is  of  this  character,  and  its  use  was  discontinued  in  London  in 
consequence  of  its  slipperiuess  and  noise.  Guernsey  granite  (syenite) 
and  Mount  Sorrel  granite  (syenite)  have  the  same  nature  in  a  less 
degree,  and  in  London  Aberdeen  blue  granite  is  preferred,  as,  though 
it  wears  faster,  it  keeps  a  rough  surface.  Walker's  observations 
on  the  wear  of  tram  stones  showed  that  Aberdeen  granite  wore 
three  and  a  quarter  times  as  fast  as  Guernsey  granite,  and  in  the 
set  pavement  of  Blaekfriars  Bridge  it  was  found  that  after  thirteen 
and  a  half  years'  wear  the  Aberdeen  stone  had  worn  1 J  inches,  while 
the  Guernsey  granite  had  only  worn  one-fourth  of  an  inch  (equal 
to  '11  and  '019  inch  per  year  respectively),  or  that  the  former  had 
worn  six  times  as  fast  as  the  latter.  Observations  made  by  Mr 
Haywood  showed  the  general  rate  of  wear  of  Aberdeen  granite 
under  heavy  traffic  in  the  City  of  London  pavements  to  have  been 
from  '14  to  '23  inch  per  year.  The  rate  of  wear  of  Penmaen- 
Mawr  and  Carnarvonshire  sets  in  Liverpool  under  the  greatest 
traffic  is  stated  to  be  seldom  more  than  '02  inch  per  year.  A 
certain  proportion  between  the  depth  and  the  length  and  breadth 
of  sets  is  required  for  stability.  A  shallow  stone  is  more  easily 
tilted  tip  by  a  heavy  weight  coming  on  one  edge,  and  a  nar- 
row stone  has  a  tendency  to  turn  over  sideways.  The  length, 
measured  across  the  street,  must  be  sufficient  to  break  joint  pro- 
perly, as  two  or  more  joints  nerrly  in- a  line  lead  to  the  formation 
of  grooves.  For  the  softer  stones  a  breadth  of  4  or  5  inches  may 
be  adopted,  but  for  sets  of  granite  or  other  hard  material,  with 
which  the  joints  must  be  depended  on  for  foothold,  the  breadth 
should  not  much  exceed  3  inches.  The  depth  should  not  be  less 
than  twice  the  breadth,  and,  as  deeper  sets  weigh  more  and  cost 
more  than  shallower  ones  and  the  loss  by  wear  is  but  slight,  there 
is  some  reason  for  not  exceeding  the  minimum  depth.  Where, 
however,  the  speedy  relaying  of  a  street  pavement  is  of  more  im- 
portance than  a  saving  in  first  cost,  deeper  sets  are  used,  and  when 
they  have  become  so  worn  as  to  be  uneven  the  street  is  relaid  with 
new  sets  and  the  old  ones  are  removed  to  be  redressed  for  use  in 
other  streets,  the  sets  being  used  again  and  again  in  less  important 
streets  as  their  depth  is  reduced.  In  London  sets  3  inches  wide, 
10  to  15  long,  and  originally  9  deep  are  used  in  this  manner.  In 
Liverpool  sets  4  to  14  inches  wide,  to  average  with  the  joints,  5 
to  7  inches  long,  and  6  to  7£  deep  according  to  the  traffic  are  used. 
In  Manchester  the  sets  are  3  to  3^  inches  wide,  5  to  7  long,  and 
5  to  6  deep,  or  7  in  exceptional  situations.  Sets  should  be  well 
squared  and  not  taper  from  the  face  downwards  ;  both  joints  and 
face  should  be  free  from  irregular  projections.  On  a  concrete 
foundation  sets  are  generally  bedded  on  a  thin  layer  of  sand  or  fine 
gravel ;  sometimes  they  are  laid  in  a  bed  of  fine  cement  concrete, 
enough  of  which  is  spread  over  the  concrete  foundation  to  be  covered 
while  fresh  by  the  sets,  which  are  put  in  place  and  smartly  tapped, 
and  the  joints  are  grouted  at  once  with  cement  grout.  To  allow 
the  cement  to  become  thoroughly  set  it  is  desirable  that  traffic 
over  the  pavement  should  not  be  allowed  for  a  fortnight,  if  that 
can  be  arranged.  The  courses  of  sets  are  laid  square  across  the 
street,  no  advantage  arising  from  a  slanting  direction,  which  makes 
the  wear  more  irregular.  At  junctions  of  streets  the  courses  are 
laid  meeting  at  an  angle  at  the  centre  line  of  the  narrower  street, 
so  that  the  courses  may  not  run  in  the  direction  of  the  traffic.  On 
steep  inclines  the  sets  are  sometimes  slightly  tilted  on  their  beds, 
forming  a  serrated  surface  to  give  foothold,  "and  slate  has  been  in- 
serted in  the  joints  for  the  same  purpose.  The  water  channels  are 
_  formed  by  two  or  three  courses  of  sets  laid  parallel  to  the  kerb, 
lointing.  Joints  simply  filled  in  with  gravel  are  of  course  pervious  to  water, 
and  a  grout  of  lime  or  cement  does  not  make  a  permanently  water- 
tight joint,  as  it  becomes  disintegrated  under  the  vibration  of  the 
traffic.  Grouted  joints,  however,  make  a  good  pavement  when 
there  is  a  foundation  of  concrete  or  broken  stone  or  hard  core. 
Where  there  is  not  a  regular  foundation  imperviousness  in  the 
joints  is  of  great  importance.  In  some  of  the  Lancashire  towns 


the  joints  have  for  many  years  past  been  made  by  first  filling 
them  with  clean  gravel,  well  shaken  in  by  ramming,  and  then 
pouring  in  a  composition  of  coal-tar,  pitch,  and  creasote  oil.  The 
Manchester  pavements  are  good  examples  of  this  system  of  trusting 
to  impervious  jointing  to  prevent  unequal  settlement.  The  founda- 
tion, where  there  is  not  already  an  old  road  surface,  is  a  bed  of 
cinders  about  1  foot  thick,  over  which  are  laid  3  inches  of  gravel, 
which  are  thoroughly  consolidated  by  allowing  the  traffic  to  pass 
over  them.  The  sets  are  evenly  bedded  and  well  rammed  after  the 
joints  have  been  filled  with  clean  gravel,  ramming  and  gravel- 
ling being  repeated  till  the  joints  are  full  of  gravel.  The  mixture 
of  coal-tar,  pitch,  and  creasote  oil,  well  boiled,  is  then  poured  over 
the  surface  and  allowed  to  percolate  and  fill  up  all  interstices  in 
the  joints,  and  the  pavement  is  finished  by  covering  it  with  small 
gravel.  Joints  so  formed  are  impervious  to  wet  and  have  a  certain 
amount  of  elasticity ;  the  foundation  is  kept  diy  ;  and  the  pavement 
keeps  its  form  well  for  many  years.  The  objection  is  made  that  in 
hot  weather  the  composition  runs  from  the  joints  and  makes  the 
streets  unpleasant  for  foot-passengers.  This  sort  of  jointing  is  used 
in  Liverpool  and  some  other  large  towns,  where  the  sets  are  laid  on 
a  concrete  foundation.  The  elasticity  diminishes  vibration  and 
noise,  and  pavements  so  jointed  are  said  to  wear  better  than  others. 

A  curve  like  that  before  described,  flattening  gradually  towards  Cross 
the  sides,  and  having  a  rise  equal  to  one-sixtieth  of  the  width  of  section 
the  carriage-way,  is  a  common  cross  section  for  a  paved  street. 
Sometimes  the  rise  is  even  less. 

A  pavement  consisting  of  broad,  smooth,  well -jointed  blocks  of  Granit< 
granite  for  the  wheel  tracks,  and  pitching  between  for  the  horse  tramwj 
track,  was  laid  by  Walker  in  Commercial  Road  (London)  for  the 
heavy  traffic  to  the  West  India  Docks  in  1825,  and  similar  pavements 
have  been  successfully  used  elsewhere,  principally  for  heavy  traffic, 
in  streets  only  wide  enough  for  one  vehicle.  In  Milan,  Turin,  and 
other  towns  of  northern  Italy  tramways  of  the  same  sort  are  ex- 
tensively used  for  the  ordinary  street  traffic.  The  tractive  force 
required  is  small,  while  the  foothold  on  the  horse  track  is  good  ; 
but  the  tram-stones  are  slippery  for  horses  to  pass  over.  The  rigid- 
ity of  the  roadway  renders  it  more  suitable  for  slow  heavy  traffic 
than  for  light  quick  vehicles,  and  the  improvement  in  other  pave- 
ments has  limited  the  application  of  this  one  in  ordinary  streets. 

Wood  Paving. — Wood  pavements  were  introduced  in  England  in  WOOD 
1839.  HexagonaL  blocks  of  fir,  6  to  8  inches  across  and  4  to  6  PAVING 
deep,  were  bedded  in  gravel  laid  on  a  foundation  previously  levelled 
and  beaten.  The  blocks  were  either  bevelled  off  at  the  edges  or 
grooved  across  the  face  to  afford  foothold.  Other  wood  pave- 
ments were  tried  in  London  about  the  same  time,  but  they  soon 
got  out  of  order  from  unequal  settlement  of  the  blocks,  and  most 
of  them  lasted  but  a  few  years.  The  best  of  these  was  Carey's, 
which  consisted  of  blocks  6^  to  7^  inches  wide,  13  to  15  long,  and 
8  or  9  deep,  the  sides  and  ends  having  projecting  and  re-entering 
angles  locking  the  blocks  together  with  the  view  of  preventing 
unequal  settlement.  Pavements  on  this  system  were  laid  in  Minc- 
ing Lane  in  1841  and  in  Gracechurch  Street  in  1842.  In  the 
latter  street  the  blocks  appear  to  have  been  relaid  every  three  or 
four  years  and  to  have  been  entirely  removed  about  every  eleven 
years,  until  the  pavement  was  removed  in  1871,  to  be  superseded 
by  asphalt.  Experience  led  to  a  reduction  in  the  width  of  the 
blocks  to  4  inches  and  in  the  depth  to  5  or  6,  and  the  salient 
and  re-entering  angles  disappeared  from  the  sides.  With  these 
modifications  Carey's  pavement  remained  in  iise  from  1841  until 
after  the  introduction  of  more  modern  systems  in  recent  years. 
The  "  improved  wood  pavement "  was  first  used  in  London  in  1871. 
After  the  foundation  was  formed  to  the  proper  cross  section  a  bed 
of  sand  4  inches  deep  was  laid,  upon  which  came  two  layers  of  inch 
deal  boards  saturated  with  boiling  tar,  one  layer  across  the  other. 
The  wooden  blocks  were  3  inches  wide,  5  deep,  and  9  long  ;  they 
were  dipped  in  tar  and  laid  on  the  boards  with  the  ends  close 
together,  but  transversely  the  courses  were  spaced  by  fillets  of 
wood  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide  nailed  to  the  floor  and  to  the 
blocks.  The  joints  were  filled  up  with  clean  pebbles  rammed  in 
and  were  run  with  a  composition  of  pitch  and  tar,  the  surface  being 
dressed  with  boiling  tar  and  strewed  with  small  sharp  gravel  and 
sand.  In  this  pavement  a  'somewhat  elastic  foundation  was  pro- 
vided in  the  boards,  which  were  also  intended  to  prevent  unequal 
settlement  of  the  blocks ;  but  the  solidity  of  the  pavement  depended 
upon  its  water-tightness,  for,  when  the  surface  water  reached  the 
sand,  as  it  did  sooner  or  later,  settlement  and  dislocation  of  the 
blocks  under  the  traffic  arose.  Pavements  on  this  system  were  laid 
between  1872  and  1876,  and  were  kept  in  repair  and  relaid  from 
time  to  time,  but  about  1877  the  plank  foundation  was  abandoned 
for  a  foundation  of  cement  concrete. 

A  concrete  foundation  for  a  wood  pavement  appears  to  have  been  Founds 
first  employed  in  a  pavement  laid  in  1872  in  Gracechurch  Street  by  tion. 
the  Ligno-Mineral  Company.     The  concrete  was  of  blue  lias  lime  4 
inches  thick  formed  to  the  curve  of  the  road.     The  blocks  were  of 
beech,  mineralized  by  a  special  process,  3£  inches  wide,  4J  deep, 
and  7£  long,  with  the  ends  cut  to  an  angle  of  60°,  so  that  each  block 
might  derive  support  from  the  next  one.     They  were  laid  with  the 

XX.  —  74 


586 


ROADS 


ends  inclining  in  opposite  directions  in  alternate  courses.  The 
upper  edges  of  the  blocks  were  chamfered,  and  there  was  a  cham- 
fered groove  near  the  bottom.  In  a  few  years  this  form  of  block 
was  abandoned  for  rectangular  blocks,  and  mineralized  fir  was  sub- 
stituted for  beech.  The  blocks  were  bedded  in  Portland  cement 
and  laid  with  joints  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide,  partly  filled  with 
asphalt  and  then  grouted  with  mortar.  The  adoption  of  a  bed 
of  concrete  as  the  weight-bearing  foundation  of  the  road  marks  a 
new  departure,  and  in  all  the  more  recent  systems  of  wood  pave- 
ment a  substantial  foundation  of  concrete  is  an  essential  feature. 
In  Norwich,  however,  a  large  quantity  of  wood  pavement  has  been 
laid  on  the  old  street  foundation,  the  blocks  being  bedded  in  gravel 
and  sand  and  rammed,  and  the  joints  grouted  with  lime  and  sand. 
The  experience  of  from  four  to  seven  years  has  proved  the  pavements 
to  be  successful,  but  the  foundation  is  exceptionally  dry  and  hard 
and  the  traffic  not  very  heavy.  With  a  concrete  foundation  there 
is  no  reason  for  complicated  shapes  and  contrivances  for  locking 
the  blocks  together  ;  and  wood  pavements  in  their  modern  form 
consist  of  rectangular  blocks  (obtained  by  cutting  off  the  end  of  a 
deal  plank),  bedded  on  the  concrete  with  the  fibres  of  the  wood 
vertical,  thus  constituting  a  slightly  elastic  wearing  surface  on  a 
rigid  foundation,  by  which  the  weight  of  the  traffic  is  borne.  There 
is,  however,  considerable  variation  in  the  method  of  bedding  and 
jointing  the  blocks.  The  Asphaltic  Wood  Pavement  Company  laid 
half  an  inch  of  asphalt  upon  the  concrete,  and  formed  the  lower 
part  of  the  joint  of  asphalt  and  the  upper  part  of  a  grout  of  Port- 
laud  cement  and  gravel,  the  advantage  claimed  being  a  slightly 
elastic  bed  for  the  blocks  and  water-tight  joints.  The  blocks  have 
been  laid  in  unset  cement  over  the  concrete  and  rammed  to  an  even 
surface  ;  but  the  ramming  is  liable  to  split  the  blocks,  and  the 
indentations  formed  in  the  cement  surface  of  the  foundation  have 
to  be  removed  when  the  time  comes  for  renewing  the  blocks.  It 
is  now  more  usual  to  bed  the  blocks  directly  on  the  concrete,  a 
smooth  surface  being  formed  either  with  the  concrete  itself  or  by 
a  floating  of  cement,  and  to  fill  the  joints  with  a  grout  of  cement 
and  gravel.  A  cement  joint  adheres  to  the  blocks,  resists  wet, 
and  does  not  wear  down  too  much  below  the  surface  of  the  wood, 
snson  and  so  form  a  receptacle  for  mud.  In  Hensoii's  system,  which 
ee-  has  been  largely  used,  the  blocks  are  bedded  and  jointed  with 
int.  ordinary  roofing  felt,  a  strip  of  which,  cut  to  a  width  equal  to  the 
depth  of  the  blocks,  is  placed  between  every  two  courses.  The  joint 
is  made  as  close  as  possible  by  driving  up  the  blocks  as  every  eight 
or  ten  courses  are  laid  with  heavy  mallets, — a  plank  being  laid  along 
the  face  of  the  work.  A  perfectly  close  and  slightly  elastic  joint  is 
thus  formed.  A  continuous  layer  of  felt  is  likewise  laid  over  the 
concrete  foundation  to  give  a  slightly  elastic  bed  to  the  blocks.  A 
V-shaped  groove  along  the  centre  of  every  fourth  block  was  at 
first  considered  necessaiy  for  foothold,  but  its  use  has  been  dis- 
continued except  on  gradients  steeper  than  1  in  30.  The  surface 
of  the  pavement  is  dressed  over  with  a  hot  bituminous  compound, 
and  covered  with  fine  clean  grit.  This  method  of  laying  a  wood 
pavement,  although  somewhat  more  expensive,  is  probably  the 
best  that  has  hitherto  been  devised  for  smoothness  and  durability. 
The  blocks  are  laid  in  courses  across  the  streets,  any  change  in 
the  direction  of  the  latter  being  accommodated  by  shorter  courses 
ending  with  wedge-shaped  blocks.  At  street  junctions  the  courses 
are  laid  diagonally,  or  meeting  at  right  angles.  Two  or  three 
courses  are  laid  parallel  with  the  kerb  to  form  a  water  channel. 
The  blocks  may  be  laid  close  end  to  end  across  the  street  if  some 
allowance  be  made  for  expansion  by  wet,  without  which  the  kerb- 
stones and  footways  will  be  displaced,  or  the  courses  will  be  bent 
in  reversed  curves.  To  afford  relief  the  joints  of  the  courses  parallel 
to  the  kerb  may  be  left  open,  or  the  course  next  the  kerb  may  be 
left  out  until  expansion  has  ceased,  the  space  being  temporarily 
filled  in  with  sand.  In  the  direction  of  the  traffic,  joints  more  or 
less  wide  are  generally  thought  necessary  for  foothold.  A  wide 
joint  allows  the  fibres  of  the  wood  to  spread  and  give  way  at  the 
upper  corner  of  the  blocks  for  want  of  lateral  support,  and  it  also 
forms  a  receptacle  for  mud  and  wet  Experience  has  shown  that 
the  space  of  three -fourths  of  an  inch  or  one  inch,  once  thought 
necessary  for  foothold,  may  safely  be  reduced  to  one -fourth  or 
three -eighths  of  an  inch.  For  spacing  the  courses  to  form  the 
joints  strips  of  wood  of  the  proper  thickness  may  be  laid  in  and 
removed  before  the  joints  are  filled,  or  they  may  be  nailed  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  blocks.  Two  fillets  have  been  nailed  on,  or  three 
cast-iron  studs  fixed  in  the  sides  of  each  block  to  keep  them  steady 
in  place  until  the  joints  are  filled  and  thoroughly  set.  The  latter 
method  secures  more  uniformity  in  the  width  of  the  joints, 
aterials.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  material  for  a 
wood  pavement.  Pitch  pine  and  the  harder  red  and  yellow  deals 
are  the  most  durable,  but  they  are  less  elastic  than  the  softer  woods, 
and  are  apt  to  wear  slippery.  Soft  white  woods  have  been  recom- 
mended for  the  sake  of  a  more  elastic  surface  ;  but  on  the  whole 
either  Memel  or  Swedish  yellow  deal  is  generally  considered  the  best 
material.  Whatever  wood  is  used,  it  should  be  sound,  close-grained, 
even  in  quality,  free  from  knots  and  sap,  and  from  the  blue  tinge 
which  is  a  sign  of  incipient  decay.  After  the  blocks  are  cut,  all 


those  that  are  unsound,  knotty,  or  badly  shaped  should  bo  rnre- 
f'ully  rejected,  as  defective  blocks  soon  cause  holes  in  the  surface 
and  must  be  replaced,  or  the  adjoining  blocks  will  suffer  undue 
wear  and  the  surface  become  irregular.  The  breadth  of  the  blocks 
never  now  exceeds  4  inches,  and  it  is  generally  3,  the  length  being 
determined  by  the  breadth  of  the  deal  or  batten  from  which  they 
are  cut.  The  depth  is  usually  5  or  6  inches  ;  5  inches  are  con- 
sidered by  many  to  be  enough  to  give  sufficient  depth  for  as  long 
as  the  pavement  will  retain  a  sufficiently  good  surface  without 
renewing  the  wood,  and  blocks  of  that  depth  have  been  laid  in 
many  London  streets.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  advantage  is  derived 
from  creasoting  or  from  dipping  the  blocks  in  creasote  oil  or  coal 
tar.  Dipping  affords  a  cover  for  the  use  of  defective  or  inferior 
Avood,  and  thorough  creasoting,  though  it  preserves  the  wood  from 
decay,  has  little  or  no  influence  on  the  wear,  which  in  almost  all 
cases  determines  the  life  of  the  blocks. 

With  a  curved  cross  section  like  that  already  described  a  rise  Cross 
from  the  mean  level  of  the  channels  to  the  crown  of  the  road  equal  sectio 
to  one-sixtieth  or  one-seventieth  of  the  width  of  the  carriage-way 
is  enough.     The  necessary  profile  must  be  accurately  given  to  the 
concrete  foundation  when  wet.     Wooden  moulds  or  templates  are 
fixed  across  the  street  10  or  12  feet  apart,  over  which  a  straight 
batten  is  worked  to  give  the  concrete  the  required  form  and  a 
smooth  surface.     The  moulds  are  removed  when  the  concrete  is 

fartially  set  and  the  spaces  are  made  good  with  cement  mortar, 
n  a  level  street  provision  should  be  made  in  the  foundation  for  a  Founda- 
fall  in  the  side  channels  towards  the  gullies  of  not  less  than  1  in  tion. 
150,  and  the  necessary  modifications  of  cross  section  at  the  inter- 
section of  streets  must  also  be  provided  for.  Every  care  should  be 
taken  to  ensure  a  good  homogeneous  concrete  for  the  foundation, 
as  upon  that  the  strength  of  the  road  depends.  With  a  well-made 
Portland  cement  concrete  a  thickness  of  6  inches  is  sufficient.  It 
should  be  allowed  to  set  thoroughly  before  the  blocks  are  laid, 
and  traffic  should  not  be  allowed  to  pass  over  it  for  a  week.  The 
finished  pavement  should  be  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  sharp 
grit,  which  is  forced  into  the  wood  by  the  traffic  and  forms  a  hard 
face.  Several  applications  of  grit  are  desirable  at  first,  and  from 
time  to  time  afterwards,  both  as  a  protection  to  the  wood  and  to 
prevent  slipperiness.  Systematic  cleansing  is  required  to  prevent 
slipperiness  and  foul  smells,  and  to  preserve  the  pavement.  Cleans- 
ing may  be  aided  by  washing,  and  when  it  is  thoroughly  carried 
out  but  little  watering  is  required  to  keep  down  the  dust.  A  wood 
pavement  is  the  quietest  for  the  residents,  pleasant  to  travel  over, 
and  favourable  to  the  wear  of  vein  nles.  Traction  on  it  is  easy  and 
foothold  good,  so  that  it  may  be  laid  on  gradients  as  steep  as  1  in  20. 

The  wear  of  wood  pavements  in  London  is  stated  by  Mr  Stayton 
to  be  from  '065  inch  per  year  in  Sloane  Street,  with  a  traffic  of  279 
tons  per  yard  of  width  per  day,  to  '456  inch  per  year  in  Fleet  Street, 
with  a  traffic  of  1360  tons  per  yard  of  width  per  day.  Reduced  to 
a  standard  of  traffic  of  750  tons  per  yard  per  day,  the  comparative 
annual  wear  becomes  '175  in  the  former  and  '251  in  the  latter  street. 
In  Parliament  Street,  Westminster,  blocks  removed  after  four  years 
in  places  where  patching  was  required  had  lost  1^  to  1£  inches  in 
thickness,  equal  to  one-third  of  an  inch  per  year  under  traffic  stated 
to  be  1106  tons  per  yard  of  width  per  day.  From  information 
afforded  by  Mr  Haywood  it  appears  that  in  the  City  of  London 
under  traffic  of  from  300  to  660  vehicles  per  yard  of  width  per 
day  of  12  hours  the  wear  is  from  '2  to  -3  inch  per  year,  and  that  in 
King  William  Street,  London  Bridge,  under  a  traffic  of  about  1200 
vehicles  per  yard  of  width  in  12  hours  the  wear  was  found  to  be 
2|  inches  in  3|  years  in  the  middle  of  the  road,  or  '81  inch  per  year. 
This  is  the  heaviest  traffic  to  which  wood  pavement  has  been  sub- 
jected. The  wear  is  generally  considered  to  be  as  much  due  to  the 
horses'  feet  as  to  the  wheels,  and  the  action  of  the  former  is  more 
destructive  on  steep  gradients.  Towards  the  end  of  the  life  of  the 
blocks  the  wear  is  more  rapid  than  at  first.  Few  wood  pavements 
retain  a  sufficiently  good  surface  after  about  six  years'  wear  without 
extensive  repairs,  and  it  is  probably  not  advantageous  to  lay  blocks 
of  a  greater  depth  than  will  provide  for  a  duration  of  seven  years  ; 
5  inches  are  almost  always  sufficient  for  this. 

Wood  pavements  of  plain  blocks  on  a  cement  concrete  bed  are  Cost, 
now  (1885)  laid  at  from  10s.  6d.  to  12s.  6d.  per  square  yard,  a  con- 
siderable reduction  on  the  prices  paid  for  patented  systems  a  few 
years  ago.  Of  the  above  prices  2s.  3d.  to  3s.  9d.  is  the  cost  of  the 
foundation,  which  does  not  require  renewal  like  the  blocks.  As- 
suming the  average  life  of  the  latter  to  be  seven  years,  Mr  Stayton 
estimates  the  annual  cost  of  wood  paving  in  Chelsea  with  a  traffic 
of  500  to  750  tons  per  yard  of  width  per  day  to  be  Is.  9d.  per  square 
yard,  which  includes  the  cost  of  original  construction,  repairs  and 
renewals,  and  interest,  spread  over  fifteen  years.  Cleansing  and 
sanding  are  estimated  to  cost  5d.  per  square  yard  in  addition. 

Asphalt  Paving. — Asphalt  was  first  used  for  street  paving  in  As: 
Paris  in  1854.     It  was  introduced  in  London  in  1869,  when  Thread-  PAVING 
needle  Street  was  paved  by  the  Val  de  Travers  Asphalt  Company,.. 
and  since  then  it  has  been  extensively  used  for  paving  both  streets 
and  footways.     The  material  is  a  hard  limestone  impregnated  with 
bitumen  in  the  proportion  of  from  6  to  8  per  cent,  in  the  Seyssel 


ROADS 


587 


rock,  and  from  10  to  12  in  that  from  Val  de  Travers.  Asphalts  con- 
taining less  than  the  former  proportion  have  not  sufficient  coher- 
ence for  street  pavements,  and  those  containing  more  than  the 
latter  proportion  soften  from  heat  in  the  summer.  Asphalt  is 
employed  either  as  a  mastic  or  compressed.  The  mastic  is  pre- 
viously prepared  in  cakes  and  is  melted  for  use  in  caldrons  with  a 
small  quantity  of  bitumen,  and  for  a  street  pavement  is  thoroughly 
mixed  with  sand  or  grit.  It  is  spread  in  one  thickness  on  a  concrete 
foundation,  covered  with  sand,  and  beaten  to  an  even  surface.  This 
material  has  not  proved  so  successful  for  street  surfaces  as  com- 
pressed asphalt.  To  produce  this  the  rock  asphalt,  previously 
reduced  to  a  fine  powder  by  mechanical  means,  is  heated  in  revolv- 
ing ovens  to  from  '220"  to  250°,  spread  while  still  hot,  and  compressed 
into  a  solid  mass  by  hot  disk -shaped  rammers,  and  afterwards 
smoothed  with  irons  heated  to  a  dull  redness.  The  original  rock  is 
thus  as  it  were  reconstructed  by  taking  advantage  of  the  power  of 
coherence  of  the  molecules  under  pressure  when  hot.  In  heating 
the  powder  the  moisture  combined  in  the  limestone  must  be  driven 
o!f  without  reducing  the  proportion  of  the  bitumen  more  than  is 
unavoidable.  The  powder  cools  very  slowly  and  may  be  conveyed 
long  distances  from  the  ovens ;  it  may  even  be  kept  till  the  next 
d:iy  before  use.  When  laid  it  should  still  retain  a  temperature  of 
from  150'  to  200°.  It  is  spread  evenly  with  a  rake  by  skilled 
workmen  for  the  whole  width  of  the  street  to  a  thickness  ajjout 
two -fifths  greater  than  the  finished  coating  is  intended  to  be. 
Ramming  is  commenced  with  light  blows  to  ensure  equality  of 
compression  throughout  and  is  continued  with  increased  force  until 
the  whole  is  solidified.  The  ramming  follows  up  the  spreading, 
so  that  a  joint  i.s  required  only  when  the  work  is  interrupted  at 
the  end  of  a  day,  or  from  some  other  cause.  In  a  few  hours  after  it 
has  beun  laid  an  asphalt  pavement  may  be  used  for  traffic.  When 
finished,  its  thickness  may  be  from  1£  to  1\  inches,  according  to 
the  traffic  ;  a  greater  thickness  than  the  latter  cannot  be  evenly 
compressed  with  certainty.  The  asphalt  loses  thickness  by  com- 
pression under  the  traffic  for  a  long  time  and  to  the  extent,  it  is 
said,  of  one-fifth  or  one-fourth,  but  the  wear  appears  to  be  very  small. 
A  pavement  in  Paris  which  had  lost  more  than  one-fourth  of  its 
thickness  was  found  to  have  lost  only  5  per  cent,  of  its  weight 
after  sixteen  years'  wear.  The  pavement  in  Cheapside,  after  four- 
teen years  under  exceptionally  heavy  traffic,  has  been  reduced,  where 
not  repaired,  from  its  original  thickness  of  2J  to  about  1|  inches. 
The  wear-resisting  power  of  the  asphalt  is  due  to  its  elasticity  ; 
tracks  are  made  by  the  wheels  at  first,  but  when  thoroughly 
compressed  by  the  traffic  the  surface  retains  little  or  no  trace  of 
the  heaviest  loads.  Repairs  are  easily  and  quickly  made  by  cut- 
ting out  defective  places  and  ramming  in  fresh  heated  powder, 
which  can  be  done  in  the  early  morning  without  stopping  the 
traffic.  An  unyielding  foundation  is  indispensable  ;  it  should  be 
of  the  best  Portland  cement  concrete,  6  inches  in  thickness,  which 
must  be  well  set  and  perfectly  dry  throughout  before  the  asphalt 
is  laid,  or  the  steam  generated  on  the  application  of  the  hot  powder 
will  prevent  coherence  and  lead  to  cracks  and  holes  in  the  asphalt, 
•which  quickly  enlarge  under  the  traffic.  For  the  same  reason  the 
asphalt  should  be  laid  in  dry  weather.  The  concrete  foundation 
must  ba  carefully  formed  to  the  proper  profile,  with  an  inclination 
towards  the  sides  of  not  more  than  1  in  50,  which  is  sufficient 
with  so  smooth  a  surface.  About  1  in  50  is  the  steepest  gradient 
at  which  an  asphalt  pavement  can  be  safely  laid.  When  either 
dry  or  wet  it  affords  good  foothold  for  horses,  but  when  beginning 
to  get  wet,  or  drying,  it  is  often  extremely  slippery.  This  is  said 
to  be  due  to  dirt  on  the  surface,  and  not  to  the  nature  of  the 
material.  Sand  is  strewed  over  the  surface  to  remedy  the  slip- 
periness  ;  it  tends,  however,  to  wear  out  the  asphalt,  and  great 
cleanliness  is  the  best  preventive.  An  asphalt  pavement  can  be 
kept  cleaner  than  any  other,  is  impervious  to  moisture,  and  dries 
quickly.  It  is  noiseless,  except  from  the  clatter  of  horses'  feet  on 
it ;  it  is  the  pleasantest  pavement  to  travel  upon,  but  it  has  the 
drawback  of  imperfect  foothold  and  slipperiness  at  times.  The 
cost  of  a  compressed  asphalt  pavement  2  to  2\  inches  thick  on  a 
Portland  cement  concrete  foundation  6  inches  thick  is  from  13s. 
to  16s.  a  square  yard,  and  the  maintenance  is  usually  undertaken 
for  a  period  of  seventeen  years  by  the  company  laying  the  pave- 
ment, the  first  two  years  free  and  at  3d.  to  Is.  6d.  per  square  yard, 
according  to  the  traffic,  in  succeeding  years. 

,'om-  Comparison  of  Street  Surfaces.  — The  comparative  cost  of  various 

wrative   street  surfaces  in  Liverpool,  including  interest  on  first  cost,  sinking 

•ost.         fund,  maintenance,  and  scavenging,  when  reduced  to  a  uniform 

standard  traffic  of  100,000  tons  per  annum  for  each  yard  in  width 

of  the  carriage-way,  is  given  by  Mr  Deacon  as  follows  : — 

Per  square  yard  per  year. 

Set  pavement  of  hard  granites Hid. 

,,  ,,         softer  granites    Is.    2fd. 

Bituminous  concrete    Is.  lOJd. 

Wood  pavement     2s.    2Jd. 

Macadam,  on  hand-pitched  foundation 2s.  HJd. 

Taking  the  standard  of  traffic  at  40,000  tons  per  annum  for  each 
yard  in  width,  the  cost  for  the  last  three  pavements  is  : — 


Per  square  yard  per  year. 

Bituminous  concrete   Is.    IJd. 

Wcx  >d  pavement    Is.    8id. 

Macadam Is.  11  Jd. 

Asphalt  paving  may  be  placed  between  wood  and  bituminous  con- 
crete in  the  above  order.  These  comparisons  show  the  high  cost 
of  a  macadamized  surface  in  a  street  where  the  traffic  is  great. 
However  well  it  may  be  maintained,  a  macadamized  street  must 
be  dirtier  and  dustier  than  any  pavement,  though  it  is  superior 
to  them  all  in  safety  and  to  set  pavements  in  the  matter  of  noise. 
Bituminous  concrete  or  asphalt  macadam  is  cheaper,  cleaner,  and 
quieter  than  ordinary  macadam  and  is  sufficiently  durable  when 
the  traffic  is  not  heavy.  For  heavy  traffic  no  pavement  is  so  econo- 
mical as  granite  sets  ;  but  for  the  sake  of  quiet  and  cleanliness  a 
wood  or  asphalt  pavement  is  often  preferable.  Asphalt  can  be 
kept  cleaner  than  any  other  pavement  and  is  the  pleasantest  to 
travel  over  ;  wood,  on  the  other  hand,  is  quieter  for  the  residents, 
less  slippery,  and  can  be  laid  on  steeper  gradients. 

The  comparative  ease  of  draught  on  various  surfaces  is  largely  Draught, 
influenced  by  the  amount  of  foothold  afforded,  and  it  may  be 
doubted  if  dynamometer  experiments,  however  carefully  made,  are 
altogether  conclusive.  The  tractive  force  is  influenced  by  the 
gradient,  the  diameter  of  the  wheels,  the  friction  of  the  wheel  axles, 
and  the  speed,  as  well  as  by  the  resistance  of  the  road  surface,  and 
these  must  be  all  taken  into  account  to  obtain  accurate  results. 
Some  recent  experiments  made,  under  the  direction  of  Sir  J.  W. 
Bazalgette,  with  Easton  and  Anderson's  horse  dynamometer  on 
London  street  surfaces  gave  the  following  mean  results  : — 

Tractive  force  on  the  level. 

Macadamized  surface    40-7    to  44-29  lb  per  ton. 

Asphalt     39-0    „  39'32        „ 

Wood 33-62  „  36-63         „ 

Granite  sets 26-2    „  27'0         ,, 

The  gross  load  was  4  tons,  drawn  at  a  speed  of  from  2  to  6  miles 
an  hour.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  tractive  force  on  asphalt  is  so 
high ;  but  the  other  results  are  consistent  with  former  experiments 
by  Morin,  Macneill  and  others. 

The  comparative  safety  of  granite,  wood,  and  asphalt  pavements  Safety, 
in  the  City  of  London  was  the  subject  of  careful  observations,  which 
were  fully  reported  on  by  Mr  W.  Hay  wood  in  1873.  The  pavements 
selected  were  granite  sets  3  inches  wide,  ligno-mineral  pavement  of 
beech  blocks  3£  inches  wide,  improved  wood  pavement  of  fir  blocks 
3  inches  wide,  and  Val  de  Travers  compressed  asphalt  pavement. 
On  known  lengths  of  these  the  traffic,  the  accidents  to  horses,  the 
weather,  and  other  circumstances  were  observed  for  fifty  days,  and 
when  the  distance  traversed  was  taken  into  account  it  was  found 
that  as  a  mean  result  a  horse  might  be  expected  to  travel  1 32  miles 
on  granite  without  falling,  191  on  asphalt,  and  446  on  the  im- 
proved wood  pavement.  The  condition  of  the  weather  had  consider- 
able effect :  on  the  granite  when  dry  a  horse  might  be  expected  to 
travel  78  miles  without  falling,  when  damp  168,  and  when  wet 
537  ;  on  wood  when  damp  193  miles,  when  wet  432,  and  when  dry 
646  ;  on  asphalt  when  damp  125  miles,  when  wet  192,  and  when 
dry  223.  It  thus  appeared  that  wood  pavement  was  less  slippery 
than  either  granite  or  asphalt  in  a  marked  degree,  it  being  only 
more  slippery  than  granite  when  both  pavements  were  wet.  About 
85  per  cent,  of  the  falls  on  the  wood  pavement  were  falls  on  the 
knees,  which  are  less  likely  to  injure  the  horses  and  are  less  incon- 
venient to  the  traffic  than  other  falls.  On  the  granite  the  falls  were 
falls  on  the  knees  or  complete  falls  in  about  equal  proportions,  with 
about  7  per  cent,  of  falls  on  the  haunches.  On  the  asphalt  43  per 
cent,  were  complete  falls  and  24  per  cent,  falls  on  the  haunches. 

Watering. — On  macadamized  roads  in  Great  Britain  watering  is  Water- 
only  good  for  the  road  itself  when  the  materials  are  of  a  very  sili-  ing. 
cious  nature  and  in  diy  weather.  With  other  materials  the  effect 
is  to  soften  the  road  and  increase  wear.  In  and  near  towns  water- 
ing is  required  for  the  comfort  of  the  inhabitants,  but  it  should 
not  be  more  than  enough  to  lay  the  dust  without  softening  the 
road,  and  the  amount  required  for  this  may  be  greatly  reduced  by 
keeping  the  surface  free  from  mud,  and  by  sweeping  off  the  dust 
when  slightly  wetted.  Pavements  are  watered  to  cleanse  them  as 
well  as  to  lay  the  dust,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  both 
wood  and  asphalt  are  more  slippery  when  wet,  and  that  therefore 
watering  should  be  obviated  as  far  as  possible  by  thorough  cleans- 
ing. Hydrostatic  vans,  by  improvements  in  the  distributing  pipes 
and  regulating  valves,  water  a  wide  track  uniformly  with  an  amount 
of  water  which  can  be  regulated  at  pleasure.  Where  hydrants  exist 
in  connexion  with  a  water  supply  at  high  pressure,  street  watering 
can  be  effected  by  a  movable  hose  and  jet,  a  method  much  more 
effective  in  cleansing  the  surface,  but  using  a  much  larger  quantity 
of  water.  Another  method  which  has  been  tried,  but  not  much 
used,  is  to  lay  perforated  pipes  at  the  back  of  the  kerb  on  each 
side  of  the  road,  from  which  jets  are  thrown  upon  the  surface. 
The  first  cost  is  considerable,  and  the  openings  for  the  jets  are 
liable  to  choke  and  get  out  of  order.  Deliquescent  salts  have  been 
used  for  street  watering,  by  which  the  surface  is  kept  moist,  but  at 
the  expense  of  the  moisture  in  the  air.  Sea  water  has  the  same 
effect  in  a  less  degree. 


588 


R  0  A  — R  O  B 


cans-  Cleansing.  — The  principal  streets  of  a  town  are  generally  cleansed 
g.  daily,  either  by  hand-sweeping  and  hand-scraping  or  by  madiim-s. 
Whitworth's  machine  consists  of  a  series  of  revolving  brooms  on 
an  endless  chain,  whereby  the  mud  or  dust  is  swept  up  an  incline 
into  the  cart.  A  less  costly  and  cumbersome  machine  consists  of 
a  revolving  brush  mounted  obliquely,  which  sweeps  a  track  6  feet 
wide  and  leaves  the  dust  or  mud  on  one  side  to  be  gathered  up  by 
hand.  A  horse  scraping  -  machine  which  delivers  the  mud  at  the 
side  is  also  used,  the  blades  of  the  scrapers  being  mounted  obliquely 
and  covering  a  width  of  6  feet.  For  general  use,  more  especially 
in  the  country,  scraping  machines  worked  by  a  man  from  side  to 
side  of  the  road,  and  scraping  a  width  of  about  4  feet,  are  more 
convenient 

All  street  surfaces  suffer  from  the  constant  breaking  \ip  and  dis- 
turbance to  which  they  are  subjected  for  the  purpose  of  laying  and 
repairing  gas  and  water  pipes.  Subways,  either  under  the  middle 
of  the  road  or  near  the  kerbs,  in  which  the  pipes  may  be  laid  and 
be  always  accessible,  have  often  been  advocated,  and  in  a  few 
instances  have  been  constructed ;  but  they  have  not  hitherto  found 
general  favour. 

>ot-  Footivays. — Gravel  is  the  most  suitable  material  for  country  or 

ivs.  suburban  footways  ;  it  should  be  bottomed  with  a  coarser  material, 
well  drained,  and  should  be  laid  with  a  roller.  An  inclination 
towards  the  kerb  of  about  half  an  inch  in  a  foot  may  be  given,  or 
the  surface  may  be  rounded,  to  throw  off  the  wet.  Where  greater 
cleanliness  is  desirable  and  the  traffic  is  not  too  great  a  coal-tar 
concrete  similar  to  that  already  described,  but  of  smaller  materials, 
makes  a  good  and  economical  footway.  The  coating  should  be  2£ 
or  3  inches  thick,  composed  of  two  or  three  layers  each  well  rolled, 
the  lower  layer  of  materials  of  about  1^  inches  gauge,  and  the  upper 
of  a  half  or  a  quarter  of  an  inch  gauge,  with  Derbyshire  spar,  or  fine 
granite  chippings  over  all.  Concrete  footways  require  to  be  care- 
fully made  and  must  be  allowed  to  set  thoroughly  before  they  are 
used.  Concrete  has  a  tendency  to  crack  from  contraction,  especially 
when  in  a  thin  layer,  and  it  is  better  to  lay  a  footway  in  sections, 
with  joints  at  intervals  of  about  2  yards.  Concrete  slabs,  especially 
when  silicated  and  constituting  artificial  stone,  make  an  excellent 
footway.  The  material  is  composed  of  crushed  granite,  gravel,  or 
other  suitable  material,  mixed  with  Portland  cement  and  cast  in 
moulds,  and  when  set  saturated  with  silicate  of  soda.  This  paving 
has  proved  more  durable  than  York  stone  flagging,  but  it  is  more 
slippery,  especially  when  made  with  granite.  York  stone  makes  a 
good  and  pleasant  foot  pavement,  but  is  somewhat  expensive  con- 
sidering its  durability  ;  it  is  apt  to  wear  unevenly  and  to  scale  off 
when  the  stone  is  not  of  the  best  quality.  It  should  not  be  laid 
of  a  less  thickness  than  2  inches  ;  2J  or  3  inches  are  more  usual. 
The  flags  should  be  square  jointed,  not  under-cut  at  the  edges,  and 
should  be  well  bedded  and  jointed  with  mortar.  Caithness  flag  is 
much  more  durable  than  York  stone  and  wears  more  evenly  ;  it  is 
impervious  to  wet  and  dries  quickly  by  evaporation.  The  edges 
are  sawn,  and  the  hardness  of  the  stone  renders  it  difficult  to  cut 
it  to  irregular  shapes  or  to  fit  openings.  Staffordshire  blue  bricks 
and  bricks  made  of  scoria  from  iron  furnaces  are  both  very  durable, 
though  somewhat  brittle.  Asphalt  either  laid  as  mastic  or  com- 
pressed is  extensively  used  for  footways  ;  the  former  is  considered 
inferior  in  durability  to  York  stone  and  the  latter  superior  to  it. 
Asphalt  should  not  be  laid  less  than  threg-fourths  of  an  inch  thick 
on  4  inches  of  cement  concrete,  and  1  inch  of  asphalt  is  desirable 
where  there  is  great  traffic. 

srbing.  Footways  in  a  street  must  be  retained  by  a  kerbing  of  granite, 
York  stone,  Purbeck,  or  other  stone  sufficiently  strong  to  stand  the 
blows  from  wheels  to  which  it  is  subjected.  It  should  be  at  least 
4  inches  wide  and  9  deep  and  in  lengths  of  not  less  than  3  feet. 
A  granite  kerb  is  usually  about  12  by  6  inches,  either  placed  on 
edge  or  laid  on  the  flat.  When  set  on  edge  a  kerb  is  generally 
bedded  on  gravel  with  a  mall ;  when  laid  on  the  flat  a  concrete  bed 
is  desirable. 

ie  In  a  macadamized  street  pitched  or  paved  water  channels  are 

annels.  required,  to  prevent  the  wash  of  the  surface  water  from  under- 
mining the  kerb.  The  pitching  consists  of  cubical  blocks  of  hard 
stone  about  4  inches  deep,  bedded  on  sand  or  mortar,  or  preferably 
on  a  bed  of  concrete.  A  paved  channel  consists  of  flat  stones  about 
1  foot  wide  inclining  slightly  towards  the  kerb.  Moulded  bricks 
and  artificial  stone  are  also  used  both  for  side  channelling  and  for 
kerbing.  Such  an  inclination  must  be  given  to  the  channel  as  will 
bring  the  surface  water  to  gullies  placed  at  proper  intervals,  and 
the  level  of  the  kerbing  and  consequently  of  the  footway  will 
depend  to  some  extent  on  the  surface  drainage  as  well  as  on 
the  levels  of  adjacent  houses.  To  lay  out  a  street  satisfactorily 
the  longitudinal  and  transverse  sections  must  be  considered  in 
relation  to  these  matters  as  well  as  to  the  levels  of  intersecting 
streets. 

For  fuller  information  on  the  subject  see  Sir  Henry  Parnell,  A  Treatise  on. 
Roads;  Thomas  Codrington,  The  Maintenance  of  Macadamized  Roads;  Uebauve, 
Manuel  de  VInegnitur  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees;  Annales  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees; 
Minutes  of  Proc.  Inst.  Civ.  Eng.,  "Street  Pavements,"  vol.  Iviii.  p.  1,  and 
Wood  Pavements,"  vol.  Ixxviii.  p.  240;  Reports  by  W.  Haywood,  engineer  to 
the  commissioners  of  sewers  of  the  City  of  London.  (T.  C.) 


ROANNE,  a  town  of  France,  at  the  head  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  department  of  the  Loire,  lies  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Loire  in  46°  2'  26"  N.  lat.  at  a  height  of 
912  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  now  the  point  of  junction 
for  the  railway  from  Paris  (262  miles  north-north-west)  to 
Lyons  (50  miles  south-east),  via  Tarare,  with  the  line  from 
Paris  to  St  Etienne  (50  miles  south -south -east),  and  a 
branch  connecting  Roanne  with  Paray  le  Monial ;  and  as 
the  terminus  of  the  Roanne- Digoin  Canal  (1832-38)  the 
town  is  the  real  starting-point  of  the  Loire  navigation. 
Besides  the  modern  town-house  (1868-73),  it  is  enough  to 
mention  the  ruins  of  a  castle  with  a  tower  dating  from 
the  llth  century,  and  a  fine  bridge  of  seven  arches  con- 
necting Roanne  with  the  industrial  suburb  of  Le  Coteau 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  Cotton  is  the  staple 
manufacture,  employing  1200  hands.  Hosiery,  hats, 
woollen  yarn,  weaving  looms,  chemicals,  and  paper  are 
also  produced ;  and,  as  the  town  stands  in  the  centre  of 
the  Loire  and  Rhone  coal-field  (output  4224  tons  in  1884) 
and"  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  St  Etienne  coal-field,  it 
has  a  considerable  trade  in  coal  and  coke.  In  1881 
Roanne  had  a  population  of  24,992. 

Roanne  (Rodomna,  Ptolemy;  Roidoinna,  Tab.  Peut.)  was  an 
ancient  city  of  the  Segusiani  and  a  station  on  the  great  Roman 
road  from  Lyons  to  the  ocean.  The  absence  of  coins  later  than 
the  time  of  Coustantius  II.  among  the  numerous  local  relics  of 
the  Roman  period  seems  to  show  that  the  town  was  sacked  by  the 
barbarians  in  the  4th  century.  In  1447  the  lordship  of  Roanne 
became  the  property  of  the  celebrated  banker  Jacques  Cceur.  A 
favourite  scheme  of  his  was  to  make  the  town  a  great  industrial 
centre  by  regulating  the  course  of  the  Reuaison,  an  affluent  from 
the  Monts  de  la  Madeleine  which  joins  the  river  a  little  higher  up  ; 
his  death  prevented  its  execution,  but  the  subject  has  since  been 
frequently  revived. 

ROBBERY.     See  THEFT. 

ROBBIA,  DELLA,  the  name  of  a  family  of  great  dis- 
tinction in  the  annals  of  Florentine  art.  Its  members 
are  enumerated  in  chronological  order  below.1 

I.  LUCA  BELLA  ROBBIA  (1399  or  1400 2-1482)  was  the 
son  of  a  Florentine  named  Simone  di  Marco  della  Robbia. 
According  to  Vasari,  whose  account  of  Luca's  early  life  is 
little  to  be  trusted,  he  was  apprenticed  to  the  silversmith 
Leonardo  di  Ser  Giovanni,  who  from  1355  to  1371  was 
working  on  the  grand  silver  altar  frontal  for  the  cathedral 
at  PISTOIA  (q.v.) ;  this,  however,  appears  doubtful  from  the 
great  age  which  it  would  give  to  Leonardo,  and  it  is  more 
probable  that  Luca  was  a  pupil  of  Ghiberti.  During  the 
early  part  of  his  life  Luca  executed  many  important  and 
exceedingly  beautiful  pieces  of  sculpture  in  marble  and 
bronze.  In  technical  skill  he  was  quite  the  equal  of 
Ghiberti,  and,  while  possessing  all  Donatello's  vigour, 
dramatic  power,  and  originality,  he  very  frequently  ex- 
celled him  in  grace  of  attitude  and  soft  beauty  of  expres- 
sion. No  sculptured  work  of  the  great  15th  century  ever 
surpassed  the  singing  gallery  which  Luca  made  for  the 
cathedral  at  Florence  between  1431  and  1440,  with  its  ten 
magnificent  panels  of  singing  angels  and  dancing  boys, 
far  exceeding  in  beauty  those  which  Donatello  in  1433 
sculptured  for  the  opposite  gallery  in  the  same  choir.  This 
magnificent  work  now  lies  scattered  in  various  parts  of  the 

1  Genealogical  tree  of  Della  Robbia  sculptors  : — 
Simoue  di  Marco. 


Marco. 
1 
Andrea 
(1435-1525). 

Luca 
(1400-1482). 

Oirolamo                Luca                 Paolo  Giovanni  Marco 

(1488-150(5),          (1475-15507),      (1470-         ?),  (1469-15297),  (1468-         ?), 

worked  mostly        worked  in        Dominican  worked  mainly  Dominican 

in  France.             Florence            monk.  in  Florence.  monk. 

and  Rome. 

2  Not  1388,  as  Vasari  says.     See  a  document  printed  by  Gaye,  Car- 
tegrjio  Inedito,  i.  pp.  182-186. 


R  O  B  B  I  A 


589 


Bargello.  The  general  effect  of  the  whole  can  best  be  seen 
at  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  where  a  complete  cast 
is  fixed  to  the  wall.  The  same  museum  possesses  a  study 
in  gesso  duro  for  one  of  the  panels,  which  appears  to  be 
the  original  sketch  by  Luca's  own  hand. 

In  May  1437  Luca  received  a  commission  from  the 
signoria  of  Florence  to  execute  five  reliefs  for  the  north 
side  of  the  campanile,  to  complete  the  series  begun  by 
Giotto  and  Andrea  Pisano.  These  panels  are  so  much  in 
the  earlier  style  of  Giotto  that  we  must  conclude  that  he 
had  left  drawings  from  which  Luca  worked.  They  have 
representative  figures  chosen  to  typify  grammar,  logic, 
philosophy,  music,  and  geometry, — the  last  represented 
by  Euclid  and  Ptolemy.1  In  1438  Luca  received  an  order 
for  two  marble  altars  for  chapels  in  the  cathedral,  a  third 
being  ordered  from  Donatello.  The  reliefs  from  one  of 
Luca's — St  Peter's  Deliverance  from  Prison  and  his  Cruci- 
fixion— are  now  in  the  Bargello.  It  is  probable  that  these 
altars  were  never  finished.  A  tabernacle  for  the  host, 
made  by  Luca  in  1442,  is  now  at  Peretola  in  the  church 
of  S.  Maria.  A  document  in  the  archives  of  S.  Maria 
Nuova  at  Florence  shows  that  he  received  for  this  700 
florins  1  lira  16  soldi  (about  £1400  of  modern  money). 
In  1437  Donatello  received  a  commission  to  cast  a  bronze 
door  for  one  of  the  sacristies  of  the  cathedral ;  but,  as 
he  delayed  to  execute  this  order,  the  work  was  handed 
over  to  Luca  on  28th  February  1446,  with  Michelozzo  and 
Maso  di  Bartolomeo  as  his  assistants.  Part  of  this  wonder- 
ful door  was  cast  in  1448,  and  the  last  two  panels  were 
finished  by  Luca  in  1467,  with  bronze  which  was  supplied 
to  him  by  Verrocchio.2  The  door  is  divided  into  ten 
square  panels,  with  small  heads  in  the  style  of  Ghiberti 
projecting  from  the  framing.  The  two  top  subjects  are 
the  Madonna  and  Child  and  the  Baptist,  next  come  the 
four  Evangelists,  and  below  are  the  four  Latin  Doctors, 


FIG.  1. — Bronze  relief  of  one  of  the  Latin  Doctors,  from  the  sacristy 
door  in  the  cathedral  of  Florence,  by  Luca. 

each  subject  with  attendant  angels.  The  whole  is  modelled 
with  the  most  perfect  grace  and  dignified  simplicity ;  the 
heads  throughout  are  full  of  life,  and  the  treatment  of  the 
drapery  in  broad  simple  folds  is  worthy  of  a  Greek  sculptor 
of  the  best  period  of  Hellenic  art.  These  exquisite  reliefs 


1  Vasari  is  not  quite  right  in  his  account  of  these  reliefs  :  he  speaks 
of  Euclid  and  Ptolemy  as  being  in  different  panels. 

2  See  Cavallucci,  S.  Maria  del  Fiore,  pt.  ii.  p.  137. 


are  perfect  models  of  plastic  art,  and  are  quite  free  from  the 
over-elaboration  and  too  pictorial  style  of  Ghiberti.  Fig. 
1  shows  one  of  the  panels.  A  terra-cotta  relief  at  Berlin 
and  another  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum  are  probably 
original  studies  by  Luca  for  two  of  the  panels  of  the  doctors. 

The  most  important  existing  work  in  marble  by  Luca 
(executed  in  1 457-58) 3  is  the  tomb  of  Benozzo  Federighi, 
bishop  of  Fiesole,  originally  placed  in  the  church  of  S. 
Pancrazio  at  Florence,  but  now  in  S.  Francesco  di  Paola  on 
the  Bello  Sguardo"  road  outside  the  city.  A  very  beautiful 
effigy  of  the  bishop  in  a  restful  pose  lies  on  a  sarcophagus 
sculptured  with  graceful  reliefs  of  angels  holding  a  wreath, 
which  contains  the  inscription.  Above  are  three-quarter- 
length  figures  of  Christ  between  St  John  and  the  Virgin, 
delicately  carved  in  low  relief.  The  whole  is  surrounded 
by  a  rectangular  frame  formed  of  painted  majolica  tiles  of 
the  most  exquisite  beauty,  far  surpassing  any  other  exist- 
ing Avork  of  the  same  sort.  On  each  tile  is  painted,  with 
enamel  pigments,  a  bunch  of  flowers  and  fruit  in  brilliant 
realistic  colours,  the  loveliness  of  which  is  very  hard  to 
describe  The  perfect  mean  between  truth  to  nature  and 
decorative  treatment  has  never  been  more  thoroughly 
obtained  than  in  these  wonderful  tile  pictures,  each  of 
which  is  worthy  of  the  most  careful  study ;  and  they  are 
also  of  special  interest  as  being  among  the  earliest  ex- 
amples of  Italian  majolica.  Though  the  bunch  of  flowers 
on  each  is  painted  on  one  slab,  the  ground  of  each  tile 
is  formed  of  separate  pieces,  fitted  together  like  a  kind 
of  mosaic,  probably  because  the  pigment  of  the  ground 
required  a  different  degree  of  heat  in  firing  from  that 
needed  for  the  enamel  painting  of  the  centre.  The  few 
other  works  of  this  class  which  exist  do  not  approach  the 
beauty  of  this  early  essay  in  majolica  painting,  on  which 
Luca  evidently  put  forth  his  utmost  skill  and  patience. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Luca  was  mainly  occupied 
with  the  production  of  terra-cotta  reliefs  covered  with 
enamel, — a  process  which  he  improved  upon,  but  did  not 
invent,  as  Vasari  asserts.  The  secret  of  this  process  was 
to  cover  the  clay  relief  with  an  enamel  formed  of  the  ordi- 
nary ingredients  of  glass  (marzacotto)  made  an  opaque 
white  by  oxide  of  tin, — a  method  practised  with  great 
success  in  the  1 3th  century  in  Persia  4  (see  POTTERY,  vol. 
xix.  pp.  620,  628).  Though  Luca  was  not  the  inventor 
of  the  process,  yet  his  genius  so  improved  and  extended 
its  application  that  it  is  not  unnaturally  known  now  as 
Delia  Bobbia  ware ;  it  must,  however,  be  remembered  that 
by  far  the  majority  of  these  reliefs  which  in  Italy  and  else- 
where are  ascribed  to  Luca  are  really  the  work  of  some  of 
the  younger  members  of  the  family.  Comparatively  few 
exist  which  can  writh  certainty  be  ascribed  to  Luca  himself. 
Among  the  earliest  of  these  are  medallions  of  the  four 
Evangelists  in  the  vault  of  Brunelleschi's  Pazzi  chapel  in 
S.  Croce.  These  fine  reliefs  are  coloured  with  various 
metallic  oxides  in  different  shades  of  blue,  green,  purple, 
yellow,  and  black.  It  has  often  been  asserted  that  the 
very  polychromatic  reliefs  belong  to  Andrea  or  his  sons, 
and  that  Luca's  were  all  in  pure  white ;  this,  however, 
is  not  the  case  :  colours  .were  used  more  freely  by  Luca 
than  by  his  successors.  A  relief  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum  furnishes  a  striking  example  and  is  of  especial 
value  from  its  great  size,  and  also  because  its  date  is 
known.  This  is  an  enormous  medallion  containing  the 
arms  of  Rene  of  Anjou  and  other  heraldic  devices ;  it  is 


8  Gaye,  Carteggio  Inedito,  i.  p.  183. 

4  It  is  described  by  Theophilus,  Diversarum  Artiuin  Schedula  (llth 
century),  and  by  Pietro  del  Bono  in  his  Margarita  predosa  (1330). 
An  example  earlier  than  any  of  Luca's  exists  at  Florence  over  the  door 
of  S.  Egidio  (in  S.  Maria  Nuova).  It  is  a  relief  of  the  Coronation  of  the 
Virgin  executed  by  Lorenzo  de'  Bicci  in  1424  ;  see  Milanesi,  Archivio 
Storico  Italiano,  1860,  pp.  182-183.  Contemporary  writers  call  this 
enamelled  clay  "terra  iuvetriata." 


590 


R  O  B  B  I  A 


surrounded  by  a  splendidly  modelled  wreath  of  fruit  and 
flowers,  especially  apples,  lemons,  oranges,  and  fir  cones, 
all  of  which  are  brilliantly  coloured.  This  medallion  was 
set  up  on  the  facade  of  the  Pazzi  Palace  to  commemorate 
Rene's  visit  to  Florence  in  1442.  Another  early  relief  by 
Luca,  also  highly  polychromatic,  is  that  of  the  Ascension  in 
the  tympanum  of  one  of  the  sacristy  doors  in  the  cathedral, 
executed  between  1446  and  1450,  as  is  recorded  in  a 
document  published  by  Rumohr  (Italien.  Forsck.,  ii.  pp. 
364-365).  Other  existing  works  of  Luca  in  Florence  are 
the  tympanum  reliefs  of  the  Madonna  between  two  Angels 
in  the  Via  dell'  Agnolo,  a  work  of  exquisite  beauty,  and 
another  over  the  door  of  S.  Pierino  del  Mercato  Vecchio. 
The  only  existing  statues  by.  Luca  are  two  lovely  enamelled 
figures  of  Kneeling  Angels  holding  candlesticks,  now  in 
the  canons'  sacristy.1  A  very  fine  work  by  Luca,  executed 
between  1449  and  1452,  is  the  tympanum  relief  of  the 
Madonna  and  four  Monastic  Saints  over  the  door  of  S. 
Domenico  at  Urbino.2  Luca  also  made  the  four  coloured 
medallions  of  the  Virtues  set  in  the  vault  over  the  tomb 
of  the  young  cardinal-prince  of  Portugal  in  a  side  chapel 
of  S.  Miniato  in  Florence  (see  ROSSELLINO).  By  Luca 
also  are  reliefs  of  the  Madonna  and  various  medallions 
outside  Or  San  Michele.  One  of  his  chief  decorative 
works  which  no  longer  exists  was  a  small  library  or  study 
for  Piero  de'  Medici,  wholly  lined  with  painted  majolica 
plaques  and  reliefs.3  The  South  Kensington  Museum  pos- 
sesses twelve  circular  plaques  of  majolica  ware  painted 
in  blue  and  white  with  the  Occupations  of  the  Months; 
these  have  been  attributed  to  Luca,  but  have  no  resem- 
blance to  any  known  works  of  his.  Their  provenance  is 
unknown. 

In  1471  Luca  was  elected  president  of  the  Florentine 
artists'  guild,  but  he  refused  this  great  honour  on  account 
of  his  age  and  infirmity.  It  shows,  however,  the  very  high 
estimation  in  which  he  was  held  by  his  contemporaries. 
He  died  on  20th  February  1482,  leaving  his  property  to 
his  nephews  Andrea  and  Simone.4  His  chief  pupil  was 
his  nephew  Andrea,  and  probably  also  Agostiuo  di  Duccio, 
who  executed  many  pieces  of  sculpture  at  Rimini,  and  the 
graceful  but  mannered  marble  reliefs  of  angels  on  the 
facade  of  S.  Bernardino  at  Perugia.5  Vasari  calls  this 
Agostino  Luca's  brother,  but  he  was  not  related  to  him 
at  all. 

II.  ANDREA  DELLA  ROBBIA  (1435-1525),  the  nephew 
and  pupil  of  Luca,  carried  on  the  production  of  the 
enamelled  reliefs  on  a  much  larger  scale  than  his  uncle 
had  ever  done ;  he  also  extended  its  application  to  various 
architectural  uses,  such  as  friezes  and  to  the  making  of 
lavabos  (lavatories),  fountains,  and  large  retables.  The 
result  of  this  was  that,  though  the  finest  reliefs  from  the 
workshop  of  Andrea  were  but  little  if  at  all  inferior  to 
those  from  the  hand  of  Luca,  yet  some  of  them,  turned 
out  by  pupils  and  assistants,  reached  only  a  lower  stand- 
ard of  merit.  Only  one  work  in  marble  by  Andrea  is 
known,  namely,  an  altar  in  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie  near 
Arezzo,  mentioned  by  Vasari  (ed.  Milanesi,  ii.  p.  179),  and 
still  well  preserved. 

One  variety  of  method  was  introduced  by  Andrea  in 
his  enamelled  work ;  sometimes  he  omitted  the  enamel 

1  The  South  Kensington  Museum  possesses  what  seem  to  be  fine 
replicas  of  these  statues. 

2  The  document  in  which  the  order  for  this  and  the  price  paid  for 
it  are  recorded  is  published  by  Yriarte,  Oaz.  d.  Beaux  Arts,  xxiv.  p.  143. 

3  It  is  fully  described  by  Filarete  in  his  Traltalo  dell'  Architectural,, 
written  in  1464,  and  therefore  was  finished  before  that  date  ;  see  also 
Vasari,  ed.  Milanesi,  Florence,  1880,  ii.  p.  174. 

4  His  will,  dated  19th  February  1471,  is  published  by  Gaye,  Cart. 
Ined.,  i.  p.  185. 

5  In  the  works  of  Perkins  and  others  on  Italian  sculpture  these 
Perugian  reliefs  are  wrongly  stated  to  be  of  enamelled  clay. 


OH  the  face  and  hands  (nude  parts)  of  his  figures,  especi- 
ally in  those  cases  where  he  had  treated  the  heads  in  a 
realistic  manner ;  as,  for  example,  in  the  noble  tympanum 
relief  of  the  meeting  of  St  Domenic  and  St  Francis  in  the 
loggia  of  the  Florentine  hospital  of  S.  Paolo, — a  design 
suggested  by  a  fresco  of  Fra  Angelico's  in  the  cloister 
of  St  Mark's.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  works  by 
Andrea  is  the  series  of  medallions  with  reliefs  of  Infants 
in  white  on  a  blue  ground  set  on  the  front  of  the  found- 
ling hospital  at  Florence.  These  lovely  child-figures  are 
modelled  with  wonderful  skill  and  variety,  no  two  being 
alike.  Andrea  produced,  for  guilds  and  private  persons,  a 
large  number  of  reliefs  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  varied 
with  much  invention,  and  all  of  extreme  beauty  of  pose 
and  sweetness  of  expression.  These  are  frequently  framed 
with  realistic  and  yet  very 'decorative  garlands  of  fruit  and 
flowers,  all  painted  with  enamel  colours,  while  the  main 
relief  is  left  white.  Fig.  2  shows  a  good  example  of  these 


HI  mni-tf  utiiifi  mn  im  m  wumm  n>rwn 


Fia.  2. — Enamelled  clay  relief  of  Virgin  and  Child,  by  Andrea. 

smaller  works.  The  hospital  of  S.  Paolo,  near  S.  Maria 
Novella,  has  also  a  number  of  fine  medallions  with  reliefs 
of  saints,  two  of  Christ  Healing  the  Sick,  and  two  fine 
portraits,  under  which  are  white  plaques  inscribed — "dall' 
ano  1451  all'  aiio  1495";  the  first  of  these  dates  is  the 
year  when  the  hospital  was  rebuilt  owing  to  a  papal  brief 
sent  to  the  archbishop  of  Florence.  Arezzo  possesses  a 
number  of  fine  enamelled  works  by  Andrea  and  his  sons 
— a  retable  in  the  cathedral  with  God  holding  the  Crucified 
Christ,  surrounded  by  angels,  and  below,  kneeling  figures 
of  S.  Donate  and  S.  Bernardino ;  also  in  the  cathedral  is 
a  fine  relief  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  with  four  saints  at 
the  sides.  In  S.  Maria  in  Grado  is  a  very  noble  retablo 
with  angels  holding  a  crown  over  a  standing  figure  of  the 
Madonna ;  a  number  of  small  figures  of  worshippers  take 
refuge  in  the  folds  of  the  Virgin's  mantle,  a  favourite 
motive  for  sculpture  dedicated  by  guilds  or  other  corporate 


0  B  B  I  A 


591 


bodies.  Perhaps  the  finest  collection  of  works  of  this  class 
is  at  La  Verna,  not  far  from  Arezzo  (see  Vasari,  ed. 
Milanesi,  ii.  p.  179).  The  best  of  these,  three  large 
retables  with  representations  of  the  Annunciation,  the 
Crucifixion,  and  the  Madonna  giving  her  Girdle  to  St 
Thomas,  are  probably  the  work  of  Andrea  himself,  the 
others  being  by  his  sons.  In  1489  Andrea  made  a  beauti- 
ful relief  of  the  Virgin  and  two  Angels,  now  over  the 
archive  room  door  in  the  Florentine  Opera  del  Duomo ; 
for  this  he  was  paid  twenty  gold  florins  (see  Cavallucci, 
S.  Maria  del  Fiore).  In  the  same  year  he  modelled  the 
fine  tympanum  relief  over  a  door  of  Prato  cathedral,  with 
a  half-length  figure  of  the  Madonna  between  St  Stephen 
and  St  Lawrence,  surrounded  by  a  frame  of  angels'  heads. 

In  1491  Andrea  was  still  working  at  Prato,  where  many 
of  his  best  reliefs  still  exist.  One  of  his  finest  works  is  a 
large  retable  at  Volterra  in  the  church  of  S.  Girolamo, 
dated  1501  ;  it  represents  the  Last  Judgment,  and  is  re- 
markable for  the  fine  modelling  of  the  figures,  especially 
that  of  the  archangel  Michael,  and  a  nude  kneeling  figure 
of  a  youth  who  has  just  risen  from  his  tomb.  Other  late 
works  of  known  date  are  a  Resurrection  of  Christ,  made 
in  1501  for  S.  Frediano  at  Florence  (the  lower  half  of  this 
only  exists,  in  the  court  of  the  Casa  Mozzi),  and  a  medal- 
lion of  the  Virgin  in  Glory,  surrounded  by  angels,  made 
in  1505  for  Pistoia  cathedral.1  Andrea's  last  known  relief 
is  a  Nativity,  made  in  1515  for  S.  Maria  in  Pian  di 
Mugnone  at  Florence.2 

III.,  IV.  Five  of  Andrea's  seven  sons  worked  with  their 
father,  and  after  his  death  carried  on  the  Robbia  fabrique  ; 
the  dates  of  their  birth  are  shown  in  the  table  on  p.  588 
above.  Early  in  life  two  of  them  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Savonarola,  and  took  monastic  orders  at  his  Domi- 
nican convent ;  these  were  MARCO,  who  adopted  the  name 
of  Fra  Ltica,  and  PAOLO,  called  Fra  Ambrogio.  One  relief 
by  the  latter,  a  Nativity  with  four  life-sized  figures  of 
rather  poor  work,  is  in  the  Cappella  degli  Spagnuoli  in 
the  Sienese  convent  of  S.  Spirito ;  a  MS.  in  the  convent 
archives  records  that  it  was  made  in  1504. 

V.  The  chief  existing  work  known  to  be  by  the  second 
son  LUCA  is  the  very  rich  and  beautiful  tile  pavement  in 
the  uppermost  story  of  Raphael's  loggie  at  the  Vatican, 
finely  designed  and  painted  in  harmonious  majolica  colours. 
This  was  made  by  Luca  at  Raphael's  request  and  under  his 
supervision  in  1518.3     It  is  still  in  very  fine  preservation. 

VI.  GIOVANNI  BELLA  ROBBIA  (1469-1 529 1)  during  a 
great  part  of  his  life  worked  as  assistant  to  his  father, 
Andrea,  and  in  many  cases  the  enamelled  sculpture  of  the 
two  cannot  be  distinguished.    Some  of  Giovanni's  independ- 
ent works  are  of  great  merit,  especially  the  earlier  ones ; 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  life  his  reliefs  deteriorated  in 
style,  owing  mainly  to  the  universal  decadence  of  the  time. 
A  very  large  number  of  pieces  of  Robbia  ware  which  are 
attributed  to  Andrea,  and  even  to  the  elder  Luca,  were 
really  by  the  hand  of  Giovanni.     One  of  his  finest  works, 
quite  equal  in  beauty  to  anything  of  his  father's,  from  whom 
the  design  of  the  figures  was  probably  taken,  is  the  washing- 
fountain  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Maria  Novella  at  Florence, 
made  in  1497. 4     It  is  a  large  arched  recess  with  a  view 
of  the  seashore,  not  very  decorative  in  style,  painted  on 
majolica  tiles  at  the  back.     There  are  also  two  very  beauti- 
ful painted  majolica  panels  of  fruit-trees  let  into  the  lower 
part.     In  the  tympanum  of  the  arch  is  a  very  lovely  white 

1  See  Gualandi,  Memorie  risgiiardanti  le  Belle  Arti,  Bologna,  1845, 
vi.   pp.    33-35,   where  original  documents  are  printed  recording  the 
dates  and  prices  paid  for  these  and  other  works  of  Andrea. 

2  See  a  document  printed  by  Milanesi  in  his  Vasari,  ii.  p.  ISO. 

3  It  is  illustrated  by  Gruner,  Fresco  Decorations  of  Italy,  London, 
1854,  pi.  iv.  ;  see  also  Miintz,  Raphael,  sa  Vie,  &c.,  Paris,  1881,  p. 
452,  note  i.,  and  Vasari,  ed:  Milanesi,  ii.  p.  182. 

4  See  a  document  printed  by  Milanesi  in  his  Vasari,  ii.  p.  193. 


relief  of  the  Madonna  between  two  Adoring  Angels  (see  fig. 
3).     Long  coloured  garlands  of  fruit  and  flowers  are  held 


FIG.  3. — Relief  of  Madonna  and  Angels  in  the  tympanum  of  the 
lavabo  (S.  Maria  Novella,  Florence),  by  Giovanni. 

by  nude  boys  reclining  on  the  top  of  the  arch.  All  this 
part  is  of  enamelled  clay,  but  the  basin  of  the  fountain  is 
of  white  marble.  Neither  Luca  nor  Andrea  was  in  the 
habit  of  signing  his  work,  but  Giovanni  often  did  so, 
usually  adding  the  date,  probably  because  other  potters 
had  begun  to  imitate  the  Robbia  ware.5 

Giovanni  lacked  the  original  talent  of  Luca  and  Andrea, 
and  so  he  not  only  copied  their  work  but  even  reproduced 
in  clay  the  marble  sculpture  of  Pollaiuolo,  Da  Settignano, 
Verrocchio,  and  others.  A  relief  by  him,  evidently  taken 
from  Mino  da  Fiesole,  exists  in  the  Palazzo  Castracane 
Staccoli.  Among  the  very  numerous  other  works  of  Gio- 
vanni are  the  large  retable  in  the  Castellani  chapel  of  S. 
Croce,  a  relief  in  the  wall  of  a  convent  in  the  Via  Nazionale 
at  Florence,  and  two  reliefs  in  the  Bargello  dated  1521 
and  1522.  The  latter  is  a  many- coloured  relief  of  the 
Nativity,  and  was  taken  from  the  church  of  S.  Girolamo 
in  Florence ;  it  is  a  too  pictorial  work,  marred  by  the  use 
of  many  different  planes.  Its  predella  has  a  small  relief 
of  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  and  is  inscribed  "  Hoc  opus 
fecit  Joanes  Andree  de  Robia,  ac  posuit  hoc  in  tempore 
die  ultima  lulii  auo.  Dili.  MDXXII."  At  Pisa  in  the  church 
of  S.  Silvestro  is  a  relief  in  Giovanni's  later  and  poorer 
manner  dated  1520;  it  is  a  Madonna  surrounded  by 
angels,  with  saints  below — the  whole  overcrowded  with 
figures  and  ornaments.  Giovanni's  largest  and  perhaps 
finest  work  is  the  polychromatic  frieze  on  the  outside  of 
the  Del  Ceppo  Hospital  at  Pistoia,  for  which  he  received 
various  sums  of  money  between  1525  and  1529,  as  is 
recorded  in  documents  which  still  exist  among  the  archives 
of  the  hospital.6  The  subjects  of  this  frieze  are  the  Seven 
Works  of  Mercy,  forming'  a  continuous  band  of  sculpture 
in  high  relief,  well  modelled  and  designed  in  a  very  broad 
sculpturesque  way,  but  a  little  injured  perhaps  by  the 
crudeness  of  some  of  its  colouring.  Six  of  these  reliefs 
are  by  Giovanni,  namely,  Clothing  the  Naked,  Washing 
the  Feet  of  Pilgrims,  Visiting  the  Sick,  Visiting  Prisoners, 
Burying  the  Dead,  and  Feeding  the  Hungry.  The  seventh, 


8  Examples  of  these  imitations  are  a  retable  in  S.  Luechese  near 
Poggibonsi  dated  1514,  another  of  the  Madonna  and  Saints  at  Monte 
San  Savino  of  1525,  and  a  third  in  the  Capuchin  church  of  Arceria 
near  Sinigaglia  ;  they  are  all  inferior  to  the  best  works  of  the  Robbia 
family. 

6  The  hospital  itself  was  begun  in  1514. 


592 


R  O  B  — R  OB 


Giving  Drink  to  the  Thirsty,  was  made  by  Filippo  Pala- 
dini  of  Pistoia  in  1585;  this  last  is  of  terra-cotta,  not 
enamelled,  but  simply  painted  with  oil  colours.  Giovanni 
also  executed  the  medallions  in  the  spandrels  of  the  arches 
under  this  frieze,  with  reliefs  of  the  Annunciation,  the 
Visitation,  and  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin. 

A  large  octagonal  font  of  enamelled  clay,  with  pilasters 
at  the  angles  and  panels  between  them  with  scenes  from 
the  life  of  the  Baptist,  in  the  church  of  S.  Leonardo  at 
Cerreto  Guidi,  is  a  work  of  the  school  of  Giovanni ;  the 
reliefs  are  pictorial  in  style  and  coarse  in  execution.  Gio- 
vanni's chief  pupil  was  a  man  named  Santi,  who  was  at 
first  apprenticed  to  Buglioni,1  and  when  the  latter  died  in 
1521  he  went  into  Giovanni's  bottega.  His  work  is  very 
inferior  to  that  of  his  master. 

VII.  GIROLAMO  DELLA  RoBBiA  (1488-1566),  another  of 
Andrea's  sons,  was  an  architect  and  a  sculptor  in  marble 
and  bronze  as  well  as  in  enamelled  clay.  During  the  first 
part  of  his  life  he,  like  his  brothers,  worked  with  his  father, 
but  in  1528  he  went  to  France  and  spent  nearly  forty 
years  in  the  service  of  the  French  royal  family.  Francis 
I.  employed  him  to  build  a  palace  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne 
called  the  Chateau  de  Madrid.  This  was  a  large  well- 
designed  building,  four  stories  high,  two  of  them  having 
open  loggie  in  the  Italian  fashion.  Girolamo  decorated  it 
richly  with  terra-cotta  medallions,  friezes,  and  other  archi- 
tectural features.2  For  this  purpose  he  set  up  kilns  at 
Suresnes.  Though  the  palace  itself  has  been  destroyed, 
drawings  of  it  exist.3 

The  best  collections  of  Robbia  ware  are  in  the  Florentine  Bargello 
and  Accademia,  the  South  Kensington  Museum  (the  finest  out  of 
Italy),  the  Louvre,  the  Cluny,  and  the  Berlin  Museums.  Many 
fine  specimens  exist  in  Paris  in  the  private  collections  of  M.  Alphonse 
de  Rothschild,  M.  Gavel,  and  M.  Dreyfus.  The  greater  part  of 
the  Robbia  work  still  remains  in  the  churches  and  other  buildings 
of  Italy,  especially  in  Florence,  Fiesole,  Arezzo,  La  Verna,  Volterra, 
Barga,  Montepulciano,  Lucca,  Pistoia,  Prato,  and  Siena.  The  best 
accounts  of  the  Delia  Robbia  family  are  those  given  by  De  Jouy, 
Lcs  Delia  Robbia,  Paris,  1855  ;  Bode,  Die  Kiinstlerfamilic  Delia 
Robbia,  Leipsic,  1878  ;  and  Cavallucci  and  Molinier,  Lcs  Delia 
Robbia,  Paris,  1884,  an  ably -written  and  well -illustrated  work. 
See  also  Vasari,  ed.  Milanesi,  Florence,  1880,  ii.  p.  167  sq.,  and 
various  works  on  Italian  sculpture.  (J.  H.  M. ) 

ROBERT  I.,  king  of  France,  son  and  successor  of  Hugh 
Capet,  was  born  at  Orleans  in  971  and  died  at  Melun  in 
1031.  See  FRANCE,  vol.  ix.  p.  536.  He  is  sometimes 
cited  as  Robert  II.,  Robert  I.  being  then  taken  to  mean 
Robert,  duke  of  France  (ob.  923),  the  second  son  of  Robert 
"  the  Strong  "  (ob.  866) ;  comp.  FRANCE,  vol.  ix.  p.  535. 

ROBERT,  called  THE  BRUCE  4  (1274-1329),  king  of 
Scotland,  was  the  son  of  the  seventh  Robert  de  Bruce, 
lord  of  Annandale  in  his  own  right  and  earl  of  Carrick  in 
right  of  his  wife  Marjory,  daughter  of  Neil,  second  earl, 
and  thus  was  of  mingled  Norman  5  and  Celtic  blood.  His 

1  Benedetto  Buglioni  (1461-1521)  appears  to  have  produced  ena- 
melled ware  independently  of  the  Robbia  family.     In  1484  he  made 
a  relief  of  the  Harrowing  of  Hell  for  the  Servite  monks  at  Florence ; 
see  Baldinucci,  Notiziede'  Prof essori  del  Disegno,  Milan,  1811,  vi.  p.  18. 

2  The  Sevres  Museum  possesses  some  fragments  of  these  decorations. 

3  See  Laborde,  CMteau  de  Madrid,  Paris,  1853,  and  Comptes  des 
Bdtiments  du  Roi,  Paris,  1877-80,  in  which  a  full  account  is  given  of 
Girolamo's  work  in  connexion  with  this  palace. 

4  For  ROBERT  II.   (1316-1390)    and  ROBERT  III.   (d.   1406)   of 
Scotland,  see  SCOTLAND. 

5  The  first  Robert  de  Bruce,  a  follower  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
was  rewarded  by  the  gift  of  many  manors,  chiefly  in  Yorkshire,  of 
which  Skelton  was  the  principal.     His  son,  the  second  Robert,  received 
from  David  I.,  his  comrade  at  the  court  of  Henry  I.,  a  grant  of  the 
lordship  of  Annandale,  and  his  grandson,  the  third  Robert,  siding 
with  David  against  Stephen  at  the  battle  of  the  Standard,  became  a 
Scottish  instead  of  an  English  baron.     The  fourth  Robert  married 
Isobel,  natural  daughter  of  William  the  Lion,  and  their  son,  the  fifth 
Robert,  married  Isabella,  second  daughter  of  David,  earl  of  Hunting- 
don, niece  of  the  same  Scottish  king.     Tims  royal  kin  made  natural 
the  ambition  to  gain  a  crown, — an  object  not  beyond  the  ambition  of 
a  powerful  noble  in  feudal  times. 


grandfather,  the  sixth  Robert  de  Bruce,  claimed  the  crown 
of  Scotland  as  son  of  Isabella,  second  daughter  of  David, 
earl  of  Huntingdon  ;  but  Baliol,  grandson  of  Margaret,  the 
eldest  daughter,  was  preferred  by  the  commissioners  of 
Edward  I.  The  birthplace  of  the  Bruce — perhaps  Turn- 
berry,  his  mother's  castle,  on  the  coast  of  Ayr — is  not  cer- 
tainly known.  His  youth  is  said  by  an  English  chronicle 
to  have  been  passed  at  the  court  of  Edward  I.  At  an 
age  when  the  mind  is  quick  to  receive  the  impressions 
which  give  the  bent  to  life  he  must  have  watched  the  pro- 
gress of  the  great  suit  for  the  crown  of  Scotland.  Its 
issue  in  favour  of  Baliol  led  to  the  resignation  of  Annan- 
dale  by  Bruce  the  competitor  to  his  son,  the  Bruce's  father, 
who,  either  then  or  after  the  death  of  the  aged  competitor 
in  1295,  assumed  the  title  of  lord  of  Annandale.  Two 
years  before  he  had  resigned,  on  the  death  of  his  wife,  the 
earldom  of  Carrick  to  Robert  the  Bruce,  who  presented 
the  deed  of  resignation  to  Baliol  at  Stirling  on  3d  August 
1293,  and  offered  the  homage  which  his  father,  like  his 
grandfather,  was  unwilling  to  render.  Feudal  law  required 
that  the  king  should  take  sasine  of  the  earldom  before 
regranting  it  and  receiving  the  homage,  and  the  sheriff  of 
Ayr  was  directed  to  take  it  on  Baliol's  behalf.  As  the 
disputes  between  Edward  and  Baliol,  which  ended  in  Baliol 
losing  the  kingdom,  commenced  in  this  year  it  is  doubtful 
whether  Bruce  ever  rendered  homage ;  but  he  is  henceforth 
known  as  earl  of  Carrick,  though  in  a  few  instances  this 
title  is  still  given  to  his  father.  Both  father  and  son  sided 
with  Edward  against  Baliol.  Towards  the  end  of  1292 
the  elder  Robert  had  a  safe-conduct  from  Edward  to  visit 
Norway  with  a  daughter,  Isabella,  who  married  Erik,  king 
of  Norway,  the  widower  of  Margaret  of  Scotland, — a  fact 
marking  the  high  standing  of  the  family  of  Bruce.  On 
20th  April  1294  the  younger  Robert,  earl  of  Carrick,  had 
a  similar  safe-conduct  or  permission  to  visit  Ireland  till 
Michaelmas  and  a  year  following,  and  a  further  mark  of 
Edward's  favour  by  a  respite  for  the  same  period  of  all 
debts  due  by  him  to  the  exchequer.  His  father,  having 
done  homage  to  Edward,  was  entrusted  in  October  1295 
with  the  custody  of  the  castle  of  Carlisle  by  a  patent  in 
which  he  is  styled  lord  of  Annandale ;  and  Baliol  retaliated 
by  seizing  Annandale,  which  he  conferred  on  John  Comyn, 
earl  of  Buchan.  On  28th  August  1296  Robert  de  Bruce 
"  le  vieil "  and  Robert  de  Bruce  "  le  jeune,"  earl  of  Carrick, 
swore  fealty  to  Edward  at  Berwick ;  but  (according  to 
Hemingford),  in  breach  of  this  oath,  renewed  at  Carlisle 
on  the  Gospels  and  the  sword  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  the 
young  earl  joined  Wallace,  who  had  raised  the  standard 
of  Scottish  independence  in  the  name  of  Baliol  after  that 
weak  king  had  himself  surrendered  his  kingdom  to 
Edward.  Urgent  letters  were  sent  ordering  Bruce  to  sup- 
port Warenne,  Edward's  general,  in  the  summer  of  1297; 
but,  instead  of  complying,  he,  along  with  the  bishop  of 
Glasgow  and  the  steward  of  Scotland,  laid  waste  the  lands 
of  those  who  adhered  to  Edward.  On  7th  July  Percy 
forced  Bruce  and  his  friends  to  make  terms  by  the  treaty 
called  the  Capitulation  of  Irvine.  The  Scottish  lords  were 
not  to  serve  beyond  the  sea  against  their  will  and  were 
pardoned  for  their  recent  violence,  while  in  return  they 
owned  allegiance  to  Edward.  The  bishop  of  Glasgow,  the 
steward,  and  Sir  Alexander  Lindesay  became  sureties  for 
Bruce  until  he  delivered  his  daughter  Marjory  as  a  hostage. 
Wallace  almost  alone  maintained  the  struggle  for  freedom 
which  the  nobles  as  well  as  Baliol  had  given  up,  and  Bruce 
had  no  part  in  the  honour  of  Stirling  Bridge  or  the  reverse 
of  Falkirk,  where  in  the  following  year  Edward  in  person 
recovered  what  his  generals  had  lost  and  drove  Wallace 
into  exile.  Shortly  afterwards  Bruce  appears  again  to 
have  sided  with  his  countrymen ;  Annandale  was  wasted 
and  Lochmaben  taken  by  Clifford,  while  Bruce  (according 


ROBERT 


593 


to  Hemingford),  "when  he  heard  of  the  king's  coming, 
fled  from  his  face  and  burnt  the  castle  of  Ayr  which  he 
held."  Yet,  when  Edward  was  forced  by  home  affairs  to 
quit  Scotland,  Annandale  and  certain  earldoms,  including 
Carrick,  were  excepted  from  the  districts  he  assigned  to 
his  followers, — Bruce  and  the  other  earls  being  treated  as 
waverers  whose  allegiance  might  still  be  retained.  In 
1299  a  regency  was  appointed  in  Scotland  in  name  of 
Baliol,  and  a  letter  of  Baliol  mentions  Robert  Bruce,  lord 
of  Carrick,  as  regent,  along  with  William  of  Lamberton, 
bishop  of  St  Andrews,  and  John  Comyn  the  younger, — 
a  strange  combination,  Lamberton  the  friend  of  Wallace, 
Comyn  the  enemy  of  Bruce,  and  Bruce  a  regent  in  name 
of  Baliol.  Comyn  in  his  own  interest  as  Baliol's  heir  was 
the  active  regent ;  the  insertion  of  the  name  of  Bruce  was 
an  attempt  to  secure  his  co-operation.  For  the  next  four 
years  he  kept  studiously  in  the  background  waiting  his 
time.  A  statement  of  Langtoft  that  he  was  at  the  parlia- 
ment of  Lincoln  in  1301,  when  the  English  barons  repudi- 
ated the  claim  of  the  pope  to  the  suzerainty  of  Scotland, 
is  not  to  be  credited,  though  his  father  may  have  been 
there.  In  the  campaign  of  1304,  when  Edward  renewed 
his  attempt  on  Scotland  and  reduced  Stirling,  Bruce  sup- 
ported the  English  king,  who  in  one  of  his  letters  to  him 
says,  "If  you  complete  that  which  you  have  begun  we 
shall  hold  the  war  ended  by  your  deed  and  all  the  land  of 
Scotland  gained."  But,  while  apparently  aiding  Edward, 
Bruce  had  taken  a  step  which  bound  him  to  the  patriotic 
cause.  On  llth  June,  a  month  before  the  fall  of  Stirling, 
he  met  Lamberton  at  Cambuskenneth  and  entered  into  a 
secret  bond  by  which  they  were  to  support  each  other 
against  all  adversaries  and  undertake  nothing  without 
consulting  together.  The  death  of  his  father  in  this  year 
may  have  determined  his  course  and  led  him  to  prefer  the 
chance  of  the  Scottish  crown  to  his  English  estates  and 
the  friendship  of  Edward. 

This  determination  closes  the  first  chapter  of  his  life ; 
the  second,  from  1304  to  1314,  is  occupied  by  his  contest 
for  the  kingdom,  which  was  really  won  at  Bannockburn, 
though  disputed  till  the  treaty  of  Northampton  in  1328; 
the  last,  from  1314  to  his  death  in  1329,  was  the  period  of 
the  establishment  of  his  government  and  dynasty  by  an 
administration  as  skilful  as  his  generalship.  It  is  to  the 
second  of  these  that  historians,  attracted  by  its  brilliancy 
even  amongst  the  many  romances  of  history  and  its 
importance  to  Scottish  history,  have  directed  most  of  their 
attention,  and  it  is  during  it  that  his  personal  character, 
tried  by  adversity  and  prosperity,  gradually  unfolds  itself. 
But  all  three  periods  require  to  be  kept  in  view  to  form  a 
just  estimate  of  Bruce.  That  which  terminated  in  1304, 
though  unfortunately  few  characteristics,  personal  or  indi- 
vidual, have  been  preserved,  shows  him  by  his  conduct  to 
have  been  the  normal  Scottish  noble  of  the  time.  A  con- 
flict of  interest  and  of  bias  led  to  contradictory  action, 
and  this  conflict  was  increased  in  his  case  by  his  father's 
residence  in  England,  his  own  upbringing  at  the  English 
court,  his  family  feud  with  Baliol  and  the  Comyns,  and 
the  jealousy  common  to  his  class  of  Wallace,  the  mere 
knight,  who  had  rallied  the  commons  against  the  invader 
and  taught  the  nobles  what  was  required  in  a  leader  of 
the  people.  The  merit  of  Bruce  is  that  he  did  not  despise 
the  lesson.  Prompted  alike  by  patriotism  and  ambition, 
at  the  prime  of  manhood  he  chose  the  cause  of  national 
independence  with  all  its  perils,  and  stood  by  it  with  a 
constancy  which  never  wavered  until  he  secured  its  triumph. 
Though  it  is  crowded  with  incidents,  the  main  facts  in  the 
central  decade  of  Bruce's  life  may  be  rapidly  told.  The 
fall  of  Stirling  was  followed  by  the  capture  and  execution 
of  Wallace  at  London  on  24th  August  1305.  Edward 
hoped  still  to  conciliate  the  nobles  and  gain  Scotland  by  a 


policy  of  clemency  to  all  who  did  not  dispute  his  authority. 
A  parliament  in  London  (16th  September),  to  which 
Scottish  representatives  were  summoned,  agreed  to  an 
ordinance  for  the  government  of  Scotland,  which,  though 
on  the  model  of  those  for  Wales  and  Ireland,  treating 
Scotland  as  a  third  subject  province  under  an  English 
lieutenant,  John  de  Bretagne,  was  in  other  respects  not 
severe.  Bruce  is  reputed  to  have  been  one  of  the  advisers 
who  assisted  in  framing  it ;  but  a  provision  that  his  castle 
of  Kildrummy  was  to  be  placed  in  charge  of  a  person  for 
whom  he  should  answer  shows  that  Edward  not  without 
reason  suspected  his  fidelity.  Challenged  by  the  king 
with  the  bond  between  him  and  Lamberton  (according  to 
one  account  discovered  by  the  treachery  of  John  Comyn, 
with  whom  a  similar  engagement  had  been  made  or 
attempted),  Bruce  secretly  quitted  London,  and  on  10th 
February  1306  met  by  appointment,  in  the  church  of  the 
Friars  Minor  at  Dumfries,  Comyn,  whom  he  slew  at  the 
high  altar  for  refusing  to  join  in  his  plans.  So  much  is 
certain,  though  the  precise  incidents  of  the  interview  were 
variously  told.  It  was  not  their  first  encounter,  for  a  letter 
of  1299  to  Edward  from  Scotland  describes  Comyn  as 
having  seized  Bruce  by  the  throat  at  a  meeting  at  Peebles, 
when  they  were  with  difficulty  reconciled  by  the  joint 
regency. 

The  bond  with  Lamberton  was  now  sealed  by  blood  and 
the  confederates  lost  no  time  in  putting  it  into  execution. 
Within  little  more  than  six  weeks  Bruce,  collecting  his 
adherents  in  the  south-west,  passed  from  Lochmaben  to 
Glasgow  and  thence  to  Scone,  where  he  was  crowned  by 
the  bishop  of  St  Andrews  on  25th  March,  the  bishops 
of  Glasgow  and  Moray,  with  the  earls  of  Lennox,  Athole, 
and  Errol,  being  present.  Two  days  later  Isabella,  countess 
of  Buchan,  claimed  the  right  of  her  family  the  Macduffs, 
earls  of  Fife,  to  place  the  Scottish  king  on  his  throne,  and 
the  ceremony  was  repeated  with  an  addition  flattering  to 
the  Celtic  race.  Though  a  king,  Bruce  had  not  yet  a  king- 
dom, and  his  efforts  to  obtain  it  were  till  the  death  of 
Edward  I.  disastrous  failures.  In  June  he  was  defeated 
at  Methven  by  Pembroke,  and  on  llth  August  he  was  sur- 
prised in  Strathfillan,  where  he  had  taken  refuge,  by  Lord 
Lorn.  The  ladies  of  his  family  were  sent  to  Kildrummy 
in  January,  and  Bruce,  almost  without  a  follower,  fled  to 
Rathlin,  an  island  off  Antrim  (Ireland).  Edward,  though 
suffering  from  his  last  illness,  came  to  the  north  in  the 
following  spring.  On  his  way  he  granted  the  Scottish 
estates  of  Bruce  and  his  adherents  to  his  own  followers, 
Annandale  falling  to  the  earl  of  Hereford.  At  Carlisle 
there  was  published  a  bull  excommunicating  Bruce,  along 
with  another  absolving  Edward  from  the  oath  he  had 
taken  to  observe  Magna  Charta  and  the  other  charters  on 
which  the  English  constitution  rests.  Elizabeth  the  wife, 
Marjory  the  daughter,  Christina  the  sister  of  Bruce,  were 
captured  in  a  sanctuary  at  Tain  and  sent  prisoners  to 
England.  The  countess  of  Buchan  was  confined  in  a  cage 
at  Berwick  and  another  of  Bruce's  sisters,  Mary,  in  a  cage 
at  Roxburgh.  The  bishops  of  St  Andrews  and  Glasgow 
and  the  abbot  of  Scone  were  suspended  from  their  bene- 
fices and  sent  as  prisoners  to  the  south  of  England.  Nigel 
Bruce,  his  youngest  brother,  was  beheaded  at  Berwick, 
Christopher  Seton,  his  brother-in-law,  at  Dumfries.  The 
earl  of  Athole  was  sent  to  London  and  hanged  on  a  gallows 
30  feet  higher  than  the  pole  on  which  the  head  of  Wallace 
still  stood.  Two  other  brothers  of  Bruce,  Thomas  and 
Alexander  (dean  of  Glasgow),  met  the  same  fate  at  Carlisle. 
There  were  many  minor  victims,  but  the  chronicler  of 
Lanercost  notes  that  the  number  of  those  who  wished 
Bruce  to  be  confirmed  in  the  kingdom  increased  daily. 
While  thus  wreaking  his  vengeance  Edward  himself  was 
summoned  by  death  at  Burgh-on-the-Sands,  on  the  Solway, 

XX.  —  75 


594 


ROBERT 


on  7th  June  1307.  By  his  dying  wish  the  inscription 
"Edwardus  Primus,  Scotormn  Malleus,  Pactum  Serva" 
was  put  on  his  tomb.  In  a  moment  all  was  changed. 
Instead  of  being  opposed  to  the  greatest,  Bruce  now  had  as 
his  antagonist  the  feeblest  of  the  Plantagenets.  Quitting 
Rathlin  (after  a  short  stay  in  Arran),  Bruce  had  before 
Edward's  death  attempted  to  take  Turnberry  and  Ayr, 
but  had  failed,  though  he  defeated  Pembroke  at  Loudoun 
Hill.  No  sooner  was  his  father  dead  than  Edward  II. 
recalled  his  banished  favourite  Gaveston.  After  wasting 
the  critical  moment  of  the  war  in  the  diversions  of  a 
youthful  court,  the  new  king  made  an  inglorious  march 
to  Cumnock  and  back  without  striking  a  blow,  and  then 
returned  south  to  celebrate  his  marriage  with  Isabella  of 
France,  leaving  the  war  to  a  succession  of  generals.  Bruce, 
with  the  insight  of  military  genius,  seized  his  opportunity. 
Leaving  Edward,  now  his  only  brother  in  blood  and 
almost  his  equal  in  arms,  in  Galloway,  he  suddenly  trans- 
ferred his  own  operations  to  Aberdeenshire.  In  the  end 
of  1307  and  again  in  May  1308  he  overran  Buchan, 
where  at  Inverury  on  22d  May  he  defeated  its  earl,  one 
of  his  chief  Scottish  opponents.  Then  crossing  to  Argyll 
he  surprised  Lord  Lorn  in  the  Pass  of  Brander  and  took 
Dunstaffnage.  In  1309  a  truce,  scarcely  kept,  was  effected 
by  the  pope  and  Philip  of  France,  and  in  1310,  in  a  general 
council  at  Dundee,  the  clergy  of  Scotland — all  the  bishops 
being  present — recognized  Bruce  as  king.  The  support 
given  him  by  the  national  church  in  spite  of  his  excom- 
munication must  have  been  of  great  importance  in  that 
age,  and  was  probably  due  to  the  example  of  Lamberton. 
The  next  three  years  were  signalized  by  the  reduction  one 
by  one  of  the  strong  places  the  English  still  held, — Lin- 
lithgow  in  the  end  of  1310,  Dumbarton  in  October  1311, 
Perth  by  Bruce  himself  in  January  1312.  Encouraged 
by  these  successes,  he  made  a  raid  into  the  north  of  England, 
and  on  his  return  reduced  Butel  (in  Galloway),  Dumfries, 
and  Dalswinton,  and  threatened  Berwick.  In  March  1313 
Sir  James  Douglas  surprised  Roxburgh,  and  Randolph 
surprised  Berwick.  In  May  Bruce  was  again  in  England, 
and,  though  he  failed  to  take  Carlisle,  he  subdued  the  Isle 
of  Man.  Edward  Bruce  about  the  same  time  took  Ruther- 
glen  and  laid  siege  to  Stirling,  whose  governor,  Mowbray, 
agreed  to  capitulate  if  not  relieved  before  24th  June  1314. 
Bruce's  rapidity  of  movement  was  one  cause  of  his  success. 
His  sieges,  the  most  difficult  part  of  mediaeval  warfare, 
though  won  sometimes  by  stratagem,  prove  that  he  and 
his  followers  had  benefited  from  their  early  training  in  the 
wars  of  Edward  I,  We  know  that  he  had  been  specially 
employed  by  that  king  to  prepare  the  siege-train  for  his 
attack  on  Stirling.  By  the  close  of  1313  Berwick  and 
Stirling  alone  remained  English.  Edward  II.  felt  that  if 
Scotland  was  not  to  be  lost  a  great  effort  must  be  made. 
With  the  whole  available  feudal  levy  of  England,  a  con- 
tingent from  Ireland,  and  recruits  even  out  of  jails — for 
murderers  were  pardoned  on  condition  of  joining  the  army 
— he  advanced  from  Berwick  to  Falkirk,  which  he  reached 
on  22d  June.  After  a  preliminary  skirmish  on  Sunday 
the  23d,  in  which  Bruce  distinguished  himself  by  a  per- 
sonal combat  with  Henry  de  Bohun,  whom  he  felled  by 
a  single  blow  of  his  axe,  the  battle  of  Bannockburn  was 
fought  on  Monday  the  24th ;  and  the  complete  rout  of 
the  English  determined  the  independence  of  Scotland  and 
confirmed  the  title  of  Bruce.  The  details  of  the  day, 
memorable  in  the  history  of  war  as  well  as  of  Scotland, 
have  been  singularly  well  preserved,  and  redound  to  the 
credit  of  Bruce,  who  had  studied  in  the  school  of  Wallace 
as  well  as  in  that  of  Edward  I.  He  had  chosen  and 
knew  his  ground, — the  New  Park  between  St  Ninian's 
and  the  Bannock,  a  petty  burn,  yet  sufficient  to  produce 
marshes  dangerous  to  heavily-armed  horsemen,  while  from 


the  rising  ground  on  his  right  the  enemy's  advance  va.s 
seen.  His  troops  were  in  four  divisions ;  his  brother  com- 
manded the  right,  Randolph  the  centre,  Douglas  the  left. 
Bruce  with  the  reserve  planted  his  standard  at  the  Bore 
Stone,  whence  there  is  the  best  view  of  the  field.  His 
camp-followers  on  the  Gillies'  Hill  appeared  over  its  crest 
at  the  critical  moment  which  comes  in  all  battles.  The 
plain  on  the  right  of  the  marshes  was  prepared  with  pits 
and  spikes.  But  what  more  than  any  other  point  of 
strategy  made  the  fight  famous  was  that  the  Scots  fought 
on  foot  in  battalions  with  their  spears  outwards,  in  a  cir- 
cular formation  serving  the  same  purpose  as  the  modern 
square.  A  momentary  success  of  the  English  archers 
was  quickly  reversed  by  a  flank  movement  of  Sir  Robert 
Keith.  The  Scottish  bowmen  followed  up  his  advantage, 
and  the  fight  became  general ;  the  English  horse,  crowded 
into  too  narrow  a  space,  were  met  by  the  steady  resist- 
ance of  the  Scottish  pikemen,  who  knew  Bruce  told  them 
truly  that  they  fought  for  their  country,  their  wives,  their 
children,  and  all  that  freemen  hold  dear.  The  English 
rear  was  unable  to  come  up  in  the  narrow  space  or  got 
entangled  in  the  broken  ranks  of  the  van.  The  first  re- 
pulse soon  passed  into  a  rout,  and  from  a  rout  into  a 
headlong  flight,  in  which  Edward  himself  barely  escaped. 
Like  Courtrai  and  Morgarten,  Bannockburn  marked  the 
momentous  change  from  mediaeval  to  modern  warfare. 
The  armed  knights  gave  place  to  the  common  soldiers 
led  by  skilful  generals  as  the  arbiters  of  the  destiny  of 
nations.  In  the  career  of  Bruce  it  was  the  turning-point. 
The  enthusiasm  of  the  nation  he  had  saved  forgot  his 
late  adhesion  to  the  popular  cause,  and  at  the  parliament 
of  Ayr  on  25th  April  1315  the  succession  was  settled  by 
a  unanimous  voice  on  him,  and,  failing  males  of  his  body, 
on  his  brother  Edward  and  his  heirs  male,  failing  whom 
on  his  daughter  Marjory  and  her  heirs,  if  she  married  with 
his  consent  Soon  after  she  married  Walter  the  Steward. 
The  last  part  of  Bruce's  life,  from  1315  to  1329,  began 
with  an  attempt  which  was  the  most  striking  testimony 
that  could  have  been  given  to  the  effect  of  Bannockburn, 
and  which,  had  it  succeeded,  might  have  altered  the  future 
of  the  British  Isles.  This  was  no  less  than  the  rising  of 
the  whole  Celtic  race,  who  had  felt  the  galling  yoke  of 
Edward  I.  and  envied  the  freedom  the  Scots  had  Avon. 
In  1315  Edward  Bruce  crossed  to  Ireland  on  the  invita- 
tion of  the  natives,  and  in  the  following  year  the  Welsh 
became  his  allies.  In  autumn  Robert  came  to  his  brother, 
and  they  together  traversed  Ireland  to  Limerick.  Dublin 
was  saved  by  its  inhabitants  committing  it  to  the  flames, 
and,  though  nineteen  victories  were  won,  of  which  that 
at  Slane  in  Louth  by  Robert  was  counted  the  chief,  the 
success  was  too  rapid  to  be  permanent.  The  brothers 
retreated  to  Ulster,  and,  Robert  having  left  Ireland  to 
protect  his  own  borders,  Edward  was  defeated  and  killed 
at  Dundalk  in  October  1318.  On  his  return  Bruce  ad- 
dressed himself  to  the  siege  of  Berwick,  a  standing  menace 
to  Scotland.  While  preparing  for  it  two  cardinals  arrived 
in  England  with  a  mission  from  Pope  John  XXII.  to  effect 
a  truce,  or,  failing  that,  to  renew  the  excommunication  of 
Bruce.  The  cardinals  did  not  trust  themselves  across 
the  border;  their  messengers,  however,  were  courteously 
received  by  Bruce,  but  with  a  firm  refusal  to  admit  the 
bulls  into  his  kingdom  because  not  addressed  to  him  as 
king.  Another  attempt  by  Newton,  guardian  of  the  Friars 
Minor  at  Berwick,  had  a  more  ignominious  result.  Bruce 
admitted  Newton  to  his  presence  at  Aldcamus,  where  he 
might  see  the  works  for  the  siege  going  on  by  night  and 
day,  and  was  informed  that  Bruce  would  not  receive  the 
bulls  until  his  title  was  acknowledged  and  he  had  taken 
Berwick.  On  his  return  Newton  was  waylaid  and  his 
papers  seized,  not  without  suspicion  of  Bruce's  connivance. 


ROBERT 


595 


In  March  1318  first  the  town  and  then  the  castle  of 
Berwick  capitulated,  and  Bruce  wasted  the  English  border 
as  far  as  Ripon.  In  December  he  held  a  parliament  at 
Scone,  where  he  displayed  the  same  wisdom  as  a  legislator 
which  he  had  shown  as  a  general.  The  death  of  his 
brother  and  his  daughter  rendered  a  resettlement  of  the 
crown  advisable,  which  was  made  in  the  same  order  as 
before,  with  a  provision  as  to  the  regency  in  case  of  a 
minor  heir  in  favour  of  Randolph,  and  failing  him  Douglas. 
The  defence  of  the  country  was  next  cared  for  by  regula- 
tions for  the  arming  of  the  whole  nation,  down  to  every 
one  who  owned  the  value  of  a  cow, — a  measure  far  in  ad- 
vance of  the  old  feudal  levy.  Exports  during  war  and  of 
arms  at  any  time  were  prohibited.  Internal  justice  was 
regulated,  and  it  was  declared  that  it  was  to  be  done  to 
poor  and  rich  alike.  Leasing-making — a  Scottish  term  for 
seditious  language — -was  to  be  sternly  punished.  The  nobles 
were  exhorted  not  to  oppress  the  commons.  Reforms  were 
also  made  in  the  tedious  technicalities  of  the  feudal  law. 
In  1319  an  attempt  to  recover  Berwick  was  repelled  by 
Walter  the  Steward,  and  Bruce  took  occasion  of  a  visit  to 
compliment  his  son-in-law  and  raise  the  walls  10  feet. 

His  position  was  now  so  strong  that  foreign  states  began 
to  testify  their  respect.  Bruges  and  Ypres  rejected  a 
request  of  Edward  tp  cut  off  the  Scottish  trade  with 
Flanders.  The  pope,  who  had  excommunicated  Bruce, 
was  addressed  by  the  parliament  of  Arbroath  in  1320  in 
a  letter  which  compared  Bruce  to  a  Joshua  or  Judas 
Maccabaeus,  who  had  wrought  the  salvation  of  his  people, 
and  declared  they  fought  "not  for  glory,  truth,  or  honour, 
but  for  that  liberty  which  no  virtuous  man  will  survive." 
Moved  by  this  language  and  conscious  of  the  weakness 
of  Edward,  the  pope  exhorted  him  to  make  peace  with 
Scotland,  and  three  years  later  Randolph  at  last  procured 
the  recognition  of  Bruce  as  king  from  the  papal  see  by 
promising  aid  in  a  crusade.  In  1326  the  French  king 
made  a  similar  acknowledgment  by  the  treaty  of  Corbeil. 
Meantime  hostilities  more  or  less  constant  continued  with 
England,  but,  though  in  1322  Edward  made  an  incursion 
as  far  as  Edinburgh,  the  fatal  internal  weakness  of  his 
government  prevented  his  gaining  any  real  success.  Some 
of  his  chief  nobles — Lancaster  in  1321  and  Sir  Andrew 
Hartcla  in  1322 — entered  into  correspondence  with  the 
Scots,  and,  though  Hartcla's  treason  was  detected  and 
punished  by  his  death,  Edward  was  forced  to  make  a 
treaty  for  a  long  truce  of  thirteen  years  at  Newcastle  on 
30th  May,  which  Bruce  ratified  at  Berwick.  The  intrigue 
of  the  queen  with  Roger  Mortimer  led  to  the  end  of  the 
ignominious  reign  by  Edward's  deposition  and  murder  in 
1327  ;  and  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  reign,  after  a 
narrow  escape  of  the  young  king  from  capture  by  Randolph, 
was  the  treaty  of  York,  ratified  at  Northampton  in  April 
1328,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  "Scotland,  according 
to  its  ancient  bounds  in  the  days  of  Alexander  III.,  should 
remain  to  Robert,  king  of  Scots,  and  his  heirs  free  and 
divided  from  England,  without  any  subjection,  servitude, 
claim  or  demand  whatsoever."  Johanna,  Edward's  sister, 
was  to  be  given  in  marriage  to  David,  the  infant  son  of 
Bruce,  and  the  ceremony  was  celebrated  at  Berwick  on 
12th  July. 

The  chief  author  of  Scottish  independence  barely  survived 
his  work.  His  last  years  had  been  spent  chiefly  at  the  castle 
of  Cardross  on  the  Clyde,  which  he  acquired  in  1326,  and 
the  conduct  of  war,  as  well  as  the  negotiations  for  peace, 
had  been  left  to  the  young  leaders  Randolph  and  Douglas, 
whose  training  was  one  of  Bruce's  services  to  his  country. 
Ever  active,  he  employed  himself  in  the  narrower  sphere 
of  repairing  the  castle  and  improving  its  domains  and 
gardens,  in  shipbuilding  on  the  Clyde,  and  in  the  exercise 
of  the  royal  virtues  of  hospitality  and  charity.  The  reli- 


gious feeling,  which  had  not  been  absent  even  during  the 
struggles  of  manhood,  deepened  in  old  age,  and  took  the 
form  the  piety  of  the  times  prescribed.  He  made  careful 
provision  for  his  funeral,  his  tomb,  and  masses  for  his  soul. 
He  procured  from  the  pope  a  bull  authorizing  his  confessor 
to  absolve  him  even  at  the  moment  of  death.  He  died 
from  leprosy,  contracted  in  the  hardships  of  earlier  life,  on 
7th  June  1329,  and  was  buried  at  Dunfermline  beside  his 
second  wife,  Elizabeth  de  Burgh,  whom  he  had  married 
about  1304,  and  who  bore  him  late  his  only  son,  David, 
who  succeeded  him.  Of  two  surviving  daughters,  Matilda 
married  Thomas  Ysaak,  a  simple  esquire,  and  Margaret 
became  the  wife  of  William,  earl  of  Sutherland.  Marjory, 
an  only  child  by  his  first  wife,  Isabella  of  Mar,  had  pre- 
deceased him.  Several  children  not  born  in  wedlock  have 
been  traced  in  the  records,  but  none  of  them  became  in 
any  way  famous. 

In  fulfilment  of  a  vow  to  visit  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  which  he 
could  not  accomplish  in  person,  Bruce  requested  Douglas  to  carry 
his  heart  there,  but  his  faithful  follower  perished  on  the  way,  fight- 
ing in  Spain  against  the  Moors,  and  the  heart  of  Bruce,  recovered 
by  Sir  William  Keith,  found  its  resting-place  at  Melrose.  When 
his  corpse  was  disinterred  in  1819  the  breast-bone  was  found  severed 
to  admit  of  the  removal  of  the  heart,  thus  confirming  the  story  pre- 
served in  the  verses  of  Barbour.  That  national  poet  collected  in 
the  earliest  Scottish  poem,  written  in  the  reign  of  Bruce's  grandson, 
the  copious  traditions  which  clustered  round  his  memory.  It  is  a 
panegyric  ;  but  history  has  not  refused  to  accept  it  as  a  genuine 
representation  of  the  character  of  the  great  king,  in  spirit,  if  not  in 
every  detail.  Its  dominant  note  is  freedom — the  liberty  of  the 
nation  from  foreign  bondage,  and  of  the  individual  from  oppression. 
It  is  the  same  note  which  Tacitus  embodied  in  the  speech  of 
Galgacus  at  the  dawn  of  Scottish  history.  Often  as  it  has  been 
heard  before  and  since  in  the  course  of  history,  seldom  has  it  had 
a  more  illustrious  champion  than  Robert  the  Bruce.  (M.  M.) 

ROBERT,  the  name  of  two  dukes  of  Normandy.  See 
NORMANDY,  vol.  xvii.  p.  542  for  ROBERT  I.  (d.  1035)  and 
p.  544  for  ROBERT  II.  (d.  1134);  see  also  ENGLAND,  vol. 
viii.  p.  301. 

ROBERT,  HUBERT  (1753-1808),  born  at  Paris  in  1753, 
deserves  to  be  remembered  not  so  much  for  his  skill  as  a 
painter  as  for  the  liveliness  and  point  with  which  he  treated 
the  subjects  he  painted.  The  contrast  between  the  ruins 
of  ancient  Rome  and  the  life  of  his  time  excited  his  keenest 
interest ;  and,  although  he  had  started  for  Italy  on  his  own 
responsibility,  the  credit  he  there  acquired  procured  him 
the  protection  of  the  minister  Marigny  and  an  official 
allowance.  His  incessant  activity  as  an  artist,  his  daring 
character,  his  many  adventures,  attracted  general  sympathy 
and  admiration.  In  the  fourth  canto  of  his  L'Imagincdion 
Delille  celebrated  Robert's  miraculous  escape  when  lost  in 
the  catacombs ;  later  in  life,  when  imprisoned  during  the 
Terror  and  marked  for  the  guillotine,  by  a  fatal  accident 
another  died  in  his  place  and  Robert  lived.  The  quantity 
of  his  work  is  immense ;  the  Louvre  alone  contains  nine 
paintings  by  his  hand  and  specimens  are  frequently  to  be 
met  with  in  provincial  museums  and  private  collections. 
In  spite  of  a  certain  naturalness  in  details  which  was 
wanting  to  his  predecessor  Panini,  all  Robert's  work  has 
more  or  less  of  that  scenic  character  which  justified  the 
taste  of  Voltaire  when  he  selected  him  to  paint  the  decora- 
tions of  his  theatre  at  Ferney.  Robert  fell,  struck  by 
apoplexy,  on  15th  April  1808.  His  brush  was  in  his  hand; 
he  had  painted  till  the  last  moment.  He  was  much  en- 
graved by  the  abbe  Le  Non,  with  whom  he  had  visited 
Naples  in  the  company  of  Fragonard  during  his  early  days ; 
in  Italy  his  work  has  also  been  frequently  reproduced  by 
Chatelain,  Lienard,  Le  Veau,  and  others. 

See  C.  Blanc,  Hist,  des  Pcintrcs  ;  Villot,  Notice  dcs  Tableaux  du 
Louvre ;  Julius  Meyer,  Gcsch.  mod.  fr.  Malerei. 

ROBERT,  Louis  LEOPOLD  (1794-1835),  French  painter, 
was  born  at  Chaux  de  Fonds  (Neufchatel)  in  Switzerland 
on  13th  May  1794,  but  left  his  native  place  with  the  en- 


596 


ROBERT 


graver  Girardet  at  the  age  of  sixteen  for  Paris.  He  was 
on  the  eve  of  obtaining  the  great  prize  for  engraving  when 
the  events  of  1815  blasted  his  hopes,  for  Neufchatel  was 
restored  to  Prussia  and  Robert  was  struck  off  the  list  of 
competitors  as  a  foreigner.  Having  fortunately  whilst 
continuing  his  studies  under  Girardet  never  ceased  to 
frequent  the  studio  of  David,  he  now  determined  to  be- 
come a  painter,  and  only  returned  to  his  native  country 
when  his  master  himself  was  exiled.  At  Neufchatel  he 
had  the  good  fortune  to  attract  the  notice  of  Roullet  de 
Mezerac,  who  enabled  him  by  a  timely  loan  to  proceed  to 
Rome.  At  Rome  Robert  soon  struck  the  vein  of  subject 
destined  to  render  his  talent  celebrated.  In  depicting  the 
customs  and  life  of  the  people,  of  southern  Italy  especially, 
he  showed  peculiar  feeling  for  the  historical  characteristics 
of  their  race.  All  his  work  of  this  class  was  distinguished 
by  an  individual  style :  the  actors  bore  themselves  with  an 
air  of  distinction  and  something  of  gravity  which  witnessed 
to  their  ancient  lineage,  and  the  rhythmical  play  of  line 
which  characterized  all  these  compositions  had  a  peculiar 
affinity  to  the  nature  of  the  types  which  figured  in  them. 
The  charm  of  choice  in  these  types,  the  beauty  of  this  play 
of  line,  and  the  plastic  restraint  and  measure  which  also 
marked  Robert's  treatment  of  his  favourite  subjects  were 
the  points  to  which  he  owed  the  wide  recognition  of  his 
talent,  for  his  command  of  his  own  powers  was  anything 
but  ready  and  his  difficulty  in  bringing  out  what  he  desired 
to  produce  shackled  him,  and  especially  so  because  paint- 
ing requires  a  sure  and  ready  hand  if  its  means  are  to  be 
used  with  brilliant  effect.  After  executing  many  detached 
studies  of  Italian  life  Robert  conceived  the  idea  of  paint- 
ing four  great  works  which  should  represent  at  one  and 
the  same  time  the  four  seasons  in  Italy  and  the  four  lead- 
ing races  of  its  people.  In  the  Return  from  the  Fete  of 
the  Madonna  dell'  Arco  (Louvre)  he  depicted  the  Neapol- 
itans and  the  spring.  This  picture,  exhibited  at  the  Salon 
of  1827,  achieved  undoubted  success  and  was  bought  for 
the  Luxembourg  by  Charles  X. ;  but  the  work  which  ap- 
peared in  1831 — the  Summer  Reapers  arriving  in  the 
Pontine  Marshes  (Louvre),  which  became  the  property  of 
Louis  Philippe  —  established  the  artist's  reputation,  and 
Robert  found  himself  with  all  his  hopes  of  honour  fulfilled 
and  reckoned  as  one  of  the  leading  masters  of  his  day. 
Florence  and  her  autumn  vineyards  should  now  have 
furnished  him  with  his  third  subject.  He  attempted  to 
begin  it,  but,  unable  to  conquer  his  unhappy  passion  for 
Princess  Charlotte  Napoleon  (then  mourning  the  violent 
death  of  her  husband,  Robert's  devoted  friend),  he  threw 
up  his  work  and  went  to  Venice,  where  he  began  and 
carried  through  the  fourth  of  the  series,  the  Fishers  of 
the  Adriatic.  This  work  was  not  equal  to  the  Reapers. 
Worn  by  the  vicissitudes  of  painful  feeling  and  bitterly 
discouraged,  Robert  committed  suicide  before  his  easel, 
20th  March  1835,  on  the  tenth  anniversary  of  the  melan- 
choly suicide  of  a  brother  to  whom  he  had  been  much 
attached. 

See  Yillot,  Notice  dcs  Tableaux  du  Louvre  ;  C.  Blanc,  Hist,  des 
Peintres ;  Feuillet  de  Conches,  Correspondance  dc  L.  L.  Robert ; 
Julius  Meyer,  Gcsch.  mod.fr.  Malerci. 

ROBERT  OF  GLOUCESTER,  an  English  antiquary  and 
historical  writer,  who  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  13th 
century,  was  a  monk  of  the  abbey  at  Gloucester,  and  is 
supposed  by  Hearne,  the  editor  of  his  Chronicle,  to  have 
been  sent  to  preside  over  the  foundation  at  Oxford  (after- 
wards Worcester  College),  where  the  younger  members  of 
the  abbey  were  partly  educated.  This,  however,  is  mere 
conjecture.  The  evidence  which  establishes  his  claim  to 
be  the  author  of  the  Chronicle  (by  which  he  is  best  known) 
is  also  extremely  slight.  In  the  Harleian  MS.  201  (from 
which  Hearne  printed  his  edition)  there  occurs  (fol.  159b 


to  160)  an  account  of  the  battle  of  Evesham.  The  narra- 
tion implies  that  the  writer  was  living  at  that  time  (1265), 
for  he  describes  the  dark  and  dismal  weather  that  pre 
vailed  on  the  day  of  the  battle,  adding,  "  This  isci  Roberd, 
That  verst  this  boc  made," — a  passage,  however,  which 
may  possibly  have  reference  not  to  the  versifier  but  to  the 
original  compiler  of  the  Chronicle.^  The  period  at  which 
the  Chronicle  was  composed  was  evidently  late  in  the  1 3th 
or  early  in  the  14th  century,  as  it  contains  a  reference  to 
the  canonization  of  St  Louis,  king  of  France,  Avhich  took 
place  on  llth  August  1297.  From  an  historical  point  of 
view,  however,  the  Chronicle  is  of  but  little  value.  The 
internal  evidence  shows  it  to  have  been  a  translation  from 
the  French  and  the  original  in  turn  to  have  been  a  mere 
compilation.  The  narrative  commences  with  a  description 
of  Britain,  taken  from  Henry  of  Huntingdon ;  the  material 
is  next  derived  mainly  from  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  and 
then,  again,  from  William  of  Malmesbury,  special  informa- 
tion being  supplied,  here  and  there,  from  Henry  of  Hunt- 
ingdon, Ailred  of  Rievaulx,  and  the  Annals  of  Winchester. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  value  of  the  Chronicle  as  an  illustration 
of  the  versification  and  language  of  the  period  is  considerable.  As 
a  writer  of  English  verse  Robert  comes  first  in  order,  being  prior 
to  both  Robert  of  Brunne  and  Laurence  Minot,  and  lie  has  accord- 
ingly been  styled  the  Ennius  of  English  literature.  His  diction, 
again,  affords  many  interesting  points  of  comparison  with  that 
known  as  Old  English  on  the  one  hand  and  the  language  of 
Chaucer  and  William  Tyndale  on  the  other.  In  his  verses  we  first 
find  the  term  ' '  Saxons  "  used  in  opposition  to  Normans  (Hearne, 
p.  363),  although  "English"  is  the  term  by  which,  throughout 
the  Chronicle,  the  original  population  is  more  generally  designated. 
Of  the  English  tongue  itself,  however,  he  says  (ib.,  p.  125)  that 
")>e  Saxones  speche  it  was,  and  )>orw  hem  ycome  yt  vs."  Many 
of  the  most  noteworthy  peculiarities  of  his  diction  will  be  found 
pointed  out  in  Mr.  Kingdou  Oliphant's  Old  and  Middle  English, 
pp.  430-439. 

Other  compositions  attributed  to  Robert  of  Gloucester  are— a 
Life  of  St  Alban  in  verse  (MS.  Ashmole,  43),  a  Life  of  St  Patrick, 
also  in  verse  (MS.  Tanner,  17),  a  Life  of  St  Bridget  (MS.  C.C.C. 
Carnb.,  145),  and  a  Life  of  St  Alphege  (MS.  Cott.  Julius,  D.  ix.). 

The  only  complete  edition  of  the  Chronicle  is  that  edited  by  Thomas  Heanib 
(Oxford,  1724),  2  vols.  8vo,  partly  from  the  Harleian  MS.  201,  and  partly  from 
the  Cottonian  MS.  Calig.  A.  xi.,  and  reprinted  at  London  in  1810,  2  vols.  8vo. 
This,  however,  is  extremely  defective,  Hearne's  collation  of  the  important 
MS.  in  the  library  of  the  college  of  Arms  being  very  imperfect.  For  further 
information  see  Hardy's  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  MSS.,  Hi.  181-189,  i.  25,  68, 
iii.  623. 

ROBERT  GUISCARD  (c.  1015-1085),  duke  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria,  sixth  of  the  twelve  sons  of  Tancred  de 
Hauteville,  was  born  at  Hauteville  near  Coutances  in 
Normandy  about  the  year  1015.  At  an  early  age  he 
followed  into  Apulia  his  three  elder  brothers  William  Bras- 
de-fer,  Drogo,  and  Humphrey,  who  had  established  a  foot- 
ing there  as  military  adventurers;  and  in  1053  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Civitella,  which  resulted  in 
the  defeat  and  captivity  of  Pope  Leo  IX.  On  the  death 
of  Humphrey  in  1057  Robert,  who  already  had  earned 
the  sobriquet  of  "Guiscard"  ("Sagacious"  or  "Cunning"), 
succeeded  to  the  chief  command  of  the  Norman  troops, 
and,  already  designated  by  them  duke  of  Apulia  and 
Calabria,  was  confirmed  in  that  title  in  1059  by  Pope 
Nicholas  II.,  who  at  the  same  time  named  him  gonfalonier 
of  the  church.  For  the  next  one -and -twenty  years  he 
was  continually  engaged,  along  with  his  youngest  brother 
Roger,  in  warlike  operations  against  the  Greeks  and 
Saracens  in  the  south  of  the  Italian  peninsula  and  in 
Sicily,  the  principal  events  being  the  capture  of  Bari  in 
1070,  that  of  Palermo  in  the  following  year,  and  that  of 
Salerno  in  1077.  In  1081  he  felt  himself  strong  enough 
to  carry  his  arms  abroad  against  Alexius  Comnenus, 
ostensibly  on  behalf  of  the  deposed  emperor  Michael 
Ducas,  the  father-in-law  of  his  daughter.  The  defeat  of 
Alexius  under  the  walls  of  Durazzo  in  October  1081  was 
followed  by  the  capture  of  that  place  in  February  1082, 

1  There  were  others  kuowu  by  the  same  name  ;  see  Hearne,  Pref., 
p.  58. 


R  O  B  — R  O  B 


597 


and  by  a  victorious  march  towards  Constantinople.  But 
before  Robert  had  reached  the  capital  he  was  summoned 
back  by  Gregory  VII.,  his  suzerain,  to  rescue  him  from 
the  emperor  Henry  IV.,  by  whom  he  was  being  besieged 
in  Rome.  After  capturing  and  sacking  the  city  in  May 
108-t  and  conducting  Gregory  to  a  place  of  safety  in 
Salerno,  Guiscard  resumed  his  operations  against  Alexius, 
defeating  the  united  Greek  and  Venetian  fleets,  and  raising 
the  siege  of  Corfu  in  November  1084.  While  still  engaged 
in  active  warfare  he  died  of  pestilence  at  Cephalonia  on 
17th  July  1085.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  dukedom  by 
his  younger  son  Roger  Bursa,  whose  son  William  died 
without  issue  in  1127.  Guiscard's  eldest  son  was  Marc 

BOHEMOND  (q. V.). 

ROBERTS,  DAVID  (1796-1864),  landscape  painter,  was 
born  at  Stockbridge,  Edinburgh,  on  24th  October  1796. 
At  an  early  age  he  manifested  a  great  love  for  art ;  but 
his  father,  a  shoemaker,  wished  him  to  follow  the  same 
trade.  He  was,  however,  apprenticed  for  seven  years  to 
a  painter  and  house-decorator ;  and  during  this  time  he 
employed  his  evenings  in  the  earnest  study  of  art.  For 
the  next  few  years  his  time  was  divided  between  work 
as  a  house-painter  and  as  a  scene-painter,  and  he  even 
appeared  occasionally  on  the  boards  as  an  actor  in  panto- 
mimes. In  1820  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Clarkson 
Stanfield,  then  painting  at  the  Pantheon,  Edinburgh,  by 
whose  advice  and  example  he  greatly  profited  and  at  whose 
suggestion  he  began  his  career  as  an  exhibitor,  sending  three 
pictures  in  1822  to  the  "Exhibition  of  Works  by  Living 
Artists,"  held  in  Edinburgh.  In  the  same  year  he  removed 
to  London,  where  he  worked  for  the  Coburg  Theatre,  and 
was  afterwards  employed,  along  with  Stanfield,  at  Drury 
Lane.  In  1824  he  exhibited  at  the  British  Institution  a 
view  of  Dryburgh  Abbey,  and  sent  two  works  to  the  first 
exhibition  of  the  Society  of  British  Artists,  which  he  had 
joined,  and  of  which  he  was  elected  president  in  1831. 
In  the  same  autumn  he  visited  Normandy,  and  the  works 
which  were  the  results  of  this  excursion  began  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  the  artist's  reputation, — one  of  them,  a  view 
of  Rouen  Cathedral,  being  sold  for  eighty  guineas.  By 
his  scenes  for  an  opera  entitled  The  Seraglio,  executed 
two  years  later,  he  won  much  contemporary  praise,  and 
these,  along  with  the  scenery  for  a  pantomime  dealing  with 
the  naval  victory  of  Navarino,  and  two  panoramas  executed 
jointly  by  him  and  Stanfield,  were  among  his  last  work  for 
the  theatres.  In  1829  he  exhibited  his  imposing  subject 
the  Departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  a  commission 
from  Lord  Northwick,  in  which  the  style  of  the  painter 
first  becomes  clearly  apparent ;  and  three  years  afterwards 
he  travelled  in  Spain,  and  passed  over  to  Tangiers,  return- 
ing in  the  end  of  1833  with  a  supply  of  effective  sketches, 
which  were  speedily  elaborated  into  attractive  and  popular 
paintings.  His  Interior  of  Seville  Cathedral  was  exhibited 
in  the  British  Institution  in  1834,  and  sold  for  £300  ;  and 
he  executed  a  fine  series  of  Spanish  illustrations  for  the 
Landscape  Annual  of  1836,  a  publication  to  which  he  con- 
tributed for  four  years;  while  in  1837  a  selection  of  his 
Picturesque  SketcJies  in  Spain  was  reproduced  by  litho- 
graphy, many  of  the  subjects  being  carefully  retouched 
on.  the  stone  by  the  artist's  own  hand. 

In  1838  Roberts  made  a  long  tour  in  the  East,  sailing 
up  the  Nile,  visiting  Luxor  and  Karnak,  and  afterwards 
making  his  way  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  thus  accumulated 
a  vast  collection  of  sketches  of  a  class  of  scenery  which 
had  hitherto  been  hardly  touched  by  British  artists,  and 
which  appealed  to  the  public  with  all  the  charm  of  novelty. 
The  next  ten  years  of  his  life  were  mainly  spent  in  elaborat- 
ing these  materials.  Many  Eastern  subjects  were  painted, 
and  an  extensive  series  of  drawings  was  lithographed  by 
Louis  Haghe  in  the  superb  work,  Sketches  in  the  Holy 


Land  and  Syria,  1842-49.  In  1851,  and  again  in  1853, 
Roberts  visited  Italy,  painting  the  Ducal  Palace,  Venice, 
bought  by  Lord  Londesborough,  the  interior  of  the  Basi- 
lica of  St  Peter's,  Rome,  Christmas  Day,  1853,  and  Rome 
from  the  Convent  of  St  Onofrio,  presented  to  the  Royal 
Scottish  Academy.  His  last  volume  of  illustrations,  Italy, 
Classical,  Historical,  and  Picturesque,  was  published  in 
1859.  He  also  executed,  by  command  of  the  queen,  a 
picture  of  the  opening  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851, — 
a  laborious  and  rather  uncongenial  task.  In  1839  he  was 
elected  an  associate,  and  in  1841  a  full  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy;  and  in  1858  he  was  presented  with  the 
freedom  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh.  The  last  years  of  his 
life  were  occupied  with  a  series  of  views  of  London  from 
the  Thames.  He  had  executed  six  of  these  and  was  at 
work  upon  a  picture  of  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  when  on  25th 
November  1864  he  was  seized  with  an  attack  of  apoplexy 
and  expired  the  same  evening. 

The  quality  of  Roberts's  work  is  exceedingly  equal  and  uniform 
during  his  whole  career.  The  architecture,  which  is  so  prominent 
a  feature  in  his  paintings,  is  introduced  with  great  picturesqueness 
and  an  easy  command  of  its  salient  points,  but  with  little  care  for 
the  minutiaj  of  detail.  His  art  was  conventional,  essentially  scenic 
and  spectacular  in  character,  showing  effective  composition  and  an 
unerring  instinct  for  broad  general  effect,  but  destitute  of  that  close 
adherence  to  nature,  that  delicacy  and  truth  of  tone  and  colour, 
which  are  becoming  increasingly  characteristic  of  the  productions 
of  the  English  school.  Something  of  the  scene-painter  appears  in 
all  his  works,  and  his  certainty  and  speed  of  execution  were  un- 
doubtedly founded  upon  his  early  practice  for  the  stage. 

A  Life  of  Roberts,  compiled  from  his  journals  and  other  sources  by  James 
Ballantine,  with  etchings  and  pen-and-ink  sketches  by  the  artist,  appeared  in 
Edinburgh  in  I860. 

ROBERTSON,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  (1816-1853),  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  and  influential  preachers  of  modern 
times,  was  born  in  London,  on  3d  February  1816.  The 
first  five  years  of  his  life  were  passed  at  Leith  Fort,  where 
his  father,  a  captain  in  the  Royal  Artillery,  was  then  resi- 
dent. The  impressions  made  upon  the  child  in  those  early 
years  were  never  effaced ;  the  military  spirit  entered  into 
his  blood,  and  throughout  life  he  was  characterized  by  the 
qualities  of  the  ideal  soldier, — courage,  self-devotion,  sense 
of  duty,  hatred  of  cruelty  and  meanness,  chivalrous  defence 
of  the  weak.  In  1821  Captain  Robertson  retired  to 
Beverley,  where  the  boy  was  educated  first  at  home,  then 
at  the  grammar-school.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  spent 
a  year  at  Tours,  from  which  he  returned  to  Scotland  and 
continued  his  education  at  the  Edinburgh  Academy  and 
university.  His  father,  who  had  remarked  and  fostered 
his  singular  nobility  of  character,  his  passion  for  purity 
and  truthfulness,  and  his  deepening  religious  feeling,  now 
proposed  that  he  should  choose  the  church  as  his  profes- 
sion, but  received  the  decisive  answer,  "Anything  but 
that ;  I  am  not  fit  for  it."  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was 
accordingly  articled  to  a  solicitor  in  Bury  St  Edmunds, 
but  the  uncongenial  and  sedentary  employment  broke  down 
his  health  in  a  year's  time.  It  was  then  resolved  to  yield 
to  his  deep-rooted  craving  for  a  military  career  :  his  name 
was  placed  upon  the  list  of  the  3d  Dragoons  then  serving 
in  India,  and  for  two  years  he  devoted  himself  with  ardour 
to  the  work  of  preparing  for  the  army.  But,  by  a  singular 
conjuncture  of  circumstances  and  at  the  sacrifice  of  his  own 
natural  bent  to  his  father's  wish,  he  matriculated  at  Braze- 
nose  College,  Oxford,  just  two  weeks  before  his  commis- 
sion was  put  into  his  hands.  Oxford  he  did  not  find 
wholly  congenial  to  his  intensely  earnest  spirit,  but  he 
read  hard,  and,  as  he  afterwards  said,  "  Plato,  Aristotle, 
Butler,  Thucydides,  Sterne,  Jonathan  Edwards,  passed  like 
the  iron  atoms  of  the  blood  into  my  mental  constitution." 
At  the  same  time  he  made  a  careful  study  of  the  Bible, 
committing  to  memory  the  entire  New  Testament  both  in 
English  and  in  Greek.  The  Tractarian  movement  had 
no  attraction  for  him,  although  he  admired  some  of  its 


598 


ROBERTSON 


leaders.  He  was  at  this  time  a  moderate  Calvinist  in  doc- 
trine and  enthusiastically  evangelical.  Ordained  in  July 
1840  by  the  bishop  of  Winchester,  he  at  once  entered  on 
ministerial  work  in  that  city,  and  during  his  ministry 
there  and  under  the  influence  of  Martyn  and  Brainerd, 
whose  lives  he  affectionately  studied,  he  carried  devotional 
asceticism  to  an  injurious  length,  rising  early,  refraining 
from  meat,  subduing  his  nature  by  self-imposed  austerities, 
and  binding  himself  to  a  system  of  prayer.  In  less  than 
a  year  he  was  compelled  to  seek  relaxation ;  and  going 
to  Switzerland  he  there  met  and  married  Helen,  third 
daughter  of  Sir  George  William  Denys,  Bart.  Early  in 
1842,  after  a  few  months'  rest,  he  accepted  a  curacy  in 
Cheltenham,  which  he  retained  for  upwards  of  four  years. 
"  It  was  during  this  period  that  the  basis  of  his  theological 
science  was  entirely  changed ;  his  principles  of  thought 
attained,  but  not  as  yet  systematized ;  his  system  of  inter- 
preting the  Bible  reduced  to  order ;  his  whole  view  of  the 
relation  of  God  to  man  and  man  to  God  built  up  into  a 
new  temple  on  the  ruins  of  the  old."  The  questioning 
spirit  was  first  aroused  in  him  by  the  disappointing  fruit 
of  evangelical  doctrine  which  he  found  in  Cheltenham,  as 
well  as  by  intimacy  with  men  of  varied  reading.  But,  if 
we  are  to  judge  from  his  own  statement,  the  doubts  which 
now  actively  assailed  him  had  long  been  latent  in  his 
mind:  "a  man  who  had  read  theological  and  philosophical 
controversy  long  before  with  painful  interest — a  man 
who  at  different  times  had  lived  in  the  atmosphere  of 
thought  in  which  Jonathan  Edwards,  Plato,  Lucretius, 
Thomas  Brown,  Carlyle,  Emerson,  and  Fichte  lived — who 
has  steeped  his  soul  and  memory  in  Byron's  strongest  feel- 
ings— who  has  walked  with  Newman  years  ago  to  the 
brink  of  an  awful  precipice,  and  chosen  rather  to  look 
upon  it  calmly,  and  know  the  worst  of  the  secrets  of  the 
darkness,  than  recoil  with  Newman,  in  fear  and  tender- 
ness, back  to  the  infallibility  of  Romanism— such  a  man 
is  not  likely  to  have  been  influenced  by  a  few  casual  state- 
ments of  difficulties  which  he  had  read  of  a  thousand 
iimes  before."  This  was  written  from  Heidelberg  in 
1846.  The  crisis  of  his  mental  conflict  had  just  been 
passed  in  Tyrol,  and  he  was  now  beginning  to  let  his 
creed  grow  again  from  the  one  fixed  point  which  nothing 
had  availed  to  shift :  "  the  one  great  certainty  to  which, 
in  the  midst  of  the  darkest  doubt,  I  never  ceased  to  cling 
— the  entire  symmetry  and  loveliness  and  the  unequalled 
nobleness  of  the  humanity  of  the  Son  of  Man."  After  this 
mental  revolution  he  felt  unable  to  return  to  Cheltenham, 
but  after  doing  duty  for  two  months  at  St  Ebbe's,  Oxford, 
he  entered  in  August  1847  on  his  famous  ministry  at 
Trinity  Chapel,  Brighton.  Here  he  stepped  at  once  into 
the  foremost  rank  as  a  preacher.  His  church  was  thronged 
with  thoughtful  men  of  all  classes  in  society  and  of  all 
shades  of  religious  belief,  with  those  also  who  relished 
brilliant  and  sometimes  impassioned  oratory,  and  with 
those  who  felt  their  need  of  sympathetic  and  helpful  teach- 
ing. But  his  closing  years  were  full  of  sadness.  His  sensi- 
tive nature  was  subjected  to  extreme  suffering,  partly  from 
the  misconstruction  and  hatred  of  the  society  in  which  he 
lived,  partly  from  his  inability  to  accomplish  the  heavy 
work  of  his  position.  He  was  crippled  by  incipient  disease 
of  the  brain,  which  at  first  inflicted  unconquerable  lassitude 
and  depression,  and  latterly  agonizing  pain.  On  the  5th 
June  1853  he  preached  for  the  last  time;  and  on  the  15th 
August  of  the  same  year,  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven,  he 
found  relief  in  death. 

The  causes  of  his  success  as  a  preacher  are  obvious.  His  fine  ap- 
pearance, his  flexible  and  sympathetic  voice,  his  manifest  sincerity, 
the  perfect  lucidity  and  artistic  symmetry  of  his  address,  and  the 
brilliance  with  which  he  illustrated  his  points  would  have  attracted 
hearers  even  had  he  had  little  to  say.  But  he  had  much  to  say. 
No  sermons  were  ever  more  compact.  They  were  the  utterance  of  a 


full,  vivid,  and  penetrating  mind.  He  was  not,  indeed,  i\  scientific 
theologian  ;  but  his  insight  into  the  principles  of  the  spiritual  life 
is  unrivalled  ;  and  for  men  approaching  the  truth  from  the  same 
side  as  himself  he  is  an  invaluable  guide.  His  own  lonely  and  in- 
dependent struggle  had  taught  him  where  foothold  was  secure,  and 
had  enabled  him  to  throw  light  on  many  a  forgotten  stepping-stone 
of  truth.  As  his  biographer  says,  thousands  have  found  in  his 
sermons  "  a  living  source  of  impulse,  a  practical  direction  of  thought, 
a  key  to  many  of  the  problems  of  theology,  and  above  all  a  path  to 
spiritual  freedom."  In  his  hands  spiritual  facts  assume  an  aspect 
of  reasonableness  which  is  irresistible.  Religion  is  felt  to  be  no 
longer  a  mystery  for  the  exercise  of  professional  minds,  nor  an 
extravagance  suitable  for  enthusiastic  temperaments,  but  an  essen- 
tial of  life  for  all,  and  in  line  with  the  order  of  things  in  which  we 
now  are.  For  his  sermons  obtained  their  large  circulation  partly 
because  they  were  new  in  kind.  They  marked  the  transition  from 
the  period  in  which  religion  was  treated  as  a  series  of  propositions 
to  that  in  which  it  is  presented  as  an  essence  penetrating  the  whole 
of  human  life.  The  accusations  of  heretical  and  dangerous  teaching 
which  were  persistently  brought  against  him,  though  possibly  not 
so  malignant  as  he  himself  supposed,  were  certainly  more  mis- 
chievous than  the  teaching  against  which  they  were  levelled.  Few 
men  have  ever  more  perfectly  understood  the  spirit  of  Christ,  and 
few  have  so  fully  made  that  spirit  their  own. 

Robertson's  literary  remains  include  five  volumes  of  sermons, 
two  volumes  of  expositoiy  lectures,  on  Genesis  and  on  the  Epistles 
to  the  Corinthians,  a  volume  of  miscellaneous  addresses,  and  a 
Key  to  'In  Memoriam.'  Robertson's  Life  has  been  written  by 
Stopford  A.  Brooke.  (M.  D.) 

ROBERTSON,  THOMAS  WILLIAM  (1829-1871),  English 
dramatist,  was  born  on  9th  January  1829.  As  a  dramatist 
he  had  a  brief  but  very  brilliant  career.  It  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  he  was  the  most  successful  and  distin- 
guished writer  of  plays  in  his  generation.  The  son  of  a 
provincial  actor  and  manager,  chief  of  a  "  circuit "  that 
ranged  from  Bristol  to  Cambridge,  Robertson  was  familiar 
with  the  stage  from  his  childhood ;  but  it  was  not  till  the 
last  seven  years  of  his  life  that  he  made  his  mark.  He 
was  never,  as  he  admitted  himself,  very  successful  as  an 
actor.  He  tried  his  hand  also  at  writing  plays,  and  a 
farcical  comedy  by  him,  A  Night's  Adventure,  was  produced 
at  the  Olympic  under  Farren's  management  as  early  as 
1851.  But  this  did  not  make  good  his  footing,  and  he 
remained  for  some  years  longer  in  the  provinces,  varying 
his  work  as  an  actor  with  miscellaneous  contributions  to 
newspapers.  In  1860  he  went  to  London  with  the  inten- 
tion, it  is  said,  of  making  his  living  by  journalism  and 
light  literature.  He  edited  a  mining  journal  and  con- 
tributed to  it  a  novel  afterwards  dramatized  with  the  title 
Skadmv  Tree  Shaft.  He  wrote  a  farce  entitled  A  Cantah, 
which  was  played  at  the  Strand  in  1861.  Then,  in  1864,. 
came  his  first  marked  success,  David  Gar-rick,  produced 
at  the  Haymarket  with  Sothern  in  the  principal  character. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  the  production  of  Society  at  the 
Prince  of  Wales  Theatre  in  1865,  under  the  management 
of  Miss  Marie  Wilton,  afterwards  Mrs  Bancroft,  that  the 
originality  and  cleverness  of  the  dramatist  were  fully 
recognized.  Play-writer  and  company  were  exactly  suited 
one  to  another }  the  plays  and  the  acting  together — the 
small  size  of  the  playhouse  being  also  in  their  favour — were 
at  once  recognized  as  a  new  thing,  and,  while  some  critics 
sneered  at  the  "  cup-and-saucer  comedy,"  voted  it  absurdly 
realistic,  said  there  was  nothing  in  it  but  commonplace 
life  represented  without  a  trace  of  Sheridanian  wit  and 
sparkle,  all  London  flocked  to  the  little  house  in  Totten- 
ham Street,  and  the  stage  was  at  once  inundated  with  imi- 
tations of  the  new  style  of  acting  and  the  new  kind  of  play. 

Robertson,  although  his  health  was  already  undermined, 
followed  up  Society  in  quick  succession  with  the  series  of 
characteristic  plays  which  made  the  reputation  of  himself, 
the  company,  and  the  theatre.  Ours  was  produced  in 
1866,  Caste  in  1867,  Play  in  1868,  School  in  1869,  J/./'. 
in  1870.  For  twenty  years  there  probably  has  not  been 
a  week,  hardly  a  night,  in  which  some  one  of  Robertson's 
plays  has  not  been  produced  somewhere  in  Great  Britain,. 


ROBERTSON 


599 


and  still  they  show  no  sign  of  abating  popularity.  The 
masterly  stage-craft  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  elements  in 
this  remarkable  conquest  of  the  play-going  public ;  the 
purity  and  generous  morality  of  the  plays  another;  the 
dialogue — which  is  always  bright  and  clever,  without  any 
straining  after  or  indeed  much  attaining  to  wit — a  third  ; 
the  humour,  distinctness,  and  typical  representativeness 
of  the  characters  a  fourth.  That  there  is  more  art  and 
individuality  in  the  plays  than  critics  at  first  were  willing 
to  admit  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  none  of  Robertson's 
numerous  imitators  have  succeeded  in  catching  his  happy 
knack.  Another  proof  of  something  like  genius — dramatic 
genius  if  not  literary  genius — is  the  skill  with  which  he 
repeats  the  same  idea  with  such  variations  that  each  time 
it  is  as  fresh  as  if  it  were  new.  Again  and  again  his 
situations  owe  their  point  to  the  contrast  between  generous 
kindness  of  heart  and  sordid  worldliness,  or  between  the 
ardent  trustful  affections  of  youth  and  the  cynicism  of 
disenchanted  middle  age.  Pleasant  sunny  brightness  and 
ingenuity  within  a  narrow  range  constitute  Robertson's 
distinction  rather  than  breadth  or  fertility  or  striking  bril- 
liancy of  wit.  He  knew  his  powers  and  worked  steadily 
within  them,  not  striving  to  go  beyond.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  David  Garrick  and  Home,  written  for  the  Hay- 
market,  and  Dreams  for  the  Gaiety,  all  his  well-known 
plays  were  written  for  the  Prince  of  Wales  Theatre,  with 
which  his  distinctive  style  of  comedy  is  identified.  Un- 
happily he  did  not  live  long  to  enjoy  his  success,  but  died 
in  London  in  February  1871. 

ROBERTSON,  WILLIAM  (1721-1793),  an  eminent 
Scottish  historian,  born  at  Borthwick,  Midlothian,  on  the 
19th  September  1721,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Rev. 
William  Robertson  and  of  Eleanor  Pitcairn.  He  received 
his  early  education  at  the  school  of  Dalkeith, — at  that 
time  one  of  the  best  in  Scotland;  but  at  the  age  of  twelve 
he  was  removed  to  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he 
soon  manifested  that  sustained  ardour  in  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge  which  he  preserved  throughout  his  long  life. 
On  his  commonplace  books,  written  when  he  was  a  mere 
youth,  he  always  inscribed  the  motto  :  Vita  sine  literis 
mors  est.  He  was  from  the  first  intended  for  the  ministry ; 
when  twenty -two  years  old  he  was  presented  to  the  living 
of  Gladsmuir  in  East  Lothian,  and  almost  immediately 
afterwards  he  lost  both  his  father  and  his  mother,  who 
died  within  a  few  hours  of  each  other.  The  support  and 
education  of  a  younger  brother  and  six  sisters  then  de- 
volved upon  him,  and,  though  his  income  was  only  £100 
a  year,  he  sheltered  them  all  in  his  house  and  "  continued 
to  educate  his  sisters  under  his  own  roof  till  they  were 
settled  respectably  in  the  world  "  (Stewart).  Robertson's 
inclination  for  study  was  never  allowed  to  interfere  with 
his  duties  as  a  parish  minister,  which  he  rather  increased 
than  diminished  :  "it  was  his  custom  during  the  summer 
months  to  convene  on  Sunday  morning  the  youth  of  the 
parish  of  Gladsmuir  half  an  hour  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  regular  service  of  the  church,  and  to  employ 
that  time  in  explaining  to  them  the  doctrines  of  the 
Catechism."  His  attention  to  his  pastoral  duties  and  his 
power  and  distinction  as  a  preacher  had  made  him  a  local 
celebrity  while  still  a  young  man. 

His  energy  and  decision  of  character  were  brought 
out  vividly  by  the  rebellion  of  1745.  When  Edinburgh 
seemed  in  danger  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  rebels 
he  laid  aside  the  pacific  habits  of  his  profession  and 
joined  the  volunteers  in  the  capital.  When  the  city  was 
surrendered  he  was  one  of  the  small  band  who  repaired 
to  Haddington  and  offered  their  services  to  the  com- 
mander of  the  royal  forces.  Such  a  man  could  not  remain 
in  obscurity,  and  in  the  year  1751,  when  not  quite  thirty 
years  of  age,  we  find  him  already  taking  a  prominent  part 


in  the  business  of  the  General  Assembly.  On  the  first 
occasion  when  he  spoke  (in  seconding  a  motion  by  John 
Home  for  the  suspension  of  certain  presbyters  who  had 
refused  to  take  part  in  an  unpopular  settlement)  he  was 
listened  to  with  great  attention,  but  his  words  had  so 
little  immediate  effect  on  the  assembly  that  on  a  division 
he  was  left  in  a  minority  of  eleven  against  two  hundred. 
A  young  mart  might  well  have  been  daunted  by  such  a 
defeat,  but  his  energy  and  self  reliance  refused  to  yield. 
His  great  oratorical  power,  at  once  lucid,  cogent,  and  per- 
suasive, had  made  an  impression  on  men's  minds,  and 
within  so  short  a  period  as  one  year,  when  he  again 
advocated  his  principles  in  connexion  with  what  is  known 
as  the  Inverkeithing  case,  he  carried  the  house  completely 
with  him,  and  with  the  deposition  of  Thomas  Gillespie 
secured  a  triumph  for  the  policy  he  had  adopted.  From 
that  moment  his  influence  in  the  councils  of  the  Scottish 
Church  as  leader  of  the  "moderate  party"  was  for  many 
years  nearly  supreme  (compare  PKESBYTEEIANISM,  vol.  xix. 
p.  685).  The  production  of  Home's  tragedy  of  Douglas 
on  the  Edinburgh  stage  (1757)  afforded  Robertson  another 
occasion  for  displaying  that  union  of  courage  and  caution 
which  formed  a  marked  feature  of  his  character.  Al- 
though the  influence  of  moderatism  was  now  visibly  in 
the  ascendant,  there  was  still  enough  of  the  older  spirit  of 
Scottish  Puritanism  left  to  take  alarm  and  raise  an  outcry 
against  a  stage  play  written  by  a  minister  and  witnessed 
by  many  clergymen  who  were  the  author's  friends.  One 
of  these,  the  famous  Dr  Alexander  Carlyle,  was  prosecuted 
before  the  synod  for  having  gone  to  the  theatre,  and  he 
tells  us  in  his  Autobiography  that  he  purposely  contrived  to 
exclude  Robertson  from  the  post  of  moderator  because 
"  his  speaking  would  be  of  more  consequence  if  not  in  the 
chair."  This  testimony  is  the  more  noteworthy  as  Carlyle 
shows  throughout  his  memoirs  a  grudging  and  unfriendly 
tone  when  speaking  of  Robertson.  The  latter,  indeed,  was 
able  to  render  his  incriminated  colleague  great  service  on 
this  occasion,  not  only  by  his  talent  as  a  speaker,  but  by 
reason  of  the  detached  and  unassailable  position  which  his 
customary  prudence  had  led  him  to  take  up.  He  never 
went  to  the  play  himself,  he  said,  but  that  was  not  because 
he  thought  it  wrong  but  because  he  had  given  a  solemn 
promise  to  his  father  never  to  do  so.  He  could  not  there- 
fore join  in  censuring  other  clergymen  who  were  held  by 
no  such  vow  as  he  had  made  :  "it  was  sacred  to  him,  but 
not  obligatory  on  them."  Carlyle  was  acquitted  and 
Robertson  had  the  credit — which  he  perhaps  somewhat  too 
constantly  aimed  at  and  generally  secured — of  standing  well 
with  all  parties,  of  advocating  the  claims  of  culture  and 
liberal  sentiment  without  giving  ground  to  their  opponents 
for  attacking  his  personal  conduct  and  character. 

But  during  all  this  period  of  prominent  activity  in  the 
public  life  of  Edinburgh  Robertson  was  busy  with  those 
historical  labours  which  have  given  him  a  permanent  place 
in  British  literature.  He  had  conceived  the  plan  of  his 
History  of  Scotland  as  early  as  the  year  1753;  in  July 
1757  he  had  proceeded  as  far  as  the  Gowrie  conspiracy,  and 
in  November  of  the  following  year  David  Hume,  then 
residing  in  London,  was  receiving  the  proof-sheets  from 
Strahan  and  making  friendly  but  searching  criticisms  on 
the  work  in  letters  to  the  author.  Till  he  had  finished 
his  book  Robertson  had  never  left  his  native  country ;  but 
the  publication  of  his  history  necessitated  a  journey  to 
London,  and  he  passed  the  early  months  of  the  year  1758 
partly  in  the  capital  and  partly  in  leisurely  rambles  in  the 
counties  of  England.  He  returned  on  horseback  in  company 
with  Alexander  Carlyle  and  other  Scotsmen,  riding  all  the 
way  from  London  to  Edinburgh  in  about  eighteen  days. 

The  success  of  the  History  of  Scotland  was  immediate 
and  splendid,  and  within  a  month  a  second  edition  was 


600 


ROBERTSON 


called  for.  Before  the  end  of  the  author's  life  the  book 
had  reached  its  fourteenth  edition ;  and  in  the  opinion 
of  some  it  remains  Robertson's  greatest  work.  It  soon 
brought  him  other  rewards  than  literary  fame.  In  1759 
he  was  appointed  chaplain  of  Stirling  Castle,  in  1761  one 
of  His  Majesty's  chaplains  in  ordinary,  and  in  1762  he 
was  chosen  principal  of  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  Two 
years  later  the  office  of  king's  historiographer  was  revived 
in  his  favour  with  a  salary  of  £200  a  year.  His  income 
greatly  surpassed  the  revenue  of  any  Presbyterian  minister 
before  him  and  at  least  equalled  that  of  some  of  the  bishops 
when  Episcopacy  was  established  in  Scotland.  It  is  the 
more  surprising  therefore  that  this  moment  of  exceptional 
prosperity  should  have  been  chosen  by  some  of  his  most 
valued  friends  to  advise  him  to  forsake  the  Scottish  for  the 
English  Church  and  try  for  preferment  south  of  the  Tweed ; 
and  the  surprise  becomes  wonder  when  we  learn  that  those 
friends  were  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot  and  David  Hume.  The 
imprudence,  to  say  nothing  of  the  questionable  morality, 
of  such  a  step  would  seem  too  glaring  to  allow  of  its 
recommendation  by  any  honourable  well-wishers.  Perhaps 
no  man  was  more  fitted  than  Robertson  to  measure  and 
reject  such  injudicious  advice,  and  he  probably  never  gave 
the  matter  a  second  thought.  He  remained  at  home 
among  his  own  people. 

The  rest  of  Robertson's  life  was  uneventful  to  a  degree 
even  surpassing  the  proverbial  uneventfulness  of  the  lives 
of  scholars.  He  was  casting  about  for  another  historical 
subject  in  the  very  year  in  which  his  first  work  appeared, 
and  he  was  wont  to  consult  his  friends  on  the  choice  of  a 
period  with  a  naivete  which  shows  how  little  the  arduous- 
ness  of  historical  research  was  then  understood.  Hume 
advised  him  to  write  a  history  of  Greece  or  else  lives  in 
the  manner  of  Plutarch.  Dr  John  Blair  urged  him  to 
write  a  complete  history  of  England,  while  Horace  Wai- 
pole  suggested  a  history  of  learning.  It  must  be  recorded 
to  Robertson's  credit  that  he  showed  a  preference  from 
the  first  for  the  subject  which  he  ultimately  selected,  The 
History  of  the  Reign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth. 
He  took  uncommon  pains  with  the  work  and  devoted  to 
it  ten  consecutive  years  of  labour.  It  appeared  in  three 
volumes  quarto  in  1769.  In  1777  he  published  his  History 
of  America  and  in  1791  his  Disquisition  concerning  the 
Knowledge  which  the  Ancients  had  of  India,  which  concluded 
his  historical  labours  and  appeared  only  two  years  before 
his  death,  which  occurred  near  Edinburgh  on  the  llth 
June  1793.  His  fame  had  long  been  European,  and  he 
left  no  rival  in  the  field  of  historical  composition  save 
Gibbon  alone. 

For  an  adequate  appreciation  of  Robertson's  position  in 
British  literature,  and  more  especially  of  his  rank  as  an 
historian,  we  have  to  consider  the  country  and  the  age  in 
which  he  was  born  and  his  own  personal  qualities  and 
limits. 

Considering  the  small  size  and  poverty  of  the  country, 
Scotland  had  made  a  more  than  creditable  figure  in  litera- 
ture in  the  great  age  of  the  Reformation  and  the  Renais- 
Its  scholars,  civilians,  and  professors  of  logic  and 


sance. 


philosophy  were  welcomed  wherever  learning  flourished, 
except,  perhaps,  in  England.  All  Europe  could  not  show 
a  more  brilliant  writer  and  publicist  than  Buchanan,  and 
"  the  best  romance  that  ever  was  written  "  (the  words  are 
Cowper's)  was  produced  by  a  Scottish  contemporary  of 
Shakespeare,  viz.,  the  once  famous  Argenis  of  John  Barclay. 
But  the  early  triumphs  of  Scottish  genius  were  all  won  in 
a  foreign  if  familiar  idiom,  the  common  language  of  the 
learned ;  and  when  Latin  retreated  before  the  growing 
importance  of  modern  tongues  the  Scots  had  no  literary 
vernacular  on  which  to  fall  back.  For  a  century  and  a 
half  (1600-1750)  a  Scottish  writer  to  be  read  was  forced  to 


use  a  foreign  language, — Latin,  English,  and  even  occasion- 
ally French.  As  Burton1  has  well  remarked,  this  alone 
was  sufficient  to  account  in  a  large  measure  for  the  literary 
barrenness  of  the  country.  There  was  unquestionably 
another  cause  at  work, — the  fervent  religious  zeal  with 
which  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  had  been  em- 
braced :  neither  science,  literature,  nor  art  could  obtain 
much  attention  from  men  who  regarded  them  all  as  "  de- 
ceitful vanities,"  leading  the  mind  away  from  the  one  thing 
needful.  In  a  small  and  sparsely  peopled  country,  with- 
out wealth,  commerce,  or  even  politics  in  the  larger  sense, 
theology  became  a  too  absorbing  and  unique  mental  stimu- 
lus. This  was,  we  may  say,  proved  by  the  fact  that  as 
soon  as  the  union  with  England  opened  a  wider  scope  for 
Scottish  energy  and  enterprise  the  theological  temperature 
immediately  fell, — a  change  witnessed  with  natural  alarm 
by  the  more  zealous  clergy.  "  The  rise  of  our  too  great 
fondness  for  trade,"  writes  the  Rev.  Robert  Wodrow  in 
1709,  "to  the  neglect  of  our  more  valuable  interests,  I 
humbly  think,  will  be  written  on  our  judgment "  (Buckle, 
vol.  ii.  p.  301).  The  growth  of  wealth  stimulated  the 
growth  of  the  other  great  factor  of  civilization,  that  of 
knowledge,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  just 
at  the  time  when  Robertson  was  planning  his  History  of 
Scotland,  a  wide  spirit  of  inquiry  was  abroad.  Scottish 
intellect  had  risen  from  the  tomb  in  which  it  had  lain 
entranced  for  more  than  a  hundred  years.  The  Scottish 
contribution  to  British  literature  in  the  last  half  of  the 
century  is  distinctly  superior  to  that  produced  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  island.  In  philosophy  and  political 
and  economic  science  the  balance  is  immensely  in  favour 
of  Scotland.  Robertson  was  therefore  no  inexplicable 
prodigy — an  "obscure  Scotch  parson"  writing  "like  a 
minister  of  state,"  as  it  pleased  Walpole  and  the  London 
fops  to  regard  him.  He  lived  in  a  society  far  more  pro- 
pitious to  high  literary  work  than  could  be  found  in  London 
or  the  English  universities. 

The  connexion  between  philosophy  and  history  is  closer 
than  appears  at  first  sight.  The  study  of  man  and  his 
faculties,  even  ontological  speculations  as  to  the  nature 
and  origin  of  the  universe,  lead  by  a  logical  sequence  to  a 
consideration  of  human  evolution  in  time,  that  is,  to 
history.  The  coincidence  of  philosophical  speculation 
with  historical  achievement  so  repeatedly  manifested  can- 
not be  accidental.  The  topic  cannot  be  developed  here ; 
but  from  the  days  of  the  Attic  historians,  who  lived  in 
an  atmosphere  electric  with  speculation,  to  the  Hegelian 
historical  school  of  Germany,  the  higher  planes  of  history 
are  found  in  near  proximity  to  loftier  peaks  of  philosophy. 
Hume,  wonderful  in  all  things,  was  perhaps  most  wonder- 
ful in  this,  that  in  him  the  two  characters  of  the  philo- 
sopher and  the  historian  were  completely  united.  He  did 
not  only,  like  Kant  and  Hegel,  speculate  about  history ; 
he  wrote  it.  Again,  we  must  admire  the  peculiar  fortune 
of  Robertson  :  he  lived  during  many  years  in  close  contact 
and  intimacy  with  the  greatest  philosophic  genius  of  his 
age,  perhaps  of  modern  times. 

Of  the  three  great  British  historians  of  the  18th  century 
two  were  Scotsmen.  The  exact  place  of  Robertson  with 
regard  to  his  two  friends  Hume  and  Gibbon,  and  to  such 
historians  as  the  rest  of  Europe  had  to  offer,  presents  a 
question  of  some  nicety,  because  it  is  complicated  by 
extraneous  considerations,  so  to  speak,  which  should  not 
weigh  in  an  abstract  estimate,  but  cannot  be  excluded  in 
a  concrete  and  practical  one.  If  we  regard  only  Robert- 
son's potential  historic  power,  the  question  is  not  so  much 
whether  he  was  equal  to  either  of  his  two  friends  as 
whether  he  was  not  superior  to  both.  The  man  who 
wrote  the  review  of  the  state  of  Europe  prefixed  to  the 
1  Hist,  of  Scotland,  vol.  viii.  p.  544. 


R  O  B  — R  O  B 


601 


History  of  Charles  F.,  or  even  the  first  book -of  the  History 
of  Scotland,  showed  that  he  had  a  wider  and  more  synthetic 
conception  of  history  than  either  the  author  of  the  Decline 
and  Fall  or  the  author  of  the  History  of  England.  These 
two  portions  of  Robertson's  work,  with  all  their  short- 
comings in  the  eye  of  modern  criticism,  have  a  distinctive 
value  which  time  cannot  take  away.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  to  see  the  importance  of  general  ideas  in  history.  He 
saw  that  the  immediate  narrative  of  events  with  which 
he  was  occupied  needed  a  background  of  broad  and  con- 
nected generalizations,  referring  to  the  social  state  of  which 
the  detailed  history  formed  a  part.  But  he  did  more 
than  this.  In  the  appendix  to  the  view  of  Europe  called 
"  Proofs  and  Illustrations  "  he  enters  into  the  difficult  and 
obscure  question  of  land  tenure  in  Frankish  times,  and 
of  the  origin  of  the  feudal  system,  with  a  sagacity  and 
knowledge  which  distinctly  advanced  the  comprehension 
of  this  period  beyond  the  point  at  which  it  had  been  left 
by  Du  Bos,  Montesquieu,  and  Mably.  He  was  fully 
acquainted  with  the  original  documents, — many  of  them, 
we  may  conjecture,  not  easy  to  procure  in  Scotland.  It 
must  have  been  a  genuine  aptitude  for  historical  research 
of  a  scientific  kind  which  led  Robertson  to  undertake  the 
labour  of  these  austere  disquisitions  of  which  there  were 
not  many  in  his  day  who  saw  the  importance.  Gibbon, 
so  superior  to  him  for  wide  reading  and  scholarship,  has 
pointedly  avoided  them.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that 
many,  perhaps  the  majority,  of  Robertson's  views  on  this 
thorny  topic  are  out  of  date  now.  But  he  deserves  the 
honour  of  a  pioneer  in  one  of  the  most  obscure  if  also 
important  lines  of  inquiry  connected  with  European 
history.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
he  showed  himself  only  too  tame  a  follower  of  Voltaire 
in  his  general  appreciation  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which 
he  regarded  with  the  mingled  ignorance  and  prejudice 
common  in  the  18th  century.  In  this  particular  he  was 
not  at  all  in  advance  of  his  age. 

The  neglect  and  gradual  oblivion  which  are  now  over- 
taking the  greater  part  of  Robertson's  historical  work  are 
owing  to  no  fault  of  his.  He  had  not  and  could  not  have 
the  requisite  materials :  they  were  not  published  or  access- 
ible. Justice  requires  that  we  should  estimate  his  per- 
formance in  view  of  the  means  at  his  command,  and  few 
critics  would  hesitate  to  subscribe  to  the  verdict  of  Buckle, 
"  that  what  he  effected  with  his  materials  was  wonderful." 
His  style,  whether  of  narrative  or  disquisition,  is  singularly 
clear,  harmonious,  and  persuasive.  The  most  serious  re- 
proach made  against  it  is  that  it  is  correct  to  a  fault  and 
lacks  idiomatic  vigour,  and  the  charge  is  not  without 
foundation.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  if  Robertson's 
writings  are  less  read  than  they  formerly  were,  the  fact  is 
to  be  attributed  to  no  defects  of  style  but  to  the  growth  of 
knowledge  and  to  the  immense  extension  of  historical 
research  which  has  inevitably  superseded  his  initiatory 
and  meritorious  labours.  (j.  c.  MO.) 

ROBERVAL,  GILLES  PERSONNE  DE  (1602-1675),  French 
mathematician,  was  born  at  the  village  of  Roberval  near 
Beauvais  in  1602.  His  name  was  originally  Gilles  Per- 
sonne,  that  of  Roberval,  by  which  he  is  known,  being 
taken  from  the  place  of  his  birth.  Like  Descartes,  he  was 
present  at  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle  in  1627.  In  the  same 
year  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  philosophy  in  the  Gervais  College  in  1631,  and  after- 
wards to  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  College  of 
France.  A  condition  of  tenure  attached  to  this  chair  was 
that  the  holder  should  propose  mathematical  questions  for 
solution,  and  should  resign  in  favour  of  any  person  who 
solved  them  better  than  himself  ;  but,  notwithstanding 
this,  Roberval  was  able  to  keep  the  chair  till  his  death, 
which  occurred  at  Paris  in  1675. 


Roberval  was  one  of  those  mathematicians  who,  just  before  the 
invention  of  the  calculus,  occupied  their  attention  with  problems 
which  are  only  soluble,  or  can  be  most  easily  solved,  by  some 
method  involving  limits  or  infinitesimals,  and  in  the  solution  of 
which  accordingly  the  calculus  is  always  now  employed.  Thus  he 
devoted  some  attention  to  the  quadrature  of  curves  and  the  cuba- 
ture  of  surfaces,  which  he  accomplished,  in  some  of  the  simpler 
cases,  by  a  method  of  his  own,  called  by  himself  the  "  Method  of 
Indivisibles  "  ;  but  he  lost  much  of  the  credit  of  the  discovery  as 
he  kept  his  method  for  his  own  use,  while  Cavalieri  published  a 
similar  method  of  his  own.  Another  of  Roberval's  discoveries  was 
a  very  general  metliod  of  drawing  tangents,  by  considering  a  curve 
as  described  by  a  moving  point  whose  motion  is  the  resultant  of 
several  simpler  motions.  His  own  description  of  his  method  may 
be  translated  as  follows  : — "  General  rule.  By  means  of  the  specific 
properties  of  the  curve,  which  will  be  given,  examine  the  different 
motions  of  the  tracing  point  at  the  place  where  you  wish  to  draw 
the  tangent ;  the  direction  of  the  tangent  is  that  of  the  resultant 
of  these  motions."  He  also  discovered  a  method  of  deriving  one 
curve  from  another,  by  means  of  which  finite  areas  can  be  obtained 
equal  to  the  areas  between  certain  curves  and  their  asymptotes. 
To  these  curves,  which  were  also  applied  to  effect  some  quadratures, 
Torricelli  gave  the  name  of  Robervallian  lines.  Between  Roberval 
and  Descartes  there  existed  a  feeling  of  ill-will,  owing  to  the 
jealousy  aroused  in  the  mind  of  the  former  by  the  criticism  which 
Descartes  offered  to  some  of  the  methods  employed  by  him  and  by 
Fermat ;  and  this  led  him  to  criticize  and  oppose  the  new  geometry 
which  Descartes  introduced  about  this  time.  As  results  of  Roberval's 
labours  outside  the  department  of  pure  mathematics  may  be  noted 
a  work  on  the  system  of  the  universe,  in  which  he  supports  the 
Copernican  system  and  attributes  a  mutual  attraction  to  all  par- 
ticles of  matter ;  and  also  the  invention  of  a  special  kind  of  balance 
which  goes  by  his  name  (see  BALANCE,  vol.  iii.  p.  266). 

ROBESPIERRE,  MAXIMILIEN  MARIE  ISIDORE  (1758- 
1794),  the  most  fanatical  and  most  famous  of  the  repub- 
lican leaders  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  born  at  Arras 
on  6th  May  1758.  His  family  was  of  Irish  descent,  having 
emigrated  from  Ireland  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  on 
account  of  religion,  and  his  direct  ancestors  in  the  male 
line  had  been  notaries  at  the  little  village  of  Carvin  near 
Arras  from  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century.  His  grand- 
father, being  more  ambitious,  established  himself  at  Arras 
as  an  avocat;  and  his  father  followed  the  same  profession, 
marrying  Mademoiselle  Josephine  Carraut,  daughter  of  a 
brewer  in  the  same  city,  in  1757.  Of  this  marriage  four 
children  were  born,  two  sons  and  two  daughters,  of  whom 
Maximilien  was  the  eldest;  but  in  1767  Madame  Derobes- 
pierre,  as  the  name  was  then  spelt,  died,  and  the  discon- 
solate widower  at  once  left  Arras  and  wandered  about 
Europe  until  his  death  at  Munich  in  1769.  The  children 
were  taken  charge  of  by  their  maternal  grandfather  and 
aunts,  and  Maximilien  was  sent  to  the  college  of  Arras, 
whence  he  was  nominated  in  1770  by  the  bishop  of  his 
native  town  to  a  bursarship  at  the  College  Louis-le-Grand 
at  Paris.  Here  he  had  for  fellow -pupils  Camille  Des- 
moulins  and  Stanislas  Fr6ron.  Completing  his  law  studies 
with  distinction,  and  having  been  admitted  an  avocat  in 
1781,  Robespierre  returned  to  his  native  city  to  seek  for 
practice,  and  to  struggle  against  poverty.  His  reputa- 
tion had  already  preceded  him,  and  the  bishop  of  Arras, 
M.  de  Conzie,  appointed  him  criminal  judge  in  the  diocese 
of  Arras  in  March  1782.  This  appointment,  which  he 
soon  resigned,  to  avoid  pronouncing  a  sentence  of  death, 
did  not  prevent  his  practising  at  the  bar,  and  he  speedily 
became  known  as  a  careful  and  painstaking  advocate. 
His  argument  in  the  question  of  the  legality  of  paraton- 
nerres  or  lightning-conductors,  which  was  widely  reported 
and  translated  into  both  English  and  German,  raised  his 
fame  as  an  advocate  to  its  height,  and  with  this  success 
his  struggles  against  poverty  were  over.  He  now  turned 
to  the  pleasures  of  literature  and  society  and  came  to  be 
esteemed  as  one  of  the  best  writers  and  most  popular 
dandies  of  Arras.  In  December  1783  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  academy  of  Arras,  whose  meetings  he 
attended  regularly ;  and,  like  all  other  young  Frenchmen 
with  literary  proclivities,  he  began  to  compete  for  the 

XX.  —  76 


602 


ROBESPIERRE 


prizes  offered  by  various  provincial  academies.  In  1784 
he  obtained  a  medal  from  the  academy  of  Metz  for  his 
essay  on  the  question  whether  the  relatives  of  a  condemned 
criminal  should  also  be  punished;  but  the  prize  was 
awarded  to  Lacretelle  aine,  an  avocat  and  journalist  at 
Paris,  who  triumphed  again  over  his  provincial  antagonist 
in  the  Parisian  press,  and  who  in  after  days  when  Robes- 
pierre was  all-powerful  was  surprised  that  he  was  not 
sent  to  the  guillotine.  An  eloge  on  Gresset,  the  author 
of  Vert-  Vert  and  Le  Mechant,  written  for  the  academy  of 
Amiens  in  1785,  was  not  more  successful;  but  Robespierre 
was  compensated  for  these  failures  by  his  great  popularity 
in  the  society  of  the  Rosati  at  Arras, — a  little  society  whose 
members  prided  themselves  on  being  men  of  fashion  and  wit, 
and  spent  one  evening  a  week  in  conviviality  and  in  read- 
ing poems,  epigrams,  and  vers  de  societe.  There  the  sympa- 
thetic quality  of  Robespierre's  voice,  which  afterwards  did 
him  such  good  service  in  the  Jacobin  Club,  always  caused 
his  indifferent  verses  to  be  loudly  applauded  by  his  friends. 

Such  had  been  the  life  of  the  future  republican  leader 
up  to  1788,  when  he  took  part  in  the  discussion  as  to  the 
way  in  which  the  states-general  should  be  elected,  showing 
clearly  and  forcibly  in  his  Adresse  d,  la  Nation  Artesienne 
that,  if  the  former  mode  of  election  by  the  members  of 
the  provincial  estates  was  again  adopted,  the  new  states- 
general  would  not  represent  the  people  of  France.  Necker 
also  perceived  this,  and  therefore  determined  to  make  the 
old  royal  bailliages  and  sene-chaussees  the  units  of  election. 
Under  this  plan  the  city  of  Arras  was  to  return  twenty- 
four  members  to  the  assembly  of  the  bailliage  of  Artois, 
which  was  to  elect  the  deputies.  The  corporation  claimed 
the  right  to  a  preponderating  influence  in  these  city  elec- 
tions, and  Robespierre  headed  the  opposition,  making  him- 
self very  conspicuous  and  drawing  up  the  cahier  or  table 
of  complaints  and  grievances,  for  the  guild  of  the  cobblers. 
Although  the  leading  members  of  the  corporation  were 
elected,  their  chief  opponent  succeeded  in  getting  elected 
with  them.  In  the  assembly  of  the  bailliage  rivalry  ran 
still  higher,  but  Robespierre  had  already  made  his  mark 
in  politics  ;  by  the  Avis  aux  Habitants  de  Campagne  (Arras, 
1789),  which  is  almost  certainly  by  him,  he  secured  the 
support  of  the  country  electors,  and,  though  but  thirty 
years  of  age,  poor,  and  without  influence,  he  was  elected 
fifth  deputy  of  the  tiers  6tat  of  Artois  to  the  states-general. 

When  the  states-general  met  at  Versailles  on  5th  May 
1789,  the  young  deputy  of  Artois  already  possessed  the 
one  faculty  which  was  to  lead  him  to  supremacy  :  he  was 
a  fanatic.  As  Mirabeau  said,  "  That  young  man  believes 
what  he  says ;  he  will  go  far."  Without  the  courage 
and  wide  tolerance  which  make  a  statesman,  without  the 
greatest  qualities  of  an  orator,  without  the  belief  in  himself 
which  marks  a  great  man,  nervous,  timid,  and  suspicious, 
Robespierre  yet  believed  in  the  doctrines  of  Rousseau  with 
all  his  heart,  and  would  have  gone  to  death  for  them ; 
and  in  the  belief  that  they  would  eventually  succeed  and 
regenerate  France  and  mankind  he  was  ready  to  work 
with  unwearied  patience.  While  the  constituent  assembly 
occupied  itself  in  drawing  up  an  unworkable  constitu- 
tion as  the  grand  panacea,  Robespierre  turned  from  the 
assembly  of  provincial  avocats  and  wealthy  bourgeois  to 
the  people  of  Paris.  However,  he  spoke  frequently  in  the 
constituent  assembly,  and  often  with  great  success,  and 
was  eventually  recognized  as  second  only  to  Potion  de 
Villeneuve — if  second  to  him — as  a  leader  of  the  small  body 
of  the  extreme  left, — the  thirty  voices,  as  Mirabeau  con- 
temptuously called  them.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  exa- 
mine minutely  Robespierre's  speeches  and  behaviour  before 
1791,  when  the  death  of  Mirabeau  left  the  way  clear  for 
the  influence  of  his  party ;  but  what  is  noteworthy,  as 
proving  the  religious  cast  of  his  mind  and  his  belief  in  the 


necessity  of  a  religion,  is  that  he  spoke  several  times  in 
favour  of  the  lower  clergy  and  laboured  to  get  their  pensions 
increased.  When  he  instinctively  felt  that  his  doctrines 
would  have  no  success  in  the  assembly,  he  turned  to  the 
Jacobin  Club,  which  had  consisted  originally  of  the  Breton 
deputies  only,  but  which,  after  the  assembly  moved  to 
Paris,  began  to  admit  among  its  members  various  leaders 
of  the  Parisian  bourgeoisie.  As  time  went  on,  many  of  the 
more  intelligent  artisans  and  petits  commergants  became 
members  of  the  club,  and  among  such  men  Robespierre 
found  the  hearers  he  sought.  They  did  more  than  listen 
to  him  :  they  idolized  him  ;  the  fanatical  leader  had  found 
fanatics  to  follow  him,  and  their  ultimate  supremacy  be- 
came merely  a  question  of  time.  As  the  wealthier  bour- 
geois of  Paris  and  deputies  of  a  more  moderate  type  seceded 
to  the  club  of  '89  the  influence  of  the  old  leaders  of  the 
Jacobins  (Barnave,  Duport,  Charles  de  Lameth)  diminished ; 
and,  when  they  themselves,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of 
the  Revolution,  founded  the  club  of  the  Feuillants  in 
1791,  the  followers  of  Robespierre  dominated  the  Jacobin 
Club.  The  death  of  Mirabeau  strengthened  Robespierre's 
influence  in  the  assembly;  but  in  May  1791  he  proved 
his  lack  of  statesmanlike  insight  and  his  jealous  suspicion 
of  his  colleagues  by  proposing  and  carrying  the  motion 
that  no  deputies  who  sat  in  the  constituent  could  sit  in 
the  succeeding  assembly.  The  flight  of  the  king  on  21st 
June  and  his  arrest  at  Varennes  excited  Robespierre's 
suspicions,  and  made  him  declare  himself  at  the  Jacobin 
Club  to  be  "ni  monarchiste  ni  republicain."  But  the 
vigorous  conduct  of  Lafayette  and  the  National  Guard  on 
the  Champ  de  Mars  on  17th  July  1791  terrified  him,  for 
he  believed  that  he  was  a  predestined  victim,  until  he 
was  succoured  by  Duplay,  a  cabinetmaker  in  the  Rue  St 
Honore,  and  an  ardent  admirer  of  his,  in  whose  house  he 
lived  (with  but  two  short  intervals)  till  his  death.  At 
last  came  his  day  of  triumph,  when  on  30th  September, 
on  the  dissolution  of  the  constituent  assembly,  the  people 
of  Paris  crowned  Petion  and  himself  as  the  two  incorrupt- 
ible patriots. 

Qn  the  dissolution  of  the  assembly  he  returned  for  a 
short  visit  to  Arras,  where  he  met  with  a  triumphant  re- 
ception. In  November  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  on  18th 
December  made  a  speech  which  marks  a  new  epoch  in  his 
life.  Brissot,  the  dme  politique  of  the  Girondin  party 
which  had  been  formed  in  the  legislative  assembly,  urged 
vehemently  that  war  should  be  declared  against  Austria, 
and  the  queen  was  equally  urgent  in  the  hope  that  a  vic- 
torious army  might  restore  the  old  absolutism  of  the  Bour- 
bons. Two  men  opposed  the  projects  of  the  queen  and 
the  Girondins, — Marat  and  Robespierre:  Marat  opposed 
them  for  statesmanlike  reasons  (see  MARAT),  and  Robes- 
pierre on  humanitary  grounds  and  because  as  a  follower 
of  Rousseau  he  disliked  war.  This  opposition  from  those 
whom  they  had  expected  to  aid  them  irritated  the  Giron- 
dins greatly,  and  from  that  moment  began  the  struggle 
which  ended  in  the  coups  d'etat  of  31st  May  and  2d  June 
1793.  Guadet  accused  Robespierre  of  superstition  in  be- 
lieving in  a  providence,  and  declared  that,  as  the  people's 
idol,  he  ought  to  ostracize  himself  for  the  good  of  his 
country.  Robespierre  persisted  in  his  opposition  to  the 
war,  and  the  Girondins,  especially  Brissot,  attacked  him 
so  violently  that  in  April  1792  he  resigned  the  post  of 
public  prosecutor  at  the  tribunal  of  Paris,  which  he  had 
held  since  February,  and  started  a  journal,  Le  Defenseur 
de  la  Constitution,  in  his  own  defence.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  during  the  summer  months  of  1792,  in  which  the 
fate  »f  the  Bourbon  dynasty  was  being  sealed,  neither  the 
Girondins  in  the  legislative  assembly  nor  Robespierre 
took  any  active  part  in  overthrowing  it.  Stronger  men 
with  practical  instincts  of  statesmanship,  like  Danton  and 


ROBESPIERRE 


603 


Billaud-Varenne,  who  were  not  afraid  of  blood,  and  who 
dared  to  look  facts  in  the  face  and  take  the  responsibility 
of  doing  while  others  were  talking,  were  the  men  who 
made  the  10th  of  August  and  took  the  Tuileries.  The 
Girondins,  however,  were  quite  ready  to  take  advantage  of 
the  accomplished  fact ;  and  Robespierre,  likewise,  though 
shocked  at  the  shedding  of  blood,  'was  willing  to  take  his 
seat  on  the  commune  of  Paris,  which  had  overthrown 
Louis  XVI.,  and  might  check  the  Girondins.  The  strong 
men  of  the  commune  were  glad  to  have  Robespierre's 
assistance,  not  because  they  cared  for  him  or  believed  in 
him,  but  because  of  the  help  got  from  his  popularity,  his 
reputation  for  virtue,  and  his  influence  over  the  Jacobin 
Club  and  its  branches,  which  spread  all  over  France.  He 
it  was  who  presented  the  petition  of  the  commune  of 
Paris  on  16th  August  to  the  legislative  assembly,  demand- 
ing the  establishment  of  a  revolutionary  tribunal  and  the 
summons  of  a  convention.  The  massacres  of  September 
in  the  prisons,  which  Robespierre  in  vain  attempted  to 
stop,  showed  that  the  commune  had  more  confidence  in 
Billaud  than  in  him.  Yet,  as  a  proof  of  his  personal 
popularity,  he  was  a  few  days  later  elected  first  deputy 
for  Paris  to  the  national  convention. 

On  the  meeting  of  the  convention  the  Girondins  im- 
mediately attacked  Robespierre ;  they  were  jealous  of  his 
popularity  and  knew  that  his  single-hearted  fanaticism 
would  never  forgive  their  intrigues  with  the  king  at  the 
end  of  July,  and  would  always  be  opposed  to  their  plans 
for  raising  the  duke  of  Orleans  to  the  throne.  As  early 
as  26th  September  the  Girondin  Lasource  accused  him  of 
aiming  at  the  dictatorship ;  afterwards  he  was  informed 
that  Marat,  Danton,  and  himself  were  plotting  to  become 
triumvirs ;  and  eventually  on  29th  October  Louvet  attacked 
him  in  a  studied  and  declamatory  harangue,  abounding  in 
ridiculous  falsehoods  and  obviously  concocted  in  Madame 
Roland's  boudoir.  But  Robespierre  had  no  difficulty  in 
rebutting  this  attack  (5th  November).  All  personal  dis- 
putes, however,  gave  way  by  the  month  of  December 
1792  before  the  great  question  of  the  king's  trial,  and 
here  Robespierre  took  up  a  position  which  is  at  least 
easily  understood.  These  are  his  words  spoken  on  3d 
December  :  "  This  is  no  trial ;  Louis  is  not  a  prisoner  at 
the  bar ;  you  are  not  judges ;  you  are — you  cannot  but 
be  statesmen,  and  the  representatives  of  the  nation.  You 
have  not  to  pass  sentence  for  or  against  a  single  man,  but 
you  have  to  take  a  resolution  on  a  question  of  the  public 
safety,  and  to  decide  a  question  of  national  foresight.  It 
is  with  regret  that  I  pronounce  the  fatal  truth ;  Louis 
ought  to  perish  rather  than  a  hundred  thousand  virtuous 
citizens ;  Louis  must  die,  that  the  country  may  live." 
This  great  question  settled  by  the  king's  execution,  the 
struggle  between  Robespierre  and  the  Girondins  entered 
upon  a  more  acute  stage,  and  the  want  of  statesmanship 
among  the  latter  threw  upon  the  side  of  the  fanatical 
Robespierre  Danton  and  all  those  strong  practical  men 
who  cared  little  for  personal  questions,  and  whose  only 
desire  was  the  victory  of  France  in  her  great  struggle 
with  Europe.  Had  it  been  at  all  possible  to  act  with  that 
group  of  men  of  genius  whom  history  calls  the  Girondins, 
Danton,  Carnot,  Robert  Lindet,  and  even  Billaud-Varenne 
would  have  sooner  thrown  in  their  lot  with  them  than  with 
Robespierre,  whom  they  thoroughly  understood ;  but  the 
Girondins,  spurred  on  by  Madame  Roland,  refused  to 
have  anything  to  do  with  Danton.  Government  became 
impossible;  the  federalist  idea,  which  would  have  broken 
France  to  pieces  in  the  very  face  of  the  enemy,  grew  and 
flourished,  and  the  men  of  action  had  to  take  a  decided 
part.  In  the  month  of  May  1793  Camille  Desmoulins, 
acting  under  the  inspiration  of  Robespierre  and  Danton, 
published  his  Ilittoire  des  Brissotins  and  Brissot  devoile ; 


Isnard  declared-  that  Paris  must  be  destroyed ;  Robespierre 
preached  insurrection  at  the  Jacobin  Club ;  and  on  31st 
May  and  2d  June  the  commune  of  Paris  destroyed  the 
Girondin  party.  For  a  moment  it  seemed  as  if  France 
would  avenge  them ;  but  patriotism  was  stronger  than 
federalism.  The  defence  of  Lyons  only  exasperated  the 
men  who  were  working  for  France,  and  the  armies  who 
were  fighting  for  her,  and  on  27th  July  1793,  when  the 
struggle  was  practically  decided,  the  convention  elected 
Robespierre  to  the  committee  of  public  safety. 

This  election  marks  an  important  epoch,  not  only  in  the 
life  of  Robespierre,  but  in  the  history  of  the  Revolution. 
Danton  and  the  men  of  action  had  throughout  the  last 
two  years  of  the  crisis,  as  Mirabeau  had  in  the  first  two 
years,  seen  that  the  one  great  need  of  France,  if  she  was 
to  see  the  end  of  her  troubles  without  the  interference  of 
foreign  armies,  was  the  existence  of  a  strong  executive 
government.  The  means  for  establishing  the  much-needed 
strong  executive  were  found  in  the  committee  of  public 
safety.  The  success  of  this  committee  in  suppressing 
the  Norman  insurrection  had  confirmed  the  majority  of 
the  convention  in  the  expediency  of  strengthening  its 
powers,  and  the  committee  of  general  security  which  sat 
beside  it  was  also  strengthened  and  given  the  entire 
management  of  the  internal  police  of  the  country.  When 
Danton,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the  committee  from 
April  to  10th  July  1793,  left  it  Robespierre  was  elected; 
and  it  was  not  until  then  that  he  became  one  of  the  actual 
rulers  of  France.  Indeed  the  committee  was  not  finally 
constituted  until  the  13th  of  September,  when  the  last 
two  of  the  "great "  twelve  who  held  office  until  July  1794 
were  elected.  Of  these  twelve  at  least  seven,  Carnot, 
Billaud-Varenne,  Collot  d'Herbois,  Prieur  (of  the  Marne), 
Prieur  (of  the  Cote  d'Or),  Jean  Bon  Saint-Andre,  and 
Robert  Lindet,  were  essentially  men  of  action,  all  of  whom 
despised  rather  than  feared  Robespierre  owing  to  his  sup- 
posed timidity,  and  were  entirely  free  from  his  influence. 
Of  the  other  four  Herault  de  Sechelles  was  a  professed 
adherent  of  Danton ;  Barere  was  an  eloquent  Provencal, 
who  was  ready  to  be  the  spokesman  to  the  convention  of 
any  view  which  the  majority  of  the  committee  might 
adopt ;  and  only  Couthon  and  Saint-Just  shared  Robes- 
pierre's political  enthusiasm  for  the  regeneration  of  France 
by  the  gospel  of  Rousseau.  It  is  necessary  to  dwell  upon 
the  fact  that  Robespierre  was  always  in  a  minority  in  the 
great  committee  in  order  to  absolve  him  from  the  blame 
of  being  the  inventor  of  the  enormities  of  the  Terror,  as 
well  as  to  deprive  him  of  the  glory  of  the  gallant  stand 
made  against  Europe  in  arms. 

After  this  examination  of  Robespierre's  position  it  is 
not  necessary  to  investigate  closely  every  act  of  the  great 
committee  during  the  year  which  was  pre-eminently  the 
year  of  the  Terror ;  the  biographer  is  rather  called  upon 
to  examine  his  personal  position  with  regard  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Terror  and  the  fall  of  the  Hebertists  and 
Dantonists,  and  then  to  dwell  upon  the  last  three  months 
in  which  he  stood  almost  alone  trying  to  work  up  an 
effective  counterbalance  to  the  power  of  the  majority  of 
the  great  committee.  The  Terror  was  the  embodiment  of 
the  idea  of  Danton,  that  it  was  necessary  to  have  resort 
to  extreme  measures  to  keep  France  united  and  strong  at 
home  in  order  to  meet  successfully  her  enemies  upon  the 
frontier.  This  idea  was  systematized  by  the  committee  of 
public  safety,  or  rather  by  two  members  of  it  acting  for 
the  majority,  Billaud-Varenne  and  Collot  d'Herbois,  with- 
out much  consideration  as  to  who  were  to  be  the  victims. 
With  the  actual  organization  of  the  Terror  Robespierre  had 
little  or  nothing  to  do  ;  its  tAvo  great  engines,  the  revolu- 
tionary tribunal  and  the  absolute  power  in  the  provinces  of 
the  representatives  on  mission,  were  in  existence  before  he 


604 


ROBESPIERRE 


joined  the  committee  of  public  safety,  and  the  laws  of  the 
maximum  and  of  the  suspects  were  by  no  means  of  his 
creation.  The  reason  why  he  is  almost  universally  regarded 
as  its  creator  and  the  dominant  spirit  in  the  committee  of 
public  safety  is  not  hard  to  discover.  Men  like  Carnot 
and  Billaud-Varenne  were  not  conspicuous  speakers  in  the 
convention,  nor  were  they  the  idols  of  any  section  of  the 
populace;  but  Robespierre  had  a  fanatical  following  among 
the  Jacobins  and  was  admittedly  the  most  popular  orator 
in  the  convention.  His  panegyrics  on  the  system  of 
revolutionary  government  and  his  praise  of  virtue  led  his 
hearers  to  believe  that  the  system  of  the  Terror,  instead 
of  being  monstrous,  was  absolutely  laudable ;  his  pure  life 
and  admitted  incorruptibility  threw  a  lustre  on  the  com- 
mittee of  which  he  was  a  member;  and  his  colleagues 
offered  no  opposition  to  his  posing  as  their  representative 
and  reflecting  some  of  his  personal  popularity  upon  them 
so  long  as  he  did  not  interfere  with  their  work.  Moreover, 
he  alone  never  left  Paris,  whilst  all  the  others,  except 
Barere,  were  constantly  engaged  on  missions  to  the  armies, 
the  navy,  and  the  provinces.  It  has  been  asserted  that 
Robespierre,  Couthon,  and  Saint-Just  took  upon  them- 
selves the  direction  of  "la  haute  politique,"  while  the 
other  members  acted  only  in  subordinate  capacities ;  un- 
doubtedly it  would  have  suited  Robespierre  to  have  had 
this  believed,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  he  was  in  no  way 
especially  trusted  in  matters  of  supreme  importance. 

After  this  explanation  it  may  be  said  at  once  that 
Robespierre  was  not  the  author  of  the  overthrow  of  the 
Dantonists  and  the  Hebertists,  though  he  thoroughly 
agreed  with  the  majority  and  had  no  desire  to  save  them, 
the  principles  of  both  parties  being  obnoxious  to  him. 
The  Hebertists  were  communists  in  the  true  meaning  of 
the  word.  They  held  that  each  commune  should  be  self- 
governing,  and,  while  admitting  the  right  of  a  central 
authority  to  levy  men  and  money  for  the  purposes  of  the 
state,  they  believed  that  in  purely  internal  matters,  as  well 
as  in  determining  the  mode  in  which  men  and  money 
were  to  be  raised,  the  local  government  ought  to  be 
supreme.  This  position  of  the  Hebertists  was  of  course 
obnoxious  to  the  great  committee,  who  believed  that  suc- 
cess could  only  be  won  by  their  retention  of  absolute 
power;  and  in  the  winter  of  1794-95  it  became  obvious 
that  the  Hebertist  party  must  perish,  or  its  opposition  to 
the  committee  would  grow  too  formidable  owing  to  its 
paramount  influence  in  the  commune  of  Paris.  Robes- 
pierre shared  his  colleagues'  fear  of  the  Hebertist  opinions, 
and  he  had  a  personal  reason  for  disliking  that  party  of 
atheists  and  sansculottes,  since  he  believed  in  the  necessity 
of  religious  faith,  and  was  too  much  of  a  gentleman  not 
to  detest  their  imitation  of  the  grossness  that  belongs  to 
the  lowest  class  of  the  populace.  In  1792  he  had  indig- 
nantly thrown  from  him  the  cap  of  liberty  which  an  ardent 
admirer  had  placed  upon  his  head  ;  he  had  never  pandered 
to  the  depraved  tastes  of  the  mob  by  using  their  language; 
and  to  the  last  day  of  his  life  he  wore  knee-breeches  and 
silk  stockings  and  wore  his  hair  powdered.  His  position 
towards  the  Dantonist  party  was  of  a  different  character. 
After  having  seen  established  the  strong  executive  he  had 
laboured  for,  and  having  moved  the  resolutions  which 
finally  consolidated  the  power  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety  in  September  1793,  Dan  ton  retired  to  his  country 
house  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  domestic  life.  But  to  his 
retreat  came  the  news  of  the  means  the  committee  used  to 
maintain  their  supremacy.  Danton  was  not  a  man  who 
scrupled  to  shed  blood  when  necessary,  but  he  did  not  see 
that  this  continuous  series  of  sacrifices  on  the  guillotine 
was  necessary ;  hence  he  inspired  Camille  Desmoulins  to 
protest  against  the  Terror  in  the  Vieux  Cordelier,  the 
noblest  expression  of  revolutionary  thought.  Where  is 


this  system  of  terror  to  end  ?  what  is  the  good  of  a  tyranny 
comparable  only  to  that  of  the  Roman  emperors  as 
described  by  Tacitus?  Such  were  the  questions  which 
Camille  Desmoulins  asked  under  Dantou's  inspiration. 
This  "  moderantism,"  as  it  was  called,  was  as  objectionable 
to  the  members  of  the  great  committee  as  the  doctrines  of 
the  Hebertists.  Both'  parties  must  be  crushed.  Before 
the  blows  at  the  leaders  of  those  two  parties  were  struck, 
Robespierre  retired  for  a  month  (from  13th  February  to 
13th  March  1794)  from  active  business  in  the  convention 
and  the  committee,  apparently  to  consider  his  position ; 
but  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  cessation  of  the 
Reign  of  Terror  would  mean  the  loss  of  that  supremacy 
by  which  he  hoped  to  establish  the  ideal  of  Rousseau,  for 
Danton,  he  knew,  was  essentially  a  practical  statesman  and 
laughed  at  his  ideas.  He  must  have  considered  too  that 
the  result  of  his  siding  with  Danton  would  probably  have 
been  fatal  to  himself.  The  result  of  his  deliberations  was 
that  he  abandoned  Danton  and  co-operated  in  the  attacks 
of  the  committee  on  the  two  parties.  On  the  15th  of 
March  he  reappeared  in  the  convention;  on  the  19th  Hebert 
and  his  friends  were  arrested ;  and  on  the  24th  they  were 
guillotined.  On  the  30th  of  March  Danton,  Camille 
Desmoulins,  and  their  friends  were  arrested,  and  on  the 
5th  of  April  they  too  were  guillotined. 

It  was  not  until  after  the  execution  of  Danton  that 
Robespierre  began  to  develop  a  policy  distinct  from  that 
of  his  colleagues  in  the  great  committee,  an  opposition 
which  ended  in  his  downfall.  He  began  by  using  his  influ- 
ence over  the  Jacobin  Club  to  dominate  the  commune  of 
Paris  through  his  devoted  adherents,  two  of  whom,  Fleuriot- 
Lescot  and  Payan,  were  elected  respectively  mayor  and  pro- 
cureur  of  the  commune.  He  also  attempted  to  usurp  the 
influence  of  the  other  members  of  the  great  committee  over 
the  armies  by  getting  his  young  adherent,  Saint-Just,  sent 
on  a  mission  to  the  frontier.  In  Paris  Robespierre  de- 
termined to  increase  the  pressure  of  the  Terror  :  no  one 
should  accuse  him  of  moderantism ;  through  the  increased 
efficiency  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal  Paris  should  tremble 
before  him  as  the  chief  member  of  the  great  committee ; 
and  the  convention  should  pass  whatever  measures  he  might 
dictate.  To  secure  his  aims,  Couthon,  his  other  ally  in  the 
committee,  proposed  and  carried  on  the  10th  of  June  the 
outrageous  law  of  22d  Prairial,  by  which  even  the  appear- 
ance of  justice  was  taken  from  the  tribunal,  which,  as  no 
witnesses  were  allowed,  became  a  simple  court  of  condemna- 
tion. The  result  of  this  law  was  that  between  the  12th 
of  June  and  the  28th  of  July,  the  day  of  Robespierre's 
death,  no  less  than  1285  victims  perished  on  the  guillotine 
at  Paris.  But  before  this  there  had  taken  place  in  Robes- 
pierre's life  an  episode  of  supreme  importance  as  illustrat- 
ing his  character  and  his  political  aims  :  on  the  7th  of  May 
he  secured  a  decree  from  the  convention  recognizing  the 
existence  of  the  Supreme  Being.  In  His  honour  a  great 
fete  was  held  on  the  8th  of  June ;  Robespierre,  as  presi- 
dent of  the  convention,  walked  first  and  delivered  his 
harangue,  and  as  he  looked  around  him  he  may  well  have 
believed  that  his  position  was  secured  and  that  he  was  at 
last  within  reach  of  a  supreme  power  which  should  enable 
him  to  impose  his  belief  on  all  France,  and  so  ensure  its 
happiness.  The  majority  of  the  great  committee  found 
his  popularity — or  rather  his  ascendency,  for  as  that  in- 
creased his  personal  popularity  diminished — useful  to 
them,  since  by  increasing  the  stringency  of  the  Terror  he 
strengthened  the  position  of  the  committee,  whilst  attract- 
ing to  himself,  as  occupying  the  most  prominent  position 
in  it,  any  latent  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  at  such  stringency. 
Of  the  issue  of  a  struggle  between  themselves  and  Robes- 
pierre they  had  little  fear  :  they  controlled  the  committee 
of  general  security  through  their  alliance  with  its  leaders. 


R  O  B  —  R  O  B 


605 


Amar  and  Vadier;  they  were  certain  of  obtaining  a 
majority  in  the  convention,  for  they  knew  that  the  chief 
deputies  on  the  left  or  the  Mountain  were  Dantonists,  who 
burned  to  avenge  Danton's  death ;  while  they  felt  sure  also 
that  the  mass  of  the  deputies  of  the  centre  or  the  Marsh 
could  be  hounded  on  against  Robespierre  if  they  were  to 
accuse  him  of  aiming  at  the  dictatorship  and  pour  on  him 
the  obloquy  of  having  increased  the  Terror ;  and  they 
knew  finally  that  his  actual  adherents,  though  devoted  to 
him,  were  few  in  number.  The  devotion  of  these  admirers 
had  been  further  excited  by  the  news  that  a  half-witted 
girl,  named  Cecile  Renault,  had  been  found  wandering 
near  his  house,  with  a  knife  in  her  possession,  intending 
to  play  the  part  of  Charlotte  Corday.  She  was  executed 
on  the  17th  of  June,  on  the  very  day  that  Vadier  raised 
a  laugh  at  Robespierre's  expense  in  the  convention  by  his 
report  on  the  conspiracy  of  Catherine  Theot,  a  mad  woman, 
who  had  asserted  that  Robespierre  was  a  divinity. 

For  a  statesman  to  be  laughed  at  in  France  is  fatal  to 
his  power,  and  Robespierre  himself  felt  that  he  must  strike 
his  blow  now  or  never.  Yet  he  was  not  sufficiently 
audacious  to  strike  at  once,  as  Payan  and  Coffinhal,  the 
ablest  of  his  adherents,  would  have  had  him  do,  but  re- 
tired from  the  convention  for  some  weeks,  as  he  had  done 
before  the  overthrow  of  the  Hebertists  and  the  Dantonists, 
to  prepare  his  plan  of  action.  This  retirement  seemed 
ominous  to  the  majority  of  the  great  committee,  and  they 
too  prepared  for  the  struggle  by  communicating  with  the 
deputies  of  the  Mountain,  who  were  either  friends  of 
Danton  or  men  of  proved  energy  like  Barras,  Freron,  and 
Tallien.  These  weeks,  the  last  of  his  life,  Robespierre 
passed  very  peacefully,  according  to  his  wont  all  through 
the  Revolution.  He  continued  to  live  with  the  Duplays, 
with  whose  daughter  lileonore  he  had  fallen  in  love,  and 
used  to  wander  with  her  and  his  favourite  dog,  a  great 
Danish  hound,  named  Bruant,  in  the  Champs  Fjlyse"es 
during  the  long  summer  evenings.  At  last,  on  the  26th  of 
July,  Robespierre  appeared  for  the  first  time  for  more  than 
four  weeks  in  the  convention  and  delivered  a  carefully 
studied  harangue,  which  lasted  for  more  than  four  hours, 
in  which  he  declared  that  the  Terror  ought  to  be  ended, 
that  certain  deputies  who  had  acted  unjustly  and  exceeded 
their  powers  ought  to  be  punished,  and  that  the  committees 
of  public  safety  and  general  security  ought  to  be  renewed. 
Great  was  the  excitement  in  the  convention  :  all  wondered 
who  Avere  the  deputies  destined  to  be  punished ;  all  were 
surprised  that  the  Terror  should  be  imputed  as  a  fault  to 
the  very  committee  of  which  Robespierre  had  been  a 
member.  The  majority  of  the  great  committee  determined 
to  act  promptly.  The  convention,  moved  by  Robespierre's 
eloquence,  at  first  passed  his  motions ;  but  he  was  replied 
to  by  Cambon  the  financier,  Billaud-Varenne,  Amar,  and 
Vadier,  and  the  convention  rescinded  their  decrees  and 
referred  Robespierre's  question  to  their  committees.  On 
the  following  day,  the  27th  of  July,  or  in  the  revolution- 
ary calendar  the  9th  Thermidor,  Saint-Just  commenced 
to  speak  on  behalf  of  the  motions  of  Robespierre,  when 
violent  interruptions  showed  the  temper  of  the  conven- 
tion. Tallien,  Billaud-Varenne,  and  Vadier  again  attacked 
Robespierre ;  cries  of  "  Down  with  the  tyrant ! "  were 
raised ;  and,-  when  Robespierre  hesitated  in  his  speech  in 
answer  to  these  attacks,  the  words  "  C'est  le  sang  de  Dan- 
ton  qui  t'etouffe"  showed  what  was  uppermost  in  the 
minds  of  the  Mountain.  The  excitement  increased,  and 
at  five  in  the  afternoon  Robespierre,  Couthon,  and  Saint- 
Just,  with  two  young  deputies,  Augustin  Robespierre  and 
Lebas,  the  only  men  in  all  the  convention  who  supported 
them,  were  ordered  to  be  arrested.  Yet  all  hope  for  Robes- 
pierre was  not  gone ;  he  was  speedily  rescued  from  his 
prison  with  the  other  deputies  by  the  troops  of  the  com- 


mune and  brought  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  There  he  was 
surrounded  by  his  faithful  adherents,  led  by  Payan  and 
Coffinhal,  but  the  day  was  past  when  the  commune  could 
overawe  the  convention ;  for  now  the  men  of  action  were 
hostile  to  the  commune,  and  its  chief  was  not  a  master  of 
coups  d'etat.  On  the  news  of  the  release  of  Robespierre, 
the  convention  had  again  met,  and  declared  the  members 
of  the  commune  and  the  released  deputies  hors  de  la  loi. 
The  national  guards  under  the  command  of  Barras  had 
little  difficulty  in  making  their  way  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville ; 
Robespierre  was  shot  in  the  lower  jaw  by  a  young  gen- 
darme named  Merda  while  signing  an  appeal  to  one  of  the 
sections  of  Paris  to  take  up  arms  for  him,  though  the 
wound  was  afterwards  believed  to  have  been  inflicted  by 
himself;  and  all  the  released  deputies  were  again  arrested. 
After  a  night  of  agony  Robespierre  was  the  next  day 
taken  before  the  tribunal,  where  his  identity  as  an  outlaw 
was  proved,  and  without  further  trial  he  was  executed 
with  Couthon  and  Saint-Just  and  nineteen  others  of  his 
adherents  on  the  Place  de  la  Revolution  on  the  10th  Ther- 
midor (28th  July)  1794. 

The  character  of  Robespierre  when  looked  upon  simply  in  the 
light  of  his  actions  and  his  authenticated  speeches,  and  apart  from 
the  innumerable  legends  which  have  grown  up  about  it,  is  not  a 
difficult  one  to  understand.  A  well-educated  and  accomplished 
young  lawyer,  he  might  have  acquired  a  good  provincial  practice 
and  lived  a  happy  provincial  life  had  it  not  been  for  the  Revolution. 
Like  thousands  of  other  young  Frenchmen,  he  had  read  the  works 
of  Rousseau  and  taken  them  as  gospel.  Just  at  the  veiy  time  in 
life  when  this  illusion  had  not  been  destroyed  by  the  realities  of 
life,  and  without  the  experience  which  might  have  taught  the 
futility  of  idle  dreams  and  theories,  he  was  elected  to  the  states- 
general.  At  Paris  he  was  not  understood  till  he  met  with  his 
audience  of  fellow-disciples  of  Rousseau  at  the  Jacobin  Club.  His 
fanaticism  won  him  supporters  ;  his  singularly  sweet  and  sympa- 
thetic voice  gained  him  hearers  ;  and  his  upright  life  attracted  the 
admiration  of  all.  As  matters  approached  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  terrible  crisis,  he  failed,  except  in  the  two  instances  of  the 
question  of  war  and  of  the  king's  trial,  to  show  himself  a  states- 
man, for  he  had  not  the  liberal  views  and  practical  instincts  which 
made  Mirabeau  and  Danton  great  men.  His  admission  to  the 
great  committee  gave  him  power,  which  he  hoped  to  use  for  the 
establishment  of  his  favourite  theories,  and  for  the  same  purpose 
lie  acquiesced  in  and  even  heightened  the  horrors  of  the  Reign  of 
Terror.  It  is  here  that  the  fatal  mistake  of  allowing  a  theorist  to 
have  power  appeared  :  Billaud  -  Varenne  systematized  the  Terror 
because  he  believed  it  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the  country  ; 
Robespierre  intensified  it  in  order  to  carry  out  his  own  ideas  and 
theories.  Robespierre's  private  life  was  always  respectable :  he 
was  always  emphatically  a  gentleman  and  man  of  culture,  and  even 
a  little  bit  of  a  dandy,  scrupulously  honest,  truthful,  and  chari- 
table. In  his  habits  and  manner  of  life  he  was  simple  and  labori- 
ous ;  he  was  not  a  man  gifted  with  flashes  of  genius,  but  one  who 
had  to  think  much  before  he  could  come  to  a  decision,  and  he 
worked  hard  all  his  life. 

The  great  authority  for  Robespierre's  life  is  Ernest  Hamel's  elaborate  Vie  de 
Robespierre,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1865-67,  in  which  eveiy  fact  regarding  him  is  care- 
fully sifted  ;  it  is  indeed  an  unqualified  defence  and  eulogy  throughout,  but, 
without  adopting  his  particular  views,  Hamel's  biography  is  the  only  one  of 
any  value.  Consult  also  for  his  early  life  M.  Paris's  La  Jeunesse  de  Kobespierre. 
The  Memoires  de  Robespierre  and  the  Memoires  de  Charlotte  Robespierre  are 
both  worthless  forgeries.  (H.  M.  S.) 

ROBIN  HOOD.  The  oldest  mention  of  Robin  Hood 
at  present  known  occurs  in  the  second  edition — what  is 
called  the  B  text — of  Piers  the  Plowman,  the  date  of  which 
is  about  1377.  In  passus  v.  of  that  poem  the  figure  of 
Sloth  is  represented  assaying  : 
' '  I  can  noti3te  perfitly  my  pater-noster,  as  the  prest  it  syngeth  : 

But  I  can  rymes  of  Robyn  Hood  and  Randolf  Erie  of  Chesterer." 
He  is  next  mentioned  by  Wyntown  in  his  Scottish  Chron- 
icle, written  about  1420  : 

"  Lytel  Jhon  and  Robyne  Hude 
Waythmen  ware  commendyd  gude  ; 
In  Yngilwode  and  Barnysdale 
Thai  oysyd  all  this  time  [c.  1283]  thare  trawale  "  ; 

next  by  Bower  in  his  additions  to  Fordun's  Scotichronicon 
about  1450  : 

"Hoc  in  tempore  [1266]  de  exheredatis  et  bannitis  surrexit  et 
caput  erexit  ille  famosissimus  sicarius  Robertus  Hode  et  Littill 
Johanne  cum  eorum  complicibus,  de  quibus  stolidum  vulgus  hianter 


606 


ROBIN      HOOD 


in  comcediis  et  tragcediis  prurienter  festuin  faciunt  et  super  ceteras 
romancias,  miinos,  et  bardauos  cantitare  delectantur." 

Of  his  popularity  in  the  latter  half  of  the  loth  and  in 
the  16th  centuries  there  are  many  signs.  Just  one  pass- 
age must  be  quoted  as  of  special  importance  because 
closely  followed  by  Grafton,  Stow,  and  Camden.  It  is 
from  Mair's  Historia  Majoris  Britannix  tarn  Anglix  quam 
,sV,.//>,  which  appeared  in  1521. 

"Circa  hajc  tempora  [Rieardi  Primi],  ut  auguror,  Robertus 
Hudus  Aiiglus  et  Parvus  Joannes  latroues  famatissimi  in  nemoribus 
latuerunt,  soluin  opnlentoruui  virorum  bona  deripientes.  Nullum 
nisi  eos  invadentem  vel  resisteutem  pro  suarum  rerum  tuitione 
occiderunt.  Centum  sagittarios  ad  pugnam  aptissimos  Robertus 
latrociuiis  aluit,  quos  400  viri  fortissimi  invadere  non  audebant. 
Rebus  hujus  Roberti  gcstis  tola  Britannia  in  cantibus  utitur. 
Fivminam  uullam  opprimi  pennisit  nee  paupernm  bona  surripuit, 
veruui  eos  ex  abbatuin  bonis  sublatis  opipare  pavit.  Viri  rapinam 
iiuprobo,  sed  latronum  omnium  humanissimus  et  princeps  erat." 

In  the  Elizabethan  era  and  afterwards  mentions  abound ; 
see  the  works  of  Shakespeare,  Ben  Jonson,  Drayton, 
Warner,  Munday,  Camden,  Stow,  Braithwaite,  Fuller,  &c. 

Of  the  ballads  themselves,  Robin  Hood  and  the  Monk  is 
possibly  as  old  as  the  reign  of  Edward  II. ;  Robin  Hood 
and  the  Potter  and  Robyn  and  Gandelyn  are  certainly  not 
later  than  the  15th  century.  Most  important  of  all  is  A 
Lytell  Geste  of  Robyn  Node,  which  perhaps  was  first  printed 
about  1490,  although  the  earliest  extant  complete  copy 
belongs  to  about  1520.  This  is  evidently  founded  on 
older  ballads;  we  read  in  The  Seconde  Fytte,  11.  176  and 
177: 

"  He  wente  hyni  forthe  full  mery  syugynge, 
As  men  have  told  in  tale." 

In  fact  it  does  for  the  Robin  Hood  cycle  what  a  few  years 
before  Sir  Thomas  Malory  had  done  for  the  Arthurian 
romances, — what  in  the  6th  century  B.C.  Pisistratus  is  said 
to  have  done  for  the  Homeric  poems. 

These  are  the  facts  about  him  and  his  balladry.  Of 
conjectures  there  is  no  end.  He  has  been  represented  as 
the  last  of  the  Saxons, — as  a  Saxon  holding  out  against 
the  Norman  conquerors  so  late  as  the  end  of  the  12th 
century  (see  Thierry's  Norman  Conquest,  and  compare 
Ivanhoe).  Others  maintain  that  he  was  a  follower  of 
Simon  de  Montfort.  A  third  theory  associates  him  with 
the  earl  of  Lancaster  of  Edward  II.  's  time  :  Hunter  believed 
that  he  could  identify  him  with  a  certain  Robin  Hood 
mentioned  in  the  Exchequer  accounts  of  this  reign. 

For  our  part,  we  are  not  disinclined  to  believe  that  the 
Robin  Hood  story  has  some  historical  basis,  however  fanci- 
ful and  romantic  the  superstructure.  We  parallel  it  with 
the  Arthurian  story,  and  hold  that,  just  as  there  was 
probably  a  real  Arthur,  however  different  from  the  hero 
of  the  trouveres,  so  there  was  a  real  Hood,  however  now 
enlarged  and  disguised  by  the  accretions  of  legend.  That 
Charlemagne  and  Richard  I.  of  England  became  the  sub- 
jects of  romances  does  not  prevent  our  believing  in  their 
existence ;  nor  need  Hood's  mythical  life  deprive  him  of 
his  natural  one.  Sloth  in  Langland's  poem  couples  him, 
as  we  have  seen,  with  Randle,  earl  of  Chester ;  and  no 
one  doubts  this  nobleman's  existence  because  he  had 
"  rymes  "  made  about  him.  We  believe  him  to  have  been 
the  third  Randle  (see  Bishop  Percy's  Folio  MS.,  ed.  Hales 
and  Furnivall,  i.  260).  And  possibly  enough  Hood  was 
contemporary  with  that  earl,  who  "flourished"  in  the 
reigns  of  Richard  I.,  John,  and  Henry  III.  Wyntown 
and  Major,  as  we  have  seen,  assign  him  to  that  period. 
It  is  impossible  to  believe  with  Hunter  that  he  lived  so 
late  as  Edward  II. 's  reign.  This  would  leave  no  time  for 
the  growth  of  his  myth ;  and  his  myth  was,  as  is  evident 
from  what  we  have  already  said  and  quoted,  full  grown 
in  the  first  half  of  the  14th  century. 

But,  whether  he  lived  or  not,  and  whenever  he  lived,  it 
is  certain  that  many  mythical  elements  are  contained  in 


his  story.  Both  his  name  and  his  exploits  remind  us  of 
the  woodland  spirit  Robin  Goodfellow  and  his  merry 
pranks.  He  is  fond  of  disguising  himself,  and  devoted  to 
fun  and  practical  jokes.  And  the  connexion  of  the  May 
games  with  him  points  to  a  fusion  with  some  older  memory, 
— with  some  sun-god.  In  fact,  the  outlaw  would  seem  to 
have  become  a  centre  around  which  gathered  and  settled 
older  traditions  of  men  and  of  spirits  and  of  gods.  Folk- 
lore that  was  rapidly  perishing  thus  gave  itself  a  new  con- 
sistency and  life.  The  name  Robin  {a  French  form  from 
Rob,  which  is  of  course  a  short  form  for  Robert)  would 
serve  both  for  "the  shrewd  and  knavish  sprite" — the 
German  Knecht  Ruprecht  (see  Grimm's  Teut.  Myth.,  p. 
504,  trans.  Stallybrass) — and  for  the  bandit  (see  "Roberdes 
Knaues"  in  the  Prologue  of  Piers  the  Plowman,  1.  44  and 
the  note  in  Warton's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Poet.,  ii.  95,  ed.  1840). 
The  name  Hood  is  still  a  common  enough  surname,  of 
which  the  earlier  shape  is  Odo  (see  "  Houdart,"  &c.,  in 
Larchey's  Did.  des  Noms) ;  notice  too  the  name  Hudson. 
But  it  also  reminds  one  of  the  German  familiar  spirit 
Hudekin,  or  possibly  of  the  German  Witikind  (see  Wright's 
Essays  on  the  Middle  Ages,  ii.  207).  How  certain  it  is 
that  the  Robin  Hood  story  attracted  to  it  and  appropriated 
other  elements  is  illustrated  by  its  subsequent  history, — 
its  history  after  the  14th  century.  Thus  later  on  we  find 
it  connected  with  the  Morris  dance ;  but  the  Morris  dance 
was  not  known  in  England  before  the  16th  century,  or 
late  in  the  15th.  And  the  form  of  the  story  was  greatly 
modified  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  to  suit  the 
ideas  of  the  age.  It  was  then  that  a  peer  was  imported 
into  it,  and  the  yeoman  of  the  older  version  was  meta- 
morphosed into  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  for  whom  in  the 
following  century  Stukeley  discovered  a  satisfactory  pedi- 
gree !  At  last,  with  the  change  of  times,  the  myth  ceased 
growing.  Its  rise  and  development  and  decay  deserve  a 
more  thorough  study  than  they  have  yet  received. 

What  perhaps  is  its  greatest  interest  as  we  first  see  it 
is  its  expression  of  the  popular  mind  about  the  close  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Robin  Hood  is  at  that  time  the  people's 
ideal  as  Arthur  is  that  of  the  upper  classes.  He  is  the 
ideal  yeoman  as  Arthur  is  the  ideal  knight.  He  readjusts 
the  distribution  of  property :  he  robs  the  rich  and  endows 
the  poor.  He  is  an  earnest  worshipper  of  the  Virgin,  but 
a  bold  and  vigorous  hater  of  monks  and  abbots.  He  is 
the  great  sportsman,  the  incomparable  archer,  the  lover 
of  the  greenwood  and  of  a  free  life,  brave,  adventurous, 
jocular,  open-handed,  a  protector  of  women.  Observe  his 
instructions  to  Little  John  : — 

"  Loke  ye  do  no  housbonde  hanne 
That  tylleth  with  his  plough. 

No  more  ye  shall  no  good  yeman 
That  walketh  by  greue  wode  slmve, 

Ne  no  knyght  ne  no  squyer 
That  wokle  be  a  good  felawe. 

These  bysshoppes  and  thyse  archebysshoppes 
Ye  shall  them  bete  and  bynde  ; 

The  hye  sheryfe  of  ISTotynghame 
Hyni  holde  in  your  mynde." 

And  we  are  told 

' '  Robin  loved  our  dere  lady 

For  doute  of  dedely  synne  ; 
Wolde  he  never  do  company  hanne 
That  ony  woman  was  yniie.  " 

See  also  Drayton's  Polyolbion,  Song  xxvi.  The  story  is 
localized  in  Barnsdale  and  Sherwood,  i.e.,  between  Don- 
caster  and  Nottingham. 

The  best  collections  of  the  Robin  Hood  poems  are  those  of  Ritson 
(8vo,  1795)  and  Gutch  (2d  ed.,  1847),  and  of  Professor  Child  in  the  5th 
volume  of  his  invaluable  English  and  Scotch  Ballads.  The  versions 
in  the  Percy  Folio  MS.  are  unhappily  mutilated ;  but  they  should  be 
consulted,  for  they  are  all  more  or  less  unique,  and  that  on  "  Robin 
Hoode  his  death  "  is  of  singular  interest.  The  literary  and  artistic 
value  of  the  Robin  Hood  ballads  cannot  be  pronounced  consider- 


R  O  B  — R  O  B 


607 


able  ;  their  value  is  great,  but  it  is  in  other  respects.  There  is, 
however,  real  vigour  and  force  in  this  fragment  on  the  hero's 
death.  The  earliest  "  Garland  "  was  printed  in  1670.  ( J.  W.  H. ) 

ROBIN  REDBREAST.     See  REDBREAST. 

ROBINS,  BENJAMIN  (1707-1751),  an  English  natural 
philosopher,  was  born  at  Bath  in  1707.  His  parents  were 
Quakers  in  poor  circumstances,  and  gave  him  very  little 
education.  Aided  solely  by  his  own  talent  for  exact 
science,  he  made  considerable  progress,  and  attracted  so 
much  notice  that  he  was  introduced  to  Pemberton,  who 
befriended  and  encouraged  him.  For  a  time  he  maintained 
himself  by  teaching  mathematics,  but  soon  devoted  him- 
self to  more  congenial  work.  In  particular  he  carried  out 
an  extensive  series  of  experiments  in  gunnery,  the  results 
of  which  were  afterwards  embodied  in  his  famous  treatise 
on  New  Principles  in  Gunnery  (8vo,  London,  1742).  In 
this  treatise  is  described  the  ballistic  pendulum,  an  instru- 
ment which  has  become  classical  in  the  history  of  dynamics, 
and  which  bears  the  name  of  its  inventor.  Robins  also 
made  a  number  of  very  important  experiments  on  the 
resistance  of  the  air  to  the  motion  of  projectiles,  and  on 
the  force  of  gunpowder,  with  computation  of  the  velocities 
thereby  communicated  to  military  projectiles.  He  com- 
pared the  results  of  his  theory  with  experimental  deter- 
minations of  the  ranges  of  mortars  and  cannon,  and  gave 
practical  maxims  for  the  management  of  artillery.  He 
also  made  observations  on  the  flight  of  rockets  and  wrote 
on  the  advantages  of  rifled  barrels.  So  great  was  his  fame 
as  a  scientific  artillerist  that  Euler  translated  his  work  on 
gunnery  into  German  and  added  to  it  a  critical  comment- 
ary of  his  own.  Of  less  interest  nowadays  are  Robins's 
more  purely  mathematical  writings,  such  as  his  Discourse 
concerning  the  Nature  and  Certainty  of  Sir  Isaac  Neivtoris 
Methods  of  Fluxions  and  of  Prime  and  Ultimate  Ratios 
(8vo,  London,  1735),  "A  Demonstration  of  the  Eleventh 
Proposition  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Treatise  of  Quadratures  " 
(Phil.  Trans.,  1727),  and  similar  works.  Besides  his  scien- 
tific labours  Robins  took  an  active  part  in  politics.  He 
wrote  pamphlets  in  support  of  the  opposition  to  Sir  Robert 
"Walpole,  and  was  secretary  of  a  committee  appointed  by 
the  House  of  Commons  to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of  that 
minister.  He  also  wrote  a  preface  to  the  Report  on  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Board  of  General  Officers  on  their  Exa- 
mination into  the  Conduct  of  Lieutenant-General  Sir  John 
Cope,  in  which  he  gave  an  apology  for  the  affair  at  Preston- 
pans.  In  1750  he  was  appointed  engineer-general  to  the 
East  India  Company,  and  went  out  to  superintend  the  re- 
construction of  their  forts.  The  climate,  however,  dis- 
agreed with  him,  and  he  died  en  29th  July  1751.  His 
works  were  published  in  two  volumes  8vo  in  1761. 

ROBINSON,  EDWARD  (1794-1863),  author  of  the 
Biblical  Researches,  a  son  of  the  Rev.  William  Robinson, 
of  Puritan  ancestry,  was  born  at  Southington,  Connecticut, 
United  States,  on  10th  April  1794.  He  was  educated  at 
Hamilton  College,  New  York,  where  he  graduated  in  1816. 
He  served  as  a  tutor  at  the  college  during  1817-18,  and 
then  engaged  in  private  study  of  the  Greek  classics  until 
1821,  when  he  went  to  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  order 
to  publish  an  edition  of  the  Iliad.  There  he  became  a 
pupil  of  Moses  Stuart,  the  enthusiastic  professor  of  Biblical 
studies  in  the  theological  seminary,  and  was  made  in- 
structor of  Hebrew  there  in  1823.  In  1826  he  resigned 
his  position  at  Andover  and  went  to  Europe,  where  he 
studied  Hebrew  under  Gesenius  at  Halle,  and  also  history 
at  Berlin  under  Neander,  remaining  in  Europe  until  1830. 
In  1828  he  married  Therese  Albertine  Luise  von  Jakob, 
daughter  of  an  eminent  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle. 
This  highly  cultured  lady  was  already  well  known  as  an 
authoress  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Talvj."  She  became 
of  great  assistance  to  her  husband  in  his  learned  pur- 


suits. In  1830  he  was  again  called  to  Andover  as  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  of  Biblical  literature,  and  entered 
with  enthusiasm  upon  the  work  of  instruction  and  the 
publication  of  scholarly  works  upon  the  Bible.  In  1831 
he  founded  the  Biblical  Repository,  a  theological  review 
which  introduced  a  new  era  in  theological  periodicals  in 
America,  and  which  subsequently  passed  over  into  the 
Bibliotheca  Sacra.  In  the  same  year  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.D.  from  Dartmouth  College.  In  1832  he 
published  a  revised  edition  of  Taylor's  translation  of 
Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  and  in  the  ensuing  year 
a  popular  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  a  translation  of 
Buttmann's  Greek  Grammar  (3d  ed.,  1851).  Such  severe 
literary  work  deprived  him  of  his  health  and  he  was 
compelled  to  resign  his  professorship.  He  now  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  literary  pursuits  for  some  years. 
In  1834  he  published  a  revised  edition  of  Newcome's 
Greek  Harmony  of  the  Gospels.  In  1836  he  issued  a 
translation  of  Gesenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon  and  in  the  same 
year  a  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  Neiv  Testament. 
These  lexicons  have  been  the  companions  of  Biblical 
students  until  the  present  time,  having  passed  through 
a  series  of  revisions.  The  Hebrew  Lexicon  reached  a  fifth 
edition  in  1854,  the  Greek  Lexicon  a  second  edition  in 
1847.  They  are  both  now  (1885)  passing  through  another 
revision  by  his  pupils.  In  1837  Robinson  was  called  to 
the  professorship  of  Biblical  literature  in  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York,  in  which  position  he  re- 
mained until  his  death,  giving  it  the  reputation  of  his 
scholarship  and  the  benefits  of  his  great  experience  in 
Biblical  study  and  practical  skill  in  instruction.  In  his 
letter  of  acceptance  he  gave  an  outline  of  the  field  of 
Biblical  study  which  showed  his  mastery  of  the  subject 
and  his  forecast  of  its  future  in  America.  He  accepted 
this  position  with  the  understanding  that  he  should 
receive  leave  of  absence  for  some  years  in  order  to  explore 
the  lands  of  the  Bible.  He  spent  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  year  1838  in  these  explorations  and  became  the 
pioneer  and  father  of  modern  Biblical  geography.  He 
published  his  Biblical  Researches  in  1841  in  three  volumes, 
simultaneously  in  Berlin  and  Boston.  His  services  were 
recognized  by  a  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  of  London  in  1842,  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  the 
university  of  Halle  in  1842,  and  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
Yale  College  in  1844.  In  1852  he  made  a  second  visit  to 
Palestine  and  published  its  results  in  the  supplemental 
volume  to  the  second  edition  of  his  Biblical  Researches  in 
1856.  The  third  edition  of  the  whole  work  appeared  in 
1867  in  three  volumes.  Robinson  regarded  these  researches 
as  preliminary  to  a  systematic  work  on  the  geography  of 
the  Bible;  but  he  was  spared  only  to  complete  a  mere 
fragment,  which  was  published  posthumously  under  the 
title  of  Physical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land  in  1865. 
In  1845  Robinson  also  issued  a  Greek  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels  and  in  1846  an  English  Harmony,  both  of  which 
have  passed  through  many  editions  and  have  remained 
the  standard  text-books  in  America  until  the  present  day. 
The  Greek  Harmony  has  renewed  its  life  in  a  revised 
edition  by  Professor  Riddle  in  1885.  Besides  these  more 
important  works  he  published  from  time  to  time  a  vast 
number  of  articles  in  periodicals,  and  in  1859  a  Memoir 
of  the  Rev.  William  Robinson,  his  father.  Robinson  was 
an  ordained  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  but  his 
voice  was  seldom  heard  in  the  pulpit  or  in  ecclesiastical 
bodies.  In  his  declining  years  he  was  afflicted  with  an 
incurable  disease  of  the  eyes  and  other  maladies.  He  died 
in  New  York  City  on  27th  January  1863. 

Robinson's  work  in  Biblical  geography  was  both  fundamental 
and  monumental.  Dean  Stanley  once  said,  "  Dr  Robinson  was  the 
first  man  who  saw  Palestine  with  his  eyes  open  to  what  he  ought 


608 


R  O  B  — R  O  B 


to  see"  ;  and  Ritter  recognizes  the  "union  of  the  acutest  observa- 
tion of  toirographical  and  local  conditions  with  much  preparatory 
study."  He  was  gifted  with  great  practical  sense  and  unusual 
accuracy  of  observation  ;  but  he  was  extreme  in  his  criticism  of 
the  local  legends  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  not  sufficiently  skilled  in 
historic  criticism.  Although  great  progress  has  been  made  in 
Biblical  geography  in  the  last  quarter  of  this  century,  yet  the  work 
of  Robinson  is  still  classical. 

See  The  Life,  Writings,  and  Character  of  Etlu-ard  Robinson,  by  Henry  B. 
Smith  and  Boswell  D.  Hitchcock  (New  York,  1863),  and  Services  in  Adam 
(.'hapel  at  Hit  Dedication  of  the  Kew  Buildings  of  Union  Theological  Seminary 
(N,-w-  York,  1885). 

ROBINSON,  JOHN  (1575-1625),  one  of  the  founders  of 
Independency  in  England  (see  vol.  xii.  p.  725),  was  born 
most  probably  near  Scrooby  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1575. 
He  was  entered  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1592,  and  graduated  in  ordinary  course,  becoming  a  fellow 
in  1599.  Having  taken  orders  he  officiated  for  some  time 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Norwich,  but  his  Puritan  leanings 
soon  caused  his  suspension  by  the  bishop.  After  having 
ministered  for  some  time  to  a  congregation  of  sympathizers 
in  Norwich  he  resigned  his  fellowship  in  1604,  and,  pro- 
ceeding to  Gainsborough  in  Lincolnshire,  he  there  joined 
a  company  who  had  bound  themselves  by  covenant  before 
God  "  to  walk  in  all  His  ways  made  known  or  to  be  made 
known  unto  them,  according  to  their  best  endeavours, 
whatever  it  should  cost  them."  In  1606  he  became 
minister  at  Scrooby,  but  the  increasing  hostility  of  the 
authorities  towards  nonconformity  soon  forced  him  and  his 
people  to  think  of  flight,  and,  not  without  difficulty,  they 
succeeded  in  making  their  escape  in  detachments  to  Hol- 
land. Robinson  settled  in  Amsterdam  in  1 608,  but  in  the 
following  year  removed  to  Leyden,  and  ministered  there  to 
members  of  his  former  congregation.  In  1620  a  consider- 
able minority  of  these  sailed  for  England  in  the  "  Speed- 
well," and  ultimately  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  the  "  May- 
flower "  ;  it  was  Robinson's  intention  to  follow  as  soon  as 
practicable  along  with  the  rest  of  his  flock,  but  he  died 
before  the  plan  could  be  carried  out,  on  1st  March  1625. 

Besides  preaching  to  his  congregation,  and,  during  his  later  years, 
corresponding  with  those  of  his  people  who  had  settled  in  New 
England,  Robinson  devoted  himself  to  theological  study,  and  be- 
came a  member  of  the  university  of  Leyden.  Amongst  his  other 
publications  may  be  mentioned  Justification  of  Separation  from  the 
Church  (1610),  Apologia  Brownistarum  (1619),  A  Defence  of  the 
Doctrine  propounded  by  tlie  Synod  of  Dort  (1624),  and  a  volume  of 
Essays,  or  Observations  Divine  and  Moral,  printed  in  1628.  His 
IVorks,  with  a  memoir  by  R.  Ashton,  were  reprinted  in  3  vols. 
in  1851. 

ROBINSON,  JOHN  THOMAS  ROMNEY  (1792-1882),  the 
inventor  of  the  cup-anemometer,  was  born  in  Dublin  on 
23d  April  1792.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College  and  ob- 
tained a  fellowship  in  1814 ;  for  some  years  he  was  deputy 
professor  of  natural  philosophy,  until  he  relinquished  his 
fellowship  in  1821  on  obtaining  the  college  living  of 
Enniskillen.  In  1823  he  was  appointed  astronomer  of 
the  Armagh  observatory  (see  OBSERVATORY),  with  which 
he  (from  1824)  combined  the  living  of  Carrickmacross, 
but  he  always  resided  at  the  observatory,  engaged  in  re- 
searches connected  with  astronomy  and  physics,  until  his 
death  on  28th  February  1882. 

Robinson  wrote  a  number  of  papers  in  scientific  journals  and 
transactions,  and  the  Armagh  catalogue  of  stars  (Places  of  5345 
Stars  observed  from  1828  to  1854  °^  the  Armagh  Observatory,  Dublin, 
1859),  but  he  is  best  known  as  the  inventor  of  the  cup-anemometer 
for  registering  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  This  instrument  (which 
he  erected  at  the  Armagh  observatory  in  1846  and  which  has  since 
come  into  general  use)  consists  of  four  light  arms  forming  a  hori- 
zontal cross,  carrying  four  hemispherical  cups  and  turning  freely 
about  a  vertical  axis.  By  an  endless  screw  attached  to  the  axis  a 
system  of  wheelwork  is  set  going,  and  the  velocity  of  the  wind  is 
indicated  by  one  or  more  dials,  or  it  may  be  registered  continuously 
by  a  j>encil  drawn  by  clockwork  along  a  dial  or  drum  turned  by 
the  anemometer,  or  (as  in  the  modification  now  generally  used)  by 
a  metallic  screw  of  only  one  thread,  which  leaves  a  traciiig  on  a  sheet 
of  metallic  paper  folded  round  a  drum  revolving  by  clockwork.  It 
lias  been  found  by  elaborate  experiments  by  Dr  Robinson  (Trans. 
II.  Irish  Academy,  vol.  xxii.  ;  Phil.  Trans.,  1878  and  1880)  and 


others  that  the  centre  of  each  cup  moves  with  a  velocity  very  nearly 
equal  to  one-third  of  that  of  the  wind. 

ROB  ROY  (c.  1660-1734),  the  popular  designation  of  a 
famous  Highland  outlaw  whose  prowess  is  the  theme  of  one 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novels,  was  by  descent  a  Macgregor, 
being  the  younger  son  of  Donald  Macgregor  of  Glengyle, 
who  had  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant -colonel  in  the 
army  of  James  II.,  by  his  wife,  a  daughter  of  William 
Campbell  of  Glenfalloch.    He  received  the  name  Roy  from 
the  red  hair  which  clustered  in  thick  curls  over  his  brow, 
and  latterly  adopted  Campbell  as  his  surname  on  account 
of  the  Acts  proscribing  the  name  of  his  clan.     Though 
in  stature  not  much  above  the  middle  height,  he  was  so 
muscular  and  thickly  set  that  few  were  his  equals  in  feats 
of  strength,  while  the  unusual  length  of  his  arms  gave 
him  an  extraordinary  advantage  in  the  use  of  the  sword. 
His  eyes  were  remarkably  keen   and  piercing,   and  his 
whole  expression  indicated  a  mental  prowess  forming  an 
appropriate  complement  to  his  powerful  physical  frame. 
He  inherited  a  small  property  on  the  Braes  of  Balquhidder, 
and  at  first  devoted  himself  to  the  rearing  of  cattle.    Hav- 
ing formed  a  band  of  armed  clansmen,  he  obtained,  after 
the  accession  of  William  III.,  a  commission  from  James 
II.  to  levy  war  on  all  who  refused  to  acknowledge  him 
as  king,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1691  made  a  descent  on 
Stirlingshire  to  carry  off  the  cattle  of  Lord  Livingstone, 
when,  being  opposed  by  the  villagers  of  Kippen,  he  also 
seized  the  cattle  from  all  the  byres  of  the  village.    Shortly 
afterwards  he  married  Mary,  daughter  of  Macgregor  of 
Comar.     On  the  death  of  Gregor  Macgregor,  the  chief  of 
the  clan,  in  1693  he  managed,  though  not  the  nearest  heir, 
to  get  himself  acknowledged  chief,  obtaining  control  of  the 
lands  stretching  from  the  Braes  of  Balquhidder  to  the 
shores  of  Loch  Lomond,  and  situated  between  the  posses- 
sions of  Argyll  and  those  of  Montrose.    To  assist  in  carry- 
ing on  his  trade  as  cattle-dealer  he  borrowed  money  from 
the  duke  of  Montrose,  and,  being  on  account  of  losses  un- 
able to  repay  it,  he  was  in  1712  evicted  from  his  property 
and  declared  an  outlaw.     Taking  refuge  in  the  more  in- 
accessible Highlands,  Rob  Roy  from  this  time  forward  sup- 
ported himself  chiefly  by  depredations  committed  in  the 
most  daring  manner  on  the  duke  and  his   tenants,   all 
attempts  to  capture  him  being  unsuccessful.     During  the 
rebellion  of  1715,  though  nominally  siding  with  the  Pre- 
tender, he  did  not  take  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of 
Sheriffmuir  except  in  plundering  the  dead  on  both  sides. 
He  was  included  in  the  Act  of  Attainder ;  but,  having  for 
some  time  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  duke  of  Arygll, 
he  obtained,  on  making  his  submission  at  Inveraray,  a 
promise  of  protection.     He  now  established  his  residence 
at  Craigroyston  near  Loch  Lomond,  whence  for  some  time 
he  levied  black  mail  as  formerly  upon  Montrose,  escaping 
by  his  wonderful  address  and  activity  every  effort  of  the 
English  garrison  stationed  at  Inversnaid  to  bring  him  to 
justice.     In  his  later  years  he  was,  through  the  mediation 
of  Argyll,  reconciled  to  Montrose.     According  to  a  notice 
in  the  Caledonian  Mercury  he  died  at  Balquhidder  on 
28th  December  1734.      He  was  buried  in  Balquhidder 
churchyard. 

K.  Macleay,  Historical  Memoirs  of  Rob  Roy  (1818  ;  new  ed.  1881 ); 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  Highland  Clans ;  A.  H.  Miller,  Story  of  Rob  Roy 
(1883). 

ROBUSTI,  JACOPO  (1518-1594),  commonly  called  IL 
TINTORETTO  or  TINTORET,  one  of  the  greatest  painters  of 
the  Venetian  or  of  any  school,  was  born  in  Venice  in 
1518,  though  most  accounts  say  in  1512.  His  father, 
Battista  Robusti,  was  a  dyer,  or  "tintore";  hence  the 
son  got  the  nickname  of  "Tintoretto,"  little  dyer,  or 
dyer's  boy.  In  childhood  Jacopo,  a  born  painter,  began 
daubing  on  the  dyer's  walls ;  his  father,  noticing  his  bent, 
took  him  round,  still  in  boyhood,  to  the  studio  of  Titian, 


R  O  B  U  S  T  I 


609 


to  see  how  far  he  could  be  trained  as  an  artist.  We  may 
suppose  this  to  have  been  towards  1533,  when  Titian  was 
already  fifty-six  years  of  age.  Ridolfi  is  our  authority  for 
saying  that  Tintoret  had  only  been  ten  days  in  the  studio 
when  Titian  sent  him  home  once  and  for  all.  The  reason, 
according  to  the  same  writer,  is  that  the  great  master  ob- 
served some  very  spirited  drawings,  which  he  learned  to 
be  the  production  of  Tintoret  ;  and  it  is  inferred  that  he 
became  at  once  jealous  of  so  promising  a  scholar.  This, 
however,  is  mere  conjecture ;  and  perhaps  it  may  be  fairer 
to  suppose  that  the  drawings  exhibited  so  much  independ- 
ence of  manner  that  Titian  judged  that  young  Robusti, 
although  he  might  become  a  painter,  would  never  be  pro- 
perly a  pupil.  From  this  time  forward  the  two  always 
remained  upon  distant  terms, — Robusti  being  indeed  a  pro- 
fessed and  ardent  admirer  of  Titian,  but  never  a  friend, 
and  Titian  and  his  adherents  turning  the  cold  shoulder  to 
Robusti.  Active  disparagement  also  was  not  wanting,  but 
it  passed  disdainfully  unnoticed  by  Tintoret.  The  latter 
sought  for  no  further  teaching,  but  studied  on  his  own 
account  with  laborious  zeal ;  he  lived  poorly,  collecting 
casts,  bas-reliefs,  &c.,  and  practising  by  their  aid.  His 
noble  conception  of  art  and  his  high  personal  ambition 
were  evidenced  in  the  inscription  which  he  placed  over  his 
studio, — "II  disegno  di  Michelangelo  ed  il  colorito  di 
Tiziano"  (Michelangelo's  design  and  Titian's  colour). 
He  studied  more  especially  from  models  of  Buonarroti's 
Dawn,  Noon,  Twilight,  and  Night,  and  became  expert  in 
modelling  in  wax  and  clay, — a  method  (practised  likewise 
by  Titian)  which  afterwards  stood  him  in  good  stead  in 
working  out  the  arrangement  of  his  pictures.  The  models 
were  sometimes  taken  from  dead  subjects  dissected  or 
studied  in  anatomy  schools;  some  were  draped,  others 
nude,  and  Robusti  was  wont  to  suspend  them  in  a  wooden 
or  cardboard  box,  with  an  aperture  for  a  candle.  Now 
and  afterwards  he  very  frequently  worked  by  night  as  well 
as  by  day.  The  young  painter  Schiavone,  four  years 
Robusti's  junior,  was  much  in  his  company.  Tintoret 
helped  Schiavone  gratis  in  wall-paintings ;  and  in  many 
subsequent  instances  he  worked  also  for  nothing,  and  thus 
succeeded  in  obtaining  commissions.  The  two  earliest 
mural  paintings  of  Robusti — done,  like  others,  for  next  to  no 
pay— are  said  to  have  been  Belshazzar's  Feast  and  a  Cavalry 
Fight,  both  long  since  perished.  Such,  indeed,  may  be 
said  to  have  been  the  fate  of  all  his  frescos,  early  or  later. 
The  first  work  of  his  which  attracted  some  considerable 
notice  was  a  portrait-group  of  himself  and  his  brother — the 
latter  playing  a  guitar — with  a  nocturnal  effect ;  this  also 
is  lost.  It  was  followed  by  some  historical  subject,  which 
Titian  was  candid  enough  to  praise.  One  of  Tintoret's 
early  pictures  still  extant  is  in  the  church  of  the  Carmine 
in  Venice,  the  Presentation  of  Jesus  in  the  Temple ;  also 
in  S.  Benedetto  are  the  Annunciation  and  Christ  with  the 
Woman  of  Samaria.  For  the  Scuola  della  Trinita  (the 
scuole  or  schools  of  Venice  were  more  in  the  nature  of 
hospitals  or  charitable  foundations  than  of  educational  in- 
stitutions) he  painted  four  subjects  from  Genesis.  Two  of 
these,  now  in  the  Venetian  Academy,  are  Adam  and  Eve 
and  the  Death  of  Abel,  both  noble  works  of  high  mastery, 
which  leave  us  in  no  doubt  that  Robusti  was  by  this  time 
a  consummate  painter, — one  of  the  few  who  have  attained 
to  the  highest  eminence  by  dire  study  of  their  own,  un- 
eeconcled  by  any  training  from  some  senior  proficient. 

Towards  1546  Robusti  painted  for  the  church  of  S. 
Maria  dell'  Orto  three  of  his  leading  works — the  Worship 
of  the  Golden  Calf,  the  Presentation  of  the  Virgin  in  the 
Temple,  and  the  Last  Judgment — now  shamefully  re- 
painted; and  he  settled  down  in  a  house  hard  by  the 
church.  It  is  a  Gothic  edifice,  looking  over  the  lagoon  of 
Murano  to  the  Alps,  built  in  the  Fondamenta  de'  Mori, 


still  standing,  but  let  out  cheap  to  artisans.  In  1548  he 
was  commissioned  for  four  pictures  in  the  Scuola  di  S. 
Marco — the  Finding  of  the  Body  of  St  Mark  in  Alexandria 
(now  in  the  church  of  the  Angeli,  Murano),  the  Saint's 
Body  brought  to  Venice,  a  Votary  of  the  Saint  delivered 
by  invoking  him  from  an  Unclean  Spirit  (these  two  are  in 
the  library  of  the  royal  palace,  Venice),  and  the  highly 
and  justly  celebrated  Miracle  of  the  Slave.  This  last, 
which  forms  at  present  one  of  the  chief  glories  of  the 
Venetian  Academy,  represents  the  legend  of  a  Christian 
slave  or  captive  who  was  to  be  tortured  as  a  punishment  for 
some  acts  of  devotion  to  the  evangelist,  but  was  saved  by 
the  miraculous  intervention  of  the  latter,  who  shattered  the 
bone-breaking  and  blinding  implements  which  were  about 
to  be  applied.  These  four  works  were  greeted  with  signal 
and  general  applause,  including  that  of  Titian's  intimate, 
the  too  potent  Pietro  Aretino,  with  whom  Tintoret,  one  of 
the  few  men  who  scorned  to  curry  favour  with  him,  was 
mostly  in  disrepute.  It  is  said,  however,  that  Tintoret  at 
one  time  painted  a  ceiling  in  Pietro's  house ;  at  another 
time,  being  invited  to  do  his  portrait,  he  attended,  and  at 
once  proceeded  to  take  his  sitter's  measure  with  a  pistol 
(or  else  a  stiletto),  as  a  significant  hint  that  he  was  not 
exactly  the  man  to  be  trifled  with.  The  painter  having 
now  executed  the  four  works  in  the  Scuola  di  S.  Marco, 
his  straits  and  obscure  endurances  were  over.  He  married 
Faustina  de'  Vescovi,  daughter  of  a  Venetian  nobleman. 
She  appears  to  have  been  a  careful  housewife,  and  one  who 
both  would  and  could  have  her  way  with  her  not  too  tract- 
able husband.  Faustina  bore  him  several  children,  prob- 
ably two  sons  and  five  daughters. 

The  next  conspicuous  event  in  the  professional  life  of 
Tintoret  is  his  enormous  labour  and  profuse  self-develop- 
ment on  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  the  Scuola  di  S.  Rocco, 
a  building  which  may  now  almost  be  regarded  as  a  shrine 
reared  by  Robusti  to  his  own  genius.  The  building  had 
been  begun  in  1525  by  the  Lombardi,  and  was  very  defi- 
cient in  light,  so  as  to  be  particularly  ill-suited  for  any 
great  scheme  of  pictorial  adornment.  The  painting  of  its 
interior  was  commenced  in  1560.  In  that  year  five  prin- 
cipal painters,  including  Tintoret  and  Paul  Veronese,  were 
invited  to  send  in  trial-designs  for  the  centre-piece  in  the 
smaller  hall,  named  Sala  dell'  Albergo,  the  subject  being 
S.  Rocco  received  into  Heaven.  Tintoret  produced  not  a 
sketch  but  a  picture,  and  got  it  inserted  into  its  oval. 
The  competitors  remonstrated,  not  unnaturally ;  but  the 
artist,  who  knew  how  to  play  his  own  game,  made  a  free 
gift  of  the  picture  to  the  saint,  and,  as  a  bye-law  of  the 
foundation  prohibited  the  rejection  of  any  gift,  it  was  re- 
tained in  situ, — Tintoret  furnishing  gratis  the  other  decora- 
tions of  the  same  ceiling.  In  1565  he  resumed  work  at 
the  scuola,  painting  the  magnificent  Crucifixion,  for  which 
a  sum  of  250  ducats  was  paid.  In  1576  he  presented 
gratis  another  centre-piece, — that  for  the  ceiling  of  the 
great  hall,  representing  the  Plague  of  Serpents ;  and  in  the 
following  year  he  completed  this  ceiling  with  pictures  of 
the  Paschal  Feast  and  Moses  striking  the  Rock, — accepting 
whatever  pittance  the  confraternity  chose  to  pay.  Robusti 
next  launched  out  into  the  painting  of  the  entire  scuola 
and  of  the  adjacent  church  of  S.  Rocco.  He  offered  in 
November  1577  to  execute  the  works  at  the  rate  of  100 
ducats  per  annum,  three  pictures  being  due  in  each  year. 
This  proposal  was  accepted  and  was  punctually  fulfilled, 
the  painter's  death  alone  preventing  the  execution  of  some 
of  the  ceiling-subjects.  The  whole  sum  paid  for  the  scuola 
throughout  was  2447  ducats.  Disregarding  some  minor 
performances,  the  scuola  and  church  contain  fifty-two 
memorable  paintings,  which  may  be  described  as  vast  sug- 
gestive sketches,  with  the  mastery,  but  not  the  deliberate 
precision,  of  finished  pictures,  and  adapted  for  being 

XX.  —  77 


610 


R  O  B  U  S  T  I 


looked  at  in  a  dusky  half -light.  Adam  and  Eve,  the 
Visitation,  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  the  Massacre  of 
the  Innocents,  the  Agony  in  the  Garden,  Christ  before 
Pilate,  Christ  carrying  His  Cross,  and  (this  alone  having 
been  marred  by  restoration)  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin 
are  leading  examples  in  the  scuola ;  in  the  church,  Christ 
curing  the  Paralytic. 

It  was  probably  in  1560,  the  same  year  when  he  began 
working  in  the  Scuola  di  S.  Rocco,  that  Tintoret  commenced 
also  his  numerous  paintings  in  the  ducal  palace ;  he  then 
executed  there  a  portrait  of  the  doge,  Girolamo  Priuli. 
Other  works  which  were  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of 
1577  succeeded, — the  Excommunication  of  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  and  the  Victory  of 
Lepanto.  After  the  fire  Tintoret  started  afresh,  Paul 
Veronese  being  his  colleague ;  their  works  have  for  the 
most  part  been  disastrously  and  disgracefully  retouched 
of  late  years,  and  some  of  the  finest  monuments  of  pic- 
torial power  ever  produced  are  thus  degraded  to  com- 
parative unimportance.  In  the  Sala  dello  Scrutinio 
Robusti  painted  the  Capture  of  Zara  from  the  Hungarians 
in  1346  amid  a  hurricane  of  missiles;  in  the  hall  of  the 
senate,  Venice,  Queen  of  the  Sea ;  in  the  hall  of  the  college, 
the  Espousal  of  St  Catherine  to  Jesus ;  in  the  Sala  dell' 
Anticollegio,  four  extraordinary  masterpieces — Bacchus, 
with  Ariadne  crowned  by  Venus,  the  Three  Graces  and 
Mercury,  Minerva  discarding  Mars,  and  the  Forge  of 
Vulcan — which  were  painted  for  fifty  ducats  each,  besides 
materials,  towards  1578;  in  the  Antichiesetta,  St  George 
and  St  Nicholas,  with  St  Margaret  (the  female  figure  is 
sometimes  termed  the  princess  whom  St  George  rescued 
from  the  dragon),  and  St  Jerome  and  St  Andrew ;  in  the 
hall  of  the  great  council,  nine  large  compositions,  chiefly 
battle-pieces.  We  here  reach  the  crowning  production  of 
Robusti's  life,  the  last  picture  of  any  considerable  import- 
ance which  he  executed,  the  vast  Paradise,  in  size  74  feet 
by  30,  reputed  to  be  the  largest  painting  ever  done  upon 
canvas.  It  is  a  work  so  stupendous  in  scale,  so  colossal 
in  the  sweep  of  its  power,  so  reckless  of  ordinary  standards 
of  conception  or  method,  so  pure  an  inspiration  of  a  soul 
burning  with  passionate  visual  imagining,  and  a  hand 
magical  to  work  in  shape  and  colour,  that  it  has  defied 
the  connoisseurship  of  three  centuries,  and  has  generally 
(though  not  with  its  first  Venetian  contemporaries)  passed 
for  an  eccentric  failure;  while  to  a  few  eyes  (including 
those  of  the  present  writer)  it  seems  to  be  so  transcendent 
a  monument  of  human  faculty  applied  to  the  art  pictorial 
as  not  to  be  viewed  without  awe  nor  thought  of  without 
amazement.  While  the  commission  for  this  huge  work 
was  yet  pending  and  unassigned  Robusti  was  wont  to  tell 
the  senators  that  he  had  prayed  to  God  that  he  might  be 
commissioned  for  it,  so  that  paradise  itself  might  perchance 
be  his  recompense  after  death.  Upon  eventually  receiving 
the  commission  in  1588  he  set  up  his  canvas  in  the  Scuola 
della  Misericordia  and  worked  indefatigably  at  the  task, 
making  many  alterations  and  doing  various  heads  and 
costumes  direct  from  nature.  When  the  picture  had  been 
brought  well  forward  he  took  it  to  its  proper  place  and 
there  finished  it,  assisted  by  his  son  Domenico  for  details 
of  drapery,  &c.  All  Venice  applauded  the  superb  achieve- 
ment, which  has  in  more  recent  times  suffered  from 
neglect,  but  fortunately  hardly  at  all  from  restoration. 
Robusti  was  asked  to  name  his  own  price,  but  this  he  left 
to  the  authorities.  They  tendered  a  handsome  amount ; 
Robusti  is  said  to  have  abated  something  from  it,  which 
is  even  a  more  curious  instance  of  ungreediness  for  pelf 
than  earlier  cases  which  we  have  cited  where  he  worked 
for  nothing  at  all. 

After  the  completion  of  the  Paradise  Robusti  rested 
for  a  while,  and  he  never  undertook  any  other  work  of 


importance,  though  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  his 
energies  were  exhausted,  had  his  days  been  a  little  pro- 
longed. He  was  seized  with  an  attack  in  the  stomach, 
complicated  with  fever,  which  prevented  him  from  sleeping 
and  almost  from  eating  for  a  fortnight,  and  on  31st  May 
1594  he  died.  A  contemporary  record  states  his  age  to 
have  been  seventy-five  years  and  fifteen  days.  If  this  is 
accurate,  16th  May  1519  must  have  been  the  day  of  his 
birth  ;  but  we  prefer  the  authority  of  the  register  of  deaths 
in  S.  Marciliano,  which  states  that  Tintoret  died  of  fever, 
aged  seventy-five  years,  eight  months,  and  fifteen  days, — 
thus  bringing  us  to  16th  September  1518  as  the  true  date 
of  his  birth.  He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  S.  Maria 
dell'  Orto  by  the  side  of  his  favourite  daughter  Marietta, 
who  had  died  in  1590,  aged  thirty ;  there  is  a  well-known 
tradition  that  as  she  lay  dead  the  heart -stricken  father 
painted  her  portrait.  Marietta  had  herself  been  a  por- 
trait-painter of  considerable  skill,  as  well  as  a  musician, 
vocal  and  instrumental ;  but  few  of  her  works  are  now 
traceable.  It  is  said  that  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen  she 
used  to  accompany  and  assist  her  father  at  his  work, 
dressed  as  a  boy ;  eventually  she  married  a  jeweller,  Mario 
Augusta.  In  1866  the  grave  of  the  Vescovi  and  Robusti 
was  opened,  and  the  remains  of  nine  members  of  the  joint 
families  were  found  in  it ;  a  different  locality,  the  chapel 
on  the  right  of  the  choir,  was  then  assigned  to  the  grave. 
Tintoret  painted  his  own  portrait  at  least  twice,  one  of 
the  heads  being  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery  of  Florence  and  the 
other,  done  when  his  age  was  advanced,  in  the  Louvre. 
It  is  a  very  serious  face,  somewhat  blunt  and  rugged,  but 
yet  refined  without  the  varnish  of  elegance — concentrated 
and  resolute,  its  native  ardours  of  frankness  and  energy 
welded  down  into  lifelong  laboriousness,  with  a  pent  look 
as  of  smouldering  fire.  The  eyes  are  large,  dark,  and 
round ;  the  grizzled  hair  close  and  compact.  The  face 
has  been  held  to  bear  some  resemblance  to  that  of  Michel- 
angelo, but  this  does  not  go  very  far.  Robusti  appears 
also  as  one  of  the  figures  in  the  two  vast  pictures  by  Paul 
Veronese, — the  Marriage  in  Cana  and  the  Feast  in  the 
House  of  Levi. 

Audacious  and  intrepid,  though  not  constantly  correct,  as  a 
draughtsman,  majestically  great  as  a  colourist,  prodigious  as  an 
executant,  Tintoret  was  as  absolute  a  type  of  the  born  painter  as 
the  history  of  art  registers  or  enables  us  to  conceive.  Whatever 
he  did  was  imaginative — sometimes  beautiful  and  suave  (and  he 
was  eminently  capable  of  painting  a  lovely  female  countenance  or 
an  heroic  man),  often  imposing  and  romantic,  fully  as  often  tur- 
bulent and  reckless,  sometimes  trivial,  never  unpaiuter-like  or 
prosaic.  When  he  chose — which  was  not  always — he  painted  his 
entire  personages  characteristically  ;  but,  like  the  other  highest 
masters  of  Venice,  he  conceded  and  attended  little  to  the  expression 
of  his  faces  as  evincing  incidental  emotion.  In  several  of  his  works 
- — as  especially  the  great  Crucifixion  in  S.  Rocco — there  is  powerful 
central  thought,  as  well  as  inventive  detail  ;  but  his  imagination 
is  always  concrete  :  it  is  essentially  that  of  a  painter  to  whom  the 
means  of  art — the  form,  colour,  chiaroscuro,  manipulation,  scale, 
distribution — are  the  typical  and  necessitated  realities.  What  he 
imagines  is  always  a  visual  integer,  a  picture — never  a  treatise, 
however  thoughtfully  planned  or  ingeniously  detailed.  Something 
that  one  could  see — that  is  his  ideal,  not  something  that  one 
could  narrate,  still  less  that  one  could  deduce  and  demonstrate. 
In  his  treatment  of  action  or  gesture  the  most  constant  peculiarity 
is  the  sway  and  swerve  of  his  figures :  they  bend  like  saplings  or 
rock  like  forest  -  boughs  in  a  gale;  stiffness  or  immobility  was 
entirely  foreign  to  his  style,  which  has  therefore  little  of  the  monu- 
mental or  severe  character.  Perhaps  he  felt  that  there  was  no 
other  way  for  combining  ' '  the  colour  of  Titian  with  the  design  of 
Michelangelo."  The  knitted  strength  and  the  transcendent  fervour 
of  energy  of  the  supreme  Florentine  might  to  some  extent  bo 
emulated  ;  but,  if  they  were  to  be  united  with  the  glowing  fusion 
of  hue  of  the  supreme  Venetian,  this  could  only  be  attained  by  a 
process  of  relaxing  the  excessive  tension  and  modifying  muscular 
into  elastic  force.  In  this  respect  ho  was  a  decided  innovator  ; 
but  he  had  many  imitators, — comparatively  feeble,  if  we  except 
Paul  Veronese. 

Tintoret  scarcely  ever  travelled  out  of  Venice.  He  loved  all  the 
arts,  played  in  youth  the  lute  and  various  instruments,  some  of 


R,  O  C  — R  O  C 


611 


them  of  his  own  invention,  and  designed  theatrical  costumes  and 
properties,  was  versed  in  mechanics  and  mechanical  devices,  and 
was  a  very  agreeable  companion.  For  the  sake  of  his  work  he  lived 
in  a  most  retired  fashion,  and  even  when  not  painting  was  wont  to 
remain  in  his  working  room  surrounded  by  casts.  Here  he  hardly 
admitted  any,  even  intimate  friends,  and  he  kept  his  modes  of  work 
secret,  save  as  regards  his  assistants.  He  abounded  in  pleasant 
witty  sayings  whether  to  great  personages  or  to  others,  but  no  smile 
hovered  on  his  lips.  Out  of  doors  his  wife  made  him  wear  the  robe 
of  a  Venetian  citizen  ;  if  it  rained  she  tried  to  indue  him  with  an 
outer  garment,  but  this  he  resisted.  She  would  also  when  he  left 
the  house  wrap  up  money  for  him  in  a  handkerchief,  and  on  his 
return  expected  an  account  of  it ;  Tintoret's  accustomed  reply  was 
that  he  had  spent  it  in  alms  to  the  poor  or  to  prisoners.  In  1574 
he  obtained  the  reversion  of  the  first  vacant  broker's  patent  in  a 
fondaco,  with  power  to  bequeath  it, — an  advantage  granted  from 
time  to  time  to  pre-eminent  painters.  For  his  phenomenal  energy 
in  painting  he  was  termed  "II  Furioso."  An  agreement  is  extant 
showing  that  he  undertook  to  finish  in  two  months  two  historical 
pictures  each  containing  twenty  figures,  seven  being  portraits.  The 
number  of  his  portraits  is  enormous ;  their  merit  is  unequal,  but 
the  really  fine  ones  cannot  be  surpassed.  Sebastian  del  Piombo 
remarked  that  Robusti  could  paint  in  two  days  as  much  as  himself 
in  two  years  ;  Annibale  Caracci  that  Tintoret  was  in  many  pictures 
equal  to  Titian,  in  others  inferior  to  Tintoret.  This  was  the 
general  opinion  of  the  Venetians,  who  said  that  he  had  three 
pencils — one  of  gold,  the  second  of  silver,  and  the  third  of  iron. 
The  only  pictures  (if  we  except  his  own  portrait)  on  which  he  in- 
scribed his  name  are  the  Miracle  of  Cana  in  the  church  of  the 
Salute  (painted  originally  for  the  brotherhood  of  the  Crociferi),  the 
Miracle  of  the  Slave,  and  the  Crucifixion  in  the  Scuola  di  S.  Rocco ; 
the  last  was  engraved  in  1589  by  Agostino  Caracci.  Generally  he 
painted  at  once  on  to  the  canvas  without  any  preliminary.  Some 
uf  his  dicta  on  art  have  been  recorded  as  follows  by  Ridolfi  : — "the 
art  of  painting  remains  increasingly  difficult  "  ;  "painters  in  youth 
should  adhere  to  the  best  masters,  these  being  Michelangelo  and 
Titian,  and  should  be  strict  in  representing  the  natural  forms  " ; 
"the  first  glance  at  a  picture  is  the  crucial  one";  "black  and 
white,  as  developing  form,  are  the  best  of  colours  "  ;  "  drawing  is 
the  foundation  of  a  painter's  work,  but  drawing  from  life  in  the 
nude  should  only  be  essayed  by  well-practised  men,  as  the  real  is 
often  wanting  in  beauty." 

Of  pupils  Robusti  had  very  few ;  his  two  sons  and  Martin  de 
Vos  of  Antwerp  were  among  them.  Domenico  Robusti  (1562-1637), 
whom  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention,  frequently  assisted 
his  father  in  the  groundwork  of  great  pictures.  He  himself  painted 
a  multitude  of  works,  many  of  them  on  a  very  large  scale ;  they 
would  at  best  be  mediocre,  and,  coming  from  the  son  of  Tintoret, 
are  exasperating  ;  still,  he  must  be  regarded  as  a  considerable  sort 
of  pictorial  practitioner  in  his  way. 

We  conclude  by  naming  a  few  of  the  more  striking  of  Tintoret's 
very  numerous  works  not  already  specified  in  the  course  of  the 
article.  In  Venice — (S.  Giorgio  Maggiore),  a  series  of  his  later 
works,  the  Gathering  of  the  Manna,  Last  Supper,  Descent  from 
the  Cross,  Resurrection,  Martyrdom  of  St  Stephen,  Coronation  of 
the  Virgin,  Martyrdom  of  St  Damian  ;  (S.  Francesco  della  Vigna) 
the  Entombment ;  (the  Frari)  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents ;  (S. 
Cassiano)  a  Crucifixion,  the  figures  seen  from  behind  along  the 
hill  slope  ;  (St  Mark's)  a  mosaic  of  the  Baptism  of  Christ, — the 
oil-painting  of  this  composition  is  in  Verona.  In  Milan  (the 
Brera),  St  Helena  and  other  saints.  In  Florence  (Pitti  Gallery), 
Venus,  Vulcan,  and  Cupid.  In  Cologne  ( Wallraff-Richarts  Museum), 
Ovid  and  Corinna.  In  Augsburg  (the  town-hall),  some  historical 
pictures,  which  biographers  and  tourists  alike  have  unaccountably 
neglected,— one  of  the  siege  of  a  fortified  town  is  astonishingly  fine. 
In  England — (Hampton  Court),  Esther  and  Ahasuerus,  and  the 
Nine  Muses  ;  (the  National  Gallery)  Christ  washing  Peter's  Feet,  a 
grand  piece  of  colour  and  execution,  not  greatly  interesting  in  other 
respects,  also  a  spirited  smallish  work,  St  George  and  the  Dragon. 

The  writer  who  has  done  by  far  the  most  to  establish  the  fame  of  Tintoret  at 
the  height  which  it  ought  to  occupy  is  Professor  Ruskin  in  his  Stones  of  Venice 
and  other  books  ;  the  depth  and  scope  of  the  master's  power  had  never  before 
been  adequately  brought  out,  although  his  extraordinarily  and  somewhat 
arbitrarily  used  executive  gift  was  acknowledged.  Ridolfi  (Meraviglie  deWArte) 
gives  interesting  personal  details  ;  the  article  by  Dr  Janitschek  in  Kunst  und 
Kiinstler  (1876)  is  a  solid  account.  For  an  English  reader  the  most  handy 
narrative  is  that  of  Mr  W.  R.  Osier  (Tintoretto,  1879),  in  the  series  entitled  "The 
Great  Artists."  Here  the  biographical  facts  are  clearly  presented  ;  the  aesthetic 
criticism  is  enthusiastic  but  not  perspicuous.  (W.  M.  R.) 

ROC,  or  more  correctly  RUKH,  a  fabulous  bird  of 
enormous  size  which  carries  off  elephants  to  feed  its  young. 
The  legend  of  the  roc,  familiar  to  every  one  from  the 
Arabian  Nights,  was  widely  spread  in  the  East ;  and  in 
later  times  the  home  of  the  monster  was  sought  in  the 
direction  of  Madagascar,  whence  gigantic  fronds  of  the 
Raphia  palm  very  like  a  quill  in  form  appear  to  have 
been  brought  under  the  name  of  roc's  feathers  (see  Yule's 


Marco  Polo,  bk.  iii.  ch.  33,  and  Academy,  1884,  No.  620). 
Such  a  feather  was  brought  to  the  Great  Khan,  and  we 
read  also  of  a  gigantic  stump  of  a  roc's  quill  being  brought 
to  Spain  by  a  merchant  from  the  China  seas  (Abu  Hamid 
of  Spain,  in  Damiri,  s.v.).  The  roc  is  hardly  different  from 
the  Arabian  lankd,  already  mentioned  under  PHCENIX  ; 
it  is  also  identified  with  the  Persian  simurgh,  the  bird 
which  figures  in  Firdaxisi's  epic  as  the  foster-father  of  the 
hero  Zal,  father  of  Rustam.  When  we  go  farther  back 
into  Persian  antiquity  we  find  an  immortal  bird,  amru,  or 
(in  the  Minoi-khiradh}  sinamrti,  which  shakes  the  ripe  fruit 
from  the  mythical  tree  that  bears  the  seed  of  all  useful 
things.  Slnamru  and  simurgh  seem  to  be  the  same 
word.  In  Indian  legend  the  garuda  on  which  Vishnu 
rides  is  the  king  of  birds  (Benfey,  Pantschatantra,  ii.  98). 
In  the  Pahlavi  translation  of  the  Indian  story  as  repre- 
sented by  the  Syrian  Kalilag  and  Damnag  (ed.  Bickell, 
1876),  the  simurgh  takes  the  place  of  the  garuda,  while 
Ibn  al-MokafiV  (Calila  et  Dimna,  ed.  De  Sacy,  p.  126) 
speaks  instead  of  the  'anka.  The  later  Syriac,  curiously 
enough,  has  behmoth, — apparently  the  behemoth  of  Job 
transformed  into  a  bird. 

For  a  collection  of  legends  about  the  roc,  see  Lane's  Arabian 
Nights,  chap.  xx.  notes  22,  62,  and  Yule,  ut  supra.  Also  see  Bochart, 
Hieroz.,  bk.  vi.  ch.  xiv. ;  Damm,  i.  414,  ii.  177  sq.;  Kazwini,  i. 
419  sq. ;  Ibn  Batuta,  iv.  305  sq. ;  Spiegel,  Eran.  Alterthumsk., 
ii.  118. 

ROCH,  ST  (Lat.  Rochus ;  Ital.  Rocco ;  Span.  Roque ; 
Fr.  Roch  or  Roque),  according  to  the  Roman  Breviary, 
was  a  native  of  Montpellier,  France.  The  name  of  his 
father  was  John  and  that  of  his  mother  Franca  or  Libera. 
He  was  born  with  the  mark  of  a  red  cross  upon  his  person, 
and  this  was  at  once  interpreted  as  signifying  his  future 
eminence.  In  his  twelfth  year  he  began  to  manifest  strict 
asceticism  and  great  devoutness,  and  on  the  death  of  his 
parents  in  his  twentieth  year  he  gave  all  his  substance  to 
the  poor  and  joined  the  Franciscan  Tertiaries.  Coining  to 
Italy  during  an  epidemic  of  plague,  he  was  very  diligent 
in  tending  the  sick  in  the  public  hospitals  at  Aquapendente, 
Cesena,  and  Rome,  and  effected  many  miraculous  cures  by 
prayer  and  simple  contact.  After  similar  ministries  at 
Piacenza  he  himself  fell  ill,  and  would  have  perished  as  he 
passed  through  the  forest  had  not  the  dog  of  a  certain 
nobleman  daily  supplied  him  with  bread.  On  his  return 
to  Montpellier  he  was  arrested  as  a  spy  and  thrown  into 
prison,  where  he  died,  having  previously  obtained  from 
God  this  favour,  that  all  plague-stricken  persons  invoking 
him  should  be  healed.  The  date  of  his  death  was  16th 
August  1327,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age.  During 
the  sittings  of  the  council  of  Constance  in  1414,  when  the 
city  was  visited  with  the  plague,  the  efficacy  of  St  Roch's 
intercession  was  "most  manifestly"  experienced.  His 
remains  were  removed  in  1385  to  Venice,  where  they  now 
lie.  He  is  commemorated,  chiefly  in  Italy  and  France,  as 
the  patron  of  the  sick,  and  especially  of  the  plague-stricken. 

ROCHDALE,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
of  south-east  Lancashire,  is  situated  on  the  river  Roch 
and  on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  railway,  11  miles 
north-north-east  of  Manchester  and  12  east  of  Bolton.  By 
means  of  the  Rochdale  Canal,  extending  from  the  duke  of 
Bridgewater's  canal,  Manchester,  to  the  Calder  and  Hebble 
navigation  at  Sowerby  Bridge,  it  has  water  communication 
with  the  most  important  towns  in  the  north  of  England. 
Within  recent  years  the  town  has  largely  increased. 
Though  inhabited  chiefly  by  the  working  classes,  the 
streets  generally  are  spacious  and  regular.  The  sanitary 
arrangements  are  very  satisfactory,  the  main  drainage 
having  been  executed  on  a  very  large  scale.  The  gas- 
works and  waterworks  are  in  the  hands  of  the  corporation, 
which  also  erected  public  baths  in  1868.  There  is  a  public 
cemetery  belonging  to  the  corporation,  and  also  a  public 


612 


R,  O  C  — R  0  C 


park  12  acres  in  extent.  The  parish  church  of  St  Chad, 
occupying  the  high  grounds  overlooking  the  town,  is  built 
on  the  site  of  a  church  which  was  erected  in  the  12th 
century.  The  town-hall  is  a  very  extensive  and  elaborate 
structure  in  the  Decorated  Gothic  style,  and  had  originally 
a  tower  surmounted  by  a  gilded  spire  140  feet  in  height, 
which  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1883.  The  building,  com- 
pleted in  1871  at  a  cost  of  £150,000,  includes  a  large 
hall  for  public  meetings  and  various  municipal  rooms. 
For  the  free  public  library,  with  about  40,000  volumes,  a 
new  building  was  opened  in.  1884.  Of  the  educational 
charities  the  principal  are  the  Archbishop  Parker  free 
grammar-school,  founded  in  1565,  and  the  free  English 
school.  Among  the  other  public  institutions  are  the  infir- 
mary (lately  much  enlarged),  the  literary  and  scientific 
society,  and  the  art  society.  The  staple  manufactures 
are  those  of  woollens  and  cottons.  There  are,  besides, 
foundries,  iron-works,  and  machine-factories.  Coal  and 
stone  are  obtained  extensively  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
town.  Rochdale  was  the  birthplace  of  the  co-operative 
movement.  The  town  was  first  incorporated  in  1856  and 
divided  into  three  wards,  but  when  the  area  of  the  muni- 
cipal borough  was  extended  and  made  coextensive  with 
the  parliamentary  borough  it  was  divided  into  ten  wards, 
governed  by  a  mayor,  ten  aldermen,  and  thirty  councilmen. 
Rochdale  has  returned  one  member  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons since  the  Reform  Act  of  1832.  The  population  of 
the  borough  (area,  4172  acres)  in  1871  was  63,485,  and 
in  1881  it  was  68,866. 

In  early  times  Rochdale  was  situated  entirely  in  the  township  of 
Castleton,  where  at  one  time  stood  the  castle  which  gave  its  name 
to  the  township.  Near  the  town  are  the  remains  of  a  Roman  road 
leading  over  the  Blackstone  Edge  Hills,  which  separate  Lancashire 
and  Yorkshire.  The  name  Rochdale  appears  in  Domesday  Book  as 
Recedam,  and  it  was  subsequent  to  the  Norman  Conquest  that  the 
town  began  to  spread  into  the  valley  of  the  Roch.  From  the  time 
of  William  the  Conqueror  the  manor  and  estates  were  held  by  the 
De  Lacys,  but  after  some  centuries  they  became  merged  in  the 
crown.  By  Elizabeth  they  were  bestowed  on  Sir  John  Byron,  and 
in  1823  they  were  sold  by  Lord  Byron  the  poet  to  James  Dearden, 
in  whose  family  they  now  remain.  The  town  obtained  a  charter 
for  a  market  in  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  ;  this  charter  was  con- 
firmed by  Heniy  III.,  who  added  the  privilege  of  holding  an 
annual  fair. 

ROCHEFORT,  a  town  of  France,  the  chef-lieu  of  an 
arrondissement  of  the  department  of  Charente  Inf6rieure 
and  of  the  fourth  maritime  prefecture,  lies  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Charente,  9  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  and  is 
built  partly  on  the  side  of  a  rocky  hill  and  partly  on  old 
marshland,  which  renders  the  position  unhealthy.  The 
town  is  laid  out  with  great  regularity  in  chess-board 
fashion.  The  fortifications  are  sufficient  merely  to  prevent 
it  being  taken  by  surprise.  By  rail  it  is  connected  with 
La  Rochelle  (18  miles  north -north-west),  Niort,  and 
Saintes.  There  are  both  a  naval  and  a  commercial  harbour. 
The  former  has  the  advantage  of  deep  anchorage  well  pro- 
tected by  batteries  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  the 
roadstead  is  perfectly  safe.  The  windings  of  the  channel, 
however,  between  Rochefort  and  the  sea,  and  the  bar  at 
the  entrance  render  navigation  dangerous.  This  harbour 
and  arsenal,  which  are  separated  from  the  town  by  a  line 
of  fortifications  with  three  gates,  contain  large  covered 
building  yards  (where  eighteen  vessels  of  the  first  class 
may  be  upon  the  stocks  at  once),  eleven  slips,  three  repair- 
ing docks,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Charente  in  the 
Gardette  meadows  a  large  timber  basin  capable  of  floating 
1,766,000  cubic  feet  of  timber.  Besides  the  various  estab- 
lishments implied  in  the  name,  the  arsenal  is  the  seat  of  a 
ropewalk  dating  from  1666,  a  school  of  navigation  and 
pilotage,  a  signal-tower  98  feet  high  (once  attached  to  a 
church),  the  offices  of  the  maritime  prefecture,  the  navy 
commissariat,  a  park  of  artillery,  and  various  boards  of 
direction  connected  with  the  navy.  About  5000  or  6000 


men  are  usually  employed  in  the  arsenal.  Other  Govern- 
ment establishments  at  Rochefort  are  barracks  for  infantry, 
artillery,  and  marines,  a  provision  factory,  and  the  naval 
hospital-  (800  beds)  and  school  of  medicine.  In  the 
grounds  of  this  last  institution  is  an  artesian  well,  sunk 
in  1862-66  to  a  depth  of  2800  feet  and  yielding  water  at 
a  temperature  of  107°  Fahr.  The  commercial  harbour, 
higher  up  the  river  than  the  naval  harbour,  has  two 
basins  with  an  aggregate  area  of  5  acres  and  3400  feet  of 
quays,  and  a  third  basin  is  being  constructed  (1885)  25 
acres  in  extent  with  3800  feet  of  quays,  capable  of  admit- 
ting large  vessels  on  every  day  of  the  year.  The  town 
has  good  public  and  botanic  gardens,  and  the  Place  Col- 
bert contains  an  allegorical  group  representing  the  ocean 
and  the  Charente  mingling  their  waters.  Besides  ship- 
building, which  forms  the  staple  industry  of  Rochefort, 
sailcloth  and  furniture  are  the  local  manufactures,  and 
hemp  for  cordage  is  grown  in  the  vicinity.  Along  with 
Tonnay-Charente,  4  miles  higher  up,  Rochefort  has  a  trade 
in  brandies,  salt,  grain,  flour,  cattle,  horses,  fish,  colonial 
wares,  timber,  and  coal.  There  is  regular  steamboat  com- 
munication with  the  United  Kingdom.  In  1882  285 
vessels  (128,570  tons)  entered  and  270  (123,501)  cleared. 
The  population  of  the  town  was  26,022  in  1881  (27,854 
in  the  commune). 

The  lordship  of  Rochefort,  held  by  powerful  nobles  as  early 
as  the  llth  century,  was  united  to  the  French  crown  by  Philip  the 
Fair  in  1303  ;  but  it  was  alternately  seized  in  the  course  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War  by  the  English  and  the  French,  and  in  the  wars 
of  religion  by  the  Catholics  and  Protestants.  Colbert  having  in 
1665  chosen  Rochefort  as  the  seat  of  a  repairing  port  between  Brest 
and  the  Gironde,  the  town  rapidly  increased  in  importance  :  by 
1674  it  had  20,000  inhabitants;  and,  when  the  Dutch  admiral 
Tromp  appeared  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  with  seventy-two  vessels 
for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  new  arsenal,  he  found  the  ap- 
proaches so  well  defended  that  he  gave  up  his  enterprise.  It  was 
at  Rochefort  that  the  naval  school  now  transferred  to  Brest  was 
originally  founded.  The  town  continued  to  flourish  in  the  later 
part  of  the  17th  century.  In  1690  and  in  1703  it  escaped  from 
the  attempts  made  by  the  English  to  destroy  it.  Its  fleet  under 
the  command  of  La  Galissonniere,  a  native  of  the  place,  did  dis- 
tinguished service  in  the  wars  of  American  independence,  the  re- 
public, and  the  empire.  But  the  destruction  of  the  French  fleet 
by  the  English  in  1809  in  the  roadstead  of  lie  d'Aix,  the  preference 
accorded  to  the  harbours  of  Brest  and  Toulon,  and  the  unhealthiness 
of  its  climate  have  seriously  interfered  with  the  prosperity  of  the 
place.  The  convict  establishment  founded  at  Rochefort  in  1777 
was  suppressed  in  1852. 

ROCHEFOUCAULD.     See  LA  ROCHEFOUCAULD. 

ROCHELLE,  LA,  a  town  and  seaport  of  France,  the  chef- 
lieu  of  the  department  of  Charente-Inferieure,  is  situated 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  in  46°  9'  N.  lat.,  296  miles  by  rail 
south-west  of  Paris.  Its  fortifications,  which  were  con- 
structed by  Vauban,  have  a  circuit  of  3|  miles  with  seven 
gates.  In  population  (20,028  in  1881 ;  22,464  in  the 
commune)  it  ranks  after  Rochefort.  The  harbour,  one  of 
the  safest  and  most  accessible  on  the  coast,  comprises  an 
outer  harbour,  a  tidal  basin,  a  wet  dock,  and  a  graving 
dock.  The  outer  harbour  is  still  protected  by  the  dry 
stone  mole,  about  a  mile  long,  constructed  by  Richelieu. 
The  wet  dock  (7  acres)  is  capable  of  receiving  ships  of 
1000  tons.  Behind  these  is  the  Maubec  basin,  the  water 
of  which  along  with  that  of  the  Niort  Canal  helps  to  scour 
the  port  and  navigable  channel.  On  the  fortifications 
towards  the  sea  are  three  towers,  of  which  the  oldest  (1384) 
is  that  of  St  Nicholas.  The  apartment  in  the  first  story 
was  formerly  used  as  a  chapel.  The  chain  tower  (1476) 
was  at  one  time  connected  with  that  of  St  Nicholas  by  a 
great  pointed  arch.  The  lantern  tower  (1475-76),  seven 
stories  high,  affords  a  fine  view  of  the  town,  the  roadstead, 
and  the  surrounding  islands,  and  at  present  is  used  as  a 
military  prison.  Of  the  ancient  gateways  only  one  has 
been  preserved  in  its  entirety,  that  of  the  "grosse  hor 
loge,"  a  huge  square  tower  of  the  14th  or  15th  century, 


R  O  C  — R  O  C 


613 


the  corner  turrets  of  which  have  been  surmounted  with 
trophies  since  1746.  The  cathedral  of  La  Rochelle  (St 
Louis  or  St  Bartholomew)  is  a  heavy  Grecian  building 
(1742-1862)  with  a  dome  above  the  transept,  erected  on 
the  site  of  the  old  church  of  St  Bartholomew,  destroyed 
in  the  16th  century  and  now  represented  by  a  solitary 
tower  dating  from  the  14th  century.  Externally  the 
town-house  (1486-1607)  has  the  appearance  of  a  fortress 
in  the  Gothic  style  and  internally  that  of  a  Renaissance 
palace.  The  belfries  are  beautifully  decorated  with  carved 
work,  and  the  council-chamber,  where  the  mayor  Guiton 
presided  during  the  siege,  is  now  adorned  by  his  statue. 
In  the  old  episcopal  palace  (which  was  in  turn  the  resid- 
ence of  Sully,  the  prince  of  Cond<§,  Louis  XIII.,  and  Anne 
of  Austria,  and  the  scene  of  the  marriage  of  Alphonso  VI. 
of  Portugal  with  a  princess  of  Savoy)  accommodation  has 
been  provided  for  a  library  of  25,000  volumes,  a  collection 
of  records  going  back  to  the  13th  century,  and  a  museum 
founded  in  1842  by  the  society  of  the  Friends  of  the  Arts. 
Other  buildings  of  note  are  an  arsenal,  an  artillery  museum, 
a  large  hospital,  a  special  Protestant  hospital,  a  military 
hospital,  and  a  lunatic  asylum  for  the  department.  In 
the  public  gardens  there  is  a  museum  of  natural  history. 
Mediaeval  and  Renaissance  houses  still  give  a  peculiar 
character  to  certain  districts  of  the  town  :  several  have 
French,  Latin,  or  Greek  inscriptions  of  a  moral  or  religious 
turn  and  in  general  of  Protestant  origin.  Of  these  old 
houses  the  most  interesting  is  that  of  Henry  II.  or  Diana 
of  Poitiers.  The  parade-ground,  which  forms  the  principal 
public  square,  occupies  the  site  of  the  castle,  demolished  in 
1590.  Some  of  the  streets  have  side-arcades ;  the  public 
wells  are  fed  from  a  large  reservoir  in  the  Champ  de  Mars  ; 
and  among  the  promenades  are  the  Cours  des  Dames  with 
the  statue  of  Admiral  Duperr6  (1869),  and,  outside,  the 
tree-planted  ramparts  and  the  Mail,  a  beautiful  piece  of 
greensward.  In  this  direction  are  the  sea-bathing  estab- 
lishments. La  Rochelle,  besides  a  celebrated  manufactory 
of  barrels,  contains  saw-mills,  copper  and  iron  foundries, 
and  factories  for  patent  fuel  made  out  of  coal  dross.  In 
1882  465  vessels  (225,449  tons)  entered  and  431  (215,820) 
cleared.  Coals  from  England  and  iron-ore  from  Spain  are 
among  the  staple  imports.  In  the  neighbourhood  the 
principal  industries  are  getting  salt  from  the  marshes  and 
rearing  oysters  and  mussels. 

La  Rochelle  existed  at  the  close  of  tlie  10th  century  under  the 
name  of  Rupella.  In  1199  it  received  a  communal  charter  from 
Eleanor,  duchess  of  Guienne,  and  it  was  in  its  harbour  that  John 
Lackland  disembarked  when  he  came  to  try  to  recover  the  domains 
seized  by  Philip  Augustus.  Captured  by  Louis  VIII.  in  1224,  it 
was  restored  to  the  English  in  1360  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  but 
it  shook  off  the  yoke  of  the  foreigner  when  Duguesclin  recovered 
Saintonge.  During  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th  centuries  La  Rochelle, 
then  an  almost  independent  commune,  was  one  of  the  great  maritime 
cities  of  France.  From  its  harbour  in  1402  Jean  de  Bethencourt 
set  out  for  the  conquest  of  the  Canaries,  and  its  seamen  were  the 
first  to  turn  to  account  the  discovery  of  the  New  World.  The  salt- 
tax  provoked  a  rebellion  at  Rochelle  which  Francis  I.  had  to  come 
to  repress  in  person  ;  in  1568  the  town  secured  exemption  by  the 
payment  of  a  large  sum.  At  the  Reformation  La  Rochelle  early 
became  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  Calvinism,  and  during  the  reli- 
gious wars  it  armed  privateers  which  preyed  on  Catholic  vessels  in 
the  Channel  and  the  high  seas.  In  1571  a  synod  of  the  Protestant 
churches  of  France  was  held  within  its  walls  under  the  presidency 
of  Beza  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  a  confession  of  faith.  After 
the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  La  Rochelle  held  out  for  six 
and  a  half  months  against  the  Catholic  army,  which  was  ultimately 
obliged  to  raise  the  siege  after  losing  more  than  20,000  men.  The 
peace  of  24th  June  1573,  signed  by  the  people  of  La  Rochelle  in 
the  name  of  all  the  Protestant  party,  granted  the  Calvinists  full 
liberty  of  worship  in  several  places  of  safety.  Under  Henry  IV. 
the  town  remained  quiet,  but  under  Louis  XIII.  it  put  itself  again 
at  the  head  of  the  Huguenot  party.  Its  vessels  blockaded  the 
mouth  of  the  Gironde  and  stopped  the  commerce  of  Bordeaux,  and 
also  seized  the  islands  of  Re  and  Oleron  and  several  vessels  of  the 
royal  fleet.  It  was  then  that  Richelieu  resolved  to  siibdue  the  town 
once  for  all.  In  spite  of  the  assistance  rendered  by  the  English 


troops  under  Buckingham  and  in  spite  of  the  fierce  energy  of  their 
mayor  Guiton,  the  people  of  La  Rochelle  were  obliged  to  capitulate 
after  eight  months'  siege  (October  1628).  During  this  investment 
Richelieu  raised  the  celebrated  mole  which  cut  off  the  town  from 
the  open  sea.  La  Rochelle  then  became  the  principal  port  for  the 
trade  between  the  mother-country  of  France  and  the  colony  of 
Canada.  But  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  deprived  it  of 
3000  of  its  most  industrious  inhabitants,  and  the  loss  of  Canada  by 
France  completed  the  ruin  of  its  commerce.  Its  privateers,  however, 
still  maintained  a  vigorous  struggle  with  the  English  during  the 
republic  and  the  empire. 

Among  the  men  of  mark  born  at  La  Rochelle  may  be  mentioned 
Jean  Guiton,  Tallemant  des  Reaux,  Reaumur  the  physicist,  Admiral 
Duperre,  Bonpland  the  botanist,  and  the  painters  Froinentin  and 
Bouguereau. 

ROCHELLE  SALT.     See  TARTARIC  ACID. 

ROCHESTER,  an  episcopal  city  and  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  Mid-Kent,  is  situated  on  the 
Medway,  on  the  Medway  Canal,  and  on  the  London,  Chat- 
ham, and  Dover  and  the  South-Eastern  railway  lines,  33 
miles  east  of  London,  contiguous  to  Chatham  and  Strood. 
Here  the  river  is  crossed  by  a  railway  bridge  and  by  an  iron 
swing  bridge  for  carriage  traffic,  erected  to  take  the  place 
of  a  stone  bridge  destroyed  in  1856.  The  present  bridge 
occupies  the  site  of  that  which  spanned  the  Medway  before 
the  Conquest.  On  the  eminence  overlooking  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  and  commanding  a  wide  view  of  the  surround- 
ing country  are  the  extensive  remains  of  the  Norman  castle 
which  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Gun- 
dulph,  bishop  of  Rochester,  towards  the  close  of  the  llth 
century,  and  which  was  besieged  by  King  John,  by  Simon 
de  Montfort  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.  by  a  party  of  rebels  during  the  insurrection 
of  Wat  Tyler.  It  was  repaired  by  Edward  IV.,  but  soon 
afterwards  fell  into  decay,  although  the  massive  keep  is 
still  in  good  preservation.  The  cathedral  was  originally 
founded  by  Augustine  in  604,  but  was  partially  destroyed 
by  the  Danes,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Bishop  Gundulph  in  the 
beginning  of  the  12th  century.  Though  a  comparatively 
small  building,  being  only  310  feet  in  length  and  68  in 
breadth  at  the  nave,  it  is  of  considerable  architectural 
interest,  the  most  remarkable  feature  being  the  Norman 
west  front  with  a  richly  sculptured  door.  There  is  a  large 
number  of  monuments  of  great  antiquity.  In  the  garden 
of  the  deanery  there  are  portions  of  the  wall  of  St  Andrew's 
priory,  founded  about  the  same  time  as  the  cathedral. 
Among  the  principal  public  buildings  of  a  secular  character 
are  the  town-hall  (1687),  the  corn  exchange  (1871),  the 
county  court  offices  (1862),  the  working  men's  institute 
(1880),  and  the  Richard  Watts's  almshouses,  in  the  Tudor 
style.  Besides  these  almshouses  there  are  a  number  of 
other  charities.  The  principal  schools  are  the  cathedral 
grammar-school,  founded  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
the  Williamson  mathematical  school,  formerly  for  the  sons 
of  freemen,  but  now  open  to  all.  The  oyster  fishing  in 
of  some  importance,  and  there  is  a  considerable  shipping 
trade,  a  quay  and  landing-place  having  been  erected  by 
the  corporation  at  great  expense.  In  1883  the  number 
of  vessels  that  entered  the  port  was  5969  of  855,019  tons 
burden,  and  the  number  that  cleared  5496  of  709,040  tons. 
There  is  a  large  steam-engine  manufactory.  Rochester 
returned  two  members  to  parliament  down  to  1885,  when 
it  was  deprived  of  one.  The  population  of  the  borough 
(area,1  2909  acres)  in  1871  was  18,352,  and  in  1881  it 
was  21,307 ;  this  includes  5395  persons  in  the  town  of 
Strood,  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Medway. 

Rochester  was  the  Durobrivae  of  the  Romans,  and  was  intersected 
by  the  Roman  Watling  Street  from  Canterbury.  It  was  formerly 
surrounded  with  walls,  of  which  there  are  still  a  few  remains.  It 
was  the  foundation  of  the  cathedral  by  Ethelbert  that  first  raised 
it  to  importance.  By  the  Saxons  it  was  named  Hrofe-ceostre, 
which  was  gradually  corrupted  into  the  present  name.  In  676  it 

l  The  parliamentary  borough  also  includes  11,768  acres  of  tidal 
water  and  foreshore  along  the  river  Medway. 


614 


ROCHESTER 


was  plundered  by  Ethelred,  king  of  Mercia,  and  subsequently  it 
suffered  severely  from  the  ravages  of  the  Danes.  About  930,  when 
three  mints  were  established  there  by  Athelstan,  it  had  grown 
to  be  one  of  the  principal  ports  of  the  kingdom.  William  the  Con- 
queror granted  the  town  to  his  half-brother  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux, 
who,  on  account  of  his  connexion  in  the  conspiracy  in  favour  of 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  was  besieged  in  the  castle  and  deprived 
of  his  possessions.  In  1130  and  again  in  1137  the  city  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire.  A  grand  tournament  was  held  at  the  castle  by 
Henry  III.  in  1251.  The  city  was  visited  in  1522  by  Henry  VIII. 
accompanied  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  in  1573  Elizabeth 
remained  there  five  days.  Charles  II.  passed  through  it  on  his 
way  to  London  at  the  Restoration,  and  at  the  Revolution  James  II. 
embarked  at  the  port  on  his  way  to  France.  The  bishop's  see  was 
founded  in  600,  and  the  city  received  its  first  charter  of  incorpora- 
tion from  Henry  II.  in  1165.  It  has  returned  members  to  parlia- 
ment since  the  23d  of  Edward  I. 

ROCHESTER,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Monroe  county,  New  York,  lies  229  miles  to  the  west  of 
Albany  (43°  9'  22"-44  N.  lat.  and  77°  36'  50"'97  W.  long.), 
in  a  rich  agricultural  region,  upon  a  plateau  on  both  banks 
of  the  Genesee  river,  7  miles  from  its  mouth  at  Lake 
Ontario  and  263  feet  above  the  lake  level.  There  are 
three  falls  in  the  river  of  96,  26,  and  83  feet  respectively 
within  the  city  limits,  the  banks  below  the  first  fall  vary- 
ing in  height  from  100  to  210  feet.  To  this  abundant 
water-power  of  the  Genesee,  supplemented  by  the  trans- 
portation facilities  afforded  by  the  Erie  Canal  and  the 
various  railway  connexions,  Rochester  mainly  owes  its 
progress  and  prosperity.  The  streets  of  the  city  are  gen- 
erally wide,  and  well  paved  and  lighted  (partly  by  elec- 
tricity), and  trees  and  flowering  plants  are  abundant. 
Rochester  is  an  important  railway  centre.  The  New  York 
Central  Railroad,  with  elevated  tracks  through  the  city, 
has  two  lines  east  to  Syracuse,  two  west  to  Buffalo  and 
Niagara  Falls  respectively,  and  one  north  to  Charlotte, 
where  connexion  is  made  with  the  Rome,  Watertown,  and 
Ogdensburg  line ;  a  branch  of  the  New  York,  Lake  Erie, 
and  Western  Railway  connects  with  the  main  line  at 
Corning  and  with  the  Buffalo  branch  at  Avon ;  the  Roch- 


Plan  of  Rochester. 


ester  and  Pittsburgh  Railway  runs  south  to  Salamanca, 
and  the  Genesee  Valley  Railway  to  Olean,  crossing  the 
West  Shore  Railway  a  short  distance  south  of  the  city 
line ;  and  there  are  also  railway  lines  to  Irondequoit  Bay 
and  Windsor  beach,  and  about  30  miles  of  street  railway, 
radiating  from  the  centre  in  all  directions.  The  manu- 
factures of  Rochester  are  numerous  and  varied.  Though 
no  longer  at  the  head  of  the  flour  industry,  it  still  possesses 
twenty  mills,  capable  of  producing  2900  barrels  daily. 
The  principal  manufacture  is  that  of  ready-made  clothing, 
the  sales  reaching  $9,000,000  annually.  In  its  boot  and 


shoe  trade  the  city  ranks  fourth  in  the  country  (5000 
hands  ;  annual  sales,  $6,500,000).  There  are  also  sixteen 
breweries  and  ten  malt-houses ;  some  eighty  or  ninety 
cigar-makers  and  tobacconists  have  a  total  output  of 
about  2,000,000  Ib  of  tobacco,  18,000,000  cigars,  and 
140,000,000  cigarettes;  while  furniture-making  employs 
1000  hands.  The  lumber  business  is  extensive;  and  of 
late  years  the  city  has  been  one  of  the  principal  centre* 
for  the  distribution  of  the  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal 
of  Pennsylvania.  Its  numerous  nurseries  are  a  peculiar 
feature  of  the  place ;  and  there  is  a  great  variety  of  other 
industries.  The  main  supply  of  water  is  brought  in  iron 
conduits  (147  miles  of  pipe)  from  Hemlock  Lake,  29  miles 
to  the  south  ;  an  additional  supply  for  subsidiary  purposes 
is  drawn  from  the  Genesee  river  (11J  miles  of  pipe).  The 
total  cost  of  the  works  has  been  $3,744,749.  The  princi 
pal  cemetery,  Mount  Hope,  with  an  area  of  200  acres,  is 
exceedingly  picturesque  and  well  cared  for.  Rochester 
has  two  State  institutions,  the  Western  House  of  Refuge 
and  the  Western  New  York  Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes. 
The  former,  opened  in  1849,  is  a  substantial  structure  of 
brick,  with  accommodation  for  600  inmates,  built  at  a. 
cost  of  $373,000;  it  receives  juvenile  delinquents  com- 
mitted by  magistrates ;  they  are  instructed  in  trades  and 
labour  upon  the  farm  belonging  to  the  refuge.  The  insti- 
tution for  deaf  mutes  (1875)  instructs  about  160  pupils 
annually.  Among  the  eleemosynary  institutions  of  the 
city  are  the  Rochester  city  hospital,  St  Mary's  hospital, 
the  Rochester,  St  Patrick's,  St  Mary's,  St  Joseph's,  and 
the  Jewish  orphan  asylums,  the  home  for  the  friendless, 
the  industrial  school,  the  church  home,  the  home  of  in- 
dustry, and  the  home  for  truant  children.  There  are 
75  churches,  including  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  6 
Baptist,  10  Methodist  Episcopal,  10  Protestant  Episcopal, 
11  Presbyterian,  5  Lutheran,  and  11  Roman  Catholic 
churches,  and  5  Jewish  synagogues.  The  public  school 
system  of  Rochester  includes  a  free  academy  (cost  $125,000) 
and  thirty  grammar-schools  (with  classes  in  the  orphan 
asylums),  in  which  200  teachers  are  engaged  and  10,000 
pupils  taught.  There  are  also  thirty  private  institutions, 
academies,  seminaries,  and  parochial  schools.  The  univer- 
sity of  Rochester  was  established  in  1850,  under  Baptist 
auspices ;  its  faculty  consists  of  a  president  and  ten  pro- 
fessors, and  the  annual  attendance  of  students  is  about  1 60. 
It  has  two  buildings, — Anderson  Hall  and  Sible  Hall. 
The  Rochester  theological  seminary  (Baptist),  founded  in 
1850  and  housed  in  two  commodious  buildings — Trevor 
and  Rockefeller  Halls — has  eight  professors  and  about 
seventy  students,  besides  a  German  department.  Other 
public  libraries  in  addition  to  those  of  the  university  and 
the  theological  seminary  are  the  central  and  Reynolds. 
There  are  four  English  and  two  German  daily  newspapers,, 
and  twelve  weekly  and  nine  monthly  publications.  Among 
edifices  not  already  mentioned  are  the  city-hall,  the  United 
States  Government  building,  the  court-house,  the  Warner 
astronomical  observatory,  the  Rochester  and  East  Side 
savings  banks,  the  Powers  buildings,  with  their  famous 
art  gallery,  and  the  Warner  and  Kimball  factories.  The 
population  (89,366  in  1880)  was  estimated  at  115,000  in 
1885;  the  area  of  the  city,  which  is  divided  into  sixteen 
wards,  is  4  square  miles.  The  assessed  valuation  of  real 
and  personal  property  in  1885  was  $40,952,070,  and  the 
debt  was  $5,249,000. 

Rochester  derives  its  name  from  Nathaniel  Rochester,  who  pro- 
jected a  settlement  here  in  1810  ;  the  first  house  was  built  in  1812 ; 
and  the  incorporation  of  the  city  dates  from  1834. 

ROCHESTER,  JOHN  WILMOT,  EARL  OF  (1647-1680), 
born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1647,  was  one  of  the  tin  worthies  of 
the  reign  of  the  "merry  monarch,  scandalous  and  poor," 
"  Who  never  said  a  foolish  thing 
Nor  ever  did  a  wise  one. " 


R  O  C  — R  O  C 


615 


"Rochester  is  the  author  of  both  these  imperishable  descrip- 
tions of  Charles  II.,  and  by  them  and  his  poem  "  Upon 
Nothing,"  and  his  death -bed  conversation  with  Bishop 
Burnet  he  is  now  chiefly  known.  His  poetry  has  hardly 
had  a  fair  chance  against  that  of  his  contemporaries,  for 
owing  to  his  scandalous  character,  which  was  probably 
worse  than  the  time  only  in  respect  of  his  ostentatious 
defiance  of  proprieties,  all  kinds  of  indecencies  were 
fathered  upon  him  and  inserted  in  unauthorized  editions 
of  his  works.  This  has  ensured  his  exclusion  from  decent 
libraries,  an  edition  issued  in  1691  by  friends  careful  of 
his  memory  having  been  pushed  out  of  sight  by  these 
more  piquant  publications.  His  letters  to  his  wife  and 
his  son  show  that  the  real  man  was  much  better  than  the 
public  estimate  of  him,  which  he  invited  by  his  occasional 
daring  breaches  of  decorum  and  morality.  Some  of  his 
lyrics  are  very  pretty,  full  of  ingenious  fancy  and  musical 
rhythm,  but  wit  and  intellect  are  more  marked  in  his 
writing  than  the  free  flow  of  lyrical  sentiment.  For  wit, 
versatility,  and  intense  vitality  of  intellect  this  strangely 
wasted  life  stood  high  above  the  level  of  its  age.  In  his 
youth  Rochester  distinguished  himself  in  the  Dutch  wars 
by  acts  of  signal  personal  bravery ;  his  alleged  cowardice 
afterwards  in  street  brawls  and  personal  quarrels  looks 
rather  like  daringly  contemptuous  cynicism.  Rochester 
had  a  taste  for  the  humours  of  low  life,  and  is  said  to 
have  haunted  the  low  quarters  of  the  town  in  various 
disguises,  on  one  occasion  personating  a  mountebank  on 
Tower  Hill.  He  died  on  26th  J^uly  1680,  at  the  early 
age  of  thirty-three,  and  the  common  account  is  that  his 
constitution  was  undermined  and  exhausted  by  profligate 
excesses. 

ROCHE-SUR-YON,  LA,  a  town  of  France,  the  chief 
town  of  the  department  of  La  Vende'e,  lies  278  miles  south- 
west of  Paris  by  the  railway  to  Sables  d'Olonne,  on  an 
eminence  164  feet  above  the  sea  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Yon,  a  little  tributary  of  the  Lay,  itself  an  affluent  of  the 
Pertuis  Breton.  In  1881  the  population  of  the  town  was 
9965,  of  the  commune  10,634.  The  castle  of  La  Roche- 
sur-Yon,  which  probably  existed  before  the  time  of  the 
crusades,  and  which  was  frequently  attacked  or  taken  in 
the  Hundred  Years'  War  and  in  the  wars  of  religion,  was 
finally  dismantled  under  Louis  XIII. ;  and  when  Napoleon 
in  1805  made  this  place  the  chief  town  of  a  department 
the  stones  from  its  ruins  were  employed  in  the  erection  of 
the  administrative  buildings,  which,  being  all  produced  at 
once  after  a  regular  plan,  have  a  monotonous  effect.  The 
equestrian  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  in  an  immense  square  over- 
looking the  rest  of  the  town  ;  the  statue  of  General  Travot, 
who  was  engaged  in  the  "  pacification  "  of  La  Vendee ;  the 
museum,  with  several  paintings  by  P.  Baudry,  a  living 
native  artist  of  note,  are  the  only  objects  of  interest.  The 
dog  fairs  of  Roche -sur- Yon  are  important.  Napoleon- 
Vendee  and  Bourbon-Vendee,  the  names  borne  by  the  town 
according  to  the  dominance  of  either  dynasty,  gave  place  to 
the  original  unpolitical  name  after  the  revolution  of  1870. 

ROCKET.  See  AMMUNITION  and  PYROTECHNY;  for 
the  use  of  rockets  to  rescue  the  shipwrecked  see  LIFEBOAT, 
vol.  xiv.  p.  572. 

ROCKFORD,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  county 
seat  of  Winnebago  county,  Illinois,  on  both  banks  of  the 
Rock  river,  which,  rising  in  Wisconsin,  falls  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi after  a  course  of  350  miles.  By  rail  it  lies  92 
miles  north-west  of  Chicago  and  is  a  junction  of  the 
Chicago  and  North- Western,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and 
St  Paul,  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  Rail- 
roads. Abundant  water-power  was  secured  by  a  dam  800 
feet  long  constructed  across  the  river  in  1844.  The  chief 
objects  of  industry  of  Rockford,  one  of  the  largest  manu- 
facturing centres  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  are  agricultural 


implements,  furniture,  watches,  silver-plated  ware,  cutlery, 
tacks  and  nails,  bolts,  wire-cloth,  netting,  woollen  and  cotton 
goods,  paper,  flour,  oatmeal,  glucose.  Waterworks  on  the 
Holly  system  (1874)  are  capable  of  pumping  5,500,000 
gallons  through  the  mains  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  city 
stands  in  a  fine  agricultural  district,  is  handsomely  built 
and  well  shaded,  and  has  a  public  library,  a  public  high 
school,  and  ten  other  public  school  buildings,  a  seminary 
for  girls  (1849),  five  banks,  and  twenty-one  churches.  The 
population  was  6976  in  1860,  11,049  in  1870,  and  13,129 
in  1880  (township,  14,525).  Rockford  was  settled  about 
1836  ;  in  1852  it  received  incorporation  as  a  city. 

ROCKHAMPTON,  a  town  of  Queensland,  is  situated 
some  40  miles  up  the  Fitzroy  river,  nearly  on  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn.  The  streets  are  well  formed  and  kept,  bordered 
by  trees,  with  ever-flowing  water  down  the  channels.  Em- 
bosomed in  hills,  it  has  a  climate,  in  spite  of  heat,  of 
singular  salubrity,  the  death-rate  being  only  about  half 
that  of  London.  The  population  in  1884  was  about 
11,000.  Rockhampton  is  the  gateway  to  a  fine  pastoral 
interior  and  is  a  port  of  export  for  wool.  The  hills  in 
its  neighbourhood  are  rich  in  metallic  wealth ;  and  Mount 
Morgan,  30  miles  from  Rockhampton,  seems  likely  to 
eclipse  the  production  of  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales. 
If  anything  be  needed  to  complete  the  prospective  im- 
portance of  Rockhampton,  it  is  the  growing  development 
of  sugar  plantations  at  no  great  distance  from  the  town. 

ROCKINGHAM,  CHARLES  WATSON  WENTWORTH, 
SECOND  MARQUIS  OF  (1730-1782),  twice  prime  minister  of 
England,  was  the  only  son  of  Thomas  Watson  Wentworth, 
whose  father  had  inherited  the  great  Wentworth  estates  in 
Yorkshire  on  the  death  of  William  Wentworth,  fourth  earl 
of  Straff ord,  and  who  had  himself  succeeded  his  second 
cousin  as  sixth  Lord  Rockingham  in  1746  and  been  created 
marquis  of  Rockingham  in  the  same  year.  Charles  Watson 
Wentworth  was  born  in  1730  on  the  19th  of  March  (Albe- 
marle),  or  the  13th  of  May  (Collins),  and  was  educated  at 
Eton.  He  showed  his  spirit  as  a  boy  by  riding  across 
from  Wentworth  to  Carlisle  in  1745  with  but  one  servant, 
to  join  the  duke  of  Cumberland  in  his  pursuit  of  the  Young 
Pretender.  He  was  created  earl  of  Mai  ton  in  the  peerage 
of  Ireland  on  4th  September  1750,  and  succeeded  his 
father  as  second  marquis  of  Rockingham  on  14th  December 
in  the  same  year.  In  1751  he  became  lord-lieutenant  of 
the  North  and  West  Ridings  of  Yorkshire  and  a  lord  of 
the  bedchamber,  and  in  1760  was  made  a  knight  of  the 
Garter.  After  George  III.  had  begun  his  policy  of  divid- 
ing the  great  Whig  families,  those  Whig  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  who  did  not  choose  to  join  the  sections  headed 
by  the  Grenvilles,  the  duke  of  Bedford,  or  any  other  great 
nobleman,  selected  as  their  chief  the  young  marquis  of 
Rockingham.  In  May  1762  the  king's  favourite,  the  earl 
of  Bute,  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  and  the  marquis 
of  Rockingham  was  amongst  those  who  in  the  following 
year  were  dismissed  from  their  lord-lieutenancies.  The 
opposition  now  grew  so  strong  that  Lord  Bute  resigned 
in  April  1763  and  the  king,  true  to  his  policy,  appointed 
George  Grenville  to  be  his  successor.  But  Grenville's 
section  of  the  Whig  party  was  not  strong  enough  to  main- 
tain him  in  power  long,  and  on  12th  July  1765  Lord 
Rockingham  formed  his  first  administration  with  General 
Conway  and  the  duke  of  Grafton  as  secretaries  of  state. 
The  cabinet  seemed  stronger  than  it  really  was,  for  it  was 
divided  by  intestine  quarrels,  and  the  earl  of  Chatham 
refused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  it.  Nevertheless 
Rockingham  recovered  his  lord -lieutenancies  and  won 
reputation  as  a  good  administrator.  In  May  1766  the 
duke  of  Grafton,  a  far  abler  man  than  Rockingham,  though 
neither  so  conciliatory  in  his  manners  nor  so  generally 
popular,  seceded  from  the  Government,  and  in  August 


616 


R  O  C  — R  O  D 


1766  he  succeeded  his  former  chief  as  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  and  prime  minister.  Then  followed  many  years 
of  fruitless  opposition  to  the  king's  personal  authority  as 
exhibited  through  his  ministers,  but  at  last,  on  27th  March 
1782,  Lord  Rockingham  again  became  prime  minister 
with  Fox  and  Shelburne  as  secretaries  of  state.  This 
time  he  enjoyed  office  for  but  a  few  weeks,  for  he  died 
on  1st  July  1782.  A  few  words  from  his  epitaph  by 
Burke  deserve  quotation  as  giving  the  reason  of  the  pre- 
dominance of  such  an  ordinary  man  as  Lord  Rockingham 
over  a  party  abounding  in  men  of  great  abilities  :  "  A  man 
worthy  to  be  held  in  esteem,  because  he  did  not  live  for 
himself.  .  .  .  He  far  exceeded  all  other  statesmen  in  the 
art  of  drawing  together,  without  the  seduction  of  self- 
interest,  the  concurrence  and  co-operation  of  various  dis- 
positions and  abilities  of  men,  whom  he  assimilated  to  his 
character  and  associated  in  his  labours." 

See  Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham  and  his  Contemporaries 
by  George  Thomas,  Earl  of  Albemarle,  2  vols. ,  1852,  and  such  bio- 
graphical works  as  Macknight's  Life  of  Burke,  Lord  E.  Fitzmaurice's 
Life  of  Lord  Shelburne,  &c. 

ROCK  ISLAND,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the 
capital  of  Rock  Island  county,  Illinois,  is  situated  opposite 
Davenport  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  about  3 
miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Rock  river  and  at  the  foot 
of  the  Upper  Rapids,  which  extend  for  about  16  miles. 
Distant  by  rail  181  miles  west  of  Chicago  and  247  miles 
north  of  St  Louis,  Rock  Island  is  one  of  the  great  centres 
of  railroad  and  river  traffic.  With  Davenport  (in  Iowa) 
it  is  connected  by  a  two -story  road  and  railway  bridge 
constructed  by  the  Government  in  1870.  Among  the 
public  buildings  are  a  large  public  library  and  St  Augus- 
tana  College,  founded  by  the  Swedish  Lutherans.  Glass- 
works, a  plough  factory,  a  distillery,  flour -mills,  and  a 
stove  factory  are  the  principal  industrial  establishments. 
The  city,  however,  is  best  known  from  the  great  national 
arsenal  situated  on  the  island  from  which  it  derives  its 
name.  This  island  is  a  ridge  of  limestone  rock  about  3 
miles  long  and  with  an  area  of  960  acres.  As  the  site  of 
Fort  Armstrong  it  became  known  in  the  Black  Hawk 
War ;  the  prison  was  used  for  the  detention  of  Confederate 
prisoners  during  the  Civil  War ;  and  since  that  date  the 
Government  has  constructed  the  present  extensive  Avorks, 
intended  to  be  the  central  United  States  armoury.  There 
are  ten  vast  stone  workshops,  each  with  a  stone  house  in 
the  rear,  as  well  as  officers'  quarters,  offices,  &c.  The 
population  of  Rock  Island  city  was  5130  in  1860,  7890 
in  1870,  and  11,659  in  1880.  Its  charter  dates  from  1849. 

ROCKLAND,  a  city  and  seaport  of  the  United  States, 
county  town  of  Knox  county,  Maine,  is  situated  60  miles 
by  rail  east-north-east  of  Portland  on  Owl's  Head  Bay,  an 
inlet  of  Ponobscot  Bay.  It  was  incorporated  in  1854,  has 
an  area  of  7000  acres  and  a  sea  frontage  of  about  4^  miles, 
and  numbered  7599  inhabitants  in  1880  (in  1870  7074). 
Lime-burning  is  the  staple  trade  (1,000,000  barrels  per 
annum).  The  adjacent  islands — Dix  Island,  Hurricane 
Island,  &c. — are  known  by  their  granite  quarries.  Water 
for  the  city  is  obtained  from  Lake  Chickawaukie. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAINS.     See  UNITED  STATES. 

ROCROI,  a  town  of  France,  the  chef-lieu  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  department  of  Ardennes,  lies  15  miles  in 
a  straight  line  north-north-west  of  M6zieres  and  within  2 
miles  of  the  Belgian  frontier,  at  a  height  of  1083  feet 
above  the  sea.  As  a  fortified  place  it  commands  the 
Ardennes  plateau  between  the  valley  of  the  Meuse  and 
the  headwaters  of  the  Oise.  The  present  fortifications 
were  constructed  by  Vauban.  In  1881  the  population 
was  1649  (commune  2977). 

This  spot,  originally  called  Croix-de-Rau  or  Rau  Croix,  was 
fortified  in  the  16th  century  and  besieged  by  the  imperialists  in 
1555.  Invested  by  the  Spaniards  in  1643,  it  was  relieved  by  the 


young  duke  of  Enghien  (afterwards  the  Great  Conde)  after  a  brilliant 
victory.  Captured  in  1658  by  the  same  duke,  then  in  the  Spanish 
service,  it  was  not  restored  to  France  till  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees 
in  1659.  In  1815  Rocroi  was  besieged  for  a  month  by  the  allies. 

RODBERTUS,  KARL  JOHANN  (1805-1875),  by  some 
considered  to  be  the  founder  of  scientific  socialism,  was 
born  at  Greifswald  on  12th  August  1805,  his  father  being 
a  professor  at  the  university  there.  He  studied  law  at 
Gottingen  and  Berlin,  thereafter  engaging  in  various  legal 
occupations ;  and,  after  travelling  for  some  time,  he  bought 
the  estate  of  Jagetzow  in  Pomerania,  whence  his  name  of 
Rodbertus-Jagetzow.  In  1836  he  settled  on  this  estate, 
and  henceforward  devoted  his  life  chiefly  to  economic  and 
other  learned  studies,  taking  also  some  interest  in  local 
and  provincial  affairs.  After  the  revolution  of  March  1848 
Rodbertus  was  elected  member  of  the  Prussian  national 
assembly,  in  which  body  he  belonged  to  the  left  centre ; 
and  for  fourteen  days  he  filled  the  post  of  minister  of 
public  worship  and  education.  He  sat  for  Berlin  in  the 
second  chamber  of  1849,  and  moved  the  adoption  of  the 
Frankfort  imperial  constitution,  which  was  carried.  When 
the  system  of  dividing  the  Prussian  electorate  into  three 
classes  was  adopted,  Rodbertus  recommended  abstention 
from  voting.  His  only  subsequent  appearance  in  public 
life  was  his  candidature  for  the  first  North  German  diet, 
in  which  he  was  defeated.  His  correspondence  with 
Lassalle  was  an  interesting  feature  of  his  life.  At  one 
time  Rodbertus  had  some  intention  of  forming  a  "  social 
party  "  with  the  help  of  the  conservative  socialist  Rudolf 
Meyer  and  of  Hasenclevefr,  a  prominent  follower  of  Lassalle; 
but  no  progress  was  made  in  this.  Rodbertus  was  neither 
disposed  nor  qualified  to  be  an  agitator,  being  a  man  of  a 
quiet  and  critical  temperament,  who  believed  that  society 
could  not  be  improved  by  violent  changes,  but  by  a  long 
and  gradual  course  of  development.  He  warned  the  work- 
ing men  of  Germany  against  connecting  themselves  with 
any  political  party,  enjoining  them  to  be  a  "  social  party  " 
pure  and  simple.  He  died  on  8th  December  1875. 

The  general  position  of  Rodbertus  was  "social,  monarchical,  and 
national."  With  his  entire  soul  he  held  the  purely  economic  part 
of  the  creed  of  the  German  social-democratic  party,  but  he  did  not 
agree  with  their  methods,  and  had  no  liking  for  the  productive 
associations  with  state  help  of  Lassalle.  He  regarded  a  socialistic 
republic  as  a  possible  thing,  but  he  cordially  accepted  the  monarchic 
institution  in  his  own  country  and  hoped  that  a  German  emperor 
might  undertake  the  role  of  a  social  emperor.  He  was  also  a  true 
patriot  and  was  proud  and  hopeful  of  the  career  that  lay  before  the 
regenerated  empire  of  Germany.  The  basis  of  the  economic  teach- 
ing of  Rodbertus  is  the  principle  laid  down  by  Adam  Smith  and 
Ricardo  and  insisted  on  by  all  the  later  socialists,  that  labour  is  the 
source  and  measure  of  value.  In  connexion  with  this  he  developed 
the  position  that  rent,  profit,  and  wages  are  all  parts  of  a  national 
income  produced  by  the  united  organic  labour  of  the  workers  of  the 
community.  Consequently  there  can  be  no  talk  of  the  wages  of 
labour  being  paid  out  of  capital ;  wages  is  only  that  part  of  the 
national  income  which  is  received  by  the  workmen,  of  a  national 
income  which  they  have  themselves  entirely  produced.  The 
wages  fund  theory  is  thus  summarily  disposed  of.  But  the  most 
important  result  of  the  theory  is  his  position  that  the  possession 
of  land  and  capital  enables  the  landholders  and  capitalists  to  compel 
the  workmen  to  divide  the  product  of  their  labour  with  those  non- 
working  classes,  and  in  such  a  proportion  that  the  workers  only 
obtain  as  much  as  can  support  them  in  life.  Thus  the  iron  law  of 
wages  is  established.  Hence  also  Rodbertus  deduces  his  theory  of 
commercial  crises  and  of  pauperism,  and  in  the  following  way.  In 
spite  of  the  increasing  productivity  of  labour,  the  workers  obtain  in 
general  only  sufficient  to  support  their  class,  and  therefore  a  smaller 
relative  share  of  the  national  income.  But  the  producers  form  also 
the  large  mass  of  consumers,  and,  with  the  decline  of  their  relative 
share  in  the  national  income,  must  decline  the  relative  purchasing 
power  of  this  large  class  of  the  people.  The  growing  production 
is  not  met  by  a  correspondingly  growing  consumption  ;  expansion 
is  succeeded  by  contraction  of  production,  by  a  scarcity  of  employ- 
ment, and  a  further  decline  in  purchasing  power  on  the  part  of  the 
workers.  Thus  we  have  a  commercial  crisis  bringing  with  it  pau- 
perism as  a  necessary  result.  In  the  meantime  the  purchasing 
power  of  the  non-producing  capitalists  and  landholders  continues 
relatively  to  increase  ;  but,  as  they  have  already  had  enough  to  buy 


R  O  D  — R  O  D 


617 


all  the  comforts  of  life,  they  spend  the  more  in  the  purchase  of 
luxuries,  the  production  of  which  increases. 

A  fundamental  part  of  the  teaching  of  Rodbertus  is  his  theory 
of  social  development.  He  recognized  three  stages  in  the  economic 
progress  of  mankind  :  (1)  the  ancient  heathen  period  in  which 
property  in  human  beings  was  the  rule  ;  (2)  the  period  of  private 
property  in  land  and  capital ;  (3)  the  period,  still  remote,  of  pro- 
perty as  dependent  on  service  or  desert.  The  goal  of  the  human 
race  is  to  be  one  society  organized  on  a  communistic  basis  ;  only 
in  that  way  can  the  principle  that  every  man  be  rewarded  accord- 
ing to  his  work  be  realized.  In  this  communistic  or  socialistic 
state  of  the  future  land  and  capital  will  be  national  property,  and 
the  entire  national  production  will  be  under  national  control ;  and 
means  will  be  taken  so  to  estimate  the  labour  of  each  citizen  that 
he  shall  be  rewarded  according  to  its  precise  amount.  An  immense 
staff  of  state  officials  will  be  required  for  this  function.  As  we  have 
already  said,  Rodbertus  believed  that  this  stage  of  social  develop- 
ment is  yet  far  distant ;  he  thought  that  five  centuries  will  need 
to  pass  away  before  the  ethical  force  of  the  people  can  be  equal  to  it. 

From  temperament,  culture,  and  social  position  Rodbertus  was 
averse  to  agitation  as  a  means  of  hastening  the  new  era  ;  and,  in 
the  measures  which  he  recommends  for  making  the  transition 
towards  it  he  showed  a  scrupulous  regard  for  the  existing  interests 
of  the  capitalists  and  landholders.  He  proposed  that  those  two 
classes  should  be  left  in  full  possession  of  their  present  share  of  the 
national  income,  but  that  the  workers  should  reap  the  benefit  of 
the  increasing  production.  To  secure  them  this  increment  of  pro- 
duction he  proposed  that  the  state  should  fix  a  "  normal  working 
day  "  for  the  various  trades,  a  normal  day's  work,  and  a  legal  wage, 
the  amount  of  which  should  be  revised  periodically,  and  raised 
according  to  the  increase  of  production,  the  better  workman  receiv- 
ing a  better  wage.  By  measures  such  as  these  carried  out  by  the 
state  in  order  to  correct  the  evils  of  competition  would  Rodbertus 
seek  to  make  the  transition  into  the  socialistic  era. 

The  economic  work  of  Rodbertus  is  therefore  an  attempt  made 
in  a  temperate  and  scientific  spirit  to  elucidate  the  evil  tendencies 
inherent  in  the  competitive  system,  especially  as  exemplified  in  the 
operation  of  the  iron  law  of  wages.  The  remedy  he  proposes  is 
a  state  management  of  production  and  distribution,  which  shall 
extend  more  and  more,  till  we  arrive  at  a  complete  and  universal 
socialism, — and  all  based  on  the  principle  that  as  labour  is  the 
source  of  value  so  to  the  labourer  should  all  wealth  belong.  It  is 
therefore  an  attempt  to  place  socialism  on  a  scientific  basis  ;  and 
he  is  certainly  entitled  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  founders  of 
"scientific  socialism  "  (see  SOCIALISM). 

The  following  are  the  most  important  works  of  Rodbertus  : — Zur  Erkenntniss 
unserer  staatswirthschafilichen  Zustande  (1842) ;  Sociale  Briefean  von  Kirchmann, 
(1850);  Creditnoth  des  Grundbesitzes  (2cl  ed.,  1876);  "Her  Normal-Arbeitstag," 
in  Tub.  Zeitschrift  (1878)  ;  tetters  to  A.  Wagner,  <fec.,  Tub.  Zeitschrift  (1878-79)  ; 
Letters  to  Rudolf  Meyer  (1882).  Within  recent  years  Rodbertus  has  received 
great  attention  in  Germany,  especially  from  Adolf  Wagner  (Tiib.  Zeitschrift, 
187S) ;  see  also  Kozak's  work  on  Rodbertus  (1S82),  and  an  excellent  monograph 
by  G.  Adler  (Leipsic,  1884). 

RODERICK.     See  SPAIN. 

RODEZ,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the  department 
of  Aveyron  and  the  see  of  a  bishop,  412  miles  south  of 
Paris  by  the  railway  which  continues  to  B6ziers,  is  built 
at  a  height  of  2077  feet  on  a  promontory  surrounded  by 
the  Aveyron,  a  sub-tributary  of  the  Garonne  by  the  Tarn. 
In  population — 14,425  inhabitants(15,333in  the  commune) 
in  1881 — it  ranks  next  to  the  industrial  town  of  Millau. 
The  cathedral  was  built  between  1277  and  1535.  A  great 
flamboyant  rose  window  and  a  gallery  in  the  same  style 
are  the  chief  features  of  the  principal  facade.  Each  tran- 
sept has  a  fine  Gothic  doorway.  At  the  north  side  of  the 
building  rises  a  tower  (erected  in  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century)  which  ranks  by  its  height  as  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  south  of  France,  and  bears  aloft  a  colossal 
statue  of  the  Virgin  surrounded  by  the  four  evangelists. 
The  interior  has  a  fine  rood  loft  and  several  interesting 
tombs.  The  episcopal  palace  with  its  collection  of  sculp- 
tured stones;  the  church  of  St  Amans,  in  the  Romanesque 
style,  but  entirely  restored  externally  in  the  1 8th  century  ; 
and  several  curious  old  houses  of  the  13th,  15th,  and  16th 
centuries,  such  as  the  Hotel  d'Armagnac,  on  the  site  of 
the  old  palace  of  the  counts,  also  deserve  to  be  mentioned. 
The  ruins  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre  still  exist,  and  the 
town  is  supplied  with  water  by  the  old  Roman  aqueduct 
recently  restored. 

Rodez,  called  Segodumim  under  the  Gauls  and  Ruthena  under  the 
Romans,  was  the  capital  of  a  tribe  allied  to  the  Arvernians.  In 
the  4th  century  it  adopted  the  Christian  faith  and  St  Amans,  its 


first  bishop,  was  elected  in  401.  During  the  Middle  Ages  con- 
tests were  rife  between  the  bishops  in  the  "city"  and  the  counts 
in  the  "bourg."  The  Albigenses  were  defeated  near  Rodez  in 
1210.  The  couutship  of  Rodez  depended  in  succession  on  the 
count  of  Toulouse,  on  the  king  of  France,  and  from  the  close  of  the 
13th  century  on  the  count  of  Armagnac.  From  1360  to  1368  the 
English  held  the  town.  After  the  confiscation  of  the  estates  of  the 
Armagnacs  in  1473  it  passed  to  the  dukes  of  Alen£on  and  then  to 
the  D'Albrets.  Henry  IV.  finally  annexed  it  to  the  crown  of 
France.  Neither  the  Protestants  nor  the  Leaguers  any  more  than 
in  earlier  days  the  Albigenses  were  able  to  make  themselves  masters 
of  Rodez. 

RODNEY,  GEORGE  BRYDGES  RODNEY,  BARON  (1718- 
1792),  English  admiral,  second  son  of  Henry  Rodney  of 
Walton-on-Thames,  was  born  there  on  19th  February  1718. 
His  father  had  served  in  Spain  under  the  earl  of  Peter- 
borough, and  on  quitting  the  army  obtained  command  of 
the  king's  yacht.  George  was  sent  to  Harrow  when  quite 
young,  and  on  leaving  entered  the  navy.  By  warrant 
dated  21st  June  1732  he  was  appointed  as  volunteer  on 
board  the  "  Sunderland,"  a  fourth-rate.  While  serving  on 
the  Mediterranean  station  under  Admiral  Haddock  he  was 
made  lieutenant  in  the  "  Dolphin,"  his  promotion  dating 
15th  February  1739.  In  1742  he  attained  the  rank  of 
post-captain,  having  been  appointed  to  the  "  Plymouth," 
9th  November.  After  minor  services  of  an  active  charac- 
ter in  home  waters,  he  obtained  command  of  the  "Eagle," 
sixty  guns,  and  in  this  ship  took  part  in  Hawke's  victory 
off  Ushant,  14th  October  1747,  over  the  French  fleet  under 
L'Etanduere.  On  that  day  Rodney  gained  his  first  laurels 
for  gallantry,  under  a  chief  to  whom  he  was  in  a  measure 
indebted  for  subsequent  success.  On  9th  May  1749  he 
was  appointed  governor  and  commander-in-chief  of  New- 
foundland, with  the  rank  of  commodore,  it  being  usual  at 
that  time  to  appoint  a  naval  officer,  chiefly  on  account  of 
the  fishery  interests.  Returning  home,  he  was  elected  M.P. 
for  Saltash  in  May  1751,  and  married  his  first  wife,  Jane 
Compton,  sister  to  the  earl  of  Northampton,  3d  February 
1753.  During  the  Seven  Years'  War  Rodney  rendered 
important  service.  In  1757  he  had  a  share  in  the  expedi- 
tion against  Rochefort,  commanding  the  "Dublin,"  seventy- 
four.  Next  year,  in  the  same  ship,  he  served  under 
Admiral  Boscawen  at  the  taking  of  Louisburg  (Cape 
Breton).  On  19th  May  1759  Rodney  became  a  rear- 
admiral  and  was  shortly  after  given  command  of  a  small 
squadron  intended  to  destroy  a  large  number  of  flat- 
bottomed  boats  and  stores  which  were  being  collected  at 
Havre  for  an  invasion  of  the  English  coasts.  He  bom- 
barded the  town  for  two  days  and  nights  without  ceasing, 
and  inflicted  great  loss  of  war-material  on  the  enemy.  In 
July  1760,  with  another  small  squadron,  he  succeeded  in 
taking  many  more  of  the  enemy's  flat-bottomed  boats  and 
in  blockading  the  coast  as  far  as  Dieppe.  Elected  M.P. 
for  Penryn  in  1761,  he  was  in  October  of  that  year 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Leeward  Islands 
station,  and  within  the  first  three  months  of  1762  had 
reduced  the  important  island  of  Martinique,  while  both 
St  Lucia  and  Grenada  had  surrendered  to  his  squadron. 
During  the  siege  of  Fort  Royal  his  seamen  and  marines 
rendered  splendid  service  oh  shore.  At  the  peace  of  1763 
Admiral  Rodney  returned  home,  having  been  during  his 
absence  made  vice-admiral  of  the  Blue  and  voted  the 
thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament. 

In  1764  Rodney  was  created  a  baronet  by  patent  of  21st 
January,  and  the  same  year  he  married  Henrietta,  daughter 
of  John  Clies  of  Lisbon.  From  1765  to  1770  he  was 
governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  and  on  the  dissolution 
of  parliament  in  1768  he  successfully  contested  Northamp- 
ton at  a  ruinous  cost.  When  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Jamaica  station  in  1771  he  lost  his  Greenwich  post, 
but  a  few  months  later  received  the  office  of  rear-admiral 
of  Great  Britain.  Till  1774  he  held  the  Jamaica  coin- 

XX.  —  78 


618 


R  O  D  — R  O  D 


mand,  and  during  a  period  of  quiet  was  active  in  improv- 
ing the  naval  yards  on  his  station.  Sir  George  struck  his 
flag  with  a  feeling  of  disappointment  at  not  obtaining  the 
governorship  of  Jamaica,  and  was  shortly  after  forced  to 
settle  in  Paris.  Election  expenses  and  losses  at  play  in 
fashionable  circles  had  shattered  his  fortune  and  now 
broke  up  his  family  till  the  eve  of  war  with  France.  In 
February  1778,  having  just  been  promoted  admiral  of  the 
White,  he  used  every  possible  exertion  to  obtain  a  com- 
mand from  the  Admiralty,  to  free  himself  from  his  money 
difficulties.  By  May  he  had,  through  the  splendid  gener- 
osity of  his  Parisian  friend  Marechal  Biron,  effected  the 
latter  task,  and  accordingly  he  returned  to  London  with 
his  children.  Sir  George  was  enabled  to  remit  at  once  to 
his  benefactor  the  full  loan,  and  it  is  worthy  of  record  that 
the  English  Government  in  later  years  awarded  pensions 
to  the  marechal's  daughters  in  recognition  of  their  father's 
chivalrous  act.1  That  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  French 
ministry  during  the  war  crisis  to  seduce  Rodney  into 
accepting  high  rank  in  the  French  navy  is  undeniable 
from  the  evidence  we  possess,  but  the  details  of  the  com- 
mon version  must  be  accepted  with  reserve,  excepting  the 
undoubted  instant  rejection  of  the  offer.  To  the  English 
cabinet  the  honour  of  both  Rodney  and  Biron  remained 
untarnished,  if  we  may  judge  of  the  former  by  his  letters, 
public  and  private,  and  of  the  latter  by  the  pension 
awarded  to  his  relatives.2 

Sir  George  was  appointed  once  more  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Leeward  Islands,  1st  October  1779,  but  did  not  sail 
till  29th  December.  He  captured  a  Spanish  convoy  bound 
to  Cadiz  on  8th  January  1780,  and  eight  days  later  defeated 
the  Spanish  admiral  Don  Juan  de  Langara  off  Cape  St 
Vincent,  taking  or  destroying  seven  ships.  On  17th  April 
an  action,  which,  owing  to  the  carelessness  of  some  of 
Rodney's  captains,  was  indecisive,  was  fought  off  Martinique 
with  the' French  admiral  Guichen.  Rodney,  acting  under 
orders,  captured  the  valuable  entrepot  of  St  Eustatius, 
and  by  his  strong  measures  for  stopping  illegal  and  contra- 
band trade  evoked  an  attempt  at  censure  on  the  part  of 
his  political  opponents.  After  a  few  months  in  England, 
recruiting  his  health  and  defending  himself  in  parliament, 
Sir  George  returned  to  his  command  in  February  1782, 
and  a  running  engagement  with  the  French  fleet  on  9th 
April  led  up  to  his  crowning  victory  off  Dominica,  when 
on  12th  April  with  thirty -five  sail  of  the  line  he  defeated 
Comte  de  Grasse,  who  had  thirty-three  sail.  The  French 
inferiority  in  numbers  was  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
the  greater  size  and  superior  sailing  qualities  of  their  ships, 
yet  five  were  taken  and  one  sunk,  after  eleven  hours'  fight- 
ing. This  important  battle  saved  Jamaica  and  ruined 
French  naval  prestige,  while  it  enabled  Rodney  to  write — 
"  Within  two  little  years  I  have  taken  two  Spanish,  one 
French,  and  one  Dutch  admirals."  A  long  and  wearisome 
controversy  exists  as  to  the  originator  of  the  manoeuvre  of 
"  breaking  the  line  "  in  this  battle,  but  the  merits  of  the 
victory  have  never  seriously  been  affected  by  any  differ- 
ence of  opinion  on  the  question.  A  shift  of  wind  broke 
the  French  line  of  battle,  and  advantage  was  taken  of 
this  by  the  English  ships  in  two  places. 

Rodney  arrived  home  in  August  to  receive  unbounded 
honour  from  his  country.  He  had  already  been  created 
Baron  Rodney  of  Rodney  Stoke,  Somerset,  by  patent  of 
19th  June  1782,  and  the  House  of  Commons  had  voted 
him  a  pension  of  £2000  a  year.  From  this  time  he  led  a 


1  See  Barrow's  Life  of  Anson,  pp.  328-329. 

2  See  Naval  Chronicle,  1799,  i.  369-370  ;  Mundy,  Life  of  Rodney, 
i.  183  ;    United  Service  Journal,  1830,  pt.  ii.  pp.   37-38,  for  diver- 
gent evidence  about  the  French  offer  of  service.     See  also  Academy, 
4th  October  1884,  for  the  identification  of  a  letter  which  perhaps 
bears  upon  Sir  G.  Rodney's  prospects  in  1778. 


quiet  country  life  till  his  death,  which  occurred  on  24th 
May  1792,  in  London,  while  on  a  visit  to  his  son.  Next 
to  Nelson  we  may  fairly  place  Rodney,  not  only  because 
of  his  well-merited  successes,  but  for  masterly  decision  and 
confident  boldness  in  grappling  with  fleets  of  the  three 
chief  maritime  states  of  Europe  while  in  the  plenitude  of 
their  power.  He  fought  his  equals  in  naval  science,  but 
conquered  by  superior  practical  skill. 

See  General  Mundy,  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Admiral  Lord 
Rodney,  2  vols.,  1830  ;  Rodney  letters  in  9th  Report  of  Hist.  MSS. 
Com.,  pt.  iii.  ;  "Memoirs"  in  Naval  Chronicle  i.  353-393;  and 
Charnock,  Biographia  Navalis  v.  204-228.  Lord  Rodney  published 
in  his  lifetime  (probably  1789)  Letters  to  His  Majesty's  Ministers,  <L-c., 
relative  to  St  Eustatius,  &c.,  of  which  there  is  a  copy  in  the  British 
Museum.  Most  of  these  letters  are  printed  in  Muudy's  Life,  vol. 
ii.,  though  with  many  variant  readings.  (G.  F.  H.) 

RODOSTO,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  in  the  sandjak 
of  Tekfur  Daghi  or  Rodosto  in  the  vilayet  of  Adrianople 
(Edirne),  is  situated  on  the  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora 
about  midway  between  Gallipoli  and  Constantinople.  Its 
picturesque  bay  is  enclosed  by  the  great  promontory  of 
Combos,  a  spur  about  2000  feet  in  height  from  the  hilly 
plateau  to  the  north,  and  round  about  the  town  are  stately 
cypress  groves.  The  church  of  Panagia  Rhevmatocratissa 
contains  the  graves,  with  long  Latin  inscriptions,  of  the 
Hungarian  exiles  of  1696.  Rodosto  has  long  been  a  great 
depot  for  the  produce  of  the  Adrianople  district,  but  its. 
trade  has  suffered  considerably  since  Dedeagatch  became 
the  terminus  of  the  railway  up  the  Maritza.  In  1880  the 
value  of  exports  and  imports  was  £230,824.  The  popula- 
tion, formerly  about  30,000,  was  in  1840  about  10,000,  and 
at  present  (1885)  may  be  estimated  at  17,000,  about  half 
Turks,  a  quarter  Armenians,  and  the  remainder  Greeks, 
Jews,  and  Latins. 

Rodosto  is  the  ancient  Rhfedestus  or  Bisanthe,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Samians.  In  Xenophon's  Anabasis  it  is  mentioned  as 
in  the  kingdom  of  the  Thracian  prince  Seuthes.  Its  restoration 
by  Justinian  is  chronicled  by  Procopius.  In  813  and  again  in 
1206  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Bulgarians,  but  it  continues  to  appear 
as  a  place  of  considerable  note  in  later  Byzantine  history,  being 
captured  and  recaptured  in  successive  wars. 

RODRIGUEZ,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean  in  19° 
41'  S.  lat.  and  63°  23'  E.  long.,  which,  after  the  Seychelles, 
forms  since  1814  the  most  important  dependency  of  the 
British  colony  of  Mauritius,  from  which  it  is  distant  344 
nautical  miles.  It  is  the  easternmost  of  all  the  islands  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  Africa.  With  a  length  of  1 3  miles 
east  and  west  and  a  breadth  of  3  to  6  north  and  south  it  has 
an  area  estimated  at  42^  square  miles.  On  all  sides  it  is 
surrounded  by  a  coral  reef,  which  on  the  north  and  south 
forms  a  large  flat  area  partly  dry  at  low  water.  The  island 
proper  was  long  believed  to  consist  of  granite  overlaid 
with  limestone  and  other  modern  formations,  and  thus  it 
was  regarded  as  a  striking  exception  to  the  rule  that  all 
mid-ocean  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  served  in  the 
hands  of  Peschel  and  others  as  a  proof  of  the  former  exist- 
ence in  the  Indian  Ocean  of  the  hypothetical  continent  of 
Lemuria.  The  investigations  of  the  Transit  of  Venus  Ex- 
pedition have  shown  that  it  is  built  up  of  "  doleritic  lavas 
which  have  been  poured  out  at  a  considerable  number  of 
orifices,"  now  difficult  to  identify,  at  successive  periods  of 
uncertain  date.  The  lavas  are  rich  in  olivine.  In  some 
places,  as  in  the  Cascade  Valley,  the  disintegration  of  the 
rocks  has  produced  beds  of  earthy  clays  varying  in  colour 
from  a  dull  brick  red  to  a  liver  brown,  and  forming  a 
prominent  feature  in  the  landscape.  A  central  ridge  of 
considerable  elevation  (Grande  Montague,  1140  feet)  runs 
through  the  island  from  east  to  west,  sending  off  a  variety 
of  spurs  (Le  Piton,  1160  feet).  Deep-cut  river  valleys, 
often  interrupted  by  cascades,  run  down  in  all  directions 
to  the  sea.  On  the  south-west  there  is  a  large  plain  of 
coralline  limestone,  remarkable  for  the  caves  of  all  sizes 
(some  beautifully  stalactitic)  with  which  it  is  riddled. 


R  0  E  —  R  O  E 


619 


Along  the  north  and  west  coast  there  are  on  the  reef  a 
number  of  islands  of  volcanic  origin ;  those  on  the  south- 
east are  all  of  coralline  limestone  or  sand.  There  are  only 
two  passages  through  the  reef  available  for  large  vessels, 
— these  leading  respectively  to  Port  Mathurin  and  to  Port 
South -East.  Rodriguez  is  comparatively  arid;  and  the 
streams  are  as  short-lived  for  the  most  part  as  they  are 
beautiful.  The  climate  is  like  that  of  Mauritius,  but 
more  subject  to  hurricanes  during  the  north-west  monsoon 
(November  to  April). 

About  1845  the  population  of  Rodriguez  was  about  250 
persons.  The  original  nucleus  consisted  of  slaves  from 
Mauritius,  and  recruits  arrived  from  Madagascar  and  the 
African  continent.  By  1871  they  had  increased  to  1108 
and  by  1881  to  1436.  The  island  is  governed  by  a  civil 
commissioner,  who  is  also  a  police  magistrate.  Capitalists 
from  Mauritius  are  beginning  to  pay  attention  to  the 
natural  advantages  of  the  island.  A  carriage  road  has 
been  constructed  from  Mathurin  to  Gabriel,  the  only  other 
village,  where  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  have  their 
chapel  and  residence. 

When  originally  discovered  and  down  into  the  17th  century 
Rodriguez  was  clothed  with  fine  timber  trees  ;  but  goats,  cattle, 
and  bush-fires  have  combined  to  destroy  the  great  bulk  of  the  old 
vegetation,  and  the  indigenous  plants  have  in  many  cases  been 
ousted  by  intrusive  foreigners.  When  the  island  was  in  French 
possession  many  settlers  cultivated  large  estates,  and  fortunes  were 
realized  ;  but  with  the  liberation  of  the  slaves  the  area  of  cultiva- 
tion decreased,  and  it  is  now  of  very  limited  extent.  The  staple 
crop  is  the  sweet  potato  ;  and  manioc,  maize,  millet,  and  rice  grow 
well,  but  are  not  much  cultivated.  Wheat  is  seldom  seen,  mainly 
because  of  the  parakeets  and  the  Java  sparrows.  Beans  (Plutseolus 
lunaluf),  lentils, gram  (Cicer  arietinum),dholl  (Cajanus  indicus),  and 
ground-nuts  are  all  grown  to  a  certain  extent  in  spite  of  the  ravages 
of  the  rats  (Balfour).  Mangoes,  bananas,  gtiavas,  pine-apples,  custard- 
apples,  and  especially  oranges,  citrons,  and  limes,  are  the  fruits  that 
nourish  best.  Of  the  timber  trees  the  most  common  are  Elseoden- 
dron  orientale,  much  used  in  carpentry  and  for  pirogues,  and  Latania 
Verschaffclti  (Leguat's  plantane).  At  least  two  species  of  screw- 
pine  (Pandanus  heterocarpus,  Balf.  fil.  aj>d  P.  tenuifolius)  occur 
freely  throughout  the  island.  The  total  number  of  known  species, 
according  to  Professor  I.  B.  Balfour,  is  470,  belonging  to  85  families 
and  293  genera ;  and  of  these  297  are  phanerogamous  and  173 
cryptogamous.  The  families  represented  by  the  greatest  number  of 
species  are  Graminess  (21  indigenous,  6  introduced),  Leguminosse  (14 
ind.,  15  intr.),  Convolvulacese  (11  ind.,  4  intr.),  Malvaceae  (9  ind.), 
Rubiaccas (8  ind.),  Cyperocese,  (8  ind.),  Euphorbiaccse  (8  ind.),  Liliacese. 
(6  ind. ),  Composites,  (5  ind.,  6  intr. ).  Mathurina  pcnduliftora  ( Tur- 
ncracesz}  is  interesting,  as  its  nearest  congener  is  in  Central  America, 
and  the  family  has  not  hitherto  been  found  in  the  Mascarenes.  Of 
33  species  of  mosses  17  are  peculiar.  Variability  of  species  and 
heterophylly  are  characteristic  of  the  flora  to  quite  an  unusual 
degree.  To  the  naturalist  Rodriguez  is  as  interesting  as  it  is  to 
the  botanist.  At  present  the  only  indigenous  mammal  is  a  species 
of  fruit-eating  bat  (Pteropus  rodericensis),  and  the  introduced  species 
are  such  familiar  creatures  as  the  pig,  rabbit,  rat,  mouse,  &c.  ;  but 
down  to  a  recent  period  the  island  was  the  home  of  a  very  large 
land-tortoise  ( Testudo  Vosmaeri  or  rodericensis),  and  its  limestone 
caves  have  yielded  a  large  number  of  skeletons  of  the  dodo-like 
solitaire  (Pezophaps  solitarius),  which  still  built  its  mound-like  nest 
in  the  island  in  the  close  of  the  17th  century,  but  is  now  extinct 
(see  vol.  iii.  p.  732).  Of  indigenous  birds  13  species  have  been 
registered.  The  guinea-fowl  (introduced)  has  become  exceedingly 
abundant,  partly  owing  to  a  protective  game-law  ;  and  a  francolin 
(F.  ponticerianus) ,  popularly  a  "partridge,"  is  also  common.  The 
marine  fish-fauna  does  not  differ  from  that  of  Mauritius,  and  the 
freshwater  species,  with  the  exception  of  Mugil  rodericensis  and 
Myxiis  csecuticus,  are  common  to  all  the  Mascarenes.  Thirty-five 
species  of  crustaceans  are  known.  The  insects  (probably  very  im- 
perfectly registered)  comprise  60  species  of  Coleoptera,  15  Hyme.no- 
ptera,  21  Lepidoptera,  15  Orthoptera,  and  20  Hemiptera.  Forty- 
nine  species  of  coral  have  been  collected,  showing  a  close  affinity  to 
those  of  Mauritius,  Madagascar,  and  the  Seychelles. 

Rodriguez  or  Diego  Ruy's  Island  was  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1645.  In  1690  Duquesne  prevailed  on  the  Dutch  Govern- 
ment to  send  a  body  of  French  refugees  to  the  Island  of  Bourbon, 
at  that  time,  he  believed,  abandoned  by  the  French  authorities. 
As  the  refugees,  however,  found  the  French  in  possession  they  pro- 
ceeded to  Rodriguez,  and  there  eight  of  their  number  •were  landed 
on  30th  April  1691  with  a  promise  that  they  should  be  visited  by 
their  compatriots  within  two  years.  The  two  years  were  spent 


without  misadventure,  but,  instead  of  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  their 
friends,  the  seven  colonists  (for  one  had  meanwhile  died)  rashly 
left  the  island  on  8th  May  1693  and  made  their  way  to  Mauritius, 
where  they  were  treated  with  great  cruelty  by  the  governor.  The 
account  of  the  enterprise  left  us  by  Francis  Leguat —  Voyages  et 
A  ventures  (London,  1708),  or,  as  it  is  called  in  the  English  trans- 
lation, A  New  Voyage  to  the  East  Indies  (London,  1708) — is  a  most 
garrulous  and  amusing  narrative,  and  was  for  a  long  time  almost 
the  only  source  of  information  about  Rodriguez.  His  description 
of  the  solitaire  is  of  course  unique. 

See  Charles  Grant,  Hist,  of  Mauritius  and  {he  Neighbouring  Islands,  1801  ; 
Higgin,  in  Jour.  R.  G.  Soc. ,  London,  1 849 ;  the  Reports  of  the  results  of  the  Transit 
of  Venus  Expedition,  1874-75,  published  as  an  extra  volume  of  The  Philosophical 
Transactions  (clxviii.),  London  1879  (Botany,  by  I.  B.  Balfour  ;  Petrology,  by  N. 
S.  Maskelyne,  &c.)  ;  Behm,  in  Petermann's  Miltheilungen,  1880 ;  Colonial  Office 
List,  1884,  1885. 

ROE.     See  DEER,  vol.  vii.  p.  24. 

ROE  or  Row,  SIR  THOMAS  (1568?-1644),  an  eminent 
political  agent  of  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I., 
was  born  in  1568  (?)  at  Low  Ley  ton  near  Wanstead  in 
Essex  (being  a  grandson  of  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  a  well-known 
lord  mayor  of  London).  He  was  entered  as  a  commoner 
at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  1593,  but  shortly  after- 
wards he  left  the  university  and,  having  read  for  the  bar, 
became  esquire  of  the  body  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  From 
James  I.  he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  in  1604, 
and  in  1609  he  was  sent  by  Prince  Henry  on  a  mission  to 
the  West  Indies,  during  which  he  visited  Guiana  and  the 
river  Amazons.  As  member  of  parliament  in  1614  he 
supported  the  principles  of  Sandys  and  Whitelocke.  His 
permanent  reputation  was  mainly  secured  by  the  success 
which  attended  his  embassy  in  1615-18  to  the  court  at 
Agra  of  the  Great  Mogul  (Jahangir,  son  of  Akbar),  whose 
importance  had  been  made  known  by  Sir  John  Hawkins, 
— the  principal  object  of  the  mission  being  to  obtain  the 
protection  of  an  English  factory  at  Surat.  Sir  Thomas 
Roe's  Journal,  reprinted  in  a  more  or  less  complete  shape 
in  the  collections  of  Purchas,  Pinkerton,  and  Kerr,  forms 
one  of  the  leading  authorities  for  the  reign  of  Jahangir. 
Appointed  ambassador  to  the  Porte  in  1621,  he  filled  this 
difficult  position  under  Osman,  Mustapha,  and  Amurat ; 
and  after  his  return  from  the  East  he  continued  to  be  em- 
ployed on  various  political  missions  to  Poland,  Denmark, 
and  other  European  courts,  till  in  1641  he  was  sent  by 
Charles  I.  to  the  diet  of  Ratisbon.  Roe  died  in  1644. 

The  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Learning  proposed  to  pub- 
lish a  whole  series  of  Roe's  papers,  but  owing  to  lack  of  funds  only 
one  of  the  five  volumes,  edited  by  Samuel  Richardson,  ever  saw  the 
light — The  Negotiations  of  Sir  Thomas  Hoe  in  his  Embassy  to  the 
Ottoman  Porte,  1621-1628^  (London,  1740).  In  regard  to  his  minor 
publications  and  manuscript  remains  see  Wood's  Athenae  Oxonienses ; 
Allibone's  Dictionary  of  British  .  .  .  Authors;  and  Notes  and  Queries, 
vii.,  viii.,  ix.,  and  xi.  (2d  ser.). 

ROEBLING,  JOHN  AUGUSTUS  (1806-1869),  civil  en- 
gineer, was  born  at  Miihlhausen,  Prussia,  6th  June  1806. 
Soon  after  his  graduation  from  the  polytechnic  school  at 
Berlin  he  removed  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1831 
entered  on  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  western  Penn- 
sylvania. He  established  at  Pittsburgh  a  manufactory  of 
wire  rope,  and  in  May  1845  completed  his  first  important 
structure,  the  suspended  aqueduct  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Canal  across  the  Monongahela  river.  This  was  followed 
by  the  Monongahela  suspension  bridge  at  Pittsburgh  and 
several  suspended  aqueducts  on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
Canal.  Removing  his  wire  manufactory  to  Trenton,  New 
Jersey,  he  began,  in  1851,  the  erection  at  Niagara  Falls  of 
a  long  span  wire  suspension  bridge  with  double  roadway, 
for  railway  and  carriage  use  (see  BRIDGE,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
338-339),  which  was  completed  in  1855.  Owing  to  the 
novelty  of  its  design,  the  most  eminent  engineers,  including 
Stevenson,  regarded  this  bridge  as  foredoomed  to  failure ; 
but,  with  its  complete  success,  demonstrated  by  long  use, 
the  number  of  suspension  bridges  rapidly  multiplied,  the 
use  of  wire-ropes  instead  of  chain-cables  becoming  all  but 
universal.  The  completion,  in  1867,  of  the  still  more 


620 


R  O  E  — R  O  G 


remarkable  suspension  bridge  over  the  Ohio  river  at 
Cincinnati,  with  a  clear  span  of  1057  feet  (see  CINCINNATI, 
vol.  v.  p.  782),  added  to  Roebling's  reputation,  and  his  de- 
sign for  the  great  bridge  spanning  the  East  River  between 
New  York  and  Brooklyn  was  accepted.1  While  personally 
engaged  in  laying  out  the  towers  for  the  bridge,  Roebling 
received  an  accidental  injury,  which  resulted  in  his  death, 
at  Brooklyn,  from  tetanus,  22d  July  1869. 

At  the  time  of  his  death  Roebling's  work  on  Long  and  Short 
Span  Bridges  (New  York,  1869)  was  in  the  press.  It  is  devoted  to 
an  exposition  of  his  belief  that  "  the  principle  of  suspension  will  of 
necessity  become  the  main  feature  in  our  future  long  span  railway 
bridges, "  and  was  intended  as  the  initial  volume  of  a  series  relating 
to  his  general  theory  of  bridge  construction,  with  detailed  plans 
and  descriptions  of  the  larger  works  erected  by  him. 

ROEMER,  OLE  (Latinized  OLAUS)  (1644-1710),  Danish 
astronomer,  was  born  at  Aarhuus  in  Jutland,  25th  Septem- 
ber 1644.  He  studied  mathematics  at  the  university  of 
Copenhagen  until  1671,  when  he  assisted  Picard  in  de- 
termining the  geographical  position  of  Tycho  Brahe's 
observatory  (Uranienburg  on  the  island  of  Huen).  In 
1672  he  accompanied  Picard  to  Paris,  where  he  remained 
nine  years,  occupied  with  observations  at  the  new  royal 
observatory  and  hydraulic  works  at  Versailles  and  Marly. 
In  1675  he  read  a  paper  before  the  Academy  on  the  suc- 
cessive propagation  of  light  as  revealed  by  a  certain  in- 
equality in  the  motion  of  the  first  of  Jupiter's  satellites 
(see  PARALLAX,  vol.  xviii.  p.  251).  In  1681  he  returned 
to  Copenhagen,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days 
as  professor  of  astronomy,  but  his  great  ability  and  prac- 
tical talents  were  made  use  of  in  several  other  public 
employments.  He  died  on  23d  September  1710. 

Roemer's  name  is  now  best  known  by  his  discovery  of  the  finite 
velocity  of  light.  Most  of  his  contemporaries  doubted  the  reality 
of  this  discovery,  chiefly  because  the  eclipses  of  the  three  outer 
satellites  of  Jupiter  did  not  show  similar  irregularities  to  those 
exhibited  by  the  first  satellite.  This  is  not  surprising,  as  the 
mutual  attraction  of  the  satellites  makes  their  motions  far  more 
complicated  than  astronomers  imagined  before  the  development  of 
the  theory  of  gravitation,  and  it  should  perhaps  be  chiefly  ascribed 
to  chance  that  Roemer  brought  forward  his  theory,  which  Bradley's 
discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light  about  fifty  years  later  proved  to 
be  a  true  one.  Roemer's  ingenuity  has,  however,  appeared  very  pro- 
minently in  the  important  improvements  which  he  carried  out  in 
the  construction  of  astronomical  instruments.  The  large  "armil- 
lary  spheres,"  first  constructed  by  the  astronomers  of  Alexandria 
and  also  used  by  Tycho  Brahe,  had  been  superseded  by  the  meridian 
or  mural  quadrant  for  measuring  meridian  zenith  distances,  and  by 
the  sextant  for  measuring  distances  between  stars  in  order  to  find 
their  difference  of  right  ascension  by  solving  the  spherical  triangle 
between  the  pole  and  the  two  stars.  Both  these  instruments  were 
introduced  by  Tycho  Brahe.  Roemer,  however,  saw  that  Tycho's 
idea  of  making  the  rotating  earth  itself  an  astronomical  instrument 
by  observing  the  transits  of  stars  across  the  meridian  could  be 
carried  out  better  by  fixing  a  telescope  at  right  angles  to  a  hori- 
zontal axis  placed  exactly  east  and  west,  so  that  the  telescope  could 
only  move  in  the  meridian.  The  first  transit  instrument  was  con- 
structed in  1689  and  erected  in  Roemer's  house  in  1690.  In  the 
same  year  he  erected  in  the  university  observatory  an  instrument 
with  altitude  and  azimuth  circles  (for  observing  equal  altitudes  on 
both  sides  of  the  meridian)  and  an  equatorial  instrument  In  1704 
he  constructed  a  private  observatory  at  Vridlbsemagle,  a  few  miles 
west  of  Copenhagen,  and  mounted  a  meridian  circle  (the  transit 
instrument  and  vertical  circle  combined)  and  a  transit  instrument 
n:oving  in  the  prime  vertical.  Roemer  may  thus  be  considered  the 
inventor  of  nearly  all  our  modern  instruments  of  precision,  and  it 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  his  ideas  were  not  adopted  by  astro- 
nomers until  about  a  century  later.  All  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions were  destroyed  in  a  great  conflagration  in  1728,  except  three 
days'  work,  which  has  been  discussed  by  Oalle  (0.  Roemeri  triduum 
observationum  astronomicarum  a.  1706  institutarum,  Berlin,  1845). 
His  disciple  Horrebow  has  left  us  a  very  detailed  description  of 
Roemer's  instruments  and  ideas  in  his  Opera  mathematico-physica 
(3  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1740-41).  Grant's  History  of  Physical  Astro- 
nomy (London,  1852)  gives  a  very  correct  account  of  Roemer  and 
his  inventions.  About  his  life  see  also  an  article  by  Philipsen  in 
Nordisk  Universitets  Tidsskrift,  vol.  v.,  1860. 

1  For  description  of  this  the  largest  wire  suspension  bridge  in  the 
world,  see  NEW  YORK  CITY,  vol.  xvii.  p.  465. 


ROERMOND  or  ROERMONDE  (i.e.,  "  Roer-Mouth "),  a 
town  of  the  Netherlands  in  the  province  of  Lhnlmrg 
(formerly  Guelderland),  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maas 
(Meuse)  at  the  mouth  of  the  Roer,  which  separates  it  from 
the  suburb  of  St  Jacob.  It  is  29 1  miles  from  Maastricht 
by  the  railway  to  Venlo  (opened"  1865).  The  old  forti- 
fications were  dismantled  in  1819  and  have  been  partly 
turned  into  promenades.  At  this  point  the  Maas  is  crossed 
by  a  bridge  erected  in  1866-67,  and  the  Roer  by  one  dating 
from  1771  and  replacing  the  older  structure  destroyed  in 
1764.  The  finest  building  in  the  town  is  the  Romanesque 
minster  church,  begun  in  1218,  and  dedicated  by  Arch- 
bishop Engelbert  of  Cologne.  In  the  middle  of  the  nave 
is  the  tomb  of  Count  Gerhard  III.  of  Guelderland  and  his 
wife  Margaret.  The  cathedral  of  St  Christopher  is  also 
of  note ;  on  the  top  of  the  tower  (246  feet)  is  a  copper 
statue  of  the  saint  and  the  interior  is  adorned  with  paint- 
ings by  Rubens,  Jacob  de  Wit,  &c.  The  Reformed  church 
was  once  the  chapel  of  the  monastery  of  the  Minorites. 
The  old  bishop's  palace  is  now  the  court-house,  and  the 
old  Jesuits'  monastery  with  its  fine  gardens  is  now  occu- 
pied as  a  higher  burgher  school.  Woollen,  cotton,  silk, 
and  mixed  stuffs,  paper,  flour,  and  beer  are  manufactured 
at  Roermond.  The  population  of  the  town  was  5712  in 
1840  and  8797  in  1870;  and  that  of  the  commune  has 
increased  from  6005  in  1840  to  10,470  in  1879. 

Till  the  13th  century  Roermond  was  only  a  village  witli  a  hunt- 
ing lodge  known  as  Pot.  The  erection  of  the  monastic  church  in 
1218  was  followed  by  the  building  of  town  walls  in  1231  by  Count 
Otho  II.  In  1543  Roermond  was  occupied  by  the  troops  of  Charles 
V.,  and  in  the  course  of  the  Eighty  Years'  War  few  places  more 
frequently  changed  hands.  The  peace  of  Minister  (1648)  left  it  in 
the  Spanish  Netherlands  ;  but  between  1702  and  1716  it  was  held 
by  the  forces  of  the  United  Provinces. 

ROGATION  DAYS,  the  Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednes- 
day before  Ascension  Day.  The  week  in  which  they  occur 
is  sometimes  called  Rogation  Week.  See  LITANY,  vol. 
xiv.  pp.  695-696. 

ROGER  I.,  "  grand  count "  of  Sicily,  the  twelfth  and 
youngest  son  of  Tancred  de  Hauteville  in  Normandy,  was 
born  about  1031.  He  joined  his  brother  ROBERT  Gu  ISCARD 
(q.v.)  in  Italy  in  1058,  and  after  taking  part  with  him  in 
his  conquests  on  the  mainland  passed  over  to  Sicily  in  1061. 
There  such  success  attended  his  arms  that  in  1071  he  took 
the  title  of  count;  in  1089  he  became  "grand  count"  and 
in  1098  received  from  the  pope  for  himself  and  his  suc- 
cessors the  title  of  "  legate  apostolical "  in  Sicily.  He  died 
in  1101.  See  SICILY. 

ROGER  II.,  count  of  Sicily,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1093  and  died  in  1154.  He  obtained  from 
the  antipope  Anacletus  II.  the  title  of  king  of  Sicily  in 
1130,  and  was  crowned  in  the  same  year.  The  title  was 
afterwards  confirmed  in  1139  by  Innocent  II.  See  SICILY. 

ROGER  OF  HOVEDON.     See  HOVEDON,  vol.  xii.  p.  319. 

ROGER  OF  WENDOVER,  who  was  a  monk  in  the  abbey 
of  St  Albans,  and  who  died  prior  of  Belvoir  in  1237,  was 
long  regarded  as  the  sole  author  of  a  Latin  chronicle 
entitled  Flores  ffistoriarum,  being  a  history  of  the  world 
from  the  creation  down  to  the  year  1235.  Recent  investi- 
gation, however,  has  disclosed  that  only  the  portion  from 
1189  onwards  is  from  his  pen,  and  that  the  remainder  must 
be  attributed  to  John  de  Cella,  who  was  abbot  of  St  Albans 
from  1195  to  1214.  See  vol.  xv.  p.  634. 

ROGERS,  JOHN  (c.  1500-1555),  editor  of  the  English 
Bible  known  as  Matthew's.  See  vol.  viii.  p.  386. 

ROGERS,  SAMUEL  (1763-1855),  the  "melodious 
Rogers "  of  Byron,  the  "  memory  Rogers "  of  the  general 
reader,  has  a  unique  reputation  among  English  men  of 
letters.  Not  only  was  he  a  poet  of  sufficient  mark  to  be 
hailed  by  Byron — with  perverse  but  sincere  admiration — 
as  one  of  the  few  men  of  genuine  weight  in  an  age  of 


ROGERS 


621 


scribblers,  but  he  was  also  for  fifty  years  the  most  cele- 
brated entertainer  of  celebrities  in  London.  From  1803, 
when  he  removed  from  his  chambers  in  the  Temple,  till 
the  last  year  of  his  long  life,  his  house,  22  St  James's 
Place,  was  the  common  meeting-ground  of  men  of  distinc- 
tion in  every  walk  of  life.  Hence,  though  his  poems  are 
no  longer  read  except  by  the  student,  his  name  is  kept 
alive  in  the  letters  and  diaries  of  associates  whose  works 
are  more  permanent  than  his  own, — kept  alive,  too,  not 
merely  as  that  of  a  cultured  Amphitryon  but  as  that  of  a 
conversational  wit  whose  tart  sayings  are  worthy  of  record. 
He  was  born  at  Newington  Green  (London)  on  30th 
July  1763,  the  son  of  a  wealthy  London  banker,  and  re- 
lated on  the  mother's  side  to  the  celebrated  Noncon- 
formist divines  Philip  and  Matthew  Henry.  Dr  Price, 
the  Unitarian,  Burke's  antagonist,  was  the  family  pastor 
and  a  frequent  visitor  at  his  father's  house.  The  influ- 
ence of  this  writer's  philosophy  can  be  traced  in  Rogers's 
poems.  Rogers  was  educated  at  the  famous  Nonconformist 
academy  at  Newington  Green,  where  Defoe  had  been  a 
pupil  a  hundred  years  before.  Attention  to  English  studies 
had  been  a  distinct  object  in  this  school  from  its  founda- 
tion, and  Rogers,  his  youthful  ambition  awakened,  rushed 
into  print  as  an  essayist  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  at 
the  age  of  eighteen.  His  main  desire  then  was  to  be  a 
preacher  like  Dr  Price ;  but  he  yielded  to  his  father's 
advice  and  entered  the  paternal  bank.  But  he  was  far 
from  abandoning  his  love  for  literature.  He  read  Gray 
and  Goldsmith  on  his  way  to  the  bank,  and  in  1786 
proved  his  admiration  for  these  exemplars  in  a  volume 
containing  some  pretty  imitations  of  Goldsmith  and  a 
wildly  apostrophic  Ode  to  Superstition  after  the  manner 
of  Gray.  This  volume  contains  one  of  the  few  passages 
of  his  that  are  often  quoted — 

"  There 's  such  a  charm  in  melancholy, 
I  would  not,  if  I  could,  be  gay." 

Following  Gray's  example,  the  youthful  poet  took  great 
pains  with  his  verses,  and,  after  nine  years'  maturing, 
published  in  1792  a  more  elaborate  and  more  successful 
bid  for  poetic  laurels,  The  Pleasures  of  Memory.  This 
poem  may  be  regarded  as  the  last  blaze  of  the  poetic 
diction  of  the  18th  century  before  its  final  extinction. 
We  see  here  carried  to  the  extremest  pitch  the  theory  of 
elevating  and  refining  familiar  themes  by  abstract  treat- 
ment and  noble  imagery.  So  simple  an  act  as  that  of 
trying  to  remember  a  half-forgotten  fact  or  fancy  is  elabo- 
rately and  beautifully  compared  to  the  search  of  an  im- 
patient mother  for  a  child  lost  in  a  forest.  The  common 
organ-grinder  becomes  "  the  blithe  son  of  Savoy,"  and  as 
such  is  presented  in  a  most  romantic  situation  as  an 
object  for  refined  sympathy.  The  good  familiar  creature 
memory  itself  is  transfigured  into  a  gracious  personifica- 
tion of  most  benignant  and  wide-reaching  power.  In  this 
art  of  "raising  a  subject,"  as  the  18th  century  phrase 
was,  the  Pleasures  of  Memory  is  much  more  perfect  than 
Campbell's  Pleasures  of  Hope,  published  a  few  years  later 
in  imitation.  Byron's  criticism  is  complete, — "there  is 
not  a  vulgar  line  in  the  poem."  This  is  the  acme  of 
positive  praise  for  the  fashionable  serious  poetry  of  the 
18th  century :  when  this  can  be  said  of  a  poet,  he  has 
reached  the  perfection  of  its  ideal  of  poetic  diction.  In 
this  poem  the  characters  of  the  school  can  be  analysed  in 
cold  blood,  for  there  is  not  much  excitement  in  laboured 
reflexions  on  the  pleasures  of  memory.  Human  interest 
is  at  a  minimum  in  such  frigid  exercises ;  it  is  almost 
entirely  an  affair  of  diction.  The  chief  feeling  excited  is 
astonishment  at  the  pains  taken  by  the  poet  to  provide 
thick  and  showy  wrappages  for  such  starveling  little 
children  of  thought. 

It  was  six  years  before  Rogers  was  ready  with  another 


of  his  elaborate  poems, — An  Epistle  to  a  Friend  (1798). 
This  has  at  least  the  advantage  of  some  personal  interest. 
It  describes  the  poet's  ideal  of  a  comfortable  life,  and 
may  be  put  side  by  side  with  Pomfret's  Choice  for  literary 
comparison,  and  with  the  poet's  own  life  for  fifty  years 
afterwards.  Although  for  conventional  poetic  reasons 
Rogers  establishes  his  ideal  house  in  the  country  instead 
of  in  St  James's  Place,  still  the  principles  of  living  are  the 
same  which  afterwards  regulated  his  real  life  and  were 
carried  out  with  easy  steady  perseverance.  "It  is  the 
design  of  this  Epistle  to  illustrate  the  virtue  of  True  Taste ; 
and  to  show  how  little  she  requires  to  secure  not  only  the 
comforts  but  even  the  elegancies  of  life.  True  Taste  is 
an  excellent  Economist."  Rogers  illustrated  this  maxim 
in  proceeding  to  surround  himself  with  rare  and  beautiful 
works  of  art  and  letters,  and  to  make  his  house  the  centre 
for  all  that  was  most  distinguished  and  agreeable  in 
London  society.  Many  persons  in  his  time  spent  ten 
times  as  much  in  the  pursuit  of  a  similar  object  without 
one-tenth  of  the  success.  "  I  believe,"  Mrs  Norton  wrote, 
"  no  man  ever  was  so  much  attended  to  and  thought  of 
who  had  so  slender  a  fortune  and  such  calm  abilities.  His 
God  was  Harmony ;  and  over  his  life  Harmony  presided 
sitting  on  a  lukewarm  cloud."  When  he  moved  to  St 
James's  Place  in  1803  he  withdrew  from  active  concern 
in  the  bank,  contenting  himself  with  a  moderate  income 
as  a  sleeping  partner ;  and  so  careful  a  manager  was  he 
of  this  income  that  he  was  able  not  only  to  entertain  and 
to  buy  choice  things — his  collection,  which  seems  to  have 
contained  hardly  a  particle  of  rubbish,  fetching  £50,000 
when  sold  after  his  death — but  also  to  extend  generous 
help  to  struggling  men  of  letters.  It  was  Rogers  who 
came  to  Sheridan's  relief  in  his  last  days  when  he  was 
deserted  by  his  titled  friends;  Moore  and  Campbell  received 
help  in  need  from  him,  as  munificent  as  it  was  delicately 
offered ;  and  he  was  always  ready  to  befriend  much  less 
distinguished  merit  in  distress.  It  was  perhaps  character- 
istic of  a  man  so  cautious,  equable,  and  dispassionate  that 
his  wit  had  a  depreciating  turn  and  was  often  exercised 
with  calm  insolence  at  the  expense  of  fussy  pretence. 
But  that  the  man  was  on  the  whole  of  a  kindly  and  lovable 
nature  was  shown  by  an  incident  late  in  his  life.  His 
popularity  was  put  to  the  test  of  misfortune  by  the  robbery 
of  his  bank.  Most  of  the  money  was  recovered",  but  upon 
the  news  of  the  misfortune  several  men  of  wealth  and  title 
came  forward  with  large  offers  of  assistance. 

Although  the  laureateship  was  pressed  upon  Rogers  by 
the  prince  consort  on  Wordsworth's  death  in  1850,  he  had 
not  been  a  prolific  poet  during  his  long  life  of  cultured 
leisure  and  social  enjoyment.  He  continued  his  practice 
of  writing  little  and  writing  slowly.  Fourteen  years  in- 
tervened between  the  Epistle  and  the  publication  of  the 
Voyage  of  Columbus  in  1812.  In  method  this  poem  was 
a  compromise  between  the  old  school  of  reflective  poetry 
and  the  new  school  of  narrative.  The  story  of  Columbus 
was  the  theme,  but  the  story  was  not  told  :  it  was  only 
indicated  in  a  series  of  reflexions  on  its  most  striking 
moments.  The  experiment  helped  forward  the  literary 
movement ;  the  new  school  through  Byron  took  the  hint, 
and  The  Giaour,  though  interpenetrated  with  a  more 
vigorous  life,  was  avowedly  written  on  the  model  of 
Columbus,  and  dedicated  to  Rogers.  In  his  next  poem, 
Jacqueline,  which  was  published  in  the  same  volume  with 
Byron's  Lara  in  1814,  much  to  the  benefit  of  the  wits  of 
the  time,  Rogers  may  be  said  to  have  gone  over  to  the 
new  school,  adopting  their  four-accent  measure  and  show- 
ing his  skill,  which  was  considerable,  in  pure  narrative. 
His  reflective  poem  on  Human  Life,  though  published  in 
1819,  can  hardly  be  described  as  a  reversion,  for  he  had 
been  engaged  on  it  off  and  on  for  twelve  years.  It  is 


622 


R  O  H  — R  O  H 


much  the  best  of  his  meditative  poems,  as  elegant  and 
finished  in  diction  as  the  Memory,  and  much  more  incisive 
in  thought  and  touching  in  sentiment.  His  last,  longest, 
and  most  interesting  published  work  was  Italy,  the  first 
instalment  of  which  was  published  in  1821  and  the  last 
in  1834.  It  is  said  that,  when  the  publisher  complained 
that  the  public  would  not  buy  Italy,  Rogers  affirmed  that 
he  "would  make  them  buy  it" ;  and,  calling  in  the  aid  of 
Turner  and  Stothard,  he  produced  the  sumptuous  illus- 
trated edition  at  a  cost  of  £15,000.  Apart  from  these 
adventitious  charms  Italy  has  much  greater  general  interest 
than  any  other  of  Rogers's  poems,  and  is  likely  to  be  read 
for  long,  if  only  as  a  traveller's  companion.  The  style  is 
studiously  simple ;  the  blank  verse  has  quite  an  Eliza- 
bethan flavour,  and  abounds  in  happy  lines ;  the  reflexions 
have  a  keen  point ;  and  the  incidental  stories  are  told  with 
admirable  brevity  and  effect.  Passages  of  prose  are  inter- 
spersed, wrought  with  the  same  care  as  the  verses,  and 
the  notes  are  models  of  interesting,  detail  concisely  put. 

For  the  last  five  years  of  his  life  Rogers,  who  had  been 
extremely  active  till  his  eighty-eighth  year,  was  confined  to 
his  chair  in  consequence  of  a  fall  in  the  street.  He  died 
in  London  on  18th  December  1855,  in  his  ninety-third 
year.  Only  very  fragmentary  records  are  preserved  of  the 
brilliant  gatherings  at  breakfast  and  dinner  in  his  house. 
Fragments  are  to  be  gleaned  in  the  diaries  of  Byron,  Moore, 
Sydney  Smith,  and  others.  Recollections  of  his  table-talk 
were  published  in  1856,  and  a  volume  of  his  Recollections 
of  celebrities  in  1857.  A  complete  Life  is  understood 
(1885)  to  be  in  preparation,  with  Mr  P.  W.  Clayden  as 
editor.  Mr  Hay  ward's  essay  is  the  most  complete  account 
of  Rogers  hitherto  published.  (w.  M.) 

ROHAN,  HENKI  DE  (1579-1638),  a  general  and  writer 
of  eminence  and  one  of  the  last  and  best  representatives 
of  the  independent  French  noblesse,  was  born  at  the 
chateau  of  Bleins  in  Brittany  on  21st  August  1579.  His 
father  was  Rene  II.,  count  of  Rohan,  and  head  of  a  family 
which  had  hardly  a  superior  in  France  for  antiquity  and 
distinction,  and  which  was  connected  with  most  of  the 
reigning  houses  of  Europe.  Rohan  was  by  birth  the 
second  son,  but  his  elder  brother  Ren6  dying  young  he 
became  the  heir  of  the  name.  He  appeared  at  court  and  in 
the  army  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  was  a  special  favourite 
with  Henry  IV.,  after  whom,  failing  the  house  of  Conde, 
he -might  be  said  to  be  the  natural  chief  of  the  French 
Protestants.  Having  served  till  the  peace  of  Vervins,  he 
travelled  for  a  considerable  time  over  Europe,  including 
England  and  Scotland,  in  the  first  of  which  countries  he  re- 
ceived the  not  unique  honour  of  being  called  by  Elizabeth 
her  knight,  while  in  the  second  he  was  godfather  at  Charles 
I.'s  christening.  On  his  return  to  France  he  was  made 
duke  and  peer  at  the  age  of  twenty -four  and  married 
Marguerite  de  Bethune,  Sully's  daughter,  receiving  lucra- 
tive appointments.  After  the  assassination  of  Henry  IV., 
which  was  a  great  blow  to  him,  Rohan  fought  with  success 
at  the  siege  of  Jiilich.  But  from  this  time  onwards  he 
was  for  the  greater  part  of  many  years  either  in  active 
warfare  against  the  Government  of  his  country,  or  in  active 
though  peaceable  opposition  to  it.  For  a  time,  however, 
he  abstained  from  actual  insurrection,  and  he  endeavoured 
to  keep  on  terms  with  Marie  de'  Medici ;  he  even,  despite 
his  dislike  of  De  Luynes,  the  favourite  of  Louis  XIII.,  re- 
appeared in  the  army  and  fought  in  Lorraine  and  Piedmont. 
It  was  not  till  the  decree  for  the  restitution  of  church 
property  in  the  south  threw  the  Bearnese  and  Gascons 
into  open  revolt  that  Rohan  appeared  as  a  rebel.  His 
authority  and  military  skill  were  very  formidable  to  the 
royalists,  forced  them  among  other  checks  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Montauban,  and  brought  about  the  treaty  of 
Montpellier  (1623).  But  Rohan  did  not  escape  the  re- 


sults of  the  incurable  factiousness  which  showed  itself 
more  strongly  perhaps  among  the  French  Huguenots  than 
among  any  other  of  the  numerous  armed  oppositions  of 
the  17th  century.  He  was  accused  of  lukewarmness  and 
treachery,  though  he  did  not  hesitate  to  renew  the  war 
when  the  compact  of  Montpellier  was  broken.  Again  a 
hollow  peace  was  patched  up,  but  it  lasted  hardly  any 
time,  and  Rohan  undertook  a  third  war,  the  first  the  events 
of  which  are  recounted  in  his  celebrated  Memoirs.  This 
last  war  (famous  for  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle,  in  which, 
however,  Rohan's  brother  Soubise,  not  Rohan  himself,  was 
principally  concerned)  was  one  of  considerable  danger  for 
Rohan :  he  was  condemned  to  death,  and  a  great  reward 
was  offered  for  him  dead  or  alive.  Nor  at  the  close  of  the 
war  did  he  think  it  best  to  remain  in  France,  but  made 
his  way  to  Venice.  Here  he  lived  quietly  for  some  time 
and  is  said  to  have  received  from  the  Porte  the  offer  of 
the  sovereignty  of  Cyprus.  It  is  more  certain  that  his 
hosts  of  Venice  wished  to  make  him  their  general-in-chief, 
a  design  not  executed  owing  to  the  peace  of  Cherasco 
(1631).  Soon  afterwards  Rohan  was  again  called  to  serve 
his  lawful  sovereign.  Richelieu  had  had  experience,  though 
not  friendly  experience,  of  his  abilities,  and  when  France 
began  once  more  to  take  a  vigorous  part  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  Rohan  was  appointed  to  the  task  of  occupying  the 
Valtelline,  and  thus  cutting  off  the  communication  between 
Germany  and  Italy.  He  was  entirely  successful  and  re- 
peatedly beat  both  the  imperialists  and  the  Spaniards. 
But,  despite  this  service,  Rohan  was  still  thought  dangerous 
to  the  peace  of  France  owing  to  his  influence  with  the 
Huguenots,  and  objection  was  even  made  to  his  residence 
in  Geneva.  He  therefore  joined  Bernhard  of  Saxe-Weimar, 
and  was  serving  in  his  army  when  he  met  with  the  wound 
which  caused  his  death  at  Rheinfelden  on  14th  March 
1638.  His  body  was  buried  at  Geneva  and  his  arms 
solemnly  bequeathed  to  and  accepted  by  the  Venetian  re- 
public. Rohan's  wife  was  a  woman  of  talent  and  energy, 
though  she  did  not  escape  scandal.  His  younger  brother 
Benjamin,  generally  known  as  Soubise,  was,  like  him,  a 
famous  Huguenot  leader.  His  daughter  and  only  re- 
cognized surviving  child,  named  Marguerite,  carried  the 
honours  of  Rohan  into  the  Chabot  family. 

What  has  chiefly  preserved  Rohan's  memory  is  not  his  military 
achievements,  though  they  were  remarkable,  nor  his  political  posi- 
tion, though  it  was  high,  but  his  admirable  Memoirs.  These  cover 
the  civil  wars  in  three  books,  while  a  fourth  contains  the  narrative 
of  the  Valtelline  campaigns ;  and  they  rank  among  the  best  products 
of  the  singular  talent  for  memoir-writing  which  the  French  aristo- 
cracy of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  possessed.  Alike  in  style,  in 
clearness  of  matter,  and  in  shrewdness  of  thought  they  deserve  very 
high  praise.  The  first  three  books  appeared  in  1644,  that  on  the 
Valtelline  War  not  till  1758.  Some  suspicions  were  thrown  on  the 
genuineness  of  this  latter,  but  it  would  seem  groundlessly.  Rohan 
also  wrote  Le  Par/ait  Capitaine,  an  adaptation  of  the  military  pre- 
cepts and  examples  of  Csesar  to  modern  warfare  ;  an  account  of  his 
travels ;  a  political  tract,  L'lnUret  des  fitats  et  des  Princes  de  la, 
Chrttientc,  &c.  The  Memoirs,  which  alone  have  continued  to  be 
reprinted,  may  be  conveniently  found  in  the  collection  of  Michaud 
and  Poujoulat,  voL  xix. 

ROHAN,  Louis  RENE  EDOUARD,  CARDINAL  DE  (1734- 
1803),  prince  de  Rohan -Guemenee,  archbishop  of  Stras- 
burg,  the  hero  of  the  scandal  of  the  diamond  necklace, 
and  a  cadet  of  the  great  family  of  Rohan  (which  traced 
its  origin  to  the  kings  of  Brittany,  and  was  granted  the 
precedence  and  rank  of  a  foreign  princely  family  by 
Louis  XIV.),  was  born  at  Paris  on  25th  September  1734. 
Members  of  the  Rohan  family  had  filled  the  office  of  arch- 
bishop of  Strasburg  from  1704, — an  office  which  made 
them  princes  of  the  empire  and  the  compeers  rather  of 
the  German  prince-bishops  than  of  the  French  ecclesiastics. 
For  this  high  office  Louis  de  Rohan  was  destined  from 
his  birth,  and  soon  after  taking  orders,  in  1760,  he  was 
nominated  coadjutor  to  his  uncle,  Constantino  de  Rohan- 


R  O  H  — R  O  H 


623 


Rochefort,  who  then  held  the  archbishopric,  and  he  was 
also  consecrated  bishop  of  Canopus.  But  he  preferred  the 
elegant  life  and  the  gaiety  of  Paris  to  his  clerical  duties, 
and  had  also  an  ambition  to  make  a  figure  in  politics. 
He  joined  the  party  opposed  to  the  Austrian  alliance, 
which  had  been  cemented  by  the  marriage  of  the  arch- 
duchess Marie  Antoinette  to  the  dauphin.  This  party 
was  headed  by  the  due  d'Aiguillon,  who  in  1771  sent 
Prince  Louis  on  a  special  embassy  to  Vienna  to  find  out 
what  was  being  done  there  with  regard  to  the  partition  of 
Poland.  Rohan  arrived  at  Vienna  in  January  1772,  and 
made  a  great  noise  with  his  lavish  f  §tes.  But  the  empress 
Maria  Theresa  was  implacably  hostile  to  him ;  not  only 
did  he  attempt  to  thwart  her  policy,  but  he  spread 
scandals  about  her  daughter  Marie  Antoinette,  laughed 
at  herself,  and  shocked  her  ideas  of  propriety  by  his  dis- 
sipation and  luxury.  On  the  death  of  Louis  XV.,  in  1774, 
Rohan  was  recalled  from  Vienna,  and  coldly  received  at 
Paris ;  but  the  influence  of  his  family  was  too  great  for 
him  to  be  neglected,  and  in  1777  he  was  made  grand 
almoner,  and  in  1778  abbot  of  St  Vaast.  In  1778  he 
was  made  a  cardinal  on  the  nomination  of  Stanislaus  Ponia- 
towski,  king  of  Poland,  and  in  the  following  year  succeeded 
his  uncle  as  archbishop  of  Strasburg  and  became  abbot  of 
Noirmoutiers  and  Chaise-Dieu.  His  various  preferments 
brought  him  in  an  income  of  two  and  a  half  millions  of 
livres ;  yet  the  cardinal  was  restless  and  unhappy  until  he 
should  be  reinstated  in  favour  at  court  and  had  appeased 
the  animosity  which  Marie  Antoinette  felt  against  him. 
Though  a  man  of  some  ability,  he  became  infatuated  with 
the  notorious  charlatan  Cagliostro  in  1780,  and  lodged 
him  in  his  palace,  and  in  1782  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Madame  de  Lamotte-Valois,  a  descendant  of  an 
illegitimate  branch  of  the  Valois,  but  a  poor  adventuress, 
and  married  to  an  adventurer.  These  people,  having  ac- 
quired great  influence  over  Rohan,  determined  to  turn  his 
excessive  desire  to  become  reconciled  to  the  queen  to  their 
own  advantage.  They  persuaded  him  that  Marie  Antoi- 
nette wished  him  well,  and  contrived  an  interview  between 
him  and  a  girl  named  Oliva,  who  greatly  resembled  the 
queen,  in  the  gardens  of  Versailles  in  August  1784,  so 
skilfully  that  he  believed  he  had  seen  the  queen  herself 
and  that  she  had  given  him  a  rose.  The  adventuress  then 
persuaded  him  that  the  queen  would  be  much  gratified  by 
the  present  of  an  extremely  valuable  diamond  necklace 
which  she  had  refused  in  1778  and  1781,  and  on  26th 
January  1785  the  cardinal  purchased  it  for  1,600,000 
francs,  to  be  paid  in  three  instalments,  and  handed  it  over 
to  a  pretended  valet  of  the  queen  on  receipt  of  a  forged 
letter  of  thanks  signed  "Marie  Antoinette  of  France."  The 
comte  de  Lamotte-Valois  at  once  started  for  London, 
and,  after  breaking  up  the  necklace,  began  to  sell  the 
diamonds  separately.  The  plot  soon  came  to  light,  and 
the  king  sent  the  cardinal  to  the  Bastille.  This  arrest  of 
a  great  nobleman  and  an  archbishop  excited  the  wrath 
of  both  the  nobility  and  the  bishops,  and  the  large  party 
opposed  to  the  Austrian  alliance  regarded  him  as  a  martyr. 
In  this  feeling  the  old  courtiers  and  the  judges  of  the 
parlement  of  Paris  participated,  for  they  hated  the  queen 
for  her  abolition  of  strict  etiquette  and  for  her  extrava- 
gance and  frivolity.  The  people,  who  had  also  been 
taught  by  pamphleteers  to  hate  her  and  to  regard  her  as 
the  cause  of  all  their  ills,  shared  the  feeling  of  their 
superiors  in  education ;  and,  when  the  parlement  of  Paris 
solemnly  absolved  the  cardinal  of  all  blame  on  31st  May 
1786,  his  acquittal  was  received  with  universal  enthusiasm, 
and  regarded  as  a  victory  over  the  court  and  the  queen. 
Though  acquitted  by  the  parlement  of  Paris,  the  cardinal 
was  deprived  of  his  office  as  grand  almoner  and  exiled  to 
his  abbey  of  Chaise-Dieu.  He  was  soon  allowed  to  return 


to  Strasburg,  and  his  popularity  was  shown  by  his  election 
in  1789  to  the  states-general  by  the  clergy  of  the  bailliages 
of  Haguenau  and  Weissenburg.  He  at  first  declined  to 
sit,  but  the  states-general,  when  it  became  the  national 
assembly,  insisted  on  validating  his  election.  But  as  a 
prince  of  the  church  in  January  1791  he  refused  to  take 
the  oath  to  the  constitution,  and  went  to  Ettenheim,  in 
the  German  part  of  his  diocese.  In  exile  his  character 
improved,  and  he  spent  what  wealth  remained  to  him  in 
providing  for  the  poor  clergy  of  his  diocese  who  had 
been  obliged  to  leave  France;  and  in  1801  he  resigned 
his  nominal  rank  as  archbishop  of  Strasburg.  On  17th 
February  1803  he  died  at  Ettenheim. 

For  the  affair  of  the  diamond  necklace  and  the  life  of  the  cardinal 
see  the  Memoires  of  his  secretary,  the  Abbe  Georgel,  of  the  baroness 
d'Oberkirch,  of  Beugnot,  and  of  Madame  Campan  ;  the  Memoires 
inedits  du  Comte  de  Lamotte-Valois,  ed.  Louis  Lacour,  1858,  in 
which  Rohan  is  ably  defended  and  Marie  Antoinette  stigmatized  ; 
Marie  Antoinette  et  le  Proces  du  Collier,  by  Emile  Campardon, 
1863  ;  and  Carlyle's  "The  Diamond  Necklace,"  in  Fraser's  Maga- 
zine (1837),  republished  in  his  Essays. 

ROHILKHAND  or  ROHILCUND,  a  division  or  commis- 
sionership  in  the  North-Western  Provinces  of  India,  lying 
between  27°  35'  and  30°  1'  N.  lat.  and  between  78°  1' 
and  80°  26'  E.  long.  It  comprises  the  six  districts  of 
Bijnaur  (Bijnor),  Muradabad,  Budaun,  Bareli  (Bareilly), 
Shahjahanpur,  and  Pilibhit,  together  containing  an  area  of 
10,885  square  miles,  with  a  population  (1881)  of  5,122,557 
(males  2,728,761,  females  2,393,796).  By  religion,  Hindus 
numbered  3,921,989,  Mohammedans  1,192,263,  and  Christ- 
ians 6304.  In  the  same  year  there  were  11,327  towns 
and  villages  in  the  division  and  639,604  occupied  houses. 
Of  the  total  area  6446  square  miles  were  returned  as  culti- 
vated and  2516  as  cultivable.  In  1883-84  Rohilkhand 
division  had  2592  miles  of  road  and  163  miles  of  railway; 
in  the  same  year  its  gross  revenue  amounted  to  £980,682, 
of  which  the  land-tax  contributed  £695,181. 

ROHTAK,  a  British  district  of  India,  in  the  Hissar 
division,  under  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  the  Punjab, 
lying  between  28°  19'  and  29°  17'  N.  lat.  and  between 
76°  17'  and  77°  30'  E.  long.  It  contains  an  area  of  1811 
square  miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Karnal,  on 
the  E.  by  Delhi,  on  the  S.  by  Gurgaon,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Hissar  and  the  native  state  of  Jhind.  Rohtak  district  is 
situated  in  the  midst  cf  the  level  tableland  separating  the 
Jumna  and  the  Sutlej  valleys;  it  is  one  unbroken  plain, 
consisting  of  a  hard  clay  copiously  interspersed  with  light 
yellow  sand,  and  covered  in  its  wild  state  by  a  jungle  of 
scrubby  brushwood.  It  possesses  no  grand  scenery,  but 
on  the  whole  the  features  of  the  district  are  more  diversi- 
fied than  many  of  the  plain  districts  of  the  Punjab.  The 
only  natural  reservoir  for  its  drainage  is  the  Najafgarh 
Jhil,  a  marshy  lake  lying  within  the  boundaries  of  Delhi. 
The  Sahibi,  a  small  stream  from  the  Ajmere  hills,  traverses 
a  corner  of  the  district,  and  the  northern  portions  are 
watered  by  the  Rohtak  and  Butana  branches  of  the 
Western  Jumna  Canal,  but  the  greater  portion  of  the 
central  plain,  comprising  about  two-thirds  of  the  district 
area,  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  uncertain  rainfall. 
The  climate,  though  severe  in  point  of  heat,  is  generally 
healthy;  the  average  rainfall  is  about  19 \  inches.  Rohtak 
has  no  railway ;  it  is,  however,  well  provided  with  roads, 
which  cross  it  in  every  direction,  and  telegraphic  com- 
munication is  now  under  construction. 

In  1881  the  population  of  Rohtak  district  numbered  553,609 
(296,224  males  and  257,385  females).  By  religion  Hindus  numbered 
468,905,  or  nearly  85  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  and  Moham- 
medans 79,510.  There  are  only  two  towns  in  the  district  with 
inhabitants  exceeding  10,000,  namely,  ROHTAK  (see  below)  and 
Jhajjar  with  11,650.  Rohtak  is  a  purely  agricultural  district,  but 
its  produce  hardly  more  than  suffices  for  its  home  consumption. 
Of  the  total  area  of  1811  square  miles,  1416  were  in  1883-84  re- 
turned as  cultivated  and  269  as  cultivable.  The  chief  producls 


624 


R  O  H  — R  O  L 


are  food  grains,  pulses,  cotton,  and  sugar-cane.  There  are  no 
manufactures  of  more  than  local  importance  excepting  ornamental 
turbans  at  Rohtak  and  saddlery  at  Kalanar.  Pretty  pottery  is  made 
at  Jhajjar,  and  cotton  cloth  for  home  use  is  woven  in  large  quan- 
tities. The  gross  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84  was  £78,346, 
of  which  £65,440  was  derived  from  the  land-tax. 

Rohtak  was  formerly  included  within  the  region  known  as 
Hariana,  which  in  1718  was  granted  by  the  emperor  Faroksher  to 
his  minister  Rukhan  -  ad  -  Daula,  who  in  his  turn  made  over  the 
greater  part  of  it  to  a  Baluch  noble,  Faujdar  Khan,  afterwards 
created  nawab  of  Farakhnagar.  The  district,  together  with  the 
other  possessions  of  Scindia  west  of  the  Jumna,  passed  to  the  East 
India  Company  in  1803.  Until  1832  Rohtak  was  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  a  political  agent,  resident  at  Delhi,  but  in  that  year 
it  was  brought  under  the  general  regulations  and  annexed  to  the 
North-Western  Provinces.  The  outbreak  of  the  mutiny  in  1857  led 
to  the  abandonment,  for  a  time,  of  the  district  by  the  British, 
when  the  mutineers  attacked  and  plundered  the  civil  station  of 
Rohtak,  destroying  every  record  of  administration.  It  was  not 
until  after  the  fall  of  Delhi  that  the  authority  of  the  British 
Government  was  permanently  restored.  The  constitution  of  the 
present  district  was  then  taken  in  hand,  and  Rohtak  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Punjab  Government. 

ROHTAK,  municipal  town  and  headquarters  of  the 
above  district,  lying  in  28°  54'  N.  lat  and  76°  38'  E.  long., 
with  a  population  in  1881  of  15,699  (males  8155,  females 
7544).  It  is  situated  44  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Delhi 
on  the  road  to  Hissar,  and,  viewed  from  the  sandhills  to 
the  south,  forms  with  its  white  mosque  in  the  centre  and 
the  fort  standing  out  boldly  to  the  east  a  striking  and 
picturesque  object.  Rohtak  is  a  town  of  great  antiquity, 
but  beyond  the  fact  that  it  became  the  headquarters  of  a 
British  district  in  1824  it  is  of  no  considerable  importance. 

ROJAS-ZORILLA,  FRANCISCO  DE,  Spanish  dramatist, 
a  contemporary  of  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon,  was  born 
about  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century.  Of  his  personal 
history  hardly  anything  has  been  recorded,  but  we  know 
that  he  lived  at  Madrid,  and  about  the  year  1641  he  seems 
to  have  become  a  knight  of  Santiago.  Of  his  dramatic 
compositions  some  thirty  still  survive,  which  can  be  read 
in  the  54th  volume  of  the  Biblioteca  de  Autores  Espanoles 
(1861) ;  the  best  by  general  consent  is  held  to  be  that 
entitled  Del  Rey  abajo  Ninguno,  otherwise  known  by  the 
name  of  its  hero  as  Garcia  de  Castanar.  Of  the  others, 
apart  from  their  intrinsic  merit,  a  double  literary  in- 
terest attaches  to  the  No  hay  Padre  siendo  Rey,  which  was 
borrowed  by  Rotrou  for  his  Venceslas,  to  the  Donde  hay 
Agravios  no  hay  Zelos  and  the  A  mo  criado,  which  were 
imitated  by  Scarron  in  his  Jodelet  Soufflete  and  Maltre 
Valet,  and  to  the  Entre  Bobos  anda  el  Juego,  to  which 
Thomas  Corneille  has  acknowledged  his  obligations  for 
his  Bertrand  de  Cigarral.  The  Garcia  de  Castanar, 
Donde  hay  Agravios,  and  Entre  Bobos  anda  el  Juego  are 
given  by  Ochoa  in  his  Tesoro  del  Teatro  Espanol. 

ROKITANSKY,  CAKL  VON  ROKITANSKY,  FREIHERR 
VON  (1804-1878),  the  founder  of  the  Vienna  school  of 
pathological  anatomy,  was  born  in  1804  at  Koniggratz  in 
Bohemia.  He  got  his  schooling  in  his  native  town  as  well 
as  at  the  gymnasium  of  Leitmeritz,  after  which  he  became 
a  student  of  medicine  at  Prague.  He  finished  his  medical 
studies  at  Vienna,  graduating  there  in  1828.  Soon  after 
he  became  assistant  to  Wagner,  the  professor  of  patho- 
logical anatomy,  and  succeeded  him  in  1834  as  prosector, 
being  at  the  same  time  made  extraordinary  professor.  It 
was  not  until  ten  years  later  (1844)  that  he  reached  the 
rank  of  full  professor.  To  his  duties  as  a  teacher  he  added 
in  1847  the  onerous  office  of  medico-legal  anatomist  to  the 
city,  and  in  1863  an  influential  office  in  the  ministry  of 
education  and  public  worship,  wherein  he  had  to  advise  on 
all  routine  matters  of  medical  teaching,  including  patron- 
age. A  seat  in  the  upper  house  of  the  reichsrath  rewarded 
his  public  labours  in  1867,  and  on  his  retirement  from  all 
his  offices  in  1874  he  was  made  a  commander  of  the 
Order  of  Leopold.  He  joined  the  Imperial  Academy  of 


Sciences  as  a  member  in  1 848,  and  became  its  president 
in  1869.  He  was  president  also  of  the  medical  society  of 
the  Austrian  capital  and  an  honorary  member  of  many 
foreign  societies.  On  his  retirement  at  the  age  of  seventy 
his  colleagues  celebrated  the  occasion  by  a  function  in  the 
aula  of  the  university,  where  his  bust  was  unveiled.  In 
his  leave-taking  speech  he  said  that  work  had  always  been 
a  pleasure  to  him  and  pleasures  mostly  a  toil.  His  death 
in  1878  elicited  many  genuine  expressions  of  affection  and 
of  esteem  for  his  upright  character.  Two  of  his  sons  be- 
came professors  at  Vienna,  one  of  astronomy  and  another 
of  medicine,  while  a  third  gained  distinction  on  the  lyric 
stage. 

With  Rokitansky's  name  is  associated  the  second  great  period  of 
the  medical  school  of  Vienna,  its  first  success  having  been  identified 
with  the  liberal  patronage  of  it  by  Maria  Theresa  and  with  the 
fame  of  Van  Swieten,  whom  the  empress  had  attracted  thither  from 
Leyden.  The  basis  of  its  second  reputation  was  morbid  anatomy, 
together  with  the  precision  of  clinical  diagnosis  dependent  thereon, 
and  associated  with  the  labours  of  Rokitansky's  lifelong  friend 
Skoda.  The  anatomical  vogue  had  begun  under  Wagner  while 
Rokitansky  was  still  a  student ;  but  it  reached  its  highest  point 
while  the  latter  was  assistant  in  the  dead-house  and  afterwards 
prosector  and  professor.  The  enthusiasm  for  the  post-mortem  study 
of  disease  brought  one  very  serious  consequence  at  the  outset,  in  the 
enormous  increase  of  the  death-rate  from  puerperal  fever  in  the  lying- 
in  wards  of  the  general  hospital.  A  comparison  between  the  slight 
mortality  in  the  wards  that  were  afterwards  reserved  for  the  train- 
ing of  midwives  and  the  excessive  mortality  in  those  set  apart  for 
the  training  of  students  proved  that  the  cause  was  the  conveyance 
of  cadaveric  poison  from  the  dead-house  by  the  hands  of  the  latter. 
The  precautions  introduced  after  1847  succeeded  in  removing  that 
grave  reproach  from  the  study  of  morbid  anatomy.  Another  and 
more  lasting  consequence  of  the  assiduous  pursuit  of  post-mortem 
study,  counterbalancing  somewhat  the  advantage  of  a  more  precise 
and  localized  diagnosis,  was  the  loss  of  faith  in  the  power  of  drugs 
to  remedy  the  textural  changes — the  so-called  "nihilism"  of  the 
Vienna  school.  The  immediate  outcome  of  Rokitansky's  close 
application  to  the  work  of  the  dead-house  was  his  Handbuch  der 
pathologischen  Anatomic  (1842-46),  in  3  vols.,  of  which  the  first 
was  published  last.  The  value  of  the  work  lies  in  the  second  and 
third  volumes,  containing  succinct  descriptions  of  the  visible 
changes  and  abnormalities  in  the  several  organs  and  parts  of  the 
body.  Whenever  Rokitansky  touched  the  vital  problems  of  general 
pathology,  as  he  did  in  the  postponed  first  volume,  he  revealed  a 
metaphysical  bent,  which  was  strong  in  him  behind  all  his  un- 
doubted powers  of  outward  observation  and  accurate  description. 
Being  a  few  years  too  soon  to  profit  by  the  microscopic  movement 
which  led  to  the  cellular  pathology,  he  endeavoured  to  reconcile 
the  old  humoral  doctrine  with  his  anatomical  observations,  and  to 
read  a  new  meaning  into  the  doctrine  of  the  various  dyscrasias. 
The  third  and  last  edition  of  his  Handbuch  was  published  from 
1855  to  1861.  In  1862  he  entered  into  possession  of  a  new  patho- 
logical institute,  in  which  he  found  means,  for  the  first  time,  to  dis- 
play his  extensive  collection  of  specimens  in  a  museum.  Although 
he  had  no  direct  share  in  the  newer  developments  of  pathology,  he 
was  far  from  indifferent  or  reactionary  towards  them  ;  indeed  the 
laboratories  and  chairs  for  microscopic  and  experimental  pathology 
and  for  pathological  chemistry  were  warmly  encouraged  and  aided 
by  him. 

Next  to  his  Handbuch,  of  which  the  Syd.  Soc.  published  an  English  trans- 
lation in  4  vols.,  1849-52,  his  most  important  writings  were  four  memoirs  in  the 
Denkschriften  of  the  Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences  (on  the  Anatomy  of  Goitre, 
Cysts,  Diseases  of  Arteries,  and  Defects  in  the  Septa  of  the  Heart),  the  last  as 
late  as  1875.  Other  papers  of  less  importance  brought  up  the  total  of  his 
writings  to  thirty-eight,  including  three  addresses  of  a  philosophical  turn,  on 
"  Freedom  of  Inquiry  "  (1862),  "  The  Independent  Value  of  Knowledge  "  (1867), 
and  "The  Solidarity  of  Animal  Life"  (1869). 

ROLAND.  JEAN  MARIE  ROLAND  DE  LA  PLATRIERE 
(1732-1793),  who,  along  with  his  wife,  MANON  JEANNE 
PHLIPON  (1754-1793),  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution,  in  connexion  chiefly  with 
the  policy  and  fortunes  of  the  Girondists,  was  born  at  Ville- 
franche  near  Lyons  in  1732.  He  received  a  good  educa- 
tion, and  early  formed  the  studious  habits  which  remained 
with  him  through  life.  Proposing  to  seek  his  fortune 
abroad,  he  went  on  foot  to  Nantes,  but  was  there  pros- 
trated by  an  illness  so  severe  that  all  thoughts  of  emigra- 
tion were  perforce  abandoned.  For  some  years  he  was 
employed  as  a  clerk ;  thereafter  he  joined  a  relative  who 
was  inspector  of  manufactures  at  Amiens,  and  he  himself 
speedily  rose  to  the  position  of  inspector.  To  these  two 


ROLAND 


625 


employments  may  be  ascribed  those  qualities  of  assiduity 
and  accuracy,  and  that  familiarity  with  the  commerce  of 
the  country,  which  distinguished  his  public  career.  In 
1781  he  married  Manon  Jeanne  Phlipon,  who  was  his 
junior  by  twenty-two  years.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Gratien  Phlipon,  a  Paris  engraver,  who  was  ambitious, 
speculative,  and  nearly  always  poor.  From  her  early  years 
she  showed  great  aptitude  for  study,  an  ardent  and  enthu- 
siastic spirit,  and  unquestionable  talent.  She  was  to  a 
considerable  extent  self-taught ;  and  her  love  of  reading 
made  her  acquainted  first  with  Plutarch — a  passion  for 
which  author  she  continued  to  cherish  throughout  her  life 
— thereafter  with  Bossuet,  Massillon,  and  authors  of  a 
like  stamp,  and  finally  with  Montesquieu,  Voltaire,  and 
Rousseau.  These  studies  marked  stages  of  her  develop- 
ment ;  and  as  her  mind  matured  she  abandoned  the  idea 
of  a  convent  which  for  a  year  or  two  she  had  entertained, 
and  added  to  the  enthusiasm  for  a  republic  which  she  had 
imbibed  from  her  earlier  studies  not  a  little  of  the  cynicism 
and  the  daring  which  the  later  authors  inspired.  She 
almost  equalled  her  husband  in  knowledge  and  infinitely 
excelled  him  in  talent  and  in  tact.  Through  and  with 
him  she  exercised  a  singularly  powerful  influence  over  the 
destinies  of  France  from  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution 
till  her  death. 

For  four  years  after  their  marriage  Roland  lived  at 
Amiens,  he  being  still  an  inspector  of  manufactures ;  but 
his  knowledge  of  commercial  affairs  enabled  him  to  con- 
tribute articles  to  the  Encyclopedie  Nouvelle,  in  which,  as 
in  all  his  literary  work,  he  was  assisted  by  his  wife.  On 
their  removal  to  Lyons  the  influence  of  both  became  wider 
and  more  powerful.  Their  fervent  political  aspirations 
could  not  be  concealed,  and  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Revolution  they  threw  in  their  lot  with  the  party  of 
advance.  The  Courrier  de  Lyon  contained  articles  the 
success  of  which  reached  even  to  the  capital  and  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  Parisian  press.  They  were  from  the 
pen  of  Madame  Roland  and  were  signed  by  her  husband. 
A  correspondence  sprang  up  with  Brissot  and  other  friends 
of  the  Revolution  at  headquarters.  In  Lyons  their  views 
were  publicly  known;  Roland  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  municipality,  and  when  the  depression  of  trade  in  the 
south  demanded  representation  in  Paris  he  was  deputed 
by  the  council  of  Lyons  to  defend  the  interests  of  the 
city  before  the  constituent  assembly.  Accompanied  by 
his  wife,  he  appeared  in  the  capital  in  February  1791. 

They  had  made  many  and  influential  friends  in  advance, 
and  Madame  Roland's  salon  sooa  became  the  rendezvous 
of  Brissot,  Petion,  Robespierre,  and  other  leaders  of  the 
popular  movement.  In  person  Madame  Roland  was  attract- 
ive though  not  beautiful ;  her  ideas  were  clear  and  far- 
reaching,  her  manner  calm,  and  her  power  of  observation 
extremely  acute.  It  was  almost  inevitable  that  she  should 
find  herself  in  the  centre  of  political  aspirations  and  pre- 
siding over  a  company  of  the  most  talented  men  of  pro- 
gress. Her  resolve  was  fixed,  and  gradually  she  impressed 
it  upon  all :  the  France  of  1791  was  a  France  of  transi- 
tion ;  a  republic  alone  was  its  destiny,  was  the  ideal  of 
philosophy,  the  expression  of  liberty,  the  goal  of  history. 
This  was  the  constant  aim  of  her  influence  and  her  speech  ; 
it  was  accompanied  with  a  petty  animosity,  almost  hatred, 
towards  the  king  and  queen  ;  but  it  found  a  ready  echo 
in  the  minds  of  those  leaders  who  willingly  admired  her 
calm  and  learned  reasoning.  The  royal  flight  in  .June 
and  the  ignominious  return  lent  impetus  to  these  ideas ; 
a  journal  entitled  The  Republican  appeared  in  Paris,  but 
at  its  second  number  was  suppressed.  In  its  organization 
Madame  Roland  had  a  hand. 

In  September  1791,  Roland's  mission  being  executed, 
they  returned  to  Lyons.  Meanwhile  the  inspectorships 


of  manufactures  had  been  abolished ;  he  was  thus  free ; 
and  they  could  no  longer  remain  absent  from  the  centre 
of  affairs.  In  December  they  again  reached  Paris.  Roland 
became  a  member  of  the  Jacobin  Club.  The  rupture  had 
not  yet  been  made  evident  between  the  Girondist  party 
and  that  section  still  more  extreme,  that  of  the  Mountain. 
For  a  time  the  whole  left  united  in  forcing  the  resig- 
nation of  the  ministers.  When  the  crisis  came  the  Giron- 
dists were  ready,  and  in  March  1792  Roland  found  him- 
self appointed  minister  of  the  interior.  As  a  minister  of 
the  crown  Roland  exhibited  a  remarkable  combination  of 
political  prejudice  with  administrative  ability.  While  his 
wife's  influence  could  not  increase  the  latter  it  was  success- 
fully exerted  to  foment  and  embitter  the  former.  He  was 
ex  offido  excluded  from  the  legislative  assembly,  and  his 
declarations  of  policy  were  thus  in  writing, — that  is,  in 
the  form  in  which  she  could  most  readily  exert  her  power. 
A  great  occasion  was  invented.  The  decrees  against  the 
emigrants  and  the  non-juring  clergy  still  remained  under 
the  veto  of  the  king.  A  letter  was  penned  by  Madame 
Roland  and  addressed  by  her  husband  to  Louis.  It 
remained  unanswered.  Thereupon,  in  full  council  and  in 
the  king's  presence,  Roland  read  his  letter  aloud.  It  con- 
tained many  and  terrible  truths  as  to  the  royal  refusal  to 
sanction  the  decrees  and  as  to  the  king's  position  in  the 
state ;  but  it  was  inconsistent  with  a  minister's  position, 
disrespectful  if  not  insolent  in  tone,  disloyal  in  spirit,  and 
grossly  disfigured  by  repeated  threats  of  violence  on  the 
part  of  the  people.  It  was  meant,  and  it  was  used,  simply 
as  a  lecture  to  the  king's  face  and  as  an  accusation  behind 
his  back.  Roland's  dismissal  followed.  Then  he  com- 
pleted the  plan  :  he  read  the  letter  to  the  assembly ;  it 
was  ordered  to  be  printed,  became  the  manifesto  of  dis- 
affection, and  was  circulated  everywhere.  In  the  demand 
for  the  reinstatement  of  the  dismissed  ministers  were 
found  the  means  of  humiliation,  and  the  prelude  to  the 
dethronement,  of  the  king. 

After  the  abolition  of  royalty  on  the  10th  of  August, 
Roland  was  recalled  to  power,  one  of  his  colleagues  being 
Danton.  To  his  dismay  he  found  that  the  passions  which 
he  had  lent  his  aid  in  evoking  he  was  powerless  to  allay, 
and  that  the  party  of  the  Mountain  was,  on  the  contrary, 
utilizing  these  passions  for  purposes  of  incredible  excess. 
From  this  moment,  though  too  late,  the  conduct  of  Roland, 
his  wife,  and  the  whole  Gironde  became  heroic.  They 
fearlessly  denounced  the  massacres  of  September,  Roland 
writing  boldly  to  the  assembly  on  the  subject.  Both 
husband  and  wife  became  the  butt  of  calumny  and  the 
object  of  increasing  dislike  on  the  part  of  the  ultra-re- 
volutionists,— Robespierre  shunning  them,  Danton  de- 
nouncing them,  and  Marat  in  his  journal  heaping  upon 
them  the  foulest  falsehoods.  Still  the  Girondists,  from 
Vergniaud  downwards,  banded  themselves  bravely  on  their 
side ;  but  on  22d  January  1793  Roland  sent  in  his  resigna- 
tion. It  was  the  day  after  the  execution  of  the  king. 

Still  they  remained  in  Paris,  unflinchingly,  but  with  ever 
less  and  less  success,  attempting  to  regulate  and  elevate 
the  Revolution.  Calumoy  continued.  Once  Madame 
Roland  appeared  personally  in  the  assembly  to  repel  the 
falsehoods  of  an  accuser,  and  her  ease  and  dignity  evoked 
enthusiasm  and  compelled  acquittal.  But  violence  suc- 
ceeded violence,  and  early  on  the  morning  of  the  1st  of 
June  she  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  the  prison  of  the 
Abbaye.  Roland  himself  escaped  secretly  to  shelter  in 
Rouen.  Released  for  an  hour  from  the  Abbaye,  she  was 
again  arrested  and  thrown  among  the  horrors  of  Sainte 
Pelagic.  Finally  she  was  transferred  to  the  Conciergerie. 
In  prison  she  won  the  affections  of  the  guards,  and  was 
allowed  the  privilege  of  writing  materials  and  the  occa- 
sional visits  of  devoted  friends.  She  there  wrote  her 

XX.  —  79 


626 


ROLAND 


Appeal  to  an  Impartial  Posterity,  those  memoirs  which 
display  a  strange  alternation  between  self-laudation  and 
patriotism,  between  the  trivial  and  the  sublime.  On  8th 
November  1793  she  was  conveyed  to  the  guillotine.  Before 
yielding  her  head  to  the  block,  she  bowed  before  the  clay 
statue  of  Liberty  erected  in  the  Place  de  la  Revolution, 
uttering  her  famous  apostrophe — "  O  Liberty !  what  crimes 
are  committed  in  thy  name ! "  One  week  later  Roland, 
having  heard  of  his  wife's  death,  wandered  some  miles 
from  his  refuge  in  Rouen  ;  maddened  by  despair  and  grief, 
he  wrote  a  few  words  expressive  of  his  horror  at  those 
massacres  which  could  only  be  inspired  by  the  enemies  of 
France,  protesting  that  "  from  the  moment  when  I  learned 
that  they  had  murdered  my  wife  I  would  no  longer  remain 
in  a  world  stained  with  enemies."  He  affixed  the  paper 
to  his  breast,  and  unsheathing  a  sword-stick  fell  upon 
the  weapon,  which  pierced  his  heart,  on  15th  November 
1793.  (T.  s.) 

ROLAND,  LEGEND  OF.  The  main  incident  of  this 
legend  is  founded  upon  an  undoubted  historical  event, 
— the  Spanish  expedition  of  Charlemagne  (778).  The 
Prankish  king,  having  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  captured 
Pamplona,  was  beaten  back  from  the  walls  of  Saragossa.1 
On  his  return  the  "  Gascons  "  (Basques)  surprised  his  rear- 
guard, and,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Eginhard,  cut 
it  off  to  a  man  ( Vit.  Car.,  c.  i.), — "  In  which  battle  were 
slain  Eggihard,  provost  of  the  royal  table  .  .  .  and  Hruod- 
landus,  prefect  of  the  Britannic  march."  This  account  is 
supported  by  other  evidence  more  or  less  contemporary, 
as,  for  example,  the  Vita  Hludourid?  From  this  work  we 
gather  that  at  the  time  of  its  composition  (c.  840)  the 
Roncesvalles  disaster  was  already  the  subject  of  popular 
tradition ;  for  its  author,  speaking  of  the  Frankish  chiefs 
slain  in  this  battle,  says,  "quorum,  quia  vulgata  sunt, 
nomina  dicere  supersedi."  Yet  in  its  earliest  extant  form 
the  legend  has  already  worked  in  the  names  and  traditions 
of  a  later  age,  e.g.,  the  traitor  Ganelon,  who  probably,  as 
Leibnitz  has  suggested,  represents  Wenelon,  archbishop  of 
Sens,  accused  of  treason  towards  Charles  the  Bald  in  859. 3 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  during  the  last  few  years 
Dummler  (Romania,  ii.  146-148)  has  discovered  what 
appears  to  be  the  epitaph  of  the  above-mentioned  Eggihard. 
This,  as  G.  Paris  remarks,  renders  it  highly  probable  that 
the  similar  elegiac  verses  quoted  in  the  Pseudo-Turpin 
(cc.  24,  25),  which  make  Roland  thirty-eight  years  old  at 
the  time  of  his  death,  are  also  genuine  survivals  from  the 
Carolingian  era.  According  to  Diimmler's  discovery,  the 
battle  of  Roncesvalles  was  fought  on  15th  August. 

Earliest  Extant  Forms. — The  legend  of  Roland  makes  its 
first  appearance  in  (a)  the  so-called  History  of  Archbishop 
Turpin  and  (b)  the  Chanson  de  Roland.  The  former, 
according  to  Paris,  may  be  divided  into  two  parts ;  of  these 
the  first  (cc.  1-5),  written  about  1050,  deals  with  Charle- 
magne's conquest  of  Spain,  but  contains  no  allusion  to 
Roland.  The  latter  section,  written  by  a  monk  of  Vienne 
between  1109  and  1119,  gives  the  main  outlines  of  the 
familiar  legend:  Marsilius  and  Baligant  appear  (c.  21); 
Roland  fights  with  the  giant  Ferracute,  Ariosto's  Ferraii 
(Orl.  Fur.,  c.  1);  then  follow  the  narrative  of  Ganelon's 
treachery  (c.  21)  and  punishment  (c.  26),  the  episode  of 
Roland's  horn,  Roland's  address  to  his  sword  (c.  22),  his 
last  prayer,  his  death  (c.  23),  and  Charles's  vengeance  on 
the  Saracens  (c.  26).4  The  Chanson  de  Roland,  in  its 
extant  version  probably  composed  in  England  between 
1066  and  1095,  looks  like  the  expansion  of  an  earlier 
poem  written  towards  the  beginning  of  the  same  century. 

1  Annales  Eginhardi,  778,  with  which  comp.  Dozy,  Hist,  des  Muss. 
d'Espayne,  i.  376-380.  *  Ap.  Pertz,  ii.  608. 

3  Ann.  Imperil,  ed.  Pertz,  i.  77. 

4  Turp.  Hist.,  ed.  Castets,  1880. 


It  gives  the  legend  in  much  the  same  form  as  the  Pseudo- 
Turpin,  but  with  far  more  detail  and  poetic  fire.  There 
are,  however,  a  few  striking  differences  between  the  two 
accounts.  Such  deal  with  the  causes  and  method  of 
Ganelon's  treachery,  the  personality  of  Baldwin,  and  the 
fate  of  Archbishop  Turpin.  Above  all,  the  Latin  prose- 
writer  has  no  second  hero  in  Oliver  and  knows  nothing  of 
Roland's  love  for  Aude. 

Additions  to  the  Early  Legend. — The  name  of  Roland  was  soon 
transplanted  from  its  native  soil  in  the  gestes  of  Roncesvalles  into 
almost  the  whole  cycle  of  later  Charlemagne  romance  ;  and  by 
weaving  these  notices  of  him  together  we  may  construct  the 
legendary  story  of  his  life.  Thus  the  Enfatices  Roland  (c.  1200) 
tells  of  his  parents'  disgrace  and  his  infant  valour  ;  in  the  Chanson 
d'  Aspremont  (late  12th  century)  we  read  how  he  became  possessed  of 
his  famous  sword  Durendal ;  Girars  de  Viane  (c.  1200)  recounts 
his  great  fight  with  Oliver  and  his  love  for  that  hero's  sister  Aude. 
Roland  plays  scarce  less  prominent  a  part  in  Rcnaud  de  Montauban 
(13th  century)  and  figures  in  Fierabras  (12th  century),  Otincl  (c. 
1250),  and  the  Voyage  a  Jerusalem  (c.  1130).  Nicholas  of  Padua's 
Entree  en  Espagne  (c.  1320)  makes  Roland  quarrel  with  Charles  and 
fly  to  Persia,  whence  he  only  returns  to  aid  in  the  siege  of  Pam- 
plona and  to  perish  at  Roncesvalles. 

Diffusion  of  the  Roland  Legend  in  Literature. — The  immense 
popularity  of  the  Chanson  de  Roland  and  the  Pscudo-Turfrin  may 
be  measured  by  the  influence  they  have  exercised  on  the  literature 
of  nearly  every  country  of  western  Europe.  To  the  original 
CJutnson  de  Roland  a  poet  of  perhaps  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus 
added  a  new  ending  of  some  2000  lines.  From  this  full  version 
are  descended  the  Remaniements  or  Ronccvaux,  of  which  so  many 
French  MSS.  remain.  During  the  12th  century  a  Swabian  priest, 
Conrad,  translated  the  Chanson  into  rhymed  German  verse.  This 
Rolandslied  forms  the  basis  of  the  Strieker's  Karl  (c.  1230),  in  its 
turn  the  foundation  for  the  Roucesvalles  section  of  the  so-called 
Karl  Mcinct  (early  14th  century).  In  England  Taillefer's  singing 
of  a  "cantilena  Rollandi "  prefaced  the  first  Norman  charge  at 
Hastings  ;5  but,  curiously  enough,  the  English  Roland  of  the  14th 
century  in  some  places  seems  to  look  back  for  its  original  to  the 
Pseudo-Turpin  rather  than  to  the  Chanson  de  Roland,  which 
received  its  final  shape  in  England.6  It  was  probably  from  that 
country  that  the  Roland  legend  passed  to  Scandinavia  and  Iceland. 
There  the  battle  of  Roncesvalles  forms  the  eighth  section  of  the 
great  Karlamagnus  Saga  (13th  century),  which  is  of  critical  import- 
ance, as  it  preserves  some  details  not  to  be  found  in  the  Chanson 
de  Roland  as  we  now  have  it.  Translated  into  Danish,  this  work 
took  the  form  of  the  Kejser  Karl  Magnus  (15th  century),  to  this 
day  a  popular  book  in  Denmark.  The  legend  penetrated  eastward 
into  Hungary  and  Bohemia  ;  while  in  the  west  Roland  appears  in 
the  Welsh  Mabinogion  and  the  tales  of  Ireland.  M.  Bormans  has 
published  Flemish  fragments  of  the  Roncesvalles  story  ;  and  these, 
which  belong  to  the  13th  and  the  14th  century,  are  based  on  the 
Chanson.  In  the  16th  century  the  same  legend  circulated  through- 
out the  Low  Countries  in  one  of  the  most  popular  books  of  the  clay. 
In  the  13th  century  the  Spanish  "fabulae  histrionum,"  of  which 
Roderic  of  Toledo  speaks  (d.  1247),  and  which  may,  on  one  hypo- 
thesis, have  been  the  sources  whence  the  Pseudo-Turpin  drew  his 
materials,  gave  way  to  a  new  and  more  patriotic  legend,  in  which 
Bernard  del  Carpio  takes  the  leading  place  ;  but  three  centuries 
later  (1528)  Nicolas  di  Piamonte  revived  the  purer  Fraukish  tradi- 
tion in  the  still  popular  Karlo  Magno. 

It  is,  however,  on  the  literature  of  Italy  that  the  Roland  legend 
has  exercised  its  widest  influence.  Here  the  songs,  chanted  by  the 
early  French  jongleurs,  towards  the  end  of  the  12th  century  made 
place  for  the  Italianized  Remaniements,  till  the  epoch  of  Nicholas 
of  Padua  (c.  1320),  whose  gigantic  Entree  en  Espagne  (with  its  sup- 
plement the  Prise  de  Pampeluttc),  though  but  a  mosaic  of  earlier 
materials,  formed  the  groundwork  of  the  Tuscan  poem,  the  Spagna 
(1350-1380),  on  which  the  Rotta  di  Roncisvalle  in  its  turn  is  founded. 
Somewhat  later  than  the  verse  Spagna  came  the  Spagna  in  prose  ; 
and  the  extraordinary  popularity  of  the  legend  in  its  new  guise 
made  the  names  of  Charlemagne's  paladins  familiar  down  to  the 
age  of  the  Renaissance.  We  have  now  reached  the  era  of  the  great 
Italian  poets  Pulci  (Morgante  Maggiore,  1481),  Boiardo  (Orlando 
Innamorato,  1486),  Ariosto  (Orlando  Furioso,  1516),  and  Berni 
(1541),  whose  poems,  however,  with  the  exception  of  Pulci's,  are 
indebted  to  those  of  their  predecessors  for  little  more  than  the 
names  of  their  chief  characters  and  their  general  plan. 

Roland   in  Mediaeval  Art. — The   earliest  remaining  statue   of 


8  Will,  of  Malmes.,  Gest.  Reg.  Angl.,  iii.  242  ;  Wace,  ed.  Andresen, 
ii.  11.  8035-40. 

8  Still  more  applicable  is  this  remark  to  Roland  and  Vernagou  (c. 
1330),  and  the  death  of  Roland  in  Caxton's  Charles  the  Orete.  All 
three  works  have  been  edited  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society  by 
Mr  Heritage. 


R  O  L  — R  O  L 


627 


Roland  seems  to  be  the  12th-century  statue  in  the  church  of  San 
Zeno  at  Verona.1  The  whole  history  of  Roncesvalles  is  blazoned 
in  the  13th-century  window  in  Chartres  cathedral.2  A  similar 
window  existed  formerly  in  the  abbey  church  of  St  Denis.  M. 
Vetault  (Hist,  de  Oh.,  p.  496)  has  also  figured  a  Carolingian  coin 
which  bears  the  names  of  both  Roland  and  Charles.  The  so-called 
Roland  statues  of  Germany  are  most  probably  symbolical  of  the 
judicial  and  other  rights  once  possessed  by  the  people  of  those 
towns  where  they  are  to  be  found.  In  some  cases  at  least  the 
name  seems  to  have  been  transferred  to  what  were  originally  meant 
to  be  representations  of  the  first  Othos  (10th  century).  The  earliest 
known  allusion  to  a  "statua  Rolandi"  under  this  name  occurs  in 
a  privilegium  granted  by  Heniy  V.  to  the  town  of  Bremen  (1111). 
The  word  "  Rolandssaule  "  is  perhaps  a  piece  of  folk-etymology 
for  an  earlier  "  Rothland-siiule  "  or  red-land-pillar,  i.e.,  the  before- 
mentioned  figure  or  pillar,  which  signified  that  the  state  in  which 
it  stood  had  the  power  of  life  and  death, — in  other  words,  was  a 
Blutgerichtstatte.  Grimm  suspects  a  connexion  between  the  Roland 
statues  and  those  old  Teutonic  pillars  of  which  the  Irminsul  de- 
stroyed by  Charlemagne  is  the  best-known  example. 3  These  Roland 
statues  are  sometimes  in  the  open  air,  as  at  Bremen  and  Magdeburg ; 
or  against  the  town-house,  as  at  Halberstadt ;  or  in  the  church, 
as  formerly  at  Gottingen.  Sometimes  they  ride  on  horseback,  as 
at  Haldensleben  near  Magdeburg  ;  but  more  generally  they  are  to 
be  found  standing  upright.  They  always  bear  a  sword  in  their 
right  hand  and  very  frequently  a  shield  in  their  left.  They  are 
usually  armoured,  as  at  Magdeburg,  but  are  occasionally  dressed  in 
more  peaceful  robes,  as  at  Halle  (on  the  Saale),  or  both  cloaked  and 
armoured,  as  at  Wedel  in  Holstein  and  at  Bremen.  Sometimes  they 
are  crowned,  as  at  Wedel  and  Nordhausen.  The  heads  of  the  statues 
differ  extremely, — being  long -bearded  at  Erfurt,  short-bearded  at 
Wedel,  and  absolutely  smooth-faced  at  Bremen.  At  Brandenburg 
the  Roland  was  ornamented  with  silver  and  perhaps  with  gold. 
The  statues  are  often  of  colossal  height,  that  of  Belgern  (Merseburg) 
being  over  9  ells  high,  exclusive  of  its  pedestal.  Perhaps  the 
most  famous  Roland  pillar  still  remaining  is  that  of  Bremen. 

For  further  information  on  this  subject  see  Leibnitz,  Annales  Imperil,  i.  478, 
&c.  ;  the  treatises  of  Gryphiander  (ed.  1666)  Eggelingius  (1700),  B.  Carpzov 
(1742),  J.  H.  Hartmann  (1735),  and  Nicholas  Meyer,  De  W-lcUldis  (1739) ;  and 
Zoepfl's  exhaustive  account  in  vol.  iii.  of  his  Alterthiimer  des  deutschen  Reichs. 
For  the  Roland  legend  generally  consult  Leon  Gautier's  Epopees  Francises, 
iii.,  and  Chanson  de  Roland,  edd.  1870  and  1881.  Besides  these,  see  the  various 
romances  of  the  Charlemagne  cycle  edited  for  the  series  of  Anciens  Poetes  de 
France,  the  various  volumes  of  Romania,  and  the  late  editions  of  the  several 
poems  alluded  to  in  the  foregoing  article.  For  the  relationship  of  the  Roland 
legend  to  the  Italian  poets  see  the  works  of  P.  Rajna.  (T.  A.  A.) 

ROLLER,  a  very  beautiful  bird  so  called  from  its  way 
of  occasionally  rolling  or  turning  over  in  its  flight,4  some- 
what after  the  fashion  of  a  Tumbler-Pigeon.  It  is  the 
Coracias  garrulus  of  ornithology,  and  is  widely  though  not 
very  numerously  spread  over  Europe  and  Western  Asia  in 
summer,  breeding  so  far  to  the  northward  as  the  middle 
of  Sweden,  but  retiring  to  winter  in  Africa.  It  occurs 
almost  every  year  in  some  part  or  other  of  the  British 
Islands,  from  Cornwall  to  the  Shetlands,  while  it  has 
visited  Ireland  several  times,  and  is  even  recorded  from  St. 
Kilcla.  But  it  is  only  as  a  wanderer  that  it  comes  hither, 
since  there  is  no  evidence  of  its  having  ever  attempted  to 
breed  in  Great  Britain  ;  and  indeed  its  conspicuous  appear- 
ance— for  it  is  nearly  as  big  as  a  Daw  and  very  brightly 
coloured — would  forbid  its  being  ever  allowed  to  escape 
the  gun  of  the  always  ready  murderers  of  stray  birds. 
Except  the  back,  scapulars,  and  tertials,  which  are  bright 
reddish-brown,  the  plumage  of  both  sexes  is  almost  entirely 
blue — of  various  shades,  from  pale  turquoise  to  dark  ultra- 
marine— tinted  in  parts  with  green.  The  bird  seems  to  be 
purely  insectivorous.  The  genus  Coracias,  for  a  long  while 
placed  by  systematists  among  the  Crows,  has  really  no 
affinity  whatever  to  them,  and  is  now  properly  considered  to 
belong  to  the  heterogeneous  group  of  Birds  in  this  work 
called  Picariee  (ORNITHOLOGY,  vol.  xviii.  p.  41),  in  which 


1  Figured  in  Gautier's  Chanson,  ed.  1881,  p.  38. 

2  Figured  in  Vetault's  Hist,  de  Charlemagne,  pp.  74,  545. 

3  Poeta  Saxo,  ap.  Jaffe,  64-68  ;  see  Grimm's  Teut.  Myth.  (Stally- 
brass),  i.  119. 

4  Gesner  in  1555  said  that  the  bird  was  thus  called,  and  for  this 
reason,  near  Strasburg,  but  the  name  seems  not  to  be  generally  used 
in  Germany,  where  the  bird  is  commonly  called  Hake,  apparently  from 
its  harsh  note.     The  French  have   kept  the  name  Rollier.     It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  the  Roller,  notwithstanding  its   occurrence  in  the 
Levant,  cannot  Le  identified  with  any  species  mentioned  by  Aristotle. 


it  forms  the  type  of  the  Family  Coradidse ;  and  its  alliance 
to  the  Bee-eaters,  Meropidae,  and  KING-FISHERS  (vol.  xiv.  p. 
81),  Alcedinidae,  is  very  evident.  Some  eight  other  species 
of  the  genus  have  been  recognized,  one  of  which,  C.  lewo- 
cephalus  or  C.  abyssinus,  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  Scotland. 
India  has  two  species,  C.  indicus  and  C.  affinis,  of  which 
thousands  upon  thousands  are  annually  destroyed  to  supply 
the  demand  for  gaudy  feathers  to  bedizen  ladies'  dresses. 
One  species,  C.  temmincki,  seems  to  be  peculiar  to  Celebes 
and  the  neighbouring  islands,  but  otherwise  the  rest  are 
natives  of  the  Ethiopian  or  Indian  Regions.  Allied  to 
Coracias  is  the  genus  Eurystomus  with  some  half  dozen 
species,  of  similar  distribution,  but  one  of  them,  E.  jjaciftcus, 
has  a  wider  range,  for  it  inhabits  Australia  and  reaches 
Tasmania.  Madagascar  has  four  or  five  very  remarkable 
forms  which  have  often  been  considered  to  belong  to  the 
Family  Coraciidx ;  and,  according  to  Professor  A.  Milne- 
Edwards,  no  doubt  should  exist  on  that  point.  Yet  if  any 
may  be  entertained  it  is  in  regard  to  one  of  them,  Lepto- 
somus  discolor,  which  on  account  of  its  zygodactylous  feet 
some  authorities  place  among  the  Cuculidx,  while  others 
have  considered  it  the  type  of  a  distinct  Family  Lepto- 
somatidsR.  The  genera  Brachypteracias  and  Atelornis  pre- 
sent fewer  structural  differences  from  the  Rollers,  and 
perhaps  may  be  rightly  placed  with  them ;  but  the  species 
of  the  latter  have  long  tarsi,  and  are  believed  to  be  of 
terrestrial  habit,  which  Rollers  generally  certainly  are  not. 
These  very  curious  and  in  some  respects  very  interesting 
forms,  which  are  peculiar  to  Madagascar,  are  admirably 
described  and  illustrated  by  a  series  of  twenty  plates  in 
the  great  work  of  MM.  Grandidier  and  A.  Milne-Edwards 
on  that  island  (Oiseaux,  pp.  223-250),  while  the  whole 
Family  Coraciidse  is  the  subject  of  a  monograph  by  Mr 
Dresser,  as  a  companion  volume  to  his  monograph  on  the 
Meropidse.  (A.  N.) 

ROLLER  MILL.     See  FLOUE,  vol.  ix.  pp.  345,  346. 

ROLLIN,  CHAKLES  (1661-1741),  was  born  at  Paris  on 
30th  January  1661.  He  was  the  son  of  a  tradesman,  but 
distinguished  himself  at  school,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two  was  made  a  master  in  the  College  du  Plessis.  He 
was  successively  promoted  to  various  other  posts  of  the 
same  kind.  In  1694  he  was  rector  of  the  university  of 
Paris.  He  held  that  post  for  two  years  instead  of  one, 
and  was  then  appointed  principal  of  the  College  de  Beau- 
vais.  He  was  of  Jansenist  principles,  and  in  the  later 
years  of  his  life  was  for  this  cause  deprived  of  his  appoint- 
ments and  disqualified  for  the  rectorship,  to  which  in  1719 
he  had  been  re-elected.  It  is  said  that  the  same  reason 
prevented  his  election  to  the  French  Academy,  though  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He  was 
concerned  in  the  affair  of  the  deacon  Paris,  and  shortly 
before  his  death  (14th  December  1741)  protested  publicly 
against  the  acceptance  of  the  bull  Unigenitus. 

Rollin's  literary  work  dates  chiefly  from  the  later  years  of  his 
life,  when  he  had  been  forbidden  to  teach.  His  once  famous 
Aiwient  History  (Paris,  1730-38)  and  the  less  generally  read  Roman 
History  which  followed  it  were  avowed  compilations,  and  compila- 
tions which  were  not  only  far  from  critical  but  even  somewhat  in- 
accurate. But  they  have  had  the  merit  not  merely  of  instructing 
but  of  interesting  generation  after  generation  almost  to  the  pre- 
sent day.  A  more  original  and  really  important  work,^  though  less 
generally  known  out  of  France,  was  his  Traite  des  Etudes  (Paris, 
1726-31).  It  contains  a  summary  of  what  was  even  then  a  reformed 
and  innovating  system  of  education,  including  a  more  frequent  and 
extensive  use  of  the  vulgar  tongue  and  discarding  the  mediaeval 
traditions  that  had  lingered  in  France.  It  had  very  considerable 
influence.  Rollin's  style  is  good  and  his  personal  character  was 
irreproachable. 

ROLLING  MILL.     See  IRON,  vol.  xiii.  p.  328  sq. 

ROLLO,  ROLF,  or  ROTJ,  Scandinavian  rover,  born  c. 
860,  died  932.  He  made  himself  independent  of  Harold 
of  Norway,  visited  Scotland,  England,  and  Flanders  in 
pirating  expeditions,  and  about  912  established  himself 


628 


R  O  L  —  R  O  M 


on  the  Seine  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  duchy  of 
NORMANDY  (see  vol.  xvii.  p.  539). 

ROLLOCK,  ROBERT  (1555-1599),  the  first  principal  of 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  was  the  son  of  David  Rollock 
of  Powis  near  Stirling,  and  was  born  in  1555.  He  received 
his  early  education  at  the  school  of  Stirling  from  Thomas 
Buchanan,  a  nephew  of  George  Buchanan,  and  after 
graduating  at  St  Andrews  became  regent  of  philosophy 
there  in  1580.  In  1583  he  was  appointed  by  the  Edin- 
burgh town  council  sole  "  regent "  of  the  "  town's  college  " 
("Academia  Jacobi  Sexti"),  and  three  years  later  he 
received  from  the  same  source  the  title  of  "principal  or 
first  master,"  and  also,  with  consent  of  the  presbytery, 
professor  of  theology.  From  1587  he  also  preached 
regularly  to  large  audiences  every  Sunday  morning  at  7 
A.M.,  and  ultimately,  yielding  to  urgent  entreaties,  he 
accepted  "  the  full  burden  of  one  of  the  eight  ministers  of 
the  city."  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  somewhat 
troubled  church  politics  of  the  day,  and  distinguished 
himself  among  his  compeers  by  gentleness  and  tact,  as 
well  as  ability.  In  1593  he  was  appointed,  along  with 
some  others,  by  parliament  to  confer  with  the  popish  lords, 
and  in  1597  it  was  through  his  mediation  with  the  king 
that  the  ministers  of  Edinburgh,  banished  in  consequence 
of  a  "tumult"  in  December  1596,  were  permitted  to 
return.  For  his  eminent  services  he  was  chosen  moderator 
of  the  General  Assembly  held  at  Dundee  in  May  1597. 
His  death  took  place  at  Edinburgh  on  8th  February  1599. 

Rollock  published  in  Latin  a  commentary  On  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  (1590),  a  similar  work  On  Daniel  (1591),  a  Logical 
Analysis  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (1594),  Questions  and  Answers 
on  the  Covenant  of  God  (1596),  a  treatise  On  Effectual  Calling  (1597), 
and  commentaries  on  Thessalonians  (1598),  fifteen  selected  Psalms 
(1599),  and  the  Gospel  of  St  John  (1599).  Soon  after  his  death 
eleven  Sermons  were  published  from  notes  taken  by  his  students, 
and  his  Select  Works  by  the  Wodrow  Society  in  1849. 

ROLLS,  MASTER  OF  THE,  is  the  third  member  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  in  England,  the  lord  chancel- 
lor, president  of  the  Chancery  Division,  being  the  first  and 
the  lord  chief  justice,  president  of  the  Queen's  Bench 
Division,  being  the  second.  At  first  he  was  the  principal 
clerk  of  the  Chancery  and  as  such  had  charge  of  the 
records  of  the  court,  especially  of  the  register  of  original 
writs  and  of  all  patents  and  grants  under  the  great  seal. 
Until  the  end  of  the  15th  century  he  was  called  either 
the  clerk  or  the  keeper  of  the  rolls,  and  he  is  still  formally 
designated  as  the  master  or  keeper  of  the  rolls.  The 
earliest  mention  of  him  as  master  of  the  rolls  is  in  1 1  Hen. 
VII.  c.  18 ;  and  in  11  Hen.  VII.  c.  24  he  is  again  described 
as  clerk  of  the  rolls,  showing  that  his  official  designation 
still  remained  unsettled.  About  the  same  period,  however, 
the  chief  clerks  of  the  Chancery  came  to  be  called  masters 
in  Chancery  and  the  clerk,  master,  or  keeper  of  the  rolls 
was  always  the  first  among  them  whichever  name  they 
bore.  In  course  of  time,  from  causes  which  are  not  very 
easy  to  trace,  his  original  functions  as  keeper  of  the  records 
passed  away  from  him  and  he  gradually  assumed  a  juris- 
diction in  the  Court  of  Chancery  second  only  to  that  of 
the  lord  chancellor  himself.  In  the  beginning  he  only 
heard  causes  in  conjunction  with  the  other  masters  in 
Chancery  and  his  decrees  were  invalid  until  they  had 
been  approved  and  signed  by  the  lord  chancellor.  But 
later  on  he  heard  causes  without  assistance  and  his  decrees 
held  good  until  they  were  reversed  on  petition  either  to 
the  lord  chancellor  or  afterwards  to  the  lords  justices  of 
appeal  (15  and  16  Viet.  c.  83).  Before  any  judge  with 
the  formal  title  of  vice-chancellor  was  appointed  the  master 
of  the  rolls  was  often  spoken  of  as  vice-chancellor.  By  1 
and  2  Viet.  c.  94  the  custody  of  the  records  was  restored 
to  him,  and  he  is  chairman  of  the  State  Papers  and 
Historical  Manuscripts  Commissions.  Under  38  and  39 


Viet.  c.  77  and  39  and  40  Viet.  c.  59  he  now  always  sits 
with  the  lords  justices  in  the  Court  of  Appeal,  whose 
decisions  can  be  questioned  only  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
The  master  of  the  rolls  was  formerly  eligible  to  a  seat  in 
the  House  of  Commons, — a  privilege  enjoyed  by  no  other 
member  of  the  judicial  bench ;  but  he  was  deprived  of  it 
by  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  Act  of  1873  (36  and 
37  Viet.  c.  66),  which  provides  that  all  judges  of  the  High 
Court  of  Justice  and  the  Court  of  Appeal  shall  be  incap- 
able of  being  elected  to  or  sitting  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. The  master  of  the  rolls  is  always  sworn  of  the  privy 
council. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH,  the  name  generally 
given  to  that  very  numerous  body  of  Christians  who  ac- 
knowledge the  pope,  or  bishop  of  Rome,  as  head  of  their 
church.  This  name  also  signifies  that  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  "  Roman  in  its  centre  and  catholic  in  its  circum- 
ference." The  number  of  Catholics  throughout  the  world 
is  variously  estimated,  some  statisticians  placing  it  as  low 
as  152,000,000,  others  at  213,518,000,  and  others  at 
218,000,000.  The  author  of  the  Katholischer  Missions- 
Atlas  (Rev.  O.  Werner,  S.J.),  largely  furnished  with  Pro- 
paganda returns,  distributes  them  as  follows  : — in  Europe, 
150,684,050;  in  Asia,  8,311,800;  in  Africa,  2,656,205; 
in  both  Americas,  51,422,566;  in  Australia  and  adjacent 
islands,  443,442;  total,  213,518,063.  But  he  considers 
that  this  calculation  gives  less  than  the  whole  number  of 
Catholics  throughout  the  world,  and  adds  nearly  a  million 
more,  making  the  total  214,370,000.  Dr  Hugo  Franz 
Brachelli,  superior  of  the  Austrian  Statistical  Department, 
in  Die  Staaten  Europa's  for  1884,  gives  the  number  of 
Catholics  in  Europe  as  155,900,000,  distributed  mainly 
as  follows  : — 

Austria-Hungary 20,229,825 

Prussia  and  German  States    16,229,493 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 6,000,000 

France  35,387,703 

Italy 26,658,679 

Russia   8,500,000 

Scandinavia :  Sweden  (1870),   Norway  (1875), 

Denmark  (1880)  4,075 

Netherlands 1,439,137 

Luxemburg  207,782 

Belgium  (pop.  5,519,844)    5,501,844 

Liechtenstein,  Monaco,  &c.,  almost  entirely. 

Spain  and  Portugal  (pop.  21,164,380) 21,148,880 

Greece  and  Montenegro,  over 124,000 

Turkey  218,254 

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 209,391 

The  supreme  pontiff,  who  traces  his  succession  from  St 
Peter  (see  POPEDOM),  is  regarded  by  Catholics  as  "vicar 
of  Christ,  head  of  the  bishops,  and  supreme  governor  of 
the  whole  Catholic  Church,  of  whom  the  whole  world  is 
the  territory  or  diocese."  He  is  also  patriarch  of  the 
West,  bishop  of  Rome  and  its  district,  and  temporal  prince 
over  the  states  of  the  church  known  as  the  Pontifical 
States — though  the  exercise  of  the  last  prerogative  has 
been  in  abeyance  since  the  events  of  1859  and  1870. 
The  pope  has  a  primacy  or  supremacy,  not  only  of  honour 
but  of  power,  authority,  and  immediate  jurisdiction,  over 
the  universal  church.  When  he  is  canonically  elected, 
and  has  given  his  consent  to  the  election,  he  possesses, 
without  any  other  confirmation,  authority  over  the  whole 
church,  even  though  at  his  election  he  may  not  have  been 
either  bishop,  priest,  deacon,  or  subdeacon,  but  a  simple 
layman.  In  the  early  ages  of  the  church  subdeacons  were 
occasionally  elected,  deacons  more  frequently,  and  bishops 
rarely.  In  the  llth  century  Gregory  VII.,  previously 
known  as  the  deacon  Hildebrand,  was  ordained  priest  after 
his  election  and  consecrated  bishop  later.  The  first  pope 
invested  with  the  episcopal  dignity  prior  to  his  election 
to  the  pontificate  was  Formosus,  bishop  of  Porto,  elected 


ROMAN     CATHOLIC     CHURCH 


629 


891.  From  the  end  of  the  13th  century  it  was  the  ordi- 
nary custom  to  choose  the  pope  from  the  bishops ;  and 
from  1592  to  1775  only  three  were  elected  who  had  not 
been  bishops  previously.  Clement  XIV.,  Pius  V.,  and 
Gregory  XVI.  were  simple  priests  when  elected  to  the 
papacy.  The  cardinals,  to  whom  the  election  of  the  pontiff 
is  reserved,  generally  select  one  of  their  own  body  for  this 
important  position.  The  privilege  of  consecrating  the 
pope  is  reserved  to  the  cardinal  bishop  of  Ostia.  From 
the  moment  of  election  the  pope  may  perform  all  acts 
appertaining  to  his  jurisdiction,  such  as  granting  indul- 
gences, issuing  censures,  giving  dispensations,  canonizing 
saints,  instituting  bishops,  creating  cardinals,  and  suchlike. 
The  powers  inherent  in  the  priesthood  and  episcopate, 
such  as  the  remission  of  sins,  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments  of  confirmation,  holy  orders,  &c.,  he  cannot 
exercise  unless  he  be  ordained  and  consecrated.  Hence 
the  office  of  sovereign  pontiff  is  a  dignity  not  of  order  but 
of  jurisdiction.  His  pronouncements  are  regarded  as  in- 
fallible when  he  defines  a  doctrine  regarding  faith  and 
morals  to  be  held  by  the  whole  church. 

The  office  of  pope  is  elective  (see  CONCLAVE),  and  lasts 
during  the  life  of  the  occupant,  although  he  may  renounce 
his  dignity.  When  the  election  has  taken  place  the  fact 
is  made  known  by  the  cardinal  dean.  Many  ceremonies 
follow,  such  as  coronation  and  taking  possession  of  the 
cathedral  church  of  Rome,  St  John  Lateran.  This  latter 
ceremony  is  not  strictly  necessary,  for  after  his  coronation 
the  pope  enjoys  the  papal  power  in  all  its  plenitude ;  but 
its  object  is  his  enthronization  as  bishop  of  the  city  and 
diocese  of  Rome  and  patriarch  of  the  West.  The  cardinals 
are  the  princes  and  senators  of  the  church,  counsellors  of 
the  pontiff,  co-operators  with  him,  and  vicars  in  the  func- 
tions of  the  pontificate  (see  CARDINAL).  To  Pope  Evaris- 
tus,  fifth  successor  of  St  Peter,  is  attributed  the  creation 
of  the  first  titles  or  parishes  of  Rome,  the  occupants  of 
which  were  afterwards  known  as  cardinals.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  3d  century  twenty-five  of  these  titles  existed. 
In  the  course  of  time  they  were  increased  to  fifty  and  after- 
wards to  seventy.  In  the  Gerarchia  Cattolica  the  titles  are 
thus  divided  :  suburban  sees  (cardinal  bishops),  6  ;  titular 
churches  (cardinal  priests),  52 ;  and  diaconates  (cardinal 
deacons),  16;  making  a  total  of  74.  The  cardinalate,  in 
the  sense  at  present  attached  to  it,  is  different  from  what 
it  was  in  earlier  ages,  being  now  the  highest  dignity  after 
the  papacy.  The  greater  part  of  the  administration  of  the 
church — the  chief  subject  of  this  article — is  directed  by 
the  cardinals  who  are  members  of  congregations,  which 
correspond,  in  a  certain  measure,  to  the  political  ministries 
in  modern  states.  These  congregations  are  established  in 
Rome  by  the  sovereign  pontiff,  and  their  objects  are  to 
inquire  into,  discuss,  and  decide  the  important  affairs  of 
the  whole  church  and  of  the  temporal  dominions  of  the 
holy  see.  The  cardinals  are  assisted  by  consultors  or 
prelates,  by  distinguished  ecclesiastics  secular  and  regular, 
and  by  other  officials  appointed  by  the  pope. 

The  head  of  every  congregation  is  a  cardinal  prefect, 
though  some  congregations  have  the  pope  as  prefect,  e.g., 
the  holy  office,  the  apostolic  visit,  and  the  consistory. 
The  secretary  is  ordinarily  a  prelate;  in  the  holy  office 
he  is  a  cardinal.  The  acts,  decrees,  rescripts,  and  letters 
issued  in  the  name  of  a  congregation  are  subscribed  gener- 
ally by  the  prefect,  and  always  by  the  secretary.  These 
two  officials  chiefly  regulate  the  affairs  of  the  congregation 
and  submit  to  the  pope,  at  periodical  audiences,  the  matters 
which  require  his  approval.  The  following  are  the  more 
important  congregations  :  — inquisition,  consistorial,  apo- 
stolic visit,  bishops  and  regulars,  council,  residence  of 
bishops,  state  of  regulars,  ecclesiastical  immunities,  propa- 
ganda fide,  propaganda  fide  for  Oriental  affairs,  commission 


for  correction  of  books  of  the  Oriental  Church,  index, 
sacred  rites,  ceremonial,  regular  discipline,  indulgences  and 
relics,  examination  of  bishops,  fabbrica  of  St  Peter's,  extra- 
ordinary ecclesiastical  affairs  and  studies.  The  congrega- 
tion of  the  Holy  Roman  Inquisition  or  Holy  Office  (see  IN- 
QUISITION) occupies  the  first  place  in  regard  to  the  quality 
of  the  matters  of  which  it  treats,  as  well  as  from  its  an- 
tiquity. Its  object  is  the  extirpation  of  heresies.  It  was 
formally  established  by  Innocent  III.  (1198-1216),  on  the 
suggestion  of  St  Dominic.  The  following  class  of  cases 
falls  within  its  judgment : — crimes  of  heresy  and  heretical 
blasphemy,  simultaneous  polygamy,  robbery  of  the  sacred 
particles  accompanied  by  insult  offered  to  the  same,  soli- 
citations ad  turpia  with  abuse  of  sacramental  confession, 
affected  sanctity,  contempt  of  sacred  images,  divination 
and  sorcery,  retention  and  reading  of  heretical  books,  &c. 
This  congregation  also  proceeds  against  any  one  who, 
having  been  baptized,  returns  to  paganism ;  against  any 
one  who  celebrates  mass  or  hears  confessions,  not  being  a 
priest ;  against  false  witnesses  who  depose  in  causes  of 
faith,  &c.  Its  authority  extends,  in  matters  of  faith,  over 
every  person  of  whatsoever  grade,  condition,  or  dignity, 
whether  bishops,  magistrates,  or  communities,  and  no  local 
or  personal  privilege  exempts  from  its  jurisdiction. 
Bishops,  according  to  the  council  of  Trent,  being  subject 
to  the  pope  only,  the  Inquisition  may  institute  inquiries, 
but  may  not  pronounce  sentence,  this  being  reserved  to 
the  pontiff.  Consistorial,  instituted  by  Sixtus  V.,  1587, 
considers  and  judges  on  matters  appertaining  to  the  erec- 
tion of  new  metropolitan  or  cathedral  churches,  or  their 
limits ;  instances  of  bishops  who  desire  to  resign  their 
churches ;  matters  relating  to  chapters  and  the  confirma- 
tion or  exclusion  of  subjects  elected  by  them  to  metro- 
politan, episcopal,  or  monastic  dignities ;  the  examination 
of  coadjutors ;  presentations  or  nominations  of  bishops 
made  by  sovereign  princes  and  republics ;  concession  of 
rights  to  the  pallium ;  retention  of  dignities  and  major 
benefices  incompatible  with  episcopal  rights,  and  suchlike. 
The  Apostolic  Visit  insists  on  the  observance  of  that  decree 
of  the  council  of  Trent  which  enjoins,  as  a  duty,  that 
every  bishop  shall  visit  in  person  or  by  means  of  a  dele- 
gate the  churches,  pious  institutions,  &c.,  in  his  diocese. 
Bishops  and  Regulars :  this  congregation  has  to  do  chiefly 
with  the  government  of  monasteries  and  with  complaints 
from  the  inmates  of  these  against  bishops.  It  examines 
new  institutions  and  their  constitution ;  the  founding  of 
new  monasteries  for  both  sexes,  and  the  removal  of  sub- 
jects from  one  monastery  to  another ;  questions  regarding 
the  alienation  of  the  ecclesiastical  property  of  regulars ; 
differences  between  ordinaries,  parish  priests,  and  regulars ; 
and  a  variety  of  questions  of  a  similar  nature.  The 
Council :  the  fathers  of  the  council  of  Trent,  anticipating 
that  doubts  might  arise  concerning  the  interpretation  of 
the  doctrines  and  decrees  published  therein,  besought 
Pius  IV.  to  provide  in  the  most  fitting  manner  for  such 
contingencies.  This  the  pontiff  did  in  approving  and 
solemnly  confirming  the-  council  in  the  bull  Benedictus 
Deus  (1563),  interdicting,  under  severe  penalties,  any 
person  whatsoever,  secular  or  ecclesiastic,  from  publishing 
commentaries,  glosses,  <fec.,  or  any  interpretation  whatso- 
ever, upon  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent,  it  being 
enacted  that  all  controversies,  questions,  and  doubts 
should  be  submitted  to  the  congregation  of  the  council. 
The  object  of  this  congregation,  therefore,  is  the  interpret- 
ation of  these  doctrines  and  decrees.  The  congregation 
of  Residence  of  Bisliops  may  be  considered  as  auxiliary  to 
that  of  the  council.  It  treats  of  the  questions  which  con- 
cern the  bishops'  obligation  to  reside  in  their  own  dioceses, 
— a  most  important  matter  treated  of  in  the  council  of 
Trent.  Even  in  1352  Innocent  VI.  ordered,  under  pain 


630 


ROMAN     CATHOLIC     CHURCH 


of  excommunication,  that  bishops  and  other  beneficiaries 
having  care  of  souls  should  reside  in  their  respective 
dioceses.  Innocent  X.  forbade  cardinals  to  depart  from 
Rome  or  its  district — that  is,  a  radius  of  40  miles — with- 
out licence  from  the  pope.  The  State  of  Regulars  was 
instituted  for  enforcing  on  religious  orders  and  congrega- 
tions the  observance  of  their  special  rules  and  constitu- 
tions. Ecclesiastical  Immunities  treats  of  controversies 
concerning  the  liberty  and  independence  of  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  and  its  violations,  and  prescribes  that  the  im- 
munities due  to  churches  be  respected.  This  congrega- 
tion receives  appeals  of  causes  which  in  the  first  instance 
were  brought  before  the  episcopal  courts.  The  various 
concordats  entered  into  between  Governments  and  the 
holy  see  have  diminished  the  number  of  causes  which 
come  under  the  judgment  of  this  congregation.  For  Pro- 
paganda Fide,  see  PKOPAGANDA.  Propaganda  Fide  for 
Oriental  Affairs,  which  provides  for  the  affairs  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  was  created  by  Pius  IX.  in  a  brief  dated 
6th  January  1862.  It  depends  upon  the  cardinal  prefect 
of  Propaganda,  but  has  its  own  secretary,  consultors,  and 
officials.  The  Commission  for  the  Correction  of  Books  of 
the  Oriental  Church  took  its  origin  from  a  report  made  by 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain  to  Urban  VIII.  in  1631,  to  the  effect 
that  the  United  Greeks  inhabiting  the  Spanish  dominions, 
especially  Sicily,  complained  that  schismatics  had  printed 
an  Euchologium,  or  liturgy  of  the  mass,  filled  with  errors, 
and  he  begged  the  pontiff  to  provide  a  remedy  for  the 
evil  and  its  consequences.  The  correction  of  the  Eucholo- 
gium  was  decreed,  and  a  special  congregation — now  called 
commission — composed  of  five  cardinals,  assisted  by  bishops 
and  ecclesiastics  of  the  Oriental  Church,  was  appointed  to 
correct  the  books  of  the  Oriental  Church,  and  to  publish 
a  correct  Euchologium.  The  office  of  the  congregation  of 
the  Index  is  to  examine  printed  books  and  works  contrary 
to  faith  or  morals,  and  to  compile  an  index  or  list,  which 
is  published  at  intervals,  of  the  works  the  reading  of  which 
is  prohibited.  The  method  now  followed  in  the  examina- 
tion and  condemnation  of  books,  especially  by  Catholic 
authors,  was  fixed  by  Benedict  XIV.  A  consultor  examines 
the  suspected  work,  and  reports  at  a  meeting  of  the  con- 
gregation what  it  contains  contrary  to  faith,  good  morals, 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  &c.  An  examination  of  these 
passages  is  made,  and  it  is  determined  by  vote — the  car- 
dinals having  the  decisive  vote — whether  the  book  shall 
be  prohibited  or  corrected.  The  congregation  of  Sacred 
Rites  was  instituted  by  Sixtus  V.  in  1587,  in  order  that 
in  all  the  churches  of  Rome  and  the  world,  and  in  the 
pontifical  chapel,  in  masses,  divine  offices,  and  everything 
else  regarding  divine  worship,  the  ancient  ceremonies  may 
be  rigorously  followed;  that  if  any  primitive  rite  have 
fallen  into  disuse  it  may  be  restored  to  its  ancient  splendour 
or  reformed ;  that  the  pontificals,  rituals,  ceremonials,  and 
all  books  of  sacred  rites  may  be  emended  and  renewed ; 
and  that  the  divine  offices  of  the  saints  may  be  examined. 
Particular  attention  is  likewise  given  by  this  congregation 
to  all  things  concerning  the  canonization  of  saints,  the 
celebration  of  their  feasts,  so  that  all  may  be  done  in  an 
orderly  manner,  correctly,  and  according  to  the  traditions 
of  the  fathers.  Hence  this  congregation  decides  contro- 
versies on  all  these  and  on  cognate  matters.  Its  most 
serious  work  consists  in  processes  for  the  beatification  and 
canonization  of  the  servants  of  God,  the  honours  paid  to 
saints,  and  the  recognition  of  martyrdoms  suffered  for  the 
Catholic  faith.  Its  first  cause  in  this  line  was  that  of  the 
twenty-three  minor  observants  martyred  in  Japan  in  the 
pontificate  of  Urban  VIII.  One  of  the  rules  established 
by  this  pope  for  the  recognition  of  saints  enjoins  that,  ex- 
cept by  licence  of  the  congregation,  no  one  can  proceed  to 
any  act  of  canonization,  beatification,  or  declaration  of 


martyrdom  until  fifty  years  after  the  death  of  the  subject. 
The  congregation  of  Ceremonial  investigates  and  watches 
over  the  exact  fulfilment  of  the  sacred  liturgy,  and  regu- 
lates and  decides  questions  and  doubts  regarding  for- 
malities, pre-eminence  amongst  cardinals,  prelates,  and 
others,  as  well  as  certain  sacred  ceremonies  in  pontifical 
functions. 

The  work  of  the  church  in  the  world  is  directed  im- 
mediately by  the  bishops,  who  receive  their  jurisdiction 
from  the  pope.  The  power  inherent  in  the  episcopal 
character  and  order  is  received  from  God  directly  and 
immediately.  When  established  in  a  diocese  by  the  pope, 
the  bishop,  in  virtue  of  his  title,  receives  the  power  of 
governing  and  of  taking  cognizance  of  all  spiritual  causes 
which  regard  his  flo.k,  whether  laymen  or  ecclesiastics, 
with  the  exception  of  what  is  specially  reserved  to  the 
head  of  the  church,  and  he  possesses  and  exercises  these 
prerogatives  under  the  jurisdiction  of  and  in  dependence 
on  the  pope.  The  bishops  in  the  Catholic  Church  at  the 
present  time  are  (Gerarchia  C  ittolica,  March  1885)  thus 
divided  :  (a)  patriarchal  sees,  of  the  Latin  rite,  7  ;  of  the 
Oriental  rite,  5  ;  (6)  archiepiscopal  sees,  of  the  Latin  rite, 
immediately  subject  to  the  holy  see,  14;  with  ecclesiastical 
provinces,  137;  Oriental  rite,  with  ecclesiastical  provinces, 
3;  subject  to  patriarchates,  21 ;  (c-)  episcopal  sees,  Latin 
rite,  immediately  subject  to  the  holy  see,  86  ;  suffragans 
in  ecclesiastical  provinces,  579  ;  Oriental  rite,  immediately 
subject  to  the  holy  see,  2 ;  suffragans  in  ecclesiastical  pro- 
vinces, 8 ;  subject  to  patriarchates,  41 ;  (d)  sees  nullius 
dweceseos,  17.  The  titles  dependent  on  the  sacred  congre- 
gation of  Propaganda  are — apostolic  delegations,  7 ;  vicari- 
ates  apostolic,  123;  prefectures  apostolic,  35.  The  total 
of  these  hierarchical  titles  amounts  to  1085,  and,  including 
the  74  cardinalitial  titles,  to  1159.  The  vacant  titles  of 
all  kinds  amount  to  107,  and  thus  the  whole  hierarchy  of 
the  Catholic  Church  in  March  1885  reached  the  total  of 
1266.  Priests,  placed  in  the  second  degree  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical hierarchy,  who  are  generally  divided  into  parish 
priests  and  curates  or  assistants,  are  immediately  under  the 
direction  of  the  bishops  and  administer  directly  to  the 
people.  Their  primary  office  is  the  offering  of  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass.  They  also  preach,  bless,  and  administer  bap- 
tism, penance,  communion,  and  extreme  unction.  Their 
functions  are  numerous  and  important,  and  they  constitute 
the  working  force  of  the  church  in  its  direct  relations  with 
its  members  throughout  the  world.  Priests  of  religious 
orders  exercise  like  functions,  save  those  properly  parochial. 

The  Oriental  churches  in  communion  with  the  holy  see, 
holding  the  same  belief  and  the  same  principle  of  authority 
as  the  Latin  Church,  have  their  own  special  rites,  discipline, 
and  liturgical  language.  These  are  chiefly  the  Greek, 
Melchite,  Bulgarian,  Ruthenian,  Maronite,  Syro-Chaldaic, 
Coptic,  Armenian,  and  Roumanian  rites.  The  Greek  Ori- 
ental rite  is  admitted  by  the  pure  Greeks,  the  Slavs  (in 
the  Slav  language),  the  Melchites  of  Syria  (in  Arabic), 
the  Roumanians  (in  the  Roumanian  tongue),  and  the 
Georgians  (in  their  own  language).  The  Georgian  Greek 
rite  has  no  hierarchy,  and  many  Georgians  in  Russia  have 
passed  to  the  Latin  or  Armenian  rites.  The  Greek  and 
Slav  languages  are  approved  by  the  church  as  ritual  lan- 
guages ;  Arabic  is  only  tolerated. 

Greeks  in  Communion. — These  are  found  at  present  in  Constanti- 
nople, in  the  mission  of  Malgara  in  Thrace,  and  consist  of  about 
sixty  families,  having  one  bishop  and  about  ten  priests.  In  this 
rite  marriage  is  permitted  to  clerics  previous  to  the  reception  of 
sacred  orders  ;  but  there  is  a  tendency  to  abolish  the  practice.  In 
Greece  nearly  30,000  Greeks  have  followed  the  Latin  rite,  and  these 
have  seven  bishops  and  about  a  hundred  priests.  The  mass  of  St 
Basil  is  celebrated  by  the  Greeks  ten  times  a  year, — on  the  three 
vigils  of  Christmas,  the  Epiphany,  Easter,  Holy  Thursday,  the 
Feast  of  St  Basil,  and  the  first  five  Sundays  of  Lent.  After  St 
Basil,  St  John  Chrysostom  abbreviated  this  mass  and  gave  it  the 


ROMAN     CATHOLIC     CHURCH 


631 


form  which  has  existed  down  to  the  present  time  amongst  all  the 
Orientals  who  follow  the  Greek  rite. 

Mclchites. — The  Melchites  (see  MELCHITES)  have  the  Greek  rite 
in  the  Arab  language.  They  are  found  scattered  throughout  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Egypt,  and  have  one  patriarch  and  ten  bishops 
ruling  over  from  70,000  to  80,000  souls.  Their  clergy  are,  for  the 
most  part,  regular,  following  the  rule  of  St  Basil,  and  are  divided 
into  three  congregations,  — that  of  San  Salvatore  near  Saida  (Sidon) 
in  Lebanon,  with  about  300  persons  who  mostly  have  the  care  of 
souls  ;  the  second,  of  St  John  the  Baptist',  is  at  Scieur  in  Lebanon, 
with  thirty  members  ;  and  the  third  is  the  congregation  of  Aleppo, 
at  St  George  in  Lebanon,  with  forty  members  between  priests  and 
brothers.  A  small  group  of  secular  clergy  is  attached  to  the  patri- 
archate. Besides  these  there  are  about  forty  secular  married  priests 
throughout  the  dioceses.  The  patriarchal  residence  is  Damascus, 
which  has  two  bishops  -  vicars,  —  one  in  Damascus,  the  other  in 
Egypt.  The  ten  dioceses  are  Tyre,  Hauran,  Saida  or  Sidon, 
Ptolemais,  Beyrout,  Zakle,  Baalbec,  Emessa,  Aleppo,  and  Tripoli. 
Thus  there  are  twelve  bishops  in  all. 

Bulgarians. — The  United  Bulgarians  have  the  same  Greek  rite, 
with  the  mass  in  the  Slav  language.  Their  origin  dates  from 
1860,  when  many  prelates  and  people  passed  over  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  At  present  (1885)  their  numbers  are  somewhat  diminished, 
amounting  to  about  9000  souls.  They  have  one  archbishop,  who 
resides  in  Constantinople,  a  vicar-apostolic  for  Thrace,  who  resides 
in  Adrian  ople,  and  another  vicar -apostolic  for  Macedonia,  who 
resides  in  Salonica.  The  Turkish  Government  officially  recognizes 
them  as  Catholics.  They  are  spread  amongst  the  villages  in  Turkey 
and  especially  in  Macedonia.  Besides  these  there  are  in  the  diocese 
of  Philippopolis  about  15,000  Bulgarian  Catholics  who  have  em- 
braced the  Latin  rite.  These  are  administered  by  a  vicar-apostolic 
of  the  order  of  Capuchins. 

Ruthenians. — The  Ruthenians  attribute  their  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity to  St  Methodius  (860)  and  his  brother  St  Cyril.  The 
Ruthenian  rite  is  Greek  in  the  vicinity  of  Greece  and  Latin  in  the 
countries  of  western  Europe.  The  Slav  is  the  language  used  in  both 
rites.  The  Ruthenians  are  numerous  in  eastern  and  western 
Galicia,  in  Poland,  and  in  Hungary.  In  Russia  they  have  two 
dioceses.  In  Galicia  they  number  about  2,600,000  with  2000 
priests  ;  in  Hungary  the  two  dioceses  of  Eperies  and  Munkacs 
count  half  a  million  of  Catholics.  In  Galicia  they  have  one  metro- 
politan (Lemberg)  and  two  bishops,  in  Hungary  two  bishops,  and 
in  Crisio  one,  with  about  200  priests  in  these  three  dioceses.  They 
have  a  Greek  Ruthenian  college  at  Rome  and  another  in  Vienna. 

Maronitcs. — The  greater  number  of  the  MARONITES  (q.v.)  are  in 
Lebanon,  where  the  patriarch  resides  ;  others  are  iu  Syria,  in  Egypt, 
and  in  Cyprus.  The  patriarchal  title  is  Antioch  ;  the  archbishops 
are  those  of  Aleppo,  Archis,  Berito,  Damascus,  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and 
Tripoli ;  the  bishops  of  Cyprus,  Heliopolis,  and  Gibail  and  Botri. 
The  Maronites  of  Alexandria  are  administered  by  a  procurator  of 
the  patriarch.  The  population  of  these  dioceses  is  nearly  400,000. 
The  number  of  regular  priests  is  about  1200,  of  secular  priests  about 
600.  In  Mount  Lebanon  there  are  seventy-five  convents  of  men  and 
women.  Five  colleges  or  seminaries  depend  upon  the  patriarch  and 
four  others  on  the  archbishops.  In  these  seminaries  the  clerics 
learn  Arabic,  Syriac,  Latin,  French,  and  Italian.  The  language 
used  in  the  mass  and  in  the  offices  of  the  church  is  Syriac,  that 
spoken  by  the  people  is  Arabic. 

Syro-Chaldeans. — The  Oriental  Syrians  are  called,  ecclesiastically, 
Chaldeans.  This  name  comprises,  not  only  the  inhabitants  of 
Chaldea,  but  also  those  of  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  and  a  part  of 
Persia.  To  distinguish  them  from  those  having  other  rites  equally 
Syrian,  they  were  exclusively  termed  Chaldeans  by  Pope  Eugenius 
IV.  (1431-1447).  Previous  to  the  council  of  Florence  (1438)  they 
were  called  Orientals  or  Syro-Orientals.  The  Catholic  Chaldeans 
have  a  patriarch  who  for  a  long  period  has  had  his  residence  at 
Mosul  (Mesopotamia),  and  has  the  title  of  patriarch  of  Babylonia 
with  archiepiscopal  jurisdiction  over  the  city  of  Baghdad.  There 
are  five  archdioceses — Amida  or  Diarbekir  in  Mesopotamia,  Seert 
in  Assyria,  Salmas  and  Adorbigana  in  Persia,  Kerkuk  (Carcha)  in 
Parthic  Assyria,  and  Amadia  in  Kurdistan.  The  dioceses  are 
Mardin  and  Gezira  in  Mesopotamia,  Zaku  in  Assyria-Media,  Sena 
in  Persia,  Bassorah  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  Acri  and  Zebari  in 
the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  The  number  of  secular  clergy  in  the 
patriarchate,  archdioceses,  and  dioceses  approximates  200.  There 
is  a  congregation  of  Antonian  monks,  having  the  title  of  S.  Hor- 
misdas,  who  have  an  abbot-general,  five  houses  or  convents,  forty 
priests,  and  a  hundred  monks.  The  other  religious  houses  bear 
the  names  of  Mother  of  God,  St  George,  St  Abraham,  and  St  James. 
The  largest  number  of  Catholics  is  in  the  diocese  of  Mosul  with 
Baghdad,  25,000.  In  all  there  are  over  90,000  Catholics.  The 
language  of  the  mass  and  church  office  is  Syro-Chaldaic. 
_  Copts. — The  Coptic  rite  prevails  throughout  all  Egypt.  At  one 
time  there  was  a  liturgy  of  Lower  and  another  of  Upper  Egypt.  In 
the  former  the  Memphitic  dialect  was  in  use  and  the  Theban  dialect 
in  the  latter.  But  as  the  patriarchs  of  Alexandria  were  Greeks  they, 
followed  by  several  churches  in  Egypt,  changed  the  liturgy  into  the 


Greek  language  ;  and  after  the  schism  in  the  5th  century  the  liturgy 
became  Coptic,  as  the  patriarchs  were  Copts.  There  are  three 
liturgies  in  use  at  present — that  of  St  Basil,  that  of  St  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  and  that  of  St  Mark,  rearranged  by  St  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria. The  Theban  dialect  is  no  longer  used  ;  but  the  Memphitic 
still  prevails,  and  in  it  the  offices  of  the  church  are  recited.  The 
Catholic  population  is  only  about  6000,  with  twenty-two  priests, 
one  bishop,  and  a  vicar-apostolic,  whose  residence  is  at  Cairo. 

Armenians. — The  Armenians  (see  ARMENIAN  CHURCH)  regard 
St  Gregory  the  Illuminator  as  their  apostle.  Pope  Benedict  XIV. 
instituted  the  patriarchate  of  Cilicia  in  1742,  and  Pius  VIII.  in 
1830  instituted  the  Armenian  Catholic  primacy  in  Constantinople. 
In  1867  Pius  IX.  united  Cilicia  with  the  primacy  of  Constantinople, 
so  that  the  patriarch  now  bears  the  title  of  Cilicia  and  has  his 
residence  in  Constantinople.  Turkey,  Russia,  Asia  Minor,  Armenia 
(Greater  and  Lesser),  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Egypt  have  Armenian 
Catholics,  who  altogether  number  100,000  at  the  present  time  (1885). 
There  are  ten  archbishops  and  bishops  and  over  350  priests.  They 
also  possess  religious  orders,  the  Mechitarists  of  Venice  and  of 
Vienna,  and  have  an  Armenian  college  at  Rome  and  an  Armenian 
seminary  at  Bzommar  in  Mount  Lebanon.  The  liturgical  language 
is  literary  Armenian,  and  they  have  a  special  rite  and  liturgy.  The 
people  speak  vulgar  Armenian  and  Turkish.  There  is  an  institute 
of  Armenian  sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  at  Constantinople 
to  attend  to  the  education  of  young  girls,  especially  those  newly 
converted. 

Roumanians. — As  early  as  the  council  of  Florence  the  Roumanian 
metropolitan  of  Moldavia  subscribed  the  decree  of  union  ;  but  the 
time  had  not  yet  come  for  an  actual  union  with  Rome.  In  1700, 
under  the  metropolitan  Theophilus  and  his  successor  Athanasius  I. , 
the  great  national  synod  of  Alba  Julia  (Fogaras)  was  held,  in  which 
the  bishop,  the  archpriests,  and  all  the  clergy  of  the  Roumanian 
Church  of  Transylvania  "  freely  and  spontaneously  by  the  impulse 
of  God"  concluded  a  union  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  This 
declaration  was  signed  by  the  metropolitan,  by  fifty-four  archpriests 
(protopapas),  and  by  1561  priests.  Historians  say  that  200,000 
families  were  united  to  Rome  on  that  day.  Some  afterwards  again 
fell  away,  but  there  is  at  present  a  great  movement  prevailing 
amongst  these  towards  union.  The  United  Catholics  are  chiefly  in 
Transylvania  and  Hungary  and  number  about  a  million  and  a  half, 
with  from  1500  to  1600  priests.  In  1854  Pius  IX.  erected  into  an 
ecclesiastical  province  the  United  Roumanian  Church  with  an  arch- 
bishopric, Alba  Julia  (Fogaras),  and  three  bishoprics.  To  the  diocese 
of  Grosswardein  in  Hungary  was  added  that  of  Lugos  in  the  Banat 
and  that  of  Armenopolis  (Samos-Ujvar),  which  constitute  a  flourish- 
ing ecclesiastical  province.  For  the  education  of  the  clergy  four 
places  for  students  were  given  by  Pius  IX.  in  the  Greek  college  at 
Rome,  and  they  have  sixteen  places  in  the  central  seminary  of 
Budapest.  They  have  two  seminaries,  one  in  the  metropolitan 
diocese,  with  fifty  and  another  at  Armenopolis  with  sixty  students. 
In  the  diocese  of  Armenopolis  the  number  of  souls  is  647,666,  with 
486  parishes  and  a  monastery.  In  the  archdiocese  of  Alba  Julia 
the  number  is  361,000,  with  729  parishes  and  706  priests.  At 
Grosswardein  and  Lugos  the  number  of  Catholics  is  less.  The  rite 
in  use  is  the  Greek,  but  the  language  is  the  Roumanian.  This  is 
the  only  rite  which  employs  the  vulgar  tongue.  (P.  L.  C. ) 

English  Law  relating  to  Roman  Catholics. 

The  history  of  the  old  penal  laws  against  Roman 
Catholics  in  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  sketched  in  the 
articles  ENGLAND  and  IRELAND.1  The  principal  English 
Acts  directed  against  "  popish  recusants  "  2  will  be  found 
in  the  list  given  in  the  Acts  repealing  them  (7  and  8  Viet, 
c.  102;  9  and  10  Viet.  c.  59).  The  principal  Scottish 
Act  was  1700,  c.  3 ;  the  principal  Irish  Act,  2  Anne  c.  3. 
Numerous  decisions  illustrating  the  practical  operation  of 
the  old  law  in  Ireland  are  collected  in  Howard's  Cases  on 
the  Popery  Laws,  1775.  .The  Roman  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion Act,  1829  (10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7),  although  it  gave  Roman 
Catholic  citizens  in  the  main  complete  civil  and  religious 
liberty,  at  the  same  time  left  them  under  certain  disabilities, 
trifling  in  comparison  with  those  under  which  they  laboured 
before  1829.  Nor  did  the  Act  affect  in  any  way  the  long 
series  of  old  statutes  directed  against  the  assumption  of 
authority  by  the  Roman  see  in  England.  The  earliest  of 
these  which  is  still  law  is  the  Statute  of  Pro  visors  of  1351 
(25  Edw.  III.  st.  4).  Most  of  what  has  been  already  stated 


1  See  also  Stephen's  History  of  the  Criminal  Law,  vol.  ii.  p.  483  ; 
Anstey,  The  Law  affecting  Roman  Catholics,  1842. 

2  A  recusant  signified  a  person  who  refused  to  duly  attend  lu's  parish 
church. 


632 


R  O  M  —  R  O  M 


under  NONCONFORMITY  (7.*'.)  as  to  the  legal  position  of 
nonconformity  may  be  applied  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith.  The  effect  of  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c.  115  is  to  place 
Roman  Catholic  schools,  places  of  worship  and  education, 
and  charities,  and  the  property  held  therewith,  under  the 
laws  applying  to  Protestant  nonconformists.  The  Tolera- 
tion Act  does  not  apply  to  Roman  Catholics,  but  legisla- 
tion of  a  similar  kind,  especially  the  Relief  Act  of  1791 
(31  Geo.  III.  c.  32),  exempts  the  priest  from  parochial 
offices,  such  as  those  of  churchwarden  and  constable,  and 
from  serving  in  the  militia  or  on  a  jury,  and  enables  all 
Roman  Catholics  scrupling  the  oaths  of  office  to  exercise 
the  office  of  churchwarden  and  some  other  offices  by  de- 
puty. The  priest  is,  unlike  the  nonconformist  minister, 
regarded  as  being  in  holy  orders.  He  cannot,  therefore, 
sit  in  the  House  of  Commons,  but  there  is  nothing  to  pre- 
vent a  peer  who  is  a  priest  from  sitting  and  voting  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  If  a  priest  becomes  a  convert  to  the 
Church  of  England  he  need  not  be  re -ordained.  The 
remaining  law  affecting  Roman  Catholics  may  be  classed 
under  the  following  five  heads. 

(1)  Office.  There  are  certain  offices  still  closed  to  Roman  Catholics. 
By  the  Act  of  Settlement  a  Papist  or  the  husband  or  wife  of  a 
Papist  cannot  be  king  or  queen.  The  Act  of  1829  provides  that 
nothing  therein  contained  is  to  enable  a  Roman  Catholic  to  hold 
the  office  of  guardian  and  justice  of  the  United  Kingdom,  or  of 
regent  of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  of  lord  chancellor,  lord  keeper, 
or  lord  commissioner  of  the  great  seal  of  Great  Britain  or  Ireland 
or  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  ;  of  high  commissioner  to  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  or  of  any  office  in  the  Church 
of  England  or  Scotland,  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  cathedral  founda- 
tions, and  certain  colleges.  The  disability  in  the  case  of  the  lord 
chancellor  of  Ireland  was  removed  by  statute  in  1867,  with  neces- 
sary limitations  as  to  ecclesiastical  patronage,  and  the  office  has 
been  held  twice  since  that  date  by  the  late  Lord  O'Hagan.  The 
Act  of  1829  preserved  the  liability  of  Roman  Catholics  to  take  cer- 
tain oaths  of  office,  but  these  have  been  modified  by  later  legisla- 
tion (see  29  and  30  Viet.  c.  19  ;  30  and  31  Viet.  c.  75";  31  and  32 
Viet.  c.  72).  Legislation  has  been  in  the  direction  of  omitting 
words  which  might  be  supposed  to  give  offence  to  Roman  Catholics. 
(2)  Title.  The  Act  of  1829  forbids  the  assumption  by  any  person, 
other  than  the  person  authorized  by  law,  of  the  name,  style,  or  title 
of  an  archbishop,  bishop,  or  dean  of  the  Church  of  England.  The 
Ecclesiastical  Titles  Act,  1851,  went  further  and  forbade  the  as- 
sumption by  an  unauthorized  person  of  a  title  from  any  place  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  whether  or  not  such  place  were  the  seat  of 
an  archbishopric,  bishopric,  or  deanery.  This  Act  was,  however, 
repealed  in  1867,  but  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  1829  are  still  in 
force.  (3)  Religious  Orders.  It  was  enacted  by  the  Act  of  1829  that 
"  every  Jesuit  and  every  member  of  any  other  religious  order,  com- 
munity, or  society  of  the  Church  of  Rome  bound  by  monastic  or 
religious  vows  "  was,  within  six  months  after  the  commencement 
of  the  Act,  to  deliver  to  the  clerk  of  the  peace  of  the  county  in 
which  he  should  reside  a  notice  or  statement  in  the  form  given 
to  the  schedule  to  the  Act,  and  that  every  Jesuit  or  member 
of  such  religious  order  coming  into  the  realm  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Act  should  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour  and  should  be 
banished  from  the  United  Kingdom  for  life  (with  an  exception  in 


favour  of  natural-born  subjects  duly  registered).  A  secretary  of 
state,  being  a  Protestant,  was  empowered  to  grant  licences  to 
Jesuits,  &c.,  to  come  into  the  United  Kingdom  and  remain  there 
for  a  period  not  exceeding  six  months.  An  account  of  these 
licences  was  to  be  laid  annually  before  parliament.  The  admission 
of  any  person  as  a  regular  ecclesiastic  by  any  such  Jesuit,  &c. ,  was 
made  a  misdemeanour,  and  the  person  so  admitted  was  to  be  ban- 
ished for  life.  Nothing  in  the  Act  was  to  extend  to  religious  orders 
of  females.  These  provisions  exist  in  posse  only,  and  have,  it  is 
believed,  never  been  put  into  force.  (4)  Superstitious  Uses.  Gifts  to 
superstitious  uses  are  void  both  at  common  law  and  by  statute.  It 
is  not  easy  to  determine  what  gifts  are  to  be  regarded  as  gifts  to 
superstitious  uses.  Like  contracts  contrary  to  public  policy,  they 
depend  to  a  great  extent  for  their  illegality  upon  the  discretion  of 
the  court  in  the  particular  case.  The  Act  of  23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  10 
makes  void  any  assurance  of  lands  to  the  use  (to  have  obits  per- 
petual) or  the  continual  service  of  a  priest  for  ever  or  for  threescore  or 
fourscore  years.  The  Act  of  1  Edw.  VI.  c.  14  (specially  directed  to 
the  suppression  of  chantries)  vests  in  the  crown  all  money  paid  by 
corporations  and  all  lands  appointed  to  the  finding  or  maintenance 
of  any  priest  or  any  anniversary  or  obit  or  other  like  thing,  or  of 
any  light  or  lamp  in  any  church  or  chapel  maintained  within  five 
years  before  1547.  The  Act  may  still  be  of  value  in  the  construc- 
tion of  old  grants,  and  in  affording  examples  of  what  the  legislature 
regarded  as  superstitious  uses.  Gifts  which  the  courts  have  held 
void  on  the  analogy  of  those  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  Edward  VI.  are  a  devise  for  the  good  of  the  soul  of  the  testator, 
a  bequest  to  certain  Roman  Catholic  priests  that  the  testator  may 
have  the  benefit  of  their  prayers  and  masses,  a  bequest  in  trust  to 
apply  a  fund  to  circulate  a  book  teaching  the  supremacy  of  the 
pope  in  matters  of  faith,  a  bequest  to  maintain  a  taper  for  evermore 
before  the  image  of  Our  Lady.  The  court  may  compel  discovery  of 
a  secret  trust  for  superstitious  uses.  Since  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c. 
115  gifts  for  the  propagation  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  are  not 
void  as  made  to  superstitious  uses.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the 
doctrine  of  superstitious  uses  is  not  confined  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  though  the  question  has  generally  arisen  in  the  case  of 
gifts  made  by  persons  of  that  religion.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Charities  Act,  1860,  enables  the  court  to  separate  a  lawful  charit- 
able trust  from  any  part  of  the  estate  subject  to  any  trust  or 
provision  deemed  to  be  superstitious.  It  also  provides  that  in  the 
absence  of  any  written  document  the  usage  of  twenty  years  is  to  be 
conclusive  evidence  of  the  application  of  charitable  trusts.  (5) 
Patronage.  A  Roman  Catholic  cannot  present  to  a  benefice,  pre- 
bend, or  other  ecclesiastical  living,  or  collate  or  nominate  to  any  free 
school,  hospital,  or  donative  (3  Jac.  I.  c.  5).  Such  patronage  is  by 
the  Act  vested  in  the  universities,  Oxford  taking  the  city  of  London 
and  twenty -five  counties  in  England  and  Wales,  mostly  south  of 
the  Trent,  Cambridge  the  remaining  twenty-seven.  The  principle 
is  affirmed  in  subsequent  Acts  (1  Will,  and  Mary,  sess.  1,  c.  26  ;  12 
Anne,  st.  2,  c.  14  ;  11  Geo.  II.  c.  17).  If  the  right  of  presentation 
to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice  belongs  to  any  office  under  the  crown, 
and  that  office  is  held  by  a  Roman  Catholic,  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  exercises  the  right  for  the  time  being  (10  Geo.  IV.  c. 
7,  s.  17).  No  Roman  Catholic  may  advise  the  crown  as  to  the 
exercise  of  its  ecclesiastical  patronage  (ib.,  s.  18).  A  Roman  Catholic, 
if  a  member  of  a  lay  corporation,  cannot  vote  in  any  ecclesiastical 
appointment  (ib.,  s.  15).  Grants  and  devises  of  aclvowsons,  &c.,  by 
Roman  Catholics  are  void,  unless  for  valuable  consideration  to  a 
Protestant  purchaser  (11  Geo.  II.  c.  17,  s.  5).  Where  a  quare  impcdit 
is  pending  before  any  court,  the  court  may  compel  the  patron  to 
take  an  oath  that  there  is  no  secret  trust  for  the  benefit  of  a  Roman 
Catholic.  See  QUAKE  IMPEDIT,  (J.  Wt.) 


EOM AN  CE 


"OOMANCE1  in  its  widest  sense  includes  the  entire 
_[X  literature  of  fiction,  as  well  as  the  early  narrations 
in  which  fact  and  legend  were  blended  in  historical  form, 
before  the  simple  minds  of  the  people  had  acquired  a  clear 
conception  of  their  distinctness.  There  are,  however, 
certain  ill -defined  limitations  in  the  analysis  of  fiction 
which  enable  us  to  assign  distinct  places  to  the  legend, 
the  ballad,  the  epic,  the  fable,  the  tale,  the  romance,  and 
the  novel.  As  usual  in  all  attempts  at  precise  classifica- 
tion, we  find  that  the  lines  of  demarcation  cannot  be 

1  In  the  9th  century  the  Romana  or  Romance  language  made  its 
first  appearance  in  writing.  For  many  centuries,  however,  it  was 
only  used  to  embody  the  tales  and  ballads  of  each  country  in  which 
one  or  other  form  of  the  speech  was  vernacular,  so  that  the  word 
"  romance "  became  finally  appropriated  to  the  compositions  which 
were  the  staple  literature  of  the  Lingua  Romana  or  Romance, 


drawn  with  rigid  exactness,  and  that  many  works  may  be 
referred  to  more  than  one  division.  But  the  general  con- 
ception of  romance  is  the  one  which  will  here  be  followed, 
and  which  roughly  divides  the  subject  into  (i.)  Romances 
of  Chivalry — chiefly  their  prose  forms — and  (ii.)  the 
Romances  of  Love  and  Adventure,  which  follow  them. 

Romance,  as  a  distinct  branch  of  the  literature  of  fiction, 
belongs  essentially  to  the  Middle  Ages  and  to  Europe. 
The  romance  of  chivalry,  as  it  is  called,  prevailed  during  Ron 
the  four  centuries  of  knighthood,  and  there  can  be  little  of 
doubt  that  the  institutions  of  chivalry  were  considerably  c1'" 
influenced  by  the  works  of  the  early  romancers.      The 
establishment  of  the  orders  of  St  John  and  the  Temple 
was  based  upon  an  exalted  conception  of  duty  and  devo- 
tion,  which  the  hard  test  of   experience  soon  modified, 
and  which  would  have  perished  utterly  but  for  the  em- 


ROMANCE 


633 


bodiraent  of  its  ideal  in  the  Round  Table  romances.  The 
characters  of  Galaad  and  the  original  Perceval  represent 
types  of  unattainable  perfection,  and  were  therefore  models 
which,  although  commanding  reverence,  failed  to  excite  as 
deep  an  interest  as  did  the  second  Perceval,  Sir  Lancelot, 
Sir  Tristan,  and  Sir  Gawain.  In  these  the  noblest  qualities 
were  blemished  by  human  frailties,  and,  as  a  necessary 
consequence,  the  knights  miscarried  a  little  below  the 
summit  of  perfect  achievement.  Walter  Map  cannot  be 
sufficiently  eulogized  for  the  tact  and  skill  with  which  he 
drew  the  two  first-named  personages.  Galaad  is  brought 
upon  the  stage  for  but  a  very  short  time,  and  is  then  dis- 
missed in  a  blaze  of  saintly  glory,  while  Perceval,  although 
adapted  from  the  French  writer's  purer  knight  of  that 
name,  is  allowed  a  much  larger  space  upon  the  canvas,  at 
the  cost  of  a  few  minor  sins  which  suffice  to  ensure  his 
failure  and  to  prove  him  a  man.  The  other  knights  are 
brave,  generous,  self-sacrificing,  and  devout,  but  the  indis- 
pensable virtue  of  chastity  is  absent  from  their  lives,  and 
they  are  foredoomed  to  misfortune.  The  perfect  ideal, 
however,  underlies  the  description  of  all  their  acts  and 
motives,  and  the  reader  or  hearer  was  never  allowed  to 
forget  it  amid  the  more  powerful  attractions  of  the  story. 
The  real  prototype  of  the  chivalric  romance  was  the 
ancient  epic  :  the  Greek  and  Latin  poems  upon  the  win- 
ning of  the  Golden  Fleece,  the  siege  of  Troy,  the  wander- 
ings of  Ulysses  and  of  ^Eneas,  furnish  the  truest  parallel 
ical  to  the  mediaeval  romances  of  knighthood.  The  tales 
Qces-which  are  usually  dignified  with  the  name  of  "classical 
romances  "  have  really  no  claim  to  that  rank ;  they  were 
produced  in  the  age  of  decadence  and  correspond  much 
more  closely  to  the  mediaeval  fabliau  and  the  17th-century 
novel  than  to  the  romance  proper.  As  a  matter  of  course 
every  nation  had  its  legends  and  popular  tales,  co-exist- 
ent with  literary  works  of  greater  importance ;  but  the 
Greeks  at  least,  and  the  Romans  following  their  example, 
never  condescended  during  their  ages  of  intellectual  vigour 
to  put  such  figments  into  written  form,  so  that  even  the 
famous  Milesian  tales  are  now  quite  lost.  It  was  not 
until  the  Greeks  became  a  widely  dispersed,  a  subject  and 
deteriorated  race,  and  not  till  the  strength  and  manhood 
of  Rome  were  buried  in  the  slough  of  imperial  corruption, 
that  sophists  and  rhetoricians  began  to  construct  those 
artificial  tales  which  we  call  Greek  and  Latin  romances. 
They  form,  however,  an  epoch,  as  the  earliest  prose  works 
of  imagination  in  a  European  language,  and  cannot  there- 
fore remain  unnoticed  here.  They  were  succeeded  in  time 
by  Christian  narratives,  usually  woven  into  the  lives  of 
saints  or  used  as  illustrations  in  the  sermons  of  great 
preachers ;  these  latter  formed  a  transition  to  the  semi- 
religious  story  of  the  Grail,  a  bowl  or  goblet  confounded 
with  the  chalice  used  at  the  Last  Supper,  with  the  cup 
used  to  collect  the  precious  blood  of  our  Lord,  and  sym- 
bolically with  the  Holy  Sepulchre  itself.  The  achievers  of 
the  Grail-quest,  or  kings  of  the  Grail,  were  typified  in  the 
Knights  Templars  and  the  Knights  of  St  John ;  thus  the 
true  school  of  romance  arose  in  intimate  connexion  with 
the  changes  in  European  life  and  manners  which  were 
brought  about  by  the  crusades. 

iaux.  The  chansons  de  geste,  which  constituted  a  poetical  intro- 
duction to  the  romances  of  chivalry  in  France,  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  fabliaux,  metrical  novelettes  which  furnished 
material  to  the  Italian  writers  of  prose  tales  in  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries, — a  form  of  composition  which  was  not 
acclimatized  elsewhere  than  in  Italy  till  the  16th  century, 
and  which  then  became  the  remote  prototype  of  the  modern 
novel.  The  older  and  nobler  knighthood  blossomed  in 
France  for  the  last  time  in  Bayard,  in  England  in  Sir 
Philip  Sidney ;  but  the  genuine  literature  of  chivalric 
romance  may  be  said  to  have  come  to  an  end  with  the 


15th  century.  The  knightly  romances  produced  in  the 
16th  century  were  belated  and  artificial  examples  of  their 
class  ;  and,  although  the  effects  of  the  conquest  of  Granada 
and  the  discovery  of  America  did  not  wholly  put  an  end 
to  the  lingering  romantic  spirit  in  Spain,  it  hardly  sur- 
vived them  for  half  a  century.  Hence  the  inferior  char- 
acter of  most  of  the  libros  de  caballerias,  which  chiefly  date 
from  the  16th  century.  Out  of  them  grew  the  fictions 
known  as  16th  and  17th  century  romance  in  Spain,  France, 
and  England, — monstrous  and  uninviting  examples  of  per- 
verted ingenuity,  utterly  dissonant  from  the  literature  of 
pure  romance  as  we  conceive  it  in  the  chivalrous  fictions 
of  the  12th,  13th,  and  14th  centuries.  A  more  practical 
and  utilitarian  spirit  set  in  with  the  latter  half  of  the 
17th  century,  in  which  readers  found  themselves  out  of 
sympathy  with  the  imaginative  and  mysterious  atmosphere 
of  romance.  Accordingly  the  modern  novel  arose,  a  form 
of  composition  in  which  the  manners  and  customs  of 
everyday  life  were  more  or  less  faithfully  depicted,  and 
which  has  remained  in  undiminished  popularity  to  the 
present  time. 

The  subject  will  be  dealt  with  in  the  following  order  : — 
I.  Greek  and  Latin  romance,  under  the  subdivisions — (a) 
classical  and  post-classical  prose  fictions  and  (6)  pseudo- 
classical  works.  II.  Mediaeval  romance,  embracing — (a) 
the  Arthurian  cycle,  (6)  the  Charlemagne  cycle,  (c)  the 
Spanish  cycle,  (d)  Teutonic  and  Anglo -Danish,  and  (e) 
unaffiliated.  III.  Modern  romance  to  the  17th  century. 

I. — GREEK  AND  LATIN  ROMANCE. 

(a)  Classical  and  Post-Classical  Prose  Fictions. 

Although  the  distance  in  manner  is  immense  between  Prose, 
the  Ass  of  Lucian  and  the  Amadis  de  Gaula,  and  again 
between  the  latter  and  Ivanhoe  or  Eugenie  Grandet,  there 
are  few  varieties  of  modern  fiction  which  are  not  faintly 
shadowed  forth  in  the  literatures  of  Greece  and  Rome 
(including  in  this  denomination  the  post-classical  periods 
of  Italy  and  Byzantium) :  fables  and  tales,  historical, 
philosophical,  and  religious  novels,  love-stories  and  narra- 
tives of  adventure,  marvellous  voyages,  collections  of  fic- 
titious letters — all  forms  are  represented.  .  As  even  the 
Andaman  Islander  and  the  Bushman  have  their  stories,  it 
is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Greek,  who  attained  a 
high  state  of  civilization  at  an  extremely  remote  period, 
had  long  been  familiar  with  this  method  of  intellectual 
gratification.  Artistic  form  was  first  given  to  the  higher 
class  of  such  narrations  by  the  lonians  of  the  Asiatic 
colonies,  when  they  sang  the  deeds  of  gods  and  heroes  in 
epic  poetry  and  put  together  the  story  of  Troy  now  current 
under  the  name  of  Homer.  From  the  Attic  Greeks  belong- 
ing to  the  same  stock  came  the  drama  in  its  highest  de- 
velopment,— a  fresh  step  in  the  representation  of  events 
in  oral  shape.  Greek  romance  is  a  double  misnomer. 
First,  the  word  "  romance  "  is  wrongly  applied  to  the  tales 
we  shall  shortly  discuss ;  and  secondly,  we  have  no  right 
to  call  anything  in  art  or  literature  Greek  unless  it  wa,s 
produced  before  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  either 
in  Hellas  or  Ionia  or  Sicily,  or,  say,  between  800  and  300 
B.C.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Greeks  at  Chaeronea,  Mace- 
donia became  the  ruling  centre,  and  the  free  political  life 
of  the  Greek  cities  passed  away.  The  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander, a  Graeco-Albanian  monarch,  spread  Greek  civiliza- 
tion throughout  the  known  world,  but  crushed  Greece 
proper  out  of  existence.  This  civilization  (see  GREECE, 
vol.  xi.  p.  136  sq.),  influencing  peoples  foreign  to  the 
Greek  race,  is  designated  Hellenistic  as  opposed  to  the 
Hellenic,  and  the  chief  note  of  Hellenistic  literature  is 
that  of  imitation.  The  original  springs  of  Hellenic  poetry 
were  dried  up,  and  from  the  3d  century  B.C.  the  newly 

XX.  —  80 


634 


ROMANCE 


affiliated  peoples,  whose  ctentre  was  Alexandria,  expressed 
their  fancies  in  novels  rather  than  in  epics. 

When,  about  the  1st  century  of  the  Christian  era,  verse 
gave  place  in  general  favour  to  rhetorical  prose  the 
greater  ease  of  the  style  lent  itself  to  more  detailed  nar- 
ratives than  the  eclogue  and  love-poem ;  and  the  sophist 
who  might  formerly  have  devoted  his  attention  to  poetry 
became  in  the  decadence  of  Greek  literature  a  writer  of 
novels.  From  this  period  to  the  10th  century  were  pub- 
lished the  works  it  is  now  proposed  to  analyse.  The 
Greek  novel  being  a  late,  and  it  must  be  confessed  an 
inferior,  kind  of  prose,  it  would  be  well  if  one  could  trace 
its  rise,  progress,  and  development.  This  is,  however,  im- 
possible here;  it  is  sufficient  to  refer  in  passing  to  the 
fables  of  primitive  invention,  the  tales  inserted  by  histo- 
rians, the  Atlantis  of  Plato,  the  Cyrop&dia  of  Xenophon, 
the  forged  histories  of  Alexander,  the  fictitious  lives  of 
eminent  men,  the  fabulous  voyages,1  and  the  apocryphal 
sacred  books  of  Christians  and  Jews,  as  supplying  in  turn 
material  for  building  up  the  highly  artificial  novel  which 
we  find  first  represented  by  lamblichus.  One  element 
may,  however,  be  spoken  of  specially,  although  it  is  rather 
a  forerunner  of  the  tale  as  distinct  from  the  novel  or 
Milesian  romance.  The  Ionic  Greeks,  living  under  an  Asiatic  sky 
and  corrupted  by  Oriental  luxury,  were  the  first  to  culti- 
vate to  any  extent  that  kind  of  literature  which,  without 
demanding  any  intellectual  labour,  tickles  the  fancy  by 
voluptuous  pictures  told  in  a  brief  and  witty  manner. 
Miletus  was  especially  famous  for  such  tales ;  hence  they 
were  usually  known  as  Milesian  (MtAr;o-iaKa).  What  was 
their  exact  shape  it  is  difficult  to  say,  as  they  have  entirely 
perished,  leaving  only  the  reputation  of  the  universal 
favour  they  enjoyed.  Perhaps  the  story  of  the  Ephesian 
matron  told  by  Petronius  in  the  Satirx,  and  (though  less 
likely)  that  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  in  the  A  sinus  of  Apuleius, 
are  more  closely  allied  to  them  than  anything  we  now 
possess.  They  must  be  considered  as  a  natural  growth  of 
the  imagination,  although  some  may  have  been  contributed 
by  Orientals  or  Egyptians ;  and,  while  forming  a  portion 
of  the  materials  upon  which  the  later  Hellenistic  novel 
was  constructed,  they  differed  widely  from  it  in  form  and 
matter.  Ovid  cannot  be  considered  as  a  person  easily 
shocked,  yet  in  two  passages  of  the  Tristia  he  says — 

"  Junxit  Aristides  Milesia  crimina  secum  "  (Trist.,  ii.  413). 

"  Vertit  Aristiden  Sisenna,  nee  obfuit  illi 
Historiae  turpes  inseruisse  jocos  "  (ib.,  443-444). 

Plutarch  (Crassus,  32)  refers  to  the  fact  of  a  copy  of 
this  very  translation  by  L.  Cornelius  Sisenna  (a  contem- 
porary of  Sulla)  having  been  found  in  the  baggage  of  a 
Roman  officer,  which  gave  occasion  for  Surenas  to  anim- 
advert upon  the  Romans  carrying  with  them  infamous 
books  during  war  time.  This  testimony  gives  sufficient 
indication  of  the  nature  of  the  Milesian  tales.  They 
must  have  been  short  and  witty  anecdotes,  turning  chiefly 
upon  the  subject  of  love  in  its  grosser  form,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  the  prototypes  of  the  Italian  novelle  and  the 
Provencal  and  French  fabliaux.  All  that  remains  to  us 
consists  of  the  names  of  a  few  writers  and  some  imita- 
tions and  translations.  The  best -known  writer  whose 
fame  has  reached  us  is  Aristides  of  Miletus,  though  we  are 
ignorant  of  his  life  and  even  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 
A  more  recent  author  of  the  same  class  was  Clodius 
Albinus,  the  rival  of  Septimius  Severus.  We  also  hear  of 
Ephesian,  Cyprian,  and  Sybaritic  tales,  the  last  almost  as 

1  Strabo  considered  all  those  who  had  written  about  India  down  to 
his  time  as  mere  fictionists,  and  at  their  head  he  placed  Dairaachns 
and  Megasthenes.  From  the  analysis  furnished  by  Diodorus  Siculus 
(ii.  55-60)  of  the  Fortunate  Island  of  lambulus  we  are  led  to  believe 
that  the  writer,  who  lived  before  the  1st  century,  intended  the  work 
as  a  kind  of  social  utopia  similar  to  the  Atlantis, — full  of  marvels  and 
surprises  like  all  the  other  imaginary  voyages. 


famous  as  those  of  Miletus.  Aristophanes  (as  well  as  Ovid) 
specially  refers  to  them.  Yet  after  all  they  exercised  but 
little  influence  upon  the  Hellenistic  novel  beyond  perhaps 
furnishing  the  more  indecent  incidents.  The  lost  'EpiaTiKa. 
of  Clearchus  of  Soli,  a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  may  have  been 
more  closely  connected  with  that  branch  of  our  subject. 
The  love-stories  (Hepl  C/OWTIKW  Tra^/Aarwv)  of  Parthenius 
of  Nicaea  are  also  different.  They  consist  of  thirty-six 
brief  tales  ending  in  an  unfortunate  manner,  and  were 
dedicated  to  Cornelius  Gallus  as  forming  subjects  for  poet- 
ical treatment.  The  author  carefully  indicates  the  sources 
whence  he  took  them,  thus  giving  a  special  value  to  his 
collection.  He  informs  us  that  some  were  derived  from 
"  the  Milesian  adventures  "  of  Hegesippus,  and  also  men- 
tions Naxian,  Pallenian,  Lydian,  Trojan,  and  Bithynian 
tales.  Like  Parthenius,  Conon  was  of  the  Augustan  age, 
and  compiled  a  collection  of  fifty  narratives  (Atryy^o-eis)  of 
heroic  times,  relating  chiefly  to  the  foundation  of  colonies. 
They  are  analysed  by  Photius.  Cervantes  has  used  one 
of  them  in  Don  Quixote. 

The  first  we  hear  of  the  Greek  or  Hellenistic  novel  is  in  Gree 
the  time  of  Trajan  (c.  110),  when  lamblichus,  a  Syrian  bynovelB 
descent  and  a  freeman,  born  and  educated  at  Babylon, 
wrote  in  Greek  his  Babylonica,  which  is  known  from  Suidas, 
Photius,  and  a  scholium  discovered  by  Henry  Estienne  on 
an  ancient  MS.  of  the  latter  writer.  A  complete  codex 
existed  in  1671  ;  and  a  considerable  fragment  has  been 
reprinted  by  Mai  (Nova  Coll.  Script.  Vet.,  ii.  349,  <fcc.). 
Suidas  states  that  the  Babylonica  consisted  of  thirty-nine 
books,  but  Photius,  who  gives  a  full  abstract  (Bibliotheca, 
cod.  94),  only  mentions  seventeen.  The  story  is  that  of 
Sinonis  and  Rhodanes,  married  lovers,  persecuted  by 
Garmus,  king  of  Babylon,  who  is  fascinated  by  Sinonis. 
They  fly,  and  are  pursued  by  the  royal  eunuchs,  who  give 
them  no  peace  through  many  adventurous  scenes.  A 
remarkable  resemblance  between  the  fugitives  and  another 
couple,  Euphrates  and  Mesopotamia,  is  the  chief  subject  of 
the  plot.  We  now  meet,  incorporated  in  the  works  of 
writers  whose  dignity  might  be  supposed  above  the  sus- 
picion of  story-telling,  short  tales  of  a  didactic  nature,  such 
as  those  given  by  Plutarch  under  the  title  "  On  the  Virtues 
of  Women."  Dion  Chrysostom,  the  most  eminent  of  the 
rhetoricians  and  sophists,  has  also  left  among  his  orations 
a  short  novel  called  The  Hunter.  The  narrator  is  supposed 
to  have  been  wrecked  on  the  shores  of  Euboea  and  meets 
a  hunter  who  tells  him  his  history.  Two  married  couples 
(the  hunter  and  his  wife  being  one)  were  living  in  friendly 
solitude,  when  one  day  a  stranger  came,  and  asking  for 
money  received  all  the  recluses  were  able  to  give  in  the 
shape  of  two  deerskins.  The  hunter  goes  to  the  city  with 
the  traveller,  and  his  first  impressions  are  happily  told. 
He  is  frightened  by  the  bustle  and  excitement,  and  debates 
with  an  idler  upon  the  comparative  advantages  of  town 
and  country  life.  The  return  home  is  very  delicately 
drawn.  Lucian  of  Samosata,  one  of  the  chief  essay- writers 
of  the  post-Christian  age,  has  left  two  romances,  Lucius  or 
the  Ass  and  the  True  History,  both  of  which  have  been 
briefly  analysed  in  the  article  LUCIAN  (vol.  xv.  p.  43). 
The  former  was  considered  by  Photius  (cod.  129)  to  have 
been  taken  from  a  fable  by  Lucius  of  Patrae  and  to  have 
thus  had  a  common  origin  with  the  Asinus  of  Apuleius ; 
others  consider  Lucian  himself  to  have  been  the  original 
inventor  of  the  story.  The  True  History  has  been  drawn 
on  by  Rabelais,  Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  Swift,  and  the  author 
of  Baron  Munchausen.  Like  the  productions  of  more 
modern  satirists,  it  loses  much  of  its  point  and  meaning 
when  the  allusions  upon  which  the  chief  interest  is  based 
can  no  longer  be  understood.  Rather  of  the  nature  of  the 
fictitious  voyage  was  The  Wonders  beyond  Thule  of  Antonius 
Diogenes,  only  known  from  the  account  given  by  Photius 

Ii! 


ROMANCE 


635 


tic 


(cod.  166),  who  was  of  opinion  that  he  belonged  to  a 
remote  age,  shortly  after  Alexander,  and  that  he  served  as 
model  to  all  subsequent  writers  of  romance,  including 
Lucius.  A  preliminary  letter  to  a  friend,  Faustinus,  indi- 
cates by  the  Latin  name  a  much  later  origin.  The  heroes 
visit  the  Celts  and  the  Aquitanians,  both  unknown  to  the 
Greeks  at  an  early  period.  Certain  paragraphs  of  the  life 
of  Pythagoras  by  lamblichus  are  nearly  identical  with  pass- 
ages in  Diogenes,  who  in  his  turn  has  similar  correspond- 
ence with  parts  of  Nicomachus  Gerasenus,  who  lived  under 
Tiberius.  The  natural  inference  is  that  all  three  writers 
copied  from  the  same  source.  Modern  authorities  place 
Diogenes  at  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century.  The  recitals 
of  their  travels  given  by  the  Arcadian  Dinias,  the  Phoe- 
nician Dercyllis,  and  her  brother  Mantinias  are  such  as 
would  be  imagined  by  persons  who  had  never  left  their 
native  hamlet.  The  itinerary  of  the  routes  followed  by 
the  different  personages  is  extremely  confused.  By  Thule 
the  writer  probably  understood  Iceland  or  Norway,  deriv- 
ing his  information  from  Pytheas. 

The  Latin  Apolloniw  of  Tyre  is  undoubtedly  derived 
ances.from  a  \os^  Greek  original,  and  therefore  claims  a  place 
here,  as  representing  one  of  the  earliest  love-stories  we 
can  assign  to  that  literature.  It  may  date  from  the  3d  or 
4th  century,  and  was  perhaps  translated  into  Latin  verse 
in  the  5th  century.  What  we  now  possess  (beyond  the 
Anglo-Saxon  version  mentioned  below)  is  a  second  Latin 
prose  translation  made  in  the  12th  or  13th  century.  The 
first  mention  of  the  work  is  in  a  list  of  books  belonging 
to  Wando,  abbot  of  Fontanelle  (742),  in  the  diocese  of 
Rouen.  The  story  runs  that  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria, 
entertaining  an  undue  affection  for  his  daughter  Tarsia, 
keeps  off  suitors  by  an  unsolvable  riddle.  But  Apollonius, 
king  of  Tyre,  discovers  the  answer,  is  obliged  to  fly,  and 
(as  well  as  Tarsia)  undergoes  many  trials  from  pirates  and 
other  persecutors.  An  abridgment  is  included  in  the  Gesta 
Romanorum.  An  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  translation  was 
printed  by  Thorpe  in  1834.  Gower  derived  his  adapta- 
tion in  the  Confessio  Amantis  (bk.  viii.)  from  the  rhymed 
redaction  of  Godfrey  of  Viterbo  (1185).  This  formed  the 
foundation  of  Shakespeare's  Pericles  (1609).  The  earliest 
English  version  (1510)  is  made  from  the  French  Appollyn, 
Roy  de  Thire. 

The  author  of  the  Cyropsedia  has  already  been  alluded 
to.  Suidas  mentions  other  writers  of  fictions  of  the  name 
of  Xenophon, — a  native  of  Antioch,  who  wrote  Babylonica 
like  lamblichus;  a  native  of  Cyprus,  who  composed  a 
similar  book  under  the  title  of  Cypriaca ;  and  Xenophon 
of  Ephesus,  of  whom  alone  we  possess  anything.  This 
last  is  the  author  of  the  romance  Ephesiaca,  or  the  Loves 
of  Anthia  and  Abrocomas,  of  which  the  Monte  Cassino  MS. 
(first  published  in  1726)  is  the  only  one  extant.  His  age 
is  unknown :  by  Locella,  one  of  his  editors,  he  is  placed 
in  the  time  of  the  Antonines ;  Peerlkamp,  another  editor, 
considers  him  to  be  the  oldest  of  the  romancers  writing  in 
Greek,  and  that  similar  writers  imitate  him  closely.  Some 
go  so  far  as  to  regard  him  as  an  imitator  of  Achilles  Tatius 
and  of  Heliodorus,  and  bring  him  down  to  the  5th  or  6th 
century.  The  story  runs  that  Anthia  and  Abrocomas  are 
married,  and,  being  forbidden  by  an  oracle  to  travel,  of 
course  do  so,  and  are  captured  by  pirates,  who  take  them 
to  Tyre,  where  Manto,  daughter  of  the  chief,  falls  in  love 
with  Abrocomas.  Repelled  by  him,  she  marries  Moeris  and 
accuses  Abrocomas  of  an  attempt  to  violate  her.  Moeris 
in  his  turn  pays  improper  attentions  to  Anthia.  The  great 
beauty  of  the  hero  and  heroine  causes  them  many  trials  at 
the  hands  of  pirates,  brigands,  and  other  stock  ornaments 
of  the  Greek  novel.  The  local  names  of  the  tales  of 
lamblichus  and  Xenophon  were  probably  suggested  by  the 
collected  by  the  earlier  writers  Dionysius  and 


Aristides  of  Miletus.  This  is  the  weakest  of  the  class  we 
have  under  review ;  its  only  merit  lies  in  a  simple  and 
natural  style.  By  far  the  best  of  the  romances  is  the 
^Ethiopica  of  HELIODOEUS  of  Emesa  (q.v.).  From  its 
first  appearance  and  throughout  the  whole  Byzantine 
period  this  work  enjoyed  a  reputation  which  it  has  not 
entirely  lost.  Within  recent  times  three  Frenchmen  of 
mark  have  praised  it, — Amyot,  who  translated  it;  Racine, 
with  whom  it  was  a  favourite ;  and  Boileau,  who  compared 
it  with  the  Telemaque  of  Fenelon.  It  influenced  consider- 
ably the  French  romance -writers  of  the  17th  century, 
D'Urfe,  Gomberville,  and  Mademoiselle  de  Scud^ry.  The 
d6noument  is  imitated  in  the  Pastor  Fido  of  Guarini; 
Tasso  drew  from  it  the  early  life  of  Clorinda  in  Geru- 
salemme  Liberata ;  and  Raphael  painted  scenes  from  it. 
It  was  first  brought  to  light  in  modern  times  in  a  MS. 
from  the  library  of  Matthias  Corvinus,  found  at  the  sack 
of  Buda  (Ofen)  in  1526,  and  printed  at  Basel  in  1534. 
Other  codices  have  since  been  discovered.  The  title  is 
taken  from  the  fact  that  the  action  of  the  beginning  and 
end  of  the  story  takes  place  in  ^Ethiopia.  The  daughter 
of  Persine,  wife  of  Hydaspes,  king  of  ^Ethiopia,  was  born 
white  through  the  effect  of  the  sight  of  a  marble  statue 
upon  the  queen  during  pregnancy.  Fearing  an  accusation 
of  adultery,  the  mother  gives  the  babe  to  the  care  of  Sisi- 
mithras,  a  gymnosophist,  who  carries  her  to  Egypt  and 
places  her  in  charge  of  Charicles,  a  Pythian  priest.  The 
child  is  taken  to  Delphi,  and  made  a  priestess  of  Apollo 
under  the  name  of  Chariclea.  Theagenes,  a  noble  Thes- 
salian,  comes  to  Delphi  and  the  two  fall  in  love  with 
each  other.  He  carries  off  the  priestess  with  the  help  of 
Calasiris,  an  Egyptian,  employed  by  Persine  to  seek  for 
her  daughter.  Then  follow  many  perils  from  sea-rovers 
and  others,  but  the  chief  personages  ultimately  meet  at 
Meroe  at  the  very  moment  when  Chariclea  is  about  to  be 
sacrificed  to  the  gods  by  her  own  father.  Her  birth  is 
made  known,  and  the  lovers  are  happily  married.  The 
rapid  succession  of  events,  the  variety  of  the  characters, 
the  graphic  descriptions  of  manners  and  of  natural  scenery, 
the  simplicity  and  elegance  of  the  style,  give  the  jEthiopica 
great  charm.  Its  chaste  tone  compares  favourably  with 
many  of  the  other  works  of  the  same  class. 

Perhaps  the  most  widely  known  is  the  delightful  pastoral 
of  Daphnis  and  Chloe  (or  Aecr/JtaKct),  generally  attributed 
to  Longus,  a  Greek  sophist,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  4th  or  the  early  part  of  the  5th  century.  Longus 
shows  traces  of  an  imitation  of  the  jEthiopica  of  Heliodorus, 
with  whom  he  may  be  placed  in  the  first  rank  of  such 
writers.  His  work  formed  the  model  of  the  Sireine  of 
Honore  d'Urfe,  the  Diana  of  Montemayor,  the  Aminta  of 
Tasso,  and  the  Gentle  Shepherd  of  Allan  Ramsay,  and  has 
been  translated  into  every  European  language.  The  trans- 
lation of  Amyot,  afterwards  revised  by  P.  L.  Courier,  has 
made  it  extremely  popular  in  France,  where  the  subject  has 
frequently  been  made  use  of  by  Gerard  and  other  painters. 
The  celebrated  Paul  et  Virginie  is  an  echo  of  the  same 
story.  Daphnis  and  Chlpe,  two  children  found  by  shep- 
herds, grow  up  together,  nourishing  a  mutual  love  which 
neither  suspects.  The  development  of  this  simple  passion 
forms  the  chief  interest,  and  there  are  few  incidents. 
Chloe  is  carried  off  by  the  inevitable  pirate,  and  ultimately 
regains  her  family.  A  few  rivals  alarm  the  peace  of  mind 
of  Daphnis;  but  the  two  lovers  are  recognized  by  their 
parents,  and  return  to  a  married  and  happy  life  in  the 
country.  The  picture  of  rural  felicity  and  the  innocent 
affection  of  the  children  make  the  charm  of  a  book  which 
comes  nearer  perhaps  in  spirit  to  the  modern  novel  than 
any  other  of  its  class.  Unfortunately  there  are  details  here 
and  there  which  shock  modern  ideas  of  decent  propriety. 
Achilles  Tatius  or  Statius,  an  Alexandrian  rhetorician  of 


636 


ROMANCE 


the  latter  half  of  the  5th  or  beginning  of  the  6th  century, 
wrote  The  Adventures  of  Leucippe  and  Cleitophon,  upon 
the  model  of  Heliodorus;  though  an  ingenious  story,  it 
does  not  reach  the  standard  of  the  work  it  imitates.  Like 
his  predecessor,  Achilles  uses  the  marvellous  with  discre- 
tion, but  the  accumulation  of  difficulties  is  very  tedious. 
Leucippe  and  Cleitophon  fall  in  love  and  fly  to  escape 
parental  anger.  They  suffer  shipwreck,  are  seized  by 
brigands,  and  separated.  Cleitophon  first  believes  that 
Leucippe  is  dead,  then  finds  her,  to  lose  her  once  more, 
and  again  to  meet  her,  a  slave,  at  the  very  time  he  is 
going  to  marry  her  mistress,  Melitta,  a  rich  Ephesian 
widow.  It  so  happens  that  the  husband  of  the  latter 
is  not  dead  but  returns  to  persecute  with  his  love  and 
jealousy  both  Leucippe  and  Cleitophon.  The  descriptions 
are  the  best  part,  the  incidents  being  either  tiresome  or 
repulsive  and  the  character  of  the  hero  pitiable.  Most  of 
the  book  is  written  with  taste  and  judgment,  but  the 
digressions  are  too  frequent. 

Achiljes  Tatius  is  the  last  of  these  authors  who  can  be 
said  to  have  the  slightest  merit.  Of  the  romances  which 
followed  his  one  of  the  least  bad  is  perhaps  Chxreas  and 
Callirhoe,  by  one  who  called  himself  Chariton  of  Aphro- 
disias,  placed  by  various  authorities  between  the  5th  and 
the  9th  century.  Here  the  two  lovers  are  already  married, 
and  as  usual  are  of  superhuman  beauty.  Unfortunately 
Chaereas  possesses  a  somewhat  irritable  temper,  and  on  a 
jealous  suspicion  gives  his  lovely  wife  a  terrible  kick  in 
the  stomach.  She  is  considered  dead  and  is  carried  to 
her  grave.  But  during  the  night  brigands  carry  her  away 
to  Ionia,  where  her  purchaser,  Dionysius,  falls  in  love  with 
her.  The  wife  remains  faithful  to  her  husband,  but,  as 
she  is  enceinte,  consents  to  marry  Dionysius  in  order  that 
her  child  may  have  a  father.  Meanwhile  Chaereas,  having 
learned  the  ravishment  of  the  supposed  corpse,  starts  in 
pursuit  of  his  wife.  He  also  is  captured  by  pirates  and 
taken  to  Caria.  The  two  finally  come  together,  when 
Callirhoe  forsakes  Dionysius  and  her  son  and  returns  to 
Sicily  with  her  first  husband. 

Equally  frigid  was  The  Loves  of  Hysmine  and  Hysminias 
by  Eustathius  or  Eumathius,  probably  a  Byzantine,  who 
is  placed  by  Wolf  as  late  as  the  12th  century,  but  who 
may  have  lived  six  hundred  years  earlier.  Only  a  few 
more  remain  to  be  mentioned.  Philip  of  Amphipolis  wrote 
'PoSiaKa  (specially  referred  to  by  Suidas  for  its  obscenity), 
GacriaKa,  and  other  works,  all  lost.  Severus  of  Alexandria, 
a  man  of  fortune  with  a  large  library,  living  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  5th  century,  has  left  a  few  short  stories  after 
the  style  of  Parthenius.  Photius  (cod.  130)  also  preserves 
the  titles  of  some  works  by  a  certain  Damascius,  such  as 
Incredible  Fictions,  Tales  of  Demons,  Marvellous  Stories  of 
Appearances  from  the  Dead,  <kc.  The  same  authority  tells 
us  (cod.  188)  of  a  writer  of  the  name  of  Alexander  who 
compiled  a  book  of  marvels.  The  credit  of  having  written 
the  worst  of  the  Greek  romances  may  be  claimed  either  by 
Theodoras  Prodromus,  a  monk  of  the  early  part  of  the  12th 
century,  for  his  metrical  history,  in  nine  books,  of  Rhod- 
anthe  and  Dosicles,  or  by  Nicetas  Eugenianus,  who  lived 
somewhat  later,  for  his  iambic  poem  History  of  the  Lives 
of  Drusilla  and  Charicles,  imitated  from  the  former  work. 
Constantinus  Manasses  (also  12th  century)  composed  a 
poetical  romance  on  the  loves  of  Aristander  and  Callisthia, 
fragments  of  which  were  first  printed  by  Villoison  (Anecdota 
Grxca,  1781). 

Early          Under  BARLAAM  AND  JOSAPHAT  (vol.  iii.  p.  375)  will  be 

?"**•      found  the  origin  and  development  of  the  story  by  St  John 

mances.    °^  Damascus,  which  belongs  rather  to  religious  apologues 

than  to  romances.     Its  origin  is  entirely  Eastern,  from 

India.     The  early  Christians  eagerly  seized  upon  fiction 

as  affording  them  a  vehicle  for  spreading  their  views. 


Their  contributions  to  our  subject  have  a  strong  family 
likeness,  and  usually  either  close  with  a  martyrdom  or  are 
written  in  praise  of  a  monastic  life.  To  the  former  class 
belong  the  Clementine  Recognitions  (2d  century),  Paul  and 
Tliekla  (3d  century),  and  Cyprian  and  Justina,  which  con- 
tains the  germs  of  the  episode  of  Faust  and  Gretchen.  The 
ascetic  novels  include  Xenophon  and  his  Sons,  Euphrosyne, 
Zosimus  and  Mary,  T/iais,  <fec.  Christian  imaginary  travels 
are  represented  by  the  Voyage  of  Macarius  to  Paradise 
and  comic  tales  by  Aaape,  Irene,  and  Chionia. 

Besides  the  forged  letters  attributed  to  men  of  mark,  Fictiti< 
we  have  from  the  Greek  sophists  collections  of  fictitious  letters, 
letters  serving  the  same  purpose  as  the  epistolary  novels 
of  Rousseau  and  Richardson.  The  best  known  of  those 
writers  were  Alciphron,  Aristaenetus,  and  Theophylactus 
Simocatta.  Alciphron,  the  most  eminent,  of  whom  we 
possess  116  Letters  in  three  books,  lived  in  the  3d  or  4th 
century.  Many  of  the  letters  are  written  by  courtezans 
and  supply  curious  information  on  contemporary  life  and 
manners.  The  fifty  Erotic  Epistles  of  Aristaenetus  form 
a  much  less  entertaining  series  than  those  of  Alciphron. 
Theophylactus  Simocatta,  an  Egyptian  by  birth,  died  at 
Constantinople  about  the  year  640.  He  wrote  eighty-five 
Letters,  divided  into  moral,  rustic,  and  amatory.  They 
are  little  else  than  brief  moral  treatises  mingled  with 
stories. 

The  review  of  the  origines  of  the  Greek  novel  shows  that  Revie- 
it  arose  with  the  decay  of  old  Greek  literature  and  carried  of  Gr( 
on  a  feeble  existence  down  to  the  12th  century.  Tworo 
facts  make  themselves  apparent.  First,  the  romance  (or 
novel)  proper  came  late  into  the  field,  where  it  remained 
in  a  secondary  place ;  and  secondly,  it  invariably  turned 
upon  a  hackneyed  circle  of  incidents  and  never  attained 
anything  of  the  highly  artistic  development  reached  by 
modern  examples.  The  sameness  observable  in  Greek 
romance  arises  from  the  fact  that  it  was  the  product  of 
literary  decrepitude  and  impotence.  The  writers  were  in- 
capable of  rivalling  the  glories  of  the  old  Hellenic  litera- 
ture, and  they  endeavoured  to  supply  originality  with 
reminiscences  more  or  less  disguised.  The  literary  and 
social  surroundings  in  which  these  authors  passed  their 
lives  gave  them  few  fresh  subjects  for  investigation,  and 
the  characters  they  describe  are  mere  names.  Human 
nature  and  the  human  heart  have  little  meaning  for  them  ; 
but,  as  with  the  Western  writers  of  fiction  who  closely  follow 
them  in  point  of  date,  incident  is  crowded  upon  incident 
to  the  verge  of  satiety,  in  order  that  the  attention  of  the 
reader  may  never  flag. 

The  contributions  of  Roman  literature  are  limited  to  Romi 
productions  by  two  writers,  Petronius  and  Apuleius  androma ""' 
one  story  by  Martianus  Capella,  of  more  recent  date  and 
less  typical  nature.  In  the  comic  romance  of  PETRONIUS 
ARBITER  (q.v.},  the  tale  of  the  matron  of  Ephesus  first 
appears  among  Western  popular  fictions.  This  was  un- 
doubtedly one  of  the  Ephesian  tales  already  referred  to. 
We  find  it  reproduced  in  the  Seven  Wise  Masters,  in  the 
French  fabliaux,  and  in  Brantome.  It  is  also  to  be  found 
in  the  Chinese.  The  opening  words  of  the  Golden  Ass 
of  Apuleius  indicate  that  his  romance  and  the  Ass  of 
Lucian  were  both  inspired  from  the  same  source,  per- 
haps through  the  medium  of  Lucius  of  Patrae  mentioned 
by  Photius.  Lucian  seems  to  have  reproduced  the  story 
in  a  condensed  form ;  the  Latin  writer  paraphrased  and 
embellished  it  with  other  tales,  among  which  the  best 
known  is  that  of  Cupid  and  Psyche, — an  antique  gem  in 
an  unworthy  setting.  The  hero,  punished  for  his  curiosity 
by  being  turned  into  an  ass,  passes  through  adventures 
similar  in  kind  to  those  depicted  in  the  Greek  romance. 
The  story  ends  with  a  fine  description  of  the  mysteries 
of  Isis,  into  which  the  hero  is  initiated  and  through 


ROMANCE 


637 


which  he  becomes  purified.  The  first  two  books  of  the 
cyclopaedia  of  the  5th  century,  the  Satyrica  of  Martianus 
Capella,  known  as  De  Nuptiis  Philologies  et  Mercurii,  form 
a  kind  of  philosophico-allegorical  romance  in  prose  mingled 
with  verse.  Mercury,  wishing  to  marry,  goes,  accompanied 
by  Virtue,  to  Apollo  on  Parnassus  and  finds  him  occupied 
in  taking  from  four  urns  the  elements  of  all  things. 
Apollo  proposes  that  Mercury  should  marry  Philology, 
but  the  consent  of  Jupiter  must  be  asked.  Jove  hesitates 
and  assembles  a  council  of  the  gods  to  decide  the  ques- 
tion. The  request  is  granted  and  Philosophy  transcribes 
a  decree  permitting  mortals  of  superior  merit  to  be  ad- 
mitted among  the  gods.  The  second  book  is  devoted  to 
the  marriage.  At  first  Philology  has  fears  as  to  its  ad- 
visability, and  the  Muses  form  a  chorus  by  whom  she  is 
admonished.  She  is  visited  by  Prudence,  Justice,  Tem- 
perance, and  the  three  Graces.  At  last  the  bride  goes  to 
Mercury's  house  and  all  set  out  for  the  palace  of  Jupiter, 
who  receives  them  surrounded  by  the  gods  and  many 
deified  mortals. 

Of  these  three  works  the  last  does  not  comply  with 
all  our  conditions,  and  of  the  first  two  Apuleius  is  after 
all  merely  a  translator.  The  Satires,  of  Petronius  is  thus 
the  sole  genuine  representative  of  Latin  prose  romance. 
When  compared  with  the  Greek  compositions  it  will  be 
found  to  offer  a  remarkable  variation.  In  the  Satires,  we 
at  once  come  in  contact  with  contemporary  scenery  and 
habits ;  the  characters  have  well-marked  individuality ; 
and  the  book  is  full  of  life.  It  must  not,  however,  be 
considered  merely  as  a  novel ;  its  chief  object  was  to 
satirize  the  manners  of  the  time.  The  same  tendency  to 
draw  a  strongly  marked  picture  of  the  vices  and  follies  of 
the  hour  appears  also  in  the  Asinus.  In  the  qualities  of 
vigour,  interest,  and  originality  of  form  and  substance 
Apuleius  and  Petronius  are  far  beyond  their  Greek  rivals. 

The  texts  of  the  Scriptores  Erotici  Graeci  have  been  edited  by  C. 
W.  Mitscherlich  (Zweibriicken,  1792-94,  3  vols.  in  four  parts) ;  by 
F.  Passow  (Leipsic,  1824-33,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  in  Didot's  collection,  the 
most  complete  (Paris,  1856,  la.  8vo)  ;  and  by  R.  Hercher  (Leipsic, 
1858-59,  2  vols.  12mo).  The  texts  of  many  of  the  fictitious  historians 
and  biographers  are  given  in  Fragmcnta  Historicorum  Grsecorum 
(Paris,  1841-51,  4  vols.  la.  8vo),  and  Scriptures  de  Rebus  Alexand. 
M.  (ib.,  1846,  8vo).  Photius  (Bibliothcca,  Berlin,  1824,  2  vols.  4to) 
has  analysed  a  great  many  writings  now  lost.  Early  biographical 
information  (not  always  trustworthy)  is  supplied  by  Suidas,  and 
latterly  and  more  perfectly  by  Fabricius  ( Biblioth.  Greeca).  Trans- 
lations into  French  are  contained  in  Bibliotheque  des  romans  grecs, 
tr.  en  franijois  (Paris,  1797,  12  vols.  18mo) ;  Collection  de  romans 
grecs,  tr.  avec  des  notes  par  Courier,  Larcher,  <kc. ,  precedee  d'un  essai 
sur  les  romans  grecs  par  M.  Villemain  (Paris,  1822,  12  vols.  18mo, 
unfinished)  ;  Romans  grecs,  tr.  en  fran.  par  Ch.  Zevort,  precedes  d'une 
introduction  sur  le  roman  chez  les  grecs  (Paris,  1856,  2  vols.  sm.  8vo). 
In  Italian  we  have  Erotici  greci  (Florence,  1814-17,  6  vols.  8vo), 
and  in  English,  Greek  Romances,  by  C.  Smith  (1855,  sin.  8vo). 
The  general  authorities  are  referred  to  under  GREECE  (vol.  xi.  p. 
147).  The  following  are  special  treatises  on  the  subject : — J.  C.  F. 
Manso,  "Ueber  den  griech.  Roman,"  in  his  Verm.  Schriften  (Leipsic, 
1801) ;  F.  Jacobs,  "  Conjecture  de  locis  nonnullis  Achillis  Tatii," 
&c.,  in  Wolf  s  Litt.  Analecten  (Berlin,  1820);  Wiedemann,  "Der 
gr.  Roman,"  in  Arb.  der  kurldnd.  Ges.,  1848,  hft.  3  ;  R.  Hercher, 
"Zur  Litt.  d.  gr.  Erotiker,"  in  Jahrb.f.  class.  Phil.,  1858,  vol.  Ixxvii. ; 
0.  Jahn,  "  Bine  antike  Dorfgeschichte,"  in  Aus  d.  Alterthumsw.  ;  H. 
Peter,  "  Der  Roman  bei  den  Griechen,"  in  Neues  Schweiz,  1866  ;  A. 
Nicolai,  Ueber  Entstehung  u.  Wesen  d.  gr.  Romans  (Berlin,  1867, 
8vo)  ;  B.  Erdmannsdb'rffer,  "Das  Zeitalter  der  Novelle  in  Hellas," 
in  Preus.  Jahrb.,  vol.  xxv.  ;  C.  Hartung,  "Die  byzantinische 
Novelle,"  in  Archiv  f.  d.  Stud.  d.  n.  Spr.,  1872  ;  H.  Usener,  "Zur 
Gesch.  des  gr.  Romans,"  in  Rhein.  Mus.,  1873,  vol.  xxviii.  (N.  F.); 
E.  Rohde,  "  Ueber  gr.  Novelleudichtung, "  in  Vcrsamml.  deutscher 
Philologen,  1875  ;  Id.,  Der  gr.  Roman  u.  seine  Vorlaufer  (Leipsic, 
1876,  8vo) ;  J.  Wimmer,  "Der  gr.  Roman,"  in  Blatter  f.  d.  bayer. 
Gymn.,  1877)  ;  "Greek  Romances,"  in  For.  Quar.  Rev.,  ''Nov.  1829  ; 
"Early  Greek  Romances,"  in  Blackwood's  Mag.,  July  1843;  S. 
Baring  Gould,  "Early  Christian  Greek  Romances,"  in  Contemp. 
Rev.,  Oct.  1877  ;  Chardon  de  la  Rochette,  "Notice  sur  les  romans 
grecs,"  in  Melanges  (Paris,  1812,  rol.  ii.) ;  Struve,  "Romans  et 
nouvelles  chez  les  grecs,"  in  Journal  gin.  de  I'Instr.  Publ.,  13th 
Aug.,  17th  Sept.,  1835  ;  V.  Chauvin,  Les  romemcitrs  grtcs  tt  latins 


(1864,  sm.  8vo) ;  A.  Chassang,  Hist,  du  roman  dans  I'antiq.  grec. 
et  lat.  (1862,  sm.  8vo) ;  P.  D.  Huet,  De  orig.  fab.  rom.  (Hague, 
1682) ;  P.  Paciaudi,  De  Libris  Eroticis  Antiquorum  (Leipsic,  1803, 
8vo) ;  H.  Paldamus,  Romische  Erotik  (Greifswald,  1833,  8vo). 

(b)  Pseudo-Classical  Works. 

The  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages  recognized  three 
great  epic  cycles,  distinctly  defined  by  Jean  Bodel  (13th 
century)  in  his  Chanson  des  Saisnes  (i.e.,  Saxons)  : 

"  Ne  sont  que  troi  materes,  a  nul  homme  entendant — 
De  France,  de  Bretaigne,  et  de  Rome  la  Grant ; 
Et  de  ces  troi  materes  n'i  a  nule  semblant." 

Under  "  Rome  la  Grant "  were  comprehended  the  stories 
of  Troy  and  the  Trojans,  ^Eneas,  Alexander  the  Great, 
Julius  Caesar,  Judas  Maccabaeus,  &c.,  from  Latin  sources, 
— that  is  to  say,  the  whole  ancient  world  seen  through  the 
language  of  Rome. 

The  romances  derived  from  antiquity  may  be  arranged 
in  three  classes — •(!)  those  which  were  believed  to  be 
direct  reproductions,  such  as  Eneas,  Thebes,  Cesar,  and  the 
Roman  de  Troie,  whose  authors  acknowledged  indebted- 
ness, after  their  fashion,  to  Virgil,  Statius,  Dares  Phrygius, 
Dictys  Cretensis,  &c. ;  (2)  those  based  upon  ancient 
histories  not  previously  versified, — for  example,  the  legend 
of  Alexander  from  Quintus  Curtius  and  the  Pseudo-Cal- 
listhenes ;  (3)  those  which  merely  reproduce  the  names  of 
antiquity  and  nothing  else,  such  as  Athis  et  Prqfilias, 
Ypomedon,  and  Protesilaw. 

1.  The  chief  of  the  first  class  was  the  Roman  de  Troie,  Legend 
which  exercised  greater  influence  in  its  day  and  for  cen- 
turies  after  its  appearance  than  any  other  work  of  the 
same  order.     Just  as  the  chansons  de  geste  of  the  10th 
century  were  the  direct  ancestors  of  the  prose  romances 
which   afterwards   spread   throughout   Europe,   so,    even 
before  the  novels  of  Heliodorus  and  Achilles  Tatius,  there 
were  quasi-histories  which  reproduced  in  prose,  with  more 
or  less  exactness,  the  narratives  of  epic  poetry.     Among 
these  nothing  has  ever  equalled  in  vitality  the  tale  of  the 
two   sieges   and   capture   of   Troy,    and   the   subsequent 
destinies  of  the  Trojan  and  Greek  heroes.      "It  would 
require  a  large  volume,"  says  Grote  (History  of  Greece,t\. 
p.  386),  "  to  convey  any  tolerable  idea  of  the  vast  extent 
and  expansion  of  this  interesting  fable,  first  handled  by  so 
many  poets,  epic,  lyric,  and  tragic,  with  their  endless  addi- 
tions, transformations,  and  contradictions,  then  purged  and 
recast  by  historical  inquirers,  who,  under  colour  of  setting 
aside  the  exaggeration  of  the  poets,  introduced  a  new  vein 
of  prosaic  invention."     Long  previous  to  the  'H/DWIKOS  of 
Philostratus  (2d  century)  the  Trojan  War  had  been  the 
subject  of  many  a  prose  fiction  dignified  with  the  title  of 
history ;  but  to  remodel  the  whole  story  almost  in  the 
shape  of  annals,  and  to  give  a  minute  personal  description 
of  the  persons  and  characters  of  the  principal  actors,  were 
ideas  which  belonged  to  an  artificial  stage  of  literature. 
This  task  was  commenced  by  PHILOSTRATUS  (q.v.\  whose 
'H^OKKOS  bears  ample  traces  of  having  been  compiled  from 
a  number  of   current  figments.      Philostratus,   however, 
only  pictures  several  characters  and  a  few  isolated  scenes. 
His  method  was  subsequently  followed  in  a  more  complete 
fashion  by  two  anonymous  writers,  who  either  borrowed 
from  him  or  from  a  more  ancient  source  common  to  all 
three.     A  spurious  history,  professing  to  give  the  chief 
incidents  of  the  siege,  and  said  to  have  been  written  by 
Dictys  of  Crete,  a  follower  of  Idomeneus,  was  known  as 
early  as  the  time  of  ^Elian,  and  has  been  largely  quoted 
by  the  Byzantine  chroniclers.     This  was  translated  into 
Latin  prose  at  an  early  period  under  the  title  of  Dictyos 
Cretensis  de  Bello  Trojano  libri  VI.     With  Dictys  is  always 
associated  Dares,  a  pseudo-historian  of  more  recent  date. 
Old  Greek  writers  mention  an  account  of  the  destruction 
of  the  city  earlier  than  the  Homeric  poems,  and  also  in 


638 


ROMANCE 


the  time  of  ^Elian  this  Iliad  of  Dares,  priest  of  Hephaestus 
at  Troy,  was  believed  to  exist.  Nothing  has  since  been 
heard  of  it ;  but  an  unknown  Latin  writer  living  between 
400  and  600  took  advantage  of  the  tradition  to  compile 
what  he  styled  Daretis  Phrygii  de  Excidio  Trojx  Historia. 
It  is  in  prose,  and  professes  to  be  translated  from  an  old 
Greek  manuscript.  Of  the  two  works  that  of  Dares  is 
the  later,  and  is  inferior  to  Dictys.  The  matter-of-fact 
form  of  narration  recalls  the  poem  of  Quintus  Smyrnaeus. 
Both  compilations  lack  literary  merit ;  the  gods  and  every- 
thing supernatural  are  suppressed;  even  the  heroes  are 
degraded.  The  long  success,  however,  of  the  two  works 
distinguishes  them  above  all  apocryphal  writings,  and  they 
occupy  an  important  position  in  literary  history  on  account 
of  the  impetus  they  gave  to  the  diffusion  of  the  Troy 
legend  throughout  western  Europe.  The  Byzantine  writers 
from  the  7th  to  the  12th  century  exalted  Dictys  as  a  first- 
class  authority,  with  whom  Homer  was  only  to  .be  con- 
trasted as  an  inventor  of  fables.  Western  people  preferred 
Dares,  because  his  history  was  shorter,  and  because,  favour- 
ing the  Trojans,  he  flattered  the  vanity  of  those  who  be- 
lieved that  people  to  have  been  their  ancestors.  Many 
MSS.  of  both  writers  were  contained  in  old  libraries ;  and 
they  were  translated  into  nearly  every  language  and  turned 
into  verse.  In  1272  a  monk  of  Corbie  translated  "sans 
rime  L'Estoire  de  Troiens  et  de  Troie  [de  Dares]  du  Latin 
en  Roumans  mot  a  mot "  because  the  Roman  de  Troie  (to 
be  mentioned  lower  down)  was  too  long.  Geoffrey  of 
Waterford  put  Dares  into  French  prose ;  and  the  British 
Museum  possesses  three  Welsh  MS.  translations  of  the 
same  author, — works  indeed  of  a  much  later  period. 

We  know  that  the  taste  for  Greek  letters  was  never 
entirely  lost  in  western  Europe.  Eginhard  tells  how 
Charlemagne  understood  Greek  and  how  he  encouraged 
the  study.  Alcuin  states,  with  pardonable  pride,  that  the 
library  at  York  contained  "  Graecia  vel  quidquid  trans- 
misit  clara  Latinis,"  which  may,  however,  simply  refer  to 
Latin  translations.  Under  any  circumstances,  however, 
this  knowledge  must  have  been  confined  to  a  few.  It 
Tfljas  through  Latin  that  the  Middle  Ages  knew  the  ancient 
world,  and  in  that  language  read  the  Pseudo- Dares  and 
Dictys,  the  Fables  of  ^Esop,  and  the  Iliad  of  Homer.1 
Through  these  translations  came  many  of  the  traces  of  Greek 
literature  which  occur  in  the  fabliaux  and  romances.  How 
numerous  these  traces  were  in  the  Arthurian  cycle  will  be 
pointed  out.  The  tale  of  the  Dog  of  Montargis,  familiar 
to  readers  of  Milles  et  Amys  (Carolingian  cycle),  is  derived 
from  Plutarch.  Cerberus  may  be  found  in  the  Chanson 
d'Antioche ;  the  story  of  Tarquin  in  the  chanson  de  geste 
Montage  Guillaume ;  the  judgment  of  Paris  in  Foulkes  de 
Candie  •  and  Cupid  and  Psyche  in  the  romance  of  Parten- 
opex  of  Blois. 

For  a  thousand  years  the  myth  of  descent  from  the  dis- 
persed heroes  of  the  conquered  Trojan  race  was  a  sacred 
literary  tradition  throughout  western  Europe,  of  which  a 
possible  survival  still  remains  in  the  popular  phrase  which 
speaks  of  a  generous  and  courageous  fellow  as  a  Trojan. 
The  classical  traditions  of  extensive  colonization  subsequent 
to  the  Trojan  War  were  adopted  by  Western  nations  at  a 
very  early  date.  The  first  Franco-Latin  chroniclers  con- 
sidered it  a  patriotic  duty  to  trace  their  history  to  the 
same  origin  as  that  of  Rome,  as  told  by  the  Latin  poets  of 
the  Augustan  era ;  and  in  the  middle  of  the  7th  century 
Fredegarius  Scholasticus  (Rer.  Gall.  Script.,  ii.  461)  relates 
how  one  party  of  the  Trojans  settled  between  the  Rhine, 

1  The  name  of  Homer  never  ceased  to  be  held  in  honour ;  but  he  is 
invariably  placed  in  company  with  the  Latin  poets.  Few  of  those 
who  praised  him  had  read  him  except  in  the  Latin  redaction  in  1100 
verses  which  passed  under  the  name  of  Pindar.  It  supplied  the  chief 
incidents  of  the  Iliad  with  tolerable  exactness  and  was  taught  in 
schools. 


the  Danube,  and  the  sea.  In  a  charter  of  Dagobert  occurs 
the  statement,  "ex  nobilissimo  et  antique  Trojanoruiu 
reliquiarum  sanguine  nati."  The  fact  is  repeated  by 
chroniclers  and  panegyrical  writers,  who  also  considmd 
the  History  of  Troy  by  Dares  to  be  the  first  of  national 
books.  Succeeding  kings  imitated  their  predecessors  in 
giving  official  sanction  to  their  legendary  origin  :  Charles 
the  Bald,  in  a  charter,  uses  almost  the  same  words  as 
Dagobert — "ex  praeclaro  et  antique  Trojanorum  sanguine 
nati."  In  England  a  similar  tradition  had  been  early 
formulated,  as  appears  from  the  Psendo-Nennius  (put 
together  between  the  7th  and  9th  centuries)  and  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth.  Otto  Frisingensis  (12th  century)  and  other 
German  chroniclers  repeat  the  myth,  and  the  apocryphal 
hypothesis  is  echoed  in  Scandinavian  sagas. 

In  the  llth  century  the  tale  of  Troy  became  the  theme 
of  Neo-Latin  verse.  About  1050  a  monk  named  Bernard 
wrote  De  Excidio  Trojx,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  12th 
century  Simon  Chevre  d'Or  followed  with  another  poem 
on  the  fall  of  the  city  and  the  adventures  of  ^Eneas,  blend- 
ing the  Homeric  and  Virgilian  records.  We  now  come  to 
a  work  on  the  same  subject  in  a  modern  language,  which 
in  its  own  day  and  for  centuries  afterwards  exercised  an 
extraordinary  influence  throughout  Europe.  Benoit  de  Benoii 
Sainte-More,  the  Anglo-Norman  trouvere  who  wrote  in  Roma 
verse  Chroniques  des  Dues  de  Normandie,  composed  in 
England,  under  the  eyes  of  Henry  II.,  about  the  year  1184 
a  poem  in  30,000  lines  entitled  Roman  de  Troie.  It  forms 
a  true  Trojan  cycle  and  embraces  the  entire  heroic  history 
of  Hellas.  The  introduction  relates  the  story  of  the  Argo- 
nauts, and  the  last  2680  verses  are  devoted  to  the  return 
of  the  Greek  chiefs  and  the  wanderings  of  Ulysses.  With 
no  fear  of  chronological  discrepancy  before  his  eyes,  Benoit 
reproduces  the  manners  of  his  own  times,  and  builds  up  a 
complete  museum  of  the  12th  century, — its  arts,  costumes, 
manufactures,  architecture,  arms,  and  even  religious  terms. 
Women  are  repeatedly  introduced  in  unwarranted  situa- 
tions; they  are  spectators  of  all  combats.  The  idea  of 
personal  beauty  is  different  from  that  of  the  old  Greeks ; 
by  Benoit  good-humour,  as  well  as  health  and  strength, 
is  held  to  be  one  of  its  chief  characteristics.  The  love- 
pictures  are  another  addition  of  the  modern  writer.  We 
find  traces  of  the  Odyssey  of  Homer  and  the  trilogy  of 
^Eschylus2  as  well  as  of  Ovid  and  Virgil.  The  author 
speaks  enthusiastically  of  Homer,  but  his  chief  source  of 
information  was  the  pseudo-annals  of  Dictys  and  Dares, 
more  especially  the  latter,  augmented  by  his  own  imagina- 
tion and  the  spirit  of  the  age.  It  is  to  Benoit  alone  that 
the  honour  of  poetic  invention  is  due,  and  in  spite  of  its 
obligation  for  a  groundwork  to  Dictys  and  Dares  we  may 
justly  consider  the  Roman  de  Troie  as  an  original  work. 
From  this  source  subsequent  writers  drew  their  notions  of 
Troy,  mostly  without  naming  their  authority  and  generally 
without  even  knowing  his  name.  This  is  the  chef  d'ceuvre 
of  the  pseudo- classical  cycle  of  romances:  it  shows  the 
most  lofty  conception,  and  in  it  poetical  imagination  has 
the  freest  and  most  lively  play.  The  Roman  de  Troie  was 
extremely  popular.  When  Benoit,  by  reason  of  his  lengthi- 
ness,  failed  to  please,  the  Latin  version  of  Guido  revived 
general  interest.  The  story  passed  through  every  country 
of  Europe,  first  in  verse  and  then  as  a  prose  fiction,  and 
portions  of  it  furnished  matter  for  the  genius  of  Boccaccio, 
Chaucer,  and  Shakespeare. 

The  first  work  inspired  by  the  success  of  the  Roman  de  Imi' 
Troie  was  the  De  bello  Trojano  of  Joseph  of  Exeter,  in  six  *j* 
books,  a  genuine  poem  of  no  little  merit,  written  soon  after 
Benoit's  work  or  about  the  years  1187-88.    It  was  directly 

2  The  Middle  Ages  had  their  Latin  Oresteia,  see  Orestis  Tragcedia, 
carmen  epicum  seculo  post  Christum  natum  sexto  compositum,  ed.  S. 
Schenkl,  Prague,  1867,  8vo. 


ROMANCE 


639 


drawn  from  the  pseudo- annalists,  but  the  influence  of 
Benoit  was  considerable.  Another  was  the  Troilus  of 
Albert  of  Stade  (1249),  a  version  of  Dares,  in  verse, 
brought  back  to  all  its  severity  and  affected  realism.  But 
these  Latin  works  can  only  be  associated  indirectly  with 
Benoit,  who  had  closer  imitators  in  Germany  at  an  early 
period.  Herbort  von  Fritslar  reproduced  the  French  text 
in  his  Lied  von  Troye  (early  13th  century),  as  did  also 
Konrad  von  Wiirtzburg  (d.  1 287)  in  his  Buck  von  Troye 
of  40,000  verses.  To  the  like  source  may  be  traced  a 
poem  of  30,000  verses  on  the  same  subject  by  Wolfram 
von  Eschenbach,  still  unpublished.  The  Low  Countries 
were  not  behind  Germany.  A  dozen  chansons  de  geste  were 
translated  into  Flemish  towards  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century ;  and  Jacob  von  Maerlant,  an  illustrious  poet,  re- 
produced Benoit,  and  did  not  omit  to  acknowledge  the 
authorship.  The  fame  of  the  romance  travelled  to  the 
north,  and  in  various  forms  the  Norse  or  Icelandic  Tro- 
jumanna  Saga  acquired  a  distinctly  local  colour. 

In  Italy  Guido  delle  Colonne,  a  Sicilian,  commenced  in 
1270  and  finished  in  1287  a  prose  Historia  Trojana. 
Although  Guido  knew  some  Greek,  he  did  not  translate 
Dictys  and  Dares,  as  some  MSS.  affirm,  but  reproduced 
the  Roman  de  Troie  of  Benoit,  and  so  closely  as  to  copy 
the  errors  of  the  latter  and  to  give  the  name  of  Peleus 
to  Pelias,  Jason's  uncle.  As  the  debt  was  entirely  un- 
acknowledged, Benoit  at  last  came  to  be  considered  the 
imitator  of  Guido.  The  original  is  generally  abridged,  and 
the  vivacity  and  poetry  of  the  Anglo-Norman  trouvere 
disappear  in  a  dry  version.  The  immense  popularity 
of  Guide's  work  is  shown  by  the  large  number  of  exist- 
ing MSS.  The  French  Bibliotheque  Nationale  possesses 
eighteen  codices  of  Guido  to  thirteen  of  Benoit,  while  at 
the  British  Museum  the  proportion  is  ten  to  two.  Guide's 
History  was  translated  into  German  about  1392  by  Hans 
Mair  of  Nordlingen.  Two  Italian  translations,  by  Antonio 
Cessi  (1324)  and  by  Bellebuoni  (1333),  are  still  preserved 
in  MS.  at  Florence.  The  book  passed  the  seas,  and  in  the 
14th  and  the  commencement  of  the  15th  century  four  ver- 
sions appeared  in  England  and  Scotland.  The  best  known 
is  the  Troy  Book  of  Lydgate,  who  had  both  French  and 
Latin  texts  before  him.  An  earlier  and  anonymous  render- 
ing exists  at  Oxford.  There  is  the  Gest  Historiale  of  the 
Destruction  of  Troy  (Early  Eng.  Text  Soc.,  1869),  also  an 
earlier  Scottish  version  by  Barbour.  The  invention  of 
printing  gave  fresh  impetus  to  the  spread  of  Guido's  work. 
The  first  book  printed  in  English  was  a  translation  by 
Caxton  from  the  French  of  Raoul  Lefevre,  issued  by  the 
foreign  press  of  Caxton  about  1474.  Lefevre's  own  version 
appeared  from  the  same  press  about  the  same  time  and 
was  the  first  book  printed  in  the  French  language.  There 
were  also  translations  into  Italian,  Spanish,  High  German, 
Low  Saxon,  Dutch,  and  Danish ;  Guido  had  even  a  Flemish 
and  a  Bohemian  dress.  But  not  one  of  these  translators 
even  suspected  that  the  writer  was  only  a  feeble  repre- 
sentative of  an  old  trouvere. 

Thus  far  we  have  only  considered  works  more  or  less 
closely  imitated  from  the  original.  Boccaccio,  passing  by 
the  earlier  tales,  took  one  original  incident  from  Benoit, 
the  love  of  Troilus  and  the  treachery  of  Briseida,  and  com- 
posed Filostrato,  a  touching  story.  This  was  borrowed  by 
Chaucer  about  1360  for  his  Boke  of  Troilus  and  Cresside, 
and  also  by  Shakespeare  for  his  Troilus  and  Cressida 
(1609).  One  reason  why  the  Round  Table  stories  of  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries  had  a  never-ceasing  charm  for 
readers  of  the  two  following  centuries  was  that  they  were 
constantly  being  re-edited  to  suit  the  changing  taste.  The 
Roman  de  Troie  experienced  the  same  fate.  By  the  13th 
century  it  was  translated  into  prose  and  worked  up  in 
those  enormous  compilations,  such  as  the  Mer  des  His- 


toires, <fec.,  in  which  the  Middle  Ages  studied  antiquity. 
It  reappeared  in  the  religious  dramas  called  Mysteries. 
Jacques  Millet,  who  produced  La  Destruction  de  Troie  la 
Grande  between  1452  and  1454,  merely  added  vulgar  real- 
ism to  the  original.  Writers  of  chap-books  borrowed  the 
story,  which  is  again  found  on  the  stage  in  Antoine  de 
Montchrestien's  tragedy  of  Hector  (1603) — a  last  echo  of 
the  influence  of  Benoit. 

Although  the  Troie  reveals  the  greatest  power  of  imagination,  Adapta- 
and  was  the  most  influential  and  important,  of  these  adaptations  tions  of 
of  ancient  classical  stories,  it  was  not  the  earliest  of  them.  It  other 
was  preceded  by  a  Roman  d' Eneas,  written,  like  the  Roman  de  Troie,  Roman 
by  an  Anglo  Norman  at  the  court  of  Henry  II.,  a  contemporary  epics, 
of  Giraldus  Cambrensis  and  John  of  Salisbury.  There  is,  indeed, 
every  reason  to  believe  that  the  author  was  Benoit  de  Sainte-More 
himself.  The  work  is  a  tolerably  close  reproduction  of  the  ^Eneid, 
some  passages  being  faithfully  translated  and  others  elaborated. 
But  the  religious  character  of  Virgil's  work  is  wanting,  as  well  as 
the  spirit  of  Roman  greatness  shadowed  forth  in  the  ancient  epic. 
Long  extracts  from  the  Eneas  have  been  published  by  M.  Pey 
(Paris,  1856),  but  it  has  not  yet  been  printed  in  full.  Soon  after 
its  appearance  it  was  translated  with  great  fidelity  into  German  by 
Heinrich  von  Veldeke.  The  Roman  de  Thebes  is  an  imitation  of 
the  Thebais  of  Statius,  with  the  same  general  characteristics  as  the 
Eneas.  In  each  case  the  trouvere  found  a  Latin  model  on  which 
to  superimpose  an  elaborate  structure  of  his  own.  In  each  case 
also  the  original  is  abridged,  while  all  polish  is  effaced,  and  the 
pagan  marvels  replaced  by  others  more  familiar  to  contemporary 
readers.  The  change  is  specially  visible  in  matters  of  religion. 
Lydgate  translated  the  Thebes,  and  Chaucer  used  the  romance  in 
his  Canterbury  Tales.  It  was  composed  after  the  Troie  by  another 
pen  than  that  of  Benoit.  Lucan's  Pharsalia  was  the  last  of  the 
great  Roman  epics  to  be  appropriated.  Li  Romanz  de  Julius  Cesar 
by  Jacques  de  Forez,  of  which  only  one  MS.  exists,  dated  1280,  is 
from  this  source.  It  adheres  to  Lucan's  text  with  more  fidelity 
than  the  other  adaptations  ;  but  the  general  intention  is  changed. 
While  the  classic  poem  ends  in  the  middle  of  the  10th  book,  Jacques 
de  Forez  conducts  Caesar  back  to  Rome.  These  romances — Eneas, 
Thebes,  and  J.  Cesar — are  mere  translations,  and  are,  indeed,  our 
first  renderings  of  Virgil,  Statius,  and  Lucan  in  modern  dialects. 
But  the  trouveres  rearranged  and  transformed  their  originals. 
Fairies,  magic,  and  enchanters,  the  novel  position  of  women,  the 
sentiments  of  Christianity,  and  the  spirit  of  chivalry  are  strangely 
at  variance  with  the  stories  familiar  to  us  in  the  language  of  im- 
perial Rome.  The  influence  of  new  ideas  derived  from  the  crusades 
and  the  East  is  plainly  visible.  Some  of  the  marvels  are  found  in 
William  of  Malmesbury,  which  indicates  that  they  were  of  popular 
acceptation. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  while  the  origines  of  the  pseudo-  Second- 
classical  romances  are  earlier  than  any  of  the  others,  the  prose  re-  ary  re- 
compositions  are  of  later  construction  than  almost  all  those  we  are  produc- 
about  to  consider.      The  Recueil  des  Histoires  de  Troyes,  Hercule,  tions. 
Jason,   (Edipus,   Alexandre,   Virgilius,  &c.,  belong  to  the  second 
half  of  the  15th  century.     They  have  little  interest  and  intrinsic 
merit,  but  their  immediate  originals  exercised  an  extraordinary  in- 
fluence on  the  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages,  an  influence  which 
appears  even  in  the  romances  of  other  cycles  and  in  those  composed 
in  prose  at  an  earlier  date  than  those  we  are  now  discussing. 

Recueil  des  Histoires  de  Troyes  was  "compose  par  venerable 
homme  Raoul  le  Feure  prestre  chappellain  de  inon  tres  redoubte 
seigneur  monseigneur  le  due  Phelippe  de  Bourgoingne  en  1'an  de 
grace  1464,"  but  probably  printed  in  1474  by  Caxton  or  Colard 
Mansion  at  Bruges.  It  is  in  three  books,  of  which  the  first  deals 
with  the  story  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  the  origin  of  the  Trojans, 
the  feats  of  Perseus,  and  the  first  achievements  of  Hercules  ;  the 
second  book  is  wholly  taken  up  with  the  "prouesses  du  fort 
Herculez";  the  third,  "traictant  de  la  generalle  destruction  de 
Troyes  qui  vint  a  1'ocasion  du  rauissement  de  dame  Helaine,"  is 
little  else  than  a  translation  of  that  portion  of  Guido  delle  Colonne 
which  relates  to  Priam  and  his  sons.  Two  MSS.  of  the  Recueil  in 
the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  wrongly  attribute  the  work  to  Guillaume 
Fillastre,  a  voluminous  author,  and  predecessor  of  Lefevre  as  secre- 
tary to  the  duke.  Another  codex  in  the  same  library,  Histoire 
ancienne  de  Thebes  et  de  Troyes,  is  partly  taken  from  Orosius. 
The  Bibliotheque  Nationale  possesses  an  unpublished  Histoire  des 
Troyens  et  des  Thebains  jusqu'a  la  mart  de  Turnus,  djapres  Orose, 
Ovide  et  Raoul  Lefe.bre  (early  16th  century),  and  the  British  Museum 
a  Latin  history  of  Troy  dated  1 403. 

Hercules. — The  end  of  the  first  and  the  whole  of  the  second 
book  of  the  Recueil  are  reproduced  in  Les  prouesses  et  vaillances  du 
preux  Hercvle  (Paris,  1500),  with  the  addition  of  a  prologue  and 
the  genealogy  of  the  champion.  The  character  and  adventures  of 
Hercules  were  of  a  nature  to  attract  the  fancy  of  a  romancist.  His 
labours  are  represented  as  having  been  performed  in  honour  of  a 
Boeotian  princess  ;  Pluto  is  a  king  dwelling  in  a  dismal  castle  ;  the 


640 


ROMANCE 


Fates  are  duennas  watching  Proserpine  ;  the  entrance  to  Pluto's 
castle  is  watched  by  the  giant  Cerberus.  Hercules  conquers  Spain 
and  takes  Merida  from  Geryon.  The  book  is  translated  into 
English  as  Hercules  of  Greece  (n.d. ).  The  marquis  de  Villena  took 
from  the  same  source  his  prose  Libro  de  los  Trabajos  de  Hercules 
(Zamora,  1498),  and  Fernandez  de  Heredia  wrote  Trabajos  de 
Hercules  (1682),  also  in  prose.  Le  Faliche  d'Ercole  (1475)  is  a 
romance  in  poetic  prose  by  Pietro  Bassi,  and  the  Dodeci  Travagli 
di  Ercole  (1544),  a  poem  by  J.  Perillos. 

Jason. — Les  fais  etprouesses  du  noble  et  vaillant  chevalier  Jason 
was  composed  in  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  by  Lefevre  on 
the  basis  of  Benoit,  and  presented  to  Philip  of  Burgundy,  founder 
of  the  order  of  the  Toison  d'Or.  Jason  is  shown  as  a  foremost  figure 
in  tournaments,  overthrowing  all  competitors  at  one  held  by  the 
king  of  Bceotia  to  celebrate  the  knighting  of  his  son  Hercules. 
The  two  become  staunch  friends  and  attend  the  marriage  ceremony 
of  Hippodamia.  Centaurs  interrupt  and  are  exterminated  by  Jason. 
He  performs  other  knightly  exploits,  and  on  his  return  is  malici- 
ously sent  by  his  uncle  _Peleus  (Pelias)  on  the  Argonautic  expedition. 
The  narrative  of  the  journey  to  Lemnos  and  Colchos,  the  love  of 
Medea,  and  the  episode  of  the  Golden  Fleece  follows  the  classical 
traditions.  When  Jason  returns  to  the  country  of  the  Myrmidons, 
Medea  by  enchantment  restores  the  old  king  to  youth  and  brings 
about  the  death  of  Peleus.  For  this  last  good  deed  Medea  is 
banished,  with  Jason's  consent,  and  is  carried  off  by  four  dragons. 
She  soars  long  over  Greece  before  she  is  able  to  find  her  lover  ;  at 
length  she  discovers  that  he  is  going  to  wed  the  princess  of  Corinth. 
She  descends  amid  thunder  and  lightning,  kills  the  two  children 
she  bore  to  Jason,  and  allows  her  attendant  dragons  to  destroy 
with  fire  Corinth  and  all  its  inhabitants.  She  then  inveigles  the 
old  Egeus,  king  of  Athens,  into  marriage,  but  is  banished  upon 
suspicion  of  attempting  to  poison  her  new  son-in-law  Theseus. 
Meeting  with  Jason,  who  had  escaped  the  burning  of  Corinth,  she 
becomes  reconciled  to  him,  and,  abjuring  magic,  on  the  death  of 
Eson  becomes  a  good  wife  and  queen.  The  manners  and  senti- 
ments of  the  15th  century  are  made  to  harmonize  with  the  classical 
legends  after  the  fashion  of  the  Italian  pre-Eaphaelite  painters, 
who  equipped  Jewish  warriors  with  knightly  lance  and  armour. 
The  story  is  well  told  ;  the  digressions  are  few ;  and  there  are 
many  touches  of  domestic  life  and  natural  sympathy.  The  first 
edition  is  believed  to  have  been  printed  at  Bruges  in  1474  ;  the 
type  is  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  first  edition  of  the  JKecueil. 
Caxton  translated  the  book  at  the  command  of  the  duchess  of 
Burgundy.  A  Dutch  translation  appeared  at  Haarlem  in  1495. 
M.  Paulin  Paris  doubts  whether  the  romance  was  written  by  Lefevre, 
whose  authorship  is  distinctly  asserted  by  Caxton.  Montfaucon 
refers  to  a  MS.  by  Guido  delle  Colonne,  Historia  Medeie  r.t  Jasonis 
(unpublished).  There  is  a  Histoire  de  la  Thoison  d'Or  (1516)  by 
Guillaume  Fillastre,  written  about  1440-50. 

CEdipus. — A  kind  of  introduction  to  the  Recueil  is  Le  Roman 
tfCEdipus,  Fits  de  Layus  (n.d.),  written  in  the  15th  century  by  an 
unknown  pen.  The  story  follows  the  fable  told  by  the  Greek 
poets,  adapted,  of  course,  to  the  taste  and  habits  of  later  times. 
The  sphinx  is  drawn  as  a  giant  of  great  subtlety  and  ferocity. 

Histories  2.  The  wonders  revealed  through  the  Asiatic  expedition 
if  Alex-  Of  Alexander  gave  rise  to  a  remarkable  development  of 
mder-  the  marvellous  in  historical  composition.  The  histories  of 
Onesicritus,  Aristobulus,  and  Clitarchus,  themselves  mem- 
bers of  the  expedition,  were  so  full  of  unheard-of  things 
that  they  soon  fell  into  disrepute.  Callisthenes,  another 
companion  of  Alexander,  also  wrote  an  account,  which  is 
lost,  but  his  name  remains  connected  with  a  spurious  work 
in  which  were  crystallized  all  the  fabulous  tales  of  the  con- 
queror. The  life  of  Alexander  had  every  quality  to  appeal 
to  the  imagination.  His  marvellous  career,  his  genius  as 
a  soldier  and  ruler,  the  beauty  of  his  person,  his  early 
death,  were  subjects  for  legend  almost  in  his  own  day; 
and  a  cloud  of  mythical  story  soon  floated  round  his 
memory.  Quintus  Curtius,  who  drew  from  some  of  these 
suspicious  sources,  is  a  more  critical  authority,  though  he 
allowed  rhetorical  fancy  to  embellish  his  narration.  It 
is  a  great  fall  from  the  Latin  historian  to  the  Pseudo- 
Callisthenes.  The  work  we  possess  under  the  latter  title 
represents  the  second  stage  of  the  Alexander  myth.  Some 
of  the  MSS.  attribute  it  to  Aristotle,  Ptolemy,  and  ^Esop, 
as  well  as  to  Callisthenes, — all  with  equal  verisimilitude. 
To  reconstruct  the  true  from  the  spurious  work  is  an  im- 
possible task  after  the  increased  vogue  given  to  the  latter 
by  the  re-opening  of  the  East  to  Europe  by  the  Romans, 
when  all  the  traditions  became  remoulded  in  the  form  they 


now  possess.  Among  the  histories  separate  from  Pseudo- 
Callisthenes  and  subsequent  to  Quintus  Curtius  is  an 
Itinerarium  Alexandri,  in  Latin,  but  of  Greek  origin, 
which  is  little  else  than  an  amplification  of  the  apocryphal 
letter  of  Alexander  to  Aristotle.  It  is  dedicated  to  Con- 
stans,  son  of  the  emperor  Constantine.  Similarities  be- 
tween the  Itinerarium  and  the  Latin  version  of  Pseudo- 
Callisthenes  prove  that  the  stories  were  current  in  the  4th 
century,  and  may  have  emanated  from  the  same  source  • 
but,  while  the  Itinerarium  is  inferior  in  authority  to 
Quintus  Curtius,  it  is  less  a  collection  of  mere  fables  than 
is  Callisthenes.  The  Greek  text  of  the  latter  is  supposed 
to  have  been  written  in  Alexandria  at  the  commencement 
of  the  third  century,  and  to  have  been  translated  into 
Latin  by  Julius  Valerius  before  340.  The  translation 
was  abridged  in  Latin  some  time  before  the  9th  century. 
Much  of  the  work  is  a  running  travesty  of  the  true  history 
of  the  conqueror.  The  first  book  deals  with  his  birth  and 
early  exploits.  The  trace  of  Alexandrian  influence  is  to 
be  found  in  the  pretence  that  his  actual  father  was  Nec- 
tanebus,  a  fugitive  king  of  Egypt.  The  latter  was  a  great 
magician,  able,  by  operating  upon  waxen  figures  of  the 
armies  and  ships  of  his  enemies,  to  obtain  complete  power 
over  their  real  actions.  He  was  obliged,  however,  to  fly  to 
Pella,  where  he  established  himself  as  a  doctor  and  was 
visited  by  Queen  Olympias  to  get  advice  upon  her  con- 
tinued sterility.  He  promised  that  Jupiter  Ammon  should 
perform  the  cure  in  the  shape  of  a  dragon.  To  make 
quite  sure  Nectanebus  himself  took  the  place  of  the  animal, 
and  nine  months  afterwards  Philip  became  the  father  of 
the  future  Alexander.  At  first  there  was  some  unpleasant- 
ness, but  a  reappearance  of  the  dragon  convinced  every- 
body that  the  infant  really  was  the  son  of  a  god,  so  that 
the  putative  father  could  no  longer  object.  Alexander 
was  small  and  somewhat  deformed,  but  of  great  courage 
and  intelligence.  He  was  educated  under  the  supervision 
of  Nectanebus,  who  at  last  died  through  a  fall  into  a  pit, 
into  which  he  had  been  playfully  pushed  by  his  royal 
pupil.  The  second  book  continues  the  various  conquests, 
and  the  third  contains  the  victory  over  Porus,  the  relations 
with  the  Brahmans,  the  letter  to  Aristotle  on  the  wonders 
of  India,  the  histories  of  Candaces  and  the  Amazons,  the 
letter  to  Olympias  on  the  marvels  of  Further  Asia,  and 
lastly  the  account  of  Alexander's  death  in  Babylon. 

Callisthenes  was  translated  into  Syriac  and  Armenian 
in  the  5th  century.  A  second  Latin  abridgment  is  known 
as  Historia  de  Praeliis.  The  letter  from  Alexander  to 
Aristotle  on  the  marvels  of  India,  the  correspondence 
between  the  king  and  the  wise  Brahman  Dindimus,  and 
De  Gentibus  Indiat,  ascribed  to  Palladius,  are  different  parts 
of  the  same  legend.  The  myth  had  a  wider  circulation 
than  any  of  the  others  we  have  yet  dealt  with,  and  the 
East  contributed  its  share  as  well  as  the  West.  Persians 
and  Arabs  told  the  deeds  of  Iskander ;  and  Firdousi  made 
use  of  the  story  in  the  Shah-Namah.  Another  early 
Persian  poet,  Nizami,  made  the  story  specially  his  own. 
The  crusaders  brought  back  fresh  developments ;  Gog  and 
Magog  (partly  Arab  and  partly  Greek)  and  some  Jewish 
stories  were  then  added.  In  the  llth  century  Simeon 
Seth,  protovestiarius  at  the  Byzantine  court,  translated  the 
fabulous  history  from  the  Persian  back  into  Greek.  In 
the  following  century  was  built  up  the  Geste  dAlexandrc 
by  the  successive  labours  of  Lambert  le  Cort,  Alexandre 
Bernai,  Jehan  le  Nevelais,  Gautier  de  Cambrai,  Pierre  de 
Saint -Cloud,  Brisebarre,  <fec.  Alexander  becomes  then  a 
knightly  king,  surrounded  by  his  twelve  paladins.  Bernai 
says  that  the  foundation  was  Latin  (1  Valerius  or  some 
other  Latin  version  of  Pseudo-Callisthenes) : 

"Un  clerc  de  Casteldun,  Lambert  li  Cors  1'escrit, 
Qui  del  Latin  le  traist,  et  en  Roman  le  mit. " 


ROMANCE 


641 


The  same  origin  is  to  be  sought  for  the  Alexander  myths 
found  in  Renart  le  Bestourne  and  the  Speculum  Historiale 
of  Vincentius  Bellovacensis.  Quintus  Curtius  was  largely 
used  for  the  Alexandreis  (c.  1176-1202)  of  Gaultier  de 
Chatillon.1  It  was  the  theme  of  poetry  in  all  European 
languages :  six  or  seven  German  poets  dealt  with  the 
subject,  and  it  may  be  read  in  English,  Spanish,  Danish, 
Swedish,  Icelandic,  Flemish,  and  Bohemian. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  15th  century  an  anonymous 
writer  worked  up  the  subject  into  a  prose  romance,  L'his- 
toire  du  noble  et  vaillant  roy  Alixandre  le  Grant  (1506),  in 
which  the  Historia  de  Prsdiis  is  followed  with  tolerable 
exactness.  After  an  account  of  the  ancient  history  of 
Macedonia  and  of  the  intrigue  of  Nectanebus  we  are  told 
how  Philip  dies,  and  how  Alexander  subdues  Rome  and  re- 
ceives tribute  from  all  European  nations.  He  then  makes 
his  Persian  expedition ;  the  Indian  campaign  gives  occasion 
to  descriptions  of  all  kinds  of  wonders.  The  conqueror 
visits  a  cannibal  kingdom  and  finds  many  marvels  in  the 
palace  of  Porus,  among  them  a  vine  with  golden  branches, 
emerald  leaves,  and  fruit  of  other  precious  stones.  In  one 
country  he  meets  with  women,  who,  after  burial  in  the 
winter,  become  alive  again  in  the  spring  full  of  youth  and 
beauty.  Having  reached  the  ends  of  the  earth  and  con- 
quered all  nations,  he  aspires  to  the  dominion  of  the  air. 
He  obtains  a  magic  glass  cage,  yoked  with  eight  griffins, 
flies  through  the  clouds,  and,  thanks  to  enchanters  knowing 
the  language  of  birds,  gets  information  as  to  their  manners 
and  customs,  and  ultimately  receives  their  submission. 
The  excessive  heat  of  the  upper  regions  compels  him  to 
descend,  and  he  next  visits,  the  bottom  of  the  sea  in  a  kind 
of  diving-bell.  The  fish  crowd  round  him  and  pay  hom- 
age. Alexander  returns  to  Babylon,  is  crowned  with  much 
pomp,  and  mass  is  celebrated.  He  dies  by  poison  soon 
afterwards. 

The  Vceux  du  Paon  and  Rcstor  du  Paon  are  chansons  de  geste 
attached  to  the  Alexander  cycle,  to  which  also  belongs  Florimont, 
a  poem  by  Aime  de  Varennes,  said  to  have  been  written  in  1188. 
Florimont  was  a  son  of  the  duke  of  Albania  and  father  of  Philip 
of  Macedon  by  the  heiress  of  the  latter  country.  This  poem  gave 
rise  to  two  prose  romances — La  conquestede  Grece  f  aide  par  Philippe 
de  Madien,  by  Perrinet  du  Pin,  first  printed  in  1527,  and  Histoire 
du  roi  Florimond  (1528). 

3.  We  now  come  to  the  third  order  of  romances  in- 
cluded in  the  cycle  of  "  Rome  la  Grant,"  or  those  which 
merely  reproduce  the  names  of  antiquity.  The  enchanter 
Virgil  is  the  most  famous  of  those  who  have  given  rise  to 
prose  works,  and  what  passes  under  his  name  is  less  a 
romance  than  a  collection  of  popular  tales,  many  of  Eastern 
derivation.  Among  romances  in  verse  we  have  Erodes, 
Anseys  de  Carthage,  Cleomades,  Athis  et  Profilias,  Prote- 
silaus,  and  Ypomedon.  The  first  part  of  Athis  et  Profilias, 
byAlexandre  de  Bernai  (latter  part  of  12th  century),  is 
adapted  from  the  tale  of  the  two  merchants  in  the  Disci- 
plina  Clericalis  of  Pedro  Alfonso,  and  is  the  source  of 
Boccaccio's  "  Tito  e  Gisippo  "  (Decam.,  x.  8).  In  Ypome- 
don, written  by  Hue  of  Rotelande  about  1185,  most  of 
the  characters  are  named  from  the  Thebau.  As  early  as 
the  year  1210  we  find  a  rhymed  translation  of  Ovid's 
Metamorphoses  in  German  by  Albrecht  von  Halberstadt. 
From  Ovid  is  taken  the  story  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe  in 
Chaucer's  Legend  of  Good  Women,  which  is  the  subject  of 
a  prose  work  in  Italian,  Piramo  e  Tisbe  (Milan,  s.a.).  The 
episode  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice  furnished  the  plot  of 
the  poetical  Histoire  d'Orphee  of  Guillaume  de  Machault 
(d.  1370)  and  the  English  Sir  Orphes.  The  tale  of  Theseus 
was  handled  by  Boccaccio  and  supplied  the  title  and  names 
to  the  prose  romance  Histoire  du  chevalier  Theseus  de 


1  The  author  of  the  much-quoted  line,  "Incidis  in  Scillam  cupiens 
vitare  Charybdim."  The  twelve-syllabic  verse  known  as  alexandrine 
is  supposed  to  have  taken  its  name  from  being  first  iised  in  the  French 
Geste  d'Alexandre. 


Coulogne  (1534).  The  Bible  as  well  as  the  classics  was 
laid  under  contribution.  Gaultier  de  Belleperche  wrote  a 
metrical  Roman  de  Judas  Machabee  about  the  year  1240, 
of  which  a  prose  reproduction  is  Les  chroniques  du  prince 
Judas  Machabeus,  Vun  des  neufs  preux,  et  aussi  de  ses 
quatres  freres  (Paris,  1514). 

The  Enchanter  Viryil. — After  turning  the  heroes  of  antiquity  The  en- 
into  knights-errant,  it  was  a  simple  task  to  transform  ancient  poets  chanter 
and  philosophers  into  necromancers  ;  and  Virgil  and  Aristotle  be-  Virgil, 
came  popularly  famous,  not  for  poetry  and  science,  but  for  their 
supposed  knowledge  of  the  black  art.  One  of  the  earliest  references 
to  the  magical  skill  of  Virgil 2  occurs  in  a  letter  of  the  chancellor 
Conrad  (1194),  reproduced  by  Arnold  of  Liibeck  in  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Chronicon  Slavorum  of  Helmold.  John  of  Salisbury 
alludes  to  the  brazen  fly  fabricated  by  Virgil ;  Helinand  (d.  1227) 
speaks  of  similar  marvels  in  a  work  from  which  Vincentius  Bello- 
vacensis has  borrowed  ;  and  Gervase  of  Tilbury,  in  his  Otia  Im- 
perialia  (1212),  and  Alexander  Neckham  (d.  1217),  in  De  Natura 
Rerum,  have  reproduced  these  traditions,  with  additions.  German 
and  French  poets  did  not  overlook  this  accessory  to  their  reper- 
toire. The  Roman  de  Cleomades  of  Adenez  (12th  century)  and  the 
Image  du  Monde,  an  encyclopaedic  poem  of  Gauthier  de  Metz  (13th 
century),  contain  numerous  references  to  the  prodigies  of  the  en- 
chanter. Reynard  the  Fox  informs  King  Lion  that  he  had  from 
the  wise  Virgil  a  quantity  of  valuable  receipts.  He  also  plays  a 
considerable  part  in  the  popular  folk-tale  The  Seven  Wise  Masters, 
and  appears  in  the  Gesta  JRomanorum  and  that  curious  guide- 
book for  pilgrims,  the  Mirabilia  Romse.  He  is  to  be  found  in 
Gower's  Confessio  Amantis  and  in  Lydgate's  Bochas.  A  Spanish 
romance,  Vergilios,  is  included  by  E.  de  Ochoa  in  his  Tesoro  (Paris, 
1838),  and  Juan  Ruiz,  archpriest  of  Hita  (d.  1351),  has  also  written 
a  poem  on  the  subject.  Many  of  the  tales  of  magic  throughout 
Europe  were  referred  to  Virgil,  and  gradually  developed  into  a 
completely  new  life,  strangely  different  from  that  of  the  real  hero. 
They  were  collected  in  French  under  the  title  of  Les  Faitz  Mer- 
veilleux  de  Virgille  (c.  1499),  a  quarto  chapbook  of  ten  pages,  which 
became  extremely  popular,  and  was  printed,  with  more  or  less 
additional  matter,  in  all  languages.  We  are  told  how  Virgil  be- 
guiled the  devil  at  a  very  early  age,  in  the  same  fashion  as  the 
fisherman  used  the  jinn  in  the  Arabian  Nights  when  he  got  him 
to  re-enter  Solomon's  casket.  Another  reproduction  of  a  widely 
spread  tale  was  that  of  the  lady  who  kept  Virgil  suspended  in  a 
basket.  To  revenge  the  affront  the  magician  extinguished  all  the 
fires  in  the  city,  and  no  one  could  rekindle  them  without  subject- 
ing the  lady  to  an  ordeal  highly  offensive  to  her  modesty.  Virgil 
made  for  the  emperor  a  castle  in  which  he  could  see  and  hear  every- 
thing done  or  said  in  Rome,  an  ever-blooming  orchard,  statues  to 
preserve  the  safety  of  the  city,  and  a  lamp  to  supply  light  to  it. 
He  abducted  the  soldan's  daughter,  and  built  for  her  the  city  of 
Naples  upon  a  secure  foundation  of  eggs.  At  last,  having  performed 
many  extraordinary  things,  he  knew  that  his  time  was  come.  In 
order  to  escape  the  common  lot  he  placed  all  his  treasures  in  a 
castle  defended  by  images  unceasingly  wielding  iron  flails,  and 
directed  his  confidential  servant  to  hew  him  in  pieces,  which  he 
was  to  salt  and  place  in  a  barrel  in  the  cellar,  under  which  a 
lamp  was  to  be  kept  burning.  The  servant  was  assured  that  after 
seven  days  his  master  would  revive  a  young  man.  The  directions 
were  carried  out ;  but  the  emperor,  missing  his  medicine  -  man, 
forced  the  servant  to  divulge  the  secret  and  to  quiet  the  whirling 
flails.  The  emperor  and  his  retinue  entered  the  castle  and  at  last 
found  the  mangled  corpse.  In  his  wrath  he  slew  the  servant, 
whereupon  a  little  naked  child  ran  thrice  round  the  barrel,  crying, 
"Cursed  be  the  hour  that  ye  ever  came  here,"  and  vanished. 

Literature. — On  the  subject  generally,  see  A.  Chassang,  Histoire  du  roman 
dans  I'antiquitt,  1862 ;  P.  Paris,  Les  MSS.  Franyois  de  la  Bill,  dv  Roi,  Paris, 
1835-48,  7  vols.  ;  H.  L.  D.  Ward,  Cat.  of  Romances  in  the  Dep.  of  MSS.,  British 
Museum,  1883  ;  E.  Du  Meril,  Preface  to  Flore  et  Blancheflor,  1856  ;  Egger,  Hellen- 
isme  en  France,  1869.  The  Troy  legend  is  dealt  with  in  the  elaborate  work  of  A. 
Joly,  Benoit  de  Sainte-More  et  le  Roman  de  Troie,  1870-71,  2  vols.  ;  G.  Korting, 
Der  altfranz.  Roman  de  Troie,  1883 ;  F.  Settegast,  Benoit  de  Ste-More,  Breslau, 
1876  ;  Frommann,  Herbort  v.  Fritilar  u.  Benoit  de  Ste-More,  Stuttgart,  1857  ;  B. 
Jackel,  Dares  Phrygius  u.  Benoit  de  Ste-More,  Breslau,  1875 ;  E.  Juste,  Sur 
Vorigine^des  poemes  attrib.  a  Homere  et  sur  les  cycles  epiques  de  Fantiq.  et  du 
Moyen-Age,  Brussels,  1849 ;  J.  A.  Fuchs,  De  varietate  fabularum  Troicarum 
qutestiones,  Cologne,  1830 ;  H.  Dunger,  Die  Sage  vom  trojan.  Kriege,  Leipsic, 
1869 ;  G.  Korting,  Dictys  u.  Dares,  Halle,  1874 ;  H.  Dunger,  Dictys  Septimius, 
Dresden,  1878  ;  L.  Havet,  "  Sur  la  date  du  Dictys  de  Septimius  "  (Rev.  de  Philol., 


"Sulle  versione  Italiane  della  Storia  Troiana"  (Site.  d.  k.  Akad.  Wien,  1871, 
vol.  Ixvii.),  and  "Ueber  d.  Span.  Versionen"  (ib.,  1871,  vol.  Ixix.);  Pey,  Essai 
sur  U  romans  d' Eneas,  1856.  The  Alexander  legend  is  treated  by  J.  Zacher, 
Pseudo-Callisthenes,  Halle,  1867 ;  J.  Berger  de  Xivrey,  " Sur  Pseudo-Callisthenes " 
(Notices  et  Extracts,  xiii.,  1838)  ;  A.  Westermann,  De  Callisthene,  1838-42,  4  parts ; 
E.  Talbot,  Sur  la  legends  dAlexandre  dans  les  romans  jrangais,  1850 ;  Florian 

2  The  Irish  apostle  to  Carinthia,  St  Virgilius,  bishop  of  Salzburg 
(d.  784),  who  held  original  views  on  the  subject  of  antipodes,  may 
have  been  the  real  eponym  of  the  legend.  Naples  was  a  centre  for 
pseudo-Virgilian  stories. 

XX.  —  81 


642 


ROMANCE 


Frocheur,  " Histoire  roinanesque  d' Alexandra  "  (Messager  des  Sc.  Hut.,  Ghent, 
1847)-  H.  Miclielant,  Introduction  to  Li  Romans  d'AI(Miid,e,  Stuttgart,  ]Mi>; 
J.  Mael.lv,  "Zur  Alexandersage"  (Z.  /.  deutsche  Pkilol.,  Hi.,  1871);  HoinlieU, 
Die  AlexanderMgc,  Hersfeld,  1873 ;  W.  Wackernagel,  "  Zur  Alexandersage  (/. 
/.  deutxJie  Phil.,  i.,  1869);  Dem.  P.  de  Gobdelas,  Hist,  d  Alexandra  suivant  Us 
terUs  oruntaux,  Warsaw,  1822  ;  F.  Spiegel,  Die  Alexandersage  bei  den  Orientalcn, 
Leiiisic  1S01  •  L.  Donath,  Die  Alexandersage  im  Talmud  u.  Mtdrash,  Fulda,  18.3. 
For '  theVinnl  myth  see  D.  Comparetti,  Virgilio  nel  Medio  Evo,  Leghorn,  1872, 
2  vols  •  W.  J.  Thorns,  Early  Eng.  Prose  Romances,  1858,  3  yols.  ;  G.  Brunet, 
Les/aitzmervnilleuxdc  VirgUe,  Geneva,  1867  ;  E.  Dumeril,  "Virgile  enchanteur" 
(Melanges  Arch.,  1850)  ;  Gervase  of  Tilbury,  Otia  Imper.,  ed.  Liebrecht,  1850  ;  P. 
Schwubbe  I'irgilius  per  mediam  letatein, Paderborn,  18J2 ;  Siebenhauer,De/a6«ris 
mix  media  atate  de  Virgilio  circumf.,  Berlin,  1837 ;  J.  G.  T.  Graesse,  Beitrage 
zur  Litt  u.  Sage  des  Mittelalters,  1850 ;  Bartsch,  "  Gedicht  auf  d.  Zaub.  Virgil" 


Albrecht  v.  Halberstadt  u.  Ovid  im  Mittelalte'r,  Quedlinburg,  1861. 

II. — MEDIEVAL  ROMANCE. 
(a)  Arthurian  Cycle. 

•igines.  The  oldest  and  certainly  the  most  important  of  the 
cycles  of  mediaeval  romance  is  that  which  passes  under 
the  name  of  King  Arthur,  or  of  the  Round  Table.  The 
names,  characters,  and  actions  of  its  heroes  have  permeated 
modern  literature  throughout  Europe ;  yet  so  little  do  we 
know  concerning  the  origines  and  the  first  authors  of  the 
tales  which  form  the  body  of  Arthurian  romance  that 
there  are  few  subjects  in  literary  history  more  obscure  and 
undefined.  It  can  only  be  said  with  assurance  that  from 
about  the  year  1150  several  poems1  were  composed  by 
minstrels  (a  class  of  men  recruited  from  all  ranks  of 
society)  upon  incidents  and  personages  familiar  to  readers 
of  what  is  called  the  Morte  Arthur,  a  compilation  of  the 
second  half  of  the  13th  century.  The  Morte  Arthur  was 
not  originally  so  called,  and  it  was  not  a  direct  compilation 
from  the  ballads  of  the  12th  century,  but  seems  rather  to 
have  been  a  mere  unskilful  reduction  into  a  single  corpus 
of  some  five  or  six  prose  romances  which  had  already 
grown  out  of  the  poems,  and  each  of  which  professed  to 
relate  the  adventures  of  nearly  the  same  set  of  heroes. 
The  first  appearance  of  these  stories  in  prose  compositions 
is  here  our  chief  concern  ;  and  it  is,  unfortunately,  likewise 
our  chief  difficulty.  The  sources  of  information  upon  the 
subject  are  defective  and  vitiated  to  a  singular  degree; 
and  the  light  thrown  by  the  investigations  of  recent 
writers  is  frequently  of  the  nature  of  cross-lights.  The 
following  attempt  at  constructing  a  brief  literary  history 
of  the  Arthurian  romances  is  not  offered  as  a  complete 
analysis  of  the  work  which  has  been  done,  but  as  a  sum- 
mary of  facts  and  probabilities. 

The  Roman  conquests  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain  im- 
posed upon  a  large  portion  of  the  conquered  peoples  the 
necessity  of  using  the  Latin  language,  which  thereby  be- 
came, and  for  centuries  remained,  the  medium  of  educated 
intercourse  and  the  language  of  the  towns  and  the  centres 
of  government  in  those  countries.  In  common  speech, 
naturally,  it  became  depraved  in  course  of  time,  and  the 
pure  lingua  Latino,  of  the  high  officials  and  the  clergy 
existed  side  by  side  with  the  corrupt  lingua  Romana  of 
the  Romanized  people.  The  latter  was,  however,  ignored 
by  polite  literature,  and  probably  never  appeared  in  a 
written  form  till  it  was  used  for  political  purposes  on  the 
occasion  of  the  celebrated  partition  of  Charlemagne's  empire 
among  his  grandsons.  We  may  say  that  the  literature 
of  romance  begins  with  popular  poetry  of  the  10th  or 
llth  century;  but,  as  its  subject-matter  was  derived  to 
some  extent  from  the  more  respectable  lingua  Latina,  we 
must  go  back  a  few  centuries  earlier  to  find  the  origines. 
When  the  people  of  Rome  became  acquainted  with  the 
civilization  and  literature  of  Greece  they  framed  a  fabu- 
lous history  to  connect  themselves  with  the  superior  race, 

1  Chansons  de  geate,  or  ballads  of  knightly  adventure,  produced  by 
wandering  minstrels  called  in  northern  France  and  England  tromxres, 
in  southern  France,  Spain,  and  northern  Italy  trobadors  (troubadours), 
in  Germany  minnesanger,  and  intended  for  recitation  with  more  or  less 
musical  accompaniment. 


and  the  JZneid  exhibits  that  pseudo-tradition  in  its  most 
permanent  and  powerful  embodiment.  A  similar  desire 
affected  the  Romanized  Britons,  and  we  may  confidently 
assume  that  before  the  end  of  the  3d  century  a  poetical 
form  had  been  given  to  the  story  of  the  Trojan  Brutus 
who  founded  the  kingdom  of  Britain,  blended  with  some- 
thing of  the  real  traditions  of  the  Celtic  race.  No  such 
form  survives  at  present,  but  we  may  discern  its  traces  and 
results  in  Nennius  (sec.  viii.-x.),  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth 
(d.  1154),  and  in  all  the  subsequent  chronicles. 

In  the  llth  century  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  England  hadEthno- 
their  old  Germanic  stories  of  Beowulf,  Sigfrid,  and  theS™!^ 
Nibelungen ;  the  Britons  of  the  west  enjoyed  their  Celtic  ^^1 
and  Britanno-Celtic  myths  ;  the  Saxonized  Britons  of  Wilt-  ain)  m 
shire  and  elsewhere  combined  the  legends  of  both  the  century 
others;   and  the  best  educated  men  amongst  the  clergy 
had  an  acquaintance  with  Virgil,  Ovid,  and  Statius.    Here 
was  a  rich  material  for  the  imagination,  and  the  invasion  of 
the  Normans  brought  a  fructifying  element.     In  France, 
Roman,  Franco-German,  Celto-Breton,  and  Scandinavian 
traditions  were  already  intermingled ;  and  the  reintroduc- 
tion  into  Saxonized  England,  from  the  south,  of  Celtic 
myths  nearly  identical  with  those  which  the  Anglo-Normans 
found  in  Wales  before  the  end  of  the  llth  century  gave 
to  the  latter  a  fresh  life  and  a  distinct  predominance  over 
all  the  other  traditions  of  the  composite  people.     Hence 
arose  the  British  cycle  of  romance,   accepted  partly  as 
history,  partly  as  fiction  by  the  new  people  of  Norman 
England.      Bretons,  Britons,   Normans  and  French,  the 
Saxonized  Britons,  the  Franco -Gallicized  Scandinavians, 
and  the  Dano-Saxons  all  found  a  common  basis  of  amalga- 
mation, and  it  is  no  mere  metaphor  to  say  that  the  publi- 
cation of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's  fabulous  chronicle  formed 
a  momentous  era  in  the  history  of  England. 

When  the  Saxons  entered  Britain  in  the  5th  century 
they  found  in  the  middle  and  the  south  a  Romanized 
kingdom  ruled  by  a  monarch  with  a  British  or  Cymric 
name.  The  vernacular  tongue  of  Britain  was  then  and 
for  centuries  afterwards  much  nearer  in  form  to  the  Gaelic 
of  Ireland  and  of  western  and  northern  Scotland,  the  Pictish 
of  Scotland,  and  the  Gaulish  of  France  than  the  Cymric 
of  Wales  is  now  or  was  then.  It  was  a  long  time  before 
the  Saxon  conquests  extended  so  far  as  to  leave  the  Cymry 
or  Welsh  the  sole  distinct  people  of  the  original  inhabitants 
of  the  country.  In  the  meantime  there  had  been  con- 
flicts with  the  Pictish  kings  of  the  north,  the  Gaelic  or 
Cambro- Gaelic  kings  of  Strathclyde,  and  the  princes  of 
North  and  South  Wales.  Amongst  their  opposers  the 
most  successful  and  the  most  memorable  was  a  prince  or 
chief  of  Strathclyde,  who  is  called  by  Nennius  "Arthur 
dux  bellorum,"  by  the  English  "King  Arthur,"  by  the 
Welsh  "the  Emperor  Arthur."  After  the  departure  of 
the  Romans  there  were  several  independent  monarchies  or 
principalities  in  the  island — that  of  the  Romanized  Britons 
occupying  the  centre,  south,  and  south-east  of  the  country; 
two  Cymric  principalities  in  Wales  (North  and  South) ; 
the  Cambro -Gaelic  kingdom  of  Strathclyde,  extending 
from  the  Clyde  to  Chester;  the  unmixed  Gaels  in  the 
north-west  of  Scotland ;  the  Pictish  kingdom  in  the  north- 
east; and  a  Scandinavian  population  between  the  Firth 
of  Forth  and  Norwich.  It  is  now  settled  by  scholars 
that  the  Pictish  speech  was  a  dialect,  like  Gallic,  Gaelic, 
and  Cymric,  of  the  common  Celtic  language ;  and  in  the 
early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  the  radical  unity  of 
all  these  tongues  had  not  yet  been  effaced  by  the  action 
of  local  varieties  of  pronunciation  and  arbitrary  rules  of 
orthography;  consequently  there  was  no  such  sentiment  of 
national  or  racial  distinction  between  the  divisions  of  the 
Celtic  race  as  is  nowadays  produced  by  political  frontiers. 
The  real  Arthur,  whoever  he  was,  has  been  claimed  by  the 


ROMANCE 


643 


Welsh  as  their  own  man,  a  champion  of  the  beaten  Celts 
retiring  westward  to  the  mountain-fastnesses  before  the 
victorious  Saxons.  They  have  lost  sight  of  the  fact  that 
there  were  always  Cymry  in  Wales,  who  must  have  re- 
garded their  brothers  in  Loegria  (England)  much  in  the 
same  way  as  they  did  those  of  Strathclyde,  namely,  as 
kinsmen  and  allies  sometimes,  as  fair  game  for  attack  and 
plunder  more  frequently.  The  struggle  between  the  Celtic 
and  Germanic  race  was  a  long  one,  and  it  can  only  have 
been  after  the  power  of  the  Romanized  Britons  of  Loegria 
and  of  the  men  of  Strathclyde  was  broken,  in  the  battles 
to  which  we  may  attach  the  name  of  Arthur,  that  the  tide 
of  war  reached  Wales  along  with  the  British  fugitives  who 
crowded  thither  and  to  Brittany ;  hence  the  appearance 
of  Roman  names  among  the  British  warriors.  It  may  be 
surmised  that  Arthur  is  not  a  name  but  a  title  given  to  a 
Strathclyde  warrior,  corresponding  to  the  Latin  imperator.1 
The  traces  of  Roman  occupation  and  of  Roman  culture 
were  not  wholly  effaced  for  many  centuries  in  the  west  of 
England,  and,  besides  the  Latin  quasi-historical  writings 
attributed  to  Gildas  and  Nennius,  there  must  have  been 
something  like  a  British  Livy  and  a  British  Virgil  in 
existence  between  the  time  of  Constantino  and  that  of  the 
pseudo  classical  compositions  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and 
Joseph  of  Exeter.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  work  we 
call  by  the  name  of  Nennius  did  not  furnish  all  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  Geoffrey's  Historia,  and  the  mysterious  old 
volume  which  his  friend  William  of  Wallingford  brought 
to  him  from  Brittany  about  1130  must  have  contained 
poetic  legends  as  well  as  prose  pseudo-history.  Another 
mysterious  volume  is  the  "  Latin  book "  in  the  monas- 
tery at  Salisbury,  to  which  the  romancists  of  1160-1220 
professed  to  have  resorted  for  their  narratives.  In  Geof- 
frey's Historia,  compiled,  as  he  says,  from  William  of 
Wallingf orcl's  book,  we  find  three  elements  blended — (1) 
the  epic  of  Brutus  (which  must  have  been  written  in 
Britain  before  300) ;  (2)  a  record  of  British  kings  down 
to  the  Saxon  invasion  (probably  a  corrupt  version  of  the 
same  real  history  that  appears  distorted  and  truncated  in 
Nennius) ;  (3)  the  lives  of  Arthur,  Guenhumara,  and  Merlin 
(old  British  popular  legends,  wrought  into  union  with  a 
later  Cymric  tradition  in  which  the  British  or  Gadelic 
Arth-vaur,  Art-vor,  or  Ard-tur  had  been  converted  into  a 
Welsh  king  Arthur). 

The  Round  Table  romances  had  their  starting-point  in 

)riginof  Geoffrey's  Astoria,  first  published  in  1138-39,  revised  and 

^nd     republished  in  its  present  form  in  1147.2     Yet  there  is  no 

omances  mention  in  Geoffrey  of  Lancelot  and  Tristan,  two  heroes 

of  much  greater  importance  in  the  romances  than  Arthur 

himself.     It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  observed  before 

that  there  is  a  curious  set  of  resemblances  between  the 

personages  of  the  romances  and  those  of  the  Homeric 

siege  of  Troy.     The  names  of  Arthur  and  liter  suggest 

Atrides  (Menelaus   and   Agamemnon   rolled    into   one); 

Mark,  again,  is  Menelaus;  Guenhumara  and  Yseult  are 

1  The  name  Arthur  is  found  for  the  first  time  in  Nennius  (where 
the  hero  is  said  not  to  be  a  king  but  only  dux  bellorum).  He  explains 
it  as  meaning  either  the  "dreadful  bear"  or  the  "iron  hammer." 
Now,  although  the  former  may  refer  equally  well  to  Cymric  and 
to  Gaelic,  i.e.,  arth-vaur  or  art-vor,  the  alternative  sense  is  better 
sought  in  Gaelic,  ord,  a  hammer,  being  a  known  word  in  that  language, 
while  there  is  no  trace  of  it  in  Cymric.  The  second  syllable  of  ord- 
dur  is  common  to  both  languages,  equivalent  to  the  Latin  durus,  and 
has  assumed  in  Welsh  the  meaning  of  "  steel. "  It  probably  also  meant 
"  iron."  This  observation  shows  that  Nennius  did  not  know  whether 
the  name  was  a  Gaelic  or  a  Cymric  one,  and  the  mere  uncertainty  is 
in  itself  an  argument  that  Arthur  was  distinctly  not  Cambrian.  If  it 
were  permissible  to  seek  a  purely  Gaelic  etymology  for  Arthur  we 
should  find  it  in  ard-tur  =  altus  dux,  high  chief  or  generalissimo.  In 
the  two  early  authorities  Gildas  and  Bede  the  British  champion  of  the 
5th  century  is  named  Ambrosius  Aurelius,  a  man  of  Roman  family. 

*  His  poem  on  the  Life  and  Prophecies  of  Merlin  was  a  separate 
work,  published  in  1136-37  and  again  in  1149. 


like  Helen,  Guenhumara  also  resembling  Chryseis  and 
Briseis ;  Lancelot  and  Tristan  are  like  Achilles  and  Paris. 
Lancelot  becomes  for  a  time  the  enemy  of  his  king 
(Arthur  =  Atrides)  and  stands  aloof  from  him ;  he  is  un- 
successful in  his  quest  of  the  Grail,  as  Achilles  dies  before 
Troy  is  taken  ;  his  son  Galaad,  like  the  Achilleid  Neo- 
ptolemus,  achieves  the  father's  unfinished  task.  Lancelot 
(lanc-e-loc  =  child  of  the  lake)  is  brought  up  in  conceal- 
ment by  the  Lady  of  the  Lake,  just  as  Thetis  (the  goddess 
of  the  sea)  brings  up  her  son  Achilles,  disguised  as  a  girl, 
in  obscurity.  Chiron,  to  whose  care  the  young  Achilles 
is  at  first  entrusted  by  Thetis,  resembles  Merlin,  the  friend 
or  lover  of  the  Lady  of  the  Lake,  in  his  half  divine,  half 
human  nature.3  Again,  not  only  does  Galaad  by  his  name 
remind  us  of  the  hero  of  the  Achilleidos  (it  must  have 
been  as  usual  to  give  this  genitive  name  to  the  poem  of 
Statius  as  that  of  Eneydos  to  Virgil's),  but  there  are  other 
curious  similitudes.  The  name  of  King  Perles  or  Pelles, 
by  whose  daughter  Lancelot  becomes  the  father  of  Galaad, 
is  suggestive  of,  or  may  have  been  suggested  by,  the 
Graeco-Latin  appellation  of  Achilles,  Pelides  son  of  Peleus. 
One  of  the  meanings  that  has  been  suggested  for  the 
name  of  Lancelot  is  Vancelot  —  the  serving  man,  in  ref er^ 
ence  to  one  of  the  incidents  of  his  story.  Although  a  dif- 
ferent origin  is  hinted  at  above,  it  would  not  be  inappro- 
priate to  designate  Achilles  in  his  female  disguise  at  Delos 
Vancillet  (  =  the  male  damsel,  in  attendance  on  Deidamia). 
As  in  the  old  Greek  poems  we  have  Atrides  and  Pelides 
contesting  for  Briseis,  and  the  minor  Atrides,  Menelaus, 
similarly  contending  with  Paris  the  ravisher  of  Helen,  so 
in  the  romances  we  find  Guenhumara  the  object  of  mutual 
strife  between  her  lover  Lancelot  and  her  husband  Arthur, 
son  of  Uter  Pendragon,  and  Yseult  the  cause  of  war 
between  King  Mark  and  Tristan.  Again,  a  resemblance 
is  to  be  found  in  the  incidents  of  fabulous  birth  between 
Arthur  and  Hercules,  Arthur  and  Alexander  the  Great. 

These  observations  are  not  intended  to  contradict  the 
claims  of  the  Cymric  people  to  have  furnished  the  romances 
with  much  of  their  material ;  for  it  would  be  difficult  to 
resist  the  evidence  of  such  names  as  Tristan  and  Yseult, 
which  indicate  sufficiently  their  British  or  Breton  origin, 
and  even  Lancelot  might  have  been,  as  first  suggested 
above,  a  Welsh  or  British  translation  of  an  epithet  which 
would  apply  to  Achilles  in  connexion  with  the  following 
words  from  Statius.4  Thetis  says  (as  the  Lady  of  the 
Lake  might  have  said  of  Lancelot) — 

"  Ssepe  ipsa  (nefas  ! )  sub  inania  natum 
Tartara  et  ad  Stygios  iterum  fero  mergere  fontes  ; " 

while  her  son's  guardian,  Chiron,  is  named  in  the  same 
place  "  Carpathius  vates,"  which  at  once  reminds  us  of  the 
"Caledonius  vates  "  (Merlin)  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth.  At 
the  same  time  the  name  of  Guenhumara  (Guinevere)  makes 
one  think  of  Thetis,  the  white -footed  lady  of  the  sea. 
As  the  name  Guenhumara  certainly  preceded  in  date  all 
the  Anglo-French  romances  and  is  undoubtedly  an  old  one, 
we  may  as  well  say  at  once  that  the  intention  is  here  to 
suggest  an  hypothesis  that  Britain  produced  Latin  poets 
during  the  time  of  the  Roman  occupation,  who  wrote  works 
not  only  on  the  fable  of  a  British  descent  from  the  Trojans 
through  Brutus,  a  fabled  kinsman  of  ^Eneas,  but  also  on 
the  various  subjects  of  classic  mythology,  the  stories  of 
Thebes,  Troy,  the  Golden  Fleece,  and  Alexander.5  This 


3  The  names  of  several  beings  of  this  mixed  nature  in  the  early 
romances  begin  with  the  same  word,  mer,  merhl,  or  mel,  as  Merlin, 
Melusine,  Melior,  Melion. 

4  Hugh  of  Rutland's  poem  of  Ipomedon  (written  in  1185)  evinces 
by  the  names  of  its  personages  such  an.  acquaintance  with  the  Thebais 
of  Statius  as  the  maker  of  the  Lancelot  seems  to  have  had  with  the 
Achilleis  of  the  same  poet.      He  usually  calls  his  King  Arthur  Atreus. 

5  Yguerne,  the  name  of  Arthur's  mother,  was  perhaps  akin  in  its 
original  British  sense  (although  in  Cymric  it  means  "  the  true  "  or  "  the 


644 


ROMANCE 


hypothesis,  which  requires  to  be  associated  with  the  corol- 
lary that  British  translations  or  adaptations  were  formed 
when  the  Roman  influence  began  to  wane,  would  account 
for  the  curious  circumstance  that  some  of  the  Greek  and 
Oriental  fictions  are  found  in  Anglo-Saxon  versions  of 
much  greater  antiquity  than  any  that  have  survived  in 
the  other  vernaculars  of  Europe.  Direct  transference  of 
such  works  from  classical  codices  can  hardly  be  presumed 
to  have  been  the  custom  of  a  rough  and  semi-barbarous 
nation  of  Teutonic  invaders ;  the  medium  must  have  been 
the  existence  of  Brito-Latin  and  British  poems  among  the 
conquered  people. 

The  success  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's  Historia  and  of 
his  Merlin  brought  indignant  comment  from  some  of  the 
Anglo-Norman  historians,  but  it  inflamed  the  minds  of 
other  writers  already  excited  by  the  extraordinary  events 
of  the  period.  The  result  was  the  genesis  of  modern 
fiction.  Within  a  few  years  after  Geoffrey's  publication 
the  Norman  Wace  translated  the  Historia  Britonum  into 
French  verse  (1155),  making  some  additions;  and  in  his 
work  entitled  Roman  de  Brut  we  find  the  words — 
"  King  Ertur  made  the  Round  Table 
Of  which  Bretons  tell  many  a  fable  " — 

from  which  we  may  infer  that  the  Round  Table  stories, 
which  led  to  the  construction  of  the  French  romances, 
were  derived  directly  from  Brittany,  just  as  Geoffrey  de- 
clares his  Historia  to  have  been.  Wace,  as  a  Jersey  man, 
could  have  made  no  confusion  between  the  Waleis  of 
Cambria  and  the  Bretun  of  Armorica. 

Recapitulating  what  has  been  already  said,  we  may 
chronologically  tabulate  the  first  elements  of  Arthurian 
story  thus — I.  Arthur,  Guinevere,  Merlin  (in  Geoffrey), 
1136-49  ;  II.  the  Round  Table  (as  shown  by  Wace),  before 
1155;  III.  Lancelot;  IV.  the  Grail;  and  V.  Tnstan. 
ist's  The  original  Tristan  was  earlier  than  the  Lancelot,  and 
ristan  \vas  presumably  a  French  poem  (or  prose  work  ?),  written 
l<* ,  about  1160  by  Luc  de  Gast,  a  trouvere  of  English  birth 
mcdot.  w^°  liyed  near  Salisbury,  and  is  said  to  have  had  access 
to  the  book  of  stories  referred  to  in  a  previous  paragraph. 
The  poem  (?)  and  the  book  have  perished,  and  the  Tristan 
story  was  written  under  the  name  of  Le  Bret  ( =  the  Breton), 
to  distinguish  it  from  Le  Brut  ( =  the  Briton)  of  Wace,  at 
a  later  date,  with  so  much  additional  matter  that  it  must 
be  placed  after  the  Lancelot.  Walter  MAP  (q.v.)  of  Here- 
ford, who  died  archdeacon  of  Oxford  in  the  year  1210,  was 
a  man  of  Welsh  origin  or  kindred.  In  1185  Hue  de  Rote- 
lande  of  Credenhill  near  Hereford  wrote  a  French  romantic 
poem,  in  which  the  names  of  the  characters  are  all  derived 
from  the  Thebais  of  Statius,  but  the  incidents  are  wholly 
imaginative  or  derived  from  other  sources.  In  it  he  speaks, 
in  deprecation  of  any  blame  for  his  falsification  of  the 
truth  of  history,  of  Walter  Map  as  being  quite  as  great  a 
romancer  as  himself.  In  connexion  with  statements  fre- 
quently repeated  in  the  early  MSS.  of  the  romances,  this 
remark  suffices  to  prove  that  before  1185  Walter  Map  had 
already  published  his  Lancelot.  We  may  fairly  put  the 
date  before  1175,  say  about  1170 ;  and  it  would  be  prob- 
ably correct  to  assume  that  the  Lancelot  was  a  French 
poem  (or  prose  work  ?)  composed  while  the  author  was  still 
young  (1165-70).  It  has  perished,  like  Luc  de  Gast's 
Tristan,  and  we  can  only  conjecture  that  it  had  some 
similar  connexion  with  the  Achilles  of  Statius  to  that  of 
Hue  de  Rotelande's  poem  with  the  Thebais.  It  was,  how- 
ever, reduced  to  or  rewritten  in  prose  and  amplified  before 
1200  in  the  form  in  which  we  now  find  it  in  several  old 
MSS.  (none  earlier  than  the  13th  century).  It  is  certain 
that  Rustighello  or  Rusticien  of  Pisa  was  employed  about 


faithful")  to  "  Alcmena,"  and  may  have  meant  "manly,"  "robust." 
Arthur  proves  his  fitness  for  kingship  by  the  performance  of  wonder- 
ful feats  like  the  labours  of  Hercules. 


1270-75  to  unify  or  harmonize  in  a  single  compilation  the 
scattered  Arthurian  romances,  and  it  is  considered  probable 
that  the  result  was  the  French  prose  original  of  the  exist- 
ing Morte  Arthur.  But  it  is  also  certain  that  there  exist 
prose  Arthurian  romances  in  MSS.  at  least  as  old  as  1270, 
and  that  they  were  copies  of  yet  older  ones.  Rusticien's 
work  must  have  been  simply  one  of  compression  and  com- 
bination. We  know  from  the  MSS.  of  two  different  prose 
translations  of  a  totally  different  romantic  chronicle  (the 
Pseudo-Turpin's  Chronicle  of  Charlemagne),  written  in  and 
about  1200,  that  metrical  narrative  was  losing  credit  and 
that  French  prose  composition  had  already  set  in.  This 
statement,  which  refers  to  the  French  kingdom,  is  likely 
to  be  yet  more  applicable  to  England,  where  metrical  suc- 
cess would  naturally  be  more  difficult  to  achieve  than  in 
the  true  home  of  French  speech.  As  prose  was  current  in 
France  before  1200,  it  is  not  rash  to  assume  that  it  had 
an  earlier  and  less  limited  currency  in  England.  Reckon- 
ing thus  we  may  assume  that  the  Lancelot  and  the  Tristan 
were  written  in  prose  before  1190. 

The  Round  Table  and  the  Grail  are  so  closely  connected  Early 
that  it  is  difficult  to  regard  them  as  having  had  each  a  Round 
separate  origin.  The  mention  of  the  former  by  WaceTa1?le 
proves  the  existence  of  stories  of  a  Round  Table  current  Graii 
before  1155.  The  Round  Table  as  it  appears  in  the  current  stories, 
texts  of  the  romances  is  simply  an  important  portion  of 
the  furniture  of  the  narratives  :  it  does  not  represent  a 
cycle  of  incidents  or  even  a  number  of  special  episodes. 
One  might  suppose  from  the  form  of  Wace's  phrase  that 
the  word  was  with  him,  as  it  is  now,  a  general  epithet  to 
designate  Arthurian  stories,  rather  than  merely  the  name 
of  a  material  object,  as  it  is  in  the  romances.  But  we 
cannot  assume  the  fact  for  lack  of  specific  information. 
The  first  and  also  the  chief  instance  which  we  have  of  the 
appearance  of  the-  Round  Table  (beyond  Wace's  allusion) 
is  in  the  existing  Lancelot,  which  we  may  refer  to  about 
1190.  In  the  epilogue  of  the  Tristan,  Helie  de  Borron 
speaks  of  Luc  de  Gast's  original  work  on  that  hero  as  the 
first  of  "  les  grans  livres  de  la  tauble  roonde."  There  is 
no  reason  to  imagine  that  this  phrase  was  written  after 
the  year  1200;  and  it  indicates  sufficiently  that  several 
books  were  collectively  styled  "  Romances  of  the  Round 
Table  "  between  1155  and  the  end  of  the  century.  One  of 
these  books  was  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  or  the  History  of  the 
Holy  Graal,  written  about  1170-80  by  Robert  de  Borron 
or  Robert  of  Bouron,  a  trouvere  born  near  Meaux.  This 
narrative  seems  to  have  taken  at  least  two  forms  before  it 
was  incorporated  in  the  prose  Lancelot,  and  the  alterations 
were  so  numerous  and  important  that  some  writers  con- 
sider the  Grand  Graal  to  have  been  a  rewriting  effected 
in  collaboration  by  Walter  Map  and  Robert  de  Borron. 
The  earlier  portion  of  the  History  of  the  Graal  was  but 
lightly  treated  on  its  incorporation  in  the  Lancelot,  and  the 
form  in  which  we  have  it  in  the  separate  romance  of  the 
Graal  is  of  more  modern  compilation.  The  later  portion 
of  the  Grail  story — namely,  the  Queste  du  Graal,  which  was 
utilized  by  Map  (or  his  recompiler)  in  the  Lancelot — differs 
from  that  of  the  French  writer  in  making  Galaad  the 
achiever,  while  Perceval  was  the  hero  of  the  quest  in  Robert 
de  Borron's  work  and  its  recompilations,  as  well  as  in  the 
separate  prose  romance  of  Perceval  and  the  separate  Histoire 
du  Graal.  We  may  conclude  that  the  older  works  (the 
original  Lancelot,  Merlin,  and  Tristan)  had  nothing  of  the 
Grail  in  them,  and  that  the  publication  in  French  of  the 
Tristan  by  Luc  de  Gast  and  the  Lancelot  by  Walter  Map 
(produced  in  this  succession  between  1160  and  1180) 
were  accidentally  contemporaneous  with  Robert  de  Borron's 
poem  (or  prose  work)  on  the  grail  ( =  chalice)  or  cup  of 
Christ's  passion  and  the  table  of  the  Last  Supper,  based 
upon  an  old  legend  (connected  in  some  way  with  the 


ROMANCE 


645 


ancient  popular  Gospel  of  Nicodemus),  according  to  which 
Joseph  of  Arimathea  brought  Christianity  to  Britain  in  the 
time  of  Vespasian.  Then  Robert  de  Borron  continued  his 
story  in  another  work  which  represented  the  quest  or  re- 
discovery of  the  Grail  in  Avalon,  Brittany,  or  Britain,  by 
Perceval,  the  grand-nephew  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea ;  and 
Walter  Map  appropriated  so  much  of  De  Borron's  Histoire 
and  Queste  as  suited  him,  working  it  up  in  a  continuation 
of  his  story  on  Arthur,  Guinevere,  and  Lancelot,  whilst 
adding  to  and  altering  the  incidents  of  the  narrative  very 
considerably.  Finally,  Helie  de  Borron  (about  1190)  re- 
wrote the  Tristan  in  something  like  its  existent  form, 
weaving  it  by  enlargement  into  connexion  with  the  other 
tales,  and  probably  soon  after  1200  united  for  the  first 
time  in  one  enormous  and  unharmonized  corpus  the  full 
set  of  Arthurian  stories.  One  reason  why  we  cannot  assign 
this  first  combination  to  a  later  date  (as  those  do  who 
hold  the  work  of  Rusticien  of  Pisa  to  have  been  something 
more  than  a  mere  compression)  is  that  the  Guiron,  written 
by  Helie  de  Borron  (probably  soon  after  1200),  is  not  in- 
corporated in  the  Morte  Arthur,  which  it  would  assuredly 
have  been  if  Rusticien  (about  1270-75)  had  been  employed 
to  unite  a  number  of  detached  stories  rather  than  to  re-edit 
an  already  existing  compilation.  Of  Helie  de  Borron  we 
only  know  that  he  was  a  relative  of  Robert ;  that  he  was 
the  virtual  author  of  the  Bret  or  Tristan,  in  which  he 
incorporated  the  substance  of  tales  written  by  Luc  de  Gast 
and  Gasse  li  Blont ;  that  he  also  wrote  Palamedes  in  two 
parts  (Meliadus  and  Guiron  le  Courtois)  \  and  that  his 
work  was  done  at  the  request  of  a  king  of  England, 
alleged  to  have  been  Henry  II.  or  Henry  III.  Of  the 
other  early  writers  of  Arthurian  stories  the  chief  were  the 
trouvere  Chrestien  de  Troyes  (about  1180-90),  who  com- 
posed a  poem  upon  an  episode  of  Map's  Lancelot  story, 
and  another  upon  the  Perceval  (in  which  he  may  have 
combined  Robert  de  Borron  and  Map),  and  Guyot  de 
Provins  (about  1190-95),  who  wrote  a  romance  of  Perceval, 
now  lost,  and  only  known  through  the  German  translation 
of  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  (about  1205).  As  for  the 
Welsh  stories  in  the  Mabinogion  and  the  Welsh  Seint 
Greal,  there  is  really  no  evidence  to  show  their  anteriority 
to  the  English  Morte  Arthur,  except  the  fact  that  two  of 
the  tales  (Geraint  and  the  Lady  of  the  Fountain)  are  of 
similar  substance  to  the  poems  of  Chrestien  de  Troyes, 
Erec  et  Enide  and  Le  Chevalier  au  Lyon,—  narratives  of 
Arthurian  personages  but  not  embodied  in  the  French 
prose  romances.  Even  the  Welsh  chronicles  which  are 
supposed  to  have  furnished  the  original  text  of  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth's  Historia  have  been  ascertained  to  be  merely 
translations  from  the  Latin  version.  It  is  a  safe  con- 
clusion to  say  that  anything  in  Welsh  literature  corre- 
sponding with  portions  or  incidents  of  the  French  romances 
was  simply  a  translation  made  in  the  13th  or  14th  century 
from  a  French  original.  This  refers,  of  course,  to  what  is 
now  extant,  for  there  can  be  little  question  that  Breton  and 
Cymric  legend  furnished  the  earlier  romancists  with  names 
and  legends  in  plenty.  Returning  to  the  consideration  of 
names,  it  is  obvious  that  when  Lawnselot  dy  Lak  appears 
in  Welsh  it  is  simply  a  corruption  of  the  Franco-English 
Lancelot,  and  that  the  Cymric  writer  had  no  idea  of  its 
above-suggested  origin  in  a  British  lanc-e-loc  (a  conjecture 
which  is  fortified  by  the  pleonasm  of  du-lak  or  del-laJc)  or 
in  a  French  I'ancillet.  Consequently  the  original  Lancelot 
story  has  left  no  trace  in  purely  Welsh  literature.  With 
Perceval  we  may  think  differently ;  the  Welsh  name  Pere- 
dur,  under  which  he  is  known,  is  a  sufficient  warrant  for 
supposing  that  portions  of  the  Welsh  tale  are  at  least  as 
ancient  as  Walter  Map.  The  very  form  Pered-ur,  like  that 
of  Arth-ur,  is  archaic,  and  with  the  latter  it  requires  a 
different  interpretation  from  that  which  Welsh  scholars 


have  given  it.  Here  it  may  be  observed  that  the  terminal 
ur,  whatever  may  have  been  its  true  sense,  is  remarkable 
for  its  frequent  use  in  the  names  of  Pictish  princes.  As 
for  Perceval,  wherever  Robert  de  Borron  got  the  name 
(see  below),  Walter  Map,  in  adopting  it  for  the  hero  of 
the  story  that  belongs  to  Peredur,  made  the  two  names 
thenceforward  identical. 

Analysis  of  the  Arthurian  Romances. 

I.  II.  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table  had  no  separate  romance, 
or  else  it  has  perished.  It  exists  now  substantially  as  part  of 
Lancelot  (III.). 

I.  Merlin. — Most  of  his  story  appears  in  Geoffrey  of  Monmoutli  Merlin, 
and  in  Wace,  from  whom  it  was  probably  worked  up  into  a  French 
poem  (or  prose  work)  by  Robert  de  Borron  about  1160-70.  The 
French  prose  composition,  embracing  his  life  and,  as  an  appendix, 
his  prophecies  (Latin  by  Geoffrey),  was  apparently  written  about 
1200  (by  Helie  de  Borron)  in  the  form  in  which  it  exists  in  certain 
MSS.,  and  nearly  as  it  appears  in  printed  books.  Merlin,  the  son 
of  an  incubus,  rescued  at  his  birth  by  sudden  baptism  from  the 
malignant  destiny  for  which  his  diabolical  parent  had  begotten 
him,  is  always  described  as  a  magician.  He  is  called  by  the  Welsh 
Myrddin,  a  form  which  betrays  the  posteriority  of  the  existing 
Cambrian  legends  not  only  to  the  date  of  Geoffrey  but  also  to 
the  French  romances  ;  in  one  of  the  earliest  incidents  of  his  story, 
however,  he  himself  gives  his  name  as  Ambrosius.1  He  is  repre- 
sented as  living  apparently  at  the  time  of  the  Saxon  invasion  of 
England.  He  was  not  a  friend  of  Vortigern  ;  this  king,  whom  we 
know  from  English  sources  to  have  been  attached  more  to  the 
Saxons  than  to  his  countrymen,  was  represented  in  the  old  Merlin 
story  as  a  usurper  reigning  in  an  interval  between  Moines,  son  of 
Constans,  and  the  two  brothers  of  Moines,  Uter  and  Pendragou. 
After  the  successive  deaths  of  Vortigern  and  Pendragon  (on  whose 
fall  Uter  adds  his  brother's  name  to  his  own)  Merlin  continues 
to  be  the  friend  and  counsellor  of  King  Uter  Pendragon.  In  that 
capacity  he  helps  the  king  to  assume  the  shape  of  Gorlais,  duke  of 
Tintagel,  and  thereby  to  beget  Arthur  upon  the  Duchess  Yguerne. 
(The  name  Pendragon  and  the  action  remind  us  of  the  fabulous 
birth  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  the  name  Uter,  in  connexion  with 
the  go-between  Merlin,  and  the  probable  Celtic  meaning  of  Yguerne 
remind  us  of  Jupiter,  Mercury,  and  Alcmena. )  The  result  is  the 
birth  of  a  hero  who  resembles  both  Hercules  and  Alexander.  He 
grows  up  and  is  held  to  be  merely  the  son  of  Gorlais,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  he  was  born  after  Yguerne  (already  a  widow)  had 
married  Uter  Pendragon  ;  but  he  proves  his  right  to  royal  place 
after  the  king's  death  by  performing  some  extraordinary  feats.  In 
these  he  has  Merlin's  aid,  as  well  as  in  the  conduct  of  his  sub- 
sequent wars  with  the  Gauls  and  the  Saxons.  Merlin  has  a  lover 
or  mistress  in  Viviane,  the  Lady  of  the  Lake,  to  whom  in  an  un- 
lucky moment  (as  Samson  to  Delilah)  he  betrays  a  certain  spell. 
She  uses  it  to  try  her  power,  without  having  learned  the  converse 
charm,  and  poor  Merlin  vanishes  into  the  midst  of  a  thornbush, 
whence  his  voice  can  be  heard  ;  but  he  is  seen  no  more.  Here  the 
romance  ends, — one  of  the  most  interesting,  as  well  as  one  of  the 
best -constructed  and  most  simply  told  of  the  Arthurian  series. 
The  name  and  deeds  of  the  enchanter  have  found  their  way  into 
most  modern  literatures.  One  of  Merlin's  actions  was  to  institute 
a  round  table  at  Carduel,  at  which  room  was  made  for  King  Arthur 
and  fifty  of  his  nobles,  with  a  vacant  place  for  the  Holy  Grail. 
This  was  a  ceremony  to  be  performed  once  every  year,  and  it  was 
on  the  first  of  these  occasions  that  Gorlais  brought  his  wife  Yguerne 
with  him  to  court,  and  that  King  Arthur  fell  in  love  with  her  (as 
David  with  Bathsheba).  This  circumstance,  although  of  later  date 
than  the  original  Merlin,  leads  us  to  the  next  romance  in  the  cycle. 

IV.  1.  The  Holy  Grail. — The  Grail  romance  began  with  Borron's  Holy 
poem  (or  prose  narrative)  on  Joseph  of  Arimathea.  An  old  tradi-  Grail. 
tion  maintained  that  Joseph  of  Arimathea  (confounded  in  some 
respects  with  the  centurion  at  the  crucifixion  and  with  Josephus 
the  historian)  brought  the  gospel  to  Britain  or  to  Gaul  in  the  first 
century  of  oiir  era.  The  French  romance  on  this  subject,  whichever 
of  its  existent  early  forms  in  verse  and  prose  was  the  earlier,  relates 
the  story  thus  : — Pilate  allowed  Joseph  to  take  down  the  body  of 
Christ  from  the  cross,  and  gave  Him  also  son  vaisseul,  by  which 
was  evidently  meant  the  chalice  of  His  passion,  or  the  cup  used 
at  the  Last  Supper.  Of  all  the  numerous  interpretations  suggested 
for  the  word  "grail"  or  "graal"  the  only  tenable  one  is  that  of 
"cup,"  which  plainly  refers  to  the  words  "son  vaisseuL"  In 
that  cup  Joseph  collected  the  precious  blood  of  his  Saviour.  _  He 
loses  it  when  put  in  prison  by  the  Jews,  but  it  is  restored  to  him  in 

1  When  we  remember  that  the  Ambrosius  Aurelius  of  Gildas  was 
probably  the  Arthur  of  Nennius  and  the  romances,  and  that  Merlin 
was  called  Ambrosius  Merlinus,  we  are  drawn  to  believe  in  the  Romano- 
Briton  origin  of  the  stories,  and  to  conclude  that  "  Arthur  "  and  "  Mer- 
lin "  are  two  explicative  or  distinguishing  epithets  attached  to  the 
older  names. 


646 


ROMANCE 


his  cell  by  Christ  Himself.  Vespasian,  son  of  the  emperor  Titus, 
falls  ill,  hears  of  Christ,  frees  Joseph  from  his  prison,  becomes  a 
Christian,  and  reduces  the  Jews  to  slavery.  Joseph  takes  leave 
of  Vespasian,  goes  forth  with  those  who  had  joined  him  and  his 
brother-in-law  Bron.  After  a  while  the  adherents  suffer  privation 
for  having  sinned  secretly,  and  Joseph  is  directed  by  the  voice 
of  Jesus  speaking  from  the  vaisseul  (graal)  to  establish  a  test  of 
righteousness  and  sin  by  means  of  the  holy  blood,  calling  to  re- 
membrance His  own  words  about  Judas,  that  "  he  who  shall  betray 
Me  is  eating  and  drinking  with  Me."  The  place  of  the  rejected 
Judas  should  be  filled,  not  at  tlu,  table  of  the  Last  Supper,  but  at 
another  table  which  Joseph  should  make  in  token  of  it, — a  square 
one,  and  not  until  Bron's  grandson  (the  third  man  of  Joseph's 
lineage)  should  be  fit  to  take  it.  The  table  was  constructed,  a 
repast  prepared,  one  place  left  empty,  and  the  Graal  put  upon  the 
board,  with  some  fish  which  had  been  caught  by  Bron  for  the  occa- 
sion. Those  who  could  find  a  place  at  the  board  felt  a  sense  of 
satisfaction  and  were  known  to  be  righteous  ;  those  who  could  find 
no  place  were  recognized  as  the  sinners  whose  secret  licentiousness 
had  caused  the  distress  among  them.  Then  the  name  of  graal 
was  given  to  the  vaisseul,  because  of  its  gracious  and  delightful T 
influence.  A  hypocrite  named  Moyse  who  attempts  to  sit  at  the 
table  without  avowing  his  sins  is  swallowed  up  in  the  earth. 
Alan,  the  son  of  Bron,  grows  up  to  be  head  of  the  line,  and  is  en- 
trusted with  the  knowledge  of  all  things  that  Joseph  could  teach 
and  a  sight  of  the  Grail.  He  leads  his  kinsmen  to  the  far  West,  to 
the  vale  of  Avaron  or  Avalon,  whither  the  disciple  Petrus  or  Perron 
precedes  them  with  a  letter  given  him  by  Joseph,  after  he  has  seen 
the  latter  transfer  to  Bron  the  custody  of  the  vaisseul.  The  son  of 
Alan  is  in  due  time  to  grow  to  manhood,  to  read  Peter's  letter,  and 
again  to  see  the  Grail — a  boon  which  is  as  it  were  to  renew  the 
covenant  of  the  Saviour  with  the  family  and  followers  of  Joseph  of 
Arimathea — to  expose  and  expel  the  false,  and  to  bring  celestial 
happiness  upon  all  the  true.  The  race  is  now  settled  in  Britain, 
and  Perceval,  the  son  of  Alan,  is  the  third  man  who  is  to  see  the 
Grail,  after  having  passed  through  a  perilous  quest.  Up  to  this 
point  the  mystic  and  pious  romance  of  the  Grail  was  derived  by 
Robert  de  Borron  from  sources  other  than  those  which  furnished 
the  Arthurian  stories ;  but  the  new  realm  of  fiction  was  open  (it 
was  about  1160-70),  and  the  Franco-British  tales  coming  to  his 
knowledge  must  have  supplied  him  with  the  incidents  of  his 
third  man's  quest  and  even  the  very  name  of  Perceval.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  assign  the  exact  proportion  of  give  and  take  among  the 
early  romances ;  but  at  this  point  there  is  a  new  departure  in  which 
several  writers  took  various  parts. 

rceval.  IV.  2.  Perceval. — The  original  story  of  the  knight  Perceval, 
before  he  takes  up  the  quest,  is  simply  that  of  an  inexperienced 
youth  who  knows  nothing  of  arms  and  chivalry,  but  whose  rustic 
retirement  with  his  mother  has  not  deteriorated  the  instincts  of  his 
noble  birth.  After  some  amusing  incidents,  in  which  his  youthful 

1  This  simply  indicates  a  defective  knowledge  of  etymology  in  the  12th 
century.  Robert  de  Borron  supposed  the  word  came  from  gratus  or  agreer, 
not  knowing  that  it  was  a  Gallicization  of  the  low  Latin  cratella-a.  cup. 


awkwardness  is  playfully  depicted,  he  exhibits  so  much  courage 
and  skill  as  to  become  a  doughty  champion,  the  vanquisher  of 
bullies  and  the  protector  of  ladies  ;  and,  when  lie  reaches  the  court 
of  King  Arthur,  knighthood  is  offered  him.  Chrestien  de  Troyes 
related  the  tale  in  verse  (before  1191),  but  he  probably  had  it  from 
the  (prose  or  poetic)  narrative  woven  (about  1170-75)  by  Walter 
Map  into  his  work  which  we  call  Lancelot.  The  agreement,  so 
far,  of  those  writers  and  the  text  of  the  Mabinogi  of  Peredur  on  the 
same  subject  leads  to  a  supposition  that  the  latter  represents  a 
Cambrian  story  older  than  Walter  Map  ;  but  the  introduction  of 
the  cup  and  the  lance  into  it  invalidates  the  theory  that  its  existent 
Welsh  form  is  the  original.  Robert  de  Borron  continued  his  Graal, 
by  relating  the  quest  of  the  holy  vessel — still  in  the  hands  of 
Bron,  le  Roi  Pecheour,  but  hidden  from  all  save  the  predestined  per- 
fect knight— pursued  by  Bron's  grandson  Perceval,  the  only  man 
who,  by  his  origin,  had  a  right  to  search  for  and  find  it  so  as  to  fill 
the  vacant  place  at  the  table.  Robert  de  Borron  must  have  written 
his  story  more  than  once,  and  the  result  was  that  he  also  introduced 
his  hero  to  Arthur's  court,  where  Merlin  had  founded  a  round 
table.  This  round  table,  probably  an  independent  element  in  the 
Breton  legends,  must  have  caught  Robert  de  Borron's  fancy  as 
lending  a  further  symbol  of  trinity  (being  the  third  table)  to  his 
own  conception  of  the  third  descendant  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea. 
In  his  relation  of  the  quest  Perceval  (whom  he  in  no  way  identifies 
with  the  rustic  Perceval  or  Peredur  mentioned  above)  starts  from 
Arthur's  court,  and  after  various  adventures  sees  his  grandfather, 
the  Grail,  the  lance,  and  the  broken  sword  without  knowing  with 
whom  he  is  or  making  inquiry.  In  a  second  attempt  he  is  more 
successful.  Bron  reveals  himself,  explains  all  the  signs  (the  lance 
is  that  which  pierced  the  Saviour's  side),  and  communicates  the 
precious  truths  which  Joseph  of  Arimathea  had  ordered  to  be  told 
only  to  the  third  of  his  lineage.  Then  the  fisher-king  dies  ;  all 
the  enchantments  of  Britain  pass  away  (we  presume  the  reign  of 
idolatry  is  meant) ;  and  Perceval  is  left  as  the  custodian  of  the 
Grail.  This  version  of  the  Perceval  and  the  preceding  Saint  Graal, 
both  by  Robert  de  Borron,  have  only  been  printed  of  late  years 
(the  former  as  a  supplement  to  the  latter)  from  rare  and  little  known 
MSS.,  and  differ  enormously  from  the  old  printed  Grail  and  Perceval, 
and  most  of  the  MSS.  which  contain  them.  The  introduction, 
however  slightly,  of  Arthur,  Merlin,  and  Gawain  into  Robert  de 
Borron's  Perceval  simply  shows  that  he  had  made  acquaintance 
with  Walter  Map's  Lancelot ;  yet  the  large  use  made  by  Map  of  the 
Frenchman's  Grail  and  Perceval  implies  that  they  wrote  contem- 
poraneously, but  that  De  Borron's  second  part  preceded  Map's 
second  part.  In  the  latter  the  young  rustic  is  represented  as  the 
youngest  son  of  King  Pellinore,  brought  by  an  elder  brother  out  of 
his  retirement  and  presented  for  an  inferior  class  of  knighthood  at 
Arthur's  court.  He  then  meets  all  the  other  companions  of  the 
Round  Table,  to  whom,  as  well  as  to  Arthur  and  Guinevere,  he 
makes  himself  very  dear.  He  becomes  one  of  the  knights  who 
undertake  the  quest  of  the  Grail,  a  task  which  is  proposed  for 
accomplishment  by  him  who  is  the  best  knight  in  the  world. 
According  to  the  Lancelot  fiction  he  fails  because  of  having  slightly 


PEDIGEEE  OF  THE  ROUND-TABLE  HEROES. 


./Eneas.        > 
i 

Ascanius. 

, 

I 

/  Joseph  of  — 

His  brother- 

Silvius. 
1 
BRUTUS. 

y  Romano-Briton 
or  Loegrian 
sources. 

Rcman-Breton  I  Arimathea. 
or  Leithan   < 
sources. 

in-law, 
Bron  le  Roy 

Pecheour. 
i 

Constans,  king 

I          .                        Alan. 

of  Britain.     , 

1 

Leodegran, 
Scottish  king. 

MERLIN,  m.  Viviane,      King  P« 
the  en-         Lady  of 

llinore.          Evrawc, 
prince  of 

|                  i 

1 

Moines.  Pendragon.       UTER 

Vortigern, 

chanter       the  Lake, 

North 

PENDRAGON. 
1 

usurper  of  Britain. 

bring  up  son  of  Ban 

Country. 

Wife  of  Loth,  king       Morgan,  n 
of  Orkney.               the  Pay 

Gawain,                    OWEN,  c 
Gualganus,              (not  assoc 

i.  Urien,  king        ART 
of  Rheged 
(Cumberland), 
r  I  wain                  MOR 
ated  with         supposec 

IUR   m.    GUINEVERE 
(retires     to     a 
nunnery  after 
)RED,          Arthur's 
1  nephew     death). 

(king  of  Benoic  or     Perceval 
Brittany)             ^ 

e  Galcis.       Peredur. 

FERCk.  v  Ajj* 

j 

LANCELOT  (fails  in                                 PERCEVAL 
quest,  and  retires  to                            (of  the  Lancelot  ; 
a  monastery  after         fails  in  quest,  and  retires  to  a  monastery, 
Arthur's  death.)                                where  he  dies). 

or  GwaU-hmai                quest  ;  end  nn-               of  Arthur,  but 
(fails  in  quest,                     known).                    really  his  son  by 
dies  from  wounds         v  Y  '        his  half-sister,  the 

1                    ^ 
GALAAD 
(achieves  quest,  and 

A\t*a\ 

Cambro-Breton  sources. 

in  a  fight  with             Cambrian  sources.           wife  of  King  Loth 

aiesj. 

Lancelot). 

(rebels  ;  killed  at  Camlan). 

Strathclydian  or  Albanian  sources. 

Fair  YSEPLT  of  Ireland  m.  Mark,  king  of  Cornwall. 

forms  an 

adulterous  union 

with  Tristan. 

Ysaie. 


Meliadus,  or  Tallwch  m.  sister  of  King  Mark, 
king  of  Leonnais, 
Cornwall. 

TRISTRAM  or  TRISTAN  i  m.  Tseult  of  Brittany, 
(dies  in  despair  of 
seeing  fair  Yseult). 


Cornish-British  sources. 


l  In  the  second  Arthurian  compilation  Tristan  is  annexed  to  the  knights  of  the  Round  Table,  and  joins  the  quest,  but  the  original  story  is  quite  independent. 


ROMANCE 


647 


infringed  a  vow,  and  the  labour  is  achieved  by  one  even  purer  than 
himself  among  the  Round  Table  heroes,  namely,  Galaad,  the  son  of 
Lancelot.  All  this  is  of  Map's  own  invention,  and  much  of  it  must 
have  been  posterior  to  Chrestien's  poem,  in  which  (although,  based 
partly  on  Map  and  partly  on  Robert  de  Borron)  Perceval  remained 
the  achiever  of  the  quest.1  The  Borrouesque  view  of  Perceval  as 
one  of  a  line  of  successive  Grail-custodians  or  Grail-kings  impressed 
the  imagination  of  Guyot  de  Provins,  and  led  him  to  regard  with 
contempt  the  pleasant  episodes  of  Perceval's  youth  as  told  by 
Chrestien.  In  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach's  poem  there  is  a  long 
succession  of  Grail-kings,  beginning  with  Titurel,  and  ending  with 
Partzifal  (Perceval)2 ;  the  scene  of  their  rule  is  shifted  to  Anjou 
and  Spain  ;  the  story  is  said  to  draw  its  origin  from  a  book  found 
at  Toledo ;  several  Moorish  and  Catalan  names  are  found  in  it ; 
and  finally  the  Grail-kings  and  their  people  are  confounded  with 
the  Templars,  struggling  against  the  heathens.  The  romance  of 
Perceval  le  Gallois,  such  as  we  have  it  since  its  first  appearance 
in  print  in  1530,  is  a  prose  compilation  derived  from  the  poem 
begun  by  Chrestien  de  Troyes  about  1180  and  finished  by  Manessier 
about  1230. 

jancelot.  III.  Lancelot. — This  hero,  like  Perceval,  has  furnished  an  addi- 
tion to  European  nomenclature.  In  this  romance,  which  there  is 
so  much  evidence  for  ascribing  to  the  celebrated  Walter  Map  (see 
above),  the  substance  of  Geoffrey's  Arthur,  Guinevere,  and  Merlin 
was  used  as  the  introduction  to  a  powerful  fiction  in  winch  a  new 
hero,  Lancelot  of  the  Lake,  carries  on  an  adulterous  amour  with 
Queen  Guinevere,  while  at  the  same  time  he  reveres  and  loves 
King  Arthur  and  performs  deeds  of  heroic  daring  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  most  generous  feelings.  The  tale,  although  lengthy 
and  overladen  with  a  crowd  of  adventures  which  have  no  bearing 
on  the  direct  development  of  the  plot,  and  notwithstanding  the 
unpleasant  nature  of  the  chief  subject,  is  one  of  extraordinary 
interest.  The  character  of  Lancelot  remains  unaltered  throughout 
the  course  of  the  story,  and  is  drawn  with  a  masterly  hand. 
Although  his  love  is  criminal,  and  he  frequently  does  pious  penance 
for  his  sins,  yet  his  utter  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  the  queen 
weakens  by  its  exquisite  fidelity  the  reader's  sense  of  his  treachery 
towards  the  king,  whom  he  never  ceases  to  regard  with  a  feeling 
of  the  deepest  affection  and  reverence.  His  faults  are  such  that 
he  recognizes  his  own  incompetence  to  become  the  achiever  of  the 
quest ;  but  he  begets,  upon  Elaine,  the  daughter  of  King  Pelles,  a 
son  Galaad,  to  whom  the  glory  of  winning  the  Grail  and  redeeming 
his  father's  sins  is  reserved.  Even  here  the  romancer  takes  care 
to  show  that  he  was  not  untrue  to  Guinevere,  his  senses  having 
been  deceived  by  a  spell  (used  by  Elaine's  maid  to  gratify  her 
mistress's  longing),  which  makes  him  imagine  that  his  bedfellow 
is  the  queen.  Nemesis  begins  to  work  when,  upon  a  second  use 
of  the  spell,  Guinevere,  after  having  waited  for  him  in  vain,  finds 
him  in  the  arms  of  King  Pelles's  daughter.  She  reproaches  him 
bitterly  and  drives  him  from  her  presence  with  such  cruel  words 
that  he  becomes  insane  and  wanders  about  tlie  woods  and  fields 
like  Nebuchadnezzar.  Some  years  elapse  before  he  is  recognized 
by  Elaine,  when  chance  takes  him  to  the  castle  of  Corbin,  in 
which  King  Pelles  has  custody  of  the  Grail.  She  cures  him  by 
means  of  the  sacred  vessel ;  but  it  is  not  long  before  he  quits  her 
again  and  finds  his  way  to  Camelot.  Arthur  and  the  queen  and 
his  fellow-knights  are  rejoiced  to  see  the  lost  Lancelot  again, 
and  the  usual  round  of  tournaments  begins.  We  now  come  to  the 
episode  of  Galaad.  On  the  eve  of  Pentecost  an  old  man  dressed 
in  white  brings  a  youth  to  Arthur's  court.  When  all  the  knights 
are  assembled  at  the  ensuing  banquet  every  seat  is  filled  save  that 
which  was  always  left  vacant  for  the  Holy  Grail,  so  that  there  is  no 
place  for  young  Galaad.  Certain  wondrous  signs  are  pointed  out 
by  the  old  man  which  indicate  that  the  "seat  perilous"  is  meant 
to  be  filled  by  the  young  hero,  who  at  once  accomplishes  another 
test  which  has  foiled  Gavvain  and  Perceval.  The  Grail  appears,  and 
light  and  perfume  fill  the  hall ;  it  passes  away  again,  and  the  next 
day  the  knights  depart  upon  the  quest  of  the  holy  vessel,  Arthur 
giving  way  to  a  pathetic  regret  that  his  merry  company  of  Round 
Table  champions  is  to  be  broken  up  for  ever.  Galaad,  the  pure 
knight,  is  the  only  one  who  succeeds,  and  becomes  king  of  the 
Holy  City  ;  then  Joseph  of  Arimathea  appears,  and  Galaad  dies, 
his  task  accomplished.  Gawain  and  Bors  fail ;  Lancelot  and  Perceval 
nearly  succeed,  but  are  foiled.  Bors  brings  back  an  account  of 
Perceval's  death,  and  Lancelot  returns  to  court,  a  moody  man  ;  he 
and  Guinevere  fall  back  into  the  old  sin.  The  queen  is  accused  of 
having  poisoned  a  knight,  and  is  exposed  to  the  usual  ordeal. 
Lancelot  saves  her  by  conquering  her  accuser,  but  receives  wounds 
which  break  open  at  the  next  secret  meeting  between  them.  Scandal 

1  As  Chrestien  never  finished  his  poem,  and  as  he  had  two  or  three  continu- 
ators  before  1244,  he  may  not  be  responsible  for  the  Borronesque  ending  ;  but  it 
is  to  be  remarked  that  Robert  de  Borron  and  Chrestien  were  both  from  Cham- 
pagne. 

2  Whatever  be  the  meaning  of  the  Welsh  name  Peredur,  that  of  Perceval 
seems  to  be  also  British  and  to  mean  "  possessor  of  the  Grail."    It  may  not 
have  been  one  man's  appellation  but  a  title  applicable  to  Bron,  Alan,  or  the  last 
achiever.     The  British  words  of  which  it  seems  compounded  are  perchen,  a 
root  which  implies  ownership  or  possession,  and  mail  (initially  inflected  vail), 
a  cup  or  chalice,  so  that  the  earliest  form  was  perhaps  Perchenval. 


has  been  busy ;  spies  are  on  the  watch  ;  and,  although,  when  the 
lovers  are  surprised,  he  escapes  by  dint  of  hard  fighting,  the  stains 
of  blood  found  in  the  queen's  bed  are  sufficient  to  condemn  them. 
She  is  doomed  to  the  stake,  but  at  the  moment  of  execution 
Lancelot  appears  and  rescues  her.  They  fly  together  to  his  castle 
of  Joyeuse  Garde,  in  which  he  is  soon  besieged  by  King  Arthur, 
the  king's  nephew  Gawain,  and  the  other  faithful  knights.  He 
offers  to  give  up  the  queen  if  no  harm  shall  be  done  her ;  Arthur 
rejects  the  offer ;  and,  after  long  fighting,  news  comes  of  a  papal 
interdict  promulgated  against  the  kingdom  so  long  as  King  Arthur 
refuses  to  take  back  his  wife.  Guinevere  is  then  received  by  her 
husband,  but  Arthur  is  advised  by  Gawain  to  continue  the  war 
against  Lancelot,  whom  he  follows  to  his  castle  of  Cannes  in  France. 
During  the  siege  Arthur  has  tidings  of  an  insurrection  in  Britain  : 
his  nephew  Mordred  has  seized  the  throne,  and  the  queen  has 
fortified  herself  in  London  against  the  usurper.  He  returns,  and 
after  a  series  of  desperate  battles  Mordred  is  killed  and  Arthur 
wounded  to  death.  Flinging  his  sword  away,  the  king  disappears 
from  mortal  view  and  is  borne  by  fairies  to  Avalon.  Lancelot  also 
returns  to  England,  laments  the  king's  death,  pays  a  mournful 
visit  to  the  queen,  now  in  a  nunnery,  retires  himself  to  a  monastery, 
and  dies  soon  afterwards  in  sorrow  and  repentance.  The  original 
Lancelot,  was  the  true  Arthur  or  Round  Table  romance,  although 
when  first  written  it  probably  contained  no  mention  of  Perceval 
and  Galaad.  To  it  all  the  other  tales  and  episodes  gravitated, 
and  the  above  analysis  represents  probably  its  final  form  about 
the  year  1200.  When  at  a  later  period,  in  the  13th  century,  it 
was  abridged,  and  the  Bret  (Tristan)  also,  and  both  of  them  amal- 
gamated in  the  general  Arthurian  work  now  extant  in  many  MSS. 
of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  the  compilation  came  into  existence 
which  was  translated  into  English  by  Sir  Thomas  Malory  under  the 
title  Morte  A  rthur.  The  original  complete  Lancelot  may  be  considered 
as  a  corporate  work  including  the  five  branches  which  had  previ- 
ously been  separate,  namely,  (1)  Merlin  ;  (2)  Arthur  and  the  Round 
Table  ;  (3)  Arthur,  Guinevere,  and  Lancelot ;  (4)  Joseph  of  Arima- 
thea and  the  Grail ;  the  Quest  of  the  Grail  and  Perceval  modified 
into  (5)  the  new  Quest  of  the  Grail  and  Galaad.  A  sixth  element 
was  added  in  the  French  compilation,  which  formed  the  original 
of  the  Morte  Arthur  of  Sir  Thomas  Malory,  namely,  (6)  the  story 
of  Tristan  and  Yseult. 

V.  Tristan.  — This  beautiful  Breton  or  Cornish  romance  was  Tristan, 
originally  a  work  totally  independent  of  the  Arthurian,  Round 
Table,  and  Grail  fictions ;  and,  if  it  is  said  by  Helie  de  Borron  to 
have  been  left  incomplete  by  its  first  author,  the  Anglo-Norman 
knight  Luc  or  Luces,  of  the  castle  of  Cast,  Gait,  or  Gau,  near  Salis- 
bury, and  by  Gasse  li  Blont  (Eustace  Blunt),  who  is  spoken  of  as 
a  continuator,  we  may  presume  that  his  statement  was  based 
upon  no  deficiency  in  the  original  narrative,  but  simply  on  the 
absence  of  all  allusion  to  the  Round  Table.  He  therefore  set  to 
work  to  produce  what  he  called  the  Bret,  or  the  complete  Tristan, 
by  constructing  a  number  of  episodes  which  exhibit  Tristan  as  one 
of  the  Round  Table  knights,  as  also  having  engaged  in  the  quest, 
and  as  having  been  with  his  lady-love  entertained  for  some  time  at 
Lancelot's  castle  of  Joyeuse  Garde.  The  Saracen  knight  Palamedes, 
who  takes  an  important  place  in  the  complete  Tristan,  and  who 
is  not  one  of  the  least  interesting  characters,  seems  to  have  been 
one  of  the  additions.  Whether  the  first  author  was  really  a  knight 
or  not,  and  whether  he  wrote  in  poetry  or  prose,  it  may  here  be 
said  once  for  all  that  the  earliest  exoteric  reference  to  the  authors 
of  the  Round  Table  romances  is  that  of  Helinand,  who,  writing 
close  to  the  date  of  Walter  Map's  death  (c.  1210),  mentioned  them 
as  "  quosdam  proceres,"  a  phrase  which  could  only  be  used  as  indi- 
cating personages  ranking  at  least  as  high  as  knights.  Tristan  (in 
the  old  English  form,  Tristram)  of  Lyonesse  is  the  nephew  of  King 
Mark  of  Cornwall.3  Warned  by  a  dwarf  that  his  nephew's  existence 
will  be  pernicious  to  him,  the  king  resolves  to  compass  his  death. 
His  attempt  is  frustrated  :  the  child  is  carried  to  the  court  of  the 
Frank  king  Fararnond,  and  there  grows  up  towards  man's  estate. 
He  wins  the  love  of  Faramond's  daughter,  on  the  discovery  of 
which  he  is  compelled  to  fly  to  his  uncle  at  Tintagel,  with  whom 
a  reconciliation  is  effected>  A  prince  called  Morhoult  or  the 
Morhoult4  of  Ireland  lands  in  Cornwall  to  claim  tribute  of  King 
Mark.  Tristan  challenges  him  to  single  combat,  wounds  him 
mortally,  and  compels  him  to  reimbark  in  a  dying  condition,  but 
is  himself  wounded  by  the  poisoned  lance  of  his  adversary.  Seek- 
ing afterwards  a  healer  for  his  wounds,  he  is  borne  by  the  wind  to 
Ireland,  and  well  received  by  the  king  of  Ireland  and  his  daughter 
Yseult,  who  restore  him  to  health.  It  is,  however,  observed  that 
he  is  wearing  the  sword  of  Morhoult,  and  he  is  obliged  to  take  a 
hasty  departure.  On  his  return  to  Cornwall  the  incidents  of  the 
complete  Tristan  begin  to  connect  him  with  Arthur  and  the  Round 
Table,  but  his  victory  over  a  knight,  there  said  to  have  accused  the 


3  His  father  Meliadus  and  mother  Isabel,  as  well  as  the  preceding  genera- 
tions of  ancestors,  were  probably  invented  by  Helie  de  Borron,  as  well  as  the 
account  of  his  premature  birth  in  the  open  country. 

*  Is  this  a  corruption  of  Muircheartarch  or  Murhartarch,  and,  if  so,  was  it 
suggested  by  a  recollection  of  the  visit  of  Diarmuid  MacMuircheartarch  to 
England  to  claim  help  from  the  Normans  in  1168  ? 


648 


ROMANCE 


Irish  king  of  treason  before  King  Arthur,  is  probably  part  of  the 
original  tale.  He  goes  with  the  absolved  monarch  to  Ireland  at 
his  request,  and  is  prayed  to  accompany  Yseult  to  Cornwall, 
whither  her  father  sends  her  as  King  Mark's  bride.  Yseult's  mother 
delivers  a  philtre  or  love -potion  to  Brangian  (or  Bronwen),  her 
daughter's  nurse,  which  the  latter  is  commissioned  to  give  Yseult 
to  drink  on  the  wedding-day,  in  order  that  she  may  conceive  a  true 
wifely  affection  for  her  stranger  husband.  Brangian,  however, 
gives  it  to  Tristan  and  Yseult,  who  drink,  unconscious  of  the  spell 
that  is  about  to  influence  their  lives.  They  love  each  other  at 
once  and  for  ever.  During  the  voyage  they  land  on  an  island, 
where  Tristan,  by  overcoming  an  enchantment,  proves  that  he  and 
his  companion  are  the  best  knight  and  fairest  lady  in  all  the  world. 
They  reach  Cornwall  at  last,  and  think  with  dread  on  the  approach 
of  the  fatal  night  which  is  to  separate  them  and  to  make  King 
Mark  aware  of  his  bride's  fault.  A  device,  which  appeared  to  the 
old  romancers  one  of  easy  performance,  is  suggested  by  Brangian, 
who,  to  save  her  mistress's  honour,  takes  her  place  on  the  marriage 
night,  trusting  that  King  Mark's  carousals  and  the  darkness  will 
cover  the  fraud.  The  scheme  is  carried  out  satisfactorily  ;  but  the 
fair  Yseult  hires  two  ruffians  to  slay  Brangian,  lest  the  fact  should 
ever  come  to  light.  The  intending  murderers,  however,  are 
smitten  with  pity,  and  simply  leave  their  victim  bound  to  a 
tree,  from  which  position  she  is  soon  afterwards  rescued.  As  her 
rescuer  was  Palamedes,  the  Saracen  knight,  who  must  be  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  inventions  of  Helie  de  Borron,  we  may  venture 
to  hope  that  Yseult's  unwomanly  cruelty  formed  no  part  of  the 
original  story.  Palamedes  is  a  magnanimous  and  interesting  char- 
acter, who  loves  Yseult  with  a  purer  love  than  Tristan,  and  who 
spends  his  life  in  a  generous  antagonism  to  his  rival.  The  man 
who  invented  Palamedes  and  Guiron  must  have  been  himself  a 
knight  of  the  noblest  type.  The  intrigue  of  the  two  lovers  is 
carried  on  for  some  time,  till  Mark's  suspicions  are  aroused  and 
Tristan  leaves  Cornwall.  Again  he  receives  by  treachery  a  poisoned 
wound  ;  but,  as  he  cannot  return  to  Mark's  court  to  obtain  healing 
at  the  hands  of  the  fair  Yseult,  he  decides  upon  going  to  Brittany, 
to  seek  a  remedy  there  from  her  cousin,  the  white-handed  Yseult, 
who  is  equally  expert  in  treating  wounds.  She  cures  him  and  falls 
in  love  with  him  ;  he  marries  her  from  gratitude.  The  descrip- 
tion of  the  wedding  night  proves  that  he  still  loves  the  other 
Yseult,  for  he  remains  faithful  to  her  in  the  most  material  point, 
the  white-handed  lady  being  so  innocent  that  she  is  unaware  of 
the  slight  cast  upon  her  charms.  He  makes  his  wife's  brother 
Peredur  or  Pheredur  his  confidant,  and  the  two  quit  Brittany  to- 
gether and  reach  Cornwall.  A  fresh  source  of  misery  opens  for  him 
now,  as  Pheredur  falls  in  love  with  fair  Yseult.  Tristan  becomes 
insane  and  wanders  away  ;  but  after  some  time  he  is  brought  back 
to  the  court,  where  Yseult  restores  him  to  reason,  at  the  cost,  how- 
ever, of  reawakening  the  jealous  wrath  of  King  Mark,  who  compels 
him  to  quit  Cornwall,  making  him  swear  never  to  return.  Helie's 
Tristan  now  joins  the  Round  Table  company  at  King  Arthur's  court, 
and  King  Mark,  still  unsatisfied,  goes  thither  also  with  the  purpose 
of  bringing  about  his  nephew's  death.  The  unfavourable  view  of 
Mark's  character  is  here  heightened  by  making  him  speak  and  act 
in  the  most  ridiculous  manner.  Arthur  reconciles  the  uncle  and 
the  nephew  ;  Tristan  goes  back  with  Mark,  and  frees  Cornwall  from 
an  invasion  by  the  Saxons  ;  but  he  fails  to  win  favour  from  the 
king,  who  puts  him  in  a  dungeon.  He  is  released  by  an  insurrec- 
tion and  King  Mark  himself  is  imprisoned ;  Tristan  flies  with  Yseult 
and  is  received  in  Joyeuse  Garde  by  Lancelot,  until  King  Arthur 
brings  about  a  fresh  reconciliation,  and  Yseult  is  restored  to  Mark 
along  with  his  kingdom.  Tristan  now  returns  to  his  neglected  wife, 
but  finds  that  a  revolt  has  fortunately  saved  him  from  the  necessity 
of  repaying  her  devotion  with  caresses.  He  goes  forth  to  fight,  and 
subdues  the  rebel  count,  but  is  sorely  wounded  again.  The  white- 
handed  lady  tends  him,  cures  him,  and  becomes  his  wife  in  deed 
as  well  as  in  name.  He  quits  her  once  more,  and  renews  his  secret 
intercourse  with  fair  Yseult  in  Cornwall,  until  discovery  compels 
him  to  return  to  Brittany.  In  giving  his  aid  to  the  unsuccessful 
prosecution  of  an  amour  by  his  brother-in-law  he  is  once  more 
poisonously  wounded.  He  comes  to  such  a  dangerous  pass  that  at 
last  he  sends  a  secret  messenger  to  fair  Yseult,  to  bring  her  back 
with  him  if  possible.  Should  she  be  able  and  willing  to  come 
the  ship  is  to  be  rigged  with  white  sails  ;  with  black,  on  the  con- 
trary, if  the  mission  is  unsuccessful.  Tristan's  anxiety  comes  to 
the  knowledge  of  white-handed  Yseult,  who,  seized  with  sudden 
jealousy,  when  the  white-sailed  vessel  comes  gaily  dancing  over  the 
waves,  goes  to  her  sick  husband  and  tells  him  that  the  sails  are 
black.  He  bids  her  at  once  farewell  and  dies  of  a  broken  heart.  Fair 
Yseult,  on  reaching  land,  hears  of  his  death,  makes  her  way  to  the 
chamber  where  his  corpse  is  lying,  and  dies  upon  her  dead  hero's 
breast.  Their  bodies  are  conveyed  to  Cornwall,  along  with  Tristan's 
sword,  formerly  Morhoult's,  and  Mark  learns  the  story  of  the  love- 
potion.  Seized  with  pity,  he  has  the  two  lovers  buried  not  far  from 
each  other,  and  a  wondrous  tree  extends  its  branches  to  overshadow 
their  two  graves. 

Palamedes:    Meliadus  and  Guiron. — This,    the  last  romance 


written  by  any  of  the  original  writers  of  the  Round  Table  stories,  Melia 
was  composed  by  Helie  de  Borron  about  1220  at  the  desire  of  and 
Henry  III.  of  England  (who  paid  him  noble  guerdon  for  his  labour).  Guiron. 
He  had  already  made  Palamedes  (the  Saracen  knight  finally  baptized 
and  adopted  to  the  Round  Table)  so  prominent  and  so  noble  a  char- 
acter in  nis  Bret,  or  romance  of  Tristan,  that  the  king  wished  for 
another  book  on  the  subject.  Since  the  story  was  to  be  one  of 
knightly  courtesy,  its  name  should  be  Palamedes.  As  that  hero 
takes  only  a  minor  part  in  the  transactions  of  the  story  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  believe  that  he  meant  the  name  as  other  than  a  metaphor. 
The  book  is  divided  into  two  distinct  tales, — one  relating  the  adven- 
tures of  Meliadus,  who  begat  Tristan  upon  the  adulterous  queen  of 
Scotland,  and  the  other  those  of  a  knight  whose  name  appears  here 
for  the  first  time, — Guiron  le  Courtois.1  Meliadus  is  a  dull  and 
clumsy  composition,  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  circumstance  that  it 
alludes  to  the  Charlemagne  romances,  and  includes  among  its  per- 
sonages Aryhoan  of  Saxony,  ancestor  of  Ogyers  le  Danois  (Ogier 
the  Dane).  Even  the  account  which  it  gives  of  Tristan's  birth  is 
wholly  at  variance  with  that  which  the  writer  had  already  given 
(or  accepted)  in  the  romance  of  Tristan  and  Yseult.  As  for  Guiron, 
the  beauty  of  his  character  redeems  the  tediousness  of  the  narrative. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  human  noble-mindedness  it  is  the  best  of 
all  the  Arthurian  tales,  Guiron  being  equally  free  from  the  criminal 
sensuality  of  Lancelot  and  Tristan  on  the  one  hand,  and  distant 
from  the  superangelical  purity  of  Galaad  and  Perceval  on  the  other. 
Under  the  most  trying  circumstances  he  keeps  himself  chastely 
aloof  from  sin,  although  love  is  mutual  between  himself  and  his 
friend's  wife  ;  and,  when  on  one  occasion  he  reflects  how  near  he 
has  been  to  the  verge  of  criminality,  he  strikes  his  own  sword  into 
his  breast  as  a  punishment.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  he  does  not 
die  but  lives  to  see  that  same  friend,  Denain  le  Roux,  carry  off  a 
maiden  on  whom  he  (Guiron)  has  bestowed  a  more  justifiable  affec- 
tion. When,  after  a  year's  vain  search,  he  meets  his  false  friend 
and  his  ravished  lady-love  together,  he  fights  and  conquers  Denain 
but  spares  his  life,  and  goes  away  with  the  lady,  still  in  love  with 
her.  Denain  exhibits  his  friendship  and  gratitude  effectually  after- 
wards, but  the  story  is  left  unfinished,  Guiron  and  Bloye  having 
been  entrapped  by  treachery  and  lying  still  within  the  walls  of  a 
dungeon.  The  author  refers  to  his  Meliadus  for  an  account  of  their 
liberation  ;  but  this  simply  shows  that  he  intended  to  rewrite 
Meliadus.  Fifty  or  sixty  years  later  Rusticien  of  Pisa  abridged  the 
Palamedes,  and  inserted  the  incidents  of  the  two  in  his  compila- 
tion of  Arthurian  romances,  now  lost  as  a  whole,  although  usually 
confounded  with  the  Morte  Arthur.  From  his  compilation  the 
printed  Meliadus  and  Guiron  were  further  abridged  and  finally 
printed  so  in  separate  form. 

Ysaie  le  Triste,  Arthur  de  Bretaigne,  and  Perceforest  are  three  Ysaie, 
romances  which  had  also  considerable  vogue,  but,  although  they  Arthus 
belong  to  the  Arthurian  cycle,  they  have  no  real  connexion  beyond  de  Brel 
the  use  of  British  names  and  the  supposed  kinship  of  the  heroes  aigne, 
with  those  of  the  old  stories.  Almost  as  much  might  be  alleged  and 
against  the  Meliadus  and  the  Guiron,  but  they  were  at  least  written  Perce- 
by  one  of  the  first  authors  of  the  genuine  works,  and  he  had  pre-  forest, 
sumably  some  acquaintance  with  the  British  folk-legends.  The  fact 
that  Rusticien  of  Pisa  about  1270-75  abridged  and  compiled  in  a 
single  great  book  the  scattered  and  discordant  stories  of  the  earlier 
period,  at  the  request  of  Prince  Edward  (afterwards  Edward  I.)  of 
England,  is  universally  conceded.  That  compilation  has  never  been 
printed  ;  it  is  even  uncertain  whether  any  MS.  in  existence  repre- 
sents it,  for,  although  the  English  Morte  Arthur  is  usually  supposed 
to  have  been  compendiously  translated  from  it,  we  may  infer  with 
greater  probability  that  Sir  Thomas  Malory  used  an  earlier  compila- 
tion, perhaps  the  work  of  Helie  de  Borron.  One  reason  to  justify 
such  a  conjecture  may  be  found  in  the  absence  of  Guiron  and 
Meliadus  from  the  English  book,  which  would  hardly  be  the  case 
if  the  former  notion  were  correct,  since  we  know  that  Rusticien 
published  an  abridged  text  of  those  two  works.  Rusticieii's 
compilation  could  in  fact  only  be  recovered  approximately  by  re- 
uniting the  texts  of  the  various  Arthurian  romances  as  printed  in 
French  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries, — these  abridged  and  inferior 
texts  having  apparently  been  derived  or  rewritten  from  his  book, 
not  from  MSS.  of  the  separate  old  romances.  The  Morte  Arthur 
was  printed  by  Caxton  from  Sir  Thomas  Malory's  MS.  translation 
or  adaptation  made  in  England  not  many  years  before  the  printer's 
establishment  at  Westminster.  As  an  early  English  text  and  as 
the  only  existing  homogeneous  embodiment  of  the  ancient  Franco- 
British  romances,  it  is  of  the  highest  interest,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  breathes  the  earnest  and  simple  feeling  which  animates 
the  originals,— differing  thus  toto  ccelo  from  the  colder,  more  arti- 
ficial, and  less  interesting  narratives  which  were  invented  in  tho 
15th  century,  and  of  which  the  Ysaie,  Arthus  de  Brelaigne,  and 
Perceforest  are  examples.  All  three  may  be  referred  to  the  first  half 
of  that  century,  although  it  has  been  alleged  that  the  second  was 
written  in  the  14th.  Ysaie  forestalls  to  some  extent  the  type  of 
the  16th  and  17th  century  French  romances.  It  is  an  early  instance 


1  Guiron  appears  to  be  the  Breton  or  Cymric  word  which  means  " 
"  true,"  or  "  honest,"  and  is  a  fitting  title  for  the  hero. 


loyal," 


ROMANCE 


649 


of  the  use  of  A  favourite  device  in  later  fiction,  by  which  fairies 
are  introduced  who  bestow  special  gifts  at  the  birth  of  a  hero  ;  and 
amongst  its  chief  personages  is  the  misshapen  dwarf  Tronc,  after- 
wards named  Aubron — that  is,  Oberon — and  made  beautiful.  He 
was  adopted  from  the  old  French  story  of  Huon  de  Bordeaux,  just 
as  the  Oberon  of  the  latter  had  his  origin  in  the  Elberich  of  the 
Hcldenbuch.  The  original  composition  of  Perceforest  has  been 
assigned  without  reason  to  the  13th  century,  and  it  is  possible  that 
some  insignificant  portion  of  the  romance  may  have  been  written 
in  the  14th  ;  but  the  probability  is  that  David  Aubert  was  the  real 
author  of  the  extant  work,  and  that  he  wrote  it  at  the  court  of 
Burgundy  about  1450.  It  would  be  difficult  to  imagine  a  work 
more  absurd,  heterogeneous,  and  wearying  in  its  immensity  than 
this.  The  veiy  "variety"  for  which  Dunlop  praises  it  merely 
indicates  the  mass  of  multifarious  and  incongruous  incidents,  un- 
connected and  uninteresting,  of  which  it  is  full.  Antiquaries,  how- 
ever, find  it  useful  for  the  history  of  those  knightly  sports  called 
tournaments,  immense  numbers  of  which  are  described  in  minute 
detail.  Arthur  of  Little  Britain  must  have  been  considered  a  very 
interesting  romance  when  Lord  Berners  translated  it  into  English, 
but  we  cannot  discover  its  attractiveness.  It  is  a  dull  inartistic 
composition,  with  scarcely  any  distinctiveness  in  the  drawing  of 
its  personages. 

A  great  number  of  poetic  and  prose  compositions,  beginning 
with  chansons  and  fabliaux  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  form 
a  large  portion  of  the  literature  of  Arthurian  romance  ;  but  in  most 
instances  they  deal  only  with  episodes,  and  are  better  described  in 
the  articles  relating  to  the  literature  to  which  they  belong  than  they 
could  be,  or  ought  to  be,  here.  Some  of  them  may,  however,  be 
mentioned  briefly  in  chronological  succession.  In  the  12th  century 
— that  is,  between  1170  and  1200 — Arnaud  Daniel  the  troubadour 
wrote  a  poem,  now  quite  lost,  on  Lancelot  and  Guinevere ;  Chrestien 
de  Troyes  the  trouvere  wrote  one  entitled  the  Charrette,  i.e.,  in  refer- 
ence to  Lancelot's  unknightly  mode  upon  one  occasion  of  hurrying 
to  the  rescue  of  Guinevere  in  a  cart  for  want  of  a  horse  ;  this  story 
was  continued  by  Godefroi  de  Leigni.  Chrestien  wrote  another 
poem  on  (Peredur)  Perceval,  which  was  continued  by  three  other 
hands,  in  which  Perceval  remains  the  achiever  of  the  Grail-quest. 
He  also  wrote  Erec  et  Enide,  a  poem  which  contains  the  same 
substance  as  the  Welsh  story  of  Geraint  in  the  Mabinogion,  and 
which  never  appeared  in  any  of  the  Arthurian  romances ;  and  the 
Chevalier  au  Lyon,  which  is  similarly  identical  with  the  Lady  of 
the  Fountain  in  the  Mabinogion.  Owen  or  Ywain,  the  Chevalier 
au  Lyou,  is  a  prominent  Round  Table  knight  in  the  romances, 
but  his  story  is  not  incorporated  in  them.  Hartmann  von  der 
Aue  translated  Chrestien's  poem  into  German  verse  before  1200  ; 
in  English  it  appeared  as  Ywain  and  Gawain  in  the  14th  century  ; 
another  English  poem,  Sir  Gawaine  and  the  Green  Knight,  was 
written  about  1360,  as  well  as  a  Scottish  Golagrus  and  Gaicaine, 
in  the  14th  century.  A  poem,  dated  1212,  containing  Le  Roman 
de  Joseph  d'Arimathie,  has  been  published  by  Francisque  Michel, 
and  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  Robert  de  Borron's  original  work. 
Its  substance  is  the  same  as  the  first  part  of  the  prose  Petit  Graal, 
which  Hucher  has  published  as  Borron's  real  original.  About  the 
same  time,  or  a  few  years  earlier,  Ulrich  von  Zatzikhoven  translated 
Arnaud  Daniel's  Lancelot  into  German  verse  ;  the  lost  Perceval  in 
verse  of  Guyot  de  Provins  and  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach's  metrical 
German  version  of  it  (in  which  he  miscalls  the  trouvere  "  Kiot  der 
Provenzal ")  have  already  been  mentioned.  There  is  an  early 
German  poem  called  Wigalois,  composed  by  Wirnt  of  Grafenberg 
(i.e.,  Gui,  son  of  Gawain),  evidently  derived  soon  after  1200  from 
a  French  original,  Gui  Galeis  or  Giglan,  which  is  lost.  On  Gawain 
himself  there  are  two  French  poems  by  Raoul  and  Renault  or 
Raoul  de  Beaujeu,  of  the  13th  century  ;  and  one  of  Chrestien  de 
Troyes's  chansons  (before  1200)  celebrates  Cliges,  a  nephew  of 
Gawain.  A  French  poem  on  Merlin  dates  from  about  1300. 
There  is  a  Petit  Tristan  or  Brun  de  la  Montague,  written  in  verse 
in  the  14th  century.  The  French  poems  of  Marie  de  France, 
written  in  England  early  in  the  13th  century,  contain  lays  of 
Lanval  and  of  Chevre-feuille  (on  Tristan),  which  are  professedly 
Arthurian  subjects.  Of  the  English  works  on  the  Round  Table 
romances  the  chief  are  the  metrical  History  of  (he  Grail,  trans- 
lated early  in  the  15th  century  by  Henry  Lonelich,  and  published 
from  a  MS.  by  "the  Roxburghe  Club,  and  Sir  Thomas  Malory's 
Morte  Arthur.  An  English  prose  romance  of  Merlin  was  written 
about  1450,  and  a  metrical  Arthour  and  Merlin  is  probably  fifty 
or  sixty  years  older.  A  further  Life  of  Arthur  in  English  verse 
is  supposed  to  have  been  composed  about  1428.  There  is  a  metri- 
cal version  of  Renault  de  Beaujeu's  Giglan,  probably  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  14th  century.  Two  poems  both  entitled  Morte  Arthur 
exist,  one  written  about  1390,  which  especially  treats  of  King 
Arthur,  and  another  belonging  to  the  middle  of  the  15th  century, 
of  which  the  story  of  Lancelot  is  the  subject-matter ;  and  there 
is  a  Scottish  Lancelot  of  the  Laik  in  verse,  which  was  composed 
late  in  that  century.  A  romance  of  the  Seint  Graal,  in  verse, 
written  about  1350,  was  probably  a  translation  of  Robert  de  Borron's 
Joseph  d'Arimathie.  Between  1838  and  1849  Lady  Charlotte 


Guest  printed  aud  translated  the  Mabinogion  (Children's  Stories) 
from  the  Welsh  MS.  known  as  the  Llyfr  Coch  o  Hcrgest,  tran- 
scribed late  in  the  14th  century,  and  now  preserved  at  Oxford,  in 
the  library  of  Jesus  College.  At  first  it  was  believed  that  these 
stories,  so  far  as  they  agreed  with  the  narratives  of  the  printed 
French  romances,  were  copies  of  the  original  legends  used  by 
Walter  Map  and  the  Borrons  ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
only  those  portions  which  are  not  found  in  the  romances  are  of 
independent  Celtic  or  Cambrian  origin,  while  the  remainder  was 
derived  from  the  French  stories  or  poems  of  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  LIST  OF  EARLIEST  EDITIONS  OF  CHIEF  ROUND  TABLE 
ROMANCES. — Partzifal  und  Titurel,  in  German  verse,  2  vols.  fol.,  1477.  This 
book  is  a  translation  by  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  about  1205,  of  Guyot's  lost 
French  poem,  based  upon  Robert  de  Borron's  Histoire  du  Graal,. 

Perceval,  fol.,  Paris,  1530.  A  totally  distinct  work  from  the  Franco-German 
Partzifal  mentioned  above.  Various  poems  in  French  and  English  of  early 
date  exist  on  the  adventures  of  Perceval,  but  they  are  not  to  be  identified  with 
the  prose  romance. 

Morte  Arthur,  fol. ,  print,  by  William  Caxton,  1485.  Sir  Thomas  Malory's  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the  second  French  Arthurian  compilation  which  had  been 
made  about  1250,  and  united  Tristan  with  the  so-called  iMncelot. 

Lancelot  du  Lac,  3  parts,  fol.,  Rouen,  14S8  ;  and  Paris,  A.  Verard,  1494.  This, 
the  first  Round  Table  compilation,  was  made  about  1200,  and  embodied  three 
or  four  tales  which  had  previously  had  a  separate  existence.  An  Italian  trans- 
lation appeared  in  3  vols.  Svo,  Venice,  1558-59.  A  Spanish  translation  appears 
to  be  the  Deirutiida  del  Sancto  Grial,  fol.,  Toledo,  1515,  which  may  possibly  be 
the  whole  Lancelot  notwithstanding  its  name.  A  Dutch  Roman  van  Lancelot 
of  the  13th  century  was  printed  by  Jonckbloet  in  2  vols.  4to,  1846-49,  from  a 
MS.  It  may  not  be  a  translation  of  the  French  romance.  The  Maitland  Club 
printed  ia  1839  a  Lancelot  du  Lac  in  Scottish  metre,  from  a  MS.  of  the  15th 
century. 

Tristan,  fol.,  Rouen,  1489;  and  Paris,  Verard,  about  1499.  Don  Tristan  de 
Leonis,  fol.,  Valladolid,  1501,  is  a  Spanish  translation.  The  Italian  I  dui 
Tristani,  2  vols.  Svo,  Venice,  1555,  is  a  compilation  of  the  two  romances  of 
Tristan  and  his  son  Ysaie.  The  two  stories  were  united  also  in  the  late  Spanish 
versions,  if  not  in  the  first  edition  of  1501.  A  Scottish  poem  on  Sir  Tristram 
was  written  by  Thomas  Rhymer  of  Ercildoune  in  the  13th  century ;  published 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Various  early  poems  on  the  same  subject  have  been 
printed  in  Tristan  by  Francisque  Michel,  2  vols.  12mo,  1835-37.  A  German 
poem  of  Tristan  und  Isolde,  begun  by  Gottfried  of  Strasburg  early  in  the  13th 
century,  and  continued  by  others  in  the  same  century,  was  published  at 
Berlin  in  1821,  4to,  by  Groote,  and  by  Von  der  Hagen  in  2  vols.  Svo,  Breslan, 
1822.  This  poem  and  the  Scottish  one  are  supposed  to  be  derived  from  :i 
French  Tristan  in  verse  by  a  trouvere  Thomas,  which  is  included  in  Michel's 
Tristan.  There  exist  also  an  Icelandic  Saga  af  Tristam  og  Isond,  of  the  13th 
century,  published  in  Miiller's  Saga-Bibliothek,  and  old  popular  chapbooks  on 
the  same  subject  in  German,  Danish,  Italian,  Bohemian,  and  modern  Greek. 
The  oldest  German  edition  of  the  popular  Tristrant  was  printed  in  4to  at 
Augsburg  in  1484. 

Artus  de  Bretagne,  fol.  (no  place),  1493  ;  also  at  Lyons  in  1496.  An  English 
translation  was  made  by  Lord  Berners,  Arthur  of  Lytell  Brytayne,  fol.  (print, 
by  Robert  Redborne,  no  date,  but  probably  about  1565). 

Vie  et  Prophelies  de  Merlin,  3  vols.  fol.,  Paris  (ed.  Verard),  1498.  There  exist 
an  Italian  translation,  Historia  di  Merlino,  made  by  Antonio  Tedeschi  in  1379, 
fol.,  Venice,  1480,  and  a  Spanish  translation,  El  Baladro  del  Sabio  Merlin,  fol., 
Burgos,  1498.  The  Lytel  Treatys  of  the  Byrth  and  Prophecye  of  Merlin,  published 
by  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  4to,  1510,  is  a  popular  poem;  and  the  Life  of  Merlin, 
4to,  1641,  is  an  original  work  by  Thomas  Heywood.  The  Early  English  Text 
Society  has  published  Merlin  or  the  Early  History  of  King  Arthur  (Svo,  1869-77), 
in  prose,  from  an  English  MS.  of  the  15th  century,  which  was  made  from 
a  French  original.  There  exists  also  an  Arthour  and  Merlin  in  verse,  written 
about  1400,  which  has  been  printed  for  the  Abbotsfprd  Club,  4to,  1838.  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth's  original  De  Vita  et  Vaticiniis  Merlini,  in  verse,  was  printed  by 
the  Roxburghe  Club  in  1830,  4to.  His  prose  narrative  (portion  of  the  Historia, 
Britonum)  was  first  printed  in  the  Brittannix  utriusque  Begum  Origo,  4to,  Paris, 
1508,  and  afterwards  better  in  the  Heidelberg  Script.  Rerum,  Britann.,  fol.,  1587. 

Gyron  le  Courtoys,  fol.,  Paris,  Verard,  no  date  (about  1501).  Two  old 
Italian  translations  of  the  14th  or  15th  century  have  been  printed  from  MSS. 
in  Italy,  Svo,  Verona,  1834,  and  Svo,  Florence,  1835.  Alamanni's  Girone  el 
Cortese  is  a  poem  on  the  subject  of  the  romance,  written  for  Francis  I.,  4to, 
Paris,  1548. 

Histoire  (et  Queste)  du  S.  Graal,  fol.,  Paris,  1516.  The  Spanish  Demanda  del 
Sancto  Grial  and  Baladro  de  Merlin  have  probably  no  connexion  with  this  book, 
but  are  rather  to  be  considered  as  drawn  from  the  Lancelot.  A  French  poetic 
Roman  du  Saint-Graal  of  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century  has  been  published 
by  Francisque  Michel,  12mo,  Bordeaux,  1841 ;  and  a  prose  one  of  earlier  date 
(perhaps  the  remote  original  of  the  French  romance  printed  in  1516)  has  been 
published  by  Hucher,  12mo,  Le  Mans,  1874.  The  Early  English  Text  Society 
has  printed  (Svo,  1871)  a  14th-century  poem,  Joseph  ofArimathea,  derived  from 
the  earlier  French.  The  English  verse  Seynt  Graal,  by  Henry  Lonelich,  pub- 
lished by  the  Roxburghe  Club,  4to,  1863-64,  must  be  considered  as  derived  from 
the  Lancelot  rather  than  from  the  Histoire  du  S.  Graal. 

Ysaie  le  Triste,  fol.,  Paris,  1522.  For  Italian  and  Spanish  translations  see 
Tristan,  above. 

Meliadus  de  Leonnoys,  fol.,  Paris,  1528.  Of  this  there  exists  an  Italian  trans- 
lation, Egregi  Fatti  del  gran  Re  Meliadus,  2  vols.  Svo,  Venice  (Aldo),  1559-60. 

Perceforest,  6  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1528. 

(b)  Charlemagne  and  his  Twelve  Peers. 

The  cycle  of  Franco -Teutonic  or  French  romance  of 
which  the  mythical  history  of  Charles  the  Great  forms  the 
central  design  is,  so  far  as  its  original  literary  elements 
are  concerned,  more  ancient  than  the  Franco-British  cycle 
of  Arthur  and  his  knights.  The  reduction  into  prose  of 
the  old  chansons  de  geste  and  of  the  poemes  cydiques  which 
followed  them  was,  however,  of  much  later  date  than  the 
similar  conversions  of  Round  Table  poems;  and  the  15th- 
century  prose  romances  are  so  mangled  and  altered  from 
the  character  of  the  earlier  stories  in  verse  that  without  a 
short  notice  of  the  latter  it  would  be  impossible  to  get  a 

XX.  —  82 


650  ROMANCE 

true  notion  of  the  richness  and  copiousness  of  Frankish 


arly 
rench 

allads. 


romance. 

We  know  from  Eginhard  that  the  Frankish  heroic 
ballads  were  reduced  to  writing  by  Charlemagne's  order, 
and  thus  the  first  step  was  taken  which  led  to  the  creation 
of  similar  ballads  about  himself  and  his  principal  warriors. 
His  own  large  and  catholic  spirit  seems  to  have  embraced 
all  the  people  within  his  dominions,  and  thus  indirectly 
brought  about  the  official  employment  of  the  French  lan- 
guage in  the  famous  compact  between  his  grandsons  in  841. 
He  was  then  only  twenty-eight  years  dead,  yet  his  influence 
was  still  so  mighty  that  even  the  Gauls  and  Aquitanians 
are  declared  in  a  9th-century  chronicle  to  have  gloried  in 
bearing  the  name  of  Franks.  This  both  implies  an  amal- 
gamation of  the  two  races  more  complete  than  is  usually 
believed,  and  accounts  for  the  creation  of  French  as  well 
as  of  Frankish  ballads  on  the  life  and  exploits  of  Charle- 
magne in  the  second  half  of  the  9th  century.  The  number 
of  persons  who  could  speak  only  Theotisc  (Teutonic  lan- 
guage) and  of  those  who  could  speak  the  two  languages 
was  of  course  constantly  diminishing,  and  the  chanson  de 
geste  soon  displaced  the  Heldengedicht  within  the  limits 
of  modern  France.  Of  all  the  French  ballads  current  in 
the  9th  and  10th  centuries  some  have  perished  utterly, 
others  survive  only  in  later  refusions ;  the  most  ancient 
now  extant  is  the  Chanson  de  Roland,  in  the  modified 
form  which  was  given  to  it  soon  after  1066  by  a  Norman 
called  Turold.  This  poem  contains  so  many  references  to 
others  on  Charlemagne  and  his  dome  pairs  or  paladins 
as  to  make  it  certain  that  such  a  ballad-literature  existed 
in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries.  None  of  the  existing 
chansons  de  geste  represents  those  older  forms;  all  are  rifaci- 
menti  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  and  bear  evidence 
of  additions,  interpolations,  and  arbitrary  changes.  In 
the  13th  century  we  find  the  older  episodical  ballads  re- 
arranged in  the  form  of  "  cyclic  poems,"  and  falling  into 
three  groups,  which  take  each  its  name  from  the  central 
personage  or  subject.  One  is  the  Geste  of  the  king 
(Charlemagne,  his  father,  and  grandfather);  the  next  is 
the  Geste  of  Provence  or  of  Garin  de  Montglane ;  and  the 
third,  the  most  heterogeneous,  is  the  Geste  of  Doon  of 
istorico-  Mayence.  Each  of  these  is  composed  of  many  separate 
ythical  parts,  but  the  first  may  be  generally  described  as  the  entire 
r'J8'  mythical  history  of  Charles  the  Great,  his  family,  and  his 
faithful  peers;  the  second  a  separate  and  independent  set 
of  narratives  concerning  his  conquest  of  Narbonne;  the 
third  a  history  of  his  wars  with  rebellious  vassals  and  with 
traitors,  including  Ganelon,  through  whom  the  peers  were 
defeated  and  slain  at  Roncesvalles.  The  number  and 
names  of  the  peers  are  variously  given  in  nearly  all  the 
poems,  but  Roland  and  Oliver  are  included  in  all  the  lists, 
united  as  in  a  proverbial  English  phrase.  Roland  is  the 
daring  warrior,  Oliver  the  wise  one;  the  one  is  the 
Achilles,  the  other  the  Ulysses  of  the  Carolingian  epopee. 
Many  of  the  early  chansons  give  the  name  of  Turpin,  arch- 
bishop of  Rheims  (an  actual  historical  contemporary  of 
Charlemagne),  as  one  of  the  pairs, — warrior  and  priest  com- 
bined ;  and  there  is  a  chronicle  bearing  his  name  which 
has  furnished  the  later  romancers  with  a  goodly  propor- 
tion of  their  matter.  This  Pseudo-Chronicle  of  Turpin  was 
written  in  Latin,  by  various  hands  and  in  various  places 
between  1000  and  1150,  being  apparently  constructed 
from  the  chansons  for  the  purpose  of  forging  history  to 
suit  monastic  ends.  It  took  its  final  and  existing  form 
between  1160  and  1180,  when  edited  by  Geoffroy  de 
Brueil,  and  was  for  many  centuries  regarded  as  actual  his- 
tory. This  work  was  not  the  first  so-called  history  which 
embodied  monastic  fiction  in  the  narrative  of  Charlemagne's 
career.  A  monk  of  St  Gall  wrote  about  890  a  chronicle 
De  Gestis  Karoli  Magni,  based  partly  upon  oral  tradition, 


in  which  certain  fabulous  incidents  appeared  for  the  first 
time,  such  as  Pippin's  fight  with  the  lion,  and  the  conversa- 
tion about  the  Iron  Emperor  between  Ottokar  the  Frank 
(better  known  as  Ogier  the  Dane)  and  the  Lombard  king 
Desiderius,  on  the  walls  of  Pavia,  when  Charlemagne  was 
advancing  to  besiege  it.  Another  fabulous  incident  of 
great  moment  in  the  romances  is  Charlemagne's  sup- 
posititious journey  to  the  Holy  Land,  which  was  related 
for  the  first  time  by  Benedict,  monk  of  St  Andre1,  about 
968,  in  his  Descriptio  qualiter  Carolus  M.  Clavum  et 
Coronam  Domini  a  Constantinopli  Aquugrani  attulerit. 

A  great  deal  of  historical  truth  underlies  the  absurdities 
of  the  Turpin  Chronicle  and  the  rhapsodies  of  the  chansons 
de  geste.  Compare  ROLAND,  LEGEND  OF.  In  fact  all  the 
older  poetic  literature  of  this  cycle  is  based  upon  purely 
historical  events  and  real  personages ;  it  is  only  at  a  later 
date  that  the  events  are  multiplied  or  variously  misapplied, 
and  that  the  personages  also  are  arbitrarily  distorted  and 
augmented,  according  to  the  fancy  and  local  sentiments 
of  the  various  writers.  As  for  the  language  in  which  the 
older  poems  were  written,  the  idea  that  they  were  chiefly 
the  work  of  troubadours  in  the  langue  d'oc  is  now  aban- 
doned. Gaston  Paris  holds  the  curious  theory  that  the 
French  language  (langue  d'oil)  was  popularly  current  over 
the  north  of  Italy,  instancing  the  works  of  Rusticien  of 
Pisa  as  an  illustration,  besides  certain  works  in  Italianized 
French  which  belong  to  this  class.  Such  a  notion  cannot 
be  accepted  readily,  as  we  know  that  the  langue  d'oc  was 
the  general  language  of  southern  France,  western  Spain, 
and  north-west  Italy.  But  it  is  possible  that  the  French 
language  (langue  d'oil)  may  have  been  used  as  a  general 
literary  vehicle  for  the  Charlemagne  cycle  of  poetical 
fiction,  and  that  Rusticien  or  Rustighello  may  have  com- 
piled an  abridgment  of  the  Frankish  stories.  Such  a  work, 
if  it  ever  existed,  has  perished ;  and  it  is  in  the  Italian 
language  of  Tuscany  that  we  find  the  first  prose  compila- 
tion of  Carolingian  romance.  The  Reali  di  Francia 
(Princes  of  France),  if  it  had  been  completed,  would  have 
occupied  a  corresponding  position  to  the  Morte  Arthur  of 
the  British  cycle ;  for,  while  no  such  popular  compilation 
appears  to  have  ever  been  made  in  France  itself  and  in 
the  French  tongue  (unless  the  late  15th-century  Fiera- 
bras  may  be  considered  to  take  that  rank),  the  Reali  in 
verse  and  in  prose  was  current  in  Italy  early  in  the  14th 
century.  From  some  peculiarities  in  the  language  it  is 
conjectured  that  the  author,  although  writing  in  Tuscan, 
was  a  Venetian.  In  France  at  the  same  period  we  find 
only  the  separate  fictions,  mostly  in  verse,  but  a  few  in 
prose.  The  first  French  prose  compilation  of  the  whole 
cycle  was  made  by  David  Aubert  in  1458  for  Philip  of  Bur- 
gundy ;  but  it  was  dead-born  and  has  never  been  printed. 
The  second,  in  three  books,  was  made  a  few  years  later  by 
Jean  Bagnyon,  for  Henri  Bolomier,  canon  of  Lausanne  ;  it 
was  first  printed  in  1478,  and  is  entitled  in  some  editions 
La  Conqueste  que  fist  Charlemagne  es  Espaignes,  and  in 
others  Fierabras ;  both  titles  are  insufficient,  having  appa- 
rently been  merely  created  to  supply  the  lack  of  a  general 
heading.  The  first  section  is  a  summary  chronicle  of  the 
history  of  the  Franks  from  Clovis  to  Charlemagne,  the 
second  an  abridgment  of  the  old  poem  of  Fierabras,  and 
the  third  an  account  of  the  Spanish  expedition,  taken  from 
the  Pseudo-Turpin.  This  work  became  very  popular  in 
and  out  of  France,  and  most  readers  during  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries  derived  their  entire  knowledge  of  the 
Charlemagne  romance  from  it.  Although  the  French  prose 
works  of  the  cycle  were  for  the  most  part  very  late  in 
their  construction,  there  were  three  French  prose  transla- 
tions or  adaptations  of  the  Turpin  Chronicle  executed  soon 
after  1200. 

The  names  as  well  as  the  offices  of  the  douze  pairs  varied 


ROMANCE 


651 


irle-  considerably  in  the  earlier  chansons.  The  final  conception 
jne's  appears  to  be  that  which  is  contained  in  the  Fierabras ; 
13  but  the  substitution  of  new  personages  for  the  old  ones 
is  so  great  that  it  is  not  possible  to  regard  the  douze 
pairs  as  a  definite  set  of  dramatis  personse  on  the  stage. 
Nor  indeed  do  any  of  the  heroes  of  the  printed  prose 
romances  belong  to  that  society,  however  frequently  its 
members  appear  in  their  stories.  Originally  it  would  seem 
that  some  fortuitous  coincidence  between  the  number  of 
the  apostles  and  the  number  of  the  captains  who  headed 
Charlemagne's  evangelizing  expedition  into  Spain  had  been 
utilized  by  some  of  the  monkish  legendaries,  and  thus  the 
early  chansons  became  affected  with  a  mystic  respect  for 
the  douze  jiairs.  But  each  writer  allowed  himself  the 
licence  of  excluding  and  including  any  warrior  he  chose  in 
that  number.  The  Pseudo-Turpin  makes  no  reference  to 
such  a  society,  although  it  gives  the  names  of  the  more 
celebrated  knights.  The  full  story  of  Koland  has  no  prose 
romance  to  itself  (see  ROLAND,  LEGEND  OF).  The  story 
of  Oliver  is  in  similar  case,  unless  the  prose  romance  of 
Galien,  Oliver's  son,  may  be  held  to  embody  it.  Regnault 
de  Montauban  (the  chief  of  the  four  sons  of  Aymon),  Huon 
of  Bordeaux,  Amys  and  Milles,  Jourdain,  Galien,  Maugis, 
Mabrian,  and  many  other  heroes  of  the  printed  romances 
are  unknown  to  the  earliest  ballad-histories  of  Charlemagne 
and  his  barons.  Ogier  the  Dane  seems  to  have  grown  out 
of  two  historical  personages,  a  real  Othger  or  Ottokar,  a 
Frankish  margrave  of  Charlemagne's  time,  and  a  real  Olgar 
or  Hulger,  a  Danish  or  Norse  warrior  who  plundered  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  some  seventy  odd  years  after  the  Frankish 
Othger  had  accompanied  Roland  into  Spain.  Othger 
fought  with  the  Lombards  against  Charlemagne  in  773 ; 
and  Amys  and  Milles,  in  the  battle  in  which  they  won 
the  crown  of  martyrdom,  are  said  to  have  fallen  by  his 
hand.  Beaten  by  the  emperor,  he  became  his  vassal  and 
five  years  later  commanded  the  advanced  guard  of  the 
army  whose  rear-guard  was  destroyed  at  Roncesvalles.  M. 
Gaston  Paris  has  admirably  discussed  the  historical  bear- 
ings and  the  various  phases  of  the  original  chansons  de  geste 
in  his  Histoire  Poetique  de  Charlemagne,  but  has  dismissed 
with  a  brief  reference  all  the  printed  prose  romances  we 
are  now  about  to  consider. 

ali  di  The  Reali  di  Francia  exists  both  in  metrical  and  in  prose  form, 
incia.  an(j  it  is  difficult  to  decide  which  is  the  earlier ;  the  metrical 
version  was  certainly  current  in  the  13th  century,  and  there  seems 
little  reason  to  doubt  that  the  prose  story  was  in  existence  before 
1300.  The  latter  was  first  printed  at  Modena  in  1491.  It  is  a 
general  work  on  the  subject  of  Frankish  romantic  history,  and  is 
divided  into  six  books,  of  which  the  subjects  are  as  follows: — (1) 
Clovis  and  Rizicr  ;  (2)  Fioravante  and  Rizier ;  (3)  Ottaviano  de 
Leone  (the  emperor  Octavian  and  his  sons  Florent  and  Lion) ;  (4) 
Buovo  d'Antonna  (Bevis  of  Hampton)  ;  (5)  Buovo  avenged  by 
Ins  sons  Guido  and  Sinibaldo  and  King  William  of  England  ; 
(6)  birth  of  Charlemagne,  death  of  Pippin  and  his  natural  sons. 
Thus  we  may  conclude  that  it  was,  so  far  as  printed  under  the 
name  Reali,  the  first  part  of  a  compilation  of  all  the  Charlemagne 
cyclical  stories.  The  first  book  of  the  continuation  Aspramonte,  a 
translation  from  the  French  poem  of  Aspremont,  or  rather  a  prose 
composition  from  an  Italian  version  of  that  poem,  exists  in  MS. 
The  Reali  di  Francia  has  been  drawn  upon  by  many  later  writers. 
Chronicle  of  the  Pseudo-Turpin. — The  early  part  of  this  work 
was  evidently  forged  by  some  monk  interested  in  exalting  the  glory 
of  St  James's  shrine  at  Padron  in  Galicia  (Spain),  before  it  was 
transferred  to  Compostella.  He  represents  St  James  as  appearing 
in  successive  visions  to  Charlemagne,  urging  him  to  conquer  Spain, 
the  land  in  which  the  saint's  bones  are  laid  and  of  which  the 
Saracens  are  masters.  Charlemagne  advances  with  a  Fraukish 
army  and  besieges  Pamplona,  which  is  invincible  to  his  arms,  but 
falls  a  prey  to  his  prayers.  After  further  exploits  and  the  founda- 
tion of  many  churches,  he  returns  home,  but  is  brought  out  again 
very  speedily  by  news  that  the  Saracen  king,  Aigoland,  has  once 
more  seized  the  country.  This  king  is  borrowed  from  the  older 
chansons  relating  to  the  war  against  the  Lombards ;  but  for  the 
12th  century  all  Charlemagne's  foes  were  Saracens.  The  topo- 

§raphical  difficulty  is  made  light  of,  and  Aspremont  is  placed  in 
pain.     Roland,  Oliver,  and  Ganelon  (afterwards  infamous  for  his 
treachery,  the  hereditary  result  of  his  kinship  to  the  family  of 


sudo- 
rpin. 


which  Boon  of  Mayence  was  the  head)  distinguish  themselves  ; 
Aigoland  is  beaten  and  killed.  Charlemagne  next  attacks  Navarre, 
where  his  paladins  enter  into  single  combat  with  the  heathen  giant 
Ferracute,  who  vanquishes  all  but  Roland,  and  is  overcome  by  the 
latter  by  means  of  a  stratagem.  Cordova  is  next  conquered  and 
taken  possession  of,  and  Charlemagne  retraces  Ids  steps,  but  re- 
members that  he  has  left  two  other  Saracen  kings  unsubdued — 
Marsilius  and  Baligant — in  Saragossa.  He  sends  Ganelon  to  claim 
tribute  from  them  ;  they  contrive  to  rouse  the  predestined  spirit  of 
traitorousuess  in  the  envoy,  and  he  returns  with  a  false  tale,  which 
leads  the  monarch -to  forget  military  precautions  by  dividing  his 
army  into  two  portions.  He  himself  with  the  advanced  half  passes 
the  Pyrenees  in  safety,  but  Roland,  Oliver,  and  the  rear-guard  are 
suddenly  attacked  in  the  pass  of  Roncesvalles.  All  perish  in  the 
fight  except  Roland,  who,  mortally  wounded,  dies  alone  in  the  wild 
mountain  gorge,  after  having  flung  his  famous  sword  away,  and 
blown  such  a  blast  upon  his  horn  that  it  bursts  and  the  sound 
reaches  the  ears  of  Charlemagne.  The  emperor  returns  to  Ronces- 
valles, slays  the  Saracen  host,  recovers  the  body  of  Roland  and 
gets  it  embalmed,  and  causes  Ganelon  to  be  torn  to  pieces  by  wild 
horses.  After  a  time  his  health  suffers  and  his  death  approaches. 
Turpin  becomes  aware  of  a  multitude  of  demons  who  are  preparing 
to  carry  off  the  emperor's  soul  on  account  of  his  sins.  They  are 
foiled,  however,  by  St  Denis,  Avho,  in  return  for  Charlemagne's  bene- 
volence towards  the  church,  rescues  his  soul  and  bears  it  to  heaven. 

Fierabras.  — The  basis  of  this  romance  was  the  lost  poem  upon  Fiera- 
the  amir  Balan,  a  Saracen  leader  conquered  by  Charlemagne  in  bras. 
Italy  ;  the  rest  of  the  book  was  put  together  from  Turpin  and  other 
sources  so  as  to  form  the  one  general  prose  romance  of  Charle- 
magne. The  scene  is  changed  from  Italy  to  Spain  in  the  prose 
romance.  Fierabras,  the  giant,  is  son  of  Balan,  and,  after  having 
sacked  Rome,  is  met  by  the  Frankish  host ;  Oliver  encounters  and 
defeats  him  in  single  combat  ;  the  giant  is  converted  and  baptized 
by  the  name  of  Florent,  and  receives  half  his  father's  kingdom 
when  his  father  is  conquered  and  slain.  Floripas,  sister  of  Fierabras, 
marries  Gui  de  Bourgogne,  who  takes  the  other  half.  The  Spanish 
prose  Historia  del  Emperadvr  Carlo  Magno,  printed  in  1528,  is  a 
translation  ;  there  is  also  a  German  version. 

Gucrin  de  Montglave  (or  properly  Garin  de  Montglanc). — This  Garin  de 
romance  of  the  15th  century  is  based  upon  the  13th-century  poems  Mont- 
on  Girard  de  Vienne  and  Aimeri  de  Narbonne  of  "le  clerc  Bertrand."  glane. 
It  is  a  spirited  and  entertaining  fiction  relating  the  adventures  of 
the  four  sons  of  Garin,  one  of  the  heroes  of  the  elder  Prove^al 
cycle,  and  is  misnamed,  in  so  far  as  it  contains  only  the  story  of  his 
family,  not  of  himself.  The  four  sons  are  sent  forth  to  seek  ad- 
ventures. Arnaud,  the  eldest,  asserts  his  right  to  the  dukedom  of 
Aquitaine  against  a  usurper  who  has  succeeded  on  his  uncle's 
death.  He  is  treacherously  persuaded  to  seek  the  hand  of  the 
princess  Fregonde,  daughter  of  the  Saracen  sultan  of  Lombardy. 
His  traitorous  kinsman,  Hernault,  contrives  to  set  Arnaud  and  the 
sultan  at  enmity,  and  Arnaud  is  flung  into  a  dungeon,  where  the 
daughter,  ready  to  accept  Christianity  for  love  of  him,  secretly 
visits  him.  Hernault  apostatizes  and  goes  back  with  a  promise  of 
the  sultan's  help  to  conquer  Aquitaine  for  himself,  but  turns  aside 
from  some  qualm  of  conscience  to  confess  his  sins  to  a  giant  hermit, 
who  happens  to  have  been  an  old  comrade  of  Garin.  Thus  learning 
the  peril  of  Arnaud,  the  giant  hermit  Ribastre  slays  Hernault,  and, 
seeking  assistance  from  another  old  comrade,  a  converted  magician 
named  Perdigon,  sallies  forth  to  the  aid  of  the  imprisoned  hero. 
In  disguise  he  obtains  admittance  to  the  captive  and  the  princess, 
baptizes  the  latter,  kills  the  jailer,  and  sends  Arnaud  forth  free 
to  reconquer  Aquitaine  and  to  bring  aid,  while  he  and  the  lady 
hold  the  dungeon  -  tower,  which  is  at  once  besieged  by  the  sultan. 
After  numerous  fights,  in  which  Perdigon's  magic  is  the  chief  actor, 
Ribastre  and  the  princess  get  away  without  having  received  help 
from  Aqnitaine,  and  on  reaching  that  land  find  Arnaud  a  prisoner 
in  the  power  of  Hernault's  uncle.  Ribastre  kills  the  latter ;  Arnaud 
is  restored  to  his  duchy  and  marries  Fregonde  ;  the  sultan  turns 
Christian ;  and  all  ends  well.  But  the  romance  does  not  close  here ; 
it  proceeds  to  narrate  the  honours  which  fall  to  the  other  sons, 
Milon  de  Pouille,  Regnier  de"  Genes,  and  Girard  de  Vienne,  or  de 
Toulouse,  through  the  favour  of  Charlemagne,  who  feels  himself 
bound  to  Garin's  family  in  consequence  of  the  obligation  attached 
to  a  rash  game  of  chess  formerly  lost  by  him  to  that  hero.  However, 
when  Arnaud's  son  has  grown  up,  an  accidental  affront  put  upon 
the  empress  by  him  changes  Charlemagne's  friendly  feeling  to  hate. 
He  makes  a  long  war  upon  Girard  in  Vienne,  who  is  aided  by  his 
brother,  and  it  is  agreed  at  last  to  settle  the  affair  by  a  duel  between 
Roland,  the  emperor's  nephew,  and  Oliver,  the  son  of  Regnier  de 
Genes.  The  two  had  previously  become  fast  friends,  and  Roland 
loves  Aude,  Oliver's  sister ;  consequently,  although  they  fight  with 
great  vigour  and  equality  of  strength,  they  throw  aside  their  swords 
in  the  middle  of  the  combat  and  embrace  one  another  as  worthy 
brothers -in -arms.  A  fitting  compromise  is  found  between  the 
warring  parties  in  an  agreement  that  they  shall  all  unite  and 
attack  the  Saracen  conquerors  of  Spain.  Then  begins  the  famous 
expedition  which  ended  at  Roncesvalles. 


652 


ROMANCE 


Gotten. 


Galien  h  Rhetor^—  This  romance  was  first  printed  in  1500.  It 
is  partly  of  late  composition,  although  sufficiently  ancient  to  have 
rendered  the  word  "rhetore"  (i.e.,  rhetorized,  or  narrated  in  elegant 
prose)  incomprehensible  at  the  time  of  its  impression.  The  word 
was  supposed  to  mean  "restored,"  and  to  indicate  the  restoration 
of  chivalry  by  Galieu.  The  chief  substance  of  the  story  was  the 
ancient  tale  of  Charlemagne's  journey  to  the  East  and  the  Turpin 
Chronicle.  Hugues,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  at  first  receives  the 
Frankish  emperor  and  his  peers  courteously,  but  is  informed  by  a 
spy  of  certain  vaunting  expressions  to  which,  as  is  the  Frankish 
manner,  they  have  given  utterance  amongst  themselves  after  supper. 
These  "gabes,"  as  they  are  called,  are  merely  frolicsome  braggadocio, 
spoken  in  lightheartedness,  and  not  intended  to  convey  any  serious 
intention.  The  spy  and  the  Greek  emperor,  however,  take  them 
as  the  threats  of  dangerous  magicians ;  the  Franks  are  seized  and 
menaced  with  death  if  they  fail  to  fulfil  their  words.  Oliver  is 
first  put  to  the  test ;  his  speech  had  had  reference  to  the  Greek 
princess  Jacqueline,  and  might  better  have  befitted  the  lips  of  a 
Parisian  gamin  of  to-day  than  of  a  young  paladin.  He,  however, 
awakens  a  tender  interest  in  the  lady's  heart,  and  she  indulgently 
informs  her  father  the  next  morning  that  the  knight's  boast  has 
been  fulfilled.  Hugues  requires  that  the  others  shall  also  exhibit 
their  power,  which  they  do  to  his  satisfaction,  partly  by  celestial 
succour  and  partly  by  the  use  of  mother- wit.  He  finally  dismisses 
them  with  presents.  After  Oliver  has  gone,  Jacqueline  becomes 
the  mother  of  Galien,  who  grows  up  in  time  to  hear  of  the  ex- 
pedition to  Spain  and  to  arrive  just  too  late  for  the  battle  in  the 
pass  of  Roncesvalles.  His  dying  father  there  acknowledges  him, 
and  Galien  signalizes  himself  in  the  renewed  fighting  in  which 
Charlemagne  takes  reprisals  for  the  loss  of  his  peers  and  the 
treachery  of  Ganelon.  After  various  deeds  of  valour  in  the  West, 
Galien  returns  to  the  East,  saves  his  mother  from  a  shameful  death, 
and  resumes  the  imperial  crown. 

Milles  et      Milks  et  Amys. — The  prose  romance  in  its  existing  form  was 

Amys.  written  in  the  15th  century,  and  first  printed  by  Verard  about 
1503.  The  martyrdom  of  the  two  friends  is  supposed  to  have 
taken  place  in  774  in  Charlemagne's  war  against  the  Lombards,  and 
their  story  was  popularly  current  in  the  12th  century.  Milles  was 
the  son  of  Anceaume,  count  of  Clermont,  and  Amis  the  son  of  the 
count's  seneschal.  Milles's  parents  celebrate  his  birth  by  making 
a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  During  their  adventures  and  captivity 
in  the  East  Milles  is  robbed  of  his  inheritance  at  home  and 
Amys  is  brought  up  under  a  feigned  name.  They  enter  into  the 
closest  friendship  and  set  out  for  Constantinople,  where  Milles 
discovers  his  captive  mother  acting  as  nurse  to  the  Greek  princess 
Sidoine,  whom  by  her  assistance  he  weds,  after  having  taken  a 
chief  part  in  forcing  the  sultan  of  Acre  to  raise  the  siege  of  Con- 
stantinople. He  becomes  emperor  of  Byzantium,  but  after  a  while 
returns  to  France  with  Amys,  regains  possession  of  his  estates, 
and  makes  Amys  a  duke.  Hearing  that  the  Saracens  have  again 
attacked  Constantinople  and  that  his  Greek  wife  has  perished  in 
the  flames,  he  allows  himself  to  be  seduced  by  Bellisant,  the 
daughter  of  Charlemagne,  who,  however,  makes  an  honest  man 
of  him  by  marriage  and  behaves  honourably  ever  after.  Amys  also 
gets  married.  Then  the  two  friends  also  go  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  from  which  Amys  returns  stricken  with  leprosy.  His 
wife  refuses  to  receive  him,  but  he  is  carefully  tended  by  Milles 
in  his  own  castle  ;  and  now  the  most  striking  episode  in  the  story 
takes  place.  Amys  learns  in  a  dream  that  he  can  only  be  healed 
by  bathing  in  the  blood  of  his  friend's  offspring  and  tells  Milles  of 
it.  The  latter  is  painfully  affected,  but  does  not  hesitate  to  strike 
off  the  heads  of  his  two  children.  Amys  is  cured  and  the  devotion 
of  Milles  repaid  by  a  miracle  from  heaven :  the  children's  heads 
are  replaced  upon  their  shoulders.  Afterwards  Milles  and  Amys 
set  out  on  another  pilgrimage  to  Santiago  de  Compostella.  Ogier 
the  Dane,  then  at  war  with  Charlemagne,  meets  and  treacherously 
slays  them  on  their  way  homeward.  A  continuation  follows,  nar- 
rating the  adventures  of  the  infant  children  of  Milles.  The  widow 
of  Amys  plots  for  their  destruction,  but  they  are  zealously  tended 
by  a  wise  ape,  which  shares  their  fortunes  until  separated  from 
them  by  malice  and  mishap.  Florisset  becomes  a  Saracen  leader 
in  Venice  and  Anceaume  a  brave  warrior  in  the  army  of  Charle- 
magne. The  two  brothers  have  a  desperate  encounter  in  the  war 
which  takes  place,  but  are  recognized  by  the  ape  (which  has 
already  brought  about  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  widow  of 
Amys,  in  a  similar  fashion  to  that  of  the  celebrated  dog  of  Mont- 
argis).  A  restoration  takes  place  :  the  two  young  men  are  acknow- 
ledged the  emperor's  grandsons,  and  the  ape  dies  of  joy. 

Jonrdain  Jourdain  de  Slaves  (or  de  Blaye). — The  prose  romance,  first 
printed  in  1520,  is  altered  from  a  15th-century  poem.  It  is  affili- 

Blaves.  ated  to  Milles  et  Amys,  the  hero  being  the  grandson  of  Amys.  He 
undergoes  the  most  varied  fortunes  :  he  throws  his  wife  with  his  yet 
unborn  child  into  the  sea,  enclosed  in  a  box,  when  the  vessel  bear- 
ing himself  and  his  warriors  is  in  peril  of  shipwreck  ;  he  searches 
for  her  some  years  later,  and  finds  her  in  a  refuge,  to  which  she 
has  fled  from  the  love  of  the  man  who  fished  her  out  of  the  sea, 
and  who  exposed  her  baby -girl  at  the  birth  ;  and  next,  when  hunt- 


ing in  a  forest,  he  finds  his  daughter  running  wild  in  company 
with  a  bitch  and  her  young.  This  is  a  reflexion  of  the  story  of 
Apollonius  of  Tyre,  and  is  rather  a  dull  work. 

Doom  of  Mayence.  — Doon  or  Doolin  of  Mayence  is  the  hero  of  .1  Doon  o 
14th-century  poem,  adapted  as  a  prose  romance  in  the  15th  cen-  Mayeni 
tury,  first  printed  by  Verard  in  1501.  He  is  represented  as  defying 
and  almost  defeating  his  lord  the  emperor,  whom  he  treats  at  first 
with  disrespect.  In  his  earlier  history  he  appears  as  a  son  of  Gui 
of  Mayence,  who,  as  penance  for  an  unintentional  crime,  retires  to 
a  hermitage.  On  his  disappearance  his  wife  is  accused  of  murder, 
condemned  to  death,  and  her  children  banished.  Doon  meets  his 
father  and  returns  to  fight  as  his  mother's  champion,  conquers  his 
enemies,  and  assumes  his  rightful  possessions.  He  falls  in  love 
with  a  Saracen  princess  and  wins  her  by  force,  with  the  help  of 
Charlemagne,  after  the  episode  of  his  quarrel  with  the  emperor. 
The  lady's  father  has  been  aided  by  the  king  of  Denmark  ;  Doon, 
after  his  victory,  seizes  the  Danish  crown,  which  he  transmits 
through  his  son  Geoffrey  to  his  grandson  Ogier. 

Ogier  le  Danois. — There  are  twelve  chansons  upon  the  story  of  Ogier  I 
this  hero,  dating  from  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  and  based  Dane, 
upon  still  older  poems  now  lost.  The  trouveres  Raimbert  and 
Adenez  le  Hoi  were  among  the  authors.  The  story  was  recomposed 
in  prose,  from  the  poem  of  the  latter  writer,  probably  in  the  second 
half  of  the  14th  century.  The  fairies  who  preside  at  Ogier's  birth 
and  endow  him  with  many  gifts  are  a  later  addition  to  the  stoiy  ; 
one  of  them  is  Morgan  la  Fay,  King  Arthur's  sister,  who  foretells 
that  at  the  end  of  his  career  he  shall  go  to  live  with  her  in  im- 
mortal youth  at  Avalon.  While  yet  a  little  boy  he  is  sent  as  a 
hostage  to  Charlemagne  and  is  brought  up  at  the  imperial  court. 
When  fourteen  years  of  age  he  is  banished  to  the  castle  of  St 
Omer,  where  he  falls  in  love  with  the  young  chatelaine,  but  is 
soon  afterwards  ordered  out  of  his  prison  to  accompany  Charle- 
magne on  an  expedition  to  Italy  against  the  invading  Saracens. 
Here,  for  the  first  time,  he  is  subjected  to  the  hatred  and  envy  of 
young  Chariot,  the  emperor's  son  ;  but  on  the  triumph  of  the 
Frankish  arms  he  accompanies  the  monarch  in  his  return  to  Paris 
and  learns  that  his  father  is  dead  and  that  the  chatelaine  has  borne 
him  a  son.  He  departs  to  assume  the  crown  of  Denmark,  but  lays 
it  down  after  a  few  years  and  returns  to  Charlemagne.  His  son 
has  grown  up  and  is  one  day  engaged  in  a  game  of  chess  with 
Chariot,  who,  having  lost  it,  becomes  irritated,  and  kills  him  with 
the  chess-board  (an  incident  frequently  met  with  in  old  fiction). 
Ogier,  in  his  fury  for  revenge,  uses  such  language  that  he  is  com- 
pelled to  fly,  and  betakes  himself  to  the  court  of  the  Lombard 
king  Desiderius,  then  at  war  with  the  emperor.  It  is  on  this 
occasion  that  the  famous  dialogue  takes  place  on  the  walls  of  Pavia. 
Desiderius  or  Didier  wonders,  as  he  and  Ogier  look  forth  together, 
at  the  great  number  of  the  Frankish  warriors  advancing  over  the 
plain,  and,  as  each  successive  body  of  troops,  ever  increasing  in 
strength  and  grandeur,  makes  its  appearance,  he  says,  "  Is  this  the 
emperor  ? "  Ogier  to  each  question  answers,  "  Not  yet,"  till  at  last 
he  cries,  "  When  thou  shalt  see  the  fields  bristling  with  an  iron 
harvest,  and  the  Po  and  the  Ticino,  swollen  with  sea-floods,  inun- 
dating the  walls  of  the  city  with  iron  billows,  then  perhaps  shall 
Karl  be  nigh  at  hand."  Soon  after  the  Iron  Emperor  with  his 
mightiest  host  darkens  the  horizon,  and  Didier  falls  smitten  with 
terror.  The  Lombard  king  is  beaten  ;  Ogier  is  made  prisoner  while 
sleeping,  and  brought  to  the  emperor.  He  still  refuses  to  be  re- 
conciled until  the  monarch  yields  Chariot  to  his  revenge.  Charle- 
magne at  last  gives  way  ;  Ogier,  when  just  on  the  point  of  striking 
off  the  prince's  head,  abstains,  and  foregoes  his  vengeance.  Then, 
returning  to  his  old  station  as  one  of  the  emperor's  chief  paladins, 
he  fights  an  invading  army  and  slays  their  giant  leader.  He  next 
saves  the  king  of  England's  daughter  Clarice  from  captivity, 
marries  her,  and  is  recognized  as  king  of  that  country  ;  but  he 
abandons  for  a  second  time  the  kingly  dignity  and  sets  out  for 
the  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land.  Whilst  returning  to  France,  he 
is  shipwrecked,  comes  upon  a  diamond  castle,  invisible  by  day, 
and  finds  himself  in  Avalon  in  the  company  of  Morgan  la  Fay. 
She  puts  the  ring  of  perpetual  youth  on  his  finger,  the  crown  of 
forgetfulness  on  his  head,  and  he  lives  a  life  of  joy  for  two  cen- 
turies. Then  the  crown  is  taken  off;  he  remembers  his  old  life, 
and  betakes  himself  to  the  new  and  degenerate  French  kingdom 
which  has  succeeded  to  the  empire  of  Charlemagne.  After  restor- 
ing the  spirit  of  the  older  knighthood,  vanquishing  the  Norse 
invaders,  and  passing  through  some  curious  adventures  in  con- 
nexion with  his  ring,  he  is  carried  away  by  Morgan  la  Fay  and 
disappears  for  ever. 

Meurvin. — This  was  a  romance  of  late  origin,  first  printed  at  Mev  » 
Paris  in  1531.     Meurvin  was  the  son  of  Ogier  by  Morgan  la  Fay, 
and  is  a  personage  of  little  interest,  except  for  his  connexion  with 
the  romance  of  the  Knight  of  the  Swan,  whose  ancestor  he  is  repre- 
sented to  be  through  his  son  Oriant. 

The  Four  Sons  of  Aymon ;  or  Regnault  de  Montauban  and  his '. 
Three  Brothers. — This,  one  of  the  most  popular  and  delightful  of  sons 
the  romances  of  this  cycle,  was  printed  many  times  in  the  1 5th  Ayr 
and  16th  centuries,  and  in  later  abridgments  as  a  chap-book. 


653 


Adapted  from  a  13th-century  poem,  it  has  been  considered  as  the 
work  of  Huon  de  Villeneuve  based  upon  earlier  chansons.  Aymon 
de  Dordogne,  brother  of  Beuves  d'Aigremont  and  of  Girard  de  Rous- 
sillon, brings  his  four  sons  to  the  court  of  Charlemagne.  They 
are  knighted  by  the  emperor,  who  makes  a  present  of  the  marvel- 
lous steed  Bayard  to  the  eldest,  Regnault.  This  is  the  charger 
pictorially  represented  as  bearing  all  the  four  champions  on  his 
back  at  once.  Bertholais,  the  nephew  of  Charlemagne,  plays  one 
day  a  game  of  chess  with  Regnault,  and,  losing,  petulantly  strikes 
his  adversary,  who  smites  him  dead  with  the  board.  All  the  four 
sons  of  Aymon  are  compelled  to  fly  and  war  is  immediately  declared 
against  them  as  outlaws,  in  which  their  unhappy  father,  as  the 
feudal  vassal  of  Charlemagne,  is  obliged  to  take  an  active  part. 
Numerous  incidents  of  deadly  peril  and  adventure  on  both  sides 
are  recorded,  and  Regnault  displays  so  much  daring,  skill,  and 
magnanimity  as  to  create  in  the  reader's  mind  a  hatred  of  the 
ungenerous  monarch  who  relentlessly  pursues  the  brothers.  It 
will  be  remarked  how  singularly  the  character  of  Charlemagne  has 
deteriorated  from  the  earlier  type.  The  famous  Bayard  plays  a 
notable  part  in  the  story.  On  one  occasion,  by  the  help  of  his 
cousin,  the  enchanter  Maugis  (son  of  Charlemagne's  assassinated 
enemy  Beuves),  Regnault  captures  the  emperor,  Roland,  Ogier, 
Naimes  of  Bavaria,  and  Turpin.  Although  they  are  in  his  power, 
the  chivalrous  knight  and  his  brothers  merely  kneel  to  Charlemagne 
and  beg  for  peace  and  pardon.  The  monarch's  hatred  is  implac- 
able ;  but  Regnault  nobly  sets  his  captives  free,  and  the  war  begins 
again.  Regimilt,  who  is  lord  of  Montauban,  a  castle  given  him 
by  Yvon,  sovereign  of  Gascony,  for  having  repelled  a  Saracen 
invasion,  retires  from  the  strife  and  makes  a  pilgrimage  to  Pales- 
tine. On  his  return  he  goes  as  a  simple  mason  to  aid  in  the  build- 
ing of  Cologne  cathedral,  and  is  there  slain  by  the  treachery  of 
his  fellow-workmen. 

gis  Maugis  d'Aigremont. — The  special  romance  bearing  this  title 
gre-  (first  printed  about  1520)  is  not  the  only  one  in  which  Maugis  the 
t.  enchanter  plays  a  prominent  part.  He  is  originally  derived  from 
the  13th-century  poem  on  the  four  sons  of  Aymon,  to  whom  he 
furnished  material  assistance  in  the  struggle  against  Charlemagne. 
He  also  appears  as  a  comrade  and  helper  of  Renaud  in  the  Conqiiest 
of  Trcbisond,  and  again  in  the  romance  of  Mabrian  (1530),  in 
which  he  is  elected  pope,  and  finally  perishes  in  a  cave  to  which 
Charlemagne  sets  fire.  These  are  all  three  of  late  origin ;  and  the 
Conqueste  de  Trebisonde  (s.a.,  about  1520)  is  not  even  of  French  com- 
position, but  is  adapted  from  the  14th-century  Italian  poem  of 
Trabisonda.  The  four  sons  of  Aymon,  especially  Regnault  (Tasso's 
hero  Rinaldo),  and  their  kinsman  Maugis  seem  to  have  been  especi- 
ally dear  to  the  Italian  imagination. 

ird  Gerard  d'Euphrate. — This,  printed  in  1549,  and  professedly  trans- 
L-  lated  from  a  metrical  Walloon  original,  is  an  absurd  tale  of  magic, 
,te.  containing  nothing  except  names  to  connect  it  with  the  ancient 
poem  on  Girard  de  Fratte,  one  of  the  vassals  who  warred  against 
the  emperor.  Although  split  into  two  personages  in  course  of 
time,  Girard  de  Fratte  (not  d'Euphrate)  and  Girard  de  Roussillon 
seem  to  have  been  originally  identical.  Girard  was  one  of  the 
sons  of  Doon  of  Mayence,  and  therefore  brother  to  Ayrnon.  Con- 
sequently this  romance  may  be  placed  in  connexion  with  the 
Four  Sons  of  Aymon,  and  also  serves  to  link  it  with  Garin  de 
Montglane,  as  it  is  evident  that  Girard-  de  Vienne  in  the  latter 
romance  is  only  another  form  of  the  older  Girard. 

n  of  Huon  of  Bordeaux. — This  interesting  story  was  compiled  in  prose 
in  1454,  from  a  late  form  of  a  poem  which  was  current  towards  the 
ix.  end  of  the  12th  century,  and  which  has  often  been  attributed  to 
the  trouvere  Huon  de  Villeneuve,  but  without  reason.  Huon,  duke 
of  Guienne,  one  of  the  paladins  of  Charlemagne,  is  on  his  way  to 
Paris  to  pay  his  respects  to  his  liege  lord,  when  he  is  attacked  by 
the  malicious  and  envious  Chariot,  whom  he  kills  in  self-defence. 
The  emperor"  grieves  so  much  for  his  son's  death  that  he  dooms 
the  unlucky  Huon  to  death  also,  notwithstanding  the  intercession 
of  all  the  peers  and  councillors.  At  last  Huon  is  pardoned,  but 
only  on  condition  that  he  shall  make  a  journey  to  the  East  and 
bring  back  from  Baghdad  a  part  of  the  Saracen  amir's  beard  and 
four  of  his  back  teeth,  after  having  slain  one  of  the  Saracen  lords 
and  kissed  the  amir's  daughter  before  his  face.  These  impossible 
tasks  he  is  enabled  to  accomplish  by  the  help  of  the  pretty  dwarf 
Oberon,  who  presents  him  with  a  magical  cup  and  horn.  A  loud 
blast  upon  the  latter  suffices  to  bring  Oberon  and  100,000  warriors 
to  his  aid.  At  the  most  critical  instant  his  magic  powers  fail  him, 
simply  because  he  had  been  guilty  of  deceit  in  announcing  himself 
as  a  Mohammedan  in  order  to  gain  entrance.  The  princess  Esclar- 
monde  has,  however,  fallen  in  love  with  him  and  succours  him. 
He  is  at  length  brought  out  to  fight  the  giant  Agrapard,  who  has 
invaded  Baghdad  ;  he  conquers  him,  and  tries  to  persuade  the  amir 
to  turn  Christian.  Again  when  he  is  in  danger,  Oberon  saves  him  ; 
and  the  teeth  and  beard  are  taken  from  the  dead  Saracen.  Then 
begins  a  series  of  adventures  full  of  peril  and  distress.  Huon  over- 
comes strong  temptations  practised  on  his  chastity  and  the  deadly 
straits  in  which  he  is  placed  by  Saracen  foes  and  treacherous  kins- 
men, and  at  last  makes  Esclarmonde  his  lawful  wife  and  justifies 


himself  before  Charlemagne.  Oberon  always  makes  his  appearance 
when  the  needs  are  sorest,  and  in  fact  plays  the  best  part  in  the 
narrative.  This  romance  has  no  connexion  with  the  actual  history 
of  Charlemagne  ;  but  it  is  an  attractive  work  of  imagination. 

Valentin  et  Orson.  —  This  well-known  and  charming  story,  first  Valen- 
printed  in  1489,  relates  the  lives  of  two  brothers  exposed  in  in-  tine  and 
fancy,  one  of  whom  is  suckled  by  a  bear.     After  many  adventures,  Orson. 
they  regain  their  rightful  position  and  each  learns  his  relationship. 
The  events  are  supposed  to  take  place  in  France  in  the  time  of 
Pippin.     It  is  a  composition  of  the  15th  century. 

Octavien,  or  Florenl  et  Lyon,  is  a  similar  story,  never  printed  in  Octavien. 
French,  although  written  in  that  language,  probably  in  the  15th 
century,  from  an  episode  of  the  Rcali  di  Francia. 

Beuve  d'  Hanstone,  or,  as  he  is  called  in  English,  Bevis  of  Hampton,  Bevis  of 
is  the  subject  of  an  old  French  story  which  was  embodied  in  the  Hamp- 
JReali,  and  is  only  connected  with  Charlemagne  by  the  mention  of  ton. 
King  Pippin  and  the  hero's  kinship  with  the  sons  of  Aymon.    As  a 
French  prose  romance  it  was  printed  by  Verard  about  1500.     It 
had  been  printed  separately  in  Italian  at  Bologna  in  1480.    An  old 
English  poem  on  Bevis  was  in  the  15th  or  16th  century  turned 
into  a  prose  romance,  and  was  printed  about  1560. 

Morgant  le  G&ant  is  only  a  translation  of  Pulci's  poem  Morgante 
Maggiore,  and  Guerin  Mesquin  is  similarly  translated  from  an 
Italian  prose  recomposition  of  an  old  Italian  poem.  Little  more 
than  the  names  was  derived  from  the  old  Charlemagne  chansons  de 
geste  ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  famous  poems  of  Boiardo, 
Berni,  and  Ariosto  upon  Roland  (Orlando). 

Bibliography  of  the  first  printed  Prose  Romances,  including  Texts  and  Transla- 
tions. —  Reali  di  Franza,  fol.  ,  Modena,  1491.  Psevdo-Turpini  chronica,  fol.,  Frank- 
fort, 1566  (forming  a  portion  of  Schard's  Rerum  German.  IV.  vetustiores  chrono- 
graphi)  ;  Chronique  composee  par  Turpin,  fol.,  Paris,  1476  (forming  part  of  the 
Chroniques  de  S.  Denys  ;  first  independent  edition,  Paris,  1527).  Galien  Rethore, 
fol.,  Paris,  Verard,  1500.  Fierabras  le  Geant,  fol.,  Geneva,  1478  —  printed  also 
under  the  title  of  Conqueste  du  grand  roy  Charlemagne,  fol.,  Lyons,  1486  ;  In 
English,  Charles  the  Great,  Caxton,  1485  ;  in  Spanish,  1528.  Guerin  de  Mon- 
glave,  fol.,  Paris,  1518.  Doolin  de  Mayence,  fol.,  Paris,  Verard,  1501.  Ogier  le 
Danois,  fol.,  Paris,  Verard,  c.  1498.  Quatre  Filz  Aymon,  fol.,  Lyons,  c.  1480  ; 
in  English,  The  Foure  Sonnes  of  Aymon,  fol.,  Caxton;  in  Spanish,  Reynaldos 
de  Montalvan,  fol.,  Seville,  1525  (translated  from  an  unprinted  Italian  ver- 
sion of  the  Quatre  Filz  and  the  Trebisonde  united)  ;  Conqufste  de  Trebisonde 
(Regnaultde  Montauban),  4to,  Paris,  c.  1520.  Chronique  de  Mabrian,  fol.,  Paris, 
1530.  Maugist  d'Aygremont,  4to,  Paris,  c.  1520.  Beuves  d'Anthonne  et  la  belle 
Josienne,  fol.,  Paris,  Verard,  c.  1500;  in  English,  Syr  Bevis  of  Hampton,  4to, 
W.  Copland,  c.  1560.  Roman  de  Meurvin,  fils  d'Oger  le  Danois,  8vo,  Paris,  1531. 
Gerard  d'Euphrate,  fol.,  Paris,  1549  ;  Gerard  de  Roussillon,  Lyons,  c.  1530.  Milles 
et  Amys,  fol.,  Paris,  Verard,  c.  1503  ;  in  Italian,  Milles  e  Amis,  4to,  Venice,  1503  ; 
Jourdain  de  Slaves,  fol.,  Paris,  1520.  fluon  de  Bordeaulx,  fol.,  Paris,  1516  ;  in 
English,  Huon  of  Bordeux,  Copland,  c.  1540.  Valentin  et  Orson,  fol.,  Lyons, 
1489  ;  in  English,  Valentine  and  Orson,  4to,  ed.  Copland,  c.  1560  ;  in  Italian, 
Valentino  ed  Orsone,  8vo,  Venice,  1557.  Clamades  et  Clermonde,  fol.,  Lyons,  1480  ; 
in  Spanish,  Clamades  y  Claramonda,  4to,  Burgos,  1521.  [Octavien  :]  Florent 
et  Lyon,  4to,  Paris,  s.a.  ;  in  German,  Keyser  Octavianus,  fol.,  Strasburg,  1535. 
Morgant  le  Ge<<nt,  fol.,  Paris,  1519.  Guerin  Mesquin,  4to,  1530;  in  Italian, 
Guerino  Meschino,  fol.,  Padua,  1473  ;  in  Spanish,  Guerino  Mesquino,  Seville,  1512. 

(c)  Spanish  Cycle  :  Amadis  and  Palmerin. 

Arthur  had  become  in  Britain  not  only  a  national  hero  Amadis 
of  romance  but  also  a  leading  figure  around  whom  might  of  GauL 
be  grouped  the  adventures  of  subordinate  knights.  Charle- 
magne filled  a  similar  place  for  French  writers,  but  had 
the  advantage  of  being  a  more  distinct  historical  character 
than  Arthur.  In  the  Iberian  peninsula,  where  we  find  the 
next  great  cycle  of  stories,  the  circumstances  which  pro- 
duced the  national  hero  (the  Cid)  were  still  progressive, 
and  his  history  was  too  real  to  melt  into  such  romantic 
fiction  as  dealt  in  France  and  England  with  remote  and 
shadowy  paladins  and  the  wonders  of  fairyland.  There- 
fore, while  the  Cid  had  an  ever-present  reality  in  ballads, 
the  earliest  appearance  of  prose  romance  in  Spain  was  in 
an  artificial  imitation  of  the  Franco-British  cycle.  As  it 
was  a  work  of  great  merit,  its  fictitious  hero  became,  as 
it  were,  the  central  figure  in  the  stories  which  followed  and 
which  bore  to  one  another  a  strong  family  likeness.  Most 
of  the  chief  heroes  are  illegitimate,  like  Amadis  ;  the  adven- 
tures of  two  brothers  are  told  ;  and  there  is  much  similarity 
of  incident  and  character.  Many  of  the  scenes  are  laid  in 
Constantinople.  Amadis  de  Gaula  is  the  poetical  sire  of 
an  extraordinary  series  of  romances,  which  in  the  words 
of  Cervantes1  form  an  "inumerable  linaje,"  and  is  itself 
the  most  interesting  and  remarkable  of  them.  Although 
its  reputation  is  due  to  the  Spanish  redaction  of  Mont- 
alvo,  there  was  an  earlier  Portuguese  version  by  Vasco  de 
Lobeira  (d.  1403),  a  gentleman  of  the  court  of  Joao  I. 


1  Under  AMADIS  of  Gaul  (vol.  i.  p.  650)  may  be  seen  the  different 
references  in  Don  Quixote  to  the  romance. 


654 


ROMANCE 


At  the  end  of  the  16th  century  a  manuscript  of  this  ver- 
sion was  in  the  possession  of  the  dukes  of  Aveiro  at 
Lisbon,  but  since  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  all 
traces  of  it  have  been  lost.  There  is,  however,  reason  to 
believe  that  the  earliest  form  of  the  story  was  in  Castilian 
(o.  1250  T),  also  entirely  lost.  In  a  moral  poem,  El  Rimado 
de  Palacio,  written  about  1400,  we  find  Pedro  Lopez  de 
Ayala  speaking  of  having  wasted  his  youth  with 
"  Libros  de  desvaneos  e  mentiras  probadas 

Amadis  e  Lanzarote," 

which  is  sufficient  to  prove  that  Amadis  existed  about 
the  period  1350-60.  There  is  also  a  reference  to  Galaor, 
brother  of  Amadis,  in  the  chronicle  of  Ramon  Muntaner 
(1325-28),  as  well  as  to  Tristan,  Lancelot,  and  "other 
knights  of  the  Round  Table."  There  are  several  allusions 
in  the  Cancionero  of  Baena  (1440-50)  to  an  ancient  version, 
one  especially  to  its  being  "  en  tres  lybros."  The  earliest 
form  is  likely  to  have  been  in  verse.  The  author  was 
well  acquainted  with  the  Arthurian  legends,  and  we  find 
a  marked  imitation  of  Tristan  and  especially  Lancelot. 
Many  of  the  names  indicate  a  Celtic  origin  :  Gaula  cer- 
tainly means  Wales  and  not  France,  as  they  who  insist 
upon  a  French  original  of  the  romance  would  lead  us  to 
believe.  There  still  remains  much  that  is  entirely  novel. 
In  the  words  of  M.  Baret,  to  whom  the  literary  history  of 
this  romance  owes  so  much — 

"Si,  par  la  tradition  primitive,  \' Amadis  de  Gaule  derive  de  la 
source  commune  des  romans  de  la  Table  Ronde,  si  meme  il  a  existe 
une  version  Portugaise,  c'est  neanmoins  h  1'Espagne  que  doit  de- 
meurer  1'honneur  d' avoir  cree,  stir  un  theme  ancien,  une  composi- 
tion originale,  en  introduisant  dans  un  cadre  emprunte  la  nuance 
particuliere  de  sentiments  et  1'art  nouveau  qui  donnent  a  notre 
roman  son  importance  et  sa  valeur  speciales  "  (De  I' Amadis,  p.  21). 

Of  the  primitive  Amadis,  probably  in  three  books, 
which  charmed  the  youth  of  Ayala  nothing  is  known. 
The  prose  romance  we  now  possess  was  written  about 
1465  by  Garci-Ordonez  de  Montalvo,  governor  of  Medina 
del  Campo,  to  whom  we  may  assign  all  traces  of  a  spirit 
later  than  the  first  years  of  the  14th  century,  and  to  whom 
the  whole  of  the  fourth  book  may  be  due.  This  book  is 
more  refined  and  more  romantic  than  the  others.  One  of 
the  chief  reasons  of  the  popularity  of  this  version  is  the 
happy  manner  in  which  the  improvement  in  manners-  is 
indicated.  For  the  first  time  in  chivalric  romances  we 
find  distinct  traces  of  the  personality  of  the  writer.  The 
tastes,  feelings,  and  prejudices  of  Spain  towards  the  end 
of  the  1 5th  century  are  well  expressed,  without  loss  of  the 
high  chivalry  of  an  earlier  and  simple  time.  It  was  first 
printed  at  Saragossa  in  1508.1  Within  the  next  fifty 
years  thirteen  or  fourteen  more  editions  issued  from  the 
press,  and  Amadis  became  fully  established  as  the  popular 
hero  of  Spanish  romance.  When  the  Spaniards  first  saw 
Mexico  in  1519  they  were  reminded  of  the  enchantments 
of  the  story. 

rransla-  Francis  I.  made  acquaintance  with  the  Amadis  during  his  Spanish 
:ions  of  captivity  and  directed  Nicolas  de  Herberay,  seigneur  of  Essarts, 
Ajnadis.  a  gentleman  of  Picardy,  to  translate  it.  The  first  four  books  of 
the  original  work  were  first  printed  in  French  in  1540.  De  Her- 
beray also  translated  most  of  the  continuations  down  to  the  ninth 
book.  He  died  about  1552,  and  Boileau,  Gohorry,  and  others  con- 
tinued the  work.  Estienne  Pasquier,  in  his  Recherchcs  de  la  France 
(1611),  alludes  to  the  popularity  of  the  French  Amadis,  "dans 
lequel  vous  pouvez  cueillir  toutes  les  belles  fleurs  de  nostre  langue 
Fran9oyse.  Jamais  livre  ne  feut  ernbrasse  avec  tant  de  faveur  que 
cestuy."  De  Herberay  gives  as  his  reason  for  the  translation,  "pour 
ce  qu'il  est  tout  certain  qu'il  fust  premier  mis  en  nostre  langue 
Franijoyse,  estant  Amadis  Gaulois  et  non  Espagnol.  Et  qu'ainsi 
soit,  j'en  ai  trouve  encores  quelque  reste  d'un  vieil  livre  escrit  a  la 
main  en  langage  Picard."  This  contention,  which  cannot  seriously 


1  Until  recently  bibliographers  considered  an  edition  printed  at 
Salamanca  in  1519  as  the  edttio  princeps,  although  Clemencin  and 
others  cited  one  of  1510,  which  no  one  had  seen.  A  most  interesting 
discovery  was,  however,  made  at  Ferrara  in  1872  of  an  entirely  unheard- 
of  edition  produced  at  Saragossa  by  G.  Coci  in  1508. 


be  held,  was  insisted  upon  by  M.  de  Tressan  in  his  abridgment  of 
the  Amadis  de  Gaule  (1779),  wherein  a  French  origin  for  the  first 
three  books  is  claimed  upon  the  authority  of  certain  MSS.  in  that 
language.  The  commencement  of  an  Italian  translation  of  the 
Amadis  romances  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1546,  and  the  stories 
became  equally  popular  in  that  language.  Bernardo  Tasso,  while 
on  a  mission  to  Spain  about  1535,  read  the  Amadis  with  delight 
and  afterwards  based  upon  it  his  poem  of  Amadigi  di  Francia 
(1560).  He  preferred  the  Amadis  to  all  the  French  romances,  not 
even  excepting  Lancelot.  Living  at  that  time,  his  evidence  is  ex- 
tremely valuable.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  heard  of  Lobeira's 
version  nor  yet  of  the  French  and  Portuguese  pretensions.  In  his 
opinion  the  story  was  taken  from  some  ancient  British  history. 
The  romance  was  translated  into  German  in  1569  and  into  Dutch 
in  1619.  Graesse  (Tresor,  vii.  p.  30)  describes  a  Hebrew  translation 
of  the  first  four  books  by  Jacob  ben  Moses  Algabbai,  printed  at 
Constantinople  by  Eliezer  ben  Gerson  Soncini,  without  elate.  The 
Amadis  was  first  read  in  English  through  a  version  from  the  French 
by  Anthony  Munday  (1592).  Robert  Southey's  Amadis  of  Gaul 
(London,  1803,  4  vols.  sin.  8vo)  is  an  excellent  translation,  in 
which,  however,  there  are  constant  signs  of  editorial  pruning. 
W.  S.  Rose  put  the  romance  into  verse  from  De  Herberay's  French 
text  (London,  1803,  sm.  8vo).  Besides  the  Amadigi  of  Tasso, 
the  romance  gave  rise  to  Amadis,  a  drama  by  Gil  Vicente  (1521), 
the  Portuguese  Plautus,  to  an  opera  by  Lulli,  represented  at  the 
Academic  Royale  de  Musique  at  Paris  (1684),  to  a  poem  by  Wieland 
(1771),  the  forerunner  of  his  Oberon,  and  to  another  by  Creuze  de 
Lesser  (1813).  The  translation  of  De  Herberay  had  an  extra- 
ordinary success.  It  penetrated  even  to  the  convents.  The  Hugue- 
not La  Noue  and  the  Catholic  Possevino  protested  against  it  in 
vain.  The  allusions  to  the  Amadis  and  its  continuations  are  end- 
less ;  for  instance, — "La  gloire  de  Nicquee,"  used  for  the  bracket 
seat  of  a  coach  ;  the  proverbial  saj'ing  ' '  envoyer  chez  Guillot  lo 
songeur";  " Dariolette, "  the  name  for  a  confidant;  "Urgandela 
desconnue,"  a  phrase  with  Scarron  and  La  Fontaine;  and  many 
more.  The  romance  even  furnished  Christian  names  to  some 
noble  families,  as  to  the  lovely  Corisande,  countess  of  Guiche. 
The  festal  pageantries  in  vogue  at  the  court  of  Charles  V.  were 
imitated  from  it.  A  poetical  title  of  Queen  Elizabeth  was  "the 
fair  Oriana."  Burton  refers  to  the  reading  of  the  romance  in  his 
Anatomy  of  Melancholy  (1621). 

The  period  of  Los  Quatro  Libros  del  Cavallero  Amadis  de  Sketcl 
Gaula  is  supposed  to  be  earlier  than  that  of  Arthur  or  of  of  the 
Charlemagne.  The  hero  is  the  illegitimate  child  of  Perion, s  ory< 
king  of  Gaul,  and  of  Elisena,  princess  of  Brittany,  and  is 
set  adrift  at  sea  in  a  cradle.  He  is  picked  up  by  a  Scottish 
knight,  who  takes  him  to  his  own  country ;  he  calls  him 
the  Child  of  the  Sea  and  educates  him  at  the  king's  court. 
Having  been  knighted,  Amadis  goes  to  the  assistance  of 
his  father  Perion  (the  relationship  being  then  unknown), 
who  in  the  meantime  had  married  Elisena,  by  whom  he 
had  a  lawfully  begotten  son,  Galaor.  The  second  child  is 
stolen  by  a  giant.  Amadis  becomes  revealed  to  his  parents 
through  a  ring,  and  consoles  them  in  their  new  loss.  He 
overthrows  the  king  of  Ireland,  who  had  invaded  Gaul, 
and  returns  to  England.  The  adventures  of  the  two 
brothers  Amadis  and  Galaor  in  England,  France,  Germany, 
and  the  East  occupy  the  remainder  of  the  work,  which  is 
full  of  combats  between  them  and  other  knights,  magicians, 
and  giants.  While  a  youth  at  the  Scottish  court  Amadis 
met  Oriana,  daughter  of  Lisuarte,  king  of  England,  who 
had  been  sent  away  from  home  in  consequence  of  political 
troubles.  The  vicissitudes  of  their  love  form  a  marked 
feature  of  the  tale.  At  one  time  the  hero,  disguised  and 
under  the  name  of  Beltenebros,2  retires  to  a  hermitage 
upon  receiving  a  cruel  letter  from  Oriana.  After  defeating 
a  hundred  knights  by  whom  Lisuarte  had  been  attacked, 
and  some  further  exploits,  Amadis  has  to  leave  Oriana  and 
the  English  court  owing  to  the  jealous  suspicions  of  the 
king.  He  returns  to  rescue  the  princess  from  the  Romans, 
and  afterwards  carries  on  a  long  war  with  Lisuarte,  who  is 
also  attacked  by  a  second  enemy,  Aravigo.  In  this  per- 
plexity Lisuarte  is  generously  assisted  by  Amadis,  who 

2  From  the  French  translation  "Le  beau  tenebreux"  comes  the 
popular  application  of  the  phrase  to  taciturn  and  melancholy  lovers. 
The  episode,  parodied  by  Cervantes,  is  derived  from  the  romance  of 
Tristan.  Amadis  was  also  known  by  the  names  of  the  Knight  of  the 
Sword  and  the  Greek  Knight. 


ROMANCE 


655 


slays  Aravigo.  Lisuarte  then  consents  to  the  marriage  of 
his  daughter  with  Amadis  on  the  Firm  Island,  whose 
wonders  are  brought  to  an  end  by  Oriana  entering  a 
certain  magic  chamber, — a  feat  only  to  be  accomplished 
by  the  fairest  and  most  faithful  of  women.1 

The  Amadis  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  romances  and 
contains  many  passages  of  much  beauty  and  even  tender- 
ness. The  boyish  attachment  between  the  Child  of  the 
Sea  and  Oriana  is  well  told.  The  princess  is  weak  and 
jealous,  and  not  altogether  a  pleasing  character.  Amadis 
is  a  fine  creation  and  is  well  distinguished  from  his  brother 
Galaor.  Both  are  brave,  but  the  elder  is  grave  and  the 
younger  gay.  Amadis  is  the  type  of  a  constant  lover ;  his 
brother  is  more  changeful.  A  modern  reader  may  be 
wearied  by  the  intolerable  length  of  the  Amadis  and  by 
the  continual  recurrence  of  similar  adventures  all  ending 
in  the  same  way.  But  these  repetitions  seemed  no  fault 
to  readers  whose  tastes  were  easily  satisfied  and  to  whom 
such  fictions  came  as  an  entirely  new  source  of  delight. 
i-  The  continuations  are  inferior  to  their  prototype  and  become 

na-  more  full  of  complicated  incidents  and  strange  adventures  as  they 
is  proceed.  The  characters  alter  :  for  instance,  the  Urganda  of  the 
;lie  first  four  books  is  a  fairy  like  Morgan  la  Fay,  but  subsequently  she 
ry.  develops  into  an  enchantress  of  a  more  Eastern  and  malignant 
nature  like  her  rivals  Zirfea  and  Melia.  Besides  his  redaction  of 
the  Amadis,  Montalvo  composed  about  1485  an  original  work,  about 
one-third  as  long,  giving  the  history  of  a  son  of  the  hero,  called 
Esplandian.  In  order  that  it  might  share  in  the  popularity  of  the 
father's  achievements,  it  came  forth  as  Quinto  Libra  d' Amadis  de 
Gaula,  o  las  Sergas  del  Cavallero  Esplandiano.  The  curate  justly 
decreed  that  ' '  the  merits  of  the  father  must  not  be  imputed  to  the 
son"  when  he  cast  the  volume  on  the  bonfire  in  Don  Quixote's 
courtyard.  Although  perhaps  the  best  of  the  continuations,  it  is 
not  equal  to  the  original.  We  read  that  before  marriage  Oriana 
bore  a  child  to  Amadis,  and  in  order  to  hide  her  shame  the  boy 
is  sent  to  a  distant  country.  While  those  in  charge  of  him  are 
passing  through  a  forest  a  lioness  carries  him  off,  but  a  hermit 
meets  and  rebukes  the  animal,  which  subsequently  suckles  the 
young  Esplandian.  When  he  grows  up  the  lioness  continues  her 
care  and  accompanies  him  to  the  chase.  King  Lisuarte  one  day 
witnesses  this,  which  is  the  cause  of  Oriana  recognizing  her  son 
by  certain  marks  on  his  body.  He  is  brought  up  at  the  court  of 
Lisuarte  and  receives  knighthood.  He  then  begins  his  adventures 
under  the  title  of  the  Black  Knight  (from  his  armour),  and  sails 
for  Turkey,  where  most  of  his  exploits  take  place.  The  Christians 
are  assisted  by  the  enchantress  Urganda  and  the  infidels  by  her  rival 
Melia.  Amadis,  Galaor,  Esplandian,  and  the  knights  being  in 
great  danger  of  death,  Urganda  saves  them  by  putting  them  all 
to  sleep  on  the  Firm  Island  until  Lisuarte,  son  of  Esplandian,  could 
obtain  possession  of  a  certain  magic  sword.  The  romance  was  first 
printed  in  1510,  and  five  editions  appeared  before  the  end  of  the 
century.  This  was  soon  followed  by  other  similar  romances,  each 
with  an  illegitimate  descendant  of  Amadis  for  a  hero,  with  a  son 
who  performs  exploits  still  more  wonderful  than  those  of  his  father, 
— a  perpetual  succession  of  heroes.  At  the  end  of  the  Esplandian 
Montalvo  speaks  of  writing  another  book  to  carry  on  the  history 
still  further.  This  caused  some  one,  believed  to  be  Paez  de  Ribera, 
to  bring  out  El  Sexto  Libro,  en  que  se  cuentan  los  Grandes  Hechos 
de  Florisando,  nephew  of  Amadis,  taken  from  an  Italian  source. 
This  was  translated  into  English  and  Italian,  but  not  into  French. 
The  Septinio  Libro,  en  el  qual  se  trata  de  los  Grandes  Hechos  en  armas 
de  Lisuarte  de  Grecia  y  Perion  de  Gaula,  deals  with  the  life  of  the 
son  of  Esplandian  and  Leonorina.  The  other  character  is  Perion, 
son  of  Amadis  and  Oriana,  and  the  type  of  the  fickle  lover,  as 
opposed  to  Lisuarte,  who  is  more  like  Amadis.  The  book  com- 
mences with  the  voyage  of  Perion  from  England  to  Ireland,  but 
a  lady  in  a  boat  with  a  crew  of  four  monkeys  separates  him  from 
his  followers.  He  goes  to  Trebizond  and  falls  in  love  with  Gricileria, 
daughter  of  the  emperor.  When  Lisuarte  is  a  prisoner  in  charge  of 
the  king  of  the  Giants'  Isle,  Gradaffile,  the  daughter  of  the  latter, 
escapes  with  him  to  Constantinople,  where  after  many  combats 
he  obtains  the  magic  sword  and  enables  Amadis  and  the  knights 
to  escape  from  the  magic  sleep  in  the  Firm  Island  (see  Esplandian 
above).  Lisuarte  eventually  marries  Onoloria,  sister  of  Gricileria. 
The  work  continues  Florisand  and  is  attributed  to  Feliciano  de 
Silva.  Juan  Diaz,  the  author  of  El  Octavo  Libro,  que  trata  de 


1  This  kind  of  incident,  which  is  frequently  to  be  found  in  the  subse- 
quent books  as  a  test  of  chastity,  is  connected  with  the  kindred  story 
of  the  ill-fitting  cloak  in  the  Arthurian  legend.  Spenser  uses  it  in  the 
Faerie  Queene  (iii.  12)  where, 

"  The  maske  of  Cupid  and  th'  enchant-ed 
Chamber  are  displayed." 


Lisuarte  de  Grecia  y  de  la  Muerte  del  Rey  Amadis,  pretended  that 
his  work  was  taken  from  the  Greek.  It  also  is  a  continuation  of 
Florisand  and  was  not  translated. 

We  now  come  to  Libro  Noveno,  que  es  la  Chronica  del  Principe  y 
Cavallero  de  la  Ardiente  Espada,  Amadis  de  Grecia,  a  continuation 
of  the  seventh  and  not  of  the  eighth  book,  and  more  full  of  marvels 
than  any  of  its  predecessors.  Amadis  of  Greece,  the  son  of  Lisu- 
arte and  Onoloria,  is  carried  off  by  pirates  when  an  infant  and  sold 
to  a  Moorish  king.  He  derived  his  name  from  the  figure  of  a  flam- 
ing sword  upon  his  breast.  The  exploits  commence,  like  those  in 
the  Esplandian,  at  the  Forbidden  Mountain,  and  the  family  history 
concludes,  as  in  the  same  romance,  with  the  enchantment  by  Zirfea 
of  all  the  heroes  and  princesses  in  the  Tower  of  the  Universe  in 
order  to  prevent  their  death  at  a  fated  moment.  Feliciano  de  Silva 
is  the  reputed  author.  Stimulated  by  the  success  of  his  two 
anonymous  productions,  the  same  writer  continued  the  series  with 
four  more  parts,  of  which  the  Coronica  de  los  Valientes  Caballeros  D. 
Florisel  de  Niquea  y  el  Fuerte  Anaxartes  forms  the  tenth  book  and 
contains  the  first  two  parts.  Genealogically  the  romance  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  Lisuarte  and  Amadis  de  Grecia.  Florisel  is  the  son  of 
the  latter  person  and  the  princess  of  Niquea.  In  these  fictions  a 
new  character  is  introduced,  Darinel,  a  kind  of  comic  shepherd, 
in  love  with  the  heroine  Sylvia,  daughter  of  Lisuarte  and  Onoloria, 
through  whom  Florisel  becomes  acquainted  with  the  heroine.  All 
three  go  to  the  relief  of  Anastarax,  who  is  confined  by  enchantment 
in  a  fiery  prison.  But  the  achievement  of  the  exploit  is  reserved 
for  the  Amazon  Alastraxerea,  whose  adventures  occupy  a  great 
portion  of  the  tale,  which  culminates  in  the  siege  of  Constantinople 
by  all  the  potentates  of  western  Europe  in  consequence  of  Florisel 
having  carried  off  Helena,  princess  of  Apollonia.  Among  other 
new  characters  are  the  enchantress  Armida  and  the  "strong" 
Anaxartes,  who  marries  young  Oriana,  sister  of  Florisel.  The 
amount  of  bloodshed  throughout  the  work  is  only  equalled  by  the 
number  of  marriages.  The  third  part  of  Florisel  forms  the  eleventh 
book  of  Amadis  and  is  known  as  Chronica  de  Don  Florisel  de  Niquea, 
en  la  qual  se  trata  de  D.  Rogel  de  Grecia  y  el  Segundo  Agesilao. 
Rogel  is  the  son  of  Florisel  and  Helena,  and  brother  of  Agesilao 
the  Second,  so  called  to  distinguish  him  from  Agesilao  of  Colchos. 
A  few  years  later  Feliciano  de  Silva  published  the  fourth  part  of 
Don  Florisel,  in  two  books,  the  second  of  which  treats  of  the  loves 
of  Rogel  of  Greece  and  Archisidea,  and  of  Agesilao  and  Diana, 
daughter  of  Queen  Sidonia.  The  author  in  his  preface  implies 
that  the  work  was  intended  as  an  allegorical  celebration  of  the 
military  and  domestic  virtues  of  Charles  V. 

The  hero  of  La  Dozcna  Parte  que  tracta  de  los  grandes  Hechos  en 
Armas  del  Cav.  Don  Silves  de  la  Selva,  was  the  son  of  Amadis  of 
Greece  and  Finistea.  Born  on  a  desert  island,  Don  Silvio  first  dis- 
tinguishes himself  at  the  siege  of  Constantinople  described  in  the 
tenth  book.  The  Greek  empresses  and  princesses  having  been 
carried  off  by  enchantment,  he  accompanies  the  knights  who  go  in 
search  of  them.  The  ladies  are  rescued,  but  during  their  absence 
have  become  mothers,  among  others  of  Spheramond,  son  of  Rogel, 
and  Amadis  of  Astre,  son  of  Agesilao.  Feliciano  de  Silva  some- 
times passes  for  the  author,  who  was  really  Pedro  de  Lujan.  The 
work  is  in  two  parts,  which  in  French  make  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  books.  Lepolemo  6  el  Caballero  de  la  Cruz  and  Leandro 
el  Bel  are  considered  to  make  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  books. 
From  a  unique  first  edition  (1521)  of  Lepolemo  discovered  a  few 
years  since  it  appears  that  it  professed  to  be  a  translation  by  Alonso 
de  Salazar.  The  hero  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  and 
was  carried  away  in  infancy  to  the  East.  N.  Antonio  speaks  of 
a  certain  romance  composed  by  a  Portuguese,  entitled  Penalva, 
the  last  of  the  line  of  the  original  Amadis.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
dealt  with  the  last  exploits  and  death  of  Lisuarte  of  Greece,  but  if 
it  existed  at  all  no  printed  copy  has  ever  yet  been  seen.  The 
other  Spanish  romances  usually  appended  to  the  Amadis  series  are 
mentioned  in  the  bibliographical  list  below. 

In  the  French  series  more  and  more  liberties  are  taken  with  the  The 
original  as  the  work  proceeds.     As  shown  in  the  table  below,  the  French 
numbers  of  the  books  do  not  tally.     The  fifteenth,  entirely  due  to  series  of 
Antoine  Tyron,  describes  the  feats  of  Sferamond  (so  called  fromcontinu- 
a  birthmark  representing  a  globe)  of  Greece  and  Amadis  d' Astre.  ations. 
The  sixteenth  to  the  twenty-first  books  continue  the  adventures  of ' 
Sferamond  and  were  translated  from  the  Italian  of  Mambrino  Roseo 
by  Gabriel  Chappuys.     Duplicate  versions  from  the  Italian  were 
made  by  Nicolas  de  Montreux  of  the  sixteenth,  by  Jacques  Chariot 
of  the  nineteenth,  and  by  Jean  Bovion  of  the  twentieth  books. 
The  twenty-second  to  the  twenty -fourth  books,  devoted  to  Fulgoran, 
Safiraman,  and  Hercules  d' Astre,  continue  and  form  a  new  conclusion 
of  the  French  Amadis.     Only  one  edition  appeared  (Paris,  1615,  3 
vols.  8vo),  now  extremely  rare.     The  naive  and  pure  style  of  the 
earliest  of  the  series  degenerates  into  an  uninteresting  succession 
of  coarse  and  obscene  incidents.     In  the  twenty-third  book  we  are 
taken  for  the  first  time  to  America.     Flares  de  Grece  (1552)  is  con- 
sidered to  form  the  twenty-fifth  book.     Genealogically  it  would  be 
the  sixth,  as  the  hero  is  the  second  sou  of  Esplandian.     In  the  16th 
century  the  French  Amadis  library  extended  to  30  vols.  of  various 


656 


ROMANCE 


sizes.  In  the  17th  century  appeared  a  new  work  forming,  as  it 
were,  the  preliminary,  being  the  history  of  the  Chevalier  du  Sokil 
and  his  Brother  Rosiclair,  sons  of  the  emperor  Trebatius  (Paris, 
1620-25,  8  vols. ), — not  identical  with  the  Spanish  Febo.  Belianis  de 
Grece  (1625)  forms  one  vol.,  and  the  Roman  des  Romans  (1626-29) 
— containing  the  end  of  the  career  of  the  Knight  of  the  Sun,  .all  the 
Amadises,  Flores,  and  Belianis — forms  8  vols. ,  and  finishes  this  long 
series  of  about  50  vols.  The  Thresor  de  tous  les  Livres  d' Amadis 
(1559-60,  frequently  reprinted)  is  a  selection  of  the  speeches,  letters, 
cartels,  complaints,  &c. ;  it  was  translated  into  English  as  The 
Treasury  of  Amadis  of  France  (H.  Bynneman,  n.d. ;  about  1575). 

The  Italian  translation,  which  is  extremely  difficult  to  obtain 
complete,  conforms  more  closely  to  the  Spanish.  The  Sferamundi 
romances  were  first  composed  in  that  language  by  Mambrino  Roseo. 
A  perfect  set  of  the  German  version  is  also  very  rare.  Some  of 
these  volumes  were  translated  by  a  Protestant,  who  made  changes 
to  suit  his  religious  views,  such  as  altering  "mass"  to  "sermon." 

Pedigree  of  the  Amadis  Heroes. 
Perion,  king  of  Gaul,  m.  Elisena. 


Melicia, 
m.  Bruneo 
de  Bonamar. 


Florestan,        Amadis  of  Gaul, 
m.  Sardauiira.        m.  Oriana. 


Galaor, 
m.  Briolania. 


Florisand. 


Flores  of  Brisena, 
Greece  or  m.  enip. 
Florisand.  of  Rome. 


Esplandian,     Perion     Perion.   Talan-  Gar- 
m.  Leon-       of  Gaul,  que.    inter. 

orina.      m.  Gricileria. 


Lisuarte  of  Greece, 
m.  Onoloria. 


Flores  of  Greece  II. 

Knight  of  the 

Swan. 


Sylvia, 
m.  Anaxartes. 


Amadis  of  Greece,— 
m.  princess  of  Niquea. 


Anaxart«s, 
m.  Oriana. 


Silvio  de  la  Selva, 
son  of  Amadis  and  Finistea. 


Florisel  de  Niquea, 
TO.  Helena. 


Alastraxerea. 


Apesilao  the 

Second, 

m.  Diana. 

Amadis  of  Astre. 

Lisuarte, 
TO.  Brisena, 
I 


Rogel  of  Greece, 
w.  Archisidea. 


Spheramond. 


Felix  Marte 
of  Greece. 


Norandel,          Oriana,        Leonora. 
m.  Menoressa.     m.  Amadis. 

Bibliographical  List  of  first  Editions  of  Amadis  Romances. 


Bk. 

Spanish. 

French. 

Italian. 

English. 

1-4. 

Amadis  (Montalvo,  1508)  .  . 

(Herberay,  1540) 

(1546)    .... 

(A.  Munday, 

1592) 

5. 

Esplandian  (Montalvo,  1510) 

(Do.,  1541)... 

(Mambrino 

(J.  Johnson, 

Roseo,  1550) 

1664) 

6. 

FJorisando  (Paez  de  Ribera, 

Net  translated.. 

(1550)  .... 

(F.  Kirkman, 

1510) 

1652) 

7. 

Lisuarte  de  Grecia  y  Perion 

(Herberay,  1546) 

(Do.)  

(1693) 

de   Gaula.   (Feliciano   de 

Silva,  1514) 

8. 

Lisuarte  de  Grecia  y  Muerte 

Not  translated  .  . 

Not  trans. 

de  Amadis  (Juan    Diaz, 

1526) 

9. 

Amadis  de  Grecia  (Feliciano 

(Herberay,  1546- 

(1550) 

de  Silva,  1535) 

48) 

10. 

Florisel  de  Nujuea,  pts.  1-2 
(Fel.  de  Silva,  1532) 

(G.Boileau,1552; 
J.  Gohorry,  1555) 

(1551) 

11. 

Rogel  de  Grecia,    pt.   3  of 

(J.Gohorry,1554; 

(1551) 

Florisel  (1536) 

G.  Aubert,  1556) 

12. 

Silvio  de  la  Selva  (1546)  

(Do.,    1571;   A. 

(1561) 

13. 

Lepolemo  6  el  Caballero  de  la 

Tyron,  1576) 
Meliadus,  dit  le  .  . 

Cav.    della 

Cruz  (1521) 

Chev.  de  la,  Croix 

Croce    (P. 

(1534) 

Loro,1580) 

14. 

Leandro  el  Bel  (1563)  

Not  translated  .  . 

Not  trans. 

Esferamundi  de  Grecia    .... 

Sferamondi       et 

Sferamundi 

Amadis   d'Astre 

pts.       1-6 

pt.  1  (A.  Tyron, 

(1558) 

1577) 

Sferamondi,  pts. 

.... 

2-6    (G.    Chap- 

puys,  1578-82) 

Febo  y  Rosicler   4  pts.  (Or- 
tufiez  de  Calahorra  and 

Chev.    du   Soleil 
(1620) 

(1557)   .... 

(1585) 

others,  1562-89) 

Befianis  de  Grecia  (J.  Fer- 

(1625)   

H586) 

(1598) 

nandez,  1547) 

y  it/wy      .... 

Fulgoran  (1615) 

Flores   de    Grece 

(Herberay,  1552) 

Roman    des    Ro- 

Penalva. 

mans  (1626-29) 

Although  the  Palmerins  have  not  enjoyed  the  celebrity  Palme 
of  the  line  of  Amadis,  they  were  nevertheless  closely  allied  l^°  Oli 
in  dignity  and  importance,  and  their  histories  are  written 
in  evident  imitation  of  their  distinguished  original.  At 
the  head  of  this  second  great  family  of  Spanish  romances 
stands  El  libro  del  Cauallero  Palmerin  de  Oliva.  From 
some  Latin  verses  at  the  end  it  appears  to  have  been 
written  by  a  woman,  said  to  have  been  a  carpenter's 
daughter  of  Burgos,  or  a  lady  of  Puente  del  Arzobispo 
(Augustobriga),  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 
Only  one  copy  is  known  of  the  editio  princeps  of  Salamanca 
(1511).  The  love-scenes  are  described  with  more  volup- 
tuous detail  than  is  usually  to  be  expected  in  a  female 
author.  But  this  warmth  of  colouring  may  have  been  one  of 
the  causes  of  the  success  of  the  romance.  There  are  many 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  editions,  and  it  was  first  translated 
into  French  by  Jean  de  Voyer,  vicomte  de  Paulmy,  in  1546, 
into  Italian  by  Mambrino  Roseo  in  1544,  into  English  by 
Anthony  Munday  in  1588,  and  into  Flemish  in  1602. 

Like  most  of  his  compeers,  Palmerin  was  not  born  in 
wedlock.  He  was  the  son  of  Griana,  daughter  of  Reymicio, 
emperor  of  Byzantium,  and  of  Florendos  of  Macedon.  The 
infant  was  exposed  on  a  hill  covered  with  palm  trees  and 
olives  (whence  the  name)  and  was  discovered  by  a  peasant, 
who  reared  him  as  his  own  son.  Palmerin's  earliest  exploit 
is  to  save  a  travelling  merchant  from  a  lioness.  The  grate- 
ful traveller  furnishes  him  with  arms  and  a  horse,  and 
Palmerin  sets  forth  in  quest  of  adventures,  the  first  of 
which  is  to  kill  a  serpent  that  guards  a  fountain  whose 
waters  are  necessary  to  Primaleon,  king  of  Macedon.  He 
then  succours  the  emperor  of  Germany,  with  whose 
daughter,  Polinarda,  he  falls  in  love.  Like  the  lady  in 
Arthus  de  Bretaigne,  she  had  previously  appeared  to  him 
in  a  dream.  Norway,  England,  and  Greece  are  success- 
ively the  scene  of  his  daring.  He  delivers  from  the 
power  of  the  Grand  Turk  the  princess  Agriola,  who  ulti- 
mately marries  Trineus,  the  companion  of  Palmerin.  After 
many  combats,  enchantments,  and  love  escapades,  the  hero 
at  length  marries  Polinarda  and  becomes  emperor  of  By- 
zantium upon  the  death  of  Reymicio. 

The  same  fair  unknown  also  produced  Libro  Scgundo  que  trata  Cont 
de  los  Hechos  en  Armas  de  Primaleon  y  Polendos,  both  of  them  atioi 
sons  of  Palmerin  by  different  mothers,  the  first  by  Polinarda  and 
the  second  by  the  queen  of  Tharsus.  While  with  his  mother 
Polendos  one  day  ill  treats  an  old  woman,  who  mutters  that  it  was 
not  thus  that  his  father  treated  the  helpless.  This  sets  him  to 
look  for  his  sire.  He  meets  with  Primaleon  and  goes  to  the  court 
of  Duardos  (Edward)  of  England.  The  beautiful  Gridonia,  daughter 
of  Duke  Hormedes,  bears  two  sons  to  Primaleon,  the  second  of 
whom  is  made  the  hero  of  the  next  romance,  or  third  book,  Historia 
del  Cav.  Don  Polindo  (Polendo  is  the  fourth  part  of  the  Italian 
series).  The  fourth  book  is  La  Cronica  del  Cav.  Platir,  the  son  of 
Primaleon  and  Gridonia,  and  very  properly  condemned  by  the 
barber.  The  fifth  book  consists  of  Historia  del  Cavallier  Flortir, 
which  is  only  to  be  found  in  Italian. 

The  sixth  book,  Libro  del  Cav.  Palmerin  de  Inglaterra,  was  the 
most  serious  rival  to  the  popularity  of  Amadis.  Formerly  this 
work  was  considered  to  have  been  first  written  in  Portuguese  and 
was  attributed  to  Francisco  Moraes,  from  the  first  edition  then 
known  in  that  language,  printed  at  Evora  in  1567.  The  state- 
ment of  Moraes,  now  proved  to  be  true,  that  it  was  translated  from 
the  French  (1552),  was  looked  upon  merely  as  a  literary  device. 
On  the  discovery  of  the  original  edition  in  Spanish  (Toledo,  1547- 
48)  it  was  seen  that  the  real  author  was  Luis  Hurtado,  a  Toledo 
poet.  It  was  translated  into  French  by  Jacques  Vincent  in  1552, 
and  into  Italian  by  Mambrino  Roseo  in  1554-55.  The  first  Portu- 
guese version  was  republished  at  Lisbon  in  1786  (3  vols.  4to)  under 
the  name  of  Moraes,  and  from  this  Southey  edited  his  revision  of 
Munday's  translation  (London,  1807,  4  vols.  sm.  8vo).  Palmeriu 
and  Florian  are  the  twin  children  of  Florida  (daughter  of  Palmerin 
de  Oliva)  and  Duardos,  king  of  England.  The  mother  gives  birth 
to  them  in  a  forest  and  they  are  taken  away  by  a  savage  as  food 
for  his  two  lions.  Duardos  is  in  the  power  of  an  amiable  giant, 
Dramuziando,  and  Primaleon  with  a  company  of  knights  starts 
from  Constantinople  to  England  in  order  to  relieve  him.  In  the 
meantime  the  children  are  being  tended  by  the  wife  of  the  savage 
and  reared  with  her  son  Selvian.  Florian  falls  into  the  hands  of 


ROMANCE 


657 


Sir  Fridos,  son  of  the  duke  of  Wales,  who  educates  him  under  the 
name  of  the  Child  of  the  Desert.  Palmerin,  his  twin  brother, 
meets  with  Polendos,  who  takes  him  and  Selvian  to  Constantin9ple. 
Palmerin's  first  love-affair  is  with  Polinarda,  who  repulses  his  affec- 
tion, and  he  travels  to  England  under  the  title  of  the  Knight  of 
Fortune.  In  the  middle  of  a  battle  with  Florian  the  brothers  are 
separated  by  Flerida  and  the  secret  of  their  birth  divulged  by 
Daliarte,  a  magician.  Their  subsequent  adventures  are  beyond 
enumeration,  those  of  the  Perilous  Isle  being  the  most  interesting. 
A  part  of  the  story  relates  to  the  castle  of  Almourol,  where  resides 
the  proud  Miraguarda,  whose  peerless  beauty  is  championed  by 
enamoured  knights.  The  giant  Dramuziando  becomes  one  of  her 
admirers.  In  this  romance  the  marriages  take  place  in  the  middle, 
giving  ample  opportunity  for  many  more  combats,  abductions, 
ravishments,  murders,  and  other  deeds  of  violence  or  valour.  This 
is  evidently  so  close  an  imitation  of  the  Amadis,  while  only  second 
to  it  in  popularity  and  intrinsic  merit,  that  a  comparison  between 
the  two  naturally  arises.  As  in  its  prototype,  there  are  two  heroes. 
We  have  Palmerin,  the  faithful  lover,  and  Florian,  the  fickle  one, 
as  well  as  Daliarte,  the  magician,  and  the  Perilous  Isle.  The 
characters  are  well  discriminated  :  Palmerin  is  generous,  brave,  and 
chivalrous  ;  Florian,  witty  and  courageous.  The  giant  Dramuziando 
actually  excites  our  sympathy  and  interest,  and  the  emperor 
Primaleon  is  a  fine  and  courtly  old  gentleman.  Much  feeling  for 
the  beauties  of  nature  is  shown  ;  the  dialogue  is  good.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  story  is  not  so  simple  and  natural  as  the  original 
Amadis.  There  are  too  many  knights  and  battles,  and  the  romance 
is  distinctly  inferior  as  a  work  of  art. 

The  seventh  book  consists  of  Terceira  [e  Quarto]  Parte  de  Pal- 
meirim  de  Inglaterra  onde  se  contain  os  Feitos  do  Don  Duardos 
Segundo  seu  Filho,  which  continues  the  Portuguese  version  of 
Moraes,  to  which  the  two  parts  are  the  third  and  fourth  books. 
It  was  coinposed  by  Diogo  Fernandez  de  Lisboa.  The  eighth  and 
last  book  of  the  Palmerin  series  are  the  fifth  and  sixth  parts  of  the 
same  work,  being  C'hronica  do  Famoso  Princepe  Don  Clarisol  de 
Bretanha,  by  Balth.  Go^alvez  Lobato.  Like  the  preceding,  it  was 
written  in  Portuguese  and  not  translated. 

Pedigree  of  the  Palmerin  Heroes. 
Primaleon. 


11 

Florendos, 
m.  Griana.       m. 

1 
Arismena, 
king  of  Sparta. 

Armida,                  Palmerin  de  Oliva, 
m.  Frisol,  king               m.  Polinarda. 
of  Hungary. 

1 
Francelina, 
m.  Polendos,  king 
of  Thessaly. 

1                             1 
Vasilla.    .            Flerida.                Primaleun, 
m.  Gridonia. 

Polendos,  king  of  Thessaly 
(son  of  Palmerin  and 
the  queen  of  Tharsus). 

II                  1                     1                   1 
Florendos.                               Platir,      Polinarda.    Franciano.    Clarisea. 
m.  Sidela.                               I 
1  1                              Polendos. 

I  ill 

Primaleon.        Gridonia.        Palmerin        Flortir. 
of  Lacedemonia. 


Frederic,  king  of 

England, 
m.  daughter  of  Meliadus. 

II 

Don  Duardos  (Edward), 
m.  Flerida. 


Palmerin  of       Florian. 

England, 
m.  Polinarda. 

II 
Don  Duardos  II. 

II 
Don  Clarisol. 


Bibliographical  List  of  first  Editions  of  Palmerin  Romances. 


Bk. 

Spanish. 

French. 

Italian. 

English. 

1. 
2. 

a 

Palmerin  de  Oliva  (1511)    .  . 

Primaleon  (1512)  
Polindo  (1526)   

(1546)  
(1550)  

(Mambrino 
Roseo,1544) 
(1548)    .... 
platirC15iS) 

(A.  Munday, 
1588) 
(Do.,  1595) 

4 

Platir  (1533)  

Do 

5. 

Flortir  (no  Spanish  edition) 

Do  

(1566) 

6. 

Palmerin      de      Inglaterra 

(1552)  

d'lnghil- 
terra  (1  554- 
55) 

Flortir 

(P.ofEngland. 
A.  Munday, 
1602) 

7. 
8. 

(1547  ;     in     Portuguese, 
1567) 
Don  Duardos  IT.de  Bretanha 
(Portug.   by  Diogo   Fer- 
nandez de  Lisboa,  1587) 
Don  Clarisol  de  Bretanha  (B. 

Not  translated  .  . 
Do  

(1554) 
Not  trans. 

Do  

Not  trans. 
Do. 

Goncalvez  Lobato,  1602) 

(d)  Teutonic,  Anglo-Danish,  &r. 

Outside  the  four  great  cycles  of  mediaeval  romance 
there  lie  some  minor  cycles,  as  weir  as  various  isolated 
fictions,  to  which  we  must  now  make  reference. 

The  origins  of  the  Teutonic  cycle  belong  to  epic  or  Teutonic, 
ballad  literature,  as  we  find  them  in  the  Wilkinasaga,  in 
the  Nibelungenlied,  and  the  Heldenbuch.  As  those  works 
have  already  been  treated  separately  or  in  connexion  with 
the  national  literature  to  which  they  belong,  we  need  only 
make  brief  allusion  to  the  fact  that  the  Germanic  legend 
of  Siegfried  (Sigurd,  Siegmund,  Sigenot)  is  very  ancient, 
and  that  the  Norse  or  Icelandic  sagas  embody  its  oldest 
existing  form.  The  High  German  Nibelungenlied,  Hilde- 
brandslied,  Hadubrand,  Dietriclissaga  (or  Heldenbuch}, 
Konig  Bother,  &c.,  are  probably  specifically  older  than  the 
Norse  books,  but  they  contain  the  legend  in  a  later  shape, — 
the  Heldenbuch  especially  deviating  from  the  first  two  by 
the  introduction  of  a  number  of  names  and  incidents 
arbitrarily  adapted  from  the  history  of  the  Gothic,  Lom- 
bard, Burgundian,  and  Hunnic  wars  during  the  5th  and 
6th  centuries.  There  are  no  prose  romances  on  these  themes, 
but  the  mythical  hero  Siegfried,  called  Horn-Siegfried  or 
Hornen-Siegfried,  gave  his  name  to  the  French  and  English 
stories  of  Horn  and  Eimenhild  (Rimenhild  being  derived 
from  Chrimhild,  the  wife  of  Siegfried).  Before  these  last 
came  into  existence  there  had  arisen  in  England  a  set  of 
legends  of  which  Anlaf  Sitricson,  the  Danish  king  of  Dublin 
(converted  to  Christianity  943,  deceased  on  a  pilgrimage  in 
981),  was  the  hero.  They  were  combined  in  a  French  poem 
called  Havelok,  by  Geoffrey  Gaimar  (12th  century),  the 
name  Havelok  being  a  corruption  of  Anlaf  or  Olaf,  and 
reappearing  still  later  in  the  form  of  Hamlet.  Various 
trouveres  composed  ballads  of  greater  length  on  the  same 
theme,  with  many  additions,  and  finally  others  appeared 
in  English.  In  all  of  them  we  find  mixed  elements,  includ- 
ing incidents  which  connect  this  Dano- Saxon  romance 
with  Guy  of  Warwick  and  the  French  King  Horn. 

The  fact  last  mentioned  tends  to  justify  the  assumption  Anglo- 
of  an  Anglo- Danish  cycle,  which  may  be  said  to  begin  with  Danish, 
the  poem  of  Beowulf.  Between  the  mythical  Siegfried 
and  Beowulf  of  the  early  centuries  and  the  fictitious  Horn 
and  Guy  of  the  13th  the  Anglo-Danish  Havelok  of  the 
12th  intervened,  and  furnished  material  to  the  trouveres 
who  composed  the  last  two  works.  In  Horn  and  Rimen- 
hild there  is  little  more  than  the  names  to  connect  the 
story  with  the  old  Siegfried  poem,  but  much  that  brings 
it  into  contact  with  Anlaf  and  Danish  or  Norse  history. 
Its  reappearance  in  prose  as  Pontus  et  Sidoine  belongs  to 
the  second  half  of  the  15th  century.  Guy  of  Warwick, 
from  whatever  actual  personage  its  hero  may  have  been 
derived,  is  a  purely  English  story  of  the  13th  century, 
connected  with  Havelok  by  its  evident  relation  to  legends 
of  Danish  wars  in  England,  and  with  King  Horn  by  its 
embodiment  of  the  most  striking  incidents  of  that  story, — 
namely,  the  return  of  Guy  as  a  disguised  palmer  to  his 
own  castle,  and  the  use  of  a  ring  by  which  he  discloses 
himself  to  his  wife. 

Havelok  the  Dane  appeared  first  in  a  French  poem  by  Geoffrey  Havelok 
Gaimar  (12th  century),  and  was  inserted  by  him  between  his  2?ri^  the  Dane, 
or  translation  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (now  lost)  and  his  Estorie 
des  Engles.  The  story  runs  that  Adelbrict,  a  Dane,  is  king  of 
Norfolk,  while  Edelsi  is  king  in  Lindsey.  The  former  marries  a 
sister  of  the  latter,  and  both  die  ;  a  girl,  Argentille,  remains,  who  is 
given  by  her  uncle,  out  of  spite,  in  marriage  to  a  scullion-jongleur, 
Cuheran.  She  dreams  that  her  new  husband  is  of  superior  origin ; 
he  confesses  that  he  comes  from  Grimsby.  They  both  start  for  this 
place  and  discover  that  Cuheran's  putative  father,  Grim,  is  dead.  It 
turns  out  that  Cuheran  is  the  son  of  Gunter,  an  exiled  king  of 
Denmark,  and  that  his  real  name  is  Havelok.  He  and  Argeutille 
set  out  for  Denmark,  where  Edulf,  the  brother  of  the  usurper,  has 
become  king.  Si«ar,  formerly  seneschal  to  Gunter,  is  lord  of  the 
town  where  Havelok  lands  and  assists  him  when  Argentille  is 
attacked  by  miscreants.  Havelok  is  made  known  by  his  power  to 

XX.  —  83 


658 


ROMANCE 


sound  Gunter's  horn  and  is  saluted  as  king.  He  returns  to  England, 
fights  with  Edelsi,  and  gains  the  day  through  Argentine's  device 
of  setting  up  the  dead  warriors  on  stakes.  When  Edelsi  dies  Have- 
lok  and  Argentille  reign  in  Lindsey  as  well  as  in  Norfolk.  The 
tale  may  have  filtered  through  Welsh  channels,  as  it  seems  to  have 
gathered  British  elements  before  it  was  taken  up  by  the  Anglo- 
Danes.  Argentille  (or  Argantel)  appears  to  be  formed  from  a  Welsh 
name,  which  the  early  English  writers  converted  to  Goldborough. 
The  French  chanson  belongs  to  the  early  part  of  the  12th  century. 
It  has  no  direct  prose  representative.  Gaimar's  text  was  first 
edited  by  Madden  (Roxburghe  Club,  1828),  in  the  Monumenta, 
Hist.  Brit.  (1848),  and  by  T.  Wright  (Caxton  Soc.,  1850).  A 
French  frit  on  the  same  subject  is  included  in  the  Roxburghe  and 
in  the  Caxton  volumes  ;  it  was  issued  separately  by  Francisque 
Michel  in  1833.  An  English  poem  is  also  to  be  found  in  the 
Roxburghe  volume,  and  was  likewise  edited  by  W.  W.  Skeat 
(Early  Eng.  Text  Soc.  1868). 

Guy  of         Guy  of  Warwick  is  dealt  with  in  vol.  xi.  p.  341.     Besides  the 

Warwick,  many  editions  of  the  prose  romance,  there  is  an  unpublished  Heraud 

tf  Ardennes,  sometimes  known  under  the  name  of  its  other  hero 

Rembrun,  the  son  of  Guy  of  Warwick,  who  is  found  in  English 

metrical  versions. 

King  King  Horn.  — The  primitive  English  form  of  the  poem  is  lost,  but 

Horn.  is  represented  in  the  existing  chanson  de  geste  (Horn  et  Rimenhild, 
12th  century).  An  early  version  supplied  some  of  the  incidents 
for  Richard  of  Ely's  Gesta  Herewardi  Saxonis  (first  half  of  12th 
century),  which  claims  to  be  partly  derived  from  an  old  book 
written  by  Leofric,  Hereward's  chaplain  at  Bourne.  English  MSS. 
(in  verse)  are  preserved  at  the  British  Museum,  Oxford,  and  Cam- 
bridge. Allof,  king  of  Sudenne,  is  killed  by  Saracen  (Danish) 
pirates,  who  also  drive  away  his  wife  Godylt  and  turn  their  son 
Horn  adrift  at  sea,  with  Athulf,  Fykenild,  and  ten  other  children. 
They  laud  at  Westness  (Cornwall)  and  the  children  are  reared  by 
King  Aylmer.  Horn  is  banished  for  a  love  passage  with  the  king's 
daughter,  Rymenild,  and  sails  for  Ireland  under  the  name  of  God- 
mod.  He  returns  with  Irish  warriors  and  by  himself  joins  a  feast 
held  to  celebrate  the  espousals  of  Rymenild  with  a  King  Mody. 
Horn,  disguised  as  a  pilgrim,  drops  a  ring  into  Rymenild's  cup  with 
the  words  "Drink  to  Horn  of  horn."  He  defeats  Mody  and  rein- 
states his  mother  in  Sudenne.  Rymenild  is  carried  off  by  Fykeuild, 
who  is  ultimately  killed  by  the  hero,  by  whom  the  lady  is  rescued. 
The  only  copy  known  of  the  knightly  romance  of  Horn  Childe  and 
Maiden  Rimnild  is  the  Auchinleck  MS.  The  story  was  very 
popular  in  Scotland.  Horn  and  Horn  Childe  have  both  been  printed 
by  Ritson  (Ancient  Eng.  Metr.  Rom.,  1802,  ii.,  iii.).  Francisque 
Michel  has  edited  Horn  et  Rimenhild,  including  the  English  and 
Scottish  poems  (Bannatyne  Club,  1845).  The  Cambridge  MS.  was 
edited  by  J.  R.  Lumby  for  the  Early  Eng.  Text  Soc.  (1866)  and  by 
E.  Matzner  in  Altenglische  Sprachproben  (1867),  and  the  Oxford 
text  by  C.  Horstmann  in  Herrig's  Achiv  (1872). 

Ponthus  et  la  Belle  Sidoine.  — In  this  prose  romance  the  soldan  of 
Babylon  sends  his  three  sons  to  seek  their  fortune  at  sea.  One  of 
them,  Broadas,  occupies  Galicia  and  kills  King  Thibor,  whose 
young  son  Pontus  with  the  other  children  is  sent  off  in  a  boat  to 
France.  They  are  wrecked  off  the  coast  of  Brittany,  and  the  story 
proceeds  very  much  as  in  the  poem  of  Horn.  Nearly  all  the  names 
are  changed,  however,  and  there  are  additional  knightly  episodes. 
The  romance  was  first  printed  at  Lyons  about  1480.  A  German 
translation  appeared  at  Augsburg  in  1483,  and  an  English  version 
was  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1511. 

The  Anglo-Danish  cycle  of  romance,  by  reason  of  its 
origin  and  type  of  adventures,  may  be  fitly  supplemented 
by  the  stories,  eminently  English  in  character,  although 
furnished  with  an  Anglo-Norman  setting,  which  have  been 
called  "outlaw  romances." 

Outlaw  Tales  of  outlaws  form  a  considerable  portion  of  English 
fiction,  and,  as  elsewhere,  the  same  incidents  occur  over  and 
ces<  over  again,  being  always  attributed  to  the  favourite  hero 
of  the  day.  The  oldest  was  that  of  Hereward  the  Saxon, 
whose  exploits  against  William  were  renowned  in  prose 
and  verse  soon  after  his  own  time.  Most  of  the  outlaw 
stories  remain  in  ballad  form ;  a  prose  example  is  the 
French  Fulk  Fitzwarin  (about  1320),  descriptive  of  outlaw 
life  in  the  Welsh  marches  and  other  parts  of  England, 
Spain,  &c., — an  embellished  record  of  actual  events  from 
1201  to  1203.  We  learn  that  Payn  Peverel,  having  over- 
come a  devil  that  tenanted  the  body  of  a  Cornish  giant, 
Geomagog,  who  haunts  a  ruined  British  village  in  Shrop- 
shire, builds  a  castle  near  the  place  with  the  assistance  of 
his  kinsfolk.  A  certain  Melette  Peverel  marries  Warin  de 
Meez,  and  their  son  Fulk  Fitzwarin  is  himself  the  father 


of  five  sons,  who  go  through  scenes  many  of  which  are 
obviously  suggested  by  the  Charlemagne  chansons,  such 
as  the  fatal  chess-board  quarrel,  the  taunting  of  Ogier  by 
Roland,  &c.  The  five  brothers  are  outlawed  and  seek 
adventures.  One  of  their  followers,  John  de  Rampayne, 
resembles  Friar  Tuck  in  his  skill  in  playing,  singing,  and 
the  use  of  the  quarterstaff.  The  story  ends  with  the  sub- 
mission and  pardon  of  Fulk,  the  eldest  of  the  brothers, 
the  death  of  his  wife  Mahaud,  his  marriage  with  Clarice 
de  Auberville,  and  his  subsequent  blindness, — all  real  his- 
torical events.  It  was  the  first  wife  of  Fulk  who  became 
a  personage  as  Maid  Marian  in  the  Robin  Hood  stories 
and  in  the  plays  of  Monday  and  Chettle.  The  romance 
was  first  published  by  Francisque  Michel  in  1840,  by  T. 
Wright  in  1855  (Warton  Club),  and  at  the  end  of  Ralph 
de  Coggesliall  (Rolls  Series,  1875). 

The  exploits  of  the  earlier  outlaws,  Hereward  and  Fulk  Robi 
Fitzwarin,  reappear  under  the  name  of  ROBIN  HOOD  (q.v.).  Hoo< 
The  extensive  ballad  literature  relating  to  the  last  and 
his  companions  Maid  Marian,  Friar  Tuck,  Little  John,  &c., 
needs  only  a  passing  reference.     The  Life  of  Robin  Hood, 
a  prose  rendering  of  the  Geste  of  Robyn  Node  (Wynkyn 
de  Worde,  c.  1495),  is  reproduced  by  W.  J.  Thorns  in  his 
Early  Eng.  Prose  Romances,  1858. 

One  of  the  most  popular  stories  connected  with  the  Robin  Hood 
cycle  is  Gamelyn  (c.  1340),  sometimes  inserted  among  Chaucer's 
Canterbury  Tales.  Here  three  sons  are  left  equal  shares  in  their 
father's  property,  — Gamelyn,  the  youngest,  being  under  the  charge 
of  the  eldest,  John,  who  neglects  him.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
gains  a  ram  at  a  wrestling  match  and  invites  the  spectators  home. 
After  the  guests  retire  John  and  Gamelyn  quarrel.  The  latter  is 
imprisoned,  but  released  by  Adam  the  Spencer,  an  old  servant,  and 
the  two  escape  together.  Gamelyn  is  made  king  of  the  outlaws  and 
John  becomes  sheriff.  Gamelyn  is  captured,  but  is  bailed  out  by  his 
other  brother,  Ote.  Finally,  John  is  hanged  by  Gamelyn.  The 
tale  was  used  by  T.  Lodge  for  Rosalynde  (1590)  and  dramatized  by 
Shakespeare  in  As  You  Like  It  (ed.  W.  W.  Skeat,  1884). 

(e)   Unaffiliated  Romances. 

The  works  of  this  class  are  of  less  importance  than  those  Una 
which  belong  to  the  great  cycles ;  for,  indeed,  there  are  few  ated 
which  have  not  been  drawn  somehow  into  one  or  pther  of  m 
these  last.  Amongst  the  most  striking  we  have  Pierre  de 
Provence  et  la  Belle  Maguelonne,  a  story  of  love,  adventure, 
and  magic,  which  existed  in  Provencal  verse  at  the  end  of 
the  12th  century,  but  was  first  compiled  in  French  prose 
in  1457  (the  text  being  printed  at  Lyons  about  1478). 
It  was  very  popular  in  Spain,  and  a  Spanish  translation 
appeared  as  a  quarto  volume  at  Toledo  in  1526. — A  similar 
romance  is  Paris  et  Vienne,  belonging  apparently  to  the 
first  half  of  the  15th  century ;  the  first  edition  was  printed 
at  Antwerp,  by  Gerard  Leeuw,  in  1487,  five  years  after  the 
appearance  of  an  Italian  translation  (Treviso,  1482),  and 
two  years  after  Caxton  had  issued  an  English  version 
(Westminster,  1485). — Another  French  romance  (better 
corresponding  to  the  modern  use  of  the  word)  is  Jean  de 
Paris  (Paris,  c.  1535),  written  by  Pierre  de  la  Sippade 
(1490-1500).  It  is  a  pleasant  fiction,  full  of  disguises  and 
surprises  like  the  works  of  G.  P.  R.  James,  and  may  be 
compared  with  Le  petit  Jehan  de  Saintre  (Paris,  1517), 
written  by  Antoine  de  la  Sale  about  1470,  in  which  we 
find  a  true  picture  of  the  manners  of  the  French  court 
in  the  first  half  of  the  15th  century. — The  Trois  Filz  de 
Roys  is  a  heavy  and  dull  romance  written  in  Flanders  late 
in  the  15th  century. — A  work  of  far  superior  order  is 
Tirant  lo  Blanch,  written  in  the  Valencian  language  in 
the  1 5th  century  by  Joannot  Martorell.  This  was  printed, 
with  the  fourth  book  added  after  the  author's  death,  at 
Valencia  in  1490,  and  has  the  honour  of  being  the  first 
romance  which  came  from  the  Spanish  press.  The  author 
professes  to  derive  his  stories  from  English  sources,  but 
he  seems  to  be  indebted  only  to  Guy  of  Warwick  for  some 


ROMANCE 


659 


of  his  situations  and  the  names  of  the  English  localities 
in  which  his  scenes  are  laid.      Three  other  Spanish  ro- 
mances  may  be  mentioned   here.      Though   the  earliest 
printed  edition  of  Oliveros  y  Artus  is  in  French,  the  work 
(printed  in  Spanish  at  Burgos  in  1499)  is  undoubtedly  of 
Spanish  origin.     It  has  been  popular  in  all  languages.    An 
English  version  came  from  the  press  of  Wynkyn  de  Worde 
in  1518.     Felix  Marte  de  Hyrcania  (Valladolid,  1556),  by 
Melchor  Ortega,  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  having  been  read 
by  Dr  Samuel  Johnson,  who  is  likely  to  have  been  the  only 
person  since  the  16th  century  capable  of  such  a  feat.    The 
Guerras  de  Granada  (1595-1619)  of  Perez  de  Hita  con- 
tains some  of  the  finest  ballads  in  the  language,  and  is  an 
interesting  and  well -written  fiction.     The  first  (and  best) 
part  deals  with   the  reign  of  the  last  Moorish  king  of 
Granada,  and  the  second  part  relates  the  final  ruin  of  the 
Moors  in  Philip  III.'s  reign. — Another  favourite  fiction  in 
many  lands  is  that  in  which  a  chaste  wife  is  wrongfully 
accused  of  infidelity  and  punished.      The  character  even 
appears  among  the  earliest  ballads  of  the  Charlemagne 
cycle  (La  reine  Sibelle) ;  but  here  we  have  to  mention 
three  distinct  narratives  which  have  attracted  generations 
of  readers,  and  which  are  widely  known  from  their  adop- 
tion by  many  Avriters.     These  are  Patient  Grizd  (Griseldis), 
Genevieve  of  Brabant,  and  La  belle  Helene.     The  story  in 
each  is  similar,  and  the  plot  or  some  of  the  incidents  may 
be  traced  in  the  Lai  del  Fresne  of  Marie  de  France  (c. 
1220),  in  the  Latin  legendary  history  of  St  Genevieve 
(written  about  1272),  in  several  old  monkish  lives  of  St 
Helena  of  Constantinople,  in  the  late  romances  of  Valentine 
and  Orson,  Florent  et  Lyon,  and  other  stories, — the  heroine 
being  variously  described  as  the  Chaste  Empress,  the  Chaste 
Queen,  or  the  Chaste  Duchess.     The  most  celebrated  of 
these  stories  is  that  of  Griseldis.     She  is  said  to  have  been 
the  wife  of  Walter,  marquis  of  Saluces  or  Saluzzo,  in  the 
llth    century,   and   her   misfortunes  were  considered  to 
belong  to  actual  history  when  they  were  handled  by  Boc- 
caccio and  Petrarch,  although  the  probability  is  that  Boc- 
caccio borrowed  his  narrative  from  a  ProvenQal  fabliau. 
He  included  it  in  the  recitations  of  the  tenth  day  (Deca- 
merone),  and  must  have  written  it  about  1350.     Petrarch 
Latinized  it  in  1373,  and  his  translation  formed  the  basis 
of  much  of  the  later  literature.     These  works,  however, 
really  belong  to  a  different  class  from  that  treated  here, 
and  may  be  referred  to  popular  tales,  like  the  narratives 
which  have  been  repeated  in  many  forms  and  in  many 
lands  from  the  time  of  Bidpai  downwards.     The  prose 
French  romance,  La  Patience  de  Griselidis  (Brehan-Loudeac, 
1484),  was  derived  from  Petrarch,  as  also  Chaucer's  nar- 
rative in  the  Canterbury  Tales,  and  the  Elizabethan  drama 
in  which  Dekker  was  a  collaborateur. — The  De  Duobus 
Amantibus  (or  Euriahis  and  Lucretia)  of  vEneas  Sylvius 
is  usually  included  amongst  romances,  but  it  is  rather  an 
historical  novel  based  upon  the  imperial  court  gossip  of 
his  own  day. — The  Spanish  Carcel  de  Amor,  composed 
about  1480-90  by  Diego  de  San  Pedro,  is  also  a  novel; 
the  famous  or  infamous  Celestina  is  a  drama  of  surpassing 
vigour  and  interest ;  and  the  pastoral  romances  of  Diana, 
Pastor  Fido,  and  Arcadia  belong  to  a  different  class  from 
that  of  mediaeval  romance. — As  much  may  be  said  of  the 
English  romances  produced  in  the  16th  and  the  earlier 
part  of  the  17th  century,  which  are  chiefly  weak  novelistic 
imitations  of  the  later  adjuncts  to  Amadis  and  Palmerin. — 
The  Seven  Champions  of  Christendom  is  a  popular  tale. — 
The  Romance  of  the  Fox  (Reynard  the  Fox}  and  the  Roman 
de  la  Rose  likewise  belong  to  totally  distinct  orders  of 
literature,  the  former  to  that  of  tales  (Volksbiicher)  and 
the  latter  to  the  large  class  of  allegorical  poems. — The 
Norman  stories  of  Robert  the  Devil  and  Robert  of  Sicily 
are  also  popular  tales. 


III.  MODERN  ROMANCE  TO  THE  17m  CENTURY. 

The  inspiration  of  mediaeval  romance  is  gone ;  but  it  is 
necessary  briefly  to  trace  its  final  reflexions  to  the  close 
of  the  17th  century,  when  prose  fiction  began  to  assume 
more  definitely  the  character  of  the  modern  novel. 

We  have  seen  how  large  a  place  in  the  history  of  France, 
romances  is  occupied  by  France  down  to  the  end  of  the 
16th  century.  We  first  meet  with  the  so-called  "pastoral 
romance"  in  French  in  L'Astree  (1612)  of  Honore"  d'Urfe, 
an  enormous  work  inspired  by  Montemayor,  which,  how- 
ever, La  Rochefoucauld  found  interesting.  It  was  fre- 
quently reprinted  and  had  many  continuations  and  imita- 
tions. Camus  de  Pontcarre"  wrote  in  opposition  religidus 
pastorals  such  as  Palombe.  -  To  the  same  class  belong 
Floris  et  Cleonthe  (1613)  by  Moulinet  du  Pare,  Les  Bergeries 
de  Vesper  (1618)  by  G.  Coste,  Chryserionte  de  Gaule  (1620) 
by  De  Sonan,  Le  Courtisan  Solitaire  (1622)  by  J.  Lourdelot, 
Le  Melante  (1624)  by  L.  Videl,  L'Endimion  (1624)  by  J. 
Ogier  de  Gombauld,  Cleomedes  et  Sophonisbe  (1627)  by  De 
Gerzan,  Le  Berger  Extravagant  (1627)  by  Ch.  Sorel,  Anax- 
andre  et  Orazie  (1629)  by  Boisrobert,  Ariane  (1632)  and 
Roxane  (1639)  by  J.  Des  Marets.  Le  Roy  de  Gomberville 
led  the  way  to  the  new  school  of  French  romance  in 
Polexandre  (1632-39)  and  La  Cytheree  (1640-42),  which 
were  the  models  for  the  still  more  ponderous  productions 
of  La  Calprenede  and  De  Scudery.  La  jeune  Alcidiane 
(1651),  an  unfinished  continuation  of  Polexandre,  was  com- 
pleted by  Mademoiselle  M.  A.  Gomez.  These  form  a  link 
between  the  genuine  romance  of  chivalry  and  the  so-called 
heroic  style.  We  still  meet  with  giants  and  extravagant 
exploits.  The  adventures  with  pirates  and  the  sea  scenes 
show  the  influence  of  translations  of  Greek  novels.  Made- 
leine de  Scudery  produced  her  romances  under  the  name 
of  her  eccentric  brother  Georges,  but  the  authorship  was 
well  known.  The  first  to  appear  was  Ibrahim,  ou  Vlllustre 
Bassa  (1641);  then  the  work  for  which  she  is  best  known, 
Artamene,  ou  le  Grand  Cyrus  (10  vols.,  1649-53);  Clelie, 
histoire  romaine  (10  vols.,  1650-53),  contains  the  famous 
"carte  du  pays  de  Tendre";  then  came  Almahide,  ou 
VEsclave  Reyne  (1660),  Les  Femmes  Illustres  (1665),  and 
La  Promenade  de  Versailles  (1669).  One  of  the  causes 
of  her  great  popularity  was  her  representation  of  living 
characters  under  flimsy  disguise.  Keys  to  Le  Grand  Cyrus 
have  been  published.  Gauthier  de  Costes,  chevalier  de 
la  Calprenede,  wrote  Cassandre  (1642-50) ;  Cleopdtre  (12 
vols.,  1647-58),  the  best  of  his  works,  which  contains  the 
character  of  Juba  satirized  by  Boileau  ;  Faramond  (12 
vols.,  1661-70),  continued  by  Pierre  Dortigue  de  Vau- 
moriere ;  and  Les  Nouvelles  (1661).  In  spite  of  their 
appalling  length  and  their  tedious  conversations  and  de- 
scriptions, La  Calprenede's  romances  are  not  without  merit. 
The  author  has  imagination,  and  his  heroes  have  a  share 
of  the  noble  sentiments  of  their  predecessors.  Berenice 
(1648)  by  J.  R.  de  Segrais,  La  Precieuse  (1656-58)  by 
Mich,  de  Pure,  Histoire  du  Temps  (1654)  and  Marcarise 
(1664),  both  by  H&lelin,  a.nd  the  mystical  romances  of  the 
Jesuit  Ceriziers,  belong  to  the  same  school.  Nearly  all 
the  familiar  machinery  of  the  old  romances  is  now  absent : 
we  no  longer  meet  with  dragons,  necromancers,  giants,  and 
enchanted  castles.  Formerly  love  was  secondary  to  heroic 
achievement ;  now  it  becomes  the  ruling  passion,  and 
knightly  deeds  are  performed  only  to  excite  the  applaud- 
ing smile  of  a  mistress  and  not  for  the  sake  of  military 
glory.  The  jargon  of  gallantry  used  in  these  fictions 
exercised  an  evil  influence  upon  contemporary  literature, 
until  it  was  laughed  out  of  existence  by  the  Precieuses 
Ridicules  of  Moliere  and  the  dialogue  of  Boileau  on  Les 
Heros  de  Roman.  Such  works  as  Marie  Stuart  (1675)  by 
P.  Le  Pesant  de  Boisguilbert,  Nouvelles  d' Elisabeth  (1680), 


660 


ROMANCE 


and  Frederic  de  Sidle  (1680)  are  a  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  romance  of  De  Scudery  and  the  modern  his- 
torical novel. 

England.  After  the  invention  of  printing  England  produced 
few  original  contributions  to  the  literature  of  chivalric 
romance.  There  was  a  large  number  of  translations  of 
the  old  French  works,  and,  in  addition  to  these,  a  rich 
store  of  romantic  ballads,  which  formed  the  customary 
literature  of  the  people.  The  yeoman  and  the  outlaw 
had  succeeded  the  steel-clad  knight  in  public  favour. 
Robin  Hood  and  his  merry  men  appealed  to  a  wider 
range  of  sympathies  than  did  Arthur  and  his  companions, 
and  such  tales  as  the  Exploits  of  Robin  Hood,  Tom  a 
Lincoln,  George  a  Green  the  Finder  of  Wakefield,  and 
Thomas  of  Reading  retained  their  vogue  in  abbreviated 
shape  as  chapbooks  down  to  the  end  of  the  18th  century. 
The  stage  monopolized  the  chief  forces  of  imaginative 
narration  during  the  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  periods, 
and  the  next  specimen  of  a  native  romance  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Euphues  (1579-80)  of  John  Lyly,  who  drew  largely 
from  Spanish  sources.  Euphuism  gave  rise  to  the  Philo- 
timus  (1583)  of  Brian  Melbanck,  to  Lodge's  Rosalynde 
(1590),  to  Greene's  Dorastus  and  Fawnia  (1588),  which 
was  the  foundation  of  Shakespeare's  Winter's  Tale,  and  to 
Philomela  (1592)  by  the  same  writer.  Sir  Philip  Sidney's 
The  Countess  of  Pembroke's  Arcadia,  which  appeared  in 
1590,  after  the  author's  death,  is  the  most  brilliant  prose 
fiction  in  English  of  the  century,  and  a  genuine  pastoral 
and  heroic  romance.  We  should  not  forget  Parismus, 
Prince  of  Bohemia  (1598),  based  upon  Palmerin  de  Oliva, 
and  Ornatus  and  Artesia  (1607),  both  by  Emanuel  Ford  ; 
Pheander,  a  Maiden  Knight  (1595),  by  Henry  Roberts; 
and  The  Miseries  of  Malvillia  (1606),  by  Breton.  Such 
compilations  as  Painter's  Palace  of  Pleasure  (1566),  Whet- 
stone's Heptameron  (1582),  Westward  for  Smelts  (1620), 
and  Goulart's  Admirable  Histories  (1607)  are  composed 
of  translations  or  imitations  of  Italian  and  French  tales. 
Boccaccio,  Giraldi  Cinthio,  Apuleius,  Heliodorus,  and 
Montemayor  appeared  in  English  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
16th  century,  and  to  the  laborious  Munday  we  owe  ver- 
sions of  Amadis  (1592)  and  Palmerin  of  England  (1602) 
through  the  French.  In  the  17th  century  La  Calprenede, 
Scudery,  Gombauld,  and  other  romancists  were  translated, 
and  Mrs.  Behn,  Lee,  Lord  Orrery,  Settle,  Banks,  and 
Dryden  adapted  their  works  for  the  stage.  Barclay's 
Argenis,  a  politico-heroic  romance  with  characters  repre- 
sentative of  real  and  historical  personages,  first  came  out 
in  Latin  in  1622;  Bishop  Hall's  Mundus  alter  et  idem 
(1607)  is  an  imitation  of  Rabelais.  Eliana  (1661)  is  a 
caricature  of  all  the  absurdities  of  the  contemporary  French 
school.  The  last  of  the  English  romances  is  the  Parthenissa 
(1665)  of  Roger  Boyle,  earl  of  Orrery,  which,  although 
prolix  and  incongruous,  has  literary  merit  and  a  certain 
narrative  interest. 

Other  The  last  of  the  Spanish  romances  is  Policisne  de  Boetia  (1602) 

Euro-       by  Juan  de  Silva.     1  hey  received  their  death-blow  in  Spain  at  the 
pean        hands  of  Don  Quixote  in  1605,  and  even  those  of  the  greatest  merit 
coun-       and  popularity  almost  entirely  ceased  to  be  reprinted  after  that 
tries.        date.     Although  the  pastoral  romance  of  Diaiia  (1560)  by  Monte- 
mayor  does  not  really  belong  to  the  present  subject,  it  should  be 
mentioned  as  forming  a  distinct  school  of  fiction  with  a  family  of 
successors  scarcely  less  numerous  than  the  lineage  of  Amadis.     It 
was  continued  by  Gil  Polo,  and  in  it,  as  in  the  Galatea  (1584)  of 
Cervantes,  figure   real  persons  and   incidents.      The  earliest  re- 
presentative of  the  picaresque  tale  is  to  be  found  in  Lazarillo  de 
Tonnes  (1554). 

The  heroic  romance  never  became  thoroughly  naturalized  in 
Portugal,  and  the  narrative  class  chiefly  found  its  way  through 
Spain.  The  romancists  Rodriguez  Lobo,  Eloi  de  Sa  Sotomayor, 
and  Pirea  de  Rebello  may  be  mentioned.  The  Menina  e  Moqa  (1554) 
of  Bernardim  Ribeiro  is  the  earliest  specimen  of  the  pastoral  style  in 
the  Portuguese  language. 
Although  the  Pastoralia  of  Longus  is  to  be  considered  as  the 


remote  prototype  of  the  modern  works,  Arcadia  (1502),  the  Italian 
poem  of  Sannazaro,  undoubtedly  influenced  the  Diana  of  Monte- 
mayor,  and  through  it  inspired  the  Arcadia  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 
A  lew  translations  and  weak  imitations  of  foreign  romances  were 
printed  in  Italy  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  but  novclle  or 
short  tales  formed  the  staple  of  the  national  prose  fiction  during 
that  period. 

French  romance — translations  of  Amadis  in  the  16th  and  the 
writings  of  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery  and  her  compeers  in  the  17th 
century — exercised  a  supreme  influence  in  Germany,  where  the 
pastoral  romance  was  represented  by  innumerable  "  Schafereien." 
Herkules  iind  Valisca  (1659)  of  A.  H.  Bucholz  is  a  specimen  of  the 
voluminous  and  tiresome  heroic  romance  of  the  period.  Simplicis- 
simus  (1669)  by  Hans  Jakob  von  Grimmelshausen,  in  which  the 
hero  traverses  the  scenes  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  is  less  a  romance 
than  the  first  national  novel.  C.  W.  Hagdorn's  Acquan,  odcr  der 
grosse  Mogul  (1670)  is  an  adaptation  of  La  Calprenede's  Cassandre, 
and  E.  W.  Happel's  Der  insulanische  Mandorell  (1682)  is  a  kind  of 
foreshadowing  of  Robinson  Crusoe.  Two  of  the  most  admired  fic- 
tions of  the  time  were  the  Asiatische  Banise  (1688)  of  H.  Anselm 
von  Ziegler  und  Klipphausen  and  the  Arminius  und  Thusnclda 
(1689)  of  D.  K.  von  Lohenstein.  Historical  tales  and  love  stories 
were  the  chief  favourites  at  the  end  of  the  17th  and  "  Robin- 
sonadeji"  or  imitations  of  Defoe  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  18th 
century. 

In  Holland  the  French  heroic  school  was  mirrored  in  the  works 
of  Johan  van  Heemskerk,  Hendrik  Zoeteboom,  and  Lainbertus  Bos, 
published  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century. 

GENERAL  LITERATURE  OF  MEDIAEVAL  ROMANCE.— Modern  critical  editions  of 
the  chansons  and  romances  invariably  contain  literary  introductions.  Most 
of  these  have  been  already  referred  to.  For  the  general  history  of  the  subject, 
see  [Bp.  R.  Hurd]  Letters  on  Chivalry  and  Romance,  17(52 ;  Clara  Heeve,  The 
Progress  o/.Ro7Nanc«,Colchester,1785, 2  vols.;  J.  Moore,  "View  of  the  Commence- 
ment and  Progress  of  Romance ''  (preface  to  Works  of  T.  Smollett,  1797,  8  vols.) ; 
J.  Ritson,  "  Diss.  on  Romances  and  Minstrelsy"  (vol.  i.  of  Ancient  Metr.  Rom., 
1802,  3  vols.) ;  W.  J.  Thorns,  Coll.  of  Early  English  Prose  Romances,  London,  1828, 
3  vols.,  new  ed.  1858;  T.  Warton,  "Origin  of  Romantic  Fiction  in  Europe" 
(History  of  Eng.  Poetry,  London,  1840,  3  vols.)  ;  G.  Ellis,  Specimens  of  Early  Eng. 
Metr.  Romances,  new  ed.  by  Halliwell,  1848,  fjvo  ;  J.  Dunlop,  History  of  Fiction, 
1816,  3  vols.,  and  London,  1845,  roy.  8vo,  still  the  best  general  history  of  the 
subject,  and  not  very  much  improved  in  the  German  translation  by  F.  Liebrecht, 
Berlin,  1851,  roy.  8vo  ;  J.  Nigroni,  Diss.  de  lectione  libb.  amatoriontm,  Louvain, 
1624  ;  Langlois  (Fancan),  Le  tombeau  des  romans,  1626  ;  P.  D.  Huet,  De  I'origine 
des  romans,  1711;  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France,  1783-1881,  28  vols.  4to ;  [N. 
Lenglet  Dufresnoy],  De  I'usuge  des  romans,  avec  une  bill,  des  romans,  Amster- 
dam, 1734,  2  vols.  12mo,  and  L'histoire  justijtee  contre  les  romans,  Amsterdam, 
1735  ;  [Jacquin],  Entretiens  sur  les  romans,  1755  ;  [Boucher  de  la  Richarderie], 
Lettre  sur  les  romans,  1762  ;  Lacurne  de  Ste  Palaye,  "Mem.  concernant  la  lecture 
des  anciens  romans"  (Hist,  et  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Ivscr.,  vol.  xyii.)  ;  J.  Chapelain, 
De  la  lecture  des  vieux  romans,  ed.  Feillet,  1870;  Bibliotheqve  universelle  des 
romans,  1775-89,  112  vols.  12mo,  containing  analyses  of  most  of  the  romances, 
over  40  vols.  being  edited  by  De  Pauliny,  the  remainder  by  Le  Grand  d'Aussy, 
Tressan,  &c.,— the  new  edition  by  Bastide  (Paris,  1782,  4to)  stopped  in  the 
middle  of  the  third  volume  ;  Nouvelle  Bibliotheqve,  1798-U05,  56  vols.  12mo  ; 
De  Paulmy  and  Contant  d'Orville,  Melanges  tires  d'une  grande  bibliutheque, 
1779-88,  69  vols.  8vo,— Le  Grand  d'Aussy  helped  in  this  work,  which  contains 
many  analyses  and  a  bibliography ;  Tressan,  Corps  d'extraits  de  romans  de 
chevalerie,  1782,  4  vols.  12mo ;  C.  de  Caylus,  "  Sur  I'origine  de  1'ancienne 
chevalerie  et  des  anciens  romans  "  (Hist,  et  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscr.,  vol.  xxiii.) ; 
L.  Dutens,  Tables  gencalogiques  des  heros  de  romans,  1796,  4to  ;  J.  Michelet, 
"Sur  les  epopees  du  Moyen  Age  "  (in  Rev.  des  D.  M.,  July  1831) ;  A.  P.  Paris, 
Reponse  a  M.  Michelet,  1831 ;  J.  J.  Ampere,  Histoire  litttraire de  la  Fmnce,  1839-40, 
3  vols. ;  A.  Ch.  Gidel,  Etude  sur  la  litterature  grecque  moderne  et  nos  romans 
de  chevaUrie,  1846;  A.  P.  Paris,  "Romans"  (Lacroix,  Le  Moyen  Age  et  la  Re- 
naissance, vol.  ii.,  1849) ;  E.  du  Meril,  Potsies  popvlaires  latines  anterieures  au 
Xllesiecle,  1843  ;  L.  Gautier,  Hist,  des  prases  jvsqu'a  la  Jin  du  Xlle  siecle,  1858  ; 
A.  Maury,  Croyanceset  legendes  de  I'antiquite,  1S63  ;  L.  Molancl,  Origineslitteraires 
de  la  France,  1863  ;  A.  Delvau,  Coll.  de  romans  de  cheralerie,  1809,  4  vols.  (abridg- 
ments) ;  Fr.  H.  von  der  Hagen,  Heldenbilder  avs  d.  Sagenkreisen,  Breslau,  1823, 
3  vols.  ;  J.  G.  T.  Graesse,  Die  grossen  Sagenkreise  des  Mittelulters,  Dresden,  1842, 
bibliographical  and  literary,  but  showing  extraordinary  industry  and  grasp  of 
the  materials;  F.  Diez,  Altromanische  ^prachde-nlmaler,  Bonn,  1846;  O.  L.  B. 
Wolff,  Allg.  Geschichte  des  Romans,  Jena,  1850  ;  F.  W.  Val.  Schmidt,  Les  romans 


Storia  ed  Analisi  degli  Antichi  Romanzi  d'llalia,  Milan,  1828-29,  4  vols.  8vo ; 
A.  de  Gubernatis,  Storia  della  Letteratura  (ix.-x.,  Romanzo),  2  vols.  sm.  8vo, 
1883  ;  see  also  numerous  articles  in  Jahrbiicher  fur  romanische  u.  eitgl.  Lilteratur, 
Anglia,  Revue  Celtique,  Romania,  Revue  des  langues  romanes,  &c. 

ARTHURIAN  CYCLE.— Lady  Ch.  Guest,  The  Mabinogion,  1838-50,  3  vols. ;  Th. 
Hersart  de  la  Villemarque,  Contes  pop.  de  la  Bretagne  (1846,  2  vols.),  Les  Bardes 
Bretons  (I860),  Les  Romans  de  la  Table  Ronde  (1861),  and  Myrdhinn,  ou  I'En- 
chanteur  Merlin  (1862) ;  San  Marte  [A.  Schulz],  Die  Sagen  ron  Merlin  (Halle, 
1853),  and  Parceval-Studien  (Berlin,  1861-62,  3  pts.) ;  [F.  Zambrinil,  I'elF  11- 
histre  Historia  di  Lancillotto  del  Lago,  Bologna,  1862 ;  "  I.a  Tavola  Ritonda,  o 
1'Historia  di  Tristano"  (Acad.  Bologna,  R.  Com.,  1863);  E.  F.  Leith,  Tie 
Legend  of  Tristan,  1868  ;  A.  P.  Paris,  Les  romans  de  la  Table  Roi.de,  1868-77,  5 
vols. ;  Skene,  Four  Anc.  Books  of  Wales,  1868,  2  vols.  ;  J.  8.  Stuait  Gltnnie, 
Arthurian  Localities,  1869 ;  F.  G.  Bergmann,  The  San  Greal,  1870 ;  G.  E.  R., 
The  Story  of  Merlin  and  Vivien,  [1879] ;  E.  F.-F.  Hucher,  Sur  les  representations 
de  Tristan  et  d'Yseult  dans  les  monuments,  1871,  and  Le  Saint  Oral,  Le  Mans, 
1874-77,  3  vols.;  W.  B.  Odgers,  King  Arthur  and  the  Arthurian  Romancts,  [1872] ; 
A.  Birch-Hirschfeld,  Die  Sage  vom  Graal,  Leipsic,  1877  ;  C.  Domanig,  Parciral- 
Studien,  1878 ;  L.  Kraussold,  Die  Sage  vom  Heil.  Oral,  1878 ;  E.  Martin,  Zur 
Grnlsage,  1880. 

CHARLEMAGNE  CYCLE.— J.  C.  v.  Aretin,  Aelteste  Sage  uber  die  Gcburt  .  .  . 
Karlsd.  Gr.,  Munich,  1803;  L.  Uhland,  "Ueber  das  altfranzosische  Epos"  (in 
Fouque's  Musen,  1812,  pt.  3);  F.  W.  Val.  Schmidt,  Ueber  die  itetlienischen 
Heldengedichte  aus  d.  Sagenkreis  Karls  des  Gr.,  Berlin,  1820 ;  E.  Aignan,  Ro. 
mances  tirees  des  anciennes  hist,  des  IS  Pairs  (vol.  iii.  of  Bibliolheque  Etrangere, 
Paris,  1823) ;  Romans  des  douze  pairs  de  France,  Paris,  1832-42,  9  vols.  ;  A.  P. 
Paris,  "Sur  les  romans  des  douze  pairs  "  (pref.  to  Berte  aux  grans  pies,  1832), 


I      I 


R  O  M  — R  0  M 


661 


and 
Loin 

du  moyen  age  "  (Re 

d.  altfi-'inz.  Heldengedichte,  Vienna,  1S33  ;  Baelir,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  Lit.  im  karohng. 
Zeitdltei;  Karlsruhe,  1840;  W.  Wattenbach,  Der  Monch  von  Sanct  Gallen  iiber 
die  Thaten  Karls  des  Grossen,  Berlin,  1S50  ;  Merzdorf,  Karolellus,  Oldenburg, 
1855  Svo  ;  C.  d'Hericault,  Sur  I'origine  de  V  epopee  franraise,  1860  ;  F.  Guessard, 

and 


2d  ed.,  1878  sq.,  4  vols. 

SPANISH  CYCLE.— For  the  literary  history,  see  E.  Baret,  De  I' Amadis  de  Gaule 
et  de  son  influence,  2d  ed.  1873  ;  L.  Braunfels,  Krlt.  Versuch  iiber  den  Roman 
Amadis  von  Galllen,  1876;  A.  Pages,  La  biblioth'eque  de  Don  Quichotte:  A.  de 
Gaule,  1868  ;  P.  de  Gayangos,  Libros  de  Caballerias  [Amadis  y  Esplandiari],  con 
un  discurso  preliminar  y  un  catalogo  razonado,  Madrid,  1857,  an  able  and  useful 
work  ;  F.  A.  de  Varnhagen,  Da  Litteratura  dos  Livros  de  Cavallarias,  Vienna, 
1872;  SirW.  Scott,  "Amadis  of  Ga.nl"  (Kdinb.  Rev.,  October  1803);  prefaces 
to  Southey's  trans,  of  Amadis  of  Gaul,  1803,  4  vols.,  and  of  Palmerin  of  England, 
1807,  4  vols.  For  the  bibliography,  see  Barbosa  Maehado,  Dibliotheca  Lusitana, 
Lisbon,  1741-59,  4  vols.  folio  ;  N.  Antonio,  Bibliotheca  Hispana,  Madrid,  1783-88, 
4  vols.  folio ;  article  by  Salva  in  the  Repertorio  Americano,  August  1827,  pp. 
29-39;  articles  in  the  Wiener  Jahrbiicher,  xxvi.,  xxix.,  xxxi.,  xxxiii.,  lix.  ;  G. 
Brunet,  "  l5tude  sur  les  roinans  de  chevalerie  espagnols"  (Bull,  du  Bibliophile, 
April,  May,  June,  1861);  P.  Salva  y  Mallen,  Cat.  de  la  Biblioteca  de  Salva, 
Valencia,  1862,  2  vols.  ;  B.  J.  Gallardo,  Ensayo  de  una  Biblioteca  Espanola, 
Madrid,  1862-66,  2  vols.  ;  D.  Hidalgo,  Diccionario  General,  Madrid,  1862-79,  6 
vols.  In  the  first  volume  of  A.  J.  Duffield's  trans,  of  Don  Quixote,  1881,  may 
be  seen  a  long  list  of  the  Spanish  romances.  See  also  J.  Onnsby,  "The  Spanish 
Romances  of  Chivalry"  (trans,  of  Don  Quixote,  1885,  vol.  iv.). 

TEUTONIC,  DANO-ENOI.ISH,  &c. — See  F.  J.  Mone,  V '  ntersuchungen  zur  teutschen 
Heldensaye,  Quedlinburg,  1836,  Svo ;  F.  H.  von  der  Hagen,  Minnesinger,  Leipsic, 
1838,  4  vols.  4to,  and  Gesammtabeviewr,  Stuttgart,  1850,  3  vols.  ;  H.  A.  Keller, 
Romvart,  Manaheim,  1844  ;  G.  G.  Gervinus,  G-esch.  derdeutschen  Dichtung,  Leipsic, 
1871-74,  5  vols.  ;  K.  Gpedeke,  Deutsche  Dichtung  im  Mittelalter,  Dresden,  1871, 
Svo  ;  A.  Bossert,  La  lift,  allemande  an  Moyen  3ge  et  les  origines  de  V  epopee  ger- 


manique,  Paris,  1871  ;  A.  Nusch,  Zur  Vergleichung  des  Nibelungenliedes  rn.it  der 
Jlias,  Spires,  1863  ;  Stolte,  Der  Nibelungen-N6t  verglichen  mit  der  Ilias,  Rietberg, 
1869;  M.  Tiirk,  Zur  Vergleichung,  &c.,  Cronstedt,  1873;  O.  Schade,  "Homer 
u.  d.  Nibelungen  "  (Wissenschaftl.  Monatsbl.,  iii.,  1875);  A.  G.  Richey,  "The 
Homeric  Question  and  the  Teutonic  Epics"  (llermathena.  1876);  J.  Zupitza, 
Zur  Literaturgeschichte  des  Guy  v.  Warwick,  Vienna,  1873  ;  A.  Tanner,  Die  Sage 
von  Guy  von  Warwick,  1877;  T.  Wissmann,  "King  Horn "  (Brink  11.  Scherer's 
Quellen,  No.  16,  1876);  R.  Brede,  "Ueber  die  Handschriften  der  Chanson  de 
Horn  "  (E.  M.  Stengel's  Ausgaben,  1883,  pt.  3) ;  F.  Ludorff,  Ueber  die  Sprache 
des  Havelok  le  Danois,  1874,  Svo. 

MODERN  ROMANCE.— For  general  works  see  the  separate  articles  on  the 
great  European  literatures.  The  following  are  some  special  treatises  : — Biblio- 
thek  der  Romane,  Riga,  1782,  21  vols.  ;  J.  Schmidt,  Geschichte  der  Romantik, 
Leipsic,  1848,  2  vols.  ;-  J.  y.  Eichendorff,  Der  deutsche  Roman  des  XVIIIten 
Jahrh. ,  Leipsic,  1851 ;  Cholevius,  Die  bedeutendsten,  deutschen  Romane  des  XVIIten 
Jahrh.,  Leipsic,  1866;  F.  Bobertag,  Geschichte  des  Romans  in  DeutscMand, 
Breslau,  1876-79  ;  H.  Korting,  Geschichte  des  framosischen  Romans  im  XVIlten 
Jahrh.,  Leipsic,  1S85,  pt.  1 ;  D.  Masson,  British  Novelists  and  their  Styles, 
Cambridge,  1859  ;  B.  Tuckerman,  History  of  English  Prose  Fiction,  New  York, 
1882. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — It  has  been  impossible  to  do  more  than  indicate  the  dates 
and  places  of  the  first  printed  editions  of  the  romances.  More  full  information 
is  to  be  sought  for  in  J.  C.  Brunet,  Manuel  du  libraire,  1860-65,  6  vols.,  Supple- 
ment by  P.  Deschamps  and  G.  Brunet,  1878-80,  2  vols.  ;  J.  G.  T.  Graesse,  Tresor 
de  livres  rares  et  precieux,  Dresden,  1859-69,  7  vols.  4to ;  G.  Brunet,  La  France 
litteraire  au  XVe  siecle,  Paris,  1865  ;  A.  Firmin-Didot,  Essai  de  classification  des 
romans  de  chevalerie,  1870,  an  admirable  and  careful  work  ;  J.  Ames  and  W. 
Herbert,  Typ.  Antiquities,  London,  1785-90,  3  vols.  4to ;  W.  T.  Lowndes, 
Bibliographer's  Manual,  ed.  H.  G.  Bohn,  London,  1857-64,  6  vols.  ;  Wi  Blades, 
Life  of  W.  Caxton,  London,  1861-63,  2  vols.  4to  ;  B.  Quaritch,  Catalogue  of 
Romances  of  Chivalry,  1882  ;  G.  Melzi,  Biblwgrqfia  dei  romanzi  e  poemi  cav.  itali- 
ani,  extended  by  P.  A.  Tosi,  Milan,  1865, 12mo,  first  published  as  supplement  to 
Ferrario,  Storia  ;  P.  Paris,  Les  MSS.  franfais  de  la  Bibl.  du  Roi,  1835-48,  7  vols., 
with  many  extracts  and  accounts  of  romances ;  H.  L..  D.  Ward,  Catalogue  of 
Romances  in  the  Department  of  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  vol.  i.,  London, 
1883,  a  most  valuable  and  scholarly  essay,  and  the  most  important  work  yet 
published  on  romance.  (H.  R.  T.— M.  K.) 


ROMANCE  LANGUAGES  is  the  name  generally 
adopted  for  the  modern  languages  descended  from  the  old 
Roman  or  Latin  tongue,  acted  upon  by  inner  decay  or 
growth,  by  dialectic  variety,  and  by  outward  influence, 
more  or  less  marked,  of  all  the  foreign  nations  with  which 
it  came  into  contact.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  old 
Roman  empire  or  the  Latin -speaking  world  was  called 
Romania,  its  inhabitants  Romani  (adj.  fiomanicus),  and  its 
speech  Romancium,  Vulgar  Romancio,  Italian  Romanzo, 
from  Romanice  loqui  =  to  speak  Romance ;  in  Old  French 
nominative  romanz,  objective  roman(t\  Modern  French 
roman,  "  a  novel,"  originally  a  composition  in  the  vulgar 
tongue.  In  English  some  moderns  use  Romanic  (like  Ger- 
manic, Teutonic)  instead  of  Romance  ;  some  say  Neo-Latin, 
which  is  frequently  used  by  Romance-speaking  scholars. 
By  successive  changes  Latin,  a  synthetical  language,  rich 
in  inflexions,  was  transformed  into  several  cognate  analy- 
tical tongues  of  few  inflexions,  most  of  the  old  forms  being 
replaced  by  separate  form-words.  As  the  literary  language 
of  the  ancient  Roman  civilization  died  out,  seemingly  ex- 
tinguished by  the  barbarism  of  the  Middle  Ages,  all  the 
forms  of  the  old  classical  language  being  confounded  in 
the  most  hopeless  chaos,  suddenly  new,  vigorous,  and 
beautiful  tongues  sprang  forth,  ruled  by  the  most  regular 
laws,  related  to,  yet  different  from,  Latin.  How  was  this 
wonderful  change  brought  about  ?  How  can  chaos  produce 
regularity1?  The  explanation  of  this  mystery  has  been 
given  by  Diez,  the  great  founder  of  Romance  philology. 
The  Romance  languages  did  not  spring  from  literary  class- 
ical Latin,  but  from  popular  Latin,  which,  like  every  living 
speech,  had  its  own  laws,  not  subject  to  the  changing 
literary  fashions,  but  only  to  the  slow  process  of  phonetic 
change  and  dialectic  variety.  It  is  wonderful  how  like 
the  very  oldest  archaic  Latin  is  to  the  youngest,  Modern 
Romance.  A  great  number  of  old  sounds,  forms,  and 
expressions,  which  were  discarded  or  disused  by  classical 
Latin,  reappear  in  late  vulgar  Latin,  and  live  on  in  the 
modern  languages.  Here  especially  the  words  of  Horace 
come  true  : 

"  Malta  renascentur,  quae  jam  cecidere,  cadentque 
Quae  mine  sunt  in  honore  vocabula,  si  volet  usus, 
Quern  penes  arbitriimi  est  et  jus  et  norma  loquendi. " 

The  present  article,  embracing  all  the  Romance  languages, 
dwells  chiefly  on  their  common  origin  and  formation. 
Much  of  their  general  history  has  been  treated  under 


LATIN  ;  only  some  points,  especially  phonetic,  which  need 
a  fuller  discussion,  are  taken  up  again  here. 

We  will  now  briefly  review  the  fate  of  popular  Latin 
through  its  successive  stages,  showing  everywhere  the 
earliest  appearance  of  the  germs  of  Modern  Romance. 

I.  First  (Pre-Classical)  Period:  to  c.  80  B.C.  (Cicero). 

Latin,  like  all  other  literary  languages,  began  as  a  living  Latin 
popular  speech.  There  was  during  this  first  period  practi-  dialects, 
cally  little  difference  between  the  vulgar  and  the  literary 
language.  In  the  oldest  historical  time  Latin  was  spoken 
only  in  the  small  territory  called  Latium.  The  greater 
part  of  Italy  proper  was  occupied  by  the  Umbro-Oscan 
tribes,  whose  languages  were  Italic,  related  to  Latin,  yet  so 
different  as  to  be  unintelligible  to  the  Romans.  The  two 
most  distinct  types  were  Umbrian  in  the  north  and  Oscan 
in  the  south.  The  chief  difference  between  them  is  that 
Umbrian  was  in  a  much  more  advanced  state  of  phonetic 
decay,  and  was  in  many  respects  a  precursor  of  Italian  and 
Romance,  while  Oscan  was  still  more  antique  than  Latin. 
When  the  territories  where  these  dialects  were  spoken 
became  subject  to  the  Romans,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
3d  century  B.C.,  the  language  of  the  conquerors  was  intro- 
duced, but  of  course  modified  by  the  speech  of  the  con- 
quered. Thus  two  groups  of  provincial  dialects 1  were 
formed.  (1)  The  North  or  Umbrian  and  Sabellian  Latin, 
with  which  Etruscan  Latin  was  closely  connected,  was 
peculiarly  important,  since  it  spread  southwards  and  ex- 
tended to  the  neighbourhood  of  Rome ;  thus  Falerii, 
Prseneste,  and  Tusculum  spoke  it.  Later  it  spread  to 
Northern  Italy.  Being  really  a  fuller  development  of  the 
tendencies  of  the  old  popular  Latin  and  easier  to  pro- 
nounce than  literary  Lafin,  at  last  from  the  surrounding 
peasantry  it  reached  the  people  of  Rome  and  became  the 
source  of  the  modern  tongues.  (2)  The  South  or  Oscan 
Latin  was  Latin  with  some  slight  phonetic  modifications, 


1  The  Latin  dialects  have  been  investigated  by  K.  Sittl,  Die  lokalen 
Verschiedenheiten  der  lateinischen  Sprache,  Erlangen,  1882.  On  Latin 
sounds  generally  see  Seelmann,  Die  A  ussprache  des  Latein,  Heilbronn, 
1885.  Both  these  books,  however,  must  be  used  with  caution.  Sittl 
has  the  merit  of  having  traced  the  relations  of  North  Latin,  but  has 
many  rash  assertions  ;  see  Zeitschr.  f.  rom.  Phil.,  vi.  608  sq.  Seel- 
mann is  superior  to  Corssen  as  a  phonetician,  but  is  often  obscure  and 
given  to  elaborating  strange  theories.  Thus  he  arrives  at  the  absurd 
conclusion  that  the  differences  of  quantity  did  not  exist  in  the  class- 
ical age,  but  that  the  poets  judged  of  quantity  by  the  close  or  open 
sound  of  the  vowel. 


662 


ROMANCE      LANGUAGES 


which,  in  Modern  South  Italian,  have  lived  through  the 
levelling  influence  of  the  north  dialect.  Between  the 
Umbrians  and  the  Oscans  lay  the  Sabellians,  occupying 
linguistically  as  geographically  a  middle  position,  yet 
somewhat  nearer  to  the  north  dialect  than  to  the  south. 
To  the  west  of  Umbria  lay  the  mysterious  Etruria,  whose 
language,  preserved  in  numerous  inscriptions,  has  long 
been  an  unsolved  riddle  and  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute, 
some  considering  it  as  utterly  unconnected  with  Italic  or 
even  Aryan,  some,  as  Deecke  and  Sophus  Bugge,  thinking 
it  Aryan,  intermediate  between  Greek  and  Italic,  but  partly 
decayed.  In  the  last  respect  it  has  much  in  common  with 
Umbrian,  but  its  tendency  to  a  rapid  and  slovenly  utter- 
ance is  still  more  distinctly  traceable  than  in  Umbrian. 

Of  the  other  languages  spoken  in  old  Italy,  such  as 
Messapian,  Celtic,  Venetian,  and  Ligurian,  too  little  is 
known  to  enable  us  to  form  an  estimate  of  their  phonetic 
character ;  but  in  general  we  see  the  peculiarities  of  North 
Latin  penetrating  more  or  less  everywhere,  in  the  north  of 
Italy  and  in  Spain  (subjected  at  the  end  of  the  3d  century 
B.C.),  as  well  as  in  Gaul,  of  which  the  southern  part,  Pro- 
vincia  (later  Provence),  was  subjected  first,  and  the  rest, 
by  Caesar,  in  the  1st  century  B.C.  All  these  countries 
were  rapidly  Latinized ;  but  the  provincial  dialects  did  not 
always  follow  the  phonetic  development  of  the  mother 
speech,  just  as  American  does  not  always  follow  the 
changes  of  English. 

Old  Popular  Latin. 

A.  Phonetics.  1.  Final  consonants,  especially  s^m,  partly  t, d, r, 
were  feebly  pronounced  and  often  dropped  in  writing  :  s  in  nomina- 
tives, as  Cornelia  (T.  Scip.  ),2 — even  Ennius  wrote  ccrtissimu' 
nuntiu'  mortis ;  gen.  aedem  Serapi  (in  a  law) ;  ace.  viro'  nostros 
(Plant. ).  In  verse  s  was  not  counted  in  the  metre  till  the  manhood 
of  Cicero,  who,  though  he  had  himself  followed  the  earlier  use  in 
his  youth,  calls  it  "  subrusticum, "  which  shows  that  it  continued 
in  the  country.  This  agrees  with  Umbrian,  where  s  was  often 
dropped,  as  Iknvinu3  Iguvini  (nom.  plur. ),  ogre  agri  (gen.),  &c.  ; 
with  North  Latin,  as  matr&na  Pisaurese  (nom.  plur. ;  at  Pisaurum); 
maxomo  maximus,  zenatuo  (gen.  at  Falerii)  =  Old  Lat.  senatuos  ; 
militare  (nom.  ;  at  Tusculum)  looks  quite  Italian.  M  was  often 
dropped,  as  in  the  well-known  hone  oino  duonoro  optumo  fuise  viro 
(T.  Scip.).  It  was,  by  the  express  statement  of  Quintilian,  obscurely 
pronounced  (see  LATIN),  and  must  have  been  very  loosely  articu- 
lated, the  lips  probably  only  approaching,  not  closing,  much  like 
Polish  Dabrowski  (Dombrowski),  which  gives  a  sound  between  a 
feeble  m  and  a  nasal  vowel.  In  Umbrian  this  dropping  of  the  m 
is  frequent,  as  poplo  for  populum,  and  in  Faliscan  sacru,  datu.  T, 
on  the  contrary,  was  generally  retained  in  Old  Latin,  but  frequently 
dropped  in  Umbrian,  as  dede  dedit,  habe  habet,  habia  habeat ; 
likewise  in  North  Latin,  as  dede  dedit,  dedro  and  dedrot  for  dederunt 
(T.  Pis. ) ;  dede  (Tibur)  ;  cupa  and  cupat  for  cubat  (Fal. ).  Some- 
times d  was  used,  as  fecid  (Prseneste),  in  Osc.  fefacid,  deded.  In 
the  perfects,  however,  d  is  perhaps  the  older  sound.  D  is  the 
final  consonant  that  was  first  dropped,  as  in  in  altod  marid  (Col. 
Rostr.),  a  Gnaivod  patre,  but  also  longa  vita  (T.  Scip).,  later  fre- 
quently. Pate(r),  soro(r),  colo(r),  occur  in  Plautus  with  r  dropped 
or  slightly  pronounced  (not  counted  in  the  metre)  ;  in  pate(r) 
venit  (Terence  ;  see  LATIN)  ;  in  Fal.  uxo,  mate  ;  in  ^quian  uxo ; 
and  in  Ital.  /rate,  suora,  moglic.  N  was  dropped  in  tame(n)  sus- 
picor  (Ter. ) ;  Umb.  name  and  numem,  pointing  perhaps  to  a  weak 
uasal  vowel  ;  Ital.  nome. 

2.  D  after  vowels  sometimes  became  r,  as  ar  ad,  arvorsum 
adversum,  arfuise,  arger  agger,— rustic  ar  me  advenias  (Plaut., 
True.,  ii.  2)  ;  it  was  retained  in  classical  Latin  in  arbiter,  arccsso, 
meridies.  In  Old  Umbrian  d  constantly  changes  to  a  peculiar  sound, 
here  transcribed  d,  in  Later  Umbrian  spelt  rs,  as  ad,  ars  ad,  petur- 
pursus  quadrupedibus,  dupursus  bipeaibus.  This  sound  appears 
to  be  only  a  less  trilled  variety  of  the  Roman  sound.  In  some 
few  instances  this  old  r  reappears  later,  as  in  Mediaeval  Lat.  armes- 
sarius  (Lex  Salica),  in  Roum.  arm^sariu,  Ital.  drgine,  Yen.  drzare, 
Span.  drcctt=Lat.  arger  (agger).  In  Modern  South  Italian  r  for  d 
is  quite  common,  as  Neap,  rurece,  Sicil.  efoma=ItaL  d6dici,  Lat. 
duodecim. 

1  There  is  nothing  to  prove  that  this  s  was  voiced,  like  Eng.  z ;  probably  it 
was  voiceless  and  weakly  articulated,  much  the  same  as  in  Andalusian  lo(h) 
padre,  for  Span,  los pculres,  "the  parents." 

*  Abbreviations— r.  Scip.,  Tituli  (Elogia)  Scipionum ;  Col.  Rostr.,  Columna 
Rostrata  ;  Bncch.,  Epistola  Consolum  de  Bacchanalibus  ;  T.  Pis.,  Tituli  Pisaur- 
enses  ;  L.  Lat.,  Low  or  Late  Latin  ;  *  before  a  word  means  hypothetical. 

3  Spaced  letters  signify  the  inscriptions  in  the  national  character,  generally 
supposed  to  be  older  ;  italics  mean  the  inscriptions  in  Roman  letters,  supposed 
to  be  younger. 


3.  Zfor  s  is  found  in  some  unintelligible  fragments  of  the  Carmen 
Saliarc,  mentioned  by  Varro  (L.L.,  vii.  26),  but  in  the  text  he 
says  that  the  ancients  used  s  for  r.     Coz(ano),  but  also  Cosano,  is 
found  on  two  old  coins  from  Cosa,  though  here  z  may  be  due  to 
Oscan  influence.     On  the  other  hand,  vcler,  quirquir,  were  found 
in  the  ancient  augural  books,  perhaps  Etruscan  Latin(?).     But  the 
ordinary  form  of  Old  Latin  was  s,  as  in  asa,  honos,  honosis,  flosem, 
Loses,  Fusius,  Papisius,  Valesius.     Not  z,  but  s  or  ss  was  used  to 
render  Greek  f, — Sagunlum,  comissor,  massa ;  in  this  last  word 
(Fr.   masse)  the  present   pronunciation  still  testifies  to  the  old 
voiceless  sound.     Thus  the  whole  theory  of  the  ancient  Latin  z 
becomes  somewhat  doubtful ;  yet  it  is  probable  that  it  existed  in 
the  oldest  prehistoric  Latin,  and  that  forms  like  *easum  rcsum 
were  pronounced  with  z,  like  the  Osc.   eizazunc  egmazum  (same 
meaning).     Later  on  s  (z)  passed  into  r,  folloAving  in  this  the  Umb. 
urnasiaru,  pracatarum,  &c.     In  most  words  Latin  now  got  r,  even 
in  some  where  Umbrian  retained  s ;  comp.  Lat.  ara  with  Umb. 
asa,  Lat.  plenarius,  ordinarius  with  Umb.  plenasier,  urnasier. 
In  Lat.  nasus — nares  the  relation  must  be  somewhat  like  that  in 
A.S.  cedsan,  ceds — curon,  gccoren  (choose,  chose,  chosen),  probably 
owing  to  an  original  difference  of  accent.     In  many  cases  where 
Latin  retained  s  it  was  originally  double,  as  in  caussa,  cassits  (  =  cad- 
tus),  thus  spelt  by  Cicero  and  Virgil  (Quint.,  i.  7,  20)  ;  formonsus 
and  formossus ;  this  is  the  reason  why  Italian  has  always  s  hard 
(voiceless)  in  cosa  (Yen.  cossa),  doloroso,  &c.,  as  Ascoli  has  shown. 
Thus,  every  2  or  voiced  s  having  passed  into  r,  the  sound  z  must 
have  disappeared  from  the  language,  and  it  was  only  much  later 
that  it  was  reintroduced.     The  sound  of  z  seems  to  be  especially 
at  home  on  Celtic  ground  ;  the  voiceless  sound  still  exists  in  the 
south  of  Italy  (Rome,  Naples,  Sicily)  and  of  Spain.     The  English 
pronunciation  of  Latin  words  like  morose,  jocose,  and  of  Greek 
words  like  dosis,  crisis,  is  probably  due  to  ancient  tradition. 

4.  N  was  often  dropped  before  s,  as  cosol  consol,  ccsor  censor, 
coscntiont  (T.   Scip.),  iiw(n)strare,  Mostcllaria  (Plaut. ) ;  even  fes- 
tram  for  fenestram  (feristram ;  Ennius)  ;   Alliesis  dies  dicebatur 
(Fest.);  mescs  (inscr.  Neap.),  &c.  ;  nearly  always  formossus,  for- 
mosus  for  formonsus  (see  3).      This  agrees  with  Umb.  Eikvctscsc 
and  N.    Lat.  Pisaurese,  Pomp,   castresis,  peso,  and  reappears  in 
Ital.  Milanese,  Genovcse,  mese,  pesare,  Fr.  mots,  peser.     In  Latin  n 
generally  did  not  quite  disappear,  but  was  feebly  pronounced,  very 
like  French  n  in  penscr,  or  probably  still  more  like  the  Polish  nasal 
vowel  in  mie_so,  "flesh,"  g$6,  "goose,"  half  vowel,  half  consonant. 
By  this  partial  absorption  of  n  the  preceding  vowel  was  lengthened, 
consol.      Cicero  expressly  mentions  Insanus,   Gellius  pensito,   the 
grammarians  mons,  mens,  gens.     The  same  was  the  case  before  /, 
as  Infelix  mentioned  by  Cicero  ;    n  sometimes  dropped  before  r, 
coventionid  (Bacch.,  187  B.C.)  ;  comp.   Umb.  kuveitu  convehito, 
kuvertu  convertito,  Fr.   convent,  Eng.   covcnt,   covenant.      N  is 
rarely  dropped  before  t  and  d  except  in  N.  Lat.  dedro(t]  (T.  Pis.) ; 
but  this  does  not  count,  as  the  t  was  mute.     Cicero  testifies  to 
Indoctus,  which  proves  the  full  sound  of  n.     The  spellings  tamlae, 
sentemtiam,  damda,  tuemdam,  &c. ,  of  the  Lex  Julia  (45  B.C.)  are 
probably  only  analogical  from  eumdem,  camdcm,  &c.,  pronounced  n. 
M  disappears  in  Poponi,  Seproni,  but  perhaps  only  apparently,  as 
Priscian  tells  us  that  medial  m,  as  in  umbra,  had  a  middling  force, 
not  the  obscure  sound  of  final  m.     In  most  old  spellings,  as  in 
the  Scandinavian  Runes,  we  frequently  find  nasals  dropped  before 
corresponding  "mutes"  or  stops,  where  there  is  no  suspicion  of 
an  obscured  sound,  e.g.,  in  Run.  LAT  for  land  the  nasal  is  simply 
understood.     Likewise  in  Umbrian  the  older  ustetu  is  shown  by 
the  Latin  spelling  to  mean  ostendu,  &c.     In  Modern  Romance  only 
Celtic  districts  have  produced  nasal  vowels. 

6.  If  is  sometimes  dropped  from  the  2d  century  B.C.  downwards — 
"  Parcissime  ea  [H  littera]  veteres  usi  etiatn  in  vocalibus,  quum 
oedos  [read  acdos]  ircosque  dicebant "  (Quint.,  i.  5,  20);  "iu  Latio 
rure  cdus,  in  urbe  aedus"  (Varro),  for  haedi(s=Goih.  gaits,  "goat"; 
likewise  olera,  asta  (Varro)  ;  in  Marsian  Lat.  Irtius  for  Hirtius, 
Ostilius  ;  comp.  Umb.  ere iu  =  heritu  "velit."  H  must  have  had 
a  rather  feeble  sound,  something  like  French  h  aspirte. 

6.  Us  is  found  assimilated  in  russum  (rusum),  sussum  (susum), 
&c.,  in  MSS.  of  Plautus  and  Cato,  and  in  some  inscriptions,  always 
inprosa  (but  prorsus)  and  cena,  Umb.  cersnatur  "cenati,"  dos- 
suarius  (Varro)  ;  "sic  et  dossum  per  duo  s  .  .  .  quidam  ut  levius 
enuntiaverunt "  (Vel.  Long.).     Comp.  Umb.  Tursce,  Tuscom  "Tus- 
cum";  Ligurian  Lat.  siiso  (bronze  tablet  near  Genoa,  117  B.C.). 
But  this  assimilation  was  never  carried  out  consistently  ;  we  have 
L.  Lat.  susum  et  jusum  (sursum  et  deorsum),  Ital.  su  c  giii,  older 
suso  e  giuso ;  dosso,  but  corso,  verso,  orso  (ursus),  Fr.  ours,  Span.  oso. 

7.  /was  doubled  between  vowels,  as  in  "antiqui  maiius,"  which 
Priscian  distinctly  explains  to  have  been  pronounced  with  the  sound 
of  i  consonant  (Eng.  y  in  you),  and  "  Pompciii  ut  si  dicas  Pom- 
pelli."    Cicero  spelt  aiio,  Maiiam;  "quod  si  est,  etiam  jungetur 
[i]  ut  consonans     (Quint.,  i.  4,  11).     Comp.  also  Osc.  Pomjxtiians. 
Out  of  the  older  and  popular  majjus,  pejjus  grew  Ital.  maggio, 
peggio,  whereas  classical  Latin  had  majus,  pejus.    ¥orjilius=jiljus, 
see  23  below,  p.  664. 

8.  V  occurs  in  Old  Lat.  perplovere  perpluere  (comp.  pluvia), 


Nasal, 


ROMANCE      LANGUAGES 


663 


ccmflovvnt  (comp.  floviom ;  flmridus,  Lucretius),  sovo,  suvo,  suo, 
ingenuvae,  clovacas.  Comp.  Umb.  tover  and  tuer,  tui;  Osc. 
suvad,  &c.  It  reappears  in  Petronius,  urceatim  plovcbat,  and  in 
Ital.  pibvere,  rovina,  ve"dova,  Geneva,  Mdntova,  chidvica,  Span. 
llovtr,  Fr.  pleuvoir. 

9.  In  qu  the  u  after  q  was  only  a  lip  glide,  defined  by  the 
grammarians  as  "neither  vowel  nor  consonant,"  as  it  did  not 
count  in  the  metre.  It  was  therefore  easily  dropped  altogether, 
as  in  Cinti  for  Quincti  in  an  old  inscription.  This  was  especially 
peculiar  to  Etruscan  Latin,  as  in  the  very  old  Aecetiai  Aequitiae, 
Tarcna,  Etrus.  Tarxnas,  Tarquinius.  Instances  occur  later  every- 
where, as  cocus  for  coquus,  cottidie  (Lex  Julia),  &c.  ;  L.  Lat.  cinque, 
cinquaginta  (Edict.  Diocl. ,  301);  Ital.  chi  qui,  che  quid,  cubcere 
coquere,  cucina  =  v\i\.g.  Lat.  coquina  (  =  culina),  cinque,  &c.  But 
generally  Italian  retains  qu  with  the  old  sound,  quinto,  quanto, 
Span,  cuanlo,  but  que,  quinto  (  =  k),  Fr.  qu  =  k. 

•eek  10.  The  Old  Romans,  having  no  aspirates  in  their  own  speech, 
pirates,  could  not  pronounce  the  Greek  <f>,  x>  #»  but  generally  turned  them 
into  p,  c,  t,  as  Pilippus  $i\nnros,  Prune  Qptivr},  colapus,  Baccmal. 
In  some  words  the  old  popular  pronunciation  continued  later,  as 
class,  ampulla,  purpura  ;  Silver  Age,  percolopabant  (Petron.)  ; 
Mediaeval,  colopus,  colpus,  Ital.  colpo,  Fr.  coup  ;  spaera,  Old  Ital. 
spcra  (Dante),  Early  Eng.  spere  (Chaucer),  vulg.  Eng.  spear, 
"sphere";  Josepus,  Ital.  Giuseppe;  Stepajnus,  Span.  Esteban,  Slav. 
Stepan. 

11.  Greek  initial  IT  was  often  rendered  b,  as  Burrus  H.vpp6s,  also 
adj.,  "burrum  antiqui  quod  nunc  dicimus  rufum"  (Fest.) ;  hence, 
through  bur(r)eus,  Ital.  bujo,  "dark";  likewise  buxus  irv%6s,  Ital. 
busso,  bosso,  Fr.  bids,  "box  tree";  from  irvl-is,  class,  pyxis,  popu- 
lar and  L.  Lat.  buxis,  buxida,  Fr.  botte. 

12.  Rafter  vowels  is  rare  in  Latin,  but  frequent  in  Umbro-Oscan, 
as  Umb.  prufe  probe,  Osc.  amprufid  improbe,  Safinim  Samnium 
(*Sabinium),  corresponding  in  cognate  words  to  Greek  aspirates 
where  Latin  commonly  had  b  :  Lat.   vafer,  "sly,"  orig.  "varius"; 
comp.  vabrum  "varium"  (Gloss.   Isid. ),  Umb.  vufru.     The  re- 
lation between  Lat.  rufus,  Umb.  rofu  and  Lat.  rubcr  is  very  like 
that  between  nasus  and  nares,  or  that  between  veho  and  lingo, 
ligurio  as  representing  Gr.  x-     We  may  suppose  that /is  the  older 
and  stronger  common  Italic  form,  sometimes  retained  in  old  popular 
Latin  speech,  partly  by  provincial  influence.     We  find  sifilare  for 
sibilare  mentioned  as  archaic  by  Nonius,  as  vulgar  in  the  appendix 
to  Probus,  Ital.  zufolare,  Fr.  siffler.      F  is  preserved  in  many  pro- 
vincial names,  as  Safinius  (Petron. )  and  Tifernum,   Ital.  Tiferno. 
We  find  this /again  in  the  Italian  tafdno  tabanus,  lufolo  bubalus, 
Eng.  buffalo.     The  Neapolitan  attnife,  "  October,"  has  a  very  Oscan 
appearance. 

iwels.  13.  Old  Latin  often  prefers  short  e,  especially  original  and  un- 
accented, to  i,  as  in  dcdet,fuet  (T.  Scip.),  cepet,  refecet  (Col.  Rostr. ), 
vdet  (Bacch.),  Condetios  (inscr. ),  acetare  =  agetare  (Fest.),  dubemis 
dominus  (Fest.),  componeto  (Cato),  gcnetrix,  mcreto,  calecare  (inscr.), 
famelia,  magester  (Quint. ).  It  stands  for  radical  i,  mostly  orig.  e, 
as  in  en,  endo  =  Gr.  ev,  semul  (Plaut.) — comp.  Ital.  insieme,  Fr.  en- 
semble; Menerva  (inscr.,  and  mentioned  by  Quintilian).  Sometimes  it 
stands  even  for  original  i,  as  tempestatebus,  aidiles  (T.  Scip. ),  navebos, 
navaled,  but  marid  (Col.  Rostr.),  sei  ques,  si  quis  (Bacch.).  This 
is  quite  Umbrian  ;  comp.  kanetu  canito,  urfetam  orbitam, 
fratreks  "fratricus,"  fa$efele  =  ~L.  Lat.  facibilis,  Old  Fr.  fesible 
feasible,  famedias  familiae  (nom.  plur.),  kvestretie  quaestura, 
formed  like  Lat.  segnities.  In  North  Latin  we  find  Etrus.  Lat. 
Aecetiai  Aequitiae ;  Umb.  Lat.  Publece,  menesterium,  (T.  Pis.) 
Apolenei,  dede,  Nome(lia) ;  Mars,  dedet,  mereto  ;  and  rustic  "rustici 
etiam  nunc  quoque  viam  vcham  appellant "  (Varro).  E,  being  more 
subject  to  be  obscured  than  i,  is  not  unfrequently  dropped,  as  in 
cante  for  *canete,  class,  canite  (Carm.  Sali.),  Numtoriai  (inscr.  c. 
290  B.C.),  oinvorsei  (Bacch.),  unversum  (Lucretius),  caldus  (Cato), 
ardiis,  frigdaria  (Lucilius) ;  always  fert,  ferte  —  Qtpere.  Popular 
Latin  here  approached  the  North  dialect,  where  such  syncopes 
were  constant :  comp.  Umb.  nomne  nomine,  termnu  termino,  postro 
postero  ;  they  were  still  more  violent  in  Etruscan,  as  Elxsentre 
Alexander,  Sehtmnal  Septimiena  nata,  Tarxnas  Tarquinius  ;  Pis. 
Lat.  dedro(t)  dederunt,  Lebro  Liberum  ;  Umb.  Lat.  cedre  cedere,  &c. 
South  Latin,  on  the  contrary,  favoured  i  (see  below). 

14.  Of  long  i  Lucilius  distinguishes  two  kinds — close  (i  tenue),  as 
in  plla,  "  mortar,"  and  open  (i  pingue),  approaching  to  e,  written  ei, 
as  in  peilum,  "spear,"  meilia,  "thousands  " ;  he  might  have  added 
feilius,  "son,"  comp.  felare,  6^.  There  was  an  original  diph- 
thong ei,  as  in  deicere,  Osc.  deicum,  Gr.  SeiKvfoai,  which  was  early 
contracted  into  this  middle  sound,  exactly  like  Eng.  ey  in  money 
from  Old  Fr.  moneie.  This  too  is  quite  Umbrian,  spelt  ei  and  ee, 
c,  as  enetu  inito,  Arch.  Lat.  eneito,  feliuf  filios,  screihtor,  screhto 
scripti,  preve  privus,  Ioveine=  Ijovine,  Iguvini;  comp.  the  datives 
Jitve  palre,  meJie,  tefe  (tibi),  Osc.  Diuvei,  patere* ;  also  Umb.  Lat. 
/eZ  =  filius,  and  Pis.  Lebro.  In  North  Latin  datives  in  e  are  gener- 
ally constant  (Apolenei,  Pis.,  uncontracted),  as  Junone  matre,  Jove, 
patre,  Marie,  &c. ,  extending  sometimes  even  farther  south  ;  and 
Gallo-Lat.  nise  (Lex  Rubr.  de  Gall.  Cisalp.).  Livy  used  sibe  and 


quase  (originally  -ei).  This  exactly  agrees  with  the  rustic  pro- 
nunciation vella,  speca  recorded  by  Varro,  leber  by  Festus — "ab 
antiquis  et  ameci  et  amecae  per  e  litteram  efferebantur  "  (Fest.). 
And  this  again  surprisingly  agrees  with  the  Modern  Emilian 
(Romagnu61o)  pronunciation,  as  Bolognese  mega  mica,  deg  dico, 
mill  mille,  plur.  mela  =  lta.l.  mila,  vela  vita,  mare"  marito,  prim 
primo.  Thus  this  old  rustic  sound  seems  to  have  extended  north- 
wards, but  later  to  have  been  driven  from  its  old  home  by  the 
classic  close  i,  which  penetrated  everywhere  else,  and  is  generally 
represented  in  all  the  Romance  languages. 

15.  Old  Latin  often  prefers  short  o,  especially  original  and  un- 
accented, to  u,  as  in  consol  (T.  Scip.),  tdbola  (Bacch.),  pocolom 
(many   old  inscr.),  popolum  (Tab.    Bantina),    epistola= tiriaToMi, 
Patricoles,  Hercoles,  colpa  (Prise.),  Volcanom  (inscr.  3d  century  B.C.), 
volgo  and  volt,  &c.  (Plaut. ;  o  after  v  continued  in  the  classical  age), 
sont  sunt,  cosentiont  (T.  Scip. ),  denontiari  (Tab.  Bant. ) ;  in  termina- 
tions—  Venos,  opos,  robose,  filios,  and Luciom,  &c.  (T.  Scip.);  in  Umb 
ace.  poplo,  salvo,  tertio  ;  even  for  orig.  u — aseriato  eest,  observa- 
tum  ibit ;  radical — wioZtomulta,  "fine,"  onse  (h)umero,  Ital.  timero, 
Span,  ombro,  somo  summo  (orig.  sup-mo),  Ital.  sdmmo ;  in  North 
Latin  moltaticod  (T.   Piceu. ) ;  in  Fal.  maxomo,  zenatuo ;  and  in 
Ligurian  Latin  floviom,  infumo,  suso  (bronze  tablet  near  Genoa, 
1 1 7  B.  c. ).     0  reappears  in  Late  Latin  and  Italian  m6lto,  ddlce,  &c. 
Medial  o  is  often  dropped  before  I,  as  in  omni poplo  (Plaut.  Pseud.), 
teglarius  (inscr.),   Fostlus  (Faustulus,   114  B.C.),   Hercle  (Plaut), 
singlariter  (Lucr. )— comp.    Fr.   sanglier,   Ital.    cinghiale — coplata 
(Lucr.) ;  in  some  cases,  as  poclum,  periclum,  the  contraction  does 
not  appear  till  the  empire  ;  at  Pompeii  anglata,  subla,  &c.     As 
Umbrian  always  has  contraction,  pihaclom,  anglom,  Treblanir,  vithi, 
katlu,  stiplo,  whilst  Oscan   distinguishes   diminutive  forms  like 
zicolom,  zicelei,  ziculud  from  such  forms  as  sakaraklom,  pestlom, 
the  strongest  impulse  must  have  come  from  the  north,  although 
there  must  have  been  a  pretty  general  tendency  to  syncope  every- 
where.    In  Italian  contraction  is  the  rule  in  popular  words,  as 
vecchio  for  vet'lus,  Late  veclus,  occhio  oc'lus,  &c.     Inpbpolo,  tdwla, 
isola,  &c.,  and  diminutives  like  rivolo  and  gdndola,  the  original 
vowel  has  remained  throughout.    South  Latin  favoured  u  (see  below). 

16.  The  use  of  o  for  e  after  v  is  shown  by  Old  Lat.  oinvorsei, 
vortere;  in  vostrum  (Plaut.,  Ambrosian  palimpsest),  the  original 
sound  (from  vos)  occurs,  which  must  have  been  universal  in  popular 
speech,  since  it  reappears  in  Late  Latin  and  all  the  Romance  lan- 
guages— Ital.  vostro,  Fr.  votre,  &c.    There  was  a  tradition  that  Scipio 
Africanus  had  been  the  first  to  spell  these  words  with  e  (Quint., 
i.  7,  25).    Here  Umbrian  distinguished  between  e  and  o,  as  in  vestra, 
covertu  (pres.),  but  covortus  (perf.);  Lat.  vorsare  is  perhaps  Span. 
vosar,  bosar,  "to  vomit";  in  other  words  e  is  now  universal. 

17.  U  occurred  for  i  before  labials ;  but  the  old  optumo  has 
scarcely  left   any  trace,   yet  Ital.    has   menomo   besides  minima. 
Later  u  was  pronounced  with  the  sound  of  ii,  Gr.  v,  Fr.  u,  which  at 
last  was  turned  into  i,  as  in  optimus,  Ital.  ottimo.     But  in  some 
few  words  the  old  popular  form  has  survived — stupula,  Ital.  stdppia, 
Fr.  ttouble,  "  stubble, "  dissupare,  Ital.  sciupare. 

18.  U  stands  for  o — "  Frundes,  funtes  vetustissimi  ;  quae  tamen 
a  primoribus  repudiata  sunt,  quasi  rustico  more  dicta"  (Prise.) — 
contrary  to  the  general  rule  (see  15).    Spellings  like  muns,  muntem, 
funtem  abound  in  Late  Latin,  as  puntifex  (already  in  98  A.D.  ), 

SeirTo/xowTi'v  (Plut.,  c.  100) ;  whence  Old  Fr.  and  Old  Eng.  munt, 
"mount,"  Ital.  m6nte,  ponte,  fdnte  with  close  o.  In  Sieuese  we 
have  even  pognere,  ponto,  Ital.  and  Florentine  pugnere,  punto 
(pungere,  punctum) ;  the  connexion,  however,  of  6  with  Old  Latin 
u  is  doubtful. 

19.  Greek  v  was  pronounced  u,  as  in  Bruges  $pi/yes,  Burrus, 
purpura,  gubernum,  gitbemare,  cupressus, — the  last  four  also  class- 
ical ;  otherwise  the  classical  age  adopted  the,  Greek  sound  y,  as  in 
Cyprus.      In  popular  Latin  the  old  sound  remained,  and  u  was 
sometimes  (before  r,  as  in  fore)  even  changed  into  o,  as  in  storax 
(Ter. ),  ancora  (Nsevius).     In  Low  Latin  u  is  frequent :  cuprum,, 
"copper,"  for  which  Pliny  used  Cypriiim  (aes) ;  comp.  bursa,  Ital. 
borsa,  Fr.  bourse,  crupta,  Ital.  grotta,  tumba,  Ital.  tomba,  &c. 

In  popular  Latin  there  was  a  general  tendency  to  contract  the  Diph- 
old  diphthongs,  in  accordance  with  Umbrian  and  North  Latin.         thongs. 

20.  A  u  in  North  Latin  began  very  early  to  be  contracted  into 
long  open  o,  as  Pola  (inscr.  Picen.,  218  B.C.).     In  Umbrian  this  is 
a  constant  law — ote  aut,  Ital.  o,  Umb.  toru  tauros,  Ital.  toro,  &c. 
The  only  form  of  the  oldest  Roman  Latin  was  au,  as  Taurasia, 
(P)aulla  (T.  Scip.),  Claudi  (Bacch.).  When  the  Umbriau  poet  whose 
provincial  name  was  Plot(u)s  settled  in  Rome  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  3d  century    B.C.   his  name  was  Latinized   into   Plautus. 
Meanwhile  the  North  Latin  b  began  to  penetrate  into  Latium  as 
rustic,  vulgar,  and  familiar ;  Cato  and  Varro  often  use  it  in  their 
books  De  Re  Rustica,  as  coles  (Cato),  colis,  orata  (Varro)  :  "  Orata 
genus  piscis  appellatur  a  colore  auri,  quod  rustici  orum  dicebant, 
ut  auriculas,   oriculas"   (Fest.).     But   in  the  classical  age  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  reaction  against  this  vulgarism,  and  there  is  a 
well-known  anecdote  of  Mestrius   Florus  warning  the  emperor 
Vespasian  against  saying  plostra,  and  being  next  day  facetiously 
greeted  by  the  emperor  as  Flaurus  (Suet.,  Vesp.,  22).     At  Pompeii 


664 


ROMANCE      LANGUAGES 


copo  took  the  place  of  caupo,  o(p)scultat  of  auscultat.  It  is  scarcely 
possible  to  fix  the  precise  period  at  which  d  for  au  became  general 
with  the  upper  classes ;  but,  as  it  was  never  changed  into  ub  like 
the  original  open  o,  the  general  contraction  of  au  is  probably 
later  than  that  of  ae  to  e,  which  was  accomplished  about  the  time 
of  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  That  the  contracted  sound  is 
open  o,  not  closed,  may  be  inferred  from  the  Italian  6  in  oro,  toro, 
cosa,  povero,  in  Old  French  chose,  pbvrc,  as  is  shown  by  the  rhymes, 
only  iii  Mod.  Fr.  chose,  pdvre  (etymologically  spelt  pauvre).  The 
Eng.  cause,  sauce,  poverty,  have  kept  the  Old  French  sound  ;  the 
Spanish  forms  are  cosa,  oro,  pobre.  The  old  diphthongal  pronuncia- 
tion of  au  was  never  quite  lost,  but  preserved  in  literary  tradition 
all  through  the  Middle  Ages,  as  in  Italian  and  Spanish  literary 
words  like  causa.  It  even  appears  to  have  been  popular  in  some 
Roman  provinces,  judging  from  the  Prov.  paubrc,  causa,  in  Mod. 
Prov.  couzo  (spelt  by  the  French  "coouso"),  and  the  Portug.  ouro, 
cousa  (also  oiro,  coisa).  Even  Fr.  chose,  chou  presuppose  causa, 
caulis,  not  cosa,  colts.  In  Italian,  words  like  cavolo,  "cabbage," 
Paolo,  "Paul,"  are  rare  exceptions.  It  is  to  be  especially  noted 
that  cauda  seems  to  be  false,  coda  being  the  correct  Latin  form, 
which  is  corroborated  by  Ital.  c6da  with  close  o.  Some  philologists, 
however,  think  6  is  the  old  contraction,  unconnected  with  6. 

21.  Ae,  oldest  form  ai,  occurs  very  early,  as  in  acs,  praedad 
(Col.  Rostr. ),  and  was  general  at  the  time  of  the  Gracchi.  The 
difference  between  ai  and  ae  is  really  very  slight,  the  sound  of  i 
being  open,  which  is  very  near  "raised  e"  (both  vowels  occur  in 
Eng.  pity).  The  pronunciation  must  have  been  essentially  the 

same  as  in  the  Osc.  at,  which  in  the  Latin  transcription  of  the 
Tab.  Bantina  wavers  between  ai  and  ae.  The  contraction  of  ae 
into  e  first  occurs  in  the  north,  where  it  was  constant,  for  example 
Umb.  kvestur,  pre,  mestro  magistra,  dat.  ase  arae  ;  North  Latin — 
Fal.  pret(or),  Cesilia  ;  T.  Pis.  Cesula ;  Etrus.  Lat.  Quecili  ( =  Cecili 
for  Caecilii),  Cnevia  Gnaevia,  Gnaeja,  &c.  From  the  north  it  spread 
to  Latium,  where  it  first  occurs  as  a  rustic  pronunciation  scoffed 
at  by  Lucilius,  as  quoted  by  Varro :  "  Rustici  Pappum  Mesium, 
non  Maesium,  a  quo  Lucilius  scribit — Cecilius  Pretor  ne  rusticus 
fiat."  "In  Latio  rure  edus,  in  urbe  aedus"  (Varro).  We  find  e 
for  ae  quite  commonly  used  in  the  vulgar  dialect  of  the  1st  century 
A.D., — at  Pompeii  letus,  queres,  etate,  presto,  tabule,  que.  In  Rome 
e  became  the  pronunciation  of  the  upper  classes  only  in  the  Chris- 
tian period,  3d  and  4th  centuries,  as  Emiliano,  <j>e\fie  =  filiae  (inscr. 
3d  century),  Cesar  (4th  century).  Servius  (4th  century)  says  "2  is 
pronounced  almost  like  ae,"  that  is,  with  the  same  sound,  only 
shorter  (at  least  in  theory),  equits  like  aeqiius. 

owels  22.  In  Old  Latin  compound  words  often  did  not  soften  their 
f  com-  radical  vowel ;  the  preposition  being  then  an  adverb,  and  each 
Bunds,  word  having  a  distinct  stress,  the  compound  was  separable,  as  in 
manum  endojacito  (XII.  Tables) =injicito  ;  ob  vossacro,  vosobsecro, 
and  sub  vos pltico,  vos  supplico,  in  ancient  prayers;  transque  dato  — 
"et  tradito,"  in  ancient  laws.  This  was  imitated  by  classic  poets 
(tmesis) — inque  ligatus  (Virg.).  Only  some  of  these  separable  com- 
pounds continued  later  on,  such  as  the  intensifying  per,  in  per 
ccastor  scitus  (Ter.),  nobis  ista  sunt  pergrata  perque  jucunda  (Cic., 
De  Or.),  per  mihi  mirum  visum  est  (Cic.,  ib.),  Platoni  per  fuit 
familiaris  (Gellius).  Instances  of  the  unchanged  vowel  in  verbs — 
ecquid  placeant,  me"  rogas  ?  immo  vero  hercle  perplacent  (Plaut.), 
and  ea  mihi  perplacet  (Cic. ),  to  which  correspond  exactly  the  Old 
Fr.  par  est  bans,  par  me  plaist.  While  the  older  Latin  accentua- 
tion was  dffatim,  ddmodum,  these  words  seem  at  the  time  of  Gellius 
to  have  been  pronounced  affdtim,  admddum.  We  have  here  a  first 
step  towards  the  modern  system  of  accenting  the  last  element  of 
compounds  ;  comp.  the  modern  Comasco  ammo,  Roum.  amu,  "just 
now. "  Quoinodo  is  continued  in  Ital.  come,  but  is  formed  anew  in 
the  dialectic  comodo,  cmbd.  In  Late  Latin  and  Romance  the  old 
system  reappears  unimpaired  ;  many  of  the  old  compounds,  having 
been  lost  in  popular  speech,  were  formed  anew  with  stress  on  the 
last  element  and  unchanged  vowel :  for  instance,  class,  dispttcet, 
vulg.  displdeet,  Ital.  dispidce,  Span,  despldce,  Fr.  deplatt ;  class. 
accldU,  vulg.  accddet,  Ital.  accddc  (inf.  accadere) ;  retego  becomes 
Ital.  rileggo,  &c. 

ccent  23.  Stress,  which  in  Old  Latin  was  often  farther  from  the  end 
id  than  in  classical  Latin,  seems  early  to  have  become  pretty  strong, 
uantity.  so  as  to  induce  the  voice  to  hurry  over  unaccented  syllables  even 
though  they  were  long  by  position  (see  LATIN),  as  maglslratus, 
minlsterium,  voluntate,  in  Plautus,  where  st,nt  were  pronounced  as 
quickly  as  in  Eng.  voluntary,  magistrate.  The  vowels,  too,  were 
hurried  over  ;  that  ftneslra  was  pronounced  as  fen'stra  is  corro- 
borated by  the  Ennian  /e*<ra=fenstra, — comp.  Ital.  mesliero  = 
ministeriuni.  Scansions  like  sagUtis,  simlllumae  show  that  double 
consonants  might  count  as  long  or  short ;  position  was  not  regarded 
so  nicely  as  in  Greek  till  the  classical  age.  The  real  reason  may 
have  been  the  stress  on  the  first  syllable.  In  accented  syllables 
double  consonants  cannot  have  been  really  short,  considering  the 
full  length  of  Italian 'double  consonants  in  bello,  anno,  saetta,  &c. 
Likewise  final  vowels  of  iambic  words  were  shortened,  as  novo,  habe, 
puta,  bene,  homo  (see  LATIN).  This  is  important,  as  marking  the 
first  step  towards  the  Romance  levelling  of  the  old  quantities. 


This  tendency,  too,  was  carefully  restrained  during  the  classical 
age,  but  reappears  early  in  the  post-classical  period.  Another 
effect  of  the  strong  popular  stress  is  the  pronunciation  of  i  before 
vowels  as  a  consonant ;  thus  words  like  filiiis  in  Plautus  often 
count  as  two  syllables,  filjus  (j  =  Eng.  y).  This  is  evidently  the 
preparatory  stage  to  the  Romance  figlio,  &c.,  with  palatal  /, — I  and 
j  having  been  fused  into  one  sound.  This  pronunciation,  too,  was 
carefully  suppressed  by  the  classics. 

B.    Vocabulary. — We  append,   in   chronological   order,   a   brief  Vocabv 
selection  of  archaic  words,  disused,  vulgar,  colloquial,  or  used  with  lary 
a  disparaging  sense,  in  the  classical  age,  but  reappearing  later  as 
quite  usual  and  dignified  expressions.     The  many  modern  deriva- 
tives should  be  noticed. 

LIVIUS  ANDRONICUS  (c.  240  B.C.):  sortus  surrectus,  Ital.  sorto, 
sortire,  Fr.  sortir  de  1'eau.  PLAUTUS  (254-184) :  bucca,  "mouth" 
(fam.  Cic.),  bucca  panis  (Petron.),  Ital.  bocca,  Fr.  bouche  ;  mina- 
ciae,  "threats,"  Ital.  minaccia,  Fr.  menace;  calceolarius,  "shoe- 
maker," Ital.  calzolaio.  Diminutives — vidulus,  vidflus,  "wallet," 
Ital.  valigia  (Vid'litia,  Diez),  Fr.  valise  ;  auricula,  Ital.  orecchia, 
Fr.  oreille ;  apicula,  Fr.  abeille ;  lusciniola,  Ital.  usignu61o,  rosi- 
gnu61o,  Fr.  rossignol ;  sororcula,  Ital.  sirocchia,  commonly  sorella  ; 
vitellus,  Ital.  vitello,  Fr.  veau,  Eng.  veal ;  agnellus,  Ital.  agnello, 
Fr.  agneau  ;  putillus,  "little  boy,"  Ital.  putello  (putus  fam.  for 
puer,  Virg.).  Adjectives — Bellas  (later  fam.  Cic.) — the  Romance 
bello  has  quite  superseded  pulcher ;  minutus,  "small,"  populus 
minutus  (Petron.  )  =  Fr.  le  menu  peuple  ;  riralis,  originally  a  law 
term,  figuratively  of  a  rival  in  love  (class,  aemulus ;  fam.  Cic.); 
ebridcus,  "drunk,"  Ital.  ubbriaco ;  sucidus,  "juicy,"  "dirty," 
Ital.  sucido,  sudicio,  Span,  sucio.  Verbs — ambulare,  "walk,"  "go," 
familiar  in  all  ages,  hence  according  to  Dr.  Vilh.  Thomsen  the 
Romance  andare,  aller,  Roum.  umbld,  Ladino  amnar ;  bajularc, 
" carry,"  bajulus,  "carrier,"  L.  Lat.  "educator,"  Ital.  bdlio,  "steward," 
bdlia,  " nurse,"  Fr.  bailler,  "reach,"  "give";  manducus,  "glutton," 
manducare,  "chew,"  "eat,"  frequent  in  Old  Latin — the  emperor 
Augustus  wrote  familiarly  manducavi  duos  Inicceas  —  lta,].  mangiai 
due  bocconi — in  the  Vulgate  manducat  et  bibit,  Ital.  mangiare, 
Fr.  manger;  auscultare,  "listen"  (once  Cic.,  mihi  ausculta),  Ital. 
ascoltare,  Span,  escuchar,  Fr.  ecouter ;  cantare,  frequent  in  Old 
and  classical  Latin,  the  only  word  in  Romance  (canere  has  been 
lost)  ;  adjutare,  Ital.  ajutare,  Fr.  aider  (adjuvare  lost) ;  exradicarc, 
eradicare,  Ital.  sradicare,  Fr.  arracher ;  mcndicare,  Ital.  mendi- 
care,  Fr.  mendier;  batuere,  battuere,  "strike,"  Ital.  bdttere,  Fr. 
battre  (bdtto  from  battuo),  L.  Lat.  battualia,  Ital.  lattaglia,  Fr. 
bataille  ;  muttire,  "mutter" — palam  mutirc,  "  speak  "( Ennius) — 
L.  Lat  subst.  muttiim  nullum  emiseris,  "not  a  word,"  Ital.  motto, 
Fr.  mot;  sapere,  "understand" — sometimes  very  near  to  the 
modern  sense,  sapit  scelesta  multum  (Plaut.  )  =  Ital.  la  scellerata  sa 
molto,  nullam  rem  sapis=ltal.  non  sai  nulla — Ital.  sapere,  Span, 
saber,  Fr.  savoir  ;  comedere,  "eat"  (Cic.  fam.),  comedere  numos  = 
Fr.  manger  son  argent,  Span,  comer;  despoliare  (Cic.,  Ep. ;  Liv. 
once),  Ital.  spogliare,  Fr.  depouiller ;  comparare,  "to  procure," 
later  "to  buy"  (Suet.),  Ital.  comprare.  Greek  words — colaphus 
(colapus),  "buffet,"  "  box  on  the  ear  "  (fam.  Quint,  Plin.),  percolo- 
pabant  (Petron.),  L.  Lat.  colpus,  Ital.  colpo,  Fr.  coup.  ENNIUS 
(239-169) :  civitas,  "city"  (reappears  in  Petronius  and  later),  Ital. 
citta.,  Fr.  cite,  Eng.  city;  campsare,  "double  (a  cape),"  a  &ira$ 
\ey6fj.ei>oi>,  recognized  by  Diez  in  the  Ital.  (s)cansare,  "to  avoid"; 
nitidare,  Ital.  nettare  ;  petra,  "rock,"  frequent  in  Pliny  and  later 
— in  the  Vulgate  tu  es  Petnis,  et  super  hanc  Petram  aedificabo 
ecclesiam  meam — Ital.  pietra,  Fr.  pierre.  CATO  (234-149) :  nascerc 
nasci,  Ital.  nascere,  Fr.  naitre  ;  fracidus,  "mellow,"  "damaged 
(olives),"  Ital.  frdcido,  fradicio,  "rotten."  PACUVIUS  (219-129): 
causari,  "  to  plead,"  not  classical,  reappears  in  the  Silver  Age  in 
the  sense  of  pleading  as  an  excuse,  still  later  in  that  of  disputing, 
discussing,  Fr.  causer,  "to  chat,  talk";  comp.  Ladino plidar (plead), 
"to  speak."  LUCILIUS  (c.  148-103):  acceptor  for  accipiter,  "a 
hawk,"  frequent  in  Low  Latin,  Ital.  astore,  Fr.  autour  ;  qicirltare, 
"cry  " — ut  quiritare  urbanorum,  sicjubilare  rusticorum  est  (Varro ; 
fam.  Cic.) — Ital.  gridare,  Fr.  crier.  Greek  words — gubcrnum, 
"rudder,"  Ital.  governo ;  schedium,  "improvised  or  unpolished 
poem,"  Ital.  schizzo,  "sketch";  caballus,  "jade,"  seems  first  to 
occur  here — optat  arare  caballus  (Hor.) — later  "horse,"  "steed," 
Ital.  cavallo,  Span,  caballo,  Fr.  cheval,  L.  Lat.  caballarius, 
"chevalier,"  "knight";  cyma,  "young  sprout  of  cabbage  "  (later 
Plin.,  Colum.),  Ital.  cima,  "top."  Q.  CLAUDIUS  QUADRIGAUIUS 
— Gellius  blames  several  expressions  of  his  as  vulgar  or  rare  : 
diurnare  diu  vivere,  comp.  Ital.  soggiornare,  Fr.  sejourner,  Eng. 
sojourn,  and  aggiornare,  ajourner,  adjourn  ;  arboretum,  "grove," 
Ital.  arboreto,  Span,  arboleda.  VARRO  (116-28),  especially  in  tie 
Re  Rustica  :  belare  balare,  Ital.  belare,  Fr.  beler  ;  olor  odor,  Span, 
olor ;  capitium,  "bodice,"  Ital.  capezzale,  "cape,"  "pillow"; 
nervium=v(vptov,  Span,  nervio ;  rubeus,  "red"  (later  Colum., 
Pallad. ),  Fr.  rouge,  Span,  rubio,  "fair";  badius,  "bay  (horse)," 
a  rare  word,  Ital.  bajo,  Fr.  bai.  LABERIUS  (105-43)  is  blamed 
by  Gellius  for  using  obsolete,  rare,  and  vulgar  words  :  lavandaria 
lavanda,  later  "laundress,"  Ital.  lavandaja  ;  gurdus,  "stupid," 
a  Spanish  word,  says  Quintilian,  and  in  fact  we  find  Old  Span. 


ROMANCE      LANGUAGES 


gordo,  "stupid,"  Mod.  Span,  "fat," — comp.  pinguis  Minerva; 
pittacium,  "patch,"  " label, "  =  TTITT&KIOV,  Span,  pcdazo,  "piece"; 
nanus,  " dwarf, "  =  vavos,  Ital.  nano,  Fr.  nain  ;  botulus,  "sausage" 
(also  Petron.),  dim.  botellus  (Martial),  later  =  "bowels,"  Ital. 
budello,  plur.  budella,  Fr.  boyaux.  LUCRETIUS  (94-55) :  baubarc, 
"bark,"  Ital.  abbajare,  Fr.  aboyer,  Eng.  bay;  russiis,  "red" — 
a  rare  word,  russa  gingiva  (Catull. ),  mentioned  as  usual  by  Gellius 
— Ital.  r6sso,  "red,"  Fr.  roux,  rousse,  "red-haired."  Old  words 
mentioned  by  GRAMMARIANS:  burrus  (see  11,  above);  artitus  — 
bonis  instructus  artibus,  Prov.  artisia,  "trade,"  Fr.  artisan; 
gluto  (Fest. ),  glutto  (Persius  and  later),  Ital.  ghiottone,  Fr.  glouton 
(comp.  Lat.  glut  glut,  Fr.  glouglou) ;  planca  tabula  plana,  Fr. 
planche,  Eng.  plank  ;  sarpere  putare,  "to  imp,"  Fr.  serpe,  "prun- 
ing knife." 

ram-  C.  Grammar  (Plautine,  when  no  author  quoted). — Gender: 
uir.  collus  collum,  Old  Fr.  cols,  now  cow ;  dorsus,  &c.  Declensions  : 
lade  lac,  Ital.  latte  (Petron.  unum  lactem  biberunt)  ;  vasum, 
Umb.  vaso(r),  Ital.  vaso  ;  ossum,  Ital.  osso,  Fr.  os ;  pauper, -a, -um 
(also  Petron.),  Ital.  povero.  Comparison:  magis  pulcer  =  Span. 
7nas  hermoso  ;  even  magis  majores,  as  vulg.  .Ital.  piu  meglio,  vulg. 
Fr.  plus  meilleur,  vulg.  Eng.  more  better(er).  The  ordinary  Rom- 
ance formation  with  plus  only  appears  in  the  3d  period.  With 
ego  ipsissumus,  "  my  very  self,"  comp.  ipsimus,  "himself,"  i.e., 
the  master  of  the  house  (Petron.).  Out  of  (ego)met-ipsimus  grew 
Ital.  medesimo,  Span,  mismo,  Fr.  mime.  Pronouns:  dat.  fern,  illae 
forilli,  Ital.  le  ;  eccum  =  ecce  eum,  Ital.  ecco — pater  eccMmadvenit= 
ccco  che  viene  il  padre  ;  ccciste,  eccista  =  Old  Fr.  cist,  ceste,  Mod. 
Fr.  ce,  cet,  cette  ;  eccille,  eccilla  =  Old  Fr.  cil,  cele,  Mod.  Fr.  celui, 
celle.  In  Italian  these  were  replaced  by  eccum  istum,  Ital.  questo, 
and  eccum  ilium,  Ital.  quello,  analogous  to  the  Plautine  eccum 
ipsum,  eccam  eampse,  &c.  ;  quotumus,  "which  of  the  number" — 
quotumo  die  hue  pervenisti  ?  Ital.  lavorare  a  cdttimo,  "work  by 
the  job."  Unus  indefinite  was  sometimes  very  like  the  modern 
indefinite  article — Huic  filia  una  est,  "he  has  a  daughter,"  Ital. 
ijuest'uoino  ha  una  figlia.  Ille  was  sometimes  used  very  like  the 
modern  definite  article — Imponit  geminorum  alterum  in  nave  pater, 
ilium  reliquit  alterum  apud  matrem  domi,  Ital.  Iasci6  I'altro  colla 
madre  a  casa.  Note  also  natus  nemo  in  aedibus,  "not  a  living 
soul,"  "not  a  mother's  son,"  Span,  nadie,  "nobody,"  likewise 
from  nata  (res),  Span,  nada,  "nothing,"  whereas  the  Catalan  pre- 
fers res,  Prov.  ren,  re,  Fr.  rien  (rem).  Homo  is  sometimes  like 
an  indefinite  pronoun — Nequior  nemo,  quisquarnst,  quern  homo  aut 
amet  aut  adeat,  Fr.  on.  Verbs :  moriri  mori,  Ital.  morire,  Fr. 
mourir.  Active  for  deponent — jocare,  Ital.  giocare,  Fr.  jouer, 
partire  =  lta.\.  ;  fabulare,  Span,  hablar.  Perfects  in  si — parsi,  prae- 
morsi,  Ital.  morsi ;  the  formation  in  si  greatly  increased  in  Rom- 
ance. Habere  with  past  part,  often  approaches  to  modern  com- 
pound tenses,  Res  omnis  rclictas  habeo,  Ital.  ho  lasciato  tutto. 
Adverbs  :  Aliorsum  ire  for  alio,  Prov.  alhors,  Fr.  ailleurs.  Pre- 
positions :  de  for  genitive,  dimidium  de  pracda  mihi  dare,  Ital.  la 
meta  del  bottino  ;  ad  for  dative,  te  ad  patrem  esse  mortuom  re- 
nuntiem,  Ital.  dire  al  padre  ;  cum  instrumental,  cum  virgis  caseum 
radere,  Ital.  con  ;  de  instr.,  quam  ilia  de  meis  opulentiis  fiat  pro- 
peusior,  Ital.  di.  Peculiar  local  uses  are  in  Ephesum  ire,  in  Epheso 
esse,  ab  domo,  "from  home, "  ex  Epheso,  "from  Ephesus";  ab,  from 
(at)  one's  house,  as  Esne  tu  ab  illomilite,  servus  ejus  =  from  (at)  the 
soldier's,  foris  concrepuit  a  vicino  sene,  Ital.  dal  soldato,  dal  vecchio 
vicino. 

Jyntax  Syntax  and  Phraseology. — Pater  tuus  is  erat  patruelis  meus  ; 
ind  comp.  Fr.  le  pere  est-il,  Ital.  il  padre  lo  conosco.  Pone  aedem  ibi 
>hrase-  sunt  homines,  Ital.  vi  sono  degli  uomini.  Scio  jam  quid  vis  dicere, 
•logy.  Ital.  so  (quel)  che  vuoi  dire.  Ne  time,  ne  fac,  Fr.  ne  fais  pas  cela. 
Totus  gaudeo,  tola  sum  misera,  even  Cic.  falsum  est  id  totum,  "it 
is  all  false, "  Ital.  e  tutto  falso,  son  tutta  contenta,  Fr.  elle  est  toute 
joyeuse.  Multum  miseri,  even  Cic.  fam.  multum  bonus,  Ital.  molto 
buono,  Span,  muy  bueno,  Port,  muito  bom.  Bene  morigerus  (Plaut.), 
bcne  saepe  (Enn.),  bene  mane  (Cic.),  Ital.  ben  bene,  ben  tosto,  Fr. 
bien  bon,  bientot,  bien  souvent.  Bene  velle  alicui,  Ital.  voler  bene 
ad  alcuno.  Epityrum  estur  insane  bene  (Plaut. ),  showing  that  the 
furieusement  bien  of  the  Precieuses  was  no  novelty.  Aequo  animo 
stare,  Ital.  stardi  buon  auimo  ;  stabam  tanquam  mortuus  (Petron.), 
Ital.  stava  come  morto,  stare  in  letto,  star  seduto,  &c.  Dictum  (ac) 
factum  (Ter.),  Ital.  detto  fatto,  "said  and  done."  Cum  (bona) 
gratia,  ' '  with  a  good  grace  "  (Ter. ),  Fr.  de  bonne  grace.  Id  restabat 
(dcerat,  ut),  used  ironically,  (Ter.),  It.  questa  mancava  aucora,  Fr. 
il  ne  manquait  (plus)  que  cela. 

II.  Second  (Classical)  Period:  80  B.C.  to  100  (150)  A.D. 
Second         At  this  time  we  begin  to  have  an  idea  of  what  South  Latin  was,  of 
period,     which  the  chief  characteristics  were — (1)  its  conservative  character) 
supported  by  the  antique  forms  of  the  Oscan  language  ;  (2)  its  pre- 
ferring i  to  e,  as  in  sinatum,  cinsuerint,  cintum,  rim,  ris,  diibits 
(Lex  Jul. ;  Heraclea) ;  nigatis,  tenimus,  Lucritius,  dicembres,  ocilli 
(Pompeii),  tenimus =  Mod.  Neap,  tenimmo;  fruminto,  siptim  (Pute- 
pli)  ;  venirandae  (Nap.);  later  sicundo,  siptim  (Borgia,  386);  (3) 
its  preferring  u  to  o,   as  in  furtunilla,  postcru,  aliu  (Pompeii). 
These  forms  are  constant  in  Modern  South  Italian.     Now  classical 


Latin  was  an  approach  to  South  Latin,  and  there  arose  a  strong 
reaction  against  the  vulgar  North  Latin  forms.  But  even  a  purist 
like  Cicero  could  not  always  abstain  from  using  colloquial  forms, 
and  he  sometimes  gives  us  precious  information  about  familiar  pro- 
nunciations, as  cun  nobis  for  cum  nobis,  showing  the  assimilation 
of  mn  to  nn.  He  hesitates  to  use  the  new  word  medietas,  which 
later  became  the  ordinary  expression,  Ital.  meta,  Span,  mitad,  Fr. 
moitie.  Catullus  has  inwlare,  "steal,"  Ital.  involare,  Fr.  voler, 
and  basium,  Ital.  bacio  (for  basio,  bagio,  like  cacio  caseus),  Span, 
bcso,  Fr.  baiser,  and  the  familiar  caressing  issa  for  ij)sa,  Ital.  essa. 
He  and  Horace  have  platea,  ' '  street "  (for  platea  =  TrXareTa),  Ital. 
piazza,  Fr.  place.  Vitruviushas  octuaginta,  Ital.  ottanta,  aperegre 
=  "from  abroad,"  and  the  Greek  words  chalare,  Ital.  calare,  zelus, 
Ital.  geloso,  Fr.  jaloux,  and  schidia,  "wooden  chip,"  "splinter," 
Ital.  scheggia.  The  transition  from  b  to  v  begins,  triumphamt  for  -bit 
(Lex  Jul. ).  Gradually  the  popular  speech  undermined  the  classical 
correctness  of  the  brief  Golden  Age,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
empire  again  rose  to  the  surface.  The  emperor  Augustus  was  fond 
of  talking  slang  and  bad  grammar,  as  simus  for  sumus,  and  he  wrote 
as  he  spoke  in  his  familiar  letters,  although  he  was  very  hard  upon 
a  poor  legatus  consularis  for  barbarously  writing  ixi  instead  -of  ipsi 
(Suet.,  Aug.,  88;  comp.  proximus  for propsimus}. 

At  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  we  find  a  town  dialect  fully  de- 
veloped, half  South  Latin,  half  vulgar  Roman.  Final  consonants 
were  dropped,  for  instance  m  in  the  ace.  puella,  laudata ;  t  in  the 
verse  "quisquis  ama  valid,  peria  qui  nosci  (?  =  nescit)  amare 
(Pomp. ) ;  s  rarely,  valea  =  valeas  (Pomp. ).  H,  the  right  pronuncia- 
tion of  which  had  become  a  mark  of  education,  just  as  in  English 
(Rusticus  fit  sermo,  si  aspires  perperam  ;  Nigid.  Figulus),  was  con- 
stantly dropped,  as  in  abeto,  abuaerit  (Pomp.),  dbiat  (Here.).  Nn 
took  the  place  of  nd  :  vcrecunnus  (Pomp.),  later  innulgen.  (Abella, 
170  A.  D.  ),  agennae  (Puteoli),  were  generally  Italic;  comp.  Umb. 
pihaner  piandi  (distennite,  dispennite,  Plaut.),  Osc.  opsannam 
operandam  ;  now  South  Italian — Roman  monno,  Neap,  munno, 
Sicil.  munnu=ltal.  mondo,  Lat.  muudus.  Ss  was  used  for  cs  (x) 
as  in  words  in  -triss  for  -trix  (Pomp.).  <i>  popularly  became^?,  as 
Aprodite,  but  with  those  who  tried  to  speak  fine  /,  just  as  they 
made  the  Greek  v  an  i — lacintus,  Amarillis,  Dafnc,  Filetus,  Ital. 
fisico,  fisonomia,  &c.  E  for  oe  seems  first  to  occur  during  the 
empire,  for  example,  pomerii  (8  B.C.),  pomerium  (49  A.D. ),  Phebus 
(Pomp.).  There  is  no  certain  evidence  of  the  sound  of  Germ,  o, 
Fr.  cu  ;  we  see  that  the  first  vowel  is  absorbed  by  the  second. 
According  to  Diez,  oe  becomes  close  e,  ae  open  e,  which  is  true  for 
popular  words  like  Ital.  pena,  Fr.  peine,  but  untrue  for  Latinisms 
like  fete,  fedo,  ameno,  ceto,  commedia,  tragedia,  Febo,  oe  in  Low 
Lat.  being  constantly  confounded  with  ae.  Original  oe  never 
becomes  ie,  as  ae  does  (cielo,  fieno). 

Vocabulary. — We  remark  at  Pompeii  cxmuccavit  emunxit,  Ital.  Vocabu 
dial,  smoccare,  "snuff  (the  candle)";  mi  similat,  Ital.  mi  somiglia,  lary. 
Fr.  il  me  ressemble,  elsewhere  only  in  Late  Latin.  PETRONIUS  : 
bisaccium,  Ital.  bisaccia,  Fr.  besace ;  nesapius,  "unwise,"  Ital. 
savio,  saggio,  Span,  sabio,  Fr.  sage  ;  berbex,  Fr.  brebis ;  peduclus, 
Ijtal.  pidocchio,  Fr.  pou  (panus  facit  diminutivum  pamicula, 
Fest.,  Ital.  pannocchia — comp.  L.  Lat.  genuculum,  acucula,  Ital. 
ginocchio,  agocchia,  Span,  hinojo,  aguja,  Fr.  genou,  aiguille);  striga, 
"witch,"  Ital.  strega;  fatuus,  Fr.  fat;  basiavit  me  spissius,  Ital. 
spesso,  "often."  Instances  of  Petronius's  grammar  are — vinus, 
caelus,  comp.  Old  Fr.  vins,  dels  ;  jacebat  tanquam  bovis,  Ital.  bove, 
bue;  hoc  vetare  nee  Jovis  potest  (Old  Lat.  Jovis  pater  =  Jupiter), 
Ital.  Giove  ;  munus  excellente,  neuter,  shows  the  L.  Lat.  declension, 
Ital.  eccellente  ;  habet  unde=il  a  de  quoi  (vivre) ;  unus  de  nobis= 
uuo  di  noi  (see  also  LATIN).  PLINY  mentions  sanguisuga  as 
vulgar  for  hirudo,  Ital.  sanguisuga,  Fr.  sangsue  ;  he  has  gyrare 
=  Ital.  girare,  "turn,"  "roam  about."  PERSIUS  (34-62)  has  stloppo 
tumidas  rumpere  buccas,  "a  slap,"  L.  Lat.  sclopus,  sclupare,  Ital. 
schioppo,  "gun."  QUINTILIAN  (c.  40-118):  Swarbv  quod  nostri 
possibile  nominant,  quae  ut  dura  videatur  appellatio,  tamen  sola 
est,  Ital.  possibile,  &c.  JUVENAL  has  bucca  foculum  excitat,  Ital. 
fuoco,  Fr.  feu,  and  TACITUS  spatha,  Ital.  spada,  Fr.  epee  (see  also 
LATIN). 

III.  Third  (Post-Classical)  Period:  100  (150)  to  300(350). 

This  period  is  represented  by  the  latest  pagan  inscrip-  Third 
tions,  by  Gellius,  Apuleius,  &c.     On  the  decay  of  class-  period, 
ical  Latin,  see  LATIN.     In  pronunciation  only  few  decided 
changes  appear. 

1.  /  is   inserted   before    s   impurum,    as  iscripta   (Afr.,    197), 
eiffireipeiTU  =  ispirito  (Rome,  269) ;  later  this  was  universal,  but  in 
Italian  only  after  consonants — non  istd  (colloq.  non  stti),  in  ispirito, 
in  iscriito  ;  Span,  always,  as  espiritu,  esta,  escribir,  escuela ;  Fr. 
esprit,  ecrire,  ecole. 

2.  Tt  is  put  for  pt,  as  Setemb.  (Helvet.,  219),  Setimus  (Afr.,  3d 
century),  later  frequent.     This  assimilation  originally  came  from 
the  north  ;  comp.   Etrus.  Lat.  Nethunus  (tk—t),   Etrus.  NcOuns, 
Neptunus,  Etrus.  Lat.  Setumnal,  Etrus.  Sehtmnal  —  Septimiena  nata 

XX.  —  84 


666 


ROMANCE      LANGUAGES 


(inscr.  biling.),  Sctutnt,  Setimi,  Septimius,  Umb.  scrdhtor,  screhto, 
Ital.  Scttimo,  Ncttuno,  otto  aptus,  catlivo,  scritto. 

8.  Tt  takes  the  place  of  ct,  as  in  Sencditus  (204),  lattuca  (Edict. 
Diocl.,  301).  This  too  came  from  the  north  ;  mtoria  occurs  on  an 
ancient  mirror,  probably  Etruscan.  Comp.  Umb.  subahtu  and 
snbator,  formally =subacti,  rehte  recte,  where  h,  originally  sounded, 
had  become  mute  or  nearly  so,  which  is  further  proved  by  the 
spellings  ajnbrehtu,  ambretu,  ambito,  &c. ;  comp.  tettom^e),  probably 
=  Ital.  tetto  tectmn,  just  as  Ital.  retto  rectus,  atlo  actus,  otto  octo, 
notte  noctem.  This  change  was  restricted  to  Italy ;  elsewhere  ct 
became  it,  as  Fr.  fait  factum,  Port,  feito,  Span.  Jiecho  (  =  *feitjo). 
Likewise  cs  (x)  became  in  Italy  ss,  as  in  Lat.  cossim,  vissit,  elsewhere 
i«,  as  Span,  and  Port,  seis,  Fr.  cuisse,  laisser. 

4.  G  before  a  single  e,  i  becomes  palatal  (like  the  old-fashioned 
Eng.  gyarden,  &c.)  or  nearly  j  (Eng.  y  in  you),  so  that  both  are 
confounded— magestati  (inscr.  before  243) ;  cogiugi,  conjugi.     The 
sign  for  J  in  the  Gothic  alphabet,  taken  from  Latin  0,  shows  the 
pronunciation  of  the  4th  century. 

5.  Ngn  for  gn,   as   congnato,  singno,  belongs  perhaps  to   this 
period — connato,   &c.,   is  also  found — E.    Ital.   sengno,  now  spelt 
segno,  'with  palatal  n,  degno  dignus,  regno  regnum,  &c.,  Fr.  dignc, 
&c.  ;  sometimes  n(n),  as  in  condscere,   Fr.   connaUre.      There  are 
traces  of  some  other  transitions  that  appear  to  have  been  completed 
only  in  the  next  period. 

'ocabu-  6.  Vocabulary. — APULEIUS  has  sapidus,  "savoury"  (comp.  in- 
ry.  sipidus),  Old  Fr.  sade,  whence  Fr.  maussade  (mal-sade)  ;  morsicare 
=  Ital.  ;fotticare,  "breathe"  (like  a  bellows),  Port,  folgar,  j3pan. 
holgar,  "rest,"  "lounge";  masticare,  Ital.  masticare,  Fr.  m&cher; 
minari  (equum baculis),  "threaten,"  hence  "drive,"  Ital.  menare, 
Fr.  mener;  cambiare  (better  than  cambire),  Ital.  cambiare,  Fr. 
changer;  victualis  adj.,  in  the  6th  century  subst.  victualia  (nom. 
plur. ),  Old  Fr.  and  E.  Eng.  vitaille,  Eng.  vittles,  spelt  etymologically 
victuals ;  aucilla,  aucella  for  avicella,  the  existence  of  which  had 
been  denied  by  Varro,  L.  Lat.  aucellus,  Ital.  uccello,  poet,  augello, 
Prov.  auzels,  Old  Fr.  oisel,  Mod.  Fr.  oiscau.  CJELIUS  AURELIANUS 
(2d  or  3d  century)  has  testa,  "skull,"  frequent  in  the  4th  century, 
Ital.  testa,  "head,"  Fr.  tete.  LAMPRIDIUS  (c.  250):  papilio  = 
pavilion,  pullicenus,  Ital.  pulcino,  Fr.  poussin  ;  pipio,  "pigeon"; 
platea,  "place."  TERTULLIAN,  first  Christian  author :  rememorare, 
"remember,"  aeternalis,  "eternal,"  compassio,  "compassion,"  and 
many  other  modernisms,  such  as  plus  miser = Ital.  piu  misero,  Fr. 
plus  miserable.  DIOCLETIAN  :  fata,  parca,  Ital.  fata,  Fr.  fee. 
SOLINUS  (c.  3d  century):  repatriare,  "to  repair  (to)."  APICITJS 
(c.  3d  century) :  excaldare,  Ital.  scaldare,  Fr.  echauder ;  spatula, 
Ital.  spalla,  Span,  espalda,  Fr.  epaule. 

IV.  Fourth  Period :  300  (350)  to  500  (550). 
ourth  This  period  extends  from  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
Kriod.  to  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  great  migrations.  Christianity 
marks  an  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Romance 
languages.  Pagan  literature  was  abhorred,  and  classical 
traditions  lost.  Popular  speech  got  the  upper  hand ;  the 
gospel  was  preached  to  the  people  in  the  people's  own 
language,  and  the  New  Testament  translated  into  vulgar 
Latin.  Several  phonetic  changes  which  formerly  had  been 
wavering  and  uncertain  became  rapidly  fixed  and  decided. 
The  whole  language  was  revolutionized. 

1.  Palatal  g  or/  was  developed  into  dj  (like  gy  in  Hung.  Magyar 
= palatal  d  +  Eng.  y)  or  dzh  (Eng.  f),  sometimes  dz,  and  was  con- 
founded with  original   di — Zerax,   Hierax  (Cumse,  202);  Zot/Xioe 
(pagan  inscr.),  comp.  Diuliali  (568),  Madias  (364),  also  Mazas= 
majas,  Gianuaria  (503),  also  Zanuari,  &c.     Italian  still  retains 
the  sound  of  dzh  in  giungere  jungere,  Giove  Jovem,  genere,  giacire, 
&c.     Original  di  in  Aziabenico  (Afr.,  195),  tnedius,  pronounced 
inedsius  according  to  Servius  (4th  century)  and  Consentius  (5th 
century),  Ital.  mezzo,  pronounced  med-zo  (but  giorno  from  diurnus). 

2.  Ti  was  assibilated  before  vowels ;  there  are  no  certain  pre- 
Christian   instances.      In   the  4th  century  the  Gothic  laiktjo= 
lectio  shows  that  the  change  had  only  begun  ;   ci  and  ti  were 
sometimes  confounded,  as  in  ncdXrios  calceus  (Plut.,  c.  100  ;  Ed. 
Diocl.,   301),   oeio  (Rome,   389) ;  we  have   ti  for  si  in  aecletiae 
(early  Christ,  inscr.).     In  the  5th  century  the  change  appears  as 
fully  accomplished  ;  the  grammarian  Pompeius  (probably  a  Maure- 
tanian)  expressly  teaches  the  pronunciation  Titius  as  Titsius,  and 
Consentius  (a  Gaul)  etiam  as  eziam,  i.e.,  etsiam.      In  the  6th 
century  we  have  the  Gothic  kavtsjon,  cautionem.     It  is  probable 
that  this  change  too  originally  came  from  the  north,  especially 
from  Etruria,  where  it  was  very  old  :  we  have  Etrus.  Ventia  Venza, 
ArnGia  Arnza,  Etrus.  Lat.  Vencsi,  Vensius,  Arnzius  (while  Umbrian 
has  tertio,  Martie,  &c.),  Mars.  Lat.  Martses,  evidently  the  source 
of  the  Latin  Marsi.     At  length  this  pronunciation  reached  the 
capital  and  became  general,  mostly  expressed  by  c,  as  in  eciam,  ter- 
cius,  milicia,  justicia,  stacio,  nacionem,  &c.     The  pronunciation  ts  is 
confirmed  for  Spain  by  Isidore  in  the  7th  century.     This  sound  is 


still  preserved  by  Italian  in  words  like  piazza,  gratia,  nasivne, 
giustizia,  likewise  by  Old  French,  as  naciun,  place,  whereas  in 
Spanish  ts  has  coalesced  into  a  lisped  s,  as  in  gracia,  nation,  and 
in  Portuguese,  Provencal,  and  Modern  French  it  has  been  assimi- 
lated into  a  hard  (voiceless)  s,  as  in  jrfaca,  plassa,  place. 

3.  Ci  was  assibilated  before  vowels.     In  the  4th  century  we  have 
the  Gothic  faskja,  which  shows  no  change.    Schuchardt  is  probably 
right  in  supposing  that  ci  was  assibilated  a  good  deal  later  than  ti, 
— an  inference  from  the  comparative  rarity  of  instances  of  change, 
and  from  the  silence  of  the  grammarians.     From  instances  like 
ocio  (see  2)  it  would  appear  that  ci  and  ti  had  the  same  sound,  but 
this  cannot  have  been  the  case,  as  Italian  still  keeps  up  a  differ- 
ence, as  in  piaccia  placeat, piazza  platea.    Yet  there  may  have  been 
a  beginning  of  a  palatal  affection,  making  the  two  sounds  somewhat 
like  each  other.     In  the  6th  century  we  have  the  Gothic  unkjane 
(unciarum)  and  OWKIO.  in  the  Ravenna  charters,  but  on  the  other 
hand  Trpficeiw=precio  for  pretio,    Urbitcius  (533,  which,  however, 
may  be  a  miscorrection,  c  being  added  instead  of  substituted  for  t), 
Mauriscius  on  a  Gaulish  coin,  from  the  same  period, — making  it 
probable  that  the  assibilation  had  been  accomplished.     In  the  7th 
and  8th  centuries  spellings  like  onzia  for  uncia  are  quite  common. 

4.  The  most  important  change  of  all  was  the  victory  of  stress  Accent 
over  quantity  and  tones.     The  popular  songs  of  the  classical  period  and 
show  a  decided  prevalence  of  accent.     In  the  soldiers'  songs  from  quantit 
the  end  of  the  3d  century  stress  has  quite  superseded  quantity  and 

is  the  ruling  principle  of  the  metre  : — 

"  Unus  homo  mille,  inillc,  mille  decollavimus. 

Tantum  vini  nemo  hcibet  quantum  fudit  sangninis." 

This  is  just  like  the  metre  of  early  Christian  hymns — "  Dies  irae, 
dies  ilia,"  and  "0  Rex  aeterne,  Ddmine,"  &c.  The  old  quantities 
had  been  levelled.  St  Augustine  (354-430)  says  that  in  his  time 
only  a  few  grammarians  had  kept  up  the  distinction  between  m&rae 
and  more,  and  that  the  Africans  confounded  Ss  and  os.  Servius 
(4th  century)  could  only  find  out  quantity  from  stress  in  words  like 
impius,  amtcus.  Consentius  says  that  some,  especially  Africans, 
said  piper  for  piper  and  Srdtor  for  orator.  This  does  not  necessarily 
mean  that  all  short  accented  vowels  before  single  consonants  had 
become  long  ;  probably  both  short  and  long  coalesced  to  a  medial 
quantity,  rather  short  than  long,  and  there  was  no  very  marked 
difference  of  quantity  between  accented  and  unaccented  vowels. 
This  appears  plainly  from  the  nature  of  Romance  poetry,  where 
stress  has  only  a  moderate  importance — namely,  in  the  most 
prominent  parts  of  the  verse  —  while  the  chief  principle  is  the 
number  ef  syllables.  In  Italian,  especially  in  the  Tuscan  dialect, 
we  may  hear  bambino  with  short  accented  i,  the  unaccented  o  being 
rather  longer  than  the  accented  i,  just  as  Eng.  y  in  pity,  when 
emphatic,  is  longer  than  i.  In  Spanish  words  like  mdno,  primero, 
scndra  the  accented  vowel  is  generally  as  short  as  the  unaccented 
or  even  shorter,  which  does  not  prevent  the  Spaniards  from  count- 
ing it  as  "  dos  tiempos  "  (duas  moras) ;  the  unaccented  final  syllables 
are  often  rather  longer,  as  in  Eng.  pity.  In  Italian  the  longest 
syllables  are  those  containing  two  or  more  consonants  after  the 
accented  vowel,  as  tempo,  pazitnza,  bdcca,  gatto ;  the  chief  difference 
between  fdtto  and  fdto  is  the  length  of  the  t  in  the  former.  In 
Spanish  and  French  even  long  consonants  are  shortened,  as  Span. 
boca,  gato,  Fr.  chatte ;  jette  and  achete  are  equally  short ;  vowels 
are  generally  short  or  medial,  as  une  belle  ville  (not  like  veal,  as 
the  English  make  it),  and  are  long  only  by  compensation,  as  in 
dne,  chante  (where  the  nasal  is  absorbed  by  the  vowel).  The  old 
distinction  of  tone  necessarily  disappeared  with  these,  the  acute  or 
high  even  (Roma)  and  the  circumflex  or  high  falling  tone  (R6ma) 
being  dependent  on  the  quantities. 

5.  Vocabulary. — AUSONIUS  (Burdigala,  309-392) :  burrae,  nugae,  Vocab 
Ital.  burla,  "joke."     ARNOBIUS  (Afr.,c.  330):  coquina,  Ital.  cucma,  lary. 
Fr.  cuisine.     FIRMICUS  MATERNUS  (c.  340  ?) :  compittus,  Ital.  conto, 

Fr.  compte.  PALLADIUS  (c.  350):  catus,  "cat";  species  =  ¥r.  epices. 
AMMIANUS  MARCELLINUS  (end  of  4th  century) :  molina,  Ital. 
molino,  Fr.  moulin;  impedicare  ernpecher  ;  j»i7dre  =  expllare,  Fr. 
piller,  Ital.  pigliare  ;  proba,  preuve.  VEGETIUS  (end  of  4th  cen- 
tury): burgus,  castellum  parvum,  Ital.  borgo,  Fr.  bourg.  JEROME 
(331-420) :  camisia  (Celtic),  Ital.  camicia,  Span,  camisa,  Fr.  chemise; 
carricare,  Ital.  caricare,  Span,  cargar,  Fr.  charger;  impostor  =  Eng. ; 
rancor,  "rancour."  THE  VULGATE:  grossus,  Ital.  grosso,  Fr.  gros 
(see  also  LATIN).  SERVIUS  (c.  390) :  falco,  Ital.  falcone,  Fr.  faucon. 
LACTANTIUS  (d.  c.  330) :  meridionalis.  AUGUSTINE  (354-430) :  com- 
binare ;  vanitare  vanter.  CODEX  THEODOS.  (438) :  exagium,  Ital. 
saggio,  Fr.  essai ;  paraveredus,  L.  Lat.  palafredus,  Ital.  palafreno, 
Fr.  palefroi ;  acucula,  aiguille.  CASSIODORUS  (beginning  of  6th 
century) :  modernus,  "modern."  CODEX  JUSTINIAN.  (527-565) : 
amicabilis,  ' '  am  iable. ' ' 

V.  Fifth  Period:  500  (550)  to  c.  900  (1000). 
This  period,  which  extends  from  the  migrations  to  the  Fift 
first  appearance  of  the  modern  Romance  languages,  is  the  period 
age  of  Low  or  barbarous  Latin,  as  written  especially  in 
charters  and  laws.    While  Christianity  had  brought  vulgar 


ROMANCE      LANGUAGES 


667 


Latin  into  the  foreground,  barbarism  quite  made  away 
with  literary  Latin.  Latin  was  not  only  dead  but  for- 
gotten. The  old  sounds  and  forms  had  been  lost,  and 
the  scribes,  ignorant  of  classical  grammar,  tried  neverthe- 
less to  make  a  show  of  learning  by  putting  Latin  forms 
at  random.  This  makes  the  language  look  much  more 
barbarous  than  it  really  was.  It  is  sometimes  very  hard 
to  find  out  the  living  popular  form  under  the  Latin  varnish, 
and  harder  still  to  find  out  what  is  proper  to  each  country, 
as  Low  Latin  is  very  much  the  same  everywhere.  The 
following  were  some  of  the  chief  peculiarities. 
arac-  1.  Old  Latin  forms  reappeared,  especially  in  Italy.  Final  con- 
istics  sonants,  especially  m,  t,  s,  were  dropped  or  wrongly  put.  In  Italy 
fifth  the  nom.  annus  (-os),  the  ace.  annum  (-om),  the  dat.  abl.  anno, 
iod.  the  ace.  plur.  annos,  coalesced  in  anno ;  as  this  was  the  real  pro- 
nunciation, the  scribes  confounded  the  Latin  forms.  There  being 
no  longer  any  difference  between  in  locum  and  in  loco,  both  were 
confounded  ;  even  in  locus,  per  locus,  &c.,  were  written.  The  pre- 
valence of  the  type  anno  on  the  one  hand  and  the  growing  use  of 
the  preposition  de  for  the  genitive  on  the  other  made  the  genitive 
anni  disappear,  and  anni  (with  which  annis  coalesced)  was  used 
solely  for  the  plural,  likewise  fiori,  monti.  Sometimes,  as  in  Old 
French,  the  objective  form  anno,  Old  Fr.  an,  was  used  as  a  geni- 
tive, of  which  H6tel-Dieu  is  still  a  remnant.  In  the  same  way  Ital. 
rosa  became  the  common  singular,  rose  the  common  plural  form. 
Out  of  Italy,  final  s  being  retained,  the  plural  form  was  annos, 
rosas,  florcs,  which  is  the  Spanish  (aiios]  and  Portuguese  form,  and 
partly  the  French,  as  roses,  with  flcurs  and  ans  as  accusatives.  In 
Provencal  and  Old  French  s  was  kept  in  the  nom.  sing,  masc.,  ans, 
but  in  the  nom.  plur.  the  oldest  form  was  i,  retained  in  some  Old 
French  monosyllables — li  illi,  dui,  trei,  tuit  from  tutti,  used  in  the 
Gloss,  of  Cassel ;  in  polysyllables  this  i  was  lost,  and  an  remained, 
likewise  flor  (*flori;  comp.  sapienti,  Gloss.  Cass.),  munt.  The  verbs 
canto,  cantos,  cantat  in  Spanish  only  lost  t ;  in  Ital.  cantas  through 
cant  is  (caused  by  the  affinity  of  s  to  z)  became  canti.  In  French 
both  s  and  t  were  kept — cJuintc,  chantes  ;  chantet,  later  cJuinte  ;  est, 
vit,  vient,  and  from  the  analogy  of  these  Mod.  Fr.  aime-t-il, 
chante-t-il.  Many  old  tenses  were  lost,  as  ama(ve)ram,  which  even 
in  Latin  sometimes  had  the  sense  of  the  simple  past  (see  LATIN), 
only  in  the  oldest  Fr.  roveret,  roga(ve)rat  =  rogavit.  Ama(v)i  be- 
came Ital.  amai,  Fr.  aimai,  and  was  used  as  simple  past  (perfectum 
historicum) ;  the  praesens  perfectum  was  expressed  by  a  new  tense, 
as  habco  amatum  (of  which  early  germs  are  found),  Ital.  ho  amato, 
Span,  he  amado,  Fr.  fai  aime".  The  old  future  was  destroyed  and 
a  new  future  fonned  out  of  amarc  habco  (of  which  early  traces  are 
found),  Old  Ital.  ameraggio,  Mod.  Ital.  amero,  Span,  amare,  Fr. 
faimerai,  &c.  In  consequence  of  the  general  loss  of  body,  short 
words  dwindled  down  so  much  that  they  became  unfit  for  use,  and 
were  superseded  by  fuller  words  or  reinforced  by  composition  ;  this 
is  especially  the  case  in  pronouns  and  particles.  As  ad  became  a, 
Lat.  a,  ab  could  no  longer  keep  its  ground,  and  was  replaced  by 
de,  likewise  vis  byfortia,  &c.  (see  LATIN).  Hie  disappeared  and 
was  replaced  by  iste,  which  remained  uucomposed  in  Span,  este, 
and  in  the  others  was  composed  with  ecce,  cccum  (see  above). 
Abante,  Mod.  Ital.  avanti,  Fr.  avant,  occurs  in  a  pagan  inscription. 
Lat.  unde  became  de  undc,  Ital.  donde  ;  in  Spanish  this  was  further 
composed  with  ad,  as  adonde,  and  as  this  in  time  came  to  mean 
"where"  a  new  de  had  to  be  added, — de  adonde,  &c. 

2.  C  became  assibilated  before  single  e,  i.  That  during  all  the 
preceding  periods  c  had  the  sound  of  k  is  proved  by  Old  Latin 
spellings  like  dckem  ;  by  Greek  transcriptions,  as  Kuttpuv,  Kaia-ap  ; 
by  the  German  renderings  Kaiser  (Old  Eng.  cdsere),  Keller,  "  cellar," 
Kirsche,  "  cherry,"  &c.,  and  by  the  use  of  c  for  k  in  Old  English,  as 
in  cynne,  "kin,"  cennan,  "ken";  by  late  Latin  spellings  like  ques- 
gucnti,  quiescenti,  paclw  (Rome,  408),  chingxit  (Gaul,  676),  vachis 
(Lucca,  722) — in  Italian  still ch  =  k,  as  chi  quis,  che  quid ;  and  lastly 
dulkisma  (Pisaur.,  410),  ofikina  (Gallic  vase,  end  of  6th  century; 
see  Romania,  xiii.  485).  Yet  c  before  e,  i  must  early  have  had  a 
more  palatal  sound  than  before  a,  o,  u,  something  like  the  old- 
fashioned  English  pronunciation  kyard  for  card.  But  it  was  not 
until  very  late  that  the  difference  became  so  marked  as  to  be  ex- 
pressed by  different  letters  :  the  palatal  sound  began  to  be  assibi- 
lated into  something  like  Italian  ce,  ci,  Eng.  ch  (as  in  child  from 
Old  Eng.  did),  about  the  6th  century,  although  perhaps  not 
equally  early  everywhere.  We  find  mrcwe  and  tzitane  (Ravenna 
charter,  591),  and  paze  (inscr.  about  the  same  time).  Ital.  c  = 
Eng.  ch  in  pace,  died  (in  Central  Italy  mostly  pronounced  sh),  dclo ; 
Span,  paz,  diez,  cielo  (lisping  s  from  ts) ;  Fr.  del  (Old  ts,  Mod.  s). 
:cented  3.  E  for  accented  I  became  frequent.  As  original  I  and  I  were  no 
d  un-  longer  different  in  quantity,  they  had  to  be  distinguished  by  quality ; 
cented  accordingly  vlnum  became  Ital.  vino,  minus  (minus,  open  i},  Ital. 
1  meno,  with  the  same  vowel  as  in  vtna  from  vena  ;  thus  Latin  I  and 
e  coalesced  ;  likewise  we  have  scrivo  scribo,  bevo  bibo,  sevo  sebum, 
fido  fidus,  fide  fides,  crede  credit,  scritto  scriptum,  detto  dictum. 


We  find  traces  of  this  in  the  Pomp,  vcces,  Ital.  vece.  In  Low 
Latin  menus,  fcdes,  &c.,  are  constant.  But  many  who  had  a  little 
more  learning  retained  the  Latin  spelling  minus,  pronouncing 
meno(s),  and  by  this  were  induced  to  write  constantly  i  for  close  e, 
especially  accented,  as  habire,  vedire,  cridere  =  Ital.  avere,  vedere, 
credere;  vindere,  stilla  =  ven([ere,  stella,  Ital.  vendere,  stella,  Piedm. 
esteila,  Old  Fr.  esteile,  Fr.  etoile.  In  some  few  instances  this  may 
represent  a  provincial  i,  as  in  Sicil.  aviri,  or  special  cases  like  Fr. 
tenir,  plaisir,  merci. 

4.  Unaccented  e  for  i,  which  is  frequent  in  Old  Latin  and  not 
unfrequent  in  the  post-classical  age,  returns  in  Low  Latin  with  re- 
doubled force.    Thus  we  fmdfedelis  (404),  later  Domenecus,  septcmus, 
decemus,  ancma,  deposeta,  genetor,  capete,  soledos ;  in  the  Ravenna 
charters  vecedomeno,  vendecare,  ordenata,  &c. ;  in  Frankish  charters 
decemo,  Fr.  dime,  Domenecus,  venerabelis,  nobelis,  lacrema,  caretate, 
veretate,  femcna,  placetus,  &c.     This  penetrated  even  into  Central 
Italy,  as  in  the  Tuscan  Latin  of  the  8th  century,  dedet,  placctum, 
homenis,  inviolavelis.     In  Middle  Italian  uomeni,  in  Modern  Italian 
Domcneddio,  ospedale,  are  rare  remnants  of  the  earlier  form.     Gener- 
ally classical  i  has  prevailed  in  Florentine  and  Italian,  as  uomini, 
femmina,  anima,  asino,  ordine,  spirito.      In  the  Sienese  dialect 
e  has  remained,  as  ordendre,  cardendle,  and  in  North  Italian  — 
Venet.  bmeni,  femena,  menestra,  brdene,  dseno ;  Lomb.  omen,  dsen, 
ordendri,  &c.     In  Spanish  it  is  not  unfrequent — drden,  umedo,  nove- 
ddd,  corred&r  ;  comp.  Prov.  lagrema,  semenar,  conoissedor,  and  Old 
Fr.  aneme,  pronounced  dnme  (the  spelling  points  to  an  older  stage). 

5.  Unaccented  medial  e  was  often  dropped,  though  less  in  Italian, 
except  in  the  north,  as  in  L.  Lat.  dulkisma,  dulcissima  (Pisaur., 
410),  answering  to  modern  Romagnuolo  forms  like  'strissm  —  illus- 
trissimo ;  generally  L.  Lat.  domnus,  domna  =  Ital.  donna,  "lady," 
"woman."     In  French  all  proparoxy  tones  are  contracted;  for  in- 
stance, Old  Fr.  (asinum,  *as'no)  asne  cane,  (anima,  *an'ma)  anme 
ame,  (hominem,  *hom'ne)  homme,  (femiua,  *fem'na),  femme. 

6.  Accented  o  for  u,  not  unfrequent  in  the  preceding  period,  was 
constant  in  Low  Latin.     While  Lat.  lucem  became  Ital.  luce,  Lat. 
crucem,  nticcm  (niicem,  open  u)  became  crdce,  noce,  like  voce  from 
voccm  ;  comp.  Justus,  Ital.  giusto,   Fr.  juste,  but  augustus,   Ital. 
agosto,  Fr.  aout.     This  caused  many  to  write  u  for  close  o,  as  oxure 
uxore,  gcneture  genitorem,  although  this  may  partly  represent  a 
provincial  u,  as  in  Sicil.  amuri.     In  Old  Fr.  we  have  honour, 
favour,  and  still  amour,  and  in  L.  Lat.  cz<rte=cohortem,  *corte, 

Ital.  corte,  Fr.  cour,  Eng.  court. 

7.  Unaccented  o  for  u  as  in  Old  Latin  is  frequent,  as  in  L.  Lat. 
tabola,  popolo,  secolom,  regola,  volontate,  Ital.  tdvola,  popolo,  &c.  ; 
even  for  original  u,  as  mano,  spirito. 

8.  Unaccented  medial  o  was  often  dropped  before  I,  in  which  case 
the  unfamiliar  group  t'l  was  changed  into  cl,  as  in  L.  Lat.  oclus 
oculus,  Ital.  bcchio,  Span,  ojo,  Fr.  ceil ;  veclus  vetulus,  Ital.  vecchio 
(Old  Ital.  vcglio),  Span,  viejo,  Fr.  vieil,  vieux  ;  also  L.  Lat.  tabla  = 
Span,  tabla,  poplom  =  Span,  pueblo.     In  French  syncope  is  a  law — 
table,  peuple,  sangle  cingulum,  &c. 

9.  Final  unaccented  vowels  in  Italian  on  the  whole  obey  the 
general  laws.     By  the  loss  of  the  Latin  final  consonants  all  words 
end  in  a  vowel,  except  such  as  per,  con,  non,  in,  un  bel  giorno,  buon 
giorno.     In  South  Italian  i,  u  stand  for  e,  o.     In  Spanish  e  is  some- 
times dropped,  as  sed  sitim,  Ital.  sete  ;  pared  parietem,  Ital.  parete  ; 
fdcil,  6rden.     In  Portuguese  o  is  pronounced  u,  but  often   only 
whispered  ;  e  is  nearly  always  whispered  or  mute.     In  North  Italian, 
Ladino,  Catalan,  Proven9al,  and  French  all  final  vowels  are  generally 
dropped,  except  a,  which  remains  in  Proveii9al,  as  port,  but  porta 
(Mod.  pbrto).     In  Catalan  a  is  mostly  pronounced  as  open  e ;  in 
French  this  becomes  obscure  e,  which  in  modern  French  is  mute 
except  in  such  cases  as  table  ronde. 

10.  Accented  ie  stands  for  2,  uo  for  S.     As  e  and  g,  o  and  S  were 
levelled  in  quantity,  they  were  already  distinguished  in  quality, 
as  in  Ital.  bene  bene,  vene  venae  ;  Portuguese  has  got  no  further 
than  this.    But  generally  this  was  not  distinct  enough  for  the  wants 
of  the  speakers,  and  unconsciously  e  (in  which  e  from  Lat.  ac  was 
included)  became  ie,  and  b  (in  which  it  from  Lat.   au  was  not 
included)  became  ub,  both  diphthongs  being  generally  accented  on 
the  last  vowel — Ital.  and  Span,  viene,  Fr.  vient  venit ;  Ital.  bubno, 
Span.    bueno  ;  Ital.   subno,  Span,   sueno  (generally  sonldo)  sonus, 
different  from  Ital.  sono  sunt,  Span.  son.     This  change  must  be 
very  old,  as  it  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  Romance  languages.     In 
Spanish,  Provensal,  and  French  ub  was  changed  into  ue,  and  this 
in  Modern  French  to  cu,  ceu,  contracted  into  the  sound  of  o.     In 
Spanish  the  use  of  diphthongs  is  extended  to  position — tiempo,  siete 
septem,  Ital.  sette,  hierro,  Ital.  ferro,  cuerpo,  Ital.  c6rpo,  muerte, 
Ital.  morte.     Mark  the  displacement  of  stress  in  popular  Latin — 
parietem  for  parietem,  Ital.  parete,  Span,  pared,  Fr.  paroi ;  filibhis 
for  filiolus,  Ital.  figliuolo,  Span,  hijuelo,  Fr.  filleul. 

11.  Of  mediae  (voiced  stops)  for  tenues  (voiceless  stops),  especially 
between  vowels,  we  find  some  few  earlier  instances,  as  grassus  for 
crassus,  Ital.  grasso,  Fr.  gras.     This  is  generally  rare  in  Italian 
Latin,   as  gubitus,   cubitus,    Ital.   gomito,    and   is   still   compara- 
tively rare  in  Italian.     Yet  it  occurs  in  some  of  the  most  familiar 
words,  as  ago  acus,  logo,  luogo,  segare, pagare  (pacare,  "to  satisfy," 


668 


ROMANCE      LANGUAGES 


"pay"),  pregare,  budcllo,  parcntado,  contado  (comitatus),  contrada, 
spada,  strada  ;  p  from  b  becomes  v,  as  in  riva,  riviera,  poycro,  savio  ; 
before  r— padre,  madre,  segreto,  lebbra.  This  recalls  similar  changes 
in  Umbrian,  and  was  perhaps  originally  North  Italian  and  from 
thence  penetrated  into  Tuscany.  In  Spanish  the  voiced  sounds 
are  the  general  rule,  as  fuego,  Ital.  fu6co,  amigo,  Ital.  amico, 
amado,  finido,  Ital.  amato,  finito,  saber,  Ital.  sapere,  &c.,  yet  there 
are  some  exceptions,  such  as  poco  (paucum).  In  Old  French  the 
soft  sound  is  the  constant  law,  but  this  mostly  disappears  later,  as 
in  aimi,  aimte  (see  FRANCE,  vol.  ix.  p.  632  sq. ).  A  general  Romance 
case  is  placitum,  Old  Ital.  piaito,  Ital.  piato,  Span,  pleito,  Old  Fr. 
plaid,  through  *plagito,  *plajeto,  which  is  singularly  like  the 
Umbrian  feitu,  feetu  for  facitu.  A  limited  case  is  that  of  such 
words  as  Fr.  raison,  Ital.  ragione  from  rationem,  probably  first 
changed  to  ratsionc,  *radsi6ne,  thence  to  rasione,  which  sometimes 
occurs  in  Late  Latin,  and  often  in  Early  Italian,  Span,  razon  ;  comp. 
Ital.  cagione  occasionem. 

12.  /  and  e  unaccented  before  vowels,  especially  post-tonic,  be- 
came j,  a&filjus  (Plautus),  olium  pron.  oljo.     J  coalesced  with  the 
preceding  consonant,  making  it  palatal,  as  in  Ital.  figlio,  oglio, 
Jiglia,  maraviglia  (mirabilia),  battaglia ;  Span,  maravilla,  batalla  ; 
Fr.  fille,  merveille,  bataille  (in  North  French  the  palatal  sound  is 
replaced  by  i  or  j),  &c.     N — Ital.  vigna  vinea,  Spagna  Hispania, 
ingtgno,  castagna,  campagna,  bagno  balneum  ;  Span.  Espana,  cam- 
pana ;   Fr.  vigne,  champagne.     In  some  cases  j  was  assibilated,  as 
Span,  granja,  estranjero,  Fr.  songe,  grange,  etrange. 

13.  Sometimes  attraction  takes  place,  i  being  transposed  to  the 
radical  syllable,  especially  in  French,  as  huile,  bain,  Umoin,  Antoine, 
gloire,  histoire.     Before  and  after  r  peculiar  forms  appear — Ital. 
primaio (-jo);  muojo  morior;  Ital. primiero,  cavalicre,  from primario, 
probably  assimilated  into  *primer(i)o  (Dr  Thomson).     Forms  like 
paner,  sorcerus  are  found  as  early  as  the  8th  century. 

14.  Vocabulary. — During  this  period  the  Roman  world,  after  being 
conquered  by  the  Germanic  nations,  adopted  many  words  from  their 
conquerors.     The  German  influence  was  strongest  in  France  ;  hence 
we  find  Germanic  expressions  for  many  of  the  most  common  words 
except  form-words,  though  the  stock  of  the  language  remains  Latin. 
A  curious  instance,  characteristic  of  the  Middle  Ages,  is  rauba, 
which  from  "robbery,"  "prey,"  came  to  mean  "property,"  Ital. 
roba  (robba),  "things  in  general,"  Span,  ropa,  "linen,"  "stuff,"  Fr. 
robe,  "gown."     In  Rumonsch  we  have  la  rauba  c'aud  a  mi,  "  the 
property  that  belongs  to  me."     The  German  h,  as  in  hair,  old  hadir 
=  "hate,"  is  peculiar  to  French,  and  is  still  sounded  in  Normandy. 
Some  Germanic  sounds  had  to  be  modified,  as  w  to  gu,  for  instance, 
guerra  from  wcrra,  "war"  ;  guanto,  Old  Fr.  guant,  Fr.  gant,  from 
want,  Dan.   Vante ;  in  North  French  w  remained,  whence  Eng. 
war,  &c.     Among  the  leges  barbarae,  the  LEX  SALICA  is  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  as  a  document  of  Low  Latin.     It  has  sentences 
and  words  like — hoc  sunt  pariculas  causas=ce  sont  pareilles  choses  ; 
si  in  dominica  ambactia  fuerit  occupatus,  Ital.   ambasciata,   Fr. 
ambassade  ;  si  quis  alterum  voluerit  occidere  et  colpus  praetor 
fallierit,  Ital.  se  il  colpo  fallisce ;  si  quis  alterum  de  sagitta  toxicata 
percutere  voluerit  et  praeter  sclupaverit  (see  stloppus,  p.  665)  ;  si 
quis  caballum  extra  consilium  domini  sui  caballicaverit,  Ital.  caval- 
care,  Fr.  chevaucher  ;  si  quis  per  male  ingenio  in  curte  (Ital.  corte, 
Fr.  cour)  alteriusaut  in  casa  (Ital.  casa,  "house")  aliquid  de  furtwm 
miserit ;  companium,  Ital.  compagnfa ;  baro,  baronis,  "a  free  man," 
Old  Fr.  nom.  ber,  obj.  barun,  "hero,"  "baron";   di/acere,  Ital. 
disfare,  Fr.  defaire ;  cxcorticare,  Ital.  scorticare,  Fr.  ecorcher.    From 
OTHER  LAWS  we  have— -fortia,  Ital.  forza,  Fr.  force ;  hostis  exercitus, 
Eng.  host;  vassus  (Celtic),   "a  vassal";  auca,  Ital.  6ca,  Fr.  oie 
(from  avica) ;  troppus,  grex  (from  Germ,  thorp),  Ital.  truppa,  Fr. 
troupe,  and  also  Ital.  troppo,  "too  much,"  Fr.  trap  ;  forestis  (from 
foris),  " foreign,"  Ital. forestiere  ;  marca (Germ.),  "border,"  whence 
marchensis,  Ital.   marchese,    Fr.    marquis ;  tornare   (Greek ;   also 
Dacian  Latin1).     GREGORY  OF  TOURS  (6th  century)  has  pagensis, 
Ital.  paese,  Fr.  pays.     GREGORY  THE  GREAT  has  merces,  "mercy  " ; 
fiasco,  Ital.  fiasco,  ' '  a  flask."    CORIPPUS  ( Afr.,  c.  570) :  cara,  ' '  face  " 
(Gr.  Kdpa,  "head"),  Span,  cara,  Old  Fr.  chiere,  whence  bonne  chere, 
"good  cheer"  (originally  the  kind,  hospitable  countenance  of  the 
entertainer).    VENANTIUS  FORTUNATUS  (c.   580) :  cofea,   "  coif "  ; 
crema,   "cream";    viaticum,   Ital.  viaggio,   Fr.   voyage.      OTHER 
SOURCES  :  caminus,  "  road  "  (Spanish  Latin,  7th  centuiy  ;  probably 
Celtic),  Ital.  cammino,  Fr.  chemin  ;  directum,  jus  (Italian  Latin, 
551),  Ital.  diritto,  Fr.  droit.     The  late  AGRIMENSORES  :  circarc, 
Ital.  cercare,  Fr.  chercher.     OLD  GLOSSES  (7th  and  8th  centuries) : 
aciarium,  Ital.  acciaio,  Fr.  acier  ;  cosinus,  consobrinus,  ItaJ.  cugino, 
Fr.  cousin  ;  gamba,  Ital.  gamba,  Fr.  jambe  (Gloss.  Cass.).    ISIDORE  : 
tructa,  Fr.  truite,  Eng.  trout ;  cama,  Span,  cama,  "bed";  ficatum, 
"liver"  (properly  jecur ficatum,  liver  of  geese  fed  with  figs),  Ital. 
fegato,  Span,  higado,  Fr.  foie  ;  and  cusire,  consuere,  Ital.  cuscire, 
cucire,  Span,  coser,  Fr.  coudre  (Gloss.  Isid.);  selvaticus,  Ital.  sel- 
vaggio,  Fr.  sauvage  ;  formaticum,  Ital.  formaggio,  Fr.  fromage. 


1  Tlie  Greek  historians  Theophylact  (c.  600)  and  Theophanes  relate  that  the 
Dacian  soldiers  said  in  their  native  tongue  rbpva.,  rdpva,  (j>pdrpe,  pfrbpva. 
This  has  been  called  by  some  the  earliest  trace  of  Roumanian. 


VI.  Sixth  (Last}  Period. 

For  the  sixth  and  last  period — that  is,  for  the  history  and  Moder 
distinctive  traits  of  the  great  modern  Romance  languages  Romai 
— the  reader  is  referred  to  the  separate  articles. 

1.  Italian  is  distinguished  by  its  harmonious  form,  itsgu 
vocalic  endings,  and  the  rich  fulness  of  its  tones. 

2.  Spanish  is  distinguished  by  its  regularity,  by  its  short, 
distinct  sounds  and  its  fixed  tones,  and  by  many  Arabic 
words.     Certain  "thick"  sounds,  as  the./  (like  Dutch  and 
South  German  ch,  though  in  the  south  of  Spain  much 
weaker,  almost  7t)  and  the  lisping  c,  z  seem  to  be  rather 
modern  developments  than  due  to  direct  Arabic  influence. 

3.  Portuguese  is,  with  Gallego  (the  dialect  of  Galicia), 
the  western  dialect  of  Spanish,  and  has  almost  the  same 
words,  but  a  very  different  pronunciation ;  in  sound  it 
approaches  somewhat  to  French,  as  in  the  nasal  vowels 
(which,  however,  are  less  purely  vocalic  than  in  French) 
and  the  voiced  sounds  of  s,  z,  and  j.     It  has  partly  retained 
the  Old  Spanish  form,  as  infilho  for  Span,  hijo,  and  partly 
it  has  a  character  of  its  own  owing  to  its  many  obscured 
vowels  and  contractions,  as  boa  for  bona,  dor  for  dolor. 

4.  Provencal  in  many  respects  represents  the  earliest 
form  of  French ;  in  others  it  has  peculiar  developments  (see 
PROVENCAL).    Catalan  is  the  southern  dialect  of  Provencal. 

5.  French  makes  up  for  the  want  of  the  full  forms  and 
tones  of  Italian  by  its  grace  and  delicacy.     It  has  more 
of  a  history  than  the  other  Romance  languages,  Old  French 
being  very  different  from  Modern. 

6.  Ladino  (Rumonsch^    Germ.    Churwcilsch,   from    the 
town  of  Chur)  or  Central  Romance  extends  from  the  Grisons 
to  Friuli  on  the  Adriatic.     It  is  not  uniform,  being  only 
an  agglomeration  of  cognate  dialects ;  and  it  is  scarcely 
more  Latin  than  any  other  Romance  language.     It  has 
chiefly  been  elucidated  by  Ascoli. 

7.  Roumanian  has  probably  not  survived  from  the  old 
Roman  colonists  of  Dacia,  but  been  imported  from  Istria 
(which  has  a  cognate  dialect)  or  Northern  Italy.     It  has 
been  greatly  mixed  up  with  Slavonic  words  and  sounds 
(such  as  the  "  mixed "  vowels),  and  has  some  distinctive 
marks,  such  as  the  post-positive  article,  Romunul  =  Romanus 
ille ;  compare  the  similar  phenomenon  in  the  Slavonic  dia- 
lect of  Bulgaria  and  in  the  Albanian  language. 

Literature. — The  real  founder  of  scientific  Romance  philology  and 
linguistics  is  Friedrich  Diez,  in  his  Grammatik  dcr  romanischcn 
Sprachen,  3  vols. ,  Bonn,  1836-42,  and  Etymologischcs  Worterbuch 
der  romanischen  Sprachen,  2  vols.,  1852.  He  also  published  Allro- 
manische  Sprachdenkmdler,  1846 ;  Zwci  altromaniscJic  Gcdidde, 
1852  ;  and  Altromanische  Glossare,  1865.  Pott  contributed  several 
articles  on  the  Low  Latin  of  the  leges  barbarae  in  the  Zcitschriften 
of  Hofer  and  Kuhn.  Other  authorities  on  various  branches  of  the 
subject  are — Ducange,  Glossarium  mediae  ct  infimae  lalinitatis,  7 
vols.  ;  Marini,  Papiri  diplomatics ;  Muratori,  Antiquitates  Italicse; 
Schuchardt,  Der  Vocalismus  dcs  Vulgarlatcins,  3  vols.,  1866-68  (a 
valuable  collection  of  materials),  also  several  minor  works  by  the 
same  author  ;  and  Gaston  Paris,  Etude  sur  le  R6le  de  V Accent  Latin 
dans  la  Langue  Franc_aise,  Paris,  1862,  and  La  Vie  de  St  Alexis 
(a  poem  of  llth  century),  1872.  The  principal  magazines  devoted 
to  the  subject  are — Jahrbuchfur  romanische  und  cnglische  Liter// f/tr 
(ed.  "Wolff,  Ebert,  and  Lembcke),  later  only/wr  romanische  Liter- 
atur  ;  Archiv  fur  das  Studium  der  neueren  Sprachen  (ed.  Herrig), 
of  a  more  popular  character ;  Romania  (a  quarterly,  cd.  Gaston 
Paris  and  Paul  Meyer,  since  1872),  contains  articles  of  the  most 
eminent  Romanists ;  Revue  des  Langues  Romanes  (Montpellier,  from 
1870  onwards),  chiefly  devoted  to  Provencal ;  Romanische  Studien 
(ed.  Boehmer) ;  Zeitschrift  fur  romaniscJie  Philologie  (ed.  G  nil  XT, 
since  1877) ;  and  Romanische  Forschungcn  (ed.  Vollmbller,  since 
1884).  Mussafia  has  written  many  articles  and  treatises,  chiefly  hi 
the  Transactions  of  the  Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences.  Ascoli,  author 
of  Studi  Critici,  has  edited  since  1873  the  Archivio  Glotlologico, 
which  has  articles  by  Flecchia.  The  Rivista  di  Filologia  Romanza 
(ed.  Manzoni,  Monaci,  and  Stengel,  1873)  in  1878  became  Giornaledi 
Filologia  Romanza  (ed.  Monaci).  For  the  etymological  dictionaries 
of  the  separate  languages  see  the  special  articles.  (J.  ST.*) 

2  Rumonsch  is  properly  the  dialect  of  the  upper  Rhine  valley,  Ladino  that 
of  the  Engadine.  Ascoli  includes  all  varieties  under  the  common  name  of 
Ladino. 


669 


KOMAN     LAW 


CHAPTEE  I.— THE  REGAL  PERIOD. 

i-iginal  C ontributories  to  People,  Customs,  and  Law. — The  union 
iments  Of  the  Latin,  Sabine,  and,  to  a  small  extent,  Etruscan 
Roman  ]-)an(js  that,  as  conquerors  or  conquered,  old  settlers  or  new 
immigrants,  together  constituted  the  first  elements  of  the 
Roman  people,  did  not  necessarily  involve  contemporaneous 
adoption  of  identical  institutions  or  identical  notions  of 
law.  Although  they  were  descended  from  the  same  Indo- 
European  stock,  and  inherited  the  same  primitive  ideas 
about  religion  and  government,  those  ideas  must  have 
been  modified  in  the  course  of  centuries  of  separate  and 
independent  development.  The  characteristics  of  the  Latin 
race  are  said  to  have  been  its  sense  of  the  importance  of 
discipline  and  the  homage  it  paid  to  power  and  might; 
those  of  the  Sabines  were  their  religious  feeling  and  their 
reverence  for  the  gods ;  the  characteristic  of  the  Etruscans 
was  their  subservience  to  forms  and  ceremonies  in  matters 
both  divine  and  human.  Corresponding  influences  are 
very  manifest  in  the  growth  of  Rome's  early  public  institu- 
tions, civil,  military,  and  religious.  It  does  not  seem  too 
much  to  say  that  these  same  influences  are  traceable  also 
in  the  institutions  of  the  private  law.  The  patria  potestas, 
with  the  father's  power  of  life  and  death  over  his  children ; 
the  manus  and  the  husband's  power  over  his  wife ;  the 
doctrine  that  those  things  chiefly  was  a  man  entitled  to 
call  his  own  which  he  had  taken  by  the  strength  of  his 
arm ;  the  right  which  a  creditor  had  of  apprehending  and 
imprisoning  his  defaulting  debtor  and  reducing  him  to 
slavery, — all  these  seem  to  point  to  a  persuasion  that 
might  made  right.  The  religious  marriage  ceremony  and 
the  recognition  of  the  wife  as  mistress  of  the  household 
and  participant  in  its  sacred  offices  as  well  as  its  domestic 
cares ;  the  family  council  of  kinsmen,  maternal  as  well  as 
paternal,  who  advised  the  paterfamilias  in  the  exercise  of 
the  domestic  jurisdiction ;  the  practice  of  adoption,  to 
obviate  the  extinction  of  a  family  and  to  prevent  its  de- 
ceased members  being  deprived  of  the  prayers  and  sacri- 
fices necessary  for  the  repose  of  their  souls, — these  seem 
to  have  flowed  from  a  different  order  of  ideas  and  to  bear 
evidence  of  Sabine  descent.  Etruscan  influence  could 
make  itself  felt  only  at  a  later  date;  but  to  it  may  pos- 
sibly be  attributed  the  strict  regard  that  came  to  be 
required  to  the  observance  of  ceremonials  and  words  of 
style  in  the  more  important  transactions  both  of  public 
and  private  life. 

While  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  result  of  the 
union  of  Latins  and  Sabines  was  that  regulations  were  at 
once  adopted  which  should  apply  to  their  public  life  as  a 
united  people,  it  is  not  only  conceivable  but  probable  that 
each  tribe,  as  regarded  the  private  relations  of  its  members, 
continued  for  a  time  to  accord  a  preference  to  its  own 
ideas  and  traditions  of  right  and  law,  and  that  the  amal- 
gamation was  a  gradual  process,  partly  silent,  partly  due 
to  regal  or  pontifical  intervention. 

atri-  Patricians,  Clients,  and  Plebeians. — There  was  part  of 
ans-  the  law  of  Rome  that  even  in  the  empire  was  known  by 
the  name  of  Jus  Quiritium,  the  Law  of  the  Spearmen ;  and 
this  in  the  regal  period  constituted  its  main  element. 
The  Quirites  were  the  members  of  the  gentile  houses, 
organized  in  their  curies,  primarily  for  military  and 
secondarily  for  political  purposes.  They  alone  of  the 
rapidly  increasing  population  settled  round  the  urbs  quad- 
rata  ranked  as  citizens,  down  at  least  to  the  time  of 
Servius  Tullius.  They  alone  could  consult  the  gods 
through  the  medium  of  auspicia,  and  participate  in  the 
services  offered  to  the  tutelary  deities  of  Rome.  From 


their  number  the  king  drew  his  council  of  elders,  and 
they  alone  could  take  part  in  the  curiate  comitia,  the 
assembly  of  the  warriors.  They  alone  could  contract  a 
lawful  marriage  and  make  a  testament ;  in  a  word,  it  was 
they  alone  that  were  entitled  directly  to  the  benefit  of 
Rome's  peculiar  institutions. 

These  prerogatives  they  enjoyed  as  members  of  the 
gentile  houses.  Patrician  Rome  was  a  federation  of  gentes 
or  clans,  the  clans  aggregations  of  families  bearing  a 
common  name,  and  theoretically  at  least  tracing  their 
descent  from  a  common  ancestor.  Whether  or  not  the 
traditional  account  of  the  numerical  proportion  of  families 
to  clans  and  of  clans  to  curies  has  any  substantial  historical 
foundation,  and  whatever  may  be  the  explanation  of  the 
method  by  which  the  symmetry  on  which  the  old  writers 
dwell  with  so  much  complacency  was  attained,  it  is  beyond 
doubt  that  the  gentile  organization  was  common  to  the 
two  races  at  least  that  contributed  most  largely  to  the 
citizenship  of  Rome,  and  that  it  was  made  the  basis  of  the 
new  arrangements.  Federation  necessitated  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  common  chieftain  and  common  institutions, 
religious,  military,  political,  and  judicial.  But  it  was  long 
before  these  displaced  entirely  the  separate  institutions  of 
the  federated  gentes.  Every  clan  had  its  own  cult,  peculiar 
to  its  own  members;  this  was  the  universal  bond  of 
association  in  those  early  times.  It  had  its  common  pro- 
perty and  its  common  burial-place.  It  must  have  had 
some  common  council  or  assembly,  for  we  read  not  only 
of  special  gentile  customs  but  of  gentile  statutes  and 
decrees.  Instances  are  on  record  of  wars  waged  by  indi- 
vidual gentes ;  so  they  must  have  had  the  right  to  require 
military  service  alike  from  their  gentiles  and  gentilicii. 
Widows  and  orphans  of  deceased  clansmen  were  under  the 
guardianship  of  the  gens,  or  of  some  particular  member 
of  it  to  whom  the  trust  was  specially  confided.  If  a  clans- 
man left  no  heirs,  his  property  passed  to  his  fellow  gentiles. 
Over  the  morals  of  its  members  the  gens  exercised  super- 
vision and  discipline,  interfering  to  prevent  prodigality 
and  improvidence,  restraining  abuses  of  the  domestic 
authority,  and  visiting  with  censure  and  probably  in  grave 
cases  with  punishment  any  breach  of  faith  or  other  dis- 
honourable conduct ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that, 
within  its  own  limits,  it  was  not  constantly  called  upon, 
through  the  medium  of  its  chief,  to  act  the  part  of  peace- 
maker and  arbiter.  Finally,  its  members  were  always 
entitled  to  rely  upon  its  assistance,  to  have  maintenance 
when  indigent,  to  be  ransomed  from  captivity,  to  be  upheld 
in  their  just  disputes  and  quarrels,  and  to  be  avenged 
when  killed  or  injured. 

The  successes  of  the  burgesses  in  one  petty  war  after  Clients, 
another  deprived  many  small  communities  of  their  inde- 
pendent existence,  leaving  their  members  bereft  alike  of 
their  religion,  their  territory,  and  their  means  of  subsist- 
ence. These  had  to  turn  elsewhere  for  protection,  and  in 
large  numbers  they  sought  it  from  their  conquerors.  To 
many  others,  both  voluntary  immigrants  and  refugees  from 
other  cities,  the  new  settlement  proved  a  centre  of  attrac- 
tion. It  was  quite  ready  to  receive  them,  but  as  subjects 
only,  not  as  citizens.  Following  a  custom  familiar  to  both 
Latins  and  Sabines,  the  new-comers  invoked  the  protection 
of  the  heads  of  patrician  families  of  repute,  to  whom  they 
attached  themselves  as  free  vassals.  The  relationship  was 
known  as  that  of  patron  and  client.  (See  PATRON  AND 
CLIENT,  vol.  xviii.  p.  412.)  The  client  became  a  dependent 
member  of  his  patron's  clan, — not  gentilis,  however,  but 
only  gentilicius.  His  patron  had  to  provide  him  with  all 
that  was  necessary  for  his  sustenance  and  that  of  his  wife 


670 


ROMAN     LAW 


[REGAL  PERIOD. 


and  children  ;  and,  as  private  holdings  increased  in  extent, 
it  was  not  unusual  for  the  patron  or  his  gens  to  give  him 
during  pleasure  a  plot  of  land  to  cultivate  for  himself. 
The  patron  had,  moreover,  to  assist  him  in  his  transactions 
with  third  parties,  obtain  redress  for  him  for  his  injuries, 
and  represent  him  before  the  tribunals  when  he  became 
involved  in  litigation.  The  client,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
to  maintain  his  patron's  interests  by  every  means  in  his 
power.  But  the  advantage  must  have  been  chiefly  on 
the  side  of  the  client,  who,  without  becoming  a  citizen, 
obtained  directly  the  protection  of  his  patron  and  his 
clan,  and  indirectly  that  of  the  state. 

>le-  The  plebeians,  as  distinguished  from  the  clients,  must 

>eians.  be  regarded  as  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  non-gentile  freemen, 
small  probably  in  numbers  at  first,  but  augmenting  with 
ever  greater  rapidity,  who  had  of  choice  or  compulsion 
made  Rome  their  domicile,  but  declined  to  subject  them- 
selves to  a  patron.  That  there  was  any  general  cohesion 
amongst  them  before  the  time  of  Servius  there  is  not  the 
slightest  reason  to  believe.  They  were  of  different  races, 
settling  in  Rome  from  different  motives,  practising  in  many 
matters  different  customs.  The  bulk  of  them,  however, 
were  undoubtedly  Latins,  with  traditions  and  customs 
much  the  same  as  those  of  the  greater  number  of  the 
patrician  houses ;  and  this  it  was  that  in  time  caused  the 
triumph  of  Latinism  and  the  predominance  of  the  master- 
ful spirit  in  the  jus  Quiritium.  But  by  the  ruling  caste 
those  traditions  and  customs  were  simply  ignored;  till 
the  time  of  Servius  what  protection  the  plebeians  got  was 
simply  of  the  grace  of  the  kings,  whose  policy  it  was  to 
conciliate  them  as  a  body  that  in  time  might  be  a  valuable 
auxiliary  against  the  pretensions  of  the  patricians. 

The  Regulatives  of  Public  and  Private  Order. — We  look 
in  vain  for,  and  it  would  be  absurd  to  expect,  any  definite 
system  of  law  in  those  early  times.  What  passed  for  it 
was  a  composite  of  fas,  jus,  and  boni  mores,  whose  several 
limits  and  characteristics  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  define. 
This  may  to  some  extent  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
much  of  what  was  originally  within  the  domain  of  fas, 
once  it  had  come  to  be  enforced  by  secular  tribunals,  and 
thus  had  the  sanction  of  human  authority,  was  no  longer 
distinguishable  from  jus ;  while  it  may  be  that  others  of 
its  behests,  once  pontifical  punishments  for  their  contraven- 
tion had  gone  into  desuetude,  sank  to  nothing  higher  than 
precepts  of  boni  mores. 

•"as.  By  fas  was  understood  the  will  of  the  gods,  the  laws 

given  by  heaven  for  men  on  earth,  much  of  it  regulative 
of  ceremonial,  but  a  by  no  means  insignificant  part  em- 
bodying rules  of  conduct.  It  appears  to  have  had  a  wider 
range  than  jus.  There  were  few  of  its  commands,  prohibi- 
tions, or  precepts  that  were  addressed  to  men  as  citizens 
of  any  particular  state ;  all  mankind  came  within  its  scope. 
It  forbade  that  a  war  should  be  undertaken  without  the 
prescribed  fetial  ceremonial,  and  required  that  faith  should 
be  kept  even  with  an  enemy  when  a  promise  had  been 
made  to  him  under  sanction  of  an  oath.  It  enjoined 
hospitality  to  foreigners,  because  the  stranger  guest  was 
presumed,  equally  with  his  entertainer,  to  be  an  object  of 
solicitude  to  a  higher  power.  It  punished  murder,  for  it 
was  the  taking  of  a  god-given  life ;  the  sale  of  a  wife  by 
her  husband,  for  she  had  become  his  partner  in  all  things 
human  and  divine;  the  lifting  of  a  hand  against  a  parent, 
for  it  was  subversive  of  the  first  bond  of  society  and  reli- 
gion,— the  reverence  due  by  a  child  to  those  to  whom  he 
owed  his  existence ;  incestuous  connexions,  for  they  defiled 
the  altar ;  the  false  oath  and  the  broken  vow,  for  they  were 
an  insult  to  the  divinities  invoked ;  the  displacement  of  a 
boundary  or  a  landmark,  not  so  much  because  the  act  was 
provocative  of  feud,  as  because  the  march-stone  itself,  as 
the  guarantee  of  peaceful  neighbourhood,  was  under  the 


guardianship  of  the  gods.  When  an  offence  against  any 
of  these  rules  or  prohibitions  was  inexpiable,  the  punish- 
ment was  usually  what  is  called  sacratio  capitis,  excom- 
munication and  outlawry  of  the  offender.  The  homo  sacer 
was  in  every  sense  of  the  word  an  outcast, — one  with 
whom  it  was  pollution  to  associate,  who  dared  take  no 
part  in  any  of  the  institutions  of  the  state,  civil  or  reli- 
gious, whose  life  the  gods  would  not  accept  as  a  sacrifice, 
but  whom,  nevertheless,  any  one  might  put  to  death  with 
impunity  as  no  longer  god-protected.  The  precepts  of  the 
fas  therefore  were  not  mere  exhortations  to  a  blameless 
life,  but  closely  approached  to  laws,  whose  violation  was 
visited  with  punishments  none  the  less  effective  that  they 
were  religious  rather  than  civil. 

Recent  philology  derives  the  word/ws  from  the  Sanscrit  ji 
ju,  to  "join,  bind,  or  unite,"  from  which  some  deduce  as  its 
signification  "  that  which  binds,"  "  the  bond  of  society," 
others  "that  which  is  regular,  orderly,  or  fitting."  The 
latest  inquirer  (M.  Bre"al)  identifies  it  with  the  jos,  jaos,  or 
jaus  of  the  Vedas,  and  ihejaes  of  the  Zend-Avesta, — words 
whose  exact  meaning  is  controverted,  but  which  he  inter- 
prets as  "  the  divine  will."  Jubeo  is  generally  allowed  to  be 
a  contraction  of  jus  hibeo,  "  hold  or  take  us  jus."  If  Breal's 
definition  can  be  adopted  we  obtain  a  very  significant  inter- 
pretation of  the  words  addressed  by  the  presiding  magistrate 
to  the  assembled  comitia  in  asking  them  whether  they 
assented  to  a  law  proposed  by  him, —  Velitis,  jubeatis, 
Quirites,  &c.,  "Is  it  your  pleasure,  Quirites,  and  do  you 
hold  it  as  the  divine  will,  that,"  and  so  on.  As  legislation 
by  the  comitia  of  the  curies  and  centuries  was  regarded  as 
a  divine  office,  and  their  vote  might  be  nullified  by  the 
fathers  on  the  ground  that  there  had  been  a  defect  in  the 
auspicia,  and  the  will  of  the  gods  consequently  not  clearly 
ascertained,  this  explanation  of  Breal's  seems  not  without 
support, — voxpopuli  vox  dti.  If  it  be  right,  then  the  only 
difference  between  fas  and  jus  was  that  the  will  of  the 
gods,  which  both  embodied,  was  in  the  one  declared  by 
inspired  and  in  the  other  by  merely  human  agency. 

This  jus  might  be  the  result  either  of  traditional  and 
inveterate  custom  (Jus  moribus  constitutuiri)  or  of  statute 
(lex}.1  We  look  in  vain  for  any  legislative  enactment 
establishing  such  an  institution,  for  example,  as  the  patria, 
potestas,  or  fixing  the  rules  of  succession  on  death. 
Statute  may  have  regulated  some  of  their  details;  but 
they  had  taken  shape  and  consistency  before  Rome  had  its 
beginning.  It  can  well  be  believed,  however,  that  in  the 
outset  the  customs  in  observance  may  have  been  far  from 
uniform,  that  not  only  those  of  the  different  races  but 
those  also  of  the  different  gentes  may  at  first  have  varied 
in  some  respects,  but  undergoing  a  gradual  approximation, 
and  in  course  of  time  consolidating  into  a  general  jus 
Quiritium.  That  the  bulk  of  the  law  was  customary  is 
universally  admitted.  But  Pomponius  speaks  of  certain 
laws  enacted  by  the  comitia  of  the  curies,  which  he  calls 
leges  regiae  and  which,  he  says,  were  collected  by  one  Sext. 
Papirius  in  the  reign  of  one  of  the  Tarquins,  under  the 
name  of  Jus  Papirianum.  The  opinion  of  the  best  autho- 
rities is  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  attribute  these  so-called 
"  royal  laws  "  to  that  assembly.  According  to  the  testi- 
mony of  the  old  writers  it  had  very  little  share  in  the  work 

1  There  is  controversy  about  the  etymology  of  the  word  lex.  It 
was  used  by  the  jurists  in  two  distinct  senses — (1)  as  meaning  a  comi- 
tial  enactment  (Gai. ,  i.  3),  and  hence  was  occasionally  called  lexpublica 
(Gai.,  ii.  104,  iii.  174)  ;  (2)  as  meaning  an  obligation,  restriction,  con- 
dition, declaration,  or  what  not,  expressly  incorporated  in  a  private 
deed  (lex  private),  as  in  the  phrases  lex  mancipii,  lex  coiitractus,  lex 
testamenti,  &c.  Its  most  likely  derivation  is  from  \tyeiv,  "to  say"  or 
"  to  speak."  The  lex  publica  was  always  put  to  the  comitia  by  word 
of  mouth  ;  and  the  XII.  Tables,  in  declaring  the  binding  effect  of  a 
lex  privata  when  grafted  on  a  conveyance  or  contract  per  aes  et 
libram,  use  in  reference  to  it  the  phrase  uti  lingua,  nuncupassit  (Festus, 
s.v.  Nuncupate  ;  Bnms,  Fontesjur.  rom.  antiqui,  p.  23). 


REGAL   PERIOD.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


671 


of  legislation.  Romulus  jura  dedit  at  his  own  hand,  not 
jura  tulit.  Mommsen  is  probably  near  the  mark  when  he 
describes  the  leges  regiae  as  mostly  rules  of  the  fas  which 
were  of  interest  not  merely  for  the  pontiffs  but  for  the 
public,  with  which  it  was  of  importance  that  the  latter 
should  be  acquainted,  that  they  might  know  the  risks 
they  incurred  from  their  contravention.1  It  is  not  to  be 
assumed  that  there  was  no  legislation  beyond  this ;  some 
of  the  laws  of  which  we  have  record  were  of  a  different 
character.  But  on  the  whole  it  seems  beyond  doubt  that 
it  was  custom  rather  than  statute  that  was  the  main  factor 
of  the  jus  of  the  regal  period. 

mi  What  went  by  the  name  of  boni  mores,  quite  distinct 

)res.  from  the  jus  moribus  constitutum,  must  also  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  regulatives  of  public  and  private  order. 
Part  of  what  fell  within  their  sphere  might  also  be  ex- 
pressly regulated  by  fas  or  jus ;  but  there  was  much  that 
was  only  gradually  brought  within  the  domain  of  these 
last,  and  even  down  to  the  end  of  the  republic  not  a  little 
that  remained  solely  under  the  guardianship  of  the  family 
tribunal  or  the  censor's  regimen  morum.  Its  function  was 
twofold  :  sometimes  it  operated  in  restraint  of  law  by  con- 
demning— though  it  could  not  prevent — the  ruthless  and 
unnecessary  exercise  of  legal  right,  as,  for  example,  that  of 
the  head  of  a  house  over  his  dependants ;  and  sometimes 
it  operated  supplementarily,  by  requiring  observance  of 
duties  that  could  not  be  enforced  by  any  compulsitor  of 
law.  Dutiful  service,  respect,  and  obedience  from  inferiors 
to  superiors,  chastity,  and  fidelity  to  engagements,  express 
or  implied  (fides),  were  among  the  officia  that  were  thus 
inculcated,  and  whose  neglect  or  contravention  not  only 
affected  the  reputation  but  often  entailed  punishments  and 
disabilities,  social,  political,  or  religious.  It  was  the  duty 
of  those  in  authority  to  enforce  their  observance  by  such 
animadversio  as  they  thought  proper, — the  paterfamilias 
in  his  family,  the  gens  among  its  members,  the  king  in 
relation  to  the  citizens  generally ;  and  many  a  wrong  was 
prevented  not  by  the  fear  of  having  to  make  reparation  to 
the  party  injured  but  by  the  dread  of  the  penalties  that 
would  follow  conduct  unbecoming  an  upright  citizen. 
iiri-  The  Quiritian  Family. — The  word  familia  in  Roman 
'n  law  had  at  once  a  more  extensive  and  a  more  limited 
11  y>  meaning  than  it  has  in  its  English  form.2  Husband,  wife, 
and  children  did  not  necessarily  constitute  an  independent 
family  among  the  Romans,  nor  were  they  all  necessarily 
of  the  same  one.  Those  formed  a  family  who  were  all 
subject  to  the  right  or  power — originally  manus,3  but 
latterly  jus — of  the  same  family  head  (paterfamilias). 
He  might  have  a  whole  host  dependent  on  him, — wife  and 
sons  and  daughters,  and  daughters-in-law,  and  grand- 


1  The  most  recent  and  comprehensive  treatise  on  the  subject  of  the 
Royal  Laws,  which  also  contains  references  to  the  earlier  literature,  is 
that  of  Voigt,  Ueber  die  Leges  Regiae,  Leipsic,  1876, 1877  (republished 
from  the  Transactions  of  the  Saxon  Academy).      A  collection  of  them 
from  Livy,  Dionysius,  Plutarch,  Servius,  Macrobius,  &c.,  will  be  found 
in  Bruns,  p.  1  sq.     Of  the  Jus  Papirianum  referred  to  by  Pomponius 
no  remains  are  extant;  but  Paul  (Dig.  1.  16,  fr.  144)  mentions  inci- 
dentally that  it  was  commented  on  by  one  Granius  Flaccus,  who  was 
of  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar. 

2  Familia  and  "family"  are  used  in  this  section  solely  to  designate 
the  group  of  persons  subject  to  the  same  paterfamilias.     Occasionally 
the  word  meant  (1)  a  gens  (or  group  of  families  in  the  stricter  sense) ; 
or  (2)  the  family  estate  proper,  as  in  the  provisions  of  the  XII.  Tables 
about  succession — adgnatus  proximus  familiam  kabeto ;    or  (3)  the 
family  slaves  collectively,  as  in  the  phrases  familia  urbana,  familia, 
rustica. 

3  This  word  manus,  though   in  progress  of  time   used  chiefly  to 
express  the  power  a  husband  had  over  the  wife  who  had  become  a 
member  of  his  family,  was  originally  the  generic  term  for  all  the 
rights  exercised  not  only  over  the  things  belonging  but  also  the  persons 
subject  to  the  head  of  the  house;  for  a  slave  when  enfranchised  was 
said  to  be  "manumitted,"  and  the  same  phrase  was  also  employed 
occasionally  to  express  the  condition  of  a  filiusfamilias  released  from 
the  potestas,  although  "  emancipated  "  was  the  usual  one. 


children  by  his  sons,  and  possibly  remoter  descendants 
related  through  males ;  so  long  as  they  remained  subject 
to  him  they  constituted  but  one  family,  that  was  split  up 
only  on  his  death  or  loss  of  citizenship.  But  if  his  wife 
had  not  passed  in  manum — and  that  was  common  enough 
even  during  the  republic,  and  universal  in  the  later  empire 
— she  did  not  become  a  member  of  his  family  :  she  re- 
mained a  member  of  the  family  in  which  she  was  born, 
or,  if  its  head  was  deceased  or  she  had  been  emancipated, 
was  the  sole  member  of  a  family  of  her  own.  Both  sons 
and  daughters  on  emancipation  ceased  to  be  of  the  family 
of  the  paterfamilias  who  had  emancipated  them.  A 
daughter's  children  could  never  under  any  circumstances 
be  members  of  the  family  of  their  maternal  grandfather ; 
for  children  born  in  lawful  marriage  followed  the  family 
of  their  father,  while  those  who  were  illegitimate  ranked 
from  the  moment  of  birth  as  patresfamilias  and  matres- 
familias. 

With  the  early  Romans,  as  with  the  Hindus  and  the  Marriage 
Greeks,  marriage  was  a  religious  duty  a  man  owed  alike 
to  his  ancestors  and  to  himself.  Believing  that  the  happi- 
ness of  the  dead  in  another  world  depended  on  their  proper 
burial  and  on  the  periodical  renewal  by  their  descendants 
of  prayers  and  feasts  and  offerings  for  the  repose  of  their 
souls,  it  was  incumbent  upon  him  above  all  things  to  per- 
petuate his  race  and  his  family  cult.  In  taking  to  him- 
self a  wife,  he  was  about  to  detach  her  from  her  father's 
house  and  make  her  a  partner  of  his  family  mysteries. 
With  the  patrician  at  least  this  was  to  be  done  only  with 
divine  approval,  ascertained  by  anspicia.  His  choice  was 
limited  to  a  woman  with  whom  he  had  conubium  (eTriya/u'a) 
or  right  of  intermarriage.  This  was  a  matter  of  state 
arrangement;  and  in  the  regal  period  Roman  citizens 
could  have  it  outside  their  own  bounds  only  with  members 
of  .states  with  which  they  were  in  alliance,  and  with  which 
they  were  connected  by  the  bond  of  common  religious 
observances.  A  patrician  citizen,  therefore,  if  his  marriage 
was  to  be  reckoned  lawful  (justae  nuptiae),  had  to  wed 
either  a  fellow-patrician  or  a  woman  who  was  a  member  of 
an  allied  community.  The  ceremony  was  a  religious  one, 
conducted  by  the  high  priests  of  the  state,  in  presence  of 
ten  witnesses,  representatives  probably  of  the  ten  curies  of 
the  bridegroom's  tribe,  and  was  known  as  confarreatio.  Its 
effect  was  to  dissociate  the  wife  entirely  from  her  father's 
house  and  to  make  her  a  member  of  her  husband's ;  for 
confarreate  marriage  involved  what  was  called  in  manum 
convent^  the  passage  of  the  wife  into  her  husband's 
"  hand  "  or  power,  provided  he  was  himself  paterfamilias  ; 
if  he  was  not,  then,  though  nominally  in  his  hand,  she  was 
really  subject  like  him  to  his  family  head.  Any  property 
she  had  of  her  own — which  was  a  possible  state  of  matters 
only  if  she  had  been  independent  before  marriage — passed 
to  him  as  a  matter  of  course ;  if  she  had  none,  her  pater- 
familias provided  her  a  dowry  (dos\  which  shared  the 
same  fate.  Whatever  she  acquired  by  her  industry  or 
otherwise  while  the  marriage  lasted  also  as  a  matter  of 
course  fell  to  her  husband.  In  fact,  so  far  as  her  patri- 
monial interests  were  concerned,  she  was  in  much  the  same 
position  as  her  children ;  and  on  her  husband's  death  she 
had  a  share  with  them  in  his  inheritance  as  if  she  had 
been  one  of  his  daughters.  In  other  respects  manus 
conferred  more  limited  rights  than  patria  potestas;  for 
Romulus  is  said  to  have  ordained  that,  if  a  man  put  away 
his  wife  except  for  adultery  or  one  of  two  or  three  other 
very  grave  offences,  he  forfeited  his  estate  half  to  her 
and  half  to  Ceres,  while  if  he  sold  her  he  was  to  be  given 
over  to  the  infernal  gods. 

The  patria  potestas  was  the  name  given  to  the  power  Patria 
exercised  by  a  father,  or  by  his  paterfamilias  if  he  was  potestas. 
himself  in  potestate,  over  the  issue  of  such  justae  nuptiae. 


672 


ROMAN     LAW 


[REGAL  PERIOD. 


The  Roman  jurists  boasted  that  it  was  a  right  enjoyed  by 
none  but  Roman  citizens;  and  it  certainly  was  peculiar 
to  them  in  this  sense,  that  nowhere  else,  except  among  the 
Latin  race  from  which  they  had  sprung,  did  the  paternal 
}X)wer  attain  such  an  intensity.  The  omnipotence  of  the 
paterfamilias  and  the  condition  of  utter  subjection  to  him 
of  his  children  in  potestate  became  greatly  modified  under 
the  empire ;  but  originally  the  children,  though  in  public 
life  on  an  equality  with  the  house  father,  in  private  life, 
and  so  long  as  the  potestas  lasted,  were  subordinated  to  him 
to  such  an  extent  as,  according  to  the  letter  of  the  law,  to 
be  in  his  hands  little  better  than  his  slaves.  They  could 
have  nothing  of  their  own  :  all  they  earned  was  his ;  and, 
though  it  was  quite  common  when  they  grew  up  for  him 
to  give  them  peculia,  "cattle  of  their  own,"  to  manage  for 
their  own  benefit,  these  were  only  de  facto  theirs,  but  de 
jure  his.  For  offences  committed  by  them  outside  the 
family  circle,  for  which  he  was  not  prepared  to  make 
amends,  he  had  to  surrender  them  to  the  injured  party, 
just  like  slaves  or  animals  that  had  done  mischief.  If  his 
right  to  them  was  disputed  he  used  the  same  action  for 
its  vindication  that  he  employed  for  asserting  his  owner- 
ship of  his  field  or  his  house  :  if  they  were  stolen,  he  pro- 
ceeded against  the  thief  by  an  ordinary  action  of  theft ;  if 
for  any  reason  he  had  to  transfer  them  to  a  third  party, 
it  was  by  the  same  form  of  conveyance  that  he  used  for 
the  transfer  of  things  inanimate.  Nor  was  this  all ;  for, 
according  to  the  old  formula  recited  in  that  sort  of  adop- 
tion known  as  adrogation,  he  had  over  them  the  power 
of  life  and  death,  jus  vitae  necisque.  This  power  was 
subject  to  certain  restrictions  during  the  infancy  of  a 
child;  but,  when  he  had  grown  up,  his  father,  in  the 
exercise  of  his  domestic  jurisdiction,  might  visit  his  mis- 
conduct, not  only  in  private  but  in  public  life,  with  such 
punishment  as  he  thought  fit,  even  banishment,  slavery, 
or  death. 

idroga-  It  might  happen  that  a  marriage  was  fruitless,  or  that 
ion  and  a  man  saw  gjj  yg  sons  g0  ^o  j^e  grave  before  him,  and 
op  ion.  ^^  ^  pafgrfajftjiiag  ha(j  thus  to  face  the  prospect  of  the 
extinction  of  his  family  and  of  his  own  descent  to  the 
tomb  without  posterity  to  make  him  blessed.  To  obviate 
so  dire  a  misfortune  he  resorted  to  the  practice  of  adop- 
tion, so  common  in  India  and  Greece.  If  it  was  a  pater- 
familias that  he  adopted  the  process  was  called  adroga- 
tion (adrogatio) ;  if  it  was  a  filiusfamilias  it  was  simply 
adoptio.  The  latter,  unknown  probably  in  the  earlier 
regal  period,  was  a  somewhat  complicated  conveyance  of 
a  son  by  his  natural  parent  to  his  adopter,  the  purpose  of 
course  being  expressed ;  its  effect  was  simply  to  transfer 
the  child  from  the  one  family  to  the  other.  But  the  former 
was  much  more  serious,  for  it  involved  the  extinction  of 
one  family 1  that  another  might  be  perpetuated.  It  was 
therefore  an  affair  of  state.  It  had  to  be  approved  by  the 
pontiffs,  who  probably  had  to  Satisfy  themselves  that  there 
were  brothers  enough  of  the  adrogatee  to  attend  to  the 
interests  of  the  ancestors  whose  cult  he  was  renouncing ; 
and  on  their  favourable  report  it  had  to  be  sanctioned  by 
a  vote  of  the  curies,  as  it  involved  the  deprivation  of  his 
gens  of  their  possible  right  of  succession  to  him.  The 
result  was  that  the  adrogatus,  from  being  himself  the  head 
of  a  house,  sank  to  the  position  of  a  filiusfamilias  in  the 
house  of  his  adopting  parent ;  if  he  had  had  wife  or  child- 
ren subject  to  him,  they  passed  with  him  into  his  new 
family,  and  so  did  everything  that  belonged  to  him  and 
that  was  capable  of  transmission  from  one  person  to 
another.  The  adopting  parent  acquired  potestas  and  power 
of  life  and  death  over  the  adopted  child  exactly  as  if  he 
were  the  issue  of  his  body ;  while  the  latter  ejijoyed  in  his 


1  A  pfiterfamilias  who  had  no  person  subject  to  him  constituted  a 
"  family  "  in  his  own  person. 


new  family  the  same  rights  exactly  that  he  would  have 
had  if  he  had  been  born  in  it. 

The  manus  and  the  patria  potestas  represent  the  master-  Don* 
f ul  aspects  of  the  patrician's  domestic  establishment.  Its  relation 
conjugal  and  parental  ones,  however,  though  not  so  pro- 
minent in  the  pages  of  the  jurists,  are  not  to  be  lost  sight 
of.  The  Roman  family  in  the  early  history  of  the  law 
was  governed  as  much  by  fas  as  by  jus.  It  was  an  associa- 
tion hallowed  by  religion,  and  held  together  not  by  might 
merely  but  by  conjugal  affection,  parental  piety,  and  filial 
reverence.  The  purpose  of  marriage  was  to  rear  sons  who 
might  perpetuate  the  house  and  the  family  sacra.  In 
entering  into  the  relationship  the  wife  renounced  her  rights 
and  privileges  as  a  member  of  her  father's  house ;  but  it 
was  that  she  might  enter  into  a  lifelong  partnership  with 
her  husband,  and  be  associated  with  him  in  all  his  family 
interests,  sacred  and  civil.  The  husband  was  priest  in  the 
family,  but  wife  and  children  alike  assisted  in  its  prayers, 
and  took  part  in  the  sacrifices  to  its  lares  and  penates. 
As  the  Greek  called  his  wife  the  house-mistress,  Seo-iroiva, 
so  did  the  Roman  speak  of  his  as  materfamilias,2  the 
house-mother.  She  was  treated  as  her  husband's  equal. 
As  for  their  children,  the  jwtestas  was  so  tempered  by  the 
natural  sense  of  parental  duty  on  the  one  side  and  filial 
affection  on  the  other  that  in  daily  life  it  was  rarely  felt 
as  a  grievance ;  while  the  risk  of  an  arbitrary  exercise  of 
the  domestic  jurisdiction,  whether  in  the  heat  of  passion 
or  under  the  impulse  of  justifiable  resentment,  was  guarded 
against  by  the  rule  which  required  the  paterfamilias  to 
consult  in  the  first  place  the  near  kinsmen  of  his  child, 
maternal  as  well  as  paternal.  Even  the  incapacity  of  the 
subject  members  of  the  family  to  hold  property  of  their 
own  cannot  in  those  times  have  been  regarded  as  any 
serious  hardship ;  for,  though  the  legal  title  to  all  their 
acquisitions  was  in  the  house -father,  yet  in  truth  they 
were  acquired  for  and  belonged  to  the  family  as  a  whole, 
and  he  was  but  a  trustee  to  hold  and  administer  them  for 
the  common  benefit. 

In  Greece  the  patria  potestas  never  reached  such 
dimensions  as  in  Rome,  and  there  it  ceased,  de  facto  at 
least,  when  a  son  had  grown  up  to  manhood  and  started 
a  household  of  his  own.  But  in  Rome,  unless  the  pater- 
familias voluntarily  put  an  end  to  it,  it  lasted  as  long  as 
the  latter  lived  and  retained  his  status.  The  marriage  of 
a  son,  unlike  that  of  a  daughter  passing  into  the  hand  of 
a  husband,  did  not  release  him  from  it,  nor  did  his  children 
become  subject  to  him  so  long  as  he  himself  was  in 
potestate.  On  the  contrary,  his  wife  passed  on  marriage 
into  the  power  of  her  father-in-law,  and  their  children 
as  they  were  born  fell  under  that  of  their  paternal  grand- 
father ;  and  the  latter  was  entitled  to  exercise  over  his 
daughters-in-law  and  grandchildren  the  same  rights  he 
had  over  his  sons  and  unmarried  daughters.  But  there 
was  this  difference,  that,  when  the  paterfamilias  died,  his 
sons  and  daughters  who  had  remained  in  potestate  and 
his  grandchildren  by  a  predeceased  son  instantly  became 
their  own  masters  (sui  juris),  whereas  grandchildren  by 
a  surviving  son  simply  passed  from  the  potestas  of  their 
grandfather  into  that  of  their  father. 

The  acquisition  of  domestic  independence  by  the  death  Guai 
of  the  family  head  frequently  involved  the  substitution  of  ™"sl 
the  guardianship  of  tutors  (tutela)  for  the  potestas  that  ° 
had  come  to  an  end.  This  was  so  invariably  in  the  case  of 
females  sui  juris,  no  matter  what  their  age  :  they  remained 
under  guardianship  until  they  had  passed  by  marriage  in 
manum  mariti.  It  was  only  pupil  males,  however,  who  re- 
quired tutors,  and  their  office  came  to  an  end  when  puberty 

2  Materfamilias  is  used  in  the  texts  in  two  distinct  senses, — (1)  as 
a  woman  sui  juris,  i.e.,  not  subject  to  any  family  head,  and  (2)  as  a 
wife  in  manu  mariti. 


REGAL  PERIOD.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


673 


was  attained.  It  is  doubtful  whether  during  the  regal 
period  a  testamentary  appointment  of  tutors  by  a  husband 
or  parent  to  wife  or  children  was  known  in  practice, — 
probably  not.  If  so  the  office  devolved  upon  the  gens  to 
which  the  deceased  paterfamilias  belonged ;  and  it  may 
reasonably  be  assumed  that  it  delegated  the  duties  to  one 
of  its  members  in  particular,  retaining  in  its  collective 
capacity  a  right  of  supervision. 

iri-  The  Quiritian  Law  of  Property. — The  distribution  of 
lllaw  land  amongst  the  early  Romans  is  one  of  the  puzzling 
,'ro"  problems  of  their  history.  The  Servian  constitution  classi- 
laud.  fi6^  tne  citizens  and  determined  their  privileges,  duties, 
and  burdens  according  to  the  extent  of  their  freeholds ; 
and  yet  we  know  very  little  with  certainty  of  the  way  in 
which  these  were  acquired.1  We  have  indeed  a  traditional 
account  of  a  partition  by  Romulus  of  the  little  territory 
of  his  original  settlement  into  three  parts,  not  necessarily 
of  equal  dimensions,  one  of  which  was  intended  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  state  and  its  institutions,  civil  and 
religious,  the  second  (ager  publicus)  for  the  use  of  the 
citizens  and  profit  of  the  state,  and  the  third  (ager  privatus) 
for  subdivision  among  his  followers.  Varro  and  Pliny 
further  relate  that  to  each  of  them  he  assigned  a  home- 
stead (heredium)  of  two  jugers,  equal  to  about  an  acre 
and  a  quarter,  to  be  held  by  him  and  his  heirs  (quae  here- 
dem  sequerentur), — Pliny  adding  that  to  none  did  the  king 
give  more.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  portion  of  the 
territory,  gradually  augmented  through  new  conquests,  was 
reserved  as  ager  publicus ;  that  is  sufficiently  attested  by 
the  complaints  made  for  centuries  by  the  plebeians  of  its 
monopolization  by  the  patricians.  But  it  is  impossible  to 
admit  the  accuracy  of  the  account  of  the  mode  in  which 
the  ager  privatus  was  dealt  with.  The  fact  that  the 
majority  of  the  Servian  local  tribes  bore  the  names  of 
well-known  patrician  gentes  leads  to  the  conclusion  that 
many  at  least  of  the  clans  held  tracts  of  land  in  their 
corporate  capacity,  and  that  their  constituent  families 
settled  alongside  each  other,  each  with  its  own  homestead 
in  separate  and  independent  right.  It  can  hardly  be 
assumed,  however,  that  two  and  a  half  jugers  was  its 
maximum.  Seven  jugers,  about  4|  acres,  seems  to  have 
been  the  normal  extent  of  royal  grants  to  plebeians,  and 
a  patrician's  freehold  is  not  likely  to  have  been  less ; 
probably  in  the  ordinary  case  it  was  larger,  seeing  the 
minimum  qualification  for  the  third  Servian  class  was  ten 
jugers,  and  for  the  first  twenty.2  To  enable  him  to  make 
grants  during  pleasure  to  his  clients  he  must  have  held 
more  than  seven.  But  he  did  not  necessarily  hold  all  his 
lands  by  gratuitous  assignation  either  from  the  state  or 
from  his  gens ;  purchase  from  the  former  was  by  no  means 
uncommon ;  and  it  may  have  been  on  his  purchased  lands, 
outside  his  heredium  proper,  that  his  clients  were  usually 
employed.  Those  dependants  were  also  employed  in  large 
numbers  upon  those  parts  of  the  ager  publicus  which  were 
occupied  by  the  patricians  under  the  name  of  possessiones, 
and  which  really  were  the  source  of  their  wealth.  These, 


1  See  Giraurl,  Recherches  siir  le  droit  de  propriete  chez  les  Remains, 
Aix,  1838  (oiily  first  vol.  published) ;  Mace,  Histoire  de  la  propriety 
du  domaine  public,  et  des  lots  agraires  chez  les  Remains,  Paris,  1851  ; 
Hildebrand,  De  antiquissimae  agris  Romani  distributionis  fide,  Jena, 
1862  ;  Voigt,   "  Ueber  die  bina  jugera  d.  altesten  rom.  Agrarverfass- 
ung,"  in  Rhein.  Mus.f.  Phil.,  vol.  xxiv.  (1869),  p.  52  sq.,  the  opinions 
in  which  are  somewhat  modified  in  his  XII.  Ta/eln,  Leipsic,  1883,  vol. 
i.  §  102;  Karlowa,  Rom.  Rechtsgcschichte,  Leipsic,  1885,  vol.  i.  §  15. 

2  At  the  same  time  the  writers  of  the  empire  frequently  refer  to 
the  early  heredium  of  seven  jugers  as  having  been  amply  sufficient  for 
its  frugal  owner,  content  to  till  it  himself  with  the  aid  of  his  sons. 
The  case  of  Cincinnatus  in  the  year  293  u.c.  is  often  mentioned  : 
having  a  freehold  of  just  that  extent,  he  had  to  sell  three  jugers 
to  meet  engagements  for  which  he  believed  himself  in  honour  respon- 
sible, and  yet  found  the  remaining  four  ample  enough  to  maintain 
him  with  all  the  dignity  of  a  man  who  had  been  consul  and  who  be- 
came dictator. 


however,  were  not  the  property  of  their  occupant ;  it  was 
the  lands  acquired  by  assignation  or  purchase  that  were 
alone  regarded  as  his  ex  jure  Quiritium, — what  he  held  in 
independent  ownership  to  him  and  his  heirs  according  to 
the  law  and  custom  of  the  Quirites. 

There  are  some  who  maintain  that  in  the  regal  period,  Property 
anterior  to  the  reign  of  Servius  Tullius,  there  was  no  pri-  in  mov- 
vate  property  in  movables.  The  proposition  thus  broadly  a  es< 
stated  is  manifestly  untenable.  If  no  more  be  meant  by 
it  than  this,  that  movables  were  not  then  recognized  as 
objects  of  quiritarian  right  that  could  be  vindicated  as 
such  by  a  real  action  per  sacramentum,  it  may  be  ad- 
mitted that  down  to  the  time  of  Servius,  with  exception 
perhaps  of  captured  slaves  and  cattle,  there  was  no  pro- 
perty in  movables.  But,  if  it  be  meant  to  negative  the 
right  of  a  man  to  alienate  by  tradition  what  he  held  as 
his  own,  and  to  protect  himself,  or  have  protection  from 
the  authorities,  against  any  attempt  to  deprive  him  of  it 
by  theft  or  violence,  then  the  non-existence  of  ownership 
of  movables  must  be  emphatically  denied.  Theft  was 
theft,  though  the  stolen  article  had  been  acquired  only  by 
natural  means, — by  barter  in  the  market,  by  the  industry 
of  the  maker,  or  as  the  product  of  something  already  be- 
longing to  its  holder. 

The  Quiritian  Law  of  Succession. — The  legal  order  of  Quiri- 
succession  in  the  regal  period  was  extremely  simple.     It tian  law 
was  this  :  on  the  death  of  a  paterfamilias  his  patrimony  °  8VC" 
devolved  upon  those  of  his  children  in  potestate  who  by 
that  event  became  sui  juris,  his  widow  taking  an  equal 
share  with  them,  and  no  distinction  being  made  between 
movables  and  immovables,  personalty  and  realty;  and, 
failing  widow  and  children,   it  went  to  his  gens.     The 
notion  that  between  the  descendants  and  the  gens  came 
an  intermediate  class  under  the  name  of  agnates  does  not 
seem  well  founded  as  regards  the  regal  period ;  they  were 
introduced  by  the  XII.  Tables  to  meet  the  case  of  the 
plebeians,  who,  having  no  gentes,  were  without  legal  heirs 
in  default  of  children.3 

The  later  jurists  more  than  once  refer  to  the  perfect  equality  of 
the  sexes  in  the  matter  of  succession  in  the  ancient  law.*  But  it 
was  more  nominal  than  real.  A  daughter  who  had  passed  into  the 
hand  of  a  husband  during  her  father's  lifetime  of  course  could  have 
no  share  in  the  latter's  inheritance,  for  she  had  ceased  to  be  a 
member  of  his  family.  One  who  was  in  potestate  at  his  death,  and 
thereby  became  sui  juris,  did  become  his  heir,  unless  he  had  pre- 
vented such  a  result  by  testamentary  arrangements.  But  even  then 
it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  gens  to  prevent  risk  of  prejudice  to 
themselves :  for  she  could  not  marry,  and  so  carry  her  fortune  into 
another  family,  without  their  consent  as  her  guardians  ;  neither 
could  she  without  their  consent  alienate  any  of  the  more  valuable 
items  of  it ;  nor,  even  with  their  consent,  could  she  make  a  testament 
disposing  of  it  in  prospect  of  death.  Her  inheritance,  therefore,  was 
hers  in  name  only  ;  in  reality  it  was  in  the  hands  of  her  guardians. 

Of  primogeniture  or  legal  preference  of  one  member  of  the  family 
over  the  others  there  is  not  the  faintest  trace.  And  yet  we  find 
record  of  heredia  remaining  in  a  family  not  for  generations  merely 
but  for  centuries, — a  state  of  matters  that  would  have  been  im- 
possible had  every  death  of  a  paterfamilias  necessarily  involved  a 
splitting  up  of  the  family  estate.  It  is  conceivable  that  this  was 
sometimes  prevented  by  arrangement  amongst  the  heirs  themselves ; 

3  It  is  quite  true,  however,  that  from  the  first  the  order  of  suc- 
cession was  agnatic ;  for  it  -was  those  only  of  a  man's  children  who 
were  agnate  as  well  as  cognate  that  had  any  claim  to  his  inheritance  ; 
and  the  gens  was,  theoretically  at  least,  just  a  body  of  agnates.     The 
supposed  mention  of  agnates  in  a  law  attributed  to  Numa  rests  sim- 
ply on  a  conjecture  of  I.  G.  Huschke's  (Analecta  litteraria,  Leipsic, 
1826,  p.  375).     The  law,  which  is  preserved  in  narrative  by  Servius, 
In  Virg.  Eclog.,iv.  43,  runs  thus:   "In  Numae  legibus  cautum  est, 
ut  si  qnis  imprudens  occidisset  hominem,  pro  capite  occisi  et  natis  ejus 
in  cautione  (Scalig.,  concione)  ofierret  arietem."     Huschke's  substitu- 
tion of  agnatis  for  et  natis  is  all  but  universally  adopted  ;  but,  even 
were  it  necessary,  it  need  mean  nothing  more  than  his  children  in 
potestate  or  his  gens. 

4  The  Voconian  law  of  585  u.c.  avowedly  introduced  something 
new  in  prohibiting  a  man  of  fortune  from  instituting  a  woman,  even  his 
only  daughter,  as  his  testamentary  heir ;  but  even  it  did  not  touch  the 
law  of  intestacy. 

XX.  —  85 


674 


ROMAN      LAW 


[REGAL  PERIOD. 


and  the  practice  of  every  now  and  then  drafting  the  younger  mem- 
bers of  families  to  colonies  diminished  the  number  of  those  who 
had  a  claim  to  participate.  But  the  simplest  plan  of  avoiding  the 
difficulty  was  for  the  paterfamilias  to  regulate  his  succession  by 
testament ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  originally  such  a 
deed  was  had  recourse  to,  not  so  much  for  instituting  a  stranger 
heir  when  a  man  had  no  issue — according  to  patrician  notions  his 
duty  then  was  to  perpetuate  his  family  by  adopting  a  son — as  for 
partitioning  the  succession  when  he  had  more  children  than  one. 
lesta-  There  were  two  sorts  of  testaments  made  use  of  by  the 
meats,  patricians  of  the  regal  period, — that  made  in  the  comitia 
of  the  curies  (test,  calatis  comitiis)  and  that  made  in  the 
presence  of  a  few  comrades  on  the  eve  of  battle  (test,  in 
procinctu  factum).  The  first  at  least — and  the  second  was 
just  a  substitute  for  it  on  an  emergency — was  far  from 
being  an  independent  exercise  of  the  testator's  voluntas. 
For,  though  in  course  of  time,  and  under  the  sanction  of 
the  uti  legassit  ita  jus  esto  of  the  XII.  Tables,  the  curies 
may  have  become  merely  the  recipients  of  the  oral  declara- 
tion by  the  testator  of  his  last  will,  in  order  that  they 
might  testify  to  it  after  his  death,  it  is  impossible  not  to 
see  in  the  comitial  testament  what  must  originally  have 
been  a  legislative  act,  whereby  the  testator's  peers,  for 
reasons  which  they  and  the  presiding  pontiffs  thought 
sufficient,  sanctioned  in  the  particular  case  a  departure 
from  the  ordinary  rules  of  succession.  The  pontiffs  were 
there  to  protect  the  interests  of  religion,  and  the  curies  to 
protect  those  of  the  testator's  gens ;  and  it  is  hardly  con- 
ceivable that  a  testament  could  have  been  sanctioned  by 
them  which  so  far  set  at  nought  old  traditions  as  to  deprive 
a  Jiliusfamilias  of  his  birthright,  at  least  in  favour  of  a 
stranger. 

Family,  Family,  Property,  and  Succession  amongst  the  Plebeians. 
— If  perfect  identity  of  law  and  custom  cannot  be  assumed 
to  have  existed  amongst  the  patricians  in  the  earliest 
years  of  Eome,  far  less  can  it  be  supposed  to  have  existed 
amongst  the  heterogeneous  population  that  constituted 
the  plebs.  A  large  proportion  of  them,  it  is  true,  were  of 
Latin  descent,  to  whom  gentile  institutions  and  the  manus 
and  the  patria  potestas  of  the  family  were  nothing  strange; 
but  alongside  of  them  were  other  tribes  that  Rome  had 
vanquished,  who  had  very  different  traditions,  and  some 
of  whom,  as  is  thought  by  one  or  two  writers  of  note, 
laid  more  store  on  female  kinship  than  on  that  through 
males.  From  the  moment  that  any  of  the  former  became 
part  of  the  Roman  plebs  everything  like  gentile  organiza- 
tion was  of  course  suppressed ;  public  policy  could  not  suffer 
the  continuance  of  what  might  have  proved  an  element 
of  danger  to  the  state.  The  inevitable  consequence  was 
a  disturbance  of  the  whole  family  system.  Having  no 
longer  any  clansmen  to  stand  by  them  in  emergencies,  to 
avenge  their  quarrels  and  deaths,  and  to  act  as  guardians 
of  their  widows  and  orphans,  the  plebeians  of  Latin  origin 
seem  to  have  drawn  closer  in  their  ideas  to  their  fellows 
of  Etruscan  and  Hellenic  descent,  and  to  have  transferred 
their  regards  to  the  circle  of  their  relatives  by  blood  and 
marriage  (cognati  et  adfines}.  It  is  remarkable  that,  not- 
withstanding the  pre-eminence  given  to  agnates  by  the 
XII.  Tables  in  matters  of  tutory  and  succession,  the  law 
reserved  to  the  cognates,  as  distinguished  from  the  agnates, 
certain  rights  and  duties  that  in  patrician  Rome  must  have 
belonged  to  the  gens, — for  example,  the  duty  of  prosecut- 
ing the  murderer  (originally  of  avenging  the  death)  of 
a  kinsman,  and  the  right  of  appeal  against  a  capital  sen- 
tence pronounced  upon  a  kinsman.  This  can  only  have 
been  because  in  olden  times,  when  agnation  was  unknown 
as  distinct  from  the  gens,  it  was  plebeian  practice  to  entrust 
those  rights  and  duties  to  the  sobrinal  circle  of  cognates.1 
In  the  discussions  on  the  Canuleian  law  in  the  year  309 

1  On  this  subject  see  Klenze,  Das  Familienrecht  der  Cognaten  und 
Affinen  nach  rSm.  u.  verwandten  Rechten,  Berlin,  1828. 


u.c.  it  suited  the  line  of  argument  of  patrician  orators  to 
decry  plebeian  unions  as  something  not  deserving  of  the 
name  of  nuptiae,  and  to  stigmatize  them  as  mere  matri- 
monia, — relations  entered  into  between  men  and  women 
for  the  sake  of  making  the  latter  mothers,  but  involving 
none  of  those  features  that  characterized  patrician  mar- 
riage.2 That  there  may  have  been  laxity  amongst  many 
of  the  plebeians  in  their  domestic  relations  is  extremely 
probable.  The  ceremony  of  confarreation  was  denied  to 
them,  and  coemption  (as  seems  likely)  was  not  yet  in- 
vented, so  that  the  only  way  of  contracting  a  marriage 
that  was  open  to  them  was  simple  interchange  of  consent, 
which  was  not  legally  creative  of  manus.  Whether  it  was 
creative  of  patria  potestas  over  the  issue  of  the  union  may 
be  doubted.  Some  of  the  plebeians  may  have  been  of 
opinion  that  it  did  create  it  and  may  de  facto  have  ex- 
ercised the  right  it  conferred,  while  others  may  have  been 
indifferent  as  to  whether  it  did  or  not ;  but  we  may  be 
very  sure  that  the  patricians  denied  its  possibility,  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  a  prerogative  of  Roman  citizens, 
amongst  whom  the  plebeians  had  no  claim  to  rank. 

The  accounts  of  the  early  distributions  of  land  amongst  Proper 
the  plebeians  are  even  more  uncertain  than  those  we  have 
of  its  distribution  amongst  the  patricians.  They  had  un- 
doubtedly become  freeholders  in  large  numbers  before  the 
Servian  reforms.  But  they  probably  attained  that  position 
only  by  gradual  stages.  There  are  indications  that  their 
earliest  grants  from  the  kings  in  their  character  of  royal 
clients  (as  Cicero  calls  them)  were  only  during  pleasure ; 
but  latterly,  as  they  increased  in  numbers  and  importance, 
they  obtained  concessions  of  keredia  varying  in  extent  from 
two  to  seven  jugers.  That  those  who  had  the  means  also 
frequently  acquired  land  by  purchase  from  the  state  may 
be  taken  for  granted.  In  fact  there  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that  by  the  time  of  Servius  the  plebeians  were  as 
free  to  hold  land  in  private  property  as  the  patricians, 
although  the  stages  by  which  they  reached  equality  in 
this  respect  are  uncertain  and  difficult  to  follow.  As  for 
movable  property  their  rights  in  it  were  presumably  the 
same  as  those  of  the  patricians. 

As  regards  the  law  of  succession  it  may  safely  be  assumed  Succes 
that  by  custom  at  all  events  the  children  of  a  plebeian  usu-  sion 
ally  took  his  estate  on  his  death.  But,  as  he  was  not  a 
member  of  a  gens,  there  was  no  provision  for  the  devolu- 
tion  of  his  succession  on  failure  of  children.  The  want  of 
them  he  could  not  supply  by  adrogation,  as  he  had  for 
long  no  access  to  the  assembly  of  the  curies ;  and  it  is  very 
doubtful  if  adoption  of  a  Jiliusfamilias  was  known  before 
the  reforms  of  Servius  Tullius.  The  same  cause  that  dis- 
qualified him  for  adrogating  a  paterfamilias  disqualified 
him  for  making  a  testament  calatis  comitiis ;  and  even  one 
in  procinctu  was  impossible,  since,  although  before  the 
time  of  Servius  plebeians  may  occasionally  have  served 
in  the  army,  they  were  not  citizens,  and  so  had  not  the 
requisite  capacity  for  making  a  testament.  Until  there- 
fore the  XII.  Tables  introduced  the  succession  of  agnates  a 
plebeian  unsurvived  by  children  was  necessarily  heirless, — 
that  is  to  say,  heirless  in  law.  But  custom  seems  to  have 
looked  without  disfavour  on  the  appropriation  of  his 
heredium  by  an  outsider :  a  brother  or  other  near  kinsman 
would  have  the  earliest  opportunity,  and,  if  he  maintained 
his  possession  of  it  in  the  character  of  heir  for  a  reason- 
able period,  fixed  by  the  XII.  Tables  at  a  year,  the  law 
dealt  with  him  as  heir,  and  in  course  of  time  the  pontiffs 
imposed  upon  him  the  duty  of  maintaining  the  family  sacra. 
This  was  the  origin,  and  a  very  innocent  and  laudable  one, 


2  The  same  notion  accounts  for  the  grammatically  untenable  ex- 
planation of  patricti  in  Liv.,  x.  8,  §  10,  "Qui  patrem  ciere  possuut," 
i.e.,  patricians  were  father's  sons,  while  plebeians,  before  they  were 
admitted  to  citizenship  and  conubium,  were  only  reckoned  mother's  sons. 


REGAL  PERIOD.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


675 


of  the  usucapio  pro  herede,  which  Gaius  condemns  as  an 
incomprehensible  and  infamous  institution,  and  which  un- 
doubtedly lost  some  of  its  raison  d'etre  once  the  right  of 
succession  of  agnates  had  been  introduced, 
tract  Contract  and  its  Breach. — To  speak  of  a  law  of  obliga- 
its  tions  in  connexion  with  the  regal  period,  in  the  sense  in 
•  which  the  words  were  understood  in  the  later  jurispru- 
dence, would  be  a  misapplication  of  language.  It  would 
be  going  too  far  to  say,  however,  as  is  sometimes  done, 
that  before  the  time  of  Servius  Rome  had  no  law  of  con- 
tract ;  for  men  must  have  bought  and  sold,  or  at  least 
bartered,  from  earliest  times, — must  have  rented  houses, 
hired  labour,  made  loans,  carried  goods,  and  been  parties 
to  a  variety  of  other  transactions  inevitable  amongst  a 
people  engaged  to  any  extent  in  pastoral,  agricultural,  or 
trading  pursuits.  It  is  true  that  a  patrician  family  with 
a  good  establishment  of  clients  and  slaves  had  within  itself 
ample  machinery  for  supplying  its  ordinary  wants,  and 
was  thus  to  a  great  extent  independent  of  outside  aid. 
But  there  were  not  many  such  families ;  and  the  plebeian 
farmers  and  the  artisans  of  the  guilds  were  in  no  such  for- 
tunate position.  There  must  therefore  have  been  contracts 
and  a  law  of  contract ;  but  the  latter  was  very  imperfect. 
In  barter — for  at  that  time  money  was  not  yet  in  use — with 
instant  exchange  and  delivery  of  one  commodity  against 
another,  the  transaction  was  complete  at  once  without  the 
creation  of  any  obligation.  But  in  other  cases,  such  as 
those  alluded  to,  one  of  the  parties  at  least  must  have 
trusted  to  the  good  faith  of  the  other.  What  was  his 
guarantee,  and  what  remedy  had  he  for  breach  of  engage- 
ment1? 

His  reliance  in  the  first  place  was  on  the  probity  of  the 
party  with  whom  he  was  dealing, — on  the  latter's  reverence 
for  Fides,  and  the  dread  he  had  of  the  disapprobation  of 
his  fellows  should  he  prove  false,  and  of  the  penalties, 
social,  religious,  or  pecuniary,  that  might  consequently  be 
imposed  on  him  by  his  gens  in  the  case  of  a  patrician,  by 
his  guild  in  the  case  of  a  craftsman,  or  by  the  king  in  the 
case  of  any  other  plebeian.1  If  the  party  who  had  to  rely 
on  the  other's  good  faith  was  not  satisfied  with  his  promise 
and  the  grasp  of  the  right  hand  that  was  its  seal,2  he  might 
require  his  solemn  oath  (jusjuranduni)  •  and  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that,  whatever  may  have  been  the  case  at  a 
later  period,  in  the  time  of  the  earlier  kings  he  who  for- 
swore himself  was  amenable  to  pontifical  discipline.  If 
he  preferred  a  more  substantial  guarantee,  he  took  some- 
thing in  pledge  or  pawn  from  the  other  contractor ;  and, 
though  he  had  no  legal  title  to  it,  and  so  could  not  recover 
it  by  judicial  process  if  he  lost  possession,  yet  so  long  as 
he  retained  it  he  had  in  his  own  hand  a  de  facto  com- 
pulsitor  to  performance.  Upon  performance  he  could  be 
forced  to  return  it  or  suffer  a  penalty, — not  by  reason  of 
obligation  resulting  from  a  contract  of  pledge,  for  the  law 
as  yet  recognized  none,  but  because,  in  retaining  it  after 
the  purpose  was  served  for  which  he  had  received  it,  he 
was  committing  theft  and  liable  to  its  punishment.  At 
this  stage  breach  of  contract,  as  such,  does  not  seem  to 
have  legitimated  any  action  for  damages  or  reparation 

1  Such  as  debarment  from  gentile  or  guild  privileges,  exclusion  from 
right  of  burial  in  the  gentile  or  guild  sepulchre,  fines  in  the  form  of 
cattle  and  sheep,  &c. 

2  Some  of  the  old  writers  (e.g.,  Liv.,  i.  21,  §  4,  xxiii.  9,  §  3  ;  Plin., 
H.N.,  xi.  45  ;  Serv.,  In  Aen.,  iii.  687)  say  that  the  seat  of  Fides  was 
in  the  right  hand,  and  that  to  give  it  (promittere  dextram, — is  this  the 
origin  of  the  word  "promise"?)  in  making  an  engagement  was  empha- 
tically a  pledge  of  faith.     See  a  variety  of  texts  illustrating  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  practice,  and  testifying  to  the  regard  paid  to  Fides  before 
foreign  influences  and  example  had  begun  to  corrupt  men's  probity 
and  trustworthiness,  in  Lasaulx,  Ueber  d.  Eid  bei  d.  Ro'mern,  Wiirz- 
burg,  1844,  p.   5  sq.  ;  Danz,  Der  sacrale  Schutz  im  rom.  Rechtsver- 
kehr,   Jena,    1857,   pp.    139,    140;    Pernice,  Labeo,  vol.   ii.,  Halle, 
1878,  p.  408  sq. 


before  the  civil  tribunals ;  but  it  is  not  improbable  that, 
where  actual  loss  had  been  sustained,  the  injured  party 
was  permitted  to  resort  immediately  to  self -redress  by 
seizure  of  the  wrongdoer  or  his  goods.  Such  self-help  was 
according  to  the  spirit  of  the  time, — not  self-defence  merely 
in  presence  of  imminent  danger,  but  active  measures  for 
redress  of  wrongs  already  completed. 

Public  and  Private  Offences  and  their  Punishment. — For  Offences 
anything  like  a  clear  line  of  demarcation  between  crimes,  and  their 
offences,  and  civil  injuries  we  look  in  vain  in  regal  Rome. 
Offences  against  the  state  itself,  such  as  trafficking  with 
an  enemy  for  its  overthrow  (proditio)  or  treasonable  prac- 
tices at  home  (perduellio\  were  of  course  matter  of  state 
concern,  prosecution,  and  punishment  from  the  first.  But 
in  the  case  of  those  that  primarily  affected  an  individual 
or  his  estate  there  was  a  halting  between,  and  to  some 
extent  a  confusion  of,  the  three  systems  of  private  venge- 
ance, sacral  atonement,  and  public  or  private  penalty.3 
It  has  been  attempted  to  explain  the  coexistence  of  these 
systems  by  reference  to  the  different  temperaments  of  the 
races  that  constituted  united  Rome ;  and  this  certainly 
is  a  consideration  that  cannot  be  left  out  of  view.  But 
the  same  sequence  is  observable  in  the  history  of  the 
laws  of  other  nations  whose  original  elements  were  not  so 
mixed,  the  later  system  gradually  gaining  ground  upon 
the  earlier  and  eventually  overwhelming  it.  The  remark- 
able thing  in  Rome  is  that  private  vengeance  should  so 
long  not  only  have  left  its  traces  but  really  continued  to 
be  an  active  power.  It  must  still  have  been  an  admitted 
right  of  the  gens  or  kinsmen  of  a  murdered  man  in  the 
days  of  Numa;  otherwise  we  should  not  have  had  that 
law  of  his  providing  that,  where  a  homicide  was  due  to 
misadventure,  the  offering  to  them  of  a  ram  should  stay 
their  hands.  To  avenge  the  death  of  a  kinsman  was 
more  than  a  right :  it  was  a  religious  duty,  for  his  manes 
had  to  be  appeased ;  and  so  strongly  was  this  idea  enter- 
tained that,  even  long  after  the  state  had  interfered  and 
made  murder  a  matter  of  public  prosecution,  a  kinsman 
was  so  imperatively  bound  to  set  it  in  motion  that  if  he 
failed  he  was  not  permitted  to  take  anything  of  the  inherit- 
ance of  the  deceased.  Private  vengeance  was  lawful  too 
at  the  instance  of  a  husband  or  father  who  surprised  his 
wife  or  daughter  in  an  act  of  adultery  ;  he  might  kill  her 
and  her  paramour  on  the  spot,  though,  if  he  allowed  his 
wrath  to  cool,  he  could  afterwards  deal  with  her  only 
judicially  in  his  domestic  tribunal.  The  talion  we  read 
of  in  the  XII.  Tables  is  also  redolent  of  the  vindicta 
privata,  although  practically  it  had  become  no  more  than 
a  compulsitor  to  reparation.  And  even  the  nexal  creditor's 
imprisonment  of  his  defaulting  debtor  (infra,  p.  694),  which 
was  not  abolished  until  the  fifth  century  of  the  city,  may 
not  unfittingly,  in  view  of  the  cruelties  that  too  often 
attended  it,  be  said  to  have  savoured  more  of  private  venge- 
ance than  either  punishment  or  procedure  in  reparation. 

Expiatio,  supplicium,  sacratio  capitis,  all  suggest  offences  against 
the  gods  rather  than  against  either  an  individual  or  the  state.  But 
it  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  different  classes  of  offences, 
and  predicate  of  one  that  it  was  a  sin,  of  another  that  it  was  a' 
crime,  and  of  a  third  that  it  was  but  civil  injury  done  to  an  indi- 
vidual.4 They  ran  into  each  other  in  a  way  that  is  somewhat 

3  See  Abegg,  De  antiqiiissimo  Romanorum  jure  criminali,  Ktinigs- 
berg,  1823,  p.  36  sq.  ;  Rein,  Das  Criminalrecht  der  Romer,  Leipsic, 
1844,  p.  24  sq.  ;  Clark,  Early  Roman  Law:  Regal  Period,  London, 
1872,  p.  34  sq. 

*  Voigt  ( XII.  Tafeln,  vol.  i.  p.  484)  observes  that  the  patrician  looked 
upon  every  offence  as  committed  at  once  against  gods  and  men,  and 
held  that  the  punishment  should  be  one  that  satisfied  both  ;  hence  the 
deo  necari,  sacratio  capitis,  and  consecratio  bonorum.  The  plebeians 
regarded  its  two  moments  as  separable,  and  (as  appears  from  the  spirit 
of  the  XII.  Tables)  left  it  to  the  pontiffs  to  protect  the  gods,  putting  it 
on  the  state  to  protect  itself  by  ordinary  death  punishment,  addiction 
into  slavery,  declaration  of  improbitas  or  intestability,  talion,  and 
pecuniary  penalties. 


676 


ROMAN     LAW 


[REGAL  PERIOD. 


perplexing.  Apparently  the  majority  of  those  specially  mentioned 
in  the  so-called  leges  regiae  and  other  records  of  the  regal  period 
were  regarded  as  violations  of  divine  law,  and  the  punishments 
appropriate  to  them  determined  upon  that  footing.  Yet  in  many 
of  them  the  prosecution  was  left  to  the  state  or  to  private  indi- 
viduals. It  is  not  clear,  indeed,  that  there  was  any  machinery  for 
public  prosecution  except  in  treason  and  murder, — the  former  be- 
cause it  was  essentially  a  state  offence,  the  latter  because  it  was 
comparatively  early  deemed  expedient  to  repress  the  blood -feud, 
which  was  apt  to  lead  to  deplorable  results  when  friends  and 
neighbours  appeared  to  defend  the  alleged  assassin.1 

Take  some  of  those  offences  whose  sanction  was  sacratio  capitis. 
Breach  of  duty  resulting  from  the  fiduciary  relation  between  patron 
and  client,  maltreatment  of  a  parent  by  his  child,  exposure  or  kill- 
ing of  a  child  by  its  father  contrary  to  the  Romulian  rules,  the 
ploughing  up  or  removal  of  a  boundary  stone,  the  slaughter  of  a 
plough-ox, — all  these  were  capital  offences  ;  the  offender,  by  the 
formula  sacer  esto,  was  devoted  to  the  infernal  gods.  Festus  says 
that,  although  the  rules  of  divine  law  did  not  allow  that  he  should 
be  offered  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  deity  he  had  especially  offended  (nee 
fas  est  eum  immolari),  yet  he  was  so  utterly  beyond  the  pale  of  the 
law  and  its  protection  that  any  one  might  "kill  him  with  impunity. 
But,  as  the  sacratio  was  usually  coupled  with  forfeiture  of  the 
offender's  estate  or  part  of  it  to  religious  uses,  it  is  probable  that 
steps  were  taken  to  have  the  outlawry  or  excommunication  judi- 
cially declared,  though  whether  by  the  pontiffs,  the  king,  or  the 
curies  does  not  appear ;  such  a  declaration  would,  besides,  relieve 
the  private  avenger  of  the  incensed  god  of  the  chance  of  future 
question  as  to  whether  or  not  the  citizen  he  had  slain  was  sacer  in 
the  eye  of  the  law. 

That  there  must  have  been  other  wrongful  acts  that  were  regarded 
in  early  Rome  as  deserving  of  punishment  or  penalty  of  some  sort, 
besides  those  visited  with  death,  sacration,  or  forfeiture  of  estate, 
total  or  partial,  cannot  be  doubted  ;  no  community  has  ever  been 
so  happy  as  to  know  nothing  of  thefts,  robberies,  and  assaults. 
The  XII.  Tables  contained  numerous  provisions  in  reference  to 
them  ;  but  it  is  extremely  probable  that,  down  at  least  to  the  time 
of  Servius  Tullius,  the  manner  of  dealing  with  them  rested  on 
custom,  and  was  in  the  main  self-redress,  restrained  by  the  inter- 
vention of  the  king  when  it  appeared  to  him  that  the  injured  party 
was  going  beyond  the  bounds  of  fair  reprisal,  and  frequently  bought 
off  with  a  composition.  When  the  offence  was  strictly  within  the 
family,  the  gens,  and  perhaps  the  guild,  it  was  for  those  who 
exercised  jurisdiction  over  those  corporations  to  judge  of  the  wrong 
and  prescribe  and  enforce  the  penalty. 

Effect  of  Effect  of  the  Servian  Reforms  on  the  Private  Law. — The 
Servian  aim  of  t^e  constitutional,  military,  and  financial  reforms 
of  Servius  Tullius  was  to  promote  an  advance  towards 
equality  between  patricians  and  plebeians.  While  it  may 
be  an  open  question  whether  the  institution  of  the  comitia 
of  the  centuries  was  of  his  doing,  or  only  a  result  of  his 
arrangements  in  after  years,  it  seems  clear  that  he  had 
it  in  view  to  admit  the  plebeians  to  some  at  least  of  the 
privileges  of  citizenship,  imposing  on  them  at  the  same 
time  a  proportionate  share  of  its  duties  and  its  burdens. 
Privileges,  duties,  and  burdens  were  alike  to  be  measured 
by  the  citizen's  position  as  a  freeholder ;  the  amount  of 
real  estate  with  its  appurtenances  held  by  him  on  quiri- 
tarian  title  was  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  military 
service  he  was  to  render,  the  extent  to  which  he  was  to 
be  liable  for  tribute,  and,  assuming  Servius  to  have  con- 
templated the  creation  of  a  new  assembly,  the  influence 
he  was  to  exercise  in  it. 

To  facilitate  the  execution  of  his  scheme  it  was  neces- 
sary to  establish  a  register  of  the  citizens  (census),  which 
should  contain,  in  addition  to  a  record  of  the  strength  of 
their  families,  a  statement  of  the  value  of  their  lands  and 
appurtenances,  and  which  should  be  revised  periodically. 
In  order  to  ensure  as  far  as  possible  certainty  of  title,  and 
relieve  the  officials  of  troublesome  investigations  into  the 
genuineness  of  every  alleged  change  of  ownership  between 
two  valuations,  it  was  further  declared — presumably  by 
Servius— that  no  alleged  transfer  would  be  recognized 
which  had  not  been  effected  publicly,  with  observance  of 
certain  prescribed  solemnities,  or  else  by  surrender  in 

1  On  murder  (parricidium)  in  regal  Rome,  see  Osenbruggen,  Das 
altrSmische  Paricidium,  Kiel,  1841,  and  review  by  Dollmann  in 
Richter's  Krit.  Jahrbuch,  vol.  xi.  (1842),  p.  144  tq.  ;  Clark,  op,  cit., 
p.  41  sq. 


court  before  the  supreme  magistrate.  The  form  of  con- 
veyance thus  introduced  got  the  name  of  mancipium,  and 
at  a  later  period  mancipatio,  while  the  lands  and  other 
things  that  were  to  pass  by  it  came  to  be  known — whether 
from  the  first  or  not  is  of  little  moment — as  res  mancipi. 
Hence  arose  in  the  law  of  property  a  distinction  of  great 
importance,  only  abolished  by  Justinian  more  than  a 
thousand  years  later,  between  res  mancipi,  which  were 
transferable  in  quiritarian  right  only  by  mancipation  or 
surrender  in  court,  and  res  nee  mancipi,  which  were  trans- 
ferable by  simple  delivery. 

Mancipation  is  described  by  Gaius,  but  with  particular  reference  Mane 
to  the  conveyance  of  movable  res  mancipi,  as  a  pretended  sale  in  tion. 
presence  of  five  citizens  as  witnesses  and  a  libripens  holding  a  pair 
of  copper  scales.  The  transferee,  with  one  hand  on  the  thing  being 
transferred,  and  using  certain  words  of  style,  declared  it  his  by 
purchase  with  an  as  (which  he  held  in  his  other  hand)  and  the 
scales  (hoc  acre  aencaque  libra) ;  and  simultaneously  he  struck  the 
scales  with  the  as,  which  he  then  handed  to  the  transferrer  as 
figurative  of  the  price.  The  principal  variation  when  it  was  an 
immovable  that  was  being  transferred  was  that  the  mancipation 
did  not  require  to  be  on  the  spot :  the  land  was  simply  described 
by  its  known  name  in  the  valuation  roll.  Although  in  the  time 
of  Gaius  only  a  fictitious  sale — in  fact  the  formal  conveyance  upon 
a  relative  contract — yet  it  was  not  always  so.  Its  history  is  very 
simple.  The  use  of  the  scales  fixes  its  introduction  to  a  time 
when  coined  money  was  not  yet  current,  but  raw  copper  nevertheless 
had  become  a  standard  of  value  and  in  a  manner  a  medium  of  ex- 
change. That,  however,  was  not  in  the  first  days  of  Rome.  Then, 
and  for  a  long  time,  values  were  estimated  in  cattle  or  sheep,  fines 
were  imposed  in  them,  and  the  deposits  in  the  legis  actio  sacra- 
mento  (infra,  p.  681)  took  the  same  form.  The  use  of  copper  as  a 
substitute  for  them  in  private  transactions  was  probably  derived 
from  Etruria.  But,  being  only  raw  metal  or  foreign  coins,  it  could 
be  made  available  for  loans  or  payments  only  when  weighed  in  the 
scales  :_  it  passed  by  weight,  not  by  tale.  There  is  no  reason  for 
supposing  that  the  weighing  was  a  solemnity,  that  it  had  any 
significance  beyond  its  obvious  purpose  of  enabling  parties  to  ascer- 
tain that  a  vendor  or  borrower  was  getting  the  amount  of  copper 
for  which  he  had  bargained. 

It  was  this  practice  of  everyday  life  in  private  transactions  that 
Servius  adopted  as  the  basis  of  his  mancipatory  conveyance,  en- 
grafting on  it  one  or  two  new  features  intended  to  give  it  publicity 
and  as  it  were  state  sanction,  and  thus  render  it  more  serviceable 
in  the  transfer  of  censuable  property.  Instead  of  the  parties  them- 
selves using  the  scales,  an  impartial  balance-holder,  probably  an 
official,  was  required  to  undertake  the  duty,  and  five  citizens  were 
required  to  attend  as  witnesses,  who  were  to  be  the  vouchers  to 
the  census  officials  of  the  regularity  of  the  procedure.  They  are 

fenerally  supposed  to  have  been  intended  as  representatives  of  the 
ve  classes  in  which  Servius  had  distributed  the  population,  and 
thus  virtually  of  the  state  ;  and  the  fact  that,  when  the  parties 
appealed  to  them  for  their  testimony,  they  were  addressed  not  as 
testes  but  as  Quirites  lends  some  colour  to  this  view.  Servius  is 
also  credited  with  the  introduction  of  rectangular  pieces  of  copper 
of  different  but  carefully  adjusted  weights,  stamped  by  his  authority 
with  various  devices  (aes  signatum),  which  are  usually  supposed 
to  have  been  intended  to  take  the  place  of  the  raw  metal  (aes  rude) 
formerly  in  use,  and  so  facilitate  the  process  of  weighing  ;  but 
there  is  more  reason  for  thinking  they  were  cast  and  stamped  as 
standards  to  be  put  into  one  scale,  while  the  raw  metal  whose 
weight  was  to  be  ascertained  was  put  into  the  other. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  being  a  fictitious  sale,  as  Gaius  describes  it, 
and  as  it  became  after  the  introduction  of  coined  money  early  in 
the  4th  century,  the  mancipium  or  mancipation,  as  regulated  by 
Servius,  was  an  actual  completed  sale  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
term.  What  were  the  precise  words  of  style  addressed  by  the  trans- 
feree to  the  transferrer,  or  what  exactly  the  form  of  the  ceremonial, 
we  know  not.  But,  as  attendance  during  all  the  time  that  some 
thousands  of  pounds  perhaps  of  copper  were  being  weighed  would 
have  been  an  intolerable  burden  upon  the  five  citizens  convoked 
to  discharge  a  public  duty,  it  may  be  surmised  that  it  early  became 
the  practice  to  have  the  price  weighed  beforehand,  and  then  to 
reweigh,  or  pretend  to  reweigh,  before  the  witnesses  only  a  single 
little  bit  of  metal  (raudusculnm),  which  the  transferee  then  handed 
to  the  transferrer  as  "  the  first  pound  and  the  last,"  and  thus  repre- 
sentative of  the  whole.2  Whatever  may  have,  been  its  form,  how- 


2  The  conjecture  is  suggested  by  the  words  of  style  in  the  solutio 
per  aes  et  libram,  Gai.,  iii.  §§  173,  174.  There  were  some  debts  from 
which  a  man  could  be  effectually  discharged  only  by  payment  (latterly 
fictitious)  by  copper  and  scales  in  the  presence  of  a  libripens  and  the 
usual  five  witnesses.  In  the  words  addressed  to  the  creditor  by  the 
debtor  making  payment  these  occurred — hanc  tibi  libram  primam 


REGAL  PERIOD.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


G77 


ever,  its  effect  was  instant  exchange  of  property  against  a  price 
weighed  in  the  scales.  The  resulting  obligation  on  the  vendor  to 
maintain  the  title  of  the  vendee,  and  the  qualifications  that  might 
be  superinduced  on  the  conveyance  by  agreement  of  parties — the 
so-called  leges  mandpii — will  be  considered  in  connexion  with  the 
provisions  of  the  XII.  Tables  on  the  subject  (infra,  p.  690). 

The  things  included  in  the  class  of  res  mancipi  were  lands  and 
icipi.  houses  held  on  quiritarian  title,  together  with  rights  of  way  and 
aqueduct,  slaves,  and  domestic  beasts  of  draught  or  burden  (oxen, 
horses,  mules,  and  donkeys) ;  all  others  were  res  nee  mancipi.  In 
the  time  of  Servius  and  during  the  greater  part  of  the  republic  the 
domain  land  (ager  publicus)  in  Italy,  until  it  was  appropriated  by 
private  owners,  was  also  reckoned  as  res  nee  mancifn ;  like  all 
other  things  of  the  same  class,  it  passed  by  simple  delivery,  where- 
as res  mancipi  could  not  be  transferred  in  full  ownership  except 
by  mancipation  or  surrender  in  court.  Many  theories  have  been 
propounded  to  account  for  the  distinction  between  these  two  classes 
of  things,  and  to  explain  the  principle  of  selection  that  admitted 
oxen  and  horses  into  the  one,  but  relegated  sheep  and  swine,  ships 
and  vehicles,  to  the  other.  But  there  is  really  little  difficulty. 
Under  the  arrangement  of  Servius  what  was  to  determine  the 
nature  and  extent  of  a  citizen's  political  qualifications,  military 
duties,  and  financial  burdens  was  the  value  of  his  hcrcdium  (and 
other  freeholds,  if  he  had  any),  and  what  may  be  called  its  appur- 
tenances— the  slaves  that  worked  for  the  household,  the  slaves  and 
beasts  of  draught  and  burden  that  worked  the  farm,  and  the  servi- 
tudes of  way  and  water  that  ran  with  the  latter.  It  may  be  that 
in  course  of  time  slaves  without  exception  were  dealt  with  as  res 
mancipi, — without  consideration,  that  is  to  say,  whether  they  were 
employed  on  their  owner's  house  or  farm  or  on  any  part  of  the 
public  lands  in  his  occupancy — and  reasonably,  because  they  were 
often  shifted  from  the  one  to  the  other.  But  the  cattle  a  man 
depastured  on  the  public  meadows  were  no  more  res  mancipi  than 
his  sheep.  To  say  that  the  things  classed  as  res  mancipi  were 
selected  for  that  distinction  by  Servius  because  they  were  what 
were  essential  to  a  family  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  would 
be  to  fall  short  of  the  truth.  They  constituted  the  familia  in  the 
sense  of  the  family  estate  proper ;  whereas  the  herds  and  flocks, 
and  in  time  everything  else  belonging  to  the  paterfamilias,  fell 
under  the  denomination  of  pecunia.  So  the  words  are  to  be  under- 
stood in  the  well-known  phraseology  of  a  testament,  familia 
pecuniaque  meet. 

The  public  solemnity  of  mandpatio  thus  sanctioned  as 
a  mode  of  transferring  a  quiritarian  right  of  property, 
for  which  mamis  was  probably  as  yet  the  only  technical 
descriptive  word  in  use,  was  not  long  of  being  adapted  to 
other  transactions  in  which  manus  of  a  different  sort  was 
to  be  acquired, — for  example,  coemption,  emancipation, 
adoption  of  a  Jiliusfamilias,  the  contract  of  nexum,  release 
of  a  nexal  debtor,  and  that  mortis  causa  alienation  of  his 
estate  by  a  plebeian  which  in  time  developed  into  the  testa- 
ment per  aes  et  libram. 

•riage  It  has  been  already  explained  (p.  674)  that,  prior  to  the  time  of 
aes  et  Servius,  the  matrimonial  unions  of  the  plebeians  were  not,  in  the 
mi.  estimation  of  the  patricians  at  least,  regarded  as  lawful  marriages 
(justae  nuptiac],  although  amongst  themselves  they  may  have  been 
held  effectual  and  productive,  if  not  of  manus,  at  all  events  of 
patria  potestas.  For  this  there  were  two  reasons:  (1)  not  being 
citizens,  they  did  not  possess  the  preliminary  qualification  for 
justae  nuptiac,  namely,  conubium ;  and  (2)  not  being  patricians, 
the  only  ceremony  of  marriage  known  to  the  law  was  incompetent 
to  them.  The  first  obstacle  was  removed  by  their  admission  by 
Servius  to  the  ordinary  rights  of  citizenship,  the  second  by  the  in- 
troduction of  the  civil  ceremony  of  coemption.  Once  the  efficacy 
of  mancipation  as  a  mode  of  acquiring  manus  over  things  was 
established,  its  adoption  by  the  plebeians,  now  citizens  enjoying 
conubium,  as  a  method  of  acquiring  manus  over  their  wives  was 
extremely  natural.  The  scales,  the  libripens,  and  the  five  wit- 
nesses were  all  there  ;  but,  as  there  was  no  real  price  to  be  paid, 
the  only  copper  that  was  needed  was  a  single  raudusculum.  The 
words  recited  in  the  ceremonial,  unfortunately  not  preserved,  were 
necessarily  different  from  those  in  an  ordinary  mancipation,  and, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  a  considerable  number  of  ancient 
writers,  and  as  the  word  co-emptio  itself  seems  to  indicate  (though 
this  is  disputed  by  most  modern  civilians),  the  nominal  purchase 
was  mutual ;  the  man  acquired  a  materfamilias  who  was  to  bear 
him  children  and  enable  him  to  perpetuate  his  family,  while  she  ac- 
quired &  paterfamilias  who  was  to  maintain  her  while  the  marriage 
lasted,  and  in  whose  succession  she  was  to  share  when  a  widow. 
It  was  accompanied  with  other  observances  described  by  many  of 


postremamque  expendo  ("I  weight  out  to  you  this  the  first  and  the 
last  pound  ").  The  idea  is  manifestly  archaic,  and  the  words,  taken 
strictly,  are  quite  inappropriate  to  the  transaction  in  the  form  it  had 
assumed  long  before  the  time  of  Gaius. 


the  lay  writers,  but  these  were  matters  of  usage  and  fashion  rather 
than  of  law,  and  it  might  be,  and  often  was,  accompanied  also 
with  religious  rites,  which,  however,  were  private,  not  public  as  in 
confarreation.  It  is  common,  but  not  quite  accurate,  to  speak  of 
coemption  as  a  form  of  marriage.  It  was  strictly  the  acquisition 
of  manus  by  the  husband  over  his  wife,  and  probably  in  most  cases 
contemporaneous  with  the  marriage  ;  but  they  were  really  distinct, 
the  latter  being  completed  simply  by  interchanged  consent.  That 
this  was  so  latterly  at  least  is  evident  from  two  facts, — (1)  that, 
according  to  Gaius,  the  coemptio  might  follow  the  marriage  at  any 
distance  of  time ;  and  (2)  that,  according  to  the  same  authority, 
though  the  marriage  was  dissolved  by  divorce,  the  manus  still 
remained  until  put  an  end  to  by  remancipation  (on  which  the 
divorced  wife  was  entitled  to  insist). 

It  has  also  been  explained  that  the  plebeians  were  in  a  very  Mortis 
much  worse  position  than  the  patricians  in  regard  to  their  power  of  causa 
disposing  of  their  estates  in  contemplation  of  death.     Their  eleva-  convey- 
tion  to  the  rank  of  citizens  did  not  apparently  give  them  admission  ance  per 
to  the  comitia  of  the  curies  ;  and,  as  it  was  many  years  after  the  aes  et 
assassination  of  Servius  before  the  comitia  of  the  centuries  was  con-  libram. 
vened,  they  had  still  no  means  of  making  testaments  unless  perhaps 
in  the  field  on  the  eve  of  battle.     So  here  again  the  expedient  of 
mancipation  was  taken  advantage  of,  not  indeed  to  make  a  testa- 
ment instituting  an  heir,  and  to  take  effect  only  on  the  death  of 
the  testator, — the  form  of  the  transaction,  as  an  instant  acquisition 
in  exchange  for  a  price  real  or  nominal,  could  not  lend  itself  to 
that  without  statutory  intervention — but  to  carry  the  transferrer's 
familia 1  to  a  friend,  technically  familiae  emptor,  on  trust  to  let 
the  former  have  the  use  of  it  while  he  survived,2  and  on  his  death 
to  distribute  according  to  his  instructions  whatever  the  transferee 
was  not  authorized  to  retain  for  himself.     Like  so  many  others  of 
the  transactions  of  the  early  law,  it  was  legally  unprotected  so  far 
as  the  third  parties  were  concerned  whom  the  transferrer  meant  to 
benefit ;  they  had  no  action  against  the  trustee  to  enforce  the  trust ; 
their  sole  guarantee  was  in  his  integrity  and  his  respect  for  Fides. 

Dionysius  credits  Servius  with  the  authorship  of  more  than  fifty 
enactments  relative  to  contracts  and  crimes,  which  he  says  were  sub- 
mitted to  and  approved  by  the  assembly  of  the  curies.  The  great 
majority  of  those  so-called  enactments  were  probably  nothing  more 
than  formularizations  of  customary  law,  for  the  use  of  the  private 
judges  in  civil  causes  whom  the  king  is  said  to  have  instituted. 
There  was  one  contract,  however,  notorious  in  after  years  under  the  Con- 
name  of  nexum,  that  manifestly  was  influenced,  either  directly  or  tract 
indirectly,  by  his  legislation.  In  its  normal  estate  it  was  a  loan  of  per  aes 
money,  or  rather  of  the  raw  copper  that  as  yet  was  all  that  stood  et  libram. 
for  it.  Whether  before  the  time  of  Servius  it  was  accompanied  by 
any  formalities  beyond  the  weighing  of  it  in  a  pair  of  scales  (which 
was  rather  substance  than  form)  we  know  not ;  and  what  right  it 
conferred  on  the  creditor  over  his  debtor  who  failed  to  repay  can 
only  be  matter  of  speculation.  But  there  are  indications  that,  in 
the  exercise  of  undefined  self-help,  defaulters  were  treated  with  con- 
siderable severity,  being  taken  in  satisfaction  and  put  in  chains  by 
their  creditors  ;  for  Servius  is  reported  to  have  promised  to  pay 
their  debts  himself  in  order  to  obtain  their  release,  and  to  pass 
a  law  limiting  execution  by  persons  lending  money  at  interest  to 
the  goods  of  their  debtors.  Whether  he  fulfilled  the  first  part  of 
his  promise  we  are  not  informed  ;  but  the  second  part  of  it  was 
impracticable,  since  a  debtor's  failure  to  repay  a  loan  was  in  most 
cases  attributable  to  his  insolvency  and  want  of  means  with  which 
to  satisfy  his  creditor.  So,  apparently,  Servius  had  to  be  content 
with  regulating  and  ensuring  the  publicity  of  the  contract,  and 
making  a  creditor's  right  of  self-redress  by  apprehension  (manus 
injectio]  and  confinement  of  his  debtor  conditional  on  the  obser- 
vance of  the  prescribed  formalities  of  the  nexum.  These  were  the 
weighing  of  the  copper  that  was  being  advanced  in  a  pair  of  scales 
held  by  an  official  libripens ;  the  reweighing  of  a  single  piece  in 
the  presence  of  five  citizen  witnesses,  and  its  delivery  by  the  lender 
as  representing  the  whole  ;  and  the  simultaneous  recital  of  certain 
words  of  style,  which  had  the  effect  of  imposing  on  the  borrower 
an  obligation  to  repay  the  loan,  usually  with  interest,  by  a  certain 
day.  The  consequence  of  this,  the  earliest  independent  contract 
of  the  jus  civile,  is  explained  in  p.  693. 

Servian  Amendments  on  the  Course  of  Justice. — Of  the  course  of 
justice  in  the  regal  period,  whether  in  criminal  or  civil  matters, 


1  The  familia  was  the  collective  name  for  a  man's  heredium  and 
other  lands,  with  their  slaves  and  other  mancipable  appurtenances 
— an  aggregate  of  res  mancipi,  and  therefore  itself  capable  of  mancipa- 
tion.    The  conveyance  was  universal,  i.e.,  the  items  of  the  aggregate, 
even  though  movable,  did  not  require  to  be  conveyed  separately  or  to 
be  handled  in  conveying  ;  and  apparently  ihepecunia  was  carried  along 
with  the  familia  as  an  accessory,  at  least  if  expressly  mentioned. 

2  Sir  Henry  Maine  (Ancient  Law,  p.  206)  is  of  opinion  that,  as  a 
mancipation  could  not  be  subject  to  a  limitation  either  of  condition  or 
time,  there  must  have  been  not  only  instant  but  total  divestiture  of 
the  transferrer.     But  that  this  was  not  necessarily  the  result  is  shown 
infra,  p.  691. 


678 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  CIVILE. 


Early  before  the  time  of  Servius  we  know  little  that  can  be  relied  on. 
course  Antiquity  used  to  speak  of  the  king  as  having  been  generally 
of  justice,  supreme  in  both.  But  this  can  be  accepted  only  with  considerable 
reservation.  For  the  paterfamilias,  aided  by  a  council  in  cases  of 
importance,  was  judge  within  the  family, — his  jurisdiction  some- 
times excluding  that  of  the  state,  at  other  times  concurring  with 
it,  and  not  to  be  stayed  even  by  an  acquittal  pronounced  by  it. 
He  alone  was  competent  in  any  charge  against  a  member  of  the 
family  for  a  crime  or  offence  against  the  domestic  order, — adultery 
or  unchastity  of  wife  or  daughter,  immorality  of  his  sons,  unduti- 
ful  behaviour  of  children  or  clients  ;  while  there  are  instances  on 
record  of  his  interference  judicially  where  an  offence  such  as  murder 
or  theft  had  been  committed  by  a  member  of  his  family  against  a 
stranger,  and  even  when  his  crime  had  been  treason  against  the 
state.  Death,  slavery,  banishment,  expulsion  from  the  family, 
imprisonment,  chains,  stripes,  withdrawal  ofpeculium,  were  all  at 
his  command  as  punishments  ;  and  it  may  readily  be  assumed 
that  in  imposing  them  he  was  freer  to  take  account  of  moral  guilt 
than  an  outside  tribunal.  The  indications  of  criminal  jurisdiction 
on  the  part  of  the  gens  are  slight ;  but  its  organization  was  such 
that  it  is  impossible  not  to  believe  that  it  must  occasionally  have 
been  called  on  to  exercise  such  functions.  And  it  must  not  be  lost 
sight  of  that,  as  murder  seems  to  have  been  the  only  crime  in 
regard  to  which  private  revenge  was  absolutely  excluded,  the 
judicial  office  of  the  kings  must  have  been  considerably  lightened, 
public  opinion  approving  and  not  condemning  self-redress  so  long 
as  it  was  kept  within  the  limits  set  by  usage  and  custom. 

The  boundary  between  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  if  it  ex- 
isted at  all,  was  extremely  shadowy.  Theft  and  robbery,  for  ex- 
ample, if  one  may  conclude  from  the  position  they  held  in  the  later 
jurisprudence,  were  regarded  not  as  public  but  as  private  wrongs  ; 
and  yet  when  a  thief  was  caught  plying  his  trade  by  night  he 
might  be  slain,  and  when  taken  in  the  act  by  day  might  be  sold  as 
a  slave.  But  in  both  cases  it  may  also  be  assumed  that  a  practice, 
afterwards  formally  sanctioned  by  the  XII.  Tables — that  of  the 
thief  compounding  for  his  life  or  freedom — was  early  admitted,  and 
the  right  of  self-redress  thus  made  much  more  beneficial  to  the 
party  wronged  than  when  nothing  was  attained  but  vengeance  on 
the  wrongdoer.  In  assaults,  non-manifest  thefts,  and  other  minor 
wrongs,  self-interest  would  in  like  manner  soon  lead  to  the  general 
adoption  of  the  practice  of  compounding  ;  what  was  originally  a 
matter  of  option  in  time  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  right ;  and  with 
it  there  would  be  occasional  difficulty  in  settling  the  amount  of  the 
composition,  and  consequent  necessity  of  an  appeal  to  a  third  party. 
The  king  Here  seems  to  be  the  origin  of  the  king's  jurisdiction  in  matters  of 
as  judge,  this  sort.  He  was  the  natural  person  to  whom  to  refer  such  a 
dispute  ;  for  he  alone,  as  supreme  magistrate,  had  the  power  to  use 
coercion  to  prevent  the  party  wronged  insisting  on  his  right  of  self- 
redress,  in  face  of  a  tender  by  the  wrongdoer  of  what  had  been  de- 
clared to  be  sufficient  reparation.  But  that  self-redress  was  not 
stayed  if  the  reparation  found  due  was  withheld  ;  as  the  party 
wronged  was  still  entitled  at  a  much  later  period  to  wreak  his  venge- 
ance upon  the  wrongdoer  by  apprehending  and  imprisoning  him, 
it  cannot  reasonably  be  doubted  that  such  also  was  the  practice  of 
the  regal  period. 

How  the  kings  acquired  jurisdiction  in  questions  of  quiritarian 
right,  such  as  disputes  about  property  or  inheritance,  is  by  no 
means  so  obvious.  Within  the  family,  of  course,  such  questions 
were  impossible,  though  between  clansmen  they  may  have  been 
settled  by  the  gens  or  its  chief.  The  words  of  style  used  in  the 
sacramental  real  action  (infra,  p.  682)  suggest  that  there  must  have 
been  a  time  when  the  spear  was  the  arbiter,  and  when  the  con- 
tending parties,  backed  possibly  by  their  clansmen  or  friends,  were 
actual  combatants,  and  victory  decided  the  right.  Such  a  pro- 
cedure could  not  long  survive  the  institution  of  a  state.  In  Rome 
there  seems  to  have  been  very  early  substituted  for  it  what  from 
its  general  complexion  one  would  infer  was  a  submission  of  the 
question  of  right  to  the  pontiffs  as  the  repositories  of  legal  lore. 
Their  proper  functions,  however,  were  sacred.  So,  to  bring  what 
was  a  question  of  purely  civil  right  within  their  jurisdiction,  they 
engrafted  on  it  a  sacral  element,  by  requiring  each  of  the  parties  to 
make  oath  to  the  verity  of  his  contention  ;  and  the  point  that  in 
form  they  decided  was  which  of  the  two  oaths  was  false  and  there- 
fore to  be  made  atonement  for.  In  substance,  however,  it  was 
a  finding  on  the  real  question  at  issue  ;  and  the  party  in  whose 
favour  it  was  pronounced  was  free  to  make  it  effectual  if  necessary 
by  self-redress  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Servian  Of  Servius,  Dionysius  says— using,  as  he  often  does,  language 
reforms,  more  appropriate  to  the  republican  than  to  the  regal  period — that 
he  drew  a  line  of  separation  between  public  and  private  judicial 
processes,  and  that,  while  he  retained  the  former  in  his  own  hands, 
he  referred  the  latter  to  private  judges,  and  regulated  the  procedure 
to  be  followed  in  causes  brought  before  them.  Something  of  the 
sort  was  absolutely  necessary.  He  was  enormously  increasing  the 
number  of  the  citizens, — that  is  to  say,  of  those  who  were  to  enjoy 
in  future  the  privileges  of  quiritarian  right, — and  multiplying  the 
sources  of  future  disputes  that  would  have  to  be  determined  by  the 


tribunals.  The  nature  of  the  provision  made  by  him  to  meet  the 
new  aspect  of  things  is  much  controverted  ;  but  we  are  disposed  to 
credit  him  alike  with  the  establishment  of  the  collegiate  court  of 
the  centumvirs  and  the  institution  of  the  single  judge  (unusjudex). 

The  centumviral  court  and  centumviral  causes  are  often  referred  Centi 
to  by  Cicero,  and  the  .inge  of  their  jurisdiction  seems  to  have  viral 
included  every  possible  question  of  manus  in  the  old  sense  ofco 
the  word, — status  of  individuals,  property  and  its  easements  and 
burdens,  inheritance  whether  testate  or  intestate, — in  other  words, 
all  questions  of  quiritarian  right.  By  the  time  of  Gaius  the  only 
matters  apparently  that  were  brought  before  it  were  questions  of 
right  to  an  inheritance  of  thefts  civile  ;  but  the  spear,  the  emblem 
of  quiritarian  right  generally,  was  still  its  ensign. 

That  Servius  should  substitute  for  king  and  pontiffs  a  numerous 
court  of  citizens,  originally,  as  there  is  reason  to  assume,  all  patri- 
cians, to  try  questions  of  quiritarian  right  on  remit  from  himself, 
was  quite  in  accordance  with  the  general  spirit  of  his  reforms.  It 
was  not  mere  matters  of  personal  dispute  they  had  to  decide,  but 
they  had  to  build  up  by  their  judgments  a  law  which  was  to  be  of 
general  and  permanent  application  ;  and,  as  it  was  beyond  the 
power  of  the  king  to  overtake  the  task,  what  could  be  a  more  ap- 
propriate substitute  than  a  court  of  his  counsellors  acting  under 
pontifical  guidance  ? 

But  there  were  many  cases  requiring  judicial  assistance  in  which  Unu.1 
no  question  of  quiritarian  right  had  to  be  determined,  but  only  jude: 
one  of  personal  claim — of  alleged  indebtedness,  whether  arising 
out  of  a  legal  or  illegal  act,  denied  either  in  toto  or  only  as  to  its 
amount.  Matters  of  that  sort  were  supposed  to  involve  no  general 
principle  of  law,  but  to  be  rather  mere  disputes  or  differences 
about  facts,  which  could  well  be  decided  by  a  single  judge.  To 
meet  their  case  the  unus  judex  was  introduced  ;  he  was  appointed 
for  each  case  as  it  arose,  and  acted  really  as  the  king's  commissioner. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  a  system  that  bore  wondrous  fruit  in 
after  years,  and  that,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  sequel,  eventually 
displaced  altogether  the  more  imposing  court  of  the  centumvirs. 

CHAPTER  II. -THE  JUS  CIVILE. 

(From  the  Establishment  of  the  Republic  until  the  Subjuga- 
tion of  Central  and  Southern  Italy.) 

I.  FORMATIVE  AGENCIES  OF  THE  LAW. 

The  Legislative  Bodies  of  the  Period. — The  limits  and  Pie- 
scope  of  this  article  do  not  permit  of  any  detailed  account  beia 
of  the  consequences  of  the  change  from  kings  to  consuls, '! 
or  of  the  tribulations  of  the  plebeians  during  the  first  two  jty- 
centuries  of  the  republic.  Stage  by  stage  they  fought 
and  conquered  in  the  uphill  battle  for  social  and  political 
equality.  In  260  TJ.C.  they  got  their  own  special  protectors 
in  their  tribunes,  with  the  sediles  as  their  assistants,  and 
judices  decemviri  to  act  under  their  instructions  as  arbiters 
in  disputes  amongst  themselves.  In  283  they  obtained 
state  sanction  for  their  concilium,  and  recognition  of  its 
power  to  regulate  purely  plebeian  interests.  The  XII. 
Tables  of  303  were  the  fruit  of  their  agitation  for  a  revision 
and  written  embodiment  of  the  law.  It  was  in  deference 
to  their  complaints  of  their  practical  disfranchisement 
through  the  unduly  preponderating  influence  of  the  patri- 
cians in  the  comitia  of  the  centuries  that  in  305  the 
comitia  of  the  tribes  was  instituted.  Their  repeated  pro- 
tests against  the  monopolization  of  the  public  domain  land 
by  members  of  the  higher  order  resulted  at  last  in  the 
definite  recognition  of  their  right  to  participate  in  its 
occupation  by  one  of  the  Licinian  laws  of  387.  The  long 
course  of  cruel  oppression  of  plebeian  insolvents  by  their 
patrician  creditors  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  Poetilian  law 
of  428  abolishing  nexal  contract,  and  prohibiting  the  use 
of  chains  and  fetters  on  persons  incarcerated  for  purely 
civil  debt.  By  the  Hortensian  law  of  467  the  resolutions 
of  the  plebeian  council  (plebiscita)  were  declared  binding 
not  only  on  the  plebeians  themselves  but  on  the  whole 
body  of  the  citizens.  And  from  333,  when  a  plebeian  first 
reached  the  magistracy  through  the  quaestorship,  down  to 
502,  when  they  attained  to  the  supreme  pontificate,  they 
gradually  vindicated  their  right  as  citizens  to  share  in  all 
the  honours  and  dignities  of  the  state. 

The  legislative  bodies  were  thus  three  in  number, — the 
comitia  of  the  centuries,  the  concilium  plebis,  and  the 


JUS  CIVILE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


679 


iitia  comitia  of  the  tribes.  The  first,  if  not  organized  by 
l>e  Servius  Tullius,  at  all  events  grew  out  of  his  distribution 
,uries.  Q£  ^e  p0puiace  fnto  classes  and  centuries  according  to  the 
value  of  their  freeholds  as  appearing  on  the  census-list, 
i  As  just  the  national  army  assembled  for  a  peaceful  purpose 
(exercitus  civilis),  it  could  be  convened  and  presided  over 
originally  only  by  a  magistrate  possessing  the  military 
imperium,  i.e.,  a  consul;  but,  after  the  creation  of  the 
censorship  in  311  and  the  praetorship  in  387,  the  holders 
of  those  offices  were  entitled  to  convoke  it, — the  former 
for  its  assent  to  arrangements  for  the  census,  and  the 
latter  for  state  trials.  It  was  the  centuries  that  passed 
the  XII.  Tables ;  but  for  the  most  part  their  legislation 
was  upon  questions  affecting  public  and  constitutional 
rather  than  private  interests.  The  procedure  in  the 
centuriate  comitia  was  somewhat  cumbrous.  There  was 
publication  of  the  proposed  law  (promulgatio  rogationis) 
a  fortnight  before  the  day  appointed,  sometimes  one  or 
more  meetings  (condones)  being  held  in  the  interval  for 
its  consideration  and  discussion.  When  the  day  arrived, 
the  auspicia  were  taken  by  the  presiding  magistrate, 
assisted  by  an  augur ;  if  favourable,  the  citizens  were 
summoned  anew  by  blast  of  trumpet,  and  on  their 
assembling,  which  originally  they  did  under  arms,  prayer 
and  sacrifice  were  offered  by  president,  pontiffs,  and 
augurs.  A  final  concio  might  then  be  held  if  thought 
necessary ;  and,  after  it  was  over,  on  the  order  to  "  proceed 
to  the  comitia,"  the  citizens  marched  to  the  Campus 
Martius  (the  formal  assembly  being  incompetent  within 
the  city).  There  the  rogatio  was  read  and,  if  no  sign 
from  heaven  indicated  the  dissent  of  the  gods  and  warned 
the  assembly  to  disperse,  was  at  once  put  to  the  vote— 
"Is  it  your  pleasure,  Quirites,  to  hold  this  as  law1?"  The 
vote  was  taken  by  centuries,  those  of  the  knights  and  the 
freeholders  of  full  valuation  voting  first;  if  they  were 
unanimous  it  went  no  further,  for  these  formed  more  than 
a  majority  of  the  whole  comitia.  The  resolution,  if 
adopted,  was  populi  jussum,  but  not  yet  law.  It  had 
still  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  the  "fathers," — whether  the 
senate  or  only  its  patrician  members  is  disputed ;  it  was 
in  their  power  to  refuse  to  authorize  it  (auctores  fieri), 
usually  putting  their  dissent  on  the  ground  that  the  gods 
willed  it  not ;  but  if  they  ratified  it,  then  it  became  a  lex, 
ordinarily  getting  the  name  of  the  magistrate  by  whom  it 
had  been  proposed.  The  power  of  veto,  however,  was 
considerably  qualified  by  a  Publilian  law  of  the  year  415, 
which  enacted  that  in  future  the  "  fathers  "  should  grant 
(or  refuse)  their  auctoritas  before  the  vote  was  taken. 

The  points  of  difference  between  the  enactments  of  the 
l™      concilium  plebis  and  the  later  comitia  tributa  are  indicated 
by  Mommsen  in  a  paper   in   his  Researches.1     (1)  The 
utia    comitia  was  an  assembly  of  the  whole  body  of  the  people, 
lie      voting   according    to    tribes    instead    of    centuries ;    the 
'es-      concilium  was  an  assembly  of  plebeians  only,  also  voting 
tributim.      (2)  The  comitia  was  convened   and  presided 
over  by  a  patrician  magistrate,  not  necessarily,  however, 
with  military  imperium,  and  therefore  very  frequently  by 
the  praetor ;  whereas  the  concilium  could  be  convened  and 
presided  over  only  by  a  plebeian  official,  either  a  tribune 
or  an  sedile.     (3)  In  the  comitia  the  auspicia  had  to  be 
taken  before  the  proceedings  commenced ;  in  the  concilium 
the  will  of  the  gods  was  not  demanded,  although  listened 
to  if  communicated  in  a  thunder-storm  or  the  like.     (4) 
The  resolution  of  the  comitia  required  to  be  confirmed  by 
the  "  fathers  " ;  while  that  of  the  concilium  did  not.     (5) 
An  enactment  of  the  comitia  was  a  lex,  and  bound  the 
whole  people ;  but  before  the  Hortensian  law  an  enact- 
ment by  the  concilium  plebis  was  in  the  ordinary  case  no 

1  "  Die  Sonderversammlungen  der  Plebs,"  in  his  Rom.  Forschungen, 
vol.  i.,  Berlin,  1864,  p.  177  sq. 


more  than  a  plebiscitum,  and  of  force  only  amongst  the 
plebeians  themselves.  But  there  was  an  exception  when, 
because  of  some  constitutional  change  proposed  by  it,  the 
senate  had  previously  sanctioned  the  legislation,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Terentilian  law,  which  paved  the  way  for  the 
XII.  Tables,  of  the  Canuleian  law  authorizing  the  inter- 
marriage of  patricians  and  plebeians,  of  the  Licinian  laws 
about  the  occupation  of  the  public  lands,  &c.  ;  in  such 
cases,  although  the  final  vote  was  that  of  the  concilium,  the 
enactment  was  binding  on  the  citizens  generally,  and  was 
spoken  of  as  a  lex  rather  than  as  a  plebiscitum.  The  latter 
name  seems  practically  to  have  been  dropped  after  the 
Hortensian  law  had  equalized  them  so  far  as  their  effects 
were  concerned.  The  greater  part  of  the  legislation  for 
amending  the  private  law  latterly  fell  to  the  concilium, 
owing  so  far,  perhaps,  to  the  greater  simplicity  of  its  pro- 
cedure, but  also  to  some  extent  to  the  fact  that  -the 
praetors  preferred  making  their  amendments  tentatively 
by  edicts  (which  were  revocable),  instead  of  embodying 
them  in  statutes,  which,  as  passed  under  divine  auspices 
and  representing  the  divine  will,  could  not  easily  be 
repealed. 

The  XII.  Tables.  —  We  have  already  shown  the  efforts  Uncer- 
made  by  Servius  Tullius  to  secure  that  the  dispensation  of  tainty  of 
justice  should  neither  be  neglected  nor  left  to  caprice  or  hap-  law- 
hazard,  one  rule  to-day  and  another  to-morrow.  With  the 
consulate  and  the  disregard  of  the  "  royal  laws  "  and  of 
Servius's  instructions  to  the  judges  all  this  was  changed. 
The  consuls,  with  their  harassing  military  engagements, 
could  have  little  time  to  devote  to  their  judicial  functions 
or  properly  to  instruct  those  to  whom  they  delegated  the 
duty  of  investigating  and  adjudicating  on  the  merits  of  a 
complaint  ;  and  the  yearly  change  of  magistrates  must 
itself  have  been  a  serious  obstacle  to  uniformity  either  of 
rule  or  practice  so  long  as  the  law  rested  on  nothing  but 
unwritten  custom.  One  can  well  believe  too,  when  feeling 
was  so  embittered  between  the  orders,  that  it  was  no  rare 
thing  for  a  consul  to  use  his  magisterial  punitive  powers 
(coercitio)  with  undue  severity  when  a  plebeian  was  the 
object  of  them,  or  to  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  an  appeal  for 
justice  addressed  to  him  from  such  a  quarter.  The  state 
of  matters  had  become  so  intolerable  that  in  the  year 
292  the  demand  was  made  by  C.  Terentilius  Arsa,  one 
of  the  tribunes,  that  a  commission  should  be  appointed  to 
define  in  writing  the  jurisdiction  of  the  magistrates,  so 
that  a  check  might  be  put  on  their  arbitrary,  high- 
handed, and  oppressive  administration  of  what  they  were 
pleased  to  call  the  law.  His  colleagues  induced  him  for 
the  moment  not  to  press  his  demand,  which  he  was  urging 
with  a  violence  of  invective  that  was  unlikely  to  promote 
his  object.  But  next  year  they  made  common  cause  with 
him,  requiring  that  the  whole  law,  public  and  private, 
should  be  codified,  and  its  uncertainty  thus  as  far  as 
possible  be  removed.  After  a  few  years'  resistance  the 
senate  was  induced  to  give  its  assent  to  a  demand  that  in 
itself  was  too  reasonable  to  be  longer  withstood. 

The  first  practical  step  towards  its  realization  was  the  Compila- 
despatch  of  a  mission  to  Greece  and  the  Greek  settlements  tion  of 
in  southern  Italy,  to  study  their  statute  law  and  collect  J 
any  materials  that  might  be  of  service  in  preparing  the 
projected  code.      On  the  return  of  the  ambassadors  in 
302  all  the  magistracies  were  suspended,  and  a  commission 
of  ten  patricians  (decemviri  legibus  scribundis)  was  appointed 
with  consular  powers,   under  the  presidency  of  Appius 
Claudius,  for  the  express  purpose  of  reducing  the  laws  to 
writing.     Before  the  end  of  the  ensuing  year  (303)  the 
bulk  of  the  code  was  ready,  and  was  at  once  passed  into 
law  by  the  comitia  of  the  centuries,  and  engraved  or  per- 
haps painted  on  ten  tables  of  wood,  which  were  exposed 
in  the  Forum.     Next  year  the  decemvirate  was  renewed 


XI1' 


680 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  CIVILE. 


with  a  slight  change  of  personnel,  but  under  the  same 
presidency  as  before ;  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  months 
it  had  completed   the   supplemental  matter,   which  wa; 
passed  in  due  form,  and  displayed  on  two  other  tables,  thus 
bringing  the  number  up  to  twelve  and  giving  the  code 
its  official  name  of  Lex  XII.  Tabularum. 
Sources.       There  were  provisions  in  them  that  were  almost  literal  renderings 
from  the  legislation  of  Solon  ;  and  others  bore  a  remarkable  corre- 
spondence to  laws  in  observance  in  Greece,  but  there  is  no  authority 
for  saying  they  were  directly  borrowed.     By  far  the  greater  pro- 
portion of  them,  however,  were  native  and  original, — not  that  they 
amounted   to  a  general  formularization  of  the  hitherto  floating 
customary  law,  for,  notwithstanding  Livy's  eulogium  of  them  as 
the  "fountain  of  the  whole  law,  both  private  and  public,"  it  seems 
clear  that  many  branches  of  it  were  dealt  with  in  the  Tables  only 
incidentally,  or  with  reference  to  some  point  of  detail.     The  insti- 
tutions of  the  family,  the  fundamental  rules  of  succession,  the 
solemnities  of  such  formal  acts  as  mancipation,  nexum,  and  testa- 
ments, the  main  features  of  the  order  of  judicial  procedure,  and  so 
forth, — of  all  of  these  a  general  knowledge  was  presumed,  and  the 
decemvirs  thought  it  unnecessary  to  define  them.     What  they  had 
to  do  was  to  make  the  law  equal  for  all,  to  remove  every  chance  of 
arbitrary  dealing  by  distinct  specification  of  penalties  and  precise 
declaration  of  the  circumstances  under  which  rights  should  be  held 
to  have  arisen  or  been  lost,  and  to  make  such  amendments  as  were 
necessary  to  meet  the  complaints  of  the  plebeians  and  prevent 
their  oppression  in  the  name  of  justice.     Nothing  of  the  customary 
law,  therefore,  or  next  to  nothing,  was  introduced  into  the  Tables 
that  was  already  universally  recognized,  and  not  complained  of  as 
either  unequal,  indefinite,  defective,  or  oppressive.     Only  one  or 
two  of  the  laws  ascribed  to  the  kings  reappeared  in  them,  and  that 
in  altered  phraseology ;  yet  the  omission  of  the  rest  did  not  mean 
their  repeal  or  imply  denial  of  their  validity,  for  some  of  them 
were  still  in  force  in  the  empire,  and  are  founded  on  by  Justinian 
in  his  Digest.    Neither  were  any  of  the  laws  of  the  republic  anterior 
to  the  Tables  embodied  in  them,  although  for  long  afterwards  many 
a  man  had  to  submit  to  prosecution  under  them  and  to  suffer  the 
l»enalties  they  imposed.      In  saying,  therefore,  that  for  the  most 
part  the  provisions  of  the  decem  viral  code  were  of  native  origin, 
all  that  is  meant  is  that  they  were  the  work  of  the  decemvirs  them- 
selves, operating  upon  the  hitherto  unwritten  law  in  the  directions 
already  indicated. 

Remains.  The  original  Tables  are  said  to  have  been  destroyed  when  Rome 
was  sacked  and  burned  by  the  Gauls.  But  they  were  at  once  re- 
produced, and  transcripts  of  them  must  have  been  abundant  if,  as 
Cicero  says  was  still  the  case  in  his  youth,  the  children  were  required 
to  commit  them  to  memory  as  an  ordinary  school  task.  This  ren- 
ders all  the  more  extraordinary  the  fact  that  the  remains  of  them 
are  so  fragmentary  and  their  genuineness  in  many  cases  so  debatable. 
They  were  embodied  in  the  Tripertita  of  Sextus  ^Elius  Pjetus  in 
the  year  557  ;  they  must  have  formed  the  basis  of  all  the  writings 
on  the  ./MS  civile  down  to  the  time  of  Servius  Sulpicius  Rufus  (who 
first  took  the  praetor's  edicts  as  a  text) ;  and  they  were  the  subjects 
of  monographs  by  a  number  of  authors  of  distinction,  amongst  them 
by  11.  Antistius  Labeo  in  the  early  years  of  the  empire  and  by  Gaius 
probably  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  Yet  a  couple  of  score  or  so  are 
all  that  can  be  collected  of  their  provisions  in  what  profess  to  be 
the  ipsissima  verba  of  the  Tables, — though  in  a  form  in  most  cases 
more  modern  than  what  we  encounter  in  other  remains  of  archaic 
Latin.  These  are  contained  principally  in  the  writings  of  Cicero, 
the  Noctes  Atticae  of  Aulus  Gellius,  and  the  treatise  De  verborum 
significatione  of  Festus,  the  last  two  dealing  with  them  rather  as 
matters  of  antiquarian  curiosity  than  as  rules  of  positive  law. 
There  are  many  allusions  to  particular  provisions  in  the  pages  of 
Cicero,  Varro,  Gellius,  and  the  elder  Pliny,  as  well  as  in  those  of 
Gaius,  Paul,  Ulpian,  and  other  ante-Justinianian  jurists  ;  but  these 
are  not  implicitly  to  be  relied  on,  as  we  have  evidence  that  they 
frequently  represent  the  (sometimes  divergent)  glosses  of  the  inter- 
preters rather  than  the  actual  provisions  of  the  statute.  Recon- 
struction has  therefore  been  a  work  of  difficulty,  and  the  results 
far  from  satisfactory,  that  of  the  latest  editor,  Voigt,  departing 
very  considerably  from  the  versions  generally  current  during  the 
last  half  century.1 


1  Dirkseu's  Uebersicht  der  biskerigen  Versuche  zur  Kritik  u.  Her- 
steUung  d.  ZwSlf-Tafel-Fragmtnte,  Leipsic,  1824,  supplies  the  basis 
of  all  the  later  work  on  the  Tables  anterior  to  that  of  Voigt.  Schoell, 
in  his  Legis  XII.  Tab.  reliquiae,  Berlin,  1866,  made  a  valuable  con- 
;ribution  to  the  literature  of  the  subject  from  a  philological  point  of 
view.  His  version  has  been  adopted  substantially  by  Bruns  in  his 
Fontes  juris  romani  antiqui,  and  by  Wordsworth  in  his  Fragments  and 
Specimens  of  Early  Latin,  Oxford,  1874,  p.  253  sq.  The  latter,  in 
a  subsequent  part  of  his  volume  (pp.  502-538),  has  added  notes, 
historical,  philological,  and  exegetical,  which  constitute  a  valuable 
commentary 'on  the  Tables  as  a  whole.  Voigt's  two  volumes,  under 
the  title  of  Oeschichte  und  System  des  Civil-  und  Criminal- Rechtes,  wie 


In  form  the  laws  contained  in  the  Tables  were  of  remarkable  Gener 
brevity,  terseness,  and  pregnancy,  with  something  of  a  rhythmical  chara< 
cadence  that  must  have  greatly  facilitated  their  retention  in  the  teristi 
memory.  Here  and  there  the  rules  they  embodied  were  potestative  ; 
but  for  the  most  part  they  were  peremptory,  running  on  broad  lines, 
surmounting  instead  of  removing  diih'culties.  Their  application 
might  cause  hardship  in  individual  instances,  as  when  a  man  was 
held  to  the  letter  of  what  he  had  declared  in  a  ncxum  or  mancipa- 
tion, even  though  he  had  done  so  under  error  or  influenced  by 
fraudulent  misrepresentations ;  the  decemvirs  admitted  no  excep- 
tions, preferring  a  hard-and-fast  rule  to  any  qualifications  that 
might  cause  uncertainty.  The  system  as  a  whole  is  one  of  jus  as 
distinguished  from  fas.  In  the  royal  laws  execration  (sacratio 
capitis,  sacer  esto)  was  not  an  uncommon  sanction;  but  in  the 
Tables  it  occurs  only  once  pure  and  simple,  and  that  with  reference 
to  an  offence  that  could  be  committed  only  by  a  patrician, — material 
loss  caused  by  a  patron  to  his  client  (patronus,  si  clienti  fraudem 
faxsit,  sacer  esto).  In  all  other  cases  the  idea  that  a  crime  was  an 
offence  against  public  order,  for  which  the  community  was  entitled 
in  self- protection  to  inflict  punishment  on  the  criminal,  is  as  pro- 
minent as  the  older  one  that  it  was  a  sin  against  the  gods,  to  be 
expiated  by  dedication  of  the  sinner  to  the  divinity  more  especially 
outraged  by  his  offence.  Hanging  and  beheading,  flogging  to 
death,  burning  at  the  stake,  throwing  from  the  Tarpeian  rock, — 
such  are  the  secular  penalties  that  are  met  with  in  the  Tables  ;  but 
often,  though  not  invariably,  the  hanging  and  so  forth  is  at  the 
same  time  declared  a  tribute  to  some  deity  to  whom  the  goods  of 
the  criminal  are  forfeited  (consecratio  bonorum). 

It  is  not  unworthy  of  notice  that  traces  remained  in  the  Tables 
of  the  old  system  of  self-help.  The  manus  injectio  of  the  third 
Table— the  execution  done  by  a  creditor  against  his  debtor — was 
essentially  the  same  procedure  as  under  the  kings,  but  with  the 
addition  of  some  regulations  intended  to  prevent  its  abuse.  Against 
a  thief  taken  in  the  act  something  of  the  same  sort  seems  still  to 
have  been  sanctioned  ;  while  it  was  still  lawful  to  kill  him  on  the 
spot  if  the  theft  was  nocturnal,  or  even  when  it  was  committed 
during  the  day  ifhe  used  arms  in  resisting  his  apprehension.  Accord- 
ing to  Cicero  there  was  a  provision  in  these  words — "si  telum  inanu 
fugit  magis  qnam  jecit,  arietem  subicito";  this  is  just  a  re-enact- 
ment in  illustrative  language  of  the  law  attributed  to  Numa,  that 
for  homicide  by  misadventure — "  if  the  weapon  have  sped  from  the 
hand  rather  than  been  aimed" — a  ram  was  to  be  tendered  as  a 
peace-offering  to  the  kinsmen  of  him  who  had  been  slain.  The 
original  purpose  must  have  been  to  stay  the  blood  revenge,  and  it 
may  even  have  been  so  with  Numa  ;  but  in  the  Tables  it  can  only 
have  been  intended  to  stay  the  prosecution  which  it  was  incumbent 
on  the  kinsmen  of  a  murdered  man  to  institute.  So  with  talionic 
penalties:  "si  membrum  rupit, ni  cum  eo  pacit,  talio  esto" — such, 
according  to  Gellius,  were  the  words  of  one  of  the  laws  of  the  Tables, 
and  they  undoubtedly  contain  a  reminiscence  of  a  time  when  talion 
was  recognized,  "an  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a  tooth  ";  but  in  the 
mouths  of  the  decemvirs  they  were  nothing  more  than  a  clumsy 
mode  of  enabling  an  injured  man  to  exact  the  greatest  money 
recompense  he  could,  and  to  have  it  measured  according  to  the 
position  and  fortune  of  the  individual  who  had  done  him  injury. 

The  structure  of  the  provisions  of  the  Tables  was  not  such  as  to  Intel 
enable  the  plain  citizen  to  apply  them  to  concrete  cases,  or  know  preb 
how  to  claim  the  benefit  of  them  in  the  tribunals,  without  some  of  th 
sort  of  professional  advice.  Ppmponius  states  that  no  sooner  was  Tabl 
the  decem  viral  legislation  published  than  the  necessity  was  felt  for 
its  interpretation,  and  for  the  preparation  by  skilled  hands  of  styles 
of  actions  by  which  its  provisions  might  be  made  effectual.  Both 
of  these  duties  fell  to  the  pontiffs  as  the  only  persons  who,  in  the 
state  of  civilization  of  the  period,  were  well  qualified  to  give  the 
assistance  required  ;  and  Pomponius  adds  that  the  college  annually 
appointed  one  of  its  members  to  be  the  adviser  of  private  parties 
and  of  tlie  judices  in  those  matters.  The  interpretatio,  commenced 
by  the  pontiffs  and  continued  by  the  jurists  during  the  republic, 
which,  Pomponius  says,  was  regarded  as  part  of  the  jus  civile, 
was  not  confined  to  explanation  of  the  words  of  the  statute,  but 
was  in  some  cases  their  expansion,  in  others  their  limitation,  and 
in  many  the  deduction  of  new  doctrines  from  the  actual  jus  scrip- 
turn,  and  their  development  and  exposition.  An  event  that  did 
much  to  diminish  the  influence  of  the  pontiff's  in  connexion  with 
it  was  the  divulgement  in  the  year  450  by  Cn.  Flavins,  secretary 
)f  Appius  Claudius  Csecus,  and  probably  at  his  instigation,  of  a 
brmulary  of  actions  and  a  calendar  of  lawful  and  unlawful  days, 
which  got  the  name  of  Jus  Flavianum.  The  practice  adopted  in 
the  beginning  of  the  6th  century  by  Tiberius  Coruncanius,  the 


Processes,  der  XII.  Tafeln,  nebst  deren  Fragmenten,  Leipsic,  1883, 
iontain  an  exposition  of  the  whole  of  the  earlier  jus  civile,  whether 
imbodied  in  the  Tables  or  not.  The  history  of  them  occupies  the 
first  hundred  pages  or  thereby  of  the  first  volume  ;  his  reconstruction 
)f  fragments  and  allusions — a  good  deal  fuller  than  any  earlier  one, 
,nd  supported  by  an  imposing  array  of  authorities— is  in  the  same 
olume,  pp.  693-737. 


JUS  CIVILE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


681 


first  plebeian  chief  pontiff,  of  giving  advice  in  law  in  public  had  a 
still  greater  effect  in  popularizing  it ;  and  the  Jus  Aelianum,  some 
fifty  years  later — a  collection  that  included  the  Tables,  the  inter- 
jjretatio,  and  the  current  styles  of  actions — made  it  as  much  the 
heritage  of  the  laity  as  of  the  pontifical  college. 

bse-  Subsequent  Legislation. — Of  legislation  during  the  fourth 
ent  and  fifth  centuries  that  affected  the  private  law  we  have 
^  but  scanty  record.  The  best-known  enactments  are  the 
Canuleian  law  of  309  repealing  the  decemviral  prohibition 
of  marriages  between  patricians  and  plebeians ;  the  Genu- 
cian,  Marcian,  and  other  laws  about  usury  and  the  rate  of 
interest ;  the  Poetilian  law  of  428,  abolishing  the  nexal 
contract ;  the  Silian  law,  probably  not  long  afterwards, 
which  introduced  a  new  form  of  process  for  actions  of 
debt  and  appears  to  have  given  statutory  sanction  to  the 
stipulation  (in  its  earliest  form  of  sponsio) ;  and  the  Aquilian 
law  of  467,  which  amended  the  decemviral  provisions  about 
actions  of  damages  for  culpable  injury  to  property,  and 
continued  to  regulate  the  law  on  the  subject  even  in  the 
books  of  Justinian. 

II.  THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  LAW. 

sgis  The  Legis  Actiones  generally^ — We  owe  to  Gaius  the 

;iones  on]y  connected  (though,  owing  to  the  state  of  the  Verona 
I  M.S.,  rather  fragmentary)  account  we  possess  of  the  legis 
actiones,  as  the  system  of  judicial  procedure  was  called 
which  prevailed  in  Rome  down  to  the  substitution  of  that 
per  formulas by  the  ^Ebutian  and  Julian  laws, — the  first 
early  in  the  sixth  century  of  the  city,  and  the  second  in 
the  age  of  Augustus.  He  tells  us  that  as  genera  agendi  or 
generic  forms  of  process  they  were  five  in  number,  each 
taking  its  name  from  its  characteristic  feature,  viz.,  (1) 
sacramento,  (2)  per  judicis  postulationem,  (3)  per  condic- 
tionem,  (4)  per  manus  injectionem,  and  (5)  per  pignoris 
capionem.  The  third  was  unknown  in  the  decemviral 
period,  and  was  introduced  by  the  Silian  law  alluded  to  in 
last  paragraph.  The  other  four  were  all  more  or  less  regu- 
lated by  the  XII.  Tables,  but  must  in  some  form  have 
been  anterior  to  them.  It  is  utterly  impossible,  however, 
to  say  of  any  one  of  them  at  what  time  it  was  introduced, 
or  what  was  the  statute  (lex)  by  which  it  was  sanctioned ; 
it  may  well  be  that  they  were  not  of  statutory  introduction 
at  all,  but  were  called  legis  actiones  simply  because  recog- 
nized and  indirectly  confirmed  by  the  Tables.  In  char- 
acter and  purpose  they  were  very  different.  The  first  three 
were  directly  employed  for  determining  a  question  of  right 
or  liability,  which,  if  persistently  disputed,  inevitably  re- 
sulted in  a  judicial  inquiry.  The  fourth  and  fifth  might 
possibly  result  in  judicial  intervention  ;  but  primarily  they 
were  proceedings  in  execution,  in  which  the  party  moving 
in  them  worked  out  his  own  remedy.  As  regards  their 
comparative  antiquity  there  is  much  to  be  said  for  the 
opinion  of  Ihering  and  Bekker  that  manus  injectio,  as  essen- 
tially nothing  more  than  regulated  self-help,  must  have  been 
the  earliest  of  the  five,  and  that  the  legis  actio  sacramento 
and  the  judicis  postulatio  must  have  been  introduced  in  aid 
of  it,  and  to  prevent  too  hasty  resort  to  it  where  there  was 
room  for  doubt  upon  question  either  of  fact  or  law. 

In  the  three  judicial  legis  actiones  the  first  step  was  the  in  jus 
vocatio  or  procedure  for  bringing  the  respondent  into  court,  minutely 

1  The  literature  on  the  subject  is  very  voluminous,  great  part  of  it 
in  periodicals.  Amongst  the  leading  works  are  those  of  Keller,  Der 
rom.  Civilprocess  u.  die  Actionen,  1st  ed.  1852,  6th  ed.  by  Wach, 
Leipsic,  1883,  §§  12-21  ;  Bethmann-Hollweg,  Der  rom.  Civilprocess 
in  seiner  geschichtl.  Entwickelung,  3  vols.,  Bonn,  1864-66,  the  first 
volume  of  which  is  devoted  to  the  legis  actiones  ;  Buonamici,  Delle 
Legis  Actiones  nelV  antico  diritto  romano,  Pisa,  1868  ;  Bekker,  Die 
Aktionen  d.  rom.  Privatrechts,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1871-73,  particularly 
vol.  i.  pp.  18-74  ;  Karlowa,  Der  rom.  Cimlprozess  zur  Zeit  d.  Legis- 
actionen,  Berlin,  1872  ;  Padeletti,  "  Le  Legis  Actiones,"  in  the  Archivio 
Giuridico,  vol.  xvii.  (1875),  p.  321  sq.  Schnltze,  Privatrecht  u.  Process 
in  ihrer  Wechselbeziehung,  vol.  i.,  Freiburg,  1883  (vol.  ii.  not  yet  pub- 
lished), in  pp.  439-532  presents  some  novel  and  not  unimportant  views. 


regulated  by  the  provisions  of  the  first  of  the  XII.  Tables.  This 
duty  was  not  committed  to  any  officers  of  the  law ;  there  was  no 
^v•rit  of  summons  of  any  sort ;  the  party  moving  in  the  contemplated 
litigation  had  himself  to  do  what  was  needed.  Once  before  the 
magistrate  (consul  or  praetor),  the  plaintiff  stated  his  contention. 
If  admitted  unqualifiedly  by  the  defendant,  the  magistrate  at  once 
pronounced  his  decree,  leaving  the  plaintiff  to  work  out  his  remedy 
as  the  law  prescribed.  But,  if  the  case  presented  was  met  either 
with  a  denial  or  a  qualified  defence,  and  appeared  to  the  magistrate 
to  be  one  proper  for  trial,  he  remitted  it  for  that  purpose  either  to 
the  centumviral  tribunal  or  to  one  or  more  private  citizens  as  judges 
or  arbiters.  The  act  of  remit  was  technically  litis  contestatio  or 
ordinatio  judicii,  the  first  so  named  because  originally  the  parties 
called  upon  those  present  to  be  witnesses  to  the  issue  that  was  being 
sent  for  trial.  This  was  the  ordinary  practice  under  both  the  system 
of  the  legis  actiones  and  that  of  the  formulae,  and  prevailed  until 
the  time  of  Diocletian.  In  the  first  stage  the  proceedings  were  said 
to  be  injure,  and  the  duties  of  the  magistrate  in  reference  to  them 
made  up  his  jurisdictio ;  in  the  second  they  were  said  to  be  in 
judicio,  those  presiding  in  it  being  styled  judices.  All  that  the 
judge  or  judges  had  to  do  was  to  pass  judgment  on  the  question 
remitted  to  them.  They  were  "  right-declarers  "  only,  not  "  right- 
enforcers."  If  their  judgment  was  for  the  plaintiff,  and  he  failed 
to  obtain  an  amicable  settlement,  he  had  himself  to  make  it  opera- 
tive by  subsequent  proceedings  by  manus  injectio,  and  that  under 
the  eye  of  the  magistrate,  not  of  the  judge. 

From  an  enumeration  in  Cicero  of  a  variety  of  causes  proper  to 
the  centumviral  court  the  conclusion  seems  warranted  that  it  was 
its  peculiar  province  to  decide  questions  of  quiritary  right  in  the 
strictest  acceptation  of  the  word.  They  were  all  apparently  real 
actions  (vindicationes), — claims  of  property  in  land  or  of  servitudes 
over  it,  of  right  as  heir  under  a  testament  or  in  opposition  to  it,  of 
rights  of  tutory  and  succession  ab  intestato  as  agnate  or  gentile,  and 
so  forth.  In  all  these  it  was  a  numerous  court  of  Quirites,  advised 
in  the  early  republic  by  a  pontiff,  that  determined  by  its  vote  the 
question  of  quiritary  right  submitted  to  it.  Many  such  questions 
in  course  of  time,  and  possibly  at  first  of  express  consent  of  parties, 
came  to  be  referred  to  a  single  judge  ;  but  some,  and  notably  claims 
of  inheritance  under  or  in  opposition  to  a  testament,  were  still 
remitted  to  the  centumviral  court  in  the  classical  period.  Personal 
actions,  however,  do  not  appear  ever  to  have  fallen  within  its  cog- 
nizance :  they  were  usually  sent  to  a  single  judge — a  private  citizen 
— selected  by  the  parties,  but  appointed  by  the  magistrate,  and  to 
whom  the  latter  administered  an  oath  of  office.  But,  in  a  few  cases  in 
which  an  action  involved  not  so  much  a  disputed  question  of  right 
as  the  exercise  of  skill  and  discretion  in  determining  the  nature 
and  extent  of  a  right  that  in  the  abstract  was  not  denied,  the  remit 
was  to  a  plurality  of  private  judges  or  arbiters,  usually  three. 

The  Legis  Actio  Sacramento? — The  characteristic  feature  Sacra- 
of  this  legis  actio,  as  described  by  Gaius,  was  that  the  parties,  mento. 
after  a  somewhat  dramatic  performance  before  the  consul  or 
praetor,  each  challenged  the  other  to  stake  a  certain  sum,  the 
amount  of  which  was  fixed  by  the  Tables,  and  which  was 
to  abide  the  issue  of  the  inquiry  by  the  court  or  judge  to 
whom  the  cause  was  eventually  remitted.  This  stake  Gaius 
refers  to  indifferently  as  sacramentum,  summa  sacramenti, 
and  poena  sacramenti.  The  formal  question  the  court  had 
to  determine  was, — whose  stake  had  been  justified,  whose 
not  (cujus  sacramentum  justum,  cujus  injustum} ;  the  first 
was  returned  to  the  staker,  the  second  forfeited  originally 
to  sacred  and  afterwards  to  public  uses.  But  the  decision 
on  this  formal  question  necessarily  involved  a  judgment 
on  the  matter  actually  in  dispute,  and,  if  it  was  for  the 
plaintiff,  entitled  him,  failing  an  amicable  arrangement,  to 
take  ulterior  steps  for  making  it  effectual.  The  procedure 
was  still  employed  in  the  time  of  Gaius  in  the  few  cases 


2  To  the  literature  in  the  last  note  may  be  added  Asverus,  Die  legis 
actio  sacramenti,  Leipsic,  1837  ;  Huschke  (rev.  Asverus),  in  Richter's 
Krit.  Jahrbuch,  vol.  iii.  (1839),  p.  665  sq.  ;  Stintziug,  Verhaltniss  d.  I. 
a.  sacramento  zum  Verfahren  durch  sponsio  praejudicialis,  Heidelberg, 
1853  ;  Danz,  Der  sacrale  Schutz,  pp.  151-221  ;  Maine,  Ancient  Law, 
p.  375  sq.  ;  Danz,  "  Die  1.  a.  Sacram.  u.  d.  Lex  Papiria,"  in  the  Zeitschr. 
f.  Rechtsgeschichte,  vol.  vi.  (1867),  p.  339  sq.  ;  Huschke,  Die  Multa  v. 
d.  Sacramentum,  Leipsic,  1874  ;  Lotmar,  Zur  I.  a.  sacramento  in  rem, 
Munich,  1876  ;  Brinz  (crit.  Lotmar),  "Zur  Contravindication  in  d.  1. 
a.  sacr.,"  in  the  Festgabe  zu  Spengel's  Doctor- Jubilaum,  Munich,  1877, 
pp.  95-146  ;  Miinderloh,  "  Ueber  Schein  u.  Wirklichkeit  an  d.  1.  a, 
sacramenti,"  in  the  Z.  f.  Rechtsgesch.,  vol.  xiii.  (1878),  p.  445  sq. ;  E. 
Roth,  in  the  Z.  d.  Savigny  Stiftung,  vol.  iii.  (1882),  Rom.  Abtheil,  p. 
121  sq.  ;  Fioretti,  Leg.  act.  sacramento,  Naples,  1883  ;  Ihering,  "  Reich 
u.  Arm  im  altrom.  Civilprozess,''  in  his  Scherz  u.  Ernst  in  der  Juris- 
prudenz,  Leipsic,  1885,  p.  17,5  sq. 

XX.  —  86 


682 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  CIVILE. 


that  continued  to  be  referred  to  the  centumviral  court,  but 
otherwise  it  had  been  long  in  disuse. 

Gams  explains  that  it  was  resorted  to  both  in  real  and 
personal  actions.  Unfortunately  the  MS.  of  his  Institutes 
is  defective  in  the  passage  in  which  he  described  its  -ap- 
plication to  the  latter.  We  possess  the  greater  part  of  his 
account  of  the  actio  in  rem  as  employed  to  raise  and  deter- 
mine a  question  of  ownership ;  but  his  illustration  is  of 
vindication  of  a  slave,  and  not  so  interesting  or  instructive 
as  the  proceedings  for  vindication  of  land.  These,  how- 
ever, can  be  reconstructed  with  tolerable  certainty  with  the 
aid  derived  from  Cicero,  Varro,  and  Gellius. 

The  parties  appeared  before  the  magistrate,  each  armed  with  a 
rod  (festuca)  representing  his  spear  (quir  or  hasta),  the  symbol,  as 
Gains  says,  of  quiritarian  ownership.  The  first  word  was  spoken 
by  the  raiser  of  the  action,  and  addressed  to  his  opponent :  "I  say 
that  the  land  in  question  [describing  it  sufficiently  for  identifica- 
tion] is  mine  in  quiritary  right  (meumesse  ex  jure  quiritium) ;  where- 
fore I  require  you  to  go  there  and  join  issue  with  me  in  presence 
of  the  magistrate  (injure  manum  conserere)."  Thereupon,  accord- 
ing to  the  earliest  practice,  the  magistrate  and  the  parties,  accom- 
panied by  their  friends  and  backers,  proceeded  to  the  ground  for 
the  purpose  :  the  court  was  transferred  from  the  forum  to  the 
land  itself.  As  distances  increased,  however,  and  the  engagements 
of  the  consuls  multiplied,  this  became  inconvenient.  Instead  of 
it,  this  course  was  adopted  :  the  parties  went  to  the  spot  without 
the  magistrate,  but  on  his  command,  and  there  joined  issue  in  the 
presence  of  their  seconds,  who  had  been  ordered  to  accompany 
them,  and  who  probably  made  a  report  of  the  due  observance  of 
formalities  on  their  return.  Still  later  the  procedure  was  further 
simplified  by  having  a  turf  brought  from  the  place  beforehand — 
probably  as  time  advanced  there  would  be  no  very  particular  in- 
quiry as  to  where  it  had  been  obtained — and  deposited  a  few  yards 
from  the  magistrate's  chair  ;  and,  when  he  ordered  the  parties  to 
go  to  the  ground  and  join  issue,  they  merely  brought  forward  the 
turf  and  set  it  before  him,  and  proceeded  to  make  their  formal 
vindications  upon  it,  as  representing  the  whole  land  in  dispute. 

The  ritual  was  as  follows.  The  raiser  of  the  action,  addressing 
his  adversary,  again  affirmed  his  ownership,  but  this  time  with 
the  significant  addition — "As  I  have  asserted  my  right  by  word 
of  mouth,  look  you,  so  do  I  now  with  my  vindicta";  and  there- 
with he  touched  the  turf  with  his  rod,  which  was  called  vindicta 
when  employed  for  this  purpose.  The  magistrate  then  asked 
the  other  party  whether  he  meant  to  counter -vindicate.  If  he 
replied  in  the  negative  or  made  no  response,  there  was  instant 
decree  (addictio)  in  favour  of  the  first  party,  and  the  proceedings 
were  at  an  end.  If,  however,  he  counter -vindicated,  it  was  by 
repeating  the  same  words  and  re-enacting  the  same  play  as  his  ad- 
versary : — "I  say  that  the  land  is  mine  in  quiritary  right,  and  I 
too  lay  my  vindicta  upon  it"  The  verbal  and  symbolical  vindica- 
tion and  counter- vindication  completed  what  was  technically  the 
manus  consertio.  The  parties  were  now  in  this  position  :  each 
had  asserted  his  ownersnip,  and  had  figuratively  had  recourse  to 
arms  in  maintenance  of  his  contention.  But  the  matter  was  to 
be  settled  judicially,  so  the  magistrate  once  more  intervened  and 
ordered  both  to  withdraw  from  the  land.  The  dialogue  was  then 
resumed,  the  vindicant  demanding  to  know  from  his  opponent  upon 
what  pretence  (caiisa)  he  had  counter- vindicated.  In  the  illustra- 
tion in  Gains  he  avoided  the  question  and  pleaded  the  general  issue, 
— "  I  have  done  as  is  my  right  in  laying  my  vindicta  on  the  land." 
But  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  in  certain  circumstances  the 
counter-vindicant  would  deem  it  expedient  to  disclose  his  title. 
This  was  very  necessary  where  he  attributed  his  right  to  a  con- 
veyance upon  which  two  years'  possession  had  not  yet  followed  ; 
in  such  a  case  he  had  to  name  his  author  (auctorem  laudare)  if 
he  desired  to  preserve  recourse  against  the  latter  on  the  warranty 
implied  in  the  mancipation.  That  probably  entailed  a  suspension 
of  the  proceedings  to  allow  of  the  author's  citation  for  his  interest ; 
and  on  their  resumption,  if  he  appeared  and  admitted  his  auctoritas, 
he  was  formally  made  a  party  to  the  action. 

The  proceedings  had  now  reached  the  sacramental  stage  proper. 
The  first  challenge  came  from  the  vindicant,— "Since  you  have 
vindicated  unrightfully,  I  challenge  you  with  a  sacrament  of  500 
asses,"  to  which  the  counter-vindicant  responded, — "And  I  you." 
This  was  technically  the  Sacramento  provocatio.  The  magistrate 
thereupon  remitted  the  matter  for  trial  to  the  centumviral  court, 
or  possibly,  in  certain  cases,  to  a  single  judge,  and  in  the  presence 
of  witnesses  called  by  the  parties  (litis  contestatio)  declared  what 
exactly  was  the  question  put  in  issue  which  the  court  or  judge 
was  to  decide.  At  the  same  time,  according  to  Gaius's  account  of 
the  procedure,  he  required  sureties  from  the  parties  for  the  eventual 
payment  by  him  who  was  unsuccessful  of  the  sacrament  he  had 
offered  to  stake,  and  which  became  a  forfeit  to  the  exchequer.  (The 
original  practice  was  for  th«  stake  to  be  deposited  by  both  parties 


in  the  hands  of  the  pontiffs  before  they  were  heard  by  the  cen- 
tumviral court ;  after  judgment  that  of  the  gainer  was  reclaimed 
by  him,  while  that  of  the  loser  was  retained  for  religious  uses.) 
The  magistrate  also  made  arrangements  for  the  interim  possession 
of  the  land  by  one  or  other  of  the  litigants,  taking  security  from 
him  that,  if  he  was  eventually  unsuccessful,  it  should  be  returned 
to  his  opponent,  along  with  all  the  fruits  and  profits  drawn  in 
the  interval.  At  the  trial,  as  both  parties  were  vindicants,  there 
must  have  been  a  certain  burden  of  proof  upon  both  sides.  The 
vindicant,  one  may  believe,  must  have  been  required  to  establish  in 
the  first  instance  that  the  thing  he  claimed  had  at  some  time  been 
his ;  and  then,  but  probably  not  till  then,  the  counter-vindicant 
would  have  to  prove  a  later  title  in  his  person  sufficient  to  exclude 
that  of  his  opponent.  The  judgment,  as  already  observed,  necessarily 
involved  a  finding  on  the  main  question ;  but  in  form  it  was  a  de- 
claration as  to  the  sacrament :  that  of  the  party  who  prevailed  was 
declared  to  be  just,  and  that  of  his  unsuccessful  opponent  unjust. 

Looking  at  this  ritual  as  a  whole  the  conviction  is  irresistible 
that  it  could  not  have  been  so  devised  by  one  brain.  It  reveals 
and  combines  three  distinct  stages  in  the  history  of  procedure, — 
appeal  to  arms  and  self-help,  appeal  to  the  gods  and  the  spiritual 
power,  appeal  to  the  civil  magistrate  and  his  judicial  office.  As 
Gellius  says,  the  real  and  substantial  fight  for  might,  that  in  olden 
days  had  been  maintained  at  the  point  of  the  spear,  had  given 
place  to  a  civil  and  festucarian  combat  in  which  words  were  the 
weapons,  and  which  was  to  be  settled  by  the  interposition  of  the 
praetor.  But  this  does  not  explain  the  sacramentiim.  Very  various 
theories  have  been  proposed  to  account  for  it.  According  to  Gains, 
it  was  nothing  more  than  the  sum  of  money  staked  by  each  of 
the  parties,  which  was  forfeited  originally  to  sacred  and  after- 
wards to  public  uses  by  him  who  was  unsuccessful,  as  a  penalty 
for  his  rashly  running  into  litigation  ;  and  substantially  the  same 
explanation  is  given  by  Festus  in  one  of  his  definitions  of  the 
word.  But  this  is  far  from  satisfactory ;  for  it  involves  the 
absurdity  of  declaring  that  a  penalty  imposed  by  law  could  be 
unjust  (injustum)  in  any  case,  and  the  still  greater  absurdity  of 
declaring  it  just  in  the  case  of  the  party  who  was  in  the  right,  and 
unjust  in  the  case  of  him  who  was  in  the  wrong.  There  is  another 
definition  in  Festus — "a  thing  is  said  to  be  done  Sacramento  when 
the  sanction  of  an  oath  is  interposed  " — which  lends  support  to  the 
opinion  that  there  was  a  time  when  parties  to  a  question  of  right 
were  required  to  take  an  oath  to  the  verity  of  their  respective 
assertions  ;  that  they  were  also  required  concurrently  to  deposit  five 
bullocks  or  five  sheep,  according  to  the  nature  or  value  of  the 
thing  in  dispute,  to  abide  the  issue  of  the  inquiry ; J  that  the  question 
for  determination  was  whose  oath  was  just  and  whose  unjust ;  and 
that  he  who  was  found  to  have  sworn  unjustly  forfeited  his  cattle 
or  sheep  as  a  piamentum — a  peace-offering  to  the  outraged  deity — 
while  the  other  party  reclaimed  his  from  the  repository  in  which 
they  had  been  detained  in  the  interval.2 


1  It  was  the  Lex  Aternia  Tarpeia  of  the  year  300  u.c.  that  com- 
muted the  five  bullocks  and  five  sheep  into  500  and  50  Ib  of  copper 
respectively  (Cic.,  De  Rep.,  ii.  35,  §  60,  where  the  words  usually  printed 
"de  multae  sacramento"  should  read  "de  nmlta  et  sacramento");  Fest., 
s.v.  "Peculatus"(Bruns,.F'0wtes,  p.  279).    For  the  pounds' weight  of  raw 
metal  the  XII.  Tables  substituted  the  same  number  of  asses,  declaring 
that  500  should  be  the  summa  sacramenti  when  the  cause  of  action 
was  worth  1000  asses  or  more,  50  when  worth  less  or  the  question  one 
of  freedom  or  slavery  (Gai.,  iv.  14). 

2  Varro,  De  L.  L.,  v.  180  (Bruns,  p.  303),  says  that,  even  after  the 
summa  sacramenti  had  been  converted  into  money,  it  was  deposited 
ad  pontem, — some  bridge,  he  does  not  say  which,  where  there  was  a 
sacred  "  pound."     (Curiously  enough,  the  Irish  spelling  of  "  pound  " 
is  "  pont ";  Skeat's  Etym.  Diet.,  s.v.  "  Pound.")    A  most  ingenious  and 
plausible  explanation  was  suggested  by  Danz  in  1867,  in  the  Zeitschr. 
f.  Rechtsgesch.,  vol.  vi.  p.  359.    Recalling  the  facts  that  there  had  been 
discovered  in  the  Tiber  Island  sacella  of  Jupiter  Jurarius  and  Dius 
Fidius,  the  two  deities  to  whom  solemn  oaths  were  usually  addressed, 
and  that  the  island  was  spoken  of  as  "  inter  duos  pontes, "  because  con- 
nected with  both  banks  of  the  river  by  bridges  bearing  no  particular 
names,  he  suggested  that  the  island  may  have  been  the  place  to  which 
disputants  resorted  to  make  their  sacramenta,  and  that  the  cattle, 
sheep,  or  money  were  deposited  in  a  place  for  the  purpose  before  the 
bridge  was  crossed.      Much   the  same   explanation  was  offered   by 
Huschke  two  years  later  in  his  book  Das  alte  riJmische  Ja.hr  (Breslau, 
1869),  p.  360,  apparently  without  being  aware  of  Danz's  speculation. 
He  adds,  on  the  authority  of  the  Iguvine  Tables,  that,  while  bullocks 
were  offered  to  Jupiter,  only  sheep  were  offered  to  Dius  Fidius.     The 
island,  he  thinks,  must  have  been  selected  as  neutral  ground  to  which 
all  parties  might  have  access,  and  which  obviated  intrusion  into  the 
temples  of  the  two  gods  ou  the  Capitol  and  Quiriual  respectively. 
And  it  is  to  its  use  as  the  scene  of  the  sacramental  procedure  that  he 
attributes  its  name  of  "holy  island,"  rather  than  to  the  fact  of  its 
having  been  the  seat  of  the  temple  of  ^Esculapius.     Huschke  recurs 
to  and  enforces  this  view  in  his  Multa  und  Sacramentum  (1874),  p. 
410,  where  he  does  refer  to  Danz's  paper. 


JUS  CIVILE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


683 


The  writers  who  adopt  this  view  are  far  from  being  unanimous 
as  to  details.  But  there  seems  to  be  enough  to  render  it  more  than 
probable  that,  at  an  intermediate  stage  between  the  vera  solida  vis 
of  ancient  times  and  the  vis  civilis  et  festucaria  which  Gellius  and 
Gains  depict,  there  was  a  procedure  by  appeal  to  the  gods  through 
means  of  oaths  of  verity  sworn  by  the  parties,  in  the  manner  and 
with  the  consequences  that  have  been  indicated.  That  in  time  it 
should  have  dropped  out  of  the  ritual  is  quite  in  the  order  of  things. 
Its  tendency  was  to  become  a  mere  form,  imposing  no  real  restraint 
on  reckless  litigation.  The  restraint  was  rather  in  the  dread  of 
forfeiture  of  the  sacramental  cattle,  sheep,  or  money  that  would 
follow  a  verdict  that  an  oath  had  been  unjust.  And  it  must  have 
been  felt  besides  that  it  was  unfair  to  brand  a  man  as  a  false- 
swearer,  needing  to  expiate  his  offence  by  an  offering  to  the  gods, 
whose  oath  had  been  perfectly  honest.  That  he  should  suffer  a 
penalty  for  his  imprudence  in  not  having  taken  more  care  to  ascertain 
his  position,  and  for  thus  causing  needless  annoyance  to  others, 
was  reasonable,  but  did  not  justify  his  being  dealt  with  as  one 
who  had  knowingly  outraged  the  deity  to  whom  he  had  appealed. 
So  the  oath — the  original  sacramentum — disappeared,  the  name 
passing  by  a  natural  enough  process  to  the  money  which  had  been 
wont  to  be  deposited  before  the  oath  was  sworn,  but  which  now 
ceased  to  be  an  offering  in  expiation  by  a  false-swearer,  and  became 
a  mere  penalty  of  rash  litigation  (poena  temere  litigantis). 

It  may  be  assumed  that  in  most  cases  the  finding  of  the  cen- 
tumvirs  as  to  the  justness  or  unjustness  of  the  respective  sacraments 
of  the  parties  was  the  end  of  the  case, — that  it  was  at  once  accepted 
and  loyally  given  effect  to.  Festus,  however,  preserves  a  law  of  the 
XII.  Tables  which,  according  to  Mommsen's  rendering,  declared 
that,  when  it  turned  out  that  interim  possession  had  been  awarded 
to  the  wrong  party,  it  was  to  be  in  the  latter's  power  to  demand 
the  appointment  of  three  arbiters  who  should  ascertain  the  value 
of  the  object  of  vindication  and  its  fruits,  and  assess  the  damages 
due  for  non-restitution  at  double  the  amount.  This  provision 
seems  to  have  been  intended  to  afford  the  wrongful  interim  possessor, 
who  was  not  in  a  position  to  make  specific  restitution  to  his  suc- 
cessful opponent,  a  means  of  avoiding  the  apprehension  and  im- 
prisonment which  were  the  statutory  consequences  of  failure  to  im- 
plement a  judgment.  It  is  probable  that  in  time  this  duplicated 
money  payment  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  satisfaction  to  which 
the  successful  party  in  a  vindication  was  entitled  in  every  case  in 
which,  no  matter  for  what  reason,  he  was  unable  to  obtain  the 
thing  itself  and  its  fruits  from  their  interim  possessor  ;  that  con- 
sequently an  arbitrium  litis  acstimandae,  or  reference  to  arbiters 
to  assess  their  value,  resulted  in  every  such  case  ;  and  that  it  was 
to  assure  its  payment  that  the  praetor  required  the  party  to  whom 
the  interim  possession  was  awarded  to  give  to  his  opponent  the 
sureties  (praedes  litis  et  vindiciarum)  to  whom  Gaius  alludes. 

After  this  explanation  of  the  procedure  in  the  sacramental  action 
for  vindication  of  land  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  any  detail 
of  what  was  done  when  it  was  a  movable  that  was  being  vindicated, 
or  when  the  action  was  a  personal  one  for  payment  of  money.  The 
real  action  about  a  movable  was  of  course  simpler  than  that 
described  ;  for  the  thing  was  always  in  praesentia.  As  regards  per- 
sonal actions,  the  ordinarily  received  opinion,  which  rests,  however, 
on  slender  foundations,  is  that  from  the  first  the  parties  met  on 
equal  terms ;  that,  if  it  was  a  case  of  money  debt,  the  creditor 
commenced  the  proceedings  with  the  averment  that  the  defendant 
owed  him  the  sum  in  question, — "  I  say  that  you  ought  to  pay  me 
(dare  oportere)  1000  asses"  ;  that  this  was  met  with  a  denial ;  and 
that  a  sacramental  challenge  followed  on  either  side.  All  are  agreed 
that  the  remit  was  to  a  single  judex  after  an  interval  of  thirty 
days  from  the  proceedings  in  jure  ;  that  where  the  claim  was  for  a 
definite  sum  the  plaintiff  had  to  establish  his  case  to  the  letter ; 
and  that  his  sacrament  was  necessarily  declared  unjust  if  he  failed 
to  prove  his  claim  by  a  single  penny.  But  there  is  considerable 
diversity  of  opinion  as  to  whether  by  this  form  of  process  a  claim 
of  uncertain  amount  could  be  insisted  on, — as,  for  example,  for 
damages  for  breach  of  a  warranty  of  acreage  of  lands  sold,  or  of 
their  freedom  from  biirdens.  If  it  could,  then  probably  the  ques- 
tion raised  and  dealt  with  sacramento  was  the  abstract  one  of 
liability, — Was  the  warranty  given,  and  has  it  failed  ?  the  sum  due 
in  respect  of  the  breach  being  left  to  be  dealt  with  in  a  subsequent 
arbitral  process  (arbitrium  litis  acstimandae). 

?er  The  Legis  Actio  per  Judicis  Postulationem} — The  defects 

k'ci.s     of  the  Verona  MS.  have  deprived  us  of  Gaius's  account  of 

iio'nem."  ^is  legis  actio.  There  is  little  elsewhere  that  can  with 
any  certainty  be  said  to  bear  upon  it.  The  most  import- 
ant is  a  note  in  Valerius  Probus— T.PR.LA.  V.P.  V.D., 


1  To  the  literature  on  p.  681,  note  1,  add  Baron,  "Zur  leg.  act. 
per  judicis  arbitrive  postulationem,"  in  the  Festgabe  fiir  Aug.  W. 
ffe/ter,  Berlin,  1873,  p.  29  sq.  ;  Huschke,  Mutta,  &c.,  p.  394  sq.  ; 
Adolf  Schmidt,  "Ueber  die  1.  a.  per  jud.  post.,"  in  the  Zeitschr.  d. 
Sav.  Stift.,  vol.  ii.  (1881),  Rom.  Abtheil.,  p.  145  sq. ;  Voigt,  XII.  Tafeln, 
vol.  i.  §  61. 


which  is  generally  interpreted — te,  praetor,  judicem  arbi- 
trumve  postulo  uti  des.  This  petition  to  the  magistrate 
— king,  consul,  praetor — to  appoint  a  judge,  arbiter,  or 
arbiters  (as  the  case  might  be)  in  all  probability  was  part 
of  the  procedure  in  the  action,  and  that  from  which  it 
derived  its  distinctive  name.  Beyond  this  all  is  conjecture, 
alike  as  to  the  nature  and  form  of  the  action  and  the 
cases  to  which  it  was  applicable.  Gaius  says  of  the  legis 
actio  sacramento  that  it  was  general,  and  that  it  was  the 
procedure  that  was  to  be  resorted  to  where  no  other  was 
prescribed  by  statute.  The  extant  fragments  of  the  XII. 
Tables  contain  no  such  indications  as  this  would  lead  us 
to  expect;  there  is  not  a  hint  in  them  of  an  express 
instruction  that  proceedings  in  any  particular  case  were  to 
be  per  judicis  postulationem. 

While  it  is  impossible  with  certainty  to  trace  the  history  of  this 
procedure  to  its  first  beginnings,  yet  the  impression  is  general  that 
it  must  have  originated  in  the  regal  period.  There  were  three  dif- 
ferent positions  in  which  an  appeal  for  aid  might  be  made  to  a 
court  of  justice, — (1)  when  it  was  a  question  of  civil  right  that  had 
to  be  decided  in  terms  directly  affirmative  or  directly  negative  of 
the  contention  of  the  raiser  of  the  action,  and  one  in  which  ques- 
tions of  both  law  and  fact  were  involved  ;  (2)  when  it  was  only  a 
question  of  fact  that  had  to  be  ascertained, — the  legal  result  of  the 
fact,  if  established,  being  known  beforehand  ;  (3)  when  facts  had  to 
be  set  against  facts,  and  a  result  arrived  at  that  in  the  judgment 
of  those  who  had  to  balance  them  was  fair  and  reasonable  in  the  cir- 
cumstances. In  the  first  case,  as  when  the  contention  was  meum 
cssc  or  dari  oportere  (otherwise  than  under  an  obligationary  nexum), 
the  procedure  was  sacramento  and  the  reference  originally  (in  all 
probability)  to  the  pontiffs,  although  afterwards  to  the  centumviral 
court  or  to  a  judex  ;  in  the  second,  as  when  the  question  was — had 
or  had  not  the  defendant  assaulted  the  plaintiff,  and  so  incurred 
the  invariable  statutory  penalty,  the  reference  was  probably  to  a 
judex  without  the  intervention  of  a  sacrament ;  in  the  third,  as 
when  the  matter  in  hand  was  the  partitioning  of  an  inheritance 
amongst  co-heirs,  or  the  determining  whether  operations  of  the  de- 
fendant were  interfering  with  the  natural  drainage  of  the  plaintiff's 
land  and  how  the  mischief  was  to  be  abated,  or  the  assessment  of 
damages  for  injury  to  property,  or  of  the  sum  sufficient  to  relieve 
from  talion  or  the  statutory  penalty  of  theft,  the  reference  was  to  an 
arbiter  or  arbiters.  In  the  procedure  sacramento  the  pleadings 
opened  directly  with  an  averment  of  right — "  I  say  that  this  is 
mine,"  "  I  say  that  the  defendant  is  bound  to  pay  me  so  much"  ; 
but  in  that  per  judicis  arbitrive  postulatio  there  is  reason  to  surmise 
that  they  commenced  with  an  averment  of  fact,  followed  by  the 
resulting  demand  of  the  plaintiff.  The  details,  however,  are  quite 
uncertain,  with  the  exception  that  in  some  arbitria  the  plaintiff 
expressly  threw  himself  upon  the  discretion  of  the  arbiters — quantum 
aeqius  melius  est  ob  cam  rem  mihi  dari. 

The  Legis  Actio  per  Condictionem. — This  the  youngest  Per  con- 
"  action  of  the  law "  was  introduced,  Gaius  says,  by  the dlctlon' 
Silian  law  as  a  means  of  recovering  a  liquid  money  debt eu 
(certa  pecunia),  and  afterwards  made  available  by  the  Cal- 
purnian  law  for  enforcing  personal  claims  (as  distinguished 
from  real  rights)  for  anything  else  definite  and  certain 
(omnis  res  certa),  and  in  both  its  forms,  therefore,  essen- 
tially an  action  of  debt.  The  date  of  both  enactments  is 
matter  of  controversy,  although  there  is  no  question  that 
the  Silian  was  the  earlier.  Gaius  says  of  it  that  its  pur- 
pose was  far  from  obvious,  as  there  was  no  'difficulty  in 
recovering  money  either  by  a  sacramental  action  or  one 
per  judicis  postulationem.  He  overlooks  the  fact  that 
money  due  under  a  nexal  contract  was  recoverable  by 
neither  of  these  processes,  but  by  the  much  more  summary 
one  of  manus  injectio.  By  the  Pcetilian  law  of  428  this 
was  declared  unlawful.  We  are  disposed  to  regard  the 
Lex  Silia  and  the  new  procedure  it  authorized  as  a  result 
of  the  change.  To  have  put  off  a  creditor  for  money  lent 
either  with  a  sacramental  action  or  one  per  judicis  postula- 
tionem would  have  been  to  deprive  him  of  the  advantages 
of  manus  injectio  to  a  greater  extent  than  was  called  for. 
So  it  was  provided  by  the  Silian  law  that,  when  a  man 
disputed  his  liability  for  what  was  called  pecunia  certa 
credita,  and  forced  his  creditor  to  litigation,  not  only  was 
the  defendant  bound  in  the  first  place  either  to  deny  his 


684 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  CIVILE. 


liability  under  oath  or  else  to  pay  the  sum  claimed ;  but 
if  he  did  deny  it  the  plaintiff  was  entitled  to  require  from 
him  an  engagement  to  pay  one-third  more  by  way  of 
penalty  in  the  event  of  judgment  being  against  him,  while 
the  svi-disant  creditor  had  to  give  an  engagement  to  pay 
as  penalty  the  same  amount  in  case  of  judgment  in  favour 
of  the  alleged  debtor.  These  engagements  (sponsio  et  resti- 
jmfatio  tertiae  partis)  were  not  allowed  in  every  case  in 
which  a  definite  sum  of  money  was  claimed  per  condic- 
tionem,  but  only  when  it  was  technically  pecunia  credita. 
In  Cicero's  time  creditum  might  arise  either  from  loan, 
stipulation,  or  literal  contract  (expensilatio) ;  but  the  last 
dated  at  soonest  from  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century, 
and  stipulation  apparently  was  a  result  of  the  Silian  law 
itself,  so  that  the  pecunia  credita,  of  this  enactment  can  have 
referred  only  to  borrowed  money.  The  same  phrase,  ac- 
cording to  Livy,  was  employed  in  the  Pcetilian  law ;  it  was 
thereby  enacted,  he  says,  that  for  pecunia  credita  the  goods, 
not  the  body  of  the  debtor,  ought  to  be  taken  in  execu- 
tion. A  connexion,  therefore,  between  the  Pcetilian  law  and 
the  abolition  of  the  nexum  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Silian 
law  and  the  introduction  of  the  legis  actio  per  condictionem 
on  the  other,  can  hardly  be  ignored,  and  raises  more  than 
a  probability  that  the  latter  statute  was  a  consequence  of 
the  former,  and  must  have  been  passed  immediately  or  soon 
after  the  year  428.  In  the  action  for  a  money  debt  that 
was  not  technically  pecunia  credita,  and  in  the  action  on 
the  Calpurnian  law,  it  is  probable  that  the  defendant  could 
be  required  to  negative  the  claim  under  oath  (jusjurandum 
in  jure  delatum)  on  pain  of  being  held  as  confessed ;  but 
there  was  no  penalty  of  a  third  part  on  either  side. 

Little  is  known  of  the  procedure  l  in  this  legis  actio,  for,  in 
consequence  of  the  loss  of  a  leaf  in  the  Verona  MS. ,  we  are  with- 
out part  of  Gaius's  account  of  it.  It  got  its  distinctive  name,  he 
says,  from  the  condictio  or  requisition  made  by  the  plaintiff  on  the 
defendant,  whom  he  had  brought  into  court  in  the  usual  way, 
to  attend  again  on  the  expiry  of  thirty  days  to  have  a  judge  ap- 
pointed. It  was  probably  only  on  the  reappearance  of  the  parties, 
and  after  the  defendant  had  had  time  for  looking  into  the  facts, 
that  the  latter  could  be  required  to  make  oath  as  to  his  defence  of 
non-indebtedness.  In  the  action  for  pecunia  credita  it  would  be 
then  also,  and  after  the  oath,  if  demanded,  had  been  given,  that 
the  spoiisio  et  restipulatio  tertiae  partis  were  exchanged  ;  and  it  is 
probable  that,  if  either  party  refused  on  the  praetor's  command  so  to 
oblige  himself  towards  the  other,  judgment  was  at  once  pronounced 
in  favour  of  the  latter  without  any  remit  to  a  judex.  How  the 
issue  was  adjusted  when  the  sponsion  and  restipulation  were  duly 
given  we  are  not  informed  ;  but,  judging  by  analogy  from  the  pro- 
cedure in  an  action  for  breach  of  interdict  under  the  formular 
system,  and  on  the  broader  ground  that  there  must  have  been 
machinery  for  a  condemnation  of  the  plaintiff  on  his  restipulation 
in  the  event  of  his  being  found  in  the  wrong,  it  may  reasonably  be 
concluded  that  there  were  in  fact  three  concurrent  issues  sent  to 
the  s&mejudex, — the  first  on  the  main  question,  the  second  on  the 
defendant's  sponsion,  and  the  third  on  the  plaintiffs  restipula- 
tion. When  a  sum  of  money  other  than  pecunia  credita  or  a  thing 
or  quantity  of  things  other  than  money  was  sued  for,  those  sub- 
sidiary issues  were  unnecessary,  as  there  was  neither  sponsion  nor 
restipulation. 

As  Baron  has  demonstrated,  it  was  not  the  usual  practice  to 
introduce  any  words  explanatory  of  the  ground  of  indebtedness 
when  the  action  was  either  for  money  (other  than  pecunia  credita) 
or  for  a  thing  or  quantity  of  things.  It  might  be  loan,  or  bequest, 
or  sale,  or  purchase,  or  delict,  or  unjustifiable  enrichment,  or  any 
of  a  hundred  causae ;  it  would  have  to  be  condescended  on  of 
course  before  the  judge  ;  but  in  the  initial  stage  before  the  praetor 
and  in  the  issue  all  that  was  necessary  was  the  averment  that  the 
defendant  was  owing  such  a  sum  of  money  or  such  a  thing.  It 
was  for  the  judge  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  averment  was 
established  and,  in  certain  cases,  that  non-delivery  was  due  to  the 
fault  of  the  defendant;  the  plaintiff,  however,  was  bound  to  make 
his  averment  good  to  the  letter  of  his  claim.  In  the  event  of  the 

1  To  the  literature  on  p.  681,  note  1,  add  Asverus,  Die  Denuncia- 
tion d.  R&mer,  Leipsic,  1843,  p.  129  sq. ;  Mommsen  (rev.  Asverus), 
in  Richter's  Krit.  Jahrbuch,  vol.  ix.  (1845),  p.  875  sq.;  Bekker, 
Aktionen,  vol.  i.  cap.  4-7  ;  Voigt,  Jus  nalurale,  Ac.,  d.  RSmer,  4  vols., 
Leipsic,  1856-75,  vol.  iii.  §§  98,  99,  and  vol.  iv.  Beilage  xix.  Nos.  1,  2, 
7  ;  Baron,  Die  Condictionen,  Berlin,  1881,  §§  15,  16. 


plaintiff  being  successful  in  an  action  for  ccrtapccunia,  but  delay  was 
made  by  the  defendant  in  satisfying  the  judgment,  execution  fol- 
lowed in  ordinary  form.  How  the  matter  was  arranged  in  an  action 
on  the  Calpurnian  law  for  a  certa  res  is  not  so  obvious.  What  the 
plaintiff  wanted  was  specific  delivery  or  damages,  and  by  some  the 
opinion  is  entertained  that  he  formulated  his  claim  alternatively. 
Of  this  there  is  no  evidence  ;  and  Gaius's  statement  that  under  the 
system  of  the  legis  actioncs  condemnation  was  always  in  the  ipsa 
res,  i.e.,  the  specific  thing  sued  for,  leads  to  the  assumption  that  a 
judgment  for  the  plaintiff,  on  which  specific  implement  failed, 
must  have  been  followed  by  an  arbitrium  litis  acstimandae  for 
assessment  of  the  damages  in  money,  and  that  execution  proceeded 
thereon  as  if  the  judgment  had  been  for  a  sum  of  money  in  the 
first  instance.  The  general  opinion,  however,  is  that  the  judge  to 
whom  the  issue  was  remitted  assessed  the  damages  himself  and  as 
a  matter  of  course, — that  the  instruction  to  him  was  quanti  res 
erit,  tantam  pecuniam  wndemnato. 

The  Legis  Actio  per  Manus  Injectionem.2 — This  "  action  Per 
of  the  law  "  was  ordinarily  employed  as  a  means  of  execu-  nianua 
tion  against  the  body  of  a  judgment-debtor  or  one  who  had  '"J60' 
confessed  liability  in  the  first  stage  of  a  process.  But,  in 
certain  cases  in  which  it  was  thought  proper  that  a  creditor 
should  have  a  more  summary  remedy  than  was  afforded  by 
a  sacramental  action  or  one  per  judicis  postulationem,  he 
was  allowed  to  apprehend  his  debtor  without  any  ante- 
cedent judgment ;  and,  if  the  debtor  disputed  liability, 
the  question  could  be  tried  only  in  proceedings  at  his  in- 
stance, or  sometimes  at  that  of  a  third  party  on  his  behalf, 
for  a  stay  of  execution.  It  will  simplify  matters,  however, 
to  confine  our  attention  to  it  in  the  meantime  as  a  means 
of  execution  against  the  body  of  a  judgment-debtor. 

Gaius's  description  of  it  is  very  general ;  for  details  we 
are  indebted  principally  to  the  Noctes  Atticae  of  Aulus 
Gellius,  in  an  account  which  he  gives  (put  into  the  mouth 
of  Sext.  Csecilius  Africanus,  a  well-known  jurist  of  about 
the  same  time  as  Gaius,  and  a  contemporary  of  his  own)  of 
the  provisions  of  the  XII.  Tables  in  reference  to  it.  Afri- 
canus is  made  to  say  that  according  to  his  belief  (ojnnor) 
the  words  of  the  statute  were  these : — "For  admitted  money 
debts  and  in  causes  that  have  been  regularly  determined 
by  judgment  (aeris  confessi  rebusque  jure  judicatis)  there 
shall  be  thirty  days'  grace.  After  that  there  may  be  manus 
injectio.  The  apprehending  creditor  shall  then  bring  his 
debtor  before  the  magistrate.  If  he  still  fail  to  satisfy 
the  judgment,  and  no  vindex  come  forward  to  relieve  him, 
his  creditor  may  carry  him  home  and  put  him  in  chains. 
He  may  live  at  his  own  cost;  if  not,  his  creditor  must 
give  him  daily  a  pound  of  spelt,  or  more  if  he  please." 
Africanus  continues  narrative  :  "There  was  still  room  for 
the  parties  to  come  to  terms ;  but,  if  they  did  not,  the 
debtor  was  kept  in  chains  for  sixty  days.  Towards  the 
end  of  that  time  he  was  brought  before  the  prajtor  in  the 
comitium  on  three  consecutive  market-days,  and  the  amount 
of  the  judgment-debt  proclaimed.  After  the  third  capite 
poenas  dabat" — what  these  words  mean  will  be  considered 
in  the  sequel, — "  or  else  he  was  sent  across  the  Tiber  to  be 
sold  to  a  foreigner.  And  this  capital  penalty,  sanctioned 
in  the  hope  of  deterring  men  from  unfaithfulness  to  their 
engagements,  was  one  to  be  dreaded  because  of  its  atrocity 
and  of  the  new  terrors  with  which  the  decemvirs  thought 
proper  to  invest  it.  For,  if  it  was  to  more  creditors  than 
one  that  the  debtor  had  been  adjudged,  they  might,  if  they 
pleased,  cut  up  and  divide  his  body.  Here  are  the  words 


2  To  the  literature  on  p.  681,  note  1,  may  be  added  Huschke,  Nexum, 
1846,  p.  79  sq.;  Savigny,  "Das  altrom.  Schuldrecht,"  in  his  Verm. 
Schriften,  vol.  ii.,  1850,  p.  369  sq.;  Hoffmann,  Die  Forcten  u.  Sanaten, 
ntbst  Anhang  tiber  d.  altriim.  Schuldrecht,  Vienna,  1866,  p.  54  sq.  ; 
Unger,  in  the  Zeitschr.  f.  Rechtsgesch.,  vol.  vii.  (1868),  p.  192  sq.; 
Vainberg,  Le  nexum  et  la  contrainte  par  corps  en  droit  Rom.,  Paris, 
1874,  p.  36  sq.;  Bruns,  in  the  Zeitschr.  f.  Rechtsgesch.,  vol.  xii.  (1876), 
p.  128  sq. ;  Exner,  in  the  Zeitschr.  f.  Rechtsgesch.,  vol.  xiii.  (1878),  p. 
392  sq. ;  Voigt,  "Ueber  d.  Gesch.  d.  rom.  Executionsrechtes,"  in  the 
Berichte  d.  k.  sachs.  Gesellsch.  d.  Wissenschaften  (Phil. -Hist.  Cl.),  vol. 
xxxiv.  (1882),  p.  76  sq. ;  Voigt,  XII.  Tafeln,  vol.  i.  §§  63-65  ;  Iheriug 
(as  on  p.  681,  note  2),  pp.  196  sq.,  232  sq. 


JUS  CIVILE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


685 


of  the  statute, — 'Tertiis  nundinis  partis  secanto.  Si  plus 
minusve  secuerunt,  se  fraude  esto.' " 

Such  is  Gellius's  account  of  the  provisions  of  the  XII.  Tables 
in  reference  to  this  legis  actio.  But  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that 
he  does  not  vouch  for  its  accuracy  ;  the  Tables  were  already  in  his 
time  matter  of  antiquity,  and  even  the  jurists  knew  nothing  of 
them  beyond  what  was  still  in  observance.  That  he  has  repro- 
duced them  only  partially  seems  almost  beyond  question  ;  for  in 
another  chapter  he  himself  quotes  a  couple  of  sentences  that  are  to 
all  appearance  from  the  same  context.  We  have  to  face,  therefore, 
the  extreme  probability  that  the  record  is  incomplete  and  the 
possibility  besides  that  it  is  not  literally  accurate.  There  is  room 
for  error,  consequently,  in  two  directions  ;  but  the  nature  and  effect 
of  the  procedure  in  its  main  features  may  be  gathered  from  the 
texts  as  they  stand  with  reasonable  certainty. 

It  was  competent  only  after  thirty  days  from  the  date  of  judg- 
ment or  confession.  It  was  apprehension  of  the  debtor  by  the 
creditor  himself, — in  its  first  stage,  at  least,  an  act  of  pure  self-help. 
The  debtor  had  at  once  to  be  brought  before  the  magistrate,  in 
order  that  his  creditor  might  obtain  authority  to  carry  him  away 
and  provisionally  confine  him  in  the  domestic  lock-up.  Such  a 
course,  however,  was  avoided  either  (1)  by  instant  payment  or 
other  implement  of  the  judgment,  or  (2)  by  the  intervention  of  a 
vindex  or  champion.  The  position  taken  by  the  latter  was  not 
exactly  that  either  of  a  surety  or  of  an  attorney  for  the  judicatus 
demanding  a  rehearing  of  the  case  :  he  appeared  rather  as  a  con- 
troverter  in  his  own  name  of  the  right  of  the  creditor  to  proceed 
further  with  his  execution,  on  the  ground  that  the  judgment  was 
invalid.  This  necessitated  an  action  between  the  vindex  and  the 
creditor,  in  which  the  former  was  plaintiff,  but  to  which  the  debtor 
was  not  a  party.  If  it  failed,  then  the  vindex  was  liable  for  double 
the  amount  of  the  original  debt,  as  a  penalty  on  him  for  having 
improperly  interfered  with  the  course  of  justice  ;  but  on  payment 
he  had  relief  against  the  original  debtor  who  had  been  liberated 
through  his  intervention.  Failing  a  vindex  and  failing  payment, 
the  creditor  took  his  debtor  home  and  incarcerated  him,  dealing 
with  him  for  sixty  days  in  the  manner  above  described.  On  their 
expiry,  without  any  arrangement,  there  was  a  magisterial  decree 
(addictio)  awarding  the  debtor  to  his  creditor. 

What  right  did  this  addictio  confer  upon  the  creditor  ?  The 
debtor,  says  Gellius,  "capite  poenas  dabat,"  which  he  interprets 
as  meaning  that  his  creditor  might  put  him  to  death,  the  alterna- 
tive being  his  sale  as  a  slave  beyond  the  Roman  frontier.  Accord- 
ing to  this  view  a  man  sentenced  to  twenty-five  asses  for  a  petty 
assault,  which  he  could  not  pay,  might  have  to  suffer  death  in- 
stead. Manifest  theft  was  considered  a  greater  offence,  or  at  least 
to  merit  a  heavier  punishment,  than  non-manifest, — slavery  for  the 
former,  a  pecuniary  penalty  for  the  latter  ;  but,  if  it  had  been  the 
case  that  every  judicahis  who  failed  within  three  months  to  satisfy 
his  creditor  might  be  put  to  death,  then  the  non-manifest  thief 
against  whom  a  judgment  had  been  obtained  must  often  in  the 
end  have  suffered  a  penalty  more  serious  than  that  which  overtook 
him  whose  theft  had  been  manifest, — slavery  for  the  graver  offence, 
death  for  the  lighter.  Capite  poenas  dabat,  therefore,  cannot  have 
meant  death.  But  it  is  just  as  impossible  that  it  can  have  meant 
slavery.  And  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  addif.tus,  even 
after  the  completion  of  his  two  months  of  provisional  detention, 
was  still  de  jure  free, — that  he  was  not  capite  minutus  even  as 
regarded  citizenship  or  family  rights,  and  that  any  property  he  had 
still  remained  his  own.  The  only  other  explanation  is  that  "he 
paid  the  penalty  with  his  person,"  in  contradistinction  to  "his 
means. "  Caput  is  used  in  opposition  to  bona.  Under  the  law  of 
the  Tables,  when  the  manus  injectio  was  at  the  instance  of  one 
creditor  only,  the  extent  of  the  latter's  right  was  to  detain  his 
debtor  in  free  bondage,  making  what  use  he  could  of  his  services, 
and  exercising  discipline  over  him  as  if  he  were  a  slave.  But  for 
the  mistaken  notion  that  a  creditor  was  entitled  after  the  expiry 
of  the  three  months  to  put  his  debtor  to  death — of  which  there  is 
not  a  single  instance  on  record — it  is  unlikely  that  any  one  would 
have  thought  of  imputing  to  the  partis  secanto  such  an  inhuman 
meaning  as  that  a  plurality  of  creditors  might  cut  the  body  of  their 
addictus  in  pieces  and  each  take  a  share. 

The  opinion  is  entertained  by  many  jurists  that  the  partis  secanto 
of  the  Tables  referred  not  to  the  body  but  to  the  belongings  of  the 
debtor, — that  when  there  were  concurrent  creditors  they  shared  his 
familia  amongst  them.  There  are  two  difficulties  to  face,  — (1 )  that, 
once  a  debtor  was  in  the  hands  of  a  creditor,  even  provisionally, 
manus  injectio  by  a  second  creditor  was  impossible  ;  and  (2)  that 
the  debtor's  estate  did  not  fall  within  the  power  of  the  incarcerat- 
ing creditor.  The  first  is  removed  by  a  suggestion  of  Voigt's,  that 
the  plurality  of  creditors  Gellius  speaks  of  may  have  referred  to 
the  case  of  co-heirs  taking  proceedings  against  a  debtor  of  their 
ancestor's.  The  second  disappears  on  a  slight  rearrangement  of 
the  words  of  the  Tables  as  Gellius  records  them.1  The  result  to 

1  Reconstructions  are  always  hazardous.  But,  on  the  footing  above 
explained,  the  provision  of  the  Tables  may  have  been  something  like 


which  it  brings  us  is  this  :  where  there  was  but  one  creditor  con- 
cerned, and  the  two  months  of  provisional  detention  expired  with- 
out payment,  or  intervention  of  a  vindex,  or  compromise  of  some 
sort,  the  debtor  definitively  became  his  creditor's  free  bondman  in 
virtue  of  the  magisterial  addictio  ;  but,  where  co-heirs  were  con- 
cerned, as  bondage  and  service  to  all  of  them  would  have  been 
inconvenient  if  not  impossible  when  they  were  not  to  continue  to 
possess  the  inheritance  in  common,  the  debtor  was  sent  across  the 
Tiber  and  sold  as  a  slave,  and  the  price  got  for  him  divided  among 
them.  If  one  or  other  got  more  than  his  fair  share,  no  harm  was 
done  ;  for  the  disproportion  could  eventually  be  redressed  in  an 
action  of  partition  (actio  familiae  erciscundae). 

The  disgraceful  cruelties  and  indignities  to  which  credi- 
tors subjected  both  their  judgment  and  nexal  debtors  led 
to  many  a  commotion  in  the  first  two  centuries  of  the 
republic.  The  latter  were  probably  much  more  numerous 
than  the  judicati,  and,  being  in  great  part  the  victims  of 
innocent  misfortune,  it  was  the  sufferings  they  endured  at 
the  hands  of  relentless  creditors  that  so  often  roused  the 
sympathies  and  indignation  of  the  populace.  But  the 
judgment-debtors  had  suffered  along  with  them;  and  some 
of  the  provisions  of  the  Pcetilian  law  of  428  were  meant 
to  protect  them  against  the  needless  and  unjustifiable 
severity  that  had  characterized  their  treatment.  The 
manus  injectio  itself  was  not  abolished,  nor  the  possible 
intervention  of  a  vindex ;  neither  were  the  domum  duetto 
that  followed,  and  the  provisional  imprisonment  with  the 
light  chains,  authorized  by  the  Tables  while  it  lasted  ;  nor 
was  the  formal  addictio  of  the  debtor  to  his  creditor  when 
the  sixty  days  had  expired  without  arrangement.  But 
after  addiction,  if  it  was  for  nothing  more  than  civil  debt, 
there  were  to  be  no  more  dungeons  and  stripes,  fetters  and 
foot-blocks ;  the  creditor  was  to  treat  his  debtor  and  his 
industry  as  a  source  of  profit  that  would  in  time  diminish 
and  possibly  extinguish  his  indebtedness,  rather  than  as 
an  object  upon  which  he  might  perpetrate  any  cruelty  by 
way  of  punishment.  Although  the  edict  of  P.  Rutilius  of 
647  u.c.  provided  a  creditor  with  machinery  for  attacking 
the  estate  of  his  debtor,  he  had  still  the  alternative  of 
incarceration.  This  might  be  avoided  under  the  Julian 
law  of  cessio  by  the  debtor's  making  a  complete  surrender 
of  his  goods  to  his  creditor ;  but,  failing  such  surrender, 
incarceration  continued  to  be  resorted  to  even  under  the 
legislation  of  Justinian.  Latterly,  however,  it  was  not  by 
manus  injectio  that  the  incarceration  was  effected ;  for  it 
went  out  of  use  with  the  definitive  establishment  of  the 
formular  system  of  procedure. 

It  was  as  directed  against  judgment  and  nexal  debtors  (see  infra, 
p.  693)  that  manus  injectio  was  of  most  importance  and  chiefly 
made  its  mark  in  history.  But  there  were  other  cases  in  which  it 
was  resorted  to  under  special  statutory  authority,  where  a  remedy 
seemed  advisable  more  sharp  and  summary  than  that  by  ordinary 
action.  In  some  of  these  it  was  spoken  of  as  manus  injectio  pro 
judicato  (i.  e. ,  as  if  upon  a  judgment),  in  others  as  simple  manus 
injectio  (manus  injectio  pura).  In  the  first  the  arrestee  was  not 
allowed  to  dispute  his  alleged  indebtedness  in  person  ;  he  could  do 
so  only  through  a  vindex  ;  and  if  no  one  intervened  for  him  in  that 
character  he  was  carried  off  and  dealt  with  by  his  arresting  creditor 
as  if  a  judgment  had  been  obtained  against  him.  In  the  second 
he  was  not  required  to  find  a  vindex,  but  might  himself  dispute 
the  verity  of  the  charge  made  against  him,  under  penalty,  however, 
of  a  duplication  of  his  liability  if  he  failed  in  his  contention.  By  a 
Lex  Vallia,  probably  in  the  latter  half  of  the  6th  century  of  the 
city,  this  manus  injectio  pura  was  substituted  for  that  pro  judicato 
in  all  cases  in  which  the  ground  of  arrest  was  neither  judgment  nor 
depensum,  i.  e. ,  payment  by  a  surety  or  other  party  on  account  of 
the  true  debtor,  who  failed  to  relieve  the  former  within  six  months 
thereafter. 

The  Legis  Actio  per  Pignoris  Capionem.2 — In  the  ritual 


this:  "Tertiis  nundinis  addicitor.  Capite  poenas  dato.  Si  plures 
sunt,  trans  Tiberim  peregre  venum  danto,  partis  secanto.  Si  plus 
minusve  secuerunt,  se  fraude  esto  " — "On  the  third  market-day  there 
shall  be  decree  of  addiction.  The  addictus  shall  then  pay  the  penalty 
with  his  person.  If  there  be  several  creditors  to  whom  he  is  awarded, 
let  them  sell  him  beyond  Tiber  and  divide  the  price.  If  any  of  them 
have  got  more  or  less  than  his  fair  share,  no  harm  shall  result." 

2  To  the  literature  on  p.  681,  note  1,  add  Degenkolb,  Die  Lex  Hiero- 


686 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  CIVILE. 


Per  of  the  actio  sacramenti  the  vis  civilis  et  festucaria  was  a 
pignoris  reminiscence  of  the  vera  solida  ins  with  which  men  settled 
^P"5'  their  disputes  about  property  in  the  earliest  infancy  of  the 
nem*  commonwealth.  Hanus  injectio  was  a  survival  from  times 
when  the  wronged  was  held  entitled  to  lay  hands  upon 
the  wrongdoer,  and  himself  subject  him  to  punishment ; 
custom  and  legislation  intervened  merely  to  regulate  the 
conditions  and  mode  of  exercise  of  what  essentially  was 
still  self-help.  In  pignoris  capio  self-help  was  likewise 
the  dominant  idea.  It  may  be  fairly  enough  described 
by  the  single  word  distress, — the  taking  by  one  man  of 
property  belonging  to  another  in  satisfaction  of  or  in 
security  for  a  debt  due  by  the  latter  which  he  had  failed 
to  pay.  The  taking  did  not  proceed  upon  any  judgment, 
nor  did  it  require  the  warrant  of  a  magistrate ;  it  might 
be  resorted  to  even  in  the  absence  of  the  debtor ;  but  it 
required  to  be  accompanied  by  certain  words  of  style, 
spoken  probably  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  It  was 
only  in  a  few  exceptional  cases  that  it  was  competent, 
in  some  by  force  of  custom,  in  others  by  statute.  What 
was  the  procedure,  and  what  its  effects,  are  far  from  certain. 
Ihering,  founding  on  some  expressions  of  Cicero's,  con- 
jectures that,  whether  the  debt  was  disputed  or  not,  the 
distrainer  could  neither  sell  nor  definitely  appropriate  his 
pignus  without  magisterial  authority, — that  in  every  case 
he  was  bound  to  institute  proceedings  in  justification  of 
his  caption,  and  to  take  in  them  the  position  of  plaintiff. 
The  idea  is  ingenious,  and  puts  the  pignoris  capio  in  a 
new  and  interesting  light.  It  makes  it  a  summary  means 
of  raising  a  question  of  right  for  whose  judicial  arbitra- 
ment no  other  process  of  law  was  open, — with  the  addi- 
tional advantage  that  it  secured  instant  satisfaction  to 
the  raiser  of  it  in  the  event  of  the  question  being  deter- 
mined in  his  favour.  If  against  him,  the  inevitable  result, 
in  substance  at  least,  must  have  been  a  judgment  that  he 
had  no  right  to  retain  his  pledge,  with  probably  a  finding 
that  he  was  further  liable  to  its  owner  in  the  value  of  it, 
as  a  punishment  for  his  precipitancy.1 

Pro-  Judicial  or  Quasi-Judicial  Procedure  outside  the  Legis  Actiones. 

cedure  — Whatever  may  have  been  the  extent  of  the  field  covered  by  the 
outside  actions  of  the  law,  they  did  not  altogether  exclude  other  judicial 
legis  or  quasi-judicial  agencies.  The  supreme  magistrate  every  now  and 
actiones.  then  was  called  upon  to  intervene  in  matters  brought  under  his 
cognizance  by  petition  or  complaint,  in  which  his  aid  was  sought 
not  so  much  to  protect  a  vested  right  of  property  or  claim  as  to 
maintain  public  order,  or  to  prevent  the  occurrence  or  continu- 
ance of  a  state  of  matters  that  might  prove  prejudicial  to  family  or 
individual  interests.  The  process  was  not  an  action,  with  its  stages 
injure  and  injudicio,  but  an  inquiry  conducted  from  first  to  last 
by  the  magistrate  himself ;  and  his  finding,  unless  it  was  a  dis- 
missal of  the  complaint  or  petition,  was  embodied  in  an  order 
(decretum,  interdictum)  which  it  was  for  him  to  enforce  by  such 
means  as  he  thought  fit, — manu  militari  or  by  fine  or  imprison- 
ment. Some  jurists  are  disposed  to  give  a  very  wide  range  to  this 
magisterial  intervention.  One  of  its  most  important  manifestations 
was  in  connexion  with  disputes  about  the  occupancy  of  the  public 
domain  lands.  These  did  not  belong  in  property  to  the  occupants, 
so  that  an  action  founded  on  ownership  was  out  of  the  question. 
But,  as  the  occupancy  was  not  only  recognized  but  sanctioned  by 
the  state,  it  was  right,  indeed  necessary  in  the  interest  of  public 
order,  that  it  should  be  protected  against  disturbance.  In  the 
measures  resorted  to  for  its  protection  Niebuhr  recognized  the 
origin  of  the  famous  possessory  interdict  uti  possidetis ;  and,  al- 
though opinions  differ  as  to  whether  protection  of  the  better  right 

niea,  Berlin,  1861,  p.  95  sq.  ;  Ihering,  Oeist  d.  rom.  Rechts,  vol.  i. 
§  lie  ;  Voigt,  XII.  Tafeln,  vol.  i.  p.  502  sq. 

1  This  was  according  to  the  spirit  of  the  early  system,  which  en- 
deavoured to  check  reckless  or  dishonest  litigation  by  penalties,—  e.g., 
forfeiture  of  the  summa  sacramenti  and  duplication  of  the  value  of  un- 
restored  property  and  profits  in  the  sacramental  procedure  ;  duplica- 
tion of  the  value  of  the  cause  when  judgment  was  against  the  defend- 
ant in  an  action  upon  an  engagement  embodied  in  a  lex  mancipii  or 
lex  next ;  duplication  against  a  vindex  who  interfered  ineffectually  in 
manus  injectio  against  a  judgment-debtor  ;  duplication  against  an  heir 
who  refused  without  judicial  compulsitor  to  pay  a  legacy  bequeathed 
per  damnationem ;  the  addition  of  one-third  more  by  way  of  penalty 
against  a  debtor  found  liable  in  an  actio  certae  creditae  pecuniae,  &c. 


or  prevention  of  a  breach  of  the  peace  was  what  primarily  influ- 
enced the  magistrate's  intervention,  there  is  a  pretty  general  accord 
in  accepting  this  view.  Another  illustration  of  this  magisterial 
intervention  is  to  be  found  in  the  interdiction  of  a  spendthrift, — a 
decree  depriving  of  his  power  of  administration  a  man  who  was 
squandering  his  family  estate  and  reducing  his  children  to  penury ; 
a  third  presents  itself  in  the  removal  of  a  tutor  from  office  on  the 
ground  of  negligence  or  maladministration,  brought  under  the 
notice  of  the  magistrate  by  any  third  party  in  what  was  called 
postulatio  suspecti  tutoris  ;  and  a  fourth  in  the  putting  of  a  creditor 
in  possession  of  the  goods  of  an  insolvent  debtor,  which  must  have 
been  common  enough  even  before  the  general  bankruptcy  regula- 
tions of  the  Rutilian  edict.  These  are  to  be  taken  merely  as  ex- 
amples of  this  magisterial  intervention,  which  manifested  itself  in 
very  various  directions  ;  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how  largely  such  pro- 
cedure might  be  utilized  for  remedying  the  grievances  of  persons 
who,  from  defect  of  complete  legal  title,  want  of  statutory  authority, 
or  otherwise,  were  not  in  a  position  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
"actions  of  the  law." 

In  one  of  the  Valerio-Horatian  laws  consequent  on  the  second 
secession  of  the  plebeians  there  was  mention  of  ten  judges  (judices 
decemviri),  whose  persons  were  declared  as  inviolable  as  those  of 
the  tribunes  of  the  people  and  the  plebeian  sediles.  These  were  a 
body  of  judges  elected  to  officiate  on  remit  from  a  tribune  or  sedile 
in  questions  arising  between  members  of  the  plebeian  body.  We 
are  without  details  as  to  the  institution  of  this  plebeian  judicatory, 
the  questions  that  fell  under  its  cognizance,  the  forms  of  process 
employed,  the  law  administered  by  it,  and  the  effect  of  its  judg- 
ments. It  is  not  much  referred  to  by  the  historians  ;  and  its 
decadence  has  been  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  Lex  Hortensia 
of  468  made  the  nuiiditiae  lawful  court  days  (dies  fasti),  and  so 
made  it  possible  for  the  country  folks  coming  to  the  city  to  market 
to  carry  on  their  processes  before  the  praetor. 

As  all  in  a  manner  exercising  judicial  or  quasi-judicial  functions 
must  also  be  mentioned  the  pontiffs,  the  consuls,  and  afterwards 
the  censors  as  magistri  morum,  the  chiefs  of  the  gentcs  within  the 
gentile  corporations,  and  heads  of  families  within  their  households. 
While  it  may  be  the  fact  that  with  the  enactment  of  the  XII. 
Tables  the  jurisdiction  of  the  pontiffs 2  was  materially  narrowed, 
it  certainly  did  not  disappear, — witness  the  famous  case  in  which 
Cicero  made  before  them  the  oration  of  which  he  was  so  proud, 
Pro  domo  sua.  The  action  of  the  consuls  and  afterwards  of  the 
censors  as  guardians  of  public  morals,  and  the  social  and  political 
disqualifications  and  pecuniary  penalties  with  which  they  visited 
persons  who  had  been  guilty  of  perjury  or  gross  perfidy,  did  not 
a  little  to  foster  fidelity  to  engagements.  Through  the  same  agency 
the  exercise  of  a  variety  of  rights  whose  abuse  could  not  be  made 
matter  of  action — the  husband's  power  over  his  wife,  the  father's 
over  his  children — was  controlled  and  kept  within  bounds.  It 
was  not  on  light  grounds,  indeed,  that  the  majesty  of  the  pater- 
familias within  the  household  could  be  called  in  question  ;  it  was 
only  when  he  forgot  that  in  the  exercise  of  serious  discipline  within 
his  family  he  was  bound  to  act  judicially.  For  he  also  was  a  judge 
— judex  domesticus,  as  he  is  often  called,  though  in  all  cases  of 
gravity  he  was  required  to  invoke  the  advice  of  his  kinsfolk  in  a 
family  council.  On  him  lay  the  duty  of  controlling  his  family ; 
if  he  failed  to  do  so  he  was  himself  in  danger  of  censorial  animad- 
version. That  his  gens  also,  if  he  were  a  patrician,  had  some  super- 
vision and  power  of  calling  him  to  account  is  extremely  probable  ; 
every  corporation  had  it  more  or  less  over  its  members  ;  but  neither 
historians  nor  jurists  give  us  any  definite  information. 

Between  citizens  and  foreigners  with  whom  Rome  was  in  alliance  Reci; 
by  a  treaty  conferring  reciprocal  right  of  action  the  proceedings  ratio 
took  the  form  known  as  recuperatio.3  It  was  an  international 
process,  modelled  to  some  extent  upon,  and  deriving  some  of  its 
technical  terms  from,  the  fetial  clarigatio.  The  action  was  always 
raised  in  the  forum  contractus.  The  magistrate  ordinarily  presiding 
there  heard  what  parties  had  to  say  in  plaint  and  defence,  and  then 
put  in  simple  shape  the  points  of  fact  arising  on  them,  authorizing 
the  recuperators  to  whom  the  matter  was  remitted  to  find  for 
plaintiff  or  defendant  according  to  circumstances.  The  recuperators 
were  sometimes  three,  sometimes  five,  sometimes  still  more  numer- 
ous, but  always  in  odd  number ;  whether  the  nationality  of  both 
parties  required  to  be  represented  we  are  not  told.  Expedition 
being  in  most  cases  a  matter  of  importance,  recuperators  were  re- 
quired to  give  judgment  within  ten  days.  How  execution  pro- 
ceeded upon  it,  if  it  were  for  the  plaintiff,  does  not  clearly  appear ; 


2  See  Hiillmann,  Jus  pontifidum  der  Rtimer,  Bonn,  1837  ;  Cauvet, 
Le  droit  pontifical  chez  les  anciens  Romains,  Caen,  1869  ;  Bouch6- 
Leclerq,  Les  pontifes  de  Vane.  Rome,  Paris,  1871  ;  Marquardt,  Rom. 
Staatsverwalt. ,  vol.  iii.  p.  290  sq. 

3  See  Collinan,  De  Romanor.  jud.  recuperatorio,  Berlin,  1835  ;  Carl 
Sell,  Die  recuperatio  der  Romer,  Brunswick,  1837  ;  Huschke  (rev.  Sell), 
in  Richter's  Krit.  Jahrbucher,  vol.  i.  (1837),  pp.  868-911  ;  Voigt,  Jus 
naturale,   &c.,   vol.   ii.   §§  28-32  ;    Karlowa,  Rom.   Civilprocess,  pp. 
218-230. 


•41 


JUS  CIVILE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


687 


Voigt,  founding  on  a  few  words  in  Festus,  concludes  it  must  have 
been  by  something  like  pignoris  capio.  This  recuperatory  pro- 
cedure in  time  came  to  be  resorted  to  in  some  cases  even  where 
both  parties  were  citizens.  There  are  numerous  instances  of  it  in 
Cicero  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  in  most  of  the  praetorian  actions 
ex  dclicto  the  remit  was  not  to  a  judex  but  to  recuperators.  The 
explanation  may  be  in  the  comparative  summariness  of  the  remedy. 

III.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SUBSTANTIVE  INSTITUTIONS 
OF  THE  LAW. 

s  The  Citizen  and  his  "  Caput."- — The  early  law  of  Home 

zen  was  essentially  personal,  not  territorial.  A  man  enjoyed 
'  the  benefit  of  its  institutions  and  of  its  protection,  not 
because  he  happened  to  be  within  Roman  territory,  but 
because  he  was  a  citizen, — one  of  those  by  whom  and  for 
whom  its  law  was  established.  The  theory  of  the  early 
jus  gentium  was  that  a  man  sojourning  within  the  bounds 
of  a  foreign  state  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  latter  and  its 
citizens,  that  he  himself  might  be  dealt  with  as  a  slave, 
and  all  that  belonged  to  him  appropriated  by  the  first 
comer ;  for  he  was  outside  the  pale  of  the  law.  Without 
some  sort  of  alliance  with  Rome  a  stranger  had  no  right 
to  claim  protection  against  maltreatment  of  his  person  or 
attempt  to  deprive  him  of  his  property ;  and  even  then, 
unless  he  belonged  to  a  state  entitled  by  treaty  to  the  in- 
ternational judicial  remedy  of  recuperatio,  it  was  by  an 
appeal  to  the  good  offices  of  the  supreme  magistrate,  or 
through  the  intervention  of  a  citizen  to  whom  he  was 
allied  by  the  (frequently  hereditary)  bond  of  hospitium, 
and  not  by  means  of  any  action  of  the  jus  civile  set  in 
motion  by  himself.  A  non-citizen — originally  hostis,  and 
afterwards  usually  called  peregrimfs 1 — in  time  came  to  be 
regarded  as  entitled  to  all  the  rights  the  jus  gentium  re- 
cognized as  belonging  to  a  freeman,  and  to  take  part  as 
freely  as  a  Roman  in  any  transaction  of  the  jus  gentium ; 
but  that  was  not  until  Rome,  through  contact  with  other 
nations  and  the  growth  of  trade  and  commerce,  had  found 
it  necessary  to  modify  her  jurisprudence  by  the  adoption 
of  many  new  institutions  of  a  more  liberal  and  less  ex- 
clusive character  than  those  of  ihejus  civile. 

A  citizen's  civil  personality  was  technically  his  caput. 
The  extent  of  it  depended  on  his  family  status.  It  was 
only  among  citizens  that  the  supremacy  of  the  paterfamilias 
and  the  subjection  of  those  in  manu,  potestate,  or  mancipio 
were  recognized, — only  among  them  therefore  that  the  posi- 
tion of  an  individual  in  the  family  was  of  moment.  While 
in  public  life  a  man's  supremacy  or  subjection  in  the 
family  was  immaterial,  in  private  life  it  was  the  pater- 
familias alone  who  enjoyed  full  jural  capacity.  Those 
subject  to  him  had  a  more  limited  personality ;  and,  so 
far  as  capacity  to  take  part  in  transactions  of  the  jus  civile 
was  concerned,  it  was  not  inherent  in  them  but  derived 
from  their  paterfamilias :  they  were  the  agents  of  his 
will,  representatives  of  his  persona  in  every  act  whereby 
a  right  was  acquired  by  them  for  the  family  to  which 
they  belonged. 

'  itis        Whenever  a  citizen  either  ceased  altogether  to  be  a  mem- 
ni~      ber  of  a  Roman  family  or  passed  from  one  family  into  an- 
other, there  was  technically  capitis  minutio  or  deminutio,  ex- 
cept in  the  cases  of  filiifamilias.  and  filiaefamilias  becoming 
flamens  or  vestals ;  for,  though  they  changed  their  family, 


1  Neither  "alien"  nor  "foreigner"  is  an  adequate  rendering  of 
peregrinus.  For  peregrini  included  not  only  citizens  of  other  states 
or  colonies,  independent  or  dependent,  but  also  d7r6Xi5es, — men  who 
could  not  call  themselves  citizens  (cives)  at  all,  as,  for  example,  the 
dediticii  whom  Eome  had  vanquished  and  whose  civic  organization 
she  had  destroyed,  offenders  sent  into  banishment,  &c.  ;  and  until 
Caracalla's  general  grant  of  the  franchise  the  greater  proportion  of  her 
provincial  subjects  were  also  spoken  of  as  peregrins.  This,  though 
linguistically  objectionable,  is  a  safer  word  than  "non-citizen";  for 
the  latter  would  include  the  Junian  Latins  of  the  early  empire,  who, 
though  not  citizens,  yet  were  not  reckoned  as  peregrini. 


yet  it  was  by  passing  from  a  human  into  a  divine  one. 
When  a  citizen  forfeited  his  freedom,  his  capitis  deminutio 
was  said  to  be  maxima ;  he  lost  all  capacity,  whether  under 
the  jus  civile  or  the  jus  gentium.  When,  retaining  freedom, 
he  went  into  exile  or  joined  a  Latin  colony,  or  otherwise 
became  a  peregrin,  the  diminution  of  his  capacity  was  only 
media  or  minor;  it  was  his  rights  and  privileges  under 
the  jus  civile  that  alone  were  affected.  When  both  free- 
dom and  citizenship  remained,  and  no  more  occurred  than 
the  severance  of  his  connexion  with  a  particular  family 
(familiae  mutatio),  the  diminution  was  said  to  be  minima. 
Very  simple  illustrations  present  themselves  in  the  case  of 
a  paterfamilias  becoming  filiusfamilias  by  adrogation,  or  a 
materfamilias  passing  into  the  hand  of  a  husband  by  con- 
farreation  or  coemption ;  in  both  cases  he  or  she  who  had 
been  sui  juris  thereby  became  alieni  juris.  This  was  descent 
in  the  family  scale.  It  almost  appears  as  if  some  of  the 
later  Roman  jurists  assumed,  as  do  many  moderns,  that 
such  descent  or  degradation  was  essential  to  the  idea  of 
minutio  capitis ;  for  Paul  accounts  for  its  presence  in  the 
case  of  emancipation — which  converted  &  filiusfamilias  into 
a  paterfamilias,  and  thus  manifestly  improved  his  status — 
by  the  observation  that  in  the  process  of  release  from  his 
father's  potestas  a  child  had  to  pass,  for  however  brief  a 
period,  through  a  condition  of  quasi-slavery  (mancipium). 
But  in  reality  degradation  had  nothing  to  do  with  it.  It 
was  immaterial  whether  the  change  was  from  a  higher 
family  position  to  a  lower,  or  from  a  lower  to  a  higher,2 
or  to  the  same  position  in  the  new  family  that  had  been 
held  in  the  old, — as  when  a,  filiusfamilias  was  transferred 
by  his  father  into  the  potestas  of  an  adopter,  or  when  the 
filiifamilias  of  a  person  giving  himself  in  adrogation  passed 
with  him  into  the  potestas  of  the  adrogator  :  in  every  case 
there  was  capitis  minutio.  It  was  not  the  change  of  family 
position  that  caused  it,  but  the  change  of  family  itself, — 
the  change  from  one  family  to  another.  The  civil  per- 
sonality of  Titius  while  a  filiusfamilias  in  the  potestas  of 
Sempronius, — the  expectancy  of  succession,  the  agnatic 
relationships,  the  derivative  capacity  for  being  a  party 
to  a  mancipation  or  a  sponsio  that  resulted  from  the  rela- 
tionship,— all  came  to  an  end  through  the  severance  of 
the  family  tie.  He  might  acquire  a  new  and  independent 
capacity  on  becoming  sui  juris  by  emancipation,  or  a  new 
derivative  capacity  on  passing  into  the  potestas  of  Maevius 
by  adoption ;  but  his  old  personality  quoad  civilia  was 
extinguished.  This  is  what  some  of  the  jurists  mean  when 
they  say  that  capitis  deminutio  was  civil  death. 

The  most  important  consequence  of  minima  capitis  de- 
minutio was  that  it  not  only  extinguished  patria  potestas 
where  it  existed,  but  severed  the  bond  of  agnation  between 
the  capite  minutus  and  all  those  who  had  previously  been 
related  to  him  as  agnates.  There  was  no  longer  any  right 
of  succession  between  them  on  intestacy ;  their  reciprocal 
prospective  rights  of  tutory  were  defeated,  and  the  minutio 
of  either  tutor  or  ward  put  an  end  to  a  subsisting  guardian- 
ship, assuming  always  that  it  was  a  tutela  legitima  or  agnatic 
curafuriosi.  Very  remarkable,  yet  quite  logical,  was  the 
doctrine  that  the  minutio  extinguished  the  claims  of  credi- 
tors of  the  minutus ;  their  debtor,  the  person  with  whom 
they  had  contracted,  was  civilly  dead,  and  dead  without 
an  heir,  and  therefore  there  was  no  one  against  whom  an 
action  of  the  jus  civile  could  be  directed  in  order  to  enforce 
payment.  But  equity  eventually  provided  a  remedy,  by 
giving  the  creditors  a  praetorian  action  in  which  the  minutio 
was  held  as  rescinded,  and  which  the  new  paterfamilias  was 
bound  to  defend  on  pain  of  having  to  give  up  all  the  estate 

2  Children  who  became  sui  juris  by  their  parent's  death  did  not 
change  their  family  ;  the  change  was  not  in  them,  but  in  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  family  head  ;  therefore  they  were  not  regarded  as  capite 
minuti. 


688 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  CIVILE. 


he  had  acquired  through  the  adrogation  or  in  manum  con- 
ventio. 

Law  of  The  Law  of  the  Family  Relations.—  So  far  as  appears 
family  no  serious  inroad  was  made  by  the  XII.  Tables  on  the  law 
relations.  affecting  husband  and  wife,  unless  in  the  recognition  of  the 
legality  of  marriage  entered  into  without  any  solemnity, 
and  not  involving  that  subjection  of  the  wife  to  the  hus- 
band (manus)  which  was  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 
patrician  confarreation  and  plebeian  coemption.  These 
were  left  untouched.  But  it  seems  to  have  become  a 
practice  with  some  of  the  plebeians  to  tie  the  marriage 
bond  rather  loosely  in  the  first  instance, — possibly  (as 
became  quite  general  at  a  later  period)  in  consequence  of 
objection  by  the  women  to  renounce  their  independence 
and  right  to  retain  their  own  property  and  earnings, 
more  probably  because  taking  a  woman  to  be  merely  the 
mother  of  their  children  (matrimonium)  had  been  forced 
upon  them  before  coemption  had  been  introduced  as  a 
means  of  making  her  a  lawful  wife,  and  so  they  had  become 
in  a  manner  habituated  to  it.  But  there  seems  also  to  have 
been  an  idea  that,  as  a  man  might  acquire  the  ownership 
of  a  thing  to  which  his  legal  title  was  defective  by  pro- 
longed possession  of  it,  so  he  might  acquire  manus,  with 
all  its  consequences,  over  the  woman  with  whom  he  had 
thus  informally  united  himself  by  prolonged  cohabitation 
with  her  as  his  wife.  This  had  become  customary  law. 
The  Tables  accepted  it ;  all  that  was  needed  was  to  define 
the  conditions  under  which  mantis  should  be  held  to  have 
been  superinduced,  and  the  wife  converted  from  a  doubtful 
uxor  into  a  lawful  materfamilias.  Hence  the  provision 
that,  if  a  woman,  married  neither  by  confarreation  nor 
coemption,  desired  to  retain  her  independence,  she  must 
periodically  absent  herself  for  three  nights  from  her  hus- 
band's house  (trinoctialis  usurpatio), — twelve  months'  un- 
interrupted cohabitation  being  required  to  give  him  that 
power  over  her  which  would  have  been  created  instantly 
had  the  marriage  been  accompanied  by  either  of  the 
recognized  solemnities. 

Amongst  the  fragments  of  the  Tables  so  industriously  collected 
there  is  none  that  refers  to  a  wife's  marriage  portion  (dos) ;  but  it 
is  hardly  conceivable  that  it  was  as  yet  unknown.  Justinian  says 
that  in  ancient  times  it  was  regarded  as  a  donation  to  the  husband 
with  his  wife,  rather  than  as  a  separate  estate  that  was  to  be  used 
by  him  while  the  marriage  lasted  but  to  revert  to  her  or  her  repre- 
sentatives on  its  dissolution.  And  it  is  easy  to  see  that,  where 
there  was  manus,  the  wife  becoming  a  member  of  her  husband's 
family  and  everything  of  hers  becoming  his,  such  must  originally 
have  been  its  character.  But  even  then,  when  a  mau  gave  his 
daughter  (.filiafamilias) — who  could  have  nothing  of  her  own — in 
marriage,  and  promised  her  husband  a  portion  with  her,  there 
must  have  been  some  process  of  law  for  compelling  him  to  pay  it ; 
and  Voigt's  conjecture  that  an  actio  dictae  dotis  was  employed  for 
the  purpose  has  much  in  its  favour.  As  regards  divorce,  Cicero 
alludes  vaguely  to  a  provision  in  the  Tables  about  a  man  depriving 
his  wife  of  the  house-keys  and  turning  her  out  of  doors,  with  some 
such  words  as  "  take  what  is  thine  and  get  thee  gone."  This  can- 
not have  applied  to  confarreate  marriages,  which  could  be  dissolved 
only  by  the  religious  ceremony  of  diffarreation.  And  even  as  regards 
other  marriages  the  statement  of  the  historians  is  that  divorces 
were  few  and  far  between  until  the  6th  century  of  the  city,  and 
that,  until  the  same  date,  any  man  who  turned  his  wife  away, 
however  serious  the  ground,  without  the  cognition  of  the  family 
council  was  liable  to  penalties  at  the  hands  of  the  censors. 

Of  the  two  or  three  provisions  of  the  Tables  that  affected  details 
of  the  patria  potestas,  which  itself  was  assumed  to  be  so  well  estab- 
lished by  customary  law  as  to  need  no  statutory  sanction  or  defini- 
tion, one  was  in  the  words  "si  paterfamilias  ter  filium  venum 
duit,  a  patre  filius  liber  esto. "  This  came  to  be  construed  by  the 
jurists  as  meaning  that  so  powerful  was  the  bond  of  the  potestas 
that  it  could  not  definitively  be  loosed  until  the  father  had  three 
times  gone  through  the  process  of  fictitious  sale  by  which  emancipa- 
tion was  effected.  But  the  conception  of  the  law  seems  to  indicate 
that  its  original  purpose  must  have  been  rather  to  confer  a  benefit 
on  a  son  in  potestate,  by  declaring  him  ipso  jure  free  from  it  on  a 
certain  event,  than  to  place  difficulties  in  the  way  of  his  emancipa- 
tion. "If  a  house-father  have  thrice  sold  his  son,  the  latter  shall  be 
free  from  his  father."  It  reads  as  if  the  intention  were  to  rescue  the 


son  from  what,  by  its  frequent  repetition,  was  suggestive  of  a  total 
absence  of  parental  affection  rather  than  reluctant  obedience  to  over- 
whelming necessity.  May  not  its  object  have  been  to  restrain  the 
practice,  which  prevailed  to  a  late  period  in  the  empire,  of  men  giving 
their  children  to  their  creditors  in  security  for  their  loans, — a  process 
that,  at  the  time  of  the  Tables,  could  be  effected  only  by  an  actual 
transfer  of  the  child  per  aes  et  libram  as  a  free  bondman  (mancipii 
causa),  under  condition  of  reconveyance  when  the  loan  was  repaid  ? 
The  nature  of  the  relation  between  master  and  slave,  like  that  of 
mamis  and  patria  potestas,  seems  also  to  have  been  too  notorious  to 
require  exposition  in  the  Tables.  We  find  recorded  only  two  re- 
ferences to  it,  one  dealing  with  the  case  of  a  slave  who  had  a  con- 
ditional testamentary  gift  of  freedom  (statu  liber),  the  other  with 
uoxal  surrender  (noxae  deditio).  The  provision  about  noxal  sur- 
render in  all  probability  was  not  limited  to  a  slave  ;  it  was  to  the 
effect  that,  if  a  member  of  a  man's  family  (familiaris,  i.e.,  a  son  or 
a  daughter  in  potestate  or  a  slave)  committed  a  theft  from  or  did 
mischief  to  property  belonging  to  a  third  party,  or  a  domestic 
animal  belonging  to  one  man  did  harm  to  another,  the  father  of 
the  delinquent  child,  or  the  owner  of  the  slave  or  animal,  should 
either  surrender  him  or  it  to  the  person  injured  or  make  reparation 
in  damages.  In  course  of  time  the  surrender  came  to  be  regarded 
as  a  means  of  avoiding  the  primary  obligation  of  making  reparation. 
But  comparative  jurisprudence  recognizes  in  the  enactment  of  the 
Tables  a  modified  survival  of  the  ancient  right  of  an  injured  party 
to  have  the  delinquent  corpus, — man,  beast,  or  thing, — given  up  to 
him  to  wreak  his  revenge  upon  it  privately,  the  modification  con- 
sisting in  the  alternative  of  reparation  offered  to  the  owner.  This 
noxal  surrender,  failing  reparation,  had  gone  out  of  use  in  the  case 
of  daughters  in  potestate  before  the  time  of  Gaius,  and  in  the  case 
of  sous  before  that  of  Justinian  ;  but  the  law  remained  unchanged 
so  far  as  slaves  and  domestic  animals  were  concerned  even  in  that 
emperor's  legislation. 

Guardianship  and  the  Introduction  of  the  Order  of  Agnates.  Gent 
— So  long  as  Rome  was  patrician  the  gens  charged  itself  guan 
with  the  guardianship  of  a  clansman's  orphaned  pupil ian8^ 
children  and  his  widow  and  unmarried  daughters  above 
pupilarity  after  his  decease  (tutela),  as  well  as  with  that  of 
male  members  of  his  family  who  were  sui  juris,  but  above 
the  age  of  pupilarity,  when  they  chanced  to  be  lunatic,  im- 
becile, prodigal,  or  helplessly  infirm  (cura,  curatio,  curatela). 
That  was  on  the  supposition,  as  regarded  children,  widow, 
and  unmarried  daughters  above  pupilarity,  that  no  testa- 
mentary appointment  of  tutors  by  their  deceased  parent 
had  displaced  the  gens,  though  whether  testamentary  nomi- 
nations were  then  held  competent  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
The  gens  in  council,  in  all  probability,  appointed  one  of 
its  members  to  act  as  tutor  or  curator  as  the  case  might 
be,  itself  prescribed  his  duties,  and  itself  called  him  to  ac- 
count for  any  failure  in  his  administration. 

But,  as  this  gentile  tutory  could  not  be  extended  to  the 
plebeians,  among  whom  some  law  of  guardianship  was  as 
much  required  as  among  their  fellow-citizens  of  the  higher 
order,  the  decemvirs  found  it  expedient  to  devise  a  new 
one  of  universal  application.  The  Tables  contained  no 
express  authority  for  testamentary  nomination  of  tutors 
to  the  widow  of  the  testator,  or  to  his  pupil  children  and 
grown-up  unmarried  daughters ;  but  such  appointment,  if 
unknown  previously,  was  soon  held  to  be  justified  by  a 
liberal  interpretation  of  the  very  inclusive  provision,  "  uti 
legassit  suae  rei,  ita  jus  esto."  In  the  absence  of  testa- 
mentary appointment  the  nearest  male  agnates  of  lawful 
age  were  to  be  tutors.  This  tutory  of  agnates  was  an  in- 
vention of  the  decemvirs,  just  as  was  the  agnates'  right  of 
succession  on  intestacy.  The  plebeians  had  no  gentes,  at 
least  until  a  much  later  period ;  so,  to  make  the  law  equal 
for  all,  it  was  necessary  to  introduce  a  new  order  of  heirs 
and  tutors.  "Tutores  ...  ex  lege  XII.  Tabularum  in-Gu 
troducuntur  .  .  .  agnati"  is  the  very  notable  language  iau 
of  Ulpian.  And  his  words  are  very  similar  in  speaking  °' 
of  their  right  of  succession ;  for,  while  he  says  of  testament- 
ary inheritances  no  more  than  that  they  were  confirmed  by 
the  XII.  Tables,  he  explains  that  the  legitimae  hereditates 
of  agnates  and  patrons  were  derived  from  them.1  The 


1  Ulp.,  Frag.,   xxvii.  5,   "legitimae  hereditatis  jus  ...  ex  lege 
Duodecim  Tabularum  descendit."     This  derivation  of  agnatic  inherit- 


JUS  CIVILE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


689 


phrases  legitima  cognatio,  legitima  hereditas,  legitimi  heredes, 
tutela  legitima,  tutores  legitimi  themselves  proclaim  the 
origin  of  agnation,  agnatic  inheritance,  and  agnatic  tutory ; 
for,  though  the  word  legitimus  might  be  applied  to  any  in- 
stitution based  on  statute,  yet  in  the  ordinary  case  it  indi- 
cated one  introduced  by  the  XII.  Tables,  the  law  of  laws. 
A  man's  agnates  were  those  of  his  kinsmen  who  were 
subject  to  the  same  patria  potestas  as  himself,  or  would 
have  been  had  the  common  ancestor  been  still  alive.  A 
man's  sons  and  daughters  in  potestate,  therefore,  whether 
the  relationship  was  by  birth  or  adoption,  and  his  wife  in 
manu  (being  Jiliae  loco)  were  each  other's  agnates.  But  a 
wife  not  in  manu  was  not  their  agnate ;  nor  were  children 
who  had  been  emancipated  or  otherwise  capite  minuti  the 
agnates  of  either  their  brothers  and  sisters  or  their  mother 
in  manu.  A  man  was  an  agnate  of  his  brother's  children, 
assuming  always  that  there  had  been  no  capitis  deminutio 
on  either  side ;  but  he  was  not  an  agnate  of  his  sister's 
children,  for  they  were  not  ejusdem  familiae :  they  were 
agnates  of  their  father's  family,  not  of  their  mother's.  In 
like  manner,  and  again  assuming  the  absence  of  minutio 
capitis,  the  children  of  brothers  were  each  other's  agnates, 
but  not  the  children  of  a  brother  and  a  sister  or  of  two 
sisters.  Brothers  and  sisters  were  agnates  of  the  second 
degree;1  a  man  and  his  brother's  children  were  of  the  third, 
the  children  of  two  brothers  (consobrini)  of  the  fourth, 
and  so  on, — it  being  a  condition,  however,  that  the  kinship 
should  always  result  either  from  lawful  marriage  or  from 
adoption  in  one  or  other  of  its  forms. 

When,  therefore,  a  man  died  leaving  pupil  male  descendants  or 
unmarried  female  descendants  who  by  his  death  became  sui  juris, 
they  got  their  brothers  of  lawful  age  as  their  tutors  ;  if  he  was  sur- 
vived by  his  wife,  and  she  had  been  in  manu,  her  sons,  or  it  might 
be  stepsons,  acted  for  her  in  the  same  capacity  ;  in  either  case  they 
took  office  as  the  nearest  qualified  male  agnates.  If  the  widow  had 
no  sons  or  stepsons  of  full  age,  and  the  children  consequently  no 
brothers,  the  tutory  devolved  on  the  agnates  next  in  order, — i.e., 
the  brothers  germane  and  consanguinean  of  the  deceased  husband 
and  father ;  for  they  were  agnates  of  the  third  degree.  And  so 
with  agnates  of  the  fourth  and  remoter  degrees.  Failing  agnates 
who  could  demonstrate  their  propinquity,  the  tutory  probably 
passed  to  the  gens  when  the  ward  happened  to  belong  to  one.  This 
is  nowhere  expressly  stated  ;  but  Cicero  gives  what  he  represents 
to  be  an  enactment  of  the  Tables,  making  the  fellow-gentiles  of  a 
lunatic  his  guardians  on  failure  of  agnates  ;  and  analogy  seems  to 
justify  the  extension  of  the  same  rule  to  the  case  of  sane  pupil 
and  female  wards. 

The  curatory  of  minors  above  pupilarity  was  of  much 
later  date  than  the  Tables.  The  only  curatories  they 
sanctioned  were  those  of  lunatics  and  spendthrifts.  A 
lunatic  (furiosus)  was  committed  to  the  care  of  his  agnates, 
and,  failing  them,  of  his  fellow-gentiles ;  and  a  few  words 
in  Festus  seem  to  suggest  that  arrangements  had  to  be 
made  by  them  for  his  safe  custody. 

'ner-        Mancipation  and  the  Law  of  Property. — In  the  early  law 
P  in    there  was  no  technical  word  for  ownership  of  things ;  it 
i  and  was  an  element  of  the  house-father's  mamis.     In  time, 
nee    although  it  is  impossible  to  say  when,  the  word  dominium 
ncipi.  came  into  use ;  but,  so  far  as  can  be  discovered,  it  did  not 
occur  in  the  XII.  Tables,  and  must  have  been  of  later 
introduction.     In  those  days,  when  a  man  asserted  owner- 
ship of  a  thing,  he  was  content  to  say,  "  It  is  mine,"  or, 
"It  is  mine  according  to  the  law  of  the  Quirites."     The 
distinction  was  this,  that,  while  the  first  was  sufficient  to 
entitle  a  man  de  facto  holding  a  thing  as  his  own  to  pro- 
tection against  a  thief  or  any  one  attempting  forcibly  to 
ance   from   the  XII.  Tables  was  specially  noticed  by  Danz  in  his 
Gesch.  d.  rom.  Rechts,  2d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1871-73,  vol.  ii.  p.  95,  but 
is  generally  ignored. 

1  To  determine  the  degree  of  propinquity  between  two  persons  it 
was  necessary  to  count  the  generations  upwards  from  the  first  to  the 
common  ancestor  and  downwards  from  him  to  the  second.  Conse- 
quently brothers  were  related  in  the  second  degree,  uncle  and  nephew 
in  the  third,  first  cousins  in  the  fourth,  and  so  on  :  "  tot  gradus  quot 
generatioues." 


dispossess  him,  the  second  was  necessary  when  he  appealed 
to  a  court  of  law  to  declare  the  legality  of  his  title  and 
his  right  to  oust  an  individual  withholding  the  possession 
neither  theftuously  nor  by  force.  It  is  said  by  some  jurists 
of  eminence  that  under  the  law  of  the  Tables  what  after- 
wards came  to  be  called  "dominium  ex  jure  Quiritium"  was 
competent  only  in  the  case  of  res  mancipi, — of  a  man's 
house  and  farm,  and  the  slaves  and  animals  with  which  he 
worked  them.  But  the  usucapion  (or  acquisition  by  pro- 
longed possession)  which  they  confirmed  and  regulated 
undoubtedly  conferred  quiritarian  right ;  and,  as  it  applied 
to  all  things  ownable  without  exception,  it  seems  impossible 
to  maintain  that  res  nee  mancipi  could  not  then  be  held  in 
quiritarian  ownership  as  fully  as  res  mancipi. 

The  modes  in  which  these  two  classes  of  things  might 
be  acquired  in  property  were  very  various.  But  there 
was  this  important  difference, — that,  while  a  natural 
mode  of  acquisition  sufficed  in  the  case  of  res  nee  mancipi, 
some  civil  one  was  necessary  for  the  derivative  acquisition, 
at  all  events,  of  res  mancipi.  The  most  important  were 
mancipation,  surrender  in  court,  usucapion,  and  bequest 
as  singular  modes,  and  inheritance,  in  manum  conventio, 
adrogation,  and  purchase  of  a  confiscated  estate  as  univer- 
sal modes.  All  these,  with  the  exception  of  mancipation, 
applied  equally  to  res  nee  mancipi.  But  the  commonest 
of  all  the  modes  of  transferring  things  of  the  latter  class 
was  simple  tradition.  If  the  transfer  was  by  the  owner, 
with  the  intention  of  passing  the  property,  then  the  simple 
delivery  of  possession  was  enough,  unless  it  was  in  virtue 
of  a  sale ;  in  such  a  case,  and  because  a  vendor  had  as 
yet  no  action  for  the  price,  the  Tables  provided  that  the 
ownership  should  remain  with  him,  notwithstanding  the 
change  of  possession,  until  the  price  was  paid  or  security 
given  for  it. 

The  origin  of  the  distinction  between  mancipable  and  non-man-  Manci- 
cipable  things,  and  of  the  form  of  conveyance  by  mancipation  pation. 
applicable  to  the  first,  has  been  explained  in  connexion  with  the 
reforms  of  Servius  Tullius  (supra,  p.  676).2  As  he  introduced  it, 
mancipation  (then  called  mancipium)  was  not  the  imaginary  sale 
that  Gains  speaks  of,  but  as  real  a  sale  as  could  well  be  conceived, 
— the  weighing  in  scales,  held  by  an  official,  of  the  raw  metal  that 
was  to  be  the  consideration  for  the  transfer  of  a  res  mancipi,  and 
the  handing  of  it  by  the  transferee  to  the  transferrer,  with  the  de- 
claration that  thereby  and  therewith  the  thing  in  question  became 
his  in  quiritary  right, — and  all  this  in  words  of  style,  and  in  the 
presence  of  certain  witnesses  who  represented  the  people,  and  thus 
fortified  the  conveyance  with  a  public  sanction.  As  already  shown, 
there  is  some  reason  to  believe  that,  when  large  quantities  of  metal 
had  to  be  weighed,  the  practice  crept  in  of  having  this  done  before 
the  witnesses  had  assembled  ;  and  in  the  formal  act  only  a  single 
pound  was  weighed  as  representing  the  whole  amount.  This  paved 
the  way  for  the  greater  change  that  resulted  from  the  introduction 
by  the  decemvirs  of  coined  money.  From  that  moment  weighing 
became  unnecessary.  The  price  was  counted  out  before  the  cere- 
mony, and  sometimes  left  to  be  done  afterwards  ;  and,  though,  in 
that  spirit  of  conservatism  that  was  so  marked  in  the  adhesion  to 
time-honoured  forms  after  their  raison  d'etre  was  gone,  the  scale- 
bearer  and  the  scales  were  still  retained  as  indispensable  elements 
of  the  mancipation,  yet  the  scales  were  simply  touched  by  the  pur- 
chaser with  a  single  coin,  in  order  that  he  might  be  able  to  recite 
the  old  formula — "I  say  that  this  slave  is  mine  in  quiritary  right, 
and  that  by  purchase  (for  such  and  such  a  price  ?)  with  these  scales 
and  this  bit  of  copper."  And  that  one  coin,  says  Gaius,  was  then 
handed  by  the  transferee  to  the  transferrer,  as  if  it  were  in  fact  the 
price  of  the  purchase  (quasi  pretii  loco).  Thus  transformed,  the 
mancipation  was  undoubtedly  an  imaginary  sale  ;  for  the  real  price 
might  have  been  paid  weeks  or  months  before,  or  might  not  be  paid 
until  weeks  or  months  afterwards.  The  mancipation  had  become 
nothing  more  than  a  conveyance,  and  in  this  form  it  continued 
down  to  the  end  of  the  3d  century  of  the  empire  to  be  the  appro- 
priate mode  of  transfer  of  a  res  mancipi,  or  at  least  of  conferring  on 
the  transferee  of  such  a  thing  a  complete  legal  title  (dominium  ex 
jure  Quiritium).  After  that,  however,  it  seems  gradually  to  have 
gone  into  disuse,  being  inapplicable  to  lands  out  of  Italy  that  did 

2  Literature  :— Leist,  Mancipation  und  Eigenthumstradttion,  Jena, 
1865 ;  Ihering,  Geist  d.  rom.  Rechts,  vol.  ii.  §  46 ;  Bechmann, 
Geschichte  d.  Kavfs  im  rom.  Recht,  Erlangen,  1876,  pp.  47-299  ; 
Voigt,  XII.  Tafeln,  vol.  i.  §  22,  vol.  ii.  §§  84-88. 

XX.   —   87 


690 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  CIVILE. 


not  enjoy  what  was  called  jus  Itnlicum  ;  and  long  before  the  time 
of  Justinian  it  had  entirely  disappeared. 

The  effects  of  a  mancipation,  provided  the  price  had  been  paid 
or  security  given  for  it,  were  that  the  property  passed  instantly  to 
the  purchaser,  and  that  the  transferrer  was  held  to  warrant  the 
transferee  against  eviction  from  the  moment  the  price  was  received. 
In  the  absence  of  either  payment  or  sureties  for  it,  the  title  still 
remained  with  the  vendor,  so  that  it  was  in  his  power,  by  means 
of  a  real  action,  to  get  back  what  had  been  mancipated,  even 
though  it  had  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  vendee.  The 
vendor's  liability  to  the  vendee  in  the  event  of  eviction  is  usually 
supposed  to  have  arisen  ipso  jure,  that  is  to  say,  without  anything 
expressly  said  about  it ;  the  acceptance  by  the  transferrer  of  the 
coin  with  which  the  scales  had  been  struck  was  held  to  have  im- 
posed upon  him  an  obligation  to  maintain  the  transferee  in  posses- 
sion, under  a  penalty  of  double  the  amount  of  the  price,  recoverable 
by  the  latter  by  what  is  usually  called  an  actio  auctoritatis.  But 
this  ipso  jure  obligation  did  not  arise  when  the  mancipation  was 
either  really  or  fictitiously  gratuitous, — really,  in  the  case  of  dona- 
tions, &c.,  fictitiously,  when,  on  purpose  to  exclude  the  warranty, 
the  recital  of  the  transferee  was  that  the  price  was  a  single  sesterce. 
The  right  of  a  vendee  to  sue  an  actio  auctoritatis  arose  only  when 
eviction  resulted  from  a  decree  in  a  regular  judicial  process  at  the 
instance  of  a  third  party  disputing  his  title,  and  was  conditional 
on  his  having  done  all  that  was  necessary  on  his  part  to  bring  his 
vendor  (auctor)  into  the  field  to  defend  his  own  interests.  And 
the  duration  of  the  auctoritas  was  limited  by  statute  to  two  years 
in  the  case  of  lands  and  houses,  to  one  year  in  the  case  of  other 
things.  As  possession  for  those  periods  was  sufficient  to  cure  any 
defect  in  the  vendee's  title,  it  was  but  reasonable  that  with  their 
expiry  the  vendor's  liability  on  his  warranty  should  be  at  an  end. 

By  a  provision  of  the  Tables  in  the  very  inclusive  terms,  "cum 
nexum  faciet  mancipiumque,  uti  lingua  nuncupassit,  itajusesto," 
the  importance  of  mancipation  was  immensely  increased ;  for  any 
sort  of  qualification  germane  to  the  transaction  might  be  super- 
induced upon  it,  and  the  range  of  its  application  thus  greatly 
extended.  Such  qualifications  were  spoken  of  as  leges  inancipii, — 
self-imposed  terms,  conditions,  or  qualifications  of  the  conveyance, 
which,  as  integral  parts  of  the  transaction  per  aes  et  libram,  partook 
of  its  binding  character  and  were  law  between  the  parties.  The 
matter  of  oral  declaration  might  be  the  acreage  of  lands,  their 
freedom  from  burdens  or  right  to  easements,  reservation  of  a  usu- 
fruct, limitation  of  their  mode  of  use,  undertaking  to  reconvey  on 
a  certain  event,  or  what  not ;  the  result  was  just  so  many  obliga- 
tions created  per  aes  et  libram,  whose  contravention  or  denial 
(Cicero  tells  us)  was  punished  with  a  twofold  penalty.  Ordinarily 
the  words  spoken  in  the  hearing  of  the  witnesses  fixed  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  of  the  liability ;  it  was  enough  that  they  were 
literally  complied  with,  however  much  the  other  party  might  be 
injured  by  something  inconsistent  with  their  spirit,  or  which  he 
had  not  taken  the  precaution  to  require  should  be  made  matter  of 
declaration.  But  there  was  an  exception  (although  possibly  not 
introduced  until  long  after  the  Tables)  in  the  case  of  that  parti- 
cular mancipatory  agreement  which  Avas  known  by  the  name  of 
fiducia,  i.e.,  where  the  mancipation  was  to  a  creditor  in  security  or 
to  a  friend  for  safe  custody,  and  the  engagement  was  to  return  the 
thing  mancipated  in  the  one  case  when  the  debt  secured  by  it  was 
paid  and  in  the  other  on  demand.  In  such  cases  the  transferee 
took  the  conveyance  more  in  the  transferrer's  interest  than  his  own  ; 
he  became  a  trustee,  entitled  to  be  treated  with  consideration,  and 
neither  mulcted  in  a  twofold  penalty  when  his  inability  to  reconvey 
was  due  to  no  fault  of  his,  nor  forced  to  reconvey  until  relieved  of 
charges  incurred  by  him  in  reference  to  the  property.  Accordingly 
it  became  the  practice  to  import  into  the  mancipation  a  reference 
to  fides — "fidei  fiduciae  meum  esse  aio,"  with  explanation  of  the 
purpose,  &c.,  of  \\iefiducia  in  the  relative  lex  mancipii  ;  this  had 
the  effect  of  freeing  alike  the  right  of  the  vendor  and  the  obligation 
of  the  vendee  from  the  hard-and-fast  lines  of  the  jus  strictum,  and 
subordinating  them  to  the  principles  of  bona  fides. 

Surren-  Of  the  civil  modes  of  acquiring  property  on  singular  title  appli- 
ler  in  cable  to  both  res  mancipi  and  res  nee  mancipi  surrender  in  court 
:ourt.  (injure  cessio)  was  just  a  rei  vindicatio  arrested  in  its  initial  stage. 
The  parties,  cedent  and  cessiouary,  appeared  before  the  magistrate  ; 
the  cessionary,  taking  the  position  of  plaintiff,  declared  the  thing 
his  in  quiritary  right ;  the  cedent,  as  defendant,  was  asked  what 
he  had  to  say  in  answer ;  and,  on  his  admission  or  silence,  the 
magistrate  at  once  pronounced  a  decree  (addictio)  which  completed 
the  transfer,  but  which  might  be  subject  to  a  condition  or  other 
limitation,  or  even  to  a  fiduciary  reservation.  It  was  probably  more 
resorted  to  for  the  constitution  of  servitudes,  both  real  and  personal, 
and  transfer  of  such  rights  as  patria  poteslas,  tutory-at-law  of  a 
woman,  or  an  inheritance  that  had  already  vested,  than  for  con- 
veyance of  property.  For  it  was  not  only  inconvenient,  inasmuch 
as  it  required  the  parties  to  appear  before  the  supreme  magistrate 
in  Rome,  and  could  not  be  carried  through  by  a  slave  on  his 
owner's  behalf  (as  mancipation  might),  but  it  had  the  serious  dis- 
advantage that  it  did  not  ipso  jure  imply  any  warranty  of  title  by 


the  cedeut  or  afford  the  cessionary  any  action  against  him  in  the 
event  of  eviction.  The  reason  was  that  in  form  the  right  of  the 
cessionary  flowed  from  the  magisterial  decree, — "Since  you  say 
the  thing  is  yours,  and  the  cedent  does  not  say  it  is  his,  I  declare 
it  yours," — and  not  from  any  act  or  word  of  the  cedent's',  who  was 
passive  in  the  matter. 

Adjudication  was  the  decree  of  a  judge  in  a  divisory  action,  such  Adjudi 
as  one  for  partition  of  an  inheritance  amongst  co-heirs  ;  it  con-  cation, 
ferred  upon  each  of  them  a  separate  and  independent  right  in  a 
part  of  what  as  a  whole  had  previously  been  joint  property. 

Usucapion,1  regulated  by  the  XII.  Tables,  but  not  im-  Usuca- 
probably  recognized  previously  in  a  vague  and  uncertain  pi' 
way,  converted  uninterrupted  possession  (usits)  into  quiri- 
tary property  by  efflux  of  time.  The  provision  in  the 
Tables  was  to  this  effect — "  usus  auctoritas  fundi  biennium 
esto,  ceterarum  rerum  annuus  esto."  The  relation  in  which 
the  words  usits  and  auctoritas  stand  to  each  other  has 
been  a  subject  of  much  discussion  :  the  prevailing  opinion 
amongst  modern  civilians  is  that  the  first  alone  refers  to 
usucapion,  and  the  second  to  the  warranty  of  title  incum- 
bent on  the  vendor  in  a  mancipation,  and  that  both  were 
limited  to  two  years  in  the  case  of  lands  (and,  by  extensive 
interpretation,  houses),  and  to  one  year  in  the  case  of  any- 
thing else.  In  the  later  jurisprudence  the  possession  re- 
quired to  be  based  on  a  sufficient  title  and  the  possessor 
to  be  in  good  faith.  But  the  decemviral  code,  as  is  now 
generally  admitted,  contained  no  such  requirements ;  any 
citizen  occupying  immovables  or  holding  movables  as  his 
own,  provided  they  were  usucaptible  and  he  had  not 
taken  them  theftuously,  acquired  a  quiritary  right  in  two 
years  or  one,  as  the  case  might  be,  simply  on  the  strength 
of  his  possession.  Originally,  therefore,  it  was  simply  the 
conversion  of  de  facto  possession,  no  matter  how  acquired 
so  long  as  not  by  theft,  into  legal  ownership  when  pro- 
longed for  the  statutory  period, — too  often  the  mainte- 
nance of  might  at  the  cost  of  right.  But  in  time  it  came 
to  be  regarded  rather  as  a  remedy  for  some  defect  of  title, 
arising  either  from  irregularity  of  conveyance  or  incapacity 
of  the  party  from  whom  a  transfer  had  been  taken  ;  and 
with  the  progress  of  jurisprudence  it  developed  into  the 
carefully  regulated  positive  prescription  which  has  found 
a  place  in  every  modern  system. 

The  conception  of  the  abstract  notion  of  a  real  right  in  J 
(or  over)  the  property  of  another  person  (jus  in  re  aliena)  re  alie 
is  not  to  be  looked  for  at  so  early  a  period  in  the  history 
of  the  law  as  that  now  under  consideration.  The  rural 
servitudes  of  way  and  water  were  no  doubt  very  early  re- 
cognized, for  they  ranked  as  res  mancipi,  and  the  XII. 
Tables  contained  various  regulations  in  reference  to  the 
former.  Usufruct,  too,  was  probably  not  unknown  ;  but 
the  urban  prsedial  servitudes  bear  the  impress  of  a  some- 
what later  jurisprudence.  Pignorate  and  hypothecary 
rights  were  unknown  as  rights  protected  by  action  at  the 
time  now  being  dealt  with.2  Between  private  parties  the 
only  thing  legally  recognized  of  the  nature  of  a  real 
security  was  the  fiducia  that  is  described  above.  Ap- 
proaching more  nearly  to  the  modern  idea  of  a  mortgage 
was  the  security  praedibus  praediisque  required  by  the 
state  from  those  indebted  to  it  in  assurance  of  their  obli- 
gations. Here  there  was  the  double  guarantee  of  sureties 
(praedes)  and  mortgaged  lands  of 'theirs  (praedia  subsig- 


1  Literature: — Stintzing,  Das  Wesen  von  bona  fides  und  titulus  in  d. 
rb'm.  Usucapionslehre,  Heidelberg,  1852  ;  Schirmer,  Die  Grundidee  d. 
Usucapion  im  rom.  Recht,  Berlin,  1855  ;  Pernice,  Labeo,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
152  sq.  ;  Voigt,  XII.  Tafeln,  vol.  ii.  §  91  ;  Esmein,  "Sur  1'histoire 
de  1'usucapion,"  in  the  Nouv.  Rev.  Hist.,  &c.,  vol.  ix.  (1885),  p.  261  sq. 

2  Hypothecary  rights  were  certainly  unknown  until  near  the  end  of 
the  republic.    But  Festus  (s.v.  "  Nancitor  ;  "  see  Bruns,  Fontes,  p.  274) 
speaks  of  a  provision  in  the  Cassian  league  between  Rome  and  the  Latin 
states  of  the  year  262  u.c. — "  Si  quid  pignoris  nasciscitur,  sibi  habeto  " 
— which  makes  it  difficult  to  believe  that  the  Romans  were  altogether 
unacquainted  with  pledge  or  pawn  of  movables  as  a  transaction  of 
some  value  de  facto  if  not  dejure. 


JUS  CIVILE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


691 


it. 


nata) ;  but  how  they  were  dealt  with  when  the  debtor 
made  default  is  by  no  means  clear, 
(•ins  of  Changes  in  the  Law  of  Succession. — The  two  forms  of 
testament  of  the  regal  period  (supra,  p.  674)  still  remained 
in  use  in  the  early  republic ;  but  in  course  of  time  they 
were  displaced  by  the  general  adoption  of  that  executed 
with  the  copper  and  the  scales  (testamentum  per  aes  et 
libram).  It  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  it  was 
to  the  first  two  that  the  words  applied  which  stood  in  the 
forefront  of  the  provisions  of  the  XII.  Tables  about  in- 
heritance,— "  uti  legassit  suae  rei,  ita  jus  esto."  Whether 
resort  was  to  the  comitia  or  to  the  army,  the  testator's 
own  will  in  the  matter  was  henceforth  to  be  supreme. 
There  was  to  be  no  more  reference  to  the  pontiffs  as  to  the 
expediency  of  the  testament  in  view  of  the  interests  of 
the  family  sacra  and  of  creditors  of  the  testator's ;  from 
legislators,  sanctioning  a  departure  from  the  ordinary  rules 
of  succession,  the  assembled  Quirites  became  merely  wit- 
nesses,— recipients  of  the  oral  declaration  of  the  testator's 
will  in  regard  to  his  inheritance. 

;a-  The  testament  with  the  copper  and  the  scales  is  depicted 
:t  per  by  Gaius  as  a  written  instrument.  But  he  presents  it  in 
what  was  apparently  the  third  stage  of  its  history.  Its 
probable  origin  has  been  explained  in  describing  the  result 
of  the  Servian  reforms  upon  the  private  law.  It  was  then 
not  a  testament  but  only  a  makeshift  for  one.  A  plebeian 
was  not  qualified  in  the  regal  period  to  make  a  testament 
in  the  comitia;  so,  instead,  he  transferred  his  estate  to 
a  friend  on  whom  he  could  rely  with  instructions  how 
to  distribute  it  on  his  death.  The  transferee  was  called 
familiae  emptor,  because  the  conveyance  was  in  form  a 
mancipation  for  a  nominal  price. 

It  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  the  same  device  may  occasionally 
have  been  resorted  to  by  a  patrician  who  had  neglected  to  make  a 
regular  testament,  and  was  seized  with  mortal  illness  before  he  had 
an  opportunity  of  appealing  to  the  curies.  But  such  a  disposition 
was  not  a  testament,  and  may  not  have  been  so  called.  A  testa- 
ment was  the  nomination  of  a  person  as  the  testator's  heir, — some- 
times the  substitution  of  an  individual  of  the  testator's  choice  for 
the  heir  assigned  to  him  by  law,  sometimes  the  acceptance  of  the 
latter  but  in  the  character  of  testamentary  heir,  so  that  the  testator 
might  be  able  to  impose  upon  him  what  burdens  he  pleased  as  the 
tacit  condition  of  heirship.  It  made  the  person  instituted  as  fully 
the  representative  of  the  testator  after  his  death  as  his  heir-at-law 
would  have  been  had  he  died  intestate.  The  mortis  causa  manci- 
pation that  opened  the  way  for  the  testament  per  aes  et  libram 
conferred  upon  the  familiae  cmptor  no  such  character.  Gaius  says 
that  he  stood  in  place  of  an  heir  (heredis  loco),  inasmuch  as  he  had 
such  of  an  heir's  rights  and  duties  as  the  familiae  venditor  had  it 
in  his  power  to  confer  and  impose  ;  but  the  transaction  was  but  a 
conveyance  of  estate,  with  a  limitation  of  the  right  of  the  grantee. 
It  has  been  argued  that,  as  the  law  did  not  recognize  conditional 
mancipation,  the  conveyance  must  have  operated  as  a  complete  and 
immediate  divestiture  of  the  grantee.  But  this  does  not  follow. 
For  it  was  quite  competent  for  a  man,  in  transferring  property  by 
mancipation,  to  reserve  to  himself  a  life  interest ;  and  apparently 
it  was  equally  competent  for  him  to  postpone  delivery  of  possession, 
without  infringing  the  rule  that  the  mancipation  itself  could  not 
be  ex  ccrlo  tempore.  So  far  as  one  can  see,  therefore,  there  was 
nothing  to  prevent  the  grantee  of  the  conveyance  (or  quasi-testator) 
bargaining  that  he  was  to  retain  the  possession  till  his  death  ;  and, 
as  thefamilia  was  an  aggregate  of  estate  (univcrsitas  rerum)  which 
retained  its  identity  notwithstanding  any  change  in  its  component 
elements,  he  must  in  such  case  have  been  as  free  to  operate  on  it 
while  he  survived  as  if  he  had  never  conveyed  it  by  mancipation. 

Cicero  incidentally  remarks — what  indeed  the  nature 
of  the  business  of  itself  very  distinctly  suggests — that  the 
true  testament  with  the  copper  and  the  scales  had  its  sta- 
tutory warrant,  not  in  the  uti  legassit  suae  rei  of  the  XII. 
Tables,  but  in  the  provision  contained  in  the  words, — "  cum 
nexum  faciet  mancipiumque,  uti  lingua  nuncupassit,  ita  jus 
esto."  Reflexion  on  the  import  and  comprehensiveness  of 
these  words  led  the  interpreters  to  the  conclusion  that 
there  was  nothing  in  them  to  prevent  the  direct  institution 
of  an  heir  in  the  course  of  the  verba  nuncujxita  engrafted  on 
a  mancipation.  From  the  moment  this  view  was  adopted 


and  put  in  practice  the  familiae  mancipatio  ceased  to  be  a 
transfer  of  the  testator's  estate  to  the  familiae  emptor  • 
the  latter's  purchase  was  now  for  form's  sake  only,  though 
still  an  indispensable  form,  since  it  was  it  alone  that, 
according  to  the  letter  of  the  statute,  imparted  efficacy  to 
the  nuncupatio.  But  it  was  the  nuncupatio — the  oral  de- 
claration addressed  to  the  witnesses — that  really  contained 
the  testamentary  disposition,  i.e.,  the  institution  of  an  heir, 
with  such  other  provisions  as  the  testator  thought  fit  to  em- 
body in  it.  This  was  the  second  stage  in  the  history  of  the 
testament  per  aes  et  libram.  The  third  was  marked  by  the 
introduction  of  tablets  in  which  the  testamentary  provisions 
were  set  out  in  writing,  and  which  the  testator  displayed 
to  the  Avitnesses,  folded  and  tied  up  in  the  usual  manner, 
declaring  that  they  contained  the  record  of  his  last  will. 

Gains  narrates  the  words  spoken  by  the  familiae  emptor  and 
addressed  to  the  testator  as  follows  : — "  Your  estate  and  belongings 
(familia  pecuniaque  tua),  be  they  mine  by  purchase  with  this  bit 
of  copper  and  these  copper  scales,  subject  to  your  instructions,  but 
in  my  keeping,  that  so  you  may  lawfully  make  your  testament  ac- 
cording to  the  statute  (quo  injure  testamentum  facere  possis  secundum 
legein  publicam). "  The  meaning  of  the  words  "  in  my  keeping  (cndo 
custodclam  meam) "  is  not  quite  obvious  ;  they  may  have  been  rem- 
nants of  an  older  style,  or  may  be  due  to  a  clerical  error  of  the 
writer  of  the  Verona  MS.  Certain  it  is  that  they  no  more  imported 
a  real  custody  than  a  real  property  in  the  familiae  emptor  ;  for  the 
testator  remained  so  entirely  master  of  his  estate  that  the  very  next 
day  if  he  pleased  he  might  maucipate  it  anew  to  a  different  pur- 
chaser, and  nuncupate  fresh  testamentary  Avritings.  The  nuncupa- 
tion was  in  these  terms  :  "  As  is  written  in  these  tablets  so  do  I 
give,  so  do  I  legate,  so  do  I  declare  my  will ;  therefore,  Quirites, 
grant  me  your  testimony"  ;  and,  adds  Gaius,  "whatever  the  testa- 
tor had  set  down  in  detail  in  his  testamentary  tablets  lie  was  regarded 
as  declaring  and  confirming  by  this  general  statement. "  To  the 
appeal  of  the  testator  the  witnesses  responded  by  giving  their 
testimony  in  words  which  unfortunately  are  not  preserved  ;  and 
then  the  testament  was  sealed  by  testator,  officials,  and  Avitnesses, 
the  seals  being  outside  according  to  the  early  fashion. 

Although  this  testament  with  the  copper  and  the  scales  was  justi- 
fied in  the  first  instance  by  the  provision  of  the  XII.  Tables  as  to 
the  effect  of  nuncupative  Avords  annexed  to  a  mancipation,  yet  in 
course  of  time  it  came  to  be  subordinated  to  that  other  one  which 
dealt  directly  with  testamentary  dispositions,  — uti  legassit  suae  rei, 
ita  jus  esto.  Upon  the  Avords  uti  legassit  the  widest  possible  meaning 
Avas  put  by  the  interpreters  :  not  only  Avas  a  testator  held  entitled 
on  the  strength  of  them  to  appoint  tutors  to  Avife  and  children,  to 
enfranchise  slaves,  and  make  bequests  to  legatees,  but  he  might 
even  disinherit  his  proper  heir  (suus  hcrcs)  in  favour  of  a  stranger, 
so  long  as  he  did  so  in  express  terms.  Institution  of  a  stranger 
Avithout  mention  of  the  proper  heir,  however,  was  fatal,  at  least  if 
the  latter  Avas  a  sou  ;  for  Avithout  express  disherison  (exheredatio] 
his  father  could  not  deprive  him  of  the  interest  he  had  in  the  family 
property  as  in  a  manner  one  of  its  joint  owners.  It  can  hardly  be 
supposed  that  disherison  Avas  contemplated  by  the  compilers  of  the 
Tables  :  it  Avas  foreign  to  the  traditional  conception  of  the  family 
and  the  family  estate.  But  it  Avas  a  right  Avhose  concession  could 
not  be  resisted  Avhen  claimed  as  embraced  in  the  uti  legassit,  although 
generally  discountenanced,  and  as  far  as  possible  restrained  by  the 
strictness  of  the  rules  imposed  on  its  exercise. 

In  the  absence  of  a  testament,  or  on  its  failure  from  Intestate 
any  cause,  the  succession  opened  to  the  heirs  ab  intestato.  succes- 
So  notoriously  were  the  sui  heredes  entitled  to  the  first S10U' 
place — and  that  not  so  much  in  the  character  of  heirs  as 
of  persons  noAv  entering  upon  the  active  exercise  of  rights 
hitherto  existing,  though  in  a  manner  dormant — that  the 
compilers  of  the  XII.  Tables  thought  it  superfluous  ex- 
pressly to  declare  it.  "  If  a  man  die  intestate,  leaving  no 
suus  heres,  his  nearest  agnate  shall  have  his  estate.  If  the 
agnate  also  fail,  his  gentiles  shall  have  it."  It  has  been 
pointed  out,  in  dealing  with  the  tutory  of  agnates,  that 
the  notion  of  agnation,  as  a  bond  distinct  from  that  AA'hich 
connected  the  gentile  members  of  a  clan,  \vas  due  to  the  de- 
cemvirs. They  had  to  devise  a  laAv  of  intestate  tutory  and 
succession  suitable  alike  to  the  patricians  who  had  gentes 
and  to  the  plebeians  who  had  none.  To  put  the  latter  in 
exactly  the  same  position  as  the  former  Avas  beyond  their 
pOAver ;  for  the  fact  had  to  be  faced  that  the  plebeians  had 
no  gentile  institutions,  and  to  create  them  Avas  impossible. 


692 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  CIVILE. 


The  difficulty  was  overcome  by  accepting  the  principle  of 
agnation  upon  which  the  patrician  gens  was  constructed, 
and  establishing  an  agnatic  circle  of  kinsmen  within  the 
sixth  degree,  to  which  the  gens  as  a  corporation  should  be 
postponed  in  the  case  of  the  patricians,  and  which  should 
come  in  place  of  it  in  the  case  of  the  plebeians.  It  was 
not  perfect  equalization,  but  the  nearest  approach  to  it  that 
the  circumstances  permitted.  The  difference  was  that, 
when  the  agnates  of  a  plebeian  intestate  failed,  his  inherit- 
ance was  vacant,  whereas,  on  failure  of  those  of  a  patrician, 
there  was  devolution  to  his  gens  in  its  collective  capacity. 
And  this  devolution  was  rendered  all  the  more  frequent  by 
two  "interpretations"  put  upon  the  statute, — (1)  that,  if 
the  nearest  agnates  in  existence  declined  the  succession, 
those  next  in  degree  were  not  allowed  to  take  it ;  and  (2) 
that  no  female  agnate  could  take  it  except  a  sister  of  the 
deceased  intestate.  The  division  among  two  or  more 
agnates  was  always  per  capita,  not  per  stirpes. 

The  order  of  intestate  succession  thus  established  by 
the  XII.  Tables,  which  prevailed  until  amended  by  the 
praetors  probably  in  the  8th  century  of  the  city,  was  first 
to  the  sui  heredes  of  the  deceased,  next  to  his  nearest 
agnate  or  agnates,  and  finally,  if  the  deceased  was  a  patri- 
cian, to  his  gens.  His  sui  heredes  included  those  of  his  de- 
scendants in  his  potestas  when  he  died  who  by  that  event 
(or  even  after  it,  but  before  his  intestacy  became  manifest) 
became  sui  juris,  together  with  his  wife  in  manu  (who,  as 
regarded  his  succession,  was  reckoned  as  a  daughter) ;  but 
they  did  not  include  children  whom  lie  had  emancipated  or 
daughters  who  had  passed  in  manum  of  a  husband.  Eman- 
cipated children  did  not  even  come  in  as  agnates  on  failure 
of  sui ;  for  emancipation  severed  the  tie  of  agnation  as  well 
as  that  of  potestas.  For  the  same  reason  no  kinsman  who 
had  been  emancipated,  and  so  cut  off  from  the  family  tree, 
could  claim  as  an  agnate ;  for  those  only  were  agnates  who 
were  subject  to  the  same  patria  potestas,  or  would  have 
been  had  the  common  family  head  been  still  alive. 
Position  The  opening  of  a  succession  (technically  dclatio  Jiereditatis)  in 
of  heirs,  favour  of  sui  heredes,  whether  in  virtue  of  a  testamentary  institu- 
tion or  by  operation  of  law  on  intestacy,  at  once  invested  them 
with  the  character,  rights,  and  responsibilities  of  heirs.  No  accept- 
ance was  necessary,  nor,  according  to  the  rules  of  the  jus  civile,  was 
any  declinature  competent.  They  had  been  all  along  in  a  manner 
joint  owners  with  their  parent  of  the  family  estate,  which  by  his 
death  had  become,  nominally  at  least,  an  inheritance  ;  and,  as  he 
had  not  thought  fit  to  terminate  their  interest  in  it  by  emancipat- 
ing or  disinheriting  them,  they  were  not  now  allowed  to  disown 
it.  Hence  they  were  spoken  of  as  necessary  heirs  (heredes  sui  et 
necessarii).  A  slave,  too,  whom  his  owner  had  instituted  in  his 
testament  was  a  necessary  heir :  he  could  not  decline,  and  was 
invested  with  the  character  of  heir  the  moment  the  testator  died. 
Not  so  with  stranger  institutes  or  agnates  taking  on  intestacy : 
they  were  free  to  take  or  reject  the  inheritance  as  they  saw  fit ; 
consequently  an  act  of  acceptance  (aditio)  was  necessary  on  their 
part  to  make  them  heirs.  It  was  not  unusual  for  a  testator,  in 
instituting  an  heir,  to  require  that  he  should  make  a  formal  de- 
claration of  acceptance  within  a  limited  time,  failing  which  his 
right  should  pass  to  a  substitute,  who  in  turn  was  required  to  enter 
within  a  certain  time  ;  and  so  on  with  any  number  of  substitutes, 
the  series  ending  with  one  of  his  slaves,  who  became  heir  without 
entry,  and  thus  saved  the  testator  from  the  disgrace  of  post  mortem 
bankruptcy  in  the  event  of  the  inheritance  proving  insolvent. 
The  uti  legassit  of  the  Tables,  as  already  remarked,  conferred  upon 
a  testator  very  great  latitude  of  testamentary  disposition,  even  to 
the  extent  of  disherison  of  sui  heredes.  This  was  a  course,  how- 
ever, that  was  rarely  resorted  to  unless  when  a  child  had  been 
guilty  of  gross  ingratitude,  or  when  the  parent  had  reason  to  believe 
his  estate  was  insolvent  and  desired  to  protect  his  children  from 
the  responsibilities  of  inheritance.  Usually  his  sui,  if  he  had  any, 
would  be  his  institutes,  and  the  purpose  of  the  testament  either  to 
apportion  the  estate  amongst  them  as  he  thought  expedient,  or  to 
give  him  an  opportunity  of  appointing  tutors,  bequeathing  legacies, 
or  enfranchising  slaves.  On  intestacy  the  sui  took  equally,  but 
per  stirpes ;  that  is  to  say,  grandchildren  by  a  son  who  had 
predeceased  or  been  emancipated,  but  who  themselves  had  been 
retained  in  their  grandfather's  potestas,  took  amongst  them  the 
share  to  which  their  father  would  otherwise  have  been  entitled, 
instead  of  taking  equal  shares  with  their  surviving  uncles.  It  was 


by  no  means  uncommon,  when  the  whole  inheritance  descended  to 
sons,  for  them  to  hold  it  in  common  for  many  years  as  partners 
(consortes) ;  but  any  one  of  them  was  entitled  at  any  moment  to  claim 
a  partition,  which  was  effected  judicially,  by  an  arbitral  procedure 
introduced,  termed  a  judicium  (or  arbitrium)  familiac  ei'ciscundae. 
Where  two  or  more  strangers  were  instituted  testainentarily,  whether 
to  equal  or  unequal  shares,  if  one  of  them  failed  either  by  predecease 
or  declinature  his  share  accrued  ipso  jure  to  the  others  ;  for  it  was 
a  rule  that  very  early  became  proverbial  that  a  man  could  not  die 
partly  testate  and  partly  intestate.  There  was  the  same  accrual 
among  agnates  on  intestacy  ;  and  both  they  and  stranger  testament- 
ary institutes  had  the  same  action  for  division  of  the  inheritance 
that  was  made  use  of  by  sui  heredes. 

According  to  Gaius  it  was  as  a  stimulus  to  heirs  to  enter  as  soon  Usuca 
as  possible  to  an  inheritance  that  had  opened  to  them,  and  thus  pro 
mal<e  early  provision  alike  for  satisfying  the  claims  of  creditors  of  heredc 
the  deceased  and  attending  to  his  family  sacra,  that  the  law  came 
to  recognize  the  somewhat  remarkable  institution  of  usucapion  or 
prescriptive  acquisition  of  the  inheritance  in  the  character  of  heir 
(usucapio  pro  herede).  Such  usucapion  was  impossible — there  was 
no  room  for  it — if  the  deceased  had  left  sui  heredes;  for  the  inherit- 
ance vested  in  them  the  moment  he  died.  But,  if  there  were  no 
sui  heredes,  then  any  person  taking  possession  of  the  property 
that  had  belonged  to  the  deceased,  and  holding  it  for  twelve  months 
without  interruption,  thereby  acquired  it  as  if  he  were  heir  :  in 
fact,  according  to  the  views  then  held,  he  acquired  the  inheritance 
itself.  Gaius  characterizes  it  as  a  dishonest  acquisition,  inasmuch 
as  the  usucapient  knew  that  what  he  had  taken  possession  of  was 
not  his.  But,  as  already  explained,  the  usucapion  of  the  XII. 
Tables  did  not  require  bona  fides  on  the  part  of  the  usucapient  ;  he 
might  acquire  ownership  by  prolonged  possession  of  what  he  knew 
did  not  belong  to  him  so  long  as  he  did  not  appropriate  it  theftu- 
ously,  i.e.,  knowing  that  it  belonged  to  another.  But  an  inherit- 
ance unappropriated  by  an  heir  who  had  nothing  more  than  a  right 
to  claim  it  belonged  in  strictness  to  no  one ;  and  there  was  no 
theft,  therefore,  \vhen  a  person  took  possession  of  it  with  a  view  to 
usucapion  in  the  character  of  heir.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
on  the  completion  of  his  possession  he  was  regarded  as  heir  just  as 
fully  as  if  he  had  taken  under  a  testament  or  as  heir-at-law  on  in- 
testacy,— that  is  to  say,  that  lie  was  held  responsible  to  creditors 
of  the  deceased  and  required  to  charge  himself  with  the  family 
sacra.  Gaius  does  not  say  as  much  ;  but  both  the  Coruncanian 
and  the  Mucian  edict  imposed  the  latter  burden  upon  him  who  had 
usucapted  by  possession  the  greater  part  of  a  deceased  person's 
estate  ;  and  it  is  but  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  burden  of  debts 
must  in  like  manner  have  fallen  on  the  usucapient  or  usucapients 
in  proportion  to  the  shares  they  had  taken  of  the  deceased's  property. 

The  Law  of  Obligations. — The  jurists  of  the  classical  Law 
period  attribute  obligation  either  to  contract,  or  delict,  or  °. 
miscellaneous  causes  (variae  causarum  figurae) ;  and  those 
arising  from  contract  fill  a  place  in  the  later  jurisprudence 
vastly  greater  than  those  arising  from  delict.  In  the 
XII.  Tables  it  was  very  different.  In  them  delicts  were 
much  more  prominent  than  contracts,— wrongs  entitling 
the  sufferer  to  demand  the  imposition  of  penalties  upon 
the  wrongdoer  that  in  most  cases  covered  both  reparation 
and  punishment.  The  disproportion  in  the  formulated 
provisions  in  reference  to  the  two  sources  of  obligation, 
however,  is  not  surprising.  For,  first  of  all,  the  purpose 
of  the  decemviral  code  was  to  remove  uncertainties  and 
leave  as  little  as  possible  to  the  arbitrariness  of  the  magis- 
trates. In  nothing  was  there  more  scope  for  this  than  in 
the  imposition  of  penalties ;  and,  as  different  offences  re- 
quired to  be  differently  treated,  the  provisions  in  reference 
to  them  were  necessarily  multiplied.  In  the  next  place, 
the  intercourse  that  evokes  contract  was  as  yet  very  limited. 
Agriculture  was  the  occupation  of  the  great  majority ; 
trade  and  commerce  were  more  backward  than  in  the  later 
years  of  the  regal  period ;  coined  money  was  just  beginning 
to  be  used  as  a  circulating  medium.  Lastly,  the  safeguards 
of  engagement  then  lay  to  a  great  extent  in  the  sworn  oath 
or  the  plighted  faith,  of  which  the  law  had  hardly  begun 
to  take  cognizance,  but  which  found  a  protection  quite  as 
potent  in  the  religious  and  moral  sentiments  that  had  so 
firm  a  hold  on  the  people. 

It  may  be  asked — If  a  man  purchased  sheep  or  store  cattle,  a 
plough,  a  toga,  a  jar  of  wine  or  oil,  had  he  no  action  to  compel  i 
delivery,  the  vendor  no  action  for  payment  of  the  price  ?     Did  the 
hire  of  a  horse  or  the  loan  of  a  bullock  create  no  obligation  ?    Was 
partnership  unknown  and  deposit  and  pledge  and  suretyship  in 


tions 


JUS  CIVILE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


693 


any  other  form  than  that  of  vadimonium  ?  One  can  have  no 
hesitation  in  answering  that,  as  transactions  of  daily  life,  they 
must  all  have  been  more  or  less  familiar.  It  does  not  follow,  how- 
ever, that  they  were  already  regulated  by  law  and  protected  by  the 
ordinary  tribunals.  The  historical  jurists  are  pretty  well  agreed 
that  not  only  the  real  contracts  of  loan  (mutuum  and  commodatum), 
deposit,  and  pledge,  but  also  the  consensual  ones  of  sale,  location, 
partnership,  and  mandate,  and  the  verbal  one  of  suretyship,  were 
as  yet  very  barely  recognized  by  law.  Sale  was  the  offspring  of 
barter, — of  instant  exchange  of  one  thing  for  another.  With  such 
instant  exchange  there  was  no  room  for  obligation  to  deliver  on 
either  side,  even  when  the  ware  (merx)  given  by  one  of  the  parties 
was  so  much  rough  copper  weighed  in  the  scales.  The  substitution 
of  coined  money  for  the  raw  metal  can  hardly  have  effected  any 
radical  change :  the  ordinary  practice  of  those  early  times  must 
still  have  been  ready-money  transaction, — an  instant  exchange  of 
ware  for  price  ;  and  it  can  only  have  been  when,  for  some  reason 
or  other,  the  arrangement  was  exceptionally  for  delivery  or  pay- 
ment at  a  future  date,  say  next  market  day,  that  obligation  was 
held  to  have  been  created.  Was  that  obligation  enforcible  by  the 
civil  tribunals  ?  Some  jurists  hold  that  it  was, — that  at  no  time 
were  the  jus  gentium  contracts  outside  the  protection  of  judicial 
remedies,  although  by  a  simpler  procedure  than  that  resorted  to  for 
enforcement  of  the  contracts  of  the  jus  civile.  But  two  provisions 
in  the  XII.  Tables  seem  to  prove  very  clearly  that  it  was  not  so 
enforcible.  The  first  is  one  recorded  by  Justinian, —  that,  where 
a  thing  was  sold  and  delivered,  the  property,  nevertheless,  was  not 
to  pass  until  the  price  had  been  paid  or  sureties  (vades)  for  it  accepted 
by  the  vendor.  Far  from  being  a  recognition  of  the  obligatory 
nature  of  the  transaction,  this  provision  is  really  a  recognition  of  the 
inability  of  the  law  to  enforce  payment  of  the  price  by  the  vendee  ; 
it  is  a  declaration  that,  on  the  latter's  failure  to  pay,  the  vendor, 
unprotected  by  any  personal  action,  should  be  entitled  to  get  back 
the  thing  sold  as  still  his  own,  no  matter  in  whose  hands  he  found 
it.  The  second  related  to  the  case  of  a  person  who  had  bought  a 
victim  for  sacrifice,  but  had  failed  to  pay  for  it.  A  real  action  for 
its  revindication  by  the  seller  after  it  had  been  consumed  on  the 
altar  was  out  of  the  question  ;  so  he  was  authorized  by  the  Tables, 
by  the  process  of  pignoris  capio  (supra,  p.  686),  at  his  own  hand  to 
appropriate  in  satisfaction  a  sufficient  equivalent  out  of  the  belong- 
ings of  the  purchaser,  against  whom  he  had  no  personal  action, 
iqui-  It  was  a  principle  of  the  law  of  Rome  through  the 
;es  of  whole  of  its  history,  though  in  course  of  time  subject  to 
ntract  an  ^ncreas^no  number  of  exceptions,  that  mere  agreement 
'  between  two  persons  did  not  give  him  in  whose  favour  it 
was  conceived  a  right  to  demand  its  enforcement.  To 
entitle  a  man  to  claim  the  intervention  of  the  civil  tri- 
bunals to  compel  implement  of  an  engagement  under- 
taken by  another,  it  was  necessary  (subject  to  those  ex- 
ceptions) either  that  it  should  be  clothed  in  some  form 
prescribed  or  recognized  by  the  law,  or  that  it  should  be 
accompanied  or  followed  by  some  relative  act  which  ren- 
dered it  something  more  than  a  mere  interchange  of  consent. 
Under  the  jurisprudence  of  the  XII.  Tables  the  formalities 
required  to  elevate  an  agreement  to  the  rank  of  contract 
and  make  it  civilly  obligatory  sometimes  combined  cere- 
monial act  and  words  of  style,  sometimes  did  not  go  beyond 
words  of  style,  but  in  all  cases  took  place  before  witnesses. 
Dotis  dictio,  the  undertaking  of  a  parent  to  provide  a 
dowry  with  his  daughter  whom  he  was  giving  in  marriage, 
and  vadimonium,  the  guarantee  of  a  surety  for  the  due 
fulfilment  of  the  undertaking  either  of  a  party  to  a  con- 
tract or  a  party  to  a  litigation,  probably  required  nothing 
more  than  words  of  style  before  persons  who  could  if 
necessary  bear  witness  to  them ;  whereas  an  engagement 
incident  to  a  mancipation,  or  an  undertaking  to  repay 
borrowed  money,  required  in  addition  a  ceremony  with 
the  copper  and  the  scales.  This  undertaking  to  repay 
arose  from  the  contract  of  nexum,  which  was  older  than 
the  Tables ;  both  it  and  the  verbal  contract  by  sponsio  or 
stipulation,  which  was  younger,  merit  further  consideration. 
The  Nexal  Contract.1 — The  tumults  and  seditions  so 
1  Literature: — Savigny,  "Ueberd.altrdm.Schuldrecht,"inhis  Verm. 
Schriften,  vol.  ii.  p.  396  sq.  ;  Scheurl,  Vom  Nexum,  Erlangen,  1839  ; 
C.  Bell,  De  juris  Rom.  nexo  et  mancipio,  Brunswick,  1840  ;  Van  Heusde, 
De  Leye  Poetilia  Papiria,  Utrecht,  1842  ;  Bachofen,  Das  Nexum,  &c.( 
Basel,  1843  ;  Huschke,  Ueber  d.  Recht  des  Nexum,  Leipsic,  1846  ; 
Giraud,  Des  Nexi  ou  de  la  condition  des  deUteurs  chez  les  Romains, 
Paris,  1847  ;  Bekker,  Die  Aktionen  des  riim.  Privatrechts,  vol.  i., 


frequent  in  Rome  during  the  first  two  centuries  of  the  Causes  o 
republic  are  more  frequently  attributed  by  the  historians  plebeian 
to  the  abuses  of  the  law  of  debt  than  to  any  other  cause,  ^row" 
social  or  political.  The  circumstances  of  the  poorer  ple- 
beians were  such  as  to  make  it  almost  impossible  to  avoid 
borrowing.  Their  scanty  means  were  dependent  on  the 
regular  cultivation  of  their  little  acres,  and  on  each  opera- 
tion of  the  agricultural  year  being  performed  in  proper 
rotation  and  at  the  proper  season.  But  this  was  every 
now  and  again  interfered  with  by  wars  which  detained 
them  from  home  at  seed-time  or  harvest,  practically  render- 
ing their  farms  unproductive  and  leaving  them  and  their 
families  in  straits  for  the  commonest  necessaries  of  life. 
A  poor  peasant,  in  such  a  case,  had  no  alternative  but  to 
apply  to  a  capitalist  for  a  loan.  But  it  was  not  to  be  had 
without  security,  and  rarely  without  interest.  It  was  not 
that  the  lender  doubted  the  borrower's  honesty  and  willing- 
ness to  repay  his  debt ;  it  was  rather  that  there  was  every 
chance  that  next  year  a  fresh  war  might  again  interfere 
with  the  latter's  agricultural  operations,  leave  him  again 
without  a  crop,  and  thus  render  repayment  impossible. 
And  so,  while  interest  accumulated  and  was  periodically 
added  to  capital,  new  loans  had  year  after  year  to  be  con- 
tracted as  long  as  any  acres  remained  that  could  serve  as 
a  security ;  failing  all  things,  the  debtor  had  to  impledge 
or  hypothecate  himself;2  for,  phrase  it  how  we  may,  this 
was  substantially  the  result  of  the  contract  of  nexum. 

The  practice  of  lending  per  libram  was  doubtless  of  Nexal 
great  antiquity, — indeed  the  intervention  of  the  scales  was  contract, 
a  necessity  when  money  or  what  passed  for  it  had  to  be 
weighed  instead  of  counted;  and  not  improbably  old  custom 
conceded  to  a  lender  who  had  thus  made  an  advance  in  the 
presence  of  witnesses  some  very  summary  and  stringent 
remedy  against  a  borrower  who  failed  in  repayment.  How 
Servius  subjected  it  to  much  the  same  formalities  as  he 
appointed  for  mancipation — the  state  scales,  the  official 
libripens,  the  five  witnesses  representing  the  nation — has 
been  shown  already.  With  the  introduction  of  a  coinage 
the  transaction,  instead  of  being  per  libram  simply,  became 
one  per  aes  et  libram ;  the  scales  were  touched  with  a  single 
piece,  representing  the  money  which  had  already  been  or 
was  about  to  be  paid,  a  formula  recited  whereby  the  obliga- 
tion of  repayment  was  imposed  on  the  borrower,  and  an 
appeal  made  to  the  witnesses  for  their  testimony.  Unfortu- 
nately this  formula  is  nowhere  preserved.  Huschke  and 
Giraud,  assuming  that  the  lender  was  the  only  speaker, 
formulate  it  thus — "quod  ego  tibi  mille  libras  hoc  aere 
aeneaque  libra  nexas  dedi,  eas  tu  mihi  post  annum  jure 
nexi  dare  damnas  esto" — "whereas  with  this  coin  and 
these  copper  scales  I  have  given  thee  a  thousand  asses,  be 
thou  therefore  bound  jure  nexi  to  repay  them  to  me  a 
year  hence."  The  phrase  damnas  esto,  like  the  rest  of  the 
formula,  is  unsupported  by  any  conclusive  authority ;  but, 
as  it  was  that  most  frequently  employed  in  the  republic 
for  imposing  by  a  public  act  liability  to  pay  a  fixed  and 
definite  sum,  it  may  not  be  wide  of  the  mark. 

What  was  the  effect  of  this  procedure  ?  The  question  is  one  not 
easily  answered.  Brinz  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  creditor 
was  entitled  in  virtue  of  the  nexum  to  take  his  debtor  into  custody 
at  any  time  when  he  considered  such  a  course  necessary  for  his  own 


Berlin,  1871,  cap.  2  ;  Vainberg,  Le  Nexum  .  .  .  en  droit  Remain, 
Paris,  1874  ;  Brinz,  "  Der  Begriff  dbligatio,"  in  Griinhut's  Zeitschr., 
vol.  i.  (1874),  p.  11  sq. ;  and  Voigt,  XII.  Tafeln,  vol.  i.  §§  63-65. 
There  is  a  resume  of  the  principal  theories  (down  to  1870)  in  Danz, 
Gesch.  d.  rom.  Rechts,  vol.  ii.,  2d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1873,  §  146. 

2  "He  told  them  how  he  had  been  obliged  to  borrow  money,  be- 
cause, when  he  had  been  away  fighting  against  the  Sabines,  his  farm 
had  remained  uncropped,  his  house  had  been  burned,  his  cattle  driven 
off,  everything  plundered,  and  at  the  same  time,  unhappily  for  him, 
a  tribute  imposed  ;  how  first  his  ancestral  lands  had  gone,  then  his 
other  property,  and  at  last,  like  a  wasting  disease,  it  had  come  to  his 
body  ;  how  his  creditor,  instead  of  putting  him  to  work  (in  servitium], 
had  thrown  him  into  a  dungeon  and  a  torture-chamber  "  (Liv.,  ii.  23). 


694 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  CIVILE. 


protection,  even  before  the  conventional  term  of  repayment, — that 
the  debtor  was  in  bonds,  virtually  a  pledge,  from  the  very  first, 
and  the  tightness  or  looseness  of  them  a  matter  in  the  discretion 
of  his  creditor.1  Voigt  holds  that  the  nexum  did  not  give  the 
creditor  any  peculiar  hold  over  his  debtor,  and  that  on  the  latter's 
failure  to  repay  an  ordinary  action  was  necessary,  to  be  followed  by 
the  usual  proceedings  in  execution  if  judgment  was  in  favour  of  the 
former.  These  views  may  be  said  to  be  the  two  extremes  ;  and  be- 
tween them  lie  a  good  many  others,  more  or  less  divergent.  The 
difficulty  of  arriving  at  a  conclusion  is  caused  to  some  extent  by  the 
ambiguity  of  the  words  nexus  and  nexum.  The  transaction  itself 
was  called  nexum  ;  the  money  advanced  was  nexum  aes  (hence  nexi, 
i.e.,  aeris  datio) ;  the  bond  was  nexus  (of  the  fourth  declension); 
.and  the  debtor  on  whom  the  bond  was  laid  was  also  nexus  (of  the 
second).  All  this  is  simple  enough.  But  we  find  the  same  word 
nexus  employed  by  the  historians  as  almost  synonymous  with  vinctus, 
— to  denote  the  condition  of  a  debtor  put  in  fetters  by  his  creditor. 
That  might  be  the  condition  either  of  a  nexal  borrower  or  of  an 
ordinary  judgment-debtor.  The  former  in  such  a  case  was  doubly 
nexus  ;  he  was  at  once  in  the  bonds  of  legal  obligation  and  in  those 
of  physical  constraint.  In  many  passages  in  which  Livy  and  others 
speak  of  the  nexi  it  is  extremely  difficult,  sometimes  impossible,  to 
be  sure  in  which  sense  they  use  the  word.  It  is  therefore  not  sur- 
prising that  there  should  be  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  on  the 
subject,  and  such  frequent  identification  of  the  legal  status  of  a 
nexal  debtor  (nexus)  with  that  of  a  judgment-debtor  (Jiuiicatus). 

Almost  all  writers — Voigt2  is  a  distinguished  exception — concur 
in  opinion  that  the  nexal  contract  entitled  the  creditor,  after  expiry 
of  thirty  days  from  the  conventional  date  of  repayment  of  the  loan, 
to  proceed  against  his  debtor  by  manus  injectio  without  any  ante- 
cedent action  or  judgment,  and  failing  settlement  to  detain  him, 
and  put  him  to  servile  labour  and  subject  him  to  servile  treatment, 
until  the  loan  was  repaid.  The  parallel  of  such  a  course  is  to  be 
met  with  amongst  all  ancient  nations, — Jews,  Greeks,  Scandinavians, 
Germans,  &c.3  And  it  was  not  altogether  unreasonable.  If  a 
borrower  had  already  exhausted  all  available  means  of  raising 
money,  had  sold  or  mortgaged  everything  he  possessed  of  any  value, 
what  other  course  was  open  to  him  in  his  necessity  except  to  im- 
pledge  himself  ?  That  the  creditor  should  have  been  entitled  to 
realize  the  right  he  had  thus  acquired  without  the  judgment  on  it 
of  a  court  of  law  is  equally  intelligible:  The  nexal  contract  was  a 
public  act,  carried  out  in  the  presence  of  the  representatives  of  the 
people,  who  w^re  witnesses  alike  of  the  acknowledgment  of  indebted- 
ness and  of  the  tacit  engagement  of  the  debtor.  The  only  valid  ob- 
jection that  could  be  stated  against  the  creditor's  apprehension  of 
his  debtor  in  execution  was  that  the  indebtedness  no  longer  existed, 
— that  the  loan  had  been  repaid.  But  a  nexal  debt  could  be  legally 
discharged  only  by  nexi  liberatio,  which  also  was  a  solemn  proce- 
dure per  aes  et  libram  in  the  presence  of  five  citizen  witnesses.  What 
need  for  a  judicial  inquiry  in  the  presence  of  facts  so  notorious  ?  A 
creditor  would  rarely  be  daring  enough  to  proceed  to  mamis  injectio 
if  his  loan  had  been  repaid  ;  if  he  did,  the  testimony  of  the  wit- 
nesses to  the  discharge  would  at  once  procure  the  release  of  his 
alleged  debtor.  It  was  probably  to  give  opportunity  for  such  proof, 
if  there  was  room  for  it,  that  the  XII.  Tables  required  that  a  creditor 
who  had  apprehended  a  nexal  debtor  should  bring  him  into  court 
before  carrying  him  off  into  detention. 

But  there  was  no  room  for  the  intervention  of  a  vindex  or  cham- 
pion, for  there  was  no  judgment  whose  regularity  he  could  impugn. 
Nor  was  there  any  room  for  a  magisterial  addictio  of  the  debtor 
to  his  creditor ;  for  the  latter's  right  of  detention  was  founded  on 
contract,  and  needed  no  decree  to  strengthen  it.  The  creditor  was 
entitled  at  once,  after  apprehension  of  his  debtor  and  production  of 
him  in  court  in  terms  of  the  statute,  to  carry  him  home  with  him, 
take  such  steps  as  were  necessary  to  ensure  his  safe  custody,  and 
employ  his  services  in  profitable  industry.  But  that  he  could  kill 
him  or  sell  him,  as  some  suppose,  is  a  proposition  that  is  destitute 
of  any  authority  to  support  it.  Equally  untenable  is  the  notion 


1  Brinz,  in  Griinhut's  Zeitschr.,  voL  i.  p.  22.     He  likens  the  position 
of  the  nexus  to  that  of  a  thing — land,  say — mortgaged  to  a  creditor  in 
security  of  a  claim.     Such  security  the  Roman  jurists  constantly  speak 
of  as  res  obligata,  and  sometimes  as  res  nexa.     As  Briuz  observes,  the 
thing  was  obligata  from  the  first,  and  continued  so  as  long  as  the  debt 
it  secured  was  unpaid,  even  though  the  creditor  found  it  unnecessary 
to  reduce  it  into  possession  or  interfere  with  it  in  any  way. 

2  He  holds  that  there  was  nothing  peculiar  in  the  obligation  created 
nexo,  i.e.,  that  it  did  not  impose  any  immediate  liability  on  the  borrower 
which  the  lender  could  enforce  without  judicial  intervention,  but  that 
the  latter  required  to  proceed  against  the  former  in  ordinary  course, 
by  what  he  calls  an  actio  pecuniae  nuncupates. 

8  See  authorities  in  Brinz's  paper  in  Grunhut's  Zeitschr.,  voL  i.  p.  25. 
The  Greek  phrase  was  tirl  ffufian  Bavtifciv.  There  is  a  curious  style 
in  Marculfus  (Form.,  ii.  27),  in  which  a  borrower  engages  that,  until 
he  shall  have  repaid  his  loan,  his  creditor  shall  have  right  to  his 
services  so  many  days  a  week,  and  shall  have  power  to  inflict  corporal 
punishment  if  there  be  dilatoriuess  in  rendering  them. 


that  the  nexus  became  a  slave,  or  that,  while  retaining  his  freedom, 
his  wife,  children,  and  belongings  fell  with  him  into  the  hands  of 
his  creditor.  He  certainly  was  not  in  a  worse  position  than  an 
addictus,  of  whom  Quintilian  states  distinctly  that  he  still  retained 
his  position  in  the  census  and  in  his  tribe.  Many  a  time,  when  the 
exigencies  of  the  state  required  it,  were  the  nexi  temporarily  released 
in  order  to  obey  a  call  to  arms, — to  fulfil  the  duty  incumbent  on 
them  as  citizens.  In  fact  a  nexal  debtor  suffered  no  capitisdcntin- 
utio  at  all  because  of  his  detention.  If  he  was  a  house-father  he 
still  retained  his  manus  over  his  wife  and  potestas  over  his  children. 
But  they  did  not  share  his  quasi-servitude.  Their  earnings  legally 
belonged  to  him,  but  were  no  doubt  retained  by  them  with  his 
consent  for  their  own  support.  They  certainly  did  not  fall  to  his 
creditor.  It  was  the  body  of  his  debtor  that  he  was  entitled  to, 
and  too  often  he  wreaked  his  vengeance  on  it  by  way  of  punishment  ; 
there  was  as  yet  no  machinery  for  attaching  the  debtor's  goods  in 
substantial  reparation  for  the  loss  caused  by  his  breach  of  contract. 

The  abuses  to  which  the  system  gave  rise  alike  in  the  case  of  Fcetili 
nexal  and  of  judgment  debtors  have  already  been  alluded  to.  In  the  law. 
year  428  a  more  than  ordinarily  flagrant  outrage  committed  by  a 
creditor  upon  one  of  his  young  nexi,  who,  Livy  says,  had  given 
himself  up  as  responsible  for  a  loan  contracted  by  his  deceased 
father,  roused  the  populace  to  such  a  pitch  of  indignation  as  to 
necessitate  instant  remedial  legislation.  The  result  was  the  Pce- 
tilian  law  (Lex  Poetilia  Popm'a).  So  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  the 
meagre  accounts  of  it  we  possess,  it  contained  at  least  these  three 
provisions — (1)  that  fetters  and  neck,  arm,  or  foot  blocks  should  in 
future  be  applied  only  to  persons  undergoing  imprisonment  for  crime 
or  delict  ;  (2)  that  no  one  should  ever  again  be  the  nexus  of  his 
creditor  in  respect  of  borrowed  money  ;  and  (3)  that  all  existing 
nexi  qui  bonam  copiam  jurarent  should  be  released.  The  first  was 
intended  to  prevent  unnecessary  restraint  upon  judgment-debtors 
formally  given  over  to  their  creditors.  The  second  did  not  neces- 
sarily abolish  the  contract  of  loan  per  aes  et  libram,  but  only  what 
had  hitherto  been  an  ipso  jure  consequence  of  it, — the  creditor's 
right  to  incarcerate  his  debtor  without  either  the  judgment  of  a 
court  or  the  warrant  of  a  magistrate.  For  the  future,  execution 
was  to  be  done  against  a  borrower  only  as  a  judgment-debtor  form- 
ally made  over  to  his  creditor  by  magisterial  decree,  and  under  the 
restrictions  and  limitations  imposed  by  the  Pcetilian  law  itself. 
This  very  soon  led  to  the  disuse  of  nexal  obligation  ;  once  it  was 
deprived  of  its  distinctive  processual  advantages  it  rapidly  gave 
place  to  the  simpler  engagement  by  stipulation  enforceable  per  con- 
dictionem.  As  for  the  release  of  the  then  existing  nexi,  Cicero,  Livy, 
and  Dionysius  say  nothing  of  any  condition  annexed  to  the  boon 
the  statute  conferred  upon  them  ;  it  is  only'Varro  who  limits  it 
to  those  qui  bonam  copiam  jurarunt, — those  apparently  who  were 
able  to  declare  on  oath  that  they  had  done  their  best  and  could 
do  no  more  to  meet  their  creditors'  claims.  Such  a  limitation 
can  hardly  be  called  unreasonable,  even  were  we  to  assume — as  prob- 
ably we  ought  to  do — that  the  release  spoken  of  was  only  from  the 
bonds  of  physical  restraint,  not  from  those  of  legal  obligation. 

Introduction  of  the  Stijmlation^ — Few  events  in  the  Stipu 
history  of  the  private  law  were  followed  by  more  far-11' 
reaching  consequences  than  the  introduction  of  the  stipu- 
lation. It  exercised  an  enormous  influence  on  the  law  of 
contract ;  for  by  means  of  it  there  was  created  a  unilateral 
obligation  that  in  time  became  adaptable  to  almost  every 
conceivable  undertaking  by  one  man  in  favour  of  another. 
By  the  use  of  certain  words  of  style  in  the  form  of  ques- 
tion and  answer  any  lawful  agreement  could  thereby  be 
made  not  only  morally  but  legally  binding,  so  that  much 
which  previously  had  no  other  guarantee  than  a  man's 
sense  of  honour  now  passed  directly  under  the  protection 
of  the  tribunals.  Stipulations  became  the  complement  of 
engagements  which  without  them  rested  simply  on  good 
faith,  as  when  a  vendor  gave  his  stipulatory  promise  to 
his  vendee  to  guarantee  peaceable  possession  of  the  thing 
sold  or  its  freedom  from  faults,  and  the  vendee  in  turn 
gave  his  promise  for  payment  of  the  price.  The  question 
and  answer  in  the  form  prescribed  by  law  made  the  en- 
gagement fast  and  sure.  Hence  the  generic  name  of  the 


4  Literature  : — Liebe,  Die  Stipulation  u.  das  einfache  Versprechen, 
Brunswick,  ]  840  ;  Schmidt  (rev.  Liebe),  in  Richter's  Krit.  Jakrb,, 
vol.  v.  pp.  869  sq.,  961  sq.  ;  Gneist,  Die  formellen  Vcrtrage  d.  riim. 
Rechts,  Berlin,  1845,  p.  113  sq.  ;  Heimbach,  Die  Lehre  row  Creditum, 
Leipsic,  1849  ;  Danz,  Der  sacrale  Schutz  im  riim.  Rechte,  Jena,  1857, 
pp.  102-142,  236  sq. ;  Schlesinger,  Zur  Lehre  von  den  Formalcontradcn, 
Leipsic,  1858,  §  2  ;  Voigt,  Jus  nat.,  d-c.,  d.  Rom.,  vol.  ii.  §  33,  vol. 
iv.,  Beilage  xix.  ;  Girtanner,  Die  Stipulation,  Kiel,  1859  ;  Bekker, 
Aktionen,  vol.  i.  pp.  382-401  ;  Karsten,  Die  Stipulation,  Rostock,  1878. 


JUS  CIVILE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


695 


contract ;  for  Paul's  derivation  of  it  from  stipulum,  "  firm," 
is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  earlier  and  more  fanciful 
ones  from  stips  or  stipula.  It  was  round  the  stipulation 
that  the  jurists  grouped  most  of  their  disquisitions  upon 
the  general  doctrines  of  the  law  of  contract, — capacity  of 
parties,  requisites  of  consent,  consequences  of  fraud,  error, 
and  intimidation,  effects  of  conditions  and  specifications  of 
time,  and  so  forth.  It  may  well  be  said,  therefore,  that  its 
introduction  marked  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  law. 

There  is,  however,  no  certainty  either  as  to  the  time  or  as  to  the 
manner  of  its  introduction.  So  far  as  appears  it  was  unknown  at 
the  time  of  the  compilation  of  the  XII.  Tables,  at  least  in  private 
life  ;  one  of  the  first  unmistakable  allusions  to  it  is  in  the  Aquilian 
law  of  476  u.c.  The  mention  of  it  in  that  enactment,  however,  is 
with  regard  to  a  phase  of  it  which  cannot  have  been  reached  for 
many  years  after  it  had  come  into  use  ;  and  the  probability  is  that 
it  originated  before  the  middle  of  the  5th  century,  its  first  statu- 
tory recognition  being  in  the  Siliau  law  introducing  the  legis  actio 
per  condictionem  (supra,  p.  683).  In  its  earliest  days  it  bore  the 
name  not  of  stipulatio  but  of  sponsio,  for  the  reason  that  the  inter- 
rogatory of  the  party  becoming  creditor  was  invariably  formulated 
with  the  word  spondes — e.g.,  centum  dare  spondesl — while  the 
answer  was  simply  spondco. 

There  has  been  much  speculation  as  to  the  origin  of  the  con- 
tract. Modern  criticism  has  three  theories, — (1)  that  it  was  the 
verbal  remnant  of  the  nexitm,  after  the  business  with  the  copper 
and  the  scales  had  gone  into  disuse  ;  (2)  that  it  was  evolved  out  of 
the  oath  at  the  great  altar  of  Hercules  and  the  appeal  to  Fides 
(supra,  p.  675) ;  (3)  that  it  was  imported  from  Latium,  which  it 
had  reached  from  some  of  the  Greek  settlements  farther  south. 
The  last  view  is  the  most  probable.  Verrius  Flaccus,  as  quoted  by 
Festus,  connects  it  with  the  Greek  <r7reV5«i/  and  ffirovS-f) ;  and  Gaius 
incidentally  observes  that  it  was  said  to  be  of  Greek  origin.  A 
libation  (airovorf)  is  frequently  referred  to  by  Homer  and  Herodotus 
as  an  accompaniment  of  treaties  and  other  solemn  covenants, — 
a  common  offering  by  the  parties  to  the  gods  which  imparted 
sanctity  to  the  transaction.  Leist1  is  of  opinion  that  the  practice 
passed  into  Sicily  and  Lower  Italy,  but  that  gradually  the  libation 
and  other  religious  features  were  dropped,  although  the  word 
ffirovdri  was  retained  in  the  sense  of  an  engagement  that  bound 
parties  just  as  if  the  old  ritual  had  been  observed,  and  that  it 
travelled  northward  into  Latium  and  thence  to  Kome  under  the 
name  of  sponsio,  being  used  in  the  first  instance  in  public  life  for 
the  conclusion  of  treaties,  and  afterwards  in  private  life  for  the  con- 
clusion of  contracts.  The  meaning  of  S2)ondes  as  a  question  by  a 
creditor  to  his  debtor  (although  latterly,  we  may  well  believe,  un- 
known to  them)  thus  came  to  be — ' '  Do  you  engage  as  solemnly  as 
if  the  old  ceremonial  were  gone  through  between  us?"  There  are 
many  examples  of  such  simplification  of  terms,  none  more  familiar 
than  when  a  man  says— "I  give  you  my  oath  upon  it,"  without 
either  himself  or  the  individual  addressed  thinking  it  necessary  to 
go  through  the  form. 

It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that,  although  the  idea  was 
derived  from  abroad,   the  use  of  the  words  spondes  and 
spondeo  in  contracting  were,  down  at  least  to  the  time  of 
Gains,  confined  in  Rome  to  Roman  citizens.     The  sponsio 
as  a  form  of  contract  was  essentially  juris  civilis.     So  at 
first  were  the  later  and  less  solemn  forms  of  stipulation, — 
promittisne  ?  promitto,  dabisne  ?  dabo,  and  the  like.     Gaius 
speaks  of  these  as  juris  gentium,  i.e.,  binding  even  between 
Romans  and  peregrins.      Such  they  became  eventually, 
but   not   until  towards  the  end  of   the  republic.     Yet, 
although  juris  civilis,  both  the  sponsio  and  the  later  forms 
were  from  the  first  free  from  many  of  the  impediments  of 
the  earlier  actus  legitimi.     No  witnesses  were  required  to 
assist  at  them ;  and  they  were  always  susceptible  of  quali- 
fication by  conditions  and  terms.     It  was  very  long,  how- 
ever, before  parties  had  much  latitude  in  their  choice  of 
language ;  spondeo  was  so  peculiarly  solemn  that  no  equi- 
valent could  be  admitted ;   and  even  the  later  styles  may 
be  said  to  have  remained  stereotyped  until  well  on  in  the 
empire.     And  it  was  the  use  of  the  words  of  style  that 
made  the  contract.    It  was  formal,  not  material ;  that  is  to 
say,  action  lay  upon  the  promise  the  words  embodied,  aparl 
from  any  consideration  whether  or  not  value  had  been  given 
for  it.     In  time  this  serious  disadvantage  was  abated  ;  firs 


1  Orasco-Italische    Rechtsgeschichte,     Jena,    1884,     pp.     465-470 
Upon  the  sponsionis  vinculum  internationally,  see  Livy,  ix.  9. 


>y  introducing  in  certain  cases  words  that  excluded  action 

n  presence  of  fraud,  antecedent  or  subsequent,  on  the  part 

•f  the  creditor,  and  afterwards  by  praetorian  exceptions, 

uch  as  a  plea  of  "  no  value,"  or  by  having  the  contract  set 

iside  on  the  motion  of  the  nominal  debtor  before  proceed- 

ngs  had  been  taken  upon  it  by  the  creditor.     Originally 

,he  stipulation  was  employed  only  in  regard  to  engagements 

whose  terms  were  in  every  respect  definite  and  certain,  and 

was  enforced  by  the  legis  actio  per  condictionem.     But  in 

ime  it  came  to  T^e  employed  in  engagements  that  were 

rom  the  first  indefinite.     This  seems  to  have  been  due  to 

the  intervention  of  the  praetors,  and  to  have  originated  after 

;he  system  of  the  legis  actiones  had  begun  to  give  place  to 

hat  per  formulas.     The  remedy  in  such  a  case  was  not 

spoken  of  as  a  condiction  but  as  an  actio  ex  stipulatu. 

CHAPTER  III.— THE  JUS  GENTIUM  AND  JUS 
HONORARIUM. 

(Latter  half  of  the  Republic.) 
I.  INFLUENCES  THAT  OPERATED  ON  THE  LAW. 

Growth  of  Commerce  and  Influx  of  Foreigners. — While  Influx 
it  may  be  admitted  that  commerce  was  beginning  to  take  °f  for- 
root  in  Rome  in  the  5th  century,  yet  it  was  not  until  the  eieners- 
6th  that  it  really  became  of  importance.  The  campaigns 
in  which  Rome  was  engaged  until  the  end  of  the  First  Punic 
War  absorbed  all  its  energies.  But  after  that  time  the 
influx  of  strangers,  and  their  settlement  in  the  city  for 
purposes  of  trade,  became  very  rapid, — first  Latins  and 
other  allies,  and  afterwards  Greeks,  Carthaginians,  and 
Asiatics.  For  them  and  the  regulation  of  their  affairs  the 
jus  civile — the  law  peculiar  to  Rome  and  its  citizens — 
was  applicable  only  if  they  were  members  of  allied  states 
to  which  commercium  and  recuperatio  were  guaranteed  by 
treaty.  But  multitudes  were  not  in  this  favoured  posi- 
tion ;  and  even  those  who  were  soon  found  the  range  of 
Roman  modes  of  acquiring  property  and  contracting 
obligations  too  narrow  for  their  requirements.  Hence  a 
jus  gentium  was  gradually  developed 2  which  very  early 
in  its  history  drove  treaty  covenants  for  recuperatio  out  of 
use ;  its  application  may  for  a  time  have  been  limited  to 
transactions  between  non-citizens  or  between  citizens  and 
non-citizens,  but  it  was  eventually  accepted  in  the  deal- 
ings of  citizens  inter  se  and  became  part  and  parcel  of  the 
jus  Romanorum.  Gaius  and  Justinian  speak  of  it  as 
"  the  common  law  of  mankind,"  "  the  law  in  use  among 
all  nations "  ;  but  the  language  must  not  be  taken  too 
literally.  The  Roman  jus  gentium  was  not  built  up  by 
the  adoption  of  one  doctrine  or  institution  after  another 
that  was  found  to  be  generally  current  elsewhere.  In 
the  earliest  stages  of  its  recognition  it  was  "an  inde- 
pendent international  private  law,  which,  as  such,  re- 
gulated intercourse  between  peregrins  or  between  peregrins 
and  citizens  on  the  basis  of  their  common  libertas";3 
during  the  republic  it  was  purely  empirical  and  free  from 
the  influence  of  scientific  theory,  but  its  extensions  in 
the  early  empire  were  a  creation  of  the  jurists, — a  com- 
bination of  comparative  jurisprudence  and  rational  specu- 
lation. To  say  that  it  was  de  facto  in  observance  every- 
where is  inaccurate ;  on  the  contrary,  it  was  Roman  law, 
built  up  by  Roman  jurists,  though  called  into  existence 
through  the  necessities  of  intercourse  with  and  among 
non-Romans. 

It  may  be  a  little  difficult  for  a  modern  jurist  to  say 


2  On  the  Roman  jus  gentium,  see  Voigt,  Das  jus  naturale,  aequum  et 
bonum,  und  jus  gentium  d.  Romer,  4  vols.,  Leipsic,  1856-75;  Nettle- 
ship,  in  the  Journal  of  Philology,  vol.  xiii.  (1885),  p.  169  sq. 

8  Voigt,  Jus  nat.,  vol.  ii.  661.  He  distinguishes  the  jus  civile,  jus 
gentium,  and  jus  naturale  as  the  systems  which  applied  respectively 
to  the  citizen,  the  freeman,  and  the  man. 


696 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  GENTIUM,  ETC. 


be 

sregrin 

wtor. 


efonns 
'^Ebu- 
an  law. 


Beets 
'pro- 
ncial 

liniuis- 
ation. 


•with  perfect  precision  what  were  the  doctrines  and  institu- 
tions of  the  jus  gentium  as  distinguished  from  the  jus  civile. 
But  the  distinction  must  have  been  very  familiar  to  the 
Romans  ;  otherwise  we  should  not  have  had  the  statement 
of  Marcian  in  reference  to  the  aTroAiSes, — that  they  en- 
joyed all  the  rights  competent  to  a  man  under  the  former, 
but  none  of  those  competent  to  him  under  the  latter. 

Institution  of  the  Peregrin  Prxtorship. — The  praetorship1 
was  an  outcome  of  the  Licinian  laws  of  the  year  387  u.c. 
Down  to  the  end  of  the  5th  century  the  praetor  then  ap- 
pointed superintended  single-handed  the  administration  of 
justice,  alike  between  citizens  and  foreigners.  But  with 
the  altered  condition  of  things  in  the  beginning  of  the 
6th  century,  and  the  influx  of  strangers  which  has  already 
been  alluded  to,  the  work  seems  to  have  been  found  too 
onerous  for  a  single  magistrate,  and  a  second  praetor  was 
appointed.  The  date  is  not  absolutely  certain,  although 
generally  assumed  to  have  been  about  the  year  512  u.c.  ; 
but  Pomponius  says  distinctly  that  the  creation  of  the  new 
office  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  increase  of  the  peregrin 
population  of  Rome,  and  that  the  new  magistrate  got  the 
name  of  praetor  peregrinus  because  his  principal  duty  was 
to  dispense  justice  to  this  foreign  element.  After  the 
submission  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia  the  number  of  the  praetors 
was  increased  to  four  and  after  the  conquest  of  Spain  to 
six ;  Sulla  raised  the  number  to  eight,  and  Caesar  eventu- 
ally to  sixteen.  But  all  the  later  creations  were  for  special 
purposes ;  the  ordinary  administration  of  justice  within  the 
city  was  left  with  the  representatives  for  the  time  of  the 
two  earliest,  who  came  to  be  distinguished  as  praetor 
urbanus  (qui  jus  inter  dves  dicit)  and  praetor  peregrinus. 
It  would  be  going  too  far  to  speak  of  the  latter  as  the  prin- 
cipal author  of  the  jus  gentium  •  for  a  large  proportion  of 
the  actions  for  enforcing  jus  gentium  rights  were  civil,  not 
honorary, — a  fact  which  proves  that  the  rights  they  were 
meant  to  protect  and  enforce  had  their  origin  in  the  jus 
civile,  although  moulded  to  meet  new  requirements  by  tacit 
consuetude  and  the  agency  of  the  jurists.  But  even  in  this 
view  the  peregrin  praetor  must  have  had  a  powerful  influ- 
ence in  giving  shape  and  consistency  to  the  rising  juris- 
prudence, by  means  of  the  formulae  he  adjusted  for  giving 
it  practical  effect. 

Simplification  of  Procedure  and  Introduction  of  New  Remedies 
under  the  sEbutian  Law. — The  Lex  Aebutia  is  only  twice  mentioned 
by  ancient  writers,  and  we  know  neither  its  precise  date  nor  its 
specific  provisions.  And  yet,  to  judge  by  its  effects,  it  must  have 
been  one  of  the  most  important  pieces  of  comitial  legislation  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  republic  ;  for  Gellius  speaks  of  it  as  having  given 
the  deathblow  to  many  of  the  institutions  of  the  XII.  Tables, 
and  Gaius  couples  it  with  two  Julian  laws  as  the  statutory  instru- 
ments whereby  the  formular  system  of  procedure  was  substituted 
for  thztper  legis  actiones.  The  probability  is  that  it  was  enacted 
immediately  or  soon  after  the  institution  of  the  peregrin  praetor- 
ship.  Its  purpose,  whatever  may  have  been  its  terms,  seems  to 
have  been  to  empower  the  prators  to  adapt  existing  remedies  to 
altered  circumstances,  and  to  fashion  new  actions  on  the  jus  civile 
for  the  use  of  the  peregrins  to  whom  the  procedure  of  the  legis 
actiones  was  incompetent ;  while  it  may  possibly  at  the  same  time 
have  expressly  authorized  the  insertion  in  the  styles  to  be  devised 
by  them  of  clauses  that  would  give  protection  when  required  against 
claims  that  in  law  were  well  founded  but  in  fact  inequitable.  But, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  actual  provisions  of  the  statute,  the 
result  was  the  introduction  of  a  procedure  which  gradually  sup- 
planted that  by  the  "actions  of  the  law,"  which  was  much  more 
pliant  than  the  latter,  and  whose  characteristic  was  this, — that, 
instead  of  the  issue  being  declared  by  word  of  mouth  by  the  parties, 
and  requiring  in  many  cases  to  embody  with  perfect  accuracy  the 
statutory  provision  upon  which  it  was  based,  it  was  now  formulated 
in  writing  by  the  praetor,  in  the  shape  of  an  instruction  to  the  judge 
to  inquire  and  consider,  with  power  to  condemn  or  acquit  according 
to  his  finding  (see  infra,  p.  707). 

Provincial  Conquests.  —The  growth  of  commerce  and  the  enormous 
increase  of  wealth,  which  made  great  capitalists  and  enabled  them 

1  See  Labatut,  Histoire  de  la  frSture,  Paris,  1868  ;  Mommsen, 
Rt>m.  StaatsrecM,  voL  ii.  p.  176  sq.;  Karlowa.  Riim.  Rechtsgeschichte, 
vol.  i.  p.  217  sq. 


through  the  agency  of  freedmen  and  slaves  to  carry  on  trade  on  a 
scale  hitherto  unknown,  and  which  thus  helped  to  foster  the  jus 
gentium,  was  no  doubt  due  to  a  large  extent  to  provincial  conquests. 
But  these  operated  also  in  other  directions.  The  authorities  who 

Eroceeded  to  the  conquered  provinces  as  governors  found  themselves 
ice  to  face  with  laws  and  institutions  in  many  respects  differing 
from  those  of  Rome.  Political  considerations  dictated  how  far 
these  were  to  be  respected,  how  far  subverted.  In  some  provinces, 
more  especially  the  Eastern  ones,  it  was  thought  unnecessary  to  do 
more  than  supplement  the  existing  system  by  the  importation  of 
doctrines  of  the  jus  gentium  and  the  procedure  of  the  praetor's 
edicts  ;  while  in  others,  in  which  it  was  deemed  expedient  to  destroy 
as  rapidly  as  possible  all  national  feeling  and  every  national  rally- 
ing point,  a  Romanizing  of  all  their  institutions  was  resorted  to, 
even  to  the  extent  of  introducing  some  of  the  formal  transactions 
which  previously  had  been  confined  to  citizens.  But  in  either  case 
there  was  a  reflex  action.  The  native  institution  had  to  be  studied, 
its  advantages  and  disadvantages  balanced,  the  means  considered 
of  adapting  it  to  the  praetorian  procedure,  and  the  new  ideas  so 
presented  as  to  make  them  harmonize  as  far  as  possible  with  tho 
old.  All  this  was  a  training  of  no  small  value  for  those  who,  on 
their  return  to  Rome,  were  to  exercise  an  influence  on  legislation 
and  the  administration  of  the  law.  They  brought  back  with  them 
not  merely  an  experience  they  could  not  have  obtained  at  home, 
but  sometimes  a  familiarity  with  foreign  institutions  that  they 
were  very  willing  to  acclimatize  in  Italy.  Rome  thus  enriched 
its  law  from  the  provinces,  deriving  from  them  its  emphyteutic 
tenure  of  land,  its  hypothec,  its  Rhodian  law  of  general  average, 
and  a  variety  of  other  features  that  were  altogether  novel.  Some 
of  them  were  sanctioned  by  tacit  recognition,  others  by  edicts  of 
the  praetors ;  but,  in  whatever  way  received,  they  were  indirectly 
fruits  of  provincial  conquest. 

Spread  of  Literature  and  Philosophy. — The  effect  on  Roman  Influen 
civilization  of  the  addiction  of  educated  men  in  the  later  republic  of  liten 
to  literature  and  philosophy  is  a  matter  for  consideration  in  con-  ture  an 
nexion  with  Rome's  general  history.     It  is  not  proposed  to  consider  philo- 
here  the  question  how  far  specific  doctrines  of  Roman  law  bear  the  sophy. 
impress  of  the  influence  of  the  schools,  especially  that  of  the  Stoics ; 
it  is  a  subject  much  too  large  to  be  disposed  of  in  a  few  lines.2    The 
matter  is  mentioned  simply  for  the  sake  of  noting  that  the  spirit 
of  critical  inquiry  aroused  and  fostered  by  literary  and  philosophical 
study,  seriously  and  conscientiously  undertaken,  contributed  greatly 
to  promote  a  new  departure  in  jurisprudence  that  became  very 
marked  in  the  time  of  Cicero — the  desire  to  subordinate  form  to 
substance,  the  word  spoken  to  the  will  it  was  meant  to  manifest, 
the  abstract  rule  to  the  individual  case  to  which  it  was  proposed 
to  apply  it.     This  was  the  first  effort  of  what  then  was  called 
equity  to  temper  and  keep  within  bounds  the  rigour  of  the  jus 
strictum.     The  praetors,  the  judges,  and  the  jurisconsults  all  had 
their  share  in  it.     Although  modern  jurists  are  prone  to  speak  of 
praetorian  equity  as  if  it  were  a  thing  apart,  yet  the  same  spirit  was 
leavening  the  law  in  all  directions  and  in  the  hands  of  all  who  had 
to  deal  with  it,  the  difference  being  that  the  form  and  publicity 
of  the  edict  gave  to  its  applications  by  the  praetors  a  more  pro- 
minent and  enduring  record  than  was  found  in  the  decisions  of 
private  judiccs  or  the  opinions  of  counselling  jurisconsults. 

Decline  of  Religion  and  Morals. — It  would  be  equally  Decline 
out  of  place  to  enlarge  here  on  the  causes  and  manifesta-  °f reli- 
tions  of  that  decline  in  religious  sentiment  and  public  and  glon  f" 
private  virtue  which  was  fraught  with  such  disastrous 
results  in  the  later  days  of  the  republic.     The  private  law 
was  influenced  by  it  to  a  considerable  extent,  alike  in 
those  branches  which  regulated  the  domestic  relations  and 
those  which  dealt  with  property  and  contract. 

The  ever-increasing  disregard  of  the  sanctity  of  the 
marriage  tie  is  one  of  those  features  in  the  history  of  the 
period  which  strikes  even  the  most  unobservant.  While 
from  the  first  the  law  had  denounced  causeless  separation 
and  visited  it  with  penalties,  in  principle  it  maintained 
the  perfect  freedom  of  divorce, — that  it  was  improper  to 
force  persons  to  continue  in  the  bonds  of  matrimony 
between  whom  matrimonial  affection  no  longer  existed. 
With  the  simple  and  frugal  habits  of  the  first  five  centuries 


2  It  is  one  that  was  discussed  with  much  greater  fervour  a  century 
ago  than  it  is  now.  Of  the  later  literature  may  be  mentioned — Van 
Vollenhoven,  De  exigua  vi  quam  philosophia  Grseca  habuit  in  iffor- 
manda  jurisprudentia  Romana,  Amsterdam,  1834  ;  Ratjen,  Hat  die 
Stoische  Phil,  bedeutenden  Einftuss  gehabt,  &c.  i  Kiel,  1839  ;  Voigt, 
Jus  not.,  &c.,  vol.  i.  §§  49-51  ;  Laferriere,  De  ^influence  du  Stcntisme 
SIT  la  doctrine  des  jurisconsultes  Romains,  Paris,  1860  ;  Hildenbraud, 
Gesch.  -it.  System  d.  Rechts-  vnd  Staats- Philosophic,  Leipsic,  1860,  vol. 
i.  §§  141,  142.  The  earlier  literature  is  given  in  Hildenbrand,  p.  593. 


JUS  GENTIUM,  ETC.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


697 


of  Rome,  and  the  surveillance  of  the  consilium  domesticum, 
the  recognition  of  this  principle  produced  no  evil  results ; 
family  misunderstandings  were  easily  smoothed  over,  and 
divorces  were  of  rare  occurrence.  But  from  the  time  of 
the  enactment  of  the  Maenian  law  in  586  there  seems  to 
have  been  a  change  for  the  worse.  It  inter  alia  displaced 
the  family  council  as  a  divorce  court  and  transferred  its 
functions  in  that  matter  to  ajudicium  de  moribus, — a  court 
of  inquiry  nominated  by  the  praetor,  and  having  as  its 
duty  to  decide  to  what  extent  there  should  be  forfeiture  of 
the  nuptial  provisions  in  case  of  separation  or  repudiation. 
The  motives  of  the  statute  may  have  been  of  the  best ;  but 
its  tendency  was  injurious,  for  not  only  did  it  indirectly 
facilitate  divorce,  but  it  rendered  the  idea  of  it  familiar, 
and  overthrew  that  respect  for  the  domestic  council  which 
had  hitherto  been  a  check  upon  it.  What  wonder  that 
with  increasing  luxury  and  licentiousness  divorce  became 
so  common ! 

This  looseness  of  the  marriage  bond,  as  was  naturally 
to  be  expected,  had  its  effect  on  the  other  family  relations. 
The  obligation  of  a  father  to  provide  for  his  children  began 
to  be  lightly  esteemed.  The  law — possibly  only  the  inter- 
pretation put  upon  the  uti  legassit  of  the  XII.  Tables — 
had  empowered  him  testamentarily  to  disinherit  them,  or 
in  instituting  them  to  limit  their  right  to  a  mere  fraction 
of  the  inheritance;  but  it  was  assumed  that  this  power 
would  be  exercised  with  discretion  and  only  when  justified 
by  circumstances.  But  in  the  latter  days  of  the  republic, 
amid  the  slackened  ties  of  domestic  life,  paternal  as  well 
as  conjugal  duty  seems  to  have  often  been  lost  sight  of, 
and  children  disinherited  or  cut  off  with  a  nominal  share 
of  the  inheritance  in  order  that  a  stranger  might  be 
enriched.  This  led  to  the  introduction  by  the  centumviral 
court,  without  any  legislative  enactment  or  praetor's  edict 
to  warrant  it,  of  what  was  called  the  querela  inoffidosi 
testamenti^ — challenge  of  a  testament  by  a  child  whose 
natural  claims  had  been  capriciously  and  causelessly  dis- 
regarded. While  the  practice  may  for  a  time  have  been 
hesitating  and  uncertain,  yet  before  long,  through  means 
of  this  qiterela,  the  rule  came  to  be  established  that  every 
child  was  entitled,  notwithstanding  the  terms  of  his  father's 
testament,  to  at  least  a  fourth  (jtortio  legitima,  quarta  legi- 
tima,  the  legitim  of  the  law  of  Scotland  and  various  Con- 
tinental countries)  of  what  would  have  come  to  him  had  his 
parent  died  intestate,  unless  it  appeared  that  the  latter  had 
had  adequate  grounds  for  excluding  him  or  limiting  him 
to  a  smaller  share.  A  parent  might  in  like  manner  chal- 
lenge an  undutiful  testament  made  by  his  child  to  his  pre- 
judice ;  and  in  certain  cases  so  might  brothers  and  sisters 
inter  se. 

The  decline  of  morals  had  an  equally  marked  effect  on 
the  transactions  of  daily  life,  calling  for  precautions  and 
remedies  that  had  not  been  found  requisite  in  the  hey-day 
of  the  TTtcrris  TWV  'Pw/Acuwv.  Men  no  longer  relied  on  each 
other's  good  faith  unless  backed  by  stipulations,  cautions 
(cautiones),  and  guarantees.  The  Rutilian  bankruptcy 
arrangements  and  the  actio  Pauliana  for  setting  aside 
alienations  in  fraud  of  creditors  indicate  a  laxity  in  mer- 
cantile dealings  that  was  perhaps  an  inevitable  consequence 
of  the  growth  of  trade  and  commerce.  But,  that  such 
remedies  as,  for  example,  the  exceptio  rei  venditae  et  traditae 
or  the  exceptio  non  numeratae  pecuniae  should  have  been 
found  necessary — the  one  an  answer  to  a  vendor  (with  the 
price  in  his  pocket)  who  attempted  to  dispossess  his  vendee 
because  some  of  the  formalities  of  conveyance  had  been 
neglected,  the  other  an  answer  to  an  action  on  a  bond  for 
repayment  of  money  that  by  some  accident  had  never  been 
advanced — proves  that  the  law  had  now  to  encounter  fraud 
in  all  directions,  and  that  Graecajides  had  to  a  great  extent 
displaced  the  old  Roman  probity. 


II.  FACTORS  OF  THE  LAW. 

Legislation. — It  cannot  be  said  that  during  the  period  of  nearly  Legisla- 
two  centuries  and  a  half  embraced  within  the  present  chapter  the  tion. 
private  law  owed  much  to  legislation.  The  vast  majority  of  the 
enactments  of  the  time  referred  to  \>y  the  historians  dealt  with 
constitutional  questions,  municipal  and  colonial  government, 
agrarian  arrangements,  fiscal  policy,  sumptuary  prohibitions, 
criminal  and  police  regulations,  and  other  matters  that  affected  the 
public  law  rather  than  the  private.  Those  of  the  latter  class  men- 
tioned by  Gains  and  Ulpian  in  their  institutional  works  barely 
exceed  a  score  in  number  ;  and  of  these  not  above  half  a  dozen  can 
be  said  to  have  exercised  a  permanent  influence  on  the  principles 
(as  distinguished  from  the  details)  of  the  law.  Most  of  them  were 
enactments  of  the  concilium  plebis  or  of  the  comitia  of  the  tribes, 
to  which  ordinary  legislation  had  passed  as  more  readily  convened 
and  more  easily  worked  than  the  comitia  of  the  centuries. 

Edicts  of  the  Magistrates. l — The  practice  of  propounding  edicts  Magis- 
was  very  ancient,  and  had  been  followed  by  kings  and  consuls  long  trates' 
before  the  institution  of  the  praetorship.  It  was  one  of  the  most  edicts, 
obvious  ways  of  exercising  the  imperium  with  which  the  supreme 
magistrate  was  invested, — to  lay  an  injunction  upon  a  citizen  and 
enforce  his  obedience,  or  to  confer  upon  him  some  advantage  and 
maintain  him  in  its  enjoyment.  It  was  one  of  the  ways  in  which 
public  order  was  protected  where  there  had  been  no  invasion  of 
what  the  law  regarded  as  a  right,  and  where,  consequently,  there 
was  no  remedy  by  action.  That  the  earlier  edicts  of  the  praetors 
were  of  this  character — issued,  that  is  to  say,  with  reference  to 
particular  cases,  and  what  afterwards  came  to  be  called  edicta  re- 
pentina  or  prout  res  incidit  posita — there  is  little  reason  to  doubt. 
In  time  a  new  class  of  edicts  appeared  which  got  the  name  of  edicta 
perpetvM  (or  perpetuae  jurisdictionis  causa,  proposita), — announce- 
ments by  the  praetor,  published  on  his  album  (as  the  white  boards 
displayed  for  the  purpose  in  the  forum  were  called),  of  the  relief 
he  would  be  prepared  to  grant  on  the  application  of  any  one  alleg- 
ing that  the  state  of  facts  contemplated  had  arisen.  The  next 
year's  praetor  was  free  to  adopt  the  edicts  of  his  predecessor  or  not ; 
but  it  was  usual  for  him  to  do  so  if  they  had  been  found  beneficial 
in  practice,  he  adding  to  them  new  provisions  suggested  by  de- 
mands made  upon  past  praetors  for  edicta  repentina  but  which  they 
had  not  generalized,  or  even  proposing  for  acceptance  some  remedy 
entirely  of  his  own  devising.  As  each  new  praetor  entered  upon 
office  he  announced  his  jurisdictional  programme, — his  lex  annua, 
as  it  was  called  from  this  particular  point  of  view,  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  it  tralaticium,  i.e.,  transmitted  from  his  predecessors, 
and  only  a  few  paragraphs,  diminishing  in  number  as  time  pro- 
gressed, representing  his  own  contribution.  And  so  it  went  on  in 
the  first  years  of  the  empire,  until  the  praetorian  function  was 
eclipsed  by  the  imperial ;  and  at  last,  after  having,  by  instruction 
of  Hadrian,  been  subjected  to  revision,  and  consolidated  with  the 
edicts  of  the  peregrin  praetors  and  provincial  governors,  it  was 
sanctioned  as  statute  law  for  the  empire  through  the  medium  of  a 
senatusconsult. 

There  is  some  reason  for  supposing  that  the  edict  attained  con- 
siderable proportions  in  the  time  of  Cicero  ;  for  he  mentions  that, 
whereas  in  his  youth  the  XII.  Tables  had  been  taught  to  the 
boys  in  school,  in  his  later  years  these  were  neglected,  and  young 
men  directed  instead  to  the  praetor's  edicts  for  their  first  lessons 
in  law.  Of  a  few  of  them  the  date  and  authorship  are  known  with 
tolerable  precision  ;  but  of  the  history  of  the  majority,  including 
some  of  the  most  important,  such  as  those  introducing  restitutio  in 
integrum  on  the  ground  of  lesion  through  error,  absence,  minority, 
and  the  like,  and  those  revolutionizing  the  law  of  succession,  we 
are  to  a  great  extent  in  the  dark.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume 
either  that  the  Julian  consolidation  exhibits  all  the  provisions  that 
from  first  to  last  appeared  on  the  album,  or  that  those  preserved  in 
it  were  originally  in  the  shape  in  which  they  are  there  presented. 
It  is  much  more  likely  that  we  have  in  it  only  those  that  had  stood 
the  test  of  generations,  and  that  many  of  them  are  the  result  of  the 
combined  wisdom  and  experience  of  a  series  of  praetors.  It  was 
one  of  the  great  advantages  the  edicts  had  over  legislative  enact- 
ments that  they  might  be  dropped,  resumed,  or  amended  by  a  new 
praetor  according  to  his  judgment  of  public  requirements.  For  the 
edict  was  viva  vox  juris  civilis, — intended  to  aid,  supplement,  and 
correct  it  in  accordance  with  the  ever-changing  estimate  of  public 
necessities  ;  and  this  would  have  been  impossible  had  its  provisions 
from  the  first  been  as  stereotyped  as  they  became  by  the  consolida- 
tion in  the  time  of  Hadrian. 

The  Edict  seems  to  have  contained  two  parts, — the  first  what  may 
be  called  the  edict  or  edicts  proper,  and  the  second  an  appendix  of 
styles  of  actions,  &c.,  whether  derived  from  the  jus  civile  or  from 
the  jus  praetorium.  The  contents  of  the  edict  proper  were  in  de- 
tail very  various,  but  all  devoted  to  an  exposition  of  the  ways  in 
which  the  praetor  meant  to  exercise  his  jurisdiction  during  his  year 


1  See  Lenel,  Beitrage  zur  Kunde  des  praetorischen  Edicts,  Stuttgart, 
1878,  and  the  introductory  chapters  in  his  Das  Edictum  Perpetuum, 
Leipsic,  1883  ;  Karlowa,  Rom.  Rechtsgesch.,  §  60. 

Y"V  as 

A  A.  —   oo 


698 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  GENTIUM,  ETC. 


of  office.  They  were  not  didactic  or  dogmatic  formulations  of  law, 
but  rather  announcements  or  advertisements  of  what  remedy  he 
would  grant  in  such  and  such  circumstances,  or  direct  orders  to  do 
or  prohibitions  against  doing  certain  things.  A  party  claiming  an 
action  or  whatever  else  it  might  be  under  any  of  them  did  so  not 
of  right,  as  he  would  have  done  had  his  claim  had  a  statutory 
or  customary  foundation,  but  of  grace, — on  the  strength  of  the 
pnetor's  promise  to  grant  him  what  he  claimed  and  make  the  grant 
effectual.  That  was  why  originally  such  an  action  had  to  be  raised 
and  concluded  within  the  particular  praetor's  year  of  office, — a  rule 
whii-h  in  time,  by  abuse,  was  converted  into  the  somewhat  different 
one  that  a  purely  praetorian  action  (i.e.,  not  originally  of  the  jus 
civile,  even  though  remodelled  and  regulated  by  the  praetor)  had 
to  be  raised  within  a  year  of  the  occurrence  to  which  it  referred. 

As  already  observed,  the  pnetors'  edicts  proceeded  to  a  greater 
extent  than  the  earlier  legislation  of  the  comitia  upon  lines  of 
equity ;  that  is  to  say,  they  set  themselves  against  tne  strictness 
and  formalism  of  the  jurisprudence  of  the  XII.  Tables.  Such 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  general  tendency  of  the  edicts  as  a 
whole.  But  it  was  the  tendency  of  the  whole  jurisprudence  of  the 
time,  and  by  no  means  peculiar  to  the  praetorian  creation.  Nowhere 
in  the  texts  are  the  praetors  spoken  of  as  the  mouthpieces  of  equity 
as  distinguished  from  law.  Such  a  distinction  recurs  frequently  in 
Cicero  ;  he  identifies  aequitas  with  the  spirit  of  a  law  or  agreement, 
and  jus  with  its  letter,  but  it  is  in  order  to  sing  the  praises  not  of 


might  quite  as 

been  embodied  in  statute,  and  we  know  that  in  time  statute  came 
to  its  aid  ;  witness  a  very  remarkable  provision  of  it, — "  I  will  give 
bonorum  possessio  as  may  be  enjoined  by  statute,  whether  comitial 
enactment  or  senatusconsult." 

Of  the  edicts  of  the  peregrin  praetor  and  their  relation  to  that  of 
his  urban  colleague  little  is  known.  That  they  differed  in  some 
respects  there  can  be  no  doubt,  for  in  the  Lex  Eubria  (of  706  ?) 
for  settling  the  government  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  the  magistrates  are 
directed,  with  reference  to  a  certain  action,  to  formulate  it  in  the 
way  prescribed  in  the  edict  of  the  peregrin  praetor.  The  latter, 
therefore,  must  to  some  extent  have  been  in  advance  of  that  of 
the  urban  praetor,  probably  in  this  respect,  that,  being  prepared 
primarily  for  the  regulation  of  questions  affecting  non-citizens,  it 
more  thoroughly  than  the  other  avoided  formalities  that  were  com- 
petent only  to  citizens,  and  thus  to  a  greater  extent  simplified  pro- 
cedure. The  edicts  of  the  provincial  governors  must  have  varied 
according  to  circumstances,  being  in  all  cases  composites  of  pro- 
visions, more  or  less  numerous,  borrowed  from  the  edicts  of  the 
Sraetors  and  additions  suggested  by  the  peculiar  wants  of  the 
ifferent  provinces  for  which  they  were  framed  (provinciale  genus 
edicendi).  As  for  those  of  the  curule  aediles,  who  amongst  other 
duties  were  charged  with  the  supervision  of  markets,  their  range 
was  very  limited,  their  most  important  provisions  having  reference 
to  open  sales  of  slaves,  horses,  and  cattle,  and  containing  regula- 
tions about  the  duties  of  vendors  exposing  them,  and  their  responsi- 
bility for  latent  faults  and  vices. 

Consue-  Consuetude,  Professional  Jurisprudence,  and  Res  Judicatae. — Great 
tudinary  as  may  be  the  difficulty  experienced  by  philosophical  jurists  in  de- 
fining the  ground  of  the  authority  of  consuetudinary  law,  there  is 
no  room  to  dispute  the  importance  of  its  contributions  to  every 
system  of  jurisprudence  ancient  and  modern.  The  men  who  first 
drew,  accepted,  and  endorsed  a  bill  of  exchange  did  as  much  for 
the  law  as  any  lawgiver  has  ever  accomplished.  They  may  or  may 
not  have  acted  on  the  advice  of  jurists  ;  but,  whether  or  not,  they 
began  a  practice  which  grew  into  custom,  and  as  such  was  recog- 
nized by  the  tribunals  as  a  law-creating  one, — one  conferring  rights 
and  imposing  obligations.  There  is  much  of  this — far  more  probably 
than  is  commonly  imagined — in  the  history  of  every  system  of  law. 
In  Rome  the  process  was  sometimes  wonderfully  expeditious  ; 
witness  what  Justinian  narrates  of  the  introduction  and  recognition 
of  testamentary  trusts  and  of  codicils  to  last  wills,  both  in  the  time 
of  Augustus.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  literal  contract 
per  expensilationem  originated  in  the  same  way,  probably  in  the 
end  of  the  5th  or  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century.  The  keeping 
of  domestic  account- books  may  have  been  enjoined  and  enforced 
by  the  censors  ;  but  it  was  custom,  and  neither  statute  nor  praetor's 
edict,  that  made  an  entry  in  them  to  another  person's  debit  creative 
of  a  claim  against  the  latter  for  certa  pecunia  credita,  that  might  be 
made  effectual  by  an  action  under  the  Silian  law.  It  must  have 
been  in  exactly  the  same  way  that  mutuum,  formless  loan  of  money, 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  third  variety  of  certa  credita  pecunia, 
and  to  be  held  recoverable  under  the  same  action.  True,  this  could 
not  have  been  attained  without  the  co-operation  of  the  courts.  But 
then  those  courts  were  composed  each  of  a  single  private  citizen, 
whose  office  ended  with  his  judgment  in  the  particular  case  remitted 
to  him,  and  who  was  untrammelled  by  the  authority  of  any  series 
rerum  judicatarum.1  He  had  simply  to  decide  whether  in  his  view 


law. 


1  It  was  not  until  the  empire  that  a  "series  rerum  perpettio  similiter  judiea- 
tarum,"  a  uniform  series  of  precedents,  was  held  to  be  law.    During  the  repub- 


expensilation  or  formless  loan  created  such  an  obligation  as  was 
covered  by  the  words  pecuniam  dari  oportere.  There  may  for  a 
time  have  been  a  divergent  practice,  contradictory  findings,  as 
Cicero  says  there  were  in  his  day  upon  the  question  whether  aequi- 
tas or  jus  strictum  was  to  be  applied  to  the  determination  of  certain 
matters  ;  but  the  gradual  ascendency  and  eventual  unanimity  of 
judicial  opinion  in  the  affirmative  was  but  the  expression  of  the 
general  sentiment  of  the  citizens,  of  whom  the  judiccs  were  the 
representatives. 

These  are  but  examples  of  the  way  in  which  consuetudinary  law 
was  constructed.  It  required  the  combined  action  of  the  laity  and 
the  judiccs,  both  at  times  acting  under  professional  advice  ;  in 
some  cases  even  that  of  the  praetors  was  necessary.  It  would  have 
been  impossible,  for  instance,  to  have  introduced  the  consensual 
contracts  into  the  Roman  system  and  determined  what  were  the 
obligations  they  imposed  on  either  side,  without  magisterial  co- 
operation in  framing  the  formulae  that  were  to  be  submitted  to 
the  judges.  Taking  the  action  on  sale  as  an  illustration,  the  formula 
substantially  was  this  : — "  It  being  averred  that  the  defendant  sold 
such  or  such  a  tiling  to  the  plaintiff,  whatever,  judge,  it  shall  ap- 
pear that  the  defendant  ought  in  good  faith  to  give  to  or  do  for 
the  plaintiff  in  respect  thereof,  in  the  money  equivalent  thereof 
condemn  the  defendant ;  otherwise,  acquit  him."  It  is  very  mani- 
fest that  the  free  hand  here  given  to  the  judge  must  immensely 
have  facilitated  the  reception  of  customary  doctrine  into  the  law. 
The  judge  was  to  a  great  extent  the  spokesman  of  the  forum  ;  his 
judgment  was  formed  in  accordance  with  current  public  opinion, 
which  he  had  ample  opportunity  of  gauging ;  it  was  the  reflexion 
of  that  general  sentiment  of  right,  which,  phrase  it  how  we  may, 
is  the  real  basis  of  all  customary  law.  And  so  in  an  action  for 
establishing  a  right  of  property  in  a  res  nee  mancipi.  The  formula 
was  very  simple  : — "  If  it  appear  that  such  or  such  a  thing  belongs 
to  the  plaintiff  in  quiritary  right,  then,  judge,  whatever  be  its 
value  for  the  plaintiff,  in  that  condemn  the  defendant ;  should  it 
appear  otherwise,  acquit  him. "  The  primary  duty  of  a  judge  on 
such  a  remit  was  to  determine  whether  the  title  on  which  the 
plaintiff  founded  his  pretensions  gave  him  a  right  that  came  up  to 
property ;  and  it  can  hardly  be  disputed  that  it  was  by  the  decisions 
of  a  series  of  judges,  in  a  series  of  such  actions,  that  the  long  list 
of  natural  modes  of  acquiring  property  given  by  Justinian  under 
technical  names  was  gradually  brought  into  view.  Those  decisions, 
whether  upon  the  obligations  of  a  vendor,  direct  or  indirect,  or 
upon  the  sufficiency  of  a  title  founded  on  by  a  party  averring  a 
right  of  property  by  natural  acquisition,  may  in  many  cases  have 
been  arrived  at  under  professional  advice,  and  were  in  all  cases 
embodied  in  judgments.  But  that  does  not  in  the  least  deprive 
the  doctrine  deduced  from  them  of  its  character  of  customary  law. 
It  was  not  until  the  empire  that  the  opinions  of  the  jurists  sub- 
mitted to  a  judge  (responsa  prudentium,  see  p.  705)  were  invested 
with  quasi-legislative  authority.  During  the  republic,  if  a  judge 
deferred  to  them,  it  was  simply  because  he  regarded  them  as  in 
consonance  with  well-qualified  public  opinion  ;  and  what  a  series 
of  consistent  judgments  of  this  sort  built  up  was  in  the  strictest 
sense  a  law  based  on  consuetude.2 

As  regards  the  professional  jurists  in  particular  it  has  already  Profe 
been  observed  that,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  historians,  siona! 
the  law  was  a  monopoly  of  the  patricians  down  at  least  to  the  juris] 
middle  of  the  5th  century  of  the  city.  Livy  goes  so  far  as  to  dence 
speak  of  it  as  in  penetralibus  pontif.cu.rn  reposition, — among  the 
secrets  of  the  pontifical  college.  It  was  so  to  a  very  great  extent 
in  the  regal  period.  But  after  the  publication  of  the  XII.  Tables 
this  could  be  the  case  only  in  a  qualified  sense,  the  pontiffs  becom- 
ing the  official  interpreters  of  that  which  in  the  letter  was  patent 
to  the  world.  The  Jus  Flavianum,  with  its  formulary  of  actions, 
in  the  year  450,  the  practice  of  giving  advice  in  law  in  public 
adopted  by  Tib.  Coruncanius  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century, 
and  the  Jus  ^Slianum,  embodying  the  current  intcrpretatio,  some 
fifty  years  later,  put  an  end  not  only  to  pontifical  but  to  patrician 
monopoly.  From  this  time  onwards  there  was  a  series  of  jurists 
(prudentes],  gradually  increasing  in  number  and  eminence,  of  whom 
a  list  is  given  by  Pomponius,  and  many  of  whom  are  signalized 
by  Cicero,  particularly  in  his  Orator  and  Brutus.  They  occupied 
themselves  in  giving  advice  to  clients  (see  PATRON  AND  CLIENT, 
vol.  xviii.  p.  412),  teaching,  pleading  at  the  bar,  framing  styles  of 
contracts,  testaments,  and  various  other  deeds  of  a  legal  character, 
or  writing  commentaries  or  shorter  treatises  on  different  branches 
of  the  law.3 


lie  a  judge  was  much  freer,  and  not  only  entitled  but  bound  to  decide  according 
to  his  own  notion  of  what  was  right,  taking  the  risk  of  consequences  if  his 
judgment  was  knowingly  contrary  to  law. 

2  The  doctrines  of  the  classical  jurists  as  to  the  necessity  of  longa,  inveterata 
consuetitdo,  and  so  forth,  had  no  application  to  the  formative  jurisprudence  of 
the  republic,  and  in  fact  refer  not  to  general  consuetude  but  to  particular 
custom  when  founded  on  in  derogation  of  the  common  law. 

3  Eudorff,  Rom.  Rechtsgeschickte,  vol.  i.  §§  62-65;   Sanio,  Zur  Geschichte  der 
rom.  Rechtswissenschaft,  Konigsberg,  1858  ;   Grellet-Dumazcau,    Eludes  sur  le 
barreav,  Remain,  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1858;  Dauz,  Gesch.  d.  rim.  Rechts,  vol.  i.  I  49 ; 
Karlowa,  72dm.  Rechtsgesch.,  §  til. 


JUS  GENTIUM,  ETC.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


699 


III.  SUBSTANTIVE  CHANGES  IN  THE  LAW  DURING  THE  PERIOD. 
ib-  The  Publician  Edict.— There   were  necessarily  many  changes 

:ian  during  the  period  in  the  law  of  property  and  of  minor  real  rights, 
ict.  several  of  them  of  no  mean  importance.  But  the  greatest  of  all  was 
that  effected  by  the  Publician  edict,1  indirectly  recognizing  the 
validity  (1)  of  what  Theophilus  calls  dominium  bonitarium  as  an 
actual  though  inferior  ownership  of  res  mancipi,  and  (2)  of  what 
got  the  name  of  bonae  fidci  possessio  as  a  fictitious  ownership  of 
either  res  mancipi  or  res  nee  mancipi,  valid  against  all  the  world 
except  the  true  dominus.  The  accounts  we  possess  of  this  edict  are 
somewhat  inconsistent  and  even  contradictory ;  the  explanation 
may  be  that  it  went  through  a  process  of  amendment  and  expansion 
at  the  hands  of  successive  praetors,  and  that  eventually  it  may  have 
had  more  than  one  section,  without  our  always  being  able  to  say  to 
which  of  them  the  criticism  of  a  particular  commentator  is  directed. 
But  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  general  tendency,— of  the  defects  it 
was  meant  to  correct  and  of  the  way  in  which  the  correction  was 
accomplished. 

omini-  One  of  the  defects  was  this :  if  a  man  had  taken  a  transfer  of 
ni  boni-  a  res  mancipi  from  its  rightful  owner,  but  simply  by  tradition 
iriuin.  instead  of  by  mancipation  or  cession  in  court,  he  did  not  acquire 
domiimim  ex  jure  Quiritium,  and  the  transferrer  remained  undi- 
vested.  The  result  was  that  the  latter  was  in  law  entitled  to  raise 
a  rei  vindicatio  and  oust  the  transferee  whose  money  he  might  have 
in  his  pocket,  while  if  a  third  party  had  obtained  possession  of  the 
thing,  but  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  be  amenable  to  an  interdict,  the 
transferee  could  have  no  effectual  vindication  against  him,  as  he 
was  not  in  a  position  to  prove  dominium  ex  jure  Quiritium.  The 
first  difficulty  was  overcome  by  the  exceptio  rei  venditae  et  traditae, 
also  a  pratorian  remedy,  and  probably  older  than  the  Publician  ; 
to  the  transferred  vindication  on  the  strength  of  his  unextin- 
guished  quiritary  right  the  transferee  pleaded  sale  and  delivery  as 
an  effectual  praetorian  defence.  But,  when  a  third  party  was  in 
possession,  and  the  transferee  by  simple  delivery  had  to  take  the 
initiative,  the  position  was  more  complicated.  Such  third  party 
might  be  in  perfect  good  faith  ;  he  might  even  have  acquired  from 
the1  original  transferrer  and  fortified  his  acquisition  with  a  formal 
conveyance.  But  that  was  no  sufficient  reason  in  equity  why  he 
should  be  allowed  to  defeat  the  prior  right  of  the  original  trans- 
feree, who,  if  he  had  possessed  for  the  requisite  period  of  usucapion 
before  the  third  party  came  upon  the  scene,  would  have  cured  the 
defect  of  the  informal  delivery  and  acquired  an  unassailable  quiri- 
tary right.  So  the  praetor  announced  in  his  edict  that,  if  a  man 
came  to  him  and  represented  that  he  had  bought  a  res  mancipi  from 
its  owner,  and  had  had  it  delivered  to  him,  but  had  lost  posses- 
sion within  the  period  of  usucapion,  he  (the  praetor)  would  allow 
him  a  vindication  embodying  a  fiction  of  completed  usucapion 
(infra,  p.  708),  with  which  he  might  proceed  either  against  the 
transferrer  or  any  third  party  withholding  the  thing  in  question. 

The  publication  of  such  an  edict  and  the  formula  of  the  action 
based  upon  it— which,  though  of  pratorian  origin,  was  in  many 
respects  dealt  with  as  an  actio  juris  civilis  and  just  a  variety  of  the 
rei  vindicatio— had  the  same  effect  as  if  the  legislature  had  directly 
enacted  that  in  future  delivery  of  a  res  mancipi  in  pursuance  of  a 
sale  or  other  good  cause  would  confer  a  right  of  ownership  in  it 
even  before  usucapion  had  been  completed.  Till  completed,  how- 
ever, the  transferee  was  not  quiritary  owner  :  the  thing  in  question 
was  only  in  bonis,  "of  his  belongings,"  and  the  legal  title,  though 
a  very  empty  one  —nudum  jus  Quiritium— remained  in  the  trans- 
ferrer ;  it  was  only  with  the  completion  of  the  usucapion  that  it 
became  the  transferee's  pleno  jure.  The  inevitable  result  of  the  re- 
cognition of  this  tenure  in  bonis  was  that  mancipation  came  to  be 
regarded  in  many  cases  as  an  unnecessary  formality ;  and  the  marvel 
is  that  it  continued  to  hold  its  ground  at  all.  The  explanation 
may  be  that  it  afforded  a  substratum  for  and  gave  force  of  law  to 
the  vcrba  nuncupata  that  accompanied  the  negotium  per  aes  et 
libram  ;  and,  although  many  of  these  might  quite  well  be  thrown 
into  the  form  of  stipulations,  yet  there  were  others  that  it  may 
have  been  thought  safer  to  leave  to  take  effect  under  the  provisions 
of  the  earlier  law. 

Bonae          The  second  case  that  was  met  by  the  Publician  edict — whether 
fidei  pos-  as  originally  published  or  by  an  amendment  of  it  cannot  be  deter- 
sessio.       mined — was  that  of  the  bonafide  transferee  of  a  thing  by  purchase 
or  other  sufficient  title  who,  having  lost  possession  of  it  before 
usucapion,  found  to  his  cost  that  the  transferrer  had  not  been  its 
owner,  that  no  ownership  therefore  had  been  transmitted  to  him 
(the  transferee),  and  that  consequently  he  was  not  in  a  position  to 
raise  a  vindication  with  its  averment  of  dominium  ex  jure  Quiri- 
tium?   As  against  the  true  owner,  whose  property  had  been  dis- 


1  See  Ribereau,  Theorie  de  Tin  bonis  habere  on  de  fa  proprieti  pretorienne,  Paris, 
1867  :  Voigt,  Jus  natitrale,  &c.,  vol.  iv.,  App.  xxi.,  p.  470  sq.  ;  Huschke,  Das 
Recht  der  Publicianischen  Klage,  Stuttgart,  1874  ;  Sehulin  (rev.  Huschke),  in  the 
Krit.  Vierteljahrschrift,  vol.  xviii.  (1876),  p.  526  sq.  ;  Lenel,  Beitrage  zur  Kmul~ 
d. praetorischen  Edicts:  I.  Das  Ptiblic.  Efl.,  Stuttgart,  1878. 

2  This  case  is  the  only  one  alluded  to  by  Justinian  (Inst.,  iv.  6,  4).     He  had 
abolished  the  distinction  between  quiritarian  and  bonitarian  property,  and  so 
it  was  unnecessary  for  him  to  mention  the  other. 


)osed  of  by  a  stranger  behind  his  back,  there  would  have  been  no 
quity  in  giving  him  an  action  ;  but  as  against  all  the  world  except 
he  true  owner  his  "  better  right  "  was  recognized  by  the  praetor, 
vho  accorded  to  him  also  a  vindication  proceeding  on  a  fiction  of 
:ompleted  usucapion,  for  usucapion  cured  the  defect  of  his  title, 
ust  as  it  did  that  of  the  bonitarian  owner.  In  this  way  the  praetors 
ntroduced  that  bonae  fidei  possessio  which  was  worked  out  with 
much  skill  by  the  jurists  of  the  early  empire,  and  which  assumed 
very  large  proportions  in  the  Justinianian  law  when  the  term  of 
prescription  had  been  greatly  extended,  and  the  difficulty  of  proving 
iroperty  (as  distinguished  from  bona  fide  possession)  consequently 
i'ery  much  increased. 

Development  of  the  Law  of  Contract* — It  is  impossible  within  Changes 
the  limits  of  an  article  such  as  this  to  indicate  a  tithe  of  the  amend-  in  law 
ments  that  were  effected  on  the  law  of  obligations  during  the  period  of  con- 
whose  distinguishing  features  were  the  rise  of  a  jus  gentium  and  tract, 
the  construction  of  the  praetor's  edict.  In  every  branch  of  it  there 
was  an  advance  not  by  steps  but  by  strides,— in  that  of  obligations 
arising  from  contract,  of  those  arising  from  delict,  and  of  those 
arising  from  facts  and  circumstances,  such  as  unjustifiable  enrich- 
ment at  another  person's  cost.4  The  law  of  suretyship,  in  its  three 
forms  of  sponsio,  fidepromissio,  and  fidejussio,  received  considerable 
attention,  and  formed  the  subject  of  a  series  of  legislative  enact- 
ments for  limiting  a  surety's  liability  ;  while  that  of  agency,  which 
was  sparingly  admitted  in  Rome,  had  a  valuable  contribution  from 
the  preetorian  edict  in  the  recognition  of  a  man's  liability,  more  or 
less  qualified,  for  the  contractual  debts  of  \iisfiliifamilias  and  slaves, 
as  also,  and  without  qualification,  for  the  debts  properly  contracted 
of  persons,  whether  domestically  subject  to  him  or  not,  who  were 
managing  a  business  on  his  account,  or  whom  he  had  placed  in 
command  of  a  ship  belonging  to  him.  The  development  of  the  law 
in  the  matter  of  obligations  generally  was  greatly  facilitated  by  the 
prtetorian  simplification  of  procedure  and  the  introduction  of  new 
forms  of  actions, — the  instruction  to  a  judge,  "Whatever  in  respect 
thereof  the  defendant  ought  to  give  to  or  do  for  the  plaintiff,  in  that 
condemn  him,"  preceded  by  a  statement  of  the  cause  of  action, 
giving  wide  scope  for  the  recognition  of  new  sources  of  liability. 

The  origin  of  the  verbal  contract  of  stipulation  and  its  action-  Stipu- 
ability  under  the  Silian  and  Calpurnian  laws  have  already  been  lation. 
explained  (pp.  694,  684).  It  was  theoretically  a  formal  contract, 
i.e.,  creative  of  obligation  on  the  strength  of  the  formal  question 
and  answer  interchanged  by  the  parties,  even  though  no  substantial 
ground  of  debt  might  underlie  it ;  but  in  time  it  became  the  prac- 
tice to  introduce  words — the  single  word  recte  was  enough — exclud- 
ing liability  in  case  of  malpractice  (clausula  doli);  and  finally  even 
that  became  unnecessary  when  the  prsetors  had  introduced  the 
general  exceptio  doli,  pleadable  as  an  equitable  defence  to  any 
personal  action.  And  it  was  essentially  productive  only  of  uni- 
lateral obligation,  i.e.,  the  respondent  in  the  interrogatory  alone 
incurred  liability  ;  if  mutual  obligations  were  intended  it  was 
necessary  that  each  should  promise  for  his  own  part,  with  the 
result  that  two  contracts  were  executed  which  were  perfectly  inde- 
pendent. Originally  the  only  words  that  could  be  employed  were 
spondcs?  on  the  one  side,  spondeo  on  the  other ;  and  in  this  form  the 
contract  \rasjuris  civilis  and  competent  only  to  citizens  (and  non- 
citizens  enjoying  commercium  ?).  In  time  the  words  promittis  ? 
promitto,  came  to  be  used  alternatively.  They  seem,  eventually  at 
least,  to  have  been  competent  to  peregrins  as  well  as  to  citizens, 
although  that  may  not  have  been  until  the  stipulation  had  become 
of  daily  use  amongst  the  former  in  the  still  simpler  phraseology 
dabis  ?  dabo,  fades  1  faciam.  Originally  competent  only  for  the 
creation  of  an  obligation  to  pay  a  definite  sum  of  money,  and  after- 
wards one  for  delivery  of  a  specific  thing  other  than  money,  the 
contract  came  in  time,  by  the  simplification  of  the  words  of  inter- 
rogatory and  response — the  substitution  of  the  condictions  of  the 
formular  system  for  the  legis  actiones  of  the  Silian  and  Calpurnian 
laws,  and  the  introduction  of  the  actio  ex  stipulatu  to  meet  cases 
of  indefinite  promise  —  to  be  adaptable  to  any  sort  of  unilateral 
engagement,  whether  initiated  by  it  or  only  confirmed.  It  was  of 
immense  service  too  outside  the  ordinary  range  of  contract  in  what 
were  called  necessary  (in  Contradistinction  to  voluntary)  stipula- 
tions, of  which  a  variety  of  illustrations  are  given  infra,  p.  709. 
In  all  directions  advantage  was  taken  of  it  to  bind  a  man  by  formal 
contract  either  to  do  or  to  refrain  from  doing  what  in  many  cases 
he  might  already  be  bound  ipsojure  to  do  or  to  abstain  from  doing, 
and  that  because  of  the  simplicity  of  the  remedy— an  action  on 
his  stipulation— that  would  lie  against  him  in  the  event  of  his 
failure. 

A  second  form  of  contract  that  came  into  use  to  a  considerable  Literal 
extent  in  the  latter  half  of  the  republic  is  what  is  commonly  called  contrac 
the  literal  contract,  or,  as  Gaius  phrases  it  with  greater  accuracy, 
3  See  Bekker,  Aktlonen,  vol.  i.  chaps.  5-8,  and  App.  D,  E,  F,  and  vol.  ii. 
chaps.  15,  16  ;  Voigt,  Jus  na.tv.rale,  &c.,  vol.  iii.  §§  106-124,  and  vol.  iv.,  App. 


700 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  GENTIUM,  ETC. 


the  nomen  transscripticium.1  Notwithstanding  the  prolific  litera- 
ture of  which  it  has  been  the  subject,  it  must  be  admitted  that  in 
many  points  our  knowledge  of  it  is  incomplete  and  uncertain. 
The  prevalent  opinion,  formed  before  the  discovery  of  the  Verona 
MS.  had  made  known  Gaius's  description  of  it,  and  almost  univer- 
sally adhered  to  ever  since,  is  that  such  contracts  were  created  by 
entries  in  the  account -books  which  the  censors  insisted  that  all 
citizens  of  any  means  should  keep  with  scrupulous  regularity. 
They  are  often  alluded  to  by  the  lay  \mters ;  but  the  text  princi- 
pally relied  on  is  what  remains  of  Cicero's  speech  for  the  player 
Koscius.  From  the  tenor  of  the  argument  in  that  case,  and  inci- 
dental remarks  elsewhere,  the  conclusion  has  been  formed  that  a 
citizen  who  made  an  entry  in  his  codex — whether  of  the  nature 
of  a  cash-book  or  a  ledger  is  much  disputed — to  the  debit  of  another, 
thereby  made  the  latter  his  debtor  for  a  sum  recoverable  by  an 
actio  certae  creditae  pecuniae.  Gaius  in  his  description  of  the  con- 
tract does  not  mention  the  codices  ;  but  his  account  is  not  incon- 
sistent with  the  notion  that  the  entries  (nomina}  of  which  he 
speaks  were  made  in  them.  He  says  that  those  entries  were  of 
two  sorts,  nomina  arcaria  and  nomina  transscripticia.  The  former 
were  entries  of  cash  advances  ;  and  of  them  he  observes  that  they 
did  not  create  obligation,  but  only  served  as  evidence  of  one  already 
created  by  payment  to  and  receipt  of  the  money  by  the  borrower. 
Of  the  latter  he  says  that  there  were  two  varieties,  the  entry  tran- 
scribed from  thing  to  person  and  that  transcribed  from  one  person 
to  another,  and  that  both  of  them  were  not  probative  merely  but 
creative  of  obligation.  The  first  was  effected  by  a  creditor  (A) 
entering  to  the  debit  of  his  debtor  (B)  the  liquidated  amount  of 
what  the  latter  was  already  owing  as  the  price  of  something  pur- 
chased, the  rent  of  a  house  leased,  the  value  of  work  done,  or  the 
like.  The  second  was  effected  by  A  transcribing  B's  debt  to  the 
debit  of  a  third  party  (C),  hitherto  a  debtor  of  B's,  and  who  con- 
sented to  the  transaction, — A  at  the  same  time  crediting  B  with 
the  sum  thus  booked  against  C,  and  B  in  his  books  both  crediting 
C  with  it  (acceptilatio)  and  debiting  A  (expensilatio). 

All  this  at  first  sight  seems  just  a  series  of  bookkeeping  opera- 
tions. But  it  was  much  more  than  that  for  the  Roman  citizens 
who  first  had  recourse  to  it.  There  was  a  time  when  sale,  and 
lease,  and  the  like,  so  long  as  they  stood  on  their  own  merits, 
created  no  obligation  enforcible  at  law,  however  much  it  might  be 
binding  as  a  duty  to  Fides  or  (as  moderns  would  say)  in  the  forum 
of  conscience  ;  to  found  an  action  it  required  to  be  clothed  in  some 
form  approved  by  the  jus  civile.  The  nexum  may  have  been  one  of 
those  forms,  the  vendee  or  tenant  being  fictitiously  dealt  with  as 
borrower  of  the  price  or  rent  due  under  his  purchase  or  lease  ;  the 
stipulation  was  another,  the  obligation  to  pay  the  price  or  rent 
being  made  legally  binding  by  its  embodiment  in  formal  question 
and  answer.  But  stipulation  was  competent  only  between  persons 
who  were  face  to  face,  whereas  expensilation  Avas  competent  also 
as  between  persons  at  a  distance  from  each  other.  This  of  itself 
gave  expensilation — which,  originally  at  least,  was  as  much  a  nego- 
tium  juris  civilis  as  the  sponsio — an  advantage  in  some  cases  over 
stipulation.  But  it  had  also  a  further  advantage,  which  was  not 
affected  by  the  subsequent  recognition  of  the  real  and  consensual 
contracts  as  productive  of  legal  obligation  on  their  own  merits :  it 
paved  the  way  for  subsequent  transcription  from  one  person  to 
another.  This  last  must  have  been  of  infinite  convenience  in  com- 
merce, not  only  by  enabling  traders  to  dispense  with  a  reserve 
of  coin,  but  by  obviating  the  risks  attending  the  transit  of  money 
over  long  distances.  It  was  this  that  led,  as  Theophilus  says  was 
the  case,  to  the  conversion  even  of  stipulatory  obligations  into 
book-debts  ;  it  was  not  that  thereby  the  creditor  obtained  a  tighter 
hold  over  his  debtor,  but  that  an  obligation  was  obtained  from  him 
which  in  a  sense  was  negotiable  and  therefore  more  valuable. 
>n-  The  evolution  of  the  four  purely  consensual  contracts — sale,  loca- 

usual  tion,  partnership,  and  mandate — supplies  matter  for  one  of  the 
ntracts.  most  interesting  chapters  in  the  whole  history  of  the  law.  But,  as 
it  is  impossible  in  such  an  article  as  this  to  attempt  to  mark  the 
successive  stages  in  the  progress  of  all  of  them,  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  to  sale.  The  others  did  not  and  could  not  follow  identi- 
cally the  same  course  :  location  ran  most  nearly  parallel  with  sale  ; 
but  partnership  and  mandate,  from  their  nature,  not  only  started 
at  a  different  point  from  the  other  two,  but  reached  the  same  goal 
with  them — that  of  becoming  productive  of  obligation  simply  on 
the  strength  of  consent  interchanged  by  the  parties — by  paths  that 
were  sometimes  far  apart.  Nevertheless  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  the 
origin  of  the  contract  of  sale  may  be  sufficie-nt  to  indicate  generally 
some  of  the  milestones  that  were  successively  passed  by  all  four. 2 

1  Literature  :— Savigny,  "  Ueber  den  Literalcontract  der  Romer"  (originally 
1816,  with  additions  in  1849),  in  his  Verm.  Schriften,  vol.  i.  p.  205  sq.  ;  Keller, 
in  Sell's  Jahrb.  f.  hist.  u.  dogm.  Bearbeit.  de»  rim..  Rechts,  vol.  i.  (1841),  p.  93  sq.  ; 
Gneist,  Die  formellen  Vertrdge  d.  rom.  Rechts,  Berlin,  1845,  p.  321  sq. ;  Heiin- 
bach,  Die  Lehre  mm  Creditum,  Leipsio,  1849,  p.  309  sq.  ;   Pageristecher,  De 
literar.  obligatiane,  &c.,  Heidelberg,  1851 ;  Danz,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  Rechts,  vol.  ii. 
p.  42  sq.  (where  there  is  a  resume  of  the  principal  theories) ;  Gide,  in  the  Rev. 
de  Legiflat.,  voL  iii.  (1878),  p.  121  sq. ;  Buonamici,  in  the  Archivio  Giuridico, 
vol.  xvi.  (1876),  p.  3  sq.  ;  Gide,  Etudes  sur  la  Novation,  Paris,  1879,  p.  185  sq.  • 
Baron,  Die  Condictionen,  Berlin,  1881.  §§  11,  12. 

2  The  literature  on  the  history  of  the  contract  of  sale  is  profuse,  but  mostly 


Going  back  as  far  as  history  carries  us  we  meet  with  it  under  the  Con- 
names  oiemptio  and  vcnditio,  but  meaning  no  more  than  barter  ;  for  tracts  c 
emere  originally  signified  simply  "to  take"  or  "acquire."  Sheep  sale 
and  cattle  (pecus,  hence  pccunia)  may  for  a  time  have  been  a  very 
usual  article  of  exchange  on  one  side,  and  then  came  raw  metal 
weighed  in  the  scales.  But  it  was  still  exchange,  instant  delivery 
of  goods  on  one  side  against  simultaneous  delivery  of  so  many  pounds 
weight  of  copper  on  the  other.  With  the  reforms  of  Servius  Tullius 
came  the  distinction  between  res  mancipi  and  res  nee  mancipi,  and 
with  it  a  regulated  mancipation  for  sale  and  conveyance  of  the 
former.  It  was  still  barter ;  but  along  with  it  arose  an  obligation 
on  the  part  of  the  transferrer  of  the  res  mancipi  to  warrant  the 
transferee  against  eviction,— a  warranty  that  was  im'plied  in  the 
mancipation.  Whether  this  rule  obtained  from  the  first  or  was 
the  growth  of  custom  it  is  impossible  to  say  ;  but  it  is  in  the 
highest  degree  probable  that  it  was  the  XII.  Tables  which  fixed 
that  the  measure  of  the  transferrer's  liability  to  the  transferee  in 
the  event  of  eviction  should  be  double  the  amount  of  the  price. 
Equally  impossible  is  it  to  say  when  the  practice  arose  of  embody- 
ing declarations,  assurances,  and  so  forth  in  the  mancipation  (leges 
mancipii),  which  were  held  binding  on  the  strength  of  the  negotiant 
juris  civilis  in  which  they  were  clothed.  They  received  statutory 
sanction  in  the  Tables,  in  the  words  already  referred  to  more  than 
once — "cum  nexum  faciet  mancipiumque,  uti  lingua  nuncupassit, 
ita  jus  esto,"  substantially  "whatever  shall  by  word  of  mouth  be 
declared  by  the  parties  in  the  course  of  a  transaction  per  acs  el  libram 
in  definition  of  its  terms  shall  be  law  as  between  them." 

The  substitution  by  the  decemvirs  of  coined  money,  that  was  to 
be  counted  for  rough  metal  that  had  been  weighed,  converted  the 
contribution  on  one  side  into  price  (pretium],  as  distinguished  from 
article  of  purchase  (mcrx)  on  the  other ;  and  sale  thus  became  distinct 
from  barter.  In  contemplation  of  the  separation  of  the  mancipa- 
tion and  the  price-paying,  and  the  degeneration  of  the  former  into 
a  merely  imaginary  sale,  they  enacted  that,  mancipation  notwith- 
standing, the  property  of  what  was  sold  should  not  pass  to  the 
purchaser  until  the  price  had  been  paid  or  security  by  sureties 
(vades)  given  for  it  to  the  vendor ;  and  it  was  probably  by  tho 
interpretation  of  the  pontiffs  that  this  was  added  to  the  rule, — 
that  until  the  price  was  paid  no  liability  for  eviction  should  attach 
to  the  transferrer  (or  auctor).  The  reason  of  the  provision  in  the 
XII.  Tables  was  that  a  vendor  who  had  mancipated  or  delivered 
a  thing  sold  by  him  before  receiving  the  price  had  no  action  to 
enforce  payment  of  the  latter ;  and  in  such  circumstances  it  was 
thought  but  right  to  give  him  the  opportunity  of  getting  back  the 
thing  itself  by  a  real  action.  It  might  be,  however,  that  the  price 
had  Deen  paid,  and  yet  the  vendor  refused  to  mancipate.  It  was 
long,  apparently,  before  the  purchaser  could  in  such  a  case  compel 
him  to  do  so.  With  the  introduction  of  the  legis  actio  per  condic- 
tionem  he  (the  purchaser)  had  undoubtedly  the  power  to  recover 
the  money  on  the  ground  of  the  vendor's  unjustifiable  enrichment, 
• — that  the  latter  had  got  it  for  a  consideration  which  had  failed 
(causa  data,  causa  non  secuta] ;  and  it  is  possible  that  before  that 
he  had  a  similar  remedy  per  judicis  postulationem. 

Down  to  this  point,  therefore,  say  the  beginning  of  the  6th 
century,  there  were  several  obligations  consequent  on  sale  of  a  res 
mancijn  ;  but  not  one  of  them  arose  directly  out  of  the  sale  itself, 
or  could  be  enforced  simply  on  the  ground  that  it  had  taken  place. 
The  vendor  was  bound  to  support  the  purchaser  in  any  action  by 
a  third  party  disputing  his  right,  and  to  repay  him  the  price  two- 
fold in  the  event  of  that  third  party's  success  ;  and  he  was  bound, 
moreover,  to  make  good  to  him  any  loss  he  had  sustained  through 
a  deficiency  of  acreage  he  had  guaranteed,  non-existence  of  servi- 
tudes he  had  declared  the  lands  enjoyed,  existence  of  others  from 
which  he  had  stated  they  were  free,3  incapability  of  a  slave  for 
labour  for  which  he  was  vouched  fit,  and  so  on.  But  these  obliga- 
tions were  binding,  not  in  virtue  of  the  sale  per  se,  but  of  the 
transaction  per  aes  et  libram  superinduced  upon  it ;  and,  if  the 
vendor  had  at  any  time  to  return  the  price  on  failure  to  mancipate 
what  he  had  sold,  it  was  not  because  he  had  committed  a  breach 
of  contract,  but  because  he  had  unjustly  enriched  himself  at  tho 
purchaser's  expense. 

In  sales  of  res  nee  mancipi,  just  as  in  those  of  res  mancipi,  a 
vendor  who  had  been  incautious  enough  to  deliver  his  wares  before 
he  had  been  paid,  or  had  got  stipulatory  security  for  the  price,  or  ha  I 
converted  it  into  a  book-debt,  might  recover  them  by  a  real  action 
if  payment  was  unduly  delayed  ;  while  the  purchaser  who  had  paid 
in  advance  but  failed  to  get  delivery  might  also  get  back  his  money 
from  the  vendor  on  the  plea  of  unwarrantable  enrichment.  But,  as 


scattered  in  periodicals  and  much  of  it  very  fragmentary.    It  may  be  enough 

to  refer  to  Bechmann,  Gesch.  d.  Kaufs  im  rom.  Recht,  Erlangen,  1876;  three 

article 

(1883), 

Anfan(,_ 

Rom.  Abtheil.,  p.  260  sq. 

3  Cicero  saya  (De  Of.,  iii.  16,  §  65)  that,  though  1>y  the  XII.  Tables  it  wnn 
enough  if  a  vendor  per  aes  et  libram  made  good  his  positive  assurances  (uti 
lingua  nuncupassit,  ita  jus  esto),  the  jurists  held  him  responsible  for  reticence 
about  burdens  or  defects  he  ought  to  have  revealed,  and  liable  for  a  poem* 
dupli  exactly  as  if  he  had  guaranteed  their  non-existence. 


JUS  GENTIUM,  ETC.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


701 


mancipation  was  unnecessary  for  carrying  the  property  (and,  as 
some  think,  incompetent),  some  other  machinery  had  to  be  resorted 
to  than  that  of  the  copper  and  the  scales  for  imposing  upon  the 
vendor  an  obligation  of  warranty  against  eviction,  defects,  and  so 
forth.  It  may  be  that,  until  trade  began  to  assume  considerable 
proportions,  and  when  a  transaction  was  between  citizens,  a  pur- 
chaser was  content  to  rely  partly  on  the  honesty  of  his  vendor, 
partly  on  the  latter's  knowledge  that  he  ran  the  risk  of  an  action 
for  theft  if  what  he  sold  belonged  to  another,1  and  partly  on  the 
maxim  common  in  all  ages  and  climes,  caveat  emptor.  When  it 
was  one  between  a  citizen  and  a  peregrin,  a  different  set  of  rules 
may  have  come  into  play  ;  for  between  them  disputes  were  settled 
by  recuperators  whose  decisions  were  arrived  at  very  much  on  con- 
siderations of  natural  equity.  It  was  the  popularization  of  the 
stipulation  that  facilitated  a  further  advance,  rendered  all  the 
more  necessary  by  the  expansion  of  intercourse  with  foreigners  and 
the  cessation  of  recuperation. 

!ifir-  We  read  of  a  satisdatio  secundum  mancipium,  a  stipulatio  habere 
itory  licere,  and  a  stipulatio  duplae.  The  nature  of  the  first  is  obscure  ; 
>ula-  it  seems  to  have  been  connected  with  mancipatory  sales,  and  prob- 
is.  ably  to  have  been  the  guarantee  of  a  sponsor  for  the  liabilities  im- 
posed upon  the  vendor  by  the  transaction  per  aes  et  Hbram  and  the 
verba  nuncupata  that  were  covered  by  it.  The  stipulation  habere 
licere  occurs  in  Varro,  in  a  collection  of  styles  of  sales  of  sheep, 
cattle,  &c.,  some  of  which  he  says  were  abridgments  of  those  of  M. 
Manilius,  who  was  consul  in  the  year  605.  It  was  the  guarantee 
of  the  vendor  of  a  res  nee  maneipi,  or  even  of  a  res  inancipi  sold 
without  mancipation,  that  the  purchaser  should  be  maintained  in 
possession  of  what  he  had  bought  ;  it  entitled  him  to  reparation 
on  eviction,  measured  not  by  any  fixed  standard  but  according  to 
the  loss  he  had  sustained.  It  cannot  have  been  introduced,  there- 
fore, until  after  the  Lex  Aebutia  and  the  formulation  by  the  prsetor 
of  the  actio  ex  stipulatu.  The  idea  of  the  stipulatio  duplae  may 
have  been  borrowed  from  the  duplum  incurred  by  a  vendor  on  the 
eviction  of  a  purchaser  acquiring  a  thing  by  mancipation  ;  for  one 
of  its  earliest  manifestations  was  in  the  edict  of  the  curule  pediles, 
who  insisted  on  it  from  persons  selling  slaves,  probably  because 
the  dealers  were  for  the  most  part  foreigners,  and  therefore  unable 
to  complete  their  sales  per  aes  et  Hbram.  Judging  from  Varro,  it 
was  a  form  of  stipulation  against  eviction  that  in  his  time  was 
used  only  in  sales  of  slaves,  although  he  adds  that  by  agreement 
of  parties  it  might  be  limited  to  a  simplum. 

We  learn  from  the  same  writer — what  is  also  indicated  in  various 
passages  of  Plautus — that  the  vendor  at  the  same  time  and  in  the 
body  of  the  same  stipulation  guaranteed  that  the  sheep  or  cattle 
lie  was  selling  were  healthy  and  of  a  healthy  stock  and  free  from 
faults,  and  that  the  latter  had  not  done  any  mischief  for  which 
their  owner  could  be  held  liable  in  a  noxal  action ;  and  similarly 
that  a  slave  sold  was  healthy  and  not  chargeable  for  any  theft  or 
other  offence  for  which  the  purchaser  might  have  to  answer.  If 
any  of  these  guarantees  turned  out  fallacious  the  purchaser  had  an 
actio  ex  stipulatu  against  the  vendor  :  ' '  Whereas  the  plaintiff  got 
from  the  defendant  a  stipulation  that  certain  sheep  he  bought 
from  him  were  healthy,  &c.  [repeating  the  words  of  guarantee],  and 
that  he,  the  plaintiff,  should  be  free  to  hold  them  (habere  licere), 
whatever  it  shall  appear  that  the  defendant  ought  in  respect  thereof 
to  give  to  or  do  for  the  plaintiff,  in  the  value  thereof,  judge,  con- 
demn him ;  otherwise,  acquit  him."  It  is  an  observation  of  Bekker's2 
igin  of  that  the  actio  empti  in  its  original  shape  was  just  a  simplification 
;io  of  the  actio  ex  stipulatu  on  a  vendor's  guarantees  ;  the  stipulations 
.pti.  to  which  we  have  been  alluding  had  become  such  unfailing  accom- 
paniments of  a  sale  as  to  be  matters  of  legal  presumption,  the 
result  being  that  the  words  "  whereas  the  plaintiff  bought  from  the 
defendant  the  sheep  about  which  this  action  has  arisen"  were 
substituted  in  the  demonstratio  (as  the  introductory  clause  of  the 
formula  was  called)  for  the  detailed  recital  of  what  had  been  stipu- 
'lated.  Bekker  justifies  this  by  reference  to  the  language  of  Varro, 
who  seems  to  include  under  the  words  emptio,  venditio  not  merely 
the  agreement  to  buy  and  sell  but  also  the  stipulations  that  usually 
went  with  it. 

The  introduction  of  an  actio  empti  in  this  shape,  however,  was 
far  from  the  recognition  of  sale  as  a  purely  consensual  contract. 
If  the  price  was  not  paid  at  once,  the  purchaser  gave  his  stipulatory 
promise  for  it,  or  got  some  one  on  whom  the  vendor  placed  more 
reliance  to  do  so  for  him,  or  else  made  a  book-debt  of  it ;  and,  if  it 
had  to  be  sued  for,  it  was  in  all  these  cases  by  a  condictio  ccrti  and 
not  by  an  action  on  the  sale.  If  the  price  was  paid  but  the  thing 
purchased  not  delivered,  the  only  remedy  open  to  the  purchaser 
was  to  get  back  his  money  by  the  same  condiction,  unless,  indeed, 
the  guarantee  habere  licere  was  held  to  cover  delivery,  in  which 
case  the  purchaser  might  obtain  damages  in  an  actio  ex  stipulatu 
under  the  name  of  actio  empti.  But  this  actio  empti,  whether  in- 
sisted on  on  the  ground  of  non  -  delivery,  eviction,  or  breach  of 
some  other  warranty,  was  really  an  action  on  the  verbal  contracts 


1  "  In   rebus  mobilibus 
committit"  (Gai.,  ii.  50). 

2  Bekker,  Aktionen,  vol.  i.  p.  158. 


qui  alienam  rem  vendidit  et  tradidit  furtuni 


that  had  accompanied  the  sale, — z.  strictum  jus  action  in  which  the 
judge  could  not  travel  beyond  the  letter  of  the  engagements  of  the 
purchaser.  In  the  latter  years  of  the  republic,  and  probably  from 
the  time  of  Q.  Mucius  Scaevola,  it  was  a  bonae  fidei  action.  How 
had  the  change  come  about  ?  A  single  case  of  hardship  may  have 
been  sufficient  to  induce  it,  such  as  the  defeat  of  a  claim  for 
damages  for  eviction  on  the  ground  that  the  stipulatory  guarantee 
had  been  accidentally  overlooked.  Ulpian  says,  "  As  the  stipulatio 
duplae  is  a  thing  of  universal  observance,  action  on  the  ground  of 
eviction  will  lie  ex  empto  if  perchance  the  vendor  of  a  slave  have 
failed  to  give  his  stipulatory  guarantee,  for  everything  that  is  of 
general  custom  and  practice  ought  to  be  in  view  of  the  judge  in  a 
bonae  fidei  judicium."3 

Very  little  was  required  to  convert  the  stricti  juris  actio  empti, 
really  nothing  more  than  an  actio  ex  stipulate,  into  a  bonae  fidei 
one, — simply  the  addition  by  the  praetor  of  the  words  "on  con- 
siderations of  good  faith "  (ex  fide  bona)  to  the  "  whatever  the 
defendant  ought  to  give  to  or  do  for  the  plaintiff. "  The  effect, 
however,  was  immeasurable, — not  that  it  did  away  with  the  prac- 
tice of  stipulatory  guarantees,  for  Varro  wrote  after  the  time  of  Q. 
Mucius  (who  speaks  of  the  action  on  sale  as  a  bonae  fidei  one),  and 
references  to  them  are  abundant  in  the  pages  of  the  classical  jurists ; 
but  it  rendered  them  in  law  unnecessary.  It  made  sale  a  purely 
consensual  contract  in  which,  in  virtue  of  the  simple  agreement  to 
buy  and  sell,  all  the  obligations  on  either  side  that  iisually  attended 
it  were  held  embodied  without  express  formulation  or  (still  less) 
stipulatory  or  literal  engagement.  And,  in  instructing  the  judges 
to  decide  in  every  case  between  buyer  and  seller  suing  ex  empto  or 
ex  vendito  on  principles  of  good  faith,  it  really  empowered  them  to 
go  far  beyond  "general  custom  and  practice,"  and  to  take  cogniz- 
ance of  everything  that  in  fairness  and  equity  and  common  sense 
ought  to  influence  their  judgment,  so  as  to  enable  them  freely  to  do 
justice  between  the  parties  in  any  and  every  question  that  might 
directly  or  indirectly  arise  out  of  their  relation  as  seller  and  buyer. 

The  history  of  the  four  nominate  real  contracts — mutuum  (i.e.,  Real  con- 
loan  of  money  or  other  things  returnable  genetically),  commo-  tracts, 
date  (i.e.,  loan  of  things  that  had  to  be  returned  specifically), 
deposit,  and  pledge — is  more  obscure  than  that  of  the  consensual 
ones.4  Down  to  the  time  of  the  Pcetilian  law  loan  of  money, 
corn,  &c.,  was  usually  contracted  per  aes  et  Hbram;  and  it  is 
probable  that  after  the  abolition  of  the  nexum  the  obligation  on 
a  borrower  to  repay  the  money  or  corn  advanced  to  him  was  made 
actionable,  under  the  Silian  and  Calpurnian  laws  respectively,  by 
a  stipulation  contemporaneous  with  the  loan.  With  the  rise  of 
the /MS  gentium  loan  became  actionable  on  its  own  merits, — that  is 
to  say,  the  advance  and  receipt  of  money  as  a  loan  of  itself  laid 
the  borrower  under  obligation  to  repay  it,  even  though  no  stipu- 
latory engagement  had  intervened  ;  the  res  (in  this  case  the  giving 
and  receiving  mutui  causa)  completed  the  contract.  The  obliga- 
tion that  arose  from  it  was  purely  unilateral,  and  enforcible,  where 
the  loan  was  of  money,  by  the  same  action  as  stipulation  and  literal 
contract ;  and  so  strictly  was  it  construed  that  interest  on  the  loan 
was  not  claimable  along  with  it,  the  res  given  and  received  being 
the  full  measure  of  the  obligation  of  repayment.  The  other  three — 
commodate,  deposit,  and  pledge — became  independent  real  contracts 
very  much  later  than  mutuum,  possibly  not  all  at  the  same  time, 
and  none  of  them  apparently  until  very  late  in  the  republic.  All 
of  them,  of  course,  had  been  long  known  as  transactions  of  daily 
life  ;  the  difficulty  is  to  say  when  they  first  became  actionable,  and 
under  what  guise. 

It  is  impossible  within  the  space  at  our  command  to  criticize  the 
various  theories  entertained  of  their  vicissitudes,  for  they  neces- 
sarily vary  to  some  extent  in  regard  to  each.  We  must  content 
ourselves,  therefore,  with  the  simple  statement  that  eventually, 
and  within  the  period  with  which  we  are  now  dealing,  they  came 
to  be  recognized  as  independent  real  contracts,  the  res  by  which 
they  were  completed  being  the  delivery  of  a  thing  by  one  person  to 
another  for  a  particular  purpose,  on  the  understanding  that  it  was 
to  be  returned  when  that  purpose  was  served.  And  it  is  to  be 
noted  that,  while  mutuum  transferred  the  property  of  the  money 
lent,  the  borrower  being  bound  to  return  not  the  identical  coins 
but  only  an  equal  amount,'  in  pledge  it  was  only  the  possession 
that  passed,  while  in  commodate  and  deposit  the  lender  or  depositor 
retained  both  property  and  (legal)  possession,  the  borrower  or  de- 
positary having  nothing  more  than  the  natural  detention.  In  all 
but  mutuum,  therefore,  there  was  trust ;  the  holder  was  bound,  to 
an  extent  varying  according  to  circumstances,  to  care  for  what  he 
held  as  if  it  were  his  own,  and  entitled  to  be  reimbursed  for  outlay 
on  its  maintenance, — bound  to  return  it,  yet  excused  if  his  failure 
to  do  so  was  due  to  a  cause  for  which  in  fairness  he  could  not  be 
held  responsible.  Consequently  the  actions  on  these  three  con- 
tracts, differing  from  that  on  mutuum,  were  all  bonae  fidei,  the 


3  Ulp.,  "Lib.  I.  ad  ed.  aedil.,"  in  Dig.,  xxi.  1,  fr.  31,  §  20. 

4  See  Heiinbach,  Creditum,  pp.  498  sq.,  633  sq. ;  Bekker,  7<oci  Plautini  de 
rebtts  creditis,  Greifswald,  1861 ;  Demelius,  in  the  Zeitschr.  f.  Rechtsgesch.,  vol. 
ii.  (1863),  p.  217  sq. ;  Bekker,  Aktionen,  vol.  i.  p.  306  sq.  ;   Ubbelohde,  Zur 
Gesch.  d.  benannten  Reakontracte,  Marburg,  1S70  ;  Huschke,  Lehre  vom  Darlehn, 
Leipsic,  1882. 


702 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JTTS  GENTIUM,  KTC. 


judge  being  vested  with  full  discretion  to  determine  what  was  fair 
and  equitable  in  each  individual  case. 

raetor-         Praetorian  Amendments  on  the  Law  of  Succession. — The  most  im- 
ubon-     portant  change  in  the  law  of  succession  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
•urn  pos-  republic  was  due  to  the  praetors.     They  introduced,  under  the  name 
ssio.       of  bonorum  possessio,1  what  was  really  beneficial  enjoyment  of  the 
estate  of  a  deceased  person  without  the  legal  title  of  inheritance. 
There  is  much  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  series  of  provisions 
in  regard  to  it  which  we  find  in  the  Julian  consolidation  of  the 
Edict  were  the  work  of  a  succession  of  praetors,  some  of  them  prob- 
ably not  under  the  republic  but  under  the  empire  ;  but  it  will  be 
convenient  to  give  here  a  general  view  of  the  subject  as  a  whole, 
disregarding  the  consideration  that  some  of  its  features  may  not 
have  oeen  given  to  it  within  the  period  uow  under  notice. 

Justinian,  speaking  of  the  origin  of  bonorum  possessio,  observes 
that  in  promising  it  to  a  petitioner  the  praetors  were  not  always 
actuated  by  the  same  motives  ;  in  some  cases  their  object  was  to 
facilitate  the  application  of  the  rules  of  the  jits  civile,  in  some  to 
amend  their  application  according  to  what  they  believed  to  be  the 
spirit  of  the  XII.  Tables,  in  others,  again,  to  set  them  aside  as  in- 
equitable. It  is  not  unreasonable  to  assume  that  it  was  with  the 
purpose  of  aiding  the  jus  civile  that  the  first  step  was  taken  in  what 
gradually  became  a  momentous  reform  ;  and  it  is  extremely  prob- 
able that  this  first  step  was  the  announcement  by  some  praetor  that, 
where  there  was  dispute  as  to  an  inheritance,  and  a  testament  was 
presented  to  him  bearing  not  fewer  seals  than  were  required  by  law, 
lie  would  give  possession  of  the  goods  of  the  defunct  to  the  heir 
named  in  it.2  In  this  as  it  stands  there  is  nothing  but  a  regulation 
of  possession  of  the  bona  of  the  inheritance  pending  the  question  of 
legal  right.  Just  as  between  two  parties  contending  about  the  owner- 
ship of  a  specific  thing  in  a  rei  vindicatio  the  praetor  first  settled  the 
question  of  interim  possession,  so  did  he  promise  to  do  here  when  a 
question  was  about  to  be  tried  about  the  right  to  an  inheritance  (si 
de  hereditate  ambigitur).  It  was  a  provisional  arrangement  merely, 
and  very  necessary  in  view  of  the  state  of  the  law  which  permitted 
a  third  party,  apart  from  any  pretence  of  title,  to  step  in  and  com- 
plete a  usucapio  pro  herede  by  a  year's  possession  of  the  effects  of  the 
inheritance  (supra,  p.  692).  Even  at  the  time  when  the  Edict  was 
closed  it  was  not  necessarily  more  than  a  provisional  grant ;  for,  if 
heirs-at-law  of  the  deceased  appeared  and  proved  that,  although 
the  testament  bore  on  the  outside  the  requisite  number  of  seals, 
yet  in  fact  some  solemnity  of  execution,  such  as  thefamiliae  venditio 
or  testamcnti  nuncupatio,  had  been  omitted,  the  grantee  had  to  yield 
them  up  the  possession  that  had  been  given  him  pending  inquiry. 
It  was  only  by  a  rescript  of  Marcus  Aurelius's  that  it  was  declared 
that  a  plea  by  the  heir-at-law  of  invalidity  of  a  testament  on  the 
ground  of  defect  of  formalities  of  execution  might  be  defeated  by  an 
exceptio  doli,  on  the  principle  that  it  was  contrary  to  good  faith  to 
set  aside  the  wishes  of  a  testator  on  a  technical  objection  that  was 
purely  formal.  Thus  was  the  bonorum  possessio  secundum  tabulas, 
i.e.,  in  accordance  with  a  testament,  from  being  originally  one  in 
aid  of  the  jus  civile,  in  course  of  time  converted  into  one  in  contra- 
diction of  it.  That  the  motives  and  purposes  of  the  series  of 
praetors  who  built  up  the  law  of  bonorum  posscssio  must  have  varied 
in  progress  of  years  is  obvious  ;  and,  once  the  machinery  had  been 
invented,  nothing  was  easier  than  to  apply  it  to  new  ideas.  The 
praetor  could  not  make  a  man  heir, — that  he  always  disclaimed ; 
but  he  could  give  a  man,  whether  heir  or  not,  the  substantial  ad- 
vantages of  inheritance,  and  protect  him  in  their  enjoyment  by 
praetorian  remedies.  He  gave  him  possession  of  the  goods  of  the 
deceased,  with  summary  remedies  for  ingathering  them,  which, 
once  in  his  hands,  would  become  his  in  quiritarian  right  on  the 
expiry  of  the  period  of  usucapion  ;  and,  by  interpolation  into  the 
formula  of  a  fiction  of  heirship,  he  gave  him  effectual  personal 
actions  against  debtors  of  the  deceased,  rendering  him  liable  in 
the  same  way  to  the  deceased's  creditors. 

Another  variety  of  the  bonorum  possessio  was  that  contra  tabulas, 
— in  opposition  to  the  terms  of  a  testament.  If  a  testator  had 
neither  instituted  nor  expressly  disinherited  a  son  who  was  one  of 
his  sui  heredcs,  then  his  testament  was  a  nullity,  and  the  child 
passed  over  had  no  need  of  a  praetorian  remedy.  Where  mi  heredes 
other  than  sons  were  passed  over  the  jus  civile  allowed  them  to  par- 
ticipate with  the  instituted  heirs  by  a  sort  of  accrual.  But  the 
Edict  went  further;  for,  if  the  institute  was  a  stranger,  i.e.,  not 
brother  or  sister  of  the  child  passed  over,  then,  on  the  petition  of 
the  latter,  the  praetor  gave  him  and  any  other  sui  concurring  with 
him  possession  of  the  whole  estate  of  the  deceased,  the  institute 
being  left  with  nothing  more  than  the  empty  name  of  heir.  Another 

l  For  a  resumt,  of  the  principal  theories  (down  to  1870)  about  the  origin  of 
konarurn.  povsessio,  see  Danz,  Gesckichte  d.  rom.  Rechts,  vol.  ii.  §  176.  Of  the 
later  literature  it  is  enough  to  mention  Leist,  in  the  first  4  vols.  of  his  con- 
tinuation of  Glilck's  Pandecten-Commentar,  Erlanjren,  1870-79. 

»  Cic.,  In  Verr.  IE.,  i.  45,  §  117.  He  says  (writing  in  684)  that  an  edict  to 
that  effect  was  already  iralaticium,  i.e.,  had  been  adopted  year  after  year  by  a 
series  of  praetors.  Gaius  (ii.  119)  speaks  of  seven  at  least  as  the  requisite  num- 
ber of  seals  ;  i.e.,  those  of  the  libripens  and  the  five  citizen  witnesses,  and  that 
of  the  anttstatus,  whose  functions  are  not  well  understood,  but  whose  official 
designation  appended  to  his  seal  recurs  so  regularly  in  inscriptions  as  to  leave 
no  doubt  that  his  was  the  seventh. 


application  of  the  bonorum  posscssio  contra  tabulas  was  to  the  case 
of  emancipated  children  of  the  testator's.  By  thefts  civile  he  was 
not  required  to  institute  or  disinherit  them  ;  for  by  their  emanci- 
pation they  had  ceased  to  be  sui  hcrcdcs,  and  had  lost  that  interest 
in  the  family  estate  which  was  put  forward  as  the  reason  why  they 
had  to  be  mentioned  in  the  testament  of  their  paterfamilias.  The 
praetors — although  probably  not  until  the  empire,  and  when  the 
doctrines  of  the  jus  naturalc  were  being  more  freely  recognized — 
put  them  on  the  same  footing  as  unemancipated  children,  requiring 
that  they  also  should  be  either  instituted  or  disinherited,  and  gi\ -ing 
them  bonorum  possessio  if  they  were  not.  It  was  contra  tabulas  in 
the  sense  that  it  displaced  the  instituted  heirs  either  wholly  or 
partially, — wholly  when  the  institutes  were  not  children  of  the 
deceased,  partially  when  they  were.  In  the  latter  case,  at  least 
when  sui  were  affected  by  it,  the  grant  of  bonorum  possessio  was 
under  the  very  equitable  condition  that  the  grantees  should  col- 
late or  bring  into  partition  all  their  own  acquisitions  since  their 
emancipation. 

The  third  variety  of  bonorum  posscssio  was  that  granted  ab  intes- 
tato.  As  has  been  shown  on  a  previous  page  (p.  692),  the  rules  of 
the  jus  civile  in  reference  to  succession  on  intestacy  were  extremely 
strict  and  artificial.  They  admitted  neither  emancipated  children 
nor  agnates  who  had  undergone  capitis  dcminutio  ;  they  admitted 
no  female  agnate  except  a  sister  ;  if  the  nearest  agnate  or  agnates 
declined,  the  right  did  not  pass  to  those  of  the  next  degree  ;  mere 
cognates,  kinsmen  of  the  deceased  who  were  not  agnates,  e.g.,  grand- 
children or  others  related  to  him  through  females  and  agnates  cajritc 
mimiti,  were  not  admitted  at  all  ;  while  a  wife  had  no  share  unless 
she  had  been  in  manu  of  the  deceased  and  therefore  Jiliae  loco.  All 
these  matters  the  praetors  amended,  and  so  far  paved  the  way  for 
the  revolution  in  the  law  of  intestate  succession  which  was  accom- 
plished by  Justinian. 

The  classes  they  established  were  four.  (1)  Displacing  the  sui  Fnetor 
hcrcdcs  of  the  jus  civile,  they  gave  the  first  place  to  descendants  ian  ord 
(libcri),  including  in  the  term  all  those  whom  the  deceased  would  of  intes 
have  been  bound  either  by  the  jus  civile  or  the  Edict  to  institute  tate  su 
or  disinherit  had  he  made  a  will,  i.e.,  his  wife  in  manu,  his  natural  cession 
(as  distinguished  from  adopted)  sons  and  daughters  whether  in 
potentate  at  his  death  or  emancipated,  the  representatives  of  sons 
who  had  predeceased  him,  and  adopted  children  in  his  polentas 
when  he  died.  (2)  On  failure  of  libcri  the  right  to  petition  for 
bonorum  posscssio  opened  to  the  nearest  collateral  agnates  of  the 
intestate,  under  their  old  name  of  Icgitimi  heredcs.  (6)  Under  the 
jus  civile,  on  failure  of  agnates  (and  of  the  gens  where  there  was 
one),  the  succession  was  vacant  and  fell  to  the  fisc,  unless  perchance 
it  was  usucapted  by  a  stranger  possessing  pro  herede.  The  frequency 
of  such  vacancies  was  much  diminished  by  the  recognition  by  the 
pnetors  of  the  right  of  cognates  to  claim  bonorum  posscssio  in  the 
third  place.  "Who  the}'  had  primarily  in  view  under  the  name  of 
"  cognates  "  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  epithet  is  most  frequently 
applied  by  modern  writers  to  kinsmen  related  through  females  ; 
but  in  its  widest  sense  it  included  all  kinsmen  without  exception, 
and  in  a  more  limited  sense  all  kinsmen  not  entitled  to  claim  as 
agnates.  There  were  included  amongst  them  therefore — although 
it  is  very  probable  that  the  list  was  not  made  up  at  once,  but  from 
time  to  time  by  the  action  of  a  series  of  praetors — not  merely  kins- 
men related  through  females  (who  were  not  agnates),  but  also 
agnates  of  a  remoter  degree  who  were  excluded  as  such  because  the 
nearest  agnates  in  existence  had  declined,  persons  who  had  been 
agnates  but  by  reason  of  capitis  minutio  had  lost  that  character, 
female  agnates  more  distantly  related  than  sisters,  and  children  of 
the  intestate's  who  at  the  time  of  his  death  were  in  an  adoptive 
family.  All  these  took  according  to  proximity.  (4)  Finally,  the 
claim  passed  to  the  survivor  of  husband  and  wife,  assuming  always 
that  their  marriage  had  not  involved  manus.  This  list  constituted 
the  praetorian  order  of  succession  on  intestacy. 

All  these  bonorum  possessioncs  had  to  be  formally  petitioned  for. 
In  that  ab  intcstato  descendants  were  allowed  a  year  for  doing  so, 
while  other  persons  were  limited  to  100  days,  the  period  for  those 
entitled  in  the  second  place  beginning  when  that  of  those  entitled 
in  the  first  had  expired,  and  so  on.  The  grant  was  always  made 
at  the  risk  of  the  petitioner  ;  nothing  was  assured  him  by  it ;  it 
might  turn  out  real  and  substantial  (cum  re)  or  merely  nominal 
(sine  re),  according  as  the  grantee  could  or  could  not  maintain  it 
against  the  heir  of  the  jus  civile.  For  the  latter  was  entitled  to 
stand  on  his  statutory  or  testamentary  right,  without  applying  for 
bonorum  posscssio,  although  in  fact  he  often  did  so  for  the  sake  of 
the  summary  procedure  it  supplied  him  for  ingathering  the  effects 
of  the  deceased. 

The  Law  of  Procedure.— The  substitution  of  the  formular  system  Law  c 
of  procedure  for  that  by  the  "actions  of  the  law"  commenced  long  pro- 
before  the  end  of  the  period  now  under  consideration  ;  and  we  have  cedun 
had  occasion  more  than  once  to  observe  how  greatly  it  facilitated 
the  development  of  the  institutions  of  property  and  contractual 
obligation.     But  as  the  change  was  only  completed  in  the  early 
empire  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  defer  explanation  of  the  nature 
of  the  new  procedure  in  the  meantime.     (See  infra,  p.  707  sq. ) 


JUS  NATURALE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


703 


CHAPTER  IV.— THE  JUS  NATURALE  AND  MA- 
TURITY OF  ROMAN  JURISPRUDENCE. 

{The  Empire  until  the  time  of  Diocletian.} 
I.  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  FORMATIVE  AGENCIES  OF  THE 

LAW  DURING  THE  PERIOD. 

Characteristics  generally  and  Recognition  of  a  Jus 
Naturale  in  particular. — The  first  three  centuries  of  the 
empire  witnessed  the  perfection  of  Roman  jurisprudence 
and  the  commencement  of  its  decline.  During  that  time 
the  history  of  the  law  presents  no  such  great  landmarks 
as  the  enactment  of  the  XII.  Tables,  the  commencement 
of  a  praetor's  edict,  the  recognition  of  simple  consent  as 
creative  of  a  contractual  bond,  or  the  introduction  of  a 
new  form  of  judicial  procedure ;  the  establishment  of  a 
class  of  patented  jurists  speaking  as  the  mouthpieces  of 
the  prince,  and  the  admission  of  all  the  free  subjects  of  the 
empire  to  the  privileges  of  citizenship,  are  about  the  only 
isolated  events  to  which  one  can  point  as  productive  of 
great  and  lasting  results.  There  were,  indeed,  some  radical 
changes  in  particular  institutions,  such  as  the  caduciary 
legislation  of  Augustus,  intended  to  raise  the  tone  of 
domestic  morality  and  increase  fruitful  marriages,  and  the 
legislation  of  the  same  emperor  and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessor for  regulation  of  the  status  of  enfranchised  slaves  ; 
but  these,  although  of  vast  importance  in  themselves,  and 
the  first  of  them  influencing  the  current  of  the  law  for 
centuries,  yet  left  upon  it  no  permanent  impression.  It 
was  by  much  less  imposing  efforts  that  it  attained  the 
perfection  to  which  it  reached  under  the  sovereigns  of  the 
Severan  house, — a  steady  advance  on  the  lines  already 
marked  out  in  the  latter  years  of  the  republic.  The 
sphere  of  the  jus  Quiritium  became  more  and  more  cir- 
cumscribed, and  one  after  another  of  the  formalities  of 
the  jus  civile  was  abandoned.  The  manus  of  the  husband 
practically  disappeared ;  the  patria  potestas  of  the  father 
lost  much  of  its  significance  by  the  recognition,  notwith- 
standing it,  of  the  possibility  of  a  separate  and  independ- 
ent estate  in  the  child ;  slaves  might  be  enfranchised  by 
informal  manumission ;  res  mancipi  constantly  passed  by 
simple  tradition,  the  right  of  the  transferee  being  secured 
by  the  Publician  action ;  servitudes  and  other  real  rights 
informally  constituted  were  maintained  as  effectual  tuitione 
praetoris ;  an  heir's  acceptance  of  a  succession  could  be 
accomplished  by  any  indication  of  his  intention,  without 
observance  of  the  formal  cretio  of  the  earlier  law;  and 
many  of  the  incidental  bargains  incident  to  consensual 
contract,  but  varying  their  natural  import,  that  used  to  be 
embodied  in  words  of  stipulation,  came  to  be  enforcible  on 
the  strength  of  formless  contemporaneous  agreements, 
a  of  The  preference  accorded  by  jurists  and  judges  to  the 
13  jus  gentium  over  the  jus  civile  is  insufficient  to  account  for 
a  e'  these  and  many  other  changes  in  the  same  direction,  as 
well  as  for  the  ever-increasing  tendency  evinced  to  sub- 
ordinate word  and  deed  to  the  voluntas  from  which  they 
arose.  They  are  rather  to  be  attributed  to  the  striving 
on  the  part  of  many  after  a  higher  ideal,  to  which  they 
gave  the  name  oijus  naturale.1  It  is  sometimes  said  that 
the  notion  of  a  jus  naturale  as  distinct  from  the  jus  gentium 
was  peculiar  to  Ulpian,  and  that  it  found  no  acceptance 
with  the  Roman  jurists  generally.  But  this  is  inaccurate. 
Justinian,  indeed,  has  excerpted  in  the  Digest  and  put  in 
the  forefront  of  his  Institutes  a  passage  from  an  elementary 
work  of  Ulpian' s,  in  which  he  speaks  of  a  jus  naturale  that 
is  common  to  man  and  the  lower  animals,  and  which  is 
substantially  instinct.  This  is  a  law  of  nature  of  which  it 
is  quite  true  that  we  find  no  other  jurist  taking  account. 


1  See  Voigt,  Das  Jus  naturale  .  .  .  der  Homer,  particularly  vol.  i. 
)  52-64,  89-96  ;  Maine,  Ancient  Law,  chap.  iii. 


But  many  of  them  refer  again  and  again  to  the  jus  naturale; 
and  Gaius  is  the  only  one  (Justinian  following  him)  who 
occasionally  makes  it  synonymous  with  jus  gentium.  There 
can  be  no  question  that  the  latter  was  much  more  largely 
imbued  with  precepts  of  natural  law  than  was  the  jus 
civile,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say  they  were  identical ;  it 
is  enough  to  cite  but  one  illustration,  pointed  out  again 
and  again  in  the  texts  :  while  the  one  admitted  the 
legality  of  slavery,  the  other  denied  it.  While  the  jus  civile 
studied  the  interests  only  of  citizens,  and  the  jus  gentium 
those  of  freemen  irrespective  of  nationality,  the  law  of 
nature  had  theoretically  a  wider  range  and  took  all  man- 
kind within  its  purview.  We  have  no  hint  that  the  doc- 
trine of  the  jus  gentium  differed  in  this  respect  from  the 
jus  civile — that  a  slave  was  nothing  but  a  chattel ;  yet  we 
find  the  latter,  when  tinctured  with  the  jus  naturale,  re- 
cognizing many  rights  as  competent  to  a  slave,  and  even 
conceding  that  he  might  be  debtor  or  creditor  in  a  con- 
tract, although  his  obligation  or  claim  could  be  given  effect 
to  only  indirectly,  since  he  could  neither  sue  nor  be  sued. 

Voigt  thus  summarizes  the  characteristics  of  this  speculative  Charac- 
Ronian  jus  naturale  : — (1)  its  potential  universal  applicability  to  teristics 
all  men,  (2)  among  all  peoples,  (3)  at  all  times,  and  (4)  its  corre-  of  jus 
spondence  with  the  innate  conviction  of  right  (innere  Rechtsiiber-  naturale. 
zeuguny). 2  Its  propositions,  as  gathered  from  the  pages  of  the  jurists 
of  the  period,  he  formulates  thus  : — (1)  recognition  of  the  claims  of 
blood  (sanguinis  vel  cognationis  ratio) ;  (2)  duty  of  faithfulness  to 
engagements, — is  natura  debet  .  .  .  cujus  fidem  secuti  sumus  ;  (3) 
apportionment  of  advantage  and  disadvantage,  gain  and  loss,  accord- 
ing to  the  standard  of  equity  ;  (4)  supremacy  of  the  voluntatis  ratio 
over  the  words  or  form  in  which  the  will  is  manifested.3  It  was 
regard  for  the  first  that,  probably  pretty  early  in  the  principate, 
led  the  praetors  to  place  emancipated  children  on  a  footing  of  perfect 
equality  with  unemancipated  in  the  matter  of  succession,  and  to 
admit  collateral  kindred  through  females  as  well  as  those  related 
through  males ;  and  that,  in  the  reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Marcus 
Aurelius  respectively,  induced  the  senate  to  give  a  mother  a  pre- 
ferred right  of  succession  to  her  children,  and  vice  versa.  It  was 
respect  for  the  second  that  led  to  the  recognition  of  the  validity  of 
what  was  called  a  natural  obligation, — one  that,  because  of  some 
defect  of  form  or  something  peculiar  in  the  position  of  the  parties, 
was  ignored  by  the  jus  civile  and  incapable  of  being  made  the 
ground  of  an  action  for  its  enforcement,  yet  might  be  given  effect 
to  indirectly  by  other  equitable  remedies.  Regard  for  the  third 
was  nothing  new  in  the  jurisprudence  of  the  period  ;  the  republic 
had  already  admitted  it  as  a  principle  that  a  man  was  not  to  be 
unjustifiably  enriched  at  another's  cost ;  the  jurists  of  the  empire, 
however,  gave  it  a  wider  application  than  before,  and  used  it  as  a 
key  to  the  solution  of  many  a  difficult  question  in  the  domain  of 
the  law  of  contract.  As  for  the  fourth,  it  was  one  that  had  to  be 
applied  with  delicacy  ;  for  the  voluntas  could  not  in  equity  be  pre- 
ferred to  its  manifestation  to  the  prejudice  of  other  parties  who  in 
good  faith  had  acted  upon  the  latter.  We  have  many  evidences 
of  the  skilful  way  in  which  the  matter  was  handled,  speculative 
opinion  being  held  in  check  by  considerations  of  individual  interest 
and  general  utility. 

A  remark  of  Voigt's  on  the  subject  is  well  worthy  of  being  kept 
in  view,  that  the  risk  which  arose  from  the  setting  up  of  the  pre- 
cepts of  a  speculative  jus  naturale,  as  derogating  from  the  rules  of 
ihejus  civile,  was  greatly  diminished  through  the  position  held  by 
the  jurists  of  the  early  empire.  Their  jus  respondendi  (infra,  p.  705) 
made  them  legislative  organs  of  the  state,  so  that,  in  introducing 
principles  of  the  jus  naturale,  or  of  aequum  et  bonum,  they  at  the 
same  moment  positivized  them  and  gave  them  the  force  of  law. 
They  were,  he  says,  ' '  philosophers  in  the  sphere  of  law,  searchers 
after  the  ultimate  truth  ;  but,  while  they — usually  in  reference  to 
a  concrete  case — sought  out  the  truth  and  applied  what  they  had 
found,  they  combined  with  the  freedom  and  untrammelledness  of 
speculation  the  life-freshness  of  practice  and  the  power  of  assuring 
the  operativeness  of  their  abstract  propositions."* 

Influence  of  Constitutional  Changes. — The  changes  in  the  con-  Position 
stitution  aided  not  a  little  the  current  of  the  law.     Men  of  foreign  and  char- 
descent  reached  the  throne  and  recruited  the  senate, — proud  indeed  acter  of 
of  the  history  and  traditions  of  Rome,  yet  in  most  cases  free  from  jurists, 
prejudice  in  favour  of  institutions  that  had  nothing  to  recommend 
them  but  their  antiquity.     Military  life  had  not  the  same  attrac- 
tions as  during  the  republic  ;  there  was  no  longer  a  tribunate  to 
which  men  of  ambition  might  aspire  ;  the  comitia  soon  ceased  to 
afford  an  outlet  for  public  eloquence  ;  so  that  men  of  education  and 

2  Voigt,  I.e.,  p.  304.  3  Voigt,  pp.  321-23. 

4  Voigt,  p.  341. 


704 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  NATURALE. 


Sxten- 
ion  of 
itizen- 
hip  to 
rhole 
mpire. 


Jnact- 
icnts  of 
lugus- 
us; 


bout 

aar- 

iage; 


ibont 

nanu- 
nission. 


position  had  all  the  more  inducement  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
conscientious  study  and  regular  practice  of  the  law.  This  was 
greatly  encouraged  by  the  action  ot  Augustus  in  creating  a  class  of 
licensed  or  patented  jurists,  privileged  to  give  answers  to  questions 
submitted  to  them  by  the  judges,  and  that  ex  auctoritate  prindpis, 
and  still  more  so,  perhaps,  by  Hadrian's  reorganization  of  the  im- 
perial privy  councu,  wherein  a  large  proportion  of  the  seats  were 
assigned  to  jurists  of  distinction.  With  several  of  the  emperors 
lawyers  were  amongst  their  most  intimate  and  trusted  friends. 
Again  and  again  the  office  of  praetorian  prefect,  the  highest  next 
the  throne,  was  filled  by  them ;  Papinian,  Ulpian,  and  Paul  all 
held  it  in  the  reigns  of  Septimius  Severus  and  Alexander.  Juris- 
prudence, therefore,  was  not  merely  an  honourable  and  lucrative 
profession  under  the  new  arrangements,  but  a  passport  to  places  of 
eminence  in  the  state  ;  and  till  the  death  of  Alexander  the  ranks 
of  the  jurists  never  failed  to  be  recruited  by  men  of  position  and 
accomplishment. 

Extension  of  Citizenship  to  the  Empire  generally. — It  must  have 
been  between  the  years  212  and  217  that  Caracalla  published  his 
constitution  conferring  citizenship  on  all  the  free  inhabitants  of  the 
empire.  Far-reaching  as  were  its  consequences,  the  primary  pur- 
pose was  purely  fiscal  Augustus  had  imposed  a  tax  of  five  per 
cent,  on  inheritances  and  bequests,  except  where  the  whole  succes- 
sion was  worth  less  than  100,000  sesterces  or  the  heir  or  legatee 
was  a  near  kinsman  of  the  deceased.  It  was  continued  by  his  suc- 
cessors, and  was  very  profitable,  thanks  to  the  propensity  of  the 
well-to-do  classes  for  single  blessedness,  followed  by  testamentary 
distribution  of  their  fortunes  amongst  their  friends.  But  it  affected 
only  the  successions  of  Roman  citizens,  so  that  the  great  mass  of 
the  provincials  escaped  it.  Caracalla,  being  needy,  not  only  in- 
creased it  temporarily  to  ten  per  cent.,  but  widened  the  area  of  its 
operation  by  elevating  all  his  free  subjects  to  the  rank  of  citizens. 
The  words  of  Ulpian  are  very  inclusive, — "in  urbe  Romano  qui 
sunt  .  .  .  cives  Romani  effecti  sunt";  but  there  is  considerable 
diversity  of  opinion  as  to  their  meaning,  caused  by  the  fact  that 
peregrins  are  still  mentioned  by  some  of  Caracalla's  successors. 
Limit  the  constitution,  however,  as  we  may,  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion of  its  immense  importance.  By  conferring  citizenship  on  the 
provincial  peregrins  it  subjected  them  in  all  their  relations  to  the 
law  of  Rome,  and  qualified  them  for  taking  part  in  many  trans- 
actions both  inter  vivos  and  mortis  causa  which  previously  had 
been  incompetent  for  them.  It  did  away  with  the  necessity  for 
the  jus  gentium  as  a  separate  positive  system.  Its  principles  and 
its  doctrines,  it  is  true,  survived,  and  were  expanded  and  elabo- 
rated as  freely  and  successfully  as  ever  ;  but  they  were  so  dealt  with 
as  part  and  parcel  of  the  civil  law  of  Rome,  which  had  ceased  to 
be  Italian  and  become  imperial. 

legislation  of  Comitia  and  Senate. — Augustus,  clinging  as  much 
as  possible  to  the  form  of  republican  institutions,  thought  it  ex- 

Eedient  not  to  break  with  the  old  practice  of  submitting  his  legis- 
itive  proposals  to  the  vote  of  the  comitia  of  the  tribes.  Some  of 
them  were  far  from  insignificant.  Besides  various  measures  for 
the  amendment  of  the  criminal  law,  three  groups  of  enactments  of 
considerable  importance  owed  their  authorship  to  him,  the  first  to 
improve  domestic  morality  and  encourage  fruitful  marriage,  the 
second  to  abate  the  evils  that  had  arisen  from  the  too  lavish  ad- 
mission of  liberated  slaves  to  the  privileges  of  citizenship,  and  the 
third  to  regulate  procedure  in  public  prosecutions  and  private 
litigations. 

The  first  group  included  the  Lex  Julia  de  adultcriis  coercendis  of 
736  and  the  Lex  Julia  et  Papia  Poppaea, — the  latter  a  voluminous 
matrimonial  code,  which  for  two  or  three  centuries  exercised  such 
an  influence  as  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  sources  of  Roman  law 
almost  quite  as  much  as  the  XII.  Tables  or  Julian's  consolidated 
Edict.  It  was  often  spoken  of  as  the  Lex  Caducaria,  one  of  its 
most  remarkable  provisions  being  that  unmarried  persons  (within 
certain  ages  and  under  certain  qualifications)  should  forfeit  entirely 
anything  to  which  they  were  entitled  under  a  testament,  and  that 
married  but  childless  persons  should  forfeit  one-half,  the  lapsed 
provisions  (caduca)  going  to  the  other  persons  named  in  the  will 
who  were  qualified  in  terms  of  the  statute,  and  failing  them  to  the 
fiac.  However  well  intended,  the  language  of  Juvenal  and  others 
raises  doubts  whether  the  law  did  not  really  do  more  harm  than 
good.  By  the  Christian  emperors  many  of  its  provisions  were 
repealed,  while  others  fell  into  disuse  ;  and  in  tne  Justinianian 
books  hardly  a  trace  is  left  of  its  distinctive  features. 

The  second  group  included  the  jElia-Sentian  law  of  the  year  4 
A.D.,  the  Fufia-Caninian  law  of  the  year  8,  and  the  Junia-Norban 
law  of  the  year  19, — the  last  passed  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  but  was 
probably  planned  by  Augustus.  The  .ffilia-Sentian  law  regulated 
the  matter  of  manumission,  with  the  result  that  a  manumittee 
might  on  that  event,  and  according  to  circumstances  minutely 
described,  become  (1)  either  a  citizen,  or  (2)  a  freedman  with  the 
possibility  of  attaining  citizenship  by  a  process  indicated  in  the 
statute,  or  (3)  a  freedman  who,  because  of  his  bad  character,  was 
forbidden  to  reside  within  a  hundred  miles  of  Rome  and  denied  the 
hope  of  ever  becoming  a  citizen  (liberties  dediticius).  The  Junian 


law  was  passed  in  order  to  define  more  precisely  the  status  in  the 
meantime  of  those  freedmen  who  had  a  potentiality  of  citizenship. 
It  did  so  by  assimilating  them  to  the  colonial  Latins,  denying  to 
them  the  rights  of  a  citizen  proper  so  far  as  concerned  family  and 
succession,  but  conceding  to  them  all  the  patrimonial  rights  of  a 
citizen  and  the  fullest  power  of  dealing  with  their  belongings  so 
long  as  not  mortis  causa  and  to  the  prejudice  of  their  patrons. 
This  was  the  Junian  Latinity  so  prominent  in  the  pages  of  Gaius, 
but  of  which  our  limits  exclude  any  detailed  description. 

The  third  group  of  enactments  referred  to  included  the  two  Leges  Ju< 
Juliae  judiciariae,  of  which  we  know  but  little.     That  regulating  ary  lav 
procedure  in  private  litigations  is  the  same  that  is  mentioned  by 
Gaius  as  having  completed  the  work  of  the  ./Ebutian  law  in  sub- 
stituting the  formular  system  for  that  per  legis  actiones.     It  must 
have  been  a  somewhat  comprehensive  statute,  as  a  passage  in  the 
Vatican  Fragments  refers  to  a  provision  of  its  27th  section  ;  and 
our  ignorance  of  its  contents  therefore,  beyond  one  or  two  trifling 
details,  is  the  more  to  be  regretted. 

From  the  time  of  Tiberius  onwards  it  was  the  senate  that  did  Legisls 
the  work  of  legislation,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  comitia  were  tion  of 
no  longer  fit  for  it.  And  very  active  it  seems  to  have  been.  This  senate, 
may  have  been  due  to  some  extent  to  the  fact  that  so  many  pro- 
fessional jurists,  aware  from  their  practice  of  the  points  in  which 
the  law  required  amendment,  possessed  seats  in  the  imperial 
council,  where  the  drafts  of  the  senatusconsults  were  prepared.  It 
was  the  senatusconsults  that  were  the  principal  statutory  factors  of 
what  was  called  by  both  emperors  and  jurists  the  j-us  novum, — law 
that  departed  often  very  widely  from  the  principles  of  the  old  jus 
civile,  that  was  much  more  in  accordance  with  those  of  the  Edict, 
and  that  to  a  great  extent  might  have  been  introduced  through  its 
means  had  not  the  authority  of  the  praetors  been  overshadowed  by 
that  of  the  prince.  In  the  end  of  the  2d  and  the  beginning  of 
the  3d  century  the  supremacy  of  the  latter  in  the  senate  became 
rather  too  pronounced,  men  quoting  the  oratio  in  which  he  had 
submitted  to  it  a  project  of  law  instead  of  the  resolution  which 
gave  it  legislative  eifect.  No  doubt  it  must  have  been  carefully 
considered  beforehand  in  the  imperial  council,  and  rarely  stood  in 
need  of  further  discussion  ;  but  the  ignoring  of  the  formal  act  that 
followed  it  tended  unduly  to  emphasize  the  share  borne  in  it  by  the 
sovereign,  and  made  it  all  the  easier  for  the  emperors  after  Alexander 
Severus  to  dispense  altogether  with  the  time-honoured  practice. 

The  Consolidated  Edictum  Perpetiium.  — The  edicts  of  the  pi-fetors,  Julian 
which  had  attained  very  considerable  proportions  before  the  fall  of  Edictt 
the  republic,  certainly  received  some  additions  in  the  early  empire. 
But  those  magistrates  did  not  long  enjoy  the  same  independence 
as  of  old;  there  was  a  greater  imperium  than  theirs  in  the  state, 
before  which  they  hesitated  to  lay  hands  on  the  law  with  the  bold- 
ness of  their  predecessors.  They  continued  as  before  to  publish 
annually  at  entry  on  office  the  edicts  that  had  been  handed  down 
to  them  through  generations ;  but  their  own  additions  were  soon 
limited  to  mere  amendments  rendered  necessary  by  the  provisions 
of  some  senatusconsult  that  affected  the  jus  honorarium.  They 
ceased  to  be  that  viva  vox  juris  civilis  which  they  had  been  in  the 
time  of  Cicero  ;  the  emperor,  if  any  one,  was  now  entitled  to  the 
epithet ;  the  annual  edict  had  lost  its  raison  d'etre.  Hadrian  was 
of  opinion  that  the  time  had  come  for  writing  its  "explicit,"  and 
giving  it  another  and  a  more  enduring  and  authoritative  shape, — 
for  so  fashioning  and  so  sanctioning  it  that  it  might  be  received 
as  law,  and  not  merely  as  edict,  throughout  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  empire.  He  accordingly  commissioned  Salvius  Julianus, 
urban  praetor  at  the  time,  to  revise  it,  with  a  view  to  its  approval 
by  the  senate  as  part  of  the  statute  law. 

The  revisal,  unfortunately,  like  the  XII.  Tables,  is  no  longer 
extant.  It  is  only  a  veiy  slight  account  we  have  of  the  revision, — 
a  line  or  two  in  Eutropius  and  Aurelius  Victor,  and  a  few  Hues  in 
two  of  Justinian's  prefaces  to  the  Digest.  We  may  assume,  from 
what  is  said  there,  that  there  were  both  abridgment  and  rearrange- 
ment of  the  edicts  of  the  urban  praetor  ;  but  the  question  remains 
how  far  Julian  consolidated  with  them  those  of  the  peregrin  praetor 
and  other  officials  who  had  contributed  to  the  jus  honorarium. 
Those  of  the  curule  aediles,  we  are  told,  were  included  ;  Justinian 
says  that  they  formed  the  last  part  of  Julian's  work,  and  may  have 
been  a  sort  of  appendix.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  so  much 
of  the  edicts  of  the  provincial  governors  as  differed  from  those  of 
the  praetors  were  also  incorporated  in  it,  and  that  the  edicts  of-  the 
peregrin  praetors,  in  so  far  as  they  contained  available  matter  not 
embodied  in  those  of  their  urban  colleagues  or  the  provincial 
governors,  were  dealt  with  in  the  same  way.  The  consolidation 
got  the  name  of  Edictum  Perpetuum  in  a  sense  somewhat  different 
from  that  formerly  imputed  to  edicta  perpetua  as  distinguished  from 
edicta  repentina,  and,  after  approval  by  Hadrian,'  seems  to  have 
been  formally  sanctioned  by  senatusconsult.  It  was  thus  a  closed 
chapter  so  far  as  the  praetors  were  concerned  ;  for,  though  it  may 
have  continued  for  a  time  to  hold  its  place  on  their  album  with  its 
formularies  of  actions,  they  had  no  longer  any  power  to  alter  or 
make  additions  to  it.  It  had  ceased  to  be  a  mere  efflux  of  their 
imperium  and  had  become  matter  of  statute  ;  and  its  iuterpreta- 


JUS  NATURALE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


705 


tion  and  amendment  were  no  longer  in  their  hands  but  in  those 
of  the  emperor. 

The  Julian  Edict  does  not  seem  to  have  been  divided  into  books, 
but  only  into  rubricated  titles  ;  and  the  general  impression  is  that 
the  formularies  of  actions  were  split  up  and  distributed  in  their 
appropriate  places.  The  arrangement  is  not  difficult  to  discover 
by  comparison  of  the  various  commentaries  upon  it,  particularly 
those  of  Ulpian  and  Paul,  which  each  contained  over  eighty  books. 
First  came  a  series  of  titles  dealing  with  the  foundations  and  first 
steps  of  all  legal  procedure, — jurisdiction,  summons,  intervention 
of  attorneys  or  procurators,  &c.  ;  secondly,  ordinary  process  in  vir- 
tue of  the  magistrate's  jurisdictio ;  thirdly,  extraordinary  process, 
originally  in  virtue  of  his  imperium  ;  fourthly,  execution  against 
judgment-debtors,  bankrupts,  &c.  ;  fifthly,  interdicts,  exceptions, 
and  praetorian  stipulations ;  and  lastly,  the  sedilian  remedies.  From 
the  quotations  from  the  Julian  Edict  embodied  in  the  fragments 
of  the  writings  of  the  commentators  preserved  by  Justinian  re- 
peated attempts  have  been  made  to  reproduce  it.  Most  of  them 
are  nothing. more  than  transcripts  or  attempted  reconstructions  of 
passages  in  the  Digest  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  borrowed 
from  it,  and  are  of  comparatively  little  value.  The  only  really 
scientific  and  worthily  critical  efforts  are  those  of  Rudorff  in  1869 
and  Leuel  in  1883.  * 

The  Responses  of  Patented  Counsel. — The  right  of  responding 
563  under  imperial  authority  (jus  respondendi  ex  auctoriiate  principis), 
first  granted  by  Augustus  and  continued  by  his  successors  down  to 
ited  the  time  of  Alexander  Severus,  did  not  imply  any  curtailment  of 
sd.  the  right  of  unlicensed  jurists  to  give  advice  to  any  one  who  chose 
to  consult  them.  What  it  did  was  to  give  an  authoritative  char- 
acter to  a  response,  so  that  the  judge  who  had  asked  for  it  and  to 
whom  it  was  presented — for  the  judges  were  but  private  citizens, 
most  of  them  unlearned  in  the  law — was  bound  to  adopt  it  as  if  it 
had  emanated  from  the  emperor  himself.  It  may  be  that  Augus- 
tus was  actuated  by  a  political  motive,  — that  he  was  desirous  by 
this  concession  to  attach  lawyers  of  eminence  to  the  new  regime, 
and  prevent  the  recurrence  of  the  evils  experienced  during  the  re- 
public from  the  too  great  influence  of  patrons.  But,  whatever  may 
have  prompted  his  action  in  the  matter,  its  beneficial  consequences 
for  the  law  can  hardly  be  overrated.  For  the  quasi  -  legislative 
powers  with  which  they  were  invested  enabled  the  patented  counsel 
to  influence  current  doctrine  not  speculatively  merely  but  positively 
(jura  condere),  and  so  to  leaven  their  interpretations  of  the  jus 
civile  and  jus  honorarium  with  suggestions  of  natural  law  as  to 
give  a  new  complexion  to  the  system. 

Instead  of  giving  his  opinion  like  the  unlicensed  jurist  by  word 
of  mouth,  either  at  the  request  of  the  judge  or  at  the  instance  of 
one  of  the  parties,  the  patented  counsel,  who  did  not  require  to 
give  his  reasons,  reduced  it  to  writing  and  sent  it  to  the  court 
under  seal.  Augustus  does  not  seem  to  have  contemplated  the 
possibility  of  conflicting  responses  being  tendered  from  two  or  more 
jurists  equally  privileged.  It  was  an  awkward  predicament  for  a 
judge  to  be  placed  in.  Hadrian  solved  the  difficulty  by  declaring 
that  in  such  a  case  the  judge  should  be  entitled  to  use  his  own 
discretion.2  That  on  receiving  a  response  with  which  he  was  dis- 
satisfied he  could  go  on  calling  for  others  until  he  got  one  to  his 
mind,  and  then  pronounce  judgment  in  accordance  with  it  on  the 
ground  that  there  was  difference  of  opinion,  is  extremely  unlikely. 
The  more  probable  explanation  of  Hadrian's  rescript  is,  that  the 
number  of  patented  responding  counsel  was  very  limited ;  that  a 
judge,  if  he  desired  their  assistance,  was  required  by  this  rescript 
to  consult  them  all  (quorum  omnium  si,  &c.) ;  that,  if  they  were 
unanimous,  but  only  then,  their  opinion  had  force  of  statute  (legis 
vicem  optinet] ;  and  that  when  they  differed  the  judge  must  decide 
for  himself. 

ts  of  Constitutions  of  the  Emperors* — Gaius  and  Ulpian  concur  in 
irors.  holding  that  every  imperial  constitution,  whether  in  the  shape  of 
rescript,  decree,  or  edict,  had  the  force  of  statute.  It  may  be  that 
by  the  time  of  Ulpian  that  was  the  prevailing  opinion  ;  but  modern 
criticism  is  disposed  to  regard  the  dictum  of  Gaius,  written  in  the 
time  of  Antoninus  Pius,  as  coloured  by  his  Asiatic  notions,  and  not 
quite  accurate  so  far  as  the  edicts  were  concerned.  As  supreme 

1  Rudorff,  De  jurisdictione  edictum :    edicti  perpetui  quae  reliqua 
sunt,  Leipsic,  1869,  and  rev.  by  Brinz  in  the  Krit.  Vierteljahrschrift, 
vol.  xi.  (1870),  p.  471  sq.  ;  Lenel,  Das  Edictum  Perpetuum :  ein  Versuch 
KU  dessen   Wiederherstellung,   Leipsic,    1883.      The  last   gained  the 
"Savigny  Foundation  Prize"  offered  by  the  Munich  Academy  in  1882 
for  the  best  restitution  of  the  formulae  of  Julian's  Edict,  but  goes  far 
beyond  the  limited  subject  prescribed  ;  see  Brinz's  report  upon  it  to 
the  Academy  in  the  Zeitschr.  d.  Sav.  Stift.,  vol.  iv.  (1883),  Rom. 
Abtheil.,  p.  164  sq. 

2  Gaius,  i.  7.    Justinian,  Inst.,  i.  2,  §  8,  gives  it  somewhat  differently. 

3  Gai.,  i.  5  ;  Ulp.,  in  Dig.,  i.  4,  fr.  1,  §  1  ;  Mommsen,  Rom.  Staats- 
recht,  vol.  ii.  p.  843  sq.  ;  Wlassak,  Krit.  Studien  zur  Theorie  der  Rechts- 
qnellen  im  Zeitalter  d.  Jdass.  Juristen,  Gratz,  1884  ;  A.  Pernice  (crit. 
Wlassak),  in  Zeitschr.  d.  Sav.  Stiff.,  vol.  vi.  (1885),  Rom.  Abtheil.,  p. 
293  sq.;  Karlowa,  Rom.  Rechtsgesch.,  vol.  i.  §  85. 


magistrate  the  emperor  had  the  same  jus  edicendi  that  kings,  con- 
suls, and  praetors  had  had  before  him,  and  used  it  as  they  did  to 
indicate  some  course  of  action  he  meant  to  adopt  and  follow  or 
some  relief  he  proposed  to  grant.  His  range,  of  course,  was  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  praetors  had  been  ;  for  his  authority  en- 
dured for  life,  and  extended  over  the  whole  empire  and  every 
department  of  government.  But  originally,  and  in  principle,  his 
successor  on  the  throne  was  no  more  bound  to  adopt  any  of  his 
edicts  than  a  praetor  was  to  adopt  those  of  his  predecessors.  That 
it  was  not  unusual  for  an  edict  to  be  renewed,  and  that  it  occasion- 
ally happened  that  the  renewal  was  not  by  the  immediate  successor 
of  its  original  author,  are  manifest  from  various  passages  in  the  texts. 
Very  frequently,  when  its  utility  had  stood  the  test  of  years,  it  was 
transmuted  into  a  senatusconsult  ;  this  fact  proves  of  itself  that 
an  edict  per  se  had  not  the  effect  of  statute.  But  their  adoption 
by  a  succession  of  two  or  three  sovereigns,  whose  reigns  were  of 
average  duration,  may  have  been  held  sufficient  to  give  them  the 
character  of  consuetudinary  law  ;  and,  by  a  not  unnatural  process, 
unreflecting  public  opinion  may  have  come  to  impute  force  of 
statute  to  the  edict  itself  rather  than  to  the  longa  consuetude  that 
followed  on  it,  thus  paving  the  way  for  the  assertion  by  the  sove- 
reigns of  the  later  empire  of  an  absolute  right  of  legislation,  and 
for  the  recognition  of  the  lex  edictalis  (infra,  p.  710)  as  the  only 
form  of  statute. 

The  imperial  rescripts  and  decrees  (rescripta,  decreta)  had  force  of  Rescripts 
law  (legis  vicem  habcnt)  from  the  earliest  days  of  the  empire,  and  and 
their  operation  was  never  limited  to  the  lifetime  of  the  prince  from  decrees, 
whom  they  had  proceeded.  But  they  were  not  directly  acts  of 
legislation.  In  both  the  emperor  theoretically  did  no  more  than 
authoritatively  interpret  existing  law,  although  the  boundary  be- 
tween interpretation  and  new  law,  sometimes  difficult  to  define, 
was  not  always  strictly  adhered  to.  The  rescript  was  an  answer 
by  the  emperor  to  a  petition,  either  by  an  official  or  a  private 
party,  for  an  instruction  as  to  how  the  law  was  to  be  applied  to 
the  facts  set  forth  ;  when  the  answer  was  in  a  separate  writing  it 
was  usually  spoken  of  as  an  epistula ;  when  noted  at  the  foot  of 
the  application  its  technical  name  was  subscriptio  or  adnotatio. 
The  decree  was  the  emperor's  ruling  in  a  case  submitted  to  him 
judicially  ;  it  might  be  when  it  had  been  brought  before  him  in 
the  first  instance  extra  ordinem,  or  when  it  had  been  removed  by 
supplicatlo  from  an  inferior  court  in  its  earliest  stage,  or  when  it 
came  before  him  by  appeal.  It  was  as  a  judge  that  the  emperor 
pronounced  his  decree  ;  but,  proceeding  as  it  did  from  the  fountain 
of  authoritative  interpretation,  it  had  a  value  far  beyond  that  of 
the  sentence  of  an  inferior  court  (which  was  law  only  as  between 
the  parties),  and  formed  a  precedent  which  governed  all  future 
cases  involving  the  same  question.  Those  decrees  and  rescripts 
constituted  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of  the  law  during 
the  first  three  centuries  and  more  of  the  empire,  and  were  elaborated 
with  the  assistance  of  the  most  eminent  jurists  of  the  day,  the 
rescripts  being  the  special  charge  of  the  magister  libellorum.  From 
the  time  of  the  Gordians  to  that  of  the  abdication  of  Diocletian 
they  were  almost  the  only  channel  of  the  law  that  remained. 

Professional  Jurisprudence. — A  sketch  of  the  history  of  Roman 
law  can  hardly  be  considered  complete  without  some  account  of  the 
jurists  of  the  first  two  centuries  and  a  half  of  the  empire,  who  con- 
tributed to  it  the  great  body  of  doctrine  embalmed  in  the  Digest  of 
Justinian.  But  the  exigencies  of  space  compel  us  to  refrain  from 
entering  upon  a  branch  of  our  subject  that  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
treated  without  considerable  detail,  and  to  content  ourselves  with 
referring  the  reader  to  the  recent  work  of  Mr  Roby,  or  the  Rechts- 
geschichte  of  Professor  Karlowa  of  Heidelberg,  where  all  will  be 
found  that  the  most  inquisitive  could  desire.*  For  an  account  of 
the  extant  remains  of  their  writings  outside  the  Justinianian  Digest, 
such  as  the  Institutes  of  Gaius,  the  Rules  of  Ulpian,  the  Sentences 
of  Paul,  and  a  variety  of  minor  pieces,  we  must  likewise  refer  to 
Karlowa's  book,5  which  promises  to  be  the  most  elaborate  history 
of  Roman  law  as  yet  given  to  the  public. 

II.  SUBSTANTIVE  CHANGES  IN  THE  LAW. 

Concession  of  Peculiar  Privileges  to  Soldiers. — While  the 
period  with  which  we  are  dealing  saw  the  substantial  dis- 
appearance of  the  distinction  between  citizen  and  peregrin, 
it  witnessed  the  rise  of  another, — that  between  soldiers  and 
civilians  (milites,  pagani).  The  most  remarkable  effluxes 


4  Roby,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Justinian's  Digest,  Cambridge, 
1884,  chaps,  ix.-xv.  ;  Karlowa,  Rom.  Rechtsgeschichte,  vol.  i.  (Staats- 
recht  und  RechtsqueUen),  Leipsic,  1885,  §§  87-91.     Karlowa's  2d  vol. 
will  contain  the  history  of  the  private  law,  the  criminal  law,  and  civil 
and  criminal  procedure. 

5  Karlowa,  op.  cit.,  §  92.     An  account  of  the  jurists  of  the  empire 
and  their  remains  outside  the  Digest  will  be  found  in  an  expansion  of 
the  present  article  now  in  the  press,  under  the  title  of  Historical  Intro- 
duction to  the  Private  Law  of  Rome. 

XX.  —  89 


706 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  NATURALE. 


[ilitary  of  the  jus  militare  (as  it  is  sometimes  called)  were  the 
»ta-  military  testament  and  the  castrense  peculium.  The  first 
ients-  set  at  naught  all  the  rules  of  the /MS  civile  and  the  praetors' 
edict  alike  as  to  the  form  and  substance  of  last  wills.  It 
might  be  in  writing,  by  word  of  mouth,  by  the  unspoken 
signs  perhaps  of  a  dying  man  ;  all  that  was  required  was  the 
voluntas  so  manifested  as  not  to  be  mistaken.  More  extra- 
ordinary still, — it  was  sustained  even  though  its  provisions 
ran  counter  to  the  most  cherished  rules  of  the  common  law. 
Contrary  to  the  maxim  that  no  man  could  die  partly  testate 
and  partly  intestate,  a  soldier  might  dispose  of  part  of  his 
estate  by  testament  and  leave  the  rest  to  descend  to  his 
heirs  ab  intestate.  Contrary  also  to  the  maxim  semel 
heres  semper  heres,  he  might  give  his  estate  to  A  for  life  or 
for  a  term  of  years,  or  until  the  occurrence  of  some  event, 
with  remainder  to  B.  Contrary  to  the  general  rule,  a 
Latin  or  peregrin,  or  an  unmarried  or  married  but  child- 
less person,  might  take  an  inheritance  or  a  bequest  from 
a  soldier  as  freely  as  could  a  citizen  with  children.  His 
testament,  in  so  far  as  it  disposed  only  of  bona  castrensia, 
was  not  affected  by  capitis  deminutio  minima.  It  was  not 
invalidated  by  praeterition  of  sui  heredes,  nor  could  they 
challenge  it  because  they  had  less  under  it  than  their 
"legitim";  nor  could  the  instituted  heir  claim  a  Fal- 
cidian  fourth,  even  though  nine-tenths  of  the  succession  had 
been  assigned  to  legatees.  Finally,  a  later  testament  did 
not  nullify  an  earlier  one,  if  it  appeared  to  be  the  intention 
of  the  soldier  testator  that  they  should  be  read  together. 

All  this  is  remarkable,  manifesting  a  spirit  very  different  from 
that  which  animated  the  common  law  of  testaments.  True,  it  was 
a  principle  with  the  jurists  of  the  classical  period  that  the  voluntatis 
ratio  was  to  be  given  effect  to  in  the  interpretation  of  testamentary 
writings  ;  but  that  was  on  the  condition  that  the  requirements  of 
law  as  to  form  and  substance  had  been  scrupulously  observed.  But 
in  the  military  testament  positive  rules  were  made  to  yield  to  the 
voluntas  in  all  respects  :  the  will  was  almost  absolutely  unfettered. 
Roman  law  in  this  matter  gave  place  to  natural  law.  One  would 
have  expected  the  influence  of  so  great  a  change  to  have  manifested 
itself  by  degrees  in  the  ordinary  law  of  testaments  ;  yet  it  is  barely 
visible.  In  a  few  points  the  legislation  of  Constantino,  Theodosius 
II.,  and  Justinian  relaxed  the  strictness  of  the  old  rules  ;  but  there 
was  never  any  approach  to  the  recognition  of  the  complete  supre- 
macy of  the  voluntas.  In  the  Corpus  Juris  the  contrast  between  the 
testamentum  paganum  and  the  testamentum  militare  was  almost  as 
marked  as  in  the  days  of  Trajan.  The  latter  was  still  a  privileged 
deed,  whose  use  was  confined  to  a  soldier  actually  on  service,  and 
which  had  to  be  replaced  by  a  testament  executed  according  to  the 
usual  forms  of  law  within  twelve  months  after  his  retirement, 
'eculium  The  peculium  castrense  had  a  wider  influence  ;  for  it  was  the  first 
astrense.  of  a  series  of  amendments  that  vastly  diminished  the  importance  of 
the  patria  potestas  on  its  patrimonial  side.  It  had  its  origin  in  the 
concession  by  Augustus  to  filiifamilias  on  service  of  the  right  to 
dispose  by  testament  of  what  they  had  acquired  in  the  active  exer- 
cise of  their  profession  (quod  in  castris  adquisierant).  But  it  soon 
went  much  further.  Confined  at  first  to  filiifamilias  on  actual 
service,  the  privilege  was  extended  by  Hadrian  to  those  who  had 
obtained  honourable  discharge.  The  same  emperor  allowed  them 
not  merely  to  test  on  their  peculium  castrense,  but  to  manumit 
slaves  that  formed  part  of  it ;  and  a  little  step  further  recognized 
their  right  to  dispose  of  it  onerously  (or  gratuitously  inter  viws. 
By  and  by  the  range  of  it  was  extended  so  as  to  include  not  only 
the  soldier's  pay  and  prize  but  all  that  had  come  to  him,  directly 
or  indirectly,  in  connexion  with  his  profession, — his  outfit,  gifts 
made  to  him  during  his  service,  legacies  from  comrades,  and  so  on. 
All  this  was  in  a  high  degree  subversive  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
common  law.  It  may  almost  be  called  revolutionary ;  for  it  in- 
volved in  the  first  place  the  recognition  of  the  right  of  a  person 
alieni  juris  to  make  a  testament  as  if  he  were  sui  juris,  and  in 
the  second  place  the  recognition  of  a  separate  estate  in  a  filiusfami- 
lias  which  he  might  deal  with  independently  of  his  paterfamilias, 
which  could  not  be  touched  by  the  latter's  creditors,  and  which  he 
was  not  bound  to  collate  (or  bring  into  hotch-pot)  on  claiming  a 
share  of  his  father's  succession.  The  radical  right  of  the  parent, 
however,  was  rather  suspended  than  extinguished  ;  for,  if  the 
soldier  son  died  intestate,  the  right  of  the  paterfamilias  revived  : 
he  took  his  son's  belongings,  not  as  his  heir  appropriating  an  in- 
heritance, but  as  his  paterfamilias  reclaiming  a  peculium.* 


1  This  was  altered  by  Justinian's  1 1 8th  Novel,  under  which  a  father 
taking  any  part  of  a  deceased  son's  estate  did  so  as  his  heir ;  see  infra, 
p.  713. 


The  Family. — The  legislative  efforts  of  Augustus  to  encourage  Family 
marriage,  to  which  persons  of  position  showed  a  remarkable  dis-  relatioi 
taste,  have  already  been  mentioned.  The  relation  of  husband  and 
wife  still  in  law  required  no  more  for  its  creation  than  deliberate 
interchange  of  nuptial  consent,  although  for  one  or  two  purposes 
the  bride's  home-coming  to  her  husband's  house  was  regarded  as 
the  criterion  of  completed  marriage.  But  it  was  rarely  accom- 
panied with  manus.  So  repugnant  was  such  subjection  to  patrician 
ladies  that  they  declined  to  submit  to  confarreate  nuptials  ;  and  so 
great  consequently  became  the  difficulty  of  finding  persons  qualified 
by  confarreate  birth  to  fill  the  higher  priesthoods  that  early  in  the 
empire  it  had  to  be  decreed  that  coufarreation  should  in  future  be 
productive  of  manus  only  quoad  sacra,  and  should  not  make  the 
wife  a  member  of  her  husband's  family.  Manus  by  a  year's  unin- 
terrupted cohabitation  was  already  out  of  date  in  the  time  of  Gaius ; 
and,  although  that  by  coemption  was  still  in  use  in  his  time,  it  prob- 
ably was  quite  unknown  by  the  end  of  the  period.  Husband  and 
wife  therefore  had  their  separate  estates,  the  common  establish- 
ment being  maintained  by  the  husband,  with  the  assistance  of  th<> 
revenue  of  the  wife's  dowry  (dos), — an  institution  which  received 
much  attention  at  the  hands  of  the  jurists,  and  was  to  some  extent 
regulated  by  statute.  Divorce  was  unfortunately  very  common  ;  it 
was  lawful  even  without  any  assignable  cause  ;  when  blame  attached 
to  either  side,  he  or  she  suffered  deprivation  to  some  extent  of  the 
nuptial  provisions,  but  there  were  no  other  penal  consequences. 

Not  ouly  in  the  case  of  a  filiusfamilias  who  had  adopted  a  mili- 
tary career,  but  in  all  directions,  there  was  manifested  a  tendency 
to  place  restrictions  on  the  exercise  of  the  patria  potestas.  Tins 
was  due  in  a  great  degree  to  the  hold  that  the  doctrines  of  natural 
law  were  gaining  within  the  Roman  system,  partly  also  to  the 
fact  that  the  emperors,  having  succeeded  to  the  censorial  regimen 
morum,  allowed  it  freely  to  influence  their  edicts  and  rescripts. 
Exposure  of  an  infant  was  still  allowed  ;  but  a  parent  was  no  longer 
permitted,  even  in  the  character  of  household  judge,  to  put  his 
son  to  death  ;  in  fact  his  prerogative  was  limited  to  moderate 
chastisement,  the  law  requiring,  in  case  of  a  grave  offence  that 
merited  severer  punishment,  that  he  should  hand  his  child  over  to 
the  ordinary  tribunal.  His  right  of  sale,  in  like  manner,  was  re- 
stricted to  young  children,  and  permitted  only  when  he  was  in 
great  poverty  and  unable  to  maintain  them,  while  their  impiguora- 
tion  by  him  was  prohibited  under  pain  of  banishment. 

Except  in  the  solitary  case  of  a.  son  who  was  a  soldier,  a  pater- 
familias was  still  recognized  as  in  law  the  owner  of  all  the  earnings 
and  other  acquisitions  of  his  children  in  potestate  ;  but  the  old  rule 
still  remained  that  for  their  civil  debts  he  was  not  liable  beyond 
the  amount  of  the  fund  he  had  advanced  them  to  deal  with  as  de 
facto  their  own  (peculium  profecticium},  except  when  he  had  derived 
advantage  from  their  contract  or  had  expressly  or  by  implication 
authorized  them  to  enter  into  it  as  his  agents.  To  the  party  with 
whom  he  had  contracted  a  filiusfamilias  was  himself  liable  as  fully 
as  if  he  had  been  a  paterfamilia-s,  with  one  exception,  namely,  when 
his  debt  was  for  borrowed  money ;  in  that  case,  with  some  very 
reasonable  qualifications,  it  was  declared  by  the  notorious  Mace- 
donian senatusconsult  (of  the  time  of  Vespasian)  that  the  lender 
should  not  be  entitled  to  recover  payment,  even  after  his  borrower 
had  become  sui  juris  by  his  father's  death.  Between  a  father  and 
his  emancipated  son  there  was,  and  always  had  been,  perfect  free- 
dom of  contract ;  but  so  was  there  now  between  a  father  and  his 
soldier  son  in  any  matter  relating  to  the  peculium  castrense,  even 
though  the  son  was  in  potestate.  What  is  still  more  remarkable  is 
that  the  new  sentiment  which  was  operating  on  the  jus  civile 
admitted  the  possibility  of  natural  obligation  between  paterfamilias 
and  filiusfamilias  even  in  reference  to  the  peculium  profecticium, 
which,  though  incapable  of  direct  enforcement  by  action,  was  yet 
to  some  extent  recognized  and  given  effect  to  indirectly. 

In  the  matter  of  guardianship,  while  the  tutory  of  pupils  was 
carefully  tended  and  the  law  in  regard  to  it  materially  amended 
during  the  period  under  review  (particularly  by  a  senatusconsult 
generally  referred  to  as  the  Oratio  divi  Severi,  prohibiting  aliena- 
tion of  the  ward's  property  without  judicial  authority),  that  of 
women  above  the  age  of  pupilarity  gradually  disappeared.  The 
guardianship  or  curatory  (cura)  of  minors  above  pupilarity  owed 
its  institution  to  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  Plsetorian  law  of  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century  of  the  city  had  indeed  imposed  penalties  on 
those  taking  undue  advantage  of  the  inexperience  of  minors,  i.e., 
persons  sui  juris  under  the  age  of  twenty-five  ;  and  from  that  time 
the  praetors  were  in  the  habit  of  appointing  curators  to  act  with 
such  persons  for  the  protection  of  their  interests  in  particular 
affairs.  But  it  was  Marcus  Aurelius  who  first  made  curatory  a 
general  permanent  office,  to  endure  in  the  ordinary  case  until  the 
ward  attained  majority.  The  powers,  duties,  and  responsibilities 
of  such  curators  became  a  matter  for  careful  and  elaborate  defini- 
tion and  regulation  by  the  jurists,  whose  exposition  of  the  law  of 
guardianship,  whether  by  tutors  or  curators,  has  found  wide  accept- 
ance in  modern  systems  of  jurisprudence. 

The  Law  of  Succession  and  particularly  Testamentary  Trusts. — 
There  were  far  more  positive  changes  in  the  law  of  succession  than 


JUS  NAT0RALE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


707 


in  either  that  of  property  or  that  of  obligation.  The  rise  and 
progress  of  the  military  testament  has  already  been  explained. 
The  testament  of  the  common  law  was  still  ostensibly  that  per  aes 
et  libram  ;  but  the  practice  of  granting  bonorum  possessio  secundum 
tabulas  to  the  persons  named  as  heirs  in  any  testamentary  instru- 
ment that  bore  outside  the  requisite  number  of  seals  led,  from  the 
time  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  to  the  frequent  neglect  of  the  time-honoured 
formalities  of  the  familiae  mancipatio  and  nuncupatio  testamenti. 
It  was  a  rescript  of  his,  declaring  that  an  heir-at-law  should  no 
longer  be  entitled  to  dispute  the  last  wishes  of  a  testator  on  the 
technical  ground  of  non-compliance  with  the  purely  formal  require- 
ments of  the  law,  that  practically  introduced  what  Justinian  calls 
the  praetorian  testament. 

One  of  the  commonest  provisions  in  the  testaments  of  the  period 
was  the  fideicommissum, — a  request  by  the  testator  to  his  heir  to 
enter  to  the  inheritance  and  thereafter  denude  wholly  or  partially 
in  favour  of  a  third  party.  It  was  introduced  in  the  time  of 
Augustus  by  (it  is  said)  a  testator  who  had  married  a  peregrin  wife, 
and  desired  thus  indirectly  to  give  to  his  peregrin  children  the 
succession  which,  as  not  being  citizens,  they  could  neither  take 
ab  intestate  nor  as  his  direct  testamentary  heirs.1  The  practice 
soon  gained  ground,  and  became  thoroughly  established  once  the 
emperor,  shocked  at  the  perfidy  of  a  trustee  who  had  failed  to 
comply  with  the  request  of  his  testator,  indicated  his  approval  of 
the  new  institution  by  remitting  the  matter  to  the  consuls  of  the 
day,  with  instructions  to  do  in  the  circumstances  what  they  thought 
just.  So  quickly  did  it  establish  itself  in  public  favour,  and  so 
numerous  did  the  questions  become  as  to  the  construction  and  ful- 
filment of  testamentary  trusts,  that  before  long  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  institute  a  court  specially  charged  with  their  determination, 
— that  of  the  praetor  fideicommissarius. 

The  employment  of  a  trust  as  a  means  of  benefiting  those  who 
were  under  disqualifications  as  heirs  or  legatees,  as,  for  example, 
persons  who  had  no  testamenti  factio,  women  incapacitated  by  the 
Voconian  law,  unmarried  and  married  but  childless  persons  inca- 
pacitated by  the  Julian  and  Papia-Poppsean  law,  and  so  on,  was  in 
time  prohibited  by  statute  ;  but  that  did  not  affect  its  general  popu- 
larity. For,  whether  what  was  contemplated  was  a  transfer  of  the 
universal  hereditas  or  a  part  of  it  to  the  beneficiary  (fideicommissum 
hereditatis),  or  only  of  some  particular  thing  (fideicommissum  rei 
singulars),  a  testamentary  trust  had  various  advantages  over  either 
a  direct  institution  or  a  direct  bequest  (legatum).  In  theory  the 
imposition  upon  the  heir  of  a  trust  in  favour  of  a  beneficiary,  whether 
it  required  him  to  denude  of  the  whole  or  only  a  part  of  the  inherit- 
ance, did  not  deprive  him  of  his  character  of  heir  or  relieve  him  of 
the  responsibilities  of  the  position  ;  and  at  common  law  therefore 
he  was  entitled  to  decline  the  succession,  often  to  the  great  prejudice 
of  the  beneficiary.  In  order  to  avoid  such  a  mischance,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  regulate  their  relations  inter  se  and  towards  debtors 
and  creditors  of  the  testator's,  it  became  the  practice  for  the  parties 
to  enter  into  stipulatory  arrangements  about  the  matter  ;  but  these 
were  to  some  extent  rendered  superfluous  by  two  senatusconsults, 
the  Trebellian  in  the  time  of  Nero  and  the  Pegasian  in  that  of 
Vespasian,  which  at  once  secured  the  beneficiary  against  the  trustee's 
(i.e.,  the  heir's)  repudiation  of  the  inheritance,  protected  the  latter 
from  all  risk  of  loss  where  he  was  trustee  and  nothing  more,  and 
enabled  the  former  to  treat  directly  with  debtors  and  creditors  of 
the  testator's  and  himself  ingather  the  corporeal  items  of  the 
inheritance. 

It  was  one  of  the  advantages  of  a  trust  -bequest,  whether  universal 
or  singular,  that  it  might  be  conferred  in  a  codicil,  even  though 
unconfirmed  'by  any  relative  testament.  •  The  codicil  (codicilli),  also 
an  invention  of  the  time  of  Augustus,  was  a  deed  of  a  very  simple 
nature.  It  was  inappropriate  either  for  disherison  of  sui  or  institu- 
tion of  an  heir ;  but  if  confirmed  by  testament  it  might  contain 
direct  bequests,  manumissions,  nominations  of  tutors,  and  the  like, 
and  whether  confirmed  or  unconfirmed  might,  as  stated,  be  utilized 
as  a  vehicle  for  trust-gifts.  Latterly  it  was  held  operative  even  in 
the  absence  of  a  testament,  the  trusts  contained  in  it  being  regarded 
as  burdens  on  the  heir-at-law. 

The  most  important  changes  in  the  law  of  intestate  succession 
during  the  period  were  those  accomplished  by  the  Tertullian  and 
Orphitian  senatusconsults,  fruits  of  that  respect  for  the  precepts  of 
natural  law  which  in  so  many  directions  was  modifying  the  doctrines 
of  the  jus  civile.  The  first  was  passed  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  the 
second  in  the  year  178,  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  Down  to  the  time 
of  the  Tertullian  senatusconsult  a  mother  and  her  child  by  a  mar- 
riage that  was  unaccompanied  with  manus  stood  related  to  each 
other  only  as  cognates,  being  in  law  members  of  different  families  ; 
consequently  their  chance  of  succession  to  each  other  was  remote, 
being  postponed  to  that  of  their  respective  agnates  to  the  sixth  or 
seventh  degree.  The  purpose  of  the  senatusconsult  was  to  prefer  a 
mother  to  all  agnates  of  her  deceased  child  except  father  and  brother 


1  They  could  not  even  have  a  claim  as  cognates  under  the  prsetorian  rules  ; 
for  the  prsetors  followed  the  rule  of  the  jus  civile  to  this  extent,  that  they  did 
not  grant  konorum  possessio  to  a  person  who  had  not  testamenti  factio  with  him 
whose  succession  was  in  question. 


and  sister ;  father  and  brother  excluded  her  ;  but  with  a  sister  of 
the  deceased,  and  in  the  absence  of  father  or  brother,  she  shared 
equally.  While  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  natural  con- 
siderations that  dictated  this  amendment,  yet  its  authors  were  too 
timid  to  justify  it  on  the  abstract  principle  of  common  humanity, 
lest  thereby  they  should  seem  to  impugn  the  wisdom  of  the  jus  civile, 
and  so  they  confined  its  application  to  women  who  had  the  jus  liber- 
arum,  i.e.,  to  women  of  free  birth  who  were  mothers  of  three  children 
and  freedwomen  who  were  mothers  of  four,  thus  making  it  osten- 
sibly a  reward  of  fertility.  The  Orphitian  senatusconsult  was  the 
counterpart  of  the  Tertullian.  It  gave  children,  whether  legitimate 
or  illegitimate,  a  right  of  succession  to  their  mother  in  preference  to 
all  her  agnates ;  and  subsequent  constitutions  extended  the  prin- 
ciple, admitting  children  to  the  inheritance  not  only  of  their  mater- 
nal grandparents  but  also  to  that  of  their  paternal  grandmother. 

III.  JUDICIAL  PROCEDURE. 

The  Formular  System.* — The  ordinary  procedure  of  the  first  three  Formular 
centuries  of  the  empire  was  still  two-staged  ;  it  commenced  before  system, 
the  prsetor  (injure)  and  was  concluded  before  ajudex  (injudicid). 
But  the  legis  actiones  had  given  place  to  praetorian  formulae.  Under 
the  older  system  parties,  and  particularly  the  plaintiff,  had  them- 
selves to  formulate  in  statutory  or  traditional  words  of  style  the 
matter  in  controversy  between  them  ;  and  as  they  formulated,  so 
did  it  go  for  trial  to  centumviral  court  or  judex  or  arbiters,  with 
the  not  infrequent  result  that  it  was  then  all  too  late  discovered 
that  the  real  point  in  the  case  had  been  missed.  Under  the  formu- 
lar  system  parties  were  free  to  represent  their  plaint  and  defence 
to  the  praetor  in  any  words  they  pleased,  the  plaintiff  asking  for  a 
formula  and  usually  indicating  the  style  on  the  album  that  he 
thought  would  suit  his  purpose,  and  the  defendant  demanding  when 
necessary  an  exception,  i.e.,  a  plea  in  defence,  either  praetorian  or 
statutory,  that,  without  traversing  the  facts  or  law  of  the  plain- 
tiffs case,  avoided  his  demand  on  grounds  of  equity  or  public 
policy.  It  was  for  the  prsetor  to  consider  and  determine  whether 
the  action  or  exception  should  or  should  not  be  granted,  and,  if 
granted,  whether  it  should  be  according  to  the  style  exhibited  on 
the  album  or  according  to  a  modification  of  it.  The  result  he 
embodied  in  a  written  and  signed  appointment  to  a  judge,  whom 
he  instructed  what  he  had  to  try,  and  empowered  to  pronounce 
a  finding  either  condemning  or  acquitting  the  defendant.  This 
writing  was  the  formula. 

Although  it  was  not  until  the  early  empire  that  this  system  of 
procedure  attained  its  full  development,  yet  it  had  its  commence- 
ment two  centuries  before  the  fall  of  the  republic.  Gaius  ascribes 
its  introduction  and  definitive  establishment  to  the  Lex  Aebulia 
(probably  of  the  second  decade  of  the  sixth  century  of  the  city)  and 
two  judiciary  laws  of  the  time  of  Augustus  (supra,  pp.  696,  704). 
The  jEbutian  law,  of  which  unfortunately  we  know  very  little,  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  empowered  the  prsetors  (1)  to  devise  a 
simpler  form  of  procedure  for  causes  already  cognizable  per  legis 
actionem,  (2)  to  devise  forms  of  action  to  meet  cases  not  cognizable 
under  the  older  system,  and  (3)  themselves  to  formulate  the  issue 
and  reduce  it  to  writing.  It  was  by  no  means  so  radical  a  change 
as  is  sometimes  supposed.  There  were  formulae  employed  by  the 
praetor  both  in  the  procedure  per  judicis  postulationem  and  in  that 
per  condictionem.  The  difference  between  them  and  the  formulae  of 
the  jEbutian  system  was  that  the  former  were  in  part  mere  echoes 
of  the  statutory  words  of  style  xittered  by  the  plaintiff,  and  that 
they  were  not  written  but  spoken  in  the  hearing  of  witnesses. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  personal  actions  of  the  formular  system  Its  appli- 
were  evolved  out  of  the  legis  actio  per  condictionem.  The  sequence  cation  to 
of  operations  may  have  been  something  like  this.  Taking  the  personal 
simplest  form  of  it,  the  action  for  certa  pecunia  under  the  Silian  actions, 
law,  the  first  step  was  to  drop  the  formal  condictio  from  which  it 
derived  its  character  of  legis  actio,  thus  avoiding  a  delay  of  thirty 
days  ;  the  plaintiff  stated  his  demand  in  informal  words,  and,  if  the 
defendant  denied  indebtedness,  the  prsetor  straightway  formulated 
a  written  appointment  of  and  instruction  to  a  judge,  embodying 
in  it  the  issue  in  terms  substantially  the  same  as  those  he  would 
have  employed  under  the  earlier  procedure: — "Titius  be  judge. 
Should  it  appear  that  N.  N.  ought  to  pay  (dare  oportere)  50,000 
sesterces  to  A.  A.,  in  that  sum  condemn  N.  N.  to  A.  A.  ;3  should 
it  not  so  appear,  acquit  him."  This  was  no  longer  the  legis  actio 
per  condictionem,  because  what  had  made  it  legis  actio  was  gone, 
but  the  certi  condictio  of  the  formular  system.  The  condictio  triti- 
caria  of  the  same  system  ran  on  the  same  lines  :  "  Titius  be  judge. 
Should  it  appear  that  N.  N.  ought  to  give  A.  A.  the  slave  Stichus, 
then,  whatever  be  the  value  of  the  slave,  in  that  condemn  N.  N.  to 
A.  A.,"  and  so  on.  In  both  of  these  examples  the  formula  included 
only  two  of  the  four  clauses  that  might  find  place  in  it,4 — an  "  in- 

2  See  Keller  (as  on  p.  681,  note  1),  §§  23-43  ;  Bethraann-Hollweg  (as  in  same 
note),  vol.  ii.  §§  81-87 ;  Bekker  (as  in  same  note),  vol.  i.  chaps.  4-7,  vol.  ii. 
chaps.  15,  19,  20 ;  Baron,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  Rechts,  Berlin,  1884,  vol.  i.  §§  202-215. 

3  In  the  typical  Roman  styles  of  actions  the  plaintiff  was  usually  called 
Aulus  Agerius  and  the  defendant  Numerius  Negidius. 

•»  Gaius  enumerates  them  as  the  deinonstratio,  intentio,  adjtidicatio,  and  con- 


708 


ROMAN     LAW 


[JUS  NATTJRALE. 


tention"  and  a  "condemnation."  The  matter  of  claim  in  both 
cases  was  certain, — so  much  money  in  one,  a  slave  in  the  other  ; 
but,  while  in  the  first  the  condemnation  also  was  certain,  in  the 
second  it  was  uncertain.  What  if  the  claim  also  was  uncertain, — 
say  a  share  of  the  profits  of  a  ioint  adventure  assured  by  stipulation  ? 
It  was  quite  competent  for  the  plaintiff  to  condescend  on  a  definite 
sum,  and -claim  that  as  due  to  him  ;  but  it  was  very  hazardous, 
for  unless  he  was  able  to  prove  the  debt  to  the  last  sesterce  he  got 
nothing.  To  obviate  the  risk  of  such  failure  the  praetors  devised 
the  ineerti  condictio,  whose  formula  commenced  with  a  "demon- 
stration" or  indication  of  the  cause  of  action,  and  whose  ' '  inten- 
tion "  referred  to  it  and  was  conceived  indefinitely :  "  Titius  be 
judge.  Whereas  A.  A.  stipulated  with  N.  N.  for  a  share  of  the 
profits  of  a  joint  adventure,  whatever  in  respect  thereof  N.  N.  ought 
to  give  to  or  do  for  (darefacere  oportet)  A.  A.,  in  the  money  amount 
thereof  condemn  N.  N.,"  and  so  on.1  Once  this  point  was  attained 
further  progress  was  comparatively  easy,  the  way  being  open  for  the 
construction  of  formulae  upon  illiquid  claims  arising  from  trans- 
actions in  which  the  practice  of  stipulation  gradually  dropped  out 
of  use  (supra,  p.  701),  till  at  last  the  bonaefideijudicia  were  reached, 
marked  by  the  presence  in  the  "intention"  of  the  words  ex  fide 
bona, — "whatever  in  respect  thereof  N.  N.  ought  in  good  faith  to 
give  to  or  do  for  A.  A." 

ts  appli-  In  the  case  of  real  actions  the  transition  from  the  legis  actiones 
ition  to  to  the  formulae  followed  a  different  course.  The  ./Ebutian  law  did 
jal  not  abolish  the  procedure  per  sacramentum  when  reference  was  to 
ctions.  be  to  the  centumviral  court  on  a  question  of  quiritarian  right.  In 
the  time  of  Cicero  that  court  was  apparently  still  in  full  activity  (p. 
678),  but  by  that  of  Gaius  it  is  doubtful  if  it  was  resorted  to  except 
for  trial  of  questions  of  inheritance.  In  his  time  questions  of  pro- 
perty were  raised  either  per  sponsionem  or  per  formulam  petitoriam. 
The  procedure  by  sponsion  must  be  regarded  as  the  bridge  between 
the  sacramental  process  and  the  petitory  vindicatio.  In  the  first 
as  in  the  second  the  question  of  real  right  was  determined  only 
indirectly.  The  plaintiff  required  the  defendant  to  give  him  his 
stipulatory  promise  to  pay  a  nominal  sum  of  twenty -five  sesterces 
in  the  event  of  the  thing  in  dispute  being  found  to  belong  to  the 
former ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  defendant  gave  security  for  its 
transfer  to  the  plaintiff,  with  all  fruits  and  profits,  in  the  same 
event.  The  formula  that  was  adjusted  and  remitted  to  a  judge 
ex  facie  raised  only  the  simple  question  whether  the  twenty-five 
sesterces  were  due  or  not :  the  action  was  in  form  a  personal,  not  a 
real  one,  and  was  therefore  appropriately  remitted  to  a  single  judex 
instead  of  to  the  centumviral  tribunal.  But  judgment  on  it  could 
be  reached  only  through  means  of  a  finding  (sententia)  on  the  ques- 
tion of  real  right ;  if  it  was  for  the  plaintiff  he  did  not  claim  the 
amount  of  the  sponsion,  but  the  thing  which  had  been  found  to  be 
his ;  and,  if  the  defendant  delayed  to  deliver  it,  with  its  fruits  and 
profits,  the  plaintiff  had  recourse  against  the  latter's  sureties.  The 
petitory  formula  was  undoubtedly  of  later  introduction  and  much 
more  straightforward.  Like  the  certi  condictio  it  contained  only 
' '  intention  "  and  ' '  condemnation."  It  ran  thus :  ' '  Titius  be  judge. 
Should  it  appear  that  the  slave  Stichus,  about  whom  this  action 
has  been  raised,  belongs  to  A.  A.  in  quiiitary  right,  then,  unless  the 
slave  be  restored,  whatever  be  his  value,  in  that  you  will  condemn 
N.  N.  to  A.  A. ;  should  it  not  so  appear,  you  will  acquit  him." 
'ormulae  The  formulae  given  above,  whether  applicable  to  real  or  personal 
i  jus  and  actions,  are  so  many  illustrations  of  the  class  known  as  formulae 
i  factum  juris  civilis  or  in  jus  conceptae.  The  characteristic  of  such  a.  formula 


jptae. 


was  that  it  contained  in  the  "intention  "  one  or  other  of  the  follow- 
ing phrases — ejus  esse  ex  jure  Quiritium,  adjudicari  oportcre,2 
dari  oportere,  dari  fieri  oportere,  or  damnum  decidi  oportere.3  Such 
&  formula  was  employed  where  the  right  to  be  vindicated  or  the 
obligation  to  be  enforced  had  its  sanction  in  the  jus  civile,  whether 
in  the  shape  of  statute,  consuetude,  or  interpretation.  Where,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  right  or  obligation  had  its  sanction  solely  from 
the  praetor's  edict,  formulae  so  conceived  were  inappropriate  and 
incompetent.  The  actions  employed  in  such  cases  were  actiones 
juris  honorarii,  and  these  either  actiones  utiles  or  actiones  in  factum. 
The  first  were  adaptations  of  actions  of  the  jus  civile  to  cases  that 
did  not  properly  fall  \vithin  them  ;  the  second  were  actions  entirely 
of  praetorian  devising,  for  the  protection  of  rights  or  redress  of 
wrongs  unknown  to  the  jus  civile.* 

demnatio,  and  describes  their  several  functions  in  iv.  §§  39-43.  Besides  these 
&  formula  might  be  preceded  by  a  praescriptio  (Gai.,  iv.  §§  130-137),  and  have 
incorporated  in  it  fictions  (§§  32-38),  exceptions  (§§  115-125),  and  replications, 
duplications,  &c.  (§§  126-129). 

1  This  was  specifically  called  the  actio  ex  stipulatu,  but  was  really  nothing  more 
than  a  variety  of  the  condictio  ineerti.  The  later  actions  on  the  consensual 
contracts,  and  on  all  the  nominate  real  contracts  except  mutuum,  in  like 
manner  had  specific  names,  but  in  fact  were  just  ineerti  condictiones  in  the 
larger  sense  of  the  phrase. 

»  Employed  only  in  the  divisory  actions,  i.e.,  for  dividing  common  property, 
partitioning  an  inheritance,  or  settling  boundaries ;  the  demand  was  that  the 
judge  should  adjudicate  (or  assign)  to  each  of  the  parties  such  a  share  as  he 
thought  just 

3  Employed  in  certain  actions  upon  delict,  where  the  old  penalties  of  death, 


Of  the  actiones  utiles  some  were  called  actiones  ficticiac.  Resort  A 
to  a  fiction  is  sometimes  said  to  be  a  confession  of  weakness,  and  lieticia 
adversely  criticized  accordingly.  But  every  amendment  on  the  law 
is  an  admission  of  defect  in  what  is  being  amended  ;  and  it  was  in 
sympathy  with  the  spirit  of  Roman  jurisprudence,  when  it  found  an 
action  too  narrow  in  its  definition,  to  include  some  new  case  that 
ought  to  fall  within  it,  rather  by  feigning  that  the  new  case  was 
the  same  as  the  old,  to  bring  it  within  the  scope  of  the  existing 
and  familiar  action,  than  to  cause  disturbance  by  either  altering 
the  definition  of  the  latter  or  introducing  an  entirely  new  remedy. 
A  bonorum  possessor  (supra,  p.  702)  held  a  position  unknown  to  the 
jus  civile ;  he  was  not  an  heir,  and  therefore  not  entitled  offhand 
to  employ  the  actions  competent  to  an  heir,  either  for  recovering 
the  property  of  the  defunct  or  proceeding  against  his  debtors.  The 
praetor  could  have  had  no  difficulty  in  devising  new  actions  to  meet 
his  case  ;  but  he  preferred  the  simpler  expedient  of  adapting  to  it 
an  heir's  actions,  by  introducing  into  the  formula  a  fiction  of  civil 
heirship ;  so  he  did  with  the  bonorum  emptor  or  purchaser  of  a 
bankrupt's  estate  at  the  sale  of  it  in  mass  by  his  creditors.  Emptio 
bonorum  was  a  purely  praetorian  institution,  and  the  praetor,  if  he 
had  thought  fit,  could  easily  have  fortified  the  purchaser's  acquisition 
by  giving  him  praetorian  remedies  for  recovering  the  property  and 
suing  the  debtors  of  the  bankrupt ;  but  here  again  he  followed  the 
simpler  course  of  giving  him,  as  if  he  were  a  universal  successor, 
the  benefit  of  an  heir's  actions  by  help  of  a  fiction  of  heirship.5 
A  peregrin  could  not  sue  or  be  sued  for  theft  or  culpable  damage 
to  property,  for  the  XII.  Tables  and  the  Aquilian  law  applied  only 
to  citizens ;  but  he  could  both  sue  and  be  sued  under  cover  of  a 
fiction  of  citizenship.  A  man  who  had  acquired  a  res  mancipi  on 
a  good  title,  but  without  taking  a  conveyance  by  mancipation  or 
surrender  in  court,  if  he  was  dispossessed  before  he  had  completed 
his  usucapion,  could  not  sue  a  rei  vindicatio  for  its  recovery,  for 
he  was  not  in  a  position  to  affirm  that  he  was  quiritarian  owner  ; 
neither,  for  the  same  reason,  could  a  man  who  in  good  faith  and  on 
a  sufficient  title  had  acquired  a  thing  from  one  who  was  not  in  a  posi- 
tion to  alienate  it.  But  in  both  cases  the  praetor  granted  him  what 
was  in  effect  a  rei  vindicatio  proceeding  on  a  fiction  of  completed  usu- 
capion,— the  Publician  action  referred  to  on  p.  699. 

These  are  examples  of  actiones  ficticiae, — actions  of  the  jus  civile 
adapted  by  this  very  simple  expedient  to  cases  to  which  other- 
wise they  would  have  been  inapplicable,  and  forming  one  of  the 
most  important  varieties  of  the  actiones  utiles.  Quite  different  was  Actior 
the  course  of  procedure  in  the  actiones  in  factum,  whose  number  in  fac- 
and  varieties  were  practically  unlimited,  although  for  the  most  turn, 
part  granted  in  pursuance  of  the  praetor's  promise  in  the  edict  that 
under  such  and  such  circumstances  he  would  make  a  remit  to  &  judex 
(judicium  dabo),6  and  formulated  in  accordance  with  the  relative 
skeleton  styles  also  published  on  the  album.  A  great  number  of 
them  came  to  be  known  by  special  names,  as,  for  example,  the  actio 
de  dolo,  actio  negotiorum  gestorum,  actio  hypothecaria,  actio  depecunia 
constituta,  actio  vi  bonorum  raptorum,  actio  de  superficie,  &c., — the 
generic  name  actio  in  factum  being  usually  confined  to  the  inno- 
minate ones.  Their  formulae,  unlike  those  in  jus  conccplae,  sub- 
mitted no  question  of  legal  right  for  the  consideration  of  the  judge, 
but  only  a  question  of  fact,  proof  of  which  was  to  be  followed  by  a 
condemnation.  That  of  the  actio  de  dolo,  for  example,  ran  thus : 
"Titius  be  judge.  Should  it  appear  that,  through  the  fraud  of 
N.  N.,  A.  A.  was  induced  to  convey  and  cede  possession  to  him  of 
his  farm  (describing  it),  then,  unless  on  your  order  N.  N.  restores 
it,  you  will  condemn  him  in  damages  to  A.  A.  ;  if  it  shall  not  so 
appear,  you  will  acquit  him." 

Our  limits  do  not  admit  of  any  explanation  of  the  purpose,  form, 
or  effect  of  the  prescriptions,  exceptions,  replications,  &c.,  that  were 
engrafted  on  a  formula  when  required  ;  or  of  the  ways  in  which 
the  "condemnation"  was  occasionally  "taxed"  by  the  prsetor, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  award  of  extravagant  damages  ;  or  of  the  con- 
sequences of  defects  in  the  formula  ;  or  of  the  procedure  in  jure 
before  it  was  adjusted,  or  in  judicio  afterwards ;  or  of  appeal  for 
review  of  the  judgment  by  a  higher  tribunal ;  or  of  execution 
(which  was  against  the  estate  of  the  judgment-debtor,  and  took 
the  form  of  incarceration  only  when  his  goods  could  not  be  at- 
tached). Our  main  object  has  been  to  show  how  elastic  was  this 
procedure,  and  how  the  praetorian  formulae,  in  conjunction  with 
the  relative  announcements  in  the  edict,  supplied  the  vehicle  for 
the  introduction  into  the  law  of  an  immense  amount  of  new  doctrine. 
The  system  was  fully  developed  before  Julian's  consolidation  of  the 

praetorian  remedy  for  the  same  wrong  ;  for  Gaius  observes  (iv.  45)  that  in  com- 
modate  and  deposit  failure  of  the  borrower  or  depositary  to  return  the  thing 
lent  to  or  deposited  with  him  gave  rise  to  actions  that  might  be  formulated 
either  in  jus  or  in  factum.  In  the  same  section  he  gives  the  styles  of  actiones 
depositi  in  jus  and  in  factum  conceptae  ;  their  comparison  is  instructive. 

5  Gai.,  iv.  35.     Theophilus  (Par.  Inst.,  iii.  12)  calls  the  bonorum  emptor 
irpatTtbpios  5id5o%os  (praetorian  successor)  of  the  bankrupt. 

6  Examples:   "Si  quis  negotia  alterius  .  .  .  gesserit,  judicium  eo  nomine 
dabo"  (Dig.,  iii.  5,  3,  pr.);  "Quae  dolo  malo  facta  esse  dicentur,  si  de  his 
rebus  alia  actio  non  erit  et  justa  causa  esse  videbitur,  judicium  dabo  "  (Dig.,  iv. 
8,  1,  §  1);  "Nautae  caupones  stabularii  quod  cujusque  salvum  fore  receperint, 
nisi  restituent,  in  eos  judicium  dabo  "  (Dig.,  iv.  9,  3, 1) ;  "  Quod  quis  commodasse 
dicetur,  de  eo  judicium  dabo"  (Dig.,  xiii.  6,  1,  pr.). 


JUS  NATUKALE.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


709 


Edict ;  and  the  statutory  recognition  which  the  latter  then  obtained 
did  nothing  to  impair  its  efficiency. 

:  ced-  Procedure  extra  Ordinem. l — The  two-staged  procedure,  first  in 
i  extra,  jure  and  then  in  judicio,  constituted  the  ordo  judiciorum  priva- 
linem.  torum.  Early  in  the  empire,  however,  it  became  the  practice  in 
certain  cases  to  abstain  from  adjusting  a  formula  and  making  a 
remit  to  zjudex,  and  to  leave  the  cause  in  the  hands  of  the  magis- 
trate from  beginning  to  end.  This  course  was  adopted  sometimes 
because  the  claim  that  was  being  made  rested  rather  on  moral  than 
on  legal  right,  and  sometimes  in  order  to  avoid  unnecessary  dis- 
closure of  family  misunderstandings.  Thus,  the  earliest  questions 
that  were  raised  about  testamentary  trusts  were  sent  for  considera- 
tion and  disposal  to  the  consuls,  apparently  because,  in  the  existing 
state  of  jurisprudence,  it  was  thought  incompetent  for  a  beneficiary 
to  maintain  in  reference  to  the  heir  (who  had  only  been  requested 
to  comply  with  the  testator's  wishes)  that  he  was  bound  in  law 
(dare  oportere)  to  pay  him  his  bequest.  Had  the  difficulty  arisen 
at  an  earlier  period,  and  in  the  heyday  of  the  constructive  energy 
of  the  pnetors,  they  would  probably  have  solved  it  with  an  actio 
infactum.  As  it  was,  it  fell  to  the  emperors  to  deal  with  it,  and 
they  adopted  the  method  of  extraordinaria  cognitio,  the  jurisdic- 
tion which  they  in  the  first  instance  conferred  on  the  consuls  being 
before  long  confided  to  a  magistrate  specially  designated  for  it, — 
the  praetor  fideicommissarius.  Questions  between  tutors  and  their 
pupil  wards  in  like  manner  began  to  be  dealt  with  extra  ordinem, 
the  cognition  being  entrusted  by  Marcus  Aurelius  to  a  praetor  tute- 
laris ;  while  fiscal  questions  in  which  a  private  party  was  interested 
went  to  a  praetor  fisci,  whose  creation  was  due  to  Nerva.  Claims 
for  aliment  between  parent  and  child  or  patron  and  freedman 
rested  on  natural  duty  rather  than  on  legal  right ;  they  could  not 
therefore  well  be  made  the  subject-matter  of  zjudicium,  and  con- 
sequently went  for  disposal  to  the  consuls  or  the  city  prefect,  and 
in  the  provinces  to  the  governor.  Questions  of  status,  especially 
of  freedom  or  slavery,  at  least  from  the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
were  also  disposed  of  extra  ordinem ;  and  so  were  claims  by  physicians, 
advocates,  and  public  teachers  for  their  honoraria,  and  by  officials 
for  their  salaries,  the  Eomans  refusing  to  admit  that  these  could 
be  recovered  by  an  ordinary  action  of  location.  In  all  those  extra- 
ordinary cognitions  the  procedure  began  with  a  complaint  addressed 
to  the  magistrate,  instead  of  an  in  jus  vocatio  of  the  party  com- 
plained against ;  it  was  for  the  magistrate  to  require  the  attendance 
of  the  latter  (ewcatio)  if  he  thought  the  complaint  relevant.  The 
decision  was  a  judicatum  or  decretum  according  to  circumstances. 
ect  Jural  Remedies  flowing  directly  from  the  Magistrate's  Imperium.2 
*is-  — Great  as  were  the  results  for  the  law  of  the  multiplication  and 
al  simplification  of  judicia  through  the  formular  system,  it  may  be 
;r-  questioned  whether  it  did  not  benefit  quite  as  much  from  the 
tion.  direct  intervention  of  the  praetors  in  certain  cases  in  virtue  of  the 
supreme  power  with  which  they  were  invested.  This  manifested 
itself  principally  in  the  form  of  (1)  interdicts  ;  (2)  pnetorian  stipula- 
tions; (3)  missio  in  possessionem  ;  and  (4)  in  integrum  restitutio. 
er-  1.  The  interdicts3  have  already  been  referred  to  as  in  use  under 
ts.  the  regime  of  the  jus  civile ;  but  their  number  and  scope  were 
vastly  increased  under  that  of  the  jus  praetorium.  The  char- 
acteristic of  the  procedure  by  interdict  was  this, — that  in  it  the 
praetor  reversed  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  and,  instead  of  wait- 
ing for  an  inquiry  into  the  facts  alleged  by  a  complainer,  provision- 
ally assumed  them  to  be  true  and  pronounced  an  order  upon  the 
respondent,  which  he  was  bound  either  to  obey  or  show  to  be 
unjustified.  The  order  pronounced  might  be  either  restitutory, 
exhibitory  (in  both  cases  usually  spoken  of  in  the  texts  as  a  decree), 
or  prohibitory : — restitutory,  when,  for  example,  the  respondent  was 
ordained  to  restore  something  he  was  alleged  to  have  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  violent  means,  to  remove  impediments  he  had  placed 
in  the  channel  of  a  river,  and  so  on ;  exhibitory,  when  he  was 
ordained  to  produce  something  he  was  unwarrantably  detaining, 
e.g.,  the  body  of  a  freeman  he  was  holding  as  his  slave,  or  a  will 
in  which  the  complainer  alleged  that  he  had  an  interest ;  prohibi- 
tory, as,  for  example,  that  he  should  not  disturb  the  status  quo  of 
possession  as  between  the  complainer  and  himself,  that  he  should 
not  interfere  with  a  highway,  a  watercourse,  the  access  to  a 
sepulchre,  and  so  forth.  If  the  respondent  obeyed  the  order  pro- 
nounced in  a  restitutory  or  exhibitory  decree,  there  was  an  end  of 
the  matter.  But  frequently,  and  perhaps  more  often  than  not,  the 
interdict  was  only  the  commencement  of  a  litigation,  facilitated  by 
sponsions  and  restipulations,  in  which  the  questions  had  to  be  tried 
(1)  whether  the  interdict  or  injunction  was  justified,  (2)  whether 
there  had  been  breach  of  it,  and,  (3)  if  so,  what  damages  were  due  in 
consequence.  The  procedure  therefore  was  often  anything  but 
summary. 


1  See  Keller  (as  on  p.  681,  note  1),  §  81 ;  Bethmann-Hollweg  (as  in  same 
note),  vol.  ii.  §  122  ;  Bekker  (as  in  same  note),  vol.  ii.  chap.  23  ;  Baron,  Gesch. 
d.  rom.  Rechts,  vol.  i.  §  220. 

2  Keller,  §§  74-80 ;  Bethmann-Hollweg,  vol.  ii.  §§  98,  119-121 ;  Bekker,  vol. 
ii.  chaps.  16-18 ;  Baron,  vol.  i.  §§  216-219. 

3  In  addition  to  the  authorities  in  last  note,  see  K.  A.  Schmidt,  Das  Tnter- 
diktenverfahren  d.  Rom.  in  geschichtl.  Entwickelung,  Leipsic,  1853  ;  Machelard, 
Theorie  des  interdits  en  droit  remain,  Paris,  1864. 


In  the  possessory  interdicts  uti  possidetis  and  utrubi  in  particular 
it  was  extremely  involved,  due  to  some  extent  to  the  fact  that 
they  were  double  interdicts  (interdicta  duplicia),  i.e.,  addressed 
indifferently  to  both  parties.  Gaius  says,  but,  as  most  jurists  think, 
erroneously,  that  they  had  been  devised  as  ancillary  to  a  litigation 
about  ownership,  and  for  the  purpose  of  deciding  which  of  the 
parties,  as  possessor,  was  to  have  the  advantage  of  standing  on 
the  defensive  in  the  rei  vindicatio.*  That  they  were  so  used  in 
his  time,  as  in  that  of  Justinian,  cannot  be  doubted.  But  it  is 
amazing  that  they  should  have  been,  for  they  were  infinitely  more 
cumbrous  than  the  vindicatio  to  which  they  led  up.  Take  the 
interdict  uti  possidetis,  which  applied  to  immovables,  as  utrubi  did 
to  movables.  Both  parties  being  present,  the  praetor  addressed 
them  to  this  effect :  "  I  forbid  that  one  of  you  two  who  does  not 
possess  the  house  in  question  to  use  force  in  order  to  prevent  the 
other  who  is  in  possession,  provided  he  is  so  neither  by  clandes- 
tine or  violent  exclusion  of  the  first,  nor  in  virtue  of  a  grant  from 
him  during  pleasure,  from  continuing  to  possess  as  at  present." 
It  is  manifest  that  this  decided  nothing ;  it  was  no  more  than  a  pro- 
hibition of  disturbance  of  the  status  quo  ;  it  left  the  question  entirely 
open  which  of  the  parties  it  was  that  was  in  possession,  and  which 
that  was  forbidden  to  interfere.  The  manner  of  its  explication  was 
somewhat  singular.  Each  of  the  parties  was  bound  at  once  to 
commit  what  in  the  case  of  one  of  them  must  have  been  a  breach  of 
the  interdict,  by  a  pretence  of  violence  offered  to  the  other  (vis  ex 
conventu) ; 5  each  of  them  was  thus  in  a  position  to  say  to  the  other 
— "We  have  both  used  force  ;  but  it  was  you  alone  that  did  it  in 
defiance  of  the  interdict,  for  it  is  I  that  am  in  possession."  The 
interim  enjoyment  of  the  fruits  was  then  awarded  to  the  highest 
bidder,  who  gave  his  stipulatory  promise  to  pay  for  them  to  his 
adversary  in  the  event  of  the  latter  being  successful  in  the  long 
run ;  penal  sponsions  and  restipulations  were  exchanged  upon  the 
question  which  of  them  had  committed  a  breach  of  the  interdict ; 
and  on  these,  four  in  number,  formulae  were  adjusted  and  sent  to 
a  judex  for  trial.  If  the  procedure  could  not  thus  be  explicated, 
because  either  of  the  parties  declined  to  take  part  in  the  vis  ex 
conventu,  or  the  bidding,  or  the  sponsions  and  restipulations,  he  was 
assumed  to  be  in  the  wrong,  and,  by  what  was  called  a  secondary 
interdict,  required  to  abstain  from  disturbing  the  other  "in  all  time 
coming."  Whatever  we  may  think  of  the  action  system  of  the 
Romans  in  the  period  of  the  classical  jurisprudence,  one  cannot 
help  standing  aghast  at  a  procedure  so  cumbrous  and  complex  as 
that  of  their  possessory  interdicts. 

2.  A  praetorian  stipulation 6  was  a  stipulatory  engagement  im-  Praetor- 
posed  upon  a  man  by  a  magistrate  or  judge,  in  order  to  secure  a  ianstipu- 
third  party  from  the  chance  of  loss  or  prejudice  through  some  act  lations. 
or  omission  either  of  him  from  whom  the  engagement  was  exacted 

or  of  some  other  person  for  whom  he  was  responsible.  Although 
called  praetorian,  because  the  cases  in  which  such  stipulations 
were  exigible  were  set  forth  in  the  Edict,  there  can  be  no  question 
that  they  originated  in  the  jus  civile ;  in  fact  they  were  just  a 
means  of  assuring  to  a  man  in  advance  the  benefit  of  an  action  of 
the  jus  civile  whereby  he  might  obtain  reparation  for  any  injury 
suffered  by  him  through  the  occurrence  of  the  act  or  omission 
contemplated  as  possible.  Ulpian  classifies  them  as  cautionary 
(cautionales),  judicial,  and  common.  The  first  were  purely  pre- 
cautionary, and  quite  independent  of  any  action  already  in  depend- 
ence between  the  party  moving  the  magistrate  to  exact  the  stipu- 
lation and  him  on  whom  it  was  desired  to  impose  it.  There  were 
many  varieties  of  them,  connected  with  all  branches  of  the  law, — 
for  example,  the  cautio  damni  infecti,  security  against  damage  to 
a  man's  property  in  consequence,  say,  of  the  ruinous  condition  of  his 
neighbour's  house,  the  cautio  usufructuaria  that  property  usufructed 
should  revert  unimpaired  to  the  owner  on  the  expiry  of  the  usu- 
fructuary's life  interest,  the  sedilian  stipulation  against  faults  in  a 
thing  sold,  and  so  forth.  In  all  these  cases  the  stipulation  or 
cautio  was  a  guarantee  against  future  loss  or  injury,  usually  cor- 
roborated by  sureties,  and  made  effectual  by  an  action  on  the  stipu- 
lation in  the  event  of  loss  or  injury  resulting.  Judicial  stipulations, 
according  to  Ulpian's  classification,  were  those  imposed  by  a  judge 
in  the  course  of  and  with  reference  to  an  action  in  dependence  before 
him,  as,  for  example,  the  cautio  judicatum  solvi  (that  the  defendant 
would  satisfy  the  judgment),  the  cautio  de  dolo  (that  a  thing  claimed 
in  the  action  would  not  be  fraudulently  impaired  in  the  meantime), 
and  many  others.  Common  were  such  as  might  either  be  imposed 
by  a  magistrate  apart  from  any  depending  action  or  by  a  judge 
in  the  course  of  one,  such  as  that  taken  from  a  guardian  for  the 
faithful  administration  of  his  office,  or  from  a  procurator  that  his 
principal  would  ratify  what  he  did. 

3.  Missio  in  possessionem  was  the  putting  of  a  person  in  possession 

4  If  that  had  been  their  original  purpose,  they  must  have  been  unknown  as 
long  as  a  rei  vindicatio  proceeded  per  sacramentum  ;  for  in  the  sacramental  real 
action  both  parties  vindicated,  and  both  consequently  were  at  once  plaintifls 
and  defendants. 

5  So  Gaius  calls  it ;  it  was  probably  the  same  thing  as  the  vis  rn.oribv.sfa.cta. 
referred  to  by  Cicero,  Pro  Caec.,  1,  §  2,  8,  §  22. 

6  To  the  authorities  in  note  1  above  add  Schirmer,  Ueber  die  pratorischen 
Jitdicial-Stipulationen,  Greifswald,  1853. 


710 


ROMAN     LAW 


[CODIFICATION. 


Missio  in  either  of  the  whole  estate  of  another  (missio  in  bona)  or  of  some  par- 
posses-  ticular  thing  belonging  to  him  (missio  in  rein).  The  former  was  by 
iionem.  far  the  more  important.  It  was  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  execution 
not  only  against  a  judgment-debtor  but  also  against  a  man  who 
fraudulently  kept  out  of  the  way  and  thus  avoided  summons  in  an 
action,  or  who,  having  been  duly  summoned,  would  not  do  what 
was  expected  on  the  part  of  a  defendant ;  against  the  estate  of  a 
person  deceased  to  which  no  heir  would  enter,  thus  leaving  creditors 
without  a  debtor  from  whom  they  could  enforce  payment  of  their 
claims  ;  and  also  against  the  estate  that  had  belonged  to  a  person 
who  had  undergone  capitis  deminutio,  if  the  family  head  to  whom 
he  had  subjected  himself  refused  to  be  responsible  for  his  debts. 
Missio  in  rem  was  granted,  e.g.,  where  a  man  refused  to  give 
cautio  damni  infecti  ;  the  applicant  was  then  put  in  possession  of 
the  ruinous  property  for  his  own  protection. 

In  in-  4.  In  integrum  restitutio,1  reinstatement  of  an  individual,  on 
tegrum  grounds  of  equity,  in  the  position  he  had  occupied  before  some 
resti-  occurrence  which  had  resulted  to  his  prejudice,  was  one  of  the  most 
tutio.  remarkable  manifestations  of  the  exercise  of  the  imperium.  It  was 
not  that  the  individual  in  question,  either  directly  by  action  or 
indirectly  by  exception,  obtained  a  judgment  that  either  rendered 
what  had  happened  comparatively  harmless  or  gave  him  compensa- 
tion in  damages  for  the  loss  he  had  sustained  from  it,  but  that  the 
magistrate — and  it  could  only  be  the  praetor,  the  urban  or  praetorian 
prefect,  a  provincial  governor,  or  the  emperor  himself — at  his  own 
hand  pronounced  a  decree  that  as  far  as  possible  restored  the  status 
quo  ante.  It  was  not  enough,  however,  to  entitle  a  man  to  this 
extraordinary  relief,  that  he  was  able  to  show  that  he  had  been 
taken  advantage  of  to  his  hurt,  and  that  no  other  adequate  means 
of  redress  was  open  to  him  ;  he  required  in  addition  to  be  able  to 
found  on  some  subjective  ground  of  restitution,  such  as  minority, 
or,  if  he  was  of  full  age,  intimidation  which  could  not  be  resisted, 
mistake  of  fact,  fraud,  absence,  or  the  like.  What  should  be  held 
to  amount  to  a  sufficient  ground  of  restitution,  either  objective  or 
subjective,  was  at  first  left  very  much  to  the  discretion  of  the  magis- 
trate ;  but  even  here  practice  and  jurisprudence  in  time  fixed  the 
lines  within  which  he;  ought  to  confine  himself,  and  made  the 
principles  of  in  integrum  restitutio  as  well  settled  almost  as  those 
of  the  actio  quod  metus  causa  or  the  actio  de  dolo. 

CHAPTER  V.— THE  PERIOD  OF  CODIFICATION. 

(Diocletian  to  Justinian.) 
I.  HISTOKICAL  EVENTS  THAT  INFLUENCED  THE  LAW. 

Emperors     Supremacy  of  the  Emperors  as  Sole  Legislators. — From 

sole  legis- the  time  of  Diocletian  downwards  the  making  of  the  law 

lators.     wag  exciusively  in  the  hands  of  the  emperors.     The  senate 

still  existed,  but  shorn  of  all  its  old  functions  alike  of 

government  and  legislation.     The  responses  of  patented 

jurists  were  a  thing  of  the  past.     It  was  to  the  imperial 

consistory  alone  that  men  looked  for  interpretation  of  old 

law  or  promulgation  of  new. 

In  the  reign  of  Diocletian  rescripts  were  still  abundant ;  but  the 
constitutions  in  the  Theodosian  and  Justinianian  Codes  from  the 
time  of  Constantine  downwards  are  mostly  of  a  wider  scope,  and  of 
the  class  known  as  general  or  edictal  laws  (leges  generales  edictales). 
It  would  be  wrong,  however,  to  infer  that  rescripts  had  ceased  ;  for 
Justinian's  Code  contains  various  regulations  as  to  their'  form,  and 
the  matter  is  dealt  with  again  in  one  of  his  Novels.  The  reason 
why  so  few  are  preserved  is  that  they  were  no  longer  authoritative 
except  for  the  parties  to  whom  they  were  addressed.  This  was 
expressly  declared  by  the  emperors  Arcadius  and  Honorius  in  398 
in  reference  to  those  in  answer  to  applications  for  advice  from 
officials  ;  and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  assume  that  a  limitation  of 
the  same  sort  had  been  put  at  an  earlier  date  on  the  authority  of 
those  addressed  to  private  parties.  Puchta  is  of  opinion  that  the 
enactment  of  Honorius  and  Arcadius  applied  equally  to  decreta, 
for  the  reason  that  during  this  period  matters  of  litigation  did 
not  come  under  the  cognizance  of  the  emperors  except  on  appeal, 
and  that  under  the  new  arrangements  of  Constantine  the  judg- 
ment of  affirmance  or  reversal  was  embodied  in  a  rescript  ad- 
dressed to  the  magistrate  from  whom  the  appeal  had  been  taken. 
The  rule  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius  was  renewed  in  425  by  Theo- 
dosius  and  Valentinian,  who  qualified  it,  however,  to  this  extent, — 
that,  if  it  contained  any  distinct  indication  that  the  doctrine  it  laid 
down  was  meant  to  be  of  general  application,  then  it  was  to  be 
received  as  an  edict  or  lex  generalis.  To  this  Justinian  adhered 
in  so  far  as  rescripts  in  the  old  sense  of  the  word  were  concerned  ; 
but  he  declared  that  his  judgments  (decreta)  should  be  received 
everywhere  as  laws  of  general  application,  and  so  should  any  inter- 
pretation given  by  him  of  &  lex  generalis,  even  though  elicited  by 


1  In  addition  to  the  authorities  in  note  2,  p.  709,  see  Savigny,  System 
d.  rom.  Rechts,  vol.  vii.  §§  315-343. 


the  petition  of  a  private  party.  The  imperial  edicts,  adjusted  in 
the  consistory,  were  usually  addressed  to  the  people,  the  senate,  or 
some  official,  civil,  military,  or  ecclesiastical,  according  to  the  nature 
of  their  subject-matter. 

Establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  State  Religion* — A  disposi-  Ch  _ 
tion  has  sometimes  been  manifested  to  credit  nascent  Christianity  tianity 
with  the  humaner  spirit  which  began  to  operate  on  some  of  the  the  sta 
institutions  of  the  law  in  the  first  century  of  the  empire,  but  which  religioi 
in  a  previous  section  we  have  ascribed  to  the  infiltration  into  the 
jus  civile  of  doctrines  of  the  jus  naturale,  the  product  of  the  philo- 
sophy of  the  Stoa.  The  teaching  of  Seneca  aid  quite  as  much — 
nay  far  more — to  influence  it  then  than  the  lessons  that  were 
taught  in  the  little  assemblies  of  the  early  converts.  It  would  be 
a  bold  thing  to  say  that,  had  Christianity  never  gained  its  pre- 
dominance, that  spirit  of  natural  right  would  not  have  continued 
to  animate  the  course  of  legislation,  and  to  evoke,  as  years  pro- 
gressed, most  of  those  amendments  in  the  law  of  the  family  and 
the  law  of  succession  that  were  amongst  the  most  valuable  contribu- 
tions of  the  imperial  constitutions  to  the  private  law.  It  may  well 
be  that  that  spirit  was  intensified  and  rendered  more  active  with 
the  growth  of  Christian  belief ;  but  not  until  the  latter  had  been 
publicly  sanctioned  by  Constantine,  and  by  Theodosius  declared  to 
be  the  religion  of  the  state,  do  we  meet  with  incontestable  records 
of  its  influence.  We  find  them  in  enactments  in  favour  of  the 
church  and  its  property,  and  of  its  privileges  as  a  legatee  ;  in  those 
conferring  or  imposing  on  the  bishops  a  supervision  of  charities 
and  charitable  institutions,  and  a  power  of  interfering  in  matters 
of  guardianship  ;  in  the  recognition  of  the  efficacy  of  certain  acts 
done  in  presence  of  two  or  three  of  the  clergy  and  thereafter  re- 
corded in  the  church  registers  ;  in  the  disabilities  as  to  marriage 
and  succession  with  which  heretics  and  apostates  were  visited,  and 
in  a  variety  of  minor  matters.  Of  greater  importance  were  three 
features  for  which  it  was  directly  responsible, — the  repeal  of  the 
caduciary  provisions  of  the  Papia-Poppsean  law,  the  penalties  im- 
posed upon  divorce,  and  the  institution  of  the  episcopalis  audientia. 

The  purpose  of  the  caduciary  law  was  to  discourage  celibacy  and 
encourage  fruitful  marriages  ;  but  legislation  in  such  a  spirit  could 
not  possibly  be  maintained  when  celibacy  had  come  to  be  inculcated 
as  a  virtue,  and  as  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  a  holy  life.  The 
penalties  alike  of  orbitas  and  coelibatus  were  abolished  by  Constan- 
tine in  the  year  320.  The  legislation  about  divorce,  from  the  first 
of  Constantino's  enactments  on  the  subject  down  to  those  of  Justin- 
ian, forms  a  miserable  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  law.  Not  one 
of  the  emperors  who  busied  himself  with  the  matter,  undoing  the 
work  of  his  predecessors  and  substituting  legislation  of  his  own  quite 
as  complicated  and  futile,  thought  of  interfering  with  the  old  prin- 
ciple that  divorce  ought  to  be  as  free  as  marriage  and  independent 
of  the  sanction  or  decree  of  a  judicial  tribunal.  Justinian  was  the 
first  who,  by  one  of  his  Novels,  imposed  a  condition  on  parties  to 
a  divorce  of  common  accord  (communi  consensu),  namely,  that  they 
should  both  enter  a  convent,  otherwise  it  should  be  null ;  but,  so 
distasteful  was  this  to  popular  feeling,  and  so  little  conducive  to 
improvement  of  the  tone  of  morals  within  the  conventual  precincts, 
that  it  was  repealed  by  his  successor.  The  legislation  of  Justinian's 
predecessors  and  the  bulk  of  his  own  were  levelled  at  one-sided  re- 
pudiations, imposing  penalties,  personal  and  patrimonial  (1)  upon 
the  author  of  a  repudiation  on  some  ground  the  law  did  not  recog- 
nize as  sufficient — and  the  lawful  grounds  varied  from  reign  to  reign 
— and  (2)  upon  the  party  whose  misconduct  gave  rise  to  a  repudia- 
tion that  was  justifiable.  The  bishop's  court  (episcopale  judicium, 
episcopalis  audientia)  had  its  origin  in  the  practice  of  the  primitive 
Christians,  in  accordance  with  the  apostolic  precept,  of  submitting 
their  differences  to  one  or  two  of  their  brethren  in  the  faith,  usu- 
ally a  presbyter  or  bishop,  who  acted  as  arbiter.  On  the  establish- 
ment of  Christianity  the  practice  obtained  legislative  sanction, 
Constantine  giving  the  bishop's  court  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  ordinary  civil  courts  where  both  parties  preferred  the  former, 
and  by  a  later  enactment  going  so  far  as  to  empower  one  of  the 
parties  to  a  suit  to  remove  it  to  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  against 
the  will  of  the  other.  For  various  reasons,  advantage  was  taken  of 
this  power  of  resorting  to  the  bishop  to  an  extent  which  seriously 
interfered  with  the  proper  discharge  of  his  spiritual  functions,  so 
that  Honorius  judged  it  expedient  to  revert  to  the  original  rule, 
and,  at  least  as  regarded  laymen,  to  limit  the  right  of  resort  to 
the  episcopal  judicatory  to  cases  in  which  both  parties  consented. 
It  is  impossible  to  say  with  any  approach  to  exactitude  what  effect 
this  intervention  of  the  clergy  as  judges  in  ordinary  civil  causes — 
for  they  had  no  criminal  jurisdiction — had  on  the  development  of 
the  law.  But  it  can  hardly  have  been  without  some  influence  in 
still  further  promoting  the  tendency  to  subordinate  act  and  word 
to  will  and  animus,  to  deal  leniently  with  technicalities,  and  to 
temper  the  rules  of  the  jus  civile  with  equity  and  considerations 
of  natural  right. 

2  See  Troplong,  De  ^influence  du  christianisme  sur  le  droit  civil  des 
Remains,  Paris,  1843  (and  subsequently) ;  Merivale,  The  Conversion 
of  the  Roman  Empire  (Boyle  Lectures  for  1864),  London,  18G4. 


CODIFICATION.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


711 


nihods 
0)ro- 
c  ure. 


len- 
ian's 
v  of 
ations. 


Abandonment  of  the  Formular  System  of  Procedure.'*  —  The  for- 
mular  system,  with  its  remit  from  the  praetor  to  a  sworn  judex 
who  was  to  try  the  cause,  was  of  infinite  advantage  to  the  law; 
for  the  judgment  was  that  of  a  free  and  independent  citizen,  un- 
trammelled by  officialism,  fresh  from  some  centre  of  business,  and 
in  full  sympathy  with  the  parties  between  whom  he  had  to  decide. 
Such  a  system  was  incompatible  with  the  political  arrangements 
of  Diocletian  and  Constantino  ;  and  it  is  with  no  surprise  that 
we  find  the  former  of  these  sovereigns  instructing  the  provincial 
governors  that  in  future,  unless  when  prevented  by  pressure  of 
business  (or,  according  to  a  later  constitution  of  Julian's,  when 
the  matter  was  of  trifling  importance),  they  were  themselves  to 
hear  the  causes  brought  before  them  from  first  to  last,  as  had  pre- 
viously been  the  practice  in  the  extraordinariae  cognitiones.  The 
remit  in  such  cases  was  not,  as  formerly,  to  a  private  citizen,  but 
to  what  was  called  a  judex  pedaneus,  probably  a  matriculated 
member  of  the  local  bar  ;  and  for  a  time  his  delegated  authority 
was  embodied  in  a  formula  after  the  old  fashion.  But  even  this 
exceptional  use  of  it  did  not  long  survive,  for  an  enactment  by 
the  two  sons  of  Constantine,  conceived  in  terms  the  most  compre- 
hensive, declared  fixed  styles  to  be  but  traps  for  the  unwary,  and 
forbade  their  use  in  any  legal  act  whatever,  whether  contentious 
or  voluntary.  The  result  was,  not  only  the  formal  disappearance 
of  the  distinction  between  the  proceedings  in  jure  and  in  judicio, 
but  the  practical  disappearance  also  of  the  distinctions  between 
actions  in  jus  and  in  factum,  and  between  actioncs  directae  and 
actiones  utiles,  the  conversion  of  the  interdict  into  an  actio  ex  inter- 
dicto,  admission  of  the  power  of  amendment  of  the  pleadings,  con- 
demnation in  the  specific  thing  claimed,  if  in  existence,  instead  of 
its  pecuniary  equivalent,  and  execution  accordingly  by  the  aid  of 
officers  of  the  law. 

Under  the  new  system  a  process  was  full  from  first  to  last  of 
intervention  by  officials.  The  in  jus  vocatio  of  the  XII.  Tables 
—  the  procedure  by  which  a  plaintiff  himself  brought  his  adversary 
into  court  —  was  a  thing  of  the  past.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the 
period  the  proceedings  commenced  with  the  litis  denuntiatio  intro- 
duced in  the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  remodelled  by  Constan- 
tine ;  but  under  Justinian  (though  probably  begun  before  his 
reign)  the  initial  step  was  what  was  called  the  libellus  convenlionis. 
This  was  a  short  and  precise  written  statement  addressed  by  the 
plaintiff  to  the  court,  explaining  (but  without  detail)  the  nature 
of  the  action  he  proposed  to  raise  and  the  claim  he  had  to  prefer  ; 
this  was  accompanied  with  a  formal  undertaking  to  proceed  with 
the  cause  and  follow  it  out  to  judgment,  under  penalty  of  having 
to  pay  double  costs  to  the  defendant.  If  the  judge  was  satisfied 
of  the  relevancy  of  the  libel,  he  pronounced  an  interlocutor  (i-nter- 
locutio)  ordaining  its  service  on  the  respondent  ;  this  was  done  by 
an  officer  of  the  court,  who  cited  him  to  appear  on  a  day  named, 
usually  at  a  distance  of  two  or  three  months.  The  defendant, 
through  the  officer,  put  in  an  answer  (libellus  contradictionis),  at 
the  same  time  giving  security  for  the  proper  maintenance  of  the 
defence  and  eventual  satisfaction  of  the  judgment.  On  the  day 
appointed  the  parties  were  first  heard  on  any  dilatory  pleas,  such 
as  defect  of  jurisdiction  ;  if  none  were  offered,  or  those  stated  re- 
pelled, they  then  proceeded  to  expound  their  respective  grounds 
of  action  and  defence,  each  finally  making  oath  of  his  good  faith 
in  the  matter  (juramentum  calumniae),  and  their  counsel  doing 
the  same. 

From  this  point,  which  marked  the  litis  contestatio  or  joinder  of 
issue,  the  procedure  was  much  the  same  as  that  in  judicio  under  the 
formular  system.  But  in  all  cases  in  which  the  demand  was  that 
a  particular  thing  should  be  given  or  restored,  and  the  plaintiff 
desired  to  have  the  thing  itself  rather  than  damages,  execution  was 
specific  and  effected  through  officers  of  the  law  (manu  militari). 
Where,  on  the  other  hand,  the  condemnation  was  pecuniary,  the 
usual  course  was  for  the  judge,  through  his  officers,  to  take  pos- 
session of  such  things  belonging  to  the  defendant  as  were  thought 
sufficient  to  satisfy  the  judgment  (pignus  in  causa  judicati  captum}, 
and  they  were  eventually  sold  judicially  if  the  defendant  still 
refused  to  pay  ;  the  missio  in  bona  of  the  classical  period  was  rarely 
resorted  to  except  in  the  case  of  insolvency. 

The  Valentinianian  Law  of  Citations."*  —  This  famous  enact- 
ment,  the  production  of  Theodosius  (II.),  tutor  of  the  youthful 
Valentinian  III.  ,  was  issued  from  Ravenna  in  the  year  426,  and 
was  addressed  to  the  Roman  senate.  It  ran  thus  :  — 

"We  accord  our  approval  to  all  the  writings  of  Papinian,  Paul, 
Gains,  Ulpian,  and  Modestine,  conceding  to  Gaius  the  same  authority 
that  is  enjoyed  by  Paul,  Ulpian,  and  the  rest,  and  sanctioning  the 
citation  of  all  his  works.  We  ratify  also  the  jurisprudence  (scien- 

1  Wieding,    Der    Justiniancische    Libellprocess,    Vienna,    1865  ;    Bethmann- 
Hollweg(as  on  p.  681,  note  1),  vol.  iii.  (1866);  Muther  (crit.  Wieding),  in  the 
Krit.  Vierteljahrschrift,  vol.  ix.  (1867),  pp.  161  sq.,  329  sq.  ;  Wieding,  in  same 
journal,  vol.  xii.  (1870),  p.  228  sq.  ;  Bekker  (as  on  p.  681,  note  1),  vol.  ii.  chaps. 
23,  24  ;  Baron,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  Rechts,  vol.  i.  p.  448  sq. 

2  Theod.  Cod.,  i.  4,  3;   Puchta,  in  the  Rhein.  Museum  f.  Jurisprud.,  vol.  v. 
(1832),  p.  141  517.,  and  Verm.  Schriften,  Leipsic,  1851,  p.  284  sq.  ;  Sanio,  Rechtshist. 
Abhanrll.  u.  Studien,  Konigsberg.  1S45,  p.  1  sq.  ;  Karlowa.  Rom.  Rechtsgesch., 
vol.  i.  p.  933  sq. 


tia)  of  those  earlier  writers  whose  treatises  and  statements  of  the 
law  the  aforesaid  five  have  imported  into  their  own  works,  — 
Scsevola,  for  example,  and  Sabinus,  and  Julian,  and  Marcellus,  —  and 
of  all  others  whom  they  have  been  in  the  habit  of  quoting  as  autho- 
rities (omniumque  quos  illi  celcbrarunt),  provided  always,  as  their 
antiquity  makes  them  uncertain,  that  the  texts  of  those  earlier 
jurists  are  verified  by  collation  of  manuscripts.  If  divergent  dicta 
be  adduced,  that  party  shall  prevail  who  has  the  greatest  number  of 
authorities  on  his  side  ;  if  the  number  on  each  side  be  the  same,  that 
one  shall  prevail  which  has  the  support  of  Papinian  ;  but,  whilst  he, 
most  excellent  of  them  all,  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  other  single 
authority,  he  must  yield  to  any  two.  [Paul's  and  Ulpian's  notes 
on  his  writings,  however,  as  already  enacted,  are  to  be  disregarded.  ] 
Where  opinions  are  equal,  and  none  entitled  to  preference,  we  leave 
it  to  the  discretion  of  the  judge  which  he  shall  adopt." 

This  constitution  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  signal  proof  of 
the  lamentable  condition  into  which  jurisprudence  had  sunk  in 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century.  Constantine,  a  hundred  years 
earlier,  had  condemned  the  notes  of  Ulpian  and  Paul  upon  Papin- 
ian. There  were  no  longer  any  living  jurists  to  lay  down  the  law 
(jura  conderc)  ;  and,  if  it  was  to  be  gathered  from  the  writings  of 
those  who  were  dead,  it  was  well  that  the  use  of  them  should  be 
regulated.  The  Valentinianiau  law  proceeded  so  far  in  the  same 
direction.  It  made  a  selection  of  the  jurisconsults  of  the  past 
whose  works  alone  were  to  be  allowed  to  be  cited,  —  Papinian,  Paul, 
Ulpian,  and  Modestine,  the  four  latest  patented  counsel  of  any 
distinction  ;  Gaius,  of  authority  previously  only  in  the  schools, 
but  whose  writings  were  now  approved  universally,  notwithstand- 
ing that  he  had  never  possessed  the  jus  respondendi  ;  and  all  the 
earlier  jurists  to  whom  those  five  had  accorded  their  imprimator. 
But  it  went  yet  a  step  further,  for  it  declared  all  of  them,  with  the 
sole  exception  of  Papinian,  to  be  of  the  same  authority,  and  de- 
graded the  function  of  the  judge  in  most  cases,  so  far  at  least  as  a 
question  of  law  was  concerned,  to  the  purely  arithmetical  task  of 
counting  up  the  names  which  the  industry  of  the  advocates  on 
either  side  had  succeeded  in  adducing  in  support  of  their  respective 
contentions.  It  is  probable  that,  from  the  days  of  Hadrian  down 
to  Alexander  Severus,  when  the  emperor  in  his  council  had  to  frame 
a  rescript  or  a  decree,  its  tenor  would  be  decided  by  the  vote  of  the 
majority;  but  that  was  after  argument  and  counter-  argument,. 
which  must  in  many  cases  have  modified  first  impressions.  Taking 
the  votes  of  dead  men,  who  had  not  heard  each  other's  reasons  for 
their  opinions,  was  a  very  different  process.  It  may  have  been 
necessary  ;  but  it  can  have  been  so  only  because  a  living  juris- 
prudence had  no  existence,  —  because  the  constructive  talent  of  the 
earlier  empire  had  entirely  disappeared. 


II. 


COLLECTIONS  OF  STATUTE  AND 
JURISPRUDENCE. 


The  Gregorian  and  Hermogenian  Codes.  —  The  first  of  these  Codes  Grego- 
was  a  collection  of  imperial  rescripts  (with  a  few  edicts,  &c.)  made  rian  and 
by  one  Gregorianus  in  the  very  end  of  the  3d  century,  and  probably  Hermo- 
at  the  instigation  of  Diocletian,  though  whether  in  the  East  or  the  genian 
West  critics  are  unable  to  decide.    The  collection  of  Hermogenianus,  Codes. 
also  of  rescripts,  seems  to  have  been  a  supplement  to  the  earlier 
one.   As  the  latest  enactment  in  it  belongs  to  the  year  365,  the  prob- 
ability is  that  the  collection  was  published  about  that  time.     Both 
Codes,  although  the  work  of  private  parties,  received  statutory  re- 
cognition from  Theodosius  and  Valentiniau  in  their  commission  for 
the  preparation  of  a  collection  of  edictal  law  ;  and  from  the  language 
of  Justinian  in  reference  to  them  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  in 
the  courts  they  were  regarded  as  authoritative,  even  to  the  ignoring 
of  all  rescripts  not  embodied  in  them. 

The  Theodosian  Code  and  Post-  Theodosian  Novels.  —  Three  years  Theodo- 
after  the  publication  of  the  "law  of  citations"  Theodosius  nomi-  sian  Code. 
nated  a  commission  to  initiate  the  preparation  of  a  body  of  law  which, 
if  his  scheme  had  been  carried  into  execution,  would  have  rendered 
that  of  Justinian  unnecessary.  In  a  constitution  some  ten  years 
later  he  explains  the  motives  that  had  actuated  him,  —  that  he  saw 
with  much  concern  the  poverty-stricken  condition  of  jurisprudence 
and  how  very  few  men  there  were  who,  notwithstanding  the  prizes 
that  awaited  them,  were  able  to  make  themselves  familiar  with  the 
whole  range  of  law  ;  and  that  he  attributed  it  very  much  to  the 
multitude  of  books  and  the  large  mass  of  statutes  through  which  it 
was  dispersed,  and  which  it  was  next  to  impossible  for  any  ordinary 
mortal  to  master.  His  scheme  was  eventually  to  compile  one  single 
code  from  materials  derived  alike  from  the  writings  of  the  jurists, 
the  Gregorian  and  Hermogenian  collections  of  rescripts,  and  the 
edictal  laws  from  the  time  of  Constantine  downwards.  His  lan- 
guage leaves  no  doubt  that  it  was  his  intention  to  have  this  general 
code  very  carefully  prepared,  so  as  to  make  it  a  complete  exponent 
of  the  law  in  force,  which  should  take  the  place  of  everything, 
statutory  or  jurisprudential,  of  an  earlier  date.  The  collection  of 
edicts  which  he  directed  his  commissioners  to  prepare,  and  which 
was  to  contain  all  that  had  not  been  displaced  by  later  legislation, 
even  though  some  of  them  might  be  obsolete  by  disuse,  was  to  be 


712 


ROMAN     LAW 


[CODIFICATION. 


the  first  step  in  the  execution  of  his  project.  For  some  reason  or 
other  nothing  followed  upon  this  enactment ;  and  in  435  a  new 
and  stronger  commission  was  nominated  to  collect  the  edicts,  but 
nothing  was  said  in  their  instructions  about  anything  ulterior.  The 
work  was  completed  in  three  years,  and  published  at  Constantinople 
early  in  the  year  488,  with  the  declaration  that  it  should  take 
effect  from  1st  January  following  ;  and  a  copy  was  communicated 
to  Valentinian,  who  ordained  that  it  should  come  into  force  in  the 
West  from  12th  January  439.  The  arrangement  is  in  sixteen  books, 
subdivided  into  titles,  in  which  the  constitutions  are  placed  in 
chronological  order.  They  cover  the  whole  field  of  law,  private 
and  public,  civil  and  criminal,  fiscal  and  municipal,  military  and 
ecclesiastical.  The  private  law  is  contained  in  the  first  five,  which 
unfortunately  are  very  defective.  The  imperial  edicts  subsequent 
to  the  publication  of  the  Code  got  the  name  of  Novels  (novellae 
constitutiones). 

ollatio.       The  CoUatio,  the   Vatican  Fragments,   and  the  Consultatio. — 
These  were  unofficial  collections.  The  first — CoUatio  Legum  Mosaica- 
rum  et  Jiomanarum,  otherwise  Lex  Dei  quam  Dominus  praecepit 
ad  Moysen — is  a  parallel  of  divine  and  human  law,  the  former  drawn 
from  the  Pentateuch  and  the  latter  from  the  writings  of  Gaius, 
Papinian,  Paul,  Ulpian,  and  Modestine,  rescripts  from  the  Gregorian 
and  Hermogenian  Codes,  and  one  or  two  later  general  enactments. 
Its  date  is  probably  about  the  year  390,  but  its  authorship  is  un- 
atican    known.    The  Vatican  Fragments  were  discovered  by  Mai  in  a  palim- 
rag-       psest  in  the  Vatican  in  1820, — evidently  part  of  a  book  of  practice 
.ents.     compiled  in  the  Western  empire,  and  of  very  considerable  dimensions. 
The  extant  fragments  deal  with  the  law  of  sale,  usufruct,  dowries, 
donations,  tutories,  and  processual  agency,  and  are  drawn  from  the 
writings  of  Papinian,  Ulpian,  and  Paul,  the  two  collections  of  re- 
scripts, and  a  few  general  enactments,  the  latest  dating  from  the  year 
372.   The  compilation,  therefore,  may  be  of  about  the  same  antiquity 
as  the  Collatio.     The  Consultatio  ( Veteris  cujusdam  Jiirisconsulti 
rasul-    Consultatio)  was  first  published  by  Cujas  in  1577.     It  seems  to  be 
.tio.        part  of  a  collection  of  answers  upon  questions  of  law  submitted  for 
the  opinion  of  counsel,  and  is  of  value,  for  the  fragments  it  contains 
from  Paul's  Sentences  and  the  three  Codes.     It  is  thought  to  have 
been  written  in  France  in  the  end  of  the  5th  or  beginning  of  the 
6th  century. 

omano-  The  Romano-Barbarian  Codes. — This  title  is  usually  applied  to 
trba-  three  collections  compiled  in  western  Europe  after  it  had  thrown 
in  off  the  sovereignty  of  Rome. 

ides.  1.   The  Edictum  Theodorici  was   compiled  at  the  instance  of 

Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  in  or  very  soon  after  the  year 
500.  Its  materials  were  drawn  from  the  writings  of  the  jurists — 
principally  the  Sentences  of  Paul — the  Gregorian,  Hermogenian, 
and  Theodosian  Codes,  and  the  later  Novels,  all  reduced  into  154 
sections,  with  no  systematic  arrangement,  but  touching  upon  all 
branches  of  the  law  public  and  private,  especially  criminal  law  and 
procedure.  It  was  professedly  intended  to  apply  to  all  Theodoric's 
subjects,  both  Goths  and  Romans. 

2.  The  Lex  Romana  Visigothorum  or  Breviarium  Alaricianum 
was  a  much  more  ambitious  and  important  collection.     It  was  com- 
piled by  a  commission  appointed  by  Alaric  II.,  king  of  the  Western 
Goths,  with  approval  of  the  bishops  and  nobles,  and  published  at 
Aire  in  Gascony  in  the  year  506.     The  compilers  selected  their 
material  partly  from  leges  (statute  law)  and  partly  from  jus  (juris- 
prudential  law),  taking  what  they  considered  appropriate,  without 
altering  the  text  except  in  the  way  of  excision  of  passages  that 
were  obsolete  or  purely  historical.    For  the  leges  they  utilized  some 
400  of  the  3400  enactments  (according  to  Haenel's  estimate)  of  the 
Theodosian  Code,  and  about  30  of  the  known  104  post-Theodosian 
Novels  ;   for  the  jus, — the  Institutes  of   Gaius,  Paul's  Sentences, 
the  Gregorian  and  Hermogenian  rescripts,   and  the  first  book  of 
Papinian's  Responses  (a   single   sentence).      All  of  these,   except 
Gaius,  were   accompanied  with   an    "interpretation,"   which  re- 
sembles the  interpretatio  of  the  XII.    Tables  in  that  it  is  often 
not  so  much  explanatory  of  the  text  as  qualificative  or  corrective. 
Gaius  is  contained  in  an  epitome  in  two  books,  believed  to  have 
been  only  a  reproduction  of  an  abridgment  already  current,  and 
dating  from  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century.    The  Breviary 
exercised  very  considerable  influence   in   Europe  generally;  and 
there  is  no  question  that,  until  the  rise  of  the  Bologna  school  in 
the  12th  century,  it  was  from  it,  rather  than  from  the  books  of 
Justinian,  that  western  Europe  acquired  its  scanty  knowledge  of 
Roman  law. 

3.  The  Lex  Romana  Burgundionum,  formerly,  owing  to  a  mistake 
of  a  transcriber,  called  Papianus,  is  the  collection  which  King 
Gundobald,  when  publishing  his  code  of  native  law  (Lex  Bur- 
gundionum or  Gundobada),  had  promised  should  be  prepared  for 
the  use  of  his  Roman  subjects.     It  deals  with  private  law,  criminal 
law,  and  judicial  procedure,  distributed  through  47  titles,  and  is 
arranged  very  much  after  the  order  of  the  Gundobada,  from  which 
it  has  a  few  extracts.     Its  statutory  Roman  sources  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  Breviary  ;  the  jurisprudential  authorities  referred 
to  are  Gaius  and  Paul,  the  latter  in  his  Sentences,  and  the  former 
(only  three  times  altogether)  in  some  other  book  than  his  Institutes. 


III.  THE  JUSTINIANIAN  LEGISLATION. 

Justinian's  Collections  and  his  own  Legislation. — It  is  Justin- 
unnecessary  to  revert  to  the  history  of  Justinian  outside  i 
his  legislative  achievements,  or  even  to  speak  of  his  collec- c. 
tions  in  detail,  for  both  have  already  been  described  in  lon' 
the  article  JUSTINIAN  I.  (vol.  xiii.  p.  792  sq.).  Am- 
bitious to  carry  out  a  reform  more  complete  even  than 
that  which  Theodosius  had  planned  but  failed  to  execute, 
he  took  the  first  step  towards  it  little  more  than  six  months 
after  the  death  of  his  uncle  Justin,  in  the  appointment  of 
a  commission  to  prepare  a  collection  of  statute  law  (leges), 
among  which  he  included  the  rescripts  of  the  Gregorian 
and  Hermogenian  Codes.  It  was  published  in  April  529; 
and  in  rapid  succession  there  followed  his  Fifty  Decisions 
(529-532),  his  Institutes  (21st  November  533),  his  Digest 
of  excerpts  from  the  writings  of  the  jurists  (16th  December 
533),  and  the  revised  edition  of  his  Code,  in  which  he  incor- 
porated his  own  legislation  down  to  date  (16th  November 
534).  From  that  time  down  to  his  death  in  565  there 
followed  a  series  of  Novels  (novellae  constitutiones),  mostly 
in  Greek,  which  were  never  officially  collected,  and  of  which 
probably  many  have  been  lost. 

Taking  his  enactments  in  the  Code  and  his  Novels  to-  His  ow 
gether  we  have  of  Justinian's  own  legislation  about  400  euact- 
constitutions.  Diocletian's  contributions  to  the  Code  are  m( 
about  three  times  as  numerous;  but  most  of  them  professed 
to  be  nothing  more  than  short  declaratory  statements  of 
pre-existing  law,  whereas  Justinian's,  apart  from  his  Fifty 
Decisions,  were  all  reformatory  enactments,  many  of  them 
as  long  as  an  average  Act  of  Parliament,  and  dealing  with 
diverse  matters  under  the  same  rubric.  They  cover  the 
whole  field  of  law,  public  and  private,  civil  and  criminal, 
secular  and  ecclesiastical.  It  cannot  be  said  that  they 
afford  pleasant  reading :  they  are  so  disfigured  by  redun- 
dancy of  language,  involved  periods,  and  nauseous  self- 
glorification.  But  it  cannot  be  denied  that  many  of  those 
which  deal  with  the  private  law  embody  reforms  of  the 
highest  importance  and  of  most  salutary  tendency.  He 
sometimes  loved  to  pose  as  the  champion  of  the  simplicity 
and  evenhandedness  of  the  early  law,  at  others  to  denounce 
it  for  its  subtleties ;  sometimes  he  allowed  himself  to  be 
influenced  by  his  own  extreme  asceticism,  and  now  and 
again  we  detect  traces  of  subservience  to  the  imperious 
will  of  his  consort ;  but  in  the  main  his  legislation  was 
dictated  by  what  he  was  pleased  to  call  humanitas  so  far 
as  the  law  of  persons  was  concerned,  and  by  naturalis  ratio 
and  public  utility  so  far  as  concerned  that  of  things.  The 
result  was  the  eradication  of  almost  every  trace  of  the  old 
jus  Quiritium,  and  the  substitution  for  it,  under  the  name 
of  jus  Romanum,  of  that  cosmopolitan  body  of  law  which 
has  contributed  so  largely  to  almost  every  modern  system. 

Amendments  on  the  Law  of  the  Family. — With  the  Christian  Law  of 
emperors  the  last  traces  disappeared  of  the  old  conception  of  the  family 
familia  as  an  aggregate  of  persons  and  estate  subject  absolutely  to  relatior 
the  power  and  dominion  of  its  head.  Manus,  the  power  in  a  hus- 
band over  his  wife  and  her  belongings,  was  a  thing  of  the  past ; 
both  stood  now  on  a  footing  of  equality  before  the  law ;  perhaps 
it  might  be  more  accurate  to  say,  at  least  with  reference  to  the 
Justinianian  legislation,  that  the  wife  was  the  more  privileged  of 
the  two  in  respect  both  of  the  protection  and  the  indulgence  the  law 
accorded  her.  With  manus  the  old  confarreation  and  coemption 
had  ceased,  marriage  needing  nothing  more  than  simple  interchange 
of  consent,  except  as  between  persons  of  rank  or  when  the  inten- 
tion was  to  legitimate  previous  issue  ;  in  the  latter  case  a  written 
marriage  settlement  was  required,  and  in  the  former  either  such  a 
settlement  or  a  marriage  in  church  before  the  bishop  and  at  least 
three  clerical  witnesses,  who  granted  and  signed  a  certificate  of  the 
completed  union.  The  legislation  of  the  Christian  emperors  on  the 
subject  of  divorce,  largely  contributed  to  by  Justinian  in  his  Novels, 
has  already  been  referred  to.  In  regard  to  dowries  many  new  pro- 
visions were  introduced,  principally  for  curtailing  the  husband's 
power  of  dealing  with  the  dowry  while  the  marriage  Tasted,  enlarging 
the  right  of  the  wife  and  her  heirs  in  respect  of  it,  and  simplifying 


CODIFICATION.] 


ROMAN     LAW 


713 


the  means  of  recovering  it  from  the  husband  or  his  heirs  when 
the  marriage  was  dissolved.  Between  the  time  of  Constantino  and 
that  of  Theodosius  and  Valentinian  it  had  become  the  practice  for 
a  man  to  make  a  settlement  on  his  intended  wife  of  a  provision 
which  was  to  remain  his  property  (but  without  the  power  of  aliena- 
tion) during  the  marriage,  but  to  pass  to  her  on  his  predecease  ;  it 
got  the  name  of  donatio  ante  nuptias  or  sometimes,  as  being  a  sort 
of  return  for  the  dos,  antipherna.  The  earliest  legislation  about  it 
was  by  the  last -mentioned  emperors;  Zeno  and  Justin  followed 
suit ;  and  Justinian,  in  Code  and  Novels,  published  five  or  six  enact- 
ments for  its  regulation.  The  general  result  was  that,  wherever  a 
dos  was  given  or  promised  on  the  part  of  the  wife,  there  a  donatio 
was  to  be  constituted  on  the  part  of  the  husband  ;  that,  if  one  was 
increased  during  the  marriage,  a  corresponding  increase  was  to  be 
made  to  the  other  ;  that  it  might  be  constituted  after  the  marriage 
without  infringing  the  rule  prohibiting  donations  between  husband 
and  wife,  which  caused  Justinian  to  change  its  name  to  donatio 
propter  nuptias ;  that  the  wife  might  demand  its  transfer  to  her 
(as  she  could  that  of  the  dos)  on  her  husband's  insolvency,  but 
under  obligation  to  apply  its  income  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
family ;  and  that  on  the  dissolution  of  the  marriage  by  her  hus- 
band's death  or  by  a  divorce  for  which  he  was  in  fault  she  had 
ample  remedies  for  reducing  it  into  possession. 

The  change  in  the  complexion  of  the  relations  between  husband 
and  wife  under  the  Christian  emperors,  however,  was  insignificant 
when  compared  with  that  which  had  overtaken  the  relation  between 
parent  and  child.  Justinian  in  his  Institutes  reproduces  the  boast 
of  Gaius  that  nowhere  else  had  a  father  such  power  over  his  children 
as  was  exercised  by  a  Roman  paterfamilias.  True  it  is  that  the 
patria  potestas  in  name  still  held  a  prominent  place  in  the  Justin- 
ianian  collections;  but  it  had  been  shorn  of  most  of  the  prerogatives 
that  had  characterized  it  in  the  republic.  To  expose  a  new-born 
child  was  forbidden  under  penalties.  To  take  the  life  of  a  grown- 
up one — unless  it  was  a  daughter  slain  with  her  paramour  in  the 
act  of  adultery — was  murder  ;  for  the  domestic  tribunal,  with  the 
judicial  power  of  life  and  death  in  the  paterfamilias  as  its  head, 
had  long  disappeared.  For  the  same  reason  a  parent  could  no 
longer  sell  his  child  as  a  slave,  at  least  he  could  do  so  only  when 
the  child  was  an  infant  and  he  in  such  extreme  poverty  as  to  be 
unable  to  support  it.  Even  the  right  to  make  a  noxal  surrender 
of  his  son  to  a  party  who  had  suffered  from  the  latter's  delict  had 
silently  become  obsolete ;  so  greatly  had  altered  sentiment,  in 
sympathy  with  legislation,  curtailed  the  power  of  the  paterfamilias 
over  those  in  his  potestas.  All  that  remained  of  it  in  the  latest 
Justinianian  law  was  no  more  than  is  sanctioned  in  most  modern 
systems  as  natural  emanations  of  the  paternal  relationship, — the 
rights  of  moderate  chastisement  for  offence,  of  testamentary  nomina- 
tion of  guardians,  of  pupilary  substitution  (enlarged  by  Justinian), 
and  of  withholding  consent  from  the  marriage  of  a  child,  but  subject 
to  magisterial  intervention  if  used  unreasonably. 

How  the  right  of  the  paterfamilias  over  the  earnings  and  acquisi- 
tions of  his  children  was  modified  by  the  recognition  of  ihepeculium 
castrense  has  been  shown  in  a  previous  page  (p.  706).  But  the 
modification  was  carried  to  such  an  extent  by  the  Christian  em- 
perors as  finally  to  negative  the  father's  ownership  altogether, 
except  as  regarded  acquisitions  that  were  the  outcome  of  funds 
advanced  by  him  to  his  child  for  his  separate  use  (peculium  pro- 
fecticium).  Of  some  of  the  child's  acquisitions  his  father  had, 
down  to  the  time  of  Justinian,  the  life  interest  and  right  of  ad- 
ministration ;  but  by  his  legislation  even  these  might  be  excluded 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  parties  from  whom  the  acquisitions  had  been 
derived.  By  the  classical  law  the  father's  radical  right  in  his  son's 
peculium  castrense  revived  on  the  latter's  death  ;  for  if  he  died 
intestate  the  former  appropriated  it  not  as  his  son's  heir,  but  as 
an  owner  whose  powers  as  such  had  been  merely  temporarily  sus- 
pended. But  by  one  of  the  chapters  in  the  famous  Novel  on  the 
law  of  intestate  succession  even  this  prerogative  of  the  paterfamilias 
was  abolished,  and  all  a  child's  belongings  except  his  peculium 
profecticium  were  recognized  as  his  own  in  death  as  well  as  in  life, 
so  that  if  any  of  them  should  pass  to  his  parent  on  his  intestacy 
it  should  only  be  by  title  of  inheritance  and  in  the  absence  of 
descendants. 

In  every  other  branch  of  the  law  of  the  family  the  same  reform- 
ing spirit  was  manifested.  Adoption  was  no  longer  followed  in  all 
cases  by  a  change  of  family  for  the  adoptee,  but  only  when  the 
adopter  was  in  fact  one  of  his  parents,  such  as  a  paternal  or  maternal 
grandfather, — when  there  was  a  natural  potestas  to  underlie  and 
justify  the  civil  one.  The  modes  of  legitimation  of  children  born 
out  of  wedlock,  especially  that  by  subsequent  marriage  of  the 
parents,  first  introduced  by  Constantine,  were  regulated,  and  the 
extent  of  the  rights  of  the  legitimated  issue  carefully  defined. 
Emancipation  was  simplified,  and  the  old  procedure  by  sales  and 
manumissions,  which  degraded  the  child  too  much  to  the  level  of 
a  slave,  dispensed  with.  Tutory  at  law  was  opened  to  the  pupil's 
nearest  kinsman,  whether  on  the  father's  side  or  the  mother's  ;  and 
the  mother  herself,  or  the  child's  grandmother,  might  be  allowed, 
under  certain  conditions,  to  act  as  its  guardian.  Slavery  was  often 


converted  into  the  milder  condition  of  colonate ;  but,  even  where 
this  did  not  happen,  the  rights  of  owners  were  not  allowed  to 
be  abused ;  for  slaves  were  permitted  to  claim  the  protection  of 
the  magistrate,  and  cruelty  by  a  master  might  result  in  his  being 
deprived  of  his  human  property.  Kinship  that  had  arisen  between 
two  persons  when  one  or  both  were  slaves  (servilis  cognatio}  was 
recognized  as  creative  not  only  of  disabilities  but  of  rights.  The 
modes  of  manumission  were  multiplied,  and  the  restrictions  of  the 
legislation  of  the  early  empire  abolished  ;  and  a  freedman  invari- 
ably became  a  citizen,  Junian  Latinity  and  dediticiancy  being  no 
longer  recognized. 

Amendments  on  the  Law  of  Property  and  Obligation. — In  the  law  Law  of 
of  property  the  principal  changes  of  the  Christian  empire  were  the  property, 
simplification  of  the  forms  of  conveyance,  the  extension  of  the 
colonate,  the  introduction  and  regulation  of  emphyteusis,  and  the 
remodelling  of  the  law  of  prescription.  Simplification  of  the  forms 
of  conveyance  was  necessary  only  in  the  case  of  res  mancipi,  for  res 
nee  mancipi  had  always  passed  by  delivery.  From  the  Theodosian 
Code  it  is  apparent  that  movable  res  mancipi  usually  passed  in  the 
same  way  from  very  early  in  the  period,  and  that  for  the  mancipa- 
tion of  lands  and  houses  (for  in  jure  cessio  had  disappeared  with 
the  formular  system)  a  solemnis  traditio,  a  written  instrument  and 
delivery  following  thereon,  and  both  before  witnesses,  was  gradu- 
ally substituted.  Of  this  there  is  no  trace  in  the  Justinianian  Code. 
For  Justinian  abolished  all  remains  of  the  distinction  between  res 
mancipi  and  res  nee  mancipi,  between  full  ownership,  bonitarian 
ownership,  and  nudum  jus  Quiritium,  placing  movables  and  im- 
movables on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality  so  far  as  their  direct  con- 
veyance was  concerned.  But,  as  regarded  the  possession  required  of 
an  alienee  to  cure  any  defect  in  the  conveyance,  he  made  a  marked 
difference  between  them.  For,  amalgamating  the  old  positive  usu- 
capion  of  the  jus  civile  with  .the  negative  "prolonged  possession" 
(longi  temporis  posscssio)  that  had  been  introduced  in  the  provinces 
(probably  by  the  provincial  edict),  he  declared  that  possession  on  a 
sufficient  title  and  in  good  faith  should  in  future  make  the  possessor 
legal  owner  of  the  thing  possessed  by  him,  provided  that  the  posses- 
sion of  himself  and  his  author  had  endured  uninterruptedly  for  three 
years  in  the  case  of  a  movable,  and  in  the  case  of  an  immovable  for 
ten  years  if  the  party  against  whom  he  possessed  was  resident  in 
the  same  province,  or  for  twenty  if  he  resided  in  another  one. 

The  same  causes  that  led  to  the  colonate  induced  the  introduc-  Emphy- 
tion  of  emphyteusis,1 — an  institution  which  had  already  existed  in  teusis. 
some  of  the  Eastern  provinces  when  independent,  and  which  came 
to  be  utilized  first  by  the  emperors,  then  by  the  church,  and  after- 
wards by  municipalities  and  private  landowners,  for  bringing  into 
cultivation  the  large  tracts  of  provincial  land  belonging  to  them 
which  were  unproductive  and  unprofitable  through  want  of  super- 
vision on  the  spot.  Its  nature  and  conditions  were  carefully  de- 
fined by  Zeno  and  amended  by  Justinian.  The  emphyteuta,  as  the 
grantee  of  the  right  was  called,  did  not  become  owner  ;  the  granter 
still  remained  dominus,  all  that  the  grantee  enjoyed  being  a  jus  in 
re  aliena,  but  de  facto  so  extensive  as  hardly  to  be  distinguishable 
from  ownership.  It  conferred  upon  him  and  his  heirs  a  perpetual 
right  in  the  lands  included  in  the  grant,  in  consideration  of  a  fixed 
annual  payment  to  the  lord  (canon)  and  due  observance  of  conven- 
tional and  statutory  conditions ;  but  he  was  not  entitled  to  abandon 
it,  nor  able  to  free  himself  of  the  obligations  he  had  undertaken, 
without  the  lord's  consent.  The  latter  was  entitled  to  hold  the 
grant  forfeited  if  the  canon  fell  into  arrear  for  three  years  (in  church 
lands  for  two),  or  if  the  land-tax  was  in  arrear  for  the  same  period, 
or  if  the  emphyteuta  allowed  the  lands  to  deteriorate,  or  if  he  at- 
tempted to  alienate  them  (alienare  meliorations ,  as  the  text  says) 
without  observance  of  statutory  requirements.  These  were  that  he 
should  intimate  an  intended  alienation  and  the  name  of  the  intended 
alienee  to  the  lord,  so  that  the  latter,  before  giving  his  assent, 
might  satisfy  himself  that  he  would  not  be  a  loser  by  the  transac- 
tion ;  and,  if  the  alienation  was  to  be  by  sale,  he  had  to  state  the 
price  fixed,  so  as  to  give  the  lord  the  opportunity  of  exercising  his 
statutory  right  of  pre-emption  at  the  same  figure.  If  those  require- 
ments were  complied  with,  and  the  lord  had  no  reasonable  objection 
to  the  proposed  alienee,  he  was  not  entitled  to  resist  the  alienation, 
provided  a  payment  (laudemium)  was  made  to  him  of  two  per  cent, 
of  the  sale-price  in  consideration  of  his  enforced  consent. 

The  changes  in  the  law  of  obligation  were  more  superficial  than 
those  in  the  law  of  property,  and  consisted  principally  in  the  simpli- 
fication of  formalities  and  in  some  cases  in  their  entire  abolition. 
To  describe  them,  however,  would  carry  us  into  details  which 
would  here  be  out  of  place. 

Amendments  on  the  Law  of  Succession. — The  changes  made  in  the  Testa- 
law  of  succession  by  Justinian's  Christian  predecessors,  especially  mentary 
Theodosius  II.  and  Anastasius,  were  far  from  insignificant ;  but  succes- 
his  own  were  in  some  directions  positively  revolutionary.     The  sion. 
testament  per  aes  et  libram  of  the  jus  civile  probably  never  obtained 
any  firm  footing  in  the  East ;  for  it  was  only  by  Caracalla's  con- 

1  See  Elia  Lattes,  Stitdi  storici  sopra  il  Contralto  cFEnfiteusi  nelle  sue  relazioni 
col  Colonato,  Turin,  1868,  chaps.  1  and  3  ;  and  FranQois,  De  V  Emphyteose,  Paris, 
1883. 

XX.  —  90 


714 


ROMAN     LAW 


[CODIFICATION. 


stitution  conferring  citizenship  on  all  his  free  subjects  that  pro- 
vincials generally  acquired  tcstamenti  factio  ;  and  by  that  time  a 
testament  bearing  externally  the  requisite  number  of  seals  had  been 
recognized  as  sufficient  for  a  grant  of  bonorum  possessio,  unchallenge- 
able by  the  heirs-at-law,  even  though  they  were  able  to  prove  that 
neither  familiae  mancipatio  nor  tcstamenti  nuncupatio  nad  inter- 
vened. Hence  the  universal  adoption  of  what  Justinian  calls  the 
prsetorian  testament,  which,  however,  underwent  considerable  re- 
form at  the  hands  of  the  emperors,  notably  in  the  requirement  (in 
the  ordinary  case)  of  signature  by  the  testator  and  subscription  by 
the  witnesses.  There  was  much  hesitating  legislation  on  the  subject 
before  the  law  was  finally  established  as  it  stairds  in  the  Justinianian 
books  ;  and  even  at  the  last  we  find  it  encumbered  with  many  ex- 
ceptions and  reservations  in  favour  of  testaments  that  were  merely 
deeds  of  division  by  a  parent  among  his  children,  testaments  made 
in  time  of  plague,  testaments  recorded  in  books  of  court,  testaments 
entrusted  to  the  safe-keeping  of  the  emperor,  and  so  forth.  Codicils 
had  become  deeds  of  such  importance  as,  in  the  absence  of  a  testa- 
ment, to  be  dealt  with  as  imposing  a  trust  on  the  heir-at-law  ;  it 
was  therefore  thought  expedient  to  deny  effect  to  them  unless 
attested  by  at  least  five  witnesses.  And  a  most  important  step  in 
advance  was  taken  by  Justinian  in  the  recognition  of  the  validity 
of  an  oral  mortis  causa  trust ;  for  he  declared  that,  if  it  should  be 
represented  to  a  competent  judge  that  a  person  on  his  deathbed  had 
by  word  of  mouth  directed  his  heir-at-law  to  give  something  to  the 
complainant,  the  heir  should  be  required  either  on  his  oath  to  deny 
the  averment  or  to  give  or  pay  what  was  claimed. 

In  the  matter  of  intestacy  there  was  long  a  halting  between  two 
opinions, — a  desire  still  further  to  amend  the  law  in  the  direction 
taken  by  the  praetors  and  by  the  legislature  in  the  Tertullian  and 
Orphitian  senatusconsults,  and  yet  a  hesitancy  about  breaking 
altogether  from  the  time-hallowed  principle  of  agnation.  Justinian 
in  his  Code  went  far  beyond  his  predecessors,  making  a  mother's 
right  of  succession  independent  altogether  of  the  jus  liberorum  ; 
extending  that  of  a  daughter  or  sister  to  her  descendants,  without 
any  deduction  in  favour  of  agnates  thus  excluded ;  admitting 
emancipated  collaterals  and  their  descendants  as  freely  as  if  there 
had  been  no  capitis  deminutio  minima  ;  applying  to  agnates  the 
same  successio  graduum  that  the  praetors  had  allowed  to  cognates, 
and  so  forth.  But  it  was  by  his  Novels,  especially  the  118th  and 
127th,  that  he  revolutionized  the  system,  by  eradicating  agnation 
altogether  and  settling  the  canons  of  descent — which  were  the 
same  for  real  and  personal  estate — solely  on  the  basis  of  blood  kin- 
ship, whether  through  males  or  females,  and  whether  crossed  or 
not  by  a  capitis  deminutio.  First  came  descendants  of  the  intestate, 
male  and  female  alike,  taking  per  capita  if  all  were  of  the  same 
degree,  per  stirpes  if  of  different  degrees.  Failing  descendants,  the 
succession  passed  to  the  nearest  ascendants,  and,  concurrently  with 
them,  to  brothers  and  sisters  of  full  blood  and  (by  Nov.  127)  the 
children  of  any  that  had  predeceased.  Where  there  were  ascend- 
ants alone,  one-half  of  the  succession  went  to  the  paternal  line 
and  one-half  to  the  maternal ;  where  there  were  ascendants  and 
brothers  and  sisters,  or  only  brothers  and  sisters,  the  division 
was  made  equally  per  capita  ;  when  children  of  a  deceased  brother 
or  sister  participated  it  was  per  stirpes.  In  the  third  class  came 
brothers  and  sisters  of  half-blood  or  by  adoption  and  their  children  ; 
the  division  here  was  on  the  same  principle  as  in  the  second  class. 
The  fourth  class  included  all  other  collaterals  according  to  pro- 
pinquity, and  without  distinction  between  full  and  half  blood  ; 
the  primary  division  was  per  stirpes,  but  all  of  the  same  degree 
took  per  capita. 

A  reform  effected  by  Justinian  by  his  115th  Novel  ought  not  to 

Sass  unnoticed  ;  for  it  rendered  superfluous  all  the  old  rules  about 
isherison  and  praeterition  of  a  testator's  children,  practically 
abolished  bonorum  possessio  contra  tabulas,  and  established  the 
principle  that  a  child  had,  as  a  general  rule,  an  inherent  and  inde- 
feasible right  to  be  one  of  his  father's  heirs  in  a  certain  share  at  all 
events  of  his  succession,  and  that  a  parent  had  the  same  right  in 
the  succession  of  his  child  if  the  latter  had  died  without  issue. 
The  enactment  enumerated  certain  grounds  upon  which  alone  it 
should  be  lawful  for  a  parent  to  disinherit  his  child  or  a  child  his 
parent,  declaring  that  in  every  case  of  disherison  the  reason  of  it 
should  be  stated  in  the  testament,  but  giving  leave  to  the  person 
disinherited  to  dispute  and  disprove  the  facts  when  the  testament 
was  opened.  If  a  child  who  had  not  been  disinherited — and  one 
improperly  disinherited  was  eventually  in  the  same  position — was 
not  instituted  to  at  least  his  "  legitinx"  (legitima  or  debita  portio), 
he  was  entitled  to  have  the  testament  declared  null  in  so  far  as  the 
institutions  in  it  were  concerned,  thus  opening  the  succession  to 
himself  and  the  other  heirs-at-law,  but  without  affecting  the  minor 
provisions,  such  as  bequests,  nominations  of  tutors,  &c.  The 
legitim,  which  under  the  practice  of  the  centumviral  court  had 
been  one-fourth  of  the  share  to  which  the  child  would  have  been 
entitled  ab  intestato,  was  raised  by  Justinian  to  one-third  at  least, 
and  one-half  where  there  were  five  or  more  entitled  to  participate. 
He  did  not  allow  challenge  of  the  will  to  be  excluded,  as  in  the 
earlier  querela  inofficiosi  testamenti,  because  the  testator  had  made 


advances  to  his  child  during  his  life  or  left  him  a  legacy  which 
quantitatively  equalled  the  legitim  ;  his  idea  was  that  a  child  was 
entitled  to  recognition  by  his  parent  as  one  of  his  heirs,  and  that 
to  deny  him  that  position  was  to  put  upon  him  an  indignity  which 
the  law  would  not  permit. 

Amongst  the  other  beneficial  changes  effected  by  Justinian  may  other 
be  mentioned  the  assimilation  so  far  as  possible  of  hcrcditas  and  diang. 
bonorum  possessio,  so  that  the  latter  might  be  taken  like  the  former 
without  formal  petition  for  a  grant  of  it ;  the  equiparation  of 
legacies  and  singular  trust-gifts,  and  the  application  of  some  of 
their  rules  to  mortis  causa  donations  ;  the  extension  of  the  rule  of 
"transmission"  to  every  heir  without  exception,  so  that,  if  he 
died  within  the  time  allowed  him  for  considering  whether  or  not 
he  would  accept  (tempus  deliberandi),  his  power  of  acceptance  or 
declinature  passed  to  his  heirs,  to  be  exercised  by  them  within 
what  remained  of  the  period  ;  the  introduction  of  entry  under 
inventory  (cum  bencficio  inventarii),  which  limited  the  heir's  re- 
sponsibilities and  rendered  unnecessary  the  nine  or  twelve  months 
of  deliberation  ;  and  the  application  of  the  principle  of  collation 
to  descendants  generally,  so  that  they  were  bound  to  throw  into 
the  mass  of  the  succession  before  its  partition  every  advance  they 
had  received  from  their  parent  in  anticipation  of  their  shares. 

IV.  THE  JUSTINIANIAN  LAW-BOOKS. 

Their  Use  in  the  Courts  and  in  the  Schools. — Although  the  Insti-  Justii 
tutes  were  primarily  intended  to  serve  as  a  text-book  in  the  schools,  ianiai 
it  was  expressly  declared  that  they  and  the  Digest  and  the  Code  law- 
should  be  regarded  as  just  so  many  parts  of  one  great  piece  of  books 
legislation  and  all  of  equal  authority,  and  that,  although  Digest 
and  Code  were  but  collections  of  legislation  and  doctrine  that  had 
proceeded  originally  from  many  different  hands,  yet  they  were  to 
be  treated  with  the  same  respect  as  if  they  had  been  the  work  of 
Justinian  himself.  But,  while  everything  within  them  was  to  be 
held  as  law,  nothing  outside  them  was  to  be  looked  at,  not  even 
the  volumes  from  which  they  had  been  collected  ;  and  so  far  did 
this  go  that,  after  the  publication  of  the  revised  Code,  neither  the 
first  edition  of  it  nor  the  Fifty  Decisions  were  allowed  to  be  referred 
to.  If  a  case  arose  for  which  no  precedent  was  to  be  found,  the 
emperor  was  to  be  resorted  to  for  its  decision,  as  being  outside  his 
collections  the  only  fountain  of  the  law.  To  preserve  the  purity 
of  the  texts  Justinian  forbade  the  use  of  conventional  abbreviations 
(sigla)  in  making  transcripts,  visiting  an  offender  with  the  penalties 
of  falsification  (crimen  falsi).  Literal  translations  into  Greek  were 
authorized,  and  indeed  were  very  necessary  for  many  of  his  subjects ; 
so  were  irapdrirXa  or  summaries  of  the  contents  of  individual  titles 
(although  the  jurists  read  the  word  less  strictly).  Commentaries 
and  general  summaries  were  forbidden  under  heavy  penalties,  as 
an  interference  with  the  imperial  prerogative  of  interpretation ;  but 
the  prohibition  does  not  seem  to  have  been  enforced,  as  we  have 
accounts  and  remains  not  only  of  translations  but  of  comment- 
aries, notes,  abridgments,  excerpts,  and  general  summaries  even 
in  Justinian's  lifetime.  These,  it  is  true,  were  mostly  by  professors 
(antecessores),  and  their  productions  may  have  been  intended  pri- 
marily for  educational  purposes  ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
they  soon  passed  into  the  nands  of  the  practitioners  and  were  used 
without  scruple  in  the  courts.  A  Greek  Paraphrase  of  the  Insti- 
tutes, usually  attributed  to  Theophilus,  a  professor  in  Constantinople 
and  one  of  Justinian's  commissioners,  is  commonly  supposed  to  have 
been  used  by  him  in  his  prelections.  It  embodies  much  more  his- 
torical matter  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  Institutes ;  but  its  value 
has  been  very  differently  rated  by  different  critics.  Its  latest  editor, 
Ferrini,  who  puts  a  high  estimate  on  it,  is  of  opinion  that  the 
original  of  it  was  a  paraphrase  of  Gains,  which  was  remodelled 
after  the  plan  of  Justinian's  Institutes,  and  had  their  new  matter 
incorporated  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  the  altered  conditions  ;  but  he 
doubts  if  there  be  any  sufficient  authority  for  ascribing  it  to  Theo- 
philus. If  he  be  right  in  assuming  that  it  was  really  a  redaction  of 
Gaius,  the  historical  explanations  will  bejreceived  with  all  the  more 
confidence. 

Fate  of  the  Justinianian  Books  in  the  East. — The  literary  work 
indicated  in  the  preceding  section  was  continued  throughout  the  6th  fate  i 
century.  But  tlie  next  three  were  comparatively  barren,  the  only 
thing  worth  noting  being  the  'EicXo-yr;  TUV  t>6/j.uv  tv  ffwr6/ju^  yevo/j^vrj 
of  Leo  the  Isaurian  in  740,  professedly  an  abstract  of  the  whole 
Justinianian  law  amended  and  rearranged  ;  but  it  was  repealed 
by  Basil  the  Macedonian  on  account  of  its  imperfections  and  its 
audacious  departure  from  the  law  it  pretended  to  summarize.  The 
last-named  emperor,  with  his  son  Leo  the  Philosopher,  set  them- 
selves in  the  end  of  the  9th  and  beginning  «f  the  10th  centuries  to 
the  production  of  an  authoritative  Greek  version  of  the  whole  of 
the  Justinianian  collections  and  legislation,  omitting  what  had  be- 
come obsolete,  excising  redundancies,  and  introducing  such  of  the 
post-Justinianian  legislation  as  merited  preservation.  The  result 
was  the  Basilica  (TA  Bacn\u«i,  i.e.,  v6fjufj.a),  which  was  completed  in 
the  reign  of  Leo,  though  probably  issued  in  a  preparatory  stage  in 
the  reign  of  Basil,  who  also  published  a  sort  of  institutional  work, 
the  Hp6xftpo"i  which  was  revised  and  republished  by  Leo  under 


R  O  M  — R  0  M 


715 


the  name  of  ''EiravayujT)  rov  vb^ov.  The  Basilica  consists  of  sixty 
books,  subdivided  into  titles,  following  generally  the  plan  of  the 
Justinianian  Code,  but  with  the  whole  law  on  any  particular  sub- 
ject arranged  consecutively,  whether  from  Digest,  Code,  or  Novels 
(see  BASILICA,  vol.  iii.  p.  419).  Leo's  son,  Constantinus  Porphyro- 
genitus,  made  an  addition  to  it  in  the  shape  of  an  official  com- 
mentary collected  from  the  writings  of  the  6th-century  jurists,  the 
so-called  Hapdypa<f>ai  r&v  ira\a.iui>,  which  is  now  spoken  of  as  the 
scholia  to  the  Basilica,  and  has  done  good  exegetical  service  for 
modern  civilians.  The  Basilica  retained  its  statutory  authority 
until  the  fall  of  the  Byzantine  empire  in  1453.  But  long  before 
that  it  had  practically  been  abandoned  ;  and  not  a  single  complete 
copy  of  it  exists.  Its  place  was  taken  by  epitomes  and  compendia, 
the  last  being  the  E£d/3i/3\oj  of  Constantinus  Harmenopulus  of  1345, 
"a  miserable  epitome  of  the  epitomes  of  epitomes,"  as  Bruns  calls 
it,  which  survived  the  vicissitudes  of  the  centuries,  and  finally 
received  statutory  authority  in  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece  in 
the  year  1835,  in  place  of  the  Basilica,  which  had  been  sanctioned 
thirteen  years  before,  in  1822. 

jir  Their  Fate  in  the  West.  — Before  the  rise  of  the  Bologna  school 

e  in  it  was  to  a  much  greater  extent  from  the  Romano-barbarian  codes 
West,  than  from  the  books  of  Justinian  that  central  and  western  Europe 
derived  their  acquaintance  with  Roman  law.  Theodoric's  Edict 
can  have  had  little  influence  after  Justinian's  recovery  of  Italy, 
and  the  Romano-Burgundian  law  was  no  doubt  gradually  displaced 
by  the  Breviary  (Lex  Rom.  Visigothorum)  after  Burgundy  had  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  Franks  ;  but  the  Breviary  itself  found  its  way 
in  all  directions  in  France  and  Germany,  penetrating  even  into 
England,  to  a  great  extent  through  the  agency  of  the  church. 
There  must,  however,  have  been  other  repertories  of  Roman  law 
in  circulation,  as  witness  a  testament  made  in  Paris  in  the  end 
of  the  7th  century,  preserved  by  Mabillon,  in  which  the  testator 
uses  the  old  formula  of  ihejus  civile, — "ita  do,  ita  lego,  ita  tester, 
ita  vos  Quirites  testimonium  mihi  perhibetote," — words  that  are 
not  to  be  found  either  in  the  Visigothic  or  the  Justinianian 
collections. 

In  his  pragmatic  sanction  of  the  year  554  Justinian  anew 
accorded  his  imperial  sanction  to  the  jura  and  leges,  i.e.,  the  Digest 
and  Code,  which  he  says  he  had  long  before  transmitted  to  Italy, 
at  the  same  time  declaring  that  his  Novels  were  to  be  of  the  same 
authority  there  as  in  the  East.  Two  years  after  this  came  Julian's 
Latin  epitome  of  them,  not  improbably  prepared  by  command  of 
the  emperor  himself.  That  they  all  came  at  once  to  some  extent 
into  use  is  beyond  question  ;  for  there  is  preserved  in  Marini's 
collection  the  testament  of  one  Mannanes,  executed  at  Ravenna  in 
the  reign  of  Justinian's  immediate  successor  Justin  II.,  in  which 
the  requirements  of  both  Code  and  Novels  are  scrupulously  observed. 
Of  other  monuments  of  the  same  period  that  prove  the  currency  of 
the  Justinianian  law  in  Italy  several  are  referred  to  by  Savigny  in 
the  second  volume  of  his  History  of  the  Roman  Law  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Turin  gloss  of  the  In- 
stitutes, which  Fitting  ascribes  to  about  the  year  545,  and  two  little 
pieces  known  as  the  Dictatum  de  consiliariis  and  the  Collectio  de 
tutoribus,  which  form  an  appendix  to  some  manuscripts  of  Julian's 
epitome  of  the  Novels,  and  may  possibly  have  been  from  his  pen. 
The  invasion  of  the  Lombards,  the  disturbance  they  caused  in  Italy 
for  two  centuries,  and  the  barrier  they  formed  between  it  and  the  rest 
of  Europe  militated  against  the  spread  of  the  Justinianian  law  north- 
wards ;  but  it  was  taught  without  much  interruption  in  Ravenna, 
the  scat  of  the  exarchs;  to  which  (but  this  is  doubtful)  the  school 
(studium]  of  Rome,  revived  by  Justinian,  is  said  to  have  been  trans- 
ferred. By  the  Lombards,  as  their  savagery  toned  down,  the  Roman 


law  was  so  far  recognized  that  they  allowed  it  to  be  applied  to  the 
Romans  living  within  their  territory ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  even 
been  taught  in  Pavia,  which  they  had  established  as  their  capital. 
Their  overthrow  by  Charlemagne  opened  an  outlet  for  it  beyond 
Italy ;  and  in  the  9th  century  there  is  evidence  that  the  Justinian- 
ian books  or  some  of  them  were  already  circulating  in  the  hands 
of  the  clergy  in  various  parts  of  Europe.  Yet  there  are  very  few 
remains  of  any  literature  indicating  much  acquaintance  with  them. 
Almost  the  only  pieces  worth  mentioning  are  the  so-called  Summa 
Perusina,  an  abridgment  of  the  first  eight  books  of  the  Code,  ascribed 
to  the  9th  century ;  "the  Quaestiones  ac  monita,  to  the  Lombardic 
laws,  drawn  mostly  from  the  Institutes,  but  with  a  few  texts  from 
the  Digest,  the  Code,  and  Julian's  Epitome,  and  supposed  to  have 
been  written  early  in  the  llth  century;  the  Brachylogus,  an 
abbreviated  revision  of  Justinian's  Institutes,  with  references  to 
his  other  books,  which  is  thought  to  have  been  written  in  France 
(Orleans?),  according  to  Fitting  between  999  and  1002,  but  accord- 
ing to  other  authorities  nearer  the  end  of  the  llth  century;  and 
the  Petri  exceptiones  legum  Romanarum,  a  systematic  exposition 
of  the  law  in  four  books,  written  in- the  south  of  France  early  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  llth  century,  and  mostly  compiled  from 
Justinianian  sources. 

It  was  in  the  very  end  of  the  llth  century  or  the  beginning  of  The  glos- 
the  12th  that  at  Bologna,  and  under  one  Irnerius,  who  appears  not  sarists. 
to  have  been  a  professional  jurist  but  originally  a  teacher  of  letters, 
the  study  of  Roman  law  began  somewhat  suddenly  to  attract 
students  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Through  the  action  of  the 
clergy  the  only  parts  of  the  Justinianian  legislation  that  had  hitherto 
been  in  ordinary  use  were  the  Institutes,  the  Code,  and  the  Novels. 
The  first,  from  its  elementary  character,  had  naturally  commended 
itself ;  the  Code,  with  its  opening  title  on  the  Trinity  and  its  second 
on  Holy  Church,  and  the  Novels,  with  their  abundant  legislation 
on  matters  ecclesiastical,  were  in  many  respects  charters  of  the 
church's  privileges,  and  were  prized  accordingly ;  but  the  Digest, 
as  being  the  work  of  pagan  jurists,  had  been  practically  ignored. 
The  Code  and  the  Novels,  however,  with  their  modicum  of  wheat 
concealed  in  such  a  quantity  of  chaff,  offered  little  attraction  to 
laymen  of  intelligence  ;  and,  when  a  copy  of  a  portion  of  the  Digest, 
with  its  infinitely  purer  diction  and  its  clear  and  incisive  reasoning, 
came  into  the  hands  of  Irnerius,  it  must  have  been  for  him  as  a 
new  revelation.  The  text  of  it  seems  to  have  reached  him  by  in- 
stalments ;  at  least  this  is  the  only  reasonable  explanation  of  its 
division  by  the  glossarists  (as  Irnerius  and  his  successors  of  the 
Bologna  school  were  called,  the  name  being  derived  from  the  glossae, 
notes  marginal  and  interlinear,  with  which  they  furnished  it)  into 
three  parts,  Digcstum  Vetus  (books  1  to  24,  tit.  2),  Infortiatum, 
and  Digestum  Novum  (book  39  to  the  end),  the  general  idea  being 
that,  after  first  the  old  and  then  the  new  Digest  had  come  to  light, 
the  connecting  link  unexpectedly  turned  up,  and  got  in  conse- 
quence the  somewhat  singular  name  by  which  it  continued  to  be 
known  for  centuries.  The  whole  collection  was  by  the  glossarists 
distributed  in  five  volumes,  the  fourth  containing  the  first  nine 
books  of  the  Code,  and  the  fifth,  called  Volumen  parvum  legum, 
containing  the  Institutes,  a  Latin  translation  of  134  of  the  Novels 
known  as  the  Authenticum,  and  the  last  three  books  of  the  Code 
which  had  been  recovered  subsequently  to  the  others.  With  these 
five  volumes,  the  teaching  that  accompanied  them,  and  the  glossae, 
summae,  casus,  brocarda,  &c. ,  with  which  they  were  enriched  from 
the  rise  of  the  school  with  Irnerius  till  its  close  with  Franciscus 
Accursius  in  1260,  Roman  jurisprudence  began  a  new  career,  which 
it  would  carry  us  beyond  the  limits  of  this  article  to  attempt  to 
trace  even  in  meagrest  outline.1  (J.  M*.) 


ROMAN     LITERATURE 


IT  would  be  impossible  within  the  limits  allowed  for 
this  article  to  attempt,  even  in  outline,  any  history 
of  the  course  of  Roman  literature  which  would  include 
an  account,  not  only  of  the  extant  works  which  it  con- 
tains and  of  their  authors,  but  also  of  the  principal  works 
and  writers  known  to  us  from  ancient  testimony.  The 
mere  enumeration  of  these  in  chronological  order,  without 
some  attempt  to  ascertain  their  individual  features  and  to 
estimate  their  relation  to  the  intellectual  movement  of 
their  time,  could  be  of  no  interest  or  use  to  any  one.  All 
that  is  possible  to  accomplish  here  is  to  pass  in  rapid 
review  the  first  four  of  the  five  periods  into  which  Roman 
literature  may  most  conveniently  be  divided,  to  ascertain 
the  chief  literary  motives  and  characteristics  of  each,  and 
to  connect  these  with  the  works  and  writers  in  whom  they 


are  most  conspicuously  displayed.  It  will  be  unnecessary 
to  give  any  biographical  account  even  of  the  greatest 
authors  or  to  criticize  their  works  in  detail,  as  these  have 
been  sufficiently  treated  in  separate  articles  of  the  present 
work.  The  object  of  the  following  survey  will  be  to 
obtain  some  appreciation  of  the  relation  in  which  the 


1  The  great  authority  on  the  matter  of  this  section  is  still  Savigny's 
Gesch.  d.  rb'm,  Rechts  im  Mittelalter,  7  vols.,  2d.  ed.,  Heidelberg, 
1834-51  ;  but  much  additional  light  has  been  thrown  on  it  by  Merkel, 
Stintzing,  Blume,  Fitting,  Bruns,  Mommsen,  Kriiger,  Ticker,  Rivier, 
Conrat  (Cohn),  and  others,  whose  writings,  mostly  in  periodicals,  are 
too  numerous  to  mention.  On  the  early  traces  of  Roman  law  in 
England,  see  Amos,  History  and  Principles  of  the  Civil  Law  of  Rome, 
London,  1883,  p.  443  sq.  ;  Caillemer,  Le  Droit  Civil  dans  les  pro- 
vinces Anglo-Normandes,  Caen,  1883  ;  Scrutton,  The  Influence  of  the 
Roman  Law  on  that  of  England,  Cambridge,  1885. 


716 


ROMAN      LITERATURE 


individual  authors  noticed  stand  to  the  whole  subject,  i.e., 
to  the  collective  literary  expression,  so  far  as  they  found 
an  expression,  of  the  action,  the  ideas,  the  character,  the 
various  feelings,  passions,  and  moods,  of  ancient  Rome  and 
of  the  races  which  it  absorbed,  so  long  as  that  literature 
has  a  distinct  unity  and  individuality. 

The  actual  beginning  of  Roman  artistic  literature  can 
be  assigned  to  a  definite  date,  the  year  240  B.C.,  when 
Livius  Andronicus  produced  on  a  Roman  stage  a  drama 
with  a  regular  plot,  instead  of  the  unconnected  dramatic 
dialogues  (saturse)  by  which  the  holidays  of  the  people 
had  previously  been  enlivened.  Yet  the  germs  of  an  indi- 
genous literature  had  existed  independently  at  an  earlier 
period  in  Rome  and  in  the  country  districts  of  Italy. 
Although  these  cannot  be  said  to  have  exercised  any 
marked  influence  on  the  subsequent  development  of  litera- 
ture, they  have  an  importance  as  indicating  natural  wants 
in  the  Italian  race,  which  were  ultimately  satisfied  by 
regular  literary  forms.  The  art  of  writing  was  first  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  the  state  and  of  religion  for  the 
preservation  of  the  sacred  hymns,  books  of  ritual,  treaties 
with  other  states,  the  laws  of  the  XII.  Tables,  &c.  An 
approach  to  literature  was  made  in  the  Annales  Maximi, 
although  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the  pontifex  maximus 
in  drawing  up  the  dry  records  of  the  prodigies  and  events 
of  the  year  had  any  thought  of  gratifying  intellectual  curi- 
osity or  imparting  intellectual  pleasure.  But  in  the  satis- 
faction they  afforded  to  the  commemorative  and  patriotic 
instincts  they  anticipated  an  office  afterwards  performed  by 
the  national  epics  and  the  works  of  regular  historians.  A 
still  nearer  approach  to  literature  was  probably  made  in 
oratory,  as  we  learn  from  Cicero  that  in  the  generation 
before  the  first  regular  dramatic  representation  a  speech 
delivered  by  Appius  Claudius  Csecus  was  given  to  the 
world.  Appius  was  also  the  author  of  a  poem  of  an  ethical 
and  didactic  character,  which  Cicero  tells  us  (Tusc.,  v. 
2,  4)  was  praised  by  Panaetius.  No  other  name  associated 
with  any  form  of  literature  belonging  to  the  pre-literary 
age  has  been  preserved  by  tradition,  and  it  is  to  be  borne 
in  mind  that  Appius  lived  on  till  the  wars  with  Pyrrhus, 
when  the  first  active  collision  between  Rome  and  Greece 
took  place.  This  premature  stirring  of  literary  ambi- 
tion is  like  the  occasional  anticipation  by  individual 
thinkers  of  some  important  discovery  or  some  great  intel- 
lectual movement  before  the  world  around  them  is  ready 
to  receive  it. 

But  it  was  rather  in  extemporaneous  effusions  than  in 
written  compositions  that  some  germs  of  a  native  poetry 
might  have  been  detected.  The  most  genuine  indication 
of  that  impulse  which  ultimately  finds  its  realization  in 
artistic  literature  appears  in  the  use  of  a  metre  of  pure 
native  origin,  the  Saturnian,  which  by  its  rapid  and  lively 
movement  gives  expression  to  the  vivacity  and  quick 
apprehension  of  the  Italian  race.  This  metre  appears  to 
have  been  first  used  in  ritual  hymns,  which  seem  to  have 
assumed  definite  shapes  out  of  the  exclamations  of  a 
primitive  priesthood  engaged  in  a  rude  ceremonial  dance. 
It  was  also  employed  by  a  class  of  bards  or  itinerant  sooth- 
sayers known  by  the  name  of  "  vates."  It  was  used  also 
in  the  "Fescennine  verses,"  which  gave  expression  to  the 
coarse  gaiety  of  the  people  and  to  their  strong  tendency 
to  personal  raillery  and  satiric  comment.  This  tendency, 
which  under  the  stern  censorship  of  the  patrician  rulers  of 
the  early  republic  was  repressed  by  stringent  laws,  found 
ultimately  its  legitimate  outlet  in  Roman  satire.  The 
metre  was  also  employed  in  commemorative  poems,  accom- 
panied with  music,  which  were  sung  at  funeral  banquets 
in  celebration  of  the  exploits  and  virtues  of  distinguished 
men.  These  had  their  origin  in  the  same  impulse  which 
ultimately  found  its  full  gratification  in  Roman  history, 


Roman  epic  poetry,  and  that  form  of  Roman  oratory  known 
as  "  laudationes,"  and  in  some  of  the  Odes  of  Horace.  The 
latest  and  probably  the  most  important  of  these  rude  and 
inchoate  forms  was  that  of  dramatic  saturx  (medleys),  put 
together  without  any  regular  plot,  and  consisting  appa- 
rently of  contests  of  wit  and  satiric  invective,  and  perhaps 
of  comments  on  current  events,  accompanied  with  music 
("saturas  impletas  modis,"  Liv.,  vii.  2).  These  have  a 
real  bearing  on  the  subsequent  development  of  Roman 
literature.  They  prepared  the  mind  of  the  people  for  the 
reception  of  regular  comedy.  They  may  have  contributed 
to  the  formation  of  the  style  of  comedy  which  appears  at 
the  very  outset  much  more  mature  than  that  of  serious 
poetry,  tragic  or  epic.  They  gave  the  name  and  some  of 
the  characteristics  to  that  special  literary  product  of  the 
Roman  soil,  the  "satura,"  addressed  to  readers,  not  to 
spectators,  which  ultimately  was  developed  into  pure  poetic 
satire  in  Lucilius,  Horace,  Persius,  and  Juvenal,  into  the 
prose  and  verse  miscellany  of  Varro,  and  into  something 
approaching  the  prose  novel  in  Petronius. 

First  Period :  from  240  to  about  80  B.C. 

The  historical  event  which  brought  about  the  greatest 
change  in  the  intellectual  condition  of  the  Romans,  and 
thereby  exercised  a  decisive  influence  on  the  whole  course 
of  human  culture,  was  the  capture  of  Tarentum  in  272. 
After  the  capture  many  Greek  slaves  were  brought  to 
Rome,  and  among  them  the  young  Livius  Andronicus,  Li 
who  was  employed  in  teaching  Greek  in  the  family  of  his  Andror 
master,  a  member  of  the  Livian  gens.  From  that  timecus< 
to  learn  Greek  became  a  regular  part  of  the  education  of 
a  Roman  noble.  The  capture  of  Tarentum  was  followed 
by  the  complete  Romanizing  of  all  Southern  Italy.  Soon 
after  came  the  First  Punic  War,  the  principal  scene  of 
which  was  Sicily,  where,  from  common  hostility  to  the 
Carthaginian,  Greek  and  Roman  were  brought  into  friendly 
relations,  and  the  Roman  armies  must  have  become  familiar 
with  the  spectacles  and  performances  of  the  Greek  theatre. 
In  the  year  following  the  conclusion  of  the  war  (240), 
after  the  armies  had  returned  and  the  people  were  at 
leisure  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  victory  ("  et  post  Punica 
bella  quietus,"  Hor.,  JEp.,  ii.  162),  Livius  Andronicus 
"took  the  bold  step"  ("ausus  est  primus  argumento 
fabulam  serere,"  Liv.,  vii.  2)  of  substituting  at  one  of  the 
public  festivals  a  regular  drama  translated  or  adapted  from 
the  Greek  for  the  musical  medleys  (saturse)  hitherto  in 
use.  From  this  time  dramatic  performances  became  a 
regular  accompaniment  of  the  public  games,  and  came 
more  and  more  to  encroach  on  the  older  kinds  of  amuse- 
ment, such  as  the  chariot  races.  The  dramatic  work  of 
Livius  was,  however,  merely  educative ;  it  can  hardly  be 
called  in  any  sense  of  the  word  literary.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  his  later  work,  which  was  still  used  as  a  school- 
book  in  the  days  of  Horace, — the  translation  of  the 
Odyssey ;  and  probably  the  religious  hymn  which  he  was 
called  upon  to  compose  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Second 
Punic  War  had  no  higher  literary  pretension.  He  was, 
however,  the  first  to  make  the  old  name  of  poet  a  title 
of  honour  instead  of  reproach ;  and  by  familiarizing  the 
Romans  with  the  forms  of  the  Greek  drama  and  the  Greek 
epic  he  determined  the  main  lines  which  Roman  literature 
followed  for  more  than  a  century  afterwards. 

His  immediate  successor,  Cn.  Naevius,  was  not,  likeNseviu 
Livius,  a  Greek,  but  either  a  Roman  citizen  or  one  who 
enjoyed  the  limited  citizenship  of  a  Latin,  and  who  had 
served  in  the  Roman  army  in  the  First  Punic  War.  His 
first  appearance  as  a  dramatic  author  was  in  235.  He 
adapted  both  tragedies  and  comedies  from  the  Greek,  but 
the  bent  of  his  genius,  the  tastes  of  his  audience,  and  the 
condition  of  the  language,  developed  through  the  active 


ROMAN      LITERATURE 


717 


intercourse  and  business  of  life,  gave  a  greater  impulse  to 
comedy  than  to  tragedy.  ISTaevius  tried  to  use  the  theatre, 
as  it  had  been  used  by  the  writers  of  the  Old  Comedy  of 
Athens,  for  the  purposes  of  political  warfare,  and  thus 
seems  to  have  anticipated  by  a  century  the  part  played  by 
Lucilius.  Satiric  and  censorious  criticism  rather  than  a 
humorous  sense  of  the  comedy  of  human  life  and  character 
was  apparently  the  chief  motive  of  his  representation. 
But  the  state  censorship,  which  in  a  more  revolutionary 
time  tolerated  the  free  criticism  of  public  men  in  works 
addressed  to  a  select  class  of  readers,  arrested  at  the  out- 
set all  such  criticism  addressed  to  the  mass  of  the  people 
assembled  in  the  theatre;  and  Naevius,  after  being  im- 
prisoned, had  to  retire  in  his  old  age  into  banishment. 
He  was  not  only  the  first  in  point  of  time,  and  according 
to  ancient  testimony  one  of  the  first  in  point  of  merit, 
among  the  comic  poets  of  Rome,  and  in  spirit,  though  not 
in  form,  the  earliest  of  the  line  of  Roman  satirists,  but  he 
was  also  the  oldest  of  the  national  poets.  Besides  cele- 
brating the  success  of  Marcellus  in  225  over  the  Gauls 
in  a  play  called  Clastidium,  he  gave  the  first  specimen  of 
the  "fabula  prsetexta"  in  his  Alimonium  Romuli  et  Remi, 
based  on  the  most  national  of  all  Roman  traditions.  Still 
more  important  service  was  rendered  by  him  in  his  long 
Saturnian  poem  on  the  First  Punic  War,  in  which  he  not  only 
told  the  story  of  contemporary  events  but  gave  shape  to  the 
legend  of  the  settlement  of  ^Eneas  in  Latium, — the  theme 
ultimately  adopted  for  the  great  national  epic  of  Rome. 

'litus.  His  younger  contemporary  Plautus  (d.  184)  was  the 
greatest  comic  and  dramatic  genius  of  Rome,  and  is  still 
read  as  one  of  the  great  comic  and  dramatic  writers  of  the 
world.  He  lived  and  wrote  only  to  amuse  his  contempo- 
raries, and  thus,  although  more  popular  in  his  lifetime  and 
more  fortunate  than  any  of  the  older  authors  in  the  ultimate 
survival  of  a  large  number  of  his  works,  he  is  less  than 
any  of  the  great  writers  of  Rome  in  sympathy  with  either 
the  serious  or  the  caustic  spirit  in  Roman  literature.  Yet 
he  is  the  one  extant  witness  to  the  humour  and  vivacity 
of  the  Italian  temperament  at  a  stage  between  its  early 
rudeness  and  rigidity  and  its  subsequent  degeneracy. 

Thus  far  Roman  literature,  of  which  the  predominant 
characteristics  are  dignity,  gravity,  and  fervour  of  feeling, 
and  which  more  than  any  other  literature  aimed  at  forti- 
fying and  elevating  the  character,  seemed  likely  to  become 
a  mere  vehicle  of  amusement  adapted  to  all  classes  of  the 
people  in  their  holiday  mood.  But  a  new  spirit  came  over 
the  Italian  Camente  in  the  time  of  Plautus,  which  hence- 
forth became  predominant.  Roman  literature  ceased  to 
be  in  close  sympathy  with  the  popular  spirit,  either  in 
political  partisanship  or  in  ministering  to  general  amuse- 
ment, but  became  the  expression  of  the  ideas,  sentiment, 
and  culture  of  the  aristocratic  governing  class.  It  was 

inus.  by  Q.  Ennius  (239-169)  of  Calabria  that  a  new  direction 
was  given  to  Roman  literature  and  new  and  deeper  springs 
of  emotion  were  elicited  from  the  native  genius.  Deriving 
from  his  birthplace  the  culture,  literary  and  philosophical, 
of  Magna  Grsecia,  having  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Roman  armies,  and  gained  the  friendship  of  the  greatest 
of  the  Romans  living  in  that  great  age,  he  was  of  all  the 
early  writers  most  fitted  to  be  the  medium  of  conciliation 
between  the  serious  genius  of  ancient  Greece  and  the  seri- 
ous genius  of  Rome.  Alone  among  the  older  writers  he 
was  endowed  with  the  gifts  of  a  poetical  imagination  and 
animated  with  enthusiasm  for  a  great  ideal.  With  the 
widest  culture  and  knowledge  among  all  the  men  of  his 
generation,  he  had  also  the  justest  discernment  of  the  rela- 
tion of  culture  and  knowledge  to  actual  life  and  to  the 
work  which  he  had  to  accomplish. 

First  among  his  special  services  to  Roman  literature  was 
the  fresh  impulse  which  he  gave  to  tragedy.  He  turned 


the  eyes  of  his  contemporaries  from  the  commonplace  social 
humours  of  later  Greek  life  to  the  contemplation  of  the 
heroic  age.  But  he  did  not  thereby  denationalize  the 
Roman  drama.  He  animated  the  heroes  of  early  Greece 
with  the  martial  spirit  of  Roman  soldiers  and  the  ideal 
magnanimity  and  sagacity  of  Roman  senators,  and  im- 
parted weight  and  dignity  to  the  language  and  verse  in 
which  their  sentiments  and  thoughts  were  expressed.  Al- 
though Rome  wanted  creative  force  to  add  a  great  series 
of  tragic  dramas  to  the  literature  of  the  world,  yet  the 
spirit  of  elevation  and  moral  authority  breathed  into 
tragedy  by  Ennius  passed  into  the  ethical  and  didactic 
writings  and  the  oratory  of  a  later  time. 

Another  work,  the  Trapepyov  of  his  serious  activity,  was 
the  saturx,  written  in  various  metres,  but  chiefly  in  that 
which  came  nearest  to  the  spoken  language  of  Rome,  the 
trochaic  tetrameter.  He  thus  became  the  inventor  of  a 
new  form  of  literature  ;  and,  if  in  his  hands  the  satura  was 
rude  and  indeterminate  in  its  scope,  it  was  a  proof  of  the 
practical  bent  of  his  understanding  that  he  found  a  vehicle 
by  which  to  address  a  reading  public  on  matters  of  the 
day,  or  on  the  materials  of  his  wide  reading,  in  a  style 
not  far  removed  from  the  language  of  common  life.  His 
greatest  work,  which  made  the  Romans  regard  him  as  the 
father  of  their  literature,  was  his  epic  poem,  in  eighteen 
books,  the  Annales,  in  which  the  record  of  the  whole 
career  of  Rome  was  unrolled  with  idealizing  enthusiasm 
and  realistic  detail.  The  idea  which  inspired  Ennius  was 
ultimately  realized  in  both  the  national  epic  of  Virgil  and 
the  national  history  of  Livy.  And  the  metrical  vehicle 
which  he  conceived  as  the  only  one  adequate  to  his  great 
theme  was  a  rude  experiment,  which  was  ultimately  de- 
veloped into  "  the  stateliest  metre  ever  moulded  by  the 
lips  of  man."  Even  as  a  grammarian  he  performed  an 
important  service  to  the  literary  language  of  Rome,  by 
fixing  its  prosody  and  arresting  the  tendency  to  decay  in 
its  final  syllables.  Although  we  know  his  writings  only 
in  fragments,  these  fragments  are  enough,  along  with  what 
we  know  of  him  from  ancient  testimony,  to  justify  us  in 
regarding  him  as  the  most  important  among  the  makers 
of  Roman  literature, — the  most  important  indeed  among 
Roman  authors  before  the  age  of  Cicero. 

There  is  still  one  other  name  belonging  partly  to  this,  Cato. 
partly  to  the  next  generation  to  be  added  to  those  of  the 
men  of  original  force  of  mind  and  character  who  created 
Roman  literature,  that  of  M.  Porcius  Cato  (234-149), 
the  younger  contemporary  of  Ennius.  More  than  Nsevius 
and  Plautus  he  represented  the  pure  native  element  in 
that  literature,  the  mind  and  character  of  Latium,  the 
plebeian  pugnacity,  which  was  one  of  the  great  forces  in  the 
Roman  state.  He  had  no  poetic  imagination,  and  set 
himself  in  antagonism  to  the  literature  of  imagination 
created  by  Ennius.  He  strove  to  make  literature  ancillary 
to  politics  and  to  objects  of  practical  utility,  and  thus 
started  prose  literature  on  the  main  lines  which  it  after- 
wards followed.  Through  his  industry  and  vigorous 
understanding  he  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  creation  of 
Roman  oratory,  history,  and  systematic  didactic  writing. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  to  publish  his  speeches  and  thus 
to  bring  them  into  the  domain  of  literature.  Cicero  speaks 
of  1 50  of  these  speeches  as  extant  in  his  day.  He  praises 
them  for  their  acuteness,  their  wit,  their  conciseness.  He 
speaks  with  emphasis  of  the  impressiveness  of  Cato's 
eulogy  and  the  satiric  bitterness  of  his  invective.  As  an 
orator  he  seems  to  have  been  akin  in  spirit  to  Naevius 
and  Lucilius,  and  to  the  last  genuine  representative  of 
the  native  temper  in  literature,  the  satirist  Juvenal. 

Porcius  Cato  also  heads  the  roll  of  the  Roman  historians, 
at  least  of  those  whose  works  were  ranked  as  literature. 
His  Origines,  the  work  of  his  old  age,  was  written  with 


718 


ROMAN      LITERATURE 


that  thoroughly  Roman  conception  of  history  which  re- 
gards actions  and  events  not  in  relation  to  their  causes 
or  their  general  human  interest  but  as  incidents  in  the 
continuous  and  progressive  life  of  the  state.  Such  is  the 
conception  of  the  past  in  Livy  and  Tacitus,  and  in  Ennius 
and  Virgil.  But  in  one  respect  Cato  seems  to  have  formed 
a  truer  conception  of  his  subject  than  any  of  these  writers 
except  Virgil,  who,  availing  himself  of  the  labours  of 
Cato,  realized  and  perfected  his  conception.  Cato  felt 
that  the  record  of  Roman  glory  could  not  be  isolated  from 
the  story  of  the  other  Italian  communities,  which,  after 
fighting  against  Rome  for  their  own  independence,  shared 
with  it  the  task  of  conquering  the  world.  To  the  wider 
national  sympathies  which  stimulated  the  researches  of 
the  old  censor  into  the  legendary  history  of  the  Italian 
towns  we  owe  some  of  the  most  truly  national  parts  of 
the  JSneid.  There  is  another  point  of  contact  between 
the  work  done  by  Cato  and  that  of  Virgil,  although  they 
may  be  regarded  as  the  most  dissimilar  in  intellectual  and 
imaginative  gifts  in  the  whole  range  of  Roman  literature, 
the  one  being  the  most  realistic  and  prosaic,  the  other  the 
most  idealistic  and  imaginative.  While  the  ideal  charm 
of  the  old  rural  life  and  industry  of  Italy  still  lives  in  the 
Gevrgics,  the  practical  utilitarian  prose  of  that  life  may 
best  be  learned  from  the  De  Re  Rustica  of  Cato. 

Naevius,  Plautus,  Ennius,  and  Cato  not  only  represent 
but  may  be  said  actually  to  have  been  the  contending 
forces  which  strove  for  ascendency  in  determining  what 
was  to  be  the  character  of  the  new  literature.  Although 
their  combined  activity  was  spread  over  nearly  a  century, 
yet  so  vigorous  was  their  vitality  and  so  prolonged  their 
career  that  they  may  be  spoken  of  as  contemporaries. 
Cato,  the  youngest  of  the  four,  was  a  man  of  mature  years, 
actively  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  state,  when  Naevius 
was  still  in  the  full  vigour  of  his  powers,  and  before 
Plautus  had  reached  the  most  productive  period  of  his 
career.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  time  that  the  genius  of 
all  these  writers  was  ripest  in  their  old  age.  They  were 
thus  able  partially  to  overcome  the  difficulties  incident  to 
the  beginning  of  their  art.  They  acquired  by  the  rude 
attempts  of  their  earlier  activity  the  faculty  which  they 
exercised  with  unabated  natural  force  till  the  end  of  their 
lives.  In  their  prolonged  career  of  intellectual  energy 
they  remind  us  of  some  of  the  early  philosophers  and 
travellers  of  Greece.  The  work  begun  by  them  was 
carried  on  by  younger  contemporaries  and  successors,  that 
of  Plautus  by  Caecilius  Statius  and  others,  the  tragedy  of 
Ennius  by  his  kinsman,  Pacuvius,  and,  in  the  following 
generation,  by  Accius.  The  impulse  given  to  oratory  by 
Cato,  Sulpicius  Gallus,  and  others,  and  along  with  it  the 
development  of  prose  composition,  went  on  with  increased 
momentum  till  the  age  of  Cicero.  But  the  interval  between 
the  death  of  Ennius  (169)  and  the  beginning  of  Cicero's 
career,  while  one  of  progressive  advance  in  the  apprecia- 
tion of  literary  form  and  style,  was  much  less  distinguished 
by  original  force  than  the  time  immediately  before  and 
Terence,  after  the  end  of  the  Second  Punic  War.  The  one  complete 
survival  of  the  generation  after  the  death  of  Ennius,  the 
comedy  of  Terence  (185-159),  exemplifies  the  gain  in 
literary  accomplishment  and  the  loss  in  literary  freedom. 
Terence  has  nothing  Roman  or  Italian  except  his  pure  and 
idiomatic  Latinity.  His  relation  to  the  Greek  authors 
whom  he  copied  is  that  of  a  fine  engraver  to  the  great 
painters  of  another  age  and  time.  The  Athenian  elegance 
of  Terence  affords  the  strongest  contrast  to  the  Italian  rude- 
ness of  Gate's  De  Re  Rustica.  By  looking  at  them  together 
we  understand  how  much  the  comedy  of  Terence  was  able 
to  do  to  refine  and  humanize  the  manners  of  Rome,  but 
at  the  same  time  what  a  solvent  it  was  of  the  discipline 
and  ideas  of  the  old  republic.  What  makes  Terence  an 


important  witness  of  the  culture  of  his  time  is  that  he 
wrote  from  the  centre  of  the  Scipionic  circle,  in  which 
what  was  most  humane  and  liberal  in  Roman  statesman- 
ship was  combined  with  the  appreciation  of  what  was 
most  vital  in  the  Greek  thought  and  literature  of  the  time. 
Cicero  tells  us  that  the  peculiar  glory  of  that  age  was  the 
purity  of  its  Latinity;  and  it  is  natural  to  ascribe  to  the 
members  of  that  aristocracy  of  birth  and  culture  the  senti- 
ment ascribed  to  Caesar  a  century  later,  that  to  maintain 
the  purity  of  the  Latin  tongue  was  due  to  the  sense  both 
of  personal  and  of  national  dignity.  The  comedies  of  Ter- 
ence may  therefore  be  held  to  give  some  indication  of  the 
tastes  of  Scipio,  Lselius,  and  their  friends  in  their  youth. 
The  influence  of  Panaetius  and  Polybius  was  more  adapted 
to  their  maturity,  when  they  led  the  state  in  war,  states- 
manship, and  oratory,  and  when  the  humaner  teaching  of 
Stoicism  began  to  enlarge  the  sympathies  of  Roman  jurists. 
But  in  the  last  years  during  which  this  circle  kept  together 
a  new  spirit  appeared  in  Roman  politics  and  a  new  power 
in  Roman  literature, — the  revolutionary  spirit  evoked  by 
the  Gracchi  in  opposition  to  the  long-continued  ascendency 
of  the  senate,  and  the  new  power  of  Roman  satire,  which 
was  exercised  impartially  and  unsparingly  against  both  the 
excesses  of  the  revolutionary  spirit  and  the  arrogance  and 
incompetence  of  the  extreme  party  among  the  nobles. 
Roman  satire,  though  in  form  a  legitimate  development 
of  the  indigenous  dramatic  satura  through  the  written 
satura  of  Ennius  and  Pacuvius,  is  really  a  birth  of  this 
time,  and  its  author  was  the  youngest  of  those  admitted 
into  the  intimacy  of  the  Scipionic  circle,  C.  Lucilius  of  Lucilii 
Aurunca  (166  ?1-102).  Among  the  writers  before  the  age 
of  Cicero  he  alone  deserves  to  be  named  with  Nsevius, 
Plautus,  Ennius,  and  Cato  as  a  great  originative  force  in 
literature.  For  about  thirty  years  the  production  of  the 
satires  of  Lucilius,  in  which  the  politics,  morals,  society, 
and  letters  of  the  time  were  criticized  with  the  utmost 
freedom  and  pungency,  and  his  own  personality  was  brought 
immediately  and  familiarly  before  his  contemporaries,  was 
much  the  most  important  event  in  Roman  literature.  The 
years  that  intervened  between  his  death  and  the  beginning 
of  the  Ciceronian  age  are  singularly  barren  in  works  of 
original  value. 

The  general  results  of  the  last  fifty  years  of  the  first  Gener 
period,  from  c.  1 30  to  c.  80,  may  be  thus  summed  up.  In  resu] 
poetry  we  have  the  satires  of  Lucilius,  the  tragedies  of  Accius 
and  of  a  few  successors  among  the  Roman  aristocracy,  who 
thus  exemplified  the  affinity  of  the  Roman  stage  to  Roman 
oratory;  the  "comcedia  togata"  of  Afranius,  in  which 
comedy,  while  assuming  a  Roman  dress,  did  not  assume 
the  virtue  of  a  Roman  matron ;  various  annalistic  poems 
intended  to  serve  as  continuations  of  the  great  poem  of 
Ennius ;  minor  poems  of  an  epigrammatic  and  erotic  char- 
acter, unimportant  anticipations  of  the  Alexandrian  tend- 
ency operative  in  the  following  period ;  works  of  criticism 
in  trochaic  tetrameters  by  Porcius  Licinus  and  others, 
forming  part  of  the  critical  and  grammatical  movement 
which  almost  from  the  first  accompanied  the  creative  move- 
ment in  Roman  literature,  and  which  may  be  regarded 
as  rude  precursors  of  the  didactic  epistles  that  Horace 
devoted  to  literary  criticism. 

The  only  extant  prose  work  which  may  be  assigned  to 
the  end  of  this  period  is  the  treatise  on  rhetoric  known  by 
the  title  Ad  Herennium,  a  work  indicative  of  the  attention 
bestowed  on  prose  style  and  rhetorical  studies  during  the 
last  century  of  the  republic,  and  which  may  be  regarded 
as  a  precursor  of  the  oratorical  treatises  of  Cicero  in  the 
following  generation  and  of  the  work  of  Quintilian  in  the 
first  century  of  the  empire.  But  the  great  literary  pro- 

1  The  reasons  for  rejecting  the  date  usually  assigned  to  his  birth 
(148)  have  been  given  under  the  heading  LUCILIUS. 


ROMAN     LITERATURE 


719 


duct  of  this  period  was  oratory,  developed  indeed  with 
the  aid  of  these  rhetorical  studies,  but  itself  the  immediate 
outcome  of  the  imperial  interests,  the  legal  conflicts,  and 
the  political  passions  of  that  time  of  agitation.  The 
speakers  and  writers  of  a  later  age  looked  back  on  Scipio 
and  Ltelius,  the  Gracchi  and  their  contemporaries,  L. 
Crassus  and  M.  Antonius,  as  masters  of  their  art.  We 
can  only  judge  of  what  they  were  by  the  fame  of  their 
speeches  and  a  few  unimportant  fragments.  But  as  we 
infer  from  the  artistic  excellence  of  the  Homeric  poems 
that  many  poets  of  power  and  genius,  whose  names  were 
soon  forgotten,  preceded  the  great  master ;  as  we  know 
that  the  art  of  Shakespeare  did  not  come  without  due 
preparation  into  the  world ;  so  from  the  mature  perfection 
of  the  art  of  Cicero  we  may,  in  a  measure,  judge  of  the 
power  and  accomplishment  of  the  orators  who  came  before 
him,  from  whom  he  professes  to  have  learned  much,  and 
whom  he  regarded  with  generous  admiration. 

In  history,  regarded  as  a  great  branch  of  prose  literature, 
it  is  not  probable  that  much  was  accomplished,  although, 
with  the  advance  of  oratory  and  grammatical  studies, 
there  must  have  been  not  only  greater  fluency  of  composi- 
tion but  the  beginning  of  a  richer  and  more  ornate  style. 
Yet  Cicero,  so  candid  and  indulgent  in  his  estimate  of 
early  Roman  poetry  and  oratory,  denies  to  Rome  the 
existence,  before  his  own  time,  of  any  adequate  historical 
literature.  Nevertheless  it  was  by  the  work  of  a  number 
of  Roman  chroniclers  during  this  period  that  the  materials 
of  early  Roman  history  were  systematized,  and  the  record 
of  the  state,  as  it  was  finally  given  to  the  world  in  the 
artistic  work  of  Livy,  was  extracted  from  the  early  annals, 
state  documents,  and  private  memorials,  combined  into 
a  coherent  unity,  and  supplemented  by  invention  and  re- 
flexion. There  were  also  special  works  on  Roman  anti- 
quities and  contemporary  memoirs,  which  formed  the 
sources  of  future  historians. 

Although  the  artistic  product  of  the  first  period  of 
Roman  literature  which  has  reached  us  in  a  complete 
shape  is  limited  to  the  comedies  of  Plautus  and  Terence, 
the  influence  of  the  lost  literature  in  determining  the 
spirit,  form,  and  style  of  the  eras  of  more  perfect  accom- 
plishment which  followed  is  unmistakable.  While  humour 
and  vivacity,  which  were  not  surpassed  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced stages  of  literature,  had  characterized  the  earlier, 
and  an  urbanity  of  tone,  with  which  Horace  by  frequent 
imitation  acknowledges  his  sympathy,  characterizes  the 
later  development  of  comedy,  the  tendency  of  serious 
literature  had  been  in  the  main  practical,  ethical,  com- 
memorative, and  satirical.  The  higher  poetical  imagina- 
tion had  appeared  only  in  Ennius,  and  had  been  called 
forth  in  him  by  sympathy  with  the  grandeur  of  the  national 
life  and  the  great  personal  qualities  of  its  representative 
men.  Some  of  the  chief  motives  of  the  later  poetry,  such 
as  the  love  of  nature  and  the  pleasures  and  sorrows  of 
private  life,  had  as  yet  found  scarcely  any  expression  in 
Roman  literature.  The  fittest  metrical  vehicle  for  epic, 
didactic,  and  satirif  poetry  had  been  discovered,  but  its 
movement  was  as  yet  rude  and  inharmonious.  The  idiom 
of  ordinary  life  and  social  intercourse  and  the  more  fervid 
and  elevated  diction  of  oratorical  prose  had  made  great 
progress,  but  the  language  of  imagination  and  poetical 
feeling  was,  if  vivid  and  impressive  in  isolated  expressions, 
still  incapable  of  being  wrought  into  consecutive  passages 
of  artistic  composition.  Although  the  impulse  which 
awoke  the  literary  energy  of  Rome  had  come  from  the 
semi-Greeks  of  the  south  of  Italy,  the  character  of  the 
literature  was  in  the  main  Roman  and  Latin ;  and  to  this 
may  be  attributed  the  preponderance  of  the  prosaic  over 
the  poetical  element  in  it.  The  Sabellian  races  of  central 
and  eastern  Italy  and  the  Italo-Celtic  and  Venetian  races 


of  the  north,  in  whom  the  poetic  susceptibility  of  Italy 
was  most  manifest  two  generations  later,  were  not,  until 
after  the  Social  War,  sufficiently  in  sympathy  with  Rome, 
and  were  probably  not  as  yet  sufficiently  educated  to 
induce  them  to  contribute  their  share  to  the  national 
literature.  Hence  the  end  of  the  Social  War,  and  of  the 
Civil  War  which  arose  out  of  it,  is  most  clearly  a  deter- 
mining factor  in  Roman  literature,  and  may  most  appro- 
priately be  taken  aa  marking  the  end  of  one  period  and 
the  beginning  of  another. 

Second  Period:  from  80  to  42  B.C. 

The  last  age  of  the  republic  coincides  with  the  first  half 
of  the  Golden  Age  of  Roman  literature.  It  is  generally 
known  as  the  Ciceronian  age  from  the  name  of  its  greatest 
literary  representative,  whose  activity  as  a  speaker  and 
writer  was  unremitting  during  nearly  the  whole  period. 
It  is  the  age  of  purest  excellence  in  prose,  and  of  a  new 
birth  of  poetry,  characterized  rather  by  great  original  force 
and  artistic  promise  than  by  perfect  accomplishment.  The 
five  chief  representatives  of  this  age  who  still  hold  their 
rank  among  the  great  classical  writers  are  Cicero,  Caesar, 
Sallust,  Lucretius,  and  Catullus.  The  works  of  other  prose 
writers,  Varro  and  Cornelius  Nepos,  have  been  partially 
preserved ;  but  these  writers  have  no  claim  to  rank  with 
those  already  mentioned  as  creators  and  masters  of  literary 
style.  Although  literature  had  not  as  yet  become,  as  it 
did  in  the  age  of  Martial,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  the 
age  represented  in  the  Epistles  of  Horace,  a  trade  or  pro- 
fession, an  educated  reading  public  already  existed,  and 
books  and  intellectual  intercourse  filled  a  large  part  of  the 
leisure  of  men  actively  engaged  in  affairs.  Even  oratory 
was  intended  quite  as  much  for  readers  as  for  the  audiences 
to  which  it  was  immediately  addressed ;  and  some  of  the 
greatest  speeches  which  have  come  down  from  that  great 
age  of  orators  were  never  delivered  at  all,  but  were  pub- 
lished as  manifestoes  after  the  event  with  the  view  of  in- 
fluencing educated  opinion,  and  as  works  of  art  with  the 
view  of  giving  pleasure  to  educated  taste. 

Thus  the  speeches  of  Cicero  (106-43),  more  certainly  than  Cicero, 
any  modern  speeches,  belong  to  the  domain  of  literature 
quite  as  much  as  to  that  of  forensic  or  political  oratory.  And, 
although  Demosthenes  is  a  master  of  style  unrivalled  even 
by  Cicero,  the  literary  interest  of  most  of  Cicero's  speeches 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  great  mass  of  Greek  oratory, — 
a  result  of  what  from  a  forensic  point  of  view  would  now 
be  regarded  as  a  serious  defect.  Thus  it  is  with  justice 
urged  that  the  greater  part  of  the  Defence  of  Archias  was 
irrelevant  to  the  issue  and  would  not  have  been  listened 
to  by  a  Greek  court  of  justice  or  a  modern  jury.  But  it 
was  fortunate  for  the  interests  of  literature  that  a  court  of 
educated  Romans  could  be  influenced  by  the  considerations 
there  submitted  to  them.  In  this  way  a  question  of  the 
most  temporary  interest,  concerning  an  individual  of  no 
particular  eminence  or  importance,  has  produced  one  of 
the  most  impressive  vindications  of  literature  ever  spoken 
or  written.  Oratory  at  Rome  assumed  a  new  type  from 
being  cultivated  as  an  art  "which  endeavoured  to  produce 
persuasion  not  so  much  by  intellectual  conviction  as  by 
appeal  to  those  general  human  sympathies  which  are  the 
subject-matter  with  which  literature  has  to  deal.  In 
oratory,  as  in  every  other  intellectual  province,  the  Greeks 
had  a  truer  sense  of  the  limits  and  conditions  of  their  art. 
But  command  over  form  is  only  one  element  in  the  making 
of  an  orator  or  poet.  The  largeness  and  dignity  of  the 
matter  with  which  he  has  to  deal  is  at  least  as  important. 
The  Roman  oratory  of  the  law  courts  had  to  deal  not  with 
petty  questions  of  disputed  property,  of  fraud,  or  violence, 
but  with  great  imperial  questions,  with  matters  affecting 
the  wellbeing  of  large  provinces  and  the  honour  and  safety 


720 


ROMAN      LITERATURE 


of  the  republic ;  and  no  man  ever  lived  who,  by  the  in- 
tensity of  his  patriotic  and  imperial  feeling,  by  his  prac- 
tical experience  of  great  affairs,  and  by  the  largeness  of  his 
human  sympathies,  was  better  fitted  than  Cicero  to  be  the 
representative  of  the  type  of  oratory  demanded  by  the 
condition  of  the  later  republic.  He  elevates  nearly  every 
subject  with  which  he  deals,  in  those  speeches  at  least 
which  he  thought  worthy  of  preservation,  by  connecting 
it  with  great  political  or  imperial  issues.  But  with  the 
patriotic  motive  of  his  speeches  there  is  generally  com- 
bined a  great  moral  motive.  Whatever  were  the  weak- 
nesses and  faults  of  his  personal  character,  no  man  of 
antiquity  had  higher  ethical  aspirations.  Nowhere  is  the 
Eoman  ideal  of  character  humanized  by  Greek  studies 
presented  with  more  impressiveness  than  in  the  speeches 
of  Cicero.  In  no  writer  ancient  or  modern  do  we  find 
a  greater  power  of  moral  indignation.  And,  while  he 
inveighed  against  the  enormities  of  the  man  whom  he 
accused  with  the  grave  rebuke  of  a  censor  as  well  as  the 
passion  of  a  personal  enemy,  no  advocate  could  feel  or 
awaken  in  others  a  keener  sympathy  with  the  fortunes 
and  the  character  of  the  man  whom  he  was  defending. 

To  his  great  artistic  accomplishment,  perfected  by  prac- 
tice and  elaborate  study,  to  the  power  of  his  patriotic,  his 
moral,  and  personal  sympathies,  and  his  passionate  emo- 
tional nature,  must  be  added  his  vivid  imagination  and  the 
rich  and  copious  stream  of  his  language,  in  which  he  had 
no  rival  among  Roman  writers  or  speakers.1  He  realizes 
with  the  imagination  of  a  great  dramatist  the  personages 
of  his  story,  their  feelings  and  motives,  and  the  minutest 
details  of  their  action.  It  has  been  said  that  Roman 
poetry  has  produced  few,  if  any,  great  types  of  character. 
But  the  Verres,  Catiline,  Antony  of  Cicero  are  living  and 
permanent  types.  The  story  told  in  the  Pro  Cluentio  may 
be  true  or  false,  but  the  picture  of  provincial  crime  which 
it  presents  is  vividly  dramatic. 

Had  we  only  known  Cicero  in  his  speeches  we  should 
have  ranked  him  with  Demosthenes  as  one  who  had  realized 
the  highest  literary  ideal,  and  thereby  secured  immortality 
to  an  art  the  effect  of  which  is  not  often  perpetuated.  We 
should  think  of  him  also  as  the  creator  and  master  of  Latin 
style, — the  writer  by  whom  the  amplest,  most  passionate, 
and  most  living  powers  of  the  language  had  been  called 
forth  and  combined  into  a  great  and  orderly  literary  organ. 
We  know  him,  moreover,  not  only  as  a  great  orator  but  as 
a  just  and  appreciative  critic  of  oratory.  But  to  his  ser- 
vices to  Roman  oratory  we  have  to  add  his  services  not 
indeed  to  philosophy  but  to  the  literature  of  philosophy, 
and  his  application  to  the  exposition  of  his  doctrines  of  the 
calmer  and  more  equable  resources  of  the  language.  If 
not  a  philosopher  he  is  an  admirable  interpreter  of  those 
branches  of  philosophy  which  are  fitted  for  practical  ap- 
plication, and  he  presents  us  with  the  results  of  Greek 
reflexion  vivified  by  his  own  human  sympathies  and  his 
large  experience  of  men.  In  giving  a  model  of  the  style 
in  which  human  interest  can  best  be  imparted  to  abstract 
discussions,  he  has  used  his  great  oratorical  gift  and  art  to 
persuade  the  world  to  accept  the  most  hopeful  opinions 
on  human  destiny  and  the  principles  of  conduct  most 
conducive  to  elevation  and  integrity  of  character. 

The  Letters  of  Cicero  are  the  best  either  in  his  own  or 
in  any  other  language.  They  are  thoroughly  natural, — 
"  colloquia  absentium  amicorum,"  to  use  his  own  phrase. 
In  nearly  all  other  published  corresponde'nce  there  is  some 
medium  which  interrupts  the  natural  outlet  of  the  man, 
something  of  literary  mannerism,  natural  reserve,  academic 
elaborateness,  and  after-thought.  Cicero's  letters  to  Atticus 
and  to  the  friends  with  whom  he  was  completely  at  his 

1  ' '  Qui  non  illustravit  modo  sed  etiam  gerniit  in  hac  urbe  dicendi 
copiam  "  (Cic.,  Brut.,  73). 


ease  are  the  most  sincere  and  immediate  expression  of  the 
thought  and  feeling  of  the  moment.  They  let  us  into  the 
secret  of  his  most  serious  thoughts  and  cares,  and  they  give 
a  natural  outlet  to  his  vivacity  of  observation,  his  wit  and 
humour,  his  kindliness  of  nature.  It  shows  how  flexible 
an  instrument  Latin  prose  had  become  in  his  hand,  when 
it  could  in  accordance  with  the  conditions  of  perfect 
literary  taste  do  justice  at  once  to  the  ample  and  vehement 
volume  of  his  oratory,  to  the  calmer  and  more  rhythmical 
movement  of  his  philosophical  meditation,  and  to  the 
natural  interchange  of  thought  and  feeling  in  the  every- 
day intercourse  of  life. 

Among  the  many  rival  orators  of  the  age  the  most 
eminent  were  Hortensius  and  Caesar.  The  former,  like 
other  members  of  the  aristocracy,  such  as  Memmius  and 
Torquatus,  and  like  Q.  Catulus  in  the  preceding  generation, 
was  a  kind  of  dilettante  poet  and  a  precursor  of  the  poetry 
of  pleasure,  which  attained  such  prominence  in  the  elegiac 
poets  of  the  Augustan  age.  Of  Julius  Caesar  (100-44)  as  an  Caesar, 
orator  we  can  judge  only  by  his  reputation  and  by  the  testi- 
mony of  his  great  rival  and  adversary  Cicero ;  but  we  are 
able  to  appreciate  the  special  praise  of  perfect  taste  in  the 
use  of  language  attributed  to  him.2  In  his  Commentaries,  by 
laying  aside  the  ornaments  of  oratory,3  he  created  the  most 
admirable  style  of  prose  narrative,  the  style  which  presents 
interesting  events  in  their  sequence  of  time  and  dependence 
on  the  will  of  the  actor,  rapidly  and  vividly,  with  scarcely 
any  colouring  of  personal  or  moral  feeling,  any  oratorical 
passion,  any  pictorial  illustration.  While  he  shows  the 
persuasive  art  of  an  orator  by  presenting  the  subjugation 
of  Gaul  and  his  own  action  in  the  Civil  War  in  the  light 
most  favourable  to  his  claim  to  rule  the  Roman  world,  he 
is  entirely  free  from  the  Roman  fashion  of  self-laudation 
or  disparagement  of  an  adversary.  Yet  the  character  of 
the  man  is  stamped  on  every  line  that  he  writes,  and 
reveals  itself  especially  in  a  perfect  simplicity  of  style,  the 
result  of  the  clearest  intelligence  and  the  strongest  sense 
of  personal  dignity.  He  avoids  not  only  every  unusual 
but  every  superfluous  word ;  and,  although  no  writing  can 
be  more  free  from  rhetorical  colouring,  yet  there  may 
from  time  to  time  be  detected  a  glow  of  sympathy,  like  the 
glow  of  generous  passion  in  Thucydides,  the  more  effective 
from  the  reserve  with  which  it  betrays  itself  whenever  he 
is  called  on  to  record  any  act  of  personal  heroism  or  of 
devotion  to  military  duty. 

In  the  simplicity  of  his  style,  the  directness  of  hisSallus 
narrative,  the  entire  absence  of  any  didactic  tendency, 
Caesar  presents  a  marked  contrast  to  another  prose  writer 
of  that  age, — the  historian  Sallust  (87-34).  Like  Varro, 
he  survived  Cicero  by  some  years,  but  the  tone  and  spirit 
in  which  his  works  are  written  assign  him  to  the  republican 
era.  He  was  the  first  of  the  purely  artistic  historians,  as 
distinct  from  the  annalists  and  the  writers  of  personal 
memoirs.  He  imitated  the  Greek  historians  in  taking  par- 
ticular actions — the  Jugurthan  War  and  the  Catilinarian 
Conspiracy — as  the  subjects  of  artistic  treatment.  He 
wrote  also  a  continuous  work,  Historix,  treating  of  the 
events  of  the  twelve  years  following  the  death  of  Sulla, 
of  which  only  fragments  are  preserved.  His  two  extant 
works  are  more  valuable  as  artistic  studies  of  the  rival 
parties  in  the  state  and  of  personal  character  than  as 
trustworthy  narratives  of  facts.  His  style  aims  at  effect- 
iveness by  pregnant  expression,  sententiousness,  archaism. 
He  produces  the  impression  of  caring  more  for  the  manner 
of  saying  a  thing  than  for  its  truth.  Yet  he  has  great 
value  as  a  painter  of  historical  portraits,  some  of  them 
those  of  his  contemporaries,  and  as  an  author  who  had 


2  "  Latine  loqui  elegantissime." 

3  "  Nudi  enim  sunt,  recti  et  venusti,  omni  ornatu  orationis  tanquam 
veste  detracto  "  (Cicero). 


ROMAN      LITERATURE 


721 


been  a  political  partisan  and  had  taken  some  part  in 
making  history  before  undertaking  to  write  it ;  and  he 
gives  us,  from  the  popular  side,  the  views  of  a  contem- 
porary on  the  politics  of  the  time. 

In  following  the  development  of  Roman  literature  we 
have  seen  it  become  the  prose  organ  of  great  affairs,  but 
since  the  appearance  of  the  Annals  of  Ennius,  in  whom 
the  poetry  of  national  life  had  originated,  no  work  of 
great  and  original  poetical  genius  had  appeared.  The 
powerful  poetical  force  which  for  half  a  century  continued 
to  be  the  strongest  force  in  literature,  and  which  created 
masterpieces  of  art  and  genius,  first  revealed  itself  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  Ciceronian  age.  The  strength  with 
which  it  burst  forth  seems  indicative  of  latent  sources  of 
imaginative  feeling  and  conception  long  suppressed  in  the 
Italian  temperament,  owing  perhaps  to  the  absorption  of 
the  mind  and  passion  of  the  race  in  war,  politics,  and 
,ue-  practical  affairs.  The  conditions  which  enabled  the  poetic 
;u,  genius  of  Italy  to  come  to  maturity  in  the  person  of 
Lucretius  (99-55)  were  entire  seclusion  from  public  life 
and  absorption  in  the  ideal  pleasures  of  contemplation  and 
artistic  production.  He  produces  the  impression  of  a  man 
so  possessed  by  intellectual  and  imaginative  enthusiasm  as 
to  have  separated  himself  from  the  active  interests  and 
social  pleasures  of  his  time,  and  to  have  passed  that  period 
of  his  life  which  was  given  to  literary  production  in  study- 
ing the  laws  and  watching  the  spectacle  of  nature,  and  in 
the  active  exercise  of  imaginative  thought  on  the  problems 
of  human  life.  This  isolation  from  the  familiar  ways  of 
his  contemporaries,  while  it  was,  according  to  tradition  and 
the  internal  evidence  of  his  poem,  destructive  to  his  spirit's 
health,  resulted  in  a  work  of  genius,  unique  in  character, 
which  was  a  second  birth  of  imaginative  poetry  in  Italy, 
and  still  stands  forth  as  the  greatest  philosophical  poem 
in  any  language.  In  the  form  of  his  poem  he  followed  a 
Greek  original ;  and  the  stuff  out  of  which  the  texture  of 
his  philosophical  argument  is  framed  was  derived  from 
Greek  science ;  but  all  that  is  of  deep  human  and  poetical 
meaning  in  the  poem  is  his  own.  His  sense  of  the  grace 
and  beauty  of  language  had  indeed  been  educated  by 
the  sympathetic  study  of  Homer  and  Euripides ;  but  the 
philosophical  guidance  which  he  followed  and  his  reverence 
for  his  guide  were  rather  a  hindrance  than  an  aid  to  his 
art,  and  were  the  cause  of  his  presenting  the  pure  ore  of 
his  own  genius  overlaid  with  great  masses  of  alien  alloy. 
While  we  recognize  in  the  De  Serum  Natura  some  of  the 
most  powerful  poetry  in  any  language  and  feel  that  few 
poets  have  penetrated  with  such  passionate  sincerity  and 
courage  into  the  secret  of  nature  and  some  of  the  deeper 
truths  of  human  life,  we  must  acknowledge  that,  as  com- 
pared with  the  great  didactic  poem  of  Virgil,  it  is  crude 
and  unformed  in  artistic  design,  and  often  rough  and  un- 
equal in  artistic  execution.  Yet,  apart  altogether  from 
its  independent  value,  by  his  speculative  power  and 
enthusiasm,  by  his  revelation  of  the  life  and  spectacle  of 
nature,  by  the  fresh  creativeness  of  his  diction  and  the 
elevated  movement  of  his  rhythm,  he  exercised  a  more 
powerful  influence  than  any  other  on  the  art  of  his  more 
perfect  successors. 

While  the  imaginative  and  emotional  side  of  Roman 
poetry  was  so  powerfully  represented  by  Lucretius,  atten- 
tion was  directed  to  its  artistic  side  by  a  younger  genera- 
tion, who  moulded  themselves  in  a  great  degree,  though 
-'a  llus.  not  exclusively,  on  Alexandrian  models.  Of  this  small 
group  of  poets,  who  were  bound  together  by  common 
tastes  and  friendship,  one  only  has  survived,  fortunately 
the  man  of  most  genius  among  them,  Valerius  Catullus 
(841-54).  He  too  was  a  new  force  in  Roman  literature. 

1  The  reasons  for  accepting  84  rather  than  87  as  the  date  of  his 
birth  have  been  given  in  the  article  CATULLUS. 


Although  of  a  family  probably  originally  Roman,  and 
although  brought  early  in  his  career  into  intimate  rela- 
tions with  members  of  the  great  Roman  families,  he  was  a 
provincial  by  birth,  and  was  apparently  moved  in  his 
earliest  youth  by  that  fresh  enthusiasm  for  culture  which 
in  his  own  and  the  following  generation  enabled  Cisalpine 
Gaul  to  do  so  much  to  enrich  Roman  literature.  His 
nature,  in  which  sensuous  passion  and  warm  affection  were 
united,  made  him  fall  a  victim  to  the  fascinations  of  the 
famous  Clodia,  whom  -he  has  celebrated,  under  the  name 
of  Lesbia,  in  some  of  the  most  powerful  and  charming  love 
poetry  found  in  any  language.  The  subjects  of  his  best 
art  are  taken  immediately  from  his  own  life, — his  loves, 
his  friendships,  his  travels,  his  animosities,  personal  and 
political.  His  most  original  contribution  to  the  substance 
of  Roman  literature  was  that  he  first  shaped  into  poetry 
the  experience  of  his  own  heart,  as  it  had  been  shaped  by 
Alcaeus  and  Sappho  in  the  early  days  of  Greek  poetry. 
No  poet  has  surpassed  him  in  the  power  of  vitally  repro- 
ducing the  pleasure  and  pain  of  the  passing  hour,  not 
recalled  by  idealizing  reflexion  as  in  Horace,  nor  overlaid 
with  mythological  ornament  as  in  Propertius,  but  in  all 
the  keenness  of  immediate  impression.  He  also  introduced 
into  Roman  literature  that  personal  as  distinct  from  poli- 
tical or  social  satire  which  appears  later  in  the  Epodes  of 
Horace  and  the  Epigrams  of  Martial.  The  sting  in 
Catullus,  at  least  in  his  iambics  and  phalaecians,  is  more 
concentrated  than  in  the  later  writers.  He  anticipated 
Ovid  in  recalling  the  stories  of  Greek  mythology  into  a 
second  poetical  life.  His  greatest  contribution  to  poetic 
art  consisted  in  the  perfection  which  he  attained  in  the 
phalsecian,  the  pure  iambic,  and  the  scazon  metres,  and  in 
the  ease  and  grace  with  which  he  used  the  language  of 
familiar  intercourse,  as  distinct  from  that  of  the  creative 
imagination,  of  the  "  rostra,"  and  of  the  schools,  to  give  at 
once  a  lifelike  and  an  artistic  expression  to  his  feelings. 
He  has  the  interest  of  being  the  last  poet  of  the  free  re- 
public. In  his  life  and  in  his  art  he  was  the  precursor  of 
those  poets  who  used  their  genius  as  the  interpreter  and 
minister  of  pleasure ;  but  he  rises  above  them  in  the  spirit 
of  personal  independence,  in  his  affection  for  his  friends, 
in  his  keen  enjoyment  of  natural  and  simple  pleasures,  and 
in  his  power  of  giving  vital  expression  to  these  feelings. 

Third  Period :  Augustan  Age,  42  B.C.  to  17  A.D. 

The  poetic  impulse  and  culture  communicated  to  Roman 
literature  in  the  last  years  of  the  republic  passed  on  with- 
out any  break  of  continuity  into  the  literature  of  the 
succeeding  age.  One  or  two  of  the  circle  of  Catullus  sur- 
vived into  that  age  ;  but  an  entirely  new  spirit  came  over 
the  literature  of  the  new  period,  and  it  is  by  new  men, 
educated  indeed  under  the  same  literary  influences,  but 
living  in  an  altered  world  and  belonging  originally  to  a 
different  order  in  the  state,  that  the  new  spirit  was  ex- 
pressed. The  literature  of  the  later  republic  reflects  the  Influence 
sympathies  and  prejudices  of  an  aristocratic  class,  sharing  of  im- 
in  the  conduct  of  national  affairs  and  living  on  terms  of  P( 
equality  with  one  another  ; "  that  of  the  Augustan  age,  both 
in  its  early  serious  enthusiasm  and  in  the  licence  and  levity 
of  its  later  development,  represents  the  hopes  and  aspira- 
tions with  which  the  new  monarchy  was  ushered  into  the 
world,  and  the  pursuit  of  pleasure  and  amusement,  which 
becomes  the  chief  interest  of  a  class  cut  off  from  the  higher 
energies  of  practical  life,  and  moving  in  the  refining  and 
enervating  atmosphere  of  an  imperial  court.  The  great 
inspiring  influence  of  the  new  literature  was  the  enthu- 
siasm produced  first  by  the  hope  and  afterwards  by  the  ful- 
filment of  the  restoration  of  peace,  order,  national  glory, 
under  the  rule  of  Augustus.  All  that  the  age  longed  for 
seemed  to  be  embodied  in  a  man  who  had  both  in  his 

XX.  —  91 


722 


ROMAN      LITERATURE 


own  person  and  by  inheritance  the  natural  spell  which 
sways  the  imagination  of  the  world.  The  sentiment  of 
hero-worship  was  at  all  times  strong  in  the  Romans,  and 
no  one  was  ever  the  object  of  more  sincere  as  well  as 
simulated  hero-worship  than  Augustus.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, by  his  equals  in  station  that  the  first  feeling  was 
likely  to  be  entertained.  The  earliest  to  give  expression 
to  it  was  the  humbly-born  poet  from  the  Cisalpine  pro- 
vince ;  but  the  spell  was  soon  acknowledged  by  the  calmer 
and  more  worldly-wise  poet  whose  first  enthusiasm  had 
directed  him  into  the  opposite  camp.  The  disgust  aroused 
by  the  anti-national  policy  of  Antony,  and  the  danger  to 
the  empire  which  was  averted  by  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Actium,  with  the  confidence  inspired  by  the  new  ruler, 
combined  to  reconcile  the  great  families  as  well  as  the 
great  body  of  the  people  to  the  new  order  of  things. 

While  the  establishment  of  the  empire  produced  a  revival 
of  national  and  imperial  feeling,  it  suppressed  all  independ- 
ent political  thought  and  action.  Hence  the  two  great 
forms  of  prose  literature  which  drew  their  nourishment 
from  the  struggles  of  political  life,  oratory  and  contem- 
porary history,  were  arrested  in  their  development.  The 
chief  interest  of  letter-writing  had  consisted  in  its  being 
the  medium  of  interchange  of  thought  on  politics,  and 
thus,  although  correspondence  between  friends  still  went 
on  as  before,  no  collection  of  letters  was  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  be  preserved.  The  main  course  of  literature 
was  thus  for  a  time  diverted  into  poetry.  That  poetry 
in  its  most  elevated  form  aimed  at  being  the  organ  of  the 
new  empire  and  of  realizing  the  national  ideals  of  life  and 
character  under  its  auspices ;  and  in  carrying  out  this  aim 
it  sought  to  recall  the  great  memories  of  the  past.  It 
became  also  the  organ  of  the  pleasures  and  interests  of 
private  life,  the  chief  motives  of  which  were  the  love  of 
nature  and  the  passion  of  love.  It  sought  also  to  make 
the  art  and  poetry  of  Greece  live  a  new  artistic  life.  Satire, 
debarred  from  that  comment  on  political  action  which  had 
been  open  to  Lucilius  and  to  Catullus  and  Calvus  under 
the  republic,  turned  to  social  and  individual  life,  and  com- 
bined with  the  newly-developed  taste  for  ethical  analysis 
and  reflexion  introduced  by  Cicero.  One  great  work  had 
still  to  be  done  in  prose — a  retrospect  of  the  past  history 
of  the  state  from  an  idealizing  and  romanticizing  point  of 
view.  For  that  work  the  Augustan  age,  as  the  end  of  one 
great  cycle  of  events  and  the  beginning  of  another,  was 
eminently  suited,  and  a  writer  who,  by  his  gifts  of  imagina- 
tion and  sympathy,  was  perhaps  better  fitted  than  any 
other  man  of  antiquity  for  the  task,  and  who  throiigh  the 
whole  of  this  period  lived  a  life  of  literary  leisure,  was 
found  to  do  justice  to  the  subject. 

Although  the  age  did  not  afford  that  free  scope  and 
stimulus  to  individual  energy  and  enterprise  which  have 
been  the  conditions  under  which  the  most  truly  creative 
literature  has  flourished,  no  age  afforded  more  material 
and  social  advantages  for  the  peaceful  cultivation  of  letters. 
The  new  influence  of  patronage,  which  in  other  times  has 
chilled  the  genial  current  of  literature,  became,  in  the 
person  of  Maecenas,  the  medium  through  which  literature 
and  the  imperial  policy  were  brought  into  union.  Poetry 
thus  acquired  the  tone  of  the  world,  kept  in  close  connexion 
with  the  chief  source  of  national  life,  while  it  was  culti- 
vated to  the  highest  pitch  of  artistic  perfection  under  the 
most  favourable  conditions  of  leisure  and  freedom  from 
the  distractions  and  anxieties  of  life. 

The  earliest  in  the  order  of  time  of  the  poets  who  adorn 
this  age — Virgil  (70-19) — is  also  the  greatest  in  genius, 
the  most  richly  cultivated,  and  the  most  perfect  in  art. 
He  is  the  idealizing  poet  of  the  hopes  and  aspirations  and 
of  the  purer  and  happier  life  of  which  the  age  seemed  to 
contain  the  promise.  He  elevates  the  present  by  associat- 


ing it  with  the  past  and  future  of  the  Avorld,  and  sancti- 
fies it  by  seeing  in  it  the  fulfilment  of  a  divine  purpose. 
Poetry  is  no  longer,  as  in  the  previous  generation,  in  dis- 
cord with  the  dominant  tendency  of  affairs,  but  in  harmony 
with  all  that  was  restorative  of  the  peace,  order,  and 
happiness  of  the  world.  Virgil  is  the  true  representative 
poet  of  Rome  and  Italy,  of  national  glory  and  of  the 
beauty  of  nature,  the  artist  in  whom  all  the  efforts  of  the 
past  were  made  perfect,  and  the  unapproachable  standard 
of  excellence  to  future  times.  While  more  richly  endowed 
with  sensibility  to  all  native  influences,  he  was  more  deeply 
imbued  than  any  of  his  contemporaries  with  the  poetry, 
the  thought,  and  the  learning  of  Greece.  It  was  by  lean- 
ing on  these  supports  that  his  genius  felt  its  way  and 
expanded  into  higher  and  wider  development.  His  art 
begins  in  imitation  of  the  cadences,  the  diction,  and  the 
pastoral  fancies  of  Theocritus  ;  but  even  in  these  imitative 
poems  of  his  youth  we  see  that  he  is  perfect  master  of 
his  materials.  The  Latin  hexameter,  which  in  Ennius  and 
Lucretius  was  the  organ  of  the  more  dignified  and  majestic 
emotions,  became  in  his  hands  the  most  perfect  measure 
in  which  the  softer  and  more  luxurious  sentiment  of  nature 
has  been  expressed ;  and  the  Latin  language  was  enriched 
with  its  sweetest  and  most  musical  variations.  The  senti- 
ment of  Italian  scenery  and  the  love  which  the  Italian 
peasant  has  for  the  familiar  sights  and  sounds  of  his  home 
found  a  voice  wrhich  never  can  pass  away ;  and  the  joy 
and  pain  of  the  passion  of  love  were  revealed  in  these  poems 
in  a  way  as  yet  unapprehended  by  the  world.  In  this 
the  earliest  and  least  serious  effort  of  Virgil's  genius  there 
is  no  immaturity  of  art,  and  in  poems  outwardly  most 
remote  from  the  current  of  active  life  there  is  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  master-force  by  which  that  current  was  destined 
to  be  impelled  and  controlled. 

In  his  next  poem,  the  G'eorgics,  we  are  struck  by  the 
great  advance  in  the  originality  and  self-dependence  of  the 
artist,  in  the  mature  perfection  of  his  workmanship,  in  the 
deepening  and  strengthening  of  all  his  sympathies  and 
convictions.  His  genius  still  works  under  forms  prescribed 
by  Greek  art,  and  under  the  disadvantage  of  having  a 
practical  and  utilitarian  aim  imposed  on  it.  But  he  has 
even  in  form  so  far  surpassed  his  originals  that  he  alone 
has  gained  for  the  pure  didactic  poem  a  place  among  the 
highest  forms  of  serious  poetry,  while  he  has  so  transmuted 
his  material  that,  without  violation  of  truth,  he  has  made 
the  whole  poem  alive  with  poetic  feeling.  The  homeliest 
details  of  the  farmer's  work  are  transfigured  through  the 
magical  potency  of  the  poet's  love  of  nature  in  her  imme- 
diate charm  of  sight  and  sound  and  in  her  all-pervading 
presence,  especially  as  that  charm  and  presence  reveal 
themselves  in  the  land  and  climate  of  Italy  ;  through  his 
religious  feeling  and  his  pious  sympathy  with  the  sanc- 
tities of  human  affection  ;  through  his  patriotic  sympathy 
with  the  national  greatness ;  and  through  the  rich  allu- 
siveness  of  his  art  to  everything  in  poetry  and  legend 
which  can  illustrate  and  glorify  his  theme. 

In  the  Pastoral  Poems  and  Georgics  Virgil  is  the  idealiz- 
ing poet  of  the  beauty  and  of  the  old  simple  and  hardy 
life  of  Italy,  as  the  imagination  could  conceive  of  it  in  an 
altered  world.  In  the  sEneid  he  is  the  idealizing  poet  of 
national  glory,  especially  as  that  glory  was  manifested  in 
the  person  of  Augustus.  The  epic  of  national  life,  vividly 
conceived  but  rudely  executed  by  Ennius,  was  perfected 
in  the  years  that  followed  the  decisive  victory  at  Actium. 
To  do  justice  to  his  idea  Virgil  enters  into  rivalry  with  a 
greater  poet  than  those  whom  he  had  equalled  or  sur- 
passed in  his  previous  works.  And,  though  he  cannot 
unroll  before  us  the  page  of  heroic  action  with  the  power 
and  majesty  of  Homer,  yet  by  the  sympathy  with  which 
he  realizes  the  idea  of  Rome,  and  by  the  power  with  which 


ROMAN     LITERATURE 


723 


lie  has  used  the  details  of  tradition,  of  local  scenes,  of  reli- 
gious usage,  to  embody  it,  he  has  built  up  in  the  form  of 
an  epic  poem  the  most  enduring  and  the  most  artistically 
constructed  monument  of  national  grandeur. 
[oce.  The  second  great  poet  of  the  time — Horace  (65-8) — holds 
a  lower  place  in  the  reverence  of  the  world,  but  is  perhaps 
as  much  loved  and  is  even  more  largely  and  familiarly 
known.  He  is  both  the  realist  and  the  idealist  of  his  age. 
If  we  want  to  know  the  actual  lives,  manners,  and  ways 
of  thinking  of  the  Romans  of  the  generation  succeeding 
the  overthrow  of  the  republic  it  is  in  the  Satires  and  par- 
tially in  the  Epistles  of  Horace  that  we  shall  find  them. 
If  we  ask  what  there  was  in  the  life  of  that  time  of  more 
exquisite  or  more  piquant  charm,  of  more  elevated  enthu- 
siasm, of  graver  experience,  to  stir  the  fancy  and  move  the 
mood  of  imaginative  reflexion,  it  is  in  the  lyrical  poems  of 
Horace  that  we  shall  find  the  most  varied  and  trustworthy 
answer.  He  was  prepared  for  his  double  task  by  the 
experience  of  life  and  his  strong  hold  on  the  actual  world, 
and  by  drinking  long  and  deeply  of  the  purer  and  more 
remote  sources  of  Greek  inspiration. 

His  literary  activity  extends  over  about  thirty  years  and 
naturally  divides  itself  into  three  periods,  each  marked  by 
a  distinct  character.  The  first — extending  from  about  40 
to  29 — is  that  of  the  composition  of  the  Epodes  and  Satires. 
In  the  former  he  imitates  the  Greek  poet  Archilochus,  but 
takes  his  subjects  from  the  men,  women,  and  incidents  of 
the  day.  They  are  the  expression  of  the  least  happy  part 
of  his  career  and  the  least  estimable  side  of  his  nature. 
His  humorous  observation  of  life  and  the  more  serious 
grain  in  his  character  found  more  congenial  occupation  in 
perfecting  the  national  work  of  Lucilius  than  in  introduc- 
ing "  the  Parian  iambics  to  Latium."  Personality  is  the 
essence  of  his  Epodes ;  in  the  Satires  it  is  used  merely  as 
illustrative  of  general  tendencies.  In  the  Satires  we  find 
realistic  pictures  of  social  life,  and  the  conduct  and  opin- 
ions of  the  world  submitted  to  the  standard  of  good  feeling 
and  common  sense.  The  style  of  the  Epodes  is  pointed  and 
epigrammatic,  that  of  the  Satires  natural  and  familiar. 
The  hexameter  no  longer,  as  in  Lucilius,  moves  awkwardly 
as  if  in  fetters,  but,  like  the  language  of  Terence,  of 
Catullus  in  his  lighter  pieces,  of  Cicero  in  his  letters  to 
Atticus,  adapts  itself  to  the  everyday  intercourse  of  life. 
The  next  period  is  the  meridian  of  his  genius,  the  time 
of  his  greatest  lyrical  inspiration,  which  he  himself  asso- 
ciates with  the  peace  and  leisure  secured  to  him  by  his 
Sabine  farm.  The  spirit  of  the  child  who  had  lost  himself 
on  Monte  Voltore  seemed  to  come  back  to  him  in  his  lonely 
wanderings  among  the  Sabine  hills.  The  life  of  pleasure 
which  he  had  lived  in  his  youth  comes  back  to  him,  not 
as  it  was  in  its  actual  distractions  and  disappointments, 
but  in  the  idealizing  light  of  meditative  retrospect.  He 
had  not  only  become  reconciled  to  the  new  order  of  things, 
but  was  moved  by  his  intimate  friendship  with  Maecenas 
to  aid  in  raising  the  world  to  sympathy  with  the  imperial 
rule  through  the  medium  of  his  lyrical  inspiration,  as  Virgil 
had  through  the  glory  of  his  epic  art.  With  the  comple- 
tion of  the  three  books  of  Odes  he  cast  aside  for  a  time 
the  office  of  the  "  vates,"  and  resumed  that  of  the  critical 
spectator  of  human  life,  but  in  the  spirit  of  a  moralist 
rather  than  a  satirist.  He  feels  the  increasing  languor  of 
the  time  as  well  as  the  languor  of  advancing  years,  and 
seeks  to  encourage  younger  men  to  take  up  the  role  of 
lyrical  poetry,  while  he  devotes  himself  to  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  true  art  of  living.  Self-culture  rather  than 
the  fulfilment  of  public  or  social  duty,  as  in  the  moral 
teaching  of  Cicero,  is  the  aim  of  his  teaching ;  and  in  this 
we  recognize  the  influence  of  the  empire  in  throwing  the 
individual  back  on  himself.  As  Cicero  tones  down  his 
oratory  in  his  moral  treatises,  so  Horace  tones  down  the 


fervour  of  his  lyrical  utterances  in  his  Epistles,  and  thus 
produces  a  style  combining  the  ease  of  the  best  epistolary 
style  with  the  grace  and  concentration  of  poetry, — the  style, 
as  it  has  been  called,  of  "  idealized  common  sense,"  that  of 
the  "  urbanus "  and  cultivated  man  of  the  world  who  is 
also  in  his  hours  of  inspiration  a  genuine  poet.  In  the 
last  decennium  of  his  life  he  resumed  for  a  time,  under 
pressure  of  the  imperial  command,  his  lyrical  function,  and 
produced  some  of  the  most  exquisite  and  mature  products 
of  his  art.  But  his  chief  activity  is  devoted  to  criticism. 
He  first  vindicates  the  claims  of  his  own  age  to  literary 
pre-eminence,  and  then  seeks  to  stimulate  the  younger 
writers  of  the  day  to  what  he  regarded  as  the  manlier 
forms  of  poetry,  and  especially  to  the  tragic  drama,  which 
seemed  for  a  short  time  to  give  promise  of  an  artistic 
revival.  It  seems  strange  that,  although  he  must  have 
known  the  writings  of  Propertius  and  the  earlier  writings 
of  Ovid,  he  has  no  word  of  recognition  for  them.  And, 
though  he  writes  to  Tibullus  with  friendly  regard,  he 
seems  to  value  him  as  a  student  of  philosophy  more  than 
as  a  poet,  and  says  nothing  to  indicate  that  he  believed 
his  work  would  be  more  enduring  than  that  of  Titius  or 
Julius  Florus  or  lulus  Antonius. 

But  the  poetry  of  the  latter  half  of  the  Augustan  age 
destined  to  survive  did  not  follow  the  lines  either  of  lyrical 
or  of  dramatic  art  marked  out  for  them  by  Horace.  The 
latest  form  of  poetry  adopted  from  Greece  and  destined  to 
gain  and  permanently  to  hold  the  ear  of  the  world  was  the 
elegy.  From  the  time  of  Mimnermus  this  form  seems  to 
have  presented  itself  as  the  most  natural  vehicle  for  the 
poetry  of  pleasure  in  an  age  of  luxury,  refinement,  and 
incipient  decay.  Its  facile  flow  and  rhythm  seem  to  adapt 
it  to  the  expression  and  illustration  of  personal  feeling. 
It  goes  to  the  mind  of  the  reader  through  a  medium  of 
sentiment  rather  than  of  continuous  thought  or  imaginative 
illustration.  The  greatest  masters  of  this  kind  of  poetry 
are  the  elegiac  poets  of  the  Augustan  age, — Tibullus,  Pro- 
pertius, and  Ovid.  Of  these  Tibullus  (d.  19)  is  the  most  Tibullus. 
refined  and  tender.  As  the  poet  of  love  he  gives  utterance 
to  the  pensive  melancholy  rather  than  to  the  pleasures 
associated  with  it.  In  his  sympathy  with  the  life  and 
beliefs  of  the  country  people  he  shows  an  affinity  both  to 
the  idyllic  spirit  and  to  the  piety  of  Virgil.  There  is 
something,  too,  in  his  fastidious  refinement  and  in  his 
shrinking  from  the  rough  contact  of  life  that  reminds  us 
of  the  English  poet  Gray. 

A  poet  of  more  strength  and  more  powerful  imagination,  Proper- 
but  of  less  refinement  in  his  life  and  less  exquisite  taste tius- 
in  his  art,  is  Propertius  (c.  50 -c.  15),  "the  Roman  Calli- 
machus."  His  youth  was  a  more  stormy  one  than  that  of 
Tibullus,  and  was  passed,  not  like  his,  among  the  "healthy 
woods  "  of  his  country  estate,  but  amid  all  the  licence  of 
the  capital.  His  passion  for  Cynthia,  the  theme  of  his 
most  finished  poetry,  is  second  only  in  interest  to  that  of 
Catullus  for  Lesbia ;  and  Cynthia  in  her  fascination  and 
caprices  seems  a  more  real  and  intelligible  personage  than 
the  idealized  object  first  of  the  idolatry  and  afterwards  of 
the  malediction  of  Catullus.  Propertius  is  a  less  accom- 
plished artist  and  a  less  equably  pleasing  writer  than  either 
Tibullus  or  Ovid,  but  he  shows  more  power  of  dealing 
gravely  with  a  great  or  tragic  situation  than  either  of 
them,  and  his  diction  and  rhythm  give  frequent  proof  of  a 
concentrated  force  of  conception  and  a  corresponding  move- 
ment of  imaginative  feeling  which  remind  us  of  Lucretius. 

The  most  facile  and  brilliant  of  the  elegiac  poets  and  the  Ovid. 
least  serious  in  tone  and  spirit  is  Ovid  (43  B.C.-17  A.D.), 
the  latest  in  order  of  time.  As  an  amatory  poet  he  is  the 
poet  of  pleasure  and  intrigue  rather  than  of  tender  senti- 
ment or  absorbing  passion.  Though  he  treats  his  subject 
in  relation  to  himself  with  more  levity  and  irony  than  real 


724 


ROMAN      LITERATURE 


feeling,  yet  he  alone  among  the  elegiac  poets  is  able  to 
embody  it  in  dramatic  form,  and  by  his  vivid  gifts  of  fancy 
to  create  a  literature  of  romantic  passion  and  adventure 
adapted  to  amuse  and  fascinate  the  idle  and  luxurious 
society  of  which  the  elder  Julia  was  the  centre.  The  power 
of  continuous  narrative  is  best  seen  in  the  Kfetamorphoses, 
written  in  hexameters,  to  which  he  has  imparted  a  rapidity 
and  fluidity  of  movement  more  suited  to  romantic  and  pic- 
turesque narrative  than  the  weighty  self -restrained  verse 
of  Virgil.  In  his  Fasti  he  treats  a  subject  of  national 
interest;  it  is  not,  however,  through  the  strength  of  Roman 
sentiment  but  through  the  power  of  vividly  conceiving 
and  narrating  stories  of  strong  human  interest  that  the 
poem  lives.  In  his  latest  works — the  Tristia  and  Ex 
Ponto — he  imparts  the  interest  of  personal  confessions  to 
the  record  of  a  unique  experience.  Latin  poetry  is  more 
rich  in  the  expression  of  personal  feeling  than  of  dramatic 
imagination.  In  Ovid  we  have  both.  We  know  him  in 
the  intense  liveliness  of  his  feeling  and  the  human  weak- 
ness of  his  nature  more  intimately  than  any  other  writer 
of  antiquity,  except  perhaps  Cicero.  As  Virgil  marks  the 
point  of  maturest  excellence  in  poetic  diction  and  rhythm, 
Ovid  marks  that  of  the  greatest  facility. 

The  Augustan  age  was  one  of  those  great  eras  in  the 
world,  like  the  era  succeeding  the  Persian  War  in  Greece, 
the  Elizabethan  age  in  England,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  in  Europe,  in  which  what  seems  a  new 
spring  of  national  and  individual  life  calls  out  an  idealizing 
retrospect  of  the  past.  As  the  present  seems  full  of  new 
life,  the  past  seems  rich  in  glory  and  the  future  in  hope. 
The  past  of  Rome  had  always  a  peculiar  fascination  for 
Roman  writers.  Virgil  in  a  supreme  degree,  and  Horace, 
Propertius,  and  Ovid  in  a  less  degree,  had  expressed  in 
their  poetry  the  romance  of  the  past.  But  it  was  in  the 
great  historical  work  of  Livy  (59  B.C.-17  A.D.)  that  the 
record  of  the  national  life,  coloured  by  idealizing  retro- 
spect, received  its  most  systematic  exposition.  The  con- 
ception of  his  work  must  have  nearly  coincided  in  point 
of  time  with  the  impulses  in  which  the  JEneid  and  the 
national  Odes  of  Horace  had  their  origin.  Its  execution 
was  the  work  of  a  life  prolonged  through  the  languor  and 
dissolution  following  so  soon  upon  the  promise  of  the  new 
era,  during  which  time  the  past  became  glorified  by  con- 
trast with  the  disheartening  aspect  of  the  present.  The 
value  of  the  work  consists  not  in  any  power  of  critical  in- 
vestigation or  weighing  of  historical  evidence  but  in  the 
intense  sympathy  of  the  writer  with  the  national  ideal,  and 
the  vivid  imagination  with  which  under  the  influence  of 
this  sympathy  he  gives  life  to  the  events  and  personages, 
the  wars  and  political  struggles,  of  times  remote  from  his 
own.  Although  he  has  no  accurate  conception  of  the  con- 
stitutional history  of  the  state,  yet  nowhere  else  in  ancient 
history  do  we  find  the  patrician  and  plebeian  forces  in  a 
.state  by  which  that  history  is  worked  out  so  vividly  and 
dramatically  embodied.  He  makes  us  feel  more  than  any 
one  the  majesty  of  the  Roman  state,  of  its  great  magis- 
tracies, and  of  the  august  council  by  which  its  policy  was 
guided.  And,  while  he  makes  the  words  "  senatus  popu- 
lusque  Romanus  "  full  of  significance  for  all  times,  no  one 
realizes  with  more  enthusiasm  all  that  is  implied  in  the 
words  "imperium  Romanum,"  and  the  great  military  quali- 
ties of  head  and  heart  by  which  that  empire  was  acquired 
and  maintained.  While  the  general  conception  of  his  work 
is  thus  animated  by  national  enthusiasm,  the  details  are 
filled  up  with  all  the  resources  of  a  vivid  imagination  and 
of  literary  art.  The  vast  scale  on  which  the  work  was 
conceived  and  the  thoroughness  of  artistic  execution  with 
which  the  details  are  finished  are  characteristically  Roman. 
The  prose  style  of  Rome,  as  a  vehicle  for  the  continuous 
narration  of  events  coloured  by  a  rich  and  picturesque 


imagination  and  vivified  by  dignified  emotion,  attained  its 
perfection  in  him. 

Fourth  Pernod:  from  17  to  about  130  A.D. 

For  more  than  a  century  after  the  death  of  Augustus  Charac 
Roman  literature  continues  to  flow  in  the  old  channels,  teristic 
Rome  continues  the  centre  of  the  literary  movement.  The  .f  p 
characteristics  of  the  great  writers  are  essentially  national, 
not  provincial  nor  cosmopolitan.  In  prose  the  old  forms 
— oratory,  history,  the  epistle,  treatises  or  dialogues  on 
ethical  and  literary  questions — continue  to  be  cultivated. 
Scientific  and  practical  subjects,  such  as  natural  history, 
architecture,  medicine,  agriculture,  are  treated  in  more 
elaborate  literary  style.  The  old  Roman  satura  is  devel- 
oped into  something  like  the  modern  prose  novel.  In  the 
various  provinces  of  poetry,  while  there  is  little  novelty  or 
inspiration,  there  is  abundance  of  industry  and  ambitious 
effort.  The  national  love  of  works  of  large  compass  shows 
itself  in  the  production  of  long  epic  poems,  both  of  the 
historic  and  of  the  imitative  Alexandrian  type.  Out  of 
many  others  four  of  these  have  been  preserved,  two  at 
least  of  which  the  world  might  have  allowed  to  perish 
without  sensible  diminution  to  its  literary  wealth.  The 
imitative  and  rhetorical  tastes  of  Rome  showed  themselves 
in  the  composition  of  exotic  tragedies,  as  remote  in  spirit 
and  character  from  Greek  as  from  Roman  life,  of  which 
the  only  extant  specimens  are  those  attributed  to  the 
younger  Seneca.  The  composition  of  didactic,  lyrical,  and 
elegiac  poetry  also  was  the  accomplishment  and  pastime  of 
an  educated  dilettante  class.  The  only  extant  specimens 
of  any  interest  are  some  of  the  Silvx  of  Statius.  The  only 
voice  with  which  the  poet  of  this  age  can  express  himself 
with  force  and  sincerity  is  that  of  satire  and  satiric  epi- 
gram. Ovid  was  the  last  of  the  true  poets  of  Rome  who 
combined  idealizing  power  of  imagination  with  artistic 
originality.  After  him  we  find  only  imitative  echoes  of 
the  old  music  created  by  Virgil  and  others,  as  in  Statius, 
or  powerful  declamation,  as  in  Lucan  and  Juvenal.  There 
is  a  deterioration  in  the  diction  as  well  as  in  the  music  of 
poetry.  The  elaborate  literary  culture  of  the  Augustan 
age  has  done  something  to  impair  the  native  force  of  the 
Latin  idiom.  The  language  of  literature,  in  the  most 
elaborate  kind  of  prose  as  well  as  poetry,  loses  all  ring  of 
popular  speech.  The  old  oratorical  tastes  and  aptitudes 
find  their  outlet  in  public  recitations  and  the  practice  of 
declamation.  Forced  and  distorted  expression,  exagger- 
ated emphasis,  point  and  antithesis,  an  affected  prettiness, 
"melliti  verborum  globuli,"  were  studied  with  the  view 
of  gaining  the  applause  of  audiences  who  thronged  the 
lecture  and  recitation  rooms  in  search  of  temporary  excite- 
ment. Education  was  more  widely  diffused,  but  was  less 
thorough,  less  leisurely  in  its  method,  less  than  before  de- 
rived from  the  purer  sources  of  culture.  The  precocious 
immaturity  of  Lucan's  career  affords  a  marked  contrast  to 
the  long  preparation  of  Virgil  and  Horace  for  their  high 
office.  Although  there  are  some  works  of  the  Silver  Age  of 
considerable  and  one  at  least  of  supreme  interest,  from 
the  insight  they  afford  into  the  experience  of  a  century  of 
organized  despotism  and  its  effect  on  the  spiritual  life  of 
the  ancient  world,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  steady 
literary  decline  which  characterized  the  last  centuries  of 
paganism  begins  with  the  death  of  Ovid  and  Livy.  Jl 
the  world  had  not  altogether  ceased  to  produce  men  of 
genius,  the  conditions  under  which  their  genius  could  unfold 
itself  were  no  longer  the  same.  The  influences  which  hail 
inspired  the  republican  and  Augustan  literature  were  the 
artistic  impulse  derived  from  a  familiarity  with  the  great 
works  of  Greek  genius,  becoming  more  intimate  with  every 
new  generation,  the  spell  of  Rome  over  the  imagination  of 
the  kindred  Italian  races,  the  charm  of  Italy,  and  the  vivid 


ROMAN      LITERATURE 


725 


sensibility  of  the  Italian  temperament.  These  influences 
were  certainly  much  less  operative  in  the  first  century  of 
the  empire.  The  imitative  impulse,  which  had  much  of 
the  character  of  a  creative  impulse,  and  had  resulted  in 
the  appropriation  of  the  forms  of  poetry  suited  to  the 
Roman  and  Italian  character  and  of  the  metres  suited  to 
the  genius  of  the  Latin  language,  no  longer  stimulated  to 
artistic  effort.  The  great  sources  of  Greek  poetry  were 
no  longer  regarded,  as  they  were  by  Lucretius  and  Virgil, 
as  "integri"  and  "sancti  fontes,"  and  approached  in  a 
spirit  at  once  of  daring  adventure  and  reverential  enthusi- 
asm.1 We  have  the  testimony  of  two  men  of  the  shrewdest 
common  sense  and  the  most  masculine  understanding — 
Martial  and  Juvenal — to  the  stale  and  lifeless  character  of 
the  art  of  the  Silver  Age,  which  sought  to  reproduce  in  the 
form  of  epics,  tragedies,  and  elegies  the  bright  fancies  of 
the  Greek  mythology. 

The  idea  of  Rome,  owing  to  the  antagonism  between 
the  policy  of  the  Government  and  the  sympathies  of  the 
class  by  which  literature  was  favoured  and  cultivated, 
could  no  longer  be  an  inspiring  motive,  as  it  had  been  in 
the  literature  of  the  republic  and  of  the  Augustan  age. 
The  spirit  of  Rome  appears  only  as  animating  the  protest 
of  Lucan,  the  satire  of  Persius  and  Juvenal,  the  sombre 
picture  which  Tacitus  paints  of  the  annals  of  the  empire. 
Oratory  is  no  longer  an  independent  voice  appealing  to 
sentiments  of  Roman  dignity,  but  the  weapon  of  the 
"  delatores,"  wielded  for  their  own  advancement  and  the 
destruction  of  that  class  which,  even  in  their  degeneracy, 
retained  most  sympathy  with  the  national  traditions. 
Roman  history  was  no  longer  a  record  of  national  glory, 
stimulating  the  patriotism  and  flattering  the  pride  of  all 
Roman  citizens,  but  a  personal  eulogy  or  a  personal  invec- 
tive, according  as  servility  to  a  present  or  hatred  of  a 
recent  ruler  was  the  motive  which  animated  it. 

The  charm  of  Italian  scenes  still  remained  the  same, 
but  the  fresh  and  inspiring  feeling  of  nature  as  a  great 
power  in  the  world,  a  great  restorative  influence  on  human 
life,  gave  place  to  the  mere  sensuous  gratification  derived 
from  the  luxurious  and  artificial  beauty  of  the  country 
villa.  The  idealizing  poetry  of  passion,  which  found  a 
genuine  voice  in  Catullus  and  the  elegiac  poets,  could  not 
prolong  itself  through  the  exhausting  licence  of  successive 
generations.  The  vigorous  vitality  which  gives  interest 
to  the  personality  of  Catullus,  Propertius,  and  Ovid  no 
longer  characterizes  their  successors.  The  pathos  of  natural 
affection  is  occasionally  recognized  in  Statius  and  more 
rarely  in  Martial,  but  it  has  not  the  depth  of  tenderness 
found  in  Lucretius  and  Virgil.  Human  life  is  altogether 
shallower,  has  the  same  capacity  for  neither  joy  nor  sorrow. 
The  wealth  and  luxury  of  succeeding  generations,  the 
monotonous  routine  of  life,  the  separation  of  the  educated 
class  from  the  higher  work  of  the  world,  have  produced 
their  enervating  and  paralysing  effect  on  the  mainsprings 
of  poetic  and  imaginative  feeling. 

New  elements,  however,  appear  in  the  literature  of  this 
aiT  period.  As  the  result  of  the  severance  from  the  active 
n  s'  interests  of  life,  a  new  interest  is  awakened  in  the  inner 
life  of  the  individual.  The  extreme  immorality  of  the  age 
not  only  affords  abundant  material  to  the  satirist  but 
deepens  the  consciousness  of  moral  evil  in  purer  and  more 
thoughtful  minds.  To  these  causes  we  attribute  the  patho- 
logical observation  of  Seneca  and  Tacitus,  the  new  sense 
of  purity  in  Persius  called  out  by  contrast  with  the  im- 
purity around  him,  the  glowing  if  somewhat  sensational 
exaggeration  of  Juvenal,  the  vivid  characterization  of 
Martial.  The  literature  of  no  time  presents  so  powerfully 


1  Contrast  with  the  "juvat  integros  accedere  fontes"  and  the 
"sanctos  ausus  recludere  fontes"  of  the  older  poets  the  first  line  of 
Persius's  prologue  "  nee  foiite  labra  prolui  caballiuo." 


the  contrast  between  moral  good  and  evil.  In  this  respect 
it  is  truly  representative  of  the  life  of  the  age.  Another 
new  element  is  the  influence  of  a  new  race.  In  the  two 
preceding  periods  the  rapid  diffusion  of  literary  culture 
following  the  Social  War  and  the  first  Civil  War  was  seen 
to  awaken  into  new  life  the  elements  of  original  genius 
in  Italy  and  Cisalpine  Gaul.  In  the  first  century  of  the 
empire  a  similar  result  was  produced  by  the  diffusion  of 
that  culture  in  the  Latinized  districts  of  Spain.  The 
fervid  temperament  of  a  fresh  and  vigorous  race,  which 
received  the  Latin  discipline  just  as  Latium  had  two  or 
three  centuries  previously  received  the  Greek  discipline, 
revealed  itself  in  the  writings  of  the  Senecas,  Lucan, 
Quintilian,  Martial,  and  others,  who  in  their  own  time 
added  literary  distinction  to  the  Spanish  towns  from  which 
they  came.  This  new  cosmopolitan  element  introduced 
into  Roman  literature  draws  into  greater  prominence  the 
characteristics  of  the  last  great  representatives  of  the 
genuine  Roman  and  Italian  spirit, — Tacitus  and  Juvenal. 

On  the  whole  this  century  shows,  in  form,  language, 
and  substance,  the  beginning  of  literary  decay.  But  it  is 
still  capable  of  producing  men  of  original  force ;  it  still 
maintains  the  traditions  of  a  happier  time ;  it  is  still  alive 
to  the  value  of  literary  culture,  and  endeavours  by  minute 
attention  to  style  to  produce  new  effects.  Though  it  was 
not  one  of  the  great  eras  in  the  annals  of  literature,  yet 
the  century  which  produced  Martial,  Juvenal,  and  Tacitus 
cannot  be  pronounced  barren  in  literary  originality,  nor 
that  which  produced  Seneca  and  Quintilian  in  culture  and 
literary  taste. 

This  fourth  period  is  itself  subdivided  into  three  divi- 
sions : — (1)  that  extending  from  the  accession  of  Tiberius 
to  the  death  of  Nero,  68, — the  only  important  part  of  it 
being  the  Neronian  age,  54  to  68 ;  (2)  the  Flavian  era, 
from  the  death  of  Nero  to  the  death  of  Domitian,  96 ; 
(3)  the  period  included  in  the  reigns  of  Nerva  and  Trajan 
and  part  of  the  reign  of  Hadrian. 

(1)  For  a  generation  after  the  death  of  Augustus  no  Period 
new  original  literary  force  appeared.  The  later  poetry  of  from  . 
the  Augustan  age  had  ended  in  trifling  dilettanteism,  for  , :  J;m 
the  continuance  of  which  the  atmosphere  of  the  court  was 
no  longer  favourable.  The  class  by  which  literature  was 
encouraged  had  become  both  enervated  and  terrorized. 
The  Fables  of  Phaedrus,  the  Pierian  freedman,  a  work 
of  no  kind  of  national  significance  and  representative  in 
its  morality  only  of  the  spirit  of  cosmopolitan  individual- 
ism, is  the  chief  poetical  product  of  the  time.  Velleius 
Paterculus  and  Valerius  Maximus  are  the  most  important 
prose-writers.  The  traditional  culture  was  still,  however, 
maintained,  and  the  age  was  rich  in  grammarians  and 
rhetoricians.  The  new  profession  of  the  "  delator  "  must 
have  given  a  stimulus  to  oratory.  A  high  ideal  of  culture, 
literary  as  well  as  practical,  was  realized  in  Germanicus, 
which  seems  to  have  been  transmitted  to  his  daughter 
Agrippina,  whose  patronage  of  Seneca  had  important 
results  in  the  next  generation.  The  reign  of  Claudius 
was  a  time  in  which  antiquarian  learning,  grammatical 
studies,  and  jurisprudence  were  cultivated,  but  no  import- 
ant additions  were  made  to  literature.  A  fresh  impulse 
was  given  to  letters  on  the  accession  of  Nero,  and  this 
was  partly  due  to  the  theatrical  and  artistic  tastes  of  the 
young  emperor.  Four  writers  of  the  Neronian  age  still 
possess  considerable  interest, — Seneca,  Lucan,  Persius, 
and  Petronius.  The  first  three  represent  the  spirit  of 
their  age  by  exhibiting  the  power  of  the  Stoic  philosophy 
as  a  moral,  political,  and  religious  force ;  the  last  is  the 
most  cynical  exponent  of  the  depravity  of  the  time. 
Seneca  (d.  65)  is  less  than  Persius  a  pure  Stoic,  and  more 
of  a  moralist  and  pathological  observer  of  man's  inner  life. 
He  makes  the  commonplaces  of  a  cosmopolitan  philosophy 


726 


ROMAN      LITERATUE 


interesting  by  his  abundant  illustration  drawn  from  the 
private  and  social  life  of  his  contemporaries.  He  has 
knowledge  of  the  world,  the  suppleness  of  a  courtier, 
Spanish  vivacity,  and  the  "  ingenium  amoenum  "  attributed 
to  him  by  Tacitus,  the  fruit  of  which  is  sometimes  seen  in 
the  "honeyed  phrases"  mentioned  by  Petronius, — pure 
aspirations  combined  with  inconsistency  of  purpose, — the 
inconsistency  of  one  who  tries  to  make  the  best  of  two 
worlds,  the  ideal  inner  life  and  the  successful  real  life  in 
the  atmosphere  of  a  most  corrupt  court.  The  Pharsalia  of 
Lucan  (39-65),  with  Cato  as  its  hero,  is  essentially  a  Stoical 
manifesto  of  the  opposition.  It  is  written  with  the  force  and 
fervour  of  extreme  youth  and  with  the  literary  ambition  of 
a  race  as  yet  new  to  the  discipline  of  intellectual  culture, 
and  is  endowed  with  a  rhetorical  rather  than  a  poetical 
imagination.  The  Satires  of  Persius  (34-62)  are  the  purest 
product  of  Stoicism, — a  Stoicism  that  had  found  in  a  living 
contemporary,  Thrasea,  a  more  rational  and  practical  hero 
than  Cato.  But  no  important  writer  of  antiquity  has  less 
literary  charm  than  Persius.  He  either  would  not  or  could 
not  say  anything  simply  and  naturally.  In  avoiding  the 
literary  conceits  and  fopperies  which  he  satirizes  he  has 
recourse  to  the  most  unnatural  contortions  of  expression. 
Of  the  works  of  the  time  that  which  from  a  human  point 
of  view  is  perhaps  the  most  detestable  in  ancient  literature 
has  the  most  genuine  literary  quality,  the  fragment  of  the 
prose  novel  of  Petronius.  It  is  most  sincere  in  its  repre- 
sentation, least  artificial  in  diction,  most  penetrating  in  its 
satire,  most  just  in  its  criticism  of  art  and  style. 

(2)  A  greater  sobriety  of  tone  was  introduced  both  into 
life  and  literature  with  the  accession  of  Vespasian.  The 
time  was,  however,  characterized  rather  by  good  sense  and 
industry  than  by  original  genius.  Under  Vespasian  Pliny 
the  elder  is  the  most  important  prose-writer,  and  Valerius 
Flaccus,  author  of  the  Aryonautica,  the  most  important 
Lge  of  among  the  writers  of  poetry.  The  reign  of  Domitian, 
)omi-  although  it  silenced  the  more  independent  spirits  of  the 
ian*  time,  Tacitus  and  Juvenal,  witnessed  more  important  con- 
tributions to  Roman  literature  than  any  age  since  the 
Augustan, — among  them  the  Institutes  of  Quintilian,  the 
Punic  War  of  Silius  Italicus,  the  epics  and  the  Silvx  of 
Statius,  and  the  Epigrams  of  Martial.  Quintilian  (c.  35- 
95)  is  brought  forward  by  Juvenal  as  a  unique  instance 
of  a  thoroughly  successful  man  of  letters,  of  one  not  be- 
longing by  birth  to  the  rich  or  official  class  who  had  risen 
to  wealth  and  honours  through  literature.  He  was  well 
adapted  to  his  time  by  his  good  sense  and  sobriety  of  judg- 
ment. His  criticism  is  just  and  true  rather  than  subtle 
or  ingenious,  and  thus  stands  the  test  of  the  judgment  of 
after-times.  The  poem  of  Silius  (25-101)  is  a  proof  of  the 
industry  and  literary  ambition  of  members  of  the  rich 
official  class.  Of  the  epic  poets  of  the  Silver  Age  Statius 
(c.  45-96)  shows  the  greatest  technical  skill  and  the  richest 
pictorial  fancy  in  the  execution  of  detail ;  but  his  epics 
have  no  true  inspiring  motive,  and,  although  the  recitation 
of  the  Tliebaid  could  attract  and  charm  an  audience  in 
the  days  of  Juvenal,  it  really  belongs  to  the  class  of  poems 
so  unsparingly  condemned  both  by  him  and  Martial.  In 
the  Silvse,  though  many  of  them  have  little  root  in  the 
deeper  feelings  of  human  nature,  we  find  occasionally  more 
than  in  any  poetry  after  the  Augustan  age  something  of 
the  purer  charm  and  pathos  of  life.  But  it  is  not  in  the 
artificial  poetry  of  the  Silvse,  nor  in  the  epics  and  tragedies 
of  the  time,  nor  in  the  cultivated  criticism  of  Quintilian 
that  the  age  of  Domitian  lives  for  us.  It  is  in  the  Epi- 
grams of  Martial  (c.  41-102)  that  we  have  a  true  image 
of  the  average  sensual  frivolous  life  of  Rome  at  the  end 
of  the  1st  century,  seen  through  a  medium  of  wit  and 
humour,  but  undistorted  by  the  exaggeration  which  moral 
indignation  and  the  love  of  effect  add  to  the  representation 


of  Juvenal.  Martial  represents  his  age  in  his 
as  Horace  does  his  in  his  Satires  and  0<l<-*,  with  more 
variety  and  incisive  force  in  his  sketches,  though  with 
much  less  poetic  charm  and  serious  meaning.  "Wo  know 
the  daily  life,  the  familiar  personages,  the  outward  aspect 
of  Rome  in  the  age  of  Domitian  better  than  at  any  other 
period  of  Roman  history,  and  that  knowledge  we  owes  to 
Martial.  Though  a  less  estimable  character  than  some  of 
them,  he  is  a  better  writer  than  any  of  his  contemporaries 
because  he  did  not  withdraw  into  a  world  of  literary  in- 
terests, but  lived  and  wrote  in  the  central  whirl  of  city 
life.  He  tells  us  the  truth  of  his  time  without  the  wish 
either  to  protest  against  or  to  extenuate  its  vices. 

(3)  But  it  was  under  Nerva  and  Trajan  that  the  greatest  Period 
and  most  truly  representative  works  of  the  empire  were  ofNerv 
written,  those  which  at  once  present  the  most  impressive  Tn|JaD> 
spectacle  to  the  imagination  and  have  made  its  meaning  g^^ 
sink  most  deeply  into  the  heart  and  conscience  of  the 
world.  The  Annals  and  Histories  of  Tacitus  (54-119), 
with  the  supplementary  Life  of  Agricola  and  the  treatise 
On  the  Manners  of  the  Germans,  and  the  Satires  of  Juvenal 
(c.  47-130)  have  summed  up  for  all  after-times  the  moral 
experience  of  the  Roman  world  from  the  accession  of 
Tiberius  to  the  death  of  Domitian.  The  powerful  feel- 
ings under  which  they  both  wrote,  the  generous  scorn  and 
generous  pathos  of  the  historian  acting  on  extraordinary 
gifts  of  imaginative  insight  and  imaginative  characteriza- 
tion, and  the  fierce  indignation  of  the  satirist  finding  its 
vent  in  exaggerating  realism,  have  undoubtedly  disturbed 
the  completeness  and  exactness  of  the  impressions  which 
they  received  and  have  perpetuated ;  nevertheless  their 
works  are  the  last  powerful  voices  of  Rome,  the  last  voices 
expressive  of  the  freedom  and  manly  virtue  of  the  ancient 
world.  In  them  alone  among  the  writers  of  the  empire 
the  spirit  of  the  Roman  republic  seems  to  revive.  The 
Letters  of  Pliny  (61-c.  115),  though  they  do  not  contradict 
the  representation  of  Tacitus  and  Juvenal  regarded  as  an 
exposure  of  the  political  degradation  and  moral  corruption 
of  prominent  individuals  and  classes,  do  much  to  modify 
the  pervadingly  tragic  and  sombre  character  of  their  re- 
presentation, and  to  show  that  life  even  in  the  higher 
circles  of  Roman  society  had  still  sources  of  pure  enjoy- 
ment and  wellbeing. 

With  the  death  of  Juvenal,  the  most  important  part  of 
whose  activity  falls  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  Roman  literature 
as  an  original  and  national  expression  of  the  experience, 
character,  and  sentiment  of  the  Roman  state  and  empire, 
and  as  one  of  the  great  literatures  of  the  world,  may  be 
considered  as  closed.  There  still  continued  to  be  much 
industry  and  activity  in  gathering  up  the  memorials  of 
the  past  and  in  explaining  and  illustrating  the  works  of 
genius  of  the  ages  of  literary  creation.  A  kind  of  archaic 
revival  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  which  showed 
itself  both  in  affectation  of  style  and  in  a  renewed  interest 
in  the  older  literature.  The  most  important  works  of  the 
age  succeeding  that  of  Juvenal  are  the  Biographies  of 
Suetonius  (c.  75-160),  which  did  much  to  preserve  a  know- 
ledge of  both  political  and  literary  history.  The  Nodes 
Atticas  of  Aulus  Gellius,  written  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
2d  century,  have  preserved  many  anecdotes,  some  of  them 
of  doubtful  authenticity,  concerning  the  older  writers.  The 
persistence  of  critical  and  grammatical  studies  and  of  in- 
terest in  the  literature  of  the  past  resulted  in  the  4th  and 
5th  centuries  in  the  works  of  Donatus  and  Servius  and 
in  the  Saturnalia  of  Macrobius.  The  works  of  the  great 
Latin  grammarians  are  also  to  be  connected  with  the 
scholarly  study  of  antiquity  which  superseded  to  a  great 
extent  the  attempt  to  produce  works  of  new  creation.  The 
writer  of  most  original  genius  among  the  successors  of 
Juvenal  and  Tacitus  is  probably  Apuleius,  and  his  most 


o  M  —  R  o  M 


727 


original  work,  the  Metamorphoses,  has  nothing  of  Roman 
or  Italian  colouring.  The  last  writer  who  combines  genius 
with  something  of  national  spirit  is  the  poet  Claudian, 
who  wrote  his  epics  under  the  immediate  inspiring  influ- 
ence of  a  great  national  crisis  and  a  national  hero.  As 
fresh  blood  came  to  the  nearly  exhausted  literary  genius 
of  Italy  from  Spain  in  the  first  century  of  the  empire,  so 
in  the  later  centuries  it  came  from  Africa.  Whatever 
of  original  literary  force  appears  either  in  the  pagan  or 
Christian  literature  written  in  the  Latin  language  between 
the  2d  and  the  6th  century  is  due  to  Romanized  settle- 
ments in  Africa.  We  have  to  remember  during  all  these 
comparatively  barren  centuries  that  secular  literature  had 


again  found  its  organ  in  the  Greek  language,  and  that 
the  new  spiritual  life  of  the  world  had  come  into  stern 
antagonism  with  many  of  the  most  powerful  motives  of 
classical  poetry. 

Literature. — The  most  important  books  on  the  subject  are  the 
Geschichte  der  romischen  Litteratur,  by  J.  C.  F.  Bahr  ;  the  Grund- 
riss  der  rb'mischen  Litteratur,  by  G.  Bernhardy  ;  and  the  Geschichte 
der  romischen  Litteratur,  by  W.  S.  Teuffel.  The  last  of  these  has 
been  translated  into  JEnglish.  There  is  also  a  Geschiclite  der 
ramiscJien  Litteratur  by  G.  Munck.  The  most  recent  books  on  the 
subject  in  English  are  Mr.  G.  A.  Shncox's  History  of  Latin 
Literature  from  Ennius  to  Boethius,  and  the  History  of  Roman 
Literature  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the  Death  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
by  Mr  C.  T.  Cruttwell.  (W.  Y.  S.) 


ROMANS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Drome,  12  miles  north-east  of  Valence  by  the  railway  con- 
necting this  town  with  Grenoble,  stands  at  the  foot  of  an 
eminence  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Isere,  530  feet  above 
the  sea.  A  fine  stone  bridge  unites  it  with  Bourg  du 
Peage  on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  Both  towns  owe 
their  prosperity  to  their  situation  in  the  most  fertile  part 
of  the  valley  of  the  Isere,  where  land  is  sometimes  sold  at 
£200  per  acre.  The  population  of  Romans  was  11,916 
(13,806  in  the  commune)  in  1881.  The  present  parish 
church  belonged  to  an  abbey  founded  in  837  by  St 
Bernard,  forty-ninth  bishop  of  Vienne.  The  north  portal, 
now  condemned,  dates  from  the  llth  century;  the  prin- 
cipal portal  is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  12th-century 
Romanesque;  and  the  choir  and  the  transept  are  striking 
examples  of  the  style  of  the  13th.  Romans  has  also  a 
wealthy  hospital  and  a  large  seminary.  Besides  the  silk- 
trade  the  local  industries  comprise  shoemaking,  tanning, 
hat-making,  oil-refining,  &c. 

ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.  The  origin  of  the  Chris- 
tian community  at  Rome  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Accord- 
ing to  Catholic  tradition  it  was  founded  by  Peter,  who  was 
its  bishop  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  But  neither  allega- 
tion has  historical  support.  The  most  striking  proof  of 
the  contrary  is  precisely  this  epistle  of  Paul.  It  does  not 
contain  the  remotest  reference  to  either  the  one  fact  or 
the  other.  And  if  Paul  had  written  such  an  epistle  to  a 
community  founded  by  Peter  he  would  not  only  have  vio- 
lated the  agreement  mentioned  in  Gal.  ii.  9,  but  would  also 
have  gone  against  his  own  principle  of  refraining  from 
intrusion  on  the  mission  fields  of  others  (Rom.  xv.  20 ; 
2  Cor.  x.  16).  But  neither  was  Paul  the  founder  of  the 
church  in  Rome.  This  also  is  shown  by  the  present 
epistle,  in  which  he  for  the  first  time  opens  relations  with 
a  community  already  formed.  Thus  we  are  thrown  upon 
mere  conjecture.  In  pursuing  the  investigation  we  have 
this  fact  to  start  from,  that  even  before  the  Christian  era 
there  already  existed  in  Rome  a  strong  Jewish  colony. 
After  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey  (63  B.C.) 
numbers  of  Jewish  prisoners  of  war  were  brought  to  Rome 
and  there  sold  as  slaves.  Of  these  many  were  soon  after- 
wards emancipated  by  their  masters,  Jewish  slaves  being 
a  peculiarly  inconvenient  kind  of  property  on  account  of 
the  strictness  of  their  observance  of  their  law,  especially  in 
the  matter  of  clean  and  unclean  meats  (Philo,  Leg.  ad 
Caium,  ii.  568,  ed.  Mangey).  These  freedmen  became  the 
micleus  of  a  Jewish  community,  which  ultimately  settled 
in  Trastevere  and  organized  itself  into  an  independent 
religious  communion.  It  rapidly  increased  and  became 
an  important  element  in  the  life  of  the  capital.  By  the 
time  of  Herod's  death  (4  B.C.)  the  independent  Jews  of 
Rome — that  is,  besides  women  and  children — already 
numbered  8000  according  to  Josephus  (Antiq.,  xvii.  11,  1  ; 
Bell.  Jud.,  ii.  6,  1).  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  indeed  this 
large  and  powerful  organization  was  dissolved  at  a  single 


stroke,  a  decree  of  the  senate  (19  A.D.)  having  sent  to 
Sardinia  for  military  service  all  Jews  capable  of  bearing 
arms  (Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.  85  ;  Suet.,  Tiber.,  36  ;  Joseph.,  Antiq., 
xviii.  3,  5).  It  is  probable,  however,  that  after  the  death 
(31  A.D.)  of  Sejanus,  to  whom  this  measure  had  been 
mainly  due,  the  Jews  were  expressly  permitted  to  return 
to  Rome,  for  we  are  told  by  Philo  (Leg.  ad  Caium,  ii.  569, 
ed.  Mangey)  that  after  the  death  of  his  favourite  Tiberius 
perceived  the  Jews  to  have  been  unjustly  calumniated,  and 
ordered  the  authorities  to  refrain  from  oppressing  them. 
At  all  events  the  community  must  ultimately  have  come 
together  again,  for  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  its  existence 
is  again  presupposed,  the  idea  of  expelling  the  Jews  from 
the  capital  having  anew  been  entertained  under  that 
emperor.  Regarding  this  proposal,  however,  accounts 
vary.  According  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (xviii.  2), 
and  also  Suetonius  (Claud.,  25),  it  was  actually  carried  out ; 
but  according  to  Dio  Cassius  (Ix.  6)  the  expulsion  was 
only  proposed,  and,  when  it  was  seen  to  be  impracticable 
without  great  tumult,  all  that  was  done  was  to  withdraw 
from  the  Jews  their  right  of  meeting.  The  latter  version 
is  doubtless  the  more  correct.  The  withdrawal  of  the 
right  of  meeting  was  equivalent  to  the  prohibition  of 
public  worship,  and  sufficiently  explains  why  numbers  left 
the  city  (Acts  xviii.  2).  But  the  main  body  must  have 
remained  and  doubtless  have  again  obtained  the  privilege 
of  assembly,  for  from  the  time  of  Nero  onwards  we  find 
the  Jews  in  Rome  once  more  flourishing  with  undiminished 
vigour. 

From  the  midst  of  this  Jewish  community  it  was  that 
the  Christian  congregation  doubtless  arose.  The  Jews  of 
the  Dispersion,  it  is  well  known,  kept  up  an  active  corre- 
spondence with  the  mother-country  in  Palestine.  Every 
year  they  sent  their  gifts  and  offerings  thither,  and  every 
one  in  a  position  to  do  so  went  in  person  to  the  great 
festivals  of  the  Holy  City.  As  a  result  of  this  vigorously 
maintained  intercourse,  which  was  aided  also  by  the 
interests  of  trade,  tidings  of  Jesus  as  the  promised  Messiah 
did  not  fail  to  reach  the  capital  of  the  empire.  Individual 
Jews  who  had  become  believers  came  forward  in  Rome  as 
preachers  of  the  gospel  and  found  acceptance  with  a  section 
of  their  countrymen.  They  found  a  perhaps  still  more 
numerous  following  among  the  "God-fearing"  or  "devout" 
(cre/3o/zei/oi,  (/>o/3otyzevoi,  TOV  #eov)  heathen,  i.e.,  within  that 
large  circle  which  consisted  of  those  who  had  adopted  the 
faith  of  the  Jews,  observed  certain  of  the  more  important 
precepts  of  their  law,  and  also  attended  their  public  worship, 
but  did  not,  strictly  speaking,  belong  to  the  communion, 
and  thus  represented  a  sort  of  Judaism  of  the  second  order.1 
In  proportion  as  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  gained 
ground  within  the  Jewish  community,  a  separation  between 
the  believers  and  the  others  would  of  course  become  more 

1  Many  scholars  identify  these  "devout"  heathen  with  the  "pro- 
selytes of  the  gate  "  who  are  met  with  in  Rabbinical  literature ;  but 
in  reality  the  two  are  quite  distinct  and  unrelated. 


728 


ROMANS 


[EPISTLE. 


and  more  inevitable.  Under  what  circumstances  and  con- 
ditions the  separation  actually  took  place  is  not  now  known. 
We  may  be  sure,  however,  that  it  was  not  brought  about 
without  violent  internal  commotions ;  it  is  probable  even 
that  the  edict  of  Claudius  itself  may  have  had  its  occasion 
in  these.  The  remark  of  Suetonius  (Claud.,  25)  readily 
admits  of  being  interpreted  in  such  a  sense :  "  Judaeos 
impulsore  Chresto1  assidue  tumultuantes  Roma  expulit." 
So  interpreted,  these  words  contain  our  first  notice  of  the 
Christian  Church  in  Rome ;  its  earliest  constitution  must 
have  taken  place  precisely  then.  For,  as  has  already  been 
seen,  the  edict  of  banishment  was  probably  never  carried 
out,  or  at  all  events  did  not  continue  long  in  force.  Un- 
fortunately, we  do  not  know  the  date  of  it,  but  it  must 
have  belonged  to  the  later  years  of  Claudius,  for  in  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  the  disposition  of  that  emperor 
towards  the  Jews  was  friendly  (Jos.,  Antiq.,  xix.  5).  In 
its  context  also  Acts  xviii.  2  implies  a  late  rather  than  an 
early  date,  say  about  50-52  A.D.  ;  and  there  is  nothing 
against  this  in  the  circumstance  that  the  edict  is  mentioned 
by  Dio  Cassius  towards  the  beginning  of  his  account  of 
that  reign,  for  in  that  particular  passage  the  author  is 
characterizing  his  subject  in  a  general  way  and  not  referring 
to  events  in  their  chronological  sequence. 

If  the  foregoing  suppositions  are  correct,  Paul's  epistle 
to  the  church  at  Rome  was  written  some  six  or  eight  years 
after  its  formation.  Paul  was  stajing  in  Corinth  at  the 
time,  in  the  last  month  before  the  eventful  journey  to 
Jerusalem  which  led  to  his  captivity  (58  A.D.).  The  evi- 
dence that  the  epistle  was  written  during  this  last  sojourn 
in  Greece,  which  is  only  briefly  alluded  to  in  Acts  xx.  2,  3, 
is  simple  and  conclusive.  We  know  from  the  Epistles  to 
the  Corinthians  that  shortly  before  this  stay  the  apostle 
had  set  on  foot  throughout  the  churches  of  Macedonia  and 
Achaia  a  collection  on  behalf  of  the  needy  church  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Cor.  xvi. ;  2  Cor.  viii.-ix.).  This  collection 
it  was  his  wish  to  carry  in  person  from  Corinth  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  3-6;  2  Cor.  i.  16;  Acts  xxiv.  17).  But  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans  was  written,  as  we  learn  from  the  author 
himself  (Rom.  xv.  24-28),  when  the  collection  had  just 
been  concluded  and  he  was  on  the  point  of  taking  it  with 
him  to  Jerusalem, — in  other  words,  before  his  departure 
from  Corinth,  but  not  long  before. 

We  have  now  to  inquire  into  the  motive  which  led  the 
apostle  precisely  at  such  a  juncture  to  address  a  communi- 
cation so  full  and  elaborate  as  this  to  the  Christian  com- 
munity at  Rome,  with  which  he  had  no  personal  acquaint- 
ance. In  general  terms  we  have  it  from  himself  at  the 
beginning  and  end  of  the  epistle  (i.  8-15,  xv.  14  sq.).  He 
had  proclaimed  the  gospel  in  all  the  East  from  Jerusalem 
to  Illyricum  (xv.  19).  He  regarded  his  work  in  these 
quarters  as  for  the  present  finished,  and  he  felt  impelled 
to  preach  Christ  crucified  also  in  the  West.  He  was 
already  looking  towards  Spain  (Rom.  xv.  24,  28).  He 
wished  first  to  take  the  collection  to  Jerusalem,  and,  that 
once  accomplished,  his  labours  in  the  West  were  to  begin 
forthwith.  But  there,  in  Rome,  the  metropolis  of  the 
world,  a  community  already  existed  which  had  come  into 
being  apart  from  any  effort  of  his.  For  his  activity  in  the 
West  it  was  obviously  of  the  utmost  importance  to  secure 
the  organization  for  himself  and  his  message.  Should  its 
attitude  be  cold,  he  would  be  left  without  any  secure  base 
of  operations.  The  purpose  of  the  present  epistle,  then,  is, 
to  speak  generally,  this :  to  secure  a  connexion  with  the 
community  at  Rome,  to  gain  it  for  himself  and  the  gospel 
he  carried.  But  had  it  hitherto  been  without  that  gospel  ? 
The  community  was  at  any  rate  already  a  Christian  one. 

1  The  vulgar  pronunciation  "Chrestus"  for  "Christus"  is  borne 
witness  to  in  other  passages  (Tert.,  Apol.,  3,  and  Ad  Nat.,  i.  3; 
Lactan.,  fnst.  Div.,  iv.  7,  5). 


And,  if  perhaps  it  was  in  need  of  fuller  teaching,  why  did 
he  not  wait  until  he  arrived  in  person  in  Rome  in  order 
to  give  it  ?  Surely  he  could  have  done  this  more  effect- 
ually by  word  of  mouth  than  by  a  written  treatise.  Why, 
then,  did  he  send  this  written  message  before  him  ?  There 
must  have  been  some  perfectly  definite  circumstances  which 
led  him  to  take  this  course.  The  nature  of  these  will 
become  clear  to  us  when  we  seek  to  ascertain  what  at  that 
juncture  was  the  state  of  the  Christian  community  in 
Rome. 

Assuming  that  church  to  have  arisen  out  of  the  midst 
of  the  Jewish  community  of  the  place,  the  most  obvious 
conjecture  is  that  at  the  period  of  the  present  letter  it  still 
continued  to  consist  mainly  of  Jewish  Christians,  i.e.,  that 
the  majority  of  its  members  were  Jews  by  birth  who  even 
after  their  conversion  to  Christ  still  continued  to  regard 
the  Mosaic  law  in  its  totality  as  binding  on  them.  This 
is  the  view  which  Baur  in  particular  sought  to  establish,2 
as  against  the  previously  prevailing  belief  in  the  Gentile 
Christian  character  of  the  church  in  question.  Baur's 
position  was  adopted  by  many  subsequent  critics,  the  most 
careful  and  elaborate  defence  of  it,  though  with  many 
modifications  in  detail,  being  that  of  Mangold.3  An  inter- 
mediate position  between  the  older  view  and  that  of  Baur 
has  been  sought  by  Beyschlag,4  who  works  out  the  theory 
that  the  Christian  community  in  Rome  may  possibly  have 
been  Jewish  Christian  in  its  Way  of  thinking,  yet  at  the 
same  time  Gentile  Christian  in  its  origin.  In  direct 
opposition  to  Baur,  on  the  other  hand,  Theodor  Schott5 
has  again  maintained  the  older  view  as  to  its  Gentile 
character,  and  in  all  essential  points  this  is  also  defended 
by  Weizsacker,6  who,  however,  recognizes  in  Baur's  hypo- 
thesis certain  elements  of  truth  by  which  the  older  theory 
must  be  corrected  and  supplemented. 

In  presence  of  the  facts  we  are  compelled  to  adopt  the 
view  of  Weizsacker  as  on  the  whole  the  right  one.  For 
the  Jewish  Christian  character  of  the  church  Baur  and 
Mangold,  besides  the  argument  from  its  presumable  origin, 
have  adduced  a  number  of  isolated  texts.  On  the  majority 
of  these  Mangold  no  longer  lays  any  stress,  since  they 
admit  of  being  otherwise  interpreted.  Thus  when  Paul 
designates  Abraham  as  "our  father"  (rov  irpoiraropa  rjfuav' 
iv.  1)  he  indeed  includes  his  readers  under  the  ?}/xc3i/.  But 
in  1  Corinthians,  an  epistle  certainly  addressed  to  a  church 
of  Gentile  Christians,  the  fathers  of  Israel  are  also  called 
"our  fathers"  (1  Cor.  x.  1).  The  Christian  Church  is  in 
point  of  fact  the  true  Israel ;  hence  the  patriarchs  of  Israel 
are  its  "fathers."7  In  another  place  (Rom.  vii.  1)  Paul 
addresses  his  readers  as  persons  "who  know  the  law." 
But  this  holds  true  not  of  born  Jews  alone  but  of  Gentile 
Christians  as  well,  to  whom  also  the  Old  Testament  was  a 
sacred  book.  Mangold  finds  an  "  irrefragable  evidence  of 
the  Jewish  Christian  character  of  the  community  in  Rome" 
in  Rom.  vii.  4  :  "ye  also,  beloved  brethren,  have  died  to 
the  law  "  (/cat  vyuets  e6avaT<a6r]T€  T<£  VO/AW).  If  they  have 
died  to  it  they  must  of  course  have  once  lived  under  it : 
so  argues  Mangold  quite  correctly.  But  the  inference  that 


2  First  of  all  in  his  essay  "  Ueber  Zweck  u.  Veranlassung  des  Ro'mer- 
briefs,"  in  the  Tiibinger  Zeitschr.  /.  Theol,  1836,  hft.  3,  p.  59  sq. 

8  Der  RiJmerbriefu.  d.  Anf tinge  der  romischen  Gemeinde,  Marburg, 
1866;  Der  Romerbrief  u.  seine  geschichtlichen  Voraussetzungen,  Mar- 
burg, 1884. 

4  "  Ueber  das  geschichtliche  Problem  des  Rdmerbriefs, "  in  Stud.  u. 
Krit.,  1867,  p.  627  sq. 

8  Der  Romerbrief,  seinem  Endzweck  u.  Gedankengang  nach  ausgelegt, 
Erlangen,  1858. 

8  "Ueber  die  alteste  rornische  Christengemeinde,"  in  Jahrbb.  f. 
deutsche  Theol.,  1876,  p.  248  sq. 

7  The  words  Kara  a&pKa  in  Rom.  iv.  1  are  not  to  be  construed  with 
Trpoirdropa  ^nCiv  but  with  the  verb  evpyKtvai.  Abraham  is  thus  de- 
signated as  ' '  our  father  "  only  iu  the  spiritual  and  not  in  the  physical 


EPISTLE.] 


ROMANS 


729 


in  such  a  case  they  must  have  been  born  Jews  is  neverthe- 
less a  rash  one.  Not  the  Jews  only,  who  possess  the 
written  law,  but  the  whole  of  pre-Christian  mankind  are 
in  Paul's  conception  ideally  under  the  law, — under  its 
bondage  and  curse.  For  all  alike  redemption  is  a  redemp- 
tion from  the  law's  penalty  and  dominion.  Hence  Paul 
can  say  even  to  born  Gentiles,  lOavarcJjOrjTe  TM  vo/tw.  But 
according  to  Baur  and  Mangold  the  decisive  evidence  for 
the  Jewish  Christian  character  of  the  Roman  Christians 
is  the  whole  substance  of  the  present  epistle.  All  its 
arguments  have  for  their  aim  to  establish  and  vindicate 
the  free  gospel  of  Paul  as  against  the  objections  of  the 
Judaizers.  They  therefore  conclude  that  it  can  have  been 
designed  only  for  Judaistically-disposed  readers  whom  Paul 
seeks  by  these  representations  to  win  for  his  gospel.  This 
line  of  argument  is  at  bottom  sound,  and  Baur  has  rendered 
a  real  service  by  showing  that  the  epistle  is  by  no  means 
an  outline  of  the  Pauline  dogmatic  as  a  whole,  but  is  simply 
an  elucidation  of  such  points  in  it  as  were  offensive  to  the 
Judaically-minded.  A  brief  review  of  its  contents  will 
make  this  clear. 

The  epistle  falls  into  two  unequal  parts, — a  theoretical 
(i.-xi.)  and  a  hortatory  (xii.-xvi.).  The  latter  is  almost  of 
the  nature  of  a  mere  appendix.  The  proper  kernel  of  the 
epistle,  that  for  the  sake  of  which  it  came  to  be  written,  is 
found  in  the  theoretical  exposition  of  the  first  eleven  chap- 
ters. These  again  fall  into  two  sections, — chaps,  i.-  v.  laying 
the  positive  foundations  of  the  Pauline  gospel  as  freed 
from  the  law,  and  chaps,  vi.-xi.  containing  the  vindication  of 
that  gospel  against  objectors.  Having  shown  directly  in 
chaps,  i.-v.  that  we  can  attain  righteousness  and  so  salvation 
not  along  the  path  of  legal  observance  but  only  along  the 
path  of  faith,  that  is  to  say,  believing  apprehension  of  the 
mercy  of  God  in  Christ,  he  goes  on  in  chap.  vi.  to  refute 
point  by  point  the  positions  of  the  Judaizers.  He  shows 
that  in  the  freedom  from  the  law  the  freedom  to  sin  is  by 
no  means  involved  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  with  the  believer 
an  inherent  necessity  that  he  should  live  a  new  life  in  his 
fellowship  with  Christ  (chap,  vi.),  and  precisely  by  that 
fellowship  is  he  for  the  first  time  truly  enabled  so  to  live 
(chap.  viii.).  The  law  cannot  give  him  this  power  ;  it  only 
commands,  and  does  not  at  the  same  time  give  strength  to 
obey.  Hence,  although  good  in  itself,  it  has  for  men  only 
a  pernicious  effect,  inasmuch  as  by  its  injunctions  sinful 
desire  is  excited  (chap.  vii.).  A  special  objection  of  the 
Judaizers  against  the  activity  of  Paul  was  also  this, — that 
he  should  have  turned  to  the  heathen  while  still  the  greater 
part  of  Israel  remained  unconverted.  His  answer  to  this  is 
contained  in  chaps,  ix.-xi.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  Israel's 
own  fault  to  have  rejected  its  salvation  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
such  has  been  God's  will.  Israel  is  at  present  rejected  in 
order  that  the  heathen  may  step  into  the  gap  thus  made. 
Yet  the  rejection  of  Israel  is  only  for  a  time.  By  the  ad- 
mission of  the  heathen  Israel  is  to  be  stirred  to  jealousy 
and  thus  at  last  to  be  also  converted.  Precisely  in  such 
intricate  paths  as  these  is  the  wonderful  depth  of  the 
divine  wisdom  made  manifest. 

Thus  all  the  theoretical  disquisitions  of  the  epistle  are 
in  reality  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  vindication  and  a 
polemic  against  the  Jewish  Christian  point  of  view.  But 
are  we  to  conclude  from  this  that  the  readers  were  them- 
selves Jewish  Christians  1  Such  an  inference  has  against 
it  the  fact  that  Paul,  both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the 
close  of  his  epistle,  clearly  designates  them  as  Gentile 
Christians.  In  i.  5,  6,  and  i.  13-15,  as  well  as  in  xv. 
15,  16,  he  appeals  to  his  office  as  apostle  of  the  Gentiles 
as  justifying  him  in  now  writing  to  the  church  at  Home 
and  in  proposing  further  labours  there.  In  xi.  13,  also, 
the  readers  are  spoken  to  as  of  Gentile  birth.  The 
arguments  by  which  Baur  and  Mangold  seek  to  weaken 


the  force  of  this  passage  are  very  far-fetched.  If,  then, 
the  Roman  Christians  were  Gentiles  by  blood,  the  theory 
of  Beyschlag,  that  they  were  Gentile  Christians  in  origin 
but  Jewish  Christians  by  conviction,  appears  to  have 
most  to  commend  it  in  view  of  the  contents  of  the 
epistle.  If  the  epistle  stopped  short  at  the  end  of  chap, 
xiii.,  we  should  indeed  be  compelled  to  adopt  that  theory. 
But  the  remaining  chapters  (xiv.,  xv.)  suggest  much 
rather  that  the  majority  were  by  conviction  also  Gentile 
Christians  and  emancipated  from  the  law.  For  in  the 
chapters  specified  Paul  deals  with  a  division  that  has 
arisen  within  the  community.  One  section  still  remained 
in  the  bonds  of  the  strictest  legal  scrupulosity :  they 
regarded  a  vegetable  diet  (Aa^ava)  as  alone  permissible, 
rejecting  the  use  of  animal  food  (xiv.  2),  and  they  also 
observed  certain  days  (xiv.  5),  by  which,  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  the  Jewish  sabbaths  and  festivals  must  be  under- 
stood. In  fact  they  were  legal  Jewish  Christians,  but 
Jewish  Christians  who  in  their  asceticism  went  beyond 
the  precepts  of  Mosaism,  which  indeed  prohibits  the  use 
of  the  flesh  of  unclean  animals,  but  not  animal  food 
in  general.  Over  against  these  Jewish  Christian  ascetics, 
called  by  Paul  "  the  weak  in  the  faith,"  stood  another 
section,  whom  he  describes  as  "  the  strong."  They 
rejected  these  legal  observances,  taking  their  stand  on 
the  gospel  as  freed  from  the  law.  But  the  latter  must 
have  been  in  the  majority,  for  they  are  exhorted  by  the 
apostle  to  have  a  tender  regard  for  the  weakness  of  their 
brethren,  and  not  by  any  harsh  terrorism  to  force  them 
into  any  courses  which  might  offend  their  consciences. 
Such  an  exhortation,  as  Weizsacker  remarks,  would  have 
no  meaning  if  the  representatives  of  the  freer  view  were 
not  in  the  majority.  The  majority,  then,  of  the  church 
at  Rome  was  Gentile  Christian  not  only  by  origin  but  by 
conviction. 

Here  two  problems  arise,  neither  of  which  received 
sufficient  attention  from  critics  before  Baur  :  (1)  How  are 
we  to  explain  the  origin,  outside  the  limits  of  Paul's 
activity,  of  a  Christian  community  thus  free  from  the 
fetters  of  the  law  1  and  (2)  How  came  it  about  that  Paul 
should  have  addressed  to  such  a  community  a  letter  like 
this, — adapted,  as  it  appears  to  be,  for  Jewishly-inclined 
readers  ?  As  regards  the  first  question,  in  the  absence  of 
adequate  materials  for  a  conclusive  solution,  our  answer 
can  only  be  conjectural.  The  problem  is  a  difficult  one, 
because,  following  Gal.  ii.,  we  must  start  with  the  assump- 
tion that  the  communities  founded  under  the  more  direct 
influence  of  the  original  apostles  did  not  reject  the 
Jewish  law.  In  seeking,  then,  to  account  for  the  existence 
of  a  community  which  had  so  done,  we  must  carry  with 
us  the  fact  that  within  the  wide  limits  of  the  Jewish 
Dispersion  very  various  degrees  of  strictness  in  observance 
of  the  law  were  to  be  found.  Even  those  who  were  in 
the  truest  sense  members  of  the  communities  of  the  Dis- 
persion can  hardly  have  observed  the  law  as  strictly  as 
did  the  Pharisees  in  Palestine.  But  the  demands  made 
on  those  "  God-fearing  "  Gentiles  who  were  wont  to  attach 
themselves,  more  or  less '  closely,  to  the  Jewish  communi- 
ties must  of  course  have  been  still  more  accommodating. 
If  only  they  accepted  the  monotheistic  religion  and  its 
worship  without  the  use  of  images,  the  ceremonial  pre- 
cepts laid  upon  them  were  reduced  to  a  bare  minimum, — 
the  observance  of  Sabbaths,  and  also  of  some  laws  regard- 
ing meat.  Now  the  community  at  Rome  seems  to  have 
chiefly  arisen  out  of  the  circles  of  such  "  God-fearing " 
Gentiles.  As  Paul  himself  gained  access  for  the  preach- 
ing of  the  gospel,  at  Thessalonica,  for  example,  principally 
among  the  "  God-fearing  Greeks "  (Acts  xvii.  4),  so  also 
in  Rome  do  these  seem  to  have  been  the  main  element  in 
the  church.  On  this  assumption  we  can  understand  how 

XX.  —  92 


730 


R  O  M  —  R  O  M 


from  the  outset  the  community  had  not  been  in  the  habit 
of  observing  the  Mosaic  law.  At  most  it  was  observed 
in  isolated  details,  and  as  new  members  continued  to  be 
added  from  the  outer  heathen  world  these  relics  of  Jewish 
custom  received  less  and  less  prominence,  fading  away 
in  presence  of  the  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  lledeemer.  It  is 
possible  that  influences  from  Pauline  circles  may  also  have 
come  into  play,  but  of  this  we  cannot  be  sure. 

If  such  were  the  circumstances  in  which  the  majority  of 
the  community  in  Rome  had  been  brought  to  their  attitude 
of  freedom  towards  the  law,  that  attitude  was  one  of  fact 
rather  than  of  principle.  The  law  was  not  observed ;  but 
there  was  no  clear  consciousness  that  it  had  no  obligatory 
force.  A  community  thus  placed  had  no  firm  basis  from 
which  to  withstand  a  Judaizing  agitation  when  it  should 
arise.  In  such  an  event  there  was  the  greatest  danger  to 
its  very  existence.  It  is  here,  then,  that  we  must  look  for 
the  real  occasion  of  the  present  epistle.  Paul  was  afraid 
that  the  Judaizers  who  had  wrought  with  such  effect  within 
the  churches  founded  by  himself  in  Galatia  and  Corinth 
might  also  lay  hold  on  that  at  Rome.  Perhaps  they  had 
already  arrived  there  and  the  apostle  knew  it.  At  all 
events  he  perceived  a  threatening  danger.  He  was  unwill- 
ing to  delay  till  he  could  visit  the  church  personally,  and 
accordingly  sent  forthwith  an  elaborate  document  in  estab- 
lishment and  vindication  of  the  gospel  as  free  from  the 
law,  so  that  the  Roman  Christians  might  be  confirmed  in 
their  free  practice  and  might  be  strengthened  to  withstand 
the  agitations  of  Judaizers.  This  is  the  explanation  of  the 
fact  that  a  letter  addressed  to  a  Gentile  Christian  church, 
not  in  bondage  to  the  law,  is  yet  almost  entirely  devoted 
to  the  refutation  of  the  Judaistic  positions. 

The  genuineness  of  the  epistle  is  practically  undisputed  ; 
not  so,  however,  its  integrity.  Baur  (as  had  already  been 
done  by  Marcion  in  ancient  times)  disputed  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  last  two  chapters  (xv.,  xvi.),  chiefly  on  the 
ground  that  in  them  a  spirit  of  concession  towards  the 
weak  is  urged  in  a  wholly  un-Pauline  manner.  Lucht l 
has  sought  to  separate  out  the  genuine  from  the  spurious 
in  these  chapters  in  a  very  complicated  manner,  but 
substantially  on  the  lines  of  Baur's  criticism.  The  most 
thorough  discussion  of  Baur's  and  Lucht's  views  is  that  of 
Mangold,2  who  has  very  convincingly  shown  that  there  is 
no  real  ground  for  refusing  to  attribute  to  the  apostle  the 
chapters  in  question.  All  the  exhortations  to  concession 
do  not,  after  all,  go  beyond  the  principle  acted  on  by  Paul 
himself  (1  Cor.  ix.  20), — "to  the  Jews  I  became  as  a  Jew 
that  I  might  win  the  Jews."  In  two  points,  however,  the 
defence  does  not  hold :  (1)  the  doxology  at  the  close 
(Rom.  xvi.  25-27)  appears  certainly  to  be  from  a  later 
hand ; 3  (2)  ch.  xvi.  3-20  seems  to  be  genuinely  Pauline 
indeed,  but  not  to  belong  to  the  present  epistle.  Not 
only  is  the  large  number  of  salutations  in  a  letter  addressed 
to  a  community  personally  unknown  to  the  apostle  in 
itself  strange  ;  but  salutations  also  occur  addressed  to  per- 
sons whom  one  would  expect  to  find  rather  at  Ephesus  than 
at  Rome  (ver.  3,  Aquila  and  Priscilla ;  ver.  5,  Epsenetus) 
and  in  districts  where  the  apostle  had  resided  and  laboured 
(xvi.  7,  9,  13).  Not  without  reason,  therefore,  is  it  con- 
jectured that  here  we  have  a  fragment  of  an  epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  which  by  mistake  has  come  to  be  incorporated 
with  that  to  the  Romans.4 


1  Ueber  die  beiden  letzten  Kapiteldes  Romerbriefes,  Berlin,  1871. 

2  Der-  livmerbrief  u.  s.  gesch.  Vorausselz. ,  pp.  1-164. 

3  See  Mangold,  op.  tit.,  pp.  44-81. 

4  See  especially  Mangold,  op.  tit.,  pp.  147-164.       Lightfoot  (St 
Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  2d  ed.,  pp.  169-176)  has  shown  that 
many  of  the  names  met  with  in  Rom.  xvi.  3-20  are  found  precisely 
in  Roman  inscriptions  of  the  period  of  the  emperors,  but  the  fact  is 
more  striking  than  convincing.     The  names  in  themselves  are  common. 
It  is  not  to  the  names  but  to  the  persons  characterized  that  we  have 


The  more  recent  literature  relating  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
lias  been  fully  catalogued  and  discussed  in  the  work  of  Grafe  (Ueber 
Veranlassung  u.  Zweck  dcs  llomerbriefes,  Tiibingen,  1881).  Tho 
most  important  works  in  the  list  have  already  been  named  in  tho 
present  article.  (E.  S*.) 

ROMANUS  I.  (Lecapenus),  who  shared  the  imperial 
throne  with  CONSTANTINE  VII.  (q.v.)  and  exercised  all 
the  real  power  from  919  to  944,  was  admiral  of  tho  By- 
zantine fleet  on  the  Danube  when,  hearing  of  the  defeat 
of  the  army  at  Achelous  (17th  August  917),  he  resolved 
to  sail  for  Constantinople.  Popular  caprice  as  well  as 
his  influence  over  his  sailors  aided  his  ambition,  and, 
after  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Helena  to  Constantine, 
he  was  first  proclaimed  "  basileopater  "  in  April  919  and 
afterwards  crowned  colleague  of  his  son-in-law  on  17th 
December  of  the  same  year.  His  reign,  which  was  un- 
distinguished and  uneventful,  was  terminated  by  his  own 
sons  Stephen  and  Constantine,  who  in  944  carried  him 
off  to  the  island  of  Prote  and  compelled  him  to  become  a 
monk.  He  died  in  948. 

ROMANUS  II.,  emperor  of  the  East,  succeeded  his 
father  Constantine  VII.  in  959  at  the  age  of  twenty-one, 
and  died — poisoned,  it  was  believed,  by  his  wife,  Theophano 
— in  963.  He  was  a  pleasure-loving  sovereign,  but  showed 
judgment  in  the  selection  of  his  ministers.  The  great 
event  of  his  reign  was  the  conquest  of  Crete  by  Nicephorus 
Phocas. 

ROMANUS  III.  (Argyrus),  emperor  of  the  East,  was 
an  accomplished  but  otherwise  undistinguished  member  of 
the  Byzantine  aristocracy  when,  summoned  to  the  palace 
of  the  dying  Constantine  VIII.,  he  was  informed  that  he 
had  been  selected  to  marry  one  of  the  imperial  princesses 
and  succeed  the  emperor.  His  hesitation  as  already  a 
married  man  was  removed  by  his  wife,  who  generously 
took  the  veil;  and  his  union  with  Zoe  and  their  joint 
coronation  were  celebrated  on  19th  November  1028.  Two 
days  later  Constantine  died.  A  serious  defeat  which 
Romanus  sustained  in  person  at  Azaz  in  Syria,  when 
marching  to  take  possession  of  Aleppo,  considerably  im- 
paired the  popularity  among  his  subjects  which  he  had 
sought  to  purchase  by  lavish  concession  to  various  classes, 
and  soon  afterwards  he  began  to  show  symptoms  of  disease, 
attributed  by  many  to  slow  poison  administered  by  con- 
nivance of  the  empress.  His  death  took  place  on  llth 
April  1034,  and  he  was  forthwith  succeeded  by  MICHAEL 
IV.  (q.v.). 

ROMANUS  IV.  (Diogenes),  emperor  of  the  East  from 
1068  to  1071,  was  a  member  of  a  distinguished  Cappa- 
docian  family  and  had  risen  to  distinction  in  the  army 
when  he  was  convicted  of  treason  against  the  sons  of  Con- 
stantine X.  While  waiting  execution  he  was  summoned 
into  the  presence  of  their  mother,  Eudocia  Macrembolitissa, 
the  empress  regent,  whom  he  so  fascinated  that  she  granted 
him  a  free  pardon  and  shortly  afterwards  married  him. 
Taking  the  field  soon  after  his  coronation,  he  carried  on 
three  campaigns  against  the  Saracens  and  Seljuk  Turks 
without  achieving  any  decisive  success,  and  in  a  fourth  he 
was  disastrously  defeated  by  Alp  Arslan  on  the  banks  of 
the  Araxes  and  taken  prisoner.  Released  from  captivity 
after  promising  to  pay  a  large  ransom  and  concluding  a 
treaty  of  peace,  he  returned  homewards  only  to  find  revolu- 
tion in  full  flood,  and  after  a  second  defeat  of  his  arms  l»y 
the  troops  of  Michael  VII.  he  was  compelled  to  resign  the 
empire  and  retire  to  the  island  of  Prote,  where  he  soon 
died  in  great  misery.  It  was  during  this  reign  that  by 
the  surrender  of  Bari  (15th  April  1071)  the  Byzantine 
empire  lost  its  last  hold  upon  Italy. 

ROMAN  WALL.  See  ANTONINUS,  WALL  OF,  vol.  ii. 
p.  139,  and  HADRIAN,  WALL  OF,  vol.  xi.  p.  364. 


to  look.     But  of  these  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  they  should  all 
have  been  living  in  Rome. 


731 


K  0  ME 

PART  I.— ROMAN  HISTORY. 


SECTION  I. — ANCIENT  HISTORY. 
I.   The  Beginnings  of  Rome  and  the  Monarchy. 

e  ~T)OTH  the  city  and  the  state  of  Rome  are  represented 
l'le  |J  in  tradition  as  having  been  gradually  formed  by  the 
fusion  of  separate  communities.  The  original  settlement 
of  Romulus  is  said  to  have  been  limited  to  the  Palatine 
Mount.  With  this  were  united  before  the  end  of  his 
reign  the  Capitoline  and  the  Quirinal ;  Tullus  Hostilius 
added  the  Ceelian,  Ancus  Martius  the  Aventine ;  and 
finally  Servius  Tullius  included  the  Esquiline  and  Viminal, 
and  enclosed  the  whole  seven  hills  with  a  stone  wall.  The 
growth  of  the  state  closely  followed  that  of  the  city.  To 
the  original  Romans  on  the  Palatine  were  added  succes- 
sively the  Sabine  followers  of  King  Tatius,  Albans  trans- 
planted by  Tullus,  Latins  by  Ancus,  and  lastly  the 
Etruscan  comrades  of  Cables  Vibenna.  This  tradition  is 
supported  by  other  and  more  positive  evidence.  The  race 
of  the  Luperci  on  February  15  was  in  fact  a  purification 
of  the  boundaries  of  the  "ancient  Palatine  town,"1  the 
u square  Rome"  of  Ennius  ;2  and  the  course  taken  is  that 
described  by  Tacitus  as  the  "pomoerium"  of  the  city 
founded  by  Romulus.3  On  the  Esquiline,  Varro  mentions 
an  "  ancient  city "  and  an  "  earthen  rampart,"4  and  the 
festival  of  the  Septimontium  is  evidence  of  a  union  between 
this  settlement  and  that  on  the  Palatine.5  The  fusion  of 
these  "  Mounts"  with  a  settlement  on  the  Quirinal  "  Hill" 
is  also  attested  by  trustworthy  evidence;6  and  in  parti- 
cular the  line  taken  by  the  procession  of  the  Argei  repre- 
sents the  enlarged  boundaries  of  these  united  communities.7 
Lastly,  the  Servian  agger  still  remains  as  a  witness  to  the 
final  enclosure  of  the  various  settlements  within  a  single 
Rie  a  ring-wall.  But  is  tradition  right  in  representing  this 
Lin  fusion  of  distinct  settlements  as  a  fusion  also  of  com- 
f1  munities  of  different  race1?  Much  of  what  it  says  on 
this  point  may  be  at  once  dismissed  as  fabulous.  The 
tales  of  ^Eneas  and  his  Trojans,  of  Evander  and  his 
Arcadians,  of  the  followers  of  Heracles,  and  of  the  still 
earlier  Aborigines  have  no  claim  to  a  place  in  history;8  we 
cannot  accept  the  tradition  to  which  the  Romans  clung 
with  proud  humility  of  the  asylum  opened  by  Romulus,  or 
believe  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Romans  were  a  mixed 
concourse  of  outlaws  and  refugees,9  nor,  while  admitting 
the  probability  of  the  tradition  that  iu  remote  times  the 
:i  Sicels  "  had  dwelt  on  the  seven  hills,  can  we  allow  them 
any  part  or  lot  in  the  historic  Roman  people.10  That  this 
people  were  in  the  main  homogeneous  and  in  the  main  of 
Latin  descent  is  unquestionable.  Indications  of  the  truth 
arc  not  wanting  even  in  the  traditions  themselves  :  King 


1  VaiTO,  L.  L.,  vi.  34. 

2  Fest.,  258  ;  Varro  ap.  Solinus,  i.  17. 

3  Tac.,  Ann.,  xii.  24.     For  a  full  discussion  of  the  exact  limits  of 
the  Palatine  city  see  Smith,    Diet.  Geog.,  s.  v.   "Roma";  Jordan, 
Topoy.  d.  Stadt  Rom,  i.   cap.  2  ;  Gilbert,  Topog.  u.   Oesch.  d.  Stadt 
Rom,  i.  caps.  1,  2  ;  and  "Topography"  below. 

4  L.  L.,  v.  43  ;  cf.  ibid.,  50. 

5  Festus,  348  ;  Jordan,  i.  199  ;  Gilbert,  i.  161.    The  seven  "monies" 
are  the  Palatine  with  the  Velia  and  Germalus,  the  Subura,  and  the 
three  points  of  the  Esquiline  (Fagutal,  Oppius,  and  Cispius). 

6  See  Mommsen,  R.  O.  (7th  ed. ),  i.  51. 

7  Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  45,  vii.    44  ;  Jordan,  ii.  237. 

8  For  these  traditions  see  Dionys.,  i.  31-71. 

9  For  a  criticism  of  the  myth  of  the  asylum  see  Schwegler,  R.  G. ,  i. 
465  sq.,  who,  however,  exaggerates  the  mixed  character  of  the  Roman 
people.     Hegel,  Phil.  d.  Gesch. ,  345,  takes  the  story  seriously. 

10  Dionys. ,  i.  9  ;  Time. ,  vi.  2  ;  Dionys. ,  i.  16,  ii.  1. 


Faunus  who  rules  the  Aborigines  on  the  Palatine  is  Latin ; 
"  Latini "  is  the  name  assumed  by  the  united  Aborigines 
and  Trojans ;  the  immediate  progenitors  of  Rome  are  the 
Latin  Lavinium  and  the  Latin  Alba.  The  evidence  of 
the  language,  the  religion,  the  institutions  and  civilization 
of  early  Rome  points  to  the  same  conclusion.  The  speech 
of  the  Romans  is  from  the  first  Latin  ;u  the  oldest  gods  of 
Rome — Saturn,  Janus,  Jupiter,  Juno,  Diana,  &c. — are  all 
Latin  ;  "  rex,"  "  praetor,"  "  dictator,"  "  curia,"  are  Latin 
titles  and  institutions.12  Geographically  too  the  low  hills  by 
the  Tiber  form  a  part  of  the  strip  of  coast-land  from  which 
the  Latini  took  their  name,  and  the  primitive  settlements, 
with  their  earthen  ramparts  and  wooden  palisades  planted 
upon  them  out  of  reach  both  of  human  foes  and  of  the 
malaria  of  the  swampy  low  grounds,  are  only  typical  of 
the  mode  of  settlement  which  the  conditions  of  life  dictated 
throughout  Latium.13  But  tradition  insists  on  the  admix- 
ture of  at  least  two  non-Latin  elements,  a  Sabine  and  an 
Etruscan.  The  question  as  regards  the  latter  will  be 
more  fully  discussed  hereafter ;  it  is  enough  to  say  here 
that  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  that  any  one  of  the 
communities  which  combined  to  form  Rome  was  Etruscan, 
or  that  there  was  any  important  Etruscan  strain  in  the 
Roman  blood.14  With  the  Sabines  it  is  otherwise.  That  The 
union  of  the  Palatine  and  Quirinal  settlements  which 
constituted  so  decisive  a  stage  in  the  growth  of  Rome  is  ( 
represented  as  having  been  in  reality  a  union  of  the 
original  Latins  with  a  band  of  Sabine  invaders  who  had 
seized  and  held  not  only  the  Quirinal  Hill  but  the  northern 
and  nearest  peak  of  the  Capitoline  Mount.  The  tradition 
was  evidently  deeply  rooted.  The  name  of  the  Quirinal 
Hill  itself  was  derived  from  the  Sabine  town  of  Cures.15 
The  ancient  worships  connected  with  it  were  said  to  be 
Sabine.1*5  One  of  the  three  old  tribes,  the  Tities,  was 
believed  to  represent  the  Sabine  element  ;1T  the  second  and 
the  fourth  kings  are  both  of  Sabine  descent.  By  the  great 
majority  of  modern  writers  the  substance  of  the  tradition, 
the  fusion  of  a  body  of  Sabine  invaders  with  the  original 
Latins,  is  accepted  as  historical ;  and  even  Mommsen 
allows  its  possibility,  though  he  throws  back  the  time  of 
its  occurrence  to  an  earlier  period  than  that  of  the  union 
of  the  two  settlements.18  We  cannot  here  enter  into  the 

11  The  theory  that  Latin  was  a  "mongrel  speech"  is  now  discarded; 
see  Schwegler,  i.  190,  and  LATIN  LANGUAGE,  vol.  xiv.  p.  327. 

12  The  title  "  rex  "  occurs  on  inscriptions  at  Lanuvium,  Tusculum, 
Bovillfe;  Henzen,  Bullettino  dell.  Ins(.,  1868,  p.  159;  Orelli,  2279; 
Corp.  I.  Lat.,  vi.,  2125.     For  "dictator"  and  "praetor,"  see  Livy, 
i.    23,  viii.  3 ;  cf.   Marquardt,  Rom.   Staatsverwaliung,   i.   475  ;  for 
"curia,"  Serv.  on  ^En.  i.  17  ;  Marquardt,  i.  467. 

13  Helbig,  Die  Italiker  in  d.  Poebene  ;  Pohlrnaun,  Anfdnge  Roms, 
40  ;  Abeken,  Mittel-ltalien,  61  sq. 

14  The  existence  of  a  Tuscan  quarter  (Tuscus  vicus)  in  early  Rome 
probably  points  to  nothing   more  than   the   presence  in   Rome  of 
Etruscan  artisans  and  craftsmen.     The  Etruscan  origin  ascribed  to  the 
third  tribe,  the  "Luceres,"  is  a  mere  guess;  see  Schwegler,. i.  504,  and 
Lange,  Rom.  Alterth.,  i.  85. 

15  Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  51. 

18  Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  74;  Schwegler,  i.  248  sq.  ;  but  Mommsen  (R.  O., 
i.  53)  points  out  that  most  of  these  so-called  Sabine  deities  are  at 
least  equally  Latin. 

17  Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  55;  Livy,  i.  13. 

18  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i.  43.     Schwegler  (R.  G.,  i.  478)  accepts  the 
tradition  of  a  Sabine  settlement  on  the  Quirinal,  and  considers  that 
in  the  united  state  the  Sabine  element  predominated.     Volquardsen 
(Rhein.  Mus.,  xxxiii.  559)  believes  in  a  complete  Sabine  conquest ; 
and  so  does  Ztiller  (Latium  u.  Rom,  Leipsic,  1878),  who,  however, 
places  it  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins.     Gilbert  (Topogr.,  i. 
cap.  5)  accepts  the  Sabine  settlement,  but  holds  rightly  that  in  the 
union  the  Latin  element  decisively  predominated. 


732 


K  O  M  E 


[ins-Tom 


question  at  length,  but  two  statements  may  be  safely  made 
respecting  it.  The  Sabine  invasion,  if  it  took  place  at 
all,  must  have  taken  place  far  back  in  the  prehistoric 
age ;  it  must  have  been  on  a  small  scale  ;  and  the  Sabine 
invaders  must  have  amalgamated  easily  and  completely 
with  the  Latin  settlers.  The  structure  of  the  early 
Roman  state,  while  it  bears  evident  marks  of  a  fusion  of 
communities,  shows  no  traces  of  a  mixture  of  race.  Nor 
is  it  easy  to  point  to  any  provably  Sabine  element  in  the 
language,  religion,  or  civilization  of  primitive  Rome.1  The 
theory  of  a  Sabine  conquest  can  hardly  be  maintained 
in  the  face  of  the  predominantly  Latin  character  of  both 
people  and  institutions.  On  the  other  hand,  the  prob- 
ability of  a  Sabine  raid  and  a  Sabine  settlement,  possibly 
on  the  Quirinal  Hill,  in  very  early  times  may  be  admitted. 
The  incursions  of  the  highland  Apennine  tribes  into  the 
lowlands  fill  a  large  place  in  early  Italian  history.  The 
Latins  were  said  to  have  originally  descended  from  the 
mountain  glens  near  Reate.2  The  invasions  of  Campania 
and  of  Magna  Graecia  by  Sabellian  tribes  are  matter  of 
history,  and  the  Sabines  themselves  are  represented  as 
a  restless  highland  people,  ever  seeking  new  homes  in 
richer  lands.3  In  very  early  days  they  appear  on  the 
borders  of  Latium,  in  close  proximity  to  Rome,  and  Sabine 
forays  are  familiar  and  frequent  occurrences  in  the  old 
legends. 

lie  early  Such  is  all  we  know  of  the  manner  in  which  the  separate 
ate-  settlements  on  the  seven  hills  grew  into  a  single  city  and 
community.  How  long  Rome  took  in  the  making,  or 
when  or  by  whom  the  work  was  completed,  we  cannot  say. 
Nor  is  it  possible  to  give  more  than  a  very  meagre  outline  of 
the  constitution  and  of  the  history  of  the  united  state  in  the 
early  days  of  its  existence. 

he  The  "  populus  Romanus  "  was,  we  are  told,  divided  into 

sople.  three  tribes,  Ramnes,  Tities,  and  Luceres,4  and  into  thirty 
"  curiae."  The  three  tribes  probably  represent  a  primitive 
clan  division,  older  than  the  Roman  state  itself.  They 
survived  in  later  times  only  as  divisions  of  the  ancient 
"  equitum  centuriae,"  and  even  in  the  accounts  of  the 
earliest  constitution  they  have  ceased  to  serve  as  a  political 
division  of  the  people.5  Of  far  greater  importance  is 
the  division  into  "curiae."  In  Cicero's  time  there  were 
still  curies,  curial  festivals,  and  curiate  assemblies,  and 
modern  authors  are  unquestionably  right  in  regarding  the 
curia  as  the  keystone  of  the  primitive  political  system. 
It  was  a  primitive  association  held  together  by  participa- 
tion in  common  "sacra,"  and  possessing  common  festivals, 
common  priests,  and  a  common  chapel,  hall,  and  hearth. 
The  members  of  a  curia  were  very  probably  neighbours 
and  kinsmen,  but  the  curia  seems  to  represent  a  stage  in 
political  development  midway  between  that  in  which  clan- 
ship is  the  sole  bond  of  union  and  that  in  which  such  claims 
as  those  of  territorial  contiguity  and  ownership  of  land  have 
obtained  recognition.  As  separate  associations  the  curiae 

1  See  Mominsen,  i.  43.     The  Sabine  words  in  Latin,  if  not  common 
to  both  dialects,   were  probably  introduced  later,  or   are   Sabinized 
Latin  (Mommsen,  Unterital.  Dialekten,  347).      Schwegler's  attempt 
to  distinguish  Sabine  features  in  the  Roman   character  is  ingenious 
but  unsatisfactory. 

2  Cato  ap.  Dionys.,  ii.  48,  49. 

8  Cato  ap.  Dionys.,  ii.  48,  49.  For  the  institution  of  the  "ver 
sacrum"  see  Schwegler,  Rom.  Gesch.,  \.  240 ;  Nissen,  Templum,  iv. 

*  The  tradition  connecting  the  Ramnes  with  Romulus  and  the 
Tities  with  Tatius  is  as  old  as  Ennius  (Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  55).  Mommsen 
(5.  41)  explains  Ramnes  as  =  Romani,  but  this  etymology  is  rejected 
by  Schwegler  and  by  Corssen.  As  regards  the  Luceres  there  is  little 
to  add  to  Livy's  statement  (i.  13),  "nominis  et  originis  causa  incerta 
est."  C/.,  on  the  whole  question,  Schwegler,  i.  505,  and  Volquardsen, 
Rhein.  Mus.,  xxxiii.  538. 

5  They  are  traditionally  connected  only  with  the  senate  of  300 
patres,  with  the  primitive'legion  of  3000,  with  the  vestal  virgins,  and 
with  the  augurs  (Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  81,  89,  91  ;  Livy,  x.  6  ;  Festus, 
344 ;  Mommsen,  i.  41,  74,  75 ;  Cenz,  Patricisch.  Rom,  90). 


are  probably  older  than  the  Roman  state,  but,6  however 
this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  of  this  state  when  formed 
they  constituted  the  only  effective  political  subdivisions. 
The  members  of  the  thirty  curiae  are  the  populus 
Romanus,  and  the  earliest  known  condition  of  Roman 
citizenship  is  the  "communio  sacrorum,"  partnership  in 
the  curial  "sacra."  Below  the  curia  there  was  no  further 
political  division,  for  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the 
curia  was  ever  formally  subdivided  into  a  fixed  number  of 
gentes  and  families.7  Nor  can  we  assent  to  the  view 
which  would  represent  the  curise  as  containing  only  the 
"  patrician  gentes."  The  primitive  Roman  people  of  the 
thirty  curioe  included  all  the  freemen  of  the  community, 
simple  as  well  as  gentle.8 

At  their  head  was  the  "rex,"  the  ruler  of  the  united  The  kin 
people.  The  Roman  "king"  is  not  simply  either  the 
hereditary  and  patriarchal  chief  of  a  clan,  the  priestly 
head  of  a  community  bound  together  by  common  sacra, 
or  the  elected  magistrate  of  a  state,  but  a  mixture  of 
all  three.9  In  later  times,  when  no  "  patrician  magistrates  " 
were  forthcoming  to  hold  the  elections  for  their  successors, 
a  procedure  was  adopted  which  was  believed  to  represent 
the  manner  in  which  the  early  kings  had  been  appointed.10 
In  this  procedure  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  old 
"  gentes  "  and  their  elders,  the  importance  of  maintaining 
unbroken  the  continuity  of  the  "sacra,"  on  the  trans- 
mission and  observance  of  which  the  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity depended,  and  thirdly  the  rights  of  the  freemen, 
are  all  recognized.  On  the  death  of  a  king,  the  auspicia, 
and  with  them  the  supreme  authority,  revert  to  the  council 
of  elders,  the  "patres,"  as  representing  the  "gentes."  By 
the  "patres"  an  "interrex"  is  appointed,  who  in  turn 
nominates  a  second  ;  by  him,  or  even  by  a  third  or  fourth 
interrex,  a  new  king  is  selected  in  consultation  with  the 
"patres."  The  king-designate  is  then  proposed  to  the 
freemen  assembled  by  their  curise  for  their  acceptance,  and 
finally  their  formal  acceptance  is  ratified  by  the  "  patres," 
as  a  security  that  the  "sacra"  of  which  they  are  the 
guardians  have  been  respected.11  Thus  the  king  is  in  the 
first  instance  selected  by  the  representatives  of  the  old 
gentes,  and  they  ratify  his  appointment.  In  form  he  is 
nominated  directly  by  a  predecessor  from  whose  hands  he 
receives  the  auspicia.  But  it  is  necessary  also  that  the 
choice  of  the  patres  and  the  nomination  of  the  interrex 
should  be  confirmed  by  a  solemn  vote  of  the  community. 

It  is  useless  to  attempt  a  precise  definition  of  the 
prerogatives  of  the  king  when  once  installed  in  office. 
Tradition  ascribes  to  him  a  position  and  powers  closely 


6  It  is   possible  that   the  curiae   were  originally  connected   with 
separate  localities;  cf.  such  names  as  Foriensis,  Veliensis  (Fest.,  174; 
Gilbert,  i.  213). 

7  Niebuhr's  supposition  of  ten  gentes  in  each  curia  has  nothing  in 
its  favour  but  the  confused  statement  of  Dionysius  as  to  the  purely 
military  8«/ca8es  (Dionys.,  ii.  7  ;  cf.  Miiller,  Philologus,  xxxiv.  96). 

8  The  view  taken  here  on  the  vexed  question  of  the  purely  patrician 
character  of  the  curiae  is  that  of  Mommsen  (Rim.  Forschunyen,  vol.  i.). 

9  Rubino,    Genz,  and  Lange  insist  on   the  hereditary  patriarchal 
character  of  the  kingship,  Ihne  on  its  priestly  side,  Schwegler  on  its 
elective.     Mommsen  comes  nearest  to  the  view  taken  in  the  text,  but 
fails  to  bring  out  the  nature  of  the  compromise  on  which  the  kingship 
rests. 

10  Cic.  De  Legg.,  iii.  3  ;  Livy,  iv.  7. 

11  "Patres  auctoresfacti,"  Livy,  i.  22 ;  "  patres fuere auctores,"  Id., 
i.  32.     In  336  B.C.  (Livy,  viii.  12)  the  Publilian  law  directed  that 
this  sanction  should  be  given  beforehand,  "ante  initum  suirragium," 
and  thus  reduced  it  to  a  meaningless  form  (Livy,  i.  11).     It  is  wrongly 
identified  by  Schwegler  with  the  "lex  curiata  de  imperio,"  which  in 
Cicero's   day  followed  and  did   not   precede  election.     According  to 
Cicero  (De  Rep.,  ii.  13,  21),  the  proceedings  included,  in  addition  to 
the  "  creation  "  by  the  coinitia  curiata  and  the  sanction  of  the  patres, 
the  introduction  by  the  king  himself  of  a  lex  curiata  conferring  the 
imperium  and  auspicia;  but  this  theory,  though  generally  accepted,  is 
probably  an  inference  from  the   practice  of  a  later  time,  when  the 
"creatio"  had  been  transferred  to  the  "comitia  centuriata." 


THE  MONARCHY.] 


ROME 


733 


resembling  those  of  the  heroic  kings  of  Greece.  He  rules 
for  life,  and  he  is  the  sole  ruler,  unfettered  by  written 
statutes.  He  is  the  supreme  judge,  settling  all  disputes 
and  punishing  wrongdoers  even  with  death.  All  other 
officials  are  appointed  by  him.  He  imposes  taxes,  dis- 
tributes lands,  and  erects  buildings.  Senate  and  assembly 
meet  only  when  he  convenes  them,  and  meet  for  little  else 
than  to  receive  communications  from  him.  In  war  he  is 
absolute  leader,1  and  finally  he  is  also  the  religious  head 
of  the  community.  It  is  his  business  to  consult  the  gods 
on  its  behalf,  to  offer  the  solemn  sacrifices,  and  to  announce 
the  days  of  the  public  festivals.  Hard  by  his  house  was 
the  common  hearth  of  the  state,  where  the  vestal  virgins 
cherished  the  sacred  fire. 

By  the  side  of  the  king  stood  the  senate,  or  council  of 
elders.  In  the  descriptions  left  us  of  the  primitive  senate, 
as  in  those  of  the  "  rex,"  we  can  discover  traces  of  a 
transition  from  an  earlier  state  of  things  when  Rome  was 
only  an  assemblage  of  clans  or  village  communities,  allied 
indeed,  but  each  still  ruled  by  its  own  chiefs  and  headmen, 
to  one  in  which  these  groups  have  been  fused  into  a  single 
state  under  a  common  ruler.  On  the  one  hand  the  senate 
appears  as  a  representative  council  of  chiefs,  with  inalien- 
able prerogatives  of  its  own,  and  claiming  to  be  the 
ultimate  depository  of  the  supreme  authority  and  of  the 
"  sacra  "  connected  with  it.  The  senators  are  the  "  patres  "; 
they  are  taken  from  the  leading  "  gentes  "  ;  they  hold  their 
seats  for  life ;  to  them  the  "  auspicia  "  revert  on  the  death 
of  a  king ;  they  appoint  the  interrex  from  their  own  body, 
are  consulted  in  the  choice  of  the  new  king,2  and  their 
sanction  is  necessary  to  ratify  the  vote  of  the  assembled 
freemen.  On  the  other  hand  they  are  no  longer  supreme. 
They  cannot  appoint  a  king  but  with  the  consent  of  the 
community,  and  their  relation  to  the  king  when  appointed 
is  one  of  subordination.  Vacancies  in  their  ranks  are  filled 
up  by  him,  and  they  can  but  give  him  advice  and  counsel 
when  he  chooses  to  consult  them. 

The  popular  assembly  of  united  Rome  in  its  earliest 
days  was  that  in  which  the  freemen  met  and  voted  by 
their  curiae  (comitia  curiata3).  The  assembly  met  in 
the  comitium  at  the  north-east  end  of  the  forum,4  at  the 
summons  and  under  the  presidency  of  the  king  or,  failing 
him,  of  the  "  interrex."  By  the  "  rex "  or  "  interrex  " 
the  question  was  put,  and  the  voting  took  place 
"curiatim,"  the  curiae  being  called  up  in  turn.  The 
vote  of  each  curia  was  decided  by  the  majority  of  indivi- 
dual votes,  and  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  the  curiae 
determined  the  final  result.  But  the  occasions  on  which 
the  assembly  could  exercise  its  power  must  have  been 
few.  Their  right  to  elect  magistrates  was  apparently 
limited  to  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  the  king  proposed 
by  the  interrex.  Of  the  passing  of  laws,  in  the  later  sense 
of  the  term,  there  is  no  trace  in  the  kingly  period. 
Dionysius's  statement  5  that  they  voted  on  questions  of 
war  and  peace  is  improbable  in  itself  and  unsupported  by 
tradition.  They  are  indeed  represented,  in  one  instance, 
as  deciding  a  capital  case,  but  it  is  by  the  express  permis- 
sion of  the  king  and  not  of  right.6  Assemblies  of  the 
people  were  also,  and  probably  more  frequently,  convened 
for  other  purposes.  Not  only  did  they  meet  to  hear  from 
the  king  the  announcement  of  the  high  days  and  holidays 
for  each  month,  and  to  witness  such  solemn  religious  rites 
as  the  inauguration  of  a  priest,  but  their  presence  (and 

1  For  the  references,  see  Schwegler,  i.  646  sq. 

"  If  the  analogy  of  the  "  rex  sacrorum"  is  to  be  trusted,  the  "king  " 
could  only  be  chosen  from  the  ranks  of  the  "patricii."  Cic.  Pro 
Domo,  14  ;  Gaius,  i.  122. 

3  Cic.  De  Rep.,  ii.  13  ;  Dionys.,  ii.  14,  &c. 

4  Varro,  L.  L.,  v.   155.     For  the  position  of  the  "comitium,"  see 
Smith,  Diet.  Geog.,  s.v.  "Roma,"  and  Jordan,  Topog.  d.  Stadt  Rom. 

5  Dionys.,  I.e.  6  Livy,  i.  26;  Dionys.,  Hi.  22. 


sometimes  their  vote)  was  further  required  to  authorize  and 
attest  certain  acts,  which  in  a  later  age  assumed  a  more 
private  character.  The  disposal  of  property  by  will7  and 
the  solemn  renunciation  of  family  or  gentile  "sacra"8 
could  only  take  place  in  the  presence  of  the  assembled 
freemen,  while  for  adoption9  (arrogatio)  not  only  their 
presence  bat  their  formal  consent  was  necessary. 

Such  in  outline  was  the  political  structure  of  the 
Roman  state  at  the  earliest  period  known  to  us.  It  is 
clear  that  it  belongs  to  a  comparatively  advanced  stage  in 
the  development  of  society,  and  that  a  long  previous 
history  lies  behind  it.  Traces  of  an  older  and  more 
primitive  order  of  things  still  linger  in  the  three  ancient 
shadowy  tribes,  in  the  curia?  and  gentes,  in  many  of  the 
features  noticeable  in  the  senate ;  but  they  are  traces  of  an 
order  that  has  passed  away.  The  supremacy  of  the  state 
is  established  over  the  groups  out  of  whose  fusion  it  has 
grown,  and  such  of  these  groups  as  still  retain  a  distinct 
existence  are  merely  private  corporations.  Private  differ- 
ences are  settled  and  wrongdoers  punished  by  the  state 
tribunals,  and  even  within  the  close  limits  of  the  family 
the  authority  of  the  head  is  limited  by  the  claims  of  the 
state  upon  the  services  of  the  sons  and  dependants. 

A  history  of  this  early  Roman  state  is  out  of  the  ques-  Rome 
tion.  The  names,  dates,  and  achievements  of  the  first  under 
four  kings  are  all  too  unsubstantial  to  form  the  basis  of  a 
sober  narrative ; 10  a  few  points  only  can  be  considered  as 
fairly  well  established.  If  we  except  the  long  eventless 
reign  ascribed  to  King  Numa,  tradition  represents  the  first 
kings  as  incessantly  at  war  with  their  immediate  neigh- 
bours. The  details  of  these  wars  are  no  doubt  mythical ; 
but  the  implied  condition  of  continual  struggle,  and  the 
narrow  range  within  which  the  struggle  is  confined,  may 
be  accepted  as  true.  The  picture  drawn  is  that  of  a 
small  community  with  a  few  square  miles  of  territory, 
at  deadly  feud  with  its  nearest  neighbours,  within  a 
radius  of  some  12  miles  round  Rome.  Nor,  in  spite 
of  the  repeated  victories  with  which  tradition  credits 
Romulus,  Ancus,  and  Tullus,  does  there  seem  to  have 
been  any  real  extension  of  Roman  territory  except  towards 
the  sea.  Fidense  remains  Etruscan ;  the  Sabines  con- 
tinue masters  up  to  the  Anio ;  Praeneste,  Gabii,  and 
Tusculum  are  still  untouched ;  and  on  this  side  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  Roman  territory,  in  spite  of  the  possible  destruction 
of  Alba,  extended  to  a  greater  distance  than  the  sixth 
milestone  from  Rome.11  But  along  the  course  of  the  Tiber 
below  the  city  there  was  a  decided  advance.  The  fortifi- 
cation of  the  Janiculum,  the  building  of  the  "pons 
sublicius,"  the  foundation  of  Ostia,  and  the  acquisition  of 
the  saltworks  near  the  sea  may  all  be  safely  ascribed  to 
this  early  period.  Closely  connected,  too,  with  the  control 
of  the  Tiber  from  Rome  to  the  sea  was  the  subjugation  of 
the  petty  Latin  communities  lying  south  of  the  river ; 
and  the  tradition  of  the  conquest  and  destruction  of  Poli- 
torium,  Tellense,  and  Ficana  is  confirmed  by  the  absence 
in  historical  times  of  any  Latin  communities  in  this 
district. 

With  the  reign  of  the- fifth  king  Tarquinius  Priscus  a  The 
marked  change  takes  place.     The  traditional  accounts  of  Tarquins. 
the  last  three  kings  not  only  wear  a  more  historical  air 

7  Gaius,  ii.  101.  8  Cell.,  xv.  27. 

9  Gell.,  v.    19,   "Comitia  praebentur,  quae  curiata  appellantur. " 
Cf.  Cic.  Pro  Domo,  13,  14  ;  and  see  ROMAN  LAW. 

10  By  far  the  most  complete  criticism  of  the  traditional  accounts  of 
the  first  four  kings  will  be  fo-.mcl  in  Schwegler's  Rom.  Geschichte,  vol. 
i. ;  compare  also  lime's  Early  Rome,  and  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis's  Credibility 
of  Early  Roman  History. 

11  The  "fossa  Cluilia,"  5  miles  from  Rome  (Livy,  ii.  39),  is  regarded 
by  Schwegler   (i.  585)  and   by  Mommseu   (i.    45)  as   marking  the 
Roman  frontier  towards  Latium.     Cf.  Ovid.,  Fast.,  ii.  681;  Strabo, 
230,   ")ueTa|u  yovv  TOV  W/UITTOI/  Kal  TOV  fKrov  \iOov  .   .    . 
^ffffToi  .    .   .    uptov  TTJS  Tcfre  'Pca/jLatcav  yrjs. 


734 


ROME 


[HISTORY 


than  those  of  the  first  four,  but  they  describe  something 
like  a  transformation  of  the  lloman  city  and  state. 
Under  the  rule  of  these  latter  kings  the  separate  settle- 
ments are  for  the  first  time  enclosed  with  a  rampart  of 
colossal  size  and  extent.1  The  low  grounds  are  drained, 
and  a  forum  and  circus  elaborately  laid  out;  on  the 
Capitoline  Mount  a  temple  is  erected,  the  massive  founda- 
tions of  which  were  an  object  of  wonder  even  to  Pliny.2 
To  the  same  period  are  assigned  the  redivision  of  the  city 
area  into  four  new  districts  and  the  introduction  of  a 
new  military  system,  The  kings  increase  in  power  and 
surround  themselves  with  new  splendour.  Abroad,  too, 
Rome  suddenly  appears  as  a  powerful  state  ruling  far  and 
wide  over  southern  Etruria  and  Latium.  These  startling 
changes  are,  moreover,  ascribed  to  kings  of  alien  descent, 
who  one  and  all  ascend  the  throne  in  the  teeth  of  estab- 
lished constitutional  forms.  Finally,  with  the  expulsion 
of  the  last  of  them — the  younger  Tarquin — comes  a 
sudden  shrinkage  of  power.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
republic  Rome  is  once  more  a  comparatively  small  state, 
with  hostile  and  independent  neighbours  at  her  very 
doors.  It  is  difficult  to  avoid  the  conviction  that  the 
true  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  is  to  be  found  in  the 
supposition  that  Rome  during  this  period  passed  under 
the  rule  of  powerful  Etruscan  lords.3  In  the  7th  and  6th 
centuries  B.C.,  and  probably  earlier  still,  the  Etruscans 
appear  as  ruling  widely  outside  the  limits  of  Etruria 
proper.  They  were  supreme  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  until 
their  power  there  was  broken  by  the  irruption  of  Celtic 
tribes  from  beyond  the  Alps,  and  while  still  masters  of 
the  plains  of  Lombardy  they  established  themselves  in 
the  rich  lowlands  of  Campania,  where  they  held  their 
ground  until  the  capture  of  Capua  by  the  Samnite  high- 
landers  in  423  B.C.  It  is  on  the  face  of  it  improbable 
that  a  power  which  had  extended  its  sway  from  the  Alps 
to  the  Tiber,  and  from  the  Liris  to  Surrentum,  should 
have  left  untouched  the  intervening  stretch  of  country 
between  the  Tiber  and  the  Liris.  Nor  are  we  without 
evidence  of  Etruscan  rule  in  Latium.4  According  to 
Dionysius  there  was  a  time  when  the  Latins  were  known 
to  the  Greeks  as  Tyrrhenians,  and  Rome  as  a  Tyrrhenian 
city.5  When  JEneas  landed  in  Italy  the  Latins  were  at 
feud  with  Turnus  (Turrhenos?  Dionys.,  i.  64)  of  Ardea, 
whose  close  ally  is  the  ruthless  Mezentius,  prince  of  Caere, 
to  whom  the  Latins  had  been  forced  to  pay  a  tribute  of 
wine.6  Cato  declared  the  Volsci  to  have  been  once  sub- 
ject to  Etruscan  rule,7  and  Etruscan  remains  found  at 
Velitrae,8  as  well  as  the  second  name  of  the  Volscian 
Auxur,  Tarracina  (the  city  of  Tarchon),  tend  to  confirm 
his  statement.  Nearer  still  to  Rome  is  Tusculum,  with 
its  significant  name,  and  at  Alba  we  hear  of  a  prince 
Tapxmos,9  lawless  and  cruel  like  Mezentius,  who  consults 
the  "  oracle  of  Tethys  in  Tyrrhenia."  Thus  we  find  the 
Etruscan  power  encircling  Rome  on  all  sides,  and  in  Rome 
itself  a  tradition  of  the  rule  of  princes  of  Etruscan  origin. 
The  Tarquinii  come  from  South  Etruria ;  their  name  can 
hardly  be  anything  else  than  the  Latin  equivalent  of  the 
Etruscan  Tarchon,  and  is  therefore  possibly  a  title 

1  Livy,  L  36. 

2  Livy,  i.  38,  55  ;  Plin.,  N.  H.,  xxxvi.  15. 

8  This  is  the  view  of  0.  Miiller,  and  more  recently  of  Deecke, 
Gardthausen,  and  Zoller ;  it  is  rejected  by  Schwegler.  Mommsen 
accepts  the  Etruscan  origin  of  the  Tarquins,  but  denies  thTit  it  proves 
an  Etruscan  rule  in  Rome. 

4  Zoller,  Latium  u.  Rom,  166,  189;  Gardthausen,  Mastarna 
(Leipsic,  1882);  Cuno's  Verbreitung  d.  Etr.  Stammes  (Graudenz,  1880) 
is  highly  fanciful.  5  Dionya. ,  i.  29. 

8  Livy,  i.  2  ;  Dionys.,  i.  64,  65  ;  Plut.,  Q.  R,  18. 
7  Cato  ap.  Serv.,  jEn.,  xi.  567. 

1  Helbig,  Ann.  d.  Inst.,  1865. 

9  Plut.,   Rom.,    2,  vapai/o/j.(i>roLTOS    Kal   w/j.6raros  ;    cf.    Rutulian 
Tarquitius,  Virg.,  ^En.,  x.  550. 


( =  "  lord  "  or  "  prince ")  rather  than  a  proper  name.10 
Even  Servius  Tullius  was  identified  by  Tuscan  chroniclers 
with  an  Etruscan  "  Mastarna."  n  Again,  what  we  are  told 
of  Etruscan  conquests  does  not  represent  them  as  moving, 
like  the  Sabellian  tribes,  in  large  bodies  and  settling  down 
en  masse  in  the  conquered  districts.  We  hear  rather  of 
military  raids  led  by  ambitious  chiefs  who  carve  out 
principalities  for  themselves  with  their  own  good  swords, 
and  with  their  followers  rule  oppressively  over  alien  and 
subject  peoples.12  And  so  at  Rome  the  story  of  the 
Tarquins  implies  not  a  wave  of  Etruscan  immigration 
so  much  as  a  rule  of  Etruscan  princes  over  conquered 
Latins. 

The  achievements  ascribed  to  the  Tarquins  are  not  less 
characteristic.  Their  despotic  rule  and  splendour  contrast 
with  the  primitive  simplicity  of  the  native  kings.  Only 
Etruscan  builders,  under  the  direction  of  wealthy  and 
powerful  Etruscan  lords,  could  have  built  the  great 
cloaca,  the  Servian  wall,  or  the  Capitoline  temple, — monu- 
ments which  challenged  comparison  with  those  of  the 
emperors  themselves.  Nor  do  the  traces  of  Greek  influ- 
ence upon  Rome  during  this  period13  conflict  with  the 
theory  of  an  Etruscan  supremacy ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  at 
least  possible  that  it  was  thanks  to  the  extended  rule 
and  wide  connexions  of  her  Etruscan  rulers  that  Rome 
was  first  brought  into  direct  contact  with  the  Greeks,  who 
had  long  traded  with  the  Etruscan  ports  and  influenced 
Etruscan  culture.14 

These  Etruscan  princes  are  represented,  not  only  as  hav- 
ing raised  Rome  for  the  time  to  a  commanding  position  in 
Latium  and  lavished  upon  the  city  itself  the  resources  of 
Etruscan  civilization,  but  also  as  the  authors  of  important 
internal  changes.  They  are  represented  as  favouring  new 
men  at  the  expense  of  the  old  patrician  families,  and  as 
reorganizing  the  Roman  army  on  a  new  footing,  a  policy 
natural  enough  in  military  princes  of  alien  birth,  and 
rendered  possible  by  the  additions  which  conquest  had 
made  to  the  original  community.  From  among  the  lead- 
ing families  of  the  conquered  Latin  states  a  hundred  new 
members  were  admitted  to  the  senate,  and  these  gentes 
thenceforth  ranked  as  patrician,  and  became  known  as 
"gentes  minores."15  The  changes  in  the  army  begun,  it  is 
said,  by  the  elder  Tarquin  and  completed  by  Servius 
Tullius  were  more  important.  The  basis  of  the  primitive 
military  system  had  been  the  three  tribes,  each  of  which 
furnished  1000  men  to  the  legion  and  100  to  the  cavalry.16 
Tarquinius  Priscus,  we  are  told,  contemplated  the  creation 
of  three  fresh  tribes  and  three  additional  centuries  of 
horsemen  with  new  names,17  though  in  face  of  the  opposi- 
tion offered  by  the  old  families  he  contented  himself  with 
simply  doubling  the  strength  without  altering  the  names 
of  the  old  divisions.18  But  the  change  attributed  to 

10  Miiller-Deecke,  i.  69,  70  ;   Zoller,  Latium  u.  Rom,  168  ;   cf. 
Strabo,  p.  219  ;  Serv.  on  jEn.,  x.   179,   198.     The  existence  of  au 
independent  "gens  Tarquinia"  of  Roman  extraction  (Sclnvegler,  i. 
678)  is  uiiproven   and  unlikely.     Nor  can  "Tarquinius"  mean  "of 
Tarquinii " ;  this  would  require  "  Tarquiniensis  "  as  a  cognomen. 

11  See  speech  of  Claudius,  Tab.  Lugd.,  A  pp.  to  Nipperdey's  edition 
of  the  Annals  of  Tacitus,  "Tusce  Mastarna  ei  nomen  erat."     For  the 
painting  in  the  Fran9ois  tomb  at  Vulci,  see  Gardthausen,  Mastarna, 
29  sq.  ;  Annali  dell.  Instit.,  Rome,  1859. 

12  Cf.  the  traditions  of  Mezentius,  of  Caeles  Vibenna,  Porsena,  &c. 

13  Schwegler,  R.  G. ,  i.  679  sq. 

14  Schwegler,  i.  791,  792.     He  accepts  as  genuine,  and  as  represent- 
ing the  extent  of  Roman  rule  and  connexions  under  the  Tarquins,  the 
first  treaty  between  Rome  and  Carthage  mentioned  by  Polybius  (iii. 
22) ;  see,  for  a  discussion  of  the  question,  Vollmer,  Rhein.  Mus.,  xxxii. 
614  sq.  ;  Mommsen,  Rom.  Chronologie,  20  ;  Dyer,  Journ.  of  PhiloL, 
ix.  238.  15  Livy,  i.  35  ;  Diouys.,  iii.  67 ;  Cic.  De  Rep.,  ii.  20. 

16  Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  89.  J7  Livy,  i.  36  ;  Dionys.,  iii.  71. 

18  The  six  centuries  of  horsemen  were  thenceforward  known  as 
"prirni  secuudique  Ramnes  "  (Fest.,  344  ;  cf.  Schwegler,  i.  C85  s//.). 
It  is  possible  that  the  reforms  of  Tarquinius  Priscus  were  limited  to 
the  cavalry. 


The 

Srrviai: 
reform! 


THE   MONARCHY.] 


ROME 


735 


Servius  Tullius  went  far  beyond  this.  His  famous  distri- 
bution of  all  freeholders  (assidui)  into  tribes,  classes,  and 
centuries,1  though  subsequently  adopted  with  modifica- 
tions as  the  basis  of  the  political  system,  was  at  first  ex- 
clusively military  in  its  nature  and  objects.2  It  amounted 
in  fact  to  the  formation  of  a  new  and  enlarged  army  on 
a  new  footing.  In  this  force,  excepting  in  the  case  of 
the  centuries  of  the  horsemen,  no  regard  was  paid  either 
to  the  old  clan  divisions,  or  to  the  semi-religious  semi- 
political  curicC.  In  its  ranks  were  included  all  free- 
holders within  the  Roman  territory,  whether  members  or 
not  of  any  of  the  old  divisions,  and  the  organization  of  this 
new  army  of  assidui  was  not  less  independent  of  the  old 
system  with  its  clannish  and  religious  traditions  and  forms. 
The  unit  was  the  "centuria"  or  company  of  100  men;  the 
centuii?e  were  grouped  in  "  classes "  and  drawn  up  in 
the  order  of  the  phalanx.3  The  centuries  in  front 
were  composed  of  the  wealthier  citizens,  whose  means 
enabled  them  to  bear  the  cost  of  the  complete  equipments 
necessary  for  those  who  were  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the 
onset.  These  centuries  formed  the  first  class.  Behind 
them  stood  the  centuries  of  the  second  and  third  classes, 
less  completely  armed,  but  making  up  together  with  those 
of  the  first  class  the  heavy-armed  infantry.4  In  the  rear 
were  the  centuries  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  classes,  recruited 
from  the  poorer  freeholders,  and  serving  only  as  light- 
armed  troops.  The  entire  available  body  of  freeholders 
was  divided  into  two  equal  portions,  a  reserve  corps  of 
"  seniores "  and  a  corps  of  "juniores"  for  active  service. 
Each  of  these  corps  consisted  of  85  centuries  or  8500  men, 
i.e.,  of  two  legions  of  about  4200  men  each,  the  normal 
strength  of  a  consular  legion  under  the  early  republic.5  It 
is  noticeable  also  that  the  heavy-armed  centuries  of  the 
three  first  classes  in  each  of  these  legions  represented  a 
total  of  3000  men,  a  number  which  agrees  exactly  with 
the  number  of  heavy-armed  troops  in  the  legion  as 
described  by  Polybius.  Attached  to  the  legions,  but  not 
included  in  them,  were  the  companies  of  sappers  and 
trumpeters.  Lastly,  to  the  six  centuries  of  horsemen, 
which  still  retained  the  old  tribal  names,  twelve  more 
were  added  as  a  distinct  body,  and  recruited  from  the 
wealthiest  class  of  citizens.6  The  four  "  tribes  "  also  insti- 
tuted by  Servius  were  probably  intended  to  serve  as  the 
basis  for  the  levy  of  freeholders  for  the  new  army.7  As 
their  names  show,  they  corresponded  with  the  natural 
local  divisions  of  the  city  territory,8  but  that  they 
included  freeholders  residing  on  Roman  territory  but  out- 
side Rome  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  both  Ostia  and 
Alba  belonged  to  the  Palatine  tribe.9 

1  Cic.  De  Rep.,  ii.  22  ;  Livy,  i.  42  ;  Dionys.,  iv.  16. 

2  This  is  recognized  by  Mommsen,  Genz,  and  Soltau,   as  against 
Niebuhr,    Scliwegler,   and  lime.     Even  in  the   later   "comitia   cen- 
turiata  "  the  traces  of  the  originally  military  character  of  the  organ- 
ization are  unmistakable. 

3  The  century  ceased  to  represent  companies  of  one  hundred  when 
the  whole  organization  ceased  to  be  military  and  became  exclusively 
political. 

4  The  property  qualification  for  service  in  the  first  class  is  given  at 
100,000  asses  (Livy),  for  the  second  at  70,000,  third  50,000,  fourth 
25,000,  fifth  11,000.     It  was  probably  originally  a  certain  acreage 
in  land,  afterwards  translated  into  terms  of  money  ;  cf.  Mommsen, 
Rom.  Tribus,  115. 

5  Polyb.,  vi.  20  ;  Mommsen,  Rom.  Trib.,  132  sy. 

6  Livy,  i.  43.     Dionys.  (iv.  18)  and  Cic.  (De  Rep.,  ii.  22)  ascribe 
the  whole  eighteen  to  Servius.     But  the  six  older  centuries  remained 
distinct,  as  the  "sex  suffragia"  of  the  comitia  centuriata ;  Cic.  De 
Rep.,  ii.  22. 

Dionys.,  iv.  14,  eij  TO.S  Karaypaipas  TCLV  ffTparidnlav. 

8  Livy,    i.    43.       The  four  were    Palatiua,    Suburana,    Exquilina, 
Collina. 

9  See  Grotefend,  Imperium  R.   tributim  description,  27,  67.     The 
inclusion  of  landless  men  ("  proletarii ")  in  the  tribes  belongs  to  a 
later  time,  when  the  tribes  had  ceased  to  have   a  purely  military 
significance  ;  cf.  the  formation  of  a  century  of  "capite  censi." 


The  last  of  these  Etruscan  lords  to  rule  in  Rome  was  Fall  of 
Tarquin  the  Proud.  He  is  described  as  a  splendid  and  the  mon- 
despotic  monarch.  His  sway  extended  over  Latium  as  arcliy- 
far  south  as  Circeii.  Aristodemus,  tyrant  of  Cumae, 
was  his  ally,  and  kinsmen  of  his  own  were  princes  at 
Collatia,  at  Gabii,  and  at  Tusculum.  The  Volscian  high- 
landers  were  chastised,  and  Signia  with  its  massive 
walls  was  built  to  hold  them  in  check.  In  Rome 
itself  the  Capitoline  temple  and  the  great  cloaca  bore 
witness  to  his  power.  But  his  rule  pressed  heavily  upon 
the  Romans,  and  at  the  last,  on  the  news  of  the  foul 
wrong  done  by  his  son  Sextus  to  a  noble  Roman  matron, 
Lucretia,  the  indignant  people  rose  in  revolt.  Tarquin, 
who  was  away  besieging  Ardea,  was  deposed  ;  sentence  of 
exile  was  passed  upon  him  and  upon  all  his  race ;  and  the 
people  swore  that  never  again  should  a  king  rule  in  Rome. 
Freed  from  the  tyrant,  they  chose  for  themselves  two 
yearly  magistrates  who  should  exercise  the  supreme 
authority,  and  thus  the  republic  of  Rome  was  founded. 
Three  times  the  banished  Tarquin  strove  desperately  to 
recover  the  throne  he  had  lost.  First  of  all  the  men  of 
Veii  and  Tarquinii  marched  to  his  aid,  but  were  defeated  in 
a  pitched  battle  on  the  Roman  frontier.  A  year  later  Lars 
Porsena,  prince  of  Clusium,  at  the  head  of  all  the  powers 
of  Etruria,  appeared  before  the  gates  of  Rome,  and  closely 
besieged  the  city,  until,  moved  by  the  valour  of  his  foe,  he 
granted  honourable  terms  of  peace  and  withdrew.10  Once 
again,  by  Lake  Regillus,  the  Romans  fought  victoriously  for 
their  liberty  against  Tarquin's  son-in-law  Mamilius,  prince 
of  Tusculum,  and  chief  of  the  Latin  name.  Mamilius 
was  slain ;  Tarquin  in  despair  found  a  refuge  at  Cumse, 
and  there  soon  afterwards  died. 

So,  in  brief,  ran  the  story  of  the  flight  of  the  kings,  as 
it  was  told  by  the  chroniclers  whom  Livy  followed.  Its 
details  are  most  of  them  fabulous ;  it  is  crowded  with 
inconsistencies  and  improbabilities ;  there  are  no  trust- 
worthy dates ;  the  names  even  of  the  chief  actors  are 
probably  fictitious,  and  the  hand  of  the  improver,  Greek 
or  Roman,  is  traceable  throughout.11  The  struggle  was 
doubtless  longer  and  sharper,  and  the  new  constitution 
more  gradually  shaped,  than  tradition  would  have  us 
believe.  Possibly,  too,  this  revolution  in  Rome  was  but 
a  part  of  a  widespreading  wave  of  change  in  Latium  and 
central  Italy,  similar  to  that  which  in  Greece  swept  away 
the  old  heroic  monarchies.  But  there  is  no  room  for 
doubting  the  main  facts  of  the  emancipation  of  Rome 
from  the  rule  of  alien  princes  and  the  final  abolition  of 
the  kingly  office. 

II.  The  public. 

PERIOD  I. :  509-265  B.C.12 — (a)  The  Struggle  between  the  245-489 
Orders. — It  is  characteristic  of  Rome  that  the  change  from  A-u-°- 
monarchy  to  republic 13  should  have  been  made  with  the 
least  possible  disturbance  of  existing  forms.     The  title  of 
king  was  retained,  though  only  as  that  of  a  priestly  officer 
(rex  sacrorum)  to  whom  some  of  the  religious  functions  of 
the   former  kings  were  transferred.      The  two  annually 
elected  consuls,  or  "praetores,"14  were  regarded  as  joint 
heirs  of   the  full  kingly  authority,   and  as  holding  the 
"imperium,"  and   the  correlative   right   of   auspices,   by 


10  Livy,  ii.  9-14.     Pliny  (N.  H.,  34,  14)  and  Tacitus  (Ann.,  iii. 
72)  imply  the  existence   of  a  tradition,  possibly  that   of   "Tuscan 
annalists,"  according  to  which  Porsena  actually  made  himself  master  of 
Eome.     The  whole  story  is  fully  criticized  by  Schwegler  (ii.  181  sq. ) 
and  Zoller  (Latium  u.  Rom,  p.  180). 

11  See  the  exhaustive  criticism  in  Schwegler  (ii.  pp.  66-205). 

12  The  dates  in  the  margin  throughout  are  the  years  from  the  founda- 
tion of  the  city. 

13  Schwegler  (ii.  92)  suggests  that  the  dictatorship  formed  an  inter- 
mediate step  between  the  monarchy  and  the  consulate  ;  cf.  Ihne,  Rom. 
Forsch.,  42. 

14  For  the  title  "praetor,"  see  Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.  70,  note. 


736 


ROME 


[HISTORY, 


direct  transmission  from  the  founder  of  the  city.  They 
were,  it  is  true,  elected  or  created  by  a  new  assembly,  by 
the  army  of  freeholders  voting  by  their  classes  and 
centuries  (comitia  centuriata),  and  to  this  body  was  given 
also  the  right  of  passing  laws ;  but  nevertheless  it  was  still 
by  a  vote  of  the  30  curies  (lex  curiata)  that  the  supreme 
authority  was  formally  conferred  on  the  magistrates 
chosen  by  the  centuries  of  freeholders,  and  both  the  choice 
of  magistrates  and  the  passing  of  laws  still  required  the 
sanction  of  the  patrician  senators  (patrum  auctoritas).1 
Nor,  lastly,  were  the  legal  prerogatives  of  the  senate 
altered,  although  it  is  probable  that  before  long  plebeians 
were  admitted  to  seats,  if  not  to  votes,  and  though  its 
importance  was  gradually  increased  by  the  substitution  of 
an  annual  magistracy  for  the  life-long  rule  of  a  single 
king.  But  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy  brought  with  it 
a  change  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  actual  working 
of  the  constitution.  Though  the  distinction  between 
patricians  and  plebeians  was  at  least  as  old  as  the  state 
itself,  it  is  not  until  the  establishment  of  the  republic  that 
it  plays  any  part  in  the  history  of  Rome.  No  sooner, 
however,  was  the  overshadowing  authority  of  the  king 
removed  than  a  struggle  commenced  between  the  two 
orders  which  lasted  for  more  than  two  centuries.  It  was 
in  no  sense  a  struggle  between  a  conquering  and  a  con- 
quered class,  or  between  an  exclusive  citizen  body  and  an 
unenfranchised  mass  outside  its  pale.2  Patricians  and 
plebeians  were  equally  citizens  of  Rome,  sprung  of  the 
same  race  and  speaking  the  same  tongue.  The  former 
were  the  members  of  those  ancient  "  gentes "  which  had 
possibly  been  once  the  "  chiefly "  families  in  the  small 
communities  which  preceded  the  united  state,  and  which 
claimed  by  hereditary  right  a  privileged  position  in  the 
community.  Only  patricians  could  sit  in  the  council  of 
patres,  and  hence  probably  the  name  given  to  their  order.3 
To  their  representatives  the  supreme  authority  reverted 
on  the  death  of  the  king ;  the  due  transmission  of  the 
auspicia  and  the  public  worship  of  the  state  gods  were 
their  special  care ;  and  to  them  alone  were  known  the  tra- 
ditional usages  and  forms  which  regulated  the  life  of  the 
people  from  day  to  day.  To  the  "  plebs  "  (the  multitude, 
7rAiJ#os)  belonged  all  who  were  not  members  of  some 
patrician  gens,  whether  independent  freemen  or  attached 
as  "  clients  "4  to  one  of  the  great  houses.  The  plebeian 
was  a  citizen,  with  civil  rights  and  a  vote  in  the  assembly 
of  the  curies,  but  he  was  excluded  by  ancient  custom  from 
all  share  in  the  higher  honours  of  the  state,  and  inter- 
marriage with  a  patrician  was  not  recognized  as  a  properly 
legal  union. 

The  revolution  which  expelled  the  Tarquins  gave  the 
patricians,  who  had  mainly  assisted  in  bringing  it  about, 
an  overwhelming  ascendency  in  the  state.  The  plebs  had 
indeed  gained  something.  Not  only  is  it  probable  that 
the  strictness  of  the  old  tie  of  clientship  had  somewhat 
relaxed,  and  that  the  number  of  the  "clientes  "  was  smaller 
and  their  dependence  on  patrician  patrons  less  complete, 
but  the  ranks  of  the  plebs  had,  under  the  later  kings,  been 
swelled  by  the  admission  of  conquered  Latins,  and  the 
freeholders  among  these  had  with  others  been  enrolled  in 
the  Servian  tribes,  classes,  and  centuries.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  republic  invested  this  military  levy  of  free- 

1  The  present  writer  has  adopted  the  view  of  the  "  patrum  auctori- 
tas" taken  by  Mommsen  (Forsch.,  i.).     Others  identify  it  with  the 
"  lex  curiata,"  or  at  least  closely  connect  the  two. 

2  Here  again  the  present  writer  has  in  the  main  followed  Mommsen, 
as  against  Schwegler,  Ihne,  Zoller,  and  others. 

8  Cf.  "aedilis,"  "aedilicius,"  &c. ;  Cic.  DeRep.,  ii.  12;  Livy,  i.  8. 
For  a  full  discussion  of  other  views,  see  Soltau,  179  sq.  ;  Christensen, 
Hermes,  ix.  196. 

4For  the  "clientela,"  see  Mommsen  (Forsch.,  i.)  and  Schwegler 
(i.  638). 


holders  with  political  rights  as  an  assembly,  for  by  their 
votes  the  consuls  were  chosen  and  laws  passed,  and  it  was 
the  plebeian  freeholders  who  formed  the  main  strength  of 
the  plebs  in  the  struggle  that  followed.  But  these  gains 
were  greater  in  appearance  than  in  reality.  The  plebeian 
freeholders  commanded  only  a  minority  of  votes  in  the 
comitia  centuriata.  In  their  choice  of  magistrates  they 
were  limited  to  the  patrician  candidates  nominated  by 
patrician  presiding  magistrates,  and  their  choice  required 
confirmation  not  only  by  the  older  and  smaller  assembly  of 
the  curias,  in  which  the  patricians  and  their  clients  pre- 
dominated, but  also  by  the  patrician  patres.  They  could 
only  vote  on  laws  proposed  by  patrician  consuls,  and  here 
again  the  subsequent  sanction  of  the  patres  was  necessary. 
The  whole  procedure  of  the  comitia  was  in  short  absolutely 
in  the  hands  of  their  patrician  presidents,  and  liable  to 
every  sort  of  interruption  and  suspension  from  patrician 
pontiffs  and  augurs. 

But  these  political  disabilities  did  not  constitute  the 
main  grievance  of  the  plebs  in  the  early  years  of  the  re- 
public. What  they  fought  for  was  protection  for  their  lives 
and  liberties,  and  the  object  of  attack  was  the  despotic 
authority  of  the  patrician  magistrates.  The  consuls  wielded 
the  full  "imperium"  of  the  kings,  and  against  this  "con- 
sular authority"  the  plebeian,  though  a  citizen,  had  no 
protection  and  no  appeal,  and  matters  were  only  worse 
when  for  the  two  consuls  was  substituted  in  some  emer- 
gency a  single,  all-powerful,  irresponsible  dictator.  In 
Rome,  as  in  Greece,  the  first  efforts  of  the  people  were 
directed  against  the  arbitrary  powers  of  the  executive 
magistrate. 

The  history  of  this  struggle  between  the  orders  opens 
with  a  concession  made  to  the  plebs  by  one  of  the  consuls 
themselves,  a  concession  possibly  due  to  a  desire  to  secure 
the  allegiance  of  the  plebeian  freeholders,  who  formed  the 
backbone  of  the  army.  In  the  very  first  year  of  the 
republic,  according  to  the  received  chronology,  P.  Valerius 
Poplicola  carried  in  the  comitia  centuriata  his  famous  law 
of  appeal.5  It  enacted  that  no  magistrate,  saving  only 
a  dictator,  should  execute  a  capital  sentence  upon  any 
Roman  citizen  unless  the  sentence  had  been  confirmed  on 
appeal  by  the  assembly  of  the  centuries.  But,  though  the 
"  right  of  appeal "  granted  by  this  law  was  justly  regarded 
in  later  times  as  the  greatest  safeguard  of  a  Roman's 
liberties,  it  was  by  no  means  at  first  so  effective  a  pro- 
tection as  it  afterwards  became.  For  not  only  was  the 
operation  of  the  law  limited  to  the  bounds  of  the  city,  so 
that  the  consul  in  the  field  or  on  the  march  was  left  as 
absolute  as  before,  but  no  security  was  provided  for  its 
observance  even  within  the  city  by  consuls  resolved  to 
disregard  it. 

It  was  by  their  own  efforts  that  the  plebeians  first  The  f 
obtained  any  real  protection  against  magisterial  despotism. secest 
The  traditional  accounts  of  the  first  secession  are  con- 
fused  and  contradictory,0  but  its  causes  and  results  are 
tolerably  clear.  The  seceders  were  the  plebeian  legionaries 
recently  returned  from  a  victorious  campaign.  Indignant 
at  the  delay  of  the  promised  reforms,  they  ignored  the 
order  given  them  to  march  afresh  against  Volsci  and  ^Equi, 
and  instead  entrenched  themselves  on  a  hill  across  the 
Anio,  some  three  miles  from  Rome,  and  known  afterwards 
as  the  Mons  Sacer.  The  frightened  patricians  came  to 
terms,  and  a  solemn  agreement  (lex  sacrata)7  was  con- 
cluded between  the  orders,  by  which  it  was  provided  that 
henceforth  the  plebeians  should  have  annual  magistrates 
of  their  own  (tribuni  plebis),  members  of  their  own  order, 
who  should  be  authorized  to  protect  them  against  the 

8  Livy,  ii.  8,  lex  Valeria  de  provocation  ;  Cic.  De  Rep.,  ii.  31; 
cf.  Livy,  iii.  20.  6  Schwegler,  ii.  226  sq. 

7  Schwegler,  ii.  251,  note  ;  Livy,  i.  33. 


tribui 


STRUGGLE  OF  THE  ORDERS.] 

consuls,1  and  a  curse  was  invoked  upon  the  man  who 
should  injure  or  impede  the  tribune  in  the  performance  of 
his  duties.2  The  number  of  tribunes  was  at  first  two,  then 

-)•  five,  and  before  449  B.C.  it  had  been  raised  to  ten.  The 
fact  that  the  institution  of  the  tribunate  of  the  plebs  was 
the  one  result  of  the  first  secession  is  strong  evidence  that 
the  object  of  the  seceders  was  not  economic  or  agrarian 
reform  but  protection  against  the  consuls.  The  tribunate 
gave  them  this  protection  in  a  form  which  has  no  parallel  in 
history.  The  tribune  was  not,  and,  strictly  speaking,  never 
became,  a  magistrate  of  the  Roman  people.  His  one  proper 
prerogative  was  that  of  granting  protection  to  the  oppressed 
plebeian  against  a  patrician  officer.  This  prerogative  (jus 
auxilii)  was  secured  to  the  tribunes,  not  by  the  ordinary 
constitution,  but  by  a  special  compact  between  the  orders, 
and  was  protected  by  the  ancient  oath  (vetus  jusjurandum),3 
which  invoked  a  curse  upon  the  violator  of  a  tribune.  This 
exceptional  and  anomalous  right  the  tribunes  could  only 
exercise  in  person,  within  the  limits  of  the  "  pomoerium," 
and  against  individual  acts  of  magisterial  oppression.4  It 
was  only  gradually  that  it  expanded  into  the  later  wide 
power  of  interference  with  the  whole  machinery  of  govern- 
ment, and  was  supplemented  by  the  legislative  and  judicial 
powers  which  rendered  the  tribunate  of  the  last  century 
B.C.  so  formidable,  and  the  "  tribunitia  potestas  "  so  essen- 
tial an  element  in  the  authority  of  the  emperors. 

But  from  the  first  the  tribunes  were  for  the  plebs  not 

u ilia.  oniy  protectors  but  leaders,  under  whom  they  organized 
themselves  in  opposition  to  the  patricians.  The  tribunes 
convened  assemblies  of  the  plebs  (concilia  plebis),  and 
carried  resolutions  on  questions  of  interest  to  the  order. 
This  incipient  plebeian  organization  was  materially  ad- 

8  vanced  by  the  Publilian  law  of  471  B.c.,5  which  appears 
to  have  formally  recognized  as  lawful  the  plebeian  concilia, 
and  established  also  the  tribune's  right  "cum  plebeagere," 
i.e.,  to  propose  and  carry  resolutions  in  them.  These 
assemblies  were  "  tributa,"  or,  in  other  words,  the  voting  in 
them  took  place  not  by  curies  or  centuries  but  by  tribes. 
In  them,  lastly,  after  the  Publilian  law,  if  not  before,  the 
tribunes  were  annually  elected.6  By  this  law  the  founda- 
tions were  laid  both  of  the  powerful  "  comitia  tributa  "  7 
of  later  days  and  also  of  the  legislative  and  judicial 
prerogatives  of  the  tribunes.  The  patricians  maintained 
indeed  that  resolutions  (plebiscita)  carried  by  tribunes  in 
the  concilia  plebis  were  not  binding  on  their  order,  but  the 
moral  weight  of  such  resolutions,  whether  they  affirmed  a 
general  principle  or  pronounced  sentence  of  condemnation 
on  some  single  patrician,  was  no  doubt  considerable. 

jrian        [t  is  at  any  rate  certain  that  the  passing  of  the  Publilian 

ition.  iaw  was  followed  by  increased  activity  on  the  part  of  the 
tribunes.  The  attack  on  the  consular  authority  was 
continued,  and  combined  with  it  we  have  a  persistent 
effort  made  to  secure  for  the  plebs  their  fair  share  of  the 
common  lands  of  the  state  (agri  publici).  The  main  object, 
however,  of  this  early  agrarian  agitation  was  not  economic 
but  political.  Membership  in  a  tribe  was  now  more  than 
ever  important  for  a  plebeian,  as  giving  a  vote  not  only  in 
the  comitia  centuriata  but  also  in  the  plebeian  "concilia," 
and  membership  in  a  tribe  was  possible  as  yet  only  for 
freeholders.8  To  increase  the  number  of  freeholders 

1  Cic.  De  Rep. ,  ii.  34,  "  contra  consulare  imperium  creati. " 

2  Livy,  iii.  55.  3  Festus,  318;  Appian,  B.  C.,  i.  138. 
4  Gell.,  xiii.  12,  "ut  injuria  quae  coram  fieret  arceretur." 

8  Livy,  ii.  56,  60  ;  Dionys.,  ix.  41  ;  Schwegler,  ii.  541  ;  Soltau,  493. 

6  For  theories  as -to  the  original  mode  of  appointing  tribunes,  see 
Mommsen,  Forsch.,  i.  185. 

7  It  is  impossible  to  accept  Mommsen's  theory  of  a  patricio-plebeian 
comitia  tributa,  as  distinct  from  the  plebeian  assembly  by  tribes. 

1  "  Proletarii "  were  not  admitted  before  the  decemvirate,  and 
according  to  Mommsen  not  until  310  B.C.  There  were  now  twenty- 
one  tribes,  seventeen  having  been  added  shortly  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  republic.  Livy,  ii.  21 ;  Soltau,  481. 


737 

became  therefore  a  matter  of  importance,  and  the  simplest 
mode  of  increasing  the  number  of  freeholders  was  for  the 
state  to  create  freeholds  on  the  common  lands.  But  such 
a  policy  met  with  bitter  opposition  from  the  patricians,  who 
had  long  enjoyed  a  virtual  monopoly  of  these  lands,  and 
had  excluded  the  plebeians  even  from  those  more  recently 
acquired  tracts  which  they  had  helped  to  win  by  their 
swords.  Against  this  patrician  monopoly  the  tribunes 
unceasingly  protested  from  a  few  years  after  the  first 
secession  down  to  465  B.C.9  In  that  year  a  compromise  289. 
was  effected  by  the  colonization  of  Antium,  which  had 
been  taken  the  year  before,  and  the  plebeians  obtained 
land  without  any  disturbance  of  patrician  occupiers. 
Eleven  years  later  the  common  lands  on  the  Aventine 
were  reclaimed  and  assigned  to  plebeians  by  a  lex  Icilia.10 

But   this   agrarian   agitation,    though   destined   subse-  The  de- 
quently  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  history,  was  for  cemvirate 
the  time  far  less  fruitful  in  results  than  that  which  was 
directed  against  the  consular  authority. 

The  proposal  of  C.  Terentilius  Arsa  (460  B.C.)  to  appoint  294. 
a  plebeian  commission  to  draw  up  laws  restricting  the 
powers  of  the  consuls u  was  resolutely  opposed  by  the 
patricians,  but  after  ten  years  of  bitter  party  strife  a 
compromise  was  effected.  A  commission  of  ten  patricians 
was  appointed,  who  should  frame  and  publish  a  code  of 
law  binding  equally  on  both  the  orders.  These  decemviri 
were  to  be  the  sole  and  supreme  magistrates  for  the  year, 
and  the  law  of  appeal  was  suspended  in  their  favour.12 
The  code  which  they  promulgated,  the  famous  XII.  Tables, 
owed  little  of  its  importance  to  any  novelties  or  improve- 
ments contained  in  its  provisions.  For  the  most  part  it 
seems  merely  to  have  reaffirmed  existing  usages  and  laws 
(see  ROMAN  LAW).  But  it  substituted  a  public,  written 
law,  binding  on  all  citizens  of  Rome,  for  an  unwritten 
usage,  the  knowledge  of  which  was  confined  to  a  few 
patricians,  and  which  had  been  administered  by  this 
minority  in  their  own  interests.  With  the  publication  of 
the  code  the  proper  work  of  the  decemvirs  was  finished ; 
nevertheless  for  the  next  year  a  fresh  decemvirate  was 
elected,  and  it  is  conceivable  that  the  intention  was  per- 
manently to  substitute  government  by  an  irresponsible 
patrician  "  council  of  ten  "  for  the  old  constitution.  How- 
ever this  may  have  been,  the  tyranny  of  the  decemvirs 
themselves  was  fatal  to  the  continuance  of  their  power. 
We  are  told  of  a  second  secession  of  the  plebs,  this  time  to 
the  Janiculum,  and  of  negotiations  with  the  senate,  the 
result  of  which  was  the  enforced  abdication  of  the  decem- 
virs. The  plebs  joyfully  chose  for  themselves  tribunes, 
and  in  the  comitia  centuriata  two  consuls  were  created. 
But  this  restoration  of  the  old  regime  was  accompanied  by  Valerio- 
legislation  which  made  it  an  important  crisis  in  the  history  Horatian 
of  the  struggle  between  the  orders.  With  the  fall  of  the  aws' 
decemvirate  this  struggle  enters  upon  a  new  phase.  The 
tribunes  appear  as  at  once  more  powerful  and  more  strictly 
constitutional  magistrates ;  the  plebeian  "  concilia"  take 
their  place  as  formal  comitia  by  the  side  of  the  older 
assemblies ;  and  finally  this  improved  machinery  is  used 
not  simply  in  self-defence  against  patrician  oppression 
but  to  obtain  complete  political  equality.  This  change 
was  no  doubt  due  in  part  to  circumstances  outside  legisla- 
tion, above  all  to  the  expansion  of  the  Roman  state,  which 
swelled  the  numbers  and  added  to  the  social  importance 
of  the  plebs  as  compared  with  the  dwindling  forces  of  the 
close  corporation  of  patrician  gentes.  Still  the  legislation 

9  Whatever  the  historical  value  of  the  story  of  Sp.  Cassius's  agrarian 
law,  the  existence  of  a  sustained  agrarian  agitation  during  this  period 
can  hardly  be  doubted  (Mommsen,  Horn.  Forsch.,  ii.  153  ;  Schwegler, 
ii.  455). 

10  Livy,  iii.  31 ;  Dionys. ,  x.  31.    The  Aventine  was  said  to  have  been 
previously  common  woodland. 

11  Livy,  iii.  9.  12  Livy,  iii.  32. 

XX.   -   93 


738 


ROME 


HISTORY. 


of  449  clearly  involved  more  than  a  restoration  of  the  old 
form  of  government.  The  Valerio-Horatian  laws,  besides 
reaffirming  the  right  of  appeal  and  the  inviolability  of  the 
tribunes,  improved  the  position  of  the  plebeian  assemblies 
by  enacting  that  "  plebiscita  "  passed  in  them,  and,  as  seems 
probable,  approved  by  the  patres,  should  be  binding  on 
patricians  as  well  as  plebeians.1  By  this  law  the  tribunes 
obtained  a  recognized  initiative  in  legislation.  Hence- 
forth the  desired  reforms  were  introduced  and  carried  by 
tribunes  in  what  were  now  styled  "  comitia  tributa,"  and, 
if  sanctioned  by  the  patres,  became  laws  of  the  state. 
From  this  period,  too,  must  be  dated  the  legalization  at 
any  rate  of  the  tribune's  right  to  impeach  any  citizen 
before  the  assembly  of  the  tribes.2  Henceforward  there 
is  no  question  of  the  tribune's  right  to  propose  to  the 
plebs  to  impose  a  fine,  or  of  the  validity  of  the  sentence 
when  passed.  The  efficiency  of  these  new  weapons  of 
attack  was  amply  proved  by  the  subsequent  course  of 
the  struggle.  Only  a  few  years  after  the  Valerio-Horatian 
legislation  came  the  lex  Canuleia  (445  B.C.),  by  which 
mixed  marriages  between  patricians  and  plebeians  were 
declared  lawful,  and  the  social  exclusiveness  of  the 
patriciate  broken  down.  In  the  same  year  with  this 
measure,  and  like  it  in  the  interests  primarily  of  the 
wealthier  plebeians,  a  vigorous  attack  commenced  on  the 
patrician  monopoly  of  the  consulate,  and  round  this 
stronghold  of  patrician  ascendency  the  conflict  raged  until 
the  passing  of  the  Licinian  laws  in  367.  The  original 
proposal  of  Canuleius  in  445  that  the  people  should  be 
allowed  to  elect  a  plebeian  consul  was  evaded  by  a  com- 
promise. The  senate  resolved  that  for  the  next  year,  in 
the  stead  of  consuls,  six  military  tribunes  with  consular 
powers  should  be  elected,3  and  that  the  new  office  should 
be  open  to  patricians  and  plebeians  alike.  The  consulship 
was  thus  for  the  time  saved  from  pollution,  as  the  patri- 
cians phrased  it,  but  the  growing  strength  of  the  plebs  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  fifty  years  out  of  the  seventy- 

10-388.  eight  between  444  and  366  they  succeeded  in  obtaining 
the  election  of  consular  tribunes  rather  than  of  consuls.  A 
good  omen  for  their  ultimata  success  was  a  victory  they 
won  in  connexion  with  the  inferior  office  of  the  qucestorship. 
Down  to  the  time  of  the  decemvirate  the  quaestors  had 

07.  been  nominated  by  the  consuls,  but  in  447  their  appoint- 
ment was  transferred  to  the  plebeian  "  comitia  tributa," 

33.  and  in  421  the  first  plebeian  was  elected  to  the  office.4 
Despite,  however,  these  discouragements,  the  patricians 
fought  on.  Each  year  they  strove  to  secure  the  creation 
of  consuls  rather  than  consular  tribunes,  and  failing  this 
strained  every  nerve  to  secure  for  their  own  order  at  least 
a  majority  among  the  latter.  Even  the  institution  of 

19.  the  censorship  (435),  though  rendered  desirable  by  the 
increasing  importance  and  complexity  of  the  census,  was, 
it  is  probable,  due  in  part  to  their  desire  to  discount  before- 
hand the  threatened  loss  of  the  consulship  by  diminish- 
ing its  powers.5  Other  causes,  too,  helped  to  protract 
the  struggle.  Between  the  wealthier  plebeians,  who  were 
ambitious  of  high  office,  and  the  poorer,  whose  minds  were 
set  rather  on  allotments  of  land,  there  was  a  division  of 
interest  of  which  the  patricians  were  not  slow  to  take 

1  Livy,  iii.  56,  "quum  veluti  in  controverso  jure  esset,  tenerenturne 
patres  plebiscitis  legem  comitiis  centuriatis  tulere,  ut  quod  tributim 
plebs  jussisset  populum  teneret,  qua  lege  tribuniciis  rogationibus  telum 
acerrimum  datum  est. "    What  were  the  precise  conditions  under  which 
a  "  plebiscitum  "  became  law,  and  what  was  the  exact  effect  of  the  lex 
Publilia  of  339  and  the  lex  Hortensia  of  287,  can  only  be  conjectured. 
One  of  the  two  last  can  hardly  have  been  more  than  a  reaffirmation  of 
a  previous  law. 

2  After  the  decemvirate,  the  tribunes  no  longer  pronounce  capital 
sentences.     They  propose  fines,  which  are  confirmed  by  the  comitia 
tributa.  »  Livy,  iv.  7 ;  cf.  Mommsen,  Staalsrecht,  ii.  165. 

4  Livy,  iv.  43  ;  Moramsen,  StaatsrecM,  ii.  497. 

5  Mommsen,  ib.,  304. 


advantage,  and  to  this  must  be  added  the  pressure  of 
war.  The  death  struggle  with  Veii  and  the  sack  of  Rome 
by  the  Gauls  absorbed  for  the  time  all  the  energies  of 
the  community.  In  377,  however,  two  of  the  tribunes,  377. 
C.  Licinius  Stolo  and  L.  Sextius,  came  forward  with  pro- 
posals which  united  all  sections  of  the  plebs  in  their 
support.  Their  proposals  were  as  follows  :6' — (1)  that  con- 
suls and  not  consular  tribunes  be  elected ;  (2)  that  one 
consul  at  least  should  be  a  plebeian ;  (3)  that  the  priestly 
college,  which  had  the  charge  of  the  Sibylline  books,  should 
consist  of  ten  members  instead  of  two,  and  that  of  these 
half  should  be  plebeians ;  (4)  that  no  single  citizen  should 
hold  in  occupation  more  than  500  acres  of  the  common 
lands,  or  pasture  upon  them  more  than  100  head  of  cattle 
and  500  sheep ;  (5)  that  all  landowners  should  employ  a 
certain  amount  of  free  as  well  as  slave  labour  on  their 
estates ;  (6)  that  interest  already  paid  on  debts  should  be 
deducted  from  the  principal,  and  the  remainder  paid  off 
in  three  years.  The  three  last  proposals  were  obviously 
intended  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  poorer  plebeians, 
and  to  secure  their  support  for  the  first  half  of  the  scheme. 
Ten  years  of  bitter  conflict  followed,  but  at  last,  in  367 
B.C.,  the  Licinian  rogations  became  law,  and  one  of  their 
authors,  L.  Sextius,  was  created  the  first  plebeian  consul. 
For  the  moment  it  was  some  consolation  to  the  patricians 
that  they  not  only  succeeded  in  detaching  from  the  consul- 
ship the  administration  of  civil  law,  which  was  entrusted  to 
a  separate  officer,  "  praetor  urbanus, "  to  be  elected  by  the 
comitia  of  the  centuries,  with  an  understanding  apparently 
that  he  should  be  a  patrician,  but  also  obtained  the 
institution  of  two  additional  rcdiles  ("aedilescurules"),  who 
were  in  like  manner  to  be  members  of  their  own  order.7 
With  the  opening  of  the  consulship,  however,  the  issue  of 
the  long  contest  was  virtually  decided,  and  the  next  eighty 
years  witnessed  a  rapid  succession  of  plebeian  victories. 
Now  that  a  plebeian  consul  might  preside  at  the  elections,  Openi 
the  main  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  nomination  and of 
election  of  plebeian  candidates  was  removed.  The  pro-  ^ 
posed  patrician  monopoly  of  the  new  curule  aedileship  was 
almost  instantly  abandoned.  In  356  the  first  plebeian  39 
was  made  dictator,  in  350  the  censorship,  and  in  337  the  40 
prsetorship  were  filled  for  the  first  time  by  plebeians,  and 
lastly,  in  300,  by  the  lex  Ogulnia,  even  the  sacred  45 
colleges  of  the  pontiffs  and  augurs,  the  old  strongholds  of 
patrician  supremacy,  were  thrown  open  to  the  plebs.8 
The  patricians  lost  also  the  control  they  had  exercised  so 
long  over  the  action  of  the  people  in  assembly.  The 
"  patrum  auctoritas,"  the  sanction  given  or  refused  by  the 
patrician  senators  to  laws  and  to  elections,  had  hitherto 
been  a  powerful  weapon  in  their  hands.  But  in  339  a  41 
law  of  Q.  Publilius  Philo,  a  plebeian  dictator,  enacted 
that  this  sanction  should  be  given  beforehand  to  all  laws  ;9  laws> 
and  by  a  lex  Maenia,  carried  apparently  some  fifty  years 
later,  the  same  rule  was  extended  to  elections.  Hencefor- 
ward the  "patrum  auctoritas"  sank  into  a  meaningless 
form,  though  as  such  it  still  survived  in  the  time  of  Livy. 
A  second  Publilian  law  affirmed  afresh  the  validity  of 
"plebiscita,"  i.e.,  of  measures  carried  in  the  plebeian 
comitia  tributa.  Apparently,  however,  their  validity  was  Lex 
still  left  subject  to  some  conditions,  for  in  287  a  lex  tensi 
Hortensia,  carried  by  another  plebeian  dictator,  was 4^7. 
found  necessary  finally  to  settle  the  question.10  From  287 
onwards  it  is  certain  that  measures  passed  by  the  plebs, 
voting  by  their  tribes,  had  the  full  force  of  laws  without 

•  Livy,  vi.  35,  42  ;  Appian,  D.  C.,  i.  8. 

7  Livy,  vi.  42.  8  Livy,  vii.  17,  22  ;  viii.  15;  ix.  6. 

9  Livy,  viii.  12,  "ut  .  .  .  ante  initum  suffragium  patres  auctores 
fierent,"  cf.  Livy,  i.  17.  For  the  "lex  Maenia,"  see  Cic., Brut.,  14; 
Soltau,  112. 

10Plin.,  N.  //.,  xvi.  10  ;  Gell.,  xv.  27  ;  Gaius,  i.  3,  "plebiscita 
lege  Hortensia  non  minus  valere  quam  leges." 


CONQUEST   OP   ITALY.] 


ROME 


739 


any  further  conditions  whatsoever.  The  legislative  inde- 
pendence of  the  plebeian  assembly  was  secured,  and  with 
this  crowning  victory  ended  the  long  struggle  between  the 
orders. 

(b)  Conquest  of  Italy. — Twelve  years  after  the  passing 
of  the  lex  Hortensia,  King  Pyrrhus,  beaten  at  Beneventum, 
withdrew  from  Italy,  and  Rome  was  left  mistress  of  the 
peninsula.  The  steps  by  which  this  supremacy  had  been 
won  have  now  to  be  traced.  Under  the  rule  of  her  Etruscan 
princes  Rome  spread  her  sway  over  the  lowlands  of  Latium, 
and  her  arms  were  a  terror  to  the  warlike  Highlanders  of  the 
Sabine  and  Volscian  hills.  But  with  their  fall  this  minia- 
ture empire  fell  also,  and  at  first  it  seemed  as  if  the  infant 
republic,  torn  by  internal  dissensions,  must  succumb  to  the 
foes  who  threatened  it  from  so  many  sides  at  once.  It 
was  only  after  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  almost  con- 
stant war  that  Rome  succeeded  in  rolling  back  the  tide  of 
invasion  and  in  establishing  her  supremacy  over  the  neigh- 
bouring lowlands  and  over  the  hill  country  which  bordered 
them  to  the  east  and  south,  The  close  of  this  first  stage 
in  her  external  growth  is  conveniently  marked  by  the  first 
collision  with  the  Sabellian  peoples  beyond  the  Liris  in 
1  343. l  In  marked  contrast  with  the  slowness  of  her  advance 
up  to  this  point  is  the  fact  that  only  seventy-five  years 
more  were  needed  for  the  virtual  subjugation  of  all  the 
1:85.  rest  of  the  peninsula  (343-269). 

The  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  from  Rome,  followed  as 
it  seems  to  have  been  by  the  emancipation  from  Etruscan 
supremacy  of  all  the  country  between  the  Tiber  and  the 
Liris,  entirely  altered  the  aspect  of  affairs.  North  of  the 
Tiber  the  powerful  Etruscan  city  of  Veii,  after  a  vain 
attempt  to  restore  the  Tarquins,  relapsed  into  an  attitude 
of  sullen  hostility  towards  Rome,  which,  down  to  the 
7  outbreak  of  the  final  struggle  in  407,  found  vent  in  con- 
stant and  harassing  border  forays.  The  Sabines  recom- 
menced their  raids  across  the  Anio ;  from  their  hills  to 
the  south-east  the  ^Equi  pressed  forward  as  far  as  the 
eastern  spurs  of  the  Alban  range,  and  ravaged  the  plain 
country  between  that  range  and  the  Sabine  mountains ; 
the  Volsci  overran  the  coast-lands  as  far  as  Antium, 
me  established  themselves  at  Velitrae,  and  even  ravaged  the 
tthe  fields  within  a  few  miles  of  Rome.  But  the  good  fortune 
||  of  Rome  did  not  leave  her  to  face  these  foes  single- 
ts, handed,  and  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  history  of  the 
Roman  advance  begins,  not  with  a  brilliant  victory,  but 
with  a  useful  and  timely  alliance.  According  to  Livy, 
it  was  in  493,  only  a  few  years  after  the  defeat  of  the 
prince  of  Tusculum  at  Lake  Regillus,  that  a  treaty  was 
concluded  between  Rome  and  the  Latin  communities  of 
the  Campagna.2  The  alliance  was  in  every  respect  natural. 
The  Latins  were  the  near  neighbours  and  kinsmen  of  the 
Romans,  and  both  Romans  and  Latins  were  just  freed 
from  Etruscan  rule  to  find  themselves  as  lowlanders  and 
dwellers  in  towns  face  to  face  with  a  common  foe  in  the 
ruder  hill  tribes  on  their  borders.  The  exact  terms  of  the 
treaty  cannot,  any  more  than  the  precise  circumstances 
under  which  it  was  concluded,  be  stated  with  certainty 
(see  LATIUM),  but  two  points  seem  clear.  There  was  at 
first  a  genuine  equality  in  the  relations  between  the  allies.; 
Romans  and  Latins,  though  combining  for  defence  and 
offence,  did  so  without  sacrificing  their  separate  freedom 
of  action,  even  in  the  matter  of  waging  wars  independently 
of  each  other.3  But,  secondly,  Rome  enjoyed  from  the 
first  one  inestimable  advantage.  The  Latins  lay  between 
her  and  the  most  active  of  her  foes,  the  ^Equi  and  Volsci, 
and  served  to  protect  her  territories  at  the  expense  of 
their  own.  Behind  this  barrier  Rome  grew  strong,  and 
the  close  of  the  ^quian  and  Volscian  wars  left  the  Latins 


1  Livy,  vii.  29. 
3  Livy,  viii.  2. 


2  Livy,  ii.  33  ;  Cic.  Pro  Balbo,  23. 


her  dependents  rather  than  her  allies.  Beyond  the  limits 
of  the  Campagna  Rome  found  a  second  ally,  hardly  less 
useful  than  the  Latins,  in  the  tribe  of  the  Hernici  ("the 
men  of  the  rocks  "),  in  the  valley  of  the  Trerus,  who  had 
equal  reason  with  the  Romans  and  Latins  to  dread  the 
Volsci  and  ^Equi,  while  their  position  midway  between  the 
two  latter  peoples  made  them  valuable  auxiliaries  to  the 
lowlanders  of  the  Campagna. 

The  treaty  with  the  Hernici  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
cluded in  486,4  and  the  confederacy  of  the  three  peoples  265. 
— Romans,  Latins,  and  Hernicans — lasted  down   to   the 
great  Latin  war  in  340.     Confused  and  untrustworthy  as  414. 
are  the  chronicles  of  the  early  wars  of  Rome,  it  is  clear 
that  notwithstanding  the  acquisition  of  these  allies  Rome 
made  but  little  way  against  her  foes  during  the  first  fifty 
years  of  the  existence  of  the  republic.     In  474,  it  is  true,  280. 
an  end  was  put  for  a  time  to  the  harassing  border  feud 
with  Veii  by  a  forty  years'  peace,  an  advantage  due  not 
so  much  to  Roman  valour  as  to  the  increasing  dangers 
from  other  quarters  which  were  threatening  the  Etruscan 
states.5     But  this  partial  success  stands  alone,  and  down 
to  449   the  raids  of  Sabines,  ^Equi,  and  Volsci  continue  305. 
without  intermission,  and  are  occasionally  carried  up  to 
the  very  walls  of  Rome.     Very  different  is  the  impression 
left   by  the   annals  of   the  next   sixty  years  (449-390).  305-364. 
During  this  period  there  is  an  unmistakable  development 
of  Roman  power  on  all  sides. 

In  southern  Etruria  the  capture  of  Veii  (396)  virtually  Capture 
gave  Rome  the  mastery  as  far   as   the   Ciminian   forest.  of  Veii- 
Sutrium    and   Nepete,    "the  gates   of   Etruria,"  became  358. 
her  allies   and  guarded  her  interests  against  any  attack 
from  the  Etruscan  communities  to  the  north,  while  along 
the   Tiber   valley    her   suzerainty  was   acknowledged   as 
far  as   Capena  and   Falerii.     On   the  Anio    frontier  we 
hear  of  no  disturbances  from  449  until  some  ten  years 
after  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls.     In  446  the  ^Equi  308. 
appear   for   the  last   time    before    the   gates   of    Rome. 
After  418  they  disappear  from   Mount  Algidus,  and  in  336. 
the  same  year  the  communications  of  Rome  and  Latium 
with  the  Hernici   in   the  Trerus  valley  were  secured  by 
the   capture    and   colonization  of    Labicum.     Successive 
invasions,  too,  broke  the  strength  of  the  Volsci,  and  in  393  361. 
a  Latin  colony  was  founded  as  far  south  as  Circeii.     In 
part,  no  doubt,  these  Roman  successes  were  due  to  the 
improved  condition  of  affairs  in  Rome  itself,  consequent 
upon  the  great  reforms  carried  between  450  and  442 ;  but  304-312. 
it  is  equally  certain  that  now  as  often  afterwards  fortune 
befriended  Rome  by  weakening,  or  by  diverting  the  atten- 
tion of,  her  opponents.     In  particular,  her  rapid  advance  Decline  of 
in  southern  Etruria  was   facilitated  by  the  heavy  blows  Et 
inflicted  upon  the  Etruscans  during  the  5th  century  B.C.  pc 
by  Celts,  Greeks,    and  Samnites.     By  the  close   of  this 
century   the    Celts   had   expelled    them    from    the   rich 
plains  of  what  was  afterwards  known  as  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
and  were  even  threatening  to  advance  across  the  Apen- 
nines into  Etruria  proper.     The  Sicilian  Greeks,  headed  by 
the  tyrants  of  Syracuse,  wrested  from  them  their  mastery 
of  the  seas,  and  finally,, on  the  capture  of  Capua  by  the 
Samnites  in  423,  they  lost  their  possessions  in  the  fertile  331. 
Campanian  plain.     These  conquests  of  the  Samnites  were 
part  of   a   great   southward   movement  of   the   highland 
Sabellian  peoples,  the  immediate  effects  of  which  upon  the 
fortunes  of  Rome  were  not  confined  to  the  weakening  of 
the  Etruscan  power.     It  is  probable  that  the  cessation  of 
the  Sabine  raids  across  the  Anio  was  partly  due  to  the 
new  outlets  which  were  opened  southwards  for  the  restless 
and  populous  hill  tribes  which  had  so  long  disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  Latin  lowlands.     We  may  conjecture,  also, 


4  Livy,  ii.  40. 


5  From  the  Celts  in  the  north  especially. 


740 


ROME 


LHISTOKY. 


lack  of 
lome  by 
he 

Jauls. 
163. 


Successes 
igainst 
Equi  and 
folsci. 
$64-411. 


that  the  growing  feebleness  exhibited  by  Volsci  and  ./Equi 
was  in  some  measure  caused  by  the  pressure  upon  their 
rear  of  the  Sabellian  clans  which  at  this  time  established 
themselves  near  the  Fuciue  Lake  and  along  the  course  of 
the  Liris. 

But  in  390,  only  six  years  after  the  great  victory  over 
her  ancient  rival  Veii,  the  Roman  advance  was  for  a 
moment  checked  by  a  disaster  which  threatened  to  alter 
the  course  of  history  in  Italy,  and  which  left  a  lasting 
impress  on  the  Roman  mind.  In  391  a  Celtic  horde  left 
their  newly  won  lands  on  the  Adriatic,  and,  crossing  the 
Apennines  into  Etruria,  laid  siege  to  the  Etruscan  city 
of  Clusium  (Chiusi).  Thence,  provoked,  it  is  said,  by 
the  conduct  of  the  Roman  ambassadors,  who,  forgetting 
their  sacred  character,  had  fought  in  the  ranks  of 
Clusium  and  slain  a  Celtic  chief,  the  barbarians  marched 
upon  Rome.  On  July  18,  390  B.C.,  only  a  few  miles  from 
Rome,  was  fought  the  disastrous  battle  of  the  Allia.  The 
defeat  of  the  Romans  was  complete,  and  Rome  lay  at  the 
mercy  of  her  foe.  But  in  characteristic  fashion  the  Celts 
halted  three  days  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  victory,  and  time 
was  thus  given  to  put  the  Capitol  at  least  in  a  state  of 
defence.  The  arrival  of  the  barbarians  was  followed  by 
the  sack  of  the  city,  but  the  Capitol  remained  impreg- 
nable. For  seven  months  they  besieged  it,  and  then  in 
as  sudden  a  fashion  as  they  had  come  they  disappeared. 
The  Roman  chroniclers  explain  their  retreat  in  their  own 
way,  by  the  fortunate  appearance  of  Camillus  with  the 
troops  which  he  had  collected,  at  the  very  moment  when 
famine  had  forced  the  garrison  on  the  Capitol  to  accept 
terms.  More  probably  the  news  that  their  lands  across 
the  Apennines  were  threatened  by  the  Veneti,  coupled 
with  the  unaccustomed  tedium  of  a  long  siege  and  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  supplies,  inclined  the  Celts  to  accept 
readily  a  heavy  ransom  as  the  price  of  their  withdrawal. 
But,  whatever  the  reason,  it  is  certain  that  they  retreated, 
and,  though  during  the  next  fifty  years  marauding  bands 
appeared  at  intervals  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Rome,  and 
even  once  penetrated  as  far  south  as  Campania  (361-360), 
the  Celts  never  obtained  any  footing  in  Italy  outside  the 
plains  in  the  north  which  they  had  made  their  own. 

Nor,  in  spite  of  the  defeat  on  the  Allia  and  the  sack  of 
the  city,  was  Rome  weakened  except  for  the  moment  by 
the  Celtic  attack.  The  storm  passed  away  as  rapidly  as 
it  had  come  on.  The  city  was  hastily  rebuilt,  and  Rome 
dismayed  the  enemies  who  hastened  to  take  advantage  of 
her  misfortunes  by  her  undiminished  vigour.  Her  con- 
quests in  southern  Etruria  were  successfully  defended 
against  repeated  attacks  from  the  Etruscans  to  the  north. 
The  creation  in  387  of  four  new  tribes  (Stellatina, 
Sabatina,  Tromentina,  Arniensis)  marked  the  final  annexa- 
tion of  the  territory  of  Veii  and  of  the  lands  lying  along 
the  Tiber  valley.  A  few  years  later  Latin  colonies  were 
established  at  Sutrium  and  Nepete  for  the  more  effectual 
defence  of  the  frontier,  and  finally,  in  353,  the  subjuga- 
tion of  South  Etruria  was  completed  by  the  submission 
of  Caere  (Cervetri)  and  its  partial  incorporation  with 
the  Roman  state  as  a  "  municipium  sine  suffragio  " — the 
first,  it  is  said,  of  its  kind.1 

Next  to  the  settlement  of  southern  Etruria,  the  most 
important  of  the  successes  gained  by  Rome  between  390 
and  343  B.C.  were  those  won  against  her  old  foes  the 
^Equi  and  Volsci,  and  her  old  allies  the  Latins  and 
Hernicans.  The  JEqui  indeed,  already  weakened  by  their 
long  feud  with  Rome,  and  hard  pressed  by  the  Sabellian 
tribes  in  their  rear,  were  easily  dealt  with,  and  after  the 
campaign  of  389  we  have  no  further  mention  of  an 

1  For  the  status  of  Ctere,  and  the  "Cserite  franchise,"  see  Mar- 
quardt,  Staatsverw.,  i.  28  sy.  ;  Madvig,  R.  Verf.,  i.  39  ;  Beloch, 
Ital.  Bund,  120. 


^Equian  war  until  the  last  ./Equian  rising  in  304.     The  450. 
Volsci,  who  in  389  had  advanced  to  Lanuvium,  were  met 
and   utterly   defeated  by  M.    Furius  Camillus,  the  con- 
queror of  Veii,  and  this  victory  was  followed  up  by  the 
gradual  subjugation  to  Rome  of  all  the  lowland  country 
lying   between   the   hills   and    the   sea  as   far   south   as 
Tarracina.     Latin  colonies  were  established   at  Satricum 
(385),  at  Setia  (379),  and  at  Antium  and  Tarracina  some  369,  3; 
time  before  348.     In  358  two  fresh  Roman  tribes  (Pomp-  406, 3s 
tina  and  Publilia)  were  formed  in  the  same  district.2 

Rome  had  now  nothing  more  to  fear  from  the  foes  who  Re- 
a   century  ago  had  threatened  her  very  existence.     The  organi; 
lowland   country,  of  which   she  was  the  natural  centre,  *}c 
from   the   Ciminian   forest  to  Tarracina,  was  quiet,  and  le 
within  its  limits  Rome  was  by  far  the  strongest  power. 
But  she  had  now  to  reckon  with  the  old  and  faithful  allies 
to  whose  loyal  aid  her  present  position  was  largely  due. 
The  Latins   and  Hernicans  had  suffered  severely  in  the 
^Equian  and  Volscian  wars ;  it  is  probable  that  not  a  few 
of  the  smaller  communities  included  in  the  league  had 
either  been  destroyed  or  been  absorbed  by  larger  states, 
and  the  independence  of  all  alike  was  threatened  by  the 
growing  power  of  Rome.     The  sack  of  Rome  by  the  Celts 
gave  them  an  opportunity  of  reasserting  their  independ- 
ence, and  we  are  consequently  told  that  this  disaster  was 
immediately  followed  by  the  temporary  dissolution  of  the 
confederacy,  and  this  again  a  few  years  later  by  a  series 
of  actual  conflicts  between  Rome  and  her  former  allies. 
Between  383  and  358  we  hear  of  wars  with  Tibur,  Prseneste,  371 
Tusculum,  Lanuvium,  Circeii,   and  the  Hernici.     But  in 
all  Rome  was  successful.     In  382  Tusculum   was   fully  372. 
incorporated   with  the  Roman   state  by  the  bestowal  of 
the  full  franchise 3 ;  in  358,  according  to  both  Livy  and  396. 
Polybius   the   old    alliance   was   formally   renewed   with 
Latins   and  Hernicans.     We  cannot,  however,  be  wrong 
in  assuming  that  the  position  of  the  allies  under  the  new 
league  was  far  inferior  to  that  accorded  them  by  the  treaty 
of  Spurius  Cassius.4     Henceforth  they  were  the  subjects 
rather  than  the  equals  of  Rome,  a  position  which  it  is 
evident  that  they  accepted  much  against  their  will,  and 
from  which   they  were  yet   to  make  one  last  effort   to 
escape. 

We  have  now  reached  the  close  of  the  first  stage  in 
Rome's  advance  towards  supremacy  in  Italy.  By  343 
B.C.  she  was  already  mistress  both  of  the  low  country 
stretching  from  the  Ciminian  forest  to  Tarracina  and 
Circeii  and  of  the  bordering  highlands.  Her  own  terri- 
tory had  largely  increased.  Across  the  Tiber  the  lands 
of  Veii,  Capena,  and  Caere  were  nearly  all  Roman,  while 
in  Latium  she  had  carried  her  frontiers  to  Tusculum  on 
the  Alban  range  and  to  the  southernmost  limits  of  the 
Pomptine  district.  And  this  territory  was  protected  by  a 
circle  of  dependent  allies  and  colonies  reaching  northward 
to  Sutrium  and  Nepete,  and  southward  to  Sora  on  the 
upper  Liris,  and  to  Circeii  on  the  coast.  Already,  too,  she 
was  beginning  to  be  recognized  as  a  power  outside  the 
limits  of  the  Latin  lowlands.  The  fame  of  the  capture  of 
Rome  by  the  Celts  had  reached  Athens,  and  her  subse- 
quent victories  over  marauding  Celtic  bands  had  given 
her  prestige  in  South  Italy  as  a  bulwark  against  northern 
barbarians.  In  354  she  had  formed  her  first  connexions  400. 
beyond  the  Liris  by  a  treaty  with  the  Samnites,  and 
in  348  followed  a  far  more  important  treaty  with  the  great  406. 
maritime  state  of  Carthage.5 

Rome  had  won  her  supremacy  from  the  Ciminian  forest 

2  Livy,  vii.  15.  8  Livy,  vi.  26. 

*  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i.  347,  note ;  Beloch,  lial.  Bund,  cap.  ix. 

5  Livy,  vii.  27.  For  the  whole  question  of  the  early  treaties  with 
Carthage,  see  Polylnus,  iii.  22  ;  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i.  413,  and  11. 
Chronol.,  p.  320  ;  Vollmer,  Rhein.  Mus.,  xxxii.  614. 


SAMNITE  AND   LATIN  WAES.] 


K  0  M  E 


741 


. 
£',1US> 


3  334. 


to  the  Liris  as  the  champion  of  the  comparatively  civilized 
communities  of  the  lowlands  against  the  rude  highland 
tribes  which  threatened  to  overrun  them,  and  so,  when  her 
legions  first  crossed  the  Liris,  it  was  in  answer  to  an  appeal 
from  a  lowland  city  against  invaders  from  the  hills.  While 
she  was  engaged  in  clearing  Latium  of  Volsci  and 
yEqui,  the  Sabellian  tribes  of  the  central  Apennines  had 
rapidly  spread  over  the  southern  half  of  the  peninsula. 
Foremost  among  these  tribes  were  the  Samnites,  a  por- 
tion of  whom  had  captured  the  Etruscan  city  of  Capua  in 
423,  the  Greek  Cumse  in  420,  and  had  since  then  ruled 
as  masters  over  the  fertile  Campanian  territory.  But  in 
their  new  homes  the  conquerors  soon  lost  all  sense  of 
relationship  and  sympathy  with  their  highland  brethren. 
They  dwelt  in  cities,  amassed  wealth,  and  inherited  the 
civilization  of  the  Greeks  and  Etruscans  whom  they  had 
dispossessed;1  above  all,  they  had  before  long  to  defend 
themselves  in  their  turn  against  the  attacks  of  their  ruder 
kinsmen  from  the  hills,  and  it  was  for  aid  against  these 
that  the  Samnites  of  Campania  appealed  to  the  rising 
state  which  had  already  made  herself  known  as  the  bul- 
wark of  the  lowlands  north  of  the  Liris,  and  which  with 
her  Latin  and  Hernican  allies  had  scarcely  less  interest 
than  the  Campanian  cities  themselves  in  checking  the 
raids  of  the  highland  Samnite  tribes. 

The  Campanian  appeal  was  listened  to.  Rome  with 
her  confederates  entered  into  alliance  with  Capua  and  the 
neighbouring  Campanian  towns,  and  war  was  formally 
declared  (343)  against  the  Samnites.2  While  to  the 
Latins  and  Hernicans  was  entrusted  apparently  the  defence 
of  Latium  and  the  Hernican  valley  against  the  northerly 
members  of  the  Samnite  confederacy,  the  Romans  them- 
selves undertook  the  task  of  driving  the  invaders  out  of 
Campania.  After  two  campaigns  the  war  was  ended  in 
341  by  a  treaty,  and  the  Samnites  withdrew  from  the 
lowlands,  leaving  Rome  the  recognized  suzerain  of  the 
Campanian  cities  which  had  sought  her  aid.3 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  check  thus  given  by  Rome 
to  the  advance  of  the  hitherto  invincible  Sabellian  high- 
landers  not  only  made  her  the  natural  head  and  champion 
of  the  low  countries,  south  as  well  as  north  of  the  Liris, 
but  also  considerably  added  to  her  prestige.  Carthage 
sent  her  congratulations,  and  the  Etruscan  city  of  Falerii 
voluntarily  enrolled  herself  among  the  allies  of  Rome. 
Of  even  greater  service,  however,  was  the  fact  that 
for  fifteen  years  the  Samnites  remained  quiet,  for  this 
inactivity,  whatever  its  cause,  enabled  Rome  triumphantly 
to  surmount  a  danger  which  threatened  for  the  moment 
to  wreck  her  whole  position.  This  danger  was  nothing 
less  than  a  desperate  effort  on  the  part  of  nearly  all  her 
allies  and  dependents  south  of  the  Tiber  to  throw  off  the 
yoke  of  her  supremacy.  The  way  was  led  by  her  ancient 
confederates  the  Latins,  whose  smouldering  discontent 
broke  into  open  flame  directly  the  fear  of  a  Samnite  attack 
was  removed.  From  the  Latin  Campagna  and  the 
Sabine  hills  the  revolt  spread  westward  and  southward 
to  Antium  and  Tarracina,  and  even  to  the  towns  of  the 
Campanian  plain,  where  the  mass  of  the  inhabitants  at 
once  repudiated  the  alliance  formed  with  Rome  by 
the  ruling  class.  The  struggle  was  sharp  but  short.  In 
two  pitched  battles4  the  strength  of  the  insurrection 
was  broken,  and  two  more  campaigns  sufficed  for  the 
complete  reduction  of  such  of  the  insurgent  communi- 
ties  as  still  held  out.  The  revolt  crushed,  Rome  set  her- 

1  For  the  Samnites  in  Campania,  see  Mommsen,  R.   G.,  i.  353  ; 
Schwegler-Clason,  R.  G.,  v.  98  sq.  ;  Beloch,  Campanien,  Berlin,  1879. 

2  Livy,  vii.  32. 

3  For  the  difficulties  in  the  traditional  accounts  of  this  war,   see 
Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i.  355  note  ;  Schwegler-Clason,  R.  G.,  v.  14  sq. 

4  At  the  foot  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  Livy,  viii.  9  ;  at  Trifanum,  Id., 
viii.  11. 


self  deliberately  to  the  task  of  re-establishing  on  a  new  Settle- 
and  firmer  basis  her  supremacy  over  the  lowlands,  and  in  ment  of 
doing  so  laid  the  foundations  of  that  marvellous  organiza-  Latium  > 
tion  which  was  destined  to  spread  rapidly  over  Italy,  and 
to  withstand  the  attacks  even  of  Haunibal.  The  old 
historic  Latin  league  ceased  to  exist,  though  its  memory 
was  still  preserved  by  the  yearly  Latin  festival  on  the 
Alban  Mount.  Most  if  not  all  of  the  common  land  of  the 
league  became  Roman  territory  ;5  five  at  least  of  the  old 
Latin  cities  were  compelled  to  accept  the  Roman  fran- 
chise 6  and  enter  the  pale  of  the  Roman  state.  The  rest, 
with  the  Latin  colonies,  were  ranked  as  Latin  allies  of 
Rome,  but  on  terms  which  secured  their  complete  depend- 
ence upon  the  sovereign  city.  The  policy  of  isolation, 
which  became  so  cardinal  a  principle  of  Roman  rule,  was 
now  first  systematically  applied.  No  rights  of  "con- 
nubium"  or  "commercium"  were  any  longer  to  exist 
between  these  communities.  Their  federal  councils  were 
prohibited,  and  all  federal  action  independent  of  Rome 
forbidden.7 

In  future  they  were  to  have  nothing  in  common  but 
their  common  connexion  with  Rome,  a  connexion  based 
in  each  case  on  a  separate  treaty  between  the  individual 
Latin  community  and  Rome.  The  Latin  allied  state 
retained  its  internal  independence  and  the  old  rights  of 
intermarriage  and  commerce  with  Rome,  but  it  lost  all 
freedom  of  action  in  external  affairs.  It  could  wage 
no  wars,  conclude  no  treaties,  and  was  bound,  so  the 
phrase  ran,  to  have  always  the  same  foes  and  friends 
as  Rome  herself.  In  Campania  and  the  coast-lands  and  of 
connecting  Campania  with  Rome,  a  policy  of  annexa-  CaiQ- 
tion  was  considered  safer  than  that  of  alliance.  Of  the  Paiua- 
two  frontier  posts  of  the  Volsci,  Antium  and  Velitrse, 
the  former  was  constituted  a  Roman  colony,  its  long 
galleys  burnt  and  their  prows  set  up  in  the  Forum  at 
Rome,  while  the  walls  of  Velitrse  were  razed  to  the 
ground,  its  leading  men  banished  beyond  the  Tiber,  and 
their  lands  given  to  Roman  settlers.  Farther  south  on 
the  route  to  Campania,  Fundi  and  Formise  were,  after  the 
precedent  set  in  the  case  of  Caere,  declared  Roman  and 
granted  the  civil  rights  of  Roman  citizenship,  while  lastly 
in  Campania  itself  the  same  status  was  given  to  Capua, 
Cumas,  and  the  smaller  communities  dependent  upon 
them.8  During  the  ten  years  from  338  to  328  the  416-426. 
work  of  settlement  was  steadily  continued.  Tarracina,  like 
Antium,  was  made  a  Roman  colony.  Privernum,  the  last 
Volscian  town  to  offer  resistance  to  Rome,  was  subdued 
in  330,  part  of  its  territory  allotted  to  Roman  citizens,  and  424. 
the  state  itself  forced  to  accept  the  Roman  ^franchise. 
Lastly,  to  strengthen  the  lines  of  defence  against  the 
Sabellian  tribes,  two  colonies  with  the  rights  of  Latin 
allies  were  established  at  Fregellse  and  at  Gales.  The 
settlement  of  the  lowlands  was  accomplished.  From  the 
Ciminian  forest  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Cam- 
panian plain,  the  lands  lying  between  the  sea  and  the  hills 
were  now,  with  few  exceptions,  Roman  territory,  while 
along  the  frontiers  from  Sutrium  and  Nepete  in  the  north 
to  Gales  in  the  south  stretched  the  protecting  line  of  the 
Latin  allied  states  and  colonies.  As  a  single  powerful 
and  compact  state  with  an  outer  circle  of  closely  dependent 
allies,  Rome  now  stood  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  disunited 
and  degenerate  cities  of  northern  Etruria,  the  loosely 
organized  tribes  of  the  Apennines,  and  the  decaying  and 
disorderly'  Greek  towns  of  the  south. 

6  Livy,  viii.  11. 

6  Livy,  viii.  14;  Lanuvium,  Aricia,  Momentum,  Pedum,  Tusculum. 

7  Id.,  loc.  cit.,  "  ceteris  Latinis  populis  connubia  commerciaque  et 
concilia  inter  se  ademerunt." 

8  For  the  controversy  as  to  the  precise  status  of  Capua  and  the 
"equites   Campani"  (Livy,  viii.  14),  see   Beloch,  ItaL.Bund,  122 
sq. ;  Id.,  Campanien,  317;  Zumpt,  Comment,  Epigraph.,  p.  290. 


742 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


The  strength  of  this  system  was  now  to  be  tried  by  a 
straggle  with  the  one  Italian  people  who  were  still  ready 
and  able  to  contest  with  Rome  the  supremacy  of  the 
peninsula.  The  passive  attitude  of  the  Samnites  between 
342  and  327  was  no  doubt  largely  due  to  the  dangers 
which  had  suddenly  threatened  them  in  South  Italy. 
But  the  death  of  Alexander  of  Epirus,  in  332,1  removed 
their  only  formidable  opponent  there,  and  left  them  free 
to  turn  their  attention  to  the  necessity  of  checking  the 
steady  advance  of  Rome.  In  327,  the  year  after  the 
ominous  foundation  of  a  Roman  colony  at  Fregellse,  a 
pretext  for  renewing  the  struggle  was  offered  them.  The 
Cumaean  colony  of  Palaepolis 2  had  incurred  the  wrath 
of  Rome  by  its  raids  into  her  territory  in  Campania.  The 
Samnites  sent  a  force  to  defend  it,  and  Rome  replied  by  a 
declaration  of  war.  The  two  opponents  were  not  at  first 
sight  unequally  matched,  and  had  the  Sabellian  tribes  held 
firmly  together  the  issue  of  the  struggle  might  have  been 
different.  As  it  was,  however,  the  Lucanians  to  the  south 
actually  joined  Rome  from  the  first,  while  the  northern 
clans  Marsi,  Vestini,  Pasligni,  Frentani,  after  a  feeble  and 
lukewarm  resistance,  subsided  into  a  neutrality  which 
was  exchanged  in  304  for  a  formal  alliance  with  Rome. 
An  even  greater  advantage  to  Rome  from  the  outset  was  the 
enmity  existing  between  Samnites  and  the  Apulians,  the 
latter  of  whom  from  the  first  joined  Rome  and  thus  gave 
her  a  position  in  the  rear  of  her  enemy  and  in  a  country 
eminently  well  fitted  for  maintaining  a  large  military 
force.  These  weaknesses  on  the  Samnite  side  were  amply 
illustrated  by  the  eveiits  of  the  war. 

The  first  seven  or  eight  years  were  marked  by  one 
serious  disaster  to  the  Roman  arms,  the  defeat  at  the 
Caudine  Forks  (321),  but,  when  in  318  the  Samnites 
asked  for  and  obtained  a  two  years'  truce,  Rome  had 
succeeded  not  only  in  inflicting  several  severe  blows  upon 
her  enemies  but  in  isolating  them  from  outside  help.  The 
Lucanians  to  the  south  were  her  allies.  To  the  east, 
in  the  rear  of  Samnium,  Apulia  acknowledged  the  suzer- 
ainty  of  Rome,  and  Luceria,  captured  in  320,  had  been 
established  as  a  base  of  Roman  operations.  Finally  to 
the  north  the  Romans  had  easily  overcome  the  feeble 
resistance  of  the  Vestini  and  Frentani,  and  secured 
through  their  territories  a  safe  passage  for  their  legions  to 
Apulia.  On  the  renewal  of  hostilities  in  316,  the  Samnites, 
bent  on  escaping  from  the  net  which  was  being  slowly 
drawn  round  them,  made  a  series  of  desperate  efforts  to 
break  through  the  lines  of  defence  which  protected  Latium 
and  Campania.  Sora  and  Fregellaa  on  the  upper  Liris  were 
captured  by  a  sudden  attack;  the  Ausones  in  the  low 
country  near  the  mouth  of  the  same  river  were  encouraged 
to  revolt  by  the  appearance  of  the  Samnite  army;  and  in 
Campania  another  army,  attracted  by  rumours  of  disturb- 
ance, all  but  defeated  the  Roman  consuls  under  the  very 
walls  of  Capua.  But  these  efforts  were  unavailing.  Sbra 
and  Fregellae  were  recovered  as  quickly  as  they  had  been 
lost,  and  the  frontier  there  was  strengthened  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  colony  at  Interamna.  The  Ausones  were 
punished  by  the  confiscation  of  their  territory,  and  Roman 
supremacy  further  secured  by  the  two  colonies  of  Suessa 
and  Pontia  (312).  The  construction  of  the  famous  Via 
Appia,3  the  work  of  the  censor  Appius  Claudius  Caecus, 
opened  a  safe  and  direct  route  to  Campania,  while  the 
capture  of  Nola  deprived  the  Samnites  of  their  last 
important  stronghold  in  the  Campanian  lowlands.  The 
failure  of  these  attempts  broke  the  courage  even  of  the 
Samnites.  Their  hopes  were  indeed  raised  for  a  moment 
by  the  news  that  Etruria  had  risen  against  Rome  (310), 
but  their  daring  scheme  of  effecting  a  union  with  the 
Etruscans  was  frustrated  by  the  energy  of  the  Roman 

1  Livy,  viii.  3,  17,  24.          2  Livy,  viii.  22. 8  Livy,  ix.  23. 


generals.  Five  years  later  (305)  the  Romans  revenged  a  449. 
Samnite  raid  into  Campania  by  an  invasion  of  Sanmium 
itself.  Arpinum  on  the  frontier  was  taken,  and  at  last, 
after  a  twenty-two  years'  struggle,  the  Second  Samnite  ^Y;u• 
was  closed  by  a  renewal  of  the  ancient  treaty  with  Rome 
(304).4  450. 

The  six  years  of  peace  which  followed  (304-298)  450-6. 
were  characteristically  employed  by  Rome  in  still  further 
strengthening  her  position.  Already,  two  years  before 
the  peace,  a  rash  revolt  of  the  Hernici5  had  given  Rome 
a  pretext  for  finally  annexing  the  territory  of  her  ancient 
allies.  The  tribal  confederacy  was  broken  up,  and  all 
the  Hernican  communities,  with  the  exception  of  three 
which  had  not  joined  the  revolt,  were  incorporated  with 
the  Roman  state  as  municipia,  with  the  civil  rights  of 
the  Roman  franchise.  Between  the  Hernican  valley  and 
the  frontiers  of  the  nearest  Sabellian  tribes  lay  what 
remained  of  the  once  formidable  people  of  the  ./Equi.  In 
their  case,  too,  a  revolt  (304)  was  followed  by  the  annexa- 
tion  of  their  territory,  which  was  marked  in  this  case  by 
the  formation  there  (301)  of  two  Roman  tribes  (Aniensis  453. 
and  Teretina).6  Not  content  with  thus  carrying  the 
borders  of  their  own  territory  up  to  the  very  frontiers  of 
the  Sabellian  country,  Rome  succeeded  iu  finally  detaching 
from  the  Sabellian  confederacy  all  the  tribes  lying7  between 
the  north-east  frontier  of  Latium  and  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
Henceforward  the  Marsi,  Pseligni,  Vestini,  Marrucini,  and 
Frentani  were  enrolled  among  the  allies  of  Rome,  and  not 
only  swelled  her  forces  in  the  field  but  interposed  a  useful 
barrier  between  her  enemies  to  the  north  in  Etruria  and 
Umbria  and  those  to  the  south  in  Samnium,  while  they 
connected  her  directly  with  the  friendly  Apulians.  Lastly, 
as  a  security  for  the  fidelity  at  least  of  the  nearest  of  these 
allies,  colonies  were  planted  in  the  Marsian  territories  at 
Carseoli  and  at  Alba  Fucentia.  A  significant  indication 
of  the  widening  range  of  Rome's  influence  in  Italy,  and  of 
the  new  responsibilities  rapidly  pressing  upon  her,  is  the 
fact  that  when  in  302  the  Spartan  Cleonymus  landed  in  4£ 
the  territory  of  the  Sallentini,  far  away  in  the  south-east, 
he  was  met  and  repulsed  by  a  Roman  force.8 

Six  years  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  which  ended  TMnl 
the  Second  Samnite  War,  news  arrived  that  the  Samnites  SamL 
were  harassing  the  Lucanians.     Rome  at  once  interfered  0(^. 
to  protect  her  allies.     Samnium  was  invaded  in  force,  the  455.. 
country  ravaged,    and  one  stronghold  after  another  cap- 
tured.    Unable  any  longer  to  hold  their  own  in  a  position 
where  they  were  hedged  round  by  enemies,  the  Samnite 
leaders  turned  as  a  last  hope  to  the  communities  of  northern 
Etruria,  to  the  free  tribes  of  Umbria,  and   to   the  once 
dreaded  Celts.     With  a  splendid  daring  they  formed  the 
scheme  of  uniting  all  these   peoples  with  themselves   in 
a  last  desperate  effort  to  break  the  power  of  Rome. 

For  some  forty  years  after  the  final  annexation  of  Ron" 
southern  Etruria  (351  B.C.)  matters  had  remained  un- '" 
changed  in  that  quarter.  Sutrium  and  Nepete  still 
guarded  the  Roman  frontier;  the  natural  boundary  of  the 
Ciminian  forest  was  still  intact;  and  up  the  valley  of  the 
Tiber  Rome  had  not  advanced  beyond  Falerii,  a  few  miles 
short  of  the  most  southerly  Umbrian  town  Ocriculum. 
But  in  311,  on  the  expiry,  apparently,  of  the  long  truce  443. 
with  Rome,  concluded  in  351,  the  northern  Etruscans, 
alarmed  no  doubt  by  the  rapid  advances  which  Rome  was 
making  further  south,  rose  in  arms  and  attacked  Sutrium. 
The  attack,  however,  recoiled  disastrously  upon  the  heads 
of  the  assailants.  A  Roman  force  promptly  relieved 
Sutrium,  and  its  leader,  Q.  Fabius  Rullianus,  without 
awaiting  orders  from  home,  boldly  plunged  into  the  wilds 
of  the  Ciminian  forest,  and  crossing  them  safely  swept 


4  Livy,  ix.  29. 
7  Livy,  x.  9. 


8  Livy,  ix.  45. 
8  Livy,  x.  2. 


6  Livy,  ix.  45. 


SAMNITE  WAKS.] 


ROME 


743 


with  fire  and  sword  over  the  rich  lands  to  the  north.  Then 
turning  southward  he  met  and  utterly  defeated  the  forces 
which  the  Etruscans  had  hastily  raised  in  the  hopes  of 
intercepting  him  at  the  Vadimonian  Lake.1  This  decisive 
victory  ended  the  war.  The  Etruscan  cities,  disunited 
among  themselves,  and  enervated  by  long  years  of  peace, 
abandoned  the  struggle  for  the  time,  paid  a  heavy  iudem- 
nity,  and  concluded  a  truce  with  Rome  (309-308).  In 
the  same  year  the  promptitude  of  Fabius  easily  averted  a 
threatened  attack  by  the  Umbriaus,  but  Rome  proceeded 
nevertheless  to  fortify  herself  in  her  invariable  fashion 
against  future  dangers  on  this  side,  by  an  alliance  with 
Ocriculum,  which  was  followed  ten  years  later  by  a  colony 
at  Nequinum,2  and  an  alliance  with  the  Picentes,  whose 
position  in  the  rear  of  Umbria  rendered  them  as  valuable 
to  Rome  as  the  Apulians  had  proved  farther  south. 

Fourteen  years  had  passed  since  the  battle  on  the 
Vadimonian  Lake,  when  the  Samnites  appeared  on  the 
borders  of  Etruria  and  called  on  the  peoples  of  northern 
Italy  to  rise  against  the  common  enemy.  Their  appeal, 
backed  by  the  presence  of  their  troops,  was  successful. 
The  Etruscans  found  courage  to  face  the  Roman  legions 
once  more;  a  few  of  the  Umbrians  joined  them;  but  the 
most  valuable  allies  to  the  Samnites  were  the  Celts,  who 
had  for  some  time  threatened  a  raid  across  the  Apennines, 
and  who  now  marched  eagerly  into  Umbria  and  joined 
the  coalition.  The  news  that  the  Celts  were  in  motion 
produced  a  startling  effect  at  Rome,  and  every  nerve  was 
strained  to  meet  this  new  danger.  While  two  armies  were 
left  in  southern  Etruria  as  reserves,  the  two  consuls,  Fabius 
and  Decius,  both  tried  soldiers,  marched  northwards  up 
the  valley  of  the  Tiber  and  into  Umbria  at  the  head  of 
four  Roman  legions  and  a  still  larger  force  of  Italian 
allies.  At  Sentinum,  on  the  further  side  of  the  Apennines, 
they  encountered  the  united  forces  of  the  Celts  and 
Samnites,  the  Etruscans  and  Umbrians  having,  it  is 
said,  been  withdrawn  for  the  defence  of  their  own  homes. 
The  battle  that  followed  was  desperate,  and  the  Romans 
lost  one  of  their  consuls,  Decius,  and  more  than  8000 
men.3  But  the  Roman  victory  Avas  decisive.  The  Celts 
were  annihilated,  and  the  fear  of  a  second  Celtic  attack 
on  Rome  removed.  All  danger  from  the  coalition  was 
over.  The  Etruscan  communities  gladly  purchased  peace 
by  the  payment  of  indemnities.  The  rising  in  Umbria, 
never  formidable,  died  away,  and  the  Samnites  were 
left  single-handed  to  bear  the  whole  weight  of  the 
wrath  of  Rome.  During  four  years  more,  however,  they 
desperately  defended  their  highland  homes,  and  twice 
at  least,  in  293  and  292,  they  managed  to  place  in  the  field 
a  force  sufficient  to  meet  the  Roman  legions  on  equal 
terms.  At  last,  in  290,  the  consul  M.  Curius  Dentatus 
finally  exhausted  their  power  of  resistance.  Peace  was 
concluded,  and  it  is  significant  of  the  respect  inspired  at 
Rome  by  their  indomitable  courage  that  they  were 
allowed  to  become  the  allies  of  Rome,  on  equal  terms  and 
without  any  sacrifice  of  independence.4 

Between  the  close  of  the  Third  Samnite  War  and  the 
landing  of  Pyrrhus  in  281  B.C.  we  find  Rome  engaged,  as 
her  wont  was,  in  quietly  extending  and  consolidating  her 
power.  In  southern  Italy  she  strengthened  her  hold  on 
Apulia  by  planting  on  the  borders  of  Apulia  and  Lucania 
the  strong  colony  of  Venusia.5  In  central  Italy  the 
annexation  of  the  Sabine  country  (290)  carried  her 
frontiers  eastward  to  the  borders  of  her  Picentine  allies 
on  the  Adriatic.6  Farther  east,  in  the  territory  of  the 

1  Livy,  ix.  39.    Ihne  (E.  G.,  L  351  sq.)  throws  some  doubts  on  the 
traditional  accounts  of  this  war  and  of  that  in  296. 

2  Narnia,  Livy,  x.  10.  3  Livy,  x.  27. 

4  Livy,  Epit.,  xi.,  "  pacem  petentibus  Samnitibus  foedus  quarto 
renovatwm.  est."  5  Dion.  Hal.,  Exc.,  2335  ;  Veil.  Pat.,  i.  14. 

6  Livy,  Epit.,  xi. ;  Veil.  Pat.,  i.  14. 


Picentes  themselves,  she  established  colonies  on  the 
Adriatic  coast  at  Hatria  and  Castrum  (285-2S3).7  By  469-471 
these  measures  her  control  of  central  Italy  from  sea  to  sea 
was  secured,  and  an  effectual  barrier  interposed  between 
her  possible  enemies  in  the  north  and  those  in  the  south. 
North  of  the  Picentes  lay  the  territories  of  the  Celtic 
Senones,  stretching  inland  to  the  north-east  borders  of 
Etruria,  and  these  too  now  fell  into  her  hands.  Ten 
years  after  their  defeat  at  Sentinum  (285-284)  a  Celtic 
force  descended  into  Etruria,  besieged  Arretium,  and 
defeated  the  relieving  force  despatched  by  Rome.  In 
283  the  consul  L.  Cornelius  Dolabella  was  sent  to  avenge 
the  insult.  He  completely  routed  the  Senones.  Their 
lands  were  annexed  by  Rome,  and  a  colony  established  at 
Sena  on  the  coast.  This  success,  followed  as  it  was  by  the 
decisive  defeat  of  the  neighbouring  tribe  of  the  Boii, 
who  had  invaded  Etruria  and  penetrated  as  far  south  as 
the  Vadimonian  Lake,  awed  the  Celts  into  quiet,  and  for 
more  than  forty  years  there  was  comparative  tranquillity 
in  northern  Italy.8 

In  the  south,  however,  the  claims  of  Rome  to  supre-  War  wit 
macy  were  now  to  be  disputed  by  a  new  and  formidable  Pyntue, 
foe.     At  the  close  of  the  Third  Samnite  War  the  Greek  ^JlSfi 
cities  on  the   southern   coast  of  Italy  found  themselves 
once  more  harassed  by  the  Sabelliau  tribes  on  their  borders, 
whose  energies,  no  longer  absorbed  by  the  long  struggles 
in  central  Italy,  now  found  an  attractive  opening  south- 
ward.    Naturally  enough  the  Greeks,   like  the  Capuans 
sixty  years  before,  appealed  for  aid  to  Rome  (283-282),  471-2. 
and  like  the  Capuans  they  offered  in  return  to  recognize 
the  suzerainty  of  the  great  Latin  republic.     In  reply  a 
Roman  force  under  C.  Fabricius  marched  into  South  Italy, 
easily  routed  the  marauding  bands  of  Lucanians,  Bruttians, 
and  Samnites,  and  established  Roman  garrisons  in  Locri, 
Croton,  Rhegium,  and  Thurii.     At   Tarentum,   the  most 
powerful   and    flourishing   of   the    Greek   seaports,    this 
sudden  and  rapid  advance  of  Rome  excited  the  greatest 
anxiety.     Tarentum   was  already  allied  by  treaty  (301)  453. 
with  Rome,  and  she  had  now  to  decide  whether  this  treaty 
should  be  exchanged  for  one  which  would  place  her,  like 
the  other  Greek  communities,   under  the  protectorate  of 
Rome,    or   whether  she  should  find  some  ally  able  and 
willing  to  assist  in  making  a  last  stand  for  independence. 
The  former  course,  in  Tarentum,  as  before  at  Capua,  was 
the  one  favoured  by  the  aristocratic  party ;  the  latter  was 
eagerly  supported  by  the   mass  of  the  people  and  their 
leaders.     While  matters  were  still  in  suspense,  the  appear- 
ance, contrary  to .  the  treaty,  of  a  Roman  squadron  off  the 
harbour  decided  the  controversy.     The  Tarentines,  indig- 
nant at  the  insult,  attacked  the  hostile  fleet,  killed  the 
admiral,  and  sunk  most  of  the  ships.     Still  Rome,  relying 
probably  on  her  partisans  in  the  city,  tried  negotiation, 
and  an  alliance  appeared  likely  after  all,  when  suddenly 
the   help    for   which  the   Tarentine  democrats  had  been 
looking  appeared,  and  war  with  Rome  was  resolved  upon 
(281-280).9  473-4. 

King  Pyrrhus,  whose  timely  appearance  seemed  for  the 
moment  to  have  saved  the  independence  of  Tarentum, 
was  the  most  brilliant  of  the  military  adventurers  whom 
the  disturbed  times  following  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great  had  brought  into  prominence.  High-spirited, 
generous,  and  ambitious,  he  had  formed  the  scheme  of 
rivalling  Alexander's  achievements  in  the  East,  by  winning 
for  himself  an  empire  in  the  West.  He  aspired  not  only 
to  unite  under  his  rule  the  Greek  communities  of  Italy 
and  Sicily,  but  to  overthrow  the  great  Phoenician  state  of 
Carthage — the  natural  enemy  of  Greeks  in  the  West,  as 
Persia  had  been  in  the  East.  Of  Rome  it  is  clear  that  he 


7  Livy,  Epit.,  xi.  8  Livy,  Epit.,  xii.j  Polyb.,  ii.  20. 

9  Livy,  Epit.,  xii.;  Plut.,  Pyrrh.,  13. 


744 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


knew  little  or  nothing ;  the  task  of  ridding  the  Greek  sea- 
ports of  their  barbarian  foes  he  no  doubt  regarded  as  an 
easy  one ;  and  the  splendid  force  he  brought  with  him  was 
intended  rather  for  the  conquest  of  the  West  than  for  the 
preliminary  work  of  chastising  a  few  Italian  tribes,  or 
securing  the  submission  of  the  unwarlike  Italian  Greeks. 
Pyrrhus's  first  measure  was  to  place  Tarentum  under  a 
strict  military  discipline;  this  done  he  advanced  into 
Lucania  to  meet  the  Roman  consul  La^vinus.  The 
battle  which  followed,  on  the  banks  of  the  Liris,  ended  in 
the  complete  defeat  of  the  Roman  troops,  largely  owing 
to  the  panic  caused  by  the  elephants  which  Pyrrhus  had 
brought  with  him  (280).1  The  Greek  cities  expelled  their 
Roman  garrisons  and  joined  him,  while  numerous  bands 
of  Samnites,  Lucauians,  and  Bruttians  flocked  to  his 
standard.  But,  to  the  disappointment  of  his  Greek  and 
Italian  allies,  Pyrrhus  showed  no  anxiety  to  follow  up  the 
advantage  he  had  gained.  His  heart  was  set  on  Sicily 
and  Africa,  and  his  immediate  object  was  to  effect  such 
an  arrangement  with  Rome  as  would  at  once  fulfil  the 
pledges  he  had  given  to  the  Greeks  by  securing  them 
against  Roman  interference  and  set  himself  free  to  seek 
his  fortunes  westward.  But,  though  his  favourite  minister 
Cineas  employed  all  his  skill  to  win  the  ear  of  the  senate, 
and,  though  Pyrrhus  himself  lent  weight  to  his  envoy's 
words  by  advancing  as  near  Rome  as  Anagnia  (279), 
nothing  could  shake  the  resolution  of  the  senate,  and 
Cineas  brought  back  the  reply  that  the  Romans  could 
not  treat  with  Pyrrhus  so  long  as  he  remained  in  arms 
upon  Italian  soil.  Disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  peace, 
Pyrrhus  in  the  next  year  (278)  turned  his  forces  against 
the  Roman  strongholds  in  Apulia.2  Once  more,  at  Ascu- 
lum,  he  routed  the  legions,  but  only  to  find  that  the 
indomitable  resolution  of  the  enemy  was  strengthened 
by  defeat.  Weary  of  a  struggle  which-  threatened  inde- 
finitely to  postpone  the  fulfilment  of  his  dreams  of 
empire,  Pyrrhus  resolved  to  quit  Italy,  and,  leaving  garri- 
sons in  the  Greek  towns,  crossed  into  Sicily.  Here  his 
success  at  first  was  such  as  promised  the  speedy  realiza- 
tion of  his  hopes.  The  Sicilian  Greeks  hailed  him  as  a 
deliverer;  the  Carthaginians  were  driven  back  to  the 
extreme  west  of  the  island,  and  Eryx  and  Pauormus  fell  into 
his  hands.  But  at  this  point  fortune  deserted  him.  His 
efforts  to  take  Lilybaeum  were  fruitless  ;  the  Carthaginians 
recovered  their  courage,  while  the  unstable  Greeks,  easily 
daunted  by  the  first  threatenings  of  failure,  and  impatient 
of  the  burdens  of  war,  broke  out  into  open  murmurs 
against  him.  Soured  and  disappointed,  Pyrrhus  returned 
to  Italy  (276)  to  find  the  Roman  legions  steadily  moving 
southwards,  and  his  Italian  allies  disgusted  by  his  deser- 
tion  of  their  cause.  One  of  the  consuls  for  the  year  (275), 
M.  Curius  Dentatus,  the  conqueror  of  Samnium,  was 
encamped  at  Beneventum  awaiting  the  arrival  of  his 
colleague.  Here  Pyrrhus  attacked  him,  and  the  closing 
battle  of  the  war  was  fought.  It  ended  in  the  complete 
victory  of  the  Romans.  Pyrrhus,  unable  any  longer  to 
face  his  opponents  in  the  field,  and  disappointed  of  all 
assistance  from  his  allies,  retreated  in  disgust  to  Tarentum 
and  thence  crossed  into  Greece.3 

A  few  years  later  (272)  Tarentum  was  surrendered  to 
Rome  by  its  Epirot  garrison  ;  it  was  granted  a  treaty  of 
alliance,  but  its  walls  were  razed  and  its  fleet  handed  over 
to  Rome.  In  270  Rhegium  also  entered  the  ranks  of 
Roman  allies,  and  finally  in  269  a  single  campaign  crushed 
the  last  efforts  at  resistance  in  Samnium.  Rome  was 
now  at  leisure  to  consolidate  the  position  she  had  won. 
.  Between  273  and  263  three  new  colonies  were  founded  in 
Samnium  and  Lucania — Paestum  in  273,  Beneventum  in 

1  Pliu.,  JT.  H.,  viii.  6.  •  2Plut.,  Pi/rrh.,-21. 

*  Livy,  Epit.,  xiv. ;  Plut,  Pyrrh.,  26. 


268,  ^Esernia  in  263.     In  central  Italy  the  area  of  Roman  486, 4? 
territory  was  increased  by  the  full  enfranchisement  (268)  486 
of   the  Sabines,4  and   of   their   neighbours   to   the   east, 
the  Picentes.     To  guard  the  Adriatic  coast  colonies  were 
established  at  Ariminum  (268),  at  Firmum,  and  at  Castrum  486 
Novum  (264),   while  to  the  already  numerous  maritime  49 
colonies  was  added  that  of  Cosa  in  Etruria.5 

Rome  was  now  the  undisputed  mistress  of  Italy.  The  Rome 
limits  of  her  supremacy  to  the  north  were  represented astlie 
roughly  by  a  line  drawn  across  the  peninsula  from  the  "'.' jtr 
mouth  of  the  Arno  on  the  west  to  that  of  the  ^sis  on  the 
east.6  Beyond  this  line  lay  the  Ligurians  and  the  Celts ; 
all  south  of  it  was  now  united  as  "  Italy  "  under  the  rule 
of  Rome. 

But  the  rule  of  Rome  over  Italy,  like  her  wider  rule 
over  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  was  not  an  absolute 
dominion  over  conquered  subjects.  It  was  in  form  at 
least  a  confederacy  under  Roman  protection  and  guid- 
ance; and  the  Italians,  like  the  provincials,  were  not 
the  subjects,  but  the  "allies  and  friends"  of  the  Roman 
people.7  Marvellous  as  are  the  perseverance  and  skill 
with  which  Rome  built  up,  consolidated,  and  directed 
this  confederacy,  it  is  yet  clear  that  both  her  success  in 
forming  it  and  its  stability  when  formed  were  due  in  part 
to  other  causes  than  Roman  valour  and  policy.  The 
disunion  which,  in  former  times,  had  so  often  weakened  the 
Italians  in  their  struggles  with  Rome  still  told  in  her 
favour,  and  rendered  the  danger  of  a  combined  revolt 
against  her  authority  remote  in  the  extreme.  In  some 
cases,  and  especially  in  the  city  states  of  Etruria,  Campania, 
and  Magna  Graecia,  where  the  antagonism  of  the  two 
political  parties,  aristocrats  and  democrats,  was  keen, 
Rome  found  natural  and  valuable  allies  in  the  former. 
Among  the  more  backward  peoples  of  central  Italy,  the 
looseness  of  their  political  organization  not  only  lessened 
their  power  of  resistance,  but  enabled  Rome  either  to 
detach  tribe  after  tribe  from  the  confederacy  or  to  attack 
and  crush  them  singly.  Elsewhere  she  was  aided  by 
ancient  feuds,  such  as  those  between  Samnites  and  Apulians, 
or  Tarentines  and  lapygians,  or  by  the  imminent  dread 
of  a  foe — Celt,  or  Samnite,  or  Lucanian — whom  Roman  aid 
alone  could  repel.  And,  while  combination  against  her 
was  thus  rendered  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  by  internal 
dissensions,  feuds,  differences  of  interest,  of  race,  of 
language,  and  habits,  Rome  herself,  from  her  position  in 
the  centre  of  Italy,  was  so  placed  as  to  be  able  to  strike 
promptly,  on  the  first  signs  of  concerted  opposition.  All 
these  advantages  Rome  utilized  to  the  utmost.  We  have 
no^means  of  deciding  how  far  she  applied  elsewhere  the 
principle  upon  which  she  acted  in  northern  Etruria  and 
Campania,  of  attaching  the  aristocratic  party  in  a  com- 
munity to  Roman  interests,  by  the  grant  of  special 
privileges;  but  it  is  certain  that  she  endeavoured  by  every 
means  in  her  power  to  perpetuate,  and  even  to  increase,  the 
disunion  which  she  had  found  so  useful  among  her  allies. 
In  every  possible  way  she  strove  to  isolate  them  from 
each  other,  while  binding  them  closely  to  herself.  The 
old  federal  groups  were  in  most  cases  broken  up,  and  each 
of  the  members  united  with  Rome  by  a  special  treaty 
of  alliance.  In  Etruria,  Latium,  Campania,  and  Magna 
Graecia  the  city  state  was  taken  as  the  unit;  in  central 
Italy,  where  urban  life  was  non-existent,  the  unit  was  the 
tribe.  The  northern  Sabellian  peoples,  for  instance, — the 
Marsi,  Paeligni,  Vestini,  Marrucini,  Frentani, — were  now 

4  Veil.  Pat.,  i.  14,  "suffragii  fcremli  jus  Sabinis  datum." 
8  Veil.  Pat.,  i.  14 ;  Livy,  Epit.,  xv.    The  present  writer  has  followed 
Beloch  (Itul.  Bund,  142)  in  identifying  the  "  Cosa"  of  Veil.,  loc.  cit., 
and  Livy,  Epit.,  xiv. ,  with  Cosa  in  Etruria  ;  cf.  Plin.,  .A7".  //. ,  iii.  8, 
51.    Mommsen  and  Madvig  both  place  it  in  Lucania. 

6  Mommsen,  R.  O.,  i.  428,  note;  Nissen,  Ital.  Landeskunde,  p.  71. 

7  Beloch,  Hal.  Bund,  203  ;  Monimsen,  R.  O.,  i.  428,  note. 


BOME   THE  MISTRESS   OF  ITALY.] 


ROME 


745 


constituted  as  separate  communities  in  alliance  with  Home. 
In  many  cases,  too,  no  freedom  of  trade  or  intermarriage 
was  allowed  between  the  allies  themselves,  a  policy  after- 
wards systematically  pursued  in  the  provinces.  Nor  were 
all  these  numerous  allied  communities  placed  on  the  same 
footing  as  regarded  their  relations  with  Rome  herself.  To 
begin  with,  a  sharp  distinction  was  drawn  between  the 
"Latini"  and  the  general  mass  of  Italian  allies.  The 
"  Latins  "  of  this  period  had  little  more  than  the  name  in 
common  with  the  old  thirty  Latin  peoples  of  the  days  of 
Spurius  Cassius.  With  a  few  exceptions,  such  as  Tibur 
and  Praeneste,  the  latter  had  either  disappeared  or  had 
been  incorporated  with  the  Roman  state,  and  the  Latins 
of  268  B.C.  were  almost  exclusively  the  "  Latin  colonies," 
that  is  to  say,  communities  founded  by  Rome,  composed 
of  men  of  Roman  blood,  and  whose  only  claim  to  the  title 
"  Latin  "  lay  in  the  fact  that  Rome  granted  to  them  some 
portion  of  the  rights  and  privileges  formerly  enjoyed  by 
the  old  Latin  cities  under  the  Cassian  treaty.1  Though 
nominally  allies,  they  were  in  fact  offshoots  of  Rome 
herself,  bound  to  her  by  community  of  race,  language,  and 
interest,  and  planted  as  Roman  garrisons  among  alien  and 
conquered  peoples.  The  Roman  citizen  who  joined  a 
Latin  colony  lost  his  citizenship, — to  have  allowed  him  to 
retain  it  would  no  doubt  have  been  regarded  as  enlarging 
too  rapidly  the  limits  of  the  citizen  body;  but  he  received  in 
exchange  the  status  of  a  favoured  ally.  The  Latin  colony 
did  not  indeed  enjoy  the  equality  and  independence 
originally  possessed  by  the  old  Latin  cities.  It  had  no 
freedom  of  action  outside  its  own  territory,  could  not 
make  war  or  peace,  and  was  bound  to  have  the  same 
friends  and  foes  as  Rome.  But  its  members  had  the  right 
of  commercium  and  down  to  268  2  of  connubium  also  with 
Roman  citizens.  Provided  they  left  sons  and  property  to 
represent  them  at  home,  they  were  free  to  migrate  to 
Rome  and  acquire  the  Roman  franchise.  In  war  time  they 
not  only  shared  in  the  booty,  but  claimed  a  portion  of  any 
land  confiscated  by  Rome  and  declared  "  public."  These 
privileges,  coupled  with  their  close  natural  affinities  with 
Rome,  successfully  secured  the  fidelity  of  the  Latin 
colonies,  which  became  not  only  the  most  efficient  props 
of  Roman  supremacy,  but  powerful  agents  in  the  work 
of  Romanizing  Italy.  Below  the  privileged  Latins  stood 
the  Italian  allies ;  and  here  again  we  know  generally  that 
there  were  considerable  differences  of  status,  determined 
in  each  case  by  the  terms  of  their  respective  treaties  with 
Rome.  We  are  told  that  the  Greek  cities  of  Neapolis  and 
Heraclea  were  among  the  most  favoured  ;3  the  Bruttii,  on 
the  other  hand,  seem,  even  before  the  Hannibalic  war,  to 
have  been  less  generously  treated.  But  beyond  this  the 
absence  of  all  detailed  information  does  not  enable  us  to 

go- 
Rome,  however,  did  not  rely  only  on  this  policy  of  isola- 
tion. Her  allies  were  attached  as  closely  to  herself  as  they 
were  clearly  separated  from  each  other,  and  from  the  first 
she  took  every  security  for  the  maintenance  of  her  own  para- 
mount authority.  Within  its  own  borders,  each  ally  was 
left  to  manage  its  own  affairs  as  an  independent  state.4 
The  badges  which  marked  subjection  to  Rome  in  the  pro- 
vinces— the  resident  magistrate  and  the  tribute — were 
unknown  in  Italy.  But  in  all  points  affecting  the  relations 
of  one  ally  with  another,  in  all  questions  of  the  general 

1  For  the  "  colouiae  Latiuae,"  founded  before  the  First  Punic  War, 
see  Beloch,  136  sy. 

2  The  year  of  the  foundation  of  Ariminum,  the  first  Latin  colony 
with  the  restricted  rights;  Cic.  Pro  Caec.,  35  ;  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i. 
421,  note  ;  Marquardt,  Staatsreriv.,  i.  53.     Beloch,  155-158,  takes  a 
different  view. 

3  Beloch,  Camp.,  39  ;  Cic.  Pfo  Balbo,  22. 

4  For  the  relation  of  the  "  socii  Italic! "  to  Rome,  see  Mommsen, 
R.  G.,  L  422  ;  Beloch,  IlaL  Bund,  cap.  x. 


cipia. 


interests  of  Italy  and  of  foreign  policy,  the  decision  rested 
solely  with  Rome.  The  place  of  a  federal  constitution,  of 
a  federal  council,  of  federal  officers,  was  filled  by  the  Roman 
senate,  assembly,  and  magistrates.  The  maintenance  of 
peace  and  order  in  Italy,  the  defence  of  the  coasts  and 
frontiers,  the  making  of  war  or  peace  with  foreign  powers, 
were  matters  the  settlement  of  which  Rome  kept  entirely 
in  her  own  hands.  Each  allied  state,  in  time  of  war,  was 
called  upon  for  a  certain  contingent  of  men,  but,  though 
its  contingent  usually  formed  a  distinct  corps  under  officers 
of  its  own,  its  numerical  strength  was  fixed  by  Rome,  it 
was  brigaded  with  the  Roman  legions,  and  was  under  the 
orders  of  the  Roman  consul.5 

This  paramount  authority  of  Rome  throughout  the  pen-  The 
insula  was  confirmed  and  justified  by  the  fact  that  Rome  Roman 
herself  was  now  infinitely  more  powerful  than  any  one state- 
of  her  numerous  allies.     Her  territory,  as  distinct  from 
that  of  the  allied  states,  covered  something  like  one-third 
of   the   peninsula   south   of   the  ^Esis.     Along  the  west 
coast  it  stretched  from  Caere  to  the  southern  borders  of 
Campania.     Inland,    it    included   the   former    territories 
of  the  ^Equi  and  Hernici,  the  Sabine  country,  and  even 
extended    eastward   into   Picenum,    while   beyond   these 
limits    were   outlying    districts,    such    as    the    lands   of 
the   Senonian   Celts,    with   the   Roman   colony  of  Sena, 
and  others  elsewhere  in  Italy,  which  had  been  confiscated 
by   Rome   and   given   over    to    Roman    settlers.     Since 
the   first    important    annexation   of    territory   after   the 
capture  of  Veii  (396),  twelve  new  tribes  had  been  formed,6  358. 
and   the    number   of    male    citizens    registered    at    the 
census   had   risen   from    152,000   to    290,000.7     Within 
this  enlarged  Roman  state  were  now  included  numerous  Colonies 
communities    with    local    institutions   and    government.  an(l 
At    their    head   stood   the   Roman    colonies   ("coloniae muni" 

.  P1TMA 

civium  Romanorum"),  founded  to  guard  especially  the 
coasts  of  Latium  and  Campania.8  Next  to  these  eldest 
children  of  Rome  came  those  communities  which  had  been 
invested  with  the  full  Roman  franchise,  such,  for  instance, 
as  the  old  Latin  towns  of  Aricia,  Lanuvium,  Tusculum, 
Nomentum,  and  Pedum.  Lowest  in  the  scale  were  those 
which  had  not  been  considered  ripe  for  the  full  franchise, 
but  had,  like  Csere,  received  instead  the  "civitas  sine 
suffragio,"  the  civil  without  the  political  rights.9  Their 
members,  though  Roman  citizens,  were  not  enrolled  in  the 
tribes,  and  in  time  of  war  served  not  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Roman  legions  but  in  separate  contingents.  In  addition 
to  these  organized  town  communities,  there  were  also  the 
groups  of  Roman  settlers  on  the  public  lands,  and  the 
dwellers  in  the  village  communities  of  the  enfranchised 
highland  districts  in  central  Italy. 

The  administrative  needs  of  this  enlarged  Rome  were 
obviously  such  as  could  not  be  adequately  satisfied  by  the 
system  which  had  done  well  enough  for  a  small  city  state 
with  a  few  square  miles  of  territory.  The  old  centraliza- 
tion of  all  government  in  Rome  itself  had  become  an 
impossibility,  and  the  Roman  statesmen  did  their  best  to 
meet  the  altered  requirements  of  the  time.  The  urban 
communities  within  the  Roman  pale,  colonies  and  muni- 

5  Beloch,    203.      The  importance   of   this   duty  of    the   allies   is 
expressed  in  the  phrase  "socii  nominisve  Latini  quibus  ex   formula 
togatorum  milites  in  terra  Italia  imperare  solent." 

6  Four  in  South  Etruria  (387),  two  in  the  Pomptine  territory  (358), 
two  in  Latium  (332),  two  in  the  territory  of  the  southern  Volsci  and 
the  Ager  Falernus  (318),  two  in  the  ^Equiau  and  Hernican  territory 
(299).     The  total  of  thirty-five  was  completed  in  241  by  formation  of 
the  Velina  and  Quirina,  probably  in  the  Sabiue  and  Picentine  districts, 
enfranchised  in  268.     See  Beloch,  32. 

7  Livy,  JEpit.,  xvi. ;   Eutrop.,  ii.  18;   Mommsen,  JR.   G.,  i.  423; 
Beloch,  cap.  iv.  p.  77  sq. 

8  Ostia,    Autium,    Tarracina,    Minturnse,    Sinuessa,    and,    on   the 
Adriatic,  Sena  and  Castrum  Novum. 

9  To  both  these  classes  the  term  "  municij  ia  "  was  applied. 

XX.  —  94 


746 


ROME 


[HISTORY, 


cipia,  were  allowed  a  large  measure  of  local  self-govern- 
ment. In  all  we  find  local  assemblies,  senates,  and 
magistrates,  to  whose  hands  the  ordinary  routine  of  local 
administration  was  confided,  and,  in  spite  of  differences  in 
detail,  e.g.,  in  the  titles  and  numbers  of  the  magistrates, 
the  same  type  of  constitution  prevailed  throughout.1  But 
these  local  authorities  were  carefully  subordinated  to  the 
higher  powers  in  Eome.  The  local  constitution  could  be 
modified  or  revoked  by  the  Roman  senate  and  assembly, 
and  the  local  magistrates,  no  less  than  the  ordinary 
members  of  the  community,  were  subject  to  the  paramount 
authority  of  the  Roman  consuls,  praetors,  and  censors.  In 
particular,  care  was  taken  to  keep  the  administration  of 
justice  well  under  central  control.  The  Roman  citizen  in 
a  colony  or  municipium  enjoyed  of  course  the  right  ol 
appeal  to  the  Roman  people  in  a  capital  case.  We  may 
also  assume  that  from  the  first  some  limit  was  placed  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  local  magistrate,  and  that  cases 
falling  outside  it  came  before  the  central  authorities.  But 
defects,  an  additional  safeguard  for  the  equitable  and  uniform 
administration  of  Roman  law,  in  communities  to  many  of 
which  the  Roman  code  was  new  and  unfamiliar,  was 
provided  by  the  institution  of  prefects  ("  praefecti  juri 
dicundo"),2  who  were  sent  out  annually,  as  representatives 
of  the  Roman  praetor,  to  administer  justice  in  the  colonies 
and  municipia.  To  prefects  was,  moreover,  assigned  the 
charge  of  those  districts  within  the  Roman  pale  where  no 
urban  communities,  and  consequently  no  organized  local 
government,  existed.  In  these  two  institutions,  that  of 
municipal  government  and  that  of  prefectures,  we  have 
already  two  of  the  cardinal  points  of  the  later  imperial 
system  of  government. 

rhe  A  word  must  lastly  be  said  of  the  changes  which  the 

nilitary  altered  position  and  increased  responsibilities  of  Rome  had 
em'  effected  in  her  military  system.3  For  the  most  part  these 
changes  tended  gradually  to  weaken  the  old  and  intimate 
connexion  between  the  Roman  army  in  the  field  and  the 
Roman  people  at  home,  and  thus  prepared  the  way  for 
that  complete  breach  between  the  two  which  in  the  end 
proved  fatal  to  the  republic.  It  is  true  that  service  in  the 
legion  was  still  the  first  duty  and  the  highest  privilege  of  the 
fully  qualified  citizen.  Every  "  assiduus  "  was  still  liable  to 
active  military  service  between  the  ages  of  seventeen  to 
forty-five,  and  "proletarii"  and  freedmen  were  still  called  out 
only  in  great  emergencies,4  and  then  but  rarely  enrolled  in 
the  legions.  But  this  service  was  gradually  altering  in 
character.  Though  new  legions  were  still  raised  each  year 
for  the  summer  campaigns,  this  was  by  no  means  always 
accompanied,  as  formerly,  by  the  disbandment  of  those 
already  on  foot,  and  this  increase  in  the  length  of  time 
during  which  the  citizen  was  kept  with  the  standards  had, 
as  early  as  the  siege  of  Veii,  necessitated  a  further 
deviation  from  the  old  theory  of  military  service — the 
introduction  of  pay.5  Hardly  less  important  than  these 
changes  were  those  which  had  taken  place  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  legion  itself.  In  the  early  days  of  the  republic 
the  same  divisions  served  for  the  soldier  in  the  legion  and 
the  citizen  in  the  assembly.  The  Roman  army  in  the 
field,  and  the  Roman  people  in  the  comitia  on  the  Campus, 
were  alike  grouped  according  to  their  wealth,  in  classes 
and  centurise.  But  by  the  time  of  the  Latin  war  the 
arrangement  of  the  legion  had  been  wholly  altered.  In 

1  For  details,  see  Beloch,  Ital.  Bund,  caps,  v.,  vi. ,  vii.    The  enfran- 
chised communities  in  most   cases  retained  the  old   titles  for  their 
magistrates,  and  hence  the  variety  in  their  designations. 

2  For  the  "praefecti, "see  Mommseu,  R.  (?.,  i.  419,  and  Rom,  Staats- 
recht,  ii.  569 ;  Beloch,  130-133. 

3  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i.  438  ;    Madvig,  Verf.  R.  Reichs,  ii.  467  sq.; 
Livy,  viii.  8  ;  Polyb.,  ri.  17-42. 

4  E.g.,  before  the  battle  of  Sentinum  (296),  Livy,  x.  21. 
8  Livy,  iv.  59. 


the  new  manipular  system,  with  its  three  lines,  no  regard 
was  paid  to  civic  distinctions,  but  only  to  length  of  service 
and  military  efficiency,  while  at  the  same  time  the  more 
open  order  of  fighting  which  it  involved  demanded  of  each 
soldier  greater  skill,  and  therefore  a  more  thorough  train- 
ing in  arms  than  the  old  phalanx.  One  other  change  The  pr 
resulted  from  the  new  military  necessities  of  the  time,  consul 
which  was  as  fruitful  of  results  as  the  incipient  separation 
between  the  citizen  and  the  soldier.  The  citizen  soldiers 
of  early  Rome  were  commanded  in  the  field  by  the  men 
whom  they  had  chosen  to  be  their  chief  magistrates  at 
home,  and  still,  except  when  a  dictator  was  appointed,  the 
chief  command  of  the  legions  rested  with  the  consuls  of 
the  year.  But,  as  Rome's  military  operations  increased  in 
area  and  in  distance  from  Rome,  a  larger  staff  became 
necessary,  and  the  inconvenience  of  summoning  home  a 
consul  in  the  field  from  an  unfinished  campaign  became 
intolerable.  The  remedy  found,  that  of  prolonging  for  a' 
further  period  the  imperium  of  the  consul,  was  first 
applied  in  327  B.C.  in  the  case  of  Q.  Publilius  Philo,6  and 
between  327  and  264  instances  of  this  "  prorogatio  imperil "  427-4 
became  increasingly  common.  This  proconsular  authority, 
originally  an  occasional  and  subordinate  one,  was  destined 
to  become  first  of  all  the  strongest  force  in  the  republic, 
and  ultimately  the  chief  prop  of  the  power  of  the  Caesars. 
Already,  within  the  limits  of  Italy,  Rome  had  laid  the 
foundation  stones  of  the  system  by  which  she  afterwards 
governed  the  world, — the  municipal  constitutions,  the  allied 
states,  the  proconsuls,  and  the  prefects. 

PERIOD  II :  ROME  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  STATES, 
265-146  B.C. — (a)  Conquest  of  the  West — Though  marked  489-6 
out  by  her  geographical  position  as  the  natural  centre  of 
the  Mediterranean,  Italy  had  hitherto  played  no  active 
part  in  Mediterranean  politics,  but,  now  that  she  was  for 
the  first  time  united,  it  was  felt  throughout  the  Mediter- 
ranean world  that  a  new  power  had  arisen,  and  Rome, 
as  the  head  and  representative  of  Italy,  found  herself 
irresistibly  drawn  into  the  vortex  of  Mediterranean  affairs. 
With  those  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  indeed  she 
was  not  immediately  called  upon  to  concern  herself. 
Her  repulse  of  Pyrrhus,  and  the  news  that  the  Greek 
cities  of  South  Italy  had  acknowledged  her  suzerainty, 
had,  it  is  true,  suddenly  revealed  to  the  Eastern  world 
the  existence  of  a  powerful  Italian  state.  Egypt  sought 
her  alliance,  and  Greek  scholars  began  to  interest  them- 
selves keenly  in  the  history,  constitution,  and  character 
of  the  Latin  republic  which  had  so  suddenly  become 
famous.  But  this  was  all,  and  not  until  fifty  years 
after  the  retreat  of  Pyrrhus  did  Rome  seriously  turn 
her  attention  eastward.  Westward  of  Italy  the  case  was 
different.  The  western  coasts  of  the  peninsula  were  the 
most  fertile  and  populous  and  wealthy,  and  it  was  west- 
ward rather  than  eastward  that  the  natural  openings  for 
Italian  commerce  were  to  be  found.  But  it  was  precisely 
on  this  side  that  Rome  had  serious  ground  for  anxiety. 
Carthage  was  now  at  the  height  of  her  power.  Her  out- 
posts were  threateningly  near  to  Italy  in  Sardinia  and  in 
Sicily,  while  her  fleets  swept  the  seas  and  jealously  guarded 
for  the  benefit  of  Carthage  alone  the  hidden  treasures  of 
the  West.  In  the  east  of  Sicily,  Syracuse  still  upheld 
the  cause  of  Greek  independence  against  the  hereditary 
foe  of  the  Greek  race ;  but  Syracuse  stood  alone,  and  her 
resources  were  comparatively  small.  What  Rome  had  to 
fear  was  the  establishment,  and  that  at  no  distant  date, 
of  an  absolute  Carthaginian  domination  over  the  Western 
seas — a  domination  which  would  not  only  be  fatal  to 
Italian  commerce  but  would  be  a  standing  menace  to  the 
safety  of  the  Italian  coasts.  Rome  had  indeed  long  been 


6  Livy,   viii.   23,  "  ut  pro  consule  rem  gereret  quoad  debellatuiu 
esset." 


CONQUEST   OF   THE   WEST.] 


10  M  E 


747 


connected  with  Carthage  by  treaty,  and  the  older  purely 
commercial  treaties  had  quite  recently  been  replaced  by  a 
close  alliance  formed  in  face  of  the  common  danger  to 
which  both  had  been  exposed  by  the  adventurous  schemes 
of  Pyrrhus.  But  this  danger  was  past,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  others  besides  Pyrrhus  foresaw  that  on  the  old 
battleground  of  Greeks  and  Phoenicians  a  struggle  must 
soon  be  fought  out  between  the  Phoenician  mistress  of  the 
Italian  seas  and  the  rulers  of  the  Italian  peninsula. 

It  was  above  all  things  essential  for  Rome  that  the 
Carthaginians  should  advance  no  farther  eastward.  But 
already  in  272  Tarentum  had  almost  fallen  into  their 
grasP>  and  seven  years  later  Rome  was  threatened  with 
a  danger  at  least  as  serious,  the  establishment  of  Car- 
thaginian rule  in  the  east  of  Sicily,  and  within  sight 
of  the  Italian  coast.  In  265  a  body  of  Campanian 
mercenaries,  who  had  seized  Messana,  found  themselves 
hard  pressed  by  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse.  One  party 
among  them  appealed  for  aid  to  Carthage.  The  Cartha- 
ginians readily  responded,  and  a  Carthaginian  garrison 
occupied  the  citadel  of  Messana.  But  at  Messana,  as 
once  at  Tarentum,  there  were  others  who  turned  to  Rome, 
and,  as  Italians  themselves,  implored  the  aid  of  the  great 
Italian  republic,  offering  in  return  to  place  Messana  under 
the  suzerainty  of  Rome.  The  request  was  a  perplexing 
one.  Both  Hiero  and  the  Carthaginians  were  allies  of 
Rome,  and  Messana,  if  rescued  from  the  latter,  belonged 
of  right  to  Hiero  and  not  to  Rome.  Apart,  too,  from 
treaty  obligations,  the  Roman  senate  naturally  hesitated 
before  acceding  to  an  appeal  which  would  precipitate  a 
collision  with  Carthage,  and  commit  Rome  to  a  new  and 
hazardous  career  of  enterprise  beyond  the  sea.  Finally, 
however,  all  other  considerations  gave  way  before  the 
paramount  importance  of  checking  the  advance  of  Carthage. 
The  Roman  assembly  voted  that  assistance  should  be  sent 
to  the  Mamertines,  and  in  264  the  Roman  legions  for  the 
first  time  crossed  the  sea.  Messana  was  occupied,  and, 
after  sustaining  a  defeat,  the  Carthaginians  and  Syracusans 
were  forced  to  raise  the  siege  and  withdraw.  The  opening 
years  of  the  war  which  was  thus  begun  gave  little  promise 
of  the  length  of  the  struggle,  and  it  seemed  likely  at  the 
outset  that  Rome's  immediate  object,  the  expulsion  of  the 
Carthaginians  from  Sicily,  would  be  soon  attained.  The 
accession  to  the  Roman  side  of  King  Hiero  (263)  not  only 
confirmed  the  position  which  Rome  had  already  assumed 
in  Italy  of  the  champion  of  the  western  Greeks  against 
barbarians,  but  provided  her  in  eastern  Sicily  with  a  con- 
venient base  of  operations  and  commodious  winter  quarters, 
and  in  Hiero  himself  with  a  loyal  and  effective  ally.  In 
the  next  year  (262)  followed  the  capture  of  Agrigentum, 
and  in  261  the  Roman  senate  resolved  on  supplementing 
these  successes  on  land  by  the  formation  of  a  fleet  which 
should  not  only  enable  them  to  attack  the  maritime 
strongholds  which  defied  the  assaults  of  their  legions,  and 
protect  their  own  coasts,  but  even  to  carry  the  war  into 
Africa  itself.  In  the  spring  of  260  the  first  regular 
Roman  fleet,  consisting  of  one  hundred  quinqueremes  and 
twenty  triremes  set  sail;1  and  the  brilliant  naval  victory  off 
Mylae,  won  by  the  consul  C.  Duilius  in  the  same  year, 
seemed  to  promise  the  Romans  as  much  success  by  sea  as 
they  had  won  by  land.  But  the  promise  was  not  fulfilled; 
and  in  256  the  senate,  impatient  of  the  slow  progress 
made  in  Sicily,  determined  on  boldly  invading  Africa.  It 
was  a  policy  for  which,  if  Africa  were  once  reached,  the 
defenceless  state  of  the  Carthaginian  territories,  the  doubt- 
ful loyalty  of  her  Libyan  subjects,  and  the  un warlike 
habits  of  her  own  citizens,  gave  every  hope  of  success, 
and,  but  for  the  blunders  of  the  Romans  themselves,  it 
might  have  succeeded  now  as  it  did  fifty  years  later.  The 
1  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i.  515. 


passage  to  Africa  was  opened  by  the  defeat  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian fleet  off  Ecnomus;  the  two  consuls,  L.  Manlius  Vulso 
and  M.  Atilius  Regulus,  landed  in  safety  and  rapidly 
overran  the  country.  But  these  successes  led  the  senate, 
at  the  close  of  the  summer,  into  committing  the  serious 
blunder  of  recalling  one  of  the  consuls,  Manlius,  with  a 
large  portion  of  the  troops.  It  was  one  of  many  instances 
in  which  the  rules  and  traditions  of  the  old  republican 
system  proved  themselves  inconsistent  with  the  new 
requirements  of  an  extended  warfare.  The  consul  came 
back  to  hold  the  elections ;  his  soldiers  returned,  as  the 
custom  had  been,  to  their  homes  after  a  summer's  cam- 
paign ;  but  the  efficiency  of  the  expedition  was  fatally 
impaired.  The  rashness  and  over-confidence  of  Regulus 
aggravated  the  effects  of  the  senate's  action.  Emboldened 
by  further  successes,  and  notwithstanding  his  diminished 
forces,  he  met  the  Carthaginian  proposals  for  peace  by 
terms  so  harsh  that  the  latter,  though  the  Romans  were 
almost  at  their  gates,  their  soldiers  disheartened,  and  the 
nomad  tribes  swarming  on  their  frontiers,  indignantly 
broke  off  the  negotiations  and  prepared  to  resist  to  the 
last.  At  this  crisis,  so  the  story  runs,  the  arrival  of 
Xanthippus,  a  Spartan  soldier  of  fortune,  changed  the  face 
of  affairs,  as  that  of  Gylippus  had  formerly  done  at  Syracuse. 
His  superior  military  skill  remedied  the  blunders  of  the 
Carthaginian  generals ;  confidence  was  restored ;  and  in 
255  he  triumphantly  routed  the  Roman  forces  a  few  499. 
miles  outside  the  city.  Regulus  was  taken  prisoner,2  and 
only  a  miserable  remnant  of  two  thousand  men  escaped  to 
the  Roman  camp  on  the  coast.  Here  they  were  rescued 
by  a  Roman  fleet,  but  their  ill-fortune  pursued  them.  On 
its  way  home  the  fleet  was  wrecked,  and  all  but  80  vessels 
out  of  a  total  of  364  were  lost. 

Still,  though  abandoning  all  thoughts  of  invading  Africa, 
the  Romans  were  unwilling  to  renounce  all  thoughts  of 
facing  their  enemy  on  the  sea.  But  fresh  disasters 
followed.  The  hopes  raised  (254)  by  the  capture  of  500. 
Panormus  were  dashed  to  the  ground  the  next  year  (253)  501. 
by  the  total  destruction  in  a  storm  of  the  victorious  fleet 
on  its  way  home  from  Panormus  to  Rome.  Four  years 
later  a  second  fleet,  despatched  under  P.  Claudius  to 
assist  in  the  blockade  of  Lilybseum,  was  completely  defeated 
off  Drepana,  while,  to  make  matters  worse,  his  colleague 
L.  Junius,  who  had  been  hastily  sent  out  with  reinforce- 
ments, was  wrecked  near  the  dangerous  promontory  of 
Pachynus. 

Disheartened  by  these  repeated  disasters,  the  senate 
resolved  to  trust  only  to  the  legions,  and  by  sheer  force  of 
perseverance  slowly  to  force  the  enemy  out  of  the  few 
positions  to  which  he  still  clung  in  Sicily.  But,  though 
for  five  years  (248-243)  no  fresh  naval  operations  were  506-511 
attempted,  no  compensating  success  by  land  followed. 
Hamilcar  Barca,  the  new  Carthaginian  commander,  not 
only  ravaged  with  his  fleet  the  coasts  of  Italy,  but  from 
his  impregnable  position  at  Ercte  incessantly  harassed 
the  Roman  troops  in  the  west  of  the  island,  and  even 
recaptured  Eryx.  Convinced  once  more  of  the  impossi- 
bility of  driving  the  Carthaginians  out  of  Sicily  as  long 
as  their  navy  swept  the  seas,  the  Romans  determined  on  a 
final  effort.  The  treasury  was  empty ;  but  by  the  liberal 
contributions  of  private  citizens  a  fleet  was  equipped,  and 
C.  Lutatius  Catulus,  consul  for  242,  started  for  Sicily  early  512. 
in  the  summer  of  that  year  with  200  quinqueremes. 
From  Drepana,  whither  he  had  gone  to  aid  in  the  blockade, 
he  sailed  out  to  meet  a  Carthaginian  fleet,  despatched 
from  Africa  against  him  ;  and  a  battle  took  place  at  the 
JEgates  islands,  some  20  miles  from  the  Sicilian  coast,  in 
which  Catulus  completely  defeated  his  enemy.  The  end 

2  For  criticisms  of  the  story  of  Eegulus,  see  Mommsen,  i.  523  ; 
lime  ii.  69 ;  Rauke,   Weltgeschichte,  ii.  185.     Cf.  art.  REGULUS. 


HOME 


[HISTORY, 


of  the  long  struggle  had  come  at  last.  The  Carthaginian 
government,  despairing  of  being  able  to  send  further  aid 
to  their  troops  in  Sicily,  authorized  Hamilcar  to  treat  for 
peace.  His  proposals  were  accepted  by  Catulus,  and  the 
terms  agreed  upon  between  them  were  confirmed  in  all 
essential  points  by  the  commissioners  sent  out  from  Rome. 
The  Carthaginians  agreed  to  evacuate  Sicily  and  the 
adjoining  islands,  to  restore  all  prisoners,  and  to  pay  an 
indemnity  of  2300  talents. 

In  its  duration  and  its  severity  the  First  Punic  War  is 
justly  ranked  by  Polybius  above  all  other  wars  of  his  own 
and  preceding  times,  though  neither  in  the  military  talent 
displayed  nor  in  the  importance  of  its  results  can  it  be 
compared  with  the  war  that  followed.  It  was  distin- 
guished by  no  military  achievement  comparable  with 
Hannibal's  invasion  of  Italy,  and  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  Hamilcar  it  produced  no  general  of  the  calibre  of 
Hannibal  or  Scipio.  It  was  in  fact  a  struggle  in  which 
both  Rome  and  Carthage  were  serving  an  apprenticeship 
in  a  warfare  the  conditions  of  which  were  unfamiliar  to 
both.  The  Roman  legions  were  foes  very  unlike  any 
against  which  the  Carthaginian  leaders  had  ever  led  their 
motley  array  of  mercenaries,  while  Rome  was  called  upon 
for  the  first  time  to  fight  a  war  across  the  sea,  and  to  fight 
with  ships  against  the  greatest  naval  power  of  the  age. 
The  novelty  of  these  conditions  accounts  for  much  of  the 
vacillating  and  uncertain  action  observable  on  both  sides, 
and  their  effect  in  this  direction  was  increased  by  the 
evident  doubts  felt  by  both  antagonists  as  to  the  lengths 
to  which  the  quarrel  should  be  pushed.  It  is  possible 
that  Hamilcar  had  already  made  up  his  mind  that  Rome 
must  be  attacked  and  crushed  in  Italy,  but  his  govern- 
ment attempted  nothing  more  than  raids  upon  the  coast. 
There  are  indications  also  that  some  in  the  Roman  senate 
saw  no  end  to  the  struggle  but  in  the  destruction  of 
Carthage;  yet  an  invasion  of  Africa  was  only  once 
seriously  attempted,  and  then  only  a  halfhearted  support 
was  given  to  the  expedition.  But  these  peculiarities  in 
the  war  served  to  bring  out  in  the  clearest  relief  the 
strength  and  the  weakness  of  the  two  contending  states. 
The  chief  dangers  for  Carthage  lay  obviously  in  the 
jealousy  exhibited  at  home  of  her  officers  abroad,  in  the 
difficulty  of  controlling  her  mercenary  troops,  and  in  the 
ever-present  possibility  of  disaffection  among  her  subjects 
in  Libya, — dangers  which  even  the  genius  of  Hannibal 
failed  finally  to  surmount.  Rome,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
strong  in  the  public  spirit  of  her  citizens,  the  fidelity  of 
her  allies,  the  valour  and  discipline  of  her  legions.  What 
she  needed  was  a  system  which  should  make  a  better  use 
of  her  splendid  materials  than  one  under  which  her  plans 
were  shaped  from  day  to  day  by  a  divided  senate,  and 
executed  by  officers  who  were  changed  every  year,  and  by 
soldiers  most  of  whom  returned  home  at  the  close  of  each 
summer's  campaign. 

The  interval  between  the  First  and  Second  Punic  Wars 
•was  employed  by  both  Rome  and  Carthage  in  strengthen- 
ing their  respective  positions.  Of  the  islands  lying  off  the 
coast  of  Italy,  the  most  important,  Sicily,  had  fallen  to 
Rome  as  the  prize  of  the  recent  war.  The  eastern  end  of 
the  island  was  still  left  under  the  rule  of  King  Hiero  as 
the  ally  of  Rome,  but  the  larger  western  portion  became 
directly  subject  to  Rome,  and  a  temporary  arrangement 
seems  to  have  been  made  for  its  government,  either  by 
one  of  the  two  praetors,  or  possibly  by  a  quaestor.1 
Sardinia  and  Corsica  had  not  been  surrendered  to  Rome 
13,516.  by  the  treaty  of  241,  but  three  years  later  (238),  on  the 
invitation  of  the  Carthaginian  mercenaries  stationed  in 
the  islands,  a  Roman  force  occupied  them ;  Carthage  pro- 


1  Marquardt,  Rom.  Staatsver.,  i.   92;  Mommsen,  R.   G.,  i.  543; 
Appian,  Sic. ,  2. 


tested,  but,  on  the  Romans  threatening  war,  she  gave  way, 
and  Sardinia  and  Corsica  were  formally  ceded  to  Rome, 
though  it  was  some  seven  or  eight  years  before  all  re.^i.st- 
ance  on  the  part  of  the  natives  themselves  was  crushed. 
In  227,  however,  the  senate  considered  matters  ripe  for  527. 
the  establishment  of  a  separate  and  settled  government, 
not  only  in  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  but  also  in  Sicily.  In 
that  year  two  additional  praetors  were  elected ;  to  one  was 
assigned  the  charge  of  western  Sicily,  to  the  other  that  of 
Sardinia  and  Corsica,2  and  thus  the  first  stones  of  the 
Roman  provincial  system  were  laid.  Of  at  least  equal 
importance  for  the  security  of  the  peninsula  was  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  Celtic  tribes  in  the  valley  of  the  Po. 
These,  headed  by  the  Boii  and  Insubres  and  assisted  by 
levies  from  the  Celts  to  the  westward,  had  in  225  alarmed  529. 
the  whole  of  Italy  by  invading  Etruria  and  penetrating 
to  Clusium,  only  three  days'  journey  from  Rome.  Here, 
however,  their  courage  seems  to  have  failed  them.  They 
retreated  northward  along  the  Etruscan  coast,  until  at 
Telamon  their  way  was  barred  by  the  Roman  legions, 
returning  from  Sardinia  to  the  defence  of  Rome,  while  a 
second  consular  army  hung  upon  their  rear.  Thus 
hemmed  in,  the  Celts  fought  desperately,  but  were  com- 
pletely defeated  and  the  flower  of  their  tribesmen  slain. 
The  Romans  followed  up  their  success  by  invading  the 
Celtic  territory.  The  Boii  were  easily  reduced  to  submis- 
sion. The  Insubres,  north  of  the  Po,  resisted  more 
obstinately,  but  by  222  the  war  was  over,  and  all  the  532. 
tribes  in  the  rich  Po  valley  acknowledged  the  supremacy 
of  Rome.  The  conquered  Celts  were  not  enrolled  among 
the  Italian  allies  of  Rome,  but  were  treated  as  subjects 
beyond  the  frontier.  Three  colonies  were  founded  to  hold 
them  in  check — Placentia  and  Cremona  in  the  territory  of 
the  Insubres,  Mutina  in  that  of  the  Boii ;  and  the  great 
northern  road  (Via  Flaminia)  was  completed  as  far  as  the 
Celtic  border  at  Ariminum. 

On  the  Adriatic  coast,  where  there  was  no  Carthage  to 
be  feared,  and  no  important  adjacent  islands  to  be  annexed, 
the  immediate  interests  of  Rome  were  limited  to  rendering 
the  eea  safe  for  Italian  trade.  It  was  with  this  object 
that,  in  229,  the  first  Roman  expedition  crossed  the  525. 
Adriatic,  and  inflicted  severe  chastisement  on  the  Illyrian 
pirates  of  the  opposite  coast.3  But  the  results  of  the 
expedition  did  not  end  here,  for  it  was  the  means  of  estab- 
lishing for  the  first  time  direct  political  relations  between 
Rome  and  the  states  of  Greece  proper,  to  many  of  which 
the  suppression  of  piracy  in  the  Adriatic  was  of  as  much 
importance  as  to  Rome  herself.  Alliances  were  concluded 
with  Corcyra,  Epidamnus,  and  Apollonia ;  and  embassies 
explaining  the  reasons  which  had  brought  Roman  troops 
into  Greece  were  sent  to  the  ^Etolians,  the  Achaeans,  and 
even  to  Athens  and  Corinth.  Everywhere  they  were  well 
received,  and  the  admission  of  the  Romans  to  the  Isthmian 
games4  (228)  formally  acknowledged  them  as  the  natural 
allies  of  the  free  Greek  states  against  both  barbarian  tribes 
and  foreign  despots,  a  relationship  which  was  destined  to 
prove  as  useful  to  Rome  in  the  East  as  it  had  already 
proved  itself  to  be  in  the  West. 

While  Rome  was  thus  fortifying  herself  on  all  sides, 
Carthage  had  acquired  a  possession  which  promised  to 
compensate  her  for  the  loss  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica. 
The  genius  of  her  greatest  citizen  and  soldier,  Hamilcar 
Barca,  had  appreciated  the  enormous  value  of  the  Spanish 
peninsula,  and  conceived  the  scheme  of  founding  there  a 
Carthaginian  dominion  which  should  not  only  add  to  the 
wealth  of  Carthage,  but  supply  her  with  troops,  and  with 
a  base  of  operations  for  that  war  of  revenge  with  Rome  on 
which  his  heart  was  set.  The  conquest  of  southern  and 
eastern  Spain,  begun  by  Hamilcar  (236-228),  and  carried  518- 


Livy,  Epit.  xx. 


3  Pol yb. ,  ii.  8  sq. 


4  Polyb.,  ii.  12. 


THE   PUNIC   WARS.] 


li  O  M  E 


749 


on  by  his  kinsman  Hasdrubal  (228-221),  was  completed  by 
his  son  Hannibal,  who,  with  all  his  father's  genius,  inherited 
also  his  father's  hatred  of  Rome,  and  by  219  the  authority 
of  Carthage  had  been  extended  as  far  as  the  Ebro.  Koine 
had  not  watched  this  rapid  advance  without  anxiety,  but, 
probably  owing  to  her  troubles  with  the  Celts,  she  had 
contented  herself  with  stipulating  (226)  that  Carthage 
should  not  carry  her  arms  beyond  the  Ebro,  so  as  to 
threaten  Rome's  ancient  ally,  the  Greek  Massilia,  and  with 
securing  the  independence  of  the  two  nominally  Greek 
communities,  Emporiae  and  Saguntum,1  on  the  east  coast. 

But  these  precautions  were  of  no  avail  against  the 
resolute  determination  of  Hannibal,  with  whom  the 
conquest  of  Spain  was  only  preliminary  to  an  attack  upon 
Italy,  and  who  could  not  afford  to  leave  behind  him  in 
Spain  a  state  allied  to  Rome.  In  219,  therefore,  dis- 
regarding the  protests  of  a  Roman  embassy,  he  attacked 
and  took  Saguntum,  an  act  which,  as  he  had  foreseen, 
rendered  a  rupture  with  Rome  inevitable,  while  it  set  his 
own  hands  free  for  a  further  advance. 

A  second  war  with  Carthage  was  no  unlooked-for  event 
at  Rome ;  but  the  senate  seems  to  have  confidently  expected 
that  it  would  be  waged  at  a  distance  from  Italy — in  Africa 
and  in  Spain,  where  Saguntum  would  have  given  them  a 
convenient  point  of  support ;  and  to  this  hope  they  clung 
even  after  Saguntum  was  lost.  In  218,  the  first  year  of 
the  war,  one  consul,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  was  despatched  to 
Spain,  and  the  other,  T.  Sempronius  Gracchus,  to  Sicily, 
and  thence  to  Africa.  But  Hannibal's  secrecy  and  prompt- 
itude baffled  all  their  calculations.  Leaving  New  Carthage 
early  in  218,  in  the  space  of  five  months  he  crossed  the 
Pyrenees,  reached  the  Rhone  just  as  Scipio  arrived  at 
Massilia  on  his  way  to  Spain,  passed  the  Alps  in  spite  of 
endless  difficulties  and  hardships,  and  startled  Italy  by  de- 
scending into  the  plains  of  Cisalpine  Gaul.  In  two  battles 
on  the  Ticinus  and  the  Trebia  he  defeated  the  forces  hastily 
collected  to  bar  his  progress  southwards ;  the  Celtic  tribes 
rallied  to  his  standard ;  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  next 
year  he  prepared  to  realize  the  dream  of  his  life  and  carry 
fire  and  sword  into  Italy  itself.  His  own  force  numbered 
26,000  men ;  the  total  available  strength  of  Rome  and  her 
allies  was  estimated  at  over  700,000.2  But  Hannibal's 
hope  lay  in  the  possibility  that  by  the  rapidity  of  his 
movements  he  might  be  able  to  strike  a  decisive  blow 
before  Rome  could  mobilize  her  levies,  or  get  her  somewhat 
cumbrous  military  machinery  into  working  order.  From 
a  first  success  he  expected  no  less  a  result  than  the 
break  up  of  the  Roman  confederacy,  and  the  isolation  of 
Rome  herself,  while  it  would  also  increase  the  readiness  of 
his  own  government  to  render  him  effective  support.  His 
trust  in  himself  and  his  army  was  not  misplaced,  for  to  the 
last  he  had  the  advantage"  over  the  Roman  legions  wherever 
he  met  them  in  person.  Except,  however,  in  South  Italy, 
his  brilliant  victories  and  dashing  marches  brought  him 
no  allies,  and  it  was  his  inability  to  shake  the  loyalty  of 
northern  and  central  Italy  and  of  the  Latin  colonies 
everywhere,  even  more  than  the  indomitable  perseverance 
of  Rome  and  the  supineness  of  Carthage,  which  caused  his 
ultimate  failure. 

In  the  spring  of  217  Hannibal  crossed  the  Apennines 
and  marched  southwards  through  the  lowlands  of  eastern 
Etruria,  the  route  taken  before  him  by  the  Celtic  hordes. 
In  April  he  annihilated  Flaminius  and  his  army  at  the 
Trasimene  Lake,3  and  pushed  on  to  Spoletium,  only  a  few 


1  Livy,  xxi.  2,  5  ;  Polyb.,»iii.  15,  31. 

2  Polybius  (ii.  24  sq.)  enumerates  the  forces  of  Rome  and  her  allies 
at  the  time  of  the    Celtic  invasion    of  225.     For   a  criticism  of  his 
account  see  Mommsen,  Jt.  Forsch.,  ii.  398  ;  Beloch,  Ital.  Band,  80. 
For  Hannibal's  force,  see  Polyb.,  iii.  35,  56. 

3  For  the   date   see  Ovid,  Fust.,  vi.  765;   Weissenborn  on  Livy, 
xxii.  5  ;  Mommsen,  R.  O.,  i.  594. 


days'  march  from  Rome.  But  Rome  was  not  yet  his  goal ; 
from  Spoletium,  which  had  closed  its  gates  against  him,  he 
moved  rapidly  eastward,  ravaging  the  territories  of  Roman 
allies  as  he  went,  till  he  reached  the  Adriatic  and  the 
fertile  lands  of  northern  Apulia,  where  supplies  and 
especially  remounts  for  his  Numidian  cavalry4  were 
plentiful,  and  communication  with  Carthage  easy,  and 
where,  moreover,  he  was  well  placed  for  testing  the  fidelity 
of  the  most  recent  and  the  least  trustworthy  of  the  Italian 
allies  of  Rome.  A  second  victory  here,  on  the  scale  of 
that  at  the  Trasimene  Lake,  might  be  the  signal  for  a 
general  revolt  against  Roman  rule.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  summer  of  the  next  year  that  his  opportunity 
came.  The  patient  tactics  of  Q.  Fabius  Cunctator  had 
become  unpopular  at  Rome;  and  the  consuls  of  216,  L.  538. 
yEmilius  Paulus  and  M.  Terentius  Varro,  took  the  field  in 
Apulia,  at  the  head  of  a  larger  force  than  Rome  had  yet 
raised,  and  with  orders  to  fight  and  crush  the  daring 
invader.  The  result  realized  for  the  moment  Hannibal's 
highest  hopes.  The  Roman  army  was  annihilated  at 
Cannas  ;  and  South  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  the  Latin 
colonies  and  the  Greek  cities  on  the  coast,  came  over  to  his 
side.  Nor  did  the  Roman  misfortunes  end  here.  Philip 
of  Macedon  concluded  an  alliance  with  Hannibal  (215),  539. 
and  threatened  an  invasion  of  Italy.  In  the  very  next 
year  Syracuse,  no  longer  ruled  by  the  faithful  Hiero, 
revolted,  and  a  Carthaginian  force  landed  in  Sicily ;  lastly, 
in  212  came  the  loss  of  the  Greek  cities  on  the  south  542. 
coast.  But  the  truth  of  Polybius's  remark  that  the  Romans 
are  most  to  be  feared  when  their  danger  is  greatest  was 
never  better  illustrated  than  by  their  conduct  in  the  face 
of  these  accumulated  disasters.  Patiently  and  undauntedly 
they  set  themselves  to  regain  the  ground  they  had  lost. 
Philip  of  Macedon  was  first  of  all  forced  to  retire  from  the 
allied  city  of  Apollonia  which  he  had  attacked  (214),  and  540. 
then  effectually  diverted  from  all  thoughts  of  an  attack  on 
Italy,  by  the  formation  of  a  coalition  against  him  in  Greece 
itself  (211);  Syracuse  was  recaptured  in  212,  after  a  543, 542 
lengthy  siege,  and  Roman  authority  re-established  in  Sicily. 
In  Italy  itself  the  Roman  commanders  took  advantage  of 
Hannibal's  absence  in  the  extreme  south  to  reconquer 
northern  Apulia  ;  but  their  main  efforts  were  directed  to 
the  recovery  of  Campania,  and  above  all  of  Capua.  The 
imminent  danger  of  Capua,  which  he  had  named  as  the 
successor  of  Rome  in  the  headship  of  Italy,  recalled 
Hannibal  from  the  south,  where  he  was  besieging  a  Roman 
garrison  in  the  citadel  of  Tarentum.  Failing  to  break 
through  the  lines  which  enclosed  it,  he  resolved,  as  a  last 
hope  of  diverting  the  Roman  legions  from  the  devoted  city, 
to  advance  on  Rome  itself.  But  his  march,  deeply  as  it 
impressed  the  imagination  of  his  contemporaries  by  its 
audacity  and  promptitude,  was  without  result.  Silently 
and  rapidly  he  moved  along  the  course  of  the  Latin  Way, 
through  the  heart  of  the  territory  of  Rome,  to  within  3 
miles  of  the  city,  and  even  rode  up  with  his  advanced 
guard  to  the  Colline  gate.  Yet  no  ally  joined  him ;  no 
Roman  force  was  recalled  to  face  him ;  no  proposals  for 
peace  reached  his  camp,;  and,  overcome,  it  is  said,  by  the 
unmoved  confidence  of  his  foe,  he  withdrew,  as  silently  and 
rapidly  as  he  had  advanced,  to  his  headquarters  in  the 
south.  The  fall  of  Capua  followed  inevitably  (21 1),5  and  543. 
the  Roman  senate  saw  with  relief  the  seat  of  war  removed 
to  Lucania  and  Bruttium,  and  a  prospect  opening  of  some 
relief  from  the  exhausting  exertions  of  the  last  five  years. 
Their  hopes  were  quickly  dashed  to  the  ground.  The 

4  Livy,  xxiv.  20. 

'  B  Livy,  xxvi.  16,  33,  gives  the  sentence  passed  on  Capua:  "Ager 
omnis  et  tecta  publica  P.  R.  facta,  habitari  tantum  tanquam  urbem, 
corpus  nullum  civitatis  esse."  For  the  condition  of  Capua  subse- 
quently, see  Cic.,  L.  Agr.,  i.  6  ;  compare  C.  I.  L.,  566  sq. 


750 


E  0  M  E 


[HISTORY. 


faithful  Massiliots  sent  word  that  Hasdrubal,  beaten  in 
Spain,  was  marching  to  join  Hannibal  in  Italy.  The 
anxiety  at  Rome  was  intense,  and  every  nerve  was  strained 
to  prevent  the  junction  of  the  two  brothers.  Equally  great 
was  the  relief  when  the  news  arrived  that  the  bold  march 
of  the  consul  Claudius  had  succeeded,  and  that  Hasdrubal 
had  been  defeated  and  slain  on  the  river  Metaurus  (207). 
The  war  in  Italy  was  now  virtually  ended,  for,  though 
during  four  years  more  Hannibal  stood  at  bay  in  a  corner 
of  Bruttium,  he  was  powerless  to  prevent  the  restoration 
of  Roman  authority  throughout  the  peninsula.  Sicily 
was  once  more  secure ;  and  finally  in  206,  the  year  after 
the  victory  on  the  Metaurus,  the  successes  of  the  young  P. 
Scipio  in  Spain  (211-206)  were  crowned  by  the  complete 
expulsion  of  the  Carthaginians  from  the  peninsula. 
Nothing  now  remained  to  Carthage  outside  Africa  but  the 
ground  on  which  Hannibal  desperately  held  out,  and 
popular  opinion  at  Rome  warmly  supported  Scipio  when 
on  his  return  from  Spain  he  eagerly  urged  an  immediate 
invasion  of  Africa.  The  senate  hesitated.  Many  were 
jealous  of  Scipio's  fame,  and  resented  his  scarcely  concealed 
intention  of  appealing  to  the  people,  should  the  senate 
decline  his  proposals.  Others,  like  the  veteran  Q.  Fabius, 
thought  the  attempt  hazardous,  with  exhausted  resources, 
and  while  Hannibal  was  still  on  Italian  soil.  But  Scipio 
gained  the  day.  He  was  elected  consul  for  205,  and  given 
the  province  of  Sicily,  with  permission  to  cross  into  Africa 
if  he  thought  fit.  Voluntary  contributions  of  men,  money, 
and  supplies  poured  in  to  the  support  of  the  popular  hero  ; 
and  by  the  end  of  205  Scipio  had  collected  in  Sicily  a 
sufficient  force  for  his  purpose.  In  204  he  crossed  to 
Africa,  where  he  was  welcomed  by  the  ISTumidian  prince 
Masinissa,  whose  friendship  he  had  made  in  Spain.  In 
203  he  twice  defeated  the  Carthaginian  forces,  and  a  large 
party  at  Carthage  were  anxious  to  accept  his  offer  of 
negotiations.  But  the  advocates  of  resistance  triumphed. 
Hannibal  was  recalled  from  Italy,  and  with  him  his  brother 
Mago,  who  had  made  a  last  desperate  attempt  to  create 
a  diversion  in  Italy  by  landing  in  Liguria.  Mago  died 
on  the  voyage,  but  Hannibal  returned  to  fight  his  last 
battle  against  Rome  at  Zama,  where  Scipio,  who  had  been 
continued  in  command  as  proconsul  for  202  by  a  special 
vote  of  the  people,  won  a  complete  victory.  The  war 
was  over.  The  Roman  assembly  gladly  voted  that  the 
Carthaginian  request  for  peace  should  be  granted,  and 
entrusted  the  settlement  of  the  terms  to  its  favourite  Scipio 
and  a  commission  of  ten  senators.  Carthage  was  allowed 
to  retain  her  own  territory  in  Africa  intact ;  but  she  under- 
took to  wage  no  wars  outside  Africa,  and  none  inside 
without  the  consent  of  Rome.  She  surrendered  all  her 
ships  but  ten  triremes,  her  elephants,  and  all  prisoners  of 
war.  Finally  she  agreed  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  10,000 
talents  in  fifty  years.  Masinissa  was  rewarded  by  an 
increase  of  territory,  and  was  enrolled  among  the  "  allies 
and  friends  "  of  the  Roman  people.1 

The  battle  of  Zama  decided  the  fate  of  the  West.  The 
power  of  Carthage  was  broken,  and  her  supremacy  passed 
^y  ^e  T1S^  °f  conquest  to  Rome.  Henceforth  Rome  had 
no  rival  to  fear  westward  of  Italy,  and  it  rested  with  her- 
self to  settle  within  what  limits  her  supremacy  should  be 
confined,  and  what  form  it  should  take.  The  answer  to 
both  these  questions  was  largely  determined  for  her  by 
circumstances.  For  the  next  fifty  years  Rome  was  too 
deeply  involved  in  the  affairs  of  the  East  to  think  of 
extending  her  rule  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  rich  inherit- 
ance which  had  fallen  to  her  by  the  defeat  of  Carthage  ; 
and  it  was  not  until  125  that  she  commenced  a  fresh 
career  of  conquest  in  the  West  by  invading  Transalpine 
Gaul.  But  within  this  area  considerable  advance  was 


A«auu      vuw     died      i;uiiaiucMctUJ.t 

1  Livy,  xxx.  43  ;  Polyb.,  xv.  18. 


made  in  the  organization  and  consolidation  of  her  rule. 
The  rate  of  progress  was  indeed  unequal.  In  the  case  of  Sicily 
Sicily  and  Spain,  the  immediate  establishment  of  a  Roman  :""l 
government  was  imperatively  necessary,  if  these  posses-  sPain- 
sions  were  not  either  to  fall  a  prey  to  internal  anarchy,  or 
be  recovered  for  Carthage  by  some  second  Hamilcar. 
Accordingly,  we  find  that  in  Sicily  the  former  dominions 
of  Hiero  were  at  once  united  with  the  western  half  of  the 
island  as  a  single  province,  under  the  rule  of  a  Roman 
praetor  (201),2  and  that  in  Spain,  after  nine  years  of  a  55; 
provisional  government  (206-197),  two  provinces  were  in  548-55 
1973  definitely  established,  and  each,  like  Sicily,  assigned 
to  one  of  the  praetors  for  the  year,  two  additional  praetors 
being  elected  for  the  purpose.  But  here  the  resemblance 
between  the  two  cases  ends.  From  201  down  to  the  out-  5 
break  of  the  Slave  War  in  136  there  was  unbroken  peace  61 
in  Sicily,  and  its  part  in  the  history  is  limited  to  its 
important  functions  in  supplying  Rome  with  corn  and  in 
provisioning  and  clothing  the  Roman  legions.4  It  became 
every  year  a  more  integral  part  of  Italy ;  and  a  large  pro- 
portion even  of  the  land  itself  passed  gradually  into  the 
hands  of  enterprising  Roman  speculators.  The  governors 
of  the  two  Spains  had  very  different  work  to  do  from  that 
which  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Sicilian  praetors.  Although 
the  coast  towns  readily  acquiesced  in  Roman  rule,  the 
restless  and  warlike  tribes  of  the  interior  were  in  a  con- 
stant state  of  ferment,  which  from  time  to  time  broke 
out  into  open  revolt.  In  Sicily  the  ordinary  praetorian 
authority,  with  at  most  a  few  cohorts,  was  sufficient,  but 
the  condition  of  Spain  required  that  year  after  year  the 
praetors  should  be  armed  with  the  consular  authority,  and 
backed  by  a  standing  force  of  four  legions,  while  more 
than  once  the  presence  of  the  consuls  themselves  was 
found  necessary.  Still,  in  spite  of  all  difficulties,  the 
work  of  pacification  proceeded.  To  the  elder  Cato  (consul 
195),  and  to  Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus  (praetor  and  5 
propraetor  180-179),  father  of  the  two  tribunes,  is  mainly  574-5 
due  the  credit  of  quieting  the  Celtiberian  tribes  of  central 
Spain,  and  the  government  of  Gracchus  was  followed  by 
thirty  years  of  comparative  tranquillity.  The  insurrection 
headed  by  Viriathus  in  149  was  largely  caused  by  the 
exactions  of  the  Roman  magistrates  themselves,  while  its 
obstinate  continuance  down  to  the  capture  of  Numantia 
in  133,  was  almost  as  much  the  result  of  the  incapacity  of 
the  Roman  commanders.  But  the  re-settlement  of  the 
country  by  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger  in  that  year  left 
all  Spain,  with  the  exception  of  the  highland  Astures  and 
Cantabri  in  the  north-west,  finally  and  tranquilly  subject 
to  Rome.  Meanwhile  the  disturbed  state  of  the  interior 
had  not  prevented  the  spread  of  Roman  civilization  on 
the  seaboard.  Roman  traders  and  speculators  flocked 
to  the  seaport  towns  and  spread  inland.  The  mines 
became  centres  of  Roman  industry ;  the  Roman  legionaries 
quartered  in  Spain  year  after  year  married  Spanish  wives, 
and  when  their  service  was  over  gladly  settled  down  in 
Spain,  in  preference  to  returning  to  Italy.  The  first  Roman 
communities  established  outside  Italy  were  both  planted 
in  Spain,  and  both  owed  their  existence  to  the  Roman 
legions.5  Spain  even  in  133  gave  promise  of  becoming  in 
time  "more  Roman  than  Rome  itself." 

In  Africa  there  was  no  question  at  first  of  the  introduc-  Af'i(V 
tion  of  Roman  government  by  the  formation  of  a  province.  £™J 
Carthage,  bound  hand  and  foot  by  the  treaty  of  201,  was  ^-n. 
placed  under  the  jealous  watch  of  the  loyal  prince  of  Nu- 153-1 


2  Livy,  xxvi.  40.     The  union  was  apparently  effected  in  210  ;  but 
the  first  praetor  of  all  Sicily  was  sent  there  in  201. 

3  Livy,  xxxii.  27;   cf.  Marquardt,  Staatsverw. ,  i.  100,  and  Hiibner 
in  Hermes,  i.  105  sq. 

4  Livy,  xxvii.  5,  "pace  ac  bello  fidissimum  annonae  subsidium"; 
cf.  xxxii.  27. 

8  Italica  (206),  Appian,  Iber.,  38  ;  Carteia  (171),  Livy,  xliii.  3. 


605-6 


THIRD   PUNIC  WAR.] 


E  O  M  E 


751 


midia,  who  himself  willingly  acknowledged  the  suzerainty 
of  Rome.  But  it  was  impossible  for  this  arrangement  to 
be  permanent.  Every  symptom  of  reviving  prosperity  at 
Carthage  was  regarded  at  Rome  with  feverish  anxiety,  and 
neither  the  expulsion  of  Hannibal  in  195  nor  his  death  in 
183  did  much  to  check  the  growing  conviction  that  Rome 
would  never  be  secure  while  her  rival  existed.  It  was 
therefore  with  grim  satisfaction  that  many  in  the  Roman 
senate  watched  the  increasing  irritation  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians under  the  harassing  raids  and  encroachments  of 
their  favoured  neighbour  Masinissa,  and  waited  for  the 
moment  when  Carthage  should,  by  some  breach  of  the  con- 
ditions imposed  upon  her,  supply  Rome  with  a  pretext  for 
interference.  At  last  in  151  came  the  news  that  Carthage, 
in  defiance  of  treaty  obligations,  was  actually  at  war  with 
Masinissa.  The  anti-Carthaginan  party  in  the  senate, 
headed  by  M.  Porcius  Cato,  eagerly  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity, and,  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  Scipio  Nasica  and 
others,  war  was  declared,  and  nothing  short  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  their  city  itself  was  demanded  from  the  despairing 
Carthaginians.  This  demand,  as  the  senate  no  doubt 
foresaw,  was  refused,  and  in  149  the  siege  of  Carthage 
begun.  During  the  next  two  years  little  progress  was 
made,  but  in  147  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  JEmilianus,  son 
of  L.  yEmilius  Paulus,  conqueror  of  Macedonia,  and 
grandson  by  adoption  of  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal  was, 
at  the  age  of  thirty-seven,  and  though  only  a  candidate  for 
the  sedileship,  elected  consul,  and  given  the  command  in 
Africa.  In  the  next  year  (146)  Carthage  was  taken  and 
razed  to  the  ground.  Its  territory  became  the  Roman 
province  of  Africa,  while  Numidia,.now  ruled  by  the  three 
sons  of  Masinissa,  remained  as  an  allied  state  under  Roman 
suzerainty,  and  served  to  protect  the  new  province  against 
the  raids  of  the  desert  tribes.  Within  little  more  than 
a  century  from  the  commencement  of  the  First  Punic  War, 
the  whole  of  the  former  dominions  of  Carthage  had  been 
brought  under  the  direct  rule  of  Roman'  magistrates,  and 
were  regularly  organized  as  Roman  provinces. 

In  Italy  itself  the  Hannibalic  war  was  inevitably 
followed  by  important  changes,  and  these  changes  were 
naturally  enough  in  the  direction  of  an  increased  Roman 
predominance.  In  the  north  the  Celtic  tribes  paid  for 
their  sympathy  with  Hannibal  with  the  final  loss  of  all 
separate  political  existence.  Cispadane  Gaul,  studded 
with  colonies,  and  flooded  with  Roman  settlers,  was  rapidly 
Romanized.  Beyond  the  Po  in  Polybius's  time,  about 
sixty  years  after  the  Hannibalic  war,  Roman  civiliza- 
tion was  already  widely  spread.  In  the  extreme  north- 
east the  Latin  colony  of  Aquileia,  the  last  of  its  kind, 
was  founded  in  181,  to  hold  in  check  the  Alpine  tribes, 
while  in  the  north-west  the  Ligurians,  though  not  finally 
subdued  until  a  later  time,  were  held  in  check  by  the 
colony  of  Luna  (180),  and  by  the  extensive  settlements  of 
Roman  citizens  and  Latins  made  on  Ligurian  territory  in 
173.1  In  southern  Italy  the  effects  of  the  war  were  not 
less  marked.  The  depression  of  the  Greek  cities  on  the 
coast,  begun  by  the  raids  of  the  Sabellian  tribes,  was  com- 
pleted by  the  repeated  blows  inflicted  upon  them  during 
the  Hannibalic  struggle.  Some  of  them  lost  territory  ; 2 
all  suffered  from  a  decline  of  population  and  loss  of  trade ; 
and  their  place  was  taken  by  such  new  Roman  settlements 
as  Brundusium  and  Puteoli.3  In  the  interior  the  southern 
Sabellian  tribes  suffered  scarcely  less  severely.  The 
Bruttii  were  struck  off  the  list  of  Roman  allies,  and  nearly 

1  Livy,  xlii.  4. 

2  E.g.,  Tarentum,  Livy,  xliv.  16.     A  Roman  colony  was  established 
at  Croton  in  194,  and  a  Latin  colony  (Copia)  at  Thurii  in  193  (Livy, 
xxxiv.  45,  53). 

3  Brundusium  was  established  after  the  First  Punic  War.      Puteoli 
was  fortified  during  the  Second  Punic  War,  and  became  a  Roman 
colony- in  194  (Livy,  xxxiv.  45). 


all  their  territory  was  confiscated.4  To  the  Apulians  and 
Lucanians  no  such  hard  measure  was  meted  out ;  but  their 
strength  had  been  broken  by  the  war,  and  their  numbers 
dwindled ;  large  tracts  of  land  in  their  territories  were 
seized  by  Rome,  and  allotted  to  Roman  settlers,  or  occupied 
by  Roman  speculators.  That  Etruria  also  suffered  from 
declining  energy,  a  dwindling  population,  and  the  spread 
of  large  estates  is  clear  from  the  state  of  things  existing 
therein  133.  It  was  indeed  in  central  Italy,  the  home  621. 
of  the  Latins  and  their  nearest  kinsmen,  and  in  the  new 
Latin  and  Roman  settlements  throughout  the  peninsula 
that  progress  and  activity  were  henceforth  concentrated,  and 
even  within  this  area  the  Roman,  and  not  the  strictly  Latin, 
element  tended  to  preponderate.  Of  the  twenty  colonies 
founded  between  201  and  146  only  four  were  Latin.  553-608. 

(b)  Rome  in  the  East,  200-133. — Ever  since  the  re-  554-621. 
pulse  of  Pyrrhus  from  Italy,  Rome  had  been  slowly  drift- 
ing into  closer  contact  with  the  Eastern  states.  With 
one  of  the  three  great  powers  which  had  divided  between 
them  the  empire  of  Alexander,  with  Egypt,  she  had 
formed  an  alliance  in  273,  and  the  alliance  had  been 
cemented  by  the  growth  of  commercial  intercourse 
between  the  two  countries.5  In  228  her  chastisement  of  526. 
the  Illyrian  pirates  had  led  naturally  enough  to  the 
establishment  of  friendly  relations  with  some  of  the 
states  of  Greece  proper.  Further  than  this,  however, 
Rome  for  the  time  showed  no  desire  to  go.  The  con- 
nexions already  formed  were  sufficient  to  open  the  eastern 
ports  to  her  trade,  and  the  engrossing  struggle  with 
Carthage  left  her  neither  leisure  nor  strength  for  active 
interference  in  the  incessant  feuds  and  rivalries  which  had 
made  up  Eastern  politics  since  the  falling  asunder  of 
Alexander's  empire.  In  214  the  alliance  between  Philip  540. 
and  Hannibal,  and  the  former's  threatened  attack  on  Italy, 
forced  her  into  war  with  Macedon,  but  even  then  she  con- 
tented herself  with  heading  a  coalition  of  the  Greek  states 
against  him,  which  effectually  frustrated  his  designs 
against  herself ;  and  at  the  first  opportunity  (205)  she  549. 
ended  the  war  by  a  peace  which  left  the  position  un- 
changed. The  results  of  the  war  were  not  only  to  draw 
closer  the  ties  which  bound  Rome  to  the  Greek  states, 
but  to  inspire  the  senate  with  a  genuine  dread  of  Philip's 
restless  ambition,  and  with  a  bitter  resentment  against 
him  for  his  union  with  Hannibal.  The  events  of  the  next 
four  years  served  to  deepen  both  these  feelings.  In  205  549. 
Philip  entered  into  a  compact  with  Antiochus  of  Syria  for 
the  partition  between  them  of  the  dominions  of  Egypt,6 
now  left  by  the  death  of  Ptolemy  Philopator  to  the  rule  of 
a  boy  king.  Antiochus  was  to  take  Ccele-Syria  and 
Phoenicia,  while  Philip  claimed  for  his  share  the  districts 
subject  to  Egypt  on  the  coasts  of  the  ./Egean  and  the  Greek 
islands.  Philip  no  doubt  hoped  to  be  able,  to  secure  these 
unlawful  acquisitions  before  the  close  of  the  Second  Punic 
War  should  set  Rome  free  to  interfere  with  his  plans. 
But  the  obstinate  resistance  offered  by  Attalus  of  Perga- 
mum  and  the  Rhodians  upset  his  calculations.  In  201  553. 
Rome  ma'de  peace  with  Carthage,  and  the  senate  had 
leisure  to  listen  to  the  urgent  appeal  for  assistance  which 
reached  her  from  her  Eastern  allies.  With  Antiochus 
indeed  the  senate  was  not  yet  prepared  to  quarrel ;  Egypt 
was  assured  of  the  continued  friendship  of  Rome,  but 
Antiochus  was  allowed  to  work  his  will  in  Coele-Syria.7 
With  Philip  it  is  clear  that  the  senate  had  no  thoughts 
of  a  peaceful  settlement.  Their  animosity  against  him 
had  been  deepened  by  the  assistance  he  had  recently 
rendered  to  Carthage.  Always  an  unsafe  and  turbulent 

4  Appian,  ffann. ,  61  ;  Aul.  Gell. ,  x.  3  ;  cf.  Beloch,  Ital.  Bund. 

5  Egypt  had  supplied  corn  to  Italy  during  the  Second  Punic  War 
(Polyb. ,  ix.  44). 

6  Polyb.,  iii.  2,  xv.  20  ;  Livy,  xxxi.  14.  7  Livy,  xxxiii.  19. 


752 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


neighbour,  he  would,  if  allowed  to  become  supreme  in  the 
^Egean,  prove  as  dangerous  to  her  interests  in  the  East  as 
Carthage  had  been  in  the  West ;  nor,  lastly,  could  Rome, 
in  honour,  look  quietly  on  at  the  ill-treatment  of  states 
which,  as  Greeks  and  as  allies  of  her  own,  had  a  double 
claim  on  her  protection.  To  cripple  or  at  least  to  stay 
the  growth  of  Philip's  power  was  in  the  eyes  of  the  senate 
a  necessity,  but  it  was  only  by  representing  a  Macedonian 
invasion  of  Italy  as  imminent  that  they  persuaded  the 
assembly,  which  was  longing  for  peace,  to  pass  a  declara- 
tion of  war l  (200),  an  ostensible  pretext  for  which  was 
found  in  the  invasion  by  Macedonian  troops  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Rome's  ally,  Athens. 

The  war  commenced  in  the  summer  of  200  B.C.,  and, 
though  the  landing  of  the  Roman  legions  in  Epirus  was 
not  followed,  as  had  been  hoped,  by  any  general  rising 
,  against  Philip,  yet  the  latter  had  soon  to  discover  that,  if 
they  were  not  enthusiastic  for  Rome,  they  were  still  less 
inclined  actively  to  assist  himself.  Neither  by  force  nor 
diplomacy  could  he  make  any  progress  south  of  Boeotia. 
The  fleets  of  Pergamum  and  Rhodes,  now  the  zealous 
allies  of  Rome,  protected  Attica  and  watched  the  eastern 
coasts.  The  Achaeans  and  Nabis  of  Sparta  were  obstin- 
ately neutral,  while  nearer  home  in  the  north  the  Epirots 
and  ^Etolians  threatened  Thessaly  and  Macedonia.  His 
own  resources  both  in  men  and  in  money  had  been  severely 
strained  by  his  constant  wars,2  and  the  only  ally  who 
could  have  given  him  effective  assistance,  Antiochus,  was 
fully  occupied  with  the  conquest  of  Coele-Syria.  It  is  no 
wonder  then  that,  in  spite  of  his  dashing  generalship  and 
high  courage,  he  made  but  a  brief  stand.  T.  Quinctius 
Flamininus  (consul  198),  in  his  first  year  of  command, 
defeated  him  on  the  Aous,  drove  him  back  to  the  pass  of 
Tempe,  and  in  the  next  year  utterly  routed  him  at  Cynos- 
cephalse.  Almost  at  the  same  moment  the  Achaeans,  who 
had  now  joined  Rome,  took  Corinth,  and  the  Rhodians 
defeated  his  troops  in  Caria.3  Further  resistance  was 
impossible  ;  Philip  submitted,  and  early  the  next  year 
a  Roman  commission  reached  Greece  with  instructions  to 
arrange  terms  of  peace.  These  were  such  as  effectually 
secured  Rome's  main  object  in  the  war,  the  removal  of  all 
danger  to  herself  and  her  allies  from  Macedonian  aggres- 
sion.4 Philip  was  left  in  possession  of  his  kingdom, 
but  was  degraded  to  the  rank  of  a  second-rate  power, 
deprived  of  all  possessions  in  Greece,  Thrace,  and  Asia 
Minor,  and  forbidden,  as  Carthage  had  been  in  201,  to 
wage  war  without  the  consent  of  Rome,  whose  ally  and 
friend  he  now  became.  Macedon  thus  weakened  could 
no  longer  be  formidable,  but  might  yet  be  useful,  not 
only  as  a  barrier  against  Thracians  and  Celts,5  but  as  a 
check  upon  anti-Roman  intrigues  in  Greece. 

The  second  point  in  the  settlement  now  effected  by 
Rome  was  the  liberation  of  the  Greeks.  The  "  freedom 
of  Greece  "  was  proclaimed  at  the  Isthmian  games  amid  a 
scene  of  wild  enthusiasm,6  which  reached  its  height  when 
two  years  later  (194)  Flamininus  withdrew  his  troops  even 
from  the  "  three  fetters  of  Greece  " — Chalcis,  l)emetrias, 
and  Corinth.7  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that,  in  acting 
thus,  not  only  Flamininus  himself,  but  the  senate  and 
people  at  home  were  influenced,  partly  at  any  rate,  by 
feelings  of  genuine  sympathy  with  the  Greeks  and  rever- 
ence for  their  past.  It  is  equally  clear  that  no  other 
course  was  open  to  them.  For  Rome  to  have  annexed 
Greece,  as  she  had  annexed  Sicily  and  Spain,  would 
have  been  a  flagrant  violation  of  the  pledges  she  had 
repeatedly  given  both  before  and  during  the  war ; 
the  attempt  would  have  excited  the  fiercest  opposition, 

1  Livy,  xxxi.  6,  7.  2  Livy,  xxxiii.  3.  3  Ib.,  17. 

4  Polyb.,  xviii.  44-47  ;  Livy,  xxxiii.  30-34. 

8  Polyb.,  xviii.  37.      6  Livy,  xxxiii.  32,  33.      7  Livy,  xxxiv.  48-52. 


and  would  probably  have  thrown  the  Asiatic  as  well  as 
the  European  Greeks  into  the  arms  of  Antiochus.  But  a 
friendly  and  independent  Greece  would  be  at  once  a  check 
on  Macedon,  a  barrier  against  aggression  from  the  East, 
and  a  promising  field  for  Roman  commerce.  Nor  while 
liberating  the  Greeks  did  Rome  abstain  from  such  arrange- 
ments as  seemed  necessary  to  secure  the  predominance  of 
her  own  influence.  In  the  Peloponnese,  for  instance,  the 
Achaeans  were  rewarded  by  considerable  accessions  of 
territory;  and  it  is  possible  that  the  Greek  states,  as  allies 
of  Rome,  were  expected  to  refrain  from  war  upon  each 
other  without  her  consent.  The  failure  of  the  policy, 
after  all,  was  due  to  the  impracticability  of  the  Greeks, 
and  the  intensity  of  their  civic  and  tribal  feuds.  To  sup- 
pose as  some  have  done  that  Rome  intended  it  to  fail  is  to 
attribute  to  the  statesmen  of  the  generation  of  Scipio  and 
Flamininus  even  more  than  the  cynicism  of  the  time  of  L. 
Mummius.8 

Antiochus  III.  of  Syria,  Philip's  accomplice  in  the  pro- Wan 
posed  partition  of  the  dominions  of  their  common  rival,  Antic 
Egypt,  returned  from  the  conquest  of  Coele-Syria  (198)  to  J^ 
learn  first  of  all  that  Philip  was  hard  pressed  by  the  "* 
Romans,  and  shortly  afterwards  that  he  had  been  deci- 
sively beaten  at  Cynoscephalae.  It  was  already  too  late 
to  assist  his  former  ally,  but  Antiochus  resolved  at  any 
rate  to  lose  no  time  in  securing  for  himself  the  possessions 
of  the  Ptolemies  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  eastern  Thrace, 
which  Philip  had  claimed,  and  which  Rome  now  pro- 
nounced free  and  independent.  In  197-196  he  overran  5i 
Asia  Minor  and  crossed  into  Thrace.9  But  Antiochus  was 
pleasure-loving,  irresolute,  and  above  all  no  general,  and 
it  was  not  until  192  that  the  urgent  entreaties  of  the  562. 
.^Etolians,  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  troops  from 
Greece,  nerved  him  to  the  decisive  step  of  crossing  the 
^Egean  ;  and  even  then  the  force  he  took  with  him  was  so 
small  as  to  show  that  he  completely  failed  to  appreciate 
the  nature  of  the  task  before  him.10  At  Rome  the 
prospect  of  a  conflict  with  Antiochus  excited  great 
anxiety,  and  it  was  not  until  every  resource  of  diplomacy 
had  been  exhausted  that  war  was  declared.11  At  a  dis- 
tance, indeed,  Antiochus,  the  great  king,  the  lord  of  all 
the  forces  of  Asia,  seemed  an  infinitely  more  formidable 
opponent  than  their  better  known  neighbour  Philip,  and 
a  war  against  the  vaguely  known  powers  of  the  East  a  far 
more  serious  matter  than  a  campaign  in  Thessaly.  War, 
however,  was  unavoidable,  unless  Rome  was  to  desert  her 
Greek  allies,  and  allow  Antiochus  to  advance  unopposed 
to  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic.  And  the  war  had  no  sooner 
commenced  than  the  real  weakness  which  lay  behind  the 
magnificent  pretensions  of  the  "king  of  kings"  was 
revealed. 

Had  Antiochus  acted  with  energy  when  in  192  he 
landed  in  Greece,  he  might  have  won  the  day  before  the 
Roman  legions  appeared.  As  it  was,  in  spite  of  the 
warnings  of  Hannibal,12  who  was  now  in  his  camp,  and  of 
the  yEtolians,  he  frittered  away  valuable  time  between  his 
pleasures  at  Chalcis  and  useless  attacks  on  petty  Thessalian 
towns.  In  191  Glabrio  landed  at  the  head  of  an  impos-563 
ing  force ;  and  a  single  battle  at  Thermopylae  broke  the 
courage  of  Antiochus,  .who  hastily  recrossed  the  sea  to 
Ephesus,  leaving  his  ^Etolian  allies  to  their  fate.  But 
Rome  could  not  pause  here.  The  safety  of  her  faithful 
allies,  the  Pergamenes  and  Rhodians,  and  of  the  Greek 
cities  in  Asia  Minor,  as  well  as  the  necessity  of  chastising 
Antiochus,  demanded  an  invasion  of  Asia.  A  Roman  fleet 

8  For  the  conflicting  views  of  moderns  on  the  action  of  Rome,  see 
Mommsen,  R.  O.,  i.  718,  and  on  the  other  side  Ihne,  R.  G.,  iii.  62- 
63,  and  C.  Peter,  Studien  zur  R(im.  Gesch.,  Halle,  1863,  pp.  158  sq. 

9  Livy,  xxxiii.  38  ;  Polyb. ,  xviii.  50.          L0  Livy,  xxxv.  43. 
11  Livy,  xxxv.  20,  xxxvi.  i.  12  Livy,  xxxvi.  11. 


MACEDONIAN   WARS.] 


ROME 


753 


had  already  (191)  crossed  the  ^Egean,  and  in  concert 
with  the  fleets  of  Pergamum  and  Rhodes  worsted  the  navy 
of  Antiochus.  In  190  the  new  consul  L.  Scipio,  accom- 
panied by  his  famous  brother,  the  conqueror  of  Africa,  led 
the  Roman  legions  for  the  first  time  into  Asia.  At 
Magnesia,  near  Mount  Sipylus  in  Lydia,  he  met  and 
defeated  the  motley  arid  ill-disciplined  hosts  of  the  great 
king.1  For  the  first  time  the  West,  under  Roman  leader- 
ship^ successfully  encountered  the  forces  of  the  East,  and 
the  struggle  began  which  lasted  far  on  into  the  days  of 
the  emperors.  The  terms  of  the  peace  which  followed 
the  victory  at  Magnesia  tell  their  own  story  clearly 
enough.  There  is  no  question,  any  more  than  in  Greece, 
of  annexation ;  the  main  object  in  view  is  that  of  secur- 
ing the  predominance  of  Roman  interests  and  influence 
throughout  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  and  removing  to 
a  safe  distance  the  only  Eastern  power  which  could  be 
considered  dangerous.2  The  line  of  the  Halys  and  the 
Taurus  range,  the  natural  boundary  of  the  peninsula  east- 
ward, was  established  as  the  boundary  between  Antiochus 
and  the  kingdoms,  cities,  and  peoples  now  enrolled  as  the 
allies  and  friends  of  Rome.  This  line  Antiochus  was  for- 
bidden to  cross  ;  nor  was  he  to  send  ships  of  war  farther 
west  than  Cape  Sarpedon  in  Cilicia.  Immediately  to  the 
west  of  this  frontier  lay  the  small  states  of  Bithynia  and 
Paphlagonia  and  the  immigrant  Celtic  Galatse,  and  these 
frontier  states,  now  the  allies  of  Rome,  served  as  a  second 
line  of  defence  against  attacks  from  the  east.  The  area 
lying  between  these  "  buffer  states "  and  the  JEge&n  was 
organized  by  Rome  in  such  a  way  as  should  at  once  reward 
the  fidelity  of  her  allies  and  secure  both  her  own  paramount 
authority  and  safety  from  foreign  attack.  Pergamum  and 
Rhodes  were  so  strengthened — the  former  by  the  gift  of 
the  Chersonese,  Lycaonia,  Phrygia,  Mysia,  and  Lydia,  the 
latter  by  that  of  Lycia  and  Caria — as  not  only  amply  to 
reward  their  loyalty,  but  to  constitute  them  effective  props 
of  Roman  interests  and  effective  barriers  alike  against 
Thracian  and  Celtic  raids  in  the  north  and  against  aggres- 
sion by  Syria  in  the  south.  Lastly,  the  Greek  cities  on  the 
coast,  except  those  already  tributary  to  Pergamum,  were 
declared  free,  and  established  as  independent  allies  of  Rome. 

In  a  space  of  little  over  eleven  years  (200-189)  Rome 
had  broken  the  power  of  Alexander's  successors  and 
established  throughout  the  eastern  Mediterranean  a  Roman 
protectorate.  It  remained  to  be  seen  whether  this  protec- 
torate could  be  maintained,  or  whether  Rome  would  be 
driven  to  that  policy  of  annexation  which  she  had  adopted 
from  the  first  in  Sicily  and  Spain. 

It  was  in  the  western  half  of  the  protectorate  in  Euro- 
pean Greece  that  the  first  steps  in  the  direction  of  annexa- 
tion were  taken.  The  enthusiasm  provoked  by  the  libera- 
;  tion  of  the  Greeks  had  died  away,  and  its  place  had  been 
taken  by  feelings  of  dissatisfied  ambition  or  sullen  resent- 
ment. Internecine  feuds  and  economic  distress  had 
broiight  many  parts  of  Greece  to  the  verge  of  anarchy, 
and,  above  all,  the  very  foundations  of  the  settlement 
effected  in  197  were  threatened  by  the  reviving  power  and 
aspirations  of  Macedon.  Loyally  as  Philip  had  aided 
Rome  in  the  war  with  Antiochus,  the  peace  of  Magnesia 
brought  him  nothing  but  fresh  humiliation.  He  was 
forced  to  abandon  all  hopes  of  recovering  Thessaly,  and  he 
had  the  mortification  to  see  the  hated  king  of  Pergamum 
installed  almost  on  his  borders  as  master  of  the  Thracian 
Chersonese.  Resistance  at  the  time  was  unavailing,  but 
from  189  until  his  death  (179)  he  laboured  patiently  and 
quietly  to  increase  the  internal  resources  of  his  own  king- 
dom,3 and  to  foment,  by  dexterous  intrigue,  feelings  of 

1  Livy  (xxxvii.  40)  describes  the  composition  of  Autiochus's  army. 

2  Livy,  xxxvii.  55,  xxxviii.  38  ;  Polyb.,  xxi.  17. 

3  Livy,  xxxix.  24  sq. 


hostility  to  Rome  among  his  Greek  and  barbarian  neigh- 
bours. His  successor,  Perseus,  his  son  by  a  left-handed 
alliance,  continued  his  father's  work.  He  made  friends 
among  the  Illyrian  and  Thracian  princes,  connected  him- 
self by  marriage  with  Antiochus  IV.  of  Syria  and  with 
Prusias  of  Bithynia,  and,  among  the  Greek  peoples,  strove, 
not  without  success,  to  revive  the  memories  of  the  past 
glories  of  Greece  under  the  Macedonian  leadership  of  the 
great  Alexander.4  .The  senate  could  no  longer  hesitate. 
They  were  well  aware  of  the  restlessness  and  discontent  in 
Greece ;  and  after  hearing  from  Eumenes  of  Pergamum, 
and  from  their  own  officers,  all  details  of  Perseus's  intrigues 
and  preparations  they  declared  war.5  The  struggle,  in 
spite  of  Perseus's  courage  and  the  incapacity  at  the  outset 
of  the  Roman  commanders,  was  short  and  decisive.  The 
sympathy  of  the  Greeks  with  Perseus,  which  had  been 
encouraged  by  the  hitherto  passive  attitude  assumed  by 
Rome,  instantly  evaporated  on  the  news  that  the  Roman 
legions  were  on  their  way  to  Greece.  No  assistance  came 
from  Prusias  or  Antiochus,  and  Perseus's  only  allies  were 
the  Thracian  king  Cotys  and  the  Illyrian  Genthius.  The 
victory  gained  by  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus  at  Pydna  (168)  586. 
ended  the  war.6  Perseus  became  the  prisoner  of  Rome, 
and  as  such  died  in  Italy  a  few  years  later.7  Rome  had 
begun  the  war  with  the  fixed  resolution  no  longer  of 
crippling  but  of  destroying  the  Macedonian  state.  Perseus's 
repeated  proposals  for  peace  during  the  war  had  been 
rejected;  and  his  defeat  was  followed  by  the  final  extinc- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Philip  and  Alexander.8  Mace- 
donia, though  it  ceased  to  exist  as  a  single  state,  was  not 
definitely  constituted  a  Roman  province.9  On  the  con- 
trary, the  mistake  was  made  of  introducing  some  of  the 
main  principles  of  the  provincial  system — taxation,  dis- 
armament, and  the  isolation  of  the  separate  communities — 
without  the  addition  of  the  element  most  essential  for  the 
maintenance  of  order — that  of  a  resident  Roman  governor. 
The  four  petty  republics  now  created  were  each  autonom- 
ous, and  each  separated  from  the  rest  by  the  prohibition 
of  commercium  and  connubium,  but  no  central  controlling 
authority  was  substituted  for  that  of  the  Macedonian  king. 
The  inevitable  result  was  confusion  and  disorder,  resulting 
finally  (149-146)  in  the  attempt  of  a  pretender,  Andriseus,  605-8. 
who  claimed  to  be  a  son  of  Perseus,  to  resuscitate  the  Mace- 
ancient  monarchy.10  On  his  defeat  in  146  the  senate  R°^n 
hesitated  no  longer,  and  Macedonia  became  a  Roman  pro-  province, 
vince,  with  a  Roman  magistrate  at  its  head.11 

The  results  of  the  protectorate  in  Greece,  if  less  Affairs  in 
dangerous  to  Roman  supremacy,  were  quite  as  unfavour-  Greece- 
able  to  the  maintenance  of  order.  But  from  189  to  the  565-587. 
defeat  of  Perseus  in  167,  no  formal  change  of  importance 
in  the  status  of  the  Greek  states  was  made  by  Rome.  The 
senate,  though  forced  year  after  year  to  listen  to  the 
mutual  recriminations  and  complaints  of  rival  communi- 
ties and  factions,  contented  itself  as  a  rule  with  interven- 
ing just  enough  to  remind  the  Greeks  that  their  freedom 
was  limited  by  its  own  paramount  authority,  and  to  pre- 
vent any  single  state  or  confederacy  from  raising  itself  too 
far  above  the  level  of  general  weakness  which  it  was  the 
interest  of  Rome  to  maintain.  After  the  victory  at 
Pydna,  however,  the  sympathy  shown  for  Perseus,  exag- 
gerated as  it  seems  to  have  been  by  the  interested  repre- 
sentations of  the  Romanizing  factions  in  the  various  states, 


4  Livy,  xlii.  5.  5  Livy,  xlii.  19,  36. 

6  Livy,  xliv.  36-41 ;  Plut.,  Mrnil.,  15  sq. 

7  Diod.,  xxxi.  9  ;  Livy,  xlv.  42  ;  Polyb.,  xxxvii.  16. 

8  Livy,  xlv.  9. 

9  Livy,  xlv.  17,  29  ;  Plut.,  ^Emil.,  28  ;  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i.  769  ; 
Time,  R.  G.,  iii.  216  ;  Marquardt,  Rom.  Staaisverw. ,  i.  160. 

10  Polyb.,  xxxvii.  2 ;  Livy,  Epit.,  1. 

11  For  the  boundaries  of  the  province,  see  Ptolemy,  iii.   13  ;  Mar- 
quardt, loc.  cit.,  161. 

XX.  —  95 


754 


K  O  M  E 


[HISTORY. 


was  made  the  pretext  for  a  more  emphatic  assertion  of 
Roman  ascendency.  All  those  suspected  of  Macedonian 
leanings  were  removed  to  Italy,  as  hostages  for  the  loyalty 
of  their  several  communities,1  and  the  real  motive  for  the 
step  was  made  clear  by  the  exceptionally  severe  treatment 
of  the  Achaeans,  whose  loyalty  was  not  really  doubtful, 
but  whose  growing  power  in  the  Peloponnese  and  growing 
independence  of  language  had  awakened  alarm  at  Rome. 
A  thousand  of  their  leading  men,  among  them  the  historian 
Polybius,  were  carried  off  to  Italy  (see  POLYBIUS).  In 
^Etolia  the  Romans  connived  at  the  massacre  by  their  so- 
called  friends  of  500  of  the  opposite  party.  Acarnania 
was  weakened  by  the  loss  of  Leucas,  while  Athens  was 
rewarded  for  her  unambitious  loyalty  by  the  gift  of  Delos 
and  Samos. 

sttle-  But  this  somewhat  violent  experiment   only  answered 

entof  for  a  time.  In  148  the  Achaeans  rashly  persisted,  in 
reece,  spite  of  warnings,  in  attempting  to  compel  Sparta  by  force 
of  arms  to  submit  to  the  league.  When  threatened  by 
Rome  with  the  loss  of  all  that  they  had  gained  since 
Cynoscephalae,  they  madly  rushed  into  war.2  They  were 
easily  defeated,  and  a  "commission  of  ten,"  under  the 
presidency  of  L.  Mummius,  was  appointed  by  the  senate 
thoroughly  to  resettle  the  affairs  of  Greece.3  Corinth,  by 
orders  of  the  senate,  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  and  its 
territory  confiscated.  Thebes  and  Chalcis  were  destroyed, 
and  the  walls  of  all  towns  which  had  shared  in  the  last 
desperate  outbreak  were  razed  to  the  ground.  All  the 
existing  cpnfederacies  were  dissolved  ;  no  "  commercium  " 
was  allowed  between  one  community  and  another.  Every- 
where an  aristocratic  type  of  constitution,  according  to  the 
invariable  Roman  practice,  was  established,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  a  tribute  imposed.  Into  Greece,  as  into  Macedonia 
7.  in  167,  the  now  familiar  features  of  the  provincial  system 
were  introduced — disarmament,  isolation,  and  taxation. 
The  Greeks  were  still  nominally  free,  and  no  separate 
province  with  a  governor  of  its  own  4  was  established,  but 
the  needed  central  control  was  provided  by  assigning  to 
the  neighbouring  governor  of  Macedonia  a  general  super- 
vision over  the  affairs  of  Greece.  From  the  Adriatic  to 
the  yEgean,  and  as  far  north  as  the  river  Drilo  and  Mount 
Scardus,  the  whole  peninsula  was  now  under  direct  Roman 
rule.5 

ie  Beyond  the  ^Egean  the  Roman  protectorate  worked  no 

'man      better  than  in  Macedonia  and  Greece,  and  the  demoraliz- 
r"  ing  recriminations,  quarrels,  and  disorders  which  flourished 
ia>         under  its  shadow  were  aggravated  by  its  longer  duration, 
9-146=  and  by  the  still  more  selfish  view  taken  by  Rome  of  the 
5-608.    responsibilities  connected  with  it.6     At  one  period  indeed, 
after   the   battle   of  -Pydna,    it   seemed   as   if   the  more 
vigorous,  if  harsh,  system  then  initiated  in  Macedon  and 
Greece  was  to  be  adopted  farther  east  also.     The  level- 
ling policy  pursued  towards  Macedon  and  the  Achseans 
was  applied  with  less  justice  to  Rome's  two  faithful  and 
favoured  allies,  Rhodes  and  Pergamum.     The  former  had 
rendered  themselves   obnoxious  to   Rome  by  their  inde- 
pendent tone,  and  still  more  by  their  power  and  commer- 
cial prosperity.     On  a  charge  of  complicity  with  Perseus 
they  were  threatened  with  war,  and  though  this  danger 
was  averted7  they  were  forced  to  exchange  their  equal 
alliance  with  Rome  for  one  which  placed  them  in  close 

1  Livy,  xlv.  31.  a  Livy,  Ejv't.,  Ii.,  lii. 

8  Livy,  Epit.,  Hi.;  Polyb.,  xl.  9  sq.  ;  Pausanias,  vii.  16  ;  Momm- 
sen,  R.  O.,  ii.  47  sq. 

*  Mommsen,  loc.  cit.f  note;  Marquardt,  Rom.  Staatsverw.,  i.  164 
sq. ;  A.  W.  Zumpt,  Commentt.  Epigraph.,  ii.  153. 

8  North  of  the  Drilo,  the  former  kingdom  of  Perseus's  ally  Genthius 
had  been  treated  as  Macedon  was  in  167  (Livy,  xlv.,  26)  ;  cf.  Zippel, 
Rfim.  Herrschaft  in  7Wyrie»,.Leipsic,  1877.  Epirus,  which  had  been 
desolated  after  Pydna  (Livy,  xlv.  34),  went  with  Greece ;  Marquardt, 
i.  164.  «  Mommsen,  R.  O.,  i.  771-780,  ii.  50-67. 

7  Livy,  xlv.  20 ;  Polyb.,  xxx.  5. 


dependence  upon  her,  and  to  resign  the  lucrative  posses- 
sions in  Lycia  and  Caria  given  them  in  189.  Finally,  555. 
their  commercial  prosperity  was  ruined  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  free  port  at  Delos,8  and  by  the  short-sighted 
acquiescence  of  Rome  in  the  raids  of  the  Cretan  pirates. 
With  Eumenes  of  Pergamum  no  other  fault  could  be  found 
than  that  he  was  strong  and  successful;  but  this  was 
enough.  His  brother  Attalus  was  invited,  but  in  vain,  to 
-  become  his  rival.  His  turbulent  neighbours,  the  Galatae, 
were  encouraged  to  harass  him  by  raids.  Pamphylia  was 
declared  independent,  and  favours  were  heaped  upon 
Prusias  of  Bithynia.  These  and  other  annoyances  and 
humiliations  had  the  desired  effect.  Eumenes  and  his 
two  successors — his  brother  and  son,  Attalus  II.  and 
Attalus  III.' — contrived  indeed  by  studious  humility  and 
dexterous  flattery  to  retain  their  thrones,  but  Pergamum 
ceased  to  be  a  powerful  state,  and  its  weakness,  added  to 
that  of  Rhodes,  increased  the  prevalent  disorder  in  Asia 
Minor.  During  the  same  period  we  have  other  indica- 
tions of  a  temporary  activity  on  the  part  of  Rome.  The 
frontier  of  the  protectorate  was  pushed  forward  to  the 
confines  of  Armenia  and  to  the  upper  Euphrates  by  „ 
alliances  with  the  kings  of  Pontus  and  Cappadocia  beyond 
the  Halys.  In  Syria,  on  the  death  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(164),  Rome  intervened  to  place  a  minor,  Antiochus  590. 
Eupator,  on  the  throne,  under  Roman  guardianship.9  In 
168  Egypt  formally  acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  586. 
Rome,10  and  in  163  the  senate,  in  the  exercise  of  this  new  591. 
authority,  restored  Ptolemy  Philometor  to  his  throne,  but 
at  the  same  time  weakened  his  position  by  handing  over 
Gyrene  and  Cyprus  to  his  brother  Euergetes.11 

But  this  display  of  energy  was  short-lived.  From  the 
death  of  Eumenes  in  159  down  to  133  Rome,  secure  595.^ 
in  the  absence  of  any  formidable  power  in  the  East,  and 
busy  with  affairs  in  Macedonia,  Africa,  and  Spain,  relapsed 
into  an  inactivity  the  disastrous  results  of  which  revealed 
themselves  in  the  next  period,  in  the  rise  of  Mithradates 
of  Pontus,  the  spread  of  Cretan  and  Cilician  piracy,  and 
the  advance  of  Parthia.  To  the  next  period  also  belongs 
the  conversion,  on  the  death  of  Attalus  III.,  of  the 
kingdom  of  Pergamum  into  the  Roman  province  of  Asia. 

Both  the  western  and  eastern  Mediterranean  now 
acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  Rome,  but  her  relations 
with  the  two  were  from  the  first  different.  The  West  fell 
to  her  as  the  prize  of  victory  over  Carthage,  and,  the 
Carthaginian  power  broken,  there  was  no  hindrance  to  the 
immediate  establishment  in  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Spain,  and 
finally  in  Africa,  of  direct  Roman  rule.  To  the  majority, 
moreover,  of  her  Western  subjects  she  brought  a  civilization 
as  well  as  a  government  of  a  higher  type  than  any  before 
known  to  them.  And  so  in  the  West  she  not  only  formed 
provinces  but  created  a  new  and  wider  Roman  world. 
To  the  east,  on  the  contrary,  she  came  as  the  liberator  of 
the  Greeks ;  and  it  was  only  slowly  that  in  this  part  of 
the  empire  her  provincial  system  made  way.  In  the  East, 
moreover,  the  older  civilization  she  found  there  obstinately 
held  its  ground.  Her  proconsuls  governed  and  her  legions 
protected  the  Greek  communities,  but  to  the  last  the  East 
remained  in  language,  manners,  and  thought  Greek  and 
not  Roman. 

PERIOD  III.:  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  REVOLUTION  (146-49  608- 
B.C.). — In  the  course  of  little  more  than  a  century,  Rome 
had  become  the  supreme  power  in  the  civilized  world.    By 
all  men,  says  Polybius,  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  nothing 
remained  but  to  obey  the  commands  of  the  Romans.12    For 


8  Polyb. ,  xxxi.  7.     The  Rhodian  harbour  dues  suffered  severely. 

9  Rome  had  already  intervened  between  Syria  and  Egypt ;   Livy, 
xlv.  12;  Polyb.,  xxix.  11,  xxxi.  12. 

10  Livy,   xiv.    13,    "Regui   maximum  praesidium   in  fide    populi 
Romani."  u  Livy,  Epit.,  xlvi.,  xlvii. 

18  Polyb..  iii.  4. 


CONSTITUTIONAL   CHANGES.] 


ROME 


755 


0)3, 

•-6 
u>8 


; 


the  future  the  interest  of  Roman  history  centres  in  her 
attempts  to  perform  the  two  Herculean  tasks  which  this 
unique  position  laid  upon  her, — the  efficient  government 
of  the  subject  peoples,  and  their  defence  against  the  bar- 
barian races  which  swarmed  around  them  on  all  sides. 
They  were  tasks  under  which  the  old  republican  constitu- 
tion broke  down,  and  which  finally  overtaxed  the  strength 
even  of  the  marvellous  organization  framed  and  elaborated 
by  Augustus  and  his  successors. 

At  the  outset  the  difficulties  of  Rome  were  increased  by 
the  rapidity  with  which  her  new  duties  came  upon  her. 
From  a  century,  first  of  deadly  struggle,  and  then  of 
dazzlingly  easy  success,  she  emerged  to  find  herself  called 
upon  to  govern  a  world  with  the  primitive  machinery  of  a 
small  city  state,  and  to  deal  with  new  and  complicated  ad- 
ministrative problems  which  she  had  as  yet  had  no  leisure 
to  study.  Nor  was  it  until  her  own  political  system  had 
been  remodelled  that  she  was  able  to  deal  effectively  with 
the  government  of  the  empire  at  large.  During  the  period 
which  has  now  to  be  considered,  the  period  of  the  so-called 
Revolution,  but  little  advance  was  made  towards  a  better 
imperial  organization,  and  that  little  was  made  by  men 
who,  like  Caesar  and  Pompey,  belonged,  both  in  the 
methods  and  aims  of  their  policy  and  in  the  position  they 
held,  to  the  empire  rather  than  to  the  republic. 

Although  in  its  outward  form  the  old  constitution  had 
undergone  little  change  during  the  age  of  war  and  con- 
_  quest  from  265  to  146, l  the  causes,  both  internal  and 
*  external,"  which  brought  about  its  fall  had  been  silently 
at  work  throughout.  Its  form  was  in  strictness  that 
of  a  moderate  democracy.  The  patriciate  had  ceased  to 
exist  as  a  privileged  caste,2  and  there  was  no  longer  any 
order  of  nobility  recognized  by  the  constitution.  The 
senate  and  the  offices  of  state  were  in  law  open  to  all,3 
and  the  will  of  the  people  in  their  comitia  had  been  in 
the  most  explicit  and  unqualified  manner  declared  to  be 
supreme  alike  in  the  election  of  magistrates,  in  the  passing 
of  laws,  and  in  all  matters  touching  the  "  caput "  of  a 
Roman  citizen.  But  in  practice  the  constitution  had 
become  an  oligarchy.  The  senate,  not  the  assembly,  ruled 
Rome,  and  both  the  senate  and  the  magistracies  were  in 
the  hands  of  a  class  which,  in  defiance  of  the  law,  arrogated 
to  itself  the  title  and  the  privileges  of  a  nobility.4  The 
ascendency  of  the  senate  is  too  obvious  and  familiar  a  fact 
to  need  much  illustration  here.  It  is  but  rarely  that  the 
assembly  was  called  upon  to  decide  questions  of  policy, 
and  then  the  proposal  was  usually  made  by  the  magistrate 
in  obedience  to  the  express  directions  of  the  senate.5  In 
the  enormous  majority  of  cases  the  matter  was  settled  by 
a  senatus  consultum,  without  any  reference  to  the  people 
at  all.  The  assembly  decides  for  war  or  peace6,  but  the 
conduct  of  the  war  and  the  conditions  of  peace  are  matters 
left  to  the  senate.  Now  and  then  the  assembly  confers  a 

1  The  most  important  change  was  the  assimilation  of  the  division 
by  classes  and  centuries  with  that  by  tribes,  a  change  effected  appa- 
rently by  the  censors  in  their  revision  of  the  register,  and  probably 
effeeteti  gradually.     For  a  full  discussion  of  the  point,  see  Mommsen, 
R.  G.,  i.  818  ;  Lange,  Rom.  Alterth.,  ii.  463  (where  the  literature  is 
given)  ;    Madvig,  Verf.  d.  Rom.  ReicJis,  i.  117.      A  second  constitu- 
tional question  was  the  franchise  of  the  freedmeh  ;   see  Nitzsci,  Die 
Gracchen,  132  (Berlin,  1847) 

2  A  few  offices  of  a  more  or  less  priestly  character  were  still  filled 
only  by  patricians,  e.g. ,  rex  sacrorum,  flamen  Dialis.     A  plebeian  first 
became  "curio  maximus"  in  209  (545  A.U.C.);  Livy,  xxvii.   8;  see 
Mommsen,  Rom.  borsch.,  i.  77-127. 

3  The    "  lectio    senatus "    was   in   the  hands  of  the    censors,  but 
whether  before  Sulla's  time  their  choice  was  subject  to  legal  restric- 
tfons  is  doubtful.     Cf.  Cicero  Pro  Sestio,  65,  "  Deligerentur  in  id 
consilium  ab  universo  populo." 

4  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i.  781  sq. ;  J^ange,  Rom.  Alterth.,  ii. 

"  Ex   auctoritate   senatus. "     The  lex   Flamiuia   agraria  of  232 
was  an  exception,  Cic.  De-Senect.,  4  ;  Polyb.,  ii.  21. 
6  Livy,  xxxi.  5,  xxxiii.  25,  xxxvii.  55. 


command  upon  the  man  of  its  choice,  or  prolongs  the 
imperium  of  a  magistrate,7  but,  as  a  rule,  these  and  all 
questions  connected  with  foreign  affairs  are  settled  within 
the  walls  of  the  senate  house.  It  is  the  senate  which 
year  after  year  assigns  the  commands  and  fixes  the  number 
and  disposition  of  the  military  forces,8  directs  the  organ- 
ization of  a  new  province,9  conducts  negotiations,  and 
forms  alliances.  Within  Italy,  though  its  control  of 
affairs  was  less  exclusive,  we  find  that,  besides  supervis- 
ing the  ordinary  current  business  of  administration,  the 
senate  decides  questions  connected  with  the  Italian  allies, 
sends  out  colonies,  allots  lands,  and  directs  the  suppres- 
sion of  disorders.  Lastly,  both  in  Italy  and  abroad  it 
managed  the  finances.10  Inseparably  connected  with  this 
monopoly  of  affairs  to  the  exclusion  of  the  assembly  was 
the  control  which  in  practice,  if  not  in  theory,  the  senate 
exercised  over  the  magistrates.  The  latter  had  become 
what  Cicero  wrongly  declares  they  were  always  meant  to 
be,  merely  the  subordinate  ministers  of  the  supreme 
council,11  which  assigned  them  their  departments,  provided 
them  with  the  necessary  equipment,  claimed  to  direct 
their  conduct,  prolonged  their  commands,  and  rewarded 
them  with  triumphs.  It  was  now  at  once  the  duty  and 
the  interest  of  a  magistrate  to  be  "  in  auctoritate  senatus," 
"  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  senate,"  and  even  the  once 
formidable  "tribuni  plebis"  are  found  during  this  period 
actively  and  loyally  supporting  the  senate,  and  acting  as 
its  spokesmen  in  the  assembly.12 

The  causes  of  this  ascendency  of  the  senate  are  not  to  Its  causes 
be  found  in  any  additions  made  by  law  to  its  constitu- 
tional prerogatives,  but  first  of  all  in  the  fact  that  the 
senate  was  the  only  body  capable  of  conducting  affairs  in 
an  age  of  incessant  war.  The  voters  in  the  assembly,  a 
numerous,  widely  scattered  body,  many  of  whom  were 
always  away  with  the  legions  abroad,  could  not  readily  be 
called  together,  and  when  assembled  were  very  imper- 
fectly qualified  to  decide  momentous  questions  of  military 
strategy  and  foreign  policy.  The  senate,  on  the  contrary, 
could  be  summoned  in  a  moment,13  and  included  in  its 
ranks  all  the  skilled  statesmen  and  soldiers  of  the  common- 
wealth, while  its  forms  of  procedure  were  at  least  better 
fitted  than  those  of  the  comitia  for  securing  the  careful 
discussion  and  prompt  decision  of  the  question  before  it. 
The  subordination  of  the  magistrates  was  equally  the 
result  of  circumstances,  though  it  suited  the  senatorial 
advocates  of  a  later  day  to  represent  it  as  an  original  prin- 
ciple of  the  constitution,  and  though  it  was  encouraged  and 
confirmed  by  the  policy  of  the  senate  itself.14  For,  as  the 
numbers  of  the  magistrates,  and  also  the  area  of  govern- 
ment, increased,  some  central  controlling  power  became 
absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  collisions  between  rival 
authorities,  and  to  secure  a  proper  division  of  labour,  as 
well  as  to  enforce  the  necessary  concert  and  co-operation,15 
nor  could  such  a  power  be  found  anywhere  in  the  repub- 
lican system  but  in  the  senate,  standing  as  it  necessarily 
did  in  the  closest  relations  with  the  magistrate,  and  com- 
posed as  it  was  increasingly  of  men  who  were  or  had  been 
in  office. 

Once  more,  behind  both  senate  and  magistrates  lay  the  The 
, . — — "nobiles. 

7  Livy,  xxix.  40,  xxx.  27,  41,  xxxi.  50. 

8  Livy,  xxvi.  1,  "  consules  de  republica,  de  administratione  belli, 
ae  provinciis  exercitibusque  patres  consuluerunt." 

9  Livy,  xlv.  18. 

10  Ihne,  R.  G.,  iv.  43  ;  Polyb.,  vi.  13. 

11  Pro  Sestio,  65,  "quasi  ministros  gravissimi  consilii." 

12  Livy,  xxvii.  5,  xxviii.  45. 

13  Livy,  xxii.  7;  in  191  the  senators  were  forbidden  to  leave  Rome 
for  more  than  a  day.     Nor  were  more  than  five  to  be  absent  at  once  j 
Livy,  xxxvi.  3. 

14  E.g.,  the  abandonment  of  the  dictatorship  and  the  growing  infre- 
quency  of  re-electioa  after  the  Second  Punic  War. 

15  Livy,  xxvii.  35 ;  xxxv.  42,  48. 


756 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


whole  power  and  influence  of  the  new  nobility.1  These 
"  nobiles  "  are  essentially  distinct  from  the  older  and  more 
legitimate  patrician  aristocracy.  Every  patrician  was  of 
course  noble,  but  the  majority  of  the  "  noble  families  "  in 
>8.  146  were  not  patrician  but  plebeian.2  The  title  had  been 
gradually  appropriated,  since  the  opening  of  the  magistra- 
cies, by  those  families  whose  members  had  held  curule 
office,  and  had  thereby  acquired  the  "jus  imaginum."  It 
was  thus  in  theory  within  the  reach  of  any  citizen  who 
could  win  election  even  to  the  curule  ajdileship,  and,  more- 
over, it  carried  with  it  no  legal  privileges  whatsoever. 
Gradually,  however,  the  ennobled  plebeian  families  drew 
together,  and  combined  with  the  older  patrician  gentes  to 
form  a  distinct  order.  Office  brought  wealth  and  prestige, 
and  both  wealth  and  prestige  were  liberally  employed  in 
securing  for  this  select  circle  a  monopoly  of  political 
power,  and  excluding  new  men.3  Already  by  the  close  01 
the  period  it  is  rare  for  any  one  but  a  noble  to  find  his 
way  into  high  office  or  into  the  senate.  The  senate  and 
magistrates  are  the  mouthpieces  of  this  order,  and  are 
identified  with  it  in  policy  and  interest.  Lastly,  it  must 
be  allowed  that  both  the  senate  and  the  nobility  had  to 
some  extent  justified  their  power  by  the  use  they  made  of 
it.  It  was  their  tenacity  of  purpose  and  devoted  patriot- 
ism which  had  carried  Rome  through  the  dark  days  of 
the  Hannibalic  war.  The  heroes  of  the  struggle  with 
Carthage  belonged  to  the  leading  families ;  the  disasters  at 
the  Trasimene  Lake  and  at  Cannse  were  associated  with 
the  blunders  of  popular  favourites. 

eakness  From  the  first  however,  there  was  an  inherent  weak- 
tha  ness  in  this  senatorial  government.  It  had  no  sound  con- 
rial  stitutional  basis,  and  with  the  removal  of  its  accidental 
vern-  supports  it  fell  to  the  ground.  Legally  the  senate  had  no 
3nt.  positive  authority.  It  could  merely  advise  the  magistrate 
when  asked  to  do  so,  and  its  decrees  were  strictly  only 
suggestions  to  the  magistrate,  which  he  was  at  liberty  to 
accept  or  reject  as  he  chose.4  It  had  it  is  true  become 
customary  for  the  magistrate  not  only  to  ask  the  senate's 
advice  on  all  important  points,  but  to  follow  it  when  given. 
But  it  was  obvious  that  if  this  custom  were  weakened, 
and  the  magistrates  chose  to  act  independently,  the  senate 
was  powerless.  It  might  indeed  anathematize 5  the  re- 
fractory official,  or  hamper  him  if  it  could  by  setting  in 
motion  against  him  a  colleague  or  the  tribunes,  but  it 
could  do  no  more,  and  these  measures,  though  as  a  rule 
effective  in  the  case  of  magistrates  stationed  in  Rome, 
failed  just  where  the  senate's  control  was  most  needed  and 
most  difficult  to  maintain — in  its  relations  with  the  generals 
and  governors  of  provinces  abroad.  The  virtual  independ- 
)8.  ence  of  the  proconsul  was  before  146  already  exciting  the 
jealousy  of  the  senate  and  endangering  its  supremacy.** 
Nor  again  had  the  senate  any  legal  hold  over  the  assembly. 
Except  in  certain  specified  cases,  it  rested  with  the  magis- 
trate to  decide  whether  any  question  should  be  settled  by 
a  decree  of  the  senate  or  a  vote  of  the  assembly.7  If  he 

1  Moinxnsen,  H.  O. ,  i.  782  sq. 

2  E.g. ,  Livii,  Sempronii,  Ciecilii,  Licinii,  &c. 

8  Livy,  xxii.  34,  "  plebeios  nobiles  .  .  .  contemiiere  plebem,  ex  quo 
contemn!  a  patribus  desierint,  coepisse";  cf.  Sail. ,  Jug. ,  41,  "paucorum 
arbitrio  belli  domique  agitabatur  penes  eosdeni  aerarium,  provinciae, 
magistratus. "  Mommsen,  JR.  G.,  i.  792,  793.  The  number  of  new 
families  ennobled  dwindles  rapidly  after  200  B.C.  ;  Willems,  Le  Senat 
de  la  RSpublique  Romaine,  i.  366  sq.  (Paris,  1878). 

4  The  senators'  whole  duty  is  "  seutentiam  dicere. "  The  senator 
was  asked  "  quid  censes  ?"  the  assembly  "  quid  velitis  jubeatis?"  Cf. 
also  the  saving  clause,  "Si  eis  videretur"  (sc.  consulibus,  &c.)  in 
Seta.,  e.g.,  Cic.,  Phil.,  v.  19. 

8  By  declaring  his  action  to  be  "  contra  rempublicam. "  The 
force  of  this  anathema  varied  with  circumstances.  It  had  no  legal 
value. 

6  Livy,  xxxviii.  42,  of  Cn.  Manlius  Vulso  in  Asia,  189  B.C.;  cf. 
also  the  position  of  the  two  Scipios. 

*  Hence  the  same  things,  e.g.,  founding  of  colonies,  are  done  in  one 


decided  to  make  a  proposal  to  the  assembly,  he  was  not 
bound  except  by  custom  to  obtain  the  previous  approval 
of  the  senate,  and  s  the  constitution  set  no  limits  to  the 
power  of  the  assembly  to  decide  any  question  whatsoever 
that  was  laid  before  it.  The  right  of  the  people  to  govern 
was  still  valid,  and  though  it  had  long  lain  dormant  any 
year  might  see  a  magistrate  in  office  resolved  on  recalling 
the  people  to  a  larger  share  in  the  conduct  of  affairs  by 
consulting  them  rather  than  the  senate,  and  an  assembly 
bent  on  the  exercise  of  its  lawful  prerogatives. 

And  from  167  at  least,  onwards,  there  were  increasng 
indications  that  both  the  acquiescence  of  the  people  and 
the  loyalty  of  the  magistrates  were  failing.  The  absorb- 
ing excitement  of  the  great  wars  had  died  away;  the 
economic  and  social  disturbance  and  distress  which  they 
produced  were  creating  a  growing  feeling  of  discontent; 
and  at  the  same  time  the  senate  provoked  inquiries  into 
its  title  to  govern  by  its  failure  any  longer  to  govern  well. 
In  the  East  there  was  growing  confusion  ;  in  the  West  a 
single  native  chieftain  defied  the  power  which  had  crushed 
Carthage.  At  home  the  senate  was  becoming  more  and 
more  simply  an  organ  of  the  nobility,  and  the  nobility 
were  becoming  every  year  more  exclusive,  more  selfish, 
and  less  capable  and  unanimous.9 

But  if  the  senate  was  not  to  govern,  the  difficulty  arose 
of  finding  an  efficient  substitute,  and  it  was  this  difficulty 
that  mainly  determined  the  issue  of  the  struggles  which 
convulsed  Rome  from  133  to  49.  As  the  event  showed,  62 
neither  the  assembly  nor  the  numerous  and  disorganized 
magistracy  were  equal  to  the  work  ;  the  latter  were  gradu- 
ally pushed  aside  in  favour  of  a  more  centralized  authority, 
and  the  former  became  only  the  means  by  which  this  new 
authority  was  first  encouraged  in  opposition  to  the.  senate 
and  finally  established  in  a  position  of  impregnable 
strength.  The  assembly  which  made  Pompey  and  Ctesar 
found  out  too  late  that  it  could  not  unmake  them. 

It  is  possible  that  these  constitutional  and  administra- 
tive difficulties  would  not  have  proved  so  rapidly  fatal  to 
the  republic  had  not  its  very  foundations  been  sapped 
by  the  changes  which  followed  more  or  less  directly  on 
the  conquest  of  the  world.  These  changes  can  only  be 
glanced  at  here.  Civic  equality  and  solidarity  were  alike 
destroyed  by  the  concentration  of  wealth  in  a  few  hands, 
the  disappearance  of  the  small  independent  freeholder, 
and  the  growing  numbers  of  freedmen  and  clients.  The 
Roman  community  became  not  only  unmanageably  large, 
but  hopelessly  divided  by  class  distinctions  and  interests, 
and  wide  differences  in  habits  of  life  and  modes  of 
thought.  The  old  traditions,  beliefs,  and  usages  insepar- 
ably connected  with  the  republican  regime,  and  essential 
to  its  continuance,  lost  ground  daily  before  the  incoming 
flood  of  new  fashions,  intellectual  and  social,  from  Greece 
and  the  East.  Before  the  republic  fell,  Roman  society 
was  already  in  structure,  temper,  and  mind  thoroughly 
unrepublican. 

The  first  systematic  attack  upon  the  senatorial  govern-  The 
ment  is  connected  with  the  names  of  Tiberius  and  Gaius  0»* 
Gracchus,  and  its  immediate  occasion  was  an  attempt  to 
deal  with  no  less  a  danger  than  the  threatened  disappear- 
ance of  the  class  to  which  of  all  others  Rome  owed  most 


year  by  a  Sctum.,  in  another  by  a  "  lex  "  ;  cf.  Cic.  De  Rep.,  ii.  32 ; 
Phil.,  i.  2,  of  Antony  as  consul,  "mutata  omuia,  uihil  per  senatum, 
omnia  per  populum." 

8  There  was  no  legal  necessity,  before  Sulla's  time,  for  getting  the 
"  senatus  auctoritas  "  for  a  proposal  to  the  assembly. 

9  See  generally  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  i.  bk.  iii.  cap.  6  ;  Lange,  Rom. 
Alterth.,  vol.  ii. ;  Ihne,  v.  cap.  i.     The  first  law  against  bribery  at 
elections  was  passed  in  181  B.C.  (Livy,  xl.  20),  and  against  magisterial 
extortion  in  the  provinces  in  149  (Lex  Calpurnia  de  pecuniis  repe- 
tundis).     The   senators   had  special   seats   allotted  to   them  in  the 
theatre  in  194  B.C.;  Livy,  xxxiv.  44,  54. 


THE   GRACCEII.] 


ROME 


in  the  past.1  For,  while  Rome  had  been  extending  her 
sway  westward  and  eastward,  while  the  treasury  had 
been  enriched,  and  while  her  nobles  and  merchants  were 
amassing  colossal  fortunes  abroad,  the  small  freeholders 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  Italy  were  sinking  deeper 
into  ruin  under  the  pressure  of  accumulated  difficulties. 
The  Hannibalic  war  had  laid  waste  their  fields  and 
thinned  their  numbers,  and  when  peace  returned  to  Italy 
it  brought  with  it  no  revival  of  prosperity.  The  heavy 
burden  of  military  service  still  pressed  ruinously  upon 
them,2  and  in  addition  they  were  called  upon  to  compete 
with  the  foreign  corn  imported  from  beyond  the  sea,3  and 
with  the  foreign  slave-labour  purchased  by  the  capital  of 
wealthier  men.  Farming  became  unprofitable,  and  the 
hard  laborious  life  with  its  scanty  returns  was  thrown 
into  still  darker  relief  .when  compared  with  the  stirring  life 
of  the  camps  with  its  opportunities  of  booty,  or  with  the 
cheap  provisions,  frequent  largesses,  and  gay  spectacles  to 
be  had  in  the  large  towns.  The  small  holders  went  off  to 
follow  the  eagles  or  swell  the  proletariate  of  the  cities, 
and  their  holdings  were  left  to  run  waste  or  merged  in 
the  vineyards,  oliveyards,  and  above  all  in  the  great  cattle- 
farms,  of  the  rich,  and  their  own  place  was  taken  by 
slaves.  The  evil  was  not  equally  serious  in  all  parts  of 
Italy.  It  was  least  felt  in  the  central  highlands,  in 
Campania,  and  in  the  newly  settled  fertile  valley  of  the 
Po.  It  was  worst  in  Etruria  and  in  southern  Italy  ;  but 
everywhere  it  was  serious  enough  to  demand  the  earnest 
attention  of  Roman  statesmen.  Of  its  existence  the 
government  had  received  plenty  of  warning  in  the  de- 
clining numbers  of  able-bodied  males  returned  at  the 
census,4  in  the  increasing  difficulties  of  recruiting  for  the 
legions,5  in  servile  outbreaks  in  Etruria  and  Apulia,6  and 
between  200  and  160  a  good  deal  was  attempted  by  way 
of  remedy.  In  addition  to  the  foundation  of  twenty 
colonies,"  there  were  frequent  allotments  of  land  to 
veteran  soldiers,  especially  in  Apulia  and  Samnium.8  In 
180  40,000  Ligurians  were  removed  from  their  homes 
and  settled  on  vacant  lands  once  the  property  of  a 
Samnite  tribe,9  and  in  160  the  Pomptine  marshes  were 
drained  for  the  purpose  of  cultivation.10  But  these  efforts 
were  only  partially  successful.  The  colonies  planted  in 
Cisalpine  Gaul  and  in  Picenum  flourished,  but  of  the 
others  the  majority  slowly  dwindled  away,  and  two  re- 
quired recolonizing  only  eight  years  after  their  foundation.11 
The  veterans  who  received  land  were  unfitted  to  make 
good  farmers  ;  and  large  numbers,  on  the  first  opportunity, 
gladly  returned  as  volunteers  to  a  soldier's  life.  More- 
over, after  160  even  these  efforts  ceased,  and  with  the 
single  exception  of  the  colony  of  Auximum  in  Picenum 
(157)  nothing  was  done  to  check  the  spread  of  the  evil, 
until  in  133  Tiberius  Gracchus,  on  his  election  to  the 
tribunate,  set  his  hand  to  the  work. 

The  remedy  proposed  by  Gracchus 12  amounted  in  effect 

1  Mommsen,  i.  bk.  iii.  cap.  12,  bk.  iv.   cap.  2  ;  Ihne,  iv.  173  sq., 
v.    1-25  ;   Nitzsch,   Die  Gracchen  ;   Long,    Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Republic ;  Beesly,  The  Gracchi,  Marius,  and  Sulla. 

2  To  Spain  alone  more  than  150,000  men  were  sent  between  196 
and  169  (Ihne,  iii.   319)  ;  compare  the  reluctance  of  the  people  to 
declare  war  against  Macedon  in  200  B.C.,  and  also  the  case  of  Spurius 
Ligustinus  in  171  (Livy,  xlii.  34). 

3  Mommsen,  i.  837  sq.     Ihne,  v.  16,  thinks  that  Mommsen  has 
exaggerated  the  depressing  effects  of  foreign  competition,  but  hardly 
makes  out  his  case.  4  Beloch,  Ital.  Bund,  80  sq. 

5  Livy,  xliii.  14  ;  Epit,,  xlviii.,  Iv.  During  the  period  the  minimum 
qualification  for  service  in  the  legion  was  reduced  from  11,000  to 
4000  asses.  6  Livy,  xxxii.  26,  xxxiii.  36,  xxxix.  29,  41. 

7  Sixteen  Roman  and  four  Latin  colonies.  See  Marquardt,  Staats- 
vcrw.,  i.  a  E-g^  Livv>  xxxi  4)  12>  39)  xxxii  i 

9  Livy,  xl.  38.  10  Livy,  Epit.,  xlvi. 

11  Sipontum  and  Buxentum  in  186  ;  Livy,  xxxix.  23. 

12  Plut.,  T.  G.,  9-14  ;  Appian,  B.  C.,  i.  9-13  ;  Livy,  Epit.,  Iviii.; 
Cic.,  L.  Ayr.,  ii.  31.     Compare  also  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  ii.  68  sq. ; 


to  the  resumption  by  the  state  of  as  much  of  the  Tiberius 
"  common  land  "  as  was  not  held  in  occupation  by  author-  Gracchus, 
ized  persons  and  conformably  to  the  provisions  of  the 
Licinian  law.  Unauthorized  occupiers  were  to  be  evicted  ; 
in  other  cases  the  occupation  was  reduced  to  a  maximum 
size  of  1000  acres;13  the  public  pastures  were  reclaimed 
for  agriculture.14  And  the  land  thus  rescued  for  the  com- 
munity from  the  monopoly  of  a  few  was  to  be  distributed 
in  allotments.15  It  was  a  scheme  which  could  quote  in  its 
favour  ancient  precedent  as  well  as  urgent  necessity.  Of 
the  causes  which  led  to  its  ultimate  failure  something 
will  be  said  later  on  ;  for  the  present  we  must  turn  to  the 
constitutional  conflict  which  it  provoked.  The  senate 
from  the  first  identified  itself  with  the  interests  of  the 
wealthy  occupiers,  and  Tiberius  found  himself  forced  into 
a  struggle  with  the  senate,  which  had  been  no  part  of  his 
original  plan.  He  fell  back  on  the  legislative  sovereignty 
of  the  assembly  ;  he  resuscitated  the  half-forgotten  powers 
of  interference  vested  in  the  tribunate  in  order  to  paralyse 
the  action  of-  the  senatorial  magistrates,  and  finally  lost 
his  life  in  an  attempt  to  make  good  one  of  the  weak 
points  in  the  tribune's  position  by  securing  his  own  re-elec- 
tion for  a  second  year.  But  the  conflict  did  not  end  with 
his  death.  It  was  renewed  on  a  wider  scale,  and  with  a 
more  deliberate  aim  by  his  brother  Gains,  who  on  his  Gains 
election  to  the  tribunate  (123)  at  once  came  forward  as  Graeehm 
the  avowed  enemy  of  the  senate.  The  latter  suddenly  631. 
found  its  control  of  the  administration  threatened  at  a 
variety  of  points.  On  the  invitation  of  the  popular 
tribune  the  assembly  proceeded  to  restrict  the  senate's 
freedom  of  action  in  assigning  the  provinces.16  It  regu- 
lated the  taxation  of  the  province  of  Asia 17  and  altered  the 
conditions  of  military  service.18  In  home  affairs  it  inflicted 
two  serious  blows  on  the  senate's  authority  by  declaring 
the  summary  punishment  of  Roman  citizens  by  the  con- 
suls on  the  strength  of  a  senatus  consultum  to  be  a  viola- 
tion of  the  law  of  appeal,19  and  by  taking  out  of  the 
senate's  hands  the  control  of  the  newly  established  court 
for  the  trial  of  cases  of  magisterial  misgovernment  in  the 
provinces.20  Tiberius  had  committed  the  mistake  of  rely- 
ing too  exclusively  on  the  support  of  one  section  only  of 
the  community ;  his  brother  endeavoured  to  enlfet  on 
the  popular  side  every  available  ally.  The  Latins  and 
Italians  had  opposed  an  agrarian  scheme  which  took  from 
them  land  which  they  had  come  to  regard  as  rightfully 
theirs,  and  gave  them  no  share  in  the  benefit  of  the  allot- 
ments.21 Gaius  not  only  removed  this  latter  grievance,2- 
but  ardently  supported  and  himself  brought  forward  the 
first  proposals  made  in  Rome  for  their  enfranchisement.23 

Ihne,  v.  25  ;  Marquardt,  Rom.  Staatsverw. ,  i.  437  sq. ;  Lange,  Rom. 
Alterth.,  iii.  8  sq. ;  Nitzsch,  Gracchen,  294;  Bureau  de  la  Malle, 
Econ.  politique  des  Remains,  ii.  280. 

13  Or  possibly   750  ;  it  was  in   excess  of  the  limit  fixed  by  the 
Licinian  law;  App.,  B.  C.,  i.  9. 

14  Compare  the  inscription  of  Popillius  Laenas,  consul  132,  C.  I.  L., 
i.  551  ;  Wordsworth,  Fragments  of  Early  Latin,  p.  221. 

15  The  allotments  were  to  be  inalienable,   and  were  charged  with 
payment  of  a  quit-rent.     App.,  B.  C.,  i.  10  ;  Pint.,  C.  G.,  9.     Their 
size   is  not  stated.     It  is  doubtful  if   the  thirty  jugera  held    "  agri 
colendi  causa"  (compare  the  lex  agraria,  111  B.C.)  refer  to  the  Sempro- 
nian  allotments.     See  C.  I.  L.,  i.  200,  and  Mommsen's  notes. 

16  Lex  Sempronia  de  provinciis  consularibus ;  Cic.  Pro  Domo,  9; 
De  Prov.  Cons.,  2,  7  ;  Sallust,  Jug.,  27. 

17  Lex  de  provincia  Asia;  Cic.  Verr.,  3,  6  ;  Fronto  Ad  Ver.,  ii.  p. 
125.  18  Plut.,  C.  G.,  5  ;  Diod.,  xxxiv.  25. 

19  Plut.,  C.  G.,  4  ;  Cic.  Pro  Domo,  31  ;  Pro  Rab.  Perd.,  4. 

20  Quasstio  de  repetundis,  est.  149  B.C.     See  Plut.,  C.  G.,  5  ;  Livy, 
Epit.,    Ix. ;  Tac.,   Ann.,    xii.    60;  App.,    B.    C.,    i.    21.     For  the 
kindred  lex  Acilia,  see  C.  I.  L.,  i.  198  ;   Wordsworth,  Fragm.,  424. 

21  They  had  succeeded  in  129  in  suspending  the  operations  of  the 
agrarian    commission.     App.,  B.   C.,  i.  18  ;   Livy,  Epit.,    lix.;  Cic. 
De  Rep.,  iii.  41 ;  cf.  Lex  Agraria,  line  81 ;  C.  /.  L.,  i.  200. 

22  Lange,  R.  A.,  iii.  32  ;  Lex  Agr.,  lines  3,  15,  21. 

23  The  rogatio  Fulvia,  125  B.C. ;  Val.  Max.,  ix.  5, 1;  App., B.  C.,  i.  21. 


ROME 


[HISTOE 


ilure 

the 

;emptat 

rarian 

'orm. 

6. 

3. 


trius, 
8-100  = 
6-654. 


The  indifference  of  the  city  populace,  to  whom  the  pro- 
spect of  small  holdings  iu  a  remote  district  of  Italy  was 
not  a  tempting  one,  was  overcome  by  the  establishment  of 
regular  monthly  doles  of  corn  at  a  low  price.1  Finally,  the 
men  of  business — the  publicans,  merchants,  and  money- 
lenders— were  conciliated  by  the  privilege  granted  to  them 
of  collecting  the  tithes  of  the  new  province  of  Asia,  and 
placed  jn  direct  rivalry  with  the  senate  by  the  substitution 
of  men  of  their  own  class  as  judges  in  the  "  quaestio  de 
repetundis,"  in  place  of  senators.2  The  organizer  of  this 
concerted  attack  upon  the  position  of  the  senate  fell,  like 
his  brother,  in  a  riot. 

The  agrarian  reforms  of  the  two  Gracchi  had  little  per- 
manent effect.3  Even  in  the  lifetime  of  Gaius  the  clause 
in  his  brother's  law  rendering  the  new  holdings  inalienable 
was  repealed,  and  the  process  of  absorption  recommenced.* 
In  118  a  stop  was  put  to  further  allotment  of  occupied 
lands,5  and  finally,  in  111,  the  whole  position  of  the  agra- 
rian question  was  altered  by  a  law  which  converted  all 
land  still  held  in  occupation  into  private  land.6  The  old 
controversy  as  to  the  proper  use  of  the  lands  of  the  com- 
munity was  closed  by  this  act  of  alienation.  The  contro- 
versy in  future  turns,  not  on  the  right  of  the  poor  citizens 
to  the  state  lands,  but  on  the  expediency  of  purchasing 
other  lands  for  distribution  at  the  cost  of  the  treasury.7 

But,  though  the  agrarian  reform  failed,  the  political 
conflict  it  had  provoked  ended  only  with  the  dictatorship 
of  Caesar,  and  the  lines  on  which  it  was  waged  were  in 
the  main  those  laid  down  by  Gaius  Gracchus.  The  sover- 
eignty of  the  assembly  continued  to  be  the  watchword  of 
the  popular  party,  and  a  free  use  of  the  tribunician 
powers  of  interference  and  of  legislation  remained  the 
most  effective  means  of  giving  effect  to  their  aims.  At 
the  same  time  the  careers  of  both  Tiberius  and  Gaius  had 
illustrated  the  weak  points  of  their  position, — the  un- 
certain temper  and  varying  composition  of  the  assembly, 
the  limited  tenure  of  office  enjoyed  by  the  tribunes8  and 
the  possibility  of  disunion  in  their  own  body,  and,  lastly,  the 
difficulty  of  keeping  together  the  divergent  interests  which 
Gaius  had  for  a  moment  united  in  hostility  to  the  senate. 

Ten  years  after  the  death  of  Gaius  the  populares  once 
more  summoned  up  courage  to  challenge  the  supremacy  of 
the  senate ;  and  it  is  important  as  marking  a  step  in 
advance  that  it  was  on  a  question  not  of  domestic-  reform 
but  of  foreign  administration  that  the  conflict  was  renewed. 
The  course  of  affairs  in  the  client  state  of  Numidia  since 
Micipsa's  death  in  118  had  been  such  as  to  discredit  a 
stronger  government  than  that  of  the  senate.9  In  open 
defiance  of  Roman  authority,  and  relying  on  the  influence 
of  his  own  well-spent  gold,  Jugurtha  had  murdered  both 
his  legitimate  rivals,  Hiempsal  and  Adherbal,  and  made 
himself  master  of  Numidia.  The  declaration  of  war 


Plut.,  C.  G.,  5  ;  App.,  i.  21  ;  Livy,  Epit.,  Ix. ;  Festus,  290. 

2  Hence  Gaius  ranked  as  the  founder  of  the  equestrian  order.    Plin. , 
N.  If.,  xxxiii.  84,  "judicum  appellatione  separate  eum  ordinem  .  . 
instituere   Gracchi;"   Varro  ap.    Non.,    454,    "bicipitem  civitatem 
fecit." 

3  Traces  of  the  work  of  the  commission  survive  in  the  Miliarium 
Popiliannm,  C.  /.  L.,  i.  551,  in  a  few  Gracchan  "termini,"  ib.,  552, 
553,  554,  555,  in  the  "limites  Gracchani,"  Liber  Colon..,  ed.  Lach- 
mann,  pp.  209,  210,  211,  229,  &c.     Compare  also  the  rise  in  the 
numbers  of  the  census  of  125  B.C. ;  Livy,  Epit.,  Ix. 

4  Lex  Minucia,  121  B.C.;  App.,  i.  27  ;  Oros.,  v.  12  ;  Festus,  201. 
6  The   so-called  lex  Thoria  ;   App.,  i.  27  ;   Cic.    Brut.,   36  ;  cf. 

Wordsworth,  Fragm.,  441. 

6  The  "lex  agraria,"  still  extant  in  a  fragmentary  condition  in  the 
museum  at  Naples.     See  Mommsen,  C.  I.  L.,  i.  200  ;  Wordsworth, 
441  sq. ;  Bruns,  Fontes  Juris  Rom.,  54-67  ;  App.,  i.  27. 

7  Cic.,  Lex  Agr.,  ii.  sect.  65. 

8  Efforts  were  repeatedly  made  to  get  over  this  difficulty,  e.g.,  the 
lex  Papiria,  131  B.C.;  Livy,  Epit.,  lix.     Gaius  was  himself  tribune  for 
two  years,  110-109  (cf.  Sail.,  Jug.,  37,  "  tribuni  continuare  magis- 
tratum  nitebantur)",  and  Saturninus  in  100  B.C. 

9  Sallust,  Jug.,  5sq.;  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixii.,  Ixiv. 


wrung  from  the  senate  (112)  by  popular  indignation  had  642. 
been  followed  by  the  corruption  of  a  consul10  (111)  and  643. 
the  crushing  defeat  of  the  proconsul  Albinus.11  On  the 
news  of  this  crowning  disgrace  the  storm  burst,  and  on 
the  proposal  of  the  tribunes  a  commission  of  inquiry  was 
appointed  into  the  conduct  of  the  war.12  But  the  popular 
leaders  did  not  stop  here.  Caecilius  Metellus,  who  as  con- 
sul (109)  had  succeeded  to  the  command  in  Numidia,  was  64 
an  able  soldier  but  a  rigid  aristocrat ;  and  they  now 
resolved  to  improve  their  success  by  entrusting  the  com- 
mand instead  to  a  genuine  son  of  the  people.  Their 
choice  fell  on  Gaius  Marius  (see  MARITJS),  an  experienced 
officer  and  administrator,  but  a  man  of  humble  birth, 
wholly  illiterate,  and  one  who,  though  no  politician,  was 
by  temperament  and  training  a  hater  of  the  polished  and 
effeminate  nobles  who  filled  the  senate.13  He  was  triumph- 
antly elected,  and,  in  spite  of  a  decree  of  the  senate 
continuing  Metellus  as  proconsul,  he  was  entrusted  by  a 
vote  of  the  assembly  with  the  charge  of  the  war  against 
Jugurtha.14 

Jugurtha  was  vanquished ;  and  Marius,  who  had  been  a 
second  time  elected  consul  in  his  absence,  arrived  at  Rome 
in  January  104,  bringing  the  captive  prince  with  him  in  6 
chains.15  But  further  triumphs  awaited  the  popular  hero. 
The  Cimbri  and  Teutones  were  at  the  gates  of  Italy ;  they 
had  four  times  defeated  the  senatorial  generals,  and 
Marius  was  called  upon  to  save  Rome  from  a  second 
invasion  of  the  barbarians.16  After  two  years  of  suspense 
the  victory  at  Aquae  Sextiae  (102),  followed  by  that  on  the  6 
Raudine  plain  (101),  put  an  end  to  the  danger  by  the  6 
annihilation  of  the  invading  hordes;  and  Marius,  now  con- 
sul for  the  fifth  time,  returned  to  Rome  in  triumph.  There 
the  popular  party  welcomed  him  as  a  leader,  and  as  one 
who  would  bring  to  their  aid  the  imperium  of  the  consul 
and  all  the  prestige  of  a  successful  general.  Once  more, 
however,  they  were  destined  to  a  brief  success  followed 
by  disastrous  defeat.  Marius  became  for  the  sixth  time 
consul  ;17  of  the  two  popular  leaders  Glaucia  became  praetor  Satnr- 
and  Saturninus  tribune.  But  neither  Marius  nor  his  ninus 
allies  were  statesmen  of  the  stamp  of  the  Gracchi ;  and 
the  laws  proposed  by  Saturninus  had  evidently  no  other 
serious  aim  in  view  than  that  of  harassing  the  senate. 
His  corn  law  merely  reduced  the  price  fixed  in  123  for  the  6 
monthly  dole  of  corn,  and  the  main  point  of  his  agrarian 
law  lay  in  the  clause  appended  to  it  requiring  all  senators 
to  swear  to  observe  its  provisions.18  The  laws  were  carried  ; 
the  senators  with  the  exception  of  Metellus  took  the  oath; 
but  the  triumph  of  the  popular  leaders  was  short-lived. 
Their  recklessness  and  violence  had  alienated  all  classes  in 
Rome ;  and  their  period  of  office  was  drawing  to  a  close. 
At  the  elections  fresh  rioting  took  place,  and  at  last 
Marius  as  consul  was  called  upon  by  the  senate  to  protect 
the  state  against  his  own  partisans.  In  despair  Saturninus 
and  Glaucia  surrendered,  but  while  the  senate  was  dis- 
cussing their  fate  they  were  surrounded  and  murdered  by 
the  populace. 

The  popular  party  had  been  worsted  once  more  in  their 
struggle  with  the  senate,  but  none  the  less  their  alliance 
with  Marius,  and  the  position  in  which  their  votes  placed 
him,  marked  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  revolution. 

10  Calpurnius  Bestia ;  Sail.,  Jug.,  28. 

11  Ib.,  38,  39.  "  Ib.,  40. 

13  Sallust,  Jug.,  63 ;  Plut.,  Marius,  2,  3.    For  the  question  as  to  the 
position  of  his  parents,  see  Madvig,  Verfas.,  i.  170;  Diod.,  xxxiv.  38. 

14  Sallust,  Jug.,  73. 

15  Ib.,  114.     Forthe  chronology  of  the  Jugurthine  war,  see  Momm- 
sen, R.  G.,  ii.  146  note;  Pelham,  Journ.  of  Phil.,  vii.  91. 

16  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixvii. ;  Pint.,  Mar.,  12  ;  Mommsen,  ii.  171  sq. 

17  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixix.;  App.,  B.  C.,  i.  28  sq. 

18  For  the  "leges  Appuleiae,"  see  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixix.;  App.,  i.  29  ; 
Cic.  Pro  Balbo,  21  ;   Auct.  Ad  Herennium,  i.  12,  21.     They  included 
also  allotments  to  Marius's  veterans  ;  Auct.  De  Vir.  III. ,  62. 


MARIUS.] 


ROME 


759 


The  six  consulships  of  Marias  represented  not  merely  a 
party  victory  but  a  protest  against  the  system  of  divided 
and  rapidly-changing  commands,  which  was  no  doubt  the 
system  favoured  by  the  senate,  but  was  also  an  integral 
element  of  the  republican  constitution,  and  in  assailing  it 
the  populares  weakened  the  republic  even  more  than  they 
irritated  the  senate.  The  transference  of  the  political 
leadership  to  a  consul  who  was  nothing  if  not  a  soldier 
was  at  once  a  confession  of  the  insufficiency  of  the  purely 
civil  authority  of  the  tribunate  and  a  dangerous  encourage- 
ment of  military  interference  in  political  controversies.  The 
consequences  were  already  foreshadowed  by  the  special  pro- 
visions made  by  Saturninus  for  Marius's  veterans,  and  in 
the  active  part  taken  by  them  in  the  passing  of  his  laws. 
i  ity  Indirectly  too  Marius,  though  no  politician,  played  an 
important  part  in  this  new  departure.  His  military 
;  reforms l  at  once  democratized  the  army  and  attached  it 
more  closely  to  its  leader  for  the  time  being.  He  swept 
away  the  last  traces  of  civil  distinctions  of  rank  or  wealth 
within  the  legion,  admitted  to  its  ranks  all  classes,  and 
substituted  voluntary  enlistment  under  a  popular  general 
for  the  old-fashioned  compulsory  levy.  The  efficiency  of 
the  legion  was  increased  at  the  cost  of  a  complete  severance 
of  the  ties  which  bound  it  to  the  civil  community  and  to 
the  civil  authorities. 

The  defeat  of  Saturninus  was  followed  by  several  years  of 
quiet ;  nor  was  the  next  important  crisis  provoked  directly 
by  any  efforts  of  the  discredited  popular  party.  It  was 
due  partly  to  the  rivalry  which  had  been  growing  more 
bitter  each  year  since  122  between  the  senate  and  the 
commercial  class,  and  secondly  to  the  long  impending 
question  of  the  enfranchisement  of  the  Italian  allies.  The 
publicani,  negotiatores,  and  others,  who  constituted  what 
was  now  becoming  known  as  the  equestrian  order,  had 
made  unscrupulous  use  of  their  control  of  the  courts  and 
especially  of  the  "quaestio  de  repetundis"  against  their 
natural  rivals,  the  official  class  in  the  provinces.  The 
threat  of  prosecution  before  a  hostile  jury  was  held  over 
the  head  of  every  governor,  legate,  and  quaestor  who 
ventured  to  interfere  with  their  operations  in  the  pro- 
vinces. The  average  official  preferred  to  connive  at  their 
exactions ;  the  bolder  ones  paid  with  fines  and  even  exile 
1.  for  their  courage.  In  93  the  necessity  for  a  reform  was 
proved  beyond  a  doubt  by  the  scandalous  condemnation 
of  P.  Ruti'ius  Rufus,2  ostensibly  on  a  charge  of  extortion, 
in  reality  as  the  reward  of  his  efforts  to  check  the  extor- 
tions of  the  Roman  equites  in  Asia. 

sci-  The  need  of  reform  was  clear,  but  it  was  not  so  easy  to 
ltf  carry  a  reform  which  would  certainly  be  opposed  by  the 
I  whole  strength  of  the  equestrian  order,  and  which,  as  in- 
ic  volving  the  repeal  of  a  Sempronian  law,  would  arouse  the 
resentment  of  the  popular  party.  The  difficulties  of  the 
Italian  question  were  more  serious.  That  the  Italian 
allies  were  discontented  was  notorious.  After  nearly  two 
centuries  of  close  alliance,  of  common  dangers  and  victories, 
they  now  eagerly  coveted  as  a  boon  that  complete  amal- 
gamation with  Rome  which  they  had  at  first  resented  as  a 
dishonour.  But,  unfortunately,  Rome  had  grown  more 
selfishly  exclusive  in  proportion  as  the  value  set  upon 
Roman  citizenship  increased.  The  politic  liberality  with 
which  the  franchise  had  once  been  granted  had  disappeared. 
The  allies  found  their  burdens  increasing  and  their 
ancient  privileges  diminishing,  while  the  resentment  with 
which  they  viewed  their  exclusion  from  the  fruits  of  the 
conquests  they  had  helped  to  make  was  aggravated  by 

1  Sallust,  Jug.,  86,  "  ipse  interea  militesscribere,  non  more  majorum 
neque   ex   classibus,  sed   uti   cujusque   cupido    erat,    capite    censos 
plerosque."     For  details,  cf.  Mommsen,   ii.  192  ;    Madvig,   Verf.,  ii. 
4C8,  493;  Marquardt,  Staatsv.,  ii.  417,  421. 

2  Livy,  Epit.,  hex.;  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.  13;  Cicero,  Brut., 


the  growingly  suspicious  and  domineering  attitude  of  the 
Roman  government.3  During  the  last  forty  years  feel- 
ings of  hope  and  disappointment  had  rapidly  succeeded 
each  other ;  Marcus  Fulvius,  Gaius  Gracchus,  Saturninus, 
had  all  held  out  promises  of  relief — and  nothing  had  yet 
been  done.  On  each  occasion  they  had  crowded  to  Rome, 
full  of  eager  expectation,  only  to  be  harshly  ejected  from 
the  city  by  the  consul's  orders.4  The  justice  of  their 
claims  could  hardly"  be  denied,  the  danger  of  continuing 
to  ignore  them  was  obvious — yet  the  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  granting  them  were  formidable  in  the  extreme. 
The  temper  of  senate  and  people  alike  was  still  jealously 
exclusive,  and  from  a  higher  than  a  merely  selfish  point  of 
view  there  was  much  to  be  said  against  the  revolution 
involved  in  so  sudden  and  enormous  an  enlargement  of 
the  citizen  body. 

Marcus  Livius  Drusus,  who  as  tribune  gallantly  took  up  Marcus 
the  task  of  reform,  is  claimed  by  Cicero 5  as  a  member  of  Livius 
that  party  of  the  centre  to  which  he  belonged  himself.  Q™US' 
Noble,  wealthy,  and  popular,  he  seems  to  have  hoped  to  be  QQ^ 
able  by  the  weight  of  his  position  and  character  to  rescue 
the  burning  questions  of  the  day  from  the  grasp  of  extreme 
partisans  and  to  settle  them  peacefully  and  equitably. 
But  he,  like  Cicero  after  him,  had  to  find  to  his  cost  that 
there  was  no  room  in  the  fierce  strife  of  Roman  politics 
for  moderate  counsels.  His  proposal  to  reform  the  law 
courts  excited  the  equestrian  order  and  their  friends  in 
the  senate  to  fury.  The  agrarian  and  corn  laws  which  he 
coupled  with  it6  alienated  many  more  in  the  senate,  and 
roused  the  old  anti-popular  party  feeling ;  finally,  his  known 
negotiations  with  the  Italians  were  eagerly  misrepresented 
to  the  jealous  and  excited  people  as  evidence  of  complicity 
with  a  wide-spread  conspiracy  against  Rome.  His  laws 
were  carried,  but  the  senate  pronounced  them  null  and 
void.7  Drusus  was  denounced  in  the  senate  house  as  a 
traitor,  and  on  his  way  home  was  struck  down  by  the  hand 
of  an  unknown  assassin. 

The  knights  retained  their  monopoly  of  the  courts,  but  The 
this  and  all  other  domestic  controversies  were  silenced  for  Social 
the  time  by  the  news  which  followed  hard  upon  the  90^89= 
murder  of  Drusus  that  the  Italians  were  in  open  revolt  664-665. 
against  Rome.  His  assassination  was  the  signal  for 
an  outbreak  which  had  been  secretly  prepared  for  some 
time  before.  Throughout  the  highlands  of  central  and 
southern  Italy  the  flower  of  the  Italian  peoples  rose  as 
one  man.8  Etruria  and  Umbria  held  aloof ;  the  isolated 
Latin  colonies  stood  firm ;  but  the  Sabellian  clans,  north 
and  south,  the  Latinized  Marsi  and  Paeligni,  as  well  as  the 
still  Oscan-speaking  Samnites  and  Lucanians,  rushed  to 
arms.  No  time  was  lost  in  proclaiming  their  plans  for 
the  future.  A  new  Italian  state  was  to  be  formed.  The 
Paelignian  town  of  Corfinium  was  selected  as  its  capital 
and  re-christened  with  the  proud  name  of  Italica^  All 
Italians  were  to  be  citizens  of  this  new  metropolis,  and  here 
were  to  be  the  place  of  assembly  and  the  senate  house. 
A  senate  of  500  members  and  a  magistracy  resembling 
that  of  Rome  completed  a  constitution  which  adhered 
closely  to  the  very  political  traditions  which  its  authors 
had  most  reason  to  abjure. 

Now,  as  always  in  the  face  of  serious  danger,  the  action 


3  Mommsen,  ii.   218  ;  Ibiie,  iv.  151,  v.   253  ;  Marquardt,  Staats- 
verw.,  i.  57,  58. 

4  Lex  Junia,5  Cic.   De  Of.,  iii.   11;   lex  Licinia  Mucia,  Cic.  Pro 
Corn.,  fr.  10  ;  Ascon.,  p.  67. 

5  Cic.  De  Oral.,  i.  25,  andZte  Domo,  50;  Appian,  B.  C.,  i.  35;  Diod. 
Sic.,  xxxvii.  10;  Ihne,  v.  242. 

6  For  the  provisions  of  the  "leges  Liviae,"  see  App.,  B.  C.,  i.  35; 
Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxi.     They  included,  according  to  Pliny,  N.  H.,  xxxiii. 
3,  a  proposal  for  the  debasement  of  the  coinage. 

7  Cic.  Pro  Domo,  16. 

8  For  the  Social  War,  see,  besides  Mommsen,  Ihne,  Lange ;  also 
Kiene,  D.  Rdmische  Bundesgenossenkrieg,  Leipsic,  1845. 


760 


K  0  M  E 


[HISTORY. 


of  Rome  was  prompt  and  resolute.  Both  consuls  took 
the  field;1  with  each  were  five  legates,  among  them  the 
veteran  Marius  and  his  destined  rival  L.  Cornelius  Sulla, 
and  even  freedmen  were  pressed  into  service  with  the 
legions.  But  the  first  year's  campaign  opened  disastrously. 
In  central  Italy  the  northern  Sabellians,  and  in  the  south 
the  Samnites,  defeated  the  forces  opposed  to  them.  And 
though  before  the  end  of  the  year  Marius  and  Sulla  in 
the  north,  and  the  consul  Csesar  himself  in  Campania, 
succeeded  in  inflicting  severe  blows  on  the  enemy,  and  on 
the  Marsi  especially,  it  is  not  surprising  that,  with  an 
empty  treasury,  with  the  insurgents'  strength  still  un- 
broken, and  with  rumours  of  disaffection  in  the  loyal 
districts,  opinion  in  Rome  should  have  turned  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  more  liberal  policy  which  had  been  so  often 
scornfully  rejected  and  in  favour  of  some  compromise 
which  should  check  the  spread  of  the  revolt,  and  possibly 
sow  discord  among  their  enemies.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  year  90  the  consul  Caesar  carried  the  "lex  Julia,"2 
by  which  the  Roman  franchise  was  offered  to  all  communi- 
ties which  had  not  as  yet  revolted ;  early  in  the  next  year 
(^"0  ^e  Julian  law  was  supplemented  by  the  "  lex  Plautia 
Papiria,"  introduced  by  two  of  the  tribunes,  which  enacted 
that  any  citizen  of  an  allied  community  then  domiciled  in 
Italy  might  obtain  the  franchise  by  giving  in  his  name  to 
a  prsetor  in  Rome  within  sixty  days.  A  third  law  (lex 
Calpurnia)  apparently  passed  at  the  same  time  empowered 
Roman  magistrates  in  the  field  to  bestow  the  franchise 
there  and  then  upon  all  who  were  willing  to  receive  it. 
This  sudden  opening  of  the  closed  gates  of  Roman  citizen- 
ship was  completely  successful,  and  its  effects  were  at  once 
visible  in  the  diminished  vigour  of  the  insurgents.  By 
the  end  of  89  the  Samnites  and  Lucanians  were  left  alone 
in  their  obstinate  hostility  to  Rome,  and  neither,  thanks 
to  Sulla's  brilliant  campaign  in  Samnium,  had  for  the 
moment  any  strength  left  for  active  aggression. 

The  termination  of  the  Social  War  brought  with  it  no 
peace  in  Rome.  The  old  quarrels  were  renewed  with 
increased  bitterness,  and  the  newly  enfranchised  Italians 
themselves  complained  as  bitterly  of  the  restriction3  which 
robbed  them  of  their  due  share  of  political  influence  by 
allowing  them  to  vote  only  in  a  specified  number  of  tribes. 
The  senate  itself  was  distracted  by  violent  personal  rivalries 
— and  all  these  feuds,  animosities,  and  grievances  were 
aggravated  by  the  widespread  economic  distress  and  ruin 
which  affected  all  classes.4  Lastly,  war  with  Mithradates 
had  been  declared ;  it  was  notorious  that  the  privilege  of 
commanding  the  force  to  be  sent  against  him  would  be 
keenly  contested,  and  that  the  contest  would  lie  between 
the  veteran  Marius  and  L.  Cornelius  Sulla.5 

It  was  in  an  atmosphere  thus  charged  with  the  elements 
of  disturbance  that  P.  Sulpicius  Rufus  as  tribune6  brought 
forward  his  laws.  He  proposed — (1)  that  the  command 
of  the  Mithradatic  war  should  be  given  to  Marius,  (2)  that 
the  new  citizens  should  be  distributed  through  all  the 
tribes,  (3)  that  the  freedmen  should  no  longer  be  confined 
to  the  four  city  tribes,  (4)  that  any  senator  owing  more 

1  App.,  B.  C.,  i.  39-49  ;  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxii.-lxxvi. 

2  For  the  lex  Julia,  see  Cicero  Pro  Balbo,  8  ;  Cell.,  iv.  4  ;  App., 
B.  C.,  i.  49.     For  lex  Plautia  Papiria,  see  Cic.  Pro  Archia,  4.  and 
Schol.  Bob.,  p.  353. 

8  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.  20  ;  App.,  B.  C.,  i.  49,  53.  Madvig  (R.  Verf., 
i.  27)  follows  Appian  in  holding  that  the  tribes  to  which  the  new 
voters  were  confined  were  newly  created  tribes.  Cf.  Moinmsen, 
R'om.  Tribut,  ii. 

4  App.,  B.  C.,  i.  54,  and  Mithr.  22  ;  Oros.,  v.  18  ;  Livy,  Epit., 
Ixxiv. 

8  It  had  been  already  declared  a  consular  province  for  87,  and  early 
in  88  seems  to  have  been  assigned  to  Sulla  by  decree  of  the  senate. 

6  Cf.  Cic.  Z>«  Orat.,  i.  25,  iii.  31,  and  Brutus,  214  ;  Veil.  Pat.,  ii. 
18,  for  Sulpicius  himself.  For  his  laws,  see  App. ,  B.C.,  i.  55  sq. ;  Livy, 
Epit.,  Ixxvii.;  Plutarch,  Sulla,  8  sq. 


than  2000  denarii  should  lose  his  seat,  (5)  that  those 
exiled  on  suspicion  of  complicity  with  the  Italian  revolt 
should  be  recalled.  Whatever  may  have  been  Sulpicius's 
intentions,  these  proposals  inevitably  provoked  a  storm. 
The  old  voters  bitterly  resented  the  swamping  of  the 
existing  constituency ;  the  senate  rallied  its  forces  to 
oppose  the  alteration  in  the  franchise  of  the  freedmen  and 
the  proposed  purging  of  its  own  ranks ;  and,  lastly,  both 
the  senate  and  Sulla  himself,  now  one  of  the  consuls,  pre- 
pared-to  resist  the  transference  of  the  Asiatic  command  to 
Marius.  Both  sides  were  ominously  ready  for  violent 
measures.  The  consuls,  in  order  to  prevent  legislation, 
proclaimed  a  public  holiday.7  Sulpicius  replied  by  arm- 
ing his  followers  and  driving  the  consuls  from  the  forum. 
The  proclamation  was  withdrawn  and  the  laws  carried, 
but  Sulpicius's  triumph  was  short-lived.  From  Nola  in 
Campania,  where  lay  the  legions  commanded  by  him  in 
the  Social  War,  Sulla  advanced  on  Rome,  and  for  the 
first  time  a  Roman  consul  entered  the  city  at  the  head  of 
the  legions  of  the  republic.  Resistance  was  hopeless. 
Marius  and  Sulpicius  fled,8  and  Sulla,  summoning  the 
assembly  of  the  centuries,  proposed  the  measures  he  con- 
sidered necessary  for  the  public  security,  the  most  import- 
ant being  a  provision  that  the  sanction  of  the  senate 
should  be  necessary  before  any  proposal  was  introduced  to 
the  assembly.9  Then,  after  waiting  in  Rome  long  enough 
to  hold  the  consular  elections,  he  left  for  Asia  early  in  87. 
Sulla  had  conquered,  but  his  victory  cost  the  republic 
dear.  He  had  first  taught  political  partisans  to  look  for 
final  success,  not  to  a  majority  of  votes  in  the  forum  or 
campus,  but  to  the  swords  of  the  soldiery ;  and  he  had 
shown  that  the  legions,  composed  as  they  now  were,  could 
be  trusted  to  regard  nothing  but  the  commands  of  a 
favourite  leader.  The  lesson  was  well  learnt.  Shortly 
after  his  departure,  Cinna  as  consul  revived  the  proposals 
of  Sulpicius  ;10  his  colleague  Octavius  at  the  head  of  an 
armed  force  fell  upon  the  new  citizens  who  had  collected  in 
crowds  to  vote,  and  the  forum  was  heaped  high  with  the 
bodies  of  the  slain.11  Cinna  fled,  but  fled  like  Sulla  to 
the  legions.  When  the  senate  declared  him  deposed  from 
his  consulship,  he  replied  by  invoking  the  aid  of  the 
soldiers  in  Campania  in  behalf  of  the  violated  rights  of 
the  people  and  the  injured  dignity  of  the  consulship,  and, 
like  Sulla,  found  them  ready  to  follow  where  he  led.  The 
neighbouring  Italian  communities,  who  had  lost  many 
citizens  in  the  recent  massacre,  sent  their  new  champion 
men  and  money;12  while  from  Africa,  whither  he  had 
escaped  after  Sulla's  entry  into  Rome,  came  Marius  with 
1000  Numidian  horsemen.  He  landed  in  Etruria,  where 
his  old  veterans  flocked  to  his  standard,  and  at  the  head 
of  some  6000  men  joined  Cinna  before  the  gates  of  Rome. 
The  senate  had  prepared  for  a  desperate  defence,  but 
fortune  was  adverse,  and  after  a  brief  resistance  they  gave 
way.  Cinna  was  acknowledged  as  consul,  the  sentence  of 
outlawry  passed  on  Marius  was  revoked,  and  Cinna  and 
Marius  entered  Rome  with  their  troops.  Marius's  thirst 
for  revenge  was  gratified  by  a  frightful  massacre,  and 
he  lived  long  enough  to  be  nominated  consul  for  the 
seventh  time.  But  he  held  his  consulship  only  a  few 
weeks.  Early  in  86  he  died,  and  for  the  next  three  years 
Cinna  ruled  Rome.  Constitutional  government  was  virtu- 


667. 
M  arias 
and 
Cir 


7  App.,  loc.  cit.,r)fjiepwv  apytas  iroK\tov — a  favourite  stroke  of  policy. 
Cf.  Cicero  Ad   Q.  F. ,  ii.  4,  4,  "dies  comitiales  exemit  omnes  .... 
Latinae  instaurantur,  nee  deerant  supplicationes. " 

8  Marius  finally  escaped  to   Africa  (see   MARIUS)  ;    Sulpicius  was 
taken  and  killed  ;  App.,  i.  60. 

App.,    B.    C.,  i.   59,  /j.rjStv    tri   &irpo&ov\fVTOv    ts   rbv   Sr/fior 
fptffQai.     For  the  other  laws  mentioned  by  Appian,  see  Mommsen, 
ii.  258.  10  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxix.;  Veil.,  ii.  20. 

11  Cic.  Pro  Sestio,  77;  Catil.,  iii.  24. 
13  Tibur  and  Prseneste  especially. 


SULLA.] 


K  O  M  E 


761 


ally  suspended.  For  85  and  84  Cinna  nominated  himself 
and  a  trusted  colleague  as  consuls.1  The  state  was,  as 
Cicero2  says,  without  lawful  authority.3  One  important 
matter  was  carried  through — the  registration  in  all  the 
tribes  of  the  newly  enfranchised  Italians,4  but  beyond  this 
little  was  done.  The  attention  of  Cinna  and  his  friends 
was  in  truth  engrossed  by  the  ever-present  dread  of  Sulla's 
return  from  Asia.  The  consul  of  86,  Valerius  Flaccus, 
sent  out  to  supersede  him,  was  murdered  by  his  own 
soldiers  at  Nicomedia.5  In  85  Sulla,  though  disowned  by 
his  government,  concluded  a  peace  with  Mithradates.6  In 
84,  after  settling  affairs  in  Asia  and  crushing  Flaccus's  suc- 
cessor Fimbria,  he  crossed  into  Greece,  and  in  the  spring 
of  83  landed  at  Brundusium  with  40,000  soldiers  and  a 
large  following  of  emigre'  nobles.  Cinna  was  dead,7 
murdered  like  Flaccus  by  his  mutinous  soldiers  ;  his  most 
trusted  colleague  Carbo  was  commanding  as  proconsul  in 
Cisalpine  Caul ;  and  the  resistance  offered  to  Sulla's 
advance  was  slight.  At  Capua  Sulla  routed  the  forces  of 
one  consul,  Norbanus ;  at  Teanum  the  troops  of  the  other 
went  over  in  a  body  to  the  side  of  the  outlawed  proconsul. 
After  a  winter  spent  in  Campania  he  pressed  forward  to 
Rome,  defeated  the  younger  Marius  (consul  82)  near 
Praeneste,  and  entered  the  city  without  further  opposition. 
In  North  Italy  the  success  of  his  lieutenants  Metellus,  C. 
Pompeius,  and  Marcus  Crassus  had  been  fully  as  decisive. 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  Umbria,  and  Etruria  had  all  been  won  for 
Sulla,  and  the  two  principal  leaders  on  the  other  side,  Carbo 
and  Norbanus,  had  each  fled,  one  to  Rhodes,  the  other  to 
Africa.  Only  one  foe  remained  to  be  conquered.  The 
Samnites  and  Lucanians  whom  Cinna  had  conciliated,  and 
who  saw  in  Sulla  their  bitterest  foe,  were  for  the  last  time 
in  arms,  and  had  already  joined  forces  with  the  remains  of 
the  Marian  army  close  to  Rome.  The  decisive  battle  was 
fought  under  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  ended  in  the  com- 
plete defeat  of  the  Marians  and  Italians.8 

For  a  period  of  nearly  ten  years  Rome  and  Italy  had 
been  distracted  by  civil  war.  Constitutional  government, 
whether  by  senate  or  assembly,  had  been  in  abeyance, 
while  the  opposing  parties  fought  out  their  quarrels  with 
the  sword,  under  the  leadership  of  generals  at  the  head  of 
legions  ready  and  willing  to  follow  them  against  their 
fellow  citizens  and  against  the  established  authorities  of 
the  state.  The  strife  had  spread  from  the  Roman  forum 
to  Italy,  and  from  Italy  to  the  provinces ;  and  for  the  first 
time  the  integrity  of  the  empire  was  threatened  by  the 
conflicts  of  rival  governors.9  The  tottering  fabric  of 
Italian  prosperity  had  been  rudely  shaken  by  the  ravages 
of  war.  Class  hatreds  and  personal  feuds  distracted  the 
community,  while  the  enfranchisement  of  the  Italians  was 
in  itself  a  revolution  which  affected  the  very  foundations 
of  the  republic.  Such  was  the  situation  with  which 
Sulla  was  now  called  upon  to  deal.  It  was  for  him  to 
heal  the  divisions  which  rent  the  state  asunder,  to  set  in 
working  again  the  machinery  of  civil  government,  and 
above  all  so  to  modify  it  as  to  meet  the  altered  conditions, 

1  The  consuls  of  86,  85,   84  were  all  nominated  without  election. 
Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxx.,  Ixxxiii. ;  App.,  i.  75. 

2  Brut.,  227. 

3  The  nobles  had  fled  to  Sulla  in  large  numbers;  Velleius,  ii.  23. 

4  This  work  was  accomplished  apparently  by  the  censors  of  86  ; 
but  cf.  Lange,  iii.  133  ;  Mommsen,  ii.  315  ;  Livy,  Epil.,  Ixxxiv. 

8  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxxii.     Appian,  Mithr.,  52;  Plut.,  Sulla,  23. 

6  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxxiii.;  Veil.,  ii.  23  ;  Plut.,  Suit.,  22. 

7  In  84  ;  App.,  B.  C.,  i.  78  ;  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxxiii. 

8  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxxviii.,   "cum  Sammtibus  ante  portam  Collinam 
debellavit  ;  "  Plut.,  Sulla,  29,  and  Crassus,  6.     According  to  App.,  i. 
93,  and  Livy,  loc.  cit.,  8000  captives  were  massacred.     Florus,  iii.  21, 
gives  4000.     Praeneste  surrendered,  was  razed  to  the  ground,  and  its 
population  put  to  the  sword. 

9  In  Asia  between  Sulla  and  Fimbria.     In  82  Pompey  crushed  the 
Marian  leader  Carbo  in  Africa.     In  Spain  Q.   Sertorius  maintained 
himself  for  ten  years  (82-72). 


and  to  fortify  it  against  the  dangers  which  visibly 
threatened  it  in  the  future.  The  real  charge  against 
Sulla10  is  not  that  he  failed  to  accomplish  all  this,  for  to  do 
so  was  beyond  the  powers  even  of  a  man  so  able,  resolute, 
and  self-confident  as  Sulla,  armed  though  he  was  with 
absolute  authority  and  backed  by  overwhelming  military 
strength  and  the  prestige  of  unbroken  success.  He  stands 
convicted  rather  of  deliberately  aggravating  some  and 
culpably  ignoring  others  of  the  evils  he  should  have  tried 
to  cure,  and  of  contenting  himself  with  a  party  triumph 
when  he  should  have  aimed  at  the  regeneration  and  con- 
firmation of  the  whole  state.  His  victory  was  instantly 
followed,  not  by  any  measures  of  conciliation,  but  by  a  series 
of  massacres,  proscriptions,  and  confiscations,  of  which 
almost  the  least  serious  consequence  was  the  immediate 
loss  of  life  which  they  entailed.11  From  this  time  forward  Effects 

the   fear  of  proscription   and  confiscation   recurred  as  a of  the 

•  ii  ..  !•,•     i       •  •  i    ..  Sullan 

possible  consequence  of  every  political  crisis,  and  it  was  pj.^^ 

with  difficulty  that  Caesar  himself  dissipated  the  belief  tions. 
that  his  victory  would  be  followed  by  a  Sullan  reign  of 
terror.  The  legacy  of  hatred  and  discontent  which  Sulla 
left  behind  him  was  a  constant  source  of  disquiet  and 
danger.  In  the  children  of  the  proscribed,  whom  he 
excluded  from  holding  office,  and  the  dispossessed  owners 
of  the  confiscated  lands,  every  agitator  found  ready  and 
willing  allies.1-  The  moneyed  men  of  the  equestrian  order 
were  more  than  ever  hostile  to  the  senatorial  government, 
which  they  now  identified  with  the  man  who  cherished 
towards  them  a  peculiar  hatred,13  and  whose  creatures  had 
hunted  them  down  like  dogs.  The  attachment  which  the 
new  Italian  citizens  might  in  time  have  learnt  to  feel  for 
the  old  republican  constitution  was  nipped  in  the  bud  by 
the  massacres  at  Prasneste  and  Norba,  by  the  harsh  treat- 
ment of  the  ancient  towns  of  Etruria,  and  by  the  ruthless 
desolation  of  Samnium  and  Lucania.14  Quite  as  fatal  were 
the  results  to  the  economic  prosperity  of  the  peninsula. 
Sulla's  confiscations,  following  on  the  civil  and  social  wars, 
opened  the  doors  wide  for  a  long  train  of  evils.  The 
veterans  whom  he  planted  on  the  lands  he  had  seized15  did 
nothing  for  agriculture,  and  swelled  the  growing  numbers 
of  the  turbulent  and  discontented.16  The  "Sullan  men" 
became  as  great  an  object  of  fear  and  dislike  as  the 
"Sullan  reign."17  The  "latifundia"  increased  with  start- 
ling rapidity — whole  territories  passing  into  the  hands  of 
greedy  partisans.18  Wide  tracts  of  land,  confiscated  but 
never  allotted,  ran  to  waste.19  In  all  but  a  few  districts 
of  Italy  the  free  population  finally  and  completely  dis- 
appeared from  the  open  country ;  and  life  and  property 
were  rendered  insecure  by  the  brigandage  which  now 
developed  unchecked,  and  in  which  the  herdsmen  slaves 
played  a  prominent  part.  The  outbreaks  of  Spartacus  in 
73,  and  of  Catiline  ten  years  later,  were  significant  com-  681. 
mentaries  on  this  part  of  Sulla's  work.20  His  constitutional  Consti- 
legislation,  while  it  included  many  useful  administrative  tit'onal 
reforms,  is  marked  by  as  violent  a  spirit  of  partisanship,  tj^SQf 
and  as  apparently  wilful  a  blindness  to  the  future.  The  gulla. 


10  Compare  especially  Mommsen's  brilliant  chapter,  which  is,  how- 
ever, too  favourable  (ii.  335*-377),  and  also  Lange  (iii.  144  sq.),  where 
most  of  the  special  literature  on  the  Sullan  legislation  is  given. 

11  App.,  i.  95  sq.;  Dio  Cassius,  fr.  109;  Plut.,  Sulla,  31.     The 
number  of  the  proscribed  is  given  as  4700  (Valer.   Max.),  including, 
according  to  Appian,  2600  members  of  the  equestrian  order. 

12  E.g.,  Catiline,  in  63.    Sail.,  Cat.,  21,  37.     For  the  "liberipro- 
scriptorum,"  see  Velleius,  ii.  28.  13  Cic.  Pro  Clumt.,  151. 

11  Cic.,  Phil.,  v.  43,  "tot  municipiorum  maximae  calamitates. " 
Cic.  Pro  Doino,  30  ;  Cic.  Ad  Alt.,  i.  19  ;  Florus,  iii.  21  ;  Strabo,  p. 
223,  254. 

15  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxxix.;  App.,  B.  C.,  i.  100 ;  Cicero,  Catil.,  ii.  20. 

16  Sail.,  Cat.,  28.  17  Cic.,  Lex  Agr.,  ii.  26. 

18  Cic.,  Lex  Agr.,  ii.  26,  28,  iii.  2, — the  territories  of  Prceneste  and 
of  the  Hirpini.  u  Cic.,  Lex  Agr.,  ii.  27,  iii.  3. 

20  See  especially  Cicero's  oration  Pro  Tullio.  For  the  "  pastores  " 
of  Apulia,  Sail.,  Cat.,  28. 

XX.   —   96 


762 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


re-establishment  on  a  legal  basis  of  the  ascendency  which 
custom  had  so  long  accorded  to  the  senate  was  his  main 
object.     With  this  purpose  he  had  already,  when  consu" 
in  88,  made  the  "senatus  auctoritas"  legally  necessary 
for   proposals   to   the  assembly.     He    now   as   dictator1 
followed  this  up  by  crippling  the  power  of  the  magistracy, 
which  had  been  the  most  effective  weapon  in  the  hands  oi 
the  senate's  opponents.     The   legislative  freedom   of  the 
tribunes  was  already  hampered  by  the  necessity  of  obtain- 
ing the  senate's  sanction  ;  in  addition,  Sulla  restricted  their 
wide  powers  of  interference  (intercessio)  to  their  original 
purpose  of  protecting  individual  plebeians,2  and  discredited 
the  office  by  prohibiting  a  tribune  from  holding  any  sub- 
sequent office  in  the  state.3     The  control   of  the  courts 
(quaestiones  perpetuae)  was  taken  from  the  equestrian  order 
and  restored  to  the  senate.4     To  prevent  the  people  from 
suddenly  installing  and  keeping  in  high  office  a  second 
Marius,  he  re-enacted  the  old  law  against  re-election,5  and 
made  legally  binding  the  custom  which  required  a  man 
to   mount  up  gradually  to   the   consulship  through   the 
lower  offices.6     His  increase  of   the   number  of  prsetors 
from  six  to  eight,7  and  of  quaestors  to  twenty,8  though 
required  by  administrative  necessities,  tended,  by  enlarging 
the  numbers  and  further  dividing  the  authority  of  the 
magistrates,  to  render  them  still  more  dependent  upon  the 
central  direction  of  the  senate.     Lastly,  he  replaced  the 
pontifical  and  augural  colleges  in  the  hands  of  the  sena- 
torial nobles,  by  enacting  that  vacancies  in  them  should, 
as  before  the  lex  Domitia  (104),  be  filled  up  by  co-optation.9 
This  policy  of  deliberately  altering  the  constitution,  so  as 
to  make  it  pronounce  in  favour  of  his  own  party,  was 
open  to  two  grave  objections.     It  was  not  to  be  expected 
that  the  new  legal  safeguards  would  protect  the  senate 
any  more  efficiently  than  the  established  custom  and  tra- 
dition which  the  Gracchi  had  broken  down  ;  and,  secondly, 
it  was  inevitable  that  the  popular  party  would  on  the  first 
opportunity  follow  Sulla's   example,  and  alter   the  con- 
stitution to  suit  themselves.     Still  less  was  Sulla  success- 
ful in  fortifying  the  republican  system  against  the  dangers 
which  menaced   it   from   without.     He   accepted   as   an 
accomplished  fact  the  enfranchisement  of  the  Italians,10 
but  he  made  no  provision  to  guard  against  the  consequent 
reduction  of  the  comitia  to  an  absurdity,  and  with  them 
of  the  civic  government  which  rested  upon  them,  or  to 
organize  an  effective  administrative  system  for  the  Italian 
communities.11     Of  all  men,  too,  Sulla  had  the  best  reason 

1  For  Sulla's  dictatorship  as  in  itself  a  novelty,  see  App.,  i.  98  ; 
Plut.,  Sulla,  33;  Cic.  Ad  Alt.,  9,  15  ;  Cic.  De  Legg.,  i.  15. 

2  Cic.  De  Legg.,  iii.  22,    "injuriae  faciendae  potestatem  ademit, 
auxilii  ferendi  reliquit."     Cf.  Cic.,  Verr.,  i.  60  ;  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxxix. 

8  Cic.  Pro  Cornel.,  fr.  78  ;  Ascon.  In  Corn.,  78  ;  Appian,  i.  100. 

4  Velleius,  ii.  32  ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  xi.  22  ;  Cic.,  Verr.,  i.  13. 

5  App.,  B.   C.,  i.   100;   cf.   Livy,  vii.   42  (342  B.C.),  "ne   quis 
eundem  magistratum  intra  decem  annos  caperet." 

6  The  custom  had  gradually  established  itself.     Cf.  Livy,  xxxii.  7. 
The  "  certus  ordo  magistratuum  "  legalized  by  Sulla  was — qusestorship, 
pnetorship,  consulate;  App.,  i.  100. 

7  Pompon.,  De  Orig.  Juris  (Dig.,  i.  2,  2);  Velleius,  ii.  89.     Com- 
pare also  Cicero  InPison.,  15,  with  Id.  Pro  Milone,  15.     The  increase 
was  connected  with  his   extension  of  the   system   of  "  quaestiones 
perpetuae,"  which  threw  more  work  on  the  prators  as  the  magistrates 
in  charge  of  the  courts. 

8  Tac.,  Ann.,  xi.  22.     The  qusestorship  henceforward  carried  with 
it  the  right  to  be  called  up  to  the  senate.     By  increasing  the  number 
of  quaestors,  Sulla  provided  for  the  supply  of  ordinary  vacancies  in  the 
senate  and  restricted  the  censors'  freedom  of  choice  in  filling  them  up. 
Fragments  of  the  "  lex  Cornelia  de  XX  quaestoribus  "  survive.     See 
C.  I.  L.,  108. 

9  Dio  Cass.,  xxxvii.  37  ;  Ps.  Ascon.,  102  (Orelli).    He  also  increased 
their  numbers ;  Livy,  Epit.,  Ixxxix. 

10  He  did  propose  to  deprive  several  communities  which  had  joined 
Cinna  of  the  franchise,  but  the  deprivation  was  not  carried  into  effect ; 
Cic.  Pro  Domo,  30,  and  Pro  Caecina,  33,  35. 

11  There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  Sulla's  legislation  touched  at 
all  upon  municipal  government  in  Italy;  cf.  Mommsen,  ii.  361  sq. 


to  appreciate  the  dangers  to  be  feared  from  the  growing 
independence  of  governors  and  generals  in  the  provinces, 
and  from  the  transformation  of  the  old  civic  militia  into 
a  group  of  professional  armies,  devoted  only  to  a  successful 
leader,  and  with  the  weakest  possible  sense  of  allegiance 
to  the  state.  He  had  himself,  as  proconsul  of  Asia,  con- 
temptuously and  successfully  defied  the  home  government, 
and  he,  more  than  any  other  Roman  general,  had  taught 
his  soldiers  to  look  only  to  their  leader,  and  to  think  only 
of  booty.12  Yet,  beyond  a  few  inadequate  regulations,  there 
is  no  evidence  that  Sulla  dealt  with  these  burning  ques- 
tions, the  settlement  of  which  was  among  the  greatest  of 
the  achievements  of  Augustus.13  One  administrative  re- 
form of  real  importance  must,  lastly,  be  set  down  to  his 
credit.  The  judicial  procedure  first  established  in  149  C05-673. 
for  the  trial  of  cases  of  magisterial  extortion  in  the  pro- 
vinces, and  applied  between  149  and  81  to  cases  of  treason 
and  bribery,  Sulla  extended  so  as  to  bring  under  it  the 
chief  criminal  offences,  and  thus  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  Roman  criminal  law.14 

The  Sullan  system  stood  for  nine  years,  and  was  then  Ov 
overthrown — as  it  had  been  established — by  a  successful 
soldier.     It  was  the  fortune  of  Cn.  Pompeius,  a  favourite  «f  j, 
officer  of  Sulla,  first  of  all  to  violate  in  his  own  person  the  constitn- 
fundamental  principles  of  the  constitution  re-established  tion,  70 
by  his  old  chief,  and  then  to  overturn  it.     In  Spain  the  =684- 
Marian  governor  Q.  Sertorius  (see  SERTORIUS)  had  defeated 
one  after  another  of  the  proconsuls  sent  out  by  the  senate, 
and  was  already  in  77  master  of  all  Hither  Spain.15     To  677. 
meet  the  crisis,  the  senate  itself  took  a  step  which  was 
in  fact  the  plainest  possible  confession  that  the  system 
sanctioned  afresh  by  Sulla  was  inadequate  to  the  needs 
of  the  state.     Pompey,  who  was  not  yet  thirty,  and  had 
never  held  even  the  quaestorship,  was  sent  out  to  Spain 
with  proconsular  authority.10     Still    Sertorius   held   out, 
until  in  73  he  was  foully  murdered  by  his  own  officers.  681. 
The  native  tribes  who  had  loyally  stood  by  him  submitted, 
and  Pompey  early  in  71  returned  with  his  troops  to  Italy,  683 
where,  during  his  absence  in  Spain,  an  event  had  occurred 
which  had  shown  Roman  society  with  startling  plainness 
tiow  near  it  stood  to  revolution.     In  73  Spartacus,17  a  681. 
Thracian  slave,  escaped  with  seventy  others  from  a  gladia- 
tors' training  school  at  Capua.     In  an  incredibly  short 
;ime  he  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  force 


12  Sail.,  Cat.,  ii.,  "L.  Sulla  exercitum,  quo  sibi  Mum  faceret,  contra 
morem  majorum  luxuriose  nimisque  liberaliter  habuerat." 

ls  There  was  a  "  lex  Cornelia  de  provinciis  ordinandis,"  but  only  two 
of  its  provisions  are  known  : — (1)  that  a  magistrate  sent  out  with  the 
mperium  should  retain  it  till  lie  re-entered  the  city  (Cic.  Ad  Fam., 
.  9,  25),  a  provision  which  increased  rather  than  diminished  his  free- 
dom of  action ;  (2)  that  an  outgoing  governor  should  leave  his  pro- 
,'iuce  within  thirty  days  after  his  successor's  arrival  (Cic.  Ad  Fam., 
ii.  6,  4).  A  "  lex  Cornelia  de  majestate "  contained,  it  is  true,  a 
definition  of  treason  evidently  framed  in  the  light  of  recent  experience. 
The  magistrate  was  forbidden  "  exire  de  provincia,  educere  exercitum, 
)ellum  sua  sponte  gerere,  in  regnum  injussu  populi  ac  senatus  ac- 
edere,"  Cic.  In  Pis.,  21.  Sulla  also  added  one  to  the  long  list  of  laws 
lealing  with  extortion  in  the  provinces.  But  the  danger  lay,  not  in 
lie  want  of  laws,  but  in  the  want  of  security  for  their  observance  by 
an  absolutely  autocratic  proconsul.  The  present  writer  cannot  agree 
vith  those  who  would  include  among  Sulla's  laws  one  retaining  consuls 
ind  praetors  in  Rome  for  their  year  of  office  and  then  sending  them  out 
,o  a  province.  This  was  becoming  tiie  common  practice  before  81. 
After  81  it  is  invariable  for  prsctors,  as  needed  for  the  judicial  work, 
and  invariable  but  for  two  exceptions  in  the  case  of  consuls  ;  but 
nowhere  is  there  a  hint  that  there  had  been  any  legislation  on  the 
ubject,  and  there  are  indications  that  it  was  convenience  and  not  law 
which  maintained  the  arrangement.  Mommsen,  ii.  355  ;  Marquardt, 
Staatsverio.,  i.  378. 

14  For  this,  the  most  lasting  of  Sulla's  reforms,'see  Mommsen,  ii. 
159  ;  Rein,  Criminal- Recht ;  Zumpt,  Criminal- Prozess  d.  Romer. 
14  For  the  Sertorian  War,  see  Plutarch,  Sertorius. 

16  Plut.,  Pomp.,  17  ;  Livy,  Epit.,  zci.     For  Pompey's  earlier  life, 
ee  POMPEY. 

17  App.,  i.  116 ;  Livy,  Epit.,  xcv. ;  Plut.,  Crass.,  8  sq. 


POMPEY.j 


ROME 


763 


of  runaway  slaves,  outlaws,  brigands,  and  impoverished 
peasants.  By  the' end  of  73  he  had  70,000  men  under 
his  command,  had  twice  defeated  the  Roman  troops,  and 
was  master  of  southern  Italy.  In  72  he  advanced  on 
Rome,  but,  though  he  again  routed  the  legions  led  against 
him  by  the  consuls  in  person,  he  abandoned  his  scheme 
and  established  himself  in  the  now  desolate  country  near 
Thurii,  already  the  natural  home  of  brigandage.  At 
length  in  71  the  praetor  Crassus,  who  had  been  sent 
against  him  with  no  less  than  six  legions,  ended  the  war. 
Spartacus  was  defeated  and  slain  in  Apulia.  In  Rome 
itself  the  various  classes  and  parties  hostile  to  the 
Sullan  system  had,  ever  since  Sulla's  death  in  78,  been 
incessantly  agitating  for  the  repeal  of  his  most  obnoxious 
laws,  and  needed  only  a  leader  in  order  successfully  to 
attack  a  government  discredited  by  failure  at  home  and 
abroad.  With  the  return  of  Pompey  from  Spain  their 
opportunity  came.  Pompey,  who  understood  politics  as 
little  as  Marius,  was  anxious  to  obtain — what  the  senate 
was  more  than  likely  to  refuse  to  give  him,  and  what  he 
was  not  legally  entitled  to — a  triumph,  the  consulship  for 
the  next  year  (70),  and  as  the  natural  consequence  of  this 
an  important  command  in  the  East.  The  opposition 
wanted  his  name  and  support,  and  a  bargain  was  soon 
struck.  Pompey  and  with  him  Marcus  Crassus,  the  con- 
queror of  Spartacus,  were  elected  consuls,  almost  in  the 
presence  of  their  troops,  which  lay  encamped  outside  the 
gates  in  readiness  to  assist  at  the  triumph  and  ovation 
granted  to  their  respective  leaders.  Pompey  lost  no  time 
in  performing  his  part  of  the  agreement.  The  tribunes 
regained  their  prerogatives.1  The  "  perpetual  courts" 
were  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  senatorial  judices,  who 
had  outdone  the  equestrian  order  in  scandalous  corrup- 
tion,2 and  finally  the  censors,  the  first  since  86  B.C.,  purged 
the  senate  of  the  more  worthless  and  disreputable  of  Sulla's 
partisans.3  The  victory  was  complete  ;  but  for  the  future 
its  chief  significance  lay  in  the  clearness  with  which  it 
showed  that  the  final  decision  in  matters  political  lay  with 
neither  of  the  two  great  parties  in  Rome,  but  with  the 
holder  of  the  military  authority.  The  recognition  of  this 
fact  was  fatal  to  the  dignity  of  politics  in  the  city.  In 
proportion  as  the  mass  of  the  Roman  community  in  Italy, 
and  able  aspirants  to  power,  like  Caesar,  became  conscious 
of  the  unreality  of  the  old  constitutional  controversies, 
they  became  indifferent  to  the  questions  which  agitated 
the  forum  and  the  curia  and  contemptuously  ready  to 
alter  or  disregard  the  constitution  itself,  when  it  stood  in 
the  way  of  interests  nearer  to  their  hearts.  Of  this  grow- 
ing indifference  to  the  traditional  politics  of  the  republic, 
against  which  Cicero  struggled  in  vain,  Pompey  is  an 
excellent  example.  He  was  absolutely  without  interest  in 
them,  except  in  so  far  as  they  led  up  to  important  military 
commands,  and,  though  he  was  never  revolutionary  in 
intention,  his  own  career,  in  its  quiet  defiance  of  all  the 
established  rules  of  the  constitution,  did  almost  more  than 
the  direct  attacks  of  others  to  render  the  republic  impos- 
sible. 

When  his  consulship  ended,  Pompey  impatiently  awaited 
at  the  hands  of  the  politicians  he  had  befriended  the 
further  gift  of  a  foreign  command.  He  declined  an  ordinary 

1  The  exact  provisions  of  Pompey's  law  are  nowhere  given  ;  Livy, 
Epit.,  xcvii.,    "tribuniciam  potestatem  restituerunt. "     Cf.  Velleius, 
ii.  30.     A  "lex  Aurelia,"  in  75,  had  already  repealed  the  law  dis- 
qualifying a  tribune  for  further  office  ;  Cic.,  Corn.,  fr.  78. 

2  This   was  the  work  of  L.  Aurelins  Cotta,  praetor  in  this  year. 
The  "judices"  were  to  be  taken  in  equal  proportions  from  senators, 
equites,  and  "  tribuni  aerarii."    For  the  latter  and  for  the  law  generally, 
see  Madvig,  Verf.,  i.   182,  ii.   222;  Lange,  R.  Alt.,  iii.  193.     Com- 
pare also  Cicero's  language,  In  Verr.,  i.  1,  15.     The  prosecution  of 
Verres  shortly  preceded  the  lex  Aurelia. 

3  Livy,    Epit.,    xcviii.     Sixty-four    senators   were   expelled.     Cf, 
Plut.,  Pomp.,  22  ;  Cic.  In  Verr.,  i.  1,  15. 


province,  and  from  the  end  of  70  to  67  he  remained  at  684-7. 
Rome  in  a  somewhat  affectedly  dignified  seclusion.4  But 
in  67  and  66  the  laws  of  Gabinius  and  Manilius  gave  him  687, 688. 
all  and  more  than  all  that  he  expected.  The  ravages  of 
the  pirates,  encouraged  in  the  first  instance  by  the  inactivity 
which  had  marked  Roman  policy  in  the  East  after  167, 
and  by  the  absence  of  any  effective  Roman  navy  in  the 
Mediterranean,  had  now  risen  to  an  intolerable  height,  and 
the  spasmodic  efforts  made  since  81  had  done  little  to 
check  them.  The  trade  of  the  Mediterranean  was  para- 
lysed, and  even  the  coasts  of  Italy  were  not  safe  from  their 
raids.5  Aulus  Gabinius,  a  tribune,  and  a  follower  of 
Pompey,  now  proposed  to  the  people  to  entrust  Pompey 
with  the  sole  command  against  the  pirates.6  His  com- 
mand was  to  last  for  three  years.  He  was  to  have  supreme 
authority  over  all  Roman  magistrates  in  the  provinces 
throughout  the  Mediterranean  and  over  the  coasts  for  50 
miles  inland.  Fifteen  legati,  all  of  praetorian  rank,  were 
assigned  to  him,  with  two  hundred  ships,  and  as  many 
troops  as  he  thought  desirable.  These  powers  were  still 
further  enlarged  in  the  next  year  by  the  Manilian  law, 
which  transferred  from  Lucullus  and  Glabrio  to  Pompey 
the  conduct  of  the  Mithradatic  war  in  Asia,  and  with  it  the 
entire  control  of  Roman  policy  and  interests  in  the  East.7 
The  unrepublican  character  of  the  position  thus  granted  to 
Pompey,  and  the  dangers  of  the  precedent  established, 
were  clearly  enough  pointed  out  by  such  moderate  men  as 
Q.  Lutatius  Catulus,  the  "  father  of  the  senate,"  and  by 
the  orator  Hortensius — but  in  vain.  Both  laws  were  sup- 
ported, not  only  by  the  tribunes  and  the  populace,  but 
by  the  whole  influence  of  the  "  publicani "  and  "  nego- 
tiatores,"  whose  interests  in  the  East  were  at  stake. 

Pompey  left  Rome  in  67,  and  did  not  return  to  Italy  Caesar, 
till  towards  the  end  of  62.  The  interval  was  marked  in  687,  692. 
Rome  by  the  rise  to  political  importance  of  Csesar  and 
Cicero,  and  by  Catiline's  attempt  at  revolution.  When  in  70  684. 
the  removal  of  the  restrictions  placed  upon  the  tribunate 
restored  to  the  popular  party  their  old  weapons  of  attack, 
Caesar  was  already  a  marked  man.  In  addition  to  his 
patrician  birth,  and  his  reputation  for  daring  and  ability, 
he  possessed,  as  the  nephew  of  Marius  and  the  son-in-law 
of  Cinna,  a  strong  hereditary  claim  to  the  leadership  of  the 
popular  and  Marian  party.  He  had  already  taken  part 
in  the  agitation  for  the  restoration  of  the  tribunate  ;  he 
had  supported  the  Manilian  law;  and,  when  Pompey's 
withdrawal  left  the  field  clear  for  other  competitors,  he 
stepped  at  once  into  the  front  rank  on  the  popular  side.8 
He  took  upon  himself,  as  their  nearest  representative,  the 
task  of  clearing  the  memory  and  avenging  the  wrongs  of 
the  great  popular  leaders,  Marius,  Cinna,  and  Saturninus. 
He  publicly  reminded  the  people  of  Marius's  services, 
and  set  up  again  upon  the  Capitol  the  trophies  of  the 
Cimbric  War.  He  endeavoured  to  bring  to  justice,  not 
only  the  ringleaders  in  Sulla's  bloody  work  of  proscription, 
but  even  the  murderers  of  Saturninus,  and  vehemently 
pleaded  the  cause  of  the  children  of  the  proscribed.  While 
thus  carrying  on  in  genuine  Roman  fashion  the  feud  of 
his  family,  he  attracted  -the  sympathies  of  the  Italians  by 
his  efforts  to  procure  the  Roman  franchise  for  the  Latin 
communities  beyond  the  Po,  and  won  the  affections  of 
the  populace  in  Rome  and  its  immediate  neighbourhood 
by  the  splendour  of  the  games  which  he  gave  as  curule 
sedile  (65),  and  by  his  lavish  expenditure  upon  the  improve-  689. 

4  Velleius,  ii.  31  ;  Plut.,  Pomp.,  23. 

5  See  the  brilliant  sketch  by  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  iii.  39  sq. 

6  Plut.,  Pomp.,  25  ;  Dio,  xxxvi.  6  ;  Livy,  Epit.,  c. 

7  Cic.  Pro  Lege  Manilla  ;  Dio,  xxxvi.  25.;  Plut.,  Pomp.,  30. 

8  Prof.  Beesly,  in  his  essay  on  Catiline,  has  vainly  endeavoured  to 
show  that  Catiline  and  not  Cnesar  was  the  popular  leader  from  67  to  63. 
That  this  is  the  inference  intentionally  conveyed  by  Sallust,  in  order 
to  screen  Csesar,  is  true,  but  the  inference  is  a  false  one. 


764 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


ment  of  the  Appian  Way.  But  it  is  characteristic  of  Caesar 
and  of  his  time  that  these  measures  were  with  him  only 
means  to  the  further  end  of  creating  for  himself  a  position 
such  as  that  which  Pompey  had  already  won;  and  this 
ulterior  aim  he  pursued  with  a  skill,  and  with  an  audacious 
indifference  to  constitutional  forms  and  usages,  unsur- 
passed even  by  Sulla.  His  coalition  with  Crassus,  soon 
after  Pompey's  departure,  secured  him  an  ally  whose 
colossal  wealth  and  wide  financial  connexions  were  of 
inestimable  value,  and  whose  vanity  and  inferiority  of 
intellect  rendered  him  a  willing  tool.  The  story  of  his 

;9.         attempted  coup  tfetat  in  January  65  is  probably  false,1 

1.  but  it  is  evident  that  by  the  beginning  of  63  he  was  bent 
on  reaping  the  reward  of  his  exertioas  by  obtaining  from 
the  people  an  extraordinary  command  abroad,  which 
should  secure  his  position  before  Pompey's  return ;  and 
the  agrarian  law  proposed  early  that  year  by  the  tribune 
Rullus  had  for  its  real  object  the  creation,  in  favour  of 
Caesar  and  Crassus,  of  a  commission  with  powers  so  wide 
as  to  place  its  members  almost  on  a  level  with  Pompey 
himself.2  It  was  at  this  moment,  when  all  seemed  going 
well,  that  Caesar's  hopes  were  dashed  to  the  ground  by 
Catiline's  desperate  outbreak,  which  not  only  discredited 
every  one  connected  with  the  popular  party,  but  directed 
the  suspicions  of  the  well-to-do  classes  against  Caesar  him- 
self, as  a  possible  accomplice  in  Catiline's  revolutionary 
schemes.3 

cero.  The  same  wave  of  indignation  and  suspicion  which  for 

the  moment  checked  Caesar's  rise  carried  Marcus  Tullius 
Cicero  to  the  height  of  his  fortunes.  Cicero,  as  a  poli- 
tician, has  been  equally  misjudged  by  friends  and  foes. 
That  he  was  deficient  in  courage,  that  he  was  vain,  and 
that  he  attempted  the  impossible,  may  be  admitted  at 
once.  But  he  was  neither  a  brilliant  and  unscrupulous 
adventurer  nor  an  aimless  trimmer,  nor  yet  a  devoted 
champion  merely  of  senatorial  ascendency.4  He  was  a 
representative  man,  with  a  numerous  following,  and  a 
policy  which  was  naturally  suggested  to  him  by  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  birth,  connexions,  and  profession,  and 
which,  impracticable  as  it  proved  to  be,  was  yet  consistent, 
intelligible,  and  high-minded.  Born  at  Arpinum,  he 
cherished  like  all  Arpinates  the  memory  of  his  great  fellow- 
townsman  Marius,  the  friend  of  the  Italians,  the  saviour 
of  Italy,  and  the  irreconcilable  foe  of  Sulla  and  the  nobles. 
A  "  municipal "  himself,  his  chosen  friends  and  his  warmest 
supporters  were  found  among  the  well-to-do  classes  in  the 
Italian  towns.5  Unpopular  with  the  Roman  aristocracy, 
who  despised  him  as  a  "  peregrinus,"6  and  with  the  Roman 
populace,  he  was  the  trusted  leader  of  the  Italian  middle 
class,  "  the  true  Roman  people,"  as  he  proudly  styles  them. 
It  was  they  who  carried  his  election  for  the  consulship  7 

>1,  696.  (63),  who  in  58  insisted  on  his  recall  from  exile,8  and  it 
was  his  influence  with  them  which  made  Caesar  so  anxious 

15.  to  win  him  over  in  49.  He  represented  their  antipathy 
alike  to  socialistic  schemes  and  to  aristocratic  exclusive- 
ness,  and  their  old-fashioned  simplicity  of  life  in  contrast 

1  The  story  is  so  told  by  Suetonius,  Jul.,  8.  In  Sallust,  Cat.,  18, 
it  appears  as  an  intrigue  originating  with  Catiline,  and  Caesar's  name 
is  omitted. 

*  Cic.,  Lex  Agr.,  ii.  6,  "nihil  aliud  actum  nisi  ut  decem  reges 
constituerentur." 

3  That  Csesar  and  Crassns  had  supported  Catiline  for  the  consulship 
in  65  is  certain,  and  they  were  suspected  naturally  enough  of  favour- 
ing his  designs  in  63,  but  their  complicity  is  in  the  highest  degree 
improbable. 

4  Monimsen  is  throughout  unfair  to  Cicero,  as  also  are  Drumann 
nnd  Prof.  Beesly.     The  best   estimate  of  Cicero's  political  position 
known   to   the  present  writer  is  that  given  by  Prof.  Tyrrell  in  the 
Introduction  to  his  edition  of  Cicero's  Letters. 

6  Cic.  AdAtt.,  i.  191,  "locupletes.  .  .  noster  exercitus." 

6  Cic.  Pro  Sulla,  7  ;  Sail.,  Cat.,  31,  "inquilinus  urbia  Romae." 

7  See  the  De  Petitions  Consvlatus,  passim. 

8  De  Domo,  28  ;  Pro  Plancio,  97. 


with  the  cosmopolitan  luxury  of  the  capital.9  By  birth, 
too,  he  belonged  to  the  equestrian  order,  the  foremost  re- 
presentatives of  which  were  indeed  still  the  publicani  and 
negotiatores,  but  which  since  the  enfranchisement  of  Italy 
included  also  the  substantial  burgesses  of  the  Italian 
towns  and  the  smaller  "  squires  "  of  the  country  districts. 
With  them,  too,  Cicero  was  at  one  in  their  dread  of  demo- 
cratic excesses  and  their  social  and  political  jealousy  of 
the  "  nobiles."10  Lastly,  as  a  lawyer  and  a  scholar,  he  was 
passionately  attached  to  the  ancient  constitution.  His 
political  ideal  was  the  natural  outcome  of  these  circum- 
stances of  his  position.  He  advocated  the  maintenance  of 
the  old  constitution,  but  not  as  it  was  understood  by  the 
extreme  politicians  of  the  right  and  left.  The  senate  was 
to  be  the  supreme  directing  council,11  but  the  senate  of 
Cicero's  dreams  was  not  an  oligarchic  assemblage  of  nobles, 
but  a  body  freely  open  to  all  citizens,  and  representing 
the  worth  of  the  community.12  The  magistrates,  while 
deferring  to  the  senate's  authority,  were  to  be  at  once 
vigorous  and  public-spirited  ;  and  the  assembly  itself  which 
elected  the  magistrates  and  passed  the  laws  was  to  consist, 
not  of  the  "  mob  of  the  forum,"  but  of  the  true  Roman 
people  throughout  Italy.13  For  the  realization  of  this  ideal 
he  looked,  above  all  things,  to  the  establishment  of  cordial 
relations  between  the  senate  and  nobles  in  Rome  and  the 
great  middle  class  of  Italy  represented  by  the  equestrian 
order,  between  the  capital  and  the  country  towns  and  dis- 
tricts. This  was  the  "  concordia  ordinum,"  the  "  consensus 
Italiae,"  for  which  he  laboured.14  He  failed  because  his 
ideal  was  impracticable.  The  inveterate  selfishness  and 
exclusiveness  of  the  nobles,  the  indifference  of  the  Italians 
to  constitutional  questions,  and  their  suspicious  dislike  of 
Roman  politicians,  above  all  the  incompetency  of  the  old 
machinery,  even  if  reformed  as  he  would  have  had  it 
reformed,  to  govern  the  empire  and  control  the  proconsuls 
and  the  army,  were  insuperable  obstacles  in  his  way. 

Cicero's  election  to  the  consulship  for  63  over  the  heads  The 
of  Caesar's  nominees,  Antonius  and  Catiline,  was  mainly  con- 
the  work  of  the  Italian  middle  class,  already  rendered  un- 
easy  both  by  the  rumours  which  were  rife  of  revolutionary 
schemes  and  of  Caesar's  boundless  ambition,  and  by  the 
numerous  disquieting  signs  of  disturbance  noticeable  in 
Italy.  The  new  consul  vigorously  set  himself  to  discharge 
the  trust  placed  in  him.  He  defeated  the  insidious  pro- 
posals of  Rullus  for  Caesar's  aggrandizement,  and  assisted 
in  quashing  the  prosecution  of  Rabirius.  But  with  the 
consular  elections  in  the  autumn  of  63  a  fresh  danger 
arose  from  a  different  quarter.  The  "  conspiracy 15  of 
Catiline  "  (see  CATILINE)  was  not  the  work  of  the  popular 
party,  and  still  less  was  it  an  unselfish  attempt  at  reform ; 
L.  Sergius  Catilina  himself  was  a  patrician,  who  had 
held  high  office,  and  possessed  considerable  ability  and 
courage ;  but  he  was  bankrupt  in  character  and  in  purse, 
and  two  successive  defeats  in  the  consular  elections  had 
rendered  him  desperate.  To  retrieve  his  broken  fortunes 
by  violence  was  a  course  which  was  only  too  readily 
suggested  by  the  history  of  the  last  forty  years,  and 
materials  for  a  conflagration  abounded  on  all  sides.  The 
danger  to  be  feared  from  his  intrigues  lay  in  the  state  of 
Italy,  which  made  a  revolt  against  society  and  the  estab- 
lished government  only  too  likely  if  once  a  leader  pre- 
sented himself,  and  it  was  such  a  revolt  that  Catiline 


9  Cic.  Pro  Quinctio,  31  ;  Pro  Cluentio,  46,  153. 

10  Cic.  In  Verr.,  ii.  73  ;  De  Pet.   Cons.,  i.     He  shared  with  them 
their  dislike  to  Sulla,  as  the  foe  of  their  order ;  Pro  Cluentio,  55. 

11  De  Rep.,  ii.  36  ;  De  Legg.,  iii.  12. 

12  ProSestio,  65  ;  De  Legg.,  iii.  4. 

13  Pro  Sestio,  49.  14  Ad  Alt.,  i.  18. 

15  For  Catiline's  conspiracy,  see  Sallust,  Catiline  ;  Cicero  In  Cati- 
linam;  Plut.,  Cicero  ;  Mommsen,  R.  (?.,  iii.  164  sq.  ;  and  especially 
C.  John,  Entsiehung  d.  Catilinarischen  Verschicorunff  (Leipsic,  1876). 


CJESAE.] 


ROME 


765 


endeavoured  to  organize.  Bankrupt  nobles  like  himself, 
Sullan  veterans  and  the  starving  peasants  whom  they  had 
dispossessed  of  their  holdings,  outlaws  of  every  descrip- 
tion, the  slave  population  of  Rome,  and  the  wilder 
herdsmen-slaves  of  the  Apulian  pastures,  were  all  enlisted 
under  his  banner,  and  attempts  were  even  made  to  excite 
disaffection  among  the  newly-conquered  people  of  south- 
ern Gaul  and  the  warlike  tribes  who  still  cherished  the 
memory  of  Sertorius  in  Spain.  In  Etruria,  the  seat  and 
centre  of  agrarian  distress  and  discontent,  a  rising  actually 
took  place  headed  by  a  Sullan  centurion,  but  the  spread  of 
the  revolt  was  checked  by  Cicero's  vigorous  measures. 
Catiline  fled  from  Eome,  and  died  fighting  with  desperate 
courage  at  the  head  of  his  motley  force  of  old  soldiers, 
peasants,  and  slaves.  His  accomplices  in  Rome  were 
arrested,  and,  after  an  unavailing  protest  from  Caesar, 
the  senate  authorized  the  consuls  summarily  to  put  them 
to  death. 

The  Catilinarian  outbreak  had  been  a  blow  to  Caesar, 
whose  schemes  it  interrupted,  but  to  Cicero  it  brought, 
not  only  popularity  and  honour,  but,  as  he  believed,  the 
realization  of  his  political  ideal.  The  senate  and  the 
equestrian  order,  the  nobles  of  Rome  and  the  middle 
class  in  the  country,  had  made  common  cause  in  the  face 
of  a  common  danger ;  and  the  danger  had  been  averted 
by  the  vigorous  action  of  a  consul  sprung  from  the  people, 
under  the  guidance  of  a  united  senate,  and  backed  by 
the  mass  of  good  citizens. 

But  Pompey  was  now  an  his  way  home,1  and  again 
as  in  70  the  political  future  seemed  to  depend  on  the 
attitude  which  the  successful  general  would  assume ; 
Pompey  himself  looked  simply  to  the  attainment  by  the 
help  of  one  political  party  or  another  of  his  immediate 
aims,  which  at  present  were  the  ratification  of  his 
arrangements  in  Asia  and  a  grant  of  land  for  his  troops. 
It  was  the  impracticable  jealousy  of  his  personal  rivals  in 
the  senate,  aided  by  the  versatility  of  Caesar,  who  pre- 
sented himself  not  as  his  rival  but  as  his  ally,  which  drove 
Pompey  once  more,  in  spite  of  Cicero's  efforts,  into  the 
camp  of  what  was  still  nominally  the  popular  party.  In 
60,  on  Caesar's  return  from  his  proprsetorship  in  Spain, 
the  coalition  was  formed  which  is  known  by  the  some- 
what misleading  title  of  the  first  triumvirate.2  Pompey 
was  ostensibly  the  head  of  this  new  alliance,  and  in  return 
for  the  satisfaction  of  his  own  demands  he  undertook  to 
support  Caesar's  candidature  for  the  consulship.  The 
wealth  and  influence  of  Crassus  were  enlisted  in  the  same 
cause,  but  what  he  was  to  receive  in  exchange  is  not 
clear.  Cicero  was  under  no  illusions  as  to  the  significance 
of  this  coalition.  It  scattered  to  the  winds  his  dreams 
of  a  stable  and  conservative  republic.  Pompey,  whom  he 
had  hoped  to  enlist  as  the  champion  of  constitutional 
government,  had  been  driven  into  the  arms  of  Caesar. 
The  union  between  the  senate  and  the  equestrian  order 
had  been  dissolved,  and  the  support  of  the  publicani  lost 
by  an  untimely  quarrel  over  the  price  to  be  paid  for 
collecting  the  taxes  of  Asia,  and,  to  crown  all,  both  his 
own  personal  safety  and  the  autnority  of  the  senate  were 
threatened  by  the  openly  avowed  intentions  of  Catiline's 
friends  to  bring  the  consul  of  63  to  account  for  his 
unconstitutional  execution  of  Catiline's  accomplices.  His 
fears  were  fully  justified  by  the  results.  The  year  59  saw 
the  republic  powerless  in  the  hands  of  three  citizens. 
C&sar  as  consul  procured  the  ratification  of  Pompey's 
acts  in  Asia,  conciliated  the  publicani  by  granting  them 

1  For  the  history  of  the  next  eighteen  years,  the  most  important 
ancient  authority  is  Cicero  in  his  letters  and  speeches. 

2  Misleading,  because  the  coalition  was  unofficial.     The  "trium- 
virs" of  43  were  actual  magistrates,    ' '  niviri  reipublicae  constituendae 
causa." 


the  relief  refused  by  the  senate,  and  carried  an  agrarian 
law  of  the  new  type,  which  provided  for  the  purchase  of 
lands  for  allotment  at  the  cost  of  the  treasury,  and  for 
the  assignment  of  the  rich  "ager  Campanus."3  But 
Caesar  aimed  at  more  than  the  carrying  of  an  agrarian 
law  in  the  teeth  of  the  senate  or  any  party  victory  in  the 
forum.  An  important  military  command  was  essential  Caesar 
to  him,  and  he  judged  correctly  enough  that  in  the  West  comm* 
there  was  work  to  be  done  which  might  enable  him  toinGai 
win  a  position  such  as  Pompey  had  achieved  in  the  East. 
An  obedient  tribune  was  found,  and  by  the  lex  Vatinia 
he  was  given  for  rive  years  the  command  of  Cisalpine 
Gaul  and  Illyricum,  to  which  was  added  by  a  decree  of 
the  senate  Transalpine  Gaul  also.4  It  was  a  command 
which  not  only  opened  to  him  a  great  military  career, 
but  enabled  him,  as  the  master  of  the  valley  of  the  Po,  to 
keep  an  effective  watch  on  the  course  of  affairs  in  Italy. 

Early  the  next  year   the   attack  upon   himself   which  Banisl 
Cicero  had  foreseen  was   made.     P.  Clodius   as   tribune  ment ' 
brought  forward  a  law  enacting  that  any  one  who  had  put  a  g3.08*1 
Roman  citizen  to  death  without  trial  by  the  people  should  53-57 
be  interdicted  from  fire  and  water.     Cicero  finding  him-  696-7. 
self  deserted  even  by  Pompey  left  Rome  in  a  panic,  and 
by  a  second  Clodian  law  he  was  declared  to  be  outlawed.5 
With  Caesar  away  in  his  province,  and  Cicero  banished, 
Clodius  was  for  the  time  master  in  Rome.     But,  absolute 
as  he  was  in  the  streets,  and  recklessly  as  he  parodied  the 
policy  of  the  Gracchi  by  violent  attacks  on  the  senate, 
his  tribunate  merely  illustrated  the  anarchy  which  now 
inevitably  followed  the  withdrawal  of  a  strong  controlling 
hand.     A  reaction  speedily  followed.     Pompey,  bewildered 
and  alarmed  by  Clodius's  violence,  at  last  bestirred  himself. 
Cicero's  recall   was  decreed  by  the  senate,  and  early  in 
August  57  in  the  comitia  centuriata,  to  which  his  Italian 
supporters  flocked  in  crowds,  a  law  was  passed  revoking 
the  sentence  of  outlawry  passed  upon  him. 

Intoxicated   by  the   acclamations  which  greeted   him,  Renew; 
and  encouraged  by  Pompey's  support,  and  by  the  salutary  of  the. 
effects   of  Clodius's   excesses,  Cicero's   hopes   rose   high,  r^f ^ 
and    a   return   to   the   days   of   63   seemed   not   impos- 
sible.6    With  indefatigable  energy  he  strove  to  reconstruct 
a  solid  constitutional  party,  but  only  to  fail  once  more. 
Pompey  was  irritated  by  the  hostility  of  a  powerful  party 
in  the  senate,  who  thwarted  his  desires  for  a  fresh  com- 
mand  and    even   encouraged    Clodius   in    insulting   the 
conqueror  of  the  East.     Caesar   became   alarmed   at  the 
reports  which  reached  him  that  the  repeal  of  his  agrarian 
law  was  threatened  and  that  the  feeling  against  the  coali- 
tion was  growing  in  strength ;  above  all  he  was  anxious 
for  a  renewal  of  his  five  years'  command.     He  acted  at 
once,  and  in  the  celebrated  conference  at  Luca  (56)  the  698. 
alliance  of  the  three  self-constituted  rulers  of  Rome  was 
renewed.     Cicero  succumbed  to  the  inevitable  and  with- 
drew in  despair  from  public  life.     Pompey  and  Crassus 
became  consuls  for  55.     Caesar's  command  was  renewed  699. 
for  another  five  years,  and  to  each  of  his  two  allies  import- 
ant provinces  were  assigned  for  a  similar  period — Pompey 


3  For  the  lex  Julia  Agraria  and  the  lex  Campana,  see  Dio  Cass., 
xxxviii.  1;   App.,  B.  C.,  ii.   10;  Suet.,  Caesar,  20;   Cic.  Ad  Att.t 
ii.  16,  18. 

4  Suet,   C&sar,  22;  Dio  Cass.,  xxxviii.  8;  App.,  £.  C.,  ii.  13; 
Plut.,  Cass.,  14. 

5  Both   laws  were  carried  in  the  "comitia   tributa."     The   first 
merely  reaffirmed  the  right  of  appeal,  as  the  law  of  Gaius  Gracchus 
had  done.     The  second  declared  Cicero  to  be  already  by  his  own  act 
in  leaving  Rome  "  interdicted  from  fire  and  water, " — a  procedure  for 
which  precedents  could  be  quoted.     Clodius  was  within  the  letter  of 
the  law. 

6  Cicero's  speech  Pro  Sestio  gives  expression  to  these  feelings  ;  it 
contains  a  passionate  appeal  to  all  good  citizens  to  rally  round  the  old 
constitution.     The  acquittal  of  SesMus  confirmed  his  hopes.     See  Ad 
Q.  Fr.,  ii.  4, 


766 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


le 
nsul, 


-  .receiving  the  two  Spains  and  Africa,  and  Oassus  Syria.1 
The  coalition  now  divided  between  them  the  control  of 
the  empire.    For  the  future  the  question  was,  how  long  the 
coalition  itself   would  last.     Its   duration  proved   to   be 
»th  of  short.     In   53   Crassus   was   defeated   and   slain  by  the 
assus,    Parthians  at  Carrhae,  and  in  Rome  the  course  of  events 
~*^01<  slowly  forced   Pompey   into   an   attitude  of   hostility  to 
0.          Caesar.     The  year  54  brought  with  it  a  renewal  of  the 
riotous  anarchy  which  had   disgraced   Rome   in   58-57. 
Conscious  of   its  own  helplessness,  the  senate,  with  the 
eager  assent  of  all  respectable  citizens,  dissuaded  Pompey 
from  leaving  Italy.     His  provinces  were  left  to  his  legates, 
and  he  himself  remained  at  home  to  maintain  order  by 
the  weight  of  his  influence.     It  was  a  confession  that  the 
republic  could  not   stand   alone.       But   Pompey 's   mere 
presence  proved  insufficient.     The  anarchy  and  confusion 
grew  worse,  and  even  strict  constitutionalists  like  Cicero 
talked  of   the  necessity  of  investing  Pompey  with  some 
impey    extraordinary  powers  for  the  preservation  of  order.2     At 
last  in  52  he  was  elected  sole  consul,  and  not  only  so,  but 
his   provincial   command   was   prolonged   for   five   years 
more,  and  fresh  troops  were  assigned  him.3     The  role  of 
"  saviour  of  society  "  thus  thrust  upon  Pompey  was  one 
•which   flattered  his  vanity,  but  it  entailed  consequences 
which   it  is  probable  he  did  not  foresee,  for  it  brought 
him  into  close  alliance  with  the  senate,  and  in  the  senate 
there  was  a  powerful  party  who  were  resolved  to  force  him 
into  heading  the  attack  they  could  not  successfully  make 
without  him  upon  Caesar.     It  was  known  that  the  latter, 
'5.          whose   command  expired  in    March  49,  but  who  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  things  would  not  have  been  replaced 
by  his   successor   until   January  48,  was  anxious   to  be 
allowed  to  stand  for  his  second  consulship  in  the  autumn 
•oposed  of  49  without  coming  in  person  to  Rome.4     His  opponents 
3411  of    in  the  senate  were  equally  bent  on  bringing  his  command 
sar'       to  an  end  at  the  legal  time,  and  so  obliging  him  to  dis- 
band his  troops  and  stand  for  the  consulship  as  a  private 
person,  or,  if  he  kept  his  command,  on   preventing   his 
13-704.  standing   for   the  consulship.     Through  51    and    50  the 
discussions  in  the  senate  and  the  negotiations  with  Caesar 
'5.          continued,  but  with  no  result.     On  1st  January  49  Caesar 
made  a  last  offer  of  compromise.     The  senate  replied  by 
requiring  him  on  pain  of  outlawry  to  disband  his  legions. 
Two  tribunes  who  supported  him  were  ejected  from  the 
senate   house,  and   the   magistrates   with   Pompey   were 
authorized   to   take    measures   to   protect    the   republic, 
esar       Caesar  hesitated  no  longer ;  he  crossed  the  Rubicon  and 
ossesthe  invaded  Italy.     The   rapidity  of  his  advance  astounded 
i    7o^'   an(^   bewildered   his    foes.      Pompey,    followed    by    the 
consuls,  by  the  majority  of  the  senate  and  a  long  train  of 
nobles,  abandoned  Italy  as  untenable,  and  crossed   into 
Greece.5     At  the  end  of  March  Caesar  entered  Rome  as 
the  master  of  Italy.     The  story  of  the  civil  war  which 
followed,  down  to  the  victory  at  Munda  in  the  spring  of 
)9.          45,  has  been  told   elsewhere.6     We  are   concerned   here 
with  the  work  which  Caesar  achieved  in  the  brief  intervals 


1  Livy,  Epit.,  cv. ;  Dio  Cass.,  xxxix.  31.     For  Cicero's  views,  see 
Ep.  Ad  Fam.,  i.  9  ;  Ad  AH.,  iv.  5. 

2  A  dictatorship  was  talked  of  in  Rome;  Plut.,  Pomp.,  54  ;  Cic. 
Ad  Q.  FT.,  iii.  8.    Cicero  himself  anticipated  Augustus  in  his  picture 
of  a  "  princeps  civitatis"  sketched  in  a  lost  book  of  the  De  Republica, 
written  about  this  time,  which  was  based  upon  his  hopes  of  what 
Pompey  might  prove  to  be  ;  Ad  Alt.,  viii.  11  ;  August.,  De  Civ.  Dei, 
v.  13.  3  Plut.,  56  ;  App.,  £.  C.,  ii.  24. 

*  For  the  rights  of  the  question  involved  in  the  controversy  between 
Caesar  and  the  senate,  see  Mommsen,  Rechtsfrage  zw.  Csesar  und  d. 
Senat ;  Guiraud,  LeDifferend  entre  Cesar  et  le  Stnat  (Paris,  1878). 

8  Cicero  severely  censures  Pompey  for  abandoning  Italy,  but 
strategically  the  move  was  justified  by  the  fact  that  Pompey's  strength 
lay  in  the  East,  where  his  name  was  a  power,  and  in  his  control  of  the 
sea.  Politically,  however,  it  was  a  blunder,  as  it  enabled  Caesar  to 
pose  as  the  defender  of  Italy. 

6  See  arts.  C«SAR,  CICERO,  and  POMPEY. 


of  rest  allowed  him  during  these  stormy  years,  and  with 
the  place  which  his  dictatorship  holds  in  the  history  of 
Rome. 

The  task  which  Caesar  had  to  perform  was  no  easy  one.  Die 
It  came  upon  him  suddenly ;  for  there  is  no  sufficient  ship  oi 
reason  to  believe  that  Caesar  had  long  premeditated  CsKSa*> 
revolution,  or  that  he  had  previously  aspired  to  anythiug  -Qg  i 
more  than  such  a  position  as  that  which  Pompey  had 
already  won,  a  position  unrepublican  indeed,  but  accepted 
by  republicans  as  inevitable.7  War  was  forced  upon  him 
as  the  alternative  to  political  suicide,  but  success  in  war 
brought  the  responsibilities  of  nearly  absolute  power,  and 
Caesar's  genius  must  be  held  to  have  shown  itself  in  the 
masterly  fashion  in  which  he  grasped  the  situation,  rather 
than  in  the  supposed  sagacity  with  which  he  is  said  to 
have  foreseen  and  prepared  for  it.  In  so  far  as  he  failed, 
his  failure  was  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  his  tenure  of 
power  was  too  short  for  the  work  which  he  was  required 
to  perform.  From  the  very  first  moment  when  Pompey's 
ignominious  retreat  left  him  master  of  Italy,  he  made  it 
clear  that  he  was  neither  a  second  Sulla  nor  even  the 
reckless  anarchist  which  many  believed  him  to  be.8  The 
Roman  and  Italian  public  were  first  startled  by  the 
masterly  rapidity  and  energy  of  his  movements,  and  then 
agreeably  surprised  by  his  lenity  and  moderation.  No 
proscriptions  or  confiscations  followed  his  victories,  and  all 
his  acts  evinced  an  unmistakable  desire  to  effect  a  sober 
and  reasonable  settlement  of  the  pressing  questions  of  the 
hour ;  of  this,  and  of  his  almost  superhuman  energy,  the 
long  list  of  measures  he  carried  out  or  planned  is  sufficient 
proof.  The  "  children  of  the  proscribed  "  were  at  length 
restored  to  their  rights,9  and  with  them  many  of  the 
refugees 10  who  had  found  shelter  in  Caesar's  camp  during 
the  two  or  three  years  immediately  preceding  the  war ; 
but  the  extreme  men  among  his  supporters  soon  realized 
that  their  hopes  of  "  novae  tabulae "  and  grants  of  land 
were  illusory.  In  allotting  lands  to  his  veterans,  Caesar 
carefully  avoided  any  disturbance  of  existing  owners  and 
occupiers,11  and  the  mode  in  which  he  dealt  with  the 
economic  crisis  produced  by  the  war  seems  to  have  satisfied 
all  reasonable  men.12  It  had  been  a  common  charge  against 
Csesar  in  former  days  that  he  paid  excessive  court  to  the 
populace  of  Rome,  and  now  that  he  was  master  he  still 
dazzled  and  delighted  them  by  the  splendour  of  the  spec- 
tacles he  provided,  and  by  the  liberality  of  his  largesses. 
But  he  was  no  indiscriminate  flatterer  of  the  mob.  The 
popular  clubs  and  guilds  which  had  helped  to  organize  the 
anarchy  of  the  last  few  years  were  dissolved.13  A  strict 
inquiry  was  made  into  the  distribution  of  the  monthly  doles 
of  corn,  and  the  number  of  recipients  was  reduced  by  one 
half;14  finally,  the  position  of  the  courts  of  justice  was  raised 
by  the  abolition  of  the  popular  element  among  the  judices.15 
Nor  did  Caesar  shrink  from  the  attempt,  in  which  so  many 
had  failed  before  him,  to  mitigate  the  twin  evils  which  were 
ruining  the  prosperity  of  Italy, — the  concentration  of  a 

7  On  this,  as  on  many  other  points  connected  with  Caesar,  divergence 
has  here  been  ventured  on  from  the  views  expressed  by  Mommsen  in 
his  brilliant  chapter  on  Caesar  (R.  G. ,  iii.  446  sq. ).     Too  much  stress 
must  not  be  laid  on  tha  gossip  retailed  by  Suetonius  as  to  Ccesar's 
early  intentions. 

8  Cicero  vividly  expresses   the  revulsion   of  feeling  produced  by 
Caesar's  energy,  humanity,  and  moderation  on  his  first  appearance  in 
Italy.     Compare  Ad  Att.,  vii.  11,  with  Ad  Att.,  viii.  13. 

9  Dio,  xli.  18.  10  App.,  ii.  48  ;  Dio,  xli.  36. 

11  Plut.,   Cass.,  51  ;  Sueton.,  37,   "  adsignavit  agros,  sed  non  con- 
tinuos,  ne  quis  possessorum  expelleretur."     Cf.  App.,  ii.  94. 

12  For  the  "lex  Julia  de  pecuniis  mutuis,"  see  Sueton.,  42  ;  Caesar, 
B.  C.,  iii.  1  ;  Dio,  xli.  37  ;  App.,  ii.  48.     The  "foeneratores  ".were 
satisfied  ;  Cic.,  Ad  Fain.,  viii.  17.     But  the  law  displeased  anarchists 
like  M.  Ccelius  Rufus  and  P.  Cornelius  Dolabella. 

13  Suetou.,  42.  14  Suetou.,  41  ;  Dio,  xliii.  21. 
15  Sueton.,  40  ;  Dio,  xliii.  25. 


ROME 


767 


pauper  population  in  the  towns,  and  the  denudation  and 
desolation  of  the  country  districts.  His  strong  hand  carried 
out  the  scheme  so  often  proposed  by  the  popular  leaders 
since  the  days  of  Gaius  Gracchus,  the  colonization  of 
Carthage  and  Corinth.  Allotments  of  land  on  a  large 
scale  were  made  in  Italy  ;  decaying  towns  were  reinforced 
by  fresh  drafts  of  settlers ;  on  the  large  estates  and  cattle 
farms  the  owners  were  required  to  find  employment  for  a 
certain  amount  of  free  labour ;  and  a  slight  and  temporary 
stimulus  was  given  to  Italian  industry  by  the  reimposi- 
tion  of  harbour  dues  upon  foreign  goods.1  To  these 
measures  must  be  added  his  schemes  for  the  draining  of 
the  Fucine  Lake  and  the  Pomptine  Marshes,  for  a  new  road 
across  the  Apennines,  and  for  turning  the  course  of  the 
Tiber.2  It  is  true  that  these  vigorous  efforts  to  revive 
the  agrarian  prosperity  of  Italy  were  made  along  the  old 
lines  laid  down  eighty  years  before  by  the  Gracchi,  and 
that  their  final  success  was  no  greater  than  that  of  preced- 
ing efforts  in  the  same  direction,  but  they  are  a  proof  of 
the  spirit  in  which  Caesar  understood  the  responsibilities 
of  absolute  power,  and  their  failure  was  due  to  causes 
which  no  legislation  could  remove.  The  reform  of  the 
calendar,  which  has  been  described  elsewhere,3  completes 
a  record  of  administrative  reform  which  entitles  Caesar  to 
the  praise  of  having  governed  well,  whatever  may  be 
thought  of  the  validity  of  his  title  to  govern  at  all.  But 
how  did  Caesar  deal  with  what  was  after  all  the  greatest 
problem  which  he  was  called  upon  to  solve,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  satisfactory  government  for  the  empire  ?  One 
point  indeed  was  already  settled — the  necessity,  if  the 
empire  was  to  hold  together  at  all,  of  placing  the  army, 
the  provinces,  and  the  control  of  the  foreign  policy  in 
more  vigorous  hands  than  those  of  a  number  of  changing 
magistrates  independent  of  each  other,  and  only  very 
imperfectly  controlled  by  the  senate  at  home.  Some 
centralization  of  the  executive  authority  was  indispensable, 
and  this  part  of  his  work  Caesar  thoroughly  performed. 
From  the  moment  when  he  seized  the  moneys  in  the 
treasury  on  his  first  entry  into  Rome4  down  to  the  day  of 
his  death  he  recognized  no  other  authority  but  his 
throughout  the  empire.  He  alone  directed  the  policy  of 
Rome  in  foreign  affairs ;  the  legions  were  led,  and  the 
provinces  governed,  not  by  independent  magistrates,  but 
by  his  "legates;"5  and  the  title  "  imperator  "  which  he 
adopted  was  intended  to  express  the  absolute  and  unlimited 
nature  of  the  "  imperium "  he  claimed,  as  distinct  from 
the  limited  spheres  of  authority  possessed  by  republican 
magistrates.6  In  so  centralizing  the  executive  authority 
over  the  empire  at  large,  Caesar  was  but  developing  the 
policy  implied  in  the  Gabinian  and  Manilian  laws,  and 
the  precedent  he  established  was  closely  followed  by  his 
successors.  It  was  otherwise  with  the  more  difficult 
question  of  the  form  under  which  this  new  executive 
authority  should  be  exercised  and  the  relation  it  should 
hold  to  the  republican  constitution.  We  must  be  content 
to  remain  in  ignorance  of  the  precise  shape  which  Caesar 
intended  ultimately  to  give  to  the  new  system.  The 
theory  that  he  contemplated  a  revival  of  the  old  Roman 
kingship 7  is  supported  by  little  more  than  the  popular 
gossip  of  the  day,  and  the  form  under  which  he  actually 

1  Sueton.,  42,  43. 

2  Pint.,  Cxs.,  58  ;  Suet.,  44  ;  Dio,  xliii.  51. 

8  See  CALENDAK,  vol.  iv.  pp.  666-7;  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  iii.  550  ; 
and  Fischer,  Rom.  Zeittafeln,  292  sq. 

4  Plut.,  35.  5  Dio,  xliii.  47. 

8  Suet.,  40;  Dio,  xliii.  44.  For  this  use  of  the  title  "imperator," 
see  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  iii.  466,  and  note. 

7  See  Mommsen,  iii.  467,  and  Ranke,  Weltgeschichte,  ii.  319  sq. 
According  to  A  ppian,  ii.  110,  and  Plutarch,  Ctes.,  64,  the  title  "rex" 
was  only  to  be  used  abroad  in  the  East,  as  likely  to  strengthen 
Csesar's  position  against  the  Parthians. 


wielded  his  authority  can  hardly  have  been  regarded  by  so 
sagacious  a  statesman  as  more  than  a  provisional  arrange- 
ment. This  form  was  that  of  the  dictatorship ;  and  in 
favour  of  the  choice  it  might  have  been  urged  that  the 
dictatorship  was  the  office  naturally  marked  out  by 
republican  tradition  as  the  one  best  suited  to  carry  the 
state  safely  through  a  serious  crisis,  that  the  powers  it 
conveyed  were  wide,  that  it  was  as  dictator  that  Sulla  had 
reorganized  the  state,  and  that  a  dictatorship  had  been 
spoken  of  as  the  readiest  means  of  legalizing  Pompey's 
protectorate  of  the  republic  in  53-52.  The  choice  never-  701-70 
theless  was  a  bad  one.  It  was  associated  with  those  very 
Sullan  traditions  from  which  Caesar  was  must  anxious  to 
sever  himself ;  it  implied  necessarily  the  suspension  for 
the  time  of  all  constitutional  government ;  and,  lastly,  the 
dictatorship  as  held  by  Caesar  could  not  even  plead  that  it 
conformed  to  the  old  rules  and  traditions  of  the  office. 
There  was  indeed  a  precedent  in  Sulla's  case  for  a 
dictator  "  reipublicae  constituendae  causa,"  but  Caesar  was 
not  only  appointed  in  an  unusual  manner,  but  appointed 
for  an  unprecedentedly  long  period,8  and  the  "  perpetual 
dictatorship "  granted  him  after  his  crowning  victory  at 
Munda  (45)  was  a  contradiction  in  terms  and  a  repudia-  ^09. 
tion  of  constitutional  government  which  excited  the 
bitterest  animosity.9  The  dictatorship  served  well  enough 
for  the  time  to  give  some  appearance  of  legality  to 
Caesar's  autocratic  authority,  but  it  was  not — even,  it  is 
probable,  in  his  own  eyes — a  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
problem. 

A  second  question,  hardly  less  important  than  the  estab- 
lishment and  legalization  of  a  strong  central  executive 
authority  over  the  army  and  the  provinces,  was  that  of 
the  position  to  be  assigned  to  the  old  constitution,  by  the 
side  of  this  new  power.  So  far  as  Caesar  himself  was 
concerned,  the  answer  was  for  the  time  sufficiently  clear. 
The  old  constitution  was  not  formally  abrogated.  The 
senate  met  and  deliberated ;  the  assembly  passed  laws  and 
elected  magistrates ;  there  were  still  consuls,  praetors, 
aediles,  quaestors,  and  tribunes ;  and  Caesar  himself,  like  his 
successors,  professed  to  hold  his  authority  by  the  will  of 
the  people.  But  senate,  assembly,  and  magistrates  were 
all  alike  subordinated  to  the  paramount  authority  of  the 
dictator;  and  this  subordination  was,  in  appearance  at 
least,  more  direct  and  complete  under  the  rule  of  Caesar 
than  under  that  of  Augustus.  Caesar  was  by  nature  as 
impatient  as  Augustus  was  tolerant  of  established  forms ; 
and,  dazzled  by  the  splendour  of  his  career  of  victory  and 
by  his  ubiquitous  energy  and  versatility,  the  Roman 
public,  high  and  low,  prostrated  themselves  before  him  and 
heaped  honours  upon  him  with  a  reckless  profusion  which 
made  the  existence  of  any  authority  by  the  side  of  his 
own  an  absurdity.10  Hence  under  Caesar  the  old  constitu- 
tion was  repeatedly  disregarded,  or  suspended  in  a  way 
which  contrasted  unfavourably  with  the  more  respectful 
attitude  assumed  by  Augustus.  For  months  together 
Rome  was  left  without  any  regular  magistrates,  and  was 
governed  like  a  subject  town  by  Caesar's  prefects.11  At 
another  time  a  tribune  was  seen  exercising  authority  out- 
side the  city  bounds  and  invested  with  the  "  imperium  " 
of  a  prsetor.12  At  the  elections,  candidates  appeared  before 


8  Caesar's  first  dictatorship  in  49  was  simply  "  comitiorum  haben- 
dorum   causa,"   and  lasted   only   eleven  days.     He  was   appointed 
dictator  again  for  one  year  in  48,  for  ten  years  in  46,  and  for  life  in  45. 

9  Cicero,    Phil.,  i.  2,  praises   Antony,   "  quum  dictatoris  nomen. 
.  .  .  propter  perpetuae  dictaturae  recentem  meinoriam  funditus  ex 
republica  sustulisset." 

10  For  the  long  list  of  these,  see  Appian,  ii.  106  ;  Dio,  xliii.  43- 
45  ;  Plut.,  57  ;  Suet.,  76.     Cf.  also  Mommsen,  R.   G.,  iii.  463  sq.; 
Watson,    Cicero's  Letters,    App.    x. ;  Zumpt,   Studio,  Romana,    199 
sq.  (Berlin,  1859). 

11  Zumpt,  Stud.  Rom.,  241 ;  Suet.,  76.        "  Cic.  Ad  Att.,  x.  8a. 


768 


ROME 


the  people  backed  by  a  written  recommendation  from  the 
dictator,  which  was  equivalent  to  a  command.1  Finally, 
the  senate  itself  was  transformed  out  of  all  likeness  to  its 
former  self  by  the  raising  of  its  numbers  to  900,  and  by 
the  admission  of  old  soldiers,  sons  of  freedmen,  and  even 
"semi-barbarous  Gauls."2  But,  though  Caesar's  high- 
handed conduct  in  this  respect  was  not  imitated  by  his 
immediate  successors,  yet  the  main  lines  of  their  policy 
were  laid  down  by  him.  These  were  (1)  the  municipaliza- 
tion  of  the  old  republican  constitution,  and  (2)  its  subor- 
dination to  the  paramount  authority  of  the  master  of  the 
legions  and  the  provinces.  In  the  first  case  he  only 
carried  further  a  change  already  in  progress.  Of  late 
years  the  senate  had  been  rapidly  losing  its  hold  over  the 
empire  at  large.  Even  the  ordinary  proconsuls  were 
virtually  independent  potentates,  ruling  their  provinces 
as  they  chose,  and  disposing  absolutely  of  legions  which 
recognized  no  authority  but  theirs.  The  consuls  and 
praetors  of  each  year  had  since  81  been  stationed  in  Rome, 
and  immersed  in  purely  municipal  business ;  and,  lastly, 
since  the  enfranchisement  of  Italy,  the  comitia,  though  still 
recognized  as  the  ultimate  source  of  all  authority,  had 
become  little  more  than  assemblies  of  the  city  populace, 
and  their  claim  to  represent  the  true  Roman  people  was 
indignantly  questioned,  even  by  republicans  like  Cicero. 
The  concentration  in  Caesar's  hands  of  all  authority  out- 
side Rome  completely  and  finally  severed  all  real  con- 
nection between  the  old  institutions  of  the  republic  of 
Rome  and  the  government  of  the  Roman  empire.  And, 
though  Augustus  and  Tiberius  elevated  the  senate  to  a 
place  beside  themselves  in  this  government,  its  share  of 
the  work  was  a  subordinate  one,  and  it  never  again 
directed  the  policy  of  the  state ;  while,  from  the  time  of 
Caesar  onwards,  the  old  magistracies  are  merely  municipal 
offices,  with  a  steadily  diminishing  authority,  even  in  the 
city,  and  the  comitia  retain  no  other  prerogative  of 
imperial  importance  but  that  of  formally  confirming  the 
ruler  of  the  empire  in  the  possession  of  an  authority  which 
is  already  his.  But  the  institutions  of  the  republic  not 
merely  became,  what  they  had  originally  been,  the  local 
institutions  of  the  city  of  Rome ;  they  were  also  subordin- 
ated even  within  these  narrow  limits  to  the  paramount 
authority  of  the  man  who  held  in  his  hands  the  army  and 
the  provinces.  And  here  Caesar's  policy  was  closely 
followed  by  his  successors.  Autocratic  abroad,  at  home 
he  was  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  commonwealth ;  and 
this  position  was  marked,  in  his  case  as  in  that  of  those 
who  followed  him,  by  a  combination  in  his  person  of 
various  powers,  and  by  a  general  right  of  precedence 
which  left  no  limits  to  his  authority  but  such  as  he  chose 
to  impose  upon  himself.  During  the  greater  part  of  his 
reign  he  was  consul  as  well  as  dictator.3  In  48,  after 
his  victory  at  Pharsalia,  he  was  given  the  "  tribunicia 
potestas  "  for  life,4  and  after  his  second  success  at  Thapsus 
the  "  praefectura  morum "  for  three  years.5  As  chief 
magistrate  he  convenes  and  presides  in  the  senate,  nomi- 
nates candidates,  conducts  elections,  carries  laws  in  the 
assembly,  and  administers  justice  in  court.6  Finally,  as 
a  reminder  that  the  chief  magistrate  of  Rome  was  also 
the  autocratic  ruler  of  the  empire,  he  wore  even  in  Rome 
the  laurel  wreath  and  triumphal  dress,  and  carried  the 
sceptre  of  the  victorious  imperator.7 

Nor  are  we  without  some  clue  as  to  the  policy  which 

1  Suet.,   41,    "Caesar  dictator  .  .  .    commendo  vobis  ilium   et 
illuiu,  ut  vestro  suffragio  suam  dignitatem  teneant." 

2  Suet.,  41,  76  ;  Dio,  xliii.  47. 

3  Watson,  op.  cit.,  App.  x.;  Zumpt,  Stud.  Rom.,  loc.  cii.;  Suet, 
76,  "  tertium  et  quartum  consulatum  titulo  tenus  gessit." 

4  Dio,  xlii.  20.  »  Dio,  xliii.  14  ;  Suet.,  76. 

6  Suet.,  43,  "jus  laboriosissime  ac  severissime  dixit." 

7  App.,  ii.  106  ;  Dio,  xliii.  43. 


Caesar  had  sketched  out  for  himself  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  empire,  the  government  of  which  he  had  cen- 
tralized in  his  own  hands.  The  much-needed  work  of 
rectifying  the  frontiers  he  was  forced,  by  his  premature 
death,  to  leave  to  other  hands,  but  our  authorities  agree 
in  attributing  to  him  the  design  of  extending  the  rule  of 
Rome  to  its  natural  geographical  limits  8 — to  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Caucasus  on  the  east,  to  the  Danube  and  the 
Rhine  or  possibly  the  Elbe  on  the  north,  and  to  the  ocean 
on  the  west.  Within  the  frontiers  he  anticipated  Augustus 
in  lightening  the  financial  burdens  of  the  provincials,9 
and  in  establishing  a  stricter  control  over  the  provincial 
governors,10  while  he  went  beyond  him  in  his  desire  to 
consolidate  the  empire  by  extending  the  Roman  franchise11 
and  admitting  provincials  to  a  share  in  the  government.12 
He  completed  the  Romanization  of  Italy  by  his  enfran- 
chisement of  the  Transpadane  Gauls,13  and  by  establishing 
throughout  the  peninsula  a  uniform  system  of  municipal 
government,  which  under  his  successors  was  gradually 
extended  to  the  provinces.14 

On  the  eve  of  his  departure  for  the  East,  to  avenge  the  At 
death  of  Crassus  and  humble  the  power  of  Parthia,  Caesar  e.(lref 
fell  a  victim  to  the  wounded  pride  of  the  republican  nobles  ; 
and  between  the  day  of  his  death  (March  15,  44)  and  that  44.4 
on  which  Octavian  defeated  Antony  at  Actium  (September  710- 
2,  31)  lies  a  dreary  period  of  anarchy  and  bloodshed.15        710. 

For  a  moment,   in  spite  of  the  menacing  attitude  of  723. 
Caesar's  self-constituted  representative  Antony,  it  seemed  to 
one  man  at  least  as  if  the  restoration  of  republican  gov- 
ernment was  possible.     With  indefatigable  energy  Cicero 
strove  to  enlist  the  senate,  the  people,  and  above  all  the 
provincial  governors  in  support  of  the  old  constitution. 
But,  though  his  eloquence  now  and  again  carried  all  before 
it  in  senate  house  and  forum,  it  was  powerless  to  alter 
the  course  of  events.     By  the  beginning  of  43  civil  war  711. 
had   recommenced ;  in  the  autumn   Antony  was  already 
threatening  an  invasion  of  Italy  at  the  head  of  seventeen 
legions.     Towards  the  end  of  October  Antony  and  his  ally 
Lepidus  coalesced  with  the  young  Octavian,  who  had  been 
recently  elected  consul  at  the  age  of  twenty,  in  spite  of 
senatorial  opposition ;  and  the  coalition  was  legalized  by  The 
the   creation    of   the   extraordinary   commission   for   the  seco 
"  reorganization   of   the   commonwealth "   known   as    the  ^™ 
"second  triumvirate."16     It  was  appointed  for  a  period  of  43.; 
five  years,  and  was  continued  in  37  for  five  years  more.17  711- 
The  rule  of  the  triumvirs  was  inaugurated  in  the  Sullan  717. , 
fashion,  and,  in  marked  contrast  to  the  lenity  shown  by 
Caesar,  by  a  proscription,  foremost  among  the  victims  of 
which  was  Cicero  himself.18     In  the  next  year  the  defeat 
of  Brutus  and  Cassius  at  Philippi,  by  the  combined  forces 
of  Octavian  and  Antony,  destroyed  the  last  hopes  of  the 
republican  party.19     In  40  a  threatened  rupture  between  71  i 
the  two  victors  was  avoided  by  the  treaty  concluded  at 
Brundusium.     Antony  married  Octavian's  sister  Octavia, 

8  Plut.,   58,  "  ffwd-fyai  T)>V  KVK\OV  rr/s  rjycfjiovlas "  ;  Suet.,   44;     < 
Dio,  xliii.  51.  9  Plut.,  48  ;  App.,  v.  4. 

10  He  limited  the  term  of  command  to  two  years  in  consular  and 
one  year  in  praetorian  provinces;   Cicero,  Phil.,  i.  8  ;  Dio,  xliii.  25. 

11  Suet,  42;  Cic.  Ad  Att.,  xiv.  12. 

12  Suet,  76.  13  Dio,  xli.  36  ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  xi.  24. 

14  Lex  Julia  municipalis  ;  Wordsworth,  Fragments  of  Early  Latin, 
pp.  213,  464  ;  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  iii.  524.    Lex  Rubria;  Wordsworth, 
pp.  212,  463. 

15  For  this  period  see  Merivale,   Romans  under  the  Empire,  vol. 
iii.;  Lange,  Rom.  Alterth.,  iii.  476  sq. ; -Ranke,    Weltgeschichte,   ii. 
336  sq. ;  Watson,  Cicero's  Letters,  Introd.  to  Part  v. 

16  The  triumvirate  was  formally  constituted  in  Rome  (Nov.  27)  by 
a  plebiscitum ;  App.,  iv.  7  ;  Dio,  xlvi.  50-56,  xlvii.  2  ;  Livy,  Epit., 
cxx.  "ut  inviri  reipublicae  constituendae  per  quinquennium  essent." 

17  Dio,  xlviii.  54  ;  App.,  v.  93.     For  the  date,  cf.  Fischer,  Rom. 
Zeittafeln,  352,  353. 

18  Livy,  Epit.,  cxx.;  App.,  iv.  7;  and  art.  CICERO. 

19  Dio,  xlvii.  35-49  ;  App.,  iv.  87-138. 


THE  AUGUSTAN   SYSTEM.] 


K  0  M  E 


769 


and  took  command  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  empire; 
Octavian  appropriated  Italy  and  the  West ;  while  Lepidus 
was  forced  to  content  himself  with  Africa.1  For  the  next 
twelve  years,  while  Antony  was  indulging  in  dreams  of 
founding  for  himself  and  Cleopatra  an  empire  in  the  East, 
and  shocking  Roman  feeling  by  his  wild  excesses  and 

(his  affectation  of  oriental  magnificence,2  Octavian  was 
patiently  consolidating  his  power.  Of  his  only  two  rivals, 
3  Lepidus  his  fellow  triumvir  was  in  36  ejected  from  Africa 
and  banished  to  Circeii,  while  Sextus  Pompeius,  who  had 
since  his  defeat  at  Munda  maintained  a  semi-piratical 
ascendency  in  the  western  Mediterranean,  was  decisively 

'19  defeated  in  the  same  year,  and  his  death  in  35  left 
Octavian  sole  master  of  the  West.  The  inevitable  trial  of 
strength  between  himself  and  Antony  was  not  long 

'"22  delayed.  In  32  Antony  inflicted  one  more  outrage  upon 
Roman  feeling,  and  openly  challenged  the  hostility  of 
Octavian  by  divorcing  Octavia  in  favour  of  the  beautiful 
and  daring  Egyptian  princess,  with  whom,  as  the  heiress 
of  the  Ptolemies,  he  aspired  to  share  the  empire  of  the 
Eastern  world.  By  a  decree  of  the  senate  Antony  was 
declared  deposed  from  his  command,  and  war  was  declared 
against  Queen  Cleopatra.3  On  September  2,  31,  was 
fought  the  battle  of  Actium.4  Octavian's  victory  was 

'24  complete.  Antony  and  Cleopatra  committed  suicide  (30), 
and  the  Eastern  provinces  submitted  in  29.  Octavian 
returned  to  Rome  to  celebrate  his  triumph  and  mark  the 
end  of  the  long-continued  anarchy  by  closing  the  temple 
of  Janus  ;5  at  the  end  of  the  next  year  he  formally  laid 

i:  down  the  extraordinary  powers  he  had  held  since  43,  and 
a  regular  government  was  established. 

III.   The  Empire. 

PERIOD  I. :  THE  PRINCIPATE,  27  B.C.-284  A.D. — (a)  The 
Constitution  of  the  Principate. — The  conqueror  of  Antony 
at  Actium,  the  great-nephew  and  heir  of  the  dictator 
Caesar,  was  now  summoned,  by  the  general  consent  of  a 
world  wearied  out  with  twenty  years  of  war  and  anarchy,6 
to  the  task  of  establishing  a  government  which  should  as 
far  as  possible  respect  the  forms  and  traditions  of  the 
republic,  without  sacrificing  that  centralization  of  author- 
ity which  experience  had  shown  to  be  necessary  for  the 
integrity  and  stability  of  the  empire.  It  was  a  task  for 
which  Octavian  was  admirably  fitted.  To  great  admin- 
istrative capacity  and  a  quiet  tenacity  of  purpose  he  united 
deliberate  caution  and  unfailing  tact ;  while  his  bourgeois 
birth"  and  genuinely  Italian  sympathies  enabled  him  to 
win  the  confidence  of  the  Roman  community  to  an  extent 
impossible  for  Caesar,  with  his  dazzling  pre-eminence  of 
patrician  descent,  his  daring  disregard  of  forms,  and  his 
cosmopolitan  tastes. 

The  new  system  which  was  formally  inaugurated  by 
Lustan  Octavian  in  28-27  B.C.8  assumed  the  shape  of  a  restora- 
tion of  the  republic  under  the  leadership  of  a  "  princeps."9 

1  Veil.,  ii.  76  ;  Dio,  xlviii.  28  ;  A  pp.,  v.  65. 

2  For    Antony's    policy   and    schemes    in   the    East,    see    Ranke, 
Weltyeschichte,  ii.  381-385  ;  Merivale,  Romans  under  the  Empire, 
vol.  iii.  chap.  27  ;  Lange,  Rom.  Alterth.,  iii.  573  sq. 

3  Suet.,  Octav.,  17  ;  Dio,  1.  1-8  ;  Plutarch,  Anton.,  53. 

4  Dio,  Ii.  1  ;  Zonaras,  10,  30. 

5  He  celebrated  his  triumph  on  August  6,  7,  8  ;  Dio,  Ii.  20  ;  Livy, 
Epit.,  cxxxiii.     For  the  closing  of  the  temple  of  Janus,  see  Livy,  i. 
19  ;  Veil.,  ii.  38  ;  Suet.,  Oct.,  22. 

6  Tac.,  Ann.,  i.  2,  "  cuuctos  dulcedine  otii  pellexit." 

7  Suet.,    Aug.,    i.      His   grandfather  was   a  citizen   of  Velitrse ; 
"  municipalibus  magisteriis  contentus. " 

8  Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.   707  ;  Mon.  Ancyranum  (ed.  Momm- 
sen,    Berlin,    1883),    vi.    13-23,    pp.    144-153  ;   Merivale,    Romans 
under  the  Empire,  chap.  xxxi. ;  Cape's  Early  Empire,  chaps,  i.-xii. 

9  Tac.,  Ann. ,  iii.  28,  "sexto  demum  consulatu  .  .  .  quae  mviratu 
jusserat  abolevit,  deditque  jura  quis  pace  et  principe  uteremur  ; "  ibid., 
i.  9,  "  non  regno  neque  dictatura  sed  principis  nomine  constitutam 
rempublicam." 


Octavian  voluntarily  resigned  the  extraordinary  powers 
which  he  had  held  since  43,  and,  to  quote  his  own  words, 
"handed  over  the  republic  to  the  control  of  the  senate 
and  people  of  Rome.10  The  old  constitutional  machinery 
was  once  more  set  in  motion  ;  the  senate,  assembly,  and 
magistrates  resumed  their  functions11 ;  and  Octavian  him- 
self was  hailed  as  the  "  restorer  of  the  commonwealth 
and  the  champion  of  freedom."12  It  was  not  so  easy  to 
determine  what  relation  he  himself,  the  actual  master  of 
the  Roman  world,  should  occupy  towards  this  revived 
republic.  His  abdication,  in  any  real  sense  of  the  word, 
would  have  simply  thrown  everything  back  into  confusion. 
The  interests  of  peace  and  order  required  that  he  should 
retain  at  least  the  substantial  part  of  his  authority;13  and 
this  object  was  in  fact  accomplished,  and  the  rule  of  the 
emperors  founded,  in  a  manner  which  has  no  parallel  in 
history.  Any  revival  of  the  kingly  title  was  out  of  the 
question,  and  Octavian  himself  expressly  refused  the 
dictatorship.14.  Nor  was  any  new  office  created  or  any  new 
official  title  invented  for  his  benefit.  But  by  senate  and 
people  he  was  invested  according  to  the  old  constitutional 
forms  with  certain  powers,  as  many  citizens  had  been 
before  him,  and  so  took  his  place  among  the  lawfully 
appointed  magistrates  of  the  republic; — only,  to  mark  his 
pre-eminent  dignity,  as  the  first  of  them  all,  the  senate 
decreed  that  he  should  take  as  an  additional  cognomen 
that  of  "Augustus,"15  while  in  common  parlance  he  was 
henceforth  styled  "princeps,"  a  simple  title  of  courtesy, 
familiar  to  republican  usage,  and  conveying  no  other  idea 
than  that  of  a  recognized  primacy  and  precedence  over  his 
fellow  citizens.16  The  ideal  sketched  by  Cicero  in  his  De 
Republica,  of  a  constitutional  president  of  a  free  republic, 
was  apparently  realised ;  but  it  was  only  in  appearance. 
For  in  fact  the  special  prerogatives  conferred  upon 
Octavian  gave  him  back  in  substance  the  autocratic 
authority  he  had  resigned,  and  as  between  the  restored 
republic  and  its  new  princeps  the  balance  of  power  was 
overwhelmingly  on  the  side  of  the  latter. 

Under   one   form   or   another   Octavian   had  held  the 
"  imperium  "  since  43,  and  in  33  he  had  been  formally  711,  721 
acknowledged  as   "imperator,"   by  the  consent   of   all.17 
For  this  somewhat  irregular  authority  was  substituted  in 
27  the  regular  "  proconsulare  imperium,"18  the  authority  Imperiui 
under  which  for  nearly  two  centuries  the  provinces  had  Procon- 
been  governed  and  the  legions  led  to  war.     He  received  0^  _  ^ 
it  in  the  orthodox  way,  by  decree  of  the  senate ;  and  the 
decree,  as  was  customary,  defined  the  area  of  his  command. 
The  essential   difference    between  the  "  proconsulare  im- 
perium "  granted  to  Octavian  and  that  which  had  been 
voted  year  after  year  to  the  ordinary  proconsuls,  lay  in  its 
unprecedentedly   wide  extent   and    in  its   long  duration. 
All  the  provinces,  with  the  exception  of  those  where  no 
military  authority  or  force  was  required,  were  placed  under 
his  command,  to  be  governed  directly  by  "  legati  "  appointed 
by  him  and  responsible  only   to   him.19     The  "  unarmed 


10  Mon.  Ancyr.,  vi.  13. 

11  Veil.    Pat.,    ii.    89,     "prisca    et     antiqua    reipublicae    forma 
revocata." 

12  Ovid,  Fasti,  i.  589.     On  a  coin  of  Asia  Minor  Augustus  is  styled 
"  libertatis"  P.  R.  vindex."     Compare,  for  other  evidence.  Mommsen, 
Staatsr.,  ii.  708,  note  1. 

13  Dio  Cassius  describes  Augustus  as  seriously  contemplating  abdi- 
cation (Iii.  1;  liii.  1-11);  cf.  Suet,  Aug.,  28. 

14  Suet.,  52;  Mon.  Ancyr.,  i.  31.       15  Mon.  Ancyr.,  vi.  16,  21,  23. 

16  The    explanation   of    ' '  princeps "    as   an    abbreviated   form    of 
"princeps  senatus"  is  quite  untenable.      For  its  real  significance,  see 
Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.  733  ;  Pelham,  Journ.  of  Phil.,  vol.   viii. 
It  is  not  an  official  title. 

17  Mon.  Ancyr.,  v.  3-6,  vi.  13,  14.     Augustus  adopted  "imper- 
ator" as  a  prsenomen  in  40.     Mommsen,  Staatsr.,  ii.  727,  note  2. 

18  Dio,  liii.  17,  32  ;  Mommsen,  Staatsr.,  791. 

19  Dio,  liii.  12;   Suet.,  47,   "provincias  validiores  ipse   suscepit, 
ceteras  proconsulibus  sortito  permisit. " 

XX.  -  97 


770 


ROME 


provinces  "  were  to  be  assigned  by  lot  in  the  old  way  to 
ex-consuls  and  ex-praetors,  and  to  be  nominally  under  the 
34.  control  of  the  senate  ;  but  in  23  even  their  governors  were 
declared  to  be  generally  subordinate  to  Octavian  as  the 
holder  of  a  higher  authority  ("  majus  imperium)."1  In 
addition  to  this  control,  direct  and  indirect,  of  all  the  pro- 
vinces, Octavian  received  also  the  sole  and  supreme  com- 
mand of  all  the  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  empire. 
He  alone  henceforth  levies,  pays,  and  dismisses  soldiers, 
equips  fleets,  and  orders  the  movements  of  both  army  and 
navy,  and  he  was  granted  in  addition  full  authority  to 
wage  war  and  conclude  treaties  with  whom  he  would.2 
81,  727.  Finally,  in  23,  if  not  in  27,  he  was  exempted  from  the 
law  which  required  the  proconsul  to  lay  down  his  "im- 
periuin  "  on  entering  Rome,  and  was  allowed  to  exercise  it 
within  the  sacred  limits  of  the  pomoerium,3  a  privilege 
which  facilitated  the  introduction  into  the  city  of  the  pre- 
fects, praetorian  guard,  and  summary  jurisdiction  proper 
to  the  proconsul  in  the  province.  This  "  proconsular 
imperium  "  was  granted  in  the  first  instance  for  ten  years,4 
but  was  renewed  for  periods  of  five,  five,  and  ten  years 
successively,  and  the  fiction  of  its  temporary  duration  and 
periodic  renewal  was  maintained  under  Augustus's  suc- 
cessors by  the  celebration  every  ten  years  of  the  "  decen- 
nalia."5  The  supreme  importance  attached  to  its  posses- 
sion as  the  mainstay  of  the  imperial  power  is  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  man  on  whom  it  is  con- 
ferred becomes  thereby  "  princeps,"  and  the  day  on  which 
he  receives  it  ("  dies  imperii ")  marks  the  beginning  of  his 
reign.6 

ribuni-  The  proconsular  imperium  not  only  carried  with  it  the 
a  potes-  control  of  the  army  and  the  provinces,  but  in  Rome  itself 
it  gave  its  holder  a  position  of  precedence.  In  virtue  of 
it  he  took  his  seat  between  the  consuls,  was  preceded 
by  lictors,7  and  wore  the  laurel  wreath,  paludamentum, 
and  sword  of  the  imperator.  But  as  yet  Rome  could  not 
be  governed  like  a  subject  provincial  city  by  proconsular 
authority  ;  and,  for  the  necessary  direction  and  regulation 
of  the  constitutional  machinery  which  he  had  restored, 
Augustus  contented  himself8  with  the  authority  which 
traditionally  invested  its  holder  with  a  popular  leadership, 
that  of  the  tribunes  of  the  plebs.  The  "tribunicia 
[8.  potestas  "  had  been  granted  him  for  life  in  36,9  and  his 
51.  tenure  of  it  was  confirmed  in  23.10  Thenceforward  it 
ranked  as  a  constituent  element  of  the  principate,  second 
in  importance  only  to  the  proconsular  authority.  With 
but  few  exceptions  it  was  conferred  for  life  upon  all 
succeeding  emperors,  and  the  years  of  their  reigns  are 
reckoned  by  the  years  of  their  tribunician  power.  It  was 
conferred,  as  all  special  "  potestas  "  had  been  conferred 
under  the  republic,  by  a  decree  of  the  senate  and  vote  of 
the  assembly.11  It  gave  its  holder  all  the  prerogatives  of 


1  Dio,  liii.  32. 

2  See  the  so-called  "  lex  de  imperio  Vespasiani,"  C.  I.  L..  vi.  930. 
1  Dio,  liii.  17.  *  Dio,  liii.  13. 

6  Dio,  liii.  16  ;  Ivii.  24  ;  Mommsen,  Staatsr.,  ii.  751,  752. 

6  See  the  passages  from  the  A  eta  Fratrum  Aroalium  (ed.  Henzen, 
Berlin,    1874),  p.  63.     Tiberius   received   it   when   associated   with 
Augustus  as  his  colleague  ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  i.  3  ;  Suet.,  Tib.,  21. 

7  Dio,  liv.  10,  connects  these  privileges  with  the  bestowal  of  con- 
sular power  for  life,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  such  power  was 
formally  conferred.     Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.  813  ;  Mon.  Ancyr., 
ii'-  9-  8  Tac.,  Ann.,  i.  2.  »  Mon.  Ancyr.,  ii.  21. 

10  Dio,    liii.    32.      The   years   of    the    "tribunicia  potestas"    are 
reckoned  by  Augustus  from  this  year.     See  Mommsen,  Staatsr.,  ii. 
753,  754. 

11  References  are  found  in  the  Acta  Fratrum  Arvalium  to  the 
comitia  in  which  it  was  conferred  ;  Acta  F.  A.,  ed.  Henzen,  p.  65. 
[t  is  possible,  as  Mommsen  thinks,  that  the  extant  fragmentary  law 
"  de  imperio  Vespasiani "  may  be  a  part  of  the  "  lex  "  conferring  the 

tribunicia  potestas";  see  his  Staatsr.,  ii.  818.  The  "tribunicia 
potestas"  was,  like  the  " proconsular  imperium,"  conferred  on  the 
chosen  colleague  or  destined  successor  ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  i.  2,  of  Tiberius, 
"consors  tribuniciae  potestatis." 


the  tribunate,  without  the  restrictions  which  hampered  the 
tribunes  themselves.  Augustus  and  his  successors  were 
unimpeded  in  its  exercise  by  the  presence  of  colleagues ; 
and  both  their  personal  inviolability  and  their  right  of 
interference  held  good  outside  the  pomoerium.  It  enabled 
them,  as  representing  the  acknowledged  protectors  of  the 
plebs,  to  control  in  the  name  of  the  people  the  whole 
administrative  machinery,  to  introduce  laws,  to  convene 
the  senate,  to  protect  ths  aggrieved,  and  to  interfere  with 
any  exercise  of  authority  by  other  magistrates.  In  short, 
it  gave  to  the  man  who  already  wielded  an  authority 
abroad  more  absolute  than  that  granted  to  Pompey  by  the 
Gabinian  law  all  and  more  than  all  the  power  possessed 
by  a  Gracchus  in  Rome. 

It  was  on  these  two  powers  that  Augustus's  position  as  Othe/ 
princeps  rested.     In  virtue  of  these  he  was  chief  magistrate  P°wei 
of  the  Roman  state,  and  all  other  offices  and  privileges  ot 
conferred  upon  him  are  comparatively  of  secondary  import-  pr 
ance.     The  consulship  which  he  held  continuously  from 
31  up  to  23  he  never  accepted  again  but  on  two  occa- 723-5 
sions,  in  5  B.C.  and  in  2  B.C.,12  though  he  was  tsvice  invested  749, ! 
with  "  consular  authority  "  for  the  purpose  of  taking  the 
census  (8  B.C.,  14  A.D.).13     That  he  ever  received  an  extra-  746. 
ordinary  "  morum  legumque  regimen,"  as  stated  by  Sue- 
tonius and  Dio,14  is  extremely  doubtful,  and  his  language 
in  the  Ancyran  monument  implies  that  for  this  purpose, 
as  for  many  others,  he   found  the  tribunician  authority 
sufficient.15     In  22  B.C.  he  was  invested  with  the  "cura732. 
annonae,"16  the  supervision  of  the  corn  supply  and  the 
corn  largesses  at  Rome.     On  the  death  of  Lepidus  in  12  742. 
B.C.  he  succeeded  him  as  "  pontifex  maximus,"  and  he  was 
also  a  member  of  the  augural  and  other  priestly  colleges.17 
Lastly,  at  various  times,  and  probably  by  decree  of  the 
senate,  he  was  granted  a  number  of  special  exemptions 
and  privileges.18  « 

In  theory  at  least,  the  Roman  world  was  governed  Char 
according  to  the  "maxims  of  Augustus"19  clown  to  the  in  th 
time  of  Diocletian.  Even  in  the  3d  century  there  is  j^8 
still,  in  name  at  least,  a  republic,  of  which  the  emperor  the  j  • 
is  in  strictness  only  the  chief  magistrate,  deriving  his  cipat 
authority  from  the  senate  and  people,  and  with  preroga- 
tives limited  and  defined  by  law.  The  case  is  quite 
different  when  we  turn  from  the  theory  to  the  practice. 
The  division  of  authority  between  the  republic  and  its 
chief  magistrate  became  increasingly  unequal.  Over  the 
provinces  the  princeps  from  the  first  ruled  autocratically ; 
and  this  autocracy  reacted  upon  his  position  in  Rome,  so 
that  it  became  every  year  more  difficult  for  a  ruler  so 
absolute  abroad  to  maintain  even  the  fiction  of  republican 
government  at  home.  The  republican  institutions,  with  the 
partial  exception  of  the  senate,  loss  all  semblance  of  author- 
ity outside  Rome,  and  even  in  their  altered  position  as  the 
municipal  institutions  of  the  chief  city  of  the  empire  they 
retain  but  little  actual  power.  The  real  government  even 
of  Rome  passes  gradually  into  the  hands  of  imperial  pre- 
fects and  commissioners,  and  the  old  magistracies  become 
merely  decorations  which  the  emperor  gives  away  at  his 
pleasure.  And  at  the  same  time  the  rule  of  the  princeps 
assumes  an  increasingly  personal  character,  and  the  whole 
work  of  government  is  silently  concentrated  in  his  hands 
and  in  those  of  his  own  subordinate  officials.  Closely 
connected  with  this  change  is  the  different  aspect  pre- 
sented by  the  history  of  the  empire  in  Rome  and  Italy  on 


12  Suet.,  26.  13  Mon.  Ancyr.,  ii.  5.  8. 

14  Suet.,  27 ;  Dio,  liv.  10,  30. 

15  Mon.  Ancyr.  Or.,  iii.  15,  and  Mommsen's  notes,  pp.  28-30,  36-38. 
18  Mon.  Ancyr.  Lat.,  i.  32,  33. 

17  Mommsen  on  Mon.  Ancyr.  Lat.,  \.  45,  p.  32. 

18  Dio,  liii.  18.     In  the  "lex  de  imperio  Vespasiani"  several  such 
exemptions  are  mentioned  ;  Mommsen,  Staatsr.,  ii.  711  sq. 

19  Suet.,  Nero,  10,  "ex  Augusti  praescripto." 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   PKINCIPATE.] 

the  one  hand  and  in  the  provinces  on  the  other.  Rome 
and  Italy  share  in  the  decline  of  the  republic.  Polit- 
ical independence  and  activity  die  out;  their  old  pre- 
eminence and  exclusive  privileges  gradually  disappear  ; 
and  at  the  same  time  the  weight  of  the  overwhelming 
power  of  the  princeps,  and  the  abuses  of  their  power  by 
individual  "  principes,"  press  most  heavily  upon  them.  On 
the  other  hantl,  in  the  provinces  and  on  the  frontiers, 
where  the  imperial  system  was  most  needed,  and  where 
from  the  first  it  had  full  play,  unfettered  by  the  fictions 
of  republican  government,  it  is  seen  at  its  best  as  devel- 
oping or  protecting  an  orderly  civilization  and  maintain- 
ing the  peace  of  the  world. 

Day  The  decay  of  the  republican  institutions  had  commenced 

oi.e-  before  the  revolutionary  crisis  of  49.  It  was  accelerated 
phcan  ky  ^e  virtuai  suspension  of  all  regular  government 
between  49  and  28 ;  and  not  even  the  diplomatic  defer- 
7  726.  ence  towards  ancient  forms  which  Augustus  displayed 
availed  to  conceal  the  unreality  of  his  work  of  restoration. 
T  The  "  cornitia  "  received  back  from  him  "  their  ancient 
cuitia.  rights,"1  and  during  his  lifetime  they  continued  to  pass 
laws  and  to  elect  magistrates.  But  after  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Tiberius  we  have  only  two  instances 
of  legislation  by  the  assembly  in  the  ordinary  way,2 
and  the  law-making  of  the  empire  is  performed  either 
by  decrees  of  the  senate  or  by  imperial  edicts  and 
constitutions.  Their  prerogative  of  electing  magistrates 
was,  even  under  Augustus,  robbed  of  most  of  its  importance 
by  the  control  which  the  princeps  exercised  over  their 
choice  by  means  of  his  rights  of  nomination  and  com- 
mendation, rights  which  effectually  secured  the  election 
of  his  own  nominees.3  By  Tiberius  even  this  restricted 
prerogative  was  still  further  curtailed.  The  candidates 
for  all  magistracies  except  the  consulship  were  thencefor- 
ward nominated  and  voted  for  in  the  senate-house  and  by 
the  senators,4  and  only  the  "renuntiatio,"  the  formal 
return  of  the  result,  and  the  introduction  of  the  magis- 
trates designate  to  the  people  took  place  in  the  assembly.5 
And,  though  the  election  of  consuls  was  never  thus  trans- 
ferred to  the  senate,  the  process  of  voting  seems  to  have 
been  silently  abandoned.  In  the  time  of  the  younger 
Pliny  we  hear  only  of  the  nomination'  of  the  candidates 
and  of  their  formal  "  renuntiatio  "  in  the  Campus  Martius.6 
By  this  empty  form  the  ancient  right  of  the  people  to 
confer  all  magisterial  authority  was  saved,  at  least  in 
appearance  ;  and  it  was  acknowledged  in  as  purely  formal 
a  manner  in  the  case  of  the  princeps  himself,  who,  as 
long  as  the  principate  lasted,  continued  to  receive  the 
"  tribunicia  potestas "  by  a  vote  of  the  assembly,  and 
was  thus  held  to  derive  his  authority  from  the  people.7 
e  This  almost  complete  effacement  of  the  "comitia"was 

largely  due  to  the  fact  that  they  had  ceased  to  represent 
anything  but  the  populace  of  Rome,  and  the  compara- 
tively greater  vitality  shown  by  the  old  magistracies  is 
mainly  attributable  to  the  value  they  continued  to  possess  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Roman  upper  class.  But,  though  they  were 

1  Suet.,  Aug.,  40,  "comitiorum  pristinum  jus  reduxit. " 

2  The  "plebiscita"  of  Claudius,  Tac.,  Ann.,  xi.   13,  14,  and  the 
"lexagraria"  of   Nerva  ;  Digest,  xlvii.  21,  3;  Dio,  Ixviii.  2;  Plin., 
Epp.,  vii.  31. 

3  For  the   nature  of  these   rights,  the   latter  of  which  was  not 
exercised  in  the  case  of  the  consulship  until  the  time  of  Vespasian, 
see  Mommsen,  Staatsr.,  ii.   861-869;   Tac.,  Ann.,  i.  14,    15,  81; 
Suet.,  Aug.,  56  ;  Dio,  Iviii.  20. 

4  Tac.,  Ann.,  i.  15,  "comitia  e  campo  ad  patres  translata  sunt"; 
compare  Ann.,  xiv.   28.     The  magistracy  directly  referred  to  is  the 
proetorship,  but  that  the  change  affected  the  lower  magistracies  also  is 
certain  ;  see,  e.g.,  Pliny's  Letters,  passim,  especially  iii.  20,  vi.  19. 

5  Dio,  Iviii.  20. 

6  Mommsen,  Staatsr.,  ii.  865,  866  ;  Plin.,  Paneg.,  92. 

7  Gains,  i.  5,  "cum  ipse  imperator  per  legem  imperium  accipiat." 
Mommsen  is  probably  right   in  referring  this   to   the   "  lex  tribu- 
nicia." 


771 

eagerly  sought,8  and  conferred  on  their  holders  considerable 
social  distinction,  the  magistrates  ceased,  except  in  name, 
to  be  the  popularly  chosen  executive  officers  of  the  Roman 
state.  In  the  administration  of  the  empire  at  large  they 
had  no  share,  if  we  except  the  subordinate  duties  still 
assigned  to  the  quaestor  in  a  province.  In  Rome,  to 
which  their  sphere  of  work  was  limited,  they  were  over- 
shadowed by  the  dominant  authority  of  the  princeps, 
while  their  range  of  duties  was  increasingly  circumscribed 
by  the  gradual  transference  of  administrative  authority, 
even  within  the  city,  to  the  emperor  and  his  subordinate 
officials.  And  their  dependence  on  the  princeps  was  con- 
firmed by  the  control  he  exercised  over  their  appointment 
For  all  candidates  the  approval,  if  not  the  commendation, 
of  the  princeps  became  the  indispensable  condition  of 
success,  and  the  princeps  on  his  side  treated  these  ancient 
offices  as  pieces  of  preferment  with  which  to  reward  his 
adherents  or  gratify  the  ambition  of  Roman  nobles.  In 
all  instances,  too,  the  dignity  of  the  office  was  impaired 
by  the  practice,  begun  by  Caesar  and  continued  by 
Augustus  and  his  successors,  of  granting  the  insignia  to 
men  who  had  not  held  the  actual  magistracy  itself.9  The 
change  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  case  of  the  consuls,  Consul 
the  chief  magistrates  of  the  old  commonwealth.  The  con-  8J"P- 
sulship  was  still  the  highest  post  open  to  the  private 
citizen,10  and  consular  rank  a  necessary  qualification  for 
high  office  in  the  provinces  ;1]  but  the  actual  consuls  have 
scarcely  any  other  duties  than  those  of  presiding  in  the 
senate,  conducting  its  proceedings,  and  occasionally  exe- 
cuting its  decrees,12  while  their  term  of  office  dwindles  from 
a  year  to  six  and  finally  to  two  months.13  In  the  age  of 
Tacitus  and  the  younger  Pliny,  the  contrast  is  striking 
enough  between  the  high  estimate  set  on  the  dignity  of 
the  office  and  the  frankness  with  which  both  its  limited 
powers  and  its  dependence  on  the  emperor  are  acknow- 
ledged.14 Of  the  other  magistrates  the  praetors  continued  Pratoi 
to  exercise  their  old  jurisdiction  with  little  formal  change  shlP- 
down  at  least  to  the  latter  half  of  the  second  century, 
but  only  as  subordinate  to  the  higher  judicial  authority 
of  the  emperor.15  The  aediles  seem  to  have  retained  only  ^Edile- 
such  petty  police  duties  as  did  not  pass  to  one  or  another  shiP- 
of  the  numerous  imperial  prefects  and  commissioners.16 
The  tribunate  fared  still  worse,  for,  by  the  side  of  the  Tribu- 
tribunicia  potestas  wielded  by  the  princeps,  it  sank  into  nate- 
insignificance,  and  it  is  described  by  the  younger  Pliny 
as  a  "shadow  and  an  empty  name."17  The  quaestorship  Qu«s- 


8  Plin.,  Epp.,  ii.  9,  vi.    6.     See,  generally,  Friedlaender,  Sitten- 
geschichte  Roms  (Leipsic,  1869),  pp.  J 227  sq. 

9  The  permission  to  use  the  "  ornamenta  consularia,  praetoria,"  &c., 
was  distinct  from  the  "adlectio  inter  consulares,  praetorios,"  &c.     See 
Mommsen,  Staatsr.,  ii.  877  sq.;  Suet.,  JuL,  76  ;  Claud.,  v.  24  ;  Tac., 
Ann.,  xii.  21,  xv.  72  ;  Dio  Cass.,  Ix.  8.    Cf.  also  Friedlaender,  i.  224. 

10  Tac.,  Agric.,  44;  Pliny,  Epp.,  ii.  1,  "summum  fastigium  privati 
hominis." 

11  For  a  consular  senatorial  province   and  for  the  more  important 
of  the  imperial  legateships. 

12  Plin.,  Paneg.,  48,  graphically  sums  up  the  consuls'  duties. 

13  Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.  79.     Six  months  was  the  usual  term 
down  to  the  death  of  Nero  ;  we  have  then  four  or  two  months ;  in 
the  3d  century  two  is  the^ule.     The  consuls  who  entered  on  office  on 
January  1  were  styled  "consules  ordinarii,"  and  gave  their  name  to 
the  year.     Seneca  De  Ira,  iii.  31,  "a  me  numerari  voluit  annum." 
Lucan,  Phars.,  v.  398,  "  careat  ne  nomine  tempus,  menstruus  infastos 
distinguet  saecula  consul."     Plin.,    Paneg.,  58.     Tho   others  were 
distinguished  as  "consules  suffecti"  or  "minores"  ;  Dio  Cass.,  xlviii. 
35.  14  Plin.,  Paneg.,  92  ;  Tac.,  Hist.,  i.  1  ;  Agric.,  44. 

15  Mommsen,  Staatsr.,  ii.  206. 

16  They  lost  the  "  cura  annonae  "  and  "  cura  ludorum  "  as  well  as 
other  duties,  which  passed  to  such  officers  as  the  "praefectus  vigilum," 
and  the  "  curatores  viarum,  cloacarum,"  &c.     There  is  no  mention  of 
the  ffidileship  after  the  reign  of  Severus  Alexander. 

17  Plin.,  Epp.,  i.   23,  "inanem  umbram  et  sine  honore  nomen." 
There  are  a  few  instances  of  the  exercise  by  the  tribunes  of  their 
power  of  interference  within  the  senate ;  Tac. ,  Ann. ,  i.   77,  vi.  47, 
xvi.  26  ;  Plin.,  Epp.,  ix.  13. 


torshij 


772 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


suffered  perhaps  less  change  than  any  other  of  the  old 
offices.  It  still  kept  its  place  as  the  first  step  on  the  ladder 
of  promotion,  and  there  was  still  a  quaestor  attached  to  each 
governor  of  a  senatorial  province,  to  the  consuls  in  Rome, 
and  to  the  princeps  himself  as  proconsul.1 

he  The  senate  alone  among  republican  institutions  retained 

inate-  some  importance  and  influence.  The  virtual  abolition  of 
the  comitia,  and  the  degradation  of  the  magistracies  left 
the  senate  to  stand  alone  as  the  representative  of  repub- 
licanism, and  it  thus  came  to  be  regarded  as  sharing  the 
government  of  the  empire  with  the  princeps  himself.  The 
magistrates  elected  by  the  senate  are  contrasted  with  the 
legates,  prefects,  and  procurators  appointed  by  the 
emperor.  It  is  to  the  senate,  in  theory,  that  the  supreme 
power  reverts  in  the  absence  of  a  princeps.  It  is  by 
decree  of  the  senate  that  the  new  princeps  immediately 
receives  his  powers  and  privileges,2  though  he  is  still 
supposed  to  derive  them  ultimately  from  the  people,  and 
is  as  a  rule  actually  the  nominee  of  the  soldiers.  After 
the  cessation  of  all  legislation  by  the  comitia,  the  only 
law-making  authority,  other  than  that  of  the  princeps  by 
his  edicts,  was  that  of  the  senate  by  its  decrees.3  Its 
judicial  authority  was  parallel  with  that  of  the  emperor, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  1st  century  we  find  the  senators 
claiming,  as  the  emperor's  "  peers,"  to  be  exempt  from  his 
jurisdiction.4  But  in  spite  of  the  outward  dignity  and 
importance  of  this  position,  and  of  the  politic  deference 
with  which  it  was  frequently  treated,  the  senate  became 
gradually  almost  as  powerless  in  reality  as  the  comitia  and 
the  magistracies.  The  two  great  supports  of  its  authority 
under  the  republic — its  identification  with  the  interests 
of  a  powerful  aristocracy  and  the  subserviency  of  the 
magistrates — both  fell  away  under  the  empire. 

The  senators  continued  indeed  to  be  taken  as  a  rule  from 
the  ranks  of  the  wealthy,  and  a  high  property  qualifica- 
tion was  established  by  Augustus  as  a  condition  of  member- 
ship, but  any  effect  which  this  may  have  had  in  giving  in- 
dependence to  the  position  of  a  senator  was  counterbalanced 
by  the  facilities  it  afforded  to  the  emperors  for  securing 
their  own  ascendency  by  subsidizing  those  whose  property 
fell  short  of  the  required  standard,  and  who  thus  became 
simply  the  paid  creatures  of  their  imperial  patrons.5 
Admission  to  the  senate  was  possible  only  by  favour  of 
the  emperor,  as  at  once  controlling  the  elections  to  the 
magistracies,  which  still  as  of  old  gave  entrance  to  the 
curia,  and  as  invested  with  the  power  of  directly  creating 
senators  by  "  adlectio,"  a  power  which  from  the  time  of 
Vespasian  onwards  was  freely  used.6  As  the  result,  the 
composition  of  the  senate  rapidly  altered.  Under 
Augustus  and  Tiberius  it  still  contained  many  represen- 
tatives of  the  old  republican  families,  whose  prestige, 
influence,  and  ancestral  traditions  were  some  guarantee  for 
their  independence.  But  this  element  soon  disappeared. 
The  ranks  of  the  old  nobility  were  thinned  by  natural 
decay  and  by  the  jealous  fears  of  the  last  three  Claudian 
emperors.  Vespasian 7  flooded  the  senate  with  new  men 
from  the  municipal  towns  of  Italy  and  the  Latinized 
provinces  of  the  West.  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  both  pro- 

1  Momnisen,  Staatsrecht,    ii.  532.     Pliny  was  himself  "  quaestor 
Caesaris,"  Epp.,  vii.  16. 

2  Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.  818  ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  xii.  69,  Hist.,  i.  47. 
In  the  3d  century  the  honours,  titles,  and  powers  were  conferred  en 
bloc  by  a  single  decree;   Vit.  Sev.  Alex.,  1. 

3  Gaius,  i.  4  ;  Ulpian,  Dig.,  i.  3,  9. 

4  Under  Domitian ;  Dio  Cass.,  Ixvii.  2.     Even  Septimius  Severus 
pledged  himself  "  non  inconsulto  senatu  occidere  senatorera  "  ;   Vita 
Seven,  7.  8  Suet., -Nero,  10;   Vesp.,  17. 

6  Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.  879  sq.     The  power  was  derived  from 
the  censorial  authority.     Domitian  was  censor  for  life  ;  Suet,  Dom. , 
8.     After  Nerva  it  was  exercised  as  falling  within  the  general  autho- 
rity vested  in  the  princeps  ;  Dio,  liii.  17. 

7  Suet.,  Vesp.,  90;  Tac.,  Ann.,  iit.  55 


vincials  themselves,  carried  on  the  same  policy,  and  by 
the  close  of  the  2d  century  even  the  Greek  provinces  of 
the  East  had  their  representatives  among  the  senators  of 
Rome.  Some,  no  doubt,  of  these  provincials,  who  con- 
stituted the  great  majority  of  the  senate  in  the  3d  century, 
were  men  of  wealth  and  mark,  but  many  more  were  of  low 
birth,  on  some  rested  the  stain  of  a  servile  descent,  and  all 
owed  alike  their  present  position  and  their  chances  of 
further  promotion  to  the  emperor.8  The  procedure  of  the 
senate  was  as  completely  at  the  mercy  of  the  princeps  as 
its  composition.  He  was  himself  a  senator  and  the  first 
of  senators;9  he  possessed  the  magisterial  prerogatives  of 
convening  the  senate,  of  laying  business  before  it,  and  of 
carrying  senatus  consulta  ;10  above  all,  his  tribunician 
power  enabled  him  to  interfere  at  any  stage,  and  to  modify 
or  reverse  its  decisions.  The  share  of  the  senate  in  the 
government  was  in  fact  determined  by  the  amount  of 
administrative  activity  which  each  princeps  saw  fit  to  allow 
it  to  exercise,  and  by  the  extent  to  which  he  chose  to  use 
it  as  an  instrument  of  government.  And  this  share 
became  steadily  smaller.  The  jurisdiction  assigned  it  by 
Augustus  and  Tiberius  was  in  the  3d  century  limited  to 
the  hearing  of  such  cases  as  the  emperor  thought  fit  to 
send  for  trial,  and  these  became  steadily  fewer  in  number. 
Its  control  of  the  state  treasury,  as  distinct  from  the 
imperial  h'scus,  and  of  the  so-called  senatorial  provinces 
passed  in  fact  to  the  emperor  and  his  officials,  and  was 
only  occasionally  revived  by  the  special  favour  of  emperors 
who,  like  Marcus  Aureltus,11  were  sincerely  attached  to  old 
traditions,  or,  like  Severus  Alexander  and  Tacitus,  hoped  by 
close  alliance  with  the  senate  to  escape  from  the  evils  of  a 
military  despotism.12  Even  in  Rome  and  Italy  its  control 
of  the  administration  was  gradually  transferred  to  the 
prefect  of  the  city,  and  after  the  reign  of  Hadrian  to 
imperial  officers  (juridici)  charged  with  the  civil  adminis- 
tration.13 The  part  still  played  by  its  decrees  in  the 
modification  of  Roman  law  has  been  dealt  with  elsewhere 
(see  p.  704  supra),  but  it  is  clear  that  these  decrees 
did  little  else  than  register  the  expressed  wishes  of  the 
emperor  and  his  personal  advisers. 

The  growing  impotence  of  all  other  authority  than  that 
of  the  princeps  inevitably  altered  the  character  of  the 
principate.  Even  under  Augustus,  Tiberius,  and  the 
Claudian  emperors,  there  is  a  silent  and  steady  concentra- 
tion of  all  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  princeps ;  not  only 
the  army  and  the  provinces,  but  even  Rome  and  Italy,  are 
in  reality  governed  by  him,  though  still  with  a  lingering 
respect  for  the  traditional  prerogatives  of  the  senate  and 
the  senatorial  magistrates ;  in  the  reigus  of  Caligula, 
Claudius,  and  Nero  the  politic  disguise  under  which 
Augustus  and  Tiberius  had  endeavoured  to  conceal  the 
extent  of  their  power  was  thrown  contemptuously  aside. 
In  the  administration  of  justice  and  in  finance,  as  well 
as  in  military  and  foreign  affairs,  the  authority  of  the 
princeps  is  paramount ;  and  his  own  personal  subor- 
dinates— legates,  prefects,  procurators,  and  even  his  freed- 
menu — divide  between  them  the  real  work  of  government. 
This  increase  of  power  was  accompanied  by  a  correspond- 
ing elevation  of  the  princeps  himself  above  the  level 
of  all  other  citizens.  The  comparatively  modest  house- 
hold and  simple  life  of  Augustus  were  replaced  by  a  more 

8  See  on  this  point  Friedlaender,  Sittengeschichte  Roms,  i.  197  sq. 

9  Mon.  Ancyr.  Or.,  iv.  3,  irp&Tov  a£t<afj.aTos  T&irov. 

10  Lex  de  imp.  Vesp.,  C.  I.  L.,\i.  930 :  "Senatum  habere,  relationem 
facere,  remittere  ;  Seta,  per  relationem  discessionemque  facere." 

11  Dio  Cass.,  Ixxi.  10. 

2  Vit.  Sev.  Alex.,  3 ;  Vit.  Tac.,  12,  18. 

13  Vit.  Hadr.,  22.     "  Juridici "  were  appointed  by  Marcus  Aurelius, 
Vit.  Ant.,  11;  Marquardt,  i.  72,  73. 

14  For  the  position  of  the  imperial  freedmen  under  Claudius,  see 
Friedlaender,  i.  63  sq. ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  xii.  60,  xiv.  39,  Hist.,  ii.  57,  95. 


Alter 
positic 
of  the 
prince 
centra, 
izatiou 
autho- 
rity in 
his 
hands. 


Outwr 
splen- 
dour. 


DEVELOPMENT    OP    THE   PRINCIPATE.] 


ROME 


rrf—o 

/  id 


icreas- 

fiy 

dlitary 
laracter 
?the 
rind- 
ate. 


ever- 
nee  of 
he  con- 
;exion 
nth 
lome. 


than  regal  splendour,  and  under  Nero  we  find  all  the 
outward  accessories  of  monarchy  present,  the  palace,  the 
palace  guards,  the  crowds  of  courtiers,  and  a  court 
ceremonial.  In  direct  opposition  to  the  republican  theory 
of  the  principate,  the  members  of  the  princeps's  family 
share  in  the  dignities  of  his  position.  The  males  bear  the 
cognomen  of  Cassar,  and  are  invested,  as  youths,  with  high 
office ;  their  names  and  even  those  of  the  females  are 
included  in  the  yearly  prayers  for  the  safety  of  the 
princeps 1 ;  their  birthdays  are  kept  as  festivals ;  the 
praetorian  guards  take  the  oath  to  them  as  well  as  to  the 
princeps  himself.  Finally,  the  growing  practice  of  Caesar 
worship  invested  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  Roman 
commonwealth  with  the  divine  attributes  ascribed  to 
Eastern  monarchs.2  The  death  of  Nero  was  followed,  it 
is  true,  by  a  partial  reaction.  Not  only  Galba  and  the 
Flavian  emperors  but  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  the  Antonines 
at  once  affected  a  certain  simplicity  in  their  personal 
habits,  and  discountenanced  the  excessive  servility  and 
adulation  encouraged  by  Caligula  and  Nero.  But  this 
reaction  served  only  to  bring  into  clearer  relief  the  con- 
tinued advance  made  towards  the  establishment  of  an 
autocratic  and  military  rule.  Caligula,  Claudius,  and 
Nero  were  all  first  saluted  as  imperatores  by  the 
soldiery  and  then  invested  with  their  powers  by  the 
senate,3  but  this  reversal  of  the  constitutional  order 
was  rendered  less  noticeable  by  the  fact  that  the  choice 
was  still  made  in  Rome,  and  that  it  fell  in  each  case  on 
one  whose  birth  already  marked  him  out  as  the  natural 
successor  to  the  purple.  The  salutation  of  Galba  by 
the  legions  in  Spain  marks  the  opening  of  a  new  epoch.4 
Thenceforward,  if  the  legions  do  not  actually  select  the 
princeps,  it  is  their  acceptance  of  him  which  is  the  one 
essential  condition  of  his  tenure  of  power,  and  it  is  on 
their  support  that  he  relies.  Vitellius  and  Vespasian  were 
chosen  by  the  legions  of  Germany  and  Syria,  as  Galba 
had  been  by  those  of  Spain.  Domitian  emphasized  the 
military  character  of  his  rule  by  entering  the  senate  in 
the  triumphal  dress;5  and  under  the  great  soldier  Trajan, 
whose  adoption  by  Nerva  was  a  frank  confession  of  the 
necessities  of  the  case,  the  military  title  "  imperator  "  was 
already  superseding  the  older  and  more  constitutional 
"  princeps." 

Closely  connected  with  the  increasingly  military  char- 
acter of  the  emperor's  position  was  the  gradual  severance 
of  the  old  ties  which  connected  the  emperor,  as  chief 
magistrate,  with  Rome,  as  the  traditional  seat  and  centre 
of  political  power.  Galba,  Vitellius,  and  Vespasian  were 
already  de  facto  emperors  when  they  entered  Rome  from 
their  distant  provinces  to  claim  the  legal  confirmation  by 
the  senate.  Trajan  and  Hadrian  were  both  provincials  by 
birth  ;  the  former  did  not  enter  Rome  for  a  full  year  after 
his  accession,  and  Hadrian  courteously  apologized  to  the 
senate  for  taking  up  the  imperium  in  Syria  before 
his  acceptance  by  that  body.6  The  connexion  between 
the  emperors  and  Rome  was  further  weakened  by  the 
increasing  frequency  and  length  of  their  absences  from  the 
city.  Life  in  Rome  was  no  doubt  irksome  to  men  trained 
in  camps,  as  Trajan  had  been,  and  the  state  of  affairs  was 
such  as  imperatively  to  require  the  emperor's  presence  in 
the  provinces  and  on  the  frontiers.  The  distant  campaigns 
of  Trajan  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  the  unwearying  travels 
of  Hadrian,  were  necessary  for  the  safety  and  good  govern- 
ment of  the  empire,  but  they  involved  the  removal  from 

1  Ada  Fr.  Arval.  (ed.  Henzen)  33,  98,  99. 

2  For  Caasar  worship,  see  Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.  716  sq.;  Boissier, 
La  Religion  Rmnaine,  \.  122-208  ;  Marquardt,  Rom.  Staatsverw.,  in. 
443-454  ;  Preller,  Rom.  Mythologie,  770  sq. 

3  Tac.,  Ann.,  xii.  69,  of  Nero,  "sententiam  militum  secuta patrum 
consulta."  *  Tac.,  Hist.,  i.  4.  5  Dio,  Ixvii.  4. 

6  Dio,  Ixix.  2. 


Rome  of  the  real  seat  of  government.  The  emperors  from 
Vespasian  to  Aurelius  were,  with  the  exception  of  Domi- 
tian, ready  enough  to  respect  constitutional  forms,  at  least 
in  their  personal  intercourse  with  the  senate,  and  Aurelius 
seems  sincerely  to  have  wished  to  share  with  the  senate 
the  overwhelming  responsibilities  which  pressed  upon  him. 
But  the  improved  organization  of  the  administrative 
system  which  the  times  demanded  was  too  urgent  a  need 
to  be  set  aside  ou-t  of  respect  for  the  niceties  of  an  obsolete 
constitutional  government ;  and  this  period  is  marked  by 
the  development  and  extension  of  a  purely  imperial  system 
of  government,  the  control  of  which  was  centralized  in 
the  hands  of  the  emperor  alone.  The  main  credit  of  this 
achievement  is  due  to  Hadrian,7  and  its  immediate  effect 
was  undoubtedly  to  increase  the  effectiveness  of  the 
administration ;  but  it  accelerated  the  decay  of  local  inde- 
pendence and  energy,  and  thus  diminished  the  strength 
of  the  empire.  The  century  which  separates  the  death  The  e 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  from  the  accession  of  Diocletian  perors 
(180-284)  completed  the  destruction  of  the  old  Augustan 
system.  Now  and  again,  as  in  the  case  of  Pertinax,  of 
Severus  Alexander,  of  Maximus  and  Balbinus,  and  of 
Tacitus,  the  senate  succeeded  in  claiming  for  itself  the 
selection  of  an  emperor,  but  with  the  single  exception  of 
Severus  Alexander  their  nominees  were  not  more  success- 
ful than  Nerva  in  securing  the  necessary  attachment  of 
the  legions ;  as  a  rule  the  emperors  of  the  3d  century 
were  more  than  ever  the  nominees  of  the  soldiery,  often 
men  of  obscure  origin  from  the  frontier  provinces.8  The 
worst  of  them  treated  the  senate  with  contempt  and  con- 
tumely, and  the  best  of  them  excluded  it  from  all  share 
in  the  government.  Septimius  Severus,  a  native  of  Septi- 
Africa,  set  the  precedent  of  abstaining  from  seeking  a  ™lus 
formal  confirmation  of  his  authority  from  the  senate  ;9 
he  assumed  the  title  of  proconsul  even  in  Rome,  ad- 
ministered justice  no  longer  openly  in  the  forum  but 
within^the  walls  of  the  palace,  and  finally  established  the 
prefect  of  the  praetorian  guard  as  the  officer  next  in  power 
to  the  emperor  himself.  It  is,  moreover,  on  his  inscrip- 
tions that  the  emperor  is  first  officially  styled  "dominus." 
From  the  accession  of  Decius  (249),  the  first  of  a  series  The 
of  able  emperors  sprung  from  the  Danubian  provinces,  "Illy 
the  autocratic  and  military  character  of  the  imperial  p™r~ors 
system  rapidly  develops.  The  old  distinctions  between 
imperial  and  senatorial  provinces,  between  the  state 
treasury  and  the  privy  purse  of  the  emperor,  finally  dis- 
appear. Senators  are  almost  entirely  excluded  alike  from 
the  military  and  civil  services.  Under  Aurelian  (270-275), 
an  able  soldier  and  a  vigorous  administrator,  the  breach 
with  the  old  traditions  became  complete.  He  anticipated 
Diocletian  in  the  completely  autocratic  methods  of  his 
government  and  in  the  Oriental  pomp  and  splendour  with 
which  he  surrounded  himself. 

(b)  General  History  of  the  Empire. — From  the  develop- 
ment of  the  principate  of  Augustus  into  the  avowed  despot- 
ism which  it  was  the  great  work  of  Diocletian  to  organize 
and  consolidate  we  pass  to  the  general  fortunes  of  the 
empire  during  this  period.  On  the  accession  of  Augustus, 
there  could  be  little  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  work  that 
was  necessary,  if  peace  and  prosperity  were  to  be  secured  for 
the  Roman  world.  He  was  called  upon  to  justify  his  posi- 
tion by  rectifying  thefrontiers  and  strengthening  thefrontier 
defences,  by  reforming  the  system  of  provincial  government, 
and  by  reorganizing  the  finance;  and  his  success  in  dealing 
with  these  three  difficult  problems  is  sufficiently  proved 

7  See,  for  a  short  account,  Capes,  Age  of  the  Antonines,  chap,  ix., 
cf.  Schiller,  Gesch.  d.  Kaiserzeit,  i.  (2)  617  sq. 

8  E.g.,  Maximinus,   "de  vico  Thraciae,  barbaro  patre  ac  matre," 
Vit.  Max.,  1. 

9  Vita  Severi,  7.     For  the  importance  of  the  reign  of  Severus   see 
Schiller,  i.  (2)  725,  Gibbon,  vol.  i.  258  sq. 


774 


K  0  M  E 


[HISTORY, 


by  the  prosperous  condition  of  the  empire  for  a  century 
and  a  half  after  his  death.1  To  secure  the  peace  which 
the  distracted  Roman  world  desired,  it  was  imperatively 
Phe  necessary  to  establish  on  all  sides  of  the  empire  really 
rentiers,  defensible  frontiers ;  and  this  became  possible  now  that 
for  the  first  time  the  direction  of  the  foreign  policy  of  the 
state  and  of  its  military  forces  was  concentrated  in  the 
hands  of  a  single  magistrate.  To  the  south  and  west  the 
generals  of  the  republic,  and  Caesar  himself,  had  extended 
the  authority  of  Rome  to  the  natural  boundaries  formed 
by  the  African  deserts  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  in 
these  two  directions  Augustus's  task  was  in  the  main  con- 
fined to  the  organization  of  a  settled  Roman  government 
within  these  limits.  In  Africa  the  client  state  of  Egypt 
was  formed  into  a  separate  province,  and  the  kingdom 
of  Numidia  (25  B.C.)  was  incorporated  with  the  old 
province  of  Africa.  In  Spain  the  hill-tribes  of  the  north- 
west were  finally  subdued,  and  a  third  province,  Lusitania, 
established.2  Until  the  commencement  of  Caesar's  cam- 
paigns (58  B.C.)  Roman  rule  in  Gaul  had  been  confined  to 
the  single  southern  province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  (121- 
118  B.C.).  Caesar  subdued  the  rest  of  the  country,  but  the 
fierce  struggles  of  the  Civil  War  and  his  early  death 
obliged  him  to  leave  to  his  nephew  the  task  of  organizing 
the  conquered  territory.  Augustus  (27  B.C.)  established 
in  addition  to  the  "  old  province  "  the  three  new  ones  of 
rhe  Aquitania,  Lugdunensis,  and  Belgica.3  Towards  the  north 
North.  tne  republic  had  left  the  civilized  countries  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean  with  only  a  very  imperfect  defence 
against  the  threatening  mass  of  barbarian  tribes  above 
them.  The  result4  of  Augustus's  policy  was  to  establish  a 
protecting  line  of  provinces  running  from  the  Euxine  to 
the  North  Sea,  and  covering  the  peaceful  districts  to  the 
south, — Moesia  (6  A.D.),  Pannonia  (9  A.D.),  Noricum 
(15  B.C.),  Rsetia  (15  B.C.),  and  Gallia  Belgica.  Roman 
rule  was  thus  carried  up  to  the  natural  frontier  lines  of  the 
Rhine  and  the  Danube.  Here,  after  the  defeat  of  Varus 
(9  A.D.)  and  the  abandonment  of  a  forward  policy  be- 
yond the  Rhine,  Augustus  fixed  the  limits  of  the  empire 
northward;  his  successor  Tiberius  recalled  Germanicus, 
as  soon  as  the  disaster  in  the  Silva  Teutoburgensis  had 
been  avenged  ;  and  after  the  peace  with  Maroboduus,  the 
chief  of  the  Marcomanni  on  the  upper  Danube,  in  the 
next  year  (17  A.D.),  the  defensive  policy  recommended  by 
Augustus  was  adopted  along  the  whole  of  the  northern 
frontier.  The  line  of  the  great  rivers  was  held  by  an 
imposing  mass  of  troops.  Along  the  Rhine  lay  the  armies 
of  Upper  and  Lower  Germany,  consisting  of  four  legions 
each;  eight  more  guarded  the  Danube  and  the  frontiers  of 
Pannonia  and  Moesia.  -  The  command  of  the  troops  was 
entrusted  to  imperial  legates,  whose  posts  became  the  most 
coveted  prizes  in  the  imperial  service,  and  were  not 
unfrequently  stepping-stones  to  the  imperial  purple  itself. 
At  frequent  intervals  along  the  frontier  were  the  military 
colonies,  the  permanent  camps,  and  the  smaller  intervening 
"  castella."  Flotillas  of  galleys  cruised  up  and  down  the 
rivers,  and  Roman  roads  opened  communication  both  along 
the  frontiers  and  with  the  seat  of  government  in  Italy. 
Tho  In  the  East  Rome  had  other  work  to  do  than  that  of 

East-  erecting  a  barrier  against  a  surging  tide  of  barbarism,  for 
here  she  was  confronted  with  a  well-organized  and 
powerful  state  whose  claims  to  empire  were  second  only  to 
her  own.  The  conquests  of  Pompey  (66-62  B.C.)  had 
brought  Rome  face  to  face  with  Parthia  on  the  banks  of 
the  Euphrates,  the  limits  of  Roman  authority  being 
marked  by  the  eastern  frontiers  of  the  client  states  of 

1  Marquardt,  Rom.  Staatsverw. ,  i.  282,  506. 

2  Marquardt,  i.  101  ;  Mommsen,  R.  O.,  v.  58  sq. 

3  Marquardt,  i.  112  ;  Mommsen,  R.  O.,  v.  76. 

4  See  especially  Momrasen,  R.  (/.,  v.  caps.  4  and  6. 


Pontus,  Cappadocia,  and  Comruagene,  and  of  the  newly 
formed  province  of  Syria.  In  54  the  rash  advance  of 
Crassus  beyond  the  Euphrates  provoked  the  first  serious 
collision  between  Rome  and  Parthia,  and  the  victory  at 
Carrhge  encouraged  among  the  Parthians  the  idea  of  an 
invasion  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  while  it  awakened  in 
Rome  a  genuine  fear  of  the  formidable  power  which  had 
so  suddenly  arisen  in  the  East.  Caesar  was  at  the  moment 
of  his  death  preparing  to  avenge  the  death  of  Crassus  by 
an  invasion  of  Parthia,  and  Antony's  schemes  of  founding 
an  Eastern  empire  which  should  rival  that  of  Alexander 
included  the  conquest  of  the  kingdom  beyond  the 
Euphrates.  But  on  the  Euphrates,  as  on  the  Rhine  and 
the  Danube,  Augustus  adhered  to  the  policy  which  he 
recommended  to  his  successors  of  "keeping  the  empire 
within  its  bounds";  and  the  Parthians,  weakened  by 
internal  feuds  and  dynastic  quarrels,  were  in  no  mood  for 
vigorous  action.  Roman  pride  was  satisfied  by  the 
restoration  of  the  standards  taken  at  Carrhse.  Four 
legions  guarded  the  line  of  the  Euphrates,  and,  beyond 
the  frontiers  of  Pontus  and  Cappadocia,  Armenia  was 
established  as  a  "friendly  and  independent  ally."5 

Next  in  importance  to  the  rectification  and  defence 
of  the  frontiers  was  the  reformation  of  the  administra- 
tion, and  the  restoration  of  prosperity  to  the  distracted 
and  exhausted  provinces.  The  most  serious  defect  of 
the  republican  system  had  been  the  absence  of  any 
effective  contral  control  over  the  Roman  officials  outside 
Italy.  This  was  now  supplied  by  the  general  proconsular 
authority  vested  in  the  emperor.  The  provinces  were  for 
the  first  time  treated  as  departments  of  a  single  state,  while 
their  governors,  from  being  independent  and  virtually  irre- 
sponsible rulers,  became  the  subordinate  officials  of  a  higher 
authority.6  Over  the  "legati"  and  " procurators "  of  the 
imperial  provinces  the  control  of  the  emperor  was  as  com- 
plete as  that  of  the  republican  proconsul  over  his  staff  in  his 
own  province.  They  were  appointed  by  him,  held  office  at 
his  good  pleasure,  and  were  directly  responsible  to  him  for 
their  conduct.  The  proconsuls  of  the  senatorial  provinces 
were  in  law  magistrates  equally  with  the  princeps,  though 
inferior  to  him  in  rank ;  it  was  the  senate  that  they 
were  as  of  old  responsible ;  they  were  still  selected  by 
lot  from  among  the  senators  of  consular  and  praetorian 
rank.  But  the  distinction  did  not  seriously  interfere  with 
the  paramount  authority  of  the  emperor.  The  provinces 
left  nominally  to  the  senate  were  the  more  peaceful  and 
settled  districts  in  the  heart  of  the  empire,  where  only  the 
routine  work  of  civil  administration  was  needed,  and  where 
the  local  municipal  governments  were  as  yet  compara- 
tively vigorous.  The  senatorial  proconsuls  themselves 
were  indirectly  nominated  by  the  emperor  through  his 
control  of  the  praetorship  and  consulship.  They  wielded 
no  military  and  only  a  strictly  subordinate  financial  autho- 
rity, and,  though  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  at  any  rate, 
encouraged  the  fiction  of  the  responsibility  of  the  senatorial 
governors  to  the  senate,  it  was  in  reality  to  the  emperor 
that  they  looked  for  direction  and  advice,  and  to  him  that 
they  were  held  accountable.  Moreover,  in  the  case  of  all 
governors  this  accountability  became  under  the  empire  a  re- 
ality. Prosecutions  for  extortion  ("de  pecuniis  repetundis"), 
which  were  now  transferred  to  the  hearing  of  the  senate, 
are  tolerably  frequent  during  the  first  century  of  the 
empire ;  but  a  more  effective  check  on  maladministration 
lay  in  the  appeal  to  Caesar  from  the  decisions  of  any 

8  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  v.  cap.  9.  Armenia,  however,  long  continued 
to  be  a  debateable  ground  between  Rome  and  Parthia, — passing  alter- 
nately under  the  influence  of  one  or  the  other. 

6  For  the  provincial  reforms  of  Augustus,  see  Marquardt,  Staats- 
verw., i.  402-422 ;  Madvig,  Vcrf.  d.  R.  Reichs,  ii.  7  ;  Merivale, 
iv.  cap.  32. 


Admi: 

trativi 

rc-forn 

in  the 

pro- 

vincet 


THE   EARLY  EMPERORS.] 


K  0  M  E 


775 


Fancial 
rt>rms. 


beral 
licy 
wards 
e  pro- 
aces. 


ily  and 
a  pro- 
aces 
itler  the 
ipire. 


governor,  whicli  was  open  to  every  provincial,  aud  in  the 
right  of  petition.  Under  the  Antonines,  not  the  least 
laborious  of  the  duties  which  devolved  upon  the  emperor 
and  his  ministers  was  the  daily  one  of  hearing  and  deciding 
the  innumerable  cases  sent  up  from  the  provinces.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  growing  frequency  of  imperial  mandates 
and  rescripts  (see  above,  p.  705),  dealing  both  with  ques- 
tions of  general  policy  and  with  points  of  law,  attests 
the  close  attention  paid  by  all  the  better  emperors  to  the 
government  of  the  provinces  and  the  increasing  dependence 
of  the  governor  on  imperial  guidance.  Within  the  province 
Augustus  curtailed  the  powers  of  legate  and  proconsul 
alike.  In  both  cases  there  was  a  division  of  authority. 
By  the  side  of  the  imperial  legate  was  placed,  as  the 
highest  financial  authority,  an  imperial  procurator,  while 
the  proconsul,  in  addition  to  the  loss  of  all  military  control, 
was  checked  by  the  presence  of  the  imperial  officer,  also 
styled  procurator,  to  whom  the  care  of  the  fiscal  revenues 
was  entrusted  ;  finally,  both  legate  and  proconsul  were  de- 
prived of  that  right  of  requisitioning  supplies  which,  in 
spite  of  a  long  series  of  restrictive  laws,  had  been  the  most 
powerful  instrument  of  oppression  in  the  hands  of  repub- 
lican governors.  The  financial  reforms  of  Augustus1  are 
marked  by  the  same  desire  to  establish  an  equitable,  orderly, 
and  economical  system,  an:1.,  by  the  same  centralization  of 
authority  in  the  emperor's  hands.  The  institution  of  an 
imperial  census,  or  valuation  of  all  land  throughout 
the  empire,  and  the  assessment  upon  this  basis  of  a 
uniform  land  tax,  in  place  of.  the  heterogeneous  and 
irregular  payments  made  under  the  republic,  were  the 
work  of  Augustus,  though  the  system  Avas  developed  and 
perfected  by  the  emperors  of  the  2d  century  and  by 
Diocletian.  The  land  tax  itself  was  directly  collected,  either 
by  imperial  officials  or  by  local  authorities  responsible  to 
them,  and  the  old  wasteful  plan  of  selling  the  privilege 
of  collection  to  publicani  was  henceforward  applied  only 
to  such  indirect  taxes  as  the  customs  duties.  The  rate  of 
the  land  tax  was  fixed  by  the  emperor,  and  with  him  rested 
the  power  of  remission  even  in  senatorial  provinces.2  The 
effect  of  these  reforms  is  clearly  visible  in  the  improved 
financial  condition  of  the  empire.  Under  the  republic 
the  treasury  had  been  nearly  always  in  difficulties,  and 
the  provinces  exhausted  and  impoverished.  Under  the 
emperors,  at  least  throughout  the  1st  century,  in  spite  of 
a  largely  increased  expenditure  on  the  army,  on  public 
works,  on  shows  and  largesses,  aud  on  the  machinery  of 
government  itself,  the  better  emperors,  such  as  Tiberius  and 
Vespasian,  were  able  to  accumulate  large  sums,  while  the 
provinces  show  but  few  signs  of  distress.  A  reformed 
administration  and  an  improved  system  of  taxation  were 
not  the  only  boons  for  which  the  empire  at  large  had  to 
thank  Augustus.  While  the  republic  had  almost  entirely 
neglected  to  develop  the  internal  resources  of  the  pro- 
vinces, Augustus  set  the  example  of  a  liberal  expenditure 
on  public  works,  in  the  construction  of  harbours,  roads, 
and  bridges,  the  reclamation  of  waste  lands,  and  the 
erection  of  public  buildings.3  The  crippling  restrictions 
whicli  the  republic  had  placed  on  freedom  of  intercourse 
and  trade,  even  between  the  separate  districts  of  a  single 
province,  disappeared  under  the  empire,  and  the  institution 
of  the  provincial  councils,  as  centres  of  provincial  unity, 
is  one  among  many  instances  of  the  more  liberal  policy 
pursued  by  the  emperors.4  In  the  eyes  of  the  republican 
statesmen  the  provinces  were  merely  the  estates  of  the 
Roman  people,  but  from  the  reign  of  Augustus  dates 
the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  old  pre-eminence  of 
Rome  and  Italy.  It  was  from  the  provinces  that  the 

1  Marquardt,  ii.  198  sg.,  esp.  p.  200,  note  4,  where  the  literature 
is  given.  a  Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.  47. 

3  Suet.,  Aug.,  18,  47.  4  Marquardt,  i.  365. 


legions  were  increasingly  recruited;  provincials  rose  to 
high  rank  as  soldiers,  statesmen,  and  men  of  letters ; 5  the 
growing  Roman  civilization  of  the  Western  provinces 
and  the  thriving  commerce  of  the  populous  cities  of  the 
East  contrasted  significantly  with  the  degenerate  cosmo- 
politanism of  Rome,  and  with  the  dwindling  population 
and  decaying  industry  of  Italy;  while  even  into  Rome 
and  Italy  the  methods  of  administration  formerly  distinc- 
tive of  the  provinces  found  their  way.  From  Augustus 
himself,  jealous  as  he  was  of  the  traditions  and  privileges 
of  the  ruling  Roman  people,  date  the  rule  of  an  imperial 
prefect  in  the  city  of  Rome,  the  division  of  Italy  into 
regiones  in  the  provincial  fashion,  and  the  permanent 
quartering  there  of  armed  troops.6 

For   a   century   and  ^a   half    the    policy   initiated   by  The  em 
Augustus  secured  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  empire ;  Pire  fr°] 
of  the  emperors  who  ruled  during  that  period  the  majority  £)u^ist 
were  able  and  vigorous  administrators,  and  even  the  follies  death  0] 
and  excesses  of  Gaius,  Claudius,  and  Nero  did  little  harm  Marcus 
beyond  the  limits  of  Rome  and  Italy.     The  firm  rule  of  Aureliu 
Vespasian  repaired  the  damages  inflicted  by  the  wars  of       A<D 
the  rival  emperors  after  Nero's  death,  and  the  abilities  of 
Trajan,   Hadrian,   and  the   Antonines,    if   they  failed  to 
revive  the  flagging  energies  of  the  empire,  at  least  secured 
tranquillity  and  good  government.     But  few  additions  of 
importance   were   made  to  the  territories   of  Rome.     la 
Britain]  the   work   begun   by   Caesar   was   taken   up   by  Conqne 
Claudius,  under  whom  the  southern  part  of  the  island  was  of . 
constituted  a  province;  the  northern  districts  were  subdued    ] 
by  Agricola  (78-84  A.D.),  and  the  limits  of  the  province 
northward  were  finally  fixed  by  the  Wall  of  Hadrian  (see 
BRITANNIA).      The  conquest  of  Dacia  by  Trajan  (107)  of  Dacii 
was  provoked  by  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  barbarian 
tribes  on  the  lower  Danube,  and,  though  it  remained  part 
of  the  empire  down  to  256,  its  exposed  position  as  lying 
beyond  the  Danube  frontier  rendered  it  always  a  source  of 
weakness  rather  than  strength.7     To  Trajan's  reign  also 
belongs  the  annexation  of  Arabia  Petrsea.     Otherwise  on  The 
the  frontiers  there  Avas  little  change.     In  the  north  the  frontier 
revolt  of  Civilis  (69-70  A.D.)  owed  its  temporary  success  0"^e 
mainly  to  the  confusion  created  by  the  rivalries  of  Otho, 
Vitellius,  and  Vespasian.8     The  connexion  of  the  Rhine 
with  the  Danube  frontier  bj  a  continuous  wall,  a  work  gradu- 
ally carried  out  under  the  Flavian  and  Antonine  emperors,, 
was  a  strategical  necessity,  and  involved  no  general  advance 
of  the  Roman  lines.9     On  the  Rhine  itself  the  peaceful 
state  of  affairs  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  reduction  of  the 
force  stationed  there  from  eight  legions  to  four;   and  it 
was  only  on  the  Danube  that  there  was  any  pressure 
severe  enough  to  strain  the  strength  of  the  Roman  defence. 
The  presence  of  Trajan  himself  was  required  to  quell  the 
Dacians  under   their  able  king  Decebalus,   and,   though 
his  campaigns   were   followed   by   sixty  years   of  peace, 
a   force    of    ten    legions   was    considered    necessary   to 
guard  the  Danubian  frontier.     Far  more  serious  was  the  Invasion 
irruption  of  the  Marcomauni  and  other  tribes  in  the  reign  of  tfle 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  (162-175.).10     The  tide  of  barbaric  Marc&~ 
invasion  which  then  swept  across  the  upper  Danube  and  m 
over  the  provinces  of  Rhsetia,  Noricum,  and  Pannonia,  till 
it  touched   the  Alps  aud  the  soil   of  Italy,  was  indeed 
driven   back  after   fourteen   years   of  war,    but   it   first 
revealed  to  the  Roman  world  the  strength  of  the  forces 


5  Jung,  Romanische  Landschaften  (Innsbruck,  1881);  Budinszky, 
Die  Ausbreitung  d.  Latcinisclien  Sprache  (Berlin,  1881). 

6  Marquardt,  i.  67  ;   Suet,  Aug.,  32. 

7  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  v.  205-208. 

8  Tac.,  Hist.,  iv.;  Mommsen,  R.  G.,  v.  116-131. 

9  For  the  "limes  imperii,"  see  Mommsen,  v.  140-146  ;  Cohau*en, 
Der  Rom.  Grenzwall  (Wiesbaden,  1884) ;  Herzog,  Die  Vermessung  d. 
Rom.  Grenzwalls  (Stuttgart,  1 880). 

10  Mommsen,  v.  209;   Vita  Marci,  12  sg. 


770 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


The 

Easteni 

frontier. 


Condi- 
tion of 
the  pro- 
vinces. 


Spre.-td 
of  the 
muni- 
cipal 
system  ; 


of  the 
Roman 
fran- 
chise ; 


of  Ro- 
man law 


civiliza- 
tion. 


Symp- 
toms of 
lecline. 


The 
empire 
from 
180-284 


which  were  gathering  unnoticed  in  the  distant  regions 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  "  Roman  peace."  In  the  East 
Rome  and  Parthia  still  faced  each  other  upon  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates,  and  contended,  now  by  arms  now  by 
diplomacy,  for  supremacy  in  the  debateable  land  of 
Armenia.  Trajan's  momentary  acquisitions  were  aband- 
oned by  Hadrian,  and  on  this  side  of  the  empire  the  first 
changes  of  importance  on  the  frontier  belong  to  the  reign 
of  Septimius  Severus.1  Within  the  frontiers  the  levelling 
and  unifying  process  commenced  by  Augustus  had  steadily 
proceeded.  A  tolerably  uniform  provincial  system  covered 
the  whole  area  of  the  empire.  The  client  states  had  one 
by  one  been  reconstituted  as  provinces,  and  even  the 
government  of  Italy  had  been  in  many  respects  assimilated 
to  the  provincial  type.  The  municipal  system  had  spread 
widely ;  the  period  from  Vespasian  to  Aurelius  witnessed 
the  elevation  to  municipal  rank  of  an  immense  number  of 
communities,  not  only  in  the  old  provinces  of  the  West,  in 
Africa,  Spain,  and  Gaul,  but  in  the  newer  provinces  of  the 
North,  and  along  the  line  of  the  northern  frontier ;  and 
everywhere  under  the  influence  of  the  central  imperial 
authority  there  was  an  increasing  uniformity  in  the  form 
of  the  local  constitutions,  framed  and  granted  as  they  all 
were  by  imperial  edict.2  Throughout  the  empire  again  the 
extension  of  the  Roman  franchise  was  preparing  the  way 
for  the  final  act  by  which  Caracalla  assimilated  the  legal 
status  of  all  free-born  inhabitants  of  the  empire,3  and  in 
the  west  and  north  this  was  preceded  and  accompanied  by 
the  complete  Romanizing  of  the  people  in  language  and 
civilization.  Moreover,  the  empire,  that  was  thus  becom- 
ing one  in  its  administrative  system,  its  laws,  and  its 
civilization,  had  as  yet  continued  to  enjoy  peace  and  order. 
The  burdens  of  military  service  fell  on  the  frontier  pro- 
vinces, and  only  the  echoes  of  the  border  wars  reached 
the  Mediterranean  territories.  Yet,  in  spite  of  the  internal 
tranquillity  and  the  good  government  which  have  made  the 
age  of  the  Antonines  famous,  we  can  detect  signs  of  weak- 
ness. Though  the  evils  of  excessive  centralization  were 
hardly  felt  while  the  central  authority  was  wielded  by 
vigorous  rulers,  yet  even  under  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and 
the  Antonines  we  notice  a  ailure  of  strength  in  the 
empire  as  a  whole,  and  a  corresponding  increase  of  pres- 
sure on  the  imperial  government  itself.  The  reforms  of 
Augustus  had  given  free. play  to  powers  still  fresh  and 
vigorous.  The  ceaseless  labours  of  Hadrian  were  directed 
mainly  to  the  careful  husbanding  of  such  strength  as  still 
remained,  or  to  attempts  at  reviving  it  by  the  sheer  force  of 
imperial  authority.  Among  the  symptoms  of  incipient 
decline  which  not  the  most  heroic  efforts  of  the  government 
could  entirely  remove  were  the  growing  depopulation 
especially  of  the  central  districts  of  the  empire,  the  con- 
stant financial  difficulties,  the  deterioration  in  character  of 
the  local  governments  in  the  provincial  communities,4  and 
the  increasing  reluctance  exhibited  by  all  classes  to  under- 
take the  now  onerous  burden  of  municipal  office.  Lastly, 
the  irruption  of  the  Marcomanni,  and  the  revolt  of 
Avidius  Cassius  (174-175)  in  the  Eastern  provinces, 
anticipated  the  two  most  serious  of  the  dangers  which 
ultimately  proved  fatal  to  the  empire. 

Marcus  Aurelius  died  in  180,  and  his  death  was  followed 
by  a  century  of  war  and  disorder,  during  which  nothing 
but  the  stern  rule  of  soldier  emperors,  such  as  Septimius 
Severus,  Decius,  Claudius,  Aurelian,  and  Probus  saved  the 
empire  from  dissolution.  The  want  of  any  legal  security 

1  Mommsen,  v.  409. 

*  Marquardt,  i.  464  sq. ;  cf.  esp.,  the  "leges  Salpensanae et  Malaci- 
tanae";  C.  I.  L.,  ii.  1963,  4;  Bruns,  Fontes  Juris  Romani,  130 
(Berlin,  1879).  3  Dio,  Ixxvii.  9  (211-217  A.D.). 

4  Pliny,  Epp.  ad  Trajanum.  For  the  "curatores"  and  "correc- 
tores  "  appointed  in  the  2d  century,  see  Marquardt,  i.  487  and  notes. 


for  the  orderly  transmission  of  the  imperial  power  had  been 
partially  supplied  during  the  2d  century  by  the  practice 
of  adoption.     But  throughout  the  3d  century  the  Roman  Intern 
world   witnessed   a  series  of  desperate  conflicts  between  'lessen 
rival  generals  put  forward  by  their  respective  legions  as  M0ns> 
claimants  for  the  imperial  purple.     Between  the  death  of 
Severus  in  211  and  the  accession  of  Diocletian  in  284,  no 
fewer   than    twenty-three   emperors    sat   in   the    seat   of 
Augustus,  and  of  these  all  but  three  died  violent  deaths 
at  the  hands  of  a  mutinous  soldiery  or  by  the  orders  of  a 
successful  rival.     Of  the  remaining  three,  Decius  fell  in 
battle  against  the  Goths,  Valerian  died  a  prisoner  in  the 
far  East,  and  Claudius  was  among  the  victims  of  the  chronic 
pestilence  which  added  to  the  miseries  of  the  time.     The 
"tyrants,"  as  the  unsuccessful  pretenders  to  the  imperial  The 
purple  were  styled,  reappear  with  almost  unfailing  regu- 
larity in  each  reign.     The  claims  of  Septimius  Severus 
himself,  the  first  and  ablest  of  the  soldier  emperors,  were 
disputed  by  Clodius  Albinus  in  the  West,  and  by  Pescen- 
nius  Niger  in  the  East,  and  at  the  bloody  battle  of  Lug- 
dunum  and  the  sack  of  Byzantium  rival  Roman  forces, 
for  the  first  time  since  the  accession  of  Vespasian,  exhausted 
each  other  in  civil  war.5     In  237-238  six  emperors  perished 
in  the  course  of  a  few  months.     It  was,  however,  during 
the  reign  of  Gallienus  (260-2 C'-J)  that  the  evil  reached  its  Reigi 
height.     The  central  authority  was  paralysed ;  the  bar-  **^ 
barians  were  pouring  in  from  the  North;    the  Parthian s  " 
were  threatening  to  overrun  the  Eastern  provinces;  and 
the  legions  on  the  frontiers  were  left  to  repel  the  enemies 
of  Rome  as  best  they  could.     A  hundred  ties  bound  them 
closely   to  the   districts   in   which   they  were   stationed; 
their  permanent  camps  had  grown  into  towns,  they  had 
families   and  farms;  the  unarmed  provincials   looked  to 
them  as  their  natural  protectors,  and  were  attached  to 
them  by  bonds  of  intermarriage  and  by  long  intercourse. 
Now  that  they  found  themselves  left  to  repel  by  their  own 
efforts  the  invaders  from  without,  they  reasonably  enough 
claimed  the  right  to  ignore  the  central  authority  which 
was  powerless  to  aid  them,  and  to  choose  for  themselves 
"  imperatores  "  whom  they  knew  and  trusted.     The  first  Tyra 
of   these   provincial    empires    was    that    established   by in " 
Postumus  in  Gaul  (259-272),  and  long  maintained  by  his 
successors  Victorinus  and  Tetricus.6     Their  authority  was 
acknowledged,  not  only  in  Gaul  and  by  the  troops  on  the 
Rhine,  but  by  the  legions  of  Britain  and  Spain ;  and  under 
Postumus   at  any  rate    (259-269)  the   existence  of  the 
Gallic  empire  was  justified  by  the  repulse  of  the  barbarians 
and   by   the    restoration   of    peace   and   security  to   the 
provinces  of  Gaul.     On  the  Danube,  in  Greece,  and  in 
Asia   Minor   none   of    the    "  pretenders "    enjoyed   more 
than  a  passing  success.     It  was  otherwise  in  the  far  East, 
where  the  Syrian  Odsenathus,  prince  of  Palmyra,7  though  Oda 
officially   only  the   governor  of   the  East  (dux  Orientis)  *lm^ 
under  Gallienus,    drove  the  Persians  out  of  Asia  Minor  at  p 
and   Syria,    recovered    Mesopotamia,    and    ruled    Syria,  ,uyr   i 
Arabia,  Armenia,   Cappadocia,  and  Cilicia  with  all   the 
independence  of  a  sovereign.     Odaenathus  was  murdered 
in    266.     His  young  son  Vaballathus  succeeded  him  in 
his  titles,  but  the  real  power  was  vested  in  his  widow 
Zenobia,   under  whom  not  only  the  greater  part  of  Asia 
Minor  but  even  the  province  of  Egypt  was  forcibly  added 
to  the  dominions  governed  in  the  name  of  Gallienus  by 
the  Palmyrene  prince. 

Gallienus   was  murdered   at   Milan   in   268,   and   the  R*8 
remaining  sixteen  years  of  this  period  were  marked  by 
the  restoration  of  unity  to  the  distracted  empire.     Palmyra  Au, 
was   destroyed  and  Zenobia  led  a  prisoner   to  Rome  by  273 


8  Gibbon,  i.  chap.  v. ;  Schiller,  Gesch.  d.  Kaiserze.it,  i.  (2)  (560. 

6  Gibbon,  i.  chap.  x. ;  Mommsen,  v.  149  ;  Schiller,  i.  (2)  827. 

7  Gibbon,  i.  chap,  x.;  Mommsen,  v.  433  ;  cf.  PALMYRA. 


THIRD    CENTURY.] 


ROME 


777 


Aurelian  in  273  ;  in  the  next  year  the  Gallic  empire  came 
to  an  end  by  the  surrender  of  Tetricus,  and  the  successors 
of  Aurelian — Tacitus,  Probus,  and  Carus  (275-282) — were 
at  least  rulers  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  empire. 
baric  While  rival  generals  were  contending  for  the  imperial 
'*•  purple,  the  very  existence  of  the  empire  which  they 
1S>  aspired  to  rule  was  imperilled  by  foreign  invasion.  As 
early  as  236  a  new  enemy,  the  Alemanni,  had  crossed  the 
Rhine,  but  had  been  driven  back  by  the  valour  of  Maxi- 
minus  (238),  and  in  the  same  year  the  Goths  first  appeared 
on  the  banks  of  the  Danube.  It  was,  however,  during 
the  period  of  internal  dissension  and  civil  war  from  the 
reign  of  Philip  (244-249)  to  the  accession  of  Claudius 
(268)  that  the  barbarians  saw  and  used  their  opportunity. 
From  across  the  Rhine  bands  of  Alemanni  and  Franks 
swept  over  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  even  descended  upon 
the  coasts  of  Africa,  until  their  raids  were  checked  by 
the  Gallic  emperor  Postumus  (253-259).  Far  more 
tlL--  destructive  were  the  raids  of  the  Goths.1  Towards  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Philip  (247)  they  crossed  the  Danube, 
and  overran  Mcesia,  Thrace,  and  Macedonia.  In  251 
they  defeated  and  slew  the  emperor  Decius  ;  and,  though 
his  successor  Gallus  purchased  a  temporary  peace  by 
lavish  gifts,  the  province  of  Dacia  was  finally  lost  to 
Rome.  The  Gothic  raids  by  sea  which  began  under 
Valerian  (253-260)  were  even  more  destructive.  Their 
fleets  issuing  from  the  ports  of  tho  Black  Sea  ravaged  the 
seaboard  of  Asia  Minor,  and  returned  laden  with  the 
spoils  of  the  maritime  towns.  In  the  reign  of  Gallienus 
(260-268)  a  fleet  of  five  hundred  sail  appeared  off  the 
coasts  of  Greece  itself;  Athens,  Corinth,  Argos,  and 
Sparta  were  sacked,  and  Epirus  laid  waste.  On  the  death 
of  Gallienus  (268)  the  Goths  once  more  marched  south- 
ward, but  in  the  new  emperor  Claudius  they  were  con- 
fronted at  last  by  an  able  and  resolute  opponent.  They 
were  decisively  defeated  and  driven  back  across  the 
Danube  (269).  Claudius  died  of  the  plague  in  the  next 
year,  but  by  his  successor  Aurelian  Roman  authority  was 
established  in  Mcesia  and  Pannonia,  and  the  Danube 
frontier  was  put  once  more  in  a  state  of  efficient  defence. 
Five  years  later  (276)  Probus  repulsed  a  raid  of  the 
Franks  and  Alemanni,  and  restored  peace  on  the  Rhine. 
But  the  rule  of  Rome  now  stopped  short,  as  in  the  reign 
of  Tiberius,  at  the  line  of  the  two  great  rivers ;  all  that 
had  been  acquired  beyond  since  the  time  of  Vespasian 
was  abandoned,  and  on  the  further  banks  of  the  Rhine 
and  Danube  stood,  in  the  place  of  friendly  or  subject 
tribes,  a  threatening  array  of  hostile  peoples. 

At  the  close  of  the  2d  century  the  growing  weakness  of 
Parthia  seemed  to  promise  an  immunity  from  danger  on 
the  Eastern  frontier.  But  with  the  revolution  which 
placed  the  Sassanidse  upon  the  throne  the  whole  situation 
was  changed.2  The  new  dynasty  was  in  blood  and  religion 
Persian ;  it  claimed  descent  from  Cyrus  and  Darius,  and 
aspired  to  recover  from  Western  hands  the  dominions 
which  had  once  been  theirs.  In  230  Artaxares  (Ardashir) 
had  formally  demanded  from  Severus  Alexander  the  restitu- 
tion of  the  provinces  of  Asia,  had  invaded  Mesopotamia, 
now  a  Roman  province,  and  even  advanced  into  Syria. 
Twenty  years  later  his  successor  Sapor  again  crossed  the 
Euphrates ;  in  260,  ten  years  after  Decius's  defeat  by  the 
Goths,  the  emperor  Valerian  was  conquered  and  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Persians,  who  poured  triumphantly  into 
Syria  and  captured  Antioch.  But  here  for  the  time  their 
successes  ended.  Three  years  later  Odaenathus  of  Pal- 
myra drove  them  back,  and  held  the  East  securely  in  the 
name  of  Rome.  On  the  fall  of  Zenobia  (273)  they  gained 
possession  for  a  time  of  Armenia  and  Mesopotamia,  but 

1  Gibbon,  i.  chap.  x.  ;  Mommsen,  v.  216. 

2  Gibbon,  i.  chap.  viii. ;  Mommsen,  v.  411  ;  cf.  PERSIA. 


were  driven  out  by  the  emperor  Carus  (282),  and  the 
frontier  line  as  fixed  by  Septimius  Severus  was  restored. 

Although  any  serious  loss  of  territory  had  been  avoided,  State  o 
the  storms  of  the  3d  century  had  told  with  fatal  effect theem 
upon  the  general  condition  of  tho  empire.     The  "  Roman  \^^Q 
peace "  had  vanished ;   not  only  the  frontier  territories,  Of  the 
but  the  central  districts  of  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  even  3d  ecu- 
Italy  itself,  had  suffered  from  the  ravages  of   war,  and turv- 
the  fortification  of  Rome  by  Aurelian  was  a  significant 
testimony  to  the  altered  condition  of  affairs.     War,  plague, 
and  famine  had  thinned  the  population  and  crippled  the 
resources  of  the  provinces.     On  all  sides  land  was  running 
waste,  cities  and  towns  were  decaying,  and  commerce  was 
paralysed.     Only  with  the   greatest   difficulty  were  suf- 
ficient funds  squeezed  from  the  exhausted  tax-payers  to 
meet  the  increasing  cost  of  the  defence  of  the  frontiers. 
The  old  established  culture  and  civilization  of  the  Medi- 
terranean   world   rapidly  declined,   and   the   mixture   of 
barbaric  rudeness  with  Oriental  pomp  and  luxury  which 
marked  the  court,  even  of  the  better  emperors,  such  as 
Aurelian,  was  typical  of  the  general  deterioration,  which 
was  accelerated  by  the  growing  practice  of  settling  bar- 
barians  on   lands  within  the  empire,  and   of   admitting 
them  freely  to  service  in  the  Roman  army. 

PERIOD  II.:  284-476  A.D. — (a)  From  the  Accession  o/There- 
Diocletian  to  the  Death  of  Tkeodosius  (284-395  A.D.).— forms  ( 
The  work  begun  by  Aurelian  and  Probus,  that  of  fortify-  ti^ca6 
ing  the  empire  alike  against  internal  sedition  and  foreign  Consta 
invasion,  was  completed  by  Diocletian  and  Constantine  tiue. 
the  Great,  whose  system  of  government,  novel  as  it 
appears  at  first  sight,  was  in  reality  the  natural  and 
inevitable  outcome  of  the  history  of  the  previous  century.3 
Its  object  was  twofold,  to  give  increased  stability  to  the 
imperial  authority  itself,  and  to  organize  an  efficient 
administrative  machinery  throughout  the  empire.  In  the  Augusi 
second  year  of  his  reign  Diocletian  associated  Maximian  J5fd 
with  himself  as  colleague,  and  six  years  later  (292)  the 
hands  of  the  two  "Augusti"  were  further  strengthened 
by  the  proclamation  of  Constantius  and  Galerius  as 
"Caesares."  Precedents  for  such  an  arrangement  might 
have  been  quoted  from  the  earlier  history  of  the  empire  ;4 
and  the  considerations  in  favour  of  it  at  the  time  were 
strong.  It  divided  the  overwhelming  burdens  and  respon- 
sibilities of  government,  without  sacrificing  the  unity  cf 
the  empire ;  for,  although  to  each  of  the  Augusti  and 
Ceesars  a  separate  sphere  was  assigned,  the  Caesars  were 
subordinate  to  the  higher  authority  of  the  Augusti,  and 
over  all  his  three  colleagues  Diocletian  claimed  to  exercise 
a  paramount  control.  It  at  least  reduced  the  too  familiar 
risk  of  a  disputed  succession  by  establishing  in  the  two 
Caesars  the  natural  successors  to  the  higher  position  of 
Augusti,  and  finally  it  satisfied  the  jealous  pride  of  the 
rival  armies  of  the  empire  by  giving  them  what  they  had 
so  constantly  claimed,  imperatores  of  their  own.  The  dis- 
tribution of  power  between  Diocletian  and  his  colleagues 
followed  those  lines  of  division  which  the  feuds  of  the 
previous  century  had  only  too  clearly  marked  out.  The 
armies  of  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  and  of  Syria  fell  to  the 
lot  respectively  of  (Jonstantius,  Galerius,  and  Diocletian, 
the  central  districts  of  Italy  and  Africa  to  Maximian.5  A 

3  See  Gibbon,  vol.  iii.,  chap.  xvii. ;  Marquardt,  Staatsverw.,  i. 
pp.  81,  336,  337,  ii.  217  sq. ;  Madvig,  Verf.  d.  Rom. '"Reichs,  i. 
585  ;  Booking,  Notitia  Dignitatum,  Bonn,  1853  ;  Hodgkin,  Italy 
and  her  Invaders,  i.  202  sq. ;  Preuss,  Diocletian,  Leipsic,  1869. 

*  Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.  1065  sq.  Verus  was  associated  with 
Marcus  Aurelius  as  Aiigustus  ;  Severus  gave  the  title  to  his  two  sons. 
The  bestowal  of  the  title  "Caesar"  on  the  destined  successor  dates 
from  Hadrian.  Mommsen,  op.  cit.,  1044. 

5  The  division  was  as  follows  : — (1)  Diocletian — Thrace,  Egypt, 
Syria,  Asia  Minor  ;  (2)  Maximian — Italy  and  Africa  ;  (3)  Galerius — 
Illyricum  and  the  Danube;  (4)  Constantius — Britain,  Gaul,  Spain. 
See  Gibbon,  ii.  68  ;  Aurelius  Victor,  c.  39. 

XX.  —  98 


778 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


rf 


°f 


Lltered  second  point  in  the  new  system  was  the  complete  and  final 
harac-  emancipation  of  the  imperial  authority  from  all  const!  tu- 
tional  limitation  and  control.  The  last  lingering  traces 
of  its  republican  origin  disappear.  The  emperors  from 
utho-  Diocletian  onwards  are  autocrats  in  theory  as  •well  as  in 
ity-  practice.  The  divided  powers,  the  parallel  jurisdictions, 
the  defined  prerogatives  of  the  Augustan  system  have  all 
vanished.  There  is  but  one  legal  authority  throughout 
the  empire,  that  of  the  emperor  himself  ;  and  that  authority 
is  absolute.  This  avowed  despotism  Diocletian,  following 
in  the  steps  of  Aurelian,  hedged  round  with  all  the  pomp 
and  majesty  of  Oriental  monarchy.  The  final  adoption  of 
the  title  "  dominus,"  so  often  rejected  by  earlier  emperors, 
the  diadem  on  the  head,  the  robes  of  silk  and  gold,  the 
replacement  of  the  republican  salutation  of  a  fellow 
citizen  by  the  adoring  prostration  even  of  the  highest  in 
rank  before  their  lord  and  master,  were  all  significant 
evel-  marks  of  the  new  regime.1  In  the  hands  of  this  absolute 
ruler  was  placed  the  entire  control  of  an  elaborate  admin- 
istrative  machinery.  Most  of  the  old  local  and  national 
distinctions,  privileges,  and  liberties  which  had  once 
flourished  within  the  empire  had  already  disappeared 
under  the  levelling  influence  of  imperial  rule,  and  the  level- 
ling process  was  now  completed.  Roman  citizenship  had, 
since  the  edict  of  Caracalla,  ceased  to  be  the  privilege  of  a 
•egrada-  minority.  Diocletian  finally  reduced  Italy  and  Rome  to 
on  °f  the  level  of  the  provinces  :  the  provincial  land-tax  and  pro- 
ya  vincial  government  were  introduced  into  Italy,2  while  Rome 
ceased  to  be  even  in  name  the  seat  of  imperial  authority.3 
he  new  Throughout  the  whole  area  of  the  empire  a  uniform  system 
Iminis-  Of  administration  was  established,  the  control  of  which 
was  centred  in  the  imperial  palace,  and  in  the  confidential 
ministers  who  stood  nearest  the  emperor's  person.4  Be- 
tween the  civil  and  military  departments  the  separation 
was  complete.  At  the  head  of  the  former,  at  least  under  the 
completed  organization  of  Constantine,  were  the  four  pre- 
fects,5 next  below  them  the  "  vicarii,"  who  had  charge  of 
the  "dioceses,"  below  these  again  the  governors  of  the  sepa- 
rate provinces  ("  praesides,"  "  correctores,"  "  consulares"),6 
under  each  of  whom  was  a  host  of  minor  officials. 
Parallel  with  this  civil  hierarchy  of  prefects,  vicars,  prse- 
sides,  and  smaller  "  officiales  "  was  the  series  of  military 
officers,  from  the  "magistri  militum,"  the  "duces,"  and 
"comites"  downwards.  But  the  leading  features  of  both 
are  the  same.  In  both  there  is  the  utmost  possible  sub- 
ordination and  division  of  authority.  The  subdivision  of 
provinces,  begun  by  the  emperors  of  the  2d  century,  was 
systematically  carried  out  by  Diocletian,  and  either  by 
Diocletian  or  by  Constantine  the  legion  was  reduced  to 
one-fifth  of  its  former  strength.7  Each  official,  civil  or 
military,  was  placed  directly  under  the  orders  of  a  superior, 
and  thus  a  continuous  chain  of  authority  connected  the 
emperor  with  the  meanest  official  in  his  service.  Finally, 
the  various  grades  in  these  two  imperial  services  were  care- 

1  Aurel.  Victor,  39;  Eutrop.,  ix.  26. 

2  Marquardt,  Staatsverw.,  i.   80-83,  where  a  list  is  given  of  the 
seventeen  so-called  "  provinciae  "  into  which  Italy,  together  with  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  was  divided.     Each  had  its  own  governor  ;  the 
governors  were  subject  to  the  two  vicarii  (vie.  urbis,  vie.  Italiae),  and 
they  in  turn  to  the  prefect  of  Italy,    whose   prefecture,    however, 
included  as  well  Africa  and  Western  Illyricum. 

3  The  seats  of  government  for  Diocletian  and  his  three  colleagues 
•were  Milan,  Treves,  Sirmium,  Nicomedia. 

4  For  these  last,    see  Gibbon,    ii.    chap.    xvii.    p.    325  ;  cf.   also 
ffotitia  Dignitatum  and  Booking's  notes. 

8  "Praefecti  praetorio."  The  four  prefectures  were  Oriens,  Illy- 
ricum, Italia,  Gallia,  to  which  must  be  added  the  prefectures  of  Rome 
and  Constantinople. 

6  There  were  12  dioceses  and  116  provinces  ;  cf.  in  addition  to  the 
authorities  mentioned  above,  Bethmann-Hollweg,  Civil-Prozess,  iii.  ; 
Walter,  Oesch.  d.  Rom.  Rechts,  i.  pp.  428  sq.  (Bonn,  1845). 

7  For  this  and  other   changes  in  the  military  organization,  see 
Madvig,  ii.  572  ;  Marquardt,  ii.  584  S?. 


fully  marked  by  the  appropriation  to  each  of  distinctive 
titles,  the  highest  being  that  of  "illustris,"  which  was 
confined  to  the  prefects  and  to  the  military  magistri  and 
comites,  and  to  the  chief  ministers.8 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  on  the  whole  these  Effects 
reforms  prolonged  the  existence  of  the  empire,  by  creating  of  *&» 
a  machinery  which  enabled  the  stronger  emperors  torefonnf 
utilize  effectively  all  its  available  resources,  and  which 
even  to  some  extent  made  good  the  deficiencies  of  weaker 
rulers.  But  in  many  points  they  failed  to  attain  their 
object.  Diocletian's  division  of  the  imperial  authority 
among  colleagues,  subject  to  the  general  control  of  the 
senior  Augustus,  was  effectually  discredited  by  the  twenty 
years  of  almost  constant  conflict  which  followed  his  own 
abdication  (305-323).  Constantino's  partition  of  the 
empire  among  his  three  sons  was  not  more  successful  in 
ensuring  tranquillity,  and  in  the  final  division  of  the  East 
and  West  between  Valens  and  Valentinian  (364)  the 
essential  principle  of  Diocletian's  scheme,  the  mainten- 
ance of  a  single  central  authority,  was  abandoned.  The 
"tyrants,"  the  curse  of  the  3d  century,  were  far  from 
unknown  in  the  4th,  and  their  comparative  paucity  was 
due  rather  to  the  hold  which  the  house  of  Constantine 
obtained  upon  the  allegiance  of  their  subjects  than  to  the 
system  of  Diocletian.  This  system,  moreover,  while  it  failed 
altogether  to  remove  some  of  the  existing  evils,  aggravated 
others.  The  already  overburdened  financial  resources  of 
the  empire  were  strained  still  further  by  the  increased 
expenditure  necessitated  by  the  substitution  of  four 
imperial  courts  for  one,  and  by  the  multiplication  in  every 
direction  of  paid  officials.  The  gigantic  bureaucracy  of 
the  4th  century  proved,  in  spite  of  its  undoubted  services, 
an  intolerable  weight  upon  the  energies  of  the  empire.9 

Diocletian  and  Maximian  formally  abdicated  their  high  Co: 
office  in  305.     Eighteen  years  later  Constantine,  the  sole  t|ue  tl) 
survivor  of  six  rival  emperors,  united  the  whole  empire  Grea1 
under  his   own  rule.     His  reign  of  fourteen  years  was 
marked  by  two  events  of  first-rate  importance, — the  recog-  Recog- 
nition of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the  empire,10  and  '"t'011 
the   building   of   the  new   capital   at   Byzantium.      The C1 
alliance    which    Constantine    inaugurated    between    the 
Christian  church  and  the  imperial  government,  while  it 
enlisted  on  the  side  of  the  state  one  of  the  most  powerful 
of  the  new  forces  with  which  it  had  to  reckon,  imposed  a 
check,  which  was  in  time  to  become  a  powerful  one,  on  the 
imperial  authority.     The  establishment  of  the  new  "  City 
of  Constantine  "  as  a  second  Rome,  with  a  second  senate,  Const 
a  prefect  of  the  city,  regiones,   and  even  largesses,    did 
more  than  proclaim  once  again  the  deposition  of  Rome 
from  her  old  imperial  position.     It  paved  the  way  for  the 
final  separation  of  East  and  West  by  providing  the  former 
for  the  first  time  with  a  suitable  seat  of  government  on 
the  Bosphorus.     The  death  of  Constantine  in  337  was 
followed,  as  the  abdication  of  Diocletian  had  been,  by  the 
outbreak  of  quarrels  among  rival  Caesars.     Of  the  three 
sons   of   Constantine   who   in    337    divided   the    empire 
between  them,    Constantine  the  eldest  fell  in  civil  war 
against  his  brother  Constans  ;  Constans  himself  was,  ten 
years  afterwards,  defeated  and  slain  by  Magnentius;  and  the 
latter  in  his  turn  was  in  353  vanquished  by  Constantino's 
only   surviving  son   Constantius.     Thus  for   the   second  Co: 
time  the  whole  empire  was  united  under  the  rule  of  a 
member  of  the  house  of  Constantine.     But  in  355  Con- 

8  The  grades  were  as  follows  :  illustres,  spectabiles,  clarissimi,  per- 
fectissimi,  egregii.     For  the  other  insignia,  see  Madvig,  ii.  590,  and 
the  Notitia  Dignitatum. 

9  The   passion   for  moulding   everything  after  a   uniform  official 
pattern    extended  beyond    the   departments   of    civil    and  military 
administration  to  the  professions  and  to  society.     Walter,  op.   cit., 
i.  456  ;  Marquardt,  ii.  230  sq. 

10  Gibbon,  ii.  chaps,  xv.  xvi. ;  Ranke,  Weltgesch. ,  iii.  525. 


351 


FOUKTH   CENTURY.] 


K  0  M  E 


779 


uta, 
61563. 


'ai- 

ini  I., 
i5<375. 


!6378. 


wtoths 


n,. 

l"is 
57-395. 


stantius  reluctantly  granted  the  title  of  C<esar  to  his 
cousin  Julian  and  placed  him  in  charge  of  Gaul,  where 
the  momentary  elevation  of  a  tyrant,  Silvanus,  and  still 
more  the  inroads  of  Franks  and  Alemanni,  had  excited 
alarm.  But  Julian's  successes  during  the  next  five  years 
were  such  as  to  arouse  the  jealous  fears  of  Constantius. 
In  order  to  weaken  his  suspected  rival  the  legions  under 
Julian  in  Gaul  were  suddenly  ordered  to  march  eastward 
against  the  Persians  (360).  They  refused,  and  when 
the  order  was  repeated  replied  by  proclaiming  Julian 
himself  emperor  and  Augustas.  Julian,  with  probably 
sincere  reluctance,  accepted  the  position,  but  the  death  of 
Constantius  in  361  saved  the  empire  from  the  threatened 
civil  war.  The  chief  importance  of  the  career  of  Julian, 
both  as  Caesar  in  Gaul  from  355  to  361  and  during  his 
brief  tenure  of  sole  power  (361-363),  lies,  so  far  as  the 
general  history  of  the  empire  is  concerned,  in  his  able 
defence  of  the  Rhine  frontier  and  in  his  Persian  campaign  ; 
for  his  attempted  restoration  of  pagan  and  in  especial  of 
Hellenic  worships  had  no  more  permanent  effect  than 
the  war  which  he  courageously  waged  against  the  multi- 
tudinous abuses  which  had  grown  up  in  the  luxurious 
court  of  Constantius.1  But  his  vigorous  administration  in 
Gaul  undoubtedly  checked  the  barbarian  advance  across  the 
Rhine,  and  postponed  the  loss  of  the  Western  provinces, 
while,  on  the  contrary,  his  campaign  in  Persia,  bril- 
liantly successful  at  first,  resulted  in  his  own  death,  and 
in  the  immediate  surrender  by  his  successor  Jovian  of  the 
territories  beyond  the  Tigris  won  by  Diocletian  seventy 
years  before.  Julian  died  on  June  26,  363,  his  suc- 
cessor Jovian  on  February  17,  364;  and  on  the  26th  of 
February  Valentinian  was  acknowledged  as  emperor  by 
the  army  at  Nicaea.  In  obedience  to  the  expressed  wish 
of  the  soldiers  that  he  should  associate  a  colleague  with 
himself,  he  conferred  the  title  of  Augustus  upon  his 
brother  Valens,  and  the  long-impending  division  of  the 
empire  was  at  last  effected, — Valentinian  became  emperor 
of  the  West,  Valens  of  the  East.  From  364  till  his 
death  in  375  the  vigour  and  ability  of  Valentinian 
kept  his  own  frontier  of  the  Rhine  tolerably  intact, 
and  prevented  any  serious  disasters  on  the  Danube.  But 
his  death,  which  deprived  the  weaker  Valens  of  a  trusted 
counsellor  and  ally,  was  followed  by  a  crisis  on  the 
Danube,  more  serious  than  any  which  had  occurred  there 
since  the  defeat  of  Decius.  In  376  the  Goths,  hard 
pressed  by  their  new  foes  from  the  eastward,  the  Huns, 
sought  and  obtained  the  protection  of  the  Roman  empire. 
They  were  transported  across  the  Danube  and  settled  in 
Mcesia,  but,  indignant  at  the  treatment  they  received,  they 
rose  in  arms  against  their  protectors.  In  378  at  Hadrian- 
op  le  Valens  was  defeated  and  killed ;  the  victorious  Goths 
spread  with  fire  and  sword  over  Illyricum,  and  advanced 
eastward  to  the  very  walls  of  Constantinople.  Once 
more,  however,  the  danger  passed  away.  The  skill  and 
tact  of  Theodosius,  who  had  been  proclaimed  emperor  of  the 
East  by  Gratian,  conciliated  the  Goths  ;  they  were  granted 
an  allowance,  and  in  large  numbers  entered  the  service  of 
the  Roman  emperor.  The  remaining  years  of  Theodosius's 
reign  (382-395)  were  mainly  engrossed  by  the  duty  which 
now  devolved  upon  the  emperor  of  the  East  of  upholding 
the  increasingly  feeble  authority  of  his  colleague  in  the 
West  against  the  attacks  of  pretenders.  Maximus,  the 
murderer  of  Gratian  (383),  was  at  first  recognized  by 
Theodosius  as  Ciesar,  and  left  in  undisturbed  command  of 
Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain ;  but,  when  in  386  he  proceeded 
to  oust  Valentinian  II.  from  Italy  and  Africa,  Theodosius 
marched  westward,  crushed  him,  and  installed  Valentinian 

1  Iii  especial  against  the  overweening  influence  of  the  eunuchs,  an 
influence  at  once  greater  and  more  pernicious  than  even  that  of  the 
imperial  freedmen  in  the  days  of  Claudius. 


as  emperor  of  the  West.     In  the  very  next  year,  however, 
the  murder  of  Valentinian  (392)  by  Arbogast,  a  Frank, 
was  followed  by  the  appearance  of  a  fresh  tyrant  in  the 
person  of  Eugenius,  a  domestic  officer  and  nominee  of  Arbo-  Division 
gast  himself.     Once  more  Theodosius  marched  westward,  of  tn.e 
and  near  Aquileia  decisively  defeated  his  opponents. 
his  victory  was  quickly  followed  by  his  own  illness  and 
death  (395),  and  the  fortunes  of  East  and  West  passed  and 
into  the  care  of  his'  two  sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  Honoriu 

(b)  From  the  Death  of  Theodosius  to  the  Extinction  o/Falloftl 
the    Western  Empire  (395-476).— Through  more  than  aWestem 
century    from   the   accession   of   Diocletian   the    Roman  eniPire- 
empire   had  succeeded  in  holding  at  bay  the  swarming 
hordes  of  barbarians.     But,  though  no  province  had  yet 
been  lost,  as  Dacia  had  been  lost  in  the  century  before, 
and  though  the  frontier  lines  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube 
were  still  guarded  by  Roman  forts  and  troops,  there  were 
signs  in  plenty  that  a  catastrophe  was  at  hand. 

From  all  the  writers  who  deal  with  the  4th  century  Distress 
comes  the  same  tale  of  declining  strength  and  energy.  of  tne 
From  Lactantius  to  Zosimus  we  have  one  long  series  of  ?r°tljn^ 
laments  over  the  depression  and  misery  of  the  provinces.  century. 
To  meet  the  increased  expenditure  necessary  to  maintain 
the  legions,  to  pay  the  hosts  of  officials,  and  to  keep  up 
the  luxurious  splendour  of  the  imperial  courts,  not  only 
were  the  taxes  raised  in  amount,  but  the  most  oppressive 
and  inquisitorial  methods  were  adopted  in  order  to  secure 
for  the  imperial  treasury  every  penny  that  could  be 
wrung  from  the  wretched  taxpayer.  The  results  are  seen 
in  such  pictures  as  that  which  the  panegyrist  Eumenius  2 
draws  of  the  state  of  Gaul  (306-312)  under  Constan- 
tine,  in  the  accounts  of  the  same  province  under  Julian 
fifty  years  later,  in  those  given  by  Zosimus  early  in  the 
5th  century,  and  in  the  stringent  regulations  of  the 
Theodosian  code,  dealing  with  the  assessment  and  collec- 
tion of  the  taxes.  Among  the  graver  symptoms  of 
economic  ruin  were  the  decrease  of  population,  which 
seriously  diminished  not  only  the  number  of  taxpayers, 
but  the  supply  of  soldiers  for  the  legions  ; 3  the  spread  of 
infanticide ;  the  increase  of  waste  lands  whose  owners  and 
cultivators  had  fled  to  escape  the  tax  collector ;  the 
declining  prosperity  of  the  towns ;  and  the  constantly 
recurring  riots  and  insurrections,  both  among  starving 
peasants,  as  in  Gaul,4  and  in  populous  cities  like  Antioch.5 
The  distress  was  aggravated  by  the  civil  wars,  by  the 
rapacity  of  tyrants,  such  as  Maxentius  and  Maximus,  but 
above  all  by  the  raids  of  the  barbarians,  who  seized  every 
opportunity  afforded  by  the  dissensions  or  incapacity  of 
the  emperors  to  cross  the  frontiers  and  harry  the  lands  of 
the  provincials.  Constantino  (306-312),  Julian  (356-360), 
and  Valentinian  I.  (364-375)  had  each  to  give  a  temporary 
breathing  space  to  Gaul  by  repelling  the  Franks  and 
Alemanni.  Britain  was  harassed  by  Picts  and  Scots  from 
the  north  (367-370),  while  the  Saxon  pirates  swept  the 
Northern  seas  and  the  coasts  both  of  Britain  and  Gaul. 
On  the  Danube  the  Quadi,  Sarmatse,  and  above  all  the 
Goths,  poured  at  intervals  into  the  provinces  of  Pannonia 
and  Moesia,  and  penetrated  to  Macedon  and  Thrace.  In 
the  East,  in  addition  to  the  constant  border  feud  with 
Persia,  we  hear  of  ravages  by  the  Isaurian  mountaineers, 
and  by  a  new  enemy,  the  Saracens.6 

Even  more  ominous  of  coming  danger  was  the  extent 

2  Eumenius,  Paneg.  Vet. ,  vii.     For  Julian's  administration  in  Gaul 
see  Ammianus,  xv.-xvii. ;  Julian's  own  oration  to  the  Athenian  senate 
and  people,  Juliani  Opera  (ed.  Hertlein,  Leipsic,  1875)  pp.  346  sq. ; 
Zosimus,  ii.   38.     Of.   Gibbon,  ii.   333,  412 ;  Jung,  Roman.  Lund- 
schaften,  264,  265  ;  Hodgkin,  i.  600  sq. 

3  Gibbon,  ii.  323. 

4  For  the  Bagaudae,  see  Gibbon,  ii.  69,  and  Jung,  op.  cit.,  264, 
where  the  authorities  are  given. 

-  In  387  ;  Hodgkin,  i.  178.  .    6  Amm.  Marcel.,  xiv.  4. 


780 


E.O  M  E 


[HISTORY. 


inrians 
vithiu 
he 
:mpire. 


Barbaric 

uvasions. 


Vlaric  and 
;he  Visi- 
joths. 


Marie  in 
:taly. 


to  which  the  European  half  of  the  empire  was  becoming 
barbarized.  The  policy  which  had  been  inaugurated  by 
Augustus  himself  of  settling  barbarians  within  the  frontiers 
had  been  taken  up  on  a  larger  scale  and  in  a  more  systematic 
way  by  the  Illyrian  emperors  of  the  3d  century,  and  was 
continued  by  their  successors  in  the  4th.  In  Gaul,  in  the 
provinces  south  of  the  Danube,  even  in  Macedon  and  Italy, 
large  barbarian  settlements  had  been  made — Theodosius 
in  particular  distinguishing  himself  by  his  liberality  in  this 
respect.  Nor  did  the  barbarians  admitted  during  the  4th 
century  merely  swell  the  class  of  half-servile  coloni.  On 
the  contrary,  they  not  only  constituted  to  an  increasing 
extent  the  strength  of  the  imperial  forces,  but  won  their 
way  in  ever-growing  numbers  to  posts  of  dignity  and 
importance  in  the  imperial  service.  Under  Constantino 
the  palace  was  crowded  with  Franks.1  Julian  led  Gothic 
troops  against  Persia,  and  the  army  with  which  Theodosius 
defeated  the  tyrant  Maximus  (388)  contained  large 
numbers  of  Huns  and  Alans,  as  well  as  of  Goths.  The 
names  of  Arbogast,  Stilicho,  and  Eufinus  are  sufficient 
proof  of  the  place  held  by  barbarians  near  the  emperor's 
person  and  in  the  control  of  the  provinces  and  legions  of 
Rome ;  and  the  relations  of  Arbogast  to  his  nominee  for 
the  purple,  Eugenius,  were  an  anticipation  of  those  which 
existed  between  Ricimer  and  tho  emperors  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  5th  century. 

It  was  by  barbarians  already  settled  within  the  empire 
that  the  first  of  the  series  of  attacks  which  finally  separated 
the  Western  provinces  from  the  empire  and  set  up  a 
barbaric  ruler  in  Italy  were  made,2  and  it  was  in  men  of 
barbarian  birth  that  Rome  found  her  ablest  and  most 
successful  defenders,  and  the  emperors  both  of  East  and 
West  their  most  capable  and  powerful  ministers.  The 
Visigoths  whom  Alaric  led  into  Italy  had  been  settled 
south  of  the  Danube  as  the  allies  of  the  empire  since  the 
accession  of  Theodosius.  The  greater  part  of  them  were 
Christians  at  least  in  name,  and  Alaric  himself  had  stood 
high  in  the  favour  of  Theodosius.  The  causes  which  set 
them  in  motion  are  tolerably  clear.  Like  the  Germans  of 
the  days  of  Caesar,  they  wanted  land  for  their  own,  and  to 
this  land-hunger  was  evidently  added  in  Alaric's  own  case 
the  ambition  of  raising  himself  to  the  heights  which  had 
been  reached  before  him  by  the  Vandal  Stilicho  at  Ravenna 
and  the  Goth  Rufinus  at  Constantinople.  The  jealousy 
which  existed  between  the  rulers  of  the  Western  and 
Eastern  empires  furthered  his  plans.  In  the  name  of 
Arcadius,  the  emperor  of  the  East,  or  at  least  with  the 
connivance  of  Arcadius's  minister  Rufinus,  he  occupied 
the  province  of  Illyricum,  and  from  thence  ravaged 
Greece,  which  according  to  the  existing  division  of  pro- 
vinces belonged  to  the  Western  empire.  Thence  in  396 
he  retreated  before  Stilicho  to  Illyricum,  with  the  command 
of  which  he  was  now  formally  invested  by  Arcadius,  and 
which  gave  him  the  best  possible  starting  point  for  an 
attack  on  Italy.3  In  400  he  led  his  people,  with 
their  wives  and  families,  their  waggons  and  treasure,  to 
seek  lands  for  themselves  south  of  the  Alps.  But  in  this 
first  invasion  he  penetrated  no  farther  than  the  plains 
of  Lombardy,  and  after  the  desperate  battle  of  Pollentia 

1  Anim.,  xv.  5. 

8  Accounts  of  the  leading  ancient  authorities  for  the  period  395- 
476  will  be  found  prefixed  to  the  several  chapters  in  Hodgkin's  Italy 
and  her  Invaders,  vols.  i.  ii.  (Oxford,  1880),  especially  vol.  i.  pp. 
234,  277.  Among  standard  modern  authorities  are  Gibbon,  vol.  iv. ; 
Tillemont,  Histoire  des  Empereurs,  vol.  v. ;  Milman,  Latin  Chris- 
tianity, vol.  i. ;  Thierry,  Trois  Ministres  des  fils  de  Theodose  (Paris, 
1865),  and  Histoire  d' A ttila ;  Ranke,  Weltgeschichte,  vol.  iv. , — compare 
especially  his  criticisms  (iv.  (2)  249  sq.)  on  Eusebius,  Zosimus,  Pro- 
copius,  Jordanes,  and  Gregory  of  Tours.  For  the  barbarian  migrations 
see  Wietersheim,  Oesch.  d.  Volkencanderung. 

3  Hodgkin,  op.  cit.,  i.  275. 


(402) 4  he  slowly  withdrew  from  Italy,  his  retreat  being 
hastened  by  the  promises  of  gold  freely  made  to  him  by 
the  imperial  government.  Not  until  the  autumn  of  408 
did  Alaric  again  cross  the  Alps.  Stilicho  was  dead ;  the 
barbarian  troops  in  Honorius's  service  had  been  provoked 
into  joining  Alaric  by  the  insane  anti-Teutonic  policy  of 
Honorius  and  his  ministers,  and  Alaric  marched  unopposed 
to  Rome.  This  time,  however,  the  payment  of  a  heavy 
ransom  saved  the  city.  Several  months  of  negotiation 
followed  between  Alaric  and  the  court  of  Ravenna. 
Alaric's  demands  were  moderate,  but  Honorius  would 
grant  neither  lands  for  his  people  nor  the  honourable  post 
in  the  imperial  service  whicli  he  asked  for  himself.  Once 
more  Alaric  sat  down  before  Rome,  and  this  time  the 
panic-stricken  citizens  discovered  a  fresh  mode  of  escape. 
Attalus,  a  Greek,  the  prefect  of  the  city,  was  declared 
Augustus,  and  Alaric  accepted  the  post  of  commander-in- 
chief.  But  the  incapacity  of  Attalus  was  too  much  for 
the  patience  of  his  barbarian  minister  and  patron,  and 
after  a  few  months'  reign  Alaric  formally  deposed  him 
and  renewed  his  offers  to  Honorius.  Again,  however, 
they  were  declined,  and  Alaric  marched  to  the  siege  and 
sack  of  Rome  (410).5  His  death  followed  hard  on 
his  capture  of  Rome.  Two  years  later  (412)  his  sue- The 
cessor  Ataulf  led  the  Visigoths  to  find  in  Gaul  the  lands  goth 
which  Alaric  had  sought  in  Italy.  It  is  characteristic  of  u 
the  anarchical  condition  of  the  West  that  Ataulf  and  his 
Goths  should  have  fought  for  Honorius  in  Gaul  against 
the  tyrants,6  and  in  Spain  against  the  Vandals,  Suevi,  and 
Alaui;  and  it  was  with  the  consent  of  Honorius  that  in  419 
Wallia,  who  had  followed  Ataulf  as  king  of  the  Visigoths, 
finally  settled  with  his  people  in  south-western  Gaul  and 
founded  the  Visigothic  monarchy.7 

It  was  about  the  same  period  that  the  accomplished  Van 
fact  of  the  division  of  Spain  between  the  three  barbarian  Suei 
tribes  of  Vandals,  Suevi,  and  Alani  was  in  a  similar  * 
manner  recognized  and  approved  by  the  paramount 
authority  of  the  emperor  of  the  West.8  These  peoples  had 
crossed  the  Rhine  at  the  time  when  Alaric  was  making 
his  first  attempt  on  Italy.  A  portion  of  the  host  led  by 
Radagaisus  9  actually  invaded  Italy,  but  were  cut  to  pieces 
by  Stilicho  near  Florence  (405) ;  the  rest  pressed  on 
through  Gaul,  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  entered  the  as 
yet  untouched  province  of  Spain. 

Honorius  died  in  423.  His  authority  had  survived  the 
dangers  to  which  it  had  been  exposed  alike  from  the  Hoi 
rivalry  of  tyrants  and  barbaric  invasion,  and  with  the 
single  exception  of  Britain 10  no  province  had  yet  formally 
broken  loose  from  the  empire.  But  over  a  great  part  of 
the  West  this  authority  was  now  little  more  than  nominal ; 
throughout  the  major  part  of  Gaul  and  in  Spain  the 
barbarians  had  settled,  and  barbarian  states  were  growing 
up  which  still  recognized  the  paramount  supremacy  of 
the  emperor,  but  were  in  all  essentials  independent  of 
his  control.  The  question  for  the  future  was  whether 
this  relationship  between  the  declining  imperial  authority 
and  the  vigorous  young  states  which  had  planted  the  seeds 
of  a  fresh  life  in  the  provinces  would  be  maintained. 

The  long  reign  of  Valentinian  III.  (423-455)  is  marked  Val 


tini 


4  According  to  others,  403;  Hodgkin,  i.  310. 

5  For  the  treatment  of  Rome  by  Alaric,  see  Hodgkin,  i.  370,  with 
Gibbon,  iv.  101,  and  Ranke,  Weltgesch.,  iv.  246.     Allowance  must  be 
made  for  the  exaggerations  of  the  ecclesiastical  writers. 

6  For  these  "  tyrants  "  see  an  article  by  Prof.  Freeman  in  the  first 
number  of  the  new  English  Historical  Review  (Jan.  1886),  pp.  53-86. 

7  The  capital  of  the  new  state  was  Tolosa  (Toulouse). 

8  Jung,  Die  Romanische  Landschajten,  73  sq. 

9  For  the  connexion  between  his  movement  and  those  of  Alaric  and 
of  the  Vandals,  see  Hodgkin,  i.  282,  304  ;  Gibbon,  iv.  46. 

10  The  Roman  troops  were  withdrawn  from  Britain  by  Constantino 
in  409;  Jung,  305. 

•Ill 


FALL    OF   WESTERN   EMPIRE.] 


R  0  M  E 


781 


by  two  events  of  first-rate  importance, — the  conquest  of 
Africa  by  the  Vandals l  and  the  invasion  of  Gaul  and 
Italy  by  Attila.  The  Vandal  settlement  in  Africa  was 
closely  akin  in  its  origin  and  results  to  those  of  the 
Visigoths  and  of  the  Vandals  themselves  in  Gaul  and 
Spain.  Here  as  there  the  occasion  was  given  by  the 
jealous  quarrels  of  powerful  imperial  ministers.  The  feud 
between  Boniface,  count  of  Africa,  and  Aetius,  the  "  master- 
general  "  or  "count  of  Italy,"  opened  the  way  to  Africa 
for  the  Vandal  king  Gaiseric  (Genseric),  as  that  between 
Stilicho  and  Rufinus  had  before  set  Alaric  in  motion 
westward,  and  as  the  quarrel  between  the  tyrant  Con- 
stantine  and  the  ministers  of  Honorius  had  paved  the 
way  for  the  Vandals,  Sueves,  and  Alans  into  Spain.  In 
this  case  too,  as  in  the  others,  the  hunger  for  more  land 
and  treasure  was  the  impelling  motive  with  the  barbarian 
invader,  and  in  Africa,  as  in  Gaul  and  Spain,  the  invaders' 
acquisitions  were  confirmed  by  the  imperial  authority  which 
they  still  professed  to  recognize.  It  was  in  429  that  Gai- 
seric, king  of  the  Vandals,  crossed  with  his  warriors,  their 
families  and  goods,  to  the  province  of  Africa,  a  province 
hitherto  almost  as  untouched  as  Spain  by  the  ravages 
of  war.  Thanks  to  the  quarrels  of  Boniface  and  Aetius 
their  task  was  an  easy  one.  The  defenceless  province 
was  easily  and  quickly  overrun.  In  435 2  a  formal 
treaty  secured  them  in  the  possession  of  a  large  portion 
of  the  rich  lands  which  were  the  granary  of  Rome,  in 
exchange  for  a  payment  probably  of  corn  and  oil.  Car- 
thage was  taken  in  439,  and  by  440  the  Vandal  kingdom 
was  firmly  established. 

Eleven  years  later  (451)  Attila  invaded  Gaul,  but  this 
Hunnish  movement  was  in  &  variety  of  ways  different 
from  those  of  the  Visigoths  and  Vandals.  Nearly  a 
century  had  passed  since  the  Huns  first  appeared  in 
Europe,  and  drove  the  Goths  to  seek  shelter  within  the 
Roman  lines.  Attila  was  now  the  ruler  of  a  great  empire 
in  central  and  northern  Europe,3  and,  in  addition  to  his 
own  Huns,  the  German  tribes  along  the  Rhine  and  Danube 
and  far  away  to  the  north  owned  him  as  king.  He  con- 
fronted the  Roman  power  as  an  equal ;  and,  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  Gothic  and  Vandal  chieftains,  he  treated 
with  the  emperors  of  East  and  West  as  an  independent 
sovereign.  His  advance  on  Gaul  and  Italy  threatened,  not 
the  establishment  of  yet  one  more  barbaric  chieftain  on 
Roman  soil,  but  the  subjugation  of  the  civilized  and 
Christian  West  to  the  rule  of  a  heathen  and  semi-barbarous 
conqueror.  But  Rome  now  reaped  the  advantages  of  the 
policy  which  Honorius  had  perhaps  involuntarily  followed. 
The  Visigoths  in  Gaul,  Christian  and  already  half 
Romanized,  rallied  to  the  aid  of  the  empire  against  a 
common  foe.  Attila,  defeated  at  Chalons  4  by  Aetius, 
withdrew  into  Pannonia  (451).  In  the  next  year  he 
overran  Lombardy,  but  penetrated  no  farther  south, 
and  in  453  he  died.  With  the  murder  of  Valentinian 
III.  (453)  the  western  branch  of  the  house  of  Theodosius 
came  to  an  end,  and  the  next  twenty  years  witnessed 
the  accession  and  deposition  of  nine  emperors.  The  three 
months'  rule  of  Maximus  is  memorable  only  for  the  invasion 
of  Italy  and  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the  Vandals  under 
Gaiseric.  From  456-472  the  actual  ruler  of  Italy  was 
Ricimer,  the  Sueve.  Of  the  four  emperors  whom  he  placed 
on  the  throne,  Majorian  (457-461)  alone  played  any 

1  Hodgkin,  ii.   233-290;  Gibbon,  iv.   176-188,  256;  Jung,  183. 
The  leading  ancient  authority  is  Procopius.     See  Ranke,  iv.  (2)  285  ; 
Papencordt,  Gesch.  d.  Vandal.  Herrschaft  in  Africa. 

2  Prosper,    659  ;  Eanke,  iv.  (1)  282. 

3  The  principal  ancient  authorities  are  Prisons  (Muller,  Fragm.  Hist. 
Or.,  iv.   69);  Jordanes  (ed.   Mommseu,   1882);   Sidonius  Apollinaris 
(ed.  Barret,  Paris,  1878). 

4  For  the  decisive  battle   of  Chalons,  see   Gibbon,    iv.  234  fq. ; 
Hodgkin,  ii.  138,  note  A,  161,  where  the  topography  is  discussed. 


imperial  part  outside  Italy.5     Ricimer  died  in  472,  and  two 
years  later  a  Pannonian,  Orestes,  aspired  to  fill  the  place 
which  Ricimer  had  occupied.     Julius  Nepos  was  deposed, 
and  Orestes  filled  the  vacancy  by  proclaiming  as  Augustus 
his  own  son  Romulus.     But  Orestes's  tenure  of  power  was  Orestes 
brief.     The  barbarian  mercenaries  in  Italy  determined  to  the  Pan - 
secure  for  themselves  a  position  there  such  as  that  which  nc 
their  kinsfolk   had   won  in  Gaul  and  Spain  and  Africa. 
Their  demand  for  a  third  of  the  lands  of  Italy  was  refused 
by  Orestes,6  and  they  instantly  rose  in  revolt.     On  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Orestes  they  proclaimed  their  leader, 
Odoacer  the  Rugian,7  king  of  Italy.     Romulus  Augustulus  Romulus 
laid   down  his  imperial  dignity,  and  the  court   at   Con-  -^"R11*- 
stantinople   was   informed  that   there   was  no  longer  an 
emperor  of  the  West.8 

The  installation  of  a  barbarian  king  in  Italy  was  the  King 
natural  climax  of  the  changes  which  had  been  taking  place  Odoacer. 
in  the  West  throughout  the  5th  century.  In  Spain,  Gaul, 
and  Africa  barbarian  chieftains  were  already  established 
as  kings.  In  Italy,  for  the  last  twenty  years,  the  real 
power  had  been  wielded  by  a  barbarian  officer.  Odoacer, 
when  he  decided  to  dispense  with  the  nominal  authority  of 
an  emperor  of  the  West,  placed  Italy  on  the  same  level  of 
independence  with  the  neighbouring  provinces.  But  the 
old  ties  with  Rome  were  not  severed.  The  new  king 
of  Italy  formally  recognized  the  supremacy  of  the  one 
Roman  emperor  at  Constantinople,  and  was  invested  in 
return  with  the  rank  of  "  patrician,"  which  had  been  held 
before  him  by  Aetius  and  Ricimer.  In  Italy  too,  as  in 
Spain  and  Gaul,  the  laws,  the  administrative  system,  and 
the  language  remained  Roman.9  But  the  emancipation  of 
Italy  and  the  Western  provinces  from  direct  imperial  con- 
trol, which  is  signalized  by  Odoacer's  accession,  has  rightly 
been  regarded  as  marking  the  opening  of  a  new  epoch. 
It  made  possible  in  the  West  the  development  of  a 
Romano-German  civilization ;  it  facilitated  the  growth  of 
new  and  distinct  states  and  nationalities ;  'it  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  the  influence  of  the  Christian  church,  and  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  power  of  the  bishops  of  Rome. 
Chronological  Table  of  tht  Roman  Emperors. 


B.C. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

27 

Augustus. 

(  Pertinax. 

260. 

Gallienus. 

A.D. 

193. 

4  Didius  Julianus. 

268. 

Claudius. 

14. 

Tiberius. 

(  ScptimiusSeverus. 

270. 

Aurelian. 

37. 

Caligula. 

211. 

Caracal  hi. 

275. 

Tacitus. 

41. 

Claudius. 

217. 

Macrinus. 

276. 

Probus. 

54. 

Nero. 

218. 

Elagabalus. 

282. 

Carus. 

C8,  69. 

(Galba. 
4  Otho. 

221. 

(  Severus  Alexan- 
(     der. 

2S3. 

j  Cariiius  and  Nu- 
i     merian. 

(Vitellius. 

235. 

Maximinus. 

(  Diocletian  (Maxi- 

69. 

Vespasian. 

/The  twoGordiani. 

284. 

\      mian  associated 

79. 

Titus. 

OOQ 

I  Maxim  us  and  Bal- 

(     with  him,  286). 

81. 
96. 

Domitian. 
Nerva. 

iOO. 

j      binus. 
(  Gordian  III. 

305. 

(  Constantius   and 
\      Galcrius,     Au- 

98. 

Trajan. 

244. 

Philip. 

(     gusti. 

117. 

Hadrian. 

249. 

Decins. 

323. 

Constantine  I. 

138. 

Antoninus  Piirs. 

(  Gallusand^Emil- 

353. 

Constantius  11. 

161. 

Marcus  Aurelius. 

(     ianus. 

361. 

Julian. 

180. 

Commodus. 

253. 

Valerian. 

363. 

Jovian. 

Divit 

ion  of  the  Empire. 

A.D. 

West. 

A.D.                East. 

3G4. 

Valentinian  I. 

364.  Valens. 

375. 

Gratian  and  Valentinian  II. 

379.   Theodosius  I. 

S83. 

Valentinian  II. 

392. 

Theoc 

osius  I. 

395. 

Honorius. 

395.   Arcadius. 

423. 

Valentinian  III. 

408.   Theodosius  II 

455. 

Maximus.                          • 

450.   Marcian. 

455. 

Avitus. 

457.   Leo  I. 

457. 

Majorian. 

474.  Leo  II. 

MI. 

Severus. 

467. 

Antliemins. 

472. 

Olybrius. 

473. 

Glycerins. 

474. 

Julius  Nepos. 

475. 

Romulus  Augustulus. 

(H.  F.  P.) 

5  Majorian  was  the  last  Roman  emperor  who  appeared  in  person  in 
Spain  and  Gaul.  6  Hodgkin,  i.  531. 

7  The  nationality  of  Odoacer  is  a  disputed  point.     Hodgkin,  i.  528  ; 
Ranke,  iv.  (1)  372. 

8  Gibbon,  iv.    298.     The   authority  for  the  embassy  to  Zeno   is 
Malchus  (Muller,  Fragm.  Hist.  Or.,  iv.  119). 

9  Gibbon,  iv.  302 ;  Jung,  66  sq. ;  Bryce,    Holy  Roman   Empire, 
24-33.     See  also  ROMAN  LAW. 


782 


ROME 


[HISTOE 


SECTION  II. — HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  REPUBLIC  IN  THE 
MIDDLE  AGES. 

The  history  of  the  Roman  republic  during  the  Middle 
Ages  has  yet  to  be  written,  and  only  by  the  discovery  of 
new  documents  can  the  difficulties  of  the  task  be  com- 
pletely overcome.  Although  very  different  in  its  origin, 
the  Roman  republic  gradually  assumed  the  same  form  as  the 
other  Italian  communes,  and  with  almost  identical  institu- 
tions. But,  owing  to  the  special  local  conditions  amid 
which  it  arose,  it  maintained  a  distinct  physiognomy  and 
character.  The  deserted  Campagna  surrounding  the  city 
checked  any  notable  increase  of  trade  or  industry,  and 
prevented  the  establishment  of  the  guilds  on  the  solid 
footing  that  elsewhere  made  them  the  basis  and  support 
of  the  commune.  There  was  also  the  continual  and 
oppressive  influence  of  the  empire,  and,  above  all,  the 
presence  of  the  papacy,  which  often  appeared  to  absorb 
the  entire  vitality  of  the  city.  At  such  moments  the 
commune  seemed  annihilated,  but  it  speedily  revived 
and  reasserted  itself.  Consequently  there  are  many 
apparent  gaps  in  its  history,  and  we  have  often  extreme 
difficulty  in  discovering  the  invisible  links  connecting  the 
visible  fragments. 

Even  the  aristocracy  of  Rome  had  a  special  stamp.     In 
the   other   republics,  excepting  Venice,  it  was  feudal,  of 
German  origin,  and  in  perpetual  conflict  with  the  popular 
and  commercial  elements  which  sought   its  destruction. 
The  history  of   municipal  freedom  lay  in  this  struggle. 
But  the  infiltration  of  Teutonic  and  feudal  elements  broke 
up  the  ancient  aristocracy  of  Rome,  and  left  it  at  the 
mercy  of  the  people.     Then  the  popes,  by  the  bestowal  of 
lucrative  posts,  rich  benefices,  and  vast  estates,  and,  above 
all,  by  raising  many  nobles  to  the  purple,  introduced  new 
blood  into  the  Roman  aristocracy,  and  endued  it  with 
increasing  strength  and  vitality.     Always  divided,  always 
turbulent,  this  irrepressible  body  was  a  continual  source  of 
discord  and  civil  war,  of  permanent  confusion  and  turmoil. 
Amidst  all  these  difficulties  the  commune  struggled  on, 
but  never  succeeded  in  long  preserving  a  regular  course 
or  administration.     What  with  continual  warfare,  attacks 
on  the  Capitol,  and  consequent  slaughter,  pillage,  and  in- 
cendiarism, it  is  no  wonder  that  so  few  original  documents 
are  left  to  illustrate  the  history  of  the  Roman  republic. 
Nor  have  chroniclers  and  historians  done  much  to  supply 
this  want,  since,  in  treating  of  Roman  affairs,  their  atten- 
tion is   mainly  devoted  to   the  pope  and-  the  emperor. 
Nevertheless  we  will  attempt  to  connect  in  due  order  all 
the  facts  gleaned  from  former  writers  and  published  records. 
The  removal  of  the  seat  of  the  empire  to  Constantinople 
effected   a   radical   change   in   the   political   situation  of 
Rome ;  nor  was  this  change  neutralized  by  the  formation 
of  the  weak  Western  empire  soon  to  be  shattered  by  the 
Germanic  invasions.     But  we  still  find  Roman  laws  and 
institutions ;  and  no  sign  is  yet  manifest  of  the  rise  of  a 
mediaeval  municipality.     The  earliest  germ  of  one  is  seen 
during  the  barbarian  invasions.     Of  these  we  need  only 
enumerate  the  four  most  important, — those  of  the  Goths, 
The         Byzantines,    Lombards,  and   Franks.      The   Gothic   rule 
Goths,     merely  superposed  upon  the  Roman  social  order  a  Teutonic 
stratum,  that  never  penetrated  beneath  its  surface.     The 
Goths  always  remained  a  conquering  army ;  according  to 
the  German  custom,  they  took  possession  of  one  third  of 
the  vanquished  territory,  but,  while  forbidding  the  Romans 
to  bear  arms,  left  their  local  administration  intact.     The 
senate,  the  curiae,  the  principal  magistrates,  both  provin- 
cial and  municipal,  the  prefect  of  the  city,  and  the  Roman 
judges  enforcing  the  enactments  of  the  Roman  law  were 
all  preserved.     Already,  under  the  empire,  the  civil  power 
had  been  separated  from  the  military,  and  this  separation 


was  maintained.  Hence  there  was  no  visible  change  in 
the  constitution  of  the  state.  Only,  now  there  were  con- 
quered and  conquerors.  All  real  and  effective  power  was 
on  the  side  of  brute  force,  and  the  Goths  alone  bore  arms. 
In  every  province  they  had  their  comites,  or  heads  of  the 
army,  who  had  judicial  power  over  their  countrymen, 
especially  in  criminal  cases.  Here  then  was  a  combina- 
tion of  civil  and  military  jurisdiction  altogether  contrary 
to  the  Roman  idea.  Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  the  comites, 
as  chiefs  of  the  armed  force,  necessarily  exerted  a  direct 
or  indirect  influence  on  the  civil  and  administrative  power 
of  the  provinces,  and  especially  upon  the  collection  of  the 
imposts.  The  civil  arm,  being  virtually  subordinate  to  the 
military,  suffered  unavoidable  change.  Notwithstanding 
the  praise  lavished  on  Theodoric,  the  kingdom  founded 
by  him  in  Italy  had  no  solid  basis.  It  was  composed  of 
two  nations  differing  in  race  and  traditions  and  even  in 
religion,  since  the  Goths  were  Arians  and  the  Romans 
Catholics.  The  latter  were  sunk  in  degeneracy  and  cor- 
ruption ;  their  institutions  were  old  and  decrepit.  It  was 
necessary  to  infuse  new  life  into  the  worn-out  body.  This 
was  difficult,  perhaps  impossible ;  and  at  any  rate  Theodoric 
never  attempted  the  task.  Little  wonder  then  if  the 
Gothic  kingdom  succumbed  to  the  Byzantine  hordes  from 
Constantinople. 

The  wars  of  Belisarius  and  Narses  against  the  Goths 
lasted  twenty  years  (535-555  A.D.),  caused  terrible  slaughter  zantil 
and  devastation  in  Italy,  and  finally  subjected  her  to ru 
Constantinople.  In  place  of  a  Gothic  king  she  was  now 
ruled  by  a  Greek  patrician,  afterwards  entitled  the  exarch, 
who  had  his  seat  of  government  at  Ravenna  as  lieutenant 
of  the  empire.  In  the  chief,  provincial  cities  the  ruling 
counts  were  replaced  by  dukes,  subordinate  to  the  exarch ; 
and  the  smaller  towns  were  governed  by  military  tribunes. 
Instead  of  dukes,  we  sometimes  find  magistri  militum, 
apparently  of  higher  rank.  The  praefectus  praetorio  of 
Italy,  likewise  a  dependant  of  the  exarch,  was  at  the  head 
of  the  civil  administration.  The  pragmatic  sanction  (554), 
promulgating  the  Justinian  code,  again  separated  the 
civil  from  the  military  power,  which  was  no  longer  allowed 
to  intervene  in  the  settlement  of  private  disputes,  and,  by 
conferring  on  the  bishops  the  superintendence  of  and 
authority  over  the  provincial  and  municipal  government, 
soon  led  to  the  increase  of  the  power  of  the  church,  which 
had  already  considerable  influence. 

The  new  organization  outwardly  resembled  that  of  the 
Goths  :  one  army  had  been  replaced  by  another,  the  counts 
by  dukes;  there  was  an  exarch  instead  of  a  king;  the 
civil  and  military  jurisdictions  were  more  exactly  defined. 
But  the  army  was  not,  like  that  of  the  Goths,  a  conquer- 
ing nation  in  arms ;  it  was  a  Grseco-Roman  army,  and  did 
not  hold  a  third  of  the  territory  which  was  now  probably 
added  to  the  possessions  of  the  state.  The  soldiery 
took  its  pay  from  Constantinople,  whence  all  instructions 
and  appointments  of  superior  officers  likewise  proceeded. 
In  Rome  we  find  a  magister  militum  at  the  head  of  the 
troops.  The  Roman  senate  still  existed,  but  was  re- 
duced to  a  shadow.  Theodoric  had  left  it  intact  until  he 
suspected  it  of  hostile  designs  and  dealings  with  the 
Byzantines,  but  then  began  to  persecute  it,  as  was  proved 
by  the  wretched  fate  of  Boetius  and  Symmachus.  Never- 
theless the  senate  survived,  added  the  functions  of  a  curia 
or  municipal  council  to  those  of  a  governmental  assembly, 
and  took  part  in  the  election  of  the  pope — already  one  of 
the  chief  affairs  of  Rome.  So  many  senators,  however,  were 
slaughtered  during  the  Byzantine  war  that  it  was  com- 
monly believed  to  be  extinct.  The  pragmatic  sanction, 
conferring  on  senate  and  pope  the  superintendence  of 
weights  and  measures  in  Italy,  is  a  convincing  proof  to 
the  contrary,  although,  in  the  general  chaos,  now  that 


MEDIEVAL   REPUBLIC.] 


ROME 


783 


bds. 


Tl 

1X58. 


Crjory 

r. 


Kome  was  a  mere  provincial  city,  constantly  exposed  to 
attack,  we  may  imagine  to  what  the  senate  was  reduced. 

All  Roman  institutions  were  altered  and  decayed;  but 
their  original  features  were  still  to  be  traced,  and  no 
heterogeneous  element  had  been  introduced  into  them. 
The  first  dawn  of  a  completely  new  epoch  can  only  be 
dated  from  the  invasion  of  the  Lombards  (568-572). 
Their  conquest  of  a  large  portion  of  Italy  was  accompanied 
by  the  harshest  oppression.  They  abolished  all  ancient 
laws  and  institutions,  and  not  only  seized  a  third  of  the 
lands,  but  reduced  the  inhabitants  to  almost  utter  slavery. 
But,  in  the  unsubdued  parts  of  the  country — namely, 
in  Ravenna,  Rome,  and  the  maritime  cities — a  very  dif- 
ferent state  of  things  prevailed.  The  necessity  for  self- 
defence  and  the  distance  of  the  empire,  now  too  worn  out  to 
render  any  assistance,  compelled  the  inhabitants  to  depend 
solely  on  their  own  strength.  Thus,  certain  maritime 
cities,  such  as  Naples,  Amalfi,  Pisa,  and  Venice,  soon 
attained  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  liberty  and  inde- 
pendence. 

A  special  state  of  things  now  arose  in  Rome.  We 
behold  the  rapid  growth  of  the  papal  power  and  the  con- 
tinual increase  of  its  moral  and  political  influence.  This 
had  already  begun  under  Leo  I.,  and  been  further  pro- 
moted by  the  pragmatic  sanction.  Not  only  the  super- 
intendence but  often  the  nomination  of  public  function- 
aries and  judges  was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  popes.  And 
the  accession  to  St  Peter's  chair  of  a  man  of  real  genius  in 
the  person  of  Gregory  I.,  surnamed  the  Great,  marked  the 
commencement  of  a  new  era.  By  force  of  individual 
character,  as  well  as  by  historic  necessity,  this  pope  became 
the  most  potent  personage  in  Rome.  Power  fell  naturally 
into  his  hands ;  he  was  the  true  representative  of  the  city, 
the  born  defender  of  church  and  state.  His  ecclesiastical 
authority,  already  great  throughout  Italy,  was  specially 
great  in  the  Roman  diocese  and  in  southern  Italy.  The 
continual  offerings  of  the  faithful  had  previously  endowed 
the  church  with  enormous  possessions  in  the  province  of 
Rome,  in  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  other  parts.  The  admini- 
stration of  all  this  property  soon  assumed  the  shape  of 
a  small  government  council  in  Rome.  This  protected 
and  succoured  the  oppressed,  settled  disputes,  nominated 
judges,  and  controlled  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  The 
use  made  by  the  pope  of  his  revenues  greatly  contributed 
to  the  increase  of  his  moral  and  political  authority. 
When  the  city  was  besieged  by  the  Lombards,  and  the 
emperor  left  his  army  unpaid,  Gregory  supplied  the 
required  funds  and  thus  made  resistance  possible.  And, 
when  the  defence  could  be  no  longer  maintained,  he  alone, 
by  the  weight  of  his  personal  influence  and  the  payment 
of  large  sums,  induced  the  Lombards  to  raise  the  siege. 
He  negotiated  in  person  with  Agilulph,  and  was  recognized 
by  him  as  the  true  representative  of  the  city.  Thus 
Rome,  after  being  five  times  taken  and  sacked  by  the 
barbarians,  was,  on  this  occasion,  saved  by  its  bishop. 
The  exarch,  although  unable  to  give  any  help,  protested 
against  the  assumption  of  so  much  authority  by  the  pope ; 
but  Gregory  was  no  usurper,  and  his  attitude  was  the 
natural  result  of  events.  "  For  twenty-seven  years  " — so 
wrote  this  pontiff  to  the  imperial  government  of  Constan- 
tinople— "  we  lived  in  terror  of  the  Longobards,  nor  can  I 
say  what  sums  we  had  to  pay  them.  There  is  an  imperial 
treasurer  with  the  army  at  Ravenna;  but  here  it  is  I  who 
am  treasurer.  Likewise  I  have  to  provide  for  the  clergy, 
the  poor,  and  the  people,  and  even  to  succour  the  distress 
of  other  churches." 

It  was  at  this  moment  that  the  new  Roman  commune 
began  to  take  shape  and  acquire  increasing  vigour  owing 
to  its  distance  from  the  seat  of  the  empire  and  its  resistance 
to  the  Lombard  besiegers.  Its  special  character  was 


now  to  be  traced  in  the  preponderance  of  the  military 
over  the  civil  power.  A  Roman  element  had  penetrated 
into  the  army,  which  was  already  possessed  of  considerable 
political  importance.  The  prefect  of  Rome  loses  authority 
and  seems  almost  a  nullity  compared  with  the  magister 
militum.  Hardly  anything  is  heard  of  the  senate.  "  Quia 
enim  Senatus  deest,  populus  interiit,"  exclaims  Gregory 
in  a  moment  of  despair.  The  popes  now  make  common 
cause  with  the  people  against  the  Lombards  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  emperor  on  the  other.  But  they  avoid  an 
absolute  rupture  with  the  empire,  lest  they  should  have  to 
face  the  Lombard  power  without  any  prospect  of  help. 
Later,  when  the  growing  strength  of  the  commune  becomes 
menacing,  they  remain  faithful  to  the  empire  in  order  not 
to  be  at  the  mercy  of  the  people.  It  was  a  permanent 
feature  of  their  policy  never  to  allow  the  complete  inde- 
pendence of  the  city  until  they  should  be  its  sole  and 
absolute  masters.  But  that  time  was  still  in  the  future. 
Meanwhile  pope  and  people  joined  in  the  defence  of  their 
common  interests. 

This  alliance  was  cemented  by  the  religious  disputes  of 
the  East  and  the  West.  First  came  the  Monothelite  con- 
troversy regarding  the  twofold  nature  of  Christ.  In  order 
to  compel  obedience  to  his  edict,  the  emperor  commanded 
the  exarch  to  take  energetic  measures,  and,  provided  he 
could  secure  the  favour  of  the  Roman  army,  to  actually 
seize  the  person  of  Pope  Martin  I.  (649-654).  A  long 
and  violent  struggle  ensued,  in  which  the  people  of 
Rome  and  of  other  Italian  cities  sided  so  vigorously  with 
the  popes  that  John  VI.  (701-705)  had  to  interpose  in 
order  to  release  the  exarch  from  captivity  and  prevent 
a  definitive  rupture  with  the  empire.  Later  (710-711) 
Ravenna  revolted  against  the  emperor,  organized  its  armed 
population  under  twelve  flags,  and  almost  all  the  cities  of 
the  exarchate  joined  in  a  resistance  that  was  the  first  step 
towards  the  independence  of  the  Italian  communes.  A 
still  fiercer  religious  quarrel  then  broke  out  concerning 
images.  Pope  Gregory  II.  (715-731)  opposed  the  cele- 
brated edict  of  the  iconoclastic  emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian. 
Venice  and  the  Pentapolis  took  up  arms  in  favour  of  the 
pope,  and  elected  dukes  of  their  own  without  applying 
to  the  emperor.  Again  public  disorder  rose  to  such  a 
pitch  that  the  pope  was  obliged  to  check  it  lest  it  should 
go  too  far. 

In  the  midst  of  these  warlike  tumults  a  new  constitu-  The 
tion,  almost  a  new  state,  was  being  set  up  in  Rome,  duchy  of 
During  the  conflict  with  Philippicus,  the  Monothelite  and 
heretical  emperor  who  ascended  the  throne  in  711,  the 
Liber  Pontijicalis  makes  the  first  mention  of  the  duchy 
of  Rome  (ducatus  Romanae  urbis),  and  we  find  the  people 
struggling  to  elect  a  duke  of  their  own.  In  the  early 
days  of  the  Byzantine  rule  the  territory  appertaining  to 
the  city  was  no  greater  than  under  the  Roman  empire. 
But,  partly  through  the  weakness  of  the  government  of 
Constantinople,  and  above  all  through  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  Italian  provinces  under  the  Lombards,  who 
destroyed  all  unity  of  government  in  the  peninsula,  this 
dukedom  was  widely  extended,  and  its  limits  were  always 
changing  in  accordance  with  the  course  of  events.  It 
was  watered  by  the  Tiber,  and  stretched  into  Tuscia 
to  the  right,  starting  from  the  mouth  of  the  Marta,  by 
Tolfa  and  Bleda,  and  reaching  as  far  as  Orte.  Viterbo 
was  a  frontier  city  of  the  Lombards.  On  the  left  the 
duchy  extended  into  Latium  as  far  as  the  Garigliano.  It 
spread  very  little  to  the  north-east  and  was  badly  defended 
on  that  side,  inasmuch  as  the  duchy  of  Spoleto  reached  to 
within  fourteen  miles  of  the  Salara  gate.  On  the  other 
side,  towards  Umbria,  the  river  Nera  was  its  boundary 
line. 

The  constitution  of  the  city  now  begins  to  show  the 


784 

results  of  the  conditions  amid  which  it  took  shape.  The 
separation  of  the  civil  from  the  military  power  has  entirely 
disappeared.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that,  after  the 
year  600,  there  is  no  further  mention  of  the  prefect. 
His  office  still  survived,  but  with  a  gradual  change  of 
functions,  until,  in  the  8th  century,  he  once  more  appears 
as  president  of  a  criminal  tribunal.  The  constitution  of 
the  duchy  and  of  the  new  republic  formed  during  the  wars 
with  the  Lombards  and  the  exarch  was  substantially  of  an 
aristocratico-military  nature.  At  its  head  was  the  duke, 
first  elected  by  the  emperor,  then  by  the  pope  and  the 
people,  and,  as  his  strength  and  influence  grew  with 
those  of  the  commune,  he  gradually  became  the  most 
respected  and  powerful  personage  in  Home.  The  duke 
inhabited  the  palace  of  the  Caesars  on  the  Palatine  Hill, 
and  had  both  the  civil  and  the  military  power  in  his 
hands  ;  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  army,  which,  being 
composed  of  the  best  citizens  and  highest  nobility  of 
Rome,  was  a  truly  national  force.  This  army  was  styled 
the  felidssimus  or  florens  exerdtus  Romanus  or  also  the 
militia  Romana.  Its  members  never  lost  their  citizen 
stamp ;  on  the  contrary  they  formed  the  true  body  of  the 
citizens.  We  find  mention  of  other  duces  in  Home,  but 
these  were  probably  other  leaders  or  superior  officers  of 
the  army.  Counts  and  tribunes  are  found  in  the  subject 
cities  bound  to  furnish  aid  to  the  capital.  In  fact  during 
the  pontificate  of  Sergius  II.  (844),  when  the  duchy  was 
threatened  by  a  Saracenic  invasion,  they  were  requested 
to  send  troops  to  defend  the  coast,  and  as  many  soldiers 
as  possible  to  the  city. 

At  that  time  the  inhabitants  of  Rome  were  divided  into 
four  principal  classes — clergy,  nobles,  soldiers,  and  simple 
citizens.     The  nobles   were  divided  into  two  categories, 
first  the  genuine  optimates,  i.e.,  members  of  old  and  wealthy 
families  with  large  estates,  and  filling  high,  and  often 
hereditary,  offices  in  the  state,  the  church,  and  the  army. 
These  were   styled  proceres  and  primates.      The  second 
category  comprised  landed  proprietors,  of  moderate  means 
but  exalted  position,  mentioned  as  nobiles  by  Gregory  I., 
and  constituting  in  fact  a  numerous  petty  nobility  and  the 
bulk  of  the  army.     Next  followed  the  citizens,  i.e.,  the 
commercial  class,  merchants,  and  craftsmen,  who,  having 
as  yet  no  fixed  organization  and  but  little  influence,  were 
simply  designated  as  honesti  cives.     These,  however,  were 
quite  distinct  from  the  plebeians,  plebs,  vulgus  populi,  viri 
humiles,  who  in  their  turn  ranked  above  bondsmen  and 
slaves.     The  honesti  cives  did  not  usually  form  part  of  the 
army,  and  were  only  enrolled  in  it  in  seasons  of  emergency. 
Nevertheless  the  army  was  not  only  national,  but  became 
increasingly  democratic,  so  that  in  the   10th   century  it 
included  every  class  of  inhabitants  except  churchmen  and 
slaves.      At   that   period  we   sometimes   find    the   whole 
people  designated  as  the  exerdtus,  those  actually  under 
arms  being  distinguished  as  the  militia  exerdtus  Romani. 
This  again  was   divided   into  bands   or  "  numbers,"  i.e., 
regiments,  and  also,  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  Rome,  into 
scholae  militum.     These  scholae  were  associations  derived 
from   antiquity,   gaining   strength    and   becoming    more 
general  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  the  central  power  of  the 
state  declined.     There  were  scholae  of  notaries,  of  church 
singers,  and  of  nearly  every  leading  employment ;  there 
were    scholae   of   foreigners   of   diverse   nationalities,    of 
Franks,  Lombards,  Greeks,  Saxons,  &c.     Even  the  trades 
and  crafts  began  to  form  scholae.     These  were  at  first 
very  feeble  institutions,  and  only  later  gained  importance 
and  became  guilds.     As   early  as  the  8th  century  there 
were  scholae  militum  in  the  army,  which  was  thus  doubly 
divided.     But  we  have  no  precise  definition  of  their  func- 
tions.    They  were  de  facto  corporations  with  separate  pro- 
perty, churches,  and  magistrates  of  their  own.     The  latter 


[HISTORY. 

were  always  optimates,  and  guarded  the  interests  of  the 
army.  But  the  real  chiefs  of  the  bands  or  numeri  were 
the  duces  or  tribunes,  and  under  the  Franks  the  Litter 
became  comites.  These  chiefs  were  styled  maynijid 
consules,  optimates  de  militia,  often  too  judwes  de  mili- 
tia, since,  as  was  the  custom  of  the  Middle  Ages,  they 
wielded  political  and  judicial  as  well  as  military  authority. 
The  title  of  consul  was  now  generally  given  to  superior 
officers,  whether  civil  or  military.  The  importance  of  the 
scholae  militum  began  to  decline  in  the  10th  century; 
towards  the  middle  of  the  12th  they  disappeared  alto- 
gether, and,  according  to  Papencordt,  were  last  mentioned 
in  1145.  It  is  probable  that  the  scholae  militum  signified 
local  divisions  of  the  army,  corresponding  with  the  city 
wards,  which  were  twelve  in  number  during  the  10th  and 
llth  centuries,  then  increased  to  thirteen,  and  occasion- 
ally to  fourteen.  It  is  certain  that  from  the  beginning 
the  army  was  distributed  under  twelve  flags;  after  the 
scholae  had  disappeared,  we  find  it  classified  in  districts, 
which  were  subdivided  into  companies.  The  division  of 
cities  into  quarters,  sestieri  or  rioni,  corresponding  with 
that  of  the  army,  and  also  with  that  of  the  municipal 
government,  was  the  common  practice  of  Florence,  Siena, 
and  almost  all  the  Italian  communes.  But,  while  usually 
losing  importance  as  the  guilds  acquired  power,  in  Rome 
the  insignificance  of  the  guilds  added  to  the  strength  of 
the  regioni  or  rioni,  which  not  only  became  part  of  the 
army  but  finally  grasped  the  reins  of  government.  This 
was  a  special  characteristic  of  the  political  constitution  of 
the  Roman  commune. 

We  now  come  to  a  question  of  weightier  import  for 
all  desiring  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  Roman  govern-  senat 
ment  at  that  period.  What  had  become  of  the  senate  1 1/1*' 
It  had  undoubtedly  lost  its  original  character  now  that  Agef 
the  empire  was  extinct.  But,  after  much  learned  dis- 
cussion, historical  authorities  are  still  divided  upon  the 
subject.  Certain  Italian  writers  of  the  18th  century — 
Vendettini,  for  example — asserted  with  scanty  critical 
insight  that  the  Roman  senate  did  not  disappear  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  same  opinion  backed  by  much 
learned  research  was  maintained  by  the  great  German 
historian  Savigny.  And  Leo,  while  denying  the  per- 
sistence of  the  curia  in  Lombard  Italy,  adhered  to 
Savigny's  views  as  regarded  Rome.  Papencordt  did  the 
same,  but  held  the  Roman  senate  to  be  no  more  than  a 
curia.  This  judgment  was  vigorously  contested,  first  by 
Hegel  and  Giesebrecht,  then  by  Gregorovius.  These 
writers  believe  that  after  the  middle  of  the  6th  century 
the  senate  had  a  merely  nominal  existence.  According 
to  Gregorovius  its  last  appearance  was  in  the  year  579. 
After  that  date  it  is  mentioned  in  no  documents,  and  the 
chroniclers  are  either  equally  silent  or  merely  allude  to  its 
decay  and  extinction.  In  the  8th  century,  however,  the 
terms  senator,  senatores,  senatus  again  reappear.  We 
find  letters  addressed  to  Pippin,  beginning  thus  :  Omrtis 
senatus  atque  universi  populi  yeneralitas.  When  Leo  III. 
returned  from  Germany  he  was  met  by  tarn  proceres  deri- 
corum  cum  omnibus  clerids,  quamque  optimates  et  senatus, 
cunctaque  militia  (see  Anastasius,  in  Muratori,  vol.  iii. 
198  c).  But  it  has  been  noted  that  the  senate  was  never 
found  to  act  as  a  political  assembly ;  on  occasions  when  it 
might  have  been  mentioned  in  that  capacity  we  hear 
nothing  of  it,  and  only  meet  with  it  in  ceremonials  and 
purely  formal  functions.  Hence  the  conclusion  that  the 
term  senator  was  used  in  the  sense  of  noble,  senatus  of 
nobility,  and  no  longer  referred  to  an  institution  but 
only  to  a  class  of  the  citizens.  Even  when  we  find  that 
Otho  III.  (who  sought  to  revive  all  the  ancient  institu- 
tions of  Rome)  addressed  an  edict  to  the  "  Consuls  and 
Senate  of  Rome,"  and  read  that  the  laws  of  St  Stephen 


MEDIAEVAL   REPUBLIC.] 


ROME 


785 


were  issued  senatus  decreto,  the  learned  Giesebrecht  merely 
remarks  that  no  important  changes  in  the  Roman  con- 
stitution are  to  be  attributed  to  the  consuls  and  senate 
introduced  by  .Otho  III.  Thus  for  the  next  glimpse  of 
the  senate  we  must  pass  to  the  12th  century,  when  it  was 
riot  only  reformed,  as  some  writers  believe,  but  entirely 
reconstituted. 

But  in  this  case  a  serious  difficulty  remains  to  be  dis- 
posed of.  Gregorovius  firmly  asserts  that  the  nobles 
acquired  great  power  between  the  7th  and  10th  centuries, 
not  only  filling  the  highest  military,  judicial,  and  ecclesias- 
tical offices,  "  but  also  directing  the  municipal  government, 
presumably  with  the  prefect  at  their  head."  He  further 
adds  : — "Notwithstanding  the  disappearance  of  the  senate, 
it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  the  city  was  without  govern- 
ing magistrates,  or  without  a  council."  Thus,  after  the  7th 
century,  the  optimates  at  the  head  of  the  army  were  also 
at  the  head  of  the  citizens,  and  "formed  a  communal  council 
in  the  same  manner  in  which  it  was  afterwards  formed  by 
the  bander m."1  Now,  if  the  nobles  were  called  senatores, 
and  the  nobility  senatus,  and  if  this  body  of  nobles  met  in 
council  to  administer  the  affairs  of  the  republic,  there  is 
no  matter  for  dispute,  inasmuch  as  all  are  agreed  that  the 
original  senate  must  have  had  a  different  character  from 
the  senate  of  the  Middle  Ages.  And,  since  the  absence  of 
all  mention  of  a  prefect  after  the  7th  century  is  not  accepted 
as  a  proof  of  his  non-existence,  and  we  find  him  reappear 
under  another  form  in  the  8th  century,  so  the  silence  as  to 
the  senate  after  the  year  579,  the  fresh  mention  of  it  in  the 
8th  century,  and  its  reappearance  in  the  12th  as  a  firmly 
reconstituted  body  reasonably  lead  to  the  inference  that, 
during  that  time,  the  ancient  senate  had  been  gradually 
transformed  into  the  new  council.  Its  meetings  must  have 
been  held  very  irregularly,  and  probably  only  in  emergencies 
when  important  affairs  had  to  be  discussed,  previously  to 
bringing  them  before  the  parliament  or  general  assembly 
of  the  people.  Historians  are  better  agreed  as  to  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  term  consul.  At  first  this  was  simply  a  title 
of  honour  bestowed  on  superior  magistrates,  and  retained 
that  meaning  from  the  7th  to  the  1 1th  century,  but  was 
then — as  in  other  Italian  cities — only  given  to  the  chief 
officer  of  the  state. 

During  this  period  the  Roman  constitution  was  very 
simple.  The  duke,  commanding  the  army,  and  the  prefect, 
presiding  over  the  criminal  court,  were  the  chiefs  of  the 
republic ;  the  armed  nobility  constituted  the  forces,  filled 
all  superior  offices,  and  occasionally  met  in  a  council  called 
the  senate,  though  it  had  no  resemblance  to  the  senate  of 
older  times.  In  moments  of  emergency  a  general  parlia- 
ment of  the  people  was  convoked.  This  constitution 
differed  little  from  that  of  the  other  Italian  communes, 
where,  in  the  same  way,  we  find  all  the  leading  citizens 
under  arms,  a  parliament,  a  council,  and  one  or  more  chiefs 
at  the  head  of  the  government. 

But  Rome  had  an  element  that  was  lacking  elsewhere. 
"We  have  already  noted  that,  in  the  provinces,  the  admini- 
strators of  church  lands  were  important  personages,  and 
exercised  during  the  Middle  Ages,  when  there  was  no 
exact  division  of  power,  both  judicial  and  political  func- 
tions. It  was  very  natural  that  the  heads  of  this  vast 
administration  resident  in  Rome  should  have  a  still  higher 
standing,  and  in  fact,  from  the  6th  century,  their  power 
increased  to  such  an  extent  that  in  the  times  of  the 
Franks  they  already  formed  a  species  of  papal  cabinet 
with  .a  share  and  sometimes  a  predominance  in  the  affairs 
of  the  republic.  There  were  seven  principal  administrators, 
but  two  of  them  held  the  chief  power, — the  primicerius 
notariornm  and  the  secundicerius,  i.e.,  the  first. and  under 


1  Gregorovius,  Geschichte,  vol.  ii.  p.  427-8  and  note  (2d  ed.). 


secretaries  of  state.  When,  on  the  constitution  of  the  new 
empire,  these  ministers  were  declared  to  be  palatine  or 
imperial  as  well  as  papal  officials,  the  primicerius  and  the 
secundicerius  were  also  in  waiting  on  the  emperor,  who  sat 
in  council  with  them,  when  in  Rome.  Next  came  the 
arcarius,  or  treasurer;  the  sacellarius,  or  cashier;  iheproto- 
scriniarius,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  papal  chancery;  the 
primus  defensor,  who  was  the  advocate  of  the  church,  and 
administered  its  possessions.  Seventh  and  last  came  the 
nomenclator,  or  adminiculator,  who  pleaded  the  cause  of 
widows,  orphans,  and  paupers.  There  were  also  some 
other  officials,  such  as  the  vestiarius,  the  vicedomimis  or 
steward,  the  cubicularius  or  majordomo,  but  these  were 
of  inferior  importance.  They  were  ecclesiastics,  but  not 
bound  to  be  in  priest's  orders.  The  first  seven  were  those 
specially  known  as  proceres  clericorum  and  oftener  still 
as  judices  de  clero,  since  they  speedily  assumed  judicial 
functions  and  ranked  among  the  chief  judges  of  Rome. 
But  as  ecclesiastics  they  did  not  give  decisions  in  criminal 
cases.  Thus  Rome  had  two  tribunals,  that  of  the  justices 
de  clero,  or  ordinarii,  presided  over  by  the  pope,  and  that 
of  the  judices  de  militia,  leaders  of  the  army,  dukes  and 
tribunes,  also  bearing  the  generic  title  of  consuls.  First 
appointed  by  the  exarch  and  then  frequently  by  the  pope, 
these  decided  both  civil  and  criminal  cases.  In  the  latter 
they  were  sole  judges  under  the  presidency  of  the  prefect. 

The  pope  was  thus  at  the  head  of  a  large  administrative  The  pop 
body  with  judicial  and  civil  powers  that  were  continually  am* the 
on  the  increase,  and,  in  addition  to  his  moral  authority  papa 
over  Christendom,  was  possessed  of  enormous  revenues. 
So  in  course  of  time  he  considered  himself  the  real  repre- 
sentative of  the  Roman  republic.  Gregory  II.  (715-731) 
accepted  in  the  name  of  the  republic  the  submission  of 
other  cities,  and  protested  against  the  conquest  by  the 
Lombards  of  those  already  belonging  to  Rome.  He  seemed 
indeed  to  regard  the  territory  of  the  duchy  as  the  patri- 
mony of  the  church.  The  duke  was  always  at  the  head  of 
the  army,  and,  officially,  was  always  held  to  be  an  imperial 
magistrate.  But  the  empire  was  now  powerless  in  Italy. 
Meanwhile  the  advance  of  the  Lombards  was  becoming 
more  and  more  threatening ;  they  seized  Ravenna  in  751, 
thus  putting  an  end  to  the  exarchate,  and  next  marched 
towards  Rome,  which  had  only  its  own  forces  and  the  aid  of 
neighbouring  cities  to  rely  upon.  To  avoid  being  crushed 
by  the  brute  force  of  a  foreign  nation  unfit  to  rule,  and 
only  capable  of  oppression  and  pillage,  it  was  necessary  to 
make  an  energetic  stand. 

Accordingly  the  reigning  pope,  Stephen  II.  (752-757),  The  pop 
appealed  to  Pippin,  king  of  the  Franks,  and  concluded  aPPeal 
with  that  monarch  an  alliance  destined  to  inaugurate  a  ^  njj 
new  epoch  of  the  world's  history.  The  pope  consecrated  for  ^d. 
Pippin  king  of  the  Franks,  and  named  him  patridus 
Romanorum.  This  title,  as  introduced  by  Constantine, 
had  no  longer  the  ancient  meaning,  but  now  became  a 
sign  of  lofty  social  rank.  When,  however,  it  was  after- 
wards conferred  on  barbarian  chieftains  such  as  Odoacer 
and  Theodoric,  and  then  on  the  representative  of  the 
Byzantine  empire  in  Italy,  it  acquired  the  meaning  of 
a  definite  dignity  or  office.  In  fact  the  title  was  now 
given  to  Pippin  as  defender  of  the  church,  for  the  pope 
styled  him  at  the  same  time  patridus  Romanorum  and 
defensor  or  protector  ecclesiae.  And  the  king  pledged 
himself  not  only  to  defend  the  church  but  also  to  wrest 
the  exarchate  and  the  Pentapolis  from  the  Lombards  and 
give  them  to  Rome,  or  rather  to  the  pope,  which  came  to 
the  same  thing.  This  was  considered  as  a  restitution 
made  to  the  head  of  the  church,  who  was  also  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  republic  and  the  empire.  And,  to  pre- 
serve the  character  of  a  restitution,  the  famous  "  donation 
of  Constantine"  was  invented  during  this  period  (752- 

XX.  —  99 


786 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


onation 
'Pippin. 


777).  Pippin  brought  his  array  to  the  rescue  (754-755) 
an(j  fulfilled  his  promise.  The  pope  accepted  the  dona- 
tion in  the  name  of  St  Peter,  and  as  the  visible  head  of 
the  church.  Thus  in  755  central  Italy  broke  its  connexion 
with  the  empire  and  became  independent  ;  thus  was  in- 
augurated the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy,  the  cause  of 
so  much  subsequent  warfare  and  revolution  in  Rome. 

Its  first  consequences  were  speedily  seen.  In  767  the 
death  of  Paul  I.  was  followed  by  a  fierce  revolt  of  the 
nobles  under  Duke  Toto  (Theodoro)  of  Nepi,  who  by 
violent  means  raised  his  brother  Constantino  to  the  chair 
of  St  Peter,  although  Constantino  was  a  layman  and  had 
first  to  be  ordained.  For  more  than  a  year  the.  new 
pontiff  was  a  pliable  tool  in  the  hands  of  Toto  and  of  the 
nobles.  But  the  genuine  papal  faction,  headed  by  a  few 
judices  de  clero,  asked  the  aid  of  the  Lombards  and  made 
a  formidable  resistance.  Their  adversaries  were  defeated, 
tortured,  and  put  to  death.  Toto  was  treacherously  slain 
during  a  fight.  The  pope  was  blinded  and  left  half  dead 
on  the  highway.  Fresh  and  no  less  violent  riots  ensued, 
owing  to  the  public  dread  lest  the  new  pope,  Stephen  IV. 
(768-772),  elected  by  favour  of  the  Lombards,  should  give 
them  the  city  in  return.  But  Stephen  went  over  to  the 
Franks,  whom  he  had  previously  deserted,  and  his  succes- 
sor, Hadrian  I.  (772-795),  likewise  adhered  to  their  cause, 
called  the  city  to  arms  to  resist  king  Desiderius  and  his 
Lombard  hordes,  and  besought  the  assistance  of  Charle- 
magne.  This  monarch  accordingly  made  a  descent  into 
Italy  in  773,  and  not  only  gained  an  easy  victory  over 
Desiderius,  but  destroyed  the  Lombard  kingdom  and  seized 
the  iron  crown.  Entering  Rome  for  the  first  time  in  774, 
he  confirmed  and  augmented  the  donation  of  Pippin  by 
the  addition  of  the  dukedom  of  Spoleto.  He  returned 
several  times  to  Italy  and  Rome,  making  new  conquests 
and  fresh  concessions  to  Adrian  I.,  until  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  795. 

The  position  of  Rome  and  of  the  pope  is  now  substan- 
tially  changed.  Duke,  prefect,  militia,  and  the  people 
exist  as  heretofore,  but  are  all  subordinate  to  the  head  of 
the  church,  who,  by  the  donations  of  Pippin  and  Charle- 
magne,  has  been  converted  into  a  powerful  temporal 
sovereign.  Henceforth  all  connexion  with  Byzantium  is 
broken  off,  but  Rome  is  still  the  mainspring  of  the  empire, 
the  Roman  duchy  its  sole  surviving  fragment  in  Italy, 
and  the  pope  stands  before  the  world  as  representative  of 
both.  And,  although  it  is  difficult  to  determine  how  this 
came  about,  the  pope  is  now  regarded  and  regards  him- 
self as  master  of  Rome.  In  the  year  772  he  entrusts  the 
vestiarius  with  judicial  powers  over  the  laity,  ecclesiastics, 
freemen,  and  slaves  nostrae  Romanae  reipublicae.  He 
writes  to  Charlemagne  that  he  has  issued  orders  for  the 
burning  of  the  Greek  ships  employed  in  the  slave  trade, 
"in  our  city  of  Civita  Vecchia"  (Centuincellse),  and  he 
always  speaks  of  Rome  and  the  Romans  as  "  our  city," 
"  our  republic,"  "  our  people."  The  donations  of  Pippin 
and  Charlemagne  are  restitutions  made  to  Saint  Peter,  the 
holy  church,  and  the  republic  at  the  same  time.  It  is  true 
that  Charlemagne  held  the  supreme  power,  had  an  im- 
mensely increased  authority,  and  actively  fulfilled  his 
duties  as  patricius.  But  his  power  was  only  occasionally 
exercised  in  Rome  ;  it  was  the  result  of  services  rendered  to 
the  church,  and  of  the  church's  continual  need  of  his  help  ; 
it  was,  as  it  were,  the  power  of  a  mighty  and  indispensable 
ally.  The  pope,  however,  was  most  tenacious  of  his  own 
authority  in  Rome,  made  vigorous  protest  whenever  rebels 
fled  to  Charlemagne  or  appealed  to  that  monarch's  arbitra- 
tion, and  contested  the  supremacy  of  the  imperial  officials 
in  Rome.  Yet  the  pope  was  no  absolute  sovereign,  nor, 
in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term,  did  any  then  exist.  He 
asserted  supremacy  over  many  lauds  which  continually 


rebelled  against  him,  and  which,  for  want  of  an  army  of 
his  own,  he  was  unable  to  reduce  to  obedience  without 
others'  help.  Neither  did  the  republic  acknowledge  him 
as  its  head.  It  profited  by  the  growing  power  of  the  pope, 
could  not  exist  without  him,  respected  his  moral  authority, 
but  considered  that  he  usurped  undue  power  in  Rome. 
This  was  specially  the  feeling  of  the  nobles,  who  had 
hitherto  held  the  chief  authority  in  the  republic,  and,  being 
still  the  leaders  of  the  army,  were  by  no  means  willing  to 
relinquish  it.  The  Roman  nobles  were  very  different  from 
other  aristocratic  bodies  elsewhere.  They  were  not,  as  they 
pretended,  descendants  of  the  Camilli  and  the  Scipios,  but 
neither  were  they  a  feudal  aristocracy,  inasmuch  as  the 
Teutonic  element  had  as  yet  made  small  way  among  them. 
They  were  a  mixture  of  different  elements,  national  and 
foreign,  formed  by  the  special  conditions  of  Rome.  Their 
power  was  chiefly  derived  from  the  high  offices  and  large 
grants  of  money  and  land  conferred  on  them  by  the  popes ; 
but,  as  no  dynasty  existed,  they  could  not  be  dynastic. 
Every  pope  aggrandized  his  own  kindred  and  friends,  and 
these  were  the  natural  and  often  open  adversaries  of  the 
next  pontiff  and  his  favourites.  Thus  the  Roman  nobility 
was  powerful,  divided,  restless,  and  turbulent ;  it  was  con- 
tinually plotting  against  the  pope,  threatening  not  only  his 
power,  but  even  his  life;  it  continually  appealed  to  the 
people  for  assistance,  stirred  the  militia  to  revolt,  and 
rendered  government  an  impossibility.  Hence,  notwith- 
standing his  immense  moral  authority,  the  pope  was  the 
effective  head  neither  of  the  aristocracy,  the  army,  nor  of 
the  as  yet  unorganized  lower  classes.  The  lord  of  vast  but 
often  insubordinate  territories,  the  recognized  master  of  a 
capital  city  torn  by  internecine  feud  and  plots  against 
himself,  he  needed  the  support  of  an  effective  force  for  his 
own  preservation  and  the  maintenance  of  the  authority 
proffered  him  from  ail  quarters.  Hence  the  necessity  of 
creating  an  empire  of  the  West,  after  having  snapped  every 
link  with  that  of  the  East.  Thus  the  history  of  Rome  is 
still,  as  in  the  past,  a  history  of  continual  strife  between 
pope,  emperor,  and  republic ;  and  the  city,  while  imbibing 
strength  from  all  three,  keeps  them  in  perpetual  tumult 
and  confusion. 

Leo  III.  (796-816)  further  strengthened  the  ties  be- 
tween Charlemagne  and  the  church  by  sending  the  former 
a  letter  with  the  keys  of  the  shrine  of  St  Peter  and  the 
banner  of  Rome.  Charlemagne  had  already  joined  to  his 
office  of  patrician  the  function  of  high  justice.  The  new 
symbols  now  sent  constituted  him  miles  of  Rome  and 
general  of  the  church.  The  pope  urged  him  to  despatch 
an  envoy  to  receive  the  oath  of  fealty,  thus  placing  him- 
self, the  representative  of  the  republic,  in  the  subordinate 
position  of  one  of  the  bishops  who  had  received  the 
immunities  of  counts.  And  all  these  arrangements  took 
place  without  the  slightest  reference  to  the  senate,  the 
army,  or  the  people.  Much  resentment  was  felt,  especially 
by  the  nobles,  and  a  revolution  ensued  headed  by  the 
primicerius  Paschalis  and  the  secundicerius  Campulus,  and 
backed  by  all  who  wished  to  liberate  the  city  from  the 
papal  rule.  During  a  solemn  procession  the  pope  was 
attacked  and  barbarously  maltreated  by  his  assailants, 
who  tried  to  tear  out  his  eyes  and  tongue  (799).  He 
was  thrown  into  prison,  escaped,  and  overtook  Charle- 
magne at  Paderborn,  and  returned  guarded  by  ten  of  the 
monarch's  envoys,  who  condemned  to  death  the  leaders  of 
the  revolt,  reserving,  however,  to  their  sovereign  the  right 
of  final  judgment.  Charlemagne  arrived  in  December 
800,  and  as  high  justice  assembled  a  tribunal  of  the  clergy, 
nobles,  citizens,  and  Franks ;  he  pronounced  Leo  to  be 
innocent,  and  confirmed  the  capital  sentence  passed  on  the 
rebels.  But  through  the  intercession  of  the  pope,  who 
dreaded  the  wrath  of  the  nobles,  this  was  presently  com- 


754-932.] 

muted  into  perpetual  exile.  And  finally  on  Christmas 
day,  in  St  Peter's,  before  an  assemblage  of  Roman  and 
Frankish  lords,  the  clergy,  and  the  people,  the  pontiff 
placed  the  imperial  crown  on  Charlemagne's  head  and  all 
proclaimed  him  emperor. 

Thus  the  new  emperor  was  elected  by  the  Romans  and 
consecrated  by  the  pope.  But  he  was  their  real  master 
and  supreme  judge.  The  pope  existed  only  by  his  will, 
since  he  alone  supplied  the  means  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  temporal  power,  and  already  pretended  to  the  right  of 
controlling  the  papal  elections.  Yet  Charlemagne  was 
not  sovereign  of  Rome ;  he  possessed  scarcely  any  regalia 
there,  and  was  not  in  command  of  the  army ;  he  mainly 
represented  a  principle,  but  this  principle  was  the  law 
which  is  the  basis  of  the  state.  The  pope  still  nominated 
the  Roman  judges,  but  the  emperor  or  his  missi  presided 
over  them,  together  with  those  of  the  pope,  and  his 
decision  was  appealed  to  in  hast  resort.  During  the  Caro- 
lingian  times  no  mention  is  found  of  the  prefect,  and  it 
would  seem  that  his  office  was  filled  by  the  imperial  missus, 
or  legate,  the  judices  de  clero,  and  judices  de  militia. 
The  power  of  the  pope  was  now  entangled  with  that  of  the 
republic  on  the  one  hand  and  that  of  the  empire  on  the 
other.  The  consequent  confusion  of  sacred  and  secular  func- 
tions naturally  led  to  infinite  complications  and  disputes. 

The  death  of  Charlemagne  in  814  was  the  signal  for  a 
fresh  conspiracy  of  the  nobles  against  the  pope,  who,  dis- 
covering their  design,  instantly  put  the  ringleaders  to  death, 
and  was  severely  blamed  by  Louis  for  this  violation  of  the 
imperial  prerogative.  While  the  matter  was  under  dis- 
cussion the  nobles  broke  out  in  fiercer  tumults,  both  in 
Rome  and  the  Campagna.  At  last,  in  824,  the  emperor 
Lothair  came  to  re-establish  order  in  Rome,  and  proclaimed 
a  new  and  noteworthy  constitution,  to  which  Pope  Eugenius 
II.  (824-27)  gave  his  oath  of  adherence.  By  this  the 
partnership  of  pope  and  emperor  in  the  temporal  rule  of 
Rome  and  the  states  of  the  church  was  again  confirmed. 
The  more  direct  power  appertained  to  the  pope ;  the 
supreme  authority,  presidence  of  the  tribunals,  and  final 
judgment  on  appeal  to  the  emperor.  The  new  constitu- 
tion also  established  the  right  of  contending  parties  to 
select  either  the  Roman  or  the  Teutonic  code  for  the  settle- 
ment of  their  disputes.  During  the  Carolingian  period  it 
is  not  surprising  that  the  commune  should  have  been,  as 
it  were,  absorbed  by  the  church  and  the  empire.  In  fact 
it  is  scarcely  mentioned  in  history  throughout  that  time. 
And  when,  no  longer  sustained  by  the  genius  of  its  founder, 
the  Frankish  empire  began  to  show  signs  of  dissolution, 
the  popes,  finding  their  power  thereby  strengthened,  began 
to  assume  many  of  the  imperial  attributes.  Soon,  however, 
as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  loss  of  the  main  support  of 
the  papacy,  the  nobles  regained  vigour  and  were  once 
more  masters  of  the  city.  Teutonic  and  feudal  elements 
had  now  largely  penetrated  into  their  organization.  The 
system  of  granting  lands,  and  even  churches  and  convents, 
as  benefices  according  to  feudal  forms,  became  more  and 
more  general.  It  was  vain  for  the  popes  to  offer  opposi- 
tion, and  they  ended  by  yielding  to  the  current.  The  fall 
of  the  Frankish  empire  left  all  Italy  a  prey  to  anarchy, 
and  torn  by  the  faction  fights  of  Berengar  of  Friuli  and 
Guido  of  Spoleto,  the  rival  claimants  to  the  crowns  of 
Italy  and  the  empire.  The  Saracens  were  advancing  from 
the  south,  the  Huns  from  the  north;  the  popes  had  lost  all 
power;  and  in  the  midst  of  this  frightful  chaos  a  way  was 
opened  for  the  rise  of  the  republics.  Anarchy  was  at  its 
climax  in  Rome,  but  the  laity  began  to  overpower  the 
clergy  to  such  an  extent  that  the  judices  de  militia  pre- 
vailed over  the  judices  de  clero.  For  a  long  time  no 
imperial  missi  or  legates  had  been  seen,  and  the  papacy 
was  incredibly  lowered.  The  election  of  the  popes  had 


787 

positively  fallen  into  the  hands  of  certain  beautiful  women 
notorious  for  their  evil  life  and  depravity.     The  aristo-  Renewed 
cracy  alone  gained  strength ;  now  freed  from  the  domina-  P°w«r 
tion  of  the  emperor,  it  continually  wrested  fresh  privileges  ^.-^ 
from  the  impotent  pontiffs,  and  became  organized  as  the  cracy. 
ruling  force  of  the  republic.     Gregorovius,  notwithstand- 
ing his  denial  of  the  continuation  of  the  senate  after  the 
6th  century,  is  obliged  to  acknowledge  that  it  appeared 
to  have  returned  to  life  in  the  power  of  this  new  baronage. 
And,  although  this  body  was  now  permeated  with  the  feudal 
principle,  it  did  not  discard  its  ancient  traditions.     The 
nobles  claimed  to  be  the  main  source  of  the  empire;  they 
wished  to  regain  the  dignity  and  office  of  patricius,  and  to 
make  it,  if  possible,  hereditary  in  their  families.     Nothing 
is  known  of  their  system  of  organization,  but  it  seems  that 
they  elected  a  chief  bearing  the  title  of  consul,  senator, 
princeps  Romanorum,  who  was  officially  recognized  by  the 
pope,  as  a  patricius  presided  over  the  tribunals,  and  was 
the  head  of  the  commune. 

Theophylact  was  one  of  the  first  to  assume  this  dignity. 
His  wife  Theodora,  known  as  the  senatrix,  was  one  of  the- 
women  then  dominating  Rome  by  force  of  their  charms 
and  licentiousness.  She  was  supposed  to  be  the  concubine', 
of  Pope  John  X.  (914-928),  whose  election  was  due  to  her 
influence.  Her  daughter  Marozia,  in  all  things  her  worthy 
rival,  was  married  to  Alberic,  a  foreign  mercenary  of  un- 
certain birth  who  rose  to  a  position  of  great  influence,  and, 
although  an  alien,  played  a  leading  part  in  the  affairs  of 
the  city.  He  helped  to  increase  the  power  of  Theophylact, 
who  seemingly  shared  the  rule  of  the  city  with  the  pope. 
In  the  bloody  war  that  had  to  be  waged  against  the 
Saracens  of  southern  Italy,  and  at  the  defeat  of  the  latter 
on  the  Garigliano  (916),  Theophylact  and  Alberic  were 
the  Roman  leaders,  and  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
valour.  They  disappeared  from  the  scene  after  this  victory, 
but  Marozia  retained  her  power,  and  bore  a  son  Alberic, 
who  was  destined  to  greater  deeds.  The  pope  found  him- 
self caught  in  this  woman's  toils,  and  struggled  to  escape, 
but  Marozia,  gaining  fresh  influence  by  her  marriage  with 
Hugo,  margrave  of  Tuscany,  imprisoned  the  pontiff  himself 
in  Castle  St  Angelo  (928).  This  fortress  was  the  property 
of  Marozia  and  the  basis  of  her  strength.  The  unfortunate 
John  died  within  its  walls.  Raised  to  the  chair  by 
Theodora,  he  was  deposed  and  killed  by  her  daughter. 
The  authority  of  the  latter  reached  its  culminating  point 
in  93l,  when  she  succeeded  in  placing  her  son  John  XL 
on  the  papal  throne.  On  the  death  of  her  second  husband 
she  espoused  Hugo  of  Provence,  the  same  who  in  928  had 
seized  the  iron  crown  at  Pa  via,  and  now  aspired  to  the 
empire.  Dissolute,  ambitious,  and  despotic,  he  came  to 
Rome  in  932,  and,  leaving  his  army  outside  the  walls, 
entered  Castle  St  Angelo  with  his  knights,  instantly  began 
to  play  the  tyrant,  and  gave  a  blow  to  Alberic  his  step- 
son, who  detested  him  as  a  foreign  intruder.  This  blow  The 
proved  the  cause  of  a  memorable  revolution ;  for  Alberic  rcvolt 
rushed  from  the  castle  and  harangued  the  people,  crying  ^om^ 
that  the  time  was  come  to  shake  off  the  tyrannous  yoke  Alberic 
of  a  woman  and  of  barbarians  who  were  once  the  slaves  of  at  the 
Rome.  Then,  putting  himself  at  the  head  of  the  popu- liead 
lace,  he  closed  the  city  gates  to  prevent  Hugo's  troops  °f 
from  coming  to  the  rescue,  and  attacked  the  castle.  The 
king  fled ;  Marozia  was  imprisoned,  Alberic  proclaimed 
lord  of  the  Romans,  and  the  pope  confined  to  the  Lateran 
in  the  custody  of  his  own  brother.  Rome  was  again  an 
independent  state,  a  republic  of  nobles.  Rid  of  the 
temporal  dominion  of  emperor  and  pope,  and  having 
expelled  the  foreigners  with  great  energy  and  courage,  it 
chose  Alberic  for  its  chief  with  the  title  of  princeps 
atque  omnium  Romanorum  senator.  The  tendency  of  the 
Roman  republic  to  elect  a  supreme  authority,  first  mani- 


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[HISTORY. 


fested  in  the  case  of  Theophylact,  was  repeated  in  those 
of  Alberic,  Brancaleone,  Crescenzio,  Cola  di  Rienzo,  and 
others.  One  of  the  many  causes  of  this  tendency  may  be 
traced  to  the  conception  of  the  new  empire  of  which  Rome 
was  the  original  and  enduring  fountainhead.  As  Rome 
had  once  transferred  the  empire  from  Byzantium  to  the 
Franks,  so  Rome  -was  surely  entitled  to  reclaim  it.  The 
imperial  authority  was  represented  by  the  office  of  patri- 
cian, now  virtually  assumed  by  Alberic.  That  he  gave 
the  name  of  Octavian  to  his  son  is  an  additional  proof  of 
this  fact.  In  the  Eternal  City  the  mediaeval  political  idea 
has  always  the  aspect  of  a  resurrection  or  transformation 
of  classic  antiquity.  This  is  another  characteristic  of  the 
history  of  the  Roman  commune. 

Alberic's  strength  was  due  to  his  connexion  with  the 
nobility,  to  his  father's  valiant  service  against  the  Saracens 
at  the  battle  of  Garigliano,  and  to  the  militia  under 
his  command,  on  which  everything  depended  amid  the 
internal  and  external  dangers  now  threatening  the  new 
state.  As  yet  no  genuine  municipal  constitution  was 
possible  in  Rome,  where  neither  the  people  nor  the 
wealthy  burghers  engaged  in  industry  and  commerce  had 
any  fixed  organization.  All  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
nobles,  and  Alberic,  as  their  chief,  frequently  convened 
them  in  council,  although  obliged  to  use  pressure  to  keep 
them  united  and  avoid  falling  a  prey  to  their  disputes. 
Hence  the  whole  power  was  concentrated  in  his  grasp ;  he 
was  at  the  head  of  the  tribunals  as  well  as  of  the  army. 
The  judices  de  clero  and  judices  de  militia  still  existed, 
but  no  longer  met  in  the  Lateran  or  the  Vatican,  under  the 
presidency  of  emperor  and  pope  or  their  missi.  Alberic 
himself  was  their  president ;  and,  a  still  more  significant 
fact,  their  sittings  were  often  held  in  his  private  dwelling. 
There  is  no  longer  any  mention  of  prefect  or  patricius. 
The  papal  coinage  was  inscribed  with  Alberic's  name 
instead  of  the  emperor's.  His  chief  attention  was  given  to 
the  militia,  which  was  still  arranged  in  scholae,  and  it  is 
highly  probable  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  new  division 
of  the  city  into  twelve  regions,  with  a  corresponding  classi- 
fication of  the  army  in  as  many  regiments  under  twelve 
flags  and  twelve  banderesi,  one  for  every  region.  The 
organization  of  the  scholae  could  not  have  been  very 
dissimilar,  but  doubtless  Alberic  had  some  important 
motive  for  altering  the  old  method  of  classification.  By 
means  of  the  armed  regions  he  included  the  people  in  the 
forces.  It  is  certain  that  after  his  time  we  find  the  army 
much  changed  and  far  more  democratic.  It  was  only 
natural  that  so  excellent  a  statesman  should  seek  the  aid 
of  the  popular  element  as  a  defence  against  the  arrogance 
of  the  nobles,  and  it  was  requisite  to  reinforce  the  army 
in  order  to  be  prepared  for  the  attacks  threatened  from 
abroad.  This  change  effected,  Alberic  felt  prepared  for 
the  worst,  and  began  to  rule  with  energy,  moderation,  and 
justice.  His  contemporaries  award  him  high  praise,  and 
he  seems  to  have  been  exempt  from  the  vices  of  his  mother 
and  grandmother. 

In  933  Hugo  made  his  first  attack  upon  the  city, 
and  was  repulsed.  A  second  attempt  in  936  proved 
still  more  unfortunate,  for  his  army  was  decimated  by  a 
pestilence.  Thoroughly  disheartened,  he  not  only  made 
peace,  but  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Alberic, 
thus  satisfying  the  latter's  desire  to  ally  himself  with  a 
royal  house.  But  this  union  led  to  no  conciliation  with 
Hugo.  For  Alberic,  finding  his  power  increased,  marched 
at  the  head  of  his  troops  to  consolidate  his  rule  in  the 
Campagna  and  the  Sabine  land.  On  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Pope  John  XL,  in  936,  he  controlled  the  elec- 
tion of  several  successive  popes,  quelled  a  conspiracy 
formed  against  him  by  the  clergy  and  certain  nobles  insti- 
gated by  Hugo,  and  brilliantly  repulsed,  in  941,  another 


attack  by  that  potentate.  At  last,  however,  this  inveter- 
ate foe  withdrew  from  Rome,  being  summoned  to  the 
north  by  the  victories  of  his  rival  Berengarius.  But 
Alberic,  after  procuring  the  election  of  various  popes 
who  were  docile  instruments  of  his  will,  experienced  a 
check  when  Agapetus  II.  (946-955),  a  man  of  firmness 
and  resource,  was  raised  to  the  papal  throne.  The  fortunes 
of  Berengarius  were  now  in  the  ascendant.  In  950  he 
had  seized  the  iron  crown,  and  ruled  in  the  Pentapolis 
and  the  exarchate.  This  being  singularly  painful  to  the 
pope,  he  proceeded  to  make  alliance  with  all  those  enemies 
of  Berengarius  preferring  a  distant  emperor  to  a  neigh- 
bouring and  effective  sovereign,  with  the  Roman  nobles 
who  were  discontented  with  Alberic,  and  with  all  who 
foresaw  danger,  even  to  Rome,  from  the  extended  power 
of  Berengarius.  And  Agapetus  recurred  to  the  old  papal 
policy,  by  making  appeal  to  Otho  I.,  whose  rule  in  Ger- 
many was  distinguished  by  a  prestige  almost  comparable 
with  that  of  Charlemagne. 

Otho  immediately  responded  to  the  appeal  and  descended 
into  Italy ;  but  his  envoys  were  indignantly  repulsed  by 
Alberic,  and,  being  prudent  as  well  as  firm,  he  decided  to 
wait  a  more  opportune  moment  for  the  accomplishment 
of  his  designs.  Meanwhile  Alberic  died  in  954,  and  the 
curtain  fell  on  the  first  great  drama  of  the  Roman  republic. 
He  had  reigned  for  twenty-two  years  with  justice,  energy, 
and  prudence ;  he  had  repelled  foreign  invaders,  main- 
tained order  and  authority.  He  seems,  however,  to  have 
realized  that  the  aspect  of  affairs  was  about  to  change, 
that  the  work  he  had  accomplished  would  be  exposed  to 
new  dangers.  These  dangers,  in  fact,  had  already  begun 
with  the  accession  of  an  enterprising  pope  to  the  Holy  See. 
The  name  of  Octavian  given  by  Alberic  to  his  son  leads 
to  the  inference  that  he  meant  to  make  his  power 
hereditary.  But,  suddenly,  he  began  to  educate  this  son 
for  the  priesthood,  and,  assembling  the  nobles  in  St~Peter's 
shortly  before  his  death,  he  made  them  swear  to  elect 
Octavian  as  pope  on  the  decease  of  Agapetus  II.  They 
kept  their  word,  for  in  this  way  they  freed  themselves 
from  a  ruler.  Possibly  Alberic  trusted  that  both  offices 
might  be  united,  and  that  his  son  would  be  head  of  the 
state  as  well  as  the  church.  But  the  nobles  knew  this  to 
be  a  delusion,  especially  in  the  case  of  a  nature  such  as 
Octavian's.  The  lad  was  sixteen  years  old  when  his  father 
died,  received  princely  honours  until  the  death  of 
Agapetus,  and  was  then  elected  pope  with  the  name  of 
John  XII.  He  had  inherited  the  ungoverned  passions  of 
his  grandmother  Marozia  and  great-grandmother  Theodora, 
but  without  their  intelligence  and  cunning.  His  palace 
was  the  scene  of  the  most  scandalous  licence,  while  his 
public  acts  were  those  of  a  baby  tyrant.  He  conferred 
a  bishopric  on  a  child  of  ten,  consecrated  a  deacon  in  a 
stable,  invoked  Venus  and  Jupiter  in  his  games,  and 
drank  to  the  devil's  health.  He  desired  to  be  both  pope 
and  prince,  but  utterly  failed  to  be  either.  Before  long, 
realizing  the  impossibility  of  holding  in  check  Berengarius, 
who  still  ruled  over  the  exarchate,  he  sought  in  960  the 
aid  of  Otho  I.,  and  promised  him  the  imperial  crown. 
Thus  the  new  ruler  was  summoned  by  the  son  of  the  man 
by  whom  he  had  been  repulsed.  Otho  vowed  to  defend 
the  church,  to  restore  her  territories,  to  refrain  from 
usurping  the  power  of  the  pope  or  the  republic,  and  was 
crowned  on  the  2d  February  962  with  unheard-of  pomp 
and  display. 

Accordingly,  after  being  extinct  for  thirty-seven  years, 
the  empire  was  revived  under  different  but  no  less  diffi- 
cult conditions.  The  politico-religious  unity  founded  by 
Charlemagne  had  been  dissolved,  partly  on  account  of  the 
heterogeneous  elements  of  which  it  was  composed,  and 
partly  because  other  nations  were  in  course  of  formation. 


Oth 
crov 
em]  i 


933-999.] 


K  0  M  E 


789 


Now  too  the  feudal  system  was  converting  the  officers  of  the 
empire  into  independent  princes,  and  the  new  spirit  of 
communal  liberty  was  giving  freedom  to  the  cities.  Otho 
once  more  united  the  empire  and  the  church,  Italy  and 
Germany,  in  order  to  combat  these  new  foes.  But  the 
difficulties  of  the  enterprise  at  once  came  to  light.  John 
XII.,  finding  a  master  in  the  protector  he  had  invoked, 
now  joined  the  discontented  nobles  who  were  conspiring 
with  Berengarius  against  the  emperor.  But  the  latter 
hastened  to  Rome  in  November  963,  assembled  the  clergy, 
nobles,  and  heads  of  the  people,  and  made  them  take  an  oath 
never  again  to  elect  a  pope  without  his  consent  and  that  of 
his  son.  He  also  convoked  a  synod  presided  over  by  himself 
in  St  Peter's,  which  judged,  condemned,  and  deposed  Pope 
John  and  elected  Leo  VIII.  (963-965),  a  Roman  noble,  in 
his  stead.  All  this  was  done  at  the  direct  bidding  of 
the  emperor,  who  thus  deprived  the  Romans  of  their 
most  valued  privilege,  the  right  of  choosing  their  own 
pope.  But  the  people  had  now  risen  to  considerable 
importance,  and,  for  the  first  time,  we  find  it  officially 
represented  in  the  synod  by  the  plebeian  Pietro,  surnamed 
Imperiola,  together  with  the  leaders  of  the  militia,  which 
had  also  become  a  popular  institution  since  Alberic's  reign. 
It  was  no  longer  easy  to  keep  the  lower  orders  in  sub- 
jection, and  by  their  junction  with  the  malcontent  nobles 
they  formed  a  very  respectable  force.  On  the  3d  January 
964  they  sounded  the  battle-peal  and  attacked  the  Vatican, 
where  the  emperor  was  lodged.  The  German  knights 
repulsed  them  with  much  slaughter,  and  this  bloodshed 
proved  the  beginning  of  an  endless  feud.  Otho  departed 
in  February,  and  John  XII.,  as  the  chosen  pope  of  the 
Romans,  returned  with  an  army  of  followers  and  com- 
pelled the  defenceless  Leo  VIII.  to  seek  safety  in  flight. 
Soon  afterwards  Leo  was  deposed  and  excommunicated  by 
a  new  synod,  and  many  of  his  adherents  were  cruelly 
murdered.  But  on  the  14th  May  964  John  suddenly 
expired ;  the  Romans,  amid  violent  struggles  and  tumults, 
resumed  their  rights,  elected  Benedict  V.  .and  procured 
his  consecration  in  spite  of  the  emperor's  veto.  Otho  now 
appeared  at  the  head  of  an  army,  committed  fresh  slaughter, 
besieged  the  city,  reduced  it  by  famine,  and,  after  holding 
a  council  which  deposed  Benedict  and  sent  him  a  prisoner 
to  Hamburg,  restored  Leo  VIII.  to  the  papal  throne. 

But,  although  the  emperor  thus  disposed  of  the  papacy  at 
his  will,  his  arbitrary  exercise  of  power  roused  a  long  and  obsti- 
nate resistance,  which  had  no  slight  effect  upon  the  history 
of  the  commune.  Leo  VIII.  died  in  965,  and  the  imperial 
party  elected  John  XIII.  (965-972).  Upon  this  the  nobles 
of  the  national  party  joined  the  people,  and  there  was  a 
general  revolt.  The  nobles  were  led  by  Pietro,  prefect  of 
Rome.  As  we  have  noted,  this  office  seemed  to  be  extinct 
during  the  Carolingian  rule,  but  we  again  meet  with  it  in 
955,  after  an  interval  of  a  century  and  a  half.  The  leaders 
of  the  people  were  twelve  decarconi,  a  term  of  unknown 
derivation,  but  probably  indicating  chiefs  of  the  twelve 
regions  (dodecarchi,  dodecarconi,  decarconi).  The  new 
pope  was  seized  and  confined,  first  in  Castle  St  Angelo, 
then  in  a  fortress  in  the  Campagna.  But  the  emperor 
quickly  marched  an  army  against  Rome,  and  this  sufficed 
to  produce  a  reaction  which  recalled  the  pope  (November 
966),  sent  the  prefect  into  exile,  and  put  several  of  the 
rebellious  nobles  to  death.  And  shortly  after  the  emperor 
sacked  the  city.  Many  Romans  were  exiled,  some  tortured, 
others,  including  the  twelve  decarconi,  killed.  John  XIII. 
died  in  972  and  Otho  in  973. 

All  these  events  clearly  prove  how  great  a  change  had 
now  taken  place  in  the  conditions  of  Rome.  The  people 
(plebs)  had  made  its  appearance  upon  the  stage ;  the  army 
had  become  democratic;  the  twelve  regions  were  regularly 
organized  under  leaders.  Opposed  to  them  stood  the 


nobles,  headed  by  the  prefect,  also  a  noble,  precisely  as  in 
Florence  the  nobles  and  the  podesta  were  later  opposed 
to  the  guilds  and  the  people.  So  far,  it  is  true,  nobles 
and  people  had  made  common  cause  in  Rome ;  but  this 
harmony  was  soon  to  be  interrupted.  The  feudal  spirit 
had  made  its  way  among  the  Roman  aristocrats,  had 
split  them  into  two  parties  and  diminished  their  strength. 
It  was  now  destined  to  spread,  and,  as  it  was  always 
vigorously  detested,  and  opposed  by  the  people  elsewhere 
in  Italy,  so  the  same  consequence  was  inevitable  in  Rome. 
Another  notable  change,  and  a  subject  of  unending  con-  Judices 
troversy,  had  also  occurred  in  the  administration  of  justice.  dativi- 
So  far  there  were  the  judices  de  clero,  also  known  as 
ordinary  or  palatine  judges,  and  the  judices  de  militia, 
also  styled  consules  or  duces.  These  judges  generally 
formed  a  court  of  seven,  three  being  de  clero,  four  de 
militia,  or  vice  versa,  under  the  presidency  of  the  papal  or 
imperial  missi.  In  criminal  cases  the  judices  de  militia 
had  the  prefect  or  the  imperial  missus  for  their  president. 
But  there  was  a  third  order  of  judges  called  pedanei,  a 
consulibus  creati.  It  seems  clear  that  the  duces,  being 
distribute  per  judicatus,  found  themselves  isolated  in  the 
provinces,  and  to  obtain  assistance  nominated  these  pedanei, 
who  were  legal  experts.  In  Rome,  with  its  courts  of 
law,  they  were  less  needed,  but  possibly  in  those  sections 
of  the  city  where  cases  of  minor  importance  were  sub- 
mitted to  a  single  magistrate  reference  was  made  to 
the  pedanei.  But  many  changes  were  made  under  the 
Franks,  and  when  the  edict  of  Lothair  (824)  granted 
free  choice  of  either  the  Roman  or  Germanic  law,  and  the 
duces  were  replaced  by  comites  and  gastaldiones,  chiefly 
of  German  origin,  the  use  of  legal  experts  became  increas- 
ingly necessary.  And  the  custom  of  employing  them  was 
the  more  easily  diffused  by  being  already  common  among 
the  Franks,  whose  scabini  were  legal  experts  acting  as 
judges,  though  not  qualified  to  pass  sentence.  Thus  the 
pedanei  multiplied,  came  to  resemble  the  scabini,  and  were 
designated  judices  dativi  (a  magistratu  dati)  or  simply 
dativi.  These  were  to  be  found  in  the  exarchate  in  838, 
but  not  in  Rome  until  961,  when  the  judices  de  militia 
had  ceased  to  exist.  The  great  progress  of  the  German 
legal  procedure  may  then  have  contributed  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  new  office. 

Meanwhile  Pope  John  XIII.  had  been  succeeded  by 
Benedict  VI.  (973-974)  and  Otho  I.  by  his  son  Otho  II., 
a  youth  of  eighteen  married  to  the  Byzantine  princess 
Theophano.  Thereupon  the  Romans,  who  had  supported 
the  election  of  another  pope,  and  were  in  no  awe  of  the 
new  emperor,  rose  to  arms  under  the  command  of 
Crescenzio,  a  rich  and  powerful  noble.  They  not  only 
seized  Benedict  VI.  by  force,  but  strangled  him  in  Castle 
St  Angelo.  The  national  and  imperial  parties  then 
elected  several  popes  who  were  either  exiled  or  perse- 
cuted, and  one  of  them  was  said  to  be  murdered.  In 
985  John  XV.  was  elected  (985-996).  During  this  tur- 
moil, the  national  party,  composed  of  nobles  and  people, 
led  by  Giovanni  Crescenzio,  son  of  the  other  Crescenzio  Giovanni 
mentioned  above,  had  taken  complete  possession  of  the  Cres- 
government.  This  Crescenzio  assumed  the  title  of  patri-  cenzi°- 
cian,  and  sought  to  imitate  Alberic,  although  far  his 
inferior  in  capacity.  Fortunately  for  him  the  reigning 
pope  was  a  detested  tyrant,  and  the  emperor  a  child 
entirely  guided  by  his  mother.  But  the  new  emperor 
Otho  III.  was  backed  by  a  powerful  party,  and  on  coming 
to  Rome  in  996  was  able,  although  only  aged  fifteen, 
to  quell  the  rebellion,  oust  Crescenzio  from  public  life, 
and  elect  as  successor  to  John  XV.  his  own  cousin,  Pope 
Gregory  V.  (996-999).  But  this  first  German  pope  sur- 
rounded himself  with  compatriots,  and  by  raising  them 
to  lofty  posts  even  in  the  tribunals  excited  a  revolt  that 


790 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


drove  him  from  the  throne  (29th  September  996).  Cres- 
cenzio, being  master  of  Castle  St  Angelo,  resumed  the  title 
of  patrician  or  consul  of  the  Romans,  expelled  the  Ger- 
man judges,  reconstituted  the  government,  prepared  his 
troops  for  defence,  and  created  a  new  pope.  But  the 
following  year  Otho  III.  came  to  Rome,  and  his  party 
opened  the  gates  to  him.  Although  deserted  by  nearly 
all  his  adherents,  Crescenzio  held  the  castle  valiantly 
against  its  besiegers.  At  last,  on  the  29th  April  998,  he 
was  forced  to  make  terms,  and  the  imperialists,  violating 
their  pledges,  first  put  him  to  torture  and  then  hurled  him 
from  the  battlements.  Gregory  V.  dying  shortly  after 
these  events,  Sylvester  II.,  another  German,  was  raised 
to  the  papacy  (999-1003). 

tho  III.  Thus  Otho  III.  was  enabled  to  establish  his  mastery  of 
Rome.  But,  as  the  son  of  a  Greek  mother,  trained  amid 
Greek  influences,  his  fantastic  and  contradictory  nature 
seemed  only  to  grasp  the  void.  He  wished  to  reconstitute 
a  Romano-Byzantine  empire  with  Rome  for  his  capital. 
His  discourse  always  turned  on  the  ancient  republic,  on 
consuls  and  senate,  on  the  might  and  grandeur  of  the 
Roman  people ;  and  his  edicts  were  addressed  to  the  senate 
and  the  people.  The  senate  is  now  constantly  mentioned, 
and  its  heads  bear  the  title  of  consuls.  The  emperor  also 
gave  renewed  honour  to  the  title  of  patrician,  surrounded 
himself  with  officials  bearing  Greek  and  Roman  designa- 
tions, and  raised  the  prestige  of  the  prefect,  who,  having 
now  almost  the  functions  of  an  imperial  vicar,  bore  the 
.eagle  and  the  sword  as  his  insignia.  Nevertheless  Otho 
III.  was  thoroughly  German,  and  during  his  reign  all 
'Germanic  institutions  made  progress  in  Rome.  This  was 
particularly  the  case  with  feudalism,  and  Sylvester  II.  was 
the  first  pope  to  treat  it  with  favour.  Many  families  of 
real  feudal  barons  now  arose.  The  Crescenzii  held  sway 
in  the  Sabine  hills,  and  Praeneste  and  Tusculum  were  great 
centres  cf  feudalism  in  the  llth  century.  The  system  of 
feudal  benefices  was  recognized  by  the  church,  which  made 
grants  of  lands,  cities,  and  provinces  in  the  feudal  manner. 
The  bishops,  like  feudal  barons,  became  actual  counts. 
And,  in  consequence  of  these  changes,  when  the  emperor, 
as  head  of  the  feudal  system,  seeks  to  impose  his  will  upon 
the  church  (which  has  also  become  feudal)  and  control  the 
papal  elections,  he  is  met  by  the  great  question  of  the 
investitures,  a  question  destined  to  disturb  the  whole 
world.  Meanwhile  the  Roman  barons  were  growing  more 
and  more  powerful,  and  were  neither  submissive  nor  faith- 
ful to  the  emperor.  On  the  contrary  they  resented  his 
attitude  as  master  of  Rome,  and,  when  he  subjected  Tivoli 
to  the  Holy  See,  attacked  both  him  and  the  pope  with  so 
much  vigour  as  to  put  both  to  flight  (16th  February 
1001).  Thereupon  Rome  again  became  a  republic,  headed 
by  Gregory  of  Tusculum,  a  man  of  a  powerful  family  claim- 
ing descent  from  Alberic. 

By  the  emperor's  death  in  January  1002  the  race  of  the 

Othos  became  extinct,  the  papacy  began  to  decline,  as  at  the 

end  of  the  Carolingian  period,  and  the  nobles,  divided  into 

an  imperial  and  a  national  party,  were  again  predominant. 

They  reserved  to  themselves  the  office  of  patrician,  and, 

electing  popes  from  their  own  ranks,  obtained  enlarged 

privileges     and    power.      At    the    time    when    Ardoin, 

marquis  of  Ivrea,  profiting  by  the  extinction  of  the  Othos 

and  the  anarchy  of  Germany,  was  stirring  Italy  in  the 

vain  hope  of  constituting  a  national  kingdom,  the  Roman 

be          republic  was  being  consolidated  under  another  Giovanni 

icond      Crescenzio,  of  the  national  faction.     He  was  now  elected 

ovanni  patrjcian  .  one  of  nis  kinsmen  was  invested  with  the  office 

snzio       °f  Prefect>  and  the  new  pope  John  XVIII.  (1003-9)  was 

one   of   his   creatures.     Although   the   power   of    Henry 

of   Bavaria  was   then    gaining   ascendency  in  Germany, 

and  giving  strength  to  the  imperialist  nobles,  Crescenzio 


still  remained  supreme  ruler  of  the  city  and  the  Campagna. 
Surrounded  by  his  judges,  the  senators,  and  his  kinsman 
the  prefect,  he  continued  to  dispense  justice  in  his  own 
palace  until  his  death  in  1012,  after  ten  years'  rule. 
And,  Pope  Sergius  IV.  having  died  the  same  year,  the 
counts  of  Tusculum  compassed  the  election  of  Benedict 
VIII.  (1012-24),  one  of  their  own  kin.  This  pope 
expelled  the  Crescenzii,  changed  the  prefect,  and  reserved 
the  title  of  patrician  for  Henry  II.,  whom  he  consecrated 
emperor  on  the  14th  February  1014.  A  second  Alberic, 
bearing  the  title  of  " eminentissimus  consul  et  dux,"  was 
now  at  the  head  of  the  republic  and  dispensed  placita  in 
the  palace  of  his  great  ancestor,  from  whom  the  counts  of 
Tusculum  were  also  descended. 

The  new  emperor  endeavoured  to  re-establish  order  in  Henr 
Rome,  and  strengthen  his  own  authority  together  with  IJ- 
that  of  the  pope.  But  the  nobles  had  in  all  things  the 
upper  hand.  They  were  regularly  organized  under 
leaders,  held  meetings,  asserted  their  right  to  nominate 
both  pope  and  emperor,  and  in  fact  often  succeeded  in  so 
doing.  Even  Henry  II.  himself  was  obliged  to  secure 
their  votes  before  his  coronation.  The  terms  senate  and 
senator  now  recur  still  more  frequently  in  history.  Never- 
theless, Benedict  VIII.  succeeded  in  placing  his  own 
brother,  Romano,  at  the  head  of  the  republic  with  the 
title  of  "  consul,  dux,  and  senator,"  thus  making  him 
leader  of  the  nobles,  who  met  at  his  bidding,  and  chief  of 
the  militia  and  the  tribunals.  The  prefect  still  retained  his 
authority,  and  the  emperor  was  by  right  supreme  judge. 
But,  a  violent  revolt  breaking  out,  the  emperor  only  stayed 
to  suppress  it  and  then  went  to  Germany  in  disgust.  The 
pope,  aided  by  his  brother,  conducted  the  government 
with  energy ;  he  awed  the  party  of  Crescenzio,  and  waged 
war  against  the  Saracens  in  the  south.  But  he  died  in 
1024,  and  in  the  same  year  Henry  II.  was  succeeded  by 
Conrad  II.  There  was  now  beheld  a  repetition  of  the 
same  strange  event  that  had  followed  the  death  of  Alberic, 
and  with  no  less  fatal  consequences.  Benedict's  brother 
Romano,  head  of  the  republic,  and  still  retaining  office, 
was,  although  a  layman,  elected  pope.  He  took  the  name 
of  John  XIX.  (1024-33),  and  in  1027  conferred  the 
imperial  crown  on  Conrad  the  Salic,  who,  abolishing  the 
Lothairian  edict  of  824,  decreed  that  throughout  Rome 
and  its  territory  justice  should  be  henceforth  administered 
solely  by  the  Justinian  code.  Thus,  notwithstanding  the 
spread  of  feudalism  and  Germanic  procedure,  the  Roman 
law  triumphed  through  the  irresistible  force  of  the  national 
character,  which  .was  already  manifested  in  many  other 
ways. 

Meanwhile  John  XIX.  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
Benedict  IX.  (1033-45),  a  lad  of  twelve,  who  placed  his 
own  brother  at  the  head  of  the  republic.  Thus  church 
and  state  assumed  the  aspect  of  hereditary  possessions  in 
the  powerful  house  of  the  counts  of  Tusculum.  But  the 
vices  and  excesses  of  Benedict  were  so  monstrous  that  the 
papacy  sank  to  the  lowest  depth  of  corruption ;  there 
followed  a  series  of  tumults  and  reactionary  attempts,  and 
so  many  conflicting  elections  that  in  1045  three  popes  were 
struggling  for  the  tiara  in  the  midst  of  scandal  and  anarchy. 
The  streets  and  neighbourhood  of  Rome  swarmed  with 
thieves  and  assassins ;  pilgrims  were  plundered ;  citizens 
trembled  for  their  lives ;  and  a  hundred  petty  barons 
threatened  the  rival  popes,  who  were  obliged  to  defend 
themselves  by  force.  This  state  of  things  lasted  until 
Henry  III.  came  .to  re-establish  order.  He  appointed  a 
synod  to  depose  the  three  popes,  and  then,  with  the  consent 
of  the  wearied  and  anarchy-stricken  Romans,  assuming  the 
right  of  election,  proposed  a  German,  Clement  II.,  who  was 
consecrated  at  Christmas  1046.  Henry  III.  was  then 
crowned,  and  also  took  the  title  of  patrician.  Thus  the 


998-1108.1 


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791 


emperor  was  lord  over  church  and  state.  This,  however, 
stirred  both  people  and  pope  against  him,  and  led  to  the 
terrible  contest  of  the  investitures,  although  for  the  moment 
the  Komans,  being  exhausted  by  past  calamities,  seemed 
not  only  resigned  but  contented. 

In  fact,  the  idea  of  reform  and  independence  was 
already  germinating  in  the  church  and  was  soon  to  become 
tenacious  and  irresistible.  Hildebrand  was  the  prompter 
and  hero  of  this  idea.  He  sought  to  abolish  the  simony 
and  concubinage  of  the  priesthood,  to  give  the  papal 
elections  into  the  hands  of  the  higher  ecclesiastics,  and  to 
emancipate  the  church  from  all  dependence  on  the  empire. 
Henry  III.  procured  the  election  of  four  German  popes  in 
succession,  and  Hildebrand  was  always  at  hand  to  inspire 
their  actions  and  dominate  them  by  his  strength  of  intel- 
lect and  still  greater  strength  of  will.  But  the  fourth 
German  pope,  Victor  II.,  died  in  1057,  and  Henry  III. 
had  been  succeeded  in  1056  by  the  young  Henry  IV. 
under  the  regency  of  a  weak  woman,  the  empress  Agnes. 
Hildebrand  seized  this  favourable  moment  for  trying 
his  strength  and  procured  the  election  of  Stephen  IX. 
(1057-58),  a  candidate  he  had  long  had  in  view.  Stephen, 
however,  died  in  1058 ;  the  nobles  instantly  rose  in 
rebellion  ;  and  Gregory  of  Tusculum,  who  had  assumed  the 
patriciate,  caused  an  incapable  cousin  to  be  named  pope 
(Benedict  X.).  Upon  this  Hildebrand  postponed  his  design 
of  maintaining  the  papacy  by  the  help  of  Italian  potentates 
and  had  recourse  to  the  empress.  In  a  synod  held  at 
Siena  with  her  consent  Benedict  was  deposed  and  Nicholas 
II.  (1059-61)  elected  in  his  stead.  This  pope  entered 
Rome  escorted  by  the  troops  of  Godfrey  of  Tuscany,  and, 
when  also  assured  of  help  from  Naples,  assembled  a  council 
of  one  hundred  and  thirteen  bishops  (1059),  who  condemned 
the  deposed  pontiff  and  renewed  the  prohibition  of  simony 
and  concubinage  among  the  priesthood.  Finally  Nicholas 
instituted  the  college  of  cardinals,  entrusting  it  with  the 
election  of  the  pope,  who  was  in  future  to  be  chosen  from 
its  ranks.  The  assent  of  the  clergy  and  people  was  left 
purely  formal.  The  decree  also  contained  the  proviso — 
"saving  the  honour  and  reverence  due  to  the  emperor"; 
but  this  too  was  an  empty  expression. 

The  new  decree  was  a  master-stroke  of  Hildebrand's 
genius,  for  by  means  of  it  he  placed  the  papal  election 
in  the  hands  of  a  genuine  ecclesiastical  senate  and  gave  a 
monarchical  form  to  the  church.  Backed  by  the  Normans 
who  were  in  Rome,  and  whose  commander,  Richard  of 
Capua,  did  not  scruple  to  strike  off  the  heads  of  many 
recalcitrant  nobles,  Hildebrand  and  the  pope  could  now 
pursue  their  work  of  reform.  Nevertheless  the  nobles 
again  revolted  on  the  death  of  Nicholas  II.  in  1061,  and 
declared  their  purpose  of  restoring  to  Henry  IV.  the  patri- 
ciate and  right  of  election ;  but  Hildebrand,  by  speedily 
convoking  the  cardinals,  procured  the  election  of  Alexander 
II.  (1061-73).  This  pope,  although  friendly  to  the  empire, 
did  not  await  the  imperial  sanction,  but,  protected  by 
the  Romans,  at  once  entered  the  Lateran  and  put  some 
other  riotous  nobles  to  death.  The  German  bishops,  how- 
ever, elected  Honorius  II.,  who  had  the  support  of  the 
barons.  Thus  the  city  was  split  into  two  camps  and  a 
deadly  civil  war  ensued,  terminating,  despite  the  vigorous 
resistance<  of  the  nobility,  in  the  defeat  of  Honorius  II. 
But  the  nobles  persevered  in  the  contest  and  were  the  real 
masters  of  Rome.  By  conferring  the  patriciate  on  the 
emperor,  as  their  feudal  chief,  they  hoped  to  organize  them- 
selves under  the  prefect,  who  now,  with  greatly  increased 
authority,  presided  over  both  the  civil  and  criminal  courts 
in  the  absence  of  the  pope's  representative.  In  a  general 
assembly  the  Romans  elected  their  prefect,  whose  investi- 
ture was  granted  by  the  emperor,  while  the  pope  elected 
another.  Thus  disorder  was  brought  to  a  climax, 


Alexander  died  on  the  21st  April  1073,  and  thereupon  Gregory 
Hildebrand  was  at  last  raised  to  the  chair  as  pope  Gregory  VI1- 
VII.  (1073-85).  He  reconfirmed  his  predecessors'  de- 
crees, dismissed  all  simoniacal  and  non-cekbate  priests,  and 
then  in  a  second  council  (1075)  forbade  the  clergy  to 
receive  investiture  at  the  hands  of  laymen.  No  bishop  nor 
abbot  was  again  to  accept  ring  or  crozier  from  king  or 
emperor.  Now,  as  ecclesiastical  dignities  included  the 
possession  of  extensive  benefices,  privileges,  and  feudal 
rights,  this  decree  gave  rise  to  tremendous  dispute  and  to 
fierce  contest  between  the  empire  and  the  church.  The 
nobles  took  a  very  decided  part  in  the  struggle.  With 
Cenci,  their  former  prefect,  at  their  head,  they  rose  in 
revolt,  assailed  the  pope  on  Christmas  day  1075,  and  threw 
him  into  prison.  But  their  fear  of  the  popular  wrath  com- 
pelled his  speedy  release;  and  he  then  decreed  the  excom- 
munication and  deposition  of  the  emperor  who  had  declared 
him  deposed.  That  monarch  afterwards  made  submission 
to  Gregory  at  Canossa  (1077),  but,  again  turning  against 
him,  was  again  excommunicated.  And  in  1081  he  re- 
turned to  Italy  bringing  the  antipope  Clement  III.,  and 
besieged  Rome  for  forty  days.  Assembling  the  nobles  in 
his  camp,  he  there  arranged  a  new  government  of  the  city 
with  prefect  and  senate,  palatine  judges,  and  other  magis- 
trates, exactly  similar  to  the  existing  government  within 
the  walls.  He  then  took  his  departure,  returned  several 
times  in  vain,  but  at  last  forced  his  way  into  the  city 
(March  1084),  and  compelled  Gregory  VII.  to  seek  refuge 
in  Castle  St  Angelo.  The  emperor  was  then  master 
of  Rome,  established  the  government  he  had  previously 
arranged,  and,  calling  a  parliament  of  nobles  and  bishops, 
procured  the  deposition  of  Gregory  and  the  consecration 
of  Clement  III.,  by  whom  he  was  crowned  in  1084.  He 
then  attacked  and  seized  the  Capitol,  and  assaulted  the 
castle  in  order  to  capture  the  pope.  But  Robert  Guiscard 
brought  his  army  to  the  rescue.  Emperor  and  anti-pope 
fled ;  the  city  was  taken,  the  pope  liberated,  and  Rome 
reduced  to  ruin  by  fire  and  pillage.  Upon  this  Gregory 
VII.,  broken  with  grief,  went  away  with  the  Normans,  and 
died  at  Salerno  on  the  25th  May  1085.  He  had  separated 
the  church  from  the  people  and  the  empire  by  a  struggle 
that,  as  Gregorovius  says,  disturbed  the  deep  sleep  of  the 
Middle  Ages 

Pope  Paschal  II.  (1099-1118)  found  himself  entirely  Paschal 
at  the  mercy  of  the  tyrannous  nobles  who  were  alike  1 1. 
masters  of  Rome,  of  its  government,  and  its  spiritual and  * 
lord.  As  they  were  divided  among  themselves,  all  the 
pope  could  do  was  to  side  with  one  party  in  order  to 
overcome  the  other.  With  the  help  of  his  own  nephew 
Gualfredo,  the  prefect  Pietro  Pierleone,  and  the  Frangipani, 
he  was  able  to  keep  down  the  Corsi,  and  hold  the  Colonna 
in  check.  Being  compelled  to  repair  to  Benevento  in  1 108, 
he  left  Gualfredo  to  command  the  militia,  Tolomeo  of 
Tusculum  to  guard  the  Campagna,  and  the  consuls  Pierleone 
and  Leone  Frangipani,  together  with  the  prefect,  in  charge 
of  the  government.  The  consulship  was  no  longer  a  mere 
title  of  honour.  The  consuls  seem  to  have  been  elected, 
as  at  Ravenna,  in  imitation  of  those  of  the  Lombard  cities, 
and  were  at  the  head  of  the  nobles  and  senate.  The 
expressions  "praefectus  et  consules,"  "  de  senatoribus  et 
consulibus,"  are  now  of  frequent  occurrence.  We  have 
no  precise  knowledge  of  the  political  organization  of  the 
city  at  this  moment ;  but  it  was  an  aristocratic  government, 
similar  to  that  originally  formed  in  Florence,  as  Villani 
tells  us,  with  a  senate  and  consuls.  The  nobles  were  so 
completely  the  masters  that  the  pope,  in  spite  of  having 
trusted  them  with  the  government,  could  only  return  to 
Rome  with  the  aid  of  the  Normans.  Being  now  absorbed 
in  the  great  investiture  question,  he  had  recourse  to  a 
daring  plan.  He  proposed  to  Henry  V.  that  the  bishops 


nobles. 


792 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


should  resign  all  property  derived  from  the  crown  and 
depend  solely  on  tithes  and  donations,  while  the  empire 
should  resign  the  right  of  investiture.  Henry  seemed 
disposed  to  accept  the  suggestion,  but,  suddenly  changing 
his  mind,  took  the  pope  prisoner  and  forced  him  to  yield 
the  right  of  investiture  and  to  give  him  the  crown  (1111). 
But  the  following  year  the  party  of  reform  annulled  in 
council  this  concession,  which  the  pope  declared  to  have 
been  extorted  by  force.  By  the  death  of  Countess  Matilda 
in  1115  and  the  bequest  of  her  vast  possessions  to  the 
Holy  See,  the  pope's  dominions  were  greatly  enlarged, 
but  his  authority  as  a  ruler  was  nowise  increased. 
Deeds  of  violence  still  continued  in  Rome ;  and  then 
followed  the  death  of  the  prefect  Pietro.  The  nobles  of 
the  imperial  party,  joined  with  the  people,  wished  to  elect 
Pietro's  son,  also  nephew  to  Tolomeo  of  Tusculum,  who 
then  held  the  position  of  a  potent  imperial  margrave, 
had  territories  stretching  from  the  Sabine  mountains  to 
the  sea,  was  the  dictator  of  Tusculum,  master  of  Latium, 
and  consul  of  the  Romans.  The  pope  opposed  this 
election  to  the  best  of  his  strength ;  but  the  nobles  carried 
the  day,  and  their  new  prefect  received  investiture  from 
the  emperor.-  Upon  this  the  pope  again  quitted  Rome, 
and  on  his  return,  two  years  later,  was  compelled  to  shut 
himself  up  in  Castle  St  Angelo,  where  he  died  in  1118. 
w  The  popes  were  now  the  sport  of  the  nobles  whom  they 

rer  had  aggrandized  by  continual  concessions  for  the  sake  of 
peace.  And  peace  seemed  at  hand  when  Innocent  II. 
(1130-43),  after  triumphing  over  two  antipopes,  came  to 
terms  with  Roger  I.,  recognized  him  as  king  of  Sicily,  and 
gained  his  friendship  and  protection.  But  now  still  graver 
tumults  took  place.  In  consequence  of  the  division  of 
the  nobles  neither  party  could  overcome  its  foes  without 
the  aid  of  the  people,  which  thus  became  increasingly 
powerful.  Throughout  Upper  and  Central  Italy  the  cities 
were  being  organized  as  free  and  independent  communes 
on  a  democratic  basis.  Their  example  was  soon  followed 
in  the  ancient  duchy  of  Rome  and  almost  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  city.  Even  Tivoli  was  converted 
into  a  republic.  This  excited  the  deepest  jealousy  in  the 
Romans,  and  they  became  furious  when  this  little  city, 
profiting  by  its  strong  position  in  the  Teverone  valley,  not 
only  sought  to  annex  Roman  territory,  but  dared  to  offer 
successful  resistance  to  the  descendants  of  the  conquerors 
of  the  world.  In  1141  Tivoli  openly  rebelled  against  the 
mother  city,  and  the  pope  sent  the  Romans  to  subdue  it. 
They  were  not  only  repulsed,  but  ignominiously  pursued 
to  their  own  gates.  Afterwards,  returning  to  the  assault 
in  greater  numbers,  they  conquered  the  hostile  town.  Its 
defenders  surrendered  to  the  pope,  and  he  immediately 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  without  consulting  either  the 
people  or  the  republic.  The  soldiery,  still  flushed  with 
victory,  were  furious  at  this  slight.  They  demanded  not 
only  the  submission  of  Tivoli  to  the  Roman  people,  but  also 
permission  to  demolish  its  walls  and  dwellings  and  expel 
its  population.  Innocent  II.  refused  consent  to  these 
excesses,  and  a  memorable  revolution  ensued  by  which  the 
temporal  power  of  the  papacy  was  entirely  overthrown, 
mlar  In  1143  the  rebellious  people  rushed  to  the  Capitol,  pro- 
3lu-  claimed  the  republic,  reconstituted  the  senate,  to  the 
almost  entire  exclusion  of  the  nobles,  declared  the  abolition 
iction  °f  tne  temporal  power,  issued  coin  inscribed  to  the  senate, 
;enatc  the  people,  and  St  Peter,  and  began  to  reckon  time  from 
re-  the  day  of  the  restoration  of  liberty.  Arnold  of  Brescia 
)lic-  was  not,  as  has  been  incorrectly  stated,  the  author  of  this 
revolution,  for  he  had  not  yet  arrived  in  Rome.  It  was  the 
outcome  of  an  historic  necessity — above  all  of  the  renewed 
vigour  of  the  people  rand  its  detestation  of  the  feudal 
aristocracy.  This  body,  besides  being  divided  into  an 
imperial  and  a  national  party,  had  almost  excluded  from 


the  government  the  powerful  baronage  of  the  Campagna 
and  the  provinces.  Also,  as  we  have  before  noted,  the 
Roman  aristocracy  was  by  no  means  an  exclusive  caste. 
Between  the  great  aristocrats  and  the  people  there  stood 
a  middle  or  new  nobility,  which  made  common  cause  with 
the  people,  whose  chief  strength  now  lay  in  the  army. 
This,  divided  into  twelve  and  then  into  thirteen  or  four- 
teen regions,  assembled  under  its  banners  all  arm-bearing 
citizens.  Thus  the  exercitiis  was  also  the  real  populus 
Romanus,  now  bent  on  the  destruction  of  the  temporal 
power.  This  purpose,  originating  in  the  struggle  of  the 
investitures,  was  the  logical  and  inevitable  result  of  the 
proposals  of  Paschal  II.,  which,  despite  their  rejection, 
found  aloud  echo  in  Italy.  Lucius  II.  (1144-45)  tried 
to  withstand  the  revolution  by  seeking  Norman  aid  and 
throwing  himself  into  the  arms  of  the  feudal  party,  but  this 
only  precipitated  the  course  of  events.  The  people,  after 
having  excluded  nearly  all  aristocrats  from  the  senate,  now 
placed  at  its  head  the  noble  Giordano  dei  Pierleoni,  who 
had  joined  the  revolutionary  party.  They  named  him 
patrician,  but  without  prejudice  to  the  authority  of  the 
empire,  still  held  by  them  in  respect,  and  also  conferred 
on  him  the  judicial  pOAvers  appertaining  to  the  aristocratic 
and  imperial  office  of  prefect.  The  pope  was  requested  to 
resign  the  temporal  power,  the  regalia,  and  every  other 
possession,  and  content  himself  with  the  tithes  and 
offerings  of  the  faithful  according  to  the  scheme  of  Paschal 
II.  He  indignantly  refused,  marched  at  the  head  of  the 
nobles  against  the  Capitol,  but  was  violently  repulsed,  and 
received  a  blow  on  the  head  from  a  stone,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  occasioned  his  speedy  death  on  the  15th  February 
1145.  Eugenius  III.  was  then  elected  (1145-53),  but 
soon  had  to  fly  to  Viterbo  in  quest  of  armed  assistance, 
in  consequence  of  the  senate's  resolve  to  forcibly  prevent 
his  consecration  until  he  recognized  the  new  state  of  things 
in  the  Eternal  City. 

It  was  at  this  moment  that  Arnold  of  Brescia  arrived 
in  Rome.  His  ideas,  already  well  known  in  Italy,  had 
inspired  and  promoted  the  Roman  revolution,  and  he  now 
came  to  determine  its  method  and  direction.  Born  at 
Brescia  in  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century,  Arnold  had 
studied  in  France  under  the  celebrated  Abelard,  who  had 
instructed  him  in  theology  and  philosophy,  inspired  him 
with  a  great  love  for  antiquity,  and  stimulated  his  natural 
independence  of  mind.  On  returning  to  his  native  land 
he  assumed  the  monkish  habit,  and  proved  the  force  and 
fervour  of  his  character  by  taking  part  in  all  struggles  for 
liberty.  And,  together  with  political  reform,  he  preached 
his  favourite  doctrine  of  the  necessary  renunciation  by 
the  clergy  of  all  temporal  wealth.  Expounded  with 
singular  eloquence,  these  doctrines  had  a  stirring  effect  on 
men's  minds,  spread  throughout  the  cities  of  northern 
Italy,  and  were  echoed  on  all  sides.  It  seems  undoubted 
that  they  penetrated  to  Rome  and  helped  to  promote  the 
revolution,  so  that  Arnold  was  already  present  in  spirit 
before  he  arrived  there  in  person.  It  is  known  that  at 
the  Lateran  council  of  1139  Innocent  II.  had  declared 
these  doctrines  to  be  inimical  to  the  church  and  enjoined 
silence  on  their  author.  And,  as  at  that  time  the  party 
hostile  to  liberty  was  triumphant  in  Brescia,  Arnold  left 
his  native  place,  crossed  the  Alps,  and  returned  to  France, 
where  other  struggles  awaited  him.  He  professed  no 
anti-Catholic  dogmas, — only  maintaining  that  when  the 
pope  and  the  prelacy  deviated  from  the  gospel  rule  of 
poverty  they  should  not  be  obeyed,  but  fearlessly  opposed. 
In  France,  finding  his  master,  Abelard,  exposed  to  the 
persecutions  of  St  Bernard,  he  assumed  his  defence  with 
so  much  ardour  that  St  Bernard  directed  the  thunders  of 
his  eloquence  against  the  disciple  as  well  as  the  master, 
saying  of  the  former,  "He  neither  eats  nor  drinks, 


Arno  fj 

Bresc    ! 


1111-1155.] 


ROME 


793 


suffers  hunger,  and,  being  leagued  with  the  devil,  only 
thirsts  for  the  blood  of  souls."  In  1142  we  find  Arnold  a 
wanderer  in  Switzerland,  and  then,  suddenly  reappearing 
in  Italy,  he  arrived  in  Home. 

Three  different  elements  entered  into  his  nature  and 
inspired  his  eloquence — an  exalted  and  mystic  tempera- 
ment, a  great  and  candid  admiration  for  classic  antiquity 
added  to  an  equal  admiration  for  republican  freedom 
independent  of  the  church  and  the  empire,  and  a  pro- 
found conviction,  derived  from  the  Vaudois  and  Paterine 
doctrines,  that  the  church  could  only  be  purified  by  the 
renunciation  of  temporal  wealth.  Finding  Rome  already 
revolutionized  in  accordance  with  his  own  ideas,  he 
immediately  began  to  preach  there.  His  mystic  exhorta- 
tions against  the  riches  of  the  church  had  an  inflammatory 
effect,  while  his  classical  reminiscences  aroused  the  enthusi- 
asm of  the  .Romans,  and  his  suggestion  that  they  should 
imitate  the  republican  institutions  of  Upper  Italy  met  the 
necessities  of  the  time  that  had  created  the  revolution. 
He  urged  the  reconstitution  of  the  ancient  senate  and 
senatorial  order,  which  indeed  was  already  partially 
accomplished,  and  of  the  ancient  equestrian  order,  and  the 
reconstruction  and  fortification  of  the  Capitol.  His  pro- 
posed senate  was  a  body  somewhat  resembling  the  com- 
munal councils  of  Upper  Italy,  his  equestrian  order  a 
mounted  force  composed  of  the  lesser  nobility,  since  at 
Rome,  as  elsewhere,  the  lower  classes  had  neither  time  nor 
means  to  form  part  of  it.  All  his  suggestions  were 
accepted ;  the  citizens  laboured  strenuously  on  the  fortifica- 
tion of  the  Capitol.  The  pope  soon  beheld  the  revolution 
spread  beyond  the  walls,  and  several  cities  of  the  state 
proclaimed  their  independence.  The  barons  of  the  Cam- 
pagna  profited  by  the  opportunity  to  act  as  independent 
sovereigns.  Thus  the  whole  domain  of  the  church  was 
threatened  with  dissolution.  The  pope  marched  towards 
Rome  with  his  newly  gathered  army,  but  hoped  to  come 
to  terms.  The  Romans  in  fact  recognized  his  authority, 
and  he  in  his  turn  recognized  the  republic.  The  office  of 
patrician  was  abolished,  and  seems  to  have  been  replaced 
by  that  of  gonfalonier,  and  the  prefect,  answering  to  the 
podesta  of  the  other  republics,  was  revived.  The  senators 
received  investiture  from  the  pope,  who  returned  to  Rome 
at  Christmas  1145. 

The  republic  now  seems  to  have  been  fully  constituted. 
The  senate  was  drawn  from  the  lower  classes  and  the  petty 
nobility,  and  this  was  the  special  characteristic  of  the  new 
revolution.  In  1144  there  were  fifty-six  senators,  pro- 
bably four  to  each  of  the  fourteen  regions,  but  the  number 
often  varied.  By  the  few  existing  documents  of  the 
period  we  notice  that  the  senators  were  divided  into 
senatores  consiliarii  and  ordinary  senators.  The  former 
constituted  a  smaller  council,  which,  like  the  credenza  or 
lesser  council  found  in  other  cities,  consulted  with  the  head 
or  heads  of  the  republic  on  the  more  urgent  and  secret 
affairs  of  the  state.  And,  conjointly  with  the  rest  of  the 
senators,  it  formed  the  greater  council.  Thus  classic 
traditions  were  identified  with  new  republican  usages,  and 
the  commonwealth  of  Rome  resembled  those  in  other  parts 
of  Italy.  But,  of  course,  every  republic  had  special  local 
customs  of  its  own.  So  the  Roman  senate  had  judicial 
as  well  as  political  attributes,  and  there  was  a  curia 
senatus  composed  of  senators  and  legal  experts. 

As  was  easily  to  be  foreseen,  the  agreement  with  the  pope 
was  of  short  duration.  The  revolution  could  not  be 
checked ;  the  Romans  desired  independence,  and  their 
spiritual  lord  fled  to  France,  whence,  in  1147,  he  pro- 
claimed a  new  crusade,  while  the  Romans  were  employed 
in  demolishing  Tivoli,  banishing  its  inhabitants,  and 
waging  war  on  other  cities.  Giordano  Pierleone  was 
gonfalonier  and  head  of  the  republic,  and  Arnold,  sup- 


ported by  the  popular  favour  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
lower  clergy,  was  preaching  with  even  greater  fervour 
than  before.  But  the  pope  now  re-entered  Italy,  pro- 
claimed Arnold  a  schismatic,  and  then  advancing  to 
Tusculum  assembled  an  army  in  order  to  attack  Rome. 
In  this  emergency  the  Romans  applied  to  Conrad  III., 
the  first  emperor  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen ;  and  their 
urgent  letters  are  clearly  expressive  of  Arnold's  theories 
and  his  medley  of  ancient  and  modern,  sacred  and  profane, 
ideas.  "Rome,"  "so  they  said,  "is  the  fountain  of  the 
empire  confided  to  you  by  the  Almighty,  and  we  seek  to 
restore  to  Rome  the  power  possessed  by  her  under 
Constantine  and  Justinian.  For  this  end  we  conquered 
and  destroyed  the  strongholds  of  the  barons  who,  together 
with  the  pope  and  the  Normans,  sought  to  resist  us. 
These  are  now  attacking  us  on  all  sides.  Haste  to  Rome, 
the  capital  of  the  world,  thus  to  establish  thy  imperial 
sway  over  the  Italian  and  German  lands." 

After  long  hesitation  the  king  of  the  Romans  at  last 
replied  to  these  appeals,  stating  that  he  would  come  "  to 
re-establish  order,  reward  the  faithful,  and  punish  the 
rebellious."  These  words  promised  ill.  In  fact  Conrad 
had  already  arranged  terms  with  the  pope ;  but  his  life 
came  to  an  end  on  the  15th  February  1152. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Frederick  I.  surnamed  Barbarossa,  Frederi 
who  took  no  notice  of  the  numerous  letters  urging  him  to  I. 
come  and  receive  the  empire  from  the  Roman  people,  which 
alone  had  the  right  of  conferring  it.  In  accordance  with 
his  design  of  subduing  all  the  independent  cities,  he  made 
an  agreement  with  the  pope,  in  which  he  vowed  to  give  no 
truce  to  the  Romans,  but  subject  them  to  their  spiritual 
lord,  whose  temporal  power  should  be  restored.  The  pope, 
on  his  side,  promised  to  crown  him  emperor.  Thereupon 
the  people  again  rose  to  arms,  and  Arnold  broke  off  all 
negotiations  with  Eugenius  III.  The  senate  was  re- 
organized, formed  of  one  hundred  members,  and,  according 
to  the  old  Roman  precedent,  had  two  consuls,  one  for  in- 
ternal and  the  other  for  external  affairs.  Frederick  was  a 
daring  statesman,  a  valiant  soldier  in  command  of  a 
powerful  army,  and  was  no  friend  of  half  measures. 
Accordingly  the  nobles  ventured  on  reaction.  Finally,  to 
increase  the  gravity  of  the  situation,  an  English  pope, 
Hadrian  IV.,  was  elected  (1154-59),  who  was  also  a 
man  of  strong  and  resolute  temper.  In  fact,  even  before 
being  able  to  take  possession  of  the  Lateran,  he  requested 
the  Romans  to  banish  Arnold,  who,  with  greater  eloquence 
than  ever,  was  directing  his  thunders  against  the  papacy. 
These  utterances  increased  the  wrath  of  Hadrian,  who, 
encouraged  by  the  knowledge  that  Frederick  and  his  host 
were  already  in  Italy,  at  last  launched  an  interdict  against 
Rome.  It  was  the  first  time  that  a  pope  had  ventured  to 
curse  the  Eternal  City.  The  interdict  put  a  summary  stop 
to  the  religious  life  of  the  inhabitants.  Men's  minds  were 
seized  with  a  sudden  terror,  and  a  fierce  tumult  broke  out. 
Thereupon  the  senators,  whose  opposition  to  the  pope  was 
less  courageous  than  that  of  the  fallen  magnates,  prostrated 
themselves  at  his  feet  and  implored  pardon.  But 
Hadrian  demanded  the  expulsion  of  Arnold  before 
consenting  to  raise  the  interdict.  Arnold  was  therefore 
obliged  to  leave  Rome.  After  having  for  nine  years 
preached  successfully  in  favour  of  liberty,  after  having 
been  the  moving  spirit  of  the  new  revolution,  the  new  con- 
stitution, he  was  now  abandoned  by  all,  and  forced  to 
wander  from  castle  to  castle,  in  the  hope  of  reaching  some 
independent  city  capable  of  shielding  him  from  the  fierce 
enmity  of  the  pope.  Meanwhile  Frederick  I.  had  achieved 
his  first  victories  in  Lombardy,  and,  leaving  ruined  cities 
and  bloodshed  in  his  track,  was  rapidly  advancing  towards 
central  Italy.  The  pope  sent  three  cardinals  to  him,  with 
a  request  for  the  capture  and  consignment  of  Arnold,  who 

XX.  —  100 


794 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


had  taken  refuge  in  the  castle  of  the  Visconti  of  Campag- 

natico.      Frederick    without    delay   caused   one    of   the 

Visconti  to  be  seized  and  kept  prisoner  until  Arnold  was 

given  up,  and  then  consigned  the  latter  to  the  papal  legates. 

The  pope  in  his  turn  gave  the  reformer  into  the  hands  of 

lold's  the  prefect,  Pietro  di  Vico,  who  immediately  hanged  his 

cu'     prisoner,  burnt  his  body  at  the  stake,  and  cast  his  ashes 

''        into  the  Tiber.     The  execution  took  place  in  June  1155. 

The  exact   date   and  place  of  it  are  unknown ;  we  only 

know  that  Arnold  met  his  fate  with  great  serenity  and 

firmness. 

But  the  Romans  who  had  so  basely  deserted  their 
champion  would  not  give  up  their  republic.  Their 
envoys  went  to  meet  Frederick  near  Sutri,  and  made  an 
address  in  the  usual  fantastic  style  on  the  privileges  of 
the  Roman  people  and  its  sole  right  to  confer  the  imperial 
crown.  But  Frederick  indignantly  cut  short  their  harangue, 
and  they  had  to  depart  full  of  rage.  He  then  continued 
his  march,  and,  entering  Rome  on  the  18th  June  1155,  was 
forthwith  crowned  in  St  Peter's  by  the  pope.  Thereupon 
the  Romans  rushed  to  arms,  and  made  a  furious  attack  on 
the  Leonine  city  and  the  imperial  camp.  A  desperate 
battle  went  on  throughout  the  day ;  and  the  knights 
proved  that  the  equestrian  order  instituted  at  Arnold's 
suggestion  was  no  empty  sham.  About  a  thousand 
Romans  perished  by  the  sword  or  by  drowning,  but  their 
fellow-citizens  made  such  determined  preparations  to 
continue  the  struggle  that  Frederick,  on  the  19th  June, 
hastily  retreated  or  rather  fled,  and  was  escorted  as  far 
as  Tivoli  by  the  pope  and  the  cardinals.  After  all,  the 
temporal  power  of  the  papacy  was  not  restored,  and  the 
j  re-  republic  still  survived  in  the  form  bestowed  on  it  by 
>lic  Arnold  of  Brescia.  Its  existence  was  in  truth  favourable 
rather  than  injurious  to  Frederick,  whose  aim  was  to  rule 
over  Rome  and  treat  the  bishops  as  his  vassals.  He  had 
not  yet  discerned  that  his  best  policy  would  have  been 
to  use  the  republic  as  a  lever  against  the  pope.  The 
latter,  with  keener  acumen,  while  remaining  faithful  to  the 
feudal  party  in  Rome,  made  alliance  with  the  communes 
of  Lombardy  and  encouraged  them  in  their  resistance  to 
the  emperor.  Hadrian  IV.  died  in  1159,  and  the  national 
party  elected  Alexander  III.  (1159-1181),  who  energetic- 
ally opposed  the  pretensions  of  Frederick,  but,  having  to 
struggle  with  three  antipopes  successively  raised  against 
him  by  the  imperial  party,  was  repeatedly  driven  into 
exile.  During  these  schisms  the  senate  quietly  carried  on 
the  government,  administered  justice,  and  made  war  on 
some  neighbouring  cities  and  barons.  An  army  compris- 
ing many  nobles  of  the  national  party  marched  against 
Tusculum,  but  found  it  defended  by  several  valiant 
officers  and  a  strong  band  of  German  soldiery,  who,  on  the 
29th  May  1167,  inflicted  on  the  Romans  so  severe  a  defeat 
that  it  is  styled  by  Gregorovius  the  Cannse  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Shortly  afterwards  the  emperor  arrived  in  Rome 
with  his  antipope  Paschal  III.,  and  Alexander  had  to  fly 
before  him  to  Benevento.  Then,  at  last,  Frederick  came 
to  terms  with  the  republic,  recognized  the  senate,  which 
accepted  investiture  at  his  hands,  re-established  the  pre- 
fecture as  an  imperial  office,  and  bestowed  it  on  Giovanni, 
son  of  Pietro  di  Vico.  He  then  hastily  departed,  with- 
out having  advanced  outside  the  Leonine  city. 

Meanwhile  Pope  Alexander  continued  the  crafty  policy 
of  Hadrian  and  with  better  success,  for  the  Lombard  cities 
had  now  formed  a  league  and  inflicted  a  signal  defeat  on 
the  emperor  at  Legnano  on  the  29th  May  1176.  One  of 
the  results  of  this  battle  was  the  conclusion  of  an  agree- 
ment between  the  pope  and  the  emperor,  the  latter 
resigning  his  pretensions  on  Rome  and  yielding  all  that 
he  had  denied  to  Hadrian.  And  by  the  treaty  of  Venice 
(1st  August  1177)  the  antipope  was  forsaken,  Alexander 


III.  recognized  and  hailed  as  the  legitimate  pontiff,  and  Agree- 
the  prefect  of  Rome  again  nominated  by  the  pope,  tomen*l 
whom  the  emperor  restored  the  temporal  power,  acknow-  |™^J, 
ledging  him  the  independent  sovereign  of  Rome  and  of  ami  tj, 
the  ecclesiastical  state,  from  Acquapendente  to  Ceprano.  pope, 
Frederick's  troops  accompanied  the  pope  to  Rome,  where 
the  republic  was  forced  to  make  submission  to  him.  But, 
proudly  conscious  as  it  still  was  of  its  strength,  its 
surrender  wore  the  aspect  of  a  voluntary  concession,  and 
its  terms  began  with  these  words — "  Totius  populi  Romani 
consilio  et  deliberatione  statutum  est,"  &c.  The  senators, 
elected  yearly  in  September,  had  to  swear  fealty  to  the 
pope,  and  a  certain  proportion  of  nobles  was  included  in 
their  number.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  Alexander  received 
a  solemn  welcome  from  all,  but  he  had  neither  extinguished 
nor  really  subdued  the  republic.  On  the  contrary,  men's 
minds  were  more  and  more  inflamed  by  the  example  of 
freedom  displayed  in  the  north  of  Italy.  He  died  on  the 
30th  August  1181.  The  fact  that  between  1181  and 
1187  there  were  three  popes  always  living  in  exile  proves 
that  the  republic  was  by  no  means  crushed.  During  the 
same  period  another  blow  was  inflicted  on  the  papacy  by 
the  marriage  of  Henry  VI.,  son  and  successor  to  Frederick 
I.,  with  Constance,  sole  heiress  of  the  Norman  line  in 
Naples.  For  thus  the  kingdom  was  joined  to  the  empire 
and  the  popes  were  more  than  ever  in  the  latter's  power. 
On  the  20th  December  1187  Clement  III.  (1187-91),  being 
raised  to  the  pontificate,  made  a  solemn  agreement  with 
the  Government  of  the  Capitol  before  coming  to  Rome. 
And  this  peace  or  concordia  had  the  air  of  a  treaty 
between  potentates  of  equal  importance.  Rome  con- 
fronted the  pope  from  the  same  standpoint  from  which 
the  Lombard  cities  had  confronted  the  emperor  after 
Legnano.  This  treaty,  the  basis  of  the  new  constitution, 
was  confirmed  on  the  last  day  of  May  1188  (Anno 
XLIV.  of  the  senate).  It  begins  with  these  words : 
— "  Concordia  inter  Dominum  Papam  Clementern  III.  et 
senatores  populumque  Romanum  super  regalibus  et  aliis 
dignitatibus  urbis. "  The  pope  was  recognized  as  supreme 
lord,  and  invested  the  senators  with  their  dignity.  He 
resumed  the  privilege  of  coinage,  but  allowed  one-third  of 
the  issue  to  be  made  by  the  senate.  Almost  all  the  old 
pontifical  rights  and  prerogatives  .were  restored  to  him. 
The  pope  might  employ  the  Roman  militia  for  the  defence 
of  his  patrimony,  but  was  to  furnish  its  pay.  The  rights 
of  the  church  over  Tivoli  and  Tusculum  were  confirmed ; 
but  the  republic  reserved  to  itself  the  right  of  making  war 
on  those  cities,  and  declared  its  resolve  to  dismantle  and 
destroy  the  walls  and  castle  of  Tusculum.  In  this  under- 
taking the  pope  was  to  co-operate  with  the  Romans,  even 
should  the  unhappy  city  make  surrender  to  him  alone. 

From  all  this  it  is  clear  that  the  church  had  been  made  T!ome. 
independent  of  the  empire,  and  that  the  republic,  despite  ""'ep* 
its  numerous  concessions,  was  by  no  means  subject  to  the  j^c  ^ 
church.      The    pope,    in   fact,    had    obtained   liberty   of  ^.^ 
election,  and  Frederick  I.,  by  resigning  the  investiture  of 
the  prefect,  had  virtually  Denounced  his  claim  to  imperial 
power  in  Rome.     The  republic  had  no  patrician  nor  any 
other  imperial  magistrate,  and  preserved  its  independence 
even  as  regarded  the  pope,  who  merely  granted  investiture 
to  magistrates  freely  chosen  by  the  people,  and  had  no 
legislative   nor   administrative  power  in  the  city.      His 
temporal  dominion  was  limited  to  his  great  possessions,  to 
his  regalia,  to  a  supreme  authority  that  was  very  indefinite, 
and  to  a  feudal  authority  over  the  barons  of  the  Campagna 
and  many  cities  of  a  state  that  seemed  ever  on  the  point 
of  dissolution.      The  senate  continued  to  frame  laws,  to 
govern,  and  to  administer  justice.     The  army  carried  on 
the  wars  of  the  republic,  as  we  see  by  the  tragic  fate  of 
Tusculum,  which  was  razed  to  the  ground  on  the  19th 


1155-1235.] 


ROME 


795 


• 

PC  ular 
ra' In- 
tin  and 
co  iter- 
ro'hi- 
t.i(  of 
tlnris- 
toacy. 


:e  of 
pt'ect 
bomes 
icdi- 

r* 

, 


Iioce'.it 

I. 

sets 

t> 

fcate. 


April  1191.  Thus  the  powerful  counts  of  Tusculum 
disappeared;  they  sought  refuge  in  the  Campagna,  and 
according  to  all  probability  the  no  less  potent  family  of 
the  Colonna  sprang  from  their  line.  In  consequence  of 
these  events,  the  nobles  realized  that  the  papacy  sought  to 
reduce  them  to  vassalage.  And,  seeing  that  the  republic 
remained  firmly  established  and  able  to  help  them,  they 
began  to  adhere  to  it  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  admission 
to  the  new  senate.  In  fact,  whereas  since  1143  plebeians 
and  petty  nobles  had  prevailed  in  its  ranks,  nobles  of 
ancient  descent  are  now  found  outnumbering  the  knights 
and  burghers.  But  in  1191  this  state  of  things  caused  a 
sudden  popular  outbreak  which  abolished  the  aristocratic 
senate  and  gave  the  headship  of  the  republic  to  a  single 
senator,  summus  senator,  named  Benedetto  "Carissimus" 
or  "Cams  Homo"  or  "Carosomo,"  of  unknown,  but 
undoubtedly  plebeian,  origin.  During  the  two  years  he 
remained  in  office  this  personage  stripped  the  pope  of  his 
revenues,  despatched  justitiarii  even  to  the  provinces,  and 
with  the  aid  of  the  parliament  and  other  popular  assemblies 
promulgated  laws  and  statutes.  But  he  was  overthrown 
by  a  counter-revolution,  and  Giovanni  Capoccio  of  the 
party  of  the  nobles  became  senator  for  two  years,  and  had 
been  succeeded  by  one  of  the  Pierleoni  when,  in  1197,  a 
fresh  revolution  re-established  a  senate  of  fifty-six  members, 
chiefly  consisting  of  feudal  barons  in  high  favour  with 
Henry  VI.,  who  had  revived  the  imperial  faction  in  Rome. 
But  this  emperor's  life  ended  the  same  year  as  the  pope's, 
in  1198,  and  the  new  pontiff  Innocent  III.  (1198-1216) 
began  to  make  war  on  the  nobles,  who  were  again 
masters  of  the  republic.  Their  leader  was  the  prefect 
Pietro  di  Vico.  Owing  to  the  revolution  of  1143  most 
of  the  prefectorial:  attributes  were  now  vested  in  the 
senate;  nevertheless  Pietro  still  retained  a  tribunal  of 
police  both  within  and  without  the  city.  But  his  main 
strength  was  derived  from  the  vast  possessions  of  the  Vico 
family,  in  which  the  office  of  prefect  now  became  hereditary. 
Very  soon,  however,  these  prefects  of  Vico  were  chiefly 
regarded  as  the  great  feudal  lords  of  Tuscia,  and  the 
independent  municipal  office  lost  its  true  character.  Then 
the  popes  made  a  point  of  according  great  pomp  and 
dignity  to  this  nominal  prefect,  in  order  to  overshadow  the 
senator,  who  still  represented  the  independence  of  the 
republic  and  had  assumed  many  of  the  attributes  wrested 
from  the  prefect. 

But  Innocent  III.,  dissatisfied  with  this  state  of  things, 
contrived  by  bribing  the  people  to  arrogate  to  himself  the 
right  of  electing  the  senator,  who  had  now  to  swear  fealty 
and  submission  to  the  pope,  and  also  that  of  nominating 
the  provincial  justitiarii,  formerly  chosen  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Capitol.  This  was  a  deadly  blow  to  the 
republic,  for  the  principal  rights  of  the  people,  i.e.,  the  elec- 
tion of  pope  and  emperor,  prefect  and  senate,  were  now 
lost.  The  general  discontent  provoked  fresh  revolutions, 
and  Innocent  III.  employed  all  his  political  dexterity  to 
ward  off  their  effects.  But  shortly  afterwards  the  people 
made  a  loud  outcry  for  a  senate  of  fifty-six  members ;  and 
the  pope,  again  making  a  virtue  of  necessity,  caused  that 
number  to  be  chosen  by  twelve  mediani  specially  named 
by  him  for  the  purpose.  Even  this  did  not  calm  the 
popular  discontent,  which  was  also  stirred  by  other  dis- 
putes. The  consequence  was  that  when,  six  months  later, 
the  pope  again  'elected  a  single  senator  the  Romans  rose 
to  arms,  and  in  1204  formed  a  Government  of  Buoni 
Uomini  in  opposition  to  that  created  by  the  pope.  But 
an  amicable  arrangement  being  concluded,  the  pope  once 
more  nominated  fifty-six  senators  ;  and  when,  soon  after,  he 
again  reduced  them  to  one,  the  people  were  too  weary  to 
resist  (1205).  Thus  the  Capitol  was  subdued,  and  Innocent 
III.  spent  his  last  years  in  tranquillity. 


On  the  22d  November  1220  Honorius  III.  (1216-27) 
conferred  the  imperial  crown  on  Frederick  II.,  who  con- 
firmed to  the  church  the  possession  of  her  former  states, 
of  those  bequeathed  to  her  by  countess  Matilda,  and  even 
of  the  March  of  Ancona.     But  it  was  soon  seen  that  he 
sought  to  dominate  all  Italy,  and  was  therefore  a  foe  to 
be  dreaded.     The  successor  of  Honorius,  Pope  Gregory  The 
IX.  (1227-41)  was  speedily  insulted  and  put  to  flight  by  republic 
the  Ghibelline  nobles,  whose  courage  had  revived,  and  the  ye&ain8 
republic  began  to  subdue  the  Latian  cities  on  its   own  ^cef " 
account.     Peace  was  several  times  made  and  unmade  by 
pope  and  people ;  but  no  enduring  harmony  was  possible 
between  them,  since  the   former   wished  to   subject   the 
entire  state  to  the  church,  and  the  latter  to  escape  from 
the  rule  of  the  church  and  hold  sway  over  "  the  universal 
land  from  Ceprano  to  Radicofani "  formerly  a  belonging  to 
the  duchy.     Accordingly  the  Roman  people  now  appointed 
judges,  imposed  taxes,  issued  coin,  and  made  the  clergy 
amenable  to  secular  tribunals.     In  1234  the  senator  Luca 
Savelli  published  an  edict  declaring  Tuscia  and  Campania 
territories  of  the  republic,  and  sent  judges  thither  to  exact 
an  oath  of  obedience.     He  also  despatched  the  militia  to 
the  coast,  where  it  occupied  several   cities  and   erected 
fortresses ;  and  columns  were  raised  everywhere  inscribed 
with  the  initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.     The  pope,  unable  to  prevent 
but  equally  unable  to  tolerate  these  acts,  fled  from  Rome, 
hurling  his  ariathema  against  Savelli,  "  et  omnes  illos  con- 
siliarios  urbis  quorum  consilio,"  &c.     The  Romans  sacked 
the   Lateran    and   the   houses   of    many   cardinals,    and 
marched  on  Viterbo,  but  were  driven  back  by  the  papal 
troops.     When  Savelli  left  office  and  Angelo  Malabranca  The 
was  elected  in  his  stead,  the  people  made  peace  and  sub-  rePut)lic 
mission  in  1235,  and  were  obliged  to  give  up  their  preten-  ®"  ^ 
sions  of  subjecting  the  clergy  to  ordinary  tribunals  and  people, 
the  urban  territory  to  the  republic.     Thus  matters  were 
virtually  settled  on  the  footing  established  by  Innocent 
III.,  thanks  to  the  aid  given  to  the  pope  by  Frederick  II., 
who  had  been  one  of  the  promoters  of  the  rebellion. 

It  may  appear  strange  that,  at  this  period  of  their 
history,  the  Romans,  after  showing  such  tenacious  adher- 
ence to  the  republic  and  senate,  should  have  accepted  the 
rule  of  a  single  senator  without  rushing  to  arms,  and 
passed  and  repassed  from  one  form  of  government  to 
another  with  such  surprising  indifference.  But  on  closer 
examination  it  is  plain  that  these  changes  were  greater  in 
appearance  than  reality.  We  have  already  seen,  in  treat- 
ing of  Carosomo,  how  the  single  senator  convoked  the 
people  in  parliament  to  pass  sanction  on  the  laws.  But,  Formatii 
whenever  there  is  only  one  senator,  we  also  continually 
meet  with  the  expression  "  consilium  vel  consilia  urbis." 
It  is  evident  that  when,  instead  of  laws  to  be  approved  in  councils, 
parliament  by  a  simple  placet  or  rejected  by  a  non-placet, 
matters  requiring  consideration  had  to  be  discussed,  the 
senator  convoked  a  much  smaller  council,  consisting  only 
of  the  leaders  of  the  people.  These  leaders  were  the 
heads  of  the  twelve  or  thirteen  regions,  of  the  guilds,  now 
becoming  organized  and  soon  to  be  also  thirteen  in 
number,  and  of  the  militia.  As  in  the  other  Italian 
republics,  all  these  associations  had  been  formed  in  Rome. 

The  senator  therefore  held  consultation  with  the  leading 
men  of  the  city ;  and,  although,  especially  at  first,  these 
meetings  were  rather  loosely  organized,  it  is  clear  that 
they  took  the  form  of  two  councils — one  numerous  (con- 
siglio  maggiore),  the  other  limited  (consiglio  minore  or 
specials),  co-operating  with  and  forming  part  of  the  first. 
Such  was  the  prevailing  custom  throughout  Italy  at  the 
time  when  Roman  institutions  most  nearly  resembled 
those  of  the  other  republics.  We  already  know  that,  from 
the  date  of  Arnold's  reforms,  the  senate,  with  its  junta  of 
counsellors,  had  been  divided  into  two  parts,  forming  when 


796 


HOME 


[HISTORY. 


united  a  species  of  greater  council.  Therefore  the 
transition  from  a  senate  divided  into  two  parts  to  the 
greater  and  lesser  councils  must  have  been  very  easy  and 
natural.  And,  seeing  that  later,  when  the  nomination  of  a 
single  senator  had  become  a  constant  practice,  the  meet- 
ings of  the  two  councils  are  frequently  mentioned  without 
the  slightest  remark  or  hint  as  to  their  origin,  it  is  clear 
that  they  had  been  gradually  formed  and  long  established. 
Not  long  after  the  revolution  of  1143  the  grandees 
sought  to  re-enter  the  senate;  and  the  popes  themselves, 
partly  from  dread  of  the  people  and  partly  to  aggrandize 
their  own  kindred,  contributed  to  build  up  the  power  of  a 
new  and  no  less  turbulent  nobility.  This  class,  arising 
between  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  was  composed  of 
families  newly  created  by  the  popes,  together  with  remnants 
of  the  old  aristocracy,  such  as  the  Frangipani,  Colonna,  &c. 
These  nobles,  regaining  possession  of  the  senate,  so  com- 
pletely eliminated  the  popular  element  that,  when  the 
popes  again  opposed  them,  and,  obtaining  from  the  parlia- 
ment the  right  of  electing  the  senators,  adopted  the 
expedient  of  appointing  one  only,  the  senator  was  always 
chosen  from  the  ranks  of  the  nobles.  And  then  the 
people,  unable  and  unwilling  to  renounce  republican  forms, 
replaced  their  suppressed  senate  by  a  greater  and  a  lesser 
council.  This  was  an  easy  task — a  natural  consequence 
of  the  fact  that  the  people  now  began  to  constitute  the 
real  strength  of  the  republic.  Later,  with  an  increasing 
detestation  for  their  nobility,  the  Romans  decreed  that  the 
single  senator  should  be  of  foreign  birth,  and,  as  we  shall 
see,  chose  Brancaleone  in  the  middle  of  the  13th  century. 

Thus,  after  a  long  series  of  frequent  changes  and  revolu- 
tions, the  Roman  republic  became  a  commonwealth,  with 
an  increasing  resemblance  to  those  of  the  other  Italian 
cities.  The  people  were  organized  and  armed,  the  guilds 
almost  established,  the  two  councils  gradually  constituted, 
and  the  aristocracy,  while  retaining  special  local  character- 
istics, assumed  its  definitive  shape.  It  is  not  surprising 
aan  to  find  that  Rome,  like  other  Italian  cities,  now  possessed 
utes.  statutes  of  its  own.  There  has  been  much  controversy  on 
this  point.  Certain  writers  had  alluded  to  a  statute  of  1 246. 
As  no  one,  however,  could  discover  any  statute  of  that  date, 
others  decided  that  it  had  never  existed.  A  statute  of  1363 
was  recently  published  by  Professor  Camillo  Re,  who  asserted 
it  to  be  the  first  and  most  ancient  that  Rome  had  possessed. 
But  the  still  more  recent  researches  of  Messrs  La  Mantia 
and  Levi  prove  that  Professor  Re's  assertions  were  some- 
what too  bold.  There  is  certain  evidence  of  a  statutum 
senatus  existing  between  1212  and  1227,  of  a  statutum 
vel  capitulare  senatoris  vel  senatus  of  1235,  followed  in 
1241  by  a  statutum  urbis.  This  brings  us  very  near  to 
the  statute  of  1 246  mentioned  by  Vitale  and  others.  So  it 
is  well  ascertained  that,  in  the  first  half  of  the  13th  century, 
Rome  possessed  statutes  at  large  composed  of  older 
limited  statutes.  The  consuls  of  the  trade  guilds  were 
from  1267  regular  members  of  the  councils ;  and  the 
merchants'  guild  held  general  meetings  in  1255.  Its 
statutes  were  confirmed  in  1296  by  the  senator  Pandolfo 
Savelli,  and  the  compilation  of  these,  published  in  1880 
by  Signer  Gatti,  refers  to  1317. 

le-  Meanwhile  the  struggle  between  Frederick  IT.  and  the 
II.  pope  was  once  more  renewed.  The  former  sought  to  domi- 
ithe  nate  Italy,  separate  the  state  from  the  church,  and  repress 
the  republics.  The  latter,  although  really  hostile  to  the 
Roman  free  Government,  joined  it  against  the  emperor, 
who  on  his  side  favoured  the  republic  of  Rome  and  the 
nobles  most  adverse  to  the  pope.  Thus  the  new  nobility, 
composed,  as  we  have  seen,  of  two  different  elements,  was 
again  split  into  a  Guelf  party  headed  by  the  Orsini  and 
a  Ghibelline  party  under  the  Colonna.  And  in  1238  it 
was  deemed  advisable  to  elect  two  senators  instead  of  one, 


in  the  hope  of  conciliating  both  factions  by  simultaneously 
raising  them  to  power.     Afterwards  one  onjy  was  elected, 
alternately  an   Orsini   and  a  Colonna,  then   again    two, 
and  so  on.     But  all  these  changes  failed  in  their  aims, 
since  the  struggle  between  emperor  and  pope  exasperated 
party  feeling  in  Rome.     The  political  genius  of  Frederick 
might  have  wrought  great  harm  to  the  city  had  not  his 
mind  teemed  with  contradictory  ideas.     Although  desirous 
to  emancipate  the  state  from  the  church,  he  was  opposed 
to  the  communal  democracy,  which  was  then   the  chief 
strength  of  the  secular  state  in  Italy.     While  combating  the 
church  and  persecuting  her  defenders,  he  yet  sent  heretics 
to  the  stake ;  although  excommunicated,  he  undertook  a 
crusade ;  he  feasted  at  his  table  philosophers,  sceptic  and 
atheist  poets,   bishops,  and  Mussulmans;   he  proclaimed 
anti-Christian  the  possession  of  wealth  by  the  church,  yet 
made  lavish  gifts  to  altar  and  monastery.     Thus,  although 
he  had  a  strong  party  in  Rome,  it  seemed  to  dissolve  at  his 
approach,  inasmuch  as  all  feared  that  he  might  abolish 
the  statutes  and  liberties  of  the  commune.     It  fact,  when 
he  advanced  towards  Rome  on  the  death  of  Gregory  IX. 
in  1241  he  was  energetically  repulsed  by  the  people,  and 
later  even  by  Viterbo,  a  city  that  had  always  been  faith- 
ful to  him.     But  after  he  had  withdrawn  his  adherents 
gained  strength  and  put  to  flight  his  opponent,  Innocent 
IV.    (1243-54),    the    newly    elected     pope,    who     then 
from  his   asylum  in  France  hurled  an   excommunication 
against  him.     Frederick's  death  in  December  1250  deter- 
mined the  fall  of  the  Ghibelline  party  and  the  close  of  the 
imperial  epoch  in  Italy.     The  pope  instantly  returned  to 
Rome  with  the  set  purpose  of  destroying  the  power  of  the 
Hohenstaufens.     This  was  no  longer  difficult  when,  by  the 
decease  of  Conrad  IV.  (1254),  the  child  Conradin  became 
the  last  legitimate  representative  of  that  line,  and  negotia- 
tions were  already  on  foot  for  placing  the  Angevins  on  the 
Neapolitan  throne. 

The   republic   meanwhile    preserved    its   independence 
against   the   pope,    who,    among   other   concessions,    had 
entirely  given   up   to   it   the   right  of   coinage.     Never- 
theless, being  much  harassed  by  the  factiousness  of  the 
nobility,  it  was  obliged  in  1252  to  decide  on  the  election 
of  an  alien  senator  armed  with  ample  powers,  precisely  as 
other  communes  gave  the  government  into  the  hands  of  a 
podesta.    Accordingly  a  Bolognese  noble,  Brancaleone  degli  Branca 
Andalo,  count  of  Casalecchio,  and  a  Ghibelline  of  much  lco°?  , 
nergy   and  talent,  was   invited   to   Rome.     But   before  j^1  ^ 
accepting  office  he  insisted  on  making  definite  terms.     He  first' 
desired  to  hold  the  government  for  three  years ;  and  this,  ibreigr 
although  contrary  to  the  statutes,  was  granted.    Further,  to  senato 
nsure  his  personal  safety,  he  demanded  that  many  scions 
of  the  noblest  Roman  houses  should  be  sent  as  hostages  to 
Bologna ;  and  to  this  also  the  republic  consented.     Then, 
in  August  1252,  he  came  with  his  judges  and  notaries, 
made  oath  to  observe  justice  and  the  laws,  and  began  to 
govern.     He  was  head  of  the  republic  in  peace  and  in  war, 
supreme  judge  and  captain  in  chief.     He  nominated  the 
jodestas  of  subject  territories,   despatched  ambassadors, 
ssued   coin,    concluded   treaties,    and  received    oaths   of 
obedience.     The   pope,    who   was   then   at  Perugia,    was 
reatly  afflicted  by  the  arrival  of  this  new  master,  but, 
despairing  of  aid  from  any  quarter,  was  forced  to  make  a 
virtue  of  necessity.     Thus  Brancaleone  was  able  to  seize 
the  reins  of  power  with  a  firm  grasp.     The  parliament 
still  met  in  the  square  of  the  Capitol,  and  the  greater 
and  lesser  councils  in  the  church  of  Ara  Coeli.    There  were 
resides  frequent  assemblies  of  the  college  of  Capitoline 
udges  or  assectamentum.    Unfortunately,  no  records  having 
3een  preserved  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Roman  councils 
and  parliament,  little  can  be  said  of  the  manner  in  which 
affairs  were  conducted.      Certainly  Brancaleone's  govern- 


1241-1277.] 


ROME 


797 


merit  was  not  very  parliamentary,  lie  convoked  the 
councils  as  seldom  as  was  possible,  although  he  frequently 
assembled  the  people  in  parliament.  The  chief  complaint 
made  against  him  was  of  undue  severity  in  the  administra- 
tion of  justice.  He  rendered  the  clergy  amenable  to  secular 
tribunals,  subdued  the  neighbouring  cities  of  Tivoli, 
Palestrina,  &c.,  and  commanded  in  person  the  attacking 
force.  But  his  greatest  energy  was  directed  to  the 
repression  of  the  more  turbulent  nobles  who  were  opposed 
to  him;  and  he  soon  made  them  feel  the  weight  of  his  hand 
by  hanging  some,  banishing  others,  and  persecuting  several 
more.  But  he  too  recognized  the  expediency  of  winning  the 
popular  favour.  He  was  the  first  senator  to  add  to  his 
title  that  of  captain  of  the  people  ("  Almae  Urbis  Senator 
111 :  et  Roman!  Populi  Capitaneus  ").  He  befriended  the 
people  by  promoting  the  organization  of  guilds  after  the 
manner  of  those  of  his  native  Bologna.  There  were  already 
a  few  in  Rome,  such  as  the  merchants'  guild  and  that  of  the 
agriculturists,  Eobacteriorum  or  Bovattari,  who  must  have 
resembled  the  so-called  mercanti  di  campagna  or  graziers  of 
the  present  day,  since  no  peasant  guild  existed  in  Italian 
republics.  The  merchants'  guild,  definitely  established  in 
1255  under  Brancaleone's  rule,  had  four  consuls  and  twelve 
councillors,  held  meetings,  and  made  laws.  The  other 
guilds,  thirteen  in  all,  were  organized  much  on  the  same 
plan.  The  admission  of  their  heads  into  the  councils  of 
the  republic  in  1267  shows  how  efficaciously  their  interests 
had  been  promoted  by  Brancaleone. 

The  death  of  Innocent  IV.  and  the  election  of  Alexander 
IV.  (1254-61),  who  was  milder  and  less  shrewd  than  his 
predecessor,  were  favourable  events  for  Brancaleone ;  but 
he  failed  to  check  the  growing  discontent  of  the  clergy 
and  the  more  powerful  nobles,  who  had  received  deadly 
injuries  at  his  hands.  And  when,  on  the  expiration  of  his 
three  years'  term  of  office,  his  re-election  was  proposed,  his 
enemies  rose  against  him,  accused  him  before  the  sindacato, 
threw  him  into  prison,  and  vehemently  protested  against 
the  continuance  of  "  foreign  tyranny."  His  life  was  only 
spared  on  account  of  the  hostages  sent  to  Bologna.  The 
next  senator  chosen  was  a  Brescian  Guelf,  Emanuele  de 
Madio,  a  tool  of  the  nobles,-  who  were  now  masters  of  the 
situation.  But  soon  afterwards,  in  1257,  the  guilds  rose 
in  revolt,  drove  the  nobles  from  power,  put  the  pope  to 
flight,  and  recalled  Brancaleone  for  another  three  years' 
term.  He  ruled  more  sternly  than  before,  hung  several 
nobles,  and  made  alliance  with  Manfred,  the  representative 
of  the  Swabian  party  in  Italy.  This  rendered  him 
increasingly  odious  to  the  pope  and  procured  his  excom- 
munication. But,  disregarding  the  thunders  of  the  church, 
he  marched  against  Anagni,  the  pope's  birthplace,  and 
Alexander  was  quickly  obliged  to  humiliate  himself  before 
the  senator  of  Rome.  Brancaleone  next  set  to  work  to 
destroy  the  fortified  towers  of  the  nobility,  and  in  razing 
them  to  the  ground  ruined  many  of  the  adjacent  dwell- 
ings. Accordingly,  a  considerable  number  of  nobles  became 
homeless  exiles.  In  1258,  while  engaged  on  the  siege  of 
Corneto,  Brancaleone  was  attacked  by  a  violent  fever,  and, 
being  carried  back  to  Rome,  died  on  the  Capitoline  Hill. 
Thus  ended  the  career  of  a  truly  remarkable  statesman. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  uncle,  Castellano  degli  Andalo, 
who,  lacking  the  political  genius  of  his  nephew,  only 
retained  office  until  the  following  spring  (1259),  in  the 
midst  of  fierce  and  perpetual  disturbances.  Then  the 
people,  being  bribed  by  the  pope,  joined  with  the  nobles 
and  drove  him  away.  His  life  too  was  saved  by  having 
followed  his  nephew's  shrewd  plan  of  sending  hostages  to 
Bologna.  Two  senators  of  Roman  birth  were  next  elected ; 
and  on  the  death  of  Alexander  IV.  a  French  pope  was 
chosen,  Urban  IV.  (1261-64),  thus  giving  fresh  predomin- 
ance in  the  church  to  the  anti-Swabian  policy.  But  the 


internal  disturbances  of  the  city  soon   drove  Urban   to 
flight. 

At   this   period   the   fall  of   the   empire  had   induced 
many  Italian  republics  to  seek  strength  by  placing  their 
governments  in  the  hands  of  some  prince  willing  to  swear 
respect  to  their  laws  and  to  undertake  their  defence  against 
neighbouring  states  and  the  pope.     In  Rome  the  Guelfs 
and  Ghibellines  proposed  various  candidates  for  this  office, 
and  after  many  fierce  quarrels  ended  by  electing  a  com- 
mittee of  boni  homines,  charged  with  the  revision  of  the 
statutes,  reorganization  of  the  city,  and  choice  of  a  senator. 
This  committee  sat  for  more  than  a  year  without  nomi- 
nating any  one,  so,  the  Guelf  party  being  now  predominant, 
and  all  being  wearied  of  this  provisional  state  of  things, 
the  majority  agreed  on  the  election  as  senator  of  Charles  Charles 
of  Anjou,  who,  at  the  pope's  summons,  was  already  pre-  of  AnJ( 
paring   for  the  conquest  of   Naples.     He    would   defend senator 
Rome  against  the  pope,  and  the  pope  would  defend  Rome 
against    him.     By   thus    taking    advantage    of    cither's 
jealousy  the  citizens  hoped  to  keep  their  republic  intact. 
In  fact,  although  Urban  IV.  had  incited  Charles  to  attack 
Naples,  he  was  by  no  means  willing  to  see  him  established 
as   master   in   Rome.     He  accordingly  declared  that,  if 
Charles  really  wished  to  obtain  the  Neapolitan  crown,  he 
must  only  accept  the  oliered  dignity  pending  the  conquest 
of   that   kingdom.     And   he   must    likewise   promise   to 
recognize   the   supremacy  of   the   pope   over  the  senate. 
Charles   soothed  him  with  the  amplest  verbal  promises, 
but   in    fact  accepted  the  senatorship  for  life.     In  1265, 
when  Urban  was  succeeded  by  Clement  IV.  (1265-68), 
who  as  a  Provencal  was  a  subject  of  Charles,  the  latter 
entered  Rome  and  was  immediately  made  senator.     Seven 
days  later  (28th  June)  he  received  the  investiture  of  the 
Neapolitan  kingdom,  and   in   the   following  January  its 
crown.      On   the   26th   February    1266    the    battle    of 
Benevento  was  fought,  and,    the  valiant  Manfred   being 
killed,  the  triumph  of  the  Guelf  Angevins  in  Italy  was 
assured.     Then,    at   the   urgent   command  of   the   pope, 
Charles  was  forced  to  resign  the  senatorship  in  the  May  of 
the  same  year.    Two  Romans  were  elected  in  his  stead,  but 
soon  fell  out  with  the  pope,  because  the  Guelf  nobles  again 
tried  to  exercise  tyranny.    The  people,  however,  profited  by 
these  disturbances  to  rise  on  its  own  account,  and  formed 
a  democratic  government  of  twenty-six  boni  homines  with 
Angelo  Capocci,  a  Ghibelline,    as  its   captain.     By  this 
government  Don  Henry,  son  of  Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile,  Don 
was  elected  senator ;  and  he  came  to  Rome  for  the  purpose  Henry 
of  promoting  a  Ghibelline  and  Swabian  policy  in  favour  G£ 
of  Conradin,  who  was  preparing  for  conflict.     The  rule  of 
the  new  senator  was  very  energetic,  for  he  kept  down  the 
clergy,    subdued   the   Campagna,    persecuted    the   Guelf 
nobles,  made  alliance  with  the  Tuscan  Ghibellines,  forcibly 
drove  back  the  troops  of  King  Charles,  who  was  advancing 
towards  Rome,  and  gave  a  splendid  reception  to  Conradin. 
But  the  battle  of  Tagliacozzo  (23rd  August  1268),  followed 
by  the  murder  of  Conradin,  proved  fatal  to  the  Ghibelline 
party.     Charles  was  re-elected  senator  immediately  after 
the  battle,  and  the  pope  confirmed  his  powers  for  a  term 
of   ten   years,  after  having  already  named  him  imperial 
vicar  in  Tuscany.     On  the  16th  September  Charles  for 
the  second  time  took  possession  of  the  Capitol,  and  ruled 
Rome  firmly  by  means  of  vice-governors  or  vicars. 

The  Swabian  line  was  now  extinct,  and  in  Charles's 
hands  the  Neapolitan  kingdom  had  become  a  fief  of  the 
church.  The  empire  had  fallen  so  low  as  to  be  no  longer 
formidable.  Now  therefore  was  the  moment  for  treating 
with  it  in  order  to  restrain  Charles,  and  also  for  making 
use  of  the  French  king  to  keep  the  empire  in  check.  And 
this  was  the  policy  of  Nicholas  III.  (1277-80),  who 
hastened  to  extract  advantageous  promises  from  Rudolph 


798 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


of  Hapsburg,  the  new  candidate  for  the  imperial  crown. 

In  1278,  the  ten  years'  term  having  expired,  he  deprived 

Charles  of  the  senatorship  and  appointed  Rudolph  vicar 

of  Tuscany.     After  declaring  that  he  left  to  the  people 

the  right  of  electing  the  senator,  he  promulgated  a  new 

constitution  (18th  July  1278)  which,  while  confirming  the 

rights  of  the  church  over  the  city,  prohibited  the  election 

of  any  foreign  emperor,  prince,  marquis,  count,  or  baron 

as  senator  of  Rome.     Thus  the  Colonna,  Savelli,  Orsini, 

Anuibaldi,  and  other  Roman  nobles  again  rose  to  power, 

and  the  republic  was  again  endangered  and  plunged  in 

»          disorder.     The   Romans  then  gave  the  reconstitution  of 

ate       the  city  into  the   pope's  hands  by  yielding  to  him  the 

right  of  nominating  senators,  declaring,  however,  that  this 

the       was  a  personal  concession  to  himself,  and  not  to  the  popes 

>es.       in   general.     So   Nicholas   proceeded   to   name  senators, 

alternating  a  Colonna  with  an  Orsini,  or  simultaneously 

choosing   one   of   each   faction.     The   same   power   over 

the  senate  was  granted  with  the  same  restriction  to  Martin 

IV.  (1281-85),  and  he  at  once  re-elected  Charles  of  Anjou. 

Thus,  greatly  to  the  disgust  of  the  Romans,  the  Capitol  was 

again   invaded   by   French   vicars,    notaries,  judges,  and 

soldiery.     But  the  terrible  blow  dealt  at  Charles's  power 

by  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (31st  March  1282)  resounded  even 

in  Rome.     The  Orsini,  backed  by  the  people,  rose  to  arms, 

massacred  the  French  garrison,  and  quickly  re-established 

a  popular  Government.     Giovanni  Cencio,  a  kinsman  of 

the  Orsini,  was  elected  captain  and  defender  of  the  people, 

and  ruled  the  city  with  the  co-operation  of  the  senator 

and  a  council  of  priors  of  the  guilds.     This  Government 

was  of  brief  duration,  for,  although  the  pope  had  professed 

his   willingness   to  tolerate    the    experiment,   he    quickly 

arranged  fresh   terms,  and,  forsaking  Charles  of   Anjou, 

again   nominated  two  Roman  senators.     Pope  and   king 

both   died   in  1285,    and   Nicholas  IV.  (1288-92),  also 

holding  sway  over  the  senate,  favoured  the  Colonna  in 

order  to  curb  the  growing  mastery  of  the  Orsini.     But 

thus  there  were  two  powerful  houses  instead  of  one.     In 

fact  Giovanni  Colonna,  when  elected  senator,  ruled  from 

the  Capitol   as   an  independent  sovereign,  conducted  in 

person  the  campaign  against  Viterbo,  and  subjected  that 

city  to  the  republic  on  the  3d  May  1291. 

iface  When  one  of  the  Gaetani,  Boniface  VIII.  (1294-1303), 
I-  was  raised  to  the  papal  chair,  the  extent  of  the  Colonnas' 
power  became  evident  to  all.  Boniface  opposed  them  in 
order  to  aggrandize  his  own  kin,  and  they  showed  equal 
virulence  in  return.  The  Cardinals  Colonna  refused  to 
acknowledge  him  as  the  legitimate  pope,  and  he  excom- 
municated them  and  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  their 
house.  Even  after  he  had  subdued  them  and  destroyed 
Palestrina,  their  principal  fief,  the  drama  did  not  yet  come 
to  an  end.  Boniface  had  a  very  lofty  conception  of  the 
church,  and  desired  to  establish  her  supremacy  over  the 
state.  The  king  of  France  (Philip  the  Fair)  believed,  on 
the  contrary,  that  the  Angevin  successes  entitled  him  to 
fill  the  place  in  Italy  vacated  by  the  Swabians,  and  to  play 
the  master  there.  This  led  to  a  tremendous  contest  in 
•which  all  the  French  sided  with  their  king.  And  shortly 
afterwards  a  plot  was  hatched  against  the  pope  by  the 
agents  of  France  and  the  Colonna.  These  determined 
enemies  of  the  pope  met  with  much  favour  in  Rome,  on 
account  of  the  general  irritation  against  the  Gaetani  and 
the  enormous  power  conferred  on  them  by  Boniface. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  they  were  now  lords  of  the  whole  of 
lower  Latium,  from  Capo  Circeo  to  Ninfa,  from  Ceprano  to 
Subiaco.  Thus  Sciarra  Colonna  and  a  Frenchman  named 
Nogaret  were  able  to  fall  on  the  pope  at  Anagni,  insult  him, 
and  take  him  prisoner.  The  people  rising  to  his  rescue, 
the  conspirators  were  put  to  flight.  But  when  Boniface 
returned  to  Rome  with  the  escort  and  protection  of  the 


Orsini,  who  had  made  themselves  masters  of  the  city,  he 
found  that  he  was  virtually  a  captive  in  their  hands.  He 
fult  this  so  keenly  that  he  died  of  rage  and  exhaustion 
on  the  llth  October  1303.  The  brief  pontificate  of  his 
successor  Benedict  XI.  was  followed  by  that  of  Clement 
V.  (1305-14),  a  Frenchman,  who,  instead  of  coming  to 
Rome,  summoned  the  cardinals  to  France.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  church's  so-called  exile  in  Avignon,  which, 
although  depriving  Rome  of  a  source  of  wealth  and 
influence,  left  the  republic  to  pursue  its  own  course.  It 
employed  this  freedom  in  trying  to  hold  its  own  against 
the  nobles,  whose  power  was  much  lessened  by  the  absence 
of  the  pope,  and  endeavoured  to  gain  fresh  strength  by 
organizing  the  thirteen  regions,  which,  as  we  have  shown,  cra 
were  associations  of  a  much  firmer  nature  in  Rome  than  the  fonU| 
guilds.  Accordingly,  in  1305,  a  captain  of  the  people  was 
elected  with  thirteen  elders  and  a  senator,  Paganino  della 
Torre,  who  governed  for  one  year.  The  pope  was  opposed 
to  these  changes  at  first,  but  in  1310  he  issued  a  brief 
granting  Rome  full  permission  to  select  its  own  form  of 
government.  Thus,  the  first  pope  in  Avignon  restored  the 
rights  of  the  Romans.  But  the  latter,  even  with  church 
and  empire  so  far  removed,  still  considered  Rome  the 
Eternal  City,  the  source  of  all  law,  and  the  only  natural 
seat  of  the  spiritual  and  temporal  government  of  the 
world.  To  their  republic,  they  thought,  appertained  a  new 
and  lofty  destiny,  nor  could  it  ever  be  content  to  descend 
to  the  level  of  other  Italian  municipalities. 

On  the  6th  January  1309  Henry  VII.  was  crowned  king  Hem 
of  the  Romans  at  Aix-la-Chapelle ;  and  so  greatly  were  ^IL 
men's  minds  changed  in  Italy  that,  throughout  the  land, 
he  was  hailed  as  a  deliverer.  He  wished  to  restore  the 
grandeur  of  the  empire,  and  the  Italians,  above  all  Dante 
Alighieri,  beheld  in  him  the  champion  of  the  state  against 
the  church,  who,  after  becoming  the  foe  of  communal 
liberty,  had  forsaken  Italy  and  withdrawn  to  France. 
The  Roman  people  shared  these  ideas,  and  awaited  Henry 
with  equal  impatience,  but  the  nobles  rose  in  opposition. 
The  Orsini,  leaders  of  the  Guelfs,  and  allied  with  Robert 
of  Naples,  took  possession  of  Castle  St  Angelo  and  the 
Trastevere.  Hence,  when  Henry  reached  Rome  in  May 
1312,  after  seizing  the  iron  crown  at  Milan,  he  was  obliged 
to  act  on  the  offensive.  He  took  the  Capitol  by  assault, 
but,  failing  in  his  attack  on  Castle  St  Angelo,  was  pur- 
sued by  its  Neapolitan  garrison.  Forsaken  by  many 
discouraged  adherents,  he  was  forced  to  recognize  the 
expediency  of  departure.  First,  however,  he  desired  to  be 
crowned  at  the  Lateran,  St  Peter's  being  held  by  his  foes. 
The  cardinals  refused  his  request,  but  were  compelled  to 
yield  by  the  threats  of  the  people,  who,  reasserting  their 
ancient  rights,  insisted  that  the  coronation  should  take 
place  without  delay.  And  the  ceremony  was  performed 
on  the  29th  June  1312.  The  emperor  then  resolved  to 
depart  in  spite  of  the  popular  protest  against  his  leaving 
the  natural  seat  of  the  empire,  and  on  the  20th  August 
started  for  Tuscany,  where  worse  fortune  awaited  him. 

Their  differences  settled,  the  nobles  expelled  the  cap- Jaco ^ 
tain  of  the  people  left  by  Henry,  and  elected  as  senators  Arl° 
Sciarra  Colonna  and  Francesco  Orsini.     But  this  was  the  ™V£ 
signal  for  a  popular  revolt.    The  Capitol  was  attacked,  the  1)eop 
senators  put  to  flight,  and  Jacopo  Arlotti  elected  captain 
with  a  council  of  twenty-six  worthies  (buoni  homini).     The 
new  leader  instantly  summoned  the  chief  nobles  before  his 
tribunal,   had   them  chained   and   cast  into   prison,  and 
demolished  many  of  their  houses  and  strongholds.     But, 
having  thus  humiliated  their  pride,  Arlotti  dared  not  put 
them   to  death,    and,   releasing  them  from  confinement, 
banished  them  to  their  estates,  where  they  plunged  into 
hostile   preparations.      Meanwhile   the   victorious   people 
convoked  a  parliament  and  decreed  that,  the  aristocracy 


1278-1339.] 


ROME 


799 


is  the 
sarian. 


being  now  overthrown,  the  tribunitia  potestas  alone  should 
invite  the  emperor  to  make  his  triumphal  entry  into  the 
Capitol,  and  receive  his  authority  from  the  people  of  Home. 
This  conception  of  the  Roman  power  will  now  be  seen  to 
become  more  and  more  definite  until  finding  its  last 
expression  in  Cola  di  Rienzo.  Pope  Clement,  resigning 
himself  to  necessity,  acknowledged  the  new  government 
under  the  energetic  rule  of  Aiiotti.  The  latter  now  joined 
the  Ghibellines  of  the  Campagna  against  the  Orsini  and 
the  Neapolitans,  subdued  Velletri,  and  gave  it  a  podesta. 
But  then  the  Gaetani,  who  were  Guelfs,  united  with  the 
Orsini  and  the  Neapolitans,  and,  giving  battle  to  the 
Ghibellines  in  the  Campagna,  routed  them  in  such  wise  as 
to  put  an  end  to  the  popular  government.  The  nobles 
forced  their  way  into  the  city,  attacked  the  Capitol,  made 
Arlotti  their  prisoner,  and  re-elected  the  senators  Sciarra 
Colonna  and  Francesco  Orsini.  Close  upon  these  reverses 
came  the  death  of  Henry  VII.  (24th  August  1313)  at 
Buonconvento  near  Siena,  which  put  an  end  to  the  Ghibel- 
line  party  in  Italy.  Thereupon  King  Robert  of  Naples, 
being  named  senator  by  the  pope,  immediately  appointed 
a  vicar  in  Rome.  Clement  likewise  profited  by  the  vacancy 
of  the  imperial  throne  to  name  the  king  imperial  vicar 
in  Tuscany.  And  he  died  on  the  20th  April  1314,  well 
content  to  have  witnessed  the  triumphs  of  the  Guelfs  in 
Italy. 

Affairs  took  a  fresh  turn  under  Pope  John  XXII. 
(1316-34).  Rome  was  still  ruled  by  the  vicars  of  King 
Robert ;  but,  owing  to  the  continued  absence  of  the  popes, 
matters  grew  daily  worse.  Trade  and  industry  declined, 
revenue  diminished,  the  impoverished  nobles  were  exceed- 
ingly turbulent,  deeds  of  murder  and  violence  occurred  on 
all  sides ;  even  by  day  the  streets  of  the  city  were  unsafe. 
Hence  there  was  universal  discontent.  Meanwhile  Louis 
the  Bavarian,  who  in  1314  had  been  crowned  king  of  the 
Romans,  having  overcome  his  German  enemies  at  Miihl- 
dorf  in  1322,  turned  against  the  pope,  one  of  his  fiercest 
opponents.  Louis  was  surrounded  by  Minorite  friars, 
supporters  of  the  poverty  of  the  church,  and  consequently 
enemies  to  the  temporal  power.  They  Avere  men  of  the 
stamp  of  William  of  Occam,  Marsilio  of  Padua,  Giovanni 
Janduno,  and  other  philosophers  favourable  to  the  rights 
of  the  empire  and  the  people.  Accordingly  the  Italian 
Ghibellines  hailed  Louis  as  they  had  previously  hailed 
Henry.  Even  the  Roman  people  were  roused  to  action, 
and,  driving  out  the  representatives  and  partisans  of 
King  Robert,  in  the  spring  of  1327,  seized  on  Castle  St 
Angelo,  and  again  established  a  democratic  government. 
"Nearly  all  Italy  was  stirred  to  new  deeds,"  says  G.  Villani, 
"and  the  Romans  rose  to  arms  and  organized  the  people" 
(bk.  x.  c.  20).  Regardless  of  the  reproofs  of  the  pope, 
they  elected  a  haughty  Ghibelline,  Sciarra  Colonna,  captain 
of  the  people  and  general  of  the  militia,  with  a  council  of 
fifty -two  popolani,  four  to  each  region.  Then,  ranged 
under  the  standards  of  the  militia,  the  Romans  gave  chase 
to  the  foes  of  the  republic,  and  Sciarra,  returning  victorious, 
ascended  to  the  Capitol  and  invited  Louis  the  Bavarian 
to  Rome.  The  summons  was  obeyed ;  on  the  7th  January 
1328  the  king  was  already  encamped  in  the  Neronian 
Fields  with  five  thousand  horse  and  a  considerable  number 
of  foot  soldiers,  and,  with  better  fortune  than  Henry  VII., 
was  able  to  enter  the  Vatican  at  once. 

Encircled  by  a  crowd  of  heretics,  reformers,  and 
Minorite  brethren,  he  convoked  a  parliament  on  the 
Capitol,  asking  that  the  imperial  crown  might  be  conferred 
upon  him  by  the  people,  from  whom  alone  he  wished  to 
receive  it.  And  the  people  proclaimed  him  their  captain, 
senator,  and  emperor.  On  the  17th  January  his  corona- 
tion took  place  in  St  Peter's.  But,  as  he  had  neither  money 
nor  practical  sense,  his  method  of  taxation  and  the  excesses 


committed  by  himself  and  his  over-excited  philosophers 
speedily  aroused  the  popular  discontent.  His  ecclesiastical 
vicar,  Marsilio  of  Padua,  and  Giovanni  Janduno  placarded 
the  walls  with  insulting  manifestoes  against  the  pope, 
whom  the  Minorites  stigmatized  as  a  heretic  and  wished 
to  depose.  In  April  Louis  twice  assembled  the  parliament 
in  St  Peter's  Square,  and,  after  obtaining  its  sanction  to 
several  anti-papal  edicts,  declared  John  XXII.  degraded 
and  deposed  as  a  heretic.  This  was  a  very  strange  and 
novel  spectacle,  the  more  so  that,  as  was  speedily  proved, 
the  Romans  were  stirred  by  no  anti-Catholic  spirit,  no 
yearning  for  religious  reform.  Jacopo  Colonna,  a  canon 
of  the  Lateran,  was  able  to  make  his  way  into  Rome  with 
four  masked  companions,  to  publicly  read,  at  the  top 
of  his  voice  and  before  a  great  multitude,  the  excom- 
munication launched  against  the  emperor  by  the  deposed 
pope,  to  traverse  the  entire  city,  and  to  withdraw  un- 
molested to  Palestrina.  Meanwhile  the  emperor  contented 
himself  with  decreeing  that  henceforth  the  popes  must 
reside  in  Rome, — that  if,  when  invited,  they  should  fail  to 
come  they  would  be  thereby  held  deposed  from  the  throne. 
As  a  logical  consequence,  proceedings  were  immediately 
begun  for  the  election  of  the  new  pope,  Nicholas  V.,  who 
on  the  12th  May  was  proclaimed  by  the  popular  voice  in 
St  Peter's  Square,  and  received  the  imperial  sanction. 
But  this  ephemeral  drama  came  to  an  end  when  the 
emperor  departed  with  his  antipope  on  the  4th  August. 
This  caused  the  immediate  downfall  of  the  democratic 
Government.  Bertoldo  Orsini,  who  had  returned  to  Rome 
with  his  Guelfs,  and  Stefano  Colonna  were  elected  senators, 
and  confirmed  in  the  office  by  Cardinal  Giovanni  Orsini  in 
the  name  of  the  pope.  A  new  parliament  cancelled  the 
emperor's  edicts,  and  had  them  burnt  by  the  public  execu- 
tioner. Later,  Nicholas,  the  antipope,  went  with  a  rope 
about  his  neck  to  make  submission  to  John  XXII.,  and 
Louis  promised  to  disavow  and  retract  all  that  he  had 
done  against  the  church,  provided  the  sentence  of  excom- 
munication were  withdrawn.  This,  however,  was  re- 
fused. Never  had  the  empire  fallen  so  low.  Meanwhile 
King  Robert  was  again  supreme  in  Rome,  and,  being  re- 
elected  senator,  appointed  vicars  there  as  before.  Anarchy 
reigned.  The  city  was  torn  by  factions,  and  the  provinces 
rebelled  against  the  French  representatives  of  the  pope, 
who,  in  their  ignorance  of  Italian  affairs,  were  at  a  loss 
how  to  act. 

And  after  the  election  of  Benedict  XII.  (1334-42)  con- 
fusion reached  so  great  a  pitch  that,  on  the  expiration  of 
Robert's  senatorial  term,  the  Romans  named  thirteen  heads 
of  regions  to  carry  on  the  government  with  two  senators, 
while  the  king  still  sent  vicars  as  before.  The  people,  for 
the  sake  of  peace,  once  more  granted  the  supremacy  of  the 
senate  to  the  pope,  and  he  nominated  two  knights  of 
Gubbio,  Giacomo  di  Cante  dei  Gabrielli  and  Bosone 
Novello  dei  Gabrielli,  who  were  succeeded  by  two  other 
senators  the  following  year.  But  in  1339  the  Romans  Reconst 
attacked  the  Capitol,  named  two  senators  of  their  own  tution 
choice,  re-established  a  democratic  Government,  and  sentofthe.. 
ambassadors  to  Florence  to  ask  for  the  ordinances  of re 
justice  (ordinamenti  delta  giustizid),  by  which  that  city 
had  broken  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  also  that  a  few 
skilled  citizens  should  lend  their  help  in  the  reconsti- 
tution  of  Rome.  Accordingly  some  Florentines  came  with 
the  ordinamenti,  some  portions  of  which  may  be  recog- 
nized in  the  Roman  statutes,  and,  after  first  rearranging 
the  taxes,  elected  thirteen  priors  of  the  guilds,  a  gonfa- 
lonier of  justice,  and  a  captain  of  the  people  after  the 
Florentine  manner.  But  there  was  a  dissimilarity  in  the 
conditions  of  the  two  cities.  The  guilds  having  little 
influence  in  Rome,  the  projected  reform  failed,  and  the 
pope,  who  was  opposed  to  it,  re-elected  the  senators. 


800 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


Thereupon  public  discontent  swelled,  and  especially  when, 
by  the  foundation  of  the  papal  palace  of  Avignon,  it  was 
evident  that  Benedict  XII.  had  no  intention  of  restoring 
the  Holy  See  to  Italy.  This  pope  was  succeeded  in  1342 
by  Clement  VI.  (1342-52),  and  King  Robert  in  1343  by 
his  niece  Joanna ;  and  the  latter  event,  while  plunging  the 
kingdom  in  anarchy,  likewise  aggravated  the  condition  of 
Rome.  For  not  only  were  the  Neapolitan  sovereigns  still 
very  powerful  there,  but  the  principal  Roman  nobles  held 
large  fiefs  across  the  Neapolitan  borders. 

Is  di  Shortly  before  this  another  revolution  in  Rome  had 
enzo.  re-established  the  government  of  the  Thirteen  and  the 
two  senators.  The  people,  being  anxious  to  show  their 
intention  of  respecting  the  papal  authority,  had  despatched 
to  Avignon  as  ambassador  of  the  republic,  in  1343,  a  man 
destined  to  make  much  noise  in  the  world.  This  was 
Cola  di  Rienzo,  son  of  a  Roman  innkeeper,  a  notary,  and 
an  impassioned  student  of  the  Bible,  the  fathers,  Livy, 
Seneca,  Cicero,  and  Valerius  Maximus.  Thoroughly 
imbued  with  a  half  pagan  half  Christian  spirit,  he  believed 
that  he  had  a  divinely  inspired  mission  to  revive  the 
ancient  glories  of  Rome.  Of  handsome  presence,  full 
of  fantastic  eloquence,  and  stirred  to  enthusiasm  by 
contemplation  of  the  ruined  monuments  of  Rome,  he 
harangued  the  people  with  a  stilted  oratory  that  enchanted 
their  ears.  He  hated  the  nobles,  because  one  of  his 
brothers  had  been  killed  by  them ;  he  loved  the  republic, 
and  in  its  name  addressed  a  stately  Latin  speech  to  the 
astonished  pope,  and,  offering  him  the  supreme  power, 
besought  his  instant  return  to  Rome.  He  also  begged  him 
to  allow  the  city  to  celebrate  a  jubilee  every  fifty  years, 
and  then,  as  a  personal  request,  asked  to  be  nominated 
notary  to  the  urban  chamber.  The  pope  consented  to 
everything,  and  Rienzi  communicated  this  good  news  to 
Rome  in  an  emphatically  worded  epistle.  After  Easter,  in 
1344,  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  found  to  his  grief  that 
the  city  was  a  prey  to  the  nobles.  He  immediately  began 
to  admonish  the  latter,  and  then,  draped  in  a  toga  adorned 
with  symbols,  exhibited  and  explained  allegorical  designs 
to  the  people,  and  announced  the  speedy  restoration  of 
the  past  grandeur  of  Rome.  Finally  he  and  a  few 
burghers  and  merchants,  whom  he  had  secretly  inflamed 
by  his  discourses,  made  a  solemn  vow  to  overthrow  the 
nobility  and  consolidate  the  republic.  The  moment  was 
favourable,  owing  to  the  anarchy  of  Naples,  the  absence 
of  the  pope,  the  weakness  of  the  empire,  and  the  disputes 
of  the  barons,  although  the  latter  were  still  very  potent  and 
constituted,  as  it  were,  a  separate  government  opposed  to 
that  of  the  people.  Rienzi,  having  gained  the  pope's  eccle- 
siastical vicar  to  his  side,  passed  in  prayer  the  night  of 
the  19th  May  1347,  placing  his  enterprise  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  following  day  marched 
to  the  Capitol,  surrounded  by  his  adherents,  convoked  a 
parliament  of  the  people,  and  obtained  its  sanction  for  the 
following  proposals : — that  all  pending  lawsuits  should 
be  at  once  decided;  that  justice  should  be  equally 
administered  to  all ;  that  every  region  should  equip  one 
hundred  foot  soldiers  and  twenty-five  horse  ;  that  the  dues 
and  taxes  should  be  rearranged ;  that  the  forts,  bridges, 
and  gates  of  the  city  should  be  held  by  the  rector  of  the 
people  instead  of  by  the  nobility ;  and  that  granaries 
should  be  opened  for  the  public  use.  On  the  same  day, 
amid  general  homage  and  applause,  Rienzi  was  proclaimed 
head  of  the  republic,  with  the  title  of  tribune  and  liberator 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Republic,  "  by  authority  of  the  most 
merciful  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  The  nobles  withdrew 
scoffing  but  alarmed.  Rienzi  engaged  a  body-guard  of 
one  hundred  men,  and  assumed  the  command  of  thirteen 
hundred  infantry  and  three  hundred  and  ninety  light 
horse;  he  abolished  the  senators,  retained  the  Thirteen 


and  the  general  and  special  councils,  and  set  the  adminis- 
tration on  a  new  footing.  These  measures  and  the  prompt 
submission  of  the  other  cities  of  the  state  brought  an 
instant  increase  of  revenue  to  Rome. 

This  revolution,  as  will  be  noted,  was  of  an  entirely 
novel  stamp.  For  its  leader  despatched  envoys  to  all 
the  cities  of  Italy,  exhorting  them  to  shake  off  the 
yoke  of  their  tyrants,  and  send  representatives  to  the 
parliament  convoked  for  the  1st  August,  inasmuch  as  the 
liberation  of  Rome  also  implied  the  "  liberation  of  the 
sacred  land  of  Italy."  In  Rienzi's  judgment  the  Roman 
revolution  must  be,  not  municipal,  but  national,  and  even 
in  some  points  universal.  And  this  idea  was  welcomed 
with  general  enthusiasm  throughout  the  peninsula. 
Solemn  festivals  and  processions  were  held  in  Rome ;  and, 
when  the  tribune  went  in  state  to  St  Peter's,  the  canons 
met  him  on  the  steps  chanting  the  Veni,  Creator  Spiritus. 
Even  the  pope,  willingly  or  unwillingly,  accorded  his 
approval  to  Rienzi's  deeds.  The  provincial  cities  did 
homage  to  Rome  and  her  tribune,  and  almost  all  the  rest 
of  Italy  gave  him  its  enthusiastic  adherence.  The  ancient 
sovereign  people  seemed  on  the  point  of  resuscitation.  And 
others  besides  the  multitude  were  fascinated  and  carried 
off  their  feet.  Great  men  like  Petrarch  were  transported 
with  joy.  The  poet  lauded  Cola  di  Rienzo  as  a  sublime 
and  supernatural  being,  the  greatest  of  ancient  and  modern 
men.  But  it  was  soon  evident  that  all  this  enthusiasm 
was  mainly  factitious.  On  the  26th  of  July  a  new  parlia- 
ment was  called,  and  this  decreed  that  all  the  rights  and 
privileges  granted  to  the  empire  and  church  must  now  be 
vested  in  the  Roman  people,  from  whom  they  had  first 
emanated.  But  on  the  convocation  of  the  national  parlia- 
ment few  representatives  obeyed  the  summons  and  the 
scheme  was  a  failure.  All  had  gone  well  so  long  as 
principles  only  were  proclaimed,  but  when  words  had  to 
be  followed  by  deeds  the  municipal  feeling  awoke  and 
distrust  began  to  prevail.  Nevertheless,  on  the  1st 
August  Rienzi  assumed  the  spurs  of  knighthood  and  passed 
a  decree  declaring  that  Rome  would  now  resume  her  old 
jurisdiction  over  the  world,  invoking  the  Holy  Spirit  upon 
Italy,  granting  the  Roman  citizenship  to  all  her  cities,  and 
proclaiming  them  free  in  virtue  of  the  freedom  of  Rome. 
This  was  a  strange  jumble  of  the  ancient  Roman  idea 
combined  with  the  mediaeval.  It  was  a  dream  of  Rienzi's 
brain,  but  it  was  also  the  dream  of  Dante  and  Petrarch. 
The  conception  of  the  empire  and  the  history  of  Italy, 
particularly  that  of  ancient  and  mediaeval  Rome,  were 
inevitably  preparing  the  way  for  the  national  idea.  This 
Rienzi  foresaw,  and  this  constitutes  the  true  grandeur  of 
his  character,  which  in  other  respects  was  not  exempt 
from  pettiness  and  infirmity.  He  pursued  his  course, 
therefore,  undismayed,  and  had  indeed  gone  too  far  to 
draw  back.  On  the  15th  August  he  caused  himself  to  be 
crowned  tribune  with  great  pomp,  and  confirmed  the 
rights  of  Roman  citizenship  to  all  natives  of  Italy.  But 
practical  matters  had  also  to  be  taken  into  account,  and  it 
was  here  that  his  weakness  and  lack  of  judgment  were 
shown.  The  nobles  remained  steadily  hostile,  and  refused 
to  yield  to  the  -charm  of  his  words.  Hence  conflict  was 
unavoidable ;  and  at  first  Rienzi  succeeded  in  vanquishing 
the  Gaetani  by  means  of  Giovanni  Colonna.  He  next 
endeavoured  to  suppress  the  Guelf  and  Ghibelline  factions, 
and  to  restore  Italy  to  "  holy  union  "  by  raising  her  from 
her  present  abasement. 

The  pope,  however,  was  weary  of  toleration,  and,  coming 
to  terms  with  the  nobles,  incited  them  to  war.  They 
accordingly  moved  from  Palestrina,  and  on  the  30th 
November  were  encamped  before  Rome.  Rienzi  now 
put  forth  his  energy.  He  had  already  called  the  militia 
to  arms,  and  a  genuine  battle  took  place  in  which  eighty 


1342-1356.] 


ROME 


801 


nobles,  chiefly  of  the  Colonna  clan,  were  left  dead.  This 
was  a  real  catastrophe  to  them,  and  the  aristocracy  never 
again  achieved  the  rule  of  the  republic.  But  Rienzi's  head 
was  turned  by  this  sudden  success.  In  great  need  of 
money,  he  began  to  play  the  tyrant  by  levying  taxes  and 
exacting  instant  obedience.  The  papal  legate  saw  his 
opportunity  and  seized  it,  by  threatening  to  bring  a  charge 
of  heresy  against  the  tribune.  Rlenzi  was  dismayed.  He 
declared  himself  friendly  to  the  pope  and  willing  to  respect 
his  authority;  and  he  even  sought  to  conciliate  the  nobles. 
At  this  moment  certain  Neapolitan  and  Hungarian  captains, 
after  levying  soldiers  with  the  tribune's  consent,  joined  the 
nobles  and  broke  out  in  revolt.  On  their  proving  victorious 
in  a  preliminary  encounter  with  some  of  Rienzi's  guards, 
the  tribune  suddenly  lost  heart,  resigned  the  power  he  had 
held  for  seven  months,  and  took  refuge  with  a  few  trusty 
adherents  in  Castle  St  Angelo,  on  the  15th  December 
1347.  Thence  he  presently  fled  to  Naples,  vainly  hoping 
to  find  aid,  and  afterwards  disappeared  for  some  time 
from  the  scene. 

Meanwhile  the  Romans  remained  tranquil,  intent  on 
making  money  by  the  jubilee ;  but  no  sooner  was  this  over 
than  disorders  broke  out  and  the  tyranny  of  the  baronage 
recommenced.  To  remedy  this  state  of  things,  application 
was  made  to  the  pope.  He  consulted  with  a  committee 
of  cardinals,  who  sought  the  advice  of  Petrarch,  and  the 
poet  suggested  a  popular  government,  to  the  complete 
exclusion  of  the  nobles,  since  these,  he  said,  were  strangers 
who  ruined  the  city.  The  people  had  already  elected  the 
Thirteen,  and  now,  encouraged  by  these  counsels,  on  the 
26th  December  1351  chose  Giovanni  Perrone  as  head  of 
the  republic.  But  the  new  leader  was  unable  to  withstand 
the  hostilities  of  the  nobles;  and  in  September  1353 
Francesco  Baroncelli  was  elected  tribune.  He  was  a 
follower  of  Rienzi,  had  been  his  ambassador  to  Florence, 
and  did  little  beyond  imitating  his  mode  of  government 
and  smoothing  the  way  for  his  return. 

Rienzi  had  spent  two  years  in  the  Abruzzi,  leading  a 
life  of  mystic  contemplation  on  Monte  Maiella.  Then,  in 
1350,  he  had  gone  to  Prague  and  endeavoured  to  convert 
to  his  ideas  the  yet  uncrowned  emperor  Charles  IV.  When 
apparently  on  the  point  of  success,  he  was  sent  under 
arrest  to  the  new  pope,  Innocent  VI.  (1352-62),  a  man 
of  great  shrewdness  and  practical  sense.  On  Rienzi's 
arrival  at  Avignon  it  became  evident  that  his  popularity 
was  still  very  great,  and  that  it  would  be  no  easy  task  to 
dispose  of  him.  The  Romans  were  imploring  his  return  ; 
Petrarch  lauded  him  as  a  modern  Gracchus  or  Scipio ;  and 
the  pope  finally  released  him  from  confinement.  Innocent 
had  decided  to  send  to  Italy,  in  order  to  settle  affairs  and 
bring  the  state  into  subjection  to  the  church,  that  valiant 
captain  and  skilled  politician,  Cardinal  Albornoz.  And, 
having  no  fear  that  the  latter's  hand  would  be  forced,  he 
further  decided  that  Rienzi  should  be  sent  to  give  him  the 
support  of  his  own  popularity  in  Rome.  In  fact  directly 
the  pair  arrived  Baroncelli  was  overthrown,  the  supremacy  of 
the  senate  granted  to  the  pope,  and  the  government  confided 
to  Albornoz,  who,  without  concerning  himself  with  Rienzi, 
nominated  Guido  Patrizi  as  senator.  He  then  marched  at 
the  head  of  his  troops  against  Giovanni,  prefect  of  Vico, 
and  forced  him  to  render  submission  at  Montefiascone  on 
the  5th  June  1354.  With  the  same  promptitude  and 
skill  he  reduced  Urnbria  and  the  Tuscan  and  Sabine 
districts,  consented  to  leave  the  privileges  of  the  cities 
intact  in  return  for  their  recognition  of  the  papal  author- 
ity, and  planted  fortresses  in  suitable  positions.  In  the 
meantime  Rienzi's  popularity  was  increasing  in  Rome; 
without  either  money  or  arms,  the  ex- tribune  succeeded 
by  his  eloquence  in  winning  over  the  two  Provencal 
leaders,  brothers  of  the  famous  free  captain  Fra  Monreale ; 


and,  seduced  by  his  promises  and  hopes,  they  supplied 
him  with  funds.  Then,  profiting  by  his  prestige,  the 
apparent  favour  of  the  pope,  and  the  sums  received, 
he  was  able  to  collect  a  band  of  five  hundred  soldiers  of 
mixed  nationalities  and  returned  towards  Rome.  On 
Monte  Mario  he  was  met  by  the  cavallerotti.  On 
the  1st  August  1354  he  entered  the  Castello  gate,  took 
possession  of  the  government,  named  Monreale's  two 
brothers  his  captains,  and  sent  them  to  lay  siege  to 
Palestrina,  which  was  still  the  headquarters  of  the  Colonna. 
But  then  money  ran  short,  and  he  again  lost  his  head. 
Inviting  Fra  Monreale  to  a  banquet,  he  put  him  to  death 
for  the  sake  of  his  wealth,  and  kept  the  two  brothers 
in  confinement.  This  act  excited  general  indignation. 
And  when,  after  his  ill-gotten  gains  were  spent,  he  again 
recurred  to  violence  to  fill  his  purse,  the  public  discontent 
was  vented  in  a  sudden  revolt  on  the  8th  October.  The 
people  stormed  the  Capitol  with  cries  of  "  Death  to  the 
traitor."  Rienzi  presented  himself  at  a  window  waving 
the  flag  of  Rome.  But  the  charm  was  finally  broken. 
Missiles  were  hurled  at  him ;  the  palace  was  fired.  He  hid 
himself  in  the  courtyard,  shaved  his  beard,  and,  disguised 
as  a  shepherd  with  a  cloth  over  his  head,  slipped  into  the 
crowd  and  joined  in  their  cries  against  himself.  Being 
recognized,  however,  by  the  golden  bracelets  he  had  for- 
gotten to  remove,  he  was  instantly  stabbed.  For  two  days 
his  corpse  was  left  exposed  to  the  insults  of  the  mob,  and 
was  then  burned.  Such  was  the  wretched  end  of  the  man 
who,  at  one  moment,  seemed  destined  to  fill  the  world 
with  his  name  as  the  regenerator  of  Rome  and  of  Italy. 

In  all  the  Italian  cities  the  overthrow  of  the  aristo- 
cracy had  led  to  military  impotence  and  pressing  danger 
of  tyranny.  The  same  thing  had  happened  in  Rome  when 
the  nobility,  weakened  by  the  absence  of  church  and 
empire,  received  its  death  blow  from  Rienzi.  But,  where- 
as elsewhere  tyrants  were  gradually  arising  in  the  citizen 
class,  Rome  was  always  in  danger  of  oppression  by  the 
pope.  Nor  was  any  aid  available  from  the  empire,  which 
had  never  recovered  from  its  abasement  under  Louis  the 
Bavarian.  In  fact,  when  Charles  of  Luxembourg  came  to 
Rome  to  be  crowned,  he  was  obliged  to  promise  the  pope 
that  he  would  not  enter  the  city.  On  Easter  day  1355  The 
he  received  the  crown,  and  departed,  after  counselling  the  popes 
Romans  to  obey  the  pope.  And  the  pontiffs  had  greater  ^kJ° 
need  than  ever  of  an  established  kingdom.  Their  position  tute  a 
in  France  was  much  endangered  by  that  country's  disorder,  temporal 
New  states  were  being  formed  on  all  sides ;  the  mediaeval  kingdom 
unity  was  shattered ;  and  the  shrunken  spiritual  authority 
of  the  church  increased  her  need  of  material  strength.  As 
Italian  affairs  stood,  it  would  be  easy  for  the  popes  to 
found  a  kingdom,  but  their  presence  was  required  in  Rome 
before  it  could  be  firmly  established.  The  blood-stained 
sword  of  Albornoz  had  prepared  the  way  before  them. 
In  1355-56  he  vanquished  the  lords  or  tyrants  of  Rimini, 
Fano,  Fossombrone,  Pesaro,  Urbino,  and  other  cities. 
And  all  these  places  had  been  so  rudely  oppressed  that 
the  cardinal  was  often  hailed  as  a  liberator  after  subduing 
their  masters  by  fire ,  and  sword.  But  everywhere  he 
had  been  obliged  to  leave  existing  Governments  and 
rulers  in  statu  quo  after  exacting  their  oaths  of  fealty. 
Thus  the  state  was  still  dissevered,  and  it  was  impossible 
to  bind  it  together  with  the  pope  at  Avignon  and  Rome 
a  republic.  Bologna  was  still  independent,  Ordelaffi  still 
lord  of  Forli;  Cesena  and  other  cities  were  still  rebel- 
lious ;  and  the  Campagna  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the 
barons.  Some  places  were  ruled  by  rectors  nominated 
by  the  pope ;  at  Montefiascone  there  was  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal rector,  with  a  bench  of  judges,  and  a  captain 
commanding  a  mixed  band  of  adventurers.  Rome  had 
submitted  to  the  haughty  cardinal,  but  hated  him 

XX.  —  101 


802 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


mortally,  and,  on  his  departure  for  Avignon  in  1357  to 
assist  the  threatened  pontiff,  immediately  conceded  to  the 
latter  the  supremacy  of  the  senate.  And  the  pope,  instead 
of  two  senators,  hastened  to  name  a  single  one  of  foreign 
>reign  birth.  This  was  a  shrewd  device  of  Albornoz  and  another 
aators.  \)\ow  to  the  nobles,  with  whom  he  was  still  at  war.  Thus 
was  inaugurated,  by  the  nomination  of  Raimondo  de' 
Tolomei  in  1358,  a  series  of  foreign  senators,  fulfilling  the 
functions  of  a  podesta,  and  changed  every  six  months, 
together  with  their  staff  of  judges,  notaries,  and  knights. 
The  people  approved  of  this  reform  as  being  inimical  to 
the  nobles  and  favourable  to  the  preservation  of  liberty. 
Hitherto  the  senators  had  been  assisted,  or  rather  kept  in 
check,  by  the  thirteen  representatives  of  the  regions. 
These  were  now  replaced  by  seven  reformers,  in  imitation 
of  the  priors  of  Florence,  the  better  to  follow  that  city's 
example.  The  reformers  were  soon  the  veritable  chiefs  of 
the  republic.  They  first  appeared  in  1360,  were  either 
popolani  or  cavallerotti,  and  were  elected  by  ballot  every 
three  months.  When  Albornoz  returned  to  Italy,  although 
desirous  to  keep  Rome  in  the  same  subjection  as  the  other 
cities,  he  had  first  to  vanquish  Ordelaffi  and  reduce 
Bologna.  The  latter  enterprise  was  the  more  difficult  task, 
and  provoked  a  lengthy  war  with  Matteo  Visconti  of 
Milan.  Thus  Rome,  being  left  to  herself,  continued  to  be 
governed  by  her  reformers ;  and  the  nobles,  already  shut 
out  from  power,  were  also  excluded  from  the  militia, 
which  had  been  reorganized,  like  that  of  Florence,  on  the 
ie  democratic  system.  Three  thousand  men,  mostly  archers, 
n^-  were  enrolled  under  the  command  of  two  banderesi,  "  in 
!sl-  the  likeness,"  says  M.  Villani,  "  of  our  gonfaloniers  of  the 
companies,"  with  four  antepositi  constituting  a  supreme 
council  of  war.  And  the  whole  body  was  styled  the 
"  Felix  Societas  Balestrariorum  et  Pavesatorum."  It  was 
instituted  to  support  the  reformers  and  re-establish  order 
in  the  city  and  Campagna,  to  keep  down  the  nobles  and 
defend  the  republic.  It  fulfilled  these  duties  with  much, 
and  sometimes  excessive,  severity.  Banderesi  and  ante- 
positi had  seats  in  the  special  council  beside  those  of  the 
reformers,  as,  in  Florence,  the  gonfaloniers  of  the  com- 
panies were  seated  beside  the  priors.  Later  these  officials 
constituted  the  so-called  signoria  dei  banderesi.  In 
1362,  the  Romans  having  subjected  Velletri,  which  was 
defended  by  the  nobles,  the  latter  made  a  riot  in  Rome. 
Thereupon  the  banderesi  drove  them  all  from  the  city, 
killed  some  of  their  kindred,  and  did  not  even  spare  the 
cavallerotti.  The  fight  became  so  furious  that  from  gate 
to  gate  all  Rome  was  in  arms,  and  even  mercenaries  were 
hired.  But  in  the  end  renewed  submission  was  made  to 
the  pope. 

On  the  death  of  Innocent  VI.  in  1362,  an  agreement 
was  concluded  with  his  successor  Urban  V.  (1362-70),  also 
a  Frenchman,  who  was  obliged  to  give  his  sanction  to  the 
government  of  the  reformers  and  banderesi.  And  then, 
Albornoz  being  recalled  in  disgrace  to  Avignon,  and  after- 
wards sent  as  legate  to  Naples,  these  Roman  magistrates 
were  able,  with  or  without  the  co-operation  of  the  foreign 
senator,  to  rule  in  their  own  way.  They  did  justice  on 
the  nobles  by  hanging  a  few  more;  and  they  defended 
the  city  from  the  threatening  attacks  of  the  mercenaries, 
who  had  now  become  Italy's  worst  foes.  It  was  at  this 
period  that  the  Roman  statutes  were  revised  and  re- 
arranged in  the  compilation  erroneously  attributed  by 
some  writers  to  Albornoz,  which  has  come  down  to  us 
supplemented  by  alterations  of  a  later  date. 

But  now  the  popes,  being  no  longer  in  safety  at 
Avignon,  really  decided  to  return  to  Italy.  Even  Urban 
V.  had  to  pay  ransom  to  escape  from  the  threatened 
attacks  of  the  free  companies.  The  Romans  implored  his 
return,  and  he  was  further  urged  to  it  by  the  Italian 


literati  with  Petrarch  at  their  head.  In  April  1367  he 
finally  quitted  Avignon,  and,  entering  Rome  on  the  16th 
October,  was  given  the  lordship  of  the  city.  Cardinal 
Albornoz  had  fallen  mortally  ill  at  Viterbo,  but,  though 
unable  to  accompany  the  pope  to  Rome,  had,  before  dying, 
suggested  his  course  of  action.  Certainly  Urban  showed 
much  acumen  in  profiting  by  the  first  burst  of  popular 
enthusiasm  to  effect  quick  and  dexterous  changes  in  the 
constitution  of  the  republic.  After  naming  a  senator,  he 
abolished  the  posts  of  reformers  and  banderesi,  substituting 
three  conservators,  or  rather  a  species  of  municipal  council, 
alone  charged  with  judicial  and  administrative  powers, 
which  has  lasted  to  the  present  day.  The  thirteen  leaders 
of  the  regions  and  the  consuls  of  the  guilds  still  sat  in  the 
councils,  which  were  left  unsuppressed.  But  all  real  power 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  pope,  who,  in  Rome,  as  in  his  other 
cities,  nominated  the  principal  magistrates.  Thus,  by 
transforming  political  into  civil  institutions  and  concen- 
trating the  supreme  authority  in  his  own  grasp,  Urban  V. 
dealt  a  mortal  blow  to  the  liberties  of  Rome.  Yet  he  felt 
no  sense  of  security  among  a  people  who,  after  the  first 
rejoicings  over  the  return  of  the  Holy  See,  were  always  on 
the  brink  of  revolt.  Besides  he  felt  himself  a  stranger  in 
Italy,  and  was  so  regarded.  Accordingly,  in  April  1370 
he  decided  to  return  to  France;  on  the  20th  of  that  month 
he  wrote  from  Viterbo  that  no  change  was  to  be  made  in 
the  government;  and  he  died  in  Avignon  on  the  19th  of 
December. 

The  Romans  retained  the  conservators,  conferring  on 
them  the  political  power  of  the  reformers ;  they  re-estab- 
lished  the  banderesi  with  the  Florentine  title  of  executores 
justitiae  and  the  four  antepositi  with  that  of  consiliarii. 
Thus  the  "  Felix  Societas  Balestrariorum  et  Pavesatorum 
Urbis  "  was  restored,  and  the  two  councils  met  as  before, 
The  new  French  pope,  Gregory  XI.  (1370-78),  had  to  be 
content  with  obtaining  supremacy  over  the  Senate  and 
the  possession  of  the  Castle  St  Angelo.  It  was  a  difficult 
moment  for  him.  The  Florentines  had  come  to  an  open 
rupture  with  his  legates,  and  had  adopted  the  expedient  of 
inviting  all  the  cities  of  the  Roman  state  to  redeem  their  lost 
freedom.  Accordingly  in  1375  many  of  them  rose  against 
the  legates,  who  were  mostly  French  and  regarded  with 
dislike  as  foreigners.  Florentine  despatches,  full  of  classical 
allusions  and  chiefly  composed  by  the  famous  scholar, 
Secretary  Coluccio  Salutati,  were  rapidly  sent  in  all 
directions.  Those  addressed  to  the  Romans  were  specially 
fervid,  and  emphatically  appealed  to  their  patriotism  and 
memories  of  the  past.  But  the  Romans  received  them 
with  doubt  and  mistrust,  for  they  saw  that  the  revolution 
threatened  to  dismember  the  state,  by  promoting  the 
independence  of  every  separate  city.  Besides,  while 
maintaining  their  republic,  they  also  desired  the  pope's  pre- 
sence in  Rome.  Nevertheless  they  went  with  the  current 
to  the  extent  of  reforming  their  constitution.  In  February 
1376  they  nominated  Giovanni  Cenci  captain  of  the  people, 
and  gave  him  uncontrolled  power  over  the  towns  of  the 
patrimony  and  the  Sabine  land.  The  conservators,  with 
their  new  political  authority,  the  executores,  the  antepositi, 
and  the  two  councils  were  all  preserved,  and  a  new  magis- 
tracy was  created,  the  "Tres  Gubernatores  Pacis  et 
Libertatis  Reipublicae  Romanae."  This  answered  to  the 
Eight  (afterwards  Ten)  of  War  in  Florence,  likewise 
frequently  called  the  Eight  of  Liberty  and  Peace.  It  was 
this  Council  of  Eight  that  was  now  directing  the  war 
against  the  pope  and  braving  his  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation ;  and  their  fiery  zeal  had  won  them  the  title  of  the 
Holy  Eight  from  the  Florentines. 

Realizing  that  further  absence  would  cost  him  his  state, 
Gregory  XI.  quitted  Avignon  on  the  13th  September 
1376,  and,  reaching  Corneto  in  December,  despatched  to 


Urbi 

desi 
the 


Re-es 
lishm 
of  tlit 
repul. 
and  t 
band- 
eresi. 


1357-1400.] 


K  O  M  E 


803 


Home  three  legates,  who,  on  the  21st  of  the  month, 
concluded  an  agreement  with  the  parliament.  The  people 
gave  up  the  gates,  the  fortresses,  and  the  Trastevere,  and 
promised  that  if  the  pope  returned  to  Rome  he  should 
have  the  same  powers  which  had  been  granted  to  Urban  V. 
But,  on  his  side,  he  must  pledge  himself  to  maintain  the 
executores,  their  council,  the  Three  of  War,  and  allow 
the  Romans  the  right  of  reforming  the  banderesi,  who 
would  then  swear  fealty  to  him.  The  terms  of  this  peace 
and  the  pope's  epistles  clearly  prove  that  the  two  councils 
still  exercised  their  functions,  that  the  banderesi  were  still 
the  virtual  heads  of  the  Government,  and  that  their  sup- 
pression was  not  contemplated.  In  fact,  when  the  pope 
made  his  entry  on  the  17th  January  1377  accompanied  by 
two  thousand  armed  men,  he  perceived  that  there  was 
much  public  agitation,  that  the  Romans  did  not  intend  to 
fulfil  their  agreement,  and  that  the  Government  of  the 
banderesi  went  on  as  before.  Accordingly,  after  naming 
Gomez  Albornoz,  a  nephew  of  the  deceased  cardinal,  to 
the  office  of  senator,  he  retired  to  Anagni,  and  remained 
there  until  November  1377.  The  Romans  presently  waited 
on  him  with  conciliating  offers,  and  begged  him  to  negotiate 
a  peace  for  them  with  the  prefect  of  Vico.  In  fact  the 
treaty  was  concluded  at  Anagni  in  October,  and  on  the 
10th  November  confirmed  in  Rome  by  the  general  council. 
The  meeting  was  held  in  the  great  hall  of  the  Capitol, 
"  ubi  consilia  generalia  urbis  fieri  solent,"  in  the  presence 
of  all  the  members  of  the  republican  Government.  But 
the  pope  was  enraged  by  the  survival  of  this  Government, 
and,  being  worn  out  by  the  persistent  hostility  of  the 
Florentines,  which  reduced  his  power  to  a  low  ebb,  had 
determined  to  make  peace,  when  surprised  by  death  on 
the  27th  March  1378. 

The  next  pope,  Urban  VI.  (1378-89),  a  Neapolitan, 
was  the  spirit  of  discord  incarnate.  His  election  was  not 
altogether  regular :  the  French  party  among  the  cardinals 
was  against  him ;  and  the  people  were  ripe  for  insurrec- 
tion. But,  regardless  of  all  this,  Urban  threatened  the 
cardinals  in  his  first  consistory,  saying  that  church  reform 
must  begin  with  them ;  and  he  used  the  same  tone  with 
the  people,  reproving  them  for  failing  to  suppress  the 
banderesi.  In  consequence  of  this  the  cardinals  of  the 
French  party,  assembling  at  Fondi,  elected  the  antipope 
Clement  VII.  (1378-94)  and  started  a  long  and  painful 
schism  in  the  church.  Clement  resided  in  Avignon,  while 
Urban  in  Rome  was  engaged  in  opposing  Queen  Joanna  I. 
of  Naples  and  favouring  Charles  of  Durazzo,  who,  on 
conquering  the  Neapolitan  kingdom,  was  made  gonfalonier 
of  the  church  and  senator  of  Rome,  where  he  left  a  vicar 
as  his  deputy.  Shortly  afterwards  the  pope  went  to  Naples, 
and  made  fierce  war  on  the  king.  Then,  after  many 
adventures,  during  which  he  tortured  and  put  to  death 
several  cardinals  whom  he  suspected  of  hostile  intentions, 
he  returned  to  Rome,  where  the  utmost  disorder  pre- 
vailed.  The  conservators  and  the  banderesi  were  still  at 
the  head  of  the  Government,  and,  the  pope  speedily  falling 
ou*  w^  them,  a  riot  ensued,  after  which  he  excommuni- 
cated  the  banderesi.  These  at  last  made  submission  to 
him,  and  Urban  VI.  became  master  of  Rome  before  his 
death  in  1389.  He  was  succeeded  by  Boniface  IX. 
(1389-1404),  another  Neapolitan,  but  a  man  of  greater 
shrewdness  and  capacity.  His  first  act  was  to  crown 
Ladislaus  king  of  Naples,  and  secure  the  friendship  and 
protection  of  this  ambitious  and  powerful  prince.  In  all 
the  principal  cities  of  the  state  he  chose  the  reigning  lords 
for  his  vicars.  But  he  allowed  Fermo,  Ascoli,  and  Bologna 
the  privilege  of  assuming  their  own  vicariate  for  twenty- 
five  years.  And,  as  these  different  potentates  and  Govern- 
ments had  only  to  pay  him  an  annual  tribute,  all  parties 
were  satisfied,  and  the  pope  was  able  to  bestow  at  least  an 


appearance  of  order  and  unity  on  his  state.  But  fresh 
tumults  soon  arose,  partly  because  the  conservators  and 
banderesi  sought  to  govern  on  their  own  account,  and 
especially  because  the  pope  seems  for  a  time  to  have  omitted 
naming  the  senator.  Boniface  was  a  prudent  man;  he 
saw  that  events  were  turning  in  his  favour,  now  that 
throughout  Italy  liberty  was  tottering  to  its  fall,  and  bided 
his  time.  He  was  satisfied  for  the  moment  by  obtaining 
a  recognition  of  the  immunities  of  the  clergy,  rendering 
them  solely  amenable  to  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  and  thus 
distinguishing  the  powers  of  the  church  from  those  of  the 
state  in  Rome.  The  republic  also  pledged  itself  neither 
to  molest  the  prelates  nor  to  levy  fresh  contributions  on 
them  towards  repairing  the  walls,  to  aid  in  recovering 
the  estates  of  the  church  in  Tuscia,  and  to  try  to  con- 
ciliate the  baronage.  This  concordat,  concluded  with  the 
conservators  and  banderesi  on  the  llth  September  1391, 
was  also  confirmed  on  the  5th  March  1392  by  the  heads 
of  the  regions,  together  with  a  fresh  treaty  binding  both 
parties  to  furnish  a  certain  number  of  armed  men  to  com- 
bat the  prefect  of  Vico  and  the  adherents  of  the  antipope 
at  Viterbo.  With  the  exception  of  this  city,  Orchi,  and 
Civita  Vecchia,  all  other  conquered  territory  was  to  belong 
to  the  republic.  But  the  Romans  soon  discovered  that 
they  were  playing  into  the  hands  of  the  pope,  who  kept 
everything  for  himself,  without  even  paying  the  troops. 
Upon  this  a  riot  broke  out ;  Boniface  fled  to  Perugia  in 
October  1392,  and  resolved  to  exact  better  terms  when  next 
recalled  to  Rome.  Meanwhile  the  Romans  subdued  the 
prefect,  captured  Viterbo,  and,  being  already  repentant, 
handed  it  over  to  the  pope  and  implored  his  return.  He 
then  proposed  his  own  terms,  which  were  approved,  not  Bonifai 
only  by  the  conservators,  banderesi,  and  four  councillors,  IX.  coi 
but  also  by  the  special  council  and  by  the  unanimous  vote  ^mij^ 
of  a  general  assembly  composed  of  the  above-mentioned  tion  Of 
authorities,  heads  of  regions,  other  officials,  and  a  hundred  the  re- 
citizens  (8th  August  1393).  These  terms  prescribed  that  public, 
the  pope  was  to  elect  the  senator,  and  that,  on  his  failing 
so  to  do,  the  conservators  would  carry  on  the  government 
after  swearing  fealty  to  him.  The  senatorial  function  was 
to  be  neither  controlled  nor  hampered  by  the  banderesi. 
The  immunities  of  the  clergy  were  to  be  preserved,  and 
all  church  property  was  to  be  respected  by  the  magistrates. 
The  expenses  of  the  pope's  journey  were  to  be  paid,  and 
he  was  to  be  escorted  to  Rome  in  state.  Boniface  tried  to 
complete  his  work  by  abolishing  the  banderesi,  the  last 
bulwarks  of  freedom ;  but  the  people,  although  weakened 
and  weary,  made  efforts  to  preserve  them,  and,  although 
their  fall  was  inevitable,  the  struggle  went  on  for  some 
time. 

During  the  spring  of  1394  the  banderesi  provoked  an 
insurrection  in  which  the  pope's  life  was  endangered ;  it 
was  only  saved  by  the  arrival  of  King  Ladislaus,  who 
came  from  Naples  with  a  large  force  in  the  early  autumn. 
But  for  the  Neapolitan  soldiery  Boniface  could  not  have 
withstood  the  long  series  of  revolts  that  continually 
exposed  him  to  fresh  perils  and  the  anxiety  caused  by 
the  persistent  schism  pf  the  church.  The  death  of  Clement 
VII.  in  1394  was  followed  by  the  election  of  another 
antipope,  Benedict  XIII.  But  a  new  jubilee  was  in 
prospect  for  the  year  1400,  and  this  was  always  an  effica- 
cious means  of  bending  the  will  of  the  Romans.  Depend-  Fall  of 
ing  upon  this  and  the  assistance  of  Ladislaus,  Boniface  the  bar 
not  only  demanded  full  powers  to  nominate  senators 
(none  having  been  recently  elected),  but  insisted  on  the 
suppression  of  the  banderesi.  Both  requests  were  gran  ted; 
but,  directly  Angelo  Alaleoni  was  made  senator,  a  con- 
spiracy was  hatched  for  the  re-establishment  of  the 
banderesi.  However,  the  pope  felt  sure  of  his  strength ; 
the  plot  was  discovered  and  the  conspirators  were  beheaded 


804 


E  0  M  E 


[HISTORY, 


on  the  stairs  of  the  Capitol  This  proved  the  end  of  the 
banderesi  and  of  the  liberties  of  Rome.  The  government 
was  again  directed  by  an  alien  senator  together  with  three 
conservators,  but  the  latter  were  gradually  deprived  of 
their  political  attributes,  and  became  mere  civil  officers. 
The  militia,  regions,  guilds,  and  other  associations  now 
rapidly  lost  all  political  importance,  and  before  long  were 
little  more  than  empty  names.  Thus  in  1398  the  Romans 
submitted  to  the  complete  sway  of  the  pope,  and  in  July 
of  the  same  year  the  senator  chosen  by  him  was  Mala- 
testa  dei  Malatesti  of  Rimini,  one  of  a  line  of  tyrants,  a 
valiant  soldier,  who  was  also  temporal  vicar  and  captain 
general  of  the  church.  Boniface  continued  to  appoint 
foreign  senators  during  the  rest  of  his  life ;  he  fortified 
Castle  St  Angelo,  the  Vatican,  and  the  Capitol;  he 
stationed  galleys  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  and  proved 
himself  in  all  things  a  thoroughly  temporal  prince.  He 
aggrandized  all  his  kindred,  especially  his  brother,  and, 
with  the  aid  of  his  senator,  his  armed  force,  and  the 
protection  of  Ladislaus,  succeeded  in  keeping  down  all 
the  surviving  nobles.  In  1400,  however,  these  made  an 
attempt  to  upset  the  Government*  Niccol6  Colonna  forced 
his  way  into  the  city  with  cries  of  "  Popolo,  popolo  !  death 
to  Boniface ! "  But  the  Romans  had  grown  deaf  to  the 
voice  of  liberty;  they  refused  to  rise,  and  the  senator,  a 
Venetian  named  Zaccaria  Trevisan,  behaved  with  much 
energy.  Colonna  and  his  men  had  to  beat  a  swift  retreat 
to  Palestrina.  A  charge  of  high  treason  was  immediately 
instituted  against  him,  and  thirty-one  rebels  were  beheaded. 
The  pope  then  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  all  the 
Colonna,  and  sent  a  body  of  two  thousand  men  and  some 
of  the  Neapolitan  soldiery  to  attack  them.  Several  of  their 
estates  were  seized  and  devastated,  but  Palestrina  con- 
tinued to  hold  out,  and  on  the  7th  January  1401  the 
Colonna  finally  made  submission  to  the  pope.  Neverthe- 
less they  obtained  advantageous  terms,  for  Boniface  left 
them  their  lands,  appointed  them  vicars  of  other  territories, 
and  made  similar  agreements  with  the  Gaetani  and 
Orsini.  In  this  way  he  became  absolute  master  of  Rome. 
One  chronicler  remarks  that  "  Romanis  tanquam  rigidus 
imperator  dominabatur,"  and  the  same  tone  is  taken  by 
others.  But  he  did  not  succeed  in  putting  an  end  to  the 
schism  of  the  church,  which  was  still  going  on  when  he 
died  in  the  Vatican  on  the  1st  October  1404. 

Innocent  VII.  (1404-6)  was  the  next  pope.  He  too 
was  a  Neapolitan,  and  on  his  election  the  people  again  rose 
in  revolt  and  refused  to  acknowledge  him  unless  he 
consented  to  resign  the  temporal  power.  But  Ladislaus 
of  Naples  hastened  to  his  help,  and  an  agreement  was  made 
which,  under  the  cover  of  apparent  concessions,  really 
riveted  the  people's  chains.  Rome  was  recognized  as  the 
seat  of  the  temporal  and  spiritual  sovereignty  of  the  pope, 
and  the  pope  continued  to  appoint  the  senator.  The 
people  were  to  elect  seven  governors  of  the  city,  who  were 
to  swear  fealty  to  the  pope  and  carry  on  the  government 
in  conjunction  with  three  other  governors  chosen  by  the 
pontiff  or  Ladislaus.  The  stipulations  of  Boniface  IX. 
concerning  ecclesiastical  immunities  were  again  confirmed. 
The  barons  were  forbidden  to  place  more  than  five  lances 
each  at  the  service  of  the  people,  and — which  was  the  real 
gist  of  the  covenant — the  people  were  henceforth  forbidden 
to  make  laws  or  statutes  without  the  permission  of  the 
pope.  The  captain  of  the  people,  deprived  of  his  political 
and  judicial  functions  and  reduced  to  a  simple  judge,  was 
also  to  be  chosen  by  the  pope.  But  this  treaty,  drawn  up 
on  the  27th  October  1 404,  was  not  signed  at  the  time,  and 
many  difficulties  and  disturbances  arose  when  its  terms 
were  to  be  put  into  effect.  The  Romans  nominated  the 
seven  governors,  but,  without  waiting  until  the  pope  had 
chosen  three  more,  placed  the  state  in  their  hands, 


and  styled  them  governors  of  the  liberty  of  the  Roman 
republic.  They  were  in  fact  banderesi  or  reformatori 
under  a  new  name.  But  the  attempt  proved  inefficacious, 
for,  at  the  pope's  first  threat  of  departure,  the  Romans 
made  their  submission,  and  the  treaty  of  October  was  sub- 
scribed on  the  15th  May  1405.  Nevertheless,  as  it  only 
bears  the  signatures  of  the  "seven  governors  of  the  liberty 
of  the  Roman  republic,"  the  pope  would  seem  to  have 
made  some  concessions.  His  position  was  by  no  means 
assured.  Ladislaus  was  known  to  aspire  to  absolute 
dominion  in  Italy,  and,  although  willing  to  aid  in  sup- 
pressing the  republic,  tried  to  prepare  the  way  for  his  own 
designs,  and  frequently  held  out  a  helping  hand  to  the 
vanquished.  On  the  6th  August  fourteen  influential 
citizens  of  Rome  boldly  presented  themselves  at  the  Vatican, 
and  in  a  threatening  manner  called  the  pope  to  account  for 
giving  his  whole  attention  to  worldly  things,  instead  of 
endeavouring  to  put  a  stop  to  the  schisms  of  the  church. 
But,  on  leaving  his  presence,  they  were  attacked  by  Luigi 
Migliorati,  the  pope's  nephew,  and  notorious  for  his 
violence,  who  killed  eleven  of  their  number,  including 
several  heads  of  the  regions  and  two  of  the  governors. 
An  insurrection  ensued,  and  the  pope  and  his  nephew 
fled  to  Viterbo.  The  Colonna  tried  to  profit  by  these 
events,  and  applied  to  Ladislaus,  who,  hoping  that  the 
moment  had  come  to  make  himself  master  of  Rome,  sent 
the  count  of  Troia  thither  with  a  troop  of  three  thousand 
horse.  But  the  people,  enraged  by  this  treachery,  and 
determined  not  to  fall  under  the  yoke  of  Naples,  awoke 
for  an  instant  to  the  memory  of  their  past  glories,  and 
bravely  repulsed  the  Colonna  and  the  Neapolitans.  And, 
on  the  speedy  arrival  of  the  Orsini  with  some  of  the  papal 
troops,  the  people  voluntarily  restored  the  papal  govern- 
ment, and,  assembling  the  parliament,  besought  the  pope  to 
return  on  his  own  terms.  Accordingly,  after  first  naming 
Francesco  Panciatichi  of  Pistoia  to  the  senatorship,  the  pope 
came  back  on  the  13th  March  1406,  bringing  his  whole 
curia  with  him,  and  also  the  murderer  Migliorati,  who, 
triumphing  in  impunity,  became  more  arrogant  than  before. 
Here  indeed  was  a  proof  that  the  Romans  were  no  longer 
worthy  of  liberty !  And  now,  by  means  of  the  Orsini, 
Innocent  had  only  to  reduce  the  Colonna  and  other  nobles 
raised  to  power  by  Ladislaus  ;  nor  was  this  very  difficult, 
seeing  that  the  king,  in  his  usual  fashion,  abandoned  them 
to  their  fate,  and,  making  terms  with  the  pope,  was  named 
gonfalonier  of  the  church  and  again  protected  her  cause. 

Innocent,  dying  in  1406,  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XII., 
a  Venetian,  who,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  resigned  the 
chair  in  1415.  On  his  accession,  finding  his  state  firmly 
established,  he  seemed  to  be  seriously  bent  on  putting  an 
end  to  the  Great  Schism,  and  for  that  purpose  arranged  a 
meeting  with  the  antipope  Benedict  XIII.  at  the  congress 
of  Savona  in  1408.  But  Gregory  and  Benedict  only  used 
the  congress  as  a  pretext  for  making  war  upon  each  other, 
and  were  urged  on  by  Ladislaus,  who  hoped  by  weakening 
both  to  gain  possession  of  Rome,  where,  although  opposed 
by  the  Orsini,  he  had  the  support  of  the  Colonna. 
Gregory,  who  had  then  fled  from  Rome,  made  a  momentary 
attempt  to  win  the  popular  favour  by  restoring  the  govern- 
ment of  the  banderesi ;  but  Ladislaus  marched  into  Rome  Ladislai 
in  June  1408  and  established  a  senator  of  his  own.  master  < 
Meanwhile  the  two  popes  were  continuing  their  shameful  Rome- 
struggle,  and  the  council  of  Pisa  (March  1409),  in  attempt- 
ing to  check  it,  only  succeeded  in  raising  up  a  third  pontiff, 
first  in  the  person  of  Alexander  V.  (1409-10),  and  then 
in  the  turbulent  Baldassare  Cossa,  who  assumed  the  name 
of  John  XXIII.  The  latter  began  by  sending  a  large 
contingent  to  assist  Louis  of  Anjou  against  Ladislaus. 
But  the  enterprise  failed,  and,  seeing  himself  deserted  by 
all,  Pope  John  next  embraced  the  cause  of  his  foe  by 


1400-1447.] 


ROME 


805 


Rcie  in 
a  ate  of 
airchy. 


naming  him  gonfalonier  of  the  church.  Thereupon 
Ladislaus  concluded  a  sham  peace,  and  then,  seizing  Rome, 
put  it  to  the  sack  and  established  his  own  government 
there.  Thus  John,  like  the  other  two  popes,  became 
a  wanderer  in  Italy.  In  August  1414  Ladislaus  died  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  scandalous  Queen  Joanna  II.  The 
Roman  people  promptly  expelled  the  Neapolitans,  and 
Cardinal  Isolani,  John's  legate,  succeeding  in  rousing  a 
reaction  in  favour  of  the  church,  constituted  a  govern- 
ment of  thirteen  "conservators"  on  the  19th  October. 

In  November  1414  the  council  of  Constance  assembled, 
and  at  last  ended  the  schism  by  deposing  all  the  popes, 
and  incarcerating  John  XXIII.,  the  most  turbulent  of 
the  three.  On  the  llth  November  1417  Oddo  Colonna 
was  unanimously  elected  to  the  papal  chair;  he  was 
consecrated  in  the  cathedral  on  the  27th  as  Pope  Martin 
V.,  and,  being  acknowledged  by  all,  hastened  without  delay 
to  take  possession  of  his  see.  Meanwhile  disorder  was 
at .  its  height  in  Rome.  The  cardinal  legate  Isolani 
governed  as  he  best  could,  while  Castle  St  Angelo  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  the  Neapolitans,  who  still  had  a 
party  in  the  city.  In  this  divided  state  of  affairs  Braccio, 
a  daring  captain  of  adventurers,  nicknamed  Fortebraccio, 
was  inspired  with  the  idea  of  making  himself  master  of 
Rome.  Overcoming  the  feeble  resistance  opposed  to  him, 
he  succeeded  in  this  on  the  16th  June  1416  and  assumed 
the  title  of  "  Defensor  Urbis."  But  Joanna  of  Naples 
despatched  Sforza,  an  equally  valiant  captain,  against  him, 
and,  without  offering  battle,  Fortebraccio  withdrew  on  the 
26th  August,  after  having  been  absolute  master  of  the 
eternal  city  for  seventy  days.  Sforza  marched  in  on  the 
27th,  and  took  possession  of  the  city  in  the  name  of 
Joanna.  Martin  V.  instantly  proved  himself  a  good 
statesman.  He  confirmed  the  legate  Isolani  as  his  vicar, 
and  Giovanni  Savelli  as  senator.  Leaving  Constance  on 
the  16th  May  1418,  he  reached  Milan  on  the  12th 
October,  and  slowly  proceeded  on  his  journey.  While  in 
Florence  he  despatched  his  brother  and  nephew  to  Naples 
to  make  alliance  with  Joanna,  and  caused  her  to  be 
crowned  on  the  28th  October  1419  by  his  legate 
Morosini.  Upon  this  she  promised  to  give  up  Rome  to 
the  pope.  Her  general,  Sforza,  then  entered  the  service 
of  Martin  V.,  and  compelled  Fortebraccio,  who  was 
lingering  in  a  threatening  attitude  at  Perugia,  to  make 
peace  with  the  pope.  The  latter  entrusted  Fortebraccio 
with  the  conduct  of  the  campaign  against  Bologna,  and 
that  city  was  reduced  to  submission  on  the  15th  July 
1420.  The  Romans  had  already  yielded  to  Martin's  brother 
the  legate,  and  now  earnestly  besought  the  arrival  of  their 
pope.  Accordingly  he  left  Florence  on  the  19th  September 
1420,  and  entered  the  Vatican  on  the  28th.  Rome  was  in 
ruins  ;  nobility  and  burghers  were  equally  disorganized, 
the  people  unable  to  bear  arms  and  careless  of  their  rights, 
while  the  battered  walls  of  the  Capitol  recorded  the  fall  of 
two  republics. 

Martin  V.  had  now  to  fulfil  a  far  more  difficult  task 
than  that  of  taking  possession  of  Rome.  Throughout  Italy 
municipal  freedom  was  overthrown,  and  the  Roman 
republic  had  ceased  to  exist.  The  Middle  Ages  were 
ended ;  the  Renaissance  was  beginning.  The  universal 
unity  both  of  church  and  of  empire  was  dissolved ;  the 
empire  was  now  Germanic,  and  derived  its  principal 
strength  from  direct  dominion  over  a  few  provinces. 
Independent  -and  national  states  were  already  formed 
or  forming  on  all  sides.  The  papacy  itself  had  ceased 
to  claim  universal  supremacy  over  the  world's  Govern- 
ments, and  the  possession  of  a  temporal  state  had  become 
essential  to  its  existence.  In  fact  Martin  V.  was  the  first 
of  the  series  of  popes  who  were  real  sovereigns,  and  more 
occupied  with  politics  than  religion.  Involved  in  all  the 


foreign  intrigues,  falsehoods,  and  treacheries  of  Italian 
diplomacy  in  the  15th  century,  their  internal  policy  was 
imbued  with  all  the  arts  practised  by  the  tyrants  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  nepotism  became  necessarily  the  basis  of 
their  strength.  It  was  natural  that  men  suddenly  elected 
sovereigns  of  a  new  country  where  they  had  no  ties,  and 
of  which  they  had  often  no  knowledge,  should  seek  to 
strengthen  their  position  by  aggrandizing  so-called  nephews 
who  were  not  unfrequently  their  sons. 

Martin  V.  reduced  the  remains  of  the  free  Roman 
Government  to  a  mere  civil  municipality.  Following  the 
method  of  the  other  despots  of  Italy,  the  old  republican 
institutions  were  allowed  to  retain  their  names  and  forms, 
their  administrative  and  some  of  their  judicial  attributes, 
while  all  their  political  functions  were  transferred  to  the  new 
Government.  Order  was  re-established,  and  justice  rigidly 
observed.  Many  rebellious  places  were  subdued  by  the 
sword,  and  many  leaders  of  armed  bands  were  hanged. 
The  pope,  however,  was  forced  to  lean  on  his  kinsmen  the 
Colonna  and  again  raise  them  to  power  by  grants  of  vast 
fiefs  both  in  his  own  state  and  the  Neapolitan  territory. 
And,  after  first  supporting  Joanna  II.,  who  had  assisted  his 
entry  into  Rome,  he  next  sided  with  her  adversary,  Louis 
of  Anjou,  and  then  with  Alphonso  of  Aragon,  the  con- 
queror of  both  and  the  constant  friend  of  the  pope,  who  at 
last  felt  safe  on  his  throne.  Rome  now  enjoyed  order, 
peace,  and  security,  but  had  lost  all  hope  of  liberty.  And 
when  Martin  died  (20th  February  1431)  these  words  were 
inscribed  on  his  tomb,  Temporum  suorum  felicitas. 

Eugenius  IV.  (1431-47)  leant  on  the  Orsini,  and  was 
fiercely  opposed  by  the  Colonna,  who  excited  the  people 
against  him.  Accordingly  on  the  29th  May  1434  the 
Romans  rose  in  revolt  to  the  old  cry  of  "  Popolo  e  popolo," 
and  again  constituted  the  rule  of  the  seven  governors 
of  liberty.  The  pope  fled  by  boat  down  the  Tiber,  and, 
being  pursued  with  stones  and  shots,  narrowly  escaped  with 
his  life.  On  reaching  Florence,  he  turned  his  energies  to 
the  recovery  of  the  state.  It  was  necessary  to  quell  the 
people  ;  but,  first  of  all,  the  Colonna  and  the  clan  of  the 
prefects  of  Vico,  with  their  renewed  princely  power,  had 
to  be  overthrown.  The  Orsini  were  still  his  friends. 
Eugenius  entrusted  the  campaign  to  Patriarch  (afterwards 
Cardinal)  Vitelleschi,  a  worthy  successor  of  Albornoz,  and 
of  greater  ferocity  if  less  talent.  This  leader  marched 
his  army  towards  Rome,  and,  instantly  attacking  Giovanni, 
prefect  of  Vico,  captured  and  beheaded  him.  The  family 
was  now  extinguished;  and,  its  possessions  reverting  to  the 
church,  the  greater  part  of  them  were  sold  or  given  to 
Count  Everso  d'Anguillara,  of  the  house  of  Orsini.  The 
prefecture,  now  little  more  than  an  honorary  title,  was 
bestowed  at  will  by  the  popes.  Eugenius  gave  it  to 
Francesco,  founder  of  the  powerful  line  of  the  Gravina- 
Orsini.  Thus  one  noble  family  was  raised  to  greatness 
while  another  perished  by  the  sword.  Vitelleschi  had 
already  begun  to  persecute  the  Colonna  and  the  Savelli, 
and  committed  terrible  slaughter  among  them.  Many 
castles  were  demolished,  many  towns  destroyed  ;  and  their 
inhabitants,  driven  to  wander  famine-stricken  over  the 
Campagna,  had  to  sell  themselves  as  slaves  for  the  sake  of 
bread.  Finally  the  arrogant  patriarch  marched  into  Rome, 
as  into  a  conquered  city,  at  the  head  of  his  men,  and  the 
Romans  crouched  at  his  feet.  The  pope  now  began  to 
distrust  him,  and  sent  Scarampo,  another  prelate  of  the 
same  stamp,  to  take  his  place.  This  new  commander  soon 
arrived,  and,  perceiving  that  Vitelleschi  proposed  to  resist, 
had  him  surrounded  by  his  soldiers,  who  were  obliged  to 
use  force  to  compel  his  surrender.  Vitelleschi  was  carried 
bleeding  to  Castle  St  Angelo,  where  he  soon  afterwards 
died.  The  pope  at  last  returned  to  Rome  in  1443,  and 
remained  there  quietly  till  his  death  in  1447. 


The 
temper 


raised 


of  th* 
repu 


A  revo 
tion 
expels 
P( 


Eugeni 
IV. 

resume 
posses: 


ROME 


[HISTORY. 


His  successor  Nicholas  V.  (1447-55)  was  a  scholar 
solely  devoted  to  the  patronage  of  literati  and  artists. 
During  his  reign  there  was  a  fresh  attempt  to  restore  the 
republic,  but  it  was  rather  prompted  by  literary  and 
classical  enthusiasm  than  by  any  genuine  patriotic  ardour. 
Political  passions  and  interests  had  ceased  to  exist.  The 
conspiracy  was  headed  by  Stefano  Porcari,  a  man  of  the 
=7  of  people,  who  claimed  to  be  descended  from  Cato.  He  had 
ao.  once  been  captain  of  the  people  in  Florence,  and  was  made 
podesta  of  Bologna  by  Eugenius  IV.  He  was  a  caricature 
of  Cola  di  Kienzo,  and  extravagantly  proud  of  his  Latin 
speeches  in  honour  of  ancient  republican  liberty.  The 
admiration  of  antiquity  was  then  at  its  height,  and  Porcari 
found  many  enthusiastic  hearers.  Directly  after  the  death 
of  Eugenius  IV.  he  made  a  first  and  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
proclaim  the  republic.  Nevertheless  Nicholas  V.,  with  the 
same  indulgence  for  scholars  that  had  prompted  him  to 
pardon  Valla  for  denying  the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy 
and  laughing  to  scorn  the  pretended  donation  of  Constan- 
tino, freely  pardoned  Porcari  and  named  him  podesta  of 
Anagni.  He  filled  this  office  with  credit,  but  on  his 
return  to  Rome  again  began  to  play  the  agitator,  and  was 
banished  to  Bologna  with  a  pension  from  the  pope. 
Nicholas  V.  had  conferred  all  the  state  offices  upon  priests 
and  abbots,  and  had  erected  numerous  fortresses.  Hence 
there  were  many  malcontents  in  Rome,  in  communication 
with  Porcari  at  Bologna,  and  ready  to  join  in  his  plot. 
Arms  were  collected,  and  on  the  day  fixed  he  presented 
himself  to  his  fellow-conspirators  adorned  with  rich  robes 
and  a  gold  chain,  and  harangued  them  in  Latin  on  the 
duty  of  freeing  their  country  from  the  yoke  of  the 
priests.  His  design  was  to  set  fire  to  the  Vatican  on  the 
6th  January  1453,  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany ;  he  and  his 
followers  were  to  seize  the  pope,  the  cardinals,  and  Castle 
St  Angelo.  But  Nicholas  received  timely  warning ;  the 
conspirators'  house  was  surrounded ;  and  Porcari  himself 
was  seized  while  trying  to  escape,  confined  in  Castle  St 
Angelo,  and  put  to  death  with  nine  of  his  companions  on 
the  9th  January.  Others  shortly  suffered  the  same  fate. 

Under  Calixtus  III.  and  Pius  II.  affairs  went  on 
quietly  enough,  but  Paul  II.  (1464-71)  had  a  somewhat 
troubled  reign.  Yet  he  was  a  skilled  politician.  He  re- 
ordered the  finances  and  the  courts  of  justice,  punished 
crime  with  severity,  was  an  energetic  foe  to  the  Malatesta 
of  Rimini,  put  an  end  to  the  oppression  exercised  in  Rome 
by  the  wealthy  and  arrogant  house  of  Anguillara,  and  kept 
the  people  in  good  humour  with  continual  festivities. 
But — and  this  was  a  grave  defect  at  that  period — he 
extended  no  favour  to  learning,  and,  by  driving  many 
scholars  from  the  curia  to  make  room  for  his  own  kins- 
men, brought  a  storm  about  his  ears.  At  that  time  the 
house  of  Pomponio  Leto  was  the  rendezvous  of  learned 
men  and  the  seat  of  the  Roman  Academy.  Leto  was  an 
enthusiast  of  antiquity ;  and,  as  the  members  of  the 
Academy  all  assumed  old  Latin  names,  they  were  suspected 
of  a  design  to  re-establish  paganism  and  the  republican 
)f  government.  It  is  certain  that  they  all  inveighed  against 
ag  the  pope ;  and,  as  the  latter  was  no  man  of  half  measures, 
on  during  the  carnival  of  1468  he  suddenly  imprisoned  twenty 
,jon  Academicians,  and  even  subjected  a  few  of  them  to  torture. 
Pomponio  Leto,  although  absent  in  Venice,  was  also 
»n  arrested  and  tried ;  but  he  exculpated  himself,  craved  for- 
^  giveness,  and  was  set  at  liberty.  His  friends  were  also  re- 
leased, for  the  charge  of  conspiracy  proved  to  be  unfounded. 
Certain  members  of  the  Academy,  and  notably  Platina  in 
his  Lives  of  the  Popes,  afterwards  revenged  themselves  by 
stigmatizing  Paul  II.  as  the  persecutor  of  philosophy  and 
letters.  But  he  was  no  more  a  persecutor  than  a  patron 
of  learning ;  he  was  a  politician,  the  author  of  some  useful 
reforms,  and  solely  intent  on  the  consolidation  of  his 


absolute  power.  Among  his  reforms  may  be  classed  the 
revision  of  the  Roman  statutes  in  1469,  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  the  substance  while  preserving  the  form  of  the 
old  Roman  legislation,  and  entirely  stripping  it  of  all 
political  significance.  In  fact  the  pope's  will  was  now 
absolute,  and  even  in  criminal  cases  he  could  trample 
unhindered  on  the  common  law. 

There  was  still  a  senator  of  Rome,  whose  nomination 
was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  pope,  still  three  conser- 
vators, the  heads  of  the  rioni,  and  an  elected  council  of 
twenty-six  citizens.  Now  and  then  also  a  shadowy 
semblance  of  a  popular  assembly  was  held  to  cast  dust  in 
the  eyes  of  the  public,  but  even  this  was  not  for  long.  All 
these  officials,  together  with  the  judges  of  the  Capitol, 
retained  various  attributes  of  different  kinds.  They 
administered  justice  and  gave  sentence.  There  were 
numerous  tribunals  all  with  undefined  modes  of  procedure, 
so  that  it  was  very  difficult  for  the  citizens  to  ascertain  in 
which  court  justice  should  be  sought.  But  in  last  resort 
there  was  always  the  supreme  decision  of  the  pope.  Thus 
matters  remained  to  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution. 

For  the  completion  of  this  system  a  final  blow  had  to  be 
dealt  to  the  aristocracy,  whose  power  had  been  increased 
by  nepotism ;  and  it  was  dealt  by  bloodshed  under  the 
three  following  popes — Sixtus  IV.  (1471-84),  Innocent 
VIII.  (1484-92),  and  Alexander  VI.  (1492-1503)— each 
of  whom  was  worse  than  his  predecessor.  The  first,  by 
means  of  his  nephews,  continued  the  slaughter  of  the 
Colonna,  sending  an  army  against  them,  devastating  their 
estates  at  Marino,  and  beheading  the  protonotary  Lorenzo 
Colonna.  Innocent  VIII.  was  confronted  by  the  power  of 
the  Orsini,  who  so  greatly  endangered  his  life  by  their 
disturbances  in  the  city  that  he  was  only  saved  by  an 
alliance  with  Naples.  Neither  peace  nor  order  could  be 
lastingly  established  until  these  arrogant  barons  were 
overthrown.  This  task  was  accomplished  by  the  worst  of 
the  three  pontiffs,  Alexander  VI.  All  know  how  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  Orsini  was  compassed,  almost  simultaneously, 
by  the  pope  in  Rome  and  his  equally  iniquitous  son,  Caesar 
Borgia,  at  Sinigaglia  (1502).  This  pair  dealt  the  last  blow 
to  the  Roman  aristocracy  and  the  tyrants  of  Romagna,  and 
thus  the  temporal  dominion  of  the  papacy  was  finally 
assured.  The  republic  was  now  at  an  end  ;  it  had  shrivelled 
to  a  civil  municipality.  Its  institutions,  deprived  of  all 
practical  value,  lingered  on  like  ghosts  of  the  past,  subject 
from  century  to  century  to  unimportant  changes.  The  his- 
tory of  Rome  is  henceforth  absorbed  in  that  of  the  papacy. 

Nevertheless  the  republic  twice  attempted  to  rise  from  p0st- 
its  grave,  and  on  the  second  occasion  gave  proofs  of  heroism  mediae? 
worthy  of  its  past.  It  was  first  resuscitated  in  February  Rome> 
1798,  by  the  influence  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  the 
French  constitution  of  the  year  III.  was  rapidly  imitated. 
Rome  had  again  two  councils — the  tribunate  and  the  senate, 
with  five  consuls  constituting  the  executive  power.  But 
in  the  following  year,  owing  to  the  military  reverses  of 
the  French,  the  government  of  the  popes  was  restored 
until  1809,  when  Napoleon  I.  annexed  to  his  empire  the 
States  of  the  Church.  Rome  was  then  governed  by  a  con- 
sulta  straordinaria — a  special  commission — with  the  muni- 
cipal and  provincial  institutions  of  France.  In  1814  the 
papal  government  was  again  reinstated,  and  the  old 
institutions,  somewhat  modified  on  the  French  system, 
were  recalled  to  life.  Pius  IX.  (1846-77)  tried  to  intro- 
duce fresh  reforms,  and  to  improve  and  simplify  the  old 
machinery  of  state ;  but  the  advancing  tide  of  the  Italian 
revolution  of  1848  drove  him  from  Rome ;  the  republic 
was  once  more  proclaimed,  and  had  a  brief  but  glorious 
existence.  Its  programme  was  dictated  by  Joseph  Mazzini, 
who  with  Saffi  and  Armellini  formed  the  triumvirate  at 
the  head  of  the  Government.  United  Italy  was  to  be  a 


TOPOGRAPHY.] 


ROME 


807 


republic  with  Rome  for  her  capital.  The  rhetorical  idea 
of  Cola  di  Rienzo  became  heroic  in  1849.  The  constituent 
assembly  (9th  February  1849)  proclaimed  the  fall  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  popes,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
republic  which  was  to  be  not  only  of  Rome  but  of  all 
Italy.  France,  although  then  herself  a  republic,  assumed 
the  unenviable  task  of  re-establishing  the  temporal  power 
by  force  of  arms.  But  the  gallant  defence  of  Rome  by 
General  Garibaldi  covered  the  republic  with  glory.  The 
enemy  was  repulsed,  and  the  army  of  the  Neapolitan  king, 
sent  to  restore  the  pope,  was  also  driven  off.  Then,  how- 
ever, France  despatched  a  fresh  and  more  powerful  force ; 
Rome  was  vigorously  besieged,  and  at  last  compelled  to 
surrender.  With  June  1849  begins  the  new  series  of 
pontifical  laws  designed  to  restore  the  government  of  Pius 
IX.,  whose  reign  down  to  1870  was  that  of  an  absolute 
sovereign.  Then  the  Italian  Government  entered  Rome 
(20th  September  1870),  proclaimed  the  national  constitu- 
tion (9th  October  1870),  and  the  Eternal  City  became  the 
capital  of  Italy.  Thus  the  scheme  of  national  unity,  the 
natural  outcome  of  the  history  of  Rome  and  of  Italy, 
impossible  of  accomplishment  under  the  rule  of  the  popes, 
was  finally  achieved  by  the  monarchy  of  Savoy,  which,  as 
the  true  representative  and  personification  of  Italian 
interests,  has  abolished  the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy 
and  made  Rome  the  seat  of  government  of  the  united 
country.  (p.  v.) 

LEADING  AUTHORITIES. — Ancient  History. — (1)  Monarchy  and 
Republic: — Mommsen,  Romische  Geschichte,  vols.  i. -iii.  (7th  ed., 
Berlin,  1881);  Schwegler - Clason,  Romische  Geschichte,  5  vols., 
1867-1876,  Tubingen-Halle  ;  Ihne,  Romische  Geschichte,  5  vols., 
Leipsic,  1868-1879  ;  Niebuhr,  History  of  Rome,  3  vols.  (Eng.  tr., 
1855),  and  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Rome,  3  vols.  (Eng.  tr.,  1849) ; 
Arnold,  History  of  Rome,  3  vols.,  1848,  and  Later  Roman  Common- 


wealth, 2  vols. ,  1845 ;  Long,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Republic, 
5  vols.,  1864;  Drumann,  Geschichte  Roms,  6  vols.,  Konigsberg, 
1834.  (2)  Empire: — Tillemont,  Histoire  des  Empereurs,  6  vols., 
Brussels,  1732  ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  8 
vols.  (ed.  of  1862)  ;  Merivale,  The  Romans  under  the  Empire,  8 
vols.,  1865  ;  Champagny,  Lcs  Cesars,  4  vols.,  Paris,  1867  ;  Momm- 
sen, Rim.  Gesch.,  vol.  v.,  Berlin,  1885  ;  Schiller,  Geschichte  d, 
Kaiscrzeit,  2  vols.,  Gotha,  1883.  Duruy,  Histoire  des  Romains, 
5  vols.,  Paris,  1870,  and  Ranke,  Weltgeschichte,  vols.  ii.,  iii.,  iv., 
Leipsic,  1883,  deal  with  both  periods.  (3)  Antiquities,  &c. : — 
Mommsen  and  Marquardt,  Handbuch  d.  Romischen  Alterthiimer ; 
Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  2  vols.  ;  Marquardt,  Staatsverwaltung,  3 
vols.  ;  Id.,  Privatleben  d.  Romer,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1871-82 ;  Lange, 
Romische  Alterthumer,  3  vols.,  Berlin,  1863  ;  Madvig,  Verfassung 
v.  Ferwaltung  d.  Romischen  Stoats,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1881  ;  Fried- 
laender,  Sittengeschichte  Roms,  Leipsic,  1869. 

Mediaeval. — Vitale,  Storia  diplomatica  de'  Senatori  di  Roma, 
2  vols.,  Rome,  1791;  Galletti,  Del  primicerio  della  Santa  Sede 
Apostolica  e  di  altri  ufficiali  maggiori  del  sagro  palazzo  Lateranense, 
Rome,  1776 ;  Vendettini,  Del  Senate  Romano,  Rome,  1782 ; 
Baronius,  Annales  Ecclesiastici,  continued  by  Raynaldus,  42  vols. 
fol.  (1738-56),  and  the  recent  continuations  of  Theiner  relating  to 
the  years  1572-85  ;  J.  Ficker,  Forschungen  zur  Reichs-  und  Rechts- 
geschichte  Italiens,  4  vols.,  Innsbruck,  1868-74  ;  Savigny,  Geschichte 
des  romischen  Rechts  im  Mittelalter  (frequently  reprinted  and  trans- 
lated into  all  the  principal  languages) ;  Leo,  Entwickelung  der 
Verfassung  der  lombardischen  Stddte,  Hamburg,  1824  ;  M.  A.  von 
Bethmann  -  Hollweg,  Ursprung  der  lombardischen  Stddtefreiheit 
(Anhang  : — Schicksale  der  romischen  Stadtverfassung  im  Exarchat 
und  in  Rom),  Bonn,  1846  ;  Hegel,  Geschichte  der  Stddteverfassung 
von  Italien,  Leipsic,  1847;  Giesebrecht,  "Ueber  die  stadtischen 
Verhaltnisse  im  X.  Jahrhundert,"  at  end  of  vol.  i.  of  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit,  Brunswick,  1863;  "Studi  e  document! 
di  Storia  e  Diritto,"  in  Annuario  di  Conferenze  storico-giuridiche 
(Rome,  1880  sq.) ;  Archivio  della  Reale  Societa  Romana  di  Storia 
Patria  (the  other  publications  of  the  same  society,  as,  e.g.,  the 
Regesto  di  Farfa,  may  also  be  consulted  with  advantage) ;  J.  Papen- 
cordt,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom,  Paderborn,  1857  ;  Id.,  Cola  di 
Rienzo,  Hamburg,  1841  ;  Gregorovius,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom 
(8  vols.,  Stuttgart,  finished  in  1872  ;  a  4th  edition  now  in  the 
press) ;  Reumont,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom,  3  vols.,  Berlin,  1867-68. 


PART  II.— TOPOGRAPHY  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY. 


Rome1  is  situated  (41°  53'  52"  N.  lat.,  12°  28'  40"  E.  long.)  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  Italy,  14  miles  from  its  present  mouth,  in 
a  great  plain  of  alluvial  and  marine  deposit,  broken  into  elevations 
by  numerous  masses  of  volcanic  matter.  The  nine  or  ten  hills  and 
ridges  on  which  the  city  stands  are  formed  of  masses  of  tufa  or  con- 
glomerated sand  and  ashes  thrown  out  by  neighbouring  volcanoes 
now  extinct,  but  active  down  to  a  very  recent  period.  One  group 
of  these  volcanoes  is  that  around  Lago  Bracciano,  while  another, 
still  nearer  to  Rome,  composes  the  Alban  Hills.  That  some  at 
least  of  these  craters  have  been  in  a  state  of  activity  at  no  very 
distant  period  has  been  shown  by  the  discovery  at  many  places  of 
broken  pottery  and  bronze  implements  below  the  strata  of  tufa  or 
other  volcanic  deposits.  Traces  of  human  life  have  even  been  found 
below  that  great  flood  of  lava  which,  issuing  from  the  Alban  Hills, 
flowed  towards  the  site  of  Rome,  only  stopping  about  3  miles  short, 
by  the  tomb  of  Cecilia  Metella. 

The  superficial  strata  on  which  Rome  is  built  are  of  three  main 
kinds  :  (1)  the  plains  and  valleys  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber  are 
covered,  as  it  were,  by  a  sea  of  alluvial  deposit,  in  the  midst  of 
which  (2)  the  hills  of  volcanic  origin  rise  like  so  many  islands  ;  and 
(3)  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  around  the  Janiculan  and  Vatican 
Hills,  are  extensive  remains  of  an  ancient  sea-beach,  conspicuous 
in  parts  by  its  fine  golden  sand  and  its  deposits  of  greyish  white 
potter's  clay.  From  its  yellow  sand  the  Janiculan  has  been  some- 
times known  as  the  Golden  Hill,  a  name  which  survives  in  the 
church  on  its  summit  called  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio  (Monte  d'Oro). 
In  addition  to  these  three  chief  deposits,  at  a  few  places,  especially 
in  the  Aventine  and  Pincian  Hills,  under-strata  of  travertine  crop 
out — a  hard  limestone  rock,  once  in  solution  in  running  water,  and 
deposited  gradually  as  the  water  lost  its  carbonic-acid  solvent,  a 
process  still  rapidly  going  on  at  Terni,  Tivoli,  and  other  places  in 
the  neighbourhood.  The  conditions  under  which  the  tufa  hills 
were  formed  have  been  very  various,  as  is  clearly  seen  by  an  ex- 
amination of  the  rock  at  different  places.  The  volcanic  ashes  and 
sand  of  which  the  tufa  is  composed  appear  in  parts  to  lie  just  as 
they  were  showered  down  from  the  crater ;  in  that  case  it  shows 
but  little  sign  of  stratification,  and  consists  wholly  of  igneous  pro- 
ducts. In  parts  time  and  pressure  have  bound  together  these 


1  The  limited  space  available  for  the  following  article  is  devoted  mainly  to 
those  buildings  of  which  some  remains  still  exist,  to  the  unavoidable  neglect 
of  a  large  number  which  are  known  only  from  documentary  evidence.  The 
plan  of  the  Forum  (Plate  VII.)  and  nearly  all  the  cuts  have  been  measured  and 
drawn  by  the  author  specially  to  illustrate  this  article. 


scoriae  into  a  soft  and  friable  rock  ;  in  other  places  they  still  lie  in 
loose  sandy  beds  and  can  be  dug  out  with  the  spade.  Other  masses 
of  tufa  again  show  signs  either  of  having  been  deposited  in  water, 
or  else  washed  away  from  their  first  resting-place  and  redeposited 
with  visible  stratifications ;  this  is  shown  by  the  water-worn  pebbles 
and  chips  of  limestone  rock,  which  form  a  conglomerate  bound 
together  by  the  volcanic  ashes  into  a  sort  of  natural  cement.  A 
third  variety  is  that  which  exists  on  the  Palatine  Hill.  Here  the 
shower  of  red-hot  ashes  has  evidently  fallen  on  a  thickly-growing 
forest,  and  the  burning  wood,  partly  smothered  by  the  ashes,  has 
been  converted  into  charcoal,  large  masses  of  which  are  embedded 
in  the  tufa  rock.  In  some  places  charred  branches  of  trees,  their 
form  well  preserved,  can  be  easily  distinguished.  The  so-called 
"  wall  of  Romulus  "  is  built  of  this  conglomerate  of  tufa  and  charred 
wood  ;  a  very  perfect  section  of  the  branch  of  a  tree  is  visible  on 
one  of  the  blocks  by  the  Scalse  Caci. 

So  great  have  been  the  physical  changes  in  the  site  of  Rome  Physical 
since  the  first  dawn  of  the  historic  period  that  it  is  difficult  now  changes 
to  realize  what  its  aspect  once  was.  The  Forum  Romanum,  the  in  site. 
Velabrum,  the  great  Campus  Martius  (now  the  most  crowded  part 
of  modern  Rome),  and  other  valleys  were  once  almost  impassable 
marshes  or  pools  of  water  (Ov.,  Fast.,  vi.  401  ;  Dionys.,  ii.  50). 
The  draining  of  these  valleys  was  effected  by  means  of  the  great 
cloacae,  which  were  among  the  earliest  important  architectural 
works  of  Rome  (Varro,  Ling.  Lat.,  iv.  149).  Again,  the  various 
hills  and  ridges  were  once  more  numerous  and  very  much  more 
abrupt  than  they  are  now.  At  an  early  period,  when  each  hill 
was  crowned  by  a  separate  village  fort,  the  great  object  of  the 
inhabitants  was  to  increase  the  steepness  of  its  cliffs  and  render 
access  difficult.  At  a  later  time,  when  Rome  was  united  under 
one  government,  the  very  physical  peculiarities  which  had  originally 
made  its  hills  so  populous,  through  their  natural  adaptability  for 
defence,  became  extremely  inconvenient  in  a  united  city,  where 
architectural  symmetry  and  splendour  were  above  all  things  aimed 
at.  Hence  the  most  gigantic  engineering  works  were  undertaken  : 
tops  of  hills  were  levelled,  whole  ridges  cut  away,  and  gentle  slopes 
formed  in  the  place  of  abrupt  cliffs.  The  levelling  of  the  Velia 
and  the  excavation  of  the  site  for  Trajan's  forum  are  instances  of 
this.  The  same  works  were  continued  in  the  Middle  Ages,  as 
when  in  the  14th  century  an  access  was  made  to  the  Capitoline 
Arx  2  from  the  side  of  the  Campus  Martius  ;  up  to  that  time  a  steep 
cliff  had  prevented  all  approach  except  from  the  side  of  the  Forum. 


2  By  the  great  flight  of  marble  steps  up  to  S.  Maria  in  Ara  CoslL 


808 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


And  under  the  present  Government  an  even  more  extensive  plan, 
called  the  "piano  regolatore,"  is  being  (1886)  gradually  carried 
out,  with  the  object  of  reducing  hills  and  valleys  to  one  uniform 
level,  on  which  wide  boulevards  are  being  constructed  on  the  chess- 
board plan  of  an  American  city.  The  constant  fires  which  have 
devastated  Rome  have  been  a  great  agent  in  obliterating  the  natural 
contour  of  the  ground.  The  accumulated  rubbish  from  these  and 
other  causes  has  in  some  places  covered  the  ground  to  the  depth 
of  40  feet,  especially  in  the  valleys. 

imate        The  climate  of  Rome  in  ancient  times  appears  to  have  been 
id  colder  than  it  is  at  present.     Malarious  fever  in  and  around  the 

lalth.  city  existed  to  some  extent,  but  to  a  much  less  degree  than  it  does 
now.  The  magnificent  villa  of  Hadrian  and  other  country  houses 
near  Rome  are  built  on  sites  which  are  now  very  unhealthy.  The 
sanitary  superiority  of  the  Campagna  in  ancient  times  was  mainly 
due  to  its  more  complete  drainage  and  thicker  population.  That 
fever  did  exist  is,  however,  proved  in  many  ways.  Altars  to  the 
goddess  Febris  were  erected  on  the  Palatine  and  other  hills,  and 
on  the  Esquiline  was  a  grove  dedicated  to  Mephitis.  The  popula- 
tion of  Rome 1  increased  with  great  rapidity,  till,  during  its  most 
populous  period  in  the  4th  century,  it  was  probably  not  less  than 
2£  millions.8 

ANCIENT  ROME. 
Architecture  and  Construction. 

lilding  The  chief  building  materials  used  in  ancient  Rome  were  those 
aterials. enumerated  below.  (1)  Tufa,  the  "ruber  et  niger  tophus"  of 
Vitruvius  (ii.  7),  the  formation  of  which  has  been  described  above, 
is  usually  a  warm  brown  or  yellow  colour.  The  Aventine,  Palatine, 
and  Capitoline  Hills  contained  quarries  of  the  tufa,  much  worked 
at  an  early  period  (see  Liv.,  xxvi.  27,  xxxix.  44,  and  Varro,  L.L. , 
iv.  151).  It  is  a  very  ba.d  "weather-stone,"  but  stands  well  if  pro- 
tected with  stucco  (Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxvi.  48).  (2)  Lapis  Albanus, 
from  Alba  Longa,  is  also  of  volcanic  origin,  a  conglomerate  of  ashes, 
gravel,  and  fragments  of  stone  ;  its  quarries  are  still  worked  at 
Albano  and  Marino.  (3)  Lapis  Gabinus,  from  Gabii,  is  very  similar 
to  the  last,  but  harder  and  a  better  weather -stone  ;  it  contains 
large  lumps  of  broken  lava,  products  of  an  earlier  eruption,  and 
small  pieces  of  limestone.  According  to  Tacitus  (Ann.,  xv.  43), 
it  is  fire-proof,  and  this  is  also  the  case  with  the  Alban  stone. 
Both  are  now  called  peperino,  from  the  black  scoriae,  like  pepper- 
corns, with  which  the  brown  conglomerate  mass  is  studded.  (4) 
Silex  (mod.  selce),  a  lava  from  the  now  extinct  volcanoes  in  the 
Alban  Hills,  was  used  for  paving  roads,  and  when  broken  into 
small  pieces  and  mixed  with  lime  and  pozzolana  formed  an  im- 
mensely durable  concrete.  It  is  dark  grey,  very  hard,  and  breaks 
with  a  slightly  conchoidal  fracture  (Plin.,  ff.N.,  xxxvi.  29  ;  Vitr., 
ii.  7),  but  does  not  resemble  what  is  now  called  silex  or  flint.  (5) 
Lapis  Tiburtinus  (travertine),  the  chief  quarries  of  which  are  at 
Tibur  (Tivoli)  and  other  places  along  the  river  Anio,  is  a  hard  pure 
carbonate  of  lime,  of  a  creamy  white  colour,  deposited  from  run- 
ning or  dripping  water  in  a  highly  stratified  form,  with  frequent 
cavities  and  fissures  lined  with  crystals.  As  Vitruvius  (ii.  5)  says, 
it  is  a  good  weather-stone,  but  is  soon  calcined  by  fire.  If  laid 
horizontally  it  is  very  strong,  but  if  set  on  end  its  crystalline  struc- 
ture is  a  great  source  of  weakness,  and  it  splits  from  end  to  end. 
Neglect  on  the  part  of  Roman  builders  of  this  important  precau- 
tion in  many  cases  caused  a  complete  failure  in  the  structure.  This 
was  notably  the  case  in  the  rostra  (see  below).  (6)  Pulvis  Puteo- 
lanus  (pozzolana),  so  called  from  extensive  beds  of  it  at  Puteoli, 
is  a  volcanic  product,  which  looks  like  red  sandy  earth,  and  lies 
in  enormous  beds  under  and  round  the  city  of  Rome.  When  mixed 
with  lime  it  forms  a  very  strong  hydraulic  cement,  of  equal  use  in 
concrete,  mortar,  or  undercoats  of  stucco.  It  is  to  this  material 
that  the  concrete  walls  of  Rome  owe  their  enormous  strength  and 
durability,  in  many  cases  far  exceeding  those  of  the  most  massive 
stone  masonry.  Vitruvius  devotes  a  chapter  (bk.  ii.  ch.  (?)  to  this 
very  important  material. 

Bricks  were  either  sun-dried  or  kiln-baked  (latercs  crudi  aut 
cocti).  The  remarks  of  Vitruvius  (ii.  3)  seem  to  refer  wholly  to 
sun-dried  bricks,  of  which  no  examples  now  exist  in  Rome.  It  is 
very  important  to  recognize  the  fact  that  among  the  existing  ancient 
buildings  of  Rome  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  brick  wall  or  a  brick 
arch  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word ;  bricks  were  merely  used  as  a  fac- 
ing to  concrete  walls  and  arches  and  have  no  constructional  import- 
ance. Concrete  (fartura,  cxmentum,  or  opus  structure  ctementitise, 
Vitr.,  ii.  4,  6,  8),  the  most  important  of  all  the  materials  used,  is 
made  of  rough  pieces  of  stone  or  of  fragments  of  brick,  averaging 
from  about  the  size  of  a  man's  fist  and  embedded  in  cement  made 
of  lime  and  pozzolana, — forming  one  solid  mass  of  enormous 


1  Sec  a  good  article  on  this  subject  in  the  Monografia  di  Roma,  vol.  ii.,  1878. 

2  Work*  to  be  consulted.— GEOLOGY.— Brocchi,  Suolo  di  Kama,  1820,  and  its 
supplement  by  Ponzi,  Storia  fisica  di  Roma,  1867 ;   Mantovani,  Descriziont 
gechgica  delta  Campagna  di  Roma,  1875  ;  Giordano  and  Mantovani,  Monografia 
di  Roma,  1878,  vol.  i.  pp.  i.-cxxiii.,  and  pp.  51-79 ;  Mauro,  Analisi  chimica  delle 
aque  potabUi  di  Roma,  1884 ;  Pinto,  Aque  potaUli  mil'  Agro  Romano,  1883. 
BOTANY  AND  ZOOLOGY.— Bonaparte,  Fauna  Italica,  1835;  Sanguinetti,  Pro- 
dromus  Florx  Romans  ;  Deakin,  Flora  of  the  Colosseum,  1855  :  Terrigi,  "Flora, 
Ac.,  del  Quirinale,"  in  Acad.  Pont.  d.  Lincei,  May  1882. 


strength  and  coherence.  Stucco,  cement,  and  mortar  (tectorium, 
opus  albarium,  structura  testacea,  and  other  names)  are  of  many 
kinds ;  the  ancient  Romans  especially  excelled  in  their  manufac- 
ture. The  cement  used  for  lining  the  channels  of  aqueducts  (opus 
signinum)  was  made  of  lime  mixed  with  pounded  brick  or  potsherds 
and  pozzolaua ;  the  same  mixture  was  used  for  floors  under  the 
"nucleus  "  or  finer  cement  on  which  the  mosaic  or  marble  paving- 
slabs  were  bedded,  and  was  called  csementum  ex  tcslis  tunsis.  For 
walls,  three  or  four  coats  of  stucco  were  used,  often  as  much  as  5 
inches  thick  altogether  ;  the  lower  coats  were  of  lime  and  pozzolann, 
the  finishing  coats  of  powdered  white  marble  (opus  albarium)  suit- 
able to  receive  painting.  Even  marble  buildings  were  usually 
coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  this  fine  white  stucco,  nearly  as  hard 
and  durable  as  the  marble  itself— a  practice  also  employed  in  the 
finest  buildings  of  the  Greeks — probably  because  it  formed  a  more 
absorbent  ground  for  coloured  decoration  ;  stone  columns  coated  in 
this  way  were  called  "columnse  dealbatse  "  (Cic.,  In  Verr.,  ii.  1, 
52  sq.).  For  the  kinds  of  sand  used  in  mortar  and  stucco  Vitruvius 
(ii.  4)  mentions  sea,  pit,  and  river  sand,  saying  that  pit  sand  is  to 
be  preferred. 

Marble  appears  to  have  come  into  use  about  the  beginning  of  the  Deco 
1st  century  B.C.     Its  introduction  was  at  first  viewed  with  great  tive 
jealousy,  as  savouring  of  Greek  luxury.      The  orator  Crassus  was  mate 
the  first  to  use  it  in  his  house  on  the  Palatine,  built  about  92  B.C.  ; 
and,  though  he  had  only  six  small  columns  of  Hymettian  marble, 
he  was  for  this  luxury  nicknamed  the  "Palatine  Venus"  by  the 
stern  republican  M.  Brutus  (Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxvi.  3).      The  tem- 
porary wooden  theatre  of  the  sedile  M.  jEmilius  Scaurus,  built  in  58 
B.C.,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  building  in  which  marble  was 
more  largely  used  ;  its  360  columns  and  the  lower  order  of  its  sceua 
were  of  Greek  marble  (see  Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxvi.  3,  24).     In  a  very  few 
years,  under  the  rule  of  Augustus,  marble  became  very  common.3 

Of  Avhite  statuary  marble  four  principal  varieties  were  used.  (1) 
Marmor  Lunense.  from  Luna,  near  the  modern  Carrara  (Strabo,  v.), 
is  of  many  qualities,  from  the  purest  creamy  white  and  the  finest 
grain  to  the  coarser  sorts  disfigured  with  bluish  grey  streaks.  (Ex., 
the  eleven  Corinthian  columns  in  the  Dogana  di  Terra.)  (2)  Mar- 
mor Hymettium,  from  Mount  Hymettus,  near  Athens,  is  coarser  in 
grain  than  the  best  Luna  marble  and  is  usually  marked  with  grey 
or  blue  striations  (Strabo,  x. ).  (Ex. ,  the  forty-two  columns  in  the 
nave  of  S  Maria  Maggiore  and  the  columns  in  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli.) 

(3)  Marmor  Pentelicum,  from  Mount  Pentelicus,  also  near  Athens, 
is  very  fine  in  grain  and  of  a  pure  white  ;  it  was  more  used  for 
architectural  purposes  than  for  statues,  though  some  sculptors  pre- 
ferred it  above  all  others,  especially  Scopas  and  Praxiteles  (Paus., 
Arcad.,  viii.).    (Ex.,  the  bust  of  the  young  Augustus  in  the  Vatican.) 

(4)  Marmor  Parium,  from  the  Isle   of  Paros,  is  very  beautiful, 
though  coarse  in  texture,  having  a  very  crystalline  structure. 

Nine  chief  varieties  of  coloured  marbles  were  used  in  Rome.  (1)  Colo 
Marmor  Numidicum  (mod.  giallo  antico;  Plin.,  H.N.,  \.  3),  from  marl 
Numidia  and  Libya,  hence  also  called  Libycum,  is  of  a  rich  yellow, 
deepening  to  orange  and  even  pink.  Enormous  quantities  of  it  were 
used,  especially  for  columns,  wall-linings,  and  pavements.  (Ex., 
six  large  columns  in  the  Pantheon  and  seven  on  the  arch  of  Con- 
stantine,  taken  from  the  arch  of  Trajan ;  the  eighth  column  is  in 
the  Lateran  basilica.)  (2)  Marmor  Carystium  (mod.  cipollino),  from 
Carystus  in  Eubcea  (Strabo,  x. ),  has  alternate  wavy  strata  of  white 
and  pale  green — the  "undosa  Carystos  "  of  Statius  (Silv.,  i.  5,  36). 
From  its  well-defined  layers  like  an  onion  (cipolla)  is  derived  its 
modern  name.  (Ex. ,  columns  of  temple  of  Faustina. )  (3)  Marmor 
Phrygium  or  Synnadicum  (mod.  pavonazctto),  from  Synnada  in 
Phrygia  (Strabo,  xii.  ;  Juv.,  xiv.  307  ;  Tibull,  iii.  3,  13),  is  a 
slightly  translucent  marble,  with  rich  purple  markings,  violet 
verging  on  red.  It  was  fabled  to  be  stained  with  the  blood  of  Atys 
(Stat.,  Silv.,  i.  5,  36).  (Ex.,  twelve  fluted  columns  in  S.  Lorenzo 
fuori  le  Mura,  and  large  columns  in  the  apse  of  S.  Paolo  fuori,  saved 
from  the  ancient  nave  of  the  basilica,  burnt  in  1823.)  (4)  Marmor 
lasium  (probably  the  modern  porta  santa),  from  lasus,  is  mottled 
with  large  patches  of  dull  red,  olive  green,  and  white.  The  "  holy 
door"  of  St  Peter's  is  framed  with  it,  hence  its  modern  name. 
(Ex.,  the  slabs  in  front  of  the  Graecostasis  and  four  columns  in  S. 
Agnese  fuori  le  Mura. )  (5)  Marmor  Chium  (probably  the  modern 
Africano),  from  Chios,  is  similar  in  colour  and  marking  to  the 
porta  santa,  but  more  brilliant  in  tint.  (Ex.,  a  great  part  of  the 
paving  of  the  Basilica  Julia  and  two  large  columns  in  the  centre  of 
the  facade  of  St  Peter's.)  (6)  Rosso  antico  (the  ancient  name  is  un- 
known) is  a  very  close-grained  marble  of  a  rich  deep  red,  like  blood. 
As  a  rule  it  does  not  occur  in  large  pieces,  but  was  much  used  for 

3  The  oft-quoted  boast  of  Augustus  (Suet.,  Aug.,  29)  that  he  "  found  Rome 
of  brick  and  left  it  of  marble"  has  probably  much  truth  in  it,  if  for  "brick" 
we  read  "peperino  and  tufa."  In  the  time  of  Augustus  burnt  brick  was  very 
little  used,  the  usual  wall-facings  being  opus  quadratum  of  tufa  or  peperino, 
and  opus  reticulatum  of  tufa  only.  The  confessiones  or  crypts  in  front  of  the  higli 
altars  of  St  Peter's,  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  and  other  churches 
in  Rome  are  museums  of  the  rarer  and  more  splendid  marbles  used  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  as  their  walls  and  pavements  are  covered  with  the  richest 
specimens  found  during  excavations.  All  the  fine  marbles  in  Roman  churches 
have  been  taken  from  ancient  buildings  ;  an  excellent  account  of  these  is  given 
by  Corsi,  Pietre  antiche,  1845. 


ARCHEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


809 


small  cornices  and  other  mouldings  in  interiors  of  buildings.  Its 
quarries  in  Greece  are  still  worked.  (The  largest  pieces  known  are 
the  fourteen  steps  to  the  high  altar  of  S.  Prassede  and  two  columns 
nearly  12  feet  high  in  the  Rospigliosi  Casino  dell'  Aurora.)  (7) 
Nero  antico  is  probably  the  ancient  marmor  Tsenarium,  from  Cape 
Ttenarus  in  Sparta.  It  is  mentioned  by  Tibullus  (iii.  3,  14)  in  con- 
junction with  Phrygian  and  Carystian  marbles  ;  see  also  Prop.,  iii. 
2,  and  Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxvi.  43.  (Ex.,  two  columns  in  the  choir  of 
the  church  of  Ara  Cceli.)  (8)  Lapis  Atracius  (verde  antico),  found 
at  Atrax  in  Thessaly  (Liv.,  xxxii.  15),  was  one  of  the  favourite 
materials  for  decorative  architecture  ;  it  is  not  strictly  a  marble 
(i.e.,  a  calcareous  stone)  but  a  variety  of  "precious  serpentine," 
with  patches  of  white  and  brown  on  a  brilliant  green  ground.  It 
seldom  occurs  in  large  masses.  (The  finest  known  specimens  arc 
the  twenty -four  columns  beside  the  niches  in  the  nave  of  the 
Lateran  basilica.)  (9)  The  hard  Oriental  alabaster,  the  "onyx"  or 
" alabastrites "  of  Pliny  (H. N.,  xxxvi.  12,  xxxvii.  32);  its  chief 
quarries  were  on  the  Nile  near  Thebes,1  in  Arabia,  and  near 
Damascus.  In  Pliny's  age  it  was  a  great  rarity  ;  but  in  later  times 
it  was  introduced  in  large  quantities,  and  fragments  of  a  great  many 
columns  have  been  found  on  the  Palatine,  in  the  baths  of  Caracalla, 
and  elsewhere.  It  is  semi-transparent,  and  beautifully  marked 
with  concentric  nodules  and  wavy  strata.  An  immense  number  of 
other  less  common  marbles  have  been  found,  including  many 
varieties  of  breccia,  but  their  ancient  names  are  unknown. 
Qlrites  From  the  latter  part  of  the  1st  century  B.C.  hard  stones — granites 
aa  and  basalts — were  introduced  in  great  quantities.  The  basalts — 
Mlts.  "  basanites  "  of  Pliny  (xxxvi.  11) — are  very  refractory,  and  can  only 
be  worked  by  the  help  of  emery  or  diamond  dust.  The  former  was 
obtained  largely  at  Naxos  ;  diamond-dust  drills  are  mentioned  by 
Pliny  (H.N.,  xxxvii.  76).  The  basalts  are  black,  green,  and  brown, 
and  are  usually  free  from  spots  or  markings  ;  examples  of  all  three 
exist,  but  are  comparatively  rare.  The  red  variety  called  "por- 
phyry "  was  used  in  enormous  quantities.  It  is  the  "  porphyrites  " 
of  Pliny  (H.N.,  xxxvi.  11),  and  was  brought  from  Egypt.  It  has  a 
rich  red  ground,  covered  with  small  specks  of  white  felspar ;  hence 
it  was  also  called  "leptopsephos."  A  large  number  of  columns  of 
it  exist,  and  it  was  much  used  for  pavements  of  opus  Alexandrinum. 
A  rich  green  porphyry  or  basalt  was  also  largely  used,  but  not  in 
such  great  masses  as  the  red  porphyry.  It  has  a  brilliant  green 
ground  covered  with  rectangular  light  green  crystals  of  felspar. 
This  is  the  lapis  Laced&monius  (wrongly  called  by  the  modern 
Romans  "  serpentino "),  so  named  from  its  quarries  in  Mount 
Taygetus  in  Lacedsemonia  (Paus.,  Lac.,  iii.  and  viii.  ;  Plin.,  H.N., 
xxxvi.  11  ;  Juv.,  xi.  173).  It  appears  to  have  been  mostly  used 
for  pavements  and  panels  of  wall  linings.  The  granites  used  in 
Rome  came  mostly  from  near  Philae  on  the  Nile  (Plin.,  H.N., 
xxxvi.  13).  The  red  sort  was  called  lapis  pyrrhopcecilus  and  the 
grey  lapis psaronius.  The  columns  in  the  Basilica  Ulpia  are  a  fine 
example  of  the  latter  ;  both  sorts  are  used  for  the  columns  of  the 
Pantheon  and  those  of  the  temple  of  Saturn  in  the  Fomm.  Gigantic 
ships  were  specially  made  to  carry  the  obelisks  and  other  great 
monoliths  (Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxvi.  1,  14). 

Ahi-  The  style  of  architecture  employed  in  ancient  Rome  may  be  said 
Kural  to  have  passed  through  three  stages, — the  Etruscan,  the  Greek,  and 
stes-  the  Roman.  During  the  first  few  centuries  of  the  existence  of  the 
city,  both  the  methods  of  construction  and  the  designs  employed 
appear  to  have  been  purely  Etruscan.  The  earliest  temples  were 
either  simple  cellse  without  columns,  as  we  see  on  the  Palatine  by 
the  Scalre  Caci,  or  else,  in  the  case  of  the  grander  temples,  such  as 
that  of  Capitoline  Jupiter,  the  columns  were  very  widely  spaced 
(arseostyle),  and  consequently  had  entablatures  of  wooden  beams. 
The  architectural  decorations  were  more  generally  in  gilt  bronze  or 
painted  terra-cotta  than  in  stone,  and  the  paintings  or  statues 
which  decorated  the  buildings  were  usually  the  work  of  Etruscan 
artists.2  The  Greek  influence  is  more  obvious  ;  almost  all  the 
temples  of  the  earlier  imperial  age  are  Greek,  with  certain  modifi- 
cations, not  only  in  general  design  but  in  details  and  ornaments. 
Greek  architects  were  largely  employed  ;  and  Roman  architects 
such  as  Vitruvius  and  C.  Mutius  in  the  1st  century  B.C.,  Severus 
and  Celer  under  Nero,  and  Rabirius  under  Domitian  were  Greek 
by  education,  and  probably  studied  at  Athens  (see  Vitr.,  vii.,  Prsef. ; 
Hirt,  Gesch.  d.  Baukunst,  ii.  p.  257  ;  Burn,  Rome,  p.  76).3  The 
Romans,  however,  though  quite  devoid  of  artistic  originality,  were 


1  These  Nile  quarries  have  been  worked  during  the  present  century,  and 
many  blocks  were  imported  into  Rome  for  the  rebuilding  of  S.  Paolo  fuori  le 
Mura. 

2  Pliny  (H.N.,  xxxv.  45),  quoting  Varro,  says  that  the  decorations  in  paint- 
ing and  sculpture  of  the  temple  of  Ceres  near  the  Circus  Maximus  (now  8. 
Maria  in  Cosmedin)  were  the  work  of  the  first  Greek  artists  employed  in  Rome, 
and  that  before  that  (c.  493  B.C.)  "all  things  in  temples  were  Etruscan." 
Vitruvius  (iii.  3)  says,  "  Oruantque  signis  flctilibus  aut  sereis  inauratis  earum 
fastigia  Tuscanico  more,  uti  est  ad  Circum  Maximum  Cereris,  et  Herculis 
Pompeiani,  item  Capitolii "  (comp.  iv.  7,  vi.  3). 

3  The  frequent  use  of  engaged  columns  is  a  peculiarity  of  Roman  architec- 
ture, but  it  is  not  without  precedent  in  Greek  buildings  of  the  best  period, 
e.g.,  in  the  lion-tomb  at  Cnidus  and  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Agrigentum.    Sur- 
face enrichments  over  the  mouldings  were  used  far  more  largely  by  the  Romans 
than  by  the  Greeks. 


very  able  engineers,  and  this  led  to  the  development  of  a  new  and 
more  purely  Roman  style,  in  which  the  restrictions  imposed  by  the 
use  of  the  stone  lintel  were  put  aside  and  large  spaces  were  covered 
with  vaults  and  domes  cast  in  semifluid  concrete,  a  method  which 
had  the  enormous  advantage  of  giving  the  arched  form  without  the 
constant  thrust  at  the  springing  which  makes  true  arches  or  vaults 
of  wide  span  so  difficult  to  deal  with.  The  enormous  vaults  of  the 
great  thermse,  the  basilica  of  Constantine,  and  the  like  cover  their 
spaces  with  one  solid  mass  like  a  metal  lid,  giving  the  form  but  not 
the  principle  of  the  arch,  and  thus  allowing  the  vault  to  be  set  on 
walls  which  would  at  -once  have  been  thrust  apart  had  they  been 
subjected  to  the  immense  leverage  which  a  true  arched  vault  con- 
stantly exerts  on  its  imposts.4  This  is  a  very  important  point,  and 
one  which  is  usually  overlooked,  mainly  owing  to  the  Roman  prac- 
tice of  facing  their  concrete  with  bricks,  which  (from  an  examina- 
tion of  the  surface  only)  appear  to  be  a  principal  item  in  the  con- 
struction. The  walls  of  tne  Pantheon,  for  example,  are  covered 
with  tiers  of  brick  arches,  and  many  theories  have  been  invented 
as  to  their  use  in  distributing  the  weight  of  the  walls.  But  a  re- 
cognition of  the  fact  that  these  walls  are  of  concrete  about  20  feet 
thick,  while  the  brick  facing  averages  scarcely  6  inches  in  thickness, 
clearly  shows  that  these  ' '  relieving  arches "  have  no  more  con- 
structional use  as  far  as  concerns  the  pressure  than  if  they  were 
painted  on  the  surface  of  the  walls.  Exactly  the  same  reasons 
apply  to  the  superficial  use  of  brick  in  all  arches  and  vaults. 

At  first  tufa  only  was  used  in  opus  quadrature,  as  we  see  in  the  Opus 
so-called  wall  of  Romulus.     Next  the  harder  peperino  began  to  be  quad- 
worked  :  it  is  used,  though  sparingly,  in  the  great  Servian  wall,  ratum. 
and  during  the  later  republic  appears  to  have  been  largely  employed 
for  exterior  walls  or  points  where  there  was  heavy  pressure,  while 
other  parts  were  built  of  tufa.    Thirdly,  travertine  appears  to  have 
been  introduced  about  the  2d  century  B.C.,  but  was  used  at  first  for 
merely  ornamental  purposes,  very  much  as  marble  was  under  the  ' 
empire  ;  after  about  the  middle  of  the  1st  century  A.D.  travertine 


began  to  be  largely  used  for  tl 

of  Vespasian  and  the 

Colosseum.    The  tufa 

or    peperino    blocks 

were  roughly  2  (Ro- 

man)  feet   thick    in 

regular  courses,   iso- 

domum,    by    2    feet 

across  the  end,   and 

under    the    republic 

often  exactly  4  feet 

long,    so    that    two 

blocks   set    endways 

ranged  with  one  set 

lengthways.       They 

were  then   arranged 

in   alternate  courses 

of       headers       and 

stretchers,    so  as  to 

make  a  good  bond  ; 

this    is    the    "em- 

plecton"  of  Vitruvius 

(ii.  8).    The  so-called 

Tabularium    of    the 

Capitol    is     a    good 

example  of  this  (see 

fig.  1).     The  harder 

and    more    valuable 

travertine    was    not 

cut    in    this    regular  TRAVERTINE 

way,  but  pieces  of  all 

«i7p<s  WPTP  ii<;prl     iii<st 
sizes  were  used,  just 

as  they  happened  to 
come        from        the 

rmnTTv     in    mvW   tn 
quarry,    11     oroer  TO 

avoid  waste  :   blocks 


ass  of  walls,  as  in  the  temple 


TUFA  ROCK 

J.ATER    LEVEL 

FIG.  1. — Example  of  opus  quadratum,  78  B.C.  Arch 
at  foot  of  the  stairs  of  the  Tabularium  (see  Plate 
VI.).  The  flat  arch  C  is  of  travertine,  the  rest  of 
peperino.  A.  Footing-course  of  rough  stones.  B. 
Concrete  foundation,  exposed  by  the  lowering  of  the 
paving  when  the  temple  of  Vespasian  was  built. 


as  much  as  15  by  8  feet  were  used,  and  the  courses  varied  in 
thickness  —  the  "  pseudisodomum  "  of  Vitruvius.  When  tufa  or 
peperino  was  mixed  with'  the  travertine,  it  was  cut  so  as  to  range 
with  the  irregular  courses  of  the  latter. 

It  is  an  interesting  point  to  note  the  manner  in  which  the 
Roman  builders  mixed  their  different  materials  according  to  the 
weight  they  had  to  carry.  While  tufa  was  frequently  used  for  the 
main  walls,  peperino  (e.g.,  in  the  Servian  wall  on  the  Aventine)  or 
travertine  (e.g.,  in  the  forum  of  Augustus  and  the  temple  of  For- 
tuna  Virilis,  so  called)  was  inserted  at  points  of  special  pressure, 
such  as  piers  or  arches  (see  fig.  21  below).  The  Colosseum  is  a 
particularly  elaborate  example  of  this  mixed  construction  with 
three  degrees  of  pressure  supported  by  three  different  materials 
(see  fig.  2).  _  __ 

*  In  the  beautiful  drawings  of  Choisy  (L'Art  de  Ititir  chez  les  Remains,  Paris, 
1873)  the  structural  importance  of  the  brick  used  in  vaults  and  arches  is  very 
much  exaggerated. 

XX.  —  102 


810 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


The  use  of  mortar  with  onus  quadratum  is  a  sign  of  an  early 
rather  than  a  late  date.1  It  occurs  in  the  Servian  wall  on  the 
Aventine,  in  the 
Tabularium.and, 
most  striking  of 
all,  in  the  Tul-  **" 
lianum  under 
the  "Mamertine 
prison"  —  cer- 
tainly one  of  the 
oldest  buildings 
in  Rome  (see  fig. 
11).  Under  the 
empire  massive 
blocks,  whether 
of  tufa,  traver- 
tine, or  marble, 
are  set  without 
any  mortar.  It 
must,  however, 
be  observed  that 
in  these  early 
instances  the 
"  mortar  "  is  but 
a  thin  stratum 
of  lime,  little 
thicker  than 
stout  paper, 
used  not  as  a 
cement  to  bind 
the  blocks  to- 
gether, but 
simply  to  give 

the  joints  a  Fio.  2. — Example  of  construction  in  which  many  materials 
smoothly  fitting  are  used  ;  upper  part  of  one  of  the  inner  radiating  walls 
surface.  The 
actual  binding 
together  was 
done  by  clamps 
and  dowels,  as 
well  as  by  the 
mass  and  weight 
of  the  great 
blocks  used.  Ex- 
cept in  the  ear- 
liest masonry, 
each  block  was 


under  the  cunei  of  the  Colosseum.  A,  A.  Marble  seats 
on  brick  and  concrete  core,  supported  on  vault  made  of 
pumice-stone  concrete  (C).  B.  Travertine  arch  at  end  of 
raking  vault  (C).  D.  One  of  the  travertine  piers  built  in 
flush  with  the  tufa  wall  to  give  it  extra  strength.  E,  E. 
Wall  of  tufa  concrete  faced  with  triangular  bricks,  carry- 
ing the  vaults  of  pumice  concrete  which  support  the 
marble  seats.  F.  Travertine  pier  at  end  of  radiating  wall. 
G.  Brick-faced  arch  of  concrete  to  carry  floor  of  passage. 
H,  H.  Tufa  wall,  opus  quadratum.  J,  J,  J.  Line  of  steps 
in  next  bay.  K,  K.  Surface  arches  of  brick,  too  shallow 
to  be  of  any  constructional  use,  and  not  meant  for  orna- 
ment, as  the  whole  was  stuccoed ;  they  only  face  the 
wall  (which  is  about  4  feet  thick)  to  the  average  depth 
of  4  inches. 


very  carefully  fastened,  not  only  to  the  next  blocks  on  the  same  course, 
which  was  done  with  double  dove-tailed  dowels  of  wood,  but  also  to 
those  above  and  below  with  stout  iron  clamps,  run  with  lead  (Vitr., 
ii.  8).2  In  more  ornamental  marble 
work  bronze  clamps  were  often  used. 
When  concrete  was  employed  it 
was  faced  either  with  blocks  of 
opus  quadratum  (e.g.,  the  Servian 
wall  along  the  Aventine)  or  with 
opus  incertum — small  irregularly 
shaped  blocks  of  tufa  3  to  6  inches 
across,  with  pointed  ends  driven 
into  the  concrete  while  it  was  soft, 
and  worked  smooth  on  the  face 
only  (see  fig.  3).  Thirdly,  in  the 
1st  century  B.C.  opus  reticulatum,3 
also  of  tufa,  was  largely  used  alone ; 
after  that  it  began  to  be  mixed  with 
brickwork.  It  is  very  neat  in  ap- 
pearance, and  is  often  fitted  with 
great  care,  though  it  was  generally 
covered  with  stucco.  The  so-called 
"house  of  Livia"  on  the  Palatine 
is  a  good  example  of  the  earlier 

sort,  when  the  quoins  were  made 

of  small  rectangular  blocks  of  tufa.  SECTION  OF  ANCLE  JHM 

The  palace  of  Caligula  has  it  with  Flo.  s.-Conerete  wall  heed  with  (A) 
quoins  of  brick  facing.  Though  in  opus  incertum  and  (B)  opus  reticu- 
Rome  opus  reticulatum  was  always  jatum.  C  shows  the  section,  similar 
made  of  tufa,  in  the  neighbourhood  in  both- 

of  the  city  it  was  sometimes  of  peperino  or  even  lava,  where  these 
materials  were  found  on  the  spot. 


1  Choisy  (L'Art  de  bdtir  chez  let  Romains,  Paris,  1873)  is  mistaken  in  his 
denial  of  the  early  use  of  mortar  by  the  Romans. 

2  The  expansion  of  the  iron  through  rust,  which  caused  the  stone  to  split, 
has  frequently  been  a  great  source  of  injury  to  Roman  walk?,  as  well  as  the 
practice,  common  in  the  Middle  Ages,  of  breaking  into  the  stones  in  order  to 
extract  the  metal. 

8  These  two  kinds  of  stone  facings  are  mentioned  thus  by  Vitrnvius  (ii.  8), 
"  reticulatum,  quo  nunc  [reign  of  Augustus]  omnes  utuntur,  et  antiquum.  quod 
tncerfwm  dicitur." 


Of  concrete  walls  faced  with   burnt  bricks  no  dated  example  Brie 
earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  1st  century  B.C.  is  known.     The  facing. 
Pantheon  (27  B.C.  )  is  the  most  important  early  specimen  of  certain 
date.     The  bricks  used  are  always  triangular  in.  shape,  so  as  to 
present  a  large  surface  on  the  face  with  little  expenditure  of  brick, 
and  also  to  improve  the  bond  with  the  concrete  oehind  (see  fig.  4). 
Even  party  walls  of  small  rooms,  only  7  inches  thick,  are  not  built 
solid,  but  have  a  concrete  core  faced  with  brick  triangles  about 
3  inches  long.    Owing 
to  this  method  of  form- 
ing   the   walls    it   was 
necessary    to     support 
the    facing    until    the 
concrete  was  set,  which 
appears   to   have   been 
done    with    a    wooden 
framing    covered    with 
planks   on   the   inside. 
In  some  cases  the  planks 
were  nailed  outside  the 
wooden  uprights,  as  was 


— x — a'— .x- — to »• 

Fio.  4.— Section  of  concrete  wall,  showing  the 
use  of  bricks  merely  as  a  facing. 


lone  with  the  unfaced  concrete  walls  (see  below),  and  then  a  series 
of  perpendicular  grooves  appear  in  the  face  of  the  brickwork.  Walls 
faced  with  opus  reticulatum  must  have  been  supported  temporarily 
in  the  same  way. 

The  character  of  the  brick  facing  is  a  great  help  towards  deter- 
mining the  date  of  Roman  buildings  ;  it  has  been  stated  that  this 
can  be  done  simply  by  measuring  the  number  of  brick  courses  that 
go  to  a  foot, — the  more  the  bricks  the  earlier  the  work.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  case.  In  early  work  the  bricks  are  thick  and  the 
joints  thin,  while  in  later  times  the  reverse  is  the  case.  Thus 
brickwork  of  the  time  of  Severus  and  later  usually  has  more  bricks 
to  the  foot  than  that  of  the  Flavian  period.  The  following  list 
gives  a  few  characteristic  specimens  of  different  dates. 


Building. 

Average 
thickness  of 
Bricks. 

Average 
thickness  of 
Joints. 

Rostra  of  Julius  Caesar,  44  B.C  

Inches. 
H 
1} 

1J  to  1} 
1    tolj 
U 
1J 

4 

IJtolf 

Inches. 

Ito   J 
to    J 
to   1 

1    tolj 
fto    J 

IJtoH 

Pantheon  of  Agrippa,  27  B.C  

Pretorian  camp  of  Tiberius,  23  A.D  

Aqueduct  of  Nero,  c.  62  A.D  

Baths  of  Titus,  c.  80  A.D  

Palace  of  Domitian,  c.  90  A,D  

Hadrian's  temple  of  Venus  and  Rome,  c.  125  A.  D. 
Palace  of  Severus,  c.  200  A.D  

Aurelian's  walls,  c.  271  A.D  

The  length  of  the  bricks  as  it  appears  on  the  face  is  no  guide 
to  the  date,  owing  to  the  fact  that  one  or  more  of  the  sharp  points 
of  the  brick  triangles  were  very  frequently  broken  off  before  they 
were  used.  Moreover,  varieties  both  in  quality  of  workmanship  and 
size  of  the  bricks  often  occur  in  work  of  the  same  date  ;  a  new  gang 
of  workmen  or  a  batch  of  bricks  from  a  fresh  figlina  might  easily 
occasion  this.  In  the  remains  of  Nero's  Golden  House  great 
varieties  appear,  and  some  of  the  walls  in  the  inferior  rooms  are 
faced  with  very  irregular  and  careless  brickwork.4  Special  care 
and  neatness  were  always  employed  in  the  rare  cases  when  the  wall 
was  not  to  be  covered  with  stucco,  which  in  the  absence  of  marble 
was  usually  spread  over  both  inside  and  outside  walls.  All  these 
circumstances  make  great  caution  necessary  in  judging  of  dates ; 
fortunately  after  the  1st  century  A.D.,  and  in  some  cases  even 
earlier,  stamps  impressed  on  bricks,  and  especially  on  the  largo 
tiles  used  for  arches,  give  clearer  indications.  The  reason  of  the 
almost  universal  use  of  smooth  facings  either  of  opus  reticulatum 
or  of  brick  over  concrete  walls  is  a  very  puzzling  question  ;  for  con- 
crete itself  forms  an  excellent  ground  for  the  stucco  coating  or  back- 
ing to  the  marble  slabs,  while  the  stucco  adheres  with  difficulty 
to  a  smooth  facing,  and  is  very  liable  to  fall  away.  The  modern 
practice  of  raking  out  the  joints  to  form  a  key  was  not  employed 
by  the  Romans,  but  before  the  mortar  was  hard  they  studded  the 
face  of  the  wall  with  marble  plugs  and  iron  or  bronze  nails  driven 
into  the  joints,  so  as  to  give  a  hold  for  the  stucco — a  great  waste 
both  of  labour  and  material.5  The  quality  of  the  mortar  varies 
according  to  its  date  :  during  the  1st  and  2d  centuries  it  is  of  most 
remarkable  hardness, — made  of  lime  with  a  mixture  of  coarse 
pozzolana  of  a  bright  red  colour ;  in  the  3d  century  it  began  to 
be  inferior  in  quality  ;  and  the  pozzolana  used  under  the  later 
empire  is  brown  instead  of  red. 

Concrete  was  at  first  always  made  of  lumps  of  tufa  ;  then  traver-  Cone  ? 
tine,  lava,  broken  bricks,  and  even  marble  were  used,  in  fact  all  wall;  < 
the  chips  and  fragments  of  the  mason's  yard.     Under  the  empire  vaul 
the  concrete  used  was  of  travertine  or  lava  mostly  for  foundations, 
of  tufa  or  broken  bricks  for  walls,  and  of  tufa  or  pumice-stone  (for 
the  sake  of  lightness)  for  vaults.     Massive  walls  were  cast  in  a 

*  Some  of  the  bricks  are  as  much  as  2J  inches  thick,  while  1J  inches  is  the 
usual  maximum  for  Roman  bricks. 

B  The  Roman  method  of  applying  stucco  to  walls  with  a  wooden  "float,"  ex- 
actly as  is  done  now,  is  shown  in  a  painting  from  Pompeii  (see  Ann.  lust.,  1881). 


ARCELEOLOGY.J 


ROME 


811 


mould ;  upright  timbers,  about  6  by  7  inches  thick  and  10  to  14 
feet  long,  were  set  in  rows  on  each  face  of  the  future  wall ;  planks 
9  to  10  inches  wide  were  nailed  to  them,  so  as  to  form  two  sides  of 
a  sort  of  box,  into  which  the  semi-fluid  mass  of  stones,  lime,  and 
pozzolana  was  poured.  When  this  was  set  the  timbers  were  re- 
moved and  refixed  on  the  top  of  the  concrete  wall ;  then  fresh 
concrete  was  poured  in  ;  and  this  process  was  repeated  till  the  wall 
was  raised  to  the  required  height.  Usually  such  cast -work  was 
only  used  for  foundations  and  cellar  walls,  the  upper  parts  being 
faced  with  brick ;  but  in  some  cases  the  whole  wall  to  the  top  was 
cast  in  this  way  and  the  brick  facing  omitted.  In  strength  and 
durability  no  masonry,  however  hard  the  stone  or  large  the  blocks, 
could  ever  equal  these  walls  of  concrete  when  made  with  hard  lava 
or  travertine,  for  each  wall  was  one  perfectly  coherent  mass,  and 
could  only  be  destroyed  by  a  laborious  process  like  that  of  quarry- 
ing hard  stone  from  its  native  bed.  Owing  to  this  method  of 
forming  the  Roman  buildings  the  progress  of  the  work  from  day  to 
day  can  often  be  traced  by  a  change  in  the  look  of  the  concrete. 
About  3  feet  high  appears  to  have  been  the  average  amount  of  wall 
raised  in  a  day. 

Marble  linings  were  fixed  very  firmly  to  the  walls  with  long 
clamps  of  metal, 
hooked  at  the  end  so 
as  to  hold  in  a  hole 
made  in  the  marble 
slab.  Fig.  5  gives  an 
example,  of  the  time 
of  Augustus,  fixed 
against  a  stone  wall. 
The  quantity  of  rich 
marbles  which,  for  at 
least  three  centuries, 
were  being  dug  out  in 
countless  quarries  in 
the  East,  by  whole 
armies  of  workmen, 
and  constantly  poured 
into  Rome  is  almost 
beyond  calculation.  1 
Scarcely  a  church  is 
without  columns  and 
wall  -  linings  stolen 
from  ancient  build- 
ings, and  the  more 
magnificent  chapels, 
such  as  those  of  the 
Borghese,  Corsini, 
and  Cibo  families, 
with  the  whole  church 
of  S.  Maria  della  Vit- 
toria,  owe  their  splen- 


D. 


AVERTING    BLOCK. 


[O.  5. — Example  of  marble  lining,  from  the  cella  of 
the  temple  of  Concord.  A.  Slabs  of  Phrygian 
marble.  B.  Plinth  moulding  of  Numidian  "  giallp." 
C.  Slab  of  cipollino  (Carystian  marble).  D.  Paving 
of  porta  santa.  E  and  F.  "  nucleus  "  and  "  rudus  " 
of  concrete  bedding.  G,  G.  Iron  clamps  run  with 
lead  to  flx  marble  lining.  H.  Bronze  clamp.  J. 
Cement  backing. 

dour  entirely  to' their  wall-linings  of  ancient  marbles,  porphyry, 
and  alabaster.1  The  blocks  were  usually  marked  in  the  quarry 
with  a  number,  and  often  with  the  names  of  the  reigning  emperor 
and  the  overseer  of  the  quarry.  These  quarry-marks  are  often  of 
great  value  as  indications  of  the  date  of  a  building  or  statue.2 
Metropolitan  building  Acts,  not  unlike  those  of  modern  London, 
were  enacted  by  several  of  the  emperors.  These  fixed  the  materials 
to  be  used,  the  thickness  of  walls,  the  minimum  width  of  streets, 
the  maximum  height  allowed  for  houses,  and  the  like.  After  the 
great  fire  in  Nero's  reign,  64  A.D.,  an  Act  was  passed  requiring 
external  walls  to  be  faced  with  fire -proof  materials,  such  as 
peperino  or  burnt  brick  ;  this  Act  was  being  prepared  long  before 
the  fire, — strong  evidence  as  to  this  being  a  wilful  act  on  Nero's 
part,  as  is  asserted  by  Suetonius  (Nero,  38). 
m:nt  Enormous  accumulations  of  statues  and  pictures  enriched  Rome 
M3  of  during  its  period  of  greatest  splendour.  In  the  first  place,  the 
numerous  statues  of  the  republican  and  even  of  the  regal  period 
were  religiously  preserved  at  a  time  when,  from  their  archaic  char- 
acter, they  must  have  been  regarded  rather  as  objects  of  sacred  or 
archaeological  interest  than  as  works  of  art  (Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxiv. 
9-16,  xxxv.  7).  Secondly  came  the  large  Grseco-Roman  class,  mostly 
copies  of  earlier  Greek  works,  executed  in  Rome  by  Greek  artists. 
To  this  class  belongs  most  of  the  finest  existing  sculpture  preserved 
in  the  Vatican  and  other  museums.  Thirdly,  countless  statues  and 
pictures  were  stolen  from  almost  every  important  city  in  Greece, 
Magna  Graecia,  Sicily,  and  western  Asia  Minor.  These  robberies 
began  early,  and  were  carried  on  for  many  centuries.  The  importa- 
tions included  works  of  art  by  all  the  chief  artists  from  the  5th 
century  downwards.  Long  lists  are  given  by  Pliny  (H.N.,  xxxiii.- 
xxxvi. ),  and  pedestals  even  now  exist  with  the  names  of  Praxiteles, 
Timarchus,  Polycletus,  Bryaxis,  and  others  (see  Bull.  Comm.  Arch. 


1  Yet  for  many  centuries  during  the  Middle  Ages  the  richest  sites  of  ancient 
Rome  were  riddled  with  lime-kilns,  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  marble 
was  destroyed  ;  see  Raphael's  letter  to  Leo  X.  on  this  subject  published  by 
Visconti  (Rome,  1S34). 

2  See  Bruzza,  in  Ann.  Inst.,  1870,  p.  106. 


Rom. ,  ii.  p.  1 76).  These  accumulated  works  of  sculpture  were  of  all 
materials — gold  and  ivory  (Suet,  Tit.,  2),  of  which  seventy-four 
are  mentioned  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Breviarium  (see  Preller, 
Regionen,  p.  231),  many  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  silver3 
(Plin.,  H. N.,  xxxiii.  54),  while  those  of  gilt  bronze  and  marble  must 
have  existed  in  almost  untold  numbers  (Paus.,  viii.  46).  Nor  were 
the  accumulated  stores  of  Greek  paintings  much  inferior  in  number ; 
not  only  were  easel  pictures  by  Zeuxis,  Apelles,  Timanthes,  and 
other  Greek  artists  taken,  but  even  mural  paintings  were  carefully 
cut  off  their  walls  and  brought  to  Rome  secured  in  wooden  frames 
(Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxv.  49,  and  compare  ibid.,  45). 

The  basalt  (silex)  roads  were  made  of  polygonal  blocks  of  lava  Roads, 
neatly  fitted  together 
and  laid  on  a  carefully 
prepared  bed,  similar 
to  that  used  for  mosaic 
paving  (see  MOSAIC 
and  ROADS).  Roads 
thus  made  were  called 
"viae  stratae."  One 
portion  only  exists  in 
Rome  of  early  date, 
when  the  blocks  were 
fitted  together  with 
the  utmost  accuracy 
viz.,  a  piece  of  the 
Clivus  Capitolinus  in 
front  of  the  temple  of 
Saturn  (see  fig.  6, 
which  also  shows  the 
massive  travertine 
curb  which  bordered 
the  road  ;  in  some 
cases  the  curb  was  of 
lava).  The  other  best  J.H.M.  SECTION. 

preserved  vise  stratae      5.  ».  3.  2.  i.  o.  s.  jornr. 

in  Rome  are  those  Fm  6._Example  of  ^ly  basait  road  by  the  temple 
leading  up  to  the  Of  Saturn  on  the  Clivus  Capitolinus.  A.  Traver- 
Palatine  from  the  tine  paving.  B.  Polygonal  basalt  blocks.  C.  Con- 
Summa  Sacra  Via  and  crete  Adding.  D.  Rain-water  gutter.  The  curb 
that  which  follows  ^own  is  taken  from  another  part  of  the  road. 

the  curved  line  of  shops  in  Trajan's  forum.  Many  others  exist, 
but  have  all  been  relaid  in  later  times,  with  badly  fitting  joints.4 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  chief  roads  which  radiated  from 
Rome  (see  Plate  VI.): — (1)  Via  Appia  and  (2)  Via  Latina,  both 
issued  from  the  Servian  Porta  Capena,  and  both  met  at  Beneventum  ; 
(3)  Via  Labicana,  from  the  P.  Esquilina,  passing  Labicum,  joined 
the  Via  Latina  30  miles  from  Rome  ;  (4)  Via  Gabina  (later  called 
Prsenestina),  also  issued  from  the  P.  Esquilina  and  joined  the  Via 
Latina, — these  two  roads  pass  through  the  Claudian  aqueduct  gate 
(mod.  Porta  Maggiore) ;  (5)  Via  Tiburtina,  from  the  gate  of  that  name 
to  Tibur  ;  (6)  Via  Nomentana,  from  the  P.  Collina,  passing  Nomen- 
tum,  joined  the  Via  Salaria  ;  (7)  Via  Salaria,  also  from  the  P. 
Collina,  joined  the  Via  Flaminia  at  Ancona  ;  (8)  Via  Flaminia,  its 
first  half-mile  or  so  after  leaving  the  Servian  Porta  Ratumena  was 
known  as  the  Via  Lata  ;  it  afterwards  passed  out  of  the  Aurelian 
P.  Flaminia,  and  with  many  branches  led  to  the  chief  towns  of 
Northern  Italy,  and  so  into  Cisalpine  Gaul ;  (9)  Via  Aurelia,  issued 
from  the  trans-Tiberine  P.  Aurelia  and  passed  through  Pisa  to  Gaul ; 
(10)  Via  Portuensis,  from  the  gate  of  that  name,  also  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tiber,  to  Portus  Augusti  near  its  mouth  ;  (11)  Via 
Ostiensis,  from  the  Servian  P.  Trigemina  and  the  Aurelian  P. 
Ostiensis  to  Ostia  ;  (12)  Via  Ardeatina,  probably  a  branch  from  the 
Via  Appia,  led  to  Ardea. 

Remains  of  Prehistoric  Rome. 

It  is  evident  from  recent  discoveries  that  the  site  of  Rome  was  Plate  VI. 
populous  at  a  very  remote  period.     Flint  implements  and  remains  Archaic 
of  the  early  Bronze  Age  have  been  found  on  the  Aventine  and  in  pottery, 
other  places;8  and  in  1874,  near  the  arch  of  Gallienus  on  the 
Esquiline,  the  important  discovery  was  made  of  a  necropolis  6  ap- 
parently of  considerable  extent,  the  tombs  of  which  and  their  con- 
tents— fictile  vases   and  other  objects — were   of  Phoenician  and 
Etruscan  character,  dating  probably  about  the  time  of  the  tradi- 
tional founding  of  Rome.      In  February  1883  a  number  of  very 
early  cist  tombs,  formed  by  two  slabs  of  stone  set  on  edge  with  a 
third  for  the  lid,  were  found  during  excavations  on  the  Esquiline 
between  the  Piazza  Vitt.   Emmanuele  and  the  Via  di  Napoleone 

3  Eighty  silver  statues  of  Augustus,  some  equestrian  and  some  in  quadrigae, 
are  mentioned  in  the  Man.  Ancyr.    See  p.  822  below. 

4  See  Nibby,  Vie  degli  Antichi,  in  Nardini,  vol.  iv.  1820 ;  also  Livy,  x.  23, 
xl.  51,  xli.  27. 

^  Under  the  Servian  wall  on  the  Esquiline  has  been  found  pottery  of  that 
very  primitive  sort  which  is  ornamented  only  with  rudely  incised  lines,  zig- 
zags, hatchings,  and  dots,  similar  to  that  found  under  a  stratum  of  peperino 
rock  at  Alba  Longa. 

6  See  "Necrop.  dell.  Esquilino,"  in  Ann.  Inst.,  1882,  p.  5  sq.,  and  Afon.  Inst., 
xi.,  pi.  xxxvii. ;  also  Bull.  Comm.  Arch.,  iii. 


812 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


III.1  Some  of  the  pottery  found  in  the  Esquiline  necropolis  was 
of  that  rare  kind  which  is  coated  with  white  and  coloured  stanni- 
ferous enamels,  examples  of  which  have  been  found  in  jEgina  and 
at  Camirus  in  Rhodes, — a  method  of  decoration  which  is  not 
Hellenic,  but  was  common  in  Assyria  and  Egypt.2  Some  of  the 
Esquiline  tombs  also  contained  terra-cotta  reliefs  of  Oriental  char- 
acter, covered  with  plumbo-vitreous  glaze,  coloured  brilliant  blues 
and  greens,  like  the  little  figures  so  commonly  found  in  Egypt. 
Some  dim  traditions  of  these  earlier  inhabitants  certainly  existed 
among  the  Romans :  Dion  Cassius  (iii.  5),  to  account  for  the  exist- 
ence of  a  city  on  the  Palatine  earlier  than  the  traditional  Roma 
Quadrata,  invents  an  earlier  Romulus  and  Remus  to  be  its  founders.3 
''all  of  The  most  important  existing  relics  of  the  time  when  Roman 
omulus.  history  first  begins,  though  dimly,  to  take  a  definite  shape  are  the 
so-called  "wall  of  Romulus,"  forming  the  circuit  of  the  famous 
Roma  Quadrata  of  the  Palatine.  Unfortunately  the  accounts  of 
the  extent  of  the  Pomcerium  (Postmoerium)  or  sacred  enclosure  give 
but  little  help  towards  defining  its  circuit.  Even  its  precise  nature 
is  a  matter  of  doubt,  in  spite  of  the  accounts  of  it  given  by  Varro 
(L.L.,  v.  143),  Livy  (i.  44),  and  Dionysius  (i.  88),  as  is  usually  the 
case  with  descriptions  in  ancient  writers  of  what  was  in  their  time 
purely  an  archaeological  matter.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  the 
Pom  cerium  in  some  way  or  other  followed  the  circuit  of  the  primi- 
tive city,  called  from  its  shape  Roma  Quadrata.4  Its  boundaries 
are  given  thus  by  Tacitus  (Ann.,  xii.  24) :  starting  from  the  Forum 
Boarium  at  the  west  corner  of  the  Palatine,  it  goes  to  the  Ara 
Maxima  (see  Ann.  Inst.,  1854,  p.  28)  and  the  Ara  Consi,  both  prob- 
ably in  the  Vallis  Murciae,  afterwards  occupied  by  the  Circus 
Maximus;  but  the  exact  positions  of  these  points  are  unknown.5 
The  next  stages  are  the  Curiae  Veteres,  the  Sacellum  Lamm,  and 
lastly  the  Forum  Roinanum.  Unfortunately  the  known  points  in 
this  description,  namely  the  two  fora,  are  precisely  those  which 
mark  that  part  of  the  circuit  known  from  existing  remains  of  the 
walls.  It  is  therefore  to  the  scanty  relics  of  the  wall  which  still 
exist  on  the  other  sides  that  we  must  turn  to  determine  the  extent 
of  Roma  Quadrata.  These  enable  us  to  fix  its  line  along  the  whole 
valley  of  the  Velabrum,  on  the  west  of  the  hill,  and  along  the 
valley  of  the  Circus  Maximus  as  far  as  the  so-called  Domus  Gelo- 
tiana,  about  half-way  on  the  south  side  (see  fig.  17).  The  doubtful 
point  has  been  whether  the  line  of  the  wall  from  north  to  south 
included  the  whole  extent  of  the  hill,  or  passed  across  it,  along  the 
line  of  that  deep  natural  valley  which  once  divided  the  Palatine 
into  two  parts,  and  was  in  later  times  filled  up  and  built  upon  by 
Domitian  in  the  construction  of  his  great  palace.  Recent  excava- 
tions have,  however,  disclosed  at  several  points  the  existence  of  this 
ancient  wall  extending  along  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  Palatine ; 
moreover,  there  is  strong  evidence  as  to  Roma  Quadrata  being  co- 
extensive with  the  whole  hill  from  Cicero,  De  Rep.,  ii.  6,  and  Aul. 
Cell.,  xiii.  14.  Traces  of  the  wall  have  been  found  running  east- 
wards from  the  Porta  Mugonia,  and  that  piece  of  wall  by  the 
Domus  Gelotiana  which  starts  to  run  northwards  across  the  middle 
of  the  hill  has  been  found  to  be  merely  a  projecting  spur,  which 
again  turns  eastwards,  so  as  to  include  apparently  the  rest  of  the 
Palatine  where  the  palace  of  Severus  now  stands. 

jicient  The  most  perfect  remains  of  the  Romulean  wall  are  those  near 
>rtific£>  the  west  angle  of  the  hill  (see  fig.  7).  These  show  that  the  forti- 
ion.  fications  of  Roma  Quadrata  were  formed  in  the  usual  manner  of 
Etruscan  cities,  in  which  the  natural  strength  given  by  cliffs  was 
increased  by  artificial  means.  The  wall  was  set  neither  at  the  top 
nor  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  but  more  than  half-way  up,  a  level 
terrace  or  shelf  all  round  being  cut  in  the  rock  on  which  the  base 
of  the  wall  stood.  Above  that  the  hill  was  cut  away  into  a  cliff, 
not  quite  perpendicular  but  slightly  "battering"  inwards,  to  give 
greater  stability  to  the  wall,  which  was  built  up  against  it,  like  a 
retaining  wall,  reaching  to  the  top  of  the  cliff,  and  probably  a  few 
feet  higher.  The  stones  used  in  this  wall  are  soft  tufa,  a  warm 
brown  in  colour,  and  full  of  masses  of  charred  wood.  The  cutting 
to  form  the  steep  cliff  probably  supplied  part  of  the  material  for 
the  wall  ;  and  ancient  quarries,  afterwards  used  as  reservoirs  for 
water,  exist  in  the  mass  of  rock  on  which  the  so-called  temple  of 
Jupiter  Victor  stands.  It  has  been  asserted  that  these  tufa  blocks 
are  not  cut  but  split  with  wedges  ;  this,  however,  is  not  the  case. 
Tufa  does  not  split  into  rectangular  masses,  but  would  be  shattered 
to  pieces  by  a  wedge  ;  moreover,  distinct  tool-marks  can  be  seen  on 
all  the  blocks  whose  surface  is  well  preserved  and  in  the  quarries 


1  Not.  degh  Scavi,  February  1883.    An  account  of  pottery  found  in  Rome 
with  archaic  incised  inscriptions  is  given  in  Ann.  Inst.,  1880. 

2  See  also  Brizio,  Pitture  e  Sepolcri  tulF  Esquilino,  1876.  and  De  Rossi,  Ogetti 
arcaici  rinvenuti  nel  Viminale,  1878. 

3  See  Becker,  Hcmdb.  der  rim.  Alterth.,  Leipsic,  1848,  1.  pp.  105-6. 
,  §£e  D'ony-.  >!•  65  ;  Solinns,  i.  17  ;  Plut.,  Rorn.,  9. 

•  rne  Ara  Maxima  of  Hercules  was  probably  near  the  carceres  or  starting 

rthe  circus  (Dionys.,  i.  40).    The  Ara  Consi  (Equestrian  Neptune)  gave 

"I0!?.  Consnalia,  games  in  honour  of  this  deity  held  by  Romulus,  at, 

ivhicn  the  celebrated  capture  of  the  Sabine  women  took  place.    In  later  times 

this  altar  existed  on  or  below  the  spina  of  the  circus,  apparently  near  the  meta 

t  the  opposite  end  to  the  carceres :  it  was  usually  hidden  from  sight,  but 

during  the  Ludi  Circenses  was  uncovered  and  exposed  to  view  (see  Plut..  Bom., 

14 ;  Varro,  L.  L.,  vi.  20 ;  Tertull.,  De  Spec.,  v.  8). 


themselves.     Chisels  from  one-fourth  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in 
width  were  used,  and  also  a  sharp-pointed  pick  or  hammer.     Tho 
wall  is  about  10  feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  and  increases  in  thickness 
above  as  the  scarped  cliff  against  which  it  is  built  recedes.     It  is 
built  of  blocks  laid  in  alternate  courses  of  headers  and  stretchers, 
varying  in  thickness  from  22  to  24  inches,  in  length  from  3  to  5 
feet,  and  in  width  from 
19  to  22  inches.    These 
blocks     are     carefully 
worked  on  their  beds, 
but    the    face    is    left 
rough,  and  the  vertical 
joints  are  in  some  cases 
open,  spaces  of  nearly  '2 
inches    being    left  be- 
tween block  and  block ; 
in  other  cases  the  ver- 
tical joints  are  worked 
true  and  close  like  the 
beds.   The  open  vertical 
joints  are  peculiar  to  the 
masonry  of  this  early 
period  ;  in  the  wall  of  | 
Servius  they  always  fit 
closely,  at  least  on  the 
visible  face  of  the  Avail. 
No  mortar  was  used.  At 
two  points  on  the  side 
of  the  Velabrum  (see  8 
and  9  on  the  plan  of  the 
Palatine,  fig.  17)  wind- 
ing  passages   are  exca-  Fl°-  7.— Section  of  primitive  wall  of  Roma  Quad- 

vatpri  in    tlio  tufa   />Uff      rata-  A-  Original  height  of  wall.    B.  Upper  put 
tula  clitt,     of  cliff)  now  crumblcd  away     c   oJrt,**  C1't  .„ 

the  entrance  to  which  the  tufa  rock.  D.  Levelled  platform  to  receive 
was  once  closed  by  the  base  of  wall.  E,  E.  Cliff  made  steeper  by  cutting. 
ancient  wall.  One  of  these  (No.  8)  in  early  times  (before  water  in 
abundance  was  brought  to  the  Palatine  on  aqueducts)  was  used  as 
a  reservoir  to  collect  surface  water,  probably  for  use  in  case  of  siege ; 
circular  shafts  for  buckets  are  cut  downwards  through  the  rock  from 
the  top  of  the  hill ;  fig.  7  shows  it  in  section.  An  exactly  similar 
rock-cut  cistern  with  vertical  shafts,  of  very  early  date,  exists  at 
Alba  Longa.  Opposite  the  church  of  S.  Teodoro  a  series  of  but- 
tresses belonging  to  the  wall  of  Romulus  exists,  partly  concealed  by 
a  long  line  of  buildings  of  the  later  years  of  the  republic  and  the 
early  empire,  to  make  room  for  which  the  greater  part  of  the  then 
useless  wall  was  pulled  down,  and  only  fragments  left  here  and  there, 
where  they  could  be  worked  into  the  walls  of  the  later  houses. 

Three  accesses  only  to  the  ancient  city  can  now  be  traced.  One  Gat  s 
is  the  so-called  Scalce  Caci,  a  long  sloping  ascent  cut  through  the  Rom; 
rock  (see  fig.  17)  from  the  side  of  the  Circus  Maximus  ;  some  Quad 
remains  of  the  earliest  wall  still  exist  along  the  sides  of  this  steep 
ascent  or  staircase.  The  upper  part  of  this  has  remains  of  a  basalt 
pavement,  added  in  later  times,  probably  covering  the  more  ancient 
rock-cut  steps.  The  name  of  the  gate  which  led  at  this  point  into 
Roma  Quadrata  is  unknown.  The  only  two  gates  whose  name  anil 
position  can  be  (with  any  degree  of  probability)  identified  are  the 
Porta  Romanula  and  the  Porta  Mugionis  (Plin.,  H.N.,  iii.  5,  9). 
The  former  of  these,  called  Porta  Romana  by  Festus  (ed.  Miiller, 
p.  262),  was  at  the  foot  of  the  Clivus  Victorias  (see  fig.  17),  at  the 
angle  next  the  Forum  Romanum.6  According  to  Festus  it  was  so 
called  by  the  Sabines  of  the  Capitol  because  it  was  their  natural 
entrance  to  Roma  Quadrata  (see  also  Varro,  L.L.,  v.  164,  vi.  24). 
The  original  approach  to  it  was  by  a  road  running  up  the  lower 
extra-mural  part  of  the  hill  from  the  direction  of  the  Velabrum. 
In  later  times  a  more  direct  ascent  to  it  was  made  from  the  Forum 
by  a  flight  of  steps,  probably  the  Scaloe  Anularise  of  Suetonius  (Aug., 
72  ;  see  figs.  16  and  17  and  plan  of  the  Forum,  Plate  VII.).  The 
lower  part  of  these  stairs,  now  buried  under  S.  Maria  Liberatricc, 
is  shown  in  the  marble  plan  of  Rome ;  the  upper  part,  that  from 
the  Nova  Via  to  the  Clivus  Victoria;,  still  exists,  and  has  recently 
been  exposed.  Traces  of  the  Porta  Mugionis  or  Mugonia  (see  Sol", 
i.  24)  have  been  discovered  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  whero 
a  basalt  paved  road  leads  up  into  the  Palatine  from  the  Summa 
Sacra  Via  and  the  Summa  Nova  Via,  which  join  near  the  arch  of 
Titus  ;  exposure  to  weather  has  now  destroyed  the  soft  tufa  blocks 
of  which  this  gate  was  built.  This  is  probably  the  "veterem 
portam  Palatii"  of  Livy  (i.  12)  through  which  the  Romans  fled 
when  defeated  by  the  Sabines.  A  third  entrance,7  according  to  the 
ancient  Etruscan  rule  (see  Servius,  Ad  ^En.,  i.  422);  probably  ex- 
isted on  the  east  side  of  the  hill,  but  its  site  is  uncertain.  Judging 
from  the  shape  of  the  hill,  it  may  very  possibly  have  been  under 
the  existing  palace  of  Severus,  where  a  road  leads  from  the  stadium 

8  The  present  entrance  to  Caligula's  palace  is  probably  exactly  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Porta  Romana. 

7  The  stairs  of  Cacus,  being  only  an  access  for  men  on  foot,  would  not  be 
counted  as  one  of  the  three  necessary  gates  which  existed  in  every  Etruscan 
city,  and  were  dedicated  to  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva. 


AJRCH.EOLOGY.] 


ROME 


813 


down  to  the  valley  of  the  Coelian ;  at  other  places  the  east  side  is 
precipitous.  The  buildings  of  the  emperors  have,  however,  made 
such  radical  changes  in  the  form  of  the  ground  that  any  degree  of 
certainty  on  this  point  is  impossible.  This  third  gate,  according 
to  Varro,  who  mentions  (L.L.,  v.  164-5)  all  three,  was  called  Janu- 
alis.1  With  regard  to  the  last  gate  there  is  some  doubt  whether 
he  is  right  in  its  position;  Macrobius  (Satur.,  i.  9)  places  it  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Viminal.2 

Remains  of  Period  of  Kings  (753-509  B.C.). 

The  most  important  remains  of  the  regal  period  are  the  great 
wall,  principally  the  work  of  Servius  Tullius,  by  which  he  included 
within  one  circuit  the  separately  fortified  hills  which  were  then  in- 
habited,— the  Palatine,  Capitoline,  Aventine,  Quirinal,  and  Ccelian, 
and  added  two  more,  the  Esquiline  and  Viminal.  These  seven 
hills  formed  the  Septimontium3  (Varro,  L.  L.,  iv.  41,  vi.  24).  Of 
even  earlier  date  was  the  fort  (Liv.,  i.  33)  on  the  top  of  the  Jani- 
culum,  connected  by  walls  with  the  Pons  Sublicius,  some  massive 
foundations  of  which  still  exist,  though  now  buried  near  the  church 
of  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio.  Existing  remains  show  that  the  great 
wall  is  of  more  than  one  date  ;  part  is  probably  earlier  than  Servius, 
and  may  be  remains  of  the  wall  which,  according  to  Livy  (i.  36,  38) 
and  Dionysius  (iii.  37),  was  planned  and  in  part  carried  out  by 
Tarquinius  Priscus  ;  it  would  seem  impossible  that  a  work  of  such 
gigantic  magnitude  could  have  been  begun  and  completed  in  the 
lifetime  of  one  man.  It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  a 
complete  circuit  of  new  wall  was  not  required  in  this  undertaking  ; 
each,  probably,  of  the  five  hills  first  inhabited  had  its  own  fortifica- 
tions, and  these  were  utilized  in  the  line  of  the  new  wall.  The 
space  thus  included  was  divided  by  Servius  for  political,  military, 
.ind  religious  purposes  into  four  regiones  (Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  46-54) — 
(1)  the  Suburana,  including  the  Ccelian,  and  probably  most  of  its 
adjacent  valleys,  with  the  Subura,  the  Carinse,  and  part  of  the 
Esquiline — the  derivation  of  Suburana  from  sub  urbe  is  from  Junius, 
quoted  by  Varro  ;  (2)  Esquilina,  the  main  part  of  the  Esquiline, 
including  the  Oppius  and  Cispius  (es-quil-iae,  dwellings  outside,  cf. 
in-quil-inus) ;  (3)  Collina,  the  Viminal  and  Quirinal,  which  were 
called  "  colles  "  in  contradistinction  to  the  other  five  hills,  which 
were  called  "montes"  ;  (4)  Palatina,  the  Palatine  and  its  adjacent 
spurs,  the  Velia  and  Germalus.  It  will  be  observed  that  these  four 
regiones  do  not  include  the  Aventine,  the  Capitol,  and  some  of 
their  adjacent  valleys, — an  omission  for  which  it  is  not  easy  to 
account.4 

Excavations  of  the  last  fifteen  years  have  done  much  to  deter- 
mine the  line  of  the  Servian  wall  (see  Plate  VI. ),  especially  the  great 
works  undertaken  in  laying  out  a  new  quarter  of  the  city  on  the 
Quirinal,  Esquiline,  and  Viminal,  which  have  laid  bare  and  then 
mostly  destroyed  long  lines  of  wall,  especially  along  the  agger. 
P>eginning  from  the  Tiber,  which  the  Servian  wall  touched  at  a 
point  near  the  present  Ponte  Rotto,  and  separating  the  Forum 
Olitorium  (outside)  from  the  Forum  Boarium  (inside),  it  ran  in  a 
straight  line  to  the  Capitoline  Hill,  the  two  crests  of  which,  the 
Capitolium  and  the  Arx,  with  the  intermediate  valley  the  Asylum, 
were  surrounded  by  an  earlier  fortification,  set  (Dionys.,  ix.  68)  eiri 
\60oty  .  .  .  Kal  Tr^rpcus  diroTijUots.  In  this  short  space  there  were 
three  gates, — (1)  the  Porta  Flumentana  next  the  river  (see  Cic.,  Ad 
Att.,  vii.  3  ;  Liv.,  xxxv.  19,  21) ;  (2)  Porta  Triumphalis,  site  un- 
known and  usually  only  mentioned  in  connexion  with  triumphal 
processions  (see  Cic.,  In  Pis.,  23  ;  Joseph.,  Bell.  Jud.,  vii.  5,  4), — 
it  was  probably  not  used  except  on  the  occasion  of  triumphs  ;  (3) 
Porta  Carmentalis,  close  to  the  Capitolium.5  From  the  Capitoline 
Hill  the  wall  passed  to  the  Quirinal  along  a  spur  of  elevated  ground, 
afterwards  completely  cut  away  by  Trajan.  Close  to  the  Capitol  was 
the  gate  afterwards  called  the  Porta  Ratumena,  whence  issued  the 
Via  Lata  (Plut.,  In  Publ.,  13;  Plin.,  H.N.,  yiii.  42).  Remains 
of  the  wall  and  foundations  of  the  gate  exist  in  Via  di  Marforio, 
.Nos.  81  C  and  81  E.  After  passing  Trajan's  forum,  the  first 
remains  of  the  walls  are  on  the  slope  of  the  Quirinal  in  the  Colonna 
gardens.  Near  the  foot  of  the  Quirinal  was  the  Porta  Fontinalis 
(Liv.,  xxxv.  10).  A  piece  of  the  wall  has  been  exposed  in  the  new 
Via  Nazionale,  and  also  an  archway  under  the  Palazzo  Antonelli, 
which  has  been  thought  to  be  the  Porta  Fontinalis.  This  arch  is, 
however,  only  6  feet  6  inches  wide  and  (to  the  springing  of  the 
arch)  5  feet  high,  which  seems  too  small  for  one  of  the  principal 
gates.  The  Porta  Sanqualis  (see  Festus,  ed.  Miiller,  p.  345)  was 
also  on  the  Quirinal,  probably  on  the  slope  between  the  Trevi 
fountain  and  the  royal  palace.  Its  position  is  indicated  by  the 


1  See  Dionys.,  ii.  65  ;  Plut.,  Rom.,  ix.  ;  Dion  Cass.,  various  fragments  ;  Liv., 
i.  7,  9  ;  Sol.,  i.  17  ;  Festus  (ed.  Miiller),  pp.  258,  262. 

2  See  Becker,  De  Muris  et  Portis  Romx,  Leipsic,  1842;  also  "La  fondazione 
di  Roma,"  in  Ball.  Comm.  Arch.,  ix.,  1881. 

3  At  an  early  date  the  terra  "Septimontium"  had  a  different  meaning  (see 
Plut.,  Qutes.  Rom.,  69  ;  Burn,  Rome,  p.  37). 

4  Becker  suggests  (Handbuch,  i.  386)  that  the  Capitoline  Hill  was  excluded 
on  account  of  its  sacred  character,  while  the  Aventine  was  not  yet  thickly 
populated,  and  the  Janiculum  was  only  occupied  by  the  fort ;  see  also  Ann. 
lust.,  1861,  p.  61. 

5  See  Sol.,  i.  13  ;  Liv.,  ii.  49,  xxiv.  47,  xxv.  7;  Ascon.,  Ad  Cic.  in  Toga,  p. 
60,  Orell. 


existence  of  some  tombs  which  give  the  line  of  the  road.  On  the 
north-west  of  the  Quiriual  was  the  Porta  Salutaris  (Festus,  p.  327  ; 
Liv.,  ix.  43),  probably  near  the  "Quattro  Fontane."  In  the 
Barberini  palace  gardens,  and  especially  in  those  of  the  Villa  Bar- 
berini  (Horti  Sallustiani),  extensive  remains  of  the  wall  have  been 
recently  exposed  and  destroyed, — which  was  also  the  fate  of  that 
fine  piece  of  wall  that  passed  under  the  new  office  of  finance, 
with  the  Porta  Collina,  which  was  not  on  the  line  of  the  present 
road,  but  about  50  yards  to  the  south  (see  Dionys.,  ix.  68  ;  Strabo, 
v.  3).  Thus  far  in  its  course  from  the  Capitol  the  wall  skirted 
the  slopes  of  hills,  which.were  once  much  more  abrupt  than  they  are 
now  ;  but  from  the  Porta  Collina  to  the  Porta  Esquilina  it  crossed 
a  large  tract  of  level  ground  ;  and  here,  by  the  construction  of  his 
great  agger,  Servius  gained  the  strength  which  elsewhere  was  given 
by  the  natural  formation  of  the  hills.  The  whole  line  of  this  agger 
has  been  recently  traced  and  mostly  destroyed.  About  the  middle 
of  it  the  Porta  Viminalis  was  found  in  1872  ;  it  stood,  as  Strabo 
says,  virb  /z^cry  r$  x^art,  and  from  it  led  a  road  which  passed 
through  the  Porta  Chiusa  (ancient  name  unknown)  in  Aurelian's 
wall.  Foundations  of  the  Porta  Esquilina  were  found  in  1876 
close  behind  the  arch  of  Gallienus.  The  further  course  of  the  wall 
across  the  valley  of  the  Colosseum,  with  its  Porta  Querquetulana  . 
and  Porta  Ccelimontana,  probably  a  little  beyond,  is  the  least 
known  part  of  the  circuit.  Hence  the  wall  skirts  the  slopes  of  the 
Ccelian  to  the  valley  along  which  the  Via  Appia  passed  through 
the  Porta  Capena,  near  the  church  of  S.  Gregorio.  Its  line  along 
the  Aventine  is  fairly  distinct,  and  near  S.  Balbina  and  in  the 
Vigna  Torlonia  are  two  of  the  best-preserved  pieces, — the  former 
11  courses  high  (22  feet),  the  latter  25  (50  feet).  Under  the 
Aventine  it  appears  to  have  touched  the  river  near  the  existing 
foundations  supposed  to  be  those  of  the  Pons  Sublicius.  The  Porta 
Trigemina  was  close  by  the  bank.  Hence  to  our  starting-point  the 
river  formed  the  defence  of  the  city,  with  its  massive  quay  wall, 
— the  KO\TJ  &KTT)  of  Plutarch  (Rom.,  20).  A  fragmentary  passage 
of  Varro  (L.  L.,  v.  163)  mentions  two  other  gates,  Nsevia  and 
Rauduscula,  "the  bronze  gate,"  but  their  positions  are  unknown. 
The  site  of  the  Porta  Kavalis  is  also  very  doubtful ;  it  was  probably 
not  in  the  Servian  wall. 

The  wall  is  built  of  blocks  of  tufa,  usually  the  softer  kinds,  but  Its  con- 
varying  according  to  its  position,  as  in  most  cases  the  stone  used  struc- 
was  that  quarried  on  the  spot.      In  some  places  a  good  deal  pftion. 
peperino  is  used.     The  blocks  average  from  23  to  24  inches  in 
thickness — roughly  2  Roman  feet — and  are  laid  in  alternate  courses 
of  headers  and  stretchers.     The  best  preserved  piece  of  wall — that 
on  the  Aventine  in  the  Vigna  Torlonia — has  one  complete  arch 
and  the  starting  of  another  ;  their  sills  are  about  34  feet  from  the 
ground  outside,  and  probably  level  with  the  ground  inside  (see  fig.  8). 


FIG.  8.— Part  of  Servian  wall  on  Aventine. 


These  arches,  though  built  of  the  harder  stone,  are  not  later  inser- 
tions, but  are  contemporary  with  the  wall  itself.  The  blocks,  both 
beds  and  vertical  joints,  are  very  carefully  worked  and  set  in  mortar; 
in  most  cases  they  are  bevelled  round  the  joints.  Some  blocks  are 
of  great  length,— d/wi&oi  \i0oi  Dionysius  calls  them.  At  this 
place  the  wall  is  backed  with  a  thick  mass  of  concrete  ;  the  use  of 
the  arched  openings  is  doubtful :  they  may  have  been  embrasures 
for  catapults.  The  discoveries  of  recent  years  have  shown  the  cor-  Agger  of 
rectness  of  the  description  given  by  Dionysius  (ix.  68)  of  the  great  Servras. 
agger,  with  its  wall  and  foss,  begun  by  the  earlier  kings  and  com- 
pleted by  the  last  Tarquin.  Fig.  9  shows  it  in  section  ;  the  earth 
taken  from  the  foss  (which  was  100  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  by  30 
deep)  was  heaped  up  to  form  the  agger,  and  was  kept  in  its  position 
by  a  lofty  retaining  wall  on  the  front  and  a  lower  one  behind. 
The  outer  wall  was  in  places  strengthened  with  massive  buttresses 
closely  set,  or  with  towers  ;  in  other  places  it  had  no  projections. 
The  back  wall,  the  position  of  which  shows  the  thickness  of  the 


814 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


agger,  is  in  parts  about  33  feet  from  the  front  one,  but  it  varies  in 
this  respect ;  in  other  parts  the  agger  appears  to  have  been  more 


PLAN  OF  WALL. 

(.      10.    20.  30.     40.    90. 


-11.6    X   9.0    X    11.6--- »• 

AGGER. 


Fio.  P. — Section  and  plan  (double  scale)  of  wall  and  agger  of  Servius.  A,  A. 
Undisturbed  earth  of  fossa.  B.  Earth  heaped  up  to  form  the  agger.  C.  Road 
at  brink  of  f  >ssa.  D.  Wall  and  buttress.  E.  Back  retaining  wall  of  agger. 
F.  Level  to  which  the  fossa  was  filled  up  and  built  upon  under  the  empire. 

than  50  feet  thick.  Between  the  railway  station  and  the  Dogana 
a  fine  lofty  piece  of  the  front  wall  remains,  with  traces  of  the  Porta 
Viminalis  and  of  the  lower  back  wall.  Unfortunately  the  whole  of 
the  bank  or  agger  proper  has  been  removed,  and  the  rough  back  of 
the  great  retaining  wall  exposed.  Both  tufa  and  peperino  are 
used;  the  blocks  vary  in  length,  but  average  in  depth  the  usual 
2  Roman  feet.  The  railway  cutting  which  has  destroyed  a  great 
part  of  the  agger  showed  clearly  the  section  of  the  whole  work  :  the 
strata  of  different  kinds  of  soil  which  appeared  on  the  sides  of  the 
foss  appeared  again  in  the  agger,  but  reversed  as  they  naturally 
would  be  in  the  process  of  digging  out  and  heaping  up.  Dionysius 
(ix.  68)  states  the  length  of  the  agger  to  have  been  7  stadia — that 
is,  about  1400  yards — which  agrees  (roughly  speaking)  with  the 
actual  discoveries.  Originally  one  road  ran  along  the  bottom  of 
the  foss  and  another  along  its  edge  ;  the  latter  existed  in  imperial 
times.  But  the  whole  foss  appears  to  have  been  filled  up,  probably 
in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  afterwards  built  upon ;  houses  of 
mixed  brick  and  opus  reticulatum  still  exist  against  the  outside 
of  the  great  wall,  which  was  itself  used  as  the  back  wall  of  these 
houses,  so  that  we  now  see  painted  stucco  of  the  time  of  Hadrian 
covering  parts  of  the  wall  of  the  kings.  Another  row  of  houses 
seems  to  have  faced  the  road  mentioned  above  as  running  along 
the  upper  edge  of  the  foss,  thus  forming  a  long  street.  As  early  as 
the  time  of  Augustus  a  very  large  part  of  the  wall  of  the  kings 
had  been  pulled  down  and  built  over,  so  that  even  then  its  circuit 
was  difficult  to  trace  (Dionys.,  iv.  13).  A  very  curious  series  of 
masons'  marks 
exists  on  the 
buildings  of  the 
regal  period,  es- 
pecially on  the 
stones  of  the  agger 
wall  and  those  of 
the  small  cellse  on 
the  Palatine  near 
the  Scalae  Caci. 
They  are  deeply 
incised,  usually  on 
the  ends  of  the 
blocks,  and  aver- 


ON  THE  AOC  ER  WALL 


Fio.  10.— Masons'  marks  on  walls  of  the  regal  period. 


age  from  10  to  14  inches  in  length :  some  are  single  letters  or 
monograms ;  others  are  numbers  ;  and  some  are  doubtful  signs, 
e.g.,  4,,  which  may  be  the  numeral  50  or  the  Etruscan  CH.  Fig. 
10  shows  the  chief  forms  from  the  Palatine  and  Esquiline.1 

The  Servian  city  did  not  include  what  is  now  the  most  crowded 
part  of  Rome,  and  which  under  the  empire  was  the  most  architect- 
urally magnificent,2  namely,  the  great  Campus  Martius,  which 
was  probably  to  a  great  extent  a  marsh.  It  was  once  called  Ager 
Tarquiniorum,  but  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  was  named 
Campus  Martius  from  an  altar  to  Mars,  dating  from  prehistoric 
times  (Liv.,  ii.  5).8 

Of  that  wonderful  system  of  massive  arched  sewers 4  by  which, 
as  Dionysius  (iii.  68)  says,  every  street  of  Rome  was  drained  into 
the  Tiber  considerable  remains  exist,  especially  of  the  Cloaca  Max- 
ima, which  runs  from  the  valley  of  the  Subura,  under  the  Forum 
(see  Plate  VII.),  along  the  Velabrum,  and  so  into  the  Tiber  by  the 


1  See  Bruzza,  in  Ann.  Inst.,  1876,  p.  72 ;  Jordan,  Topogr.,  1.  p.  259. 

2  It  was  specially  that  part  of  the  Campus  Martius  which  was  named  after 
the  Circus  Flaminius  that  was  remarkable  for  its  architectural  splendour. 

3  On  this  whole  subject  consult  Nibby  and  Cell,  Le  Mura  di  Roma,  1820 ; 
Piale,  Port*  del  Jtecinto  di  Servio,  1833  ;  Becker,  De  Romas  Mwris,  Leipsic,  1842  ; 
Lanciani,  Ann.  Inst.,  1871,  p.  40,  Mm.  Tnst.,  ix.  pi.  xxvii.,  also  Ann.  Inst.,  1857, 
p.  62,  and  Mon.  Inst.,  vi.  pi.  iv. ;  Quarenghi,  Le  Mura  di  Roma,  1880  (taken 
from  Lanciani) ;  comp.  Vitruvius,  i.  5. 

<  See  Liv.,  i.  38,  56 ;  Dionys.,  iv.  44. 


round  temple  in  the  Forum  Boarium  ;  it  is  still  in  use,  and  well 
preserved  at  most  places.  Its  mouth,  an  archway  in  the  great 
quay  wall  (ndXr)  Atcrrf}  nearly  11  feet  wide  by  12  high,  consists  of 
three  rings  of  peperiuo  "voussoirs,"  most  neatly  fitted.  The  rest 
of  the  vault  and  walls  is  built  of  mixed  tufa  and  peperino.5  Pliny 
(H.N.,  xxxvi.  24)  gives  an  interesting  account  of  what  is  probably 
this  great  sewer,  big  enough  (he  says)  for  a  loaded  hay-cart  to  pass 
along.  The  mouths  of  two  other  similar  but  smaller  cloacae  are 
still  visible  in  the  great  quay  wall  near  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  and  a 
whole  network  of  sewers  exists  under  a  great  part  of  the  Servian 
city.  Some  of  these  are  not  built  with  arched  vaults,  but  have 
triangular  tops  formed  of  courses  of  stone  on  level  beds,  each  pro- 
jecting over  the  one  below, — a  very  primitive  method  of  construc- 
tion, employed  in  the  Tulliauum  (see  fig.  11).  The  great  quay  Great 
wall  of  tufa  and  peperino  which  lined  both  banks  of  the  Tiber  for  a  quay 
considerable  distance  also  belongs  to  the  regal  period,  and  was  a  wall. 
work  of  great  solidity  and  strength  ;  it  is  now  mostly  destroyed  by 
the  action  of  the  river.  In  later  times  this  massive  wall  was  ex- 
tended, as  the  city  grew,  all  along  the  bank  of  the  Campus  Martius, 
and,  having  lost  its  importance  as  a  line  of  defence,  had  frequent 
flights  of  stairs  built  against  it,  descending  to  the  river.  Some  of 
these  are  shown  in  one  of  the  fragments  of  the  marble  plan  (see 
Jordan,  For.  Ur,  Rom.  •  Frag.  169).  In  1879  a  travertine  block 
was  dredged  up  inscribed  P  .  BARRONTVS  .  BARBA  .  AED  .  CVR . 
GRADOS .  REFECIT,  dating  from  the  1st  century  B.C.  This  records 
the  repair  of  one  of  these  numerous  river  stairs.  The  name  "pul- 
chrum  littus  "  is  not  a  classical  term,  but  simply  a  translation  of 
Plutarch's  Kd\i]  #KT??.6 

The  Tullianum  is  probably,  next  to  the  remains  of  Roma  Quad-  Tulli 
rata,  the  earliest 
of  the  existing 
buildings  of  Rome. 
It  is  partly  cut  in 
the  tufa  rock  of 
the  Capitoline  Hill 
and  partly  built  of 
2 -feet  blocks  of 
tufa,  set  with  thin 
beds  of  pure  lime 
mortar,  in  courses 
projecting  one 
over  the  other  (see 
fig.  11).  Its  name 
is  probably  de- 
rived, not  from 
Servius  Tullius, 
as  Varro  (v.  151) 
asserts,  but  from 
an  early  Latin 
word,  tullius,  a 
spring  of  water ; 
its  original  use  was 
probably  that  of 
a  cistern  or  well. 
It  was  closed  by 
a  conical  vault, 
arched  in  shape, 
but  not  construc- 
tionally  an  arch, 
— very  like  the 
so-called  "tomb 
of  Agamemnon " 
at  Mycenaj,  and 
many  early  Etrus- 
can tombs.  When 
the  upper  room 
with  its  arched 
vault,  also  of  tufa, 

•H-.10  Tmilf  tliA  FIG-  11.— Plan  and  section  of  the  Tullianum  or  "  Mamer- 
c  IT.  tine  prison."  A.  Opening  in  floor  over  the  Tulliammi. 
upper  part  OI  the  g>  3.  g0ijd  tufa  rock.  C,  C.  Branch  of  cloaca.  D,  E. 
cone  seems  to  Position  of  modern  stairs  and  door.  F,  F.  Front  wall 
have  been  re-  of  Prison  witl1  inscription  of  22  A.D.  G.  Probable  ori- 

j         j       a  x     ginal  top  of  Tullianum. 
moved,  and  a  flat     ' 

stone  floor  (a  flat  arch  in  construction)  substituted.  This  cannot 
be  other  than  the  "career  .  .  .  media  urbe  imininens  foro"  of 
Livy  (i.  33),  who  speaks  also  (xxxiv.  44)  of  an  "inferiorem  car- 
cerem,"  and  at  xxix.  22  of  a  criminal  being  put  in  the  Tul- 
lianum. That  its  use  as  a  cistern  was  abandoned  is  shown  by 
the  cloaca  which  leads  from  it,  through  the  rock,  to  a  branch 
of  the  Cloaca  Maxima.  This  horrible  place  was  used  as  a  dun- 

5  Mommsen  is  mistaken  in  his  assertion  that  travertine  is  used  in  the  vault 
of  this  cloaca ;  and  hence  his  argument  as  to  its  being  of  later  date  falls  to  the 
ground. 

6  A  great  quay  wall  with  arched  cloaca,  similar  in  style  to  those  in  Rome, 


PLAN 


Ta  . 

accept 

Tarquinius  Priscus. 


ARCHAEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


815 


geon,  prisoners  being  lowered  through  a  hole  in  the  stone  floor, 
—the  only  access.  The  present  stairs  are  modern.  The  two 
chambers  are  vividly  described  by  Sallust  (Cat.,  55).  The  en- 
trance to  the  upper  prison  was  on  the  left  of  the  stairs  leading  up 
from  the  Forum  to  the  Clivus  Argentarius,  the  road  to  the  Porta 
Ratumena  (see  Plate  VI. ).  Lentulus  and  the  Catiline  conspirators, 
as  well  as  Jugurtha  and  other  prisoners  of  importance,  were  killed 
or  starved  to  death  in  this  fearful  dungeon,  which  is  called  rb 
pdpaOpov  by  Plutarch  (Marius,  xii.).  According  to  a  doubtful 
tradition  of  the  Catholic  Church  St  Peter  and  St  Paul  were  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tullianum.  The  name  Mamertine  prison  is  of 
medieval  origin.  The  front  wall  of  the  prison  was  restored  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius  22  A.D.,  and  bears  this  inscription  on  a  projecting 
string-course— C .  VIBIVS .  C  .  F .  RVFINVS .  M .  COCCEIV[S  NERVA] 
COS .  EX .  S .  C.1  The  floor  of  the  upper  prison  is  about  16  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  Forum,  to  which  access  was  given  by  a  flight  of 
steps— Scalae  Gemoniae— on  which  the  bodies  of  criminals  were  ex- 
posed ; 2  Pliny  (H.N.,  viii.  61)  calls  it  the  "stairs  of  sighs "  (gradus 
gemitorii). 

Forum  Romanum  and  Adjacent  Buildings. 

The  Forum  Romanum  or  Magnum,  as  it  was  called  in  late  times 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  imperial  fora,  occupies  a  valley  which 
extends  from  the  foot  of  the  Capitoline  Hill  to  the  north-east  part 
of  the  Palatine.  Till  the  construction  of  the  great  cloacae  it  was, 
at  least  in  wet  seasons,  marshy  ground,  in  Avhich  were  several  pools 
of  water.  In  early  times  it  was  bounded  on  two  sides  by  rows  of 
shops  and  houses,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  first  Tarquin  (Liv., 
i.  35).  The  shops  on  the  south-west  side  facing  the  Sacra  Via, 
where  the  Basilica  Julia  afterwards  was  built,  were  occupied  by  the 
Tabernae  Veteres.3  The  shops  on  the  northern  side,  being  occupied 
by  silversmiths,  were  called  Tabernte  Argentariae  (see  Liv.,  xxvi. 
27,  xl.  51),  and  in  later  times,  when  rebuilt  after  a  fire,  were  called 
Taberme  Novae.4  An  altar  to  Saturn  (Dionys.,  i.  34,  vi.  1),  tradi- 
tionally set  up  by  the  companions  of  Hercules,  and  an  altar  to 
Vulcan,  both  at  the  end  towards  the  Capitol,  with  the  temple  of 
Vesta  and  the  Regia  at  the  opposite  end,  were  among  the  earliest 
monuments  grouped  around  the  Forum.  The  Lacus  Curtius 
vanished,  as  Varro  says  (L.L.,  v.  148-149),  probably  with  Bother 
stagnant  pools,  when  the  cloacae  were  constructed  (Liv.,  i.  38, 
56). 5  Another  pool,  the  Lacus  Servilius,  near  the  Basilica  Julia, 
was  preserved  in  some  form  or  other  till  the  imperial  period. 
Under  Sulla  it  was  used  as  a  place  to  expose  the  heads  of  many 
senators  murdered  in  his  proscriptions  (Cic.,  -Rose.  Am.,  32; 
Seneca,  De  Prov.,  3).  The  Vulcanal  or  Hephaesteum  was  an  open 
area,  so  called  from  the  early  altar  to  Vulcan,  and  was  (like  the 
Coniitium)  a  place  of  public  meeting,  at  least  during  the  regal 
period.6  It  was  raised  above  the  Comitium,  and  probably  was  a 
space  levelled  on  the  lower  slope  of  the  Capitoline  Hill  behind  the 
arch  of  Severus  ;  but  its  exact  form  and  position  are  very  doubt- 
ful. It  was  probably  much  encroached  upon  when  the  temple  of 
Concord  was  enlarged  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 

Plate  VII.  gives  a  carefully  measured  plan  of  the  Forum,  show- 
ing the  most  recent  discoveries. 

References  to  Numbers  in  Plate  (VII.)  of  Forum  RomanumJ 
1,  1.  (Basilica  Julia)  existing  marble  piers  and  fragment  of  screen.  2.  Im- 
pression of  marble  pier  in  the  late  archway  of  brick-faced  concrete.  3.  Only 
remaining  one  of  ancient  travertine  piers.  4,  4.  Chambers  of  tufa  and  traver- 
tine, with  traces  of  stairs.  5.  Tabula  lusoria,  witli  inscription,  see  p.  817. 
6.  Opening  into  Cloaca  Maxima.  7.  Massive  travertine  pedestal.  8,  8. 
Paving  of  porta  santa  and  Africano  marbles.  9,  9.  Paving  of  various 
Oriental  marbles.  10.  Probable  position  of  arch  of  Tiberius.  11, 11.  Exist- 
ing granite  columns  of  temple  of  Saturn.  12.  Main  flight  of  steps,  of  which 
only  the  concrete  core  remains.  13.  Starting  of  small  side  stairs  to  chamber 
under  main  flight  of  steps.  14.  Only  piece  existing  of  ancient  basalt  paving 
(see  fig.  6).  15.  Platform  of  porticus  of  Dii  Consentes.  16.  Upper  door  in 
Tabularium  blocked  up  by  porticus  of  Dii  Consentes.  17.  Door  at  foot  of 
stairs  of  Tabularium,  blocked  up  by  temple  of  Vespasian  (see  fig.  1).  18. 
Travertine  paving  of  time  of  Domitian.  19.  Pedestal  of  Vespasian's  statue. 
20.  Three  existing  columns  of  temple  of  Vespasian.  21.  2Edicula  built  by 
Domitian.  22.  Travertine  paving  of  time  of  Domitian.  23,  23.  Long 
passage  and  windows  in  lower  story  of  Tabularium.  24.  Pedestal  of  statue 
of  Concord.  25.  Pedestal  added  by  one  of  the  Flavian  emperors.  26.  Frag- 
ment of  a  later  pedestal.  27.  White  marble  door-jamb  and  massive  threshold 
of  porta  santa  marble.  28.  Remains  of  some  early  structure  in  tufa.  29. 
Three  travertine  steps  down  to  lower  paved  level,  perhaps  that  of  the  Comi- 
tium. 30.  Marble  steps  to  this  lower  level.  31.  Large  marble  pedestal 
(not  in  situ)  inscribed  to  Fl.  Jul.  Constantius.  32.  Late  addition  to  rostra. 
33.  Remains  of  a  small  marble  structure.  34.  Marble  pedestal  of  a  column, 
with  rude  reliefs  of  the  4th  century.  35.  Marble  pedestal  of  an  equestrian 


1  Consules  suffecti  for  22  A.D. 

2  See  Tac.,  Hist.,  iii.  74,  85  ;  Suet.,  Vit.,  17. 

3  See  Livy  (xliv.  16),  who  mentions  a  house  of  P.  Afrieanus,  "pone  veteres 
ad  Vortumni  signum,"  which  was  bought  by  T.  Sempronius  to  clear  the  site 
for  the  Basilica  Sempronia  in  169  B.C.    This  basilica  appears  to  have  been 
afterwards  absorbed  in  the  Basilica  Julia. 

4  Hence  these  two  sides  of  the  Forum  are  frequently  referred  to  in  classical 
writings  as  "sub  veteribus  "  and  "sub  novis." 

5  In  later  times  it  appears  to  have  been  an  enclosed  space  containing  an 
altar ;  it  is  described  by  Ovid  (Fast.,  vi.  403) ;  according  to  one  tradition  it 
marked  the  spot  where  Curtius's  self-immolation  filled  up  the  chasm  which 
had  opened  in  the  Forum  (see  Dionys.,  ii.  41). 

6  See  Dionys.,  ii.  50,  vi.  67  ;  Plin.,  H.N.,  xvi.  86  ;  Plut.,  Quses.  Rom.,  47. 

7  A  larger  plan,  coloured  in  detail,  is  given  in  J.  H.  Middleton,  Ancient 
Rome  in  1885  (A.  &  C.  Black,  Edinburgh). 


statue,  set  on  end,  and  inscribed  to  Arcadius  and  Theodosius.    36.  Marble 
walls  (plutei)  with  reliefs  of  time  of  Trajan  (not  in  situ).    37.  Remains  of  a 
small  marble  structure.    88.  Large  concrete  core  of  a  late  pedestal.    39. 
Steps  to  column  of  Phocas,  part  marble  and  part  tufa.    40.  Late  building  of 
brick  and  concrete  lined  with  marble.    41.  Existing  three  columns  of  temple 
of  Castor.    42,  42.  Existing  pieces  of  mosaic  pavement.    43.  Main  steps  of 
temple  of  Castor.    44.  Side  steps  ;  only  the  three  lowest  remain.    45.  Part 
of  circular  travertine  curb ;  puteal  Scribonisl    46,  46.  Original  line  of  Sacra 
Via,  covered  with  late  paving  of  travertine.    47.  Line  of  side  steps  of  2Edes 
Divi  Julii.    48.  Small  front  stairs  up  to  podium  of  2Edes  Divi  Julii.    49. 
Curved  recess  in  podium,  which  probably  once  contained  an  altar  to  Divus 
Julius  ;  now  blocked  up  by  late  masonry.     50.  Fragment  of  a  wall  faced 
with  opus  reticulatum.    51.  Concrete  core  of  podium  of  temple  of  Vesta. 
52.  Small  sedicula  by  entrance  to  Atrium  Vestae.    53,  53.  Shops  adjoining 
Atriurn  Vestse.    54.  Stairs  from  Nova  Via  up  to  Clivus  Victoria  and  palace 
of  Caligula.    54A.  Stairs,  shown  on  a  fragment  of  the  marble  plan,  leading 
up  from  the  level  of  the  Forum  to  that  of  the  Nova  Via.    55,  55.  Windows  in 
curia  of  Diocletian  (S.  Adriano),  now  below  the  ground  level ;  see  fig.  12,  p. 
816.    56.  Marble  doorway  shown  by  Du  Perac,  now  missing. 
Unlike  the  fora  of  the  emperors,  each  of  which  was  surrounded 
by  a  lofty  wall  and  built  at  one  time  from  one  design,  the  archi- 
tectural form  of  the  Forum  Romanum  was  a  slow  growth.     The 
marshy  battle-field  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  capitol  and 
Palatine  became,  when  the  ground  was  drained  by  the  great  cloacae, 
under  a  united  rule  the  most  convenient  site  for  political  meetings, 
for  commercial  transactions,  and  for  the  pageants  of  rich  men's 
funerals,  ludi  scenici,  and  gladiatorial  games.8    For  these  purposes 
a  central  space,  though  but  a  small  one,  was  kept  clear  of  buildings  ; 
but  it  was  gradually  occupied  in  a  somewhat  inconvenient  manner 
by  an  ever-accumulating  crowd  of  statues  and  other  honorary 
monuments.     On  three  sides  the  limits  of  this  open  space  are 
marked  by  paved  roads,  faced  by  the  stately  buildings  which  gradu- 
ally took  the  place  of  the  simple  wooden  tabernae  and  porticus  9  of 
early  times.     This  central  space  was  essentially  the  meeting-place 
of  the  plebs,  or  the  Comitia  Tributa,  while  the  patricians,  the 
Comitia  Curiata,  met  on  the  Comitium,  which  adjoined  the  Forum. 
The  Comitium 10  was  a  level  space  in  front  of  the  Curia  ;  the  con- 
struction of  both  is  ascribed  to  Tullus  Hostilius.     For  the  position 
of  the  Comitium  and  the  Curia  u  see  plan  of  Forum  (Plate  VII. ). 
Varro  (L.L.,\.  155-156)  gives  the  following  account  of  the  build- 
ings which  were  grouped  along  the  northern  angle  of  the  Forum. 

"Comitium  ab  eo  quod  coibant  eo  comitiis  curiatis  et  litium 
causa.  Curiae  duorum  generum,  nam  et  ubi  curareut  sacerdotes 
res  divinas,  ut  Curiae  Veteres,  et  ubi  senatus  humanas,  ut  Curia 
Hostilia,  quod  primum  aedificavit  Hostilius  rex.  Ante  hanc  Rostra, 
quojus  loci  id  vocabulum,  quod  ex  hostibus  capta  fixa  sunt  rostra. 
Sub  dextra  hujus  a  Comitio  locus  substructus,  ubi  nationum  sub- 
sisterent  legati  qui  ad  senatum  essent  missi.  Is  Gnecostasis  appel- 
latus  a  parte  ut  multa.  Senaculum  supra  Graecostasim,  ubi  Mdis 
Concordiae  et  Basilica  Opimia.  Senaculum  vocatum,  ubi  senatus, 
aut  ubi  seniores  consisterent." 

The  Curia  or  senate-house  passed  through  many  vicissitudes.  Curia. 
At  first  called  Curia  Hostilia  from  its  founder  Tullus  Hostilius 
(Liv.,  i.  30),  it  lasted  till  52  B.C.,  when  it  was  burnt  at  the  funeral 
of  Clodius,  and  was  then  rebuilt  by  the  son  of  Sulla,  and  from  his 
gens  called  Curia  Cornelia  (Dion  Cass.,  xl.  50  ;  Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxiv. 
12).  It  was  again  rebuilt  by  Augustus  (29  B.C.)  under  the  name 
of  the  Curia  Julia,  as  recorded  in  the  inscription  of  Ancyra  (see 
ANGORA)— CVRIAM .  ET .  CONTIKENS  .  El .  CHALCIDICVM . . .  FECI. 
Little  is  known  about  the  adjoining  buildings  called  the  Athenaeum 
and  Chalcidicum ;  Dion  Cassius  (Ii.  22)  mentions  the  group.  In 
the  reign  of  Domitian  the  Curia  Julia  was  again  rebuilt  (Prosp. 
Aquit. ,  p.  571),  and  lastly  by  Diocletian.  There  is  strong  evidence 
to  show  that  the  existing  church  of  S.  Adriano  is  the  Curia  of 
Diocletian,  though  of  course  much  altered,  and  with  its  floor  raised 
about  20  feet  above  the  old  level.  Fig.  12  shows  the  front  existing 
towards  the  Forum,  omitting  later  windows  and  doors.  As  late  as 
the  time  of  Du  Perac  ( Vestigj  di  Roma)  the  old  entrance  and  level 
were  preserved.  He  gives  a  drawing12  of  it  with  steps  descending 
to  the  doorway.  The  ancient  bronze  doors  now  at  the  end  of  the 
nave  of  the  Lateran  basilica  originally  belonged  to  this  building, 
and  were  removed  thence  by  Alexander  VII.  Fig.  12  is  derived 
from  actual  measurements  of  the  part  above  ground,  while  the  lower 
part,  now  buried,  is  derived  from  Du  Perac's  drawing  and  from 
the  bronze  doors  at  the  Lateran,  which  give  the  size  of  the  opening, 


8  The  first  gladiatorial  show,  in  Rome  was  given  in  264  B.C.  in  the  Forum 
Boarium  by  D.  Junius  Brutus  at  his  father's  funeral  (Liv.,  Epit.,  xvi.),  the  nrst 
in  the  Forum  Romanum  in  216  B.C.  (Liv.,  xxiii.  30).    See  also  Liv.,  xxxi.  50, 
xli.  28  ;  and  Suet.,  Cats.,  39  ;  Aug.,  43  ;  and  Tib.,  7.  . 

9  "  Porticus  "  means  a  covered  colonnade  in  one  or  more  stones,  eitne 
one  straight  line  or  enclosing  a  space  like  a  cloistered  quadrangle.    A  "  crypto- 
porticus"  usually  implies  a  covered  passage,  with  walls  instead  of  columns  at 

10  See  a  valuable  paper  on  the  Comitium  byDetlefsen,  Ann.  Inst.,lS6Q  ;  and 
Dernburg,  Die  Lage  des  Comitiums.    The  Comitium  was  also  the  chief  law-court, 
where  criminal  cases  were  heard  by  the  triumviri  capitales.    Dictators,  consuls, 
and  other  officials  of  Rome  held  courts  there,  and  received  foreign  envoys.    It 
was  also  used  for  public  shows  and  games  and  was  a  place  of  execution  or 

11  Livy  (xlv.  24)  indicates  their  relative  positions  by  the  phrase  "Comitium 
vestibulum  Curia;."  . 

12  This  valuable  set  of  drawings  was  not  published  till  1575 ;  but  internal 
evidence  shows  that  many  of  them,  if  not  all,  were  made  as  early  as  1540.    A 
good  account  of  the  Curia  and  its  vicissitudes  is  given  by  Lanciani,  LAiita 
e  gli  Uffici  del  Senato  Romano,  1883. 


816 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


and  show  how  deeply  the  buried  part  descends  below  the  present 
level  The  brick  cornice  and  marble  consoles,  covered  with  enriched 
mouldings  in 
stucco,  and  the 
sham  marble 
facing,  also  of 
stucco,  if  com- 
pared with 
similar  details 
in  the  baths 
of  Diocletian, 
leave  little 
doubt  as  to 
this  being  a 
work  of  his 
time,  and  not, 
as  has  been 
usually  as- 
sumed, the 

•WOrk    Of    Pope 

Honorius  I., 
who  (625-633 
A.D.)  conse- 
crated it  as  the 
church  of  S. 
Adriano. 

mi-  From      the 

m.        Curia  a  flight 

of    steps     led 

^«m^,+^fV,Qp^  "I0-  12.— Curia  of  Diocletian,  as  it  was  in  the  16th  century. 
itneyo-  A)  A>  A  Original  -^dows  now  blocked  up.  B.  Bronze 
initmm  (Liv.,  doors.  C.  Stucco  facing.  D.  Cornice  with  marble  consoles 
i.  36),  the  level  and  enriched  stucco  mouldings,  both  existing.  E.  Baking 
of  which  ap-  cornice  now  g°ne,  but  shown  by  Du  Perac. 
pears  from  the  existing  steps  and  pavement  near  the  arch  of 
Severus  (see  Plate  VII. )  to  have  been  about  2  feet  below  that  of 
the  Forum,  and  not  above  it,  as  Bunsen  and  others  have  asserted, 
iginal  On  the  Comitium  stood  the  ancient  rostra  till  they  were  rebuilt 
tra.  on  a  new  site  by  Julius  Caesar  in  44  B.C.  The  ancient  rostra  were 
so  called  in  338  B.C.,  when  Camillus  and  Mcenius  defeated  the 
Latin  fleet  at  Antium,  and  the  beaks  (rostra)  of  the  captured 
ships  were  fixed  to  an  existing  platform  on  the  Comitium  for 
orators.  It  was  also  called  a  "templum"  because  the  structure 
was  consecrated  by  the  augurs  (Cic.,  De  Orat.,  Hi.  3).  Other 
rostra,  named  for  distinction  Rostra  Julia,  were  so  called  from 
the  beaks  of  ships  taken  at  Actium  and  affixed  by  Augustus  to  the 
podium  of  the  temple  built  by  him  in  honour  of  the  deified  Julius. 
Both  are  mentioned  by  Suetonius  (Aug.,  100).  There  were  several 
other  platforms  or  tribunals  for  orators  in  and  about  the  Forum, 
but  they  were  not  called  rostra.  From  the  original  rostra  Cicero 
delivered  his  Second  and  Third  Catiline  Orations,  and  they  were  the 
scene  of  some  of  the  most  important  political  struggles  of  Rome, 
such  as  the  enunciation  of  their  laws  by  the  Gracchi.  Beside  the 
Comitium  another  monument  was  erected,  also  adorned  with  beaks 
of  ships,  to  commemorate  the  same  victory  at  Antium.  This  was 
the  Columna  Mcenia,  so  called  in  honour  of  Mcenius  (Plin.,  H.N., 
xxxiv.  11,  vii.  60).  The  Columna  Duilia  was  a  similar  monument, 
erected  in  honour  of  the  victory  of  C.  Duilius  over  the  Punic  fleet 
in  260  B.C.  ;  a  fragment  of  it  with  inscription  (restored  in  imperial 
times)  is  preserved  in  the  Capitoline  Museum.1  Columns  such  as 
these  were  called  "columnse  rostrate." 

teco-  Near  the  Comitium,  on  the  side  towards  the  Capitol,  was  the 
sis.  Grsecostasis,  a  platform  where  foreign  ambassadors  stood  to  hear 
the  speeches  (see  Varro,  loc.  cit.).  It  appears  probable  that,  like 
the  rostra,  the  Graecostasis  was  moved  in  the  1st  century  B.C.  ; 
and  this  name  has  been  given  with  some  probability  to  the  curved 
marble-faced  platform  behind  the  existing  rostra. 

na-  The  Senaculum  appears  to  have  been  a  place  of  preliminary 

lum.  meeting  for  the  Senate  before  entering  the  Curia  (Liv.,  xli.  27  ; 
Val.  Max.,  ii.  2,  6)  ;  it  adjoined  the  temple  of  Concord,  and  when 
this  was  rebuilt  on  an  enlarged  scale  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  it 
appears  probable  that  its  large  projecting  portico  became  the 
Senaculum  (Dionys.,  i.  34,  vi.  1).  It  may  possibly  have  once  been 
identical  with  the  Area  Concordias  mentioned  by  Livy  (xl.  19)  in 
connexion  with  the  Area  Vulcani  (comp.  xxxix.  46). 
isilicse  A  great  part  of  the  north-east  side  of  the  Forum  was  occupied  by 
Forum,  two  basilica;,  which  were  more  than  once  rebuilt  under  different 
names.  The  first  of  these  appears  to  have  been  adjacent  to  the 
Curia,  on  its  south  side ;  it  was  called  the  Basilica  Porcia,  and  was 
founded  by  the  elder  Cato  in  184  B.C.  (see  Liv.,  xxxix.  44,  and 
Plut.,  Cato  Major,  19) ;  it  was  burnt  with  the  Curia  at  Clodius's 
funeral  Adjoining  it  another  basilica,  called  JSmilia  et  Fulvia 
(Varro,  vi.  4),  was  built  in  176  B.C.  by  the  censors  M.  Fulvius 
and  M.  .ffimilius  Lepidus;2  it  stood,  according  to  Livy  (xl.  51), 


1  The  column  itself  is  a  copy  made  by  Michelangelo ;  it  is  at  the  foot  of  the 
stairs  of  the  Palazzo  dei  Conservator!. 

2  The  Forum  Piscatorium  or  fish-market  appears  to  have  been  at  the  back  of 
Ihis  basilica  (see  Liv.,  xl.  51). 


"post  argentarias  novas,"  the  line  of  silversmiths'  shops  along  the 
north-east  side  of  the  Forum.  In  50  B.C.  it  was  rebuilt  by  L. 
jEmilius  Paulus  (Plut.,  C&s.,  29;  Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  ii.  26),  and 
was  more  than  once  restored  within  the  few  subsequent  years  by 
members  of  the  same  family.  Its  later  name  was  the  'Basilica 
Pauli,  and  it  was  remarkable  for  its  magnificent  columns  of 
Phrygian  marble  (Plin.,  U.N.,  xxxvi.  24)  or  pavonazetto. 

Near  the  middle  of  the  north-east  side  of  the  Forum  stood  also  Temp 
the  small  bronze  temple  of  Janus,3  the  doors  of  which  were  shut  of  Janu 
on  those  rare  occasions  when  Rome  was  at  peace.4    A  first  brass  of 
Nero  shows  it  as  a  small  cella,  with  richly  ornamented  frieze  and 
cornice.     Another  sedicula  near  that  of  Janus  was  the  shrine  of 
Venus  Cloacina  (or  the  Purifier),  probably  on  the  line  of  the  great 
cloaca  (Liv.,  iii.  48;  Plin.,  H.N.,  xv.   36).     Two  or  more  other 
shrines  of  Janus  stood  on  this  side,  behind  the  shops  of  the  money- 
lending  argentarii ;  and  the  word  "Janus"  was  used  to  imply  the 
place  of  usurers  (Hor.,  Sat.,  ii.  3,  18). 

So  far  the  buildings  mentioned  have  been  mostly  those  whose 
sites  are  still  buried  under  the  line  of  modern  houses  on  the  north- 
cast  of  the  Forum,  the  only  part  which  has  not  yet  been  excavated. 
Turning  to  those  of  which  existing  remains  are  visible,  at  the 
north-west  end  the  rostra  of  Julius  Cfesar  mark  the  limit  of  the 
Forum  in  this  direction,  as  the  arch  of  Fabius  beside  the  temple 
of  Faustina  did  in  the  other. 

Plate  VII.  shows  the  plan  of  the  rostra,  with  the  curved  Gracostasis  Existin 
behind  it.  It  is  an  oblong  platform  about  78  feet  long  and  11  feet  rostra, 
high  above  the  level  of  the  Forum  ;  its  ground  floor,  paved  with 
herring-bone  bricks,  is  2  feet  6  inches  below  the  Forum  paving. 
Its  end  and  side  walls  are  of  tufa  blocks,  2  feet  thick  and  2  feet 
wide,  each  carefully  clamped  to  the  next  with  wooden  dovetail 
dowels.  Its  floor  was  supported  by  a  series  of  travertine  piers, 
carrying  travertine  lintels,  on  which  the  floor  slabs  rested  (see 
fig.  13).  Outside  it  was  completely  lined  with  Greek  marble  and 
had  a  richly  moulded  plinth  and  cornice ;  none  of  the  latter  is  in 
situ,  but  many 
pieces  lie  scat- 
tered around.  A 
groove  cut  in 
the  top  of  the 
cornice  shows 
the  place  where 
marble  cancelli 
were  fixed ;  one 
of  the  cornice 
blocks  is  partly 
without  this 
groove,  showing 
that  the  screen 
did  not  extend 
along  the  whole 
front  of  the  ros- 
tra. This  agrees 
with  a  relief  on 
the  arch  of  Con- 
stantino, repre- 
senting  the  em- 
peror  making  an 
oration  from  the  ">^j 
rostra,  with  other 
buildings  at  this 
end  of  the  Forum  FIG.  13. 
shown  behind. 
In  this  relief  the 
screen  is  shown 

with  a  break  in  the  middle,  so  that  the  orator,  standing  in  the 
centre,  was  visible  from  head  to  foot.  Two  tiers  of  large  holes  to 
hold  the  bronze  rostra  are  drilled  right  through  the  tufa  wall,  and 
even  through  the  travertine  pilasters  where  one  happens  to  come 
in  the  way  ;  these  holes  show  that  there  were  nineteen  rostra  in 
the  lower  tier,  and  twenty  above  set  over  the  intermediate  spaces 
of  the  lower  row.  The  back  wall  of  the  rostra  is  of  concrete  faced 
with  brick,  which,  being  probably  the  work  of  Julius  Csesar  in  44 
B.C.,  is  the  earliest  dated  example  of  brickwork  in  Rome.  The 
inside  space,  under  the  main  floor  of  the  rostra,  is  coated  thickly 
with  stucco, — the  brick  wall  being  studded  in  the  usual  way  with 
iron  nails  to  form  a  key  for  the  plaster. 

In  spite  of  the  assertions  of  Bunsen,  Jordan,  and  others  that  the  Curv< 
curved  platform  behind  (conjecturally  called  the  Gracostasis)  is  a  platft  • 
work  of  late  date,  it  is  evident  from  various  constructional  points, 
visible  at  the  junction  of  the  two  structures,  that  it  existed  before 
the  rostra,  which  when  built  completely  hid  its  rich  lining  and  the 
pilasters  of  porta  santa  marble  which  decorated  its  front, — very  strong 
evidence  as  to  the  curved  platform  being  earlier  in  date.    The  level 


Section  through  front  of  rostra,  showing  the 
marble  lining,  screen,  and  bronze  beaks,  the  position  of 
which  is  shown  by  the  holes  in  the  existing  tufa  wall. 
The  details  are  to  double  scale. 


3  The  original  temple  was  one  of  the  prehistoric  buildings  attributed  to 
Romulus  and  Tatins  (Serv.,  Ad  JEn.,  i.  291),  or  by  Livy  (i.  19)  to  Nuiria. 
'   4  Bee  Mon.  Ancyr.;  Procop.,  Bell.  Goth.,  i.  25  ;  Liv.,  i.  19  ;  Suet.,  Aug.,  22. 


I 


ARCHAEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


817 


Tuple 
ofaturn 


of  the  top  of  this  platform  and  that  of  the  rostra  appear  to  have 
coincided  exactly,  so  that  the  whole  formed  one  continuous  marble- 
paved  platform,  and  the  rostra  would  be  reached,  not  by  steps,  but 
from  the  higher  ground  towards  the  Capitol,  from  which  access  is 
given  to  the  curved  platform  and  so  on  to  the  floor  of  the  rostra. 
The  bronze  rostra  on  this  structure  of  44  B.C.  were  believed  to  be 
the  original  beaks  from  Antium,  moved  from  the  old  rostra  (Floras, 
i.  11).  On  its  marble  platform  stood  many  statues,1  e.g.,  of  Sulla, 
Fompey,  two  of  Julius  Cresar,  and  others  (see  Dion  Cass.,  xlii.  18, 
and  xliv.  4).  Owing  probably  to  the  weight  of  the  many  statues 
proving  too  much  for  the  travertine  piers,  which  are  not  set  on 
their  natural  beds  but  endways,  and  therefore  are  very  weak,  the 
structure  seems  to  have  given  way  at  more  than  one  time  and  the 
floor  has  been  supported  by  piers  and  arches  of  brick-faced  concrete, 
inserted  either  in  place  of  or  at  the  sides  of  the  shattered  piers. 
These  later  additions,  apparently  of  the  3d  and  4th  centuries,  are 
omitted  in  Plate  VII.  for  the  sake  of  clearness.  The  moulded  plinth 
of  the  curved  platform  is  of  Pentelic  marble,  some  of  the  blocks  of 
which  are  incised  with  masons'  marks,  namely,  the  Greek  letters 
F,  A,  E,  Z,  H,  0,  and  K.  A  number  of  metal  pins  on  the  face  of 
the  slabs  of  porta  sauta  marble  which  line  its  front  show  that 
emblemata  or  reliefs,  probably  of  gilt  bronze,  were  once  fastened 
to  the  marble.2  The  use  of  Greek  marble  shows  that  this  platform 
can  be  but  little  earlier  than  the  rostra  (44  B.C.)  ;  and  it  appears 
possible  that  this  is  the  Grrecostasis,  transferred,  like  the  rostra,  to 
a  new  site.3  See  Varro  (L.L.,  v.  155)  and  Cicero  (Ad  Quint.  Fr., 
ii.  1),  who  mention  the  original  structure.  Restorations  of  the 
later  one  by  Antoninus  Pius  and  Diocletian  are  mentioned  by 
Capitolinus  (Ant.  Pius,  8),  and  in  the  Catal.  Imp.  Vienn.  given  by 
Preller  (Regionen,  p.  143),— in  both  cases  after  injury  by  fire,  a 
fact  which  seems  to  show  that  in  later  times  the  Grfecostasis  had 
some  roofed  porticus  or  shelter  and  was  not  a  mere  open  platform 
as  it  was  originally. 

At  the  northern  end  of  the  curved  platform  there  is  a  cylindrical 
structure  of  concrete  faced  with  brick,  and  lined  with  thin  marble 
slabs  ;  it  is  in  three  stages,  each  diminishing  in  size,  and  appears 
to  be  an  addition  of  about  the  time  of  Severus.  This  is  usually 
identified  with  the  Umbilicus  Romre,  or  central  point  of  the  city, 
mentioned  in  the  Notitia  and  the  Einsiedeln  MS.  (see  Preller, 
Regionen,  Reg.  viii. ).  According  to  another  theory  it  is  the  base  of 
the  gilt  statue  of  the  Genius  Populi  Romani  set  up  by  Aurelian  ; 
but  this  is  contradicted  by  the  form  of  the  structure,  which  is  not 
that  of  the  pedestal  of  a  statue.4  At  the  other  extremity  probably 
stood  the  Milliarium  Aureum,  a  marble  column  sheathed  in  gilt 
bronze  and  inscribed  with  the  names  and  distances  of  the  chief 
towns  on  the  roads  which  radiated  from  the  thirty-seven  gates  of 
Rome  (Plin.,  H.N.,  iii.  9).  It  was  set  up  by  Augustus  in  29  B.C. 
and  its  position  "  sub  cede  Saturni"  is  indicated  by  Tacitus  (Hist., 
i.  27;  see  schol.  on  Suet.,  Otho,  6,  and  Plut.,  Galba,  24).  The 
Milliarium  is  mentioned  in  the  Notitia,  (Reg.  viii.)  as  being  near 
the  Vicus  Jugarius.  The  position  shown  in  Plate  VII.  agrees  with 
both  these  indications,  being  near  the  start  of  the  Vicus  Jugarius, 
and  close  under  the  temple  of  Saturn.  Fragments  of  a  curved 
marble  plinth  and  frieze  with  floriated  reliefs,  now  lying  in  the 
Basilica  Julia,  probably  belonged  to  the  pedestal  of  this  column  ; 
they  were  found  by  Cauiiia  near  the  supposed  site.5 

The  position  of  the  temple  of  Saturn  is  described  in  Mon.  Ancyr. 
(see  below)  and  shown  on  the  marble  plan,  and  is  also  identified 
by  various  passages  in  ancient  writers.  Varro  (L.L.,  v.  42)  speaks 
of  it  as  being  "in  faucibus  Capitolii";6  Servius  (Ad  ^En.,  ii.  115) 
says  that  it  is  in  front  of  the  Clivus  Capitoliuus,  and  near  the 
temple  of  Concord  (see  Plate  VII.).  It  was  built  against  a  steep 
slope  or  outlying  part  of  the  Capitoline  Hill  (comp.  Dionys.,  i. 

1  The  original  rostra  had  specially  honorary  statues  to  those  Roman  ambassa- 
dors who  had  been  killed  while  on  foreign  service  (Liv.,  iv.  17) ;  these  were 
probably  removed  during  Cicero's  lifetime  (Cic.,  Phil,  ix.  2;  see  also  Dion 
Cass.,  xliii.  49,  and  Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxiv.  11).    Ghastly  ornaments  fixed  to  these 
rostra  in  the  year  43  B.C.,  shortly  after  they  were  built,  were  the  head  and 
hands  of  the  murdered  Cicero  (Appian,  Bull.  Civ.   iv.  20  ;  Dion  Cass.,  xlvii.  8  ; 
Juv.,  x.  120),  as  on  the  original  rostra  had  been  fixed  many  heads  of  the  chief 
victims  of  the  proscriptions  of  Marius  and  Sulla  (see  Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  i.  71, 
94  ;  Floras,  iii.  21  ;  and  Cic.,  Pro  Sext.,  35,  30).     The  denarius  of  the  gens  Lollia 
with  the  legend  PALIKANVS  was  once  supposed  to  have  a  representation  of 
the  rostra  on  its  reverse,  but  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  subject  is  a 
harbour  containing  ships,  the  beaks  of  which  only  are  shown.     Even  if  the 
rostra  of  the  Forum  are  represented  it  would  be  the  original  suggestum,  not 
that  of  Julius  Caesar. 

2  This  method  of  decoration  was  much  employed  by  the  Greeks  and  largely 
followed  by  their  Roman  imitators.    For  further  details  on  the  rostra,  &c., 
see  Jordan  and  Fabricius,  in  Ann.  Inst.  for  1883;  Nichols,  GU  Avanzi  dei 
H'tttri,  &c.,  1885;  and  a  paper  by  the  present  writer  in  Arcliteologia,  (read 
November  1884). 

s  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  there  is  very  little  evidence  in  support 
of  this  theory. 

4  Becker,  Hanflhuch,  L  p.  360,  adopts  this  view,  and  maintains  that  the 
Umbilicus  and  Milliarium  were  identical,  in  spite  of  their  being  separately 
catalogued  in  the  Xntitia. 

5  What  is  probably  the  column  of  the  Milliarium  is  still  lying  near  its  sup- 
posed site  ;  it  is  of  Greek  marble,  and  is  covered  with  holes  by  which  the 
bronze  casing  was  attached.    Since  the  above  was  written  the  existing  pieces 
of  the  marble  base  have  been  replaced  on  its  conjectural  site. 

6  In  the  same  passage  he  mentions  a  gate  near  this  temple  into  the  Capitolium 
once  called  Porta  Saturnia,  but  in  his  time  P.  Pandana. 


34)  on  the  site  of  a  prehistoric  altar  to  Saturn,  after  whom  the 
Capitoline  Hill  was  originally  called  Mons  Satumius.  The  public 
treasury  was  part  of  this  temple  (Serv.,  Ad  ^En.,  ii.  116,  and 
Macrob.,  Sat.,  i.  8).7  The  original  temple  is  said  by  Varro  (ap. 
Macrob.,  i.  8)  to  have  been  begun  by  the  last  Tarquin,  and  dedi- 
cated by  T.  Lartius,  the  first  dictator,  501  B.C.  ;  but  Dionysius 
(vi.  1)  and  Livy  (ii.  21)  attribute  it  to  the  consuls  A.  Sempronius 
and  M.  Minucius  in  497  B.C.  It  was  rebuilt  on  a  larger  scale  by 
Munatius  Plancus  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  (Suet.,  Aug.,  29).  The 
only  part  remaining  of  this  date  is  the  very  lofty  podium  of  massive 
travertine  blocks,  and.  part  of  the  lower  course  of  Athenian  marble, 
with  which  the  whole  was  faced.  In  the  16th  century  a  piece  of 
the  marble  frieze  was  found,  inscribed  L .  PLANCVS  .  L  .  F  .  COS  . 
IMPER  .  ITER  .  DE  .  MANIB  .  (C.I.L.,  vi.  1316).  The  erection  of 
the  six  granite  columns  in  the  front  and  two  at  the  sides,  with 
their  clumsily  patched  entablature,  belongs  to  the  last  rebuilding 
in  the  time  of  Diocletian.  Some  of  these  fine  columns  are  evi- 
dently earlier  than  this  rebuilding,  but  were  refixed  with  rude 
caps  and  bases.  One  of  the  columns  is  set  wrong  way  up,  and  the 
whole  work  is  of  the  most  careless  sort.  Part  of  the  inscription, 
once  inlaid  with  bronze,  recording  this  latest  rebuilding  still  exists 
on  the  entablature  (see  Gori,  L'Erario  di  Saturno,  1873).8  On  the 
Forum  side  the  temple  is  flanked  by  the  Vicus  Jugarius,  while  the 
steep  Clivus  Capitolinus  winds  round  the  front  of  the  great  flight 
of  steps  leading  up  to  the  cella,  and  then  turns  along  the  north- 
west side  of  the  temple.9  The  Vicus  Jugarius  (see  Plate  VII.),  part  Vicus 
of  the  basalt  paving  of  which  is  now  exposed,  was  so  called  (see  Jugarius 
Festus,  ed.  Miiller,  p.  104)  from  an  altar  to  Juno  Juga,  the  guardian 
of  marriage.  Starting  from  the  Forum,  it  passed  between  the 
temple  of  Saturn  and  the  Basilica  Julia,  then  close  under  the  cliff 
of  the  Capitolium  (see  Liv.,  xxxv.  21)  and  on  to  the  Porta  Carmen- 
talis.  It  was  spanned  at  its  commencement  by  a  brick-faced  arch 
lined  with  marble,  the  lower  part  of  which  exists,  and  is  not  earlier 
than  the  3d  or  4th  century.10  At  this  end  of  the  Forum  the  arch 
of  Tiberius  was  built  across  the  Sacra  Via,  which  is  narrowed  as  if 
to  bring  it  under  the  span  of  the  arch.  It  was  erected  in  17  A.D. 
to  commemorate  the  recovery  of  the  standards  lost  by  Varus.11 
A  few  fragments  remain,  scattered  about  in  various  places 

The  Basilica  Julia 12  occupies  a  great  part  of  the  south-west  side  Basilica 
of  the  Forum,  along  the  line  of  the  Sacra  Via  ;  its  ends  are  bounded  Julia, 
by  the  Vicus  Jugarius  and  the  Vicus  Tuscus.  It  was  begun  by 
Julius  Csesar,  finished  by  Augustus,  and  again  rebuilt  by  him,  as 
is  recorded  in  the  Mon.  Ancyr.  ,13  in  an  important  passage  which 
gives  its  complete  early  history.  In  plan  it  was  a  large  double 
porticus,  open  on  three  sides,  with  a  range  of  rooms,  two  or  three 
stories  high,  on  the  south-west  side.  These  rooms,  of  which  con- 
siderable remains  exist,  are  built  of  tufa  with  travertine  pilasters 
and  bands  in  the  tufa  wall.  This  part  probably  is  of  the  time  of 
Julius  Ccesar  ;  Augustus  surrounded  it  with  an  arcade  of  arches  in 
two  stories  and  engaged  Tuscan  columns  in  Luna  marble,  fragments 
of  which  exist  at  the  north-west  end.  The  double  aisle  which 
surrounded  it  was  vaulted  in  concrete,  forming  upper  galleries 
(maeniana),  whence  spectators  heard  the  law-cases  which  were  con- 
ducted in  the  area  below  (see  Plin.,  Ep.,  vi.  33).  The  central  space 
was  not  roofed,  but  probably  was  sheltered  by  an  awning.14  It  is 
paved  with  richly  coloured  Oriental  marbles,  namely,  pavonazetto, 
cipollino,  giallo,  and  Africano.  The  covered  aisles  are  paved  with 
large  slabs  of  white  marble.15  Many  tabulas  lusoriee,  or  gambling 
boards,  are  scratched  on  this  marble  paving  (comp.  Cic.,  Phil.,  ii. 
23). 16  Low  marble  cancelli,  with  moulded  plinth,  closed  the  other- 
wise open  arches  of  the  basilica  ;  many  fragments  exist,  and  one 
piece  of  the  subplinth  is  still  in  situ.  This  basilica  held  four  law- 
courts  with  ISO  judiccs  or  jurors.  Trajan  and  other  emperors  held 
law-courts  there  (Dion  Cass.,  Ixxxviii.  10).  An  inscription  found 


7  In  several  inscriptions  occurs  the  title  "prajfecti"  or  "qujestores  serarii 
Saturni"  (see  Gudius,  Ant.  Insc.,  p.  125;  Suet.,  Claud.,  24;  Tac.,  Ann.,  xiii. 
28,  29). 

8  Another  important  treasury  was  the  temple  of  Ops,  in  which  were  stored 
the  700,000,000  sesterces  left  by  Julius  Csesar  at  his  death  (Cic.,  Phil.,  ii.  37, 
and  i.  7).    It  is  usually  supposed,  though  without  much  reason,  to  have  ad- 
joined the  temple  of  Saturn.    Livy  (xxvii.  10)  mentions  another  treasury,  the 
jErarium  Sanctius,  in  which  a  reserve  store  of  gold  was  kept. 

9  A  portion  of  these  streets  with  part  of  the  temple  of  Saturn  and  the  Basilica 
Julia  is  shown  on  fragments  of  the  marble  plan  (see  Plate  VII.) 

10  One  side  of  this  gate  was  built  against  one  of  the  marble  piers  of  the  Basilica 
Julia,  a  perfect  print  of  which  still  exists  in  the  concrete  of  the  gate,  though 
the  marble  pier  itself  has  disappeared.     The  other  side  of  the  gate  abutted 
against  the  marble-lined  podium  of  the  temple  of  Saturn. 

11  See  Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.  41,  who  says  it  was  "propter  redem  Saturni." 

12  See  Suet.,  Aug.,  29 ;  Gerhard,  Bos.  Giulia,  <fec.,  1823  ;  and  Viscouti,  Excava- 
zione  della  Bas.  Giulia. 

13  "  Forvm  .  Ivlivm .  et .  basilicam  .  qvae  .  fvit .  inter  .  aedem  .  Castoris .  et . 
aedem  .  Satvrni  .  coepta  .  profligataqve  .  opera  .  a  .  patre  .  meo  .  perfeci .  et  . 
eandem .  basilicam .  consvmptam  .  incendio  .  ampliato  .  eivs  .  solo  .  svb .  titvlo . 
nominis  .  flliorvm  .  inchoavi  .  et .  si  .  vivvs  .  non  .  perfecissem  .  perfici  .  ab  . 
haeredibvs  .  [meis  .  ivssi]."    The  "  filii "  here  referred  to  are  Augustus's  grand- 
sons, Caius  and  Lucius  (see  Dion  Cass.,  Ivi.  27). 

w  One  of  the  late  reliefs  on  Constantino's  arch  shows  this  (or  a  similar  build- 
ing) with  the  upper  galleries  crowded  with  people  (see  Plin.,  Ep.,  vi.  38,  5). 
The  open  arches  seem  to  have  curtains  to  keep  out  the  sun. 

is  Three  mediaeval  lime-kilns  were  found  by  Canina  within  this  basilica, 
which  accounts  for  the  scantiness  of  the  existing  remains. 

16  A  few  have  inscriptions,  e.g.,  "  Vinces .  gaudes  :  perdes .  plangis." 

XX.  —  103 


818 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


US 
3CUS. 


nple 


near  it  records  its  restoration  by  Septimins  Severus  in  199  A.D.  after 
a  fire  ;  it  was  again  burnt  in  282  and  restored  by  Diocletian.  These 
tires  had  destroyed  nearly  all  the  fine  marble  arches  of  Augustus  ; 
and  Diocletian  rebuilt  it  mostly  with  brick  or  travertine  piers,  a 
few  of  which  remain.1  A  final  restoration  is  recorded  in  an  inscrip- 
tion discovered  in  the  16th  century,  and  another  in  1882,  as  being 
earned  out  by  Gabinius  Vettius  Probianus,  pi-refect  of  the  city  in 
377  (Gutter,  Inscr.,  clxxi.  7) ;  the  latter  is  on  a  pedestal  which  now 
stands  in  the  Vicus  Jngarius.  Suetonius  (Cal.,  37)  mentions  that  it 
was  one  of  Caligula's  amusements  to  throw  money  to  the  people 
below  from  the  roof  of  this  basilica,  which  probably  was  a  link  in 
the  bridge  by  which  this  maniac  connected  the  Palatine  with  the 
Capitolium.  The  line  of  the  bridge,  which  starts  in  the  upper  part 
of  Caligula's  palace,  passes  over  a  lofty  and  massive  brick -faced 
building,  once  lined  with  marble,  which  stands  on  the  lower  slopes 
of  the  Palatine.  Suetouius's  Account  (Cal.,  22)  of  the  bridge  makes 
it  very  probable  that  this  building  is  the  temple  of  Augustus,  as 
there  is  no  other  possible  site  for  it  on  the  line  from  the  Palatine 
to  the  Capitolium.  The  intermediate  stages  from  the  temple  to 
the  basilica  and  thence  to  the  Capitolium  were  probably  merely  a 
wooden  structure,  as  no  traces  of  it  now  remain.  The  temple  of 
Augustus  was  begun  by  Tiberius  and  finished  by  Caligula  (Suet., 
Cal.,  21). 

The  Vicus  Tuscus  passes  from  the  Sacra  Via  between  the  Basilica 
Julia  and  the  temple  of  Castor  to  the  Velabrurn  and  Circus 
Maximus  ;  its  basalt  paving  has  been  exposed  at  many  points  along 
its  whole  line  (see  Liv.,  xxvii.  37).  A  very  early  statue  of  one  of 
the  chief  Etruscan  deities,  Vortuinnus,  stood  in  this  street,  a  little 
to  the  south-west  of  the  Basilica  Julia,  where  part  of  its  pedestal 
was  found  in  1549  inscribed  VORTVMNVS  TEMPORIBVS  DIOCLE- 
TIANI  .  ET  .  MAXIMIANI  .  .  .  (C.I.  L.,  vi.  804  ;2  see  also  Pseudo- 
Ascon.,  Ad  Cic.  Verr.,  ii.  1,  59).  The  Vicus  Tuscus  was  also 
called  Thurarius,  from  shops  of  perfume-sellers  (see  Hor.,  Sat.,  ii. 
3,  228,  and  Ep.,  ii.  269).  It  is  the  street  along  which  processions 
passed,  mentioned  by  Cicero  ( Verr.,  ii.  1,  59)  as  extending  "a  signo 
Vertumni  in  Circum  Maximum." 

The  temple  of  Castor3  on  the  south-east  side  of  the  Vicus  Tus- 
Jastor.  cus  was  founded  to  commemorate  the  apparition  in  the  Forum  of 
the  Dioscuri  announcing  the  victory  of  Aulus  Postumus  at  Lake 
Regillus,  496  B.C.,  and  was  dedicated  in  482  B.C.  by  the  son  of  A. 
Postumus  (Liv.,  ii.  20,  42  ;  Dionys.,  vi.  13  ;  Plut,  Coriol.,  3  ;  Ov., 
Fast.,  i.  707).  In  119  B.C.  it  was  restored  by  the  consul  L. 
Metellus  Dalmaticus  (Ascon.,  In  Cic.  Pro  Scaur.,  46)  and  finally 
rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  by  Tiberius  and  Drusus,  6  A.D. 
(Suet,  Tib.,  20;  Ov.,  Fast.,  i.  705;  Dion  Cass.,  Iv.  8,  27),  to 
which  period  belong  the  three  existing  Corinthian  columns  and 
piece  of  entablature,  all  very  delicate  and  graceful  in  detail,  and 
of  the  finest  workmanship,  in  Pentelic  marble  ;  the  design  is  of 
pure  Greek  style.  One  point  shows  Roman  timidity  in  the  use 
of  a  lintel :  the  frieze  is  jointed  so  as  to  form  a  flat  arch,  quite 
needlessly,  with  the  object  of  relieving  the  weight  on  the  archi- 
trave. Its  plan,  hexastyle,  with  only  eleven  columns  on  the  sides, 
is  shown  in  Plate  VII.  and  fig.  14.  It  had  a  lofty  podium,  lined 
with  marble,  and  decorated  with  a  heavy  cornice  and  pilasters,  one 
under  each  column.  The  podium  is  an  interesting  example  of  the 
enormous  solidity  of  Roman  buildings  of  the  best  period.  Solid 
tufa  walls,  8  feet  thick,  are  built  under  the  whole  of  the  cella  and 
the  front  row  of  columns,  while  the  columns  of  the  sides  rest  on 
spurs  of  similar  walling,  projecting  at  right  angles  from  that  under 
the  cella  ;  the  part  immediately  under  the  columns  is  of  travertine, 
and  the  spurs  are  united  and  strengthened  laterally  by  massive 
flat  arches,  also  of  travertine.  With  the  exception  of  a  small 
chamber  under  the  steps,  entered  from  the  Vicus  Tuscus,  the  entire 
podium  is  filled  up  by  a  solid  mass  of  concrete,  made  of  broken 
tufa,  pozzolana,  and  lime,  the  whole  forming  a  lofty  platform, 
about  22  feet  high,  solid  as  a  rock,  on  which  the  columns  and 
upper  structure  are  erected.  Small  chambers  formed  in  the  con- 
crete basement,  such  as  the  one  in  this  temple,  occur  in  many 
instances,  e.g.,  in  the  temples  of  Saturn,  Divus  Julius,  and  Con- 
cord. They  were  probably  used  as  strong  rooms,  in  which  money 
and  plate  were  deposited  for  safe  keeping  (see  Juv.,  xiv.  260),  a 
purpose  for  which  Roman  temples  were  frequently  used.  Two 
fragments  of  mosaic,  with  simple  lozenge  pattern  in  white  marble 
and  basalt,  still  exist  in  the  cella  of  this  temple.  The  level  of 
the  mosaic  shows  that  it  is  of  earlier  date  than  the  rebuilding 
of  Tiberius,  as  it  lies  considerably  below  the  level  of  the  later  floor. 
It  has  all  the  characteristics  of  early  mosaic— very  small  tesserre 
fitted  with  great  accuracy,  like  the  early  mosaic  in  the  Regia. 
The  temple  of  Castor  was  often  used  as  a  meeting-place  for  the 


1  The  whole  building  has  unhappily  been  much  falsified  by  needless  restora- 
tion. 

*  A  drawing  of  this  pedestal,  which  is  now  lost,  witli  MS.  note  by  Ligorio, 
exists  in  Cod.  Vat.,  3439,  fol.  46.  Propertius  (FAeg.,  iv.  2)  gives  an  interesting 
account  of  Vortumnus,  and  in  1.  50  mentions  the  derivation  of  the  name  Vicus 
Tuscus. 

3  The  temple  of  Castor  is  shown  on  two  fragments  of  the  marble  plan  (see 
Plate  VII.),  and  its  position  is  also  indicated  by  the  passage  in  the  Mon.  Ancyr. 
quoted  above. 


SACRA 
FOUNDATIONS 


Senate,   and   its  lofty  podium   formed   a   tribunal   for  orations.4 

Close  by  it  was  another  tribunal,  probably  merely  a  wooden  sug- 

gestus — called  the  Tribunal  Aurelium  (see  Cic.,  In  1'ix.,  5,  and 

Pro  Scxt.,   15). 

The    Tons    Ju- 

turnffi  (see  Ov., 

Fast.,     i.    705, 

and  Diouys. ,  vi. 

13),    at    which 

the       Dioscuri 

were   fabled   to 

have      watered 

their  horses,  was 

beside         their 

temple,  and  the 

circular  traver- 
tine curb   close  a 

by  has  been  sup- 
posed  to    have  B 

belonged  to  this. 

Its  form,   how- 
ever,  makes   it 

more    probable 

that  it  was  the 

plinth      of      a 

screen       round 

the  Puteal  Scri- 

bonis  or  Libonis 

(Hor.,  Up.,  i.  19, 

8,  and  Sat.,  ii. 

6,  35),— a  cir- 
cular      marble      [j 

structure  like  a  JKM 

well-mouth,  or- 
namented with 

reliefs  of   lyres 

and       trnrlflnrl<5    Fio.  14.— Plan  of  temple  of  Castor,  half  showing  construe- 

1   t «         i     '      tion  of  podium.    A.  Pedestal  of  one  of  the  two  statues. 

Close     B  Bj  B    Spurs  of  foundation  wall,  of  travertine  and  tufa, 

some  spot  struck     under  the  three  existing  columns.     C.  Steps  to  small 

by  lightning  or     chamber  in  concrete  core  of  podium.    D.  Existing  piece 

sacred  from  of  mosaic  paving  of  earlier  building, 
other  causes.  It  is  shown  on  a  denarius  of  the  gens  Scribonia. 
The  Sacra  Via,  in  its  course  from  the  Regia  towards  the  temple  of 
Saturn,  originally  passed  in  front  of  the  temple  of  Castor ;  but  in 
late  times  its  line  was  changed,  and  it  is  now  covered  at  this 
point  by  rude  paving  of  travertine  and  marble,  probably  not  earlier 
than  the  5th  century.  The  ancient  line  is  indicated  by  the  Regia, 
shown  on  fig.  16. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  Sacra  Via  stand  the  scanty  remains  of  Templt 
the  temple  of  Divus  Julius,  erected  by  Augustus.  Though  little  of  Divi 
beyond  its  concrete  core  is  left,  its  plan  can  be  fairly  well  made  out  Julius, 
from  the  voids  in  the  concrete,  which  show  the  position  of  the  tufa 
foundations  under  the  walls  and  columns  (as  in  the  temple  of 
Castor).  The  temple  itself,  a  hexastyle  prostyle  building,  with 
close  pyknostyle  intercolumniation  (Vitr.,  iii.  2),  stood  on  a  lofty 
podium  with  a  curved  recess  in  the  front  between  two  flights  of 
stairs  (see  Plate  VII.).  The  wall  which  now  fills  up  the  recess 
is  a  late  addition.  It  is  possible  that  this  very  unusual  plan  was 
adopted  in  order  that  the  recess  might  leave  room  for  the  pre- 
existing altar  (Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  ii.  148)  or  column  (Suet.,  J. 
Cxs.,  85)  erected  by  the  Senate  with  the  inscription  PARENTI 
PATRLflS.  The  podium,  which  projects  in  front  of  the  temple  itself, 
was  adorned  with  beaks  from  the  ships  taken  at  Actium  (Dion 
Cass.,  Ii.  19),  and  hence  it  was  called  the  Rostra  Julia,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  other  rostra  described  above.  Both  were  used 
for  the  funeral  orations  in  honour  of  Augustus  (Suet.,  Aug.,  100  ; 
see  also  Dion  Cass.,  liv.  35).  Besides  the  concrete  core  and  the 
curved  tufa  wall  of  the  recess,  little  now  exists  except  a  small  bit 
of  the  mosaic  of  the  cella  floor  and  some  fragments  of  the  cornice 
and  pediment,  of  fine  Greek  marble.  This  temple  is  represented 
on  coins  of  Augustus  and  Hadrian. 

The  temple  of  Vesta,  founded  according  to  tradition  by  Numa,5  Tempi 
stands  at  the  southern  angle  of  the  Forum  on  the  ancient  line  of  of  Ves 
the  Sacra  Via  (Ov.,  Trist.,  iii.  1,  28).  No  shrine  in  Rome  was 
equal  in  sanctity  to  this  little  circular  building,  which  contained 
the  sacred  fire  and  the  relics  on  which  the  welfare  and  even  the 
existence  of  Rome  depended.  The  shrine  was  an  "  redes  sacra, "  not 
a  "  templum  "  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  which  means  a  build- 
ing so  inaugurated  that  it  could  be  used  for  meetings  of  the  Senate. 
The  original  building  was  destroyed  in  390  B.  c.  by  the  Gauls  ;  it 
was  burnt  again  in  241  B.C.,  again  in  the  great  fire  of  Nero's  reign, 
and  then  in  the  reign  of  Commodus  ;  after  this  it  was  rebuilt  by 

4  One  of  the  mad  acts  of  Caligula  was  to  connect  the  temple  of  Castor  with 
his  palace  by  breaking  a  door  through  the  back  of  the  cella  (Suet.,  Cal.,  22). 
Tlinui;h  dedicated  to  both  the  Dioscuri,  the  building  was  usually  called  the 
temple  of  Castor  only  (see  Suet.,  J.  Cies.,  10). 

*  Another  legend  attributes  its  founding  to  Romulus. 


ARCHEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


819 


Severus,  to  whose  age  belong  the  fragments  of  columns,  cornice, 
and  other  architectural  features  now  lying  around  the  ruined 
podium.  These,  with  the  help  of  representations  of  the  temple  on 
coins  of  Domitian,1  and  an  ancient  relief  in  the  Uffizi  (see  Lanciani, 
L' Atria  di  Vesta,  1884,  pis.  xix.-xxi.),  are  sufficient  to  make  an 
accurate  restoration  (see  Plate  VII.  and  fig.  15).  It  consisted  of  a 
circular  cella,  surrounded  by  eighteen  columns,  with  screens  be- 
tween them  ;  the  circular  podium,  about  10  feet  high,  still  exists, 


10  S  O 


FIG.  15. — Temple  of  Vesta,  as  rebuilt  by  Severus,  con.jeeturally  restored  by 
Coimn.  Lanciani  from  existing  remains. 

mainly  of  concrete  with  some  foundations  of  tufa  blocks,  which  may 
belong  to  the  original  structure.  In  the  time  of  Pliny  (H.N., 
xxxiv.  7)  the  tholus  or  dome  over  the  cella — symbolizing  the  canopy 
of  heaven  (Ov.,  Fast. ,  vi.  276) — was  covered  with  Syracusan  bronze. 
Horace's  mention  (Od.,  i.  2,  13)  of  the  destruction  of  the  temple 
by  a  Tiber  flood  caused  the  mistaken  notion  that  the  similar  round 
temple  still  existing  near  the  exit  of  the  Cloaca  Maxima  was  the 
^Edes  Veste  ;  but  the  flood  of  1877  showed  that  the  waters  of  the 
river  could  still  reach  this  point  in  the  Forum.  Its  position  near 
the  temple  of  Castor  is  mentioned  by  Martial  (i.  71-73).2 

The  Regia  (see  fig.  16),  or  residence  of  the  pontifex  maximus,  was 
on  the  Sacra  Via,  close  by  the  temple  of  Vesta.  It  also  was  tradi- 
tionally founded  by  Numa,  and  used  as  his  dwelling-house  ;  it  was 

SB 


FIG.  16.— Plan  showing  the  remains  of  the  temple  of  Vesta,  the  Regia,  and  the 
house  of  the  vestals,  as  rebuilt  by  Hadrian  ;  excavated  1883-84. 

destroyed  in  390  B.C.  by  the  Gauls,  and  was  again  burnt  in  210  B.C. 
(Liv.,  xxvi.  27),  when  the  temple  of  Vesta  narrowly  escaped.  Julius 
Cnesar,  as  pontifex  maximus,  resided  here  ;  and  when  Augustus 
succeeded  to  this  office  in  12  B.C.  he  gave  the  Regia  to  the  vestals, 
having  built  himself  a  large  house  on  the  Palatine.  When  the 
Atrium  Veste  or  house  of  the  vestals  was  rebuilt  on  an  enlarged 
scale  the  Regia  was  pulled  down  and  its  site  partly  occupied  by 

1  The  temple  of  Vesta  is  also  shown  on  medals  of  Faustina  senior,  Lucilla, 
Crispina,  and  Julia  Domna  (see  Froehner,  Medallions  de  I'empire  Romain,  Paris, 
1878,  pp.  76,  96,  148,  159).    It  very  closely  resembles  the  so-called  tomb  of  St 
Luke  at  Ephesus,  a  Roman  work  of  about  the  same  date. 

2  SeeLipsius,  "De  Vesta,"  inGrsevius,  Thes.Ant.  Rom.,  v. ;  Cancellieri,  Lesette 
Cosefatali  di  Roma,  1812  ;  Preuner,  Hestia-Vesta,  Tubingen,  1864  ;  Jordan,  Vesta 
uwl  die  Laren,  Berlin,  1865  ;  Maes,  Vesta  e  Vestali,  1883. 


the  new  atrium.     Ovid  (Trist.,  iii.  1,  28)  describes  this  end  of  the 
Forum  thus — 

"  Hsec  est  a  sacris  quae  via  nomen  habet, 

Hie  locus  est  Vestse,  qui  Pallada  servat  et  ignem, 

Hie  fuit  antiqui  Regia  parva  Numse." 

The  excavations  of  the  last  few  years  have  laid  bare  remains  of 
this  very  interesting  building,  and  show  that  it  was  a  large  house 


later  buildings  whi 
tions ;  this  angle  shows  the  original  line  of  the  Sacra  Via,  which  in 
later  times  was  diverted  into  a  different  direction.  The  existing 
remains  are  of  several  dates, — first,  walls  of  soft  tufa,  part  possibly 
of  the  earliest  building ;  second,  walls  of  hard  tufa,  of  rather 
later  date ;  and  lastly,  concrete  walls  faced  with  brick,  decorated 
with  painted  stucco,  and  columns  of  travertine,  also  stuccoed  and 
painted,4  with  a  large  quantity  of  fine  mosaic  of  that  early  sort 
which  has  very  small  tesserae  put  together  with  great  accuracy. 
This  last  part  probably  belongs  to  the  rebuilding  by  Domitius 
Calvinus  in  35  B.C.  (Dion  Cass.,  xliii.  42).  These  valuable  remains 
were  preserved  in  spite  of  the  erection  of  later  buildings  over  them 
because  the  levels  of  the  later  floors  were  higher  than  those  of  the 
Regia,  and  thus  covered  and  protected  the  mosaics  and  lower  parts 
of  the  walls  and  columns  (see  fig.  16).  Besides  being  a  dwelling- 
house,  the  Regia  contained  a  sacrarium,  in  which  were  preserved 
the  sacred  spears  of  Mars  (Aul.  Cell.,  iv.  6),  and  also  the  shrine  of 
the  Dea  Ops  Consiva,  only  entered  by  the  vestals  and  the  sacerdos 
publicus  (Varro,  L.L.,  vi.  21). 

The  Atrium  Vestse  or  house  of  the  vestals,  like  the  temple,  was  Atrium 
many  times  burnt  and  rebuilt  ;  the  existing  building,  which  was  Vestse. 
excavated  in  1883-84,  is  of  the  time  of  Hadrian,  as  is  shown  by  the 
brick  stamps.  It  consists  of  a  large  atrium  or  quadrangle  with 
columns  of  cipollino.  At  one  end  is  the  tablinum,  with  three 
small  rooms  on  each  side  of  it, — probably  for  the  six  vestals.  A 
bathroom,  bakehouse,  servants'  offices,  and  some  rooms  lined  with 
rich  marbles  extend  along  the  south-west  side.  This  extensive 
building  is  set  against  the  side  of  the  Palatine,  which  is  cut  away 
to  admit  the  lower  story.  Thus  the  level  of  the  first  upper  floor 
is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Nova  Via,  on  which  it  faces,  about 
23  feet  above  the  ground  floor.  The  upper  floor  is  in  part  well 
preserved  ;  it  contains  a  large  suite  of  bath  and  other  rooms,  which 
were  probably  the  sleeping  apartments  of  the  vestals.  All  the 
better  rooms  and  the  baths  are  lined  with  polished  marbles,  many 
of  great  beauty  and  rarity ;  the  floors  are  mostly  mosaic  of  tesselated 
work.  The  paving  of  the  tablinum  was  a  beautiful  specimen  of 
inlay  in  porphyry  and  marble.  In  many  places  alterations  and 
clumsy  patchings  of  the  4th  and  5th  centuries  are  apparent.  A 
number  of  statues  of  the  chief  vestal,  or  virgo  vestalis  maxima, 
with  inscribed  pedestals,  were  found  in  the  atrium,  mostly  of  the 
3d  century,  though  a  few  are  earlier  ;  these  are  of  especial  interest 
as  illustrating  the  sacerdotal  dress  of  the  vestals.5  Nothing  but 
the  Nova  Via  separates  the  Atrium  Vestse  from  the  palace  of 
Caligula  (see  Plin.,  Ep.,  vii.  19;  Aul.  Cell.,  i.  12),  which  extends 
over  the  site  of  the  Lucus  Vestse, — "  qui  a  Palatii  radice  in  Novam 
Viam  devexus  est"  (Cic.,  De  Div.,  i.  45).  A  curious  octagonal 
structure  in  the  middle  of  the  atrium  (see  fig.  16)  looks  very  much 
like  a  border  for  flower-beds ;  and  it  is  possible  that  this  miniature 
garden  was  made  by  the  vestals  when  Caligula  built  over  their  ex- 
tensive grove  on  the  slopes  of  the  Palatine.  By  the  main  entrance 
from  the  Forum  stood  a  small  sedicula, — a  large  pedestal  at  the 
angles  of  which  were  columns  supporting  an  entablature.6  It  may 
have  contained  a  statue  of  Vesta,  there  being  none  within  the 
temple.  It  is  of  the  time  of  Hadrian.  The  last  of  the  vestals  is 
mentioned  by  Zosimus  (v.  38)  as  being  alive  in  394  ;  but  the  Atrium 
continued  to  be  partly  inhabited  for  many  centuries  later.7  In 
September  1884  a  road  was  discovered  leading  up  past  the  tablinum 
end  of  the  Atrium  from  the  Sacra  Via  to  the  Nova  Via  (see  fig. 
16).  In  about  the  4th  century  this  road  appears  to  have  been 
blocked  up  at  the  Nova  Via  end  by  a  building  which  adjoined 
the  Atrium  Vestae. 

At  the  east  corner  of  the  Forum  stood  the  arch  of  Q.  Fabius  Arch  of 
Maximus,  consul  in  121  B.C.,  called  Allobrogicus  from  his  victory  Fabius. 


3  See  a  monograph  by  the  present  writer  in  Archseologia  (read  November 
1884). 

4  The  columns  were  crimson,  the  travertine  rain-water  gutter  bright  blue, 
and  the  inner  walls  had  simple  designs  in  panels  of  leaf  ornament  and  wreaths. 

5  One  of  these,  a  noble  figure  of  the  time  of  Hadrian,  is  specially  remarkable 
as  being  the  only  statue  known  on  which  the  suffibuhim  is  represented,  a  sort 
of  hood,  only  worn  by  the  vestal  at  the  moment  of  offering  sacrifice  (see 
Festus,  ed.  Mttller,  p.  340 ;  and  Varro,  L.  L.,  vi.  21).     Many  points  of  great 
interest  occur  in  the  inscriptions  on  the  pedestals. 

6  The  front  and  one  side  are  now  lying  near  ;  the  former  is  inscribed  SENA- 
TVS  .  POPVLVSQVE  .  ROMANVS  .  PECVNIA  .  PVBLICA  .  FACIEN- 
DAM  .  CVRAVTT. 

7  In  the  excavations  of  December  1883  a  pot  was  found  in  the  north  corner 
containing  830  silver  pennies  of  English  kings  of  the  9th  and  10th  centuries,— 
Alfred  the  Great,  Eadward  I.,  Athelstan,  Eadmund  I.,  and  others.    A  list  of 
these  is  given  by  De  Rossi  in  Lanciani's  work,  L'Atrio  ill  Vesta  (Rome,  1884). 
None  are  later  than  946,  and  a  bronze  fibula  inlaid  with  silver  with  the  name 
of  Pope  Marinus  II.  (942-946)  makes  it  seem  probable  that  this  hoard  was  con- 
cealed during  his  pontificate. 


820 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


over  the  Allobroges  (schol.  on  Cic.,  In  Verr.,  i.  7  ;  Liv.,  Ep., 
Ivi  ;  Plin.,  H.N.,  vii.  50).  It  marked  the  extreme  limit  of  the 
Forum  in  this  direction  (Cic.,  Pro  Plan.,  7,  17),  as  the  rostra 
did  at  the  other  end.  This  arch  was  dug  up  and  mostly  de- 
stroyed in  1540-50,  near  the  temple  of  Faustina  ;  on  one  of  the 
fragments  then  discovered  was  inscribed  Q  .  FABIVS  .  Q  .  F  .  MAX- 
SVMVS  .  AED  .  CVR  .  REST.  About  twenty-five  other  fragments 
were  found  in  1882.1  The  arch  of  Augustus,  erected  in  29  B.C., 
also  stood  near  this  point,  but  its  exact  site  is  uncertain.  An 
inscribed  block  of  its  attic  was  found  during  the  excavations  of 
1540-50. 

nple  The  temple  of  Faustina  the  elder  stands  at  the  east  angle  of  the 
faus-  Forum,  facing  the  later  line  of  the  Sacra  Via.  It  is  prostyle  hexa- 
u  style,  and  has  monolithic  columns  of  cipollino  and  a  rich  entabla- 
ture of  Greek  marble,  with  graceful  reliefs  of  griffins  and  candelabra 
on  the  frieze.2  The  walls  are  of  massive  peperino,  once  lined  with 
marble.  On  the  front  is  inscribed  DFVO .  ANTONINO .  ET .  DIVAE . 
FAVSTINAE  .  EX  .  S  .  C.  This  temple,  built  by  Antoninus  Pius  in 
memory  of  his  wife,  who  died  in  141,  was  after  his  death  dedicated 
also  to  him,  and  the  first  line  was  then  added  (Capitolinus,  Ant. 
Pius,  6).  At  an  early  period  it  was  consecrated  as  the  church  of  S. 
Lorenzo  in  Miranda,  and  a  great  part  of  its  cella  has  been  destroyed. 
The  front  is  now  excavated  to  the  original  level.  This  temple  is 
shown  on  the  reverse  of  several  coins  of  Antoninus  Pius ;  some 
have  the  legend  DEDICATIO .  AEDIS. 

nple  The  space  between  the  north-west  end  of  the  Forum  and  the 
)on-  Tabularium  is  occupied  by  a  range  of  important  buildings  (see  Plate 
L  VII.).  The  chief  of  these  is  the  temple  of  Concord  (see  Festus,  ed. 
Miiller,  p.  347)  shown  on  a  fragment  of  the  marble  plan,  founded 
by  Camillus  in  367  B.C.  (Plut,  Cam.,  42),  and  rebuilt  by  the 
brothers  Tiberius  and  Drusus  out  of  the  spoils  gained  in  Germany ; 
it  was  rededicated  in  10  A.D.  (Suet.,  Tib.,  20  ;  Dion  Cass.,  Iv.  25). 
It  is  shown  with  unusual  minuteness  on  the  reverse  of  a  first  brass 
of  Tiberius.  It  is  probable  that  an  earlier  restoration  was  carried 
out  by  L.  Opimius  in  121  B.C.  (Plut.,  C.  Gracch.,  17  ;  Appian, 
Sell.  Civ. ,  i.  26).  The  existing  remains  3  are  of  the  rebuilding  by 
Tiberius  and  Drusus,  and  show  that  it  was  unusual  in  plan,  having 
a  large  cella  much  wider  than  its  depth,  and  a  very  large  projecting 
portico.  Its  construction  is  an  interesting  example  of  the  Roman 
use  of  many  different  materials.  The  lower  part  of  the  walls  was 
of  massive  tnfa  blocks,  the  upper  part  of  the  cella  of  travertine ; 
and  the  inner  low  wall,  which  supported  ranges  of  internal  columns, 
was  of  mixed  concrete,  tufa,  and  travertine.  The  whole  was  lined 
with  marble,  white  outside,  and  rich  Oriental  marbles  inside  (see 
fig.  5),  which  were  also  used  for  the  pavement.  The  door-sill  is 
made  of  enormous  blocks  of  porta  santa  marble,  in  which  a  bronze 
caducous  (emblem  of  Concord)  was  inlaid.  Between  the  internal 
columns  of  the  cella  stood  rows  of  statues ;  and  the  temple  also 
contained  a  large  collection  of  pictures,  engraved  gems,  gold  and 
silver  plate,  and  other  works  of  art,  mostly  the  work  of  ancient 
Greek  artists  (see  Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxiv.  19,  xxxv.  36,  40,  xxxvi.  67, 
xxxvii.  2).  On  the  apex  of  the  pediment  was  a  group  of  three 
figures  embracing  ;  the  tympanum  was  filled  with  sculpture  ;  and 
statues  were  set  in  the  open  porch.  Though  now  only  the  podium 
and  the  lower  part  of  the  cella  wall  exist,  with  foundations  of  the 
great  flight  of  steps,  many  rich  fragments  both  of  the  Corinthian 
entablature  and  of  the  internal  caps  and  bases  are  preserved  in  the 
Capitol ;  and  some  of  the  marble  lining  is  still  in  situ.  The 
Einsiedeln  MS.4  gives  part  of  the  inscription  of  the  front — S .  P .  Q . 
R .  AEDEM  .  CONCORDIAE  .  VETVSTATE  .  COLLAPSAM  .  IN  .  MELI- 
OREM  .  FACIEM  .  OPERE  .  ET  .  CVLTV.  SPLENDIDIORE  .  RESTITV- 
ERVNT.5  Another  temple  of  Concord,  built  in  219  B.C.,  stood  on 
the  Capitoline  Arx  (Liv.,  xxii.  33,  xxvi.  23)  ;  and  a  bronze  sedicula 
of  Concord  in  the  Area  Vulcani,  which  must  have  been  close  by  the 
great  temple.  This  was  dedicated  by  Cn.  Flavius,  305  B.C.  (see 
Liv.,  ix.  46);  according  to  Pliny  (H.N.,  xxxiii.  6)  it  stood  "in 
Grsecostasi,  quse  tune  supra  Comitium  erat."  Both  these  were 
probably  only  small  shrines. 

nple        The  temple  of  Vespasian  stands  close  by  that  of  Concord,  abutting 
Ves-     on  the  Tabularium  in  a  similar  way,  and  blocking  up  a  doorway 
ian.     at  the  foot  of  a  long  flight  of  steps  (see  fig.  1).     It  consists  of  a 
nearly  square  cella  with  prostyle  hexastyle  portico  of  the  Corinth- 
ian order  ;  three  of  the  columns  are  still  standing,  with  their  rich 
entablature,  the  frieze  of  which  is  sculptured  with  sacred  instru- 


1  Ann.  Inst.,  1859,  p.  307 ;  Not.  degliScavi,  1882,  p.  225. 

2  This  finely  sculptured  frieze  is  almost  an  exact  copy  of  that  on  the  temple 
of  Apollo  at  Miletus. 

3  The  size  of  the  earlier  and  smaller  temple  is  indicated  by  the  rough  blocks 
on  the  face  of  the  wall  of  the  Tabularium,  close  against  which  the  temple  stands. 
When  the  Tabularium  was  built  it  was  not  thought  worth  while  to  dress  to  a 
smooth  face  that  part  of  its  wall  which  was  concealed  by  the  then  existing 
temple  of  Concord. 

«  The  anonymous  writer  of  this  MS.  appears  to  have  visited  Rome  in  the 
9th  century.    The  MS.  is  named  after  the  monastery  in  which  it  in  preserved. 

4  Little  is  known  of  the  Basilica  Opimia,  which  probably  adjoined  the  earlier 
temple  of  Concord,  and  the  existing  building  appears  also  to  have  occupied 
the  site  of  the  Senaculum  (see  Festus,  ed.  Miiller,  p.  347).    For  various  exciting 
scenes  which  took  place  in  the  temple  of  Concord  and  on  its  steps,  see  Cic., 
Phil.,  vii.  8;  SaUust,  Bell.  Cat. 


ments.  The  walls  are  of  enormous  blocks  of  travertine  with  strong 
iron  clamps ;  the  whole  was  lined  with  white  Pentelic  marhlt; 
outside,  and  inside  with  coloured  Oriental  marbles.  There  was  an 
internal  range  of  columns,  as  in  the  temple  of  Concord.  This  temple 
was  built  by  Domitian,  c.  94  A.D.,  in  honour  of  his  lather  *\  r.sp.'isiaii. 
The  inscription  on  the  entablature,  given  in  the  Einsiedeln  MS.,  re- 
cords a  restoration  by  Severus  and  Caracalla— DIVO.  VESPASIANO . 
AVQVSTO .  S  .  P .  Q .  R .  IMPP .  C AESS .  SEVER VS  .  ET .  ANTONINVS . 
PII  .  FELIC  .  AVGKJ  .  R[ESTITVER]VNT ;  part  of  the  last  word 
only  now  exists.6 

In  the  narrow  space  between  the  temples  of  Concord  and  Ves- 
pasian (only  about  7  feet  in  width)  a  small  brick  and  concrete 
wdicula  stands  against  the  Tabularium.  This  has  been  wrongly 
called  a  shrine  of  Faustina,  on  the  authority  of  a  small  inscriln d 
pedestal  found  near  it;7  but  there  is  clear  constructional  proof 
that  it  is  contemporary  with  the  temple  of  Vespasian,  and  is  there- 
fore of  the  time  of  Domitian.8  It  may  possibly  have  been  a  shrine 
dedicated  to  Titus,  whose  name  does  not  occur  in  the  inscription 
of  the  adjoining  temple,  though  the  catalogue  in  the  Curiosum, 
Reg.  ix.,  mentions  a  dedication  to  both  father  and  son.9 

The  next  building  is  the  Porticus  XII.  Deorum  Conscntium,  a  Portion 
large  marble  platform  facing  the  Clivus  Capitolinus,  with  a  row  of  XII. 
small  rooms  or  shrines  partly  cut  into  the  tufa  rock  of  the  hill  Deorun: 
behind.     This  conjunction  of  twelve  deities  was  of  Etruscan  origin ; 
they  were  six  of  each  sex  and  were  called  Senatus  Deorum  (Varro, 
L.L.,  viii.  70,  and  De  Re  Ritst.,  i.  I).10     The  columns  are  of  cipol- 
lino with  Corinthian  caps  ;  on  the  frieze  is  an  inscription  record- 
ing a  'restoration  by  Vettius  Pnetextatus,  prsefect  of  the  city  in  367 
A.D.     Under  the  marble  platform  is  a  row  of  seven  small  rooms, 
the  brick  facing  of  which  is  of  the  Flavian  period,  used  as  offices 
(schola)  for  scribes  and  prsecones  of  the  ft'dilcs.     It  is  usually  called 
the  Schola  Xanthi  from  an  inscription,  now  lost,  recording  its  re- 
storation by  A.  Fabius  Xanthus  and  others,  and  the  erection  of 
seven  silver  statues  of  gods  (Gruter,  Inscr.,  170,  3).11 

The  arch  of  Severus  stands  by  the  rostra,  across  the  road  on  the  Arch  o 
north-east  side  of  the  Forum  ;  the  remains  of  the  ancient  travertine  Severns 
curb  show  that  originally  the  road  went  along  a  rather  different 
line,  and  was  probably  altered  to  make  room  for  this  great  arch. 
It  was  built  in  203  A.D.,  after  victories  in  Parthia,  and  was  origin- 
ally set  up  in  honour  of  Severus  and  his  two  sons  Caracalla  (here 
called  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus)  and  Geta.  Caracalla,  after  murder- 
ing Geta,  erased  his  name  from  all  monuments  to  his  honour  in 
Rome.  Representations  of  the  arch  on  coins  of  Severus  show  that 
its  attic  was  surmounted  by  a  chariot  of  bronze  drawn  by  six 
horses,  in  which  stood  Severus  crowned  by  Victory  ;  at  the  sides 
were  statues  of  Caracalla  and  Geta,  with  an  equestrian  statue  at 
each  angle.  The  arch,  except  the  base,  which  is  of  marble-lined 
travertine,  is  built  of  massive  blocks  of  Pentelic  marble,  and  has 
large  crowded  reliefs  of  victories  in  the  East,  showing  much  deca- 
dence from  the  best  period  of  Roman  art. 

The  central  space  of  the  Forum  is  paved  with  slabs  of  travertine,  Centra 
much  patched  at  various  dates  ;  it  appears  to  have  been  marked  space  < 
out  into  compartments  with  incised  lines  (see  Plate  VII.),  the  use  Forum 
of  which  is  not  known. la  Numerous  clamp-holes  all  over  the 
paving  show  where  statues  and  other  ornaments  once  stood.  The 
recorded  number  of  these  is  very  great,  and  they  must  once  have 
thickly  crowded  a  great  part  of  the  central  area.  Two  short  marble 
walls  or  plutei  covered  with  reliefs,  discovered  in  1872,  stand  on  the 
north  side.  Their  use  and  original  position  are  not  known,  as  the 
rough  travertine  plinth  on  which  they  have  been  set  is  evidently 
of  late  date.  Each  of  these  marble  screens  has  (on  the  inside) 
reliefs  of  a  fat  bull,  boar,  and  ram,  decked  out  with  sacrificial 
wreaths  and  vitfce — the  suovetaurilia.  On  the  outside  are  scenes 
in  the  life  of  Trajan  :  one  has  the  emperor  seated  on  a  suggestus 
instituting  a  charity  for  destitute  children  in  99  A.D. — a  scene 
shown  also  in  one  of  his  first  brasses — with  the  legend  ALIMfENTA] 
ITALIAE;13  at  the  other  end  the  emperor  stands  on  the  rostra,  on 
which  the  two  tiers  of  beaks  are  shown  ;  he  is  addressing  a  crowd 
of  citizens.  The  backgrounds  of  this  and  the  other  relief  are  of 
great  topographical  interest.  In  the  first  is  shown  the  long  line 
of  arches  of  the  Basilica  Julia,  with  (on  the  left)  what  is  probably 
the  temple  of  Castor  and  the  arch  of  Augustus.  On  tne  right 
are  the  statue  of  Marsyas  and  the  sacred  fig-tree  (ficus  ruminalis),14 

6  See  Piale,  Tempi  di  Vespasiano  e  Concordia,  1821. 

7  Tin's  pedestal  is  now  on  the  ground  floor  of  the  Capitoline  Muspum  ;  its 
inscription  is  interesting,  being  a  dedication  to  Faustina  by  a  viator  (messen- 
ger) of  one  of  the  qusestors  of  the  .ajrarium  Saturni.    Its  discovery  near  this 
rcdicula  was  probably  accidental. 

8  Exactly  that  part  of  the  marble  plinth  of  the  temple  of  Vespasian  which 
was  concealed  by  the  eedicula  is  left  rough,  the  moulding  not  being  worked, 
showing  that  the  little  shrine  is  not  an  addition  later  than  the  temple. 

9  See  Preller,  Segionen  der  Stadt  Rom,  Reg.  ix.,  and  Uhlrichs,  Codex  Topog. 
liom.se,  Reg.  ix. 

10  Twelve  gilt  statues  are  mentioned  by  Varro. 
"  See  Grin",  Gli  Consenti  e  loro  Portico,  1858. 

12  They  may  possibly  have  had  something  to  do  with  the  marshalling  of  the 
voters  of  the  Comitia  Tribute. 

13  Cohen,  vol.  ii.  303-300. 

W  Pliny  (H.N.,  xv.  20)  mentions  another  fig-tree  in  the  middle  of  the  Forum, 
which  may  possibly  be  the  one  here  represented. 


ARCH.EOLOGY.] 


ROME 


821 


which  stood  on  the  Comitium.  On  the  other  slab  the  emperor  is 
seated  on  the  rostra  (this  part  is  broken),  while  in  front  a  crowd 
of  citizens  are  bringing  tablets  and  piling  them  in  a  heap  to  be 
burnt.  This  records  the  remission  by  Trajan  of  some  arrears  of 
debt  due  to  the  imperial  treasury  (Spartian,  7).  The  background 
here  represents  again  the  Basilica  Julia,  with  (on  the  right)  the 
Ionic  temple  of  Saturn  and  the  Corinthian  temple  of  Vespasian. 
Between  them  is  an  arch,  which  may  be  that  of  Tiberius.  On  the 
left  the  fig-tree  and  the  statue  of  Marsyas  are  repeated.  Other 
explanations  of  these  reliefs  have  been  given,  but  the  above  appears 
the  most  probable.1  Towards  the  other  end  of  the  Forum  are  re- 
mains of  a  large  concrete  pedestal.  This  is  usually  called  the 
base  of  the  equestrian  statue  of  Domitian  (Statins,  Silv.,  i.  22), 
which  stood  in  front  of  the  .ffides  Julii ;  but  its  brick  facing  shows 
that  it  is  much  later  than  Domitian's  time,  and,  moreover,  Domi- 
tian's  statue  was  destroyed  immediately  after  his  death. 

The  seven  cubical  brick  and  concrete  structures,  once  faced  with 
marble,  which  line  the  Sacra  Via,  are  not  earlier  than  the  time  of 
Constantino.1  They  are  probably  the  pedestals  of  honorary  columns, 
such  as  those  shown  in  the  relief  on  Constantino's  arch,  mentioned 
above.  The  column  erected  in  honour  of  the  tyrant  Phocas  by 
Smaragdus  in  the  eleventh  year  of  his  exarchate  (608)  is  still 
standing.  It  is  a  fine  marble  Corinthian  column,  stolen  from 
some  earlier  building  ;  it  stands  on  rude  steps  of  marble  and  tufa. 
The  name  of  Phocas  is  erased  from  the  inscription  ;  but  the  date 
shows  that  this  monument  was  to  his  honour.  Remains  of  other 
small  marble  structures  are  shown  in  Plate  VII.,  but  what  they  are 
is  not  known.  In  the  4th  century  a  long  brick  and  concrete  build- 
ing faced  with  marble  was  built  along  the  whole  south-east  end  of 
the  Forum,  probably  a  row  of  shops.  They  were  destroyed  by 
Comm.  Rosa's  order  a  few  years  ago.  Countless  fragments  of  other 
buildings,  reliefs,  and  statues  are  strewn  all  over  the  Forum.  Many 
of  these  are  of  great  interest ;  pieces  of  large  granite  columns 
which  probably  stood  on  the  seven  pedestals  mentioned  above  are 
lying  in  various  places  ;  some  of  these  appear  to  have  been  deco- 
rated with  bronze  reliefs,  the  iron  fastenings  of  which,  run  with 
lead,  still  exist.3 

Palatine  Hill  or  Palatium. 

In  addition  to  the  walls  of  Roma  Quadrata  (see  above),  a  few 
remains  only  now  exist  earlier  in  date  than  the  later  years  of  the 
republic ;  these  are  mostly  grouped  near  the  Scalse  Caci  (see  No. 
11  in  fig.  17)  and  consist  of  small  cellpe  and  other  structures  of  un- 
known use.4  They  are  partly  built  of  the  soft  tufa  used  in  the 
wall  of  Romulus  and  partly  of  the  hard  tufa  which  resembles 
peperiuo.  Various  names,  such  as  the  ' '  hut  of  Faustulus  "  and 
the  "  Auguratorium,"  have  been  given  to  these  very  ancient  remains, 
but  with  little  reason.  One  thing  is  certain,  that  the  buildings 
were  respected  and  preserved  even  under  the  empire  and  were 
probably  regarded  as  sacred  relics  of  the  earliest  times.  Remains 
of  more  than  one  temple,  probably  of  the  early  republican  period, 
exist  near  this  west  angle  of  the  Palatine  ;  these  had  peristyles 
with  Tuscan  columns  of  tufa  stuccoed  and  painted.  The  larger  of 
these  (see  14  in  fig.  17)  has  been  called  conjecturally  the  temple  of 
Qnple  Jupiter  Victor  (Liv.,  x.  29  ;  Ov.,  Fast.,  iv.  621).  It  stands  on  a 
pJupi-  levelled  platform  of  tufa  rock,  the  lower  part  of  which  is  excavated 
ft  Vic-  into  quarry  chambers,  used  in  later  times  as  water  reservoirs.  Two 
ancient  well-shafts  lined  with  tufa  communicate  with  these  sub- 
terranean hollows.  Another  extensive  building  of  hard  tufa  of 
the  republican  period  exists  in  the  valley  afterwards  covered  by 
the  Flavian  palace ;  part  of  this  can  be  seen  under  the  so-called 
Accadernia  (21  in  fig.  17).  Not  far  from  the  top  of  the  Scalte  Caci 
are  the  massive  remains  of  some  large  cella,  nothing  of  which  now 
exists  except  the  concrete  core  made  of  alternate  layers  of  tufa  and 
itue  of  peperiuo.  It  was  probably  once  lined  with  marble.  By  it  a  noble 
bele.  colossal  seated  figure  of  a  goddess  wras  found,  in  Greek  marble,  well 
modelled,  a  work  of  the  1st  century  A.D.  The  head  and  arms  are 
missing,  but  the  figure  is  probably  rightly  called  a  statue  of 
Cybele  ;  and  from  it  her  name  has  been  conjecturally  given  to  this 
temple.  Augustus  in  the  Manumentum  Ancyranum  records  AEDEM . 
MATRIS .  MAGNJE  .  IN  .  PALATIO  .  FECI  ;  'but  it  is  more  probable 
that  his  temple  to  Cybele  formed  part  of  the  magnificent  group  of 
buildings  in  the  area  of  Apollo  (see  below).  Some  interesting  early 


1  See  Brizio,  Ann.  Inst.,  1872,  p.  309 ;  Henzen,  Dull.  Inst.,  1872,  p.  81 ;  and 
Jordan,  Marsyus  aufaem  Forum,  Berlin,  1SS3. 

2  It  is  probable  that  these  occupy  the  line  of  the  Tabernse  Veteres. 

3  Authorities  on  the  Forum.—  Nichols,  Roman  Forum,  London,  1877  (very  use- 
ful from  its  collection  of  passages  in  ancient  authors) ;  Jordan,  Capitol,  Fontm, 
<Cc.,  Berlin,  1881,  and  Topographic  Roms,  vol.  i.,  1878  ;  Nibby,  II  Foro  Romano, 
1819  ;  An«<dini  and  Fea,  11  Foro  Romano,  1837  ;  Tocco,  Ripristinaziow  del  Foro, 
1858 ;  Ravioli  and  Montiroli,  Foro  Romano,  1859 ;  Michelet,  Das  Forum  Roma  num, 
Berlin,  1877;  Marucchi,  II  Foro  Romano,  1881 ;  Dtitert,  Le  Forum  Romain,  Paris, 
1876  (very  handsomely  illustrated,  but  more  fanciful  than  trustworthy); 
Canina,  II  Foro  Romano,  1845  (open  to  the  same  criticism  as  the  work  of 
Dutert,  and  wholly  stultified  by  later  discoveries).    For  inscriptions  found  in 
the  Forum,  see  Jordan,  "  Sylloge  Inscrip.  Fori  Rom.,"  in  the  Bake*,  tmgrafm., 
iii.  p.  248  s'/.    Some  of  the  more  recent  excavations  are  described  by  Lanciani, 
"  Scavi  del  Foro,"  in  Notizie  degli  Scavi  for  1882. 

4  Many  masons'  marks  exist  on  the  tufa  blocks  of  the  most  primitive  build- 
ings near  the  Scalse  Caci  (see  tig.  10). 


architectural  fragments  are  lying  near  this  temple  ;  they  consist  of 
drums  and  capitals  of  Corinthian  columns,  and  part  of  the  cornice 
of  the  pediment,  cut  in  peperino,  and  thickly  coated  with  hard 
white  stucco  to  imitate  marble.     Between  this  and  the  temple  (so 
called)  of  Jupiter  Victor  are  extensive  remains  of  a  large  sort  of 
porticus,  with  tufa  walls  and  travertine  piers,  also  republican  in 
date.     The  use  and  name  of  this  building  are  unknown.     The 
temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  traditionally  vowed  by  Romulus  during  Temple 
his  repulse   by  the  Sabines  (Liv.,  i.   12),  stood  near  the  Porta  of  Jupi- 
Mugionis,  and  therefore  near  the  road  leading  up  to  the  Palatine  ter  Sta- 
Sacra  Via.5     This  has  been  identified  with  the  ruined  concrete  tor. 
podium  (40  in  fig.  17),  the  position  of  which  suits  the  above  indi- 
cations ;  but  the  admixture  of  travertine,  brick,  and  even  marble 
with  the  tufa  of  the  concrete  shows  that  no  trace  here  remains  of 
any  early  building.     On  the  tufa  blocks  of  a  shaft  leading  down 
to  a  large  drain  by  the  side  of  these  remains  are  incised  in  large 


FILOCR 


letters  — 


—  possibly  the  names  of  Greek  stone-masons  (Diocles,  Philocrates)  ; 
the  form  of  the  letters  shows  that  this  inscription  is  as  early  as  the 
2d  or  even  3d  century  B.C. 

Remains  of  extensive  lines  of  buildings  in  early  opus  reticulatum 
exist  on  the  upper  slopes  of  the  Palatine,  all  along  the  Velabrum 
side,  and  on  the  south-west  side  as  far  as  the  so-called  Domus 
Gelotiana.  These  buildings  are  constructed  on  the  ruins  of  the 
wall  of  Romulus,  a  great  part  of  which  has  been  exit  away  to  make 
room  for  them  ;  their  base  is  at  the  foot  of  the  ancient  wall,  on  the 
shelf  cut  midway  in  the  side  of  the  hill  ;  their  top  reached  originally 
above  the  upper  level  of  the  summit.  They  are  of  various  dates 
and  cannot  be  identified  with  any  known  buildings.  Part  is  ap-  Domus 
parently  of  the  time  of  the  emperor  Tiberius,  and  no  doubt  belongs  Tiberi- 
to  the  Domus  Tiberiana  mentioned  by  Suetonius  (Tib.,  5  ;  comp.  ana. 
Tac.,  Hist.,  i.  27,  and  iii.  71)  ;  this  palace  covered  a  great  part 
of  the  west  corner  of  the  hill.  Of  about  the  same  date  is  a  very  House  o 
interesting  and  well-preserved  private  house  built  wholly  of  opus  Livia. 
reticulatum  ;  it  is  usually  called  the  house  of  Livia.  It  has  a 
small  atrium,  out  of  which  open  the  triclinium  and  the  tablinum 
with  a  room  (ala)  on  each  side,  all  handsomely  decorated  with  good 
paintings  of  mythological  and  domestic  scenes,  probably  the  work 
of  Greek  artists,  as  inscriptions  in  Greek  occur,  —  e.g.,  EPMHC, 
under  the  figure  of  Hermes,  in  a  picture  representing  his  deliver- 
ance of  lo  from  Argus.6  The  back  part  of  this  house  was  three 
stories  high,  and  is  divided  into  a  great  number  of  very  small 
rooms,  mostly  bedrooms.  The  house  is  built  in  a  sort  of  hole 
against  the  side  of  an  elevation,  so  that  the  upper  floor  behind  is 
level  with  an  ancient  paved  road.  The  dampness  caused  by  this 
is  counteracted  and  kept  off  the  paintings  by  a  lining  of  flange-tiles 
over  the  external  walls,  under  the  stucco,  thus  forming  an  air- 
cavity  all  over  the  surface.  From  the  back  of  the  house,  at  the 
upper  level,  a  long  subterranean  passage  leads  towards  the  Flavian 

Kalace,  and  then,  turning  at  right  angles  and  passing  by  the 
mndations  of  the  so-called  temple  of  Jupiter  Victor,  issues  in  the 
ancient  tufa  building  mentioned  above  (20  in  fig.  17).  Another 
crypto-  porticus  starts  near  this  house  and  communicates  with  the 
long  semi-subterranean  passage  by  which  the  palaces  of  Caligula 
and  Domitian  are  connected  (19  in  fig.  17).  It  is  ornamented  with 
very  beautiful  stucco  reliefs  of  cupids,  beasts,  and  foliage,  once 
painted  and  gilt.  This  private  house  is  probably  that  of  Germani- 
cus,  into  which  the  soldiers  who  killed  Caligula  in  the  long  crypto- 
porticus  escaped,  as  described  by  Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.,  xix.  1  ;  see 
also  Suet.,  CaL,  58).  Some  inscribed  lead  pipes  were  found  in 
this  house  ;  some  pieces  bear  the  inscription  IVLIAE  .  AVG.,  prob- 
ably the  daughter  of  Titus. 

The  palace  of  Augustus  and  the  Area  Apollinis  7  occupied  a  great  Palace  o 
portion  of  the  central  part  of  the  Palatine  (see  47  and  48  in  fig.  Augustu 
17)  ;  the  splendour  of  its  architecture  and  the  countless  works  of  and  Arei 
art  in  gold,  silver,  ivory,  bronze,  and  marble,  mostly  the  produc-  Apollinl 
tion  of  the  best  Greek  artists,  which  adorned  this  magnificent 
group  of  buildings  must  have  made  it  the  chief  glory  of  this 
splendid  city.     It  was  approached  from  a  road  leading  out  of  the 
Summa  Sacra  Via  along  the  line  of  the  present  Via  di  S.  Bonaven- 
tura  ;  the  entrance,  probably  the  Arcus  of  Pliny  (H.N.,  xxxvi.  4, 
10),  led  through  lofty  propylsea  into  a  very  extensive  peristyle 
or  porticus,  with  (at  least)  fifty  -two  fluted  columns  of  Numidian 
giallo  ;  the  rest  was  of  white  Luna  and  Athenian  marble.     In  the 
centre  of  this  enclosure  stood  the  great  octostyle  peripteral  temple 
of  Apollo  Palatinus,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  another  temple 
of  Apollo  outside  the  Porta  Carmentalis,  remains  of  which  exist 

5  Dionys.,  ii.  50  ;  see  also  Plut.,  Cic.,  16  ;  Ov.,  Fast.,  vi.  793,  and  Trist.,  iii. 
127.    Near  this  temple,  and  also  near  the  Porta  Mugonia,  was  the  house  ot 
Tarquinius  Prisons  (Liv.,  i.  41  ;  Sol.,  Polyhist.,  i.  24).     Owing  to  the  strength 
of  its  position  this  temple  was  more  than  once  selected  during  troubled  times 
as  a  safe  meeting-place  for  the  Senate  ;  it  was  here,  as  being  a  "locus  mum- 
tissimus,"  that  Cicero  delivered  his  First  Catiline  Oration  (see  Cic.,  In  Cat.,  1.  1). 

6  See  Mon.  Inst.,  xi.,  pis.  xxii.,  xxiii.  ;  Renier,  Les  Peintures  du  Palatin, 
Paris,  1870. 

7  See  Lanciani's  paper  in  Bull.  Comm.  Arch.  Roma,  iv.,  1883. 


822 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


under  the  Albergo  di  Catena  near  the  Piazza  Montanara.  This 
temple  was  begun  by  Augustus  in  36  B.C.,1  after  his  Sicilian 
victory  over  Sextus  Pompeius,  and  finished  in  28  B.C.2  A  glowing 
account  of  the  splendours  of  these  buildings  is  given  by  Propertius 
(El. ,  ii.  3).  Inside  the  cella  were  statues  of  Apollo  between  Latona 
and  Diana  by  Scopas,  Praxiteles,  and  Timotheus  respectively 


(Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxvi.  4) ;  round  the  walls  were  statues  of  the  nine 
Muses  (Juv.,  vii.  37).  The  pediment  had  sculpture  by  Bnpalus 
and  Archennus  of  Chios  (Plin.,  H. N.,  xxxvi.  4),  and  on  the  apex 
was  Apollo  in  a  quadriga  of  gilt  bronze.  The  double  door  was 
covered  with  ivory  reliefs  of  the  death  of  the  Niobids  and  the 
defeat  of  the  Gauls  at  Delphi.  The  Anoyra  inscription  records  that 


FIG.  17.— Plan  of  the  Palatine  Hill.— 1.  Present  entrance.  2,  2.  Remains  of  wall  of  Roma  Quadrata.  3.  Aqueduct.  4.  Early  buildings  of  opus  reticulatum. 
5.  Scalse  Caci.  6.  Buildings  of  mixed  brick  and  opus  reticulatum.  7.  Altar  to  the  unknown  god,  Sei  Deo,  Sei  Deivae,  &c.  8.  Reservoir  exit  in  tufa  rock. 
9.  Passage  cut  in  the  rock.  10.  So-called  temple  of  Cybele.  11.  Very  early  structures  of  tufa.  12.  Tufa  arcade  and  paved  road.  13.  Building  with  travertine 
piers  of  later  republican  period.  14.  So-called  temple  of  Jupiter  Victor.  15.  Well  communicating  with  subterranean  rock-cut  reservoirs.  16,  16.  Small 
chambers  and  paved  road,  part  of  Tiberius's  building.  17.  Piscina.  18.  House  of  Germanicus.  19,  19.  Crypto-porticus.  20,  20.  Early  building  of  tufa 
buried  and  covered  by  Domitian's  palace.  21.  So-called  academy  and  library— part  of  Domitian's  palace.  22.  Triclinium  of  Domitian's  palace.  23. 
Nymphaeum  and  piscina.  24.  Peristyle.  25.  Small  rooms  at  side  of  peristyle.  26.  Stairs  down  to  crypto-porticus.  27.  Throne-room.  28.  Lararium. 
29.  Basilica.  30.  Branch  of  crypto-porticus  leading  to  Domitian's  palace.  31.  Crypto-porticus  of  Caligula.  32,  32.  Stairs  from  crypto-porticus  to  higher 
level.  33,  33.  Early  buildings  of  opus  reticulatum.  34,  34.  Stairs  from  Forum  to  Porta  Romanula.  35  and  38.  Stairs  to  upper  rooms  of  Caligula's  palace. 
36,  36.  Substructures  of  Caligula's  palace.  37.  Caligula's  bridge.  39.  Porta  Mugionis.  40.  Temple  of  Jupiter  Stator  (so  called).  41.  Remains  of  wall  of 
Roma  Quadrata.  42,  42.  Remains  of  Nero's  palace.  43.  Great  concrete  platform.  44.  Remains  of  mediaeval  Turris  Cartularia.  45,  45.  Series  of  small  bath- 
rooms. 46.  So-called  basilica  of  5th  century.  47.  Site  of  temple  and  libraries  of  Apollo.  48.  Palace  of  Augustus  (now  destroyed).  49.  Domus  Gelotiann. 
50.  Stadium,  with  oval  hall  of  Theodoric  (?).  51.  Exedra  of  Hadrian.  52.  Stairs  from  stadium  to  higher  level  of  hill.  53,  53.  Remains  of  Hadrian's 
palace,  partly  covered  by  later  palace  of  Severus.  54.  Baths  of  Severus's  palace.  55,  55.  Lofty  substructures  of  Severus's  palace.  56.  Aqua  Claudia 
brought  on  Nero's  aqueduct.  57.  Shops  of  opus  incertum.  58.  Substructures  of  Circus  Maximus.  59.  Remains  of  early  tufa  building,  and  brick-faced 
structures  of  imperial  times.  60,  60.  Paved  road  skirting  outside  of  Circus  Maximus. 


Augustus  sold  eighty  silver  statues  of  himself  and  with  the  money 
"  offered  golden  gifts"  to  this  temple,  dedicating  them  both  in  his 
own  name  and  in  the  names  of  the  original  donors  of  the  statues.3 
The  Sibylline  books  were  preserved  under  the  statue  of  Apollo 


******  •  PAETEM 


2  See  Dion  Cass.,  xlix.  15,  liii.  1,  and  C.I.L.,  i.  p.  403. 

8  See  also  Suet,  Aug.,  52,  whose  account  is  rather  different. 


(Suet.,  Aug.,  31);  and  within  the  cella  were  vases,  tripods,  and 
statues  of  gold  and  silver,  with  a  collection  of  engraved  gems  dedi- 
cated by  Marcellus  (see  Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxvii.  5).  On  each  side  of 
the  porticus  was  a  large  library,  one  Latin  and  the  other  Greek  ; 4 
and  a  third  side  of  the  great  enclosure  was  occupied  by  a  large  hall 
where  the  Senate  occasionally  met  (Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.  37),  in  the  centre 

«  SchoL  to  Juv.,  i.  128,  and  Suet,  Aug.,  29. 


ARCHEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


823 


of  which  stood  a  bronze  colossus  of  Augustus,1  50  feet  high  (Plin., 
II.  N.,  xxxiv.  18).  Round  the  portions,  between  the  Numidian 
marble  columns,  were  statues  of  the  fifty  Danaids,  and  opposite 
them  their  fifty  bridegrooms  on  horseback  (see  schol.  on  Pers.,  ii. 
56),  many  fragments  of  which  have  been  found.  In  the  centre 
before  the  steps  of  the  temple  stood  an  altar  surrounded  by  four 
oxen,  the  work  of  Myron  (Proper.,  EL,  ii.  3,  7).  Within  the  same 
area  was  a  small  temple  of  Vesta  (C.I.L.,  i.  p.  392),  dedicated  on 
28th  April  12  B.C.,  when  Augustus  was  elected  pontifex  maximus;2 
the  sacred  block  or  altar  symbolically  called  Roma  Quadrata,  sur- 
rounded by  a  circular  trench  called  the  Mundus,  was  also  in  some 
part  of  this  great  group  of  buildings.  On  the  side  towards  the 
Circus  Maximus  was  the  palace  of  Augustus,  which  was  excavated 
in  1775,  and  drawings  of  which  were  published  by  Guattani.8  A 
great  part  shown  by  him  has  since  then  been  destroyed,  and  all  is 
now  concealed  ;  the  plan  (48  in  fig.  17)  is  taken  from  Guattani. 
The  whole  group  is  described  by  Ovid  (Trist.,  iii.  1).  Augustus 
also  rebuilt  the  temple  of  Victory,4  which  gave  its  name  to  the 
Clivus  Victoria  ;  this  temple  stood  on  the  site  of  a  prehistoric 
altar  (Dionys.,  i.  32),  and  was  more  than  once  rebuilt, — e.g.,  by 
L.  Postumius,  294  B.C.  (Liv.,  x.  33).  In  193  B.C.  an  sedicula  to 
Victory  was  built  near  it  by  Porcius  Cato  (Liv.,  xxxv.  9).  Remains 
of  the  temple  and  a  dedicatory  inscription  were  found  in  1 725-28  5 
not  far  from  the  church  of  S.  Maria  Liberatrice  ;  the  temple  was 
of  Parian  marble,  with  Corinthian  columns  of  Numidian  giallo 
antico.  The  Area  Apollinis  and  its  group  of  buildings  suffered  in 
the  fire  of  Nero,  and  were  restored  by  Domitian.  The  whole  was 
finally  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  363  (Ammian,  xxiii.  3),  but  the 
Sibylline  books  were  saved. 

The  palace  of  Caligula  occupies  the  northern  angle  of  the  Palatine, 
and  extends  over  the  Clivus  Victoria  a  long  way  towards  the  Clivus 
Palatinus  (see  fig.  17).  This  part  of  the  Palatine  was  once  occupied 
by  the  Lucus  Vestee,  with  the  Sacellum  Volupire  and  many  fine 
private  houses.  Among  these  were  the  dwellings  of  Q.  Lutatius 
Catulus,  Q.  Horteusius,  Catiline,  Scaurus,  Crassus  (Plin.,  H.N., 
xxxvi.  3,  24),  whose  house  was  afterwards  bought  by  Cicero,6 
and  the  house  of  Clodius,  the  view  of  which  Cicero  threatened  to 
block  out.7  Many  other  wealthy  Romans  had  houses  on  this  part 
of  the  Palatine,  so  that  the  cost  of  the  site  for  Caligula's  enormous 
palace  must  have  been  very  great.  The  part  now  existing  is  little 
more  than  the  gigantic  substructures  built  to  raise  the  principal 
rooms  to  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  hill.  The  lowest  parts  of  these 
face  the  Nova  Via,  opposite  the  Atrium  Vestre,  and  many  stories 
of  small  vaulted  rooms  built  in  mixed  brick  and  opus  reticulatum 
rise  one  above  the  other  to  the  higher  levels.8  The  palace  extends 
over  the  Clivus  Victoria,  supported  on  lofty  arches  so  as  to  leave 
the  road  unblocked  ;  many  travertine  or  marble  stairs  lead  to  the 
upper  rooms,  some  starting  from  the  Nova  Via,  others  from  the 
Clivus  Victoria.  Its  enormous  extent  is  referred  to  by  Pliny  (H.N., 
xxxvi.  24).  A  large  proportion  of  these  substructures  consist  of 
dark  rooms,  some  with  no  means  of  lighting,  others  with  scanty 
borrowed  light.  Many  small  rooms  and  stairs  scarcely  2  feet  wide 
can  only  have  been  used  by  slaves.  The  ground  floors  on  the 
Nova  Via  and  the  Clivus  Victoria  appear  to  have  been  shops,  judg- 
ing from  their  wide  openings,  with  travertine  sills,  grooved  for  the 
wooden  fronts  with  narrow  doors,  which  Roman  shops  seem  always 
to  have  had, — very  like  those  now  used  in  the  East.  The  upper  and 
principal  rooms  were  once  richly  decorated  with  marble  linings, 
columns,  and  mosaics ;  but  little  of  these  now  remains.  By  the  side 
of  the  Clivus  Victoria;  still  exists  the  start  of  the  bridge  by  which 
Caligula  joined  the  Capitolium  to  the  Palatium  (Suet.,  Cal.,  22) ; 
it  is  partly  supported  on  corbelled  arches,  richly  decorated  with 
delicate  stucco  reliefs  ;  the  floor  is  of  mosaic,  and  a  piece  of  the 
open  marble  screen  or  balustrade  is  still  in  situ.  The  intermediate 
parts  of  Caligula's  bridge  were  removed  after  his  death,  and  the  exit 
from  the  palace  is  blocked  by  a  brick-faced  wall,  very  little  later 
in  date  than  the  palace  itself.  Near  the  bridge  are  some  rooms 
very  handsomely  ornamented  with  a  combination  of  coloured  stucco 
reliefs  and  painting  on  the  flat.  The  upper  part  of  the  palace, 
that  above  the  Clivus  Victoria,  is  faced  wholly  with  brickwork, 
no  opus  reticulatum  being  used,  as  in  the  lower  portions  by  the 


1  The  bronze  head,  now  in  the  court  of  the  Palazzo  dei  Conservator!,  may 
possibly  have  belonged  to  this  colossus  ;  it  is  much  too  small  for  that  of  Nero, 
to  which  it  has  generally  been  attributed  ;  it  seems,  however,  of  inferior  work- 
manship to  that  of  the  Augustan  age. 

2  Ovid  (Fast.,  iv.  949)  mentions  this  group  as  being  divided  among  three 
gods,  namely,  Phoebus,  Vesta,  and  Augustus  (conip.  Metam.,  xv.  864).    The  plan 
cf  a  circular  temple  drawn  by  Ligorio  (Cod.  Ursin.  Vat.,  3439,  fol.  25)  probably 
represents  this  temple  of  Vesta  as  discovered  in  the  16th  century  ;  it  is  repro- 
duced in  Bull.  Comm.  Arch.  Roma,  1S83,  pi.  xvii. 

3  Mon.  Ant.  ined.  di  Roma,  1785,  p.  56. 

4  This  temple  is  shown  on  a  rare  bronze  medallion  of  Gordianus  III.  ;  it  is 
domed,  and  on  the  pediment  is  inscribed  NEIKH   OHAOfcOPOS.      See 
Grueber,  Roman  Medallions,  pi  xlii.,  London,  1874. 

5  See  Bianchini,  Pal.  dei  Cesari,  1738,  p.  236. 

6  Cic.,  Pro  Domo,  43 ;  Val.  Max.,  vi.  3,  1 ;  and  see  Becker,  Handb.,  i.  p.  423. 

7  Cic.,  De  Hants.,  15,  33. 

8  At  this  point  the  Palatine  is  cut  away  into  four  stages  like  gigantic  steps  ; 
the  lowest  is  the  floor  of  the  Atrium  Vesta?,  the  second  the  Xova  Via,  the  third 
the  Clivus  Victorias,  and  the  top  of  the  hill  forms  the  fourth. 


Nova  Via.  This  possibly  marks  a  difference  of  date,  and  the 
occurrence  of  brick  stamps  of  the  latter  part  of  the  1st  century 
A.D.  in  various  parts  of  the  palace  shows  that  a  large  portion  of  it 
is  later  than  the  time  of  Caligula. 

The  next  great  addition  to  the  buildings  of  the  Palatine  was  the  Flavian 
magnificent  suite  of  state  apartments  built  by  Domitian,  over  a  Palace, 
deep  natural  valley  running  across  the  hill  (see  fig.  17).  The 
valley  was  filled  up  and  the  level  of  the  new  palace  raised  to  a 
considerable  height  above  the  natural  soil.  Remains  of  a  house, 
decorated  with  painting  and  rich  marbles,  exist  under  Domitian's 
peristyle,  partly  destroyed  by  the  foundations  of  cast  concrete 
which  cut  right  through  it.  The  floor  of  this  house  shows  the 
original  level,  far  below  that  of  the  Flavian  palace.  The  south 
angle  of  this  great  building  adjoins  the  palace  of  Augustus,  and  it 
is  connected  with  the  palace  of  Caligula  by  a  branch  subterranean 
passage  leading  into  the  earlier  crypto-porticus.  These  two  build- 
ings continued  to  be  used  as  the  private  apartments  of  the  emperor, 
the  Flavian  block  consisting  only  of  state  rooms ;  the  words  AEDES 
PVBLICA  were  inscribed  upon  it  by  Nerva  to  show  its  public  charac- 
ter. It  consists  of  a  large  open  peristyle,  with  columns  of  Oriental 
marble,  at  one  end  of  which  is  the  grand  triclinium  with  magnifi- 
cent paving  of  opus  sectile  in  red  and  green  basalt  and  coloured 
marbles,  a  piece  of  which  is  well  preserved  ;  next  to  the  triclinium, 
on  to  which  it  opens  with  large  windows,  is  a  nymphaeum  or  room 
with  marble-lined  fountain  and  recesses  for  plants  and  statues.  On 
the  opposite  side  of  the  peristyle  is  a  large  throne-room,  the  walls 
of  which  were  adorned  with  rows  of  pavonazetto  and  giallo  columns 
and  large  marble  niches,  in  which  were  colossal  statues  of  porphyry 
and  basalt ;  at  one  side  of  this  is  the  basilica,  with  central  nave 
and  apse  and  narrow  aisles,  over  which  were  galleries.  The  apse, 
in  which  was  the  emperor's  throne,  is  screened  off  by  open  marble 
cancelli,  a  part  of  which  still  exists.  It  is  of  great  interest  as  show- 
ing the  origin  of  the  Christian  basilica  ;  S.  Agnese  fuori  le  Mura 
is  exactly  similar  in  arrangement  (see  BASILICA,  vol.  iii.  p.  417).9 
On  the  other  side  of  the  throne-room  is  the  lararium,  with  altar 
and  pedestal  for  a  statue ;  next  to  this  is  the  grand  staircase, 
which  led  to  the  upper  rooms,  now  destroyed.  The  whole  build- 
ing, both  floor  and  walls,  was  covered  with  the  richest  Oriental 
marbles,  including  all  the  varieties  mentioned  on  p.  808.  Out- 
side were  colonnades  or  portions, — on  one  side  of  cipollino,  on  the 
other  of  travertine,  the  latter  stuccoed  and  painted.  The  magni- 
ficence of  the  whole,  crowded  with  fine  Greek  sculpture  and  covered 
with  polished  marbles  of  the  most  brilliant  colours,  is  difficult  now 
to  realize  ;  a  glowing  description  is  given  by  Statius  (Silv.,  iv.  11, 
18;  see  also  Plut.,  Poplic.,  15,  and  Mart.,  viii.  36).  Doors  were 
arranged  in  the  throne-room  and  basilica  so  that  the  emperor 
could  slip  out  unobserved  and  reach  by  a  staircase  (30  in  fig.  17) 
the  crypto-porticus  which  communicates  with  Caligula's  palace. 
The  vault  of  this  passage  was  covered  with  mosaic  of  mixed  marble 
and  glass,  a  few  fragments  of  which  still  remain  ;  its  walls  were 
lined  with  rich  marbles  ;  it  was  lighted  by  a  series  of  windows 
in  the  springing  of  the  vault.  This,  as  well  as  the  Flavian  palace, 
appears  to  have  suffered  more  than  once  from  fire,  and  in  many 
places  important  restorations  of  the  time  of  Severus,  and  some  as 
late  as  the  4th  century,  are  evident.  In  1720-26  extensive  exca- 
vations were  made  here  for  the  Famese  duke  of  Parma,  and  an 
immense  quantity  of  statues  and  marble  architectural  fragments 
were  discovered,  many  of  which  are  now  at  Naples  and  elsewhere. 
Among  them  were  sixteen  beautiful  fluted  columns  of  pavonazetto 
and  giallo,  fragments  of  the  porphyry  statues,  and  an  immense 
door -sill  of  Pentelic  marble,  now  used  for  the  high  altar  of  the 
Pantheon  ;  these  all  came  from  the  throne-room.  The  excavations 
were  carried  on  by  Bianchiui,  who  published  a  book  on  the  subject.10 

In  the  middle  of  the  slopes  of  the  Palatine,  towards  the  Circus  Domus 
Maximus,  are  considerable  remains  of  buildings  set  against  the  Gelo- 
wall  of  Romulus  and  covering  one  of  its  projecting  spurs.  This  tiana. 
series  of  rooms  with  a  long  Corinthian  colonnade  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  part  of  the  Domus  Gelotiana,  from  which  Caligula 
used  to  watch  the  races  in  the  circus  below  (Suet.,  Cal.,  18).  Little, 
however,  of  the  existing  remains  is  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Caligula, 
and  the  marble  porticus  apparently  dates  from  the  time  of  Severus. 
The  rooms  were  partly  marble -lined  and  partly  decorated  with 
painted  stucco,  on  which  are  incised  a  number  of  interesting  in- 
scriptions and  rude  drawings.  Here,  in  1857,  was  found  the  cele- 
brated (so-called)  caricature  of  the  Crucified  Christ,  now  in  the 
Museo  Kircheriano,  but  which,  more  probably,  has  a  Gnostic 
meaning.11  The  inscription  CORINTHVS  .  EXIT  .  DE  .  PEDAGOGIO 
suggests  that  this  building  was  at  one  time  used  as  a  school,  per- 
haps for  the  imperial  slaves.  A  number  of  soldiers'  names  also 
occur,  e.g.,  HILARYS .  MI .  V.  D .  N.  (Hilarus  miles  veteranus  domini 
nostri) ;  some  are  in  mixed  Latin  and  Greek  characters,  with  many 


9  The  brick  stamps  on  the  tiles  laid  under  the  marble  paving  of  the  basilica 
have  CN .  DOMITI .  AMANDI .  VALEAT .  QVI .  FECIT .,—  the  last  three 
words  a  common  augury  of  good  luck  stamped  on  bricks  or  amphorae ;  these 
date  from  a  restoration  after  a  tire  in  the  time  of  Severus. 

10  Pa?,  dei  Cesari,  Verona,  1738 ;  see  Guattani,  AW.  di  Antich.,  1798. 

11  See  Kraus,  Das  Spottcrucifoc  vom  Palatin,  Freiburg,  1S72,  and  Becker,  Das 
Spottcrucifix,  &c.,  Breslau,  1866. 


824 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


varieties  of  mis-spelling.  After  one  pair  of  names  is  inscribed 
PEREG,  showing  that  they  belonged  to  the  foreign  corps  called 
Peregriui,  probably  stationed  here  as  guards  to  the  imperial  resi- 
dences on  the  hill  above.  Most  of  these  inscriptions  appear  to  be 
as  early  as  the  1st  century  A.D.1  These  interesting  graffiti  have 
in  great  part  perished  during  the  last  few  years,  and  soon  none 
will  remain. 

lium.  The  great  stadium  of  the  Palatine  (see  50  in  fig.  17)  was  begun  by 
Domitian,  mainly  built  by  Hadrian,  and  much  altered  or  restored  by 
Severus.  The  greater  part  of  the  outer  walls  and  the  large  exedra 
or  apse  at  the  side,  with  upper  floor  for  the  emperor's  seat,  are  of 
the  time  of  Hadrian,  as  is  shown  by  the  brick  stamps,  and  the 
character  of  the  brick  facing,  which  much  resembles  that  of  the 
Flavian  time  (bricks  1$  inches  and  joints  £  inch  thick).2  The 
stadium  is  surrounded  with  a  colonnade  of  engaged  shafts,  forming 
a  sort  of  aisle  with  gallery  over  it.  Except  those  at  the  curved  end, 
which  are  of  Hadrian's  time,  these  piers  are  of  the  time  of  Severus, 
as  are  also  all  the  flat  piers  along  the  outer  wall, — one  opposite  each 
of  those  in  the  inner  line.  This  shows  either  that  the  stadium 
must  have  been  left  by  Hadrian  in  an  unfinished  state,  or  else  that 
it  suffered  seriously  from  a  fire  or  earthquake  before  the  reign  of 
Severus. 

rian's  In  addition  to  the  stadium,  Hadrian  built  a  number  of  very 
:e.  handsome  rooms,  forming  a  palace  on  the  south-east  side  and  at  the 
south-west  end  of  the  stadium.  These  rooms  were  partly  destroyed 
and  partly  hidden  by  the  later  palace  of  Severus,  the  foundations 
of  which  in  many  places  cut  through  and  render  useless  the  highly 
decorated  rooms  of  Hadrian  (53  in  fig.  17).  The  finest  of  these 
which  is  now  visible  is  a  room  with  a  large  window  opening  into 
the  stadium  near  the  south  angle ;  it  has  intersecting  barrel 
vaults,  with  deep  coffers,  richly  ornamented  in  stucco.  The  oval 
structure  shown  in  the  plan  (50  in  fig.  17),  with  other  still  later 
additions,  belongs  to  the  4th  or  5th  century,  when  the  stadium 
was  no  longer  used  for  races  ;  some  of  the  walls,  of  opus  mixtuni, 
which  cut  up  and  disfigure  this  noble  building  appear  to  be  the 
work  of  Theodoric,  c.  500. 

ce  of  The  palace  of  Septimius  Severus  was  very  extensive  and  of  enormous 
rus.  height ;  it  extends  not  only  all  over  the  south  angle  of  the  Palatine 
but  also  a  long  way  into  the  valley  of  the  Circus  Maximus  and 
towards  the  Ccelian.  This  part  (like  Caligula's  palace)  is  carried 
on  very  lofty  arched  substructures,  so  as  to  form  a  level,  uniform 
with  the  top  of  the  hill,  on  which  the  grand  apartments  stood. 
The  whole  height  from  the  base  of  the  Palatine  to  several  stories 
above  its  summit  must  have  been  enormous.  Little  now  remains 
of  the  highest  stories,  except  part  of  a  grand  staircase  which  led  to 
them.  Extensive  baths,  all  richly  decorated  with  marble  linings 
and  mosaics  in  glass  and  marble,  cover  a  great  part  of  the  top  of 
the  hill.  These  and  other  parts  of  the  Palatine  were  supplied 
with  water  by  an  aqueduct  built  by  Nero  in  continuation  of  the 
Claudian  aqueduct,  some  arches  of  which  still  exist  on  the  slope 
of  the  Palatine  (56  in  fig.  17  ;  see  Spart.,  Sept.  Sev.,  24).  The 
palace  of  Severus  was  restored  and  enlarged  by  Heliogabalus  and 
Severus  Alexander.3  One  of  the  main  roads  up  to  the  Palatine 
passes  under  the  arched  substructures  of  Severus,  and  near  this,  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill,  at  the  south  angle,  Septimius  Severus  built  an 
outlying  part  of  his  palace,  a  building  of  great  splendour  dedicated 
to  the  Sun  and  Moon,  called  the  Septizouium,  probably  from  its 
seven  stories  or  zonre  (see  Jordan,  Bull.  Inst.,  1872,  p.  145).  It 
has  been  doubted  whether  it  can  really  have  been  as  much  as 
seven  stories  high  ;  but  this  is  not  improbable  when  we  consider 
the  enormous  height  of  the  rest  of  Sevems's  palace,  reaching  from 
the  foot  of  the  Palatine  to  far  above  its  summit.  Part  of  the  Septi- 
zonium  existed  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V.  (1585-90),  who 
destroyed  it  in  order  to  use  its  marble  decorations  and  columns  in 
the  new  basilica  of  St  Peter ;  drawings  of  it  are  given  by  Du  Perac, 
Vestigj  di  Roma,  1575,  and  in  other  works  of  that  century.4 
l  The  Velia  and  Germalus  were  two  outlying  spurs  of  the  Palatine.5 

Ger-  Owing  to  the  great  alterations  that  have  been  made  in  the  contour 
is.  of  the  hill  it  is  now  very  difficult  to  identify  these  ancient  districts 
(see  Ann.  Inst.,  1865,  p.  347).  The  Germalus  or  Cermalus  was 
probably  on  the  side  towards  the  Velabrum,  while  the  Velia  may 
be  identified  with  that  elevated  ground  between  the  Palatine  and 
the  Esqniline  on  which  the  temple  of  Venus  and  Rome  and  the 
arch  of  Titus  now  stand.  It  is  evident  that  this  was  once  much 
loftier  and  more  abrupt  than  it  is  now  ;  a  great  part  of  it  was  cut 
away  when  the  level  platform  for  the  temple  of  Venus  and  Rome 

•  l  See  Henzen,  in  the  Bull.  Inst.,  1863,  p.  72,  and  1867,  p.  113. 

2  Inparts  of  the  outer  wall  brick  stamps  of  the  Flavian  period  appear,  e.g., 
FLA VI .  AVG .  L .  CLONI— "  [A  brick]  of  Clonius,  freedman  of  the  Flavian 
Augustus." 

3  See  Dion  Cans.,  Ixxii.  24  ;  Lamprid.,  Hist.  Aug.:  Sept.  Sev.,  19,  24  ;  Id.,  Sev. 
Alex.,  24,  25  ;  and  Id.,  llelitq.,  3,  8,  24. 

*  Sec  Jordan,  Die  Kaiserpal.  in  Bom,  Berlin,  1871  ;  Thon,  Pal.  dei  Cesari, 
1S28;  Lanciani,  Guida  del  Pal.,  1873;  Ann.  Inst.,  1852,  p.  324,  and  Mon.  Inst., 
v.  j.l.  xxxvi. ;  Guattani,  Roma  desc.,  1805. 

"Huic  (Palatio)  Germalnm  et  Velias  conjunxerunt  .  .  .  ' Germalnm'  a 
Rermanis  Romiilo  et  Herno,  quod  ad  ficum  Ruiiiinalcm  ibi  invent! "  (Varro, 
L.L.,  \.  54).  Varro's  derivation  of  Velia  from  "vellera,"  the  fleeces  of  the 
pasturing  flocks,  is  obviously  wrong. 


was  formed.  The  foundations  of  part  of  Nero's  palace  along  the 
road  between  this  temple  and  the  Esquilme  are  exposed  for  about 
20  to  30  feet  in  height,  showing  a  corresponding  lowering  of  tin- 
level  here,  and  the  oare  tufa  rock,  cut  to  a  flat  surface,  is  visible 
on  the  site  of  Hadrian's  great  temple  ;  that  the  Velia  was  once 
much  loftier  is  also  indicated  by  the  story  of  the  removal  of  Valerius 
Publicola's  dwelling.6 

On  the  Velia  and  the  adjoining  Summa  Sacra  Via  were  two  S;u ra 
temples  which  Augustus  rebuilt.7  The  "  yEdes  Lamm  "  is  probably  Vi;i. 
the  "Sacellum  Lamm"  mentioned  by  Tacitus  (Ann.,  xii.  24)  as 
one  of  the  points  in  the  line  of  the  pomcerium  of  Roma  Quadrata. 
The  Sacra  Via  started  at  the  Sacellum  Streui«,  an  unknown  point 
on  the  Esquiliue,  probably  near  the  baths  of  Titus  (Varro,  L.L., 
v.  47),  in  the  quarter  called  Cerolia.  Thence  it  probably  (in  later 
times)  passed  round  part  of  the  Colosseum  to  the  slope  leading  up 
to  the  arch  of  Titus  on  the  Velia  ;  this  piece  of  its  course  is  lined 
on  one  side  by  extensive  baths,  attributed  to  Heliogabalus  (45  in 
fig.  17),  and  farther  back,  against  the  cliff  of  the  Palatine,  are 
remains  of  Nero's  enormous  palace  (see  42  in  fig.  17).  From  the 
arch  of  Titus  or  Summa  Sacra  Via  the  original  line  of  the  road  has 
been  altered  (see  Plate  VII.) ;  the  angle  at  which  the  scanty  remains 
of  the  Regia  are  set  probably  shows  the  early  direction  of  the  Sacra 
Via  in  passing  on  to  the  temple  of  Vesta.  Its  later  course  was 
more  to  the  north-east,  passing  at  a  sharp  angle  from  the  arch  of 
Titus  to  the  front  of  Constantino's  basilica,  and  on  past  the  temple 
of  Faustina.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  continuation  of  this  road 
to  the  arch  of  Severus  was  in  later  times  called  the  Sacra  Via  or 
whether  it  rejoined  its  old  line  along  the  Basilica  Julia  by  the 
cross-road  in  front  of  the  Mdes  Julii.  Its  original  line  past  the 
temple  of  Vesta  was  completely  built  over  in  the  3d  and  4th 
centuries,  and  clumsily-fitted  pavements  of  marble  and  travertine 
occupy  the  place  of  the  old  basalt  blocks.8  The  course  of  the 
Nova  Via9  (see  figs;  16  and  17)  along  the  palace  of  Caligula  10  was  Nova 
exposed  in  1882-84.  According  to  Varro  (L.L.,  vi.  59)  it  was  a  Via. 
very  old  road.  It  led  up  from  the  Velabnun,  probably  winding 
along  the  slope  of  the  Palatine,  round  the  north  angle'under  the 
church  of  S.  Maria  Liberatrice.  The  rest  of  its  course,  gently 
ascending  towards  the  arch  of  Titus,  is  now  exposed,  as  are  also  the 
stairs,  possibly  the  Scalse  Anularire,  which  connected  it  with  the 
Clivus  Victoria}  at  the  Porta  Romanula  ;  a  continuation  of  these 
stairs,  still  unexcavatcd,  led  down  to  the  Forum.11 

The  extent  of  the  once  marshy.  Velabrum  (Gk. ,  F Acs)  is  not  Vela- 
known,  though  part  of  its  site  is  indicated  by  the  church  of  S.  brum. 
Giorgio  in  Velabro  ;  Varro  (L.L.,  vi.  24)  says,  "extra  urbem  an- 
tiquam  fuit,  non  longe  a  porta  Romanula."     It  was  a  district  full 
of  shops  (Plant,  Capt.,  iii.  1,  29;  Hor.,  Sat.,  ii.  3,  229).     The 
Vicus  Tuscus  on  its  course  from  the  Forum  to  the  Circus  skirted 
the  Velabrum  (Dionys.,  v.  26),  from  which  the  goldsmiths'  arch 
was  an  entrance  into  the  Forum  Boariurn  (com p.  fiiouys.,  i.  40). 

CapUoline  Hill. 

The  Capitoline  Hill,  once  called  Mons  Satumius  (Varro,  L.  L., 
v.  42),  consists  of  two  peaks,  the  Capitolium  and  the  Arx,12  with 
an  intermediate  valley  (Asylum).     The  older  name  of  the  Capi- 
tolium was  Mons  Tarpeius  (Varro,  L.  L.,  v.   41).      Livy  (i.   10) 
mentions  the  founding  of  a  shrine  to  Jupiter  Feretrius  on  the  Tenipto 
Capitolium  by  Romulus  ; 13  this  summit  was  afterwards  occupied  of 
by  the  great  triple  temple  dedicated  to  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  Jupiter 
a  triad  of  deities  worshipped  under  the  names  of  Tinia,  Thalna,  Cai>itoJ- 
and  Menrva  in  every  Etruscan  city.     This  great  temple  was  (Liv.,  iuus.  T 
i.  38,  53)  founded  by  Tarquin  I.,  built  by  his  son  Tarquin  II.,  and 
dedicated  by  M.  Horatius  Pulvillus,  consul  suffectus  in  509  r..c. 14 
It  was  built  in  the  Etruscan  style,  of  peperino  stuccoed  and  painted 
(Vitr. ,  iii.  3),  with  wooden  architraves,  wide  intercolumniations, 
and  painted  terra-cotta  statues.15     It  was  rebuilt  many  times  ;  the 
original  temple  lasted  till  it  was  burnt  in  83  B.C.  ;  it  "was  then  re- 
founded  in  marble  by  Sulla,  with  Corinthian  columns  stolen  from 
the  temple  of  Olympian  Zeus  in  Athens  (Plin.,  xxxvi.  5),  and  was 
completed  and  dedicated  by  Q.  Lut.  Catulus,  whose  name  appeared 
on  the  front.     Augustus,  in  spite  of  his  having  carried  out  part  of 
the  work,  did  not  introduce  his  name  by  the  side  of  that  of  Catulus. 
It  was  again  burnt  by  the  Vitellian  rioters  in  70  A.D.,  and  rebuilt 
by  Vespasian  in  7 1.16     Lastly,  it  was  burnt  in  the  three  days'  fire 


6  Liv.,  ii.  7 ;  Cic.,  Ren.,  ii.  31  ;  see  also  Ascon.,  Ad  Cic.  In  Pis.,  22. 

'  AEDEM  .  LARVM  .  IN  .  SVMMA  .  SACRA  .  VIA  .  AEDEM  .  DEVM  . 
PEN ATIVM  .  IN  .  VELIA  .  .  .  FECI  (Man.  Ancyr.). 

8  See  Goettling,  De  Sacra  Via,  Jena,  1834,  and  Jordan,  Typographic  der  Stadt 
Horn,  Berlin,  1871  (in  progress). 

»  See  Not.  d.  Scavi,  1882,  jp.  234. 

10  See  Solinus  (i.  24)  and  Varro  (Ap.  Gell.,  xvi.  17),  who  mention  its  two  ends, 
"summa"  and  "inflma"  (comp.  Liv.,  v.  32). 

"  See  marble  plan  on  Plate  VII.  and  comp.  Ov.,  Fast.,  vi.  395. 

12  These  two  peaks  are  clearly  distinguished  by  Livy  and  Strabo. 

13  This  is  the  earliest  temple  mentioned  in  Roman  history,  though  there  was 
probably  in  Roma  Quadrata  the  usual  triply  consecrated  t«'in]>Ir  erected  at  the 
founding  of  the  city.    It  was  rebuilt  by  Augustus,  as  is  recorded  in  the  Mon. 

"  See  Plut.,  PwW.,  15  ;  C.  I.  L.,  i.  p.  487 ;  Liv.,  ii.  S,  iv.  51 ;  Dionys.,  v.  35. 

«  Plin.,  xxxv.  45  ;  seeTac.,  Hist.,  iii.  72  ;  Aral.  Max.,  v.  10. 

i«  Suet.,  Vit.,  15,  and  Vet.,  8 ;  eomp.  Tac..  Hist., iv.  53.  and  Dion  Cass.,  Ixvi.  10. 


ARCHEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


825 


of  Titus's  reign1  and  rebuilt  with  columns  of  Pentelic  marble  by 
Domitian  ;  the  gilding  alone  of  this  last  rebuilding  is  said  to  have 
cost  2i  millions  sterling  (Plut.,  Publ,  15).  There  has  been  much 
controversy  as  to  the  site  of  this  temple  and  that  of  Juno  Moneta 
on  the  Arx  ;  but  there  is  an  overwhelming  mass  of  evidence  to 
show  that  the  Capitolium  is  the  peak  where  the  Palazzo  Caffarelli 
stands,  and  that  the  church  of  Ara  Cceli  occupies  the  Arx.  Livy 
(xxxv.  21)  mentions  the  fall  of  a  mass  of  rock  from  the  Capitolium 
into  the  Yicus  Jugarius,  which  passes  close  under  the  Caffarelli 
summit,  ami  is  not  near  the  opposite  peak.  Moreover,  extensive 
substructions  of  tufa  and  peperino  have  been  exposed  on  the  eastern 
peak,  the  form  of  which  appears  to  fit  this  nearly  square  triple 
temple,  and  in  1875  a  fragment  of  a  fluted  column  was  found,  of 
such  great  size  that  it  could  only  have  belonged  to  the  temple  of 
Jupiter.  Its  actual  limits  have  not  been  clearly  made  out,  and 
therefore  the  truth  of  Dionysius's  description  (iv.  61)  cannot  be 
proved.'2  The  temple  is  represented  on  many  coins,  both  repub- 
lican and  imperial ;  these  show  that  the  central  cella  was  that  of 
Jupiter,  that  of  Minerva  on  his  right,  and  of  Juno  on  his  left.  The 
door  was  covered  with  gold  reliefs,  which  were  stolen  by  Stilicho 
(c.  390  ;  Zosim.,  v.  38),  and  the  gilt  bronze  tiles  (Plin.,  xxxiii.  18) 
on  the  roof  were  partly  stripped  off  by  Genseric  in  455  (Procop.,  De 
Bell.  Vand.,  i.  5),  and  the  rest  by  Pope  Honorius  I.  in  630  (Marliano, 
Topogr.,  ii.  1).  Till  1348,  when  the  steps  up  to  Ara  Cceli  were 
built,  there  was  no  access  to  the  Capitol  from  the  back  ;  hence  the 
three  ascents  to  it  mentioned  by  Livy  (iii.  7,  v.  26-28)  and  Tacitus 
(Hist.,  iii.  71-72)  were  all  from  the  inside  of  the  Servian  circuit. 
Even  on  this  inner  side  it  was  defended  by  a  wall,  the  gates  in 
which  are  called  "Capitolii  fores"  by  Tacitus.  Part  of  the  outer 
wall  at  the  top  of  the  tufa  rock,  which  is  cut  into  a  smooth  cliff, 
is  visible  from  the  modern  Vicolo  della  Rupe  Tarpeia  ;  this  cliff  is 
traditionally  called  the  Tarpeian  rock,  but  that  must  have  been  on 
the  other  side  towards  the  Forum,  from  whence  it  was  visible,  as 
is  clearly  stated  by  Dionysius  (vii.  35,  viii.  78). 3  Another  piece 
of  the  ancient  wall  has  recently  been  exposed,  about  half-way  up 
the  slope  from  the  Forum  to  the  Arx.  It  is  built  of  soft  yellow 
tufa  blocks,  five  courses  of  which  still  remain  in  the  existing  frag- 
ment. The  large  temple  of  Juno  Moneta  ("the  Adviser")  on  the 
Arx,  built  by  Camillus  in  384  B.C.,  was  used  as  the  mint ;  hence 
moncta  ="  money  "  (Liv.,  vi.  20). 

A  large  number  of  other  temples  and  smaller  shrines  stood  on 
the  Capitoline  Hill,  a  word  used  broadly  to  include  both  the 
Capitolium  and  the  Arx.4  Among  these  were  the  temple  of  Honos 
and  Virtus,  built  by  Marius,  and  the  temple  of  Fides,  founded 
by  Numa,  and  rebuilt  during  the  First  Punic  War.  Both  these 
were  large  enough  to  hold  meetings  of  the  Senate.  The  temple  of 
Jupiter  Tonans^was  built  by  Augustus  (Suet.,  Aug.,  29),  near  the 
great  temple  of  Jupiter.  Other  shrines  existed  to  Venus  Victrix, 
Ops,  Jupiter  Gustos,  and  Concord— the  last  under  the  Arx  (Liv., 
xxii.  33)— and  many  others,  as  well  as  a  triumphal  arch  in  honour 
of  Nero,  and  a  crowd  of  statues  and  other  works  of  art  (see  Plin. , 
H.N.,  xxxiii.  4;  xxxiv.  17,  18,  19;  xxxv.  36,  45;  xxxvi.  5,  8), 
so  that  the  whole  hill  must  have  been  a  mass  of  architectural  and 
artistic  magnificence,  the  spoils  of  the  whole  Hellenic  world. 

The  so-called  Tabularium  occupies  the  central  part  of  the  side 
towards  the  Forum  ;  it  is  set  on  the  tufa  rock,  which  is  cut  away 
to  receive  its  lower  story.  It  derives  its  name  from  an  inscription 
found  there  in  the  15th  century,  quoted  by  Poggio  (see  Gruter, 
Inscr.,  170,  6);  but  that  name  was  given  to  many  buildings  in 
Rome  (Liv.,  iii.  55,  xliii.  16),  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  this  specially  was  known  as  the  Tabularium  (comp.  Virg., 
Gcor.,  ii.  501).  Catulus,  who  was  also  the  dedicator  of  the  great 
temple  of  Jupiter  (Tac.,  Hist.,  iii.  72  ;  Dion  Cass.,  xliii.  14),  was 
consul  in  78  B.C.,  but  part  of  this  building  is  probably  much  earlier 
in  date.  Its  outer  walls  are  of  peperino,  its  inner  ones  of  tufa  or 
concrete  ;  the  Doric  arcade  has  capitals  and  architrave  of  traver- 
tine.6 A  road  paved  with  basalt  passes  through  the  building  along 
this  arcade,  entered  at  one  end  from  the  Clivus  Capitolinus,  and 
at  the  other  probably  from  the  Gradus  Monete,  a  flight  of  steps 
leading  from  the  temple  of  Concord  and  the  Forum  up  to  the 
temple  of  Juno  Moneta  on  the  Arx  (see  Plate  VII.).  The  entrance 


1  Suet.,  Dom.,  5 ;  Dion  Cass.,  Ixvi.  24. 

2  See  Hull.  Cnmm.  Arch.,  iii.,  1875,  p.  165;  Mon.  Inst.,  v.  pi.  xxxvi.,  x.  pi. 
xxx.a  ;  Hirt,  "  Der  Capit.  Jupiter  Teinpel,"  in  Abhandl.  der  Berl.  Akad.,  1813  ; 
Niebuhr,  Rom.  Gesch.,  i.  55-58 ;  Bunsen,  Gesch.,  iii.  5-14 ;  Becker,  Handb.,  i.  p. 
387.    See  also  Ann.  Inst.,  1851,  p.  289,  for  a  relief  showing  the  sculpture  in  the 
pediment ;  the  front  of  the  temple  is  shown  in  one  of  the  reliefs  from  the  arch 
of  M.  Aurelius,  now  in  the  Capitoline  Museum. 

3  See  Bureau,  La  roche  Tarpienne,  Paris,  1816 ;  a  graceful  account  of  the 
legend  of  Tarpeia  is  given  by  Propertius,  Eky.,  iv.  4. 

*  A  structure  of  great  sanctity,  dating  from  prehistoric  Etruscan  times,  was 
the  Auguraculum,  an  elevated  platform  upon  the  Arx,  from  which  the  signs  in 
the  heavens  were  observed  by  the  augurs  (see  Festus,  ed.  Mtiller,  p.  18).  This 
was  moved  under  the  empire  to  the  Palatine  (see  Notitia,  &c.),  probably  by 
Augustus. 

5  What  are  probably  its  foundations  have  been  found  near  the  substructures 
of  the  great  temple  (Bull.  Comin.  Arch.  Rom.,  1875,  iii.  p.  165  sq.).    It  is  men- 
tioned in  the  list  of  the  Mon.  Ancyr. 

6  The  whole  of  the  frieze  and  cornice  is  missing  ;  it  is  usually  supposed  that 
there  was  once  another  story  above  this  entablature,  but  there  is  no  evidence 
of  that  except  Poggio's  statement. 


from  the  Clivus  Capitolinus  is  by  a  wide  flat  arch  of  peperino  most 
beautifully  jointed  ;  the  other  end  wall  has  been  mostly  destroyed. 
The  back  of  this  building  overlooked  the  Asylum  or  depression 
between  the  two  peaks.  From  this  higher  level  a  long  steep  stair- 
case of  sixty-four  steps  descends  towards  the  Forum  ;  the  doorway 
at  the  foot  of  these  stairs  has  a  flat  arch,  with  a  circular  relieving 
arch  over  it ;  it  was  completely  blocked  up  by  the  temple  of  Ves- 
pasian (see  fig.  1).  This  was  probably  the  door  where  the  Vitelliau 
rioters  broke  into  the  Capitolium  (Tac.,  Hist.,  iii.  71).7  Great 
damage  was  done  to  this  building  by  the  additions  of  Boniface 
VIII.  and  Nicholas  V.,  as  well  as  by  its  being  used  as  a  salt  store, 
by  which  the  walls  were  much  corroded.8 

The  Imperial  Fora. 

The  Forum  Julium  (see  fig.  18),  with  its  central  temple  of  Venus  Forum 
Genitrix,  was  begun  in  49  B.C.  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  by  Julium. 
Julius  and  completed  by  Augustus.9  Being  built  on  a  crowded 
site  it  was  somewhat  cramped,  and  the  ground  cost  nearly  a  hundred 
million  sesterces.10  Part  of  its  circuit  wall,  with  remains  of  five 
arches,  exists  in  the  Via  Marmorella  ;  and  behind  is  a  row  of  small 
vaulted  rooms,  probably  shops  or  offices.11  The  arches  are  flat, 
slightly  cambered,  with  travertine  springers  and  keys ;  the  rest, 
with  the  circular  relieving  arch  over,  is  of  tufa  ;  it  was  once  lined 
with  slabs  of  marble,  the  holes  for  which  exist.  Foundations  of 
the  circuit  wall  exist  under  the  houses  towards  S.  Adriano,  but  the 
whole  plan  has  not  been  made  out.  Palladio  (Arch.,  iv.  31)  de- 
scribes excavations  made  here,  and  the  discovery  of  remains  of  a  fine 
temple,  probably  that  of  Venus  Genitrix.12 

The  forum  of  Augustus  (see  fig.  18)  adjoined  that  of  Julius  on  Forum  of 
its  north-east  side  ;  it  contains  the  temple  of  Mars  Ultor,  built  to  Augus- 
tus. 


FIG.  IS.— Plan  of  fora  of  Julius,  Augustus,  and  Xerva. 

commemorate  the  vengeance  taken  on  Cfesar's  murderers  at  Philippi, 
42  B.C.  (Ov.,  Fast.,  v.  575  sq.).13     It  was  surrounded  with  a  massive 


7  Mommsen  (Ann.  Inst.,  18.58,  p.  211)  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  this 
building  is  the  jErarium  Saturni,  but  that  seems  hardly  possible,  as  there  is 
the  clearest  evidence  that  that  serarium  was  in  or  part  of  the  temple  of  Saturn 
(see  ante,  p.  817). 

8  The  Porta  Pandana  ("ever-open  gate")  was  probably  situated  near  the 
south-west  angle  of  the  Tabularium,  where  the  road  of  the  Clivus  CapHolinus 
entered  the  circuit  wall  of  the  Capitoline  Hill.     See  Righetti,  Descriz.  del 
Campidoglio,  1833;  Azzurri,  Antico  Tabulario,  1839;  Supham,  De  CapiMio 
Romano,  1866 ;  and  Jordan,  Ann.  Inst.,  1881. 

9  See  Mon.  Ancyr.  (quoted  at  p.  817,  note  13,  above) ;  Plin.,  //.A",  xxxv.  4i, 
xxxvi.  24. 

10  Cic.,  Ep.  ad  Att.,  iv.  16 ;  Suet,  Cses.,  26. 

11  There  is  no  foundation  whatever  for  the  theory  that  these  chambers  were 
part  of  the  "Mamertine  prison";  their  form  and  position  both  make  that 
impossible. 

12  See  Dion  Cass.,  xliii.  22;  Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  ii.  102;  Vitr.,  iii.  3;  Plut., 
Cees.,  60. 

13  The  Ancynean  inscription  records— IN  .  PRIVATO  .  SOLO  .  [EMP]TO  . 
MARTIS  .  ULTORIS  .  TEMPLVM  .  FORVMQVE  .  AVGVSTVM  .  EX  . 
[MANIJBIIS  .  FFJCI.    See  Suet.,  Aug.,  29,  56 ;  Dion  Cass.,  Ivi.  27  ;  Plin.,  II.N. 

XX.  —  104 


826 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


wall  of  peperino,  nearly  100  feet  high,  with  travertine  string-courses 
and  cornice  ;  a  large  piece  of  this  wall  still  exists,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  imposing  relics  of  ancient  Rome.  Against  it  are  remains  of 
the  temple  of  Mars,  three  columns  of  which,  with  their  entablature 
and  marble  ceiling  of  the  peristyle,  are  still  standing ;  it  is  Cor- 
inthian in  style,  very  richly  decorated,  and  built  of  fine  Luna 
marble.  The  cella  is  of  peperino,  lined  with  marble  ;  and  the 
lower  part  of  the  lofty  circuit  wall  seems  also  to  have  been  lined 
with  marble  on  the  inside  of  the  forum.  The  large  archway  by  the 
temple  (Arco  dei  Pantani)  is  of  travertine.  Palladio  (Arch.,  iv.) 
and  other  writers  of  the  16th  century  give  plans  of  the  temple  and 
circuit  wall,  showing  much  more  than  now  exists.  The  temple, 
whieh  was  octastyle,  with  nine  columns  and  a  pilaster  on  the  sides, 
occupied  the  centre,  and  on  each  side  the  circuit  wall  formed  two 
large  semicircular  apses,  decorated  with  tiers  of  niches  for  statues.1 
The  Foruin  Pacis,  built  by  Vespasian,  was  farther  to  the  south- 
east ;  the  only  existing  piece,  a  massive  and  lofty  wall  of  mixed 
tufa  and  peperino,  with  a  travertine  archway,  is  opposite  the  end 
of  the  basilica  of  Constautine.  The  arch  opened  into  what  was 
probably  the  Templum  Sacra  Urbis,  which  contained  a  plan  of  the 
city  of  Rome.  The  original  plan  was  probably  burnt  with  the 
whole  group  of  buildings  in  this  forum  in  191,  in  the  reign  of  Com- 
modus  (Dion  Cass.,  Ixxii.  24) ;  but  a  new  plan  engraved  on  marble 
was  made,  and  the  building  restored  in  concrete  and  brick  by 
Severus.  The  north-east  end  wall,  with  the  clamps  for  fixing  the 
marble  plan,  still  exists,  as  does  also  the  other  (restored)  end  wall 
with  its  arched  windows  towards  the  forum  (see  fig.  19) ;  one 


BASILICA     OF  CONSTANTINE 


FIG.  19. — Group  of  buildings  by  the  Forum  Pacis.  1.  Existing  wall  of  peperino 
and  tufa,  with  travertine  doorway.  2.  Do.  and  porch  destroyed  by  Urban 
VIII.  3.  Brick-faced  wall  of  time  of  Severus  against  which  the  marble  plan 
was  fixed.  4.  Apse  built  by  Felix  IV.,  when  he  converted  the  Templum 
Sacrse  Urbis  into  the  church  of  SS.  Cosmo  e  Damiano.  5.  Temple  of  Romulus, 
built  by  Maxentius,  made  by  Felix  IV.  into  the  porch  of  his  church. 

hundred  and  sixty-seven  fragments  of  this  plan  were  found  c.  1560 
at  the  foot  of  the  wall  to  which  they  were  fixed,  and  are  now  pre- 
served in  the  Capitoline  Museum  ;  drawings  of  the  seventy-four 
pieces  now  lost  are  preserved  in  the  Vatican2  (Cod.  Vat.,  3439). 
The  whole  has  been  published  in  a  valuable  work  by  Professor 
Jordan,  Forma  Urbis  Romse,  Berlin,  1875-82.  The  fragments 
which  relate  to  the  Forum  Magnum  are  given  on  Plate  VII.  The 
circular  building  at  the  end  facing  on  the  Sacra  Via  is  an  addition 
built  by  Maxentius  in  honour  of  his  deified  son  Romulus  ;  like  the 
other  buildings  of  Maxentius,  it  was  rededicated  and  inscribed  with 
the  name  of  his  conqueror  Constantine.3  The  original  stone  build- 
ing of  Vespasian  was  probably  an  archive  and  record  office  ;  the 
name  Templum  Sacrse  Urbis  is  with  much  probability  given  to  it 
by  Jordan,  partly  on  the  authority  of  an  inscription  now  in  the 
Vatican  (see  Forma  Urbis  Eomie).  The  fine  bronze  doors  at  the 
entrance  to  the  temple  of  Romulus  are  much  earlier  than  the  build- 
ing itself,  as  are  also  the  porphyry  columns  and  very  rich  entabla- 
ture which  ornament  this  doorway.  Pope  Felix  IV.  (526-530) 


xxxvi.  24,  xxxv.  36,  xxxiv.  18,  vii.  53,  where  many  fine  Greek  works  of  art  are 
mentioned  as  being  in  the  forum  of  Augustus. 

1  Those  of   Roman  leaders  and  generals,  from  /Eneas  and  Romulus  to 
Augustus.    See  Borsari,  Foro  tfAugwsto,  &c.  (Lincei),  1884. 

2  An  interesting  description  of  this  discovery  is  given  by  Vacca,  writing  in 
1594  (printed  in  Nardini,  Roma  Ant.,  ed.  Nibby,  1818-20,  vol.  iv.) ;  since  then 
a  few  other  fragments  have  been  found.    The  scale  is  roughly  1  to  300,  but 
appears  to  be  not  quite  uniform. 

*  For  accounts  of  this  interesting  group  of  buildings,  see  De  Rossi,  Bull. 
Arch.  Critt.,  1867,  p.  62 ;  Tredelemburg,  Ann.  Inst.,  1872,  p.  66 ;  and  Lanciani, 
Bull.  Comm.  Arch.  Bom.,  1882.  Ligorio  (in  a  16th-century  MS. ;  Cod.  Vat., 
3439)  and  Du  Perac  (Vestigj)  show  much  more  than  now  exists. 


made  the  double  building  into  the  church  of  SS.  Cosmo  e  I  )amiano, 
using  the  circular  domed  temple  of  Romulus  as  a  porch.4  T  In- 
chief  building  of  Vespasian's  forum  was  the  Templum  Pacis,5  dedi- 
cated in  75,  one  of  the  most  magnificent  in  Rome,  which  contained 
a  very  large  collection  of  works  of  art. 

The  forum  of  Nerva  (see  fig.  18)  occupied  the  narrow  strip  left  Form 
between  the  fora  of  Augustus  and  Vespasian  ;  being  little  more  xerV; 
than  a  richly  decorated  street,  it  was  called  the  Forum  Transitoriuni 
or  Foruin  Palladium,  from  the  temple  to  Minerva  which  it  con- 
tained. It  was  begun  by  Domitian,  and  dedicated  by  Nerva  in  97 
(see  Suet.,  Dom.,  5  ;  Mart.,  Ep.,  i.  2,  8).  Like  the  other  imperial 
fora,  it  was  surrounded  by  a  peperino  wall,  not  only  lined  with 
marble  but  also  decorated  with  rows  of  Corinthian  columns  sup- 
porting a  rich  entablature  with  sculptured  frieze.  Two  columns 
and  part  of  this  wall  still  exist ;  on  the  frieze  are  reliefs  of  weav- 
ing, fulling,  and  various  arts  which  were  under  the  protection  of 
Minerva.  A  great  part  of  the  temple  existed  till  the  time  of  Paul 
V.,  who  in  1606  destroyed  it  to  use  the  columns  elsewhere.6  In 
the  reign  of  Severus  Alexander  a  series  of  colossal  bronze  statues, 
some  equestrian,  were  set  round  this  forum  ;  they  represented  all 
the  previous  emperors  who  had  been  deified,  and  by  each  was  a 
bronze  column  inscribed  with  his  "res  gestfe"  (Lamprid. ,  Hint. 
Aug.  :  Sev.  Alex.,  28). 

The  forum  of  Trajan  with  its  adjacent  buildings  was  the  last  and,  Forum  o: 
at  least  in  size,  the  most  magnificent  of  all ;  it  was  in  progress  from  Trajan. 
100  to  117.     A  great  spur  of  hill,  which  connected  the  Capitoline 
with  the  Quirinal,  was  cut  away  to  make  a  level  site  for  this  enor- 
mous group  of  buildings.    It  consisted  (see  fig.  20)  of  a  large  dipteral 


son 


Fio.  20.— Foruin  of  Trajan. 

peristyle,  with  curved  projections,  lined  with  shops  on  the  side. 
That  against  the  slope  of  the  Quirinal,  three  stories  high,  still 
partly  exists.  The  main  entrance  was  through  a  triumphal  arch 
(Dion  Cass.,  Ixviii.  29),  from  which  probably  were  taken  most  of 
the  fine  reliefs  used  by  Constantine  to  decorate  his  arch.  Aurei  of 
Trajan  show  this'  arch  and  other  parts  of  his  forum.7  The  opposite 

4  "Hie  (Felix)  fecit  basilicam' SS.  Cosmfe  et  Damiani  ...  in  Via  Sacra, 
juxta  Templum  Urbis  Romas"  (Anastas.  Bibl.,  Vita  S.  Felicis  ir.\—taaipXtHm 
evidence  in  favour  of  Jordan's  suggestion. 

5  Statues  by  Phidias  and  Lysippus  existed  in  the  Forum  Pacis  as  late  as  the 
6th  century  (Procop.,  Bell.  Goth.,  iv.  21). 

6  Drawings  of  it  are  given  in  Du  Perac  and  by  Palladio  (Arch.,  iv.  8). 

7  See  Aul.  Cell.,  xiii.  25,  2 ;  and  Amm.  Marc.,  xvi.  10. 


ARCHAEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


827 


e 
•f  I' Jan. 


side  was  occupied  by  the  Basilica  Ulpia  (Jordan,  For.  Ur.  Rom.'), 
part  of  which,  with  the  column  of  Trajan,  is  now  visible  ;  none  oi 
the  columns,  which  are  of  grey  granite,  are  in  situ,  and  the  whole 
restoration  is  misleading.  Part  of  the  rich  paving  in  Oriental 
marble  is  genuine.  This  basilica  contained  two  large  libraries 
(Dion  Cass.,  Ixviii.  16;  Aul.  Gell.,  xi.  17). 

The  Columna  Cochlis  (so  called  from  its  spiral  stairs)  is,  includ- 
ing capital  and  base,  97  feet  9  inches  high,1  i.e.,  100  Roman  feet ; 
its  pedestal  has  reliefs  of  trophies  of  Dacian  arms,  and  winged 
Victories,  with  an  inscription  recording  the  enormous  mass  of  hill 
which  was  removed  to  form  the  site  (comp.  Dion  Cass.,  Ixviii.  16). 
On  the  shaft  are  reliefs  arranged  spirally  in  twenty-three  tiers, 
scenes  of  Trajan's  victories,  containing  about  2500  figures.  Trajan's 
ashes  were  buried  in  a  gold  urn  under  this  column  (Dion  Cass., 
Ixviii.  16)  ;  and  on  the  summit  was  a  colossal  gilt  bronze  statue  of 
the  emperor,  now  replaced  by  a  poor  figure  of  St  Peter,  set  there 
by  Sixtus  V.2  Beyond  the  column  stood  the  temple  of  Trajan 
completed  by  Hadrian  ;  its  foundations  exist  under  the  buildings 
at  the  north-east  side  of  the  modern  piazza,  and  many  of  its  granite 
columns  have  been  found.  This  temple  is  shown  on  coins  of 
Hadrian.3  The  architect  of  this  magnificent  group  of  buildings 
was  Apollodorus  of  Damascus  (Dion  Cass.,  Ixix.  4),  who  also  de- 
signed many  buildings  in  Rome  during  Hadrian's  reign.4  In  addi- 
tion to  the  five  imperial  fora,  and  the  Forum  Magnum,  Olitorium, 
and  Boarium,  mentioned  above,  there  were  also  smaller  markets 
for  pigs  (Forum  Suarium),  bread  (Forum  Pistorium),  and  fish 
(Forum  Piscarium),  all  of  which,  with  some  others,  popularly  but 
wrongly  called  fora,  are  given  in  the  regionary  catalogues. 

Other  Temples,  ii-c. 

Besides  the  temples  mentioned  in  previous  sections  remains  of 
many  others  still  exist  in  Rome.  The  circular  temple  by  the 
Tiber  in  the  Forum  Boarium,  formerly  thought  to  be  that  of  Vesta, 
may  be  the  temple  of  Hercules  mentioned  by  Macrobius  (Saturn., 
iii.  6),  Solinus  (Collect.,  i.  11),  and  Livy  (x.  23).  Its  design  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  temple  of  Vesta  in  the  Forum  (fig.  15),  and, 
except  the  entablature  and  upper  part  of  the  cella,  which  are  gone, 
it  is  well  preserved  (see  Piale,  Tempio  di  Vesta,  1817).  The  neigh- 
bouring Ionic  temple,  popularly  called  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  is  of 
special  interest  from  its  early  date,  probably  the  end  of  the  2d 
century  B.C.  The  complete  absence  of  marble  and  the  very 
sparing  use  of  travertine,  combined  with  the  simple  purity  of  its 
design,  are  all  proofs  of  its  great  antiquity.  It  has  a  prostyle 
tetrastyle  portico  of  travertine,  and  a  short  cella  of  tufa  with 
engaged  columns ;  the  bases  of  these  and  of  the  angle  columns 
are  of  travertine.  The  frieze  has  reliefs  of  ox  skulls  and  garlands. 
The  whole  was  originally  stuccoed  and  painted  so  that  the  different 
stones  used 
would  not 
show.  Fig.  21 
gives  the  plan, 
showing  the 
hard  traver- 
tine used  at 
the  points  of 
greatest  pres- 
sure, while  the 
main  walls 
with  the  half  J.H.M. 

columns  are  of  FIG.  21.— So-called  temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis.  The  black 
the  weaker  and  shows  tufa  ;  the  shading  travertine, 

softer  tufa.  The  dedication  of  this  temple  is  doubtful ;  on  the  whole 
it  appears  most  probable  that  it  is  the  temple  to  Fortuna  (without 
any  affix)  founded  by  Servius  Tullius  (Dionys.,  iv.  27)  in  the  Forum 
Boarium,  not  the  one  to  Tvxtj  'A.vdpda  (Fors  Fortuna  ?)  mentioned  as 
being  by  the  river  (comp.  Plut.,  De  Fort.  Rom.,  5).  Ten  columns 
of  what  is  probably  the  temple  of  Ceres,  Liber,  and  Libera  exist  in 
situ,  built  up  in  the  end  and  side  walls  of  the  church  of  S.  Maria 
in  Cosmedin.  These  have  well  sculptured  composite  capitals  and 
wide  intercolumniation, — probably  a  survival  of  the  original  design 
of  this  temple,  which  was  Tuscan  in  style  (Vitr.,  iii.  3,  5  ;  Plin., 
H.N.,  xxxv.  45).  It  was  founded  by  Aulus  Postumius,  dictator  in 
497  B.C.,  and  dedicated  by  Spurius  Cassius,  consul  in  494  B.C. 


1  Its  pedestal  is  inscribed,  "  Senatus  Populusque  Romanus  Imp.  Csesari  Divi 
Nervse  F.  Nervse  Trajano  Aug.  Germ.  Dacico  Pontif.  Maximo  Trib.  Pot.  XVII. 
[i.e.,  114  A.D.I  Imp.  VI.  P.  P.  ad  declarandum  quanta  altitudinis  nions  et  locus 
tant(is  operi)bus  sit  egestus."     This  cannot  be  taken  literally,  as  the  ridge 
which  was  cut  away  never  approached  100  feet  in  height,  but  possibly  means 
that  the  cliff  of  the  Quirinal  was  cut  back  to  a  slope  reaching  to  a  point  100 
feet  high  (see  Brocchi,  Suolo  di  Kama,  p.  133  ;  Becker,  Handb.,  note  737). 

2  See  Fabretti,  Columna  Trajana  (1083),  who  gives  drawings  of  all  the  reliefs"; 
also  De  Rossi,  Col.  Traj.  designata.    The  reliefs,  from  their  lofty  position,  are 
now  difficult  to  see,  but  originally  must  have  been  very  fairly  visible  from  the 
galleries  on  the  colonnades  which  once  surrounded  the  column. 

3  See  Aul.  Gell.,  xi.  17,  1 ;  Spart.,  Hist-.  Aug.:  Hadr.,  19;  and  compare  Pau- 
sanias  (v.  12,  6  ;  x.  5, 11),  who  mentions  the  gilt  bronze  roofs  of  Trajan's  forum. 

*  See  Pea,  Foro  Trajano,  1832  ;  Richter,  Ristauro  del  Foro  Trajano,  1839  ; 
Bartoli,  Col.  Trajana,  1704  ;  Pistolesi,  Col.  Trajana,  1846  ;  Froehner,  La  Colonne 
Trajane,  Paris,  1865. 


(Dionys.,  vi.  17,  94).     In  31  B.C.  it  was  burnt  (Dion  Cass.,  1.  10), 
and  was  rebuilt  by  Augustus  and  Tiberius  (Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.  49) ; 
but  the  existing  columns  belong  to  a  still  later  restoration.     The 
temple  stands  close  to  the  carceres  of  the  Circus  Maximus,  in  the 
Forum  Boarium.     Within  the  walls  of  S.  Niccolo  in  Carcere  (see 
fig.  22)  in  the  Forum  Olitorium  are  preserved  remains  of  the  tufa 
ceilpe  and  travertine  columns  of  three  small  hexastyle  peripteral 
temples,  two  Ionic  and  one  Tuscan,  set  close  side  by  side.*     A 
fragment  of   the 
marble   plan    in- 
cludes part  of  this 
group,  as  is  indi- 
cated on  fig.  22. 
Two      of     these 
temples  were  pro- 
bably   those     to 
Spes    and    Juno 
Sospita  (Liv.,xxi. 
62,xxxii.  30);  the 
third  may  be  that 
of  Apollo  Medicus 
(Liv.,  xl.  51),  as 
suggested         by 
Burn  (Rome  and 
Campagna,  1871, 
note    i.    p.   306). 

Near  the  Forum 

Olitorium,  in  the  Fio.  22.— Plan  of  three  temples  on  site  of  S.  Niccolo  in 
modern  Ghetto,  Carcere  ;  the  part  within  the  line  A,  A  is  that  shown  on 
are  extensive  re-  a  frao'nent  of  the  marble  plan.  The  black  shows  what 

.         n  1 1     i  still  exists, 

mams  oi  the  large 

group  of  buildings  included  in  the  Porticus  Octaviae,  two  of  which, 
dedicated  to  Juno  Regina  and  Jupiter  Stator,  with  part  of  the  en- 
closing porticus  and  the  adjoining  temple  of  Hercules  Musarum,  are 
shown  on  a  fragment  of  the  marble  plan.  The  Porticus  Octavife,  Porticus 
a  large  rectangular  space  enclosed  by  a  double  line  of  columns,  was  Octavise. 
built  in  honour  of  Octavia  by  her  brother  Augustus  on  the  site  of 
the  Porticus  Metelli,  founded  in  146  B.C.  This  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  neighbouring  Porticus  Octavia  founded  by  Cn. 
Octavius,  the  conqueror  of  Perseus  (Liv.,  xlv.  6,  42),  in  168  B.C., 
and  rebuilt  under  the  same  name  by  Augustus,  as  is  recorded  in 
the  Ancyrsean  inscription.  The  whole  group  was  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  in  Rome,  and  contained  a  large  number  of  works  of  art 
by  Phidias  and  other  Greek  sculptors.  The  existing  portico,  which 
was  the  main  entrance  into  the  porticus,  is  a  restoration  of  the  time 
of  Severus  in  203.  The  church  of  S.  Michele  and  the  houses  be- 
hind it  conceal  extensive  remains  of  the  porticus  and  its  temples 
(see  Ann.  Inst.,  1868,  p.  108  ;  and  Contigliozzi,  I  Porticidi  Ottavia, 
1861).6 

Remains  of  a  large  peripteral  Corinthian  temple  are  built  into  Temple 
the  side  of  the  "Dogana  di  Terra,"  near  Monte  Citorio.     Eleven  of  Nep- 
marble  columns  and  their  rich  entablature  are  still  in  situ,  with  the  tune, 
corresponding  part  of  the  cella  wall  of  peperino  ;  in  1878  a  piece 
of  the  end  wall  of  the  cella  was  discovered,  and,  under  the  houses 
near,  part  of  a  large  peribolus  wall,  also  of  peperino,  forming  an 
enclosure  with  columns  all  round  the  temple  nearly  330  feet  square 
(see  Bull.  Comm.  Arch.  Rom.,  vi.,  pi.  iv.,  1878).     The  dedication 
of  this  temple  is  not  known  ;  it  has  commonly  been  identified  with 
the  temple  of  Neptune  (Dion  Cass.,  Ixvi.  24),  built  by  Agrippa, 
and  surrounded  by  the  Porticus  Argonautarum  (Dion  Cass.,  liiL  27 ; 
Mart.   iii.  20,  11)  ;  but  its  details  appear  to  be  later  than  the  reign 
of  Augustus.7    Another  not  improbable  theory  is  that  it  was  the 
temple  of  Hadrian,  mentioned  in  the  Mirabilia  (Uhlrichs,  Codex 
Topogr.,  Wiirtzburg,  1871,  p.  107)  as  being  near  this  spot. 

The  temple  of  Venus  Felix  and  Roma  Sterna  on  the  Velia  (see  Temple 
fig.  23)  was  the  largest  in  Rome  ;  it  was  pseudo-dipteral  with  ten  of  Venus 
Corinthian  columns  of  Greek  marble  at  the  ends,  and  probably  and 
twenty  at  the  sides ;  it  had  an  outer  colonnade  round  the  peribolus  Rome, 
of  about  180  columns  of  polished  granite  and  porphyry.     Of  these 
only  a  few  fragments  now  exist ;  for  several  centuries  the  whole 
area  of  this  building  was  used  as  a  quarry,  while  the  residue  of  the 
marble  was  burnt  into  lime  on  the  spot  in  kilns  built  of  broken 
fragments  of  the  porphyry  columns.     A  considerable  part  of  the 
two  cella?  with  their  apses,  set  back  to  back,  still  exists ;  in  each 
apse  was  a  colossal  seated  figure  of  the  deity,  and  along  the  side 
walls  of  the  cellae  were  rows  of  porphyry  columns  and  statues  in 
niches.     The  vault  is  deeply  coffered  with  stucco  enrichments  once 
painted  and  gilt.     The  roof  was  covered  with  tiles  of  gilt  bronze, 
which  were  taken  by  Pope  Honorius  I.   (625-638)  to  cover  the 
basilica  of  St  Peter's.     These  were  stolen  by  the  Saracens  during 
their  sack  of  the  Leonine  city  in  846.     The  emperor  Hadrian  him- 
self designed  this  magnificent  temple,  which  was  partially  completed 


5  For  drawings  of  them  see  Ann.  Inst.,  1850,  p.  347,  and  Man.  Inst.,  v,  24; 
also  Labacco,  Architettura,  1557. 

6  The  remains  of  the  Porticus  Octaviae  are  now  being  more  completely  exposed 
by  the  demolition  of  the  Ghetto. 

7  This,  however,  is  not  conclusive,  as  the  temple  of  Neptune  may  have  been 
completely  rebuilt  after  the  fire  which  injured  it  in  80. 


828 

in  135 
Apollod 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


;  the  design  was  criticized  rather  severely  by  the  architect 
lorus  (Diou  Cass.,  Ixix.  4  ;  Spart,  Hadr.,  19).1    The  temple 


STATUE 


IOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 

DOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO" 

o         COLUMNS     OF  PERIBOLUS. 


Fio.  23.— Temple  of  Venus  and  Rome. 

was  probably  finished  by  Antoninus  Pius  ;  it  was  partly  burned  in 
the  reign  of  Maxentius,  who  began  its  restoration,  which  was 
carried  on  by  Constantine  (Amm.  Marcell.,  xvi.  10).  The  existing 
remains  of  the  two  cellse  are  mainly  of  Hadrian's  time,  but  contain 
patches  of  the  later  restorations.  Between  the  south  angle  of  this 
temple  and  the  arch  of  Constantine  stand  the  remains  of  a  fountain, 
usually  known  as  the  Meta  Sudans.  This  was  a  tall  conical  struc- 
ture in  a  large  circular  basin,  all  lined  with  marble.  From  its  brick 
facing  it  appears  to  be  a  work  of  the  Flavian  period. 

That  part  of  the  Crelian  Hill  which  is  near  the  Colosseum  is 
covered  with  very  extensive  remains, — a  great  peribolus  of  brick- 
faced  concrete,  apparently  of  Flavian  date,  and  part  of  a  massive 
travertine  arcade,  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Colosseum ; 
most  of  the  latter  has  been  removed  for  the  sake  of  the  stone, 
but  a  portion  still  exists  under  the  monastery  and  campanile  of 
SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo.  What  this  extensive  building  was  remains 
doubtful  till  further  excavations  are  made.  According  to  one 
theory  it  is  the  temple  of  Claudius,  built  by  Vespasian  (Suet, 
Vesp.,  9) ;  but  Bunsen's  suggestion  is  much  more  probable  (Besch., 
iii.  p.  476),  that  it  was  the  house  of  Vectilius,  bought  and  probably 
enlarged  by  Commodus  (Hist.  Aug.:  Comm.,  16),  and  connected 
with  the  Colosseum  by  a  subterranean  passage.  Such  a  passage 
actually  exists,  and  has  been  partly  cleared  out. 

The  so-called  temple  of  Minerva  Medica  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Esquiline  (so  named  from  a  statue  found  in  it)  is  probably 
part  of  some  baths.  It  is  a  curiously  planned  building,  with 
central  decagonal  domed  hall,  probably  of  the  time  of  Gallienus 
263-268  (see  Canina,  Lid.  Top.,  p.  161).  Somewhat  similar  ruins 
beside  the  neighbouring  basilica  of  S.  Croce  have  been  supposed 
to  belong  to  a  nymphaeum  of  Severus  Alexander,  mentioned  in  the 
Notitia,  Kegio  v.,  but  are  more  probably  part  of  the  Sessorium, 
a  court  of  justice  on  the  Esquiline.  The  remains  on  the  Quirinal 
in  the  Colonna  gardens  of  massive  marble  entablatures  richly 
sculptured  were  formerly  thought  to  belong  to  Aurelian's  great 
temple  of  the  Sun,  but  it  now  appears  certain  that  they  belong 
to  the  very  extensive  thermae  of  Constantine,  part  of  the  site  of 
which  is  now  occupied  by  the  Quirinal  palace  and  neighbouring 
buildings.2 

The  excavations  of  recent  years  have  brought  to  light,  and  in 
many  cases  destroyed,  a  large  number  of  domestic  buildings ; 

1  The  existence  of  some  chambers  in  the  podium  near  the  Colosseum  and 
the  great  platform  by  which  this  temple  is  raised  above  the  Sacra  Via  mako  it 
appear  that  the  criticisms  of  Apollodorus  were  made  before  Hadrian's  design 
was  carried  out,  and  that  the  emperor  had  the  good  sense  to  adopt  the  sugges- 
tions of  his  professional  critic. 

2  See  Palladio  (Terme  dei  Romani,  London,  1732),  who  gives  the  plan  of  this 
enormous  building,  now  wholly  hidden  or  destroyed. 


many  of  these  are  recorded  in  the  Notizic  degli  Scavi  and  the 
Jii'Il.  Comm.  Arch.  Rom.,  1872-1876.  The  extensive  euttin- 
away  of  the  Tiber  bank  for  the  new  embankment  exposed  s.nnr 
very  ornate  houses  near  the  Villa  Farnesina,  richly  decorated  with 
marble,  fine  wall-paintings,  and  stucco  reliefs,  equal  in  beauty  to 
any  works  of  the  kind  that  have  ever  been  found.  Some  of  tln-s.- 
were  cut  off  the  wall,  and  will  be  exhibited  in  a  new  museum  about 
to  be  formed  to  contain  all  ancient  works  of  art  found  in  Rome  ; 
but  the  houses  themselves  have  been  destroyed.  The  laying  out 
of  the  new  Quirinal  and  Esquiline  quarters  also  has  exposed  many 
fine  buildings.  One  handsome  villa,  built  over  the  Servian  wall, 
may  possibly  be  the  house  of  Maecenas.  A  very  remarkable  vaulted 
room,  decorated  with  paintings  of  plants  and  landscapes,  has  liem 
shown  to  be  a  greenhouse  ;3  at  one  end  is  an  apse  with  a  series  of 
step-like  stages  for  flowers.  This  one  room  has  been  preserve! I, 
though  the  rest  of  the  villa  has  been  destroyed  ;  it  is  on  the  road 
leading  from  S.  Maria  Maggiore  to  the  Lateran.  The  walls  are  a 
very  fine  specimen  of  tufa  opus  reticulatuin,  unmixed  with  brick, 
evidently  earlier  than  the  Christian  era.  Among  the  numerous 
buildings  discovered  in  the  Horti  Sallustiani  near  the  Quirinal  is  a 
veiy  fine  house  of  the  1st  century  A.D.,  in  concrete  faced  with  brick 
and  opus  reticulatuin.  It  has  a'  central  circular  domed  hall,  with 
many  rooms  and  staircases  round  it,  rising  several  stories  high. 
This  house  was  set  in  the  valley  against  a  cliff  of  the  Quirinal,  so 
that  the  third  floor  is  level  with  the  upper  part  of  the  hill.  It 
is  nearly  on  the  line  of  the  Servian  wall,  which  stood  here  at  a 
higher  level  on  the  edge  of  the  cliff.  This  is  identified  as  the 
house  of  Sallust,  which  at  his  death  became  crown  property,  and 
was  used  as  a  residence  by  Nero  (Tac.,  Ann.,  xiii.  47)  and  other 
emperors  till  the  4th  century.4  In  1884,  near  the  Porta  S.  Lorenzo, 
a  long  line  of  houses  was  discovered  during  the  making  of  a  new 
road.  Some  of  these  were  of  opus  reticulatuin  of  the  1st  century 
B.C.  ;  others  had  the  finest  kind  of  brick- facing,  probably  of  the 
time  of  Nero  ;  all  had  been  richly  decorated  with  marble  linings 
and  mosaics.  The  line  of  the  street  was  parallel  to  that  of  the 
later  Aurelian  wall,  which  at  this  part  was  built  against  the  back 
of  this  row  of  houses.  At  the  same  time,  behind  the  line  of  houses, 
were  uncovered  fine  peperino  and  tufa  piers  of  the  aqueduct  rebuilt 
by  Augustus,  one  arch  of  which  forms  the  Porta  S.  Lorenzo.  These 
interesting  remains  have  all  been  completely  destroyed.  A  fine 
house  of  the  end  of  the  1st  century  A.D.,  with  richly  decorated 
walls,  was  exposed  in  June  1884  against  the  slope  of  the  Quirinal, 
near  the  Palazzo  Colonna  j  it  was  immediately  destroyed  to  make 
room  for  new  buildings. 

The  praetorian  camp  was  first  made  permanent  and  surrounded 
with  a  strong  wall  by  the  emperor  Tiberius  (Suet.,  Til.,  37). 
Owing  to  the  camp  being  included  in  the  line  of  the  Aurelian  wall 
a  great  part  of  it  still  exists  ;  it  is  a  very  interesting  specimen  of 
early  imperial  brick-facing.  The  wall  is  only  12  to  14  feet  high, 
and  has  thinly  scattered  battlements,  at  intervals  of  20  feet.  The 
north  gate  ( Porta  Principalis  Dcxtra)  is  well  preserved  ;  it  had  a 
tower  on  each  side,  now  greatly  reduced  in  height,  in  which  arc 
small  windows  with  arched  heads  moulded  in  one  slab  of  terra- 
cotta. The  brick-facing  is  very  neat  and  regular, — the  bricks  being 
about  1£  inches  thick,  with  |-inch  joints.  On  the  inside  of  the 
wall  are  rows  of  small  rooms  for  the  guards.  Part  of  the  Porta 
Decumana  also  remains.  This  camp  was  dismantled  by  Constan- 
tino, who  removed  its  inner  walls  ;  the  outer  ones  were  left  because 
they  formed  part  of  the  Aurelian  circuit.  The  present  wall  is 
nearly  three  times  the  height  of  the  original  camp  wall.  The 
upper  part  was  added  when  Aurelian  included  it  in  his  general 
circuit  wall  round  Rome.  The  superior  neatness  and  beauty  of 
Tiberius's  brick-facing  make  it  easy  to  distinguish  where  his  work 
ends  and  that  of  the  later  emperors  begins.  Owing  to  the  addition 
of  the  later  wall  it  requires  some  care  to  trace  the  rows  of  battle- 
ments which  belong  to  the  camp. 

The  Pantheon  is  the  most  perfect  among  existing  classical  build- 
ings in  Rome  (see  fig.  24).  It  was  built  by  Agnppa  in  27  B.C., 
as  is  recorded  on  the  frieze  of  the  portico.  What  its  original  pur- 
pose was  is  not  clear  ;  on  the  one  hand,  it  forms  part  of  the  great 
thermfe  built  by  Agrippa,  and  in  position  and  design  closely 
resembles  the  great  circular  calidarium  in  the  thermae  of  Caracalla  ; 
on  the  other  hand,  it  has  no  hypocaust  or  hot-air  flues,  and  was 
certainly  consecrated  as  a  temple,  to  Mars,  Venus,  and  other  sup- 
posed ancestors  of  C«resar's  family  very  soon  after  it  was  built 
(Dion  Cass.,  liii.  27)  ;  it  was  used  as  the  meeting-place  of  the 
Fratres  Arvales  before  they  began  to  meet  in  the  temple  of  Concord 
(see  Henzen,  Ada  Frat.  Arval.,  1868,  No.  71).s  It  had  the  name 
Pantheum  apparently  from  the  first ;  Pliny  (H.N.,  xxxvi.  4)  meu- 

8  Bull.  Inst.,  1875 ;  see  also  Bull.  Comm.  Arch.,  1874,  where  drawings  are  given. 

4  During  excavations  made  here  in  1876  lead  pipi-s  wen.'  l'<mn<l  insci-iln ••! 
with  the  name  of  the  estate,  the  imperial  owner  (Severus  Alexander),  an-1  tli>'. 
plumber  who  made  them  —  HORTORVM  .  S  ALL  VSTIAN  .  IMP  .  SEV  . 
ALEXANDRI .  AVG .  NAEVIVS .  MANES .  FECIT. 

B  The  demolition  of  the  block  of  houses  which  was  built  against  i(  at  tli" 
back  has  exposed  the  point  of  junction  between  the  Pantheon  and  tln>  UHTHI:'-. 
It  is  now  apparent  that  the  Pantheon  originally  was  an  isolated  building,  and 
that  the  union  of  it  and  the  thernue  was  a  later  alteration. 


Prater- 
ian  cam] 


Par- 

tlnon. 


ARCHEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


829 


tions  the  sculpture  by  the  Athenian  Diogenes  which  adorned  it, 
and  its  capitals  and  dome  covering  of  Syracusan  bronze  (xxxiv.  7) ; 
the  ceiling  of  the  portico  too  was  of  bronze,  supported  by  massive 
tubular  girders,1  which  remained  till  Urban  VIII.  melted  them 
to  make  cannon  for  S.  Angelo  and  the  baldacchino  of  St  Peter's ; 
the  bronze  weighed  450,000  ft.  The  bronze  tiles  of  the  dome  were 
stolen  long  before  by  Constans  II.,  in  663,  but  on  their  way  to 
Constantinople  they  Avere  seized  by  the  Saracens.  The  portico 
.  lias  eight  columns  on  the  front  and  three  on  the  sides,  all  granite 
monoliths  except  the  re- 
stored ones  on  the  east 
side, — sixteen  in  all.  The 
capitals  are  Corinthian,  of 
white  marble ;  the  tym- 
panum (deros)  of  the  pedi- 
ment Avas  filled  Avith  bronze 
reliefs  of  the  battle  of  the 
gods  and  the  giants.2  The 
Avails  of  the  circular  part, 
nearly  20  feet  thick,  are  of 
solid  tufa  concrete,  thinly 
faced  with  brick.  The 
enormous  dome,  142  feet  6 
inches  in  span,  is  cast  in 
concrete  made  of  pumice- 
stone,  pozzolana,  and  lime; 
being  one  solid  mass,  it 
covers  the  building  like  a 
shell,  free  from  any  lateral 
thrust  at  the  haunches. 
Round  the  central  opening 
or  hypsethrum  still  re- 
mains a  ring  of  enriched 
mouldings  in  gilt  bronze, 
the  only  bit  left  of  the 
bronze  Avhich  once  covered 
the  Avhole  dome.  The  lower 
story  of  the  circular  part 
and  the  Avails  of  the  pro-  FIG.  24. — Plan  of  Pantheon  and  part  of  thermse 
jecting  portico  were  covered  9£  Agrippa.  A.  Angle  of  portico  rebuilt  in 

•ti     i   i       er>       i  n          1 1  th  century.     B,  B.  Niches  which  contained 

Avith  slabs  of  Greek  marble;  colossal  stajtues  'of  Augustus  and  Agrippa. 
a  great  part  of  the  latter  C.  Pedestal  for  statue,  and  apse  added  by 
still  remains,  enriched  Avith  Hadrian. 

Corinthian  pilasters  and  bands  of  sculptured  ornament.  The  tAA-o 
upper  stories  of  the  drum  Avere  covered  outside  with  hard  stucco  of 
pounded  marble.  Inside  the  Avhole  AAras  lined  AA-ith  a  great  variety  of 
rich  Oriental  marbles.  This  magnificent  interior,  divided  into  two 
orders  by  an  entablature  supported  on  columns  and  pilasters,  has 
been  much  injured  by  alteration  ;  but  the  materials  are  ancient, 
and  the  general  effect  is  probably  much  the  same  as  it  Avas,  not  in 
the  time  of  Agrippa,  but  after  the  restorations  of  Hadrian  (Spart. , 
Hadr.,  181)  and  Severus,  Avhen  the  magnificently  coloured  por- 
phyries and  Oriental  marbles  Avere  so  largely  used.3  About  608 
the  Pantheon  was  given  by  Phocas  to  Boniface  IV.,  Avho  con- 
secrated it  as  the  church  of  S.  Maria  ad  Martyres.  In  1881-82 
the  destruction  of  a  roAV  of  houses  behind  the  Pantheon  exposed 
remains  of  a  grand  hall  AA'ith  richly  sculptured  entablature  on 
Corinthian  columns,  part  of  the  great  therrnre  of  Agrippa,  Avhich 
extend  beyond  the  Via  della  Ciambella  (fig.  24).  A  great  part  of 
the  thermae  appears  from  the  brick  stamps  to  belong  to  an  exten- 
sive restoration  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  and  bricks  of  his  time  are 
even  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  facing  of  the  Pantheon  itself.4 
(See  BATHS,  vol.  iii.  p.  434  sq.) 

Close  by  the  Pantheon  is  the  church  of  S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva, 
which  stands  (as  its  name  records)  on  the  site  of  a  temple  to 
Minerva  Chalcidica,  probably  founded  by  the  great  Pompey  c.  60 
B.C.5  Adjoining  this  AA'ere  temples  to  Isis  and  Serapis,  a  cult 
Avhich  became  very  popular  in  Rome  in  the  time  of  Hadrian  ;  large 
quantities  of  sculpture,  Egypto-Roman  in  style,  have  been  found 
on  this  site  at  many  different  times.6 

Several  of  the  barracks  (excubitoria]  of  the  various  cohorts  of  the 
vigiles  or  firemen  have  been  discovered  in  various  parts  of  Rome. 

1  Drawings  of  this  interesting  bronze  Avork  by  Sallustio  Peruzzi  are  pre- 
served in  the  Uffizi  at  Florence. 

2  On  the  architrave  is  cut  an  inscription  recording  the  restoration  of  the 
Pantheon  by  Severus  in  202. 

3  The  Pantheon  still  possesses  its  original  doors  between  fluted  pilasters, 
and  over  them  an  open  screen,  all  of  bronze.    Other  ancient  bronze  doors  still 
exist  in  the  temple  of  Romulus,  the  Lateran  basilica,  and  in  its  baptistery, 
the  latter  taken  from  the  thermae  of  Caracalla. 

4  The  plan  of  the  whole  group,  including  the  Pantheon,  is  given  by  Palladio 
(op.  cit.).    The  recent  discoveries  are  given  by  Lanciani,  Not.  d.  Scavi,  1882, 
p.  357,  with  a  valuable  pla,n.     The  one  given  by  Canina  is  worthless.    See 
also  Maes,  II  Pantheon,   1881  ;  Geymiiller,  Documents  inedits  sur  les  Thermes 
d' Agrippa,  Lausanne,  1883  ;  Nispi-Landi,  II  Pantheon,  1SS2  ;  Adler,  Das  Pan- 
theon, Berlin,  1871  ;  and  Hirt,  Das  Pantheon,  Berlin,  1807. 

5  Part  of  the  Serapeum  is  shown  on  a  fragment  of  the  marble  plan ;  see 
Jordan,  For.  Ur.  Rom. 

6  See 'Marucchi,  "Le  Scoperte  dell'  Iseo  Campense,"  in  Bull.  Comm.  Arch. 
Rom.,  18S3,  and  Ann.  last.,  1853  ;  Fea,  Miscell.,  ccliv.  112. 


The  central  depot  is  buried  under  the  Palazzo  Savorelli  ;  that  of  the 
second  cohort  is  on  the  Esquiline,  near  the  so-called  temple  of 
Minerva  Medica  ;  that  of  the  third  was  found  in  1873  near  the 
baths  of  Diocletian  (see  Bull.  Comm.  Arch.  Rom.,  1873).  The 
most  perfect  is  that  of  the  7th  cohort  near  S.  Crisogono  in  Tras- 
tevere,  a  handsome  house  of  the  2d  century,  decorated  with  mosaic 
floors,  wall-paintings,  &c.7 

The  excavations  made  in  exposing  the  ancient  church  of  S. 
Clemente  brought  to  light  interesting  remains  of  many  different 
periods  ;  drawings  are  given  by  Mullooly,  St  Clement's  Basilica, 
1869,  and  De  Rossi,  Butt.  Arch.  Crist.,  1870,  pt.  iv. 

Many  remains  exist  of  the  Golden  House  8  of  Nero,  which  show  Golden 
that  this  gorgeous  palace  covered  an  almost  incredibly  large  space  House  of 
of  ground,  extending  from  the  Palatine,  over  the  Velia  and  the  site  of  Nero. 
the  temple  of  Venus  and  Rome,  to  the  Esquiline,  filling  the  great 
valley  between  the  Ccelian  and  the  Esquiline  where  the  Colos- 
seum stands,  and  reaching  far  over  the  Esquiline  to  the  great  re- 
servoir now  called  the  "Sette  Sale."  No  other  extravagances  or 
cruelties  of  Nero  appear  to  have  offended  the  Roman  people  so 
much  as  the  erection  of  this  enormous  palace,  which  must  have 
blocked  up  many  important  roads  and  occupied  the  site  of  a  whole 
populous  quarter.  It  was  no  doubt  partly  to  make  restitution 
for  this  enormous  theft  of  land  that  Vespasian  and  Titus  destroyed 
the  Golden  House  and  built  the  Colosseum  and  public  thermae  of 
Titus  9  on  part  of  its  site.  Under  the  substructions  of  the  latter 
building  extensive  remains  of  the  Golden  House  still  exist  ;  and 
at  one  point,  at  a  lower  level  still,  pavements  and  foundations 
remain  of  one  of  the  numerous  houses  destroyed  by  Nero  to  clear 
the  site.  The  great  bronze  colossus  of  Nero,  120  feet  high  (Suet., 
Hfero,  31),  which  stood  in  one  of  the  portions  of  the  Golden  House, 
was  moved  by  Vespasian,  with  head  and  attributes  altered  to  those 
of  Apollo  (Helios),  on  to  the  Velia  ;  and  it  was  moved  again  by 
Hadrian,  when  the  temple  of  Rome  was  built,  on  to  the  base  which 
still  exists  near  the  Colosseum.  Several  coins  show  this  colossus  by 
the  side  of  the  Colosseum. 

Under  the  Palazzo  Doria,  the  church  of  S.  Maria  in  Via  Lata,  and  Septa 
other  neighbouring  buildings  extensive  remains  exist  of  a  great  Julia. 
portions,  with  long  rows  of  travertine  piers  ;  this  building  appears 
to  be  represented  on  fragments  of  the  marble  plan  with  the  words 
SAEPT  .  .  .  LIA.     This  is  probably  the  Septa  Julia,  begun  by  Julius 
Csesar,  and  completed  by  Agrippa  in  27  B.C.,  as  the  voting  place 
for  the  Comitia  Centuriata,  divided  into  compartments,  one  for 
each  century.     The  building  contained  rostra,  and  was  also  used 
for  gladiatorial  shows.     Under  the  later  empire  it  became  a  bazaar 
and  resort  of  slave-dealers. 

That  curiously  planned  building  on  the  Esquiline,  in  the  new 
Piazza  Vit.  Emmanuele,  where  the  so-called  trophies  of  Marius  once 
were  placed  (see  drawing  by  Du  Perac  in  his  Vcstigj},  is  one  of  the 
numerous  castella  or  reservoirs  from  which  the  water  of  the  various 
aqueducts  was  distributed  in  the  quarters  they  were  meant  to 
supply.  This  was  built  by  Severus  Alexander  at  the  termination 
of  his  Alexandrine  aqueduct,  opened  in  225  (see  Lamprid.,  Hist. 
Aug.:  Scv.  Alex.,  25).  The  marble  trophies  are  now  set  at  the  top 
of  the  Capitoline  steps  ;  their  quarry  mark  shows  them  to  be  of 
the  time  of  Domitian  :  it  consists  of  the  following  inscription,  now 
not  visible,  as  it  is  cut  on  the  under  part  —  IMP  .  DOM.  AVG  .  GERM  . 
PER  .  CHREZ  .  LIB  .  10 


Places  of  Amusement. 

The  Circus  Maximus  (see  vol.  v.  p.  791)  occupied  the  Vallis  Circuses. 
Murcife  u  between  the  Palatine  and  the  Aventine.  Its  first  rows  of 
seats,  which  were  of  wood,  were  made  under  Tarquin  I.  (Liv.  ,  i.  56  ; 
Dionys.,  iii.  68).'  It  was  restored  in  327  and  174  B.C.  (Liv.,  viiL  20  ; 
xli.  27).  In  the  reign  of  Julius  Caesar  it  was  rebuilt  with  (for  the 
first  time)  lower  seats  of  stone  (Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxvi.  24),  the  upper 
being  still  of  wood  (Suet.,  Csss.,  39)  ;  Dionysius  (iii.  68)  describes 
it  as  it  was  after  this  rebuilding.  It  was  further  ornamented  with 
marble  by  Augustus,  Claudius,  and  other  emperors.  The.  wooden 
part  was  burnt  in  the  great  fire  of  Nero,  and  again  under  Domi- 
tian, by  whom  it  was  restored  wholly  in  stone  and  marble,  and 
lastly  it  was  restored  and  enlarged  by  Coustautine.  In  its  later 
state  it  had  a  marble  facade  with  three  external  tiers  of  arches 
with  engaged  columns,  and  (inside)  sloping  tiers  of  marble  seats, 
supported  on  concrete  raking  vaults  (Plin.,  Pancg.,  51).  A  great 
part  of  these  vaults  existed  in  the  16th  century,  and  is  shown  by 
Du  Perac.  It  held  a  quarter  of  a  million  spectators  (Pliu.,  H.N., 


7  See  De  Rossi,  "Vigili,'  in  Ann.  Inst.,  1858  ;  Visconti,  Coorte  VII.  de'  Vi 
1867.  8  See  Fea,  Cam  Aiirea,  1832. 

9  See  Romanis,  Ter>ne  di  Tito,  1822.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  paintings 
said  in  this  and  other  works  to  have  belonged  to  the  baths  of  Titus  really 
decorated  the  Golden  House,  over  which  the  baths  were  built.  The  substruc- 
tures of  Titus's  building  are  absolutely  without  ornament,  and  were  almost 
devoid  of  light. 

•lo  See  Bruzza,  in  Ann.  Inst.,  1870,  and  Lenormant,  Trophies  de  Marius,  Blois, 
1842.  This  once  magnificent  building,  with  the  marble  trophies  in  their  place, 
is  shown  with  much  minuteness  on  a  bronze  medallion  of  Severus  Alexander 
(see  Froehner,  Medallions  de  I'  Empire,  Paris,  1878,  p.  169). 

11  So  called  from  a  prehistoric  altar  to  the  Dea  Murcia  (Venus)  ;  Varro,  L.L., 
\:  154. 


830 


R  O  M  E 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AI 


xxxvi.  24).  The  end  with  the  careeres  was  near  the  church  of  S. 
Maria  in  Cosmedin.1  Some  of  its  substructures,  with  remains  of 
very  early  tufa  structures  on  the  Palatine  side,  still  exist  below  the 
church  of  S.  Anastasia  (see  58  in  fig.  17).  The  obelisk  now  in  the 
Piazza  del  Popolo  was  set  on  the  spiua  by  Augustus.  The  Circus 
Flaminius  in  the  Campus  Martius  was  built  by  the  C.  Flaminius 
Nepos  killed  at  Thrasyinene  in  217  B.C.  ;  remains  of  the  structure 
were  found  in  the  16th  century  under  the  Palazzo  Mattei.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  its  long  open  space  was  used  as  a  rope-walk,  hence  the 
name  of  the  church  called  S.  Caterina  dei  Funari,  which  occupies 
]>art  of  its  site.2  The  circus  of  Caligula  and  Nero  was  at  the  foot 
of  the  Vatican  Hill  (Pliu.,  H.X.,  xxxvi.  15).  The  modern  sacristy 
of  St  Peter's  stands  over  part  of  its  site.  The  obelisk  on  its  spiua 
remained  standing  in  situ  till  it  was  moved  by  Fontana3  for  Sixtus 
V.  to  its  present  site  in  the  centre  of  the  piazza.  Another  circus 
was  built  by  Hadrian  near  his  mausoleum ;  remains  of  it  were  found 
in  1743,  but  nothing  is  now  visible  (Atti  d.  Pont.  Accad.,  1839). 
The  great  stadium,  foundations  of  which  exist  under  most  of  the 
houses  of  the  Piazza  Navona  (Agonalis),  and  especially  below  S. 
Agnese,  is  probably  that  built  by  Domitian  and  restored  by  Severus 
Alexander.  It  was  called  from  the  latter  emperor  the  Stadium 
Alexandrinum.  That  it  was  a  stadium  and  not  a  circus  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  its  starting  end  is  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  and 
not  set  diagonally,  as  was  always  the  case  with  the  careeres  of  a 
circus  ;  nor  is  there  any  trace  of  foundations  of  a  spina.  The  best 
preserved  circus  is  that  built  by  Maxentius  in  honour  of  his  deified 
son  Romulus,  by  the  Via  Appia,  2  miles  outside  the  walls  of  Rome. 
It  was  attributed  to  Caracalla  till  1825,  when  an  inscription  record- 
ing its  true  dedication  Avas  found.4 

The  first  permanent  naumachia  was  that  constnicted  by  Augustus 
between  the  foot  of  the  Janiculan  Hill  and  the  Tiber  ;  traces  of  it 
have  recently  been  discovered  near  the  church  of  S.  Crisogono. 
The  naumachia  of  Domitian  was  pulled  down  and  the  materials 
used  to  restore  the  Circus  Maximus  (Suet.,  Dotn.,  5)  ;  its  site  is  not 
known. 

eatres.  The  first  stone5  theatre  in  Rome  was  that  built  by  Pompey,  56- 
52  B.C.;  it  contained  a  temple  to  Venus  Victrix,  and  in  front  of  it 
was  a  great  porticus  called  Hecatostylum  from  its  hundred  columns. 
This  is  shown  on  the  marble  plan.6  Considerable  remains  of  the 
foundations  exist  between  the  Via  de'  Chiavari,  which  follows  the 
line  of  the  scena,  and  the  Via  de'  Giubbonari  and  Via  del  Paradise. 
Adjoining  this  was  the  curia  of  Pompey,  where  Csesar  was  murdered, 
after  which  it  was  burnt  and  the  site  decreed  to  be  a  "locus  sceler- 
atus. "  The  colossal  statue,  popularly  supposed  to  be  that  of  Pompey 
at  the  'feet  of  which  Cfesar  died,7  now  in  the  Palazzo  Spada,  was 
found  in  1553  near  the  theatre.  This  theatre  was  restored  by 
Augustus  ( Hon.  Ancyr. )  ;  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  it  was  burnt  and 
its  rebuilding  was  completed  by  Caligula.  The  scena  was  again 
burnt  in  80  A.D.,  and  restored  by  Titus.  According  to  Pliny 
(H.N.,  xxxvi.  24),  it  held  40,000  spectators.  In  1864  the  colossal 
gilt  bronze  statue  of  Hercules,  now  in  the  Vatican,  a  work  of  the 
3d  century,  was  found  near  the  site  of  the  theatre  of  Pompey, 
carefully  concealed  underground.  The  theatre  of  Marcellus  is  much 
more  perfect ;  complete  foundations  of  the  cunei  exist  under  the 
Palazzo  Savelli,  and  part  of  the  external  arcade  is  well  preserved. 
This  is  built  of  travertine  in  two  orders,  Tuscan  and  Ionic,  with 
delicate  details,  very  superior  to  those  of  the  Colosseum,  the  arcade 
of  which  is  very  similar  to  this  in  general  design.  This  theatre 
was  begun  by  J.  Cwsar,  and  finished  by  Augustus  in  13  B.C.,  who 
dedicated  it  in  the  name  of  his  nephew  Marcellus.8  It  was  restored 
by  Vespasian  (Suet.,  Vesp.,  19).  Livy  (xl.  51)  mentions  an  earlier 
theatre  on  the  same  spot,  built  by  M.  JEmilius  Lepidus  in  179  B.C. 


1  Part  of  it  is  shown  on  a  fragment  of  the  marble  plan  (see  Jordan,  For.  Ur. 
Rom.)  ;  it  is  represented  on  a  bronze  medallion  of  Gordian  III.,  with  an  obelisk 
on  the  spina  and  three  metse  at  each  end  ;  in  front  are  groups  of  gladiators 
wrestling  and  boxing  (see  Grueber,  Rom.  Med.,  pi.  xli.,  London,  1874). 

2  The  16th-century  discoveries  recorded  by  Fulvio  and  Ligorio  are  quoted  by 
Xardini,  Roma  Ant.  (ed.  Nibby,  1818-20),  iii.  p.  21. 

3  See  his  Trasportazione  delV  Obelisco  Vat.,  1590. 

4  Nibby,  Circo  di  Caracalla,  1825;  Canina,  Rom.  Ant.,  i.  p.  447,  pi.  cxxxvii.; 
see  also  Panvinins,  He  Lwt.  Circens.,  and  Bianconi,  Deser.  dei  Circi,  1789.     An 
interesting  relief  showing  a  circus  race,  with  the  carceres,  spina,  and  galleries 
for  spectators,  is  illustrated  in  Ann.  Inst.,  1870,  pi.  LM  ;  and  three  of  the 
same  subject  are  preserved  in  the  Sala  della  Biga  in  the  Vatican  ;  see  also  the 
Brescia  diptych,  Gori  (Thesavr.  Vet.  Dipt.,  Florence,  1759). 

5  A  great  prejudice  existed  in  republican  Rome  against  the  introduction  of 
the  Greek  custom  of  haying  permanent  stone  theatres.    In  154  B.C.,  owing  to 
the  advice  of  Scipio  Nasica,  the  Senate  demolished  a  half-finished  stone  theatre 
which  had  been  begun  by  the  censor  C.  Cassius  Longinus.    Even  Pompey  had 
to  build  a  temple  to  Venus  in  the  upper  part  of  his  theatre  as  a  sort  of  excuse 
for  having  seats  and  steps  of  stone  leading  up  to  it  (Tertull.,  De  Spec.,  10). 

«  Plut.,  Pomp.,  52  ;  Dion  Cass.,  xxxix.  38  ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  xiv.  20. 

7  See  Fea,  Rom.  Ant.,  Ixviii.  57,  for  an  account  of  its  discovery. 

8  Suet.,  Aug.,  29.    See  Man.  Ancyr. — "  Theatrvm .  ad .  aedem .  Apollinis .  in  . 
solo,  magna .  ex .  parte .  a .  [privatis .] empto .  feci .  qvod .  svb .  nomine .  M .  Mar- 
celli .  generi.  [me]i .  esset."    The  temple  of  Apollo  here  named  was  one  of  the 
most  ancient  and  highly  venerated  in  Rome  ;  it  was  dedicated  to  the  Delphic 
Apollo  in  428  B.C.  by  C.  Julius  (Liv.,  iv.  25)  ;  meetings  of  the  Senate  were  held 
in  it ;  and  it  contained  many  fine  works  of  art, — an  ancient  cedar-wood  statue 
of  Apollo  (Liv.,  xxvii.  37),  and  the  celebrated  statues  of  the  slaughter  of  the 
Niobids  by  Praxiteles  or  Scopas  (Plin.,  H.N.,  xxxvi.  4),  of  which  many  ancient 
copies  exist.    One  almost  complete  set  is  in  the  Ufflzi  at  Florence  ;  one  figure 
of  one  of  the  daughters  in  the  Vatican  may  be  an  original. 


It  stands  partly  in  the  Forum  Olitorium,  a  large  extent  of  the  tra- 
vertine paving  of  which  was  exposed  in  1875  (Bull.  Com.  Arch. 
Mun.,  iii.  1875).  Foundations  also  of  the  theatre  of  Balbus  exist 
under  the  Palazzo  Cenci ;  and  in  the  Via  di  S.  Maria  in  Cacaberis, 
No.  23,  there  is  a  small  portion  of  the  external  arcade  of  the  pm-'- 
ticus  which  belonged  to  tins  theatre ;  the  lower  story  has  travertine 
arches  with  engaged  columns,  and  the  upper  has  brick-faced  pilasters. 
It  was  built  by  Cornelius  Balbus  in  13  B.C.  (Suet,  Aitg.,  29  ;  Dion 
Cass.,  liv.  25).  An  interesting  account  of  the  temporary  theatre  of 
Scaurus,  erected  in  58  B.C.,  is  given  by  Pliny  (H.N.,  xxxvi.  2,  24). 
The  same  writer  mentions  an  almost  incredible  building,  which 
consisted  of  two  wooden  theatres  made  to  revolve  on  pivots,  so  that 
the  two  together  made  an  amphitheatre  ;  this  was  erected  by  C. 
Curio  in  50  B.C. 

The  first  stone  amphitheatre  in  Rome  was  that  built  by  Statilius  Amj 
Taurus  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  Its  ruins  are  supposed  to  form  theal 
the  elevation  called  Monte  Giordano,  but  none  of  it  is  visible.  For 
the  Colosseum  see  AMPHITHEATRE,  vol.  i.  The  Amphitheatrum 
Castrense  is  in  the  line  of  the  wall  of  Aurelian  near  the  Porta 
Asinaria ;  it  is  built  of  concrete,  faced  with  neat  brickwork,  and 
was  decorated  with  friezes  and  other  ornaments  in  moulded  terra- 
cotta. Its  exterior  had  two  tiers  of  arches  between  engaged 
Corinthian  columns,  all,  even  the  foliage  of  the  capitals,  very 
neatly  executed  in  terra -cotta.  Only  one  piece  with  the  upper 
order  still  exists  on  the  outside  of  the  Aurelian  line.  This  amphi- 
theatre is  mentioned  in  the  regionary  catalogues  under  Regio  v. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected  for  the  amusement  of  the  troops 
in  the  neighbouring  camp,  hence  its  name.  From  the  character  of 
the  brick-facing  the  building  appears  to  date  from  the  early  part  of 
the  2d  century. 

Arches,  Columns,  Tombs,  and  Bridges. 

The  earliest  triumphal  arches  were  the  two  erected  by  L.  Stertinius  Arches, 
(196  B.C.)  in  the  Forum  Boarium  and  in  the  Circus  Maximus,  out 
of  spoils  gained  in  Spain.9  In  the  later  years  of  the  empire  there 
were  nearly  forty  in  Rome.  The  arch  of  Titus  and  Vespasian  OH 
the  Summa  Sacra  Via  was  erected  by  Domitian  to  commemorate  the 
conquest  of  Judsea  by  Titus  in  his  father's  reign.  Reliefs  inside 
the  arch  represent  the  triumphal  procession — Titus  in  a  chariot, 
and  on  the  other  side  soldiers  bearing  the  golden  candlestick, 
trumpets,  and  table  of  prothesis,  taken  from  the  Jewish  temple. 
The  central  part  only  of  this  monument  is  original ;  the  sides  were 
restored  in  1823.10  Another  arch  in  honour  of  Titus  had  previously 
been  built  (80  A.D.)  in  the  Circus  Maximus ;  its  inscription  is  given 
in  the  Einsiedeln  MS.  (Gruter,  Inscr.,  p.  244,  No.  6).  A  plain  tra- 
vertine arch  near  the  supposed  palace  of  Commodus  on  the  Cceliau 
is  inscribed  with  the  names  of  the  consul  Publius  Corn.  Dolabella 
(10  A.D.)  and  of  the  flamen  martialis,  C.  Junius  Silanus.  In  later 
times  Nero's  aqueduct  was  built  over  it.  It  may  possibly  have 
been  an  entrance  into  the  Campus  Martialis,  an  enclosure  on  the 
Ccelian  sacred  to  Mars,  which  was  used  for  games  when  the  Campus 
Martius  was  flooded.  The  so-called  arch  of  Drusus  by  the  Porta 
Appia  also  carries  the  specus  of  an  aqueduct, — that  built  by  Cara- 
calla to  supply  his  great  thermae.  Its  coarse  details  show,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  much  later  than  the  time  of  Drusus  (Suet,  Claud., 
1).  It  was  usual  to  ornament  specially  the  arch  of  an  aqueduct 
that  happened  to  cross  a  road,  and  this  arch  was  probably  built  by 
Caracalla  with  the  rest  of  his  branch  of  the  Aqua  Marcia.  Ad- 
joining the  church  of  S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro  a  rich  though  coarsely 
decorated  marble  gateway  with  flat  lintel  still  exists, — built,  as 
its  inscription  records,  in  honour  of  Severus  and  his  sons  by  the 
argeutarii  (bankers  and  silversmiths)  and  other  merchants  of  the 
Forum  Boarium  in  204.  It  formed  an  entrance  from  the  Forum 
Boarium  into  the  Velabrum.  The  figure  of  Geta  in  the  reliefs  and 
his  name  have  been  erased  by  Caracalla  ;  the  sculpture  is  poor 
both  in  design  and  execution11  (see  Bull.  Inst.,  1867,  p.  217,  and 
1871,  p.  233).  Close  by  is  a  quadruple  arch,  set  at  the  intersection 
of  two  roads,  such  as  was  called  by  the  Romans  an  arch  of  Janus 
Quadrifons.  Though  partly  built  of  earlier  fragments,  it  is  of  the 
worst  style  of  work  ;  it  cannot  be  earlier  than  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine,  and  probably  is  of  still  later  date.  The  finest  existing  arch  is 
that  by  the  Colosseum  erected  by  Constautine.  It  owes,  however, 
little  of  its  beauty  to  that  artistically  degraded  period.  Not  only 
most  of  its  reliefs  but  its  whole  design  and  :nany  of  its  architectural 
features  were  stolen  from  an  earlier  arch  erected  by  Trajan  as  an 
entrance  to  his  forum  (see  p.  826  above).  The  arch  of  Claudius, 
built  in  43  to  commemorate  his  supposed  victories  in  Britain,  stood 
across  the  Via  Lata  (modern  Corso)  between  S.  Francesco  Saverio 
and  the  Palazzo  Sciarra.  Its  exact  position  is  shown  in  BulJ. 


»  Liv.,  xxxiii.  27,  see  also  xxxvii.  3. 

10  This  arch  is  the  earliest  known  example  of  the  so-called  Composite  order,  a 
modification  of  Corinthian  in  which  the  capitals  combine  Ionic  volutes  with 
Corinthian  acanthus  leaves  ;  in  other  respects  it  follows  the  Corinthian  tinier. 

H  The  second  half  of  the  2d  century  was  a  time  of  extraordinarily  rapid 
decline  in  art.  The  relief  of  Antinous  in  the  Villa  Albani  and  other  portraits 
of  him  made  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (117-138)  are  among  the  most  beautiful  ex- 
isting specimens  of  Roman  or  Grteco-Roman  sculpture  ;  while  after  the  a<rrs- 
sion  of  Severus  in  193  no  sculpture  of  any  real  artistic  merit  seems  to  have  been 
produced. 


ARCHEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


831 


Cmnm.  Arch.  Horn.,  vi.,  pi.  iv.  Its  remains  were  removed  in  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century,1  and  nothing  now  is  left  but  half  its 
inscription,  preserved  in  the  garden  of  the  Barberini  palace,  and 
two  of  its  reliefs  in  the  porch  of  the  Villa  Borghese.  It  is  shown 
on  both  aurei  and  denarii  of  Claudius,  with  an  attic  inscribed  DE 
BRITANNIS,  and  surmounted  by  a  quadriga  and  trophies.  The 
arch  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  also  destroyed  in  the  16th  century, 
spanned  the  modern  Corso  farther  north,  where  the  Via  Lata  had 
become  the  Via  Flaminia.-  Many  of  its  fine  reliefs  are  preserved 
in  the  Capitoline  Museum.  The  central  part  of  the  once  triple 
arch  of  Gallienus  still  exists  on  the  Esquiline  ;  it  stands  against  the 
ancient  Porta  Esquilina  of  the  Servian  wall.  It  is  built  of  traver- 
tine, is  simple  in  design,  with  coarse  details,  and  has  a  long  in- 
scription on  its  attic.  The  two  side  arches  and  pediment  over  the 
centre  existed  in  the  16th  century,  and  are  shown  in  the  Mantuan 
oil-painting  of  Rome,3  and  in  several  antiquarian  works  of  the  16th 
century.  The  inscription  records  that  it  was  erected  in  262  in 
honour  of  Gallienus  and  his  wife  Salonina  by  M.  Aurelius  Victor, 
prefect  of  the  city.4 

The  column  of  Antoninus  Pius  was  a  monolith  of  red  granite, 
erected  after  his  death  by  his  adopted  sons  M.  Aurelius  and  L. 
Verus.  One  fragment  of  it  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican  with  an 
interesting  quarry  inscription,  recording  that  it  was  cut  in  the  ninth 
year  of  Trajan's  reign,  under  the  supervision  of  Dioscurus  and  the 
architect  Aristides.  The  rest  of  its  fragments  were  used  by  Pius 
VI.  to  repair  the  obelisk  of  Monte  Citorio,  set  up  by  Augustus  in 
the  Campus  Martius  as  the  gnomon  of  a  sun-dial  (Plin.,  H.N., 
xxxvi.  15).  The  marble  pedestal  of  the  Antonine  column  is  now 
in  the  Vatican  ;  it  has  reliefs  of  the  apotheosis  of  Faustina  and 
Antoninus  Pius,  and  processions  of  soldiers.  This  and  the  column 
of  M.  Aurelius  were  both  surmounted  by  colossal  portrait  statues 
of  gilt  bronze.  The  column  of  M.  Aurelius  is  very  similar  in  size 
and  design  to  that  of  Trajan.  Its  spiral  reliefs  represent  victories 
in  Germany  from  167  to  179,  arranged  in  twenty  tiers.  Like  the 
column  of  Trajan,  it  is  exactly  100  Roman  feet  high,  without  the 
pedestal.  The  pedestal  was  originally  much  higher  than  at  present, 
but  is  now  partly  buried  ;  it  is  shown  by  Gamucci,  Du  Perac,  and 
other  16th-century  writers.  This  column  stood  in  front  of  a  temple 
to  M.  Aurelius,  and  within  a  great  peribolus,  forming  a  forum 
similar  to  that  of  Trajan,  though  much  smaller  ;  the  remains  of  this 
temple  probably  form  the  elevation  now  called  Monte  Citorio.5 

For  the  catacombs  see  that  article  (vol.  v.  p.  206)  ;  for  obelisks  6 
see  ARCHITECTUKE  (vol.  ii.  p.  390)  and  EGYPT  (vol.  vii.  pp.  768,  778). 

The  recent  discovery  of  a  cemetery  of  prehistoric  (Etruscan)  date 
is  mentioned  above,  p.  812.  Few  tombs  exist  of  the  Roman  period 
earlier  than  the  1st  century  B.C.,  —  probably  owing  to  the  great 
extension  of  the  city  beyond  the  Servian  limits,  which  thus  obliter- 
ated the  earlier  burial  places.  The  tomb  of  the  Cornelian  Scipios 
is  the  most  important  of  early  date  which  still  exists.  It  is  exca- 
vated in  the  tufa  rock  at  the  side  of  the  Via  Appia,  outside  the 
Porta  Capena.  Interments  of  the  Scipio  family  went  on  here  for 
about  400  years,  additional  chambers  and  passages  being  excavated 
from  time  to  time.  The  peperino  sarcophagus  of  Cornelius  Lucius 
Scipio  Barbatus  (Liv.,  x.  12,  13),  consul  in  298  B.C.,  is  now  in  the 
Vatican  ;  its  inscription,  in  rude  Saturnian  verse,  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  existing  specimen  of  early  Latin  epigraphy.  Many 
other  inscribed  slabs  were  found  in  the  17th  century,  covering  the 
"loculi"  in  which  lay  the  bodies  of  later  members  of  the  family. 
Those  now  existing  in  the  tomb  are  modern  copies,  with  blundered 
inscriptions.  All  are  given  by  Mommsen  (C.I.L.,  i.  p.  11  sq.).  This 
burial-place  of  the  Scipios  is  unlike  those  of  other  families,  owing  to 
the  gens  Cornelia  keeping  up  the  early  custom  of  interment  without 
burning  ;  thus  stone  sarcophagi  or  loculi  (rock-cut  recesses)  were 
required  instead  of  mere  pigeon-holes  to  hold  the  cinerary  urns. 
The  tomb  of  Bibulus,  a  few  yards  outside  the  Porta  Ratumena,  and 
remains  of  two  recently  discovered  during  the  destruction  of  the 
Aurelian  towers  at  the  Porta  Salara,  date  from  about  the  middle  of 
the  1st  century  B.C.,  as  does  also  the  curious  tomb  of  the  baker 
Eurysaces  outside  the  Porta  Maggiore.  In  1863  an  interesting 
tomb  of  the  Sempronia  gens  was  discovered  on  the  Quirinal,  below 
the  royal  palace,  near  the  site  of  the  Porta  Sanqualis.  It  is  of 
travertine,  with  a  rich  entablature  and  frieze  sculptured  with  the 

i  See  Vacea,  a  p.  Fea,  Misc.,  p.  67. 

-  The  destruction   in  1879  of  the  Aurelian  towers  flanking  the  Porta  del 
Popolo  brought  to  light  the  fact  that  this  gate  is  exactly  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Porta  Flaminia,  and  not  to  one  side  of  it,  as  was  formerly  believed  on 
the  evidence  of  a  vague  passage  in  Procopius  (Bell.  Goth.,  i.  23).   Thus  it  appears 
probable  that  the  northern  part  of  the  Corso  follows  the  line  of  the  Via  Flaminia, 
as  the  southern  portion  does  that  of  the  Via  Lata. 

3  Reproduced  by  De  Rossi  in  his  valuable  Piante  di  Roma  Anteriori  al  Sec. 
XV  L,  1879. 

*  See  Bellori,  Vctcres  Arms,  1690,  showing  some  now  destroyed  ;  and  Fea, 
Archi  Trionf.,  1832. 


6  In  1882  a  small  Egyptian  obelisk  of  red  granite  was  found  buried  near  the 
Pantheon  ;  it  now  lies  in  the  Piazza  del  Collegio  Romano  ;  a  translation  of  its 
hieroglyphs  is  given  in  Bull.  Comm.  Arch.  Rom.,  1883.  At  the  same  time  a  very 
curious  granite  column  was  discovered  of  Egypto-Roman  work,  the  lower  part 
adorned  with  figures  in  relief. 


Greek  honeysuckle  ornament  (see  Bull.  Comm.  Arch.  Bam.,  iv.). 
This  also  is  of  the  last  years  of  the  republic.7 

The  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  built  28  B.C.,  stands  in  the  north  Mauso- 
part  of  the  Campus  Martius,  between  the  Tiber  and  the  Via  lea. 
Flamiuia.  It  is  a  massive  cylindrical  structure  of  concrete,  faced 
with  opus  reticulatum  ;  over  that  it  \vas  lined  with  marble  slabs  ; 
inside  were  a  series  of  radiating  chambers,  in  plan  like  a  wheel. 
On  the  top  was  a  great  mound  of  earth,  planted  with  trees  and 
flowers  (Tac.,  Ann.,  iii.  9).  As  late  as  the  16th  century  its  external 
form  remained  unaltered.8  Only  the  bare  core  exists  now,  with  its 
fine  opus  reticulatum,  best  seen  in  the  court  of  the  Palazzo  Valdam- 
briui.  The  inside  is  concealed  by  modern  seats,  being  used  now  as 
a  circus  (Teatro  Correa).  The  sepulchral  inscription  in  honour  of 
Augustus,  engraved  on  two  bronze  columns  at  the  entrance,  is  pre- 
served to  us  by  its  copy  at  Ancyra.  It  records  an  almost  incredible 
amount  of  building  :  in  addition  to  the  long  list  of  buildings  men- 
tioned by  name  Augustus  says,  DVO .  ET .  OCTAGIKTA .  TEMPLA 
DEVM .  IN .  VRBE .  CONSVL .  SEXTVM  .  .  .  REFECI.9  The  first  burial 
in  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus  was  that  of  Marcellus,  22  B.C.,  and  it 
continued  to  be  the  imperial  tomb  till  the  death  of  Nerva,  98  A.  r>., 
after  whose  interment  there  wa,s  no  more  room.  It  was  sacked  by 
Alaric  in  409,  and  in  the  12th  century  was  made  into  a  fortress  by 
the  Colonna  family,  and  suffered  much  from  constant  party  struggles. 

The  mausoleum  of  Hadrian,  begun  in  135  as  a  substitute  for 
that  built  by  Augustus,  was  a  large  circular  building  on  a  square 
podium  ;  its  walls,  of  enormous  thickness,  are  of  concrete  faced 
with  blocks  of  peperino,  the  whole  being  lined  with  Parian  marble 
and  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  with  rows  of  statues, — a  work  of  the 
greatest  magnificence.  The  bronze  pine-cone,  now  in  the  Vatican, 
was  (according  to  Vacca)  found  near  the  mausoleum,  and  probably 
surmounted  its  conical  dome.  The  splendour  of  the  whole  is  de- 
scribed by  Procopius  (B.  G.,  i.  22),  who  mentions  its  siege  by  the 
Goths,  when  the  defenders  hurled  the  statues  on  to  the  heads  of 
the  enemy.  In  the  6th  century  it  was  made  into  a  papal  castle 
called  S.  Angelus  inter  Nitbes,  and  all  through  the  Middle  Ages 
it  suffered  much  from  constant  attacks.  The  interior  chambers  are 
still  well  preserved,  but  its  outside  has  been  so  often  wrecked  and 
refaced  that  little  of  the  original  masonry  is  visible. 

Several  of  the  grander  sepulchral  monuments  of  Rome  were  built  Septil- 
iu  the  form  of  pyramids.     One  of  these  still  exists,  included  in  the  chral 
Aurelian  wall,  by  the  Porta  Ostiensis.     It  is  a  pyramid  of  concrete,  pyra- 
118  feet  high,  faced  with  blocks  of  white  marble,  and  contains  a  mids. 
small  chamber  decorated  with  painted  stucco.     An  inscription  in 
large  letters  on  the  marble  facing  records  that  it  was  built  as  a 
tomb  for  C.  Cestius,  a  praetor,  tribune  of  the  people,  and  septemvir 
of  the  epulones  (officials  who  supervised  banquets  in  honour  of  the 
gods)— an  office  founded  in  196  B.C.   (Liv.,  xxxiii.  42).     It  was 
erected,  according  to  Cestius's  will,  by  his  executors,  in  the  space 
of  330  days.    It  dates  from  the  time  of  Augustus 10  (see  Falconieri, 
in  Nardini,  Roma  Antica,  iv.  p.  1,  ed.  1818-20).     Another  similar 
pyramid,  popularly  known  as  the  tomb  of  Romulus,  stood  between 
the  mausoleum  of  Hadrian  and  the  basilica  of  St  Peter.     It  was 
destroyed  in  the  15th  century  during  the  rebuilding  of  the  long 
bridge  which  connects  the  former  building  with  the  Vatican. 

The  earliest  bridge  was  a  wooden  drawbridge  called  the  Pons  Bridges 
Sublicius  from  the  piles  (siiblicte)  on  which  it  was  built.  The 
river  being  an  important  part  of  the  defence  of  Rome  from  the 
Aventine  to  the  Porta  Fluminalis  (see  plan  of  Servian  wall,  fig.  8), 
no  permanent  bridges  were  made  till  the  Romans  were  strong  enough 
not  to  fear  attacks  from  without.  The  Pons  Sublicius  appears  to 


7  See  A.  F.  Gori,  Columb.  Libert,  et  Serv.  Lirix,  1727  ;  Bianchini,  Camera  .  .  . 
Sepolcrali,  1727;  Campana,  Sepolcri  Roinani,  1840;  Fortunati,  Scari  hingo  la 
Via  Latino,  1859 ;   Brizio,   Pitttire  e   Sepolcri  still'  Esyitilino,  1876 ;  Secchi, 
Sepolcro  di  vna  Famiglia  Greca,  1843  ;  Visconti,  Sepolcro  di  Q.  Sulpicio  Massimo, 
1871 ;  Stevenson,  Cimitero  di  Zotico,  Via  Labicana,  1876. 

8  See  Du  Perac's  Vestigj,  which  shows  the  garden  on  the  top. 

9  The  other  greatest  building  period  after  the  reign  of  Augustus  appears  to 
have  been  that  of  Severus  and  his  son  Caracalla  ;  the  following  list  of  buildings, 
built  or  restored  between  196  and  211,  will  give  some  notion  of  this  : — Marcian 
aqueduct  restored  and  lengthened  to  the  Thennse  Severianw  in  196 ;  pseda- 
gogium  puerorum  a  capite  Africa}  in  IPS  ;  temple  of  Cybele  on  the  Palatine  in 
200,  rebuilt ;  Claudian  and  Anio  Novus  aqueducts  restored  in  201 ;  theatre  of 
Pompey,  Pantheon,  thermae  of  Agrippa,  Amphitheatrum  Castrense,  and  prse- 
torian  camp,  all  restored  in  202  ;  Septizonium  and  great  palace  on  the  Palatine, 
and  arches  in  the  Forum  Magnum  and  Forum  Boaritnn  built ;  Stadium  Pala- 
tinum,  Porticus  Octavise,  and  Forum  Pacis  restored,  all  in  203.     In  various 
years  before  211 :  temple  of  Vespasian,  of  Fortuna  Muliebris,  schola  scribarum, 
balnese  near  the  Porta  Septimiana,  horti  of  Geta,  a  porticus  with  res  gesta- 
Divi  Severi,  the  Antonine  aqueduct,  and  (212-215)  the  great  therm*  of  Caracalla. 
The  great  fire  of  191  was  one  of  the  causes  of  these  extensive  works  (see  Lanci- 
ani,  Bull.  Comm.  Arch.  Rom.,  1882). 

w  Near  the  tomb  of  Cestius  is  that  extraordinary  mound  of  potsherds  called 
Monte  Testaccio.  These  are  mostly  fragments  of  large  amphorse,  not  piled  up 
at  random,  but  carefully  stacked,  with  apertures  at  intervals  for  ventilation. 
Many  theories  have  been  advanced  to  account  for  this  enormous  mass  of  broken 
pottery  ;  but  by  far  the  most  probable  explanation  is  that  the  broken  earthen- 
ware of  Rome  was  collected  and  stored  here  for  use  in  the  making  of  the  stucco 
called  opus  signinum  (Vitr.,  viii.  6,  14),  with  which  the  specus  or  channels 
of  aqueducts  were  lined,  and  also  the  concrete  in  which  marble  and  mosaic 
pavings  were  bedded  (nucleus).  This  latter  is  the  opus  testaceum  of  Vitruvius 
(vii.  1,  5) ;  and  the  universal  use  of  pounded  earthenware  for  floors  and  aque- 
ducts must  have  used  up  immense  quantities  of  broken  pots  and  bricks  (tesfae 
tunsie).  A  good  account  of  the  potsherds  of  Monte  Testaccio  and  their  stamps 
is  given  in  Ann.  Inst.,  1878,  p.  118. 


832 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


have  been  of  wood  even  in  the  imperial  period.1  Its  exact  site  is 
doubtful,  but  some  existing  foundations  near  the  foot  of  the  Aven- 
tiiie,  near  the  Marmoratum,  may  have  been  the  supports  of  its 
wooden  piers.  The  first  stone  bridge  was  completed  in  142  B.C., 
when  the  conquest  of  Etruria  and  the  defeat  of  Hannibal  had  put 
an  end  to  fears  of  invasion  ;  it  was  called  the  Pous  jEmilius, 
after  the  pontifex  maximus3  M.- jEmilius  Lepidus,  its  founder.  It 
was  also  called  Pons  Lapideus  to  distinguish  it  from  the  wooden 
Sublician  bridge.  The  modern  Ponte  Kotto  is  on  the  site  of  this  ; 
but  the  existing  three  arches  are  mediaeval.  An  ancient  basalt-paved 
road  still  exists,  leading  to  the  bridge  from  the  Forum  Boarium. 
The  Pons  Fabricius  unites  the  city  and  the  island  (Insula  Tiber- 
ina) ;  Livy  (ii.  5)  gives  the  fable  of  the  formation  of  this  island 
from  the  Tarquiu  com,  cut  from  the  Campus  Martins  and  thrown 
into  the  river.  The  bridge  derived  its  name  from  L.  Fabricius,  a 
curator  viarum  in  62  B.C.;  its  inscription,  twice  repeated,  is  L. 
FABRICIVS  .  C  .  F  .  CVtt  .  VIAR  .  FACIVNDVM  .  COERAVIT.  Like 
the  other  existing  bridges,  it  is  built  of  great  blocks  of  pcperino  and 
tufa,  with  a  massive  facing  of  travertine  on  both  sides.  Corbels  to 
support  centering  were  built  in  near  the  springing  of  the  arches, 
so  that  they  could  be  repaired  or  even  rebuilt  without  a  scaffolding 
erected  in  the  river-bed.  The  well-preserved  Pons  Cestius,  prob- 
ably named  after  L.  Cestius,  prsefectus  urbi  in  46  B.  c. ,  unites  the 
island  and  the  Janiculan  side  ;  on  the  marble  parapet  is  a  long  in- 
scription recording  its  restoration  in  370  by  Gratian,  Yalentinian, 
and  Valens.  The  next  bridge,  Ponte  Sisto,  is  probably  on  the  site 
of  an  ancient  bridge  called  in  the  Notitia  Pons  Aurelius.  Marliano 
gives  an  inscription  (now  lost)  which  recorded  its  restoration  in  the 
time  of  Hadrian.  The  Pons  Mlms  was  built  in  135  by  Hadrian  to 
connect  his  mausoleum  with  the  Campus  Martius ;  it  is  still  well 
preserved,  and  is  now  called  the  Ponte  S.  Angelo  (see  Dante,  Infer., 
xviii.  28-33).  Its  inscription,  now  lost,  is  given  in  the  Einsiedeln 
MS.— IMP .  CAESAR  .  DIVI .  TRAIANI .  PARTHICI .  FILIVS  .  DIVI . 
NERVAE  .  NEPOS  .  TRAIANVS  .  HADRIANVS  .  AVG  .  PONT .  MAX  . 
TRIE .  POT .  XVim .  COS .  HI .  P.  P .  FECIT.  The  Pons  Mlius  is  shown 
on  coins  of  Hadrian.  A  little  below  it  are  the  foundations  of 
another  bridge,  probably  the  Pons  Neronianus  of  the  Mirabilia, 
called  also  Vaticanus,  built  probably  by  Nero  as  a  way  to  his 
Vatican  circus  and  the  Horti  s 


Regiones  of  Augustus. 

gus-  In  spite  of  the  extensive  growth  of  the  city  under  the  republic 
no  addition  was  made  to  the  four  regiones  of  Servius  till  the  reign 

iones.  of  Augustus,  who  divided  the  city  and  its  suburbs  into  fourteen 
regiones,  the  first  six  of  which  embraced  the  original  four  of  Servius. 
The  lists  in  the  Notitia  and  Curiosum  are  the  chief  aids  in  deter- 
mining the  limits  of  each,  which  in  many  cases  cannot  be  done 
with  any  exactness  (see  Preller,  Die  Regional  der  Stadt  Rom,  1846, 
and  Uhlrichs,  Codex  Topograph.,  Wiirzburg,  1871).  Each  regio 
was  divided  into  vici  or  parishes,  each  of  which  formed  a  religious 
body,  with  its  aHlicula  larium,  and  had  magistri  vicorum,  the  low- 
est in  rank  of  the  Roman  magistracy.  The  smallest  regio  (No. 
II.)  contained  seven  vici,  the  largest  (No.  XIV.)  seventy-eight. 
The  list  is  as  follows  : — 

I.  or  Porta  Capena,  extended  to  the  Aurelian  Porta  Appia. 

II.  or  Ccelimontana,  the  Coelian  Hill. 

III.  or  Isis  et  Serapis,  included  the  valley  of  the  Colosseum  and 
the  adjoining  part  of  the  Esquiline. 

IV.  or  Tcmplum  Pads  et  Sacra  Via,  included  the  Velia,  most  of 
the  Subura,  the  fora  of  Nerva  and  Vespasian,  the  Sacra  Via,  and 
also  buildings  along  the  north-east  side  of  the  Forum  Magnum. 

V.  or  Esquilina,  north  part  of  the  Esquiline  and  the  Viminal. 

VI.  or  Alta  Semita,  the  Quirinal  as  far  as  the  praitorian  camp. 

VII.  or  Via  Lata,  the  valley  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Via 
Lata,  and  by  the  neighbouring  hills  on  the  east. 

VIII.  or  Forum  Romamtm,  also  included  the   fora  of  Julius, 
Augustus,  and  Trajan,  and  the  whole  Capitoline  Hill. 

IX.  or  Circus  Flaminius,  between  the  fiber,  the  Capitol,  and  the 
Via  Lata. 

X.  or  Palatium,  the  Palatine  Hill. 

XI.  or  Circus  Maadmus,  the  valley  between  the  Palatine  and 
the  Aventine,  with  the  Velabrum  and  Forum  Boarium. 

XII.  or  Piscina  Publica,  between  the  Ccelian  and  the  Aventine, 
and  beyond  the  Via  Appia,  including  the  site  of  Caracalla's  thermae. 

XIII.  or  Aventinus,  the  hill,  and  the  bank  of  the  Tiber  below  it. 

XIV.  or  Transtibcrina,  the  whole  district  across  the  river  and 
the  Tiber  Island.4 

relian      The  walls  of  Aurelian  (see  Plates  VI.  and  VIII.),  more  than  12 
11.        miles  in  circuit,  were  mainly  built  to  enclose  the  regiones  of  Augus- 
tus, the  greater  part  of  which  were  then  thickly  inhabited.     This 


1  See  Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  83  ;  Ov.,  Fast.,  v.  622  ;  Tac.,  Hist.,  i.  86. 

2  The  bridges  were  specially  under  the  care  of  the  pontifox  maximus,  at 
least  till  the  later  years  of  the  republic  (Varro,  L.  L.,  v.  83). 

3  See  Piale,  "Antic.  Ponti,"  in  Attl  d.  Pont.  Accad.,  1831 ;  and  Becker,  De 
Murit  et  Portis,  Leipsic,  1842. 

*  See  Jordan,  For.  Vrb.  Rom.,  Berlin,  1875.  Besides  the  -works  of  Preller, 
Jordan,  and  Uhlrichs,  the  regionary  catalogues  of  buildings  are  given  by 
Nardini,  Rom.  Ant.,  ed.  Nibby,  1818-20,  the  whole  of  which  valuable  work  is 
arranged  in  accordance  with  these  lists. 


enormous  work  was  begun  in  271,  to  defend  Rome  against  sudden 
attacks  of  the  Germans  and  other  northern  races  when  the  great 
armies  of  Rome  were  fighting  in  distant  countries.6  After  the 
death  of  Aurelian  the  walls  were  completed  by  Probus  in  280,  and 
about  a  century  later  they  Avere  restored  and  strengthened  by  the 
addition  of  gate -towers  under  Arcadins  and  Honorius  (395-425), 
in  place  of  the  earlier  gateways  of  Aurelian  ;  this  is  recorded  by 
existing  inscriptions  on  several  of  the  gates.8  At  many  p. Tin.;'. 
these  walls  suffered  much  from  the  attacks  of  the  Goths  (Procop., 
Bell.  Goth.,  iii.  22,  24),  and  were  restored  successively  by  Thcodoric 
(about  500),  by  Belisarius  (about  560),  and  by  various  popes  during 
the  8th  and  9th  centuries,  and  in  fact  all  through  the  Middle  Ages. 
A  great  part  of  the  Aurelian  wall  still  exists  in  a  more  or  less  perfect 
state  ;  but  it  has  wholly  vanished  where  it  skirted  the  river,  and  a 
great  part  of  its  trans-Tiberine  course  is  gone.  The  most  perfect 
piece  is  that  in  the  gardens  of  the  Villa  Liulovisi.  Other  well- 
preserved  pieces  are  by  the  Porta  Appia,  and  between  the  Latcran 
and  the  Amphitheatrum  Castrense.  The  wall,  of  concrete,  has  the 
usual  brick-facing  and  is  about  12  feet  thick,  with  a  guards'  passage 
formed  in  its  thickness.  Fig.  25  shows  its  plan  :  on  the  inside  the 


THREE     WINDOWS  . 


IX     Or     THESE    OPEN    ARCHES 
BETWEEN         EACH     PAIR 
OF    TOWERS  . 

40. so.  rr. 


FIG.  25. — Aurelian's  wall ;  plan  showing  one  of  the  towers  and  the  passage  in 
thickness  of  wall. 

passage  has  tall  open  arches,  which  look  like  those  of  an  aqueduct, 
and  at  regular  intervals  of  about  45  feet  massive  square  towers  are 
built,  projecting  on  the  outside  of  the  wall,  in  three  stories,  the  top 
story  rising  above  the  top  of  the  wall.  The  height  of  the  wall  varies 
according  to  the  contour  of  the  ground  ;  in  parts  it  was  about  60 
feet  high  outside  and  40  inside.  Necessaria,  supported  on  two 
travertine  corbels,  projected  from  the  top  of  the  wall  on  the  outside 
beside  most  of  the  towers.  The  Einsiedeln  MS.  gives  a  description 
of  the  complete  circuit,  counting  all  the  gates,  fourteen  in  number, 
as  follows : — 

Porta  S.  Petri  (destroyed)  ;  P.  Flaminia  (in  use)  ;  P.  Pinciana 
(closed) ;  P.  Salaria  (destroyed  in  1870) ;  P.  Nomentana  (closed) ; 
P.  Tiburtina  (in  use,  now  called  P.  S.  Lorenzo) ;  P.  Pranestina  (in 
use,  now  Porta  Maggiore) ;  P.  Asinaria  (closed)  ;  P.  Metrovia 
(closed)  ;  P.  Latina  (closed) ;  P.  Appia  (in  use,  now  called  P.  S. 
Sebastiano) ;  P.  Ostiensis  (in  use,  now  P.  S.  Paolo).  On  the  Jani- 
culan side,  P.  Portensis  (destroyed)  ;  P.  Aurelia  (in  use).  One  gate, 
known  as  the  P.  Chiusa,  is  omitted  in  this  list,  owing  to  its  being 
blocked  up  in  the  time  of  the  Einsiedeln  writer.  Its  ancient  name 
is  not  known. 

These  existing  gates  are  mostly  of  the  time  of  Honorius  ;  each  is 
flanked  by  a  projecting  tower,  and  some  are  double,  with  a  second 
pair  of  towers  inside.  Several  have  grooves  for  a  portcullis  (cata- 
racta)  in  the  outer  arch.  The  handsomest  gate  is  the  P.  Appin, 
with  two  massive  outer  towers,  three  stages  high,  the  upper  semi- 
circular in  plan.  Many  of  the  gates  of  Honorius  have  Christian 
symbols  or  inscriptions.  The  general  design  of  all  these  gates  is 
much  the  same, — a  central  archway,  with  a  row  of  windows  over  it 
and  two  flanking  towers,  some  square,  others  semicircular  in  plan. 
In  many  of  the  gates  older  materials  are  used,  blocks  of  tufa,  traver- 
tine, or  marble.  The  doors  themselves  swung  on  pivots,  the  bottom 
ones  let  into  a  hole  in  the  threshold,  the  upper  into  projecting 
corbels. 

At  many  points  along  the  line  of  the  Aurelian  wall  older  build- 
ings form  part  of  the  circuit,— near  the  Porta  Asinaria  a  large  piece 
of  the  Domus  Laterana,  a  house  of  the  3d  century  which  gave  its 
name  to  the  Lateran  basilica,  and  a  little  farther  on,  by  S.  Croce  in 
Gerusalemrae,  the  Amphitheatrum  Castrense  ;  the  latter,  of  about 
the  end  of  the  1st  century  A.D.,  has  two  tiers  of  arches  and  en- 
gaged columns  of  moulded  brick  on  the  outside.  Between  the  P. 
Prrenestina  and  the  P.  Tiburtina  comes  a  large  castellum  of  the  Aqua 
Tepula.  The  Pratorian  Camp  forms  a  great  projection  near  the 
P.  Nomentana.  Lastly,  the  angle  near  the  Porta  Flaminia,  at  the 

5  Vopiseus,  Aurel..  21,  89 ;  Zosimus,  i.  37,  49 ;  Rutrop.,  ix.  15. 

6  The  inscriptions  run  thus— S  .  P  .  Q  .  R  .  IMPP  .  CAESS  .  D .  D  .  INVIC- 
TISSIMIS  .  PRINCIPIBVS  .  ARCADIO  .  ET  .  HONORIO  .  VICTORIBVS . 
AC    TRIVMPHATORIBVS  .  SEMPER  .  AVGG  .  OB  .  INSTAVRATOS  . 
VRBIS  .  AETERNAE  .  MVROS  .  PORTAS  .  AC  .  TVRRES  .  EGESTIS  . 

IMMENSIS  .  RVDERIBVS —the  rest  refers  to  honorary  statues  erected 

to  commemorate  this  work. 


VOL.  XX 


•  ^r" 


Reference    to    Aniomuties 


-  __™  ..   -  .  Septiniiu*  Sevarus  in.  ihf,  F 


Column.      of       . 

—  „»_  .  ----  .-    fhoca* 


.  »  —  .  ..   Pantheon, 
Cktoria 

Of       fri/ut,i     de  Mff 

an     the,    Pi/uxan, 
of 


I'l'tHrua    'of      O 
Tomb     of  B  ilntlus 
Site,       of    the.     Xcptir, 
Trrnfi'r       of 

Concord, 
the    DU. 


__  „  .  _„..  fortune 

Mars    UUo 
Romulus 
*      Conti. 
.  --  fatta, 


showing   th«;  Municipal  Scheme 
for  the 


ENLARGEMENT    OF    THE    CITY 
1885. 


PLATEVm 


„.,„,,,, 


ARCHAEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


833 


foot  of  the  Piucian  Hill,  is  formed  by  remains  of  a  lofty  and  enor 
iiiously  massive  building,  faced  with  fine  opus  reticulatum  of  tin 
1st  century  B.C.  Owing  to  the  sinking  of  the  foundation  this  1 
very  much  out  of  the  perpendicular,  and  was  known  as  the  "murus 
tortus  "  at  a  very  early  time.1  What  this  once  important  building 
was  is  uncertain.  It  has  been  supposed  to  belong  to  the  tomb  o 
the  Domitii  (Suet,  Dom.,  2),  but  on  scanty  grounds.  Two  arch- 
ways which  form  gates  in  the  Aurelian  wall  are  of  much  earliei 
date.  The  Porta  Maggiore  consists  of  a  grand  triple  arch  of  the 
Claudian  aqueduct  built  in  travertine.  The  P.  S.  Lorenzo  is  a 
single  travertine  arch,  built  by  Augustus  where  the  aqueducl 
carrying  the  Aqua  Marcia,  Tepula,  and  Julia  crossed  the  Via 
Tiburtina.  The  inner  gateway,  built  of  massive  travertine  block; 
by  Honorius,  was  pulled  down  by  Pius  IX.  in  1868  for  the  sake  oJ 
the  material.2 

Literature.— Probably  no  archajological  subject  has  so  copious  a  literature  as 
that  dealing  with  the  topography  of  Rome  ;  much  of  this,  however,  has  been 
rendered  obsolete  by  subsequent  discoveries.  The  reader  who  wishes  to  study 
the  subject  in  a  fairly  concise  form  will  find  the  following  books  the  most  use- 
ful.3  Nardini,  Roma  Antica,  ed.  Nibby,  1818-20 ;  Nibby,  Antichita  di  Roma, 
1S30,  and  Roma  nell' Anno  183S,  1839;  Becker,  Handbuch  der  romiscJien  Alter- 
thiimer,  Leipsic,  1843  (of  special  value  from  its  numerous  references  to  classical 
authors) ;  Reber,  Die  Ruinen  Roms,  Leipsic,  1863  ;  Buiisen  and  others,  Beschreib- 
ung  der  Stadt  Rom,  Stuttgart,  1829-42,  and  the  abridgment  of  this  work  by 
Plainer  and  Uhlrichs,  1844;  Von  Reumont,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom,  Berlin, 
1807-70;  Jordan,  Topographic  dtr  Stadt  Rom,  Berlin,  1871  (in  progress,  a  work 
of  great  value);  Burn,  Rome  and  the  Campagna,  London,  1870  (by  far  the  best 
work  in  English,  both  from  its  illustrations  and  very  able  text) ;  Dyer,  The  City 
of  Rome,  London,  new  ed.,  1883  (a  compact  work,  useful  for  reference).  The 
very  large  and  magnificently  illustrated  works  by  Canina  must  be  used  with 
great  caution  ;  they  contain  imaginative  restorations  rather  than  accurate 
representations  of  what  really  exists ;  even  those  drawings  which  profess  to 
give  the  existing  remains  are  rendered  of  little  value  by  their  numerous  in- 
accuracies. The  chief  of  Cauina's  works  are  Indicazione  di  Roma  Antica,  1830  ; 
Esposizione  topngmjica,  1842 ;  Edifizj  di  Roma  Antica,  1848-56 ;  Foro  Romano, 
1845  ;  and  Architettura  Antica,  1834-44. 

The  student  who  wishes  to  enter  into  the  subject  in  detail  and  form  inde- 
pendent opinions  will  have  an  enormous  mass  of  literature  to  wade  through. 
(1)  First,  of  course,  come  various  classical  authors,  frequently  cited  above  ;  the 
MomimentiunAncymnum,ed..  Mommseu,  Berlin,  1883,  and  other  ancient  inscrip- 
tions. (2)  Second  in  importance  come  various  documents  of  the  decadence 
and  early  Middle  Ages : — the  Notitia  and  Curiosum,  Urbis  Romx,  printed  by 
Preller  in  his  Regionen  der  Stadt  Rom,  Jena,  1846 ;  the  Mirabilia  Romas,  ed. 
Parthey,  Berlin,  1809  ;  Graphia  Aurefe  Urbis,  ed.  Ozanam  in  Documents  inedits, 
Paris,  1850;  Catalogs  Viennensis  Imp.  Rom.,  published  by  Eccard ;  Deseriptio 
Regiomtm  Romee,  Einsiedeln  MS.,  ed.  Haenel  in  Archil)  fur  Philologie,  v.  115, 
Berlin,  1837 ;  Ordo  Romania,  ed.  Fea  in  Dissertazioni,  &c.,  1830 ;  the  Codex 
Topog.  U/-bis  Romas,  ed.  Uhlrichs,  Wiirzburg  1871  (contains  these  and  extracts 
from  other  mediaeval  sources) ;  Paulus  Diaconus,  Excerpta  ex  Lib.  Pomp.  Festi, 
ed.  Miiller,  Leipsic,  1839 ;  Anastasius  Bibliothecarius,  De  Vitis  Rom.  Pont.,  ed. 
Branching  1718.  The  various  commentators  on  Virgil  known  under  the 
general  name  of  Servivs  give  many  valuable  notes  on  Roman  topography ; 
an  excellent  edition  of  these  is  being  produced  by  Thilo  and  Hagen,  Leipsic, 
1881-85.  (3)  Thirdly  we  have  a  large  number  of  works,  mostly  illustrated,  pro- 
duced from  the  15th  to  the  18th  century,  the  value  of  which  is  frequently  very 
great  from  the  fact  that  they  describe  a  large  number  of  ancient  monuments 
which  no  longer  exist.  Some  of  these,  especially  those  earliest  in  date,  exist 
only  in  MS.  in  the  libraries  of  the  Vatican,  the  Uffizi,  Milan,  and  elsewhere ; 
a  very  valuable  MS.  of  Ligorio  (16th  century)  is  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  at 
Oxford.  Among  these  MSS.  are  drawings  of  ancient  buildings  by  Raphael, 
Bramante,  Bramantino,  Baldassare,  Sallustio  Peruzzi,  Andrea  Sansovino, 
Palladio,  and  in  fact  by  nearly  all  the  great  architects  of  the  16th  century. 

Works  of  15th  and  16th  Centuries. — Biondo,  Roma  Ristaurata,  Venice,  1543  (MS. 
of  1431-39) ;  Poggio,  De  Fortunes  VarieUtte  (MS.  of  about  1440),  Basel,  1538 ; 
Bramantino,  Rovine  di  Roma  (MS.,  1503-13,  in  Bibl.  Ambros.,  Milan),  ed.  by 
Mongeri,  Milan,  1875 ;  Albertini,  Opusc.  de  Mirab.  Urbis  Romee,  1509 ;  Pomp. 
Leto,  De  Vetustate  Urbis,  1523 ;  And.  Fulvius,  Antiquaria  Urbis,  Venice,  1527 ; 
Calvus,  Antiques  Urbis  Romie  Simulachrum,  1532 ;  Marlianus,  Urbis  Romie 
Topog.,  1544  ;  Palladio,  L' Architettura,  Venice,  1542,  and  Le  Terme  del  Romani, 
printed  first  in  London,  1732 ;  Serlio,  Architettura,  Venice,  1545,  bft.  iii.  ; 
Fauno,  Antichita.  di  Roma,  1548  ;  Labacco,  Architettura  ed  Antichita,  1557 ;  L. 
Mauro,  Antichittt  di  Roma,  Venice,  1558 ;  Ligorio,  Effigies  Antiq.  Romie,  1561 ; 
Gamucci,  Antichita  di  Roma,  Venice,  1565  ;  Dosius,  Urbis  Romie  ASdificia,  1569  ; 
Du  Perae,  Vestigj  di  Roma,  1575  ;  Fabricius,  Romee  Antiq.,  1587  ;  Vacca,  Varie 
Antichita,  1594,  printed  in  Nardini,  ed.  Nibby,  in  Roma  Antica,  vol.  iv., 
1818-20 ;  Miintz,  Un  Plan  de  Rome  aw  XVme  Siecle  (Soc.  Nat.  des  Antiquaires), 
Paris,  April  1880.  17th  Century. — Crechi,  Antichita  di  Roma,  1601 ;  Lauras, 
Antiq.  Urbis  Splendor,  1612 ;  Maggius,  sEdificia  et  Ruinx  Romse,  1618 ;  Felini, 
Alma  Cittd  diRoma,  1625  ;  Scamozzi,  L'Antichita  di  Roma,  1632  ;  Franzini,  Roma 
Ant.  e  Mod.,  1653  ;  Desgodetz,  Edifices  Antiques  de  Rome,  1682  ;  Ciampini,  Vetera 
Monuments,  1690 ;  Bartoli,  Admiranda  Rom.  Vestigia,  1693 ;  De  Rubeis,  Romie 
Magnif.  Mpnum.,  1699.  18th  Century. — Pinarole,  Antichita  di  Roma,  1709, 
and  Vestigi  di  Roma,  1744 ;  Donatus,  Roma  Vetu.s,  1725 ;  Bianchini,  Pal.  dei 
Cetarl,  1738.  The  magnificent  etchings  by  Piranesi  are  of  great  value;  the 
copperplates  (in  a  much  damaged  state)  still  exist,  and  are  worked  by  the 
Calcogratia  Camerale.  They  are  grouped  in  folio  vols.  entitled  La,  Magnificenza 
dei  Romani,  1761-64  ;  L'Antichita  Romana,  1750  ;  and  other  works.  See  further 
Bellori,  Ichnographia  Vet.  Romee,  1764 ;  Venuti,  Vet.  Monumenta,  1778,  and 
Descriz.  Topog.  di  Roma,  1824;  Guattani,  Moniim.  Antiq.  ined.,  1784-89,  and 
Roma  descritta,  1805.  10th  Centura—Many  articles  of  great  value  occur  in  the 
following  periodicals—  Annali,  Bullcttino,  and  Monumenti  dell'  Institute  di 
Corris.  Archxo.  di  Roma,  1829  (in  progress) ;  Atti  dell'  Accad.  Rom.  di  Arch., 
1821 ;  Atti  della  R.  Accad.  dei  Lincei  (in  progress);  Bullettino  della  Commissione 
Arch.  Mun.  di  Roma,  1872  (in  progress) ;  Notizie  degli  Scavi,  1876  (in  progress). 
See  also  Valadier,  Le  piu  insigni  Fabbriche  di  Roma,  1810-26  ;  Rossini,  Antichita 
di  Roma,  1817,  large  plates  ;  Fea,  Ragionamento  and  other  works,  1821-33 ; 
Taylor  and  Cresy,  Archil.  Antiq.  of  Rome,  London,  1821 ;  Romanis,  Vestigie  di 
Rom.  Ant.,  1832  ;  Gell,  Topography  of  Ronie,  London,  1834  ;  Donovan,  Rome 
Ancient  and  Modern,  1842;  Becker,  Die  romische  Topographic,  Leipsic,  1844 ; 
Zestermann,  De  Basilicis,  Brussels,  1847  ;  Braun,  Die  Ruinen  und  MuseenRoms, 
Berlin,  1854 ;  Ampere,  Histoire  Romaine,  Paris,  1862-64 ;  Zinzow,  Das  dlteste 

i  Procop.,  Bell.  Goth.,  i.  23. 

3  See  Becker,  De  Rom.  Muris  et  Portis,  Leipsic,  1842 ;  Nibby  and  Gell,  Le 
Mura  di  Roma,  1820  ;  Quarenghi,  Le  Mura  di  Roma,  1880 ;  Burn,  Rome  and  the 
Campagna,  1870,  with  other  general  works  mentioned  above. 

3  In  the  list  given  above  all  books  are  printed  in  Rome  unless  otherwise  de- 
scribed. 


Rom,  Pyritz,  1866  ;  Parker,  Photographs  illustrating  the  Arch,  of  Rome  Oxford 
1867  ;  Friedlander,  Sittengeschichte  Roms,  Leipsic,  1869,  and  Darstellungen  ai 
der  Sittengesch.  lioms,  Leipsic,  1881  ;  Wey,  Description  de  Rome,  Paris  1871  • 
Gsell-Fels,  Romische  Ausgrabungen,  Hildburghausen,  1870;  Jordan  forma 
Urbis  Ronue,  Berlin,  1875,  with  supplement  of  1883,  and  Novae  Qutestiones 
Tupog.,  Konigsberg,  1868;  Lanciani,  /  Com.mento.rii  di  Frontino  1880  and 
Dissertazioni  Arclixo.,  1876-85  ;  De  Rossi,  Note  di  Topog.  Rom  1882  •  Duruv 
Histoire  des  Remains,  Paris,  1878-84,  well  illustrated  ;  J.  H.  Middleton'  Ancient 
Rome  in  1S85  (A.  &  C.  Black,  Edinburgh),  1885.'  MAPS^-NolH'"'  mat  of 
ancient  Rome,  1748,  is  largely  followed  by  Canina  in  his  large  map  in  many 
plates,  1850  ;  Moltke,  Carta  Topog.  di  Roma,  Berlin,  1852  •  Rieu  Rom  Vet 
1  chnographm,  Lyons,  1863  ;  good  maps  of  ancient  and  modem  Rome  together 
are  contained  in  the  guides  of  Gsell-Fels,  Baedeker,  and  Murray  •  an  excellent 
map  of  ancient  Rome  is  given  by  Burn,  Rome  and  the  Campagna,  London,  1876. 

CHRISTIAN  ROME. 
1.  From  if  ic  4th  to  the  12  fh  Century. 

The  era  of  church  building  in  Rome  may  be  said  to  begin  with  Plate 
the  reign  of  Constantino  and  the  peace  of  the  church.  Before  then  VIII 
Christian  worship  was 
conducted  with  various 
degrees  of  secrecy  either 
in  private  houses  or  in 
the  CATACOMBS  (q.  v.),  ac- 
cording as  the  reigning 
emperor  viewed  the  sect 
with  tolerance  or  dislike. 
The  type  of  church  which 
in  the  beginning  of  the 
4th  century  was  adopted 
with  certain  modifica- 
tions from  the  pagan 
basilica,  though  varying 
much  in  size,  had  little 
or  no  variety  in  its 
general  form  and  ar- 
rangement. One  fixed 
model  was  strictly  ad- 
hered to  for  many  cen- 
turies, and,  in  spite  of 
numberless  alterations 
and  additions,  can  be 
traced  in  nearly  all  the 
ancient  churches  of 
Rome. 

Fig.  26  shows  a  typical 
xample,  omitting  all 
later  changes.4  The  plan 
is  that  of  the  lower 
ihurch  of  S.  Clemente, 
built  in  the  4th  century, 
probably  in  the  reign  of 
Uonstantine  ;  an  exist- 
ng  inscription  records 
ts  restoration  by  S. 
Siricius  (384-398).  The 
ittings,  altar,  choir- 
screen,  &c.,  are  not  now 
'n  situ,  but  were  moved 
nto  the  upper  church 
when  that  was  built,  be- 
tween 1100  and  1118. 

They  were  then  rather  _ 

carelessly  put  together,  FIG.  26.—  Plan  of  lower  church  of  S.  Clemente. 
and  the  proper  positions     A.  Celebrant's  throne  in  western  apse.  B.  High 
nf    tVio    m->er>f>l    anr\    fliA 
01  .  5  , 

ipistle    ambo    reversed. 

The  figure  shows  these 
fittings  replaced  in  the 
ancient  church  as  they 

originally  stood  ;  they  are  rather  later  than  the  building  itself,  being 
made  under  Pope  John,  probably  the  second  of  that  name  (532- 

>35)  ;  his  monogram  is  sculptured  on  the  marble  slabs  which  form 
the  low  walls  of  the  choir.  In  the  13th  century  ornaments  of  mosaic 

nlay  were  added  on  these  6th-century  screens  by  one  of  the  Cos- 
mati.  The  baldacchino  which  now  exists  in  the  upper  church  is 
of  c.  1100,  but  two  of  the  columns  of  a  much  older  canopy  are  pre- 
served by  being  used  in  the  construction  of  a  fine  15th-century 

;omb  near  the  high  altar.  These  have  richly  carved  caps  of  semi- 
classical  style,  and,  as  well  as  the  high  altar,  have  an  inscription 

•ecording  their  gift  to  the  church  by  the  priest  Mercurius  in  the 

wntificate  of  Hormisdas  (514-523).  The  paintings  of  the  9th 
century,  and  even  earlier,  which  cover  the  walls  of  the  lower 

;hurch  are  among  the  most  important  existing  specimens  of  early 
Christian  art.5 


altar  and  baldacchino.  C-  Stairs  down  to  con- 
fessio.  D,  D.  Side  doors  in  screen.  E.  Gospel 
ambo.  F.  Epistle  ambo.  G.  Lectern.  H. 
Paschal  candlestick.  J,  J.  Aisles.  K.  Doors 
»*  east  end.  L.  Stairs  to  upper  church.  M. 
Fountam  of  ablution.  X  Campanile, 


4  The  plan  of  the  upper  church  of  S.  Clemente  is  shown  under  BASILICA, 
fig.  13,  vol.  iii.  p.  417 ;  other  plans  of  early  basilicas  are  given  in  the  same 
article. 

5  See  Mullooly,  S.  Clement  and  his  Basilica,  Rome,  18(39 ;  De  Rossi,  in  Bull. 
Arch.  Crist.,  1863,  1865,  1867,  especially  1870,  pt.  iv. 

XX.  —  105 


834 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


Typical  The  typical  church  was  a  simple  rectangular  building,  with  or 
plan.  without  aisles,  haviiig  a  large  apse  at  the  west  end,  and  at  the  east 
three  doors  opening  from  a  cloister-like  atrium  ; J  when  space  was 
limited  three  sides  of  the  atrium  were  omitted,  leaving  only  a  long 
pillared  narthex  or  porch  which  extended  along  the  whole  width 
of  the  nave.  The  apse  or  presbyteriuni,  which  was  raised  above 
the  nave,  contained  a  central  marble  throne  for  the  celebrant  and 
a  long  bench  for  the  rest  of  the  clergy.  The  high  altar  stood  a 
little  forward  from  the  apse ;  and  over  it  was  a  square  canopy  or 
baldacchiuo  supported  on  four  marble  columns  ;  each  of  the  four 
arches  of  the  canopy  had  a  curtain,  which  was  drawn  close  during 
the  consecration  of  the  elements  ;  at  other  times  these  curtains 
were  twisted  round  the  four  columns  of  the  baldacchino.  The 
celebrant  stood  with  his  back  to  the  apse,  looking  eastwards  towards 
the  people  over  the  altar.2  The  high  altar  stood  over  the  tomb  of 
some  saint  or  confessor,  hence  called  the  "confessio";  this  was  so 
arranged  as  to  be  at  least  partly  visible,  and  usually  was  reached  by 
a  few  steps  descending  from  the  nave.  In  later  times  the  confessio 
became  frequently  a  spacious  crypt  containing  a  small  altar  of  its 
own.  At  this  point  cancelli  or  marble  screens  ran  across  the 
whole  width  of  the  church,  both  nave  and  aisles  ;  and  hence  the 
part  thus  railed  off  was  called  the  "chancel."  The  choir  occupied 
most  of  the  western  half  of  the  nave,  and  was  raised  one  step  above 
it ;  it  was  completely  surrounded  by  a  low  marble  wall  or  screen, 
along  two  sides  of  which  a  marble  bench  was  fixed.  On  the  right 3 
was  the  gospel  ambo,  its  marble  book-rest  usually  distinguished  by 
a  sculptured  eagle,  and  beside  it  the  tall  paschal  candlestick.  On 
the  left  was  the  epistle  ambo.4  The  font  was  frequently  an  ancient 
marble  or  porphyry  bath,  as  in  the  Lateran  baptistery  and  that  of 
S.  Maria  Maggiore  ;  but  in  early  times  an  ordinary  parish  church 
had  no  font ;  baptisms  were  only  performed  in  one  or  two  of  the 
great  basilicas,  and  then  in  a  separate  building,  usually  octagonal 
in  shape.  In  the  centre  of  the  open  atrium  stood  a  fountain  for 
ablutions  performed  before  entering  the  church,  as  in  an  Oriental 
mosque. 

Con-  The  walls  of  these  early  churches  were  mostly  built  of  concrete, 

stmction.  faced  with  brick,  left  structurally  quite  plain,  and  decorated  only 
with  painted  stucco  or  glass  mosaics, — especially  (internal!}')  in 
the  apse  and  on  the  face  of  its  arch,  and  (externally)  on  the  east 
or  entrance  wall,  the  top  of  which  was  often  built  in  an  overhang- 
ing curve  to  keep  off  the  rain.  The  windows  were  plain,  with 
semicircular  arches,  and  were  filled  with  pierced  marble  screens,  or 
in  some  cases  with  slabs  of  translucent  alabaster ;  the  latter  was 
the  case  at  S.  Lorenzo  fuori  le  Mura,  and  examples  of  the  former 
still  exist  in  the  very  early  church  formed  in  the  rooms  of  some 
themise  on  the  Esquiline  (possibly  those  of  Trajan),  below  the  6th- 
century  church  of  S.  Martiuo  ai  Monti.  Almost  the  only  bit  of 
external  architectural  ornament  was  the  eaves  cornice,  frequently 
(as  at  the  last-named  church)  formed  of  marble  cornices  stolen  from 
earlier  classical  buildings.  Internally  the  nave  columns,  with  their 
capitals  and  bases,  were  usually  taken  from  some  classical  building, 
and  some  churches  are  perfect  museums  of  fine  sculptured  caps  and 
rich  marble  shafts  of  every  material  and  design.5  At  first  the  nave 
had  no  arches,  the  columns  supporting  a  horizontal  entablature,  as 
at  S.  Clemente,  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  and  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere, 
but  afterwards,  in  order  to  widen  the  intercolumniation,  simple 
round  arches  of  narrow  span  were  introduced,  thus  requiring  fewer 
i -i ilunuis.  The  roof  was  of  the  simple  tie-beam  and  kingpost  con- 
struction, left  open,  but  decorated  with  painting  or  metal  plates. 
The  floor  was  paved  either  with  coarse  mosaic  of  large  tesserae  (as 
at  S.  Pudentiana)  or  with  slabs  of  marble  stripped  from  ancient 
buildings.  A  later  development  of  this  plan  added  a  small  apse 
containing  an  altar  at  the  end  of  each  aisle,  as  in  S.  Maria  in  Cos- 
medin  and  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli.8 

Circular  The  type  of  church  above  described  was  used  as  a  model  for  by 
churches,  far  the  majority  of  early  churches  not  only  in  Rome  but  also  in 
England,  France,  Germany,  and  other  Western  countries.  Another 
form  was,  however,  occasionally  used  in  Rome,  which  appears  to 
have  been  derived  from  the  round  temple  of  pagan  times.  This  is 
a  circular  building  usually  domed  and  surrounded  with  one  or  more 
rings  of  pillared  aisles.  To  this  class  belong  the  combined  church 
and  mausoleum  of  Costanza  (see  fig.  27)  and  that  of  SS.  Marcellinus 
and  Petrus,  both  built  by  Constantme,  the  former  to  hold  the  tomb  of 
his  daughters  Constantia  and  Helena,  the  latter  that  of  his  mother 
Helena.  The  latter  is  on  the  Via  Labicana,  about  2  miles  outside 

1  The  complete  atrium  or  quadro-porticus  now  very  rarely  exists ;  the 
churches  of  S.  Prassede  and  8.  Cecilia  in  Trastevere  still  have  it  in  a  modernized 
form,  and  so  has  the  church  of  the  Quattro  Santi  Incoronati,  which  also  pos- 
sesses the  triforium  galleries,  like  those  of  8.  Agnese  fuori. 

8  The  custom  (adopted  some  centuries  later)  of  the  celebrant  standing 
between  the  altar  and  the  people  necessitated  a  reversal  of  orientation,  and 
the  high  altar  was  then  placed  at  the  east  end. 

8  "Right"  and  "left"  are  here  used  of  one  facing  the  high  altar. 

*  An  analogous  arrangement  of  the  choir  exists  in  most  of  the  Spanish 
cathedrals,  in  which  it  occupies  a  great  part  of  the  nave. 

»  8.  Lorenzo  and  8.  Agnese  fuori,  8.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  Ara  Call,  and 
numberless  other  churches  are  very  rich  in  this  respect. 

•  O.  G.  Scott  (Church  Architecture,  London,  1881)  gives  a  valuable  account  of 
the  arrangements  of  early  churches;  see  also  Hubsch,  Altchristlichen  Kirchen, 
Carlsruhe,  1862.    The  three  apses  are  common  in  Eastern  churches. 


Rome;  it  is  a  circular  domed  building,  now  known  as  the  Torre 
Pignattara,  from  the  pignatte  or  amphora  built  into  the  concrete 
dome  t«>  lighten  it.  The 
mausoleum  of  S.  Cos- 
tauza,  close  by  S.  Agnese 
fuori,  is  also  domed,  with 
circular  aisle,  or  rather 
ambulatory,  the  vault  of 
the  latter  decorated  with 
mosaic  or  classical  style 
(see  MOSAIC,  vol.  xvi.  p. 
852).  The  red  porphyry 
sarcophagi,  sculptured 
richly  with  reliefs,  from 
these  mausolea  are  now 
in  the  Vatican.  On  a 
much  larger  scale  is  the 
church  of  S.  Stefauo  Ro- 
tondo  on  the  Ccelian,  built 
by  Pope  Simplicius  (468- 
483),  with  a  double  ring 
of  pillared  aisles,  the 
outer  one  of  which  was 
pulled  down  and  a  new 

enclosure  wall   built    by       "   '      '  '  '  a 

Nicholas  V.   Other  round  Fl°-  27. -Church  and  mamoleum  of  Crataan. 
i,     i  o    rr     i          A.  Recess  for  altar.    B.  Porphyry  slab  in  floor 

churches  are  S.  Teodoro  where  the  tomb  stood.  C.  Modern  altar.  D, 
(by  the  VlCUS  Tuscus),  of  D.  Slabs  of  white  marble,  part  of  ancient  pav- 
the  8th  century,  and  S.  inS-  E,  E.  Recesses  with  mosaics.  F,  F.  Am- 
Bernardo,  which  is  one  of  bulatory  with  mosaic  vault 
the  domed  halls  of  Diocletian's  therrna1,  consecrated  as  a  church 
in  1598. 

Space  will  not  allow  any  individual  description  of  the  very 
numerous  and  important  churches  in  Rome  which  are  built  on  the 
above-described  plan.  The  principal  examples  are  these: 7— S.  Pudeu- 
tiana,  traditionally  the  oldest  in  Rome,  rebuilt  by  Adrian  I.  (772- 
795)  ;  S.  Sabina,  5th  century ;  S.  Vitale,  5th  century,  founded 
by  Innocent  I.  (402-417) ;  S.  Martino  ai  Monti,  500  ;  S.  Balbina, 
6th  century ;  church  of  Ara  Coeli,  founded  in  6th  century  as  S. 
Maria  in  Capitolio  ;  S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro,  rebuilt  by  Leo  II.  (682- 
683) ;  S.  Cesareo,  8th  century  ;  S.  Maria  in  Via  Lata,  built  by  Sergius 
I.  (687-701) ;  S.  Crisogouo,  rebuilt  in  731  by  Gregory  III. ;  S.  Maria 
in  Cosmedin  and  S.  Giovanni  ad  Portani  Latinam,  both  rebuilt  c. 
772  by  Adrian  I.  ;  S.  Maria  in  Domuica,  rebuilt  by  Paschal  I. 
(817-824),  who  also  rebuilt  S.  Cecilia  in  Trastevere  c.  821  and  S. 
Prassede  in  822  ;  S.  Marco,  rebuilt  by  Gregory  IV.  in  833  ;  S.  Maria 
Nuova,  founded  by  Nicholas  I.  (858-867),  now  called  S.  Francesca 
Romana ;  S.  Anastasia,  founded  in  the  4th,  rebuilt  in  the  10th 
century  ;  S.  Bartolomeo  in  Isola  and  the  church  of  the  Quattro 
Santi  Incoronati,  built  by  Paschal  II.  about  1113;  and  S.  Maria  in 
Trastevere,  rebuilt  by  Innocent  II.  in  1139.8 

Though  the  apses  and  classical  columns  of  the  naves  in  these 
churches  were  built  at  the  dates  indicated,  yet  in  many  cases  it  is 
difficult  to  trace  the  existence  of  the  ancient  walls  ;  the  alterations 
and  additions  of  many  centuries  have  frequently  almost  wholly 
concealed  the  original  structure.  With  the  exception  of  S.  Clemente, 
the  early  choir,  placed  as  shown  in  fig.  26,  has  invariably  been 
destroyed  ;  the  side  walls  have  often  been  broken  through  by  the 
addition  of  rows  of  chapels  ;  and  the  whole  church,  both  within 
and  without,  has  been  overlaid  with  the  most  incongruous  archi- 
tectural features  in  stucco  or  stone.  The  open  roof  is  usually  con- 
cealed either  by  a  wooden  panelled  ceiling  or  by  a  stucco  vault. 
The  throne 9  and  marble  benches  in  the  apse  have  usually  given 
place  to  more  modern  wooden  fittings,  to  suit  the  later  position  of 
the  choir,  which  has  always  been  transferred  from  the  nave  to  the 
apse.  In  many  cases  the  mosaics  of  the  apse  and  the  columns  of 
the  nave  are  the  only  visible  remains  of  the  once  simple  and  stately 
original  church.10 

2.  Frmn  1200  to  1450  ;  and  the  Papal  Palaces. 
The  10th  and  llth  centuries  in  Rome  were  extraordinarily  barren  Erao 
in  the  production  of  all  branches  of  the  fine  ails,  even  that  of  archi-  CO.SB 
tecture  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  12th  that  any  important 
revival  began.    The  13th  century  was,  however,  one  of  great  artistic 
activity,  when  an  immense  number  of  beautiful  works,  especially 
in  marble  enriched  with  mosaic,  were  produced  in  Rome.     This 
revival,  though  on  different  lines,  was  veiy  similar  to  the  rather 
later  one  which  took  place  at  Pisa  (see  PISANO),  and,  like  that, 
was  mainly  due  to  the  great  artistic  talents  of  one  family, — the 


1  For  the  early  church  of  SS.  Cosmo  e  Damiano,  see  above,  lig.  19. 

8  Tliis  list  does  not  include  the  great  basilicas  of  Rome,  for  which  see 
BASILICA,  vol.  iii.  p.  412. 

9  Some  of  these  marble  thrones  which  still  exist  are  very  interesting  relics 
of  Hellenic  art,  much  resembling  the  existing  seats  in  the  theatre  of  Dionysius 
at  Athens,  whence  probably  some  of  those  in  Rome  were  brought  in  classical 
times.    Examples  of  these  Greek  thrones  exist  at  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  S. 
Stefano  Rotondo,  and  in  the  Lateran  cloister. 

10  See  Nesbitt,  "  Churches  in  Rome  earlier  than  1100,"  in  Archieologia,  vol. 
xl.,  1806. 


ARCHAEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


835 


Cosmati,1  seven  members  of  which,  for  four  generations,  were  skilful 
architects,  sculptors,  and  mosaicists. 

The  following  are  the   names  and  dates   known  from  existing 
inscriptions : — 

Lorenzo  (born  in  the  second  half  of  the  12th  century. 

Jacopo  (dated  works  1205  and  1210). 


Cosimo  ( 


1210-35). 


I  I 

Luca  Jacopo  Adeodato  Giovanni 

(1231  and  1235).      (1231-1293).  (1294).  (1296  and  1303). 

Their  principal  works  in  Rome  are  : — ambones  of  S.  Maria  in 
Ara  Cceli  (Lorenzo)  ;  door  of  S.  Saba,  1205,  and  door  with  mosaics 
of  S.  Tommaso  in  Formis  (Jacopo) ;  chapel  of  the  Sancta  Sanctorum, 
by  the  Lateran  (Cosimo)  ;  pavement  of  S.  Jacopo  alia  Lungara,  and 
(probably)  the  magnificent  episcopal  throne  and  choir-screen  in  S. 
Lorenzo  fuori  le  Mura,  of  1254  (Jacopo  the  younger)  ;2  baldacchino 
of  the  Lateran  and  of  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  c.  1294  (Adeodato)  ; 
tombs  in  S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva  (c.  1296),  in  S.  Maria  Maggiore, 
and  in  S.  Balbina  (Giovanni).  A  large  number  of  other  works  by 
members  and  pupils  of  the  same  family,  but  unsigned,  exist  in 
Rome.  These  are  mainly  altars  and  baldacchini,  choir  -  screens, 
paschal  candlesticks,  ambones,  tombs,  and  the  like,  all  enriched  with 
sculpture  and  glass  mosaic  of  great  brilliance  and  decorative  effect. 
Besides  the  more  mechanical  sort  of  work,  such  as  mosaic  patterns 
and  architectural  decoration,  they  also  produced  mosaic  pictures 
and  sculpture  of  very  high  merit,  especially  the  recumbent  effigies, 
with  angels  standing  at  the  head  and  foot,  in  the  tombs  of  Ara 
Cceli,  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  and  elsewhere.  One  of  their  finest  works 
is  in  S.  Cesareo  ;  this  is  a  marble  altar  richly  decorated  with  mosaic 
in  sculptured  panels,  and  (below)  two  angels  drawing  back  a  curtain 
(all  in  marble)  so  as  to  expose  the  open  grating  of  the  confessio. 
The  magnificent  cloisters  of  S.  Paolo  fuori  le  Mura,  built  about 
1285  by  Giovanni,  the  youngest  of  the  Cosmati,  are  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  works  of  this  school.  The  baldacchino  of  the  same 
basilica  is  a  signed  work  of  the  Florentine  Arnolfo  del  Cambio, 
1285,  "cum  suo  socio  Petro,"  probably  a  pupil  of  the  Cosmati. 
Other  works  of  Arnolfo,  such  as  the  Braye  tomb  at  ORVIETO  (q.v.\ 
show  an  intimate  artistic  alliance  between  him  and  the  Cosmati. 
The  equally  magnificent  cloisters  of  the  Lateran,  of  about  the  same 
date,  are  very  similar  in  design ;  both  these  triumphs  of  the  sculptor- 
architect's  and  mosaicist's  work  have  slender  marble  columns, 
twisted  or  straight,  richly  inlaid  with  bands  of  glass  mosaic  in 
delicate  and  brilliant  patterns.  The  shrine  of  the  Confessor  at 
Westminster  is  a  work  of  this  school,  executed  about  1268  (see 
MOSAIC).  The  general  style  of  works  of  the  Cosmati  school  is 
Gothic  in  its  main  lines,  especially  in  the  elaborate  altar-canopies, 
with  their  pierced  geometrical  tracery.  In  detail,  however,  they 
differ  widely  from  the  purer  Gothic  of  northern  countries.  The 
richness  of  effect  which  the  English  or  French  architect  obtained 
by  elaborate  and  carefully  worked  mouldings  was  produced  in  Italy 
by  the  beauty  of  polished  marbles  and  jewel -like  mosaics,— the 
details  being  mostly  rather  coarse  and  often  carelessly  executed, 
i-  Chiefly  to  the  13th  century  belong  the  large  number  of  beautiful 

ili.  campanili,  which  are  the  most  conspicuous  relics  of  the  medieval 
period  in  Rome.  The  finest  of  these  are  attached  to  the  churches 
of  S.  Maria  Nuova,  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  and  S.  Maria  Maggiore. 
Others  belong  to  the  basilicas  of  S.  Lorenzo  fuori  and  S.  Croce  in 
Gerusalemme,  and  to  S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro,  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin, 
S.  Alessio,  S.  Giovanni  ad  Portam  Latinam,  S.  Cecilia,  S.  Crisogono, 
and  S.  Pudentiana.  They  occupy  various  positions  with  regard  to 
the  church,  being  all  later  additions  ;  that  of  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo 
stands  at  some  distance  from  it.  In  design  they  are  very  similar, 
consisting  of  many  stages,  divided  by  brick  and  marble  cornices  ; 
in  the  upper  stories  are  from  two  to  four  windows  on  each  side, 
with  round  arches  supported  on  slender  marble  columns.  They 
are  decorated  with  brilliantly  coloured  ciotole  or  disks  of  earthen- 
ware, enamelled  and  painted  in  green  or  turquoise  blue,  among  the 
earliest  existing  specimens  of  the  so-called  majolica  (see  POTTERY, 
vol.  xix.  p.  624  sq.).  Sometimes  disks  or  crosses  made  of  red  or 
green  porphyry  are  inlaid  in  the  walls.  In  most  cases  on  one  face 
of  the  top  story  is  a  projecting  canopied  niche,  which  once  contained 
a  statue  or  mosaic  picture.  The  walls  are  built  of  fine  neat  brick- 
work. One  campanile  (that  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore),  the  largest  and 
once  the  handsomest  of  all,  has  string-courses  of  enamelled  and 
coloured  terra-cotta.  The  slender  columns  of  the  windows  have 
often  proved  insufficient  to  support  the  weight,  and  so  many  of  the 
arches  are  built  up.3 

Though  but  little  used  for  churches,  the  Gothic  style,  in  its 
modified  Italian  form,  was  almost  universally  employed  for  domestic 


An  excellent  account  of  the  Cosmati  is  given  by  Boito,  Architettura  del 
Media  Evo,  Milan,  1880,  pp.  117-182. 

2  The  chief  signed  works  of  Jacopo  and  his  brother  Luca  are  at  Anagni  and 
Subiaco. 

3  See  De  Montault,  Les  Cloches  de  Rome,  Arras,  1874. 


architecture  in  Rome  during  the  13th  and  14th  centuries.  Tufa 4  Domestic 
or  brick  was  used  for  the  main  walls,  the  lowest  story  being  often  architect- 
supported  on  an  arcade  of  pointed  arches  and  marble  columns.  The  we. 
windows  were  usually  formed  of  large  marble  slabs  with  trefoil- 
shaped  heads  or  cusped  arches.  As  a  rule  the  upper  stories  pro- 
jected slightly  over  the  lower  wall,  and  were  supported  on  small 
ornamental  machicolations.  The  top  story  frequently  had  an  open 
loggia,  with  rows  of  pointed  arches.  When  vaulting  was  used  it 
also  was  of  the  pointed  form,  usually  in  simple  quadripartite  bays, 
with  slightly  moulded  groin-ribs.  The  finest  existing  specimen  of 
this  style  is  the  palace. built  about  1300  by  Boniface  VIII.  (Gaetano 
family),  enclosing  the  tomb  of  Cecilia  Metella  on  the  Via  Appia, 
with  a  graceful  little  chapel  within  the  precincts  of  the  castle.  This 
building  is  very  worthy  of  study  ;  the  remaining  part  is  well  pre- 
served. Many  houses  of  this  period,  though  generally  much  injured 
by  alterations,  still  exist  in  Rome.  They  are  mostly  in  out-of-the- 
way  alleys,  and,  not  being  mentioned  in  any  books,  are  seldom  ex- 
amined. The  Ghetto  and  the  quarter  near  the  Ponte  Rotto  contain 
many  of  these  interesting  buildings,  as  well  as  some  of  the  most 
crowded  parts  of  the  Trastevere  district ;  all  are  rapidly  disappear- 
ing under  the  wholesale  destruction  of  old  streets  now  in  progress. 
Among  those  which  may  possibly  escape  for  a  while  is  the  13th- 
century  house  where  Giulio  Romano  lived,  near  the  Palazzo  di 
Venezia,  and  the  Albergo  del  Orso,  at  the  end  of  the  Via  di  Tordi- 
nona,  of  the  same  period,  which  was  an  inn  in  the  16th  century 
and  is  one  still  ;  this  has  remains  of  a  fine  upper  loggia,  with  rich 
cornices  in  moulded  terra-cotta  ;  the  lowest  story  has  pointed  vault- 
ing resting  on  many  pillars.  Another  graceful  but  less  stately 
house  exists,  though  sadly  mutilated,  opposite  the  entrance  to  the 
atrium  of  S.  Cecilia  in  Trastevere.8  Very  few  now  remain  of  the 
once  numerous  lofty  towers  built  by  the  turbulent  Roman  barons 
for  purposes  of  defence.  The  finest^  the  Torre  della  Milizia  on  the 
Viminal,  was  built  in  the  13th  century  by  the  sons  of  Petrus  Alexius ; 
of  about  the  same  date  is  the  Torre  dei  Conti,  near  the  forum  of 
Augustus,  built  by  Marchione  of  Arezzo  ;  both  these  were  once  much 
higher  than  they  are  now  ;  they  are  very  simple  and  noble  in  design, 
with  massive  walls  faced  with  neat  brickwork,  much  resembling 
that  of  the  2d  century. 

Till  the  14th  century  the  Lateran  was  the  usual  residence  of  the  Lateran 
pope  ;  this  was  once  a  very  extensive  building,  covering  four  times  palace. 
its  present  area.  The  original  house  istsaid  to  have  belonged  to  the 
senator  Plautius  Lateranus  in  the  reign  of  Nero  ;  but  the  existing 
part  on  the  line  of  the  Aurelian  wall  is  of  the  3d  century.  This 
house,  which  had  become  the  property  of  the  emperors,  was  given 
by  Constantine  as  a  residence  for  S.  Sylvester ;  it  was  very  much 
enlarged  at  many  periods  during  the  next  ten  centuries  ;  in  1308  a 
great  part  was  burnt,  and  in  1586  the  ancient  palace  was  completely 
destroyed  by  Sixtus  V.,  and  the  present  palace  built  by  Domenico 
Fontana.  The  Cappella  Sancta  Sanctorum  (see  list  of  Cosmati 
works)  is  the  only  relic  of  the  older  palace.6  The  present  palace 
has  never  been  used  as  a  papal  residence  ;  in  the  18th  century  it 
was  an  orphan  asylum,  and  is  now  a  museum  of  classical  sculpture 
and  early  Christian  remains. 

The  Vatican  palace  also  appears  to  have  originated  in  a  house  The 
which  existed  in  the  time  of  Constantine.  This  was  rebuilt  by  Vatican. 
Innocent  III.  (c.  1200)  and  enlarged  by  Nicholas  III.  (1277-80). 
It  did  not,  however,  become  the  fixed  residence  of  the  popes  till 
after  the  return  from  Avignon  in  1377.  In  1415  John  XXIII. 
connected  the  Vatican  and  the  castle  of  S.  Angelo  by  a  covered 
passage  carried  on  arches.  But  little  of  the  existing  palace  is  older 
than  the  15th  century  ;  Nicholas  V.  in  1447  began  its  reconstruc- 
tion on  a  magnificent  scale,  and  this  was  carried  on  by  Sixtus  IV. 
(Sistine  chapel),  Alexander  VI.  (Appartamenti  Borgia),  Julius  II. 
and  Leo  X.  (Bramante's  cortile  and  paintings  by  Raphael),  and 
Paul  III.  (Sala  Regia  and  Cappella  Paolina  by  Antonio  da  Sangallo). 
Sixtus  V.  and  his  successors  built  the  lofty  part  of  the  palace  on 
the  east  of  Bramante's  cortile.  The  Scala  Regia  was  built  by  Bernini 
for  Urban  VIII.,  the  Museo  Pio-Clementino  under  Clement  XIV. 
and  Pius  VI.,  the  Braccio  Nuovo  under  Pius  A'll.,  and  lastly  the 
grand  stairs  up  to  the  cortile  were  added  by  Pius  IX. 

The  Quirinal  palace,  now  occupied  by  the  king  of  Italy,  is  devoid  The 
of  architectural  merit.     It  stands  on  the  highest  part  of  the  hill,  Quirinal. 
on  the  site  of  part  of  the1  baths  of  Constantine.     This  palace  was 
begun  in  1574,  under  Gregory  XIII.,  by  Flaminio  Ponzio,  and  was 
completed  by  Fontana  and  Maderna  under  subsequent  popes. 


4  For  many  centuries  wall-facing  of  small  tufa  stones  was  used,  e.g.,  in  the 
mediaeval  part  of  the  Capitol;  this  was  called  "opera  saracinesca"  from  its 
supposed  adoption  from  the  Saracens;  it  is  largely  employed  in  the  walls  and 
towers  of  the  Leonine  city,  built  by  Leo  IV.  (848-852)  to  defend  the  Vatican 
basilica  and  palace  against  the  inroads  of  the  Moslem  invaders.    The  greater 
part  of  this  wall  is  now  destroyed  and  built  over,  but  a  long  piece  with  massive 
circular  towers  well  preserved  exists  in  the  gardens  of  the  Vatican. 

5  The  house  of  Crescentius,  popularly  called  the  "  house  of  Rienzi,   near  the 
Ponte  Rotto  is  perhaps  the  sole  relic  of  the  domestic  architecture  or  an  earlie 
period  —the  llth  century.    Its  architectural  decorations  are  an  extraordinary 
mixture  of  marble  fragments  of  the  most  miscellaneous  sort,  all  taken  from 
classical  buildings ;  it  has  a  long  but  somewhat  unintelligible  inscription  over 

6  Thermit  mosaic  in  the  adjacent  apse  is  a  modern  copy  of  that  which  once 
decorated  the  triclinium  of  Leo  III.  (795-816). 


830 


ROME 


[TOPOGRAPHY  AND 


Ecclesi-  The  only  important  church  in  Rome  which  is  wholly  Gothic  in 
astical  style  is  S.  Mana  sopra  Minerva,  the  chief  church  of  the  Dominican 
Gothic,  order.  This  was  not  the  work  of  a  Roman  architect,  but  was  de- 
signed by  two  Dominican  friars  from  Florence — Fra  Ristoro  and 
Fra  Sisto — about  1289,  who  were  also  the  architects  of  their  own 
church  of  S.  Maria  Novella.  It  much  resembles  the  contemporary 
churches  of  the  same  order  in  Florence,  having  wide-spanued  pointed 
arches  on  clustered  piers  and  simple  quadripartite  vaulting.  Its 
details  resemble  the  early  French  in  character.1  It  contains  a 
large  number  of  fine  tombs  ;  among  them  that  of  Durandus,  bishop 
of  Mende  (the  author  of  the  celebrated  Rationale  divinorum  offici- 
orum),  by  Giovanni  Cosmas,  c.  1300,  and  the  tomb  of  Fra  Angelico, 
the  great  Dominican  painter,  who  died  in  Rome,  1455.  The  most 
elaborate  specimen  of  ecclesiastical  Gothic  in  Rome  is  that  part  of 
S.  Maria  in  Ara  Coeli  which  was  rebuilt  about  1300,  probably  by 
one  of  the  Cosmati,  namely,  the  south  aisle  and  transept.  For  at 
least  two  centuries  after  the  death  of  Giovanni  Cosmas  no  native 
Roman  appears  to  have  excelled  in  any  branch  of  the  fine  arts.  The 
sculptured  effigy  and  reredos  of  Cardinal  Aleii9on  in  S.  Maria  in 
Trastevere,  executed  about  1400  by  a  certain  Paulus  Romanus,  is  a 
fair  example  of  the  decadence  which  took  place  during  this  period  ; 
the  effigy  is  a  very  clumsy  and  feeble  copy  of  the  fine  recumbent 
figures  of  the  Cosmati. 

3.  Florentine  Period,  c.  1450-1550. 

The  long  period  of  almost  complete  artistic  inactivity  in  Rome 
was  broken  in  the  15th  century  by  the  introduction  of  a  number 
of  foreign  artists,  chiefly  Florentines,  who  during  this  and  the 
succeeding  century  enriched  Rome  with  an  immense  number  of 
magnificent  works  of  art.  The  dawn  of  this  brilliant  epoch  may 
be  said  to  have  begun  with  the  arrival  of  Fra  Angelico  (see  FIESOLE) 
in  1447,  invited  by  Nicholas  V.  to  paint  the  walls  of  his  small 
private  chapel  in  the  Vatican  dedicated  to  S.  Lorenzo. 
Mino  da  To  Mino  da  Fiesole  (see  Mixo  m  GIOVANNI,  vol.  xvi.  p.  477), 
Fiesole.  who  spent  several  years  in  Rome  between  1470  and  1484,  and  other 
Florentine  sculptors  are  due  almost  all  the  very  beautiful  sculptured 
tombs  which  were  made  for  a  large  number  of  the  Roman  churches 
during  the  last  thirty  years  of  the  15th  century,  as  well  as  many 
altar  frontals,  reredoses,  tabernacles,  and  the  like.  Though  varied 
in  details,  most  of  these  tombs  are  designed  after  one  type,  that 
employed  by  Mino  in  his  fine  monuments  in  the  Badia  at  Florence. 
A  life-sized  recumbent  effigy  lies  on  a  richly  ornamented  sarcophagus, 
over  which  is  an  arched  canopy  decorated  with  reliefs  ;  the  piers 
which  support  this  (usually)  have  statuettes  in  two  or  more  tiers. 
For  grace  and  refined  beauty  no  type  of  sepulchral  monument  has 
ever  equalled  this  Florentine  design.  The  peaceful  attitude  and 
calm  face  of  the  effigy  are  frequently  of  the  most  perfect  beauty, 
and  the  minute  statuettes  and  reliefs  are  finished  with  ivory-like 
delicacy.  Though  the  influence  of  Mino,  very  strongly  marked, 
may  be  traced  in  all  these  numerous  works  (there  are  in  Rome  more 
than  a  hundred  tombs  of  this  class),  yet  a  very  small  proportion 
can  be  actually  by  his  hand.  Mino  created  and  trained  a  large 
school  of  sculptor-pupils  in  Rome,  some  of  whom  appear  almost  to 
have  equalled  their  master  in  skill ;  and  it  is  to  them  that  most  of 
these  works  must  be  referred.  A  very  long  list  of  churches  contain- 
ing sculpture  of  this  class  might  be  given  ;  perhaps  the  richest  are 
S.  Maria  in  Monserrato  (the  cloisters)  and  S.  Maria  del  Popolo.2 

The  architecture  no  less  than  the  sculpture  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  15th  century  was  mainly  the  work  of  Florentines,  especially  of 
Baccio  Pintelli,  who  partly  rebuilt  S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  S.  Agostino,3 
and  S.  Cosimato  in  Trastevere.  He  also  was  the  architect  of  S. 
Pietro  in  Montorio,  erected  in  1500  for  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of 
Spain,  and  probably  designed  the  Sistine  chapel  for  Sixtus  IV.  in 
1473.  Other  buildings  were  earned  out  by  another  Florentine, 
Giuliano  da  Majano  (see  Ferrerio,  Palazzi  di  Roma,  1825).  The 
Palazzo  di  Venezia,  begun  for  Cardinal  Barbo,  afterwards  Paul  II., 
about  1455,  a  very  massive  and  stately  building  of  mediaeval  char- 
acter, was  designed  by  Francesco  di  Borgo  San  Sepolcro. 
Bra-  During  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  and  the  first  few  years  of  the 

mante.  succeeding  century  Rome  was  enriched  with  a  number  of  buildings 
by  BRAMANTE  (q.v.),  one  of  the  greatest  architects  the  world  has 
ever  seen.  With  the  most  consummate  skill,  he  combined  the 
delicacy  of  detail  and  the  graceful  lightness  of  the  Gothic  style 
witli  the  measured  stateliness  and  rhythmical  proportions  of  classic 
architecture.  Though  he  invariably  used  the  round  arch  and  took 
his  mouldings  from  antique  sources,  his  beautiful  cloisters  and 
loggie  are  Gothic  in  their  general  conception.  Moreover,  he  never 
committed  the  prevalent  blunder  of  the  16th  century,  which  was 
a  fruitless  attempt  to  obtain  magnificence  by  mere  size  in  a  build- 
ing, without  multiplying  its  parts.  His  principal  works  in  Rome 
are  the  magnificent  Palazzo  della  Cancelleria,  built  for  Cardinal 

1  The  absence  of  a  triforium  in  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  the  large  Gothic 
churches  of  Italy  are  so  inferior  in  effect  to  the  cathedrals  of  France  and  England. 
T/,  ow?uld  **  easy  *°  double  the  list  given  in  Perkins's  valuable  Handbook  of 
ital.  Sculpt.,  London,  1883,  p.  417.  Drawings  of  many  of  these  are  published 
by  Tosi,  Monumenti  Sacri,  &c.,  1843. 

3  These  two  churches  were  the  first  in  Rome  built  with  domes  after  the 
classical  period. 


Riario  in  1495,  with  its  stately  church  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso  ; 
the  so-called  Palazzo  di  Bramante  in  the  Governo  Vecchio,  built  in 
1500  ;  and  the  Palazzo  Giraud,  near  St  Peter's,  once  the  ivsidmn. 
of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  built  in  1506.  He  also  built  the  cortile  of  S. 
Damaso  in  the  Vatican,  the  toy-like  tempietto  in  the  cloister  of  S. 
Pietro  in  Montorio,  and'the  cloisters  of  S.  Maria  della  Pace,  1504.4 
In  1503  Bramante  was  appointed  architect  to  St  Peter's,  and  mad.- 
complete  designs  for  it,  with  a  plan  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross. 
The  piers  and  arches  of  the  central  dome  were  the  only  parts  com- 
pleted at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1514,  and  subsequent  architects 
did  not  carry  out  his  design.  For  St  Peter's,  see  AucHrrr.<Tri;K, 
vol.  ii.  p.  438  and  plates  XXII.,  XXIII.  ;  also  BASILICA,  vol.  iii. 
p.  415  sq. 

Baldassare  PERUZZI  (q.v.)  of  Siena  was  one  of  the  most  talented 
architects  of  the  first  part  of  the  16th  century  ;  the  Villa  Furnc'sina 
and  the  Palazzo  Vidoni  (usually  attributed  to  Raphael)  are  from 
his  designs.5  His  later  works  bear  traces  of  that  decadence  in  taste 
which  so  soon  began,  owing  mainly  to  the  rapidly  growing  love 
for  the  dull  magnificence  of  the  pseudo-classic  style.  This  falling 
off  iu  architectural  taste  was  due  to  MICHELANGELO  (q.i: )  more 
than  to  any  other  one  man.  His  cortile  of  the  Farnese  paluee, 
though  a  work  of  much  stately  beauty,  was  one  of  the  first  stages 
towards  that  lifeless  scholasticism  and  blind  following  of  antique 
forms  which  were  the  destruction  of  architecture  as  a  real  living 
art,  and  in  the  succeeding  century  produced  so  much  that  is  almost 
brutal  in  its  coarseness  and  neglect  of  all  true  canons  of  proportion 
and  scale.  During  the  earlier  stage,  however,  of  this  decadence 
and  throughout  the  16th  century  a  large  number  of  fine  palaces 
and  churches  were  built  in  and  near  Rome  by  various  able  artists, 
such  as  the  Villa  Madama  \>y  Raphael,  part  of  the  Palazzo  Farnese 
by  Antonio  da  Sangallo  the  younger,  S.  Giovanni  de'  Fiorentini  by 
Jac.  Sansovino,  and  many  others.8 

4.  Modern  Period. 

Under  Vignola  (1507-1573),  Carlo  Maderna  (1556-1639),  Bernini  Periol 
(1598-1680),  Carlo  Fontana  (1634-1714),  and  others  architectural  degrd 
beauty  in  Rome  steadily  declined,  till  the  prevalent  style  beninx  ikm. 
a  mere  caricature  of  classical  forms,  twisted  and  contorted  into 
every  possible  incongruous  and  ridiculous  shape,  void  of  all  sense 
of  harmony  of  proportion  and  unredeemed  by  any  grace  or  even 
decency  of  detail.  Clumsy  weightiness  and  extravagance  of  out- 
line, with  the  frequent  introduction  of  the  most  ungraceful  curves, 
are  the  main  characteristics  of  this  unhappy  period,  which,  un- 
fortunately, was  one  of  great  activity  in  building.  The  degraded 
taste  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  could  see  no  beauty  in  the 
stately  simplicity  of  the  early  basilicas,  in  the  delicate  grace  and 
rich  ornament  of  the  Cosmati  period,  or  even  in  the  refined  har- 
monious beauty  of  the  Renaissance.7  Every  church  in  Rome  i< 
more  or  less  disfigured  inside  with  extravagant  stucco  pilasters  and 
reliefs,  transfiguring  the  whole  interior,  while  outside  many  have 
clumsy  fasades  stuck  on  without  the  slightest  reference  to  the 
structures  they  are  meant  to  decorate.  The  Lateran  basilica  is  on.' 
of  the  most  conspicuous  instances  of  this  sad  treatment  of  a  grand 
old  building  ;  and  the  hideous  facades  which  disfigure  the  fine 
churches  of  S.  Marcello  and  S.  Maria  in  Via  Lata  (both  in  the 
Corso)  are  typical  examples  of  the  degradation  into  which  archi- 
tecture had  sunk  in  its  latest  stages.  In  the  present  century  taste  Nine- 
has  somewhat  improved.  Since  1870,  when  Rome  became  the  tu.  nth 
capital,  an  immense  amount  of  building  has  been  carried  out,  <vutur 
mostly  innocent  in  design,  though  dull  and  lifeless.  The  modern  l  mi  Id- 
architects  of  Rome  possess  the  rare  merit  'of  acknowledging  their  ings,  f 
own  artistic  incapacity,  and  the  more  important  recent  buildings 
have  been  copies,  fairly  faithful  in  design  though  not  in  material, 
of  fine  palaces  of  the  best  15th  and  16tli  century  architects.  The 
Cassa  di  Risparmio  in  the  Corso  and  some  large  houses  in  the  new 
quarter  across  the  Tiber  are  good  copies  of  the  Strozzi  and  other 
Florentine  palaces  ;  the  Hotel  Bristol  is  from  a  fine  palace  at 
Venice;  and  Bramante's  Palazzo  Giraud  has  been  imitated  in  a  new 
house  near  the  Piazza  Nicosia.  Unfortunately  stucco  is  mainly 
iised  for  the  exteriors  of  these  otherwise  handsome  buildings,  a 
material  which,  however,  lasts  fairly  well  in  the  mild  climate  of 
Rome.  The  growing  rage  for  the  Parisian  style  of  building,  with 
wide  straight  boulevards,  is  rapidly  destroying  all  tin-  jiirtmesque- 
ness  of  the  city  ;  and  these  broad  streets,  from  their  want  of  shade, 
are  not  suited  to  an  almost  constantly  sunny  climate. 

The  chief  architectural   work   of  the   19th   century  has  been 

*  The  upper  story  of  the  latter  is  varied  by  having  horizontal  lintels  instead 
of  arches  on  the  columns. 

6  There  appears  now  to  be  some  doubt  whether  the  Famesina  may  not  lm\ v 
Ixjen  designed  by  Raphael ;  an  original  sketch  by  Peruzzi's  own  hand  of  the 
Palazzo  Vidoni  is  preserved  in  the  Ufli/i. 

6  A  valuable  account  of  Raphael's  architectural  works  is  given  by  Geymiiller, 
liciffiiello  come  Archltetto,  Milan,  1882.    Drawings  of  many  of  the  finest  palaces 
of  Rome  are  given  by  Percier  and  Fontaine,  Edifices  modernes  A  Rome,  Paris, 
1708  ;  and  especially  in  the  fine  work  by  Letarouilly,  Edifices  de  Rome  moderne, 
Brussels,  1856-66. 

7  Even  the  frescos  of  the  chief  earlier  artists  were  not  spared  ;  those  by 
Pinturicchio  in  the  3d  chapel  (south)  of  S.  Maria  del  Popolo  were  covered  by 
wretched  stucco  ornaments,  only  removed  in  1850 ;  and  numberless  works  of 
art  by  Giotto  and  other  early  painters  were  wilfully  destroyed. 


ARCHAEOLOGY.] 


ROME 


837 


the  rebuilding  of  the  nave  of  the  great  basilica  of  S.  Paolo  fuori  le 
Mura,  burnt  in  1823,  in  a  style  of  great  splendour,  though  some- 
what cold  in  effect.  Its  columns  are  enormous  monoliths  of  grey 
granite  from  the  Alps  ;  the  confessio  and  transepts  are  lined  with 
rosso  and  verde  antico  from  the  recently  rediscovered  quarries  in 
Greece,  and  with  Egyptian  alabaster.  The  reconsecration  of  this 
magnificent  edifice  took  place  in  1854,  after  thirty  years  had  been 
spent  in  the  rebuilding ;  the  east  fagade,  with  its  new  gaudy  mosaics, 
and  the  atrium  are  not  yet  complete. x  Another  great  Avork  still 
in  progress  is  the  extension  of  the  sanctuary  of  the  Lateran  basilica, 
which  unhappily  has  involved  the  destruction  of  the  ancient  apse 
and  its  ambulatory,  the  only  part  of  the  church  which  had  escaped 
complete  disfigurement.  The  priceless  mosaics  of  the  apse  (1290), 
among  the  most  'beautiful  in  Rome,  have  been  refixed  in  the  new 
apse,  but  of  course  in  a  sadly  modernized  and  restored  form.2  Some 
large  blocks  of  Government  offices  on  the  Esquiline  Hill  are  the 
most  important  in  size  among  the  recent  constructions.  They  have 
little  architectural  merit  either  in  design,  materials,  or  solidity  of 
workmanship. 

s  The  Vatican  contains  the  largest  collection  in  the  world  of 
Graco-Roman  and  Roman  sculpture,  Avith  a  few  specimens  of  true 
Hellenic  art.  It  is  also  very  rich  in  Greek  vases  and  in  objects 
from  Etruscan  tombs  ;  this  latter  division  is  called  the  Museo 
Gregoriano.  There  is  also  an  Egyptian  museum.  In  the  great 
library  are  preserved  a  number  of  early  glass  chalices 3  and  other 
rare  objects  from  the  catacombs,  as  well  as  many  fine  specimens  of 
later  Christian  art, — church  plate  and  jewels.  The  picture  gallery, 
though  not  as  large  as  some  of  the  private  collections  in  Rome, 
contains  few  inferior  pictures.  The  Lateran  palace,  still,  like  the 
Vatican,  in  the  possession  of  the  pope,  contains  a  fine  collection 
of  classical  sculpture,  but  is  most  remarkable  as  a  museum  of 
Christian  antiquities.  The  two  Capitoline  museums  are  very  rich 
in  classical  sculpture,  bronzes,  coins,  pottery,  and  the  contents  of 
early  Etruscan  and  Latin  tombs.  A  large  hall  has  lately  been 
added,  and  is  filled  with  sculpture  found  on  the  Esquiline  since 
1870.  The  picture  gallery  contains  a  few  masterpieces  and  a  large 
number  of  inferior  works.  A  new  museum  is  now  (1886)  being 
formed  in  the  great  cloister  of  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli  to  hold  the 
numerous  fine  examples  of  classical  painting  and  sculpture  found 
along  the  Tiber  during  the  excavations  for  the  new  embankment, 
and  in  other  places  in  Rome.  The  university  of  Rome  possesses 
fine  collections  of  minerals,  fossils,  and  other  geological  specimens, 
and  examples  of  ancient  marbles  used  in  the  buildings  of  Rome. 
A  new  Museo  Artistico  has  recently  been  formed  in  a  monastery  in 
the  Capo  le  Case,  to  contain  mediaeval  works  of  art ;  it  will  prob- 
ably be  rapidly  increased.  The  Museo  Kircheriano  is  in  some 
respects  unique  of  its  kind.  It  contains  an  unrivalled  collection 
of  prehistoric  objects  found  in  Italy  and  its  islands,  in  stone, 
bronze,  iron,  and  pottery.  The  collection  of  res  grave  is  the  finest 
yet  made  ;  and  the  museum  also  contains  a  large  quantity  of  inter- 
esting classical  antiquities  of  various  kinds.  Another  branch  is 
the  Ethnological  Museum,  as  yet  of  no  great  importance.  Un- 
fortunately all  these  museums  are  badly  adapted  for  purposes  of 
study,  being  neither  well  arranged  nor  catalogued. 

Among  the  private  collections  of  pictures  the  Borghese  is  quite 
unrivalled.  The  next  in  importance  is  that  in  the  Doria  palace, 
of  which,  however,  like  most  Italian  collections,  contains  a  large 
es ;  proportion  of  very  inferior  works.  The  Corsini  picture  gallery, 
lately  bought  by  the  municipality  of  Rome,  is  chiefly  rich  in  the 
works  of  the  Bolognese  and  other  third-rate  painters.  The  Bar- 
berini  and  Sciarra-Coloima  palaces  contain  a  few  fine  paintings  ; 
those  in  the  latter  collection  are  now  arranged  in  the  owner's 
private  apartments,  and  are  not  visible  to  the  public. 
lp-  The  largest  private  collection  of  sculpture  is  that  of  the  Villa 
Albani,  which,  among  a  large  mass  of  inferior  Roman  sculpture, 
contains  a  few  gems  of  Greek  art.  The  original  Albani  collection 
was  stolen  and  brought  to  Paris  by  Napoleon  I.,  and  was  there 
dispersed  ;  one  relief,  the  celebrated  Antinous,  is  the  only  piece 
of  sculpture  from  the  original  collection  which  was  sent  back  from 
Paris.  The  owner  of  this  is  now  Prince  Torlonia,  who  also  possesses 
a  very  large  collection  of  classical  sculpture  formed  by  himself ; 
it  contains  several  very  fine  works,  but  unfortunately  the  greater 
number  are  much  injured  and  falsified  by  restorations.  The  casino 
in  the  Borghese  gardens  possesses  a  great  quantity  of  sculpture, 
mostly  third-rate  Roman  works.  The  small  collection  of  the  Villa 
Ludovisi4  contains  a  few  works  of  Greek  sculpture  of  the  highest 
importance,  of  which  the  chief  are  the  Pergamean  group  of  the 
suicide  of  the  Gaulish  chief,  a  relief  of  Medusa's  head,  and  a  male 
terminal  figure.  Many  other  palaces,  such  as  that  of  the  Coloima 
family,  contain  less  important  collections  of  sculpture  and  painting.. 
Diaries.  For  an  account  of  the  chief  public  libraries,  see  LIBRARIES,  vol. 
xiv.  pp.  529-530,  548. 


1  Fea,  La  Basilica  Ostiense,  1826-33. 

2  For  the  interesting  discoveries  made  in  excavating  for  the  new  apse,  see 
Ann.  Inst.,  1877,  p.  332. 

3  See  Garrncci,  Vetri  Ornati  in  Oro,  1858. 

4  The  beautiful  gardens  of  the  Villa  Ludovisi  are  now  (1S86)  being  destroyed 
and  built  over,  and  the  fate  of  the  sculpture  gallery  is  as  yet  undecided. 


Population,  Climate,  <kc.5 — In  the  sixteen  years  which  have  ekpsed  Popula- 
since  Rome  became  the  capital  of  Italy  (1870-1886)  the  population  tion. 
has  largely  increased,  chiefly  owing  to  the  introduction  of  a  great 
number  of  Government  officials  with  their  families  from  Northern 
Italy.  Under  the  last  papal  census  the  number  of  inhabitants 
was  216,000  ;  in  1881  it  had  increased  to  276,463.  Education  of 
the  working  classes  has  much  improved  in  these  years,  and  there 
are  now  nearly  170  parochial  schools.  The  streets  are  remarkable 
for  their  cleanliness,  and  are  mostly  well  paved  with  hard  lava 
and  well  lighted  with  gas.  For  municipal  purposes  Rome  is  still 
divided  into  the  fourteen  mediaeval  "rioni";  these,  though  corre- 
sponding in  number  with  the  fourteen  regiones  of  Augustus,  include 
very  different  areas.  The  climate  is  mild  and  sunny,  in  winter  Climate, 
averaging  10°  Fahr.  above  the  temperature  of  London  ;  but  the 
variation  between  day  and  night  is  very  great.  The  coldest  months 
are  December  and  February  (average  temp.  47°) ;  the  hottest  are 
July  and  August  (average  75°).  The  rainfall  is  slight,  averaging 
le^th  inches  annually,  and  the  rainy  days  are  few  proportionally. 
On  the  whole  Rome  is  a  healthy  city,  in  spite  of  some  malaria, 
usually  confined  to  its  more  open  parts.*  The  neighbouring  Health. 
Campagna  is  in  parts  almost  uninhabitable  during  the  summer 
from  this  cause  ;  but  the  malaria  is  much  checked  by  the  planting 
of  eucalyptus  trees,  which  grow  rapidly  in  and  about  the  city.  A 
very  remarkable  instance  of  this  is  the  Trappist  monastery  of  the 
Tre  Fontane,  about  4  miles  from  Rome  on  the  Ostian  road,  which 
a  few  years  ago  was  quite  uninhabitable  in  the  summer,  while  since 
a  number  of  these  trees  have  been  planted  the  monks  reside  there 
with  impunity  throughout  the  year.  Though  almost  free  from 
typhus,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  enteric  fever  in  Rome,  partly  owing 
to  the  very  unwholesome  arrangement  of  the  drainage  in  each  house, 
though  the  general  system  of  sewerage  is  good.  That  this  disease 
is  not  more  prevalent  is  probably  owing  to  the  magnificent  water- 
supplyj7  which  flows  in  a  constant  service,  thus  doing  away  with 
the  necessity  of  cisterns.  The  average  annual  deaths  are  5750. 

Works  on  Christian  Rome. — CHURCHES. — 16th  and  17th  Century  Books :  Pan- 
vinius,  De  Priecipuis  Basilicis,  1570;  De  Albericis,  Hist.  S.  Virginis  de  Populo, 
1599 ;  De  Angelis,  Bas.  S.  Marias  Major.,  1621 ;  Severano,  Le  Sette  Chiese  di  Roma, 
1630 ;  Landucci,  S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  1646 ;  Rasponi,  De  Basil.  Lateran.,  1656 ; 
Torrigio,  Sacre  Grotte  Vaticane,  1675 ;  Fontana,  Tempio  Vaticano,  1694 ;  Bonannus, 
Tern.  Vatic.  Historia,  1696.  ISth  Century :  Crescimbeni,  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin 
(1715),  S.  Giovanni  a  Porta  Latina  (1716),  smd.Bas.  di  S.  Anastasia  (1722) ;  Boro- 
minp,  La  Chiesa  e  Fabbrica  d.  Sapienza,  1726  ;  Casimiro  Romano,  S.  Maria  in  Am 
Cxli,  1736  ;  Fonseca,  Bas.  S.  Laurentii  in  Damaso,  1745  ;  Erra,  S.  Maria  in  Cam- 
pitelli,  1750  ;  Besozzi,  S.  Croce  in  Gerus.,  1750;  Caneellieri,  Basilica  Vaticana, 
1786;  F.  di  San  Pietro,  S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro,  1791.  19th  Century:  Paulinus, 
Basil.  S.  Pancratii,  1803 ;  Nicolai,  Bas.  di  S.  Paolo,  1815,  and  De  Vatican.  Bas., 
1817  ;  Nibby,  Forma  degli  Antichi  Tempj  Cristiani,  1825  ;  Dionysius,  Vat.  Basil. 
Crypt.  Mon.,  1828-40;  Bunsen,  Guttensohn,  and  Knapp,  Basiliken  des  Christ. 
Rons,  Munich,  1842 ;  Canina,  Arch,  dei  Tempj  Cristiani,  1843-46 ;  Fontana, 
Migliori  Chiese  di  Roma  (1855),  Bas.  di  S.  Paolo  (1878),  and  Mtisaici  delle  Chiese 
di  Roma  (1870)  ;  Valentini,  fine  monographs  on  the  Basilicas  of  the  Vatican,  the 
Lateran,  and  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  1832-45 ;  Gori,  Bas.  di  S.  Lorenzo,  1862 ; 
Hiibsch,  Alt-christlichen  Kirchen,  Carlsruhe,  1862  ;  De  Montault,  Les Smtterrains 
de  S.Pierre,  Paris,  1866;  Burckhardt,  De  Origine  Basil icamm  Christianarum, 
1875  ;  De  Fleury,  Le  Latran,  Paris,  1877  ;  De  Lorbac,  S.  Pierre  de  Rome,  1879  ; 
Geymiiller,  Les  Projets  Primitifs  pour  la  Bas.  de  S.  Pierre,  Paris,  1875-80  (gives 
a  valuable  series  of  facsimiles  of  the  designs  made  by  Bramante,  Raphael, 
Fra  Giocondo,  Sangallo,  and  others) ;  Letarouilly,  Le  Vatican  et  la  Basilica  de 
S.  Pierre,  ed.  Simit,  Paris,  1882  ;  Debleser,  Romeet  ses  Monuments,  1882  (especi- 
ally useful  to  the  Catholic  traveller  for  its  information  about  church  cere- 
monies and  other  religious  matters).  GENERAL  WORKS. — Pistolesi,  II  Vaticano, 
1829-38  ;  Nibby,  Rotna  Moderna,  1839  ;  March!,  Mon.  dell'  Arte  Crist,  primitira, 
1844 ;  Massimo,  La  Torre  Anguillara  in  Trastevere,  1847  ;  Letarouilly,  Edifices 
deRome  Moderne,  Brussels,  1856-66;  Gregorovius,  GeschicJite  .  .  .  Romsim  Mittd- 
alter,  Stuttgart,  1859-72,  and  Die  GrtLomaler  der  Pcipste,  Leipsic,  1857  (both 
these  valuable  works  have  been  translated  into  Italian) ;  Garrucci,  Mon.  del  Mm. 
Lateran.,  1861,  and  Storia  dell'  Arte  Cristiana,  Prato,  1872-80;  De  Rossi,  Rornu 
Sotterranea,  1864-80,  and  Musaici  e  Pavimenti  delle  Chiese  di  Roma  (in  progress), 
and  (edited  by  him)  Bull,  di  Archseo.  Cristiana,  1863  (in  progress),  also  Inscrip- 
tiones  Christianie  Urbis  Romx,  1861  (in  progress);  Gerbet,  Rome  Chretienne, 
Paris,  1866;  Pellegrini,  Edijici  de'  Bassi  Tempi,  1870 ;  Rio,  L'Art  Chretien,  Paris, 
1861,  and  Epilogue  a  I' Art  Chretien,  1872  ;  Dohine,  Kunst  und  Kiinstler  Italiens, 
Leipsic,  1878 ;  Wey,  Description  de  Rome  (well  illustrated),  1871.  Inscriptions. — 
Forcella,  Inscrizioni  nelle  Chiese  di  Roma,  1869-84 ;  Galetti,  Inscriptiones  Rom. 
Infimi  JEvi,  1760.  A  number  of  mediaeval  wall-paintings  in  Rome,  such  as  those 
in  the  Vatican  library  and  in  S.  Martino  ai  Monti,  though  worthless  as  works 
of  art,  are  very  valuable  for  their  representations  of  buildings  now  destroyed  or 
altered.  The  great  oil-painting,  now  in  the  museum  at  Mantua,  which  gives  a 
bird's-eye  view  of  Rome  as  it  was  in  the  16th  century,  is  published  in  the  valu- 
able work  by  De  Rossi,  Piante  di  Roma  anteriori  al  Sec.  XVI.,  1879,  which  con- 
tains also  other  early  plans  and  drawings  of  the  city.  MUSEUMS  AND  SCULP- 
TURE.—  Pistolesi,  II  Vaticano,  1829-38  ;  Visconti,  Miis.  Chiaramonti  and  Pio- 
Clementino,  and  Museo  Gregoriano,  1803-43 ;  Wolff,  Bildwerke  des  Vaticans,  £c., 
Berlin,  1870 ;  E.  Q.  Visconti,  Sculture  della  Villa  Borghese,  1796,  and  Seult.  del 
Pal.  Giustiniani,  1811  ;  Winckelmann,  Opere,  best  edition  by  Fea,  Prato,  1830; 
Vitale,  Marmi  nel  Pal.  Torlonia,  n.d.  ;  Benndorf,  Die  Bildwerke  des  Lateran. 
Miis.,  Leipsic,  1867  ;  Schreiber,  Antike  Bildwerke  der  Villa  Ludovisi,  Leipsic, 
1880  ;  Bottari,  Museo  Capitolino,  Milan,  1821-22  ;  Matz  and  Von  Duhn,  Antike 
Bildwerke  in  Rom,  Leipsic,  1881 ;  De  Montault,  Musees  et  Galeries  de  Rome,  1880  ; 
Bernoulli,  Romische  Ikonographie,  Stuttgart,  1881. (J.  H.  M.) 


5  See  Taussig,  The  Roman  Climate,  Health,  and  Disease,  1870.     The  Monograjia 
di  Kama  (1878)  contains  valuable  articles  on  the  population,  climate,  health, 
and  public  institutions  of  Rome. 

6  See  Balestra,  L'Igiene  di  Roma,  1880 ;  Vitelleschi  and  others,  Atti  della 
Giiinta  per  la  Inchiesta  Agraria,  vol.  xi.,  1SS4  (see  also  their  map  showing  the 
malarious  districts,  1883) ;  Tournon,  Etudes  Statistiqnes  sur  Rome,  Paris,  1831. 

^  The  numberless  fountains  and  jets  of  water  which  abound  in  the  streets 
of  Rome  are  one  of  its  chief  beauties ;  these  are  all  fed  with  pure  hill  water 
brought  in  aqueducts  or  pipes,  and  flow  in  apparently  undiminished  volume 
during  the  dry  months  of  summer.  The  Trevi  fountain  (Aqua  Virgo)  and  the 
Fontana  Paolina  on  the  Janiculum  are  the  grandest  of  these ;  see  Falda,  Le 
Fontane  di  Roma,  1691. 


838 


R  0  M  — R  0  M 


INDEX  TO  ARTICLE  ROME. 


Achaean  league,  752,  754. 
Actium,  battle  of,  769. 
jEqul,  739,  740,  742. 
Aetius,  780,  781. 
Agrarian   laws,  737,  738, 

757,  758,  765,  766. 
Alaric,  780. 
Alberic,  787. 
Albornoz,  801. 
AJemanni,  776-779. 
Alexander  III.,  pope,  794. 
Allia,  battle  of,  740. 
Ancient  Rome,  807-833. 
Antiochus  the  Great,  751. 
Antony,  Mark,  768. 
Arbogast,  779,  780. 
Arcadius,  779. 
Arches,    triumphal,    819. 

830. 

Architecture,  809,  835. 
Area  Apollinis,  821. 
Aristocracy     of     Middle 

Ages,    784,     787,     792, 

806. 

Arlotti,  798. 
Armenia,  774. 
Arnold  of  Brescia,  792. 
Art,  works  of,  811. 
Atrium  Veste,  819. 
Attila,  781. 

Augusti  and  Csesares,777. 
Augustus,  768,  774. 
Aurelian,  773,  776. 
Aurelius,     Marcus,     773, 

775. 

Banderesi,  802. 
Barbarian  invasions,  775- 

777,  779-781. 
Barons,  790. 
Basilicas,  816,  833,  837. 
Baths  of  Agrippa,  829. 
Beneventum,     battle    of, 

744. 

Boniface  VIII.,  pope,  798. 
Boniface  IX.,  pope,  803. 
Bramante,  836. 
Brancaleone,  796. 
Bridges,  831. 
Britain,  775,  780. 
Building  materials,  808. 
Byzantine  rule,  782. 
Casar,  Julius,  763-768. 
Csesares  and  August!,  777. 
Campanili,  835. 
Cannse,  battle  of,  749. 
Capitoline  Hill,  824. 


Caracalla,    edict  of,   776, 

778. 
Carrb.se,    battle    of,    706, 

774. 
Carthage,  740,  746,   748, 

749,  751,  767,  781. 
Catacombs,  831. 
Catiline  conspiracy,  764. 
Census,  imperial,  774. 
Chalonsi  battle  of,  781. 
Charlemagne,  786. 
Charles  of  Anjou,  797. 
Christianity,  778,  781. 
Christian  Rome,  833. 
Churches,  833-837. 
Cicero,  764,  768. 
Cinna,  760. 
Circus,  829. 
Civilis,  revolt  of,  775. 
Claudius,  773,  775. 
Claudius  Gothicus,  777. 
Cleopatra,  769. 
Climate,  808,  837. 
Cloacae,  814. 
Colonies,  745. 
Colonna  family,  796. 
Columns,  827,  831. 
Comitia  curiata,  733 ;  cen- 

turiata,    735 ;     tribute, 

737,  771. 
Comitium,  816. 
Commune,  Roman,  783. 
Consuls,  735, 738,  771,  785. 
Constantine,  777. 
Constantinople,  778. 
Constantius,  778. 
Cosmati,  834. 
Crassus,  766. 
Crescenzio,  789,  790. 
Curia,  815. 
Curias,  732. 
Cynoscephalse,  752. 
Dacia,  775,  777. 
Decemvirate,  737. 
Decius,  773,  776. 
Diocletian,  777. 
Domitian,  772. 
Drusus,  759. 
Duchy  of  Rome,  783. 
Egypt,  751,  754,  774. 
Empire,    768,    774,    777; 

division  of,  779. 
Empire,  Holy  Roman,  785. 
Etruria,  731,  734, 739,  742, 

757. 
Eugenius  IV.,  pope,  805. 


Exedra,  824. 

Feudalism,  789. 

Firemen's  barracks,  829. 

Fortifications,  812. 

Forum,  816,  825. 

Franks,  776-780. 

Frederick  I.,  793. 

Frontiers,  768,  774-777. 

Gaiseric,  781. 

Galleries,  art,  837. 

Gallienus,  776. 

Garibaldi,  807. 

Gates,  812,  832. 

Gaul,  748,  751,  768,  774, 
776,  778,  781. 

Gauls,  740.  743. 

Genseric,  781. 

Germalus,  824. 

Ghibellines,  796. 

Goths,  777,  779,  782. 

Gracchi,  757. 

Grsecostasis,  816. 

Grandees,  796. 

Gratian,  779. 

Greece,  752. 

Gregory  I.,  pope,  783. 

Gregory  VII.,  pope,  791. 

Guelfs,  796. 

Hadrian,  773 ;  wall  of,  775. 

Hadrianople,  779. 

Hernici,  739,  742. 

Henry  III.,  790. 

Henry  VII.,  798. 

Henry  of  Castile,  797. 

Hildebrand,  791. 

History,  ancient,  731-781; 
mediaeval,  782-805 ;  re- 
cent, 805. 

Honorius,  779,  780. 

Huns,  779-781. 

Investiture  question,  791. 

Italy,  conquest  of,  739 — 
746;  after  Hannibalic 
war,  751;  enfranchise- 
ment of,  760 ;  under  em- 
perors, 771,  775,  778. 

John  XII.,  pope,  788. 

Jovian,  779. 

Judices  dativi,  789;  de 
clero,  785. 

Jugurtha,  758. 

Julian,  778. 

Kings,  early,  732,  735. 

Ladislans,  803. 

Land-tax,  775,  778. 

Lateran  palace,  835. 


Latins,  731,  739 ;  colonies 

of,  745. 
Laws,   736-738,  760,  763, 

770. 

Leo  III.,  pope,  786. 
Libraries,  837. 
Lombards,  783. 
Louis  IV.,  799. 
Macedonia,  749,  752. 
Magistracies,  738,  771. 
Magnesia,  battle  of,  753. 
Mamertine  prison,  814. 
Marcomanni,  775. 
Marius,  758. 
Martin  V.,  pope,  805. 
Materials,  building,  808. 
Mausolea,  831. 
Maximian,  777. 
Mazzini,  806. 
Middle  Ages,  republic  of, 

782. 
Military  system,  734,  746, 

759,  776. 

Milliarium  Aureum,  817. 
Mino  da  Fiesole,  836. 
Modern  Rome,  807,  836. 
Moesia,  774. 

Monarchy,  early,  732-5. 
Municipal    system,    768, 

776,  779. 

Municipia,  740,  745. 
Museums,  837. 
Nero,  773. 

Nicholas  V.,  pope,  806. 
Nobility,  755;   in  Middle 

Ages,  784,  787,  791,  806. 
Nova  Via,  824. 
Odoacer,  781. 
Opus  quadratum,  809  ;  re- 

ticulatum,  810. 
Orestes,  781. 
Orsini  family,  796. 
Otho  I.,  788. 
Otho  III.,  790. 
Palaces,  821,  823,  829,  835. 
Palatine  Hill,  821. 
Palmyra,  776. 
Pannonia,  774. 
Pantheon,  828. 
Paolo,  S.,  basilica,  837. 
Papacy,  783,  785,  791,  805. 
Parthia,  766,  774,  777. 
Paschal  II.,  pope,  791. 
Patricians,  732,  736. 
People,    primitive,    732 ; 

power  of  the,  789,  792. 


Pergamum,  751-754. 
Peter's,  St,  836. 
Philippi,  battle  of,  768. 
Pippin,  donation  of,  786. 
Pirates,  763. 
Plebeians,  732,  736. 
Pollentia,  battle  of,  780. 
Pompey,  762-766. 
Popes,  783,785,  791,  805. 
Population,  808,  837. 
Porcari,  Stefano,  806. 
Porticus  XII  Deorum,  820. 
Postumus,  776. 
Praetorian  camp,  828. 
Prehistoric  remains,  811. 
Principate,  769. 
Private  houses,  828. 
Proconsulare     imperium, 

769. 

Proconsuls,  746. 
Provinces,  750,  774,  778. 
Punic  Wars,  747-751. 
Pyramids,  831. 
Pyrrhus,  743. 
Qusestionesperpetuae,  756, 

759,  762. 

Quaestorship,  738,  772. 
Quay  wall,  814. 
Quirinal  palace,  835. 
Radagaisus,  780. 
Regia,  819. 
Regiones     of    Augustus, 

832. 

Renaissance,  805. 
Republic,    ancient,    735- 

769;    of   Middle   Ages, 

782. 

Rhodes,  751  -754. 
Ricimer,  781. 
Rienzi,  800. 
Roads,  811. 
Romanization    of    West, 

750,  754,  768,  775-778. 
Roma  quadrata,  812. 
Romulus,  731. 
Romulus  Augustulus,  781. 
Rostra,  816. 
Rufinus,  780. 
Sabines,  731,  739,  744. 
Sacra  Via,  824. 
Samnites,  741-744. 
Sassanidae,  777. 
Saturninus,  758. 
Scholce  militum,  784,  788. 
Secession,  the  first,  736. 
Senaculum,  816. 


Senate,  738,  75.r>,  756,  784, 

793,  795. 

Sentinum,  battle  of,  743. 
Sertorius,  762. 
Servian    wall,    731,    734, 

813. 

Settlements,  early,  73L 
Severus  Alexander,  777. 
Severus  Septimius,  773, 

776. 

Sicily,  746,  747,  750. 
Site  of  Rome,  807. 
Social  War,  759. 
Spain,  7-r)0,  780. 
Spartacus,  762,  763. 
Stadium,  824. 
Statutes,  Roman,  796. 
Stilicho,  780. 
Sulla,  760-762,  768,  772. 
Sulpicius  Rufus,  760. 
Tabularium,  825. 
Tarquins,  733,  734. 
Tax,  land,  775,  778. 
Temples,  817-827. 
Testaccio,  Monte,  831. 
Theatres,  830. 
Theodosius  I.,  779. 
Tombs,  831. 
Trajan,  772,  773,  775. 
Tribes,  Roman,  732,  735, 

745. 

Tribunes,  736,  772. 
Tribunicia  potestas,  770. 
Triumvirates,  765,  768. 
Tullianum,  814. 
Tyrants,  776,  778,  780. 
Umbilicus  Rom«,  817. 
Urban  V.,  pope,  802. 
Valens,  779. 
Valentinian  I.,   779;   II., 

779;  III.,  780. 
Valerian,  776. 
Vandals,  780,  781. 
Vatican,  835. 
Veii,  capture  of,  739. 
Velabrum,  824. 
Velia,  824. 
Vespasian,  773-775. 
Vico,  Pietro  di,  794. 
Vicus      Jugarius,      817; 

Tuscus,  818. 
Volsci,  739-741. 
Wallia,  780. 
Walls,  812,  832. 
Zama,  battle  of,  750. 
Zenobia,  776. 


Plate  VI.  is  a  Plan  of  Ancient  Home  ;  Plate  VII.  shows  the  Forum  and  its  Surroundings  ;  Plate  VIII.  is  the  Modern  City  ; 
and  Plate  IX.  is  a  Map  of  the  Empire  in  the  Third  Century  of  our  Era. 


ROME,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital  of 
Oneida  county,  New  York,  110  miles  by  rail  west-north- 
west of  Albany,  occupies  a  level  site  at  the  head  of  Mohawk 
valley,  near  the  watershed  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
western  lakes.  It  is  an  important  rail  way  junction,  lies  on 
the  line  of  the  Erie  Canal,  and  is  the  terminus  of  the  Black 
River  Canal.  Besides  being  the  centre  of  a  great  cheese- 
making  district,  Rome  has  large  railroad  shops,  rolling- 
mills,  and  lumber-yards.  The  population  was  11,000  in 

1870  and  12,194  in  1880. 

ROMFORD,  an  old  market-town  of  Essex,  is  situated 
on  the  small  river  Rom,  and  on  the  Great  Eastern  Railway 
about  12  miles  east-north-east  of  London.  The  ancient 
church  of  St  Edward  the  Confessor  was  replaced  in  1850 
by  a  structure  in  the  Late  Decorated  style.  The  large 
brewery  of  Inde,  Coope,  &  Co.  is  situated  in  the  town,  and 
there  are  extensive  market  gardens  in  the  neighbourhood. 
A  grant  of  a  market  was  obtained  in  1247,  and  this  is  still 
of  importance  as  regards  both  cattle  and  corn.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  1159  acres)  in 

1871  was  6512,  and  in  1881  it  was  7176. 
ROMILLY,  SIR  SAMUEL  (1757-1818),  the  great  legal 

reformer  who  first  attempted  to  relax  the  barbarity  of  the 
English  penal  code,  was  the  second  son  of  Peter  Romilly, 
a  watchmaker  and  jeweller  in  London,  whose  father  had 
emigrated  from  Montpellier  after  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes,  and  who  had  married  a  Miss  Garnault,  a 


Huguenot  refugee  like  himself,  but  of  a  far  wealthier  family. 
Samuel  Roinilly  was  born  in  Frith  Street,  Soho,  on  1st 
March  1757,  and  was  named  after  Sir  Samuel  Fludyer, 
M.P.  for  the  city  of  London  and  alderman,  who  was  in 
partnership  with  two  of  his  uncles.  He  served  for  a  time 
in  his  father's  shop ;  but  his  education  was  not  neglected, 
and  he  became  a  good  classical  scholar  and  particularly 
conversant  with  French  literature.  A  legacy  of  £2000 
from  one  of  his  mother's  relations  led  to  his  being  articled 
to  a  solicitor  and  clerk  in  Chancery  with  the  idea  of  qualify- 
ing himself  to  purchase  the  office  of  one  of  the  six  clerks  in 
Chancery.  In  1778,  however,  he  determined  to  go  to  the 
bar,  and  entered  himself  at  Gray's  Inn.  He  went  to  Geneva 
in  1781,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  chief  demo- 
cratic leaders,  including  Etienne  Dumont.  Called  to  the  bar 
in  1783,  he  went  the  midland  circuit,  but  was  chiefly  occu- 
pied with  Chancery  practice.  On  the  publication  of  Madan's 
Thoughts  on  Executive  Justice,  advocating  the  increase  of 
capital  punishments,  he  at  once  wrote  and  published  in 
1786  Observations  on  Madan's  book.  Of  more  general 
interest  is  his  intimacy  with  the  great  Mirabeau,  to  whom 
he  was  introduced  in  1784  (see  MIRABEAU).  Mirabeau  saw 
him  daily  for  a  long  time  and  introduced  him  to  Lord  Lans- 
downe,  who  highly  appreciated  him,  and,  when  Mirabeau 
became  a  political  leader,  it  was  to  Romilly  that  he  applied 
for  an  account  of  the  procedure  used  in  the  English  House 
of  Commons.  He  visited  Paris  in  1789,  and  studied  the 


R  0  M  — R  0  M 


839 


course  of  the  Revolution  there;  and  in  1790  he  published 
his  Thoughts  on  the  Probable  Influence  of  the  Late  Revolu- 
tion in  France  upon  Great  Britain,  a  work  of  great  power. 
His  practice  at  the  Chancery  bar  continued  largely  to  in- 
crease, and  in  1800  he  was  made  a  K.C.  In  1798  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Francis  Garbett  of  Knill  Court, 
Herefordshire;  and  in  1805  he  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  the  county  palatine  of  Durham.  His  great  abilities 
were  thoroughly  recognized  by  the  Whig  party,  to  which 
he  attached  himself ;  and  in  1806,  on  the  accession  of 
the  ministry  of  "All  the  Talents"  to  office,  he  was  offered 
the  post  of  solicitor-general,  although  he  had  never  sat  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  He  accepted  the  office,  and  was 
knighted  and  brought  into  parliament  for  Queenborough. 
He  went  out  of  office  with  the  Government,  but  remained 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  sitting  successively  for 
Horsham,  Wareham,  and  Arundel.  It  was  now  that 
Sir  Samuel  Romilly  commenced  the  greatest  labour  of  his 
life,  his  attempt  to  reform  the  criminal  law  of  England, 
which  was  at  once  cruel  and  illogical.  By  statute  law 
innumerable  offences  were  punished  by  death,  but,  as  such 
wholesale  executions  would  be  impossible,  the  larger 
number  of  those  convicted  and  sentenced  to  death  at 
every  assizes  were  respited,  after  having  heard  the  sen- 
tence of  death  solemnly  passed  upon  them.  This  led 
to  many  acts  of  injustice,  as  the  lives  of  the  convicts 
depended  on  the  caprice  of  the  judges,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  made  the  whole  system  of  punishments  and 
of  the  criminal  law  ridiculous.  Romilly  saw  this,  and  in 
1808  he  managed  to  repeal  the  statute  8  Eliz.  c.  4,  which 
made  it  a  capital  offence  to  steal  from  the  person.  This 
success,  however,  raised  opposition,  and  in  the  following 
year  three  bills  repealing  equally  sanguinary  statutes  were 
thrown  out  by  the  House  of  Lords  under  the  influence  of 
Lord  Ellenborough.  Year  after  year  the  same  influence 
prevailed,  and  Romilly  saw  his  bills  rejected ;  but  his 
patient  efforts  and  his  eloquence  ensured  victory  eventually 
for  his  cause  by  opening  the  eyes  of  Englishmen  to  the 
barbarity  of  their  criminal  law.  The  only  success  he  had 
was  in  securing  the  repeal,  in  1812,  of  the  statute  39  Eliz. 
c.  17,  making  it  a  capital  offence  for  a  soldier  or  a  mariner 
to  beg  without  a  pass  from  a  magistrate  or  his  command- 
ing officer.  Sir  Samuel  Romilly's  efforts  made  his  name 
famous  not  only  in  England  but  all  over  Europe,  and  on 
4th  July  1818  he  had  the  honour  of  being  returned  at 
the  head  of  the  poll  for  the  city  of  Westminster.  He 
did  not  long  survive  his  triumph.  On  the  29th  of  October 
1818  Lady  Romilly  died  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  Her 
husband's  grief  was  intense,  and  he  committed  suicide  in 
a  fit  of  temporary  insanity  on  the  2d  November.  No  man 
of  his  time  was  more  loved  than  Sir  Samuel  Romilly ;  his 
singularly  sweet  nature,  his  upright  manliness,  his  elo- 
quence, and  his  great  efforts  on  behalf  of  humanity  secured 
him  permanent  fame.  His  second  son  John  rivalled  his 
reputation  as  a  lawyer,  and  after  being  appointed  master 
of  the  rolls  in  1851,  an  office  which  he  held  for  twenty-two 
years,  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Romilly  in  1866. 

See  the  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly  written  by 
himself,  with  a  selection  from  his  Correspondence,  edited  by  his  Sons, 
3  vols.,  1840;  and  The  Speeches  of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  2  vols.,  1820. 

ROMNEY,  GEORGE  (1734-1802),  historical  and  portrait 
painter,  was  born  at  Dalton-le-Furness,  Lancashire,  on 
December  26,  1734.  His  father  was  a  builder  and  cabinet- 
maker of  the  place,  and  the  son,  having  manifested  a  turn 
for  mechanics,  was  instructed  in  the  latter  craft,  showing 
considerable  dexterity  with  his  fingers,  executing  carvings 
of  figures  in  wood,  and  constructing  a  violin,  which  he 
spent  much  time  in  playing.  He  was  also  busy  with  his 
pencil;  and,  some  of  his  sketches  of  the  neighbouring 


rustics  having  attracted  the  attention  of  his  father,  he  was 
at  length  induced  to  apprentice  the  boy,  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  to  an  itinerant  painter  of  portraits  and  domestic 
subjects  named  Steele,  an  artist  who  had  studied  in  Paris 
under  Vanloo;  but  the  erratic  habits  of  his  instructor 
prevented  Romney  from  making  great  progress  in  his  art. 
In  1756  he  impulsively  married  a  young  woman  who  had 
nursed  him  through  a  fever,  and  started  as  a  portrait 
painter  on  his  own  account,  travelling  through  the  northern 
counties,  executing  likenesses  at  a  couple  of  guineas,  and 
producing  a  series  of  some  twenty  figure  compositions, 
which  were  exhibited  in  Kendal,  and  afterwards  disposed 
of  by  means  of  a  lottery. 

Having,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  saved  about  £100, 
he  left  a  portion  of  the  sum  with  his  wife  and  family,  and 
started  to  seek  his  fortune  in  London,  never  returning, 
except  for  two  brief  visits,  till  he  came,  a  broken-down  and 
aged  man,  to  die.  In  London  he  rapidly  rose  into  popular 
favour.  His  Death  of  General  Wolfe  was  judged  worthy 
of  the  second  prize  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  but  a  word  from 
Reynolds  in  praise  of  Mortimer's  Edward  the  Confessor 
led  to  the  premium  being  awarded  to  that  painter,  while 
Romney  had  to  content  himself  with  a  donation  of  £50, 
an  incident  which  led  to  the  subsequent  coldness  between 
him  and  the  president  which  prevented  him  from  exhibit- 
ing at  the  Academy  or  presenting  himself  for  its  honours. 

In  1764  he  paid  a  brief  visit  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
befriended  by  Joseph  Vernet;  and  his  portrait  of  Sir 
Joseph  Yates,  painted  on  his  return,  bears  distinct  traces 
of  his  study  of  the  works  of  Rubens  then  in  the  Luxembourg 
Gallery.  In  1766  he  became  a  member  of  the  Incorporated 
Society  of  Artists,  and  three  years  later  he  seems  to  have 
studied  in  their  schools.  Soon  he  was  in  the  full  tide  of 
prosperity.  He  removed  to  Great  Newport  Street,  near 
the  residence  of  Sir  Joshua,  whose  fame  in  portraiture  he 
began  to  rival  in  such  works  as  Sir  George  and  Lady 
Warren,  and  Mrs  Yates  as  the  Tragic  Muse;  and  his 
professional  income  rose  to  £1200  a  year. 

But  he  was  seized  with  a  longing  to  study  in  Italy ;  and 
in  the  beginning  of  1773  he  started  for  Rome  in  company 
with  Ozias  Humphrey  the  miniature  painter.  On  his 
arrival  he  separated  himself  from  his  fellow  traveller  and 
his  countrymen,  and  devoted  himself  to  solitary  study, 
raising  a  scaffold  to  examine  the  paintings  in  the  Vatican, 
and  giving  much  time  to  work  from  the  undraped  model,  of 
which  his  painting  of  a  Wood  Nymph  was  a  fine  and  grace- 
ful result.  At  Parma  he  concentrated  himself  upon  the 
productions  of  Correggio,  which  powerfully  fascinated  him, 
and  greatly  influenced  his  practice. 

In  1775  Romney  returned  to  London,  establishing  himself  in 
Cavendish  Square,  and  resuming  his  extensive  and  lucrative 
employment  as  a  portrait- painter,  which  in  1785,  according  to  the 
estimate  of  his  pupil  Robinson,  yielded  him  an  income  of  over 
£3600.  The  admiration  of  the  town  was  divided  between  him  and 
Reynolds.  "There  are  two  factions  in  art,"  said  Lord  Thurlow, 
"and  I  am  of  the  Romney  faction,"— and  the  remark,  and  the 
rivalry  which  it  implied,  caused  much  annoyance  to  Sir  Joshua, 
who  was  accustomed  to  refer  contemptuously  to  the  younger  painter 
as  "the  man  in  Cavendish  Square."  After  his  return  from  Italy 
Romney  formed  two  friendships  which  powerfully  influenced  his 
life.  He  became  acquainted  with  Hayley,  his  future  biographer, 
then  in  the  zenith  of  his  little-merited  popularity  as  a  poet.  His 
influence  on  the  painter  seems  to  have  been  far  from  salutary. 
Weak  himself,  he  flattered  the  weaknesses  of  Romney,  encouraged 
his  excessive  and  morbid  sensibility,  disturbed  him  with  amateurish 
fancies  and  suggestions,  and  tempted  him  to  expend  on  slight  rapid 
sketches,  and  ill-considered,  seldom-completed  paintings  of  ideal 
and  poetical  subjects,  talents  which  would  have  found  fitter  exer- 
cise in  the  steady  pursuit  of  portraiture.  About  1783  Romney 
was  introduced  to  Emma  Hart,  afterwards  celebrated  as  Lady 
Hamilton,  and  she  became  the  model  from  whom  he  worked 
incessantly.  Her  bewitching  face  smiles  from  innumerable  can- 
vases ;  he  painted  her  as  a  Magdalene  and  as  a  Joan  of  Arc,  as  a 
Circe,  a  Bacchante,  a  Cassandra,  and  he  has  himself  confessed  that 
she  was  the  inspirer  of  what  was  most  beautiful  in  his  art. 


But 


840 


R  O  M  — E  0  N 


her  fascinations  seem  to  hare  been  too  much  for  the  more  than 
middle-aged  painter,  and  they  had  their  own  share  in  aggravating 
that  nervous  restlessness  and  instability,  inherent  in  his  nature, 
which  finally  ruined  both  health  and  mind. 

In  1786  Alderman  Boydell  started  his  great  scheme  of  the 
Shakespeare  Gallery, — it  would  appear  at  the  suggestion  of 
Romney.  The  painter  at  least  entered  heartily  into  the  plan,  and 
contributed  his  scene  from  the  Tempest,  and  his  Infant  Shakespeare 
attended  by  the  Passions,  the  latter  characterized  by  the  Redgraves 
as  one  of  the  best  of  his  subject  pictures.  Gradually  he  began  to 
withdraw  from  portrait-painting,  to  limit  the  hours  devoted  to 
sitters,  and  to  turn  his  thoughts  to  mighty  schemes  of  the  ideal 
subjects  which  he  would  execute.  Already,  in  1792,  he  had 
painted  Milton  and  his  Daughters,  which  was  followed  by  Newton 
making  Experiments  with  the  Prism.  He  was  to  paint  the  Seven 
Ages,  Visions  of  Adam  with  the  Angel,  "  six  other  subjects  from 
Milton — three  where  Satan  is  the  hero,  and  three  from  Adam  and 
Eve, — perhaps  six  of  each."  Having  planned  and  erected  a  large 
studio  in  Hampstead,  he  removed  thither  in  1797,  with  the  fine 
collection  of  casts  from  the  antique  which  his  friend  Flaxman  had 
gathered  for  him  in  Italy.  But  his  health  was  now  irremediably 
shattered,  and  the  man  was  near  his  end.  In  the  summer  of  1799, 
suffering  from  great  weakness  of  body  and  the  profoundest  depres- 
sion of  mind,  he  returned  to  the  north,  to  Kendal,  where  his 
deserted  but  faithful  and  long-suffering  wife  received  and  tended 
him.  He  died  November  15,  1802. 

The  art  of  Romney,  and  especially  his  figure  subjects,  suffered 
greatly  from  the  waywardness  and  instability  of  the  painter's  disposi- 
tion, from  his  want  of  fixed  purpose  and  sustained  energy.  He 
lacked  the  steadfast  perseverance  needful  to  the  accomplishment  of 
a  great  picture.  His  imagination  was  no  "  constant  angel  ever  by 
his  side  ' ;  it  flashed  and  flickered  fitfully  upon  him,  like  April  sun- 
shine. His  fancy  would  be  captivated  by  a  subject,  which  was 
presently  embodied  in  a  sketch,  but  the  toil  of  elaborating  it  into 
the  finished  completeness  of  a  painting  too  frequently  overtaxed  his 
powers  ;  he  became  embarrassed  by  technical  difficulties  which, 
through  defective  early  training,  he  was  unable  to  surmount,  and 
the  half-covered  canvas  would  be  turned  to  the  wall.  It  is  in  the 
best  of  his  portraits  that  we  feel  the  painter's  true  greatness. 
These,  and  especially  his  female  portraits,  are  full  of  grace,  distinc- 
tion, and  sweetness.  When  we  examine  his  heads  of  Cowper  and 
Wilkes,  his  delicate  and  dignified  full  length  of  "William  Beckford, 
his  Parson's  Daughter  in  the  National  Gallery,  and  his  group  of 
the  Duchess  of  Gordon  and  her  Son,  we  are  ready  to  admit  his 
claim  to  rank  as  the  third  of  the  great  portrait  painters  of  18th- 
century  England. 

See  the  Memoirs  by  William  Hayley,  1809,  and  the  artist's  son,  the  Rev.  John 
Romney,  1830  ;  also  Cunningham's  Lives  of  the  Painters. 

ROMNT,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  on  the  Sula  river, 
112  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Poltava,  and  in  the  govern- 
ment of  that  name.  It  acquired  commercial  importance 
during  last  century,  especially  on  account  of  its  fairs.  The 
chief  of  these — that  in  wool — was  removed  to  Poltava  in 
1852,  but  the  prices  established  by  the  remaining  three 
still  determine  to  a  great  extent  those  at  the  greater  fair 
of  Poltava.  Of  the  local  industries,  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements  is  the  only  one  worthy  of  mention, 
but  the  petty  trades,  both  in  town  and  district,  are  of 
considerable  importance.  The  population  in  1881  was 
12,300. 

ROMULUS,  the  mythical  eponym  founder  and  first  king 
of  Rome,  is  represented  in  legend  as  the  son  of  Mars.  His 
mother,  the  Vestal  Silvia  or  Ilia,  was  daughter  of  Numitor, 
who  had  been  dispossessed  of  the  throne  of  Alba  by  his 
younger  brother  Amulius ;  Silvia's  twin  sons,  Romulus  and 
Remus,  were  placed  in  a  trough  and  cast  into  the  Tiber 
by  their  cruel  granduncle.  The  trough  grounded  in  the 
marshes  where  Rome  afterwards  stood,  under  the  wild  fig- 
tree  (ficus  ruminalis)  which  was  still  holy  in  later  days. 
The  babes  were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf  and  fed  by  a  wood- 
pecker, and  then  fostered  by  Acca  Laurentia,  wife  of  the 
shepherd  Faustulus.  Growing  up  they  became  leaders  of 
a  warlike  band  of  shepherds  on  the  Palatine,  and  in  course 
of  time  were  recognized  by  their  grandfather,  whom  they 
restored  to  his  throne,  slaying  the  usurper  Amulius.  They 
now  proposed  to  found  a  city  on  the  site  where  they  had  been 
nurtured ;  but  a  quarrel  broke  out  between  the  brothers,  and 
Remus  was  slain.  The  story  goes  on  to  tell  how  Romulus 
strengthened  his  band  by  receiving  outlaws,  found  wives 


for  them  by  capture,  and  waged  war  with  the  indignant 
parents.  The  most  formidable  foe  was  Titus  Tatius,  king 
of  the  Sabines,  but  after  an  obstinate  struggle  he  and 
Romulus  united  their  forces  and  reigned  side  by  side  till 
Tatius  fell  in  a  blood  feud  with  Laurentum.  Romulus 
now  reigned  alone  till  he  suddenly  one  day  disappeared 
from  earth  in  darkness  and  storm,  and  was  thereafter 
worshipped  as  a  god  under  the  name  of  Quirinus,  which, 
however,  is  really  a  Sabine  form  of  Mars.  This  legend,  best 
preserved  in  Livy  (book  i.),  belongs  throughout  to  mytho- 
logy, not  to  history.  See  also  Plutarch's  fiomulus,  and 
Dionysius,  books  i.,  ii. 

ROMULUS  AUGUSTULUS.  See  ODOACER,  vol.  xvii. 
p.  726,  and  ROME,  supra,  p.  781. 

RONDA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Malaga, 
and  about  43  miles  to  the  west  of  that  city.  It  occupies 
a  site  of  singular  picturesqueness  on  a  high  rock  nearly 
surrounded  by  the  Guadalvin  (afterwards  the  Guadiaro), 
which  flows  through  a  deep  and  abrupt  chasm  (or  "  Tajo  ") 
by  which  the  old  town  is  separated  from  the  new.  Of  the 
two  bridges  the  more  modern  (1761)  spans  the  stream  in  a 
single  arch  at  a  height  of  about  255  feet.  On  the  edge  of 
the  Tajo  is  the  alameda  or  public  promenade,  commanding 
a  wide  and  beautiful  prospect  of  the  fertile  valley  or  vega 
and  the  sierra  beyond.  The  old  part  of  the  town  has  a 
Moorish  aspect,  with  narrow,  steep,  and  crooked  lanes, 
and  still  retains  some  Moorish  towers  and  other  buildings. 
The  Ronda  bull-ring  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Spain,  and  can 
accommodate  10,000  spectators.  Ronda  is  the  seat  of  a 
considerable  trade  in  leather,  saddlery,  and  horses,  and  has 
an  important  fair  (May  20).  The  population  within  the 
limits  of  the  municipality  was  19,181  in  1877. 

Some  inconsiderable  remains  of  an  aqueduct  and  theatre,  about  7 
miles  to  the  north  of  Ronda,  are  supposed  to  represent  the  Acinipo 
or  Arnnda  of  ancient  geographers.  Ronda  was  taken  from  the  Moors 
in  1485.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Espinel. 

RONDEAU  or  RONDEL  (Ital.  Hondo).  In  poetry  the 
rondeau  is  a  short  metrical  structure  which  in  its  perfect 
form  is  divided  into  three  strophes  of  unequal  length,  knit 
together  by  rapidly  recurrent  rhymes  and  a  refrain.  The 
laws  of  the  rondeau  have  varied  at  different  periods,  and 
even  with  different  poets  of  the  same  period — varied  so 
fundamentally  that  some  critics  have  found  a  generic  dif- 
ference between  the  "rondeau"  and  the  "rondel"  or  "ron- 
det."  Rondeau,  however,  seems  to  be  merely  the  modern 
spelling  of  the  word  rondel,  as  marteau  is  the  modern  spell- 
ing of  martel,  chateau  of  chdtel,  &c.  When  the  rondeau 
was  called  the  rondel  it  was  mostly  written  in  fourteen 
octosyllabic  lines  of  two  rhymes  as  in  the  rondels  of  Charles 
d'Orleans.  In  this  variability  of  structure  it  contrasts 
with  the  stability  of  the  SONNET  (q.v.).  While  the  proper 
sonnet  of  octave  and  sestet  has  always  been  a  structure  of 
fourteen  verses  (whatever  may  be  the  arrangement  of  the 
rhymes),  the  structure  under  consideration,  whether  called 
rondeau  or  rondel  or  rondet,  may,  it  seems,  consist  of  any 
number  of  verses  from  eight  to  thirteen.  But  when  we 
find  that  the  kind  of  triolet  used  by  Froissart  is  a  "  rondel" 
we  are  compelled  to  admit  that  the  names  given  to  this 
form  are  very  elastic.  In  Clement  Marot's  time,  however, 
the  laws  of  the  rondeau  became  more  settled,  and,  according 
to  Voiture,  in  the  17th  century  the  approved  form  of  the 
rondeau  was  a  structure  of  thirteen  verses  and  a  refrain. 

Ma  foy,  c'est  fait  de  moy,  car  Isabeau 
M'a  conjure  de  luy  faire  un  Rondeau  : 

Cela  me  met  en  une  peine  extreme. 

Quoy  treize  yers,  huit  en  cau,  cinq  en  tme, 
Je  luy  ferois  aussi-t8t  un  bateau  ! 

En  voila  cinq  pourtant  en  un  monceau  : 
Faisons  en  huict,  en  invoquant  Brodeau, 

En  puis  mettons,  par  quelque  stratageme, 
Ma  foy,  c'est  fait ! 


R  0  N  — R  O  N 


841 


Si  je  pouvois  encore  de  mon  cerveau 
Tirer  cinq  vers,  1'ouvrage  seroit  beau  ; 

Mais  cependant,  je  suis  dedans  1'onziemc, 

Et  si  je  croy  que  je  fais  le  douzieme 
Ea  voila  treize  ajustez  au  niveau. 
Ma  foy,  c'est  fait ! 

All  forms  of  the  rondeau,  or  rondel,  however,  are  alike 
in  this  that  the  distinguishing  metrical  emphasis  is  achieved 
by  a  peculiar  use  of  the  refrain.  Though  we  have  the  Eng- 
lish rondels  of  Occleve  and  a  set  of  rondeaus  in  the  Rolliad 
(written  by  Dr  Lawrence  the  friend  of  Burke,  according  to 
Mr  Gosse,  who  has  given  us  an  admirable  essay  upon  exotic 
forms  of  verse),  it  was  not  till  our  own  day  that  the  form 
had  any  real  vogue  in  England.  Considerable  attention, 
however,  has  lately  been  given  in  England  to  the  form. 
Some  of  the  rondeaus  of  our  own  contemporary  poets  are 
as  bright  and  graceful  as  Voiture's  own.  Mr  Swinburne, 
who  in  his  Century  of  Roundels  was  perhaps  the  first  to 
make  the  refrain  rhyme  with  the  second  verse  of  the  first 
strophe,  has  brought  the  form  into  high  poetry. 

Although  the  origin  of  the  refrain  in  all  poetry  was  no 
doubt  the  improvisator's  need  of  a  rest,  a  time  in  which 
to  focus  his  forces  and  recover  breath  for  future  flights, 
the  refrain  has  a  distinct  metrical  value  of  its  own ;  it  knits 
the  structure  together,  and  so  intensifies  the  emotional 
energy,  as  we  see  in  the  Border  ballads,  in  the  Oriana  of 
Lord  Tennyson,  and  in  the  Sister  Helen  of  Rossetti.  The 
suggestion  of  extreme  artificiality — of  "  difficulty  over- 
come " — which  is  one  great  fault  of  the  rondeau  as  a 
vehicle  for  deep  emotion,  does  not  therefore  spring  from 
the  use  of  the  refrain,  but  from  the  too  frequent  recur- 
rence of  the  rhymes  in  the  strophes — for  which  there  is  no 
metrical  necessity  as  in  the  case  of  the  Petrarchan  sonnet. 
"  Difficulty  overcome,"  though  a  legitimate  source  of  plea- 
sure in  French  poetry  even  of  the  most  serious  kind  (for 
the  French  language  is  essentially  the  most  unpoetic  in 
Europe),  finds  no  place  in  the  serious  poetry  of  England. 

In  music  the  "  rondo  "  seeks  much  the  same  effect  as  in  poetry, 
the  melodic  emphasis  of  the  refrain.  The  Italian  composer 
Buononcini  seems  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  rondo  as  thus 
understood. 

RONSARD,  PIERRE  DE  (1524-1585),  "Prince  of  Poets" 
(as  his  own  generation  in  France  called  him,  and  as  after 
much  change  of  criticism  there  is  reason  for  calling  him 
still  in  reference  to  that  generation  and  country),  was  born 
at  the  Chateau  de  la  Poissonniere,  near  the  village  of 
Couture  in  the  province  of  Vendomois  (department  of 
Loir-et-Cher)  on  September  11,  1524.  His  family  are 
said  to  have  come  from  the  Slav  provinces  to  the  south  of 
the  Danube  (provinces  with  which  the  crusades  had  given 
France  much  intercourse)  in  the  first  half  of  the  14th 
century.  Baudouin  de  Ronsard  or  Rossart  was  the 
founder  of  the  French  branch  of  the  house,  and  made  his 
mark  in  the  early  stages  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 
The  poet's  father  was  named  Loys,  and  his  mother  was 
Jeanne  de  Chaudrier,  of  a  family  not  only  noble  in  itself 
but  well  connected.  Pierre  was  the  youngest  son.  Loys 
de  Ronsard  was  maitre  d'hotel  du  roi  to  Francis  I.,  whose 
captivity  after  Pavia  had  just  been  softened  by  treaty, 
and  he  had  to  quit  his  home  shortly  after  Pierre's  birth. 
The  future  Prince  of  Poets  was  educated  at  home  for  some 
years  and  sent  to  the  College  de  Navarre  at  Paris  when 
he  was  nine  years  old.  It  is  said  that  the  rough  life  of  a 
mediaeval  school  did  not  suit  him.  He  had,  however,  no 
long  experience  of  it,  being  quickly  appointed  page  to 
the  duke  of  Orleans.  When  Marguerite  of  France  was 
married  to  James  V.  of  Scotland  Ronsard  was  attached  to 
the  king's  service,  and  he  spent  three  years  in  Great 
Britain.  The  latter  part  of  this  time  seems  to  have  been 
passed  in  England,  though  he  had,  strictly  speaking,  no 
business  there.  On  returning  to  France  in  1540  he  was 


again  taken  into  the  service  of  the  duke  of  Orleans.  In 
;his  service  he  had  other  opportunities  of  travel,  being 
sent  to  Flanders  and  again  to  Scotland.  After  a  time  a 
more  important  employment  fell  to  his  lot,  -and  he  was 
attached  as  secretary  to  the  suite  of  Lazare  de  Baif,  the 
father  of  his  future  colleague  in  the  Pleiade  and  his  com- 
panion on  this  occasion,  Antoine  de  Baif,  at  the  diet  of 
Spires.  Afterwards  he  was  attached  in  the  same  way  to 
the  suite  of  the  Cardinal  du  Bellay-Langey,  and  his  mythical 
quarrel  with  Rabelais  dates  mythically  from  this  period. 
His  apparently  promising  diplomatic  career  was,  however, 
cut  short  by  an  attack  of  deafness  which  no  physician 
could  cure,  and  he  determined  to  devotejiimself  to  study. 
The  institution  which  he  chose  for  the  purpose  among  the 
numerous  schools  and  colleges  of  Paris  was  the  College 
Coqueret,  the  principal  of  which  was  Daurat — afterwards 
the  "dark  star"  (as  be  has  been  called  from  his  silence 
in  France)  of  the  Pleiade.  Baif  accompanied  Ronsard  ; 
Belleau  shortly  followed ;  Joachim  du  Bellay,  the  second 
of  the  seven,  joined  not  much  later.  Muretus,  a  great 
scholar  and  by  means  of  his  Latin  plays  a  great  influence 
in  the  creation  of  French  tragedy,  was  also  a  student  here. 

Konsard's  period  of  study  occupied  seven  years,  and  the  first 
manifesto  of  the  new  literary  movement,  which  was  to  apply  to  the. 
vernacular  the  principles  of  criticism  and  scholarship  learnt  from  the 
classics,  came  not  from  him  but  from  Du  Bellay.  The  Defense  et 
Illustration  de  la  Langue  Franqaise  of  the  latter  appeared  in  1549, 
and  the  Pleiade  may  be  said  to  have  been  then  launched.  It  con- 
sisted, as  its  name  implies,  of  seven  writers  whose  names  are  some- 
times differently  enumerated,  though  the  orthodox  canon  is  beyond 
doubt  composed  of  Ronsard,  Du  Bellay,  Baif,  Belleau,  Pontus  de 
Tyard  (a  man  of  rank  and  position  who  had  exemplified  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  friends  earlier),  Jodelle  the  dramatist,  and  Daurat. 
Ronsard's  own  work  came  a  little  later,  and  a  rather  idle  story  is 
told  of  a  trick  of  Du  Bellay's  which  at  last  determined  him  to 
publish.  Some  single  and  minor  pieces,  an  epithalamium  on 
Antoiue  de  Bourbon  and  Jeanne  de  Navarre,  a  "  Hymne  de  la 
France,"  an  "Ode  a  la  Paix,"  preceded  the  publication  in  1550 
of  the  four  first  books  ("first"  is  characteristic  and  noteworthy)  of 
the  Odes  of  Pierre  de  Ronsard.  This  was  followed  in  1552  by  the 
publication  of  his  Amours  with  the  fifth  book  of  Odes.  These 
books  excited  a  violent  literary  quarrel.  Marot  was  dead,  but  he 
left  a  numerous  school,  some  of  whom  saw  in  the  stricter  literary 
critique  of  the  Pleiade,  in  its  outspoken  contempt  of  merely  ver- 
nacular and  mediaeval  forms  and  so  forth,  an  insult  to  the  author 
of  the  Adolescence  Clementine  and  his  followers.  The  French  court, 
and  indeed  all  French  society,  was  just  then  much  interested  in 
literary  questions,  and  a  curious  story  is  told  of  the  rivalry  that 
ensued.  Mellin  de  St  Gelais,  it  is  said,  the  chief  of  the  "  JiJcole 
Marotique  "  and  a  poet  of  no  small  merit,  took  up  Ronsard's  book 
and  read  part  of  it  in  a  more  or  less  designedly  burlesque  fashion 
before  the  king.  It  may  be  observed  that  if  he  did  so  it  was  a  dis- 
tinctly rash  and  uncourtier-like  act,  inasmuch  as  from  Ronsard's 
father's  position  in  the  royal  household  the  poet  was  personally 
known  and  liked  both  by  Henry  and  by  his  family.  At  any  rate 
Marguerite  the  king's  sister,  who  afterwards  became  duchess  of 
Savoy,  is  said  to  have  snatched  the  book  from  St  Gelais  and  insisted 
on  reading  it  herself,  with  the  result  of  general  applause.  Hence- 
forward, if  not  before,  his  acceptance  as  a  poet  was  not  doubtful, 
and  indeed  the  tradition  of  his  having  to  fight  his  way  against 
cabals  is  almost  entirely  unsupported.  It  is  quite  true  that  he 
more  than  any  other  poet  has  had  to  suffer  detraction  from  a 
remarkably  different  series  of  opposing  forces.  But  none  of  these 
interfered  with  his  popularity  in  his  own  time,  which  was  over- 
whelming and  immediate,  or  with  his  prosperity,  which  was 
unbroken.  He  published  his  Hymns,  dedicated  to  Marguerite  de 
Savoie,  in  1555,  the-  conclusion  of  the  Amours  in  1556,  and  then  a 
collection  of  (Euvres  Completes  said  to  be  due  to  the  invitation  of 
Mary  Stuart,  queen  of  Francis  II.,  in  1560. 

The  rapid  change  of  sovereigns  did  Ronsard  no  harm.  Charles 
IX.,  who  succeeded  his  brother  after  a  very  short  time,  was  even 
better  inclined  to  him  than  Henry  and  Francis.  He  gave  him 
rooms  in  the  palace  ;  he  bestowed  upon  him  divers  abbacies  and 
priories  ;  and  he  called  him  and  regarded  him  constantly  as  his 
master  in  poetry.  Neither  was  Charles  IX.  a  bad  poet.  This 
royal  patronage,  however,  had  its  disagreeable  side.  It  excited 
violent  dislike  to  Ronsard  on  the  part  of  the  Huguenots,  who  wrote 
constant  pasquinades  against  him,  strove  (by  a  ridiculous  exaggera- 
tion of  the  Dionysiac  festival  at  Arcueil,  in  which  the  friends  had 
indulged  to  celebrate  the  success  of  the  first  French  tragedy, 
Jodelle's  CUopatre)  to  represent  him  as  a  libertine  and  an  atheist, 

XX.  —  1 06 


842 


R  0  N  — R  0  0 


and  (which  seems  to  have  annoyed  him  more  than  anything  else) 
set  up  his  follower  Du  Bartas  as  his  rival.  According  to  some 
words  of  his  own  which  are  quite  credible  considering  the  ways  of 
the  time,  they  were  not  contented  with  this  variety  of  argument, 
but  attempted  to  have  him  assassinated.  During  this  period 
Ronsard's  work  was  considerable  but  mostly  occasional,  and  the 
one  work  of  magnitude  upon  which  Charles  put  him,  the 
Fraiiciade,  has  never  been  ranked,  even  by  his  most  devoted 
admirers,  as  a  chief  title  to  fame.  The  metre  (the  decasyllabic) 
which  the  king  chose  could  not  but  contrast  unfavourably  with  the 
magnificent  alexandrines  which  Du  Bartas  and  Agrippa  d'Aubigne 
were  shortly  to  produce  ;  the  general  plan  is  feebly  classical,  and 
the  very  language  has  little  or  nothing  of  that  racy  mixture  of 
scholarliness  and  love  of  natural  beauty  which  distinguishes  the 
best  work  of  the  Pleiade.  The  poem  could  never  have  had  an 
abiding  success,  but  at  its  appearance  it  had  the  singular  bad  luck 
almost  to  coincide  with  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  which 
had  occurred  about  a  fortnight  before  its  publication.  One  party 
in  the  state  were  certain  to  look  coldly  on  the  work  of  a  minion  of 
the  court  at  such  a  juncture,  the  other  had  something  else  to  think 
of.  The  death  of  Charles  made,  indeed,  little  difference  in  the 
court  favour  which  Ronsard  enjoyed,  but,  combined  with  his 
increasing  infirmities,  it  seems  to  have  determined  him  to  quit 
court  life.  During  his  last  year  he  lived  chiefly  at  a  house  which 
he  possessed  in  Yendome,  the  capital  of  his  native  province,  at  his 
abbey  at  Croix  Val  in  the  same  neighbourhood,  or  else  at  Paris, 
where  he  was  usually  the  guest  of  Jean  Galland,  well  known  as  a 
scholar,  at  the  College  de  Boncourt.  It  seems  also  that  he  had  a 
town  house  of  his  own  in  the  Faubourg  Saint  Marcel.  At  any  rate 
.his  preferments  made  him  in  perfectly  easy  circumstances,  and  he 
seems  neither  to  have  derived  nor  wished  for  any  profit  from  his 
books.  A  half-jocular  suggestion  that  his  publisher  should  give 
him  money  to  buy  "  du  bois  pour  se  chauffer  in  return  for  his  last 
revision  of  his  (Euvres  Completes  is  the  only  trace  of  any  desire  of 
the  kind.  On  the  other  hand  he  received  not  merely  gifts  and 
endowments  from  his  own  sovereign  but  presents  from  many 
others,  including  Elizabeth  of  England.  His  last  years  were, 
however,  saddened  not  merely  by  the  death  of  many  of  his  most 
intimate  friends,  but  by  constant  and  increasing  ill  health.  This 
did  not  interfere  with  his  literary  work  in  point  of  quality,  for  he 
was  rarely  idle,  and  some  of  his  latest  work  is  among  his  best. 
But  he  indulged  (what  few  poets  have  wisely  indulged)  the  tempta- 
tion of  constantly  altering  his  work,  and  many  of  his  later  altera- 
tions are  by  no  means  for  the  better.  Towards  the  end  of  1585 
his  condition  of  health  grew  worse  and  worse,  and  he  seems  to  have 
moved  restlessly  from  one  of  his  houses  to  another  for  some  months. 
When  the  end  came,  which,  though  in  great  pain,  he  met  in  a 
resolute  and  religious  manner,  he  was  at  his  priory  of  Saint  Cosme 
at  Tours,  and  he  was  buried  in  the  church  of  that  name  on  Friday, 
December  27. 

The  character  and  fortunes  of  Ronsard's  works  are  among  the 
most  remarkable  in  literary  history,  and  supply  in  themselves  a 
kind  of  illustration  of  the  progress  of  French  literature  during  the 
last  three  centuries.  It  was  his  fortune  to  be  almost  always  extra- 
vagantly admired  or  violently  attacked,  and  it  is  only  recently 
that  he  has  been  set  in  his  proper  place.  At  first,  as  has  been  said, 
the  enmity,  not  altogether  unprovoked,  of  the  friends  and  followers 
of  Marot  fell  to  his  lot,  then  the  still  fiercer  antagonism  of  the 
Huguenot  faction,  who,  happening  to  possess  a  poet  of  great  merit 
in  Du  Bartas,  were  able  to  attack  Ronsard  in  his  tenderest  point, 
that  of  his  reputation  as  the  greatest  living  French  poet.  But  fate 
had  by  no  means  done  its  worst  with  him  in  his  lifetime.  After 
his  death  the  classical  reaction  set  in  under  the  auspices  of  Malherbe, 
a  man  of  correct  and  narrow  spirit  who  seems  to  have  been  animated 
with  a  sort  of  personal  hatred  of  Ronsard,  though  it  is  not  clear 
that  they  ever  met.  After  Malherbe  (who  by  no  means  himself 
produced  the  effect  which  some  well-known  but  quite  unhistorical 
lines  of  Boileau  Would  convey)  the  rising  glory  of  Corneille  and  his 
contemporaries  obscured  the  tentative  and  equal  work  of  the 
Pleiade,  which  was,  moreover,  directly  attacked  by  Boileau  himself, 
the  dictator  of  French  criticism  in  the  last  half  of  the  17th  century. 
Then  Ronsard  was,  except  by  a  few  men  of  taste,  like  La  Bruyere 
and  Fenelon,  forgotten  when  he  was  not  sneered  at.  In  this  con- 
dition he  remained  during  the  whole  18th  century  and  the  first 
quarter  of  the  19th.  The  romantic  revival,  seeing  in  him  a  victim 
of  its  special  bete  noire  Boileau,  and  attracted  by  his  splendid 
diction,  rich  metrical  faculty,  and  combination  of  classical  and 
mediaeval  peculiarities,  adopted  his  name  as  a  kind  of  battle  cry, 
and  for  the  moment  exaggerated  his  merits  somewhat.  The  critical 
work,  however,  first  of  Sainte-Beuve  in  his  Tableau  de  la  Literature 
Fran<;aise  au  16eme  Sieclc,  and  since  of  others,  has  established 
Ronsard  pretty  securely  in  his  right  place,  a  place  which  may  be 
defined  in  a  few  sentences. 

For  the  general  position  of  the  Pleiade  reference  may  be  made  to 
the  article  on  the  literature  of  FRANCE  (vol.  ix.  p.  650).  Ronsard, 
its  acknowledged  chief  and  its  most  voluminous  poet,  was  probably 
also  its  best,  though  a  few  isolated  pieces  of  Belleau  excel  him  in 


airy  lightness  of  touch.  Several  sonnets  of  Du  Bellay  exhibit  what 
may  be  called  the  intense  and  voluptuous  melancholy  of  the 
Renaissance  more  perfectly  than  anything  of  his,  and  the  thirst 
passages  of  the  Tragiqms  and  the  Divine  Sepmaiiie  surpass  his 
work  in  command  of  the  alexandrine  and  in  power  of  turning  it 
to  the  purposes  of  satirical  invective  and  descriptive  narration. 
But  that  work  is,  as  has  been  said,  very  extensive  (we  possess  at  a 
rough  guess  not  much  short  of  a  hundred  thousand  lines  of  his), 
and  it  is  extraordinarily  varied  in  form.  He  did  not  introduce 
the  sonnet  into  France,  but  he  practised  it  very  soon  after  its 
introduction  and  with  admirable  skill — the  famous  "  Quand  vous 
serez  bien  vieille  "  being  one  of  the  acknowledged  gems  of  French 
literature.  His  odes,  which  are  very  numerous,  are  also  very  in- 
teresting and  in  their  best  shape  very  perfect  compositions.  He 
began  by  imitating  the  strophic  arrangement  of  the  ancients,  but 
very  soon  had  the  wisdom  to  desert  this  for  a  kind  of  adjustment 
of  the  Horatian  ode  to  rhyme,  instead  of  exact  quantitative  metre. 
In  this  latter  kind  he  devised  some  exquisitely  melodious  rhythms 
of  which,  till  our  own  day,  the  secret  died  with  the  17th  century. 
His  more  sustained  work  sometimes  displays  a  bad  selection  of  metre; 
and  his  occasional  poetry — epistles,  eclogues,  elegies,  &c. — is  injured 
by  its  vast  volume.  But  the  preface  to  the  Franciadeis  a  'very 
tine  piece  of  verse,  far  superior  (it  is  in  alexandrines)  to  the  poem 
itself.  Generally  speaking,  Ronsard  is  best  in  his  amatory  verse 
(the  long  series  of  sonnets  and  odes  to  Cassandre,  Marie,  Genevre, 
Helene,  &c.),  and  in  his  descriptions  of  the  country  (the  famous 
"  Mignonne  allons  voir  si  la  rose,"  the  "  Fontaine  Bellerie,"  the 
"  Foret  de  Gastine,"  and  so  forth),  which  have  an  extraordinary 
grace  and  freshness.  No  one  used  with  more  art  than  he  the  grace- 
ful diminutives  which  his  school  set  in  fashion.  He  knew  well  too 
how  to  manage  the  gorgeous  adjectives  ("marbrine,"  "ciuabrine," 
"  ivoirine,"and  the  like)  which  were  another  fancy  of  the  Pleiade, 
and  in  his  hands  they  rarely  become  stiff  or  cumbrous.  In  short, 
Ronsard  shows  eminently  the  two  great  attractions  of  French  17th- 
century  poetry  as  compared  with  that  of  the  two  following  ages, — 
magnificence  of  language  and  imagery  and  graceful  variety  of  metre. 
The  chief  separately  published  works  of  Ronsard  are  noted  above.  He  pro- 
duced, however,  during  his  life  a  vast  number  of  separate  publications,  some  of 
them  mere  pamphlets  or  broadsheets  which  from  time  to  time  he  collected,  often 
striking  out  others  at  the  same  time,  in  the  successive  editions  of  his  works.  Of 
these  he  himself  published  seven—  the  first  in  1500,  the  last  in  1084.  Between  his 
death  and  the  year  16-30  ten  more  complete  editions  were  published,  the  most 
famous  of  which  is  the  folio  of  1609.  A  copy  of  this  presented  by  Sainte-Beuve 
to  Victor  Hugo,  and  now  in  the  possession  of  M.  Slaxime  du  Camp,  lias  a  place  of 
its  own  in  French  literary  history.  From  1630  Ronsard  was  not  again  reprinted 
for  more  than  two  centuries.  Just  before  the  close  of  the  second,  however, 
Sainte-Beuve  printed  a  selection  of  his  poems  at  the  end  of  the  above-mentioned 
Tableau.  There  are  also  selections  by  31.  Noel  (in  the  Collection  Didot)  and 
Becq  de  Fouquieres.  In  1857  31.  Prosper  Blanchemain,  who  had  previously  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  (Euvres  Jnedites  de  Ronsard,  undertook  a  complete  edition  for 
the  Bibliotheque  ElzMrienne.  The  eighth  and  last  volume  of  this  appeared  ton 
years  later.  It  is  practically  complete;  a  few  pieces  of  a  somewhat  free  character 
which  are  ascribed  with  some  certainty  to  the  poet  are,  however,  excluded.  The 
chief  separate  volume  of  criticism  on  Ronsard  is  that  of  31.  Gandar  (Metz.  1854), 
which  considers  him  chiefly  in  his  relation  to  the  ancients.  (G.  SA.) 

RONSDORF,  a  town  in  north-western  Prussia,  on  the 
Morsbach,  a  small  affluent  of  the  Rhine,  18  miles  west  of 
Diisseldorf,  contains  considerable  iron  and  brass  works, 
foundries,  and  wire-works,  besides  carrying  on  extensive 
manufactures  of  ribbons,  trimmings,  and  similar  goods. 
The  population  in  1880  was  10,100. 

Founded  in  1737  by  the  followers  of  Elias  Eller,  a  religious  en- 
thusiast, Ronsdorf  received  town-rights  in  1745.  The  Ronsdorf  sect, 
the  members  of  which  called  themselves  Zionites,  is  now  extinct. 

ROOF.     See  BUILDING  and  DOME. 

ROOK  (Anglo-Saxon  11 roc,  Icelandic  Hrokr,1  Swedish 
Raka,  Dutch  Roek,  Gaelic  Rocas),  the  Conms  frugilegus  of 
ornithology,  and  throughout  a  great  part  of  Europe  the 
commonest  and  best-known  of  the  Crow-tribe.  Besides 
its  pre-eminently  gregarious  habits,  which  did  not  escape 
the  notice  of  Virgil  (Georg.  i.  382)2  and  are  so  unlike 
those  of  nearly  every  other  member  of  the  Coi-videe,  the 
Rook  is  at  once  distinguishable  from  the  rest  by  commonly 
losing  at  an  early  age  the  feathers  from  its  face,  leaving  a 
bare,  scabrous,  and  greyish-white  skin  that  is  sufficiently 
visible  at  some  distance.  In  the  comparatively  rare  cases 

1  The  bird,  however,  does  not  inhabit  Iceland,  and  the  language 
to  which  the  name  belongs  would  perhaps  be  more  correctly  termed 
Old  Teutonic.     From  this  word  is  said  to  come  the  French  Freux. 
There  are  many  local  German  names  of  the  same  origin,  such  as  Rooke, 
Jtouch,  Ruch,  and  others,  but  the  bird  is  generally  known  in  Germany 
as  the  Saat-KraJie,  i.e.,  Seed-  (  =  Corn-)  Crow. 

2  This  is  the  more  noteworthy  as  the  district  in  which  he  was  born 
and  educated  is  almost  the  only  part  of  Italy  in  which  the  Rook  breeds. 
Shelley  also  very  truly  specoks  of  the  "  legioned  Rooks  "  to  which  lie 
stood  listening  "mid  the  mountains  Euganean." 


R  o  0  — R  0  P 


843 


in  which  these  feathers  persist,  the  Rook  may  be  readily 
known  from  the  black  form  of  CROW  (vol.  vi.  p.  618)  by 
the  rich  purple  gloss  of  its  black  plumage,  especially  on 
the  head  and  neck,  the  feathers  of  which  are  soft  and  not 
pointed.  In  a  general  way  the  appearance  and  manners 
of  the  Rook  are  so  well  known,  to  most  inhabitants  of  the 
British  Islands  especially,  that  it  is  needless  here  to  dwell 
upon  them,  and  particularly  its  habit  of  forming  com- 
munities in  the  breeding-season,  which  it  possesses  in  a 
measure  beyond  that  of  any  other  land  bird  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Yet  each  of  these  communities, 
or  rookeries,  seems  to  have  some  custom  intrinsically  its 
own,  the  details  of  which  want  of  space  forbids  any 
attempt  to  set  before  the  reader.  In  a  general  way  the 
least-known  part  of  the  Rook's  mode  of  life  are  facts  relating 
to  its  migration  and  geographical  distribution.  Though 
the  great  majority  of  Rooks  in  Britain  are  sedentary  or 
only  change  their  abode  to  a  very  limited  extent,  it  is 
now  certain  that  a  very  considerable  number  visit  this 
country  in  or  towards  autumn,  not  necessarily  to  abide 
here,  but  merely  to  pass  onward,  like  most  other  kinds  of 
birds,  to  winter  further  southwards  ;  and,  at  the  same 
season  or  even  a  little  earlier,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  a 
large  proportion  of  the  young  of  the  year  emigrate  in  the 
.same  direction.  As  a  species  the  Rook  on  the  European 
continent  only  resides  during  the  whole  year  through- 
out the  middle  tract  of  its  ordinary  range.  Further  to 
the  northward,  as  in  Sweden  and  northern  Russia,  it  is  a 
regular  summer- immigrant,  while  further  to  the  southward, 
as  in  southern  France,  Spain,  and  most  parts  of  Italy,  it 
is,  on  the  contrary,  a  regular  winter-immigrant.  The  same 
is  found  to  be  the  case  in  Asia,  where  it  extends  eastward 
as  far  as  the  upper  Irtish  and  the  Ob.  It  breeds  through- 
out Turkestan,  in  the  cold  weather  visiting  Afghanistan, 
Cashmere,  and  the  Punjab,  and  Sir  Oliver  St  John  found 
a  rookery  of  considerable  size  at  Casbin  in  Persia.  In 
Palestine  and  in  Lower  Egypt  it  is  only  a  winter-visitant, 
and  Canon  Tristram  noticed  that  it  congregates  in  great 
numbers  about  the  mosque  of  Omar  in  Jerusalem.1 

There  are  several  moot  points  in  the  natural  history  of  the  Rook 
which  it  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than  mention.  One  is  the 
cause  of  the  curious  shedding  on  reaching  maturity  of  the  feathers 
of  its  face,  and  another  the  burning  question  whether  Rooks  are  on 
the  whole  beneficial  or  detrimental  to  agriculture.  In  England 
the  former  opinion  seems  to  be  generally  entertained,  but  in 
Scotland  the  latter  has  long  been  popular.  The  absence  of  suffi- 
cient observations  made  by  persons  at  once  competent  and  without 
bias  compels  the  naturalist  to  withhold  his  judgment  on  the  matter, 
but  the  absence  of  such  observations  is  eminently  discreditable  to  the 
numerous  Agricultural  Societies  of  the  United  Kingdom.  (A.  x. ) 

ROOKE,  SIR  GEORGE  {(1650-1709),  naval  commander, 
was  born  near  Canterbury  in  1650.  Entering  the  navy  as 
a  volunteer,  he  became  post-captain  in  1680,  and  vice- 
admiral  in  1692.  In  May  of  this  year  he  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  a  night  attack  on  the  French  fleet 
off  Cape  La  Hogue,  when  he  succeeded  in  burning  six  of 
their  ships.  Shortly  afterwards  he  received  the  honour  of 
knighthood  and  a  reward  of  £1000.  In  1702  he  com- 
manded the  expedition  against  Cadiz,  and  on  the  passage 
home  captured  the  Plate  fleet  off  Vigo.  Along  with  Sir 
Cloudesley  Shovel  he  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Gibraltar, 
21st  July  1704.  On  13th  August  of  the  same  year  he 
attacked  the  French  fleet  off  Malaga,  the  battle  being 
drawn.  On  account  of  the  dissatisfaction  expressed 
indirectly  at  the  result  of  the  contest,  he  retired  from  tlie 
service  in  February  1705.  He  died  24th  January  1709. 

See  The  Life  and  Glorious  Actions  of  Sir  George  Eooke,  1707. 

1  It  is  right  to  mention  that  the  Canon  considers  the  Rook  of 
Palestine  entitled  to  specific  distinction  as  Corvus  agricola  (Proc. 
Zool.  Society,  1864,  p.  444  ;  Ibis,  1866,  pp.  68,  69).  In  like  manner 
the  Rook  of  China  has  been  described  as  forming  a  distinct  species, 
under  the  name  of  C.  pastinator  (Proc.  ZooL  Society,  1845,  p.  1), 
from  having  the  feathers  of  its  face  only  partially  deciduous. 


ROPE.  All  varieties  of  cordage  having  a  circumference 
of  an  inch  or  more  are  known  by  the  general  name  of 
rope.  Twisted  cordages  of  smaller  dimensions  are  called 
cords,  twines,  and  lines,  and  when  the  dimensions  are 
still  smaller  the  article  becomes  thread  or  doubled  yarn. 
All  these  varieties  of  cordage  are  composed  of  at  least 
two,  and  in  most  cases  of  very  many  separate  yarns,  which 
are  textile  fibres  drawn  out  and  twisted  into  a  uniform 
compact  line.  From  thread  and  fine  twine  upwards  the 
whole  art  of  manufacture  is  simply  that  of  twisting  together 
fibres  and  yarns,  but  the  comparative  heaviness  and  coarse- 
ness of  the  materials  operated  on  in  rope-making  render 
necessary  the  adoption  of  strong  machinery  and  modified 
processes  which  clearly  define  this  manufacture  as  a  distinct 
calling.  The  modern  trade  of  rope-making  is  again  divided 
into  two  branches  dealing  respectively  with  certain  vegetable 
fibres  and  with  metallic  wire.  Silk  cords  and  hair  lines 
and  ropes  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of  rope-making 
proper. 

Vegetable  fibres  fit  for  rope-making  are  numerous,  but 
ordinarily  not  many  are  employed.  Speaking  generally, 
for  the  prime  requisites  of  strength,  suppleness,  flexi- 
bility, and  durability,  none  can'compete  with  the  common 
HEMP  (q.v.),  which  consequently  is  the  staple  of  the  rope- 
maker.  MANILA  HEMP  (q.v.)  is  a  fibre  of  the  most 
remarkable  tenacity,  of  unapproached  value  for  heavy 
cordage,  but  too  stiff  and  woody  for  small  cords  and 
twines.  After  these  in  utility  come  sisal  hemp  of  South 
America  (Agave  sisalana),  phormium  hemp  of  New  Zealand 
(Phormium  tenax,  see  vol.  xviii.  p.  812),  and  the  sunn 
hemp  of  the  East  Indies  (Crotalaria  juncea,  see  vol.  xi.  p. 
647) — all  fibres  of  great  strength,  and  largely  used  by  rope- 
makers.  Among  fibres  more  rarely  seen  in  rope-works  are 
Jubbulpore  hemp  (Crotalaria  tenuifolia),  bowstring  hemp 
(Sanseviera  zeylanica),  and  other  "hemps"  of  the  East 
Indies,  and  plantain  fibre  (Musa  paradisica)  and  agave  fibre 
(Agave  americana)  of  America.  Ropes  and  twine  of  cotton 
are  extensively  made,  especially  for  driving-bands  for 
machinery.  JUTE  (q.v.)  is  now  in  considerable  use  by 
rope-makers,  on  account  of  its  cheapness,  but  it  is  very 
deficient  in  strength  and  durability.  COIR  (see  vol.  vi.  p. 
917)  is  also  largely  employed,  and  many  other  fibres  are 
used,  principally  in  the  localities  of  their  production. 

A  rope  is  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  "  strands," 
the  strand  being  itself  made  up  of  many  "yarns." 
Three  strands  laid  or  twisted  together  form  a  "hawser- 
laid"  rope,  and  three  such  hawsers  similarly  laid  make 
a  "  cable-laid  rope  "  or  "  cable.  "  A  "  shroud-laid  "  rope 
consists  of  four  strands  laid  around  a  central  strand 
or  core.  The  prepared  fibre  is  twisted  or  spun  to  the 
right  hand  to  form  yarn ;  the  required  number  of  yarns 
receive  a  left  hand  twist  to  make  a  strand ;  three  strands 
twisted  to  the  right  make  a  hawser ;  and  three  hawsers 
twisted  to  the  left  yield  a  cable.  Thus  the  twist  in  each 
successive  operation  is  in  a  different  direction  from  the 
preceding,  and  this  alternation  of  direction  serves  to  some 
extent  to  preserve  the  parallelism  of  the  fibres. 

The  primary  object  of  twisting  fibres  together  in  a  rope 
is  that  by  mutual  friction  they  may  be  held  together  when 
a  strain  is  applied  to  the  whole.  Hard  twisting  has  the 
further  advantage  of  compacting  the  fibres  and  pre- 
venting the  penetration  of  moisture  when  the  ropes  are 
exposed  to  water.  The  proper  degree  of  twist  is  a 
matter  of  considerable  importance,  as  all  twisting  injuri- 
ously affects  the  strength  of  the  individual  fibres,  and 
indeed  it  is  possible  to  twist  a  cord  so  hard  that  it  will 
break  under  the  action.  The  degree  of  twist  given  to 
ropes  is  generally  such  that  the  rope  is  from  three- 
fourths  to  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  yarn  composing 
it,  and  the  lighter  the  twist  the  greater  in  proportion  is 


844 


K  0  P  E 


the  strength  of  the  rope.  lu  a  bundle  of  fibres,  equal 
in  length  and  strength,  fastened  at  the  ends,  each  fibre 
will,  upon  a  strain  being  applied  to  the  bundle,  bear 
its  proper  share  of  the  stress;  and  the  strength  of  the 
bundle  will  evidently  be  measured  by  adding  together  the 
strength  of  the  separate  fibres.  But  if  this  bundle  is 
twisted  so  as  to  form  a  thread,  the  strain  will  no  longer 
be  equally  distributed  among  the  fibres,  for,  by  the  tor- 
sion, the  external  fibres  of  the  bundle  will  be  wound  round 
those  that  lie  nearest  to  the  centre^  and,  in  proportion 
to  their  distance  from  the  heart  of  the  bundle  and  the 
amount  of  twist  given,  will  form  spirals  more  or  less 
inclined  from  the  axis  of  the  thread.  The  external 
fibres  will  in  consequence  be  longer  than  the  internal 
ones,  and  the  greatest  share  of  the  strain  will  be  borne 
by  the  latter.  The  depreciation  in  strength  from  twist- 
ing of  hard  woody  fibres  is  greater  than  is  the  case  with 
fine  soft  flexible  fibres,  such  as  common  hemp  of  good 
quality. 

To  prevent  the  decay  of  ropes  which  are  frequently 
exposed  to  water,  the  yarns  of  which  they  are  composed 
are  soaked  in  hot  Archangel  tar  before  they  are  formed 
into  strands.  Tarring,  it  is  found,  also  seriously  diminishes 
the  strength  of  the  .rope,  but  no  other  means  of  preventing 
water  from  penetrating  and  rotting  the  fibre  has  yet  been 
found.  M.  Duhamel,  from  a  series  of  investigations  made 
in  1741-46,  came  to  the  conclusion  that,  apart  from 
exposure  to  wet,  untarred  cordage  in  constant  service 
was  about  one-third  more  durable  than  tarred,  that  it 
retained  its  strength  for  a  longer  period  when  kept  in 
store,  and  that  it  resisted  the  ordinary  influences  of  the 
weather  better  than  when  it  was  tarred.  Subsequent 
experience  has  fully  borne  out  these  conclusions,  and  now 
that  Manila  hemp,  which  withstands  the  influence  of  Avater 
well,  is  so  extensively  used  for  heavy  cordage,  tarring  is 
no  longer  so  generally  practised  in  rope-making  as  was  at 
one  time  the  case. 

Ropewalk  Spinning.  — The  sequence  of  operations  in  this  ancient 
but  still  greatly  used  method  of  working  is — (1)  heckling  the 
fibre  ;  (2)  spinning  the  yarn  ;  (3)  tarring  the  yarn  (when  neces- 
sary) ;  (4)  forming  the  strands  ,-  (5)  laying  the  strands  into  ropes. 

Heckling  differs  in  no  way  from  the  hand-heckling  process  used 
in  the  preparation  of  flax  (see  vol.  xiv.  p.  604-5).  The  heckle- 
board  consists  of  a  wooden  plank,  studded  with  strong  tapered 
and  sharp-pointed  steel  prongs.  A  series  of  such  heckle-boards  is 
used  in  the  progressive  heckling  operation,  the  prongs  diminishing 
in  size  and  being  closely  set  together.  In  drawing  his  "  stricks  "  of 
fibre  through  these  gradually  diminishing  heckles  the  workman  not 
only  combs  out  and  disentangles  the  material,  separating  "tow" 
from  "line,"  but  he  also  splits  up  and  makes  finer  the  fibres  upon 
which  he  operates.  A  little  oil  is  sprinkled  on  the  heckles  in  course 
of  the  process.  The  spinning  is  done  in  a  covered  and  enclosed 
walk  from  300  to  400  yards  in  length,  at  both  ends  of  which  the 
machines  are  placed.  These  (one  variety  of  which  is  shown  in  fig. 
1)  consist  of  a  series  of  "  whirls  " 
d,  d,  generally  twelve  in  number, 
set  in  a  semicircular  frame  e.  The 
whirls  are  set  in  rapid  rotation  by 
a  belt  which  passes  over  them  from 
a  wheel  bb  ;  or,  what  is  now  more 
usual,  they  are  driven  by  the 
direct  friction  of  the  wheel  itself 
pressed  hard  against  them.  The 
point  of  the  prolonged  axis  of 
the  whirl  is  bent  into  a  hook, 
on  which  the  ends  of  the  fibre  are 
hung  for  spinning.  Each  spinner 
carries  around  his  waist  a  quan- 
tity of  heckled  fibre,  and,  fasten- 
ing an  end  on  the  whirl  hook,  he 
walks  backward  down  the  walk 
giving  out  even  proportions  of 
fibre  all  the  while  and  regulating 
his  pace  so  that  the  amount  of  „. 

twist  communicated  to  the  yarn  °' 

is  uniform.  He  draws  the  fibre  from  hia  waist  with  the  left  hand 
and  lets  it  slip  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  right,  which, 
protected  by  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth,  compresses  and  moulds  into 


cylindrical  form  the  yarn  as  it  is  spun.  At  intervals  in  the  length 
of  the  walk  there  are  posts  and  rails  supplied  with  hooks  into 
which  the  spinner  throws  the  yarn  to  keep  it  off  the  ground.  The 
spinners  commonly  work  from  both  ends  in  sets  of  six,  and  as  each 
set  arrives  at  the  end  of  the  walk  the  yarns  spun  by  them  are 
unhooked  from  the  whirls,  tied  together  at  the  ends,  and  collected 
in  large  hooks  along  the  side  of  the  walk  till  a  haul  of  about  four 
hundred  yarns  is  accumulated.  When  tarred  rope  is  to  be  made  the 
haul  of  yarn  is  at  this  stage  passed  through  a  kettle  of  tar  heated 
to  about  212°  Fahr.,  from  which  it  is  drawn  through  a  nipping 
apparatus  which  squeezes  out  superfluous  tar,  leaving  the  yam  a 
bright  brown  colour  soaked  with  about  one-fourth  its  weight  of  tar. 

For  "forming"  strands  the  spun  yarn  is  wound,  each  yarn 
separately,  on  bobbins  and  placed  in  a  bobbin  frame.  From  their 
bobbins  the  yarns  are  conducted  through  a  concentric  circle  of 
holes  in  a  steel  register  plate,  behind  which  they  come  together 
and  are  pressed . through  a  trumpet-mouthed  tube,  which  varies 
in  diameter  according  to  the  diameter  of  the  strand  being  formed  ; 
and  they  are  attached  to  the  hooks  of  the  forming  machine  or 
traveller.  This  machine  travels  down  the  ropewalk  on  rails  moved 
by  an  endless  rope  passing  over  a  grooved  pulley,  the  hooks 
being  at  the  same  time  set  in  rotation  by  gearing  connected  with 
the  pulley.  "When  the  machine  has  reached  the  end  of  the  walk 
and  sufficient  "twist"  is  given  to  the  three  strands,  they  are  un- 
hooked and  hung  together  on  the  centre  hook  of  the  machine.  A 
grooved  conical  block  of  wood  called  a  "top"  is  inserted  between 
the  strands,  one  of  which  lies  in  each  of  the  three  equidistant  con- 
centric grooves.  The  strands  at  the  fore-end  are  cut  away  and 
attached  separately  to  three  other  hooks.  The  laying  of  the  three 
strands  into  a  hawser  is  now  proceeded  with  by  giving  a  reverse 
rotation  to  the  central  hook  on  which  at  the  lower  end  they  are 
hung.  As  twist  is  communicated  to  the  strand  between  the  top 
and  the  machine,  the  former  is  forced  away  towards  the  fore-end, 
and  on  the  uniform  motion  outwards  of  the  top  depends  the  even 
and  regular  character  of  the  lay.  While  the  hook  at  the  lower 
end  is  rotating  in  one  direction  to  lay  the  strands,  the  time; 
hooks  holding  the  strands  at  the  upper  end  are  correspondingly 
revolved  in  the  opposite  direction  to  keep  up  the  amount  of  twist 
in  them  which  they  would  otherwise  lose  by  the  unwinding 
effect  of  the  revolution  of  the  laying  hook.  As  the  laying  pro- 
ceeds, the  forming  machine  is  gradually  dragged  up  the  rails  owing 
to  the  shortening  of  the  strands  caused  by  twisting  them  into  a 
hawser.  The  formation  of  a  cable  from  three  hawsers  is  effected 
in  a  similar  manner  ;  but  the  great  weight  of  material  dealt  with 
necessitates  some  modified  operations  to  ensure  uniformity  of  laying. 
In  many  rope-works  distinct  machinery  is  used  for  the  strand  lay- 
ing and  rope-forming  operations. 

Machine  <rr  Factory  Rope-Making. — The  ropewalk  system  of 
manufacture  has  several  inconveniences,  among  which,  in  towns, 
the  most  serious  is  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  obtaining  the  long 
narrow  strips  of  ground  it  requires.  Hand-made  ropes  are  also 
subject  to  certain  irregularities  of  twist,  and  the  yarns  are  less 
uniform  than  can  be  obtained  from  the  operations  of  automatic 
machinery.  Moreover  in  machine-spinning  it  is  possible  so  to 
form  the  strands  and  lay  the  finished  rope  that  any  strain  can  be 
more  equally  distributed  over  all  the  fibres  than  can  be  done  with 
hand-spinning  and  twisting.  The  essential  feature  of  the  factory 
system  consists  in  having  yarns,  strands,  and  ropes  wound  upon 
bobbins  or  drums  in  each  successive  stage,  the  material  being  drawn 
direct  from  the  reel  to  be  twisted  and  immediately  wound  up  again. 
The  length  of  rope  made  is  only  limited  by  the  carrying  capacity 
of  the  drum  on  which  it  is  finally  wound. 

The  earliest  practical  attempt  to  introduce  machine  rope-spinning 
was  made  by  Cartwright,  the  famous  inventor  of  the  power  loom, — 
who,  in  1792,  obtained  a  patent  for  a  machine  called  by  him  a 
"Cordelier."  Cartwright's  cordelier,  as  improved  in  1805  by 
Captain  Huddart,  became  the  basis  of  modern  laying  and  forming 
machines.  Numerous  modifications  and  improved  combinations 
have  been  introduced,  but  the  principle  on  which  they  are  worked 
is  essentially  the  same.  A  complete  set  of  rope  and  twine  making 
machinery  includes  heckling  machines,  spreading  and  drawing 
frames  for  line  yarns,  and  carding  engines  and  drawing  frames  for 
tow.  These  machines  do  not  differ  from  the  ordinary  preparing 
machinery  in  flax  manufactures,  nor  is  there  any  essential  ditterence 
in  the  spinning  frames  for  the  smaller  counts  of  yarns.  The 
heavier  yarns  for  rope-making  are  spun  upon  a  gill-spinning  frame, 
such  as  Goode's  automatic  spinner,  which  is  fitted  with  a  self-feeding 
motion  by  which  when  the  sliver  is  presented  in  large  quantity  the 
rate  of  motion  and  spinning  is  proportionally  increased,  when  the 
sliver  becomes  attenuated  the  motion  is  correspondingly  slow,  and 
when  the  sliver  is  broken  the  spinner  stops.  Thus  a  yarn  well 
laid  and  uniform  in  thickness  is  secured  by  automatic  machinery. 
For  spinning  heckled  yarn  such  as  is  used  in  the  ropewalk  a 
machine  of  simple  construction,  Ronald's  patent  (fig.  2),  is  now 
extensively  used.  The  yarn  in  this  machine  has  the  advantage  of 
being  hand-spun,  as  the  spinner  draws  out,  compresses,  and  feeds 
the  fibre  from  a  supply  round  his  or  her  waist  just  as  on  the  rope- 


ROPE 


845 


walk.*  In  tins  way  the  strength,  evenness,  and  other  good  qualities 
of  hand-spun  yarn  are  secured. 


Fig.  2. 

Twine  Manv/acture. — The  making  of  twines  and  small  cords 
forms  a  distinct  branch  of  the  rope  trade,  the  whole  of  the  opera- 
tions being  carried  out  on  a  series  of  machines  in  which  a  large 
number  of  twines  and  cords  are  twisted  and  otherwise  prepared 
.simultaneously,  while  in  rope-making  the  machines  deal  only  in 
general  with  the  material  of  one  rope  at  a  time.  ,  Common  twines 
are  twisted  from  prepared  yarns  on  a  twine-twisting  frame,  the 
same  in  principle  as  the  doubling  spindle  frames  of  the  ordinary 
textile  trade.  The  bobbins  of  yarn  are  placed  on  pegs  in  the 
creel  above  the  twisting  spindles,  from  two  to  five  bobbins  being 
placed  over  each  spindle  according  to  the  number  of  yarns 
which  go  to  make  up  the  twine.  These  yarns  are  passed  round  a 
pair  of  rollers,  which  pull  them  off  the  bobbins  and  deliver  them 
evenly  and  with  regularity  to  the  flyer  of  the  spindle,  by  which 
they  are  twisted  and  wound  on  the  bobbin  round  which  they  rotate. 
By  a  recent  improvement  the  required  number  of  yarns,  instead  of 
being  drawn  from  separate  bobbins,  are  first  wound  together  upon 
one  bobbin  in  a  "  doubling  winding  frame."  A  series  of  bobbins 
so  filled  are  placed  on  spindles  in  a  twisting  frame  and  twisted 
by  inverted  flyers ;  the  twisted  twine  is  drawn  off  by  pairs  of  conical 
grooved  twist  rollers  round  which  it  passes,  and  is  wound  on  taking- 
up  bobbins.  Cord  or  cable  laid  twine — that  is,  twine  twisted  first 
as  above  and  then  in  strands  of  three,  cabled  or  twisted  in  the 
reverse  direction — is  prepared  on  cabling  machines.  At  the  back  of 
the  machine  the  yarns  receive  their  first  twist  as  above  described, 
and  thence  the  strands  from  three  spindles  are  drawn  off  together 
over  a  pair  of^cone  rollers,  by  which  they  are  laid,  and  thence  they 
pass  to  the  front  of  the  machine,  where  there  is  a  range  of  powerful 
flyers  and  spindles  by  which  they  are  twisted  and  wound  upon  a 
large  bobbin.  Twines  and  cords  at  this  stage  are  rough  and  bristly 
in  appearance,  and  for  finishing  them  they  undergo  a  dressing, 
sizing,  and  polishing  operation  in  a  special  polishing  machine. 
From  the  bobbins  they  are  unwound  and  passed  through  a  trough 
of  hot  water,  thence  in  parallel  order  over  the  surface  of  a  set  of 
rubbing  rollers  covered  with  strong  card  cloth  revolving  at  high 
speed  in  a  contrary  direction  to  that  in  which  the  twine  is  travel- 
ing. The  friction  of  the  strong  card  wires  shaves  and  smooths 
the  twine,  which  then  passes  through  the  sizing  trough  contain- 
ing a  hot  paste,  usually  of  potato  farina.  The  superfluous  paste  is 
squeezed  out  by  passing  the  twine  between  rollers,  and  it  is  next 
passed  over  rollers  covered  with  rough  coir,  which  presses  in  all  fibres 
yet  protruding  from  the  twine,  and  finally  it  is  dried  by  passing 
round  a  range  of  steam-heated  cylinders,  running  parallel  with 
which  are  coir-covered  polishing  rollers  which  smooth  the  twine 
while  it  is  being  dried.  The  finished  twine  is  wound  into  balls  of 
a  definite  weight  on  a  balling  machine. 

Rope-Spinning. — The  machines  required  for  making  ropes  from 
spun  yarn  consist  of  a  forming  flyer  for  forming  the  strands  and 
a  laying  machine  for  twisting  the  strands  into  rope.  A  cabling 
machine  for  uniting  three-strand  hawsers  into  a  cable  is  only  a 
second]  laying  machine  of  larger  and  heavier  dimensions  ;  but  it  is 
still  a  common  practice  to  lay  the  heavy  cable  on  the  ropewalk. 
The  two  operations  of  forming  strands  and  laying  rope  may  be  per- 
formed on  one  combined  machine,  especially  in  dealing  with  light 
ropes  composed  of  a  few  yarns ;  but  as  a  rule  separate  machines 
are  preferred  for  each  operation.  In  a  simple  machine  designed 
only  for  a  single  twisting  operation  there  must  be  one  fixed  and 
one  revolving  section.  If  the  section  which  contains  the  bobbins 
of  yarn  to  be  twisted  is  fixed,  then  the  section  in  which  is  placed 
the  bobbin  for  receiving  the  twisted  product  must  be  made  to 
revolve.  A  machine  in  which  the  two  operations  of  forming 
strands  and  laying  rope  are  combined  is  of  necessity  cumbrous  in 
proportion  and  complex  in  gearing.  It  must  embrace  three  form- 


ing flyers,  to  form  simultaneously  three  strands  which  in  another 
part  of  the  machine  are  laid  into  one  rope.  The  forming  flyers  re- 
volve in  one  direction  to  twist  the  strands,  while  they  move  in  the 
opposite  direction  as  a  whole  with  the  revolution  of  the  laying 
section  which  gives  the  finishing  twist  to  the  rope,  and  such  com- 
plex inter-revolutions  within  one  frame  are  somewhat  unwieldy. 
Finally,  the  machines  may  be  made  with  their  axis  of  revolution 
either  vertical  or  horizontal.  With  all  these  alternatives  there  is 
considerable  room  for  modification  in  the  twisting  arrangements. 

The  ordinary  form  of  strand-laying  machine  is  a  vertical  Hyer  (fig. 
3).  It  consists  of  two  or  more  upright  frames  or  creels  a,  a,  capable 
of  holding  ranged  above  each  other  a 
certain  number  of  bobbins,  from  which 
the  yarn  may  be  easily  run  off  and  carried 
upward  to  be  formed  into  a  strand.  The 
creels  are  fixed  above  and  below  in  a  stout 
circular  plate  and  framework  bb,  to  which 
motion  of  rotation  is  given  by  gearing  c, 
placed  on  the  under  side.  At  the  upper 
end  of  the  revolving  framework  the  yarns 
from  the  various  bobbins  are  passed 
through  a  register  plate  d,  a  circular 
piece  of  metal  pierced  with  concentric 
holes  corresponding  in  number  with  the 
bobbins  which  the  creels  are  fitted  to 
hold.  Beyond  the  register  plate  d  the 
yarns  come  together  in  the  trumpet- 
shaped  mouth  of  the  stranding  tube. 
The  stranding  tube  itself  varies  in  gauge 
according  to  the  diameter  of  the  strand 
being  made,  and  in  it  the  yarns  are 
caught,  rounded,  compressed,  twisted,  and 


Fig.  3. 

smoothed,  and,  passing  out,  the  new-formed  strand  is  drawn  over  a 
pulley  c  around  "  drawing-off "  gear/,  and  wound  on  a  large  bobbin 
or  drum  g.  The  speed  at  which  the  drawing-off  gear  revolves  regu- 
lates the  hardness  or  softness  of  twist  given  to  the  strand,  and  its 
rotation  can  be  varied  at  pleasure  by  the  use  of  change  wheels. 

In  fig.  4  is  illustrated  a  different  form  of  stranding  machine,  of 
American  origin.     In  this  apparatus  the  bobbin  creel  is  stationary 

-A. 


Fig.  4. 

and  the  yarns  are  drawn  through  the  register  plate  and  twisted  in 
the  stranding  tube  by  the  revolution  of  the  entire  framework  in 
which  are  placed  the  drawing-off  gear  and  the  large  drum  or  spool 
on  which  the  finished  strand  is  wound.  The  advantages  claimed 
for  this  apparatus  are  facility  of  replacing  bobbins  as  the  yarns 
run  out,  and  increased  production  owing  to  the  rapid  and  uninter- 
rupted rotation  of  the  flyer. 

In  the  ordinary  laying  machine  there  are  only  three  bobbins  of 
strand  to  deal  with  ;  but,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  necessary  to  give 
a  certain  amount  of  "forehard"  or  twisting  to  the  strands  them- 
selves while  they  are  being  twisted  together  in  an  opposite  direction 
for  laying,  the  machine  is  not  without  complexity.  The  three 
bobbins  revolve  together  within  a  strong  iron  frame,  and  that 
motion  forms  the  strand  into  a  rope.  But  each  bobbin  is  at 
the  same  time  revolving  in  a  contrary  direction  on  its  own  axis 
at  the  rate  tempered  to  the  amount  of  forehard  it  is  desired  to 
put  on  the  rope  in  laying.  Moreover,  in  order  to  deliver  evenly 
and  in  equal  quantities  the  heavy  and  intractable  strands  from 
each  bobbin  to  the  laying  top,  it  is  necessary  to  have  within  each 
bobbin  frame  a  drawing-off  motion,  and  thus  we  have  three  dis- 


846 


R  0  R  — R  0  S 


tinct  sets  of  motions  in  an  ordinary  laying  machine.  Fig.  5,  in 
which  only  one  bobbin  frame  is  shown,  will  make  plain  one  method 
of  communicating  these  three  motions, 
which  in  this  case  are  controlled  by  a 
series  of  three  shafts,  placed  one  within 
the  other.  The  external  shaft  gives 
motion  to  the  entire  apparatus,  and  its 
revolution  in  one  direction  forms  the 
rope,  which  passes  away  over  a  pulley. 
The  second  shaft  controls  the  spur  wheel 
a,  which,  geared  into  the  spur-wheel  a' 
attached  to  the  bobbin  frame,  turns  it 
in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  motion  of 
the  whole.  The  internal  shaft  gears  into 
a  spur-wheel  b,  which  again  is  centred 
on  a  tubular  shaft  c  passing  into  the 
bobbin  frame,  and  by  a  pair  of  bevel 
wheels  controlling  the  rate  of  motion  of 
the  "  dra wing-off  "  pulley  d,  around 
which  the  strand  is  once  wound,  and 
from  which  it  is  conveyed  by  the  tubu- 
lar shaft  to  a  small  guide  pulley  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  revolving  frame. 

An  American  rope-laying  machine  is 
in  use,  similar  in  principle  to  the  form- 
ing machine  fig.  4,  from  which  it  differs 
only  in  having  the  strand  bobbins 
mounted  in  flyers  to  give  the  strand  the 
necessary  amount  of  forehard  in  laying. 
Wire  Rope.  — Ropes  made  of  wire  have 
only  come  into  use  in  the  course  of  the 
present  century,  but  now  their  employ- 
ment is  very  extensive,  and  they  play  an 
important  part  in  connexion  with  trac-  •**§•  "• 

tion  railways,  mines,  collieries,  hoists,  steam  ploughing,  and  many 
other  modern  developments  of  industry.  In  the  year  1822  a  suspen- 
sion bridge  of  wire  was  erected  at  Geneva.  The  wire  used  in  this 
case,  however,  was  not  twisted,  but  consisted  of  parallel  bundles 
bound  with  wire  and  other  coverings  wrapped  spirally  around  them 
to  compact  and  keep  the  whole  together.  A  bundle  of  small  wires 
so  treated  presents  the  maximum  of  strain-resisting  power  combined 
with  great  rigidity,  but  it  is  obviously  unsuited  for  most  of  the  uses 
to  which  rope  is  put.  Formed  wire  rope,  consisting  of  strands  laid 
in  the  manner  of  ordinary  rope,  began  to  be  made  about  1837 ;  and 
now  wire  ropes  of  many  kinds  and  dimensions  are  made  from  char- 
coal iron  wire  of  fine  quality,  from  mild  steel,  and  from  fine  crucible 
steel.  Copper  wire  and  brass  wire  are  also  used  for  rope-making. 

Wire  ropes  are  stranded  and  laid  or  closed  in  machines  which  do 
not  differ  in  essential  features  from  the  ordinary  rope-making 
machinery.  Both  vertical  and  horizontal  forms  of  revolving 
machines  are  used ;  but,  as  the  rope-closing  machine  has  sometimes 
to  carry  as  many  as  nine  bobbins  of  strand,  each  with  about  two 
tons  of  wire,  a  vertical  machine  is  best  for  enormous  weights.  An 
ingenious  wire-rope  machine  has  been  invented  by  Mr  Archibald 
Smith,  in  which  the  bobbins  of  wire  are  suspended,  and  only  the 
framework  around  them  and  the  wire  drawn  off  are  rotated  for 
the  forming  and  laying  operations,  and  thus  the  necessity  for  rotat- 
ing these  enormous  weights  at  a  high  speed  is  obviated. 

The  numbar  of  wires  in  a  wire-rope  strand  are  few — generally 
from  six  to  nine,  and  never  more  than  eighteen.  They  are  lightly 
twisted  in  the  stranding  machine,  and  they  receive  no  foretwist 
in  the  rope-closing  apparatus.  The  strands,  on  the  other  hand, 
which  go  to  form  a  rope  are  numerous — from  six  to  nine  and  up- 
wards ;  and  they  are  always  wound  round  a  core,  which  is  generally 
of  hemp,  but  sometimes  a  wire  core  is  used.  A  wire  rope  thus 
forms  a  series  of  gentle  spirals  arranged  continuously  round  a  core.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  wire  is  galvanized,  to  protect  it  from  rusting. 
The  following  table  shows  the  relative  circumference,  weight,  and 
strength  of  hemp,  charcoal  iron  wire,  and  steel  wire  round  ropes : — 


Hemp. 

Charcoal  Iron. 

Crucible  Steel. 

Circum- 
ference. 

Weight 
per 
Fathom 

Circum- 
ference. 

Weight 
per 
Fathom. 

Circum- 
ference. 

Weight 
per 
Fathom. 

Breaking 
Strain. 

Working 
Load. 

Inches. 

Ibs. 

Inches. 

Ibs. 

Inches. 

Ibs. 

Tons. 

Cwt. 

11 

30 

5 

22 

4 

14 

32 

100 

10 

26 

4J 

16J 

3i 

9 

24 

85 

9 

20 

3J 

12 

2$ 

7 

18 

67 

8 

16 

H 

8J 

8i 

H 

16 

50 

7 

12 

y 

el 

2* 

4 

11 

36 

6 

9 

2J 

H 

If 

3 

8 

28 

5 

6 

15 

3 

ij 

1? 

5 

18 

4 

4 

l| 

2 

ll 

14 

3 

10 

3 

3 

u 

If 

i 

3 

2 

6 

(J.  PA.) 

RORQUAL.     See  WHALE. 

ROSA,  SALVATOR  (1615-1673),  a  renowned  painter  of 
the  Neapolitan  school,  was  born  in  Arenella,  in  the  out- 
skirts of  Naples,  in  1615:  the  precise  day  is  given  as  20th 
June,  and  also  as  21st  July.  His  father,  Vito  Antonio  de 
Rosa,  a  land  surveyor,  was  bent  upon  making  the  youth  a 
lawyer,  and  sent  him  to  study  in  the  convent  of  the 
Somaschi  fathers.  Here  Salvator  began  showing  a  turn 
for  art :  he  went  in  secret  to  his  maternal  uncle  Paolo 
Greco  to  learn  the  practice  of  painting,  but  soon  found 
that  Greco  had  little  pictorial  lore  to  impart,  so  he  trans- 
ferred himself  to  his  own  brother-in-law  Francesco  Fracan- 
zaro,  a  pupil  of  Ribera,  and  afterwards  had  some  practice 
under  Ribera  himself.  Above  all  he  went  to  nature,  fre- 
quenting the  Neapolitan  coast,  and  keeping  his  eyes  open 
and  his  hand  busy.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  lost  his 
father ;  the  widow  was  left  unprovided  for,  with  at  least 
five  children,  and  Salvator  found  himself  immersed  in  a 
sea  of  troubles  and  perplexities,  with  nothing  for  the 
while  to  stem  them  except  a  buoyant  and  adventurous 
temperament.  He  obtained  some  instruction  under  the 
battle-painter  Aniello  Falcone,  but  chiefly  painted  in 
solitude,  haunting  romantic  and  desolate  spots,  beaches, 
mountains,  caverns,  verdure-clad  recesses.  Hence  he 
became  in  process  of  time  the  initiator  of  romantic  land- 
scape, with  a  special  turn  for  scenes  of  strange  or  pictur- 
esque aspect — often  turbulent  and  rugged,  at  times  grand, 
and  with  suggestions  of  the  sublime.  He  picked  up  scanty 
doles  when  he  could  get  them,  and  his  early  landscapes 
sold  for  a  few  pence  to  petty  dealers.  The  first  person  to 
discover  that  Rosa's  work  was  not  as  trumpery  as  it  was 
cheap  was  the  painter  Lanfranco,  who  bought  some  of  the 
paintings,  and  advised  the  youth  to  go  to  Rome.  Hither 
in  1635,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  Rosa  betook  himself;  he 
studied  with  enthusiasm,  but,  catching  fever,  he  returned 
to  Naples  and  Falcone,  and  for  a  while  painted  nothing 
but  battle-pieces,  and  these  without  exciting  any  atten- 
tion. This  class  of  work  was  succeeded  by  the  landscape 
art  peculiarly  characteristic  of  him — wild  scenes  wildly 
peopled  with  shepherds,  seamen,  or  especially  soldiers. 
He  then  revisited  Rome,  and  was  housed  by  Cardinal 
Brancaccio ;  this  prelate  being  made  bishop  of  Viterbo, 
Rosa  painted  for  the  Chiesa  della  Morte  a  large  and 
noticeable  picture  of  the  Incredulity  of  Thomas — the  first 
work  of  sacred  art  which  we  find  recorded  from  his  hand. 
At  Viterbo  he  made  acquaintance  with  a  mediocre  poet 
named  Abati,  and  was  hence  incited  to  try  his  own  faculty 
in  verse.  He  then  returned  to  Naples.  Here  the  mono- 
polizing triumvirate — Ribera,  Caracciolo,  and  Corenzio — 
were  still  powerful.  Rosa  was  as  yet  too  obscure  to  suffer 
from  their  machinations ;  but,  having  painted  a  picture  of 
Tityus  Torn  by  the  Vulture,  which  went  to  Rome  and 
there  produced  a  great  sensation,  he  found  it  politic  to 
follow  in  the  footsteps  of  his  fame,  and  once  more,  in 
1638,  resought  the  papal  city. 

Rosa  was  a  man  of  facile  and  versatile  genius,  and  had 
by  this  time  several  strings  to  his  bow.  It  is  said  that, 
still  keeping  painting  steadily  in  view  as  his  real  objective, 
he  resolved  to  secure  attention  first  as  a  musician,  poet, 
improvisatore,  and  actor — his  mother-wit  and  broad 
Neapolitan  dialect  (which  appears  to  have  stuck  to  him 
through  life)  standing  him  powerfully  in  stead.  In  the 
carnival  he  masqued  as  Formica  and  Capitan  Coviello, 
and  bustled  about  Rome  distributing  satirical  prescriptions 
for  diseases  of  the  body  and  more  particularly  of  the 
mind.  As  Formica  he  inveighed  against  the  farcical 
comedies  acted  in  the  Trastevere  under  the  direction  of 
the  celebrated  Bernini.  Some  of  the  actors,  in  one  of 
their  performances,  retaliated  by  insulting  Rosa,  but  the 
public  was  with  him,  and  he  now  enjoyed  every  form  of 


ROSA 


847 


success, — social  prestige,  abundant  commissions,  and  any 
amount  of  money,  which  he  was  wont  to  throw  about 
broadcast  to  the  populace.  In  1646  he  returned  to 
Naples,  and  is  said  to  have  taken  an  active  part  in  the 
insurrection  of  Masaniello ;  certain  it  is  that  he  sympathized 
with  and  admired  the  fisherman  autocrat,  for  a  passage  in 
one  of  his  satires  proves  this.  His  actual  share  in  the 
insurrection  is,  however,  dubious;  it  appears  only  in 
recent  narratives,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  well- 
known  story  that  at  one  time  he  herded  with  a  band  of 
brigands  in  the  Abruzzi — an  incident  which  cannot  be 
conveniently  dove-tailed  into  any  of  the  known  dates  of 
his  career.  As  regards  the  popular  revolt  against  Spanish 
tyranny,  it  is  alleged  that  Rosa,  along  with  other  painters 
— Coppola,  Porpora,  Micco  Spadaro,  Dal  Po,  Masturzo, 
the  two  Vaccari,  and  Cadogna— all  under  the  captaincy 
of  Aniello  Falcone,  formed  the  Compagnia  della  Morte, 
whose  mission  it  was  to  hunt  up  Spaniards  in  the  streets 
and  despatch  them,  not  sparing  even  those  who  had  sought 
.some  place  of  religious  asylum.  He  painted  a  portrait  of 
Masaniello — probably  from  reminiscence  rather  than  from 
life :  indeed  it  is  said  that  he  painted  him  several  times 
over  in  less  than  life  size.  On  the  approach  of  Don  John 
of  Austria  the  blood-stained  Compagnia  dispersed,  Rosa 
escaping  or  at "  any  rate  returning  to  Rome.  Here  he 
painted  some  important  subjects,  showing  the  uncommon 
bent  of  his  mind  as  it  passed  from  landscape  into  history 
— Democritus  amid  Tombs,  the  Death  of  Socrates,  Regulus 
in  the  Spiked  Cask  (these  two  are  now  in  England), 
Justice  Quitting  the  Earth,  and  the  Wheel  of  Fortune. 
This  last  work,  the  tendency  of  which  was  bitingly  sati- 
rical, raised  a  storm  of  ire  and  remonstrance.  Rosa, 
endeavouring  at  conciliation,  published  a  description  of  its 
meaning  (probably  softened  down  not  a  little  from  the 
real  facts) ;  none  the  less  an  order  for  his  imprisonment 
was  issued,  but  ultimately  withheld  at  the  instance  of  some 
powerful  friends.  It  was  about  this  time  that  Rosa  wrote 
his  satire  named  Babylon,  under  which  name  Rome  was 
of  course  indicated. 

Cardinal  Giancarlo  de'  Medici  now  invited  the  painter 
to  leave  Rome — which  had  indeed  become  too  hot  to 
hold  him — for  Florence.  Salvator  gladly  assented,  and 
remained  in  the  Tuscan  capital  for  the  better  part  of  nine 
years,  introducing  there  the  new  style  of  landscape ;  he 
had  no  pupils,  but  various  imitators.  Lorenzo  Lippi  the 
painter  poet,  Baldovini,  and  other  beaux  esjmts  shared 
with  Rosa  the  hospitalities  of  the  cardinal,  and  they  formed 
an  academy  named  I  Percossi  (the  Stricken),  indulging  in 
a  deal  of  ingenious  jollity — Rosa  being  alike  applauded  as 
painter,  poet,  and  musician.  His  chief  intimate  at  this 
time  was  Lippi,  whom  he  encouraged  to  proceed  with  the 
poem  II  Malmantile  Racquistato.  He  was  well  acquainted 
also  with  Ugo  and  Giulio  Maffei,  and  housed  with  them 
more  than  once  in  Volterra,  where  he  wrote  other  four 
satires — Music,  Poetry,  Painting,  and  War.  About  the 
same  time  he  painted  his  own  portrait,  now  in  the  Uffizi 
Gallery  of  Florence.  Finally  he  reverted  once  more  to 
Rome,  and  hardly  left  that  city  again.  Much  enmity 
still  brooded  there  against  him,  taking  the  form  more 
especially  of  an  allegation  that  the  satires  which  he 
zealously  read  and  diffused  in  MS.  were  not  his  own  pro- 
duction, but  filched  from  some  one  else.  Rosa  indignantly 
repelled  this  charge,  which  remains  indeed  quite  unsub- 
stantiated, although  it  is  true  that  the  satires  deal  so 
extensively  and  with  such  ready  manipulation  in  classical 
names,  allusions,  and  anecdotes  that  one  is  rather  at  a 
loss  to  fix  upon  the  period  of  his  busy  career  at  which 
Rosa  could  possibly  have  imbued  his  mind  with  such  a 
multitude  of  semi-erudite  details.  It  may  perhaps  be 
legitimate  to  suppose  that  his  literary  friends  in  Florence 


and  Volterra  had  coached  him  up  to  a  large  extent — the 
satires,  as  compositions,  remaining  none  the  less  strictly 
and  fully  his  own.  To  confute  his  detractors  he  now 
wrote  the  last  of  the  series,  entitled  Envy.  Among  the 
pictures  of  his  closing  years  were  the  admired  Battlepiece 
now  in  the  Louvre,  painted  in  the  short  space  of  forty 
days,  full  of  long-drawn  carnage,  with  ships  burning  in 
the  offing ;  Pythagoras  and  the  Fishermen ;  the  Oath  of 
Catiline  (Pitti  Gallery) ;  and  the  very  celebrated  Saul  and 
the  Witch  of  Endor  (Louvre),  which  is  perhaps  his  latest 
work.  He  undertook  a  series  of  satirical  portraits,  to  be 
closed  by  one  of  himself,  but  while  occupied  with  this  pro- 
ject he  was  assailed  by  dropsy,  which,  after  lasting  fully 
half  a  year,  brought  his  life  to  a  close  on  15th  March  1673. 
In  his  last  moments  he  married  a  Florentine  named 
Lucrezia,  who  kept  his  house  and  had  borne  him  two  sons, 
one  of  them  surviving  him,  and  he  died  in  a  contrite  frame 
of  mind.  He  lies  buried  in  the  Chiesa  degli  Angeli,  where 
a  portrait  of  him  has  been  set  up.  Salvator  Rosa,  after 
.the  hard  struggles  of  his  early  youth,  had  always  been  a 
successful  man,  and  he  left  a  handsome  fortune. 

Rosa  was  indisputably  a  great  leader  in  that  modern  tendency 
of  fine  art  towards  the  romantic  and  picturesque  which,  developing 
in  various  directions  and  by  diversified  processes,  lias  at  last  almost 
totally  differentiated  modern  from  olden  art.  He  saw  appearances 
with  a  new  eye,  and  presented  new  images  of  them  on  his  canvases, 
and  deserves  therefore  all  the  credit  due  to  a  vigorous  innovator, 
even  if  we  contest  the  absolute  value  of  his  product.  He  himself 
courted  reputation  for  his  historical  works,  laying  comparatively 
little  stress  on  his  landscapes ;  in  portraits  he  was  forcible.  In 
chiaroscuro  he  is  simple  and  effective  ;  his  design  has  energy  and 
a  certain  grandeur,  without  any  high  type  of  form  or  any  superior 
measure  of  correctness.  His  colour  is  too  constantly  of  a  sandy  or 
yellowish-grey  tone.  Personally  he  was  a  man  of  high  spirit,  and  he 
sold  his  pictures  at  large  prices,  more  (it  is  said)  to  assert  the  honour 
of  his  art  than  from  love  of  money  ;  rather  than  sell  them  cheap 
he  destroyed  them.  In  his  later  Florentine  period  he  etched  several 
of  his  works,  subjects  of  mythology,  soldiering,  &c.  He  was 
choleric,  but  kind  and  generous.  Though  a  man  of  gaiety  and 
pleasure,  and  a  jovial  boon  companion,  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  vicious  in  any  serious  degree.  He  was  talkative,  very  sharp- 
tongued,  and  an  unblushing  encomiast  of  his  own  performances. 
Among  his  pictures  not  already  mentioned  we  may  name,  in  the 
London  National  Gallery,  Mercury  and  the  Dishonest  Woodman, 
and  two  others ;  in  Raynham  Hall,  Belisarius ;  in  the  Grosvenor 
Gallery,  Diogenes  ;  in  the  Pitti  Gallery,  a  grand  portrait  of  a  man 
in  armour,  and  the  Temptation  of  St  Anthony,  which  contains  his 
own  portrait.  This  last  subject  appears  also  in  St  Petersburg,  and 
in  the  Berlin  Gallery. 

The  satires  of  Salvator  Rosa  deserve  more  attention  than  they 
have  generally  received.  Though  considerably  spread  abroad 
during  his  lifetime,  they  were  not  published  until  1719.  They  are 
all  in  terza  rinia,  written  without  much  literary  correctness,  but 
remarkably  spirited,  pointed,  and  even  brilliant.  They  are 
slashingly  denunciatory,  and  from  this  point  of  view  too 
monotonous  in  treatment.  Rosa  here  appears  as  a  very  severe 
castigator  of  all  ranks  and  conditions  of  men,  not  sparing  the 
highest,  and  as  a  champion  of  the  poor  and  down-trodden,  and  of 
moral  virtue  and  Catholic  faith.  It  seems  odd  that  a  man  who  took 
so  free  a  part  in  the  pleasures  and  diversions  of  life  should  be  so 
ruthless  to  the  ministers  of  these.  The  satire  on  Music  exposes 
the  insolence  and  profligacy  of  musicians,  and  the  shame  of  courts 
and  churches  in  encouraging  them.  -Poetry  dwells  on  the  pedantry, 
imitativeness,  adulation,  affectation,  and  indecency  of  poets — 
also  their  poverty,  and  the  neglect  with  which  they  were  treated  ; 
and  there  is  a  very  vigorous  sortie  against  oppressive  governors  and 
aristocrats.  Tasso's  glory  is  upheld  ;  Dante  is  spoken  of  as  obso- 
lete, and  Ariosto  a£  corrupting.  Painting  inveighs  against  the 
pictorial  treatment  of  squalid  subjects,  such  as  beggars  (though 
Rosa  must  surely  himself  have  been  partly  responsible  for  this 
misdirection  of  the  art),  against  the  ignorance  and  lewdness  of 
painters,  and  their  tricks  of  trade,  and  the  gross  indecorum  of 
painting  sprawling  half-naked  saints  of  both  sexes.  War  (which 
contains  the  eulogy  of  Masaniello)  derides  the  folly  of  hireling 
soldiers,  who  fight  and  perish  while  kings  stay  at  home ;  the 
vile  morals  of  kings  and  lords,  heresy,  and  unbelief  also  come  in 
for  a  flagellation.  In  Babylon  Rosa  represents  himself  as  a 
fisherman,  Tirreno,  constantly  unlucky  in  his  net-hauls  on  the 
Euphrates ;  he  converses  with  a  native  of  the  country,  Ergasto. 
Babylon  (Rome)  is  very  severely  treated,  and  Naples  much  the 
same.  Envy  (the  last  of  the  satires,  and  generally  accounted  the 
best,  although  without  strong  apparent  reason)  represents  Rosa 


848 


K  O  S  — R  0  S 


dreaming  that,  as  he  is  about  to  inscribe  in  all  modesty  his  name 
upon  the  threshold  of  the  temple  of  glory,  the  goddess  or  fienc 
of  Envy  obstructs  him,  and  a  long  interchange  of  reciprocal  objur- 
gations ensues.  Here  occurs  the  highly-charged  portrait  of  the 
chief  Roman  detractor  of  Salvator  (we  are  not  aware  that  he  has 
ever  been  identified  by  name) ;  and  the  painter  protests  that  he 
would  never  condescend  to  do  any  of  the  lascivious  work  in  paint- 
ing so  shamefully  in  vogue. 

As  authorities  for  the  life  of  Salvator  Rosa,  Passeri,  Vile  de'Pitlori,  may  be 
consulted,  and  Salvini,  Satire  e  Vita  di  Salrator  Rosa;  also  Bnldinucci  anc 
Dominici.  The  Life  by  Lady  Morgan  is  a  romantic  treatment,  mingling  tradition 
or  mere  fiction  with  fact.  (\\,  M.  1{.) 

ROSAMOND,  FAIR.  Rosamond  Clifford,  mistress  of 
Henry  IT.,  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Walter  Clifford,  a 
Berkshire  knight  (Dugdale,  Monasticon,  iv.  366).  She 
appears  to  have  died  in  or  about  the  year  1177,  and  was 
buried  in  the  nunnery  at  Godstow.  At  the  command  of 
St  Hugh,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  her  body  was  removed  from 
the  church  in  which  it  had  been  buried,  and  was  interred 
again  outside  the  church.  Such  are  all  the  facts  that  are 
known  about  Fair  Rosamond.  She  is  said  to  have  been 
the  mother  of  William  Longsword,  and  of  Geoffrey,  arch- 
bishop of  York.  But  this  is  impossible,  for  both  William 
and  Geoffrey  were  born  before  1155,  and  Rosamond  was 
still  a  girl  at  the  time  of  her  death.  The  story  of  the 
labyrinth  or  maze  built  by  Henry  to  conceal  her  from 
Queen  Eleanor  occurs  first  in  Brompton  (end  of  12th 
century).  The  legend  of  her  death  at  Queen  Eleanor's 
hand  is  variously  related,  but  does  not  appear  to  be  trace- 
able beyond  the  first  half  of  the  14th  century.  It  can 
hardly  be  true  in  any  form,  for  Eleanor  was  in  confinement 
during  the  last  fifteen  years  of  Henry's  reign. 

ROSARIO,  a  river-port  on  the  Parana,  and  the  chief 
town  of  a  department  in  the  province  of  Santa  F6  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  186  miles  by  river  from  Buenos 
Ayres.  In  1853  an  insignificant  village,  with  less  than  four 
thousand  inhabitants,  it  now  ranks  in  commercial  import- 
ance as  the  second  city  in  the  republic,  being  the  centre 
of  almost  the  entire  trade  of  the  eleven  provinces  lying 
between  the  Parana  and  the  Andes  and  the  terminus  of 
the  great  railways  which  since  1863  have  gradually  been 
pushed  further  north  and  west  to  Cordoba  (1870), 
Tucuman  (1876),  Mendoza  (1884),  and  San  Juan  (1885). 
The  population  had  increased  to  21,000  by  1870  and  to 
45,000  in  1883,  while  the  imports  in  the  latter  year  reached 
the  value  of  £4,560,000  and  the  exports  £3,780,000. 

Rosario  stands  about  65  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
river.  It  is  laid  out  chess-board  fashion ;  and  the  streets 
are  paved,  and  lighted  with  gas  (introduced  in  1869). 
The  area,  145  acres  in  1870,  is  now  about  2000  acres. 
Brick  is  the  principal  building  material,  and  the  houses 
are  mostly  of  one  story.  There  are  no  suburbs,  the  city 
terminating  abruptly  on  the  great  plain.  The  industrial 
establishments  are  extensive  foundries,  a  large  number  of 
brick  kilns,  a  jam  and  fruit-preserving  factory,  breweries, 
tanneries,  soap-works,  saw-mills,  and  flour-mills. 

Eosario  was  founded  in  1725  by  Don  Francisco  Godoy  as  a 
settlement  of  "reduced"  Calchaqui  Indians,  and  the  parish  was 
established  in  1731  -and  dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary, 
whose  colours,  blue  and  white,  were  adopted  in  1813  as  those  of  the 
national  flag.  The  prosperity  of  the  town  dates  from  1854,  when 
it  was  made  a  port  of  entry  by  General  Urquiza.  In  1867  and 
1868  it  suffered  from  a  severe  cholera  plague.  The  proposal  to 
make  Rosario  the  capital  of  the  republic  instead  of  Buenos  Ayres 
has  more  than  once  been  nearly  carried  in  the  legislature. 

ROSARY  (Rosarium,  Germ.  Rosenkranz)  is  defined  in 
the  Roman  Breviary  as  a  series  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
repetitions  of  the  "  Ave  Maria,"  with  a  "  Pater  Noster " 
interpolated  after  each  decade,  the  whole  exercise  being 
accompanied  with  pious  meditation  on  the  mysteries  of 
redemption.  This  particular  method  of  devotion,  though 
said  to  have  been  not  altogether  unknown  previously,  first 
became  extensively  popular  through  St  Dominic,  who  was 
admonished  by  the  Virgin  Mary  to  preach  the  rosary  as 


a  special  defence  against  heresy  and  vice.  The  Feast  of 
the  Rosary  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  (Duplex  Maj us— first 
Sunday  in  October)  was  instituted  by  Clement  XL  to 
commemorate  the  successes  of  the  Christian  arms  against 
the  Turks  in  1716 ;  it  has  reference  also  to  the  battle  of 
Lepanto  (Oct.  7,  1571).  The  word  "  rosary  "  or  "  chaplet  " 
(capellina)  is  also  employed  to  denote  the  string  of  beads 
of  larger  and  smaller  size  by  the  use  of  which  in  repeating 
the  rosary  the  faithful  secure  the  due  alternation  of  Ave 
Marias  with  Pater  Nosters.  In  strict  language  the  word 
chaplet  is  applied  only  to  the  "  lesser  "  rosary,  consisting 
of  but  fifty  Aves  and  five  Pater  Nosters.  Similar  expe- 
dients to  assist  the  memory  in  complex  repetitions  occur 
among  Mohammedans  and  Buddhists  :  in  the  former  case 
the  so-called  sobha  has  ninety-nine  beads,  and  is  used  for 
the  pious  repetition  of  the  ninety-nine  names  which  express 
the  attributes  of  God. 

ROSAS,  JUAN  MANUEL  DE,  born  at  Buenos  Ayres 
March  30,  1793,  died  in  England  March  14,  1877  (see 
ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  vol.  ii.  p.  491). 

ROSCELLINUS  (also  written  ROUSSELIN  and  RUCE- 
LINUS),  often  called  the  founder  of  nominalism  (see 
SCHOLASTICISM),  was  born  in  Armorica  or  Lower  Brittany 
somewhere  about  the  middle  of  the  llth  century.  Our 
information  about  his  life  is  scanty,  and,  as  he  appears  to 
have  written  nothing,  we  are  dependent  for  a  knowledge 
of  his  doctrine  upon  the  statements  of  his  opponents  and 
the  cursory  statements  of  later  writers.  He  studied  at 
Soissons  and  Rheims,  was  afterwards  attached  to  the 
cathedral  of  Chartres,  and  became  canon  of  Compiegne. 
It  seems  most  probable  that  Roscellinus  was  not  strictly 
the  first  to  promulgate  nominalistic  doctrines;  but  in 
his  exposition  they  received  more  definite  expression,  and, 
being  applied  to  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity,  attracted 
universal  attention.  The  chief  opponent  of  Roscellinus 
was  Anselm  of  Canterbury,  who  defended  at  once  the 
realistic  doctrine  of  universals  and  the  orthodox  tradition 
of  the  church.  It  appears  from  the  polemic  of  Anselm 
that  "  the  heretics  in  dialectic  "  whom  he  combats  denied 
the  substantial  reality  of  universals,  asserting,  for  example, 
that  colour  has  no  real  existence  except  as  coloured  body. 
There  is  no  reason,  however,  to  suppose  that  Roscellinus 
meant  thereby  to  deny  the  real  existence  of  attributive 
differences  in  things,  though  Anselm  endeavours  to  involve 
him  in  that  consequence.  But  we  may  conclude  from  the 
censure  of  his  pupil  Abelard  that  his  reaction  against 
realism  had  led  Roscellinus  into  rashness  of  expression. 
In  conformity  with  his  general  nominalistic  position, 
Roscellinus  taught  that  whatever  exists  as  a  real  thing  or 
substance  exists  as  one  self-identical  whole,  and  is  not 
iusceptible  of  division  into  parts.  This  was  the  part  of 
his  teaching  which  created  so  much  scandal  when  applied 
bo  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Roscellinus  maintained 
that  it  is  merely  a  habit  of  speech  which  prevents  our 
peaking  of  the  three  persons  as  three  substances  or  three 
>ods.  If  it  were  otherwise,  and  the  three  persons  were 
really  one  substance  or  thing  (una  res),  we  should  be 
x>rced  to  admit  that  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Spirit 
Decame  incarnate  along  with  the  Son.  Roscellinus  seems 
to  have  put  forward  this  doctrine  in  perfect  good  faith, 
and  to  have  claimed  for  it  at  first  the  authority  of  Lanfranc 
and  Anselm.  In  1092,  however,  a  council  convoked  by 
he  archbishop  of  Rheims  condemned  his  interpretation, 
and  Roscellinus,  who  was  in  danger  of  being  lynched  by 
he  orthodox  populace,  recanted  his  error.  As  his  enforced 
penitence  did  not  prove  lasting,  his  opinions  were  con- 
demned by  a  second  council  (1094),  and  he  himself  fled 
;o  England.  Forced  by  a  fresh  persecution  to  return  to 
?rance  at  a  later  date,  he  taught  at  Tours  and  Loc-menach 
n  Brittany  (where  he  had  Abelard  as  a  pupil),  and  resided 


R  0  S  — R  O  S 


849 


latterly  as  canon  at  Besangon.  He  is  heard  of  as  late  as 
1121,  when  he  came  forward  to  oppose  Abelard's  views  on 
the  Trinity. 

EOSCOE,  WILLIAM  (1753-1831),  historian  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  was  born  March  8,  1753,  at  Liverpool, 
where  his  father,  who  was  a  market  gardener,  kept  the 
public  house  known  as  the  Bowling  Green  at  Mount 
Pleasant.  Young  Roscoe  showed  an  early  eagerness  in  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  at  twelve  he  left  school, 
having  learned  all  that  his  schoolmaster  could  teach.  He 
now  assisted  his  father  in  the  work  of  the  garden,  and 
gave  his  leisure  hours  to  reading  and  study.  "This  mode 
of  life,"  he  says,  "  gave  health  and  vigour  to  my  body,  and 
amusement  and  instruction  to  my  mind ;  and  to  this  day 
I  well  remember  the  delicious  sleep  which  succeeded  my 
labours,  from  which  I  was  again  called  at  an  early  hour. 
If  I  were  now  asked  whom  I  consider  to  be  the  happiest  of 
the  human  race,  I  should  answer,  those  who  cultivate  the 
earth  by  their  own  hands."  At  fifteen  it  was  necessary  to 
decide  upon  a  path  in  life.  A  month's  trial  of  bookselling 
sufficed  to  disgust  him,  and  in  1769  he  was  articled  to  a 
solicitor,  on  whose  death  he  was  transferred  to  the  office  of 
Peter  Ellames,  who  had  more  than  a  local  reputation. 
Although  a  diligent  student  of  law,  he  did  not  bid  farewell 
to  the  Muses,  but  continued  to  read  the  classics,  and  made 
that  acquaintance  with  the  language  and  literature  of  Italy 
which  became  the  instrument  of  his  distinction  in  after  life. 
He  wrote  many  verses  :  his  Mount  Pleasant  was  composed 
when  he  was  sixteen,  and  this  and  similar  compositions, 
though  now  forgotten,  won  the  esteem  of  good  critics.  In 
1774  he  commenced  business  as  an  attorney,  and  as  soon 
as  his  professional  gains  warranted  he  married  (1781). 
His  sympathies  were  attracted  to  the  miseries  of  the 
victims  of  the  African  slave  trade,  and  he  had  the  courage 
to  denounce  it  in  his  native  town,  where  not  a  little  of  the 
wealth  came  from  this  source.  He  wrote  the  Wrongs  of 
Africa  (1787-88),  and  entered  into  a  controversy  with  an 
apostate  Eoman  Catholic  priest,  who  undertook  to  prove 
the  "  licitness  of  the  slave  trade  "  from  the  Bible.  Roscoe 
was  also  a  political  pamphleteer,  and  like  many  other 
Liberals  of  the  day  hailed  the  promise  of  liberty  in  the 
French  Revolution. 

Meanwhile  he  had  steadily  pursued  his  Italian  studies, 
and  had  made  extensive  collections  relating  to  the  great 
ruler  of  Florence.  The  result  was  his  Life  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  called  the  Magnificent,  which  appeared  in  1796, 
and  at  once  placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of  contemporary 
historians.  The  first  edition  was  produced  at  Liverpool 
by  John  M'Creery,  an  elegant  printer  who  had  settled 
there  by  Roscoe's  encouragement.  Soon  after  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  book,  Cadell  &  Davis  bought  the  copy- 
right for  £1200.  The  work  has  often  been  reprinted, 
and  translations  in  French,  German,  and  other  languages 
show  that  its  popularity  was  not  confined  to  its  author's 
native  land.  Perhaps  the  most  gratifying  testimony  was 
that  of  Fabroni,  who  had  intended  to  translate  his  own 
Latin  life  of  Lorenzo,  but  abandoned  the  design  and  in- 
duced Gaetano  Mecherini  to  undertake  an  Italian  version 
of  Roscoe  instead.  In  1796  Roscoe  gave  up  practice  as 
an  attorney,  and  had  some  thought  of  going  to  the  bar, 
but  abandoned  the  idea  after  keeping  a  single  term. 
Between  1793  and  1800  he  gave  much  attention  to 
agriculture,  and  was  one  of  those  who  helped  to  reclaim 
Chat  Moss,  near  Manchester.  He  also  succeeded  in  re- 
storing to  good  order  the  affairs  of  a  banking  house  in 
which  his  friend  William  Clark,  then  resident  in  Italy, 
was  a  partner.  This  task  led  to  his  introduction  to  the 
business,  which  eventually  proved  disastrous.  His  trans- 
lation of  Tansillo's  Nurse  appeared  in  1798,  and  went 
through  several  editions.  It  is  dedicated  in  a  sonnet  to 


his  wife,  who  had  practised  the  precepts  of  the  Italian, 
poet. 

The  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Leo  the  Tenth  appeared  in 
1805,  and  was  n  natural  sequel  to  that  by  which  he  had 
made  his  reputation.  For  one  half  of  the  copyright  he 
received  £2000  from  Cadell  &  Davis.  The  work,  whilst 
it  maintained  its  author's  fame,  did  not,  on  the  whole, 
meet  with  so  favourable  a  reception  as  the  Life  of  Lorenzo. 
It  has  been  frequently  reprinted,  and  the  insertion  of  the 
Italian  translation  in  the  Index  did  not  prevent  its  circula- 
tion even  in  the  papal  states.  Roscoe  was  elected  member 
of  parliament  for  Liverpool  in  1806,  but  the  House  of 
Commons  was  not  a  congenial  place,  and  at  the  dissolution 
in  the  following  year  he  declined  to  be  again  a  candidate. 
The  commercial  troubles  of  1816  brought  into  difficulties 
the  banking  house  with  which  he  was  connected,  and 
forced  the  sale  of  his  collection  of  books  and  pictures.  It 
was  on  this  occasion  that  he  wrote  the  fine  Sonnet  on 
Parting  with  his  Books.  After  a  five  years'  struggle  to 
discharge  the  liabilities  of  the  bank,  the  action  of  a  small 
number  of  creditors  forced  the  partners  into  bankruptcy  in 
1820.  For  a  time  Roscoe  was  in  danger  of  arrest,  but 
ultimately  he  received  an  honourable  discharge.  On  the 
dispersal  of  his  library,  the  volumes  most  useful  to  him 
were  secured  by  friends  and  placed  in  the  Liverpool 
Athenaeum,  where  they  still  remain.  The  sum  of  £2500 
was  also  invested  for  his  benefit.  The  independent  and 
sensitive  nature  of  Roscoe  made  both  these  operations 
difficult.  Having  now  resigned  commercial  pursuits 
entirely,  he  found  a  pleasant  task  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  great  library  at  Holkham,  the  property  of  his  friend 
Coke.  In  1822  he  issued  an  appendix  of  illustrations  to 
his  Lorenzo  and  also  a  Memoir  of  Richard  Robert  Jones 
ofAberdaron,  a  remarkable  self-taught  linguist.  The  year 
1824  was  memorable  for  the  death  of  his  wife  and  the 
publication  of  his  edition  of  the  works  of  Pope,  which  in- 
volved him  in  a  controversy  with  Bowles.  His  versatility 
was  shown  by  the  appearance  of  a  folio  monograph  on  the 
Monandrian  Plants,  which  was  published  in  1828.  It 
appeared  first  in  numbers,  and  the  last  part  came  out 
after  his  recovery  from  a  paralytic  attack.  He  died  on 
the  30th  June  1831. 

Roscoe's  character  was  a  fine  one.  Under  circumstances  uncon- 
genial and  discouraging  he  steadfastly  maintained  the  ideal  of  the 
intellectual  life.  Sensitive  and  conscientious,  he  sacrificed  his 
possessions  to  a  punctilious  sense  of  duty.  He  had  the  courage  of 
unpopular  opinions,  and,  whilst  promoting  every  good  object  in  his 
native  town,  did  not  hesitate  to  speak  out  where  plain  dealing,  as 
in  the  matter  of  slavery,  was  required.  Nor  was  his  public  life 
more  meritorious  than  his  private  career,  for  lie  was  a  sincere  friend 
and  exemplary  in  his  domestic  relations.  Posterity  is  not  likely 
to  endorse  the  verdict  of  Horace  "VValpole,  who  thought  Roscoe  "  by 
far  the  best  of  our  historians, "  but  in  spite  of  newer  lights  and  of 
some  changes  of  fashion  in  the  world  of  letters,  his  books  on 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  Leo  X.  remain  important  contributions  to 
historical  literature. 

In  addition  to  the  writings  already  named.  Roscoe  wrote  tracts  on  penal  juris- 
prudence, and  contributed  to  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature 
and  of  the  Linnean  Society.  The  first  collected  edition  of  his  Poetical  Worts 
was  published  in  1857,  and  is  sadly  incomplete,  omitting,  with  other  verses  known 
to  be  from  his  pen,  the  Butterfly's  Ball,  a  fantasy,  which  has  charmed  thousands 
of  children  since  it  appeared  in  1820-21  in  Poems  for  Youth,  by  a  Family  Circle. 

The  Life  by  his  son  Henry  Roscoe  (2  vols.,  London,  1833)  contains  full  details  of 
Roscoe's  career.  Fuller  bibliographical  details  are  given  in  Allibone's  Dictionary 
of  English  Literature.  >  '  (W.  E.  A.  A.") 

ROSCOMMON,  an  inland  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Connaught,  is  bounded  N.E.  by  Leitrim,  N.W. 
by  Sligo,  W.  by  Mayo,  W.  and  S.  by  Galway,  E.  by 
Longford,  and  E.  and  S.  by  Westmeath  and  King's  County. 
The  total  area  is  607,691  acres  or  nearly  950  square  miles. 
The  greater  part  of  the  county  belongs  to  the  great  lime- 
stone plain,  and  is  either  flat  or  very  slightly  undulating. 
In  the  north-east,  on  the  Leitrim  border,  the  Braulieve 
Mountains,  consisting  of  rugged  and  precipitous  ridges  of 
limestone  gravel  with  flattened  summits,  attain  an  eleva- 
tion at  their  highest  point  of  1377  feet ;  and  in  the  north- 

XX.  —  107 


850 


S  — R  O  8 


west  the  Curlew  Mountains,  of  similar  formation,  between 
Roscommon  and  Sligo  rise  abruptly  to  a  height  of  over  800 
feet.  In  the  east  the  Slievebawn  range,  formed  of  sand- 
stone, have  a  somewhat  similar  elevation.  The  Connaught 
coal  field,  which  embraces  the  mountainous  district  round 
Lough  Allen,  touches  on  Roscommon,  but  the  mineral  is 
not  much  wrought  within  the  limits  of  the  county.  Iron- 
stone is  also  found  in  the  same  district,  but  mining  is  no 
longer  prosecuted.  The  Shannon  with  its  expansions 
forms  nearly  the  whole  eastern  boundary  of  the  county, 
and  on  the  west  the  Suck  from  Mayo  forms  for  over  50 
miles  the  boundary  with  Galway  till  it  unites  with  the 
Shannon  at  Shannon  Bridge.  The  other  tributaries  of  the 
Shannon  within  the  county  are  the  Arigna,  the  Feorish, 
and  the  Boyle.  The  lakes  formed  by  expansions  of  the 
Shannon  on  the  borders  of  Roscommon  are  Loughs  Allen, 
Boderg,  Boffin,  Forbes,  and  Ree.  Of  the  numerous  other 
lakes  within  the  county  the  most  important  are  Lough 
Key  in  the  north,  very  picturesquely  situated  with  finely 
wooded  banks,  and  Lough  Gara  in  the  west. 

Agriculture. — The  subsoil  is  principally  limestone,  but  there  is 
some  light  sandy  soil  in  the  south.  In  the  level  parts  the  land 
when  drained  and  properly  cultivated  is  very  fertile,  especially  in 
the  district  known  as  the  plains  of  Boyle,  which  includes  some  of 
the  richest  grazing  land  in  Ireland.  Along  the  banks  of  the  Suck 
and  Shannon  there  is,  however,  a  large  extent  of  bog  and  marsh. 
Of  the  130,426  acres  in  crop  in  1884  only  61,055  acres  were 
under  tillage,  while  69,371  acres  were  under  meadow  and  clover. 
Corn  crops  occupied  26,931  acres,  of  which  26,246  were  under  oats  ; 
and  green  crops  occupied  33,443  acres,  of  which  26,178  were  under 
potatoes  and  5236  under  turnips.  Horses  and  mules  in  1884 
numbered  11,134,  cattle  106,546  (of  which  27,084  were  milch  cows), 
asses  8801,  sheep  147,077,  pigs  35,493,  and  goats  10,822.  Accord- 
ing- to  the  latest  return  the  county  was  divided  among  707 
proprietors  possessing  577,999  acres  at  an  annual  valuation  of 
£294,698.  The  following  possessed  upwards  of  20,000  acres:— 
Colonel  King- Harman,  29,242acres;  H.  S.  P.  Mabon,  26,980;  Lord 
De  Freyne,  25,437;  and  Thos.  Wills-Sandford,  24,411. 

Railways. — A  branch  of  the  Midland  Great  Western  Bail  way 
traverses  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  the  county  to  Sligo,  and 
another  the  south-western  boundary  to  "Westport,  whilst  a  third 
crosses  the  southern  corner  to  Galway. 

Administration  and  Population. — The  county  is  divided  into  10 
baronies,  and  contains  53  parishes,  7  parts  of  parishes,  and  1995 
townlands.  The  population  in  1881  was  132,490 — a  decrease  of 
nearly  one-half  since  1841,  when  it  was  253,591.  The  number  of 
persons  who  could  read  and  write  in  1881  was  66,858,  the  number 
who  could  read  only  was  18,373,  while  47,259  were  unable  to  read 
or  write.  The  number  who  spoke  Irish  and  English  was  21,494, 
and  95  were  able  to  speak  Irish  only.  The  towns  containing  over 
1000  inhabitants  are  Roscommon,  the  county  town  (2117),  Boyle 
(2994),  and  Castlerea  (1229).  "Within  the  county  are  also  included 
a  part  (3683)  of  Athlone,  the  remainder  being  in  AVestmeath,  a  part 
(947)  of  Ballinasloe,  the  larger  part  being  in  Galway,  and  a  very 
small  portion  (100)  of  Carrick-on-Shannon,  which,  is  situated 
chiefly  in  Leitrim.  Ecclesiastically  the  county  belongs  to  the 
Elphin  diocese,  with  small  portions  in  those  of  Tuam,  Clonfert, 
and  Ardagh.  It  is  in  the  Connaught  circuit.  Assizes  are  held 
at  Roscommon  and  quarter  sessions  at  Athlone,  Boyle,  Castlerea, 
and  Roscommon.  There  are  nine  petty  sessions  districts  within  the 
county  and  parts  of  four  others.  It  is  in  the  Dublin  military  district, 
and  there  are  barrack  stations  at  Athlone,  Boyle,  Castlerea,  and 
Roscommon. 

History. — The  district  was  granted  by  Henry  III.  to  Richard  de 
Burgo,  but  remained  almost  wholly  in  the  possession  of  the  native 
septs.  Until  the  time  of  Elizabeth  Connaught  was  included  in  the 
two  districts  of  Roscommon  and  Clare,  and  when  these  were  sub- 
divided Roscommon  was  assigned  its  present  limits.  It  takes  its 
name  (Irish  Eos-Comain,  Comain's  wood)  from  the  county  town,  at 
which  a  monastery  was  founded  by  St  Coman  in  the  6tn  century. 
All  the  old  proprietors  were  dispossessed  at  the  Cromwellian  set- 
tlement, except  the  O'Conor  family,  now  headed  by  the  O'Conor 
Don.  The  most  interesting  antiquarian  remains  within  the  county 
are  the  ruins  of  Crogan,  the  ancient  palace  of  the  kings  of  Connaught. 
The  principal  ancient  castles  are  the  old  stronghold  of  the  M'Der- 
motts  on  Castle  Island,  Lough  Key,  the  dismantled  castle  of  the 
M'Donoughs  at  Ballinafad,  the  extensive  fortress  at  Roscommon 
rebuilt  by  John  D'Ufibrd,  justiciary  of  Ireland  in  1268,  and  the 
keep  of  Athlone,  now  used  as  barracks.  The  abbey  of  Boyle  is  in 
remarkably  good  preservation,  and  exhibits  good  specimens  of  the 
Norman  arch.  The  other  monastic  remains  within  the  county  are 
of  comparatively  small  importance. 


ROSCOMMON,  WENTWORTH  DILLON,  EARL  OF  (1634- 
1684),  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  so-called  "classical" 
school  in  English  poetry,  owed  his  burial  in  Westminster 
Abbey  more  to  his  rank  than  to  his  achievements  in  poetry. 
But  his  Essay  on  Translated  Verse  (1684),  though  feeble 
in  thought,  has  a  certain  distinction  in  the  history  of  our 
literature  as  being  the  first  definite  enunciation  of  the 
principles  of  the  "  poetic  diction "  of  our  Augustan  age. 
He  is  vary  refined  and  fastidious  in  his  notions  of  dignified 
writing,  and  intimates,  though  with  a  genteel  affectation 
of  humility,  that  the  "  railing  heroes "  and  "  wounded 
gods"  of  Homer  are  too  vulgar  for  a  correct  taste.  He 
himself  wrote  in  the  finest  of  diction,  but  he  wrote  little. 
On  Fenton's  remark  that  his  imagination  might  have  been 
more  fertile  if  his  judgment  had  been  less  severe  Johnson 
makes  the  comment  that  his  judgment  might  have  been 
less  severe  if  his  imagination  had  been  more  fertile.  The 
subjects  of  his  half-dozen  of  original  poems  range  from 
the  death  of  a  pet  dog  to  the  day  of  judgment,  both 
treated  in  the  same  elevated  and  conventional  style. 
Roscommon,  a  nephew  of  the  great  earl  of  Strafford,  was 
born  in  Ireland,  and  educated  partly  under  a  tutor  at  his 
uncle's  seat  in  Yorkshire,  partly  at  Caen  in  Normandy, 
and  partly  at  Rome.  He  published  a  translation  of 
Horace's  Art  of  Poetry  in  1680. 

ROSE  (Rosa).  The  rose  has  for  all  ages  been  the 
favourite  flower,  and  as  such  it  has  a  place  in  general 
literature  that  no  other  plant  can  rival.  In  most  cases 
the  rose  of  the  poets  and  the  rose  of  the  botanist  are  one 
and  the  same  in  kind,  but  popular  usage  has  attached  the 
name  rose  to  a  variety  of  plants  whose  kinship  to  the  true 
plant  no  botanist  would  for  a  moment  admit.  In  this 
place  we  shall  employ  the  word  in  its  strict  botanical 
significance,  and  in  commenting  on  it  treat  it  solely  from 
the  botanical  point  of  view  (see  also  HORTICULTURE,  vol. 
xii.  p.  260).  The  rose  gives  its  name  to  the  order  Hosacex, 
of  which  it  may  be  considered  the  type.  The  genus  con- 
sists of  species  varying  in  number,  according  to  the  diverse 
opinions  of  botanists  of  opposite  schools,  from  thirty  to 
one  hundred  and  eighty,  or  even  two  hundred  and  fifty, 
exclusive  of  the  many  hundreds  of  mere  garden  varieties. 
While  the  lowest  estimate  is  doubtless  too  low,  the  highest 
is  enormously  too  large,  but  in  any  case  the  wide  dis- 
crepancies above  alluded  to  illustcate  very  forcibly  the 
extreme  variability  of  the  plants,  their  adaptibility  to 
various  conditions,  and  consequently  their  wide  dispersion 
over  the  globe,  the  facility  with  which  they  are  cultivated, 
and  the  readiness  with  which  new  varieties  are  continually 
being  produced  in  gardens  by  the  art  of  the  hybridizer 
or  the  careful  selection  of  the  raiser.  The  species  are 
natives  of  all  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  but  are 
scantily  represented  in  the  tropics  unless  at  considerable 
elevations. 

They  are  erect  or  climbing  shrubs,  never  herbs  or  trees,  gene- 
rally more  or  less  copiously  provided  with  thorns  of  various  shapes 
and  with  glandular  hairs,  as  in  the  sweet  brier  or  in  the  moss  rose 
of  gardens.  The  thorns  serve  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  shrub 
to  sustain  itself  amid  other  vegetation,  and  perhaps  in  some  sort 
serve  as  a  protection  against  marauders.  The  viscid  hairs  which 
are  specially  frequent  on  the  flower  stalks  or  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  flower  serve  to  arrest  the  progress  of  undesirable  visitants, 
while  the  perfume  emitted  by  the  glands  in  question  may  co-operate 
with  the  fragrance  and  colour  of  the  flower  to  attract  those  insects 
whose  presence  is  desirable.  The  leaves  are  invariably  alternate, 
provided  with  stipules,  and  unequally  pinnate,  the  stipules  them- 
selves being  in  this  case  perhaps  merely  the  lowest  pair  of  "pinna?" 
or  leaflets  less  perfectly  developed  than  the  others.  The  flowers 
are  solitary  or  in  loose  cymes  (cluster-roses)  produced  on  the  ends 
of  the  shoots.  The  flower-stalk  expands  into  a  vase-  or  urn-shaped 
dilatation,  called  the  receptacle  or  reccptacular  tube,  which  ulti- 
mately becomes  fleshy  and  encloses  in  its  cavity  the  numerous 
carpels  or  fruits.  From  the  edge  of  the  urn  or  "hip  "  proceed  five 
sepals,  often  more  or  less  compounded  like  the  leaves  and  over- 
lapping in  the  bud.  Within  the  fccpals  arc  five  petals,  generally 


0  S  — R  0  S 


851 


broad  or  roundish  in  outline,  •with  a  very  short  stalk  or  none  at 
all,  and  of  all  hues  except  blue.  The  very  numerous  stamens 
originate  from  about  the  same  spot  as  the  sepals  and  petals  ;  each 
has  a  slender  filament  and  a  small  two-celled  anther.  The  inner 
portion  of  the  receptacular  tube  whence  the  stamens  spring  is  thick 
and  fleshy,  and  is  occasionally  spoken  of  as  the  "disk"  ;  but,  as 
in  this  case  it  does  not  represent  any  separate  organ,  it  is  better  to 
avoid  the  use  of  the  term.  The  carpels  are  very  numerous,  ulti- 
mately hard  in  texture,  covered  with  hairs,  and  each  provided  with 
a  long  style  and  button-like  stigma.  The  carpels  are  concealed 
within  the  receptacular  tube  and  only  the  stigmas  as  a  rule  pro- 
trude from  its  mouth.  Each  carpel  contains  one  ovule  without 
perisperm.  The  so-called  fruit  is  merely  the  receptacular  tube, 
which,  as  previously  mentioned,  becomes  fleshy  and  brightly 
coloured  as  an  attraction  to  birds,  which  devour  the  hips  and  thus 
secure  the  dispersion  of  the  seed.  The  stamens  are  in  whorls,  and, 
according  to  Payer,  they  originate  in  pairs  one  on  each  side  of  the 
base  of  each  petal  (parapetalous),  so  that  there  are  ten  in  each  row  ; 
a  second  row  of  ten  alternates  Avith  the  first,  a  third  with  the 
second,  and  so  on.  By  repeated  radial  and  tangential  branching  a 
vast  number  of  stamens  are  'ultimately  produced,  and  when  these 
stamens  assume  a  petaloid  aspect  we  have  as  a  consequence  the 
double  flowers  which  are  so  much  admired.  The  carpels  are  much 
less  subject  to  this  petaloid  change,  and,  as  it  generally  happens  in 
the  most  double  of  roses  that  some  few  at  least  of  the  anthers  are 
formed  with  pollen,  the  production  of  seed  and  the  possibility  of 
cross-breeding  become  intelligible.  Under  natural  circumstances 
rose  flowers  do  not  secrete  honey,  the  attraction  for  insects  being 
provided,  according  to  Miiller,  by  the  colour  and  perfume  and  the 
abundance  of  pollen  for  food.  The  stigmas  and  anthers  come  to 
maturity  at  the  same  time,  and  thus,  while  cross-fertilization  by 
insect  agency  is  doubtless  most  common,  close  fertilization  is  not 
prevented. 

In  The  Student's  Flora  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  recognizes  seven 
species  of  Eosa  as  British.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  E. 
spinosissima,  the  Scotch  Rose,  much  less  variable  than  the  others, 
11.  rubiginosa,  the  Sweet  Brier,  represented  by  several  varieties,  II. 
canina,  the  Dog  Rose,  of  which  no  fewer  than  twenty-nine  varieties 
are  described,  and  E.  arvensis.  Cultivated  roses  are  frequently 
"budded "  or  worked  upon  the  stems  of  the  brier  or  E.  canina,  or 
upon  young  seedling  plants  of  the  same  species.  Other  species  also 
are  used  for  stocks  (see  HORTICULTURE).  Roses  have  been  grown 
for  so  many  centuries  and  have  been  crossed  and  recrossed  so  often 
that  it  is  difficult  to  refer  the  cultivated  forms  to  their  wild  proto- 
types. The  older  roses  doubtless  originated  from  7?.  gallica,  a 
native  of  central  and  southern  Europe.  E.  centifolia  (the  Cabbage 
Rose),  a  native  of  the  Caucasus,  contributed  its  share.  A  cross 
between  the  two  species  named  may  have  been  the  source  whence 
originated  the  Bourbon  Roses.  The  yellow-flowered  Austrian  and 
Persian  Brier  originated  from  E.  cglanteria,  a  native  of  Austria. 
The  Monthly  or  China  Roses  sprang  from  the  Chinese  E.  indica, 
and  these  crossed  with  others  of  the  E.  centifolia  or  gallica  type  are 
the  source  of  the  hybrid  perpetuals  so  commonly  grown  nowadays, 
because,  in  addition  to  their  other  attractions,  their  blooming  season 
is  relatively  prolonged,  and,  moreover,  is  repeated  in  the  autumn. 
Tea  Roses  and  Noisettes,  it  is  to  be  presumed,  also  acknowledge 
Eosa  indica  as  one  of  their  progenitors.  The  Banksian  Rose  is  a 
Chinese  climbing  species,  with  small  white  or  fawn-coloured  flowers 
of  great  beauty ;  the  Macartney  Rose  (E.  bracteata)  is  also  of  Chinese 
origin.  Its  nearly  evergreen  deep  green  leaves  and  large  white 
flowers  are  very  striking.  The  Japanese  E.  rugosa  is  also  a  remark- 
able species,  notable  for  its  bold  rugose  foliage,  its  large  white  or 
pink  flowers,  and  its  conspicuous  globular  fruit.  E.  damasccna  is 
cultivated  in  some  parts  of  Roumelia  for  the  purpose  of  making 
attar  of  roses  (see  OILS  and  PERFUMERY).  According  to  Hanbury, 
the  flowers  are  gathered  before  sunrise  and  distilled  the  same  day. 
The  distilled  liquid  is  allowed  to  remain  for  a  day  or  two,  by  which 
time  most  of  the  oil  will  have  risen  to  the  surface,  from  which  it 
1  is  skimmed  off.  The  percentage  yielded  is  very  small,  not  more 
than  0-04. 

In  India  E.  damascena  is  grown  largely  near  Ghazipur  for  the 
purpose  of  procuring  attar  of  roses  and  rose  water.  The  roses 
are  distilled  with  double  their  weight  of  water.  The  attar  is 
skimmed  off  in  the  Turkish  method.  Colonel  Drury  mentions  that 
it  takes  200, 000  roses  to  yield  the  weight  of  a  rupee  in  attar.  This 
quantity  sells  on  the  spot  for  100  rupees. 

Rose  water  is  chiefly  produced  in  Europe  from  the  Provence  or 
cabbage  rose,  E.  centifolia,  grown  for  the  purpose  at  Mitcham  and 
much  more  abundantly  in  the  south  of  France.  Conserve  of  roses 
and  infusion  of  roses,  two  medicinal  preparations  retained  for  their 
agreeable  qualities  rather  than  for  any  special  virtue,  are  prepared 
from  the  petals  of  Eosa  gallica,  one  variety  of  which  was  formerly 
grown  for  the  purpose  near  the  town  of  Provins.  Conserve  of  clog 
rose  is  made  from  the  ripe  hips  of  the  dog  rose,  Eosa  canina.  Its 
only  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  pills. 

The  name  ROSE  OF  JERICHO  is  popularly  applied  to  a  small 
Cruciferous  weed,  Anastatica  hicrochuntina,  a  native  of  the  desert 


regions  of  Egypt,  !  Arabia,  Palestine,  and  Persia.  In  the  dry 
season  the  dead  branches  are  strongly  incurved,  and  thus  serve  to 
protect  the  still  living  seed  in  the  pods.  In  the  wet  season  the 
branches  absorb  the  moisture  to  a  large  extent,  unfold,  resume  the 
direction  they  had  in  life,  and  facilitate  the  dispersion  of  the  seed 
under  circumstances  favourable  to  germination.  The  plant  is 
frequently  carried  off  as  a  curiosity,  inasmuch  as  immersion  in  a 
basin  of  water  enables  it  to  resume  the  original  form  and  to  create 
the  impression  that  the  plant  "comes  to  life  again,"  but  the  pro- 
cess is  purely  a  physical  one. 

ROSELLINI,  IP.POLITO  (1800-1843),  a  native  of  Pisa 
and  subsequently  professor  there  of  Oriental  languages,  in 
which  Mezzofanti  was  his  teacher,  is  best  known  as  the 
associate  of  J.  F.  CHAMPOLLION  (q.v.),  whose  studies  he 
shared  and  whom  he  accompanied  in  his  Egyptian 
explorations  (1828).  On  the  death  of  Champollion  the 
publication  of  the  results  of  their  expedition  fell  to 
Eosellini  (Monumenti  dell'  Egitto  e  della  NuUa,  Florence, 
1832-1840,  10  vols.  fol.). 

ROSEMARY  (Rosmarinus),  a  well-known  Labiate  plant, 
the  only  representative  of  tlie  genus  and  a  native  of  the 
Mediterranean  region.  It  is  a  low  shrub  with  linear 
leaves,  dark  green  above,  white  beneath,  and  with  margins 
rolled  back  on  to  the  under  surface.  The  flowers  are  in 
small  axillary  clusters.  Each  has  a  two-lipped  calyx, 
from  which  projects  a  bluish  two-lipped  corolla  enclosing 
two  stamens,  the  other  two  being  deficient.  The  fruit  con- 
sists of  four  smooth  nutlets.  Botanically  the  genus  is  near 
to  Salvia,  but  it  differs  in  the  shorter  connective  to  the 
anther.  Rosemary  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients 
for  its  aromatic  fragrance  and  medicinal  uses.  In  modern 
times  it  is  valued  mainly  as  a  perfume,  for  which  purpose 
the  oil  is  obtained  by  distillation.  It  doubtless  has  slight 
stimulant  properties,  which  may  account  for  the  general 
belief  in  the  efficacy  of  the  plant  in  promoting  the  growth 
of  the  hair.  Rosemary  plays  no  unimportant  part  in 
literature  and  folk-lore,  being  esteemed  as  an  emblem  of 
remembrance.  "  There 's  rosemary,  that 's  for  remem- 
brance," says  Ophelia.  Its  use  in  connexion  with  funeral 
ceremonies  is  not  extinct  in  country  places  to  this  day, 
and  it  was  formerly  as  much  valued  at  wedding  festivities. 
The  name  "  ros  marinus  "  or  "  ros  maris  "  was  probably 
given  in  allusion  to  its  native  habitat  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  sea. 

ROSETTA  (see  EGYPT,  vol.  vii.  p.  768).  The  cele- 
brated Rosetta  Stone,  a  basalt  stele  containing  a  decree 
of  Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes  iu  hieroglyphics,  demotic,  and 
Greek,  which  supplied  the  key  for  the  decipherment  of 
the  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt,  was  found  near  Fort  St 
Julien,  4  miles  north  of  the  town,  in  1799,  by  Boussard,  a 
French  officer.  It  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

ROSEWOOD.  Under  this  name  several  distinct  kinds 
of  ornamental  timber  are  more  or  less  known.  That, 
however,  so  called  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  Brazilian 
rosewood,  the  palissandre  of  the  French,  the  finest  quali- 
ties of  which,  coming  from  the  provinces  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  Bahia,  are  believed  to  be  the  produce  principally  of 
Dalbergia  nigra,  a  Leguminous  tree  of  large  dimensions, 
called  cabiuna  and  jacaranda  by  the  Brazilians.  The 
same  name,  jacaranda,  is  applied  to  several  species  of 
Machserium,  also  trees  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Legu- 
minosse, ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  the  rosewood  of  commerce  is  drawn  from  these 
sources.  Formerly  Brazilian  rosewood  was  said,  on  the 
authority  of  the  French  botanist  and  traveller  Guillemin, 
to  be  the  produce  of  a  species  of  Triptolomxa,  but  that 
genus  has  now  been  constituted  a  section  of  Dalbergia. 
Rosewood  comes  to  the  United  Kingdom  from  Rio,  Bahia, 
Jamaica,  and  Honduras.  The  heartwood  attains  large 
dimensions,  but  as  it  begins  to  decay  before  the  tree 
arrives  at  maturity  it  is  always  faulty  and  hollow  in  the 
centre.  On  this  account  squared  logs  or  planks  of  rose- 


852 


0  s  — R  O  S 


wood  are  never  seen,  the  wood  being  imported  in  half 
round  flitches  10  to  20  feet  in  length  and  from  5  to  12 
inches  in  their  thickest  part.  Owing  to  its  irregular 
form  the  wood  is  sold  by  weight,  and  its  value  varies 
within  wide  limits  according  to  the  richness  of  colour. 
Rosewood  has  a  deep  ruddy  brown  colour,  richly  streaked 
and  grained  with  black  resinous  layers.  It  takes  a  fine 
polish,  but  on  account  of  its  resinous  nature  it  is  some- 
what difficult  to  work.  The  wood  is  very  much  in 
demand  both  by  cabinetmakers  and  pianoforte-makers,  by 
whom  it  is  used  both  solid  and  in  veneer. 

The  wood  of  Dalbcrgia  latifolia,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies  used 
for  ornamental  furniture  and  carvings  under  the  name  of  black 
wood,  is  frequently  termed  East  Indian  Rosewood,  as  is  also  the 
allied  tree  of  Madras,  Dalbergia  sissoides.  The  Bois  de  Rose  of 
the  French,  the  Portuguese  Pao  de  Rosa,  and  the  German  Rosenfiolz, 
is  a  Brazilian  wood,  the  produce  of  Physocalymma  floribunda, 
called  in  the  United  Kingdom  tulip  wood,  and  very  highly 
esteemed  on  account  of  its  beautiful  rose  colour  and  grain.  African 
rosewood  is  from  Ptcrocarpus  erinaceus,  Dominican  from  Cordia 
Gerascanthus,  and  in  New  South  Wales  the  wood  of  Synoum 
glandulosum  locally  receives  the  same  name. 

ROSH,  also  HAROSH  (tJ>X"~i,  K*X'"in,  i.e.,  "  chief," 
"  the  chief "),  stands  by  contraction  for  Rabbenu  Asher, 
or  Harab  Rabbenu  Asher  (b.  Yehiel),  chief  rabbi  of  all 
Castile.  He  was  born-  in  Germany  about  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century  and  died  at  Toledo  on  the  25th  of 
October  1327.1 

Rosh  enjoys  a  sixfold  celebrity.  (1)  He  was  a  descendant  of  a 
long  line  of  distinguished  ancestors,  among  whom  RABAN  (q.v. ) 
maybe  specially  named.  (2)  He  was  "the  distinguished  of  the 
most  distinguished  disciples  "  2  of  the  foremost  rabbi  of  his  age  in 
Germany,  viz.,  Rabbeuu  Meir  b.  Barukh,  better  known  under  the 
name  of  R.  Meir  of  Rothenburg,  whose  tragic  fate3  even  more 
than  his  learning  and  piety  has  endeared  him  to  all  Jews  down  to 
this  very  day.  (3)  He  was  the  father  of  eight  great  Rabbinic 
scholars.4  (4)  He  was  in  his  own  right,  after  1293  in  Germany 


1  See  Schiller-Szinessy,  Catal.  Hub.  MSS.,  &c.,  i.  p.  66,  note  3,  and  ii.  p.  77, 
note  3. 

2  B.  Meir  of  Rothenburg  (see  next  note)  had  among  his  many  disciples  four 
more  distinguished  than  the  rest :— (1)  R.  Mordekhai  b.  Hillel,  who  was  slain 
with  his  wife  and  children  at  Nuremberg  in  1310, — a  fine  Latin  and  general 
scholar  and  author  of  the  Mordekhai,  now  an  integral  part  of  the  RIPH  (?.?.); 
(2)  R.  Meir  Uakkohen,  the  author  of  the  Haggahoth  Maimoniyyoth,  now  an 
integral  part  of  the  Mishneh  Torah  of  MAIMOJJIDES  (q.v.);  (3)  R".  Shimslion  b. 
Sadok,  who  wrote  his  master's  Tashbes  in  prison,  <fcc.  (see  Catal.  Arab.  MSS.  of 
Tfin.  Coll.,  Cambr.,  App.  p.  229)  ;  (4)  Rosh. 

1  The  persecutions  and  massacres  of  the  Jews  in  many  parts  of  Germany  in 
the  13th  century  made  life  so  unendurabletliat  the  wealthier  of  them  determined 
to  quit  the  land  of  their  birth  and  to  emigrate  to  that  of  their  ancient  fathers. 
R.  Meir  of  Rothenburg,  being  at  the  head  of  the  emigration,  had  in  the  spring 
of  1286,  with  his  whole  family  and  several  other  families,  already  arrived  in 
Lombardy.  But  one  Kinppa,  or  Knippa,  or  Konpil,  i.e.,  A'oppel  (  =  Jacob),  a  con- 
verted Jew,  recognized  and  betrayed  him  to  his  master,  the  bishop  (?  pojn) 
of  Basel,  who  had  him  arrested  by  Captain  Meinert  (Meinhard)  of  Gbrz,  who 
handed  him  over  to  the  emperor.  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  who  had  only  a  dozen 
years  before  or  so  (to  speak  in  the  great  German  poet's  language)  "  made  an  end, 
after  the  long  destructive  strife,  to  the  emperorless,  terrible  time,"  was,  though 
very  rich  in  dignities,  as  yet  comparatively  poor  in  purse.  He  therefore,  in  the 
midsummer  of  th<!  same  year  (to  extort  money  from  the  Jews),  caused  the  poor 
rabbi  to  be  imprisoned  in  the  tower  of  Ensishcim  (in  Alsace)  and  subsequently  in 
other  places,— e.g.,  Weissenburg,  or  Wasserburg  (pTnCJO).  Considerable  sums 
were  offered  by  the  Jews  for  their  revered  chief,  but  the  negotiations  were 
brought  to  nought  by  the  command  of  the  rabbi  himself,  who  would  not  permit 
more  than  a  trifling  sum  to  be  given  for  his  release  (RKSHAL  (?.».),  Yam  shel 
Shelomoh,  on  Gittin,  iv.  66).  He  died  in  prison  in  1293.  Rudolph's  successors 
Adolph  of  Nassau  (1291-1298)  and  Albrecht  of  Austria  (1298-1308),  were  so 
heartless  as  not  to  deliver  up  for  nearly  fourteen  years  the  poor  rabbi's  corpse  for 
burial,  hoping  to  extort  from  the  Jews  even  greater  sums  than  they  had  origin- 
ally offered  to  Rudolph  for  the  rabbi  alive.  In  1307,  however,  a  rich  and  pious 
but  childless  man,  Alexander  SUsskind  Wimpfen  of  Frankfort,  offered  an  euor- 
mous^  sum  on  the  condition  that  the  congregation  of  Worms  should  bury  the 
rabbi's  corpse  and  should  allow  at  his  own  death  his  body  to  rest  near  it  (see 
Lewysohn,  Sechzig  EpUaphien  .  .  .  zu  Worms,  Frankfoit-on-Main,  1855,  8vo, 
pp.  35-41).  R.  Meir  of  Rothenburg  was  not  merely  a  fine  Biblical  and  Rabbinic 
scholar  but  also  a  great  Cabbalist,  as  R.  David  b.  Yehudah  Hasid  testifies  in 
his  Mar'oth  Jlassobeoth  (Camb.  Univ.  MS.  Add.  664,  leaf  72a).  Most  of  his 
literary  productions  are  incorporated  with  works  of  his  disciples  and  the  disciples 
of  these  disciples.  For  instance,  some  of  his  massoretico-ethical  explanations 
are  to  be  found  in  R.  Ya'akob  b.  Asher's  so-called  Ba'al  Hatturim,  and  vart  of 
his  commentary  on  the  Mishnah  is  to  be  found  in  R.  Yomtob  Lipmann  Heller's 
Tosephotk  Yomtob  (see  MISHNAH).  Other  Rabbinic  work  of  his  is  to  be  found  in 
Roth,  Mordekhai,  Ac.  But  there  exists  also  independent  literature  of  his  as  (1) 
Tosaphoth  on  Yoma  (in  the  editions  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud);  (2)  Respoma, 
in  three  volumes  (i.,  Cremona,  1557,  4to;  ii.,  Prague,  1608,  fol.,  which  contains, 
however,  matter  by  other  authors  also,  as  Rabbenu  Gershom,  Rabbenu  Tham,  the 
Takkanoth  8hum,  Rules  of  Penitence,  by  R.  El'azarof  Worms,  <fec. ;  iii.,  Lemberg, 
860,  4to) ;  (3)  Tashbes  (see  last  note) ;  (4)  Birekhoth  Maharam  (Riva  di  Trento, 
558,  8vo) ;  (5)  religious  poems  of  considerable  value,  which  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Ashkenazic  Mahzor. 

*  Of  these  we  will  only  mention  two.    (1)  R.  Yehuilah,  his  successor  in  the 


but  now  almost  superseded  by  the  Shulhan  'Arukh  of  R.  Yoseph  Caro  (see' 


and  after  1310  everywhere,  the  greatest  Talmudist.8  (5)  He  was 
the  first  rabbi  of  the  Ashkenazic  school  who  possessed  powers  of 
systematization.  (6)  He  was  a  man  not  merely  of  the  deepest 
piety  but  of  the  sternest  and,  if  we  may  say  so,  the  most  savage  6 
morality.  Rosh,  in  despair  at  the  state  of  affairs  in  Germany 
(some,  however,  say  through  his  being  involved  in  negotiations 
with  the  emperor  for  the  delivery  of  the  body  of  his  master,  which 
he  could  not  bring  to  a  successful  issue),7  left  his  home  and 
travelled  aimlessly  about  with  his  numerous  family  till  he  arrived 
in  Provence.  There  he  would  have  remained  gladly  had  not  the. 
Maimonideaii  controversy  broken  out.8  He  went  therefore  to 
Castile,  where  Toledo,  jealous  of  Barcelona  possessing  such  a  great 
rabbi  as  R.  Shelomoh  Ibn  Addereth  was,9  received  him  with  open 
arms  and  great  respect  and  elected  him  their  rabbi.  Under  his 
eyes  the  celebrated  astronomical  work  Yesod  'Olam,  by  R.  Yishak 
b.  Yoseph  Yisraeli,  was  composed.10 

Of  the  numerous  works  by  Rosh,  which  have  been  printed  times 
innumerable,  we  can  only  mention  the  most  important : — 

(1)  Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  (see  Hadar  Zekenim,  Leghorn,  1840, 
folio).  (2)  Commentary  on  the  Mishnic  treatises  of  the  orders  Zera'im  und 
Tohoroth  (see  editions  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud).  (3)  Commentary  on  the  whole 
Babylonian  Talmud  (ibid.;  the  Kissur  Piseke  Ilarosh  is  by  Rabbenu  Ya'akob,  the 
author's  son,  see  note  4).  (4)  To'sephe  Ilarosh  on  several  treatises  (see  Schiller- 
Szinessy,  Catalogue,  ii.  pp.  76-94).  (5)  Responsa  (Constantinople,  1517,  folio, 
and  reprints).  (6)  Halakhoth  Ktlannoth  (see  Talmud  editions).  (7)  Hanhagah, 
Sevanh,  &c.  (Testament,  <fcc.,  Venice,  1578,  16mo,  and  reprints).  (S.  M.  S.-S.) 

ROSICRUCIANS  (ROSENKREUZER),  a  celebrated  but 
entirely  fabulous  secret  society.  In  1614  there  appeared 
at  Cassel  an  anonymous  German  work,  Allgemeine  und 
General-Reformation  der  ganzen  Welt  beneben  der  Fama 
Fraternitatis  des  loblichen  Ordens  des  Rosenkreuzes,  inviting 
the  scholars  of  Europe  to  test  the  pretensions  and  join 
the  ranks  of  a  secret  society,  said  to  have  been  founded 
two  hundred  years  before  by  a  certain  Christian  Rosen- 
kreuz,  who  had  acquired  on  a  pilgrimage  the  hidden 
wisdom  of  the  East.  The  society,  according  to  this 
account,  possessed  many  secret  gifts  of  knowledge,  of  which 
goldmaking  was  one  of  the  least.  Its  character  was 
Christian  and  of  Protestant  type ;  its  chief  aim  was  the 
gratuitous  healing  of  the  sick.  Though  the  origin  of  the 
Fama  and  some  subsequent  tracts  in  supplement  to  it  has 
never  been  made  quite  clear,  it  has  generally  been  held 
that  Arnold,  in  his  Kirchen-  und  Ketzer-Historie,  renders  it 
highly  probable  that  the  author  was  the  talented  theo- 
logian and  polymath  Johann  Valentin  Andreae  (1586- 
1654),  and  that  the  book  was  originally  a  sort  of  elaborate 
joke  composed  in  the  stift  at  Tubingen.  But  the  marvel- 
lous elements  in  the  account  of  Rosenkreuz  and  his  society 
only  served  in  that  age  to  draw  serious  attention  to  the 
supposed  order.  A  large  controversial  literature  sprang 
up,  and,  while  some  violently  condemned  the  Rosicrucians 
as  heretics  in  theology  and  medicine,  others,  and  among 
them  R.  FLUDD  (q.v.),  defended  them  and  hoped  great 
things  from  the  enlarged  activity  which  was  proposed  for 
them  in  the  Fama  and  its  companion  tracts.  Gradually 
it  came  to  be  generally  seen  that  the  whole  thing  was  a 
mystification.  The  name  and  fable  of  the  Rosicrucians 
have,  however,  from  time  to  time  been  made  use  of  by 
such  impostors  as  Cagliostro. 

ROSIN,  or  COLOPHONY,  is  the  resinous  constituent  of 
the  oleo-resin  exuded  by  various  species  of  pine,  known  in 
commerce  as  crude  turpentine  (see  TURPENTINE).  The 
separation  of  the  oleo-resin  into  the  essential  oil-spirit  of 
turpentine  and  common  rosin  is  effected  by  distillation  in 
large  copper  stills.  The  essential  oil  is  carried  off  at  a 
heat  of  between  212°  and  316°,  leaving  fluid  rosin,  which 
is  run  off  through  a  tap  at  the  bottom  of  the  still,  purified 
by  passing  through  a  straining  wadding,  and  received  into 


RKIH  AL,  note  1) ;  (6)  the  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  mentioned  in  the  fore- 
going note,  a  portion  of  which  forms  now  an  integral  part  of  every  Rabbinic  Bible 
(it  was  first  issued  at  Constantinople  in  1514,  4to) ;  and  (c)  the  Kissur  Piseke 
Ilarosh  (Constantinople,  1515,  fol.). 

4  I.e.,  after  the  death  of  his  master  and  that  of  R.  Shelomoh  b.  Abraham  Ibn 
Addereth  (see  KASHBA  III.). 

6  See  Schiller-Szinessy,  Catal.,  ii.  p.  78,  note  2 

7  See  Ibn  Tahya's  Shalsheleth  Hakkabbalah. 

•  See  Schiller-Szinessy,  Catal.,  i.  p.  188  seq.  »  See  RASHBA  III. 

'•  Printed  in  1777,  and  from  an  ancient  M.S.  again  in  1848,  both  times  at  Berlin 
and  in  4to.  The  library  of  Cambridge  university  possesses  a  most  valuable  MS. 
of  it  (Oo.  6.  65) 


K  0  S  — R  0  S 


853 


a  vat,  whence  it  is  ladled  into  barrels  ready  for  the  market. 
Rosin  varies  in  colour,  according  to  the  age  of  the  tree 
whence  the  turpentine  is  drawn  and  the  amount  of  heat 
applied  in  distillation,  from  an  opaque  almost  pitchy 
black  substance  through  grades  of  brown  and  yellow  to  an 
almost  perfectly  transparent  colourless  glassy  mass.  The 
commercial  grades  are  numerous,  ranging  by  letters  from 
A,  the  darkest,  to  N,  extra  pale, — superior  to  which  are  W, 
"  window  glass,"  and  WW,  "  water  white "  varieties,  the 
latter  having  about  three  times  the  value  of  the  common 
qualities.  Rosin  is  a  very  brittle  and  friable  resin,  with  a 
faint  piny  odour,  softening  at  about  176°  and  melting 
completely  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water.  It  dis- 
solves freely  in  ether,  benzol,  and  chloroform,  and  to  some 
extent  in  alcohol  and  fatty  oils.  When  exposed  to  the 
action  of  hot  dilute  alcohol  or  when  boiled  with  alkaline 
solutions  it  takes  up  a  molecule  of  Avater  and  becomes 
converted  into  abietic  acid,  a  change  which  also  takes 
place  slowly  in  the  air  when  the  resin  is  yet  mixed  with 
the  essential  oil  as  it  flows  from  the  trees.  Rosin  is  thus 
regarded  as  an  anhydride  of  abietic  acid,  and  its  use  in 
yellow  soaps  is  due  to  the  fact  that  this  acid  itself  com- 
bines with  caustic  alkalies  to  form  a  kind  of  soap.  In 
addition  to  its  extensive  use  in  soap-making,  rosin  is  largely 
employed  in  making  inferior  varnishes,  sealing  wax,  and 
various  cements.  It  is  also  used  for  preparing  shoemaker's 
wax,  for  soldering  metals,  for  pitching  lager  beer  casks,  for 
rosining  the  bows  of  musical  instruments,  and  numerous 
minor  purposes.  In  pharmacy  it  forms  an  ingredient  in 
several  plasters  and  ointments.  On  a  large  scale  it  is 
treated  by  destructive  distillation  for  the  production  of 
an  oily  complex  hydrocarbon,  having  a  tarry  odour  and  a 
whitish  opalescent  colour,  which  under  the  name  of  rosin 
oil  is  much  used  as  a  lubricant.  Rosin  oil  also  enters 
extensively  into  the  common  kinds  of  fatty  oils  as  an 
adulterant. 

The  chief  region  of  rosin  production  is  the  southern  coast  States 
of  the  American  Uuion, — the  ports  of  Wilmington,  Charleston, 
Savannah,  and  Brunswick  being  the  principal  centres  of  the  trade. 
American  rosin  is  obtained  from  the  turpentine  of  the  swamp  pine, 
Pinus  australis,  and  of  the  loblolly  pine,  P.  Tseda.  The  main 
source  of  supply  in  Europe  is  the  "  landes  "  of  the  departments  of 
Gironde  and  Landes  in  France,  where  the  sea  pine,  P.  maritima, 
is  extensively  cultivated.  In  the  north  of  Europe  rosin  is  obtained 
from  the  Scotch  fir,  P.  sylvcstris,  and  throughout  European 
countries  local  supplies  are  obtained  from  other  species  of  pine. 
The  imports  into  the  United  Kingdom  average  about  1,250,000 
cwts.  annually,  nearly  the  whole  of  which  comes  from  America. 
In  1883  the  amount  imported  was  1,377,368  cwts.  (1,337,848 
cwts.  from  the  United  States  and  16,242  cwts.  from  France),  the 
total  estimated  value  of  the  imports  being  £400,938. 

ROSMINI-SERBATI,  ANTONIO  (1797-1855),  perhaps 
the  most  important  figure  in  modern  Italian  philosophy, 
was  born  at  Rovereto  in  the  Italian  Tyrol  in  1797,  and  died 
in  1855.  With  every  worldly  advantage  as  the  eldest  son 
of  a  noble  and  wealthy  family,  from  an  early  age  he  resolved 
to  devote  himself  to  God's  service  in  the  Catholic  priest- 
hood. He  became  the  founder  of  a  new  religious  order, 
named  the  Institute  of  Charity,  but  known  in  Italy  gene- 
rally as  the  Rosminians.  The  members  may  be  priests  or 
laymen.  All  are  prepared  to  do  any  works  of  charity — 
corporal,  intellectual,  or  spiritual — to  which  they  may  be 
directed  by  divine  providence,  under  obedience  to  their 
superior,  to  the  bishops,  and  to  the  pope.  They  have 
branches  in  Italy,  England,  Ireland,  France,  and  America. 
In  London  they  are  attached  to  the  ancient  church  of  St 
Etheldreda,  Ely  Place,  Holborn,  where  the  English  transla- 
tions of  Rosmini's  works  are  edited. 

Rosmini's  Sistema  Fllosofico  set  forth  the  conception  of 
a  complete  encyclopaedia  of  the  human  knowable,  synthet- 
ically conjoined,  according  to  the  order  of  ideas,  in  a 
perfectly  harmonious  whole.  This  conception  Rosmini 
developed  in  more  than  forty  volumes.  Here  a  brief 


notice  of  the  characteristic  principle  of  his  philosophy  must 
suffice. 

Rosmini,  contemplating  the  position  of  recent  philosophy 
from  Locke  to  Hegel,  and  having  his  eye  directed  to  the 
ancient  and  fundamental  problem  of  the  origin,  truth,  and 
certainty  of  our  ideas,  wrote: — "If  philosophy  is  to  be 
restored  to  love  and  respect,  I  think  it  will  be  necessary, 
in  part,  to  return  to  the  teachings  of  the  ancients,  and  in 
part  to  give  those  teachings  the  benefit  of  modern  methods  " 
(Theodicy,  n.  148).  Pursuing  therefore  the  now  generally 
approved  method  of  the  observation  of  facts,  he  most 
carefully  examined  and  analysed  the  fact  of  human  know- 
ledge, and  obtained  the  following  results: — (1)  that  the 
notion  or  idea  of  being  or  existence  in  general  enters  into, 
and  is  presupposed  by,  all  our  acquired  cognitions,  so  that, 
without  it,  they  would  be  impossible  ;  (2)  that  this  idea  is 
essentially  objective,  inasmuch  as  what  is  seen  in  it  is  as 
distinct  from  and  opposed  to  the  mind  that  sees  it  as  the 
light  is  from  the  eye  that  looks  at  it;  (3)  that  it  is 
essentially  true,  because  "  being  "  and  "  truth  "  are  conver- 
tible terms,  and  because  in  the  vision  of  it  the  mind  cannot 
err,  since  error  could  only  be  committed  by  a  judgment, 
and  here  there  is  no  judgment,  but  a  pure  intuition 
affirming  nothing  and  denying  nothing ;  (4)  that  by  the 
application  of  this  essentially  objective  and  true  idea  the 
human  being  intellectually  perceives,  first,  the  animal  body 
individually  conjoined  with  him,  and  then,  on  occasion  of 
the  sensations  produced  in  him  not  by  himself,  the  causes 
of  those  sensations,  that  is,  from  the  action  felt  he  per- 
ceives and  affirms  an  agent,  a  being,  and  therefore  a  true 
thing,  that  acts  on  him,  and  he  thus  gets  at  the  external 
world, — these  are  the  true  primitive  judgments,  contain- 
ing (a)  the  subsistence  of  the  particular  being  (subject), 
and  (b)  its  essence  or  species  as  determined  by  the  quality 
of  the  action  felt  from  it  (predicate) ;  (5)  that  reflexion, 
by  separating  the  essence  or  species  from  the  subsistence, 
obtains  the  full  specific  idea  (universalization),  and  then 
from  this,  by  leaving  aside  some  of  its  elements,  the 
abstract  specific  idea  (abstraction) ;  (6)  that  the  mind, 
having  reached  this  stage  of  development,  can  proceed  to 
further  and  further  abstracts,  including  the  first  principles 
of  reasoning,  the  principles  of  the  several  sciences,  complex 
ideas,  groups  of  ideas,  and  so  on  without  end ;  (7)  finally, 
that  the  same  most  universal  idea  of  being,  this  generator 
and  formal  element  of  all  acquired  cognitions,  cannot 
itself  be  acquired,  but  must  be  innate  in  us,  implanted  by 
God  in  our  nature.  Being,  as  naturally  shining  to  our 
mind,  must  therefore  be  what  men  call  the  light  of  reason. 
Hence  the  name  Rosmini  gives  it  of  ideal  being ;  and  this 
he  laid  down  as  the  one  true  fundamental  principle  of  all 
philosophy,  and  the  supreme  criterion  of  truth  and 
certainty.  This  he  firmly  believed  to  be  the  teaching  of 
St  Augustine,  as  well  as  of  St  Thomas,  of  whom  he  was 
an  ardent  admirer  and  defender.  The  above  seven  points 
could  only  be  hinted  at  here.  A  complete  and  exhaustive 
treatment  of  them  will  be  found  in  Rosmini's  New  Essay 
on  the  Origin  of  Ideas,  which  has  lately  been  rendered 
into  English  (London,  1883-84). 

Rosmini's  Sistcmrf  Filosqfico  has  been  translated  into  English  by 
Davidson  (Eosmini's  Philosophical  System,  London,  1882).  The 
volume  contains  also  a  biographical  sketch  of  the  author,  with  a 
complete  catalogue  of  his  writings,  ninety-nine  in  all,  on  philo- 
sophical, religious,  and  miscellaneous  subjects,  and  a  copious  list 
of  works  relating  to  his  life  and  philosophy. 

ROSS,  a  county  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  CROMARTY 
(q.v.)  consists  of  detached  portions  scattered  throughout 
Ross,  and  for  most  administrative  purposes  the  two  coun- 
ties are  regarded  as  one.  The  united  area  of  their  mainland 
portion  lies  between  57°  8'  and  58°  6'  N.  lat,  and  3°  47' 
and  5°  52'  W.  long.,  and  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Dornoch 
Firth  and  Sutherlandshire,  E.  by  the  Moray  Firth,  S.  by 


854 


BOSS 


Inverness-shire,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic.  It  comprehends 
2,003,065  acres,  of  which  only  about  220,280  acres  are 
included  in  Cromarty.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  67 
miles,  and  from  north  to  south  58  miles.  The  area  of  the 
islands  is  437,221  acres.  Ross  includes  the  northern  part 
of  Lewis  (see  vol.  xiv.  p.  492),  and  other  ten  islands  of 
the  Hebrides,  of  which  eight  only  were  inhabited  in  1881 
^nine  in  1871).  The  outline  of  Ross  and  Cromarty  is 
very  irregular,  and  both  east  and  west  coasts  are  much 
indented  by  bays  and  inland  lochs,  but  except  in  the 
more  inland  recesses  of  these  inlets  the  coast  scenery  is 
comparatively  tame  and  uninteresting.  The  Moray  Firth, 
an  extension  of  Loch  Beauly,  separates  the  county  from 
Nairn ;  the  northern  shore  of  the  peninsula  of  the  Black 
Isle  is  washed  by  Cromarty  Firth,  including  the  Bay  of 
Nigg  and  extending  from  Dingwall  to  the  headlands  known 
as  the  Sutors  of  Cromarty  ;  and  the  extreme  northern 
coast  is  bounded  by  the  Dornoch  Firth,  an  extension  of 
the  river  Oykel.  On  the  west  coast  the  inlets  are  for  the 
most  part  long,  narrow,  and  irregular,  the  principal  being 
Loch  Broom,  Little  Loch  Broom,  Lochs  Gruinard,  Ewe, 
Torridon,  Carron,  and  Alsh. 

Surface  and  Geology. — In  the  north-west  of  Ross  the  Archfean 
series  of  rocks,  consisting  of  gneisses,  schists,  and  other  crystalline 
rocks,  are  well  developed.     Above  them  rest  unconformably  red 
conglomerates  and  sandstones  of  Cambrian   age,  rising  into  the 
picturesque  mountains  which  form  such  a  striking  feature  of  the 
scenery  of  western  Ross.     Farther  east  they  are  overlaid  uncou- 
formably  by  the  quartzites  and  limestones  belonging  to  the  Lower 
Silurian   division.     Over  these,  by  enormous  terrestrial  displace- 
ment, the  Archaean  and  Cambrian  rocks  have  been  pushed,  some- 
times for   a  horizontal   distance  of  ten   miles.     New  crystalline 
structures  have  been  superinduced  upon  all  the  rocks  affected  by 
these  movements,  and  the  resulting  crystalline  schists  may  consist 
of  what  originally  were  Archaean,  Cambrian,  or  Silurian  rocks  of 
ordinary  types.     In  their  present  condition,  however,  these  eastern 
schists  are  certainly  later  than  the  older  part  of  the  Silurian  system. 
They  cover  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  two  counties.     Along  the 
east  coast  they  are  unconformably  covered  by  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone formation.     Rocks  of  Jurassic  (Oolitic)  age  fringe  the  eastern 
shores.     In  the   Black  Isle  peninsula  they  include  a   thin   coal 
seam.     Near  the  Sutors  of  Cromarty  they  abound  in  ammonites, 
belemnites,  and  other  shells,  and  in  the  remains  of  various  woods 
and  ferns.     Ironstone,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  bog  iron  ore,  is  found 
in  considerable  quantities.     Of  the  various  mineral  springs   the 
best  known  is  that  of  Strathpeffer,  characterized  chiefly  by  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  gas  and  various  salts.     The  surface  consists 
principally  of  lofty  mountain  groups,  intersected  by  comparatively 
narrow  valleys,  occupied  partly  by  lakes  and  rivers  ;  but  in  the  east 
there  is  a  considerable  extent  of  comparatively  level  ground.     A 
large  number  of  the  mountains  are  over  3000  feet  in  height,  the 
highest  summits  being  Cam  Eige  (3877  feet)  and  Mam  Soul  (3862) 
on  the  borders  of  Inverness,  while  An  Riabhachan,  wholly  within 
Ross,  has  a  height  of  3696  feet,  and  Sgurr  Mor  of  3657  feet.     Ben 
Wyvis,  remarkable  for  its  immense  isolated  bulk,  has  a  height  of 
3429  feet,  and  another  well-known  mountain,  Ben  Attow,  attains 
•  3383   feet.     A  mere  fraction  of  the  western   district  of  Ross  is 
under  1000  feet  in  height.     The  principal  rivers  are  the  Oykel, 
which,  rising  in  Sutherland,  forms  for  about  20  miles  the  boundary 
with  Ross,  from  which  near  its  mouth  it  receives  the  Carron  ;  the 
Conan,    falling  into   Cromarty  Firth ;  and   the   Carron,   flowing 
south-west  into   Loch  Carron.     Besides   Loch  Maree   (area   7090 
acres),  which  is  dominated  by  the  imposing  mass  of  Ben  Slioch 
(3217  feet)  on  the  north,  the  principal  freshwater  lakes  are  Lochs 
F;;nnich,  Fuir,  Luichart,  and  Glass  ;  but  in  addition  to  these  there 
are  over  a  dozen  of  considerable  size,  besides  a  large  number  of 
smaller  ones. 

Soil  and  Agriculture. — The  most  fertile  part  of  the  counties  is 
the  eastern  district,  especially  that  included  in  the  peninsulas  of 
the  Black  Isle  and  Easter  Ross,  the  soil  varying  from  a  light  sandy 
gravel  to  a  rich  deep  loam.  In  this  district  agriculture  is  quite 
as  advanced  as  in  any  other  part  of  Scotland.  In  the  valleys  and 
along  the  shores  of  the  western  coast  there  are  many  patches  ol 
good  soil,  but,  partly  on  account  of  the  excessive  rainfall,  tillage  is 
not  prosecuted  with  the  same  enterprise  as  in  the  eastern  districts. 
On  the  higher  grounds  there  is  a  large  extent  of  good  pasturage 
for  aheep.  According  to  the  agricultural  statistics  for  1885  the 
total  area  in  Ross  and  Cromarty  under  crops,  bare  fallow,  and 
grass  was  134,399  acres,  of  which  47,639  acres  were  under  grain 
crops,  26,496  under  green  crops,  40,819  rotation  grasses,  19,075 
permanent  pasture,  and  370  fallow.  The  area  under  wheat  has 


been  gradually  diminishing,  being  9715  acres  in  1857  and  only 
1185  in  1885,  while  that  under  barley  on  the  other  hand  has  in- 
creased from  6435  acres  to  13,681,  and  that  under  oats  from  l<vJ.  •; 
to  31,685.  The  area  under  potatoes  has  also  doubled,  in  the  earlier 
year  being  only  4471,  while  in  1885  it  was  8982.  The  area  under 
turnips  has  increased  from  12,228  to  16,557  and  that  under  rota- 
tion grasses  from  20,869  to  40,819.  Horses,  principally  half-breeds 
between  the  old  "garrous"  and  Clydesdales,  numbered  7365  in  1885, 
of  which  5874  were  used  solely  for  purposes  of  agriculture  ;  cattle 
numbered  42,976,  of  which  17,811  were  cows  and  heifers  in  milk  or 
in  calf,  and  17,561  under  two  years  old.  They  are  principally  the 
native  Highland  breed  or  crosses.  Sheep  in  1885  numbered  309, 590, 
of  which  213,522  were  one  year  old  and  above.  Besides  black-faced, 
crosses  with  Leicesters  and  crosses  between  Leicesters  and  Cheviots 
are  not  uncommon.  There  is  still  in  Ross  and  Cromarty  a  con- 
siderable extent  of  native  woodland,  the  trees  being  principally  firs, 
oaks,  ash,  and  alder.  The  area  under  woods  in  1881  was  43,201 
•es.  The  red  and  roe  deer  have  free  scope  on  the  extensive 
mountain  regions,  the  area  under  deer  forests  being  719,305  acres. 
Foxes,  badgers,  wild  cats,  alpine  hares,  and  other  wild  animals 
abound.  The  usual  varieties  of  winged  game  are  plentiful.  The 
golden  eagle  and  osprey  are  both  common,  as  well  as  many  other  bird* 
of  prey.  Waterfowl  of  all  kinds  abound  in  the  extensive  sea  lochs, 
and  the  rivers  and  inland  lochs  are  specially  abundant  in  trout  and 
salmon.  The  pearl  mussel  is  found  in  the  bed  of  the  river  Conan. 
According  to  the  latest  Landowners'  Return,  2043  proprietor's 
possessed  1,971,682  acres  in  the  county  of  Ross,  of  a  gross  annual 
value  of  £269,342.  The  owners  of  less  than  one  acre  numbered 
1719.  The  following  owned  more  than  100,000  acres: — Sir  James 
Matheson,  406,070;  Alex.  Matheson,  220,433;  Sir  Kenneth  S. 
Mackenzie,  164,680  ;  the  duchess  of  Sutherland,  149,879  ;  and  Sir 
C.  W.  A.  Ross,  110,445.  For  Cromarty  separately  the  Return  gives 
231  owners,  possessing  18,206  acres,  of  £11, 966  annual  value. 

Manufactures  and  Trade. — With  the  exception  of  distillation, 
there  are  no  important  manufactures  within  the  counties,  although 
home-made  woollen  cloth  is  woven  in  the  country  districts.  The 
counties  depend  chiefly  on  their  agriculture  and  their  fishing,  which 
within  recent  years  has  greatly  developed  through  improved  means 
of  communication  with  the  south.  Stornoway  and  the  west  coast 
have  regular  communication  by  steamers  with  Glasgow,  and  on  the 
east  coast  a  steamer  leaves  Cromarty  and  Iiivorgordon  for  Aberdeen 
and  Leith  once  a  week.  Fish,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  the  principal 
exports.  The  Highland  Railway  skirts  the  Firth  of  Cromarty  by 
Dingwall  and  Tain  to  Bonar  Bridge,  a  branch  passing  from  Ding- 
wall  south-westwards  to  Strome  Ferry,  whence  there  is  communi- 
cation with  Skye  by  steamer.  Salmon  fishing  is  extensively  carried 
on  in  the  bays  and  mouths  of  the  rivers,  nnd  the  deep-sea  fishings 
for  herring,  and  for  cod  and  other  large  fish,  are  among  the  most 
important  in  Scotland.  They  include  the  districts  of  Cromarty  on 
the  east  coast,  of  Stornoway  in  Lewis,  of  Loch  Broom  and  part  of 
Loch  Carron  on  the  west  coast,  the  remainder  of  the  Loch  Carron 
district  being  in  Inverness-shire.  The  Broad  Bay  of  Stornoway  is 
famed  for  its  flounders. 

Administration  and  Pojmlation. — The  two  counties  of  Ross  and 
Cromarty  form  one  sherilFdom,  and  return  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment. The  burghs  of  Cromarty,  Dingwall,  Fortrose,  and  Tain  are 
included  in  the  Wick  district  of  burghs,  which  returns  one  member. 
From  56,318  in  1801  the  population  of  Ross  and  Cromarty  had 
increased  in  1841  to  78,685,  and  in  1871  to  80,955  ;  in  1881  it 
was  78,547  (37,027  males  and  41,520  females),  of  whom  56,086 
were  Gaelic-speaking.  It  is  the  fourth  most  thinly  populated 
county  in  Scotland,  the  number  of  persons  to  the  square  mile  being 
25.  The  island  population  amounted  to  23,960,  of  whom  23,149 
were  in  Lewis.  The  town  and  village  population  amounted  to 
28,665,  and  the  rural  to  49,882.  The  police  burghs  arc  Cromarty 
(population  1352),  Dingwall,  which  is  also  a  royal  burgh  (1921), 
Fortrose  (869),  Invergordon  (1092),  Stornoway  (2627),  and  Tain 
(1742).  There  are  thirty-one  entire  parishes,  and  parts  of  two  others. 
History  and  Antiquities. — Ross  proper,  possessed  by  the  Rosses, 
originally  only  included  the  district  adjoining  the  Dornoch  and 
Moray  Firths.  The  first  who  bore  the  title  of  earl  of  Ross  was 
Malcolm  Macbeth,  upon  whom  it  was  bestowed  by  Malcolm  IV. 
After  his  rebellion  in  1179  there  was  a  period  of  chronic  insur- 
rection. By  Alexander  II.  the  earldom  was  bestowed  on  Fearchar 
Mac  an  t-Sagairt  (the  son  of  the  priest),  who  being  abbot  of  Apple- 
cross  had  already  possession  of  the  western  district.  William, 
fourth  earl,  was  present  with  his  clan  at  the  battle  of  Bannockburn. 
The  earldom  reverted  to  the  crown  in  1424,  and  James  I.  restored 
it  to  the  heiress  of  the  line,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  Lord  of  the 
Isles  (see  HEBRIDES,  vol.  xi.  607).  The  lands  of  the  earldom  were 
in  1481  conferred  on  Prince  James,  second  son  of  James  III.,  who  in 
1478  had  been  created  duke  of  Ross.  Ross  was  constituted  a  county 
in  1661,  but  the  sheriffdom  of  Cromarty  is  of  more  ancient  date. 
At  Invercarron  Montrose  was  totally  defeated  by  Colonel  Strachan, 
27th  April  1650  ;  and  at  Glenshiel,  llth  June  1718,  General  Wight- 
man  defeated  the  Jacobites.  So-called  Druidical  circles  and  cairns 
are  very  common.  Among  ancient  sculptured  stones  may  be  men- 


R  O  S  — K  0  S 


855 


tioned  the  three  according  to  tradition  marking  the  burial-places  of 
the  three  sons  of  a  Danislikmg.  The  largest,  at  Shandwick,  Clach- 
a-c/wtrridh,  or  the  "Stone  of  Lamentation,"  was  blown  down  in  a 
storm  in  1847  and  broken  into  three  pieces  ;  a  smaller  one  at  Kigg 
churchyard,  struck  down  by  the  fall  of  the  belfry  in  1725,  has  been 
re-erected  and  fenced  round  ;  and  the  third,  which  formerly  stood 
at  Cadboll  of  Hilltown  has  been  removed  for-  preservation  to  the 
grounds  of  Invergordon  Castle.  An  ancient  vitrified  fort,  420  feet 
by  120,  crowns  the  hill  of  Knockfarrel  in  Fodderty  parish.  Among 
old  castles  are  those  of  Lochslin,  in  the  parish  of  F earn,  said  to  date 
from  the  13th  century,  which,  though  very  ruinous,  still  pos- 
sesses two  square  towers  in  good  preservation  ;  Balone,  in  the 
parish  of  Tarbat,  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  earls  of  Ross  ;  and 
the  remains  of  Dingwall  Castle,  the  earls  of  Ross's  original  seat. 
Of  the  abbey  of  Fearn,  transferred  from  Edderton  in  1338,  and 
interesting  as  having  had  for  its  tenth  abbot  the  Reformer  Patrick 
Hamilton,  the  abbey  church,  much  altered,  is  still  used  as  the  parish 
church.  There  are  a  very  large  number  of  fine  modern  mansions. 

EOSS,  SIR  JAMES  CLARK  (1800-1862),  arctic  voyager, 
was  born  in  London  15th  April  1800.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  1812  under  his  uncle  Sir  John  Ross  (see  below), 
whom  lie  accompanied  in  his  first  voyage  in  search  of  a 
north-west  passage.  From  1819  to  1825,  and  again  in 
1827,  he  was  engaged  with  Captain  Parry  in  his  voyages. 
He  served  under  his  uncle  from  1829  to  1833,  discovering 
the  position  of  the  north  magnetic  pole  on  1st  June  1831 
(see  POLAR  REGIONS,  vol.  xix.  p.  320).  He  commanded 
the  expedition  in  the  "Erebus"  and  "Terror"  to  the 
Antarctic  seas  from  1839  to  1843,  and  after  his  return  he 
received  in  1844  the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  1847  he 
published  A  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  in  the  Antarctic  Regions, 
2  vols.  His  last  expedition  was  in  1848  in  the  "Enter- 
prise "  to  Baffin's  P>ay  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin. 
He  died  at  Aylesbury,*3d  April  1862. 

ROSS,  SIR  JOHN  (1777-1856),  arctic  voyager,  was  the 
fourth  son  of  the  Rev.  Andrew  Ross,  minister  of  Inch, 
Wigtonshire,  where  he  was  born  in  1777.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  1786.  In  1818  he  sailed  in  command  of  an  Arctic 
expedition  (see  POLAR  REGIONS,  vol.  xix.  p.  319),  an  account 
of  which  he  published,  under  the  title  Voyage  of  Discovery 
for  the  Purpose  of  Exploring  Baffin's  Bay,  in  1819.  In 
1829,  through  the  munificence  of  his  friend  Sir  Felix  Booth, 
he  was  able  to  undertake  a  second  expedition  (see  vol.  xix. 
p.  320).  Shortly  after  his  return  in  1833  he  was  knighted, 
made  C.B.,  and  elected  a  member  of  many  learned  societies. 
In  accordance  with  a  promise  made  to  Sir  John  Franklin, 
he  undertook  a  third  expedition  in  1850  and  remained  one 
winter  on  the  ice,  but  accomplished  nothing.  His  own 
account  of  the  causes  of  his  failure  is  given  in  a  pamphlet 
published  in  1855.  He  died  31st  August  1856. 

Ross  "also  wrote  A  Treatise  on  Navigation  l>y  Steam,  1828  ;  Me- 
moirs and  Correspondence  of  Admiral  Lord  De  Saumarez,  1838 ; 
Arctic  Expedition,  1850 ;  and  several  other  minor  works. 

ROSSANO,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Cosenza, 
most  picturesquely  situated  on  a  precipitous  spur  of  the 
great  mountain  mass  of  Sila  (geologically  the  oldest  part 
of  Italy)  overlooking  the  Gulf  of  Taranto.  The  railway 
station,  93  miles  from  Taranto,  is  about  an  hour  from 
the  town.  Rossano  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop  and  the 
centre  of  a  circondario  ;  marble  and  alabaster  quarries  are 
worked  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  and  the  inhabitants  num- 
bered 14,688  in  1881  (17,979  in  the  commune).  In  the 
cathedral  is  preserved  the  Codex  Rossanensis,  an  uncial 
MS.  of  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark  (6th  century) 
in  silver  characters  on  purple  vellum,  with  twelve  minia- 
tures, of  great  interest  in  the  history  of  Byzantine  art. 

Mentioned  in  the  Itineraries,  Rossano  (Roscianum)  appears 
under  the  Latin  empire  as  one  of  the  important  fortresses  of 
Calabria.  Totila  took  it  in  548.  The  people  showed  great  attach- 
ment to  the  Byzantine  empire,  and  the  Greek  rite  was  maintained 
in  the  cathedral  till  the  time  of  the  Angevins.  In  the  14th 
century  Rossano  was  made  a  principality  for  the  great  family  of 
De  Baux.  Passing  to  the  Sforza,  and  thus  to  Sigismund  of  Poland, 
it  was  ultimately  in  1558  united  to  the  crown  of  Naples  by  Philip 
II.  of  Spain  in  virtue  of  a  doubtful  will  by  Bona  of  Poland  in 


favour  of  Giovanni  Lorenzo  Pappacoda.  Under  Isabella  of  Aragon 
and  Bona  of  Poland  the  town  had  been  a  centre  of  literary  culture  ; 
but  under  the  Spaniards  it  rapidly  declined  even  in  the  matter  of 
population  (2256  households  in  1561,  1177  in  1669).  The  crown 
sold  the  lordship  in  1612  to  the  Aldobrandini,  and  from  them  it 
passed  to  the  Borghesi  and  the  Caraffa.  Rossauo  is  best  known 
as  the  birthplace  of  St  Kilns  the  younger,  whose  life  is  the  most 
valuable  source  of  information  extant  in  regard  to  the  state  of 
matters  in  southern  Italy  in  the  10th  century.  Pope  John  VII. 
(705-707)  was  also  a  native  of  the  town. 
See  Lenonnant,  La  Grande- Greet,  vol.  i. 

ROSSE,  WILLIAM  PARSONS,  THIRD  EARL  OF  (1800- 
1867),  the  distinguished  constructor  of  reflecting  telescopes, 
was  born  at  York  on  June  17,  1800,  a  son  of  the  second 
earl,  who  as  Sir  Lawrence  Parsons,  Bart.,  had  been  a  pro- 
minent member  of  the  Irish  Parliament.  Until  his  father's 
death  (1841)  he  was  known  as  Lord  Oxmantown.  He  was 
M.P.  for  King's  County  from  1821  to  1834,  Irish  represen- 
tative peer  from  1845,  president  of  the  Royal  Society 
from  1848  to  1854,  and  chancellor  of  the  university  of 
Dublin  from  1862.  From  1827  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
improvement  of  reflecting  telescopes;  in  1839  he  mounted 
a  telescope  of  3  feet  aperture  at  his  seat,  Birr  Castle, 
Parsonstown ;  and  in  1845  his  celebrated  6-foot  reflector 
was  finished.  Owing  to  the  famine  and  the  disturbed 
state  of  the  country,  which  demanded  his  attention  as  a 
large  landowner  and  lieutenant  of  King's  County,  the 
instrument  remained  unused  for  nearly  three  years,  but 
since  1848  it  has  been  in  constant  use,  chiefly  for  observa- 
tions of  nebulae,  for  which  it  was  particularly  suited  on 
account  of  its  immense  optical  power.  Lord  Rosse  died 
on  October  31,  1867. 

The  first  constructor  of  reflecting  telescopes  on  a  large  scale, 
William  Herschel,  never  published  anything  about  his  methods  of 
casting  and  polishing  specula,  and  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  very  successful  beyond  specula  of  18  inches  diameter,  his  4- 
foot  speculum  ("the  40-foot  telescope")  having  been  very  little 
used  by  him  (about  this  question  see  an  interesting  discussion 
between  Sir  J.  Herschel  and  Robinson  in  The  Athenaeum,  Nos. 
831-36,  1843,  which  deserves  to  be  rescued  from  oblivion).  Lord 
Rosse  had  therefore  no  help  whatever  in  working  his  way  from  a 
small  beginning  to  the  brilliaut  results  he  achieved.  His  speculum 
metal  is  composed  of  four  equivalents  of  copper  and  one  of  tin,  a 
very  brilliant  alloy,  which  resists  tarnish  better  than  any  other 
compound  tried.  Chiefly  owing  to  the  extreme  brittleness  of  this 
material,  Lord  Rosse's  first  larger  specula  were  composed  of  a 
number  of  thin  plates  of  speculum  metal  (sixteen  for  a  3-foot  mirror) 
soldered  on  the  back  of  a  strong  but  light  framework  made  of  a 
peculiar  kind  of  brass  (2 '75  of  copper  to  1  of  zinc),  which  has  the 
same  expansion  as  his  speculum  metal.  In  Brewster's  Edinburgh 
Journal  of  Science  for  1828  he  described  his  machine  for  polishing 
the  speculum,  which  in  all  essential  points  remained  unaltered 
afterwards.  It  imitates  the  motions  made  in  polishing  a  speculum 
by  hand  by  giving  both  a  rectilinear  and  a  lateral  motion  to  the 
polisher,  while  the  speculum  revolves  slowly ;  by  shifting  two 
eccentric  pins  the  course  of  the  polisher  can  be  varied  at  will  from 
a  straight  line  to  an  ellipse  of  very  small  eccentricity,  and  a  true 
parabolic  figure  can  thus  be  obtained.  The  speculum  lies  face 
upwards  in  a  shallow  bath  of  water  (to  preserve  a  uniform  tempera- 
ture), and  the  polisher  fits  loosely  in  a  ring,  so  that  the  rotation 
of  the  speculum  makes  it  revolve  also,  but  more  slowly.  Both  the 
grinding  and  polishing  tools  are  grooved,  to  obtain  a  uniform  dis- 
tribution of  the  emery  used  in  the  grinding  process  and  of  the 
rouge  employed  in  polishing,  as  also  to  provide  for  the  lateral 
expansion  of  the  pitch  with  which  the  polisher  is  coated.  In 
September  1839  a  3-foot  speculum  was  finished  and  mounted  on  an 
altazimuth  stand  similar  to  Herschel's  ;  but,  though  the  definition 
of  the  images  was  good  (except  that  the  diffraction  at  the  joints  of 
the  speculum  caused  minute  rays  in  the  case  of  a  very  bright  star), 
and  its  peculiar  skeleton  form  allowed  the  speculum  to  follow 
atmospheric  changes  of  temperature  very  quickly,  Lord  Rosse 
decided  to  cast  a  solid  3-foot  speculum.  Hitherto  it  had  been 
felt  as  a  great  difficulty  in  casting  specula  that  the  solidification 
did  not  begin  at  one  surface  and  proceed  gradually  to  the  other, 
the  common  sand  mould  allowing  the  edges  to  cool  first,  so  that 
the  central  parts  were  subject  to  great  straining  when  their  time  of 
cooling  came,  and  in  large  castings  this  generally  caused  cracking. 
By  forming  the  bottom  of  the  mould  of  hoop  iron  placed  on  edge 
and  closely  packed,  and  the  sides  of  sand,  while  the  top  was  left 
open,  Lord  Rosse  overcame  this  difficulty,  and  the  hoop  iron  had 
the  further  advantage  of  allowing  the  gas  developed  during  the 
cooling  to  escape,  thus  preventing  the  speculum  from  being  full  of 


856 


R  O  S  — R  O  S 


pores  and  cavities.  This  happy  invention  secured  the  success  of 
the  casting  of  a  solid  3-foot  speculum  in  1840,  and  encouraged 
Lord  Rosse  to  make  a  speculum  of  6  feet  diameter,  which  he  also 
succeeded  in  doing  in  1842.  In  the  beginning  of  1845  this  great 
reflector  (which  up  to  the  present  time  has  remained  without  a 
rival)  was  mounted  and  ready  for  work.  The  instrument  has  a 
focal  length  of  54  feet  and  the  tube  is  about  7  feet  in  diameter  ; 
owing  to  these  large  dimensions  it  cannot  be  pointed  to  every  part 
of  the  heavens,  but  can  only  be  moved  a  short  distance  from  the 
meridian  and  very  little  to  the  north  of  the  zenith  ;  these  restric- 
tions have,  however,  hardly  been  felt,  as  there  is  almost  at  any 
moment  a  sufficient  number  of  objects  within  its  reach.  From 
1848  to  1878  it  was  with  but  few  interruptions  employed  for 
observations  of  nebulte ;  and  many  previously  unknown  features  in 
these  objects  were  revealed  by  it,  especially  the  remarkable  spiral 
configuration  prevailing  in  many  of  the  brighter  nebula.  A  special 
study  was  made  of  the  nebula  of  Orion,  and  the  resulting  large 
drawing  gives  an  extremely  good  representation  of  this  complicated 
object  Since  1845  others  have  followed  in  Lord  Rosse's  footsteps 
and  several  3-  and  4-foot  mirrors  have  been  made,  while  the  develop- 
ment of  refracting  telescopes  has  been  so  rapid  that,  whereas  twenty- 
five  years  ago  there  were  no  object  glasses  larger  than  15  inches  in 
existence,  a  30-inch  glass  has  now  actually  been  completed.  But, 
though  the  refractors  surpass  the  large  reflectors  in  general  con- 
venience of  use  and  are  very  much  better  adapted  to  work  of  pre- 
cision (micrometer  measures),  Lord  Rosse's  great  reflector  is  still 
unapproached  in  light-grasping  power,  and  remains  a  noble 
monument  of 'its  maker,  who  (as  beautifully  expressed  on  a 
memorial  tablet  in  the  parish  church  of  Birr)  "  revealed  to  mankind 
by  the  unrivalled  creation  of  his  genius  a  wider  vision  of  the  glory 
of  God." 

Lord  Rossc  gave  a  detailed  account  of  the  experiments  which  step  by  step  had 
led  to  the  construction  of  the  3-foot  speculum  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
for  1840.  In  the  same  publication  for  1844  and  1850  he  communicated  short 
descriptions  and  drawings  of  some  of  the  more  interesting  nebulae,  and  in  the 
volume  for  18C1  he  published  a  paper  On  the  Construction  of  Specula  of  6  feet 
aperture,  and  a  Selection  from  the  Observations  of  Nebulae  made  with  them,  with 
numerous  engravings.  The  accounts  of  the  observations  given  in  these  papers 
were,  however,  of  a  very  fragmentary  character;  but  in  1879-80  a  complete 
account  of  them  was  published  by  the  present  earl  ("  Observations  of  nebulas  and 
clusters  of  stars  made  with  the  6-foot  and  3-foot  reflectors  at  Birr  Castle  from  184S 
to  1878")  in  the  Scient.  Trans.  K.  Dublin  Soc.,  vol.  ii.  The  drawing  of  the  nebula 
of  Orion  was  published  in  the  Phil.  Trans,  for  1868. 

ROSSELLI,  COSIMO  (1439-e.  1507),  a  Florentine  painter, 
was  born  in  1439.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  became  a 
pupil  of  Neri  di  Bicci,  and  in  1460  he  worked  as  assistant 
to  his  cousin  Bernardo  di  Stefano  Rosselli.  The  first  work 
of  Cosimo  mentioned  by  Vasari  still  exists  in  S.  Ambrogio, 
in  Florence,  over  the  third  altar  on  the  left.  It  is  an 
Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  a  youthful  and  feeble  work  of 
but  little  merit.  In  the  same  church,  on  the  wall  of  one 
of  the  chapels,  is  a  fresco  by  Cosimo  which  Vasari  praises 
highly,  especially  for  a  portrait  of  the  young  scholar  Pico 
of  Mirandola.  The  scene,  a  procession  bearing  a  miracle- 
working  chalice,  is  painted  with  much  vigour  and  les 
mannerism  than  most  of  this  artist's  work.  A  picture 
painted  by  Rosselli  for  the  church  of  the  Annunziata, 
with  figures  of  SS.  Barbara,  Matthew,  and  the  Baptist, 
is  now  in  the  Academy  of  Florence.  Rosselli  also  spent 
some  time  in  Lucca,  where  he  painted  several  altar- 
pieces  for  various  churches,  none  of  any  great  importance. 
A  picture  attributed  to  him,  taken  from  the  church  of 
S.  Girolamo  at  Fiesole,  is  now  in  the  National  Gallery 
of  London.  It  is  a  large  retable,  with,  in  the  centre,  St 
Jerome  in  the  wilderness  kneeling  before  a  crucifix,  and  at 
the  sides  standing  figures  of  St  Damasus  and  St  Eusebius, 
St  Paolo  and  St  Eustachia;  below  is  a  predella  with 
small  subjects.  Though  dry  and  hard  in  treatment,  the 
figures  are  designed  with  much  dignity.  The  Berlin 
Gallery  possesses  three  pictures  by  Rosselli,  the  Virgin  in 
Glory,  the  Entombment  of  Christ,  and  the  Massacre  of  the 
Innocents.  In  1480  Rosselli,  together  with  the  chiei 
painters  of  Florence,  was  invited  by  Sixtus  IV.  to  Rome 
to  assist  in  the  painting  of  the  frescos  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel.  Three  of  these  were  executed  by  him — the 
Destruction  of  Pharaoh's  Army  in  the  Red  Sea,  Christ 
Preaching  by  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  and  the  Last  Supper 
The  last  of  these  is  still  well  preserved,  but  is  a  very 
mediocre  work.  Vasari's  story  about  the  pope  admiring 
his  paintings  more  than  those  of  his  abler  brother  painters 


las  probably  but  little  foundation.  Rosselli's  Sistiue 
rescos  were  partly  painted  by  his  assistant  Piero  di 
Cosimo,  who  was  so  called  after  Cosimo  Rosselli.  His 
chief  pupil  was  Fra  Bartolommeo.  According  to  Vasari, 
Rosselli  died  in  1484,  but  this  is  evidently  a  mistake,  as 
lis  will  still  exists  dated  November  25,  1506  (see  Gayc, 
Car.  ined.,  ii.  457,  note). 

For  an  account  of  Rosselli's  Sistine  frescos,  see  Plainer  and  Bunsoii, 
Bcschreibung  der  Stadt  Rom,  ii.  pt.  i.  ;  and  Rumohr,  Italicn. 
Forscliiingcn,  ii.  265. 

ROSSELLINO,  ANTONIO  (1427-c.  1479),  one  of  the 
most  skilful  of  Florentine  sculptors,  was  the  son  of  Matteo 
di  Domenico  Gamberelli,  and  had  four  brothers,  who  all 
practised  some  branch  of  the  fine  arts.  Almost  nothing  is 
known  about  the  life  of  Antonio,  but  many  of  his  works 


Marble  Relief  by  Antonio  Rossellino. 

still  exist,  and  are  of  the  highest  beauty,  full  of  strong 
religious  sentiment,  and  executed  with  the  utmost  delicacy1 
of  touch  and  technical  skill.  The  style  of  Antonio 
and  his  brother  (see  below)  is  a  development  of  that  of 
Donatello  and  Ghiberti ;  it  possesses  all  the  refinement  and 
soft  sweetness  of  the  earlier  masters,  but  is  not  equal  to 
them  either  in  vigour  or  originality.  Antonio's  chief  work, 
still  in  perfect  preservation,  is  the  very  lovely  tomb  of  a 
young  cardinal  prince  of  Portugal,  who  died  in  1459, 
aged  only  twenty-six.  It  occupies  one  side  of  a  small 
chapel  on  the  north  of  the  nave  of  San  Miniato.1  The 
recumbent  effigy  of  the  cardinal  is  very  remarkable  for  the 
grace  of  its  pose  and  the  beauty  of  the  portrait  face.  It 
rests  on  a  handsome  sarcophagus,  and  over  it,  under  the 
arch  which  frames  the  whole,  is  a  beautiful  relief  of  the 
Madonna  between  two  flying  angels.  The  tomb  was 
begun  in  1461  and  finished  in  1466;  Antonio  received 
four  hundred  and  twenty-five  gold  florins  for  it.  A  repro- 
duction of  this  tomb  with  slight  alterations,  and  of  course 
a  different  effigy,  was  made  by  Antonio  for  the  wife  of 
Antonio  Piccolomini,  duke  of  Amalfi,  in  the  church  of  S. 
Maria  del  Monte  at  Naples,  where  it  still  exists.  For  the 
same  church  he  also  executed  some  delicate  reliefs,  which 
perhaps  err  in  being  too  pictorial  in  style,  especially  in  the 
treatment  of  the  backgrounds.  A  fine  medallion  relief 
by  him  is  preserved  in  the  Bargello  at  Florence  (see  fig.), 
and  the  original  terra  cotta  model  for  this  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  Mr  Drury  Fortnum ;  in  some  small  matters  of 
1  Illustrated  by  Gonnelli,  Mon.  Sepol.  della  Toscana,  Florence, 
1819,  plate  xxiii. 


R  O  S  —  R  O  S 


857 


detail  the  original  terra  cotta  is  superior  to  the  finished 
marble,  especially  in  the  treatment  of  the  infant  Christ. 

EOSSELLINO,  BERNARDO  (1 409-1464),  was  no  less 
able  as  a  sculptor  than  his  younger  brother  (see  above),  and 
was  also  a  very  distinguished  architect.  His  finest  piece 
of  sculpture  is  the  tomb,  in  the  Florentine  Santa  Croce,  of 
Leonardo  Bruni  of  Arezzo,  the  historian  of  Florence ;  the 
recumbent  effigy  is  a  work  of  great  merit.  The  inner 
cathedral  pulpit  at  Prato,  circular  in  form  on  a  tall  slender 
stem,  was  partly  the  work  of  Mino  da  Fiesole  and  partly 
by  Bernardo  Eossellino.  The  latter  executed  the  very 
minute  reliefs  of  St  Stephen  and  the  Assumption  of  the 
Virgin.  For  his  part  in  the  work  he  received  sixty-six  gold 
florins.  The  South  Kensington  Museum  possesses  a  relief 
by  Bernardo,  signed  and  dated  (1456).  It  is  a  fine  por- 
trait of  the  physician  Giovanni  da  S.  Miniato.1  Bernardo's 
works  as  an  architect  were  very  numerous  and  important, 
and  he  was  also  very  skilful  as  a  military  engineer.  He 
restored  the  church  of  S.  Francis  at  Assisi,  and  designed 
several  fine  buildings  at  Civita  Vecchia,  Orvieto,  and 
elsewhere.  He  also  built  fortresses  and  city  walls  at 
Spoleto,  Orvieto,  and  Civita  Castellana.  He  was  largely 
employed  by  Nicholas  V.  and  Pius  II.  for  restorations  in 
nearly  all  the  great  basilicas  of  Rome,  but  at  present  little 
trace  of  his  work  remains,  owing  to  the  sweeping  altera- 
tions which  were  made  during  the  tasteless  17th  and  18th 
centuries.  Between  the  years  1461  and  1464  (the  date  of 
his  death)  he  occupied  the  important  post  of  capo-maestro 
to  the  Florentine  duomo.  A  number  of  buildings  at 
Pienza,  executed  for  Pius  II.,  are  attributed  to  him  •  the 
Vatican  registers  mention  the  architect  of  these  as  M° 
Bernardo  di  Fiorenza,  but  this  indication  is  too  slight  to 
make  it  certain  that  the  elder  Rossellino  is  referred  to 
(see  Vasari,  ed.  Milanesi,  iii.  93  sq.). 

ROSSETTI,  DANTE  GABRIEL  (1828-1882),  poet  and 
painter,  whose  full  baptismal  name  was  Gabriel  Charles 
Dante,  was  born  May  12,  1828,  at  38  Charlotte  Street, 
Portland  Place,  London.  He  was  the  first  of  the  two  sons 
and  the  second  of  the  four  children  of  Gabriele  Rossetti, 
the  Italian  poet  and  patriot,  whose  career  was  at  one  period 
as  turbulent  as  that  of  his  illustrious  son  was  (as  far  as 
mere  outward  incidents  went)  uneventful. 

About  1824  Gabriele  Rossetti,  the  father,  after  many 
vicissitudes,  reached  England,  where  he  married  in  1826 
Frances  Polidori,  sister  of  Byron's  Dr  Polidori  and  daughter 
of  a  Tuscan  who  had  in  early  youth  been  Alfieri's  secretary 
and  who  had  married  an  English  lady.  From  his  mother 
the  subject  of  this  notice  inherited  as  many  English 
traits  as  Italian,  or  indeed  more.  In  1831  Gabriele 
became  professor  of  Italian  in  King's  College,  London, 
and  afterwards  achieved  a  recognized  position  as  a  subtle 
and  original,  if  eccentric,  commentator  on  Dante. 

Dante  Rossetti's  education  was  begun  at  a  private 
school  in  Foley  Street,  Portland  Place,  where  he  remained, 
however,  only  nine  months,  from  the  autumn  of  1835  to 
the  summer  of  1836.  He  next  went  (in  the  autumn  of 
1836)  to  King's  College  School,  where  he  remained  till 
the  summer  of  1843,  having  reached  the  fourth  class. 
From  early  childhood  he  had  displayed  a  marked  pro- 
pensity for  drawing  and  painting.  It  had  therefore  from 
the  first  been  tacitly  assumed  that  his  future  career 
would  be  an  artistic  one,  and  he  left  school  early.  In 
Latin,  however,  he  was  already  fairly  proficient  for  his 
age ;  French  he  knew  well ;  Italian  he  had  spoken  from 
childhood,  and  he  had  some  German  lessons  about 
1844-45.  But,  although  he  learned  enough  German  to 
be  able  to  translate  the  Anne  Heinrich  of  Hartmann  von 


1  See  Perkins,  Italian  Sculptors,  1864,  i.  p.  207  ;  also  Id.,  Tuscan 
Sculptors,  p.  202,  soul  Historical  Handbook  of  Italian  Sculpture,  1883, 
p.  121. 


Aue,  and  some  portions  of  the  Nibelungenlied,  he  after- 
wards forgot  the  language  almost  entirely.  His  Greek 
too,  such  as  it  had  been,  he  lost.  On  leaving  school  he 
went  to  Cary's  Art  Academy  (previously  called  Sass's), 
near  Bedford  Square,  and  thence  obtained  admission  to 
the  Royal  Academy  Antique  School  towards  1846.  He 
did  not  attend  the  Royal  Academy  Life  School,  and 
no  doubt  his  defective  knowledge  of  anatomy  was  some 
obstacle  to  him  in  after  life.  The  truth  is,  however,  that 
Rossetti's  occasionally  defective  drawing  (which,  as  regards 
the  throat,  is  most  striking)  did  not  arise  mainly  from 
ignorance;  it  was  the  result  of  a  peculiar  mannerism. 
Admiring  long  and  slender  necks,  and  drawing  them 
admirably  in  such  masterpieces  as  Beata  Beatrix  and 
Monna  Vanna,  he  refused  to  see  that  in  art  as  in  ethics 
the  point  of  virtue  lies  midway  between  two  opposite 
vices.  Admiring  large  hands  and  massive  arms  in  a 
woman,  and  drawing  them  admirably  in  such  designs  as 
Proserpine,  Reverie,  &c.,  he  refused  to  see  that  hands  can 
be  too  large,  arms  too  massive.  As  a  colourist,  however, 
Rossetti  may  be  said  to  have  required  no  teaching. 
Mastery  over  colour  seemed  to  have  come  to  him  by  instinct. 

Of  the  artistic  education  of  foreign  travel  Rossetti  had 
very  little.  But  in  early  life  he  made  a  short  tour  in 
Belgium,  where  he  was  indubitably  much  impressed  and 
influenced  by  the  works  of  Van  Eyck  at  Ghent  and 
Memling  at  Bruges.  In  the  spring  of  1848  he  took  an 
active  part  in  forming  the  so-called  pre-Raphaelite  brother- 
hood, the  members  of  which  believed  that  the  time  had 
come  for  the  artist  to  confront  again  Nature  herself — 
imitating  no  longer  man's  imitations  of  her — even  though 
the  imitations  be  those  splendid  works  of  the  great 
Raphaelite  or  post-Raphaelite  masters  which  had  hitherto 
been  the  inspiration  of  modern  art.  The  revolution  was 
to  be  one  of  motives  no  less  than  of  methods.  Of  motive 
Rossetti  was  from  the  first  a  master.  His  struggle  with 
methods  we  have  already  indicated. 

To  "paint  nature  as  it  is  around  them,  with  the  help  of 
modern  science,"  was  the  object  of  the  pre-Raphaelites 
according  to  Mr  Ruskin,  but  to  do  so  artists  require 
something  more  than  that  "  earnestness  of  the  men  of  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries"  which  Mr  Ruskin  speaks  of: 
they  require  knowledge.  Without  knowledge,  as  we  see 
in  even  such  a  marvellous  design  as  Christ  at  the  Door  of 
Simon  the  Pharisee  (1859),  the  artistic  camel  has  to  be 
drawn  from  the  artist's  inner  consciousness,  and  the  result 
is  rarely  a  satisfactory  quadruped.  Intensity  of  seeing  does 
not  necessarily  imply  truth  of  seeing ;  otherwise  what  phe- 
nomenon can  be  more  real  than  Blake's  Ghost  of  a  Flea  1 

But  Rossetti's  genius  absorbed  from  pre-Raphaelitism  all 
that  it  had  to  give,  and  then  passed  on  its  way  towards  its 
own  special  goal.  Often  and  indeed  mostly  an  artist's 
true  and  best  education  is  unlearning  rather  than  learning. 
It  was  so  in  Rossetti's  case,  though  he  had  the  most  vivid 
personality  and  the  rarest  imagination  of  any  man  of  his 
time.  Plastic  as  molten  wax,  the  mind  from  the  dawn  of 
consciousness  begins  learning,  for  good  or  ill.  Youth, 
therefore,  how  rich  soever  in  individual  force,  can  no  more 
help  being  imitative  than  a  river,  even  though  it  be  the 
Amazon  itself,  can  help  reflecting  the  scenery  through 
which  it  flows.  The  goal  before  the  young  Rossetti's  eyes 
(as  we  see  in  such  designs  as  Taurello's  First  Sight  of 
Fortune,  1848,  and  Cassandra)  was  to  reach  through  art 
the  forgotten  world  of  old  romance — that  world  of  wonder 
and  mystery  and  spiritual  beauty  which  the  old  masters 
knew  and  could  have  painted  had  not  lack  of  science, 
combined  with  slavery  to  monkish  traditions  of  asceticism, 
crippled  their  strength.  And  he  reached  it — he  reached 
early  that  world  which  not  all  the  pseudo-classicism  that 
arose  in  the  15th  century,  ripened  in  the  16th,  and  rotted 

XX.  —  1 08 


858 


ROSSETTI 


in  the  18th  could  banish  from  the  dreams  of  man,  as 
we  see  in  even  such  juvenile  work  as  the  pen  and  ink 
drawings  of  Gretchen  in  the  Chapel,  and  Genevieve. 
In  that  great  rebellion  against  the  renascence  of  classicism 
which  (after  working  much  good  and  much  harm)  resulted 
in  18th-century  materialism, — in  that  great  movement  of 
man's  soul  which  may  be  appropriately  named  "  the 
Kenascence  of  the  Spirit  of  Wonder  in  Poetry  and  Art " 
— he  became  the  acknowledged  protagonist  before  ever 
the  pre-Eaphaelite  brotherhood  was  founded  and  down  to 
his  last  breath  at  Birchington. 

And  it  was  by  inevitable  instinct  that  Rossetti  turned 
to  that  mysterious  side  of  nature  and  man's  life  which  to 
other  painters  of  his  time  had  been  a  mere  fancy-land,  to 
be  visited,  if  at  all,  on  the  wings  of  sport.  It  is  not  only 
in  such  masterpieces  of  his  maturity  as  Dante's  Dream,  La 
Pia,  &c.,  but  in  such  early  designs  as  How  they  Met 
Themselves,  La  Belle  Dame  Sans  Merci,  Cassandra,  &c., 
that  Rossetti  shows  how  important  a  figure  he  is  in  the 
history  of  modern  art,  if  modern  art  claims  to  be  anything 
more  than  a  mechanical  imitation  of  the  facts  of  nature. 

For  if  there  is  any  permanent  vitality  in  the  Renascence 
of  Wonder  in  modern  Europe — if  it  is  not  a  mere  passing 
mood — if  it  is  really  the  inevitable  expression  of  the  soul 
of  man  in  a  certain  stage  of  civilization  (when  the  sanc- 
tions which  have  made  and  moulded  society  are  found 
to  be  not  absolute  and  eternal,  but  relative,  mundane, 
ephemeral,  and  subject  to  the  higher  sanctions  of  unseen 
powers  that  work  behind  "  the  shows  of  things "),  then 
perhaps  one  of  the  first  questions  to  ask  in  regard  to  any 
imaginative  painter  of  the  19th  century  is,  In  what 
relation  does  he  stand  to  the  newly  awakened  spirit  of 
romance  ?  Had  he  a  genuine  and  independent  sympathy 
with  that  temper  of  wonder  and  mystery  which  all  over 
Europe  had  preceded  and  now  followed  the  temper  of  imi- 
tation, prosaic  acceptance,  pseudo-classicism,  and  domestic 
materialism  1  or  was  his  apparent  sympathy  with  the  temper 
of  wonder,  reverence,  and  awe  the  result  of  artistic  en- 
vironment dictated  to  him  by  other  and  more  powerful 
and  original  souls  around  him  1 

We  do  not  say  that  the  mere  fact  of  a  painter's  or  a 
poet's  showing  but  an  imperfect  sympathy  with  the 
Renascence  of  Wonder  is  sufficient  to  place  him  below  a 
poet  in  whom  that  sympathy  is  more  nearly  complete, 
because  we  should  then  be  driven  to  place  some  of  the 
disciples  of  Rossetti  above  our  great  realistic  painters,  and 
we  should  be  driven  to  place  a  poet  like  the  author  of 
The  Excursion  and  The  Prelude  beneath  a  poet  like  the 
author  of  The  Queen's  Wake-  but  we  do  say  that,  other 
things  being  equal  or  anything  like  equal,  a  painter  or 
poet  of  our  time  is  to  be  judged  very  much  by  his  sym- 
pathy with  that  great  movement  which  we  call  the  Renas- 
cence of  Wonder — call  it  so  because  the  word  romanticism 
never  did  express  it  even  before  it  had  been  vulgarized  by 
French  poets,  dramatists,  doctrinaires,  and  literary  harle- 
quins. To  struggle  against  the  prim  traditions  of  the  18th 
century,  the  unities  of  Aristotle,  the  delineation  of  types 
instead  of  characters,  as  Chateaubriand,  Madame  de  Stael, 
Balzac,  and  Hugo  struggled,  was  well.  But  in  studying 
Rossetti's  works  we  reach  the  very  key  of  those  "high 
palaces  of  romance  "  which  the  English  mind  had  never, 
even  in  the  18th  century,  wholly  forgotten,  but  whose 
mystic  gates  no  Frenchman  ever  yet  unlocked.  Not 
all  the  romantic  feeling  to  be  found  in  all  the  French 
romanticists  (with  their  theory  that  not  earnestness  but 
the  grotesque  is  the  life-blood  of  romance)  could  equal 
the  romantic  spirit  expressed  in  a  single  picture  or  drawing 
of  Rossetti's,  such,  for  instance,  as  Beata  Beatrix  or 
Pandora.  For,  while  the  French  romanticists — inspired  by 
the  theories  (drawn  from  English  exemplars)  of  Novalis, 


Tieck,  and  Herder — cleverly  simulated  the  old  romantic 
feeling,  the  "beautifully  devotional  feeling"  which  Holinan 
Hunt  speaks  of,  Rossetti  was  steeped  in  it  :  he  was  so  full 
of  the  old  frank  childlike  wonder  and  awe  which  pre- 
ceded the  great  renascence  of  materialism  that  he  might 
have  lived  and  worked  amidst  the  old  masters.  Hence, 
in  point  of  design,  so  original  is  he  that  to  match  such 
ideas  as  are  expressed  in  Lilith,  Hesterna  Rosa,  Michael 
Scott's  Wooing,  the  Sea  Spell,  <fec.,  we  have  to  turn  to 
the  sister  art  of  t  poetry,  where  only  we  can  find  an 
equally  powerful  artistic  representation  of  the  idea  at 
the  core  of  the  old  romanticism — the  idea  of  the  evil 
forces  of  nature  assailing  man  through  his  sense  of 
beauty.  We  must  turn,  we  say,  not  to  art — not  even 
to  the  old  masters  themselves — but  to  the  most  perfect 
efflorescence  of  the  poetry  of  wonder  and  mystery — to  such 
ballads  as  the  "  Demon  Lover,"  to  Coleridge's  "  Christa- 
bel"  and  "Kubla  Khan,"  to  Keats's  "La  Belle  Dame 
sans  Merci,"  for  parallels  to  Rossetti's  most  characteristic 
designs.  Now,  although  the  idea  at  the  heart  of  the 
highest  romantic  poetry  (allied  perhaps  to  that  apprehen- 
sion of  the  warring  of  man's  soul  with  the  appetites  of  the 
flesh  which  is  the  basis  of  the  Christian  idea)  may  not 
belong  exclusively  to  what  we  call  the  romantic  temper 
(the  Greeks,  and  also  most  Asiatic  peoples,  were  more  or 
less  familiar  with  it,  as  we  see  in  the  Scddmdn  and  Absal  of 
Jami),  yet  it  became  peculiarly  a  romantic  note,  as  is  seen 
from  the  fact  that  in  the  old  masters  it  resulted  in  that 
asceticism  which  is  its  logical  expression  and  which  was 
once  an  inseparable  incident  of  all  romantic  art.  But,  in 
order  to  express  this  stupendous  idea  as  fully  as  the  poets 
have  expressed  it,  how  is  it  possible  to  adopt  the  asceticism 
of  the  old  masters  ?  This  is  the  question  that  Rossetti 
asked  himself,  and  answered  by  his  own  progress  in  art. 
Not  that  it  is  possible  here  to  give  a  chronological  catalogue 
of  Rossetti's  pictures.  Moreover  this  has  been  already  done 
in  great  measure  by  Mr  William  Sharp,  Mr  W.  M.  Rossetti, 
and  others.  We  shall  only  dwell  upon  a  few  of  those 
which  most  strongly  indicate  the  course  his  genius  took. 

In  all  of  them,  however,  the  poorest  and  the  best,  is 
displayed  that  power  which  Blake  calls  vision — the  power 
which,  as  he  finely  says,  is  "  surrounded  by  the  daughters 
of  inspiration,"  the  power,  that  is,  of  seeing  imaginary 
objects  and  dramatic  actions — physically  seeing  them  as 
well  as  mentally — and  flashing  them  upon  the  imagina- 
tions (even  upon  the  corporeal  senses)  of  others. 

It  was  as  early  as  1849  that  Rossetti  exhibited  in  the 
so-called  Free  Exhibition  the  Girlhood  of  the  Virgin,  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  characteristic  of  all  his  works. 
He  scarcely  ever  exhibited  again  in  London,  though  just 
before  his  death  his  largest  and  most  ambitious  picture, 
Dante's  Dream,  was  exhibited  at  Liverpool. 

Then  came,  in  1850,  The  Germ,  that  short-lived  maga- 
zine of  four  numbers  upon  which  so  much  has  of  late  been 
written.  If  The  Germ  was  really  "  an  official  manifesto-  or 
apologia  of  pre-Raphaelitism,"  all  that  it  had  to  preach 
was  the  noble  doctrine  of  the  sacredness,  the  saving  grace, 
of  conscience  in  art.  In  it  appeared  Rossetti's  poem  the 
"Blessed  Damozel,"  the  prose  poem  "Hand  and  Soul" 
(written  as  early  as  1848),  six  sonnets,  and  four  lyrics,  but 
none  of  his  designs,  though  two  illustrations  had  been 
prepared  and  discarded  on  account  of  their  unsatisfactory 
condition  when  reproduced.  Like  the  other  contributors 
to  The  Germ  Rossetti  had  a  belief  that  can  only  be  called 
passionate  in  the  value  of  subject  in  art.  For  some  years 
his  fecundity  as  a  designer  was  called  into  astonishing 
activity,  but  not  always  in  the  field  of  wonder  and  poetic 
mystery.  The  artist  who  had  had  the  strongest  influence 
upon  Rossetti's  early  tastes  was  Madox  Brown,  whose 
genius,  dramatic  and  historic,  has  at  length  obtained 


ROSSETTI 


859 


universal  recognition  through  the  magnificent  frescos  at 
Manchester.  Though  not  one  of  the  pre-Eaphaelite 
brotherhood,  he  had  been  a  contributor  to  The  Germ. 
Eossetti  was  deeply  impressed  with  the  power  and  fecun- 
dity of  design  displayed  by  Mr  Brown's  cartoons  exhibited 
in  Westminster  Hall,  and  when  he  himself  began  serious 
work  as  a  painter  he  thought  of  Brown  as  the  one  man 
from  whom  he  would  willingly  receive  practical  guidance, 
and  wrote  to  him  at  random.  He  became  Brown's  pupil ; 
but  only  once  or  twice,  as  in  Found  and  Dr  Johnson 
at  the  Mitre,  did  Rossetti  try  his  hand  at  such  realistic 
subjects  as  Brown  loved,  and  then  with  a  success 
that  is  very  surprising  if  we  consider  how  entirely  his 
artistic  energy  had  worked  in  very  different  lines.  Found, 
begun  in  1853,  still  remains  unfinished.  A  countryman 
entering  London  in  the  early  morning  is  accidentally 
or  fatally  encountered  at  the  foot  of  the  bridge  by  his 
rustic  sweetheart,  who,  having  gone  to  London,  has  been, 
in  the  most  pathetic  and  terrible  sense  of  the  word, 
"  lost."  At  sight  of  her  lover  the  girl  falls  fainting  at  his 
feet.  The  expression  of  shame  and  horror  on  her  still 
beautiful  face  as  she  cowers  against  the  wall,  and  the 
expression  of  pity  and  grief  on  the  man's  as  he  clasps  her 
hands  and  tries  to  raise  her  are  unsurpassed  and  perhaps 
for  sheer  power  unequalled  in  modern  dramatic  art. 

Many  circumstances — for  instance,  the  beginning  of  such 
grand  designs  as  Magdalene  at  the  Door  of  Simon  the 
Pharisee,  "  Aspectfl  Medusa,"  the  Boat  of  Love,  &c., — inter- 
fered with  the  completion  of  Found.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Boat  of  Love,  Dante's  Dream  (1870)  was  perhaps 
Eossetti's  most  ambitious  design  in  purely  imaginative  art. 
From  the  painting  of  this  picture  to  his  death  Eossetti 
never  satisfactorily  completed  a  large  and  elaborate  design 
— not  because  his  faculty  of  invention  was  ever  exhausted ; 
in  the  very  year  of  his  death  his  brain  was  teeming  with 
ideas  as  restlessly  as  when  he  designed  Found  and  the 
Boat  of  Love.  But  the  truth  is  that  he  wanted  to  write 
more  poetry ;  and  those  wonderful  half-lengths  of  women 
for  which,  late  in  life,  he  became  so  famous  were  not  only 
beautiful  and  satisfying  but  comparatively  easy  of  achieve- 
ment; moreover  purchasers  were  keen  to  commission 
them.  Among  those  half-lengths,  however,  will  be  found 
some  of  his  greatest  works.  Chief  among  them  (if  it  is 
not  Proserpine)  is  the  marvellous  crayon  design  Pandora 
in  the  possession  of  the  present  writer.  In  it  is  seen  at 
its  highest  Eossetti's  unique  faculty  of  treating  classical 
legend  in  the  true  romantic  spirit.  The  grand  and  sombre 
beauty  of  Pandora's  face,  the  mysterious  haunting  sadness 
in  her  deep  blue-grey  eyes  as  she  tries  in  vain  to  reclose 
the  fatal  box  from  which  are  still  escaping  the  smoke  and 
flames  that  shape  themselves  as  they  curl  over  her  head 
into  shadowy  spirit  faces,  grey  with  agony,  between 
tortured  wings  of  sullen  fire,  are  in  the  highest  romantic 
mood.  And  if  the  Proserpine  does  not  equal  this  design 
in  elaborate  allegorical  richness  it  has  perhaps  the  still 
higher  merit  of  suggesting  lofty  tragedy  by  the  simplest 
means.  By  sheer  force  of  facial  expression,  a  woman 
clasping  a  pomegranate  renders  a  tragic  situation  as  fully 
as  though  the  canvas  had  been  crowded  with  figures. 

But  we  must  turn  to  his  poetry.  "  The  Blessed 
Damozel  "  was  written  so  early  as  1848.  "  Sister  Helen  " 
was  produced  in  its  original  form  in  1850  or  1851.  The 
translations  from  the  early  Italian  poets  also  began  as  far 
back  as  1845  or  184G,  and  may  have  been  mainly  com- 
pleted by  1849,  Materials  for  the  volume  of  original 
poetry  (1870)  accumulated  slowly,  and  these  having  been 
somewhat  widely  read  in  manuscript  had  a  very  great 
influence  upon  our  poetic  literature  long  before  their 
appearance  in  print ;  but  this  is  not  the  place  for  criticiz- 
ing them  in  detail.  All  that  we  can  here  say  is  that  in 


poetry  no  less  than  in  art  what  makes  Eossetti  so  import- 
ant a  figure  is  the  position  he  took  up  with  regard  to  the 
Eenascence  of  Wonder — to  that  modern  revival  of  what  is 
called  the  "romantic"  spirit,  that  spirit  without  which 
English  poetry,  as  the  present  writer  has  on  a  former 
occasion  said  when  discussing  the  romantic  movement,  can 
scarcely  hold  an  original  place  at  all  when  challenged  in 
a  court  of  universal  criticism.  The  Eenascence  of  Wonder 
culminates  in  Eossetti's  poetry  as  it  culminates  in  his  paint- 
ing. The  poet  who  should  go  beyond  Eossetti  would  pass 
out  of  the  realm  of  poetry  into  pure  mysticism,  as  certain 
of  his  sonnets  show.  Fine  as  are  these  sonnets,  it  is  in 
his  romantic  ballads  that  Eossetti  (notwithstanding  a 
certain  ruggedness  of  movement)  shows  his  greatest 
strength.  In  this  opinion  (which  is  not  the  general  one) 
we  agree  with  Dr  Hueffer.  "  Sister  Helen,"  "  The  Blessed 
Damozel,"  "Staff  and  Scrip,"  "Eden  Bower,"  "Troy 
Town,"  "  Eose  Mary,"  as  representing  the  modern  revival 
of  the  true  romantic  spirit,  take  a  place  quite  apart  from 
the  other  poetry  of  our  time. 

By  the  modern  revival  of  the  romantic  spirit  in 
English  poetry  we  mean  something  much  more  than  the 
revival,  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  of  natural  language, 
the  change  discussed  by  Wordsworth  in  his  famous  Pre- 
face, and  by  Coleridge  in  his  comments  thereon — that 
change  of  diction  and  of  poetic  methods  which  is  com- 
monly supposed  to  have  arisen  with  Cowper,  or,  if  not 
with  Cowper,  with  Burns.  The  truth  is  that  Wordsworth 
and  Coleridge  were  too  near  the  great  changes  in  question, 
and  they  themselves  took  too  active  a  part  in  those 
changes,  to  hold  the  historical  view  of  what  the  changes 
really  were.  Important  as  was  the  change  in  poetic 
methods  which  they  so  admirably  practised  and  discussed, 
important  as  was  the  revival  of  natural  language,  which 
then  set  in,  it  was  not  nearly  so  important  as  that  other 
revival  which  had  begun  earlier  and  of  which  it  was  the 
outcome — the  revival  of  the  romantic  spirit,  the  Eenas- 
cence of  Wonder,  even  beneath  the  weight  of  18th- 
century  diction,  the  first  movement  of  which  no  one 
has  yet  been  able  clearly  and  decisively  to  point  out, 
but  which  is  certainly  English,  and  neither  German  nor 
French  in  its  origin,  and  can  be  traced  through  Chatterton, 
Macpherson,  and  the  Percy  Ballads.  • 

As  a  mere  question  of  methods,  a  reaction  against  the 
poetic  diction  of  Pope  and  his  followers  was  inevitable. 
But,  in  discussing  the  romantic  temper  in  relation  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  bastard  classicism  and  didactic 
materialism  of  the  18th  century,  we  must,  as  we  have 
just  seen  in  discussing  Eossetti's  pictures,  go  deeper  than 
mere  artistic  methods  in  poetry.  When  closely  examined 
it  is  in  method  only  that  the  poetry  of  Cowper  is 
different  from  the  ratiociuative  and  unromantic  poetry 
of  Dryden  and  Pope  and  their  followers.  Pope  treated 
prose  subjects  in  the  ratiocinative — that  is  to  say, 
the  prose — temper,  but  in  a  highly  artificial  diction 
which  people  agreed  to  call  poetic.  Cowper  treated  prose 
subjects  too — treated  them  in  the  same  prose  temper,  but 
used  natural  language,  a  noble  thing  to  do,  no  doubt — 
but  this  was  orrly  a  part  (and  by  no  means  the  chief  part) 
of  the  great  work  achieved  by  English  poetry  at  the  close 
of  last  century.  That  period,  to  be  sure,  freed  us  from 
the  poetic  diction  of  Pope ;  but  it  gave  us  something  more 
precious  still — it  gave  us  entire  freedom,  from  the  hard 
rhetorical  materialism  imported  from  France ;  it  gave  a 
new  seeing  to  our  eyes,  which  were  opened  once  more  to 
the  mystery  and  the  wonder  of  the  universe  and  the 
romance  of  man's  destiny ;  it  revived  in  short  the  romantic 
spirit,  but  the  romantic  spirit  enriched  by  all  the  clarity 
and  sanity  that  the  renascence  of  classicism  was  able  to 
lend. 


860 


R  0  S  — R  0  S 


The  greatest  movement  that  has  occurred  in  later  times 
was  that  which  substituted  for  the  didactic  materialism 
of  the  18th  century  the  new  romanticism  of  the  19th, 
the  leaders  of  which  movement,  Coleridge  and  Scott, 
were  admirably  followed  by  Byron,  Shelley,  and  Keats. 
Not  that  Wordsworth  was  a  stranger  to  the  romantic 
temper.  The  magnificent  image  of  Time  and  Death 
under  the  yew  tree  is  worthy  of  any  romantic  poet  that 
ever  lived,  yet  it  cannot  be  said  that  he  escaped  save 
at  moments  from  the  comfortable  18th-century  didactics, 
or  that  he  was  a  spiritual  writer  in  the  sense  that 
Coleridge,  Blake,  and  Shelley  were  spiritual  writers. 

Of  the  true  romantic  feeling,  the  ever  present  apprehen- 
sion of  the  spiritual  world  and  of  that  struggle  of  the  soul 
with  earthly  conditions  which  we  have  before  spoken  of, 
Rossetti's  poetry  is  as  full  as  his  pictures — so  full  indeed 
that  it  was  misunderstood  by  certain  critics,  who  found  in 
the  most  spiritualistic  of  poets  and  painters  the  founder  of 
a  "fleshly  school."  Although  it  cannot  be  said  that 
"The  Blessed  Damozel "  or  "Sister  Helen"  or  "Rose 
Mary"  reaches  to  the  height  of  the  masterpieces  of  Coleridge, 
the  purely  romantic  temper  was  with  Rossetti  a  more  per- 
manent and  even  a  more  natural  temper  than  with  any  other 
19th-century  poet,  even  including  the  authorof  "Christabel" 
himself.  As  to  the  other  19th-century  poets,  though  the 
Ettrick  Shepherd  in  The  Queen's  Wake  shows  plenty  of 
the  true  feeling,  Hogg's  verbosity  is  too  great  to  allow  of 
really  successful  work  in  the  field  of  romantic  ballad, 
where  concentrated  energy  is  one  of  the  first  requisites. 
And  even  DobelFs  "  Keith  of  Ravelston  "  has  hardly  been 
fused  in  the  fine  atmosphere  of  fairy  land.  Byron's 
"  footlight  bogies  "  and  Shelley's  metaphysical  abstractions 
had  of  course  but  very  little  to  do  with  the  inner  core 
of  romance,  and  we  have  only  to  consider  Keats,  to  Avhose 
"  La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merci"  and  "  Eve  of  St  Mark  " 
Rossetti  always  acknowledged  himself  to  be  deeply  in- 
debted. In  the  famous  close  of  the  seventh  stanza  of  the 
"  Ode  to  a  Nightingale  "— 

Charmed  magic  casements  opening  on  the  foam 

Of  perilous  seas  in  faery  lands  forlorn — 

there  is  of  course  the  true  thrill  of  the  poetry  of  wonder, 
and  it  is  expressed  with  a  music,  a  startling  magic, 
above  the  highest  reaches  of  Rossetti's  poetry.  But,  with- 
out the  evidence  of  Keats's  two  late  poems,  "  La  Belle 
Dame  sans  Merci  "  and  the  "  Eve  of  St  Mark,"  who  could 
have  said  that  Keats  showed  more  than  a  passing  appre- 
hension of  that  which  is  the  basis  of  the  romantic  temper 
— the  supernatural  1  In  contrasting  Keats  with  Rossetti 
it  must  always  be  remembered  that  Keats's  power  over  the 
poetry  of  wonder  came  to  him  at  one  flash,  and  that  it 
was  not  (as  we  have  said  elsewhere)  "  till  late  in  his  brief 
life  that  his  bark  was  running  full  sail  for  the  enchanted 
isle  where  the  old  ballad  writers  once  sang  and  where 
now  sate  the  wizard  Coleridge  alone."  Though  outside 
Coleridge's  work  there  had  been  nothing  in  the  poetry  of 
wonder  comparable  with  Keats's  "La  Belle  Dame  sans 
Merci,"  he  had  previously  in  "  Lamia "  entirely  failed 
in  rendering  the  romantic  idea  of  beauty  as  a  malefi- 
cent power.  The  reader,  owing  to  the  atmosphere  sur- 
rounding the  dramatic  action  being  entirely  classic,  does 
not  believe  for  a  moment  in  the  serpent  woman.  The 
classic  accessories  suggested  by  Burton's  brief  narra- 
tive hampered  Keats  where  to  Rossetti  (as  we  see  in 
"  Pandora,"  "Cassandra,"  and  "Troy  Town")  they  would 
simply  have  given  birth  to  romantic  ideas.  It  is  perhaps 
with  Coleridge  alone  that  Rossetti  can  be  compared  as  a 
worker  in  the  Renascence  of  Wonder.  Although  his 
apparent  lack  of  rhythmic  spontaneity  places  him  below 
the  great  master  as  a  singer  (for  in  these  miracles  of 
Coleridge's  genius  poetry  ceases  to  appear  as  a  fine  art  at  all 


— it  is  the  inspired  song  of  the  changeling  child  "  singing, 
dancing  to  itself  "),  in  permanence  of  the  romantic  feeling, 
in  vitality  of  belief  in  the  power  of  the  unseen,  Rossetti 
stands  alone.  Even  the  finest  portions  of  his  historical 
ballad  "  The  King's  Tragedy "  are  those  which  deal  with 
the  supernatural. 

In  the  spring  of  1860  Rossetti  married  Elizabeth 
Eleanor  Siddall,  who  being  very  beautiful  was  constantly 
painted  and  drawn  by  him.  She  had  one  still-born  child 
in  1861,  and  died  in  February  1862.  Mrs  Rossetti's  own 
water-colour  designs  show  an  extraordinary  genius  for 
invention  and  a  rare  instinct  for  colour.  He  felt  her 
death  so  acutely  that  in  the  first  paroxysm  of  his  grief  he 
insisted  upon  his  poems  (then  in  manuscript)  being  buried 
with  her.  These  were  at  a  later  period  recovered,  how- 
ever, and  from  this  time  to  his  death  he  continued  to 
write  poems  and  produce  pictures, — in  the  latter  relying 
more  and  more  upon  his  manipulative  skill  but  exercising 
less  and  less, — for  the  reasons  above  mentioned, — his 
exhaustless  faculty  of  invention. 

About  1868  the  curse  of  the  artistic  and  poetic  tempera- 
ment, insomnia,  attacked  him.  One  of  the  most  distress- 
ing effects  of  this  malady  is  a  nervous  shrinking  from 
personal  contact  with  any  save  a  few  intimate  and  con- 
stantly seen  friends.  This  peculiar  kind  of  nervousness 
may  be  aggravated  by  the  use  of  narcotics,  and  in  his  case 
was  aggravated  to  a  very  painful  degree ;  at  one  time 
he  saw  scarcely  any  one  save  his  own  family  and  imme- 
diate family  connexions  and  the  present  Avriter.  During 
the  time  that  his  second  volume  of  original  poetry,  Ballads 
and  Sonnets,  was  passing  through  the  press  (in  1881)  his 
health  began  to  give  way,  and  he  left  London  for  Cumber- 
land. A  stay  of  a  few  weeks  in  the  Vale  of  St  John,  how- 
ever, did  nothing  to  improve  his  health,  and  he  returned 
much  shattered.  He  then  went  to  Birchington-on-Sea, 
but  received  no  benefit  from  the  change,  and,  gradually 
sinking  from  a  complication  of  disorders,  he  died  on  Sunday 
the  9th  April  1882. 

In  all  matters  of  taste  Rossetti's  influence  has  been  im- 
mense. The  purely  decorative  arts  he  may  be  said  to  have 
rejuvenated  directly  or  indirectly.  And  it  is  doubtful 
whether  any  other  Victorian  poet  has  left  so  deep  an  im- 
pression upon  the  poetic  methods  of  his  time. 

One  of  the  most  wonderful  of  Rossetti's  endowments, 
however,  was  neither  of  a  literary  nor  an  artistic  kind :  it 
was  that  of  a  rare  and  most  winning  personality  which 
attracted  towards  itself,  as  if  by  an  unconscious  magnetism, 
the  love  of  all  his  friends,  the  love,  indeed,  of  all  who 
knew  him. 

See  T.  Hall  Caine,  Recollections  of  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  1882  ; 
and  William  Sharp,  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  a  Record  and  a  Study, 
1882.  (T.  W.) 

ROSSINI,  GIOACHINO  ANTONIO  (1792-1868),  Italian 
dramatic  composer,  was  born  at  Pesaro,  February  29, 1792. 
He  first  studied  music  under  Angelo  Tesei,  and  that  so 
successfully  that  he  was  able  to  sing  solos  in  church  when 
only  ten  years  old,  and  three  years  later  to  appear  at  the 
opera  house  as  Adolfo,  in  Paer's  Camilla.  He  was  next 
placed  under  a  retired  tenor,  named  Babbini,  and  on  the 
breaking  of  his  voice  he  entered  the  Liceo  at  Bologna  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  counterpoint  under  Mattei.  On 
his  departure  from  the  school,  Mattei,  who  was  not  pleased 
with  his  progress,  told  him  that  he  knew  enough  counter- 
point to  enable  him  to  write  in  the  free  style,  but  that  he 
was  quite  unfit  for  the  composition  of  church  music.  "  Do 
I  know  enough  to  write  operas?"  asked  Rossini.  "  Quite 
enough,"  was  the  reply.  "  Then,"  said  the  boy,  "I  care  to 
know  no  more."  But  in  truth  his  wonderful  instinct  had 
taught  him  a  great  deal  more  than  either  he  or  Mattei 
suspected.  Rossini's  first  opera,  La  Camliale  di  Matri- 


ft  0  S  — K  0  S 


801 


monio,  was  produced  with  success  at  the  Teatro  San  Mose 
at  Venice  in  1810.  In  1811  he  produced  L'Equivoco 
stravagante,  at  Bologna;  but  his  first  real  triumph  was 
achieved  at  Venice  in  1812,  in  L'Inganno  felice,  a  work 
in  which  his  genius  unmistakably  asserted  itself.  In  the 
same  year  he  produced  La  Pietra  del  Paragone,  with  equal 
applause,  at  Milan,  besides  four  other  operas  in  other 
places.  These  pieces  were  all  successful,  but  Tancredi, 
written  for  the  Teatro  San  Fenice  at  Venice,  in  1813, 
produced  a  veritable  furore.  The  name  of  the  young 
maestro  was  now  famous ;  yet,  strange  to  say,  his  greatest 
comic  opera  was  hissed  on  its  first  performance  at  Rome 
in  1816.  This  delightful  inspiration,  first  entitled  Alma- 
viva,  but  now  known  as  II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia,  was 
founded  on  a  libretto  which  Paisiello  had  already  treated 
with  success,  and  hence  the  refusal  of  the  Roman  audience 
to  tolerate  it.  But  the  beauty  of  the  music  overcame 
the  scruples  of  the  most  prejudiced  listeners,  and,  by  the 
time  the  Barbiere  reached  its  third  representation,  Rossini 
was  openly  accepted  as  the  greatest  dramatic  composer  in 
Italy.  Between  1815  and  1823  Rossini  composed  no  less 
than  twenty  operas,  including  his  masterpieces  Elisabetta 
(1815),  11  Barbiere  (1816),  Otetto  (1816),  La  Cenerentola 
(1817),  La  Gazza  Ladra  (1817),  Mose  in  Egitto  (1818), 
Le  Donna  del  Lago  (1819),  and  Semiramide  (1823),  the 
last  of  which  has  lately  been  revived,  with  so  great 
success,  by  Madame  Adelina  Patti. 

Rossini  visited  England  in  1823,  and  in  1824  accepted 
an  engagement  as  musical  director  of  the  Theatre  Italien 
in  Paris,  where,  in  1829,  he  produced  his  last  great 
masterpiece,  Guillaume  Tell.  After  completing  this  beauti- 
ful work,  he  composed  no  more  until  1832,  when  he  wrote 
the  first  six  movements  of  the  Stabat  Mater  for  private 
performance  only.  He  completed  this  lovely  composition 
in  1839,  and  it  was  first  publicly  performed  at  the  Salle 
Ventadour  in  1842.  In  1855  he  settled  permanently  in 
Paris,  at  2  Rue  Chausse"e  d'Antin,  where  he  composed 
his  last  work,  the  Petite  Messe  Solennelle,  which  was  first 
privately  performed  at  the  house  of  M.  Pillet  Will, 
March  16,  1864,  and  posthumously  produced  at  the 
Theatre  Italien  February  28,  1869.  Rossini  was  twice 
married — to  Isabella  Colbran  in  1821,  and  in  1847 
to  Olympe  Pelissier.  After  his  final  return  to  Paris 
he  spent  a  part  of  every  year  in  a  suburban  villa  in  the 
Avenue  Ingres,  at  Passy,  and  here  he  died  of  a  very  pain- 
ful illness,  November  13,  1868.  He  was  buried  at  the 
church  of  the  Trinite",  November  21,  with  every  possible 
honour.  He  was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Institute, 
"  grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,"  the  recipient  of 
innumerable  orders,  and  a  member  of  innumerable  musical 
institutions.  Honour  was  justly  lavished  upon  him  ;  and, 
though  his  career  was  not  free  from  temporary  misfortunes, 
probably  no  man  of  genius  ever  lived  a  happier  life,  or 
enjoyed  more  fully  the  appreciation  both  of  brother  artists 
and  the  general  public. 

Eossini  effected  a  complete  revolution  in  the  style  of  Italian 
opera.  His  accompaniments  were  richer  than  any  that  had  ever 
been  previously  heard  in  Italy,  and  in  their  masterly  instrumen- 
tation rivalled  some  of  the  most  notable  achievements  of  German 
art.  His  use  of  the  crescendo  and  the  "cabaletta,"  though  some- 
times carried  to  excess,  gave  a  brilliancy  to  his  music  which  added 
greatly  to  the  excellence  of  its  effect.  He  first  accompanied  his 
recitatives  with  the  stringed  orchestra  in  Elisabetta,  and  with 
stringed  and  wind  instruments  combined  in  Otello.  And  his 
overtures  are  by  far  the  most  masterly  and  complete  composi- 
tions of  the  kind  that  the  Italian  school  has  ever  produced. 

ROSTOCK,  the  largest  town  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
and  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  cities  on  the 
Baltic,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Warnow,  about  eight  miles  from  the  sea.  It  lies  177  miles 
north-west  of  Berlin  by  railway,  80  miles  north-east  of 
Liibeck,  and  106  miles  south  of  Copenhagen.  The  city 


consists  of  three  parts — the  old  town  to  the  east,  and  the 
middle  and  new  towns  to  the  west — of  which  the  first  retains 
some  of  the  antique  features  of  an  old  Hanse  town,  while 
the  last  two  are  for  the  most  part  regularly  and  even  hand- 
somely built.  There  are  several  fine  squares  in  Rostock, 
among  them  theBliicher  Platz,  with  a  statue  of  Field-marshal 
Bliicher,  who  was  born  in  the  town  in  1742.  Rostock  was 
at  one  time  a  fortress  of  some  strength,  but  the  old 
fortifications  have  been  razed,  and  their  site  is  now  occu- 
pied by  a  promenade.  Within  the  last  twenty  years  the 
suburbs  have  considerably  extended  themselves.  Rostock 
has  five  old  parochial  churches  : — St  Mary's,  dating  from 
1398-1472,  one  of  the  most  imposing  Gothic  buildings  in 
Mecklenburg;  St  Nicholas's,  begun  about  1250  and  re- 
stored in  1450 ;  St  Peter's,  with  a  lofty  tower  built  in  1400, 
which  serves  as  a  landmark  to  ships  20  miles  at  sea ;  St 
James's,  completed  in  1588;  and  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Rood,  begun  in  1270,  but  now  no  longer  used  for 
service.  St  Mary's  church  contains  a  monument  marking 
the  original  tomb  of  Grotius,  who  died  in  Rostock  in  1645, 
though  his  remains  were  afterwards  removed  to  Delft. 
Among  the  other  interesting  buildings  are  the  curious 
14th-century  Gothic  town-house,  the  fagade  of  which  is 
concealed  by  a  Renaissance  addition ;  the  palace  of  the  grand 
duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  built  in  1702 ;  the  law 
courts,  built  in  1878-79;  and  the  new  university 
buildings,  erected  in  1867-70.  The  university  of  Rostock 
was  founded  in  1418  by  the  dukes  Johann  III.  and 
Albrecht  V.  From  1437  till  1443  it  had  its  seat  at 
Greifswald  in  consequence  of  commotions  at  Rostock ;  and 
in  1760  it  was  again  removed — on  this  occasion  to 
Biitzow.  The  professors  appointed  by  the  city,  however, 
still  taught  there,  so  that  there  were  practically  two 
universities  in  the  duchy  until  1789,  when  they  were 
reunited  at  the  original  seat.  In  winter  1884-5  the  uni- 
versity had  a  teaching  staff  of  39,  with  265  students;  and  it 
possesses  a  library  of  145,000  volumes,  various  collections 
and  museums,  and  a  number  of  scientific  and  literary 
auxiliary  institutions.  Rostock  is  the  seat  of  the  supreme 
court  for  both  the  duchies  of  Mecklenburg,  and  is  well 
equipped  with  schools,  hospitals,  and  other  institutions. 
The  population  in  1810  was  10,979 ;  in  1880  it  was 
36,967,  of  whom  only  224  were  Roman  Catholics,  and 
only  221  were  Jews;  in  1885  it  was  39,212. 

Although  the  population,  commerce,  and  wealth  of  Bostock  have 
all  declined  since  its  palmy  days  as  a  flourishing  Hanse  town  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  it  has  still  a  very  considerable  trade,  and  no 
Baltic  port  possesses  so  large  a  merchant  fleet.  In  1882  314  ships, 
with  a  total  burden  of  97,447  tons,  were  registered  as  belonging  to 
Rostock  ;  and  in  1832  730  ships,  with  a  total  burden  of  80,578 
tons  entered,  and  724  ships,  with  a  total  burden  of  82,537  tons, 
cleared,  the  port.  Ships  of  more  than  200  tons  burden  must 
discharge  part  of  their  cargo  at  Warnemiinde,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Warnow,  the  port  of  Eostock,  a  fishing  village  and  watering  place 
with  1766  inhabitants,  who  are  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  dialect 
and  costume.  By  far  the  most  important  export  of  Rostock  is 
grain,  which  goes  almost  entirely  to  British  ports  ;  but  wool,  flax, 
and  cattle  are  also  shipped.  The  chief  imports  are  coal  from  Great 
Britain,  herrings  from  Sweden,  petroleum  from  America,  timber, 
wine,  and  colonial  goods.  Eostock  has  an  important  fair  at 
Whitsuntide,  lasting  for  fourteen  days,  and  also  a  frequented  wool 
and  cattle  market.  The  industries  of  the  town  are  very  varied. 
One  of  the  chief -is  shipbuilding,  which,  however,  has  declined 
of  late  years.  Cotton,  straw  hats,  tobacco,  carpets,  soap,  cards, 
chocolate,  and  dye-stuffs  are  among  the  manufactures  of  the  town, 
which  also  contains  distilleries,  saw-mills,  oil-mills,  tanneries,  and 
breweries. 

Local  historians  assert  that  a  village  existed  on  the  site  of 
Eostock  as  early  as  329  A. p.,  but  no  certain  proofs  have  been  traced 
of  any  earlier  community  than  that  founded  here  by  Pribislaw  II.  in 
the  12th  century,  which  is  said  to  have  received  town  rights  in  1218. 
The  earliest  signs  of  commercial  prosperity  date  from  about  1260. 
For  a  time  Eostock  was  under  the  dominion  of  the  kings  of  Den- 
mark. Soon  after  returning  into  the  protection  of  Mecklenburg  in 
1317,  it  joined  the  Hanseatic  League;  and  in  fact  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  powerful  and  prosperous  Wendish  Hansa,  in 


862 


R  0  S  — R  0  S 


which  it  exercised  an  influence  second  only  to  that  of  Liibeck.  The 
most  prosperous  epoch  of  its  commercial  history  began  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  15th  century,  precisely  at  the  period  when  its  political 
power  began  to  wane.  Rostock,  however,  never  entirely  lost  the 
independence  which  it  enjoyed  as  a  Hanse  town;  and  in  1788,  as 
the  result  of  long  contentious  with  the  rulers  of  Mecklenburg,  it 
secured  for  itself  a  peculiar  and  liberal  municipal  constitution, 
administered  by  three  burgomasters  and  three  chambers.  In  1880 
this  constitution  was  somewhat  modified,  and  the  city  became  less 
like  a  state  within  a  state.  The  badge  of  Rostock  is  the  figure^  7 ; 
and  a  local  rhyme  explains  that  there  are  7  doors  to  St  Mary's 
church,  7  streets  from  the  market  place,  7  gates  on  the  landward 
side  and  7  wharves  on  the  seaward  side  of  the  town,  7  turrets  on 
the  town-house,  which  has  7  bells,  and  7  linden  trees  in  the  park. 

ROSTOFF,  on  the  Don,  is  one  of  those  modern  towns 
which  have  grown  up  with  such  remarkable  rapidity  in 
South  Russia  since  the  definite  occupation  by  the  Russians 
of  the  Black  Sea  coast.  In  1731  a  small  fort  was  erected 
on  an  island  in  the  Don,  near  its  mouth.  Thirty  years 
later  the  fortifications  were  transferred  to  the  site  now 
occupied  by  Rostoff,  5  miles  above  the  head  of  the  first 
branch  of  the  delta  of  the  Don  (Mertvyi  Donets),  and  13 
miles  above  the  real  head  of  the  delta,  the  fort  being 
called  Dmitri  Rostovskiy.  Settlers  of  all  nationalities 
immediately  gathered  around  it,  and  here  within  less  than 
a  century  a  city,  which  in  1881  had  70,700  inhabitants, 
sprung  up,  having  a  mixed  population  of  Great  Russians, 
Ukrainians,  Greeks,  Germans,  Jews,  &c.  Rostoff  stands  on 
the  elevated  right  bank  of  the  Don,  and,  viewed  from  the 
river,  looks  fairly  imposing ;  but  the  interior  still  retains 
the  aspect  of  a  large  village. 

The  Don,  which  here  has  a  breadth  of  no  more  than  230  to  250 
yards,  with  a  hardly  perceptible  current,  offers  an  excellent  road- 
stead. The  navigation,  however,  is  considerably  impeded  by  the 
shallowness  of  the  branches  of  the  river,  which  are  thirty  in  number 
at  its  entrance  to  the  sea,  but  of  which  only  three  (Mertvyi  Donets, 
Kolontcha,  and  the  Don  proper)  are  navigable.  During  the  east 
winds,  however,  there  is  only  4  feet  depth  of  water  on  the  bars  of 
the  delta  ;  and  ships  formerly  were  often  compelled  to  stay  outside 
for  several  weeks,  waiting  for  a  south-west  wind.  Recent  dredging 
operations  have  but  partially  remedied  this  evil,  and  the  goods 
have  to  be  carried  on  lighters  to  Taganrog  and  Mariupol,  where 
they  are  snipped.  In  1882  only  forty-one  ships  of  small  size  coming 
from  foreign  countries  under  the  Russian  and  Turkish  flags  entered 
the  port,  but  no  fewer  than  3175  vessels  (349,500  tons),  engaged  in 
cabotage  or  lighter  traffic,  left  the  roadstead.  The  export  of  corn, 
oil-seeds,  wool,  tallow,  butter,  iron,  hides,  ropes,  coarse  linen, 
pitch,  &c.,  from  12,311,000  roubles  in  1865,  had  risen  to  41,634,252 
roubles  in  1882,  while  the  imports  were  valued  at  only  886,120 
roubles.  The  agricultural  produce  thus  exported  is  drawn  from  the 
entire  basin  of  the  Don  in  central  Russia,  while  ores  and  metals 
are  brought  from  the  Urals.  The  commercial  importance  of 


Rostoff  is  further  increased  by  its  position  on  the  great  highway 
from  Kharkofl'  and  Voronezh  to  Caucasus,  on  which  traffic  has 
greatly  increased  since  Rostoff  became  connected  by  rail  with 
Kluirkoff  and  Voronezh  on  the  one  side  and  Vladikavkaz  on  the 
other.  Two  fairs,  one  of  which  has  considerable  importance  for 
the  whole  of  south-eastern  Russia,  are  yearly  held  here,  with  an 
estimated  turnover  of  about  5,000,000  roubles.  Rostoff  has  also 
excellent  fisheries,  and  in  summer  it  becomes  the  gathering  place 
of  many  thousands  of  labourers  on  their  way  to  assist  in  harvesting 
operations  in  the  provinces  of  the  Don  and  in  northern  Caucasia. 
The  population  then  exceeds  100,000.  The  administrative  position 
of  Rostoff  is  quite  unique.  Along  with  a  territory  of  2520  square 
miles  it  belongs  to  the  government  of  EkaterinoslafF,  of  which  it  is 
a  district  town  ;  but  this  territory  is  quite  separated  from  the 
government,  being  enclosed  by  the  territory  of  the  Don  Cossacks. 

ROSTOFF,  on  Lake  Nero,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Yaroslavl,  and  35  miles  by  rail  south- 
west of  Yaroslavl,  is  probably  the  oldest  town  of  north- 
eastern Russia.  Its  present  importance  is  due  to  its  fair, 
which  rapidly  developed  towards  the  close  of  last  century, 
and  still  remains  a  market  where  prices  of  cotton  wares 
are  established  preliminary  to  the  great  fair  of  Nijni-Nov- 
gorod,  and  where  a  brisk  exchange  in  various  kinds  of  raw 
materials  and  unmanufactured  articles  is  carried  on.  The 
specialty  of  Rostoff  is  the  production  of  a  variety  of  kitchen- 
garden  produce  and  apothecary's  herbs.  Chicory  and  dried 
sweet  peas  are  the  principal  objects  of  trade;  in  1880 
350,000  cwts.,  chiefly  of  kitchen-garden  produce,  were 
exported.  Another  industry  formerly  developed  in  con- 
sequence of  the  great  influx  of  pilgrims — that  of  painting 
sacred  pictures  on  a  kind  of  enamel — still  continues  to 
flourish,  The  saddlery  and  linen  manufactures,  and  the 
fishing,  may  likewise  be  mentioned.  The  population  of 
Rostoff  in  1883  was  12,500. 

Rostoff  was  founded  by  the  Slavonians  in  territory  formerly 
occupied  by  the  (Finnish)  Meres,  and  it  played  so  prominent  a 
part  in  the  history  of  that  part  of  Russia  that  it  used  to  be  known 
as  Rostoff  the  Great.  From  the  beginning  of  the  llth  century  to 
the  13th  it  was  the  chief  town  of  the  great  Rostoff  territory,  which 
included  large  parts  of  the  present  governments  of  Yaroslavl, 
Vladimir,  and  Novgorod,  and  seems  to  have  been  a  populous  city. 
After  the  Mongolian  invasion  it  rapidly  declined,  and  in  1474  it 
was  purchased  by  Ivan  III.  and  annexed  to  the  growing  Moscow 
principality.  It  was  repeatedly  plundered  by  Tartars,  Lithuanians, 
and  Poles  in  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries.  Its  cathedral, 
built  in  1231,  still  stands,  notwithstanding  numerous  conflagra- 
tions ;  some  of  the  relics  it  contains  are  more  than  eight  centuries 
old.  Another  church  is  of  still  older  date,  having  been  built  in 
1216.  Each  of  its  five  monasteries  has  venerated  relics  of  renowned 
Christian  missionaries  or  Russian  princes. 

ROSWITHA.     See  HROSVITHA. 


END   OF  VOLUME   TWENTIETH. 


PRINTED  FOR  A.  &  C.  BLACK  BY  NEILL  &  CO.   AND  R.   &   R.  CLARK,  EDINBURGH. 


Encyclopaedia    Britannica. 

VOL.  XX.— (PBTJ-EOS). 

Total  number  of  Articles,  539. 
PRINCIPAL    CONTENTS. 


PRUSSIA.     J.  F.  MUIRHEAD. 

PRUSSIC  ACID.     W.   DITTMAE,  F.R.S.,   Professor  of 

Chemistry,  Anderson's  College,  Glasgow. 
PRYNNE.    S.  RAWSON  GARDINER,  LL.D.,  and  OSMUND 

AIRY. 

PSALMS.     "W.  ROBERTSON  SMITH,  LL.D.,  Lord  Almo- 
ner's Professor  of  Arabic,  University  of  Cambridge. 
PSKOFF.     P.  A.  KROPOTKINE. 
PSYCHOLOGY.       JAMES    WARD,    M.A.,    Fellow    of 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
PTERODACTYLE.      E.    T.    NEWTON,    Paleontologist 

to  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
PTOLEMY.     G.  JOHNSTON  ALLMAN,   LL.D.,  F.R.S., 

Professor  of  Mathematics,  Queen's  College,  Galway, 

and  E.  H.  BUNBURY,  M.A.,  Author  of  "History  of 

Ancient  Geography. " 
PUBLIC  HEALTH.   JAMES  WILLIAMS,  B.C.L.,  Barris- 

ter-at-Law. 
PUFENDORF.      Prof.    ERNEST    NYS,    University    of 

Brussels. 
PUFFIN.      ALFRED    NEWTON,    F.R.S.,    Professor   of 

Zoology,  University  of  Cambridge. 
PULTENEY.     W.  P.  COURTNEY. 
PUNCHINELLO.     R.  MORTIMER  WHEELER. 
PUNJAB.     Gen.  R,  MACLAGAN,  R.E. 
PURCELL.     W.   S.    ROCKSTRO,    Author  of   "General 

History  of  Music." 
PUSEY.      Rev.   EDWIN  HATCH,  D.D.,  Vice-Principal, 

St  Mary  Hall,  Oxford. 
PUY  DE  DdME.     GASTON  MEISSAS. 
PYM.     S.  RAWSON  GARDINER,  LL.  D. 
PYRAMID.     W.  M.  F.  PETRIE,  Author  of  "  Life  and 

Work  at  the  Great  Pyramid." 
PYRENEES.     GEORGE  G.  CHISHOLM. 
PYROMETER.     W.  N.  SHAW,  M.A.,  Demonstrator  of 

Experimental  Physics,  University  of  Cambridge. 
PYROTECHNY.     ORME  MASSON,  M.D.,  D.Sc. 

PYTHAGORAS- 
PHILOSOPHY.   ANDREW  SETH,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Logic 

and  Philosophy,  University  College  of  South  Wales. 
GEOMETRY.     Prof.  G.  J.  ALLMAN,  LL.D. 
PYTHEAS.     E.  H.  BUNBURY,  M.A. 
QUAIL.     Prof.  A.  NEWTON. 

QUAKERS.  Right.  Hon.  Sir  EDWARD  FRY,  F.R.S. 
QUARANTINE.  CHARLES  CREIGHTON,  M.A.,  M.D. 
QUATERNIONS.  P.  G.  TAIT,  M.A.,  Professor  of 

Natural  Philosophy,  University  of  Edinburgh. 
QUEBEC.      GEORGE  STEWART,   Jun.,   Editor  of   the 

"  Chronicle,"  Quebec. 
QUEENSLAND.      JAMES  BONWICK,  Author  of  "  The 

Lost  Tasmanian  Race." 
QUESNAY.     J.  K.  INGRAM,  LL.D.,  Librarian,  Trinity 

College,  Dublin. 
QUEVEDO.      A.    MOREL-FATIO,  Ecole  Nationale  des 

Chartes,  Paris, 


QUINET.  GEORGE  SAINTSBURY,  M.A.,  Author  of 
"Short  History  of  French  Literature."' 

QUININE.  E.  M.  HOLMES,  Curator  of  Museum,  Phar- 
maceutical Society,  London. 

QUINTILIAN.  J.  S.  REID,  D.  Litt.,  Fellow  and  Tutor 
of  Gonville  and  Cains  College,  Cambridge. 

RABBI.  S.  M.  SCHILLER-SZI MESSY,  M.A.,  Ph.D., 
Reader  in  Talmudic  Literature,  University  of  Cam- 
bridge. 

RABELAIS.     GEORGE  SAINTSBURY. 

RABIES.  GEORGE  FLEMING,  LL.D.,  Principal  Veteri- 
nary Surgeon,  War  Office,  London. 

RACINE.     GEORGE  SAINTSBURY. 

RACKETS.     H.  F.  WILKINSON. 

RADIATION.     Prof.  P.  G.  TAIT. 

RAILWAY.  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK,  C.E.,  London;  Prof. 
A.  T.  HADLEY,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  A.  M.  WELLING- 
TON, M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E. ;  and  S.  WRIGHT  DUNNING, 
New  York. 

RAINBAND.     H.  R.  MILL,  B.Sc. 

RAINGAUGE.     H.  R.  MILL. 

RAJPUTANA.     W.  T.  RONSON,  India  Office,  London. 

RALEIGH.     S.  RAWSON  GARDINER,  LL.D. 

RAMUSIO.     Col.  HENRY  YULE,  C.B. 

RAPHAEL.    J.  HENRY  MIDDLETON,  F.S.A. 

RASHI.     Dr  SCHILLER-SZINESSY. 

RATIONALISM.     Rev.  J.  F.  SMITH. 

RAVENNA.  THOMAS  HODGKIN,  M.A.,  Author  of 
"  Italy  and  her  Invaders." 

RAY.  ALBERT  GUNTHER,  M.  D. ,  Ph.  D. ,  F.  R.  S. ,  Keeper 
of  Zoological  Department,  British  Museum. 

RAY,  JOHN.  D'ARCY  W.  THOMPSON,  B.A.,  Professor 
of  Biology,  University  College,  Dundee. 

READE.  Prof.  W.  MINTO,  M.A.,  University  of  Aberdeen, 
Author  of  "  Manual  of  English  Prose  Literature." 

REAL  ESTATE.     JAMES  WILLIAMS. 

RECORDS.  A.  C.  EWALD,  F.S.A.,  Public  Record  Office, 
London. 

RED  SEA.     H.  R.  MILL. 

REFORMATION.  J.  BASS  MULLINGER,  MA.,  Libra- 
rian, St  John's  College,  Cambridge. 

REFORMATORY.  J.  E.  DAVIS,  Legal  Adviser  to 
Metropolitan  Police  Commissioners,  London. 

REGISTRATION.     JAMES  WILLIAMS  and  J.  E.  DAVIS. 

REID.     Prof.  ANDREW  SETH. 

REISKE.  JULIUS  WELLHAUSEN,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Semitic  Languages,  University  of  Marburg. 

RELICS.    Rev.  J.  G.  CAZENOVE,  D.D. 

RELIGIONS.     Prof.  C.  P.  TIELE,  University  of  Leyden. 

REMAINDER.     JAMES  WILLIAMS. 

REMBRANDT.     J.  F.  WHITE,  M.A. 

RENAISSANCE.  J.  A.  SYMONDS,  M.A.,  Author  of 
"Renaissance  in  Italy." 

RENI.  W.  M.  ROSSETTI,  Author  of  "  Lives  of  Famous 
Poets." 


RENNELL.     Col.  YULE,  C.B. 

RENT.    JAMES  WILLIAMS. 

REPORTING.    CHAS.  COOPER,  Editorof  the  "Scotsman." 

REPRODUCTION- 
ANIMAL.    PATRICK  GEDDES,  F.R.S.E. 
VEGETABLE.     SYDNEY  HOWARD  VINES,  M.A.,  D.Se., 

F.R.S.,  Reader  in  Botany,  University  of  Cambridge. 
REPTILES.     ALBERT  GUNTHER,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 

and  ST  GEORGE  MIVART,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 
RESPIRATION.      ARTHUR    GAMGEE,   M.D.,   F.R.S., 

Fullerian  Professor  of  Physiology,  Royal  Institution 

of  Great  Britain. 
RETZ.     GEORGE  SAINTSBTJRY. 
REUCHLIN.     Prof.  W.  ROBERTSON  SMITH,  LL.D. 
REUNION.     H.  A.  WEBSTER. 
REUTER.     JAMES  SIME,  M.A.,  Author  of  "History  of 

Germany. " 
REVELATION,  BOOK  OF.     ADOLF  HARNACK,  D.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Giessen. 
REYNOLDS.       JOHN    M.    GRAY,    Curator,    Scottish 

National  Portrait  Gallery. 
RHEA.     Prof.  A.  NEWTON. 
RHETORIC.     R,  C.  JEBB,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Greek, 

University  of  Glasgow. 
RHEUMATISM.     J.  0.  AFFLECK,  M.D. 
RHINE.     J.  F.  MUIRHEAD. 

RHINOCEROS.    W.  H.  FLOWER,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Direc- 
tor, Natural  History  Department,  British  Museum. 
RHODE  ISLAND.     WILLIAM  E.  FORSIER,  Librarian, 

Public  Library,  Providence,  R.I. 
RHODES.     E.  H.  BUNBURY. 
RHONE.     H.  A.  WEBSTER. 
RHUBARB.     E.  M.  HOLMES. 
RIBERA.     W.  M.  ROSSETTI. 
RICARDO.    J.  K.  INGRAM,  LL.D. 
RICCI.    CoL  YULE,  C.B. 
RICHARD  I.— III.    G.  W.  PROTHERO,  M.  A.,  Tutor  and 

Lecturer  in  History,  King's  College,  Cambridge. 
RICHARD  OF  CIRENCESTER.     J.  BASS  MULLINGER. 
RICHARDSON.     Prof.  W.  MINTO. 
RICKETS.    J.  0.  AFFLECK,  M.D. 
RIEMANN.     GEORGE  CHRYSTAL,   M.A.,    Professor  of 

Mathematics,  University  of  Edinburgh. 
RIGA.     P.  A.  KROPOTKINE. 
RIMINI.    Prof.  PASQUALE  VILLARI,  Senatore  del  Regno, 

Florence,  Author  of  "  Life  of  Savonarola"  and  "  Life 

of  MachiavellL" 


RING.     J.  H.  MIDDLETON. 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO.     H.  A.  WEBSTER. 

RIOT.     JAMES  WILLIAMS. 

RIPARIAN  LAWS.     JAMES  WILLIAMS. 

RIPLEY.     E.  L.  BURLINGAME. 

RITSCHL.     J.  S.  REID. 

RIVER  ENGINEERING.     L.  F.  VERNOX-HARCOURT, 

C.E. ,  Author  of  "  Rivers  and  Canals." 
ROADS  AND  STREETS.    THOMAS  CODRINGTON,  C.E. , 

Local  Government  Board,  Whitehall. 
ROBBIA.    J.  H.  MIDDLETON. 

ROBERT  THE  BRUCE.    ^>NEAS  J.  G.  MACKAY,  LL.D. 
ROBERTSON,  F.  W.  '  Rev.  MARCUS  DODS,  D.D. 
ROBERTSON,  WILLIAM.    J.  COTTER  MORRISON,  M.  A. 
ROBESPIERRE.     H.  MORSE  STEPHENS. 
ROBIN  HOOD.    J.  WESLEY  HALES,  M.A.,  Professor  of 

English  Literature,  King's  College,  London. 
ROBUSTI.     W.  M.  ROSSETTI. 

RODNEY.     G.  F.  HOOPER,  Admiralty  Library,  White- 
hall. 

ROGERS.     Prof.  W.  MINTO. 

ROLAND.     THOMAS  SHAW,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  Advocate. 
ROLAND,  LEGEND  OF.     T.  A.  ARCHER. 
ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.     P.  L.  CONNELLAN, 

Rome. 

ROMANCE.     H.  R.  TEDDER  and  MICHAEL  KERNEY. 
ROMANCE    LANGUAGES.      JOHAN    STORM,    LL.D. 

Edin.,  Professor  of  Philology,  University  of  Chris- 

tiania. 
ROMAN  LAW.     JAMES  MUIRHEAD,  LL.D.,  Professor 

of  Civil  Law,  University  of  Edinburgh. 
ROMAN  LITERATURE.     W.  Y.  SELLAR,  LL.D.,  Pro- 

fessor  of  Humanity,  University  of  Edinburgh. 
ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.    E.  SCHURER,  Professor 

of  New  Testament  Theology,  University  of  Giessen. 

ROME- 
HISTORY — ANCIENT.    H.  F.  PELHAM,  M.A.,  Fellow 
and  Tutor  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford.     MEDIAEVAL 
AND  RECENT.     Prof.  PASQUALE  VILLARI. 
TOPOGRAPHY  AND  ARCHEOLOGY.    J.  HENRY  MIDDLE- 
TON,  F.S.A. 

RONSARD.     GEORGE  SAINTSBURY. 

ROPE.     JAMES  PATON,  Curator,  Corporation  Galleries 
of  Art,  Glasgow. 

ROSA.     W.  M.  ROSSETTI. 

ROSH.     Dr  SCHILLER-SZINESSY. 

ROSSETTI.    THEODORE  WATTS. 


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